G.

Gabbalone, Michele.
Gabbelone, Gaspare.
Gabbrielli, Giovanni Battista
Gabella, Giovanni Battista
Gabellone [Caballone, Cabellone, Gabbelone], Gaspare
Gabellone, Michele.
Gabichvadze, Revaz
Gabignet, Pierre.
Gabler, Joseph
Gabon (Fr. République Gabonaise).
Gabriel, Charles H(utchinson) [Homer, Charlotte G.]
Gabriel, Peter
Gabriel, (Mary Ann) Virginia
Gabriel de Santa Maria.
Gabriel de Texerana.
Gabrieli, Andrea
Gabrieli, Giovanni
Gabrieli Consort and Players.
Gabrielli, Adriana.
Gabrielli [Gabrieli], Caterina [La Cochetta]
Gabrielli, Domenico [‘Minghino dal violoncello’]
Gabrielli, Francesca.
Gabrielli, Count Nicolò [Nicola]
Gabrilovich [Gabrilowitsch], Ossip (Salomonovich)
Gábry, György
Gabucci, Giulio Cesare.
Gabunia, Nodar
Gaburo, Kenneth (Louis)
Gabussi [Gabucci, Gabusi, Gabutio, Gabutius, Gabuzzi], Giulio Cesare
Gabussi, Vincenzo
Gace Brule
Gaci, Pjetër
Gade, Niels W(ilhelm)
Gadenstätter, Clemens
Gadifer d'Avion.
Gadsby, Henry (Robert)
Gadski, Johanna
Gadulka.
Gadzhibekov, Sultan.
Gadzhibekov, Uzeir (Abdul Huseyn).
Gadzhiyev, Akhmet (Dzhevdet Ismail).
Gaelle, Meingosus [Johannes]
Gaetani, Jan de.
Gaetano [Majer, Kajetan]
Gaffarello.
Gaffi [Caffi], Tommaso Bernardo
Gaffurius [Gafurius], Franchinus [Lanfranchinus] [Gafori, Franchino]
Gafori, Franchino.
Gagaku.
Gage, Irwin
Gagliano.
Gagliano, Carlo
Gagliano, Giovanni Battista [Giovanbattista] da
Gagliano, Marco da
Gagliarda [gagiarda]
Gagnebin, Henri
Gagneux, Renaud
Gagnon, (Frédéric) Ernest (Amédée)
Gai
Gaiani [Gajani], Giovanni Battista
Gaiarda
Gaidifer [Gadifer] d'Avion
Gaier, Johann Christoph.
Gaiettane, Fabrice Marin.
Gaiffre, Georges-Adam.
Gail [née Garre], (Edmée) Sophie
Gailhard, André
Gailhard, Pierre [Pedro]
Gaillard, Marius-François
Gaillard, Paul-André
Gaillarde
Gaisser, Hugo [Hughes; Ugo Athanasio; Josef Anton]
Gaita (i).
Gaita (ii).
Gaither, William J.
Gaito, Constantino
Gaius, Jo.
Gajani, Giovanni Battista.
Gajo
Gakkel', Leonid Yevgen'yevich
Gál [Gal], Hans
Galakhov, Oleg Borisovich
Galambos, Benjámin.
Galamian, Ivan (Alexander)
Galán, Cristóbal
Galant
Galanterie
Galão, Joaquim Cordeiro
Galás, Diamanda (Dimitria Angeliki Elena)
Galaxy Music Corporation.
Galbán, Ventura.
Galeazzi, Francesco
Galeffi, Carlo
Galeno [Galleno], Giovanni Battista
Galeotti, Stefano
Galerati, Caterina
Galerón.
Galfridus de Anglia
Galilei, Michelagnolo [Michelangelo]
Galilei, Vincenzo [Vincentio, Vincenzio]
Galimberti [Galinberti, Gallimberto], Ferdinando
Galin, Pierre
Galindo Dimas, Blas
Galïnin, German Germanovich
Galinne [Gal'in], Rachel [Gluchowicz, Rachel S.]
Galin-Paris-Chevé method.
Galiot, Johannes
Galitzin, Nikolay Borisovich.
Galitzin, Yury Nikolayevich.
Galizona
Galkin, Elliot W(ashington)
Gall, Jan Karol
Gall, Yvonne
Gallarati, Paolo
Gallarda
Gallay, Jacques François
Gallego
Gallego, Antonio
Gallenberg, (Wenzel) Robert, Graf von
Galleno, Giovanni Battista.
Gallerano, Leandro
Gallery music.
Gallet, François [Galletius, Franciscus]
Gallet, Luciano
Galley, Johann Michael
Galli, Amintore
Galli [Gallus], Antonius [Antoine]
Galli, Caterina
Galli, Domenico
Galli, Filippo
Galli [Gallo, Gallus], Giuseppe [Gioseffo, Josephus]
Gallia, Maria
Galliard
Galliard, John Ernest [Johann Ernst]
Galliard Ltd.
Galliari.
Galli-Bibiena [Bibiena, Bibbiena].
Gallican chant.
Gallichon [Ger.].
Gallico, Claudio (Benedetto)
Galliculus [Alectorius, Hähnel], Johannes
Galli-Curci [née Galli], Amelita
Gallicus [Carthusiensis, Legiensis, Mantuanus], Johannes
Galliera, Alceo
Gallignani, Giuseppe
Galli-Marié [née Marié de l’Isle, Marié], Célestine(-Laurence)
Gallimberto, Ferdinando.
Gallini, Giovanni Andrea Battista [John]
Gallinius [Kurek], Marcin
Gallishon
Gallo, Domenico
Gallo, F(ranco) Alberto
Gallo, Fortune [Fortunato] T.
Gallo, Giovanni Pietro
Gallo, Giuseppe [Gioseffo, Josephus].
Gallo, Pietro Antonio [Pietrantonio]
Gallo, R.
Gallo, Vincenzo
Gallois, Patrick
Gallois-Montbrun, Raymond
Gallon, Jean
Gallon, Noël
Gallot.
Gallus, Antonius.
Gallus, Giuseppe [Gioseffo, Josephus].
Gallus, Jacobus.
Gallus, Joannes [Lecocq, Jean]
Gallus, Udalricus.
Gallus-Mederitsch, Johann.
Galop
Galoubet.
Galpin, Francis William
Galpin Society.
Galuppi, Baldassare
Galusin, Vladimir
Galván [Galbán], Ventura
Gálvez [Cálvez], Gabriel
Galway, James
Gamba (i).
Gamba (ii).
Gamba, Piero [Pierino]
Gambang [gambang kayu].
Gambarini, Elisabetta de
Gambe
Gamberini, Michelangelo
Gambia, Republic of The.
Gambier Islands.
Gamble, John
Gamble and Huff.
Gamboa, Pero de
Gambus.
Gamelan.
Gamma
Gamma ut.
Gamme
Gamut.
Ganassi, Giacomo
Ganassi dal Fontego, Sylvestro di
Ganche, Edouard
Gand (i).
Gand (ii)
Gandini, Gerardo
Gando.
Gandolfi, Michael
Ganer, Christopher
Ganga.
Gangar [rull].
Gangsa (i).
Gangsa (ii).
Gangsta [gangster] rap.
Gann, Kyle
Ganne, (Gustave) Louis
Gänsbacher, Johann (Baptist Peter Joseph)
Gantez, Annibal
Ganz.
Ganz, Rudolf [Rudolph]
Ganze-Note
Gänzl, Kurt (Friedrich) [Gallas, Brian Roy]
Ganzschluss
Ganzton
Gapped scale.
Gaqi, Thoma
Garage.
Garant, (Albert Antonio) Serge
Garat, (Dominique) Pierre (Jean)
Garaudé, Alexis(-Adélaide-Gabriel) de
Garau Femenia, Francisco.
Garay, Luis de
Garay, Narciso
Garbarek, Jan
Garbi, Giovanni Francesco
Gärbig, Johann Anton.
Garbin, Edoardo
Garbousova, Raya
García.
García (Arancibia), Fernando
Garcia, José Maurício Nunes
García, Juan Francisco [‘Don Pancho’]
García, Maria-Felicia.
García, Pauline.
García Abril, Antón
García de Basurto, Juan
García Demestres, Albert
García de Salazar, Juan
García de Zéspedes [Céspedes], Juan
García Fajer, Francisco Javier [Garzia, Francesco Saverio; ‘Lo Spagnoletto’]
García Gutiérrez, Antonio
García Leoz, Jesús.
García Lorca, Federico
García Mansilla, Eduardo
García Matos, Manuel
García Morillo, Roberto
García Pacheco, Fabián
García Robles, José
Garcin [Salomon], Jules Auguste
Gardano [Gardane].
Garde, Pierre de.
Gardel.
Gardel, Carlos [Gardes, Charles Romuald]
Gardelli, Lamberto
Garden, Edward J(ames) C(larke)
Garden, Mary
Gardi, Francesco
Gardiner, Henry Balfour
Gardiner, Sir John Eliot
Gardiner, William
Gardner, Johann von
Gardner, John (Linton)
Gardner, Kay
Gárdonyi, Zoltán
Gar-dpon, Pa-sangs Don-grub
Garducci, Tommaso.
Gareth, Benedetto [‘Il Chariteo’]
Gargallo, Luis Vicente
Gargano, Giovanni Battista
Gargari, Teofilo
Gargiulo [Gargiulio], Terenzio
Garimberti, Ferdinando
Garinus [? Guayrinet]
Garip (Provençal).
Garland.
Garland, Judy [Gumm, Frances Ethel]
Garland, Peter (Adams)
Garlandia, Johannes de.
Garmonica [garmoshka]
Garner, Erroll (Louis)
Garnesey [?John]
Garnier [Grenier, Guarnier]
Garnier, François.
Garnier [l'aîné], François-Joseph
Garnier, Gabriel
Garnier, Louis.
Garrana, (Muhammed) Rifaat
Garre, Edmée Sophie.
Garrelts [Garrels], Rudolph [Redolph]
Garreta (Arboix), Juli [Julio]
Garrett, George (Mursell)
Garrett, Lesley
Garrick, David
Garrido (Vargas), Pablo
Garrido-Lecca (Seminario), Celso
Garrigues, Malvina.
Garrison, Lucy McKim
Garrison [Siemonn], Mabel
Garro, Francisco
Garsi, Ascanio.
Garsi, Donino.
Garsi [Garsi da Parma], Santino [Santino detto Valdès]
Garth, John
Gartner.
Garugli [Garulli], Bernardo [Garullus, Bernardinus]
Garullus, Bernardinus.
Garūta, Lūcija
Garzia, Francesco Saverio.
Gas [Gaz], José
Gascon, Adam-Nicolas
Gascongne [Gascogne, Gascongus, Gascone, Gasconia, Guascogna], Mathieu [?
Johannes]
Gasdia, Cecilia
Gaslini, Giorgio
Gaspar de Padua [Gaspare de Albertis, Gaspare bergomensis].
Gaspardini, Gasparo
Gaspari, Gaetano
Gasparian, Djivan
Gasparini.
Gasparini, Domenico Maria Angiolo.
Gasparini, Quirino
Gasparo da Salò [Bertolotti]
Gaspar van Weerbeke.
Gasperini, Guido
Gassenhauer
Gásser Laguna, Luís
Gasser, Ulrich
Gassmann, Florian Leopold
Gassner, Ferdinand Simon
Gast, Peter [Köselitz, Johann Heinrich]
Gastatz [Gastharts], Mathias.
Gastoldi, Giovanni Giacomo
Gaston Fébus, 3rd Count of Foix and 11th of Béarn
Gastorius [Bauchspiess], Severus
Gastoué, Amédée(-Henri-Gustave-Noël)
Gastritz [Gastritzsch, Gastharts, Gastatz], Mathias
Gat
Gatayes.
Gates, Bernard
Gattermeyer, Heinrich
Gatti, Daniele
Gatti [Pesci], Gabriella
Gatti, Guido M(aggiorino)
Gatti, Luigi (Maria Baldassare)
Gatti, Theobaldo [Teobaldo] di [Théobalde]
Gatti-Aldrovandi, Clelia
Gatti-Casazza, Giulio
Gatto, Simone [Simon]
Gatzmann, Wolfgang.
Gaubert, Philippe
Gauci, Miriam
Gaucquier, Alard du.
Gaudeamus Foundation.
Gaudentius
Gaudibert, Eric
Gaudio, Cavalier Antonio dal [del]
Gauk, Aleksandr Vasil'yevich
Gaul, Alfred (Robert)
Gaultier [Gautier, Gaulthier], Denis
Gaultier [Gautier, Gaulthier], Ennemond
Gaultier, Jacques.
Gaultier, Pierre.
Gaultier de Marseille.
Gauntlett, Henry John
Gaussin, Allain
Gauterius de Castello Rainardi [Gauthier of Château-renard (Bouches-du-Rhône)].
Gautier, Denis.
Gautier, Ennemond.
Gautier, (Jean-François-)Eugène
Gautier, François.
Gautier [Gaultier], Jacques [Gwaltier, James]
Gautier, Judith
Gautier [Gaultier], Pierre (i)
Gautier, Pierre (ii) [Gaultier de Marseille]
Gautier, Théophile
Gautier de Châtillon.
Gautier de Coincy
Gautier de Dargies
Gautier de Lille.
Gautier d'Espinal [Epinal]
Gauzargues, Charles
Gavaldá, José
Gavaldá, Miguel Querol.
Gavaux, Pierre.
Gavazzeni, Gianandrea
Gaveau.
Gaveaux [Gavaux, Gaveau], Pierre
Gaviniés [Gaviniès, Gaviniez, Gavigniès, Gavignès, Gabignet and other variations],
Pierre
Gavioli.
Gavotte
Gavoty, Bernard
Gavrilin, Valery Aleksandrovich
Gavrilov, Andrey
Gawriloff, (Siegfried Jordan) Saschko
Gawroński [Rola-Gawroński], Wojciech
Gay.
Gay, Jesús Bal y.
Gay, John
Gay [née Pichot Gironés], María
Gay, Noel [Armitage, Reginald Moxon]
Gay and lesbian music.
Gaye [Gay], Marvin
Gayer [Gaier, Geyer], Johann Christoph (Karl)
Gayer, Johann (Andreas) Joseph Georg (Jakob)
Gaytán y Arteaga, Manuel González.
Gaz, José.
Gazarossian, Koharik Alis [Łazarosyan, Goharik Alis]
Gazkue y Murga, Francisco.
Gaztambide (y Garbayo), Joaquín (Romualdo)
Gazzaniga, Giuseppe
Gazzaniga, Marietta
Gazzelloni, Severino
Gdańsk
Ge, Gangru
Geary, Thomas Augustine [Timothy]
Gebauer (i).
Gebauer (ii).
Gebauer, Franz Xaver
Gebauer, Johan Christian
Gebel.
Gebel [Göbel], Franz Xaver
Gebethner & Wolff.
Gebhard, Heinrich
Gebrauchsmusik
Gebrüder Späth.
Gebunden (i)
Gebunden (ii)
Gebundener Stil
Geck, Martin
Gedackt
Gédalge, André
Gedda [Ustinoff], Nicolai (Harry Gustaf)
Geddes, John Maxwell
Gedike [Goedicke], Aleksandr Fyodorovich
Gedoppelter Accent
Geehl, Henry (Ernest)
Geeres, John
Geerhart.
Geerhart [Geerheart], Jan.
Geering, Arnold
Geertsom, Jan van
Gefors, Hans (Gustaf)
Gegenbewegung
Gegenfuge
Gehlhaar, Rolf (Rainer)
Gehot, Joseph
Gehrmans.
Geib.
Geige
Geigen
Geigenharz
Geigenwerk.
Geijer, Erik Gustaf
Gein, van den.
Geiringer, Karl (Johannes)
Geisenhof [Geisenhofer], Johann [Hans]
Geiser, Walther
Geisler, Paul
Geissenhof, Franz [Franciscus]
Geissler, Benedict
Geissler, Fritz
Geisslerlieder
Geist, Christian
Geistliches Konzert
Gelber, Bruno Leonardo
Gelbrun, Artur
Gelineau, Joseph
Gelinek [Gelineck, Jelínek], Josef
Gellert, Christian Fürchtegott
Gelmetti, Gianluigi
Geltzmann [Gelzmann], Wolfgang.
GEMA.
Gemblaco, Johannes Franchois de.
Gemell.
Geminiani, Francesco (Saverio) [Xaviero]
Gemmel.
Gemshorn
Gena, Peter
Gencebay, Orhan
Gencer [Ceyrekgil], (Ayshe) Leyla
Gendang.
Gender (i).
Gender (ii).
Gendre, Jean le.
Gendron, Maurice
Genée, (Franz Friedrich) Richard
Generalbass
Generali, Pietro
Generalpause
Genesis.
Genest, Charles-Claude
Genet, Elzéar.
Geneva
Gengenbach, Nikolaus
Genin, Vladimir Mikhailovich
Genis
Genis corno
Genishta, Iosif Iosifovich
Genlis [née Ducrest de Saint-Aubin], Stéphanie-Félicité, Countess of
Gennrich, Friedrich
Genoa
Genouillère
Genovés (y Lapetra), Tomás
Genre.
Gens, Véronique
Gent
Gentian [Gentien, Gentiam]
Gentile, Ada
Gentile, Ortensio
Gentili, Giorgio
Gentilucci, Armando
Gentlemen's Concerts.
Genuino, Francesco
Genus
Genzmer, Harald
Geoffroy, Jean-Baptiste
Geoffroy, Jean-Nicolas
Geoffroy-Dechaume, Antoine
George, Michael
George, Stefan (Anton)
Georgescu, Corneliu Dan
Georgescu, George
Georgia.
Georgiades, Thrasybulos G(eorgios)
Georgia Tom.
Georgiceus [Georgiceo, Georgievich, Georgijević, Grgičević, Jurjević], Athanasius
Georgius a Brugis
Georg Rudolph, Duke of Liegnitz [now Legnica], Brieg [now Brzeg] and Goldberg
Geraert, Jan.
Gerald de Barri.
Geraldo [Bright, Gerald W.]
Gerald of Wales.
Gérard, Henri-Philippe
Gerard [Geraert, Girard, Gerardus, Geerhart, Ghirardo], Jan
Gérard, Yves(-René-Jean)
Gerarde [Gerard, Gerardus, Gerrarde], Derrick [Dethick, Dyricke, Theodoricus]
Gerardis, Giovanni Battista Pinellus de.
Gerardo.
Gerardus.
Gerardus, Jan.
Gerber, Christian
Gerber, Ernst Ludwig
Gerber, Heinrich Nikolaus
Gerber, Rudolf
Gerbert, Martin, Freiherr von Hornau
Gerbert d'Aurillac [Silvester II]
Gerbič, Fran
Gerbich [Gerbig], Johann Anton.
Gerdes, Federico
Geremia, Giuseppe
Gergalov, Aleksandr
Gergely, Jean
Gergiyev, Valery (Abissalovich)
Gerhard.
Gerhard, Anselm
Gerhard, Livia.
Gerhard, Roberto [Gerhard Ottenwaelder, Robert]
Gerhardt, Elena
Gerhardt, Paul [Paulus]
Gericke, Wilhelm
Gerig.
Gerigk, Herbert
Gerl [Görl].
Gerlach [Gerlacz, Gerlatz].
Gerlach, Carl Gotthelf
Gerlandus.
Gerlatz.
Gerle, Conrad
Gerle, Georg
Gerle, Hans
Gerle, Melchior.
Gerlin, Ruggero
Germain.
German, Sir Edward [Jones, German Edward]
German Dance
German flute.
Germani, Fernando
Germania Musical Society.
Germanos of New Patras [Germanos Neōn Patrōn]
German Reed, Thomas.
German sixth chord.
German String Trio.
Germany, Federal Republic of
Gern, August Friedrich Hermann
Gernsheim, Friedrich
Gero [Ghero, Giero], Jhan [Ihan, Jehan, Jan, Giovan]
Gérold, (Jean) Théodore
Gerrish-Jones, Abbie
Gerschefski, Edwin
Gersem, Géry.
Gershwin, George [Gershvin, Jacob]
Gershwin, Ira [Gershvin, Israel]
Gerson, George
Gerson, Jean Charlier de [Doctor Christianissimus]
Gersonides [Levi ben Gershom (Gershon, Gerson); Leo Hebraeus; Magister Leon de
Bagnols; RaLBaG]
Gerson-Kiwi, (Esther) Edith
Gerstenberg, Heinrich Wilhelm von
Gerstenberg, Johann Daniel
Gerstenberg, Walter
Gerstenbüttel, Joachim
Gerster, Etelka
Gerster, Ottmar
Gertler, André [Endre]
Gertsman, Yevgeny Vladimirovich.
Gervais, Charles-Hubert
Gervais, Laurent [de Rouen]
Gervais, Pierre-Noël
Gervaise, Claude
Gervase Elwes Memorial Fund.
Gervasius de Anglia.
Gervasoni, Carlo
Gervasoni, Stefano
Gervays [Gervasius de Anglia]
Gervés du Bus.
Ges
Gesangvoll
Geschwind
Geschwindmarsch
Gese, Bartholomäus.
Geselliges Lied.
Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde.
Gesellschaft für Musikalische Aufführungs- und Mechanische Vervielfältigungsrechte
[GEMA].
Gesellschaft für Musikforschung
Gesellschaftslied
Geses
Gesius [Gese, Göse, Göss], Bartholomäus [Barthel]
Gesner, Conrad [Gessner, Konrad]
Gesolreut.
Gestalt.
Gestewitz, Friedrich Christoph
Gestopft
Gestossen
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
Geteilt
Getragen
Gétreau, Florence
Getty, Gordon (Peter)
Getz, Stan(ley)
Getzelev, Boris Semyonovich
Getzen Co.
Getzmann [Geltzmann, Gelzmann, Gatzmann], Wolfgang
Geuck, Valentin
Gevaert, François-Auguste
Gevanche, Adam de.
Gevicenus [Gevicensis], Andreas Chrysoponos.
Gewandhaus Orchestra.
Gewgaw.
Geyer, Johann Christoph.
Geyer, Stefi
Geysen, Frans
Ghana, Republic of [formerly Gold Coast].
Ghantā [ghant, ghantī, ghantikā, ghanto].
Gharānā
Ghata [ghatam, gharā].
Ghazal.
Ghazālī, Abū Hāmid Muhammad al-
Ghazālī, Majd al-Dīn Ahmad al-
Ghazarian [Kazarian], Yury Shaheni
Ghedini, Giorgio Federico
Gheerkin.
Gheerkin [Gheerken, Gheraert] de Hondt
Gheine, van den.
Gheluwe, Leo van.
Ghent
Ghent, Emmanuel (Robert)
Gheorghiu, Angela
Gheraert de Hondt.
Gherardello da Firenze [Magister Ser Ghirardellus de Florentia; Niccolò di Francesco]
Gherardeschi, Filippo Maria
Gherardeschi, Giuseppe
Gherardi, Biagio
Gherardi, Giovanni.
Gherardi, Giovanni Battista Pinello di.
Gherardini, Arcangelo
Gherl, Johann Caspar [Kaspar].
Ghero, Jhan.
Ghersem [Gersem], Géry (de)
Gheyn, van den.
Ghezzi, Ippolito
Ghezzo, Dinu D.
Ghiaurov, Nicolai
Ghidjak [ghichak, gidzhak, gijak, g'ijjak].
Ghibel [Ghibelli, Ghibellini], Eliseo
Ghiglia, Oscar
Ghignone, Giovanni Pietro.
Ghinste, Peter van der
Ghinzer, Giovanni.
Ghirardellus de Florentia.
Ghirardi, Giovanni Battista Pinello di.
Ghirardo.
Ghirardo, Jan.
Ghircoiaşiu, Romeo (Mircea)
Ghironda
Ghiseghem, Hayne van.
Ghiselin [Verbonnet], Johannes
Ghiselin Danckerts.
Ghisi, Federico
Ghislanzoni, Antonio
Ghitalla, Armando
Ghivizzani [Guivizzani], Alessandro
Ghizeghem, Hayne van.
Ghizzolo.
Ghizzolo, Giovanni
Ghoneim, Mauna
Ghosh, Nikhil Jyoti
Ghosh, Pannalal
Ghro, Johann.
Giaccio, Orazio [Horatio]
Giaches da [Giacchetto de] Mantua.
Giacobbe, Juan Francisco
Giacobbi, Girolamo
Giacobetti, Pietro Amico
Giacomelli [Jacomelli], Geminiano
Giacometti, Bortolomeo (Antonio)
Giacometti, Giovanni Battista.
Giacomini, Bernardo
Giacomini, Giuseppe
Giacomo, Salvatore di.
Giacomo da Chieti.
Giacopone da Todi [Giacopone de’ Benedetti].
Giacosa, Giuseppe
Giai [Giaii, Giaij, Giay], Francesco Saverio
Giai [Giaj], Giovanni Antonio.
Giaiotti, Bonaldo
Giamberti, Giuseppe [Gioseppe]
Gianacconi, Giuseppe.
Gianella, Louis [Ludovico, Luigi]
Gianelli, Francesco
Gianelli, Pietro
Gianneo, Luis
Giannettini [Gianettini, Zanettini, Zannettini], Antonio
Giannetto.
Giannini, Dusolina
Giannini, Vittorio
Gianotti [Giannotti], Giacomo
Gianotti, Pietro [Giannotti, Pierre]
Giansetti, Giovanni Battista
Gian Toscan
Gianturco [née Dooley], Carolyn M(argaret)
Giaranzana.
Giardini [Degiardino], Felice (de)
Giay, Francesco Saverio.
Giay [Giai, Giaj], Giovanni Antonio
Giazotto, Remo
Gibbes, Richard.
Gibbons, (Richard) Carroll [‘Gibby’]
Gibbons, Christopher
Gibbons, Edward.
Gibbons, Ellis.
Gibbons, Orlando
Gibbs, Alan (Trevor)
Gibbs, Cecil Armstrong
Gibbs, Joseph
Gibbs [Gibbes], Richard
Gibelius [Gibel], Otto
Gibelli, Lorenzo [Gibellone]
Gibert, Paul-César
Gibson.
Gibson, Sir Alexander (Drummond)
Gibson, Jon (Charles)
Gidayu.
Gideon, Miriam
Gidino da Sommacampagna
Gieburowski, Wacław
Giegling, Franz
Gielen, Michael (Andreas)
Giero, Jhan.
Gieseking, Walter
Gievenci, Adam de.
Gifford, Helen (Margaret)
Giga
Gigault, Nicolas
Gigler, Andre [Andreas]
Gigli.
Gigli, Beniamino
Gigli, Giovanni Battista [‘Il Tedeschino’]
Giglio, Tommaso
Gigout, Eugène
Gigue (i)
Gigue (ii)
Gil, Gilberto [Moreira, Gilberto Passos Gil]
Gilardi, Gilardo
Gilardoni, Domenico
Gilbert, Anthony
Gilbert, Geoffrey (Winzer)
Gilbert, Henry F(ranklin Belknap)
Gilbert, Jean [Winterfeld, Max]
Gilbert, Kenneth (Albert)
Gilbert, Olive
Gilbert Islands [now Republic of Kiribati].
Gilberto, João (do Prado Pereira de Oliveira)
Gilboa, Jacob
Gilchrist, Anne Geddes
Gilchrist, William Wallace
Gilels, Emil (Grigor'yevich)
Giles, Alice (Rosemary)
Giles [Gyles], Nathaniel
Gilfert, Charles H., jr
Gilfry, Rodney
Gil García, Bonifacio
Giliardi, Arnolfo [Ser Arnolfo da Francia; Arnolfo d’Arnolfo]
Gille, Jacob Edvard
Gillebert, Gloria Caroline.
Gillebert [Guillebert] de Berneville
Gilles, Jean
Gilles le Vinier.
Gillespie, Dizzy [John Birks]
Gillet, Georges(-Vital-Victor)
Gillett & Johnston.
Gillier, Jean-Claude
Gillis, Don
Gilly, Dinh
Gilman, Benjamin Ives
Gilman, Lawrence
Gilmore, Patrick S(arsfield)
Gilse, Jan (Pieter Hendrik) van
Gilson, Paul
Gimel.
Giménez [Jiménez] (y Bellido), Jerónimo
Giménez, Raúl (Alberto)
Gimpel, Bronislav
Gimpel, Jakob
Ginastera, Alberto (Evaristo)
Gindron, François
Giner y Vidal, Salvador
Ginés Pérez, Juan.
Gingold, Josef
Ginguené [Guinguené], Pierre-Louis
Gintzler, Simon
Ginzburg, Grigory (Romanovich)
Ginzburg, Lev Solomonovich
Ginzburg, Semyon L'vovich
Giocoso
Gioia [Gioja], Gaetano
Giordani, Carmine
Giordani [Giordano], Giuseppe (Tommaso Giovanni) [Giordaniello]
Giordani, Tommaso
Giordano, Umberto (Menotti Maria)
Giorgetti, Ferdinando
Giorgi, Geltrude.
Giorgi, Giovanni
Giorgi-Belloc, Teresa.
Giornovichi, Giovanni [Jarnović, Jarnovicki, Jarnowick; Ivan] Mane
Giorza, Paolo
Gioseffo da Lucca.
Giovan Maria da Crema.
Giovannelli [Giovanelli], Ruggiero
Giovanni Ambrosio.
Giovanni da Cascia [Jovannes de Cascia, Johannes de Florentia, Maestro Giovanni da
Firenze]
Giovanni da Foligno.
Giovanni da Prato [Giovanni Gherardi]
Giovanni degli Organi.
Giovanni Gherardi.
Giovanni Leonardo dell’Arpa.
Giovanni [Joan, Giovan] Maria da Crema
Giovanni Mazzuoli.
Giovannini [de Giovannini; first name unknown]
Giovannini, Simone
Giovannino da Roma [Giovannino del Violoncello].
Giovannino del Violone.
Giovenardi, Bartolomeo [Bartolomé].
Gippius, Yevgeny Vladimirovich
Gipps, Ruth (Dorothy Louisa) [Wid(dy) Gipps]
Giraldoni, Eugenio
Giraldoni, Leone
Giraldus Cambrensis [Gerald de Barri, Gerald of Wales]
Giramo [Girolamo], Pietro Antonio
Girard.
Girard, Jan.
Girard, Narcisse
Girardeau, Isabella
Girardi, Alexander
Giraud, François-Joseph
Giraud, Marthe.
Giraud, Suzanne
Giraut [Girautz, Guiraut] de Bornelh [de Borneill]
Girdlestone, Cuthbert M(orton)
Girelli (Aquilar) [Aguilar, Anguilar], Antonia Maria
Girelli, Santino
Giribaldi, Tomás
Girò [Tessieri], Anna (Maddalena)
Giró [Jiró], Manuel
Girolamo, Pietro Antonio.
Girolamo da Udine.
Giroust, François
Girowetz, Adalbert.
Gis
Gisis
Gismondi [Resse; Hempson], Celeste
Gismonti, Egberto
Gistelinck, Elias
Gistou [Gistow], Nicolas
Gitarre
Giteck, Janice
Gitlis, Ivry
Gittern [gyterne]
Giucci, Carlos
Giudice, Cesare del.
Giudici & Strada.
Giuliani, Francesco [‘Il Cerato’]
Giuliani, Giovanni Francesco
Giuliani, Mauro (Giuseppe Sergio Pantaleo)
Giuliano Bonaugurio da Tivoli.
Giulini, Carlo Maria
Giulini, Johann Andreas Joseph
Giulio Romano.
Giunta [Giunti; Zonta; Junta; Juncta; de’ Giunti Modesti].
Giuranna, (Elena) Barbara
Giuranna, Bruno
Giuseppino.
Giustini, Lodovico (Maria)
Giustiniana [justiniana, vinitiana, viniziana]
Giustiniani [Giustinian], Leonardo
Giustiniani, Vincenzo
Giusto
Givenci, Adam de.
Giyenko, Boris Fyodorovich
Gizzi, Domenico
Gizziello.
Gjevang, Anne
Gjoka, Martin
Gjoni, Simon
Glachant, Antoine-Charles
Glackemeyer, Frederick [Johann Friedrich Conrad; Frédéric]
Gladkovsky, Arseny Pavlovich
Gladney, John
Gladwin, Thomas
Gladys Knight and the Pips.
Glaeser, Franz.
Glagolitic Mass, Glagolitic chant.
Glahn, Henrik
Glam rock.
Glandien, Lutz
Glanert, Detlev
Glanner, Caspar
Glantz, (Yehuda) Leib
Glanville-Hicks, Peggy
Glarean, Heinrich [Glareanus, Henricus; Loriti]
Glasenapp, Carl Friedrich
Gläser [Glaeser], Franz (Joseph)
Glaser, Werner Wolf
Glasgow.
Glasgow, Robert (Ellison)
Glass, Louis (Christian August)
Glass, Paul (Eugène)
Glass, Philip
Glasschord [glass chord, glassichord].
Glasser, Stanley
Glass harmonica.
Glaucus [Glaukos] of Rhegium
Glaus, Daniel
Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich
Gleason, Frederick G(rant)
Gleason, Harold
Glebov, Igor'.
Glebov, Yevgeny Aleksandrovich
Glee.
Gleichschwebende Temperatur
Gleim, Johann Wilhelm Ludwig
Glein, Erasmus de
Gleisman, Carl Erik
Gleissner, Franz
Glen.
Glennie, Evelyn
Gletle, Johann Melchior
Glick, Srul Irving
Glière [Glier], Reyngol'd Moritsevich [Glière, Reinhold]
Gligo, Nikša
Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich
Gliński [Hercenstein], Mateusz [Matteo]
Glissade
Glissando
Globokar, Vinko
Glock, Sir William
Glocke
Glockenspiel (i)
Glockenspiel (ii).
Glockenspiel, militär
Glodeanu, Liviu
Glogauer Liederbuch
Glonti, Felix
Gloria in excelsis Deo.
Glosa
Glösch, Carl Wilhelm
Glossolalia.
Gloucester.
Glover, Jane (Alison)
Glover, John William
Glover, Sarah Anna
Glover, William Howard
Głowiński, Jan
Gluchowicz, Rachel S.
Gluck, Alma [Fiersohn, Reba]
Gluck, Christoph Willibald, Ritter von
Glushchenko, Georgy Semyonovich
Glykys, Gregorios
Glykys, Joannes
Glyn, Margaret H(enrietta)
Glyndebourne.
Gnattali, Radamés
Gnecchi, Vittorio
Gnecco, Francesco
Gnesin, Mikhail Fabianovich
Gniezno.
Gnocchi, Pietro
Gobatti, Stefano
Gobbi, Tito
Gobbo della regina, Il.
Göbel, Franz Xaver.
Gobelinus Person.
Gobert, Thomas
Gobetti, Francesco
Gobin de Reims [Gobin de Reins]
Goble, Robert (John)
Goblet drum.
Goccini, Giacomo.
Gocciolo, Giovanni Battista.
Godár, Vladimír
Godard [Godart, Goddart]
Godard, Benjamin (Louis Paul)
Godard de Beauchamps, Pierre-François.
Godbid, William
Goddard, Arabella
Goddart.
Godeau, Antoine
Godebrye, Jacob
Godecharle [Godecharles, Godschalck], Eugène (-Charles-Jean)
Godecharle [Godecharles, Godschalck], Lambert-François
Godefroid, (Dieudonné Joseph Guillaume) Félix
Godefroy, François
Godescalcus Lintpurgensis.
Godfrey.
Godfroy [Godefroy, Godefroid].
Godimel, Claude.
Godowsky, Leopold [Leonid]
Godric
Godschalck, Eugène.
Godschalck, Lambert-François.
Godymel, Claude.
Goeb, Roger (John)
Goebbels, Heiner
Goebel, Reinhard
Goehr.
Goepfert [Goeppfert, Goepffer, Goepffem, Gaiffre, Köpfer, Keipfer etc.], Georges-Adam
Goermans [Germain].
Goerne, Matthias
Goes, Damian.
Goesen [Goessen], Maistre.
Goethals, Lucien
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
Goetschius, Percy
Goetz, Hermann (Gustav)
Goetze & Gwynn.
Goeyvaerts, Karel (August)
Goff, Thomas (Robert Charles)
Goffriller [Gofriller], Matteo
Gogava, Antonius Hermannus
Goge.
Gogol', Nikolay Vasil'yevich
Gogorza, Emilio [Edoardo] de
Göhler, (Karl) Georg
Göhringer, Francilla.
Goicoechea Errasti, Vicente
Góis, Damião de [Goes, Damian; Goes, Damianus a]
Gołąbek, Jakub
Golabovski, Sotir
Golani, Rivka
Gold, Arthur
Gold, Ernest
Goldar, Robert.
Goldberg [Gollberg, Goltberg, etc.], Johann Gottlieb [Théophile]
Goldberg, Joseph (Pasquale)
Goldberg, Reiner
Goldberg, Szymon
Goldberg, Théophile.
Golden number [golden section].
Goldenthal, Elliot
Goldenweiser [Gol'denveyzer], Aleksandr (Borisovich)
Golder [Goldar], Robert
Goldie
Golding, John.
Goldman, Edwin Franko
Goldman, Richard Franko
Goldmann, Friedrich
Goldmann, Max.
Goldmark, Karl [Carl; Károly]
Goldmark, Rubin
Goldoni, Carlo [Fegejo, Polisseno]
Goldovsky, Boris
Goldsbrough, Arnold (Wainwright)
Goldsbrough Orchestra.
Goldschmidt, Adalbert von
Goldschmidt, Berthold
Goldschmidt, Georg.
Goldschmidt, Harry
Goldschmidt, Otto (Moritz David)
Goldsmith, Jerry [Jerrald]
Goldstein, Malcolm
Goldstein [Gold'shteyn], Mikhail [Mykhailo] Ėmmanuilovich
Goldwin [Golding], John
Goléa, Antoine
Goleminov, Marin (Petrov)
Golestan, Stan
Goliards
Golin, Guilielmo [Colin, Guilielmus]
Golinelli, Stefano
Golisciani, Enrico
Golïshev, Yefim [Jef]
Golitsïn [Galitzin], Prince Nikolay Borisovich
Golitsïn [Galitzin], Prince Yury Nikolayevich
Gollberg, Johann Gottlieb [Théophile].
Göllner [née Martinez], Marie-Louise
Göllner, Theodor
Golodnova, N.
Golovanov, Nikolay Semyonovich
Golovin, Andrey Ivanovich
Golpeado
Golschmann, Vladimir
Goltberg, John Gottlieb [Théophile].
Goltermann, Georg (Eduard)
Goltermann, (Johann August) Julius
Goltfuss [Goltfus, Goldtfues, Goudvoet, Gellfuss], Hans
Goltz, Christel
Golubev, Yevgeny Kirillovich
Gombart.
Gomberg, Harold
Gombert, Nicolas
Gombosi, Otto (Johannes) [Ottó János]
Gomes, André da Silva
Gomes, (Antônio) Carlos
Gomes, João (i)
Gomes (de Araújo), João (ii)
Gomes (de Herrera), Manoel de S Bento
Gomes, Pietro.
Gomes Correia, Fernão.
Gomes da Rocha, Francisco.
Gomes de Araújo, João.
Gomez, Jill
Gómez (García), (Domingo) Julio
Gómez (y Muntané), Maricarmen [Maria del Carmen]
Gomez, Pietro.
Gómez, Tomás
Gómez Camargo, Miguel
Gomez Carrillo, Manuel
Gómez de Herrera, Martín
Gómez de la Cruz, Diego
Gómez de Navas, Juan
Gómez-Vignes, Mario
Gomidas.
Gomis (y Colomer), José Melchor [Melchior]
Gomółka, Mikołaj
Gonçález, José Bernal.
Gonella, Nat(haniel Charles)
Gonelli [Gonella], Giuseppe
Gonet, Valérien
Gong
Gong-chime.
Gong drum.
Gonima, Manuel
Gönnenwein, Wolfgang
Gontier de Soignies
Gontsov, Yury (Petrovich)
Gonzaga.
Gonzaga, (Francisca Edwiges Neves) Chiquinha
Gonzaga, Francesco
Gonzaga, Guglielmo
Gonzalez.
González, Hilario
González, Jaime
González (García de) Acilu, Agustín
González Barrón, Ramón
González Gamarra, Francisco
González Gaytán y Artiaga, (Juan) Manuel
Gonzalo, Gisela Hernández.
Goodall, Sir Reginald
Goode, Daniel
Goode, Richard
Goodgroome, John
Goodison, Benjamin
Goodman [Guttmann], Alfred (Alexander) [Alfred Grant]
Goodman, Benny [Benjamin] (David)
Goodman, Roy
Goodrich, William Marcellus
Goodson, Katharine
Goodson, Richard (i)
Goodson, Richard (ii)
Goodwin, Ron
Goossens.
Goovaerts, Alphonse (Jean Marie André)
Gopak.
Gora.
Gorączkiewicz, Wincenty
Görbig [Gärbig, Gerbich, Gerbig], Johann Anton (Thaddeus)
Gorchakova, Galina
Gorczycki [Gorczyca], Grzegorz Gerwazy
Gordigiani, Giovanni Battista
Gordon, Alexander
Gordon, Dexter (Keith)
Gordon, Captain James (Carel Gerhard)
Gordon, Michael
Gordon, Peter
Gordon Woodhouse [née Gwynne], Violet (Kate)
Gordy, Berry
Górecki, Henryk Mikołaj
Goretti, Antonio
Görger St Jörgen, Anna Maria von.
Gor'kiy.
Görl.
Gorli, Sandro
Gorlier, Simon
Görner, Hans-Georg
Görner, Johann Gottlieb
Görner, Johann Valentin
Gorodnitzki, Sascha
Gorr, Rita [Geirnaert, Marguerite]
Górski, Władysław
Gorsky, Aleksandr Alexievich
Gorton, William
Gorzanis, Giacomo [Jacomo (de)]
Gosa [Gose], Maistre.
Goscalch
Göse, Bartholomäus.
Gosier, tour de
Goslenus
Gosler [Goszler, Gossler, Goslerus, Gossler de Zeger, Gosslar], Thomas
Goslich, Siegfried
Gospel
Gospel hymnody.
Gospel music.
Göss, Bartholomäus.
Goss, Sir John
Goss-Custard, (Walter) Henry
Goss-Custard, Reginald
Gosse [Goesen, Goessen, Gosa, Gose, Gossen], Maistre
Gossec, François-Joseph
Gossen, Maistre.
Gossett, Philip
Gossler [Gossler de Zeger, Gosslar], Thomas.
Gosswin [Jusswein, Jussonius, Cossuino, Gossvino, Josquinus], Antonius [Anthoine]
Gostena, Giovanni Battista della.
Gostling, John
Gostling, William
Gostuški, Dragutin
Goszler, Thomas.
Göteborg [Gothenburg].
Gotfrid [Götvrit, Gottfried] von Strassburg [Strasburg]
Gotha.
Gothenburg.
Gothic Voices.
Gothóni, Ralf (Georg Nils)
Gotkovsky, Nell
Gotovac, Jakov
Gotschovius [Gottschovius], Nicolaus [Nikolaus]
Gottfried von Strassburg.
Gotthard, Johann Peter.
Götting, Valentin
Göttingen.
Gottlieb, (Maria) Anna [Nanette]
Gottorf [Gottorp].
Gottron, Adam (Bernhard)
Gottschalk, Louis Moreau
Gottschalk of Aachen [Gottschalk von Limburg, Godescalcus Lintpurgensis]
Gottsched, Johann Christoph
Gottuvādyam.
Gottwald, Clytus
Göttweig.
Götz, Franz
Götz, Johann [Joes] Michael
Goudimel [Godimel, Godimell, Godymel, Jodimel, Jodymel, Jodrymel, Jodimey etc.],
Claude
Gougeon, Denis
Gough, Hugh (Percival Henry)
Gough, John
Goulart, Simon
Gould, Glenn (Herbert)
Gould, Morton
Gould, Nathaniel Duren
Goulding & Co.
Goumas, (Jean-)Pierre(-Gabriel)
Gounod, Charles-François
Goupillet [Coupillet, Goupillier], Nicolas
Gourd.
Gourd bow.
Goussenov, Farkhang.
Goût du chant
Gouvy, Louis Théodore
Gouy, Jacques de
Gow.
Gow, Dorothy
Goward [Keeley], Mary Anne
Goyeneche, Roberto [El Polaco]
Gozenpud, Abram Akimovich
Gozzini [Goccini, Coccini], Giacomo
GP.
Graaf, Christian Ernst.
Grabbe, Johann
Graben-Hoffmann [Hoffmann], Gustav (Heinrich)
Grabner, Hermann
Grabowski, Ambroży
Grabowski, Stanisław
Grabu [Grabeu, Grabue, Grabut, Grebus], Luis [Louis, Lewis]
Graça, Fernando Lopes
Grace.
Grace, Harvey
Grace notes.
Gracieusement [gracieux]
Gracis, Ettore
Gradale
Grädener, Carl (Georg Peter)
Grädener, Hermann (Theodor Otto)
Gradenigo, Paolo
Gradenthaler [Gradenthaller, Kradenthaler, Kradenthaller], Hieronymus
Gradenwitz, Peter (Emanuel)
Gradstein, Alfred
Gradual (i) [Responsorium graduale].
Gradual (ii) [grail]
Graener, Paul
Graetz [Grätz, Graz], Joseph
Graetzer, Guillermo [Wilhelm]
Graf.
Graf, Conrad
Graf, Hans
Graf, Herbert
Graf, Max
Graf, Peter-Lukas
Graf, Walter
Gräfe, Johann Friedrich
Graff, Charlotte Böheim.
Graff, Johann.
Graffman, Gary
Gräfinger, Wolfgang.
Grafton, Richard
Grafulla, Claudio S.
Gragnani, Antonio
Graham, Colin
Graham, Martha
Graham, Peter [Št'astný-Pokorný, Jaroslav]
Graham, Shirley (Lola).
Graham, Susan
Grahn, Lucile [Lucille]
Grahn, Ulf (Åke Wilhelm)
Grail.
Grain, Jean du.
Grainer, Ron(ald)
Grainger, (George) Percy (Aldridge)
Gram, Hans
Gram, Peder
Gramatges, Harold
Gramex.
Gramm, Donald
Grammateus, Henricus [Schreyber, Heinrich]
Granada.
Granados (y Campiña), Enrique [Enríc]
Granata, Giovanni Battista
Gran cassa
Grancini [Grancino], Michel’Angelo
Grancino, Giovanni
Grancino, Michel’Angelo.
Gran lira.
Grand bugle
Grand choeur
Grand Funk Railroad.
Grandi, Alessandro (i)
Grandi, Alessandro (ii)
Grandi, Margherita [Garde, Marguerite]
Grandi, Ottavio Maria
Grandis, Vincenzo de.
Grandjany, Marcel (Georges Lucien)
Grand jeu
Grandmaster Flash [Saddler, Joseph]
Grand opéra.
Grand pianoforte
Grandval [née de Reiset], Marie (Félicie Clémence), Vicomtesse de [Blangy, Caroline;
Reiset, Maria Felicita de; Reiset de Tesier, Maria; Valgrand, Clémence]
Grandval, Nicolas Racot de
Graneti, Johannes
Granforte, Apollo
Grange, Philip (Roy)
Grani, Alvise [Granis, Aloysius de]
Granichstaedten [Granichstädten], Bruno
Granier [Garnier, Grenier], François
Granier [Garnier, Grenier], Louis
Granis, Aloysius de.
Granjon, Robert
Grano, John Baptist
Granom, Lewis Christian Austin
Granouilhet [Grenouillet], Jean de, Sieur de Sablières
Grant, Degens & Bradbeer.
Gran tamburo
Grantham, Donald
Granz, Norman
Grapheus, Hieronymus.
Graphische Tonerzeugung
Grappelli [Grappelly], Stephane [Steph]
Gräsbeck, Gottfrid (Gustaf Unosson)
Grasberger, Franz
Graschinsky, Ernest Louis.
Grasset, Jean-Jacques
Grassi, Cecilia
Grassineau, James
Grassini, Francesco Maria
Grassini, Josephina [Giuseppina] (Maria Camilla)
Grateful Dead, the.
Gratiani, Bonifatio
Gratiano, Tomaso.
Gratieusement [gratioso].
Gratiosus de Padua.
Grätz
Grätz, Joseph.
Grätzer, Carlos
Grau, Alberto
Graubiņš, Jēkabs
Graubner, Johann Christian Gottlieb.
Graumann, Dorothea von.
Graumann, Mathilde.
Graun.
Graupner, Christoph
Graupner [Graubner], (Johann Christian) Gottlieb
Graus (i Ribas), Josep Oriol
Grave
Gravecembalo
Graves, Samuel
Gravicembalo [gravecembalo]
Gravissima
Grāvītis, Olgerts
Gray, Cecil
Gray, H.W.
Gray, Jonathan
Gray, Thomas
Gray & Davison.
Gray’s Inn.
Grayson, Kathryn [Hedrick, Zelma Kathryn]
Graz.
Graz, Joseph.
Graziani.
Graziani, Bonifazio.
Graziani, Carlo
Graziani [Gratiano], Tomaso
Grazioli, Alessandro
Grazioli, Giovanni Battista (Ignazio)
Grazioso
Grazioso da Padova [Gratiosus de Padua]
Great Antiphons.
Great octave.
Greatorex, Henry Wellington
Greatorex, Thomas
Great organ.
Great Responsory.
Greaves, Thomas
Greban, Arnoul
Grebe (Vicuña), María Ester
Greber, Jakob
Grebus, Luis.
Grechaninov, Aleksandr Tikhonovich
Greco, Gaetano
Greece.
Greef, Arthur de.
Green(e), Al
Green [Greene], James
Green, Philip
Green, Ray (Burns)
Green, Samuel
Greenberg, Noah
Greene, James.
Greene, Maurice
Greene, (Harry) Plunket
Greene, Ry(chard)
Greenfield, Edward (Henry)
Greenhouse, Bernard
Greenland.
Greenwich, Ellie
Greer, Frank Terry
Greeting, Thomas
Greff alias Bakfark, Valentin.
Grefinger [Gräfinger], Wolfgang
Greggs, William
Greghesca
Gregoir, Edouard (Georges Jacques)
Gregoir, Jacques (Mathieu Joseph)
Gregoire
Gregor, Bohumil
Gregor, Čestmír
Gregor, Christian Friedrich
Gregora, František
Gregori, Annibale
Gregori, Giovanni Lorenzo
Gregorian chant.
Gregorios the Protopsaltes [‘the Levite’]
Gregorowicz [Gregorowitsch, Grigorovich], Karol [Charles]
Gregory, Thomas
Gregory, William (i)
Gregory, William (ii)
Gregory of Tours
Gregory the Great [Gregory I]
Gregson, Edward
Greig, Gavin
Greindl, Josef
Greiss, Yusef
Greiter [Greitter, Greuter, Greyter, Gritter, Gryter], Matthias [Matthaeus, Mathis, Mateus]
Grela [Grela Herrera], Dante G(erardo)
Grell, (August) Eduard
Grelots
Grenerin, Henry
Grenet, François Lupien
Grenier.
Grenier, François.
Grenier, Louis.
Grenon, Nicolas
Grenouillet, Jean, de.
Grenser.
Grequillon, Thomas.
Grešák, Jozef
Gresemund, Dietrich
Gresham Chair of Music.
Gresnick [Gresnich, Gressenich], Antoine-Frédéric
Gresse, Jan Barent
Grétry, André-Ernest-Modeste
Grétry, Lucile [Angélique-Dorothée-Louise]
Gretsch.
Grevillius, Nils
Grey, Madeleine [Grunberg, Madeleine Nathalie]
Grgičević, Athanasius.
Gribenski, Jean
Grieg, Edvard (Hagerup)
Grieg [Hagerup], Nina
Griepenkerl, Friedrich (Conrad)
Griepenkerl, Wolfgang Robert
Griesbach, John Henry
Griesbach, Karl-Rudi
Griesinger, Georg August
Grieviler, Jehan de.
Griff
Griffbrett
Griffes, Charles T(omlinson)
Griffin, George Eugene
Griffin, Thomas
Griffini, Giacomo
Griffis, Elliot
Griffith, R(obert) D.
Griffith, Robert
Griffiths, Paul (Anthony)
Griffiths, Robert
Griffoni, Matteo
Grignani, Lodovico
Grigny, Nicolas de
Grigorian, Gegam
Grigoriu, Teodor [Theodor]
Grigor'yeva, Galina Vladimirovna
Grigsby [née Pinsky], Beverly
Grijp, Louis Peter
Grille, Sieur de la.
Griller String Quartet.
Grillet, Laurent
Grillo, Giovanni Battista
Grillparzer, Franz
Grimace [Grymace, Grimache, Magister Grimache]
Grimaldi, Nicolo.
Grimani.
Grimani, Maria Margherita
Grimaud, Hélène
Grimm, Friedrich Melchior, Baron von
Grimm, Heinrich
Grimm, Karl
Grimm, (Karl Konstantin) Ludwig [Louis]
Grimm & Wirsung.
Grinberg, (Rachel-)Mariya (Izrailevna)
Grinberg, Oleksandr
Grinblat, Romual'd Samuilovich
Grinder organ.
Grinke, Frederick
Grīnups, Artūrs
Griot.
Grisar, Albert
Grischkat, Hans (Adolf Karl Willy)
Grisey, Gérard
Grisi, Carlotta [Caronne Adele Josephine Marie]
Grisi, Giuditta
Grisi, Giulia
Grisogono [Chrisogonus; Grisogono-Bartolačić], Federik [Federicus]
Grist, Reri
Gritton, Susan
Grković, Branko
Gro, Johann.
Grobe, Charles
Grobe, Donald (Roth)
Grobstimme.
Grocheio [Grocheo], Johannes de
Groe, Johann.
Groenemann, Johann Albert Heinrich.
Grofé, Ferde [Ferdinand] (Rudolf von)
Groh [Ghro, Gro, Groe, Grohe etc.], Johann
Gronamann, Sybilla.
Gronau, Daniel Magnus
Grøndahl, Agathe (Ursula).
Groneman, Albertus [Groenemann, Johann Albert Heinrich]
Grønland [Grönland], Peter
Groop, Monica
Grooverider [Bingham, Roger]
Groppetto [groppo].
Groppo
Groppo, Antonio
Grosheim, Georg Christoph
Gross, Eric
Gross, Robert (Arthur)
Gross Cither
Grosse caisse
Grosseteste, Robert [Lincolniensis]
Grosse Trommel
Grossi, Andrea
Grossi, Carlo
Grossi, Giovanni Antonio
Grossi, Giovanni Francesco.
Grossi, Pietro
Grossi da Viadana, Lodovico.
Grossin [Grossim], Estienne
Grosskopf, Erhard
Grossman, Ludwik
Grossman, Vera.
Grossmann, Gustav Friedrich Wilhelm
Grossmith, George (i)
Grossmith, George (ii)
Grossvater-Tanz
Gross Zittern
Grosz, Wilhelm [Will; Williams, Hugh; Milos, André]
Grothe, Franz (Johannes August)
Grotrian-Steinweg.
Grottaferrata.
Grotte, Nicolas de la.
Ground.
Ground harp
Group.
Groupe de Recherches Musicales.
Group style.
Grousil [Groussy], Nicolas [Nicole].
Grout, Donald J(ay)
Grouzy [Grousil, Groussy], Nicolas [Nicole]
Grove, Sir George
Grové, Stefans
Groven, Eivind
Groves, Sir Charles (Barnard)
Grovlez, Gabriel (Marie)
Grua.
Gruber, Erasmus
Gruber, Franz Xaver
Gruber [Grueber], Georg Wilhelm
Gruber, Gernot
Gruber, H(einz) K(arl) [Nali]
Gruber, Roman Il'ich
Gruberová, Edita
Grudzień, Jacek
Grueber, Georg Wilhelm.
Gruenberg, Erich
Gruenberg, Louis [Edwards, George]
Grumiaux, Baron Arthur
Grümmer, Elisabeth
Grümmer, Paul
Grünbaum, Therese [née Müller]
Grundgestalt
Grundheber, Franz
Grundtvig, Svend (Hersleb)
Grunebaum, Hermann
Grunenwald, Jean-Jacques
Gruner, Nathanael Gottfried
Grünewald [Grunewald], Gottfried
Grunge.
Gruppetto
Gruppo
Gruppo Universitario per la Nuova Musica.
Grützmacher, Friedrich (Wilhelm Ludwig)
Gruuthuse Manuscript.
G sol re ut.
Guaccero, Domenico
Guáchara [churuca, guacharaca].
Guadagni, Gaetano
Guadagnini.
Guadagno, Anton
Guadalcanal.
Guaitoli, Francesco Maria
Guajira.
Gualandi, Antonio [Campioli]
Gualandi, Margherita [La Campioli]
Gualterus ab Insula.
Gualtieri, Alessandro
Gualtieri, Antonio
Guam.
Guami.
Guan.
Guan Pinghu [given name, Ping; style, Ji'an]
Guaracha.
Guardasoni, Domenico
Guarducci [Garducci], Tommaso
Guarello, Alejandro
Guarini, (Giovanni) Battista
Guarneri.
Guarneri String Quartet.
Guarnier.
Guarnieri, Adriano
Guarnieri, Antonio
Guarnieri, (Mozart) Camargo
Guasco, Carlo
Guascogna, Mathieu [?Johannes].
Guastavino, Carlos (Vicente)
Guatemala,
Guayrinet.
Guazzi, Eleuterio
Gubanshī, Muhammad al-
Gubaydulina, Sofiya Asgatovna
Gubert [Hubert], Nikolay Al'bertovich
Gubitosi, Emilia
Gudehus, Heinrich
Gudewill, Kurt
Gudmundsen-Holmgreen, Pelle
Gueden, Hilde
Guédon de Presles, Mlle
Guédon [Guesdon] de Presles, Honoré-Claude [Prêles, Honoré-Claude de]
Guédron [Guesdron], Pierre
Gueinz, Christian
Guelfi, Antonio
Guénin, Marie-Alexandre
Guerau [Garau Femenia], Francisco
Guerini, Francesco
Guéroult, Guillaume
Guerra, Juan Luís
Guerra-Peixe, César
Guerre des Bouffons.
Guerrero, Antonio
Guerrero, Francisco (i)
Guerrero (Marín), Francisco (ii)
Guerrero (y Torres), Jacinto
Guerrero, Joseph
Guerrero, Pedro
Guerrero Díaz, Félix
Guerrieri, Agostino
Guerrini, Guido
Guersan, Louis
Guesdron, Pierre.
Guest, George (i)
Guest, George (Howell) (ii)
Guest [Miles], Jane Mary [Jenny]
Guetfreund, Peter [Bonamico, Pietro]
Guevara, Pedro de Loyola
Guevara Ochoa, (Julio) Armando
Guézec, Jean-Pierre
Gugel', Aleksandr (Oleksandr)
Gugl, Matthäus
Guglielmi.
Guglielmini, Pietro Carlo.
Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro [Giovanni Ambrosio]
Guglielmo Roffredi
Guhr, Karl (Wilhelm Ferdinand)
Gui, Vittorio
Guibert Kaukesel [Chaucesel; Hubert Chaucesel]
Guicciardi, Francesco
Guichard, François, Abbé
Guichard, Henry, Sieur d’Hérapine
Guichard, Léon
Guichard, Louis-Joseph
Guida
Guide.
Guidetti, Giovanni Domenico
Guidi, Giovanni Gualberto
Guidiccioni Lucchesini [Lucchesina], Laura
Guido
Guido, Giovanni Antonio [‘Antonio’]
Guido Augensis.
Guido Cariloci.
Guido de Caroli-loco.
Guido frater
Guidon
Guido of Arezzo [Aretinus]
Guido of Cherlieu [Guido Cariloci, Guy de Cherlieu]
Guido of Eu [Guido Augensis, Guy d’Eu]
Gui d'Ussel [Uisel, Uissel]
Guiglielmo di Santo Spirito.
Guignard, Silvain André [Guignard Kyokusai]
Guignon, Jean-Pierre [Ghignone, Giovanni Pietro]
Guilain, Jean Adam [Freinsberg, Jean Adam Guillaume]
Guilbault-Thérien Inc.
Guilbert, Yvette
Guildhall School of Music and Drama [GSMD].
Guild of Jesus.
Guilds.
Guilielmus de Francia [Frate Guiglielmo di Santo Spirito]
Guilielmus Monachus
Guillard, Nicolas François
Guillaume IX, Duke of Aquitaine and 7th Count of Poitiers
Guillaume d'Amiens, paigneur
Guillaume de Dijon [Guillaume de Fécamp; Guillaume de Volpiano]
Guillaume de Machaut.
Guillaume le Grain.
Guillaume le Vinier.
Guillaume Veau
Guillebert de Berneville.
Guillelmus Monachus.
Guillemain, Louis-Gabriel
Guillemant, Benoit
Guillet, Charles [Karel]
Guilliaud, Maximilian
Guillon [De Guillon]
Guillot, Estienne.
Guillou, Jean
Guilmant, (Félix) Alexandre
Guimard, Marie-Madeleine
Guimbard
Guinea.
Guinea-Bissau (Port. Republica da Guiné-Bissau).
Guinjoan (Gispert), Joan
Guinovart (i Rubiella), Carles
Guion, Jean.
Guiot de Dijon
Guiot de Provins
Guiraud, Ernest
Guiraut de Bornelh.
Guiraut d'Espanha [Espaigna] de Toloza [Tholoza]
Guiraut Riquier.
Güiro.
Guisterne
Guitar
Guitare allemande [cistre]
Guitare angloise
Guitare-harpe.
Guitarra (i)
Guitarra (ii)
Guitarra morisca
Guitar zither
Guiterne [guiterre] (i)
Guiterne [guiterre] (ii)
Guittar.
Guivizzani, Alessandro.
Guizzardo, Cristoforo
Gulak-Artemovsky, Semyon Stepanovich
Gulbenkian Foundation
Gulbranson, Ellen
Gulda, Friedrich
Guleghina, Maria
Gülke, Peter
Guller, Youra
Gulli, Franco
Gullin, Lars (Gunnar Victor)
Gumbert [Gumpert], Friedrich Adolf
Gumm, Albert.
Gumm, Harold.
Gümpel, Karl-Werner
Gumpelzhaimer [Gumpeltzhaimer], Adam
Gumpert, Friedrich Adolf.
Gumprecht, Johann
Gundissalinus, Domenicus [Gundisalvi, Domingo; Gonzalez, Dominique]
Gundry, Inglis
Gung’l [Gungl], Josef [Joseph]
Gunn, Barnabas
Gunn, John
Gunning, Christopher
Gunsbourg, Raoul
Guns N' Roses.
Günther, Robert
Günther [née Rösse], Ursula
Guo Wenjing
Guo Zhiyuan [Kuo Chih-yuan]
Gura, Eugen
Gura, Hermann
Güran, Nazife
Gurecký [Guretzky, Kuretzky], Josef Antonín
Gurecký [Guretzky, Kuretzky], Václav Matyáš
Guridi (Bidaola), Jesús
Gurilyov, Aleksandr L'vovich
Gurilyov, Lev Stepanovich
Gurlitt, Manfred
Gurlitt, Wilibald
Gurney, Edmund
Gurney, Ivor (Bertie)
Gurov, Leonid Simonovich
Gurtu, Trilok
Gurvin, Olav
Guschlbauer, Theodor
Guseynova, Zivar Makhmudovna
Gushee, Lawrence (Arthur)
Gusle.
Gusli
Gusnaschi [Gusnasco], Lorenzo.
Gussago, Cesario
Gustaf, Prince
Gustafsson, Kaj-Erik
Gustavus III, King of Sweden
G ut.
Gut, Serge
Gutheil [Gutkheyl'].
Gutheil-Schoder, Marie
Guthrie, Woody [Woodrow] (Wilson)
Gutiérrez, Horacio
Gutiérrez de Padilla, Juan.
Gutiérrez (y) Espinosa, Felipe
Gutiérrez Heras, Joaquín
Gutiérrez Sáenz, Benjamín
Gutman, Natalya
Gutmann, Albert J.
Gutturalis.
Guy, Barry (John)
Guy, Buddy [George]
Guy, Helen.
Guy, Nicholas
Guyana.
Guy de Cherlieu.
Guy de Saint-Denis
Guyer, Percy.
Guymont
Guyon [Guion], Jean
Guyonnet, Jacques
Guyot (de Châtelet) [Castileti], Jean
Guy-Ropartz, Joseph.
Guzikow, Michał Józef
Guzmán (Frías), Federico
Guzmán, Jorge de
Guzmán, Luis de
Gwaltier, James.
Gwan Pok.
Gwyneddigion Society.
Gwynneth, John
Gye, Frederick
Gyffard Partbooks
Gyger, Elliott
Gyles, Nathaniel.
Gymel [gimel, gemell, gemmel etc.].
‘Gypsy’ [Roma-Sinti-Traveller] music.
Gypsy scale [Hungarian mode, Hungarian scale].
Gyrowetz [Gyrowez, Girowetz], Adalbert [Jírovec, Vojtěch Matyáš]
Gyselynck, Franklin
Gysi, Fritz
Gyterne.
Gyuzelev [Ghiuselev], Nikola

G.
See Pitch nomenclature.

Gabbalone, Michele.
See Caballone, Michele.

Gabbelone, Gaspare.
See Gabellone, Gaspare.

Gabbrielli, Giovanni Battista

(fl c1740–70). Italian violin maker. Gabbrielli, who worked in Florence, is
the most significant of the 18th-century Florentine violin makers, and it is
generally thought that the other makers in the city may have learnt from
him. The work of Stainer seems to have been the main influence in
Florence, but Gabbrielli is today regarded as successful because he
resisted the temptation to exaggerate Stainer’s features, so often a pitfall
among his followers. Occasionally a very high-built violin is found attributed
to Gabbrielli, but much more often the outline is of Cremonese dimensions
and the model well-balanced. His soundholes invariably have a Stainer
slant at each end, and the varnish is yellow or yellow-brown. His best
instruments are handsome and well-sounding, and he made violas and
cellos as well as violins. (LütgendorffGL; VannesE)
CHARLES BEARE
 Gabella, Giovanni Battista
(fl 1585–8). Italian composer. He is known only from two madrigal books: Il
primo libro de madrigali a cinque voci (Ferrara, 1585) and Il secondo libro
de madrigali a cinque voci (Venice, 1588, inc.). He was probably active at
Ferrara when his first madrigal book was printed there by the ducal printer
Baldini. The first piece in this book, All’ombra opaca del mio verde Lauro,
may be one of the many madrigals in praise of Laura Peverara published
between 1582 and 1583 by Ferrarese musicians (see NewcombMF). The
volume also contains a four-part madrigal descriptive of the seasons.
Gabella’s preference for pastoral verse is evident in the selection of texts
for his second book, which includes a setting of Guarini’s popular Tirsi
morir volea.
DAVID NUTTER

Gabellone [Caballone, Cabellone,

Gabbelone], Gaspare
(b Naples, 12 April 1727; d Naples, 22 March 1796). Italian composer, son
of Michele Caballone. Though baptized with his father’s patronymic, the
composer in later life preferred the spelling ‘Gabellone’, as shown by
autograph manuscripts. The facts of his life and works have often been
confused with those of his father. Gabellone probably first learnt music from
Michele; then, starting in 1738, he studied at the Conservatorio di S Maria
di Loreto in Naples as a pupil of Durante. Later he is said to have taught
singing and composition there, although no records of tenure have been
discovered.
While a young man, Gabellone wrote two opere buffe for the Teatro Nuovo
in Naples. His high musical repute, however, derived mainly from
compositions for the church; according to tradition, Paisiello kept for a
model a copy of Gabellone’s large-scale Messa di requiem (now lost). In
1769 Gabellone was commissioned by the court to write the cantata for
soprano solo, Qui del Sebeto in riva, to celebrate the birthday of Queen
Caroline.
WORKS
La sposa bizzarra (ob, P. Squalletti), Naples, Nuovo, aut. 1757
La giuocatrice bizzarra (ob, A. Palomba), Naples, Nuovo, spr. 1764; collab. G.
Insanguine
Qui del Sebeto in riva, cant., S, 1769
Giacobbe in Egitto (orat), Cava, Convento di S Francesco, 1780
Gesù Crocifisso (orat, G. Gigli), Naples, Oratorio dei Ventapane, 1781
Gesù deposto dalla Croce (orat), Rome, Congregazione dell’Oratorio, 1786
Antioco (orat), Faenza, 1787
La deposizione dalla Croce e sepolatura del Redentore (orat), Bologna,
Arciconfraternita di S Maria della Morte, 1787
Gesù deposto dalla Croce e poi sepolto, Naples, Oratorio dei Ventapane, 1797
Arias and cantatas, I-Nc, Nf
Christus e Miserere; 3 Tantum ergo; mass; 2 Passion for Good Friday, 1756; 12
fugues, 1785; symphony: Nc
Overture, B-Bc
Mass; Christus e Miserere; Inno per il glorioso Patriarca S Giuseppe; Passion for
Palm Sunday and Good Friday, inc.; Tantum ergo; 2 fugues: I-Mc [according to
EitnerQ]
Messa di Requiem, lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (F. Schlitzer)
FlorimoN
RosaM
SartoriL
U. Prota-Giurleo: Nicola Logroscino, ‘il dio dell’opera buffa’ (la vita e le
opere) (Naples, 1927), 56
JAMES L. JACKMAN/FRANCESCA SELLER

Gabellone, Michele.
See Caballone, Michele.

Gabichvadze, Revaz
(b Tbilisi, 11 June 1913; d Moscow, 9 June 1999). Georgian composer. He
studied composition with Braginovsky, Shcherbachov and Tuskia at the
Tbilisi State Conservatory (1928–35), stayed there for postgraduate studies
with Arapov and Ryazanov (1935–8), and taught there from 1938 until
1981. He directed the first light orchestra in Georgia (1941–3) and was
executive secretary of the Georgian Composers’ Union (1948–52). From
1982 to 1987 he was artistic director of the All-Union House of Composers
in Moscow. A continuity runs through his output, albeit through different
stages and phased transitions. Early works – the first two quartets and the
concertos for violin and cello – contain stylistic and technical features that
were summed up in his first transitional piece, the Symphony for strings,
piano and timpani (1964), and then further developed to achieve their
maximum expressiveness in compositions of the 1970s and 80s: the last
three symphonies (the Chamber Symphony no.4 and the eighth and ninth
symphonies) and the ballet Medea. His themes show a polar opposition
between lyrical monologue – clearly apparent in his songs of the 1940s,
50s and 60s, as well as in the meditative sections of his instrumental works
– and tragic outburst, of which the latter is embodied with particular force in
the late works mentioned above and in the ballet Hamlet. The symphonic
principle of synthesis, acting on vivid and dramatic ideas, is important in all
his music, the stage works (especially the ballets) as much as the
symphonies; in the first three chamber symphonies, symphonic
development is combined with an interplay of various musical images, or
‘masks’. His distinctive language embraces rhythms and intonational
patterns from Georgian folk music, which he quoted directly only at the
beginning of his career, alongside 12-note chromaticism and the local use
of aleatory devices, texture music and tape (as in the ‘Rostock’ Symphony,
Hamlet and Medea).
WORKS
 (selective list)

Stage: Chrichina [The Dragonfly] (operetta, M. Baratashvili and G. Shteyn), 1952;

Nana (op, 4, G. Meliva, after A. Arbuzov: Tanya), 1957; Mï – materi mira [We are
the Mothers of the World] (op, B. and R. Starshov), completed 1966; Hamlet (ballet,
3), 1971; Medea (ballet, after Euripides), 1975; Chelovek, kotorïy smeyotsya [The
Man Who Laughs] (ballet, after V. Hugo), 1986
Vocal: Vepkhis tkaosani [The Knight in the Tigerskin] (orat, after Sh. Rustaveli),
1938; 3 monologa o Lenine (after S. Shchipachov, A. Surkov), B, female vv, orch,
1970; Sym. no.2 (choral sym., after N. Baratashvili), 1971; Cantus humanus (after
K. Bartel'), 1979; Sym. no.9 (after G. Rozhdestvensky); S, chbr orch, 1985
Orch: Sinfonietta, 1935; Gamzrdeli [The Mentor], sym. poem after A. Tsereteli,
1944; Vn Conc., 1947; Vc Conc., 1950; Sym., str, pf, timp, 1964; Chbr Sym., nonet,
1965; Chbr Sym. no.2, conc. for nonet, 1968; Chbr Sym. no.3, 9 variations for
nonet, 1970; Sym. no.3 ‘Rostokskaya’ [The Rostock], 1972; Gamlet, suite, 1973
[from ballet]; Chbr Sym. no.4 ‘Pamyati Shostakovicha’ [To the Memory of
Shostakovich], 1975; Ov., 1975; Medea, choreographic poem, 1977; Sym. no.8,
nonet, 1980, rev. chbr orch 1982; Conc., vn, vc, orch, 1986
Chbr: 3 str qts, 1946, 1957, 1963; Divertimento, wind qt, 1968; 2 fakturï [2
Textures], str orch, 1969; Spikkato, str orch, 1970; Wind Qnt, 1978; 2 pf sonatas,
solo inst works
Film scores, incid music, songs
Principal publishers: Muzfond Gruzii, Muzgiz, Muzïka Sovetskiy Kompozitor

BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Bėlza: ‘Na puti k obnovleniyu sovremennoy tematikoy’ [On the way to
mastery of contemporary thematicism], SovM (1951), no.9, pp.33–8
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Kartuli simfoniya gazapkhulidan gazapkhulamde’ [The
Georgian symphony from one ‘spring’ to another], Sabchota
khelovneba (1965), no.5, p.33
S. Savenko: ‘Tri monologa R. Gabichvadze’, SovM (1970), no.5, pp.55–6
D. Romadinova: ‘Bït' ili ne bït': Gamletu v balete’ [To be or not to be
Hamlet ballet], SovM (1972), no.8, pp.31–7
M. Aranovsky: Simfonicheskiye iskaniya: problema Zhanra simfonii v
sovetskoy muzïke 1960–75 godov [Symphonic quests: the genre
problem of the symphony in Soviet music of the period 1960–75]
(Leningrad, 1979), 88–193
V. Likht: Revaz Gabich vadze (Moscow, 1988)
KETEVAN BOLASHVILI

Gabignet, Pierre.
See Gaviniés, Pierre.

Gabler, Joseph
(b Ochsenhausen, Upper Swabia, 6 July 1700; d Bregenz, 8 Nov 1771).
German organ builder. The son of a carpenter, he first worked with his
father at the joinery workshop of Ochsenhausen Abbey. From 1719 he
worked in Mainz for the court carpenter and joiner Anton Ziegenhorn (d
1720) and his son, carrying on the business himself after the latter’s death
in 1726. In 1729 he married the widow of Ziegenhorn the younger. Gabler
lived in Ochsenhausen from 1729 to 1733, then again in Mainz until 1737,
subsequently in Weingarten (until 1750) and various other places, and from
1769 until his death in Bregenz. He probably studied organ building in
Mainz, where at that time the organ builders J.J. Dahm, Johann Onimus
and J.A.I. Will were active.
Gabler’s organs include those for Ochsenhausen Abbey (1729–33; four
manuals, 49 stops; rebuilt 1751–5 with three manuals and a detached
console), Weingarten Abbey (1737–50; four manuals, 63 stops), Zwiefalten
Abbey (1753–5; chancel organ), the pilgrimage church of Maria Steinbach
(1755–9), the Martinskirche, Memmingen (1759–60; rebuilding), the
Karmeliterkirche and Dreifaltigkeitskirche, Ravensburg (1763–6;
rebuildings), the Lateinische Schule, Memmingen (1768; positive), and St
Gallus, Bregenz (1769–71).
Like Gottfried Silbermann, Gabler used to characterize the sound of the
manuals and the pedal, as in the following examples (taken from the
Weingarten organ, 1745): ‘pompos’ (Hauptpedal), ‘scharpf’ (Brustpedal),
‘penetrant’ (Hauptwerk), ‘douce’ (Secund Manual and Brustpositiv), and
‘lieblich’ (Echopositiv). His specifications show a predilection for mixtures
with a lot of ranks, including Sesquialtera and Cornet (both repeating),
strings and Piffaros (not undulating) with several ranks, a preference for 8'
stops, and hardly any mutations. He used only a few reeds, having some
difficulties with the scaling of them. In addition to effect stops such as the
Timpan (Pauke), Rossignol, Cuculus (Kuckuck) and Cymbala, he built
Carillon stops, the pedal Carillon in Weingarten (32 bells) serving as the
highest enhancement of the full organ. In Weingarten he used ivory for
keys and stop-knobs, and even for pipes. Turned wooden pipes are also
found. Gabler cultivated the detached console. The imaginative case at
Weingarten is perhaps the most impressive ever built. A full stop-list of the
organ at Weingarten Abbey is given in Organ, §V, 12, Table 26.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (W. Supper)
F. Bärnwick: ‘Neues über Joseph Gabler: den Erbauer der grossen Orgel
im Münster zu Weingarten, Württ.’, Cäcilienvereinsorgan/Musica
Sacra, lxiv/lxiii (1933), 106–10
R. Weber: Die Orgeln von Joseph Gabler und Johannes Nepomuk
Holzhey (Kassel, 1933)
J. Wörsching: ‘Joseph Gabler’, KJb, xxix (1934), 54–71
W. Supper and H. Meyer: Barockorgeln in Oberschwaben (Kassel, 1941)
A. Gottron: ‘Joseph Gabler in Mainz’, Der Barock, seine Orgeln und seine
Musik in Oberschwaben: Ochsenhausen 1951, 82–3
U. Siegele: ‘Die Disposition der Gabler-Orgel zu Ochsenhausen’, Musik
und Kirche, xxvi (1956), 8–18
H. Nadler: Orgelbau in Vorarlberg und Liechtenstein, ii (Hohenems, 1985)
F. Jakob: Die grosse Orgel der Basilika zu Weingarten: Geschichte und
Restaurierung der Gabler-Orgel (Männedorf, 1986)
HANS KLOTZ/ALFRED REICHLING
Gabon (Fr. République
Gabonaise).
Country in West Africa. With an area of 267,667 km 2, it is a relatively
homogeneous cultural unit, despite the great ethnic and linguistic diversity
of its population of 1·23 million (2000 estimate). The last waves of Central
African migration converged on the Atlantic front of the equatorial forest.
With the exception of the ‘pygmies’, all the present-day peoples of Gabon
thus originated in regions outside the equatorial forest that they now
inhabit.
1. Main musical traditions.
2. External influences.
3. Musicians and instruments.
PIERRE SALLÉE
Gabon
1. Main musical traditions.
(i) Pygmy and Kele music.
The music of the ‘pygmies’ has features in common with that of other
hunter-food-gatherer peoples in Africa. These include the use of a
pentatonic tonal system incorporating tetratonic forms; the use of
alternately ascending and descending intervals of 5ths, 6ths, 4ths and 7ths
in songs that combine a yodelling technique with polyphonic imitation;
musical development based on a series of distinct melodic and rhythmic
cycles, in a kind of canon particularly suited to the resonances of the forest
canopy; and a constant use of polyrhythm within ternary structures. The
‘pygmies’ of northern Gabon conclude each polyphonic sequence with a
sustained solo note that turns into a glissando, imperceptible at first. This is
amplified by the maximum vocal resonance, and accompanied by a
specific gesture that consists of folding back the lobe of the ear by passing
the opposite arm over the top of the head.
The Kele were settled in Gabon before the final waves of Bantu migration.
They are now dispersed throughout the country where they live in
symbiosis with other groups so that the original features of their music are
difficult to identify. The first explorers, however, noted their use of an eight-
string harp with a brick-shaped box resonator and an extension carved in
the shape of a 7. As far as is known, this instrument is unique to Gabon
where it is widespread.
(ii) The music of the Tsogho, Miene and related peoples.
The Miene-speaking peoples settled on the lakes and on the northern
coast in about the 13th century; but the Kande, the Pindji, the Evya and the
Tsogho went down the southern tributaries of the Ogooué and settled in the
central mountain massif. A civilization that is now typical of the Gabon
forest because of its cultural dominance developed among the Tsogho. It is
notable for its various initiatory societies, the most famous being the male
brotherhood of the Bwete, which give secret instruction through liturgical
ceremonies based on music and dance. These comprise a succession of
processional choirs, harp music that has a specific initiatory meaning and
that accompanies the lyrical improvisations of a principal cantor, the
recitation of the myths of origin accompanied by a musical bow, and
dances with masks that are staged with skilful lighting. Almost the total
inventory of musical instruments in their functional and symbolic hierarchy
is presented in these ceremonies. The liturgical orchestra is based on the
ngombi, an eight-string harp, and the bake, a wooden percussion beam,
which rests on two supports and is struck by two players. This ensemble is
supplemented by a mouth-resonated musical bow (fig.1); ensembles of
vertical drums including the ndungu (with laced skin) and the mosumba
(with nailed skin), which accompany the masked dances; the soke, a ritual
rattle (formed from two vegetable shells filled with dried seeds and
attached to a handle) used by the principal officiant who recites the myths;
and various rattles made of vegetable matter and metal, as well as groups
of pellet-bells and jingles. The sound of the ghebomba, a signal horn,
marks the beginning and the end of the ceremonies.
The music of the Miene-speaking Mpongwe, Rungu, Nkomi and Galoa
shows certain similarities to that of the Tsogho. It is characterized by a
sophistication of the melodic line, especially in women’s singing, which
although based on a hexatonic scale has a strong D-mode flavour. The
singers also use long vocalizations of beautiful liquidity which result from
the sonorities of the Miene language, especially its open vowels. A further
characteristic is the fullness of the choral ensembles (ex.1), which use
harmonies based on the notes of the two overlapping common chords with
minor or neutral 3rds, tuned to the harp. Harp playing among both the
Miene and the Tsogho is sometimes reminiscent of Iberian improvisation on
instruments of the guitar type, and this might imply an early Portuguese
influence. The tuning of an Nkomi harp is given in ex.2.
Gabon
2. External influences.
(i) From the south.
Another wave of settlement, this time from the south and south-east, took
place as a result of the territorial expansion of the former kingdoms of
Kongo and Loango. Their influence was felt well before the 16th century as
far as Cape Lopez. The migration from the south introduced two types of
pluriarc, each with five strings. The tsambi of the Lumbu, the Vili and the
Shira of the plains and lagoons of the south-west is small and carefully
made and is also found in Loango and in Bas-Zaïre. The other (shown in
fig.2) is large and more crudely made and is called ngwomi by the Teke, or
Tegue, of the eastern plateau. The term ngwomi is a linguistic
transformation of ngombi, the name by which the peoples of the interior of
Oabon know the eight-string harp. The Teke of the Congo generally call
this instrument lukombe, and it may have originated in the region of the
River Kwango and Kasai.
The sanza is a lamellophone used for intimate and meditative secular
music. It is known in Gabon and the Congo region as sandza, sandji and
esandji and is widespread in the south and south-east of the country. The
Gabonese instrument, which has metal keys, corresponds generally with
the River Congo type. Some instruments are, however, built on two small
boards and are similar to instruments found in the River Kwango and Kasai
region. To achieve the greatest possible complexity of timbres, the subtle
plucked sounds of the pluriarcs and the sanza are systematically prolonged
by a continuous buzzing, obtained on the pluriarcs by the addition of metal
plates with rattling rings round their edges, and on the sanza by trade
beads threaded on its keys.
Teke music is particularly original: ensembles of two or three sanza with a
common tuning are used; polyphonic structures based on different vocal
timbres occur in great successive waves in response to a soloist’s call-
phrase, sometimes sung falsetto. The vocal sound quality, reminiscent of
yodelling although produced quite differently, can on occasion induce
possession, the possession dances of women’s societies being controlled
by a soothsayer. The natural singing voice is remarkably soft despite its
high register, a combination that sometimes leads to the expressive
strangling of particularly high notes, especially characteristic of the Punu.
(ii) From the north.
The last of the great migrations produced the present settlements in the
north. In the early 19th century, at the time of the first major colonial
explorations, the Fang (Faŋ) tribes began to lead a massive exodus of
peoples from central Cameroon and from the Ubangi region towards the
banks of the Ogooué and the estuary of the Gabon. They were called the
Pangwe by the bank-dwellers, and also occupied Equatorial Guinea (Rio
Muni) and south Cameroon. They appeared to have something in common
with the Zande and introduced instruments of an Ubangl type, such as
large wooden lamellophones (which Laurenty termed the pahouin type
after the Pangwe peoples) called nkola or tamatama, found also in
Cameroon; and xylophones, which were previously unknown in Gabon.
The xylophones are of two types: the medzang m’biang (fig.3), a log
xylophone whose keys rest on two banana trunks, is reserved for the
Melane ancestor cult, and is used in pairs with 15 and 8 keys on each
instrument; the second type is portative, its keys being suspended over a
frame of light wood beneath which several gourd resonators are fitted.
Each of these resonators has a small hole which is covered with a fine
membrane to form a mirliton. The keys are struck with two rubber-padded
sticks. The portative xylophones are used in groups of five to accompany
girls’ dances. Each instrument has its own name and range and the
instruments are ordered from the highest to the lowest according to the
number of keys (9, 9, 8, 6, 2). Xylophone music is like an iridescent carillon
of timbres, pitches and note-lengths, based on a major hexatonic scale
with no seventh degree. The keys are arranged in the order of the scale in
such a way that the alternate or simultaneous use of the sticks produces
intervals of 3rds and 4ths.
The Fang are particularly distinguished by their oral epic tradition, which is
largely concerned with superhuman struggles. Bards accompany
themselves on the Mvet, a harp-zither with notched bridge (fig.4), while
reciting vehement prose, which is ordered in regular metrical periods
against a rigorous isochronous background supplied by pairs of concussion
sticks. Each episode in the narrative ends with a raucously sung melodic
‘flight’ in which intervals of diminished 5ths are curiously interposed; the
recitation can last for a whole night.
The harp-zither is also used by the Kota and by the Teke, who combine it
with one of their ubiquitous jingles. The Fang formerly used an eight-string
harp in their funeral ceremonies, now used exclusively by the syncretic
cults in the capital. The resonators of some of these harps are given
magnificently carved anthropomorphous extensions in the style of
ancestral statues and suggest a relationship with those of the Ngbaka of
the Central African Republic.
The music of the Fang is sober and remarkably disciplined; it can also be
rough and virile, characterized by grandiose accents. The great group
dances are sustained by the steady rhythm of two mbejn, vertical drums
with slightly conical bodies, and they are controlled by the signals of the
nkul, a large slit-drum. The drummer on the nkul uses different pitches and
rhythms to indicate the dance movements and to determine the musical
periods which start and end in perfect ensemble. The great choral
ensembles produce imposing homophony based on sequences of 4ths and
3rds which appear episodically. They are responsorial in structure with,
however, one peculiarity: the choral response is in each case established
by a long-held unison note which is either the final note of each solo
melodic phrase or a degree higher than the final note.
Part of the Kota tradition is associated with the Mungala, mythical protector
of fecundity and redresser of ills who presides at the initiation of young
boys into manhood. The wearing of masks induces all sorts of sounds,
including strange voices which are distorted by a high falsetto, cavernous
rumblings, raucous growls from the throat produced after drinking an
irritant, and by the use of a mouth or nose mirliton. In addition, dull sounds
that seem to come from the earth are obtained by beating a plank resting
over a pit. It is dangerous to speak to the Mungala without the magic
protection of the kendo (an iron bell with bent handle and clapper), which
an ‘interpreter’ continuously shakes. The songs relating to twinhood or
circumcision are dedicated to the Mungala. The elementary antiphonal
structure of these songs is also found in the fable-songs belonging to the
domestic oral tradition of stories and games. The Kota, the Ndzabi and the
Fang sing guessing games that are based on such oppositions as heaven
and earth, bush and village, male and female, and the animal and human
worlds. The player is offered a series of choices, and the answers are
guided by the particular inflections, negative or positive, of the instrumental
ostinato of a musical bow.
Gabon
3. Musicians and instruments.
Strictly speaking, there is no musical professionalism in Gabon since
musical specialization is not the prerogative of any one social caste. Music
is common to all and artists engage in the same daily occupations as other
members of a village. The talent of an individual is, however, always
potentially linked with sorcery and must be approved by a special initiation,
where it is assigned a role in the initiatory hierarchy that prevails over every
other form of social hierarchy in the traditional organization of the tribe.
After a ‘revelation’ or ‘vision’, an individual might follow the career of a
harpist; the suppleness of the fingers is reputedly increased after incisions
have been made at the base of the thumb and on the wrist.
Among the Fang, however, the mvet player is semi-professional and is
invited by families to play and sing on evenings that have been arranged
for important occasions. Some mvet players are much sought after and
travel long distances in response to these invitations; they are generally
paid in money and in kind. The initiation of a mvet player is carried out
under the sponsorship of a master and takes the form of physical, moral
and intellectual tests, including personal sacrifices, the drinking of burning
syrups, the eating of the heads of birds captured by a lure and finally the
rapid and faultless recitation of complex and lengthy genealogies.
The musical bow is generally considered the primeval instrument and the
ancestor of other chordophones. Its stretched string symbolizes the
mediation between heaven and earth, and the sounds of its vibrations
connect to the ‘word’ of the first ancestor. String instruments are
considered to be of common descent. Thus the harmonics given out by the
single string of the musical bow give birth to the eight strings of the harp,
and the feminine body of the harp in turn gives birth to sounds and
multiplies their vibrations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources

R. Avelot: ‘La musique chez les Pahouins, les Ba-kalai, les Eshira, les
Ivéïa et les Bavili’, L’anthropologie, xvi (1905), 287

E.M. von Hornbostel: ‘Die Musik der Pangwe’, in G. Tessmann: Die

Pangwe, ii (Berlin, 1913/R), 320–57

M.-F. Grébert: Au Gabon (Paris, 1922), 89ff

J. Tiersot: ‘La musique chez les nègres d’Afrique’, EMDC, I/v (1922), 3197

M.-F. Grébert: ‘L’art musical chez les Fang du Gabon’, Archives suisses
d’anthropologie générale, v (1928), 75

S. Chauvet: Musique nègre (Paris, 1929)

J. Fourneau: ‘Des transmissions acoustiques chez les indigènes du Sud-

Cameroun’, Togo-Cameroun (1930), Aug–Sept, 387

A. Schaeffner: Origine des instruments de musique (Paris, 1936/R, rev.

1994 by N. Cousin and G. Léothaud)

G. Rouget: ‘Note sur les travaux d’ethnographie musicale de la mission

Ogooué-Congo’, Conferência internacional dos africanistas ocidentai
II: Bissau 1947 (Lisbon, 1950–52), v, 193–204

H. Pepper: ‘Images musicales équatoriales’, Tropiques, xlviii (1950), 47

P. Collaer: ‘Notes sur la musique de Afrique centrale’, Problèmes d’Afrique

centrale, no.26 (1954), 267

R. Reynard: ‘Recherches sur la présence des Portugais au Gabon, XVe–

XIXe siècle’, Bulletin de l’Institut d’études centrafricaines, ix (1955),
15–66

J.-N. Maquet: Note sur les instruments de musique congolais (Brussels,

1956)

B. Söderberg: Les instruments de musique au Bas-Congo et dans les

régions avoisinantes (Stockholm, 1956)

H. Pepper: disc notes, Anthologie de la vie africaine: Moyen-Congo,

Gabon, Ducretet-Thompson 320C 126 to 128 (1958)

R. Brandel: The Music of Central Africa (The Hague, 1961/R)

H. Deschamps: Traditions orales et archives au Gabon (Paris, 1962)

J.S. Laurenty: Les sanza du Congo (Tervuren, 1962)

A. Raponda-Walker and R. Sillans: Rites et croyances des peuples du

Gabon (Paris, 1962)
P.E. Mveng: ‘L’art africain II: le rythme’, Présence africaine, lii (1964), 104

J.W. Fernandez: ‘Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics’,

Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, xxv (1966–7), 53–64

P. Sallée: Un aspect de la musique des Batéké du Gabon: le grand pluriarc

Ngwomi et son utilisation dans la danse Onkila (Libreville and Paris,
1966, 2/1971, 3/1978 in Deux études sur la musique du Gabon)

P. Sallée: Un musicien gabonais: Rémpano Mathurin (Libreville and Paris,

1966, 2/1971, 3/1978 in Deux études sur la musique du Gabon)

S. Swiderski: ‘Les agents éducatifs chez les Apindji du Gabon’, Revue de

psychologie des peuples, xxi (1966), 194

J. Binet: A Study of Dances in Gabon (Libreville, 1967)

P. Sallée: ‘Arts musicaux et vie traditionelle’, Gabon: culture et techniques

(Libreville, 1969), 41ff [catalogue of the Musée des Arts et Traditions,
Libreville]

J. Binet: Sociétés de danse chez les Fang (Paris, 1972)

P. Sallee: ‘Musique tsogho’, Art et artisanat tsogho (Paris, 1975), 121–2

[with disc]

S. Swiderski and M.-L. Girou-Swiderski: La poésie populaire et les

chants religieux du Gabon (Ottawa, 1981)

M.-T. Lefebvre, ed.: Catalogue des documents sonores conservés au

Musée national des arts et traditions du Gabon (Libreville, 1987)

Å. Norborg: A Handbook of Musical and Other Sound-Producing

Instruments from Equatorial Guinea and Gabon (Stockholm, 1989)

Programme musique du Gabon (Libreville, c1990 [pubn of the Laboratoire

universitaire de la tradition orale of the U. of Libreville]

Å. Norborg: ‘The Drums of Gabon’, Drums: the Heartbeat of Africa, ed.

E.A. Dagan (Montreal, 1993), 125–7

recordings
Musiques du Gabon, coll. M. Vuylsteke, Ocora OCR 41 (1968)
Music from an Equatorial Microcosm: Fang Bwiti Music from Gabon
Republic, Africa, with Mbiri Selections, coll. J.W. Fernandez, Folkways
FE 4214 (1973)
Gabon: musiques des Mitsogho et des Batéké, coll. P. Sallée, Ocora OCR
84 (c1975)
Musique des Pygmées du Gabon et des Bochimans du Botswana, CBS
80212 (1976) [incl. notes by P. Salleé]
Gabon: musique des Pygmées Bibayak, rec. 1966–73, Ocora 558504
(c1977); reissued on CD with addl ‘Chantres de l’épopée’, Ocora
C559053 (1989) [incl. notes by P. Salleé in Fr. and Eng.]
Gabon: chantres du quotidien, chantres de l’épopée’, Ocara 558515 (1977)
[incl. notes by P. Salleé in Fr. and Eng.]
Gabon: les musiciens de la forêt, coll. H. Poitevin and C. Oneto, Ocora
558569 (1981)

Gabriel, Charles H(utchinson)

[Homer, Charlotte G.]
(b Wilton, IA, 18 Aug 1856; d Hollywood, CA, 14 Sept 1932). American
composer and editor. In 1892 he moved to Chicago where he established a
studio and during the ensuing 23 years became one of the most prolific
and successful writers of gospel hymns. He was associated with numerous
prominent evangelists, including Gipsy Smith, J. Wilbur Chapman and
Dwight L. Moody, as well as the songleader and publisher Rodeheaver,
who acquired Gabriel’s services in 1912. Gabriel supplied much of the
copyrighted material used by the Rodeheaver company for 20 years, often
writing both words and music. He frequently employed the pen name
Charlotte G. Homer.
Gabriel wrote over 8000 works, the most popular of which were Send the
light (1891), When all my labors and trials are o’er (The Glory Song, 1900),
My Savior’s Love (1905) and Brighten the corner where you are (1918; see
Gospel music, ex.2). He also edited 35 gospel songbooks, eight Sunday-
school collections, 19 anthem collections and a monthly periodical, the
Gospel Choir (1915–23) in which he published his memoirs (iv, 1918). His
Gospel Songs and their Writers (Chicago, 1915) is an interesting first-hand
account of the subject.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.H. Hall: Biography of Gospel Song and Hymn Writers (New York,
1914/R)
M.R. Wilhoit: A Guide to the Principal Authors and Composers of Gospel
Song in the Nineteenth Century (diss., Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary, 1982)
A.M. Smoak: ‘Charles H. Gabriel: the Turning Point’, The Hymn, xxxiv
(1983), 160–64
T.W. York: Charles Hutchinson Gabriel (1856–1932): Composer, Author,
and Editor in the Gospel Tradition (diss., New Orleans Baptist
Theological Seminary, 1985)
MEL R. WILHOIT

Gabriel, Peter
(b Cobham, Surrey, 13 Feb 1950). English rock singer and songwriter. He
was the lead singer with Genesis until 1975 when he left the band to
pursue a solo career. Four eponymously named albums released between
1977 and 1982 marked a gradual stylistic shift from the somewhat
pretentious progressive rock of Genesis to a more considered style, heavily
dependent on slow-moving synthesizer washes (frequently alternating just
two or four modally inclined harmonies) and cymbal-less intricate drum
patterns, programmed since the third album on a Fairlight computer. Far
from writing formulaic songs of interpersonal relationships, Gabriel's
approach is always more sophisticated, and frequently troubling, which
might derive from his deep interest in Jung. Many songs focus on the need
for personal contact (I Have the Touch), and warn of the perils of surrender
to it (Here Comes the Flood). His next two albums, Peter Gabriel (1980)
and Peter Gabriel (Security) (1982), continued this development. While So
(1986) includes some soul-influenced bass lines, on Us (1992) the use of
instruments and the influence of styles from different cultures (especially
North and West African) is particularly notable. These can be traced to a
maturing political conviction evident in the third album's Biko which
protested against the death of the South African student leader. This led to
the formation of WOMAD (an important organization for the promotion of
‘world music’) in 1982, subsequent recordings with such African stars as
Youssou N'Dour and Geoffrey Oryema, and concerts and tours in aid of
and outspoken support for such organizations as Greenpeace and
Amnesty International and those involved with alternative technologies and
anti-apartheid matters. In 1992 he set up Real World Records from his
studio near Bath, promoting a wide range of musicians from across the
world. Gabriel's ability to set up convincing atmospheres for his challenging
songs has also been harnessed to film music, most notably in Parker's
Birdy (1985) and Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ (1989).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Gallo: Peter Gabriel (London, 1986)
U. Fiori: ‘Listening to Peter Gabriel's “I Have the Touch”’, Popular Music, vi
(1987), 37–43
S. Bright: Peter Gabriel: an Authorized Biography (London, 1988)
P. Sutcliffe: ‘Organised Chaos’, Q, no.32 (1989), 70–82
J. Black: ‘World Party’, Q, no.62 (1991), 22–5
R. Sandall: ‘Gawp Factor Ten’, Q, no.82 (1993), 32–5
M. St Michael: Peter Gabriel in his Own Words (London, 1994)
ALLAN F. MOORE

Gabriel, (Mary Ann) Virginia

(b Banstead, Surrey, 7 Feb 1825; d London, 7 Aug 1877). English
composer. Born into an Irish military family, she studied the piano with
Johann Pixis, Theodor Döhler and Sigismond Thalberg and composition
with Bernhard Molique and possibly Saverio Mercadante. Her earliest song
to be published was The Blind Boy (1836). Most of her published music
from the 1850s consisted of complex, difficult piano pieces, such as the
nocturne La previdenza (1852) or the romance sans paroles La reine des
aulnes (1853), and elaborate, operatic songs to Italian texts, such as the
recitative and aria Ciel, che veggio! (1852). She also published somewhat
simpler English ballads such as the dramatic Weep not for me (1851),
written for and sung by Charlotte Dolby. Her first commercial success, The
Skipper and his Boy (c1860), was also sung by Dolby and had reached a
third edition by 1865; the impassioned When Sparrows Build had reached
a 30th edition by 1870.
Gabriel wrote about 12 operettas, dating from the 1860s. The most popular
was Widows Bewitched, which had a run of several weeks in 1867 by the
 German Reed company. Several of her librettos were written by her
husband George March, whom she married in 1874. Her cantata
Dreamland was performed at Covent Garden in 1870 but Gabriel had to
pay for its publication herself. A second cantata, Evangeline, was played at
Covent Garden in 1873. She died at the age of 52 after a carriage
accident.
WORKS
(selective list)

printed works published in London

Operettas: Widows Bewitched (H. Aidé), 1865 (1866); Who’s the Heir (G.E. March),
c1870 (1873); Grass Widows (March), 1873 (1875); Graziella (J.J. Lonsdale)
(1875); The Love Tests (V. Amscotts); The Shepherd of Cournouailles (T.G. Lacy);
c7 others
Cants.: Evangeline (H.W. Longfellow) (1873); Dreamland (A. Matthison) (1875)
Songs: c300, incl. The Blind Boy (C. Cibber) (1836); Recitative and Aria: Ciel, che
veggio! (1852) rev. as On the Threshold (A. Mullen) (1870); The Skipper and his
Boy (H. Aidé) (c1860); The Forsaken (H. Aidé) (1861); Orpheus (W. Shakespeare)
(1862); At the Window (R. Browning) (1864); Change Upon Change (E.B.
Browning) (1868); When Sparrows Build (J. Ingelow) (before 1870); Après tant de
jours (A.C. Swinburne) (1873)
Pf: c30, incl. La previdenza (1852); La reine des aulnes (1853); La gondola (1855);
Long Ago (1861); Dream of the East (1876)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
D.B. Scott: The Singing Bourgeois: Songs of the Victorian Drawing Room
and Parlour (Milton Keynes and Philadelphia, 1989), 69–73
S. Fuller: The Pandora Guide to Women Composers: Britain and the
United States, 1629–Present (London, 1994), 130–31
SOPHIE FULLER

Gabriel de Santa Maria.

See Annunciação, Gabriel da.

Gabriel de Texerana.
Spanish singer, probably identifiable with Gabriel Mena.

Gabrieli, Andrea
(b Venice, ?1532/3; d Venice, 30 Aug 1585). Italian composer and organist,
uncle of Giovanni Gabrieli. He brought an international stature to the
school of native Venetian composers after a period when Netherlandish
composers had dominated. Although he was not as profound a composer
as Giovanni, his music displays an exceptional versatility; he was one of
the most important figures of his generation and exerted considerable
influence on both later Venetian and south German composers.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAVID BRYANT
Gabrieli, Andrea
1. Life.
In the register which records Andrea Gabrieli’s death on 30 August 1585,
the composer is described as ‘about 52 years of age’; it is thus most likely
that he was born in 1532 or 1533. Since he is frequently referred to as
‘Andrea da Cannaregio’ in contemporary documents, it would appear that
his place of birth was the Venetian sestiere of that name. There is some
documentary evidence to link his family to the parish of S Geremia: his
sister Paola is known to have married a linen-weaver of the parish, and
Andrea himself was organist at the church of S Geremia from before June
1555 until at least July 1557. Andrea’s father, Domenico, died before 1567.
These facts constitute all that is known of the composer’s background and
early life.
There is indirect evidence that while in his teens or early twenties, Gabrieli
was in Verona and was associated in some way with Vincenzo Ruffo
(maestro di cappella at the cathedral from about 1550). His first published
madrigal, Piangete occhi miei, appeared in a Ruffo print of 1554. Moreover,
Gabrieli’s setting of Petrarch’s sestina Giovane donna sott’un verde lauro,
first published in an anthology of 1568, appears to have been intended for
the Accademia Filarmonica of Verona.
In 1557 Gabrieli was one of ten unsuccessful applicants for the post of
organist at S Marco, Venice, left vacant by the death of Girolamo
Parabosco (the winner was Claudio Merulo). Not many years later,
however, an important new opportunity arose in the form of a contact with
Orlande de Lassus. A document of October 1562, drawn up by a quarter-
master employed by the Bishop of Bamberg, lists Gabrieli and Lassus
among the retinue of Albrecht V, duke of Bavaria, during a journey from
Prague to Frankfurt to attend the coronation of the emperor Maximilian II. It
is possible that the two musicians became acquainted in Venice during one
of Lassus’s frequent trips to Italy to recruit personnel for the Bavarian court
chapel. It is also plausible that Gabrieli returned with Lassus on the latter’s
subsequent journey south at the end of 1562. Whatever the case, there
can be little doubt that Lassus provided Gabrieli with a major source of
musical and artistic inspiration. Gabrieli’s acquaintance with members of
the rich and powerful Fugger family of Augsburg may also date from his
period abroad.
With the exception of the reference of October 1562, Gabrieli’s movements
and activities between 1557 and the mid-1560s, when he was appointed to
a permanent position at S Marco, are mostly unknown. There is evidence
to suggest that he obtained temporary employment at S Marco during
September and October 1564, although the documents in question are
18th-century commentaries on originals that can no longer be traced. The
decision by the governing body of the ducal chapel, dated 3 November
1566, to grant Gabrieli a reimbursement of 15 ducats ‘for the considerable
travelling expenses sustained in coming to S Marco’ might suggest that the
composer remained north of the Alps until summoned to Venice a year or
two later. A third possibility is intimated by one interpretation of the madrigal
Per monti e poggi, published in the Primo libro di madrigali a cinque voci of
1566. Here, a shepherd and his flock from a land watered by the rivers
Secchia and Scultenna (i.e. in the vicinity of Modena) are invited to settle in
a country fed by the Ticino, Lambro and Po (a clear allusion to Milanese
territory). It is not impossible that the shepherd/pastor in question is
Cardinal Carlo Borromeo, abbot in commenda of the abbey of Nonantola
(itself situated near a point where the Secchia and Scultenna almost
converge), whose solemn entry into Milan (which city was to become his
permanent residence) occurred on 23 September 1565. If this is so,
Gabrieli was probably residing and working in or near the Lombard capital.
Further circumstantial evidence in support of this hypothesis is provided by
the admittedly late indications in Paolo Morigia’s La nobiltà di Milano of
1595: Gabrieli, it is claimed, had a high regard for a Salve regina by the
Milanese nobleman Lucio Castelnovato, a piece presumably composed
before 1569 (in which year it was apparently submitted to the attention of
the pope).
In a deliberation of 12 July 1566 the procurators of S Marco granted
Claudio Merulo the sum of 10 ducats (a little more than a month’s salary)
for services performed between the end of November 1565, after Annibale
Padovano had failed to return to his post following a period of leave, and
Gabrieli’s arrival in Venice: this suggests that Gabrieli took up his
appointment as permanent organist of S Marco at the beginning of 1566.
His arrival marks an important step in assuring stability in the musical
establishment of the Ducal chapel, threatened after the death of Willaert,
the short-lived tenure of Cipriano de Rore as maestro di cappella and the
subsequent disappearance of Padovano. Zarlino, recently appointed as
maestro di cappella, retained his post until his death in 1590; Merulo, the
‘other’ organist at the basilica from 1557, remained in his position until
1584; many talented singers and, above all, instrumentalists (the Dalla
Casa brothers in 1568; the cornettist Giovanni Bassano in 1576) were
added to the payroll in this period. Gabrieli himself remained in his post
until his death in August 1585, despite an attempt involving Lassus to
recruit him for the service of Duke Wilhelm V of Bavaria in 1574.
Few details are known of Gabrieli’s personal and professional life. At about
the time of his appointment as organist of S Marco, he appears to have
taken on some economic responsibility for the family of his sister Paola: in
a legal document of March 1567 he agrees to act as the financial guarantor
for Giacomo, elder brother of Giovanni Di Fais (later Gabrieli), who was
about to enter a monastery. Documents submitted for tax estimates in 1566
suggest that Gabrieli was then renting two separate living-quarters: one for
himself and the other for Paola and her family. The inference is that he had
become de facto head of the Di Fais household. In 1578 he received a
one-off payment of 20 ducats from his employers at S Marco, apparently
on account of economic difficulties caused by his (i.e. his sister’s)
numerous family.
Gabrieli, Andrea
2. Works.
Gabrieli published music in all the principal forms and styles current in late
16th-century Venice: masses, motets, madrigals, giustiniane, mascherate
and theatre music (including the choruses for Sophocles’ Oedipus tyrannus
in Orsatto Giustiniani’s Italian translation, staged in March 1585 for the
inauguration of the theatre designed by Andrea Palladio for the Accademia
Olimpica, Vicenza: these choruses represent the only surviving example of
music written specifically for Renaissance performances of tragic theatre).
The posthumous Concerti (1587) include sacred and secular compositions
for the most important ceremonies of the Venetian church and state. The
text of the motet Benedictus Dominus Deus contains an explicit reference
to an important military victory, presumably that at Lepanto in 1571. The
first performance of O crux splendidior probably took place during the
ceremony for the foundation of Palladio’s church of the Redentore, erected
by the Venetian state as thanksgiving for the passing of the plague
epidemic of 1575–7. A series of mass sections in five to 16 parts (one to
four choirs) was perhaps written on the occasion of the visit of five
Japanese princes in June 1585 (though the composer’s death notice in late
August of that year notes that his fatal illness had begun some five months
before). Hor che nel suo bel seno and Ecco Vinegia bella commemorate
the arrival of Henri III of France in 1574. The madrigal Felici d’Adria, printed
in the Secondo libro di madrigali for five, six and eight voices (1570), was
written for a visit Archduke Charles of Austria made to Venice in 1565 or
1569.
Gabrieli’s large-scale polychoral works correspond in style less to the
double-choir psalm-settings published by Willaert in 1550 than to the
compositions written by Lassus for the Munich court chapel. It is indeed
possible that the Venetian composer’s stay north of the Alps was intended
as a means of familiarizing him with the ceremonial music in vogue in the
great northern courts; his earliest known large-scale motets, the eight-part
Lucida ceu fulgida and 12-part Deus misereatur nostri, appeared in a print
largely comprised of motets in honour of various members of the Habsburg
family. In comparison with these pieces, his later polychoral compositions
tend to exhibit a more clear-cut separation between the various groups of
performers, and there is a growing preference for contrapuntal simplicity,
chordal textures and homophonic blocks of sound (though modified,
presumably, through improvised embellishment); imitation, when present, is
as likely to occur between entire groups of voices as single parts. This is
perhaps a result of the clear-cut spatial separation of groups of performers
in S Marco. The widening of overall range in the supposedly later works
(where at times the outer parts reach C and a''') is a clear indication of
instrumental participation; in some works, the marking of one choir as
‘cappella’ indicates that this is the only fully vocal group. Further
characteristics of the later works are an increased propensity for the use of
V–I harmonic relationships and a growing awareness of the structural
possibilities of musical climax through the use of gradually shortening note
values and acceleration of the rate of exchange between choirs.
In his madrigals Gabrieli quickly abandoned the Petrarch sonnet in favour
of the poetic madrigal. Several texts were set only by him, suggesting that
he had direct contact with the poets concerned or that he was required by
patrons to set specific texts. As in the motets, there is increasing use of
homophonic textures (contrasting with passages in imitative counterpoint)
and the verbal underlay becomes more syllabic; variety is increasingly
obtained through repetition of phrases in different combinations of voices
and at different pitches. Gabrieli’s debt to Lassus is particularly evident in
his greghesche and giustiniane (antecedents, in turn, of the madrigal
comedies of Orazio Vecchi and Banchieri); the obvious models are
Lassus’s pieces of 1555.
In his keyboard music Gabrieli adopted the standard forms of toccata,
ricercar, canzona and intonazione. The intonazioni are preludes, written in
a quasi-improvisatory style, with chords held in one hand against which the
other hand provides decorative figuration. Some toccatas are similar in
style, though longer; others are marked by the addition of an imitative,
fugal section which, in some cases, comes to dominate the composition as
a whole. Venice was clearly an important centre for the development of the
form; many composers were active in the city at some time, and six were
organists at S Marco. Gabrieli’s ricercars are consistently contrapuntal, with
a lengthy development of the main theme set against a succession of
counter-themes to which it is often closely related. The canzonas are
mostly transcriptions of French chansons, with little adaptation of the
original except for ornamentation, above all at cadences.
Gabrieli’s popularity as a composer is attested by the numerous reprints of
his collections, as well as by the frequent occurrence of his compositions in
anthologies. His vocal works continued to be published and recopied in
manuscripts in Italy and, until well into the 17th century, in German-
speaking regions and the Low Countries, both in their original form and in
arrangements for lute or keyboard. As late as about 1640, in Germany or
for a German patron, his four-part motets and madrigals and his three
organ masses (probably published in the lost fourth book of Gabrieli’s
organ works) were copied in keyboard tablature in Italy. Evidence of
Gabrieli’s popularity outside Venice, and north of the Alps in particular, is
provided by the dedications of his publications. Of the non-Venetian
dedicatees, a clear majority are northerners and all are titled heads of
state, high-ranking church dignitaries (including Pope Gregory XIII) or
leading bankers. By contrast, the Venetians include no high-ranking
patricians, patriarchs or, in general, men of particular wealth, power or
influence: the actor, merchant and musician Antonio Molino, the second-
rank official Girolamo Molino and Domenico Paruta, abbot of the Venetian
monastery of S Gregorio. The family of Giovanni Saracini (dedicatee of the
Primo libro de madrigali a sei voci of 1574), from Bologna, owned a
banking firm in Venice. As for Gabrieli’s activities and influence as a
teacher, Lodovico Zacconi, in his Prattica di musica of 1592, referred to his
many pupils and stated that he himself had studied with Andrea. Other
pupils were Hans Leo Hassler and Gregor Aichinger (further evidence for
Gabrieli’s popularity in northern Europe), and, naturally, Giovanni Gabrieli.
In 1585 the Venetian musician Marco Facoli made provision in his will for
his son’s keyboard and general musical studies with Gabrieli, a
confirmation of the latter’s pre-eminence as a teacher in Venice.
Gabrieli, Andrea
 WORKS

Andrea Gabrieli: Edizione nazionale delle opere, ed. D. Arnold and D. Byrant (Milan,
1988–) [AG i–xvii] [vol.i incl. complete list of projected vols.]Editions: Musica divina, i/1–
2, ii/2–3 ed. C. Proske (Regensburg, 1853–76) [P]Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli: La
musica strumentale in San Marco I, II, ed. G. Benvenuti, IMi, i–ii (1931–2) [B i–ii]Die
sieben Busspsalmen, ed. B. Grusnick (Kassel and Basle, 1936) [G]Ricercari für Orgel I,
II, ed. P. Pidoux (Kassel, 1936, 2/1952) [PR]Intonationen für Orgel, ed. P. Pidoux
(Kassel, 1941, 2/1967) [PI]Canzonen und ricercari ariosi für Orgel, ed. P. Pidoux
(Kassel, 1943–52, 2/1961) [PC]Canzoni alla francese, ed. P. Pidoux (Kassel and Basle,
1953) [PF]Andrea Gabrieli: Complete Madrigals, ed. A.T. Merritt, RRMR (1981–4) [M i–
xii]

(all printed works except anthologies published in Venice)

sacred vocal

madrigals

theatre

instrumental

Gabrieli, Andrea: Works

sacred vocal
Sacrae cantiones, liber primus, 5vv, insts (1565, 3/1584 with basso pro organo)
[1565]
Primus liber missarum, 6vv (1572) [1572]
Ecclesiasticarum cantionum omnibus sanctorum solemnitatibus deservientium liber
primus, 4vv (1576) [1576]
Psalmi Davidici, qui poenitentiales nuncupantur, 6vv, insts (1583) [1583]
Concerti di Andrea, e di Gio: Gabrieli … continenti musica di chiesa, madrigali, &
altro … libro primo 6–8, 10, 12, 16vv, insts (1587 16, basso per organo in D-As Tonk.
Schl. 200a) [158716]
Works in 15686, 158714, 15882, 15905, 159311, 15983, 159919, 16031, 160720, 16102,
16103, 161010, 16168, 161724

Missa ‘Ove ch’io posi’, 6vv, 1572

Missa ‘Pater peccavi’, 6vv, 1572; ed. K. Proske, Selectus novus missarum, i/2
Missa ‘Quando lieta sperai’, 6vv, 1572
Missa ‘Vexilla regis’, 6vv, 1572
Missa, 4vv, D-Mbs; P i/1, 167
Missa, 4vv, Mbs
Missa (Ky, Gl, San, Bs), 12, 16vv, 158716; Ag xi

Angeli archangeli, 4vv, 1576; P i/2, 399; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Angelus ad pastores, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Angelus ad pastores, 7vv, 158716, AG xi; contrafactum as Die Engel sprach, ed. in
H. Schütz: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, v (Kassel, 1955), no.27
Angelus Domini descendit, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Ave regina coelorum, 8vv, 158716, AG xi
Ave sanctissima Maria, 5vv, 1565
Beata es Maria, 5vv, 1565
Beati immaculati, 8vv, 158716, AG xi
Beati quorum remisse sunt, 6vv, 1583; ed. in AMI, ii (1897/R1968), 123; G, no.2
Beatus vir qui inventus est, 4vv, 1576, I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Beatus vir qui non abiit, 6vv, 158716, AG xi
Beatus vir qui suffert, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 457; Tn (kbd version)
Benedicam Dominum in omni tempore, 12vv, 1587 16, AG xi; 16031 (8vv), 161724 (org
version), CH-Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version)
Benedictus Dominus Deus, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; 161724 (org version); PL-Wn mus.
ms. 326 (kbd version)
Bonum est confiteri Domino, 5vv, 1565
Bonum est et suave [= Sonno diletto e caro], 6vv, 1607 20
Cantate Deo, exultate, justi [= Hor ch’à noi torna], 6vv, 1610 2
Cantate Domino canticum novum, 5vv, 1565, 1596 19 (kbd version); B i, 1
Caro mea vere est cibus, 4vv, 1576, P i/2 207; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Christe rex [= Sonno diletto e caro], 6vv, 1610 3
Confitebor tibi, Domine, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 abridged
Congratulamini mihi omnes, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; D-Bsb mus.ms. 40158 (kbd
version), Rp C.119 (different kbd version), PL-Wn mus. ms. 326 (kbd version
entitled ‘Confitemini Domino’)
Cur te lusit amor [= Con che lusingh’amor], 6vv, 1610 2
Deo nostro perennis [= Dolcissimo ben mio], 6vv, 1587 14
De profundis clamavi, 6vv, 1583; P ii/3, 17
Deus, Deus meus, respice in me, 10vv, 158716, AG xi
Deus, in nomine tuo, 8vv, 158716
Deus misereatur nostri, 12vv, 15686, AG xi; 1587 (modified and abridged) 1617 24
(org version), GA, 71
Deus noster refugium at virtus, 5vv, 1565
Deus qui beatum Marcum, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Deus qui beatum Marcum, 8vv, 158716, AG xi
Diligam te, Domine, 4vv, 1576, 159311 (lute version), I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Domine, Deus meus, in te speravi 7vv, 158716, AG xi; 161724 (org version); CH-Bu
F.ix.43 (kbd version)
Domine, dominus noster, 5vv, 1565
Domine exaudi orationem (Ps 101), 6vv, 1583; G, no.5
Domine exaudi orationem (Ps 142), 6vv, 1583; G, no.7
Domine, ne in furore (Ps 6), 6vv, 1583; G, no.1
Domine, ne in furore (Ps 37), 6vv, 1583; G, no.3
Domine quid multiplicati sunt, 5vv, 1565
Ecclesiam tuam, Domine, 4vv, 1576, I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Ego flos campi [= Se vuoi ch’io muoia], 6vv, 1610 2
Ego rogabo Patrem, 4vv, 1576, 159311 (lute version), Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Egredimini et videte, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; CH-Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version), PL-Wn
mus.ms.326 (different kbd version)
Emendemus in melius, 6vv, 158716, AG xi
Eructavit cor meum, 6vv, 158716, AG xii; D-Rp C.119 (kbd version)
Exaudi Deus orationem meam, 5vv, 1565 (2p. Cor meum conturbatum est, ed. in
AMI, ii, 1897/R1968, 111); Mbs mus.mss. 1640, 1641 (kbd version)
Expurgate vetus fermentum, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; CH-Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version), D-Mbs
mus.ms.91 (kbd score), Rp C.119 (kbd version)
Exultate iusti in Domino, 10vv, 158716, 16031 (version for 8vv), As Ton. Schl. 39 (kbd
score), 161724 (org version), CH-Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version)
Exurgat Deus, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; 161724 (org version), Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version), PL-
Wn mus.ms.326 (different kbd version)
Filiae Hierusalem, 4vv, 1576; P i/2, 475; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Fuit homo missus a Deo, 4vv, 1576, Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Heu mihi, Domine, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 (modified and abridged)
Hic licet, multi sint [= Non ti sarò signor], 6vv 1610 2
Hi sunt qui cum mulieribus, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Hodie Christus natus est, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Hodie completi sunt dies Pentecostes, 4vv, 1576, 1599 19 (lute version); Tn Giordano
4 (kbd version)
Hodie Simon Petrus, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
I am nondicam vos servos, 5vv, 15983
In civitate Dei [= Clori a Damon dicea], 6vv, 1610 10
Iniquos odio habui, 6vv, 158716, AG xi
In tribulatione Dominum [= Dolcissimo ben mio], 6vv, 1610 2
Isti sunt triumphatores, 6vv, 158716, AG xi
Jesu dulcissime [= Aminta mio gentil], 5vv, 1616 8
Jubilate Deo omnis terra, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; 161724 (org version)
Judica me Deus, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Laetare Jerusalem, 5vv, 1565
Laudate Dominum in sanctis eius, 10vv, 158716, AG xi; 161724 (org version)
Laudate Dominum omnes gentes, 5vv, 1565
Levavi oculos meos in montes, 5vv, 1565
Levita Laurentius, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 342; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Libera me, Domine, de viis inferni, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 (transposed)
Lucia sponsa Christi [= La bella pargoletta], 6vv, 1610 3
Lucida ceu fulgida, 8vv, 15686
Magnificat, 12vv, 158716, GA, 48; F-Pn Rés.Vma.851 (kbd score)
Magnum haereditatis, 4vv, 1576; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Maria Magdalenae, et altera Maria, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 146; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd
version)
Maria Magdalenae, et altera Maria, 4vv [= La bella pargoletta], 6vv, 1610 10
Maria Magdalenae, Maria lacobi, et Salome, 7vv, 1587 16, AG xi; D-Mbs mus. ms. 91
(kbd score) Rp C.119 (kbd version)
Maria stabat ad monumentum, 6vv, 158716, AG xi; Rp c.119 (kbd version)
Miserere mei, Deus, 6vv, 1583, G, no.4
Mulier quae erat, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 339; I-Tn Giordiano 4 (kbd version)
Nativitas tua, Dei genetrix virgo, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Ne confide in forma generosa [= Non ti sdegnar], 6vv, 1607 20
O crux fidelis, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
O crux splendidior, 8vv, 158716, AG xii; CH-Bu F..43 (kbd version)
O fili Dei, succurre miseris [= Sancta Maria, succurre miseris], 6vv, 1590 5, 161724
(org version), Bu F.ix.51 (kbd version)
O gloriosa Domina [= O gloriose Domine], 6vv, 1587 16, Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version)
O gloriose Domine, 6vv, 15905, 161724 (org version)
O lux beata trinitas, 5vv, 1565; D-Mbs ms. 1641 (kbd version)
O quam metuendus, 4vv, 1576; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Oravit sanctus Andreas, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
O rex gloriae, Domine virtutem, 5vv, 1565
O rex gloriae, qui triumphator hodie, 5vv, 1588 2; D-Rp C.119 (kbd version)
O sacrum convivium, 5vv, 1565; ed. in AMI, ii (1897/R1968), 117
O salutaris hostia, 8vv, 158716, AG xi
O spes miserarium [= O dolci parolette], 6vv, 1610 3
Patefactae sunt ianvae caeli, 4vv, 1576; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Pater peccavi in caelum, 5vv, 1565
Pullae saltanti, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Quare fremuerunt gentes, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 (2p. abridged)
Quem vidistis pastores, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; D-Rp C.119 (kbd version)
Sacerdos et Pontifex, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 481; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Sancta et immaculata, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Sancta et immaculata, 5vv, 1565
Sancta Maria succurre miseris [= O fili Dei, succurre miseris], 6vv, 1587 16, AG xi
Sic Deus dilexit mundum, 5vv, 1565; D-Rp C.119 (kbd version)
Spiritus meus attenuabitur, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 (transposed)
Surge formosa mea, propera sponsa mea [= Dolcissimo ben mio], 6vv, 1610 10
Surge formosa mia amica [= Caro dolce ben mio], 5vv, 1616 8
Te Deum patrem, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 193; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Tollite jugum meum, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 450, Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Unicuique suam viro puellam [= Se vuoi ch’io moia], 6vv 1587 14
Usquequo Domine, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Veni, dilecta mea [= Sonno diletto e caro], 6vv, 1610 10
Veni, O Jesu mi [= Vieni Flora gentil], 6vv, 1610 2
Veni sponsa Christi, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 513; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Verba mea auribus percipe, 5vv, 1565
Videntes stellam, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Viri sancti, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Voce mea ad Dominum clamavi, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 (modified and abridged)
Gabrieli, Andrea: Works
madrigals
Il primo libro di madrigali, 5vv (1566) [1566]
Il secondo libro di madrigali, 5, 6, 8vv (1570, 3/1588 with slightly different contents)
[1570, 3/1588]
Greghesche et Iustiniane … libro primo, 3vv (1571) [1571]
Il primo libro de madrigali, 6vv (1574) [1574]
Libro primo di madrigali, 3vv (1575) [1575]
Il secondo libro de madrigali, 6vv (1580) [1580]
Concerti … continenti musica di chiesa, madrigali, & altro … libro secondo, 6–8, 10,
12vv, insts (158716) [158716]
Il terzo libro de madrigali, 5vv (158914) [158914]
Madrigali e ricercari, 4vv (1589) [1589]
Works in 155429, 15622, 15626, 156416, 156813, 156816, 156819, 157015, 157017,
157515, 15765, 15777, 15792, 15793, 15825, 158312, 158413, 158519, 15861, 15867,
158610, 158611, 158612, 158912, 159011, 159215, 159311, 159419, 16005a, 160111

A caso un giorno mi guidò la sorte (Tansillo), 3vv, 1575, AG vi, M i

Ahimè tal fu d’amore (Quirino), 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Ah le guancie di rose, 8vv, 158716, AG xi, M xi
Aldì vel prego (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
Al dolce volo di Cillenio, 5vv, 158914, M v–vi
Alma beata e bella (Sannazaro), 5vv, 3/1588, AG iii, M v–vi
Alma serena, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Ama l’Aquila Giove (Casoni), 5vv, 159215, M v–vi
Amami vita mia, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–v
Aminta mio gentil [= Jesu dulcissime], 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Amor che de mortali, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Amor crudel infido, 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Amor mi strugge 'l cor (Petrarch), 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Ancor che col partire (Molino, parody of D’Avalos), 3vv, 1570 17, M i
Angel dal terzo ciel, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Arbor vittorioso trionfo (G.B. Caro), 5vv, 156816, M v–vi
Asia felice, 4vv, 1589, Mii; I-Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Ben mille volte il dì (Cassola), 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Cando pinso (Molino), 4vv, 156416, M ii
Cantiam di Dio, 12vv, 159011, M xii
Canto, canto! Fest fuga, 4vv, 1589, M ii; Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Canzon se l’esser meco (Petrarch), 4vv, 1589, M ii; Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Cari cumbagni (Molino), 7vv, 156416, M x
Caro dolce ben mio perchè fuggire [= Iam non dicam = Surge formosa mea amica],
5vv, 15765, M v–vi; 159311 (lute version); 160018 (another lute version); I-Mc
Tarasconi (kbd score)
Che giova posseder (Bembo), 3vv, 1575, AG vi, M i
Che piangi alm’e sospiri (Molino), 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix
Chiaro sol di virtute, 6vv, 15867, M x
Chichi lichi cucurucu, 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Chiedend’un bascio (Nicolò degli Angeli), 5vv, 1568 19
Chie val aver (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
Ch’inde darà la bose (Molino), 3vv, 157017, M i
Chiraces nu la semo (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
Cinto m’avea tra belle e nude braccia, 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix; 1600 6 (lute version),
PL-Tu Kat.ii, xiv, 13a (kbd version)
Clori a Damon dicea, Dolce ben mio [= In civitate Dei], 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix;
16005a (lute version entitled ‘Gloria di amor dicea’), Tu Kat.ii, xiv, 13a (kbd version
entitled ‘Gloria Damon’)
Come avrò pace in terra, 5vv, 3/1588, AG iii, M v–vi
Com’esser può che non sei stanco, 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix
Come vuoi tu ch’io viva, se m’uccidi, 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix; 1600 6 (lute version),
Tu Kat.ii, xiv, 13a (kbd version)
Como viver (Molino), 5vv, 156416
Con che lusingh’ amor tradito [= Cur te lusit amor], 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Cor mio s’egli è pur vero, 5vv, 158914, M v–vi
Così ogni vostra voglia (Parabosco), 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Da le cimerie grotte, 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii; I-Mc ms. Tarasconi (kbd score of pts 2
and 4)
Da poi che su’l fiorire (Cassola), 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Deh, dove, senza me (Ariosto), 3vv, 1575, M i
Deh, qual prova maggior (Parabosco), 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Del gran Tuonante, 10vv, 158716, AG xi, M xii
Dimmi, cieco, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv; Mc ms. Tarasconi (kbd score)
Dionora, vien, 3vv, 157017, M i
Dolcissimo ben mio [= Deo nostro perennis; = In tribulatione Dominum; = Surge,
formosa mea, propera sponsa mea], 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix; 1600 5a (lute version),
160018 (different lute version), PL-Tu Kat.ii, xiv, 13a (kbd version), I-Mc ms.
Tarasconi (kbd score)
Donna cinta di ferro e di diamante (giustiniane), 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix; PL-Tu
Kat.ii, xiv, 13a (kbd version)
Donna la vostr’ingiusta crudeltade, 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Donna per aquetar vostro desire (Gottifredi), 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Due rose fresche (Petrarch), 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv; Tn ms. Kat. ii iv, 13a (kbd version)
Dunque-baciar si bell’e dolce labbra (Ariosto), 3vv, 1575, AG vi, M i
Dunque fia ver dicea (Ariosto), 3vv, 1575, AG vi, M i
Dunque fia vero, 7vv, 158716, AG xi, M ix–x
Dunque il comun poter, 4vv, 1589, M ii; I-Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Ecco l’aurora (Quinno), 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv; Mc Tarasconi (kbd score)
Ecco la vaga aurora, 8vv, 158716, AG xi, M xi
Ecco Vinegia bella, 12vv, 158716, AG xi, M xii
E dove non potea la debil voce (Ariosto), 3vv, 1575, AG vi, M i
Ella non sa se non invan dolersi (Ariosto), 3vv, 1575, AG vi, M i
Fame pur canto mal (Molino), 3vv, 1571, AG vi, M i
Febo, Febo, noi cantiamo, 4vv, 1589, M ii; Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Felici d’Adria, 8vv, 1570, AG iii, M xi
Fontana d’eloquenza, 6vv, 15792, M ix–x
Forestier inamorato (Molino), 3vv, 157017, M i
Fradei la xé cusi! le no xé fuse (mascherata), 3, 4, 10vv, 1601 11
Fuggi speme mia (C’ini), 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Fuor fuori a sì bel canto, 4vv, 1589, M ii; Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Gentil madonna, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iv–v
Giovane bella, 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Giovane donna sott’un verde lauro (Petrarch), 4vv, 1568 13, M ii; Tn Foà 4 (kbd
version)
Gira longa stagion, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Giunto m’havea, 6vv [Cinto m’havea]
Gloria damon, 6vv [= Clori à damon dicea]
Goda hor beato il Po (Magno), 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Gratie ch’a poch’il ciel largo destina (Petrarch), 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Gratie che’l mio signor, 4vv, 1589, M ii; Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Hor ch’à noi torna [= Cantate Deo, exultate, justi], 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix–x
Hor che nel suo bel seno, 8vv, 158716, AG xi, M xi
I’diè guard’a San Pietro, 3vv, 158612, M i
Il dolce sonno mi promise pace (Ariosto), 3vv, 1575, AG vi, M i
In dar natura a voi, 5vv, 158312, M v–vi
In nobil sangue (Petrarch) (2p. G. Gabrieli: Amor s’è in lei), 6vv, 1587 16, AG ii, M ix–
x
In quest’amate sponde, 4vv, 1589, M ii; Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Io mi sento morire, 7vv, 158716, AG xi, M ix–x
Ite caldi sospiri (Petrarch), 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv; Mc ms. Tarasconi (kbd score)
I’ vidi in terra angelici costumi (Petrarch), 5vv, 1562 6, M v–vi
I’ vo piangendo (Petrarch), 5vv, 15626, M v–vi
I’ vo piangendo (Petrarch), 6vv, 158716, AG xi, M ix–x
La bella pargoletta (Tasso) [= Lucia sponsa Christi; = Maria Magdalenae, et altera
Maria], 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix; PL-Tu ms. Kat.ii, xiv, 13a (kbd version)
Lasso amor mi transporta (Petrarch), 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Laura soave (Cassola), 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
La verginella è simile alla rosa (Ariosto), 3vv, 1575, AG vi, M i
La virtù, la bontà, 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
La viva neve (Amalteo), 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Le chiome a l’aura, 5vv, 1566
Ma da qual atro cor, 5vv, 157015, M v–vi
Manoli chie faremo? (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
Mentre io vi miro, 5vv, 158914, M v–vi
Mentre la belle Dori e le compagne, 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix; 1584 13 (lute version)
Mentre la greggia errando, 5vv, 158914, M v–vi
Mirami vita mia, mirami un poco 5vv, 1589 14, M v–vi
Mi xé stao in tutte cande (Molino), 4vv, 156416, M ii
Molino à le virtù, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iv–v
Nel bel giardin entrate, 6vv, 158716, AG xi, M x
Neve e rose ha nel volto (Casone), 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Non così bell’appar in Oriente, 5vv, 158914, M v–vi
Non mi pesa mio bene, 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii; Mc Tarasconi (kbd score)
Non pur quell’una bell’ignuda mano (Petrarch), 6vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Non ti sarò signor (see Con che lusingh’ amor tradito)
Non ti sdegnar, o Filli, ch’io ti segua [= Gott ist getrew; = Ne confide in forma
generosa], 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix; 158413 (lute version), 159419 (lute version), PL-
Tu Kat.ii, xiv, 13a (kbd version)
Non vedi ò sacr’ Apollo, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iv–v
Nu semo arlievi dell’antighitae (mascherata), 3, 4, 10vv, 1601 11
Nu tutti buni cumpagni (mascherata), 5vv, 1601 11
O agapimu glicchimu (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
O agnima morusa (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
O belli e vaghi pizzi, 4vv, 1589, M ii; I-Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
O beltà rara, 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Occhi sereni, angeliche parole, 4vv, 157515, AG viii, M ix; 158912 (Canto only with
four new parts by Lodovico Balbi), Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
O Dea, che tra le selve, 8vv, 158716, AG xi, M xi
O dolci parolette of dolce riso (Cassola) [= O spes misererium], 6vv, 1570, A iii, M
vii–viii; Mc ms. Tarasconi (kbd score)
O in primavera eterna, 5vv, 15825, M v–vi
O mia canzun (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
O mia morusa (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
O passi sparsi (Petrarch), 12vv, 158716, AG xi, M xiii
O soave al mio cor dolce catena, 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix
Passato è ’l tempo (Petrarch), 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Perchè di fiamm’ancor, 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Perchè madonna (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
Per farmi Amor d’ogn’ altro più contento (Gallani), 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix; F-Pn ms.
Rés. Vma. 851 (kbd score)
Per monti e poggi, 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv; I-Mc Tarasconi (kbd score)
Piangeranno le Gratie, 5vv, 158914, M v–vi
Piangete occhi miei, 5vv, 155429
Piangi pur Mus’ogn’hor (giustinian), 5vv, 1576 5, M v–vi
Pront’ era l’alma mia, 8vv, 158716, AG xi, M xi
Quand’havrà fin’ Amore (Martelli), 8vv, 158716, AG xi, M xi
Quand’io talor mi doglio (Molino), 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Quand’io v’odo parlar (Petrarch), 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Quando lieta ver’ noi, 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Quando nel cor m’entrasti (Molino), 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Quando penso a quel loco, 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Quando spirti divini, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Quanti sepolti, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Quel dolce suono e quel soave canto, 6vv, 1580, AG vii, M ix
Quel gentil fuoco, 5vv, 15777
Rendete al Saracini, 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Rimanti Amor in Sempiterno oblio, 5vv, 1576 5, M v–vi
Ringrazio e lodo il ciel (Tansillo), 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
S’al ’amorose calde parole, 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
S’al ciel piace signora, 5vv, 3/1588, AG iii, M v–vi
Saranda volde (Molino), 4vv, 156416, M ii
Sassi palae (Molino), 5vv, 156416, M ii
Se mai degnasti Amore, 5vv, 158914, M v–vi
Sento, sent’un rumor, 8vv, 158716, AG xi, B i, 203, M xi
Se per lasciar di te memoria eterna, 5vv, I-VEaf 220
Se sol pensando, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Se tu m’ami i t’adoro, 6vv, 1580, AG xi, M ix; 1594 19 (lute version)
Se vuoi ch’io muoia ò nuovo Basilisco [= Ego flos campi, and Unicuique suam viro
puellam], 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix
Signor cui fu già poco, 5vv, 15861, v–vi
Sonno diletto e caro [= Bonum est, and Christe rex = Veni dilecta mea], 6vv, 1580,
AG viii, Mix; 16006 (lute version); PL-Tu Kat.ii, xiv, 13a (kbd version)
Sperar non si potea da sì bell’ Alba, 6vv, 1579 3, M ix–x
Tirsi che fai, 8vv, 158716, AG xi, M xi
Tirsi morir volea (Guarini), 7vv, 158716, AG xi, M ix–x
Tirsi vicin’à morte, 5vv, 158914, M v–vi
Tria gerundas (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
Tu mi piagasti à morte, 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii; I-Mc Tarasconi (kbd score)
Tu vuoi lasso ch’io pera, 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix
Una felice etate (G.B. Zuccarini), 5vv, 158611
Vaghi augelletti, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Vago uccelletto (Petrarch), 5vv, 1566, M iii–iv
Veggo fra i raggi d’oro, 4vv, 1589, M ii; Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Vezzosa Filli, 8vv, 159011, M xi
Vieni Flora gentil vieni e discaccia [= Veni O Jesu mi], 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix;
16005a (lute version)
Vieni vieni Imeneo che già sen fugg’il sole, 4vv, 1589, M ii; Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Vieni vieni Imeneo vieni dunque, 8vv, 1590 11, M xi
Vita de la vita mia, 5vv, 158914, M v–vi
Voi non volete donna (Veggio), 6vv, 1580, AG viii, M ix
Voi sete in grand’errore, 5vv, 158610, M v–vi
Volto di mill’e mille gratie adorno, 6vv, 1574, M vii–viii
Vorrei mostrar madonna, 4vv, 1589, M ii; Tn Foà 4 (kbd version)
Vostro fui e sarò, 5vv, 1570, AG iii, M iii–iv
Zentil donn’e segnuri (Molino), 3vv, 1571, M i
Gabrieli, Andrea: Works
theatre
Chori in musica … sopra li chori della tragedia di Edippo tiranno (Venice, 1588); AG
xii, ed. in L. Schrade: La représentation d’Edippo tiranno au Teatro olimpico (Paris,
1960):
Choro I: Santo oracol di Giove, 3vv; Trema la ment’in me stupida, 4vv; Sacro, e
possente dio, 3vv; Quali son hor le tue risposte?, 1v; Dinnelo hor tu, 3vv; O del gran
Giove nata, 4vv; E te Feb’ancor chiamo, 4vv; Hor qui benigni ancor, 6vv; Giance da
morb’afflitto, 6vv; Già de li frutti suoi ricca, 3vv; Come spessa d’augei, 3vv; Ma la
misera turba, 5vv; E le tenere spose, 2vv; Si raddoppiano gl’inni, 4vv; Levaci tu da
tanti strazi homai, 2vv; Et da questa cittade, 3vv; Questo, o Giove, 4vv, Deh ci
consenta, il ciel, 3vv; E tu Bacco non meno, 6vv
Choro II: Qual é, qual é colui, 4vv; Temp’è già, 4vv; C’homai di Giove il figlio, 3vv; E
per compagne ha seco, 3vv; Però che da le parti più secrete, 6vv; Il qual per folte
selve, 6vv; Qual tauro afflitto suole, 5vv; Così fuggir sperando, 5vv; Ben
gravemente mi spaventa, 4vv; Che si come non sono, 4vv; Onde dubbia ho la
mente, 2vv; E in certa speme, 2vv; Che dianzi unqua non seppi, 3vv; Ne ancor
saperlo posso, 1v; Che raggion non consente, 3vv; E stolta cosa è inver, 6vv; Ma
fermament’in me, 4vv; Quando a lui già la monstruosa Sfinge, 6vv
Choro III: O voglia’l ciel, 2vv; E quel tant’habbia sol, 3vv; Queste non fia, 2vv; Però
ch’in esse occulte, 3vv; Ben la ingiustitia, 4vv; Giunta nel maggior colmo, 6vv;
Prenda pur cura ognuno, 4vv; Chi la giustitia sprezza, 5vv; E chi pien d’avaritia,
3vv; Ne le sceleratezze, 4vv; Da malvaggio, 4vv; Ma chi fia tra mortali, 6vv; A che
debb’io, 2vv; Qual di religion pietoso zelo, 3vv; O a visitar gl’eccelsi, 4vv; Ma tu ch'a
voglia tua reggi e governi, 4vv; Hor gl’oracoli antique, 6vv
Choro IV: Misera humana prole, 4vv; Quinci a l’essempio tuo mirando, 4vv; Poscia
che tu, 3vv; O come, ò sommo Giove, 4vv; Tu quasi torre ben fondata, 2vv; Quinci
ottenuto havendo Regal titolo, 2vv; Ma chi più di te, 6vv; Tu quell’utero istesso, 3vv;
Ma com’è che’l paterno, 3vv; Te manifesta al fine, 6vv; O del seme di Laio, 4vv; Me
la tua dura sorte, 6vv; Verò dirò, 6vv
Gabrieli, Andrea: Works
instrumental
Madrigali et ricercari, 4vv (1589):
Ricercar del primo tuono, B i, 45; Ricercar del secondo tuono, B i, 54; Ricercar del
secondo tuono, B i, 64; Ricercar del sesto tuono, B i, 74; Ricercar del settimo tuono,
B i, 68; Ricercar del nono tuono, B i, 81; Ricercar del duodecimo tuono, B i, 86
Intonationi d’organo di Andrea Gabrieli et di Gio: suo nipote … libro primo (1593 10)
(works by A. Gabrieli are wrongly attrib. G. Gabrieli in 1607 29):
Del Primo tono, PI 3; Del secondo tono, PI 4; Del terzo tono, PI 5; Del quarto tono,
PI 6; Del quinto tono, PI 7; Del sesto tono, PI 8; Del settimo tono, PI 9; Del ottavo
tono, PI 10; Toccata del primo tono, PI 11; Toccata del sesto tono, PI 12; Toccata
del ottavo tono, PI 18; Toccata del nono tono, PI 23
Ricercari … composti et tabulati per ogni sorte di stromenti da tasti … libro secondo
(159513):
Ricercar del primo tuono, PR i, 3; Primo tuono alla quarta alta, PR, i, 8; Secondo
tuono alla quarta alta, PR, i, 12; Terzo tuono, PR ii, 26; Quarti toni, PR ii, 29; Quinti
toni, PR i, 16; Sesto tono, PR i, 20; Settimo tono, PR i, 24; Nono tono, PR i, 28;
Undecimo tono, PR i, 33; Duodecimo tono, PR i, 36
Il terzo libro de ricercari … tabulati per ogni sorte di stromenti da tasti (1596 19):
Ricercar del primo tono, PR ii, 3; Secondo tono, PR ii, 6; Quinto tono, PR ii, 10;
Quinto tono, PR ii, 14; Nono tono, PR ii, 16; Nono tono, PR ii, 19; Fantasia allegra
del duodecimo tono, PC i, 3; Anchor che co’l partire (on Rore’s madrigal), PC ii, 38;
Cantate Domino (on A. Gabrieli’s motet), a 5, PC ii, 35; Canzon ariosa, PI 29; Io mi
son giovinetta (on madrigal by ‘Giachet’, attrib. D. Ferrabosco in Einstein, 1949, iii,
56), PI 32; Pass’e mezzo antico, PI 36
Canzoni alla francese et ricercari ariosi, tabulate per sonar sopra istromenti da tasti
… libro quinto (160518): Frais & Gaillard (on Crecquillon’s chanson), a 4, PC i, 9;
Martin menoit (on Janequin’s chanson), a 4, PC i, 14; Ricercar sopra Martin menoit
(on Janequin’s chanson), PC i, 17; Orsus au coup (on Crecquillon’s chanson), PC i,
21; Ricercar sopra Orsus au coup (on Crecquillon’s chanson), PC i, 24; Pour ung
plaisir, PC i, 27; Ricercar sopra Pour ung plaisir, PC i, 29; Susanne un jour (on
Lassus’s chanson), a 5, PC i, 6; 4 ricercar arioso, PC i, 32–43
Canzoni alla francese per sonar sopra istromenti da tasti … libro sesto (1605 19):
Con lei foss’io, a 4, PF 32; Ricercar sopra Con lei foss’io, a 4, PF 36; Je ne diray
mot bergiere, PF 30; Je prens en gre, PF 14; Le bergier, a 4, PF 19; Orsus (on
model attrib. ‘Jacob’), a 4, PF 23; Petit Jacquet, a 4, PF 12; Qui la dira (on
Janequin’s chanson), a 4, PF 26; Qui la dira, a 4, PF 3; Ung gay bergier, a 4 (on
Crecquillon’s chanson), PF 7

Ricercar per sonar, a 8, 158716, AG xi, B i, 25

Aria della battaglia per sonar d’istrumenti da fiato, 1590 11; B i, 93
Toccata del sesto tuono, 15939
Toccata del decimo tuono, 15939; ed. in AMI, iii (c1902/R), 77
3 organ masses: Messa domenichal; Messa della beata virgine; Messa
apestolorum: I-Tn; all ed. S. Dalla Libera (Milan, 1959)
[Madrigal] di Andrea Gabrieli, 3vv, Tn Foà 4 (kbd score), AG xvii
Canzoni alla francese per sonar sopra stromenti da tasti (Venice, 1571); lost or
spurious, mentioned in J. von Wasielewski: Geschichte der Instrumentalmusik im
XVI. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1878)
Gabrieli, Andrea
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Sansovino: Venetia, città nobilissima et singolare (Venice, 1581, rev.
2/1604 by M.R.D.G. Stringa)
C. von Winterfeld: Johannes Gabrieli und sein Zeitalter (Berlin, 1834/R)
G. Benvenuti: Introduction to Andrea e Giovanni Gabrieli e la musica
strumentale a San Marco, IMi, i–ii (1931–2)
A. Einstein: ‘Italienische Musik und italienische Musiker am Kaiserhof und
an den erzherzoglichen Höfen in Innsbruck und Graz’, SMw, xxi
(1934), 3–52
A. Ghislanzoni: Storia della fuga (Milan, 1952)
D. Arnold: ‘Ceremonial Music in Venice at the Time of the Gabrielis’,
PRMA, lxxxii (1955–6), 47–59
D. Arnold: ‘Brass Instruments in Italian Church Music of the Sixteenth and
Early Seventeenth Centuries’, Brass Quarterly, i (1957–8), 81–92
W. Yeomans: ‘Andrea Gabrieli’s Canzoni et Ricercari (Libro primo)’, MMR,
lxxxviii (1958), 16–21
D. Arnold: ‘Con ogni sorte di stromenti: Some Practical Suggestions’,
Brass Quarterly, ii (1958–9), 99–109
D. Arnold: ‘Andrea Gabrieli und die Entwicklung der “cori spezzati” –
Technik’, Mf, xii (1959), 258–74
D. Arnold: Giovanni Gabrieli (London, 1974)
D. Arnold: Giovanni Gabrieli and the Music of the Venetian High
Renaissance (London, 1979), 1–28
D. Bryant: ‘Liturgia e musica liturgica nella fenomenologia del mito di
Venezia’, Mitologie, ed. G. Morelli (Venice, 1979), 205–14
D. Bryant: ‘The cori spezzati of S Marco: Myth and Reality’, EMH, i (1981),
165–86
M. Morell: ‘New Evidence for the Biographies of Andrea and Giovanni
Gabrieli’, EMH, iii (1983), 101–22
Andrea Gabrieli 1585–1985 (Venice, 1985)
Andrea Gabrieli e il suo tempo: Venice 1985
G. Benzoni, D. Bryant and M. Morell, eds.: ‘Gli anni di Andrea Gabrieli’,
Edizione nazionale delle opere di Andrea Gabrieli, i (Milan, 1988)
R. Charteris: ‘Two Little-Known Manuscripts in Augsburg with Works by
Giovanni Gabrieli and his Contemporaries’, RMARC, xxiii (1990), 125–
36
D. Bryant: ‘Una cappella musicale di stato: la basilica di S. Marco’, La
cappella musicale nell’Italia della Controriforma (Cento, 1993), 67–73
R. Charteris: ‘An Early Seventeenth-Century Manuscript Discovery in
Augsburg’, MD, xlvii (1993), 35–70
V.J. Panetta: ‘Organ Motets by Giovanni Gabrieli?’, Studi musicali, xxvii
(1997), 55–72
E. Quaranta: Oltre San Marco. Organizzazione e prassi della musica nelle
chiese di Venezia nel Rinascimento (Florence, 1998)
M. De Santis, ed.: ‘I testi poetici: edizione critica delle fonti letterarie’,
Edizione nazionale delle opere di Andrea Gabrieli, iii (Milan, 1998)

Gabrieli, Giovanni
(b ?Venice, c1554–7; d Venice, Aug 1612). Italian composer and organist,
nephew of Andrea Gabrieli. Together with Willaert, Andrea Gabrieli and
Merulo, he was one of the leading representatives of 16th- and early 17th-
century Venetian music.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAVID BRYANT
Gabrieli, Giovanni
1. Life.
Giovanni was one of five sons and daughters of Piero di Fais ‘called
Gabrieli’, a native of Carnia who resided for some time in the parish of S
Geremia, Venice. Little is known of his early years. It is possible that he
was brought up by Andrea, to whom, in the dedication to Concerti …
continenti musica di chiesa, madrigali, & altro (RISM 158716), he described
himself as ‘little less than a son’; precise information regarding the
relationship between uncle and nephew is, however, scant. Like Andrea,
Giovanni spent a period of study and apprenticeship under Orlande de
Lassus at the court of Duke Albrecht V in Munich. One of his first published
madrigals, Quand’io ero giovinetto, appeared in Il secondo libro de
madrigali a cinque voci de floridi virtuosi (RISM 157511), a collection of
works by composers in Albrecht's service. Gabrieli remained in Munich for
some years, and in 1578 the court records show him to be in receipt of
both salary and livery. He probably left this employment either in the
following year or shortly after, as part of the exodus of musicians after the
death of Duke Albrecht in 1579. He was in Venice in 1584, acting as
temporary organist at S Marco on the vacation of that post by Claudio
Merulo. His appointment was made permanent when he was successful in
the competition held on 1 January 1585, and he retained the post until his
death: for some months during 1585 the two Gabrielis – uncle and nephew
– served together as organists of the ducal chapel.
After Andrea Gabrieli’s death in 1585, Giovanni edited a large number of
his uncle's works for publication: in particular, the Concerti (1587), a
collection of large-scale sacred, secular and instrumental pieces (see
illustration), and the Terzo libro de madrigali a cinque voci (1589). To both
of these volumes he added several of his own compositions. A number of
his organ intonazioniand ricercares were published in Andrea’s Intonationi
d’organo … libro primo (1593) and Ricercari … libro secondo (1595), both
of which were probably edited by Giovanni together with other volumes of
his uncle’s keyboard compositions. A further sign of the close affinity
between uncle and nephew is the fact that, after 1585, Giovanni took over
Andrea’s role as the principal composer of ceremonial music for S Marco.
In the same year he composed music for at least one of the pastoral plays
given in the ducal palace several times annually.
In 1585 Gabrieli was elected to succeed Vincenzo Bellavere as organist to
the Scuola Grande di S Rocco, with a salary of 24 ducats. He took up his
duties on 13 February of that year and held the post for the rest of his life.
He was required to be present in the confraternity on so regular a basis as
might seem quite incompatible with his service at S Marco, and he
undoubtedly sent substitutes on many occasions. Besides playing for the
confraternity’s monthly Mass, held on the first Sunday of each month, he
was required to be present for Mass and/or Vespers on no fewer than 24
major feast days, as well as for Sunday Vespers (except during Advent and
Lent) and Friday Compline. Particularly sumptuous was the music
performed annually on the confraternity’s name day, which occurred on 16
August. Besides the regular organist and singers of the scuola, the list of
payments to musicians in 1603 mentions the following participants in the
ceremonies: Giovanni Bassano, his company of players and an extra four
instrumentalists; three violinists; one violone; four lutenists; a company of
singers from Padua; eight other singers from Padua; a bass singer from S
Marco and ‘other special singers’. Gabrieli was given an extra payment for
having procured ‘7 organs at 21 lire each’.
The first comprehensive collection of Gabrieli’s works was the Sacrae
symphoniae (1597); the contents undoubtedly reflect, in particular, his
duties at S Marco, but it is not unlikely that several of the pieces were
written for and first performed at the confraternity of S Rocco or in the
various parish and monastic churches of Venice, where Gabrieli frequently
participated in music-making on major feast days. Many of the works in the
1597 volume were quickly reprinted north of the Alps, notably in two
volumes of Sacrae symphoniae printed by Kauffmann of Nuremberg in
1598 (RISM 15982; the collection was edited by Caspar Hassler). Gabrieli’s
fame in German-speaking lands is also reflected in the fact that he was
engaged to teach pupils sent to Venice by several northern princes:
Alessandro Tadei was sent from Graz for two and a half years beginning in
March 1604 and, on his return, was appointed as organist to Archduke
Ferdinand; in 1599, Morgens Pedersøn, Hans Nielsen, the organist
Melchior Borchgrevinck, two choirboys and two other singers were sent to
Venice for a year at the expense of the king of Denmark; a further group
from Denmark in 1602–4 included Nielsen and Hans Brachrogge;
Pedersøn was back in Venice from 1605 to 1609; Johannes Grabbe was
sent from Westphalia from 1607 to 1610; and Schütz was sent from the
Saxon court from 1609 until shortly after Gabrieli’s death in 1612; Christoph
Clemsee was probably in Venice during the last years of Gabrieli’s life.
There were Venetian pupils as well. Francesco Stivori dedicated a
collection of instrumental music to ‘the most magnificent, my dear master,
signor Giovanni Gabrieli’ (Ricercari, capricci et canzoni, libro terzo, 1599),
and an unnamed ‘pupil of sig. Gio. Gabrieli’ was elected as organist of the
Dominican convent of SS Giovanni e Paolo on 26 July 1602. A further pupil
was the Augustinian friar Taddeo dal Guasto, a member of the Venetian
convent of S Stefano, and organist there from 1605. In recording their
decision to elect Taddeo, the friars recalled Gabrieli’s positive judgement of
his student’s abilities and referred to the close relationship existing
between composer and monastery. Taddeo dal Guasto, himself a member
of the S Marco ensemble, was the executor of Giovanni’s will and editor of
the posthumously published Canzoni et sonate of 1615.
Few details are known of Gabrieli’s family circle and financial situation. His
father almost certainly died before 1572; this, over and above all musical
considerations, would explain the almost filial relationship between uncle
and nephew. On 9 September 1587, a notarial document drawn up ‘in the
house of the undermentioned brothers’ describes an arrangement by which
Giovanni, his brothers Domenico and Matteo, and his sister Marina agree
to supplement with 100 ducats each the dowry of their sister Angela who,
according to another notarial document of January 1586, was about to
enter the Venetian convent of S Giovanni Laterano. These references
might explain the decision of the procuratori of S Marco on 30 December
1586 to pay the musician the uncommonly large sum of a year’s salary in
advance, in part out of ‘respect for his needs’. Both notarial documents
specify that the composer was now living in the parish of S Vidal; he was,
indeed, buried in the convent church of S Stefano, in the same parish. In a
letter of 1604, the composer refers to his ‘numerous family’: it is unclear
whether his dependents are his own children or those of his sister or
sisters-in-law. An entry in the Venetian necrology under 12 August 1612
records the composer's death, apparently from a kidney stone, and gives
his age as 58 (indications of age in these documents are, however,
notoriously unreliable).
Gabrieli, Giovanni
2. Works.
Unlike his teachers and most of his colleagues, who are known to have
composed in a wide variety of genres, Giovanni is known almost entirely
through his vocal and instrumental music for the church: large-scale motets
and other settings for ensembles of voices and instruments, large- and
smaller-scale music for instrumental ensembles, and compositions for
organ. The light secular forms such as the villanella and canzonetta are all
but absent from his output. All Gabrieli’s surviving madrigals were
composed in the 16th century and are published in anthologies dominated
by the works of other composers. The occasional character of several of
his madrigals is apparent from their texts. The eight-part O che felice
giorno is an expanded version of the text in the rappresentazione given
before the Doge Pasquale Cicogna on St Stephen's day 1585 (the
madrigal was later reworked as Hodie Christus natus est, a motet for
Christmas Vespers). Udite, chiari e generosi figli, which contains an explicit
reference to the ‘fair and noble sons of happy Hadria’, was probably
intended for insertion in another pastoral play. Other madrigals celebrate
distinguished personages: Sacro tempio d’honorforms part of a cycle of
twelve sonnets composed in honour of the Venetian noblewoman Bianca
Capello on the occasion of her marriage to Francesco de’ Medici, Grand
Duke of Tuscany; Sacri di Giove augei honours Jacob Fugger, dedicatee of
the Concerti (RISM 158716, where the madrigal was published); Quando
Laura, ch’or tant’illustr’e bea forms part of an anthology dedicated to the
soprano Laura Peverara for her wedding to count Annibale Turco in
February 1583; the six-part Scherza Amarilli e Clori is Gabrieli’s
contribution to the marriage celebrations of Georg Gruber of Nuremberg
and Helen Joanna Kolmann in 1600.
Many of Gabrieli’s motets are liturgically appropriate to the major occasions
in the Venetian church and State calendar. On these occasions, ceremonial
required the doge to be present in S Marco or in one or other of the city’s
churches for the celebration of mass and/or vespers. Thus Deus, qui
beatum Marcum was probably intended for performance on the feast of St
Mark or during the investiture ceremony for a doge or some other high-
ranking Venetian state official (for which the text is also prescribed). Other
texts in honour of St Mark are Iubilemus singuli and Virtute magna
operatus est. Several motets are for the Ascension Day festivities, which
combined the liturgical celebrations of Mass and Vespers with the
ceremony of the Wedding of Venice to the Sea, an allegorical ceremony
which symbolized Venetian domination over the Adriatic. Textual analysis of
In ecclesiis and Dulcis Iesu patris imago suggests that their origins lie in
the annual ceremonies held on the third Sunday in July, when the doge and
other high-ranking officials were required to attend Mass in the church of
the Redentore, in thanksgiving for the passing of the plague epidemic of
1575–7. Several motet texts are drawn from Christmas Vespers, celebrated
at the Benedictine church of S Giorgio Maggiore in the presence of major
state dignitaries. There are also large-scale motets for Easter, Pentecost,
Holy Trinity, Corpus Christi and the feasts of the Blessed Virgin. Other texts
are generically celebrative in nature and are appropriate for use on a wide
variety of liturgical occasions. It is tempting to speculate that at least some
of these pieces were written for use on the major festivities in the various
parish and monastic churches, of which there were some 150 in Venice.
The presence of large musical ensembles was normal on such occasions.
Gabrieli’s earliest music shows his indebtedness to Lassus and, above all,
to his uncle Andrea. Five large-scale motets and five madrigals were
included in Andrea’s Concerti (158716). As in Andrea’s late works, the
writing is basically chordal, and word-setting is syllabic. Occasional
expressive chromaticism arises from harmonic rather than melodic
considerations, lively rhythms often produce cross-accents and
syncopations, harmonies are simple and counterpoint frequently all but
non-existent. Imitation between choirs occurs in the form of repetition of
materials and, especially towards climaxes, the use of strettos. In the
double-choir works the contrasting groups take the form of a coro
superiore and a coro grave. The bass line frequently descends to low C
and clearly requires instrumental participation, though the use of voices to
perform these parts is not to be ruled out (the parts in question are, indeed,
supplied with text). Like Andrea’s, too, the lowest part of the upper choir is
frequently not a real bass in the tuttis. Gabrieli’s interest in texture and
sonority is always apparent. The overall feeling of the music is one of
power: an appropriate musical symbol for the state church of Venice.
Most of the music written before 1597 uses cori spezzati. The Sacrae
symphoniae of 1597 show Gabrieli moving towards a style in which
thematic material is developed dynamically in dialogue form, as opposed to
being stated in one choir and answered almost exactly in the other (at
most, with transposition), as is more typical of Andrea. The harmonic idiom
is still simple and essentially diatonic, with many cadential passages
caused by frequent interchanges between the choirs. In general, however,
Gabrieli now tends to make greater use of dissonance and employ a wider
range of tonal centres. Textures are, if anything, further simplified. The
melodic element is of greater importance than in the Concerti. Naturally, in
the three- and four-choir works, harmony tends to be simpler than in
double-choir pieces. These large-scale works, however, exploit colour
contrasts more than ever before.
In general, the function of Gabrieli’s large-scale motets as musical adjuncts
to what seems in no small degree to have been a series of quite unrelated,
special occasions celebrated not only in S Marco but also, probably, in
other churches in Venice, determines a variety of styles and manners of
performance. The considerable range in the number of voices – from six to
16 in the Sacrae symphoniae of 1597, from seven to 19 in the Symphoniae
sacrae of 1615 – is itself indicative of a certain heterogeneity of intention.
So are some apparent ‘inconsistencies’ of orchestration as described in
contemporary archival documents: mass or vespers may be celebrated
‘solemnly by the capella’, ‘with singers and organ’ or ‘with all manner of
instruments’. As a rule, however, the greatest occasional events and
liturgical commemorations (above all, Christmas, Easter, Ascension,
Pentecost, Holy Trinity, St Mark) required the participation both of the
salaried instrumentalists of the Basilica (three such players were engaged
permanently in 1568, a fourth in 1576) and of extra musicians specially
hired for the ceremony in question. Archival evidence (presented in
Quaranta) suggests that Gabrieli’s employment of mixed vocal and
instrumental ensembles in his festive church music represents a mere
continuation of what, in Venice, were normal performance practices
inherited from previous centuries.
Payment records for the years 1586–7 mention up to 12 supplementary
instrumentalists: mostly cornetts and trombones, but also up to two violins.
By the early 17th century, the use of strings increased but winds still
dominated: a payment to extra musicians brought in for Christmas Day
1603, for example, lists four cornetts, five trombones, one bassoon, two
violins and one violone. A list of singers drawn up in the mid 1590s by the
maestro di cappella Baldassare Donato names 13 resident adults: two
sopranos (castratos), four contraltos (male), three tenors and four basses.
Obviously, in the same way as the instrumentalists, extra singers could be
hired on an occasional basis. Little information is available on the
participation of boy singers. However, beside the 24 adult singers
mentioned in a list of 1562 are the names of five boys who were required to
participate daily in the performance of polyphonic music; of 14 extra
singers hired for first Vespers in festo ascensionis Domini, 1604, three
were ‘putti soprani’.
In a resolution drawn up by the governing body of the basilica on 2 April
1607, some five years before Gabrieli’s death, not only is it strongly implied
that the singers, organists and other instrumentalists were regularly
present during the greatest religious solemnities, but also that one
unfortunate consequence of their division into spatially separated groups
could prove of no little embarassment to their employers. In the document
the procuratori, having emphasized how important it is ‘to perform music in
the organ lofts at such times as the Most Serene Prince and the Most
Serene Signoria come to church’, underlined the necessity of placing one
of the best musicians in each loft ‘to beat the time as it is regulated by the
maestro’. For this purpose, Giovanni Bassano (together, presumably, with
at least some of the instrumentalists, since he was capo dei concerti) was
assigned to Gabrieli’s loft and one of the singers to the other; the maestro
di cappella generally stood with a group of singers in a hexagonal pulpit
positioned in the nave of the church to the right of the iconostasis. This
would explain why the term ‘cappella’ is applied, in no fewer than 16 of his
extant works (as, indeed, in Andrea’s large-scale mass movements of the
Concerti), to a single, usually four-part choir, whose part-ranges lie
comfortably within the medium range and which is generally harmonically
self-sufficient (necessarily so, since it is distant from the other groups of
performers). In turn, the use of ‘cappella’ to describe a group of ripieno
singers suggests that some or all of the parts with text underlay in the other
choirs were performed by vocal soloists, not only in those parts which bear
the specific designation ‘Voce’ (which occurs in 22 of Gabrieli’s
compositions, all for cori spezzati) but also, by inference, in the other
works. Some large-scale works, it would appear, did not involve the ripieno
singers. The 11-part Surrexit Christus (1615), for example, contains
specifications for two cornetts, two violins, four trombones and three solo
voices. The specifications which accompany the printed parts of the ten-
part Iubilate Deo omnis terra (1615) show that instruments could be used
both to double voice parts and to replace them: three parts are labelled
‘cornett and voice si placet’, ‘trombone and voice si placet’ and ‘bassoon
and voice si placet’ respectively. A surviving copy of the second
Symphoniae sacrae (in PL-Wu) includes early 17th-century German
annotations to Attendite popule meus – in which all eight parts have text
underlay and each of the upper four parts is assigned to a vocal soloist
using the printed label ‘Voce’ – prescribing the use of stringed instruments
for the lower four parts. The same commentator describes choir I of the 15-
part Salvator noster as the ‘violin choir’, though, in the composition as
printed, text underlay occurs in all parts of the work and instruments are
not specified (one vocal soloist is mentioned in connection with choirs I and
III, and two in connection with choir II). How much this practice of
instrumentation corresponds to Venetian usage is open to doubt: archival
documentation suggests that mixed consorts were more common in
Venice, as opposed to the homogeneous timbres frequently described in
German-speaking regions. Though Praetorius’s indications for instrumental
participation are also valuable for these pieces, these too must be used
with some caution since they also reflect German taste and are of a later
date than the music to which they refer: in line with the annotations in the
Symphoniae sacrae II, Praetorius describes how certain choirs were
performed by homogeneous groups of instruments, such as violins, flutes
or cornetts for the upper choirs, trombones or bassoons for those of lower
tessitura (in these choirs, he adds, at least one part must be sung to
ensure textual completeness). The increased number of indications for
specific instruments in the Symphoniae sacrae of 1615 is perhaps due to
an all-too-literal approach to what, in Gabrieli’s original performing
materials, may well have been mere annotations regarding individual
performances: in general, usage appears to have been highly flexible. Yet,
in several of the late works, the parts marked for instruments are treated
quite differently from the vocal parts. Likewise, solo voices are clearly
differentiated from the ripieno choir by florid writing and greater concertante
play between parts. The use of the basso continuo allows solo voices to be
accompanied by the organ as well as instrumental groups. Other
instruments are specified in basso seguente parts (D-Kl mus. 51a and 62f;
though these two manuscripts were compiled in Germany and are thus not
necessarily representative of Venetian practice): the three such parts in the
18-part Hic est filius Dei are marked ‘basso continuo’ (probably organ),
‘violone’ and ‘lute’ respectively, while the 19-part Alti potentis Domini has a
‘basso grande’ for lute.
Gabrieli’s music for instrumental ensemble consists of canzonas and
sonatas. Like the motets, these were probably designed for use in S Marco
during mass and vespers on the most important liturgical commemorations
and greatest occasional events; they certainly exploit the exceptionally
large resources available in the church and the virtuosity of several
players, in particular Girolamo Dalla Casa and Giovanni Bassano. As in
some of Gabrieli’s late motets, the ornamentation applied to the melodic
lines is similar to that set out in the treatises of these two virtuoso cornett
players. One is tempted to see, in the frequent contrast between a few
highly embellished lines and the plainer main body of instruments, a
deliberate exploitation of their presence in the instrumental band of the
basilica.
The appointment of Monteverdi as maestro di cappella at S Marco in 1613
meant that Gabrieli’s impact on Venetian composers during the first half of
the 17th century was comparatively small. G.B. Grillo, his successor as
organist of the S Rocco confraternity and himself appointed to S Marco in
1619, was one of the few to follow his ideas, writing not only a Sonata pian
e forte but also concertante motets in a similar style to some of those
published in the Symphoniae sacrae of 1615. Like Andrea, Giovanni was
most influential north of the Alps. His many German pupils have already
been mentioned. His organ music was included in several tablatures using
German notation, such as Bernhard Schmid’s Tablatur Buch (RISM 160729)
and Johann Woltz’s Nova musices organicae tabulatura (RISM 161724).
Much of his church music was printed by German publishers and the
popularity of polychoral music in northern Europe can be traced largely to
his model. Schütz’s Psalmen Davids of 1619 show direct links with
Gabrieli’s motet style, not only in the general layout of instruments and
voices but also in details of cadential progressions and formal design.
Smaller-scale German church music also owed much to works such as the
chromatically expressive Timor et tremor; music by Schein and others
displays a similar attitude to word-painting and uses a similar melodic and
harmonic style rather than exploiting the potential of the basso continuo.
Schütz’s Cantiones sacrae (1625) were particularly indebted in this way,
and Gabrieli’s music was one of the most influential Italian models in
 Germany before Monteverdi. It was probably this strong German interest
which led to the rediscovery of his music in the early 19th century by
Winterfeld, whose transcriptions of most of Gabrieli’s sacred music and
some pieces for instrumental ensemble are still extant (in D-Bsb).
Gabrieli, Giovanni
WORKS
numbers refer to the Thematic Catalogue

Editions: Giovanni Gabrieli: Opera omnia, ed. D. Arnold and R. Charteris, CMM, xii
(1956–) [A i–xi]Giovanni Gabrieli: Composizioni per organo, ed. S. Dalla Libera (Milan,
1957–9/R) [L i–iii]Catalogue: Giovanni Gabrieli (ca. 1555–1612): A Thematic Catalogue
of his Music with a Guide to the Source Materials and Translations of his Vocal Texts,
ed. R. Charteris (New York, 1996)

sacred vocal
Concerti … continenti musica di chiesa,
madrigali, & altro … libro primo, 6–8, 10,
12, 16vv, insts (158716) [1587]
Sacrae symphoniae, 6–8, 10, 12, 14–16vv,
insts (1597) [1597]
Symphoniae sacrae … liber secundus, 7–8,
10–17, 19vv, insts (1615) [1615]
Works in 15904, 16002, 16123, 161218,
16132, 16152, 161724
43–5 Kyrie, 12vv, 1597; A ii
71–3 Kyrie, 12vv, 1615; A iv
46 Gloria, 12vv, 1597; A ii
47 Sanctus-Benedictus, 12vv, 1597; A ii
74 Sanctus-Benedictus, 12vv, 1615; A iv
144 Alti potentis Domini, 19vv, D-Kl (inc.); A
ix
5 Angelus ad pastores ait, 12vv, 1587,
Rp (org), PL-PE (org); A i
23 Angelus Domini descendit, 8vv, 1597,
A-LIm (lute), SK-Le (org); A i
60 Attendite popule meus, 8vv, 1615,
161724 (org); A iii
122 Audi Domine hymnum, 7vv, 16123, PL-
Wn (org); A vii
145 Audite caeli quae loquor, 12vv, D-Kl
(inc.); A ix
123 Audite principes, 16vv, 16152; A vii
146 Audite principes, 16vv, Kl (inc.; much
material shared with C123); A ix
8 Beata es, virgo Maria, 6vv, 1597, SK-
Le (org); A i
18 Beati immaculati in via, 8vv, 1597,
161724 (org), D-Bsb (org), PL-Wn (org);
Ai
21 Beati omnes, qui timent Dominum, 8vv,
 1597, 161724 (org), D-Bsb (org), Mbs
(kbd), GB-Ob (lute), PL-PE(org), Wn
(org), SK-Le (org); A i
33 Benedicam Dominum in omni tempore,
10vv, 1597, 161724 (org), PL-PE (org);
A ii
62 Benedictus es Dominus, 8vv, 1615; A iii
11 Benedixisti Domine, 7vv, 1597, D-Tl
(kbd), SK-Le (org); A i
84 Buccinate in neomenia tuba, 19vv,
1615, 161724 (org), PL-GD (org, 4 pts);
Av
6 Cantate Domino, 6vv, 1597, 161218
(lute), 161724 (org), D-Bsb (org), Rtt
(org, inc.), GB-Ob (lute), I-Tn (kbd); A i
61 Cantate Domino, 8vv, 1615; A iii
76 Confitebor tibi, Domine, 13vv, 1615; A
iv
154 Confitebor tibi, Domine, 13vv, 16152
(much material shared with C76),
161724 (org); A iv
54 Congratulamini mihi, 6vv, 1615, Tn
(kbd); A iii
4 Deus, Deus meus, ad te, 10vv, 1587,
161724 (org), CH-Bu (org), D-Esl (kbd);
Ai
124 Deus, Deus meus, respice in me, 12vv,
16152; A vii
59 Deus, in nomine tuo, 8vv, 1615; A iii
125 Deus, in nomine tuo, 8vv, Kl; A vii
36 Deus, qui beatum Marcum, 10vv, 1597,
SK-Le (org); A ii
126 Diligam te, Domine, 7vv, 16002, D-Mbs
(kbd, inc.); A vii
26 Diligam te, Domine, 8vv, 1597, PL-Wn
(org); A ii
127 Domine, Deus meus, ne, quaeso, 6vv,
16152, I-Tn (kbd); A vii, L iii, 15
22 Domine, Dominus noster, 8vv, 1597,
161724 (org), PL-Wn (org); A i
15 Domine exaudi orationem meam, 8vv,
1597, Wn (org), SK-Le (org); A i
34 Domine exaudi orationem meam, 10vv,
1597, 161724 (org), D-Bsb (org), Esl
(kbd), SK-Le (org); A ii
128 Dulcis Iesu patris imago, 20vv, D-Kl; A
vii
2 Ego dixi; Domine miserere mei, 7vv,
1587, I-Tn (kbd); A i
129 Ego rogabo Patrem, 6vv, 15904, A-LIm
(lute); A vii
147 Ego rogabo Patrem, 6vv, D-Rp (inc.;
 much material shared with C129); A ix
29 Ego sum qui sum, 8vv, 1597, PL-Wn
(org), SK-Le (org); A ii
12 Exaudi Deus orationem meam, 7vv,
1597, 161724 (org); A i
67 Exaudi Deus orationem meam, 12vv,
1615, 161724 (org); A iv
7 Exaudi Domine iustitiam meam, 6vv,
1597, 161724 (org), I-Tn (kbd); A i
82 Exaudi me, Domine, 16vv, 1615; A v
27 Exultate iusti in Domino, 8vv, 1597,
161724 (org), D-Bsb (org), PL-PE (org),
Wn (org), SK-Le (org); A ii
53 Exultavit cor meum in Domino, 6vv,
1615, I-Tn (kbd); A iii
130 Exultet iam angelica turba, 14vv, 16152;
A vii
131 Exultet iam angelica turba, 17vv, D-Kl;
A vii
138 Gloria Patri, 8vv, Bsb; A viii
132 Hic est filius Dei, 18vv, Kl; A viii
28 Hoc tegitur sacro, 8vv, 1597, Rtt (org),
SK-Le (org); A ii
133 Hodie Christus a mortuis, 12vv, D-Kl; A
viii
40 Hodie Christus natus est, 10vv, 1597,
PL-GD (partial org score), SK-Le (org);
A ii
134 Hodie completi sunt dies Pentecostes,
7vv, 16002, A-LIm, D-Bsb (org), SK-Le
(org); A viii
148 Hodie completi sunt dies Pentecostes,
7vv, D-Esl(inc.; much material shared
with C134)
57 Hodie completi sunt dies Pentecostes,
8vv, 1615; A iii
20 Iam non dicam vos servos, 8vv, 1597,
PL-Wn (org), SK-Le (org); A i
1 Inclina Domine aurem tuam, 6vv, 1587;
Ai
78 In ecclesiis, 14vv, 1615; A v
30 In te Domine speravi, 8vv, 1597, SK-Le
(org); A ii
16 Iubilate Deo omnis terra, 8vv, 1597,
161724 (org), A-LIm (lute), I-Tn (kbd),
PL-Wn (org); A i
136 Iubilate Deo omnis terra, 8vv, 16132; A
viii
135 Iubilate Deo omnis terra, 8vv, D-Bsb; A
viii
65 Iubilate Deo omnis terra, 10vv, 1615; A
iii
51 Iubilate Deo omnis terra [= Iubilate
omnes], 15vv, 1597, SK-Le (org); A ii
31 Iubilemus singuli, 8vv, 1597, PL-PE
(org); A ii
38 Iudica me, Domine, 10vv, 1597, SK-Le
(org); A ii
149 Laetentur omnes qui sperant in te
Domine, 14vv, D-Lr (inc.); A ix
19 Laudate nomen Domini, 8vv, 1597, SK-
Le (org); A i
63 Litaniae BVM, 8vv, 1615; A iii
32 Magnificat, 8vv, 1597, PL-Wn (org),
SK-Le (org); A ii
48 Magnificat, 12vv, 1597, Le (org); A ii
75 Magnificat, 12vv, 1615; A iv
79 Magnificat, 14vv [= Laudabo Deum
Dominum], 1615; A v
83 Magnificat, 17vv, 1615; A v
150 Magnificat, 20 or 28vv, A-Wn (inc.); A ix
151 Magnificat, 33vv, Wn (inc.); A ix
35 Maria virgo, 10vv, 1597, PL-PE (org),
SK-Le (org); A ii
137 Miserere mei Deus, 4vv, D-Bsb; A viii
9 Miserere mei Deus, 6vv, 1597, PL-Wn
(org), SK-Le (org); A i
17 Misericordias Domini, 8vv, 1597, 161724
(org), PL-Wn(org); A i
69 Misericordia tua, Domine, 12vv, 1615; A
iv
50 Nunc dimittis, 14vv, 1597, SK-Le (org);
A ii
14 O Domine Iesu Christe, 8vv, 1597,
161724 (org), D-Esl (kbd), I-Tn (kbd),
PL-Wn (org), SK-Le (org); A i
68 O gloriosa virgo, 12vv, 1615, D-Kl (as
O gloriose Iesu); A iv
139 O Iesu Christe, 6vv, 16152, 161724
(org), I-Tn (kbd, entitled O doctor
optime); A viii, L iii, 11; [model for
Schütz, Iesu dulcissime]
24 O Iesu mi dulcissime, 8vv, 1597, D-Bsb
(org), PL-Wn (org), SK-Le (org); A i
56 O Iesu mi dulcissime, 8vv, 1615; A iii
140 O Iesu mi dulcissime, 8vv, D-Bsb; A viii
3 O magnum mysterium, 8vv, 1587; A i
52 Omnes gentes plaudite manibus [=
Matri sanctae plaudite filii], 16vv, 1597,
161724 (org), D-Bsb (org); A ii
81 O quam gloriosa hodie beata Maria
processit, 16vv, 1615; A v
10 O quam suavis, 7vv, 1597, 161724
(org), GB-Ob (lute); A i
58 O quam suavis, 8vv, 1615; A iii
41 Plaudite, psallite, iubilate Deo omnis
terra [= Virgini iubilemus], 12vv, 1597,
161724 (org), PL-PE (org); A ii
77 Quem vidistis, pastores, 14vv, 1615; A
v
39 Quis es iste qui venit, 10vv, 1597, D-
Bsb (org), SK-Le (org); A ii
49 Regina coeli laetare, 12vv, 1597, Le
(org); A ii
80 Salvator noster hodie dilectissimi natus
est, 15vv, 1615; A v
55 and 153 Sancta et immaculata virginitas, 7vv,
1615 (copy in PL-Wu with addl pt in MS
by Staden), I-Tn (kbd); A iii, ix
25 Sancta et immaculata virginitas, 8vv,
1597, PL-PE (org), SK-Le (org); A i
13 Sancta Maria succurre miseris, 7vv,
1597, 16002 (with opening words ‘O fili
Dei succurre miseris’), 161724 (org),
SK-Le (org); A i
66 Surrexit Christus, 11vv, 1615; A iii
141 Surrexit Christus, 12 or 16vv, D-Kl; A
viii
37 Surrexit pastor bonus, 10vv, 1597, SK-
Le (org); A ii
70 Suscipe clementissime Deus, 12vv,
1615; A iv
142 Timor et tremor, 6vv, 16152; A viii
143 Timor et tremor, 6vv, D-Bsb (related to
C142); A viii
42 Virtute magna operatus est, 12vv,
1597, SK-Le (org); A ii
64 Vox Domini super aquas Iordanis, 10vv,
1615; A iii
secular vocal
Concerti … continenti musica di chiesa, madrigali, &
altro … libro secondo, 6–8, 10, 12, 16vv, insts (1587 16)
[1587]
Works in 157511, 157515, 158311, 15861, 158611, 15876,
158914, 159011, 159123, 159211, 15955, 16005a, 160118,
160729
118 A Dio, dolce mia vita, 10vv,
1587; A vi
88 Ahi, senza te, pretiosa
Margherita, 4vv, 15955; A vi
85 Alma cortes’e bella [= My
soul is deeply wounded],
3vv, 15876; A vi
120 Amor, dove mi guidi, 12vv,
159011; A vi
180 Amor s’è in lei con
 honestate aggiunto (F.
Petrarch) (2p. of A.
Gabrieli, In nobil sangue),
6vv, 1587; A vi
117 Chiar’angioletta
semb’agl’occhi miei, 8vv,
159011, A-LIm (lute); A vi
99 Da quei begl’occhi ove
s’accese il foco, 5vv,
158914; A vi
89 Deh, di me non ti caglia,
amico vero, 4vv, 15955; A vi
100 Dimmi, dimmi ben mio, 5vv,
158914; A vi
112 Dolce nemica mia, 7vv,
1587, LIm (lute); A vi
105 Dolci, care parole, 5vv,
158914; A vi
93 Donna leggiadra e bella,
5vv, 158311; A vi
115 Dormiva dolcemente la mia
Clori, 8vv, 159011, LIm
(lute); A vi
116 Fuggi pur se sai, 8vv,
159011; A vi
90 Labra amorose e care [=
How long shall fading
pleasure], 4vv, 15955,
160729 (org); A vi
113 Lieto godea sedendo [=
Auxilium promisit Deus; Ein
Kindlein fein; Fröhlich zu
sein; Heilig ist Gott; Quam
pulchra es amica mea],
8vv, 1587, 16005a (lute),
160118 (lute), LIm (lute), D-
WINtj (org, inc.); A vi
114 O che felice giorno [=
Hodie Christus natus est],
8vv, 159011, A-LIm (lute); A
vi
94 O ricco mio thesoro [= Nos
autem gloriari oportet], 5vv,
158311; A vi
152 Però di prego, 3vv, D-Dl
(text lacking); A ix
91–2 Quand’io ero giovinetto,
5vv, 157511; A vi
106–07 Quando Laura, ch’or
tant’illustr’e bea, 5vv, I-
VEaf; A vi
102 Queste felici herbette, 5vv,
 158914; A vi
119 Sacri di Giove augei, sacre
fenici [= Sancti Ignatii socii
Iesu festam], 12vv, 1587; A
vi
95–6 Sacro tempio d’honor (G.B.
Zuccarini), 5vv, 158611; A vi
103–04 S’al discoprir de l’honorata
fronte, 5vv, 158914; A vi
111 Scherza Amarilli e Clori [=
Alleluia quando iam
emersit], 6vv, Honori et
amori Georgii Gruberi
(Nuremberg, 1600); A vi
110 Se cantano gl’augelli (O.
Guargante) [= Blandina
maine Schöne and Dass
Musica die schöne], 6vv,
159211; A vi
97–8 Signor, le tue man sante,
5vv, 15861; A vi
109 S’io t’ho ferito, non t’ho
però morto, 6vv, 159123; A
vi
121 Udite, chiari e generosi figli,
15vv, D-Kl; A vi
101 Vagh’amorosi e fortunati
allori, 5vv, 158914; A vi
86–7 Voi ch’ascoltate in rime
spars’il suono (Petrarch),
4vv, 157515; A vi
contrafacta
C1 Alleluia quando iam emersit [= Scherza Amarilli e Clori], 6vv, 1615 2, I-Tn (kbd);
A ix, L iii, 20
C2 Auxilium promisit Deus [= Lieto godea sedendo], 8vv, D-Esl; A ix
C3 Blandina meine Schöne [= Se cantano gli augelli], 6vv, 1612 13; A ix
C4 Dass Musica die schöne [= Se cantano gli augelli], 6vv, 1619 16; A ix
C5 Ein Kindlein fein [= Lieto godea sedendo], 8vv, D-Rp; A ix
C6 Fröhlich zu sein [= Lieto godea sedendo], 8vv, 1624 16; A ix
C7 Heilig ist Gott [= Lieto godea sedendo], 8vv, Bsb; A ix
C8 Hodie Christus natus est [= O che felice giorno], 8vv, 1615 2; A ix
C9 How long shall fading pleasure [= Labra amorose e care], 4vv, GB-Och; A ix
C17 Iubilate omnes [= Iubilate Deo omnis terra], 15vv, 1597 (MS addn to pr. ptbks
in D-Rp); facs. in A ix
C10 Laudabo Deum Dominum [= Magnificat C79], 14vv, Kl; A ix
C18 Matri sanctae plaudite filii [= Omnes gentes plaudite manibus], 16vv, 1597
(MS addn to pr. ptbks in Rp); facs. in A ix
C11 My soul is deeply wounded [= Alma cortes’e bella], 3vv, GB-Och; A ix
C12 Nos autem gloriari oportet [= O ricco mio thesoro], 5vv, 1604 11, PL-PE (org); A
ix
C13 Quam pulchra es amica mea [= Lieto godea sedendo], 8vv, 1599 5; A ix
C14 Sancta Maria virgo [= Amor dove mi guidi], 12vv, 1590 11 (MS addn to pr. ptbks
 in B-Br); A ix
C15 Sancti Ignatii socii Iesu festam [= Sacri di Giove augei], 1587 (MS addn to pr.
ptbks in D-Rp); A ix
C16 Virgini iubilemus [= Plaudite, psallite, iubilate Deo omnis terra], 12vv, 1597
(MS addn to pr. ptbks in Rp); facs. in A ix
instrumental ensemble
171–85 Sacrae symphoniae, 6–8, 10, 12, 14–16vv, insts (1597), A x: Canzon
primi toni, 8vv; Canzon primi toni, 10vv; Canzon quarti toni, 15vv; Canzon
septimi toni, 8vv (inc. org version in D-Mbs); Canzon septimi toni, 8vv;
Canzon septimi et octavi toni, 12vv; Canzon noni toni, 12vv; Canzon noni
toni, 8vv (org version in A-LIm); Canzon duodecimi toni, 8vv; Canzon
duodecimi toni, 10vv; Canzon duodecimi toni, 10vv; Canzon duodecimi
toni, 10vv; Canzon in echo duodecimi toni, 10vv; Canzon in echo
duodecimi toni, 10vv (alternative version to C180: ‘variata di concerto,
con l’organo insieme’); Sonata octavi toni, 12vv; Sonata pian e forte, 8vv
195–214 Canzoni et sonate, 3, 5–8, 10, 12, 14–15, 22 insts, bc (org) (1615), A xi:
Canzon I, 5vv; Canzon II, 6vv (kbd version in A-Wm); Canzon III, 6vv
(kbd version in Wm); Canzon IV, 6vv (kbd version in Wm); Canzon V, 7vv;
Canzon VI, 7vv; Canzon VII, 7vv; Canzon VIII, 8vv; Canzon IX [= C190
below]; Canzon X, 8vv; Canzon XI, 8vv; Canzon XII, 8vv; Sonata XIII,
8vv; Canzon XIV, 10vv; Canzon XV, 10vv; Canzon XVI, 12vv; Canzon
XVII, 12vv; Sonata XVIII, 14vv; Sonata XIX, 15vv; Sonata XX, 22vv;
Sonata XXI ‘con tre violini’, 4 or 5vv
186 Canzon I ‘La Spiritata’, 4vv, 160824, 160118 (lute), 160933 (kbd), 161724
(org), 162217 (kbd version by G. Diruta), D-Esl (kbd), I-Tn (kbd), PL-PE
(org); A x
187 Canzon II, 4vv, 160824, I-Tn (kbd); A x
188 Canzon III, 4vv, 160824, A-Wm (kbd ); A x
189 Canzon IV, 4vv, 160824, Wm (kbd); A x
190 Canzon XXVII ‘Fa sol la re’, 8vv, 160824, repr. 1615 as Canzon IX; A ix, x
191 Canzon XXVIII ‘Sol sol la sol fa mi’, 8vv, 1608 24; A x
192 Canzon in echo, 12vv, D-Kl; A x
193 Canzon, 12vv, Kl; A x
194 Canzon, 4vv, I-VEcap, 159919 (lute), A-Wm (kbd); A x
keyboard
240–50 Intonationi d’organo … libro primo (159310) (wrongly attrib. A. Gabrieli
in 160729), A xii: Del primo tono; Del secondo tono; Del terzo et quarto
tono; Del quinto tono; Del sesto tono; Del settimo tono; Dell’ottavo
tono; Del nono tono; Del decimo tono; Dell’undecimo tono;
Duodecimo tono
215 Ricercar ottavo tono, 159513, I-Tn (org); A xii
216 Ricercar decimo tono, 159513 D-Bsb (org), I-Tn (org); A xii
217, 219–22 5 ricercars (org), I-Tn; A xii
218 Ricercar, PL-Kj (attrib. Erbach in D-Bsb); A xii
223 Canzon, PL-Kj; A xii
224 Ricercar, Kj (attrib. Erbach in D-Bsb and Mbs); A xii
225 Canzon, PL-Kj (designated ‘Ricercar’ in D-Mbs); A xii
226 Ricercar noni toni, D-Bsb; A xii
227 Fantasia quarti toni, Bsb; A xii
228–9 2 fugues, I-Tn (org); A xii
230 Canzon, Tn, attrib. ‘Gabrieli’ (org); A xii
231 Canzon, Tn (org); A xii
232 Canzon francese, Tn (org) (attrib. both Gabrieli and Hassler); A xii
233 Canzon, Tn (org) (attrib. Erbach in D-Bsb); A xii
234 Canzon, I-Tn (org) (attrib. Erbach in D-Bsb and Mbs); A xii
235 Canzon, F-Pn (attrib. Erbach in D-Bsb; Merulo in I-Tn); A xii
236 Toccata del secondo tono, 15939; A xii
237–8 2 toccatas, I-Tn (org); A xii
239 Toccata primi toni, Tn (org) (attrib. Merulo elswhere in MS); A xii
Gabrieli, Giovanni
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BertolottiM; CaffiS; EinsteinIM
F. Sansovino: Venetia città nobilissima et singolare (Venice, rev. 2/1604 by
M.R.D.G. Stringa)
C. von Winterfeld: Johannes Gabrieli und sein Zeitalter (Berlin, 1834/R)
H. Leichtentritt: Geschichte der Motette (Leipzig, 1908/R)
O. Kinkeldey: Orgel und Klavier in der Musik des 16. Jahrhunderts
(Leipzig, 1910/R)
A. Pirro: ‘La musique des Italiens d’après les remarques triennales de
Jean-Baptiste Duval (1607–9)’, Mélanges offerts à M. Henri
Lemonnier (Paris, 1913), 175–85
A. Einstein: ‘Ein Concerto Grosso von 1619’, Festschrift Hermann
Kretzschmar (Leipzig, 1918/R), 26–8
G. Benvenuti: Preface to Andrea e Giovanni Gabrieli e la musica
strumentale in San Marco, IMi, i (1931)
G. Cesari: Preface to Andrea e Giovanni Gabrieli e la musica strumentale
in San Marco, IMi, ii (1932)
A. Einstein: ‘Italienische Musik und italienische Musiker am Kaiserhof und
an den erzherzoglichen Höfen in Innsbruck und Graz’, SMw, xxi
(1934), 3–52
G.S. Bedbrook: ‘The Genius of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MR, viii (1947), 91–101
G.S. Bedbrook: Keyboard Music from the Middle Ages to the Beginnings
of the Baroque (London, 1949/R)
H. Federhofer: ‘Alessandro Tadei, a Pupil of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MD, vi
(1952), 115–31
D. Arnold: ‘Giovanni Croce and the Concertato Style’, MQ, xxxix (1953),
37–48
J.A. Flower: Giovanni Gabrieli’s Sacrae Symphoniae (1597) (diss., U. of
Michigan, 1957)
D. Arnold: ‘Ceremonial Music in Venice at the Time of the Gabrielis’,
PRMA, lxxxii (1955–6), 47–59
A.E.F. Dickinson: ‘A Forgotten Collection: a Survey of the Weckmann
Books’, MR, xvii (1956), 97–109
W. Yeomans: ‘The Canzoni (1615) of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MMR, lxxxvi
(1956), 97–103
D. Arnold: ‘Brass Instruments in Italian Church Music of the Sixteenth and
Early Seventeenth Centuries’, Brass Quarterly, i (1957–8), 81–92
G.W. Woodworth: ‘Texture Versus Mass in the Music of Giovanni Gabrieli’,
Essays on Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison
(Cambridge, MA, 1957), 129–38
C. Engelbrecht: Die Kasseler Hofkapelle im 17. Jahrhundert (Kassel,
1958)
D. Arnold: ‘Con ogni sorte di stromenti: Some Practical Suggestions’,
Brass Quarterly, ii (1958–9), 99–109
D. Arnold: ‘Music at the Scuola di San Rocco’, ML, xl (1959), 229–41
D. Arnold: ‘The Significance of “Cori Spezzati”’, ML, xl (1959), 4–14
D. Arnold: ‘Towards a Biography of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MD, xv (1961),
199–207
E.F. Kenton: ‘The Late Style of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MQ, xlviii (1962), 427–
43
F. Hudson: ‘Giovanni Gabrieli’s Motet a 15, “In Ecclesiis”, from the
Symphoniae Sacrae’, MR, xxiv (1963), 130–33
S. Kunze: Die Instrumentalmusik Giovanni Gabrielis (Tutzing, 1963)
S. Kunze: ‘Die Entstehung des Concertoprinzips im Spätwerk Giovanni
Gabrielis’, AMw, xxi (1964–5), 81–110
D. Arnold: ‘Music at a Venetian Confraternity in the Renaissance’, AcM,
xxxvii (1965), 62–72
A.E.F. Dickinson: ‘The Lübbenau Keyboard Books: a Further Note on
Faceless Features’, MR, xxvii (1966), 270–86
E. Kenton: Life and Works of Giovanni Gabrieli, MSD, xvi (1967)
W. Breig: ‘Die Lübbenauer Tabulaturen Lynar A1 und A2’, AMw, xxv
(1968), 96–117, 223–36
D. Kämper: Studien zur instrumentalen Ensemblemusik des 16.
Jahrhunderts in Italien, AnMc, no.10 (1970)
D. Arnold: ‘Gli allievi di Giovanni Gabrieli’, NRMI, v (1971), 943–72
D. Arnold: ‘Schütz’s “Venetian” Psalms’, MT, cxiii (1972), 1071–3
S. Schmalzreidt: Heinrich Schütz und andere zeitgenössische Musiker in
der Lehre Giovanni Gabrielis (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1972)
D. Arnold: Giovanni Gabrieli (London, 1974)
W. Breig: ‘Heinrich Schütz' Parodiemotette “Iesu dulcissime”’, Convivium
musicorum: Festschrift Wolfgang Boetticher, ed. H. Hüschen and D.-R.
Moser (Berlin, 1974), 13–24
W. Müller-Blattau: Tonsatz und Klanggestaltung bei Giovanni Gabrieli
(Kassel, 1975)
D. Arnold: ‘Con ogni sorte di stromenti’, EMc, iv (1976), 167–71
D. Arnold: Giovanni Gabrieli and the Music of the Venetian High
Renaissance (London, 1979)
D. Bryant: ‘The “Cori Spezzati” of St Mark’s: Myth and Reality’, EMH, i
(1981), 165–86
T. Bridges: ‘Giovanni Gabrieli’s Father’, Notes, xxxvii (1981), 712 only
D.D. Bryant: Liturgy, Ceremonial and Sacred Music in Venice at the Time
of the Counter-Reformation (diss., U. of London, 1981)
J.H. Moore: Vespers at St Mark’s: Music of Alessandro Grandi, Giovanni
Rovetta and Francesco Cavalli (Ann Arbor, 1981)
S. Hedges: Georg Gruber’s ‘Reliquiae sacrorum concentuum’ (1615): an
Edition with Historical Commentary (diss., U. of Chicago, 1983)
M. Morell: ‘New Evidence for the Biographies of Andrea and Giovanni
Gabrieli’, EMH, iii (1983), 101–22
W. Braun: ‘Giovanni Gabrieli und Württemberg’, AnMc, no.22 (1984), 3–9
R. Charteris: ‘New Sources of the Works of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MD, xl
(1986), 135–76
R. Charteris: ‘Newly Discovered Works by Giovanni Gabrieli’, ML, lxviii
(1987), 343–63
R. Charteris: ‘Another Keyboard Canzona by Giovanni Gabrieli?’, EMc, xv
(1987), 480–86
R. Charteris: ‘Giovanni Gabrieli’s Three Settings of “O Jesu mi
dulcissime”, etc.’, ML, lxix (1988), 317–18
A.F. Carver: Cori spezzati (Cambridge, 1988)
R. Charteris and G. Haberkamp: ‘Regensburg, Bischöfliche
Zentralbibliothek Butsch 205–210: a Little-Known Source of the Music
of Giovanni Gabrieli and His Contemporaries’, MD, xliii (1989), 195–
249
R. Charteris: ‘The Performance of Giovanni Gabrieli’s Vocal Works:
Indications in the Early Sources’, ML, lxxi (1990), 336–51
R. Charteris: ‘Two Little-Known Manuscripts in Augsburg with Works by
Giovanni Gabrieli and His Contemporaries’, RMARC, no.23 (1990),
125–36
R. Charteris: ‘The Performance of Giovanni Gabrieli’s Vocal Works’, ML,
lxxii (1991), 170–71
R. Charteris: ‘Newly Discovered Manuscript Parts and Annotations in a
Copy of Giovanni Gabrieli’s Symphoniae sacrae (1615)’, EMc, xxiii
(1995), 487–96
R. Charteris: Giovanni Gabrieli (ca. 1555–1612): a Thematic Catalogue of
his Music with a Guide to the Source Materials and Translations of his
Vocal Texts (New York, 1996)
V.J. Panetta: ‘“Organ Motets” by Giovanni Gabrieli’, Studi musicali, xxvi
(1997), 55–72
E. Quaranta: Oltre San Marco: Organizzazione e prassi della musica nelle
chiese di Venezia nel Rinascimento (Florence, 1998)

Gabrieli Consort and Players.

English vocal and period-instrument ensemble. They are recognized
principally for enterprising, meticulously researched reconstructions of
liturgical musical events, especially from Venice in the 16th and 17th
centuries. Founded by their director Paul McCreesh in 1981, they have
given concerts in major festivals around the world and have made
numerous recordings. In 1990 they won a Gramophone Award for a
reconstruction of Doge Marino Grimani's coronation in 1595. Similar
programmes include Vespers at S Marco, Palestrina in the Cappella Sistina
and a Mass for Christmas Day at Wolfenbüttel (Praetorius). More recently,
the group's thrilling, incisive tutti textures have been admired in
performances of Handel oratorios.
JONATHAN FREEMAN-ATTWOOD

Gabrielli, Adriana.
See Ferrarese, Adriana.

Gabrielli [Gabrieli], Caterina [La

Cochetta]
(b Rome, 12 Nov 1730; d Rome, 16 Feb or 16 April 1796). Italian soprano.
She was probably a pupil of Porpora in Venice (1744–7) and is said to
have made her début at Lucca in 1747 and to have sung in Jommelli’s
Didone at Naples in 1750. In 1754–5 she sang in Venice at the Teatro S
Moisè. After a highly successful concert début at the Burgtheater in Vienna
in 1755, she was given a contract there until 1758–9. Metastasio instructed
her in the declamatory style and she soon appeared in works by Gluck (Le
cinesi, La danza and L’innocenza giustificata, 1755; Il re pastore, 1756). In
1758 she was at the Regio Ducal Teatro, Milan; at Padua with the castrato
Gaetano Guadagni, one of her most important teachers, she was involved
in scandals and had to leave precipitately.
From 1759 Gabrielli often sang in operas by Traetta, creating at Parma the
leading roles in his Ippolito ed Aricia (1759) and I tintaridi (1760). In Vienna,
she created the title parts in Gluck’s Tetide (1760) and Traetta’s Armida
(1761). In Italy again in 1761, she sang in Padua (1761), Lucca (1761–2),
Reggio nell’Emilia (1762), Turin (1762), Milan (1763) and Naples (1763–5),
then retired briefly to live with a young nobleman; in 1766–7 she again
sang in Naples. She then had a three-year engagement at Palermo, and in
1771 was at Milan, where Mozart met her. She was then engaged at St
Petersburg (1772–5), probably at Traetta’s request, for she again appeared
in his operas (Antigona, 1772; Amore e Psiche, 1773; Lucio Vero, 1774).
After a season (1775–6) in London, she returned to Italy, singing until 1782
in Naples, Venice, Lucca and Milan. Gabrielli was one of the most eminent
and perfect singers of her time. Burney called her ‘the most intelligent and
best-bred virtuosa’ with whom he had ever conversed; to immense
technical powers and knowledge she seems to have joined exceptional
personal charms, and accordingly the protection of several noble
personalities (such as Prince Kaunitz). Mozart, however, hearing her after
her prime, described her as a ‘manufacturer of passage-work and roulades
… who cannot sing’ (1778).
Francesca Gabrielli (b c1735), probably her sister, often appeared with her
as seconda donna.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SartoriL
A. Ademollo: La più famosa delle cantanti italiane nella seconda metà del
‘700 (Milan, 1890)
B. Croce: I teatri di Napoli, secolo XV–XVIII (Naples, 1891, 4/1947), 501ff
R.A. Mooser: Annales de la musique et des musiciens en Russie au
XVIIIme siècle (Geneva, 1948–51), ii
F. Casavola: ‘La più grande interprete di Traetta: Caterina Gabrielli’,
Tommaso Traetta di Bitonto (1727–1779): la vita e le opere (Bari,
1957) 103–114
G. Zechmeister: Die Wiener Theater nächst der Burg und nächst dem
Kärntnerthor von 1747 bis 1776 (Vienna, 1971)
D. Heartz: ‘Traetta in Vienna: Armida (1761) and Ifigenia in Tauride (1763)’,
Studies in Music from the University of Western Ontario, vii (1982),
65–88
B.A. Brown: Gluck and the French Theatre in Vienna (Oxford, 1991)
G. Croll: ‘Musiker und Musik in der Privatkorrespondenz von Wenzel Anton
Fürst Kaunitz: Informanten und Informationen’, Staatskanzler Wenzel
 Anton von Kaunitz-Rietberg, 1711–1794, ed. G. Klingenstein and
F.A.J. Szabo (Graz, 1996), 341–59
GERHARD CROLL, IRENE BRANDENBURG

Gabrielli, Domenico [‘Minghino dal

violoncello’]
(b Bologna, 19 Oct 1659; d Bologna, 10 July 1690). Italian composer and
cello virtuoso. The first part of his nickname (‘Mingéin dal viulunzèl’ in
Bolognese dialect) is a diminutive of ‘Domenico’. He studied composition
with Legrenzi in Venice; he was also one of the best students of
Franceschini in Bologna, where on 20 December 1680, after Franceschini’s
death, he succeeded him as a cellist at S Petronio. He was elected to the
Accademia Filarmonica on 23 April 1676 and became president in 1683.
During the 1680s he became widely recognized as a cello virtuoso and
composer of vocal music. He turned to the composition of operas in 1683
and in seven years wrote 12, which received their premières in Venice,
Modena and Turin as well as in Bologna. This undoubtedly caused him to
travel a good deal, and because of his prowess on the cello he also often
performed at the Este court at Modena. He was granted frequent leave of
absence from S Petronio, but it is no surprise that he was dismissed on 14
October 1687 for neglect of his duties: he failed to play on the feast of St
Petronius, the most important function of the year. He immediately went to
Modena for a short time, where he entered the regular service of Duke
Francesco II d’Este. His prestige, however, was such that he was
reinstated at S Petronio on 23 March 1688, but he soon contracted the
incurable illness that led to his death.
Gabrielli’s historical significance lies primarily in his virtuosity on the cello,
which was just becoming popular, and as the composer of some of the
earliest music for it. His canons, ricercares and sonatas reflect both an
advanced performing technique and an acute awareness of the sonority
inherent in the instrument: his ricercares for unaccompanied cello contain
florid passage-work and double, triple and quadruple stops. Except for
occasional brilliant passages for the cello, Gabrielli’s other chamber music
is strongly influenced by the uncomplicated style of the Emilian school of
instrumental music as represented by G.B. Vitali and Corelli. This music
includes his op.1 and a set of 12 pairs of dances, each pair in a different
key, ranging from C minor to B minor and from E to A.
Gabrielli further demonstrated his interest in the cello by employing it as an
obbligato instrument in his trumpet sonatas and vocal works. He composed
sonatas for one or two trumpets and orchestra (six of which are extant)
specifically for S Petronio. They reveal his mature grasp of this new genre
which was so popular in Bologna in the late 17th century. They consist of
four to six movements, slow and fast ones generally alternating as in the
Bolognese sonata tradition. One remarkable movement contains a
concertante duet between cello and trumpet with continuo – basically a trio
sonata texture. Gabrielli also used the cello and trumpet, as well as other
instruments, in a concertante manner in his vocal music, especially in his
operas and oratorios. His opera Flavio Cuniberto, for example, contains
 several extended florid arias supported by obbligato instruments including
cello and theorbo (one aria each), trumpet (two arias) and violin (three).
Gabrielli’s vocal music, the work of a fine craftsman, reflects his Venetian
training and background. While his sacred music is more reserved, his
cantatas, oratorios and operas reveal a flair for the dramatic. The
recitatives are seldom of the secco variety and he often emphasized
expressive features in the texts. The way in which he constructed scenes
also reflects his desire for relative freedom in organizing recitative, aria and
arioso for dramatic purposes. The forms of his arias range from strophic
and binary pieces to those built on ostinatos and full-blown da capo arias,
and they vary from the simple to the florid. Instrumentally accompanied
arias are used for dramatic emphasis, a feature particularly evident in the
oratorio S Sigismondo.
Gabrielli’s sacred works, written predominantly for up to five soloists, one
ripieno choir and a five-part string ensemble without trumpets, recall G.P.
Colonna’s skilful use of S Petronio-style counterpoint, particularly in the
final sections of mass movements and psalms and in the contrasts
between virtuoso solo sections and homophonic choir passages. The
influence of Gabrielli’s former teacher, Franceschini, is evident in his use of
short, dynamic rhythmic cells. Other characteristics are the clear
polarization between melodic upper parts and walking bass lines, and the
frequent use of melodic sequences in the style of the organ compositions
of G.B. Degli Antoni and Bartolomeo Monari.
WORKS
operas
Flavio Cuniberto (M. Noris), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 1682, Modena,
Fontanelli, 1688, I-Bc, MOe
Il Cleobulo (G.B. Neri), Bologna, Formagliari, Aug 1683, lib (Bologna, 1683)
Il Gige in Lidia (Neri), Bologna, Formagliari, 1683, MOe
Teodora Augusta (A. Morselli), Venice, Vendramin, carn. 1685, lib (Venice, 1685);
rev. Bologna, 1687 (text rev. G. Rapparini, music rev. G.A. Perti), lib (Bologna,
1687); rev. as Teodora clemente, Piacenza, Nuovo Teatro Ducale, 1689, arias in
MOe, lib (Parma, 1689)
Clearco in Negroponte (A. Arcoleo), Venice, S Moisè, 1685, MOe
Rodoaldo, re d’Italia (T. Stanzani), Venice, S Moisè, 1685, MOe, lib (Venice, 1685)
Le generose gare tra Cesare e Pompeo (D.R. Cialli), Venice, Vendramin, carn.
1686, MOe
Il Maurizio (Morselli), Venice, Vendramin, 26 Dec 1686, lib (Venice, 1687), rev.
Modena, 1689, MOe; rev. as Tiberio in Bisanzio (J. Paci and D. Ciufetti), Lucca,
1694, lib (Lucca, 1694)
Il Gordiano (Morselli), Venice, Vendramin, 21 Jan 1688, MOe, lib (Venice, 1688)
Carlo il grande (Morselli, after L. Ariosto), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, Feb
1688, MOe, lib (Venice, 1688)
Silvio, re degli Albani (P. d’Averara), Turin, Regio Ducale, 1689, MOe, lib (Turin,
1689)
oratorios
S Sigismondo, re di Borgogna (D. Bernardoni), Bologna, 1687, MOe, lib
Elia sacrificante (P.P. Sita), Bologna, 1688, lib (Bologna, 1688)
Il martirio di S Felicita (F. Sacrati), Modena, 1689, lib (Modena, 1689)
Il battesimo di Carlo, antico imperatore il Magno, Lucca, 27 Dec 1718, lost
other vocal
[11] Cantate a voce sola (Bologna, 1691/R)
Cantata, Stanco di piu soffriti, 1v, bc, in Melpomene coronata da Felsina (Bologna,
16851)
Motet, Vexillum pacis, 1v, vns, bc, in Motetti sagri (Bologna, 1695 1)
Over 50 secular works (cants., serenatas and ariettas) and sacred works (mass
movts, pss and hymns), I-Bc, Bsp, MOe
instrumental
Balletti, gighe, correnti, alemande, e sarabande, 1 vn, vle, vn 2 ad lib, op.1
(Bologna, 1684); no.9 ed. E. Schenk (Vienna, 1953)
Sonata IIII, F, in Sonate a tre di vari autori (Bologna, ?1700)
Two sonatas for violins in parts, one by Signor Caldara and the other by Signor
Gabrielli (London, 1704)
Ricercares for vc solo, vc with bc; canon, 2 vc; 2 sonatas, vc, bc: all I-MOe (facs.
(Bologna, 1998)); solo ricercares ed. G. Epperson (New York, 1965)
Concerto, 4 vn, 6 sonatas, 1 or 2 tpt, str, Bsp; sonata no.2 in D ed. E. Tarr (London,
1968)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM (W. Matteuzzi)
EitnerQ
FétisB
SartoriB
SartoriL
J.W. von Wasielewski: Das Violoncell und seine Geschichte (Leipzig,
1889, enlarged 3/1925/R; Eng. trans., 1894/R)
L. Busi: Il Padre G.B. Martini (Bologna, 1891/R)
E. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)
F. Vatielli: ‘Primordi dell’arte del violoncello’, Arte e vita musicale a
Bologna (Bologna, 1927/R), 117–48
E. Albini: ‘Domenico Gabrielli, il Corelli del violoncello’, RMI, xli (1937),
170–75
K. Marx: Die Entwicklung des Violoncells und seiner Spieltechnik bis J.L.
Duport (1520–1820) (Regensburg, 1963)
U. Zingler: Studien zur Entwicklung der Italienischen Violoncellosonate
von den Anfängen bis zur Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt,
1967), 20–30, 227, 230, 236
S.E. Watts: The Stylistic Features of the Bolognese Concerto (diss.,
Indiana U., 1969), 334ff
E. Cowling: The Cello (London and New York, 1975/R)
E. Enrico: The Orchestra at San Petronio in the Baroque Era (Washington
DC, 1976)
C. Sartori: ‘I ricuperi dell’Ufficio ricerche fondi musicali: Domenico
Gabrielli, Carlo Pallavicino, Freschi, Legrenzi, Sartori e Marcantonio
Ziani’, NRMI, xiv (1980), 548–54
E. Selfridge-Field: Pallade veneta: Writings on Music in Venetian Society
1650–1750 (Venice, 1985)
A. Chiarelli: I codici di musica della raccolta estense: ricostruzione
dall’inventario settecentesco (Florence, 1987)
 O. Gambassi: La cappella musicale di S. Petronio: maestri, organisti,
cantori e strumentisti dal 1436 al 1920 (Florence, 1987), 144–6, 328,
478
V. Crowther: The Oratorio in Modena (Oxford, 1992)
O. Gambassi: L’Accademia Filarmonica di Bologna (Florence, 1992), 284–
5, 299
M. Vanscheeuwijck: ‘La cappella musicale di San Petronio ai tempi di
Giovanni Paolo Colonna (1674–1695): organizzazione esemplare di
una istituzione musicale’, La cappella musicale nell’Italia della
Controriforma, ed. O. Mischiati and P. Russo (Cento, 1993), 303–24
M. Vanscheeuwijck: De religieuze muziekproduktie in de San Petronio-
kerk te Bologna ten tijde van Giovanni Paolo Colonna (1674–1695)
(diss., U. of Ghent, 1995)
M. Vanscheeuwijck: ‘The Baroque Cello and its Performance’,
Performance Practice Review, ix (1996), 78–96
JOHN G. SUESS (with MARC VANSCHEEUWIJCK)

Gabrielli, Francesca.
See Ferrarese, Adriana.

Gabrielli, Count Nicolò [Nicola]

(b Naples, 21 Feb 1814; d Paris, 14 June 1891). Italian composer. His
teachers included Carlo Conti and, at the Naples Conservatory, Zingarelli
and Donizetti. In about 1835 he began writing for the theatre, and from
1840 to 1854 directed the ballets at the royal theatres in the kingdom of
Naples. Summoned by Napoleon III, he lived from 1854 in Paris, where he
dedicated himself to composition, writing operas and ballets, some of them
for the Opéra. He was successful until the fall of Napoleon III in 1871, after
which he stopped composing almost completely. His output included about
20 operas and about 60 ballets.
Fétis acknowledged Gabrielli’s gift for dramatic effect, but observed that his
ballets, for instance, were written unimaginatively. His melodic lines often
have a pleasing dance-like quality, though they are generally weak in
substance. (See GroveO.)
WORKS
Ops: I dotti per fanatismo, Naples, 1835; La lettera perduta, Naples, 1836; La
parola di matrimonio, Naples, 1837; L’americano in fiera, Naples, 1837; L’affamato
senza danaro, Naples, 1839; Il padre della debuttante, Naples, 1839; La marchesa
e il ballerino, Naples, 1840; Il condannato di Saragozza, Naples, 1842; Sara, ovvero
La pazza di Scozia, Palermo, 1843; Il gemello, Naples, 1845; Una passeggiata sul
palchetto a vapore, Venice, 1845; Giulia di Tolosa, Naples, 1847; Don Gregorio,
perf. Paris, 1859 as Don Grégoire, ou Le précepteur dans l’embarras; Le petit
cousin, operetta, Paris, 1860; Les mémoires de Fanchette, Paris, 1865; Ester, n.d.;
Il bugiardo veritiero, n.d.; c3 others
Ballets: L’assedio di Schiraz, Milan, 1840; Gemma, Paris, 1854; Les elfes, Paris,
1856; L’étoile de Messine, Paris, 1861; c55 others, incl. Edwige, Il rajà di Benares,
La sposa veneziana, Paquita (perf. Naples); Les almées (perf. Lyons); Yotte (perf.
Vienna)
Simon Bolivar, march, orch, after 1870, pf score (Paris, 1883)
FRANCESCO BUSSI (with JOHN BLACK)

Gabrilovich [Gabrilowitsch], Ossip

(Salomonovich)
(b St Petersburg, 26 Jan/7 Feb 1878; d Detroit, 14 Sept 1936). American
pianist, conductor and composer of Russian birth. From 1888 he studied
the piano with Anton Rubinstein and composition and theory with Navrátil,
Lyadov and Glazunov at the St Petersburg Conservatory, graduating in
1894 as winner of the Rubinstein Prize. On Rubinstein's advice he spent
the next two years studying with Leschetizky in Vienna. His first public
appearance was in Berlin in October 1896, after which he made frequent
successful tours in Europe. His first American tour was in 1900, followed by
numerous others. From 1910 to 1914 he was conductor of the Munich
Konzertverein.
Gabrilovich settled in the USA in 1914, and in 1916 was appointed
conductor of the Detroit SO, which he conducted until his death and which
he brought to a high standard. He kept up his public appearances as a
pianist. His style was one of great finish, delicacy and restraint, frequently
more reflective than dramatic, though not lacking in power or in depth of
expression. Among his notable achievements was a series of historical
concerts, showing the development of the piano concerto, in which he
played 18 such works. In 1909 Gabrilovich married Mark Twain's daughter,
Clara Clemens, a contralto, who appeared with her husband in recitals. He
composed an Ouverture rhapsodie for orchestra, an Elegy for cello, and
piano pieces, several of which he included in recital programmes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Clemens: My Husband Gabrilowitsch (New York and London, 1938/R)
B. Walter: Theme and Variations: an Autobiography (New York, 1946; Ger.
orig., 1947)
C. de Horvath: ‘Ossip Gabrilovich was my Teacher’, News Bulletin of the
Leschetizky Association (1964), June, 14–16
RICHARD ALDRICH/JAMES METHUEN-CAMPBELL

Gábry, György
(b Istanbul, 23 April 1927). Hungarian musicologist. At the Liszt Academy of
Music, Budapest, he studied composition with Ferenc Szabó (1947–51)
and musicology (1952–7). From 1957 he worked in the music collection of
the Hungarian National Museum, and in 1974 he was appointed a research
fellow at the Music History Museum of the musicology institute of the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences. From 1979 until his retirement in 1987 he
worked in the music collection of the Ethnographic Museum, Budapest. In
his research Gábry has concentrated on the history of instruments,
particularly those of the Baroque period, with special emphasis on
Hungarian instruments. His chief interest in his museum work has been the
surviving evidence of Liszt’s activity in Hungary.
WRITINGS
‘Brandenburgi Katalin virginálja’, Folia archaeologica, xi (1959), 179–85
[with Ger. summary]
‘Marie Antoinette aranyhárfája’ [The golden harp of Marie Antoinette], Folia
archaeologica, xiii (1961), 269–76 [with Fr. summary]
‘Das Meisterbuch der Pester Instrumentenmacher-Innung’, SMH, ii (1962),
331–44
‘II. József gyermekkori csembalója’ [The childhood harpsichord of Joseph
II], Arrabona, vi (1964), 143–8 [summaries in Fr., Ger.]
‘Das Klavier Beethovens und Liszts’, SMH, viii (1966), 379–90
‘Das Reiseklavichord W.A. Mozarts’, SMH, x (1968), 153–62
‘Neuere Liszt-Dokumente’, SMH, x (1968), 339–52
Régi hangszerek [Old musical instruments] (Budapest, 1969; Eng. trans.,
1969, 2/1976)
‘Symphonia Ungarorum’, SMH, xii (1970), 291–7
‘Le “tárogató”, ancien chalumeau hongrois’, SMH, xiii (1971), 61–72
‘The Evolution of the Hungarian National Museum Music Collection’, SMH,
xiv (1972), 430–38
‘Adalékok Balassi Bálint énekelt verseinek dallamaihoz’ [The melodies of
Balassi’s poems], Filológiai közlöny, xix/1–2 (1973), 71–86
‘Liszt Ferenc zongorái’ [Liszt’s pianos], Folia historica, ii (1973), 123–34
[with Ger. summary]
‘Franz Liszt-Reliquien im Nationalmuseum Budapest’, SMH, xvii (1975),
407–23
‘A virgina’, Magyar zene, xviii (1977), 406–18
‘Paraszti életrajzok a Pátria népzenei hanglemezek tükrében II’ [Rustic life
as reflected in Patria folk music recording II], Magyar zene, xxiii
(1982), 295–308
‘Liszt Ferenc és C.F. Weitzmann’, Magyar zene, xxiv (1983), 305–11
EDITIONS
J.G. Albrechtsberger: Partita in F, Musica rinata, xvii (Budapest, 1970);
Due Partite, Musica rinata, xix (Budapest, 1971)
VERA LAMPERT

Gabucci, Giulio Cesare.

See Gabussi, Giulio Cesare.

Gabunia, Nodar
(b Tbilisi, 9 July 1933). Georgian composer, pianist and teacher. He
studied at the Tbilisi Conservatory and then at the Moscow Conservatory
with Goldenweiser for piano and Khachaturian for composition. In 1962 he
returned to the Tbilisi Conservatory to teach the piano, and in 1984 he was
appointed rector of that institution as well as president of the Georgian
Composers’ Union. Recognition as both pianist and composer came to him
early, at a time when he belonged to a group of Georgian composers
 moving towards Stravinsky, Prokofiev and, most of all, Bartók. Gabunia's
Igav-araki (‘Fable’, 1964) is one of the most successful syntheses of these
Eastern European compositional models with a clear Georgian musical
identity. The piece is a kind of madrigal comedy in the modern form of a
concert satire. Many aspects of it were new to Georgian music –
polyrhythm and polymetre, the sharp dissonance of polytonal chords, the
variation of short motifs, the freshness and richness of timbre – and yet
these features were organically connected to the modal and polyphonic
particularities of west Georgian folk music. Bartók was the guiding spirit, as
throughout Gabunia’s creative life. Another continuity lies in his adherence
to chamber and chamber-orchestral music, allowing a deepening and
emotional intensification of style which is realized with particular fullness in
his Second Quartet, one of his best known works. For the piano he writes
as a virtuoso, using modernist devices – clusters, mechanical rhythms, new
modes of playing – alongside lyrical episodes that suggest a feeling for
nature and an elegiac-pensive mood. His later compositions are simpler
and more diatonic.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Kvarkvare Tutaberi (musical comedy, after P. Kakabadze), 1973

Orch: Pf Conc. no.1, 1961; Poėma-ėlegiya, ob, str, timp, 1963; Sym. no.1, 1972; Pf
Conc. no.2, 1976; Vn Conc., 1981; Sym. no.2, 1984; Sym. no.3 ‘Giocconda’, 1988;
Pf Conc. no.3, 1996
Chbr and solo inst: Pf Sonata, 1966; Pf Sonata, 1968; Str Qt, 1978; Sonata, tpt, pf,
perc, 1980; Str Qt, 1982; Pf Sonata, 1987; other works for pf, org, chbr ens
Vocal: Igav-araki: Soplis mshenebelni [Fable: Builders of the Countryside] (after
S.S. Orbeliani), spkr, T, Bar, B, fl, 3 cl, bn, db, pf, 1964, rev. vv, chbr orch, 1983;
Stanzas (A. Chavchavadze, Besiki), song cycle, B, pf, 1977; works for chorus
Film scores, incid music

Principal publishers: Muzfond Gruzii, Muzgiz, Muzika, Sovetskiy kompozitor

WRITINGS
‘Akhalgazrda kompositorebis shemokmedeba’ [The works of young
composers], Sabchota khelovneba (1976), no.6, pp.13–17
‘Kartvel kompozitorta shemokmedebiti Angarishi’ [Creative report of
Georgian composers], Sabchota khelovneba (1978), no.7, pp.23–7
‘Ra aris Bartokis sidiade’ [What is Bartók’s greatness], Sabchota
khelovneba (1981), no.7, pp.48–53
‘Khalkhuri traditsia da novatoroba’ [Folk tradition and innovation],
Literaturuli sakartvelo (1984), no.48, pp.12–13
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Znakom'tes': molodost'!’ [Get to know each other: the
youth], SovM (1963), no.8, pp.17–18
D. Grigoriyev: ‘Oktyabr' v VDK’ [The October in VDK], SovM (1969), no.1,
pp.84–90
G. Gegechkori: ‘Nodar Gabunia’, Sabchota khelovneba (1973), no.12,
pp.54–8
M. Byalik: ‘U kompozitorov Gruzii’ [With the Georgian composers],
Muzïkal'naya zhizn’ (1974), no.6, pp.4–5
I. Nest'yev and Ya. Solodukho: ‘Grunzinskaya muzïka segodnya’
[Georgian music today], SovM (1977), no.8, pp.29–35
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Kartvel kompozitorta shemokmedebiti Angarishi’ [Creative
report of Georgian composers], Sabchota khelovneba (1977), no.8,
pp.28–40
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Musikos shemokmedta aghzvdis shesakheb’ [On the
education of creative musicians], Sabchota khelovneba (1977), no.9,
pp.49–62
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Gzebi da perspektivebi: tanamedrove kartuli musikis
ganvitarebis zogierti sakitkhi’ [Ways and perspectives: some problems
in the development of contemporary Georgian music], Sabchota
khelovneba (1978), no.10, pp.56–69
N. Zeifas: ‘Vecher gruzinskikh kvartetov’ [An evening of Georgian
quartets], SovM (1986), no.3, pp.55–7
LEAH DOLIDZE

Gaburo, Kenneth (Louis)

(b Somerville, NJ, 5 July 1926; d Iowa City, 26 Jan 1993). American
composer. He was awarded an MM from the Eastman School (1949) and
the DMus from the University of Illinois, Champaign (1962), and undertook
special studies at the Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome on a Fulbright
scholarship (1954–5), at the Berkshire Music Center (1956) and at the
Princeton Seminar in Advanced Musical Studies (1959). His teachers
included Petrassi and Bernard Rogers. He taught at Kent State University
(1949–50), McNeese State University (1950–54), the University of Illinois
(1955–68) and the University of California, San Diego (1968–75). In 1975
he founded Lingua Press, which issues scores, books, records, audio
tapes, videotapes and films. He received a George Gershwin Memorial
Award (1954), an award from the Berkshire Music Center (1956), a
UNESCO Creative Fellowship (1962), a Guggenheim Fellowship (1967)
and grants from the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (1971), the
NEA (1975–6), and other sources. Among the bodies which commissioned
his works were the Fromm Foundation and the Koussevitzky Foundation.
Gaburo was a prolific composer; his early compositions (for example,
Three Dedications to Lorca, 1953) were orientated towards tonality. From
1954 to 1959 his works were based on serial principles and complex
structural systems (for example, Ideas and Transformations no.1 for violin
and viola). In 1959 he began to investigate the physiological, acoustical,
and structural domains of language as compositional elements; this led to
a conception of ‘compositional linguistics’ on which many of his subsequent
works were based, among them Antiphonies II and III (1962–3) and the
Lingua series (from 1965). These works involve in various ways live and
electronically processed voices, texts clearly articulated and phonetically
fragmented, synthesized electronic sound and concrète mixes, live
instrumental ensembles, and theatrical elements. Gaburo founded and
conducted several groups under the title ‘New Music Choral Ensemble’
(NMCE) between 1962 and 1975; these were virtuoso groups which gave
numerous performances of contemporary works. NMCE IV (1972–5),
 supported by a Rockefeller grant, included theatrical elements – a mime,
an actor, a virtuoso speaker, a gymnast, and a sound-movement artist.
WORKS
(selective list)

dramatic and multimedia

Stage: The Snow Queen (op, 3, M. Wilson), Lake Charles, LA, 1952; Blur (op, 1,
Gaburo), actors, tape, 1955, Urbana, IL, 1956; Tiger Rag (incid music, S.
Schochen), 1957; The Widow (op, 1, Gaburo, after H. Melville), Saratoga Springs,
NY, 1961; The Hydrogen Juke Box (incid music, Schochen), tape, 1964
Lingua project: Lingua I (Poems and Other Theatres), 1965–70: Poesies, 7 pfmrs,
tape, Glass, S, A, T, B, 4 perc, Cantilena III, S, vn, Dante’s Joynte, 6 spkrs, lighting,
16 mm film, 2-track tape, Inside, db, Mouthpiece, tpt, 3 slide projectors, The Flight
of the Sparrow (actor, tape)/2 actors; Lingua II (Maledetto), 7 spkrs, 1967–9; Lingua
III (In the Can), 40 actors, slides, film, tape, 1970; Lingua IV (The Flow of (i) 2),
various media, 1970
Scratch Project, theatre piece and installation, 1982–8: Testimony (How it Is), tape,
video, paper documentation, 1982–7, Antiphony VIII (Revolution), perc, 4-track
tape, lighting, 1983–4, Pentagon/y, spkr, 1987, inc., De/bate, 3 actors, tape, 1972–
88, inc.
Other linguistic, sound/movement, music theatre: Privacy One: Words without
Song, graphics, text, 1950–74; 20 Sensing (Instruction) Compositions, 1968–73;
Collaboration I, text, cptr graphics, 6 scribers, slides, 2-track tape, 4-track tape,
1972, collab. H. Brün; Dwell ‘a collection-collecting of generative grammars in
memory: Arnold Schönberg’, 1973; My, my, my, what a wonderful fall, 5
dancers/acrobats, 4-track tape, light, 1974; Whole language language, spkr, slides,
1976–7; Serious music making in San Diego and other happy memories, pfmrs,
tape, text, slides, 1977; Essays on Damage – and Other, spkr, 1987–91: ISIT, LA,
AH DIO
Film and video: The Party (film, J. Thoreen, dir. Gaburo), 1973; Show-Tellies, video
compositions, 1974: Give-Take, Minim-Telling One, Two, Three; Testimony, tape,
video, paper documentation, 1982–7 [part of Scratch Project]
electronic
El-ac: Antiphony I (Voices), 3 str groups, tape, 1958; Antiphony II (Variations on a
Poem of Cavafy), S, SATB, tape, 1962; Antiphony III (Pearl-White Moments) (V.
Hommel), 16vv, tape, 1963; Antiphony IV (Poised) (Hommel), pic, b trbn, db, tape,
1967; Antiphony V, pf, tape, 1968, inc; Antiphony VI (Cogito) (Hommel), str qt, 2
slide projectors, 2-track tape, 4-track tape, 1971; … Ringings, 3 choruses, slides,
tape, film, 1976; Antiphony VIII, perc, 4-track tape, 1983–4 [part of Scratch project]
Antiphony IX ( … A DOT is no mere thing … ), orch, children performers, tape,
1984–5; Antiphony X (Winded), org, 8-track tape, 1989–91
Tape: The Wasting of Lucrecetzia, 1964; Fat Millie’s Lament, 1965; Lemon Drops,
1965; For Harry, 1966; Dante’s Joynte, 1966 [incl. in Lingua I]; Kyrie, 1974; Rerun,
1983; Of Metal, 1983; Few, 1985, collab. H. Chopin; Tapestry, 1986; Hiss, 1992;
Mouthpiece II, 1992
instrumental
Orch: 3 Interludes, str orch, 1948; Pf Concertante, 1949; On a Quiet Theme, 1950;
Elegy for a Small Orch, 1956; Shapes and Sounds, 1960
Chbr and solo inst: 5 Postludes, pf, 1948; Two Shorts and a Long, pf, 1948; 4
Inventions, cl, pf, text, 1954; Music for 5 Insts, fl, cl, tpt, trbn, pf, 1954; Ideas and
Transformations, 1955: no.1, vn, va, no.2, vn, vc, no.3, va, vc, no.4, str trio;
Pugliano, 5 poems with pf, 1955; Str Qt, 1956; Line Studies, fl, cl, va, trbn, 1957;
Inside, db, 1969 [part of Lingua I]; Mouthpiece, tpt, 1970 [part of Lingua I]
vocal
Choral: Snow and the Willow (W. De La Mare), SATB, 1950; Alas, Alack (De La
Mare), SA, 1950; 3 Dedications to Lorca, SATB, 1953; Humming, SATB, 1955; Ad
te domine, SATB, 1956; Ave Maria, SATB, 1956; Laetentur caeli, SATB, 1956; Terra
tremuit, SATB, 1956; Mass, TB, 1958; Ps, SATB, 1965; Never 1–4, 4 groups male
vv, 1966–7; Circumcision, 3 groups male vv, 1966–8; December 8, 40 male vv,
1967; Carissima I, II, SA, 1968; Dirige (Antiphonae) in memory: Igor Stravinsky,
choral ens, 1971; ENOUGH! … (not enough) … (B. Franklin), 40vv, perc, 1987–8
Solo vocal: Cantilena I (after R. Tagore), S, 1951; The Night is Still (Tagore), S, pf,
1952; Cantilena II, Bar, 1955; Stray Birds (Tagore), S, pf, 1959; TWO (Hommel),
Mez, a fl, db, 1962; Glass, S, A, T, B, 4 perc, 1966 [part of Lingua I]; Cantilena III, S,
vn, 1967 [part of Lingua I]; The Flow of (U), S, A, Bar, 1974; Subito, 1v, tpt, va, db,
1977–8; Cantilena IV (G.M. Hopkins), S, trbn, 1975

MS in US-NYp

Principal publishers: C. Fischer, Frog Peak, Lingua, Presser

WRITINGS
‘Petrassi’s Fifth Concerto for Orchestra’, MQ, xlii (1956), 530–33
Concerning Commonness and Other Conceptual Dysfunctions (La Jolla,
CA, 1980)
ed.: Allos, ‘Other’ Language: 41 Writers of 41 ‘Writings’ (La Jolla, CA,
1980)
Collaboration Two: David Dunn and Kenneth Gaburo Discuss Publishing
as Ecosystem (Ramona, CA, 1983)
‘How I Spent My Summer’, Dancewriting, i/2 (1984), 10–11
‘In Search of Partch’s BEWITCHED: Concerning Physicality’, Percussive
Notes, xxiii/3 (1985), 54–84
‘Reflections on Pietro Grossi’s Paganini al Computer: the Deterioration of
an Ideal, Ideally Deteriorized’, Computer Music Journal, ix/1 (1985),
39–44
‘LA’, PNM, xxv (1987), 496–510
Some Work: an Autobiography in the Form of a Collage (n.p., 1987)
[Lingua Press pubn]
ed. S. Smith and T. DeLio: ‘Rethink’, Words and Spaces (Lanham, MD,
1989), 73–102
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker20thC
EwenD
VintonD
R. Erickson: Sound Structure in Music (Berkeley, 1975)
R. Kostelanetz: ‘Making Music of the Sound of Words’, New York Times
(24 May 1977)
 W. Brooks and others: ‘Gaburo’, PNM, xviii (1979–80), 7–255 [series of
articles incl. material by Gaburo]
R. Kostelanetz: Dictionary of the Avant-Gardes (Chicago, 1993)
W. Burt and others: ‘A Kenneth Gaburo Memorial’, PNM, xxxiii (1995), 6–
190 [incl. interviews and correspondence with Gaburo]
JEROME ROSEN (text), KEITH MOORE (work-list, bibliography)

Gabussi [Gabucci, Gabusi,

Gabutio, Gabutius, Gabuzzi],
Giulio Cesare
(b Bologna, c1555–8; d Milan, 12 Sept 1611). Italian composer. He first
studied music at Ravenna and Loreto under Costanzo Porta, and then
became maestro di cappella at Forlì Cathedral. In 1582 Porta
recommended him to Cardinal Borromeo, and in 1583 he took up the post
of maestro di cappella at Milan which had been vacated by Pietro Pontio in
1581 or 1582. Briefly, between March 1601 and July 1602, he was
employed by King Sigismund III in Warsaw, after which he returned to
Milan where he took up his former duties in the cathedral. He remained
there until his death.
Gabussi's works show transitory stylistic features; his early motets and
madrigals are late Renaissance in style while his later sacred music is
typically Baroque. According to De Gani and Garbelotto, Gabussi was, after
Gaffurius, the first composer to write music adapted to the Milanese
Ambrosian rite, as well as being one of the first to put into practice the
instructions issued by the Council of Trent concerning polyphonic music.
Both Marcello in his Trattato delle consonanze armoniche (MS, 1707) and
G.B. Martini in his Esemplare ossia Saggio fondamentale pratico di
contrappunto (1774–5) praised Gabussi's command of counterpoint.
WORKS
sacred vocal
Motectorum liber primus, 5, 6vv (Venice, 1586)
Magnificat X, 5, 6vv, quibus in obitu Caroli Cardinalis Borromaei motectum, 8vv, &
Te Deum laudamus, 4vv, adijciuntur (Milan, 1589)

44 sacred works, 15961, 16042, 16101, 16193, 16194, 16212, 16233

secular vocal
Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1580)
Il secondo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1598); 2 ed. in MRS, xii (1993)
4 madrigals, 5vv, 12 other secular works, 1590 13; 159611; 16056, 160813, 11 ed. B.
Curtini, G.C. Gabussi: I brani … raccolti da Francesco Lucino (Milan, 1971);
161513
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Z. Jachimecki: Wpływy włoskie w muzyce polskiej [Italian influences in
Polish music] (Kraków, 1911)
 A. De Gani: La cappella del duomo di Milano (Milan, 1930), 19
Z. Jachimecki: Muzyka polska w rozwoju historycznym [Polish music in its
historical development], i/1 (Kraków, 1948), 158
A. Garbelotto: Il Padre Costanzo Porta da Cremona (Rome, 1955), 50ff,
59
W. Sandelewski: ‘Giulio Cesare Gabussi a kapela Zygmunta III w latach
1596–1602’ [Giulio Cesare Gabussi and the chapel of Sigismund III
during the years 1596–1602], Muzyka, viii/1–2 (1963), 60–74 [with
Eng. summary]
A. Szweykowska: ‘Przeobrażenia w kapeli królewskiej na przełomie XVI i
XVII wieku’ [Changes in the royal chapel in the late 16th century and
the 17th], Muzyka, xiii/2 (1968), 3–21 [with Eng. summary]
W. Sandelewski: ‘Giulio Cesare Gabussi in Polonia’, Incontro con la
musica italiana in Polonia dal Rinascimento al Barocco I: Parma and
Bydgoszcz 1969, 133–6
MIROSŁAW PERZ

Gabussi, Vincenzo
(b Bologna, 1800; d London, 12 Sept 1846). Italian composer and teacher,
elder brother of the singer Rita Gabussi De Bassini. He studied
counterpoint with Stanislao Mattei at the Liceo Musicale in Bologna and
became a teacher of singing and the piano. He made his successful début
as an opera composer with I furbi al cimento (Modena, 1825). In the same
year he went to London, where he lived for many years, highly regarded as
a teacher chiefly of amateurs of the best society. His second opera, Ernani
(Paris, 1834), was subjected to typically spiteful criticism by Bellini, whose I
puritani followed it on the stage of the Théâtre Italien. But Ernani proved a
fiasco, receiving only three performances, and was no threat to Bellini who
thereafter sarcastically referred to its composer as ‘the great Gabussi’. Also
unsuccessful was Clemenza di Valois (Venice, 1841), which most excited
its audiences through having caused its composer’s friend Rossini to make
his first visit to Venice for 17 years. Gabussi’s true sphere was that of vocal
salon music, in which his output includes canzoncine and romanze for one
and two voices. While amateurish in construction and mediocre in musical
and dramatic content, his works reveal him to have been a facile and
modish melodist, and this quality ensured the contemporary success of the
large number of romanzas, ariettas and, particularly, duets which he
published mostly in London and Milan.
WORKS
I furbi al cimento (melodramma comico, 2), Modena, Comunale, 12 Feb 1825
Ernani (dramma serio, 3, G. Rossi, after V. Hugo), Paris, Italien, 25 Nov 1834;
excerpts, pf acc. (Paris, n.d.)
Clemenza di Valois (melodramma, 3, Rossi, after E. Scribe: Gustave III), Venice,
Fenice, 20 Feb 1841; I-Mr*, Vt, vs (Milan, 1841)
Vocal: over 30 songs, 100 duets; trios; qts
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
G. Radiciotti: Gioacchino Rossini, ii (Tivoli, 1928), 233
L. Cambi: Vincenzo Bellini: epistolario (Milan, 1943), 482
F. D’Amico: ‘Il Ballo in maschera prima di Verdi’, Verdi: Bollettino
dell’Istituto di studi verdiani, i (1960), 1251–328
M. Engelhardt: Verdi und andere: ‘Un giorno di regno’, ‘Ernani’, ‘Attila’, ‘Il
corsaro’ in Mehrfachvertonungen (Parma, 1992)
GIOVANNI CARLI BALLOLA

Gace Brule
(b c1160; d after 1213). French trouvère. Gace’s shield was banded in red
and silver (burelé de gueules et d’argent de huit pièces; see illustration),
and his name is merely a description of this blazonry, altered through the
transposition of two letters. The name can be traced in two documents of
1212 and 1213: the first indicates that he owned land in Groslière
(département Eure-et-Loire, arrondissement Dreux) and that he had
dealings with the Knights Templar; the second records a gift from the future
Louis VIII. Apart from these facts, all other biographical information about
Gace rests on clues provided within his poetry. It is reasonably certain that
he was born in Champagne, and his home may have been Nanteuil-les-
Meaux (département Seine-et-Marne, arrondissement Meaux). He appears
to have spent some time at the court of Count Geoffrey II of Brittany, son of
King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. The Count of Brittany is mentioned
in Li plusour ont d’amours chanté, and a Count Geoffrey is the dedicatee of
A la doucour and Sans atente de gueredon; the identity of the two is
probable, but not beyond question. The count was intensely interested in
literature, and was the patron of Guiot de Provins and of the troubadours
Bertran de Born, Gaucelm Faidit and Guiraut de Calanson. Gace, par droit
me respondés, one of the earliest jeux-partis in Old French, involves the
Count of Brittany and Gace, and may be by them jointly.
Gace apparently also spent time at the court of Marie de France, Countess
of Brie and Champagne, and half-sister of Geoffrey II. She was active in
literary circles, having been the patroness of Richart de Berbezill, Gautier
d’Arras, Chrétien de Troyes and Conon de Béthune. Gace was also familiar
with others in the highest ranks of the nobility, including the counts of Blois
and Bar (presumably Louis and Thibaut I, respectively) and Guillaume V de
Garlande, known under the sobriquet ‘Noblet’. It would appear that Gace
was on fairly close terms with a number of the earliest generation of
trouvères, including Blondel de Nesle, Conon de Béthune, Gautier de
Dargies, Gilles de Vies Maisons, Pierre de Molins, Bouchart de Marly,
Amauri de Craon, and perhaps even Hugues de Berzé and the Chastelain
de Couci. Several of these took part in the crusades of the time, and there
are hints in Les consirers de mon päis, Tres grant amours and Bien cuidai
toute ma vie that Gace may have taken part in either the Third or Fourth
Crusade, possibly in both.
Gace Brule was not only the most prolific of the earliest trouvères, but also
one of the best known. En cel tens, Quant flours et glais and Bien cuidai
were quoted by Jean Renart in the Roman de la rose ou de Guillaume de
Dole, the first of the romans to incorporate such quotations. Cil qui
d’amour, Ne me sont pas, Pour verdure and Bien cuidai were inserted into
the closely contemporaneous Roman de la violette by Gerbert de
Montreuil, the two tales having been written probably between 1220 and
1230. Cil qui d’amour me conseille and Li plusour appear in the Méliacin
ou la Conte du cheval de fust, while Au renouveau de la doucour d’esté
and Pour verdure ne pour pree are included, misattributed, in the Roman
du castelain de Couci et de la dame de Fayel. Yet another work, Ire
d’amour, was cited by Dante in De vulgari eloquentia, but with an
erroneous attribution to Thibaut IV of Champagne. Brief quotations of
works by Gace or allusions to him appear in chansons by Gontier de
Soignies (R.433), Gautier de Dargies (R.708), Gilles de Vies Maisons
(R.1252) and Guillaume Le Vinier (R.691 and 1859). A number of poems
by Gace provided the models for later imitations; De bone amour et de loial
amie in particular served as model for four other trouvère songs and for
one by a German Minnesinger as well. Latin contrafacta include works by
Philippe de Grève and Adam de la Bassée.
The great popularity enjoyed by Gace derives more from the fact that he
satisfied admirably the conventions of his time than from particular
originality of situation, imagery, or structure. The poet followed faithfully,
and seldom strayed from, the paths laid by earlier troubadours. Among the
many chansons attributed to Gace, only three, L’autrier estoie, Quant bone
dame and Quant voi l’aube, do not begin with the rhyme scheme ABAB. Of
the remainder, ten continue this pairing of rhymes still further; the rest are
built in the standard pattern of two equal pedes and contrasting cauda. The
continuation of the paired rhyme scheme in Quant voi la flor botoner is
deceptive in that the musical structure would seem to indicate that the work
was conceived in terms of pedes of four lines each. Most poems consist of
either five or six strophes. Usually there are seven or eight verses per
strophe, although there may be as many as 11 and as few as six. The
largest single group of works is composed of isometric, decasyllabic
strophes, while others intermingle decasyllables with shorter verses.
Isometric heptasyllabic and octosyllabic verses are also fairly frequent. In
the few more complex poems, Gace employed three or four different line
lengths.
There is a corresponding lack of variety in the larger aspects of the musical
structures. Among the original settings of the works certainly or very
probably by Gace there is only one, Bien ait amours, that is not in bar form;
it follows instead the scheme ABCDEFA'B'. On the other hand, the
treatment of the cauda itself is more flexible: about two dozen melodies
use new material throughout the concluding section, while the remainder
display repetition patterns of different kinds. More than half of the original
settings have finals on d, and there is a heavy preponderance of authentic
modes. A curiosity worthy of some note is the appearance of f in three
chansons having a final on d, Au renouveau, Desconfortés, plain de dolor
and Ne puis faillir; c is notated in Quant l’erbe muert, while e appears in
De bone amour. A few chansons use common motifs, such as the leap
from d to a that appears at the opening of several phrases. The rhythmic
construction of the melodies is quite variable: in F-Pn fr.846 (Chansonnier
Cangé), Chanter me plaist, De bone amour, Tant m’a mené, and large
portions of Ne me sont pas achoison de chanter are notated in 3rd mode;
in the same source Sorpris d’amors and large parts of Quant define, Quant
noif and Quant voi la flor are notated in 2nd mode. Normally, however,
there are few indications of regular rhythmic patterns in the music, although
there is a perceptible tendency to increase rhythmic activity towards the
 end of the phrase, a trait common in the works of many other trouvère
composers.

See also Troubadours, trouvères.

Sources, MS

WORKS

Editions:Trouvères-Melodien, i, ed. H. van der Werf, MMMA, xi (1977)Trouvère Lyrics with

Melodies: Complete Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler, CMM, cvii (1997)

Abbreviations: (R) etc. indicates a MS (using Schwan sigla: see Sources, ms) containing a
late setting of a poem; where the siglum is italicized the poem occurs only in that MS.

(nm) no music
A la doucour de la bele saison, R.1893 (V)
A malaise est qui sert en esperance, R.225
Au renouveau de la doucour d’esté, R.437 [model for: Anon., ‘Chancon ferai puis
que Dieus m’a doné’, R.425]
Bel m’est quant je voi repairier, R.1304 (nm)
Biaus m’est estés, quant retentist la breuille, R.1006 (M)
Bien ait Amours qui m’enseigne, R.562(=115) (nm)
Bien ait l’amour dont l’en cuide avoir joie, R.1724 (V)
Chancon de plain et de soupir, R.1463 (R)
Chanter m’estuet ireement, R.687 (V)
Chanter me plaist qui de joie est nouris, R.1572 (V)
Cil qui aime de bone volenté, R.479
Cil qui d’amour me conseille, R.565(=567) [model for: Anon., ‘Buer fu nes qui
s’apareille’, R.563], NOHM, ii, 230 (R,V)
Cil qui tous les maus essaie, R.111 (V)
Compaignon, je sai tel chose, R.1939
Contre le froit tens d’iver qui fraint pluie, R.1193a(=867) (nm)
Dame, merci, se j’ain trop hautement, R.686 (M, R)
De bien amer grant joie atent, R.643 (V)
De bone amour et de loial amie, R.1102 [model for: Anon., ‘Souvent me vient au
cuer la remembrance’, R.247; Thibaut IV, ‘De bone amour et de loial amie/Vaurai
chanter’, R.1102a; Anon., ‘Loer m’estuet la roine Marie’, R.1178 (nm); Anon.,
‘Chanter m’estuet de la vierge Marie’, R.1181a (different melody); Rudolf von Fenis-
Neuenburg, ‘Minne gebuitet mir daz ich singe’]
De la joie que desir tant, R.361
Desconfortés, plain de dolor et d’ire, R.1498 (V)
Desconfortés, plain d’ire et de pesance, R.233 [model for: Oede de la Couroierie,
‘Trop ai longuement’, R.210, and ‘Deconfortes com cil qui est sans joie’, R.1740]
Des or me vuel esjoir, R.1407(=1408) (nm)
Douce dame, gres et graces vous rent, R.719 [contrafactum: Philippe de Grève,
‘Pater sancte dictus Lotharius’] (V)
En cel tens que voi frimer, R.857(=2027)
En chantant m’estuet complaindre, R.126 (V)
En dous tens et en bone heure, R.1011 (V)
En tous tens ma dame ai chiere, R.1324 (nm)
Foille ne flour ne rousee ne mente, R.750 (M)
Gace, par droit me respondés, R.948 (nm) (respondent to the Count of Brittany;
work of possible joint authorship)
Grant pechié fait qui de chanter me prie, R.1199(=1751) (V)
Ire d’amour qui en mon cuer repaire, R.171 (V)
Iriés et destrois et pensis, R.1590
Je ne m’en puis si loing foir, R.1414 (V)
Je n’oi piec’a nul talent de chanter, R.801
L’autrier estoie en un vergier, R.1321
Les consirers de mon pais, R.1578 (M)
Les oiselés de mon pais, R.1579
Li plusour ont d’amours chanté, R.413 (R)
Ma volentés me requiert et semont, R.1923 (nm)
Merci, Amours, qu’iert il de mon martire, R.1502
Ne me sont pas achoison de chanter, R.787
Ne puis faillir a bone chançon faire, R.160 (V)
N’est pas a soi qui aime coraument, R.653 (V)
Oiés pour quoi plaing et soupir, R.1465 (V)
Pensis d’amours vueil retraire, R.187 (M,V, a)
Pour verdure ne pour pree, R.549
Quant bone dame et fine amour me prie, R.1198 (V)
Quant define fueille et flour, R.1977 (R,V)
Quant flours et glais et verdure s’esloigne, R.1779(=2119) [model for: Anon., ‘Quant
glace et nois et froidure s’esloigne’, R.1778]
Quant je voi la noif remise, R.1638 (M,V)
Quant je voi l’erbe reprendre, R.633 (V)
Quant l’erbe muert, voi la fueille cheoir, R.1795 (R,V)
Quant li tens reverdoie, R.1757 (M)
Quant noif et gel et froidure, R.2099 (M,V)
Quant voi la flor botoner, R.772 (V)
Quant voi le tens bel et cler, R.838
Qui sert de fausse proiere, R.1332 (V)
Sans atente de gueredon, R.1867 (V)
Sorpris d’amors et plains d’ire, R.1501 (V)
Tant de soulas come j’ai pour chanter, R.826(=788) (V)
Tant m’a mené force de signorage, R.42 (V)
Tres grant amours me traveille et confont, R.1915 (nm)

doubtful works
A grant tort me fait languir, R.1422
A la doucour d’esté qui reverdoie, R.1754 (V)
Amours qui a son oes m’a pris, R.1591 (nm)
Bien cuidai toute ma vie, R.1232
Dieus saut ma dame et doint honour et joie, R.1735
Fine amours et bone esperance, R.221 [model for: Anon., ‘Fine amours et bone
esperance/Me fait’, R.222; Anon., ‘L’autrier par une matinee’, R.530a(=528); Anon.,
‘Douce, dame, vierge Marie’, R.1179] (R)
Ire d’amours, anuis, et mescheance, R.230 (nm)
Ja de chanter en ma vie, R.1229
J’ai oublié paine et travaus, R.389 (V)
Las, pour quoi m’entremis d’amer, R.762
Li biaus estés se resclaire, R.183
Moins ai joie je ne seuil, R.998 (V)
Mout ai esté longuement esbahis, R.1536 (V)
Or ne puis je celer, R.773 (nm)
Par quel forfait ne par quele ochoison, R.1876a(=1872=1884) (R)
Pour faire l’autrui volenté, R.477 (nm)
Pour mal tens ne pour gelee, R.522 (nm)
Quant fine amour me prie que je chant, R.306 (V)
Quant je voi le dous tens venir, R.1486
Quant voi l’aube du jour venir, R.1481 (nm)
Quant voi paroir la fueille en la ramee, R.550 [model for Adam de la Bassée, ‘O
quam fallax est mundi gloria’] (V)
Quant voi reverdir l’arbroie, R.1690
Trop m’est souvent fine amours anemie, R.1106 (nm)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Gennrich: ‘Sieben Melodien zu mittelhochdeutschen Minneliedern’,
ZMw, vii (1924), 65–98
T. Gérold: La musique au Moyen Age (Paris, 1932/R)
T. Gérold: Histoire de la musique des origines à la fin du XIVe siècle
(Paris, 1936/R)
F. Gennrich: ‘ Zwei altfranzösische Lais’, Studi medievali, new ser., xv
(1942), 1–68
H. Petersen Dyggve: Gace Brulé: trouvère champenois: édition des
chansons et étude historique (Helsinki, 1951)
R. Dragonetti: La technique poétque des trouvères dans la chanson
courtoise: contribution à l’étude de la rhétorique médiévale (Bruges,
1960/R)
H. van der Werf: The Chansons of the Troubadours and Trouvères: a
Study of the Melodies and their Relation to the Poems (Utrecht, 1972)
A.F. Carrara: ‘Il linguaggio poetico di Gace Brulé e la tradizione lirica
occitania’, Spicilegio moderno, no.11 (1978), 90–120
I.R. Parker: ‘A propos de la tradition manuscrite des chansons de
trouvères’, RdM, lxiv (1978), 181–202
D.J. Mayer-Martin: Melodic Materials in Trouvère Music: a Comparative
Analysis of the Chansons of Châtelain de Coucy, Gace Brulé, Thibaut
de Champagne, and Gillebert de Berneville (diss, U. of Cincinnati,
1981)
D.J. Mayer-Martin: ‘The Chansons of Gace Brulé: a Stylistic Study of the
Melodies’, Literary and Historical Perspectives of the Middle Ages, ed.
P. Cummins and others (Morgantown, WV, 1982), 93–103
S.N. Rosenberg and S. Danon, eds.: The Lyrics and Melodies of Gace
Brulé (New York, 1985) [music ed. H. van der Werf]
H. Tischler: ‘Trouvère Songs: the Evolution of their Poetic and Musical
Styles’,MQ, lxxii (1986), 329–40
H. Tischler: ‘Mode, Modulation, and Transposition in Medieval Songs’, JM,
xiii (1995), 277–83

For further bibliography see Troubadours, trouvères.

 THEODORE KARP

Gaci, Pjetër
(b Shkodra, 27 March 1931; d Tirana, 27 March 1995). Albanian composer
and violinist. Jakova enabled him to study the violin at the Jordan Misja Art
Lyceum, Tirana (1948–52). He then studied at the Moscow Conservatory
(1952–6) with Yampol'sky and others. On his return to Albania he led the
orchestra at the Tirana Opera and taught the violin at the Jordan Misja Art
Lyceum (1958–67). After serving as artistic director of the Tirana Circus,
the ‘Estrada’ Revue Theatre and the Puppet Theatre, he moved in 1970 to
Shkodra, where he received a full salary from the state in order to devote
himself full-time to composition as a ‘free professional composer’.
Although he was one of the first Albanian composers to study in Moscow,
Gaci did not remain in the forefront of musical life. Though he is known
principally for his patriotic canatatas and songs, such as Për ty atdheu (‘For
Thee, O Fatherland’, 1961) and Gryka e Kaçanikut (‘The Passage of
Kaçaniku’, ?1980), his concert works, such as the Violin Concerto (1959),
with its remote echoes of Dvořák and Khachaturian, and the spontaneous
one-movement Concertino (1979), demonstrate an inexhaustible melodic
inventiveness, enriched by his knowledge of Shkodran folksong. His
operas, meanwhile, especially the masterly Toka jöne (‘Our Land’),
demonstrate a keen sense of drama and stage timing, and of the qualities
of the Albanian language.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Marifetet e tetos Sherifesë [The Guiles of Aunt Sherifé] (comedy-

vaudeville, 3, A. Pano), Durrës, House of Culture, 1961; Përtej mjergulës [Beyond
the Fog] or Minatorët [Mine Workers] (op, 1, S. Kasapi), Tirana, Theatre of Opera
and Ballet, 27 May 1971; Luftëtarët e lirisë [Freedom Fighters] (ballet, 1, Gaci,
choreog. P. Kanaçi), ?1974; Toka jonë [Our Land] (op, 3, K. Jakova and N. Luca),
Tirana, Theatre of Opera and Ballet, 6 June 1981; 6 ballet scenes, all Tirana, 1961–
8, 6 film scores, 1963–85, and incid music for two plays by F. Kraja, Shkodra, 1978,
1979
Choral-orch: Festë e madhe [The Great Festivity], cant., S, A, T, B, mixed chorus,
orch, 1961; Kantate për 20 vjetorin e Partisë [Cant. for the 20th Anniversary of the
Party], ?solo vv, mixed chorus, orch, 1961; Epopea e lavdishme [The Glorious
Epopee], cant., solo vv, mixed chorus, orch, 1962; Për ty Atdheu [For Thee, O
Fatherland] (Gaci), B, mixed chorus, orch, 1964; O moj Shqipni, e mjera Shqipni [O
Albania, Poor Albania] (cant., P. Vasa), S, Mez, T, Bar, mixed chorus, orch, 1968;
Përse mendohen këto male [Why are these Mountains so Pensive] (I. Kadare), S,
mixed chorus, orch, before 1982; Partisë [To the Party] (cant., F. Kraja), Bar, mixed
chorus, orch, 1984; Firma e popullit tim [The Signature of my People] (vocal-sym.
poem, K. Petriti), S, mixed chorus, orch, 1989–, ?unfinished
Orch: Conc., b, vn/fl, orch, 1959; Rhapsody, pf, orch, perf. Tirana, May 1967; Vallja
no.1 [Sym. Dance], 1971; Vallja no.2 ‘Sqiponjat’ [Eagles], 1974; Vallja no.3
‘Heroizmi e ditëve tona’ [The Heroism of our Days], 1974; Concertino ‘Gëzim i
fëmijeve’ [Children's Joy], vn, orch, 1977; Rhapsody, a, vn, orch, 1983–4; Prelude,
vn, orch, 1984
Other inst: Vallja, 10 vn, 1990; 7 pieces for vn, pf (Tirana, 1986)
Songs: Kur bie Fyelli e Çiftelia [When the Fyell and the Çifteli play], female v, orch,
before 1980; Grusht bashkuar rreth partisë [Like a Fist United Around the Party]
(Gaci), T, small chorus, orch, before 1980; Poeti partizan [Partisan Poet] (R. Qatipi),
T, orch, before 1980; Shqiponjë e lirë [Free Eagle] (Gaci), female v, orch, before
1980; Të atdheut jemi ushtarë [We are Soldiers of our Fatherland], 1v, orch, before
1980 [orchd K. Uçi]; Gryka e Kaçanikut [The Passage of Kaçaniku] (P. Shtjefni), 1v,
mixed chorus, orch, ?1980; Sot flamujit ngrihen [Today Banners Rise], before 1983;
Mes jush [Among You], before 1983; Biri i Shqipërise [Sons of Albania] (Qatipi), T,
orch before 1983; Syni i kaltër [Blue Eyes], after 1983; Asht liqeni bahçja jonë
[When you put your Hand on my Hand] (Shtjefni), after 1983; Kush e vret pranverën
tonë [Who has Killed our Spring] (Shtjefni), after 1983; Shpirt i trazuar [A Soul in
Confusion] (Shtjefni), after 1983

BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Kalemi: Arritjet e artit tonë muzikor: vepra dhe krijues të musikës
shqiptare [Achievements of our musical art: creations and creators of
Albanian music] (Tirana, 1982), 144–7
A. Paparisto and others: Historia e muzikës Shqiptare [A history of
Albanian music] (Tirana, 1983)
P. Shtjefni: Shpirti yt këndon gjithmonë: Kujtime për Pjetër Gacin [His spirit
always sings: recollections of Pjetër Gaci] (Shkodra, 1996)
GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

Gade, Niels W(ilhelm)

(b Copenhagen, 22 Feb 1817; d Copenhagen, 21 Dec 1890). Danish
composer, conductor, violinist, educationist and administrator. For his wide-
ranging musical activity Gade ranks as the most important figure in 19th-
century Danish music.
He had musical parents, his father being a cabinet maker who about the
time of Gade’s birth began to specialize in making musical instruments.
Gade showed a pronounced musical talent at an early age, and plans for
him to join his father’s business as an apprentice were quickly overtaken
by his desire to become a musician. At 15 he began to study the violin with
F.T. Wexschall and theory and composition with A.P. Berggreen, a leading
figure in the Danish folk-ballad movement. He made his début as a violinist
in May 1833, and in the following year he was engaged as a junior violinist
in the Royal Orchestra.
During the 1830s Gade developed his talents, playing chamber music with
friends from the Royal Orchestra (Beethoven’s string quartets were a
particular favourite), and composing feverishly. His early attempts at
composition include songs, chamber music, ballet music and orchestral
overtures, although the results were inconsistent. Some of the songs were
successful, but the overture Socrates was not: the Royal Orchestra played
it for Gade, whereupon he burnt it in disappointment. Of far greater
importance to his intellectual development during these years was his
contact with friends of his own age, in particular musicians and actors,
through whom he became acquainted with German Romantic literature and
with contemporary music.
The breakthrough for Gade came in 1840, when he won a competition
arranged by the Copenhagen Music Society (founded in 1836) with his
concert overture Efterklange af Ossian (‘Echoes of Ossian’). The
adjudicators were Spohr and Friedrich Schneider; Mendelssohn was also
appointed, but owing to the pressure of work did not attend. Particularly in
the light of the compositions of the 1830s, the Ossian overture is an
extraordinary work, being extremely individual and expertly written. Gade
succeeded in matching his melodic capacity to his ambitions in
instrumental and particularly symphonic music. The new features in his
work, an archaizing ballad manner and the generally regular thematic
formation, are reflected in the motto of the overture: ‘Formel hält uns nicht
gebunden, unsre Kunst heisst Poesie’ (‘Formula does not constrain us; our
art is called Poetry’) (Uhland).
When Gade’s First Symphony (1841–2) was not accepted for performance
in Copenhagen, he sent the work to Mendelssohn, who received it with
enthusiasm and performed it with great success in March 1843. Following
this success a government grant enabled Gade to go to Leipzig, where he
met Mendelssohn and Schumann, performed his First Symphony at the
Gewandhaus, and was engaged as assistant conductor of the
Gewandhaus Orchestra and as a teacher at the Leipzig Conservatory
under Mendelssohn. Schumann wrote appreciatively of him in the Neue
Zeitschrift für Musik. After Mendelssohn’s death in 1847, Gade was
appointed chief conductor, but when in the spring of 1848 war broke out
between Prussia and Denmark he returned to Copenhagen. His works
composed during his stay in Leipzig, including the Third Symphony (1847)
and the String Octet (1848), show a development away from the nationally
inspired style towards that of Mendelssohn, whose influence was to remain
a characteristic feature of Gade’s music until his death, as may clearly be
seen in the String Quartet in D (1890).
On his return to Copenhagen, Gade took upon himself the reorganization
of the Music Society, which had languished for some years; under his
leadership it began to flourish again. Following the model of H.C. Lumbye’s
Tivoli orchestra, he established a permanent symphony orchestra and
chorus with which he raised Copenhagen’s concert life to international
standard. With these forces Gade gave the Danish première of
Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony and the first performances of a number of his
own major works; he also introduced the Baroque revival to Denmark,
including the first performance there of Bach’s St Matthew Passion.
Gade was married twice: in 1852 to Emma Sophie Hartmann (1831–55)
and in 1857 to Mathilde Staeger (1833–1915). In 1851 he became the
organist at the Garnison Church and in 1858 at the Holmens Church. In
1866 he was appointed director, with his father-in-law J.P.E. Hartmann, and
H.S. Paulli, of the newly established Copenhagen Conservatory. When
Gade died he was internationally recognized as a composer and
conductor, had undertaken many concert trips to Germany, the Netherlands
and Great Britain, and was acknowledged as a leading figure in Danish
musical life.
While Gade’s position in Danish musical life over a 40-year period is
unchallenged, his role as a composer has been the subject of intense
debate. What enthused both the Danish and the international public was
the distinctive ‘Nordic’ colour of Gade’s early music, which originated partly
from the combination of his melodic style with elements of Danish or Nordic
folk music. The assessment of Gade’s work became for many people a
question of whether he remained faithful to national folk colour or whether
he ‘betrayed’ it in favour of the more international style he had refined in
Leipzig under the influence of Mendelssohn. Such a view is hugely
simplistic and Gade became weary of being measured against this ‘Nordic’
yardstick. ‘One becomes tired of patriotism’, Grieg reported him to have
said.
Gade was, nevertheless, a conservative composer, and he did not strive
for a new creative aesthetic in the ‘New German’ sense. It is also true that
his music after the 1850s does not show overtly innovative stylistic
features, rather a subtle internal intensification of expression. Grand
rhetorical gestures were alien to him; he even used strong thematic
contrasts with caution. Clarity of expression and firmness of form remained
his hallmark, even in many works where Nordic colour is prominent.
Unfortunately, the issue of national colour has largely deflected attention
from Gade’s imaginative instrumentation and fine sense of thematic
development.
The backbone of Gade’s orchestral works consists of the eight symphonies
and eight overtures. The First Symphony in C minor builds thematically on
Gade’s own ballad-like melody for Paa Sjølunds fagre sletter (‘On Sjoland’s
fair plains’) and is the work – together with the Ossian overture and
Elverskud (‘The Elf-King’s Daughter’) where Nordic colour is most clearly
apparent. Symphonies nos.2 (1843), 3 (1847) and 4 (1850) are more
classically orientated. No.5 is distinguished by the inclusion of an obbligato
piano part, which attracted considerable attention at the first performance.
The last three are heavier, more serious and more personal in expression
than the others, and without major content of ‘Nordic’ elements. Of the
overtures, only the Ossian overture, the Michel Angelo overture and – in a
lighter genre – the overture to the singpspiel Mariotta are generally played
today.
Most of Gade’s chamber music was published during his lifetime. A notable
exception, however, are the string quartets, among which only the Quartet
in D major op.63 (1889) was printed. The Octet op.17, composed about the
time of his return to Copenhagen from Leipzig, is one of Gade’s most
widely played works and represents his most Mendelssohn-influenced
style. The Piano Trio op.42 (1863) and the Fantasy pieces for clarinet and
piano op.43 (1864) are also among his most popular works. The Sextet
op.44 (1864) – somewhat undeservedly – has never achieved the same
popularity. Among the violin sonatas, the D minor Sonata op.21 (1850)
merits particular mention. In his piano works Gade shows himself to be a
master of the short Romantic character piece. Although he was an
organist, Gade wrote few organ works. Among his relatively modest
production of stage music, Gade wrote parts of two ballets Napoli (Act 2
only, 1842) and Et folkesagn (‘A Folk Tale’, Acts 1 and 3 only, 1854), and
these are still frequently performed.
 Gade’s vocal works are dominated by the large cantatas for soloists, choir
and orchestra. The first in the series, Comala (1846), was composed in
Leizpig on a theme from Ossian, and is one of the works which Schumann
most admired. The one which is most frequently played – almost in the
nature of a Danish national cantata – is Elverskud (1854), composed
shortly after his return to Copenhagen, with themes from the Danish folk
ballads about Elverskud (the Elf-King’s daughter) and Elvehøj (Elf Hill).
Balders drøm (‘Baldur’s Dream’) also takes its theme from Nordic legend,
and is one of the few works in which a certain new German influence can
be discerned. In the later cantatas the themes move from the Nordic region
to more southern latitudes, and the Nordic colour – logically enough –
gives way to Gade’s more internationally orientated style. Zion (1874) and
Psyke (1882) were composed for the Birmingham Festival. In addition to
his cantatas, Gade composed a large number of choral songs (for
children’s choir, male choir and mixed choir) and solo songs, many of
which are at the centre of the Danish treasury of song.
About half of Gade’s output was unpublished during his lifetime, and the
first appearance of many works in the collected edition of his works
(1995–) should enable a fuller understanding of his music and its aesthetic
basis.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BO MARSCHNER/FINN EGELAND HANSEN
Gade, Niels W.
WORKS

Edition:Niels W. Gade: Works/Werke, ed. Foundation for the Publication of the Works of
Niels W. Gade (Copenhagen and Kassel, 1995–) [GW]

MSS in DK-Kk

stage
Agnete og Havmanden (incid music, H.C. Andersen), op.3, 1838–42
Faedrelandets muser [The Muses of our Fatherland] (ballet), 1840
Napoli (ballet, A. Bournonville), 1841–2 [Act 2 only]
Mariotta (Spl, C. Borgaard, after E. Scribe), 1848–9
Et folkesagn [A Folk Tale] (ballet, 3, Bournonville), 1853–4, arr. for pf 4 hands
(Copenhagen, 1896) [Act 2 by J.P.E. Hartmann]
choral
op.
11 Six Songs, 4 male vv, 1845 (Leipzig, 1846)
12 Comala (after Ossian) (cant.), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1846 (Leipzig, 1885)
13 Five Songs, 4vv, 1846 (Leipzig, 1846)
16 Reiterleben (C. Schultes), 6 songs, 4 male vv, 1848 (Leipzig, 1848)
30 Elverskud [Elf-King’s Daughter] (C.F. Molbech, C. Andersen and G. Siesbye),
solo vv, chorus, orch, 1851–4 (Leipzig, 1865)
23 Frühlings-Fantasie (E. Lobedanz), solo vv, orch, pf, 1852 (Leipzig, 1853)
26 Five Songs, 4 male vv, 1853 (Leipzig, 1853)
— Mindekantate over Fru Anna Nielsen [Cant. in Memory of Fru Anna Nielsen],
1856
— Baldurs drøm [Baldur’s Dream] (cant.), 1856–7 (Copenhagen, 1897)
33 Five Songs, 4 male vv, 1858 (Leipzig, 1858)
35 Frühlings-Botschaft (E. Geibel) (cant.), chorus, orch, 1858 (Leipzig, 1858)
— Mindekantate over Overhofmarschal Chamberlain Levetzau [Cant. in Memory
of Count Chamberlain Levetzau], 1859
— Mindekantate over skuespiller Nielsen [Cant. in Memory of the Actor Nielsen],
1860
40 Die heilige Nacht (cant., after A. von Platen), A, chorus, orch, 1861 (Leipzig,
1862)
38 Five Songs, 4 male vv, 1862 (Leipzig, 1862)
46 Ved solnedgang [At Sunset] (cant., A. Munch), chorus, orch, 1865 (Leipzig,
1865)
50 Korsfarerne [The Crusader] (cant., C. Andersen), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1865–6
(Leipzig, 1866–)
54 Gefion (cant., Oehlenschläger), Bar, chorus, orch, 1869
48 Kalanus (cant., C. Andersen), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1869 (Leipzig, 1871)
— Ved Danmarksstøtten [At the Danish Monument] (F. Paludan-Müller), 4vv, pf,
1869 (Copenhagen, 1869)
51 Aartidsbilleder [Pictures of the Seasons], solo vv, female chorus, pf 4 hands,
1871 (Leipzig, 1876)
— Festmusik ved den nordiske industriudstillings aabningsfest 1872 [Festival
Music for the Northern Industrial Exhibition, 1872] (Copenhagen, 1873)
52 Den bjergtagne [The Mountain Thrall] (cant., G. Hauch, after trad. Norse
ballad), solo vv, male chorus, orch, 1873
49 Zion (cant., Gade and Carl Andersen), Bar, chorus, orch, 1874 (Leipzig, 1877)
— Festmusik i anledning af Universitetets 400 aars jubelfest juni 1879 [Festival
Music for the 400th Anniversary of the University of Copenhagen, 1879]
(Copenhagen, 1879)
60 Psyke (cant., C. Andersen), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1881–2 (Leipzig, 1882)
— Festmusik ved det nordiske kunstnermøde [Festival Music for the Northern
Artists’ Congress], 1883
64 Der Strom (cant., after J.W. von Goethe: Mahomet), solo vv, chorus, orch, pf,
1889 (Leipzig, 1893)
orchestral
1 Efterklange af Ossian [Echoes of Ossian], ov., 1840 (Leipzig, 1854), GW I/9
5 Symphony no.1 ‘Paa Sjølunds fagre sletter’, 1842 (Leipzig, 1844)
10 Symphony no.2, E, 1843 (Leipzig, 1844), GW I/2
7 I højlandene [In the Highlands], ov., 1844 (Leipzig, 1844), GW I/9
14 Overture no.3, C, 1846 (Leipzig, 1847), GW I/9
15 Symphony no.3, a, 1847 (Leipzig, 1848), GW I/3
20 Symphony no.4, B , 1849–50 (Leipzig, 1851), GW I/4
— Nordische Sennfahrt [A Mountain Trip in the North], ov., 1850 (Copenhagen,
1887)
25 Symphony no.5, d, 1852 (Leipzig, 1853)
32 Symphony no.6, g, 1857 (Leipzig, 1858)
37 Hamlet, ov., 1861 (Leipzig, 1862)
39 Michel Angelo, ov., 1861 (Leipzig, 1861)
— Sørgemarsch ved Kong Frederik d. 7. Død [Funeral March for Frederik VII],
1863
45 Symphony no.7, F, 1864 (Leipzig, 1865)
47 Symphony no.8, b, 1869–71 (Leipzig, 1872), GW I/8
53 Novelletter, F, str orch, 1874 (Leipzig, 1876)
— Capriccio, a, vn, orch, pf score (Berlin, 1878)
55 En sommerdag paa landet [A Summer’s Day in the Country], 5 pieces, 1879
(Leipzig, 1880)
56 Violin Concerto, d, 1880 (Leipzig, 1881)
58 Novelletter, E, 1883, rev. 1886 (Leipzig, 1890)
61 Holbergiana, suite, 1884 (Leipzig, 1884)
— Ulysses-marsch: forspil til Holberg’s Ulysses von Ithaca, 1884
chamber
— Scherzo, c , pf qt, 1836, GW II/3
— String Quartet, a, 1836 [1 movt], GW II/2
— String Quintet, f, 2 vn, va, 2 vc, 1837 [1 movt], GW II/1
— Piano Trio, B , 1839, inc., GW II/3
— String Quartet, F, 1840, inc., GW II/2
6 Sonata no.1, A, vn, pf, 1842 (Leipzig, 1843)
8 String Quintet, e, 2 vn, 2 va, vc, 1845 (Leipzig, 1846–7), GW II/1
17 Octet, F, 4 vn, 2 va, 2 vc, 1848–9 (Leipzig, 1849), GW II/1
21 Sonata no.2, d, vn, pf, 1849 (Leipzig, 1850)
— String Quartet, f, 1851, GW II/2
29 Novelletter, pf trio, 1853 (Cologne, 1854), GW II/3
42 Piano Trio, F, 1862–3 (Leipzig, 1864), GW II/3
44 String Sextet, E , 2 vn, 2 va, 2 vc, 1863–4 (Leipzig, 1865), GW II/1
43 Fantasiestücke, cl, pf, 1864 (Leipzig, 1865)
— String Quartet, e, 1877, rev. 1889, GW II/2
59 Sonata no.3, B , vn, pf, 1885 (Leipzig, 1887)
62 Folkedanse, vn, pf, 1886 (Leipzig, 1887)
63 String Quartet, D, 1887–9 (Leipzig, 1890), GW II/2
keyboard
28 Piano Sonata, e, 1840, rev. 1854 (Copenhagen, 1854)
2b Foraarstoner [Spring Flowers], 3 pieces, pf, 1840–41 (Copenhagen, 1842)
4 Nordiske tonebilleder, pf 4 hands, 1842 (Copenhagen, 1843)
18 Tre karakterstykker, pf 4 hands, 1848 (Copenhagen, 1848)
19 Akvareller, pf, 1850 (Copenhagen, 1850)
22 Drei Tonstücke, org, 1851 (Leipzig, 1852/3)
— Albumsblade, pf (Copenhagen, 1852)
27 Arabeske, pf, 1854 (Copenhagen, 1854)
31 Folkedanse, pf, 1855 (Copenhagen, 1855)
— Fra skizzebogen, pf, 1857 (Copenhagen, 1886)
34 Idyller, pf, 1857 (Copenhagen, 1857)
36 Børnenes Jul [Children’s Christmas], pf, 1859 (Copenhagen, 1859)
41 Fantasistykker, pf, 1861 (Copenhagen, 1861)
— Festpraeludium, org, tpt, trbn, 1873 (Copenhagen, 1892)
2a Rebus, 3 pieces, pf (Copenhagen, 1875)
57 Nye akvareller, pf, 1881 (Copenhagen, 1881)
solo songs
for 1v, pf, unless otherwise stated
— Fem melodier til faedrelandshistoriske digte (A.P. Berggreen) (Copenhagen,
 1840)
— Seks danske sange, 1841 (Copenhagen, 1841)
9 Neun Lieder im Volkston, 2 S, pf, 1845 (Leipzig, 1845)
— Tre digte (C. Winter), 1842 (Copenhagen, 1846)
21b Tre digte (C. Hauch), 1849 (Copenhagen, 1850)
— Tre digte (H.C. Andersen), 1850 (Copenhagen, 1851)
24 Bilder des Orients (after Stieglitz), 5 songs, 1852 (Copenhagen, 1853)
— Tre danske sange, 1852 (Copenhagen, 1854)
— Holger Danske’s sange (B.S. Ingemann), 1863 (Copenhagen, 1863)
Gade, Niels W.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Thrane: Danske komponister (Copenhagen, 1875)
R. Henriques: Niels W. Gade (Copenhagen, 1891)
D. Gade: Niels W. Gade: optegnelser og breve (Copenhagen, 1892; Ger.
trans., 1894, 2/1912) [incl. chronological list of works]
C. Kjerulf: Niels W. Gade (Copenhagen, 1917)
A. Nielsen: ‘Fortegnelse over Niels W. Gades vaerker’, Aarbog for musik
1924, 60–80 [incl. systematized list of works]; corrections in K. Atlung:
‘Niels W. Gades vaerker’, DMt, xii (1937), 149, 177, 214
W. Behrend: Minder om Niels W. Gade (Copenhagen, 1930)
N.M. Jensen: Den danske romance 1800–1850 og dens musikalske
forudsaetninger (Copenhagen, 1964) [with Ger. summary]
S. Berg: ‘Litteratur omkring Niels W. Gade 1843–1950’, DMt, xlii (1967),
16–18 [incl. complete bibliography to 1950]
J.W. Gade: Omkring Niels W. Gade: breve fra fader og søn (Copenhagen,
1967)
K.A. Bruun: Dansk musiks historie fra Holberg-tiden til Carl Nielsen
(Copenhagen, 1969), ii, 82–136
B. Marschner: Den danske symfonis historie 1830–1890 (diss., U. of
Århus, 1969)
F. Mathiassen: ‘“Unsre Kunst heisst Poesie”: om Niels W. Gades Ossian-
ouverture’, STMf, liii (1971), 67–77 [with Ger. summary]
L. Brix: ‘Niels W. Gade als Klavierkomponist’, Mf, xxvi (1973), 22–36
N. Schiørring: ‘Niels W. Gade’, Musikkens historie i Danmark, ii
(Copenhagen, 1978), 287–322
F. Krummacher: ‘Gattung und Werk: zu Streichquartetten von Gade und
Berwald’, Gattung und Werk in der Musikgeschichte
Norddeutschlands und Skandinaviens: Kiel 1980, 154–75
F. Krummacher: ‘Niels W. Gade und die skandinavische Musik der
Romantik’, Christiana Albertina, new ser., no.16 (1982), 19–37
S. Oechsle: ‘Niels W. Gade und die “tote Zeit” der Symphonie’, DAM, xiv
(1983), 81–96
D. Fog: N.W. Gade-katalog: en fortegnelse over Niels W. Gades trykte
kompositioner (Copenhagen, 1986)
S. Oechsle: ‘Gefeiert, geachtet, vergessen: zum 100. Todestag Niels W.
Gades’, DAM, xix (1988–91), 171–84
F. Mathiassen: ‘Niels W. Gade og troldtøjet’, Festskrift Søren Sørensen,
ed. F.E. Hansen (Copenhagen, 1990), 71–88
N.M. Jensen: ‘Niels W. Gade og den nationale tone: dansk
nationalromantik i musikalsk belysning’, Dansk identitetshistorie, ii:
Folkets Danmark 1848–1940, ed. O. Feldbaek (Copenhagen, 1992),
188–336
 S. Oechsle: Symphonik nach Beethoven: Studien zu Schubert,
Schumann, Mendelssohn und Gade (Kassel, 1992)
B. Pelker: Die deutsche Konzertouvertüre (1825–1865): Werkkatalog und
Rezeptionsdokumente (Frankfurt, 1993)
A.H. Harwell: ‘Unsre Kunst heisst Poesie’: Niels W. Gade’s Early
Compositions and their Programmatic Origins (diss., Duke U., 1996)
F. Mathiassen: ‘Niels W. Gade og hans Eftermaele’, Caecilia 1998 [Århus]
(forthcoming)

Gadenstätter, Clemens
(b Zell am See, 26 July 1966). Austrian composer and conductor. He
studied composition with Erich Urbanner and the flute with Wolfgang
Schulz in Vienna (1984–92), where he also founded the Ensemble Neue
Musik (1990) and performed as a member of Klangforum Wien (1990–92).
He subsequently undertook postgraduate studies with Lachenmann in
Stuttgart (1992–5). He won the Forum junger Komponisten competition
organized by WDR in 1992, and has lectured at the Darmstadt Ferienkurse
für Neue Musik.
Gadenstätter's music can be considered a further development of
Lachenmann's ‘instrumental theatre’: in accordance with Gadenstätter's
notion of ‘analytical composition’, his scores are characterized by a
constant variety of finely differentiated sounds, which, though rich in
contrast, are nonetheless related below the surface. He has enjoyed fruitful
collaboration with artists working in other media, among them the video
artist Joseph Santarromana (from 1992), the choreographer Rose Breuss
(from 1994) and the poet Lisa Spalt.
WORKS
Inst, vocal: Trio 1990, str, 1990; Trio 90–91, vn, b cl, pf, 1990–91; Musik für
Orchesterensembles, 5 orch groups, 1990–94; Musik für Soloflöte, 1991; Musik für
Soli und Ensemble, fl, t sax, ens (2vv, 2 cl, 2 vc, 2 gui, 2 perc), 1991–2; Duo
(Studie I), vn, vc, 1992; … für zwei Klaviere (Studie II), 2 pf, 1992, rev. 1993–4;
Sextet und die fortsetzung: meine abmagerung – glasgewölbe, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf,
perc, 1993; schniTt, 15 insts, 1993–5; friktion, str trio, 1995; variationen und alte
themen, tbn, gui, vc, db, 1996; ballade L, 1v, pf, 1997
With tape: Versprachlichung: dreaming of land an arm's length away – die arie des
vogelnestaushebers. installation L (video installation, J. Santarromana), 8 insts,
tape, 1993, rev. [without video] as Versprachlichung: Musik für acht Instrumente
und Tonband, 1994

Principal publisher: Ariadne (Vienna)

WRITINGS
Contribution to Ton (1993–4), wint., 8ff
‘Struktur einer kompositorischen Utopie: Versuch, sich analytisch selbst
zu erfassen’, Ton (1994–5), wint., 21
‘Nicht nur Reizempfindung im Ohr’, ÖMZ, li (1996), 632–40
‘Komponieren’, Lexicon zeitgenössischer Musik aus Österreich:
Komponisten und Komponistinnen des 20. Jahrhunderts, ed. B.
Günther (Vienna, 1997), 454
‘3 Skizzen zum Verhältnis zwischen Musik und Sprache’, Wien Modern
Almanach (Vienna, 1997), 55
with L. Spalt: ‘Umschläge und Kippen: zu ballade L’, Ton, no.2 (1997), 42
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Goertz: ‘Clemens Gadenstätter’, Beiträge '94: Österreichische
Komponisten unserer Zeit (Kassel, 1994), 53 only
WOLFGANG GRATZER

Gadifer d'Avion.
See Gaidifer d'Avion.

Gadsby, Henry (Robert)

(b Hackney, London, 15 Dec 1842; d Putney, London, 11 Nov 1907).
English organist and composer. While a boy chorister in St Paul’s
Cathedral (1849–58) he was taught harmony by the vicar-choral, William
Bayley (1810–58). He was organist of St Peter’s, Brockley, for some time
up to 1884, when he succeeded Hullah as professor of harmony at
Queen’s College, London. He was also one of the original professors at the
Guildhall School of Music, a Fellow of the Royal College of Organists and a
member of the Philharmonic Society. His works, many of them published,
include cantatas (Alice Brand, 1870; The Lord of the Isles, 1879;
Columbus, 1881; The Cyclops, 1890), dramatic music (Alcestis, 1876;
Andromache, 1893; Aminta, 1897), an organ concerto, symphonies in D
(Festal Symphony, 1888), A and C, overtures, a string quartet (1875),
anthems and songs. He also wrote some sight-singing exercises, and his
treatise on harmony (1883) was probably the first published in England that
departed from the system of teaching from figured bass in favour of giving
melodies to be harmonized. Gadsby was one of a number of eminent
musicians who sang in the choir for the open-air service at St Paul’s for
Queen Victoria’s diamond jubilee in 1897.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown-StrattonBMB
W. Kuhe: My Musical Recollections (London, 1896)
Obituary, MT, xlviii (1907), 806
GEORGE GROVE/JOHN WARRACK

Gadski, Johanna
(b Anklam, Prussia, 15 June 1872; d Berlin, 22 Feb 1932). German
soprano. She studied in Stettin, and made an early début (1889) at the
Kroll Opera, Berlin, singing there and elsewhere in Germany for the next
five years. In 1895 she began a successful three-year association with the
Damrosch Opera Company in the USA, and from 1899 to 1901 was active
at Covent Garden and at Bayreuth, where she sang Eva (1899). Between
1900 and 1917, however, her main centre was the Metropolitan, with
whose company (after a previous appearance as Elisabeth in Tannhäuser
on tour in Philadelphia) she made her house début on 6 January 1900 as
Senta; she became one of its most valuable Brünnhildes and Isoldes,
excelling also in many Verdi roles such as Aida, Leonora (Il trovatore) and
Amelia. After the USA’s declaration of war on Germany, her reputation
suffered during the war hysteria of that time. From 1929 until her death (in
a car accident) she was active and successful in a Wagnerian touring
company in the USA organized at first by Sol Hurok and then by herself.
She sang even the heaviest Wagner roles with unfailing beauty of voice
and purity of style, and showed the same qualities in her Italian parts. Her
powers are well documented in the large number of records which she
made between 1903 and 1917, notably in her Wagner excerpts and in
scenes from Aida and Il trovatore with Caruso, Homer and Amato.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Migliorini and N. Ridley: ‘Johanna Gadski’, Record Collector, xi (1957),
196–231 [with discography], 257–85; xii (1958–60), 36
DESMOND SHAWE–TAYLOR

Gadulka.
Fiddle of Bulgaria; also known as ganilka, kopanka, gjola, tsigulka, kemene
in western Bulgaria, and sometimes, erroneously, gusla. It resembles the
Greek lira and the Yugoslav lirica. Its oval or pearshaped soundbox is
carved from one piece of wood, usually mulberry, manna-ash (Fraxinus
ornus) or sycamore. Its short, broad neck ends in a circular, triangular or
clover-leaf shaped flat peg-disc or head. The soundboard, made of spruce,
is glued to the soundbox and has two round or oval soundholes called ochi
(‘eyes’). The strings are generally made of sheep- or cat-gut, although
some late 20th-century instruments have metal strings; they are attached
to a bone tailpiece and, at the upper end, are wound directly round wooden
pegs. They pass over a thin wooden bridge and soundpost, which emerges
through one of the soundholes.
The traditional gadulka has three strings; in Thrace there are instruments
with one or more metal sympathetic strings. The Thracian tuning is the
most popular: a'–e'–a'. Other tunings are the Dobrudzhan tuning (a'–a–e')
and the Gabrovo or Balkan tuning (a'–e'–d'). The range on the Thracian
tuning is the widest: a to e'', extended to a'' with harmonics. The strings are
played with a bow made of cornel, dogwood or willow and strung with
horsehair, rubbed with rosin before playing. The first (highest) string is
played by sideways pressure of the fingernail, the other strings with
pressure from the fingertips. The gadulka is held vertically, with the lower
end tucked in the player’s belt when standing, or held on his hip when
seated.
The Thracian gadulka is the largest instrument, and has the fullest tone-
quality. Dobrudzhan instruments such as the kopanka are smaller. The
kemene of western Bulgaria has a shallow soundbox and a
correspondingly thinner sound; it is always played with a drone note.
Regional variants in pre-socialist Bulgaria included the shallow-bodied
Shop kemene and the flat-bodied kasnak found in Trakiya and the Shop
area.
The gadulka is used as a solo instrument to accompany songs and
dances, in different rituals and in small instrumental groups. The
Dobrudzhan gadulka, with the accordion and a gaida (bagpipe) or kaval
(flute) forms a typical Dobrudzhan troika (trio).
VERGILIJ ATANASSOV

Gadzhibekov, Sultan.
See Hajibeyov, Sultan.

Gadzhibekov, Uzeir (Abdul

Huseyn).
See Hajibeyov, Uzeir.

Gadzhiyev, Akhmet (Dzhevdet

Ismail).
See Hajiyev, Akhmet.

Gaelle, Meingosus [Johannes]

(b Buch, nr Tettnang, 16 June 1752; d Maria Plain, nr Salzburg, 4 Feb
1816). German composer, theologian and physicist. He attended the
grammar school at Tettnang and the Hofen priory school attached to the
Benedictine abbey of Weingarten (now Schloss Friedrichshafen, Lake
Constance). He entered the monastery of Weingarten in 1769 and took his
vows in 1771. From autumn 1771 he studied at the Benedictine University
of Salzburg, taking doctorates in philosophy (1773) and theology (1777)
and becoming friendly with Michael Haydn. He returned to Weingarten and
was ordained (20 September 1777); at the monastery he taught practical
philosophy and mathematics, was in charge of the novices and became
deputy librarian, choral director and even chief cook. After the dissolution of
the monastery (1802) he remained at Weingarten for two years, then
became professor of dogmatics and ecclesiastical history at the University
of Salzburg. Numerous copies of works by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven
in the St Peter chapter library indicate that Gaelle performed them for his
Salzburg brothers. After the dissolution of the university he was appointed
Father Superior of Maria Plain (1811), where he devoted himself
particularly to experiments on the theory of electricity and published his
Beyträge zur Erweiterung und Vervollkommnung der Elektricitätslehre in
theoretischer und practiscsher Hinsicht (Salzburg, 1813/R).
 Gaelle’s compositions were intended for use in church services and to
promote conviviality within the monastery. Of special importance is the
setting of Sebastian Sailer’s Schöpfung (Adam und Evas Erschaffung),
which Gaelle designated a comic opera. Siegele has noted the effective
use of simple melodies and rich harmonies in the arias, melodramatic style
in the recitatives and intimate instrumentation. Beneath the comic aspect,
both Sailer’s text and Gaelle’s music have more complex features. Gaelle’s
compositional style (in the opera chamber works) is characterized by the
use of single themes, fairly long series of variations, modulations to remote
keys and small musical units.
WORKS
MSS mainly in A-Ssp, CH-E, D-Tl; incomplete catalogue in Lindner

Sacred: Ger. Mass, 3vv, org; 4 cants., 1808–9, 1 pubd; 30 Vesperae

falsobordonicae, 4vv, org, 1789, collab. M. Steyr; Huc venite, piae mentes, chorus
an Festtagen, S, A, SATB, insts, ed. E. Seifriz (Altötting, c1996); Ave regina, T, B,
org, 1790; Mag; Regina coeli, 4vv, org, 1787; Salve regina, S, insts, ed. E. Seifriz
(Altötting, c1996); Salve regina, T, B, org; Stabat mater, 4vv, insts; Tantum ergo,
4vv, insts, 1807; 2 Veni creator spiritus, A, str; 2 motets; 23 offs; 19 grads; Ger. lit,
3vv, org/hp; 3 lits; 3 hymns, 1785; arrs.; others, some lost
Other vocal: Adam und Evas Erschaffung (comic op, S. Sailer), 1796; Das
unschuldige Vergnügen, lieder, 1v, hp, 1777; songs, mostly 3 male vv, hp
Inst: 2 sonatas, pf, vn/fl, va, 1801; sonata, pf, vn, vc, 1801; sonata, pf, vn, va, 1801;
sonata, pf, va, 1801; pf sonata, 1808; 5 sonatas, hp, vn, va, vc, 1809; polonaise, pf;
sonata, fantasia, 2 serenades, hp; others, incl. arrs. of syms., chbr works

BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Lindner: Weingarten, Fünf Professbücher süddeutscher Benediktiner-
Abteien, ii (Kempten, 1909), 88, 127, 137
E.K. Blümml, ed.: Die Liederhandschrift des Weingartner Benediktiners P
Meingosus Gaelle aus dem Jahre 1777 (Vienna, 1912)
R. Lach: Sebastian Sailers ‘Schöpfung’ in der Musik: ein Beitrag zur
Geschichte des deutschen Singspiels um die Mitte und in der zweiten
Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts (Vienna, 1916)
L. Wilss: Zur Geschichte der Musik an den oberschwäbischen Klöstern im
18. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1925)
T. Hochradner: ‘Musik zu den Feierlichkeiten für den neugewählten
Erzbischof Hieronymus Graf Colloredo (1772)’, De editione musices:
Festschrift Gerhard Croll (Laaber, 1992), ed. W. Gratzer and A.
Lindmayr, 285–92
EBERHARD STIEFEL

Gaetani, Jan de.

See DeGaetani, Jan.

Gaetano [Majer, Kajetan]

(b Warsaw, 1st half of the 18th century; d Warsaw, c1792). Polish
composer and conductor, probably of German origin. He came to Warsaw
 from Dresden in 1758 and presumably had already worked at the court of
King August III of Saxony (then King of Poland). Known as an
accomplished violinist, in 1764 he created an orchestra for the coronation
of Stanisław August Poniatowski. From 1765 he worked as a violinist at the
newly established National Theatre, holding the post of orchestral director
from 1776 (or 1779) until his death. At the same time he was responsible
for concerts at the Royal Castle, where he employed the musicians and ran
various kinds of ensembles. In 1772 he organized 17 concerts, with a
similar number the following year, billed as ‘therapeutic concerts’ for the
king who was then ill. He brought to the theatre various orchestras
maintained by Polish princes such as W. Potocki (with which orchestra
Gaetano performed on the harpsichord in 1777), A. Tyzenhaus (1780–81)
and J.M. Lubomirski (1783). In 1786 he prepared the premières of two
Italian operas, which were performed by a group of aristocratic amateurs
(known as the Théâtre de Société) in the private theatre of a castle. He
wrote for the needs of the court, including many dances such as
polonaises, mazurkas and minuets. In 1780 he was given the formal title of
maître de chapelle, and until the second half of 1782 he directed the
combined theatre and court orchestra, returning to these duties from
September 1789. From 1790 he worked with Bogusławski, after his return
from Vilnius. Throughout his life he gave music lessons.
As a composer Gaetano made his début with the opera Nie każdy śpi ten,
co chrapi (‘Not All Sleep who Snore’), which was well received, also outside
Warsaw. In 1788 the king’s private theatre in Warsaw’s Łazienki Park was
inaugurated with a performance of Gaetano’s intermezzo Les amours de
Bastien et Bastienne. In the opera Żółta szlafmyca (‘The Yellow Nightcap’)
he introduced a chorus for the first time on the stage of a Polish theatre;
the chorus sang memorable motifs drawn from Polish folk music. As well as
operas and ballets, he wrote programmatic music for dramatic works and
musical intermezzos. Gaetano was for many years the most important
musician at court and one of the most talented composers of Polish opera
in the second half of the 18th century.
WORKS
all performed in Warsaw

Nie każdy śpi ten, co chrapi (Nie zawsze śpi ten, co chrapi) [Not All Sleep who
Snore] (vaudeville, L. Pierożyński), 1779, lib (Kraków, 1790)
Żółta szlafmyca, albo Koleda na Nowy Rok [The Yellow Nightcap, or A Carol for the
New Year] (op, 3, F. Zabłocki, after P. Barré and A. de Piis: Les étrennes de
Mercure), 1 May 1783, lib (Warsaw, 1783), inc. MS (private collection), extracts, pf,
PL-Wn; frags. in J. Prosnak, Kultura muzyczna Warszawy XVIII wieku [Music in
Warsaw in the 18th Century] (Kraków, 1955)
Lucassin et Nicolette (La fête d’amour, ou Lucas et Colinette) (op, M.-J.-B. and C.-
S. Favart), 7 Feb 1786
Les amours de Cherubin (op), 10 Feb 1786
Żołnierz, z przypadku czarnoksieżnik, czyli Uczta diabelska [The Soldier-Accidental
Conjuror, or The Devilish Banquet] (vaudeville, 2, Pierożyński, after L. Anseaume),
11 March 1787, polonaise, Wn
Diabla wrzawa, czyli Dwoista przemiana [The Devil’s Uproar, or Double
Transformation] (op, 3, J. Balldouin, after M.-J. Sedaine), 18 Nov 1787 [incl. Furia,
orch int]
Scytowie przez Minerwę zgromieni [The Scythians Crushed by Minerva] (ballet)
choreog. F. Le Doux, 2 Aug 1787
Zabaira turecka [Divertissement turc] (ballet), choreog. D. Curz, 1787
Les amours de Bastien et Bastienne (int, M.-J.-B. Favart), 6 Sept 1788
Music in: Natura mistrzynią [Nature is the Mistress] (op, 1, Pierożyński), 1786

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[J. Elsner]: ‘Die Oper der Polen’, AMZ (1812), no.20, pp.323–4
Z. Raszewski: ‘Teatr Narodowy w latach 1779–1789’ [The National Theatre
1779–1789], Pamiętnik teatralny, xv/1–4 (1966), 107–26
Z. Raszewski: ‘Gaetano’, Ruch muzyczny, xv/17 (1971), 8–10
A. Nowak-Romanowicz: ‘Gaetano’, Encyklopedia muzyczna PWM, ed. E.
Dziębowska, iii (Kraków, 1987)
A. Żórawska-Witkowska: Muzyka na dworze i w teatrze Stanisława
Augusta [Music at the court and theatre of Stanisław August] (Warsaw,
1995)
BARBARA CHMARA-ŻACZKIEWICZ

Gaffarello.
See Caffarelli.

Gaffi [Caffi], Tommaso Bernardo

(b Rome, 14 Dec 1667; d Rome, 11 Feb 1744). Italian composer and
organist. After studying with Pasquini he held positions as organist in
various Roman churches: between 1688 and 1690 he was at Santo Spirito
in Sassia, in 1692 at S Maria in Vallicella and in 1700 at the Chiesa del
Gesù. In 1705 he is also mentioned as a singer at S Marcello. His
reputation as an organist was finally confirmed when he was appointed to
succeed Pasquini at S Maria Maggiore and, when the latter died in 1710, at
S Maria in Aracoeli; from 1739 until his death he held this position jointly
with Costantino Pieri. He was also a fine harpsichordist and owned many
very valuable harpsichords at the time of his death.
Gaffi wrote at least seven oratorios, which were fairly popular and were
performed in Florence, Modena and Vienna, as well as in Rome. The 12
chamber cantatas op.1 are among the very few such works to be
published. They are similar to Francesco Gasparini’s published cantatas in
containing a number of arias with obbligato instruments, common in
dramatic works but exceptional in cantatas. Both composers allowed the
obbligato parts to be played on the harpsichord – an unprecedented use of
it in any kind of chamber music. The short treatise Regole per sonare con
la parte (MS, 1720, I-Rli) deals mostly with basic theory. It is interesting
mainly for its unusually detailed classification of cadences according to the
movement of the bass.
WORKS
oratorios
L’Abigaille (F. Bambini), Modena, 1689, lost; Florence, 1693, pubd lib, Brompton
Oratory, London
La Micole, 4vv, insts, Modena, 1689, I-MOe
La forza del divino amore, 3vv, insts, Rome, 1691, Florence, 1693, under the title S
Teresa vergine e martire, MOe
Adam (F. Ciampetti), 5vv, insts, Rome, 14 March 1692; in 1693 performed as
Innocentiae occasus, lost
S Eugenia, 7vv, insts, Florence, 1693, lost
L’innocenza gloriosa, 5vv, Rome, 1693, lost
Il sacrificio del verbo umano, Rome, 1700, lost
other works
[12] Cantate da camera, 1v, obbl inst/hpd, bc, op.1 (Rome, 1700)
Various secular cantatas and some sacred music, GB-Lbl, I-Bc, MOe and D-Bsb
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Borrelli: Una interessante raccolta di libretti a stampa di oratori della
fine del Seicento, presso la Biblioteca dell’Oratorio di Londra (Naples,
1962)
A. Silbiger: ‘Keyboard Music by Corelli’s Colleagues: Roman Composers
in English Sources’, Nuovissimi Studi Corelliani, ed. S. Durante and
P.L. Petrobelli (Firenze, 1982), 253–68
P. Barbieri: ‘Cembalaro, organaro, chitarraro e fabbricatore di corde
armoniche nella Polyanthea technica di Pinaroli (1718–32): con notizie
sui liutai e cembalari operanti a Roma’, Recercare, i (1989), 123–209
THARALD BORGIR

Gaffurius [Gafurius], Franchinus

[Lanfranchinus] [Gafori,
Franchino]
(b Lodi, 14 Jan 1451; d Milan, 25 June 1522). Italian theorist, composer
and choirmaster. At home in both speculative and practical music, he was
the first theorist to have a substantial number of his writings published, and
his influence can be traced for more than a century, both in Italy and
abroad.
1. Life.
2. Writings.
3. Compositions.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BONNIE J. BLACKBURN
Gaffurius, Franchinus
1. Life.
Much of our knowledge stems from the contemporary biography by
Pantaleone Malegolo, printed in the De harmonia: Gaffurius was born in
Lodi to the soldier Bettino from Almenno in the territory of Bergamo and to
Caterina Fissiraga of Lodi. He began theological studies early, at the
Benedictine monastery of S Pietro in Lodi Vecchio (which he left after
September 1473) and he was ordained priest in late 1473 or 1474. He
studied music with Johannes Bonadies (or Godendach), probably in Lodi,
where he sang in the cathedral on Ascension Day, 18 May 1474. Later that
year, he went to Mantua with his father and spent two more years in
diligent research in music. He then moved to Verona, where he taught
publicly and wrote his Musice institutionis collocutiones and Flos musice
(both lost) and continued his research. He was called to Genoa by Doge
Prospero Adorno in 1477, and after having taught there for a year followed
Adorno into exile in Naples (November 1478); there he devoted himself to
speculative music, carrying on discussions with Johannes Tinctoris,
Guglielmo Guarneri, Bernhard Ycart and others (according to
Giovanthomaso Cimello, he directed music at SS Annunziata). His
Theoricum opus was published in Naples on 8 October 1480. Plague, and
the Turkish invasion of Puglia, caused him to return to Lodi at the invitation
of the bishop, Carlo Pallavicino, in whose castle at Monticelli in the territory
of Cremona he spent three years (1480–83) teaching and preparing his
Practica musice. He accepted a post at Bergamo, as choirmaster of S
Maria Maggiore (from 19 May 1483), but stayed only briefly because of the
War of Ferrara. Invited to Milan, he became choirmaster at the cathedral on
22 January 1484, where he taught and composed, and published revisions
of his Theorica musicae (1492) and Practica musice (1496).
Several later events in Gaffurius's life are not mentioned by Malegolo: in
1490 he went to Mantua to persuade the architect Luca Paperio to work on
Milan Cathedral. By July 1494 he was named rector of S Marcellino, Milan.
By 1497 Gaffurius was named professor of music at a university founded
by Ludovico Sforza in Milan; he attempted to augment his rather low salary
through various requests to the duke for benefices. When the French
captured Milan in 1500, Gaffurius remained at his post, now styling himself
‘Regius Musicus’. In 1504 he visited thermal baths, and in 1506 he spent
three months in Varese organizing the chapel in S Maria al Monte. In 1509
he published an oration by Jacopo Antiquario welcoming Louis XII after his
victory over Venice. In 1518 he gave a number of his books to the
Incoronata, Lodi.
Near the end of Gaffurius's life, his scholarly exchanges with Giovanni
Spataro, dating from 1493, broke out into a bitter pamphlet war from which
neither emerged with much honour. The last salvo was fired by Gaffurius's
friend Bartolomeo Filippineo, bolstered with the poetic satires of a group of
the theorist's admirers: Bartho. Philippinei Gaphuriani nominis assertoris in
Io. Vaginarium Bononien: Apologia (Turin, August 1521). In these
exchanges Spataro is sarcastically called ‘Vaginarius’ (sheath-maker).
Gaffurius died of a fever on 25 June 1522; the medical certificate
overestimated his age by ten years.
It is highly unlikely that the ‘Portrait of a Musician’ in the Pinacoteca
Ambrosiana, sometimes ascribed to Leonardo da Vinci, is of Gaffurius,
though the two were surely acquainted. The portrait is that of a young man,
not in clerical robe; Gaffurius, a priest, did not come to Milan until he was
33.
Gaffurius, Franchinus
2. Writings.
Gaffurius began to transcribe theoretical treatises while a student;
manuscripts and books he owned can be identified by his inscriptions, with
place and date of copying or purchase. On 16 September 1473 in the
monastery in Lodi he finished copying Marchetto of Padua's Lucidarium.
The manuscript (now in I-TRE) also contains the Pomerium and Franco of
Cologne's Ars cantus mensurabilis. His Extractus parvus musicae of c1474
consists largely of extracts from Marchetto and Ugolino of Orvieto, but also
shows that he had read Johannes de Muris, the Ars nova attributed to
Philippe de Vitry, Philippus de Caserta's Tractatus de diversis figuris,
several anonymous treatises and an unknown treatise by Dufay. At the
same time, he was compiling a Tractatus brevis cantus plani, and was
probably undertaking practical instruction in composition with his teacher
Johannes Bonadies. Thus he seems to have decided early on the path his
career would take. The inscription on the frontispiece of the Angelicum ac
divinum opus musice records the way he wished to be remembered:
‘Franchinus Gafurius of Lodi meticulously composed three volumes on
music: theory, practice and the harmony of musical instruments’. He is
shown as a professor, pronouncing ‘Harmonia est discordia concors’.
The habit of gathering extracts and quotations from a multiplicity of sources
and weaving them together with commentaries (learnt from Boethius)
continued to characterize Gaffurius's writings up to the time of the printed
version of the Practica musice (1496). Thus his Theoricum opus of 1480, a
pioneering effort to supplement Boethius by gathering every witness to
Greek and Latin theory he could find (without knowing Greek), suffers from
contradictions and duplications; nevertheless it, or rather the improved
version, the Theorica of 1492, had a far-reaching influence. It has been
estimated (by Kreyszig; see Theorica musicae) that some 70% of the 1480
book was based on Boethius, whose De musica had not yet appeared in
print. When Gaffurius moved to Milan in 1484 he enjoyed the company of
leading Milanese humanists, and by the 1490s it had become clear to him
that Greek sources still existed and that he would need to have them
translated; the fruits of this effort, however, are not particularly evident in
his last treatise, De harmonia, completed in 1500, but not published until
1518 (a number of illuminated manuscript versions testify to his search for
a patron). Here he thoroughly investigated Greek genera and tunings (he
was the first to give a complete exposition of Ptolemy's syntonic diatonic,
which would gain importance in the next century); the last chapters are
devoted to the harmonies of the universe and the harmonious relations of
the human mind and body (the ‘musical instruments’ of his title). His
theoretical works demonstrate throughout his urge to combine theory with
practice: Greek harmonic science, for example, is presented side by side
with Guidonian hexachords. He did not get everything right: the confusion
of the Greek octave species and Western modality was not clarified until
well into the 16th century.
The manuscript sources of the treatises that eventually formed the four
books of the Practica musice (that for book 3, on counterpoint, does not
survive) reveal that Gaffurius was heavily indebted to Tinctoris: language
and examples are often almost verbatim transcriptions. By the 1490s,
however, he had found his own voice, and not only the subject matter but
the more elegant Latin diction show how he had matured. There is now a
discussion of Ambrosian chant, as befitted his new post in the diocese of
Milan. Book 2, on notation, includes sections on poetic feet as related to
musical rhythm and a survey of notation, beginning with Greek rhythmic
symbols. The book on counterpoint is quite brief, laying stress on rules;
unlike Tinctoris's treatise it addresses the composer more than the singer.
Book 4, on proportions, seems intended to outdo Tinctoris, with proportions
as abstruse as 19:4 illustrated in musical examples. In his Epistula
secunda Gaffurius boasts that Tinctoris gave him his own treatise to
correct.
Realizing that his Latin was difficult for many, including nuns, Gaffurius
undertook an Italian compendium in the Angelicum of 1508. No concession
is made in the topics, however, since the first treatise is a complete
treatment of mathematical proportions as applied to intervals, tetrachords
and genera, and there is only one musical example in the whole work.
Gaffurius, Franchinus
3. Compositions.
It seems unlikely that Gaffurius devoted much time to composition before
he became choirmaster at Milan, although he reportedly composed in
Genoa. His only surviving secular works (in I-PAc 1158) must have been
written in the 1470s, and (to judge from Illustrissimo marchexe) they are
not even competent. Clearly, he gained experience in the following decade,
perhaps under the influence of the skilled composer Tinctoris. Once
established in Milan Cathedral, where he reformed the choir, Gaffurius was
responsible for enlarging the polyphonic repertory. Four large choirbooks
remain from his tenure (I-Md Libroni 1–4), partly in his hand (Lib.1 is signed
and dated 23 June 1490). Some of the works probably stem from the
Sforza court under Galeazzo Maria, for example the so-called motetti
missales and others in which a particular ‘Milanese style’ has been
detected, especially motets of Loyset Compère and Gaspar van Weerbeke.
Gaffurius too absorbed this style. Although we have no record of a visit to
Milan in the 1470s (but in July 1474 the ducal court passed through Lodi),
Gaffurius mentioned in the Angelicum that many years earlier he had
spoken with Josquin and Weerbeke, and in his Tractatus practicabilium
proportionum of c1482 he refered to the latter's ‘motetti ducales’.
A substantial number of works in the choirbooks are by Gaffurius: at least
18 masses, 11 Magnificat settings, and 51 motets and hymns; for the
identifications we depend partially on old inventories and imperfectly
preserved indexes to the manuscripts, and all the works in Lib.4 are
fragmentary because of fire damage. His masses, while perfectly
serviceable, have a sameness about them; imitation appears sporadically,
and duos are used infrequently. While 11 follow the standard Roman
Ordinary, six lack the Kyrie and Agnus Dei, in accordance with the
Ambrosian rite (where the Kyrie is only an appendage to the Gloria), and
one has a Kyrie but no Agnus. Too little is known about the use of these
choirbooks to explain the seeming anomaly; even the motetti missales
include substitute motets for Roman items. Four of Gaffurius's masses are
labelled ‘brevis’, and some are very short indeed (the Gloria of the Missa
primi toni brevis has only 48 breves, the Credo 69); text-setting is mostly
 syllabic and omission of phrases is common not only in these but in all his
masses. Two masses are troped: Kyrie, Sanctus and Agnus of Missa
‘Omnipotens genitor’ and Sanctus of Missa ‘Montana’. Only one mass is
certainly based on a cantus prius factus, the Missa ‘De tous biens pleine’,
but even here the use of the model seems largely confined to a head-motif
treated with considerable freedom, as in many of Gaffurius's other masses
(and the motetti missales by Compère and Weerbeke). Despite his keen
interest in proportions, only the untitled mass in Lib.2 makes extended use
of them. If the motetti missales had their origin in the ducal court in the
1470s, they were still being sung in the cathedral in the following decades;
Gaffurius's Missa quarti toni Sancte Caterine is partly in this tradition,
attaching motets in place of the introit and ‘Deo gratias’ before and after the
five sections of the Ordinary, and the cycle of motets beginning with Salve
mater salvatoris is wholly within it (no designations appear over the pieces,
but the index records ‘cum tota missa’); three of his masses in Lib.4 also
have motets attached.
Gaffurius is at his best in the motets. Most of these are found in the earliest
of the codices, Lib.1. These short pieces have much more variety in texture
than the masses, mixing block chords, brief duos (rarely paired), lilting
triple-metre passages and quasi-chordal writing much in the same way that
the texts are put together: many of these are addressed to the Virgin and
comprise fragments from sequences and hymns and verses from the Song
of Songs. Imitation is used sparingly. The text is delivered expeditiously;
phrases often begin with semibreves, especially in metrical texts. Settings
of liturgical texts, even Marian antiphons, are rare.
Of the 11 Magnificat settings, ten set even verses using the wording of the
Roman rite; only one (no.6 in the edition) sets odd verses in the slightly
different wording of the Ambrosian rite.
Gaffurius, Franchinus
WORKS
all 4vv unless otherwise indicated

Editions: Franchinus Gafurius: Collected Musical Works, ed. L. Finscher, CMM, x (1955–
60) [F i–ii]F. Gaffurio: Messe I–III, ed. A. Bortone, AMMM, i–iii (1958–60) [G i–iii]F.
Gaffurio: Magnificat, ed. F. Fano, AMMM, iv (1959) [G iv]F. Gaffurio: Mottetti, ed. L.
Migliavacca, AMMM, v (1959) [G v]Anonimi: Messe, ed. F. Fano, AMMM, vi (1966)
[A]Liber capelle ecclesie maioris: Quarto codice di Gaffurio, AMMM, xvi (1968) [facs. of
Librone 4 (olim 2266), which was badly damaged by fire in 1906; attrib. taken from
earlier inventories: see Sartori, 1953, and Ward, 1986] [Lib.4]Milan, Archivio della
Veneranda Fabbrica del Duomo, sezione musicale, Renaissance Music in Facsimile,
xiia–c [=librone 1–3, I-Md olim 2269, 2268, 2267] (New York, 1987) [Lib.1–3]

masses
Missa ‘Ave maris stella’, Lib.4, f.1v
Missa brevis eiusdem toni (lacking Ky, Ag), Lib.2, f.110v, G iii (see Leverett, 1994,
163–4)
Missa brevis et expedita (lacking Ky, Ag), Lib.2, f.69v, A (see Leverett, 1994, 163–4)
Missa brevis octavi toni (lacking Ky, Ag), Lib.2, G iii
Missa de carneval, Lib.3, F i; G i
Missa ‘De tous biens pleine’, Lib.2, F ii; G ii (on Hayne van Ghizeghem's chanson)
Missa ‘Imperatrix gloriosa’, Lib.4, f.14v
Missa ‘La bassadanza’, Lib.4, f.28v
Missa ‘Montana’ (lacking Ky, Ag), Lib.3, G i
Missa ‘O clara luce’, Lib.2, F ii; G iii
Missa ‘Omnipotens genitor’, Lib.2, F ii; G ii
Missa primi toni brevis (lacking Ag), Lib.2, F ii; G ii
Missa quarti toni Sancte Caterine, Lib.2, F ii; G iii (with motets in place of Introit and
Deo gratias)
Missa sexti toni irregularis, Lib.2 and 3, F i; F ii; G i; G ii
Missa trombetta (lacking Ky, Ag), Lib.2, G ii
Missa (lacking Ky, Ag), 3vv, Lib.3, G i
Missa, Lib.2, F ii; G iii
Missa, Lib.4, f.41v
motetti missales
Salve mater salvatoris (2 p. Salve verbi sacra parens; 3 p. Salve decus virginum; 4
p. O convallis humilis; 5 p. Tu thronus es Salomonis; 6 p. Salve mater pietatis; 7 p.
Vox eclipsim nesciens; 8 p. Imperatrix gloriosa; 9 p. Florem ergo genuisti; 10 p. Res
miranda), Lib.1, G v

magnificat settings
3 Magnificat, 3vv, 8 Magnificat, 4vv, Lib.1, 3, G iv
motets and hymns
Accepta Christi munera, 5vv, Lib.2, G v; Ambrosi doctor venerande, Lib.4, f.68v;
Assumpta est Maria, Lib.4, f.26v (Ingressa); Audi benigne conditor, 5vv, Lib.1 and 4,
G v; Ave mundi spes, Maria, Lib.1, G v; Beata progenies, 3vv, Lib.1, G v; Castra
celi, Lib.1, G v; Caeli quondam roraverit, Lib.4, f.13v; Christe cunctorum dominator,
Lib.4, f.48v; Christe redemptor … ex Patre, I-MC 871, ed. I. Pope and M.
Kanazawa, The Musical Manuscript Montecassino 871 (Oxford, 1978); Descendi in
hortum, Lib.1, G v
Gaude mater luminis, Lib.1, G v; Gaude virgo gloriosa, Lib.1, G v; Gloriose virginis
Mariae, 3vv, Lib.1, G v; Gloriose virginis Mariae, 4vv, Lib.4, f.47v (belongs with
mass on f.41v); Hac in die (introit to Missa Sancte Caterine), Lib.2 and 3, F ii; G iii;
Hoc gaudium, Lib.1, G v; Hostis Herodes impie, I-MC 871, ed. I. Pope and M.
Kanazawa, The Musical Manuscript Montecassino 871 (Oxford, 1978); Imperatrix
gloriosa, Lib.4, f.12v; Imperatrix reginarum, Lib.1, G v; Joseph conturbatus est,
Lib.1, G v
Magnum nomen domini, 5vv, Lib.1 and 4, G v; Nativitas tua, Lib.4, f.40v (Ingressa);
O beate Sebastiane, Lib.1, G v; O crux benedicta, Lib.4, f.10v; O Jesu dulcissime,
5vv, Lib.4, f.98v; Omnipotens eterne Deus, Lib.1, G v; O res laeta, Lib.1, G v; Ortus
conclusus, Lib.1, G v; O sacrum convivium, 4vv, Lib.1, G v; O sacrum convivium,
5vv, Lib.2 and 4, G v; Pontifex urbis populi, Lib.4, f.38v; Prodiit puer, Lib.1, G v;
Promissa mundo gaudia, Lib.1 and 2, G v; Quando venit ergo, Lib.1, G v; Regina
caeli, Lib.1, G v
Salve decus genitoris, Lib.1, G v (addressed to Ludovico Sforza); Salve mater
Salvatoris, Lib.1, G v; Salve mater Salvatoris, Lib.1, G v; Salve verbi sacra parens,
Lib.4, f.23v; Simeon justus, Lib.4, f.1 (Ingressa); Solemnitas laudabilis, Lib.4, f.82v;
Sponsa Dei electa, Lib.1, G v; Stabat mater, Lib.1 and 3, G v; Sub tuam
protectionem, 3vv, Lib.1, G v; Tota pulchra es, Lib.1, G v; Verbum sapientiae, Lib.1,
G v; Vidi speciosam, Lib.4, f.27v (Offertorio); Virgo constans (Loco Deo gratias in
Missa Sancte Caterine), Lib.2 and 3, F ii; G iii; Virgo Dei digna, Lib.1, G v; Virgo
prudentissima, Lib.1, G v
secular works
all in I-PAc 1158

Alto standardo, 3vv

Ayme fortuna, 3vv
Illustrissimo marchexe signor Guielmo, 3vv, addressed to Guglielmo VIII, Marquis of
Monferrato (ed. Jeppesen, 1969, 311–15)
Lascera ogni ninfa, 3vv
2 textless compositions, 3vv

lost works
Facciam festa e giullaria (lauda for Christmas, formerly in Lib.4)
Mass for the Purification of the Virgin (formerly in Lib.4)
Missa ‘Illustris princeps’ (mentioned in Apologia)
Missa ‘Le souvenir’ (mentioned in Apologia)
Missa ‘L'homme armé’ (mentioned in Apologia and letter 83 of Blackburn, Lowinsky
and Miller)
Nunc eat et veteres (to Tinctoris; mentioned in Tractatus practicabilium
proportionum)
unnamed composition using proportions (mentioned in letters 52, 84, 85 of
Blackburn, Lowinsky and Miller)
Gaffurius, Franchinus
WRITINGS
printed
Theoricum opus musice discipline (Naples, 1480; ded. Cardinal Giovanni
Arcimboldo)
Theorica musicae (Milan, 1492/R; ded. Ludovico Sforza); Eng. trans. by
W.K. Kreyszig (New Haven, CT, 1993)
Tractato vulgare del canto figurato (Milan, 1492) [pubd under the name of a
pupil, Francesco Caza; condensed It. trans. of Practica musice, book
2]; Ger. trans. by J. Wolf (Berlin, 1922)
Practica musice (Milan, 1496/R; ded. Ludovico Sforza); Eng. trans., MSD,
xx (1969); ed. and trans. I. Young (Madison, WI, 1969)
Angelicum ac divinum opus musice (Milan, 1508/R; ded. Simone Crotti) [It.,
mostly based on Practica musice]
De harmonia musicorum instrumentorum opus (Milan, 1518/R; ded. Jean
Grolier; earlier versions in MS: 1500 ded. Bonifacio Simonetta; rev.
1514); Eng. trans. in MSD, xxxiii (1977); 5 earlier MS copies
Apologia … adversus Joannem Spatarium et complices musicos
bononienses (Turin, 1520)
Epistula prima in solutiones obiectorum Io. Vaginarii Bononien. (Milan,
1521)
Epistula secunda apologetica (Milan, 1521)
manuscript
Extractus parvus musicae, c1474, I-PAc 1158 (ded. Filippo Tresseni), ed.
F.A. Gallo (Bologna, 1969)
Tractatus brevis cantus plani, c1474, PAc 1158 (ded. Paolo de' Greci)
Flos musice, c1475–6 (ded. Ludovico Gonzaga III, Marquis of Mantua), lost
Musice institutionis collocutiones, c1475–6 (ded. Carlo Pallavicino, Bishop
of Lodi), lost
Theorie musice tractatus, c1479, GB-Lbl Hirsch IV.1441 (early version of
Theoricum opus; ded. Antonio de Guevara, Count of Potenza)
Musices practicabilis libellum, 1480, US-CA Houghton Mus 142 (ded.
Guido Antonio Arcimboldo; became book 2 of Practica musice)
Tractatus practicabilium proportionum, c1482, I-Bc A69 (ded. Corradolo
Stanga; became book 4 of Practica musice)
Micrologus vulgaris cantus plani, c1482, Bc A90 (ded. Paolo de' Greci)
Liber primus musices practicabilis, 1487, BGc Σ.4.37 (became book 1 of
Practica musice)
Glossemata quaedam super nonnullas partes theoricae Johannis de Muris,
1499, Ma H.165 inf.
letters
to Ludovico Sforza, 22 April 1495, requesting a benefice (ed. Caretta,
Cremascoli and Salamina, 99)
to Marco Sanudo, 14 Dec 1496, accompanying a copy of the Practica (ed.
Caretta, Cremascoli and Salamina, 95)
to Giovanni Antonio Flaminio, 24 March 1517, criticizing Pietro Aaron's
Libri tres de institutione harmonica (ed. in Bergquist, appx B, with
Flaminio's answer)
to the deputies of the Incoronata in Lodi, 22 Aug 1520, recommending a
cleric (ed. in Caretta, Cremascoli and Salamina, 127–8)
to the deputies of the Incoronata in Lodi, 4 Oct 1520, thanking them for
hiring the cleric (ed. in Caretta, Cremascoli and Salamina, 128)
Gaffurius, Franchinus
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Praetorius: Die Mensuraltheorie des Franchinus Gafurius und der
folgenden Zeit bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1905/R)
K. Jeppesen: ‘Die 3 Gafurius-Kodices der Fabbrica del Duomo, Milano’,
AcM, iii (1931), 14–28
O. Kinkeldey: ‘Franchino Gafori and Marsilio Ficino’, Harvard Library
Bulletin, i (1947), 379–82
A. Caretta, L. Cremascoli and L. Salamina: Franchino Gaffurio (Lodi,
1951)
K.T. Steinitz: ‘Two Books from the Environment of Leonardo da Vinci in the
Elmer Belt Library of Vinciana: Gafurio and Plutarch’, Libri, ii (1952),
1–14
C. Sartori: ‘Franchino Gaffurio a Milano: Nuove notizie biografiche e
documenti inediti sulla sua attività di maestro di Cappella e sulla sua
riforma della Cappella del Duomo’, Universitas Europae, i (1952–3),
nos.4–5, 8–9, 11–12
P. Bondioli: ‘Per la biografia di Franchino Gaffuri da Lodi’, CHM, i (1953),
19–24
C. Sartori: ‘Il quarto codice di Gaffurio non è del tutto scomparso’, CHM, i
(1953), 25–44
F. Fano: ‘Note su Franchino Gaffurio’, RMI, lv (1953), 225–50
C. Sartori: ‘La musica nel duomo dalle origini a Franchino Gaffurio’, Storia
di Milano, ix (Milan, 1961), 723–48
F.A. Gallo: ‘Le traduzioni dal Greco per Franchino Gaffurio’, AcM, xxxv
(1963), 172–4
T.L. Noblitt: The Motetti Missales of the Late Fifteenth Century (diss., U. of
Texas, 1963)
E.P. Bergquist: The Theoretical Writings of Pietro Aaron (diss., Columbia
U., 1964)
F.A. Gallo: ‘Citazioni da un tratto di Dufay’, CHM, iv (1966), 149–52
C.A. Miller: ‘Gaffurius's Practica Musicae: Origin and Contents’, MD, xxii
(1968), 105–28
T.L. Noblitt: ‘The Ambrosian Motetti missales Repertory’, MD, xxii (1968),
77–103
K. Jeppesen: La frottola, ii: Zur Bibliographie der handschriftlichen
musikalischen Überlieferung des weltlichen italienischen Lieds um
1500 (Copenhagen, 1969)
F. Fano: ‘Vita e attività del musico teorico e pratico Franchino Gaffurio da
Lodi’, Arte Lombarda, xv (1970), 49–62
C.A. Miller: ‘Early Gaffuriana: New Answers to Old Questions’, MQ, lvi
(1970), 367–88
C.A. Miller: ‘Francesco Zambeccari and a Musical Friend’, RN, xxv (1972),
426–31
J. Haar: ‘The Frontispiece of Gafori's Practica Musicae (1496)’,
Renaissance Quarterly, xxvii (1974), 7–22
F.A. Gallo: ‘La musica nel commento a Vitruvio di Cesare Cesariano
(Como, 1521) e di Giovanni Battista Caporali (Perugia, 1536)’, Arte e
musica in Umbria tra Cinquecento e Seicento: Gubbio and Gualdo
Tadino 1979, 89–92
F. Degrada: ‘Musica e musicisti nell'età di Ludovico il Moro’, Milano nell’età
di Ludovico il Moro: Milan 1983 (Milan, 1983), ii, 409–15
C.V. Palisca: Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought (New
Haven, CT, 1985), esp. 191–232
L.H. Ward: ‘The Motetti Missales Repertory Reconsidered’, JAMS, xxxix
(1986), 491–523
M. Kanazawa: ‘Franchino Gafori and Polyphonic Hymns’, Tradition and its
Future in Music: Osaka 1990, 95–101
B.J. Blackburn, E.E. Lowinsky and C.A. Miller, eds.: A Correspondence
of Renaissance Musicians (Oxford, 1991)
A.M. Busse Berger: Mensuration and Proportion Signs: Origins and
Evolution (Oxford, 1993)
A.P. Leverett: ‘An Early Missa brevis in Trent Codex 91’, Music in the
German Renaissance: Sources, Styles and Contexts, ed. J. Kmetz
(Cambridge, 1994), 152–73

Gafori, Franchino.
See Gaffurius, Franchinus.

Gagaku.
Court music of Japan. See Japan, §V.

Gage, Irwin
(b Cleveland, 4 Sept 1939). American pianist. He studied at the University
of Michigan with Eugene Bossart, at Yale University, and later with Erik
Werba, Hilde Langer-Rühl, Helene Berg, Kurt Schmidek and Klaus Vokurka
in Vienna, where he settled. A passionate interest in poetry led him to work
primarily as an accompanist to singers, among them Christa Ludwig,
Arleen Augér, Brigitte Fassbaender, Gundula Janowitz, Jessye Norman,
Lucia Popp, Elly Ameling, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Hermann Prey, Peter
Schreier and Tom Krause. He has performed at numerous European music
festivals, including Edinburgh, Spoleto, Montreux and Salzburg, has
appeared in concerts throughout Europe and the Americas and has
contributed to many distinguished recordings, notably a large collection of
Schubert lieder with Janowitz. In 1970 Gage planned and accompanied an
entire series of lieder recitals at the Vienna Konzerthaus. He teaches at the
Zürich Conservatory and regularly gives masterclasses at other institutions.
Gage’s subtle understanding of song texts is reflected in his
accompaniments. A specialist in the standard lieder repertory, he has also
done research in more obscure areas of the German and Austrian song
literature.
RICHARD LESUEUR

Gagliano.
Italian family of violin makers. They worked in Naples from about 1700 to
the middle of the 19th century. They were an industrious family and
produced a large number of violins, many cellos and a few violas. With the
exception of Alessandro Gagliano, they usually worked on the Stradivari
model. All of the 18th-century Gaglianos could produce a masterpiece if
circumstances required it, but as the 19th century approached the demand
seems to have been increasingly for hastily made, inexpensive
instruments. Except for Alessandro, they all used a similar varnish, harder
than that of more classical makers; the most attractive has a distinctive
golden orange colour, but there are many that appear stained, with almost
a grey-green tinge to the orange. Tonally they all have what is known as
the ‘Italian’ quality, but tend towards brightness, occasionally almost
harshness. They are very good all-round instruments, and well liked by all
types of players. No work has been published giving the correct dates of
each member of the family, and the dates given by most authorities do not
always tally with those on the original labels.
Alessandro Gagliano (fl c1700–c1735) was the first maker in the Gagliano
family and the first known Neapolitan maker: it is not known where he
learnt his craft. His work differs in almost all respects from that of his
descendants, but most of all in the varnish he used. This was of a soft, oily
nature, similar to the very best, glowing and transparent and of the deepest
red colour. He was only an average workman, but his instruments have
great character and are in no sense copies of the work of his great
predecessors or contemporaries. He made violins of at least three different
sizes, one of them small and another rather too large, with a long string
length. The soundholes have an exaggerated swing which can
nevertheless be quite charming, but the scrolls are often pinched in design
and crudely carved, sometimes with a little extra ornament to the pegbox.
His cellos are especially good, but rare.
Nicola Gagliano (i) (fl c1740–c1780) was a son of Alessandro Gagliano.
The majority of his instruments were made between 1750 and 1770,
though he is thought to have had a longer working life. They are all much
influenced by Stradivari's work, and, with those of his brother Gennaro, are
the most sought after of the Gaglianos. The quality of his work is
consistently high, but a few of his violins are rather high-built and broad in
measurement. Some of the violins with his original label show the
collaboration of his son Giuseppe.
Gennaro [Januarius] Gagliano (fl c1740–c1780) was also a son of
Alessandro Gagliano. He is often considered the best maker of his family.
Gennaro was a more sensitive craftsman, and his overall concept of violin
making was not far behind that of the great Cremonese makers. Although
he was most influenced by Stradivari, he often made Amati copies, with
strong-grained pine in the front, brown varnish and facsimile Amati label.
Both Gennaro and Nicola (i) made very good cellos on the best Stradivari
model, but they also introduced the very narrow design used by most later
Neapolitans (see illustration).
Ferdinando Gagliano (fl c1770–c1795) was a son of Nicola Gagliano (i),
but is more likely to have been a pupil of his uncle, Gennaro Gagliano. His
instruments vary in the quality of their finish, but their outlines have the
pleasing flow of typical Gennaro models, with slightly stiffer, more open
soundholes. The varnish can be very good looking, but is less striking than
that on his father's or uncle's instruments.
Ferdinando Gagliano’s three brothers collaborated in their work to a certain
extent. Giuseppe [Joseph] Gagliano (fl c1770–c1800) was certainly a pupil
of his father and his early work suggests he was an excellent maker. His
work declined over the years, however, and instruments made in
partnership with his brother Antonio are not as good as those he made
alone. Antonio Gagliano (i) (fl c1780–c1800) was inferior to his brother
Giuseppe in his workmanship. Instruments bearing his signature inside
often have labels showing them to have been made in partnership with
Giuseppe.
Giovanni [Joannes] Gagliano (fl c1785–after 1815) began working with
Giuseppe and Antonio, but by about 1800 was working by himself. His
work, while reflecting that of his uncle Gennaro and his brother Ferdinando,
has strong individual features in the slant of the soundholes and the deep
cut of the pegbox fluting. He had three sons: Nicola Gagliano (ii) (fl c1800–
c1825) produced work in the Gagliano tradition, though some workmanship
is completely undistinguished and his instruments are now rarely found;
Raffaele (d 1857) and Antonio Gagliano (ii) (d 1860) were responsible for
many violins and cellos, usually with their backs left unpurfled, but although
the varnish technique remained unchanged the workmanship declined in
quality.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LütgendorffGL
VannesE
 J. Roda: Bows for Musical Instruments of the Violin Family (Chicago, 1959)
CHARLES BEARE

Gagliano, Carlo
(fl late 18th century). Italian violin maker who worked in Belluno. There is
no evidence to connect him with the Gagliano family who worked in
Naples.

Gagliano, Giovanni Battista

[Giovanbattista] da
(b Florence, 20 Dec 1594; d Florence, 8 Jan 1651). Italian composer,
musician and teacher, younger brother of Marco da Gagliano. He seems to
have spent his entire life in Florence as a performing musician and
composer. In 1613 he became instructor in plainsong to the young clerics
at S Lorenzo, a post previously held by his brother. On 6 September 1621
he is included for the first time in the salary accounts of Florence
Cathedral, as a singer (‘musico’), and on 1 October 1624 he was given the
same title at the Medici court, where he was also active as a theorbo
player. On 9 June 1643 he succeeded his brother as maestro di cappella of
both the court and the cathedral (having largely carried out the duties for
19 years because of his brother's ill-health), but the actual title was
withheld from him because he was not a priest. He was also maestro di
cappella of the Compagnia dell'Arcangelo Raffaello, a lay religious
confraternity in Florence, from 1619 to 1625. In 1614 he, along with the
dilettante composers Giovanni del Turco and Francesco Arrighetti, invested
in the Florentine printer Zanobi Pignoni, but the arrangements lasted only
one year, during which time the press issued music by Del Turco, Caccini,
Antonio Brunelli, Domenico Visconti, Raffaello Rontani and Marco da
Gagliano.
Documents (mostly in I-Fas) show that Gagliano was active in supplying
music to various churches, religious confraternities and academies in
Florence for special feasts and local observances; his four published
collections include some of it. He wrote music, all of it lost, for at least four
oratorios. One of these, Il martirio di S Agata, composed with Francesca
Caccini, received seven performances in Florence in January and February
1622 and was repeated the following June and on a number of subsequent
occasions up to at least Carnival 1642. Gagliano's Varie musiche (1623),
which, unusually among such volumes, contains a fair amount of sacred
music, includes a number of interesting madrigalian and strophic pieces;
among the latter is Ah ladra d'amore, in which each verse is in a clear
ternary form adumbrating the da capo aria.
WORKS
all printed works published in Venice

Varie musiche … libro primo, 1–5vv, bc (1623); 1 ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora, ii

(Copenhagen, 1949); 1 ed. in Hill (1982)
Mottetti per concertare, 2–6, 8vv, bc (1626)
Psalmi vespertini cum litaniis beatissimae virginis, 5vv, bc, op.3 (1634)
Il secondo libro de motetti, 6, 8vv, org, other insts, bc (1643)
Messa per i morti; Benedictus, 5vv; motets: I-Fd
Il martirio di S Agata (J. Cicognini), oratorio, Florence, 1622, collab. F. Caccini, lost
La benedittione di Jacob (G.M. Cecchi, rev. Cicognini), oratorio, Florence, 1622,
collab. J. Peri, lost
Il gran natale di Christo salvator nostro (Cicognini), oratorio, Florence, 1622, collab.
Peri; 1 chorus pubd in Varie musiche (1623)
La celeste guida, o vero L'Arcangelo Raffaello (Cicognini), oratorio, Florence, 1624,
collab. Peri, lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY
FortuneISS
SolertiMBD
M. Fabbri and E. Settesoldi: ‘Aggiunte e rettifiche alle biografie di Marco e
Giovanni Battista da Gagliano: il luogo e le date di nascita e di morte
dei due fratelli musicisti’, Chigiana, xxi, new ser. i (1964), 131–42
F. Hammond: ‘Musicians at the Medici Court in the Mid-Seventeenth
Century’, AnMc, no.14 (1974), 151–69, esp. 159
J.W. Hill: ‘Oratory Music in Florence, i: Recitar cantando, 1583–1655’,
AcM, li (1979), 108–36
J. Hill: ‘Florentine Intermedi sacri e morali, 1549–1622’, IMSCR XIII:
Strasbourg 1982, ii, 265–301, esp. 271–2, 286–92
T. Carter: ‘Music-Printing in Late Sixteenth- and Early Seventeenth-
Century Florence: Giorgio Marescotti, Cristofano Marescotti and
Zanobi Pignoni’, EMH, ix (1990), 27–72, esp. 55–7
W. Kirkendale: The Court Musicians in Florence during the Principate of
the Medici (Florence, 1993), 370–76
EDMOND STRAINCHAMPS

Gagliano, Marco da
(b Florence, 1 May 1582; d Florence, 25 Feb 1643). Italian composer, elder
brother of Giovanni Battista da Gagliano. As maestro di cappella for nearly
35 years of the Medici court and of Florence Cathedral (S Maria del Fiore),
he was one of the most important Italian musicians of the period. His Dafne
(1608) is a milestone in the early history of opera, and his secular
madrigals and monodies and many sacred works in various genres, though
now little known, were much acclaimed in the first half of the 17th century.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EDMOND STRAINCHAMPS
Gagliano, Marco da
1. Life.
Gagliano was born to Zanobi and Camilla da Gagliano, who lived in
Florence, and he may never have seen the village of Gagliano in the
Mugello valley, north-east of Florence, from which the family apparently
took its name long before his birth. The assertion in some modern histories
that he had no surname and references to him as Marco Zanobi are
erroneous. He studied music with Luca Bati, and in 1602 he became Bati’s
assistant at S Lorenzo, Florence. Though his salary of 2 scudi a month was
indeed small, he remained in the position for nearly six years. His duties
were primarily to instruct the clerics at S Lorenzo in singing, but from 1605
he was given the additional responsibility of preparing the music for Holy
Week each year. His general education, and perhaps to some extent his
training in music also, was entrusted to the Compagnia dell’Arcangelo
Raffaello (sometimes referred to as the Compagnia della Natività or the
Compagnia della Scala), in which he was enrolled at the age of six and a
half. This lay religious confraternity, one of the oldest and most important in
Florence, had a mixture of boys from both the middle and upper classes.
Music played an important part in the company’s activities, and its records
show that from early youth Gagliano was much involved in both its public
and private musical performances. In December 1607 he was elected
maestro di cappella of the company at an annual salary of 40 scudi, but for
political reasons his election was set aside within nine days in favour of
another, and the office was not restored to him until July 1609. Many of the
Florentines most important to Gagliano’s subsequent career (among whom
Cosimo de’ Medici, Ottavio Rinuccini, Jacopo Peri, Giovanni del Turco and
Giovanni de’ Bardi stand out) were his brothers and associates in the
Compagnia dell’Arcangelo Raffaello. He also received theological training
and took holy orders.
A number of letters written by Gagliano to the Gonzagas of Mantua, mostly
to Prince (later Cardinal) Ferdinando (29 of them are printed in Vogel, 550ff
and 25 are in Strainchamps, ‘The Unknown Letters’), show that he was in
contact with the Gonzagas from at least July 1607 (fig.1). He supplied them
with music he had composed to texts either written or chosen by them, as
well as music by other Florentine composers that he considered worthy of
their attention. Late in 1607 he went to Mantua, where his setting of Ottavio
Rinuccini’s newly reworked pastoral drama Dafne (the original version had
been set by Peri and Corsi) was presented during Carnival 1608. The
opera was a great success, and Gagliano remained in Mantua until early
June to help with preparations for the series of theatrical-musical works
that the court produced in celebration of the marriage of the hereditary
prince, Francesco Gonzaga, to Margherita of Savoy. He wrote the music
for a ballo, Il sacrificio d’Ifigenia (to words by Alessandro Striggio (ii)), and
the third intermedio (text by Chiabrera) for Guarini’s play L’Idropica. In mid-
June he returned to Florence and resumed his modest duties. On 17
October 1608 Bati died, and in November Gagliano succeeded him as
maestro di cappella of the cathedral; by July 1609 he was given the title of
maestro di cappella at the Medici court as well. His position was enhanced
on 26 January 1610, when he was made canon of S Lorenzo under the
designation SS Cosimo e Damiano, and on 2 January 1615 he was further
elevated in the ecclesiastical hierarchy when he became apostolic
prothonotary there, thus achieving clerical as well as musical distinction.
In June 1607 Gagliano’s reputation among his fellow musicians in Florence
was such that he was able to found an academy devoted to music, the
Accademia degli Elevati. Its membership comprised ‘the city’s finest
composers, instrumentalists and singers’, as Gagliano described it, but it
also included literati. Those known to have belonged are Jacopo Peri,
Giovanni and Lorenzo del Turco, Giovanni de’ Bardi, Alfonso Fontanelli,
Piero Strozzi, Rinuccini, Antonio Francesco Benci, Piero Benedetti and
Giovanni Cavaccio; according to Gagliano’s assertion, Bati, Caccini,
Lorenzo Allegri, Severo Bonini and Santi Orlandi must also have been
members, as probably were some of the outstanding singers and
instrumentalists then resident in Florence. The academy’s patron was
Cardinal Ferdinando Gonzaga, its secretary Giovanni del Turco. Composer
candidates were admitted to the academy only after two madrigals written
to assigned texts had been approved by the official censor and
subsequently by the full membership. The academy met weekly for the
purpose of examining and performing musical works, and members were
required to be present and to perform by turns or to pay a fine. Once a
year, on the feast of S Cecilia, the academy’s protectress, it was obligatory
for the members to gather together so that all might join in singing a mass.
Historically, the Elevati belong to the tradition of musical gatherings in
Florence extending from Bardi’s Camerata through the groups sponsored
by Jacopo Corsi and Cosimo Cini to those of Cosimo del Sera and
Alessandro Covoni. Gagliano’s group was unique, however, in being a
formal academy with rules of procedure modelled on those of such well-
known Florentine groups as the Accademia Fiorentina and the Accademia
della Crusca. Unlike its worthy models, however, the Accademia degli
Elevati may have been short-lived; in the autumn of 1609 a faction of the
academy rebelled with the intention of destroying it, and though they seem
not to have succeeded, the academy was certainly weakened and its
demise hastened. Gagliano referred to it in only two publications, Dafne
and his fifth book of madrigals (both 1608), giving his academic name,
‘L’Affannato’ (‘The Breathless One’), on the title-pages of both. Although
Gagliano himself made no further reference to the Elevati, it was still
mentioned on the title-pages of works by Benedetti in 1611 and 1613 and
by Cavaccio in 1611, 1620 and 1626.
From the time of his appointment to the Medici court in 1609 until his
death, Gagliano prepared, directed and composed much of the great
variety of music – including ballets, intermedi, operas, oratorios, masses,
motets, madrigals – with which the court so lavishly represented and
entertained themselves and their guests, principally in their various palaces
and in S Lorenzo and the cathedral, S Maria del Fiore (see Opera, fig.32).
At the cathedral he was also in charge of overseeing the music used in
services there week in and week out. Glimpses of him in his day-to-day
duties at the court may be caught in the accounts of Cesare Tinghi, the
Medici court diarist (excerpts in SolertiMBD), who reported his singing and
playing (he performed on the theorbo and keyboard instruments) in various
intimate and private entertainments he prepared for the several grand
dukes and duchesses he served. A letter of 1621 in the Gonzaga Archives
at Mantua states that he had been commanded to Innsbruck to serve the
emperor, and Daugnan reported that Polish records show that he was in
Warsaw at some time during the period 1624–32. But no corroborating
evidence has been found to show that he was ever away from Florence
and the Medici during the long period over which he served them. A letter
written by his younger brother Giovanni Battista (in I-Fd) indicates that
Gagliano suffered ill-health during his last 19 years and was unable, to
some degree, to perform his duties as maestro. In personality he was
apparently a gentle and agreeable man; his contemporary Lorenzo Parigi
described him as ‘a musician as amiable as he was learned’, and his
portrait bust, which still stands in the chapter room of the canons of S
Lorenzo (fig.2) shows a thoughtful and gentle countenance. According to
the canons of S Lorenzo he was ‘famed for the honesty of his character
and the superiority of his knowledge’.
Gagliano, Marco da
2. Works.
Gagliano’s best-known work is his setting of Rinuccini’s Dafne. It was much
admired by his contemporaries and notably praised by Jacopo Peri, who, in
a letter to Cardinal Ferdinando Gonzaga, declared the setting to be better
than any other (meaning his own and Corsi’s) and specified that Gagliano’s
manner of writing vocal music came much closer to the speaking voice
than that of any other distinguished composer. In a long and important
preface to the published score (printed in Solerti, 1903, pp.78ff), Gagliano
acknowledged that Dafne had had an extraordinary effect on those who
heard it at Mantua but modestly credited its success less to his music than
to the uniting of ‘every noble delight’ (story, poetry, musical composition,
exquisite singing, combining of voices and instruments, dance, gesture,
costumes and scenic design) that distinguished the new genre. His remark
that ‘the true delight of song stems from the intelligibility of the words’
governed many of his practical directions for performances of Dafne and
works similar to it: ornaments (gruppi, trilli, passaggi and esclamazioni)
should be used only where the story requires them, otherwise entirely
omitted; the instrumentalists accompanying the singers must be seated
where they can see the singers’ faces and can best hear them, so that they
can keep together; and the instruments must be careful not to double the
singers’ melody and must never embellish the accompaniment. Gagliano
further called upon the orchestra to provide a sinfonia before the raising of
the curtain. His interest embraced the entire production and not merely the
musical aspects of it; the preface continues with directions for many details
of stage business, which throw some light on what productions of Dafne
and other early operas must have been like. At the close of the preface, he
credited three of the arias, ‘Chi da lacci d’Amor vive disciolta’, ‘Pur giacque
estinto al fine’ and ‘Un guardo, un guardo appena’, to a learned
academician and patron. This was undoubtedly Cardinal Ferdinando
Gonzaga, the patron of Gagliano’s academy. In style, Dafne is much less
austere than similar works by his fellow Florentines. Like Monteverdi’s
Orfeo, it incorporates traditional genres and manners and so has a number
of ensemble pieces – duets, trios, madrigalian choruses – and a variety of
airs interspersed with passages in stile recitativo. La Flora (to a text by
Andrea Salvadori), Gagliano’s only other surviving opera, is stylistically
close to Dafne.
Gagliano’s madrigals, all but one a cappella and nearly all for five voices,
were, with a single later exception, published between 1602 and 1617.
They are important, highly personal examples from the last years of the
genre. Gagliano was typically Florentine in his choice of poets and poems
of quality; Marino, Guarini and Chiabrera were his favourites, followed
closely by Rinuccini, Sannazaro, Della Casa, G.B. Strozzi, Petrarch and a
group of lesser-known poets. In texture, his madrigals show a marked
preference for homophony. Where polyphony does appear it is often for
only three or four voices of the full ensemble, though rich, five-part
polyphonic writing is not unknown. Most of the polyphonic passages
involve imitation, but of a rather unusual kind. Often a point of imitation is
notable for its use of a motif so brief that each voice successively entering
has in common with the others only its first few intervals, continuing freely
thereafter (as, for example, in Come il ferir sia poco from the third book and
O com’in van credei from the sixth). Imitation is also frequently made with
declamatory motifs which, by virtue of their brevity, must be used again and
again to extend the texture, typically in sequential manner (as, for example,
in Ecco l’alba, ecco il giorno from the fourth book and Fuggi tua speme,
fuggi from the fifth). Melodically, Gagliano’s preference was for brief,
concise phrases to which the text is syllabically set. Melismas are reserved
for the illustration of the text (though, in general, word-painting is of little
interest to him), except for several elaborately ornamented later madrigals
that were clearly intended for some of the virtuoso singers so much in
evidence in Florence in the early 17th century (e.g. Chi sete voi che
saettate a morte from the sixth book). In a typical Gagliano madrigal,
syllabic treatment of text and extensive use of homophonic texture project
the poetry with remarkable clarity; this, of course, agrees with his above-
quoted statement in the Dafne preface stressing the importance of the
intelligibility of the words. His madrigals are harmonically unadventurous,
with only a mild use of chromaticism. Dissonances are usually carefully
prepared and resolved, though elsewhere there is occasionally some
rather awkward part-writing. Rhythm is greatly varied; it runs the gamut
from long sustained values to very short ones, the latter often in passages
of rapid parlando-like settings of textual phrases in which the ideal is
certainly to capture the flow and accent of spoken language. In general, the
earlier madrigals are somewhat broader and more expansive in their
musical flow than those from his last books. Here the directness and
compression of the music is almost telegrammatic in its effect; the most
vivid way of illustrating this is to compare the setting of Filli, mentre ti bacio
from the first book (ex.1a) with the reworked version of the same madrigal
in the sixth (ex.1b). The speed with which Gagliano moves through a text in
these late pieces is on occasion somewhat contradicted, however, by the
repetition or reworking of a portion of music and text to produce a formal
design of large-scale ABB or ABB'. The compression and density of
construction in his later madrigals is lightened by the frequent full stops
with simultaneous rests in all the parts that separate and define discrete
sections of musical-textual matter.
 In 1623 Gagliano’s last book of madrigals was attacked by Mutio Effrem in
his Censure … sopra il sesto libro de madrigali di M. Marco da Gagliano.
The diatribe had first circulated privately and was published only on
Gagliano’s complaining (in an open letter printed in 1622 in his Sacrarum
cantionum … liber secundus) that he should like to see it so as to defend
himself. In his vicious attack on the madrigals Effrem pointed out errors in
part-writing and dissonance treatment, incorrect cadences, breaking of the
modes and the misuse of chromaticism, and accused Gagliano of
confusing the madrigal with the canzonetta. From the standpoint of a
conservative these accusations were, for the most part, just, but from that
of a modernist they were entirely inappropriate and misguided. As far as is
known, Gagliano never responded, probably because, all things
considered, he felt no defence was necessary. The remainder of his extant
secular music is found in his Musiche of 1615, one of the most notable
such volumes of the period. The chamber monodies, duets and trios, some
to sacred texts, include Valli profonde, one of the finest Italian monodies.
This volume also includes the music of the Ballo di donne turche (text by
Alessandro Ginori), danced at court during carnival, on 26 February 1615.
Much of Gagliano’s sacred music remains in manuscript. The masses,
motets, hymns, antiphons, responsories, Magnificat settings and other
surviving works are nearly all a cappella for four to six voices, though there
are a few double-chorus works as well. It is clear that they belong to all
phases of his career. The series of sacred works that he chose to publish
began with the (now incomplete) Officium defunctorum (1607/8), which
contains 12 liturgical pieces to Latin texts and four spiritual madrigals to
Italian texts. His next volume of sacred music (1614) contains 15 motets
and a mass, all for six voices. The continuo part of his Sacrarum
cantionum … liber secundus for one to six voices appeared in 1622, the
vocal partbooks in 1623. The use of continuo throughout this book and its
florid vocal writing suggest that it was made up of works written for the
private devotions of the Medici. Tinghi’s diary often reports occasions when
performances of sacred music by the virtuoso singers of the court were
presented in the private apartments of the Palazzo Pitti. Gagliano’s last
publication, Responsoria maioris hebdomadae (1630/31), responsories for
Thursday, Friday and Saturday of Holy Week, are homophonic,
harmonically simple four-part settings of the familiar texts and are fittingly
reserved and sombre in tone. They were perhaps the most cherished of all
Gagliano’s music in the years following his death. They survive in at least a
dozen manuscript copies in Florence, some with added instrumental parts,
showing adaptations for later taste, and according to Picchianti were
performed every year in S Lorenzo until well into the 19th century.
Gagliano, Marco da
WORKS
music lost unless otherwise stated

stage
La Dafne (op, prol., 6 scenes, O. Rinuccini, after Ovid), Mantua, Feb 1608, collab.
F. Gonzaga (Florence, 1608); ed. J. Erber (London, 1978)
Intermedio III (G. Chiabrera) to G.B. Guarini: L'Idropica, Mantua, 2 June 1608
Il trionfo d'onore (ballo, A. Striggio (ii)), Mantua, 3 June 1608
Il sacrificio d'Ifigenia (ballo, A. Striggio (ii)), Mantua, 5 June 1608
Mascherate di ninfe di Senna (intermedi, Rinuccini), collab. Peri and others,
Florence, 16 Feb 1611; Gagliano's music lost except Su l'affricane arene [see
madrigals, monodies]
Scherzi e balli di giovanette montanine (G. Ginori), 1614
Ballo di donne turche (A. Ginori), Florence, 26 Feb 1615 [see madrigals, monodies]
La liberazione di Tirreno ed Arnea (veglia, A. Salvadori), ? collab. Peri, Florence, 6
Feb 1617
La fiera (intermedi, M. Buonarroti), Florence, Palazzo Pitti, 11 Feb 1619, collab. F.
Caccini
Lo sposalizio di Medoro et Angelica (op, Salvadori, after L. Ariosto), Florence,
Palazzo Pitti, 25 Sept 1619, collab. J. Peri; rev. as Il Medoro, 1623
Le fonti d'Ardenna (ballo, Salvadori), Florence, 3 and 8 Feb 1623
La regina Sant'Orsola (sacred drama, Salvadori), Florence, Uffizi, 6 Oct 1624
La storia di Judit (sacred drama, Salvadori), Florence, 22 Sept 1626
La Flora (op, prol., 5, Salvadori), Florence, Palazzo Pitti, 14 Oct 1628 (Florence,
1628) [role of Chloris by Peri]
madrigals, monodies
all published in Venice

Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (16026) [1602]

Il secondo libro de madrigali, 5vv (160417) [1604]
Il terzo libro de madrigali, 5vv (160513) [1605/6]
Il quarto libro de madrigali, 5, 6, 10vv (1606 11) [1606/7]
Il quinto libro de madrigali, 5, 7vv (1608) [1608]
Musiche, 1–3, 5vv (161516); ed. in SEM, ii, v (1969–72) [also incl. complete Ballo di
donne turche and sacred works] [1615]
Il sesto libro de madrigali, 5, 8vv (161714) [1617]

Further works in P. Benedetti: Musiche (Florence, 1611), 161311, 161416, 162910

Ahi dolorosa vita (G. Villifranchi), 5vv, 1605, ed. in Butchart (1982); Alma mia, dove
te’n vai (O. Rinuccini), 2vv, 1615, ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora (Copenhagen, 1949), iii,
84; Al mio novo martire, 5vv, 1602; Al tramontar del sole (G. Murtola), 5vv, 1604;
Altri di beltà, 7vv, 1608; Arsi un tempo (G. Marino), 5vv, 1602; Assetato d’Amor, 5vv,
1604; Ballo di donne turche (A. Ginori), 1615 [see also stage]; Bel pastor, dal cui bel
guardo (Rinuccini), 1v, P. Benedetti: Musiche (Florence, 1611); Benche l’ombre, e
gl’orrori, 5vv, 1605/6; Ben quel puro candore (Marino), 5vv, 1606/7
Cantai un tempo (P. Bembo), 2vv, 1615; Care lagrime mie (L. Celiano), 5vv, 1605/6,
ed. in Butchart (1982); Care pupille amate, 5vv, 1608; Che non mi date aita, 5vv,
1617; Chi nudrisce tua speme, cor mio (G. Chiabrera), 2vv, 1615; Chi sete voi che
saettate a morte, 5vv, 1617, ed. in Butchart (1982); Cingetemi d’intorno (G.B.
Guarini), 5vv, 1604; Come il ferir sia poco (Marino), 5vv, 1605/6; Come potrò mai
fare, cor mio, 5vv, 1602; Come si m’accendete (?T. Tasso), 3vv, 1615; Con la
candida man tu cogli (A. Striggio (ii)), 5vv, 1605/6; Deh rivolgete il guardo, 5vv,
1604, ed. in Strainchamps (1991); Dico a le Muse (Chiabrera), 5vv, 1602; Die mie
tante sventure, 5vv, 1604; Di marmo siete voi (Marino), 5vv, 1602, ed. A. Einstein,
The Golden Age of the Madrigal (New York, 1942), 85
Ecco l’alba, ecco il giorno, 5vv, 1606/7; Ecco maggio seren (G. Strozzi (ii)), 5vv,
1604; Ecco solinga delle selve amica, 1v, 1613 11; ed. H. Riemann, Handbuch der
Musikgeschichte, ii/2 (Leipzig, 1912, 3/1921); Ergasto mio, perché solingo e tacito
(J. Sannazaro), 5vv, 1604; Evoè Padre Lièo (Chiabrera), 5vv, 1617, ed. in AMI, iv
(n.d.), 23; Fanciulletta ritrosetta che d’amor, 2vv, 1615, ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora
(Copenhagen, 1949), iii, 82; Felicissimo fiore a cui fu dato, 5vv, 1608; Filli, mentre ti
bacio (A. Ongaro), 5vv, 1602, ed. in Strainchamps (1984); Filli, mentre ti bacio
(Ongaro), 5vv, 1617, ed. in Strainchamps (1984); Fuggi lo spirto, 5vv, 1604; Fuggi
tua speme, fuggi, 5vv, 1608; Fuss’io pur degno (G.B. Strozzi (ii)), 5vv, 1608, ed. in
Butchart (1982); Hor che lunge da voi (Chiabrera), 5vv, 1606/7; Hor ch’io t’ho dato ’l
core, 5vv, 1608
Infelici occhi miei, 5vv, 1604; In qual parte del ciel (Petrarch), 5vv, 1604; In un
limpido rio, 2vv, 1615, ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora (Copenhagen, 1949), iii, 80; Io pur
sospiro, e piango, 5vv, 1605/6; Io vidi in terra angelici costumi (Petrarch), 1v, 1615;
I’ vo piangendo i miei passati tempi (Petrarch), 6vv, 1606/7; La bella pargoletta
(Tasso), 5vv, 1617; L’ardente tua facella, 5vv, 1602, ed. in Butchart (1982); Luci
vezzose e belle, 5vv, 1606/7; Lumi, miei cari lumi (Guarini), 5vv, 1606/7; Mentre
ch’a l’aureo crine (Marino), 5vv, 1605/6; Mentre mia stella mira (Tasso), 5vv, 1605/6;
Mie speranze lusinghiere (M. Buonarroti), 1v, 1615, ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora
(Copenhagen, 1949), ii, 12; Mira, Fillide mia, come tenace (Ongaro), 2vv, 1615;
Mori, mi dici, e mentre con quel guardo (Marino), 5vv, 1608
Nasce questo, 5vv, 162910; Occhi miei che ridete, 5vv, 1617; Occhi, no ’l vorrei dire,
5vv, 1617; Occhi un tempo mia vita (Guarini), 5vv, 1606/7; O chiome erranti
(Marino), 5vv, 1606/7, ed. in Butchart (1982); O com’in van credei, 5vv, 1617; O
dolce anima mia (Guarini), 5vv, 161416; O dolce anima mia (Guarini), 5vv, 1617;
Ohimè che tutta piaga, 5vv, 1604; Ohimè tu piangi, o Filli, 5vv, 1617; O misera
Dorinda ov’hai tu poste (Guarini), 5vv, 1602, ed. Einstein, op. cit., iii, 267; O morte
agli altri fosca a me serena, 5vv, 1604; O sonno ò della queta humida ombrosa (G.
della Casa), 5vv, 1602, ed. Einstein, op. cit., iii, 275; Ove se lieti è bel drappel
d’amati, 10vv, 1606/7; Ovunque irato Marte in terra scende, 1v, 1615
Perfidissimo volto (Guarini), 5vv, 1606/7; Quel vivo sol ardente, 6vv, 1606/7; Queste
lucenti stelle, 5vv, 1604; Quest’è pur il mio core (Guarini), 3vv, 1615; Qui rise, o Tirsi
(Marino), 5vv, 1608; Ridete pur, ridete (Murtola), 5vv, 1605/6; Scherza Madonna e
dice (A. Cebà), 5vv, 1602; Sdegno la fiamma estinse (O. Tavaletta), 5vv, 1605/6;
Seccassi giunta a sera, 5vv, 1608; Se con vive fiammelle (V. Pitti), 5vv, 1602; Se del
mio lagrimare (Celiano), 5vv, 1605/6; Se già ritrosa mi fuggisti, 5vv, 1608; Se più
meco mirar non è speranza (Chiabrera), 5vv, 1617; Sospir fugace e leve
(Rinuccini), 5vv, 1608; Spera infelice, spera, 5vv, 1608; Su l’affricane arene
(Rinuccini), 8vv, 1617 [see also stage], ed. in AMI, iv (n.d.), 27; Su la sponda del
Tebro humida (Marino), 5vv, 1608
Tanto è dolce il martire, 5vv, 1617, ed. in Butchart (1982); Trà sospiri e querele, 5vv,
1602; Troppo ben può questo tiranno Amore (Guarini), 5vv, 1606/7; Tu se’ pur aspro
a chi t’adora Silvio (Guarini), 5vv, 1602, ed. in Butchart (1982); Tutt’eri foco Amore
(Guarini), 5vv, 1606/7; Un sguardo, un sguardo non troppo pietate (Chiabrera), 5vv,
1602; Vaga su spina ascosa (Chiabrera), 5vv, 1605/6; Vaghi rai, mercede, aita, 5vv
(Rinuccini), 1605/6; Vago amoroso Dio (G.B. Strozzi (ii)), 5vv, 1608; Valli profonde
al sol nemiche (L. Tansillo), 1v, 1615, ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora (Copenhagen,
1949), i, 14; Vattene o felic’alma, 5vv, 1608; Vivo mio sol tu giri (Marino), 5vv, 1604;
Voi sete bella, ma fugace e presta (Tasso), 5vv, 1605/6; Volle mostrar ch’un giro
(Murtola), 5vv, 1617

sacred vocal
published in Venice unless otherwise stated

Officium defunctorum, 4, 8vv (1607/8) [1607]

Missae, et sacrarum cantionum, 6vv (Florence, 1614) [1614]
Musiche, 1–3, 5vv (161516) [also incl. secular works] [1615]
Sacrarum cantionum … liber secundus, 1–4, 6vv (bc 1622, vocal partbooks 1623)
[1622]
Responsoria maioris hebdomadae, 4vv (1630/31) [1630]

1 work in G.B. da Gagliano: Il secondo libro de motetti, 6, 8vv (1643)

Latin
Adoramus te, Christe, 6vv, 1614; Amicus meus osculi me tradidit signo, 4vv, 1630;
Animam meam dilectam tradidi, 4vv, 1630; Astiterunt reges terrae, 4vv, 1630; Ave
Maria gratia plena, 6vv, 1614; Ave maris stella, 3vv, 1622; Beatam me dicent omnes
generationes, 3vv, 1622; Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel, 4vv, 1630; Benedictus
Dominus Deus, 8vv, 1607; Caligaverunt oculi mei, 4vv, 1630; Cantabant sancti
canticum novum, 1v, 1622; Christus factus est pro nobis, 4vv, 1630; Clamemus cum
Gabriele, 6vv, 1614; Credo quod Redemptor meus vivit, 4vv, 1607; Crucem tuam
adoramus, 1v, 1622; Domine quando veneris iudicare, 4vv, 1607; Domine
secundum actum meum, 4vv, 1607; Duo seraphim clamabant, 6vv, 1614
Ecce quam bonum, 6vv, 1614; Ecce quomodo moritur iustus, 4vv, 1630; Ecce
vidimus eum non habentem, 4vv, 1630: Eram quasi agnus innocens, 4vv, 1630;
Estimatus sum cum descendentibus, 4vv, 1630; Exultate iusti, 6vv, 1622; Faustinus
et Jovita, 6vv, 1614; Hei mihi Domine quia peccavi nimis, 4vv, 1607; Hierusalem
surge et exuete vestibus, 4vv, 1630; Hodie Christus natus est, 6vv, 1614; Hodie
Maria virgo, 1v, 1622; In monte Oliveti oravit ad Patrem, 4vv, 1630; Jesum tradidit
impius, 4vv, 1630; Jesu nostra redemptio, 1v, 1622; Judus mercator pessimus, 4vv,
1630
Lauda Sion, 8vv, G.B. da Gagliano: Il secondo libro de motetti, 6, 8vv (Venice,
1643); Libera me, Domine, de vivis inferni, 4vv, 1607; Magnificat anima mea (i), 2vv,
1622; Magnificat anima mea (ii), 4vv, 1622; Magnificat anima mea (iii), 4vv, 1622;
Memento mei, Deus, quia ventus, 4vv, 1607; Miserere mei, Deus, secundum
magnam, 4vv, 1630; Miserere mei, Deus, secundum magnam, 8vv, 1607; Missa,
6vv, 1614; Ne recordaris peccata mea, 4vv, 1607; Ne timeas Maria invenisti, 6vv,
1614; O admirabile commercium, 6vv, 1622; O beata Trinitas, 1v, 1622; Omnes
amici mei dereliquerunt, 4vv, 1630; O quam magnus est, 6vv, 1622; O quam
pulchra es, 6vv, 1622; O vos omnes qui transitis, 4vv, 1630; O vos omnes qui
transitis, 6vv, 1614
Peccantem me quotidie, 4vv, 1607; Plange quasi virgo plebs meo, 4vv, 1630;
Popule meus, quid feci tibi, 6vv, 1614; Princeps gloriosissime Michael Archangele,
2vv, 1622; Puer qui natus est nobis, 6vv, 1614; Quae est ista quae ascendit, 2vv,
1622; Quem vidistis, pastores, 6vv, 1622; Qui Lazarum resuscitasti, 4vv, 1607; Quo
raperis, o Pater, 6vv, 1614; Recessit pastor noster fons aquae vivae, 4vv, 1630;
Regina coeli laetare, 1v, 1622; Regina coeli laetare, 6vv, 1614; Requiem aeternam
dona eis Domine, 8vv, 1607
Seniores populi consilium fecerunt, 4vv, 1630; Sepulto Domino signatum est, 4vv,
1630; Sicut cedrus exaltata sum, 6vv, 1614; Sicut ovis ad occisionem ductus est,
4vv, 1630; Tanquem ad latronem existis, 4vv, 1630; Tenebrae factae sunt, 4vv,
1630; Tradiderunt me in manus impiorum, 4vv, 1630; Tristis est anima mea, 4vv,
1630; Una hora non potuistis vigilare, 4vv, 1630; Unus ex discipulis meis, 4vv, 1630;
Urbs Hierusalem beata, 3vv, 1622; Velum templi scissum est, 4vv, 1630; Veni
Creator Spiritus, 4vv, 1622; Veni Sancte Spiritus, 6vv, 1614; Venite gentes, 6vv,
1622; Vere languores nostros, 2vv, 1622; Vinea mea electa ego te plantavi, 4vv,
1630
Over 50 works, incl. masses, 4–8vv; requiem settings; Sunday Compline;
responsories for Matins; Office of the Dead; settings of TeD, Mag and Miserere;
motets, 3–8vv; pss; hymns: principal source I-Fd, other sources D-MÜs, I-Bc, Fa,
Fsl, PAc, Pla, PS, VEaf
Benedictus, Bc; ed. in AMI, iv (n.d.), 21
Italian
A che più vaneggiar, 4vv, 1607; Anima, oimè, che pensi?, 4vv, 1607; Bontà del ciel
eterna, 1v, 1615; O meraviglie belle, 2vv, 1615; O miei giorni fugaci (?Rinuccini),
4vv, 1607; O vita nostra al fin polvere et ombra, 2vv, 1615; Pastor, levate su, chi vi
ritarda il pie, 1v, 1615, ed. P. Aldrich, Rhythm in 17th-Century Italian Monody (New
York, 1966), 168
Qui fra mille trofei, 4vv, 1607
Vergine bella che di sol (Petrarch), 3vv, 1615
Vergine chiara e stabile eterno (Petrarch), 2vv, 1615
Gagliano, Marco da
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BertolottiM
EinsteinIM
SolertiMBD
M. da Gagliano: Letters (I-MAc and Fl); 29 pr. in Vogel, 550ff; 27 printed in
Strainchamps, ‘The Unknown Letters’ 101ff
D. Moreni: Continuazione delle memorie istoriche dell’Ambrosiana imperial
basilica di S Lorenzo, ii (Florence, 1817), 3, 54, 163
L. Picchianti: ‘Cenni biografici di Marco da Gagliano e di alcuni altri valenti
compositori di musica’, GMM, iii (1844), 2–3
E. Vogel: ‘Marco da Gagliano: zur Geschichte des Florentiner Musiklebens
von 1570–1650’, VMw, v (1889), 396–442, 509–68
A. Solerti: Le origini del melodramma (Turin, 1903/R), 76ff, 138
A. Solerti: Gli albori del melodramma, i (Milan, 1904/R), 73ff
F.F. de Daugnan: Gli italiani in Polonia del IX secolo al XVII, ii (Crema,
1907), 295–6, 303–4
F. Ghisi: ‘An Early Seventeenth Century MS with Unpublished Italian
Monodic Music by Peri, Giulio Romano and Marco da Gagliano’, AcM,
xx (1948), 46–60
F. Ghisi: ‘Ballet Entertainments in Pitti Palace, Florence, 1608–1625’, MQ,
xxxv (1949), 421–36
F. Ghisi: ‘La musique religieuse de Marco da Gagliano a Santa Maria del
Fiore, Florence’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949, 125–8
N. Fortune: ‘Italian Secular Monody from 1600 to 1635: an Introductory
Survey’, MQ, xxxix (1953), 171–95, esp. 184
M. Fabbri and E.Settesoldi: ‘Aggiunte e rettifiche alle biografie di Marco e
Giovanni Battista da Gagliano: il luogo e le date di nascita e di morte
dei due fratelli musicisti’, Chigiana, xxi, new ser., i (1964), 131–42
A.M. Nagler: Theatre Festivals of the Medici, 1539–1637 (New Haven, CT,
1964/R)
F. Ghisi: ‘Le musiche per “Il ballo di donne turche” di Marco da Gagliano’,
RIM, i (1966), 20–31
A.T. Cortellazzo: ‘Il melodramma di Marco da Gagliano’, Claudio
Monteverdi e il suo tempo: Venice, Mantua and Cremona 1968, 583–
98
E. Strainchamps: ‘A Brief Report on the Madrigal Style of Marco da
Gagliano’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972, 675–9
E. Strainchamps: ‘New Light on the Accademia degli Elevati of Florence’,
MQ, lxii (1976), 507–35
E. Strainchamps: ‘Marco da Gagliano and the Compagnia dell’Arcangelo
Raffaello in Florence: an Unknown Episode in the Composer’s Life’,
Essays Presented to Myron P. Gilmore, ed. S. Bertelli and G.
Ramakus, ii (Florence, 1978), 473–87
D.S. Butchart: The Madrigal in Florence, 1560–1630 (diss., U. of Oxford,
1979)
J.W. Hill: ‘Oratory Music in Florence, i: Recitar cantando, 1583–1655’,
AcM, li (1979), 108–36, 246–67
J. Erber: ‘Marco da Gagliano's Sacrae cantiones II of 1622’, The Consort,
no.35 (1979), 342–7
E.S. Buracchio: ‘Nuovi documenti su Marco da Gagliano e Girolamo
Frescobaldi’, Annali della facoltà di lettere e filosofia dell' Università di
Siena, iii (1982), 81–90
D.S. Butchart: I madrigali di Marco da Gagliano (Florence, 1982)
F. D'Accone: ‘Marco da Gagliano and the Florentine Tradition for Holy
Week Music’, IMSCR XIII: Strasbourg 1982, ii, 323–63
T. Carter: ‘A Florentine Wedding of 1608’, AcM, lv (1983), 89–107
E. Strainchamps: ‘Marco da Gagliano, Filli, mentre ti bacio, and the End of
the Madrigal in Florence’, Essays in Honor of Paul Henry Lang, ed. E.
Strainchamps and M.R. Maniates (New York, 1984), 311–25
R. Savage: ‘Prologue: Daphne Transformed’, EMc, xvii (1989), 485–93
E. Strainchamps: ‘Music in a Florentine Confraternity: the Memorial
Madrigals for Jacopo Corsi in the Company of the Archangel Raphael’,
Crossing the Boundaries: Christian Piety and the Arts in Italian
Medieval and Renaissance Confraternities, ed. K. Eisenbichler
(Kalamazoo, MI, 1991), 161–78
E. Strainchamps: ‘Theory as Polemic: Mutio Effrem's Censure … sopra il
sesto libro de madrigali di Marco da Gagliano’, Music Theory and the
Exploration of the Past, ed. C. Hatch and D.W. Bernstein (Chicago,
1993), 189–216
E. Strainchamps: ‘Marco da Gagliano in 1608: Choices, Decisions, and
Consequences’, Journal of Seventeenth-Century Music, vi (2000),
http:www.sscm.harvard.edu/jscm/v6nol.html
E. Strainchamps: ‘The Unknown Letters of Marco da Gagliano’, Music in
the Theatre, Church and Villa: Essays in Honor of Robert Lamar
Weaver and Norma Wright Weaver, ed. S Parisi, E. Harriss and C.M.
Bower (Warren, MI, 2000), 89–111

Gagliarda [gagiarda]
(It.).
See Galliard.

Gagnebin, Henri
(b Liège, 13 March 1886; d Geneva, 2 June 1977). Swiss composer,
teacher and organist. He received his musical education in Lausanne,
Berlin, Geneva (where he studied with Otto Barblan, Oscar Schulz and
Joseph Lauber) and Paris, taking lessons from d’Indy at the Schola
 Cantorum; he also studied the piano with Blanche Selva. During this period
he worked as a Protestant church organist in Paris, Lausanne and Geneva.
He finally settled in Switzerland in 1916, teaching music history and the
organ at the conservatories of Lausanne, Neuchâtel and Geneva. In 1925
he was appointed director of the Geneva Conservatoire, a post he held
until 1957, and in 1938 he founded the Geneva International Competition
for Musical Performance, which gained a worldwide reputation and over
which Gagnebin continued to preside until 1959. As a result of this activity
he was made president of the Federation of International Competitions,
and sat on the juries of many contests; he also became known as an
organist, lecturer and musicologist. Among the awards made to him were
the Prize of the City of Geneva (1961), an honorary doctorate of Geneva
University and an honorary fellowship of the Royal Academy of Music,
London.
His output is large and covers all genres except opera. Strongly influenced
at first by Franck and d’Indy, his music evolved beyond them to incorporate
some of the new developments of his contemporaries, notably Stravinsky.
Gagnebin avoided external effect and constructed his music with care; the
most characteristic features of his work are a deep faith expressed through
the use of Protestant psalmody, and a kindly, colourful humour.
WORKS
(selective list)

Choral: St François d’Assise, orat, 1933; Les vanités du monde, orat, 1938;
Abraham sacrifiant, 1939; Jedermann, cant., 1942; Chant pour le Jour des morts et
la Toussaint, orat, 1943; Psaume 100, chorus, org, 1947; Psaume 109, chorus,
org/orch, 1948; Les mystères de la foi, orat, 1958; Psaume 104, solo vv, chorus,
orch, 1962; Messe latine sur de vieux noëls, chorus, org, 1966; Messe de concert,
chorus, org, 1973
Orch: 3 syms., 1911, 1921, 1955; Les vierges folles, sym. poem, 1913; Pf Conc.,
1931; Suite, 1936; Andante and Allegro, cl, small orch, 1939; 3 tableaux
symphoniques, after F. Hodler, 1942; Nocturne, small orch, 1944; Printemps (Le
jeune homme admiré par les femmes), 1948; 2 Suites sur des psaumes huguenots,
1950, 1966; Fantaisie, pf, orch, 1960
Vocal: Le bonheur, S/T, pf/small orch, 1926; La maison du matin, S/T, pf/orch, 1926;
3 mélodies (T. Derème), S/T, pf, 1929; Pour l’arbre de Noël de nos petits enfants,
1v, pf, 1930; 3 chansons spirituelles, 1v, org, 1937; L’homme et la mer, A/Bar,
pf/small orch, 1937; 2 poèmes (E. Verhaeren: Heures claires), S/T, pf, 1942;
Chansons pour courir le monde, S/T, pf/orch, 1945; L’instrument de musique, 2 solo
vv, wind qnt, pf, 1950
3 str qts, other chbr pieces, pf works, many org works

Principal publishers: Henn (Geneva), Leduc

WRITINGS
Fritz Bach: sa vie, son oeuvre (Neuchâtel and Paris, 1935)
‘Onze compositeurs romands’, 40 Schweizer Komponisten der
Gegenwart/40 compositeurs suisses contemporains (Amriswil, 1956;
Eng. trans., 1956)
 Musique, mon beau souci (Neuchâtel, 1969)
Orgue, musette et bourdon (Neuchâtel, 1975)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. van Amerongen: ‘Henri Gagnebin’, Mens en melodie, xi (1956), 353–55
S. Baud-Bovy: ‘Henri Gagnebin’, 40 Schweizer Komponisten der
Gegenwart/40 compositeurs suisses contemporains (Amriswil, 1956;
Eng. trans., 1956)
P. Mieg: ‘Henri Gagnebin’, Volume commemoratif de l’Association des
musiciens suisses dans le second quart de siècle de son existence
(Zürich, 1960), 253–4
A. Châtelain: ‘Albert Jeannert et Henri Gagnebin’, Revue musicale de
Suisse romande, xix/2 (1966), 10–11, esp. 11
C. Desclouds: ‘Henri Gagnebin’, Six compositeurs jurassiens (Porrentruy,
1966), 25–38
Henri Gagnebin, organiste, compositeur: chronologie de sa vie et
catalogue de ses oeuvres (Geneva, 1986)
PIERRE MEYLAN

Gagneux, Renaud
(b Paris, 15 May 1947). French composer. He attended the Ecole Normale
de Musique de Paris, where he studied piano with Cortot (1961–2) and
composition with Dutilleux (1966); he also studied composition with
Stockhausen at the Cologne Musikhochschule (1966). He pursued his
studies at the Paris Conservatoire (with Messiaen, 1967–72), where he
won a first prize in composition in 1972. In that year he joined Pierre
Schaeffer's musical research group at ORTF. In addition to a large output
of sacred choral, orchestral and other instrumental works, he has also
written several film scores. He has won a number of prizes including the
Prix Georges Enesco (1983), the SACD Prix des nouveaux talents (1989),
the Prix de l'Institut de France (1989, 1998), the Prix des Compositeurs
(1990) and the SACEM Grand Prix (1993).
WORKS
stage
Orphée (op, 5, 11 tableaux), op.11, 1983–5, Strasbourg 1989
Orch: Ricercare I, op.1bis, 1989; Devant le sommeil bleu…, op.4, 1979; Conc.,
op.6, db, orch, 1981; Conc., op.9, tuba, pf, orch, 1982–3; L'ombre du souvenir,
op.10, 1983; Les échos de la mémoire, op.13, 1985; Ricercare II, op.17bis, 1987;
Qamar, op.20, str orch/str qnt, 1988; Conc., op.21, trbn, orch, 1990; La chasse des
carillons crie dans les gorges II, op.22bis, tuba, hn, orch, 1990; Triptyque, op.24, vc,
orch, 1989–90; Anabole, op.25, 1990; 3 movts, op.31, 1992; Prélude, op.39, str
1993; Conc., op.47, fl, hp, orch, 1996; Vn Conc., op.50, 1997; Signal de brume,
op.50bis, 1997; Va Conc., op.51, 1997–8
Ens: Commune di Venezia, op.7, 1981–2; Haec Anima…, 12 or 24 db, 1992
Chbr: Trio, vn, vc, pf, 1975, rev. 1995; Sonata, op.9bis, tuba, pf, 1983; Str Qt no.1,
op.15, 1986; Str Qt no.2, op.16, 1986; Clock-Work, op.19, 2 pf, 1987; La chasse
des carillons crie dans les gorges I, op.22, tuba, hn, 1988; Qamar, op.20, str qnt/str
orch, 1988; Str Qt no.3, op.23, 1989; Et le monde ne connaît rien d'eux que leur
voix, op.29, wind octet, 1991; Alliage, op.34, brass qnt, 1992; Les douze tribus
d'Israël, op.35, str sextet, 1992; Opus 41, cl, bn, 1994; Trio, op.45, vc/db, pf, vn
instrumental
Solo: Sonatine no.1, op.1, pf, 1966, rev. 1979; Sonatine no.2, op.17, pf, 1987;
Lazawardi, op.26, fl, 1990; Veni Creator Spiritus, op.32, org, 1992; Narandi,
op.38a, hp, 1993; Melarancia, op.38b, hp, 1994; Mass, op.42, org, 1994
vocal
Mass, op.3, S, chorus, ob, cl, hn, org, perc, 1975, rev. 1995 as op.43; Requiem,
op.5, 2 S, chorus, orch, 1975–81; Quatre mots pour Juliette (V. Hugo), op.12, S, pf,
1985; Magnificat, op.14, S, Mez, chorus, orch, 1986; TeD, op.18, S, Mez, chorus,
orch, 1987; Les Sept dernières paroles du Christ, op.27, 16 solo vv, org, 1990;
Stabat Mater, op.28, chorus, 2 hp, 2 pf, perc, 1991; Golgotha, op.30, chorus, orch,
1992; Ave verum corpus, op.33, chorus, 1992; Angelus domini, op.37, children's
chorus, male chorus, hp, org, perc, 1992–3; Nunc dimittis, op.44, Bar, chorus, hn,
hp, org, 2 perc, 1994
JEAN-NOËL VON DER WEID

Gagnon, (Frédéric) Ernest

(Amédée)
(b Rivière-du-Loup-en-haut [now Louiseville], Lower Canada [PQ], 7 Nov
1834; d Quebec City, 15 Sept 1915). Canadian composer, organist,
teacher and folksong collector. After completing the classical studies
programme at the Collège Joliette, he spent three years studying music in
Montreal. In 1853 he was appointed organist at St Jean-Baptiste in Quebec
City, and from 1864 to 1876 he was organist of the Quebec City Basilica.
During the first of two European trips (1857–8 and 1873) Gagnon studied
the piano at the Paris Conservatoire with Alexandre Edouard Goria and
Henri Herz, and harmony and counterpoint with Auguste Durand.
An exponent of the Louis Niedermeyer method of plainchant
accompaniment, Gagnon published in 1903 a large book of
accompaniments for use in Quebec parishes (L'accompagnement d'orgue
des chants liturgiques). He also composed some church music, as well as
several salon-type pieces for solo piano. He was a founder of one of the
first regulatory musical institutions in Canada in 1868, the Académie de
Musique de Québec, and taught music for many years at the Ecole
Normale Laval and at the Ursuline convent in Quebec City. In later life he
was a civil servant in the provincial government.
Gagnon is remembered for his folksong collection, Les chansons
populaires du Canada (Quebec City, 1865–7, 2/1880/R). It is remarkable
for the scrupulous attention to detail in his transcriptions, concordances
with variants in other sources, and musical analysis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Letondal: ‘Ernest Gagnon, écrivain et folkloriste’, Qui, ii (1951), 65–80
G.E. Smith: Ernest Gagnon (1834–1915): Musician and Pioneer Folk Song
Scholar (diss., U. of Toronto, 1989) [incl. complete listing of Gagnon's
compositions and writings]
 GORDON E. SMITH

Gai
(Fr.: ‘merry’, ‘cheerful’).
A tempo mark. Rousseau (1768) equated it with allegro, the fourth of his
five main degrees of movement in music; and the frequency of its use from
the earliest years of the 18th century suggests that his equation, for once,
was a happy one. Couperin used it (with the spelling gay), as did Rameau;
and they and their contemporaries made much use of the adverbial form
gaiment, also spelt gayment, gaiement and gayement, as tempo and mood
designations. The early history of gai as a purely musical instruction is a
little difficult to trace because the word appears in musical contexts
throughout the 17th century as the title of a dance, the branle gai; but its
absence from Brossard's Dictionaire of 1703 suggests that François
Couperin's use of it is one of the earliest. Occasionally Italian composers
used the adjective gajo or gaio, particularly as a qualification to allegro.

For bibliography see Tempo and expression marks.

DAVID FALLOWS

Gaiani [Gajani], Giovanni Battista

(b Bologna, 20 Nov 1757; d Bologna, 13 Oct 1819). Italian organist and
composer. He studied with Zanotti, Vignali, Martini and Mattei. Admitted to
membership in the Accademia Filarmonica of Bologna as organist and then
as composer in 1781–2, he was elected Principe in 1793, 1802, 1807 and
1815. He was organist and maestro di cappella at various Bolognese
churches, including S Maria della Morte; in 1802 he played the harpsichord
for the opera at the Teatro Comunale. Competent, but conservative and
provincial, he was a composer of the late 18th-century Bolognese school
derived from Padre Martini. The only trace of him outside Bologna is one
sacred piece in the Cappella Lauretana in Loreto. (GaspariC)
WORKS
in I-Bc unless otherwise stated

Don Trastullo (int, 2)

3 orats, lost: Giuseppe riconosciuto, 1774; Jefte, 1780; Mosè in Egitto, 1782
18 Ky, 22 Gl, 12 Cr, 8 grads, 59 psalms, 7 Mag, Dies irae: all 4vv, orch; Ave Maria,
I-LT
Counterpoint exercises
Sostenuto molto, org, in 30 componimenti per organo, ed. A. Busi (Bologna, 1874)

HOWARD BROFSKY

Gaiarda
 (It.).
See Galliard.

Gaidifer [Gadifer] d'Avion

(fl 1230–50). French trouvère. Avion is in the environs of Arras, and
Gaidifer, an ecclesiastic, was a member of the Artesian poetic circle. Since
he appears as a respondent to Jehan Bretel in two jeux-partis, and as
judge of Jehan de Grieviler and of Robert de Castel in other jeux-partis,
and since Perrin d'Angicourt, Jehan le Cuvelier d'Arras and the banker
Audefroi Louchart appear as judges in the former, Gaidifer was probably
active towards the middle of the 13th century. Six of the seven chansons
attributed to him are unica in the Rome Chansonnier (I-Rvat Reg.lat.1490).
His style is sharply circumscribed. All the poems are isometric, consisting
of octosyllables or decasyllables; all except one contain only two rhymes
per strophe and in five the pedes are followed by the rhyme pattern baab.
The melodies are all in bar form. Only in Tant ai d'amours is there any
repetition in the cauda. This is also the only melody cast in a mode with a
minor 3rd above the final. The melodies, though simple, span between an
octave and an 11th. In Je me cuidoie and Las pour quoi the latter portions
of the melodies are more active than the nearly syllabic beginnings. In no
work is there clear evidence of symmetrical rhythmical organization.
WORKS

Edition: Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler,
CMM, cvii (1997)

Amours qui sur tous a pooir, R.1806

Je me cuidoie bien tenir, R.1471
Las pour quoi ris ne jus me chant, R.316
Par grant esfort m'estuet dire et chanter, R.809
Quant Dieus ne veut, tout si saint n'ont pooir, R.1812
Tant ai d'amours apris et entendu, R.2054 [model for: Lambert Ferri, ‘J'ai tant
d'amours apris et entendu’, R.2053, and Adam de la Bassée, ‘Ave rosa rubens et
tenera’]
Tout me samble noient [quant ne vous v]oi, R.1656a (no music)

works of joint authorship

Gaidifer, par courtoisie, R.1121 (jeu-parti with Jehan Bretel)
Gaidifer, d'un jeu parti, R.1071 (jeu-parti with Bretel)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Långfors, A. Jeanroy and L. Brandin, eds.: Recueil général des jeux-
partis français (Paris, 1926)
H. Petersen Dyggve: ‘Chansons françaises du XIIIe siècle’,
Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, xxxi (1930), 1–62

For further bibliography see Troubadours, trouvères.

 THEODORE KARP

Gaier, Johann Christoph.

See Gayer, Johann Christoph.

Gaiettane, Fabrice Marin.

See Caietain, Fabrice Marin.

Gaiffre, Georges-Adam.
See Goepfert, Georges-Adam.

Gail [née Garre], (Edmée) Sophie

(b Paris, 28 Aug 1775; d Paris, 24 July 1819). French composer. Her first
songs appeared from 1790 in the song magazines of Louis de La
Chervardière and Antoine Bailleux. At the age of 18 she married the
philologist Jean Baptiste Gail, but they separated some years later. She
then studied singing with Bernardo Mengozzi, and made a successful tour
of southern France and Spain. She studied musical theory with Fétis and,
later, with Perne and Neukomm. Between 1808 and 1810 her salon
attracted the most fashionable singers in Paris. She wrote a number of
songs and romances, and four one-act operas which were produced by the
Opéra-Comique at the Théâtre Feydeau. The first and most successful of
these, Les deux jaloux (1813), was followed by Mlle de Launay à la Bastille
(1813), Angéla, ou L'atelier de Jean Cousin (with Adrien Boieldieu, 1814)
and La sérénade (1818). The last contains accomplished music, but its
libretto, adapted from J.-F. Regnard's 1694 comedy of the same title, was
considered scandalous, even 50 years later, by Félix Clément in his
Dictionnaire lyrique (1867–9). He claimed that it offended ‘moeurs
dramatiques’ and that even the opera's beautiful music was not enough to
salvage it. Gail sang in London in 1816, and in 1818 toured Germany and
Austria with Angelica Catalani. She died prematurely of a chest ailment.
Sophie Gail enjoyed a high reputation both as singer and accompanist, and
her songs, which cultivate a vein of plaintive, amorous sentiment
fashionable in post-Revolutionary France, are original and carefully
wrought. The most popular of them, Celui qui sut toucher mon coeur, was
used as a theme for instrumental variations by at least five different
composers. Her son, Jean François Gail (1795–1845), wrote songs and
music criticism.
WORKS
selective list; all one-act opéras comiques, performed at Paris, Opéra-Comique (Théâtre
Feydeau)

Les deux jaloux (C.R. Dufresny and J.B.C. Vial), 27 March 1813
Mademoiselle de Launay à la Bastille (C. de Lesser, R. Villiers and Mme Villiers), 16
Dec 1813
Angéla, ou L'atelier de Jean Cousin (C. Montcloux d'Epinay), F-Pn, collab. A.
Boieldieu; 11 June 1814
La méprise (De Lesser), 20 Sept 1814
La sérénade (S. Gay, after J.-F. Regnard), 16 Sept 1818

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Choron-FayolleD
SchillingE
SchmidlD
Y. Gérard: ‘Luigi Boccherini and Madame Sophie Gail’, The Consort, xxiv
(1967), 294–309
PHILIP ROBINSON (with SARAH HIBBERD)

Gailhard, André
(b Paris, 29 June 1885; d Paris, 3 July 1966). French composer, son
ofPierre Gailhard. A pupil of Massenet, Leroux, Vidal and Lenepveu at the
Paris Conservatoire (1905–8), he won the Prix de Rome in 1908 for his
cantata La sirène. Skilfully written early settings of late Romantic and
symbolist poets can be likened to the early songs of Debussy. In the 1930s
he composed miniature piano pieces, very simple in style, often working a
straightforward idea on a single page As a result of his travels and interest
in ethnomusicology, a strong penchant for the oriental pervades much of
his music and in this respect he collaborated frequently with the writer
Maurice Magre. La bataille is set in Japan and many of his instrumental
pieces are based on oriental modes. He was most successful as a
dramatic composer. Set in Homeric times in Sicily, La fille du soleil was one
of the large-scale spectacles commissioned for the open-air arena at
Béziers. Centred on a village in the Pyrenees, Le sortilège is an opera of
considerable charm, somewhat indebted to Massenet, based on folklore.
WORKS
Stage: Amaryllis (conte mythologique, 1), 1906; L’Aragonaise (mimodrame), before
1909; La fille du soleil (incid music, 3, M. Magre), Béziers, Arènes, 29 Aug 1909; Le
sortilège (conte des fées, 3, M. Magre), 1913, Paris, PO, 29 Jan 1913; La bataille
(incid music, 3, C. Farrière), 1931; Arlequin (comédie féerique, 3 ‘et deux rêves’, M.
Magre), 1934
Film scores: La bataille; Derrière la façade; Variétés; Les petites alliées
Vocal: La sirène (cant., Eugène Adenis, G. Deveaux), vv, insts, 1908; Les heures
tendres, 6 mélodies (P. Verlaine and others), 1v, pf, 1911; Le veau d’or (orat), 1914;
6 mélodies (Sully-Prudhomme, V. Hugo, A. Samain and others), 1v, pf, 1921; L’île
magique, rumba chantée (?? Haël, ?? Deguil), 1v, pf, 1939; 6 chants exotiques (M.
Magre), 1v, pf, 1955
Orch: Suite orientale, 1951
Chbr: Str Qt, 1913; La chanson de l’echelle, vn, pf, 1935; Le berger, eng hn, pf,
1936
Pf: American dance, 1935; La marche des Maxim’s, 1935; La caravane, 1936;
Chanson de Mahoumet, 1936; Le chant des femmes, 1936; Les cortèges, 1936;
Danses, 1936; Derviches, 1936; Le désert, 1936; L’eau, 1936; Les femmes, 1936;
La halte, 1936; Le marché, 1936; La montagne, 1936; Le muezzin, 1936; La nouba,
1936; La nuit dans les jardins de la villa Medicis,1936; Paysage, 1936; Le tobal,
1936; Façde, 1939; Le fox de Gaby, 1939; Lamento, 1939; La valse anglaise, 1939
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. de Curzon: ‘Le sortilège’, Le théâtre, no.341 (1913), 4–8
G. Soulié de Morant: Théâtre et musique modernes en Chine avec une
étude technique de la musique chinoise et transcriptions pour piano
d’André Gailhard (Paris, 1926)
R. LANGHAM SMITH

Gailhard, Pierre [Pedro]

(b Toulouse, 1 Aug 1848; d Paris, 12 Oct 1918). French bass and opera
director. He studied singing in Toulouse and with Révial at the Paris
Conservatoire. On 4 December 1867 he made his début at the Opéra-
Comique as Falstaff in Thomas’ Le songe d’une nuit d’été, and was
engaged at the Opéra in 1870. There he created the roles of Richard in
Mermet’s Jeanne d’Arc (1876), Simon in Joncières’ La reine Berthe (1878)
and Pedro in Thomas’ Françoise de Rimini (1882). He appeared regularly
at Covent Garden from 1879 to 1883, his roles there including Osmin, Girot
in Hérold’s Le Pré aux Clercs, and Méphistophélès, of which he was
generally considered to be the finest interpreter since Faure. His voice was
warm and vibrant, but also powerful and he was said to be unequalled in
vehemence in the scene of the Benediction of the Swords (Les
Huguenots). Yet he also had the necessary light touch for comic operas. In
1884 he was appointed manager of the Opéra, a position he held jointly
with Ritt (1884–91) and then with Bertrand (1893–9); on Bertrand’s death in
1899 he became sole manager (until 1906). His regime was perhaps most
distinguished for its excellent Wagner productions. Gailhard also wrote the
scenarios for two works by Vidal, Maladetta (1893) and Guernica (1895).
On 6 July 1886 he was appointed a Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (E. Haraszti)
L.-G. Vapereau: Dictionnaire universel des contemporains (Paris, 6/1893)
HAROLD ROSENTHAL

Gaillard, Marius-François
(b Paris, 13 Oct 1900; d Evecquemont, 23 July 1973). French composer,
pianist and conductor. He began his career as a pianist, receiving a
premier prix at the Paris Conservatoire in 1916 and gaining recognition for
his recital performances, of Debussy especially. He also conducted his own
orchestra, which, in the Gaillard concerts he founded, performed both
classical and contemporary French repertory. In 1921 he was
commissioned to write music for the silent film El Dorado directed by
Marcel l’Herbier. Debussian in idiom, this 100-minute score for symphony
orchestra is considered a landmark in European film music. Between 1933
and 1959 Gaillard wrote scores for 40 films, including feature films by
L’Herbier and Cavalcanti, and documentaries.
 The interaction of classical form and non-European musical influence is a
recurring feature of Gaillard’s large output of concert works. La passion
noire, a cantata for triple chorus and large orchestra (including ondes
martenot) inspired by Bach’s Passions and African music, enjoyed a
succès de scandale at its 1932 Paris première. Of Gaillard’s four
symphonies, the first is marked by its polytonality, whereas the third
(‘Europe’, 1937) in Machabey’s words ‘truly foreshadowed the tragic events
to come’. Of his later works the ironic 12-note piano sonata of 1959 was
much praised. Gaillard gave up music in 1961, only to take up composing
again two years before his death. In recent years, the work of this
cosmopolitan individualist has gradually been rediscovered.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Le vitrail (comic op, 1, after R. Fauchois), 1920; Les caprices de Marianne
(incid music, after A. de Musset), 1924; La danse pendant le festin (drame lyrique,
1, after G. Guesnier), c1924; Yamba-O (tragédie burlesque, after A. Carpentier);
Lilliane (drame lyrique, after P.F. Quilici), 1928; Détresse (ballet), 1932; 13 (ballet),
1933; La France d’outre-mer (ballet), 1943; Adjugé ou les folles enchère (ballet);
Mille et quatre (incid music), 1956
Film scores: El Dorado (silent film, dir. M. L’Herbier), 1921; Les hommes nouveaux
(dir. L'Herbier), 1936; Histoire de rire (dir. L'Herbier), 1941; They Made Me a
Fugitive (dir. A. Cavalcanti), 1947; Les rendez-vous du diable (dir. H. Tazieff), 1958;
Magie moderne, 1959; also TV scores
Syms.: no.1, G, 1927; no.2 ‘A mon père’, 1937; no.3 ‘Europe’, 5 movts, 1937; no.4.
‘Symphonie lyrique’, 1972–3
Other orch: Epigraphe pour Claude Debussy, 1922; Guyanes, wind orch, perc, v ad
lib, 1925; Steppes d’Israël, suite, 1926; Images d’Epinal, conc., pf, wind, 1929;
Ordre français, suite, 1930; Invocation Maori, ondes martenot, small orch, 1931;
Mallorquina, conc., hn, orch, 1931; Concerto breve, pf, orch, 1934; 5 Moudras, fl,
hp, str, 1934; 5 Suites, 1942 [from film Sortilèges exotiques]; Toute l’Afrique danse,
1946; Concerto classique, vc, orch, 1950; Concerto leggero, vn, orch, 1954;
Tombeau romantique, conc., pf, orch, 1954; Rythmes, march suite, wind band,
1955; Concerto agreste, va, orch, 1957; Conc., hp, orch, 1960; Conc., fl, hp, 1973
[orchd A. Ameller]
Choral: La passion noire (Carpentier), solo vv, triple chorus, large orch, 1929;
Hommage de la Bretagne à Paris, T, chorus, orch, 1937; L’appel du stade, unacc.
chorus, 1942
Solo vocal (1v, pf, unless otherwise stated): A Clymène (P. Verlaine), 1v, orch, 1917;
Un grand sommeil noir (Verlaine), 1v, orch, 1918; 3 mélodies (A. Samain), 1918; 3
chants russes (Gaillard), 1v, orch, 1920; 4 mélodies chinoises (F. Toussaint), 1v,
pf/orch, 1921; 3 poèmes de Stéphane Mallarmé, 1v, orch, 1921; Chevaux de coeur
(G. Leblanc), 1922; Saisons (Leblanc), 1926; 4 exotiques (M. Parvillers), 1927; Blue
(d’Alejo), 1v, str orch, 1929; Poème des Antilles (Carpentier), 1929; 4 Songs (C.
Town), 1929; Souvenir éteint (E. Silva), 1929; Marchand d’chansons (F. Divoire),
1934; Valse, 1935; Cancion de loro (F. de Miomandre), 1v, pf/orch, 1938; Vers l’île
mystérieuse, song cycle (B. de Montlaur), 1941; Le bonheur, c’est nous (R.
Desnos), 1941; Berceuse (Gaillard), 1950; Au bord de la Seine (J. Vertex), 1953;
Les p’tits ch’vaux de bois (S. Gantillon), 1957; Ballade des jardins de Paris (A.
Chaumel), 1958
Chbr and solo inst: Menuet, hpd, 1922; 3 pièces chinoises, hp, 1923; Para Alejo,
trio, vn, vc, perc, 1929; Sonata, vn, pf, 1929; Week-End, vn, pf, 1929; Danse
amazone polynésienne, pf, perc, 1930; Cadenza, vc, 1931; Noite sobre o Tejo, sax,
pf, 1934; Str Trio, vn, va, vc, 1935; Sylvestre, fl, pf, 1950; Sonate baroque, vc, pf,
1951; Minutes du monde, suite, vc, pf, c1952; Terres chaudes, suite, vc, pf, 1956;
Partita, vc, 1958
Pf: Valse, 1914; Hommage à César Franck, 1918; Suite anglaise, 1930; Badineries,
1931; Doulces nostalgies, 1935; Ballade; Le nègre de Venise, 1940; 4 ballades du
Luberon, 1949; Sonate, 1959; many short pieces
MSS in F-Pn
Principal publishers: Choudens, Salabert, Heugel, Eschig, Costallat, Philippo,
Continental, Lemoine, Baron

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (A. Machabey)
A. Machabey: Portraits de trente compositeurs français (Paris, 1950)
M. L’Herbier: La tête qui tourne (Paris, 1979)
T. van Houten: El Dorado (’s-Hertogenbosch, 1983)
C. Piccardi: ‘Agli abori della musica cinematografica: “Frate Sole” di Luigi
Mancinelli’, Musica/Realtà, no.16 (1985), 41–74
THEODORE VAN HOUTEN

Gaillard, Paul-André
(b Veytaux-Chillon, Montreux, 26 April 1922; d Pully, 28 April 1992). Swiss
musicologist, conductor and composer. After his schooling at Montreux,
Lausanne and Winterthur, where he learnt the violin and viola with Ernst
Wolters, he studied literature and theology at Lausanne and took a course
in conducting at Geneva with Baud-Bovy and Franz von Hösslin. He
studied the violin at the Zürich Conservatory with Willem de Boer (diploma
1946) and musicology, church history and philosophy at the university. His
principal teachers were Hindemith, Willy Burkhard, Willi Schuh and Antoine
Cherbuliez. In 1947 he obtained the doctorat ès lettres from Zürich
University with a dissertation on the Huguenot Psalter. He taught music
history in Lausanne at the Conservatory and the Université Populaire
(1956–87) and at the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale (1973–9). Throughout
his life he was active as a choral and orchestral conductor. At the Bayreuth
Festival he directed the Wagner Seminar (1951–69) and the Chor des
Festspieltreffens (1957–69). He was also music director of the choir of the
Geneva Grand Théâtre (1969–87) and guest conductor of several
orchestras in Switzerland and abroad. From 1965 to 1974 he was French
editor of Revue musical suisse (SMz). A specialist in the Renaissance,
Wagner and the oratorio, Gaillard was also well known as a composer of
choral music. He received the Richard Wagner Medal for his compositions
in 1963.
WRITINGS
Die Formen der Troubadours-Melodien (Zurich, 1945)
Loys Bourgeoys: sa vie, son oeuvre comme pédagogue et compositeur
(diss., U. of Zürich, 1947; Lausanne, 1948)
‘Petite étude comparée du “note contre note” de Loys Bourgeois (1547) et
du psautier de Jaqui (Goudimel 1565)’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949, 115–17
Zeitgenössische Schweizer Musik (Bayreuth, 1950)
‘Essai sur le rapport des sources mélodiques des Pseaulmes Cinquantes
de Iean Louis (Anvers, 1555) et des “Souterliedekens” (Anvers, 1540)’,
IMSCR V: Utrecht 1952, 193–8
‘Adolphe Appia et l’évolution de la mise en scène wagnérienne à Bayreuth’,
SMz, xcv (1955), 9–10
‘Zum Werkverzeichnis Claude Goudimels’, JbLH, i (1955), 123–5
‘Die Bedeutung der XXIV Psalmen von L. Bourgeois’, Hymnologie, iv
(1958–9), 114–17
‘Le lyrisme pianistique de Chopin et ses antécédents directs’, ‘Jugements
portés sur Chopin par Mickiewicz, d’après le Journal de Caroline
Olivier’, The Works of Frederick Chopin: Warsaw 1960, 297–9, 659–61
‘Il coro nell’opera di Wagner’, RaM, xxxi (1961), 215–19
‘Moments profanes et religieux dans l’oeuvre de Francis Poulenc’, SMz, cv
(1965), 79–82
‘Qu’est-ce que la “Chanson”?’, SMz, cvi (1966), 213–18, 297–303, 361–5
‘Conscience musicale et conscience chrétienne’, SMz, cviii (1968), 22–6
‘Les compositeurs suisses et l’opéra’, SMz, cxiv (1974), 219–25, 280–86
L’anneau de Nibelung de Richard Wagner (Paris, 1977)
L’as de pique et le sept de coeur, ou l’opéra à l’envers (Paris, 1990)
EDITIONS
Loys Bourgeois: Le droict chemin de musique (Genf, 1550), DM, 1st ser., vi
(Kassel, 1954) [facs. with preface]
Loys Bourgeois: Vingt-quatre psaumes à 4 voix, SMd, iii (1960)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SML
E. Chérix: Paul-André Gaillard (Nyon, 1953)
J.-L. Matthey: ‘P.-A. Gaillard’, Revue musicale de Suisse romande, xlv
(1992), 102–5
J.-L. Matthey and M. Rey-Lanini: Paul-André Gaillard (1922–1992):
inventaire du fonds avec catalogue des oeuvres (Lausanne, 1995)
ETIENNE DARBELLAY/DOROTHEA BAUMANN

Gaillarde
(Fr.).
See Galliard.

Gaisser, Hugo [Hughes; Ugo

Athanasio; Josef Anton]
(b Aitrach, nr Württemberg, 1 Dec 1853; d Ettal, Upper Bavaria, 26 March
1919). German writer on Gregorian and Byzantine chant. He entered the
Benedictine monastery of Beuron in 1872, and studied plainchant and
theology; he was ordained priest in 1873. After staying in Volders, Tyrol
(1875), and in the Benedictine monastery of Maredsou near Namur (1876),
he became a teacher (1899) and then director at the Pontificio Collegio
Atanasiano in Rome, a school founded in 1577 by Gregory XIII for the
education of Greek Catholics. In 1905 he went for two months to Mt Athos
to study the chant there. He became prior at the monastery of St Andrew at
Bruges in 1912, but was forced to return to Germany in 1914, first to the
abbey of St Joseph, Coesfeld, then in 1916 to Ettal.
Up to 1899 Gaisser wrote mainly about Gregorian chant. During the 11
years which followed, he studied the history of Byzantine chant, using his
experience to train the choir of the college church, S Atanasio. He
advanced many hypotheses and ideas in this new field: he drew attention
to the oriental elements in modern Byzantine chant; he studied the liturgy
and folksongs in the Greek-Albanian colony in Sicily to show how
Byzantine elements have survived; he drew parallels between the chant in
the Eastern and Western church. At the same time as, and apparently
independently of, Oskar Fleischer, he found the key to deciphering the
neumes of the middle Byzantine notation, but was unable to solve the
problem of the martyriai, or intonation signatures. (One of his students,
H.J.W. Tillyard, later solved this problem.) Gaisser showed how the
different stages of Byzantine notation were closely related; he also tried to
find a solution to the problem of rhythm and attempted to identify the eight
Byzantine modes with the classical Greek harmoniai.
WRITINGS
‘Les altérations chromatiques dans le plain-chant’, Revue bénédictine, xiv
(1897), 511–24, 554–64; xv (1898), 35–43
Le système musicale de l'église grecque d'après la tradition (Rome, 1901)
‘L'origine et la vraie nature du mode dit “chromatique oriental”’, Tribune de
Saint-Gervais, vii (1901), 93–100
‘L'origine du “tonus peregrinus”’, Tribune de Saint-Gervais, vii (1901), 129–
33
‘La fête de Noël et la musique’, RHCM, i (1901), 425–36
‘Brani greci nella liturgia latina’, Rassegna gregoriana, i (1902), 109–12,
126–31
‘Le système de l'église grecque’, Musica sacra [Ghent], xxii (1902–3), 10–
12, 23–5, 37–41, 62–6
Les “heirmoi” de Pâques dans l'office grec: étude rythmique et musicale
(Rome, 1905)
‘I canti ecclesiastici italo-greci’, Rassegna gregoriana, iv (1905), 385–412
‘Il rito bizantino nell'Ottavario dell' Epifania a Roma in S. Andrea della
Valle’, Rassegna gregoriana, viii (1909), 54–9
‘Die Antiphon Nativitas tua und ihr griechisches Vorbild’, Riemann-
Festschrift (Leipzig, 1909/R), 154–66
‘Die acht Kirchentöne in der griechisch-albanesischen Überlieferung’,
IMusSCR III: Vienna 1909, 83–4
‘Das Alma Redemptoris: sein Rhythmus und rhythmischer Aufbau’,
Gregorius-Blatt, xlii (1917), 17–20, 25–8, 36–9, 41–6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. de Meester: Voyage de deux bénédictins aux monastères du Mont-
Athos (Paris, 1908)
W. Wolfsteiner: Erinnerungsblatt (Ettal, 1919); partly repr. in Gregorius-
Blatt, xliv (1919), 37
NANNA SCHIØDT
Gaita (i).
Term used in Iberia, eastern and south-eastern Europe, North Africa and
Latin America for an aerophone, usually an oboe or a bagpipe. This article
outlines the etymological background of the term and discusses the
instruments of Iberia and Latin America. For North African instruments see
Surnāy, essentially the same instrument; for West African instruments see
Algaita. Most instruments to which the term is applies are oboes or
shawms; the south-east European gajde or gadjy is a Bagpipe (see §7(iv,
v)).
The term, which is variously spelt (gaida, gajde, gajdë, gajdy, ghaida,
ghaite, ghayta, kaita, aghiyad, algaita), is derived from the Gothic gait or
ghaid (‘goat’) and originally denoted a bagpipe with a goatskin bag; this is
borne out by all surviving specimens of the Portuguese gaita (V. de
Olivares: Instrumentos musicais populares portuguesis, Lisbon, 1982) and
the gajde of European Turkey (L. Picken: Folk Musical Instruments of
Turkey, London, 1975). Some Spanish writers have suggested that ghayta
is a Spanish borrowing from Arab Andalusia; however it is clear that Arab
Andalusia borrowed the word from the Visigoths and applied it to the oboe,
and if the term shifted from the bagpipe (gaita) to the oboe (ghayta), it was
by virtue of similarity of timbre or of social function.
In Spain, gaita can signify the Duct flute also known as a pito in León and
Andalusia. In the Basque region the terms gaita and dulzaina signify an
oboe. In Galicia, Catalonia and parts of the Pyrenees gaita is the term for a
bagpipe (see Bagpipe, §7 (i)). It is also an alternative name for an oboe
elsewhere known as chirimía or gralla (in Catalan). In Castile the gaita
(gaita serrana or gaita zamorana) is a capped, single-reed hornpipe (see
Hornpipe (i)) with a bell of animal horn, now rare. The gaita gallega or gaita
de fuelle is a bagpipe of Galicia, also known in Catalonia (as sac de
gemecs, ‘bag of groans’) and in parts of the Pyrenees; the Galician
bagpipe ensemble may consist of two bagpipe players and two drummers.
In Portugal, the gaita de foles is a bagpipe used to accompany dancing in
the Alentejo region (with pifaro and castanets); in Brazilian usage the term
means an accordion.
In Colombia, the gaita is an end-blown duct flute of the Atlantic coastal
region, made from long tubes of a cactus-like plant. The term gaita is also
used for a Colombian ensemble (including two gaitas) which accompanies
the cumbia folkdance.
CHRISTIAN POCHÉ, JOHN M. SCHECHTER

Gaita (ii).
See under Organ stop (Gaitas).

Gaither, William J.
(b Alexandria, IN, 28 March 1936). American composer and performer of
gospel hymns.
 Gaito, Constantino
(b Buenos Aires, 3 Aug 1878; d Buenos Aires, 14 Dec 1945). Argentine
composer, conductor and pianist. Born into a musical family, he showed
precocious signs of ability and was awarded a grant from the Argentine
government to study abroad. He attended the Naples Conservatory, where
he studied the piano with Francesco Simonetti and composition with
Platania. He travelled throughout Europe, meeting Verdi, Mascagni and
Massenet. In 1900 Gaito returned to Buenos Aires, where he co-founded
the Conservatorio Bonaerense and taught at the National Conservatory of
Music. He remained active as a pianist and conducted opera seasons at
the Teatro Argentino at La Plata. He also directed performances of his own
compositions at the Teatro Colón.
Gaito is considered one of Argentina’s foremost opera composers; he is
also known for his ballets, symphonic poems, incidental music and
chamber works. His early compositions reveal Italian influences, which
were a logical product of his background and training. His later works
incorporate material of a distinctly Argentine character presented within the
framework of Italian musical aesthetics. La flor del Irupé (performed in
1929) is regarded as the first national ballet of significance. His string
quartets are believed to be the first in Argentina to rely on indigenous
material. His popular opera, La sangre de las guitarras (performed in
1932), is based on the life of a gaucho payador (folk singer), who struggles
to uphold the ideals of liberty during the Argentine civil war period.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ops (perf. in Buenos Aires, Teatro Colón): Caio Petronio (op, 3, H. Romanelli),
1911–14, 2 Sept 1919; Fior di neve (drama lírico, 1, J. Colelli), 1919, 3 Aug 1922;
Ollantay (drama lírico, 3, V. Mercante, after Quechua legend), 1926, 23 July 1926;
Lázaro (drama lírico, 1, Mercante), 1927, 19 Nov 1929; La sangre de las guitarras
(drama lírico, 3, V.G. Retta and C.M. Viale, after H. Blomberg), 1931, 17 Aug 1932
Ballets (perf. in Buenos Aires, Teatro Colón): La flor del Irupé (Mercante, after
Guaraní legend), 17 July 1929; La ciudad de las puertas de oro (E. Carreras, after
A. Capdevila), 11 July 1947
Incid music (Sophocles, trans. L. Longhi di Braccaglia): Edipo Rey, Buenos Aires,
1926; Antígona, Buenos Aires 1930
Orch: El ombú, sym. poem, op.31, 1924; Visión, sym. poem, op.38, 1928
Choral: Perseo (U. Sacerdoti), vocal-sym. poem, op.11, 1902; San Francisco
Solano (orat, G. Talamón), SATB, vn, orch, 1936
Chbr: Str Qt no.1, op.23, 1916; Pf Trio, op.25, 1917; Str Qt no.2 ‘Incaico’, op.33,
1924
Pf pieces, songs, choral arrs., educational works

Microfilm material of operas in US-Wc

Principal publishers: Ricordi, Ricordi Americana

BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. de la Guardia and R. Herrera: El arte lírico en el Teatro Colón (Buenos
Aires, 1933)
M. García Acevedo: La música argentina contemporánea (Buenos Aires,
1963)
M. Kuss: Nativistic Strains in Argentine Operas Premiered at the Teatro
Colón (1908–1972) (diss., UCLA, 1976)
R. García Morillo: Estudios sobre música argentina (Buenos Aires, 1984)
DEBORAH SCHWARTZ-KATES

Gaius, Jo.
(fl c1450). Composer. Two compositions can be attributed to him: Dyana
lux serena in I-TRmp 90, and a Magnificat in I-TRmp 88. The former has
only the incipit of the text (in each of its three voices). The first four verses
of the Magnificat, including the opening words, are set using three, four,
two and three voices, respectively. The eighth Magnificat tone is
ornamented in the top voice. (Both works are ed. in DTÖ, xiv–xv, Jg.vii,
1900/R; Dyana lux is also ed. M. Gozzi: Il manoscritto Trento, Museo
provinciale d'arte, cod.1377 (Tr 90), Cremona, 1992, ii, 214)
TOM R. WARD

Gajani, Giovanni Battista.

See Gaiani, Giovanni Battista.

Gajo
(It.).
See Gai.

Gakkel', Leonid Yevgen'yevich

(b Leningrad, 27 Jan 1936). Russian musicologist, pianist and teacher. He
entered the Kazan' Music School in 1943 following the evacuation of his
family to Kazan' in 1941. After returning to Leningrad in 1945 he continued
his musical education at the Special School for Gifted Children in the class
of Ė.I. Shteynbok. He studied the piano with N.Ye. Perel'man at the
Leningrad Conservatory from 1953 and, after graduating in 1958,
undertook postgraduate research at the conservatory with Barenboym in
the history and theory of pianism (1958–61). In 1946 he gained the
Kandidat degree with a dissertation entitled Chertï fortepiannogo stilya i
voprosï interpretatsii fortepiannoy muzïki rannego Prokof'yeva 1908–1918
(‘Features of the Piano Style and Questions Surrounding the Interpretation
of Prokofiev's Early Piano Music, 1908–18’). He was appointed to teach at
the Leningrad Conservatory in 1961, later becoming a senior lecturer
(1967) and professor (1983). He gained the doctorate in 1979 with a
dissertation on Bartók and piano music of the 20th century. Gakkel' has
taken an active part in Sviatoslav Richter's ‘Dekabr'skiye vechera’
(‘December Evenings’) at the Pushkin Museum in Moscow. He became a
member of the Composers' Union in 1974 and an acting member of the
Russian Academy of the Humanities in 1994, and in 1995 was created an
Honoured Representative of the Arts of the Russian Federation.
Gakkel''s scholarly interests include the fate of Russian musical culture, the
history and theory of piano performance and the history of musical life in St
Petersburg. His book on piano music of the 20th century (1976) occupies a
central position among his writings. A unique piece of research, this book
became the target of severe and biased ideological criticism on the part of
the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union, Sovetskaya kul'tura, with Gakkel' being subjected to
persecution (Malinin, Fliyer and Sokolov, 1977). In his work he perpetuates
the traditions of humanitarian knowledge and Russian critical writing that
go back to the Silver Age, with his publications being distinguished by the
breadth of his aesthetic views, his culture, his exquisite feeling for art and
the refinement and lexical richness of his writing style.
WRITINGS
Fortepiannoye tvorchestvo S.S.Prokof'yeva [Prokofiev's piano works]
(Moscow, 1960)
‘Prokof'yev i sovetskiye pianistï’ [Prokofiev and Soviet pianists], Ob
ispolnenii fortepiannoy muzïki (Moscow and Leningrad, 1965), 140–95
[pubn of the Leningrad Conservatory]
‘Natan Yefimovich Perel'man’, V fortepiannïkh klassakh leningradskoy
konservatorii, ed. L.A. Barenboym (Leningrad, 1968), 44–85
‘Ispolnitel'skaya kritika: problemï i perspektivï’ [Performance criticism: the
problems and the long term], Voprosï muzïkal'no-ispolnitel'skogo
iskusstva, v, ed. A.A. Nikolayev and others (Moscow, 1969), 33–65
Fortepiannaya muzïka XX veka [The piano music of the 20th century]
(Leningrad and Moscow, 1976, 2/1990)
‘“Mikrokosmos” Belï Bartoka’ [Bartók's Mikrokosmos], Voprosï fortepiannoy
pedagogiki, ed. V.A. Natanson, iv (Moscow, 1976), 147–70
‘S. Rikhter igrayet Vos'muyu sonatu [Prokof'yeva]’ [Richter plays
[Prokofiev's] Eighth Sonata], SovM (1978), no.4, pp.87–9
Bela Bartok i fortepiannaya muzïka XX veka [Bartók and the piano music of
the 20th century] (diss., 1979)
‘Chitaya Neygauza’ [Reading Neugauz], SovM (1979), no.3, pp.102–5
‘Priblizheniye k Rakhmaninovu’ [Coming close to Rachmaninoff], SovM
(1980), no.10, pp.122–7
‘Slovo Shostakovicha’ [The word of Shostakovich], SovM (1980), no.3,
pp.14–21
‘Kamernoye tvorchestvo (O.A. Yevlakhova)’ [The chamber works (of
Yevlakhov)], Orest Yevlakhov: kompozitor i pedagog: stat'i, materialï,
vospominaniya, ed. A.P. Petrov (Leningrad, 1981), 4–19
‘Razmïshleniya o Gilel'se’ [Reflecting on Gilels], SovM (1986), no.12,
pp.48–54
‘Khudozhnik-interpretator’ [The artist-interpreter], Mariya Grinberg: stat'i,
vospominaniya, materialï, ed. A.G. Ingera and V.D. Konen (Moscow,
1987), 26–43
Ispolnitelyu, pedagogu, slushatelyu [To the performer, teacher, listener]
(Leningrad, 1988)
‘Shnabel' segodnya’ [Schnabel today], SovM (1990), no.8, pp.89–93
Teatral'naya ploshchad' [Theatre square] (Leningrad, 1990)
‘Mariinskiy – v Peterburge, uzhe v Peterburge’ [The Mariinsky – in St
Petersburg, now in St Petersburg], Ars (1993), 4–5 [Mariinskiy Teatr
special issue]
Ya ne boyus', ya muzïkant [I'm not afraid, I'm a musician] (St Petersburg,
1993)
Velichiye ispolnitel'stva: M.V. Yudina i V.V. Sofronitsky [The giants of
performance: Yudina and Sofronitsky] (St Petersburg, 1995)
‘Masshtab Rubinsteyna’ [Rubinstein: his scale of importance], Anton
Grigor'yevich Rubinshteyn, ed. T.A. Khoprova (St Petersburg, 1997),
9–15
V kontsertnom zale: vpechatleniya 1950-kh – 1980-kh godov [In the
concert hall: impressions of the 1950s to the 1980s] (St Petersburg,
1997)
‘Mirazhi ispolnitel'stva’, Mak (1998), nos.3–4, pp.222–6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ye. Malinin, Ya.Fliyer and M. Sokolov: ‘S tochki zreniya pianistov’ [From
the point of view of pianists], Sovetskaya kul'tura (17 May 1977)
M. Nest'yeva: ‘Ya ne boyus', ya muzïkant L. Gakkelya’, Moskovskiy
nablyudatel' (1995), May, pp.62–3 [review]
A. Khitruk: ‘ Khranitel' bol'shoy traditsii’ [The guardian of a great tradition],
Mak (1996), nos.3–4, pp.165–9
ADA BENEDIKTOVNA SCHNITKE

Gál [Gal], Hans

(b Brunn, nr Vienna, 5 Aug 1890; d Edinburgh, 3 Oct 1987). Austrian
composer and musicologist. He studied composition with Mandyczewski
and music history with Guido Adler at Vienna University, completing the
doctorate in 1913 on the style of the young Beethoven. Two years later he
won the newly created Austrian State Prize for composition. From 1919
until 1929 he was lecturer in music theory at the university, and the period
between the end of World War I and 1933 saw his rapid rise to success as
a composer, above all with his second opera Die heilige Ente, performed in
some 20 theatres. After winning the Columbia Schubert centenary prize for
his Sinfonietta in 1928, he was appointed director of the Mainz
Conservatory (1929–33). On Hitler's accession to power in 1933 he was
instantly dismissed and the performance and publication of his works were
banned because he was Jewish. He returned to Austria, but was driven out
by the Anschluss in 1938 and fled to England. Tovey invited him to
Scotland, where he settled in 1939 and was appointed lecturer at
Edinburgh University in 1945. From that time he played an active part in
the musical life of the city, not only as lecturer, but also as conductor,
pianist, musical personality and founder-member of the Edinburgh
International Festival. He remained active as a composer but never re-
established his pre-war career and relatively little of his output is known.
 Of his 110 published works, more than half were composed in Scotland.
His values were deeply rooted in the tonal tradition of the Austro-German
musical style. Though an inheritor of the legacy of Brahms, he had by the
time of his twenties found his own distinctive musical language to which,
regardless of changing musical fashions, he remained true. It unites many
elements: the clarity, playful humour and formal mastery of early
Classicism; the chromatic harmony and extended tonality of early 20th-
century, pre-serial music; a Schubertian love of melody; the lyricism and
emotional restraint of Brahms and the contrapuntal textures that remained
fundamental to his style. His deep insight into the life and work of great
musicians is shown in his books – on Brahms, Schubert, Wagner and
Verdi.
WORKS
operas
Der Arzt der Sobeide (comic op, prol, 2, F. Zoref), op.4, 1917–18, Breslau, 1919;
Die heilige Ente (ein Spiel, 3, K.M. von Levetzow and L. Feld), op.15, 1920–21,
Düsseldorf, 29 April 1923; Das Lied der Nacht (dramatische Ballade, 3, von
Levetzow), op.23, 1924–5, Breslau, 24 April 1926; Der Zauberspiegel (fairy play,
Jaroschek), op.38, lost, Breslau, 1930; Die beiden Klaas (3, von Levetzow), op.42,
1932–3, perf. as Rich Claus, Poor Claus (trans. A. Fox), York, Rowntree, 22 May
1990
orchestral
Ov. to a Puppet Play, op.20, 1923; Sym. no.1 (Sinfonietta), op.30, 1927; Ballet Suite
(Scaramuccio), op.36, 1929; Vn Conc., op.39, 1932; Concertino, op.43, pf, str,
1934; Concertino, op.52, vn, str, 1939; Serenade, op.46, str, 1937; A Pickwickian
Ov., op.45, 1939–44; Lilliburlero: Improvisations on a Martial Melody, op.48, c1943;
Sym. no.2, op.53, 1942–3; Concertino, op.55, org, str, 1948; Pf Conc., op.57, 1948
Sym. no.3, op.62, 1951–2; Vc Conc., op.67, 1944; Meanders, suite, op.69, 1954–5;
Idyllikon, op.79, suite, 1958–9; Concertino, op.87, vc, str, 1966; Triptych, op.100,
1970; Suite, op.102a/b, va/a sax, orch, 1949; Sym. no.4 (Sinfonia concertante),
op.103, 1973
choral
Von ewiger Freude (cant., 17th century), op.1, female vv, org, 2 hp, 1912; Vom
Bäumlein, das andere Blätter hat gewollt (F. Rückert), op.2, A, female vv, orch,
1916; Fantasies (R. Tagore), op.5, a, female vv, chbr orch, 1919; 2 Songs, op.8,
male vv, 1914; 3 Songs, op.11, male vv, pf/orch, 1910–11; 3 Songs, op.12, female
vv, pf, 1910; Kinderverse (P. Dehmel), op.14, female vv, c1921; Motet (M. Claudius),
op.19, 1924; Herbstlieder, op.25, female vv, 1918–25; Requiem für Mignon (J.W.
von Goethe), op.26, vv, orch, 1922
Epigramme (G.E. Lessing), op.27, 1926; 3 Songs, op.31, female vv, pf, 1928; 5
Serious Songs, op.32, male vv (1929); 3 Porträtsstudien (W. Busch), op.34, male
vv, pf, 1929; 3 Songs, op.37 (1932); 3 Idyllen (Busch), op.40, male vv, pf (1934); 6
Folksongs, male vv (1930); Nachtmusik (J.J.C. von Grimmelshausen), op.44, S,
male vv, fl, vc, pf, 1933; Stille Lieder (Summer Idylls) (C. Flaischlen), op.47, female
vv, 1935; De profundis (cant., 17th-century Ger.), op.50, solo vv, chorus, orch,
1936–7; 4 Madrigals (Elizabethan texts), op.51 (1939); 4 Partsongs, op.61, c1953
2 Songs, op.63, male vv, 1954; Lebenskreise (cant., Goethe, F. Hölderlin), op.70, 4
solo vv, chorus, orch, 1955; Songs of Youth, op.75, female vv, 1959; A Clarion Call,
op.76, female vv, 1959; Of a Summer Day (A. Strawbridge), op.77, female vv, str,
1952; Spättlese, op.91, male vv (1970)
chamber and instrumental
For 3–8 insts: Variations on a Viennese ‘Heurigen’ Melody, op.9, pf trio, 1914; 5
Intermezzi, op.10, str qt, 1914, also appeared as 4 Miniatures, op.10a; Pf Qt, op.13,
c1914; Str Qt no.1, op.16, 1916; Pf Trio, op.18, 1923; Divertimento, op.22, 8 wind,
1924; Str Qt no.2, op.35, 1929; Serenade, op.41, str trio, 1931; Little Suite, op.49a,
2 vn, vc, pf ad lib, 1947–8; Trio, op.49b, pf trio (1949); Suite, op.59b, 3 mand
(1956); Divertimento, op.68c, 2 rec, gui (1958); Quartettino, op.78, 4 rec (1960);
Concertino, op.82, rec, str qt/str orch/pf, 1961; Trio Serenade, op.88, rec/fl, vn, vc
(1967); Huyton Suite, op.92, fl, 2 vn, 1940; Serenade, op.93, cl, vn, vc, 1935; Trio,
op.94, ob, vn, va, 1941; Str Qt no.3, op.95, 1969; Sonata, op.96, 2 vn, pf, 1941;
Trio, op.97, cl, vn, pf, 1950; Str Qt no.4, op.98, 1971
For 2 insts: Suite, op.6, vc, pf, 1919; Sonata, op.17, vn, pf, 1920; Suite, op.56, vn,
pf, 1942; Sonatina, op.59a, 2 mand (1952); Suite, op.68a, rec, vn, 1954–5; 6 2-part
Inventions, op.68b, 2 rec (1958); 3 Sonatinas, op.71, vn, pf, 1956–7; Divertimento,
op.80, mand, hp/pf (1961); Sonata, op.84, cl, pf (1965); Sonata, op.85, ob, pf
(1965); Sonata, op.89, vc, pf, 1953; Divertimento, op.90/1, bn, vc, c1958;
Divertimento, op.90/2, vn, vc (1968); Divertimento, op.90/3, vn, va, c1969; Sonata,
op.101, va, pf, 1941
keyboard and songs
Pf: Serbische Weiser, op.3, 4 hands, 1916; 3 Sketches, op.7, 1910–11; Sonata,
op.28, 1927; Tunes from Old Vienna, 1934; 24 Preludes, op.83, 1960
Org: Toccata, op.29, 1928
Songs: 2 Songs, op.21, S, b viol/vc, org, 1922; 3 Songs, op.33, Mez/Bar, pf, 1928

Principal publishers: Bärenreiter, Breitkopf & Härtel, Novello, Schott, Simrock,

Universal
WRITINGS
The Golden Age of Vienna (London, 1948)
Johannes Brahms (Frankfurt, 1961; Eng. trans., 1964)
Richard Wagner (Frankfurt, 1963)
The Musician's World: Great Composers in their Letters (London, 1965;
Ger. trans., 1966)
Franz Schubert, oder die Melodie (Frankfurt, 1970; Eng. trans., 1974)
Schumann Orchestral Music (London, 1979)
Giuseppe Verdi und die Oper (Frankfurt, 1982)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Waldstein: Hans Gál (Vienna, 1965)
E. Fox Gál and A. Fox: Hans Gál: ein Verzeichnis seiner Werke (York,
1985; Eng. trans., 1985)
CONRAD WILSON, ALEXANDER R.C. SCOTT

Galakhov, Oleg Borisovich

(b Gorlovka, Donetsk Province, Ukraine, 10 August 1945). Russian
composer. He graduated from the Moscow Conservatory (composition
classes with Khrennikov and Shchedrin) in 1970. He became a member of
the Composers' Union in 1970, and then taught music theory at the
Pedagogical Institute (1971–2) before becoming an editor of the Sovetskiy
 Kompozitor publishing house (1971–4). He was awarded the title Honoured
Representative of the Arts of Russia in 1986, and since 1994 has been
chairman of the board of the Moscow Composers' Union.
Galakhov has an easy command of various genres ranging from ballet to
song cycles. He is particularly drawn towards chamber forms: the concise
manner of his writing, range of colour, the detailed working out and subtle
nuances all make his works for instrumental ensembles noteworthy. His
language is fairly mobile, and his style ranges from the sonoristic in the
cantata Dvadtsat' shest' (‘26’), through the simple but refined manner of his
music for children, to the synthesis of folk and art elements in the
polystylistic chamber works. As a composer, Galakhov is drawn towards
poetry; the word arouses his imagination, dictates the style and the form,
and gives rise to the most precise sonic equivalents in the music. His vocal
and choral styles are rooted in folksong and Russian classical tradition, but
these links are well absorbed: in the cycle Gulyan'ye (‘Walking’) the
‘suburban lyricism’ hovers between peasant and urban styles utilizing
classical forms while still preserving an independence of language.
Galakhov's chamber and instrumental works display an interest in
extended single-movement structures which freely interpret various musical
trends in 20th-century music, for example Monologi for cello and organ and
Otvet (‘Reply’) for organ. Nonetheless, the role of the miniature within the
framework of a cycle is not ignored (Malen'kiy triptikh (‘Little Triptych’) for
piano, Severnïy triptikh (‘Northern Triptych’) for harp). Galakhov initiated
and, since 1994, has planned the Moscow Autumn festival as well as
organizing the various types of concert activity that take place at the House
of Composers in Moscow under his guardianship. He frequently acts as a
jury member for composition competitions.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage:Belosnezhka i sem' gnomov [Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs] (ballet), 1969;
Samaya krasivaya [The Most Beautiful Girl] (children's fairy tale, V. Stepanov), 1983;
Solov'inaya pesnya [The Nightingale's Song] (radio op, 1, M. Sadovsky),
1986Choral:Dvadtsat' shest' [Twenty Six] (cant. poem, N. Aseyev, A. Mikoyan), Mez,
nar, chorus, org, orch, 1970, rev. 1976; Istoricheskiye pesni [Historical Songs] (orat,
A.S. Pushkin), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1970; Pesnya o nashey zemle [A Song about Our
Land] (cant., A. Layko, V. Tatarinov), children's chorus, orch of folk insts, 1975; Golos,
obrashcheniye k A.A. Akhmatovoy [The Voice, an Address to Akhmatova], S, male
chorus, vn, org, cel, 1992Chbr and solo inst:Polyphonic Trio, str trio, 1967; Str Qt, 1972;
Sonata, vc, 1973; Severnïy triptikh [Northern Triptych], hp, 1984; Monologi
[Monologues], sonata, vc, org, 1987; Otvet [Reply], org, 1993

Songs, choruses, music for children, incid music, film scores

BIBLIOGRAPHY
N. Ziv: ‘Oleg Galakhov’ Kompozitorï Moskvï, iii (Moscow, 1988)
A. Grigor'yeva: ‘Oleg Galakhov: festival', nashe obshcheye delo’ [The
festival is our common cause], MAk (1996), no.2
ALLA VLADIMIROVNA GRIGOR'YEVA
Galambos, Benjámin.
See Egressy, Béni.

Galamian, Ivan (Alexander)

(b Tabriz, 23 Jan 1903; d New York, 14 April 1981). American violinist and
teacher of Armenian parentage. After studying with Konstantin Mostras at
the School of the Philharmonic Society in Moscow (1916–22), and with
Lucien Capet in Paris (1922–3), he made his Paris début in 1924. He
moved to the USA in 1937 and was appointed to the Curtis Institute in 1944
and the Juilliard School of Music in 1946. During the summer he taught at
the Meadowmount School of Music which he founded in 1944. In 1965 he
was made an honorary member of the RAM, London, and he held honorary
doctorates from Oberlin College and the Curtis Institute. In 1966 he
received the Master Teacher Award of the American String Teachers
Association.
Galamian's success as a teacher was remarkable. For four decades his
students were among the laureates of every major international
competition; some became virtuosos (Perlman, Zukerman, Kyung-Wha
Chung, Luca, Laredo, Michael Rabin), while others belong to leading string
quartets, occupy teaching posts, or are orchestral leaders. Galamian's
approach was analytical and rational, with minute attention to every
technical detail. His method embodied the best traditions of the Russian
and French schools (particularly of Capet's Art of Bowing). However, he
rejected the enforcement of rigid rules and developed the individuality of
each student. Mental control over physical movement was, in his opinion,
the key to technical mastery. He published Principles of Violin Playing and
Teaching (with E.A.H. Green, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1962), Contemporary
Violin Technique (with F. Neumann, New York, 1962) and edited many
violin works. He played a Nicolò Amati of 1680, the ‘ex-Walton’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CampbellGV
SchwarzGM
Obituary, New York Times (15 April 1981)
R. Schmidt: ‘The Legacy of Ivan Galamian’, American String Teacher,
xxxv/2 (1985), 48
BORIS SCHWARZ/MARGARET CAMPBELL

Galán, Cristóbal
(b c1625; d Madrid, 24 Sept 1684). Spanish composer. In 1651 he was
rejected as maestro de capilla in Sigüenza because he was married. In
1653 he was listed first as a singer and organist, then as maestro de
capilla at Cagliari, Sardinia. He left Cagliari in 1656, and although invited to
return there in 1661, he never did. He was maestro de capilla of the church
choir at Morella, and of the choir of Teruel Cathedral before 22 October
1659, when he is first heard of in Madrid. In 1664 he was maestro of a
 group of musicians at the Buen Retiro, where he must have participated in
dramatic productions. From 22 August 1664 to 22 July 1667 he was
director of the choir at Segovia Cathedral; some time after that he became
director of music at the convent of the Descalzas Reales, Madrid. In 1675
the queen regent made known that she wished him to become director of
music of the royal chapel, but the appointment was opposed by the
abbess, the Patriarch of the Indies, and court musicians, who suggested
that his talents were more suited to the convent choirs. On the death of J.
Pérez Roldán in 1680, however, he at last received the appointment.
Galán wrote music in most of the vocal forms current in Spain in his day.
He probably composed the music for a number of secular musical plays
performed at court, such as Lides de amor y desdén and El labyrinto de
Creta, with texts by J.B. Diamante, as well as for autos sacramentales by
Calderón; most of this music is lost. He wrote a large number of villancicos
and other songs, both secular and devotional, for one to 13 voices, some
with continuo. Several of the works for large numbers of voices are for two
or three antiphonal choirs with separate continuo parts, and in a few works
soloists alternate with choirs. Galán also wrote masses and motets and
other sacred music. His popularity is attested by the wide distribution of
17th-century manuscripts of his music throughout Spain and the Americas
and by many references to him in contemporary documents. In the early
18th century Francisco Valls (in his Mapa armónico práctico) still found his
music a worthy, correct and tasteful model for composers of small-scale
works in the Spanish manner.
WORKS

Edition: Cristóbal Galán: Obras completas, ed. J.H. Baron and D.L. Heiple,
Gesamtausgaben, xii (1982–)

2 masses, 9vv, 12vv, E-V

Mag quarto tono, 12vv, V
Lit, 6vv, CO-B
Resp, 1, 4, 5vv, E-Mp, SE
Lamentations, 7vv, bc, E
5 motets: Hoc est corpus, 3vv, SE; Laudate Dominum, 8vv, V; O beata virgo, 9vv, V;
Salve, 5vv, V; Stella coeli, 8vv, BA
Passion, 1, 8vv, bc, 1672, inc., V
Stabat mater, 3 solo vv, 4vv, vn, bc, SE
Incid music for Lides de amor y desdén (J.B. Diamante), El labyrinto de Creta
(Diamante), inc., Mn
Many other sacred and secular vocal works, 1–13vv, some with bc, D-Mbs, E-Bc, E,
Mn, PAL, SE, VAc, I-Vnm, Guatemala Cathedral archives, Mexico City, Bellas Artes,
US-NYhs

BIBLIOGRAPHY
StevensonRB
H. Anglès and J. Subirá: Catálogo musical de la Biblioteca nacional de
Madrid, i (Barcelona, 1946), 28–9, 195–6
H. Anglès: ‘El archivo musical de la catedral de Valladolid’, AnM, iii (1948),
59–108
J. Subirá: ‘Necrologías musicales madrileñas (años 1611–1808)’, AnM, xiii
(1958), 201–23, esp. 208
N.D. Shergold and J.E. Varey: Los autos sacramentales en Madrid
(Madrid, 1961)
J. López-Calo: ‘Corresponsales de Miguel de Irízar’, AnM, xviii (1963),
197–222 [documents 7, 8, 15, 17, 37, 63]
M. Agulló y Cobo: ‘Documentos para las biografías de músicos de los
siglos XVI y XVII’, AnM, xxiv (1969), 205–25
J.E. Varey, N.D. Shergold and J. Sage, eds.: J. Vélez de Guevara: Los
celos hacen estrellas (London, 1970)
D. Preciado: ‘Antonio Brocarte, organista en la Catedral de Segovia:
primer períod, 1655–1661’, TSM, lvii (1974), 74–82
L.K. Stein: Songs of Mortals, Dialogues of the Gods, Music and Theatre in
Seventeenth-Century Spain (Oxford, 1993)
G.N. Spanu: ‘Cristóbal Galán maestro della Capella Civica di Cagliari
(1653–1656)’, AnM, l (1995), 46–59
JOHN H. BARON, JACK SAGE

Galant
(Fr.; It. galante).
A term widely used during the 18th century to denote music with lightly
accompanied, periodic melodies, and the appropriate manner of
performing the same. ‘Being galant, in general’, wrote Voltaire, ‘means
seeking to please’. The old French meaning of the general term with its
emphasis on valour had by the 1630s given way to a newer emphasis on
social or amatory grace: titles like Campra’s L’Europe galante (1697),
Rameau’s Les Indes galantes (1735), Guillemain’s Sonates en quatuors,
ou Conversations galantes et amusantes (1743) and Graun’s Le feste
galanti (1748) are to be understood in that latter sense. Watteau’s epochal
paintings of fêtes galantes contributed further to the vogue of the term.
Applied to letters, the term took on a meaning close to ‘French courtly
manner’, as in a treatise by C.F. Hunold (Menantes), Die allerneuste
Manier höflich und galant zu schreiben (1702), a manual for self-instruction
that Herder later denounced as lacking virility.
A musical parallel is at hand in Mattheson’s first publication, Das neu-
eröffnete Orchestre, oder Universelle und gründliche Anleitung wie ein
Galant Homme einen vollkommenen Begriff von der Hoheit und Würde der
edlen Music erlangen (1713); on the title-page roman typeface is used in
place of Gothic, significantly, to emphasize the numerous non-German
expressions. As an imported phenomenon, the galant style in Germany
borrowed much vocabulary from its countries of origin and generated a
more extensive theoretical literature. Mattheson’s ‘galant homme’ must be
taken to include both sexes; as his dedication of this work to a noble lady
indicates, much of the galant literature, like much galant music, was
intended to instruct and entertain female amateurs. Mattheson used the
substantive ‘galanterie’ in this and subsequent treatises with a variety of
meanings. Pieces called ‘galanteries’ were numerous in the suites of 17th-
century French harpsichord composers; the term was used to designate
the lighter, mainly homophonic dances, such as the minuet (J.S. Bach
followed this practice). As early as 1640 ‘galanteria’ was used to describe
the playing and the late style of Frescobaldi. Mattheson preferred that
‘Galanterien’ be played on the clavichord rather than the harpsichord
because its dynamic nuances approximated more closely to vocal style, a
feeling that was to become widespread with partisans of a specific north
German dialect of the international galant idiom, ‘Empfindsamkeit’. In
keeping with the emphasis on a singing style, Mattheson also used the
term in reference to vocal pieces, saying that a French air had ‘ein etwas
negligente Galanterie’ while an Italian aria had this in addition to more
musical content, or ‘ein harmonieusere Galanterie’; as a singer at the
Hamburg Opera under Keiser he was well acquainted with both types.
Good music, in his view, required melody, harmony and ‘galanterie’, the
last being equated with the theatrical style, as opposed to the strict or
church style, and not subject to rules (except those of ‘le bon goût’).
Other writers bear out this fundamental distinction. Scheibe opined in Der
critische Musikus (1737–40) that the galant way of writing had its origins in
the Italian theatre style. Throughout the Versuch über die wahre Art das
Clavier zu spielen (1753) C.P.E. Bach distinguished between the learned
and galant styles. Marpurg in his Abhandlung von der Fuge (1753)
contrasted fugal texture with the freedom of galant writing. Quantz was
more preoccupied than any of his contemporaries with defining the new
style, both in his Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen
(1752) and in his autobiography (1754; first printed in Marpurg’s Historisch-
kritische Beyträge, 1755). In the latter he described Fux’s Costanza e
fortezza, which he had heard at Prague in 1723, as magnificent, but more
in a sacred than theatrical style; he contrasted it with the galant melodic
style, described as being ornamented with many small figures and
passages, which he admitted were less appropriate to a vast space than
an intimate one, with fewer instruments. The following year, in Rome, he
heard Domenico Scarlatti perform and described him as a galant player in
the manner of the time. Having been introduced to the elder Scarlatti by
Hasse, he observed that the master played the harpsichord in a learned
manner but with less finesse than his son. At Paris in 1726–7, Quantz
encountered Blavet, whom he praised most highly among the numerous
composer-performers of the French flute school, the sonatas of which
would seem to qualify on musical grounds as quintessentially galant,
although Quantz did not so describe them. His emphasis upon the manner
of tone production led Quantz in the Versuch to define galant singing: it
consisted of dynamic shadings, joining the chest voice to the falsetto
smoothly, and in skilful ornamentation. Mattheson, Scheibe and other
writers occasionally used the term ‘Galanterie’ to refer to embellishments
themselves – either improvised or incorporated into the notation. Italian
flattery, Quantz said, was effected by slurred notes and by diminishing and
strengthening the tone (a description of the messa di voce). With this he
contrasted the noisy chest attacks and lack of legato in the old manner of
German choral singing. Here the essential musical quality of what the
period meant by galant emerges particularly clearly. Its ideal was the Italian
bel canto, which reached its highest pinnacle, according to Quantz, in the
first third of the century, when the most famous castratos were in their
prime (Farinelli and Carestini were singled out for praise). Flexibility in
dynamic nuance went with rhythmic flexibility, or tempo rubato, in the
modern Italian style. Schäfke showed that Quantz formulated the galant
aesthetic of clarity, pleasingness and naturalness in music on the basis of
several earlier theorists, including Mattheson, and that these ideals, typical
of the Enlightenment in general, went back to the rationalist philosophy of
Descartes (‘clare et distincte percipere’).
Instrumental pieces specifically called ‘galant’ or ‘galanteria’ proliferated in
the chamber and solo literature during the third quarter of the century,
which may be considered the highpoint of the galant style in instrumental
music. Newman judged that qualitative peaks were reached in the
keyboard sonatas of Galuppi (who was fond of writing minuets in 3/8 time
with the thinnest of textures), Soler and J.C. Bach, and in the chamber
music of G.B. Sammartini. The ‘menuet galant’ represented the epitome of
the style. Rousseau wrote in his Dictionnaire (1768): ‘le caractère du
menuet est une élégante et noble simplicité’ (cf C.P.E. Bach’s chief goal in
keyboard playing: ‘edle Einfalt des Gesangs’). In Sulzer’s Allgemeine
Theorie der schönen Künste (1771–4) the minuet’s affect is said to be
‘noble and of charming decency, yet united with simplicity’; ‘more than any
other dance [the minuet] is appropriate for societies of persons
distinguished by their refined way of life’.
Defenders of the old contrapuntal virtues were heard from more and more
as the 18th century reached its last third, with the onset of an anti-galant
reaction. Parallels may be observed with the turn against the Rococo style
in art and the rise of Sturm und Drang in literature. Adlung complained that
‘murky’ basses and ‘Galanterien’ were being heard even in church. In the
article on melody in Sulzer’s encyclopedia (written with advice from
Kirnberger), ‘pleasant, so-called galanterie pieces’ and their ‘very small
phrases, or segments’ are said to be appropriate for light, flattering
passions, but out of place in serious or sacred compositions, where their
effect is more dainty than beautiful. Under the rubric ‘Musik’ Sulzer noted
that ‘the melodic language of the passions has gained immensely’ from the
introduction of ‘the so-called galant, or freer and lighter manner of writing’,
even while claiming that the abuses of this style were leading to music’s
complete degeneracy. Other complaints about the galant manner were
even more specifically moral. As Seidel has shown, the term ‘galant’,
having connoted ease and gracefulness of manner to the early 18th
century, later came to stand for an empty, artificial and mainly aristocratic
manner of comporting or expressing oneself, and the opposite of bourgeois
naturalness of feeling.
Freedom of dissonance treatment (e.g. by voice-exchange), defended by
Heinichen in connection with the theatrical style, was further rationalized by
Marpurg and Türk as a specifically galant trait. In the Fundamentum des
General-Basses printed by Siegmeyer at Berlin and attributed
(posthumously) to Mozart, a certain cadential progression is described as
‘modern (gallant)’: II6–I6-4–V–I. It is illustrated in duple time and then in
triple, the latter approximating to the cadence to the minuet in Don
Giovanni (which first introduces the dance, after hearing the beginning of
which Leporello says ‘che maschere galanti!’). Opposite this is illustrated a
cadence, called ‘contrapunctisch’, that consists of a I–V–I progression with
prepared 4–3 suspensions over the first two chords (see Heartz and Mann,
1969, p.17). Cudworth (1949), unaware of this instance, arrived at isolating
the ‘cadence galante’ par excellence as IV (or II6)–I6-4–V–I in minuet
rhythm; he hypothesized its origins in some Italian opera house early in the
century. Its antecedents may in fact be discerned in, most of all, the
operatic arias of Leonardo Vinci (1690–1730), who was widely recognized
as an innovator: his light textures, simple harmony, periodic melody and
formula-based cadences typify the early galant. His immediate followers in
this light and gracious manner were Hasse and Pergolesi, who used more
decoration, particularly triplet figures and inverted dotted rhythms. Burney
wrote that Vinci was the first to break away from the older style, ‘by
simplifying and polishing melody, and calling the attention of the audience
chiefly to the voice-part, by disentangling it from fugue, complication and
laboured contrivance’. Before Vinci, elements of the galant style can be
found in the bel canto melodies of Alessandro Scarlatti; Veracini’s
unpublished violin sonatas of 1716, already markedly freer than Corelli’s
classic examples; and in dance music, particularly light ‘galanteries’ like the
minuet with their simple textures, periodic structures and short melodic
motifs.
The galant idiom freed composers from the contrapuntal fetters of the
church style, to some degree even in the context of church music; its
simplicities and miniaturistic nature imposed new fetters, which in turn were
thrown off with the reintegration of more contrapuntal means in the
obbligato homophony that matured in the last three decades of the century.

See also Classical; Empfindsamkeit; Enlightenment; Rococo; and Sturm

und Drang.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (W. Seidel)
NewmanSCE
E. Bücken: ‘Der galante Stil: eine Skizze seiner Entwicklung’, ZMw, vi
(1923–4), 418–30
R. Schäfke: ‘Quantz als Aesthetiker: eine Einführung in die Musikästhetik
des galanten Stils’, AMw, vi (1924), 213–42
C. Cudworth: ‘Cadence galante: the Story of a Cliché’, MMR, lxxix (1949),
176–8
P. Nettl: ‘The Life of Herr Johann Joachim Quantz, as Sketched by
himself’, Forgotten Musicians (New York, 1951), 280–319
C. Cudworth: ‘Baroque, Rococo, Galant, Classic’, MMR, lxxxiii (1953),
172–5
L. Ratner: ‘Eighteenth-Century Theories of Musical Period Structure’, MQ,
xlii (1956), 439–54
D.D. Boyden: ‘Dynamics in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Music’,
Essays on Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison
(Cambridge, MA, 1957), 185–93
L. Hoffmann-Erbrecht: ‘Der “Galante Stil” in der Musik des 18.
Jahrhunderts: zur Problematik des Begriffs’, SMw, xxv (1962), 252–60
G. Kaiser: Von der Aufklärung bis zum Sturm und Drang (Gütersloh, 1966,
rev. 3/1979 as Aufklärung, Empfindsamkeit, Sturm und Drang)
D. Heartz: ‘Opera and the Periodization of Eighteenth-Century Music’,
IMSCR X: Ljubljana 1967, 160–68
D. Heartz and A. Mann, eds.: Thomas Attwoods Theorie- und
Kompositionsstudien bei Mozart, W.A. Mozart: Neue Ausgabe
sämtlicher Werke, x/30/1, Kritischer Bericht (Kassel, 1969)
H. Serwer: Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg (1718–1795): Music Critic in a
Galant Age (diss., Yale U., 1969)
J. Rushton: ‘The Theory and Practice of Piccinnisme’, PRMA, xcviii
(1971–2), 31–46 [on the melodic period]
D.A. Sheldon: ‘The Galant Style Revisited and Re-evaluated’, AcM, xlvii
(1975), 240–69
R. Marshall: ‘Bach the Progressive: Observations on his Later Works’, MQ,
xlii (1976), 313–57
J.W. Hill: ‘The Anti-Galant Attitude of F.M. Veracini’, Studies in Musicology
in Honor of Otto E. Albrecht, ed. J.W. Hill (Kassel and Cliftian, NJ,
1980), 158–96
H. Eppstein: ‘Johann Sebastian Bach und der galante Stil’, Studien zur
deutsch-französischen Musikgeschichte im 18. Jahrhundert:
Saarbrücken 1981, 209–18 [with Fr. summary]
D.A. Sheldon: ‘Exchange, Anticipation, and Ellipsis: Analytical Definitions
of the Galant Style’, Music East and West: Essays in Honor of Walter
Kaufmann, ed. T. Noblitt (New York, 1981), 225–41
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Galanter Stil und freier Satz’, Die Musik des 18.
Jahrhunderts (Laaber, 1985), 24–32
B.R. Hanning: ‘Conversation and Musical Style in the Late Eighteenth-
Century Parisian Salon’, Eighteenth-Century Studies, xxii (1989), 512–
28
M. Havlová: ‘Galanterie und Lebenspraxis’, Stil in der Musik (Brno, 1992),
86–90
M. Perez Gutierrez: ‘Algunas reflexiones sobre el nuevo estilo artistico de
mediados del siglo XVIII en la musica de tecla de la peninsula iberica
en relacion con Europa’, Livro de homenagem a Macario Santiago
Kastner, ed. M.F. Cidrais-Rodrigues, M. Morais and R.V. Nery (Lisbon,
1992), 265–83
C.A. Le Bar: Musical Culture and the Origins of the Enlightenment in
Hamburg (diss., U. of Washington, 1993)
DANIEL HEARTZ/BRUCE ALAN BROWN

Galanterie
(Ger.).
In the early 18th century, a German term for an up-to-date work or piece,
as ‘theatralische Sachen auch andere Galanterien’ (Mattheson: Das neu-
eröffnete Orchestre, p.119), especially a keyboard work, such as Bach’s
Clavier Übung, bestehend in Präludien, Allemanden, Couranten,
Sarabanden, Giguen, Menuetten, und anderen Galanterien. The term has
been read here as ‘other light pieces such as minuets, i.e. gavottes,
bourrées etc’, from which the definition of Galanterien has been inferred as
the light pieces that come between the saraband and gigue in suites,
whereas in reality the word seems to be used as a modish, slightly
deprecatory reference to all the pieces in the collection. Galanterie could
also refer to an expressive nuance, especially melodic figuration and
ornamentation. The term acquired pejorative, outdated connotations as the
galant manner went out of fashion later in the century. For further
information see D.A. Sheldon: ‘The Galant Style Revisted and Re-
evaluated’, AcM, xlvii (1975), 240–69.

Galão, Joaquim Cordeiro

(b c1762; d Lisbon, c1834). Portuguese composer. After a quarter-century
directing the royal chapel at Vila Viçosa, he was named canon treasurer of
the chapel in 1825. In 1831 he settled in Lisbon, where he taught Princess
Anna de Jesus Maria. His earliest mass in the Lisbon cathedral archive is
dated 1789, and the earliest of his seven vesper psalms for four voices
with organ at the Ajuda library is dated 1792. In addition, the cathedral
archive at Évora has an undated set of his vesper psalms and a Magnificat.
Conscious of not being able to write successful vocal fugues, he enrolled
for a course in counterpoint at the Lisbon Seminário Patriarcal at the age of
40. In September 1831 José de Santa Rita Marques e Silva (c1778–1837),
royal mestre de capela at Bemposta and Galão's former pupil at Vila
Viçosa, showed how much better he was as a contrapuntist when he
rewrote the fugue with which one of Galão's Credos closed. The jury
deciding which fugue was the better included, among others, Antonio José
Soares (1783–1865), another of Galão's famous pupils.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DBP
M.A. Machado Santos, ed.: Biblioteca da Ajuda: catálogo de música
manuscrita, ii (Lisbon, 1959), 63–4
J.A. Alegria: Arquivo das músicas da Sé de Évora: catálogo (Lisbon,
1973)
ROBERT STEVENSON

Galás, Diamanda (Dimitria Angeliki

Elena)
(b San Diego, CA, 29 Aug 1955). American singer and composer. Born to
emigrant Greek Orthodox parents, she was initially discouraged from
singing but encouraged to foster her talent as a pianist; she performed
Beethoven’s First Piano Concerto with the San Diego SO at the age of 14.
As a teenager she played jazz piano in San Francisco and, using the
pseudonym Miss Zina, worked alongside black transvestites in Oakland’s
underworld. She later worked in the haematology and immunology
departments at Scripps College and, while studying psychology and music
(1974–9), at the University of California, San Diego medical school. With
other students she participated in biochemical experiments involving
sadomasochism, acid and mental illness. During this time she gave
performances of wordless vocal improvisations at mental institutions,
singing with her back to the patients. From 1979 through the early 1980s
she toured internationally as an avant-garde vocalist, performing works by
Globokar and Xenakis, with whom she had studied, as well as her own
compositions.
 Galás is best known for her compelling performances of her own
‘intravenal electro-acoustic voice work[s]’, theatrical pieces involving real-
time electronic transformation of her wide-ranging singing voice. Grounded
in operatic bel canto training, she pushes her voice to the edge, creating an
intense array of innovative and confrontational timbres. Her vocal
technique includes special use of body resonance, attention to overtones
and subharmonics, new breathing approaches, vocal breaks and ‘static’,
changing pressure on her vocal chords, variable vibrato and pitch
inflection. Her characteristic high, sustained and raw screams challenge
the boundaries of music and other art forms. Intentionally provocative, her
works emerge from her first-hand experience of drug addiction, prostitution
and manic depression, as well as her acute awareness of AIDS. When her
brother, writer Philip-Dimitri Galás, died of the disease in 1986, she was
already creating Masque of the Red Death, a three-part denunciation of the
cultural response to the illness. In Plague Mass, a shorter live version and
ongoing evolution of Masque, she appears bathed in red stage lights and
covered with a blood-like substance.
In contrast to the extroverted expression of earlier works, later
compositions operate on a more intimate level. Vena cava addresses the
horror of isolation caused by mental and emotional illness; Insekta deals
with a survivor of repeated trauma trapped within an enclosed space; and
Schrei 27, performed in complete darkness and alternating sudden bursts
of high energy vocal material with utter silence, focusses on torture and
sensory deprivation. In covers of popular songs and spirituals, such as
those on the albums The Singer (Mute 9 61278–2) of 1992 and Malediction
and Prayer (Asphodel 0984–2) of 1998, she transforms borrowed material
into laments or dark commentaries, intensifying them through melodic and
rhythmic distortion and through her powerful virtuoso performances.
Galás claims influences as diverse as Jimi Hendrix, Maria Callas, Antonio
Artaud and his ‘theatre of cruelty’, her father’s New Orleans-style band,
gospel, Ornette Coleman, jazz piano and the wailing laments of Maniatic
women in southern Greece. Her use of music as a political force has
brought denouncement in Italy for blasphemy against the Roman Catholic
Church and condemnation from the Christian Right in the USA. Her
personal commitment as an activist is visible in her work at AIDS hospices
and in her participation in demonstrations organized by ACT UP.
WORKS
(selective list)

Medea tarantula, 1v, 1977; Les yeux sans sang, 1v, elecs, 1978; Looks Could Kill
(audio-verité psychodrama), 3vv (1979); The Litanies of Satan (C. Baudelaire), 1v,
tape, live elecs, 1981; Tragouthia apo to aima exoun fonos (Galás), multi-voiced
backing tape, 1981; Wild Women with Steak Knives, 1v, live elecs, 1981–3;
Panoptikon (Galás, after J.H. Abbot: The Belly of the Beast), 1v, tape, live elecs,
1982–3 [after J. Bentham design for maximum security prison]; The Divine
Punishment (Bible, Galás), 1v, pf, Hammond org, tape, elecs, 1984–6; Plague
Mass (Galás, Bible, T. Corbière), 1v, pf, elec kbds, perc, elec perc, tapes, elecs,
1984–; Saint of the Pit (Baudelaire, G. Nerval, T. Corbière), 1v, Hammond org,
synths, chains, perc, 1985–6; You Must be Certain of the Devil (Galás, and
others), 1v, pf, Hammond org, synths, kbd bass, gui, sampled str, perc, 1987–8;
Masque of the Red Death, 1989; Vena cava (Galás, P.-D. Galás), 1v, tape, elecs,
1992; Insekta (el-ac monodrama, Galás, Bible, Sanctus), 1v, org, elecs, 1993;
Schrei X (Galás, Bible: Job, T. Aquinas), 1v, elecs, 1994–5; Schrei 27 (Galás), 1v,
elecs, 1994; Malediction and Prayer (P.P. Pasolini, Baudelaire, M.H. Mixco and
others), 1v, pf, 1996; Nekropolis, 1v, 1998–9; videos, film and TV scores

BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Galás: ‘Intravenal Song’, PNM, xx (1981–2), 59–67
R. Gehr: ‘Mourning in America: Diamanda Galás’, Artforum, xxvii/9 (1989),
116–18
A. Juno and V. Vale: Angry Women (San Francisco, 1991), 6–22
T. Avena, ed.: Life Sentences: Writers, Artists and Aids (San Francisco,
1994) [incl. interview and M. Flanagan essay]
D. Galás: The Shit of God (New York, 1996)
R.A. Pope and S.J. Leonardi: ‘Divas and Disease, Mourning and
Militancy: Diamanda Galás's Operatic Plague Mass’, The Work of
Opera: Genre, Nationhood and Sexual Difference (New York, 1997),
315–33
D. Schwarz: Listening Subjects: Music, Psychoanalysis, Culture (Durham,
NC, 1997), 133–63
J. MICHELE EDWARDS

Galaxy Music Corporation.

American music publishing firm. It was founded in New York in 1931 by
George Maxwell, who had been head of the American branch of Ricordi
from 1899. Under the leadership of A. Walter Kramer, Galaxy quickly
became established as a publisher of serious music, specializing in choral
works. Later, under the editorship of Robert Ward, it began publishing
symphonic, band and chamber music as well as opera and music for
school use. Composers published by Galaxy include William Bergsma,
Charles Wakefield Cadman, Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Richard
Hageman, Hunter Johnson, Otto Luening, George Mead, George Perle,
George Rochberg, Halsey Stevens and William Grant Still. From its earliest
years Galaxy’s name has been linked in particular with English music; the
firm is the exclusive representative of the Stainer & Bell hire library in the
USA. In May 1962 Galaxy purchased the firm of Augener, and thereby its
subsidiaries Joseph Williams and Joseph Weekes, and formed Galliard
Ltd, a wholly owned subsidiary. Galliard continued to distribute the works of
these firms and represented Galaxy in Great Britain, in addition to
publishing numerous popular works on its own. In November 1972 Galliard
was bought by Stainer & Bell, and on 1 July 1989 Galaxy became an
imprint of E.C. Schirmer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W.C. Rorick: ‘Galaxy Music Corporation: the First Fifty Years’, FAM, xxix
(1982), 125–8
‘Merger of Boston and New York Music Publishers’, Choral Journal, xxx/5
(1989–90), 42 only
W. THOMAS MARROCCO, MARK JACOBS/R
Galbán, Ventura.
See Galván, Ventura.

Galeazzi, Francesco
(b Turin, 1758; d Rome, Jan 1819). Italian theorist, violinist and composer.
He was trained in Turin, a leading centre of violin playing in the 18th
century; later he moved to Rome where (according to Fétis) he was active
as a violin teacher, a composer of instrumental music, and musical director
of the Teatro Valle for 15 years. Galeazzi published his six duets op.1
(1781) in Ascoli Piceno, where he married and spent his later years. The
two volumes of Galeazzi's treatise, Elementi teorico-pratici di musica, were
published in Rome in 1791 and 1796, the second volume dedicated to his
patron in Ascoli, Tommaso Balucanti. The title-page of the second edition of
vol.i (Ascoli, 1817; dedicated to another patron, Giovanni Vitale) identifies
Galeazzi as a teacher of the violin and mathematics; his many scientific
interests are well documented. Few of Galeazzi's compositions are extant;
besides two sonatas, six duets and 12 trios, opp.11 and 15, a violin solo,
fragments of two violin concertos and the introduction to op.15 no.4 appear
as examples in his treatise. A setting of the Seven Last Words, dated 1812,
has also recently been found.
Galeazzi's Elementi is the most comprehensive 18th-century Italian
treatise, and one of the most important sources for an understanding of the
Classical style in general as well as late Classical trends. The treatise is
divided into four main parts, two in each volume. Part I is ‘An Elementary
Grammar [of Music]’, Part II ‘An Essay on the Art of Playing the Violin’. This
section, which forms a substantial violin treatise, includes chapters on
intonation, equality of sound, bowing, multiple stops, harmonics,
ornaments, diminution, improvisation and other topics, as well as chapters
on the duties of the orchestral player and director, the proportion of
instruments in orchestras of various sizes, and the seating of orchestras in
the church, chamber and theatre (Galeazzi included the seating plan of the
Turin orchestra – and Rousseau’s plan of the Dresden orchestra). Part III,
‘Theory of the Principles of Ancient and Modern Music’, constitutes a brief
history of music, with emphasis on theory. Part IV, ‘Of the Elements of
Counterpoint’, is a treatise on composition, with two main subdivisions. In
the first, ‘Harmony’, Galeazzi discussed harmony and counterpoint
(including species counterpoint, canon and fugue); in the second, ‘Melody’,
he remarked on such diverse topics as rhythm, how to stimulate the
imagination for composing, sonata form, periodic structure, modulation, the
‘conduct’ of compositions in vocal, instrumental and mixed (vocal-
instrumental) styles, instrumentation and orchestration. The supplement to
vol.i (found in vol.ii) describes a metronome invented by the author.
Galeazzi's description of sonata form is the earliest known thematic
description, and contains many profound observations on Classical
structure. Like other Classical theorists, Galeazzi described the form as a
large two-part design. He identified the ‘members’ (thematic functions) of
Part I as: 1. Introduction; 2. Principal Motive; 3. Second Motive; 4.
Departure to the most closely related key; 5. Characteristic Passage or
 Intermediate Passage; 6. Cadential Period; and 7. Coda. Part II contains:
1. Motive; 2. Modulation; 3. Reprise (of the Principal Motive); 4. Repetition
of the Characteristic Passage; 5. Repetition of the Cadential Period; and 6.
Repetition of the Coda. Each function is discussed in detail and a 64-bar
melody is appended to illustrate the form. The essential functions of the
first part are nos.2, 4 and 6; the flexible, often altered recapitulation may
also begin with no.4 of the second part; no.7 may be replaced by a coda in
the modern sense, that recalls earlier material. He also gave ‘the earliest
clear prescription for a second, contrasting theme in a sonata[-form]
movement’ (Stevens, 301).
Galeazzi identified the elements of fugue in a similar manner. The treatise
is also rich in information on tempo, the expressive associations of keys,
definitions of the major musical forms and examples of the ars
combinatoria. The chapter on modulation shows how more distant
modulations can be made through tonic major–minor exchange, irregular
resolutions of dissonant chords and enharmonic resolutions. In the second
edition of vol.i, Galeazzi added four elaborate tables of bowings (which he
also published separately with the title Arte dell' arco), short études in the
second to seventh positions, and two examples (one more elaborate than
the other) of diminutions of a Corelli slow movement. Recent research has
also focussed on Galeazzi's remarks on phrase and period structure.
Galeazzi's treatise has copious musical examples. His pedagogical aims
are reflected in his attempts at simplification, his schematic arrangements
of material and useful summaries. The entire treatise is systematically
organized into Articles, Rules, Demonstrations, Explanations, and so on.
Galeazzi was familiar with the work of French theorists, especially Rameau
and Rousseau, but was also influenced by Quantz (probably in French
translation). Choron and Fayolle praised the treatise, and Fétis observed
that it was ‘a very good book that did not have the success it deserved’.
A letter from Galeazzi, written in Ascoli on 17 October 1816, is in the
Masseangeli collection (I-Baf).
WORKS
Strofe per le tre ore di agonia di N.S.G.C., 2T, B, 2 va, bn, b, 1812, I-Fn*
6 duetti, vn or vn/vc, op.1 (Ascoli, 1781), I-Fc; 8 duets, vn, D-MÜs; 6 trios, 2 vn, va,
op.11, I-Mc; 6 trios, vn, va, vc, op.15, Rc; 2 sonatas, vn, b, D-MÜs
WRITINGS
Elementi teorico-pratici di musica con un saggio sopra l'arte di suonare il
violino analizzata, ed a dimostrabili principi ridotta, i (Rome, 1791,
enlarged 2/1817), annotated Eng. trans. and study, A. Franscarelli
(DMA diss., U. of Rochester, 1968); ii (Rome, 1796), annotated Eng.
trans. and commentary of pt 4, section 2, G.W. Harwood (M.A. thesis,
Brigham Young U., 1980)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Choron-FayolleD
EitnerQ
FétisB
GerberNL
G.C. Carboni: Memoria intorno i letterati e gli artisti della città di Ascoli nel
Piceno (Ascoli, 1830)
[C. Galeazzi]: I Galeazzi (Recanati, 1941)
B. Churgin: ‘Francesco Galeazzi's Description (1796) of Sonata Form’,
JAMS, xxi (1968), 181–99; rev. trans. in W.J. Allanbrook, ed. Strunk's
Source Reading in Music History, v: the Late Eighteenth Century (NY,
1998), 85–92
L.G. Ratner: ‘Ars Combinatoria: Chance and Choice in Eighteenth-Century
Music’, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl
Geiringer, ed. H.C.R. Landon and R.E. Chapman (New York and
London, 1970), 343–63
N. Zaslow: ‘Mozart's Tempo Conventions’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972,
720–33
M. Sutter: ‘Francesco Galeazzi on the Duties of the Leader or
Concertmaster’, The Consort, no.32 (1976), 185–92
J.E. Smiles: ‘Directions for Improvised Ornamentation in Italian Method
Books of the Late Eighteenth Century’, JAMS, xxxi (1978), 495–509
R. di Benedetto: ‘Lineamenti di una teoria della melodia nella trattatistica
italiana fra il 1790 e il 1830’, Die stylistiche Entwicklung der
italienischen Musik zwischen 1770 und 1830: Rome 1978 [AnMc,
no.21 (1982)], 421–43
N. Schoffman: ‘Vocal Sonata Forms in Mozart’, CMc, no.28 (1979), 19–29
R. Steblin: A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early
Nineteenth Centuries (Ann Arbor, 1983/R)
J.R. Stevens: ‘Georg Joseph Vogler and the “Second Theme” in Sonata
Form’, JM, ii (1983), 278–304
S. Schmalzriedt: ‘Charakter und Drama: zur historischen Analyse von
Haydnschen und Beethovenschen Sonatensätzen’, AMw, xlii (1985),
37–66 [incl. Ger. trans. of Galeazzi's description of sonata form]
V. Bernardoni: ‘La teoria della melodia vocale nella trattatistica italiana
(1790–1870)’, AcM, lxii (1990), 29–61
F. Bruni and F. Refrigeri: ‘Musiche per le tre ore di agonia di N.S.G.C.:
nuove fonti per lo studio della funzione del Venerdí santo in Italia’,
NRMI, xxviii (1994), 483–506
R. Meucci: ‘Le opinioni di Francesco Galeazzi (1791) sulla costruzione del
violino, con notizie sui liutai della Famiglia Galeazzi’, Liuteria, musica
e cultura, no.15 (1995), 9–19
BATHIA CHURGIN

Galeffi, Carlo
(b Malamocco, Venice, 4 June 1882; d Rome, 22 Sept 1961). Italian
baritone. After studies with Giovanni Di Como, Enrico Sbriscia and Teofilo
De Angelis, he made his début at the Teatro Quirino, Rome, in 1903 in
Lucia di Lammermoor. His first great successes were in Palermo (1908)
and at the S Carlo, Naples, in Aida and Rigoletto (1909) and during 1910
and 1911 he appeared in Lisbon, Buenos Aires, Boston and at the
Metropolitan. His first appearance at La Scala was in 1912 in Don Carlos,
and he sang there for 18 seasons (the last time in 1940). He was also
engaged at Chicago (1919–21) and returned to Buenos Aires, where he
stayed until 1952. Galeffi had a full, smooth voice with an extensive range;
it was remarkable for its affecting warmth. His passionate phrasing and
dramatically eloquent enunciation made him a first-rate Rigoletto and a fine
Verdi interpreter generally (Nabucco, La traviata, Un ballo in maschera, Il
trovatore, Don Carlos). His other important roles included Tonio and
Rossini’s Figaro. He took part in the first performances of Mascagni’s
Isabeau (1911) and Parisina (1913), Montemezzi’s L’amore di tre re (1913)
and Boito’s Nerone (1924).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (E. Gara); GV (R. Celletti; R. Vegeto)
G. Lauri-Volpi: ‘Carlo Galeffi (1884–1961): a Tribute’, Opera, xii (1961),
802–3
A. Marchetti: Carlo Galeffi: una vita per il canto (Rome, 1973) [with
discography]
R. Celletti: Carlo Galeffi e La Scala (Milan, 1977) [with discography]
RODOLFO CELLETTI/VALERIA PREGLIASCO GUALERZI

Galeno [Galleno], Giovanni

Battista
(b Udine, 1550–55; d after 1626). Italian composer and singer, active
mainly in central Europe. He himself said that he served the house of
Habsburg from early youth, probably first as a chorister in the Graz court
chapel of Archduke Karl II, in whose domestic chapel he was then
employed as an alto from 1572 with a monthly salary of a mere six
guilders. On the archduke’s recommendation he became the domestic
chaplain of the cathedral at Aquileia in north-east Italy on 16 March 1573,
and he was ordained priest on 2 February 1575. He left Aquileia for health
reasons in 1583 and thanks to the good offices of Simone Gatto,
Kapellmeister at the Graz court, was readmitted to the chapel there in
1584. He served at Graz until the death of the archduke in 1590, acting as
court chaplain. From 1591 to 1594 he was employed as court chaplain and
alto at the Bavarian court chapel at Munich. There is evidence that in 1594
he was senior court chaplain to Archduke Ernst, Regent of the
Netherlands, to whom he dedicated his Primo libro de madrigali a cinque
voci (Antwerp, 1594; 1 in DTÖ, xc, 1954). After Ernst’s death he became,
on 1 August 1595, court chaplain and alto at the chapel at Prague of the
Emperor Rudolph II, to whom he dedicated his Primo libro de madrigali a
sette voci (Venice, 1598; 1 in DTÖ, xc, 1954). With only a short break from
October 1597 to about May 1598, during which he was maestro di cappella
of Udine Cathedral, he occupied this post until the emperor’s death in
1612. There is no record of his subsequent activities, though a reference to
him in 1626 in the Prague court records relating to his service under
Rudolph II suggests that he was still alive then.
Galeno was a representative composer of pastoral Italian madrigals, in
which the influence of the canzonetta may be seen: as in the canzonetta,
individual voices are woven into a pseudo-polyphony using musical
motives inspired by the text. Although the composer creates complex forms
within individual sections, he avoids experimenting with the harmony or
with chromaticism. The seven-part pieces sometimes include passages for
 opposing groups of voices; in this they are not dissimilar to the late seven-
part madrigals of Philippe de Monte, which may have influenced them.
Apart from his two collections of madrigals the only works of Galeno to
survive are a six-part litany to the Virgin (A-Gu 97) and the ode Musa
precor facilis, for six voices, which was his contribution to the collective
volume Odae suavissimae in gratiam et honorem … J. Chimarrhaei … a
diversis musicis partim V, partim VI voci (161018).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Federhofer: Musikpflege und Musiker am Grazer Habsburgerhof der
Erzherzöge Karl und Ferdinand von Innerösterreich (1564–1619)
(Mainz, 1967), 77–9
HELLMUT FEDERHOFER

Galeotti, Stefano
(b Velletri or Livorno, c1723; d Italy, c1790). Italian composer and cellist.
He spent most of his career in Holland, though Fétis states that for health
reasons he eventually returned to Italy. The multiplicity of publications of
his works from England and France suggests that he also spent some time
in those countries. His violoncello sonatas were especially popular as
teaching material: John Gunn recommended their use in 1789 and reprints
were included in the violoncello methods of J.-B. Bréval (a sonata in D
minor) and of the Paris Conservatoire (three sonatas). Most of the sonatas
are in three movements, concluding with a minuet. Composed in the galant
style, Galeotti's writing is melodious and fluently ornamental. The works
make greater demands on facility of bowing than on fingering techniques,
and feature intricate string-crossing patterns and staccato bowings. Bréval
included thumb-postion fingerings and indicated that Galeotti also used
bowing undulations and natural harmonics as special effects.
Galeotti was no relation to Salvatore Galeotti (or Galleotti), an Italian
violinist probably active in London in the 1760s, with whom he has
sometimes been confused; some title-pages ascribe works simply to ‘Sigr
Galeotti’.
WORKS
Sonatas for vc, bc: 2 as op.1 (London, n.d.); 6 as op.1 (Paris, 1760; London, n.d.); 6
Solos, op.3 (London, c1770); 6 as op.4 (Paris, 1785)
Sonatas for 2 vn, bc: 6 as op.2 (Paris, n.d.; London, n.d.); 6 as op.2 (Amsterdam,
n.d.); 6 as op.3 (Paris, n.d.; Amsterdam, 1790); 6 as op.4 (London, n.d.;
Amsterdam, n.d.); 2 (London, n.d.)
Other works: 6 Sonatas, 2 vc, bc (London, n.d.); 20 Italian Minuets, 2 vn, bc
(London, n.d.); Divertimento, 2 vn, bc, A-Wgm
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
GerberNL
RiemannL12
J. Gunn: The Theory and Practice of Fingering the Violoncello (London,
1789)
P. Baillot and others: Méthode de violoncelle (Paris, 1804/R)
J.-B. Bréval: Traité du violoncelle, op.42 (Paris, 1804)
E. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)
O. Edwards: ‘On the Cello’s Rise in Popularity in England, with Particular
Reference to a Sonata by Stefano Galeotti’, Flerstemmige innspill
1999: artikkelsamling, ed. E. Nesheim (Oslo, 1999), 31–70
VALERIE WALDEN

Galerati, Caterina
(b Venice; fl 1701–21). Italian soprano. She sang in Florence in 1701–2,
Venice in 1703, Naples in 1704–7 and 1710–11 (15 operas, including
Porpora’s Flavio Anicio Olibrio and Alessandro Scarlatti’s La fede
riconosciuta), Vienna in 1709, Genoa in 1712 and Milan in 1718. In 1714–
15 she appeared frequently in London, mostly in pasticcios and revivals,
playing Goffredo in Handel’s Rinaldo and possibly replacing Anastasia
Robinson as Oriana in his Amadigi di Gaula. She was a member of the first
Royal Academy for two seasons from 1720, singing in Porta’s Numitore,
Handel’s Radamisto (first as Tigrane, then as Fraarte), Giovanni
Bononcini’s Astarto, the composite Muzio Scevola and two pasticcios. Her
salary was £250 for the short spring season and £400 from November to
June 1721. She specialized in male roles; the 12 parts she is known to
have sung in London did not include a single woman. Her compass as
Tigrane was e' to a''.
WINTON DEAN

Galerón.
A song genre central to the celebration of the velorios de cruz of
Venezuela. Texts include traditional improvised décimas (octosyllabic verse
form usually arranged in ten-line verses) of historical, amorous and
religious content and are accompanied by guitar, cuatro (small four-string
guitar) and maracas. Both the singing style and use of bandolín (mandolin)
interludes demonstrate the Arab influences on the music of southern Spain.
In its more informal, secular setting the galerón is danced in couples or in
threes (two women and a man, in which case it is called the tres) and
features handkerchief-waving and zapateo (foot-stamping) by the man.
WILLIAM GRADANTE

Galfridus de Anglia
(fl c1444). English composer. His two two-voice songs, Io zemo, suspiro
and Che farò io (both in P-Pm 714 only) set the first and 12th stanzas of a
17-stanza poem by the Ferrarese poet Girolamo Nigrisoli, lamenting the
departure from Ferrara of Isotta d'Este, apparently at her first marriage in
May 1444. Their musical style resembles that of some English songs in
GB-Ob Ashmole 191.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 N. Pirrotta: ‘Two Anglo-Italian Pieces in the Manuscript Porto 714’,
Speculum musicae artis: Festgabe für Heinrich Husmann, ed. H.
Becker and R. Gerlach (Munich, 1970), 253–61
D. Fallows, ed.: Galfridus and Robertus de Anglia: Four Italian Songs
(Newton Abbot, 1977) [complete edn, incl. Nigrisoli's poem]
DAVID FALLOWS

Galilei, Michelagnolo
[Michelangelo]
(b Florence, 18 Dec 1575; d Florence, 3 Jan 1631). Italian lutenist and
composer, son of Vincenzo Galilei. His father destined him for a musical
career at an early age. The young Michelagnolo wrote the dedicatory
epistle of Vincenzo's Contrapunti a due voci (1584). He went to Poland,
probably in the service of the Radziwiłł family in 1593 and remained until
1606, having applied unsuccessfully in 1599 for a post at Archduke
Ferdinando de’ Medici’s court in Florence. In 1607 he was appointed to the
Hofkapelle of Duke Maximilian I in Munich, where he spent the rest of his
life. His last years were clouded by his disastrous relationship with his
brother Galileo as well as by the misconduct of his eldest son Vincenzo (b
1608), a talented lutenist. Of his eight children, Alberto Cesare (b 1617)
and Cosimo (b 1621) also followed their father’s example.
Galilei’s music, sought after even before his departure for Poland, was first
published in the anthologies of Fuhrmann, Mertel, Besard and Mylius; its
circulation seems to have been limited to Southern German countries.
Almost all his compositions appear in his first and only book for ten-course
lute, engraved in French tablature. Galliards, correntes and voltas,
generally provided with varied repeats, are grouped by modes into 10
‘suites’ each preceded by a toccata; two passamezzos with saltarellos
complete the collection. Galilei’s works, in which tradition is wedded to
modernity (especially of dissonance treatment), express their author’s
elegance of invention, cosmopolitanism of style and eminently poetic
nature.
WORKS
all for lute

Il primo libro d’intavolatura di liuto (Munich, 1620/R1981, 1988); ed. R. Chiesa

(Milan, 1977) [in guitar notation]
Other works: 1 or 2 toccatas, 161524; toccata, 161726; toccata, corrente, balletto,
CZ-Pnm; corrente, D-Mbs; intrada, passamezzo, 2 saltarellos, 2 voltas, GB-
HAdolmetsch; 2 or 3 voltas Lbl

BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Trautmann: ‘Die Familie Galilei in München’, Jb für Münchener
Geschichte, iii (1889), 553–4
A. Favaro, ed.: Le opere di Galileo Galilei (Florence, 1929–39), x–xix
A. Einstein: ‘Vincenzo Galilei and the Instructive Duo’, ML, xviii (1937),
360–68
D.A. Smith: Introduction to facs. of M. Galilei: Il primo libro d’intavolatura di
liuto (Munich, 1981)
C. Chauvel: Introduction to facs. of M. Galilei: Il primo libro d’intavolatura di
liuto (Geneva, 1988) [incl. list of sources]
CLAUDE CHAUVEL

Galilei, Vincenzo [Vincentio,

Vincenzio]
(b S Maria a Monte, Tuscany, probably in the late 1520s; d Florence, bur. 2
July 1591). Italian theorist, composer, lutenist, singer and teacher. He was
the leader of the movement to revive through monody the ancient Greek
ideal of the union of music and poetry.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WRITINGS
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CLAUDE V. PALISCA
Galilei, Vincenzo
1. Life.
Galilei was probably born later than his traditionally accepted date of birth
of about 1520. As a youth he studied the lute. It was probably his playing
that attracted the attention of Giovanni de' Bardi, his principal patron, who
facilitated his theoretical studies with Zarlino in Venice, probably about
1563. By that time he had settled in Pisa, where in 1562 he married a
member of a local noble family. The scientist Galileo (who was born in
1564) was the first of his six or seven children; another was the lutenist
Michelagnolo Galilei (b 18 Dec 1575; d 3 Jan 1631). In 1572 Galilei went to
Florence, and his family joined him in 1574. He enjoyed the support of
other patrons besides Bardi: in 1578–9 in Munich Duke Albrecht V of
Bavaria; about 1584 Jacopo Corsi; and in the summer of 1587 Pietro
Lazzaro Zefirini in Siena.
Galilei, Vincenzo
2. Works.
Galilei's theoretical writing grew out of his lifelong activity as a composer,
lutenist, singer and teacher. Although his writing progressed from the
purely didactic approach of the Fronimo (1568) through the polemics of the
Dialogo (1581) and Discorso (1589) to some highly original compositional
theory and scientific observations in his last, unpublished treatises, there
was continuity and consistency in his thought, and it was fed by practice,
research and experiment. As early as the Fronimo he deplored the
tendency of modern singers always to seek novelty and difficulty when they
should prefer the ‘very easy … because only harmonies that come from
notes of some [i.e. longer] value are apt for expressing the human
affections’ (p.28), and he defended the lute as against the organ for its
ability ‘to express the affections of harmonies, such as hardness, softness,
harshness and sweetness and consequently shrieks, laments, complaints
and weeping, with such grace and wonder’ (p.30). The songs he arranged
for his own bass voice with lute accompaniment about 1570 lean towards
the homophonic, with clear declamation, simple harmony and a sharp
rhythmic profile. The transcriptions in the two editions of the Fronimo,
intended to illustrate the proper way of intabulating part-music for the lute,
represent only a fraction of those he prepared. In 1584 (Fronimo: dialogo,
p.102) he promised he would publish his transcriptions of more than 3000
French, Spanish and Italian songs and Latin motets and more than 500
romanescas, 300 passamezzos and 100 galliards, as well as many
saltarellos and airs on diverse subjects. His original pieces show a mastery
of instrumental counterpoint and of the resources of tonality. Favouring the
new major and minor keys over the church modes, which he deplored as a
false system, he recognized that equal temperament was the only solution
for instrumental tuning. His lute book of 1584 is one of the first music
publications to experiment with equal temperament. The book is comprised
of 24 groups of dances, clearly related to 12 major and 12 minor keys. His
lute was tuned in G and the first group of dances is in G (major). This was
possible because of the well-tempered tuning of his instrument.
About 1570–71 Galilei started to write a compendium of Zarlino's Le
istitutioni harmoniche, but as he progressed he began to enrich it with
information and points of view derived from ancient authors, particularly
pseudo-Plutarch, Aristoxenus and Ptolemy, whom he studied through Latin
and Italian translations. The draft of his compendium breaks off at a
comparison of the octave species of Ptolemy, Boethius and Gaffurius,
indicating that he ran into difficulties in interpreting their doctrine. Having
heard that Girolamo Mei, a Florentine humanist residing in Rome, had
made an extensive study of the Greek ‘modes’, he appealed to him early in
1572. Their correspondence and two personal consultations that followed
marked a new turn in Galilei's career. He was inspired to embark on a
programme to correct modern theory and practice through the example of
the ancients.
Galilei's new orientation led him to quarrel with his former teacher Zarlino,
to whom in 1578 he addressed a short discourse (now lost) outlining, it
would appear, some new theories concerning tuning and the modes. The
first and longest section of the Dialogo della musica antica et della
moderna (1581, pp.1–80) indeed deals with these subjects. Galilei set out
to prove that the tuning then used in vocal music could not be the syntonic
diatonic of Ptolemy, as Zarlino maintained, but had to be a compromise
between the Pythagorean diatonic ditoniaion, with its pure 5ths, and the
diatonic syntonon, with its consonant 3rds. He also showed that the Greek
‘modes’ were entirely different from the church modes. Deeply hurt by
Galilei's attack, Zarlino did not reply until the Sopplimenti musicali of 1588,
and he never reconciled himself to his pupil's often well-founded facts and
arguments. Galilei answered in a Discorso intorno all'opere di Messer
Gioseffo Zarlino (1589).
The most lasting contribution in the Dialogo, though the least original
because it derived from Mei, was the critique of contrapuntal music (pp.80–
90). Galilei condemned it as incapable of achieving the fabled effects of
ancient music, because the various vocal lines, though set to the same
text, pulled in opposite directions. Composers should imitate the ancients,
who never sang more than a single melody. Another important belief of Mei
found in the Dialogo is the opinion that the ancient tragedies were sung
from beginning to end, a theory that Cavalieri, Corsi, Rinuccini and Peri
later tested in a number of pastorals set entirely to music. Galilei founded
his conception of the monodic style on what he had learnt about Greek
music from Mei, principally that it was always a single melody, that its
rhythms were based on those of poetry and speech and that its melody
spanned a narrow range, which was placed in the low, middle or high
register depending on the affection. He assumed that the accompaniment
was like that used in his own time in simple airs for singing poetry and that
it was thus limited to the simplest chords, chiefly 5-3 triads. How well he
was able to realize a monodic style based on the ancient models is
impossible to judge; his Lamentations and responses for Holy Week and
the lament of Count Ugolino from Dante's Inferno, which he performed in
Bardi's Camerata in 1582, do not survive. Of the early examples of monody
that are extant the recitatives and songs in Cavalieri's Rappresentatione di
Anima et di Corpo (1600) probably come closest to what he had in mind.
Galilei did not neglect polyphonic composition in either theory or practice,
but he subordinated the observance of the niceties of imitative counterpoint
to the expression of the text. In his two-part treatise on counterpoint, which
he drafted in 1588–9 and twice revised, he stated that to the text's ‘true
expression are subordinated whatever laws might have been given or
might ever be given regarding the use of consonance and dissonance’ (I-
Fn Gal.1, f.83r; Rempp, 1980, p.47). The works of Rore pointed the way,
and ‘the contrapuntist will acquire from their diligent examination all he can
possibly hope for’ (f.100v; ibid., 72). Although he believed that the
conventional rules for the movement of consonances were adequate, it
was wrong to prohibit, for example, two parallel major 3rds or minor 6ths
simply because they produced false relations, for the first might suit the
composer’s desire for a cheerful feeling and the second for a mournful one
(f.74r; ibid., 33).
Galilei was particularly critical of the rigid rules of dissonance expounded
by Zarlino and Artusi. He recognized two kinds of dissonance: those
produced by the rapid motion of parts, which he said were acceptable
wherever they occurred as long as the voices moved gracefully; and
essential dissonances, which the composer deliberately introduced for their
effect, particularly through suspensions. Galilei relaxed the rules by
permitting the suspended voice to leap, ascend, or move chromatically to a
resolution or by allowing the other voice to move simultaneously towards
resolution or to a new dissonance. He also recognized the viability of piling
up dissonances to form double and triple suspensions and to introduce
dissonances other than through suspensions, on both strong and weak
beats. He presented dissonance tables, complementing the older
consonance tables, showing every possible combination of two and three
simultaneous dissonances, and gave examples of their usage (Gal.1,
ff.129r–134v; ibid., 118–27). He emphasized, however, that it was possible
to write expressively without dissonances through a careful choice of
harmonies, by employing, for example, 6ths from the bass and false
relations (‘mali relationi’) between successive consonances. These ideas
are reflected in his second book of madrigals (1587; only the tenor part of
the first book of 1574 survives). The texture is mainly homophonic, and
expression of feeling is achieved largely through harmonic effects such as
dissonances and false relations and through changes of register, duration
and metre rather than through conventional word-painting. The expanded
tonal realm of Rore and his followers is coloured with touches of melodic
chromaticism. Like his patron Bardi, Galilei tended to suppress word
repetition in favour of repeating an entire line, particularly the final one.
During his last years Galilei drafted a number of shorter essays (ed. in
Palisca, 1989) that are important in the history of acoustics. He reported on
experiments with strings of various materials and anticipated several of the
revelations about the generation of sound later made by his son Galileo.
His most significant discovery was that the ratio of an interval was
proportional to string lengths but varied as the square of the tension
applied to the strings and as the cubes of volumes of air. Thus the perfect
5th, he showed, is produced by string or pipe lengths (other factors being
equal) in the ratio of 3 : 2, by weights hung on equal strings of 9 : 4, and by
concave volumes of 27 : 8. He was the first to show that the same ratio e.g.
3 : 2, did not apply to all conditions, and his observation led Galileo to
investigate the relationships further and to discover that the rate of
vibration varied inversely with the string length; it is thought that he may
have steered Galileo towards experimentation and away from pure
mathematics.
Galilei, Vincenzo
WRITINGS
all MSS in I-Fn Gal. 1–8

Fronimo: dialogo … nel quale si contengono le vere, et necessarie regole

del intavolare la musica nel liuto (Venice, 1568)

Dialogo della musica antica et della moderna (Florence, 1581/R); Eng.

trans. in Herman; Eng. trans. with introduction by C.V. Palisca
(forthcoming) Eng. trans. of pp.80–90, StrunkSR2, iii, 302–22

Fronimo: dialogo … sopra l'arte del bene intavolare, et rettamente sonare

la musica negli strumenti artificiali si di corde come di fiato, & in
particulare nel liuto (Venice, 158415/R); Eng. trans., MSD, xxxix (1985)

Discorso intorno all'opere di Messer Gioseffo Zarlino da Chioggia

(Florence, 1589/R)

Compendio nella tehorica [sic] della musica, c1570, inc.

Il primo libro della prattica del contrapunto intorno all'uso delle consonanze,
1588–91 [3 drafts]; ed. in Rempp, 1980, pp.7–76

Discorso intorno all'uso delle dissonanze, 1588–91 [3 drafts]; ibid., 77–161

Discorso intorno all'uso dell'enharmonio et di chi fusse autore del

cromatico, 1590–91; ibid., 163–80
 Dubbi intorno a quanto io ho detto dell'uso dell'enharmonio, con la
solutione di essi, 1591; ibid., 181–4

Discorso intorno a diversi pareri che hebbero le tre sette piu famose degli
antichi musici; ed. and Eng. trans., in Palisca, 1989, pp.164–79

Discorso particolare intorno all'unisono; ed. and Eng. trans., ibid., 198–207

Discorso particolare intorno alla diversità delle forme del diapason; ed. and
Eng. trans., ibid., 180–97

Traduzione d'un Discorso latino fatto da Carlo Valgulio Bresciano, sopra la

Musica di Plutarco

Trattato di musica di Plutarco [It. trans. of beginning of Plutarch's De

musica]

Critique of G. Zarlino: Sopplimenti musicali, inc.

Galilei, Vincenzo

WORKS
Intavolature de lauto, madrigali e ricercate, libro primo (Rome, 1563 23); 17 ed. in
IMi, iv (1934)
Il primo libro de madrigali, 4, 5vv (Venice, 1574), inc.
Contrapunti, 2vv (Florence, 1584); ed. in SCMA, viii (1945)
Il secondo libro de madrigali, 4, 5vv (Venice, 1587); ed. in IMi, iv (1934)
Libro d'intavolatura di liuto, nel quale si contengono i passemezzi, le romanesche, i
saltarelli, et le gagliarde et altre cose ariose composte in diversi tempi, 1584, I-Fn;
facs. (Florence, 1992), 11 ed. O. Chilesotti, Congresso internazionale di scienze
storiche: Roma 1903, 135–8; some ed. in IMi iv (1934); 16 galliards ed. M. Fritzen,
Vincenzo Galilei, Libro d'Intavolatura (Munich, 1982)
Romanescas, passamezzos, arrs. of madrigals and partsongs, 1v, lute, in copy of
Fronimo (1568 edn.), Fn; some ed. in Palisca, 1969
Airs, romanescas, galliards, passamezzos, lute, in copy of Fronimo(1568 edn.), Fr;
some ed. in Palisca, 1969
Galilei, Vincenzo
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EinsteinIM
A. Bertolotti: ‘Artisti in relazione coi Gonzaga’, Atti e memorie delle RR.
Deputazioni di storia patria per le provincie modenesi e parmensi, 3rd
ser., iii (1885), 195–7; pubd separately (Bologna, 1969/R)
Edizione nazionale delle opere di Galileo Galilei, x (Florence, 1900); xix
(Florence, 1907)
O. Chilesotti: ‘Il primo libro di liuto di Vincenzo Galilei’, RMI, xv (1908),
753–8
A. Favaro: ‘Ascendenti e collaterali di Galileo Galilei’, Archivio storico
italiano, 5th ser., xlvii (1911), 346–78
O. Chilesotti: ‘Di Nicola Vicentino e dei generi greci secondo Vincentio
Galilei’, RMI, xix (1912), 546–65
F. Fano: ‘Alcuni chiarimenti su Vincenzo Galilei’, RaM, x (1937), 85–92
A. Einstein: ‘Vincenzo Galilei and the Instructive Duo’, ML, xviii (1937),
360–68
J.M. Barbour: Tuning and Temperament: a Historical Survey (East
Lansing, MI, 1951/R, 2/1953)
C.V. Palisca: The Beginnings of Baroque Music: its Roots in Sixteenth
Century Theory and Polemics (diss., Harvard U., 1954)
N. Pirrotta: ‘Temperaments and Tendencies in the Florentine Camerata’,
MQ, xl (1954), 169–89
C.V. Palisca: ‘Vincenzo Galilei's Counterpoint Treatise: a Code for the
Seconda pratica’, JAMS, ix (1956), 81–96
A. Procissi: La collezione galileiana della Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze, i
(Rome, 1959)
C.V. Palisca: Girolamo Mei (1519–1594): Letters on Ancient and Modern
Music to Vincenzo Galilei and Giovanni Bardi: a Study with Annotated
Texts, MSD, iii (1960, 2/1977)
C.V. Palisca: ‘Vincenzo Galilei and Some Links between “Pseudo-monody”
and Monody’, MQ, xlvi (1960), 344–60
C.V. Palisca: ‘Scientific Empiricism in Musical Thought’, Seventeenth
Century Science and the Arts, ed. H.H. Rhys (Princeton, 1961), 91–
137
C.V. Palisca: ‘Vincenzo Galilei's Arrangements for Voice and Lute’, Essays
in Musicology in Honor of Dragan Plamenac, ed. G. Reese and R.H.
Snow (Pittsburgh, 1969/R), 207–32
S. Drake: ‘Renaissance Music and Experimental Science’, Journal of the
History of Ideas, xxxi (1970), 483–500
S. Drake: ‘Vincenzio Galilei and Galileo’, Galileo Studies (Ann Arbor,
1970), 43–62
D. Kämper: Studien zur instrumentalen Ensemblemusik des 16.
Jahrhunderts in Italien, AnMc, no.10 (1970)
C.V. Palisca: ‘The “Camerata fiorentina”: a Reappraisal’, Studi musicali, i
(1972), 203–36
R.H. Herman: ‘Dialogo della musica antica et moderna’ of Vincenzo
Galilei: Translation and Commentary (diss., U. of North Texas, 1973)
D.P. Walker: ‘Some Aspects of the Musical Theory of Vincenzo Galilei and
Galileo Galilei’, PRMA, c (1973–4), 33–47; repr. in Walker, Studies in
Musical Science in the Late Renaissance (London, 1978), 14–26
D.P. Walker: Studies in Musical Science in the Late Renaissance (London,
1978)
K. Berger: Theories of Chromatic and Enharmonic Music in Late Sixteenth
Century Italy (Ann Arbor, 1979)
F. Rempp: ‘Der Musiktheoretiker Vincenzo Galilei und das Ende des
‘klassischen’ Kontrapunkts’, JbSIM (1979), 19–34
P. Possiedi: ‘Il manoscritto Galileiano “6” della Nazionale di Firenze’, Il
Fronimo, viii, no.30 (1980), 5–13; viii, no.31 (1980), 5–19
F. Rempp: Die Kontrapunkttraktate Vincenzo Galileis (Cologne, 1980)
C.V. Palisca: ‘The Science of Sound and Musical Practice’, Science and
the Arts in the Renaissance, ed. J.W. Shirley and F.D. Hoeniger
(Washington DC, 1985), 59–73
Z. Szweykowski: ‘Krytyka kontrapunktu w Dialogo della musica antica, et
della moderna Vincenza Galilei’, Muzyka, xxx/3–4 (1985), 3–16; appx,
1–43 [summary in Eng.]
C. Orsini: Vincenzo Galilei: Catalogo tematico ragionato delle sue opere
musicali con particolare riferimento agli esemplari conservati nelle
biblioteche italiane (diss., U. of Pisa, 1986)
Vincenzo Galilei: Santa Maria a Monte 1987
D. Harrán: ‘Sulla genesi della famosa disputa fra Gioseffo Zarlino e
Vincenzo Galilei: Un nuovo profilo’, NRMI, xxi (1987), 467–75
C. Orsini: ‘Vincenzo Galilei’, Il Fronimo, xvi, no.62 (1988), 7–28
M.T. Annoni: ‘Ulteriori osservazioni sul manoscritto Galileiano “6” della
Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze’, Il Fronimo, xvii, no.69 (1989), 22–32
C.V. Palisca: The Florentine Camerata: Documentary Studies and
Translations (New Haven, CT, 1989)
P. Sanvito: ‘Le sperimentazioni nelle scienze quadriviali in alcuni epistolari
zarliniani inediti’, Studi musicali, xix (1990), 305–18
L. Gasser: Vincenzo Galilei's Manuscript ‘Libro d'Intavolatura di liuto
(1584)’: an Introductory Study (diss., Stanford U., 1991)
H.M. Brown: ‘Vincenzo Galilei in Rome: his First Book of Lute Music
(1563) and its Cultural Context’, Music and Science in the Age of
Galileo, ed. V. Coelho (Dordrecht, 1992), 153–84
S. Drake: ‘Music and Philosophy in Early Modern Science’, ibid., 3–16
C.V. Palisca: ‘Was Galileo's Father an Experimental Scientist?’, ibid., 143–
51
P. Canguilhem: ‘Tel père, tel fils? Les opinions esthétiques de la famille
Galilei’, IRASM, xxiii (1992), 27–42
P. Barbieri: ‘L'accordatura strumentale in Toscana: proposte e contrasti da
Vincenzo Galilei a Cristofori (c. 1580–1730)’, Musicologia humana:
Studies in Honor of Warren and Ursula Kirkendale, ed. S.
Gmeinwieser, D. Hiley and J. Riedlbauer (Florence, 1994), 209–32

Galimberti [Galinberti,
Gallimberto], Ferdinando
(fl c1730–50). Italian composer. Gerber described him as a symphonic
composer and ‘distinguished violinist’ active in Milan about 1740. Between
1740 and 1742 he taught the violin to the Swiss composer Meyer von
Schauensee. Ten symphonies copied by ‘Meyer’ are in the library of
Engelberg Abbey. Numerous sacred works by Galimberti survive, reflecting
his activity as a church composer, and those in Einsiedeln, acquired in
1751, include a Miserere and Dies irae dated 1744. Other sacred works
exist elsewhere, mostly in Engelberg. Galimberti was one of the earliest
symphonists; most of his 15 possibly authentic symphonies probably date
from the 1730s or even earlier. They call for a string orchestra a 3 or a 4,
sometimes with two horns, and contain three movements, usually with a
non-minuet finale. Five symphonies ascribed to Galimberti in the Fonds
Blancheton (F-Pc) have few Baroque traits. Their thoroughly homophonic
texture is enlivened by violins in dialogue, a Milanese hallmark. Fast
movements, often in 2/4, use sonata form, with strong thematic contrasts in
some cases, long developments and full or partial recapitulations (of
cadential material) which further vary the thematic ideas. Slow movements
are binary and lyrical. The Einsiedeln Miserere (1744) has 14 movements
and is scored for a large orchestra, chorus and solo vocal quartet. The
 musical vocabulary, consistent use of sonata form, and symphonic-
dramatic emphasis resemble the sacred works of G.B. Sammartini.
WORKS
Ov. no.2 in 6 ouverture a piu stromenti composte da varri autori, op.4 (Paris,
c1753–5), ?by Giorgio Giulini
6 syms., incl. op.3/101 also attrib. Brioschi, F-Pc Fonds Blancheton, CH-EN, CZ-
Pnm, D-SWl; 17 syms., at least 4 doubtful and 2 inc., CH-Bu, EN, Zz, CZ-Pnm, D-
KA, F-AG, Pc, S-L, Skma, Uu, US-Wc
Conc., vn, orch, I-CMbc, S-Skma; Conc., 2 vn, orch, US-Wc; Conc., solo unknown,
CH-Zz, inc.; March, 2 hn, 2 tpt, str, E; Trios, 2 vn, b, GB-Gu (inc.), S-H, HÄ, Skma,
VX; Qt, S-L
Ky, 2 Gl, 1 in E , Benedictus, Agnus Dei, 2 Mag, 1 dated 1758, Miserere, 1744,
Miserere, Dies irae, 1744, 7 ps settings, 1 motetto pieno, 1 Off: all CH-E
13 sacred works, mostly mass sections (incl. Gl in E same as E), 1 Mag, 1765, all
EN; Ky-Gl, E-SC; Tantum ergo, CH-SAf; Salve regina, c1760, D-DO
Lost works (all cited in 18th- and 19th-century catalogues unless otherwise stated):
Sym., formerly CH-E; 2 syms., formerly D-DS; Trio, 2 vn, b, formerly D-DS; Ky, 2 Gl,
Miserere same as CH-E, 1744, cant., all formerly at Karlsruhe
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookB
Choron-FayolleD
EitnerQ
GerberL
P. Keller: ‘Mittheilungen’, MMg, vi (1874), 46–8
L. de La Laurencie: Inventaire critique du Fonds Blancheton, i (Paris,
1930)
B.S. Brook: Thematic Catalogues in Music: an Annotated Bibliography
(Hillsdale, NY, 1972, rev. 2/1997 by R. Viannoŝ)
N. Jenkins and B. Churgin: Thematic Catalogue of the Works of Giovanni
Battista Sammartini: Orchestral and Vocal Music (Cambridge, MA,
1976)
J. LaRue: A Catalogue of 18th-Century Symphonies, i: Thematic Identifier
(Bloomington, IN, 1988)
M. Brusa and A. Rossi: Sammartini e il suo tempo: fonti manoscritte e
stampate della musica a Milano nel Settecento, Fonti musicali italiane,
i (1996), suppl.
BATHIA CHURGIN

Galin, Pierre
(b Samatan, 1786; d Bordeaux, 31 Aug 1821). French teacher of
mathematics. He was originator of a method of teaching sight-singing. He
received his education at the Lycée in Bordeaux and the Ecole
Polytechnique. Appointed a teacher, first at his former school and then at
the Bordeaux School for the Deaf and Dumb, he worked to perfect the
teaching of science and mathematics. He also turned his attention to music
teaching, convinced that the difficulty of learning to read music was due to
existing methods of teaching the subject. Having analysed the theory of
music scientifically, Galin began to teach a group of children; after a year’s
experiment he published an account of his method (not a textbook) in
Exposition d’une nouvelle méthode pour l’enseignement de la musique
(1818; part Eng. trans., 1983, as Rationale), based on the figure-notation
first proposed by Rousseau in 1742. The book was remarkable for its
clearsighted analysis of the music teacher’s problems. The success of his
first pupils next encouraged Galin to establish himself as a teacher of
music in Paris in 1819. He taught classes of children and trained a number
of young teachers to employ his method. Subsequently, although several of
his pupils attempted to continue Galin’s work, only Aimé Paris was
ultimately successful. He was joined by his sister Nanine, and her husband
Emile Chevé, and the trio elaborated Galin’s basic method into a full course
of training complete with textbooks and published exercises. Under the
composite title of the Galin-Paris-Chevé method, the resulting system
enjoyed wide use in many countries and has survived in some areas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
J.-J. Rousseau: Projet concernant de nouveaux signes pour la musique …
1742 (Geneva, 1781; Eng. trans., ed. B. Rainbow, 1982)
P. de Geslin: ‘A Note upon the Method of Writing Music Proposed by
Rousseau’, preface to Oeuvres complètes de J.J. Rousseau, ed. V.D.
Musset Pathay, xi (Paris, 1824)
BERNARR RAINBOW

Galindo Dimas, Blas

(b San Gabriel [now Venustiano Carranza], 3 Feb 1910; d Mexico City, 19
April 1993). Mexican composer of Huichol Indian descent. At the age of 19
he began playing the village church organ by ear, and a year later he
played the clarinet in the village band. He entered the Mexico City National
Conservatory in 1931 to study with Carlos Chávez (composition),
Rodríguez Vizcarra (piano), Huízar and Rolón. On returning in 1935 from
several months as a music teacher in the rural teachers’ school El Mexe,
Hidalgo, he formed with Ayala Pérez, Salvador Contreras and José
Moncayo the ‘Group of Four’ dedicated to propagating their works and to
creating a Mexican music using indigenous instruments and melodies.
Under Chávez’s patronage, Galindo Dimas was introduced to the New York
public at a Museum of Modern Art concert (16 May 1940), which included
the Sones de Mariachi, a colourful medley of Mexican street serenades
that remained his most widely played work. He studied with Copland at the
Berkshire Music Center (1941, 1942), where in the latter year his orchestral
suite Arroyos was played, and he continued his conservatory studies until
1944, when he received the title maestro en composición. After three years
as a teacher of harmony, counterpoint and composition at the conservatory,
he was appointed its director (1947–61), and also in 1947 he was made
head of the music department at the National Institute of Fine Arts. In 1949
he was invited to adjudicate at the Chopin Competition in Warsaw; during
his visit to Europe he officially inspected music schools in seven countries.
He was music director of the Instituto Mexicano de Seguro Social SO
(1960–65), and in spring 1964 he conducted the Madrid appearances of
 the Ballet Popular Mexicano. Galindo was a founder-member of the
Mexican Academy of Arts (1966) and a recipient of the National Arts Prize
(1964). His works have embraced all of the reigning vogues from peppery
folklore through brazenly dissonant, contrapuntal abstracts to light shows.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Arroyos, perf. 1942; Pf Conc. no.1, perf. 1942; Sones de Mariachi [Sones
Mariachi] (1953); Sinfonia breve, str (1956); Sym. no.2 (1959); Fl Conc., 1960; Pf
Conc. no.2, 1961; Sym. no.3, perf. 1961; Vn Conc., 1962; Homenaje a Rubén Dario
(1971)
Choral: La suave patria (cant., R. López Velarde), 1946; Letanía erótica para la paz
(cant., G. Álvarez), 1965; 2 other patriotic cants., unacc. pieces, folksong arrs.,
school songs
Inst: 5 preludios, pf (1946); Sonata, vn, pf (1950); Sonata, vc, pf, perf. 1953; 7
piezas, pf (1955); Suite, vn, pf (1961); Pf Qnt, perf. 1961; Str Qt (1972)
Songs: 2 canciones (A. del Río, R.M. Campos) (1947); 3 canciones (del Rio) (1947)

Principal publishers: Arrow, Ediciones Mexicanas de Musica, Peer

BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Chávez: ‘Blas Galindo’, Nuestra música, i/1 (1946), 7–13
F. Agea: ‘Blas Galindo’, Mexico en el arte 1948 (1948), Nov, 83–90
Compositores de América/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan American
Union, xi (Washington DC, 1965), 35–41
R.P. Conant: The Vocal Music of Blas Galindo: a Study of the Choral and
Solo Vocal Works of a Twentieth-Century Mexican Composer (diss., U.
of Texas at Austin, 1977)
Hacer música: Blas Galindo, compositor (Guadalajara, Mexico, 1994) [incl.
catalogue of works]
ROBERT STEVENSON

Galïnin, German Germanovich

(b Tula, 30 March 1922; d Staraya Ruza, 18 July 1966). Russian
composer. He studied in Moscow with Litinsky, Myaskovsky and
Shostakovich. His works continue the Russian traditions of Balakirev,
Borodin, Myaskovsky, Shostakovich and Taneyev. His style is characterized
by vivid themes, and by melodious and theatrical musical ideas (particularly
in his early works) while the role played by polyphony, and the influence of
Bach, is important. He made wide use of Russian folksong, leaning both on
the traditions of the Five and of 20th-century composers such as Bartók.
His harmonic language is fresh and his methods of orchestration are
frequently unusual. His most important works include the First Piano
Concerto, the Suite for strings, the oratorio Devushka i Smert'i devnshka
(‘The Maiden and Death’) and the Epicheskaya poėma (‘Epic Poem’). The
last-mentioned work was awarded the State Prize in 1951. Interpreters of
his works include Tat'yana Nikolayeva, Gennady Rozhdestvensky and
 Yevgeny Svetlanov. His untimely death from a serious illness cut short the
life of one of the most gifted Russian composers of the mid-20th century.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Ukroshchonnïy ukrotitel' [The Tamer Tamed] (incid music, Fletcher), 1944; Farizet
(op, 1), 1949; Salamanskaya peshchera [The Cave at Salamanca] (incid music,
Cervantes), also pf suiteInst: 6 Sonatas, pf, 1936, nos.4–6, rev. 1963; P'yesï [Pieces],
pf, 1939; Pf Sonata, 1945; Pf Conc. no.1, 1946; Str Qt no.1, 1947; Pf Trio, 1948; Suite,
str orch, 1949; Ėpicheskaya poėma na narodnïye temï [An Epic Poem on Folk
Themes], orch, 1950, reorchd 1963; Str Qt no.2, 1956; Aria, vn, pf, 1963; Conc. grosso,
pf, 1964; Pf Conc. no.2, 1965; Scherzo, vn, str orch, 1966Choral: Devushka i Smert'
[The Maiden and Death] (orat, M. Gorky), 1950, rev. 1963

BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Shteynpress: ‘Ėpicheskaya poėma’, SovM (1951), no.8, pp.19–22
M. Sabinina: ‘O tvorchestve G. Galïnina’ [On Galïnin's work], SovM (1955),
no.2, pp.9–16
Ye. Mnatsakanova: German Galïnin (Moscow, 1965)
Obituary, SovM (1966), no.10, p.159 only
V. Tsendrovsky and others, eds.: German Galïnin: sbornik statey
[Galïnin: a collection of articles] (Moscow, 1979)
GALINA GRIGOR'YEVA

Galinne [Gal'in], Rachel

[Gluchowicz, Rachel S.]
(b Stockholm, 7 Feb 1949). Israeli composer of Swedish birth. After
graduating from Uppsala University (BA 1974) she moved to Israel and
studied composition with Leon Schidlowsky at the Rubin Academy at Tel-
Aviv University (BM 1984, MM 1988). She represented Israel at the
UNESCO Rostrum in Paris in 1990 with Islossning (1984), and was
awarded the Prime Minister's Prize for Composers in 1993. Her Cycles
(1986) displays the influence of Lutosławski and Ligeti, while that of Mahler
and Paul Ben-Haim is evident in Symphony no.1 (1996). Both works were
performed by the Israel PO in 1996. One of the foremost Israeli women
composers, Galinne devotes her time solely to composition. In Uneginotai
Nenagen (1993), based on a motif from Mordecai Seter's Midnight Vigil,
she depicts the spiritual elevation expressed in the text by means of a
process evolving gradually from an atonal, densely contrapuntal texture to
pure tonality. She invokes a eclectic range of stylistic tendencies through
smooth synthesis rather than confrontational juxtaposition.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Islossning, 2 pf, perc, 1984; Cycles, 1986; Conc., 2 pf, orch, 1988; Trio, cl, va,
pf, 1989; Sym. no.1, 1996; Sym. no.2, 1998
Vocal: Uneginotai Nenagen [And We Shall Sing my Song of Praise] (Isaiah xxxviii),
16-pt mixed chorus, 1993

Principal publisher: Israel Music Institute

RONIT SETER

Galin-Paris-Chevé method.
A French system of teaching sight-singing. It was based on the figure-
notation proposed by Rousseau in 1742 but with later modifications
introduced by Pierre Galin, Aimé Paris and his sister Nanine, and her
husband Emile Chevé. The central feature of the method is a notation of
numerals from 1 to 7, with 1 representing the major tonic. Allowing a
compass of three octaves for vocal music, the lower and upper octaves
respectively are marked by the insertion of dots below or above the
numerals (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7). Key is shown by a
simple statement at the beginning of a piece, for example ‘F = 1: ton fa’.
Accidental sharps are marked with an oblique stroke through the numeral
from left to right, flats by a stroke in the opposite direction; rests are shown
as zeros (ex.1). Where several numerals share a bar or part of a bar, they
share its value equally. Smaller note values are shown by the use of
horizontal lines, somewhat similar to the tails of grouped quavers or
semiquavers, placed above notes that share beats or parts of beats.
Longer notes have their continuation indicated by large dots, which share
the value of the bar in the same way as the notes themselves. Pupils
employ the sol-fa syllables do, ré, mi, fa, sol, la and si when singing
exercises, not the numbers themselves. Accuracy of intonation is
encouraged by the use of points d’appui (preparatory notes to be thought
of, not sung) before attacking more demanding intervals; these are
indicated by smaller numerals (e.g. 1 3 5 15 65 43 21 7).

The method was planned as an approach to standard notation, not as an

alternative notation in its own right. Pupils are introduced to staff notation
by means of the ‘méloplaste’, a vacant staff on which notes and intervals
are pointed out with a baton. Note lengths are familiarized by means of a
series of rhythmic note names which, when spoken aloud, pattern the
effect of the notes concerned (ex.2).

All these devices were first made widely known in Méthode élémentaire de
musique vocale (1844), published jointly by Chevé and his wife. In spite of
considerable opposition from professional musicians in France, the method
gained wide popularity there during the second half of the 19th century,
largely through the vigorous propaganda of Emile Chevé. It was employed
in many schools, teacher-training colleges and in the Ecole Polytechnique,
as well as in the army and navy by 1875. By that time it had also been
adopted in Switzerland, the Netherlands and Russia. Also introduced at
that time into a few English private schools by Andrade, the method had its
formal introduction to the professional musician in Britain when George
Bullen read a paper on the subject to the members of the Musical
Association in 1878.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.W. Bullen: ‘The Galin-Paris-Chevé Method of Teaching Considered as a
Basis of Musical Education’, PMA, iv (1877–8), 68–93
M. Chevais: ‘L’enseignement musical à l’école’, EMDC, II/vi (1931), 3631–
83
BERNARR RAINBOW

Galiot, Johannes
(fl 1380–95). French composer. He left only two or three compositions,
which show the style of the Ars Subtilior at its height: a three-voice ballade
Le sault perilleux, a work of considerable rhythmic complexity with a
remarkable notational technique and a Latin–Greek canon, appears in the
Chantilly Manuscript (F-CH 564) at the beginning of a fascicle (perhaps the
beginning of the old corpus of works) on a page that has often been
reproduced for its marginal illustrations (e.g. MGG1, ii, pl.34; MD, xxxviii,
1984, p.112); Vaillant used it in Paris to explain the proportion 9:8 to his
students. En attendant d’amer, a three-voice rondeau with strict
isorhythmic structure, has an exceptionally syncopated melodic style. The
anonymous rondeau refrain Se vos ne voles, following on the same page,
may also be his work.
The Chantilly manuscript wrongly ascribes two further works to Galiot. Both
also begin En attendant, but both are ascribed to other composers
elsewhere (in I-MOe α.M.5.24). One of them, En attendant esperance, is
quite clearly by Jaquemin de Senleches on stylistic grounds; the other, En
atendant souffrir m’estuet, a ballade mentioning the arms of Bernabò
Visconti, must be by Philippus de Caserta, since Ciconia quoted the
opening of the song in his Sus un’ fontayne, a virelai which also contains
two further direct quotations from Philippus. It seems likely, though, that
Galiot also had dealings with the Viscontis (StrohmR; this seems more
likely than Strohm's suggestion that ‘Jean Galiot’ may be a French
misspelling of ‘Gian Galeazzo’, i.e. Visconti). (All his works are ed. in
PMFC, xviii–xix, 1981–2.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (G. Reaney)
MGG2 (‘Chantilly’, U. Günther)
StrohmR
G. Thibault: ‘Emblèmes et devises des Visconti dans les oeuvres
musicales du Trecento’, L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento: Convegno II:
Certaldo and Florence 1969 [L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iii
(Certaldo, 1970)], 131–60
U. Günther: ‘Zitate in französischen Liedsätzen der Ars Nova und Ars
Subtilior’, MD, xxvi (1972), 53–68 esp. 64
U. Günther: ‘Unusual Phenomena in the Transmission of Late Fourteenth-
Century Polyphonic Music’, MD, xxxviii (1984), 87–118
URSULA GÜNTHER

Galitzin, Nikolay Borisovich.

See Golitsïn, nikolay borisovich.

Galitzin, Yury Nikolayevich.

See Golitsïn, yury nikolayevich.

Galizona
(Ger.).
See Mandora.

Galkin, Elliot W(ashington)

(b Brooklyn, NY, 22 Feb 1921; d Baltimore, 24 May 1990). American music
critic and conductor. He attended Brooklyn College (BA 1943), took
conducting diplomas in Paris at the Conservatoire and the Ecole Normale
de Musique (1946–9) and studied musicology at Cornell University (MA
1950), where he took the doctorate in 1960 with a dissertation on
orchestral conducting which he later revised and published as A History of
Orchestral Conducting in Theory and Practice (New York, 1988). As a
Fulbright Fellow he attended the university and the music academy of
Vienna and became apprentice conductor at the Staatsoper (1955–6). He
then worked at Goucher College (from 1956; from 1964 as professor), and
in 1957 was appointed to the staff of the Peabody Conservatory, where he
was conductor from 1957, and chairman of the department of music history
and literature from 1964. He was director (1977–82) following its affiliation
with the Johns Hopkins University, where he had earlier been conductor
(1958–62) and director of musical activities (from 1969). His music
criticisms appeared in the Baltimore Sun (1962–77) and other papers. He
was president of the Music Critics Association, 1975–7.
PAULA MORGAN

Gall, Jan Karol

(b Warsaw, 18 Aug 1856; d Lemberg, 30 Oct 1912). Polish composer,
choral director, teacher and critic. After graduating in piano and music
theory from the music school of the Muza music society in Kraków (after
1867), he subsequently studied composition with F. Krenn at the Vienna
Conservatory, and with Rheinberger and M. Sachs in Munich. From 1879
to 1881 he lived in Kraków, where he began his career as composer and
 critic. In 1882 he was conductor of the Andante Choir in Leipzig and
associate répétiteur for the opera chorus in Weimar; here his songs came
to the attention of Liszt. In 1883 he went to Italy to deepen his knowledge
of the art of singing, and consulted various teachers including F. Lamperti.
From the autumn of 1884 he was conductor of the Music Society in
Lemberg, and at the end of 1888 he went to Dresden and Leipzig, where
he became musical advisor to the publisher of his songs, Leuckart. From
1890 to 1895 he taught music history, theory and solo singing at the
conservatory in Kraków, and from April 1895 he worked in Breslau, as a
singing teacher at the conservatory, and as conductor of the Musikverein.
Following travels to Switzerland, France, Spain and Scandinavia he settled
in Lemberg in 1896, accepting the position of the director of Echo, the
choral society which later changed its name to Echo-Macierz. He
transformed it into one of the best choirs of its type in Poland, and travelled
with them on their frequent concert tours.
During the course of his life Gall wrote hundreds of concert reviews and
articles about music for journals including Nowa reforma (1884–5 and
1889–91), Gazeta Lwowska (1885–8), General Anzeiger (1895) and Wiek
nowy [New Century] (1897, 1902–4). He was a well-skilled but severe critic
who tended to point out composers' mistakes. He was also an adjudicator
for music competitions and a lecturer.
Gall's strongest creative talent was for the composition of a wide repertory
of songs, mainly for solo voice and piano or for choir, and also for female
voices and piano. They demonstrate his understanding of the nature of the
human voice, the flow of the melodic line and precise prosody, all of which
contributed to their success. Some are still performed. However his
compositional technique does not appear to have developed significantly
during his career.
WORKS
stage
Barkarola [Barcarolle] (dramatic scene, M. Gawalewicz), Warsaw, 7 Oct 1884
Viola (comic op, based on trans. of W. Shakespeare: The Merry Wives of Windsor),
1886
Frasquita (comic op), 1886
Lili, Lala, Lola (comic op, E. Porębowicz), 1889
songs
c90 songs for voice and pf, incl.
Fünf Lieder für eine Bariton oder Altstimme op.1 (Leipzig, 1880); Aus Italien (Z
Włoch) op.13 (Leipzig, 1890); Trzy pieśni [Three Songs] op.20 (Lemberg, 1893); Z
Teki wędrowca [From the file of a wanderer], cycle of 6 songs (Lemberg, 1900)
choral
almost 500 songs for male and mixed choirs, incl. arrs. of Slovakian, Pol., Rom.,
Russ., Hung., It. and Jap. melodies; 12 Polskich pieśni kościelnich [12 Pol. sacred
songs] (Kraków, before 1903); 150 Pieśni i piosnek [150 songs and little songs]
(Lemberg, 1903)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EMuz (S. Lachowicz)
PSB (Z. Jachimecki)
SMP
J. Gall: ‘Garść wspomnień’ [Fistful of memories], Wiadomości artystyczne
[Artistic news], ii–iii (1900), 19–20 [from meetings with Franz Liszt at
Weimar]
T. Miankowski: ‘Jan Gall’, Wiadomości artystyczne xiv–xv (1901), 129–35
[incl. list of works]
F. Starczewski: ‘Jan Karol Gall’, Chór, iv (1937), no.2, pp.17–19; no.3,
pp.1–4; no.4, pp.1–3; no.5, pp.1–4; no.6, pp.1–3; nos.7–8, pp.7–10
[incl. list of works]; Chór, v (1938), nos.7–8, pp.132–5 [incl. rev. list of
works]
J.W. Reiss: Almanach muzyczny Krakowa 1780–1914 (Kraków, 1939)
BARBARA CHMARA-ŻACZKIEWICZ

Gall, Yvonne
(b Paris, 6 March 1885; d Paris, 21 Aug 1972). French soprano. She
studied at the Paris Conservatoire and in 1908 was engaged by Messager
at the Opéra as Woglinde in the first production there of Götterdämmerung.
Keeping the French lyric roles such as Marguerite, Manon and Thaïs at the
centre of her career, she developed a powerful voice and added more
dramatic parts such as Elsa and, in 1923, Isolde to her repertory. At Monte
Carlo she sang in the premières of operas by Raoul Gunsbourg, the
impresario of the house: Le vieil aigle (1909), Le cantique des cantiques
(1922) and Lysistrata (1923). Abroad, she appeared with success in
Buenos Aires and in Chicago, where she sang in the first American
performance of L’heure espagnole. Tosca was the part in which she
appeared at La Scala and in her only performances at Covent Garden
(1924); Ernest Newman remarked that she presented ‘three capable
Toscas, a different one in each act’. One of her last appearances was as
Phoebe in Rameau's Castor et Pollux at the Maggio Musicale, Florence, in
1936. Her bright, very French soprano is heard in many recordings, notably
in one of the first complete operas on record, Gounod's Roméo et Juliette
(1912).
J.B. STEANE

Gallarati, Paolo
(b Turin, 18 June 1949). Italian musicologist. He graduated in music history
at Turin University (1973). He was lecturer in music history at Turin (1977–
9) and in 1980 was appointed associate professor in the history of opera.
His musical interests include opera in the 18th and 19th centuries; in his
publications he examines Gluck and operatic reform, the aesthetics of
18th-century opera, Mozart’s dramatic craftsmanship and some stylistic
aspects of Weber and Rossini.
WRITINGS
‘Metastasio e Gluck: per una collocazione storica della “Riforma”’,
Chigiana, new ser., ix–x (1972–3), 299–308
Gluck e Mozart (Turin, 1975)
‘Dramma e “ludus” dall'“Italiana” al “Barbiere”’, Il melodramma italiano
dell’Ottocento: studi e ricerche per Massimo Mila, ed. G. Pestelli
(Turin, 1977), 237–80
‘L’estetica musicale di Ranieri de’ Calzabigi: “La Lulliade”’, NRMI, xiii
(1979), 531–63
‘L’estetica musicale di Ranieri de’ Calzabigi: il caso Metastasio’, NRMI, xiv
(1980), 497–538
‘Zeno e Mestastasio tra melodramma e tragedia’, Metastasio e il
melodramma: Cagliari 1982, 89–103
Musica e maschera: il libretto italiano del Settecento (Turin, 1984)
‘La produzione critica di Massimo Mila fra le due guerre’, Ghedini e l’attività
musicale a Torino tra le due guerre: Turin 1986, 212–23
‘La poetica di Giacomo Durazzo e la “Lettre sur le méchanisme de l’opéra
italien”’, Musica/Realtà, ix/26 (1988), 53–73
‘Rifacimento e parodia nei libretti viennesi di Lorenzo Da Ponte’, Atti del
convegno Lorenzo Da Ponte, librettista di Mozart: New York 1988,
237–43
‘Music and Mask in Lorenzo Da Ponte’s Mozartian Librettos’, COJ, i (1989),
224–47
La forza della parole: Mozart drammaturgo (Turin, 1993)
‘Grammatica dell’esotismo nell’ “Oberon” di Weber’, Opera & Libretto, ii
(1993), 175–98
‘“Le Rossiniane” di Carpani’, La recezione di Rossini ieri e oggi: Rome
1993, 69–80
Lezioni sul “Don Giovanni” di Mozart (Turin, 1994)
‘I libretto non mozartiani di Lorenzo Da Ponte (1784–1789)’, Sigma, xix/2
(1994), 31–59
‘Une dramaturgie dans les fers: les idées de Goldoni sur le drame en
musique’, Musiques goldoniennes: hommage à Jacques Joly (Paris,
1995), 15–22
TERESA M. GIALDRONI

Gallarda
(Sp.: ‘elegant’, ‘dashing’).
The Spanish equivalent of Galliard, a lively triple-metre dance popular in
16th- and 17th-century Europe. A galliard choreography under the Spanish
name appeared in Antonius de Arena's treatise Ad suos compagnones
studiantes … bassas dansas (?1519), and the characteristic rhythms of the
dance formed the basis of several sets of diferencias or variations by
Cabezón in the mid-16th century. Apparently the Spanish term also
referred to a duple-metre dance, for a number of variations on duple
gallardas were composed by Juan Cabanilles (ex.1); each retains the bass
line of an eight- or ten-bar dance strain as an ostinato unifying the set. A
17th-century choreography for the gallarda describes a highly ornamented
version of the 16th-century dance with shakes of the feet preceding some
steps and vigorous leaping and twisting of the body, but it seems unrelated
to the duple-metre form of the dance used by Cabanilles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Anglès: Introduction to Johannis Cabanilles: Opera omnia, ii
(Barcelona, 1933)
J. Subirá: ‘Libro de danzar, de don Baltasar de Rojes, Pantoja, compuesto
por el maestro Juan Antonio Jaque (s.XVII)’, AnM, v (1950), 193–8

Gallay, Jacques François

(b Perpignan, 8 Dec 1795; d Paris, 18 Oct 1864). French horn player,
teacher and composer. He studied solfège with a local musician when he
was only ten, and two years later, he began to learn the horn with his
father. At the age of 14, already a member of the Perpignan theatre
orchestra, he made his solo début in Devienne’s Les visitandines. In 1818
he was appointed director of a new local music society, and began
composition lessons with the son of the bassoonist Ozi who had settled
there. After six months, his First Horn Concerto was completed and
performed. In 1820, though over-age, he entered the Paris Conservatoire
to study with Dauprat. He won the premier prix a year later, and was
allowed to play his own composition at his laureate concert. After
graduation, he joined the Odéon orchestra, leaving in 1825 to become
principal horn at the Théâtre Italien, a post he held for many years. In 1830
he joined the royal chapel, and two years later became first horn for Louis-
Philippe’s private ensemble. After ten years as an extra, Gallay succeeded
Dauprat at the Société des Concerts in 1841, and in 1842 succeeded him
again, as natural horn professor at the Conservatoire, where he remained
until his death. He was made a Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur.
Gallay was the last major hand-horn figure in France. Reports of his
playing praise a bright tone quality, evenness between open and stopped
notes (aided by a preference for a narrow bell throat), secure attacks and
clear technique; he produced trills in a curious manner, using a fluttering of
the tongue. He composed concertos, solos and chamber music, primarily
for horn, and a considerable number of exercises, addressing technical
and musical issues, still widely used today. Most significant are his
Préludes mésurés et non mésurés, which provide insights into cadenza-
type performing practices. Gallay also produced a Méthode (Paris, 1843)
which, though using ‘first’ and ‘second’ designations, focusses on the upper
 two octaves of the range, promoting even stopped and open tone colours.
This limited range was the most practical for solo playing, though some,
including Fétis, found it occasionally monotonous. Gallay’s compositions
demonstrate a player’s understanding of the instrument, which may
account for his apparent influence on the sound and technique associated
with horn-playing in France for many years.
WORKS
(selective list)

all works published in Paris

works published before 1828 mentioned in Whistling (1828)

Hn, pf/orch: Fantaisie, op.4 (before 1828); Solo no.1, op.5 (c1824); Rondeau
pastoral, hn, orch, op.6 (c1824); Romance favorite de M. Romagnesi (Depuis
longtemps j’aimais Adèle) et air varié, hn, pf/?hp, op.8 (before 1828); Conc no.1, F,
hn, orch, op.18, 1818 (1830); Souvenirs d’Otello de Rossini, hn, pf (c1831); Conc
no.2, op.28 (n.d.); Fantaisie brillante sur un motif de Norma de Bellini, op.40 (n.d.);
Solo no.10, op.45 (1842); Souvenirs et regrets, hn, pf, op.56 (1844); 3 caprices on:
Panseron’s Le cor, Mercadente’s Le zephir, Donizetti’s Te dire adieu, hn, pf, op.60
(n.d.)
Unacc. hn: 12 duos concertants, 2 hn, op.1 (before 1828); 12 duos concertants, 2
hn, op.2 (before 1828); 12 nocturnes brillants et faciles, 2 hn, op.3 (before 1828); 12
duos, 2 hn, op.10 (c1829); 30 études, hn, op.13; 3 grands trios, 3 hn, op.24; 40
préludes mésurés et non mésurés, hn, op.27 (c1839); [20] Mélodies gracieuses de
Adam, Bellini, Rossini, Weber, hn, op.33 (n.d.); 12 grands études brillantes, hn,
op.43 (1839); 22 fantaisies mélodiques, hn, op.58 (1850–51)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
MGG1 (R. Cotte) [incl. list of works]
C.F. Whistling: Handbuch der musikalischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1817–
27/R, 2/1828–39/R)
C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation (Paris,
1900)
B. Coar: A Critical Study of the Nineteenth-Century Virtuosi in France (De
Kalb, IL, 1952)
R. Morley-Pegge: The French Horn (London, 1960, 2/1973)
R. Gregory: The Horn (New York, 1961, 2/1969)
JEFFREY L. SNEDEKER

Gallego
(Sp.: ‘native of Galicia’).
A term used to denote the music, song and dance of Galicia, and the
Galician bagpipe, hurdy-gurdy and jew’s harp. It is used chiefly for a 16th-
to 18th-century variant of the Villancico with Galician dialect in its text and,
characteristically, drones in its bass line. It is possible that the bagpipe,
hurdy-gurdy or jew’s harp was used in its performance; the first two are
known to have been played in Mexico City Cathedral in the 17th century,
along with the trumpet marine. The examples by Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla,
the Mexican maestro de capilla at Puebla Cathedral, are probably the best
known, one of them even having reached a Spanish archive; numerous
examples by other composers exist, mostly anonymous.
E. THOMAS STANFORD

Gallego, Antonio
(b Zamora, 21 April 1942). Spanish musicologist and music administrator.
He studied law at the University of Salamanca, art history at the
Complutense University in Madrid, and music at the conservatories in
Salamanca and Valladolid. He worked for Organería Española and at the
Real Academia de S Fernando, where he began his research into the
history of recording in Spain, a subject on which he is a recognized
specialist. He taught music history (1978–82) and musicology (1982–97) at
the Madrid Conservatory; however, after a decade of participation in
debates on the reform of Spanish musical education, including taking part
in polemics in the press, he left teaching, disillusioned by the state of music
teaching in Spain.
As director of cultural services for the Juan March Foundation (from 1980),
he set up the Centre for the Documentation of Contemporary Spanish
Music (now the Library of Contemporary Spanish Music). He was the
founder of the Spanish Musicological Society and the first manager of
Revista de musicología. He has taken part in a number of publishing and
recording projects and has been constant in his efforts to promote music in
the press, on radio and through concerts, as well as editing didactic works.
A collector of scores and music books, he has published a large number of
facsimiles.
A brilliant scholar of Spanish music since 1750, Gallego has, thanks to his
broad humanist and legal training, been able to tackle hitherto untouched
fields, such as music legislation, professionalism and music editing. He is a
leading specialist on the life and works of Falla, on whom he has published
several books and many articles which have updated the traditional
interpretation of the composer.
WRITINGS
‘Una polémica musical dieciochesca (Colegiata de Toro, 1795)’, Academia:
boletín de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, xxxii
(1971), 49–76
with F. Sopeña: La música en el Museo del Prado (Madrid, 1972)
‘El Greco y la música’, Bellas artes, no.26 (1973), 12–15
‘Eslava y la cuestión de la ópera nacional’, Bellas artes, no.47 (1975), 11–
14
‘Datos sobre la música en la Colegiata de Calatayud (siglos XVIII y XIX)’,
TSM, lxi (1978), 45–52
‘Eslava y la Ópera’, Monografía de Hilarión Eslava (Pamplona, 1978), 177–
97
‘Un siglo de música en Valdemoro’, RdMc, i (1978), 243–53
Historia del grabado en España (Madrid, 1979, 2/1990)
ed.: J. Herrera: Instrucción de Apuntadores [1643], RdMc, ii (1979), 357–
86
ed.: ‘Epistolario Falla–Rodrigo’, Homenaje a Joaquín Rodrigo (Madrid,
1981)
‘Les instruments de musique dans l’art et la littérature’, Instruments de
musique espagnols du XVIe au XIXe siècle (Brussels, 1985), 21–30
Catálogo de obras de Manuel de Falla (Madrid, 1987)
‘La Clementina de Boccherini’, ‘El género chico artístico (primera
aproximación)’, ‘Dulcinea en el prado (verde y florido)’, RdMc, x
(1987), 633–9, 661–5, 685–99
‘Los inéditos de Manuel de Falla (notas para el catálogo completo de su
obra musical’, Manuel de Falla tra la Spagna e l’Europa: Venice 1987,
87–106
‘Manuel de Falla: música per “El gran teatro del mundo” di Calderón’,
Pedro Calderón de la Barca – Manuel de Falla, ed. P. Pinamonti
(Venice, 1988), 195–217
La música en tiempos de Carlos III: ensayo sobre el pensamiento musical
ilustrado (Madrid, 1988)
‘Felipe Pedrell y Manuel de Falla: crónica de una amistad’, CADUP-
estudios 1989, 181–217
‘Eugenio Gómez y sus Melodías para piano: datos para el estudio del
romanticismo musical en España’, De musica hispana et allis:
miscelánea en honor al Prof. Dr. José López-Calo, ed. E. Casares and
C. Villanueva (Santiago de Compostela, 1990), ii, 119–59
‘Isaac Albéniz y el editor Zozaya’, Notas de música: boletín de la
Fundación Isaac Albéniz, ii–iii (1990), 6–21
Manuel de Falla y El amor brujo (Madrid, 1990)
‘Triana: un ballet de Antonia Mercé Argentina’, Antonia Mercé ‘La
Argentina’, 1890–1990: homenaje en su centenario (Madrid, 1990),
153–9
‘Nuevas obras de Falla en América: el canto a la Estrella, de Los Pirineos
de Pedrell’, Inter-American Music Review, xi/2 (1990–91), 85–101
‘Aspectos sociológicos de la música en la España del siglo XIX’, RdMc, xix
(1991), 13–31
Historia de la música, ii (Madrid, 1997)
editions
M. de Falla: Cantares de nochebuena (Madrid, 1991); Mazurca para piano
(Madrid, 1991)
with J. Torres: L. Boccherini: Clementina (Madrid, 1992)
XOÁN M. CARREIRA

Gallenberg, (Wenzel) Robert, Graf

von
(b Vienna, 28 Dec 1783; d Rome, 13 March 1839). Austrian composer and
administrator. He was descended from an old Carniolan noble family.
Having studied composition with Albrechtsberger, he soon earned a
reputation as something more than an aristocratic dilettante. On 3
November 1803 he married Countess Giulietta Guicciardi, Beethoven’s
pupil and the dedicatee of the ‘Moonlight’ Sonata. He had modest success
with the Singspiel Der kleine Page (21 January 1804, Theater an der Wien)
before moving to Italy, where he quickly earned a reputation as a ballet
composer. In May 1806 he was largely responsible for the music at the
celebrations in Naples in honour of Joseph Buonaparte. Gallenberg
returned to Vienna in 1822 and took a leading part in the administration of
Barbaja’s opera season at the court opera. From October 1828 until May
1830 he was lessee of the Kärntnertortheater but he suffered heavy losses
and left Vienna, spending the remaining years of his life in France and Italy.
Harshly criticized in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung of 11 April 1804
for slavish imitation of Mozart and Cherubini, Gallenberg nevertheless
supplied a public demand with his piano pieces and once-popular ballet
scores – and in a 20-year-old it is hardly reasonable to expect much
beyond a sensible choice of models. His numerous ballets (some
authorities place the number as high as 50) include examples of almost all
the genres then familiar, the subjects being taken from Shakespeare, the
Old Testament, mythology and history. Among his most successful were
Wilhelm Tell (1810), Samson (1811) and Die Silberschlange (1821,
performed 57 times) for the Theater an der Wien, Alfred der Grosse (1820),
Jeanne d’Arc (1821), Arsena (1822) and Ismaans Grab, oder Die
bezauberten Instrumente (1823) for the Vienna Court Opera and Arsinoe e
Telemaco (1813) and Amleto (1817) for Milan. The popularity of Arsena
and Ismaans Grab is attested by the fact that they were parodied; other
ballets were published in piano reductions. Gallenberg also wrote
overtures, marches, dances and songs. A number of his works were
published in Vienna by Artaria, Mechetti and others; his manuscripts are in
(Vienna A-Wn).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1(H.C. Robbins Landon); WurzbachL
E. Bernsdorf: Neues Universal-Lexikon der Tonkunst, ii (Dresden, 1857),
93
A. Bauer: 150 Jahre Theater an der Wien (Zürich, 1952)
J. Steszewski: ‘Chopins Muzurka op.41 Nr.2: Ausdruck des Heimwehs
oder der nationalen Verpflichtung des Komponisten?’, Festschrift
Rudolf Bockholdt, ed. N. Dubowy and S. Meyer-Eller (Pfaffenhofen,
1990), 359–66
R. Cafiero: ‘Il “grande industriale internazionale del balletto” a Napoli
nell'età di Rossini: Wenzel Robert Gallenberg’, Di sì felice innesto:
Rossini, la danza, e il ballo teatrale in Italia, ed. P. Fabbri (Pesaro,
1996), 1–40
PETER BRANSCOMBE

Galleno, Giovanni Battista.

See Galeno, Giovanni Battista.

Gallerano, Leandro
(b Brescia, end of 16th century; d Padua, 1631). Italian composer and
monk in the Observant order. Information on his early life comes solely
 from the title-pages of his published works. He was organist of the convent
of S Francesco, Bergamo, in 1615 and in 1620 he held an equivalent post
at S Francesco, Brescia. On 17 October 1623 he was appointed maestro
di cappella of the basilica of S Antonio, Padua, replacing Giovanni
Ghizzolo, and he remained there until his death. He was a member of the
Accademia degli Occulti in Brescia, adopting the pseudonym ‘Accademico
Involato’, which first appears on the title-pages of his works in 1624. His
output consists entirely of church music, the majority of it settings for the
Mass and offices, mostly for four or more voices with organ; the Curioso
misto di vaghezze musicali (1628), formerly in the Biblioteka
Uniwersytecka, Wrocław, and now lost, was a collection of 14 Latin motets
for solo voice and basso continuo. His masses use both a moderately
contrapuntal style and the new concertato style with organ. The 1615
collection includes a Requiem. The motets of the Ecclesiastica armonia are
more up to date in both texture and style, representing the composer's first
contribution to the stile concertato. Of the 21 pieces which make up the
collection, three use obbligato instruments: Nolite me considerare, for
soprano and basso continuo with two violins, has pleasant, idiomatic string
writing, while Gaudeat ecclesia and Sono tubae tympano (with texts from
the antiphons of the Office of Julian of Spira for the feast of St Anthony,
patron saint of the basilica of Padua) call for two voices (soprano and bass
and two sopranos respectively), two violins, supported by a trombone, and
basso continuo. The ‘grand’ stile concertato is well represented by the
Messa e salmi of 1629, a composite collection intended for the most part
for the Vespers of the Comune Sanctorum (male cursus) with music both in
the Venetian style of cori spezzati and in a mixed concertato style, and with
occasional use of obbligato instruments, particularly two violins and
chitarrone. The work begins with a valuable ‘dichiarazione’ on how to
perform the mass and psalms.
WORKS
all published in Venice

Il primo libro delle messe, motetti, et letanie, 5vv, bc (1615)

Il secondo libro delle messe, 4–5vv, bc (org), op.3 (1620)
Salmi intieri, 5vv, bc (1622)
Salmi intieri concertati, 4vv, bc, op.5 (1624)
Ecclesiastica armonia, 1–5vv, insts, bc, libro primo, op.6 (1624)
Rose musicali de concerti, 1–3vv, bc, op.9 (1625)
Messa, e salmi, con un Dixit, e Magnificat concertati, 8vv, bc, op.10 (1625)
Missae, 6vv, bc, op.13 (1628)
Missarum et psalmorum verba, 5vv, bc, op.14 (1628)
Curioso misto di vaghezze musicali, 1v, bc, op.15 (1628), lost
Messa e salmi concertati, 3, 5, 8vv, bc, op.16 (1629)
3 motets, 16252, 16437; 1 motet in G.B. Aloisi, Coelestis Parnassus (Venice, 1628)
Vesperi, 2–3vv; Compieta con ripieni 8, 12vv: lost, cited in Vincenti's catalogue

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 suppl. (A. Gerbelotto)
Indice di tutte le opere di musica che si trovano nella Stampa della Pigna di
Alessandro Vincenti (Venice, 1619–49); repr. in MMg, xiv–xv (1882–3),
suppl.; ed. in MischiatiI
P. Guerrini: ‘Per la storia della musica a Brescia: frammenti e documenti’,
NA, xi (1934), 1–28
A. Sartori: Documenti per la storia della musica al Santo e nel Veneto
(Vicenza, 1977)
O. Mischiati: Bibliografia delle opere dei musicisti bresciani pubblicate a
stampa dal 1497 al 1740 (Brescia, 1982)
C. Andreoletti and S. Giordani: ‘Attività e figure musicali nella Chiesa di S
Francesco d'Assisi in Brescia’, Musica e devozioni nella Chiesa di S
Francesco d'Assisi a Brescia, ed. C. Andreoletti and others (Brescia,
1983), 21–54
J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford,
1984)
A. Morelli: ‘Il Seicento’, Storia della musica al Santo di Padova, ed. S.
Durante and P. Petrobelli (Vicenza, 1990), 93–106
R. Tibaldi: ‘“Al Glorioso S. Antonio de Padoa”: due mottetti di Leandro
Gallerano per la Solennità del 13 giugno’, Il Santo: Rivista Antoniana
di Storia Dottrina Arte, xxxii (1992), 209–33
G. Tisi: Le messe-parodia a quattro e cinque voci di Leandro Gallerano
(diss., U. of Pavia, 1996)
JEROME ROCHE/RODOBALDO TIBALDI

Gallery music.
A late 19th-century term for the sacred music performed in rural English
churches and chapels during the 18th and early 19th centuries. It is so
called because the singers and instrumentalists often occupied the gallery,
usually at the west end. The unsatisfactory state of congregational singing
by the late 17th century, particularly in provincial parish churches, resulted
in the formation of amateur, initially male, choirs. Unfortunately, their
increasing skill and desire for more elaborate music silenced the very
congregations they were supposed to encourage.
Country churches usually lacked organs, but singers needed support in
order to maintain pitch in complex music. From the mid-18th century
singers began to be accompanied, at first by a bass instrument and later by
a small band. The most common instruments used were bassoons, cellos,
clarinets, flutes and violins, but the size and instrumentation of bands
varied according to availability. At first the instruments merely doubled the
voices, often playing the upper parts an octave higher. Later, short
symphonies were added, sometimes with designated instrumentation,
especially in more sophisticated music such as that by Joseph Key.
The repertory consisted primarily of metrical psalms and anthems; fuging-
tunes were particularly popular in the mid-18th century (see Fuging-tune).
Itinerant singing teachers, such as Michael Beesly and William Tans'ur,
sold their own collections of psalmody, borrowing freely from each other.
However the prohibitive cost of printed books meant that many country
musicians made their own manuscript compilations. Most gallery
composers were amateurs, and while some, such as John Chetham, may
have been conventionally trained, others, such as William Knapp, probably
learnt their skills from fellow psalmodists. Lack of formal technique resulted
in an idiosyncratic, occasionally archaic style. The early repertory in
particular was still based on the Renaissance concept of linear
composition, with a tendency for open 5ths and false relations. Although
this music may break theoretical rules, using unexpected dissonances and
consecutive 5ths and octaves, it can show great originality, with inventive
word-painting and strong melodic lines. Another characteristic is the
dominance of the tenor voice. The number of parts varied, but throughout
the 18th century the tenor carried the tune, often doubled an octave higher
by treble voices.
Gallery music was regarded as a financially and artistically viable genre by
professional composers, including John Alcock (elder and younger), Capel
Bond, William Hayes the elder and Samuel Webbe the elder, who
produced psalmody books ‘for the use of country choirs’. Its demise was
caused partly by the increased urbanisation of the Industrial Revolution,
and partly by demands for a more polite and formal style of worship,
culminating in the Oxford Movement and the eventual introduction of
Hymns Ancient and Modern (1861). Some ‘improved’ tunes still exist in
modern hymn books, and, despite the growing use of harmoniums and
organs, a few bands survived until the end of the 19th century.
A parallel development occurred in the music of nonconformist churches,
where organs were generally excluded and bands tended to be introduced
later and to remain in use longer than in Anglican churches. Northern
Methodist composers, such as James Leach of Rochdale and later John
Fawcett of Bolton, developed characterstic florid repeating tunes with
contrasting dynamic passages sung by treble voices in thirds, and
produced orchestrated set-pieces for Sunday school and church
anniversaries. The Methodists, in particular, regarded full congregational
involvement as a vital element of worship, and often fitted their hymns to
secular operatic and popular melodies.
English gallery music has links with American psalmody and with the
present Sheffield carolling tradition. However it was generally forgotten and
condemned, except in a few nostalgic publications, and, more recently, in
Nicholas Temperley's definitive work. A West Gallery Music Association,
concerned with the revival of this music, was formed in England in 1990.

See also Psalmody (ii); for illustration see Psalms, metrical, fig.5.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.S. Curwen: Studies in Worship Music (London, 1880–85, 3/1901)
F.W. Galpin: ‘The Village Church Band’, Musical News, v (1893), 31–2,
56–8
C.W. Pearce: ‘English Sacred Folk Song of the West Gallery Period
(c.1695–1820)’, PMA, xlviii (1921), 1–27
K.H. MacDermott: Sussex Church Music in the Past (Chichester, 1922)
D. MacArthur: ‘Old Village Church Music’, MT, lxiv (1923), 264–6
N. Boston: ‘Music of the 18th-Century Village Church’, Archaeological
Journal, xcix (1943), 53–66
K.H. MacDermott: The Old Church Gallery Minstrels (London, 1948)
N. Temperley: The Music of the English Parish Church (Cambridge, 1979)
V. Gammon: ‘“Babylonian Performances”: the Rise and Suppression of
Popular Church Music, 1660–1870’, Popular Culture and Class
Conflict, 1590–1914, ed. E. and S. Yeo (Brighton, 1981), 62–88
D. Hunter: ‘English Country Psalmodists and their Publications’, JRMA,
cxv (1990), 220–39
H. Keyte and A. Parrott, eds.: The New Oxford Book of Christmas Carols
(Oxford, 1992), appx 3
S. Weston: The Instrumentation and Music of the Church Choir-Band in
Eastern England, with Particular Reference to Northamptonshire,
during the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (diss., U. of
Leicester, 1995)
R. Woods: Good Singing Still: a Handbook on West Gallery Music (Telford,
1995)
Gallery music website (West Gallery Music Association; S. Glover)
〈www.sgpublishing.co.uk/gm/gm.html〉 [sources for gallery music
history and church band history and music]
SALLY DRAGE

Gallet, François [Galletius,

Franciscus]
(b Mons, c1555; d after 1585). Flemish composer. He studied at the Jesuit
college in Anchin (near Douai), and in 1582 became chaplain of the
collegiate church of St Amé in Douai; an archival document dated October
of the same year describes him as maistre de chant of the church. He
resigned from this post in 1584, but remained chaplain until 1586. He
seems to have been in close contact with Robert de Melun, Marquis of
Roubaix, who died in 1585 and to whose memory he refers in the motet
Adesto dolori meo.
A Counter-Reformation composer, Gallet had his Hymni communes
sanctorum for four to six voices and [29] Sacrae cantiones for five, six and
eight voices published by Bogard in 1586. The dedications, both signed in
Douai, are addressed respectively to the superior of the Premonstratensian
abbey of Vicoigne and to Florent de Berlaymont, brother-in-law of Robert
de Melun. The hymns are closely related to liturgical melodies and
constitute a rare instance of the publication of polyphonic hymns in the
southern Netherlands. The motets, usually on sombre texts, are in the
tradition of Lassus.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Bossuyt: ‘De componist Franciscus Galletius en de Contrareformatie te
Dowaai op het einde van de zestiende eeuw’, Franse
Nederlanden/Pays-Bas français, xvi (1991), 145–60
I. Bossuyt: ‘The Counter-Reformation and Music in Douai’, RdMc, xvi
(1993), 2783–800
HENRI VANHULST

Gallet, Luciano
 (b Rio de Janeiro, 28 June 1893; d Rio de Janeiro, 29 Oct 1931). Brazilian
composer and ethnomusicologist. He attended the Instituto Nacional de
Música, where he took a gold medal at the conclusion of his piano studies
(1916) and where his principal teachers were Oswald (piano) and França
(harmony). But the men who had most influence on him were the
composer Glauco Velásquez and later the writer Mário de Andrade. In Rio
during World War I he came into contact with Milhaud, who introduced him
to the newest works of Schoenberg and Stravinsky, though Gallet’s first
compositions (1918) have a Romantic and Impressionist character. During
the 1920s he taught the piano at the Instituto, where he occasionally
conducted the orchestra and chorus; he directed the Instituto in 1930–31.
In addition he founded the Sociedade Pró-Arte (1924), edited Weco (1928)
and was founder-director of the Associação Brasileira de Música (1930).
Together with Andrade, Gallet pioneered the study of Brazilian folk music.
He was particularly concerned with the definition of folk and popular music,
and with devising means of using its characteristics in compositions. His
first efforts were harmonizations, the Canções populares brasileiras.
Among his nationalist piano pieces, perhaps the most successful is Nhô
chico; the series of Exercícios brasileiros is based on the most typical
melodic and rhythmic traits of folk music. Andrade edited his Estudos &
folclore (Rio de Janeiro, 1934).
WORKS
(selective list)

Pf: Moderato e allegro, 1918; 3 pièces burlesques, 1922; Tango-batuque, 1922;

Nhô chico, 1927; 12 exercicios brasileiros, 4 hands, 1928
Vocal: 2 chansons de Bilitis, female chorus, 1922; Canções populares brasileiras,
18 folksong arrs., 13 Songs, 1924, 1926, 1928
Chbr: 2 romances, vn, pf, 1918; Elegia, vc, pf, 1918; Dança brasileira, vc, pf, 1922;
Turuna, cl, perc, vn, va, 1926; Suite sobre temas negro-brasileiros, fl, ob, cl, bn, pf,
1929

Principal publisher: Wehrs

BIBLIOGRAPHY
KdG (G. Paraskevaídis)
M. de Andrade: ‘Luciano Gallet e sua obra’, Weco, i (1929), 3
P.C. de Amorim Chagas: Luciano Gallet via Mário de Andrade (Rio de
Janeiro, 1979)
V. Mariz: História da música no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1981, 4/1994)
GERARD BÉHAGUE

Galley, Johann Michael

(b Hagnau, Lake Constance, c1650; d Augsburg, 16 Jan 1696). German
composer. From 1669 he studied at the University of Ingolstadt, where he
wrote the music (now lost) for the dramas Sigericus (1673) and Solimanus
(1674), performed at the Jesuit theatre. Later he became Kapellmeister of
the cathedral at Konstanz, where he is also known to have composed the
music for plays staged at the Jesuit Gymnasium in 1676, 1681, 1689 and
1690. In 1692 he succeeded Johann Melchior Caesar as Kapellmeister of
Augsburg Cathedral. He published Aurora: Musicalium fabricationum
(Konstanz, 1688), which contains 20 sacred songs for two to six voices.
Two fugues and an Aria sub elevatione for organ also survive (D-DO
Mus.1486, 1488). (A. Layer: Augsburger Musik im Barock, Augsburg, 1968)
ADOLF LAYER

Galli, Amintore
(b Perticara, Rimini, 12 Oct 1845; d Rimini, 8 Dec 1919). Italian critic,
teacher and composer. He studied with Croff and Mazzucato at the Milan
Conservatory, 1862–7, joining Garibaldi during the 1866 war against
Austria, along with his fellow-students Marco Praga, Faccio and Boito. In
Carnival 1865 his Cesare al Rubicone, a gran scena ed aria for baritone,
chorus and orchestra, was successfully performed in Rimini, and on
graduating he won the composition prize for his secular oratorio
Espiazione (1867) to his own text after Moore’s Lalla Rookh. He then
conducted the band in Amelia, Umbria, and was director of the music
school in Finale Emilia, 1871–3 (several early works are extant in I-FEM,
including a quartet, three symphonies, sacred music and the oratorio Cristo
al Golgota, 1871).
Galli returned to Milan as music critic of Il secolo, published by Sonzogno.
He took charge of Sonzogno’s music publishing, arranging vocal scores,
translating French librettos and replacing spoken dialogue with recitative.
He was responsible for a series of cheap editions and sat on the jury of
Sonzogno’s opera competitions (which led to Cavalleria rusticana among
other works). He also taught at the Milan Conservatory (1878–1903) and
wrote didactic works. His Estetica della musica (1900) is written along lines
of Kantian idealism, also evident in his historical writings. Of his many
pedagogical works of music theory, the Trattato di contrappunto e fuga
(1877) was long used at the Milan Conservatory. He edited several
periodicals, including Il teatro illustrato (1881–92) and Musica popolare
(1882–5). He retired from Sonzogno in 1904 and in 1914 returned to
Rimini.
He had two operas performed, Il corno d’oro (Turin, Balbo, 30 August
1876) and David (Milan, Lirico, 12 November 1904), which is in five acts
and to his own libretto; both were published by Sonzogno. Three others
remained unperformed: Follia tragica, Roma and Il risorgimento (the last
two to his own librettos). He also composed sacred, chamber, orchestral
and band works (several songs are in I-Mc). His papers are collected in the
Biblioteca Civica Gambalunga, Rimini.
WRITINGS
Arte fonetica (Milan, 1870)
La musica e i musicisti dal secolo X sino ai nostri giorni (Milan, 1871,
2/1892/R)
Trattato di contrappunto e fuga (Milan, 1877)
Alberto Mazzucato: cenni commemorativi (Milan, 1879)
Elementi di armonia (Milan, 1879)
La musica dei greci, degli arabi e degli indiani (Milan, 1879)
Storia ed estetica della musica (Milan, 1881)
Saggio storico-teoretico sulla notazione musicale (Milan, 1886)
‘Otello’ di G. Verdi: cenni analitici (Milan, 1887)
Il canto di sala e di teatro (Milan, 1889)
Manuale del capomusica: trattato di strumentazione per banda (Milan,
1889)
Il polifonista al pianoforte (Milan, 1889)
Piccolo lessico del musicista (Milan, 1891, 2/1902)
Strumenti e strumentazione (Milan, 1897)
Etnografia musicale (Milan, 1898)
Estetica della musica, ossia Del bello nella musica sacra, teatrale e da
concerto (Turin, 1900/R)
Umberto Giordano (Milan, 1915)
Antonio Bazzini (Milan, n.d.)
Del canto liturgico cristiano (Milan, n.d.)
Corso di musica sacra: l’omofonia della chiesa latina e la sua
armonizzazione (Milan, n.d.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM
ES (C.Sartori)
SchmidlDS
G. Zangheri: ‘Carteggio Galli-Giordano’, L’opera, iii (1967), 43–7
T. Onofri: Amintore Galli (Rimini, 1985)
L. Inzaghi, S. Martinotti and G. Zangheri: Amintore Galli musicista e
musicologo (Milan, 1988)
L. Inzaghi: ‘Nuovi documenti su Amintore Galli’, NRMI, xxviii (1994), 71–86
M. Morini, N. Ostali and P. Ostali jr: Casa musicale Sonzogno (Milan,
1995)
L. Putignano: ‘Primi appunti sul Piccolo lessico del musicista di Amintore
Galli’, Fra le note: studi di lessicologia musicale (Fiesole, 1996), 105–
29
MARCO BEGHELLI

Galli [Gallus], Antonius [Antoine]

(d Vienna, 2 April 1565). Franco-Flemish composer. In 1545 he was
appointed choirmaster at St Donatian, Bruges, having previously been
choirmaster at St Saviour there. He was dismissed in 1550 for negligence
in the care and instruction of the choirboys. Galli served as chaplain at the
court of Archduke (later Emperor) Maximilian of Austria; he is listed in the
court register of 1 January 1554, and Maximilian referred to him in a letter
of the 1550s as ‘main Capellan, der Galli’.
Galli’s extant works include three masses, three chansons and 19 motets.
The cantus parts of an additional six motets are in a 17th-century
manuscript (A-Wn 18828). Most of the motets and all the chansons were
published in anthologies; all the settings of the Ordinary are imitation
masses. The model of the six-voice Missa ‘Stetit Jacob’ is unknown, but
Missa ‘Ascendetis post filium’ is based on a motet by Vaet, and the five-
 voice Missa ‘Aspice Domine’ is derived from a motet by Jacquet of Mantua.
They show that Galli was a capable composer, adept in parody techniques.
He was probably much influenced by Vaet, the imperial Kapellmeister, and,
like him, he occasionally employed bold dissonances such as the
augmented 5th and octave.
WORKS
Missa ‘Ascendetis post filium’, 6vv, Kaplanské Knihovny, Česky Krumlov, III,
S.17.1/391, ed. in DTÖ, cxviii (1968) (on Vaet’s motet)
Missa ‘Aspice Domine’, 5vv, A-Wn 15950 (on Jacquet of Mantua’s motet)
Missa ‘Stetit Jacob’, 6vv, Kaplanské Knihovny, Česky Krumlov, III, S.17.1/391
16 motets, 3–6vv, 15548, 155415, 15591, 15643, 15644, 15645, 15672, 15682, 15683
1 motet, 5vv, A-Wn 15950; 2 motets, 6vv, D-Z 11, 13, 30; 6 motets, A-Wn 18828,
inc. (cantus only)
3 chansons, 4, 6vv, 155324, 155521, 155618

Filiae Jerusalem and Videns Dominus, attrib. Galli in Wn 18828, are by Vaet
Humble et leal and Au glay bergieronette, attrib. Galli by Vander Straeten (i, 118),
are by Joannes Gallus
Lute pieces in 16035 and Wn 18827 incorrectly attrib. Galli in EitnerQ
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (C. van den Borren)
VanderStraetenMPB
D. van de Casteele and E. Vander Straeten: Maîtres de chant et
organistes de Saint-Donatien et Saint-Sauveur à Bruges (Bruges,
1870)
A. Sandberger: Beiträge zur Geschichte der bayerischen Hofkapelle unter
Orlando di Lasso (Leipzig, 1894–5/R)
A.C. de Schrevel: Histoire du séminaire de Bruges, i (Bruges, 1895)
H. Federhofer: ‘Etats de la chapelle musicale de Charles-Quint (1528) et
de Maximilien (1554)’, RBM, iv (1950), 176–83
D. Cooper: Antonius Galli and his Three Parody Masses (diss., U. of
Kansas, 1972)
MILTON STEINHARDT

Galli, Caterina
(b ?Cremona, c1723; d Chelsea, 23 Dec 1804). Italian mezzo-soprano.
After singing in Bergamo in 1742, she was engaged for the 1742–3 Italian
opera season in London, appearing at the King’s Theatre in Brivio’s
Mandane, Galuppi’s Enrico and Sirbace and Porpora’s Temistocle (she
took male parts in all four operas). In 1745 she was in a pasticcio,
L’incostanza delusa, at the New Haymarket Theatre, but she made her
name in Handel’s Covent Garden oratorio seasons from 1747 to 1754. She
appeared first in revivals of the Occasional Oratorio and Joseph. On 1
April, 1747 she sang the Israelite Man and Second Israelite Woman at the
première of Judas Maccabaeus and made such a hit in the air ‘’Tis liberty
alone’ that, according to Burney, ‘she was not only encored in it every
night, but became an important personage, among singers, for a
considerable time afterwards’. Handel composed parts for her in Joshua
(Othniel, 1748), Alexander Balus (title role, 1748), Susanna (Joacim,
1749), Solomon (title role, 1749), Theodora (Irene, 1750), Jephtha (Storgè,
1752) and probably The Choice of Hercules (Virtue, 1751). She appeared
in many revivals, of these works and others, including Messiah, Samson
and Hercules from 1749, Saul in 1750 and probably 1754, Belshazzar,
Esther and Alexander’s Feast in 1751, and probably Deborah in 1754. As
in opera, most of her parts were male. She received four and a half
guineas for singing in the Foundling Hospital Messiah on 15 May 1754.
Galli’s success in Judas Maccabaeus caused Lord Middlesex to re-engage
her for the King’s Theatre in 1747–8, when she appeared in the Handel
pasticcios Lucio Vero and Rossane (Alessandro), in which she played
Alexander the Great. She sang in Acis and Galatea for Miss Oldmixon’s
benefit in 1749 (Hickford’s) and her own in 1754 (New Haymarket), in
Alexander’s Feast for Pasqualino’s at the same theatre in 1754, and
appeared frequently in Musicians Fund charity concerts from 1743. In 1753
she took part in a charity performance of Arne’s Alfred at the King’s. She
also taught singing. One of her pupils in 1753 was the ten-year-old Lady
Caroline Russell, daughter of the Duke of Bedford, who drew a caricature
of Galli on the back of her bill – the only likeness that survives.
Galli left England about 1754 and for 15 years pursued an active career in
north Italy, singing in a dozen cities, and also in Naples (four operas,
including two by Hasse, in 1758–9) and Prague (two operas in 1761). In
1773 she was back in England, where she seems to have remained until
her death. She sang in Messiah at the New Haymarket in 1773, for three
seasons at the Bach-Abel concerts, and in many benefits. In November
1773 she took a male role in Sacchini’s Lucio Vero at the King’s, where she
continued until 1776 in serious and comic operas. She appeared in
oratorios at Oxford in 1773 and Winchester in 1775. On 30 May 1777 (her
final benefit) she sang with the 16-year-old Samuel Harrison, later a
famous tenor, who was probably her pupil. After retiring she took a job as
companion to the actress Martha Ray; Galli was present when Miss Ray
was shot dead by an infatuated clergyman at Covent Garden on 7 April
1779. Economic pressure forced her to reappear in oratorios at Covent
Garden as late as 1797. In her last years, according to her obituary in the
Gentleman’s Magazine, she ‘subsisted entirely on the bounty of her friends,
and an annual benefaction from the Royal Society of Musicians’. The same
notice calls her ‘the last of Mr Handel’s scholars’; if she was not a regular
pupil, she was largely trained by him. She had a compass of a to f '' with
an occasional g''. A song by Galli, ‘When first I saw thee graceful move’,
was published about 1750 and often reprinted.
WINTON DEAN

Galli, Domenico
(b Parma, 16 Oct 1649; d ?Parma,1697). Italian composer, cellist,
instrument maker, sculptor and painter. All that is known of his life is that he
worked at the Este court at Modena. His only known music is
Trattenimento musicale sopra il violoncello a’ solo (Modena, 1691), a set of
12 sonatas for solo cello (like his contemporaries at the Este court, G.B.
Vitali and Giuseppe Colombi, he was himself a cellist). Precedents for his
sonatas can be found in various works for solo cello by Colombi. Others by
the two Bolognese composers G.B. Degli Antoni and Domenico Gabrielli
probably influenced him still more: Degli Antoni’s set of 12 Ricercate
appeared in 1687, and Gabrielli published a similar set of seven Ricercary
in January 1689, shortly after spending a year at the Este court. The
appearance of Galli’s sonatas in 1691 seems more than just coincidental:
they could well have been inspired by his close contact with Gabrielli. Their
style is remarkably close to that of Gabrielli’s Ricercary, though Galli’s
handling of tonality, which is often modally ambiguous, is very individual.
The upward range of his sonatas is lower than in those of the other two
composers (e', compared with Degli Antoni’s c'' and Gabrielli’s b'), but the
downward range extends to B'; this tuning, also used by Colombi, is that
given by Mersenne (Harmonie universelle, 1636–7), but it was generally
discarded by the end of the 17th century. His ability as an artist can be
seen in the chiaroscuro vignettes at the beginning of each sonata, in a
work of art in S Giacomo, Parma, and in a list of notaries and historians in
the Archivio Notarile, Parma. Galli’s reputation as an instrument maker
rests primarily on a violin and a cello (probably commissioned by
Francesco II, Duke of Modena, and dating from 1687 and 1691
respectively) notable for their elaborate and intricate carving. The
Domenico Galli, ‘professore di musica’, cited by Francesco Valesio in a
chronicle of 26 February 1703, is most probably another musician. This
Galli lived in Rome between the end of the 17th century and the beginning
of the 18th, and was active for a time at the court of Christina of Sweden.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)
G. Scano and G.Graglia, eds.: Diario di Roma di Francesco Valesio
(Milan, 1977–81), ii, 538
C. Gallico: Le capitali della musica: Parma (Cinisello Balsamo, 1985)
A. Chiarelli: I codici di musica della Raccolta Estense (Florence, 1987),
227
M. Lucchi: ‘ Strumenti musicali estensi’, Alessandro Stradella e Modena:
Modena 1983, 75–86
NONA PYRON (with ANGELA LEPORE)

Galli, Filippo
(b Rome, 1783; d Paris, 3 June 1853). Italian bass. He made his début in
1801 at Naples as a tenor. On the advice of Paisiello and of Luigi Marchesi,
he became a bass, making his second début in Rossini’s La cambiale di
matrimonio at Padua in 1811. The next year he sang Tarabotto in L’inganno
felice at the Teatro S Moisè, Venice, the first of eight Rossini premières in
which he took part, and made his début at La Scala as Polidoro in
Generali’s La vedova stravagante. During the next 13 years he appeared in
over 60 different operas at La Scala, including 26 first performances. In one
season (1814) he appeared in three operas by Paer and sang Guglielmo
(Così fan tutte), the title role of Don Giovanni, Dandini in the first
performance of Pavesi’s Agatina and Selim at the première of Il turco in
Italia.
Elsewhere, Galli sang Mustafà at the première of L’italiana in Algeri at the
Teatro S Benedetto, Venice (1813), and created the title role of Maometto II
at the S Carlo, Naples (1820); he made his Paris début in 1821 at the
Théâtre Italien in La gazza ladra. His last Rossini creation was Assur in
Semiramide at La Fenice (1823). He appeared in London at the King’s
Theatre between 1827 and 1833, and at the Teatro Carcano, Milan, he
sang Henry VIII at the first performance of Anna Bolena (1830). He
continued to sing, in Mexico and Spain, for another decade, returning to La
Scala in 1840 to take the title role in Donizetti’s Marino Faliero. He was a
chorus master in Madrid and Lisbon, and then taught at the Paris
Conservatoire for some years.
The wide range of Galli’s magnificent voice and its extreme flexibility are
fully demonstrated by the roles that Rossini wrote for him, while his power
as an actor can be imagined from Donizetti’s Henry VIII.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Stendhal: Vie de Rossini (Paris, 1824, 2/1854); ed. H. Prunières (Paris,
1922, 2/1929; Eng. trans., ed. R.N. Coe, 1956, 2/1970)
G. Radiciotti: Gioacchino Rossini: vita documentata, opera ed influenza
su l’arte (Tivoli, 1927–9)
F. de Filippis and R. Arnese: Cronache del Teatro di S Carlo 1737–1960
(Naples, 1961–3)
H. Weinstock: Donizetti and the World of Opera in Italy, Paris and Vienna
in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1963/R)
C. Gatti: Il Teatro alla Scala nella storia e nell’arte, 1778–1963 (Milan,
1964)
H. Weinstock: Rossini: a Biography (New York, 1968)
ELIZABETH FORBES

Galli [Gallo, Gallus], Giuseppe

[Gioseffo, Josephus]
(b Milan; fl 1598). Italian composer. He is known by one publication, Sacri
operis musici alternis modulis concinendi liber primus … missam unam
vocibus novenis; 8 motecta octonis; 3 item cantiones musicis instrumentis
(Milan, 1598); its title-page reveals that he was Milanese. The eight-voice
motet Veni in hortum meum, probably from that volume, was reprinted in
south German anthologies (e.g. RISM 16002) and copied into manuscripts
in Silesia (formerly in PL-LEtpn) and in Pomerania (Pelplin Tablature,
c1620–30, PE; incipit in AMP, i, 1963; facs. in AMP, vi, 1965); it is a
competent example of imitative polyphony and polychoral dialogue.
MIROSŁAW PERZ

Gallia, Maria
(fl 1703–34). Italian soprano. She arrived in London in 1703, perhaps with
Margherita de L’Epine, and became a pupil of Haym, making her first stage
appearance in her husband Giuseppe Fedeli’s The Temple of Love at the
Queen’s Theatre (1706). She sang in Clayton’s Arsinoe and Rosamond
(1707), both at Drury Lane, and the pasticcio Love’s Triumph at the
Queen’s Theatre (1708). Between 1704 and 1710 she had several benefit
concerts at York Buildings, generally with her husband. She returned to
London as a singing teacher in 1722 and was still alive in 1734. Burney
identified Gallia with the ‘Sorella della Sig. Margarita’ [de L’Epine] who
created Clizia in Handel’s Teseo (1713). The part requires modest skill and
a compass of d' to g''.
WINTON DEAN

Galliard
(from It. gagliardo: ‘vigorous’, ‘robust’; It. gagliarda, gagiarda, gaiarda; Fr.
gaillarde; Sp. gallarda).
A lively, triple-metre court dance of the 16th and early 17th centuries, often
associated with the Pavan.
Choreographically the galliard was a variety of the cinque pas, a step-
pattern of five movements taken to six minims. Arbeau (Orchésographie,
1588) explained at some length the many possible variations of the
galliard; the basic pattern consisted of four grues (the dancer hops on to
the ball of one foot while moving the other forward in the air ‘as if to kick
someone’), a saut majeur (‘big jump’, often ornamented with beats in mid-
air), and a posture (the dancer rests with one foot in front of the other).
Ex.1 shows Arbeau’s intabulation of the cinque pas pattern to a galliard
tune called Antoinette. Slightly different combinations of kicking and small,
jumping steps were required for galliards with longer phrases, but each
pattern always ended with the saut majeur, which according to Arbeau
often coincided with a rest in the music, and a posture. The steps for the
galliard were essentially similar to those of the saltarello and tourdion,
except, as Arbeau said, ‘that in the execution of them they are done higher
and more vigorously’; the extra height of hops and leaps in the galliard
implies that the music cannot be played at all fast.

Like the pavan, the galliard probably originated in northern Italy. D'Accone
(1997, pp.652–4, 662) reports references to the gagliarda being taught in a
dancing school in Siena about 1493–1503, and to a dancing-master who
was engaged in 1505 to teach ‘calatas and gagliardas as well as
morescas'. (Sach's claim that Boiardo mentioned the galliard in his epic
orlando innamorato is incorrect). The earliest surviving examples of music
for the dance are to be found in publications issued by the Parisian printer
Attaingnant: Dixhuit basses dances for lute (1529/30), Six gaillardes et six
pavanes … a quatre parties (1529/30), and Quatorze gaillardes neuf
pavennes for keyboard (1531), the last including a few thematically related
pavan–galliard pairs (one in ex.2). Thus the galliard as a musical form first
appeared as one of the possible after-dances of the pavan (others were
the saltarello, tourdion, Hupfauff and Proportz; see Nachtanz). Morley, in A
Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall Musicke (1597), described in
some detail the method of deriving a galliard from its pavan:
After every pavan we usually set a galliard (that is, a kind of
music made out of the other), causing it go by a measure
which the learned call ‘trochaicam rationem’, consisting of a
long and short stroke successively … the first being in time of
a semibreve and the latter of a minim. This is a lighter and
more stirring kind of dancing than the pavan, consisting of the
same number of strains; and look how many fours of
semibreves you put in the strain of your pavan, so many
times six minims must you put in the strain of your galliard.
16th-century galliards are almost invariably in triple metre, usually in three
strains of regular phrase structure (8, 12 or 16 bars), and, like
contemporary pavans, in a simple, homophonic style with the tune in the
upper part.

Among the earliest Italian printed collections to include galliards are

Antonio Rotta’s Intabolatura de lauto (1546), Giulio Abondante’s
Intabolatura … sopra el lauto (1546) and Gardano’s Intabolatura nova di
varie sorte de balli for keyboard (1551). Rotta’s collection contains groups
of dances in the order passamezzo–galliard–padovana, while the other two
anthologies consist mainly of isolated galliards, some based on
contemporary tunes (for example, Abondante’s Zorzi gagliarda is based on
Azzaiolo’s Occhio non fu) and others bearing descriptive titles like El
poverin, La comadrina and La fornerina. The pairing of passamezzo and
galliard, less common than that of pavan and galliard, continued to appear
intermittently during the 16th century, as, for example, in the lutebooks of
G.A. Terzi (1593) and Simone Molinaro (1599). These collections probably
represent arrangements of popular dance-tunes, rather than music for
actual dance accompaniment, which required a larger ensemble. Up to
about 1570 most of the surviving ensemble galliards come from France
and the Low Countries, in printed collections issued by Attaingnant, Susato
and Phalèse. They were often closely modelled on the pavans that
preceded them (e.g. HAM, no.137b). Manuscripts of Italian ensemble
dances from before 1560 (D-Mbs Mus.ms.1503h; GB-Lbl Roy.App.59–62)
contain about 30 pieces in the style of galliards, but none of them is so
called (the titles are descriptive or dedicatory), and they are seldom
associated with any other dance.
Among the earliest surviving English galliards are two in GB-Lbl
Roy.App.58 (c1540) and a ‘Galyard’, together with half a dozen untitled
pieces of similar character, in GB-Lbl Add.60577 (ed. in MB, lxvi, 1995,
nos.40, 44, 47, 49–53, 55). Most of these appear to be keyboard
reductions of consort pieces. Some consort galliards from the early
Elizabethan period are in GB-Lbl Roy.App.74–6 (ed. in MB, xliv, 1979,
nos.96, 98, 99, 102, [104, 105], 110, [111]). It is not until the period from
about 1590 to 1625 that sources become plentiful in England. Galliards
from this period, like the pavans, have a musical substance and interest far
beyond the needs of functional dance music. Those for keyboard and lute
are often of considerable brilliance; each strain is ordinarily followed by a
variation enlivened by scales, runs and other kinds of idiomatic figuration,
in lieu of the customary repetition of the strain. Those for consort, such as
the six-part galliards of Byrd and Gibbons, often have a dense and
elaborate polyphonic texture.
Despite Morley’s contemporary prescription about the derivation of a
galliard from its pavan, it was comparatively rare for an early 17th-century
English galliard to be a close transformation of its pavan (although often
there is a similarity of mood between the two pieces). Furthermore, many
galliards from the period have survived unattached as independent pieces.
The keyboard publication Parthenia (161314), for example, includes no
fewer than ten galliards among its 21 pieces, and four of those are
independent. Byrd’s famous Pavan: The Earl of Salisbury, most unusually,
is followed by two galliards.
A feature of the galliard almost throughout its history was the use of
hemiola (the usual division of the six minims into 3 + 3 being varied,
especially just before the cadence, by a division into 2 + 2 + 2). Ex.3 shows
something of this rhythmic complexity in the first strain of Dowland’s song
Can she excuse, which is cast in the form and style of a galliard; the
barring in 6/2 is the one that might have been used in a contemporary
keyboard version, while the time signatures above the staff represent
cross-rhythms suggested by the stresses of the words and the harmonic
movement. If such a tune were to be danced to, it would be necessary to
decide where to begin the cinque pas pattern. In all Arbeau’s examples, the
steps begin with the first notes of a tune. Heartz (1964) has argued,
however, that the suspension preceding the cadence (occurring, in this
case, on the second beat of the fourth bar) is the logical place for the saut
majeur, ‘the equivalent strong accent in terms of the dance’; hence the
sequence of steps should begin on the fourth note of the tune. Alternatively,
it might be argued that an interesting tension between physical and musical
rhythms would result from the juxtaposition of accents if the pattern began
on the first beat of the tune. Whichever interpretation of the dance is
adopted, there remains a pleasing rhythmic ambiguity in the music of this
and many other examples of the galliard.

Like the pavan, the galliard survived as a musical form well into the 17th
century. Examples appear in consort suites by several German composers
of the early part of the century; contemporary with these are a number of
German polyphonic songs having the rhythmic character of the galliard
(and sometimes also the title). Galliards feature in Frescobaldi’s Il secondo
libro di toccate, canzone (1627) and Johann Vierdanck’s Erster Theil
newer Pavanen, Gagliarden, Balletten und Correnten (1637), and later in
the suites of Locke’s second Broken Consort (composed c1661–5) and
G.B. Vitali’s Balletti, correnti alla francese, gagliarde … a 4 stromenti
(1679). A few galliards appear in the work of the harpsichordists Louis
Couperin, Chambonnières and D'Anglebert. By this late stage the galliard
had become a quite slow piece; Thomas Mace (Musick’s Monument, 1676)
said that galliards ‘are perform’d in a Slow, and Large Triple-Time; and
(commonly) Grave, and Sober’.
A few 20th-century composers have re-created the galliard, either as a
companion to a pavan (e.g. Howells, Vaughan Williams and Britten: see
Pavan) or as an independent piece (the ‘Gailliarde’ for two female dancers
in Stravinsky's Agon, 1957).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrownI
T. Arbeau: Orchésographie (Langres, 1588/R, 2/1589/R; Eng. trans., 1948,
2/1967)
C. Sachs: Eine Weltgeschichte des Tanzes (Berlin, 1933; Eng. trans.,
1937/R)
L.H. Moe: Dance Music in Printed Italian Lute Tablatures from 1507 to
1611 (diss., Harvard U., 1956)
B. Delli: Pavane und Galliarde: zur Geschichte der Instrumentalmusik im
16. und 17. Jahrhundert (diss., Free U. of Berlin, 1957)
D. Heartz, ed.: Preludes, Chansons and Dances for Lute Published by
Pierre Attaingnant, Paris (1529–1530) (Neuilly-sur-Seine, 1964)
D. Heartz, ed.: Keyboard Dances from the Earlier Sixteenth Century,
CEKM, viii (1965)
W.A. Edwards: The Sources of Elizabethan Consort Music (diss., U. of
Cambridge, 1974)
C.M. Cunningham: ‘Ensemble Dances in Early Sixteenth-Century Italy:
Relationships with villotte and Franco-Flemish danceries’, MD, xxxiv
(1980), 159–203
D. Ledbetter: Harpsichord and Lute Music in 17th-Century France
(London, 1987)
D.M. McMullen: ‘German Tanzlieder at the Turn of the Seventeenth
Century: the Texted Galliard’, Music and German Literature: their
Relationship since the Middle Ages, ed. J.M. McGlathery (Columbia,
SC, 1992), 34–50
A. Silbiger, ed.: Keyboard Music Before 1700 (New York, 1995)
B. Sparti: ‘Introduction’, in L. Compasso: Ballo della gagliarda [Florence,
1560] (Freiburg, 1995) [facs.]
F.A. D'Accone: The Civic Muse: Music and Musicians in Siena during the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Chicago, 1997)
ALAN BROWN

Galliard, John Ernest [Johann

Ernst]
(b ?Celle, ?1666/?1687; d Chelsea, 18 Feb 1747). German composer and
oboist, active in England. A son of Jean Galliard, a French wig-maker, he
learnt both flute and oboe from a French member of the Celle court
orchestra, Pierre Maréchal. He himself joined the orchestra in 1698, and
soon afterwards was studying composition in nearby Hanover with Steffani
and G.B. Farinelli. When the Celle orchestra was disbanded in 1706, he
went to London to become court musician to Prince George of Denmark,
Queen Anne's consort. He must have had some ability as a keyboard
player, for when Draghi died in 1710 he was appointed organist at
Somerset House. He probably wrote his Te Deum, his Jubilate and his
three anthems for the chapel there, but his duties were negligible and he
was soon to make a mark both as a secular composer and as an oboist at
the Queen's Theatre. Handel wrote obbligato parts for him in Teseo (1713).
By this time Italian opera was well established in London, and an attempt
by Galliard and the poet John Hughes to stage an English opera, Calypso
and Telemachus, was unsuccessful. Hughes had an unusual knowledge of
music, and though the opera was accepted for the Queen's Theatre, the
machinations of the Italians who now dominated it limited the performances
to five; it was the last opera with English words to be staged there. Nearly
all the arias are in the newly fashionable da capo form; the music is
competent and agreeable. The work is also notable for Hughes's preface to
the printed libretto, which deals intelligently with issues concerning opera in
English.
Galliard worked for John Rich at Lincoln's Inn Fields between 1717 and
1730, as did the writer Lewis Theobald, later the main object of Pope's
scorn in the original version of The Dunciad. Galliard and Theobald
collaborated first on the masques Pan and Syrinx and Decius and Paulina.
Though the first is dull in parts, its end is strikingly original. When Pan
chases Syrinx on the river bank and she is ‘transformed into reeds’, he
sings an air, ‘Surprising Change!’, accompanied at first by a dark-toned
viola solo suggesting the flow of the water, but then three recorders (one of
them a bass) start playing unobtrusive chords in the background; these
represent the voice of the transformed Syrinx, and eventually they come to
dominate the music, the viola solo having petered out.
Galliard then wrote another full-length opera, Circe, but the libretto, which
had been set 40 years earlier by John Banister (i), was too old-fashioned to
have much appeal. Rich permitted a new production of Calypso and
Telemachus, but did not get good value out of Galliard until he embarked
on his great pantomime period (1723–30), during which he himself mimed
the role of Harlequin. The pantomimes Theobald and Galliard contrived
were to be Rich's chief money-spinners at Lincoln's Inn Fields and (from
1732) at Covent Garden up to his retirement in 1761. Most of them
alternated between masque-like scenes sung by gods and goddesses and
‘Comic Tunes’, which accompanied the miming of the mortals. There was
no speaking, and the music was continuous. Pantomimes normally lasted a
little under an hour. In most cases a published ‘Description’ survives, which
gives the words that were sung and a seldom lucid résumé of the action.
The most interesting is The Rape of Proserpine, for which a great deal of
Galliard's music survives, much of it fully operatic and of good quality.
After 1730 Rich seldom risked his money on new productions. Galliard and
Theobald offered their next pantomime, Merlin, to Drury Lane, but Cibber
had little flair for staging such entertainments, and it failed. In 1736 Rich
revived his first successful pantomime, Jupiter and Europa, under the title
The Royal Chace. Much of the action and music were new, and Galliard's
song ‘With Early Horn’ was enormously popular and helped make the
reputation of its singer, the young tenor John Beard.
Not all Galliard's music was written for the playhouses. In 1728 he
published his Hymn of Adam and Eve. In 1773 Benjamin Cooke published
a heavily revised full score: he added an overture, expanded some of the
duets into choruses and provided fuller accompaniments. In 1739 Galliard
offered an evening's entertainment that consisted of two hour-long works in
strange act-by-act alternation – a serenata called Love and Folly and ‘The
Choruses to the Tragedy of Julius Caesar’. The music of the former, to a
confused libretto about Cupid and Psyche, is lost. The latter survives in an
autograph full score: it consists of four cantatas, each in several sections,
that were originally intended as entr'actes for a tragedy by John Sheffield,
Duke of Buckingham; each cantata comments on the preceding act. Solo
voices are freely used, and there is no chorus at all in the third ‘Chorus’.
The score is dated 1723, the year after Buckingham's death. If his tragedy
was ever acted at all, it was acted privately.
The Happy Captive (1741), Galliard's final collaboration with Theobald, is a
minor musical landmark: it is the first complete opera on an ‘abduction’
theme like that in Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail, and it included
the first true English intermezzo. The music of the opera is charming and
occasionally exotic. The intermezzo Capoccio and Dorinna was reset twice
by T.A. Arne, as The Temple of Dullness (1745) and as Capochio and
Dorinna (1768). Unfortunately, the music for all three settings is lost.
On 31 March 1740 Galliard repeated Love and Folly and the Julius Caesar
choruses, and this time he added two oboe concertos and a ‘solo’, which
he played himself. For a similar programme on 11 December 1744 he
added a ‘New Concerto grosso, 24 Bassoons, accompanied by Caporale
on the Violoncello’. None of these works survive, but a set of sonatas for
bassoon or cello was published, and some of these are occasionally heard
 today; the sonata in F is outstanding, and the one in A minor has a fine
Hornpipe, idiomatically written for the bassoon. He also published a fine set
of cello sonatas.
Galliard certainly played a significant role in London's musical life in the
first half of the 18th century. He was a founder-member of both the
Academy of Vocal (later Ancient) Music in 1726 and the Royal Society of
Musicians in 1738, directing the first performance of the former. His
translation of Tosi's singing manual is very felicitous, and he added some
intelligent notes; he had known Tosi in London earlier in the century.
Burney wrote of Galliard's music, ‘I never saw more correctness or less
originality … Dr. Pepusch always excepted’, but he was rather more
generous elsewhere in his History, and both he and Fiske recognized
Galliard and Pepusch as the leading composers of English theatre music
before the 1730s. Charles Didbin thought Galliard had ‘considerable
genius’, and if Dr Kitchener is to be believed, Handel in old age told the
youthful Samuel Arnold that he had so high an opinion of Calypso and
Telemachus that he would sooner have composed it than any of his own
operas. The story must have become distorted in the telling, but Handel
surely expressed admiration in some degree.
WORKS
all printed works published in London; theatre music first performed in London, and
published within a few months of first performance unless otherwise stated

LLF Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre

operas
full-length, all-sung
Calypso and Telemachus (J. Hughes, after F. Fénelon), Queen's, 17 May 1712,
pubd full score lacks recits and final chorus
Circe (C. Davenant), LLF, 11 April 1719, 3 songs pubd, rest lost
The Happy Captive (L. Theobald), Little Theatre, Haymarket, 16 April 1741, full
score F-Pc*; Capoccio and Dorinna (int, after P. Metastasio: L'impresario delle
Canarie), music lost
Oreste e Pilade, unfinished, lost, mentioned by Hawkins
masques
one-act, all-sung
Pan and Syrinx (Theobald), LLF, 14 Jan 1718, full score, incl. music added for 1726
revival, GB-Lbl
Decius and Paulina (Theobald), LLF, 22 March 1718, insert for revival of E. Settle's
play The Lady's Triumph, 1 song pubd, rest lost
The Nuptial Masque, or The Triumphs of Cupid and Hymen, Covent Garden, 16
March 1734, lost
Oedipus (N. Lee and J. Dryden), Covent Garden, 2 March 1736, Lam, pts Lcm
Masque of the Deities, doubtful, by H. Carey
pantomimes
Jupiter and Europa (?Theobald), LLF, 23 March 1723, 1 song by Galliard pubd, also
some by other composers; rev. as The Royal Chace, or Merlin's Cave, Covent
Garden, 23 Jan 1736, 1 song pubd
The Necromancer, or Harlequin Dr Faustus (Theobald), LLF, 20 Dec 1723, 6 songs
pubd anon., some Comic Tunes pubd with Harlequin Sorcerer (1752)
Harlequin Sorcerer, with The Loves of Pluto and Proserpine (Theobald), LLF, 21
Jan 1725, Comic Tunes pubd with new music by Arne (1752)
Apollo and Daphne, or The Burgomaster Trick'd (Theobald), LLF, 14 Jan 1726, 7
songs pubd, partial score DRc
The Rape of Proserpine, with The Birth of Harlequin (Theobald), LLF, 13 Feb 1727,
ov. and 14 songs pubd in score, some Comic Tunes pubd with those in Perseus,
score with recits and chorus Lgc (copies, Lbl, Lcm)
Perseus and Andromeda, or The Spaniard Outwitted (Theobald), LLF, 29 Jan 1730,
Comic Tunes pubd, 1 song in Musical Miscellany, vi (1731)
Merlin, or The Devil of Stonehenge (Theobald), Drury Lane, 12 Dec 1734, DRc
miscellaneous vocal
3 anthems, GB-Ob: I will magnify the Lord, O Lord God of Hosts, I am well pleased
TeD and Jub, ? to celebrate Peace of Utrecht, 1713, lost, mentioned by Hawkins
6 English Cantatas after the Italian Manner (1716)
4 choruses in Julius Caesar (tragedy, J. Sheffied, Duke of Buckingham), 1723, Lbl,
US-Bp
The Hymn of Adam and Eve (J. Milton: Paradise Lost vv.153–208), 2vv, str (1728)
Love and Folly (serenata), 1739, lib GB-Lbl, music lost
Chi fra lacci (cant.), S, orch, Lcm
5 songs pubd separately (London, ?1730–?1735): As the mole's silent stream; Jolly
mortals, fill your glasses (E. Ward); Kind god of sleep; The advice; The fond
shepherdess
3 cants. (Hughes); lost, mentioned by Hawkins
instrumental
6 Sonatas, rec, bc, op.1 (1710)
6 Sonatas, bn/vc, bc (1733)
6 Sonatas, vc, bc (1746), pubd with sonatas by Caporale

Lost: 2 ob concs.; ob sonata; sonata, ob, 2 bn, 1704; conc. grosso, 24 bn, vc
WRITINGS
Observations on the Florid Song (London, 1742, 2/1743/R) [trans. of P.F.
Tosi: Opinioni de' cantori antichi e moderni, Bologna, 1723/R]
A Critical Discourse upon Operas in England (London, n.d.), ? by
Galliard, ? collab. J. Hughes
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDA
BurneyH
FiskeETM
GroveO (‘Calypso and Telemachus’; J. Merrill Knapp)
HawkinsH
WaltherML (‘Gaillard’)
J. Hughes: Preface, Calypso and Telemachus (London, 1712)
S. Johnson: ‘John Hughes’, The Lives of the English Poets, i (London,
1779); ed. G.B. Hill (Oxford, 1905/R)
C. Dibdin: A Complete History of the Stage, v (London, 1800/R), 59
G. Linnemann: Celler Musikgeschichte bis zum Beginn des 19.
Jahrhunderts (Celle, 1935), 61–2, 161
J.M. Knapp: ‘A Forgotten Chapter in English Eighteenth-Century Opera’,
ML, xlii (1961), 4–16
S. Lincoln: ‘J.E. Galliard and A Critical Discourse’, MQ, liii (1967), 347–64
E. Noack: Musikgeschichte Darmstadt vom Mittelalter bis zur Goethezeit
(Mainz, 1967), 166
M. Boyd: ‘English Secular Cantatas in the Eighteenth Century’, MR, xxx
(1969), 91 only
C. Chapman: ‘A 1727 Pantomime: The Rape of Proserpine’, MT, cxxii
(1981), 807–11
D.L. Watt: ‘Pan and Syrinx’: an Opera in One Act by J.E. Galliard, Libretto
by L. Theobald (thesis, U. of London, 1981)
H.D. Johnstone and R. Fiske, eds.: The Blackwell History of Music in
Britain, iv: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1990), esp. 128–32
W. Weber: The Rise of Musical Classics in Eighteenth-Century England: a
Study in Canon, Ritual and Ideology (Oxford, 1992), 57–9
M. Burden: ‘The Independent Masque 1700–1800: a Catalogue’, RMARC,
no.28 (1995), 83–4, 88, 90, 98
C. Timms: ‘Music and Musicians in the Letters of Giuseppe Riva to
Agostino Steffani (1720–27)’, ML, lxxix (1998), 43–4
R.G. King: ‘The First Abduction Opera: John Ernest Galliard's The Happy
Captive (1741)’, MQ (forthcoming)
ROGER FISKE/RICHARD G. KING

Galliard Ltd.
English firm of music publishers formed in 1962 as a wholly owned
subsidiary of Galaxy Music Corporation.

Galliari.
Italian family of stage designers. Its principal members were the brothers
Bernardino (b Andorno, nr. Biella, 3 Nov 1707; d Andorno, 31 March 1794),
Fabrizio (b Andorno, 28 5ept 1709; d Treviglio, June 1790) and Giovanni
Antonio (b Andorno, 26 March 1714; d Milan, 1783). After early tuition from
their father, the decorative painter Giovanni Galliari (b Andorno, 1672; d
Andorno, 1722), and further study in Turin and Milan, they worked in
northern Italy (and in Innsbruck in 1738) as painters of frescoes and other
decoration until, probably towards the end of the 1730s, they became
assistants to the theatrical painters Innocente Bellavita, Giovan Domenico
Barbieri and Giovanni Battista Medici, When Barbieri died in 1742, Fabrizio
and Medici became chief designers at the Regio Ducal Teatro in Milan, and
on Medici’s retirement a year later, Fabrizio was joined by Bernardino and
Giovanni Antonio. From then on the stage designs for the Milan opera
houses (Regio Ducal, 1742–76; Itinerale, 1776–8; La Scala after 1778)
rested almost exclusively in the hands of the Galliari brothers. Giovanni
Antonio settled in Milan, but Fabrizio and Bernardino were also chief stage
designers at the Teatro Regio in Turin in 1748 and from 1753 on worked
regularly for the Teatro Carignano there and in a number of Italian and
foreign opera houses, including Vienna, Berlin and Paris. They retired in
the mid-1780s.
The brothers worked together but divided their responsibilities according to
their talents. Fabrizio was a creative artist who usually produced the ideas
and plans for the sets and carried out the architectural designs.
Bernardino, the most talented painter among them, produced equally
artistic and mature designs, and ideas for curtains, but was mainly
concerned with their realization in paint; his work included excellent figures
and landscapes. Giovanni Antonio was exclusively an executant. Their
work at the Turin and, to a lesser extent, the Milan court theatres was still
essentially under the influence of the opera seria tradition. The formalized
architectural painting of the Bibiena school, passed down from Barbieri and
Medici, is to be found in numerous of their early productions of that genre
and even remained efficacious when the Galliaris began to develop a style
influenced by and in accord with the ‘reform’ movement of Jommelli,
Traetta and above all Gluck, whose Alceste they mounted at Vienna in
1767. Here they aimed to overcome the traditional courtly rationalist
formalism through sets based on pictorial composition and the recreation of
nature, and through intensified use of landscape and genre motifs and
references (albeit superficial) to historical locations and the milieu of the
action, like the ‘Chinese’ sets for Vincenzo Ciampi’s Arsinoe (1758, Turin).
Their aim was to represent truth and humanity in opera and in the conflicts
it depicts by using the language of middle-class customs and emotions,
though in elevated, idealized form. Further scope for this style was
provided by opera buffa, for which the Galliaris designed exclusively at the
Teatro Carignano in Turin and which accounted for well over half their
designs for the Milan court theatre. Their stage realism followed operatic
structure not simply by reproducing an everyday middle-class environment
but by selection and picturesque arrangement.
When the older generation retired in the 1780s Fabrizio’s sons and pupils
Giovannino (b 1746; d Treviglio, 1818) and Giuseppino (b Andorno, 1742;
d Milan, 1817) continued their work at the Teatro Regio and Teatro
Carignano in Turin. Giuseppino, who closely followed his father’s style, also
worked as a designer in Geneva (1778) and Marseilles (1787) and
apparently retired about 1792. Giovannino turned to academic classicism,
worked with his uncle Bernardino for Frederick the Great in 1772 and was
still active in Turin in 1798. Bartolomeo Verona (b Andorno, 1744; d Berlin,
1813), a son of the brothers’ sister Elisabetta, worked for them from about
1762 to 1772 and went with Bernardino and Giovannino to Berlin, where he
remained as an influential royal theatrical painter until his death, Gaspare
(b ?Milan, 1761; d Milan, 1823), son of Giovanni Antonio, started his career
with the family firm but in 1785 went as stage designer to Parma and
elsewhere, including Vienna (1788–94), Venice and Milan. He developed
his own style of pictorial classicism with romantic features. Fabrizio Sevesi
(b Milan, ?1773; d Turin, 9 Aug 1837), son of Fabrizio’s daughter Ludovica,
was the last important designer of the family; he was trained by Giovannino
and Giuseppino and succeeded them at the Carignano from 1798 and at
the Regio from 1800.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (M. Viale)
Numero XXIV invenzioni teatrali di Gaspare Galliari (Milan, 1803/R1970
with introduction by D. Addis)
Serie di decorazioni teatrali inventate dal Capitano Gaspare Galliari e da
suoi zii Bernardino e Fabrizio (Milan, 1821)
R. Amerio: ‘Il pittore Bartolomeo Verona’, Bollettino della società
piemontese di archeologia e belle arti, new ser., xii–xiii (1958–9), 173–
8
R. Bossaglia: I fratelli Galliari pittori (Milan, 1962)
M. Viale-Ferrero: La scenografia del ’700 e i fratelli Galliari (Turin, 1963)
[incl. catalogue of stage designs]
A. Griseri: ‘I fratelli Galliari’, Burlington Magazine, cviii (1966), 528–31
[review of Bossaglia 1962 and Viale Ferrero 1963]
M. Viale-Ferrero: ‘Disegni inediti di Fabrizio Galliari per L’Europa
riconosciuta, opera inaugurale del Teatro alla Scala di Milano’,
Antichità viva, x/4 (Florence, 1971), 37
M. Vilae Ferrero: Storia del Teatro regio di Torino, ed. A. Basso, iii: La
scenografia dalle origini al 1936 (Turin, 1980)
S. Angrisani: I Galliari: primi scenografi della Scala (Florence, 1983)
[exhibition catalogue]
M. Viale Ferrero: Scenografi scaligeri tra Settecento e Ottocento (Milan),
1988)
MANFRED BOETZKES

Galli-Bibiena [Bibiena, Bibbiena].

Italian family of stage designers and architects. They had a decisive
influence on Baroque musical theatre in Europe. The founder of the
family’s theatrical activities was Ferdinando Galli-Bibiena (b Bologna, 18
Aug 1657; d Bologna, 3 Jan 1743), son of the illusionist painter Giovanni
Maria Galli (b Bibbiena, 1618 or 1619; d Bologna, 20 June 1665).
Ferdinando studied in Bologna, and from the early 1680s worked as an
illusionist painter, architect and stage designer at the court of Ranuccio II in
Parma. From 1687, when he was appointed court painter, he became
established there and in Piacenza mainly through his work for the stage.
He subsequently continued this activity elsewhere in Italy, notably at
Bologna (1697–1709). In 1708 he was appointed to the Barcelona court of
the Spanish pretender Carlos III; when the latter became Emperor Charles
VI in 1711 Ferdinando went with him to Vienna as first architect and theatre
architect. He returned to Bologna in 1716, having been succeeded by his
son Giuseppe, and taught at the Accademia Clementina.
Early in his career Ferdinando was confronted with a tradition of stage
design bound to the central vanishing-point. He was thus unable to do
justice to a musical drama dealing with the real world in a more differential
way. Using his experience as an architect and decorative painter, he
reformed stage design through the introduction of sophisticated
stereometric, illusionistic architectural painting. Ferdinando’s first scenic
designs, with their accentuated asymmetry, were the first experiments with
the ‘maniera di veder le scene per angolo’ (Sabadini’s Didio Giuliano,
1687), but still bore traces of the traditional deep stage all’infinito. However,
around 1700 his scenography increasingly emphasized diagonal views and
angular perspective (fig.1), as expounded in his treatise L’architettura civile
(Parma, 1711). His style became associated with the new opera seria and
was eventually characterized by strong architectonic organization,
rationalist principles of construction and ‘worm’s-eye’ perspective which
endowed the illusionistic architecture of the stage with a monumental
character appropriate to the court spectacle he served, for example at
Naples and Vienna.
His brother Francesco Galli-Bibiena (b Bologna, 12 Dec 1659; d Bologna,
20 Jan 1739) studied in Bologna and was active there and elsewhere in
Emilia; from about 1682 he worked with Ferdinando in Parma and
Piacenza. After his first theatrical works in Genoa in 1689 he was active
during the 1690s as a stage designer at many Italian opera houses and
foreign courts, including Rome, Reggio nell’Emilia, Bologna and Vienna.
Francesco was also a significant innovator, having experimented with
angular perspective in his non-theatrical works as early as 1684. The
theatres that he designed in Bologna, Vienna, Nancy, Verona and Rome
were strongly biassed towards courtly performance. Through his wider
sphere of activity, and particularly through his scenery for the operas of
Francesco Gasparini, C.F. Pollarolo (fig.2), Scarlatti, Vivaldi, Hasse and
Leo, he may have played a greater part than his brother in the propagation
of the new style in opera seria. By contrast with Ferdinando’s technique-
orientated works, those of Francesco are masterfully composed and richly
ornamented fantasies.
Alessandro Galli-Bibiena (b Parma, 1686; d Mannheim, 5 Aug 1748), a son
of Ferdinando, studied with his father and worked as his associate in Spain
from 1708 and Vienna from 1711. In 1716 he was appointed architect and
stage designer at the Innsbruck court; in 1720 he settled with the court at
its new Mannheim residence, where he worked until his death. The
influence of his father and uncle is specially clear in Alessandro’s designs
for oratorios, sacred dramas and, later, opera seria. His opera seria sets,
with their complex but weightless illusionist architecture and scant
decoration, elegantly fulfilled their ostentatious function. Realistic traits also
became important in his rustic scenery for pastorales, especially popular at
the palatine court and in the genre scenes for the commedia dell’arte.
Alessandro designed the provisional opera house in Mannheim (1720) and
the opera house in the rebuilt palace (1737–41), his most important work.
His brother Giovanni Maria (b Piacenza, 19 Jan 1693; d Naples, 1777)
followed Alessandro to Mannheim about 1722 but went in 1723 to Prague,
where he evidently spent most of his life, though he had spells as an
architect and stage designer in Rome, Naples and probably Bologna.
A third brother, Giuseppe (b Parma, 5 Jan 1695; d Berlin, 1757), worked
with his father in 1708 in Barcelona and in 1711 in Vienna, succeeding him
there in 1716 and becoming principal theatre architect in 1723; he was
responsible for the court opera performances under Charles VI in Vienna
(fig.3) and at other residences, including Prague, and he also worked in
Munich, Linz and Graz. After Charles’s death (1740) opera productions
became fewer and Giuseppe went to Italy, where he worked in Turin,
Bologna and Venice. In 1744 he returned to Vienna but gave up his court
position there in 1748, having secured an assignment in 1746 to design the
interior of the Bayreuth opera house (completed by his son Carlo in 1748);
in 1747 he went to Dresden, where he rebuilt the Opernhaus am Zwinger
(completed in 1750). From 1751 he was active as a stage designer in
Berlin and in 1753 he entered the service of Frederick the Great.
Giuseppe’s illusionist architecture painting became typical of opera seria
and established him as the leading stage designer in Europe. He
developed the style of his father and uncle in imaginative sets for more
than a hundred opera productions, retaining rationalist principles of
composition. His sets expanded in amazing diagonal views, conceived
primarily as one or more central structures with star-shaped radiating
galleries or stages, in which the standard elements of contemporary court
architecture were varied, and rich decoration became more pronounced.
A further son of Ferdinando, Antonio (b Parma, bap. 1 Jan 1697; d Milan,
28 Jan 1774), studied in Bologna and from 1716 occasionally assisted his
brother Giuseppe in Vienna, his father in Bologna and Fano, and his uncle
in Verona and Rome. From about 1721 he worked with Giuseppe as a
stage designer at the Vienna Hofoper, from 1723 as second architect and
theatre engineer. Most of his sets were for opera seria productions. He
succeeded Giuseppe as principal theatre engineer in 1748 but returned to
Bologna in 1751; there he designed the Teatro Comunale (1756–63), for
which he produced numerous opera sets. He was also active in other
Italian cities as architect and stage designer. He remained within the family
traditions in catering for the requirements of court productions, which in
Vienna he developed in his brother’s shadow and which he continued to
use after his return to Italy. His work was unaffected by the ideals of the
emancipated middle classes, and he increasingly became subject to
criticism; the Teatro Comunale in Bologna in particular figured in treatises
of the Enlightenment as a model of ‘bad taste’.
The youngest of Francesco’s sons, Giovanni Carlo Sicinivale (b ?Bologna,
11 Nov 1717; d Lisbon, 20 Nov 1760), was educated at the Bologna
Accademia Clementina and in the 1740s was active in Bologna and the
Emilia region; in 1752 he was appointed architect and stage designer to
King José I of Portugal, in whose service he built several opera houses: the
theatre at the palace of Salvaterra de Magos (1753), the Opera do Tejo in
Lisbon (1755) and the theatre at Ajuda (1756). For the performances of
Perez’s opere serie he created elegant scenery which simplified the style of
his family and attempted greater realism, approaching a bourgeois
aesthetic without forsaking court traditions.
Carlo Galli-Bibiena (b Vienna, bap. 8 Feb 1721; d Florence, 1787), son of
Giuseppe, studied in Vienna and worked at Bayreuth from 1746. Up to
1756 he designed sets for the works of Hasse and Bernasconi there and in
Erlangen; later he also worked occasionally at Brunswick and after the
Seven Years War (1756–63) went to Italy, France, the Netherlands and
London. In 1765 Frederick the Great appointed him head stage director at
the Berlin Hofoper, but he soon returned to Italy where he worked as an
architect and stage designer in Treviso, Naples and Milan. Finally, in 1774,
he worked for Gustavus III in Stockholm and Drottningholm and Catherine
the Great in St Petersburg. Carlo never completely relinquished his father’s
style, but a reduction of illusionism was already evident in his Bayreuth
sets, and his work with opera buffa further strengthened the trend towards
realism, eventually also including neo-classical elements.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
RicciTB
C. Ricci: I Bibiena: architetti teatrale (Milan, 1915)
V. Mariani: Storia della scenografia italiana (Florence, 1930)
A.H. Mayor: The Bibiena Family (New York, 1945)
J. Gregor, ed.: Monumenta scenica: Giuseppe Galli da Bibiena (Vienna,
1954)
F. Hadamowsky: Die Familie Galli-Bibiena in Wien: ein Leben für das
Theater (Vienna, 1962)
J. Hilmera: ‘“Costanza e Fortezza”: Giuseppe Galli-Bibiena und das
Barocktheater in Böhmen’, Maske und Kothurn, x (1964), 396–407
K.A. Burnim: ‘The Theatrical Career of Giuseppe Galli-Bibiena’, Theatre
Survey, vi (1965), 32–52
A.H. Saxon: ‘Giuseppe Galli-Bibiena’s “Architetture e prospettive”’, Maske
und Kothurn, xv (1969), 105–18
M.T. Muraro and E. Povoledo: Disegni teatrali dei Bibiena (Venice, 1970)
[exhibition catalogue]
M. Monteverdi: I Bibiena: disegni e incisioni nelle collezioni del Museo
teatrale alla Scala (Milan, 1975) [exhibition catalogue]
G. Ricci: Dai Parigi ai Bibiena (Prato, 1979) [exhibition catalogue]
A. Glanz: Alessandro Galli-Bibiena und sein Bühnenbild für die
kurpfälzische Oper (1716–1748): ein Beitrag zur Rezeption der
italienischen Theaterarchitekten-Dynastie Bibiena (Berlin, 1987)
M.A. Beaumont: Eighteenth-Century Scenic and Architectural Design:
Drawings by the Galli-Bibiena Family from Collections in Portugal
(Alexandria, VA, 1990)
MANFRED BOETZKES/R

Gallican chant.
The composite of traditions of monophonic liturgical music used in the
churches of Gaul before the imposition of ‘Roman’ chant by the Carolingian
kings Pippin (reigned 751–68) and Charlemagne (768–814). Although the
music of the Gallican rite was almost completely suppressed before the
appearance of notation in the 9th century, remnants of this tradition, though
heterogeneous in style, are thought to survive in the Gregorian repertory
and elsewhere. The term ‘Gallican’ is also occasionally used in the sense
‘non-Roman’, so that ‘Gallican chant’ may mean, in older literature
especially, the repertories of the Iberian Peninsula, the Celtic areas and
northern Italy (including Milan), as well as of Gaul itself.
1. Introduction.
2. Sources.
3. Problems of identification.
4. Liturgical evidence.
5. Style of the texts.
6. Musical style.
7. The Mass.
8. The Office.
9. Special rites.
10. Psalmody.
11. Hymnody.
12. Antiphons and responsories.
13. ‘Preces’.
A.doc - S00754A.doc - S01023A.doc - S01034B.doc - S02678C.doc -
S05266E.doc - S09148G.doc - S11726Litany, §3(iii)M.doc - S19269Old Roman
chantP.doc - S40099P.doc - S22384T.doc - S28104Neo-Gallican chant
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MICHEL HUGLO (with JANE BELLINGHAM and MARCEL ZIJLSTRA)
Gallican chant
1. Introduction.
The 5th century was a period of considerable importance in the history of
medieval Gaul and in particular for the Gallican Church. The end of this
century saw the establishment of Frankish rule in Gaul by Clovis (d 511),
first of the Merovingian kings, who converted to Christianity in 496. The
Franks eventually extended their kingdom to a territory covering, roughly,
modern France, Switzerland, the Low Countries, and Germany west of the
Rhine, an area (commonly known as Francia) that later formed the core of
the Carolingian empire. The early Merovingian kings inherited the
ecclesiastical traditions and liturgical forms of the Gallo-Roman population,
which was mostly centred in what is now southern France and which, by
the mid-5th century, was solidly Catholic. From this population comes the
earliest evidence of the Gallican liturgy.
The first indication of a liturgy in Gaul distinct from the liturgies of other
Western Churches occurs in a letter, dated 416, by Pope Innocent I to
Bishop Decentius of Gubbio (PL, xx, 551–2), in which the pope called for
the Churches of Italy, Gaul, Spain and North Africa to celebrate the liturgy
in accordance with the rite of Rome. From the 5th century also come
several references to the composition of liturgical texts by Gaulish clerics,
such as Claudianus Mamertus, Bishop of Vienne (d c475), and his nephew
Sidonius Apollinaris (d c480), and Musaeus of Marseilles (d c460), who is
known to have compiled a lectionary for the liturgical year, a sacramentary
and a responsorial with series of chants and psalms (‘psalmorumque serie
et cantatione’); this last text is the earliest known reference to a chant book
in the Western Church (Gennadius of Marseilles, PL, lviii, 1104). None of
their liturgical works, however, survives. Several other literary sources
written between the 5th century and the first half of the 9th bear witness to
the unique character of the Gallican rite and its music. Augustine of
Canterbury, for example, in a letter to Gregory the Great (Bede, Historia
ecclesiastica, i.27), remarked on the differences between the worship in the
churches of ‘Gallia’ and those of Rome. Walahfrid Strabo, writing in about
829 (i.e. after the introduction of ‘Roman’ chant into Francia), said that
‘many people claim that they can distinguish between Roman and other
chants by both words and melody’ (‘plerisque et verbis et sono a ceteris
cantibus discernere posse fatentur’, De exordiis, chap.22).
Evidence for the nature and content of the Gallican liturgy survives in a
number of liturgical books, primarily sacramentaries and lectionaries, and
in several other contemporary literary sources; there are no extant Gallican
chant books. When compared with sources concerning, for example, the
Roman and Ambrosian (Milanese) Churches, such texts clearly confirm
that the liturgical usage and literary style of the Gallican rite was markedly
distinct. However, they also reveal that considerable variation existed within
the Gallican Church itself, for individual ecclesiastical provinces and even
individual dioceses had their own local forms of worship. For example, the
Use of Auxerre, as reflected in the collection of masses published by Mone
(1850), differed in its choice of formularies, though scarcely in the form or
order of the chants, from that of Autun in the Missale gothicum. Thus,
unlike the Roman, Mozarabic and Ambrosian liturgies, the Gallican was not
homogeneous, although it shared a group of particular practices in the
celebration of the Mass, Divine Office and other special rites (on the
character of the Gallican liturgy see Hen, 1996).
This lack of homogeneity, which is also apparent in the Celtic Church (see
Celtic chant), may be explained by the absence of any central
ecclesiastical authority in Merovingian Gaul and of any need or desire for
uniformity in the rite (beyond the fundamental elements of worship) before
the liturgical and ecclesiastical reforms instituted by the Carolingians in the
latter half of the 8th century. The individuality of Gallican liturgical traditions
may partly account for the evident willingness of the Church to adopt
elements from other rites. For example, in the Bobbio Missal, probably from
Burgundy or north Italy, there are Spanish influences, especially in the
litany-like preces for Holy Saturday; the Roman Church itself influenced the
Gallican rite, particularly in the literary style of the prayers (see Vogel,
1960) and to some extent in the structure of the liturgy; chants were
borrowed from Milan at Lyons and in south-east Gaul (Provence), and vice
versa. Similarly, the many exchanges between the Celtic and continental
liturgies left traces in both Francia and Rome. In the 7th and 8th centuries
Celtic missionaries went to the Continent taking with them liturgical books,
some of which were left there (e.g. the antiphoner F-Pn n.a.lat.1628; see
Morin, 1905), in Germany (e.g. the fragments in CH-SGs 1395, or the
Echternach manuscript, F-Pn lat.9488) and in north Italy (the Bangor
Antiphonary at Bobbio).
Even the Eastern Churches exerted an influence; indeed, the Gallican
liturgy is characterized by chants and practices of eastern Mediterranean
origin, among them the diaconal litany, the exclamation ‘Sancta sanctis’
(‘Ta hagia tois hagiois’), the Trisagion and the Cheroubikon (see Quasten,
1943). At the time of St Caesarius (d 542) chants were sung at Arles in
both Greek and Latin. Some Gaulish churches, such as the basilica at
Arles, incorporated an altar of the prothesis (proskomidē), that is, an altar
for the ‘setting forth’ (preparation) of the oblation, as in the Eastern
Churches; during the offertory there was a solemn procession from this
altar to the high altar while the choir sang the Cheroubikon or another
chant of Eastern origin (see Mâle, 1950). These non-Western influences
were more marked at Arles at the time of St Caesarius, and at Marseilles,
than at Autun.
The celebration of the Gallican rite and its music came to an end in Francia
with the wide-ranging Carolingian ecclesiastical reforms, which demanded
the adoption of the Roman liturgy and its chant throughout the Frankish
Church. The Admonitio generalis issued by Charlemagne in 789 ordered
that all the clergy should ‘learn the Roman chant thoroughly … in
conformity with what King Pippin strove to bring to pass when he abolished
the Gallican chant for the sake of unanimity with the Apostolic See’. The
only known evidence of opposition to such reforms may be found in the
strongly pro-Roman Ordo romanus XVI (Andrieu’s numbering) and an
anonymous 8th-century work (Ratio de cursus) tracing the origin of the
Gallican Divine Office and its ‘modulatio’ (ed. Hallinger, 1963, i, 77–91).
During the late 8th century and the early 9th the cantors and clergy of the
Gallican Church had to learn not only new liturgical texts but new ways of
chanting them. This process is recorded in the writings of some
contemporaries, notably Walahfrid Strabo and Hilduin, abbot of St Denis,
who observed in a letter (c835) that the abbey owned several Mass books
containing the ordo of the Gallican rite, and that these would need to be
recast to conform to the Roman tradition (MGH, Epistolae karolini aevi, iii,
Berlin, 1899, p.330). Aurelian of Réôme (fl 840s) also commented on the
difference in the way older cantors sang particular chants compared with
their younger contemporaries (see below, §7).
Considerable evidence exists to suggest that the reform of the chant
melodies was in many ways imperfect, and that the ‘Roman’ chant
performed by the Franks differed consistently from that sung in Rome itself
(see Old Roman chant, and Plainchant, §2(ii)). This Frankish version of the
Roman repertory is generally known as ‘Gregorian’ and is that preserved in
the notated manuscripts copied north of the Alps. By the end of the 9th
century the Gregorian tradition was fully established throughout the
Frankish lands and little obvious trace of its Gallican predecessor
remained; when Charles the Bald wanted to hear Gallican chant he had to
send to Toledo in Spain for singers who could perform it (see Levy, 1984,
p.50). Yet it is clear that some elements of Gallican music were preserved
during the centuries after the Carolingian reform. The Roman Office
chants, in particular, on their introduction into the liturgico-musical centres
of the Frankish realm, were adapted in some way to the Frankish style of
singing (Zijlstra, 1997, pp.31–67), and other vestiges of what may be
Gallican practice are generally thought to survive in melodic features such
as the preference for two reciting notes in psalmody, the importance of
melismatic chants and the use of certain expressive effects. The difficulties
involved in trying to identify musical characteristics with certainty, however,
has occupied chant scholars for over a century (some of the problems are
mentioned in §3 below). The following account discusses the major
sources of the Gallican rite and its chant, and surveys the corpus of
melodies that may be of Gallican origin according to their liturgical use.
Gallican chant
2. Sources.
Contemporary literature, stemming from Gaulish ecclesiastical authors,
includes the works of Gregory of Tours (d 594), most notably his Decem
libri historiarum, which contains many liturgical references, relating
particularly to the church of Tours; biographies of Merovingian saints;
monastic Rules, which derive principally from southern Gaul; collections of
conciliar decrees; poetry, sometimes later pressed into use as hymns; and
the Expositio antiquae liturgiae gallicanae, a commentary on the Gallican
Mass in the form of two letters, which were previously attributed to St
Germanus (d 576), Bishop of Paris. Preserved in a 9th-century manuscript
from the Tours area (F-AUT 184), the Expositio is thought to have been
written, possibly in Burgundy, in the early 8th century (although some
scholars consider it to be a much later, Carolingian work; see Hen, 1995,
pp.47–9); it offers valuable evidence of the Gallican liturgy, even though the
author’s interest centres mainly on the symbolism of the liturgy.
The eight surviving Gallican liturgical books, mostly dating from the late 7th
century or the 8th but containing texts that are much older, are either
collections of prayers for the celebrant (sacramentaries and missals) or
lectionaries, and their contents reflect the local uses of particular churches
or areas; chants are not cited. The sources are as follows: Expositio
antiquae liturgiae gallicanae (F-AUT 184, 9th century, from Autun; possibly
based on an earlier Merovingian text); Missale gothicum (I-Rvat
Reg.lat.317, early 8th century, Burgundy, written for a church in ?Autun;
based on an earlier text c690–c710); Missale gallicanum vetus (I-Rvat
Pal.lat.439, first half of the 8th century, from ?Luxeuil or ?Chelles;
recension of a missal from the late 6th century or early 7th); the Bobbio
Missal (F–Pn lat.13246, 8th century, probably from Septimania; formerly
thought to be from north Italy; copy of an earlier 6th-century text); Missale
francorum (I-Rvat Reg.lat.257, early 8th century, from Poitiers or the Seine
valley; based on texts of the 6th and 7th centuries); Missale vetus
gelasianum (I-Rvat lat.316, ff.3–245 and F-Pn lat.7193, ff.41–56, copied
c750 at Chelles; the text is a Gallicanized version of a 7th-century Roman
sacramentary and reflects Frankish traditions of the Paris/Meaux area);
‘Mone masses’ (D-KA Aug.253, 22 palimpsest folios, copied ?760–80, from
?Reichenau; based on a text probably dating from 630–40 and composed
for a Burgundian church). A fragmentary antiphoner in Irish script, F-Pn
n.a.lat.1628, ff.1–4 (see Morin, 1905), may be relevant, but it cannot be
dated precisely and its script and decoration suggest that it was Celtic
rather than Gallican (see Salmon, 1944–53, i, p.lxxxvii).
Remnants of the Gallican chant tradition must be sought mainly in the
Frankish liturgical books containing the Roman repertory. Some of the
chants were eventually adopted in the new liturgy, though not with their
original titles; they often seem to have been used for Frankish ceremonies
for which there was no Roman equivalent. A parallel may be drawn with the
survival of local styles in the diocese of Benevento after the imposition of
Gregorian chant there (see Beneventan chant). These Gallican elements
are not found in the earliest manuscripts after the Carolingian reform,
which are copies of the Roman archetype imposed by Pippin and
Charlemagne without additions or modifications. Few chants thought to be
Gallican occur in the earlier graduals, whether without notation (e.g. Codex
Blandiniensis, B-Br lat.10127–44) or with neumes (e.g. F-CHRm 47, LA
239, CH-SGs 359). But Gallican chants appear more frequently from the
11th century, particularly in manuscripts from St Denis or south-west
France (on the survival of Gallican chants at St Denis, see Robertson,
1985, and 1991, pp.261–71). They were added here and there as
alternative chants for festivals, or in the less official sections of liturgical
books, for example, as processional chants, which at this time were
separated from the gradual into a book of their own (the processional).
Gallican chants may also appear in tropers, processionals, and some
saint’s offices, and were sometimes used in liturgical dramas (W. Elders:
‘Gregorianisches in liturgischen Dramen der Hs. Orléans 201’, AcM, xxxvi,
1964, pp.169–77). They are also found occasionally in the liturgical books
of other Western Churches – Ambrosian, Celtic and Mozarabic – and these
are useful in drawing comparisons (see §3).
Gallican chant
3. Problems of identification.
The central difficulty facing scholars of Gallican chant is the lack of notated
sources. Because no notated Gallican chant book survives (it is unlikely
that any were written), evidence must be sought in the noted manuscripts
of other repertories – principally the Gregorian, but also the Mozarabic and
Ambrosian. This in turn leads to the question of how Gallican chants, or
Gallican elements within a chant, may be identified as distinct from the
chant tradition into which they have been adopted. Contemporary literature
mentioning particular features of Gallican music is sometimes of help in
indicating the character of the melodies, but such evidence is almost
always lacking in concrete details and hence open to considerable
interpretation. The most important means of identification remains the
comparison of melodies in notated sources, even though these sources
date from a century or more after the Gallican rite was suppressed. It must
also be remembered that the identification of a chant text as Gallican does
not necessarily mean that the music that accompanies it in notated sources
is also of the same origin.
Two separate comparisons are necessary in attempting to identify chants
from the early Gallican repertory. First, the earliest Gregorian manuscripts
of Mass and Office chants must be examined in order to distinguish the
‘Roman’ repertory imposed in Carolingian times from other chants in the
manuscripts. However, a number of these other chants are ‘Romano-
Frankish’ rather than Gallican, that is, they are part of the ‘Roman’
repertory composed in the Frankish empire during the 9th century though
somewhat different in style from the original Roman repertory.
Consequently, comparison is then required between these remaining
chants and chants with the same texts in Mozarabic, Ambrosian and Celtic
manuscripts. When concordances occur, the area of origin of the chants
must be determined. For this, three main criteria are employed (individually
or in combination): the evidence of liturgical books and other literary
evidence, the literary style of the texts, and the musical style.
The results of such comparative procedures have nevertheless proved
generally inconclusive (see, for example, Levy’s 1984 analysis of a group
of offertory chants) and hardly permit the construction of a complete
inventory of Gallican chants. The original functions of chants that have
often been recognized as Gallican frequently resist identification: in the
manuscripts they are never given their ancient liturgical titles – sonus,
confractorium etc. Moreover, the Gallican Mass and Office must have
required a larger repertory of chants than the Roman. The long, ornate
antiphons may perhaps have been sung at Mass, or the ‘responsories’
such as Collegerunt (actually an antiphon with verse) may have been used
as offertory chants, but firm evidence is lacking.
During the latter decades of the 20th century, a number of other
approaches were adopted by scholars. Jean Claire of Solesmes used a
method of tonal rather than stylistic analysis to identify the origins of the
Gregorian repertory, and concluded that melodies of the Gallican rite may
be distinguished from the Roman by their use of a particular ‘modality’.
According to his theory, three fundamental ‘modes archaïques’ (Do, Ré, Mi)
underlie all Western chants; Gallican Office melodies are characterized by
the ‘Ré’ modality, whereas Roman chants are based only on ‘Do’ and ‘Mi’
(see Claire, 1975). The theory has been expanded to include the Mass
repertory, not only by Claire himself but also by Philippe Bernard and
Olivier Cullin, who have focussed attention on sections of the Roman Mass
Proper containing exceptionally large numbers of melodies in the ‘Ré’
mode (e.g. Advent); such chants, they argue, must have been adopted by
Rome from the Gallican liturgy at an early date (i.e. the 6th century). Cullin
(1993) suggested that only melodies in the 2nd (‘Ré’) mode are of Gallican
origin, whereas Bernard (1990–92) claimed that the entire Roman Advent
Proper was borrowed from the Gallican liturgy. However, these theories
have not found universal acceptance. In particular, there is no evidence to
support the assumption that the Gallican rite ever possessed a chant
Proper, and the reliability of the Old Roman manuscripts (dating from the
11th–13th centuries) as sources for the chant melodies of 8th- and 9th-
century Rome has been questioned. Furthermore, in the absence of
notated sources earlier than the 9th century, it is highly unlikely that the
music attached to a particular feast in later medieval manuscripts bears
much resemblance to the melody sung when that feast was first
established in the liturgy.
A different approach was adopted by James McKinnon, who examined the
contemporary literary sources concerning the contexts and manner in
which Gallican chant was performed before the Carolingian reforms. His
argument is based on a distinction (originally articulated by Claire, 1962,
pp.231–5) between ‘lector’ chant and ‘schola’ chant. The former is
characteristic of the early Christian period and is essentially a soloist’s art
whereby a solo singer – often called ‘lector’ in early documents – sings in
alternation with the congregation; this type of chant is almost entirely
improvised and the repertory is not fixed. ‘Schola’ chant, as the name
suggests, is the product of a specialist choir and is characterized by a high
degree of organization, in particular through the maintenance of a fixed
repertory (i.e. a musical Proper); such chant seems to have developed in
Rome from about the mid-7th century with the formation of the Schola
Cantorum and is also considered to be typical of the Mozarabic and
Ambrosian repertories. In a survey of the literary sources concerning the
Gallican Church, McKinnon concluded that the conditions did not exist in
Francia before the Carolingian era for the creation of a ‘schola’ repertory;
all the evidence suggests that the chants were performed by soloists, that
there was no sense of a Proper for either the texts or the music, and that
there was no choir or group of singers that could provide the stability
necessary for the creation or preservation of a fixed musical repertory. For
this reason, he argued, it is implausible that a large number of melodies in
the Gregorian repertory could have originally been Gallican (McKinnon,
1995). In other words, one of the most important defining characteristics of
the Gallican tradition – its improvised nature – was lost with the imposition
by the Carolingians of the largely fixed melodies of the Roman Church;
hence even chants within the Gregorian repertory that are generally
recognized as being ‘Gallican’ cannot be considered as examples of the
genuine pre-Carolingian tradition.
The various theories behind the methods of identifying Gallican chants are
closely bound up with the theories concerning the history of Gregorian
chant, its relation to the other medieval monophonic traditions, and the
differing effects of oral and written means of transmission on a repertory; all
of these are the subject of heated debate (see, for example, Hucke, 1980;
and Levy, 1987). The history of particular chants and their transmission
remains unclear, although with the help of liturgical and historical sources
convincing results have been found (see McKinnon, 1992). However, to
what extent Gallican chants were retained as part of the Gregorian
repertory is still a matter of conjecture.
Gallican chant
4. Liturgical evidence.
Chant incipits in Gallican sacramentaries and lectionaries very occasionally
correspond with those of chants in noted Gregorian graduals and
antiphoners, but such correspondences are sometimes coincidental. A
responsory Probasti mentioned in the Missale gothicum (ed. Bannister,
1917–19, no.398, p.112) and a responsory Exaltent eum cited in the
lectionary of Wolfenbüttel (see A. Dold, ed.: Das Sakramentar im
Schabcodex M 12, Beuron, 1952, p.14) may not be the Gregorian graduals
Probasti and Exaltent; and the responsorium Domine audivi for Good
Friday in the Missale gallicanum vetus (ed. Mohlberg, 1929, p.27) is either
an interpolated Gregorian chant or a different Gallican chant resembling
either the tract Domine audivi or the Ambrosian psalmellus with the same
incipit (see Suñol, 1935, p.290).
A similar difficulty arises with the antiphon Sanctus Deus archangelorum,
cited in the second letter of the Expositio antiquae liturgiae gallicanae as a
substitute for the Benedictus during Lent (ed. Ratcliff, 1971, no.4, p.18).
Gastoué (1939) claimed that this was the antiphon Sanctus Deus qui
sedes super cherubim (see also B. Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1306), but his
identification seems impossible, not only because the incipit is different but
also because the chant is found almost exclusively in Italian manuscripts.
By contrast, certain Gallican elements may be identified in Aquitanian
manuscripts with concordances elsewhere. These include the preces for
Holy Saturday, in the Bobbio Missal, whose refrain (presa) appears in
Aquitanian manuscripts. Three other Gallican preces in Aquitanian
manuscripts (Miserere Pater juste, Miserere Domine supplicantibus and
Rogamus te Rex seculorum) have textual concordances in Spanish
sources (see Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’, 1955, p.361). The antiphon
Introeunte te, a Latin translation of a troparion originally from Jerusalem,
occurs in Aquitanian processionals and Spanish manuscripts; it was cited
in a gradual from Pistoia as ‘antiphonas gallicanas’. There are similar
concordances of the Benedicite (see L. Brou: ‘Les benedictiones, ou
Cantique des Trois Enfants dans l’ancienne messe espagnole’, Hispania
sacra, i, 1948, pp.21–33), the Trisagion (see Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1303–5)
and the antiphon Viri sancti. The Viri sancti is not Gallican, however: a
comparison of the texts in the Aquitanian and Spanish versions (see Brou
and Vives, 1953, p.186) with the scriptural text (2 Esdras viii.52–5 in the
Apocrypha) shows that the Spanish text preceded the Aquitanian.
Some Gallican chants may be identified with the help of evidence from
Celtic manuscripts. The Bangor Antiphonary, which was copied at the end
of the 7th century and is strongly associated with Bobbio, includes a
communion antiphon of Eastern origin, Corpus Domini accepimus (see
Baumstark, 3/1953, p.105). This chant occurs as a transitorium at Milan
(Suñol, 1935, p.320) and as a confractorium in some north Italian graduals,
but the latter include a clause ‘adjutor et defensor …’, which suggests that
the chant was not originally Ambrosian (see Huglo, ‘Antifone antiche’,
1955); it probably had its Western origin in the Gallican rite.
The same Celtic manuscript at Bobbio includes the hymn Mediae noctis
tempus est, whose melody was identified by Stäblein (1956, p.448, melody
761; see also MGG1, iv, 1323). The melodies of other Celtic confractoria
(e.g. in the Stowe Missal) and other hymns may not have survived,
although the Maundy antiphon Si ego lavi with the verse ‘Exemplum’ in the
Stowe Missal also appears, with the same verse, in certain Aquitanian
manuscripts. Usually, however, the verses of antiphons, unnecessary in the
Gregorian rite, were simply suppressed or transferred to other contexts by
medieval scribes. (See Celtic chant.)
Some Gallican chants occur as Ambrosian chants with Gregorian
concordances, such as the antiphon Maria et Martha (Hesbert, 1935/R,
no.214), which has the same text as an Ambrosian transitorium (Suñol,
1935, p.226), and the antiphon Insignes praeconiis (Stäblein, MGG1, iv,
1311, cf 1309). The latter was used for the feast of St Denis but had
originally been composed for St Maurice; it is still used for St Maurice in the
Ambrosian antiphoner (Suñol, 1935, p.536). Another such chant is the
preces Dicamus omnes (Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1313). The antiphon Venite
populi, of Gallican origin, is found in some 30 Gregorian manuscripts and in
a palimpsest from the 7th or 8th century; it sometimes carries the rubric ‘In
fractione’ and occurs as a transitorium at Milan (see Huglo and others,
1956, p.124).
The Palm Sunday processional antiphon Cum audisset, probably of
Gallican origin, contains in its text a clause ‘Quantus est iste cui throni et
dominationes occurrunt?’, which is found in two other chants, one the
Spanish Curbati sunt (Brou and Vives, 1953, p.151) and the other the
Ambrosian Curvati sunt (Suñol, 1935, p.246). This borrowing of fragments
of text from various sources, or ‘centonization’, is common in Gallican
liturgical formulae. Similarly, a Gallican origin may be assumed for the
antiphons Post passionem Domini and O crux benedicta quae sola, which
have concordances in the Ambrosian antiphoner (Suñol, 1935, pp.218,
274; cf G.M. Suñol, ed.: Liber vesperalis juxta ritum sanctae ecclesiae
mediolanensis, Rome, 1939, p.356).
The Ambrosian alleluias offer evidence relevant to the Gallican alleluias. In
the Ambrosian rite, as in the Gregorian, the alleluias are followed by
verses, but the initial alleluias are not always repeated as they would be in
the Gregorian rite. Instead, longer alleluias – melodiae primae – are sung,
resembling the initial alleluias only in their incipits; and these were formerly
followed by even longer melodiae secundae (not in modern editions of
Ambrosian chant). There were thus three alleluias in increasing order of
length, all with the same incipits but otherwise similar only in tonality
(Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1316; cf MGG1, i, 337). One of these melismatic
melodies was styled ‘alleluia francigena’ at Milan (Stäblein, MGG1, i, 339);
and melodiae longissimae, analogous to the Milanese melodiae, began to
appear in the late 8th century in Francia under the name sequentia
(Hesbert, 1935/R, no.199a, MS B; see also Sequence (i)). In northern
France and at St Gallen they were sung in about 830 (ed. Hughes,
1934/R); and at Cluny these long wordless melismas were sung as late as
the 11th century: an 11th-century gradual terms them melodiae annuales
(F-Pn lat.1087, f.108) and the melismas gallicana neuma (Udalric:
Consuetudines cluniacenses: PL, cxlix, 666).
The melismatic melodies edited by Bannister and Hughes (see Hughes,
1934/R) probably represent a part of the Gallican repertory, though with
some modifications to bring them into conformity with Gregorian chant. The
Gallican alleluias were probably sung in a threefold form at Mass as well as
in the alleluiaticus of the Office (‘habet ipsa alleluia prima et secunda et
tertia’; see Ratcliff, 1971, p.13, no.20).
The melodiae of the alleluias are also relevant to a consideration of the
Christmas responsory Descendit de caelis, which has a long melisma at
‘fabricae mundi’ (noted by Amalarius of Metz in about 830 in his Liber de
ordine antiphonarii; ed. J.M. Hanssens, Vatican City, 1950, pp.55–6) and
another melisma in the verse at ‘tamquam’ identical to the melisma, or
neuma triplex, of the responsory In medio ecclesiae (also mentioned by
Amalarius, ibid., 54). The structure of these melismas resembles that of the
melodiae of Ambrosian responsories.
A chant of Gallican origin with a Mozarabic parallel is the offertory of St
Stephen, Elegerunt apostoli, in the León Antiphoner. This chant gradually
superseded the offertory In virtute in the Gregorian tradition (see Hesbert,
1935/R, no.12). Its earliest known occurrence is in a manuscript from St
Denis (ibid., no.148bis, MS ‘S’), and it is found even today in the Graduale
romanum (p.634). It is possible that other offertories whose texts are
similar or identical to Mozarabic sacrificia (the Mozarabic equivalent of the
offertory) may also have retained some Gallican musical features (see
Levy, 1984).
Liturgical and textual evidence proves that two of the chants of Holy
Saturday are Gallican: the Exultet and the hymn Inventor rutili. These
should have disappeared when the Roman rite was introduced into Francia
but were retained, probably because the Roman Easter Vigil seemed too
austere to the Franks. There are difficulties, however, in reconstructing any
‘original’ Gallican melody of the Exultet from the various recitatives that
survive (see G. Benoit-Castelli: ‘Le Praeconium paschale’, Ephemerides
liturgicae, lxvii, 1953, pp.309–34). In Gallican sacramentaries the Exultet
ends with a collect (prayer); this is followed by a second, styled post
hymnum cerei (‘after the hymn of the [Paschal] candle’). The hymn in
question is in fact Inventor rutili, whose text was composed by Prudentius;
it was probably a part of the daily Gallican Office of Lucernarium and
survives in many Gaulish and German manuscripts as a part of the solemn
Lucernarium for the Easter Vigil (ed. G.M. Dreves, AH, l, 1907, p.30;
melody in Stäblein, 1956, no.1001; see also Combe, 1952, p.128).
Further liturgical comparisons may be made with those Ordines romani that
include Gallican material; with the exception of Ordo I, all the Ordines are
of Frankish composition and, for the most part, present a mixture of Roman
and Frankish elements. The 8th-century Ordo XV (Andrieu’s numbering),
for example, specifies for the Requiem Mass the introit Donet nobis
requiem (see Andrieu, 1931–61, iii, 127). This introit, which appears in
many Aquitanian manuscripts, including that of Albi (F-Pn lat.776), is
probably Gallican (melody ed. C. Gay, ‘Formulaires anciens pour la Messe
des défunts’, EG, ii, 1957, pp.83–129, esp. 91, 128).
Gallican chant
5. Style of the texts.
A distinct vocabulary and style characterizes the texts of the Gallican
liturgy. The style of the Roman collects and prefaces is rigorously precise in
theological formulation and concise in vocabulary: prayer is always
addressed to the Father through the Son, and petitions are concisely
expressed. By contrast, Gallican prayers develop various aspects of a
theme, with an accumulation of rhetorical figures such as repetitions,
redundancies, antitheses and metaphors; and the rich and colourful
vocabulary contrasts strongly with that of the Roman liturgy (see Manz,
1941). Gallican prayers are introduced with an admonition (praefatio)
announcing the theme; these occur at Rome only before the solemn
prayers of the Good Friday liturgy. Prayers in the Gallican rite were
frequently addressed to the Son and Holy Spirit.
Some conventional rhetorical phrases are characteristically Gallican: the
gospels in the Gallican lectionaries generally begin ‘In diebus illis’ or
‘Diebus illis’, rather than ‘In illo tempore’, the Roman formula. For this
reason the antiphon In diebus illis mulier may be taken to be Gallican; it is
prescribed for St Mary Magdalene (22 July) in some late antiphoners (see
Hesbert, 1965, ii, nos.102, 146, 4), but more frequently for Maundy
Thursday (see Hesbert, 1963, i, nos.72c, 147, and in some Aquitanian
manuscripts), and it was probably originally part of the Holy Week liturgy in
Gaul.
Another such conventional formula is ‘Dominus Jesus’, in the Milanese and
Gallican lectionaries (see Salmon, 1944–53, p.lxxxviii). Chants including
this phrase may have a Gallican origin, for example, the antiphon Cena
facta est sciens Dominus Jesus found in Aquitanian manuscripts. The
antiphon for the Dedication of a Church, Pax eterna, also begins with a
characteristically Gallican phrase (see Manz, 1941, no.700).
In biblical texts there are characteristic divergences from the Vulgate
version, for example, in the alleluia with the verse ‘Multifarie’, which is not
identical to its Gregorian counterpart and whose reading is reproduced
precisely in the lectionary of Luxeuil (ed. Salmon, 1944–53, p.9). Some of
the Maundy (mandatum) chants follow the ancient Latin biblical text used in
Gaul (ed. A. Dold, Das Sakramentar im Schabcodex M 12, Beuron, 1952,
p.25); the 11th-century scribe who copied the antiphon Cena facta into the
Albi manuscript (F-Pn lat.776, f.62) wrote ‘Venit ergo’ under the influence of
the Vulgate version, but a contemporary hand restored the Gallican
reading, ‘autem’.
Textual analysis of the Aquitanian chant manuscripts, especially F-Pn
lat.776 from Albi, would probably reveal further chants of Gallican origin.
(On the Gallican Psalter, see §8 below.)
Gallican chant
6. Musical style.
Walahfrid Strabo spoke of the distinctive style, in both text and sound, of
Gallican chants (see quotation in §1 above); and the chants identifiable
according to textual criteria exhibit certain musical peculiarities, in
intonation formulae, in melismas and cadences and in the use of distinctive
neumes. However, these criteria cannot be used in isolation to identify
Gallican chants; after the imposition of the Gregorian repertory in Francia,
chant composition continued for a time along traditional lines. Thus a
distinction between the older Gallican repertory and chants composed
shortly after the Carolingian reform cannot be made on purely musical
grounds.
At a second intonation, following an intermediate cadence, the pattern
shown in ex.1 is possibly a Gallican characteristic; another characteristic
may be the use of sequential patterns for a descent (ex.2).

The greater antiphons often feature exuberant melismas, like those in

Ambrosian and Mozarabic chant, and in this they differ markedly from the
Gregorian repertory. In melismatic chants a longer or shorter melisma
generally occurs on the penultimate or antepenultimate syllable; if the final
word is ‘alleluia’, it is the antepenultimate syllable rather than the first or
last ‘a’ that carries the melisma, as in Mozarabic chant (see L. Brou:
‘L’alleluia dans la liturgie mozarabe’, AnM, vi, 1951, pp.3–90). These final
melismas occur in the following chants, otherwise identified as Gallican:
Elegerunt, Venite populi, O crux benedicta quae, Cum Rex gloriae (in
which the melisma contains more than 80 notes) and Factus est repente.
A distinctive neume, the pes stratus, occurs only in chants composed in
Francia (whether Gallican or Romano-Frankish). It is a pes (podatus) in
which the second note carries an oriscus as well (ex.3), and it usually
occurs during a melisma or at intermediate cadences (e.g. in the extended
jubilus melisma sung in the repetition of the alleluia after the verse). The
neume indicates an interval of a major 2nd or minor 3rd (see illustration)
and is found in the following chants, which may be of Gallican origin: O
crux benedicta (at ‘alleluia’), Cum audisset (at ‘sedens’ and ‘salve’), Ave
rex noster (at ‘et’), Collegerunt (at ‘ab’), Elegerunt (at ‘-gerunt’ and
‘plenum’) and Factus est repente(at ‘replevit’, twice; this offertory, in the
late 8th-century B-Br lat.10127–44, occurs also in nine Beneventan
manuscripts; see Hesbert, 1963, p.62).

The formulaic method of composition known as Centonizationis another

feature thought to be characteristic of the old Gallican repertory, as of the
other ancient repertories. In the antiphons Cum audisset and Ave Rex
noster, for instance, the passages in which the pes stratus occurs are
musically virtually identical; a passage in the Maundy antiphon Vos vocatis
me with the verse ‘Surgit’ is also found, note for note, in an antiphon
Gentem of the ancient Office of St Remigius (ex.4). Identical phrases occur
also in the antiphons Salvator omnium and Hodie illuxit nobis (Stäblein,
MGG1, iv, 1311). The chant Elegerunt and the offertory Factus est repente
share the same intonation, and the final alleluia of Factus est repente
resembles the alleluia of the antiphon Venite populi.

Gallican chant
7. The Mass.
The structure of the Gallican Mass and the nature of its chants can to some
extent be reconstructed from information in a variety of sources, especially
the first of the two letters of the Expositio antiquae liturgiae gallicanae(ed.
Ratcliff, 1971). The items from the Mass are listed below in their liturgical
order.
(i) Antiphona ad praelegendum.
This chant preceded the lections; it is found (with the same name and
function) in the Spanish liturgy. Like its Roman counterpart, the introit, but
unlike the equivalent Ambrosian ingressa, it included psalm verses: the
verses ad repetendum in some ancient Gregorian graduals from north
France may be of Gallican origin.
(ii) Call for silence.
A recitative for this type of diaconal admonition occurs in a processional
from St Peter at Cologne (D-KNa G A 89b (anc.W.105), f.7v; cf RISM,
B/XIV/1, 217; see ex.5). According to the Expositio, this enabled the
congregation better to hear the word of God (‘ut tacens populus melius
audiat verbum Dei’; ed. Ratcliff, 1971, p.3, no.2). The call for silence was
followed by the greeting ‘Dominus sit semper vobiscum’ and the answer ‘Et
cum spiritu tuo’, and the collect.
(iii) Aius (Trisagion).
The term ‘aius’ is a corruption of ‘hagios’ (Gk.: ‘holy’): the letter ‘g’ was
dropped, as occurred also in the tonal formula noeais, for noeagis. The
chant was intoned by the priest and continued by the choir in Greek and
Latin (‘dicens latinum cum greco’); it was followed by the Kyrie eleison,
which was probably not sung, but recited by three boys in unison (‘uno
ore’) as at Milan. The Trisagion was mistakenly written as ‘Trecanum’ in F-
AUT 184 (see Bernard, ‘La “Liturgie de la victoire”’, 1996).
(iv) Benedictus (Prophetia).
This, the Canticle of Zechariah (Luke i.68–79), was probably intoned by the
priest (Gregory of Tours, Decem libri historiarium, viii, 7: MGH, Scriptores
rerum merovingiarum, i, 1951/R, 330). The Benedictus was replaced during
Lent by the antiphon Sanctus Deus archangelorum (see Ratcliff, 1971,
p.18, no.4). It was followed by a collect (collectio post prophetiam).
(v) Hymnus trium puerorum (Benedictiones, Benedicite).
The synaxis proper began with three readings; the position of this canticle
is not clear from the Expositio (Ratcliff, 1971, p.5, no.6), but it probably
separated the first two readings, the lectio prophetica (from the Old
Testament) and the lectio ex apostolo (drawn not only from the epistles but
also from Acts, Revelation and even the martyrology, according to the
festival).
(vi) Responsorium.
This chant was probably ornate and was sung by boys (‘a parvulis canitur’);
in the latter feature it recalls the responsories cum infantibus of the
Ambrosian rite. It replaced an ancient psalmus responsorius, sung by a
deacon, with the congregation singing a brief responsorium after each
verse (Gregory of Tours, op.cit., 328, cf 694).
(vii) Antiphona ante evangelium.
This antiphon was sung during the procession of the deacon to the ambo
from which the Gospel was read, and was followed by the chanting of the
Gospel by the deacon. The Ambrosian rite provides antiphons of this type
for Christmas, Epiphany and Easter, but at no other time; there is, however,
a complete series of Ambrosian antiphons to follow the Gospel (post
evangelium).
(viii) Sanctus post evangelium.
During the return of the Gospel procession from the ambo, the Sanctus
was sung by the clerics in Latin. Although a passage in the early 7th-
century vita of St Gaugericus, Bishop of Cambrai, suggests that Greek was
used (‘aius, aius, aius per trinum numerum imposuit’: ed. in Analecta
bollandiana, vii, 1888, p.393), the reference here may be to the earlier
Trisagion (see §7(iii) above) or to the Sanctus after the Preface (see §7(xii)
below). This chant was followed by the reading of a patristic homily.
(ix) Preces.
Numerous Gallican preces survive in Aquitanian manuscripts. They take
the form of a litany in which a deacon chants numerous supplications for
the spiritual and temporal needs of the people, and each is followed by a
short congregational response, ‘Domine miserere’, ‘Kyrie eleison’, ‘Dona
nobis veniam’ etc. (see §13 below).
(x) Dismissal of the catechumens.
A melody for this item, chanted by the deacon, survives in D-KNa G A 89b
(see ex.6). Ordo XV, a Gallicanized Roman ceremonial written in Francia in
the 8th century, has a text varying slightly from this.

(xi) Sonus.
This ornate chant (‘dulci melodia’) was sung during the solemn Procession
of the Oblations from the altar of the prothesis (proskomidē) to the high
altar. The Expositio expounded its symbolism at length (ed. Ratcliff, 1971,
p.10, no.17). The sonus was equated with the Roman offertory by the
Capitulare ecclesiastici ordinis (‘offerenda quod Franci dicunt sonum’; see
Andrieu, 1931–61, iii, 123) It concluded with a triple alleluia, except during
Lent.
(xii) Sanctus.
After the immolatio missae (contestatio), corresponding to the Preface in
the Roman Mass, which was chanted by the priest, the Sanctus followed. It
was adopted even though it interrupts to some extent the continuity of the
Consecration Prayer, and even though a Sanctus occurred earlier in the
Gallican Mass; and it was followed by a transitional prayer, beginning ‘Vere
sanctus’.
(xiii) Fraction antiphon.
In Francia the Fraction occurred before rather than after the Lord’s Prayer
(see Ratcliff, 1971, p.15, no.24b), and an antiphon was sung by the clerics.
In Spain and at Milan this was termed the confractorium. There are
frequent concordances between Ambrosian confractoria and Roman
communions. On the other hand, Ambrosian transitoria, which are
equivalent in liturgical function to the Roman communions, are often drawn
rather from oriental or Gallican Fraction chants.
(xiv) Pater noster.
In Gaul, North Africa and Spain, this was sung by the whole congregation.
(xv) Episcopal benediction.
A solemn benediction was pronounced by the bishop; the formula was
shortened if the celebrant was simply a priest (see Ratcliff, 1971, p.15,
no.26). After the Council of Agde (506) the faithful were not permitted to
leave the church before this benediction. It was preceded by a preliminary
admonition from the deacon, ‘Humiliate vos ad benedictionem’ (melody,
from a Soissons manuscript, in Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1318; melody in ex.7,
from a Cluniac manuscript from St Martin-des-Champs, F-Pn lat.17716,
f.14, in Hesbert, 1956, p.217). The verses of the benediction were then
chanted by the bishop, with the response ‘Amen’ from the congregation
(melody in Hesbert, 1956, p.216–17). This practice survived in many
churches until a late date.

Gallican chant
8. The Office.
Evidence relating to the Gallican Divine Office is much more scarce than
that for the Mass. Practice varied from church to church, for example, in the
ordering of the Psalter and in the number and choice of antiphons and
responsories; until the reforms of the early 9th century, monastic
communitites generally composed their own regula and cursus. Most of the
surviving evidence concerns the Offices celebrated at Tours, the
monasteries of south-east France, including Lérins, and St Maurice at
Agaune in the Burgundian Kingdom, where the monks were committed to
singing the Office uninterruptedly, according to the practice known as laus
perennis (see Gindele, 1959). In addition, several regulae incorporating a
cursus survive from the monasteries established in Burgundy by the Irish
monk Columbanus from 590, who exerted a considerable influence on
monasticism in Gaul. Columbanus’s own Regula was particularly ascetic
and his followers often combined it with the Regula Benedicti. In the early
9th century, however, religious communities were required to follow either
the Regula Benedicti or the secular ‘Roman’ cursus.
In broad outline the Divine Office of the Frankish and German cathedrals
resembled that of other regions. There was a night Office, divided into
various nocturns, with a hymn, psalms and lessons. According to Amalarius
of Metz, writing in the first half of the 9th century, the Pater noster was sung
at the end of each nocturn. The psalms, and after the Council of Narbonne
in 589 (canon 2) also the sections of longer psalms, concluded with the
Lesser Doxology, Gloria Patri, to which the phrase ‘Sicut erat’ was added at
the Second Council of Vaison (529); churches near Spain adopted the
distinctive Spanish doxology, ‘Gloria et honor Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto
in secula seculorum’ (see Ward, 1935, p.73). Some of the lessons for the
night Office are indicated in the Lectionary of Luxeuil (see Salmon, 1944–
53, ix, 57). The Te Deum, a hymn of Gallican origin, was sung at the night
Office on Sundays and festivals (see Kähler, 1958).
The dawn Office included psalms and biblical canticles. From the 6th
century, the Benedicite and the alleluiaticum (i.e. Psalms cxlviii–cl) were
recited at this Office on Sundays (Gregory of Tours, De vitis patrum, vii:
MGH, Scriptores rerum merovingiarum, i, 1951/R, 685). The Gloria in
excelsis (Greater Doxology) was sung at Lauds in Gaul and Spain, and at
Milan; it was not a part of the Mass.
The day Hours (Prime, Terce, Sext and None) included one hymn each and
psalms. Lucernarium (at the ‘lighting of lamps’, i.e. at sunset) included a
greater responsory, as in the Ambrosian and Spanish rites, and a metrical
hymn when these were admitted. In cathedrals, Lucernarium ended with an
episcopal benediction. The sequence of Offices concluded with Vespers
and Compline (Duodecima).
The chants of the Gallican Offices thus resemble those of other regions:
they comprise psalms, antiphons with verses, lessons, greater
responsories and (in most churches) hymns.
Local liturgical variants appear in a number of areas. The ancient Gallican
psalters (e.g. the Psalterium corbeiense, the Psalterium sangermanense
and the psalters of Reichenau; see Capelle, 1925) differ in text from the
Italic versions (see liturgical Psalter), and their list of Lauds canticles is
different from that of Rome (see Schneider, 1949, p.483). Similarly, the
Tours antiphoner differs from that of Marseilles (see Leclercq, 1924,
col.588), and that of Toulouse differs from those of Autun and Paris.
Metrical hymns were composed in Italy and Gaul from the late 4th century.
Although in the Carolingian era some churches, such as those of Lyons
and Vienne, are known to have excluded hymnody (as Walahfrid Strabo
commented: ‘in some churches metrical hymns [hymni metrici] are not
sung’) on the grounds that the texts were non-biblical, in general hymn
singing seems to have been a popular aspect of the Gallican liturgy, and
various influences may be noted. In south-east France the hymnal of Milan
exerted an influence: Bishop Faustus of Riez (fl 5th century) noted that the
hymn Veni Redemptor gentium was sung almost throughout Gaul (Epistola
ad graecum diac; ed. A. Engelbrecht, Fausti Reiensis Praeter sermones
pseudo-eusebianos opera, Vienna, 1891, p.203); and St Caesarius of Arles
(d 543) in his Regula ad virgines (ed. G. Morin, S. Caesarii Arelatensi
episcopi Regula sanctarum virginum, Cologne, 1932, p.23) prescribed the
hymn Christe qui lux es et dies for Compline; as a means of retaining the
attention of the laity, Caesarius also introduced hymns into the celebration
of Mass. The Irish hymnal exerted an influence in an area limited mainly to
Francia north of the Loire and Germany (see preface to AH, lii, Leipzig,
1909); and there was Spanish influence in south-west Gaul (see Wagner,
1928). For the repertory of known Gallican hymns see §11 below.
Gallican chant
9. Special rites.
The Gallican rite had a richer repertory of special rites than the Roman. A
solemn translation of relics, accompanied by chants, was prescribed at the
Dedication of a Church. At baptisms the feet of the neophytes were
washed while chants from the Maundy Thursday liturgy were sung: this
ceremony was distinctly non-Roman (see Schäfer, 1956). At Extreme
Unction the priest chanted antiphons while administering the rites, a
practice also common to Spain.
Processions were instituted by Claudianus Mamertus, Bishop of Vienne (d
c475), on Rogation days (the three days before Ascension Day). These
were adopted in the Ambrosian and Spanish rites, but not until a later date
at Rome because a similar processional litany was instituted there on 25
April. Gallican processions were long and must have required more chants
(antiphons and litanies) than the Roman processions; some of these
Gallican chants survived well into the Middle Ages. (See Processional.)
Gallican chant
10. Psalmody.
In Gaul, as throughout Western Christendom, the psalms were originally
sung responsorially: a lector, or a psalmist belonging (according to the
canons of the late 5th-century Statuta ecclesiae antiqua of southern Gaul)
to the lesser clergy, would recite the psalm, and the congregation would
sing a short refrain (responsorium) to a very simple melody after each
verse or pair of verses. The responsorium might be drawn from the psalm
itself, or other brief responses such as ‘alleluia’ might be used.
Responsoria of this type, indicated by an initial ‘R’ in gold, occur in the
Gallican Psalterium sangermanense (F-Pn lat.11947); an alleluia written in
gold should be considered a responsorium: for Psalm xliv the
responsorium was ‘Adferentur regi virgines postea’; for Psalm l ‘Asperges
me hyssopo et mundabor’; for Psalm lvi ‘Paratum cor meum Deus’; and for
Psalm cix ‘Juravit Dominus nec penitebit eum’. (For a list of responsoria,
see Huglo, 1982.)
Responsorial psalmody of this type was replaced in Francia by antiphonal
psalmody, but hardly any psalmody different from the Gregorian survives. It
is not known whether a melodic variation occurred at the mediation,
midway through each verse, or whether this mediation was reduced to a
simple pause on the reciting note, as in Ambrosian or Mozarabic psalmody,
because the surviving evidence may have been ‘corrected’ according to
Gregorian procedure. (In the 16th century the mediation was adopted in
this way in the Ambrosian rite in direct imitation of Roman practice.)
Psalm tones that seem to be of Gallican origin are shown in ex.8. The first
two occur in the Commemoratio brevis (GerbertS, i, 213–14; Bailey, 1979),
an anonymous treatise of Benedictine origin composed in the late 9th
century in the area between the Seine and Rhine. Besides the usual eight
Gregorian psalm tones, two special tones are given for antiphonal
psalmody. One is the tonus peregrinus (‘wandering tone’), so named in the
12th century because it included two reciting notes and was foreign to the
Gregorian system of eight tones (in which only one reciting note is found in
each tone). This tone was mentioned by Aurelian of Réôme (fl 840s) in his
Musica disciplina: ‘quemadmodum ab antiquis, ita a modernis modo
canuntur’ (‘as it was by the old, it should be sung by the moderns’; ed.
Gushee, 1975, p.110). The third tone in ex.8 is the melody of the Gallican
Te Deum, which is in essence a simple psalm tone with two reciting notes.
Ex.9 shows a further psalm tone with two reciting notes, from the 1736
Ventimiglia breviary, where it is described as ‘from the ancient use … of the
church of Paris’ and probably represents a corrupt version of a Gallican
psalm tone.

Ex.10 shows two somewhat more complex psalm tones, with an antiphonal
alleluia. The alleluia is sung once after the first verse, twice after the
second group of verses and three times after the last group. The reciting
note varies from group to group. This type of psalmody survived in
manuscripts from Rouen and in some Anglo-Norman manuscripts. A psalm
tone corresponding to the Gallican alleluiaticum, that is, Psalms cxlviii–cl
(ex.11), is found in pre-13th-century Gregorian antiphoners as part of the
alleluiatic Office for Septuagesima (see Oury, 1965, p.98).
Gallican chant
11. Hymnody.
Three Gallican prose hymns are known: the Te Deum, the Gloria in
excelsis and the hymn for the night Office, Magna et mirabilia opera
tua(Revelation xv.3), mentioned by St Caesarius of Arles and surviving in
the Gallican hymnal of a psalter (I-Rvat Reg.lat.11).
The melody of the Te Deum consists of two sections. The first, ending at
‘sanguine redemisti’, is a Gallican psalm tone with two reciting notes (see
§7 above and ex.8). The melody of the section ‘Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus’
is the same as that used in the Ambrosian Mass. The second main section
consists of a series of psalm verses (capitella) that originally formed part of
the Gloria in excelsis, the hymn of Matins; the manuscript tradition poses
difficult problems of interpretation (see Frost, 1933, p.250). The
construction of the melody changes at the beginning of the second section
(‘Aeterna fac’): no general conclusions can be drawn regarding this part of
the melody.
Textual variants suggest that the Gallican melody of the Gloria in excelsis
was Gloria XV of the Vatican edition of the gradual. Its features include a
syllabic melody, a defective scale and a very archaic structure; the
intonation is identical to that of the Te Deum (ex.12). The antiquity of this
melody is suggested by the text: characteristically Gallican variants
(‘hymnum dicimus tibi’, ‘propter gloriam tuam magnam’ etc.) are found in
manuscripts, both noted and with neumes, containing this melody. Some
Western manuscripts include a Greek version of the Gloria, and this may
have belonged to the Gallican repertory (see Huglo, 1950, p.35).
The texts of the Gallican metrical hymns survive in two substantially
identical versions: the Psautier de la reine (I-Rvat Reg.lat.11) from northern
France between Paris, Corbie and Soissons, and the Murbach hymnal
(GB-Ob Junius 25). The former is supported by evidence from a Corbie
hymnal (F-Pn lat.14088) and the latter corresponds with the hymnal of
Rheinau (CH-Zz Rh.34), which is incomplete. Almost all the hymns in these
manuscripts are metrical.
The following list of Gallican hymns can be reconstructed on the basis of
these manuscripts. The hymns are remarkably ancient: those borrowed
from Milan predate the addition of the so-called Maximianus series to that
liturgy in the mid-7th century (see Huglo and others, 1956, p.85). Moreover,
this list contains no hymns by Prudentius (348–after 405), Paulinus of Nola
(353/4–431) or Sedulius (mid-5th century), although many of the Office
hymns are cited in the monastic Rules of Caesarius of Arles (470–543) and
his brother Aurelian (d 551; see Raugel, 1958; and Anglès, 1967, p.73).
The Psautier de la reine contains only three hymns by St Ambrose for the
Proper of the Time: Intende qui regis for Christmas, Illuminans altissimus
for Epiphany, and Haec est dies verus Dei for Easter; this archaically brief
series is framed by six hymns for Lauds, one for each weekday, and by a
series of hymns for the other Offices.
The non-Ambrosian hymn melodies demand separate study from the
Ambrosian, which must have been the same as those used in Milan
(thematic table in Huglo and others, 1956, pp.99–100) except for Veni
Redemptor gentium and Intende qui regis, whose melodies were altered in
Francia. Among the other hymns, the melody of Mediae noctis tempus est,
which appears in noted hymnals, probably has a Gallican origin (see
Stäblein, 1956, p.448, melody 761). (See also Hymn, §II, 1.)
Gallican chant
12. Antiphons and responsories.
In the Gregorian repertory only one type of simple antiphon is generally
used with the singing of psalms. The Gallican tradition, however, like the
Ambrosian and Mozarabic, had antiphons with verses that were chanted
during the Offices and at other occasions such as the Washing of the Feet
on Maundy Thursday; the Offices of St Denis and St Remigius, which
originated before the introduction of Roman chant into Francia, include
antiphons of this type. Indeed, antiphons with verses may be found in three
of the Gregorian Offices: those of 25 January (the Conversion of St Paul),
30 June (Commemoration of St Paul) and 10 August (St Lawrence). The
reason for this anomaly is unknown.
Gallican antiphons with verses include the Maundy antiphons, such as Si
ego lavi with the verse ‘Exemplum’ (see §4 above), and Popule meus with
two verses, ‘Quia eduxi’ and ‘Quid ultra’. Popule meus contains a
celebrated Gallican intonation on ‘aut in quo’, which appears from the late
9th century in French antiphoners and which has an Ambrosian parallel
(see PalMus, 1st ser., vi, 1900/R, 304). Another example is the antiphon
Collegerunt with the verse ‘Unus autem’, which may represent a Gallican
sonus; it is found as an offertory in some Gregorian manuscripts, such as
those of Paris.
The Gallican antiphonae ante evangelium were sung, as at Milan, without
psalm verses. Examples include Salvator omnium, Hodie illuxit (Stäblein,
MGG1, iv, 1311) and probably also Insignes praeconiis (ibid., 1309, 1311).
The Fraction and Communion antiphons also lacked psalm verses: they
include Venite populi (see §4 above), Emitte angelum (ed. P. Cagin: Te
Deum ou illatio?, Solesmes, 1900, pp.217, 495) and Memor sit (Stäblein,
MGG1, iv, 1315).
The shorter Gallican Office antiphons are not identifiable, although the
three antiphons whose texts begin with ‘Alleluia’ may be Gallican: Alleluia,
Lapis revolutus est, Alleluia, Noli flere Maria and Alleluia, Quem quaeris
mulier(see J. Claire: ‘L’évolution modale dans les répertoires liturgiques
occidentaux’, Revue grégorienne, xli, 1963, p.61). These are similar to the
alleluiatic antiphons in the Celtic manuscript fragments F-Pn n.a.lat.1628
(see Morin, 1905, p.344); they are not in the Roman Easter Office, which is
well known from Amalarius of Metz and the Ordines romani.
The Greco-Latin chants of the Western Church include the Cheroubikon,
which was chanted at St Denis until the 13th century and which survives in
the West only in manuscripts with neumes (see M. Huglo: ‘Les chants de la
Missa greca de Saint-Denis’, Essays Presented to Egon Wellesz, ed. J.
Westrup, Oxford, 1966, pp.74–83, esp. 79; see also C.M. Atkinson: ‘On the
Origin and Transmission of the Missa graeca’, AMw, xxxix, 1982, 113–45).
In the West its origin is Gallican. Some manuscripts contain a Greek
Sanctus, and this too probably entered the West through the Gallican
liturgy (see Levy, 1958–63, pp.7–67).
None of the greater responsories of the Gallican Offices is at present
known to survive, except for Descendit de coelis (cited in §4 above). It is
possible that one or two may survive in the pre-Gregorian Offices of St
Denis, St Remigius and St Germanus of Auxerre, for Hilduinus in his letter
to Louis the Pious noted that the Office of St Denis included Gallican
chants and had to be recast to conform with the Gregorian repertory (see
§1 above).
Gallican chant
13. ‘Preces’.
This category consists of the most substantially intact surviving group of
chants thought to be of Gallican origin. Preces were assigned to the Minor
 Litanies in Gregorian books (see Processional) and may have been sung
mostly in Lent. Nearly 40 preces occur in Gregorian manuscripts, not all of
them of Gallican origin.
The preces consist of an alternation of verses, sung by a deacon, and a
brief response (responsorium or presa in Aquitaine and Spain) sung at first
by the congregation. The verses, stating the intention of the prayer, were
sometimes arranged as abecedaria in alphabetical order of incipit. The
melodies of the refrains often included complex melismas and are
preceded in 11th-century noted manuscripts by the rubric ‘Schola’, which
indicates that at this period the responsorium was sung exclusively by
experienced singers, not by the congregation.
The preces had no single common origin. Some, in Aquitanian graduals,
derived their texts from the Spanish liturgy (see Huglo, ‘Les preces
hispaniques’, 1955, p.361). Others derive from the Deprecatio Gelasii,
which was excluded from the Roman liturgy at an early date but retained in
Gaul. Yet others contain verses that correspond with parts of the two
Ambrosian Lenten litanies (see Capelle, 1934, p.130; and P. de Clerck,
1977).
The following list presents the preces of Gallican origin in Gallican and
Gregorian manuscripts (in the former instance without melodies), but it
does not include 9th-century litanies composed at St Gallen in the style of
earlier Gallican preces. Those indicated with a question mark, however,
may have been composed after the suppression of the Gallican chant,
rather than being of genuine Gallican origin.
Gallican chant
WORKS
?Ab inimicis nostris: Sarum processional of 1517, f.cviii
A Patre missus: Bobbio Missal (ed. Lowe, Wilmart and Wilson, 1917–24, p.66), for
Holy Saturday; the second stanza begins ‘Vide Domine’
?Audi nos Christe Jesu: in processionals from St Jiří, Prague – CZ-Pu VI.G.3b,
VI.G.5, VI.G.10a–b, VII.G.16, XII.E.15a, XIII.H.3c; Huglo, RISM, b/xiv/1, 120–30
Clamemus omnes una voce: Domine miserere: abecedaria (see PL, cxxxviii, 1085)
in MSS with Lorraine and Rhenish notation – F-AS 230 (907) (ed. L. Brou, The
Monastic Ordinale of St. Vedast’s Abbey, Arras, London, 1957, p.68); AUT S.12,
f.91; CA 78(79), f.39v (11th or 12th century); CA 77, f.69; CA 80, f.17; CA 131, f.43v
Deus miserere, Deus miserere, O Jesu bone (for the dead): in a Mozarabic book,
E-Mah 56, f.27, and in an Albi MS in Aquitanian notation, F-Pn lat.776, f.138 (see C.
Rojo and G. Prado: El canto mozárabe, Barcelona, 1929, p.74)
Dicamus omnes [Deprecatio Gelasii]: widely diffused, with three versions of the text
(see de Clerck, 1977, ii, 215); melodies in Suñol (1935), 116–17; J. Pothier, ed.:
Variae preces de mysteriis et festis(Solesmes, 1888), 266; A. Gastoué, Tribune de
St Gervais, ix (1903), 46; Gastoué (1939), 14; Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1313
Domine Deus omnipotens patrum nostrorum [see below, Kyrie eleison Domine]
Domine miserere: a responsorium of the preces Dicamus omnes; see
Processionale cenomanense, f.xxxvii; Sarum processional of 1517, f.cviiv
Exaudi Deus voces nostras: in MSS with Lorraine notation – F-AUT S.12, f.96; Pn
lat.8898, f.137 (ed. in Rituale seu mandatum insignis ecclesiae suessionensis,
Soissons, 1856); VN 130, f.45v; melody in Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1313
Insidiati sunt mihi: Bobbio Missal (ed. Lowe, Wilmart and Wilson, 1917–24, p.66;
see Missale mixtum: PL, lxxxv, 372; D. de Bruyne, Revue bénédictine, xxx, 1913,
p.431; Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’, 1955, p.363)
Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison: Domine miserere, Christe miserere: in MSS with
Messine notation, from Cambrai, Verdun etc.; melody in Gastoué (1939), 15
Kyrie eleison: Domine Deus omnipotens patrum nostrorum: in many MSS from
north France in Lorraine notation and in MSS from south-west France with
diastematic notation; melody in J. Pothier, Revue du chant grégorien, ix (1901),
113–20; Gastoué (1939), 16; Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1313
Kyrie … qui passus est [see below, Qui passurus]
Kyrie … qui precioso [see below, Qui pretioso]
Miserere Domine supplicantibus: in MSS with diastematic notation from south-west
France; text and melody ed. Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’ (1955), 372
Miserere, miserere, miserere Domine populo tuo quem redemisti: in a MS from
south-west France (see Gastoué, 1939, p.19)
Miserere, miserere, miserere illi Deus, Christe redemptor (for the dead) [see next]
Miserere, miserere, miserere illi Deus, tu Jesu Christe (for the dead): this and the
preceding occur in MSS from Albi, F-Pn lat.776, ff.138v–139, and Moissac, Pn
lat.1809, f.386v; melodies in C. Rojo and G. Prado: El canto mozárabe (Barcelona,
1929), 75; Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1312
Miserere Pater juste et omnibus indulgentiam dona: in MSS from south-west
France; ed. Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’ (1955), 370; Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1312
Peccavimus Domine, peccavimus, parce peccatis nostris: variant incipit of Dicamus
omnes in Irish MSS – Stowe Missal (ed. G.F. Warner, London, 1906–15, p.30) and
CH-SGs 1395 (8th/9th century); and in MSS of Corbie and St Denis – F-AM 18,
f.141v; CH-Zz Car C.161, f.179 (9th century; see M. Coens, Etudes bollandiennes,
1963, p.314); Mont-Renaud Antiphoner (PalMus, 1st ser., xvi, 1955/R)
Qui passurus (Litany of Tenebrae): in many French (Dominican) MSS up to the 13th
century, at the close of Tenebrae on Maundy Thursday; melody in J. Pothier, Revue
du chant grégorien, xi (1902–3); PalMus, 1st ser., xv, 1937/R, f.277v
Qui pretioso sanguine (verse from the Litany of Tenebrae): Sarum processional of
1517, f.cvv (see W. H. Frere, ed.: The Use of Sarum, ii, Cambridge, 1901/R, 171)
Rogamus te Rex seculorum: abecedaria in MSS from south-west France; ed.
Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’, 1955, p.374–5 (see also B. Stäblein, MGG1, iv,
1313)
Vide Domine humilitatem meam … miserere pater juste: Bobbio Missal (ed. Lowe,
Wilmart and Wilson, 1917–24, p.67; see also Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’,
1955, p.364)

See also Ambrosian chant; Antiphon; Antiphoner; Beneventan chant; Celtic chant; Exultet; Gregorian
chant; Litany, §3(iii); Mozarabic chant; Old roman chant; Plainchant; Processional; and Tonary. For
‘Gallican’ chant of the 17th century and later see Neo-gallican chant.

Gallican chant
BIBLIOGRAPHY
sources (excluding lectionaries)
Expositio antiquae liturgiae gallicanae
E. Martène and U. Durand, eds.: Thesaurus novus anecdotorum, v (Paris,
1717), 85ff
P. Batiffol: ‘L’Expositio liturgiae gallicanae attribué à Saint Germain de
Paris’, Etudes de liturgie et d’archéologie chrétienne (Paris, 1919),
245–90
A. Wilmart: ‘Germain de Paris (lettres attribuées à Saint)’, Dictionnaire
d’archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie, ed. F. Cabrol and H. Leclercq,
vi/1 (Paris, 1924), 1049–1102
J. Quasten: Expositio antiquae liturgiae gallicanae Germano parisiensi
ascripta (Münster, 1934)
K. Gamber: Ordo antiquus gallicanus (Regensburg,1965)
E.C. Ratcliff, ed.: Expositio antiquae liturgiae gallicanae (London, 1971)
Missale gothicum
G.M. Tommasi, ed.: Codices sacramentorum nongentis annis vetustiores
(Rome, 1680), 263–317
J. Mabillon, ed.: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Rome, 1685), 188–300
H.M. Bannister, ed.: Missale gothicum: a Gallican Sacramentary (London,
1917–19)
L.C. Mohlberg, ed.: Missale gothicum: das gallikanische Sakramentar
(Cod. Vat. Regin. 317) des VII.–VIII. Jahrhunderts (Augsburg,1929)
[facs.]
L.C. Mohlberg, ed.: Missale gothicum (Vat.Reg.lat.317) (Rome, 1961)
[transcr. and indexes]
Missale gallicanum
G.M. Tommasi, ed.: Codices sacramentorum nongentis annis vetustiores
(Rome, 1680), 433–92
J. Mabillon, ed.: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Rome, 1685), 329–78
L.C. Mohlberg, L. Eizenhöfer and P. Siffrin, eds.: Missale gallicanum
vetus (Rome, 1958) [incl. edns of the Mone Masses and other frags.]
Bobbio Missal
J. Mabillon, ed.: Museum italicum seu collectio veterum scriptorum ex
bibliothecis italicis eruta, i/2 (Paris, 1687), 278–397
E.A. Lowe, A. Wilmart and H.A. Wilson, eds.: The Bobbio Missal: a
Gallican Mass-Book (London, 1917–24)
Missale francorum
G.M. Tommasi, ed.: Codices sacramentorum nongentis annis vetustiores
(Rome, 1680), 348–431
J. Mabillon, ed.: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Rome, 1685), 301ff
L.C. Mohlberg, L. Eizenhöfer and P. Siffrin, eds.: Missale francorum
(Rome, 1957)
Missale vetus gelasianum
E.A. Lowe: ‘The Vatican MS of the Gelasian Sacramentary and its
Supplement at Paris’, Journal of Theological Studies, xxvii (1925–6),
357–73
L.C. Mohlberg, L. Eizenhöfer and P. Siffrin, eds.: Liber sacramentorum
romanae ecclesiae ordinis anni circuli (Sacramentarium Gelasianum)
(Rome, 1960)
Mone masses
F.J. Mone, ed.: Lateinische und griechische Messen aus dem zweiten bis
sechsten Jahrhundert (Frankfurt, 1850)
G.M. Dreves, ed.: Liturgische Reimofficien, AH, xlva (1904), 81
L.C. Mohlberg, L. Eizenhöfer and P. Siffrin, eds.: Missale gallicanum
vetus (Rome, 1958), 74ff
Collected texts, including miscellaneous fragments
PL, lxxii, 99–448
J. Mabillon, ed.: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Rome, 1685)
J.M. Neale and G.H. Forbes, eds.: The Ancient Liturgies of the Gallican
Church (Burntisland, 1855–7)
L.C. Mohlberg, L. Eizenhöfer and P. Siffrin, eds.: Missale gallicanum
vetus (Rome, 1958)
lectionaries, psalters, hymnals etc.
J. Mabillon, ed.: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Rome, 1685), 106–73
[lectionary of Luxeuil, F-Pn lat.9427, late 7th – early 8th centuries,
from ?Luxeuil, Burgundy; the text is one of the purest Gallican
sources]
E. Sievers, ed.: Die Murbacher Hymnen (Halle, 1874) [hymnal of
Murbach,GB-Ob Junius 25(5137), late 8th century, from Murbach or
Reichenau]
G. Morin: ‘Le lectionnaire de l’église de Paris’, Revue bénédictine, x
(1893), 438
G. Morin: ‘Notices d’ancienne littérature chrétienne, 6: les notes liturgiques
du manuscrit Vat.Regin.Lat.9’, Revue bénédictine, xv (1898), 104
E. Chatelain: ‘Fragments palimpsestes d’un lectionnaire mérovingien’,
Revue d’histoire et de littérature religieuses, v (1900), 193
G. Morin: ‘Fragments inédits et jusqu’à présent uniques d’antiphonaire
gallican’, Revue bénédictine, xxii (1905), 329–56
G. Morin: ‘Un lectionnaire mérovingien avec fragments du texte occidental
des Actes’, Revue bénédictine, xxv (1908), 161–6
G. Morin: ‘Un recueil gallican inédit de Benedictiones episcopales en
usage à Freising aux VIIe–IXe siècles’, Revue bénédictine, xxix
(1912), 168–94
D. de Bruyne: ‘Les notes liturgiques du manuscrit 134 de la cathédrale de
Trèves’, Revue bénédictine, xxxiii (1921), 46–52
A. Wilmart: ‘Un lectionnaire d’Aniane’, Revue Mabillon, xiii (1923), 16–194
A. Dold, ed.: Das älteste Liturgiebuch der lateinischen Kirche: ein
altgallikanisches Lektionar des 5.–6. Jahrhunderts aus dem
Wolfenbütteler Palimpsest Weissenburgensis 76 (Beuron, 1936)
[lectionary of Wolfenbüttel, D-W Weissenburg 76, early 6th century,
from southern France]
P. Salmon, ed.: Le lectionnaire de Luxeuil (Rome, 1944–53) [F-Pn
lat.9427]
C. Vogel: Archives de l’église d’Alsace, new ser., ix (1958), 1–42 [hymnal
of Murbach, GB–Ob Junius 25(5137)]
facsimiles, editions (other rites)
R.-J. Hesbert, ed.: Antiphonale missarum sextuplex (Brussels, 1935/R)
G.M. Suñol, ed.: Antiphonale missarum juxta ritum sanctae ecclesiae
mediolanensis (Rome, 1935)
L. Brou and J. Vives, eds.: Antifonario visigótico mozárabe de la Catedral
de León (Madrid and Barcelona, 1953)
R.-J. Hesbert, ed.: Manuscripti cursus romanus, CAO, i (1963)
R.-J. Hesbert, ed.: Manuscripti cursus monasticus, CAO, ii (1965)
studies
MGG1 (‘Alleluia’, ‘Exultet’, ‘Gallikanische Liturgie’; B. Stäblein)
MGG2 (‘Gallikanischer Gesang’; M. Huglo and O. Cullin)
J. Mabillon: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Paris, 1685), 1–96
J.M. Neale and G.H. Forbes: The Ancient Liturgies of the Gallican Church
(Burntisland, 1855–67/R)
L. Marchesi: La liturgia gallicana ne’ primi otto secoli della chiesa (Rome,
1867; Fr. trans., 1869)
R. Buchwald: De liturgia gallicana (diss., U. of Breslau, 1890)
L. Duchesne: ‘Sur l’origine de la liturgie gallicane’, Revue d’histoire et de
littérature religieuses, v (1900), 31–47
G. Mercati: ‘Sull’origine della liturgia gallicana’, Antiche reliquie liturgiche
ambrosiane e romane (Rome, 1902), 72–5
A. Gastoué: Histoire du chant liturgique à Paris, des origines à la fin des
temps carolingiens (Paris, 1904) [orig. pubd in Revue du chant
grégorien, xi–xii (1902–4)]
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gallican’, Revue bénédictine, xxii (1905), 329–56 [F-Pn n.a.lat.1628,
ff.1–4]
A. Wilmart: ‘L’âge et l’ordre des messes de Mone’, Revue bénédictine,
xxviii (1911), 377–90
L. Duchesne: Origines du culte chrétien: étude sur la liturgie latine avant
Charlemagne (Paris, 5/1920; Eng. trans., 1927/R)
H. Lietzmann: Ordo missae romanus et gallicanus (Bonn, 1923)
H. Leclercq: ‘Gallicane (liturgie)’, Dictionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne et
de liturgie, ed. F. Cabrol and H. Leclercq, vi/1 (Paris, 1924), 473–596
A. Wilmart: ‘Germain de Paris (lettres attribuées à Saint)’, ibid., 1049–1102
B. Capelle: ‘Deux psautiers gaulois dans le Cod. Aug. CCLIII’, Revue
bénédictine, xxxvii (1925), 215–23
F.J. Dölger: Sol salutis: Gebet and Gesang im christlichen Altertum mit
besonderer Rücksicht auf die Ortung im Gebet and Liturgie (Münster,
1925/R)
J.B. Thibaut: L’ancienne liturgie gallicane: son origine et sa formation en
Provence aux Ve et VIe siècles sous l’influence de Cassien et de
Saint Césaire d’Arles (Paris, 1929)
F. Cabrol: ‘Les origines de la liturgie gallicane’, Revue d’histoire
ecclésiastique, xxv (1930), 951–62
G. Nickl: Der Anteil des Volkes an der Messliturgie im Frankenreiche von
Chlodwig bis Karl den Grossen (Innsbruck, 1930)
M. Andrieu, ed.: Les Ordines romani du haut Moyen-Age (Leuven, 1931–
61)
M. Frost: ‘Notes on the Te Deum: the Final Verses’, Journal of Theological
Studies xxxiv (1933), 250–56
T. Klauser: ‘Die liturgischen Austauschbeziehungen zwischen der
römischen und der fränkisch-deutschen Kirche vom 8. bis zum 11.
Jahrhundert’, Historisches Jb der Görresgesellschaft, liii (1933), 169–
89
B. Capelle: ‘Le kyrie de la messe et le pape Gélase’, Revue bénédictine,
xlvi (1934), 126–44
A. Hughes, ed.: Anglo-French Sequelae, Edited from the Papers of the
Late Dr. Henry Marriott Bannister (London, 1934/R)
A. Ward: ‘Gloria Patri: Text and Interpretation’, Journal of Theological
Studies, xxxvi (1935), 73–4
H. Schneider: Die altlateinischen biblischen Cantica (Beuron, 1938)
A. Gastoué: Le chant gallican (Grenoble, 1939) [orig. pubd in Revue du
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G. Manz: Ausdruckformen der lateinischen Liturgiesprache (Beuron, 1941)
J. Quasten: ‘Oriental Influence in the Gallican Liturgy’, Traditio, i (1943),
55–73
M. Righetti: Manuale di storia liturgica, i (Milan, 1945, 3/1964), 142ff
L. Brou: ‘Le Sancta sanctis en occident’, Journal of Theological Studies,
xlvi (1945), 160–78; xlvii (1946), 11–29
L. Brou: ‘Etudes sur la liturgie mozarabe: le Trisagion de la messe d’après
les sources manuscrites’, Ephemerides liturgicae, lxi (1947), 309–34
E. Wellesz: Eastern Elements in Western Chant, MMB, Subsidia, ii (1947)
J.A. Jungmann: Missarum sollemnia: eine genetische Erklärung der
römischen Messe (Vienna, 1948, 5/1962; Eng. trans., 1951–5/R as
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H. Schneider: ‘Die biblischen Oden im christlichen Altertum’, Biblica, xxx
(1949), 28–65
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xxix (1950), 30–40
E. Mâle: La fin du paganisme en Gaule et les plus anciennes basiliques
chrétiennes (Paris, 1950)
E. Griffe: ‘Aux origines de la liturgie gallicane’, Bulletin de littérature
ecclésiastique, lii (1951), 17–43
P. Combe: ‘Notes sur la vigile pascale au rite lyonnais’, Revue
grégorienne, xxxi (1952), 162
M. Huglo: ‘Source hagiopolite d’une antienne hispanique’, Hispania sacra,
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(1952), 131–7
A. Baumstark: Liturgie comparée: principes et méthodes pour l’étude
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H. Anglès: ‘Latin Chant before St Gregory’, NOHM, ii (1954), 58–91
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M. Huglo: ‘Les preces hispaniques des graduels aquitains empruntées à la
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J. Pinell: ‘Vestigi del Lucernari en occident’, Liturgica, i (1956), 91–145
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der alten Kirche (Göttingen, 1958)
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l’époque de Charlemagne’, Le chiese nei regni del Europa occidentale
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Revue grégorienne, xl (1962), 196–211, 229–48
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nos.1917ff [inventory of Gallican missals and sacramentaries]
G. Oury: ‘Les messes de St Martin’, EG, v (1962), 73–97
G. Cugnier: ‘Anciens usages et coutumes liturgiques de l’abbaye de
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(Oxford, 1996), 19–30
A.M.J. Zijlstra: Zangers en schrijvers: de overlevering van het gregoriaans
van ca. 700 tot ca. 1150 [Singers and authors: the Gregorian tradition
from c700 to c1150] (Utrecht, 1997)
C.M. Atkinson: ‘L’évolution modale: une perspective du parapteron’, EG,
xxvi (1998), 95–109

Gallichon [Ger.].
See Calichon. See also Mandora.

Gallico, Claudio (Benedetto)

(b Mantua, 4 Dec 1929). Italian musicologist. He studied the piano with
Nunzio Montanari at Parma Conservatory and composition with Renato
Dionisi and Franco Margola at Milan Conservatory, taking diplomas in both
subjects (1950–1957); he also took the degree in literature at the University
of Bologna (1952) with a dissertation on Baudelaire e la musica and
studied musical palaeography at the University of Parma (diploma 1957).
He has lectured in music history at the conservatories of Padua (1957),
Bolzano (1962) and Parma (1966), and took up an appointment at the
University of Parma (1966, when he took the libera docenza), becoming
head of the musicology institute (1970) and professor of music history
(1976). His intimate knowledge of Mantua has resulted in several important
contributions to the music history of that city, including new research on
Monteverdi and Isabella d’Este. In addition, he has been concerned with
the Italian musical theatre in general (Mazzocchi, Verdi, 18th-century
opera, etc.). Gallico’s belief is in musicological research not as an end in
itself but as a means towards the active revival of early music. This can be
seen in his activities both as a performer – as director of his chamber
group Nuovo Concerto Italiano and organizer of theatrical performances at
the Teatro Olimpico of Sabbioneta – and as an editor. He has prepared
several editions of Renaissance and Baroque music, and is a member of
the editorial committees of the series Monumenti Musicali Italiani and the
journal Rivista italiana di musicologia. He was president of the Società
Italiana di Musicologia (1968–74) and of the Accademia Nazionale
Virgiliana (from 1991).
WRITINGS
‘Forse che sì forse che no’ fra poesia e musica (Mantua, 1961)
Un libro di poesie per musica dell’epoca d’Isabella d’Este (Mantua, 1961)
ed.: Un canzoniere musicale italiano del Cinquecento (Bologna,
Conservatorio di Musica ‘G.B. Martini’ Ms.Q 21) (Florence, 1961)
‘Un “Dialogo d’amore” di Niccolò da Correggio musicato da Bartolomeo
Tromboncino’, SMw, xxv (1962), 205–13
‘Poesie musicali d’Isabella d’Este’, CHM, iii (1963), 109–19
‘La “Querimonia” di Maddalena di D. Mazzocchi e l’interpretazione di L.
Vittori’, CHM, iv (1966), 133–47
‘Esperimenti e realizzazioni della più recente avanguardia musicale:
compositori italiani a Darmstadt’, La storiografia nel mondo italiano ed
in quello tedesco: Merano 1963 (Merano, 1967), 679–85 [with Ger.
summary]
with G. Barblan and G. Pannain: Claudio Monteverdi nel quarto
centenario della nascita (Turin, 1967) [incl. ‘Claudio Monteverdi: il
teatro’, 149–250]
‘Emblemi strumentali negli Scherzi di Monteverdi’, RIM, ii (1967), 54–73
‘La “lettera amorosa” di Monteverdi e lo stile rappresentativo’, NRMI, i
(1967), 287–302
‘Discorso di G.B. Doni sul recitare in scena’, RIM, iii (1968), 286–302
‘Josquin's Compositions on Italian Texts and the Frottola’, Josquin des
Prez: New York 1971, 446–54
‘L’espressione armonica del “Rigoletto”’, Studi verdiani III: Milan 1972,
166–71
‘P.I. Martello e “la poetica di Aristotile sul melodramma”’, Scritti in onore di
Luigi Ronga (Milan and Naples, 1973), 225–32
‘Rinaldo di Capua: Zingara o Bohèmienne’, Venezia e il melodramma nel
Settecento: Venice 1973–5, i, pp.425–36
‘Contra Claudium Monteviridum’, RIM, x (1975), 346–59
‘Guglielmo Gonzaga, signore della musica’, Mantova e i Gonzaga nella
civiltà del Rinascimento: Mantua 1974 (Mantua, 1977), 277–83; also in
NRMI, xi (1977), 321–34
‘Nostro Rigoletto’, Giuseppe Verdi nella casa di Rigoletto, Museo Teatrale
alla Scala, Sept–Nov 1977 (Mantua, 1977), 10–26 [exhibition
catalogue]
‘Scena nel Saul’, Il melodramma italiano dell’Ottocento: studi e ricerche per
Massimo Mila, ed. G. Pestelli (Turin, 1977), 539–44
L’età dell’Umanesimo e del Rinascimento (Turin, 1978, 2/1991)
‘Vivaldi dagli Archivi di Mantua’, Vivaldi veneziano europeo: Venice 1978,
77–88
Monteverdi: poesia musicale, teatro e musica sacra (Turin, 1979)
ed.: Musica e spettacolo a Parma nel Settecento: Parma 1979 [incl.
‘Orientamenti su musica e spettacolo nel Settecento’, 13–18]
Damon pastor gentil: idilli cortesi e voci popolari nell ‘villotte mantovane’
(1583) (Mantua, 1980)
‘Corte e beni musicali a Mantova, Duca Guglielmo Gonzaga’, IMSCR XIII:
Strasbourg 1982, iii, 253–64
‘Dal laboratorio di Ottaviano Petrucci: immagine, trasmissione e cultura
della musica’, RIM, xvii (1982), 87–206
‘Un laboratorio linguistico di Alessandro Stradella: i motetti’, Alessandro
Stradella e il suo tempo: Siena 1982 [Chigiana, new ser., xix (1982)],
371–85
‘“Le proprie armonie decenti al Gran Sito”: il caso del Teatro Farnese di
Parma’, Bolletino del Centro internazionale di studi di architettura
‘Andrea Palladio’, xxiv (1982–7), 71–84
Le capitali della musica: Parma (Cinisello Balsamo, 1985)
‘Da “L'Arcadia in Brenta” a “La diavolessa” de Goldoni e Galuppi: una via
alla riforma dell'opera italiana’, Galuppiana: Venice 1985, 143–52
‘Struttura e funzione di pezzi sacri nell'opera e radici del linguaggio
verdiano’, Tornando a Stiffelio: … drammaturgia del Verdi romantico:
Venice 1985, 265–71
Girolamo Frescobaldi: l’affetto, l’ordito, le metamorfosi (Florence, 1986)
‘Jachet da Mantoa ed i nuovi modelli di cultura musicale al tempo di Giulio
Romano’, Giulio Romano: Mantua 1989, ed. E. Benedini (Mantua,
1989), 375–82
‘Dal teatro di Alessandro Stradella: il prologo dello “Stufarolo”’, Omaggio a
Gianfranco Folena (Padua, 1993), 1209–18
‘Il mio laboratorio teatrale a Sabbioneta (1969–86)’, Postumia [Mantua], v
(1994), 39–66
Rimeria musicale popolare italiana nel Rinascimento (Lucca, 1996)
EDITIONS
L. Viadana: Cento concerti ecclesiastici opera duodecima (1602),
Monumenti musicali mantovani, i/1 (Mantua and Kassel, 1964)
G. Verdi: Ernani (Chicago and Milan, 1985)
F. Mancini: Colombina e Pernicione (Milan, 1988)
G. Frescobaldi: Opere complete VII: Arie a 1, 2 e 3 voci, Monumenti
musicali italiani, xxi (Milan, 1997)
CAROLYN GIANTURCO/TERESA M. GIALDRONI

Galliculus [Alectorius, Hähnel],

Johannes
(b c1490; d after 1520). German theorist and composer. Since the name
Galliculus is a Latin, humanistic form of Hennel, the composer is probably
identifiable with ‘Johannes Hennel de Dresden’ who matriculated at Leipzig
University in 1505. Galliculus was active as a musician in Leipzig in 1520
when his Isagoge de compositione cantus, dedicated to his friend Georg
Rhau, was published. The Isagoge, an introductory work in which rules of
counterpoint are set forth in a clear and concise manner, enjoyed
considerable success; six editions were published (two of them with the
title Libellus de compositione), of which five were from Rhau's press in
Wittenberg.
Through his association with Rhau, Galliculus became closely allied to the
early Protestant Church. His compositions are all sacred with Latin texts,
although three of them incorporate German texts, carols and chorale
melodies as quodlibet material. They appear in the collections Rhau
published for the new church, and in manuscripts devoted to music of the
Lutheran Church. Although in a basically conservative style (reminiscent of
Isaac and his German successors), his works reflect considerable variety
and a good deal of innovation. Cantus firmi are treated in several different
ways, and often combined with initial and paired imitation. The cantus
firmus models are those of Germanic forms of chant (very much as they
are found in Lossius's Psalmodia of 1553) rather than Roman. In his
motets all voices are of equal significance: pervading imitation is used
frequently, particularly in narrative sections, although shifts from four to two
voices also occur. Such changes in texture are used to create a contrast in
sound, rather than to enhance the drama of the narrative. At times the
 writing becomes highly melismatic, while at other times accented
declamation is combined into the texture. He also makes frequent use of
antiphonal and alternatim procedures. In all cases the music seems to
reflect the nature of the text.
Like Isaac, Galliculus favoured setting the proprium of the Mass: two
settings of the Proper (as well as of the Ordinary) for Easter are to be found
in Rhau's Officia paschalia (1539), and a similar setting for Christmas is in
the Officiorum … de nativitate … tomus primus (1545). These represent
the composer's most significant contribution to Protestant music and the
many manuscript copies made of this work indicate its popularity.
Galliculus also composed motets to a variety of liturgical texts: four settings
of Gospel lessons, one of an Epistle lesson, and one of the Passion (in
Rhau's Selectae harmoniae, 1538). The text of the last combines accounts
of the Passion from various Gospels, a common practice at this time. A
particularly innovatory feature of his compositions for the Lutheran Church
is the incorporation of Leisen, both as texts and melodies, into Latin
liturgical compositions: his first Easter mass introduces both melodic and
textual materials from Christ ist erstanden into the sequence and the Agnus
Dei; the Magnificat quinti toni incorporates Christmas carols with German
and Latin texts.
WORKS

Editions:Johannes Galliculus: Gesamtausgabe der Werke, ed. A.A. Moorefield,

Gesamtausgaben, viii (Brooklyn, NY, 1975–)

Georg Rhau: Musikdrucke aus den Jahren 1538 bis 1545 in praktischer
Neuausgabe, iv, ed. H.J. Moser (Kassel, 1960) [M]; v, ed. P. Bunjes (Kassel, 1970)
[B]; viii, ed. R.L. Parker (Kassel, 1988) [P]
Passio Domino nostri Jesu Christi, 4vv, 15381
Easter mass ‘Christ ist erstanden’ (int, Ky, Gl, all, prosa de Resurrectione,
Evangelium in die Paschae, San, Bs, Ag, comm), 4vv, 1539 14; ed. in Cw, xliv (1936);
P
Aliud officium Paschale (int, Ky, Gl, prosa de Resurrectione, San), 4vv, 1539 14, P
Proprium mass for Christmas (Kyrie summum: Kyrie ‘Fons bonitatis’, Puer natus est
nobis), 4vv, 15455
Magnificat quarti toni, 4vv, M
Magnificat quinti toni, 4vv; ed. in Cw, lxxxv (1961)
Magnificat septimi toni, 4vv, B
Motets, 4vv: Ave vivens, hostie, P; Cavete a scribis, D-Rp B211–15; Christus
resurgens, P; Duo homines ascenderunt, Rp B211–15; Immunem semper, Z 73; In
cathedra Moysi, Rp B211–15; In natali, 15752; Non ex operibus [= Apparuit
benignitas in Rp A.R.940–41], 15752; Venite post me, Rp B211–15
Psalm: Quare fremuerunt gentes, 4vv, 15371, 15386

doubtful works
Motets, 4vv, D-Dl Mus.Grimma 31: Enlive psallant; Joseph, lieber Joseph, mein
WRITINGS
Isagoge de compositione cantus (Leipzig, 1520; 2/1538 as Libellus de
compositione cantus, 6/1553); trans. A.A. Moorefield as The
Introduction to Song Composition (Ottawa, 1992)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Wustmann: Musikgeschichte Leipzigs, i: Bis zur Mitte des 17.
Jahrhunderts (Leipzig and Berlin, 1909/R)
W. Schulze: Die mehrstimmige Messe im frühprotestantischen
Gottesdienst (Wolfenbüttel, 1940)
W. Lipphardt: Die Geschichte der mehrstimmigen Proprium Missae
(Heidelberg, 1950)
P. Mohr: Die Handschrift B 211–215 der Proske-Bibliothek zu Regensburg
(Kassel, 1955)
N.C. Carpenter: Music in the Medieval and Renaissance Universities
(Norman, OK, 1958)
V.H. Mattfeld: Georg Rhaw's Publications for Vespers (Brooklyn, NY, 1966)
A.A. Moorefield: An Introduction to Johannes Galliculus (Brooklyn, NY,
1969)
G.G. Allaire: ‘Les sensibles haussés dans la musique polyphonic avant
1600’, Canadian Association of University Schools of
Music/Association canadienne des écoles universitaires de musique
journal, ix/1 (1979), 48–73
L. Youens: Preface to Messzyklen der frühprotestantischen Kirche in
Leipzig (Tutzing, 1984)
C.V. Palisca: ‘Die Jahrzehnte um 1600 in Italien’, Italienische Musiktheorie
im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert: Antikenrezeption und Satzlehre, ed. F.
Zaminer (Darmstadt, 1989), 221–306
C.V. Palisca: ‘Boethius in the Renaissance’, Music Theory and its
Sources: Antiquity and the Middle Ages, ed. A. Barbera (Notre Dame,
IN, 1990), 259–80
VICTOR H. MATTFELD

Galli-Curci [née Galli], Amelita

(b Milan, 18 Nov 1882; d La Jolla, CA, 26 Nov 1963). Italian soprano of
Italian-Spanish parentage. She graduated from the Milan Conservatory in
1903 with a first prize as a pianist; on the advice of Mascagni she also had
some vocal lessons there with Carignani and Sara Dufes, but was mainly
self-taught. She made her début at Trani on 26 December 1906 as Gilda, a
role that remained a favourite throughout her career. In 1908 she appeared
in Rome with De Luca in the Italian première of Bizet’s posthumous Don
Procopio. During the next eight years she became increasingly successful
in the coloratura repertory.
Galli-Curci made a spectacular début at Chicago as Gilda on 18 November
1916. She remained with the Chicago company for eight consecutive
seasons, singing Rosina, Amina, Lucia, Linda di Chamounix, Violetta,
Dinorah, Juliette, Manon and Lakmé, and an occasional Mimì and Madama
Butterfly. She made her début at the Metropolitan in La traviata on 14
November 1921, appearing as a regular member of the company in these
and other similar parts until her farewell in Il barbiere di Siviglia on 24
January 1930. By that time she had begun to show signs of vocal distress;
and, after an operation in 1935 for the removal of a throat tumour, her
attempted return to the stage, for a single performance of La bohème in
Chicago in 1936, was unsuccessful. She was never heard in opera in
London; and her English concert tours, in 1924, 1930 and 1934, though at
first very popular, did not show her at the height of her powers. She was
married twice: to the artist Luigi Curci (1910, divorced 1920); then, in 1921,
to Homer Samuels, her accompanist.
Galli-Curci possessed a limpid timbre of exceptional beauty and an ease in
florid singing that sounded natural rather than acquired; her highest
register, up to e''', remained pure and free from shrillness. Her style, though
devoid of dramatic intensity, had a languorous grace and charm of line
capable of conveying both gaiety and pathos. Her numerous Victor
records, especially those made before 1925 by the acoustic process,
deserved their enormous vogue, being among the best of their kind ever
made; during the post-1925 electric period she successfully repeated some
of her excellent duet recordings with Schipa and De Luca, but by then her
work had begun to be affected by false intonation and other flaws. Most of
her recordings have been successfully remastered on CD.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C.E. Le Massena: Galli-Curci’s Life of Song (New York, 1945/R)
A. Favia-Artsay: ‘Amelita Galli-Curci’, Record Collector, iv (1949), 162–79
[with discography by G. Whelan]
DESMOND SHAWE-TAYLOR

Gallicus [Carthusiensis, Legiensis,

Mantuanus], Johannes
(b Namur, c1415; d Parma, 1473). French humanist and theorist, active in
Italy. He wrote that he was born at Namur and learnt to sing there, but
studied formally under the celebrated educator Vittorino da Feltre (1378–
1446) at Mantua, where he later became a Carthusian monk. His primary
treatise was written during the pontificate of Pius II (1458–64). One of the
manuscripts is in the hand of his pupil Nicolaus Burtius, who recorded his
date of death as 1473. Hothby, who stated that they had been students
together at the University of Pavia, referred to the theorist as ‘Johannem
Legiensem’ (Legiensis, ‘of Liége’), which was misread by Seay as
‘Legrensem’; Seay mistakenly inferred a family name ‘Legrense’, which has
become widespread in scholarly writings. Hieronymus de Moravia used the
name ‘Johannes Gallicus’ to refer to Johannes de Garlandia.
Gallicus's three treatises begin ‘Praefatio libelli musicalis de ritu canendi
vetustissimo et novo’ (CoussemakerS, iv, 298–396; ed. in Seay),
‘Praefationcula in tam admirabilem quam tacitam et quietissimam novorum
concinetiam’ (CoussemakerS, iv, 396–409) and ‘Tacita nunc inchoatur
stupendaque numerorum musica’ (CoussemakerS, iv, 409–21). The first
survives in GB-Lbl Add.22315, ff.1–60 and Harl.6525, ff.1–76v, the others
only in Harl.6525, ff.77–96. Coussemaker, however, made them appear to
be one continuous work by taking the obituary from f.60 of Add.22315 and
placing it after the material transcribed from Harl.6525 (ff.77–96). The first
part of the largest treatise, comparing the old and the new, covers the
materials of music, proportions, the division of the monochord and the
genera. Its second part, an introduction to singing, explains the modes and
psalm tones, solmization and counterpoint; an interesting part of this
section is concerned with secular music. The second treatise is taken up
with arithmetic, while the third discusses musical proportions with reference
to Aristides Quintilianus; Seay doubted whether they were actually by
Gallicus.
Through random remarks advocating a return to the ideals of an earlier
era, Gallicus established himself as the first 15th-century musician to
demonstrate the attitudes of the Renaissance. He realized that Boethius
had written about the music of late antiquity rather than contemporary
music, and in particular he was the first writer to point out that the Greek
modes and those of his own time were entirely different systems; in his
hands the study of Boethius was transformed from part of the medieval
Quadrivium into a humanistic recovery of ancient thought. These ideas are
directly attributable to the influence of Vittorino da Feltre, whom he
succeeded at Mantua and later at Parma. The spirit of humanism,
introduced into music theory by Gallicus, inspired many of his successors
whether they agreed with his opinions or not.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Hothby: Excitatio quaedam musicae artis per refutationem (MS, c1485,
I-Fn; ed. in CSM, x 1964), 51
C.D. Adkins: The Theory and Practice of the Monochord (diss., U. of Iowa,
1963)
A. Seay, ed.: Johannes Gallicus: Ritus canendi (Colorado Springs, CO,
1981)
C.V. Palisca: Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought (New
Haven, CT, 1985), 7, 280–83
C.V. Palisca: ‘Boethius in the Renaissance’, Music Theory and its
Sources: Antiquity and the Middle Ages: South Bend, IN, 1987, 259–
80
CECIL ADKINS/R

Galliera, Alceo
(b Milan, 3 May 1910). Italian conductor and composer. He studied first
with his father Arnaldo Galliera (1871–1934), a composer and teacher of
organ composition at the Parma Conservatory, and then at the Milan
Conservatory, where he graduated in the piano, the organ and
composition; in 1932 he obtained a lectureship there in the organ and
organ composition. He made his conducting début at Rome in 1941 with
the orchestra of the Accademia di S Cecilia. After a period in Switzerland
during World War II he resumed his career in 1945 with a concert at the
Lucerne Festival. He subsequently pursued his career mainly in other
countries, with tours in Europe, Israel, North and South America, South
Africa and Australia. From 1957 to 1960 he was resident conductor at the
Teatro Carlo Felice, Genoa, and from 1964 to 1972 was artistic director
and resident conductor of the Strasbourg municipal orchestra. He made
several recordings with the Philharmonia Orchestra including Il barbiere di
 Siviglia with Callas, and was a noted accompanist in concertos. His own
works include the ballet Le vergini savie e le vergini folli (1942), Poema
dell’Ala for orchestra and a Scherzo tarantella for orchestra.
CLAUDIO CASINI

Gallignani, Giuseppe
(b Faenza, 9 Jan 1851; d Milan, 14 Dec 1923). Italian composer, conductor
and teacher. He studied at the Milan Conservatory from 1867 to 1871 and
then travelled in Europe for ten years, studying and conducting. From 1884
until his death he was maestro di cappella at Milan Cathedral and from
1886 to 1894 editor of the periodical Musica sacra, which strongly
supported the return to Palestrina style in church music, exemplified by
Gallignani in his own works. In 1888 he published in Italia an article on
Otello that brought him the friendship of Verdi, who in 1891 proposed him
as Faccio’s successor as director of the Parma Conservatory. In 1897 he
moved to the same post at the Milan Conservatory. In both he initiated
valuable reforms and improvements, but his outspoken and tactless
manner provoked much opposition. Verdi supported him strongly, but he
was finally removed as director after an official inquiry. Embittered, he
committed suicide a few months later. His wife was a well-known dramatic
soprano, Chiara Bernau (1852–1901).
As a composer Gallignani was best known for his church music (more than
150 manuscripts of which, including nine masses, are in the Milan
Cathedral archives). Only a few pieces were published. He also composed
six operas, notably Atala (1876), Nestorio (1888) and the chauvinistic In
alto! (1921); but he was not very successful in this genre, Nestorio
receiving only three performances at La Scala. In 1903 he conducted his
lyric poem Quare? for chorus and orchestra at two special concerts there.
WORKS
(selective list)

operas
Il sindaco cavaliere (ob, 3), Milan, Casa Attendolo Bolognini, 1870
Il grillo del focolare (op semiseria, 3, Gallignani, after C. Dickens: The Cricket on
the Hearth), Genoa, Sala Sivori, 27 Jan 1873
Atala (os, 3, E. Praga), Milan, Carcano, 30 March 1876
Nestorio (os, 3, F. Fulgonio and Gallignani), Milan, Scala, 31 March 1888
Lucia di Settefonti (C. Ricci), 1897, unperf.
In alto! (os, 4 episodes, Gallignani), Trieste, Politeama Rossetti, 8 Nov 1921
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (C. Sartori)
M.C. Caputo: ‘Giuseppe Gallignani e il conservatorio di Parma’, GMM, l
(1895), 571–3
M. Anzoletti: ‘Giuseppe Gallignani’, Musica d’oggi, vi (1924), 9–10
A. De Gani: I maestri cantori e la cappella musicale del duomo di Milano,
1395–1930 (Milan, 1930)
F. Mompellio: Il R. Conservatorio di musica ‘G. Verdi’ di Milano (Florence,
1941)
G. de Florentiis and G.N. Vessia: Sei secoli di musica nel duomo di
Milano (Milan, 1986)
DENNIS LIBBY/MARCO BEGHELLI

Galli-Marié [née Marié de l’Isle,

Marié], Célestine(-Laurence)
(b Paris, Nov 1840; d Vence, nr Nice, 22 Sept 1905). French mezzo-
soprano. She was taught by her father, Félix Mécène Marié de l’Isle, a
double bass player who became a tenor at the Opéra and eventually a
conductor. She made her début in Strasbourg in 1859 as Célestine Marié,
but shortly after married a sculptor named Galli (who died in 1861) and
took the professional name Galli-Marié. Emile Perrin, director of the Opéra-
Comique, engaged her after hearing her in a performance of Balfe’s The
Bohemian Girl in Rouen. She first appeared at the Opéra-Comique to
considerable acclaim as Serpina in Pergolesi’s La serva padrona (1862)
and sang there regularly until 1885, creating the title roles of Mignon (1866)
and Carmen (1875), as well as singing in works by Gevaert, Guiraud,
Maillart, Massé and Massenet. Though principally associated with the
Opéra-Comique, she toured in France and Europe, singing in the Italian
première of Carmen at Naples and performing in London with a French
company at Her Majesty’s Theatre in 1886, as well as in Spain. With her
return to the Opéra-Comique as Carmen in 1883 the work finally achieved
the success in Paris it had enjoyed elsewhere in Europe. Her last
appearance in the capital was in this, her most famous role, in a
performance with Melba (Micaëla), Jean de Reszke (Don José) and
Lassalle (Escamillo) in December 1890 at the Opéra-Comique, to raise
funds for a monument to Bizet. She was praised for her intelligence,
natural acting ability (as both comedian and tragedian) and musicianship;
her voice was not distinguished for its range or volume, but for the warmth
of its timbre.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Soubies and C. Malherbe: Histoire de l’Opéra-Comique, ii (Paris, 1892)
H. de Curzon: Croquis d’artistes (Paris, 1898)
H. Malherbe: Carmen (Paris, 1951)
M. Curtiss: Bizet and his World (New York, 1958/R)
S. McClary: Georges Bizet: ‘Carmen’ (Cambridge, 1992)
HAROLD ROSENTHAL/KAREN HENSON

Gallimberto, Ferdinando.
See Galimberti, Ferdinando.

Gallini, Giovanni Andrea Battista

[John]
(b Florence, 7 Jan 1728; d London, 5 Jan 1805). Italian dancer,
choreographer and impresario. He moved to Paris and, according to
Antoine de Léris (Dictionnaire portatif des théâtres, 1754), was a member
of the Académie Royale de Musique company until at least 1754. His first
recorded appearance in London was at Covent Garden on 17 December
1757, when he danced in the ballets The Judgement of Paris and The
Sicilian Peasants. In autumn 1758 he joined the corps de ballet at the
King's Theatre, dancing in operas by Cocchi and Perez, and was named
director of dances for Cocchi's Ciro riconosciuto (3 February 1759). He
continued as dance director as well as a performer through the 1762–3
season, providing ballets for J.C. Bach's first London opera, Orione (19
February 1763). During 1763–4 he returned to Covent Garden as director
of dances and was re-engaged in 1765–6. He did not appear on the
London stage after that season.
Gallini achieved popularity as a dancing-master and published two
treatises on dance. He is said to have been made a Knight of the Golden
Spur by the pope, and thereafter was styled ‘Sir’. He was also proprietor of
the Hanover Square Rooms, where J.C. Bach and C.F. Abel gave their
subscription concerts from 1775.
Gallini's involvement with London opera began in 1778, when he attempted
to purchase the mortgage on the King's Theatre. He became manager
temporarily in 1783 and again, after complex litigation, from 1785 until the
opera house burnt down on 17 June 1789. During this period the ballet,
under the choreographer Jean-Georges Noverre, became pre-eminent
there. Gallini tried to improve the quality of Italian opera in London,
engaging Nancy and Stephen Storace and other performers and
composers from Vienna. After the destruction of the King's, Gallini had
short seasons at Covent Garden and the Little Theatre in the Haymarket,
where the main attractions were the singers Luigi Marchesi and Gertrud
Elisabeth Mara. After several unsuccessful attempts in the late 1780s to
engage Haydn, Gallini (with Salomon) brought him to London in 1791 and
commissioned from him L'anima del filosofo, which was never performed.
He was manager of the rebuilt King's Theatre in the 1791 season, his final
season of involvement with London theatre.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDA
BurneyH
LS
W. Allen, T. Luppino and H. Reynell]: The Case of the Opera-House
Disputes Fairly Stated (London, 1784)
R.B. O'Reilly: An Authentic Narrative of the Principal Circumstances
Relating to the Opera House in the Hay-Market (London, 1791)
W. Taylor: A Concise Statement of Transactions and Circumstances
Respecting the King's Theatre in the Haymarket (London, 1791)
R. Ralph: ‘Sir John Gallini’, About the House, v (1979), 30–37
E. Gibson: ‘Earl Cowper in Florence and his Correspondence with the
Italian Opera in London’, ML, lxvii (1987), 235–52
C. Price, J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘A Plan for the Pantheon Opera
House (1790–92)’, COJ, iii (1991), 213–46
C. Price, J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: Italian Opera in Late Eighteenth-
Century London, i: The King's Theatre, Haymarket 1778–1791
(Oxford, 1995)
ELIZABETH GIBSON (with CURTIS PRICE)

Gallinius [Kurek], Marcin

(d 1562). Polish musician and preacher. He was educated at the
Franciscan monastery school and the Jagellonian University of Kraków. In
1530 he graduated Bachelor of Arts, and from then until 1535 he probably
taught at his old school. He then went to study in Padua, and after
becoming a doctor of theology (probably in 1540) he went to Rome. On his
return to Kraków he appears to have moved in the court circles around
Sigismund the Old, and in 1544 became court preacher to Sigismund
Augustus and moved to Vilnius. In 1546 he visited Italy again, staying until
1549, and was then given a living at Biėżanów, near Kraków; towards the
end of his life he was made a canon at Płock.
In his letter Ad venerabilem virum M. Benedictum Cosminium epistola
(Kraków, 1535; facs. in MMP, ser.D, iii, 1975) to Benedykt of Koźmin,
humanist and professor at Kraków University, Gallinius described his
musical studies and his views on music. He commented on the difficult
situation of musicians, who often enjoyed little respect and lived in penury.
He maintained that music should not be classified as a science, because it
did not educate the mind but merely required skilled hands and had
entertainment as its sole objective. What Gallinius valued above all in
music was its moral influence as understood by classical authors. Thus he
was critical of music of his day compared with that of the ancients, and held
that only by imitating ancient exemplars could music be restored to its
earlier standing and importance. Gallinius's text includes numerous
references to Carlo Valgulio's Proemium in musica Plutarchi (1507) as well
as to Henricus Cornelius Agrippa's De incertitudine et vanitate scientiarum
(1531).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PSB
A. Chybiński: ‘Stosunek muzyki polskiej do zachodniej w XV i XVI wieku’
[The relationship of Polish music to Western music in the 15th and
16th centuries], Przewodnik naukowy i literacki, xxxvi (1908), 792–801,
893–901, 993–1009, 1096–111
Z. Jachimecki: Muzykologia i piśmiennictwo muzyczne w Polsce
[Musicology and music literature in Poland] (Kraków, 1948)
H. Barycz: Z epoki renesansu, reformacji i baroku [From the Renaissance,
Reformation and Baroque eras] (Warsaw, 1971)
E. Witkowska-Zaremba: ‘Marcina Galliniusa Epistola ad Benedictum
Cosminium: autobiografia czy fikcja?’ [Gallianius's Epistola ad
Benedictum Cosminium: autobiography or fiction?], Odrodzenie i
reformacja w Polsce, xxxviii (1994), 91–4
ELŻBIETA WITKOWSKA-ZAREMBA

Gallishon
(Ger.).
See Mandora.

Gallo, Domenico
(fl mid-18th century). Italian composer and violinist. According to Fétis he
was born in Venice about 1730, wrote much music for the church and was
known for his violin sonatas and symphonies. Eitner mentioned an oratorio
for two voices dedicated in honour of Giuseppe Calasanzio, founder of the
Scuole Pie in Venice; the libretto was published there in 1750. Gallo
published two sets of six sonatas, one for two violins and continuo in
Venice, and another for two flutes and continuo in London; the latter set
probably dates from about 1755. An overture by him was published in a
miscellaneous set of Sei ouverture a piu stromenti op.6 (Paris, 1758) and
his name appears in A Collection of Marches & Airs (Edinburgh, 1761).
There is a manuscript collection of 36 trio sonatas by him in the Marquis of
Exeter's collection at Burghley House, Stamford, and examples of his
church music can be found in the conservatories of Naples and Bologna.
Gallo is notable chiefly for his connection with one of the many Pergolesi
‘forgeries’. In 1780 Robert Bremner published a set of 12 trio sonatas
attributed to Pergolesi (Pergolesi: Opera omnia, v, Rome, 1940, pp.1–116);
their title-page claims that the ‘manuscripts of these sonatas were procured
by a curious Gentleman of Fortune during his travels through Italy’. But
even in the 18th century, doubt was cast on the Pergolesian authorship of
these trio sonatas by such critics as Burney and Hawkins, and it has since
been discovered that some of them are attributed to Gallo in several
contemporary manuscript sources (at Burghley House, US-BEm and I-
Pca), and the rest are probably his as well. Some of them were used, as
Pergolesi's, by Stravinsky in Pulcinella. As Walker said (Grove5), ‘they are
not markedly Pergolesian in style’ but are rather the work of a competent
Italian composer writing in the galant idiom of the 1750s and 60s. Owing to
the mistaken attribution to Pergolesi, they have been quoted in various
modern works on form as early examples of sonata form, but this early
dating depends on the date (1736) of their supposed composer's death.
A 17th-century Domenico Gallo, from Parma, was cited by Eitner as the
author of a Trattenimento musical sopra il violoncello (I-MOe). Hucke
suggested that some of the sacred music (in A-Wgm, D-Bsb, DS) ascribed
by Eitner to this 17th-century Gallo might be by the 18th-century composer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookB
EitnerQ
FétisB
Grove5 (F. Walker)
SainsburyD
C.L. Cudworth: ‘Notes on the Instrumental Works attributed to Pergolesi’,
ML, xxx (1949), 321–8
F. Walker: ‘Two Centuries of Pergolesi Forgeries and Misattributions’, ML,
xxx (1949), 297–320
H. Hucke: ‘Die musikalischen Vorlagen zu Igor Strawinskys “Pulcinella”’,
Helmuth Osthoff zu seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. W. Stauder, U.
Aarburg and P. Cahn (Tutzing, 1969), 241–50
C. Johansson: ‘From Pergolesi to Gallo by the Numericode System’,
STMf, lvii/2 (1975), 67–8
B.S. Brook: ‘Stravinsky's Pulcinella: the “Pergolesi” Sources’, Musiques,
signes, images: liber amicorum François Lesure, ed. J.-M. Fauquet
(Geneva, 1988), 41–66
CHARLES L. CUDWORTH

Gallo, F(ranco) Alberto

(b Verona, 17 Oct 1932). Italian musicologist. After schooling in Vicenza he
attended Padua University where he took degrees in law (1955) and
philosophy (1960). He began a career as a lawyer but his interest in music
and his classical training eventually brought him to the study of medieval
theory; he published the first of his extensive writings on the subject in
1962. In 1969 he took the libera docenza in the history of music theory and
joined the staff of the University of Bologna, becoming full professor of
medieval and Renaissance music in 1980. He became editor of Rivista
italiana di musicologia in 1974. He was one of the founders of the Società
Italiana di Musicologia, and served as its president, 1979–82. Gallo has
transcribed and interpreted early treatises and problems connected with
the theory of Italian music; these are not discussed in isolation but in
connection with other traditions as well, for example, the French (‘Tra
Giovanni di Garlandia e Filippo da Vitry’, 1969) and Polish (‘Lo studio della
musica speculativa di Johannes de Muris in Polonia e in Italia’, 1969). His
writings chiefly concern the medieval philosophy of music, notation, the
teaching of music in the Middle Ages and early polyphony. In 1966 Gallo
was awarded the Dent Medal by the Royal Musical Association. He was
elected a Fellow of Villa I Tatti, Florence (1974–5).
WRITINGS
‘Pronuntiatio: ricerche sulla storia di un termine retorico-musicale’, ‘Le
traduzioni dal greco per Franchino Gaffurio’, AcM, xxxv (1963), 38–46,
172–4
‘La tradizione dei trattati musicali di Prosdocimo de Beldemandis’, ‘Musiche
veneziane nel MS 2216 della Biblioteca universitaria di Bologna’,
Quadrivium, vi (1964), 57–84, 107–16
with G. Mantese: Ricerche sulle origini della cappella musicale del Duomo
di Vicenza (Venice, 1964)
‘“Cantus planus binatim: polifonia primitiva in fonti tardive”’, Quadrivium, vii
(1966), 79–90
La teoria della notazione in Italia dalla fine del XIII all’inizio del XV secolo
(Bologna, 1966)
ed.: Guido Frater: ‘Ars musice mensurate’, Mensurabilis musicae
tractatuli, AntMI, Scriptores, i/1 (1966)
ed.: ‘Petrus de Amalfia: Compendium artis motectorum’, Mensurabilis
musicae tractatuli, AntMI, Scriptores, i/1 (1966)
ed.: Prosdocimi de Beldemandis Expositiones tractatus pratice cantus
mensurabilis magistri Johannis de Muris, AntMI, Scriptores, iii/1 (1966)
‘Da un codice italiano di mottetti del primo Trecento’, Quadrivium, ix (1968),
25–44
ed.: L’ars nova italiana del Trecento: convegni di studi 1961–1967
(Certaldo, 1968) [incl. ‘Alcune fonti poco note di musica teorica e
pratica’, 49–76; ‘La musica nell’opera di frate Remigio fiorentino’, 85–
9]
ed.: F. Gaffurius: Extractus parvus musice, AntMI, Scriptores, iv/1 (1969)
‘L’Europa orientale e l’Italia tra il XIV e il XV secolo’, ‘Lo studio della musica
speculativa di Johannes de Muris in Polonia e in Italia: le glosse
dell’Università di Cracovia e i Glossemata di Franchino Gaffurio’,
Incontro con la musica italiana in Polonia dal Rinascimento al Barocco
I: Parma and Bydgoszcz 1969, 29–37, 39–54
‘Mottetti del primo Trecento in un messale di Biella (Codice Lowe)’, L’Ars
Nova italiana del Trecento: Convegno II: Certaldo and Florence 1969,
L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iii (Certaldo, 1970), 215–45
‘Due trattatelli sulla notazione del primo Trecento’, Quadrivium, xii/1 (1971),
119–30
ed.: P. Picardus: Ars motettorum compilata breviter, CSM, xv (1971)
ed.: Compendium musicae mensurabilis artis antiquae, CSM, xv/c (1971)
ed.: Tractatulus de cantu mensurali seu figurativo musice artis, CSM, xvi
(1971)
ed.: J. Boen: Ars musicae, CSM, xix (1972)
‘Philological Works on Musical Treatises of the Middle Ages: a
Bibliographical Report’, AcM, xliv (1972), 78–101
‘Marchetus in Padua und die “franco-venetische” Musik des frühen
Trecento’, AMw, xxxi (1974), 42–56
‘Musica, poetica e retorica nel Quattrocento: l’Illuminator di Giacomo
Borbo’, RIM, x (1975), 72–85
Il Medioevo II (Turin, 1977, 2/1995 as La polifonia nel Medioevo; Eng.
trans., 1985)
‘Bilingualismo poetico e bilinguismo musicale nel madrigale trecentesco’,
La musica al tempo del Boccaccio e i suoi rapporti con la letteratura:
Siena and Certaldo 1975 [L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iv
(Certaldo, 1978)], 237–43
‘Il “ballare lombardo” (circa 1435–1475): i balli e le basse danze di
Domenico da Piacenza e di Guglielmo da Pesaro’, Studi musicali, viii
(1979), 61–84
‘The Practice of Cantus planus binatim in Italy from the Beginning of the
14th to the Beginning of the 16th Century’, Le polifonie primitive in
Friuli e in Europa: Cividale del Friuli 1980, 13–30
ed.: Il codice musicale Panciatichi 26 della Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze
(Florence, 1981)
‘La trattatistica musicale dal primo Quattrocento al Concilio di Trento’,
Storia della cultura veneta, iii (1982), 297–314
‘The Musical and Literary Tradition of Fourteenth Century Poetry Set to
Music’, Musik und Text in der Mehrstimmigkeit des 14. und 15.
Jahrhunderts, ed. U. Günther and L. Finscher (Kassel, 1984), 55–76
‘Die Notationslehre im 14. und 15. Jahrhundert’, Geschichte der
Musiktheorie, ed. F. Zaminer, v (Darmstadt, 1984), 257–356
‘Sulla fortuna di Antonio da Tempo: un quarto volgarizzamento’, L’Ars Nova
italiana del Trecento, v (Palermo, 1985), 149–57
ed.: Musica e storia tra Medio Evo e età moderna (Bologna, 1986)
‘Dal Duecento al Quattrocento’, Letteratura italiana, vi, ed. A. Asor Rosa
(Turin, 1986), 244–63
‘Die Kenntnis der griechischen musiktheoretischen Quellen in der
italienischen Renaissance’, Geschichte der Musiktheorie, vii, ed. F.
Zaminer (Darmstadt, 1989), 7–38
Greek Text and Latin Translations of the Aristotelian Musical Problems: a
Preliminary Account of the Sources’ Antiquity and the Middle Ages
(Notre Dame, IN, 1990)
‘Annominatio and Introitus: Parallelisms and Intermingling of Rhetorical
Figures’, The Cypriot-French Repertory of the Manuscript Torino J.II.9:
Paphos 1992, 347–56
Musica nel castello: trovatori, libri, oratori nelle corti italiane dal XIII al XV
secolo (Bologna, 1992; Engl. trans., 1995, as Music in the Castle)
‘Antropologia della musica e ricerca storica’, Antropologia della musica e
culture mediterranee (Bologna, 1993), 67–85
EDITIONS
Antonio Romani: Opera, AntMI, Monumenta veneta, i (1965)
with G. Vecchi: I più antichi monumenti sacri italiani, MLMI, 3rd ser.,
Mensurabilia, i (1968)
Il codice musicale 2216 della Biblioteca universitaria di Bologna, MLMI, 3rd
ser., Mensurabilia, iii (1968–70)
with K. von Fischer: Italian Sacred Music, PMFC, xii (1976); xiii (1987)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Dalla Vecchia and D. Restani, eds.: Trent’anni di ricerca musicologia:
studi in onore di F. Alberto Gallo (Rome, 1996)
CAROLYN GIANTURCO/THERESA M. GIALDRONI

Gallo, Fortune [Fortunato] T.

(b Torremaggiore, Foggia, 9 May 1878; d New York, 28 March 1970).
American impresario of Italian birth. The son of a retired soldier, he went to
the USA in 1895, worked as a tout among his fellow immigrants, then used
his experience as a school bandsman to become an agent for touring
Italian bands. When the coming of ragtime upset the band business, he
organized a US tour for an Italian opera company which had been touring
California and Central America. This led him in 1913 to start his own
touring San Carlo Opera Company, a name taken from an earlier troupe.
Until 1951, with a break during the Depression (1929–32), it gave many
Americans their first experience of opera as both audiences and
performers, often through one-night stands in small towns. Although the
conductor Carlo Peroni did much to hold it together (from 1916 to 1942),
the company was a shifting group of soloists engaged for particular
performances; scenery consisted of painted flats, and the chorus was eked
out by local amateurs. Almost wholly Italian at first, the San Carlo took on
American singers and other languages; a 1922 Lohengrin in Edmonton
was sung in four languages. Some artists were on the way up (Alice
Gentle, Queena Mario, Manuel Salazar early on, Regina Resnik and David
Poleri in the 1940s), others on the way out (Maria Jeritza, 1933); many
remained little known in spite of Gallo's trick of giving some of them the
surnames of famous singers. His meanness comes through even in his
ghosted, fictionalized memoirs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F.T. Gallo: Lucky Rooster (New York, 1967)
C. Bishop: The San Carlo Opera Company 1913–1955: Grand Opera for
Profit (Santa Monica, CA, 1978)
JOHN ROSSELLI

Gallo, Giovanni Pietro

(b Bari; fl c1591–1600). Italian composer. The inclusion of one of his pieces
in Gumpelzhaimer's Compendium musicae (RISM 159126) suggests that
his music had already been published in a now-lost Italian collection, since
north European anthologies were generally compiled from existing Italian
prints rather than from specially commissioned works. He probably spent
his youth in Bari under the guidance of Giovanni de Marinis, maestro di
cappella of Bari Cathedral: he is represented by one piece in Marinis's
Primo libro de madrigali a sei voci (RISM 159613), and works by Marinis are
included in Gallo's Primo libro de madrigali (159720), a volume dated from
Bari on 25 August 1597 and also containing a piece by Flaminio Tresti, who
was probably working at nearby Lodi. It is evident from the dedication of
the Motectorum liber primus (Rome, 1600, inc.) that Gallo had previously
served Pietro Sanseverino, the dedicatee of the volume, and his father, the
Prince of Bisignano, in Calabria. This volume contains 25 pieces: 20 for
five voices and five for eight voices of which one is a setting of the Te
Deum. Although the title-page of the only known surviving part (bassus) is
dated 1600, the colophon is dated 1599. Gallo's two-voice ricercare (in
16865) does not seem to have appeared in any known earlier publication.
IAIN FENLON

Gallo, Giuseppe [Gioseffo,

Josephus].
See Galli, Giuseppe.

Gallo, Pietro Antonio

[Pietrantonio]
(b ?1695–1700; d Naples, 15 Aug 1777). Italian composer and teacher. On
25 April 1742 he succeeded Giovanni Veneziano as secondo maestro of
the Neapolitan Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto. After the death of the
primo maestro, Francesco Durante (30 September 1755), he shared the
musical direction with Gennaro Manna, maestro di cappella of Naples
Cathedral, and after 10 April 1760 also with the aging Nicolò Porpora. But
Porpora and Manna resigned after one year, and on 15 May 1761 Gallo
became sole director. Among the students trained there during his 35 years
as a master of the conservatory were Pasquale Anfossi, P.A. Guglielmi,
 Antonio Sacchini, Fedele Fenaroli, Giuseppe Giordani, Domenico
Cimarosa and Niccolò Zingarelli. Although Gallo served S Maria di Loreto
longer than any master before, he was the least remembered. At first he
was overshadowed by Durante, later by his own student and successor,
Fenaroli.
Early 19th-century writers confused Gallo’s career with that of Ignazio
Prota, and a metamorphosis produced the fictitious ‘Ignazio Gallo’, alleged
student of Alessandro Scarlatti, who was credited with Pietro Antonio
Gallo’s accomplishments. Gallo composed only sacred music, in a late
Baroque style characterized by instrumental themes and textures. His St
John Passion (I-Nc) has moments of individual character; the narrative is
presented in a mixture of simple and accompanied recitatives, and arioso
numbers with ritornellos. The part of Christus is written optionally for bass
or tenor.
WORKS
all with instruments, mostly autograph

Mass (Ky–Gl), a 4; 4 masses (Ky–Gl), a 5; mass (Ky–Gl), a 8; Messa funebre, a 4;

Messa pastorale, a 4: all I-Nc
6 Lezioni delli morti, 1v, Nc; Canto pel SS sacramento, 1v, Nc; Magnificat, D, a 10,
Nc; Magnificat, g, a 10, F-Pc, I-Nc, doubtful, by N. Fago
Beatus vir, a 5; Deus tuorum militum, a 5; Dies irae, a 5; Dixit Dominus, a 5; Te
Deum, a 5; Veni sponsa Christi, a 5: all Nc
St John Passion, a 4, GB-Lbl; St John Passion, S, A, T/B, 4vv, I-Nc
Cantatas, for various vv: A si che un sì bel giorno; Cala dall’alta sfera; Dell’empii a
scorno ad onta (Per il SS sacramento); Fortunati momenti; Fuoco stragi (Per il
glorioso protettore S Gennaro); Già s’ode da lontano (Per il glorioso pretettore S
Gennaro); Quando mai di luce adorno (In onore di Maria SS): all Nc

BIBLIOGRAPHY
FlorimoN
D. Martuscelli, ed.: ‘Gallo, Ignazio’, Elogii dei maestri di cappella, cantori e
cantanti più celebri, Biografi degli uomini illustri del regno di Napoli
(Naples, 1819)
K. Nef: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte der Passion in Italien’, ZMw, xvii (1935),
208–41
U. Prota Giurleo: ‘Gallo, Pietro Antonio’, Larousse de la musique (Paris,
1957)
H.-B. Dietz: ‘Zur Frage der musikalischen Leitung des Conservatorio di
Santa Maria di Loreto in Neapel im 18. Jahrhundert’, Mf, xxv (1972),
419–29
HANNS-BERTOLD DIETZ

Gallo, R.
(fl 1420–30). Composer. He is named as the composer of the rondeau Je
ne vis pas which is extant only in GB–Ob Can.misc.213 (ed. in CMM, xi/2,
1959, p.25). The work was originally for two voices, but it appears in this
source with a triplum ascribed to Francus de Insula.
 TOM R. WARD

Gallo, Vincenzo
(b Alcara Li Fusi, Sicily, before 1561; d Palermo, Dec 1624). Italian
composer. He was a priest and a Franciscan friar. He gave his earnings as
a professional musician towards the enlargement and decoration of his
monastery, established at Palermo in 1588; a capital of a column in the
cloister, now destroyed, was inscribed ‘Musica Galli’. He was already
maestro di cappella at Palermo Cathedral in 1604 when, on 27 October, he
was appointed director of the royal Palatine chapel. He held both
appointments until his death. In 1591 and in 1598 he was in Caltagirone,
where he conducted his own cappella for the feast of the town’s patron, St
James. In 1622 he superintended the music for the Trionfi sacri di S
Ignazio Loiola e S Francesco Xaverio in Messina to celebrate the
canonization of the two saints.
Gallo’s only extant printed volume, Salmi del Re David, consists of
impressive concertato works in the style of Giovanni Gabrieli, in which
densely woven contrapuntal imitation of short motifs alternates with full
homophony. His only surviving madrigal, Non si levava ancor l’alba novella
(RISM 15988), is of particular interest. The text, by Tasso, had been set by
Monteverdi as the opening madrigal of his second book (1590). Gallo, the
only other composer known to have set it, used fewer than half the poem’s
28 lines, apparently ignoring its universal and teleological implications. By
concentrating instead on the lovers’ conversation and intensifying the
themes derived from Monteverdi’s version, he achieved in the music a
most impressive erotic effect.
WORKS
Libro primo de’ madrigali, 5vv (Palermo, 1589), lost, see Bianconi
Messa prima cantata a due cori, 8vv, messa seconda in tre cori, 12vv (Rome,
1596), lost, see Bianconi
Salmi del Re David che ordinariamente canta Santa Chiesa nei vesperi, libro primo,
8vv (2 choirs), bc (org) (Palermo, 1607), ed. in MRS, xvii (1996)
Madrigal, 5vv, 15988, ed. in MRS, xii (1993); 2 madrigals in Infidi lumi (Palermo,
1603), lost, see Bianconi
Motet, 4vv, bc, 16271, ed. in MRS, xvii (1996)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Cagliola: Almae Siciliensis provinciae ordinis minorum conventualium S.
Francisci manifestationes novissimae (Venice, 1644), 104; ed. F.
Rotolo (Palermo, 1985), 104
A. Mongitore: Bibliotheca Sicula, ii (Palermo, 1714/R), 284
G.B. Caruso, ed.: Rime degli accademici accesi di Palermo (Palermo,
1726), ii, 177ff
O. Tiby: ‘The Polyphonic School in Sicily of the 16th–17th Century’, MD, v
(1951), 203–11
O. Tiby: ‘La musica nella Real Cappella Palatina di Palermo’, AnM, vii
(1952), 177–92, esp. 189
O. Tiby: I polifonisti siciliani del XVI e XVII secolo (Palermo, 1969), 88–9
L. Bianconi: ‘Sussidi bibliografici per i musicisti siciliani del Cinque e
Seicento’, RIM, vii (1972), 3–38
P.E. Carapezza: ‘Non si levava ancor l’alba novella’, Sette variazioni, a
Luigi Rognoni: musiche e studi dei discepoli palermitani, ed. A. Titone
and P.E. Carapezza (Palermo, 1985), 47–77 [incl. edn of 2 madrigals]
G. Collisani: ‘Occasioni di musica nella Palermo barocca’, Musica ed
attività musicali in Sicilia nei secoli XVII e XVIII, ed. G. Collisani and D.
Ficola (Palermo, 1988), 37–74, esp. 53
N. Maccavino: ‘Musica a Caltagirone nel tardo rinascimento: 1569–1619’,
Musica sacra in Sicilia tra Rinascimento e Barocco: Caltagirone 1985,
91–110, esp. 98–9
P.E. Carapezza: ‘Il Cardinale del Monte tra il Caravaggio e Le risa a
vicenda’: introduction to Le risa a vicenda, MRS, xii (1993), pp.ix–xxxix
PAOLO EMILIO CARAPEZZA, GIUSEPPE COLLISANI

Gallois, Patrick
(b Linselles, nr Lille, 17 April 1956). French flautist. He studied with Jean-
Pierre Rampal and Maxence Larrieu at the Paris Conservatoire, winning a
premier prix at the age of 19. He was immediately appointed principal flute
in the Orchestre de Lille, and from 1977 to 1984 was principal in the
Orchestre Nationale de France. Since then he has pursued an international
career as a soloist. In 1990 he founded his own chamber orchestra, the
Académie de Paris, and the following year signed an exclusive solo
recording contract with Deutsche Grammophon. His many recordings since
then have ranged widely through the repertory to broaden the profile of the
flute as a solo instrument. Gallois' playing is flamboyant and highly
personal in interpretation. His style owes much to his mentor Jean-Pierre
Rampal and to his belief in music as ‘passion’. He is the dedicatee of works
by Takemitsu, Sallinen, Landowski and Tanguy.
EDWARD BLAKEMAN

Gallois-Montbrun, Raymond
(b Saigon, 15 Aug 1918; d Paris, 13 Aug 1994). French composer,
administrator and violinist. He studied with the Gallons (theory), Touche
(violin) and Büsser (composition) at the Paris Conservatoire, where in 1944
he won the Prix de Rome with Louise de la miséricorde. His stay at the
Villa Medici was cut short by the fighting in Italy, and he embarked on a
career as a violinist, notably in a partnership with the pianist Pierre Sancan.
During these years he toured throughout Europe, Africa and Japan. He
then took an appointment as director of the Versailles Conservatoire
(1957–62), moving from there to a similar position at the Paris
Conservatoire, where he remained until 1983, and instigated notable
reforms, chiefly the establishment of a course to help performers prepare
for their careers (the ‘cycle de perfectionnement’). He was elected to the
Académie des Beaux-Arts in 1983, in succession to Paul Paray. Towards
the end of his life, he took up composition again, notably with a work for the
Long-Thibaud competition. He was working on a symphonic poem for violin
and orchestra at the time of his death.
 WORKS
(selective list)

Chbr op: Le rossignol et l’empereur, 1959

Orch: Symphonie japonaise, 1951; Vn Conc., 1957; Le port de Delft, sym. poem,
1959; Les menines, sym. poem, 1961; Vc Conc., 1961; Pf Conc., 1964
Chbr and solo inst: Tableaux indochinois, str qt, 1947; Soli de concert, vn, pf, 1956;
Divertissement, fl, pf, 1956; Concert variations, vn, pf, 1957; Mosaïque, pf, 1958; Pf
Sonata, 1958; Sonata, vn, pf, 1961; Pf Sonata, 1992; Quand sonne l’heure, vn, pf,
1993
Many educational pieces

ALAIN LOUVIER/BRUNO MANTOVANI

Gallon, Jean
(b Paris, 25 June 1878; d Paris, 23 June 1959). French composer and
teacher, brother of Noël Gallon. He entered the Paris Conservatoire at the
age of ten and studied under Lavignac (harmony), Diémer (piano) and
Lenepveu (composition). Appointments followed as maître de chapelle at
St Merri (1894) and St Philippe-du-Roule (1903), and as choirmaster at the
Paris Opéra (1909–14). His chief importance, however, was as a harmony
teacher at the Conservatoire (1919–49), where his pupils included Duruflé,
Dutilleux and Messiaen; he was the first to include consideration of the
developments of Fauré, Debussy and Ravel in the courses there. Gallon's
compositions are few, but of high quality and elegant craftsmanship; the
sacred pieces are particularly fine.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ballet: Hansli le bossu (H. Cain, E. Adenis), collab. N. Gallon; Paris, Opéra, 1914
Sacred: Mass, 4vv, orch, org (1898); 6 antiennes, str orch, org, 1899
Songs: La lune blanche luit dans les bois (P. Verlaine), 1897; Nuits de juin (V. Hugo)
(1899); Sur le silence, Réponse, Les musiciens (F. Toussaint) (1939)

Principal publishers: Coutarel, Eschig, Salabert

ALAIN LOUVIER

Gallon, Noël
(b Paris, 11 Sept 1891; d Paris, 26 Dec 1966). French composer and
teacher, brother ofJean Gallon. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire with
Philipp and Risler (piano), Lavignac (harmony), Caussade (counterpoint
and fugue) and Lenepveu (composition), becoming a pupil and friend of
Rabaud. In 1910 he won the Prix de Rome. He returned to the
Conservatoire as a teacher of solfège in 1920, and in 1926 he took over a
class in counterpoint and fugue. As renowned a teacher as his brother, he
had more success as a composer, principally of dramatic and orchestral
 works. His compositions are marked by elegance and clarity, and by a
discreet impressionism that veils his contrapuntal skill.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Paysans et soldats (op, 5, P. de Sancy), Paris, 1911; La marseillaise

(tableau musical), Paris, Opéra, 1912; Hansli le bossu (ballet, H. Cain and E.
Adenis), collab. J. Gallon, Paris, Opéra, 1914
Orch: Fantaisie, pf, orch, 1909; Suite, D, 1909; Conc., wind trio, orch, 1934
Choral: Ps xcix, 6vv (1933)
Chbr: Fantaisie, hp (1921); Suite, fl, pf (1921); Barcarolle, hp (1933); Suite en trio,
ob, cl, bn (1933); Récit et allegro, bn, pf (1938); Sonata, fl, bn (1952); Qnt, hp, str
(1953); Dolor, vc, pf (1953)
Pf: Ker an diskouiz (1927); Sonatine (1931); Pour un arbre de Noël, Scherzo,
Berceuse (1932); Rondo classique (1948); Toccata, intermezzo et capriccio (1951);
Etudes progressives (1953); 10 préludes (1953)
Songs: Nuits de juin (V. Hugo) (1913); Soir (A. Samain) (1920); Sonnet (H. de
Régnier) (1920); Chinoiserie (T. Gautier) (1924); 5 chansons du vieux Canada
français (1937)

Principal publishers: Hamelle, Leduc, Lemoine, Noël, Salabert

ALAIN LOUVIER

Gallot.
French family of lutenists. They were active in the 17th century. Jacques
and Pierre, who were also composers, were considered by their
contemporaries to be among the most accomplished players of their time.
(1) Alexandre Gallot
(2) Jacques Gallot
(3) Pierre Gallot
(4) Henry François de Gallot, Sieur de Franlieu
MONIQUE ROLLIN
Gallot
(1) Alexandre Gallot
(b 1625–30; d 1684). Lutenist and composer. He was known as ‘vieux
Gallot d'Angers’ and he was maître de luth in that town about 1663. Four
pieces are attributed to him in René Milleran's manuscript lutebook (F-Pn
Rés.823) which was compiled in about 1690.
Gallot
(2) Jacques Gallot
(d Paris, c1690). Lutenist and composer, brother of (1) Alexandre Gallot.
He was known as ‘vieux Gallot de Paris’. He was a pupil of Ennemond
Gaultier. His Pièces de luth composées sur differens modes (Paris, n.d.)
includes a brief method for the lute. The inclusion of minuets and the
arrangement of pieces by keys and forms anticipate the later suite. In
addition to this collection most of the pieces in an untitled lute manuscript
(D-LEm II614) are signed ‘vieux Gallot’. These two sources comprise
almost all his identified music, but a few other pieces by him are among
those signed simply ‘Gallot’ found in other manuscripts (in F-Pn, B, GB-Ob,
HAdolmetsch, A-GÖ, KR, Wn, CZ-Pu and S-K). His compositions include
several musical portraits – La Fontange and La Montespan among others –
and tombeaux – among them those in memory of Turenne, Condé and
Madame – inspired by members of the court. Visée in turn composed a
tombeau in memory of Gallot.
Gallot
(3) Pierre Gallot
(b c1660; d Paris, after 1716). Lutenist and composer, son of (1) Alexandre
Gallot. He was known as ‘Gallot le jeune’ and is reputed to have been a
remarkable performer. He also taught the lute and guitar to wealthy
foreigners. The incomplete tablature of ‘Gallot à Paris’ (CZ-Pu KK83)
contains one lute piece by him, and others appear in manuscripts (at F-Pn,
B, PL-Lw, US-NY and A-GÖ). His Tombeau de la Princesse de Monaco is
in a manuscript in Vienna (A-Wn 17706).
Gallot
(4) Henry François de Gallot, Sieur de Franlieu
(d after 1684). Guitarist and lutenist. His relationship to the other Gallots is
uncertain. He was known as ‘Gallot d'Irlande’. In Nantes between 1664 and
1684 he compiled a manuscript (GB-Ob M.Sch.C94) entitled Pièces de
guittarre de differends autheurs, containing music by ‘Gallot le vieux’,
‘Gallot d’Angleterre’ (possibly his son, who may have served Charles II),
‘Gallot le jeune’ and ‘Gallot le cadet’, as well as Francisque, Dufaut,
Corbetta and other composers. An Antoine Gallot (d Vilnius, 1647), also a
lutenist and composer, is not thought to be related to the other members of
the Gallot family. He was employed at the Polish court, where he served
King Władisław IV, and a vocal canon by hiim servives in Marco Scacchi’s
Cribrum musicum (Venice, 1643).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. de La Laurencie: Les luthistes (Paris, 1928)
A. Tessier: ‘Quelques sources de l’école française de luth du XVIIe siècle’,
IMSCR I: Liège 1930, 217–24
M. Rollin: ‘Le “tombeau” chez les luthistes Denis Gautier, Jacques Gallot,
Charles Mouton’, XVIIe siècle, nos.21–2 (1954), 463–79
M. Rollin: ‘La suite pour luth dans l'oeuvre de Charles Mouton’, ReM,
no.226 (1955), 76–88
H. Radke: ‘Bemerkungen zur Lautenisten-Familie Gallot’, Mf, xiii (1960),
51–5
D. Gill: ‘The de Gallot Guitar Books’, EMc, vi (1978), 79–87
R.T. Pinnell: ‘The Theorboed Guitar: its Repertoire in the Guitar Books of
Granata and Gallot’, EMc, vii (1979), 323–9
C. Massip: ‘Recherches biographiques’, Preface to Oeuvres de Gallot
(Paris, 1987), xv–xxiii
M. Rollin: ‘La musique pour le luth des Gallot’, Preface to Oeuvres de
Gallot (Paris, 1987), xxix–xliii

Gallus, Antonius.
See Galli, Antonius.

Gallus, Giuseppe [Gioseffo,

Josephus].
See Galli, Giuseppe.

Gallus, Jacobus.
See Handl, Jacobus.

Gallus, Joannes [Lecocq, Jean]

(fl mid-16th century). Composer(s) of uncertain identity. On the title-page of
a motet collection by Maistre Jhan of Ferrara (RISM 1543 4), the Venetian
publisher Scotto identified Maistre Jhan as Joannes Gallus. Jhan, however,
is never described as ‘gallus’ in the numerous documents surviving from
his three decades of service in Ferrara; moreover, a publication emanating
from Ferrara at the end of his career there (1538 5) ascribes one motet to
Joannes Gallus and three others to Maistre Jhan, thus implying that the
two are separate and distinct. Similarly, several later prints distinguish
between Gallus and Petit Jean De Latre (1547 5) and Gallus and Jhan Gero
(155410). In Maistre Jhan's case, the name ‘gallus’ may have been
mistakenly substituted for ‘gallicus’ (Frenchman), since he is often
described at Ferrara as ‘cantor francexe’, and one notice identifies his
father as ‘Paulus del Mistro gallicus’. Apart from Scotto’s 1543 publication,
no evidence connects Jhan with Gallus and the two names are not used
interchangeably in other contemporary sources.
There were, however, diverse Joannes cantores employed at Ferrara and
elsewhere. At least two other musicians active elsewhere in Italy might also
be the ‘Gallus’ whose work was published in 1538. A Joannes Gallus sang
in the Cappella Giulia, Rome, in 1514; and a Joannes Gallicus was
maestro di cappella of Ravenna Cathedral in the early 1520s.
Outside Italy the problem takes a different turn in prints issued by Susato at
Antwerp towards the mid-16th century. A series of attributions to Gallus and
Lecocq (the French equivalent of Gallus), although handled with puzzling
inconsistency, nonetheless suggests that Susato recognized Joannes
Gallus and Jehan Lecocq as one composer. If Scotto's disclosure that
Gallus is Jhan could be substantiated, then Lecocq would simply be Jhan
in yet another guise. It is now certain, however, that Maistre Jhan of
Ferrara was dead before Susato printed the first Gallus/Lecocq chansons
in 1543. Besides, a noted Lecocq turns up in the generation after Jhan.
Guicciardini counted ‘Gian le Coick’ among the contemporary masters of
 music, and he was referring most probably to the singer Johannes de
Cockh listed in the imperial chapel, Vienna, from 1564 (or possibly earlier)
until his death a decade later. Possibly the Viennese Lecocq is the Joannes
Gallus represented in various prints from Germany and the Lowlands
between 1542 and 1555.
The body of works attributed to Gallus/Lecocq is fairly slight: nine motets
and 22 chansons. The chansons generally exhibit less lightness and
flexibility than similar works by Claudin de Sermisy and Janequin, and in
several the use of rigid contrapuntal devices produces a somewhat old-
fashioned effect. Among the five canonic chansons, the five-voice Sy des
haulx cieulx is noteworthy for its use of mirror canon at the unison.
WORKS

Edition: Chansons Published by Tielman Susato, ed. K. Forney, SCC, xxx (1994) [F]

motets
all attributed Gallus

Angelus Domini descendit, 4vv, 15385; Domine da nobis auxilium, 4vv, 15427; Ecce
plenus, 4vv, 15468; Exaltare tui Domine, 5vv, 15549; Laudemus omnes, 4vv, 15475;
Musica Dei donum optimi, 5vv, 15549; Quousque Domine, 5vv, 155314; Suscipe
verbum virgo Maria, 5vv, 15558; Valde honorandus est, 5vv, 15466

chansons
Au glay berg icronette, 4vv, 155423 (attrib. Gallus); Belle vostre amie est venu, 4vv,
155423 (Lecocq); Douleur et pleurs, 4vv, 154412 (Lecocq); Deuil et ennuy, 5vv,
154514, F 73 (Lecocq); En espoir vis, 4vv, 154410 (Lecocq); Hélas amours du vient,
4vv, 154412 (Lecocq); Humble et leal vers madame, 4vv, 1554 22 (Gallus); Je ne
désire, 4vv, 154410 (Gallus)
Las me fault il tant, 4vv, 154410 (Lecocq); Le bergier et la bergiere, 5vv, 1543 15
(Gallus); Nostre vicaire ung jour, 4vv, 154410, F 79 (Lecocq); Or suis je bien au pire,
6vv, 155014 (Gallus/Lecocq); Par faulte d’argent, 5vv, 1544 13 (Gallus); Pour la dame,
5vv, 155013 (Gallus); Pour une seulle, 4vv, 154412 (Gallus); Puis que fortune, 4vv,
154410 (Lecocq)
Sans avoir aultre, 5vv, 154315 (Gallus); Si aulcunement désirez, 4vv, 154411
(Lecocq); Sy des haulx cieulx, 5vv, 154514, F 85 (Lecocq); Si par souffrir, 5vv, 154514
(Lecocq); Si tu voulois accorder, 4vv, 154410 (Lecocq); Si variable oncques, 4vv,
154410 (Lecocq)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KöchelKHM
L. Guicciardini: Descrittione … di tutti i Paesi Bassi (Antwerp, 1565/R),
28–9; Eng. trans. (London, 1593/R)
F.X. Haberl: ‘Die römische “Schola cantorum” und die päpstlichen
Kapellsänger bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts’, VMw, iii (1887),
187–296, esp. 258; repr. in Blausteine für Musikgeschichte, iii (Leipzig,
1888/R)
A. Smijers: ‘Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-Kapelle von 1543–1619’, SMw, vii
(1920), 102–42, esp. 128; pubd separately (Vienna, 1922)
R. Casadio: ‘La cappella musicale della cattedrale di Ravenna nel secolo
XVI’, NA, xvi (1939), 136–85, 226–37, 258–73, esp. 138
U. Meissner: Der Antwerpener Notendrucker Tylman Susato (Berlin, 1967)
GEORGE NUGENT

Gallus, Udalricus.
See Han, Ulrich.

Gallus-Mederitsch, Johann.
See Mederitsch, Johann.

Galop
(Fr.; Ger. Galopp).
A quick, lively dance in 2/4 time. Together with the waltz, quadrille and
polka it was one of the most popular ballroom dances of the 19th century. It
derived its name from the galloping movement of horses and was possibly
the simplest dance ever introduced into the ballroom. The partners held
each other rather as in the waltz but both facing the line of dance and
proceeding rapidly with springing steps down the room. The dance
originated in Germany, was popular in Vienna in the 1820s and spread to
France and England in 1829. In France it was for a time introduced into the
finale of the Quadrille and also developed into the Cancan. In England it
remained popular for half a century or so, but in Vienna it was ousted from
popular favour by the quadrille in 1840 and later superseded by the ‘quick
polka’.
The physical demands of dancing a galop meant that the music lasted no
more than two or three minutes. The music was played at approximately
126 bars per minute, contained a trio (sometimes two) and was often
provided with a short introduction and coda. Schubert left two galops: his
d735 no.1 (c1822) and Grazer Galopp d925 (1827). Later, galops were an
important part of the output of composers such as Lanner, Johann Strauss
(i), Josef Labitzky and Philippe Musard. The titles often suggested the
dance’s speed and excitement, and acoustical effects such as pistol shots
were sometimes included. Many galops were based on popular songs or
operatic themes. The Posthorn Galop of Hermann Koenig, introduced at
Jullien’s concerts in 1844, is the only piece of English origin in the major
dance forms of the 19th century to have remained familiar. In Copenhagen
H.C. Lumbye specialized in galops, such as the Champagne Galop (1845)
and the Copenhagen Steam Railway Galop (1847). Popular ‘quick polkas’
include Unter Donner und Blitz (‘Thunder and Lightning’, 1868) by Johann
Strauss (ii).
The lively nature of the galop made it suitable for a rousing finish to a ball,
and when introduced into ballets it was likewise found appropriate as a
finale. Lumbye composed several galops for the ballets of Bournonville,
beginning with Napoli (1842). In opera, galops are to be found in Auber’s
Gustave III (1833) and Balfe’s The Bohemian Girl (1843), while in operetta
the dance was parodied in Offenbach’s Orphée aux enfers (1858).
Examples of the galop as an instrumental showpiece are provided by
Liszt’s Grand galop chromatique (1838) and his Galop de bal (c1840).
Later examples are to be found in Bizet’s Jeux d’enfants (1871) and in the
light music of 20th-century Russian composers such as Prokofiev
(Cinderella, 1945), Khachaturian (Masquerade, 1939), Kabalevsky (The
Comedians, 1940) and Shostakovich (The Limpid Brook, 1934). The galop
rhythm has also been used to provide a rousing finale to orchestral
showpieces, as in Rossini’s Guillaume Tell overture (1829, using a passo
doppio composed in Vienna in 1822), Sullivan’s Overture di ballo (1870)
and the Dance of the Hours in Ponchielli’s La Gioconda (1876).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Schönherr and K. Reinöhl: Johann Strauss Vater (Vienna, 1954)
P.J.S. Richardson: The Social Dances of the Nineteenth Century in
England (London, 1960)
G. Giordano: ‘Il Galop, un “frenetico tumulto”’, Chorégraphie, i/1 (1993),
84–94
ANDREW LAMB

Galoubet.
A three-holed pipe of the Pipe and tabor ensemble (it is classified as an
Aerophone). It is of Provençal origin, and the name probably derives from
an Old Provençal verb, galaubar, meaning ‘to play magnificently’. It was
used to accompany dancing throughout the Middle Ages. Elsewhere it was
known as a flute à trois trous or flûtet, but the term ‘galoubet’ (and its
colloquial variant jombarde) came into more general use during the 18th
century. The galoubet was made of wood, usually boxwood, and was about
30 cm long with two front holes and a rear thumb-hole. It had a very narrow
cylindrical bore, and was pitched in D. The player held it in one hand, while
the other hand played a drone instrument such as the Tambourin de Béarn,
or a snared drum. Praetorius describes the instrument (which he calls a
‘Schwegel’), and in the 18th century its sound was imitated in sailors'
scenes in French opera. Pieces for galoubet by Chateauminois (Oeuvres
… pour le galoubet, contenant instructions, mélanges, airs, Paris, n.d.) and
Lavallière (Six sonates en duo pour le tambourin avec un violon seul,
Paris, n.d.) survive in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and examples of
the instrument survive in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, and the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Jacquot: Dictionnaire pratique et raisonné des instruments de musique
anciens et modernes (Paris, 1886)
D.P. Charlton: Orchestration and Orchestral Practice in Paris, 1789 to
1810 (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1973)
W. Bosmans: Eenhandsfluit en trom in de Lage Landen/The Pipe and
Tabor in the Low Countries (Peer, 1991)
MARY CYR
Galpin, Francis William
(b Dorchester, 25 Dec 1858; d Richmond, Surrey, 30 Dec 1945). English
collector of musical instruments and scholar. He was educated at King's
School, Sherborne, where James Robert Sterndale Bennett, son of the
composer, encouraged his aptitude for music. From 1877 he studied
classics at Trinity College, Cambridge (BA 1882, MA 1885), where he
played the clarinet under Stanford in the orchestra of the Cambridge
University Musical Society. Ordained in 1883, he was curate of Redenhall
with Harleston, Norfolk, for four years, then curate at St Giles-in-the-Fields
(1887–91), vicar of Hatfield Broad Oak (formerly Hatfield Regis, 1891–
1915), vicar of Witham (1915–21) and rector of Faulkbourn (1921–33). In
1917 he was made a canon of Chelmsford Cathedral. From his university
years onwards, Galpin made an outstanding collection of musical
instruments, which he made freely available for public exhibitions and
lectures and described and illustrated in his book Old English Instruments
of Music (1910). By 1900 his international reputation as a collector of and
authority on musical instruments was established. He arranged an
important exhibition at the Crystal Palace (1900) and arranged and
described the Crosby Brown Collection for the Metropolitan Museum of
New York (1902) and the collection of the Musikhistoriska Museet,
Stockholm (1903). He was granted the honorary freedom of the Worshipful
Company of Musicians in 1905. In 1914 the majority of his collection,
comprising between 500 and 600 specimens, was transferred to the
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In 1938 he was elected president of the
Musical Association. He contributed some 60 articles on instruments to the
third and fourth editions of Grove's Dictionary and many of the plates in
these editions illustrate instruments from his collection. His other areas of
interest were archaeology and botany. The Galpin Society was formed the
year following his death to continue his work.
WRITINGS
International Loan Exhibition, Crystal Palace (London, 1900) [exhibition
catalogue]
Descriptive Catalogue of the European Musical Instruments in the
Metropolitan Museum of New York (New York, 1902)
‘The Whistles and Reed Instruments of the American Indians of the North-
West Coast’, PMA, xxix (1902–3), 115–38
‘Notes on a Roman Hydraulus’, The Reliquary and Illustrated
Archaeologist, new ser., x (1904), 152–64
‘Notes on the Old Church Bands and Village Choirs of the last Century’,
Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club,
xxvi (1905), 172–81; pubd separately (Dorchester, 1905); rev. in The
Antiquary, xlii (1906), 101–6
‘The Sackbut: its Evolution and History, Illustrated by an Instrument of the
Sixteenth Century’, PMA, xxxiii (1906–7), 1–25
‘The Water Organ of the Ancients and the Organ of Today’, English Music
1604–1904 (London, 1906/R), 355–80
Old English Instruments of Music: their History and Character (London,
1910/R, rev. 4/1965/R by T. Dart)
‘The Origin of the Clarsech or Irish Harp’, MT, liii (1912), 82–92
‘An Old English Positive Organ’, Musical Antiquary, iv (1912–13), 20–30
ed.: J. Stainer: Music of the Bible (London, 2/1914/R)
‘Musical Instruments’, The Dictionary of English Furniture, from the Middle
Ages to the Late Georgian Period, ed. P. Macquoid, iii (London, 1927),
2–15
‘The Evolution of the Piano’, MMR, lix (1929), 291–2
‘The Sumerian Harp of Ur’, ML, x (1929), 108–23
‘The Generous Viol’, MMR, lx (1930), 327–30
‘The Viola Pomposa’, ML, xii (1931), 354–64
‘Frederick the Great's English Harpsichords’, MMR, lxiii (1933), 97–9
‘Old Instruments of Music Portrayed in the Ecclesiastical Art of Essex’,
Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society, new ser., xx (1933)
A Textbook of European Musical Instruments: their Origin, History and
Character (London, 1937, 3/1956/R)
The Music of the Sumerians and their Immediate Successors, the
Babylonians & Assyrians (Cambridge, 1937/R)
‘The Music of Electricity’, PMA, lxiv (1937–8), 71–83
‘The Romance of the Phagotum’, PMA, lxvii (1940–41), 57–72
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Lynd: A Popular Account of Ancient Musical Instruments and their
Development as illustrated by Typical Examples in the Galpin
Collection, at Hatfield, Broad Oak, Essex (London, 1897)
‘Dotted Crotchet’: ‘The Rev. F.W. Galpin's Musical Instruments’, MT, xlvii
(1906), 521–9
F.G. Rendall: ‘F.W.G. 1858–1945’, GSJ, i (1948), 3–8 [incl. selective list of
writings]
S. Godman: ‘Francis William Galpin: Music Maker’, GSJ, xii (1959), 8–16
O. Anderson: ‘Francis Galpin and the Triangular Harps’, GSJ, xix (1966),
57–60
B. Galpin: ‘Canon Galpin's Check Lists’, GSJ, xxv (1972), 4–21
ROSEMARY WILLIAMSON

Galpin Society.
A society founded in Britain in 1946 to commemorate and continue the
work of Francis W. Galpin on early musical instruments. Among its
founding members were Anthony Baines, Philip Bate, Robert Donington,
Eric Halfpenny, Edgar Hunt and Lyndesay Langwill; the first president was
Sir Jack Westrup. It set out to further the study of the history, construction,
development and use of musical instruments, and to preserve and make
available material about instruments of the past. The society, though not
directly concerned with performance, has asserted a considerable
influence on performing styles, on the study of early techniques and on the
revival of interest in period instruments. It has organized exhibitions of
British musical instruments, and in 1959 held a joint congress with the
International Association of Music Libraries in Cambridge. In 1999 the
society had about 1000 members. It has published The Galpin Society
Journal annually since 1948 and a Bulletin three times a year.
Galuppi, Baldassare
(b Burano, nr Venice, 18 Oct 1706; dVenice, 3 Jan 1785). Italian composer.
He was a central figure in the development of the dramma giocoso and one
of the most important mid-18th-century opera seria composers. Known
widely as ‘Il Buranello’, from his birthplace, he was routinely listed in
Venetian documents and early manuscripts as ‘Baldissera’.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DALE E. MONSON
Galuppi, Baldassare
1. Life.
Galuppi’s father, a barber, played the violin in small orchestras, which
provided entr’acte music for theatres of spoken comedy, and was probably
the boy’s first music teacher. In his 16th year Baldassare composed Gli
amici rivali for Chioggia (also performed in Vicenza as La fede
nell’incostanza, probably by the same troupe), but Caffi reported this as a
fiasco, a ‘scandal’. The boy went for advice to Marcello, who severely
scolded him for attempting something so grand on so little experience and
swore him to three years’ hard labour, studying under Antonio Lotti (first
organist at S Marco), refraining from operatic composition altogether and
focussing instead on counterpoint and the organ. Evidence for all this is
circumstantial, however; other evidence suggests that Galuppi’s studies
with Lotti had begun earlier.
If the young composer made this promise, he did not keep it, for two years
later he was playing the cembalo in opera houses and writing substitute
arias for revivals and pasticcios. By the age of 20 he had established a
reputation as a cembalist in Venice and Florence, and was soon engaged
in the S Angelo (where Vivaldi reigned), the S Samuele and the S Giovanni
Grisostomo theatres, performing and supplying arias. He collaborated with
his friend and fellow Lotti pupil, Giovanni Battista Pescetti, writing alternate
acts of Gl’odi delusi del sangue in 1728 (set earlier by Lotti) and Dorinda in
1729. This modest success led to further commissions, and by 1738 his
operas were appearing outside Venice; at the same time his nickname, ‘Il
Buranello’, is first encountered. Tobia il giovane, an oratorio written for
Macerata in 1734, was perhaps his earliest attempt in the genre.
Alessandro nell’Indie was given its première in Mantua at about the same
time that Issipile graced the stage in Turin (December 1737); the composer
was probably present only in Mantua. In 1738 he was in the service of the
patrician Michele Bernardo in Venice. Galuppi’s music for the festival of S
Maria Magdalena in July 1740 at the Ospedale dei Mendicanti led to a
permanent appointment there on 4 August. His duties ranged from
teaching and conducting to composing liturgical music and oratorios.
Before 1740 and 1741 Galuppi’s Venetian career remained diverse, but
unexceptional. Neapolitan composers were favoured at Venice’s most
important theatres, and of the native sons only Vivaldi enjoyed any
particular favour. In 1740 and 1741, the year of Vivaldi’s death, two serious
operas by Galuppi appeared: Oronte at the prestigious S Giovanni
Grisostomo and Berenice at the S Angelo. Galuppi petitioned for nine
months’ leave and accepted an invitation to travel to London. Permission
from the Mendicanti was reluctantly granted, and Galuppi arrived in London
in October 1741 and supervised 11 opera productions over the next year
and a half, including four original works. Some reported his tenure as less
than admirable – Walpole claimed that the ‘music displeases everybody’
and Handel, in a letter of 29 December 1741, ridiculed the one serious
opera he heard – but in general Galuppi’s trip was successful and he was
well received. His music was often reprinted for the English public, and two
more Galuppi works appeared there soon after he had left. Back in Venice
by May 1743, he took up his old professions of cembalist and arranger; not
much had changed, and his contract with the Mendicanti was extended for
three more years. The spread of comic opera from Naples and Rome had
just found its way to Venice, however, and Galuppi began adapting these to
northern taste, beginning in 1744 with three Roman works by Latilla and
Rinaldo di Capua. His own comic opera in Carnival 1745, La forza d’amore,
was not particularly successful.
Galuppi’s fame began to spread and his fees to climb (as attested by
documents from Milan, Madrid, Padua and elsewhere). In 1747 (and
probably again in 1748) Galuppi was in Milan for L’olimpiade; Vologeso
received its première in Rome in 1748, and Venice was increasingly
enthusiastic. Circumstantial evidence suggests that Galuppi continued to
arrange comic operas throughout these years. In May 1748 he was elected
vicemaestro of the cappella ducale of S Marco. His work for the basilica
and the ospedali was to lead to an enormous collection of sacred works,
but for the near future his focus was on opera. By August he was in Vienna,
where Demetrio and Artaserse were enormously successful, despite
Metastasio’s criticism that Galuppi’s music did not serve the text well;
Demetrio, performed 19 times over a short period, broke all box-office
records. Galuppi left Vienna before the Artaserse première and was in
Milan for the first performances of Semiramide riconosciuta, the second
carnival opera of 1749.
The year 1749 marks the beginning of Galuppi’s long-term collaboration
with the librettist Carlo Goldoni. Over the next eight years a rapid sequence
of drammi giocosi appeared, beginning with Arcadia in Brenta (14 May
1749) and extending through four more works before a year had passed.
These operas surged over Europe with unprecedented ease, and by the
middle of the next decade Galuppi was the most popular opera composer
anywhere. His professional obligations forced his resignation from the
Mendicanti in 1751. His opere serie continued to command high praise. He
wrote his first setting of Demofoonte for Madrid in December 1749, to mark
the engagement of Maria Antonietta Ferdinanda of Spain to Vittorio
Amedeo, heir to the throne of Piedmont, and then supplied the wedding
festival music itself, La vittoria di Imeneo, for Turin the following June (it
was performed more than 20 times). A new Artaserse opened the Teatro
Nuovo in Padua in 1751. By April 1762 Galuppi was unanimously
appointed maestro di coro of S Marco, the most important musical position
in Venice, and in July he was elected maestro di coro at the Ospedale degli
Incurabili.
In the meantime Galuppi continued to travel, fulfilling commissions for
various (mostly serious) operas. Early in 1764 the Venetian ambassador to
Vienna conveyed the wishes of the Russian minister to acquire Galuppi’s
services; the Russian court knew his work and had already staged seven
of his operas. In June 1764 the Venetian senate granted the composer
leave to go (with the stipulation that he continue to supply a Christmas
mass and other Vespers compositions for the basilica), and, after securing
the welfare of his family and resigning from the Incurabili, Galuppi travelled
to St Petersburg, visiting C.P.E. Bach (in Berlin) and Casanova along the
way and arriving on 22 September 1765. For Catherine the Great’s court
he produced new works (Ifigenia in Tauride, possibly a comic work, now
lost, and two cantatas), revived Didone abbandonata (in Carnival 1766, an
enormous success) and Il re pastore, and arranged other operas, as well
as providing religious and occasional music. His 15 a cappella works on
Russian texts for the Orthodox liturgy proved to be a watershed. Their
Italian, light contrapuntal style joined with native melodic idioms was
continued by Traetta and Sarti and maintained by, among others, D.S.
Bortnyans'ky, his pupil in Venice and possibly earlier in St Petersburg.
Galuppi travelled with the court to Moscow, where comic works were
performed (no comic operas were allowed on the St Petersburg stage
before 1779). He returned to Venice with many honours and gifts, took up
his position at S Marco in late 1768 after visiting Hasse in Vienna, and was
reappointed at the Incurabili. In summer 1769 Il re pastore was presented
in Venice to honour the future monarch, Joseph II.
After this, Galuppi dedicated himself mainly to sacred music, although his
operas continued to be performed. Burney reports that the composer was
busy all year, playing the organ for Venetian churches and presiding over S
Marco. La serva per amore, performed in October 1773, was his last
operatic work. In May 1782 he conducted performances to honour the
pope in Venice (including the sacred cantata Il ritorno di Tobia, with 60
musicians from the four Venetian conservatories) and received a visit from
the future Tsar Paul of Russia. By 1784 his health declined, but he
continued to compose, completing the Christmas mass for S Marco a few
weeks before his death on 3 January 1785, after a two-month illness. He
was buried in the church of S Vitale (exact location unknown), and a month
later was honoured by a lavish requiem mass in S Stefano led by Bertoni,
his deputy in S Marco. His wealth was not as extensive as once thought,
but his will left inheritances to three sons and the bulk of a sizable estate to
his wife, whom he names with tender praise. Seven other children (all
daughters) are not mentioned.
Burney offered the most extensive account of Galuppi’s personality and
appearance from a visit in 1770: ‘His character and conversation are
natural, intelligent, and agreeable. He is in figure little and thin but has very
much the look of a gentleman’. Galuppi’s lifelong dedication to his large
family was well known, as Burney reported: ‘He has the appearance of a
regular family man, and is esteemed at Venice as much for his private
character as for his public talents’. To Burney he was witty and charming,
referring to his study as the room ‘where he dirtied paper’. Burney named
him the most inspired of all Venetian composers, superior to Piccinni and
Sacchini and second only to Jommelli, and said that late in life Galuppi had
lost none of the fire of his former years. Hasse, writing to Metastasio,
referred to him as a ‘most excellent composer’ and in a poem Goldoni
praised him with the epigram ‘What music! What style! What masterworks!’.
Galuppi’s son Antonio (d c1780) wrote the librettos for two of his father’s
most successful operas, L’amante di tutte (1760) and Li tre amanti ridicoli
(1761), and was probably involved also in arranging other comic works for
S Moisè. His poetry and sense of comedy were in the tradition of Goldoni,
though less inspired and articulate, more inclined to slapstick, buffoonery
and caricature.
Galuppi, Baldassare
2. Works.
Galuppi was an extraordinarily popular composer of both serious and
comic operas and a prolific composer of sacred and keyboard music. His
facile, elegant and flexible melodic style, joined to Goldoni’s witty and
sometimes poignant poetry, created the central watershed for the
dispersion of drammi giocosi throughout Europe after 1749; works such as
Il filosofo di campagna have few peers in that regard. Yet his serious
operas were no less important; their performances exceeded his comic
operas in number.
Galuppi’s stage music embodies the principal Italian tradition of charming
and beautiful melody, clear and lucid accompaniment, and virtuoso or
emotive display; as he described it to Burney, good music contained
‘vaghezza, chiarezza e buona modulazione’. In the comic works vocal
phrases tend to be short, usually of two or four bars, and balanced in
relation to each other, with subtle variations in lengths and emphasis to
avoid rhythmic monotony. Within the melodic line rhythms are strong and
lively, frequently contributing much wit to a comic passage. Galuppi always
paid close attention to both the sense and the clarity of the text,
emphasizing its emotional or humorous content. His musical ideas were
fresh, inventive and sometimes surprising, adding a new dimension to a
character or situation.
The principal opera seria music throughout Galuppi’s career was the da
capo aria in five parts, a form already well established in the 1720s. The
typical variations of his day – AABAA, AA'BAA' and ABCAB – are all
present, as are such other later 18th-century innovations as metre and
tempo changes for the B text, abbreviated internal ritornellos, ‘dal segno’
returns to the first or second solo and the expansion of cadential or
embellishment sections into larger formal entities. His later operas tend to
be more innovative in this regard. Other aria forms often merely shorten
the da capo design by eliminating ritornellos and textual repetition. In comic
operas the full da capo was reserved for serious roles and comic arias
were of simpler design, even including popular song. In the 1750s Galuppi
increasingly relied on binary designs; after 1755 the simple AA and
rounded binary, ABA', were most common, modulating from tonic to
dominant and back. The text was often merely repeated, sometimes with
shifts of tempo or metre, or both.
While many comic operas of the 1730s and 40s featured small ensembles,
credit for the creation of the ensemble finale (or chain finale) is jointly
shared by Galuppi and Goldoni. From their first effort of this type (Arcadia
in Brenta, 1749) musical form, tonality and melody were made the servant
of the drama. Goldoni’s comic, act-ending text mosaics were matched by
Galuppi with short musical sections, either open or closed, in contrasting
keys, tempos and metres, through-composed to match the rapid shifts of
plot and to reflect the insistent, kaleidoscopic emotions. These were usually
organized around a central key; related key areas, new textures and
melodies created strong contrast. This model for ensemble finales was
widely imitated, by Haydn and Mozart among others.
Galuppi’s treatment of the orchestra was praised by Burney and others; the
ensemble’s interplay with the voice, its sharing of structural motifs, themes
and figuration, and its clarity of texture in accompaniment are principal
hallmarks. Galuppi, like many other important 18th-century composers,
was an exacting orchestral taskmaster and took steps during his
administration at S Marco to improve the orchestral and choral personnel.
The orchestra there was said to lead Italy in its skill, and (according to
Stählin) in St Petersburg Galuppi disciplined the orchestra ‘in good
Venetian’ and brought new precision to the ensemble.
Galuppi was extremely sensitive to the abilities of his singers, just as
Goldoni was to those of his actors. In his comic works Galuppi enjoyed the
long cooperation of Francesco Carrattoli, Francesco Baglioni and other
Baglionis (particularly Clementina, Francesco’s daughter, who sang in at
least 16 Galuppi productions, both comic and serious). The serious male
roles in comic opera were for high voice, but conceived for women in
trouser roles. Galuppi also composed for the finest opera seria singers,
including Caffarelli, Manzuoli, Gioacchino Conti, Caterina Gabrieli,
Guadagni and Amorevoli, and here too he followed the 18th-century
practice of ‘tailoring’ arias like a suit of clothes. His compositions for
Tenducci during that singer’s second Italian career attest to this. That a
revival of Didone abbandonata for Naples in 1770 was refused by the
singers (Insanguine rewrote it) probably attests more to Galuppi’s
sympathy for the original voices than to any outdated musical style, as is
sometimes asserted.
There are about 130 known keyboard sonatas by Galuppi, and other
compositions may yet be uncatalogued. The majority are in undated
manuscripts, so his role in shaping the genre in the 1730s and 40s is
obscure. None of the sonatas was published before 1756, and he wrote
such works even late in life (Passa tempo al cembalo is dated 1785), yet
the graceful, ornamented style of many works seems to have more in
common with keyboard styles of a period before 1750. The European
vogue for Italian keyboard sonatas (almost all opera composers wrote
them) among an amateur audience rested in their undemanding technical
requirements and ingratiating style. Galuppi’s own virtuosity as a keyboard
player is not the focus. There is much idiomatic keyboard writing, with
broken chords, scales, motifs shared between hands and the like. About
half of the sonatas are in a single movement, while others follow the two-
or three-movement arrangement of Alberti or the fast–slow–fast
organization of the opera sinfonia and concerto. Binary movements
predominate and most sonatas are in major keys. The texture is generally
thin and homophonic, with a singing soprano line, clear and regular
phrasing and characteristic gestures and motifs reminiscent of aria types,
particularly in slow ornamental movements. At times the writing is
rhapsodic and developmental. The figuration mimics a variety of styles,
from string genres to the French overture and German preludes.
Galuppi’s sacred compositions span his creative career and have not been
systematically inventoried or studied. Because of his long association with
the Mendicanti, the Incurabili, S Marco and other religious institutions, his
liturgical music and oratorios (or azioni sacre) are plentiful – though at the
peak of his career (the late 1740s to the early 1760s) they took a
subservient role to works for the stage. There are probably at least 200
liturgical works, including masses, motets, antiphons and psalms. In his
petition to the Mendicanti to go to London in 1741 he mentioned the works
written over the past year: 16 motets, four Salves, two antiphons and six
psalms as well as nine others to be left behind and performed in his
absence. This is probably typical of the demands of his regular
employment. The liturgical music varies from conservative works using the
stile antico (favoured at S Marco) to the more operatic, stile moderno works
for the Venetian conservatories; the four Magnificat settings range from the
anachronistic, chant-based counterpoint of that in C major (I-Gl) to the
more galant G major setting (D-Bps, Dl). The Salve regina written for the
Mendicanti soprano Buonafede in 1746 reveals his early allegiance to the
rising galant idiom of Neapolitan comic opera, an arrangement of
movements similar to the sinfonia and his typical care in writing for specific
voices. Liturgical music is for all vocal combinations, including mixed choir
of four to six voices and multiple choirs, as well as works for women’s
voices alone (for the ospedali) and more operatic solo works. It is usually
accompanied by an orchestra, primarily of strings, although a cappella
works are also found (including complete masses). Burney reported that at
S Marco he heard a mass for six choirs and six orchestras composed and
conducted by Galuppi. His liturgical music is less chromatic and varied than
that of Hasse and Jommelli, and favours homophony over polyphony,
although fugal writing is found. In Russia he wrote Orthodox church music
for Catherine the Great and continued to send a Christmas Eve mass each
year to S Marco. After his return, his duties at the Incurabili (writing psalms,
motets, and a yearly Vespers or oratorio) and S Marco (including a mass
for Christmas completed only weeks before his death) occupied most of his
time.
Musical sources for the oratorios are few. Burney’s description of them is
superficial, stating that they were similar to operas but used the chorus
more heavily, with a more sacred style in some pieces. It appears that
many of the oratorios for the Incurabili were for two choirs and in Latin.
Adamo (in Italian) is largely in opera seria style, with da capo (da parte)
arias, ornamental coloratura and only a superficial chorus. By all accounts,
Galuppi’s oratorios for the Incurabili during the 1760s and 70s rose to a
high level, in part from the keen rivalry in this genre with Bertoni at the
Mendicanti. Tres pueri hebraei in captivitate Babylonis (1774) was among
his most admired oratorios, with an active dramatic structure and eight
soloists; Caffi reported that it was repeated at least 100 times.
Galuppi, Baldassare
WORKS
music lost unless otherwise stated
 operas
LKH London, King’s Theatre in the Haymarket
MRD Milan, Regio Ducal Teatro
VA Venice, Teatro S Angelo
VM Venice, Teatro S Moisè
VC Venice, Teatro S Cassiano
VS Venice, Teatro S Samuele
La fede nell’incostanza, ossia Gli amici rivali (favola pastorale, 3, G. Neri), Chioggia,
Boegan; Vicenza, delle Grazie, 1722, 1 aria B-Bc
Gl’odi delusi dal sangue [Acts 1 and 3] (os, 3, A.M. Lucchini), VA, 4 Feb 1728 [Act 2
by G.B. Pescetti]
Dorinda (pastorale, 3, anon. rev. D. Lalli), VS, 9 June 1729, collab. Pescetti
L’odio placato (os, 3, F. Silvani), VS, ?27 Dec 1729, 1 duet I-Bas
Argenide (os, 3, A. Giusti), VA, 15 Jan 1733
L’ambizione depressa (os, 3, G. Papis), VA, Ascension 1733
La ninfa Apollo (favola pastorale, 3, F. de Lemene with addns by G. Boldini), VS, 30
May 1734
Tamiri (os, 3, B. Vitturi), VA, 17 Nov 1734
Elisa regina di Tiro (os, 3, A. Zeno and P. Pariati), VA, 27 Jan 1736
Ergilda (os, 3, Vitturi), VA, 12 Nov 1736, B-Bc
L’Alvilda (os, 3, Lalli, after Zeno: L’amor generoso), VS, 29 May 1737, 1 aria I-Gl
Issipile [1st version] (os, 3, P. Metastasio), Turin, Regio, 26 Dec 1737
Alessandro nell’Indie [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Mantua, Nuovo Arciducale, ?
Jan 1738, US-Wc (for later setting, revival or pasticcio; copy of lost MS, D-Dl)
Adriano in Siria [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Turin, Regio, ?Jan 1740, B-Bc
(with addns from later productions)
Gustavo I, re di Svezia (os, 3, C. Goldoni), VS, 25 May 1740, D-Dl
Didone abbandonata [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Modena, Molzo, 26 Dec
1740, B-Bc (convoluted MS from different periods), P-La (1752, Madrid), RUS-
SPtob, US-Wc (?1751)
Oronte re de’ sciti (os, 3, Goldoni), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 26 Dec 1740
Berenice (os, 3, Vitturi), VA, 27 Jan 1741
Penelope (os, 3, P.A. Rolli), LKH, 12 Dec 1741, Favourite Songs (London, 1741)
Scipione in Cartagine (os, 3, F. Vanneschi), LKH, 2 March 1742, RUS-Mcm,
Favourite Songs (London, c1742)
Enrico (os, 3, Vanneschi), LKH, 1 Jan 1743, B-Br, Favourite Songs (London, 1743)
Sirbace (os, 3, C.N. Stampa), LKH, 5 April 1743, Favourite Songs (London, 1743)
Arsace (os, 3, A. Salvi), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 16 Nov 1743
Ricimero [1st version] (os, 3, Silvani), MRD, 26 Dec 1744
La forza d’amore (dg, 3, Panicelli), VC, 30 Jan 1745
Ciro riconosciuto [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), MRD, 26 Dec 1745
Il trionfo della continenza (pastorale, 3), LKH, 28 Jan 1746, 1 aria I-Fc, Favourite
Songs (London, 1746)
Scipione nelle Spagne (os, 3, A. Piovene), VA, Nov 1746, F-Pn (2 acts), RUS-Mcm
Evergete (os, 3, Silvani and Lalli), Rome, Capranica, 2 Jan 1747, Act 1 P-La
L’Arminio (os, 3, Salvi), VC, 26 Nov 1747, arias I-MOe, Nc,PLcon, PS, Vc and Vnm
(1747, Rome)
L’olimpiade (os, 3, Metastasio), MRD, 26 Dec 1747, D-Dl, I-Mc (facs. in IOB, xli,
1978), Act 1 Tf (1758)
Vologeso (os, 3, Zeno), Rome, Argentina, 13 or 14 Feb 1748, D-Bsb (‘Berenice di
Galuppi, 1742’)
Demetrio [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Vienna, Burg, 16/27 Oct 1748, A-Wn, F-
Pc (2 copies)
Clotilde (os, 3, F. Passarini), VC, Nov 1748 (? with addns)
Semiramide riconosciuta (os, 3, Metastasio), MRD, 25 Jan 1749, Pc
Artaserse [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Vienna, Burg, 27 Jan 1749, A-Wn, D-
Bsb*, F-Pc, ov. I-Rc (1756, Venice),TLp (1757, Lucca)
L’Arcadia in Brenta (dg, 3, Goldoni), VA, 14 May 1749, B-Bc,I-MOe
Demofoonte [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Madrid, Buen Retiro, 18 Dec 1749,
Nc
Alcimena principessa dell’Isole Fortunate, ossia L’amore fortunato ne’ suoi disprezzi
(os, 3, P. Chiari, after Molière: La princesse d’Elide), VC, 26 Dec 1749
Arcifanfano re dei matti (dg, 3, Goldoni), VM, 27 Dec 1749 (? with addns), ov. MAav
(1759, Venice), arias Tf
Il mondo della luna (dg, 3, Goldoni), VM, 29 Jan 1750, D-Dl, W,F-Pc, I-Gl, US-Wc,
Favourite Songs (London, 1760)
Il paese della Cuccagna (dg, 3, Goldoni), VM, 7 May 1750
Il mondo alla roversa, ossia Le donne che comandano (dg, 3, Goldoni), VC, 14 Nov
1750, A-Wgm, B-Bc (1752, Venice), D-Dl, DS,F-Pc (1755, Dresden), GB-Lbl, Lcm,
I-MOe, MAav, TLp, Vlevi, US-Wc
Issipile [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Bologna, 1750, D-Dl, P-La (1755, Parma),
US-Wc
Antigona (os, 3, G. Roccaforte), Rome, Dame, 9 Jan 1751, B-Br, D-Wa (1754,
Brunswick), GB-Lbl (as Antigono); as Antigona in Tebe, Naples, 1755, B-Br
Dario (os, 3, G. Baldanza), Turin, Regio Ducal, carn. 1751, arias I-Rsc
Lucio Papirio (os, 3, Zeno), Reggio nell’Emilia, Pubblico, fair 1751
Artaserse [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Padua, Nuovo, 11 June 1751, 1 aria
MAav
Il conte Caramella (dg, 3, Goldoni), Venice, aut. 1751, A-Wn, D-W,Wa, I-Gl, Mr
Le virtuose ridicole (dg, 3, Goldoni, after Molière: Les précieuses ridicules), VS,
carn. 1752, D-W
La calamità de’ cuori (dg, 3, Goldoni), VS, 26 Dec 1752, A-Wn,?D-Bsb, W, F-Pc,
Acts 1 and 2 GB-Lbl, US-Wc
I bagni d’Abano (dg, 3, Goldoni), VS, 10 Feb 1753, Act 2 D-W and MGmi; collab. F.
Bertoni (?pasticcio)
Sofonisba [1st version] (os, 3, Roccaforte), Rome, Dame, c24 Feb 1753
L’eroe cinese (os, 3, Metastasio), Naples, S Carlo, 10 July 1753, P-La, PL-Wn
Ricimero re dei goti [2nd version] (os, 3), Naples, S Carlo, 4 Nov 1753, F-Pc, I-Nc,
Favourite Songs (London, 1755)
Alessandro nelle Indie [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Naples, S Carlo, 20 Jan
1754, P-La
Siroe (os, 3, Metastasio), Rome, Argentina, 10 Feb 1754, B-Bc, GB-Lbl, Ob, P-La
Il filosofo di campagna (dg, 3, Goldoni), VS, 26 Oct 1754, A-Wn, D-Bsb, Dl, SWl, W
(as La serva accorta), F-Pc, GB-Cfm, Lbl, I-Fc, Mr, Rdp, Sac,Vnm, P-La, US-Bp,
Wc, Favourite Songs (London, 1761); rev. Rome, 1757, as La serva astuta
Il povero superbo (dg, 3, Goldoni, after La gastarda), VS, Feb 1755; rev. Brescia,
1755, as La serva astuta
Alessandro nelle Indie [3rd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), VS, Ascension 1755, D-
Mbs (incl. changes for Munich, 12 Oct 1755)
Attalo (os, 3, ?Silvani or ? A. Papi), Padua, Nuovo, 11 June 1755, LEmi (Parma), F-
Pn
Le nozze (dg, 3, Goldoni), Bologna, Formagliari, 14 Sept 1755, A-Wn, D-W, ?I-Fc,
P-La, US-Wc; as Le nozze di Dorina, Perugia, 1759, I-Gl; (int) Rome, 1760; as O
casamente de Lesbina, Lisbon, 1766; rev. Reggio nell’Emilia, 1770 (as Le nozze di
Dorina), P-La, US-Wc
La diavolessa [L’avventuriera; Li vaghi accidenti fra amore e gelosia] (dg, 3,
Goldoni), VS, Nov 1755, A-Wn (facs. in IOB, xliv, 1978), D-Bsb, W, Wa, GB-Lbl, I-
MOe, RUS-Mcm, US-Wc; rev. Leipzig and Prague, 1756
Idomeneo (os), Rome, Argentina, 7 Jan 1756, P-La
La cantarina (farsetta, 3, Goldoni), Rome, Capranica, 26 Feb 1756
Ezio (os, 3, Metastasio), MRD, 22 Jan 1757, La
Sesostri (os, 3, Pariati), Venice, S Benedetto, 26 Nov 1757, D-LEmi, P-La (1759,
Venice), S-Skma (1760)
Ipermestra (os, 3, Metastasio), MRD, 14 Jan 1758, P-La (3 copies, incl. 1761, Pisa)
Adriano in Siria [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Livorno, spr. 1758,La (3 copies,
incl. 1759, Naples: facs. in DMV, xxiv, 1983), D-Dl and P-La (1760, S Luca); B-Bc,
S-Skma
Demofoonte [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Padua, 1758, B-Bc (arias autograph),
D-Dl, I-MOe (attrib. Caldara), P-La; rev. Venice, S Benedetto, 1759, La
Ciro riconosciuto [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Rome, carn. 1759, F-Pc,P-La
Melite riconosciuto (os, 3, Roccaforte), Rome, Dame, 13 Jan 1759, La (2 copies)
La ritornata di Londra (int, Goldoni), Rome, Valle, c19 Feb 1759
La clemenza di Tito (os, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Salvatore, carn. 1760, F-Pc, I-
CMbc, P-La (2 copies)
Solimano (os, 3, G.A. Migliavacca), Padua, Nuovo, 11 June 1760, La (2 copies)
L’amante di tutte (dg, 3, A. Galuppi), VM, 15 Nov 1760, A-Wn, B-Bc, D-Dl (1770,
Dresden), W (Act 2), F-Pc, I-Gl, Mr, MOe, Vc, P-La, US-Wc
Li tre amanti ridicoli (dg, 3, A. Galuppi), VM, 18 Jan 1761, A-Wn,D-W, Wa (1762,
Venice), F-Pn, I-MOe, US-Wc
Demetrio [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Padua, June 1761, P-La
Il caffè di campagna (dg, 3, Chiari), VM, 18 Nov 1761, La
Antigono (os, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Benedetto, carn. 1762, La
Il marchese villano (dg, 3, Chiari), VM, 2 Feb 1762, A-Wn, B-Bc,I-Nc, P-La; rev. as
La lavandara, Turin, 1770; as La lavandara astuta, Mantua, 1771; as Il matrimonio
per inganno, Venice, S Giacomo di Corfù
L’orfana onorata (int), Rome, Valle, carn. 1762, 1 aria I-TLp
Il re pastore (os, 3, Metastasio), Parma, Ducal, spr. 1762, 1 aria Gl (1779,
Genoa); ?rev. St Petersburg, Sept 1766; ?rev. Venice, S Benedetto, 10 July 1769
Viriate (os, 3, Metastasio: Siface), Venice, S Salvatore, 19 May 1762, P-La
Il Muzio Scevola (os, 3, C. Lanfranchi Rossi), Padua, Nuovo, June 1762, arias I-Fc
and Nc, ov. Vc, Act 2 P-La
L’uomo femmina (dg, 3), VM, aut. 1762, La
Il puntiglio amoroso (dg, 3, [? C. or G.] Gozzi), VM, 26 Dec 1762, A-Wn, US-Wc
Arianna e Teseo [1st version] (os, 3, Pariati), Padua, Nuovo, 12 June 1763, P-La (3
copies)
Il re alla caccia (dg, 3, Goldoni), VS, aut. 1763, F-Pc, I-Nc,Vc, P-La, US-Wc
Sofonisba [2nd version] (os, 3, M. Verazi), Turin, Regio, carn. 1764, I-Tf, P-La (3
copies), US-Wc
Cajo Mario (os, 3, Roccaforte), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 31 May 1764, P-La
La partenza e il ritorno de’ marinari (dg), VM, 26 Dec 1764, ?D-Bsb, Dl, I-Vc
Didone abbandonata [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Naples, 1764, Nc, P-La
(1765, Venice)
La cameriera spiritosa (dg, 3, Goldoni), MRD, 4 Oct 1766, rev. Prague, ?1768–9, as
Il cavaliere della Piuma
Ifigenia in Tauride (os, 3, M. Coltellini), St Petersburg, court, 21 April/2 May 1768,
RUS-SPtob, US-Wc
Arianna e Teseo [2nd version] (os, 3, Pariati), Venice, carn. 1769, P-La (2 copies)
Amor lunatico (dg, 3, Chiari), VM, Jan 1770
L’inimico delle donne (dg, 3, G. Bertati), VS, aut. 1771, B-Bc, P-La (facs. in DMV,
xxi, 1986)
Gl’intrighi amorosi (dg, 3, G. Petrosellini), VS, Jan 1772, B-Bc
Motezuma (os, 3, V.A. Cigna-Santi), Venice, S Benedetto, 27 May 1772, Bc, D-Dl
(lost; copy in US-Wc), P-La
La serva per amore (dg, 3, F. Livigni), VS, Oct 1773, Act 1 B-Bc and F-Pn*

Doubtful: Teodorico (os, 3, Salvi), Genoa, 1737; Bertoldo, Bertoldino e Cacasenno,

VM, 27 Dec 1748; La mascherata (dramma comico, 3, Goldoni), VC, 26 Dec 1750
[? part or all by G. Cocchi]; La finta cameriera (dg, 3, G. Barlocci), Brunswick, 1751,
D-Wa; Astianatte, 1755; Alceste, F-Pc; La fausse coquette, D-DS
Revs. and addns: Didone abbandonata [after D. Sarro] (os, 3, Metastasio), Venice,
S Giovanni Grisostomo, aut. 1730; Siroe re di Persia [after L. Vinci] (os, 3,
Metastasio), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, carn. 1731, collab G.B. Pescetti; Ciro
riconosciuto, Genoa, 1737; Le muse in gara [after D. Paradies] (divertimento
musicale), Venice, 4 April 1740; Alessandro in Persia, 1741; L’ambizione delusa
[after Rinaldo di Capua] (dg, 3, Vanneschi, after C.A. Pelli: La commedia in
commedia), VC, aut. 1744, B-Bc, D-Bsb, I-B; Madama Ciana [after G. Latilla] (dg, 3,
Barlocci or Pelli), VC, ?aut. 1744; La libertà nociva [after Rinaldo di Capua] (dg,
3, ?, after Barlocci), VC, 22 Nov 1744; Antigono, 1746; ? Il protettore alla moda
[after anon., Chi non fa non falla] (dg, 3, ? G.M. Buini), VC, aut. 1749; Il villano
geloso, 1769
serenatas etc.
L’Adria festosa (serenata), Naples, 1738
Li amori sfortunati di Ormindo (serenata, B. Vitturi), Burano, 1738
La vittoria d’Imeneo (festa teatrale, G. Bartoli), Turin, Teatro Regio, 7 June 1750,
GB-Lbl
I presagi (cant., G. Gozzi), Venice, 1755
Le nozze di Paride (spettacolo poetico e musicale, P. Chiari), Venice, Teatro S
Giovanni Grisostomo, Oct 1756
L’oracolo del Vaticano (cant., C. Goldoni), 3vv, Venice, Oct, 1758
L’arrivo di Enea nel Lazio (componimento drammatico, V. Alamanni), Florence,
Teatro Pergola, 15 Nov 1765
La virtù liberata (cant., L. Lazzaroni), St Petersburg, 1765, F-Pc*
La pace tra la Virtù e la Bellezza (componimento drammatico, P. Metastasio), St
Petersburg, 28 June 1766
Flora, Apollo, Medoaco (cant.), 1769, D-Mbs
Venere al tempio (cant., Chiari), Venice, after 1775
L’Anfione (cant., G. da Ponte), Venice, 1780
La scusa (cant.), 1780, I-Vnm*
8 cants., GB-Cfm
oratorios
Tobia il giovane (D. Giupponi), Macerata, Chiesa della Compagnia di Gesù, 1734
S Maurizio e compagni martiri, Genoa, S Filippo Neri, 1737
S Maria Magdalena, Venice, Mendicanti, 22 July 1740
Prudens Abigail (Pasquali), Venice, Mendicanti, 22 July 1742
Isaac, Venice, Mendicanti, 1745
Judith, Venice, Mendicanti, 1746
Adamo, Rome, Chiesa Nuova, 19 Feb 1747, I-CHf (arias), Tf,Vnm (facs. in IO, xix,
1986), Vsmc (as Adamo caduto), S-Uu (as La caduta di Adamo)
Rhythmi sacri, Venice, Mendicanti, Holy Week 1747
Jabel, Venice, Mendicanti, 1747, ?D-Bsb; Venice, Incurabili, 24 May 1770, CH-Lmg,
Zz
Devoti affectus erga lignum sanctae crucis et Jesu Christi sepulchrum (after P.
Metastasio), Venice, Mendicanti, Holy Week 1748
Devoti sacri concentus, Venice, Mendicanti, 22 July 1748
Sagrifizio di Jefte, Venice, S Maria della Consolazione detta Della Fava, 1756, US-
SFsc
Maria Magdalena, Venice, Incurabili, 1763, ?SFsc [text differs]
Sacer dialogus arcangelum inter Michaelem et spiritum Adae, Venice, Incurabili,
1763 (doubtful)
Sacrificium Abraham, Venice, Incurabili, 1764
Transfiguratio dominica, Venice, Incurabili, 1764
Triumphus divini amoris, Venice, Incurabili, 1765, F-Pn*
Tres Mariae ad sepulchrum Christi resurgentis, Venice, Incurabili, 1769
Canticorum sponsi, Venice, Incurabili, 1770
Nuptiae Rachelis, Venice, Incurabili, ?1770
Parabola coenae, Venice, Incurabili, 1770
Adam, Venice, Incurabili, 1771
Dialogus sacer, Venice, Incurabili, 1771, Pn* (as Jephte et Helcana)
Debora prophetissa, Venice, Incurabili, 1772
Daniel in lacu leonum, Venice, Incurabili, 1773
Tres pueri hebraei in captivitate Babylonis, Venice, Incurabili, 1774
Exitus Israelis de Aegypto, Venice, Incurabili, 1775, I-Gl, Tf (?arias, as Israel
liberato)
Moyses de Synai revertens, Venice, Incurabili, ?1775
Mundi salus, Venice, Incurabili, 1776
Il ritorno di Tobia (sacred cant., G. Gozzi), Venice, Incurabili, 18/19 May 1782
liturgical
(selective list)

principal sources (including some autographs): A-Z; CH-BM, E, Saf, Zz; CZ-KU, LIT, Pnm;
D-HR, MÜs, Rtt, WEY; F-Pn, GB-Lbl; I-Bc, BGc, CHf, Gl, Mc, Rc, Rrostirolla, Vlevi; PL-
KRZ; SK-BRnm; US-NYp, PO, R, SFsc

Messe breve, 1744, 1775

7 Ky, 4vv, 1745 (2 choirs), 1757, 1758, 1764, 1777, 1779, 1782; 4 Gl, 4vv, 1764,
1771, 1775, 1782; 2 Gloria in excelsis, 4vv, 1777, 1781; 2 Gl–Cr, 4vv, 1766, 1767; 5
Cr, 4vv, 1752, 1771, 1772, 1781, 1782
Alma Redemptoris mater, 1775; Ave regina, 1775; Beatus vir, 8vv, 1777; 2
Confitebor, 2vv, 1757, 1771; 2 Confitebor tibi Domine, 1770, 1775; Dixit, 4vv, 1774;
Dixit Dominus, 4vv, 1750; Dixit Dominus, 1770; Dixit pieno, 1781; Domine, 2 choirs,
1756; Domine, 4vv, 1762; Domine, 1778; Domine ad adiuvandum, 4vv, 1753; 2
Ecce nunc, 4vv, 1751, 1772; Ecce sacerdos, 1782; In cordis jubilo, in dulcis modulo,
4vv, 1777; In exitu Israel de Egypto, 4vv, 1775; Lauda Jerusalem, 4vv, 1779; 2
Laudate Dominum, 4vv, 1749, 1785; 5 Laudate pueri Dominum, 1770, 1777, 1780,
1785, 1787; Mag, 4vv, 1778; Nisi Dominus, 3vv, 1777, 3 Salve regina, 1746, 1770,
1775
15 works for Russian Orthodox Church, 4vv, 1765–8, RUS-Mrg

instrumental
[6] Sonate per cembalo, op.1 (London, 1756, 2/1760 with extra movt in no.1)
[6] Sonate per cembalo, op.2 (London, 1759)
A Favourite Overture, hpd (London, n.d.)
3 sonatas, kbd, in Raccolta musicale (Nuremberg, 1756, 1757, 1765); 11 movts in
XX sonate per cembalo da varri autori (Paris, 1758–60); other works pubd singly,
mainly in Paris and London
Sinfonie a 4, I-MOe, Vmc
Sinfonias, ovs., D-Bsb, SWl; I-Gl, MOe, Nc, Vmc; S-Skma, Uu; ?USSR-KA
Concs., D-Bsb, Dl, SWl, I-MOe, S-Uu
Trios, A-Wgm, S-Uu
c130 sonatas, toccatas, divertimentos, lessons etc., hpd, A-Wgm; B-Bc, Lc; D-Bsb,
Dl, DS; F-Pa, Pn; GB-Cfm, Lbl; I-Bsf, Fc, Gl*,Nc, Rsc, Vc, Vlevi, Vmc, Vsm
Galuppi, Baldassare
BIBLIOGRAPHY
general
BurneyFI
MooserA
F. Piovano: ‘Baldassare Galuppi: note bio-bibliografiche’, RMI, xiii (1906),
676–726; xiv (1907), 333–65; xv (1908), 233–74
B. Galuppi, detto ‘Il Buranello’ (1706–1785): note e documenti raccolti in
occasione della settimana celebrativa (20–26 settembre 1948),
Chigiana, v (1948)
A. Della Corte: Baldassare Galuppi: profilo critico (Siena, 1948)
D. Arnold: ‘Orphans and Ladies: the Venetian Conservatories (1680–
1790)’, PRMA, lxxxix (1962–3), 31–47
S.H. Hansell: ‘Sacred Music at the Incurabili in Venice at the Times of J.A.
Hasse’, JAMS, xxiii (1970), 282–301, 505–21
C. Valder-Knechtges: ‘Musiker am Ospedale degl’Incurabili in Venedig,
1765–1768’, Mf, xxxiv (1981), 50–56
R. Wiesend: Studien zur opera seria von Baldassare Galuppi:
Werksituation und Überlieferung – Form und Satztechnik
Inhaltsdarstellung, mit einer Biographie und einem Quellenverzeichnis
der Opern (Tutzing, 1984)
Galuppiana: Venice 1985
operas
GroveO(D.E. Monson) [with further bibliography]
A. Wotquenne: ‘Baldassare Galuppi (1706–1785): étude bibliographique
sur ses oeuvres dramatiques’, RMI, vi (1899), 561–79; pubd
separately with addns (Brussels, 1902)
E.J. Dent: ‘Ensembles and Finales in 18th-Century Italian Opera’, SIMG, xi
(1909–10), 543–69; xii (1910–11), 112–38
A. della Corte: L’opera comica italiana nel ’700 (Bari, 1923), i, 141–72; ii,
216–46
W. Bollert: Die Buffoopern Baldassare Galuppis (diss., U. of Berlin, 1935)
W. Bollert: ‘Tre opere di Galuppi, Haydn e Paisiello sul Mondo della luna di
Goldoni’, Musica d’oggi, xxi (1939), 265–70
Venezia e il melodramma nel Settecento: Venice 1973–5, i [incl. D. Heartz:
‘Hasse, Galuppi and Metastasio’, 309–39]; ii [incl. D. Heartz: ‘Vis
comica: Goldoni, Galuppi and L’Arcadia in Brenta’, 33–73; M.F.
Robinson: ‘Three Versions of Goldoni's Il filosofo di campagna’, 75–85]
D. Heartz: ‘The Creation of the Buffo Finale in Italian Opera’, PRMA, civ
(1977–8), 67–78
D. Heartz: ‘Goldoni, Don Giovanni and the dramma giocoso’, MT, cxx
(1979), 993–8
R. Wiesend: ‘Il giovane Galuppi e l’opera: materiali per gli anni 1722–41’,
NRMI, xvii (1983), 383–97
C. Vitali: ‘Difficili esordi di Galuppi operista: una fonte precoce’, Il diletto
della scena e dell’armonia: teatro e musica nella Venezia dal ’500 al
’700: Adria 1986–8, 267–76
R. Wiesend: ‘Die Identifizierung eines unbekannten Galuppi-Librettos, oder
Von Schwierigkeiten der Opernforschung’, Georg Friedrich Händel: ein
Lebensinhalt: Gedenkschrift für Bernd Baselt (1934–1993), ed. K.
Hortschansky and K. Muskata (Kassel, 1995), 505–16
other works
CaffiS
NewmanSCE
ScheringGO
F. Torrefranca: ‘Per un catalogo tematico delle sonate per cembalo di B.
Galuppi’, RMI, xvi (1909), 872–81
C. van den Borren: ‘Contribution au catalogue thématique des sonates de
Galuppi’, RMI, xxx (1923), 365–70
F. Raabe: Galuppi als Instrumentalkomponist (Frankfurt an der Oder, 1929)
A.L. Chiuminatto: The Liturgical Works of Baldassare Galuppi (diss.,
Northwestern U., 1959)
E.E. Pullman: A Catalog of the Keyboard Sonatas of Baldassare Galuppi
(1706–1785) (diss., American U., Washington DC, 1972)
D. and E. Arnold: The Oratorio in Venice (London, 1986)
D. Arnold: ‘A Salve for Signora Buonafede’, JRMA, cliii (1988), 168–71
G. Di Mauro: A Stylistic Analysis of Selected Keyboard Sonatas by
Baldassare Galuppi (1706–1785) (diss., U. of Miami, 1989)
P. Cahalan: ‘The Magnificats of Baldassare Galuppi’, The Choral Journal,
xxxiii (Dec 1992), 21–6
D. Molino: ‘Sei sonate inedite di Baldassare Galuppi’, Studi musicali, xxiii
(1994), 299–312

Galusin, Vladimir
(b Rubtsovsk, 1957). Russian tenor. A graduate of the Novosibirsk
Conservatory, he began his career at Novosibirsk Opera in 1981. In 1990
he joined the Kirov Opera, where his roles at home and on tour have
ranged from Grigory (Boris Godunov), Mikhail (The Maid of Pskov),
Grishka Kuter'ma (The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh) and Hermann
(The Queen of Spades) to Aleksey (The Gambler) and Sergey (Lady
Macbeth of the Mtsensk District); many of these are recorded. From the
mid-1990s he also appeared with opera companies and festivals around
the world, notably at Bregenz (Kitezh, 1995), Amsterdam (Luisa Miller),
Florence (Turandot), New York (Boris Godunov) and Buenos Aires
(Yevgeny Onegin), all in 1997, Vienna (Don Carlos, 1998), and Verona
(Aida), Macerata (Otello) and Paris (Queen of Spades) in 1999; he
returned to Madrid in 2000 for Don Alvaro in La forza del destino. Other
roles include Puccini's Des Grieux and Pinkerton. Galusin's virile, ringing
tone is more italianate than Russian, but his vivid, almost expressionistic
acting makes him an exciting interpreter of both repertories.
JOHN ALLISON

Galván [Galbán], Ventura

(fl 1762–73). Spanish composer and actor. Famous first as a comic actor,
he was also well known as a composer for the lyric stage by 1762;
according to Subirá, he was paid 300 reales for three tonadillas and some
incidental pieces, and 600 reales for the music to the comedy Riesgo in
that year. He was celebrated as a composer of sainetes and zarzuelas.
Galván collaborated with Ramón de la Cruz on various sainetes and on the
zarzuela Las foncarraleras (1772). Four sainetes and 20 tonadillas,
including his famous Los vagamundos y ciegos fingidos (ed. in J. Subirá:
La tonadilla escénica, iii, Madrid, 1930), are in the Biblioteca Municipal,
Madrid.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LaborD
J. Subirá: Tonadillas teatrales inéditas (Madrid, 1932), 184–5
J. Subirá: La tonadilla escénica: sus obras y sus autores (Barcelona,
1933), 148ff
J. Subirá: Temas musicales madrileños (Madrid, 1970), 269
ELEANOR RUSSELL

Gálvez [Cálvez], Gabriel

(b ?Cuenca, c1510; d Cuenca, c11 July 1578). Spanish composer. After
serving at S Maria Maggiore, Rome, he was called in September 1560 from
Baza and Granada to be maestro de capilla of Cuenca Cathedral without
the customary competition. Although the cathedral chapter raised his
annual pay to 75,000 maravedís in 1562, he left in discontent on 15
September 1563 and was only lured back with the promise of back pay
during his absence and of a salary of 82,000 maravedís made at the
chapter meeting of 20 March 1564. When his fame caused Segovia
Cathedral to offer him a still more lucrative prebend, the Cuenca chapter
matched their offer. In 1561 he presented Cuenca Cathedral with a volume
of his works (rebound in 1603 but no longer extant) and in 1567 with a
book of his hymns and Magnificat settings. According to Baini, Palestrina
took the basic theme of his four-part Missa ‘Emendemus in melius’ (1594)
from Gálvez’s ‘exquisite’ five-part motet of the same name composed for
the first Sunday in Lent (the motet is in I-Rvat, C.S.293; ed. in Martínez
Millán, 1988, pp.372–83).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SabiráHME
G. Baini: Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle opere di Giovanni
Pierluigi da Palestrina, ii (Rome, 1828/R), 290
M. Martínez Millán: ‘Gabriel Gálvez, maestro de capilla en la catedral de
Cuenca (1560–1578)’, TSM, lviii (1975), 3–7; ed. of Gálvez’s
Emendemus in melius in music suppl., 1
M. Martínez Millán: Historia musical de la catedral de Cuenca (Cuenca,
1988)
ROBERT STEVENSON

Galway, James
(b Belfast, 8 Dec 1939). Northern Ireland flautist. He studied at the RCM on
a scholarship (1956–9) under John Francis and at the GSM (1959–60)
under Geoffrey Gilbert. Another scholarship enabled him to study at the
Paris Conservatoire (1960–61) under Gaston Crunelle and Jean-Pierre
Rampal, and privately with Marcel Moyse. He spent the next 15 years as
an orchestral player, with Sadler’s Wells Opera (1961–6), Covent Garden
Opera (1965), and with the LSO (1966–7), RPO (1967–9) and Berlin PO
(1969–75). Because of his interest and outstanding ability in chamber and
solo work he decided to follow a career as a soloist, and has subsquently
toured throughout the world.
Galway’s repertory includes Mozart’s concertos (which he has recorded),
other Classical and pre-Classical concertos and much chamber music. He
is equally sympathetic to contemporary music; works composed for him
include Henri Lazarof’s Concerto and Cadence 5, Musgrave’s Orpheus,
Hanning Schroeder’s Variations for flute and orchestra, and concertos by
Jindřich Feld, David Heath, Lowell Liebermann and Lorin Maazel. He has
made a large number of recordings, including Classical and Romantic
works for the flute, arrangements and 20th-century works. Galway has also
cultivated a popular image, both by performing and recording many items
from popular song repertory and by appearing at high-profile political
events in London, Berlin and Davos. On his A.K. Cooper 14-carat gold flute
he produces a tone that can range from light and silvery to full and rich,
with unforced vibrato, and a brilliant but effortless and gentle articulation.
He has published An Autobiography (London, 1978), Flute (London, 1982)
and, with W. Mann, James Galway’s Music in Time (London, 1982). He
was made an OBE in 1977.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Cooper: The Flute (London, 1980/R)
NIALL O’LOUGHLIN

Gamba (i).
See Viol and Viola da gamba.

Gamba (ii).
See under Organ stop (Geigen, Viola da gamba).

Gamba, Piero [Pierino]

(b Rome, 16 Sept 1936). Canadian conductor, pianist and composer of
Italian birth. He is the son of a violinist who taught him the piano and score-
reading as a child, and who organized a rehearsal orchestra and a public
concert in the Rome Opera House where, at the age of nine, Gamba
successfully conducted Beethoven’s Symphony no.1. He repeated it the
next year to greater public acclaim, and began touring as a child prodigy in
Europe and in North and South America. His British début was in 1947
when, at the age of 11, he conducted Beethoven and Dvořák in a concert
by the Philharmonia Orchestra at Harringay Arena, London. In 1952 he
moved to Madrid; he resumed his career as a conductor in the late 1950s,
returning to London as a guest conductor each year from 1959 to 1963. His
performances were praised for clarity of texture, but were thought rigid in
rhythm, and cool and impersonal in character. Similar qualities were noted
in his recordings made at this time; they included Beethoven’s five piano
concertos and the Choral Fantasy with Julius Katchen as the widely
admired soloist. Gamba was music director of the Winnipeg SO (1970–80)
and the Adelaide SO (1980–88). He has continued to work as a guest
conductor primarily in the Philippines and Uruguay, but has not maintained
the momentum of his early career.
GEORGE GELLES/DAVID E. SCHNEIDER

Gambang [gambang kayu].

Wooden or bamboo Xylophone of Indonesia and Malaysia. In Central Java,
it is about 120 cm long and consists of 17 to 23 wooden keys laid stepwise
in pitch order on padded cloth over a wood trough and kept in place by
metal pins (fig.1). The range of the instrument varies from two and a half to
more than three octaves. It is played with both hands using two disc-
shaped padded mallets. The playing style has a high density and elaborate
melodic embellishments.
A complete Javanese gamelan (gamelan seprangkat) has three gambang,
tuned to the anhemitonic pentatonic sléndro, the hemitonic pentatonic
pélog bem scale (based on tones 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6) and the hemitonic
pentatonic pélog barang scale (based on tones 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7); see Mode,
§V, 4 (ii). Some gamelan have only one pélog gambang with ‘extra’ keys for
substitution purposes. Each gambang ranges from pitch 6 of the second
octave (62) to pitch 5 of the sixth octave of the gamelan (5 6).
An archaic multi-octave variety, the gambang gangsa, has bronze keys
(gangsa: ‘bronze’). It is found in both Yogyakarta and Surakarta courts but
is rarely played; it has been replaced in the gamelan by the single-octave
saron. A rustic bamboo-key version is found in some areas; in West Java it
consists of 20 keys and has a range of four octaves.
In Bali, four wooden 14-key gambang combine with a pir of seven-key
metallophones in the gamelan gambang. Each gambang has a trough
resonator and is played with two forked mallets, designed to strike pitches
an octave apart. The keys are not placed in sequential order but are
arranged to enable elaborate interlocking (kotekan) between the four
players (fig.2). A five-key gambang is found in the east coast area of North
Sumatra. It is played by two women, one being the leader (pamulu) and the
 other the follower (panirka), and was formerly used at weddings and by
girls calling their fiancés. The gambang tali of West Malaysia is a wooden
or bamboo xylophone, played with a wooden beater. In Sabah, the
gambang is a small xylophone made of wood or bamboo.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Kunst: De toonkunst van Java (The Hague, 1934; Eng. trans., rev.
2/1949 as Music in Java, enlarged 3/1973 by E.L. Heins)
C. McPhee: Music in Bali (New Haven, CT, 1966/R)
M. Kartomi: The Angkola People of Sumatra, BM 30L 2568 (1983), disc
notes
HARDJA SUSILO, ERNST HEINS, MARGARET J. KARTOMI/R

Gambarini, Elisabetta de
(b London, 7 Sept 1731; d London, 9 Feb 1765). Soprano and composer of
Italian descent. She was a daughter of Charles Gambarini, counsellor to
the Landgrave of Hessen-Kassel. She took the second soprano part at the
first performance of Handel’s Occasional Oratorio in 1746, and in the
Covent Garden revival a year later assumed most of Duparc’s role as well.
She created the Israelite Woman in Judas Maccabaeus in 1747, and
probably sang Asenath in Joseph and his Brethren the same year. Her
name appears in the performing scores of Samson and Messiah, but it is
not certain when she sang in these works. Her voice seems to have been a
mezzo with a regular compass of d' to g'', extended occasionally down to b
and up to a''. About 1748–50 she published some harpsichord pieces and
songs in Italian and English, including a setting of ‘Honour, riches,
marriage-blessing’ from The Tempest. Her op.2 has a frontispiece portrait
engraved by Nathaniel Hone in 1748; it gives the date of her birth as
above, but this may understate her age. She had a benefit at the Great
Room, Dean Street, on 15 April 1761, when an ode of her composition was
performed together with a cantata by the aged Geminiani; he may have
been her teacher. In May 1764, as Mrs Chazal, she is said to have given a
concert at which she appeared as organist and composer. According to
Gerber’s Lexikon she was also a painter.
WORKS
6 Sets of Lessons, hpd (London, 1748)
Lessons for the Harpsichord, Intermix’d with Italian and English Songs, op.2
(London, 1748)
XII English & Italian Songs, fl, bc, op.3 (London, ?1750)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Mathiesen: ‘Elisabetta de Gambarini: the Vocal Option’, Continuo: the
Magazine of Old Music, xvi/2 (1992), 2–5
WINTON DEAN

Gambe
(Ger.).
See Viol.

Gamberini, Michelangelo
(b Cagli; fl 1655). Italian composer. He was maestro di cappella of S
Venanzo, Fabriano, in 1655, when he published in Venice his Motetti
concertati … libro primo, for two to four voices and continuo.

Gambia, Republic of The.

Country in West Africa. With an area of only 11,295 km 2, it is the smallest
country on the continent.
1. Ethnic groups and musical background.
2. Music of the main ethnic groups.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
RODERIC C. KNIGHT
Gambia
1. Ethnic groups and musical background.
The 2000 population estimate was 1·24 million, of which 42% are
Mandinka, 18% Fula (Fulani, Fulbe or Peul), 16% Wolof, 10% Jola (Diola
or Dyola) and 9% Serahuli (Soninke), with other groups comprising less
than 4%, and non-Gambians 1%. The population is 90% Muslim, 9%
Christian, and 1% follow traditional religions. English is the official
language.
Most Gambians are agriculturalists, though the Wolof and Mandinka also
have a strong mercantile tradition. The Fula, now sedentary, were at one
time cattle nomads, and they still keep herds of cows. With the exception of
the Jola, all Gambian ethnic groups have some degree of hierarchical
social organization, one of the marks of which is that certain skilled crafts,
including music, are practised primarily by hereditary professionals. The
generic term griot generally refers to specialists in music, praise-oratory
and oral history in West Africa, but each ethnic group has an individual
term for this profession.
Gambia
2. Music of the main ethnic groups.
(i) The Mandinka.
The Mandinka, westernmost branch of the widespread Mande people,
have a variety of music genres, but the dominant one is jaliyaa, which
refers to the music and other skilled activities of the jali (pl. jalolu), the
Mandinka professional. The principal surnames by which the jalolu are
identified are Kuyateh, Jobarteh, Suso and Saho. In the past, jalolu served
as court musicians, genealogists, oral historians and even diplomats for
leaders at all levels, from the 13th-century emperor of Mali to 19th-century
kings and district chiefs. They usually enjoyed permanent patronage.
Endogamous marriages (to other jalolu) assured that knowledge of the
profession remained within the families. As the sole providers of their
services, jalolu enjoyed a privileged position in Mandinka society, one that
gave them power to criticize as well as to praise, but also caused them to
be regarded almost as cultural outsiders.
Today marriages between jali and non-jali are far more common, and the
music is taught in schools. Musicians perform in hotels, on the radio and
with the national ensemble, in addition to continuing with traditional jaliyaa.
In spite of these democratizing trends, traditional jaliyaa is still the standard
for entertainment and commemoration at events such as child-namings,
weddings and religious celebrations. Although permanent patronage is now
rare, today's politicians, businessmen and religious leaders still regard
jaliyaa as the music for their social class.
A male jali typically learns to sing and to play one of three melodic
instruments, according to his particular family tradition. The instruments are
the Kora, a 21-string bridge harp which can be tuned to several heptatonic
scales, the konting or nkoni, a skin-faced, slender oval lute with five strings,
and the Balo or balafon, a gourd-resonated frame xylophone with 17–21
keys tuned to an equiheptatonic scale. In The Gambia, the kora is the most
widespread of these instruments. Although the jali women (jali musolu) do
not play melodic instruments, they are highly trained and excel as singers,
and play the neo or karinya, a tubular iron bell struck with an iron rod (see
fig.1).
A fourth melodic instrument, the Bolonor bolombato, a large arched harp (a
variety referred to as a spike harp) with four heavy rawhide strings (fig.2), is
played not by the jali but by members of the Kamara family. The bolon has
a solo repertory of its own, distinct from the jali repertory, but it is also used
today to provide an improvised bass line in ensembles made up of the jali
instruments.
There is one other type of Mandinka griot known as the fina, also with the
surname Kamara, but with a different role. The fina plays no instrument,
but specializes in singing religious praise from the Qur'an called hadiso. He
numbers the jali among his patrons, thus defining his social status as
below that of the jali.
Jaliyaa encompasses praise, historical narrative and musical performance.
The musical component of jaliyaa consists of a repertory of praise-songs
that celebrates the achievements of past heroes and contemporary figures.
The basic vocal line (donkilo) is supported by an ostinato that kora players
call the kumbengo. A typical kumbengo consists of a short, paired phrase,
polyphonic in texture with enough melodic difference between the half-
phrases to suggest harmonic movement. Hemiola, interlocking rhythms
and offset accents create rhythmic interest. The basic donkilo line is used
mainly as a choral refrain, and the bulk of a song consists of long
recitative-like extemporizations called sataro that incorporate proverbs,
philosophical commentary, and formal and spontaneous praise for various
individuals present at a performance.
An ideal performing ensemble consists of one or more instruments of one
kind (although mixed ensembles are increasingly common today), several
singers and one or two vocal soloists. Solo instrumental playing is also a
part of the tradition, but without a distinct repertory: skilled performers
develop song accompaniments into virtuoso pieces by adding variations
and improvised passages called birimintingo.
The general word for drum, tantango, encompasses two forms occasionally
used in jaliyaa: the dundungo, a cylindrical drum slung from the shoulder,
and the tama, a small hourglass drum held high under the arm and
squeezed to change pitch.
The principal drums of the Gambian Mandinka are the kutiro drums. They
are not played as part of jaliyaa but form a separate, non-hereditary
tradition. The ensemble consists of three drums: the kutiriba and
kutirindingo, large and small single-head conical drums, and the sabaro, a
long, slender conical drum played by the leader of the group. All are played
with an open left hand and a pencil-sized stick in the right. Ex.1 presents a
typical drum ostinato played on the two kutiro drums, over which the
sabaro player improvises and gives signals to control the dance.

Kutiro drumming is popular entertainment in contrast to the more courtly

jaliyaa. It animates youth initiation festivities, weddings, rice planting and
other farm work (fig.3), wrestling matches, the Kankurang masked dance
and, most commonly, the recreational dances known as lenjengo and
seruba. Each of these events is easily recognized by its distinctive drum
rhythm. Lenjengo is a vigorous dance with sequential soloists in which
women (and occasionally men) form a circle around the drummers. One or
two enter the circle at a time, bend deeply at the waist and swing their arms
to the back and then upwards as they stamp their feet. Those not dancing
clap their hands in interlocking rhythmic patterns. Seruba follows after
some time with a more relaxed beat. The emphasis in seruba is on songs
extemporized by a male singer (the fourth member of the drum troupe).
Individuals often request that songs be made up about their friends who
are present.
In former times, music associated with hunting societies was another
common Mandinka genre, but today one rarely hears the dana jali (hunter's
musician) or his instrument, the simbingo, a small, six string spike harp
(fig.4). The dana jali formerly sang narrative songs about animals and the
hunt, and danced to mime the hunt, while villagers joined in with singing
and hand clapping. Although not a jali per se, the dana jali relied on the
patronage of his fellow hunters and, as such, may represent a kind of jali,
for hunters and warriors (often one and the same) were once the
equivalent of royalty in Mande society.
In the 1990s Mandinka jaliyaa, especially kora jaliyaa, emerged as one of
the most familiar West African sounds in the international world of Afro-Pop
music.
(ii) The Fula.
The Fula are spread across the savanna from Senegal to Cameroon (see
also FulBe music). There are three types of Fula griot: the maabo,
bammbaa'do and the gawlo. The first two play the hoddu, a three-string
plucked lute similar to the Mandinka konting, but larger, or the nyaanyooru
(see Goge), a monochord bowed lute with horsehair strung on both the
instrument and the bow. The maabo and bammbaa’do are court musicians
with a role and status similar to the Mandinka jali. The awlu'be (pl. of
gawlo) play more often in groups and for a general audience rather than
select patrons although they regard Mandinka jalolu as their patrons and
may perform for them in expectation of being paid.
The awlu'be play the serndu, a transverse flute, the horde, a large half
calabash held against the chest and beaten with palms and rings on
fingers, the laala, a pair of L-shaped stick-rattles, each a sistrum with discs
of calabash loosely skewered on one arm (fig.5), and an hourglass drum.
Some typical horde and laala rhythms are shown in ex.2. The horde player
is usually an acrobat as well and wears a skirt of wide woven bands to
accentuate his movements.

Songs consist of either long, rapid declamatory phrases sung by a soloist,

with drone-like responses offered by one of the accompanists, or shorter
strophic phrases sung by a soloist and repeated by a second soloist or a
chorus. Instruments parallel the voices in heterophony.
(iii) The Wolof.
The Gambian Wolof are primarily merchants and farmers who live in or
near Banjul, the capital, and on the north bank of the Gambia river. Among
the Wolof, the professional musician is known as gewel. As with the
Mandinka, the gewel plays a melodic instrument according to his family
tradition. The most common instruments are the xalam, a five-string
plucked lute similar to the Mandinka konting, and the riti, a bowed
monochord lute less common in The Gambia than the xalam (see Goge).
The xalam and the konting share repertories to some extent. Like the jali
and the Fula griots, the gewel plays these instruments alone or to
accompany singing or narration. The song style and content are similar to
jaliyaa.
The Wolof play several types of drum. Some are played by the gewel,
others by non-professionals. The tabala, a deep kettle drum, is kept in the
mosque and used for songs praising Allah. The dance drum ensemble
called sabar employs five to seven drums, all played with the stick-and-
hand technique. Open-end, slightly conical drums called nder and mbung
mbung, similar to the Mandinka sabaro, provide solo and accompanying
parts in the higher register, while the closed-end barrel drums gorong and
lambe provide the lower register of the ensemble. To these is sometimes
added the tama, the same hourglass drum played by the Mandinka. Sabar
drumming is played for a variety of functions but not for funerals or Muslim
holy days, when only xalam playing is allowed. Wolof drumming is
intensely energetic and characterized by complex polyrhythmic
combinations. The dance style is similar to the Mandinka, with sequential
soloists in the dance circle, but the movements are more sexually
suggestive. In one dance, for example, women gently tug at the opening of
their wrap-around skirts as they dance towards the drummers.
(iv) The Jola.
The Jola live mostly on the south bank of the Gambia river and in the
Casamance region of Senegal. They are farmers and have no specialized
trades. They form work parties to cultivate rice and groundnuts, and sing to
synchronize their work. A distinctive feature of Jola singing, whether for
farming, wrestling matches, dances or funerals, is a wordless chorus on the
syllables ‘wo-eh’. The undulating melodic line sometimes breaks into two-
part harmony (ex.3). A soloist extemporizes or sings traditional words
between the choruses and also adds further passages of vocalization.

In some areas, the simbing, a spike harp larger than the Mandinka
simbingo and held sideways, is played to accompany groups of men
singing.
The Bugaar or Bukarabo is a celebratory dance in which both men and
women dance, stamping or jumping in a pattern resembling the Lenjengo
dance, but with arms outstretched. A single drummer plays three tall single-
skin drums called bugaar tuned to different pitches. The men sing and the
women clap, at first together and then in interlocking patterns when the
dancing starts (ex.4). The Futamp, a circumcision festival, is held every
15–20 years and is an occasion for other songs and dances and for the
appearance of the kumpo masked dancer. The kumpo also appears
frequently today on other occasions. It has no face but looks instead like a
haystack with a long pole sticking out the top. As the dancer moves about,
he occasionally plants the tip of the pole in the ground, and, with his feet
still on the ground, he whirls around the pole's axis in an impressive flurry
of grass streamers. A set of Mandinka kutiro drums, several iron bells on
which interlocking rhythms are played, and elit, a pair of long end-blown
whistles, accompany this dance.
For further bibliography see Senegal; Guinea; Mali; Balo; and Kora.

Gambia

BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
C.A. Moloney: ‘On the Melodies of the Volof, Mandingo, Ewe, Yoruba and
Hausa People of West Africa’, Journal of the Manchester
Geographical Society, v (1889), 277–98
D.P. Gamble: The Wolof of Senegambia (London, 1957)
L.-V. Thomas: ‘Les Diola’, Mémoires de l'Institut français d'Afrique noire, lv
(1958–9), 1–821
G. Rouget: ‘Sur les xylophones equiheptaphonique des Malinké’, RdM, lv
(1969), 47–77
R.C. Knight: Mandinka Jaliya: Professional Music of the Gambia (diss.,
UCLA, 1973)
R.C. Knight: ‘Mandinka Drumming’, African Arts, vii/4 (1974), 24–35
S. Darbo: A Griot's Self-Portrait: the Origins and Role of the Griot in
Mandinka Society as seen from Stories told by Gambian Griots
(Banjul, 1976)
J.T. Irvine and J.D. Sapir: ‘Musical Style and Social Change among the
Kujamaat Diola’, EthM, xx (1976), 67–86
I. Leymarie: The Role and Function of the Griots among the Wolof of
Senegal (diss., Columbia U., 1978)
M.T. Coolen: Xalamkats: The Xalam Tradition of the Senegambia (diss., U.
of Washington, 1979)
M. Schaffer and C. Cooper: Mandinko: the Ethnography of a West African
Holy Land (Prospect Heights, IL, 1980)
L. Duran: ‘A Preliminary Study of the Wolof Xalam, with a List of
Recordings at the BIRS’, Recorded Sound, no.79 (1981), 29–50
L. Duran: ‘Theme and Variation in Kora Music: a Preliminary Study of “Tutu
Jara” as Performed by Amadu Bansang Jobate’, Music and Tradition:
Essays on Asian and Other Musics Presented to Laurence Picken
(Cambridge, 1981), 181–96
R. Knight: ‘Music in Africa: the Manding Contexts’, Performance Practice:
Ethnomusicological Perspectives (Westport, CT, 1984), 53–90
R. Knight: ‘The Style of Mandinka Music: a Study in Extracting Theory
from Practice’, Selected Reports, v (1984), 3–66
S. Jatta: ‘Born Musicians: Traditional Music from The Gambia’,
Repercussions: a Celebration of African-American Music (London,
1985), 14–29
G. Innes and B. Sidibe, eds. and trans.: Hunters and Crocodiles:
Narratives of a Hunter's Bard: Recorded in Mandinka during a
Performance by Bakari Kamara (Sandgate, Kent, 1990)
R. Knight: ‘Music out of Africa: Mande Jaliya in Paris’, World of Music,
xxxiii/1 (1991), 52–69
E. Charry: Musical Thought, History, and Practice among the Mande of
West Africa (diss., Princeton U., 1993)
P.A. Ebron: Negotiating the Meaning of Africa: Mandinka Praisesingers in
Transnational Contexts (diss., U. of Massachusetts, 1993)
F.M. Suso and others: Jali Kunda: Griots of West Africa and Beyond
(Roslyn, NY, 1996) [incl. disc Ellipsis Arts CD3510]
recordings
Music of the Diola-Fogny of Casamance, Senegal, Folkways F–E4323
(1965)
The Griots, Folkways FE 4178 (1975)
African Flutes [Fula and Serrehule], Folkways F–4230 (1978)
Mamadou Ly: Mandinka Drum Master, Village Pulse VP 1001 (1992)
Sabar Wolof: Dance Drumming of Senegal; Village Pulse VP 1003 (1992)

Gambier Islands.
See Polynesia, §II, 3(iv).

Gamble, John
(bap. ?London, ? 29 Sept 1610; bur. London, 30 Nov 1687). English
cornett player, violinist, copyist and composer. He was perhaps the ‘John
Gambell’ baptized at the London church of St Olave Hart Street on 29
September 1610. According to Anthony Wood, he was apprenticed to
Ambrose Beeland, though he is not listed among the seven apprentices
Beeland registered with the Draper's Company between 1620 and 1640.
Wood wrote that he ‘became a musician belonging to a playhouse in
London’, and in 1641 he was paid for providing the Middle Temple with
music, apparently as a member of a group of instrumentalists from the
Blackfriars Theatre. Wood thought him and Thomas Pratt ‘two eminent
musitians of London’ when they played in Oxford in July 1658. Gamble
published two books of Ayres and Dialogues (London, 1656, 2/1657;
1659), which got him ‘a great name among the musitians of Oxon’
according to Wood, and apparently prepared a third (GB-Lbl Add.32339,
facs. in Jorgens, 1986, with many of the voice parts in Lbl Harl.6947) for
publication. There is an engraved portrait of him in the 1656 book.
Gamble became a royal wind musician at the Restoration, and Wood wrote
that he was ‘one of the cornets in the King's Chapel’, though he also
worked at court as a violinist, notably in the rosters of string players
attending the Chapel Royal in the 1670s and in the masque Calisto (1675).
In 1662 he wrote music for John Tatham's Lord Mayor's water pageant
Aqua Triumphalis, and became a member of the Waits of London in 1665.
He lost everything in the Fire of London the next year, and seems to have
been beset by financial problems in his later years. He made his will on 30
November 1680 ‘crazed and infirme of body’, though he did not die until
1687; he was buried at St Bride's, Fleet Street, on 30 November.
Gamble was a prolific song composer, though he had little imagination or
technique, and his declamatory settings in particular are close to being
harmonically illiterate. However, his commonplace-book dated 1659 (US-
NYp Drexel 4257, facs. in Jorgens, 1987) is an anthology of more than 300
songs by his contemporaries, and it is for this that he deserves to be
remembered. He also copied music by Locke, Coleman and Lanier into the
Jacobean court wind manuscript GB-Cfm Mu.734, adding a tenor part of an
otherwise unknown suite of his own. Bass parts of five dances by him
survive (Ob Mus.Sch.D.220).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AshbeeR, i, ii, v, viii
BDA
BDECM
SpinkES
C.W. Hughes: ‘John Gamble's Commonplace Book’, ML, xxvi (1945), 215–
29
V.H. Duckles: ‘The Gamble Manuscript as a Source of Continuo Song in
England’, JAMS, i/2 (1948), 23–40
V.H. Duckles: John Gamble's Commonplace Book: a Critical Edition of
New York Public Library MS Drexel 4257 (diss., U. of California,
Berkeley, 1953)
J.D. Shute: Anthony à Wood and his Manuscript Wood D 19(4) at the
Bodleian (diss., International Institute of Advanced Studies, Clayton,
MO, 1979)
D. Lasocki: Professional Recorder Players in England 1540–1740 (diss.,
U. of Iowa, 1983), ii, 756, 773
E.B. Jorgens: Introduction to British Library Manuscripts, Part IV: Add. MS
11608, Add. MS 32339, ES, iv (1986) [facs.]
E.B. Jorgens: Introduction to New York Public Library Manuscripts, Part II:
Drexel MS 4257, ES, x (1987) [facs.]
J. Elliott jr: ‘Invisible Evidence, Finding Musicians in the Archives of the
Inns of Court, 1446–1642’, RMARC, no.26 (1993), 45–57
J.K. Wood: ‘“A Flowing Harmony”: Music on the Thames in Restoration
London’, EMc, xxiii (1995), 553–81
L. Hulse: ‘“Musick & Poetry, Mixed”: Thomas Jordan's Manuscript
Collection’, EMc, xxiv (1996), 7–24
IAN SPINK/PETER HOLMAN

Gamble and Huff.

American songwriting and production team. Kenny (Kenneth) Gamble (b
1943) and Leon Huff (b 1942) first worked together in 1964 on a session for
the girl group Candy and the Kisses. At the time Gamble was singing in the
Romeos, a vocal group from Philadelphia that Huff would shortly join.
Continuing to work together on a variety of projects, in 1967 Gamble and
Huff wrote and produced a top ten hit for the Soul Survivors, Expressway
to your Heart. Over the next four years the duo formed the Excel and
Gamble labels recording a number of local Philadelphia groups, the most
 notable being the Intruders (Together, Cowboys to Girls). At the same time
they wrote and produced hits for a number of major label artists including
Archie Bell and the Drells (I can't stop dancing, Atlantic, 1968), Jerry Butler
(Only the strong survive, Mercury, 1969) and Wilson Pickett (Don't let the
green grass fool you, Atlantic, 1971). In 1971 Gamble and Huff founded
Philadelphia International Records, a custom label which was financed and
distributed by Columbia. Heavily influenced by the Motown operation,
Gamble and Huff developed a company sound (dubbed ‘The sound of
Philadelphia’) by using the same core of session musicians, songwriters
and the Sigma Sound recording studio for every record. A series of hits
followed for the O'Jays, Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes, Billy Paul,
MFSB, the Three Degrees, McFadden and Whitehead, Lou Rawls and
Teddy Pendergrass until the early 1980s. They also produced The
Jacksons (1976), the first recording by that group for Epic Records.
Gamble's lyrics typically addressed a wide variety of social and political
topics including slavery, ecology, spiritual enlightenment and corruption.
The sound of Philadelphia soul was one of the prime influences on disco,
and typically featured medium tempo compositions with dramatic string
arrangements, multi-layered backing vocals, vibraphone, a minimized or
absent backbeat, bass guitar and kick drum parts that emphasized the first
and third beats and the following off-beats, and Latin percussion.
WORKS
(selective list)

Expressway to your Heart, 1967; Together, 1967; I can't stop dancing, 1968;
Cowboys to Girls, 1968; (Love is like a) Baseball Game, 1968; Never Give You Up,
1968 [collab. J. Butler]; Hey, Western Union Man, 1968 [collab. Butler]; Only the
strong survive, 1968; Get me back on time, engine number 9, 1970; If you don't
know me by now, 1972; Me and Mrs Jones, 1972 [collab. C. Gilbert]; Love Train,
1972; T.S.O.P., 1973
For the Love of Money, 1973 [collab. Jackson]; When will I see you again, 1973;
Give the people what they want, 1975; You'll never find another love like mine,
1976; Don't leave me this way, 1976; I don't love you anymore, 1977; Close the
door, 1978; Turn off the lights, 1979

BIBLIOGRAPHY
T. Cummings: The Sound of Philadelphia (London, 1975)
N. George: The Death of Rhythm and Blues (New York, 1988)
ROB BOWMAN

Gamboa, Pero de
(d Vila Nova de Famalicão, nr Braga, 17 March 1638). Portuguese
composer. He was mestre de capela of Braga Cathedral from at least 1585
to at least 1587, and probably until 1591. He was also, from July 1584,
abbot of S Paio, Arcos, and from 1591 was resident priest at S Salvador,
Bente. On 26 April 1635 he endowed anniversary masses at Braga
Cathedral for his former patron, Archbishop João Afonso de Menezes.
Works by Gamboa, all for four voices, are preserved in P-Pm 40 and 76–9:
in the latter a setting of the Te Deum and nine motets (of which the brief
Hodie Maria virgo might have been intended for liturgical performance as
an antiphon), and in the former an introit setting (with cantus firmus in the
lowest part) and two motets; a setting of Jesu redemptor in this source
bears a later attribution to Gamboa, and a communion setting, Beata
viscera, which follows the introit just mentioned, might also be his work.
Although conventional enough in their reliance on imitative counterpoint,
Gamboa's motets are often imaginative in their expressive harmony and in
other respects, such as the dense textures and low scoring of O crux ave.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. de Santo Thomas: Benedictina lusitana, ii (Coimbra, 1651), 42
J.A. Ferreira: Fastos episcopaes da igreja primacial de Braga, iii (Braga,
1932), 69
G. Sampaio: Subsídios para a história dos músicos portugueses (Braga,
1934), 3–6
A. Carneiro: A música em Braga (Braga, 1959), 177–8
R. Stevenson: Preface to Antologia de polifónia portuguesa, 1490–1680,
PM, ser.A, xxxvii (1982), p.xxxvi
J.P. d'Alvarenga: ‘A música litúrgica na sé de Braga, no século XVI:
observações sobre o conhecimento actual’, Encontro nacional de
musicologia V: Lisbon 1988 [Boletim da Associação portuguesa de
educação musical, no.58 (1988)], 38–47
OWEN REES

Gambus.
Long- or short-necked wooden lute, probably of Middle Eastern origin,
found in Muslim areas of Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi and other parts of
Indonesia, and in Malaysia. Its pear-shaped body has a decorated
soundhole and tapers to form the neck, ending in a receding pegbox.
Handmade gambus vary considerably in shape and size. They usually
have four or six pairs of strings and sometimes another single string. The
instrument is plucked with a feather quill (see illustration), horn plectrum or
the fingernails. It is used for solo instrumental music, to accompany a
singer, and in a large or small orkes gambus (gambus orchestra) which
may include gambus, violin, gendang (double-headed drum), rebana
(frame drum), tambourine, harmonium, a set of marwas drums, maracas
and female singers, who perform religious and love songs at weddings and
other ceremonies. It resembles the Middle Eastern 'ūd; see Qanbūs.
In northern coastal Java the gambus is featured in the gambusan
ensemble, and in Malaysia it is the leading melody instrument
accompanying the folk theatre boria and the singing of ghazal (poetry).
MARGARET J. KARTOMI

Gamelan.
A generic term used for various types of Indonesian orchestra. These vary
in size, function, musical style and instrumentation, but generally include
tuned single bronze gongs, gong-chimes, single- and multi-octave
metallophones, drums, flutes, bowed and plucked chordophones, a
xylophone, small cymbals and singers. See also Indonesia, §§II, 1(iii); III, 4;
IV, 2; and V, 1(ii)(e); Mode, §V, 3; and Suriname, §5.
I. South-east Asia
II. Outside South-east Asia
MARGARET J. KARTOMI/R (I), MARIA MENDONÇA (II)
Gamelan

I. South-east Asia
The present article deals with gamelan as ensembles; for information on
individual instruments see separate entries. Discussion of context, musical
structure and performing practice can be found in the respective country
entries.
1. History.
2. Social functions.
3. Distribution.
4. Tuning systems.
5. Instrumentation.
6. Related ensembles in South-east Asia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
1. History.
An accurate history of gamelan awaits an adequate accumulation of
sources. Bronze kettledrums of the Dongson culture of the 3rd and 2nd
centuries bce found in Sumatra, Java, Bali and other parts of South-east
Asia suggest that a high level of workmanship in metal had been reached
by that period and that bronze and other metal instruments in the region
are very old. However, there is no evidence of a direct line of development
between the Bronze drum and the bronze instruments of gamelan and
related orchestras. Perishable instruments made of wood, leather and
bamboo have also presumably existed in South-east Asia since ancient
times, but there is no direct evidence of this.
Kunst (1927, 2/1968) accumulated a number of archaeological,
iconographical and literary sources proving the existence of prototypes of
most Javanese and Balinese gamelan instruments in the latter part of the
1st millennium ce or the early part of the 2nd. For example, xylophones,
bamboo flutes and double-headed drums are depicted in reliefs on the 9th-
century Borobudur temple in central Java. Other important sources include
the Kediri-period carvings in Java (1043–1222), reliefs on the 14th-century
Candi Panataran and a number of Old Javanese literary texts. The
Rāmāyana, probably dating from the the 1st or the early 2nd millennium
ce, uses the word ‘gong’ and other musical terms.
The sources suggest that a distinction has long been made between loud-
sounding and soft-sounding gamelan. The former consisted of drums,
gongs, oboes and the like and were used for outdoor occasions such as
processions and trance ceremonies, as they still are today. The latter
included soft metallophones, xylophones and the flute and were reserved
largely for indoor occasions. Kunst (1934) postulated that loud and soft
ensembles were combined into large gamelan in Java from about the 16th
century. Speculations by him and other scholars about some historical
implications of archaic Javanese gamelan await the discovery of
convincing data, as do theories about which of the two major tuning
systems, pélog (‘seven-note’) and sléndro (‘five-note’) came first.
Resemblances between gamelan and similar ensembles in West Java,
Central Java, East Java, Bali and other parts of the region may be
explained by a common Central and East Javanese origin, as has been
suggested, but they are more likely to have resulted from constant contact
over the centuries between the changing centres of power in the southern
part of South-east Asia. Some Balinese orchestras appear to be a direct
continuation of 15th-century Hindu-Javanese orchestras brought to Bali by
refugees from the Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century. Some
Sundanese gamelan in West Java are also direct descendants of
orchestras moved there from Central Java after the fall of the Hindu-
Sundanese kingdom of Pajajaran in 1579.
The combination in Java of two gamelan, one tuned in sléndro and the
other in pélog (see §4), seems to have become widespread during the
second half of the 19th century with the development of some forms of
musical theatre, mostly in the courts. However, separate sléndro and pélog
orchestras are still found. For example, although incorporation of the pélog
gamelan into Central Javanese shadow puppet performance (wayang kulit)
is increasingly common, more traditional forms of wayang kulit usually
feature the sléndro gamelan alone, following a centuries-old practice.
Some ensembles exist that predate the development of sléndro and pélog
and contain some obsolete instruments and instrumental combinations.
Archaic ceremonial gamelan housed in the Central Javanese courts
include the gamelan carabalèn (tuned to a four- or six-note pélog scale) in
which there are two gong-chimes (bonang klènang and bonang
gambyong), one or two large horizontally-suspended gongs (kenong and
penontong), drums (kendhang gendhing and kendhang ketipung) and a
gong ageng. Another archaic ensemble is the gamelan kodhok ngorèk
(‘croaking frog’), tuned to a three-note scale and generally comprising two
bonang, a byong (bell tree), kenong japan (horizontally-suspended gong),
rojèh (cymbals), kendhang gendhing, kendhang ketipung and gong ageng.
In Yogyakarta, the ensemble is enlarged with saron-type instruments, and
in Surakarta, with the gendèr (14-keyed metallophone). The ensemble
known as gamelan monggang (fig.1), like the carabalèn and kodhok
ngorèk, is thought to have originated in the Majapahit period (late 15th to
early 16th centuries). It is tuned to a three-note pélog scale and consists of
four bonang-type gong-chimes each with three notes, kenong japan, a pair
of penontong, kendhang gendhing, kendhang ketipung, two gong ageng
and a pair of rojèh. The instrumentation of the 16th-century gamelan sekati
(sekaten), tuned to a seven-note pélog scale, is similar to that of the
regular ‘loud’ gamelan (gongs, metal-keyed instruments, drums and gong-
chimes) but the instruments are much larger in size. The ensemble
comprises several types of saron, two gong ageng with only one double-
row bonang (played by two players), a pair of kempyang and a bedhug;
there are no kendhang or kempul.
Archaic Balinese gamelan include the gamelan caruk, consisting of two
saron and a caruk (bamboo xylophone); the gamelan gambang, comprising
four gambang, played with an unusual technique (see Gambang), and two
pairs of saron, each pair played by one person; the gamelan luang, where
bronze and bamboo instruments are combined so that each luang has a
unique instrumentation; and the gamelan salunding, featuring only iron-
keyed metallophones and primarily associated with the Bali Aga peoples
who trace their culture back to pre-Hindu times. These ensembles are used
mainly for specific ritual contexts, and with salunding, for example, are so
sacred that people are not permitted to see the instruments except on
ceremonial occasions.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
2. Social functions.
Gamelan and related ensembles have traditionally been used to
accompany religious rites and dances which have survived from pre-
Muslim times (before about the 15th century ce). The instruments are
shown respect; no-one may walk over them and special offerings of
incense are made before an ensemble is played. In Java a gamelan is
often given a revered name of its own. The gamelan's main function is still
to accompany ceremonial or religious rituals, held chiefly in the temples in
Bali and in village or court environments in Java and elsewhere. Gamelan
are played in rain-inducing ceremonies in Central Javanese ricefields, in
processional dance genres such as réyog in East Java, and for erotic
dances such as that of the singer-dancer in tayuban in Java. They are also
played to welcome guests at weddings and other ceremonies, although
cheaper recorded music has often been substituted in recent times.
Gamelan in Bali are used primarily to accompany dance and dance-drama
on religious and (in recent times) secular occasions. In Central Java and
Sunda they are likewise used to accompany dance and dance-dramas and
also to accompany shadow (Central Java) or three-dimensional (West
Java) puppet theatre and to provide music for contemplative listening
(Central Java, klenèngan), sometimes at concerts or similar gatherings.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
3. Distribution.
Thousands of gamelan in Java and Bali are owned by puppeteers and
other private individuals, communal organizations, government offices,
radio and television stations, theatres, museums and palaces. Kunst (1934,
3/1973) showed that gamelan were widely distributed throughout the
villages and towns of Java in the 1930s; no similar survey has been
published since then. Some gamelan were destroyed during World War II
and the war for Indonesian independence, which ended in 1949; some
have been broken up since then and sold, instrument by instrument, by
impoverished owners; and some have been exported overseas. However,
gamelan instruments are still being made in West and Central Java, Bali
and elsewhere.
The export of gamelan has grown in recent years (see §II), however export
of antique gamelan is forbidden by law. Composers in many South-east
Asian countries have increasingly incorporated musical ideas derived from
gamelan into their works.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
4. Tuning systems.
There are no ‘correct’ standard tunings for gamelan, and no two gamelan
are tuned exactly alike. However, most modern gamelan are tuned in either
an anhemitonic five-note system or a hemitonic seven-note system. The
former is called sléndro in Central and East Java, saléndro in West Java,
and saih gender wayang in Bali; the latter is called pélog in Central, West
and East Java, and saih pitu (‘row of seven’) in Bali. In addition, Balinese
gamelan are characterised by paired tuning, where the individual
instruments of a pair are carefully tuned slightly apart from one another,
creating a ‘beating’ effect which is part of the characteristic shimmering
timbre of most ensembles.
Rarely are all seven notes of the pélog-type scale used in a piece, but
rather five-note modal scales derived from the seven available. In Central
Java both hemitonic and anhemitonic systems are divided into three main
pathet (modes). The sléndro modes (nem, sanga and manyura) all use the
same five basic tones of the tuning system, but in pélog, one mode
(barang) uses a different subset of tones (2 3 5 6 7) from the other two
(nem and lima, using tones 1 2 3 5 6). Thus, while gamelan tuned in
sléndro usually include only one of each type or size of instrument, those
tuned in pélog must have two of each of the instruments that are tuned to a
five-note scale, but only one of each type or size tuned to the seven-note
scale. Pélog gamelan have therefore two gendèr barung (low-pitched
metallophones), two gendèr panerus (high-pitched metallophones) and two
celempung (zithers) in order to accommodate the two modal tunings; as it
is possible to quickly swap the keys concerned on gambang (xylophone),
two instruments are not always necessary (for a detailed discussion of
pathet, see Mode, §V, 4(ii)).
Complete Central Javanese gamelan (gamelan seprangkat) consist of two
sets of instruments, one tuned in sléndro and one in pélog, with a few
instruments doubling for both. Instruments tuned in pélog are usually
placed at right angles to those tuned in sléndro, so that players can move
easily and quickly from one to the other.
Gamelan in sléndro-type tunings only are traditioanlly used to accompany
wayang kulit purwa (‘ancient’ shadow puppet plays) in Central Java and
wayang golék purwa (‘ancient’ three-dimensional puppet plays) and
sandiwara (plays with music) in West Java. The Balinese wayang kulit is
also accompanied by instruments tuned in the saih gender wayang (the
scale of the quartet of gender for wayang theatre. Most East Javanese
traditional pieces, including those for the gamelan asli Jawa Timur, the
wayang kulit and the ludruk theatre, are played on sléndro orchestras, as
are the angklung and gandrung pieces of the Osinger people in East Java.
Saih angklung, an anhemitonic four-note version of the gender wayang
scale, is used for the gamelan angklung in Bali (in some areas, principally
North Bali, a fifth tone has been added to the ensemble). Some gamelan
arja in Bali are tuned in anhemitonic four- or five-note scales which
resemble those of the gender quartet.
In Java, gamelan in pélog tunings only are found in some rural parts of the
central and eastern regions, for example the prajuritan ensemble of the
mountainous Kopeng area. Pieces played in the almost extinct wayang
gedog (drama enacting stories of the hero Panji) are almost always in
pélog. Most archaic gamelan, including the three-note gamelan monggang,
the four- or six-note gamelan carabalen and the seven-note gamelan
sekati, are considered to be forms of pélog. In West Java seven-note pélog
tunings are found only in gamelan pélog, but the gamelan degung and the
goong rénténg use two different types of five-note pélog tunings.
Of the many different types of Balinese gamelan, the most commonly found
tuning is the five-note selisir (of unequally-spaced tones and therefore
bearing resemblance to pélog tunings), used for such orchestras as the
gamelan gong gede, gamelan gong kebyar and gamelan palegongan, and
for some pieces of the gamelan arja. The selisir scale is derived from the
gamelan gambuh tuning, but omits the auxiliary pitches (for detailed
discussion of Balinese gamelan tunings, see Indonesia §II, 1(ii)–(iii)).
The tunings of the numerous related ensembles in other parts of South-
east Asia are extremely varied. Various pentatonic and heptatonic scales
are used, together with three- and four-note scales and others with varying
intervallic structures. In Sumatra heptatonic scales are the norm in many
coastal areas, and pentatonic, four-note, three-note and other scales, are
often typical of inland areas. As in Java and Bali, the concept of absolute
pitch is not relevant, and in some areas the same type of ensemble may
vary in tuning from village to village. A complete picture awaits detailed
research in all the relevant regions.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
5. Instrumentation.
(i) Central Java.
(ii) West Java.
(iii) East Java.
(iv) Bali.
(v) Malaysia.
(vi) South and East Kalimantan.
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(i) Central Java.
A ‘complete’ gamelan, called gamelan seprangkat (or gamelan sléndro-
pélog; fig.3), comprises two sets of instruments, one tuned in the sléndro
system and the other in the pélog system (see §4). Each is complete in
itself and has a total range of seven octaves (about 40 to 2200 cycles per
second). Normally the two tuning systems have one note in common:
tumbuk (‘to collide’).
A complete gamelan includes three sizes of saron (one-octave slab
metallophone), of which there are usually several of the middle size (saron
barung) and one or two of the largest size (saron demung), two or three
sizes of bonang (double-row gong-chimes), a gambang (20-key trough
xylophone), two sizes of gendèr (two-and-a-half-octave metallophone with
thin keys suspended over resonating tubes) and the deeper-toned
slenthem or gendèr panembung (similar in construction to the gendèr but
with a range of one octave only). Horizontally-suspended gongs include a
set of kenong (large gongs), a kethuk (low-pitched single gong) and the
kempyang (high-pitched small gong). All instruments or instrument sets
exist in both scales: in the case of the gambang and the gendèr there are
three each (see§4).
The complete gamelan includes also three sizes of vertically suspended
gongs, the kempul being the highest-pitched; there may be as many as 12
of these, tuned in pélog and sléndro. There are several gong suwukan (or
gong siyem, an octave lower than the kempul) and one or two gong ageng
(large single gongs). The string instruments are the rebab (two-string spike
fiddle) and the celempung (zither), which can be replaced by the smaller
siter (zither). The only wind instrument is the suling (bamboo flute). There
are three sizes of kendhang (double-headed laced drum) and a bedhug
(double-headed barrel-shaped drum). Some additional instruments, either
obsolete or rarely used, are the kemanak (a pair of banana-shaped bronze
handbells), the slento (a saron demung with a boss on each key) and a
gambang gangsa (bronze gambang). A female vocalist (pesindhèn) and
choral group (gérongan) are an integral part of the soft-style ensemble.
The complete gamelan in Central Java belongs in court, urban and village
contexts; there are additional small village ensembles which are sometimes
referred to locally as gamelan. One such rural ensemble in the Banyumas
area is the èbèg ensemble, consisting of selomprèt (oboe), saron wesi
(‘iron saron’), gongs and drums; it is used to accompany hobby-horse
trance dancing which in other areas is also called jaranan, kuda képang,
kuda lumping or jathilan. The jaranan ensemble of Central and East Java is
similarly constituted. Another gamelan-like ensemble of the Banyumas
area is the Calung, consisting of tuned bamboo idiophones plus drum; the
melody instruments are bamboo xylophones and a blown bamboo tube
serves as a gong. Also made up mainly of bamboo instruments is the small
gamelan bumbung (‘bamboo gamelan’) in the rural areas in and around
Kediri and also in Surakarta and Yogyakarta; it usually consists of stick-
beaten bamboo zithers, a bamboo xylophone and a kendhang.
A small ensemble of small bossed gongs and drums (prajuritan)
accompanies the prajuritan folk drama in eastern parts of Central Java and
in East Java; this relates the story of the mythical battle fought between the
Majapahit and Blambangan kingdoms in the 15th century. Also from
Central and East Java was the gamelan kethoprak which accompanied
performances of the kethoprak dance-drama. It originated in the 1920s in
Surakarta and consisted of wooden instruments: three slit-drums, a lesung
(log-drum) and a suling. The instrumentation was later radically altered,
gongs and drums replacing the wooden percussion, and the drama is now
accompanied in the theatre by a common gamelan.
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(ii) West Java.
In Sundanese-speaking areas of West Java the main orchestras are the
gamelan degung, the gamelan rénténg, the gamelan saléndro and
gamelan pélog. Gamelan degung was formerly associated with courts and
gamelan rénténg with villages. The gamelan saléndro is used for a variety
of contexts including wayang golék (puppet theatre), sandiwara (plays with
music) and dance, and the gamelan pélog for dance and wayang cepak
rod puppet theatre originating from Cirebon and based on local stories. The
instrumentarium of each orchestra varies, but a gamelan degung may
consist of a bonang, a panerus or cémprés (three-octave keyed
metallophones), one or two single-octave saron, a jengglong (set of bossed
gongs, either vertically suspended or lying on crossed cords in a frame), a
goong (large gong), a set of kendang (double-headed drums) and a suling
degung (small bamboo flute).
The sacred goong rénténg is used for harvest purification rituals,
communal gatherings and, in some areas, to accompany kuda lumping
(hobby-horse trance dancing). In Lebukwangi the ensemble comprises a
U-shaped rénténg (gong-chime), a rebab, a suling, a saron (multi-octave
eleven-keyed metallophone), kecrék (idiophone of hanging metal plates),
jengglong, and one or two goong. In Klayan, Cirebon, a hobby-horse
trance ensemble comprises an L-shaped rénténg, a selomprèt, kecrék, a
kenong, two kethuk, three kebluk (horizontal bossed gongs in a frame), a
pair of goong and a kendang and ketipung (large and small drums).
While the flute and oboe play the main melodic role in the degung and
rénténg orchestras respectively, the rebab (spike fiddle) and pasindén
(female vocalist) are prominent in the gamelan saléndro and gamelan
pélog, together with the gambang. A standard gamelan saléndro in addition
includes two saron, a bonang, a kempul, a goong and three kendang,
metallophones peking and panerus, and the two gong-chimes rincik and
jengglong. Kenong and kethuk may also be added.
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(iii) East Java.
The halus (‘refined’) gamelan centring on the cities of Surabaya and
Majakerta in the eastern part of East Java is called gamelan asli Jawa
Timur (or gamelan Surabaya). Although its instrumentarium is similar to a
large Central Javanese gamelan, its musical style, performing practice,
repertory and pathet (modal) system are different. In the extreme eastern
part of East Java, among the Osinger people of Banyuwangi Regency, two
styles of sléndro-tuned angklung ensemble are found. The new-style
ensemble has one or two pairs of angklung (bamboo xylophone),
slenthem, saron barung, saron panerus (all made of iron), one kendang,
one suling or double-reed aerophone and one gong . The Osinger people
also play the gandrung ensemble, which uses a sléndro tuning. It
comprises two biola (violins), kendang, a kempul, two kethuk, a kloncing
(small triangle) and a small gong. It takes its name from the female dancer-
singer it accompanies, and is used at important all-night functions such as
wedding receptions.
In the Ponorogo area of East Java the réyog ensemble (fig.4) accompanies
the processional dance of the same name. The ensemble may consist of
selomprèt (oboe), two angklung (of the rattle variety), a kendhang and
ketipung (large and small double-headed drums) and various gongs. The
saronèn (or tètèt) is the most widespread type of kasar (‘coarse’) ensemble
in the eastern part of East Java and the offshore island of Madura (where it
is called gamelan kerapan sapi because it accompanies the bull races
known as kerapan sapi). The saronèn (wooden oboe) is the principal, or
only, melodic instrument; the others vary considerably, but may include
large and small kethuk and kendhang.
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(iv) Bali.
Balinese theatrical gamelan include the gamelan gambuh, notable for its
use of suling gambuh (long flutes) and rebab rather than melodic
percussion instruments; it includes also a pair of kendang, several gongs, a
pair of rincik and a pair of kangsi (cymbals), a rack of bells and the
gumanak (a struck copper or iron cylinder). The seven-tone gambuh tuning
system (from which many modes are derived) is believed to be the
foundation for many other Balinese gamelan tuning systems. Another
theatrical ensemble is the gamelan arja, using four- and five-note scales of
both hemitonic and anhemitonic varieties, and consisting of three suling,
two guntang (tube zithers), kelenang (small gong), a pair of kendang and a
pair of rincik (cymbals).
There exist in Bali various large ensembles more commonly referred to as
gong. The stately gamelan gong (or gamelan gong gede; fig.5) may consist
of jegogan, jublag and panyacah (metallophones), trompong pangarep and
trompong barangan (gong-chimes), kendang wadon and kendang lanang
(double-headed ‘female’ and ‘male’ drums), bende (suspended gong), two
gong ageng (wadon and lanang, suspended gongs), kempur (smaller
suspended gongs) and ceng-ceng (cymbals). Once a court ensemble of
about 40 instruments, it is now a village ensemble of some 25 instruments.
About half of these are single-octave gangsa (gender- and saron-type
metallophones) which play the nuclear melody in unison and octaves. The
expanded melody is played on one or two trompong, and a four-kettle
reyong is used for simple figuration. The modern development of the
gamelan gong, the virtuoso gamelan gong kebyar, is the most vigorously
creative musical medium among contemporary Balinese musicians; it uses
the gamelan gong repertory as well as its own continuously expanding one.
Many instruments are derived from the gong gede, but are all on a much
smaller scale. In addition there are some significant alterations: these
include the addition of the reyong, a 12–kettle gong chime played by four
people and the expansion of the range of the gangsa to two octaves (ten
keys). In North Bali a harder, more brilliant tone is preferred, and saron are
used as metallophones in the kebyar ensemble, suitably adapted to
accommodate bamboo resonators.
The gamelan semar pagulingan (‘gamelan of the god of love’) is a delicate-
sounding seven-tone gamelan on which some six-tone and five-tone
modes are played, including five-tone selisir instrumentarium resembles
that of the gamelan gong but low-pitched saron or large cymbals; as a
court gamelan it became rare, but has been revived as part of the recent
interest in seven-tone tunings. Even more delicate in timbre is the gamelan
palegongan, used to accompany the legong dance and other dances and
dramas. It replaces the trompong with two pairs of 13-key gender and
includes a pair of smaller drums. The slendro-tuned gamelan pajogedan
replaces the metallophones with instruments with split-bamboo keys over
bamboo tube resonators and the gong with two bronze slabs of slightly
different pitch, struck simultaneously; Suling are also featured. It is known
colloquially as joged bumbung.
The gamelan bebonangan (known also as balaganjur or kalaganjur) is a
processional ensemble consisting of a pair of gongs a pair of ceng-ceng
kopyak and a pair of kendang plus other portable instruments extracted
from the larger staionary ensemble of the village (usually a gamelan gong
kebyar). Particulary featured are reyong kettles (sometimes referred to in
Bali by their Javanese name, bonang), each held by one player and played
in an intricate interlocking style. The gamelan gegenggongan, used for
dance and musical performance, consists of genggong (bamboo jew's
harps), suling, kendang, guntang and ceng-ceng. The gamelan angklung is
a small Balinese ensemble used for temple festivals, processions and
cremations. Tuned in four-tone equidistant saih angklung, it features single-
octave metallophones, gongs, reyong, kendang and ceng-ceng; the
bamboo slide-rattles (angklung) which gave the ensemble its name are no
longer included.
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(v) Malaysia.
Joget gamelan (also known as gamelan Terengganu or gamelan Pahang),
has its origins in Central Javanese gamelan. It was first known in the mid-
18th century Malay court in Riau-Lingga (Indonesia), where the dance and
music genre flourished for around 150 years. When the last Sultan of Riau-
Lingga abdicated in 1912 it ceased to be performed there, but had reached
the fief territory of Pahang in the early 19th century, where it was heard by
Frank H. Swettenham in 1875. When the Sultan of Pahang died in 1914
the practice of gamelan also died out in Pahang. His daughter, however,
borrowed the Pahang gamelan and brought it to the palace of her husband,
the Sultan of Terengganu, where it continued to develop as entertainment
for royalty in various court celebrations and ceremonies. Performance
ceased in 1942, following the Japanese invasion and death of the Sultan,
but in the 1960s it was revived and sponsored by the Terengganu
government. It is now considered a national art, performed on state
occasions. Though the genre is danced by women, joget gamelan is played
by men. The ensemble comprises gong agung, gong suwukan, five
kenong, kerumong (gong-chime), saron barung and peking
(metallophones), gambang (xylophone) and gendang (double-headed
drum).
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(vi) South and East Kalimantan.
The gamelan culture and related ensembles of South and East Kalimantan
are almost totally unknown outside those two provinces. Gamelan and
wayang kulit (leather shadow puppet) sets were transplanted (probably in
the 17th century) into the Banjarese community near the coast of South
Kalimantan. They are said to have been gifts from the Sultan of Demak (in
north-east coastal Java) to the first Sultan of Banjar (near Banjarmasin,
South Kalimantan) after he converted from Hinduism to Islam. Although the
last Sultan of Banjar lost power to the Dutch in 1860, his descendants kept
the performance of the repertory alive until Indonesia's independence in
1945, after which knowledge of the performance practice and repertory
declined sharply. These formerly Sultan-owned ensembles of large
Javanese-style bronze instruments are now preserved and sometimes
played in state museums in Banjar Baru (near Banjarmasin) and
Tenggerong (near Samarinda, East Kalimantan) as well as in the National
Museum in Jakarta. The set in Samarinda comprises 35 instruments tuned
in selindero (Jav.: sléndro, but with four modes) and a smaller number
tuned in pelok (Jav.: pélog).
Related ensembles or offshoots of the court gamelan are still alive,
however. They accompany shadow puppetry (wayang kulit Banjar) and
hobby-horse dance (kuda gipang) performances as well as providing
interludes or postludes in modern mamanda theatre shows among the
Banjarese in West and East Kalimantan. A modern gamelan Banjar used to
accompany wayang kulit (tuned in selindero only) comprises between 8
and 13 musicians playing a babun (large, two-headed drum), gongs
(agung ganal and agung kecil), two seven-key saron, a dawo (double-row,
ten-piece bossed-keyed gong-chime), with an optional angkelong or
kurung-kurung (shaken bamboo idiophone), five kanong (bossed keys), a
katrak (wooden hammer). Metal instruments are usually made of iron. In
South Kalimantan the gamelan also often includes a rebab, suling,
gambang and gendir (Jav.: gendèr).
A gamelan kuda gipang comprises two or three saron, a pair of cup
cymbals (kangsi), a pair of suspended gongs (kampul) and a babun
(drum).
A partly gamelan-like Malay orchestra called orkes panting, used to
accompany local mamanda theatre shows, usually comprises one or two
violins (biul), a pair of gongs (gaduk), a pair of small two-headed drums
(ketipung), a pair of lutes (panting) and a singer. Other gamelan
instruments such as the babun may also be added.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
6. Related ensembles in South-east Asia.
Gamelan are related in their instruments and musical qualities to other
ensembles throughout the southern part of South-east Asia. Whether this is
due to diffusion from one or from several sources it is not possible to say,
although the high level of metal workmanship in Java since ancient times
suggests that this island may have been a main source of diffusion of metal
instruments. Most ensembles in the area broadly consist of double-headed
drums and gongs (or their substitutes), to which gong-chimes, wind and
string instruments are often added. Gongs may be vertically-or horizontally-
suspended; wind instruments are normally oboes or flutes; and strings are
either bowed, as in the case of the rebab and biola, or plucked, as in the
case of the kacapi and celempung. Less common instruments include
xylophones, keyed metallophones and percussion bars. Solo or choral
singing may also be a feature of some ensembles.
Ensembles comprising only drums and gongs include gendang bergung in
Riau and the genrang dan gong in the Buginese area of Sulawesi.
Orchestras consisting essentially of drums, gongs and gong-chimes
include the kulintang in the southern Philippines, the gendang in Pakpak
Dairi (Sumatra), the keromong and kelintang in Jambi, the kelittang
(keromong or tabuhan) in Lampung, the keromongan in south Sumatra and
the keromong duabelas in Bengkulu. Drum, gong and wind or string
ensembles are exemplified by the gendang gung in Serdang, the nobat in
Riau and West Malaysia (with cymbals in the latter case) and the
genderang of the Pakpak (Dairi) to which cymbals and two types of
percussion plates are added.
Ensembles combining drums, gongs, gong-chimes and wind are
exemplified by the Mandailing gondang and gordang ensembles, the
Serdang type of alat-alat makyong ensemble (to which bamboo clappers
are added), the gendang gung in Langkat and the kelintang in Bengkulu (to
which a string instrument is added). The talempong in West Sumatra
minimally comprises drums and gong-chimes, but a wind instrument or
gong may be added in some areas.
In bamboo or wooden ensembles which do not possess drums or metal
gongs, other instruments often have similar functions; for example, in the
kolintang ensemble of Minahasa the nine xylophones play drum-like, gong-
like and melodyic roles. Drums play an important role in most South-east
Asian ensembles, but in exceptional cases they are omitted altogether, as
in the kulintang lunik in Lampung. Gongs or gong substitutes also play an
important role, except in the talempong as it occurs in most areas of West
Sumatra, where gongs are traditionally reserved for special royal and
theatrical occasions.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grove6 (‘Indonesia’, M. Hood and others)
T.S. Raffles: The History of Java (London, 1817)
Gending-gending saking kraton ngajogjakarta [Javanese treatise on the art
of music] (MS, Kraton Yogyakarta Library, Java, 1888) [xerox of
microfilm copy at UCLA Ethnomusicology Archive]
R.S. Soerawidjaja: Gandroeng lan gamboeh [Gandrung and gambuh]
(Batavia, 1907)
Djakoeb and Wignjaroemeska: Over de gamelan (Batavia, 1913)
Buku piwulang nabuh gamelan [Instructions on gamelan playing]
(Surakarta, 1924)
S. Hardasukarta: Titiasri (Surakarta, 1925)
J. Kunst: Hindoe-Javaansche muziekinstrumenten, speciaal die van Oost
Java (Weltevreden, 1927; Eng. trans., 1963, enlarged 1968 as Hindu-
Javanese Musical Instruments).
J. Kunst: De toonkunst van Java (The Hague, 1934; Eng. trans., rev.
2/1949, as Music in Java, enlarged 3/1973 by E.L. Heins)
C. McPhee: ‘The Five-tone Gamelan Music of Bali’, MQ, xxxv (1949), 250–
81
M. Hood: ‘Sléndro and pélog Redefined’, Selected Reports, i/1 (1966), 28–
C. McPhee: Music in Bali (New Haven and London, 1966/R)
R. Ornstein: Gamelan Gong Kebjar: the Development of a Balinese
Musical Tradition (diss., UCLA, 1971)
M. Hood: ‘The Five-tone Gamelan Angklung of North Bali’, EthM, xv
(1971), 71–80
M.J. Kartomi: ‘Music and Trance in Central Java’, EthM, xvii (1973), 163–
208
M. Harrell: The Music of the Gamelan Degung of West Java (diss., UCLA,
1974)
M.J. Kartomi: ‘Performance, Music and Meaning of Reyog Ponorogo’,
Ind,onesia, xxii (1976) 85–130
E. Schlager: Rituelle Siebenton-Musik auf Bali (Berne, 1976)
E. Heins: Goöng renteng: Aspects of Orchestral Music in a Sundanese
Village (diss., U. of Amsterdam, 1977)
M.F. D'Cruz: Joget Gamelan, a Study of its Contemporary Practice (thesis,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, 1979)
I M. Bandem: Ensiklopedi Gambelan Bali [Encyclopedia of Balinese
gamelan] (Denpasar, 1983)
M.J. Kartomi: On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments
(Chicago, 1990)
N. Sorrell: A Guide to the Gamelan (London, 1990, 2/2000)
R.A. Sutton: Traditions of Gamelan Music in Java: Musical Pluralism and
Regional Identity (Cambridge, 1991)
M. Tenzer: Balinese Music (Berkeley, 1991)
M.J. Kartomi: ‘The Gamelan Digul’, Canang, no.1 (1992), 1–8
A.N. Weintraub: ‘Theory in Institutional Pedagogy and “Theory in Practice”
for Sundanese Gamelan Music’, EthM, xxxvii (1993), 29–40
Sumarsam: Gamelan: Cultural Interaction and Musical Development in
Central Java (Chicago, 1995)
Music of Indonesia 14: Lombok, Kalimantan, Banyumas – Little-Known
Forms of Gamelan and Wayang, rec. P.Yampolsky, Smithsonian
Folkways SF CD 40441 (1997)
Gamelan

II. Outside South-east Asia

1. Pre-1940s.
Although ensembles of instruments appear not to have been imported from
the East Indies until the 19th century, it seems that individual gamelan
instruments, unallied to cultural or performance context, were circulating in
Europe before this time, probably as a result of trading in the East Indies.
One intriguing example is suggested by Klotz (1984), regarding the bell-
making Hemony brothers (François and Pieter) , who were active in the
17th century. Known for the refinements they introduced to the bell-tuning
process, it is reported that they ‘compared the pitches obtained with those
of a metallophone (perhaps from Indonesia) made up of a series of metal
rods’ (Klotz, 1984). The composer Rameau owned in his private instrument
collection a ‘gambang’, (see Xylophone, fig.1) which has been the subject
of some scholarly detective work. It was believed by early commentators
(including musicologist Charles Burney) to be of Chinese origin, although
Schaeffner (1955) and later, Burns (1983) present strong arguments that
the instrument was of Javanese rather than Chinese origin.
The first gamelan ensembles outside South-east Asia were brought to
England by Stamford Raffles at the end of his governorship of Java in
1816. Raffles brought over two sets, one currently housed in the British
Museum's Department of Ethnology, and the other which for several
generations has been in the possession of the Verney family, and is on
display at Claydon House, their home in Buckinghamshire. These sets
have been the subject of much speculation as a result of their unusual (and
in some cases, seemingly unique) carving, instrumentation and tuning.
Quigley (1996) has concluded that these sets were built on or around the
northeastern coast of Java and, rather than representing older, now-
defunct Javanese ensembles, were probably commissioned by Raffles
specifically for his return to England. As a result of conforming to his
aesthetic preferences they omit certain instruments, are carved unusually
and approximate diatonic tuning. The first mention of European gamelan
performance (in an extremely limited sense) also dates from Raffles' return
to England; he was accompanied by the Javanese nobleman Rana Radèn
Dipura who took part in musical demonstrations and whom (as noted in
Raffles, 1817, p.470) ‘played upon this instrument [the xylophone gambang
kayu] several of his national melodies before an eminent composer
[William Crotch]’.
Instruments from the Raffles gamelans featured in the 19th-century
acoustical experiments of Charles Wheatstone (acoustician and inventor of
instruments, including the English concertina) and, more significantly,
Alexander Ellis, who also drew on a wide range of European gamelan
sources (instruments based in Europe, scholars' measurements of Europe-
based gamelan sets, a performance in Europe by a visiting Javanese
group, other scholars' written observations of such performances) for his
work ‘On the Various Scales of Musical Nations’ (1885), which is
considered by many to be one of the first publications of the then-nascent
discipline of ethnomusicology.
However, apart from occasional soundings of the instruments, ensemble
performance on sets of gamelan instruments outside South-east Asia only
began to occur in the latter half of the 19th century, by visiting troupes
which were predominantly from Java. Examples include the
Mangkunegaran Palace troupe's performances at the Arnhem exhibition
(1879), observed by J.P.N. Land and the 1882 performances at the London
Aquarium, described in Mitchell (1882). The most famous is perhaps the
Java village of the 1889 Exposition Universelle in Paris, where Claude
Debussy first encountered gamelan performance; however the idea of
importing a whole performing community was initiated earlier at the 1883
International and Colonial Exhibition in Amsterdam. Groups of Balinese
performers began to tour somewhat later: the 1900 Exposition Universelle
in Paris appears to be the first major performance of Balinese gamelan
outside South-east Asia. Occasionally such groups left behind the
instruments they brought with them, for example the gamelan featured in
the 1893 Chicago-based World's Columbian Exposition, which is currently
housed at the Field Museum in Chicago.
It should not be assumed that the repertory performed by such groups
necessarily conformed to ‘traditional’ regional gamelan material. The
ensembles featured at the expositions were part of larger commercial
concerns (the promotion of foodstuffs from the Dutch East Indies, for
example) and repertory often included material familiar to the audience at
these expositions, in addition to traditional pieces. The 1883 Amsterdam
group, for example, included arrangements of patriotic Dutch and English
songs in their performances for the visits of the monarchs Wilhelmina and
Victoria. (Unfortunately there was some confusion, and ‘God Save the
Queen’ greeted Wilhelmina, while ‘Wien Neerlandsch Bloed door den
Aâdren vloeit’ and ‘Wilhelmus’ accompanied Victoria's visit.) The 1893
Chicago gamelan performed not only Javanese and Sundanese repertory,
but also Western music: wax cylinder recordings made by folklorist
Benjamin Ives Gilman of the performances at the exhibition include tunes
such as ‘America’ and ‘Yankee Doodle’ as well other more traditional
repertory.
Aside from visiting groups from Indonesia, diasporic gamelan activity
during this period seems to have been confined to the Netherlands. Around
the turn of the 20th century, Indonesian students instigated gamelan
performances for other students (and later the Dutch public) with the aim of
raising awareness of East Indies culture and highlighting the Indies
independence debate. Several of these students went on to become
leading figures in the Indonesian independence movement, such as
Soewardi (who later adopted the name Ki Hadjar Dewantara), Noto
Soeroto and Soerjo Poetro. In the 1920s onwards, groups such as
Insulinde and Ardjoeno (made up of Indonesian students and workers)
incorporated gamelan and other Indonesian musics in a dance context and
enjoyed considerable success not only within the Netherlands, but also
across Europe.
Prior to World War II, gamelan performance by peoples other than South-
east Asians seems to be limited to one occasion. On 5 May 1857 in Delft,
trainee Dutch civil servants, bound for the East Indies, undertook a
procession involving the performance of a ‘garebeg’ ensemble (see Heins,
1989). The first instance of more long-term gamelan performance by non-
Indonesians also occurred later in the Netherlands. Babar Layar (named
after the Javanese composition) was formed by teenagers in German-
occupied Harlem in 1941. Led by Bernard Ijzerdraat (who later adopted the
name Suryabrata), the group studied Central Javanese repertory under the
guidance of ethnomusicologist Jaap Kunst, in the process constructing
their own set of Javanese-style instruments. Babar Layar performed in the
Netherlands and (after the War) throughout Europe until the early 1950s.
2. Post-1940s.
After World War II, interest in the gamelan ensemble and its various
regional performance traditions has spread considerably outside South-
east Asia, resulting in the wide distribution of sets of instruments all over
Europe (including over 40 sets of instruments in Britain), North America
(where there are over 150 sets), East Asia, Australia and New Zealand, as
well as parts of Latin America and also Africa. Although Central Javanese
gamelan could be said to dominate above other regional gamelan
ensembles outside South-east Asia, Balinese and Sundanese gamelans
are also represented. This interest in gamelan has resulted not only in the
increased export of ensembles from Indonesia, but also (in several
locations) in the construction of self-made instruments after Indonesian
models. Although the history and nature of gamelan development varies
considerably from location to location, there are several important general
characteristics which can be identified.
The discipline of ethnomusicology has often played an important role in the
spread of gamelan outside South-east Asia. Although Jaap Kunst
(sometimes identified as the ‘father’ of ethnomusicology) never performed
gamelan, his student Ki Mantle Hood (who observed Babar Layar whilst
studying in the Netherlands) researched gamelan performance in Java and
went on to become one of the first to champion the inclusion of
performance in the discipline of ethnomusicology. His interest in gamelan
performance was central to this stance, which had considerable impact
upon the discipline, particularly in the US. Indeed, a large proportion of the
gamelan sets now in the US are attached to ethnomusicology programmes
at universities. Gamelan performance within American ethnomusicology
has also influenced the development of gamelan performance in other
parts of the world. In Japan, for example, ethnomusicologist Koizumi Fumio
was inspired to initiate Javanese gamelan performance as a result of
observing the ethnomusicology programme at Wesleyan University (CT)
during a sabbatical leave. Similarly, the first gamelan ensembles in Taiwan
(Balinese, followed by Javanese) arrived as a result of ethnomusicologist
Han Kuo-Hang's exposure to gamelan performance at Northern Illinois
University.
Another important force behind the spread of gamelan outside South-east
Asia has been the Indonesian embassy. In several global locations the
embassy has been the sole possessor (at least initially) of instruments
(predominantly, but not exclusively, Javanese). The embassy has also
facilitated the development of gamelan performance by providing
scholarships for foreign nationals to study in major Indonesian performing
arts institutions, as well as employing Indonesian musicians and dancers in
its overseas administration.
However, although the Indonesian embassy has played an important
supportive role, it is notable that, with the exception of the Javanese in
Suriname (see Surinam, §5), the spread of gamelan has not necessarily
been driven by the migration of a South-east Asian ethnic group. This
makes gamelan unlike many other musics ‘transplanted’ from their country
of origin. Indonesian musicians living outside of the country certainly play
an important part in the spread of regional gamelan repertories. However,
in general the majority of participants in gamelan performance outside
South-east Asia have, interestingly, tended not to be of Indonesian or
Malaysian ethnicity, their connection with the music lying instead in the
realm of ‘affinity’ (see Slobin, 1993).
New contexts for gamelan performance have inspired modifications to
instruments created in Java. These range from increasing the number of
metallophones in the ensemble to accommodate large school workshop
groups, to incorporating motifs in carving designs which are specific to the
commissioning body (for example, several gamelans commissioned for
British schools and institutions feature the institution's crest or logo carved
on the cases of the instruments). Other modifications have been more
fundamental, ranging from combining sounding parts made in Java with
frames made by local furniture makers for portablility (e.g. the Manchester
Mobile gamelan), to commissioning traditional instruments from Javanese
makers, but in western (rather than Javanese) tuning.
In several locations, interest in the gamelan ensemble has intersected with
instrument building. This is perhaps epitomised by the American composer
Lou Harrison, who with William Colvig has built several gamelan
ensembles (‘American gamelan’) which draw on traditional Javanese
models but incorporate important innovations in design, in the material
used (aluminium instead of bronze or iron for the sounding parts) and in
tuning (just intonation interpretations of Javanese sléndro and pélog).
Whereas Harrison's construction of gamelan has arisen from a broader
interest in composition (an interest which has also led others to build their
own gamelan), the creation of gamelan instruments has sometimes been a
response to different circumstances. Both Babar Layar (see above) and the
Boston Village Gamelan, for example, constructed their Javanese-style
instruments in order to play traditional repertory and to experiment with
replicating traditional Javanese instrument- building processes. However
the majority of self-built ensembles (whatever the motivations behind their
construction) have generally been produced by ‘cold’ techniques rather
than forging.
It is difficult to make any generalisations about the repertory performed on
gamelan ensembles outside South-east Asia. While many groups solely
perform regional South-east Asian gamelan styles, others focus instead on
the creation and performance of new repertory. An increasingly large
number of groups combine both. Although, as mentioned above, the desire
to compose new repertory for gamelan has often prompted the creation of
self-made instruments, this has not always been the case. There are
several groups specialising in new composition for gamelan (for example,
Gending, in the Netherlands) that have performed on and commissioned
pieces for a traditional set of gamelan instruments (in this case, Javanese).
Similarly, several groups based around self-made instruments perform
traditional material. Whatever the nature of the repertory performed, in the
majority of cases gamelan activity outside South-east Asia is characterised
by dialogue and exchange with performers, composers and makers within
South-east Asia, which is facilitated by several national and international
organisations and festivals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
GroveI (‘Hemony’; H. Klotz)
S. Raffles: History of Java (London, 1817)
W.S. Mitchell: ‘Musical Instruments of the Javanese’, Journal of the
Society of Arts, xxx (1882), 1019–21; 1072–3
A.J. Ellis: ‘On the Musical Scales of Various Nations’, Journal of the
Society of Arts, xxxiii (1885), 485–527
C. Wheatstone: ‘One the Resonances, or Reciprocated Vibrations of
Columns of Air’, Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature and Art, xxv
(1928), 175–83
J. Kunst: ‘Een novum op Indonesisch muziekgebied’ Cultureel Indië, vii
(1945), 200–4
Begdja, the Gamelan Boy: a Story from the Isle of Java told by Jaap Kunst
with Musical Illustrations by the Study Group for Gamelan Music
‘Babar Layar’, Philips 00165L (1953)
A. Schaeffner: ‘Orgue de Barbarie de Rameau’, Langes d'histoire et
d'esthetique musicales offerts à Paul-Marie Masson (Paris, 1955/R)
G.D. van Wengen: The Cultural Inheritance of the Javanese in Sudan
(Leiden, 1975)
S.C. de Vale: A Sundanese Gamelan: a Gestalt Approach to Organology
(diss., Northwestern University, 1977)
R.E. Burns: Rameau's gambang (Response to André Schaeffner): Music
and Cultural Relativity in Eighteenth Century France (thesis, Wesleyan
University, 1983)
H.A. Poeze: In het land van de overheerser: Indonesiërs in Nederland
1600–1950 (Dordrecht, 1986)
M. Yukitoshi and N. Shin: ‘An Informal Chronology of Gamelan in Japan’,
Balungan, iii/2 (1988), 15–18
E. Heins: ‘132 jaar gamelan in Nederland’, Wereldmuziek, no.2 (1989), 4–
7
N. Sorrell: A Guide to the Gamelan (London, 1990, 2/2000)
M. Slobin: Subcultural Sounds (London, 1993)
M. Perlman: ‘American Gamelan in the Garden of Eden: Intonation in a
Cross-Cultural Encounter’, MQ, lxxviii (1994), 484–529
S. Quigley: ‘The Raffles Gamelan at Claydon House’, JAMIS, xxii (1996),
5–41
M. Mendonça: Javanese Gamelan Performance in Britain (diss., Wesleyan
University, 2000)

Gamma
(It.).
See Scale.

Gamma ut.
The note G in the Hexachord system.

Gamme
(Fr.).
See Scale.

Gamut.
(1) The note G; a contraction of gamma ut, which is the full Solmization
name for gamma, the lowest note of the medieval system of letter notation
that dates back to the Dialogus de musica (c1000; ed. in GerbertS, i, 251–
64) formerly attributed to Odo of Cluny. Throughout the later Middle Ages
the lowest note with a Roman letter name was A (A re), a 10th below
middle C: this was logical not only because it was considered the
equivalent of proslambanomenos, the lowest note of the Greek Greater
Perfect System which had served up until the time of the Dialogus for
virtually all note nomenclature, but also in that it was the lowest note used
within the Gregorian chant repertory (bearing in mind Apel’s observation,
p.248, that the mere 11 examples with notes below A he found in the entire
repertory are probably ‘of a later date’, and are in any case not confirmed
by all sources). Whether the new extra note below A, apparently first
mentioned by the author of the Dialogus, was added to account for new
expanded chants, or whether, as seems possible, it was necessary to
explain the lowest A and B within a hexachordal or tetrachordal system, is
not at all clear. But from that time on nearly all descriptions of the scale or
of the monochord began with the lowest note called gamma, gamma ut or
gamma graecum. This also found its way into the vernacular: Tobler and
Lommatzsch listed Gautier de Coincy’s use of ‘gamaüt’; English uses may
be found in the Oxford English Dictionary and in Kurath and Kuhn.
(2) The hexachordal system or, more broadly, any system. Early uses in
English seem to have taken the form ‘gamme’: at the end of the 14th
century John Gower wrote ‘Nou hihe notes and nou lowe,/As be the
gamme a man mei knowe,/Which techeth the prolacion/Of note and the
condicion’; and shortly afterwards Leonel Power began his work on
discant: ‘This tretis is contrived upon the gamme for them that will be
syngers or makers or techers’. From similar references listed in Kurath and
Kuhn it seems that ‘gamme’ meant ‘hexachordal system’. French uses of
the word in that sense are plentiful and go back to Le roman de Thèbes
(mid-12th century). More recently the French word gamme, like the Italian
gamma, has been the normal word for a musical scale. From the end of the
15th century the word ‘gamut’, which is apparently peculiar to English, has
meant ‘hexachordal system’, ‘scale’ or ‘system’. See also Hexachord.
(3) Range. Strictly, the gamut in this sense comprised those notes shown
on the Guidonian hand (see Solmization, figs.1 and 2). More loosely, and
more often, it has been used figuratively. References in the Oxford English
Dictionary date back to the early 17th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Gamut, or Scale of Music (Hartford, CT, 1816)
H. Kurath and S.M. Kuhn, eds.: Middle English Dictionary (Ann Arbor and
London, 1952–)
W. Apel: Gregorian Chant (Bloomington, IN, 1958, 3/1966)
A. Tobler and E. Lommatzsch: ‘Game’, ‘Gamaüt’, Altfranzösisches
Wörterbuch, iv (Wiesbaden, 1960)
R.L. Crocker: ‘Hermann’s Major Sixth’, JAMS, xxv (1972), 19–37
DAVID FALLOWS

Ganassi, Giacomo
(b Treviso; fl 1625–37). Italian composer. He became a Franciscan friar
and was maestro di cappella of S Francesco, Belluno, north of Venice,
from 1625 to 1634. He was exclusively a composer for the church and was
more interested in producing music for Mass and Vespers, sometimes for
large forces, than in following the current fashion for small concertato
motets. Whereas the psalms of 1625 are for double choir throughout, only
two of the four masses of 1634 are definitely conceived for this medium:
the others follow a recently established practice by which the second choir
 is an optional ripieno and the first choir, consisting of soloists, sings
throughout. However, the effect of the music is considerably altered by the
presence of the second choir, since the soloists often continue their
counterpoint in tuttis while the ripieno has chordal writing, resulting in a
decorated homophonic texture instead of a purely contrapuntal one.
WORKS
Vespertina psalmodia … 8–9vv, liber I (Venice, 1625)
Ecclesiastici missarum … 5, 9–10vv (Venice, 1634)
Vespertina psalmodia … cantica 2 B.M.V. (Venice, 1637)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.M. Brown: Embellishing Sixteenth-Century Music (London, 1976)
J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford,
1984)
JEROME ROCHE

Ganassi dal Fontego, Sylvestro di

(b ?Venice, 1492; d mid-16th century). Italian instrumentalist and writer. He
was the author of two treatises on instrumental performance. Ganassi
joined the pifferi of the Venetian government in June 1517, when he was
hired as ‘contralto’ to fill a vacancy. From the 1517 document it is clear that
his nickname ‘dal Fontego’ was derived from his place of residence near
(or at) the Venetian ‘Fontego’, the palace by the Rialto where German
merchants lived and traded. He is also mentioned in a few other
documents from the late 1540s, and he might be the ‘Silvestro del cornetto’
who rented a storeroom near the Rialto in 1566. In his capacity as ‘piffero
del Doge’ he probably supplied ceremonial and court music for the Doges
and instrumenal music at the Basilica di S Marco.
Ganassi published two treatises, one on the recorder, Opera intitulata
Fontegara (Venice, 1535), and one in two volumes on the viola da gamba,
Regola rubertina (Venice, 1542) and Lettione seconda (Venice, 1543).
Most 16th-century books on instruments are either quasi-encyclopedic
surveys, like those by Sebastian Virdung (1511) and Martin Agricola (1528
and later), or else very simple sets of instructions for tuning, fingering and
intabulating, like the lutebooks by Hans Gerle (1532 and later) and Adrian
Le Roy (1574). Ganassi’s works differ from all others in their detail and
subtlety. They offer a complete discussion of instrumental technique up to
its most sophisticated aspects: how to produce a good sound, rules for
articulation (including advanced problems in bowing, tonguing and
fingering), how to improvise ornamentation and, most important, how
technique must be subordinated to expressiveness. In short, Ganassi’s
volumes should be regarded as the starting point for any serious study of
16th-century performing practice, for together they give the most extended
and most complete statement on the subject and reveal the high level of
achievement the instrumentalists of the time had reached. Unfortunately
the volumes are not easy for the English-speaking musician to use since
they are written in a difficult Italian and partly in Venetian dialect. The
existing translations of Fontegara into German and English are not wholly
satisfactory.
 Fontegara purports to be an exposition of the principles of playing wind
instruments, dealing with ways of controlling the breath, tongue and
fingers. Much of the volume is taken up with a rather scholastic
presentation in a series of tables of the sorts of passaggi which may be
applied to a melodic line; this merely dramatizes the central position
improvised ornamentation held in the education of young instrumentalists
and in the professional activity of master players. Besides passaggi,
Ganassi also explains trills by semitones, whole tones and 3rds; various
sorts of articulation including several varieties of double tonguing;
fingerings, among them some that extend the range of the recorder to
more than two octaves; and breath control, for good intonation, dynamic
contrast and expressive performance. Throughout his book Ganassi holds
up the human voice as the model for instrumentalists to follow. The copy of
Fontegara in D-W has an appendix in Ganassi’s own hand setting out
some 175 varied diminutions on a melodic formula.
In the two volumes of Regola rubertina, Ganassi first describes the most
elementary aspects of viol playing – how to hold the instrument, how to
finger it and so on – and then proceeds to explain in a complicated way
various sorts of bowings, fingerings and tunings, including several
scordatura tunings and some for viols with only three or four strings. He
discusses techniques for playing above the frets, how to transcribe vocal
music into tablature, how to place frets on the instrument, how to tell good
from bad strings, how to improvise unaccompanied ricercares and how to
play polyphonically. The volumes are illustrated with a number of charts,
tables and diagrams.
WORKS
Opera intitulata Fontegara (Venice, 1535/R1969 in BMB, section 2, xviii; Ger. trans.,
1956; Eng. trans., 1959); ed. L. de Paolis (Rome, 1991)
Regola rubertina (Venice, 1542/R; Ger. trans., 1974; Eng. trans. in JVdGSA, xviii
(1981), 13–66)
Lettione seconda (Venice, 1543/R; Ger. trans., 1974; Eng. trans. in JVdGSA, xix
(1982), 99–163)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Eitner: ‘Schulwerke von 1535 etc.’, MMg, xx (1888), 17–23
G.R. Hayes: Musical Instruments and their Music, 1500–1750, ii: The
Viols, and Other Bowed Instruments (London, 1930/R)
D. Kämper: Studien zur instrumentalen Ensemblemusik des 16.
Jahrhunderts in Italien, AnMc, no.10 (1970) [whole vol.]
H.M. Brown: Embellishing Sixteenth-Century Music (London, 1976)
I. Gammie: ‘Sylvestro Ganassi: Regola rubertina (1542), Lettione seconda
(1543); a Synopsis of the Text Relating to the Viol’, Chelys, viii (1978–
9), 23–30
R.D. Brodig: ‘Ganassi's Regola Rubertina’, JVdGSA, xviii (1981), 13–64;
xix (1982), 99–163
M.V. Hulse: Sixteenth-Century Embellishment Styles: with Emphasis on
Vocal-Ensemble Application (DMA diss., Stanford U., 1988)
HOWARD MAYER BROWN/GIULIO ONGARO

Ganche, Edouard
(b Baulon, Ille-et-Vilaine, 13 Oct 1880; d Lyons, 31 May 1945). French
scholar. A doctor by profession, he wrote books on medicine, but is best
remembered for his writings on Chopin. These show his conviction that
Chopin owed most of his development to his Polish origin and upbringing
and that the influence of French culture on his music was negligible. This
opinion ran counter to those held by all other French scholars, but greatly
endeared him to the Poles. In 1911 he founded in Paris the Société
Frédéric Chopin and became its first president. During the next 25 years he
travelled extensively in Poland and France, lecturing on the works of
Chopin. The culmination of Ganche’s work was his three-volume The
Oxford Original Edition of Frédéric Chopin. It was based chiefly on Jane
Stirling’s printed copies of Chopin’s works, annotated by the composer for
her use, with the first volume containing a facsimile of the thematic
catalogue written for her by Chopin.
WRITINGS
La vie de F. Chopin dans son oeuvre: sa liaison avec George Sand (Paris,
1909)
Frédéric Chopin: sa vie et ses oeuvres, 1810–1849 (Paris, 1913/R)
La Pologne et Frédéric Chopin (Paris, 1917)
Dans le souvenir de Frédéric Chopin (Paris, 1925/R)
Voyages avec Frédéric Chopin (Paris, 1934)
Souffrances de Frédéric Chopin: essai de médecine et de psychologie
(Paris, 1935/R)
EDITIONS
with R. Pugno: F. Chopin: Les quatorze valses (Paris, 1913)
The Oxford Original Edition of Frédéric Chopin (London, 1928–32)
Trois manuscrits de Chopin (Paris, 1932)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B.E. Sydow: Bibliografia F.F. Chopina (Warsaw, 1949, suppl. 1954) [incl.
complete list of writings by and on Ganche]
J.-M. Nectoux: ‘Edouard Ganche: historien de Chopin’: preface to Frédéric
Chopin: Oeuvres pour piano: fac-similé de l’exemplaire de Jane W.
Stirling avec annotations et corrections de l’auteur (ancienne collection
Edouard Ganche) (Paris, 1982), pp.vii–xv
J.-M. Nectoux and J.-J. Eigeldinger: ‘Edouard Ganche et sa collection
Chopin’, Revue de la Bibliothèque Nationale, no.7 (1983), 10–26
MAURICE J.E. BROWN/JEAN GRIBENSKI

Gand (i).
French family of violin makers. Charles-François Gand (b Versailles, 5 Aug
1787; d Paris, 10 May 1845), known as Gand père, was the elder son of
Charles-Michel Gand (bMirecourt, 11 Oct 1748; d Versailles, 25 Aug 1820),
a little-known violin maker who moved to Versailles about 1780. From 1802
to 1806 he was apprenticed to Nicolas Lupot. In 1807 he returned to his
father’s workshop but in 1811 he went back to Paris to work at Lupot’s
shop. In the same year he married Cornélie Squimbre, whom Lupot
considered an adopted daughter. In 1819 he purchased the shop of a
dealer and restorer named Jean Gabriel Koliker at 24 rue Croix-des-Petits-
Champs, the same street as Lupot. He continued to work for Lupot,
however, and succeeded him in his business on his death in 1824, and
also in his official duties as violin maker to the royal chapel and the Paris
Conservatoire. Among his regular customers were some of the best
violinists of the time. He was a hard worker, a skilful craftsman and had a
good business sense. His instruments are rare but excellent in every way,
though in due course he was overshadowed by the rising fame of J.-B.
Vuillaume. Gand père was certainly Lupot’s finest pupil. His brother
Guillaume-Charles-Louis Gand (b Versailles, 22 July 1792; d Versailles, 29
May 1858) also worked for Lupot, then for Charles-François, but returned
permanently to Versailles, succeeding his father there in 1820. He was an
excellent craftsman, whose work closely resembles that of Lupot.
Gand père had two sons, Charles-Adolphe Gand (b Paris, 11 Dec 1812; d
Paris, 24 Jan 1866) and Charles-Nicolas-Eugène Gand (b Paris, 5 June
1825; d Boulogne, nr Paris, 5 Feb 1892). Charles-Adolphe inherited his
father’s shop in 1845. Although an excellent workman he made few
instruments, being mostly occupied with the running of the business. He
was in charge of the maintenance of the instruments of the Opéra-
Comique and the Paris Conservatoire. Charles-Nicolas-Eugène learnt his
trade in the family shop, and in 1855 became his brother’s partner, the firm
becoming known as Gand Frères. In the same year their instruments won a
first-class medal in the Exposition des Produits de l’Industrie in Paris. On
Charles-Adolphe’s death, the house was merged with that of Bernardel and
became Gand & Bernardel Frères, with Gand as senior partner. He was
considered a person of integrity and a renowned expert, and the firm was
held in high repute.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
VannesE
D. Laurie: The Reminiscences of a Fiddle Dealer (London, 1924)
W. Henley: Universal Dictionary of Violin and Bow Makers (Brighton, 1959)
CHARLES BEARE/SYLVETTE MILLIOT

Gand (ii)
(Fr.).
See Ghent.

Gandini, Gerardo
(b Buenos Aires, 16 Oct 1936). Argentine composer, pianist and conductor.
He began his studies in Buenos Aires with Pía Sebastiani and Roberto
Caamaño (piano) and with Ginastera (composition). After completing his
piano training with Loriod, in 1964 he moved to the USA on a Ford
Foundation scholarship, and there he took part in the Young Artists’ Project
under the auspices of the Institute of International Education. Two years
later an Italian Government scholarship took him to Rome to study with
Petrassi at the Accademia di S Cecilia. In Buenos Aires he established,
under his own direction, the Grupo de Experimentación Musical, which
 gives first performances of avant-garde music. In 1970 he was appointed
to teach at the American Opera Center of the Juilliard School. He
organized concerts of contemporary music and, as Director of the
Experimental Centre for Opera and Ballet (CEOB) sponsored by the Teatro
Colón, he promoted, commissioned and performed a series of chamber
operas by Argentine composers. Among them is his own La Casa sin
sosiego (1992) on a libretto by Griselda Gambaro. He is also one of the
founding members of Agrupación Música Viva, an experimental new music
group which included Hilda Dianda, Armando Krieger, Alcides Lanza and
Antonio Tauriello. The prizes he has won included one from the city of
Buenos Aires (1960, for the Piano Concertino). He has also received
important commissions, and his works have been heard at festivals in
Europe and the Americas. Particularly noteworthy are three pieces heard at
Washington festivals: the Variaciones orquestales, Contrastes, and the
Fantasía impromptu for piano and orchestra. The first of these, written in
1962, is a very free treatment of a 12-note series. Contrastes creates a
series of contrasts in texture, dynamic, timbre, tempo and density between
a chamber orchestra and two piano soloists. At the Washington première in
1968 the pianists were Gandini and Krieger, and a third Argentine
musician, Tauriello, conducted. Gandini also played in the first performance
of the Fantasía impromptu (Washington, 1971), in which an imaginary
portrait of Chopin is drawn in a sequence of superimpositions and
fragmentations, beginning and ending with a re-creation of the B flat minor
Mazurka. Some of his recent more mature works show a tendency toward
Impressionism and are surrounded by a profound poetic aura. Paisaje
imaginario (1988) for piano and orchestra was commissioned by the BBC
Welsh SO.
WORKS
(selective list)

Pf Concertino, 1959–60; Concertino, cl, str trio, perc, 1962; Variaciones

orquestales, 1962; Concertino III, clave, insts, 1963; 5 poemas de Quasimodo, 1v, 4
insts, 1963; Per Mauricio Rinaldi, chbr orch, 1963; Música nocturna, fl, pf qt, 1964;
Hecha sombra y altura, ens, 1965; Cadencias I, vn, orch, 1966; Cadencias II, chbr
orch, 1966; L’adieu, pf, perc, 1967; A Cow in a Mondrian Painting, fl, insts, 1967;
Contrastes, 2 pf, chbr orch, 1968; Fantasía impromptu, pf, orch, 1970; Fases, cl,
orch, 1970 … e sará, pf, 1973; 7 Pf Preludes, 1977; Va Conc., 1979; 5 Nocturnes,
orch, 1988; Paisaje imaginario, pf, orch, 1988; La casa sin sosiego (mini-opera, G.
Gambaro), 1992

BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Arizaga: Enciclopedia de la música argentina (Buenos Aires, 1971)
G. Béhague: Music in Latin America: an Introduction (New Jersey, 1979)
M. Ficher, M. Furman Schleifer, J.M. Furman: Latin American Classical
Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and London,
1995)
SUSANA SALGADO

Gando.
French family of type founders. Nicolas Gando (b Geneva, early 18th
century; d Paris, 1767), having first established himself in Geneva, moved
in 1736 to Paris, where he took over the foundry of his uncle Jean Louis
Gando. Nicolas issued a specimen of his types in 1745, and another in
1758 to show the resources of Claude Lamesle’s foundry, which he bought
that year. His son Pierre François (b Geneva, 1733; d Paris, 1800) was a
partner in the foundry and succeeded him.
The Gandos owe their place in history less to the qualities of their type than
to their polemical exchanges with Pierre-Simon Fournier on the question of
typographical music printing. In his Traité historique, which is both a
general account of developments in music printing and a bitter attack on
the exclusive privilege enjoyed by the Ballard family, Fournier accused the
Gandos, in terms very damaging to their reputation, of passing off as their
own in 1764, music characters which he had published in 1756. The
Gandos replied in support of Ballard and the printing establishment,
highlighting errors in Fournier’s historical account and accusing him of
plagiarizing the methods devised for typographical music printing by
Breitkopf (1754–5). They also described their own system. They cast clefs,
bar-lines, minims, crotchets, detached quavers (and sub-divisions of the
quaver) in one piece as complete characters, without fragments of staff
attached. Beams to join the stems of tied quavers and the like were also
cast as single pieces in various lengths so that the only junction required
was between the stem of the note (a crotchet with its stem reduced if
necessary) and the small connecting strokes cast on the beam at standard
intervals. The staves were made up of continuous pieces of metal.
It was necessary to pass the sheet through the press twice for a complete
impression: once to print the notes, clefs, key signatures, rests, bar-lines
etc., and once to print the staves, words and other ancillary material. Under
normal printing conditions it was difficult to align the notes and staves
exactly, because of the fine adjustments that had to be made in the relative
position of type material in the two separate formes. After damping, inking
and being passed through the press to take an impression of the first forme
there was a danger that the paper might lose its integrity while it was
waiting to be put through the press with the second forme. The Gandos
claimed the invention of a press which avoided this: the two formes were
worked in rapid succession and the paper was not moved from its original
printing position between impressions. These two factors ensured that the
size of the sheet did not vary.
In their Observations the Gandos offered a four-page setting of Psalm cl by
the Abbé Roussier as a specimen of their types printed on their special
press. Of much greater interest, they also showed specimens of six early
music types from the stock-in-trade of the Ballard concern (see illustration).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P.-S. Fournier: Essai d’un nouveau caractère de fonte pour l’impression
de la musique (Paris, 1756/R)
P.-S. Fournier: Traité historique et critique sur l’origine et les progrès des
caractères de fonte pour l’impression de la musique, avec des
épreuves de nouveaux caractères de musique (Berne, 1765/R, 1972
with the following two items)
 N. and F. Gando: Observations sur le Traité historique et critique de
Monsieur Fournier le jeune sur l’origine et les progrès des caractères
de fonte pour l’impression de la musique (Paris, 1766/R, 1972 with the
preceding and following items)
P.-S. Fournier: ‘Réponse à un mémoire publié en 1766 par MM. Gando, au
sujet des caractères de fonte pour la musique’, Manuel typographique,
ii (Paris, 1768), 289–306; repr. with the two preceeding items (Geneva,
1972)
M. Audin: Les livrets typographiques des fonderies françaises créées
avant 1800 (Paris, 1933, 2/1964)
H. EDMUND POOLE

Gandolfi, Michael
(b Melrose, MA, 5 July 1956). American composer. At the age of eight he
began to play the guitar, teaching himself to improvise in rock and jazz
styles. Formal study in composition began in his early teens, and he went
on to study with McKinley and Martino at the New England Conservatory
and with Knussen at Tanglewood (1986). He worked with Davidovsky and
Finney at the Composer's Conference and was an instructor at Harvard
University before, in 1997, joining the composition faculty of the New
England Conservatory. In 1998 he also began to teach part of the
composition course at Tanglewood along with Osvaldo Golijov. Gandolfi's
music is concerned with processes of transformation and becoming,
exemplified by his earliest orchestral work, Transfigurations (1987),
commissioned by Tanglewood. In Points of Departure (1988) such
processes are applied with originality to musical gesture, explicitly
recognizing the different implications a gesture may contain in a chain of
radically contrasting transformations across separate movements. Working
out relationships of shared material between movements or separate
sections, as opposed to within a single movement, has become
increasingly prevalent in his work.
WORKS
Stage and vocal: Budget cuts (music threatre), vn + va, pf + cl/melodica, perc +
hn/melodica, cond + pf + vn + cornet/a melodica, 1996; Pinocchio's Adventures in
Funland (D. Bonstrom), nar, fl, cl, vn, vc, perc, pf, 1998–9; The Blessed Virgin's
Expostulation (N. Tate), S, pf, 1998
Orch: Transfigurations, 1987; Points of Departure, 1988; Pf Conc., 1988–9;
Transient Episodes, 1995; Freshman Theory, 1999
Chbr: Fantasia, 2 pf, perc, 1977; Qt in 2 Mvts, fl, ob, cl, bn, 1979; Str Trio, 1980;
Concertino, fl, cl, b cl, vn, va, vc, pf, 1985; Personae, fl, ob, cl, hn, vn, va, vc, db, pf,
1986; La treccia, fl, va, vc, 1990; Line of Approach, fl, hp, perc, 1992; Caution to the
Wind (Fl Conc. no. 2), fl, str qt, db, hp, perc, 1993; Pf Trio, 1994; Design School, fl,
ob, cl, bn, vn, va, vc, db, pf, 1994–5; Grooved surfaces, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, perc, 1995;
Cable Ready, vc, pf, perc, 1996; Geppetto's Workshop, fl, pf, 1997
Solo inst: 2 Studies of the Sun, pf, 1981; Fanfare, ob, 1982; 4 Miniatures, fl, 1982; Il
ventaglio di Josephine, 1983; Harlequin Sketches, gui, 1991; Pf Etudes, 1997–9; Pf
Preludes, 1997–9
Elecs: Nocturnes for Dual DACs, 1981; Of Memories Lost, 1989; In-Coming/Out-
Going, 1997
 STEVEN LEDBETTER

Ganer, Christopher
(fl 1774–1809). German piano maker, active in England. He came to
England from Leipzig, settling at 47 Broad Street, London, in 1774 and
staying there until the end of 1809 (he also took on the neighbouring
premises at no.48 in 1782). Letters of denization were granted to Ganer on
11 February 1792. He started getting in arrears with his rates from 1805
onwards, possibly an indication of financial difficulties.
Ganer mainly made square pianos. His earliest surviving square piano is
marked ‘Christopher Ganer Londini fecit 1775’, and has a compass of
nearly five octaves, from G' to f'''. This Latin inscription appears again on a
1778 square piano: until the mid-1780s he used either Latin or English
inscriptions. Later models, such as the one at the Russell Cotes Museum in
Bournemouth, have a striking Battersea enamel plaque bearing the
inscription in capitals.
In outward appearance Ganer’s square pianos vary; some are more
attractively inlaid than others. The earlier ones tend to be plain with a
simple trestle stand whereas later models are Sheraton in style, with brass
medallions covering the bolts in the tapered legs of the trestle. Musically,
however, the instruments vary little: a compass of five octaves or slightly
less, single action with overdampers, and two or three handstops raising
the dampers and engaging a buff stop. The piano maker John Broadwood
hired out Ganer’s pianos. A descriptive catalogue of extant Ganer
instruments is given in M.N. Clinkscale: Makers of the Piano, 1700–1820
(Oxford, 1993).
MARGARET CRANMER

Ganga.
(1) The most common name for the double-headed cylindrical snare drum
used in the music of a number of West and North African cultures, including
parts of Niger, Benin, Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, Upper Volta, Libya, Algeria
and Tunisia. The musical prominence of this kind of drum is largely a result
of its use with the kakaki trumpet and the algaita oboe in Hausa ceremonial
music, together with the spread of Hausa political influence from the
beginning of the 19th century.
The term ‘ganga’ is applied generically by the Hausa to a number of
double-headed cylindrical snare drums, the most common, in ascending
order of size, being the kurya, a traditional infantry drum about 17 cm long
and with a diameter of about 21 cm; the gangar algaita, used with the
algaita, about 33 cm long and about 24 cm in diameter; the gangar fada or
royal ganga (see illustration), used with the kakaki, about 45 cm long and
with a diameter of about 33 cm; and the gangar noma, beaten for farmers,
about 65 cm long and about 45 cm in diameter. Except for the gangar
noma, which is occasionally laid on the ground, all these drums are
suspended from the left shoulder and lie in a near-horizontal position under
the performer's left arm. The drum has a wooden body with two goatskin
heads lapped over leather hoops and laced together with leather thongs. A
piece of cloth is sewn round the body under the lacing, the colour of the
cloth indicating the emir to whom the instrument belongs.
The snared skin on the gangar algaita, gangar fada and gangar noma is to
the front while on the kurya it is to the rear. Apart from the gangar noma,
which is normally beaten with two sticks, the drums are beaten with a
curved stick with a flattened head, held in the right hand, and with the
fingers of the left hand. Two techniques, or series of strokes, are used in
beating the drum; in hannun gaba the left hand beats the front skin and in
hannun baya or taushi the rear. Free or open strokes produced with the flat
of the stick-head on the centre of the front skin are the lowest in pitch.
Notes of medium, high and extra-high pitch are produced from muted or
closed stick strokes: medium notes are made with the flat of the stick-head
on the centre of the front skin; high with the edge of the stick-head on the
centre of the front skin; and extra-high with the flat or the edge of the stick-
head on the centre of the front skin together with pressure from the fingers
of the left hand on the top edge of the rear skin. A rising pitch is produced
by a free stroke with the flat of the stick-head on the centre of the front skin
followed by pressure with the knuckle of the left-hand thumb on the centre
of the rear skin.
Performance on the Hausa ganga is based primarily on the high and low
speech-tones of an unverbalized text and secondarily on its long and short
syllabic quantities. Such a text, in praise of the patron of a performance, is
called a take. The use of strokes of low, medium, high and extra-high pitch
to realize the low and high tones of the take also allows the musician, if he
so wishes, to superimpose certain intonational features on its tonal
patterns. A straightforward take is shown in Kakaki, ex.1.
A drum of the name ‘ganga’ is used by many other peoples such as the
Nupe, Gunga, Dakakari, Duka, Chawai, Jukun, Tigong, Yeskwa, Bolewa,
Tangale, Burum, Ngizim, Tera, Bura, Bata, Zaberma and Kanuri in Nigeria,
and in Niger by the Songhay, Djerma and Beri-beri, in Chad by the Salamat
Arabs, the Mului, Kanembu and Barma peoples, and in southern Libya by
the people of Fiwet, Ghat and Traghan. Other peoples using closely related
terms for the instrument are: the nomadic Fulani (gunguru), in Nigeria the
Janji, Kurama and Piti (oganga), Ankwe (kangak), Gurka (gungak), Kerikeri
(gonga), Margi (akangga), Mumuye, Kam and Pero (ganggang), in Benin
the Dendi (gangan) and the Taneka (gangangu), in Chad the Zaghawa
(ganggang) and in Upper Volta the Mossi (gangado); in Libya in the Fezzan
region and in Algeria in Batna the drum is known as gaga.
Usage varies according to the degree of social stratification: in highly
stratified societies the ganga forms part of an ensemble of court musicians,
usually with long trumpets or oboes; in others it is used mainly to
accompany song and dance. In Nigeria court usage is exemplified among
the Kanuri, where the ganga kura (big drum) is beaten only for the Shehu
of Borno, and among the Nupe at Bida (where it is known locally as
enyabo), Abuja, Bauchi and Wase. Elsewhere in Nigeria usage is more
varied; the Gunga use two or three professional ganga players to
accompany teams of wrestlers, the Burum play a large ganga in drumming
for farmers, and the Bura have incorporated the ganga into their xylophone
ensemble to accompany dancing, a practice common throughout the
northern states, where drums of the ganga type but with local names are
used: for example, dang and Mbangak.
In Benin the Taneka gangangu is played with side-blown horns and
clapperless bell for masked dancing, and the Dendi gangan with hourglass
drums in praise singing for a village chief. In Niger the Songhai ganga and
the Djerma ganga at Dosso are similarly used for praise singing, and the
Djerma, like the Beri-beri, use the drum with the algaita. In Upper Volta the
Mossi gangado is used as part of a drum ensemble at the court of
Tenkodogo to accompany praise singing and declamation of the history of
the rulers.
In Chad the drum is played by professional musicians and is found
particularly in the Kanem region. It has a wooden cylindrical body, 60 to 65
cm high and 30 to 35 cm in diameter, cowhide heads and leather lacing in
a Y pattern. The upper head, which has two snares, is struck with a hooked
stick with a flattened end; this provides the ‘masculine’ voice. The lower
head is struck with the hands and has no snare but in its centre it has a
baked disc made from brains, butter and charcoal; its sound is deeper and
is the ‘female’ voice. Sometimes the ganga is used alone to convey signals
but in a musical context it is always played with another drum, the trembel,
and very often with the algaita. This ensemble also forms part of the
orchestras of the sultans of the Kotoko.
The Zaghawa ganggang accompanies dancing during rites for a chief and
is also used for special rites in case of drought. The Salamat Arabs and
Barma are reported to use their ganga with other drums and end-blown
flutes respectively to accompany dancing or to encourage canoeists, and
the Kanembu and Mului with other drums and either long gachi trumpets or
algaita oboes, or both, in the performance of praises and greetings for
chiefs.
In Libya in central Fezzan the ganga drums are identical with those in
Chad, except that sometimes the body is metal, and in performance
instead of using the trembel two ganga drums are paired, one being
considered ‘male’ and the other ‘female’. As in Chad these instruments are
reserved for professional musicians who, in Fezzan, are usually of slave
origin and from regions south of the Sahara. In the large oases in the
extreme west of Libya (Ghat, Ghadames) the ganga has a comparatively
flat body, 10 to 12 cm in height and 30 cm in diameter, although all other
features are the same as in Chad. Playing is exclusively by professional
musicians who in these oases are generally blacksmiths.
(2) Single-headed drum of the Sara people of southern Chad. It has a
wooden body and its head is attached by wooden sticks driven into the
body of the drum. The instrument is played upright and the head is struck
with the hands.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ames-KingGHM
J.F.J. Fitzpatrick: ‘Some Notes on the Kwolla District and its Tribes’,
Journal of the African Society, x (1910–11), 16, 213
C.K. Meek: Tribal Studies in Northern Nigeria (London, 1931/R)
P.G. Harris: ‘Notes on Drums and Musical Instruments Seen in Sokoto
Province, Nigeria’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, lxii
(1932), 105–25
H.E. Hause: ‘Terms for Musical Instruments in the Sudanic Languages: a
Lexicographical Inquiry’, Journal of the American Oriental Society
(1948), suppl.7
M.F. Smith: Baba of Karo: a Woman of the Muslim Hausa (London, 1954)
M.-J. Tubiana: Survivances préislamiques en pays Zaghawa (Paris, 1964)
M. Brandily: ‘Music of Chad (Kanem)’, BM30 L2309 (1967) [disc notes]
K. Krieger: ‘Musikinstrumente der Hausa’, Baessler-Archiv, new ser., xvi
(1968), 373–430
M. Huet: The Dance, Art and Ritual of Africa (London, 1978)
P. Newman and E.H.Davidson: ‘Music from the Villages of North-eastern
Nigeria’, AHM 4532 [disc notes]
ANTHONY KING/MONIQUE BRANDILY, K.A. GOURLAY

Gangar [rull].
A Norwegian folkdance in duple time. It may be notated in 2/4 or 6/8 time
and is similar to the Halling, by which name it is known in some districts. It
is danced in couples. The gangar is known both in Hardanger fiddle
districts and in areas where the violin is used as a folk instrument. The term
rull is used in parts of the Hardanger fiddle areas of western Norway.

See also Norway, §II, 3.

For bibliography see Halling.

NILS GRINDE

Gangsa (i).
Flat bronze or brass gong of the Kalingga, Ibaloi, Karao, Tinggian and
Bontoc peoples of the northern Philippines. Among the Ifugao they are
called gangha, which refers to both the individual gong and an ensemble of
three gongs, and among the Isneg, hansa. Gangsa have a diameter of
approximately 30 cm and their perpendicular rims are about 5 cm high.
They produce diffused sounds with or without a focussed pitch. The ways
in which they are played increase their timbral variety; they may be played
with the hands (slapping, tapping or sliding) and with a beater (hitting the
upper or under side of the gong). Various resonating effects are achieved
by suspending gongs freely from the left hand, swinging them in the air,
resting them partly or fully on the ground, or laying them on the lap (see
Philippines, fig.2; damping effects are produced with the wrist or forearm,
or with pressure from the beater.
Gangsa are played in a variety of ceremonies: gong music is necessary for
dancing, for honouring people of the community, for celebrations and for
providing the proper ambience for ritual proceedings. Gongs are
considered to be objects of great value and status: during ceremonies, to
play the gangsa is an honour, for only prominent members of the
community are invited to start the performance. Gangsa music itself is
particularly popular among the Kalingga, and on occasions when gangsa
playing is not permitted, its music is often played on other instruments.

See also Philippines, §II, 1(i)(b).

JOSÉ MACEDA

Gangsa (ii).
A term used for metallophones in various Balinese ensembles (see
Gamelan, §I, 4(iv) and Indonesia, §II, 1(ii)(d)). They are of two types: with
bronze slabs resting on rattan, cork or rubber which in turn rests on a
wooden trough resonator (e.g. gangsa jongkok); and with bevel-edged
keys suspended by cord above tuned bamboo tubes arranged in a wooden
frame (e.g. gangsa gantung or gender; see illustration). Both types are
beaten with a wooden or horn hammer in the right hand (which is padded
in the case of the lowest-pitched gangsa gantung, i.e. jegogan) or with a
hammer in each hand in the case of the gender wayang ensemble. Each
key is damped as the next key is struck. Gangsa are tuned in pairs, one
pitched slightly higher than the other so that when the two instruments are
struck simultaneously an acoustic beat is produced.
MARGARET J. KARTOMI

Gangsta [gangster] rap.

A style of rap whose texts emphasize the violence of street life. In the mid-
1970s hip hop had reacted against the prevailing gang violence of the time
by deflecting the territorialism of New York's street gangs into a less
destructive verbal rivalry. As the music began to assert its independence
against pacifying influences from the music industry, rappers increasingly
exploited the imagery of gang warfare in order to ‘dis’ (disrespect) other
competing groups. Baltimore rapper Schooly D's Gangster Boogie (1984),
Boogie Down Productions' 9mm Goes Bang and Ice-T's Colors, recorded
for the 1987 film of the same title, were indications that lyrics based on
territorial gang wars and shootings could become a sub-genre of hip hop.
Ice-T's début album, Rhyme Pays, Too Short's Born to Mack, Eazy-E's
Eazy-Duz-It and NWA's Straight Outta Compton established California as
the home of this new approach. Dr Dre's 1992 solo album, The Chronic,
produced after his departure from NWA, defined this style with slow, bass-
heavy grooves based on samples from Isaac Hayes and George Clinton.
Featured rapper Snoop Doggy Dogg became a major star in his own right
but was soon embroiled in a shooting charge; similar problems affected
 other gangsta rap artists, including Da Lench Mob and Tupac Shakur. Art
and life became indistinguishable as bitter rivalry between Los Angeles
gangsta rap and New York hip hop climaxed with the fatal shootings of
Shakur and the Notorious B.I.G.
DAVID TOOP

Gann, Kyle
(b Dallas, 21 Nov 1955). American musicologist, composer and critic. He
attended Oberlin Conservatory (BMus 1977) and Northwestern University
(MMus 1981, DMus 1983), where he studied composition with Peter Gena,
Morton Feldman and Ben Johnston. An early fascination with the music of
Ives developed his interest in polyrhythmic music and led to study of the
music of the Hopi, Zuni and Pueblo Indians, which in turn informed the
rhythmic language of his own compositions (notably in Snake Dances,
1991–5). Further exploration of tempo structures came from his association
with Nancarrow, about whom he wrote the first book (1995). Gann
composed several canons extending Nancarrow’s techniques. His interest
in polytempos, Amerindian music and just intonation (his electronic works
employ scales of up to 37 pitches per octave) came together in his
electronic opera, Custer and Sitting Bull (1995–8).
In 1986, after writing for several Chicago papers, Gann became
contemporary music critic for the Village Voice. As a musicologist and critic,
he has championed an indigenous American classical tradition from Ives
and Cowell to Partch, Cage and others. After teaching at Columbia
University and Brooklyn College, Gann joined the faculty of Bard College
(1997).
WORKS
Op: Custer and Sitting Bull, 1v, elecs (G.A. Custer, Sitting Bull), 1995–8
Orch: The Disappearance of All Holy Things from this Once So Promising World,
1998
Vocal-inst: Satie, S, vn, fl, hp, perc (E. Satie), 1975; Song of Acceptance, 3 female
vv, fl, hn, trbn, tuba, cel, 2 vn, vc (Lao-Tzu, W. Whitman, Bible: Ecclesiastes), 1980;
Oil Man, 1 male spkr, fl, cl, pf, drums (M. Gann), 1981; various songs
Chbr: Siren, 5 fl, 1978; Long Night, 3 pf, 1980–81; Mountain Spirit, 2 fl, 2 drums,
synth, 1982–3; Baptism, 2 fl, 2 drums, glock, synth, 1983; Cherokee Songs, S, perc,
1983; Hesapa ki Lakhota ki Thawapi [The Black Hills Belong to the Sioux], fl,
tpt/sax, synth/accdn, drum, 1984, rev. 1989; I’itoi Variations, 2 pf, 1985; Cyclic
Aphorisms, vn, pf, 1988; Chicago Spiral, fl, cl, s sax/3 fl, drums, vn, va, vc, synth,
1990–91; Snake Dance no.1, perc qt, 1991; Alice in Wonderland, incid music, fl, cl,
elecs, 1991–2; Astrological Studies, fl, ob, a sax, bn, synth, tom-toms, cymbals, vib,
va, db, 1994; So Many Little Dyings (K. Patchen), 1 pre-recorded v, elecs, 1994;
Snake Dance no.2, perc qt, 1995; Arcana XVI, 3 synths, 1998
Solo inst: Desert Flowers, fl, 1979; The Mercy of the Storm, pf, 1981; Dakota Moon,
cl, 1982; The Question Answer’d, pf, 1983; Windows to Infinity, pf, 1987; Sweeney
Out West (4 Vacation Mishaps), pf, 1987–9; Laredo, snare drum, 1988; Paris
Intermezzo, toy pf, 1989; Desert Sonata, pf, 1994–5
El-ac: The Convent at Tepoztlan (pf, cptr tape)/2 pf, 1989 [after C. Nancarrow:
Canon 23:24]; Superparticular Woman (Tuning Study no.1), elecs, 1992; Ghost
Town, elecs, 1994; Homage to Cowell (Tuning Study no.2), elecs, 1994; Fractured
Paradise (Tuning Study no.3), elecs, 1995; Despotic Waltz (Mechanical Pf Study
no.1), mechanical pf (Disklavier), 1997; How Miraculous Things Happen (Tuning
Study no.4), elecs, 1997; The Waiting (Mechanical Pf Study no.2), mechanical pf
(Disklavier), 1997
WRITINGS
‘The Percussion Music of John J. Becker’, Percussive Notes, xxii/3 (1983–
4), 26–41
‘La Monte Young’s The Well-Tuned Piano’, PNM, xxxi (1993), 134–62
‘Downtown Beats for the 1990s’, CMR, x (1994), 33–49
The Music of Conlon Nancarrow (Cambridge, 1995)
‘The Outer Edge of Consonance: Snapshots from the Evolution of La
Monte Young’s Tuning Installations’, Sound and Light: La Monte
Young, Marian Zazeela, ed. W. Duckworth and R. Fleming (Lewisburg,
PA, 1996), 152–90
American Music in the Twentieth Century (New York and London, 1997)
‘Subversive Prophet: Henry Cowell as Theorist and Critic’, The Whole
World of Music: a Henry Cowell Symposium, ed. D. Nicholls
(Amsterdam, 1997), 171–222
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Rockwell: ‘A Critic Makes Music’, New York Times (17 Dec 1989)
DON C. GILLESPIE

Ganne, (Gustave) Louis

(b Buxières-les-Mines, 5 April 1862; d Paris, 14 July 1923). French
composer and conductor. He was a pupil of Dubois and Franck at the
Conservatoire, where he won a first prize in harmony and an organ prize.
He made his début as a composer with a ballet-divertissement, Les
sources du Nil, given in 1882 at the Folies Bergère (the first of several
given there or at the Casino de Paris). His most important ballet is Phryné;
he also composed several operettas, notably Les saltimbanques (Paris,
1899) and Hans, le joueur de flûte (Monte Carlo, 1906). Ganne conducted
the orchestra for the balls at the Opéra, and was for many years musical
director at the casino at Monte Carlo. He wrote more than 200 works,
including songs, salon pieces and some excellent dance tunes such as the
Valse des blondes and the mazurkas La czarine and La tzigane. He is
chiefly known for two marches, the Marche lorraine (1887) and Le père la
victoire (1888). His works, though intended for popular consumption, never
became banal.
J.G. PROD’HOMME/ANDREW LAMB

Gänsbacher, Johann (Baptist Peter

Joseph)
(b Sterzing, South Tyrol [now Vipiteno, Italy], 8 May 1778; d Vienna, 13
July 1844). Austrian composer and conductor. He was the son of a
choirmaster and teacher, Johann Gänsbacher (1751–1806), and as a boy
sang in church choirs in Sterzing, Innsbruck, Hall and Bolzano; he also had
lessons in piano, organ, violin, cello and thoroughbass. In 1795 he went to
the university at Innsbruck and studied first philosophy, then law,
supporting himself by giving music lessons, playing the organ, singing in
church choirs and playing in the theatre orchestra. His first compositions
date from this period. While at university he took part in four campaigns
against Napoleon. In 1801 he went to Vienna to continue his musical
studies, and was relieved of financial worries when Count Firmian, who
further promoted his career as a musician, took him into his family as a son
in about 1803. In Vienna he had lessons from the Abbé Vogler (1803–4)
and from Albrechtsberger (1806). A Mass in C, composed through the
offices of Vogler for Nikolaus Esterhazy in 1806, established his reputation
as a composer. Nevertheless, he returned to Vogler in Darmstadt for a
short period in 1810, where his fellow-pupils and friends included Weber
and Meyerbeer, who admitted him as a founder-member of the
‘Harmonische Verein’, for which he was active until 1813. In January 1813
he met Weber in Prague and recommended him for the post of
Kapellmeister of the theatre. In the summer of the same year Gänsbacher
returned to the Tyrol to join the fighting to liberate the province from the
Bavarian occupation. After the end of the war he did not return to the
Firmian family but joined the army as a first lieutenant (1814). He was
stationed first in Italian garrisons, in Trient, Mantua and Padua then at
Innsbruck in 1815, where he again tried to gain a foothold as a musician.
He worked as a conductor and director of a church choir, and helped to
found the Musikverein, though he did not gain the position of chief
conductor. He did not accept the post of director of music in Dresden,
offered him at the instigation of Weber in 1823, since (after representations
against the election of Joseph Weigl), he was appointed Kapellmeister of
the Stephansdom in Vienna as successor to Josef Preindl in September
1824. One of the choristers (who were also his pupils) was his nephew
Anton Mitterwurzer (1818–76), later famous as an opera singer. From this
time on Gänsbacher composed mainly church music, and only a few
homage cantatas. By the time of his death he was one of the most famous
musicians in Vienna.
Some of Gänsbacher's early instrumental compositions, such as the
Clarinet Concertino and the sonatas in F major (1803) and G minor (1810),
are remarkable for the individuality of their ideas and their unconventional
structure, while his Italian canzonettas and terzetti are effective for their
reticent simplicity. Yet the works he composed later for social performance
clearly show a deterioration of quality. Even before his 20 years at the
Stephansdom, sacred music was becoming central to his output. Starting
with the masses in C and B (1806/8) and the Requiem (1812), he wrote
some creditable and well-regarded works in this field. Although they do not
stand out from the manner of their time, and show little stylistic innovation,
they nonetheless show Gänsbacher's considerable skill as a composer.
His son Josef (b Vienna, 6 Oct 1829; d Vienna, 5 June 1911) studied the
piano, the cello and singing, and went to university to read law, graduating
in 1855. He practised law for a number of years, but concurrently gave
piano and singing lessons, and in 1868 devoted himself entirely to teaching
singing. From 1875 to 1904 he was a tutor at the conservatory of the
Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, becoming by the turn of the century the
 most highly-regarded singing teacher in Vienna. Some of his pupils
achieved international recognition, including Maria Wilt, Milka Ternina,
Leopold Demuth and Julius Liban. Brahms dedicated his cello sonata
op.38 to him. He was a composer, chiefly of songs but also of piano and
choral pieces, and was a co-editor of the Schubert complete edition.
WORKS
principal MS collections: A-Imf, Wn, Wgm, Innsbruck, Städtlisches Konservatorium; D-Bsb,
Mbs; GB-Lbl; I-MOe, Fc

printed works pubd in Vienna unless otherwise stated

sacred choral
for 4 voices, organ, orchestra, unless otherwise stated

Masses: op.32, B (1825); op.41 ‘Jubilaei’, C, (1832); op.45, F (Augsburg, 1836); 28

unpubd (incl. 1 lost)
Requiem: op.15, E , 1811 (Prague, 1812), rev. 1826 (1826); op.38, d (1834); 5
unpubd
Offertories: Domine Deus, with B, op.33 (1810); Inclina Domine, with B, op.43, 1827
(1832/3); Diligam te Domine, op.44 (1834); many others unpubd
Graduals: Si ambulavero, op.42, 1825 (1832); In te Domine speravi (c1838); many
others unpubd
Ecce sacerdos magnus, op.39 (1834); Te Deum, op.45 (1834); 6 vespers, 5 litanies,
Marienlieder, motets: all unpubd
4vv, org: 2 Ave Maria, op.34 (1825–6); 2 Salve regina, op.35 (1825); Ave regina
coelorum, Alma redemptoris mater, op.36 (1826–7); Regina coeli laetare, Ave
Maria, op.37 (1830); Salve regina, Ave Maria, op.40 (1834)

secular vocal
Des Dichters Geburtsfest (Liederspiel, F. Treitschke), 1810; Die Kreuzfahrer
(incidental music, Kotzebue), 1811
c10 cants., chorus, orch; 3 cants., male chorus, pf/gui; 3 serenades, chorus, orch
3 terzetti, 2 S, T, op.1 (Berlin, 1809)
1v, pf/gui: 6 Lieder op.3 (Leipzig, 1809); Der sterbende Patriot (C. Schubart), c1809;
Abendfantasie (L. Brachmann) (Bonn, c1810); An mein Clavier, 1809; Die
Erwartung (Schiller), op.7 (Bonn, c1810); Wiedersehn (J. Kosegarten), op.4
(Leipzig, ?1810); Nachtgesang (Kosegarten) (Leipzig, c1814); Abendlied (C.
Tiedge) (Innsbruck, 1817); 4 deutsche Lieder (Berlin, c1819)
instrumental
Orch: Sinfonie, D, 1807, ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. B, vi (New York,
1984); Concertino, cl solo, 1819; Tiroler Schützen-Freuden, with pipes, drums etc,
1824; marches, other military music
Chbr: Sonata, F, vn, vc, pf (Bureau d'Arts, 1803); Sonata, g, m, pf; Serenade, fl, vn,
va, gui, op.12 (Bonn, 1810); Serenade, cl, vn, vc, gui, op.24 (Augsburg, 1818);
Introduktion und Variationen, cl, hn, pf; pf trios; sonatas, vn, gui; sonatas, fl/vn, pf;
other works for fl/vn, gui; vc, pf etc.
Pf 4 hands: divertimentos, sonatinas, marches (most unpubd)
Pf solo: numerous variation sets (most on opera themes), marches, ländler
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Gänsbacher: Denkwürdigkeiten aus meinem Leben (MS, A-Imf); ed. W.
Senn (Thaur, 1986)
K.M. Gross: ‘ Johann Gänsbacher’, Allgemeine Wiener Musik-Zeitung, iv
(1844), 108–10, 112–13, 116, 119–22, 124
A. Schmidt: Denksteine: Biographien (Vienna, 1848), 111–61
C. Fischnaler: Johann Gänsbacher (Innsbruck, 1878)
J.G. Ritter von Woerz: Johann Gänsbacher (Innsbruck, 1894)
G. Kaiser, ed.: Sämtliche Schriften von Carl Maria von Weber (Berlin,
1908)
S. Loewy: ‘Johann Gänsbacher’, Österreichische Rundschau, xxii (1910),
447
H.H. Hausner and H. Öttl: ‘Johann Gänsbacher (8. Mai 1778, Sterzing –
13. Juli 1844, Wien): Datum aus seinem Leben und Schaffen’, MISM,
xxi/3–4 (1973), 44–53
M. Schneider: Studien zu den Messenkompositionen Johann Baptist
Gänsbachers (1778–1844) (diss., U. of Innsbruck, 1976)
J. Veit: Der junge Carl Maria von Weber: Studien zum Einfluss Franz
Danzis und Abbé Georg Joseph Voglers (Mainz, 1990)
M. Gabbrielli and F. Chiocchetti: La vödla muta: una compozitione
minore di J.B. Gänsbacher (Firenze, 1994)
O. Huck and J. Veits, eds.: Die Schriften des Harmonischen Vereins
(Mainz, 1998)
WALTER SENN/JOACHIM VEIT

Gantez, Annibal
(b Marseilles, c1600; d Auxerre, 1668). French ecclesiastic, composer and
writer on music. An alphabetical list of places where Gantez served as
maître de chapelle or maître des enfants shows the geographical diversity
of his professional life (dates of known appointments are shown in
brackets): Aigues-Mortes, Aix-en-Provence (15 April 1636–22 June 1638),
Annecy, Arles (5 July 1638–31 March 1640), Aurillac, Auxerre (1643,
awarded a partial prebend; there again on 1 November 1661), Avignon,
Carpentras, Grenoble (29 March 1628–Easter 1629; there again 28 June–
9 October 1656), La Châtre, Le Havre, Marseilles, Montauban, Nancy (in
1665 as maître de chapelle to Duke Charles IV of Lorraine), Nevers (on 26
January 1657), Paris (at St Innocent, St Jacques de l'Hôpital, St Paul),
Rouen (on 21 June 1629), Toulon and Valence.
Although Gantez wrote a small amount of music, including two masses
(both printed by Ballard about 1642), a Te Deum (1661, lost) and
collections of court airs and chansons à boire, he is best known as a
trenchant observer of the musical scene. His L'entretien des musiciens
(Auxerre, 1643; ed. E. Thoinan, Paris 1878/R) is lively (‘a musician is not
esteemed if he is not a good drinker’), its social comment pointed (‘it is
shameful that in France there are only one or two printers … whereas
Spain, Italy and Flanders have almost as many printers as there are
towns’) and its value judgments direct and forceful (‘the one whom I find [in
Paris] the most “agréable” in his music is Veillot … and the one whom I
recognize as the most serious in his is Péchon …’). L'entretien includes
references to Aux-Cousteaux, Bertaut, Antoine Boësset, Bournonville,
Bouzignac, Cosset, Du Caurroy, Du Cousu, Formé, Frémart, Gobert, De
Gouy, Hotman, Intermet, Lambert, Etienne Moulinié, Mersenne, Métru,
Péchon, Veillot, Vincent and Zarlino.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AnthonyFB
H. Lavoix: ‘Une vie d'artiste au commencement du XVIIe siècle, Annibal
Gantez’, Revue de France, iii (1873), 27–43
H. Villetard: ‘Annibal Gantez, maître de chapelle d'Auxerre au XVIIe
siècle’, La Tribune de Saint-Gervais, v (1899), 310–16
J. Westrup: ‘Annibal Gantez: a Merry Musician’, MT, lxxi (1929), 937–9
F. Raugel: ‘Une maîtrise célèbre au grand siècle: la maîtrise de la
cathédrale d'Aix-en-Provence’, Bulletin de la Société d'étude du XVIIe
siècle, xxi–xxii (1954), 422–32
JAMES R. ANTHONY

Ganz.
German family of musicians.
(1) Adolf Ganz
(2) Moritz Ganz
(3) Wilhelm Ganz
M.C. CARR/ROBERT PASCALL
Ganz
(1) Adolf Ganz
(b Wiesbaden, 14 Oct 1795; d London, 11 Nov 1869). Violinist, conductor
and composer. He studied harmony with Hollbusch. From 1821 to 1845 he
was music director at the Stadttheater in Mainz (1819). He was made
Kapellmeister to the Grand Duke of Hessen-Darmstadt in 1825 and ducal
Hofkapellmeister in 1835. On 9 July 1840 he conducted the first British
performance of Gluck’s Iphigénie en Tauride at the Prince’s Theatre,
London. In 1846–7 he worked as a conductor in Nuremberg. In 1851 he
settled in London, where for a time he was chorus master under Balfe at
Her Majesty’s Theatre. He composed overtures, marches, songs, male-
voice choruses and a melodrama. His elder son Eduard (b Mainz, 29 April
1827; d Berlin, 26 Nov 1869) studied the piano with Moscheles and
Thalberg in London, settled in Berlin and founded a music school there in
1862.
Ganz
(2) Moritz Ganz
(b Mainz, 13 Sept 1802; d Berlin, 22 Jan 1868). Cellist and composer,
brother of (1) Adolf Ganz. He was the leading cellist in the Mainz
Hofkapelle under his elder brother, then succeeded B.H. Romberg as
leading cellist in the royal orchestra in Berlin in 1827. He visited Paris and
London in 1833, then returned to London four years later to play at the
Philharmonic Concerts (1 May 1837) with his younger brother Leopold (b
Mainz, 28 Nov 1806; d Berlin, 15 June 1869), a violinist who frequently
joined him in concerts and with whom he composed a number of virtuoso
duets. He was the principal cellist at the Beethoven Festival in Bonn in
1845 and was noted for his full, mellow tone and brilliant execution.
Ganz
(3) Wilhelm Ganz
(b Mainz, 6 Nov 1833; d London, 12 Sept 1914). Organist, violinist and
conductor, son of (1) Adolf Ganz. He was the most celebrated member of
the family. He studied the piano and conducting with his father and Karl
Anschütz, and made his first trip to England in 1848. He and his father
went back to Mainz after the London season but they returned in 1851 to
settle permanently in London. In 1856 Ganz was an accompanist on Jenny
Lind’s tour of England and Scotland, and for some years thereafter he
accompanied many of the leading singers in London. He was also the
organist at the German Lutheran church in the Strand.
Ganz joined Henry Wylde’s New Philharmonic Society as second violinist
in 1852. In 1874 he became joint conductor of the society (with Wylde) and
in 1879, on Wylde’s resignation, continued the concerts alone, first under
the former name and after 1880 as ‘Mr Ganz’s Orchestral Concerts’. During
his three seasons as conductor, Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique and
Liszt’s Dante Symphony were performed in their entirety for the first time in
London, and a number of eminent artists, including Annette Essipov,
Sophie Menter, Saint-Saëns and Pachmann, appeared as soloists. For
many years Ganz was a professor of singing at the GSM, where a jubilee
concert was given in his honour in 1898. His memoirs, Memories of a
Musician, were published in London in 1913.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Wagner: Die Musikerfamilie Ganz aus Weissenau: ein Beitrag zur
Musikgeschichte der Juden am Mittelrhein (Mainz, 1974)

Ganz, Rudolf [Rudolph]

(b Zürich, 24 Feb 1877; d Chicago, 2 Aug 1972). Swiss pianist. Following
early cello lessons with Friedrich Hegar, he studied the piano with Robert
Freund in Zürich and subsequently with his great-uncle, Carl Eschmann-
Dumur. He also took lessons in composition with Charles Blanchet at the
Lausanne Conservatoire. In 1897–8 he continued his studies with F.
Blumer in Strasbourg before going to Berlin to work with Busoni, in addition
to studying composition with Heinrich Urban. In 1899 Ganz made his Berlin
début with Beethoven's Fifth Concerto and Chopin's First, and the following
year he conducted the Berlin PO in the first performance of his own First
Symphony. Following the success of these performances Ganz undertook
a major European tour and in 1901 went to the USA where, in 1906, he
appeared in New York and Boston with Weingartner and Wilhelm Gericke.
Between 1901 and 1905 he was head of the piano faculty of the Chicago
Musical College. He toured extensively throughout the USA and Canada
between 1905 and 1908, after which he returned to Europe, performing a
wide repertory including works by Alkan, Ravel, Brahms, Grieg and Liszt.
He was appointed director of the Chicago Musical College in 1929 and
president five years later, continuing as both teacher and administrator until
1954.
From 1921 until 1927 Ganz was music director of the St Louis SO and
between 1938 and 1949 he conducted a series of Young People's Concerts
with the New York PO and in San Francisco. Although he retired from the
Chicago College in 1954, he continued to teach. The dedication of Busoni's
First Sonatina and Ravel's Scarbo to Ganz reflects his championship of
modern music, and he introduced many works by Bartók, d'Indy, Korngold,
Loeffler and others to American audiences. He was also a persuasive
exponent of the works of Macdowell. As a composer, Ganz's eclectic style
reflected his own wide-ranging sympathies and understanding of the
modern idiom, while acknowledging a clear indebtedness to the Romantic
tradition. His compositions for the piano reveal in their bravura writing the
virtuoso command of his own playing, particularly in the early Konzertstück
and the E Concerto. He also composed numerous songs to English,
French and German texts (he was married to the American singer Mary
Forrest), as well as in Swiss and Alsatian dialects.
CHARLES HOPKINS

Ganze-Note
(Ger.).
See Semibreve (whole note); Ganze-Taktnote is also used. See also Note
values.

Gänzl, Kurt (Friedrich) [Gallas,

Brian Roy]
(b Wellington, New Zealand, 15 Feb 1946). New Zealand writer on musical
theatre. He studied law and classics at Canterbury University, New
Zealand, subsequently joining the New Zealand Opera company as a bass
singer. After moving to London he became a casting director and then a
theatrical agent in musical theatre; from 1990 he devoted himself to writing
and broadcasting on this subject. His pioneering two-volume study The
British Musical Theatre (London, 1986), won several awards: its thorough
survey of performances has ensured its place as an essential reference
work. His later Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre (Oxford, 1994) is ambitious
in its scope, displaying both the breadth of Gänzl’s interest and, through its
selections and judgments, his characteristically personal view of the
subject. His other books include Gänzl’s Book of the Musical Theatre (with
Andrew Lamb; London, 1988), a companion guide in the manner of Kobbé,
The Blackwell Guide to Musical Theatre on Record (Oxford, 1990) and
illustrated histories of musical theatre for a more popular market, such as
Song and Dance (New York, 1995; London, 1995 as Musicals) and The
Musical: a Concise History (Boston, 1997)
JOHN SNELSON

Ganzschluss
(Ger.).
 See Authentic cadence.

Ganzton
(Ger.).
See Tone (i).

Gapped scale.
A Scale that contains at least one interval greater than a whole tone, for
example the Pentatonic scale.

Gaqi, Thoma
(b Korça, 21 Aug 1948). Albanian composer. He studied the violin and
theory in Korça with Kono and later in Tirana at the Jordan Misja Art
Lyceum. He then studied with Zadeja (composition) and Ibrahimi
(counterpoint and orchestration) at the Tirana Conservatory (1966–72),
where he was appointed professor of harmony in 1972. After a period as
artistic director of the Tirana Theatre of Opera and Ballet (1979–83), he
returned to the Conservatory as professor of harmony and composition,
becoming head of the composition department in 1988. In 1992 he moved
to Korça to become director of the Tefta Tashko Koço music school. He
returned to the Tirana Conservatory to teach composition in 1996. Like
many Albanian composers after the fall of socialism, he almost stopped
composing between 1991 and 1994.
Gaqi's orchestral works are among the most popular composed in Albania
during the country's period of cultural isolation after 1973. They include
Shqipëria në feste (1977), where thematic development gives way to the
folk-like repetition of melodic formulas, and the Double Concerto (1979),
which again uses folksong themes, while giving both solo instruments
ample opportunity for virtuoso display. The second of his three symphonic
dances has been compared to Ravel's Boléro in the way that obsessive
repetitions of a single theme, with ever denser orchestration, culminate in a
dramatic climax.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Përballimi [Confrontation] (film score, dir. V. Ghika), 1976; Rapsodi

koreografike [Choreographic Rhapsody] (A. Aliaj), 1983; Gjëzojmë, për ditët tona
[Our Happy Days] (choreographic scene, (P. Agalliu), 1983; Maratonomak [The
Marathon Runner], film score, 1985
Vocal-orch: Në luftën nacionalçlirimtare [In the War for National Liberation] (cant., S.
Mato), mixed chorus, orch, 1974; Këndon zemra jonë [Our Heart Sings] (trad.),
mixed chorus, orch, 1982; O, ditë e re [Oh, New Days] (G. Zheji), T, orch, c1987; 15
transcrs. of Byzantine liturgical chants, mixed chorus, str, 1992–6
Orch: Vn Conc., 1971; Borova, sym. poem, 1972; Poemë-koncert (Poëmë
koncertant), vn, orch, 1976; Shqipëria në festë [Albania in Feast] (Albanian
Rhapsody no.1), 1977; Vc Conc., 1978; Toka ime, kënga ime/Dybel koncert [My
Land, My Songs/Double Conc.], rhapsody-conc., vc, orch, 1979; Albanian
Rhapsody no.2, 1980; 3 Sym. Dances (Gëzojmë për ditët tona [We Rejoice for Our
Days]), nos.1–2, 1981, no.3, 1984; Ballad, vn, orch, 1982; Scherzo, orch, 1984,
version for 2 vn, orch; Conc., str, 1985; Fitimtarë nëpër kongrese [Victorious
through Congresses], festive ov., 1986; Sym. no.1, d, 1988; Tpt Conc., A , 1990–;
transcrs. for wind band of works by Beethoven, Schubert, Tchaikovsky, 1992–6
Chbr and Pf: Suite, 1968; Variations on 2 Folk Themes, 1969; Cadenza, va solo,
1999; Cadenza, vc solo, 2000

BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Kalemi: Arritjet e artit tonë muzikor: Vepra dhe krijues të musikës
shqiptare [Achievements of our musical Art: creations and creators of
Albanian music] (Tirana, 1982), 180–85
Historia e muzikës Shqiptare [A history of Albanian music] (Tirana, 1984–5)
GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

Garage.
A form of 20th-century club dance music. As ‘garage’ rock, the term had
earlier been used to denote movement primarily outside the commercial
rock mainstream, predominantly in the USA and beginning in the 1960s,
and with a philosophy somewhat akin to later Indie music. It originated at
the Paradise Garage nightclub in New York City, from where the genre
takes its name. Like house music, it was derived from and shares many of
disco’s characteristics, with simple, rigid 4/4 rhythm tracks and pulsating
basslines (often influenced by dub reggae). However, while disco used
large orchestras to add texture to the music, garage is nearly all electronic.
It is slower than house, with 115-20 beats per minute as opposed to 122-6,
and, in contrast to the more rhythmic arrangements found in more generic
house music, is smoother, more melodic and frequently contains a female
soul vocal. Early garage records included D-Train’s You’re the One for Me
and the Peech Boys’ Don’t Make Me Wait (both 1981). By the late 1990s, it
found a new popularity in the UK as ‘speed garage’, sometimes
inappropriately called ‘underground garage’, which increased the tempo to
that of house, and became the dominating club sound for several years.
WILL FULFORD-JONES

Garant, (Albert Antonio) Serge

(b Quebec, 22 Sept 1929; d Sherbrooke, PQ, 1 Nov 1986). Canadian
composer. Largely self-taught, he left school in 1945 to devote himself full-
time to studying music. He began learning the saxophone on his own,
studied the clarinet with Marcel Marcotte, the piano with Sylvio Lacharité
and theory with Paul-Marcel Robidoux. He continued his training with
Yvonne Hubert (piano) and Claude Champagne (composition). In 1950 he
won first prize for the clarinet at the Congrés de fanfares de Granby. This
success propelled him to the Juilliard School, where he studied with
Richard Franco Goldman among others. In 1951 his Musique pour sax alto
et fanfare and Adagio et Allegro pour piano et harmonie won the
composition prize at the Youth Festival. Later that year he went to Paris
where he studied counterpoint with Andrée Vaurabourg-Honegger and
attended Messiaen's analysis classes. During this period he met both
Boulez and Stockhausen and discovered the works of Schoenberg, Berg
and Webern for the first time. His cycle of five mélodies, Concerts sur terre,
reflects these experiences.
Upon his return to Canada, Garant pursued a career in Montreal, where he
earned a living until 1966 as an accompanist, arranger and conductor for
radio and television broadcasts. He wrote a number of articles, sometimes
polemical in character, promoting the work of contemporary composers,
and organized contemporary music concerts with François Morel and Gilles
Tremblay. His Caprices and Musique rituelle (both 1954) were performed
on 1 May 1954 at the first of these concerts. Other works on the
programme included compositions by Messiaen, Webern and Boulez, with
whom, in the following months, Garant entered into regular
correspondence. One year later he organized a concert ‘In memoriam
Webern’, for which he composed Nucléogame (1955), the first Canadian
work for instruments and tape. His entirely serial work Asymétrie (1958)
was performed a short time later by Musique de Notre Temps, a group
founded by the composer with Jeanne Landry and Otto Joachim. In August
1961 the producer and composer Pierre Mercure organized an
international week of contemporary music which included a performance of
Garant's Anerca (1961), a major work based on Inuit texts that integrates
aleatory processes into a primarily melodic compositional conception.
In 1966 Garant joined the faculty at Montreal University as a professor of
analysis and composition. The same year he was appointed to the post of
artistic director for the newly created Société de Musique Contemporaine
du Québec, an institution that flourished under his administration. From
1969 he also presented the CBC radio series ‘Musique de notre siècle’ for
Radio Canada. The compositional cycles Offrandes and Circuits, both
based on the theme of J.S. Bach's Das musikalische Opfer, were
composed between 1969 and 1973. In these works, Garant creates
networks of mathematical relationships that link the serialized pitch
structure with the organization of other parameters (duration, dynamics,
density, timbre). … chant d'amours (1975), composed after a trip to Italy in
1973–4, is one of Garant's most significant compositions, signalling a
return both to lyricism and to a fascination with musical colour. Quintette
(1978) and Plages (1981) were his last works.
Garant's many awards and achievements include the Etrog Prize for the
film score Vertiges (1969), the medal of the Canadian Council of Music
(1971), the Harold Moon Prize of the Canadian Performing Rights Society
for his significant contribution to the promotion of Canadian music abroad
(1978), the Calixa-Lavallée Prize of the Société Saint-Jean-Baptiste de
Montréal (1980) and the Jule Léger Prize for chamber music (1980). The
Serge Garant Prize, created by the Emile Nelligan Foundation, is awarded
every three years. Garant leaves the memory of a generous and deeply
committed man, an outstanding teacher, an exacting conductor and a
tireless promoter of contemporary music.
WORKS
(selective list)
Orch: Ouranos, 1963; Ennéade, 1964; Phrases II (Che Guevara), 2 orchs, 1968;
Offrande II, 1970; Plages, 1981
Vocal: Concerts sur terre (P. de la Tour du Pin), 1v, pf, 1951–6; Et je prierai ta grâce
(St D. Garneau), 1v, pf, 1952; Caprices (F. García Lorca), 1v, pf, 1954; Anerca
(Inuit, Eng. trans.), S, fl, cl, bn, hp, perc, str trio, 1961, rev. 1963; Cage d’oiseau
(Garneau), S, pf, 1962; Phrases I (P. Bourgault), Mez, pf, perc, 1967; … chant
d’amours, S, Mez, Bar, ens, 1975; Rivages (A. Grandbois), Bar, ens, 1976
Chbr: Musique pour la mort d’un poète, pf, str, 1954; Nucléogame, 7 insts, tape,
1955; Canon VI, 10 insts, 1957; Pieces, str qt, 1958; Asymétries no.2, cl, pf, 1959;
Amuya, 20 insts, 1968; Jeu à 4, 16 insts, 1968; Offrande I, 19 insts, S on tape,
1969; Offrande III, 8 insts, 1971; Circuit I, 6 perc, 1972; Circuit II, 12 insts, 1972;
Circuit III, 18 insts, 1973; Qnt, 1978
Pf: Piece no.1, 1953; Musique rituelle, 1954; Variations, 1954; Asymétries no.1,
1958; Pièce no.2, 1962
Film scores: L’homme et les régions polaires, 20 insts, 1967; Vertiges, 1969

Principal publishers: Berandol, Canadian Music Centre, Doberman-Yppan, Salabert

WRITINGS
‘Non, Monsieur Vallerand’, L’autorité (20 Feb 1954)
‘Dire une musique d’ici’, Cahier pour un paysage à inventer, i (1959), 53–6
‘Un esprit de genèse’, Liberté [Montreal], i (1959), 284–6
‘Chronique musicale’, Cahiers d’essai, iii (1961), 4–5
‘Phrases I’, Parti pris, v/7 (1968), 47–8
‘Notes sur Anerca’, Musiques du Kébèk, ed. R. Duguay (Montreal, 1971),
55 only
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Trente-quatre biographies de compositeurs canadiens/Thirty-four
Biographies of Canadian Composers (Montreal, 1964) [pubn of the
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]
R. Duguay: ‘Serge Garant: le structuralisme ouvert’, Musiques du Kébèk
(Montreal, 1971), 47–54
M.T. Lefebvre: Nouvelle approche du matériau sonore dans les oeuvres
postsérielles: analyse du Quintette de Serge Garant (diss., U. of
Montreal, 1981)
Canadian University Music Review, vii (1986) [Garant issue]
M.T. Lefebvre: Serge Garant et la révolution musicale au Québec
(Montreal, 1986)
G. Dansereau: ‘Serge Garant: au-delà de la structure’, Sonances, viii
(1988–9), 35–40
J.-J. Nattiez: ‘Serge Garant: une voix exigeante qui nous vient du Québec',
Entretemps, vi/Feb (1988), 152–3
J. Boivin, ed.: ‘Serge Garant’, Circuit, vii/2 (1996) [whole issue]
MARIE-THÉRÈSE LEFEBVRE

Garat, (Dominique) Pierre (Jean)

(b Bordeaux, 26 April 1762; d Paris, 1 March 1823). French tenor and
baritone. He studied with Franz Beck at Bordeaux, but developed his
technique chiefly by imitating the best Italian singers of the day after
moving to Paris in 1782. At his father’s instigation he studied law in Paris
but discontinued when his voice became in demand at the French court.
He performed frequently at Versailles, and to maintain his leadership of
Paris fashion, sinecures were arranged for him; Marie-Antoinette twice paid
his debts. As he found it politically expedient to leave Paris during the
Terror, he and the violinist Rode, with whom he frequently gave concerts,
went to Rouen, where he was imprisoned for nine months – time he spent
composing. On his release, he travelled to Hamburg, Holland, Belgium,
Spain and London, returning to France in 1794. Although he was obliged to
sing professionally after the Revolution he never adopted a stage career.
From 1795 he appeared at the Concerts Feydeau and after 1800 at the
Concerts de la rue de Cléry. Later he performed mainly at private salons;
he lost his voice while in his 50s. He assisted at the Conservatoire from
1796 and taught full time from 1799 to 1823. His teaching emphasized
interpretation and expression rather than vocal training; his pupils included
Mme Branchu, Nourrit père, Ponchard and Levasseur.
Garat’s voice was soft and sweet rather than powerful, but his three-octave
range enabled him to sing arias for tenor, bass and even female voices.
Renowned for his powers of expression and mastery of all styles, he was
considered the supreme interpreter of Gluck, to whose music he refused to
apply the brilliant ornamentation he customarily employed. For aesthetic
reasons he attempted to suppress the sound ‘r’ in French speech. Scudo
considered him the first French singer to combine French insistence on
verbal clarity and expressiveness with fluent Italianate vocalization; in this
respect he may be considered to have prepared the way for Rossini’s
reform of French singing. He composed (probably with outside assistance)
about 40 romances in a conventional style.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Choron-FayolleD
ES (R. Celletti)
FétisB
B. Miall: Pierre Garat, Singer and Exquisite (London, 1913)
H. Radiguer: ‘Garat’, EMDC, I/iii (1913), 1649–50
I. de Fagoaga: Pierre Garat, le chanteur (Bayonne, 1944)
J. Mongrédien, ed.: Anthologie de la romance française 1795–1815
(Paris, 1994)
PHILIP ROBINSON

Garaudé, Alexis(-Adélaide-Gabriel)
de
(b Nancy, 21 March 1779; d Paris, 23 March 1852). French composer and
singing teacher. He studied composition with Cambini and Reicha and
singing with Garat and Crescentini in Paris. In 1808 he took up a post at
the imperial chapel of the Tuileries, where he remained during the
Restoration until 1830. In 1816 he was appointed singing teacher at the
Paris Conservatoire, a post he held until his retirement in 1841. As a
composer, he is known mainly for his songs, about one third of which were
 published in the Journal d’Euterpe from 1813 to 1827; he also wrote a few
pieces of piano and chamber music and an unperformed opera, La lyre
enchantée.
One of the most famous French singing teachers, Garaudé published a
large number of didactic works, including solfèges, vocalization exercises
and singing tutors. He also published some of his ideas on singing in the
Revue musicale, and contributed to the music journal Les tablettes de
Polymnie, which he edited from 1810 to 1811. Extending the usual debate
between French and Italian schools of singing, he suggested combining
their respective advantages in his Méthode de chant (1809). One of the
most important composers of French song in the early 19th century,
Garaudé wished that, in his vocal works, ‘the accompaniments were richer
in harmony than was customary in this genre of composition’.
His most famous pupil, Clotilde Colombelle, who sang under the name of
Mlle Coreldi, enjoyed a brief and brilliant career on stage in Milan and
Naples. She bore him a son, Alexis-Albert-Gauthier de Garaudé (1821–54)
who was also a composer and who distinguished himself chiefly by his
piano reductions of orchestral scores.
WORKS
printed works published in Paris

instrumental
Ov., ?orch, 1842; Scène, vn, orch (n.d.)
3 qnts, 2 vn, va, 2 vc, op.16 (1810); 3 duos concertants, fl, vn, op.33 (c1830); 6
sonatas, hp, vn ad lib (n.d.); other chbr works
Pf solo: mélanges, sonates faciles, other works
vocal
La lyre enchantée, opera, unperf., vs (n.d.)
Cantique (J. Pain), 1v, chorus ad lib, op.10 (c1810); Messe solennelle, 3vv, op.43
(c1835)
c200 romances, 1–3vv, pf [68 pubd in Journal d’Euterpe, 1813–27; pubd
collections: opp.3, 5, 8, 12, 18 (c1800–c1810); others pubd separately]
didactic
Méthode de chant, op.25 (1809, rev. 2/1811 as op.40, 3/1854); Méthode de chant,
low v, op.53 (1854); Nouvelle méthode de chant, female v, op.66 (1854)
52 exercises, op.40 (c1835, rev. 2/1846 as op.52 with pf acc.)
Solfège des enfants, op.27 (c1810, rev. 70/1903); 60 solfèges progressifs, pf/hp
acc., op.41 (n.d.)
12 grandes leçons de vocalisation; 25 vocalises de Crescentini, op.11 (c1810); 24
vocalises, op.42 (n.d.); Méthode de vocalisation, 2vv, op.65 (1854)
Other méthodes, pf, vn, va, dictation, piano tuning
2 letters to F.J. Fétis, pubd in Revue musicale, xi (1831), 116, 131
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation:
documents historiques et administratifs (Paris, 1900)
H. Gougelot: Catalogue des romances françaises parues sous la
Révolution et l’Empire (Melun, 1937–43)
 H. Gougelot: La romance française sous la Révolution et l’Empire: étude
historique et critique (Melun, 1938)
JEAN MONGRÉDIEN/GUY GOSSELIN

Garau Femenia, Francisco.

See Guerau, Francisco.

Garay, Luis de
(b Villa de Veteta, province of Cuenca, 6 Nov 1613; d Granada, 1673).
Spanish composer. He was choirmaster of the cathedrals at Guadix,
Toledo (1644) and Granada (1645). He also competed for the post of
choirmaster of Málaga Cathedral in 1642 but was beaten by Pérez Roldán.
When, however, it was offered to him in 1655 and 1666, he chose to
remain in his post at Granada. He composed many sacred works, which
survive in manuscripts in the libraries of Málaga Cathedral and Zaragoza
Cathedral.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Rubio Piqueras: Música y músicos toledanos (Toledo, 1923)
A. Llordén: ‘Notas históricas de los maestros de capilla en la Catedral de
Málaga (1641–1799)’, AnM, xx (1965), 105–60, esp. 115, 131
GUY BOURLIGUEUX

Garay, Narciso
(b Panama, 12 June 1876; d Panama, 27 March 1953). Panamanian
ethnomusicologist and composer. He received his musical training at the
Instituto Nacional, Cartagena, at the Brussels Conservatory, and in Paris
with Marsick and at the Schola Cantorum; he was a pupil of Fauré in 1902–
3. On his return to Panama he directed the new Escuela Nacional de
Música from 1904 to 1918. During these years he made several collecting
trips among indigenous tribes, the results of which were published in
Tradiciones y cantares de Panama (Panama and Brussels, 1930). This
study, written in diary format, recounts his visits and includes numerous
musical transcriptions (mostly taken by ear), linguistic discussions and
photographs of instruments. Garay also wrote shorter essays on
Panamanian folklore. He later became active in the diplomatic service and
was at one time Minister of Foreign Affairs.
WORKS
(selective list)

Chbr: Sonata, vn, pf; Fugue, str qt

Songs: Le chat, Le parfum impérissable, Sous l’épais sycomore

BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Aretz: ‘Colecciones de cilindros y trabajos de musicología comparada
realizados en Latinoamérica durante los primeros treinta años del
siglo xx’, Revista venezolana de folklore, 2nd ser., no.4 (1972), 49–65
I. Aretz: Síntesis de la etnomúsica en América Latina (Caracas, 1983)
I. Aretz: Historia de la etnomusicología en América Latina (Caracas, 1991)
JOHN M. SCHECHTER

Garbarek, Jan
(b Mysen, 4 March 1947). Norwegian jazz soprano and tenor saxophonist.
He was influenced at an early age by the music of John Coltrane and in
1965 came to the attention of Krzysztof Komeda and George Russell; the
following year he appeared at festivals in Warsaw, where he made his first
recording, and Prague. Later he performed and recorded with the sextet
and big band of Russell, with whom he also studied music. In the late
1960s he formed a quartet with Terje Rypdal that often performed with
Russell, and from 1973 he led a trio. He toured Europe and the USA as a
member of Keith Jarrett’s quartet in 1977, then formed a group with
Eberhard Weber, the guitarist David Torn and the drummer Michael Di
Pasqua that performed in Warsaw in 1982 and later toured Europe, the
USA, Japan and Norway. In 1994, after nearly reaching the top of the
classical charts with his recording Officium (1993, ECM), on which, with the
Hilliard Ensemble, he interpreted works by Morales, Perotinus, Du Fay and
La Rue, Garbarek made a tour of the USA. He has composed most of the
music that he has recorded, and he has also written works for the theatre,
television and films. Among post-Coltrane saxophonists he has an
important approach, combining elements of free jazz, jazz-rock, folk music
and the music of the European avant garde.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Hultin: ‘Jan Garbarek: a Remarkable Jazz Personality’, Jazz Forum
[international edn], no.40 (1976), 51–3
S. Lake: ‘Jan Garbarek: Saga of Fire and Ice’, Down Beat, xliv/19 (1977),
16–17, 46 [incl. discography]
M. Tucker: ‘Jan Garbarek: beyond the Nordic Ethos’, Jazz Journal
International, xxx/10 (1977), 6, 8, 19 [incl. discography]
P. Brodowski and J. Szprot: ‘Jan Garbarek: Mysterious Wayfarer’, Jazz
Forum [international edn], no.86 (1984), 38–44 [incl. discography]
M. Bourne: ‘Jan Garbarek’s Scandinavian Design’, Down Beat, liii/7
(1986), 26–8 [incl. discography]
RANDI HULTIN

Garbi, Giovanni Francesco

(b ?Florence; d Rome, after 30 June 1719). Italian organist and composer.
A priest, he was organist of the Cappella Giulia at S Pietro, Rome, on and
off from 1691 to 30 June 1719. He was a member of the Congregazione di
S Cecilia from 1677 and in 1698 was guardiano degli organisti there. In the
same year he was also maestro di cappella of the nearby S Maria
dell'Anima church. He wrote four oratorios: David penitente, David
trionfante, Il trionfo del celeste amore nel pentimento di Davide and
Virtutum triumphus.
ANGELA LEPORE

Gärbig, Johann Anton.

See Görbig, Johann Anton.

Garbin, Edoardo
(b Pauda, 12 March 1865; d Brescia, 12 April 1943). Italian tenor. His
teachers in Milan were Alberto Selva and Vittorio Orefice. In 1891 he made
his début at Vicenza in La forza del destino, appearing at La Scala two
years later as Fenton in the world première of Falstaff. He subsequently
married his Nannetta, Adelina Stehle, with whom he then appeared for
many years, principally in the Puccini operas. His other important première
was that of Leoncavallo's Zazà in 1900, also at La Scala, where he
remained until 1918. His European successes were not repeated in
London where he met with a critical press in 1908. His records show a
voice that often bewilders the ear, sometimes ringing, sometimes white in
tone, and mixing some rather forced singing with passages of considerable
delicacy. (GV, R. Celletti and R. Vegeto)
J.B. STEANE

Garbousova, Raya
(b Tbilisi, 25 Sept 1906; d de Kalb, IL, 28 Jan 1997). American cellist of
Russian (Georgian) birth. She studied at the Tbilisi Conservatory (1914–
23), and made her début in Moscow in 1923. Later she was coached by
Casals and Alexanian; she was also greatly influenced by the playing of
Emanuel Feuermann. Leaving Russia in 1925, she made her Berlin début
in 1926 and appeared in Paris (1927) and London (1928). She was heard
in New York in 1935 and settled in the USA in 1939, and appeared as
soloist with most major orchestras in Europe and America. She also played
with the Vermeer Quartet and with Rostropovitch. Among the works written
for her are the Cello Concertos by Samuel Barber (1946) and Vittorio Rieti
(1956), and the Rapsodia notturna by Karol Rathaus (1950). She also
introduced works by Creston, Hindemith, Lopatnikoff, Martinů and
Prokofiev, most of which she edited for publication. In addition to her
concerts and recordings she gave masterclasses at Aspen, Colorado, at
the Cleveland Institute of Music, and at Indiana University. She was
professor of the cello at the Hartt School of Music, 1970–79, and professor
of the cello at Northern Illinois University, 1979–91. Her playing was
distinguished by charm, outgoing temperament, beautiful tone and elegant
technique, which won her wide acclaim among the cellists of her day. She
played a cello by Guadagnini of 1743, formerly owned by Nikolay Graudan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CampbellGC
M. Campbell: ‘Raya Garbousova’, The Strad, c (1989), 762–8
M. Campbell: Obituary, The Independent, 1 Feb 1997
BORIS SCHWARZ/MARGARET CAMPBELL

García.
Family of Spanish, later French and English, musicians. For over a century
they made an impact on the history of opera and of singing in their various
countries of residence. The original family name of García was always
spelt in the manner of the country of residence.
(1) Manuel (del Pópulo Vicente Rodríguez) García (i)
(2) Manuel (Patricio Rodríguez) Garcia (ii)
(3) Gustave Garcia
JAMES RADOMSKI (1), APRIL FITZLYON/JAMES RADOMSKI (2 and 3)
García
(1) Manuel (del Pópulo Vicente Rodríguez) García (i)
(b Seville, 21 Jan 1775; d Paris, 10 June 1832). Composer, tenor, director
and singing teacher. He was baptized Manuel del Pópulo Vicente
Rodríguez in the church of S María Magdalena on 23 January 1775, the
son of a shoemaker, Gerónimo Rodríguez Torrentera (1743–1817), and
Mariana Aguilar (1747–1821). The name ‘del Pópulo’ comes from the
Augustinian convent (S María del Pópulo) near the family’s home. García
seems to have lived a stable family life with his parents, maternal
grandmother and sisters Maria and Rita until he was at least 14, when his
name disappears from the parish censuses of S María Magdalena. After
musical studies in Seville with Antonio Ripa and Juan Almarcha, García
made his début in Cádiz, where he married the singer Manuela Morales in
1797. The next year the couple joined Francisco Ramos’s company in
Madrid. García’s début with the company, in a tonadilla, took place on 16
May 1798 in the Teatro de los Caños del Peral. The premières of his own
tonadillas, El majo y la maja and La declaración, followed in December
1798 and July 1799. After a fight with the military guard at the Teatro del
Príncipe, for which he was briefly imprisoned early in October 1799, García
left Madrid. In 1800–01 he was in Málaga, where he achieved considerable
success as a composer and singer. In a letter to the Marquis of Astorga
dated 29 November 1800 he expressed an interest in returning to Madrid
to promote the cause of Spanish opera. The king’s permission was
solicited by Astorga in March 1801. García returned to Madrid as first tenor
and sang the role of the Count in the Madrid première of Mozart’s Le nozze
di Figaroon 20 May 1802. From this time until 1807 he dedicated himself to
a rigorous schedule of singing, directing and composing. Among García’s
operettas, Quien porfía mucho alcanza and El criado fingido became
extremely popular. The latter continued to be performed up to 1832; Julien
Tiersot argued that it was the famous polo from this work, ‘Cuerpo bueno,
alma divina’, which inspired the entr’acte to the final act of Bizet’s Carmen.
While in Madrid, García also sang in oratorios and concerts at the Caños
del Peral and composed and directed incidental music for plays. Of note
are the choruses with orchestra he composed for performances of Racine’s
Athalieand Esther during Lent 1804. On 28 April 1805 he sang in his
monologue opera El poeta calculista for the first time. It was a tremendous
success: the aria ‘Yo que soy contrabandista’ gained enduring popularity
throughout Europe, and both of his daughters later interpolated it in the
lesson scene of Il barbiere di Siviglia. In 1836 Liszt composed a Rondeau
fantastique based on the aria, which in turn inspired a dramatic work, Le
contrebandier, by George Sand.
In 1806 García was named supernumerary composer of the Teatro del
Príncipe in Madrid. Political problems in the administration, however, led to
his decision to seek his fortune outside Spain. His last operetta composed
there, Los ripios de maestro Adán, was given its première on 18 January
1807. At the beginning of April he departed from Madrid, leaving behind his
wife and two daughters, and after passing through Valladolid, Burgos,
Vitoria, Bayonne and Bordeaux, he settled in Paris with the singer
Joaquina Briones, who became his second wife. He made his début at the
Théâtre de l’Odéon in Paer’s Griselda on 11 February 1808. The following
year, on 15 March, he presented El poeta calculista to the Parisian public
with great success.
In 1811 García travelled to Italy; he sang at Turin before making his début
at the Teatro S Carlo in Naples on 6 January 1812 in Marcos Portugal’s
Oro non compra amore. At this time he began formal vocal training (for the
first time in his life) with the tenor, Giovanni Ansani. García’s Il califfo di
Bagdad and Tella e Dallaton, o sia La donzella di Raab were performed in
Naples in 1813 and 1814 respectively, and it was there in 1815 that he
created the role of Norfolk in Rossini’s Elisabetta, regina d’Inghilterra. In
1816 in Rome he sang Almaviva in the première of Il barbiere di Siviglia
under its original title Almaviva, ossia L’inutile precauzione.
Towards the end of 1816 García and his wife returned to Paris to sing at
the Théâtre Italien. Paolino in Il matrimonio segretowas the role of García’s
rentrée on 16 October. Il califfo di Bagdad had its Paris première on 22
May 1817 at the Théâtre Italien. It was performed regularly until García and
his wife left the company after a contretemps with the director, Mme
Catalani, purportedly resulting from García’s receiving more applause than
she in a single performance of Portugal’s La morte di Semiramide on 20
September 1817. He turned to the Opéra-Comique, where his first French
opera, Le prince d’occasion, was performed on 13 December 1817. In
1818 he travelled to London, appearing at the King’s Theatre with great
success in Otello and Il barbiere di Siviglia.
Now in his vocal prime, García returned to Paris the next year and became
a sensation in roles such as Almaviva, Otello and Don Giovanni (see
illustration). At the same time he composed prolifically and his operas were
given at the Opéra-Comique, the Théâtre Italien and the Gymnase-
Dramatique, as well as the Académie Royale. Most notable was La mort du
Tasse (Opéra, 7 February 1821). While finding fault with the libretto, critics
praised the music, in particular the duet ‘O moment plein d’attraits!’.
Towards the end of 1822 García founded a musical society in Paris, the
Cercle de la rue Richelieu, for which he was censured by the opera
management. Offended, in March 1823 he left Paris for a final season in
London. In 1824 he opened a singing academy in Dover Street and
published his Exercises and Method for Singing. The following October he
embarked for New York with his wife and children, Manuel, Maria (later
Maria Malibran) and Pauline (Pauline Viardot). There he directed the first
performances of opera in Italian in the USA. As well as Rossini’s operas
(Otello, Barbiere, Cenerentola, Tancredi, Il turco in Italia) and his own
(L’amante astuto, La figlia dell’aria), García, at the urging of Lorenzo da
Ponte, presented Mozart’s Don Giovanni. From New York he went in 1827
to Mexico City where he was received with great enthusiasm. After a
debate on language which raged for months in the Mexican press, García
obligingly translated Rossini’s and his own operas into Spanish. El amante
astuto was chosen for the anniversary celebration on 5 October 1828 of
the nation’s constitution of 1824.
García had planned to remain in Mexico, but political events (following
upon the decree of expulsion of all Spaniards in December 1827) forced
him to leave. In December 1828, en route from Mexico City to Veracruz,
García (in a convoy of 500 Spaniards) was robbed of all his New World
earnings by the escort that had been provided by the Mexican government.
He sailed for France on 22 January and made his reappearance as
Almaviva on 24 September 1829. Despite the warm reception from the
public, critics noted that his voice was but a shadow of what it had been.
García was not even able to finish his final performance of Don Giovanni
on 23 December 1829. Undaunted, he dedicated himself fully to teaching,
for which he was extraordinarily gifted. Among his most successful
students, apart from his children, were the tenor Adolphe Nourrit, the
Countess (María de las Mercedes Santa Cruz y Montsalvo) Merlin,
Henriette Méric-Lalande and Josefa Ruiz-García (his daughter by his first
wife). Never ceasing to compose, in 1830 García published a delightful
collection of Spanish songs dedicated to his ‘aficionados’. He continued to
perform, and his tremendous energy ‘in spite of his white hair’ was noted in
the Revue musicale of March 1831. His last appearance, in August 1831,
was in a buffo role in a student performance of Count Beramendi’s Le
vendemie di Xeres. His death certificate shows that he died on 10 June the
following year (not 2 or 9 June, as stated by Fétis and Richard
respectively). He was buried in Père Lachaise cemetery. In his funeral
oration Fétis honoured García above all as a composer, remarking that his
best works remained unpublished. Among his numerous compositions, of
greatest interest are those in a Spanish style where he successfully fused
Andalusian and bel canto elements. An important collection of his songs
has been published (C. Alonso, ed.: Manuel García: Canciones y caprichos
líricos, Madrid, 1994).
Throughout García’s career critics commented above all on the remarkable
flexibility of his voice. He was also praised for his musicianship, skilful
acting and gift of invention. This last led to reproofs for his tendency
towards crowd-pleasing ornamentation. His voice was, according to Fétis,
a deep tenor, enabling him to take the title role of Don Giovanni which,
according to Fétis, he sang with a ‘Herculean force’. His expert delivery of
recitative, as well as the Andalusian fire of his stage presence, made him
ideally suited to dramatic roles such as Otello and Don Giovanni. García’s
dynamic perfectionism left its impact on three continents and his legacy, in
the hands of his children, was carried into the 20th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
GroveO (J. Radomski) [incl. work-list]
P. Richard: ‘Notes biographiques sur Manuel García’, Revue musicale, xii
(1832), 171–4
E. de Olavarría y Ferrari: Reseña histórica del teatro en México, 1535–
1911, i (Mexico City, 1895)
E. Cotarelo y Mori: Estudios sobre la historia del arte escénico en
España, iii: Isidoro Maiquez y el teatro de su tiempo (Madrid, 1902)
J. Tiersot: ‘Bizet and Spanish Music’, MQ, xiii (1927), 566–81
J. Subirá: La tonadilla escénica, iii (Madrid, 1930)
J. Subirá: ‘El operetista Manuel García’, Revista de la Biblioteca, Archivo y
Museo Ayuntamiento de Madrid, xii (1935), 179–96
N. Solar-Quintes: ‘Manuel García, íntimo: un capítulo para su biografía’,
AnM, ii (1947), 98–104
M. Nelson: The First Italian Opera Season in New York City: 1825–1826
(diss., U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1976)
C. de Reparaz: Maria Malibran, 1808–1836: estudio biográfico (Madrid,
1976)
A. Fitzlyon: Maria Malibran: Diva of the Romantic Age (London, 1987)
J. Radomski: The Life and Works of Manuel del Pópulo Vicente García
(diss., U. of California, Los Angeles, 1992)
J. Radomski: Manuel García (1775–1832): chronicle of the Life of a ‘bel
canto’ Tenor at the Dawn of Romanticism (Oxford, 2000)
García
(2) Manuel (Patricio Rodríguez) Garcia (ii)
(b Madrid, 17 March 1805; d London, 1 July 1906). Baritone and singing
teacher, son of (1) Manuel García. He studied singing with his father and
harmony with Zingarelli at Naples in 1814; later he continued with his father
in Paris, where he also studied harmony with Fétis. He sang in his father’s
New York season in 1825 but decided not to pursue an operatic career
after an unsuccessful Paris début as Figaro on 7 October 1828. He did,
however, continue to sing in amateur performances with his father’s
students. After a few months of military service in Algiers in 1830 he carried
out administrative work in military hospitals in France, where he studied the
physiological aspects of the voice. His Mémoire sur la voix humaine,
presented to the Académie des Sciences (Paris, 1841), was the foundation
of all subsequent investigations into the voice, and his invention of the
laryngoscope (1855) brought him world fame. His Traité complet de l’art du
chant (1840–47) remained a standard work for many years. He was a
professor at the Paris Conservatoire (1847–50), and at the RAM, London
(1848–95); he spent the latter half of his life in England. His school of
singing, a perfection of his father’s methods, produced remarkable results.
His pupils included Jenny Lind, Hans Hermann Nissen, Erminia Frezzolini,
Julius Stockhausen, Mathilde Marchesi, Charles Bataille and Charles
Santley. His first wife was Eugénie Mayer (b Paris, 1815; d Paris, 12 Aug
1880), an operatic soprano (active 1836–58) and singing teacher.
WRITINGS
Traité complet de l’art du chant (Paris, 1840–47/R)
‘Mémoire sur la voix humaine’, Comptes-rendus des séances de
l’Académie des sciences (12 April 1841)
‘Observations on the Human Voice’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vii (1854–5), 399–410
Observations physiologiques sur la voix humaine (Paris, 1861)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.G. Tapia: Manuel García, su influencia en la laringología y en a arte del
canto (Madrid, 1905)
M. Sterling Mackinlay: Garcia the Centenarian and his Times (Edinburgh,
1908)
J. Subirá: ‘Dos grandes músicos “desmadrileñizados”: Manuel García
(padre e hijo)’, Anales del Instituto de estudios madrileños, iii (1968),
229–38
García
(3) Gustave Garcia
(b Milan, 1 Feb 1837; d Paris, 15 June 1925). Baritone and singing
teacher, son of (2) Manuel Garcia. He studied with his father, and followed
a theatrical career in England and Italy from 1862 to 1880. He settled in
London in 1874 and for some years had an operatic school in Berners
Street; he also taught at the RAM (1880–90), the RCM (1883–1925) and
the GSM (1883–1910), and published three pedagogical works: The
Actors’ Art (London, 1882), The Singing Teacher’s Notebook (London,
1910) and A Guide to Solo Singing (London, 1914). He married the Italian
soprano L. Martorelli; their son (Angelo) Albert(o) Garcia (b London, 5 Jan
1875; d London, 10 Aug 1946), a baritone, was a pupil of his great-aunt,
Pauline Viardot. He sang in England, France and Germany, and taught at
the RCM and GSM, London. He married the soprano Florence Storm
Taylor.

García (Arancibia), Fernando

(b Santiago, 4 July 1930). Chilean composer. He studied composition with
Orrego-Salas, Botto, Allende-Blin and Becerra-Schmidt; he also studied
musicology. Until September 1973 he held teaching, technical and
managerial posts at the University of Chile's Institute of Further Musical
Education. As a consequence of the coup d'état that year he was obliged to
leave Chile, settling first in Peru and (from 1979) in Cuba. Towards the end
of 1989 he returned to Chile and the arts faculty of the University of Chile,
where he is a professor and sub-editor of the Revista musical chilena and
continues his work as a composer, scholar and educator.
García has introduced to the concert hall a social and political genre called
the ‘Latin-american musical epic’, characterized by the expressive force of
the music, richness of tone and solid compositional skill. In almost all his
works he avoids reference to the traditional tonal system, and in the early
works he adopts 12–note serialism which in his later works is freely
combined with aleatory procedures. Also characteristic is the varied and
elaborate repertory of timbres, especially in his orchestral works, where he
gives free rein to his lucid and dramatic imagination.
 WORKS
(selective list)

ballet and vocal

Ballet: Urania (H. Riveros), 1969
Solo vocal: 4 poemas concretos (F. Gular, D. Pignatari, J.L. Grünewald, A. da
Campo), T, str qt, 1966; Sebastián Vásquez (A. Sabella), S, nar, orch, 1966; Cantos
de otoño (A. Sabella, F. García Lorca), T, pf, 1971; La patria ensangrentada (P.
Neruda), T, 4 perc, 1974; Bestiario (N. Guillén), S, pf, 1987; 5 poemas de ‘Horizon
Carré’ (V. Huidobro), 1v, fl, hp, gui, 1993; Citas textuales (V. Huidobro), 1, cl, pf,
1997; Sombra y horizontes, A solo, fl, a sax, gui, pf, 1998
Other vocal: América insurrecta (Neruda), nar, chorus, orch, 1962; Insectario (D.M.
Loynaz), S, C, T, Bar, pf, 1996; Del reino animal (Loynaz), 1998
instrumental
Orch: Estáticas, 1964; Firmamento sumergido, 1969; Temblor de cielo, 1981;
Crónicas americanas (Neruda), nar, str, 1991; Se une la tierra y el hombre
(Neruda), nar, orch, 1992; Navegaciones, fl, hp, str, 1993; 2 paisajes urbanos, 1997
Chbr: Voz preferida (V. Huidobro), nar, perc, 1960; Tierras ofendidas, fl, ob, cl,
1984; Ventana al camino, str qt, 1985; Viajando con Paul Klee, vc, pf, 1992;
Aconteceres en el traspatio, fl, pf, 1994; Opciones, vn, cl, vc, vib, pf, 1994;
Cuaderno de zoología, vc, pf, 1996; De los sueños, E -cl, pf, 1996; 4 estructuras, 2
tpt, hn, trbn, tuba, 1997
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. García: ‘Chile: música y compromiso’, Música [Havana], no.29 (1972),
16
S. Claro and J. Urrutia Blondel: Historia de la música en Chile (Santiago,
1973)
L. Merino: ‘La Revista musical chilena y los compositores nacionales del
presente siglo: una bibliografía’, RMC, no.163 (1985), 4–69, esp. 32
R. Torres: ‘La creación musical en Chile’, Enciclopedia temática de Chile,
xxi (Santiago, 1988)
RODRIGO TORRES

Garcia, José Maurício Nunes

(b Rio de Janeiro, 22 Sept 1767; d Rio de Janeiro, 18 April 1830). Brazilian
composer. He was the most important composer of his time in Brazil,
where he is generally referred to as José Maurício.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GERARD BÉHAGUE
Garcia, José Maurício Nunes
1. Life.
He was the son of a modest lieutenant, Apolinário Nunes Garcia, and a
black woman, Victoria Maria da Cruz. There is no evidence that he studied
music at the Fazenda Santa Cruz, established by the Jesuits outside Rio
de Janeiro, as has often been reported. It seems that he had some training
in solfège under a local teacher, Salvador José, and he did receive formal
instruction in philosophy, languages, rhetoric and theology. In 1784 he
participated in the foundation of the Brotherhood of St Cecilia, one of the
most important professional musical organizations of the time, and he
officially entered the Brotherhood São Pedro dos Clérigos in 1791. He was
ordained priest on 3 March 1792: the fact that he was a mulatto does not
seem to have interfered in the process of his ordination. Many of his
contemporaries praised his intellectual, artistic and priestly qualities.
On 2 July 1798 Garcia was appointed mestre de capela of Rio de Janeiro
Cathedral, the most significant musical position in the city. The appointment
required him to act as organist, conductor, composer and music teacher;
and he also had the responsibility of appointing musicians. Before that date
he had begun a music course open to the public free of charge. He
maintained this activity for 28 years, teaching some of the best-known
musicians of the time, including Francisco Manuel da Silva. By the arrival
of Prince (later King) Dom João VI and the Portuguese court in 1808,
Garcia’s fame was well established in the colony; he had by then
composed several works, including graduals, hymns, antiphons and
masses. Following the tradition of the Bragança royal house, Dom João
was a patron of music; and Garcia’s talents were immediately recognized.
In 1808 he was appointed mestre de capela of the royal chapel, for which
he wrote 39 works during 1809 alone. The prince’s appreciation was
marked by the bestowal of the Order of Christ. Soon the composer became
fashionable and famous for his skills in improvisation at the keyboard in
noble salons. The Austrian composer Sigismund Neukomm (1778–1858), a
former pupil of Haydn who lived in Rio from 1816 to 1821, referred to
Garcia as ‘the first improviser in the world’.
But after the arrival in 1811 of Marcos Portugal, the most famous
Portuguese composer of his time, Garcia’s position and production tended
to decline. His humility and benevolence kept him from counteracting
Portugal’s intrigues. His activities as composer and conductor concentrated
henceforth on the city’s brotherhoods, although his position at the royal
chapel was nominally maintained. In about 1816 his health began to
decline, considerably reducing his working capacity. Yet on 19 December
1819 he conducted the première in Brazil of Mozart’s Requiem, an event
reported by Neukomm in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung. The return
of Dom João and part of the court to Portugal in 1821 had the effect of
reducing the importance of the city’s musical life. Although Emperor Pedro I
was himself a musician, the years following independence (1822) were not
favourable for artistic development. Financial difficulties and precarious
health undermined Garcia’s last nine years, and he died in extreme
poverty.
Garcia, José Maurício Nunes
2. Works.
According to de Mattos, some 237 of Garcia’s works (including secular and
instrumental works) are extant. The oldest manuscript dates from 1783 (the
antiphon Tota pulchra es) and the last work (Missa de Santa Cecilia) from
1826. His most productive period ranges from about 1795 to 1811. Some
11 works attributed to the composer are of doubtful authorship, mainly on
stylistic grounds. At least 171 undiscovered works are known to have
existed through written references or previous catalogues compiled in the
late 19th century. Among these is an opera Le due gemelle, known to have
been produced at the Teatro Régio in 1809 in observance of Queen Maria
I’s birthday.
Garcia’s production, mostly of sacred music, has been divided into two
distinct periods, but with little justification. Throughout his life, he wrote
major works in a well-defined style, but concurrently produced music of
lesser quality. The years 1810–11, however, showed a change in stylistic
orientation, probably resulting from the new performance possibilities
arising from the presence in Rio of the royal court, and from the influence
of Marcos Portugal. The latter dictated the stylistic trend of Portuguese
music, which continued at that time under the influence of the old
Neapolitan school. Influences from Italian opera permeate Garcia’s mass
settings and other works after about 1810. The Missa de N Sra da
Conceição (1810) contains the clearest evidence of the transformation of
style that affected the sacred music of the colony at that time. Rossinian
bel canto style appears in the solo sections (da capo arias) of this mass,
and there are also concertante passages. The Missa pastoril para a noite
de Natal (1811) recalls the mass settings of Cherubini. This mass calls for
nine solo singers and four-part (SATB) chorus, accompanied by an
orchestra without violins; the elaboration of the viola parts indicates the
presence of accomplished viola players in Rio at that time. (A rather low-
pitched orchestral accompaniment reappears in subsequent works.) The
opening of the Gloria illustrates the prevalence of operatic models, not only
in the three-bar introduction for clarinets but also in the initial unison choral
phrase (ex.1). The arias are highly ornamented and virtuoso; the original
manuscript indicates that the soprano parts were intended for castratos,
brought over with the royal court.
The choral treatment of the early works is generally more refined than that
of later ones in which operatic choral numbers tend to prevail. The simpler,
clearer means of the pre-1808 pieces seem to respond to a desire for
devotional expression. Almost all of the early motets, graduals and pieces
for Holy Week, among others, reveal this intention in different degrees. An
example is the Crux fidelis (Person de Mattos, 205), whose expression is
enhanced by chromaticism in a prevailing homophonic texture (ex.2). But
most of Garcia’s sacred works are for four-part chorus with orchestral
accompaniment. Until about 1800 he frequently had to restrict his orchestra
to strings and a few wind instruments (in general two flutes and two horns),
but after about 1808 he typically included double woodwind, two trumpets
and sometimes a trombone. In later works the clarinet becomes the leading
woodwind instrument. The influences of the Classical Viennese style are
found along with the continuation of Baroque practices. It is known that a
splendid music library was at his disposal, with the best European works of
the time, so it is not surprising that he had a perfect knowledge of
contemporary European musical practices.
The masses form the backbone of Garcia’s output; of some 32 settings
known to have been written, 19 survive, excluding the requiem settings and
Holy Week services. Only seven of the extant masses include the five
sections of the Ordinary, and seven of the remaining ones are limited to the
Kyrie and the Gloria. In spite of their diversity, the masses present some
general characteristics. The Credo is generally short, while the Kyrie and
the Gloria are of large proportions. Garcia showed obvious preferences in
the distribution of solo parts, in the character assigned to the various
movements, and in the use of homophonic or imitative texture in specific
sections. For example, the ‘Christe eleison’ is often treated as a fugue or a
fugato-like section, the ‘Laudamus’ generally appears as a soprano solo or
duet and the ‘Cum Sancto Spiritu’ is often divided into two contrasting
sections, a short and slow one followed by a fugal one on the same text or
on ‘Amen’. The settings written after 1808 present fugato passages or real
fugues more frequently. Not all the elements of fugal procedure are
present; de Mattos drew attention to the rather narrow modulatory scope of
the various expositions, and to the frequent presence in the first subject
exposition of a contrapuntal line which does not function as counter-
subject. In addition, Garcia rarely used the stretto and seldom followed the
conventional practices of fugue writing.
Among the several funeral service settings, the Requiem Mass of 1816 is
considered one of the composer’s best works. Indeed it is one of the most
successful masses ever written in the Americas. Apparently commissioned
by Dom João for the exequies of Queen Maria I, the mass presents the
noble and grandiose character of court funeral music of the time, although
it is not devoid of religious eloquence. It is scored for four-part chorus and
soloists, with strings, two clarinets, two horns, ‘flutes, trumpets and
kettledrums ad libitum’, as described in the autograph. The work presents a
great deal of thematic repetition, suggesting that it had to be composed in
a short period, although the Dies Irae is quite elaborate and given unusual
 proportions. This requiem and the Missa de Santa Cecilia confirm Garcia’s
position as the most distinguished Brazilian composer up to his time.
Garcia, José Maurício Nunes
WORKS
numbers refer to Person de Mattos catalogue, 1970

sacred
19 masses, 102–20, most for SATB, orch, several with org, 12 dated 1801–26; 3
Laudamus te, 157–9, 1–2 S, orch, 1 dated 1821; Qui sedes, 162, only orch pts
extant, 1808; Qui sedes – Quoniam, 163, 2 T, orch, 1818; Quoniam, pts extant for
B, 2 cl, hn; 9 Credo, 121–9, most for SATB, 6 with orch, 3 with org, 2 dated 1808,
1820
Grads: Dies sanctificatus, 130, SATB, orch, 1793; Oculi omnium, 131, SATB, orch,
1793; Tecum principium, 132, SATB, orch, 1793; Dilexisti justitiam, 133, SATB,
orch, 1794; Alleluia, alleluia, 134, SATB, insts, 1795; Alleluia specie tua, 135, SATB,
insts, 1795; Constitues eos principes, 136, SATB, orch, 1795; Virgo Dei genitrix,
137, SATB, orch, 1795; Benedicite Dominum omnes, 138, SATB, orch, 1798;
Discite filiae Sion, 139, SATB, orch, 1798; Alleluia, angelus Domini, 140, SATB,
orch, 1799; Alleluia ascendit Deus, 141, SATB, orch, 1799; Benedictus es Domine,
142, SATB, orch, 1799
Justus cum ceciderit, 143, SATB, orch, 1799; Ad Dominum cum tribularer, 144,
SATB, orch, 1800; Jacta cocitatum tuum, 145, SATB, orch, 1800; Omnes de Saba
venient, 146, SATB, orch, 1800; Alleluia, emitte spiritum tuum, 147, SATB; Dilexisti
justitiam, 148, SATB, orch; Dolorosa et lacrimabilis, 149, SATB, orch; Ego sum
panis vitae, 150, SATB, orch; Emitte spiritum tuum, 151, SATB, insts; Gradual para
o Espíritu Santo, 152, orch pts extant; Hodie nobis coelorum rex, 153, ATB, insts
extant; Os justi meditabitur, 154, SATB, orch; Probasti Domine cor meum, 155,
SATB, orch; Veni Sancte Spiritus, 156, SATB, insts
Seqs: Lauda Sion, 165, SATB, orch, 1809; 3 Stabat mater: 166, ATB, orch, 1809,
167, SATB, orch, 168, SATB, orch; Veni Sancte Spiritus, 169, SATB
Offs: Stetit angelus juxta aram, 160, SATB, org, 1798; Confirma hoc Deus, 161,
SATB
Funeral music: 4 Requiem, 182, 184–5, 190, SATB, insts, 3 dated 1799, 1809,
1816; 2 Libera me, 181, 188, SATB, orch, 1 dated 1799; 2 Ofício de defuntos, 183,
186, SATB, orch, 1799, 1816; Ofício fúnebre, 191, 2 choirs SATB, 2 org;
Responsórios fúnebres, 192, SATB, orch; Regem cui omnia vivunt, invitatory, 187,
SATB, vc pt extant; Memento Dei Deus, 189, SATB, orch
Music for Holy Week: Aleluia Confitemini Domino, 197, SATB, insts, 1799; Aleluia
(para a Missa de Sábado de Aleluia), 201, SATB, orch; Bajulans, 202, SATB, org; 3
Christus factus est, 193, SATB, org, ?1798, 203–4, SATB, orch; Crux fidelis, 205,
SATB; Dextera Domini, 206, SATB, insts; Domine Jesu, 207, SATB, insts; Domine
Jesu (para a Procissão dos Passos), 208, SATB, b; Domini tu mihi lavas pedes,
198, SATB, ?1799; 2 Haec dies, 200–10, SATB, orch; Heu, Domine, 211, SAT;
Jesu, Jesu clamans, 212, SATB, orch; Judas mercator, 199, SSATBB, 1809; Ky, Cr
for Palm Sunday, 213, SATB
Matinas da quarta feira de Trevas, 214, SATB, orch; Matinas da Ressurreição, 200,
SATB, orch, ?1809; 3 Miserere, 194–5, SATB, insts, both 1798, 215, SATB, org;
Motetos para a Procissão dos Passos, 216, SATB, orch; 2 Ofício of Palm Sunday,
217, SATB, orch, 218, SATB, vc, db; 3 Paixão, 219, SATB, 220, SATB, vc, db, 221,
SATB, orch; Popule meus, 222, SATB, insts; Posuerunt (antifona para Benedictus),
196, SATB, org, 1798; Sepulto Domino, 223, SATB; Surrexit Dominus, 224, SATB;
Vexilla regis, 225, SATB
Matins: 2, de Natal, 170, SATB, vc, org, 1799, 170 bis, orch pts extant, 1799–1801;
2, de S Pedro, 171, SATB, org, 1809, 173, SSAATB, bn, org, 1815; de Assunc’ão,
172, SATB, orch, 1813; da Conceição, 174, SATB, orch; de N Sra do Carmo, 175,
SATB, orch; de Cecilia, 176, SATB, orch
Vespers: das dores da N Sra, 177, SATB, orch, 1794; de N Sra, 178, SATB, insts,
1797; do Espírito Santo, 179, SATB, orch, 1820; dos Apóstolos, 180, SATB, insts
Ants: Ave regina caelorum, 6, SATB, org; 3 Ecce Sacerdos, 3, SATB, orch, 1798, 5,
SSAATTBB, insts, 1810, 7, T, b (inc.); 2 Flos carmeli, 8, SATB, without no., SATB,
orch [pt. of 72]; In honorem, 4, SATB, orch, 1807; O sacrum convivium, 9, SATB,
orch; 2 Regina caeli laetare, 10–11, SATB, org; Sub tuum praesidium, 2, SATB,
orch, 1795; Tota pulchra es, 1, SATB, orch, 1783
Hymns (SATB, org, unless otherwise stated): Aeterna Christi munera, 18; A solis
ortus cardine, 19; 2 Ave maris stella, 20–21, 1 with orch; Beata nobis gaudia, 22;
Beate pastor Petre, 23; Crudelis Herodes, 24; Decora lux aeternitatis, 25; Deus
tuorum militum, 26; Domare cordis, 27; Exultet orbis gaudiis, 28; Invicto martyr, 29,
unacc.; Iste confessor, 30; Jam Christus astra ascenderat, 31; Jam sol recedit, 32;
Jesu redemptor omnium, 33; O gloriosa Virginum, 34; O sola magnarum urbium,
35; 2 Pange lingua, 36–7, 1 unacc.; Placare Christe, 38; Quem terra pontus sidera,
39; Quid Lusitanos deserens, 40; Salutis humanae sator, 41; Te Joseph celebrent,
42; Ut queant laxis, 43; 2 Veni Creator Spiritus, 44–5, 1 with insts
Lits: da Novena da N Sra da Conceição, 46, 1798; de N Sra do Carmo, 47, SATB,
orch, 1811; da Novena de N Sra do Carmo, 48, SATB, orch, 1818; da Novena do
Sacramento, 49, SATB, orch, 1822; do Coração de Jesus, 50, SATB, org, 1824; da
Novena de S Joaquim, 51, SATB; da Novena de S Tereza, 51a
Novenas: da Conceição de N Sra, 64, SATB, orch, 1798; de S Bárbara, 65, SATB,
org, 1810; do Apóstolo Pedro, 66, SATB, orch, 1814; 2 de N Sra do Carmo, 67,
SATB, orch, 1818, 72, b pt extant; do Sacramento, 68, SATB, orch, 1822; 2, da
Conceição, 69–70, SATB, orch; de N Sra Mãe dos Homens, 71, SATB, orch; de S
Joaquim, 73, SATB; de S Tereza, 73a, inst pts extant; Setenário para N Sra das
Dores, 74, SATB, insts; Trezena de S Francisco de Paula, 75, SATB, orch, 1817
Motets: Te Christe solum novimus, 52, S, orch, 1800; Ascendens Christus, 53, S, A,
org, 1809; Felix namque, 54, T, T, B, org, 1809; Praecursor Domini, 55, SATB, orch,
1810; Tamquam auram, 56, SATB, orch, 1812; Isti sunt qui viventes, 57, SATB,
orch, 1818; Media nocte, 58, S, orch, 1818; Creator alme siderum, 59, S, insts; Ego
sum panis vitae, 60, SATB, orch; Immutemur habitu, 61, SATB, org; Inter
vestibulum, 62, SATB, org; Moteto para S João Batista, 63, orch pts extant
Canticles, psalms etc: 2 Bendito e Louvado seja, 12–13, SATB, orch, 1814, 1815;
Cantico benedictus, 14, SATB, org, ?1798; Cantico de Zacarias, 15, SATB; 2 Mag,
16–17, SATB, insts, 1797, 1810; 3 Laudate Dominum: 76, SATB, orch, 1813, 78,
SATB, orch, 1821, 80, vn pt extant; 2 Laudate pueri, 77, 79, SATB, orch, 1813,
1821; 11 Tantum ergo, 81–90, vv, insts, 2 unacc., 4 dated 1798–1822; 7 Te Deum,
91–7, vv, insts, 4 dated ?1799–1811
secular
Vocal: Beijo a mão que me condena, 226, S, pf (1837); Côro para o entremês, 227,
SSATB, orch, 1808; O triunfo da América, 228, S, SATB, orch, 1809; Ulissea
(drama heróico), 229, SSATB, orch, 1809
Inst: Sinfonía fúnebre, 230, orch, 1790; Zemira, ov., 231, orch, 1803; Ov., 232, D,
orch; Sinfonía tempestade, 233, orch; Str Qt, 234, ?1801; Pf Piece, 235, E
Didactic: Compêndio de música, 236, 1821
Garcia, José Maurício Nunes
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. de Araújo Pôrto Alegre: ‘Apontamentos sôbre a vida e a obra do Pe:
José Mauricio Nunes Garcia’, Revista do Instituto histórico e
geográfico do Brazil, xix (1856), 354
M. de Araújo Pôrto-Alegre: ‘Marcos e José Mauricio: catalogo de suas
composições musicaes’, Revista trimensal do Instituto histórico,
geográfico e ethnographico do Brazil, xxii (1859), 487–503 [followed
by ‘Copia fiel do original en mão do Sr. Dr. J.M. Nues Garcia’, 504–6]
M. de Andrade: ‘A modinha de José Mauricio’, Ilustração musical, i/3
(1930), 160
L.H.C. de Azevedo: ‘O espírito religioso na obra de José Mauricio’,
Ilustração musical, i/3 (1930), 75
L.H.C. de Azevedo: ‘Obras do padre José Mauricio Nunes Garcia
existentes na biblioteca do Instituto nacional de musica’, Ilustração
musical, i/3 (1930), 81
A. d’Escragnolle Taunay: Dois artistas máximos: José Mauricio e Carlos
Gomes (São Paulo, 1930)
A. d’Escragnolle Taunay: Uma grande glória brasileira José Mauricio
Nunes Garcia (São Paulo, 1930)
M. de Andrade: Música, doce música (São Paulo, 1934/R)
L.H. Corrêa de Azevedo: ‘Um velho compositor brasileiro: José Maurício’,
Boletín latino-americano de música, i (1935), 133–50
R. Tavares de Lima: Vida e época de José Maurício (São Paulo, 1941)
F.C. Lange: ‘Estudios brasileños (Mauricinas) I: manuscritos de la
Biblioteca nacional de Rio de Janeiro’, Revista de estudios musicales,
i/3 (1949–50), 99–194
L.H.C. de Azevedo: 150 anos de música no Brasil (1800–1950) (Rio de
Janeiro, 1956)
F.C. Lange: ‘Sombre las difíciles huellas de la música antigua del Brasil: la
“Missa abreviada” (1823) del Padre José Maurício Nunes Garcia’,
YIAMR, i (1965), 15–40
A. de Andrade: Francisco Manuel da Silva e seu tempo (Rio de Janeiro,
1967)
L.H.C. de Azevedo: A música na côrte portuguêsa do Rio de Janeiro
(1808–1821) (Paris, 1969)
C. Person de Mattos: Catálogo temático das obras do Padre José
Maurício Nunes Garcia (Rio de Janeiro, 1970)
B. Kiefer: História da música brasileira dos primórdios ao início do século
XX (Porto Alegre, 1976)
G. Béhague: Music in Latin America: an Introduction (Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, 1979)
V. Mariz: História da Música no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1981, 4/1994)
C. Person de Mattos: José Maurício Nunes Garcia: biografia (Rio de
Janeiro, 1997)

García, Juan Francisco [‘Don

Pancho’]
 (b Santiago de los Caballeros, 16 June 1892; d Santo Domingo, 18 Nov
1974). Dominican composer. He studied solfège and the cornet at the
Academy of Music in Santiago with José Ovidio García, though he was
self-taught in the cello, the piano and composition. He gained a reputation
for his high range and technical proficiency as a cornettist and trumpeter in
his early career; later he became the principal cellist of the National SO
(founded 1941). He conducted symphonic ensembles and municipal bands
including those of Puerto Plata (1927–9) and Santiago (1941–4). He was
also active as a teacher.
By 1912, García had begun to draw inspiration and material from national
sources in his compositions. His early works include the first published
merengue, considered the national dance genre, Ecos del Cibao (1918).
His first and second string quartets were based on folk motifs; the latter
formed the basis of the Sinfonía Quisqueya (1935). Named after the
indigenous Taíno name for Hispaniola, this is his best-known work, and
was the first and perhaps the most influential Dominican nationalist
symphonic work. Later compositions, not based on folk material, include
the symphonic fantasy Simastral (1947), inspired by theosophy, and the
Fantasía concertante (1949), a Romantic work for piano and orchestra. In
the late 1940s and 50s García returned to composition based on folk
motifs, reworking earlier pieces; he also experimented with dodecaphonic
music. Among his national awards, he was made an officer of the Order of
Duarte, Sánchez and Mella. His writings include Panorama de la musica
dominicana (San Francisco, 1947).
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: El triunfo de Matilde (children’s zar, R.E. Jiménez), 1917; Una gira a la
otra banda (creole zar, B. Juliao), 1922; Goyito-Goyo (creole zar, J.C. Martínez),
1923
Orch: Sym. no.1 ‘Quisqueya’, 1935; Scherzo and Trío, 1940; Advenimiento, ov.,
1941; Scherzo clásico, 1941; Sym. no.2 ‘Ligera’, 1941; Vals-scherzo, 1942; Sym.
no.3 ‘Poemática’, 1944; Simastral, sym. fantasy, 1947; Fantasía concertante, pf,
orch, 1949; Tríade sinfónica (Sym. no.4), 1953; Scherzo criollo; Introduction y
rondo; 4 piezas (Sym. no.5), 1954
Band: Homenaje a la Bandera, ov., 1930; Tramonto-melody; Alborado-rondo; 2
danzas; Danza-merengue; Vals; Sinfonietta, 1941
Chbr: Minuet, Duet, vn, pf, 1917–20; Str Qt no.1, 1922–30; Str Qt no.2, early 1930s;
3 piezas breves, vn, pf, 1967
Pf: 14 caprices, 1933–40; Suite de impresiones (Santo Domingo, 1948); Tríade
no.1, 2 pf; Tríade no.2; Rapsodia dominicana, 1945–50; Suite; Sonatina, 1966;
Tríade no.3, 1970
Vocal: 4 school songs, 1917–30; Ecos del Cibao, 1918; 12 songs, 1924–45; La
bandera, epic song (L.A. Gómez), 1931; merengues (García), 1935

BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.M. Coopersmith: Music and Musicians of the Dominican Republic
(Washington DC, 1949), 28–9
B. Jorge: La música dominicana: siglos XIX–XX (Santo Domingo, 1982)
A. Incháustegui: Por amor el arte: notas sobre música, compositores e
intérpretes dominicanos (Santo Domingo, 1995), 13–17
 MARTHA ELLEN DAVIS

García, Maria-Felicia.
See Malibran, Maria.

García, Pauline.
See Viardot, Pauline.

García Abril, Antón

(b Teruel, 19 May 1933). Spanish composer. He studied music in Valencia
with Pedro Sosa, Manuel Palau and Enrique Gomá, and (from 1953) at the
Madrid Conservatory with Julio Gómez and Francisco Calés. He later
studied composition with Frazzi, conducting with Paul van Kempen and film
music with Lavagnino at the Accademia Chigiana in Siena. In 1964 he
studied with Petrassi in Rome. At the Madrid Conservatory he taught
solfège and music theory (1957–69) and composition and musical forms
(from 1974). His works have won many awards, including those for the best
film scores for La fiel infantería (1960) and No busques los tres pies
(1968), the National Theatre Prize for the musical comedy Un millón de
rosas (1971) and the Segovia prize for Evocaciones (1981). In 1983 he
became a member of the San Fernando Academy of Fine Arts.
The intensity of his efforts as a composer has borne fruit in a variety of
areas: instrumental music for orchestra, chamber ensembles, vocal genres
and an important corpus of music for films and television. His aesthetics
are connected to the more conservative trends in the current musical
scene, with traits, particularly his emphasis on melody, that relate his work
directly to Spanish and Italian traditions. However, García Abril has been
able to combine in his compositions the Mediterranean spirit of his origins
with the enlarged evolutionary sense that one can see in his mature works.
He has transformed his expressive language into something more than
moderation, with a judicious combination of technique and expression. His
work as an educator, teaching generations of young musicians, also stands
out.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Don Juan (ballet, A. Mañas), 1965; Un millón de rosas (musical comedy, J.
Solelo), solo vv, chorus, pic, eng hn, sax, perc, gui, pf, otr, 1971; Danzas y tronío
(ballet), 1984; Doña Francisquita (ballet), 1985 [orch. version of zarzuela by A.
Vives]; Divinas palabras (op., F. Nieva), 1991, Madrid, Real, 18 Oct 1997; Pórtico
de España y América (cant. andaluza, ballet), 1992
Vocal with orch: 3 canciones españolas (F. García Lorca), S, ens, 1962; Cantico
delle creature (St Francis of Assisi), S, Mez, Bar, B, mixed chorus, orch, 1964; 12
canciones (R. Alberti), solo vv, orch, 1969; Cántico de ‘La Pietá’ (A. Gala), S,
chorus, vc, org, str, 1977; Alegrías (cant.-divertimento, M. Romero), boy spkr, mez,
boys’ chorus, orch, 1979; Salmo de la alegría para el siglo XXI (R. Alberti), S, str
orch, 1988
Unacc. chorus: Hold the Vision in our Hearts (H. Keller), 1987; Cantar de soledades
(A. Machado), 1989
Orch: Conc, str, 1962; Pf Conc., 1966; Cadenzias, vn, orch, 1972; Piezas áureas,
suite, 1974; Homenaje a Sor, gui, orch, 1978; Concierto aguedino, gui, orch, 1978;
Evocaciones, gui suite, 1981; Celibidachiana, conc. for orch, 1982; Canciones y
danzas para Dulcinea, 1985; Concierto mudéjar, gui, str, 1985
Incid. music: Divinas palabras (R.M. del Valle Inclán), 1961; Calígula (A. Camus,
version by J.E. Escué Porta), 1963; Luces de Bohemia (del Valle Inclán), 1971; La
Celestina (F. de Rojas; version by C.J. Cela), 1977; La mocedades del Cid (F.
García Lorca), 1990
Film music: La fiel infantería (dir. P. Lazaga), 1959; No busques los tres pies, 1968;
Los pájaros de Baden Baden (dir. M. Camus), 1975; El crimen de Cuenca (dir. P.
Miró), 1979; Gary Cooper que está en los cielos (dir. Miró), 1980; La Colmena (dir.
Camus), 1982; Monsignor Quixote (dir. R. Bennet), 1984; La rusa (dir. Camus),
1986
Chbr music; songs, 1v, pf; music for pf

Principal publishers: Alpuerto, Bolamar, Real Musical

BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Cabañas Alamán: Antón García Abril: sonidos en libertad (Madrid,
1994)
E. Trujillo: ‘Antón García Abril, a la cabeza del éxito’, Ritmo [Madrid] (Jan
1994), 14–16
A. Charles Soler: ‘Libre tonalidad: Antón García Abril, análisis de
“Cadencias” y “Homenaje a Mompou”’, Nassarre, xi/1–2 (1995), 53–97
Divinas palabras, Madrid, Teatro Real, October 1997 [programme book]
MARTA CURESES

García de Basurto, Juan

(b Calahorra diocese, c1490; d ?Oct 1547). Spanish composer. Despite
assertions to the contrary, he never served Cardinal Ximénez de Cisneros.
On 15 April 1517 the cathedral chapter at Tarazona, recognizing his
superior singing ability, hired him at an annual salary of 1200 sueldos,
increased on 14 May 1518 to 1600 sueldos (100 gold florins). He left the
cathedral shortly before 1 March 1521, presumably to accept the post of
maestro de capilla at Nuestra Señora del Pilar, Zaragoza. However, on 28
September 1521 he was named cantor, maestro del coro and master of the
boy singers at Palencia Cathedral, a post he held until 22 August 1524.
After 1531 he may have sung in the chapel of Isabella, consort of the Holy
Roman Emperor Charles V (Charles I of Spain). On 15 October 1539 he
was appointed maestro de capilla to Cardinal Juan Tavera at a munificent
annual salary of 50,000 maravedís. He remained in this post until 26
September 1543 when he was transferred to the newly formed chapel of
Prince Philip, in whose service he remained until his death.
His Easter motet Angelus Domini locutus est, which is extant in two
intabulations for vihuela, is clearly tonal, and makes effective use of
 contrast between duos and trios in upper and lower voice. Basurto's chief
extant work is the four-voice Missa in agendis mortuorum which is copied
in E-TZ 5 and probably dates from after 1525. Only the introit, Kyrie and
gradual are assuredly by Basurto. The interpolated tract for two high voices
is the ‘Sicut cervus’ from Ockeghem's Requiem copied in I-Rvat Chigi
C.VIII.234, while the communion is from Antoine Brumel's Missa pro
defunctis (see Russell).
WORKS
2 motets intabulated for vihuela in 155235, 1 also in 15768; 1 Requiem, 2 motets,
4vv, E-TZ; Magnificat [1 page only], Tc; 2 motets, 4vv, formerly in Mmc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StevensonRB
StevensonSCM
J.B. de Elústiza and G. Castrillo Hernández: Antología musical: siglo de
oro de la música litúrgica de España (Barcelona, 1933), p.xlv
H. Anglès: La música en la corte de Carlos V, MME, ii (1944, 2/1965/R)
J. Moll Roqueta: ‘Músicos de la corte del Cardenal Juan Tavera (1523–
1545)’, AnM, vi (1951), 155–78, esp. 163
J. Sevillano: ‘Catálogo musical del Archivo Capitular de Tarazona’, AnM,
xvi (1961), 149–76, esp. 157
E. Russell: ‘The Missa in agendis mortuorum of Juan García de Basurto,
Johannes Ockeghem, Antoine Brumel, and an Early Spanish
Polyphonic Requiem Mass’, TVNM, xxix (1979), 1–37
J. López Calo: La música en la cathedral de Palencia (Palencia, 1980),
458
ROBERT STEVENSON

García Demestres, Albert

(b Barcelona, 16 May 1960). Catalan composer. He qualified in piano and
voice at the Barcelona Conservatory, and his later teachers included Berio.
Having initially dedicated himself to poetry, he turned to composition after
meeting Soler, from whom he gained a sense of the transcendental nature
of the composer's craft and the attraction for Berg which is evident in some
of his early works. His music is full of references to the music of the past
(especially to opera), skilfully interwoven and leaving ample room for
humour.
WORKS
(selective list)

2 dúos, hn, 1979; Pensamientos antes de la muerte, fl, perc, 1980; Escenas tristes,
pf, 1981–2; 7 canciones de soledad, vc, pf, 1982; Imatges amb dona, fl, pf, 1985;
Lunas y peces, inst ens, 1988; Slap, chorus, 1988

ANGEL MEDINA

García de Salazar, Juan

(b Tuesta, Alava, bap. 12 Feb 1639; d Zamora, 8 July 1710). Spanish
composer. He was a choirboy at Burgos Cathedral, where he studied
composition with the maestro de capilla Francisco Ruiz Samaniego. In
November 1661 he was appointed maestro de capilla at the collegiate
church in Toro, and in May 1663 he was elected to a similar post at El
Burgo de Osma Cathedral. From 1668 until his death he was maestro de
capilla at Zamora Cathedral.
Only a few of his numerous settings of Spanish texts, and of his
compositions in modern style, are extant, but several a cappella works
survive. These date from his Zamora years, but he sent copies of several
of them to the cathedral chapters of El Burgo de Osma and Burgos in
token of his gratitude to them. They consist of masses, hymns, motets etc.,
all in the stile antico and yet full of expression and often quite modern in
idiom. They show him to have been a skilful contrapuntist.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Preciado: ‘Juan García de Salazar, maestro de capilla en Toro, Burgo
de Osma y Zamora (†1710)’, AnM, xxxi–xxxii (1976–7), 65–113
J. López-Calo: La música en la catedral de Zamora, i: Catálogo del
archivo de música (Zamora, 1985)
A.L. Iglesias: En torno al barroco musical español: el oficio y la misa de
difuntos de Juan García de Salazar (Salamanca, 1989)
JOSÉ LÓPEZ-CALO

García de Zéspedes [Céspedes],

Juan
(b ?Puebla, 1619; d Puebla, 5 Aug 1678). Mexican singer, viol player and
composer. He was appointed as a soprano at Puebla Cathedral on 16
August 1630, with an initial stipend of 50 pesos to cover the cost of choir
robes; in January the following year the cathedral chapter offered him the
annual salary of 80 pesos, and in 1632 it was almost doubled to 150
pesos. In the ensuing decades the chapter experienced economic
problems, and García's salary began to diminish in 1651, although his
prestige within the cathedral hierarchy was ascending. The Capitular Acts
of 19 June 1654 assigned him the tasks ‘of teaching plainchant, polyphony,
and viols to the young choirboys that are sopranos and to the other cantors
who are worthy of instruction, and that he give lessons every day at the
Church’. Robert Stevenson has pointed out that this job description is
slightly unorthodox, for under normal circumstances the maestro de capilla
(in this case Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla) would have assumed these tasks;
however, in 1658 and 1660 Padilla was formally urged to respect his
teaching obligations, but to no avail, so the work fell to the younger García.
In the August following Padilla's death (April 1664) García was appointed
interim maestro de capilla with a pay increase of 150 pesos on top of his
salary as a singer; the post became permanent in 1670. In July 1672 the
chapter expressed displeasure that he was neglecting the teaching of
plainchant and polyphony to two choirboys, and in the same year he was
instructed to bring back ‘the viols, music paper, and books that belong to
this Church’ that he had been borrowing. He was chastised again in 1676
 for sloughing off and not recruiting with the vigour that the chapter
expected, and he was also found to be emphasizing instrumentalists at the
expense of singers. Late in life his health declined and he became
paralysed.
His surviving compositions reveal him as a composer adept at several
styles. He was capable of handling rigorous counterpoint, as is amply
demonstrated by his seven-voice Salve regina. He captured the spirit of the
Mexican villancicos in his vivacious Convidando está la noche, which
opens with an introductory juguete (vocal prelude) in majestic, four-voice
homophonic chords, and proceeds with a guaracha for two voices, opening
with ‘Ay que me abrazo ¡ay!’. The piece is driven forward by a hypnotic
rhythmic hemiola coupled with inexorable loops of I–IV–V harmonies. It
exhibits the defining characteristics of the guajira that was later to become
popular in Cuba.
WORKS
Convidando está la noche; ed. R. Stevenson, Inter-American Music Review, vii/1
(1985), 47–8
Litany, inc., 6vv, Centro Nacional de Investigación, Documentación e Información
Musical, Mexico City
A la mar va mi Niña (villancico), 8vv, Centro Nacional de Investigación,
Documentación e Información Musical, Mexico City
(Christmas villancico), 4vv, Gabriel Saldívar family's private collection, Mexico City
Hermoso amor que forxas tus flechas (romance), 4vv, 1671, Centro Nacional de
Investigación, Documentación e Información Musical, Mexico City
Plange quasi virgo plebs mea (motet), 4vv, Puebla Cathedral, Mexico
Salve regina, 7vv, 1673, Puebla Cathedral, Mexico
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Stevenson: Introduction to Christmas Music from Baroque Mexico
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1974), esp. 45–46
R. Stevenson: Latin American Colonial Music Anthology (Washington DC,
1975)
R. Stevenson: ‘Puebla Chapelmasters and Organists: Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries, Part II’, Inter-American Music Review, vi/1
(1983–4), 29–139, esp. 111–18
R. Stevenson: Renaissance and Baroque Musical Sources in the
Americas (Washington DC, 1970)
Introduction to 13 Obras de la Colección J. Sánchez Garza, Tesoro de la
Música Polifónica en México, ii, ed. F. Ramírez Ramírez (Mexico City,
1981)
CRAIG H. RUSSELL

García Fajer, Francisco Javier

[Garzia, Francesco Saverio; ‘Lo
Spagnoletto’]
(b Nalda, La Rioja, 2 Dec 1730; d Zaragoza, 9 April 1809). Spanish
composer. He was trained as a cathedral choirboy in Zaragoza and then
 went to Naples, where he allegedly studied at the Conservatorio della Pietà
dei Turchini. At least from April 1752 he was maestro di cappella at Terni
Cathedral, where he engaged several Neapolitan singers. In 1752 he
composed the oratorio Il Tobia and two years later La Susanna, both for
the Oratorio dei Filippini in Rome and dedicated to Cardinal Gian
Francesco Albani; Il Tobia was performed again in Rome as late as 1773.
Between 1754 and 1756 García Fajer composed three comic pieces and
an opera seria, Pompeo Magno, for Roman theatres. La pupilla was later
performed at Mannheim and Vienna in 1763; La finta schiava was also
given in Bologna (1756) and Bonn (1767).
García Fajer was appointed maestro de capilla at La Seo Cathedral in
Zaragoza on 20 March 1756, replacing José Lanuza. He remained in
Zaragoza until his death, refusing an offer to become maestro de capilla at
Santiago de Compostela in 1769. In the same year he complained of ill-
health, and eventually in 1784 his duties were reduced to the training of the
choirboys.
García Fajer's long tenure at Zaragoza coincided with the growing
suppression of the Spanish devotional villancicos and cantatas traditionally
sung at Matins at Christmas and Epiphany in place of the Latin
responsories. (This did not apply to the arias known as villancicos al
Santísmo, sung during Mass, which García Fajer regularly composed in the
Italian operatic style.) By 1775 villancicos were regularly replaced by
liturgical responsories at both the Pilar and La Seo cathedrals in Zaragoza;
García Fajer composed his first dated set in 1773. From 1761 he
composed an oratorio each year to celebrate the local feast of St Dominic
del Val, patron saint of choirboys. In the 1790s he actively promoted his
compositions as ‘reformed’ and tried to influence practice at the main
Spanish cathedrals. He openly criticized some of the music performed at
La Seo as ‘arrebatada e impía’ in 1793, and he presented a new set of
masses to the chapter the following year. He later sent responsories to
several other cathedrals.
Although the exact significance of García Fajer's ‘reformed’ compositions
and their relation to the enlightened political changes in Spain during the
second half of the 18th century has still to be assessed, it is clear that he
exerted a crucial influence on Spanish church music through the
extraordinary dissemination of his works in the Hispanic world; copies
survive in Lima (the Archivo Arzobispal), Mexico City (the cathedral and
Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia) and Santiago (the cathedral
and Biblioteca Nacional). He also had an impact through his pupils, who
included his assistant Baltasar Juste, Mariano Rodríguez de Ledesma and
Ramón Félix Cuéllar y Altarriba.
WORKS
dramatic
Il Tobia (componimento sacro, G.B. Visconti), Rome, 1752, A-Wgm
La Susanna (componimento sacro), Rome, 1754, music lost, lib I-MAC
La finta schiava (int), Rome, Pace, carn. 1754, 2 arias GB-Lbl; lib I-Bc
Pompeo Magno in Armenia (os, 3, A. Guidi), Rome, Dame, carn. 1755, P-La
La pupilla (farsetta, 2, A. Lungi), Rome, Valle, 1755, music lost, lib I-Bc
Lo scultore deluso (int, 1), Rome, Valle, carn. 1756, music lost, lib US-Wc

Sp. orats: 1761; Plausible triunfo del valeroso infante Santo Dominguito de Val,
1763; Zaragoza laureada, 1766; 1768, private collection, Zaragoza; El valor
acrisolado en la fragua del Amor, 1780, Hemeroteca, Zaragoza; 1787
sacred
principal sources: E-BUa, E, GRc, H, J, SA, V, VAc, Zac

Lat.: 86 masses; 15 Cr; 6 seqs; 9 ants; 11 canticles; 112 responsories; 83 psalms; 2

Ave Maria; 5 Stabat mater; 24 Salve regina; 24 motets; 7 hymns; 4 cants.
Sp.: 42 villancicos; 3 Siete palabras; 1 song

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grove O (X.M. Carreira)
F. Latassa: Biblioteca nueva de los escritores aragoneses, vi (Zaragoza,
1802), 65–7
E. Forbes, ed.: Thayer's Life of Beethoven (Princeton, NJ, 1964, 2/1967)
J.J. Carreras: La música en las catedrales en el siglo XVIII: F.J. García
(1730–1809) (Zaragoza, 1983)
M. Sánchez Siscart: El oratorio barroco en Aragón y su contexto
hispánico (diss., U. of Saragossa, 1992)
R. Fraile: ‘F.J. García Fajer: hacia una biografía crítica’, Berceo, cxxxvi
(1999)
JUAN JOSÉ CARRERAS (text, bibliography), RAÚL FRAILE (work-list)

García Gutiérrez, Antonio

(b Chiclana, nr Cádiz, 5 Oct 1813; d Madrid, 26 June 1884). Spanish
playwright. He gave up medicine to devote himself to poetry and the
theatre, but spent most of his later life in government service (including a
spell in London). From 1872 to 1884 he was director of the Museo
Arqueológico in Madrid. He was an enthusiastic admirer of the French
Romantic theatre in its more extravagant manifestations, which he
developed to excess in his own work. His output covered a wide range of
genres, including zarzuelas, but his musical reputation rests on the use of
his plays for librettos. El trovador (1836), his first triumphant success, was
used first by Francisco Porcell (1842, Pamplona; libretto by A. Porcell),
then by Francesco Cortesi (1852, Trieste; libretto by A. Lanari) and finally
by Verdi (1853, Rome; libretto by Cammarano). Simón Bocanegra (1843)
was also used by Verdi (1857, Venice; libretto by F.M. Piave); in 1857 Verdi
expressed interest in El tesorero del rey by García Gutiérrez and Asquerino
(though the project came to nothing), and again, in 1870, he sent for a
copy of La venganza catalana.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N.B. Adams: The Romantic Dramas of García Gutiérrez (New York, 1922)
Z. Sacks: ‘Verdi and Spanish Romantic Drama’, Hispania, xxvii (1944),
451–65
P. Menarini: ‘Dal dramma al melodramma, ii: I tre libretti “spagnoli” di
Verdi’, Biblioteca storico giuridica e artistico letteraria: letteratura,
musica, teatro, lxxii (1977), 1–41
D. Puccini: ‘Il “Simon Boccanegra” de Antonio García Gutiérrez e l’opera di
Giuseppe Verdi’, Studi verdiani, iii (1985), 120–30
JOHN BLACK

García Leoz, Jesús.

See Leoz, Jesús García.

García Lorca, Federico

(b Fuente Vaqueros, nr Granada, 5 June 1898; d Víznar, nr Granada, ?19
Aug 1936). Spanish poet and dramatist. His fascination with Spanish
folklore and Gypsy flamenco music coloured much of his poetry. He is
reported to have hummed tunes before he learnt to talk, and his early
training was musical: soon after 1909, in Granada, he studied the piano
with Antonio Segura and then with Francisco Benítez. From 1914 he
studied at Granada and from 1920 at Madrid University, reading law,
philosophy and letters. Between 1919 and 1928 he lived at the Residencia
de Estudiantes in Madrid where he met, among others, Buñuel, Dalí,
Turina, Sainz de la Maza and the musicologists Martínez Torner and
Salazar. He first met Falla in Granada in 1919, wrote penetratingly about
his music (see the editions of Gallego Morell and Eisenberg) and
collaborated with him on several occasions, notably in 1922 when they
organized a celebrated concourse of cante jondo, in 1923 when they
performed plays and a puppet show in the Lorcas' home, and in the same
year when they put on a ‘fiesta for children’ (see Pahissa, Laffranque and
Río). In 1931 he was appointed director of La Barraca, a student travelling
theatre, for which he himself wrote incidental music. In the early days of the
Civil War he was shot, apparently by supporters of Franco, for his left-wing
sympathies.
Although Torner and Trend said that Lorca made his own collections of
Spanish folksongs, he also drew on other cancioneros, especially the
Renaissance songbooks of Barbieri and Pedrell and modern ones by
Olmeda, Ledesma, Torner and Schindler. Something of a latterday minstrel,
he refused to write down his arrangements of songs, but he did make a
recording of a judicious selection sung by La Argentinita accompanied by
himself at the piano, and these pieces were subsequently transcribed
anonymously and published by the Hispanic Institute in New York (see
Río).
A large number of musical works have been based on García Lorca's
writings. His play Amor de don Perlimplín con Belisa en su jardín(1931)
inspired operas by Vittorio Rieti (1949), Fortner (1962) and Coria (1992), a
radio opera by Maderna (1962) and a ballet, Il mantello rosso(1954), by
Nono. Fortner (1957), J.J. Castro (1943), Szokolay (1964) and LeFanu
(1992) wrote stage works on the drama Bodas de sangre (1933), and its
flamenco treatment by the Spanish dancer Antonio Gades was successfully
filmed by Carlos Saura (1981). Among George Crumb's many settings of
his texts are four books of madrigals (1964–9) and Ancient Voices of
Children(1970). Other composers who have written pieces based on or
inspired by García Lorca's works include Shostakovich (in his 14th
Symphony), David Macbride and Simon Holt. Several works
commemorated García Lorca's death, including Poulenc's Sonata for violin
and clarinet (1942–3) and Nono's Epitaffio per Federico García Lorca
(1952–3).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (J. Sage)
A. del Rio: Federico García Lorca (1899–1936): vida y obra – bibliografia
– antologia – obras inéditas – música popular (New York, 1941)
A. del Hoyo, ed.: F. García Lorca: Obras completas (Madrid, 1957,
enlarged 2/1963) [with music]
M. Laffranque: Les idées esthétiques de Federico García Lorca (Paris,
1967)
D. Eisenberg: Textos y documentos lorquianos (Tallahassee, FL, 1975)
D. Eisenberg: ‘Musical Settings of Lorca Texts’, García Lorca Review, iii
(1975), 29–35 [see also ‘Additions and Corrections’, iv (1976), 32–3]
F. López Estrada: ‘El romance de “Don Bueso” y la canción “La
peregrinita” en el cancionero folklorico de Antequera’, De los
romances-villancico a la poesía de Claudio Rodríguez, ed. J.M. López
de Abiada and A. López Bernasocchi (Madrid, 1984), 253–63
C. Maurer: ‘Lorca y las formas de la música’, Lecciones sobre Federico
García Lorca, ed. A. Soria Olmedo (Granada, 1986), 237–350
V. Higginbotham: ‘Lorca's Soundtrack: Music in the Structure of his Poetry
and Plays’, ‘Cuando yo me muera …’: Essays in Memory of Federico
García Lorca, ed. C.B. Morris (Lanham, MD, 1988), 191–207
A.G. Loureiro, ed.: Estelas, laberintos, nuevas sendas: Unamuno, Valle-
Inclán, García Lorca, la Guerra Civil (Barcelona, 1988)
L'imposibile/posibile di Federico García Lorca: Salerno 1988, ed. L. Dolfi
(Naples, 1989)
L. Pestalozza and others: Federico García Lorca nella musica
contemporanea (Milan, 1990)
E. Casares: ‘El Lorca músico en “Llanto por Ignacio Sánchez Mejías”’, De
Frederico García Lorca a Maurice Ohana, ed. F. Deval (Avignon,
1992), 113–25
M. García-Posada, ed.: F. García Lorca, v (Madrid, 1992)
R.D. Tinnell: Federico García Lorca y la música: catálogo y discografía
anotados (Madrid, 1993)
F. Porras Soriano: Los títeres de Falla y García Lorca (Madrid, 1995)
A.A. Anderson: ‘Bibliografía lorquiana reciente’, Boletín de la Fundación
Federico García Lorca, xix–xx (1996), 393–403
JACK SAGE/ALVARO ZALDÍVAR

García Mansilla, Eduardo

(b Washington, DC, 7 March 1871; d Paris, 9 May 1930). Argentine
composer. Son of an Argentine ambassador, he spent most of his life
abroad, studying music in France, in Vienna with Carl Fuchs and in St
Petersburg with Rimsky-Korsakov. He also received advice from Massenet
and Saint-Saëns in Paris. As a diplomat, his interest in music remained
amateur. However, his technique and artistry was equal to that of
professional composers from Argentina of the time. He helped in particular
 to develop the song genre, setting contemporary French poetry in the
main, but also Italian and Spanish, including texts by his brother Daniel and
himself. He also composed sacred vocal works to French and Latin. Much
of García Mansilla’s music was played in fashionable European salons and
published in Paris. He composed orchestral music, choral-symphonic
works and two operas. Ivan (1901), based on a traditional Ukrainian legend
with a French libretto by the composer, was first performed in St
Petersburg and dedicated to Tsar Nicholas II. The opera was subsequently
staged in Milan, Rome (the title role taken by Schipa) and Buenos Aires. La
angelical Manuelita (1915), by contrast, is set in Argentina to a Spanish
libretto; as the country’s first nationalistic opera, it retains a historical
significance.
WORKS
Ops: Ivan (1 act and 3 tableaux, García Mansilla), 1901, staged St Petersburg; La
angelical Manuelita (2, García Mansilla), 1915, Buenos Aires, Colón, 5 Aug 1917
Other works: Chant pour le temps de Noël, 4 solo vv, orch, 1892; Oraison
dominicale (Lord’s Prayer), 1v, pf, vc (Buenos Aires, 1893); Chant hivernal, orch
prelude, c1900
4 symphonic works; 1 work, solo vv, chorus, orch; 66 songs, 1v, pf; 17 sacred songs
with inst acc.; 3 vocal duets; 12 pf works; chbr works
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.M. Veniard: Los García, los Mansilla y la música (Buenos Aires, 1986),
218ff
JUAN MARÍA VENIARD

García Matos, Manuel

(b Plasencia, 4 Jan 1912; d Madrid, 26 Aug 1974). Spanish collector of and
writer on folk music. He studied the violin, flute, piano and composition with
Joaquín Sánchez, the maestro de capilla of Plasencia Cathedral. By the
time he was 18 he had founded a choir in his home town, the Masa Coral
Placentina, which he conducted; subsequently he reorganized the choir
into smaller groups, the Coros Extremeños, better suited to performing his
own versions of the increasing number of Extremaduran folksongs he
collected. In 1941 he was appointed assistant lecturer in folklore at the
Madrid Conservatory and then professor (provisionally 1951, confirmed
1958). He was commissioned by the Instituto Español de Musicología from
the year of its inception (1944) to do research on folksong and was the
initiator of the first International Congress of Folklore to be held in Spain
(Palma, 1952). He was a member of the UNESCO international committee
on music and of the executive of the International Folk Music Council.
García Matos estimated that between 1942 and 1967 he notated or
recorded over 10,000 songs, tunes and dances from virtually every region
of Spain, of which 800 were published in the Cancionero popular de la
provincia de Madrid (1951–60) and some appeared as records under the
auspices of UNESCO entitled Antología del folklore musical de España
(Madrid, 1960–71). His scholarly reputation as an authority on Spanish
folk, traditional and popular music in the line of Pedrell and Torner was
established with his articles on ‘Cante flamenco’ (1950) and ‘Folklore en
Falla’ (1953). In 1955 he accepted a commission from the Sección
Femenina Falangist Movement to devise a system for notating the
choreography of traditional Spanish dances, a system which bore fruit in
the Danzas populares de España (1957–71), and in 1964 he began an
inventory of Spanish folk-music themes for the Sociedad General de
Autores de España. The bulk of his collection, unedited, is owned by the
Instituto Español de Musicología, Barcelona, the Hispavox Record
Company, and his trustees.
WRITINGS
Lírica popular de la Alta Extremadura (Madrid, 1944)
‘Cante flamenco: algunos de sus presuntos orígenes’, AnM, v (1950), 97–
124
Cancionero popular de la provincia de Madrid, ed. M. Schneider and J.
Romeu Figueras (Barcelona and Madrid, 1951–60)
‘Folklore en Falla’, Música [Sectión de musicología contemporanea],
nos.3–4 (1953), 41–68; no.6 (1953), 33
‘Instrumentos musicales folklóricos de España’, i: ‘Las xeremías de la Isla
de Ibiza’, AnM, ix (1954), 161–78; xiv (1959), 77; ii: ‘La gaita de la
sierra de Madrid’ and iii: ‘La alboka vasca’, xi (1956), 123–63
Danzas populares de España, i: Castilla la Nueva (Madrid, 1957); ii:
Extremadura (Madrid, 1964); iii: Andalucía (Madrid, 1971)
‘Bosquejo histórico del cante flamenco’, Una historia del cante flamenco,
Hispavox HH 1023–4 (1958) [disc notes]
‘Viejas canciones y melodías en la música instrumental popular de las
danzas procesionales practicadas en España’, Miscelánea en
homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona, 1958–61), 283–305
‘La canción popular española’, Antología del folklore musical de España,
Hispavox HH 10/107–10, 356–9 (1960–71) [disc notes]
‘Sobre algunos ritmos de nuestro folklore musical’, AnM, xv (1960), 101–
31; xvi (1961), 27–54
‘Pervivencia en la tradición actual de canciones populares recogidas en el
siglo XVI por Salinas en su tratado De musica libri septem’, AnM, xviii
(1963), 67–84
‘El folklore en La vida breve de Manuel de Falla’, AnM, xxvi (1971), 173–97
Sobre el flamenco: recopilación de estudios e investigaciones realizadas
sobre los origenes, la evolución y el desarrollo del flamenco (Madrid,
1987)
JACK SAGE

García Morillo, Roberto

(b Buenos Aires, 22 Jan 1911). Argentine composer and music critic. He
studied at the Buenos Aires National Conservatory with Ugarte (harmony),
Gil (counterpoint), Gaito (orchestration) and André (composition), later
taking lessons in Paris with Nat. In 1952 a grant from the Dante Alighieri
Society enabled him to travel to Italy where he studied the development of
the lyric theatre. He was appointed music critic of La nación of Buenos
Aires in 1938 and has contributed to Argentine and North American
periodicals. In 1942 he joined both the national and the municipal
conservatories in Buenos Aires as a composition professor. A prolific and
 diverse composer, he has developed an individual, non-nationalist style.
There are occasional hints of the archaic in his work, and nearly all of it
shows the influence of Spanish culture – its harshness, seriousness and
introversion. This feeling for Spain appeared first in Las pinturas negras de
Goya for six instruments (1939), a work that also shows his predilection for
basing compositions on pictorial or literary works; it received the Buenos
Aires municipal prize in 1939. One of his finest stage pieces is the mime
drama Usher, which was first choreographed by Massine and which
received the Buenos Aires municipal music prize of 1942. In later years
García Morillo came to take an interest in new compositional
developments. In addition to his newspaper and magazine criticism he has
written several books: Musorgsky (1943); Rimsky-Korsakov (1945);
Estudios sobre la danza (in collaboration with Dora Kriner, 1948), Siete
músicos europeos (1949), Carlos Chávez, vida y obra (1960), and
Estudios sobre música argentina (1984).
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Usher (mime drama, after E.A. Poe), 1940–41; Harrild (ballet, after H.
Jacques), 1941; Moriana (cant. coreográfica, after Sp. romance), 1957–8, Colón,
1958; Tungasuka (incid music, B.C. Feijoo), 1963; film scores
Choral: Marín (cant.), T, chorus, orch, 1948–50; El tamarit (chbr cant., F. García
Lorca), 1953
Orch: Berseker, 1933; 3 pinturas de Paul Klee, 1944; 3 syms., 1946–8, 1954–5,
1961; Variaciones olímpicas, 1958; 3 pinturas de Piet Mondrian, 1960; Ciclo sobre
Dante Alighieri, 1970; Dionysos, 1971
Chbr: Qt, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1935–7; Las pinturas negras de Goya, fl, cl, bn, pf, vn, vc,
1939; Str Qt no.1, 1950–51; Divertimento sobre tema de Paul Klee, wind qnt, 1967,
orchd 1970
Pf: 5 sonatas, 12 other works

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Compositores de América/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan American
Union, viii (Washington DC, 1962)
R. Arizaga: Enciclopedia de la música argentina (Buenos Aires, 1971)
G. Béhague: Music in Latin America: an Introduction (New Jersey, 1979)
M. Ficher, M.Furman Schleifer and J.M. Furman: Latin American
Classical Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and
London, 1996)
SUSANA SALGADO

García Pacheco, Fabián

(b Escalonilla, Toledo, c1725; d Madrid, c1808). Spanish composer. He
was admitted as a seise on 23 July 1735 in Toledo Cathedral where he
studied with Casellas. In 1756 he was maestro de capilla of Soledad
church in Madrid and in 1770 at Victoria convent. After making a reputation
as a composer of sainetes, tonadillas and incidental stage music he was
commissioned to write the music for Ramón de la Cruz's two-act zarzuela
En casa de nadie no se meta nadie o el Buen marido, staged at the Teatro
 del Príncipe in Madrid on 28 September 1770 (music in E-Mm). No
religious music by any of his Iberian contemporaries circulated more widely
in Spain and Spanish America; important collections of his orchestral
villancicos and of Latin music survive at the Archivo nacional in Sucre
(Bolivia; formerly at Sucre Cathedral), at the Archivo Arzobispal in Lima and
in Spanish libraries (including E-Ac, CU, E, LPA, Mn, PAL). Two of his
villancicos have been published in Antología musical colonial americana,
ed. W.A. Roldán (Buenos Aires, 1986). He prized nothing so much as
vigour and cheerfulness, even going beyond Haydn by heading a
Crucifixus ‘allegro brillante’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StevensonRB
J. Subirá: La música en la Casa de Alba (Madrid, 1927), 335ff
J. Subirá: Tonadillas teatrales inéditas, libretos y partituras (Madrid, 1932),
16–17, 300
E. Cotarelo y Mori: Historia de la zarzuela (Madrid, 1934), 146–7
H. Anglès and J. Subirá: Catálogo musical de la Biblioteca nacional de
Madrid, i (Barcelona, 1946), 240–41
J. López-Calo: Catálogo del archivo de música de la catedral de Avila
(Santiago de Compostela, 1978), 132, 234–5
Catálogo de villancicos y oratorios en la Biblioteca nacional, siglos XVIII–
XIX (Madrid, 1990), 326 (item 905), 639
ROBERT STEVENSON

García Robles, José

(b Olot, 28 July 1835; d Barcelona, 28 Jan 1910). Spanish composer. He
studied music (with Francisco Vidal) and art at Reus, Vich and later
Barcelona. He was appointed professor of drawing at the Colegio Valdemia
in Mataró, and it was there that his first compositions, short overtures and
sacred vocal works, were performed by the school choir and orchestra.
Resigning his professorship, he went to Barcelona, where he devoted the
rest of his life to composition and teaching. He was one of the founders of
Barcelona’s celebrated choral group, the Orfeó Català, for which he
composed many works based on popular Catalan songs; his most popular
work of this genre was La bandera catalana. He also composed two
operas, Julio César (1880) and Garraf (performed posthumously), and a
Requiem which was performed at his funeral.
WORKS
many in MSS at E-Boc

theatrical
Julio César (op, 3), Barcelona, 1880
Garraf (op, 4), Barcelona, 1917
Operettas: El ángel de Puigcerdá; Las coronas; El Olimpo de Narbona; Charles IV
vocal
Requiem, chorus, orch; Santa Isabel de Hungría, 16vv, orch, org; Mag; 2 Salve; Ave
Maria Himno a la primavera; La bandera catalana; Cantic del llorer; Catalonia;
songs for voice and pf
instrumental
Epitalami, orch, org; Retorn, orch; Montserrat, vl, vc, vla, hp; works for pf, org
ANTONIO IGLESIAS

Garcin [Salomon], Jules Auguste

(b Bourges, 11 July 1830; d Paris, 10 Oct 1896). French violinist and
conductor. His maternal grandfather, Joseph Garcin, was director of a
travelling company playing opéra comique in the central and southern
provinces of France. Having entered the Paris Conservatoire in
adolescence, Garcin took the premier prix for violin in 1853, and entered
the Opéra orchestra in 1856. He became solo violinist, then third conductor
in 1871 and finally chief conductor in 1885. His long and successful
teaching career at the Conservatoire began in 1875.
Garcin’s association with the Société des Concerts du Conservatoire
began in 1860, again as orchestral and then as solo violinist. In 1885 he
was elected principal conductor of the Conservatoire concerts. In this post
he actively promoted German choral and symphonic masterpieces, from
Bach’s B minor Mass (in 1891) to works of Brahms and Wagner (Brahms’s
music was then the object of much adverse criticism in Paris). Franck’s
Symphony was first performed under Garcin at the Conservatoire on 17
February 1889. Three years later he relinquished the post because of bad
health, but continued teaching. Garcin was a founder-member of the
Société Nationale de Musique in 1871. He wrote some music (including a
violin concerto and viola concertino), a certain amount of which was
published by Lemoine (some now in US-Bp).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
H. Imbert: Portraits et études (Paris, 1894)
A. Dandelot: La Société des concerts du Conservatoire (1828–1923)
(Paris, 1898)
C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation (Paris,
1900), 760
E. Hondré, ed.: Le Conservatoire de Paris: regards sur une institution et
son histoire (Paris, 1995)
DAVID CHARLTON

Gardano [Gardane].
Italian family of music printers. They were active in Venice.
(1) Antonio [Antoine] Gardano
(2) Alessandro Gardane
(3) Angelo Gardano
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grove6 (T.W. Bridges)
MGG1 (C. Sartori)
MischiatiI [incl. facs.]
SartoriD
N. Franco: Le pistole vulgari (Venice, 1539)
H. Brown: The Venetian Printing Press (London, 1891/R), 108
G. Thibault: ‘Deux catalogues de libraires musicaux: Vincenti et Gardane
(Venise, 1591)’, RdM, x (1929), 177–83; xi (1930), 7–18
R. Giazotto: Harmonici concenti in aere veneto (Rome, 1954)
C. Sartori: ‘Una dinastia di editori musicali’, La bibliofilia, lviii (1956), 176–
208
F. Lesure: ‘Les chansons à trois voix de Clément Janequin’, RdM, xliv
(1959), 193–8
S.F. Pogue: Jacques Moderne, Lyons Music Printer of the Sixteenth
Century (Geneva, 1969)
M.S. Lewis: Antonio Gardane and his Publications of Sacred Music, 1538–
55 (diss., Brandeis U., 1979)
A. Johnson: ‘The 1548 Editions of Cipriano de Rore’s Third Book of
Madrigals’, Studies in Musicology in Honor of Otto E. Albrecht, ed.
J.W. Hill (Kassel, 1980), 110–24
M.S. Lewis: ‘Antonio Gardane’s Early Connections with the Willaert Circle’,
Music in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Patronage, Sources and
Texts, ed. I. Fenlon (Cambridge, 1981), 209–26
R.J. Agee: The Privilege and Venetian Music Printing in the Sixteenth
Century (diss., Princeton U., 1982)
T.W. Bridges: The Publishing of Arcadelt’s First Book of Madrigals (diss.,
Harvard U.,1982)
D.G. Cardamone: ‘Madrigali a tre et arie napolitane: a Typographical and
Repertorial Study’, JAMS, xxxv (1982), 436–81
S.F. Pogue: ‘A Sixteenth-Century Editor at Work: Gardane and Moderne’,
JM, i (1982), 217–38
J. Bernstein: ‘The Burning Salamander: Assigning a Printer to Some
Sixteenth-Century Music Prints’, Notes, xlii (1985–6), 483–500
M.S. Lewis: ‘Rore’s Setting of Petrarch’s “Vergine Bella”: a History of its
Composition and Early Transmission’, JM, iv (1985–6), 365–409
S. Boorman: ‘Some Non-Conflicting Attributions, and some Newly
Anonymous Compositions, from the Early Sixteenth Century’, EMH, vi
(1986), 109–57
M.S. Lewis: Antonio Gardano, Venetian Music Printer 1538–1569: a
Descriptive Bibliography and Historical Study (New York, 1988–97),
[incl. catalogue of music editions]
R.J. Agee and J.A. Owens: ‘La stampa della Musica nova di Willaert’,
RIM, xxiv (1989), 219–305
V. Vita Spagnuolo: ‘Gli atti notarili dell’ Archivio di Stato di Roma: saggio di
spoglio sistematico: l'anno 1590’, La musica a Roma attraverso le fonti
d'archivio: Rome 1992, 19–66
P. Barbieri: ‘Musica, tipografi e librai a Roma: tecnologie di stampa e
integrazioni biografiche, 1583–1833’, Recercare, vii (1995), 47–85
M. Feldman: City Culture and the Madrigal at Venice (Berkeley, 1995)
I. Fenlon: The Panizzi Lectures 1994: Music, Print and Culture in Early
Sixteenth-Century Italy (London, 1995)
M.S. Lewis: ‘Twins, Cousins, and Heirs: Relationships among Editions of
Music Printed in Sixteenth-Century Venice’, Critica Musica: Essays in
Honor of Paul Brainard, ed. J. Knowles (Amsterdam, 1996), 193–224
R.J. Agee: The Gardano Music Printing Firms, 1569–1611 (Rochester, NY,
1998)
J. Bernstein: Music Printing in Renaissance Venice: the Scotto Press,
1539–1572 (New York, 1998)
MARY S. LEWIS (1), RICHARD J. AGEE (2, 3)
Gardano
(1) Antonio [Antoine] Gardano
(b southern France, 1509; d Venice, 28 Oct 1569). Printer and publisher.
Called ‘musico francese’ in Venetian documents, he was probably from the
region around Gardanne in southern France, an area that included the
diocese of Fréjus, episcopal see of Gardano’s first patron, Bishop Leone
Orsini. Gardano’s printer’s mark, a lion and a bear facing each other, was
inspired by the leone and orso of his patron’s name. Until 1555 he used the
French spelling ‘Gardane’ in his imprints; afterwards he and his sons
adopted the Italian form. Gardano probably moved to Venice in the late
1530s, becoming a member of the city’s intellectual and artistic circles, and
may have conducted a music school before opening his printing house and
bookshop on the calle de la Scimia in 1538. He was a friend of Pietro
Aretino’s secretary, Nicolò Franco, and published his letters and a dialogue
before Franco fell into Aretino’s bad graces and left the city. These were
the only non-musical works Gardano printed.
Of his nearly 450 music books, more than half are devoted to madrigals.
But since many of these were new editions of previous publications, the
actual size of the repertory is much smaller than it might at first appear.
Motets make up the next largest category, with about 70 editions and far
fewer reprints than in the secular output. Gardano published about 40
books of canzone villanesche and villottas, 28 editions of lute and
keyboard music, 26 of French chansons and still fewer of masses,
Magnificat settings, psalms and other sacred genres. Four composers –
Arcadelt, Willaert, Rore and Lassus – figure especially prominently in
Gardano’s list; editions devoted chiefly to their works make up a quarter of
his total output. Others whose works appear often in his publications are
Ruffo, Nasco, Morales, Verdelot, Costanzo Festa, Jacquet of Mantua,
Janequin, Wert and Gombert, in descending order of frequency.
Many of Gardano’s music books were specially commissioned by
composers for a patron who underwrote the publication costs, or who had
previously given the composer financial support. In other cases,
composers apparently hoped to gain future favour from a dedicatee. Most
such composers were minor ones or at the early stages of their careers,
but there are a few exceptions. Corteccia’s madrigal collections all contain
dedications to Cosimo de’ Medici, and Jacquet de Berchem dedicated his
madrigal book of 1546 to his patron. In both cases, the composers
expressed in their prefaces the need to present correctly edited and
attributed versions of their music.
Gardano sometimes signed dedications himself. These suggest that either
the dedicatee had made a financial contribution towards the publication, or
Gardano was indebted to him in some way; most of these books were
devoted to the music of a single composer. At the outset of his career,
Gardano wrote dedications even in Arcadelt’s madrigal books and in motet
books containing music of known popularity. But once his financial position
was more secure, such prefaces were used mainly for editions of music by
lesser-known composers, those whose commercial appeal Gardano might
have doubted. By contrast, editions without obvious signs of private
patronage are those that were deemed commercially viable on the basis of
their composers’ fame or contents’ popularity. Examples include most of
the publications devoted to the music of Verdelot, Willaert and Rore, and
the note nere madrigal books of the mid-1540s.
Competition for repertory, especially in the early years of Gardano’s career,
is suggested by his celebrated quarrel with the Ferrarese printer Buglhat.
The dispute is reflected in Buglhat’s use of satirical title-page woodcuts for
his Mottetti della scimia, of a monkey (representing Gardano’s address on
the calle della Scimia) eating fruit (Gardano’s Mottetti del frutto) and, in a
later frutto volume, Gardano’s use of a woodcut showing his lion and bear
attacking Buglhat’s monkey. Gardano’s relationship with Girolamo Scotto
was much more complex. Comparisons of readings indicate that the two
sometimes cooperated in publication or copied from each other directly
(apparently with no culpability), but that at other times they had separate
sources of supply for the same groups of pieces and thus competed for the
same new repertory and market.
While Gardano clearly received some of the music he printed directly from
composers themselves, many of his repertory sources remain obscure. His
primary suppliers were undoubtedly his friends in Willaert’s circle. A series
of poems by Hieronimo Fenaruolo, published in 1546, depicts Gardano
receiving the homage of such musicians as Rore, Cambio, Parabosco and
Festa, and of the poets Gaspara Stampa and Domenico Venier. But many
musicians, including Rore, were unconvinced of the benefits of publication,
and Gardano was often hard-pressed to obtain works from the most
famous and commercially attractive composers in Italy.
Together Gardano and Scotto created a virtual monopoly in music printing
in Italy. Through their connections with leading composers and popular
repertories, their use of the sophisticated Venetian distribution networks
and their introduction on a large scale of the cheaper, more efficient single-
impression printing method, they extended the processes of musical
commerce begun in France a few years earlier by Attaingnant and
Moderne. Their production of large editions at low cost made polyphonic
music available to a far wider public than ever before, and introduced the
element of financial gain for publishers and composers alert enough to
seize the opportunity. Gardano’s estate inventories and tax documents
show that he became comfortably wealthy from his business, owning land,
houses and many valuables.
Gardano took out a patent for a new printing method, probably one that
allowed more efficient, and hence cheaper, setting of material common to
the several partbooks of an edition. Most of his editions were skilfully
printed in oblong quarto, with simple but elegant decorative initials. Later in
his career Gardano adopted a smaller, oblong octavo format for editions of
villottas, introduced a large upright quarto for deluxe editions such as
Willaert’s Musica nova (1559; see Willaert, Adrian, fig.2 ), and even printed
 a few folio choirbooks, starting with an edition of Morales, Magnificat
omnitonum in 1562 (see illustration).
Gardano was also a composer, and published his own chanson
arrangements. Moderne published two masses in 1532 and 1546. His
seven motets appeared in his own publications and in those of Moderne,
Montanus and Neuber, and Du Chemin, while his 69 chansons appeared
in, besides his own editions, those of Moderne, Attaingnant, and Le Roy
and Ballard. A French psalm of his appeared in Fezandat’s Premier livre de
psalmes et cantiques of 1552. In his motets, Gardano tended towards the
style of pervading imitation and disguised cadences that associated with
Willaert and Gombert, and this dominates his early motet publications.
Although he lived for half of his life in Italy, he apparently set no Italian
texts.
WORKS
Missa ‘Si bona suscepimus’, 4vv, 15326; 3 sections 2vv repr. in 154319
Missa ‘Vivre ne puis’, 4vv, in Harmonidos ariston tricolon ogdoameron (Lyons,
1546)
7 motets, 2, 4, 5vv, 15384, 15393, 153910, 153913, 15446, 15472, 154916, 15547
French psalm, 4vv, 15523
69 chansons, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8vv, 153818, 153921, 154314, 15447-8, 154614, 15478, 15479,
154711-12, 154921-22, 155320, 155322, c155524, Livre de meslanges (Paris, 1560)
Gardano
(2) Alessandro Gardane
(b Venice, before 1540; d ? Rome or Venice, ? 1591 or 1603). Printer, son
of (1) Antonio Gardano. After his father’s death in 1569, he published over
100 musical editions in Venice together with his brother Angelo. He
withdrew his assets from the family business in 1575, and until 1581 issued
over a dozen musical and non-musical editions in Venice under the spelling
‘Gardane’, often employing a printer’s mark of two lions in place of the lion
and bear associated with his father and brother. Sometime between 1581
and 1583 he moved to Rome, where he continued his printing activity until
1591, frequently in collaboration with other printers and booksellers
including Domenico Basa, Ascanio, Bernardino and Girolamo Donangeli
and Jacomo Tornieri. In Rome he printed more non-musical than musical
editions, although he issued sacred works by some of the most important
composers of the late Renaissance, among them G.F. Anerio, Guerrero,
Marenzio, Palestrina and Victoria. He also published a series of laude
spirituali edited by Francisco Soto de Langa for the Congregazione
dell’Oratorio. Alessandro’s output is clearly dwarfed by that of his brother
Angelo. After the division of family assets in 1575, Alessandro published
only about 50 musical editions and rather more non-musical books, while
Angelo issued about 850 musical publications. Barbieri cites the baptism of
Alessandro's illegitimate child in Rome in 1583 and Alessandro's death in
1591. Indeed, after 1591 Alessandro's firm appears to have ceased
publication altogether, although Barbieri's claim that he died in that year is
contradicted by archival documents recording payments from Alessandro
to the Scuolo Grande di San Teodoro, Venice, in 1593 and 1594; these too
suggest that he died in 1603.
Gardano
(3) Angelo Gardano
(b Venice, c1540; d Venice, 6 or 7 Aug 1611). Printer, son of (1) Antonio
Gardano. He and his brother Alessandro ran their deceased father’s
business as ‘Li figliuoli di Antonio Gardano’ from 1569 until 1575, when
Alessandro claimed his inheritance and withdrew from the firm. Angelo,
although in partnership with his young siblings Mattio and Lucieta,
continued the firm under his own name, retaining the lion and bear printer’s
mark inherited from his father. Lucieta took her dowry in 1582, but Mattio
evidently stayed on as a silent partner, since his widow began legal action
that forced Angelo to publish under the rubric ‘Angelo Gardano et fratelli’
after 1605. He printed music in a variety of formats, including chant books
in folio and the first surviving score publications with more than two staves,
Tutti i madrigali di Cipriano di Rore a quattro voci, spartiti et accommodati
per sonar d’ogni sorte d’instrumento perfetto (1577/R) and Musica de
diversi autori … alcune canzoni francese, partite in caselle (RISM 157711).
In all Angelo published almost 1000 editions (if those produced with his
brother Alessandro are included), over twice the number produced by his
prolific father. He and his immediate successor published music by most of
the well-known composers of the period, including Arcadelt, Asola, d’India,
Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, Vincenzo Galilei, Gastoldi, Gesualdo,
Lassus, Luzzaschi, Marenzio, Merula, Merulo, Monte, Monteverdi, Morales,
Palestrina, Rore, Schütz, Striggio, Vecchi, Victoria, Wert and Willaert, as
well as many composers with only local reputations. After Angelo’s death in
1611, the firm passed to his daughter Diamante and her husband,
Bartolomeo Magni, though he, and later his son Francesco, often signed
their book with the illustrious name of Gardano.

Garde, Pierre de.

See La Garde, Pierre de.

Gardel.
French family of dancers and ballet-masters.
(1) Claude Gardel
(2) Maximilien Léopold Philippe Joseph Gardel
(3) Pierre Gabriel Gardel
FRIDERICA DERRA DE MORODA
Gardel
(1) Claude Gardel
(d Paris, 1774). In 1741 he became ballet-master in Mannheim, where he
was partly responsible for the choreography in Meride which opened the
opera house on 17 January 1742. He later held appointments in Stuttgart,
Metz (where he married the actress Jeanne Darthenay) and from 1755 at
the Nancy court of Stanislas Leczinksi; in 1760 he went to Paris, where he
became court choreographer. He had two sons (see below) and a
daughter, Marie Française Lucie (b 1755), who had a brief career as a
dancer.
Gardel
(2) Maximilien Léopold Philippe Joseph Gardel
(b Mannheim, 18 Dec 1741; d Paris, 11 March 1787). Son of (1) Claude
Gardel. He entered the Paris Opéra about 1755, and soon became a
leading dancer along with such celebrities as Gaetano Vestris. Vestris, for
unknown reasons, did not appear in Rameau’s Castor et Pollux on 21
January 1772, and Gardel was called on to take his place. He agreed to do
so only if allowed to dance without a mask and with his own blonde hair
instead of Vestris’s customary black wig. His appearance caused a
sensation and in time led to the abolition of masks and wigs for male
dancers.
In 1773 Gardel and his colleague Jean Bercher, called Dauberval, were
appointed assistant ballet-masters to Vestris. On Vestris’s retirement in
1776 the two assistants expected to take his place, as was the usual
practice at the Opéra; but Marie Antoinette had Noverre, formerly her
dance teacher in Vienna, nominated to this position. Gardel and Dauberval
started a campaign against Noverre, and by November 1779 had
succeeded in making him agree to relinquish his position, for a pension of
3000 livres from the Opéra and an additional 500 livres as academician.
Early in 1781 Noverre left and his place was taken by Gardel and
Dauberval; but the latter, too, soon departed.
During his tenure as ballet-master Gardel danced leading parts in nearly all
the ballets and divertissements, and was responsible for the choreography
of a large number of ballets and operas. Among his famous ballets were La
chercheuse d’esprit (1 March 1778), Ninette à la cour (18 August 1778),
Mirza (3 November 1779), La rosière (29 July 1783 or 1784), Le déserteur
(10 October 1784) and Le premier navigateur (26 July 1785). His death
was caused by a toe injury. Gardel was also an excellent musician; he
played several instruments and arranged or composed music for his
ballets.
Gardel
(3) Pierre Gabriel Gardel
(b Nancy, 4 Feb 1758; d Paris, 18 Oct 1840). Son of (1) Claude Gardel. In
1771 he entered the Opéra, where his elder brother was largely
responsible for his training. He quickly became one of the best pupils of the
Ecole de Danse, and soon after his début in 1774 reached the ranks of the
leading dancers. In 1783 he became his brother’s assistant. In 1786 the
brothers produced the ballet Les sauvages, for which they also wrote the
music. On his brother’s death in 1787 Pierre was appointed ballet-master,
a post he held for over 40 years with many successes both as dancer and
as choreographer. Two of his best-known ballets were produced in 1790,
Télémaque anns l’île de Calypso and Psyché; the latter remained in the
repertory until 1829, reaching over 1150 performances. During the
Revolution Gardel choreographed Le jugement de Paris (6 March 1793)
and such patriotic displays as Le triomphe de la république (1793) and La
rosière républicaine ou La fête de la raison (1794). In 1795 he married the
brilliant dancer Marie-Elisabeth-Anne Boubert (1770–1803), better known
as Mlle Miller. Possessing great personality and creative powers – even
Noverre praised her – she danced leading parts in many of her husband’s
ballets.
Soon after his marriage Gardel ceased to appear as a dancer. His later
ballets included La dansomanie (14 June 1800), Le retour de Zephire (3
March 1801 or 1802), Daphnis et Pandrose (14 January 1803) and Paul et
Virginie (24 June 1806). He was responsible for the dances in
L’inauguration du temple de la victoire (intermède, 2 January 1807), in Le
triomphe de Trajan (tragédie lyrique, 23 October 1807) and produced his
ballets Alexandre chez Apelles (20 December 1808), La fête de Mars (26
December 1809), Vertumne et Pomone (24 January 1810), Persée et
Andromède (8 June 1810) and L’enfant prodigue (28 April 1812). In spite of
the engagement of Milon as second ballet-master, the dances of most
productions were still by Gardel. He was assisted by Milon in the ballet
L’heureux retour (25 July 1815). His last ballets appear to be Proserpine
(18 February 1818) and La servante justifiée (30 September 1818), but he
continued to choreograph the dances for many operas, his last being
Macbeth (29 June 1827) with music by Chelard. He retired in 1829. Gardel
was also a famous teacher; for many years he was the director of the Ecole
de Danse and numerous ballet celebrities, such as Carlo Blasis, were his
pupils. He was an able musician and excellent violinist, appearing in
concerts and sometimes playing in his ballets. His ideas on ballet remained
conservative; he advocated maintaining the three styles of the classic
dance in his day, that of the danseur noble (his own style), the demi-
caractère, and the grotesque or comic. He fought a losing battle against
the Romantic ballet, in which these distinctions were lost and which in his
eyes meant the loss of the beauty of the classics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (M. Briquet) [with lists of ballets]
Spectacles de Paris, ou Calendrier historique et chronologique des
théâtres, xxxvi (1787)
J.-E. Despréaux: Mes passe-temps: chansons suivies de L’art de la danse
(Paris, 1806)
J.G. Noverre: Lettres sur les arts imitateurs (Paris, 1807)
Mémorial dramatique, ou Almanach théâtral pour l’an 1808 (Paris, 1808)
Annuaire dramatique, ou Etrennnes théâtrales, xiii (1817)
A. Baron: Lettres et entretiens sur la danse (Paris, 1824)
Castil-Blaze: La danse et les ballets depuis Bacchus jusqu’à
Mademoiselle Taglioni (Paris, 1832)
A. Saint-Léon: Portraits et biographies des plus célèbres maîtres de
ballets et chorégraphes, anciens et nouveaux, de l’école française et
italienne (Paris, 1852)
Castil-Blaze: L’Académie impériale de musique … de 1645 à 1855 (Paris,
1855)
T. de Lajarte: Bibliothèque musicale du Théâtre de l’Opéra (Paris, 1878/R)
E. Campardon: L’Académie royale de musique au XVIIIe siècle
(Paris,1884/R)
M.-F. Christout: ‘Danse et révolution: historique et thématique’, Corps
écrit, no.28 (1988), 55–62
Gardel, Carlos [Gardes, Charles
Romuald]
(b ?Toulouse, Dec 1890; d Medellín, 24 June 1935). Argentine composer
and tango singer. Although Gardel's origins have been widely debated, he
was probably born in Toulouse in 1890; in 1893 he and his mother
emigrated to Buenos Aires. Together with the Uruguayan singer José
Razzano, he formed a duo in 1911, which lasted until 1925. About 1917
Gardel performed and recorded Samuel Castriota's popular tango tune
Lita, under the title Mi noche triste (to words by Pascual Contursi). By the
early 1920s he was firmly established as Argentina's leading tango singer,
and several successful European tours followed. He was killed in a plane
crash in 1935.
Gardel's chief contribution was to popularize the sung tango, although both
his career and songs were criticized by some as lacking a critical, political
thrust. In addition to recording almost 900 songs, he appeared in several
classic films; his best-known compositions include El día que me quieras,
Mi Buenos Aires querido, Por una cabeza, Volver, Silencio and Cuesta
abajo. Gardel's impact was profound: a product of the arrabal (districts)
who came to symbolize the fulfilment of the dreams of the Argentine
porteño (from the port, i.e. Buenos Aires), he remains a crucial figure, ‘the
tango made flesh’ as described by the singer Libertad Lamarque.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Laguarda Visillac: Carlos Gardel: Símbolo de la patria rioplatense
(Montevideo, 1935)
C. Castillo: Buenos Aires, tiempo Gardel (Buenos Aires, 1966)
D. Cantón: ‘El mundo de los tangos de Gardel’, Revista latinoamericana
de sociología, iv/3 (1968), 341–62
T. Tucci: Gardel en Nueva York (New York, 1969)
B. Matamoro: Carlos Gardel (Buenos Aires, 1971)
D.W. Foster: ‘“Narrative Rights” in the Argentine Tango’, Symposium, xxxvii
(1983–4), 261–71
E. Eichelbaum: Carlos Gardel: l'âge d'or du tango (Paris, 1984)
J. Andreu, F. Cerdan and A.-M. Duffau, eds.: Le Tango: Hommage a
Carlos Gardel: Toulouse 1984 [incl. partial discography and
filmography]
S. Collier: The Life, Music and Times of Carlos Gardel (Pittsburgh, 1986)
O. del Greco: Carlos Gardel y los autores de sus canciones (Buenos
Aires, 1990)
P. Hamlet and E. Visconti: Carlos Gardel y la prensa mundial: crónicos,
comentarios y reportajes de su época (Buenos Aires, 1990)
J.L. Grunewald: Carlos Gardel: lunfardo e tango (Rio de Janeiro, 1994)
E. Alvarez: Carlos Gardel: biografía autorizada (Buenos Aires, 1995)
CLIFF EISEN

Gardelli, Lamberto
(b Venice, 8 Nov 1915; d Munich, 17 July 1998). Swedish conductor and
composer of Italian birth. He studied at the Liceo Musicale Rossini in
Pesaro, and later in Rome. He worked as an assistant to Tullio Serafin in
Rome and in 1944 made his début at the Teatro Reale dell’Opera, Rome,
in La traviata. From 1946 until 1955 he was resident conductor with the
Swedish Royal Opera in Stockholm, where he was chiefly responsible for
Italian and modern Scandinavian repertory. He appeared frequently at the
Berlin Staatsoper and in Helsinki, and became music director, from 1961,
of the Hungarian State Opera, where he was still conducting into the
1990s. His American début was at Carnegie Hall in 1964 in Bellini’s I
Capuleti e i Montecchi, which led to his first appearance at the Metropolitan
Opera in 1966 conducting Andrea Chénier. In England Gardelli first
conducted at Glyndebourne in 1964 (Verdi’s Macbeth), returning in 1968
with Anna Bolena; his début at Covent Garden (1969) was with Verdi’s
Otello. His long list of recorded operas is particularly noteworthy for
Macbeth, I Lombardi, Nabucco and an outstanding La forza del destino, for
the first complete recording of Rossini’s Guillaume Tell(1972), including a
rediscovered aria for Jemmy, and for the first recordings, made in
Budapest, of Respighi’s La fiamma (1985), Belfagor and Maria egiziaca
(both 1990). One of the finest Verdi conductors from Italy of his generation,
Gardelli showed a strong command of both structure and expression; he
has also successfully championed lesser works of the verismo school. His
compositions include symphonic works, songs and five operas, of which
only one, L’impresario delle Americhe (1959), has been performed. (A.
Blyth: Obituary, Opera, xl (1998), 1164–5)
ALAN BLYTH

Garden, Edward J(ames) C(larke)

(b Edinburgh, 28 Feb 1930). Scottish musicologist. He studied at the RAM
from 1950 to 1954, taking organ lessons from C.H. Trevor. From 1954 to
1957 he was on the music staff of Clifton College, Bristol, while there
gaining the FRCO in 1956 (with the Harding and F.J. Read prizes) and the
BMus in 1957. From 1957 to 1966 he was director of music at Loretto
School, near Edinburgh; he then became lecturer in music and organist at
Glasgow University and in 1970 senior lecturer. In 1975 he became
professor of music at Sheffield University, and was dean of the faculty of
arts from 1988 to 1990. He retired in 1993. In 1969 he was awarded the
Edinburgh DMus for a dissertation on the music of Balakirev. Garden’s
studies have been almost exclusively in the field of Russian music, his
preoccupation having begun as early as his period at the RAM. He was
given much encouragement by Gerald Abraham and Jack Westrup. He
was active as an organist and choir trainer, and published choral and
chamber music.
WRITINGS
Balakirev: a Critical Study of his Life and Music (London, 1967)
‘Classic and Romantic in Russian Music’, ML, l (1969), 153–7
‘Balakirev’s Personality’, PRMA, xcvi (1969–70), 43–55
Tchaikovsky (London, 1973, 3/1993)
‘Tchaikovsky and Tolstoy’, ML, lv (1974), 307–16
‘Three Russian Piano Concertos’, ML, lx (1979), 166–79
‘The Influence of Balakirev on Tchaikovsky’, PRMA, cvii (1980–81), 86–100
‘Balakirev's Influence on Musorgsky’, Musorgsky in Memoriam, 1881–
1981, ed. M.H. Brown (Ann Arbor, 1982), 11–27
‘Russian Folksong and Balakirev's 1866 Collection’, Soundings [Cardiff], xi
(1983–4), 52–9
‘Balakirev: the Years of Crisis’, Russian and Soviet Music: Essays for Boris
Schwarz, ed. M.H. Brown (Ann Arbor, 1984), 147–56
‘Sibelius and Balakirev’, Slavonic and Western Music: Essays for Gerald
Abraham, ed. M.H. Brown and R.J. Wiley (Ann Arbor and Oxford,
1985), 215–18
‘Solo Song: Russia’, NOHM, ix (1990), 704–25
ed., with N. Gotteri: ‘To my Best Friend’: Correspondence between
Tchaikovsky and Nadezhda von Meck, 1876–1878 (Oxford, 1993)
DAVID SCOTT/R

Garden, Mary
(b Aberdeen, 20 Feb 1874; d Inverurie, Scotland, 3 Jan 1967). American
soprano of Scottish birth. Taken to the USA in 1883, she studied singing in
Chicago with Sarah Robinson-Duff, supported financially by wealthy
patrons David and Florence Mayer. In 1896 the Mayers financed her
further studies in Paris, chiefly with Trabadelo and Lucien Fugère. When
her patrons withdrew their support in 1899, Garden was coached by the
American soprano Sybyl Sanderson, through whom she met Albert Carré,
director of the Opéra-Comique, and Massenet. After much preparation she
was engaged for the Opéra-Comique, making an acclaimed unscheduled
début as Charpentier's Louise on 10 April 1900 when, after the first act,
Marthe Rioton succumbed to illness. Other leading roles soon followed:
she created Marie in Lucien Lambert's La Marseillaise and Diane in
Pierné's La fille de Tabarin. She was coached by Sanderson for Thaïs at
Aix-les-Bains, then sang Manon and Messager's Madame Chrysanthème
at Monte Carlo (conducted by the composer). Her success was sealed
when Debussy chose her (against the wishes of Maeterlinck) to sing
Mélisande in the première of Pelléas et Mélisande (1902). At Covent
Garden, where she appeared in the 1902 and 1903 seasons, she sang
Manon, Juliet and Gounod's Marguerite, but London did not please her and
she was never to return to the house. Meanwhile, at the Opéra-Comique
she sang in Massenet's Grisélidis (1902), then created the title role in
Leroux's La reine Fiammette (1903). She carried off superbly the coloratura
writing in the role of Violetta (1903), triumphed in Saint-Säens's Hélène in
1905 and the same year created Massenet's Chérubin, a role specially
written for her, at Monte Carlo.
By now Garden was recognized as a supreme singing-actress, with
uncommonly vivid powers of characterization (her dramatic style influenced
by both Sarah Bernhardt and Coquelin Ainé) and a rare subtlety of colour
and phrasing. Two years after creating Chrysis in Erlanger's Aphrodite
(1906) she left the Opéra-Comique for the Opéra, where she sang Ophelia
in Thomas' Hamlet and, in 1909, the title part in Henry Février's Monna
Vanna. Enticed by Oscar Hammerstein for his battle against the
Metropolitan, Garden astonished America with her impersonation of a
young boy in Massenet's Le jongleur de Notre Dame (1908). As Salome
the following year, her lascivious kissing of the severed head of the Baptist
outraged the guardians of morality even more than her Dance of the Seven
Veils (which she executed chastely in a body-stocking). By now a
household name in America, in 1910 she began a long association with the
Chicago Grand Opera, where she was admired in such roles as Fanny in
Massenet's Sapho, the Prince in Cendrillon, Carmen, Tosca and Dulcinée
in Don Quichotte. After two disastrous forays into film with Goldwyn
(including a silent version of Thaïs), other powerful stage interpretations
followed, including the title roles in Massenet's Cléopâtre and Février's
Gismonda (both 1919), Fiora in Montemezzi's L'amore dei tre re (1920),
Charlotte in Werther (1924), Katiusha in Alfano's Risurrezione (1925, in
French) and the heroine of Honegger's Judith (1927), the last two both
American premières.
Garden was a controversial director of the Chicago Opera Association in
the 1921–2 season (uniquely, for a director, continuing to sing leading
roles), and was responsible for innovative works, including the première of
Prokofiev's The Love for Three Oranges (1921). After retiring from the
opera stage in 1934, she worked as a talent scout for MGM and gave
lecture-recitals and talks, mainly on Debussy. She was decorated by the
French and Serbian governments during World War I and made a
Chevalier of the Légion d'Honneur in 1921. For much of her life she openly
encouraged young singers and even secretly paid for them to receive
training. She herself died in penury, almost forgotten.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GV (C. Williams, incl. discography)
E.C. Moore: Forty Years of Opera in Chicago (New York, 1930/R)
O. Thompson: ‘Mary Garden’, The American Singer (New York, 1937),
265–77
M. Garden and L. Biancolli: Mary Garden's Story (New York, 1951/R)
G. Whelan: ‘The Recorded Art of Mary Garden’, Gramophone, xxix (1951–
2), 367–72 [with discography]
H. Cuénod: ‘Remembrances of an Enchantress’, High Fidelity, xiv/7
(1964), 36–8
E.C. Wagenknecht: Seven Daughters of the Theater (Norman, OK,
1964/R), 161–79
R.L. Davis: Opera in Chicago (New York, 1966)
H. Pleasants: ‘Mary Garden’, The Great Singers (New York, 1966), 308–
13
R.D. Fletcher: ‘“Our Own” Mary Garden’, Chicago History, ii/1 (1972), 34–
46
D. Shawe-Taylor: ‘Mary Garden (1874–1967)’, Opera, xxxv (1984), 1079–
84
M.T.R.B. Turnbull: Mary Garden (Aldershot, 1996) [ incl. discography]
MICHAEL T. R. B. TURNBULL

Gardi, Francesco
(b ?1760–65; d c1810). Italian composer. He directed and composed for
the women’s choir and orchestra of the Venetian Ospedale dei Poveri
 Derelitti from about 1787 until 1791, when it closed. In 1797, and perhaps
earlier, he was maestro di cappella of a sister institution, the Ospedale dei
Mendicanti. In a Venetian libretto of 1799, he is described as Accad.
Filarmonico. For nearly 20 years his settings of comic texts (especially
Giuseppe Foppa’s one-act farces) were extremely popular in Venice. His
several collaborations with the eccentric Count Alessandro Pepoli, who
briefly maintained theatres in Venice and Padua and who served Gardi as
librettist, impresario and printer, suggest his readiness to participate in
movements of experimentation and reform. His last recorded work for
Venice was a cantata in honour of Napoleon’s brother-in-law, Joachim
Murat, King of Naples, on 20 August 1809. In 1811 and 1813 the ducal
theatre at Parma performed La pianella perduta, a revival of Gardi’s most
popular farce, La pianella persa.
WORKS
VA Venice, Teatro S Angelo
VB Venice, Teatro S Benedetto
VM Venice, Teatro S Moisè
VP Venice, Count Pepoli, private theatre
dg dramma giocoso f – farsa
ob opera buffa os – opera seria
operas
Enea nel Lazio (os, 2, V.A. Cigna-Santi), Modena, Rangoni, carn. 1786, I-Tn
Don Giovanni, o Il nuovo convitato di pietra (dramma tragicomico, 2, after G.
Bertati), Venice, S Samuele, 5 Feb 1787, Bc, Mr*
La fata capricciosa (dg, 2, Bertati), VM, carn. 1789
Gernando e Rosimonda (dramma eroico, 2), Treviso, Astori, aut. 1789
Teodolinda (os, 2, D. Boggio), VB, May 1790
Apollo esule, ossia L’amore alla prova (favola, A. Pepoli), VP, 1793
La bella Lauretta (dg, 2, Bertati), VM, Jan 1795, F-Pc, I-Fc (2 copies), ov. Gl, Mr,
RUS-SPtob
Tancredi (tragedia per musica, 3, Pepoli, after Voltaire), VP, 26 April 1795
Amor l’astuzia insegna (dg, 2, Bertati), VM, 18 Feb 1797, aria, ?duet I-CHf; rev. as
La capricciosa supposta (f, 1, Bertati), Venice, S Luca, 1 Sept 1801
La pianella persa, o sia La veglia de contadini (f, 1, G. Foppa), VM, 15 Jan 1798, F-
Pc, I-Fc, PAc (2 copies), RUS-SPtob, D-Zl (excerpts), I-BGc (excerpts)
Il finto stregone (f, 1, Foppa), VM, 30 Nov 1798, RUS-SPtob
La principessa filosofa (f, 1, Foppa), VM, carn. 1799
La semplice, ovvero La virtù premiata (dramma eroicomico, 1, Foppa), VM, carn.
1799
Il contravveleno (f, 1, Foppa, after C. Gozzi), VB, 7 Nov 1799
La donna ve la fà (f, 1, Foppa), VM, May 1800, D-Hs, F-Pc, I-Fc, Gl, Mr, Pl, RUS-
SPtob
Il medico a suo dispetto, ossia La muta per amore (f, 1, Foppa), VA, 15 July 1800,
F-Pc, I-Mr, OS (2 copies), Pl
L’incantesimo senza magia (f, 1, Foppa), SM, 9 Dec 1800, F-Pc, I-Mr
La bottega del caffè (f, 2, Foppa, after C. Goldoni), VM, 20 April 1801, Mr
Diritto e rovescio, ovvero Una della solite trasformazioni nel mondo (f, 2, Foppa),
VB, 13 May 1801
Il convitato di pietra (f, 2, Foppa), VB, 27 Jan 1802
Guerra con tutti, ovvero Danari e ripieghi (f, 2, Foppa), VB, 12 Aug 1803
La casa da vendere (f, 2, G. Piazza, after A. Duval), VA, 4 Jan 1804
Un buco nella porta (f, 1, Foppa), VB, 16 May 1804, Mr
Sempre la vince amore (f, 1, G.D. Camagna), VM, spr. 1805, Pl
La forza d’amore (f, 1), Treviso, Dolfin, 1 May 1805 [according to Stieger]
Nardone e Nannetta (ob, 2, G. Caravita), Lisbon, S Carlos, 7 April 1806

Music in: Il regno della moda, carn. 1790; Pirro, 1794

Doubtful: L’americana (ob), Treviso, Dolfin, sum. 1788, Mr; La fata astuta (dg),
Padua, Obizzi, carn. 1795 [? same as La fata capricciosa]
other works
Occasional: Angelica e Medoro (cantata, G. Sertor), VB, 16 Jan 1784; Venezia
felicitata (azione, Foppa), VM, carn. 1798; Riverente gratulazione per le glorie di
Francesco II (cantata, Foppa), VA, 1799; Partenope e Sebeto (cantata, G.
Nascimbeni), Venice, casa G. Bernardini, for the name day of Joachim Murat, 20
Aug 1809, I-Nc
Orats: Seba (2), 1787; Rebecca electa Isacci in sponsam (1), Pentecost 1787;
Salomon accipit a Deo sapientiam (2), Assumption 1788; Abrahami sacrificium (2),
Assumption 1789; Moyses ab aqua extractus (2), Assumption 1791, US-Eu
(excerpts), all perf. Venice, Poveri Derelitti; Abrahami sacrificium (2), Venice,
Mendicanti, Holy Week 1796 [different text from 1789 work]
Sacred, I-Vnm, Fondo S Maria Formosa: 2 Laudamus te, A, C; Miserere, 3vv, B , ?
also RVE; Tantum ergo, 3vv, E ; Adoramus, 3vv, E ; Sonata dopo il Sanctus, E
Miscellaneous arias: B-Bc; GB-Lbl; I-BGc, CHf, PS, Vc, Vnm
Sinfonias: D, HR-Zha (Treviso, aut. 1790), I-Bc; C, HR-Zha
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CaffiS
EitnerQ; FétisB; SartoriL; StiegerO
G. Bustico: ‘Alessandro Pepoli’, Nuovo archivio veneto, new ser., xxv
(1913), 199–229
B. Brunelli: I teatri di Padova dalle origini alla fine del secolo XIX (Padua,
1921), 346–9, 359–60
A. Della Corte: L’opera comica italiana nel ’700, ii (Bari, 1923), 214
G.G. Bernardi: ‘Un teatro privato di musica a Venezia’, Gazzetta di
Venezia (20 March 1930)
M.A. Zorzi: ‘Saggio di bibliografia sugli oratorii sacri eseguiti a Venezia’,
Accademie e biblioteche d’Italia, iv (1930–31), 226–46, 394–403, 529–
43; v (1931–2), 79–96, 493–508; vi (1932–3), 256–99; vii (1933–4),
316–41
S. Kunze: Don Giovanni vor Mozart: die Tradition der Don-Giovanni-Opern
im italienischen Buffa-Theater des 18. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1972),
83–7
S. Kunze: ‘Alcune farse di Giuseppe Foppa musicate da Francesco Gardi’,
I vicini di Mozart: Venice 1987, 479–88
SVEN HANSELL/REBECCA GREEN

Gardiner, Henry Balfour

(b London, 7 Nov 1877; d Salisbury, 28 June 1950). English composer. He
learnt the piano from the age of five, and by nine had begun composing. In
1891 he entered Charterhouse with a junior scholarship, gaining also a
 senior one. He continued his musical studies at the Hoch Conservatory in
Frankfurt (1894–6) under Knorr for composition and Uzielli, a pupil of Clara
Schumann, for piano. At Frankfurt he was strongly influenced by Wagner,
whose operas he heard for the first time, and Tchaikovsky. His hopes of
becoming a concert pianist were dashed by partial paralysis of the hand
muscles so he devoted himself instead to composition. In 1896 he entered
New College, Oxford, returning to Frankfurt during vacations for further,
private study with Knorr. After Oxford he resumed studies with Knorr, and in
1901 went to Sondershausen where he studied conducting and had an
early symphony and overture performed. His first English performance was
of a String Quintet heard at a Broadwood Concert in 1903. A quartet and
other orchestral works soon followed. Between 1905 and 1907 he collected
nearly 100 folksongs in Hampshire, and in 1909 was for a term on the
music staff of Winchester College. Living first in London, in 1909 he settled
in Ashampstead, Berkshire. In 1911 his Shepherd Fennel’s Dance became
an instant success at the Proms, but his finest achievement was the
remarkable series of eight choral and orchestral concerts almost
exclusively of British music that he organized, financed and in part
conducted in Queen’s Hall in 1912 and 1913. These helped establish the
reputations of several of his contemporaries, including Bax, Holst and
Vaughan Williams as well as those of his fellow Frankfurt students,
Grainger, Scott, Quilter and O’Neill. War caused the cancellation of a
further series. Throughout his life Gardiner used his private wealth astutely
yet unassumingly to help friends in many ways: he provided Holst with the
first, private performance of The Planets, and he relieved Delius of his
financial worries by buying his house at Grez-sur-Loing and allowing him
free tenancy for life. From 1919 to 1922 he gave financial assistance to the
Royal Philharmonic Society and its newly-formed Philharmonic Choir.
As a composer Gardiner was frustrated by the narrowness of his early
musical environment, by his academic tuition, which he saw as a severe
curb on originality, and by an almost pathological self-critical nature which
led him to destroy many of his works. By 1925 he felt his music out of place
in the postwar climate and ceased composing altogether. In 1927 he
moved to Dorset where he devoted the rest of his life to pioneering
afforestation. His Overture to a Comedy and News from Whydah display an
infectious vitalty and exuberance as well as a vivid, resourceful wealth of
orchestral colour, while his minor masterpieces April, Philomela and A
Berkshire Idyll reveal a more poignant, strongly Delian side to his musical
personality.
WORKS
stage
The Pageant of London (spectacle, 3 movts), Crystal Palace, June 1911, lost; Old
King Cole (children’s play, 3, C. Bax), 1920–21, ?unperf., unpubd
instrumental
Orch: Sym. [no.1], perf. 1901, lost; Heroic Ov., perf. 1901, lost; English Dance, perf.
1904, unpubd, arr. Grainger 2 pf, 1925, unpubd; Suite, A, perf. 1905, lost; Ov. to a
Comedy, perf. 1906, lost, rev. perf. 1911; Fantasy, perf. 1908, lost, rev. perf. 1914,
lost; Sym. [no.2], D, perf. 1908, lost; Shepherd Fennel’s Dance, perf. 1911, arr. pf
(1911); A Berkshire Idyll, 1913, perf. 1955, unpubd; In Maytime, perf. 1914, lost;
Ballad, 1915–19, perf. 1920, lost; Café Milani ’95, 1925, unperf., lost
Chbr: Str Qt, c, perf. 1903, lost, last movt rev. 1936 as Movt for Str arr. Grainger
(1949); Str Qt, B , perf. 1905
Pf: 4 Studies in Small Form, 1899, unpubd; Humoresque, 1904, rev. (1905), orchd,
lost; Mere (1905); Prelude (De profundis) (1905), orchd, lost; Noël (1908), orchd,
unpubd, arr. 2 pf (1935); Christmas Greetings, 1908, unpubd; 5 Pieces (1911), incl.
Gavotte and London Bridge, orchd, lost; The Joyful Homecoming (1919), orchd,
perf. 1919, lost; Salamanca (1920); Prelude no.2 (1920); Shenadoah (and other
pieces) (1922), incl. Shenadoah and Jesmond orchd, lost; A Sailor’s Piece (1922);
The Ironic Barcarolle, 1922, unpubd; Michaelchurch (1923); Fantasia for Left Hand
(1925)
choral
‘Te lucis ante terminum’, SATB, org (1908), orchd D.O. Norris, 1977, unpubd; A
Corymbus for Autumn (F. Thompson), S, chorus, orch, 1908–10, unperf., lost; News
from Whydah (J. Masefield), chorus, orch, perf. 1912; The Stage Coach (W.
Barnes), SATB (1912); Evenèn in the Village (W. Barnes), SATB (1912); Cargoes
(Masefield), SATB (1912), arr. TTBB (1920), arr. unison vv, pf (1934), arr. Ivimey,
chorus, orch, unpubd; Proud Maisie (W. Scott), SATB (1912); April (E. Carpenter),
chorus, orch, perf. 1913; A Song for Supper Night, unison vv, pf, 1915, unpubd; An
Old Song Re-sung (Masefield), SATB (1920); The Silver Birch (E. Ennion), SSA, pf
(1921); Cavalier (Masefield), unison vv, pf (1921); Philomela (M. Arnold), T, female
vv, orch, 1923, perf. 1955, unpubd; On Eastnor Knoll (Masefield), SATB, 1923–4,
unpubd
Arrs.: God Save the King, SATB, acc. ad lib (1915); And how should I your true love
know, SSA (1915); The 3 Ravens (T. Ravenscroft), SATB, 1915 (1919); Bulley in the
Alley (sea shanty), BBB, 1915, unpubd; Heave Ho! (sea shanty), c1915, lost; Sir
Eglamore, various acc./unacc. vocal arrs. (1917), arr. 1v, chorus, str (1924); The
Hunt is Up, SATB (1919); Song of the Volga Boatmen, SATB/TTBB (1927)
songs
for 1v, pf unless otherwise stated

The Banks of Calm Bendemeer (T. Moore), 1893, unpubd; How sweet I roamed
from field to field (W. Blake), 1895, unpubd; Ah, sweet those eyes that used to be so
tender, 1895, unpubd; D’un vanneur du blé aux vents (du Bellay), 1896, unpubd;
Lightly we met in the Morn, ?1897, unpubd; [3] Songs, 1897: Fear no more the heat
o’ the sun (W. Shakespeare), rev. as Fidele (1908); Dirge (Rough wind that moanest
loud) (P.B. Shelley), unpubd; Music, when soft voices die (Shelley), pubd as no.1 of
2 Lyrics (1908)
Full Fathom Five (Shakespeare), 1908, unpubd; Dream-Tryst (F. Thompson), Bar,
orch, 1902, unperf., unpubd, 2nd version Bar, orch, 1909, unperf., unpubd; The
Stranger’s Song (T. Hardy) (1903); 2 Love Songs from the ‘Song of Solomon’,
c1905, unperf., lost; When the lad for longing sighs (A.E. Housman), Bar, orch, perf.
1906, lost; The Recruit (Housman) (1906), orchd, perf. 1906, lost, reorchd D.O.
Norris 1977, unpubd; The Golden Vanity (folksong), B-Bar (1908), orchd, lost; When
I was one and twenty (Housman), pubd as no.2 of 2 Lyrics (1908); Roadways
(Masefield) (1908), orchd, Stacey, unpubd; The Wanderer’s Evensong (Goethe,
trans. Carpenter), 1908, unpubd; Winter (When icicles hang by the wall)
(Shakespeare) (1912); On Chelsea Embankment (E. L. Darton), 1915, rev. 1938,
unpubd; Rybbesdale (old Eng., adapted C. Bax) (1922); The Quiet Garden (F.
Prewett) (1923)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘H. Balfour Gardiner’, MT, liii (1912), 501–3
C. Scott: ‘The Late Balfour Gardiner and our Student Days’, Music
Teacher, xxix (1950), 396, 427
T. Armstrong: ‘The Frankfort Group’, PRMA, lxxxv (1958–9), 1–16
G. Bush: ‘When I was Young and Twenty’, Performing Right, lviii (1967),
14–15
S. Lloyd: ‘Balfour Gardiner 1877–1950’, Music and Musicians, xxvi (1977),
22–5
S. Lloyd: H. Balfour Gardiner (Cambridge, 1984)
STEPHEN LLOYD

Gardiner, Sir John Eliot

(b Fontmell Magna, Dorset, 20 April 1943). English conductor. He read
history and Arabic at King’s College, Cambridge, before studying music
with Thurston Dart at King’s College, London, and with Nadia Boulanger in
Paris. He also studied conducting with George Hurst. While still at
Cambridge he founded the Monteverdi Choir, with whom he made his
conducting début at the Wigmore Hall in London in 1966. He
commemorated the 400th anniversary of Monteverdi's birth in 1967 with a
performance of the Vespers in a new edition of his own at Ely Cathedral,
repeating the work at a Proms concert in 1968. In that year he founded, as
a complementary body to the choir, the Monteverdi Orchestra. He drew
from his singers a (then unfashionable) brightly focussed tone in the
Continental tradition, bringing to their Baroque repertory an unaccustomed
clarity and incisiveness. These qualities influenced other groups in the
ongoing search for an ‘authentic’ performing style; and the choir's vitality
was matched by the English Baroque Soloists, a period-instrument
ensemble which Gardiner founded in 1978 as a successor to the
Monteverdi Orchestra. Gardiner has directed the choir and instrumentalists
in an impressive range of repertory from Purcell, through Bach and Handel
(many oratorios) to Haydn and Mozart (including recordings of the
complete piano concertos with Malcolm Bilson, and the seven mature
operas). In 1990 he founded the Orchestre Révolutionnaire et Romantique
to perform 19th-century repertory, from Beethoven to Brahms, on
instruments of the period. With the orchestra he has recorded an
exhilarating cycle of Beethoven symphonies and in 1993 gave the modern
première of Berlioz's Messe solennelle from a manuscript lost for over 150
years. Performers find Gardiner a hard taskmaster, but when the chemistry
works, as for example in his powerfully dramatic readings of the Bach
Passions, he is unsurpassed.
His exceptional feeling for dramatic pacing and effect is reflected in his
direction of opera. Between 1973 and 1975 he conducted new editions of
Rameau's Dardanus, Les fêtes d'Hébé and Les boréades (which he also
recorded). He made his Covent Garden début with Gluck's Iphigénie en
Tauride in 1973 and from 1983 to 1988 was music director of the Lyons
Opéra, introducing several rare works there, including Charpentier's
Médée and Leclair's Scylla et Glaucus. His other operatic recordings
 include Gluck's La rencontre imprévue, Iphigénie en Aulide and Iphigénie
en Tauride, and Beethoven's Leonore.
Although his reputation was initially based on performances with period
instruments, Gardiner has received many invitations to work with modern
orchestras including the Vienna PO (with whom he has recorded Lehár's
Die lustige Witwe), the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, the Boston SO
and the Cleveland Orchestra. He was principal conductor of the NDR SO in
Hamburg for four years from 1991.
Gardiner has made over 250 recordings, reflecting the breadth of his
repertory, and has received more Gramophone awards than any other
artist. He has also received an honorary doctorate from the University of
Lyons, has been created a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des
Lettres and is an honorary fellow of King's College, London, and the RAM.
He was made a CBE in 1990 and knighted in 1998.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Blyth: ‘John Eliot Gardiner’, Opera, xxxviii (1987), 8–14
J. Joly: ‘Make it New’, Gramophone, lxxv/June (1997), 14–17
GEORGE PRATT

Gardiner, William
(b Leicester, 15 March 1769; d Leicester, 16 Nov 1853). English hosiery
manufacturer, writer on music, minor composer and editor. Procuring a
copy of Beethoven’s E String Trio op.3 in Bonn, he played the viola in a
Leicester performance in 1794, three years before its London publication.
He was thus regarded as the introducer of Beethoven’s music to England
and was asked, at the unveiling of Beethoven’s statue in Bonn (1848), to
sign the inauguration parchment beneath the names of Victoria and Albert.
He was a member of the semichorus at Victoria’s coronation (1838) and
trained a 100-voice chorus for the important 1827 Leicester Musical
Festival; some of his songs, glees and duets appeared under ‘W.G.,
Leicester’, with one psalm tune, published as by Paxton. He provided
linking music for Judah, an oratorio freely based on Beethoven, Haydn and
Mozart (the slow movement of Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony quickening
into the March of the Philistines). Gardiner wrote to Beethoven offering 100
guineas for an overture to Judah, but his letter miscarried, as had some
stockings, woven with themes, addressed to Haydn some years previously.
Sacred Melodies, ‘barbarous compilations’ according to the Dictionary of
National Biography, contain extracts from religious works adapted to
English words. Gardiner’s observations on contemporary musical, literary
and artistic life appear in Music and Friends, and The Music of Nature
contains lucid discussions of the vocal practices of many leading singers. A
portrait of him attributed to Artaud is in the Leicester Museum Collection.
WORKS
Sacred Melodies, i–vi (London, 1812–38), arr. from works by Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven and others; The Psalms and Hymns (London, 1814), arr. from Sacred
Melodies; Judah, orat (London, 1821), incl. arr. of works by Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven; The Universal Prayer (London, 1840), Pope’s words set to music by
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven; Anthems, glees, songs, GB-Lcm
WRITINGS
The Music of Nature (London, 1832, 3/1849)
Music and Friends, or Pleasant Recollections of a Dilettante (London,
1838–53)
Sights in Italy, with some account of the Present State of Music … in that
Country (London, 1847)
7 musical papers read before Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society,
1839–51; abstracts in transactions of the society, of which Gardiner
was a founder-member
Annotations to C. Berry’s translation of H. Beyle’s [Stendhal’s] version of
Carpani’s biography of Haydn (London, 1817); annotations to R.
Brewin’s translation of Schlichtegroll’s biography of Mozart (London,
1817)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Wilshere: William Gardiner of Leicester, 1770–1853 (Leicester, 1970)
G. Syer: ‘Beethoven and William Gardiner’, MT, cxxviii (1987), 256–8
JONATHAN WILSHERE/R

Gardner, Johann von

(b Sevastopol, 10/22 Dec 1898; d Munich, 26 Feb 1984). German
musicologist of Russian origin. He was familiar with Russian church music
from his childhood and specialized in studies of Russian chant, becoming
an authority on the repertory, history and stylistic analysis of chant from the
early 17th century. He was in Belgrade after the Russian Revolution of
1917 and completed his theological studies at the University of Belgrade in
1928, also studying composition and choral conducting with Kosta
Manojlović. After a brief teaching career in Cetinje (Montenegro) and
Carpathian Ruthenia he became a monk, serving in Jerusalem and
elsewhere. He was in Vienna in 1939 and Potsdam in 1942, and by 1944
had returned to laity as a choral conductor in Salzburg. In 1954 he was
appointed to teach courses on the liturgical chant of the Russian Orthodox
Church at the University of Munich, where, in 1965, he took the doctorate
with a dissertation on problems of notation in Russian chant. Besides a
valuable bibliography of the literature on Russian church music he wrote
numerous articles including descriptions of Russian musical manuscripts in
various western European libraries and a discography of performances of
Russian chants. The publication (1978–82) of his extensive study of the
liturgical chant of the Russian Orthodox Church was his crowning
achievement.
WRITINGS
Ukazatel/russkoy i inostrannoy literaturï po voprosam russkogo
tserkovnogo peniya [Bibliography of Russian and foreign writings on
Russian church chanting] (Munich, 1958)
‘Das Cento Prinzip der Tropierung und seine Bedeutung für die
Entzifferung der altrussischen linienlosen Notationen’, Musik des
Ostens, i (1962), 106–21
‘Zum Problem der Nomenklatur der altrussischen Neumen’, Welt der
Slaven, vii (1962), 300–16
‘Stilistische Richtungen im russischen liturgischen Chorgesang’,
Ostkirchliche Studien, xi (1962), 161–82
‘Eine alte Gesangsform des Credo in der Praxis der russischen Kirche’,
KJb, xlv (1963), 1–10
‘Zum Problem des Tonleiteraufbaus im altrussischen Neumengesang’,
Musik des Ostens, ii (1963), 157–69
with E. Koschmieder: Ein handschriftliches Lehrbuch der altrussischen
Neumenschrift (Munich, 1963–72)
Das Problem des altrussischen demestischen Kirchengesanges und seiner
linienlosen Notation (diss., U. of Munich, 1965; Slavistische Beiträge,
xxv, Munich, 1967)
‘Die Rolle der Musik im orthodoxen Gottesdienst’, Kult und Kontemplation
in Ost und West: Niederaltaich 1966 (Regensburg, 1967), 86–109
‘Zur Frage der Verwendung des Sema Fitá in den altrussischen liturgischen
Gesangshandschriften mit linierter Notation’, Abhandlungen der
Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur-, Geistes- und
sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, ix (1969), 273–93; pubd separately
(Wiesbaden, 1970)
‘Musique d’église en Russie du XVIIe au XXe siècle’, Encyclopédie des
musiques sacrées, ii (Paris, 1969), 194–205
Aleksey Theodorovich L'vov, direktor Imperatorskoi Pridvornoi Pyevcheskoi
Kapelli i dukhovnyi kompozitor (1798–1870) [L'vov, director of the
Imperial Court's chapel choir and composer of liturgical music]
(Jordanville, NY, 1970)
‘Stile und Formen liturgischer Musik in der Orthodoxen Kirche’, Handbuch
der Ostkirchenkunde, ed. E. von Ivanka, J. Ticiak and P. Wiertz
(Düsseldorf, 1971), 457–72
‘Die Gesänge der byzantinisch-slawischen Liturgie’, Geschichte der
katholischen Kirchenmusik, ed. K.G. Fellerer, i (Kassel, 1972), 128–59
‘Über die Klassifikation und die Bezeichnungen der altrussischen
Neumenschriftarten’, Welt der Slaven, xvii (1972), 175–200
‘Gemischte Chöre in der Liturgie der russisch orthodoxen Kirche’,
Ostkirchliche Studien, xxii (1973), 44–54
Bogosluzhebnoe pyenie russkoy pravoslavnoy tserkvi [Liturgical chant of
the Russian Orthodox Church] (Jordanville, NY, 1978–82)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Velimirović: ‘The Present Status of Research in Slavic Chant’, AcM,
xliv (1972), 235–65 [list of Gardner’s publications, p.255]
Obituary, Ostkirchliche Studien, xxxiii (1984), 200–01
MILOŠ VELIMIROVIĆ

Gardner, John (Linton)

(b Manchester, 2 March 1917). English composer and teacher. He was
organ scholar at Exeter College, Oxford (1935–9), where his teachers
included Armstrong, Walker and Morris. After war service he was a
répétiteur at the Covent Garden Opera Company (1946–52); tutor (1952–
76) and director of music (1965–9) at Morley College; visiting director of
 music at St Paul’s Girls’ School (1962–75); and professor of harmony and
counterpoint, RAM (1956–86). He was made a CBE in 1976.
Gardner composed copiously from childhood. At Oxford the influence of
Adorno was more significant than his teachers, and before World War II
some chamber works were performed although they were subsequently
withdrawn. His compositional career effectively recommenced with the
première of the Symphony no.1 (1946–7) at the 1951 Cheltenham Festival
under Barbirolli. Its success led to several major commissions including
Cantiones sacrae (1951–2) for the Three Choirs Festival, and the opera
The Moon and Sixpence (1954–7) for Sadler’s Wells Opera. Gardner’s
music is characterized by skilful craftsmanship and an eclecticism often
arising from the nature of a particular work. For example, The Moon and
Sixpence is an exception to his normal adherence to tonality, where the
use of serial procedures creates a harmony suitable to portray the
heightened emotions of the plot; and in the Second Symphony (1985) he
consciously adopts a 19th-century style. He has successfully integrated
jazz into his works: the use of the alto saxophone in the Mass in D (1982)
may be cited, as well as passages in the opera Tobermory (1976).
Similarly, he has a flair for writing in a vein derived from popular music as in
Tomorrow Shall be my Dancing Day (1965). The use of contrapuntal
devices is another hallmark, demonstrated in a masterly fashion in A latter
day Athenian speaks (1961) for unaccompanied chorus and in the Second
String Quartet (1978). Choral and vocal works form the backbone of
Gardner’s compositions; significant among these are the Herrick Cantata
(1960–61), and the Seven Songs to Poems of Stevie Smith (1976). Works
such as the Second Oboe Sonata (1986) and the Oboe Concerto (1990)
also show the idiomatic nature of his writing for instruments.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ops: The Moon and Sixpence (3, P. Terry, after W.S. Maugham), op.32, 1954–7,
London, Sadler’s Wells, 24 May 1957; The Visitors (chbr op, 3, J.O. Greenwood),
op.111, 1971–2, Aldeburgh, Jubilee Hall, 7 June 1972; Bel and the Dragon
(children’s op, 1, T. Kraemer), op.120, 1973, London, St James Norlands, 15 Dec
1973; Tobermory (1, G. Ewart, after Saki), op.137, 1976, London, RAM, 26 Oct
1977
Orch: Sym. no.1, d, op.2, 1946–7; Variations on a Waltz of Carl Nielsen, op.13,
1952; Pf Conc. no.1, op.34, 1956–7; Conc., op.53, tpt, str, 1962; Midsummer Ale,
ov., op.73, 1965; Sym. no.2, E , op.166, 1985; Sym. no.3, e, op.189, Conc., op.193,
ob, str, 1990; Conc., op.220, fl, str, 1994–5
Choral-orch: Cantiones sacrae (trad.), op.12, S, chorus, orch, 1951–2; The Ballad
of the White Horse (G.K. Chesterton), op.40, Bar, chorus, orch, 1958–9; Herrick
Cant., op.49, T, chorus, orch, 1960–61; The Noble Heart (Greenwood, after
Shakespeare and others), op.59, S, B, chorus, orch, 1963–4; Cant. for Christmas
(trad.), op.82, chorus, small orch, 1966; Mass, D, op.159, C, chorus, orch, 1982;
Cant. for St Cecilia, op.195, S, T, chorus, orch, 1991; A Burns Sequence, op.213,
chorus, orch, 1993
Other vocal: A Latter Day Athenian Speaks (C.H.O. Scaife), op.51, SATB, 1961; The
Shout (Fox), op.67, SATB, 1964; Mass, C, op.70, 1965; Tomorrow Shall be my
Dancing Day (trad.), op.75/2, chorus, pf, 1965
Cant. for Easter, op.105, chorus, org, perc, 1970; 4 Carols, op.109/1, chorus, org,
perc, 1970; The Entertainment of the Senses (W.H. Auden, Kallman), op.121, 5 solo
vv, 6 insts, 1974; 7 Songs to Poems by Stevie Smith, op.126, SATB, wind qnt, 1976;
Open Air Suite (folk poems), op.132, chorus, brass band, 1976; Stabat mater,
op.210, S, chorus, org, timp, 1993
Chbr and solo inst: Occasional Suite, op.95, recs, cls, hpd, perc, 1968; Chbr Conc.,
op.102, org, 10 players, 1969; Sonata secolare, op.117, org, brass qnt, 1973;
Sonata da chiesa, op.136, 2 tpt, org, 1976; Eng. Dance Suite, op.139, concert
band, 1977; Str Qt no.2, op.148, 1978; Sax Qt, op.168, 1986; Sonata, C, op.172,
ob, 1986; Str Qt no.3, D, op.176, 1987; Fantasy and Fugue on a Prelude of
Bruckner, op.185, org, 1988; Sonata, op.204, org, 1992; Prelude and Fugue,
op.209, pf, 1993; Sextet, op.223, pf, wind, 1995

Principal publishers: Hansen, Hinshaw, Novello, OUP, Stainer & Bell

WRITINGS
‘The Chamber Music’, Robert Schumann: the Man and his Music, ed. A.
Walker (London, 1972), 200–240
‘A Chronicle of Cantatas’, Twenty British Composers: the Feeney Trust
Commissions, ed. P. Dickinson (London, 1975), 54–7
ed., with S. Harris: A cappella (Oxford, 1992)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CC1 (H. Milne)
N. Goodwin: ‘John Gardner’s Opera “The Moon and Sixpence”’, MT, xcviii
(1957), 250–51
L. Halsey: ‘John Gardner’s Choral Music’, MT, cviii (1967), 28–32
R.B. Jones: John Gardner: an Examination of his Life and Selected Choral
Compositions (diss., U. of Miami, 1991)
ANDREW BURN

Gardner, Kay
(b Freeport, NY, 8 Feb 1941). American composer and performer. In
addition to formal study at the University of Michigan (1958–61) and SUNY
at Stony Brook (MM 1974), she studied with Samuel Baron (flute) and
Antonia Brico (conducting, 1977, 1978) as well as Balinese flute and
gamelan in Bali during 1988. A pioneer of women’s music who declared her
lesbianism in 1971, she has been an active composer-performer of
women’s music since 1973, appearing regularly at National Women’s
Music Festival and Michigan Women’s Music Festival; in 1978–9 she co-
founded and conducted the New England Women’s SO. Her exploration of
healing music has gained recognition through her presentations to medical
schools and health workers, as well as her work to develop the use of
music as a substitute for surgical anaesthesia. Combining eastern and
western philosophy, physics, medicine and empirical evidence, her book
Sounding the Inner Landscape: Music as Medicine (Stonington, ME,
1990/R) summarizes this work. Melody is the foundation for all her
compositions, which often use modal scales as heard in Rainforest (1977)
and North Coast Nights (1989). Her albums Garden of Ecstasy (1989) and
 One Spirit (1993) show the influence of world music and feature Gardner
playing a variety of flutes.
WORKS
Stage: Ladies Voices: a Short Opera (G. Stein), 1981, Albuquerque, perf. 1981;
Lucina’s Light, 1995, rev. as Lucina’s Light: a Yuletide Cantata/Pageant, 1996; Mira
(dance score), St Louis, Gash-Voigt, 16–18 May 1997
Orch: Prayer to Aphrodite, a fl, str orch, 1974; Rainforest, chbr orch, 1977; The
Rising Sun, chbr orch, 1985 [arr. of chbr work]; Quiet Harbor, 1992
Chbr and solo inst: Lunamuse, fl, gui, vc, perc, vocal drone (tape loop or audience),
1974–5; Atlantis Rising, fl + a fl + prep pf, vn + va + wind chimes, vc + wind chimes,
prep pf, tape, 1978; A Rainbow Path (fls, ww, perc, hp, str/pf, 1984; Traveling, a fl,
va, gui, perc, tamboura, 1986; Viriditas, fl + a fl + b fl, ob + eng hn, bn + dbn, va, vc,
perc, timp, hp, 1988; North Coast Nights, str qt, 1989; Mariachi, mar, 1991; Mother
of Creation, bamboo fl + tingshaw + chime egg, pakhāwaj, 1993; Gift of Dance, fl,
pf, 1996
Vocal: 3 Mother Songs, Mez, gui, 1977; When we Made the Music, SSAA, pf/(eng
hn, str qt), 1977; Sea Chantress, 1v, fl, dulcimer, 1978; Anthem for an Aquarian Age,
chorus, 1988; Ouroboros: Seasons of Life – Women’s Passages (orat, C. Hutchins,
I. Suzanne), 6 female vv, SAA, orch, 1993; Fragments (Hsin Ping), S, pf, 1995; The
Scar of Odysseus, chorus, b drum, 1996; From Walden (H.D. Thoreau), dancers,
chorus, ww, vc, kbd, perc, 1997
Video and film scores

Principal publishers: Sea Gnomes Music

Principal recording companies: Even Keel, Ladyslipper, Leonardo, Urana

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson2
G. Kimball: ‘Female Composition: Interview with Kay Gardner’, Women’s
Culture: the Women’ Renaissance of the 70s, ed. G. Kimball
(Metuchen, NJ, 1981), 163–76
J.W. LePage: Women Composers, Conductors, and Musicians of the
Twentieth Century, ii (Metuchen, NJ, 1983), 92–117
Kay Gardner: Composer, videotape, dir. J. Balthar (1986) [Gardner
performing and talking about her life and works]
K. Gardner: ‘Inner Space: Music As Medicine’, Ms, xxii/1 (1991–2), 74–5
K. Gardner: ‘Composing or Choosing Music for Patient Use During
Surgery’, Current Research in Arts Medicine; a Compendium of the
MedArt International 1992 World Congress on Arts and Medicine, ed.
Fadi J. Bejjani (Pennington, NJ, 1993), 441–4
J. MICHELE EDWARDS

Gárdonyi, Zoltán
(b Budapest, 25 April 1906; d Herford, 27 June 1986). Hungarian
musicologist and composer. He studied composition with Kodály at the
Budapest Liszt Academy of Music, musicology with Blume, Hornbostel,
Schering, Schünemann and Wolf at Berlin University (as a scholar of the
Collegium Hungaricum) and composition with Hindemith at the Berlin
Staatliche Hochschule für Musik, where he graduated in 1930. He took the
doctorate at Berlin University in 1931 with a dissertation on Liszt.
Subsequently he taught music at the teacher-training college in Sopron
and conducted the music society there (1931–41). In 1941 he was
appointed professor at the Liszt Academy of Music, where he remained
until his retirement in 1967, teaching musicology and giving special lecture
courses on Liszt and Bach. He was also chairman of the department of
Protestant church music there from 1946 until 1949, when it was abolished.
In 1972 he resettled permanently in West Germany. Gárdonyi made a
significant contribution to research on Liszt, the European Baroque and
musical analysis. He planned the Neue Liszt-Ausgabe, and with István
Szelényi edited the first four volumes (1970–73). He was a member of the
committee for musicology of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He
composed prolifically in a wide variety of forms; his works include a large
number of choral works, among which is an oratorio A tékozló fiú (‘The
Prodigal Son’, 1971), various orchestral works, for example, a Clarinet
Concerto (1942), a Concertino for Violin and Orchestra (1959) and a
Sinfonic Suite (1980), as well as various chamber and instrumental works,
including three string quartets and pieces for the organ. Many of these
works are recorded on two CDs made in 1986 to celebrate his 80th
birthday, and following his decease, nearly 70 of his works have been
published posthumously in Germany, Hungary and the USA.
WRITINGS
Die Ungarischen Stileigentümlichkeiten in den musikalischen Werken
Franz Liszts (diss., U. of Berlin 1931; Berlin, 1931)
‘Liszt kiadatlan magyar zongorakompoziciói’ [Liszt’s unpublished Hungarian
compositions for piano], A zene, xiii (1931–2), 132–8
Liszt Ferenc első magyar zenedarabjai [Liszt’s first Hungarian pieces]
(Sopron, 1935)
Liszt Ferenc magyar stílusa/Le style hongrois de François Liszt [Liszt’s
Hungarian style] (Budapest, 1936)
A zenei formák világa [The world of musical forms] (Budapest, 1949)
‘Népzenénk és a zenei forma elemei’ [Our folk music and the elements of
musical forms], ZT, i (1953), 405–12
‘Distancia-elvű jelenségek Liszt zenéjében’ [Distance-principle phenomena
in Liszt’s music], ZT, iii (1955), 91–100
‘J. Haydn oratórium formálása’ [Haydn’s oratorio forms], ZT, viii (1960), 95–
106 [with Ger. summary]
‘Nationale Thematik in der Musik Franz Liszts bis zum Jahre 1848’, Liszt-
Bartók: Budapest 1961, 77–87
‘Zur Fugentechnik J.S. Bachs’, SMH, iii (1962), 117–26
Elemző formatan [Analytical morphology] (Budapest, 1963/R)
‘Bartók és magyar elődei’ [Bartók and his Hungarian predecessors],
Muzsika, viii/9 (1965), 10–14
‘Egy jelentős Liszt-Monográfiáról’ [On an important Liszt monograph (J.
Milstein: Liszt)], Magyar zene, vi (1965), 258–65
‘Kodály Zoltán írásai tükrében’ [Kodály in his writings], Magyar zene, vii
(1966), 279–82
J.S. Bach ellenpont-művészetének alapjai [The contrapuntal art of Bach]
(Budapest, 1967)
‘Neue Tonleiter und Sequenztypen in Liszts Frühwerken’, SMH, xi (1969),
169–99
J.S. Bach kánon és fúga szerkesztő művészete [Bach’s fugue and canon
composition] (Budapest, 1972)
‘Palestrina szakrális zenéje Kodály tanításában’ [Palestrina’s sacred music
in the teaching of Kodály], Vigilia, vii (Budapest, 1972), 457–60
‘Neue Ordnungsprinzipien der Tonhöhon in Liszts Frühwerken’, Franz
Liszt: Beiträge von ungarischen Autoren, ed. K. Hamburger (Budapest,
1978), 226–73
‘The Organ Music of Liszt’, New Hungarian Quarterly, no.100 (1985), 243–
52
‘Zu einigen Kanons von J.S. Bach’, SMH, xxviii (1986), 321–4
EDITIONS
with I. Szelényi: Franz Liszt: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, I/i/1:
Etüden I (Budapest and Kassel, 1970); I/i/2: Etüden II (Budapest and
Kassel, 1971); I/i/3: Ungarische Rhapsodien I (Budapest and Kassel,
1972); I/i/4: Ungarische Rhapsodien II (Budapest and Kassel, 1973)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Contemporary Hungarian Composers (Budapest, 1974) [incl. list of works
up to 1972]
D. Karasszon: Zoltán Gárdonyi 1906–1986 (Budapest, 1999) [incl. full list
of works]
IMRE SULYOK/ZSOLT GÁRDONYI

Gar-dpon, Pa-sangs Don-grub

(b Pa-snam dBang-ldan, 1917/18; d Lhasa, 1998). Tibetan gar master. He
was selected at the age of nine to be a gar dancer at the court of the 13th
Dalai Lama and became teacher of the troupe at 21 and director at 32,
while studying literature with dGe-‘dun Chos-‘phel. He worked as a lay
official (zhol-drung) in the ‘old’ (pre-communist) Tibetan government and
was the first gar master to be promoted to the seventh rank of its
administrative hierarchy. He developed the instrumental technique of the
gar tradition. In 1982, after more than 20 years in prison, he initiated the
resurrection of gar music and dances and was appointed music teacher at
Tibet University (Lhasa). With bSod-nams Dar-rgyas Zhol-khang, he was
regarded as an authority on various kinds of folksongs, sitting at most of
the government conferences on traditional Tibetan performing arts. In 1985
and 1997 he went to India to teach gar to Tibetan exiles. The dances that
he and Rig-‘dzin rDo-rje (1927–84) taught at the Tibetan Institute of
Performing Arts (Dharamsala) are still performed today before the Dalai
Lama. He edited two books, made a series of recordings of gar and wrote
a series of articles in Tibetan journals.
WRITINGS
mChod-sprin gar-rol [Clouds of offerings of dances] (Lhasa, 1985)
‘Gangs-ljongs kyi gar-phrug-pa'i gso-sbyong sgrig-gzhi dang lte-ba'i gar-gyi
lo-rgyus mdo-tsam gleng-ba’ [Brief discussion on the training
 organisation of the Snowland's gardrugpas and main historical
features of gar], Bod-ljongs sgyu-rtsal zhib-'jug [Tibetan arts studies]
(1988), 43–7
‘Gar-glu La-dvags stag-mchong las 'phros te gar gyi rang-bzhin la dpyad-
pa’ [A study on the character of gar from the ‘Ladakh leaping tiger’
style gar songs], Bod-ljongs sgyu-rtsal zhib-'jug [Tibetan arts studies]
(1990), 35–9
sDe-srid Sangs-rgyas rGya-mtsho, gNa'-bo'i lugs-bzang ya-rabs srol-gtod-
pa'i deb-ther Mig yid rna ba'i dga'-ston 'gugs-pa'i lcags kyo zhes bya-
ba bzhugs-so [Music history from the great ancient tradition, the feast
for the eyes, mind and ears, that attracts people] (Lhasa, 1991)
‘Rang nyid gar-pa byas-pa'i 'brel yod gnas-tshul rags-rim’ [Overview of my
experience as a garpa], Bod kyi lo-rgyus rig-gnas dpyad-gzhi'i rgyu-
cha bdams-sgrig [Materials for the study of Tibetan history and
culture], viii/17, ed. Bod rang-skyong-ljongs srid-gros lo-rgyus rig-gnas
dpyad-gzhi'i rgyu-cha zhib-'jug u-yon lhan-khang [TAR CPCC
Research Committee for study materials on Tibetan history and
culture] (Beijing, 1994), 219–25
RECORDINGS
Gangs-can gna’-bo’i dbyangs-snyan (Tibetan classical music), ed.
dGe-‘dun, Bod-ljongs sgra-brnyan par-skrun-khang (Tibet music and
video publishing house) (1985) [incl. ‘sTod-gzhas nang-ma’, perf. Zhol-
khang bSod-nams Dar-rgyas, and ‘mChod-sprin gar-rol’, perf. Gar-
dpon Pa-sangs Don-grub]
ISABELLE HENRION-DOURCY

Garducci, Tommaso.
See Guarducci, Tommaso.

Gareth, Benedetto [‘Il Chariteo’]

(b Barcelona, c1450; d Naples, 1514). Catalan poet-improviser. He was
active in Aragonese Naples for most of his career, notably as secretary to
Ferdinand I and as secretary of state to Ferdinand II, for whom he used to
sing Virgil's poems. According to Cortese (see Pirrotta) Spaniards sang in a
‘lugubrious’ manner and inflected Virgil's verses in a ‘simple’ variety of the
Lydian that resulted in a ‘rather languid modulation’. At Ferdinand's
wedding in 1496 Gareth performed ‘mille sue frottole’, composed in honour
of ‘La Luna’, a poetic name for his beloved. His amorous lyrics about her
(collected in Endimione) show the influence of Petrarch. He was a leading
member of the Accademia Pontaniana, where he was known as ‘Chariteus’
(favourite of the charites, or graces). Serafino Aquilano came to know him
while in Naples (1478–80) and is said to have been inspired by Andrea
Coscia's performances of his lyrics at the Sforza court in Milan. A musical
setting of one of Gareth's 32 strambotti, Amando e desiando is attributed to
him in Petrucci's Frottole libro nono (RISM 15092) and also in an
arrangement for voice and lute in Bossinensis's Intabulati (1511; ed. in IMi,
new ser., iii, 1964). His strambotto Qual fu del primo dì was included in a
Mantuan collection of cansoni per canto. Some strambotti refer to his
 singing in a dolorous vein (nos.1, 2, 9, 23, 32); he mourns the death of a
singer named Moletto in sonetto 184. Six scurrilous canzoni alla napolitana
attributed to ‘Don Caritheo’ in RISM 154618 cannot be Gareth's. However,
the initial lines of his strambotti (e.g. Tu dormi e amor veglia) were
frequently cited in various forms of popular poetry.
WRITINGS
Opere del Chariteo (Naples, 1506, 2/1509 as Tutte le opere volgari di
Chariteo); ed. E. Pèrcopo as Le rime di Benedetto Gareth detto il
Chariteo (Naples, 1892)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Disertori: ‘Contradiction tonale dans la transcription d'un “strambotto”
célèbre’, Le luth et sa musique: Neuilly-sur-Seine 1957, 37–42
C. Gallico: Un libro di poesie per musica dell'epoca d'Isabella d'Este
(Mantua, 1961)
N. Pirrotta: ‘Music and Cultural Tendencies in 15th-Century Italy’, JAMS,
xix (1966), 127–61 [incl. trans. of P. Cortese: ‘De victu quotidiano’, De
cardinalatu, bk ii (1510)]
D.G. Cardamone: The Canzone Villanesca alla Napolitana and Related
Forms, 1537–1570 (Ann Arbor, 1981)
A. Atlas: Music at the Aragonese Court of Naples (Cambridge, 1985)
G. Parenti: Benet Garret detto il Cariteo: profilo di un poeta (Florence,
1993)
DONNA G. CARDAMONE

Gargallo, Luis Vicente

(b at or nr Valencia, c1636; d ?Barcelona, ? Feb 1682). Spanish composer.
He received his early musical training as a choirboy at Valencia Cathedral.
He was choirmaster of Huesca Cathedral from 7 June 1659 to 15
November 1667, succeeding Babán. Two days later he was appointed to a
similar position at Barcelona Cathedral, succeeding Albareda. In November
1667 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the post of maestro de capilla
of the Real Colegio del Corpus Christi, Valencia, and in October 1679 he
sat on the jury that judged the competition for the post of organist at S
María del Mar, Barcelona. He disappeared from Barcelona cathedral in
February 1682, and the chapter was forced to presume that he had died.
Gargallo had many pupils. His surviving works, all of them sacred, show
that he was a talented composer, with a sound technique and a strong
personality. He may have been related to José Gargallo (b Morella, 1702; d
after 1734), who served at Valencia Cathedral until 1731 and then at
Albarracín Cathedral, or to Francisco Gargallo, a beneficed priest and
maestro de capilla of S María la Mayor, Morella, in the 18th century.
Another José Gargallo (b 1744; d 1794) was a musician at the cathedral of
La Seo, Zaragoza, and then, from 1776, maestro de capilla of León
Cathedral.
WORKS
Historia de Joseph (orat), ed. in Estudis sobre el barroc musical hispànic, i
(Barcelona, 1986)
Aquí de la fe (orat), ed. in Recerca musicològica, vi–vii (Barcelona, 1986–7)
Mass, 8vv; mass, 5vv; requiem, 8vv: E-Bc
Mass, 8vv, 1676; requiem, double choir: Palau, Barcelona
Seqs: 2 Dies irae, 4, 8vv, E-Bc; Victimae paschali laudes, 6vv, Palau, Barcelona
Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel, 8vv, bc, VAcp
Nunc dimittis, 10vv, Bc
Pss: Cum invocarem (Ps iv), 10vv, Bc; In te Domine (Ps lxx), 8vv, bc, VAcp;
Memento Domine David (Ps cxxxi), 8vv, bc, VAcp; Miserere, 8vv, org, GB-Lbl;
Principes persecuti sunt (Ps cxix), 10vv, org, Lbl; other psalms, 4vv, E-Bc
Lessons: Fratres sobrii estote, 16vv; Responde mihi, 8vv: Bc; Fratres sobrii estote,
10vv, Palau, Barcelona
Salve regina, 4, 8vv, org, V
Tonos, 4–5vv, for Christmas; tonos for communion: Bc
Sacred villancicos for communion, Christmas and feasts of Corpus Christi, the
Immaculate Conception, the Assumption etc., 5–12vv: Bc, Zs, V
Further motets and villancicos, V and library of P.N. Otaño
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Anglès: ‘El archivo musical de la catedral de Valladolid’, AnM, iii (1948),
59–108
J. Pavia y Simó: La música a la catedral de Barcelona durant el segle
XVII (Barcelona, 1986)
GUY BOURLIGUEUX

Gargano, Giovanni Battista

(fl early 17th century). Italian music printer. In partnership with Lucrezio
Nucci, he was active in Naples when it was a centre for music printing: the
firms of Carlino & Pace and Sottile were also flourishing at the time. The
bookseller P.P. Riccio financed a number of Gargano and Nucci's early
publications including Teatro de madrigali (RISM 160916) edited by
Scipione Riccio. Between then and 1618 the firm published nearly 20
musical editions, mostly of secular music by local composers such as
Camillo and Francesco Lambardi, Maiello, Montella and Montesardo. The
most important publication was Cerone's treatise El melopeo y maestro
(1613).
Lucrezio Nucci published a few musical works on his own during 1616 and
1617. His 1616 edition of Alessandro Di Costanzo's first book of madrigals
is remarkable for its colophon, which refers to an earlier edition in the
following terms: ‘Naples, Giovanni Battista Sottile, 1604, and reprinted at
the instigation of Giacomo Voltaggio by Lucrezio Nucci, 1616’. During 1618
Lucrezio Nucci was replaced by Matteo, presumably his son. With Gargano
he published four editions of music, three of them by Giaccio; during the
1630s he published editions of musical treatises by Cavalliere and Picerli.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Larson and A. Pompilio: ‘Cronologia delle edizioni mucicale
napoletane del Cinque–Seicento’, Musica e cultura a Napoli dal XV al
XIX secolo, ed. L. Bianconi and R. Bossa (Florence, 1983), 103–89
A. Pompilio: ‘Editorià musicale a Napoli e in Italia nel Cinque–Seicento’,
Musica e cultura a Napoli dal XV al XIX secolo, ed. L. Bianconi and R.
Bossa (Florence, 1983), 79–102
 STANLEY BOORMAN

Gargari, Teofilo
(b Gallese c1570; d Rome, July 1648). Italian composer, singer and
organist. In 1588 he was an alto in the choir of S Lucia del Gonfalone,
Rome. From 1592 until 1597 he served at S Luigi dei Francesi. After a
failed attempt to enter the Cappella Pontificia in October 1599, he was
accepted in May 1601, perhaps on the recommendation of Cardinal
Montalto, in whose church of S Lorenzo in Damaso he had been organist
in March of that year. He twice served as maestro di cappella of the papal
choir (1620 and 1622). The repertory-specific 1616 Diario Sistino lists his
music on a number of occasions, particularly at the more up-to-date Vespri
Segreti. A set of Vespers music for the feast of Saint Peter and Saint Paul
(five double-choir psalms and a hymn) was copied in 1628 (I-Rvat
C.S.102); three Magnificat settings, a Miserere and three motets, all for
double choir, also survive (Rvat C.S.31, 91, 100; C.G.XIII 25). All are good
examples of the Roman polychoral style, combining contrapuntal skill with
attention to the words. His only surviving concertato motet (RISM 1616 1),
while demanding virtuoso singers, relies too heavily on ornamental
formulas. Gargari is not known to have composed any secular music.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.W. Frey: ‘Die Gesänge der sixtinischen Kapelle an den Sonntagen und
hohen Kirchenfesten des Jahres 1616’, Mélange Eugène Tisserant, vi
(Vatican City, 1964), 395–467
J. Lionnet: ‘Un musicista del viterbese a Roma e uno romano nel
viterbese: Teofilo Gargari e Francesco Foggia’, Musica e musicisti nel
Lazio, ed. R. Lefevre and A. Morelli (Rome, 1986), 269–91
N. O’Regan: Sacred Polychoral Music in Rome, 1575–1621 (diss., U. of
Oxford, 1988), 223, 329
NOEL O’REGAN

Gargiulo [Gargiulio], Terenzio

(b Torre Annunziata, Naples, 23 Nov 1903; d San Sebastiano al Vesuvio,
Naples, 13 Nov 1972). Italian composer and pianist. He studied the piano,
with Florestano Rossomandi and Attilio Brugnoli, and composition, with
Antonio Savasta and Gennaro Napoli, at Naples Conservatory. After
embarking on a career as a concert pianist, he came to recognition as a
composer at the 1939 Rassegna Nazionale di Composizione with his Piano
Concerto. From 1928 onwards he taught at the conservatories of Bari,
Parma, Palermo and Naples. He was later director of the conservatories in
Palermo (1960–63) and Naples (after 1963).
As a composer Gargiulo remained faithful to tonal music models. His
orchestral and chamber works reveal a marked inclination towards folk
melodies, while his two operas, both settings of librettos by the critic and
theatre director Vittorio Viviani, derive their style from late 19th-century
Neapolitan verismo. (DEUMM; GroveO, R. Pozzi)
 WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Il borghese gentiluomo (op, V. Viviani), Naples, S Carlo, 1947; Maria

Antonietta (op, Viviani), Naples, S Carlo, 1952; Fantasia romantica (ballet), Naples,
1952
Orch: Pf Conc., 1939; Georgicon, affresco sinfonico, 1941; Sym. no.1, 1956; Sym.
no.2, 1957; Concertino, ob, str, 1958; Sinfonia breve, 1959; Serenata I, cl, pf, perc,
str, 1961; Serenata II, 2 ob, 2 hn, str, 1961
Chbr: Qnt, str, pf; Sonata, vn, pf; Improvviso, vc, pf
Pf: 3 fiabe; Toccata; 5 bagatelle pastorali; 2 studi; 3 pezzi; 2 Sonatine; Walzer, 2 pf
Edns: V. Bellini: Concerto per oboe e archi (1951); V. Fioravanti: Le nozze per
puntiglio (1963); D. Cimarosa: Lo sposo senza moglie (1965); G. Farinelli: Il
dottorato di Pulcinella (1967)

Principal publishers: Curci, Ricordi

VIRGILIO BERNARDONI

Garimberti, Ferdinando
(b Mamiano di Traversetolo, 6 Jan 1894; d Madrid, 26 March 1982). Italian
violin maker. He studied with Romeo, then Riccardo Antoniazzi; he then
worked for Giuseppe Pedrazzini and Leandro Bisiach, and later set up
independently in Milan. Between 1927 and 1949 his instruments won
important awards at the exhibitions held at Rome and Cremona. He taught
at the International School of Cremona from 1963 to 1966. During his long
career his models and style remained almost unvaried. His work is
meticulous, very precise and clean, always extremely careful and very
elegant. He was discriminating in his choice of wood and he clearly
preferred to fashion the backs out of one piece. He applied the varnish with
great skill; this varies in consistency and colour depending on the period.
The most usual colour is a beautiful red-orange which sometimes becomes
lighter towards the centre but is sometimes a darker red. He also did much
repair work and was considered an expert in old Italian violins. He often
marked his instruments with a signed label and a brand on the inside.
ERIC BLOT

Garinus [? Guayrinet]
(fl late 14th century). French composer. The isorhythmic rondeau Loyauté
me tient en espoir is ascribed to him in F-CH 564. He may well have been
the man mentioned in the two musician motets Musicalis scientia/Scientie
laudabili and Apollinis eclipsatur/Zodiacum signis/In omnem terram; in the
first piece he is called Garinus de Soissons. (However, Hoppin and Clercx
put forward another candidate, Garinus de Arceys, who became chaplain
to the pope in 1370 and Bishop of Chartres in 1371, but is not known to
have been a musician.) His rondeau (ed. W. Apel: French Secular
Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, Amsterdam, 1970, p.62; also in
CMM, liii/1, 1970, no.31, and PMFC, xix, 1982, no.2), which is an example
of the lengthy syncopations used in the late 14th century, is divided into two
halves identical in rhythm.
It has been suggested (see Stäblein-Harder) that he was also the
composer of the Credo transmitted in I-IV 115, ff.46v–47 (ed. in CMM, xxix,
1962, no.40), whose tenor bears the designation ‘Tenor Guayrinet’. The
two lower voices of this three-voice work are isorhythmic; the opening of its
upper voice, plainly a chant paraphrase, is rhythmically similar to that of the
even more fragmentary Credo in F-Sm 222, no.78 (see RISM B/iv/3), which
is, however, written an octave lower and in only two voices.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R.H. Hoppin and S. Clercx: ‘Notes biographiques sur quelques musiciens
français du XIVe siècle’, L'Ars Nova: Wégimont II 1955, 63–92
H. Stäblein-Harder: Fourteenth-Century Mass Music in France, MSD, vii
(1962)
U. Günther: ‘Polymetric Rondeaux from Machaut to Dufay: some Style-
Analytical Observations’, Studies in Musical Sources and Style:
Essays in Honor of Jan LaRue, ed. E.K. Wolf and E.H. Roesner
(Madison, WI, 1990), 75–108, esp. 91, 93
GILBERT REANEY/R

Garip (Provençal).
A term used primarily for instrumental versions of the lai form, though also
implying dance music. See Lai, §1(vi).

Garland.
American firm of publishers. It was established in New York by Gavin
Borden in 1969 as a book reprinting concern. The firm expanded its list by
1975 to include original titles, especially reference works on a range of
topics including music. Since then it has established several specialized
series such as the Composer Resource Manuals (begun 1981), Music
Research and Information Guides (1984) and Perspectives in Music
Criticism and Theory (1995). Shortly after 1975 Garland issued its first
scores, the series Italian Opera 1640–1770 (97 vols., begun 1977), Early
Romantic Opera (72 vols., 1978) and The Symphony 1720–1840 (60 vols.,
begun 1979). Since 1983 Garland has produced more than two dozen
multi-volume anthologies of scores and source materials in facsimile
(notably of J.C. Bach, Handel, Hummel, Mendelssohn, Mozart, Spohr, the
Italian cantata and oratorio, Renaissance music, 18th-century continuo
sonata and French cantata; and, from the 19th century, London and
Parisian piano music, French song and American musical theatre), as well
as new editions devoted to the 16th-century chanson and motet, the Italian
madrigal and Italian instrumental music.
CALVIN ELLIKER
Garland, Judy [Gumm, Frances
Ethel]
(b Grand Rapids, MN, 10 June 1922; d London, 22 June 1969). American
popular singer and actress. With her elder sisters, Virginia and Suzy, she
became one of the Gumm sisters, making her vaudeville début at the age
of three. Her father was a cinema and theatre owner-manager who
eventually settled in California. At first she took the stage name Frances
Garland, but after a period studying at a theatre school in Los Angeles, she
became Judy Garland, billed as ‘the little girl with the great big voice’. She
appeared in her first film in 1929 (The Meglin Kiddlie Revue), and in 1934
after a meeting with the composer Harry Akst she auditioned for Louis B.
Mayer at MGM and was put under contract. She made several successful
films including Broadway Melody of 1938, in which she sang ‘You made me
love you’, before gaining stardom in The Wizard of Oz (1939), for which
she was awarded an Academy Award as best juvenile performer. The film’s
song ‘Over the Rainbow’, by Harold Arlen, with lyrics by E.Y. Harburg,
became her signature tune. She married the composer and arranger David
Rose in 1941.
Throughout the 1940s she gradually moved into ‘adult’ roles, with special
success in Meet Me in St Louis (1944; songs by Ralph Blane and Hugh
Martin, including ‘The Trolley Song’ and ‘The Boy Next Door’) and The
Pirate (1948; by Cole Porter, including ‘Love of My Life’ and ‘Be a Clown’).
Both these films were directed by her second husband, Vincente Minnelli.
Garland’s singing style harked back to the traditions of vaudeville and in
several of her films – For Me and My Gal (1942), Easter Parade (1948) and
In the Good Old Summertime (1949) – she sang songs of the 1900s and
1920s with a mixture of sentiment and raucous energy that would mark her
later performances.
Psychiatric problems exacerbated by drug-addiction led to the termination
of her contract with MGM in 1950. The following year she parted from
Minnelli and began a new career as a solo performer. Her appearances at
the London Palladium and the Palace Theater, New York, were received by
the public with almost hysterical applause. In 1954 she returned to the
screen to give what is widely acknowledged as her best performance, in A
Star is Born (songs by Arlen and Ira Gershwin, including ‘The Man that Got
Away’). The rest of her life found her problems dogging her career, which
nevertheless achieved its zenith on stage in 1961 with her concert at
Carnegie Hall. ‘She used the mike as though it were a trumpet’, wrote the
columnist Hedda Hopper, and this fierce element in her later performances,
each one seeming to be another stage in her self-destruction, marred her
very considerable abilities as a singer.
Towards the end of her life she sometimes appeared in performances with
her daughter liza Minnelli, and made two final musical films, with songs by
Arlen and Harburg: I Could Go On Singing (1963) and Gay Purr-ee (1962),
the latter being an animated cartoon in which only her voice was heard.
Lorna, her daughter by her third husband, Sid Luft, also became a singing
 actress. Garland’s fame increased in the years following her death, partly
because of the following she inspired among gay men.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N.J. Zierold: The Child Stars (London, 1965)
J. Morella and E.Z. Epstein: Judy: the Films and Career of Judy Garland
(London, 1969)
E.T. James, J.W. James and P.S. Boyer, eds.: Notable American Women
(Cambridge, MA, 1971)
M. Tormé: The Other Side of the Rainbow (New York, 1971)
H. Pleasants: The Great American Popular Singers (New York, 1974)
A. Edwards: Judy Garland (New York, 1975)
E.R. Coleman: The Complete Judy Garland (New York, 1990) [incl.
bibliography and filmography]
D. Shipman: Judy Garland: the Secret Life of an American Legend (New
York, 1993)
PATRICK O’CONNOR

Garland, Peter (Adams)

(b Portland, ME, 27 Jan 1952). American composer, publisher and writer
on music. He studied with Tenney and Budd at the California Institute of the
Arts (BFA 1972). He is best known as the editor and publisher of
Soundings (1971–91), a journal that included scores by many now well-
known American avant gardists and experimentalists such as Lou Harrison,
Nancarrow and Partch as well as composers of his own generation. Like
some of his mentors, Garland has chosen to live outside the academic and
commercial musical worlds. He has travelled widely and been strongly
influenced by the musics of Mexico and Indonesia. His works are spare but
lyrical, often using exotic instrumentation though much of his output is for
the piano (he has written a number of works for the pianists Herbert Henck
and Aki Takahashi). His most ambitious work is The Conquest of Mexico, a
shadow puppet dance-drama. In more recent works, such as Love Songs
and Another Sunrise, a disarming simplicity of spacious, open sonorities,
juxtaposed with a rugged, rhythmic vitality, offsets sections of understated
sweetness. He was a Deutscher akademischer Austauschdienst fellow in
Berlin in 1993 and the recipient of an Asian Cultural Council grant for study
and travel in Japan in 1994.
WORKS
Inst: early pf pieces, 1971–6; Apple Blossom, 4 mar, 1972; 3 Pieces of Percussion,
1972–3; Hummingbird Songs, ocarinas, didjeridu, perc, 1974–6; Dreaming of
Immortality in a Thatched Cottage, angklung, hpd, mar, perc, 1977; The Conquest
of Mexico (Aztec texts), rec, hp, hpd, 1977–80; Matachin Dances, 2 vn, rattles,
1980–81; 3 Dawns, pf, 1981–2; 3 Valentines, vn, 1983; Monkey, 2 pf/vib, 1983–4;
Sones de Flor, vn, pf, perc, 1984–5; Cantares de la Frontera, hp, 1986; Str Qt no.1
‘In Praise of Poor Scholars’, 1986; Jornada del Muerto, pf, 1987; The Club Nada
Polka, accdn, 1987–8, arr. vn, vc, accdn, 1987–8; Goddess of Liberty ‘You’ve got to
Hide your Love Away’, pf, 1989; Old Men of the Fiesta, vn, hp, perc, 1989; Walk in
Beauty, pf, 1989; 4 Portraits of Revolutionary America, 2 vn, hp, 1990; Nana &
Victorio, perc, 1990–91; Where Beautiful Feathers Abound, vn, va, vc, pf, 1991–2;
Bush Radio Calling, pf, 1992; I have Had to Learn the Simplest Things Last, pf, 3
perc, 1993; Love Songs, vn, pf, perc, 1993; Str Qt no.2 ‘Crazy Cloud’, 1994;
Another Sunrise, 2 pf, 4 perc, 1995; Bright Angel-Hermetic Bird, pf, 1996; 3
Folksongs for Makiko, Mez, pf, 1996
Vocal: Romance (A. Waldman), nar, tpt, pf, perc, 1985; A Season in the Congo,
SATB, b cl, tpt, hp, perc, pf, db, 1986–7; The Roque Dalton Songs (R. Dalton), T, b
cl, tpt, 2 vn, hp, pf, perc, 1988; Drinking Wine, S, pf, 1989; A Green Pine, S, accdn,
1990

MSS in US-AUS [Soundings archive and personal archive 1969–97]

Principal publisher: Soundings

WRITINGS
Americas: Essays on American Music and Culture, 1973–1980 (Santa Fe,
1982)
In Search of Silvestre Revueltas: Essays 1978–1990 (Sante Fe, 1991)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T. Johnson: ‘A Magazine of Surprises’, Village Voice (30 Aug 1973)
C. Amirkhanian: ‘Peter Garland and Colleagues: a New Virtuosity’, High
Fidelity/Musical America/MA, xxviii/6 (1978), 28–9
C.J. Oja: ‘The Soundings of New Music’, Newsletter [Institute for Studies in
American Music], xiii/1 (1983), 8–9
K. Gann: ‘Honesty Before Weirdness’, Village Voice (5 March 1991)
INGRAM D. MARSHALL

Garlandia, Johannes de.

See Johannes de Garlandia.

Garmonica [garmoshka]
(Russ.).
A type of accordion. See Accordion, §2(iii).

Garner, Erroll (Louis)

(b Pittsburgh, 15 June 1921; d Los Angeles, 2 Jan 1977). American jazz
pianist. He first played professionally in the Pittsburgh area with Leroy
Brown's orchestra (1938–41). By 1944 he had moved to New York, where
he started to play in night clubs; he served as a substitute for Art Tatum in
Tatum's trio with Tiny Grimes and Slam Stewart, remaining when it became
the Slam Stewart Trio (1945). He then formed his own trio with bass and
drums, a format he retained for the whole of his career when not playing as
a soloist, and quickly captured a large audience. In 1947, while working in
the Los Angeles area, he recorded with Charlie Parker. In the 1950s and
1960s he was one of the most frequently seen black jazz musicians on
television, and in 1957–8 he undertook the first of many overseas tours. He
remained active until February 1975, becoming one of the most familiar
figures on the jazz scene and issuing a great many recordings.
A completely self-taught musician who never learnt to read music, Garner
developed an individual style that stands largely outside the main tradition
of jazz pianism and, because of its virtuoso technique, has attracted few
imitators. Although some of his early recordings show him using stride left-
hand patterns, by the late 1940s he had developed a characteristic four-
beat fixed pulse of block chords in the left hand, using wide-spaced
voicings reminiscent of swing rhythm-guitar playing and often ‘kicking’ the
beat in the manner of a swing drummer. Against these patterns he
embellished or varied a given melody with brilliant octave or chordal
passages, sometimes lagging as much as a quaver behind the beat to
generate enormous momentum and swing. Other trademarks of Garner's
style were his sensitive manner of ‘strumming’ right-hand chords at
medium tempo and his witty passages of improvised two-part counterpoint.
All of these qualities may be heard on the album Concert by the Sea (1955,
Col.). His interpretations of popular songs were orchestral in conception,
exploiting the full range of the keyboard and employing contrasting textures
and dynamics in the manner of big-band arrangements. In the 1950s he
enriched his rhythmic basis by adopting Latin American dance rhythms.
Garner's recorded output is remarkably consistent in approach and level of
invention. Of particular interest are his fanciful introductions (for example,
on Fantasy on Frankie and Johnny, 1947, Dial), which function as small-
scale, independent compositions, arresting the listener's attention with their
dissonance or novelty without betraying the thematic material to follow.
Garner also composed the well-known ballad Misty (1954, Mer.), which
exemplifies his rich, overly ornate manner at slow tempos.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Feldman: Erroll Garner Piano Solos (Hollywood, CA, 1950–57)
[transcrs.]
W. Balliett: The Sound of Surprise (New York, 1959/R), 222–5
M. Clar: ‘Erroll Garner’, JR, ii/1 (1959), 6–10
H. Siders: ‘The Natural’, Down Beat, xxxiv/21 (1967), 16–18
A. Shaw: The Street that Never Slept: New York's Fabled 52nd Street
(New York, 1971/R1977 as 52nd Street: the Street of Jazz)
A. Taylor: Notes and Tones: Musician-to-Musician Interviews (Liège,
1977/R)
W. Balliett: ‘Being a Genius’, Jelly Roll, Jabbo and Fats (New York, 1983),
142–52
J.M. Doran: Erroll Garner: the Most Happy Piano (Metuchen, NJ, 1985)
B. Madson: ‘Erroll Garner’, Jazz Journal International, xl/8 (1987), 6–8
J. BRADFORD ROBINSON

Garnesey [?John]
(b ? c1415; d ? Wells, 1459). English church musician and composer. He is
probably to be identified with the John Garnesey who served as a vicar
choral of Wells Cathedral from 1443 to 1458 and (most unusually) was
promoted to a residentiary canonry there just a year prior to his death in
1459. His sole surviving work is a setting of Laudes Deo, a troped lesson
sung in the Sarum Use during the Mass ‘at Cock-crow’ on Christmas Day;
the work is preserved in GB-Cmc Pepys 1236. In the Sarum missal the
performance of this lesson is deputed to two clerici, and Garnesey supplied
two-part polyphony. It is a suave and resourceful if somewhat extended
exercise in manipulation of the imperfect consonances of the 3rd and 6th.
Freedom is preferred to rigour in compositional approach; reference to the
chant is perfunctory and soon abandoned.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HarrisonMMB
S.R. Charles, ed.: The Music of the Pepys MS 1236, CMM, xl (1967), xvii,
119
R. Bowers: Choral Institutions within the English Church: their Constitution
and Development 1340–1500 (diss., U. of East Anglia, 1975), 5055
only
ROGER BOWERS

Garnier [Grenier, Guarnier]

(fl 1538–42). French composer. Four four-voice chansons by him were
published in Paris by Attaingnant and Moderne (RISM 1538 11, 153813,
153815, 154214; 2 ed. in PÄMw, xxiii, 1899/R). A four-voice motet by him,
Lectio actuum apostolorum, was printed in the first book of Gardano's
Mottetti del frutto volumes (153913; ed. in SCMot, xiii, 1993). Like the other
pieces in that anthology, Garnier's motet dwells in a densely contrapuntal
idiom, with overlapping points of imitation and a carefully controlled
approach to consonance and dissonance. It is unlikely that he was the
Guillaume Garnier who was a teacher in Naples around 1480 or Alain
Grenet, a chaplain at the Ste Chapelle in 1494.
FRANK DOBBINS/RICHARD FREEDMAN

Garnier, François.
See Granier, François.

Garnier [l'aîné], François-Joseph

(b Lauris, Vaucluse, 18 Jan 1755; d Lauris, c1825). French oboist, flautist
and composer. He studied the oboe with Antoine Sallantin, and from 1775
to about 1808 played in the Paris Opéra orchestra (he was first oboist from
1786). He was also oboist in the royal chapel at Versailles from 1784, and
performed with much success at the Concert Spirituel. He taught at the
Ecole de la Garde Nationale (later the Conservatoire) from 1793 to 1797.
For some years he was a musician in Napoleon's armies. Garnier belonged
to the Masonic lodges ‘Les Amis Réunis’ and ‘Le Contrat Social’, which
included some of the best musicians of the time. He wrote light
instrumental works, primarily for the oboe, and a valuable method for that
 instrument. His brother Joseph, known as Garnier le jeune, was a flautist in
the Opéra orchestra and composed for the flute.
WORKS
all published in Paris, no date

3 ob concs., 2 lost; 2 symphonies concertantes, 2 ob/cl; Symphonie concertante, fl,

ob, bn, op.4, lost
6 duo concertants, ob, bn, op.4, nos. 1–3 ed. H. Voxman (London, 1983); 6 duo
concertants, ob, vn, op.7; Etudes et capriccios, ob, lost
Méthode raisonnée pour le haut-bois, contenant … 55 leçons, 6 petits duos, 6
sonates, 6 airs variées et une étude (c1798; Ger. trans., 1877), extracts ed. R.
Schwarz (Hofheim, 1993)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
GerberNL
PierreH
R. Cotte: La musique maçonnique et ses musiciens (Braine-le-Comte,
1975, 2/1987)
R.J.V. Cotte: Les Musiciens Franc-Maçons à la cour de Versailles et à
Paris sous l'ancien régime (doctorat d'Etat, diss., 1982, F-Pn)
ROGER J.V. COTTE

Garnier, Gabriel
(d Paris, c1730). French organist. He held posts first at St Louis-des-
Invalides, Paris, from 1684, and then at the Chapelle Royale at Versaille
from 1702, where the other organists were Nivers, Buterne and François
Couperin. In 1719 he was appointed organist of St Roch in Paris.
Titon du Tillet said Garnier was ‘among our most skilful organists’, and
François Couperin clearly paid him tribute in one of his finest harpsichord
pieces, La Garnier, from the second ordre of his first book of Pieces de
clavecin (1713). Pierre-Louis d’Aquin said that Garnier played Couperin’s
harpsichord music better than the composer himself. None of Garnier’s
music survives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Titon du Tillet: Le Parnasse françois (Paris, 1732/R)
P.-L. d’Aquin: Lettres sur les hommes célèbres … sous le règne de Louis
XV, i (Paris, 1752, 2/1753/R as Siècle littéraire de Louis XV), 112
EDWARD HIGGINBOTTOM

Garnier, Louis.
See Granier, Louis.

Garrana, (Muhammed) Rifaat

 (b Cairo, 29 Jan 1924). Egyptian composer. He took up the trumpet at the
age of 12 and later attended the Cairo Institute for Theatre Music, from
which he graduated in 1948. Composition studies with Hickmann and
Minato followed, and he then worked as a school music teacher. In the
1960s he conducted the television orchestra, subsequently assuming the
direction of the television music department. He won the state prize for
composition in 1966.
With Abdel-Rahim and El-Shawān, Garrana belongs to the second
generation of ‘modern’ Egyptian composers. He establishes a national
atmosphere in most of his works by the use of melodic elements from folk
and traditional Arab music. In later compositions, such as the symphonic
poem Journey to Czechoslovakia, his harmonic style has become rather
more dissonant, probably under the influence of contemporary Czech
music; but dissonance is not a functional or essential part of his language.
Formally, he is at his best in programme music, though the Qānūn
Concerto is a notable work, being the first in Egypt to use the qānūn with a
symphony orchestra. The third movement is based on the tune of an
Islamic chant: the antiphonal, recitative-like call to prayer of the baïram
(feast days). Garrana’s writing for the instrument is quite new, and the
soloist has to play with two plectra in each hand, instead of one in each
hand as in traditional music. He has received the state prize for
composition and other awards.
WORKS
Al-Nil [The Nile], sym. poem, orch, 1950; Sym. Talāta wa’ishveen Yolya [23 July],
orch, 1960; Sym. ‘Al- ’Arabiyya’ [Arab], 1962; Al-Khayāliyyah [Fantastic], orch, 1963;
Por Said [Port Said], sym. poem, orch, 1964; Vc Conc., 1965; Qānūn Conc., 1966;
Dhikrayãt fi Tchekoslovakia [Journey to Czechoslovakia], sym. poem, orch, 1969;
Intisaar al-Islam [Victory of Islam], chorus, orch, 1971; Al-hayān [Life], sym. poem,
orch, 1973; Setta October [6 October], sym. poem, orch, 1974; Mutatilayat al Sowar
[Suite of Pictures], sym. poem, orch, June 1964
Chbr works, songs, film and radio music
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Z. Nassār: Al-musīqa al-Misriyya mutatawwirah [Egyptian art music] (Cairo,
1990), 112–17
A.T. Zakī: A’alām al-mūsīqā al-Misriyyah’abr 150 sanah [Great figures of
Egyptian music through 150 years] (Cairo, 1990)
S. El Kholy: Al qawmiyyah fi musīqa al-qarn al-’ishreen [Nationalism in
20th century music] (Kuwait, 1992), 316–18
SAMHA EL KHOLY

Garre, Edmée Sophie.

See Gail, Sophie.

Garrelts [Garrels], Rudolph

[Redolph]
(b Norden, Ostfriesland, 25 March 1675; d The Hague, 5 April 1750). Dutch
organ builder of German birth. He worked first as a woodcarver and
furniture maker (a well-known example of his work is the pulpit of the
Ludgeri-Kirche, Norden) before becoming one of Arp Schnitger’s master
pupils. He began building organs in North Germany and the Dutch
provinces of Groningen and Drenthe. The organ he built for the village
church of Anloo, Drenthe, in 1718, was well preserved until a fire in an
organ builder’s workshop destroyed much of the internal parts of the organ.
Garrelts first moved to the Dutch city of Leiden in 1725 and later to The
Hague, where he filled the place left vacant by the last great Dutch organ
builder Johannes Duyschot. He came under the influence of Aeneus
Egbertus Veldcamps, organist of St Jacobskerk, who was a staunch
defender of the Dutch organ-building tradition and a fierce opponent of the
then modern North German style as exemplified by the Schnitger sons’
rebuilding of the organ of St Laurenskerk, Alkmaar. Though Garrelts
immersed himself in the Dutch tradition of Duyschot, his organs
nevertheless form a most interesting synthesis of the best of both Dutch
and North German styles. His best-known organs are those built for the
Grote Kerk, Maassluis (1732), a large three-manual instrument which
combines traits of both Duyschot and Schnitger; for the Marekerk, Leiden
(1735; enlargement); and the Grote Kerk, Purmerend (1739–42), with a
Hamburg-style case, but a Dutch-style stop-list.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Kaufmann: Die Orgeln Ostfrieslands-Orgeltopographie (Aurich, 1968)
F. Peeters and M.A. Vente: De Orgelkunst in de Nederlanden van de 16e
tot de 18de eeuw (Antwerp, 1971; Eng. trans., 1971)
G. Fock: Arp Schnitger und seine Schule (Kassel, 1974)
J. Jongepier: Langs Nederlandse Orgels: Noord-Holland, Zuid-Holland,
Utrecht (Baarn, 1977)
ADRI DE GROOT

Garreta (Arboix), Juli [Julio]

(b Sant Feliu de Guíxols, Girona, 12 March 1875; d Sant Feliu de Guíxols,
2 Dec 1925). Catalan composer. His father was a watchmaker and
musician who instructed the young Garreta in both pursuits, but he was
essentially self-taught. He taught himself the piano and the violin in order to
join the local orchestra of Villanueva y Geltru, near Barcelona, where he
worked as a watchmaker. There too he founded a quintet and made his
home into a musical centre where Casals was a frequent visitor. His first
compositions were small-scale orchestral pieces, but he soon turned to
writing sardanas, becoming known as ‘the Wagner of the sardana’.
Encouraged by Casals, he wrote his first big orchestral work, the
Impressions sinfóniques, in 1901, and in 1920 he won the prize of the
Festa de la Música Catalana with the Suite empordanesa. He was very
much influenced by the aesthetic and orchestration of Strauss. The death
of this ‘genial and profoundly intuitive man’ (Casals) came only two days
after the first performance of his Violin Concerto.
WORKS
 (selective list)

Orch: Impressions sinfóniques, 1901; Scherzo, 1915; Preludi mediterrani, 1918;

Suite empordanesa, 1920; Pastoral, sym. poem, 1922; Les illes Medes, 1923; Vn
Conc., 1925
Other works: Pf Sonata, 1922; Vc Sonata; chbr pieces, over 80 sardanas

Principal publishers: Boileau, Unión Musical Española

BIBLIOGRAPHY
L'avi munné, xii (Sant Feliu de Guíxols, 1925) [Garreta issue]
L. Millet: ‘Juli Garreta i la nostra musica’, Revista musical catalana, xxii
(1925), 225–9
M. Vinyas: ‘Juli Garreta, l'home i l'artista’, ibid., 229–36
H. Collet: L'essor de la musique espagnole au XXe siècle (Paris, 1929)
A. Miro Bachs: Cien músicos célebres españoles (Barcelona, 1942)
H. Besseler: ‘Katalanische Cobla und Alta Tanzkapelle’, IMSCR IV: Basle
1949, 59–68
M. Vinyas: Juli Garreta, l'home i l'artista (Sant Feliu de Guíxols, 1955)
A. Fernández Cid: La música español en el siglo XX (Madrid, 1973)
T. Marco: Historia de la música española: siglo XX (Madrid, 1983; Eng.
trans., 1993)
M. Pérez: Diccionario de la música (Madrid, 1985)
ANTONIO RUIZ-PIPÓ

Garrett, George (Mursell)

(b Winchester, 8 June 1834; d Cambridge, 8 April 1897). English organist
and composer. Trained as a chorister at New College, Oxford, with S.
Elvey, in 1851 Garrett became pupil assistant to S.S. Wesley at Winchester
Cathedral, where his father was master of the choristers. He was
subsequently organist of Madras Cathedral (1854) and St John’s College,
Cambridge (1857); in 1873 he succeeded J.L. Hopkins as organist to
Cambridge University. He wrote many anthems and services that held a
place in the repertory for more than a generation; their organ parts
demonstrated the independent accompaniments that S.S. Wesley’s pupils
often developed from his early examples. Garrett also produced an oratorio
The Shunamite (1882), several cantatas, a chant collection, some songs
and partsongs, and organ music. (O. Way: ‘Letters to a Daughter: a
Selection of Letters written between 1890 and 1896 by G.M. Garrett, Mus.
Doc.’, MR, liii (1992), 7–31)
BERNARR RAINBOW

Garrett, Lesley
(b Doncaster, 10 April 1955). English soprano. She studied at the RAM
from 1977 to 1979 and while there made her mark as a spirited Lazuli in
Chabrier’s L’étoile (1979); the same year she won the Kathleen Ferrier
Prize, and entered the National Opera Studio. After appearances in small
roles at Batignano, she made her official stage début as Dorinda (Handel’s
Orlando) in 1980 at the Wexford Festival, singing Mozart’s Zaide there the
following year. In 1981 she sang Carolina (Il matrimonio segreto) at the
Buxton Festival and in 1982 Susanna at Opera North. After singing
Despina for Glyndebourne Touring Opera, she joined the ENO in 1984
where, among other roles, she has sung Bella (The Midsummer Marriage,
1985), Atalanta (Serse, 1985), Zerlina (1985), Yum-Yum (1986),
Offenbach’s Eurydice (1988), Oscar (Un ballo in maschera, 1989),
Susanna (1990), Adèle (1991), Rose (Street Scene, 1992), Dalinda
(Ariodante, 1993), the title role in The Cunning Little Vixen (1995) and
Rosina (1998), in all of which she sang and acted with a natural command
of the stage. With her outgoing personality and powers of communication,
thanks not least to her perfect diction, she has been an enthusiastic
proselytizer of opera on television, notably in her own programmes ‘Viva la
Diva’ and ‘Lesley Garrett – Tonight’, and on her mixed recitals on CD. In all
this, however, she has never compromised her musicianship, excellent
technique or keen sense of style.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Milnes: ‘Lesley Garrett’, Opera, xlvii (1996), 499–506
ALAN BLYTH

Garrick, David
(b Hereford, 19 Feb 1717; d London, 20 Jan 1779). English actor, manager
and playwright. He was the greatest Shakespearean actor of the mid-18th
century and an influential manager of Drury Lane from 1747 to his
retirement in 1776. He was also knowledgeable about ballet and opera. In
1749 he married the dancer Eva Maria Veigel, who had come to London in
March 1746. Garrick visited Paris and established contact with such figures
as Noverre, the pyrotechnist Morel Torré, the violinist-composer F.H.
Barthélemon (who provided music for Garrick’s burletta Orpheus) and J.P.
de Loutherbourg, who revolutionized stage design at Drury Lane in the
1770s. Garrick’s relatively ‘naturalistic’ acting style – he broke with the
pompous declamatory styles in fashion since Dryden’s day – made him an
important influence on such theatrical and operatic reformers as Algarotti,
Diderot and Noverre. He is said to have taught his acting style to
Guadagni, who was to be Gluck’s Orpheus (1762).
Early in his long reign at Drury Lane he staged Boyce’s all-sung afterpiece
The Chaplet (1749), Arne’s Don Saverio, an innovatory opera set in the
present (1750), and Burney’s burletta Robin Hood (1750). He extended the
boundaries of pantomime in both music and ballet in a series of important
ventures with Henry Woodward, the best-known of which is Queen Mab
(1750). His importation of Noverre’s Les fêtes chinoises (1755) was
wrecked by anti-French riots. Garrick staged J.C. Smith’s operas, notably
The Fairies (1755). The success of Arne’s Artaxerxes at Covent Garden in
1762 threw Garrick operatically on the defensive. He struggled for some
years to find a counter-attraction to the popular series of comic operas at
the rival theatre, beginning with Love in a Village (1762). With Charles
Dibdin and The Padlock (1768) he finally found his man. Their relations
were frequently strained, however, and Dibdin’s view of Garrick in his
autobiography The Professional Life of Mr Dibdin (1803) is caustic.
 Garrick had a major influence on the development of English opera in the
late 18th century. He was both eclectic and innovatory. His 1770 revival of
Dryden and Purcell’s King Arthur (revised by Arne) is a major landmark in
the rediscovery of Purcell. He produced all-sung mainpieces and
afterpieces, burlettas, ballad operas, pastiches and sophisticated
pantomime-ballets. The near-domination of musical works at Drury Lane
and Covent Garden in the last quarter of the 18th century simply extends
an artistic policy inaugurated by Garrick and developed by John Beard in
the 1750s and 60s.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDA
FiskeETM
LS
K.A. Burnim: David Garrick, Director (Pittsburgh, 1961)
D.M. Little and G.M. Kahrl, eds.: The Letters of David Garrick (London,
1963)
D. Heartz: ‘From Garrick to Gluck: the Reform of Theatre and Opera in the
Mid-Eighteenth Century’, PRMA, xciv (1967–8), 111–27
G.W. Stone jr and G.M. Kahrl: David Garrick: a Critical Biography
(Carbondale, IL, 1979)
H.W. Pedicord and F.L. Bergmann, eds.: The Plays of David Garrick
(Carbondale, IL, 1980–82)
P.T. Dircks: David Garrick (Boston, 1985)
M. Burden: Garrick, Arne, and the Masque of Alfred: a Case Study on
National, Theatrical, and Musical Politics (Lewiston, NY, 1994)
ROBERT D. HUME

Garrido (Vargas), Pablo

(b Valparaíso, 26 March 1905; d Santiago, 14 Sept 1982). Chilean
composer and ethnomusicologist. He studied the piano, the violin and
composition in Valparaíso, where his composition teachers were Edward
van Dooren and Giuseppe Quintano. Until the end of the 1940s he
focussed on popular music, with a particular emphasis on jazz; he was one
of the founders of the Hot Jazz Club of Chile (1939). The influence of jazz
can be discerned in his works, along with that of atonality and of the
indigenous music of Chile and Latin America. In keeping with his support of
the avant garde of the 1920s and 1930s, he was one of the first Chilean
composers to set texts by the Chilean poets Vicente Huidobro (Poéte,
1926) and Pablo Neruda (Poema veinte, 1930). One of his most notable
works is the chamber opera La sugestión (1959; libretto by Cipriano Rivas
Cherif), his contribution to a genre little cultivated by his compatriots. His
most important research deals with the Chilean national dance, the cueca
(Biografía de la cueca, Santiago, 1943; Historial de la cueca, 1979). He
also published more than 2000 articles in newspapers and journals both in
Chile and abroad.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Cowboys (ballet), 1926; Adán y Eva (ballet), 1952; La sugestión (chbr op, C.
Rivas Cherif), 1959; El guerrillero (ballet), 1963
Choral: Los pequeños proletarios (C. Pardo), solo v, chorus, pf, 1933
Solo vocal: Poéte (V. Huidobro), Bar, pf, 1926; Poema veinte (P. Neruda), S, pf,
1930; Canto a Anabalón (Pardo), 1v, pf, 1932; Recabarren (M. Miriff), 1v, pf, 1932; 3
songs (E. Bie), T, pf, 1949; Romance de los gitanos (C. Miró), 1v, pf, 1952;
Romance de la niña muerta (J. Pérez Fernández), 1v, pf, 1952; Pace nel mondo (A.
Puccio Stagno), 1v, pf, 1965; 20 canciones de arte (various), Bar, pf, 1978; Abedul
(P. Garrido), 1v, pf, 1980; Primavera del ayer (Garrido), 1v, pf, 1980
Orch: Fantasía militar, 1932; Ballet mecánico, 1934; Fantasía submarina, pf, orch,
1934; Rapsodia chilena, 1937; Pf Conc., 1950; Concertino, fl, str, 1959
Chbr: Antigua melodía chilena, str qt, 1930; Jazz Window, a sax, pf, 1930; Apunte
afto-cubano, fl, va, vc, 1931; Sonatina negra, vn, pf, 1939; Concertino, fl, str qt,
1950; 13 & 13, str qt, 1951; Recordando a Gabriela, vn, pf, 1957; Preludios a la
cruz del sur, vn, pf, 1964; Nocturno chileno, vn, pf, 1972
Pf: Elegía a Lenin, 1932; Piano Rag, 1944; 3 preludios antillanos, 1952; Los
ideales, 1979; Microrretratos, 1979

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Neftalí: ‘El musico vanguardista chileno: Pablo Garrido Vargas’, Boletín
musical, vi/Nov (1930), 12–13
L.A. Sánchez: ‘Pablo Garrido (o la aventura)’, Zig-Zag [Santiago] (5 March
1955)
M. Silva Solis: ‘Pablo Garrido Vargas (1905–1982)’, RMC, no.158 (1982),
126–7
J.P. Gonzalez: ‘Cronologia epistolar de Pablo Garrido’, RMC, no.160
(1983), 4–46
FERNANDO GARCÍA

Garrido-Lecca (Seminario), Celso

(b Piura, 9 March 1926). Peruvian composer. He began his composition
studies at the Lima National Conservatory with Rodolf Holzmann. In 1950,
with a scholarship from the University of Chile (Santiago), he worked with
Domingo Santa Cruz. He continued studying privately in Santiago with the
Dutch teacher Fré Focke, who introduced him to serialism, and joined the
University theatre as composer and consultant. He went to New York on a
scholarship from the International Institute of Education and then from the
Guggenheim Foundation; there he completed his studies of orchestration
with Copland. On his return to Chile he became professor of composition at
the University of Chile; he took up a similar position at the conservatory in
Lima in 1973, later becoming its director (1976–9). Garrido-Lecca’s interest
in traditional and especially Andean music resulted in, apart from his
academic teaching, the formation and direction of the Talleres de la
Canción Popular, from which emerged many outstanding groups. His work
also included musicology and the conservation and development of
Peruvian musical traditions in association with UNESCO and the Instituto
Nacional de Cultura.
His first period – which displays characteristics of inter-war European
music – includes Orden for piano (1953) and three orchestral works,
Sinfonía en tres movimientos (1960), Laudes (1963) and Elegía a Machu
Picchu (1965), the last of which was commissioned by Scherchen.
 Between 1973 and 1980 indigenous traditional styles are more evident.
Such works as Pequeña suite peruana for piano (1979), Retablos
sinfónicos for orchestra (1980) and the Danzas populares andinas for violin
and piano (1981) recreate, in his own musical language, the atmosphere
and poetics of peasant and popular expression. Later this language was
extended to include a range of Latin American song, particularly that of
Chile. As Garrido-Lecca increasingly affirmed a native cultural identity, so
his music achieved greater solidity and definition; he has, in his own words,
avoided both ‘a rootless, academic cosmopolitanism and a naive,
provincial indianism’. The Trío para un nuevo tiempo (1986) – based on the
song Gracias a la vida by the Chilean singer Violeta Parra – exemplifies his
search for synthesis, musical and social.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ballets: Babilonia cae (choreog. H. Riveros), 1976; La tierra combatiente (Riveros),

traditional and folk insts, 1977; Rincones interiores (choreog. P. Awapara), 1988;
Antígona (Awapara), 1993
Orch: Sinfonía en tres movimientos, 1960; Laudes, 1963; Elegía a Machu Picchu,
1965; Retablos sinfónicos, 1980; Sonata-fantasía, vc, orch, 1989; Conc., gui, 4 inst
groups, 1990; Eventos, 1993; Laudes II, 1993
Choral and solo vocal: Apu Inca Atahualpaman (anon.), 1v, reciter, 3 choruses,
orch, 1971; El movimento y el sueño (A. Romualdo), 2 reciters, chorus, chbr orch,
tape, 1972; Kuntur Wachana ‘Donde nacen los cóndores’ (cant. popular, F. García
Lorca), chorus, folk insts, 1977; Canciones de hogar (C. Vallejo), Mez, chbr ens,
1992; popular songs, vv, folk insts, 1970–82
Chbr: Música para teatro, wind qnt, 1956; Divertimento, wind qnt, 1957; Música, 6
insts, perc, 1957; Antaras, 2 str qt, db, 1968; Str Qt no.1, 1961; Intihuatana, str qt,
1967; Danzas populares andinas, vn, pf, 1981, orchd 1983; Trío para un nuevo
tiempo, pf trio, 1986; Str Qt no.2, a la memoria de Víctor Jara, 1988; Sonata-
fantasía, vc, pf, 1989; Duo concertante, gui, charango, 1991; Str Qt no.3
(Encuentros), 1991; Amaru, cl, str qt, 1994
Solo inst: Orden no.1, pf, 1953; Pequeña suite peruana, pf, 1979, orchd 1986;
Toccata, pf, 1986; Simpay, gui, 1988; Soliloquio, fl, 1992; Soliloquio II, vc
Tape: Estudio no.1, 1970; Las bacantes (Euripides), 1987
Incid music: El rapto de Lucrecia (A. Obey), 1954; El angel que nos mira (T. Wolff),
1955; La fierecilla domada (W. Shakespeare), 1955; Un caso interesante (D.
Buzatti), 1955; El alcalde de Zalamea (P. Calderón de la Barca); Baile de ladrones
(J. Anouilh), 1958; Mama Rosa (F. Debesa), 1959; Antígona (Sophocles), 1961
Film scores: La imagen de una feria (documentary), 1962; Kuntur Wachana, 1976;
Lima: tensiones de una gran ciudad (documentary), 1985; Cuando el mundo
oscureció (documentary), 1986

BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Claro and J. Urrutia: Historia de la música en Chile (Santiago, 1973)
F. García: ‘Intihuantana y Antaras de Garrido Lecca’, El comercio (3 Dec
1975)
E. Pinilla: ‘Informe sobre la música en el Perú’, Historia del Perú, ed. J.
Mejía Baca (Lima, 1980), ix, 569–85
E. Pinilla: ‘La música en el siglo XX’, La música en el Perú (Lima, 1985),
174–6
R. Torres: ‘La creación musical en Chile’, Enciclopedia temática de Chile,
xxi (Santiago, 1988)
ENRIQUE ITURRIAGA

Garrigues, Malvina.
German soprano, wife of Ludwig Schnorr von Carolsfeld.

Garrison, Lucy McKim

(b Philadelphia, 30 Oct 1842; d West Orange, NJ, 11 May 1877). American
collector of slave songs. The only practising musician among the collectors
of slave songs in the South Carolina Sea Islands during the Civil War, she
accompanied her father to this Union enclave in June 1862, remaining only
three weeks. Deeply impressed with the songs of the freedmen, she
notated them, and on her return north tried unsuccessfully to bring them to
public notice.
On 6 December 1865 she married Wendell Phillips Garrison, literary editor
of The Nation, who assisted her in gathering the first comprehensive
collection of slave songs, in collaboration with William Francis Allen and
Charles Pickard Ware. The resulting book, Slave Songs of the United
States (New York, 1867), was a seminal work of lasting importance, still the
best-known source of slave music. She arranged two slave songs for voice
and piano (Poor Rosy, Poor Gal and Roll, Jordan, Roll) which were
published in 1862, and a letter of hers on ‘Songs of the Port Royal
“Contrabands”’ was printed in Dwight’s Journal of Music, xxi (1862), 254–5.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Garrison family papers (US-Nsc)
McKim family papers (NYp, I)
D.J. Epstein: ‘Lucy McKim Garrison, American Musician’, Bulletin of the
New York Public Library, lxvii (1963), 529–46
M.H. Bacon: ‘Lucy McKim Garrison: Pioneer in Folk Music’, Pennsylvania
History, liv (1987), 1–16
DENA J. EPSTEIN

Garrison [Siemonn], Mabel

(b Baltimore, MD, 24 April 1886; d New York, 20 Aug 1963). American
soprano. She studied singing at the Peabody Conservatory with W.E.
Heinendahl and Pietro Minetti, and later in New York with Oscar Saenger
and Herbert Witherspoon. Using her married name of Siemonn, she made
her stage début with the Aborn Opera Company in Boston as Philine in
Thomas’ Mignon in 1912. She joined the Metropolitan Opera two years
later, making her official début as Frasquita in Carmen in November 1914.
She only attracted real attention, however, when she substituted at short
notice for Raymonde Delaunois as Urbain in Les Huguenots the following
month. Similarly, she made a fine impression two years later when she
replaced Frieda Hempel as the Queen of Night, and she scored her
 greatest success as the Queen of Shemakha in Rimsky-Korsakov’s The
Golden Cockerel, covering for Maria Barrientos, in 1918. Among her other
roles were Olympia, Gilda, Martha, Rosina, Adina (L’elisir d’amore) and
Lucia di Lammermoor, Oscar and Mme Herz (Der Schauspieldirektor).
After her final Lucia at the Metropolitan in 1921, Garrison performed
extensively in Europe for several years. She sang Rosina with the Chicago
Civic Opera in 1926 and later took part in a series of Baroque operas under
Werner Josten in Northampton, Massachusetts, which included the
American premières (in English) of Handel’s Serse (1928) and Rodelinda
(1931). Also a recitalist, she was admired for the clarity of her voice and her
smooth and elegant style.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Favia-Artsay: ‘Historical Records: Mabel Garrison’, Hobbies, lix/8
(1954), 22–3
G.M. Eby: ‘The Two Careers of Mabel Garrison’, ON, xxiii/4 (1958–9), 24–7
PHILIP L. MILLER

Garro, Francisco
(b Alfaro; d Lisbon, before 27 March 1623). Spanish composer. After
working in Logrono he was appointed maestro de capilla at Valladolid in
March 1580 but soon relinquished the post: his appointment as maestro de
capilla of Sigüenza Cathedral of the same year was approved on 17
October. In 1587 he applied unsuccessfully for the equivalent post at
Zaragoza. Garro was paid as mestre of the royal chapel in Lisbon from 27
September 1592, a post which he retained until his death.
Two publications containing Garro’s works appeared in 1609, both
dedicated to Philip III of Spain, and one comprising polychoral works. No
complete set of the partbooks containing polychoral works has survived,
although the existence of three partial sets (in GB-Lbl, P-Cug and Braga,
Arquivo da Universidade do Minho) means that only one part is missing
from each work. Garro published both paraphrase and parody masses;
among the former, the Missa ‘Saeculorum’ primi toni is built upon the first
termination for the first psalm tone, while a subtle and imaginative parody
technique is seen in the Missa ‘Maria Magdalena’ (based upon Guerrero’s
motet). Rhythmically animated and syncopated writing is prominent in the
polychoral works.
WORKS
Missae quatuor, defunctorum lectiones: Missa ‘Cantate Domino’, 8vv, bc; Missa
‘Domine in virtute tua’, 12vv, bc; Missa ‘Fili quid fecisti nobis sic’, 8vv, bc; Missa
pro defunctis, 8vv; Alleluia, ego vos elegi/Assumpta est Maria, 8vv; Alleluia, tanto
tempore, 8vv; Alleluia, vidimus stellam, 8vv, Parce mihi Domine, 8vv; Responde
mihi, 8vv; Spiritus meus, 8vv: (Lisbon, 1609), inc.
Opera aliquot: Missa ‘Saeculorum’ primi toni, 5vv; Missa ‘O quam pulchra es’, 4vv;
Missa ‘Tu es qui venturus es’, 4vv; Missa Maria Magdalena, 6vv; Asperges me,
5vv; In principio erat verbum, 5vv; Parce mihi, Domine, 5vv; O magnum
mysterium, 6vv; Vidi aquam, 6vv: (Lisbon, 1609) [copy formerly in Ivo Cruz’s
private collection, Lisbon, now in P-Ln]
 lost works
listed in JoãoIL

Beatus vir, 8vv; Dixit Dominus, 8vv; Laudate Dominum omnes gentes, 8vv;
responsories for Christmas and Epiphany
Villancicos: Alma dormida despierta, 3vv/6vv; Aqui para entre los dos, 4vv/6vv;
Ayudad a cantar, 4vv/8vv; Despertad señores, 3vv/6vv; Entre las doce y la una,
4vv/6vv; Este manjar me sustente, 3vv/5vv; Haganse alegrias, 1v/8vv; Llegad
conmigo, 1v/5vv; No quiero no, sino pan del Cielo, 3vv/5vv; Vente conmigo Miguel,
3vv/5vv

BIBLIOGRAPHY
F.M. de Sousa Viterbo: ‘Mestres da capella real desde o dominio filippino
(inclusivé) até D. José I’, Archivo historico portuguez, v (1907), 426–
31, 452–61, esp. 426–8
M. Joaquim: Vinte livros de música polifónica do Paço Ducal de Vila
Viçosa (Lisbon, 1953), 155–9
A. de Federico Fernández: ‘Inventario de expedientes sobre legitimidad y
pureza de sangre para obtener beneficios en la Santa Iglesia Catedral
basílica de Sigüenza’, Hispania sacra, xx (1967), 439–83, esp. 448
J.A. Alegria: História da capela e colégio dos Santos Reis de Vila Viçosa
(Lisbon, 1983), 157–8, 179–80, 193
A. Latino: ‘Os músicos da Capela Real de Lisboa c1600’, Revista
portuguesa de musicologia, iii (1993), 5–41, esp. 27
OWEN REES

Garsi, Ascanio.
Italian composer, son of Santino Garsi.

Garsi, Donino.
Italian composer, son or grandson of Santino Garsi.

Garsi [Garsi da Parma], Santino

[Santino detto Valdès]
(b Parma, 22 Feb 1542; d Parma, ?17 Jan 1604). Italian lutenist and
composer. He studied in Rome and quickly gained renown as a lutenist. He
was summoned back to Parma by the music-loving Duke Ranuccio I
Farnese, who appointed him as lutenist and teacher of the pages from 1
October 1594; he held these positions until his death. Some 50
compositions by him survive, mostly in manuscripts of north Italian
provenance (one manuscript of Neapolitan origin, PL-Kj, has links with
Fabrice Dentice and Lorenzini, both of whom were connected with the
Farnese family). Apart from the payments registered at the Parma court,
the only biographical information is given by Pico, who described him as a
man with a cheerful disposition but a bad reputation at the end of his life.
One source calls him Santino detto Valdès, a name that could connect him
 with the heretical sect the Waldensians. He was buried in an unmarked
grave. Two epitaph poems on his death were published by Tommaso
Stigliani in 1605.
His compositions consist mainly of conservative, idealized, Renaissance-
orientated court dances for lute, many bearing emblematic titles (La Mutia,
La Balduvina, La Giulianina, La Cesarina and so on) referring to prominent
persons at the Parma court. Over 30 of the pieces are galliards, some with
doubles; among the others are a capriccio (D-DO, also attrib. ‘Lavrencini’),
Ruggieri ‘per cantare’, Aria del gran duca (aria di Fiorenza) and favourite
dances of the period such as the ballo, balletto, corrente and moresca.
Some dances acquired a wide reputation, being copied in several sources,
including printed anthologies for guitar (L. Monte, 1625 12) and violin
(Zanetti’s Scolaro, Milan, 1645/R).
After Santino’s death, his salary continued to be paid to his widow, Ottavia,
to help her support his sons and grandsons, who were lutenists too. Among
them were his son Ascanio Garsi, who is known only by a corrente dated
February 1621, and his son or grandson Donino Garsi (d Parma, 30 March
1630). The latter obtained a position at the Farnese court on 1 August 1619
with a monthly salary of 8 ducats. His extant works and that of Ascanio are
all contained in the lutebook that he prepared at Padua (in 1620–21) for
one of his pupils, the Polish or White Russian nobleman K.S.R. Dusiacki
(PL-Kj Mus MS 40153, D-Bsb; ed. in Osthoff, 1926/R). The manuscript
contains some 78 pieces in French tablature with attributions to Santino,
Ascanio and Donino Garsi (Dusiacki himself later added ten Polish dances
anonymously): arie alla napolitana, ballettos dedicated to the dukes of
Mantua and Parma, correntes, pavans, toccatas, preludes, many galliards,
a folia and a longwinded battaglia, which ends with a section titled ‘sonata
con il tamburo per la vitoria’ and has imitations of fifes, trumpets and
drums. The pieces require a liuto attiorbato with seven diapasons and have
careful indications (marked ‘T’) for vibrato in the manner of Piccinini and
P.P. Melli.
WORKS
c40 lute pieces: galliards, Aria di Fiorenza, 2 ballettos, ballo, capriccio, corrente,
moresca, Ruggiero ‘per cantare’, saltarello: B-Br II, 275 (facs. and ed. Kirsch,
1989); Br 16.663; CZ-Pnm IV.G.18; D-DO G.1.I–III; W Guelf 18.7/8 Aug. 2; F-Pn
Vmd MS 31; I-COc 1.1.20; Fn anteriori di Galilei 6; Fn Magl. XIX.30 (facs. and
ed. Kirsch, 1989); Nc 7664; PESo Pc.40a; SG Fondo Martino MS 31; PL-Kj Mus
MS 40032, Mus MS 40153; 4 arr. gui, 16252; 3 arr. vn (Zanetti: Il Scolaro, Milan,
1645); gagliarda and aria, kbd, I-fn Magl. XIX.115: most ed. in Osthoff, 1926/R;
facs. and introduction D. Kirsch: Santino Garsi da Parma: Werke für Laute
(Cologne, 1989)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Pico: Appendice di varii soggetti parmigiani: Aggiunte II all’Appendice
(Parma, 1642)
H. Osthoff: Der Lautenist Santino Garsi da Parma (Leipzig, 1926/R)
N. Pelicelli: ‘Musicisti in Parma nei secoli XV–XVI’, NA, ix (1932), 41–52,
112–29, esp. 125–6; x (1933), 233–48, esp. 235, 314–25, esp. 320
H. Osthoff: ‘Gedichte von Tomaso Stigliani auf Giulio Caccini, Claudio
Monteverdi, Santino Garsi da Parma und Claudio Merulo’, Miscelánea
 en homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona, 1958–61), 615–
21
B. Richardson: ‘New Light on Dowland's Continental Movements’,
Monthly Musical Record, xc (1960), 3–9
W. Kirkendale: L’Aria di Fiorenza, id est Il ballo del Gran Duca (Florence,
1972), 16–17, 29–30, 53, 66, 70
D. Fabris: ‘Composizioni per “cetra” in uno sconosciuto manoscritto per
liuto del primo Seicento’, RIM, xvi (1981), 185–206
D. Fabris: Andrea Falconieri Napoletano: un liutista-compositore del
Seicento (Rome, 1987)
ARTHUR J. NESS, HENRY SYBRANDY/DINKO FABRIS

Garth, John
(b ?Durham, c1722; d ?London, c1810). English composer. He lived in Co.
Durham and is known to have been organist at Sedgefield and to have
played an active part in local musical life. He was a friend of Charles
Avison, whom he assisted with his publication of 50 of Benedetto
Marcello’s psalm paraphrases (i–viii, London, 1757).
As a composer, Garth’s main area of activity was the accompanied
keyboard sonata: not the common form for keyboard with violin but a type
used almost exclusively by composers in north-east England (Avison,
Ebdon and Hawdon as well as Garth) where a trio sonata ensemble of two
violins, cello and harpsichord is required, with the strings either doubling
the harpsichord, providing harmonic support or resting. Garth was no doubt
following Avison’s example in using this unusual genre. The presence of
crescendo marks suggests that he had the piano in mind. The first of
Garth’s five sets, op.2, achieved particular popularity; at least six editions
are known between 1768 and 1790, when the first sonata appeared
separately in an anthology. It was referred to by William Gardiner (Music
and Friends, London, 1838) as affecting him powerfully and arousing his
interest in music. The sonatas are in two movements, usually an Allegro
followed by a minuet, gavotte or rondo. Garth’s fluent technique served well
for what are mainly light, unpretentious pieces, of which only occasional
ones have real substance. In the second set the chief interest lies in the
melodically attractive dance movements, though no.6 in G minor has a
vigour and contrapuntal elaboration rare in Garth’s music. The later sets
are lighter to the point of triviality. His cello concertos (a form rare in
England at the time; Garth’s are the earliest published there) show some
apt and fluent melodic writing.
WORKS
all published in London

op.

1 6 Concertos, vc, str, bc (1760)

2 6 Sonatas, hpd/pf/org, 2 vn, vc (c1768)
3 6 Voluntary’s, org/pf/hpd (1771)
4–7 6 Sonatas, hpd/pf/org, 2 vn, vc (c1772, c1775, c1778, 1782)
– 30 Collects (1794)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Sadie: ‘Music in the Home II’, Music in Britain: the Eighteenth Century,
ed. H.D. Johnstone and R. Fiske (Oxford, 1990), 313–54
STANLEY SADIE

Gartner.
Bohemian family of organ builders. Johann Anton (b Tachov, 5 July 1707; d
11 July 1771) was an important local organ builder of his day. His work
included the organ in the Premonstratensian Monastery at Teplá (1755–60;
three manuals and 34 stops), which still survives, and the organ for St
Vitus’s Cathedral, Prague (1762–5; three manuals, 40 stops), of which the
case survives. His great-grandson Josef the younger (b Tachov, 30 Aug
1796; d Prague, 30 May 1863) became well known for his restoration of
large Baroque organs: surviving examples include St Mary (1825) and St
Nicholas Kleinseite (1835), Prague. Several of his own organs also survive.
As organ builders the Gartner family belong, broadly speaking, to the
school of Abraham Stark. In 1825 Josef the younger made a special study
of Silbermann organs in Saxony: his essay, Kurze Belehrung über die
innere Einrichtung der Orgeln, was published in 1832 (2/1845) and
appeared in 1834 in a Czech translation. From 1830 onwards he taught at
the organ school in Prague.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (R. Quoika)
V. Němec: Pražksé varhany (Prague, 1944)
R. Quoika: Die altösterreichische Orgel der späten Gotik, der Renaissance
und des Barock (Kassel, 1953)
L. Tomší: ‘Umělecké řemeslo rodiny Gartnerů (Das Kunsthandwerk der
Familie Gartner)’, Výroční zpráva Okresního archivu Domažlice, v
(1981), 67–96
HANS KLOTZ/JIRÍ SEHNAL

Garugli [Garulli], Bernardo

[Garullus, Bernardinus]
(b Cagli, 1535; d after 1565). Italian composer and singer. Eitner incorrectly
identified his place of birth as Calliano, near Rovereto. He moved to Fano,
where he was a singer, and he probably completed his studies there. For a
time he was a pupil of Zarlino in Venice, later returning to Fano, where on
16 July 1562 he was appointed to the cathedral chapel ‘to sing and to
teach the boys to sing on festive days and whenever music in church is
required’. In the same year he dedicated to the chapter his Modulationum
quinque vocum … liber primus (Venice, 1562), comprising 20 motets, for
which he received a payment of one thaler. He devoted much of his energy
to improving the musical standards at Fano and for a time he employed a
soprano at his own expense. In 1565 he asked the chapter to relieve him of
his position, and on 20 September he was succeeded by Bernardo da
 Urbino. Garugli’s only known secular composition is Quante gratie (in RISM
15626).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
MGG1 (W. Senn)
G. Draudins: Bibliotheca classica (Frankfurt, 1611), 1204; (enlarged
2/1625), 1612
R. Paolucci: ‘La cappella musicale del duomo di Fano’, NA, iii (1926), 81–
168, esp. 89
PIER PAOLO SCATTOLIN

Garullus, Bernardinus.
See Garugli, Bernardo.

Garūta, Lūcija
(b Rīga, 14 May 1902; d Riga, 15 Feb 1977). Latvian composer and
pianist. She attended the Latvian Conservatory, where she graduated from
Vītols’s composition class in 1924 and Ludmila Gomane-Dombrovska’s
piano class in 1925. In Paris she continued her piano studies with Cortot
(1926) and her composition studies with Dukas (1928). Both as a soloist
and an accompanist, she played in numerous concerts in Latvia and
abroad. From 1940 she taught music theory and composition at Latvian
State Conservatory, eventually becoming professor (1973). As a composer
Garūta concentrated on programme music conceived in the manner of
post-Romanticism and of Skryabin.
WORKS
(selective list)

Op: Sidrabotais putns [Silvery Bird] (Garūta), 1938, revised 1960, unperf.
Orch: Meditation, 1934; Manā dzimtenē [In My Motherland], variations, 1936; Pf
Conc., 1951; Zelta zirgs [The Golden Steed], sym. poem, 1959
Choral: Dievs, Tava zeme deg! [God, Your Earth is on Fire!] (cant., A. Eglītis), T, Bar,
SATB, org, 1944; Pavasara vējos [Spring Winds] (cant., V. Plūdonis), SATB, orch,
1957; Viņš lido [He Flies] (cant., Garūta), S, SATB, orch, 1961; Dzīvā kvēle [A Living
Ardour] (orat, Reinis), Mezz, T, SATB, orch, 1966; c75 choral works
Chbr and solo inst: Pf Variations, 1921; Pf Sonata, 1924; Sonata, vn, pf, 1927; Pf
Variations, 1933; Pf Variations, 1951

Principal publishers: Liesma

BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Stumbre: Zvaigznes un zeme: Lūcija Garūta dzīves un daiļrades gaitā
[Stars and earth: Garūta’s life and work] (Rīga, 1969)
L. Apkalns: ‘Lūcija Garūta’, Latvju mūzika, ix (1977), 820–9
ARNOLDS KLOTIŅŠ
Garzia, Francesco Saverio.
See García Fajer, Francisco Javier.

Gas [Gaz], José

(d Gerona, 27 Dec 1713). Spanish composer. In 1675 he was appointed
choirmaster at the collegiate church in Mataró, where he remained until
1685, when he moved to a similar post at the basilica of S María del Mar in
Barcelona. Even though in 1682 he unsuccessfully competed for the post
of choirmaster at Gerona Cathedral, in 1690 he was offered that post
(without competition), and was appointed on 16 July. He retired at an
advanced age in 1711. A number of Gas’s sacred works, including two
masses, eight motets and two Passions as well as several Spanish
villancicos and Música para la comedia de odio y amor, survive (E-G),
along with some 40 further works in Latin and Spanish, including the
exercises presented at a public competition, apparently that of Gerona in
1682 (Bc).
Pedrell (Catàlech de la Biblioteca musical de la Diputació de Barcelona, i,
1908, p.255) mentioned a José Gas as choirmaster at Gerona, 1711–35,
and later at S María del Mar in Barcelona, where he died in 1743; these
assertions (repeated in LaborD and in Enciclopedia Salvat de la música, ii,
1967) seem to be the result of some confusion. Pedrell (Catàlech, i, 259)
described some of Gas’s compositions as being ‘highly recommendable, as
indeed are all the works of maestro Gas’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Civil Castellví: ‘La música en la catedral de Gerona durante el siglo
XVII’, AnM, xv (1960), 219–43
F. Baldelló: ‘La música en la basílica parroquial de Santa María del Mar,
de Barcelona (Notas históricas)’, AnM, xvii (1962), 209–41
F. Civil Castellví: ‘La capilla de música de la catedral de Gerona (siglo
XVIII)’, Anales del Instituto de estudios gerundenses, xix (1968–9),
131–88
JOSÉ LÓPEZ-CALO

Gascon, Adam-Nicolas
(b Liège, bap. 14 March 1623; d Liège, shortly before 10 July 1668).
Flemish composer. On 1 February 1644 he was appointed maître de chant
of the collegiate church of Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk, Maastricht. He
resigned on 6 September 1658 and from 1659 to 1668 was maître de
chant of the collegiate church of St Paul, Liège, where he also held a minor
ecclesiastical position. As a composer he is known only by one sonata for
four instruments and continuo (GB-Ob), which appears alongside several
similar works by Lambert Pietkin and J.H. Schmelzer. In his sonata, as in
the others, slow and fast movements alternate; it includes interesting use
of syncopation and echo effects. (J. Quitin: ‘Tasmore, sonate à quatre
d'Adam Gascon (Liège, 1623–1668)’, Bulletin de la Société liégeoise de
musicologie, no.6 (1973), 1–5)
JOSÉ QUITIN

Gascongne [Gascogne,
Gascongus, Gascone, Gasconia,
Guascogna], Mathieu [?Johannes]
(fl 1517–18). French composer. A supplication of 17 December 1518
identifies him as a priest of the diocese of Meaux, as chaplain of Ste Marie-
Magdalène in Tours Cathedral and as a singer in the king's chapel. He
appears near the top of a list of singers in the royal chapel dated 1517–18.
These documents would seem to indicate that his motets Christus vincit,
Christus regnat and Deus regnorum were composed for the coronation of
François I in 1515; two others, Caro mea vere est cibus and Cantemus et
laetemur, refer directly or indirectly to that king. Gascongne may also have
been responsible for the revision of Mouton's motet Non nobis Domine. In
Attaingnant's print (RISM 15353; the only source to attribute the work to
Gascongne) the motet's text has been extensively revised to honour
François I. According to Brobeck (1991, p.467) Gascongne may have been
associated with the royal court as early as 1500: his motet Bone Jesu
dulcissime sets a prayer for an unnamed monarch, probably Louis XII.
Attaingnant, holder of a royal patent for printing music, attributed 13 sacred
works to Gascongne in his anthologies of 1534–5 (though not all are now
thought to be by him) and also included his Missa super ‘Nigra sum’ in the
sumptuous Liber primus tres missas continet (1532). Willaert, in a
statement quoted by Zarlino (Dimostrationi harmoniche, 1571/R), named
Gascongne along with Josquin, Ockeghem and his own teacher, Mouton,
as the ‘buoni antichi’, and took Gascongne's motet Osculetur me as the
model for an early parody mass. Jean Daniel, in his noël Ung gracieulx
oiselet (c1525), paired Gascongne with Mouton: ‘Gascoigne y fut bien
nommé, Et Mouton fort renommé’.
Six of Gascongne's eight known masses appear in two Cambrai
manuscripts written in about 1527–8. This, and the existence of a
document identifying him as a magister and priest in the diocese of
Cambrai (BrenetM, pp.68–9), led Lesure and others to group him with
Crispin van Stappen, Louis van Pullaer and Johannes Lupi as a member of
a Cambrai school functioning in the first half of the 16th century, but the
lack of archival evidence connecting Gascongne with Cambrai
considerably weakens the argument. Further, two of these masses, Missa
‘Pourquoy non’ and Missa ‘Myn hert’, are found in earlier sources. The
distribution of his music reinforces the association with the French court.
Three masses are found in Vatican manuscripts connected with Pope Leo
X (d 1521), another was published by Antico in 1521 alongside works by
Mouton and de Silva, and the ten pieces in GB-Cmc Pepys 1760 are next
to a large collection of music by Antoine de Févin, known to have been in
the service of Louis XII.
 Gascongne's reputation as a chanson composer rests mainly on his works
for three voices. The Pepys manuscript contains a group of six three-voice
chansons, all of which are based on a popular monophonic tune in the
tenor. Celle qui m'a demandé, with its simple structure, running melismas,
stereotyped cadential formulae and popular cantus firmus, is a typical
Parisian chanson rustique. Lawrence Bernstein cited Gascongne and
Févin as the original proponents of this genre, ranking Févin ahead of
Gascongne in his ability to work more flexibly within the conventions of the
technique. He noted that several of Gascongne's chansons, surviving only
in Le Roy & Ballard's anthologies of 1578, exhibit the same forward-looking
traits found in the best of those that appeared earliest.
WORKS

Edition: Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, ed. A.
Smijers and A.T. Merritt (Paris and Monaco, 1934–63) [S]

masses
Missa ‘Es hat ein Sin’, 4vv, B-Br IV 922 (Bs only, in Josquin's Missa ‘Pange lingua’),
D-Mbs F, E-MO, F-CA, I-Rvat; ed. in MMB, ix (1963) (opening quotes from
Ockeghem's Missa ‘Mi-mi’)
Missa ‘L'aultre jour per my ces champs’, 4vv, I-Rvat C.S.26, CFm MA 53
Missa ‘Myn herte herft altyt verlanghen’, 4vv, B-Br IV 922, D-Mbs F, 7, Ju 2, F-CA 4,
125–8, S-Uu ViH 76c; ed. in MMN (in preparation) (on La Rue's song; attrib.
Johannes Gascong, Johannes Gascoeing, in D-Mbs 7, Ju 2)
Missa ‘Mon mari ma diffamee’, 4vv, F-CA 4, I-Rvat C.S.26; ed. in MMN (in
preparation) (on Josquin's chanson)
Missa ‘Pourquoy non’, 4vv, F-CA 3, I-Rvat C.S.17, P.L.1982, NL-SH 75; ed. in MMN
(in preparation) (on La Rue's motet)
Missa supra ‘Benedictus’, 4vv, 15212 (on Févin's motet)
Missa super ‘Nigra sum’, 4vv, 15321, D-ROu 40, E-Tc Res.23, F-CA 4, NL-SH 75;
ed. in MMN (in preparation) (on own motet)
Missa ‘Ut fa’ (= Missa ‘Pourquoy non’)
Missa ‘Vos qui in turribus’, 4vv, F-CA 3
magnificat settings, motets
for 4 voices unless otherwise stated; selected sources given, all attributed to Gascongne
(complete list in Brobeck, 1991)

Magnificat septimi toni, 15348; S vi

Magnificat octi toni, D-Ju 20
Benedicat tibi Dominus, c1526 [Sup only; no. of vv unknown]
Bona dies per orbem, Z 16; Bone Jesu dulcissime, 15353, F-AM 162, S xi;
Cantemus et laetemur, I-Bc Q20, ed. in SCMot, viii (1989); Caro mea vere est
cibus, 15343, S i; Christus vincit, Christus regnat, 15344, S ii; Dignare me, 15343, S i;
Dulcis mater, 3vv, GB-Cmc Pepys 1760; Ecce venit Rex, Lcm 2037
Ista est speciosa, canon, 12vv, Cmc Pepys 1760; Laetatus sum, 15351, S ix; Ne
reminiscaris, 15353, S xi; Nigra sum, 3vv, Cmc Pepys 1760; O quam magnificam,
RUS-KA 1740 [1v only]; Osculetur me, GB-Lbl Add.19583, ed. in CMM, iii/9; Quare
tristis, 15353, S xi; Si vitare velis, 2vv, 154916 [contrafactum of Agnus Dei, D-Mbs
260]; Spiritus ubi vult spirat, 15344, S ii; Verbum Domini, 12vv, Rp B220–22
[contrafactum of Ista est speciosa]; Virginitas pulchris, 2vv, 1549 16 [contrafactum of
Agnus Dei from Missa super ‘Nigra sum’]

chansons
for 3 voices unless otherwise stated

Bouvons ma commere, 155322; Celle qui m'a demandé, GB-Cmc, ed. H.M. Brown,
Theatrical Chansons of the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge,
MA, 1963); D'amour je suis desheritée, 1578 15; Dessus l'herbe vert’ à l'escart,
157816; En ce joly temps gratieux, Cmc Pepys 1760; En contemplant la beauté de
m'amye, 157816; Et d'où venez vous madame Lucette, 4vv, 1535 9; Il fait bon dormir
en lit, 157815
J'ay dormy la matinée, 157815; Je my sçauroys chanter ne rire, 4vv, 15292, ed. in
MMRF, v (1897); Je voys, je viens, mon cueur s'en volle, Cmc, ed. H.M. Brown,
Theatrical Chansons (Cambridge, MA, 1963); Mon povre cueur, héllas, 4vv, 1529 2,
ed. in MMRF, v (1897); Pastourelle Dieu te doint joye, Cmc Pepys 1760; Pour
avoir faict au gré de mon amy, Cmc Pepys 1760; Robin, Robin viendras-tu à la
veille, 157815; Si j'eusse Marion, 4vv, Cmc Pepys 1760

works with conflicting attributions

Credo, Missa ferialis, 5vv; attrib. Févin in 1516 1, ‘M. gasconia’ in E-Tc Res.23
Alleluia. Noli flere mulier, 4vv, I-Bc Q20; attrib. Mouton in 15476
Maria virgo semper laetare, 4vv, 15343, S i; attrib. Mouton in 15191 and probably by
him
Deus regnorum, 4vv, 15353; attrib. Gascongne in print, Sermisy in index, S xi
Non nobis Domine, 4vv, 15353, S xi; attrib. Mouton in 15191 and probably by him
Rex autem David, 4vv, 15215; attrib. La Fage in 15216, attrib. Lupus in 153911; by La
Fage
En disant une chansonette, 3vv, 157816; attrib. Janequin in 154113, 154323
J'ay mis mon cueur, 3vv, GB-Cmc Pepys 1760, ed. H.M. Brown, Theatrical
Chansons (Cambridge, MA, 1963); attrib. Janequin in 1541 2
Je suis trop jeunette, 3vv, in Trente et une chansons musicales, 3vv (Paris, 1535),
155322, 157815; attrib. Janequin in 154113, attrib. Gombert in 155210, 15602, 156911
Mon amy n'a plus que faire, 5vv, F-Pn n.a.fr.4599; attrib. Gombert in 155210
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetM
MGG1 (F. Lesure)
H. Chardon: Les noëls de Jean Daniel dit Maître Mitou, 1520–1530 (Le
Mans, 1874)
A.T. Merritt: ‘A Chanson Sequence by Févin’, Essays on Music in Honor of
Archibald Thompson Davison (Cambridge, MA, 1957), 91–9
H. Kellman: ‘The Origins of the Chigi Codex’, JAMS, xi (1958), 6–19
F. Lesure: ‘Les chansons à trois parties de Clément Janequin’, RdM, xliv
(1959), 193–8
H. Beck: ‘Adrian Willaerts Messen’, AMw, xvii (1960), 215–42
H.M. Brown: ‘The Genesis of a Style: the Parisian Chanson, 1500–1530’,
Chanson and Madrigal 1480–1530: Cambridge, MA, 1961, 1–50
H.M. Brown: Music in the French Secular Theater, 1400–1550
(Cambridge, MA, 1963)
L. Bernstein: Cantus Firmus in the French Chansons for Two or Three
Voices, 1500–1550 (diss., New York U., 1969)
P. Swing: Parody and Form in Five Polyphonic Masses by Mathieu
Gascongne (diss., U. of Chicago, 1969)
B. Blackburn: The Lupus Problem (diss., U. of Chicago, 1970)
A. Dunning: Die Staatsmotette 1480–1555 (Utrecht, 1970); see also
review by J. Rifkin, Notes, xxviii (1972), 425–9
E. Lowinsky: ‘A Music Book for Anne Boleyn’, Florilegium Historiale:
Essays presented to Wallace K. Ferguson, ed. J.G. Rowe and W.H.
Stockdale (Toronto, 1971), 160–235
C. Adams: The Three-Part Chanson during the Sixteenth Century:
Changes in its Style and Importance (diss., U. of Pennsylvania, 1974)
B. Huys: ‘An Unknown Alamire-Choirbook (“Occo Codex”) Recently
Acquired by the Royal Library of Belgium: a New Source for the
History of Music in Amsterdam’, TVNM, xxiv/1 (1974), 1–19
R. Snow: ‘Toledo Cathedral MS Reservado 23’, JM, ii (1983), 246–77
R. Sherr: ‘The Membership of the Chapels of Louis XII and Anne de
Bretagne in the Years Preceding their Deaths’, JM, vi (1988), 60–82
J. Brobeck: The Motet at the Court of Francis I (diss., U. of Pennsylvania,
1991)
J. Brobeck: ‘Musical Patronage in the Royal Chapel of France under
Francis I (r. 1515–1547)’, JAMS, xlviii (1995), 187–239
PETER GRAM SWING

Gasdia, Cecilia
(b Verona, 14 Aug 1960). Italian soprano. After winning the RAI Maria
Callas competition in 1981, she sang Giulietta (I Capuleti e i Montecchi) in
Florence. The following year she took over at short notice the title role of
Anna Bolena at La Scala, and sang Amina (La sonnambula) at S Carlo.
She has appeared throughout Europe and the USA, making her
Metropolitan début in 1986 as Gounod's Juliet. Her repertory includes
Verdi's Violetta, Gilda, Hélène (Jérusalem) and Desdemona; Puccini's
Lauretta, Mimì, Musetta and Liù, as well as Alice (Salieri's Falstaff), Nedda,
Teresa (Benvenuto Cellini) and Salome (Hérodiade). A specialist in bel
canto, Gasdia excels particularly in such roles as Rossini's Zelmira,
Armida, Hermione and Corinna (Il viaggio a Reims), all of which she has
recorded, and Bellini's Beatrice di Tenda. She has a well-schooled voice,
with a brilliant coloratura technique, and phrases stylishly.
ELIZABETH FORBES

Gaslini, Giorgio
(b Milan, 22 Oct 1929). Italian composer, pianist and conductor. Having
studied the piano from a young age, he began to appear at the age of 13
as a conductor and orchestral pianist specializing in light music, and in jazz
groups. After the war, while establishing himself as a jazz musician, he
completed his studies of the piano, composition and conducting at the
Milan Conservatory (with, among others, Renzo Bossi, Antonino Votto and
Giulini) and at the Accademia Musicale Chigiana, Siena (with Paul Van
Kempen). Active for many years as a conductor of various musical groups
and as a composer, his growing interest in jazz led him during the second
 half of the 1950s to attempt to combine jazz and classical music
composition.
A key work was the octet Tempo e relazione (1957) – a piece in five
movements based on two 12-note series – and from that point on Gaslini
became recognized as a major figure of the Italian and wider jazz avant
garde. His music continued to be characterized by a determination to
integrate different idioms, including free jazz, serialism, pop and
electronics. Alongside this ‘multi-lingual’ approach, set apart from the
American Third Stream, he made manifest a political commitment to
working-class and student left-wing movements after 1968. Gaslini’s most
important works include the suite Nuovi sentimenti, with Don Cherry, Gato
Barbieri and Steve Lacy, and the jazz opera Colloquio con Malcolm X. He
has frequently collaborated with Max Roach, Antony Braxton and, latterly,
the Italian Instabile Orchestra. Gaslini has written a number of film scores,
including that to Antonioni’s La notte, and incidental music. He has also
been important as a teacher, giving the first jazz courses in Italian
conservatories, starting in Rome (1972), followed by Milan (1978). His
musical ideas are summarized in Musica totale (Milan, 1975) which
anticipates some of the most recent trends in overcoming ideological
barriers between musical styles.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Jab (jazz pocket op), Sanremo, 1965; Una specialità delle Cantine Verità
(pocket op), Milan, 1967; Un quarto di vita (opera da strada, 2, Gaslini), Parma,
1968; Drakòn ballet, Palermo, 1969; Colloquio con Malcolm X (azione musicale, E.
Capriolo), Genoa, 1970; Contagio, ballet, Milan, 1971; Mister O (jazz melodrama, V.
Franchini), Verona, 1996; Carmen Graffiti, ballet, Milan, 1997
Orch: Serenata, double chbr orch, 1953; Canto della città inquieta da ‘Totale’, orch,
tape, 1965; Totale II, 1967; Sinfonia per un nuovo giorno, 1970
Jazz ens: Tempo e relazione, 1957; Oltre, 1963; Dall’alba all’alba, 1964; Nuovi
sentimenti, 1966; La stagione incantata, 1968; Grido, 1968; Jazz Mikrokosmos,
1968; Africa!, 1969; Jazz Makrokosmos, 1969; Message I–II, 1973; Fabbrica
occupata, 1973; Murales I–IV, 1976; Free Actions, 1977; Graffiti, 1977; Indian Suite,
1983; Schumann Reflections, 1984; Monodrama, 1984; Multipli, 1988; Ayler’s
Wings, 1991; Pierrot solaire, 1991; Lampi, 1994; Skies of Europe, 1995; Jelly’s
Back in Town, 1996
Vocal: Responsorio, solo vv, orch, 1951; Salmo XXIII, Bar, pf, 1951; La notte, 1v,
insts, 1952; Cronache seriali, 1v, insts, 1954; Logarithmos no.2, 1v, insts, 1956;
Mag, S, 3 insts, 1963; Donna (cant.), spkr, female chorus, insts, 1963; Totale I, S, T,
large orch, jazz ens, tape, 1966; La cena di Joe Trimalchio, solo vv, chorus, orch,
1972; 12 ballate (various texts), 1v, pf, 1974; Le ali ai piedi, S, spkr, chorus, orch,
1982; Battiti, chbr chorus, vn, 1994; Il brutto anatroccolo (after H.C. Andersen),
female v, spkr, orch, 1997; Storie di Sto (after S. Tofano), S, spkr, small chorus,
insts, 1997
Other inst: Logarithmos no.1, fl, perc, 1955; Logarithmos no.3, insts, 1957; Piccola
musica per archi, 1958; Chorus, fl, 1966; Segnali, ob, 1967; Myanmar Suite, 4 hp,
1993; Open Music, 2 pf, 1993; Chants-Songs, fl, pf, 1995

Principal publishers: Ricordi, Suvini Zerboni, Universal

WRITINGS
‘Jazz nuovo e musica nuova’, NRMI, ii (1968), 473–81
Musica totale (Milan, 1975)
Tecnica e arte del jazz (Milan, 1982)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (R. Pozzi)
L. Feather: The Encyclopedia of Jazz in the Sixties (New York, 1966)
L. Feather and I. Gitler: The Encyclopedia of Jazz in the Seventies (New
York, 1976)
A. Bassi: Giorgio Gaslini (Milan, 1986)
M. Franco: ‘Giorgio Gaslini’, Musica Jazz, xlviii/5 (1992), 35–50
U. Masini: ‘Giorgio Gaslini o della musica come totalità’, Musica, xx/100
(1996), 76–9
GIORDANO MONTECCHI

Gaspar de Padua [Gaspare de

Albertis, Gaspare bergomensis].
See Alberti, Gasparo.

Gaspardini, Gasparo
(d ?Verona, c1714). Italian composer. His Sonate op.1 (Bologna, 1683), for
two violins, cello and organ continuo, place him as maestro di cappella at
Verona Cathedral, where he remained until 1714. The Sonate, while
favouring a four-movement plan, indicate that the alternation of slow and
fast tempos of the Corellian sonata was by no means generally accepted,
several concluding with extensive slow movements. Estienne Roger
published an op.2 set with the same instrumentation (Amsterdam, c1701).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Lesure: ‘La datation des premières éditions d’Estienne Roger’, GfMKB:
Bamberg 1953, 273–9
F. Lesure: Bibliographie des éditions musicales publiées par Estienne
Roger et Michel-Charles le Cène (Amsterdam 1696–1743) (Paris,
1969)
PETER ALLSOP

Gaspari, Gaetano
(b Bologna, 15 March 1807; d Bologna, 31 March 1881). Italian
musicologist, bibliographer and composer. From 1820 to 1827 he studied
with Benedetto Donelli at the Liceo Musicale in Bologna, where he won first
prizes in piano and counterpoint, and from 1824 to 1827 he was organist at
S Martino, Bologna. From 1828 to 1836 he was conductor of the municipal
orchestra and maestro di cappella of the Collegiata at Pieve di Cento. In
1836 he became maestro di cappella at Imola Cathedral. From there he
was recalled to Bologna in 1839 by his teacher, who was in poor health, to
replace him at the Liceo Musicale and in the direction of the cappella of S
Petronio. But because of special circumstances connected with the
reorganization of the Liceo – of which Rossini was then effectively in
control – and because of local opposition, he was unjustly deprived of the
succession and at first had to be content with the position of chorus master
at the Teatro Comunale. He then competed for and obtained the post of
solfeggio teacher at the Liceo and finally in 1856 won the office of librarian
and professor of music history in that institution, where he had for some
time been director in all but name. In 1857 he became maestro di cappella
at S Petronio. He was also a member of the Accademia Filarmonica of
Bologna.
Gaspari was admired as a composer of liturgical music and wrote many
scholarly works on the history of music in Bologna, most of which appeared
in the journals of the historical societies of Bologna and Modena between
1869 and 1880. He is most famous for his work in classifying the material
in the superb music library that he helped to form at the Liceo and which he
indexed in a handwritten Zibaldone musicale which formed the basis of the
Catalogo della Biblioteca del Liceo musicale di Bologna, i–iv (Bologna,
1890–1905/ R), v, ed. U. Sesini (Bologna, 1943/R). His collected writings
are published in Musica e musicisti a Bologna (Bologna, 1969).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Parisini: Elogio funebre del cav. prof. Gaetano Gaspari (Bologna, 1882);
repr. in BMB, section 3, xxxix (1970), 387–406
C. Sartori: Il Regio Conservatorio di musica ‘G.B. Martini’ di Bologna
(Florence, 1942), 72, 110
O. Mischiati: ‘L'organo della basilica di San Martino di Bologna capolavoro
di Giovanni Cipri’, L’organo, i (1960), 213–56
M. Tarrini: ‘Pier Costantino Remondini e le “tornate musicali” della Sezione
di Archeologia della Società ligure di storia patria (1875–76)’, Musica a
Genova tra Medio Evo e età moderna, ed. G. Buzelli (Genoa, 1992),
169–245
O. Mischiati: ‘La cappella musicale della Collegiata e gli organi delle
chiese: appunti per una storia’, Storia di Cento, ii (Cento, 1994), 827–
74
P. Bassi and C. Ariagno: Luigi Felice Rossi (Turin, 1994), 51–2
FABIO FANO/R

Gasparian, Djivan
(b Solak, Armenia, 12 Oct 1928). Armenian duduk player. He began to
teach himself to play the duduk (cylindrical double-reed instrument) at the
age of eight. He performed as a soloist with the State Ensemble of Song
and Dance of Armenia under the direction of T'at'ul Altunyan. In 1957 he
won prizes in the International Performers’ Competition at the 6th World
Festival of Youth and Students and the All-Union Competition for
Performers of Folk Instruments held in Moscow; he began touring in the
same year, subsequently performing in festivals and concerts throughout
Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia and North and South America, including the
Third Asian Music Rotrum of the International Music Council in 1973,
organised by UNESCO where he won first prize among the best musicians
of Asia and Africa. His virtuoso technique earned him the nickname ‘The
Magician of the duduk’. He also played the zurna, the shvi, the blul and the
clarinet.
In 1975 he played the duduk and the zurna with the Armenian PO in a
recording of Avet Terterian’s third symphony. He has also performed with
the LSO, Los Angeles PO and Zürich Tonhalle Orchestra. He was named
People’s Artist of Armenia in 1978 and began to teach the duduk at the
Yerevan Komitas State Conservatory in 1982; he graduated from the
Conservatory in 1985 and continued to teach there until 1993. He
collaborated with the Kronos Quartet on the CD Night Prayers (Elektra
Nonesuch 9 79346–2, 1994), and other musicians with whom he has
worked include Lionel Ritchie, Graeme Revell, Peter Gabriel and Michael
Brook. He contributed to the soundtracks of several films including The
Crow, The Russian House and Dead Man Walking. Several of his
recordings feature the duduk in genres not previously associated with the
instrument, including jazz.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
‘Discografiya armyanskoy monodicheskoy muzïki, 1916–89’ [Discography
of Armenian monodic music], Tradïtsionnïy fol'klor i sovremennïye
narodnïye khorï i ansambli [Traditional folklore and contemporary folk
choirs and ensembles], ed. V.A. Lapin (Leningrad, 1989), 175–246
I Will Not Be Sad in This World, Opal 9 25885–2 (1989)
Vision II (Spirit of Rumi), Angel Records (1997)
Black Rock, Real World (1998)
ALINA PAHLEVANIAN

Gasparini.
Italian family of musicians.
(1) Francesco Gasparini
(2) Paolo Lorenzo Gasparini
(3) Michelangelo [Michiel Angelo] Gasparini
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DENNIS LIBBY/ANGELA LEPORE (1: text) ANGELA LEPORE (1: work-
list, bibliography, 2, 3)
Gasparini
(1) Francesco Gasparini
(b Camaiore, nr Lucca, 19 March 1661; d Rome, 22 March 1727).
Composer and teacher. In 1682 he was active as organist at Madonna dei
Monti in Rome, where he probably studied with Corelli and Pasquini. He
was admitted to the Accademia Filarmonica, Bologna, as a singer on 27
June 1684, and as a composer on 17 May 1685. According to Hawkins, he
and his brother (3) Michelangelo Gasparini were living as pupils in
Legrenzi’s house in Venice in 1686, but in 1687 Francesco was taking part
in accademie in the Roman palace of Cardinal Benedetto Pamphili, both as
a violinist and as a composer of arias and cantatas to texts by Pamphili
himself. In 1689 he became a member of the Congregazione di S Cecilia
and also played in a revival for Pamphili of Lulier’s S Beatrice d’Este. At
this time he probably also met Alessandro Scarlatti, and the two were later
to demonstrate a mutual respect: Scarlatti sent his son Domenico to Venice
in 1705, where he had lessons from Gasparini, and the two exchanged
cantatas in 1712. Gasparini’s first known operas were Roderico and
Olimpia vendicata, both produced in 1686 at Livorno. In 1695 he published
a set of cantatas. He must by this time have achieved some reputation, as
on 5 June 1701 he was appointed to the important post of maestro di coro
at the Ospedale della Pietà, Venice, in which city he met Vivaldi, Legrenzi,
Pollarolo and Lotti. Gasparini was very successful in this post, which
involved directing all the conservatory’s musical activities. He expanded the
staff (he engaged Vivaldi as violin master) and by 1707 the conservatory
ranked as one of the best in Italy. With the move to Venice, Gasparini’s
career as an opera composer also began in earnest; often he wrote three
or four new works in a year, most of them first performed in Venice.
On 23 April 1713 Gasparini was given six months’ leave from the Pietà. He
never returned but settled again in Rome (operas produced at Florence in
Carnival and autumn 1715 may indicate an extended stay there). In July
1716 he succeeded Caldara as maestro di cappella to Prince Ruspoli, for
whom he worked until 1718, living in an apartment in the Piazza di S
Lorenzo in Lucina. In 1719 he transferred to a house owned by the
Borghese family, and he is described in librettos of the period as a virtuoso
‘del principe Borghese’. In 1718 he was admitted to the Arcadian Academy,
with the name Ericreo. In 1719 a marriage contract was signed between
his daughter and Metastasio (one of whose sonnets is addressed to
Gasparini), but for unknown reasons the engagement was soon broken off.
Gasparini’s production of new operas continued fairly steadily at Rome and
other cities until 1720. After that only a few new ones appeared, the last in
1724. In February 1725 he was named maestro di cappella at S Giovanni
in Laterano, but he did not take up the post until June 1786; his assistant
was Girolamo Chiti.
Gasparini at his best was a composer of the first rank. Burney’s description
of his cantatas – which are some of the most important of his time – as
‘graceful, elegant, natural, and often pathetic’ can be extended to much of
his other music. These qualities rested on a profound technical skill, most
obvious in the easy and frequent use of complicated canonic devices in his
church music but also apparent from the mastery of free counterpoint in his
other works (such as the set of brilliantly written chamber duets, in GB-Lbl).
The arias in Gasparini’s earlier operas are typical of the period in using a
variety of formal types, but mostly within a da capo format; some arias in
the later operas, however, show homophonic textures and melodic and
rhythmic traits that make them forerunners of the work of the next
generation. His recitatives were praised by Padre Martini; Haas saw him as
a model for Handel in his dramatic treatment of accompanied ones. His
sacred music includes works both in the strict style and in the modern
concerted style with independent instrumental parts. Some of the solo
sacred motets are virtually indistinguishable from his secular ones in form
(except for the concluding alleluia) and expressive character; but that was
typical of the time.
 Gasparini was highly regarded as a teacher. Besides Domenico Scarlatti
his pupils included Quantz, Platti and Benedetto Marcello, who sent him his
Estro poetico-armonico for his criticism. L’armonico pratico is a practical
manual of figured bass accompaniment for beginners with some musical
knowledge. It was used throughout the 18th century, going into numerous
editions, the last in 1802, and remains an important source of information
about continuo realization at that time. Other theoretical essays by him
survive in manuscript.
Because of confusion with Gasparo Visconti, called ‘Gasparini’, it was long
thought that Francesco Gasparini had visited London in the first decade of
the 18th century; two of his operas were performed there in 1711 and 1712.
Chamber music published by Quirino Gasparini in the middle of the century
has also been wrongly attributed to him.
WORKS
Gasparini: (1) Francesco Gasparini
WORKS
music lost unless otherwise stated

operas

chamber cantatas

other secular vocal

oratorios and large cantatas

liturgical

other sacred vocal

instrumental

theoretical works

Gasparini: (1) Francesco Gasparini: Works

operas
drammi per musica in three acts unless otherwise stated: dates are of first performance
unless specified as dedication dates

VC Venice, Teatro S Cassiano

Olimpia vendicata, Livorno, ded. 6 Dec 1686
Roderico (G.B. Bottalino), Livorno, Dec 1686, arias I-MOe; rev. Rome, Pace, 25 Jan
1694, arias D-Bsb, F-Pn, I-Rvat
Bellerofonte (G.M. Conti), Rome, Collegio Clementino, carn. 1690, arias GB-Lbl, I-
Fc, Rvat
Amor vince lo sdegno, ovvero L’Olimpia placata (A. Aureli), Rome, Capranica, 9
Feb 1692, F-Pn, I-Rvat, collab. A. Scarlatti
La costanza nell’Amor Divino [Act 3] (dramma sacro per musica, 3, P. Ottoboni),
Rome, 1695, arias: F-Pn, GB-Ob, I-PAVu; as La costanza nell’Amor Divino, ovvero
La S Rosalia, Rome, 1696; rev. as L’amante del cielo, Rome, Collegio Nazareno,
carn. 1699, Rps [Act 1 by S. De Luca, Act 2 by F.C. Lanciani]
Totila in Roma (M. Noris), Palermo, S Cecilia, 1696
Aiace (P. d’Averara), Naples, S Bartolomeo, ?16 Nov 1697, D-Dl, arias F-Pc, I-Nc
Gerone tiranno di Siracusa (Aureli), Genoa, Falcone, aut. 1700
Tiberio imperatore d’Oriente (G.D. Pallavicini), Venice, S Angelo, carn. 1702; rev. or
new setting as Le vicende d’amor e di fortuna, Venice, S Fantino, carn. 1710
Gli imenei stabiliti dal caso (F. Silvani), VC, ded. 23 Dec 1702
Il più fedel tra i vassalli (Silvani), VC, ded. 3 Feb 1703; as Antioco, London,
Haymarket, 12 Dec 1711, songs pubd (London, 1711)
Il miglior d’ogni amore per il peggiore d’ogni odio (Silvani), VC, 7 Nov 1703
La fede tradita e vendicata (Silvani), VC, ded. 5 Jan 1704, Nc, 1 aria (London,
1711); rev. with G. Vignola, Naples, S Bartolomeo, carn. 1707; rev. by G.M.
Orlandini, Bologna, Marsigli Rossi, August Fair 1712; with arias by Orlandini, G.
Bononcini and F. Mancini as Ernelinda, London, Haymarket, 26 Feb 1713; rev.
Turin, Carignano, carn. 1719, D-Hs (Act 2)
La maschera levata al vizio (Silvani), VC, 4 Nov 1704
La Fredegonda (Silvani), VC, ded. 26 Dec 1704
Il principato custodito dalla frode (Silvani), VC, 2 Feb 1705
Alarico, ovvero L’ingratitudine gastigata (Silvani), Palermo, S Cecilia, 1705, collab.
Albinoni and others
Antioco (A. Zeno and P. Pariati), VC, week before 14 Nov 1705, A-Wn, 2 arias
(London, 1711)
Ambleto (Zeno and Pariati), VC, week before 16 Jan 1706, arias D-Bsb, GB-Lbl;
rev. Vignola, Naples, S Bartolomeo, 4 Nov 1711; as Hamlet/Ambleto, London,
Haymarket, 27 Feb 1712, songs pubd (London, 1712/R1986 in Handel Sources, iv);
ed. of orig. lib. by A. Della Corte, Dramma per musica dal Rinuccini allo Zeno, ii
(Turin, 1958), 263–364
Statira (Zeno and Pariati), VC, 1 Feb 1706, A-Gk, arias D-Bsb; rev. Vignola as Le
regine di Macedonia, Naples, S Bartolomeo, 1708
Taican re della Cina (tragedia, 5, U. Rizzi), VC, 4 Jan 1707, 1 aria (London, 1711);
perf. with Lisetta e Astrobolo (int), I-Rvat (facs. in DMV, x, forthcoming)
Anfitrione (tragicomedia, prol., 5, Pariati ?and Zeno), VC, 13 Nov 1707, 1 aria
(London, 1711); perf. with Erighetta e Don Chilone [Don Chilone] (int, Pariati), arias
GB-Lbl
L’amor generoso (Zeno), VC, 1 Dec 1707, arias D-MÜs [perf. with ints Melissa
schernita, Melissa vendicata and Melissa contenta; as Melissa e Serpilo, Dl]; rev. G.
de Bottis, Naples, Fiorentini, ded. 30 Dec 1708; rev. S. Lapis, as La fede in cimento,
VC, carn. 1730
Flavio Anicio Olibrio (Zeno and Pariati), VC, carn. 1708 [perf. with ints Parpagacco
[Polastrella e Parpagnacco; L’astrologo; Polastrella e Parpagnacco astrologo]
(Pariati), Melissa and ?Catulla e Lardone]; rev. Milan, Regio Ducal, carn. 1722,
arias ROu; ?as Ricimero, Turin, Carignano, carn. 1722
Engelberta [Acts 4–5] (5, Zeno and Pariati), VC, week before 2 Feb 1709, A-Wn, D-
Bsb; arias GB-Ob [Acts 1—3 by Albinoni], 1 aria (London, 1711); perf. with La
capricciosa e il credulo (int)
Alciade, ovvero L’eroico amore [La violenza d’amore] [Act 1] (opera tragicomica, M.
Gasparini), Bergamo, 1709 [Act 2 by C.F. Pollarolo, Act 3 by F. Ballarotti]
Atenaide [Act 3] (Zeno), Milan, Ducale, 1709, A-Wn [Act 1 by A.S. Fiorè, Act 2 by A.
Caldara]; as Teodosio ed Eudossa, Brunswick, 12 Sept 1716, collab. J. Fux and
Caldara; as Teodosio, Hamburg, ded. 14 Nov 1718, collab. Fux and Caldara
La principessa fedele (A. Piovene), VC, 10 Nov 1709, arias D-WD [perf. with
Zamberlucco [Zamberlucco e Palandrana] (int)]; ?as Cunegonda, Mantua,
Arciducale, carn. 1718
L’oracolo del fato (componimento per musica da camera, Pariati), ?Vienna, 1709,
A-Wn; Vienna, Hoftheater, 1 Oct 1719, A-Wn
Sesostri re d’Egitto (Pariati), VC, 9 Feb 1710, arias D-MÜs, GB-Lbl; ?perf. with ints
Il nuovo mondo and Tulpiano
La ninfa Apollo (scherzo scenico pastorale, F. de Lemene), VC, 4 March 1710,
collab. A. Lotti
L’amor tirannico (5, D. Lalli), VC, aut. 1710, arias D-WD
Tamerlano (tragedia, Piovene, after J. Pradon: Tamerlan, ou La mort de Bajazet),
VC, 24 Jan 1711, arias Bsb, WD; new setting as Bajazet, Reggio nell’Emilia,
Pubblico, Spring Fair 1719, A-Wn (facs. in IOB, xxiv, 1978), D-MEIr, ed. M. Ruhnke
(Munich, 1981–5); rev. as Bajazette, Venice, S Samuele, Ascension Fair 1723, arias
SWl
Costantino (5, Pariati ?and Zeno), VC, 8 Nov 1711
Merope (Zeno), VC, carn. 1712
Eraclio [Act 2] (P.A. Bernadoni), Rome, Cancelleria, 1712 [Act 1 anon., Act 3 by
Pollarolo]
Il comando non inteso ed ubbidito (Silvani), Milan, Regio Ducal, carn. 1713; as Zoe,
ovvero Il comando non inteso ed ubbidito, Rome, Pace, carn. 1721
La verità nell’inganno (Silvani), VC, carn. 1713, arias Dl
L’amore politico e generoso della regina Ermengarda, Mantua, spr. 1713, collab.
G.M. Capelli
Lucio Papirio (A. Salvi), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1714, arias B-Bc, D-ROu, I-Mc;
perf. with Barilotto e Serpina (int)
Eumene (Zeno), Reggio nell’Emilia, Pubblico, [May] Fair 1714; rev. Naples, Reggio
Palazzo, 1 Oct 1715, with arias by Leo and others GB-Lbl; perf. with ints Mirena
and L’alfier fanfarone
Amor vince l’odio, ovvero Timocrate (Salvi), Florence, Cocomero, 11 Feb 1715, aria
I-Rsc
Il tartaro nella Cina (Salvi), Reggio nell’Emilia, Pubblico, [May] Fair 1715, arias Bc,
Rsc
Ciro (Noris), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1716, arias GB-Lam, I-Bc, Rsc
Vincislao (Zeno), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1716, arias Bc; adaptation of F. Mancini’s
setting (Naples, S Bartolomeo, carn. 1715)
Il gran Cid (J. Alborghetti and N. Serino), Naples, S Bartolomeo, carn. 1717, aria Bc
Intermezzi in derisione della setta maomettana (G. Gigli), Rome, Seminario
Romano, carn. 1717, lib. pubd (Naples, n.d.)
Pirro (Zeno), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1717, arias Rsc
Il trace in catena (Salvi), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1717, arias F-Pn, I-Rsc, collab. 2
of Gasparini’s pupils
Democrito, Turin, Carignano, carn. 1718, aria GB-Lbl
Nana francese e Armena [Mirena e Floro] (int), Dresden, Feb 1718, D-Dl
Astianatte (Salvi), Rome, Alibert, carn. 1719, arias F-Pc; rev. Milan, Regio Ducal,
carn. 1722, GB-Lbl (Acts 1–2 only; partial autograph)
Lucio Vero (Zeno), Rome, Alibert, carn. 1719, arias B-Bc, F-Pc, GB-Lam, Lbl
Tigranes, Hamburg, 1719, collab. F. Conti, Orlandini and Vivaldi
Amore e maestà (Salvi), Rome, Alibert, carn. 1720, arias D-MÜs, F-Pc
Faramondo (after Zeno), Rome, Alibert, carn. 1720, arias Pc
La pace fra Seleuco e Tolomeo (A. Morselli, rev. A. Trabucco), Milan, Regio Ducal,
carn. 1720
L’avaro (int, Salvi), Florence, 1720, I-MC
Nino [Act 2] (I. Zanelli), Reggio nell’Emilia, Pubblico, May Fair, 1720 (ded. 29 May),
arias F-Pc [Act 1 by Capelli, Act 3 by A.M. Bononcini]
Dorinda (favola pastorale, ?B. Marcello), Rome, carn. 1723
Silvia (dramma pastorale, E. Bissari), Foligno, carn. 1723
Gli equivoci d’amore e d’innocenza (Salvi), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, aut.
1723
Tigrena (favola pastorale, with ints), Rome, Palazzo De Mello de Castro, 2 Jan
1724
Arias in: Thomyris Queen of Scythia (pasticcio, P.A. Motteux), London, Drury Lane,
1 April 1707; Clotilda, London, Haymarket, 2 March 1709; Nerone fatto Cesare
(pasticcio, Noris), Venice, S Angelo, carn. 1715

Gasparini: (1) Francesco Gasparini: Works

chamber cantatas
for S and continuo unless otherwise stated

Edition: Cantatas by Francesco Gasparini (1661–1727), ed. G. Biagi-Ravenni,

ICSC, vii (1986) [facs.] [B]
Cantate da camera a voce sola, op.1 (Rome, 1695/R in Archivum musicum: la
cantata barocca, xix (Florence, 1984) [1695]
A battaglia o miei pensieri, 1695; Abbandonar Fileno, dovea dell’idol suo, D-Mbs, B;
Alfin le vostre lacrime, I-Nc, Vnm, B; Ancor voi siete vive o del morto piacer, Vnm;
Andate, o miei sospiri, al cor d’Irene!, A-Wn, GB-Lbl, I-BGi, Nc, Vc, B; Andiamo, o
pecorelle, ad altre sponde, GB-Lbl, B; Augellin, vago e canoro, 1695; A voi, selve
romite, A, bc, I-Pca, B; Cari boschi, S, insts, 1716, D-MÜs; Caro laccio, dolce nodo,
1695; Caro mio dolce amore, 2vv, bc, I-PLc; Che incostanza, che fierezza, che
rigor, S, A, 2 vn, va, bc, Rc; Ch’io t’amo e che t’adoro, 1695; Chi non sa che sia
morire, A, bc, Pca, B; Come in deserto lido, S, vns, bc, 1718; Da stral d’amore ferit il
core, c1719, Nc, Vlevi; Destati Lidia mia, A, insts, 1716, D-MÜs; Dimmi, Clori, 1v,
bc, I-Nc; Dimmi gentil Daliso (Dori e Daliso), 2vv, insts, 1716, D-MÜs; Dopo tante e
si strane di Fortuna, c1719, I-Vlevi; Doppo aver pianto, 1691, Rvat, B; Dove sei,
dove t’ascondi, 1695; Dunque Cesare ha vinto (Cleopatra e Marc’Antonio), 2vv,
vns, bc, 1717
Ecco che al fin ritorno, A, insts, 1716; E che più far poss’io, Pca, B; Ed ecco infine,
oh Dio, 1695; È gran pena amar tacendo (Filli e Tirsi), 2vv, bc, A-Wn; E in sen mi
resta core, A, insts, 1716, Wgm; Fier destin, S, insts, 1716, D-MÜs; Filli, tra il gelo e
il foco, 1v, bc, I-Nc; Fuggir fiera che fugge, Vlevi; Già dal platano antico e importuno
Cupido (Tirsi e Clori), 2vv, insts, 1716, D-MÜs; Il mio core e che far deve, 1695; Il
mio sol, A, insts, 1716, MÜs; In profondo riposo, all’or che stanco ogni mortal
s’affida, 1695; In questa amena sponda, 1v, bc, I-Nc (doubtful); Intorno a quel
rosa, ?S, bc, Rsc; Io che dal terzo cielo (Venere e Adone), S, A, bc, 1716, D-MÜs;
Io t’invidio ape ingegnosa, I-TLp (doubtful); L’amante Clori, Rsc; Miei fidi, 1v, bc, Nc;
Mille volte sospirando, 1v, bc, Nc; Non è ver che sia chimera, Gl; Non intendo i
tiranni, Rsc; Non vantar cotanto albero, Rsc; Non v’aprite ai rai del sole, c1719, Nc,
Vlevi
O voi che già provaste, 1v, bc, Nc; Palesar vorria gl’ardori, c1719, Vlevi; Perdono, o
luci amate, 1695; Quando in me nacque amore, S, insts, 1716; Quanto felice sei, S,
S, bc, GB-Lbl, B; Quanto somigli a Clori, luccioletta!, Lbl, B; Quel bel fiore (Fillide e
Fileno), 2vv, insts, 1717, D-MÜs; Queste voci dolenti, A/S, bc, GB-Lbl, I-Bc, B; Qui
di natura, 1717, 2vv, insts, D-MÜs; Sapessi almen perchè, S, A, bc, GB-Lbl;
S’avanza a poco a poco, 1v, bc, I-Nc; Scrive a chi lo tradì, S, insts, 1717, D-MÜs;
Se lontana da me t’amò Dorinda, 1695; Sente pur che maggio è nato, S, insts,
1717, MÜs; Sento che manca il cor, MÜs, B; Sento nel sen combattere, 1695; Se
vuoi dirmi ch’io non t’ami, A, insts, 1716; Su la vicina sponda, S, vns, bc, 1717;
Tende franche (L’Angelica), S, insts, 1716; Tormentosi pensieri del mio misero sen,
1695; Torna, mio cor, deh torna ad amar Fille, I-Rsc, B; Tra mille amanti, 1v, bc, Nc;
Tu mi credi geloso e son sdegnato, GB-Lbl, B; Tu sei pur fortunata, S, insts, 1716,
D-MÜs; Tutto festoso, S, insts, 1716, MÜs; Voglio amar, 1716; Voi scherzate (Aice
ed Elpino), 2vv, insts, 1716; Vola sospiro, vola, A, vns, bc, 1717

Gasparini: (1) Francesco Gasparini: Works

other secular vocal

Le luci tue che giri (madrigal), ATB, 1685, I-Baf
La vittoria del tempo (cantata, L. Piazza), 4vv, insts, Rome, 23 Sept 1696, Rli
Applauso festivo pel possesso preso dall’A.R. della serenissima Violante, gran
principessa di Toscana, del governo della città e stato di Siena (D. Mariscotti), 3vv,
insts, Siena, 1717, lib pubd
Cantata, 3vv, insts, for Festa accademica di lettere e d’arme, Rome, 1721, lib pubd
Componimento per musica (I. de Bonis), Rome, 1725, lib pubd
L’oracolo del Fato, 5vv, chorus, A-Wn (facs. in ICSC, vii, 1986)
12 duetti, S, A, bc (no.12 for S, S, bc), GB-Lbl
Gasparini: (1) Francesco Gasparini: Works
oratorios and large cantatas
Iudith de Olopherne triumphans (B. Pamphili), Rome, Arciconfraternita del SS
Crocifisso, 25 March 1689, GB-Ob
Atalia, Rome, Collegio Clementino, 1692; Venice, Palazzo Altieri, 1696, D–Dl
Giacobbe in Egitto, Florence, Casino di S Marco, 1695
Il Vicerè d’Egitto, Florence, Oratorio di S Filippo Neri, 1695; as Il Vicerè d’Egitto,
ossia L’istoria de’ dodici fratelli, Florence, Casino di S Marco, 1696
I trionfi della carità, Naples, Collegio della Compagnia di Gesù, 6 July 1698
Triumphus misericordiae (B. Sandrinelli), Venice, Ospedale della Pietà, 1701
Anima afflitta et consolata, Venice, Ospedale degli Incurabili, April 1702
Prima culpa per Redemptionem deleta (Sandrinelli), Venice, Ospedale della Pietà,
1702
Jubilum prophetarum ob incarnatione divini verbi (Sandrinelli), Venice, Ospedale
della Pietà, 1703
Mosè liberato dal Nilo, Vienna, 1703
Aeterna sapientia incarnata (Sandrinelli), Venice, Ospedale della Pietà, 1704
Pudor Virginis vindicatus (dialogue), Venice, Ospedale della Pietà, 1705
Genus humanum a Virginis partu reparatum, Venice, Ospedale della Pietà, 1706
Sol in tenebris, Venice, Ospedale della Pietà, ?1706
Domenicae Nativitatis praeludium, Venice, Ospedale della Pietà, 1707
L’onestà combattuta di Sara, ovvero Sara in Egitto (D. Canavese), Florence,
Oratorio di S Filippo Neri, 1708
Oratorio … da cantarsi nella ven. compagnia della purificazione di Maria Vergine,
1709
Glorioso Redentore, Venice, Ospedale della Pietà, 1711 (doubtful)
Maria Magdalena videns Christum resuscitatum, Venice, Ospedale della Pietà,
1711
Moisè liberato dal Nilo, Venice, Ospedale della Pietà, 1712
A farti amabile (cant., A. Baldani), Rome, Palazzo Apostolico, 24 Dec 1716
Anima rediviva, Venice, Ospedale della Pietà, 1717
S Eufrosina, Rome, 1717 (doubtful)
S Maria Egiziaca, Rome, 1717, I-Tn (doubtful)
Sara consolata, Rome, 1717 (doubtful)
Destatevi o pastori (componimento per musica, S. Stampiglia), Rome, Palazzo
Apostolico, 24 Dec 1720
I due sposi felici, Sara e Tobia, Florence, Scala, 1720
Dal prato al fonte (cantata, F.O. Fabbri), Rome, Palazzo Apostolico, 24 Dec 1722
Il figlio prodigo (I. Capelletti), Città di Castello, 1722
La penitenza gloriosa nella conversione di S Maria Egiziaca, Ancona, 1722
La nascita di Cristo, Lucca, S Maria Cortelandini, Christmas Eve, 1724
Le nozze di Tobia, Lucca, S Maria Cortelandini, Christman Eve, 1724
SS Annuntiata (dramma sacro), Rome, Arciconfraternita del SS Crocifisso, 1725
Erode, PS
Music in: Dal trionfo le perdite, o Jefte che sagrifica la sua figlia (Canavese),
Florence, 1716; Il padre sacrificator della figlia, ovvero Jephte (Canavese),
Florence, Casino di S Marco, 1719
Gasparini: (1) Francesco Gasparini: Works
liturgical
Missa canonica, 1705, D-Bsb; mass, 4vv, org, I-Bc; mass, 5vv, D-Dl; messa
concertata (G), 4vv, 2 choirs, I-Rvat; messa concertata (B ), 4vv, 2 choirs, Rvat;
messa concertata (C), D-Dl; messa concertata (d), Dl
Credo breve, 4vv, 1699; I-Rsg; Credo, 5vv, tpt, ob, str, bc, D-Dl
Ants: Ave regina coelorum, S/A with ripieno, I-Rvat; Beatus Andreas, SSB, bc, Rsg;
Collocet eum Dominus, SS, Rvat; Confortatus est principatus eorum, 4vv, Rvat; De
fructu ventris tui, SS, Rvat; Dirupisti, Domine, SS, Rvat; Dirupisti, Domine, vincula
mea, SAT, Rvat; Domine, quinque talenta, SA, Rvat; Drum complerentur, SA, 1718,
Rvat; Drum esset rex, SB, Rvat, Elevatis manibus, SA, Rvat; Erat autem aspectus
ejus, SA, Rvat; Et ecce terremotus, SAB, Rvat; Euntes ibant, SS, Rvat; Euntes
ibant et flebant, SST, Rvat; Fidelis servus et prudens, SSSBBB, Rvat; Fontes et
omnia, SB, 1718, Rvat; Fontes et omnia, SS, Rvat; Id eo jure jurando, AT, Rvat;
Introivit Maria in donum Zachariae, SAT, Rvat; Jam hymnes transiit, SB, Rvat; Jam
hymnes transiit, 4vv/4vv, Rvat; Juravit Dominus, SAB, Rvat; Loquebantur (G), SAB,
1718, Rvat; Loquebantur (A), SAB, Rvat; Loquebantur variis linguis, AAB, Rvat;
Nativitatis est hodie, SA, Rvat; Non est inventus, 1717, Rvat; Prae timore antem
eius, SAT, Rvat; Repleti sunt omnes, SAT, 1718, Rvat; Respondens autem angelus,
SA, Rvat; Sacerdos in aeternum, S, bc, Rsg; Sacerdotes Dei, SA, Rvat; Salva nos,
Domine, SAT, Rvat; Spiritus Domini, SA, 1718, Rvat; Tecum principium, SS, Rvat;
Ut audivit salutationem, SS, Rvat
Grads: Adiuvabit eam, SS, bc, Rvat; Dilexisti justitiam, SA, bc, Rsg; Gloria et
honore, SA, bc, Rsg; Haec dies, Rsg; In omnem terram, SB, 1725, Rsg; Tanto
tempore, SS, bc, Rsg
Hymns: Placare, Christe, servulis, 1v, choir, Rvat; Te lucis ante terminum, 4vv, Rvat
Lits: Litanie della BVM, 3vv, 3 hn, bc, Vnm; Litanie, 9vv, Rvat
Motets etc.: Corde et animo, 4vv, Rvat; De profundis clamavi, 8vv, Rvat; Lauda
Jerusalem, A, choir, Rvat; Memento, Domine David, 4vv, org, Rvat; O quam suavis
est, 2vv, Rsg; Panis angelicus, 1v, Rvat; Quo incertus incedam, B, insts, Li
Offs: Beata es Virgo Maria, 4vv, Rvat; Exultabant sancti, 4vv, Rvat; Justorum
animae, SB, Rvat; Laetamini in Domino, 8vv, Rvat; Portas coeli aperuit Dominus,
4vv, Rsg
Pss: Bonitatem fecisti, 4vv, orch, Vs; Legem pone mihi, Domine, 4vv, orch, Vs;
Memor esto verbi, 4vv, orch, Rvat
Seqs: Victimae paschali laudes, Rsg
Terza dell’ufficio divino, 4vv, orch, Vnm
Gasparini: (1) Francesco Gasparini: Works
other sacred vocal
Cants.: Ah mia stanca navicella (Fede e Giustizia), S, A, insts, 1718, I-Rps; Come
stanchi non siete, 1v, bc, Nc; Esci, mio gregge florido nel molle prato, c1719, GB-
Lbl (facs. in ICSC, vii, 1986), I-Gl, Vlevi; Ite, dilette mie candide agnelle, Gl;
Quanto più gode tra voi contenta, S, insts, MOe
Ecloga sacra, 3vv, Milan, 1722
Gasparini: (1) Francesco Gasparini: Works
instrumental
Orch: conc. (A), str, A-Wn; sinfonia (F), str, Wn; 2 sinfonie, I-Tn
Kbd: Ballabili diversi, hpd, Vc; sonata, spinetta, Vqs; 6 sonatas, hpd, CH-Zz; 2
sonatas (a, d), hpd/org, Vc; sonata nel primo tono, hpd/org, Vc; Toccata (D),
spinetta, Vqs
Gasparini: (1) Francesco Gasparini: Works
theoretical works
L’armonico pratico al cimbalo (Venice, 1708/R); Eng. trans. F.S. Stillings, as The
Practical Harmonist at the Keyboard, ed. D.L. Burrows (New Haven, CT, 1963)
Guida, ossia Dizionario armonico, in cui si trova il modo di ben modulare (MS, I-Bc)
Li prinicipii della composizione (MS, D-Bsb, Hs)
Gasparini
(2) Paolo Lorenzo Gasparini
(b Camaiore, nr Lucca, 10 Aug 1668; d ?Rome, after 1725). Violinist and
viola player, younger brother of (1) Francesco Gasparini. He worked as a
string player for Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni in Rome between 1699 and 1705
and until 1719 for Prince Ruspoli, for whom he was active also as a
copyist. From 1716 to 1726 he was a member of the Congregazione di S
Cecilia and took part in all the most important musical functions.
Gasparini
(3) Michelangelo [Michiel Angelo] Gasparini
(b Lucca, ?c1670; d Venice, c1732). Composer, singer and teacher,
younger brother of (1) Francesco Gasparini. He probably studied with
Legrenzi in Venice, where he seems to have spent most of his career.
From 1 August 1687 until December 1689, and again from 23 September
1691 until his death, he sang soprano (later alto) in the choir of S Marco;
Gaetano Fracassini was elected to succeed him on 31 March 1733. In
1689 Gasparini was a founder member of the Sovvegno di S Cecilia in
Venice, and in 1709 he served as the society’s ‘prior’. Of his seven known
operas (the music of which is lost) the most successful was apparently
Amore e maestà, performed at Pratolino, near Florence, in 1715 and
revived as Arsace in Venice (1718), Modena (1719 and 1744), Padua
(1722) and Vicenza (1731). Gasparini was also well-known as a singing
teacher; his pupils included Faustina Bordoni.
Gasparini
WORKS
 music lost unless otherwise stated

operas
drammi per musica unless otherwise stated

Il principe selvaggio (F. Silvani), Venice, S Angelo, 1696

Pallade trionfante in Arcadia (dramma pastorale, O. Mandelli), Venice, S Samuele,
carn. 1714
Rodomonte sdegnato (G. Braccioli), Venice, S Angelo, carn. 1715
Amore e maestà (A. Salvi), Florence, Pratolino, 1715; as Arsace, Venice, S
Giovanni Grisotomo, 1718
La principessa fedele (A. Piovene), Messina, Monizione, 1716; collab. C.I. Monza
Il Lamano (D. Lalli), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, carn. 1720
Il più fedel tra gli amici (G.M. Guizzardi), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 1724

other works
S Vittoria (orat), D-Bsb
Cants., arias Bsb, Dl, ROu, W, I-Bc
Gasparini
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BurneyH
EitnerQ
FellererP
GerberL
HawkinsH
SartoriL
SchmidlD
SchmidlDS
L. Nerici: Storia della musica in Lucca (Lucca, 1879/R)
R. Haas: Musik des Barocks (Potsdam, 1928)
F.T. Arnold: The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass (London,
1931/R)
G. Marotti: ‘Quasi un incognito: il camaiorese Francesco Gasparini’,
Cenobio, xv (1966), 109–11
G. Rose: ‘A Fresh Clue from Gasparini on Embellished Figured-Bass
Accompaniment’, MT, cvii (1996), 28–9
A. Bonaccorsi: ‘Francesco Gasparini‘, Maestri di Lucca (Florence, 1967),
38
R.L. Pogemiller: Selected Works of Francesco Gasparini: Missa à quatro
voci à capella’ and ‘Messa concertata à più voci con istrumenti’ (diss.,
U. of Missouri, Kansas City, 1967)
A. Cavalli: ‘Le cantate opera prima di Francesco Gasparini’, Chigiana, xxv
(1968), 53–68
H.J. Marx: ‘Die Musik am Hofe Pietro Kardinal Ottobonis unter Arcangelo
Corelli’, AnMc, no.5 (1968), 104–77
M. Ruhnke: ‘Francesco Gasparinis Kanonmesse und der Palestrinastil’,
Musicae scientiae collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum
siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Cologne, 1973), 494
R. Strohm: Italienische Opernarien des frühen Settecento (1720–1730),
AnMc, no.16 (1976)
Francesco Gasparini: Camaiore 1978 [Quaderni della RaM, vi (1981)]
R. Strohm: ‘Ein Opernautograph von Francesco Gasparini?’, HJbMw, iii
(1978), 205–23; Eng. trans. in Essays on Handel and Italian Opera
(Cambridge, 1985), 106–21
R.L. and N. Weaver: A Chronology of Music in the Florentine Theater:
1590–1750 (Detroit, 1978)
R. Strohm: Die italienische Oper im 18. Jahrhundert (Wilhelmshaven,
1979)
C.E. Troy: The Comic Intermezzo: a Study in the History of Eighteenth-
Century Italian Opera (Ann Arbor, 1979)
F. Piperno: ‘Francesco Gasparini: le sue abitazioni romane, i suoi allievi
coabitanti (1717–1727)’, Esercizi: arte, musica, spettacolo, iv (1981),
104–15
A. Iesuè: ‘Francesco Gasparini nella capella musicale di S Giovanni in
Laterano’, NRMI, xvi (1982), 609–14
M. Ruhnke: ‘Scena buffa und Intermezzo bei Francesco Gasparini’,
Festschrift Heinz Becker, ed. J. Schläder and R. Quandt (Laaber,
1982), 58–66
R. Strohm: ‘Manoscritti di opere rappresentate a Venezia, 1701–1740’,
Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, iii (1982), 45–51
O. Mischiati: ‘Una statistica della musica a Roma nel 1694’, NA, new ser., i
(1983), 209–27
M. Ruhnke: ‘Zum Rezitativ der Opera seria vor Hasse’, Johann Adolf
Hasse und die Musik seiner Zeit: Siena 1983 [AnMc, no.25 (1987)],
159–86
G. Rostirolla: ‘Domenico Scarlatti e la Congregazione di S Cecilia’,
Händel e gli Scarlatti a Roma: Rome 1985, 191–250, esp. 205, 208,
228–9, 239
E. Simi Bonini: ‘L’attività degli Scarlatti nella Basilica Liberiana’, ibid, 153–
74
D. and E. Arnold: The Oratorio in Venice (London, 1986)
G. Staffieri: Colligite fragmenta: la vita musicale romana negli ‘Avvisi
Marescotti’ (1683–1707) (Lucca, 1991), 47

Gasparini, Domenico Maria

Angiolo.
See Angiolini, Gasparo.

Gasparini, Quirino
(b Gandino, nr Bergamo, 1721; d Turin, 30 Sept 1778). Italian composer.
An abbé, he studied composition first with G.A. Fioroni, maestro di
cappella of Milan Cathedral, then with Martini (41 letters to Martini are in I-
Bc). According to a document in the capitular archives in Turin, he lived in
Brescia, Venice (as a maestro di cappella) and Bologna, where in 1751 he
became a member of the Accademia Filarmonica (test piece in I-Baf). His
opera Artaserse was performed in Milan in 1756. From 1758 he was music
master to Count D’Aziano of Vercelli, travelling in his retinue to Rome and
Naples. In 1759–60 he unsuccessfully sought the post of maestro di
cappella at S Maria Maggiore in Bergamo. In 1760 he was named maestro
di cappella of Turin Cathedral, where he worked until his death, devoting
 himself mainly to the religious life of the city (the Liber diarius of the
Carmelites refers in several places to Gasparini’s contributions and in
particular reports that the feast of the Madonna del Carmine in 1764 was
celebrated ‘with grand music at High Mass and at Vespers by the famous
Abbé Gasparini, an excellent Venetian maestro di cappella’).
In 1767 Gasparini presented in Turin his opera Mitridate (to the libretto later
set by Mozart in Milan). A letter, dated 2 January 1771, from Leopold
Mozart to Martini relates that Mozart’s singers (among them the famous
Antonia Bernasconi) first wanted to use some arias and the duet ‘Se viver
non degg’io’ from Gasparini’s setting; in fact an aria of his (‘Vado incontro’,
Act 3) was in the event sung by Guglielmo d'Ettore, as Mithridates, and is
included in the standard Mozart text. Later that month the two Mozarts met
Gasparini in Turin; references in Leopold’s travel notes from 1771 and in
two letters from 1778 prove that the relationship was a good one. Further
proof of how much Gasparini was esteemed as a composer is the motet
Adoramus te (k327/Anh.A10), which was believed to have been written by
W.A. Mozart until 1922, when Hermann Spies discovered it to be a work of
Gasparini (in 1962 Wolfgang Plath proved that the copy had been made by
Leopold, not by Wolfgang, as had been thought). The same manuscript
contains the motet Plangam dolorem meum, also by Gasparini, whose
skilful treatment of the voices and full choral sound may have influenced
Mozart’s early religious music. Gasparini himself wrote texts for many of his
sacred works (especially the motets), paraphrasing the scriptures. Only a
few instrumental works survive, including two sets of trios published in
Paris and London. An unpublished concerto for harpsichord or organ tends
toward the galant style, but has an intensely pathetic slow movement in F
minor.
WORKS
Artaserse (op, P. Metastasio), Milan, Regio Ducal, 26 Dec 1756
Mitridate re di Ponto (op, V.A. Cigna-Santi), Turin, Regio, 31 Jan 1767; F-Pn; I-Tf
[lost, P-La]
Sacred: Stabat mater, 2 S, vns, b (?The Hague, c1770); Adoramus te, ed. M.
Mataranglo (Chicago, 1993); many unpubd, I-Td, incl. 11 masses, 3 Requiem,
Passio secundum Marcum, 15 ants, 9 Litanie alla vergine, 5 Miserere, 4 Laudate
pueri, 3 Lauda Sion, 3 Mag; others: A-Sd, D-Bsb, I-Ac, BGc, Gl, MOe, Vnm
Inst: 6 trio academici, 2 vn, vc, op.1 (Paris, c1755); 6 Trii, 2 vn, vc (London, c1760);
Vn Conc., D-DS; Conc., hpd/org, str orch, I-Gl; org sonatas, Bc, Nc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Raugel: ‘Quirino Gasparini’, RdM, xii (1931), 9–12
A. Geddo: Bergamo e la musica (Bergamo, 1958)
L.F. Tagliavini: ‘Quirino Gasparini and Mozart’, New Looks at Italian
Opera: Essays in Honor of Donald J. Grout, ed. W.W. Austin (Ithaca,
NY, 1968), 151–71 [incl. J.S. Mayr’s biography of Gasparini]
M.-T. Bouquet: Musique et musiciens à Turin de 1648 à 1775 (Turin, 1968,
and Paris, 1969)
GIORGIO PESTELLI

Gasparo da Salò [Bertolotti]

(b Salò, bap. 20 May 1540; d Brescia, 14 April 1609). Italian maker of
violins, violas and other bowed instruments. He came from a musical family
that had a tradition of instrument making: his father and uncle were known
as i violini. After his father's death, Gasparo moved permanently from Salò
to nearby Brescia, a centre of bowed string and keyboard instrument
making. He married Isabetta Casetti in 1564. It has been suggested that he
served an apprenticeship with Girolamo di Virchi, but it is more likely that
he learned his craft in his family workshop in Salò. By 1563 he was living in
the via Palazzo Vecchio del Podestà, quite far from Virchi's residence. The
two were friends, however, and Virchi stood as godfather to Gasparo's son,
Francesco, in 1565. Gasparo settled in Contrada delle Cossere in 1575.
His activities are recorded in a number of city documents from the period
1563–1609, where he is described variously as maestro di violini, magister
instrumentorum musicorum and maestro di strumenti musici. At least three
makers are known to have studied with him, in addition to his son:
Alessandro di Marsiglia, G.P. Maggini and Giacomo Lafranchini, and he
employed a workman named Battista.
While the 19th-century suggestion that Gasparo invented the violin is
unconfirmed, it is equally difficult to find documentary evidence that the
Cremonese master Andrea Amati was the inventor. The existence of a
school of bowed string instrsument making in Brescia is continously
documented from 1495–9, when a set of viols was made by an anonymous
maker for Isabella d'Este Gonzaga. Gasparo is the brilliant successor of
the style originated by Zanetto da Montichiaro, with whose son, Peregrino,
he was probably acquainted.
Most of Gasparo's output, judging from existing instruments, took the form
of tenor violas (see Viola, fig.1a). He also made viols of all sizes (including
a bass viol held in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford), several violins,
supposedly at least one cello, at least one cittern and several double
basses. His reputation for crude workmanship is largely a result of the
many nondescript 16th- and 17th-century instruments that have been
erroneously attributed to him: in fact his designs were always meticulous
and his craftsmanship of high quality. Among his characteristics are rather
elongated soundholes (foreshadowing Guarneri), noticeable undercutting
in the carving of his scrolls, and sometimes two rows of purfling or an inlaid
decoration. His violas, many now considerably reduced from their original
size, are regarded by many players as tonally better than any other. They
have a full and reedy tone quality, combined with a stronger response than
many Cremonese instruments. The double basses have always been
eagerly sought after, their most famous champion being Domenico
Dragonetti, whose three-string Gasparo bass is now in S Marco, Venice
(for a portrait of Dragonetti playing this instrument see Dragonetti,
Domenico). It is thought that Gasparo played a major role in the
development of the 16' voice of the viol and violin families, and that he was
influenced in this by the 12' and 16' registers already being included in
organs built by the neighbouring Antegnati family. When Gasparo da Salò
died his leading position as a maker in Brescia was taken over by his pupil
Gio Paolo Maggini, and his trade was also continued by his son Francesco
until at least 1615.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Livi: I liutai bresciani (Milan, 1896)
A.M. Mucchi: Gasparo da Salò: la vita e l'opera, 1540–1609 (Milan, 1940)
F. Dassenno and U. Ravasio: Gasparo da Salò e la liuteria bresciana tra
Rinascimento e Barocco (Brescia, 1990)
U. Ravasio: ‘Vecchio e nuovo nella ricerca documentaria su Gasparo da
Salò e la liuteria bresciana’, Liuteria e musica strumentale a Brescia
tra Cinque e Seicento: Brescia 1990
CHARLES BEARE/UGO RAVASIO

Gaspar van Weerbeke.

See Weerbeke, Gaspar van.

Gasperini, Guido
(b Florence, 7 June 1865; d Naples, 20 Feb 1942). Italian musicologist and
composer. He studied the cello with Jefte Sbolci and composition with
Guido Tacchinardi in Florence. Developing an interest in early music, he
gave several public lectures in Florence (1890–1903), which he repeated
elsewhere in Italy and which he published as Storia della musica. He held
posts as professor of music history and librarian at the Parma
Conservatory (1902–24) and librarian of the Naples Conservatory (1924–
35). While at Parma he formed and directed a schola cantorum. He also
founded the Associazione dei Musicologi Italiani (Ferrara, 1908), which in
1909 became part of the IMS but was disbanded after his death.
After two studies on the notation of 16th-century vocal and instrumental
music, Gasperini published his Storia della semiografia musicale (1905); he
was the only Italian working in this field at the time and one of few scholars
who had attempted a history of notation. In 1911 he began to edit one of
the most important bibliographical tools for the study of Italian music, a
catalogue of all the music in public and private libraries in the country,
which, working against Italian individualism, required the collaboration of
musicologists and librarians. By 1938 Gasperini had produced catalogues
for 15 cities; the series was discontinued by his death. His compositions
include a ballet and some chamber and vocal music from the years 1890–
95.
WRITINGS
Storia della musica (Florence, 1899)
Dell'arte di interpretare la scrittura della musica strumentale del
Cinquecento (Florence, 1902)
Dell'arte di interpretare la scrittura della musica vocale del Cinquecento
(Florence, 1902)
Storia della semiografia musicale (Milan, 1905/R1984 in BMB, section 2,
lix)
Gerolamo Frescobaldi (Ferrara, 1908)
ed.: Catalogo generale delle opere musicali teoriche e pratiche di autori
vissuti sino ai primi decenni del secolo XIX, esistenti nelle biblioteche
e negli archivi pubblici e privati d'Italia [in Assisi, Bologna, Ferrara,
 Florence, Genoa, Modena, Naples, Parma, Pisa, Pistoia, Reggio
nell'Emilia, Turin, Venice, Verona, Vicenza] (Parma, 1911–38)
‘L'art musical italien au XIV siècle’, ‘La musique italienne au XV siècle’,
EMDC, I/ii (1913), 611–19, 620–36
I caratteri peculiari del melodramma italiano (Parma, 1913)
Il R. Conservatorio di musica in Parma (Parma, 1913)
‘Musicisti celebri alla corte dei Farnese: Claudio Merulo da Correggio e
Orazio Bassani da Cento’, Aurea Parma, iv (1920), 261–6
Cenno necrologico in memoria di Luciano Mistrali (Parma, 1923)
Le sonanti fucine dell'arte (Parma, 1923)
‘Sulle collezioni musicali esistenti presso le pubbliche biblioteche e i Loro
rapporti con gli studi internazionali di musicologica’, Congresso
mondiale delle biblioteche e di bibliografia I: Rome and Venice 1929,
iv, 241–4
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Barblan: ‘Ricordo di Guido Gasperini’, Chigiana, new ser., ii (1965), 75–
84
CAROLYN GIANTURCO

Gassenhauer
(from Ger. Gasse: ‘alley’ and hauen: ‘to hew or beat’, ‘to walk’).
A German street song or urban folksong. The term ‘Gassenhauer’ occurs in
a musical context as early as 1517 (Aventin: ‘Gassenhawer that are played
on the lute’) and in a title in 1535 (Christian Egenolff's Gassenhawerlin).
Hans Sachs mentioned the Gassenhauer along with other types of song
(psalms, songs of love and war etc.) in the preface to a conspectus of his
poems in 1567 (Summa all meiner Gedicht vom MDXIII. Jar an bis in 1567
Jar), implying that by that date it was a recognized category. Indeed, the
word had been defined by J. Maaler in Die teütsch Spraach (Zürich, 1561)
as ‘a low song sung in the street, a street song’. Before the term ‘Volkslied’
became widely known (it was coined by Herder in 1773), Gassenhauer
was often used in a broad sense to refer to popular or folk melodies,
although 17th- and 18th-century usage normally indicates that the writer
considered the term synonymous with nocturnal street serenades (cf the
16th-century Kassaten, Gassatim or Gassatum, from which are probably
derived Gassatio and Cassatio: ‘cassation’; Praetorius mentioned
Gassaten in Syntagma musicum, iii, 1618). Gassenhauer is now generally
but not invariably used in a pejorative sense for a song popular among city-
dwellers, a usage clearly attested in J.C. Adelung's late 18th-century
German dictionaries, and in T. Heinsius's Volkthümliches Wörterbuch (ii,
Hanover, 1819, 288), where it is defined as ‘a usually low [schlechtes] or
very well-known song sung on the streets by the populace [Pöbel]’. The
term is probably most familiar from Beckmesser's intended criticism of
Sachs in Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, Act 1 (‘Gassenhauer dichtet er
meist’).
There were several attempts in Germany in the 20th century to describe
and define the relationship between Gassenhauer, Volkslied and Schlager
(‘hit’), and although no general agreement was reached, the most fruitful
attempts were those that sought to integrate considerations of purpose,
and sociological and historical significance, with purely philological
considerations. The Schlager (a term first used in 1881) is normally
ephemeral; the Gassenhauer, too, usually has a rather short life, although
some examples share the longevity of the Volkslied. Sociological
considerations provide the firmest basis for a distinction between the street
song and the folksong. The former is by its nature urban, the latter rural; by
extension, the former is artificially promulgated, the latter naive and
traditional. The social connotations of the three song types permit only
certain transfers of repertory: a Volkslied can become a Gassenhauer
(frequently after a process of adaptation and regularization) but a
Gassenhauer cannot become a Volkslied. A Gassenhauer can, however,
become a Schlager, while a Volkslied cannot, except at the price of loss of
integrity.
Early German operas from Hamburg show many examples of the
closeness of the aria or song to the Gassenhauer, particularly in the frankly
popular style of many of the melodies in comic scenes. Keiser's preface to
his Almira arias (1706) complains of ‘students of theatrical composition
who take pleasure in the invention of a Gassenhauer by village fiddlers,
their colleagues’, a reference apparently aimed at Handel. Many songs by
Postel, Keiser and others found their way into the streets via broadsheets
and songsheets. The songs that Bach combined in the final quodlibet of his
Goldberg Variations were Gassenhauer, and Sperontes' immensely
popular collection of songs, the four-volume Singende Muse an der Pleisse
(Leipzig, 1736–45), contains a whole series of popular melodies, including
dances, songs and instrumental numbers.
Several songs from the Singspiele of Hiller and his contemporaries likewise
took on the broad familiarity of the street song, as had songs from the
Viennese popular theatre of the time of Kurz-Bernardon and Philipp Hafner.
There are many later examples of songs becoming Gassenhauer from the
scores of Wenzel Müller, Kauer and other minor masters of the Singspiel,
continuing at least until the time of Flotow, Lortzing and Suppé. The
popular style and moralizing tone of some of these examples bring them
close to the Bänkelgesang (fairground singers' ballads and moral tales in
music).
The Bridesmaids' Chorus from Der Freischütz, which Weber headed
‘Volkslied’ in the score because it is based on a popular dance, is an
example of an operatic number that rapidly became a Gassenhauer – as
readers of Heine's Briefe aus Berlin (1822) will recall. Examples of coarser
urban songs from the first quarter of the 19th century that achieved great
popularity are O du lieber Augustin and Ein Schüsserl und ein Reinerl in
Vienna; in the previous century Malbruk s'en va t'en guerre enjoyed
widespread fame. Apart from being quoted or used as the basis for sets of
variations by many composers (e.g. Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven and
Hummel), these Gassenhauer were frequently provided with new and
sometimes absurdly unsuitable texts. The range of the street song is
extremely wide, from melodies of distinction to banal and sentimental
ditties in their music, and from simple, direct storytelling via satire to
bathos, prurience or obscenity in their texts. Many Gassenhauer have a
catchy refrain (in this respect they are close to the couplet); the
Bänkelgesang may also have such a refrain, but its text is meant to be
taken seriously, for it carries a moral message of actual relevance, while in
the Gassenhauer story or moral is incidental, if present at all.
In the course of the 19th century industrialization and the growth of urban
communities exaggerated the distinction between Volkslied and
Gassenhauer. The latter continued to derive from the more popular
melodies of serious composers, especially songs from Singspiele and
operettas, as well as from marches and dances. Although both text and
melody were occasionally taken over into Gassenhauer, the more usual
practice was to equip the chosen melody with new words, usually either
sentimental or crassly inappropriate. These fresh and often witty parodies
are well represented in Lukas Richter's invaluable study of the Berlin
Gassenhauer. Even the 20th-century use of mechanical methods of
disseminating music, such as radio, gramophone and cheap sheet music,
did not prevent the continuation of local Gassenhauer traditions – the
Viennese Gassenhauer tended to be quite different from those of Berlin,
Munich or Cologne. Perhaps the clearest distinction between the street
song and the popular hit song is that the former is local and frequently
nostalgic (referring to ‘die gute alte Zeit’), while the latter prides itself on
what may at times be a spurious modernity.
Although some research has been done into the street songs of particular
cities, there is no full-scale study of the subject. In all the main centres,
however, there are clear links between the Gassenhauer and opera or
Singspiel songs, dances and marches; from the 1850s onwards the
operettas of Offenbach were a particularly favourite source of street songs.
The most tuneful melodies of the latest hit were equipped with racy texts
that usually had no connection at all with their original situation. Although
the long history of the Gassenhauer is probably of more interest to the
sociologist than to the music historian, the best examples have a vitality,
directness of expression and even memorability that compel attention.

See also Quodlibet and Street cries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
KretzschmarG
MGG1 (K. Gudewill)
A. Reissmann: Das deutsche Lied in seiner historischen Entwicklung
(Kassel, 1861)
J. and W. Grimm: Deutsches Wörterbuch, iv/i/1 (Leipzig, 1878/R), 1449–
50
F.M. Böhme, ed.: Volksthümliche Lieder der Deutschen im 18. und 19.
Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1895/R)
A. Kopp: ‘Der Gassenhauer auf Marlborough’, Euphorion, vi (1899), 276–
89
W. Tappert: ‘Gassenhauer’, Bühne und Welt, vi (1904), 802
A. Penkert: Das Gassenlied (Leipzig, 1911)
 H. Naumann: ‘Gassenhauer’, Reallexikon der deutschen
Literaturgeschichte, ed. P. Merker and W. Stammler (Berlin, 1925–31,
rev. 2/1955–88 by W. Kohlschmidt and W. Mohr)
J. von Pulikowski: Geschichte des Begriffes Volkslied im musikalischen
Schrifttum (Heidelberg, 1933/R)
W. Wiora: Das echte Volkslied (Heidelberg, 1950)
P. Mies: Das kölnische Volks- und Karnevalslied (Cologne, 1951, 2/1964)
E. Janda and F. Nötzoldt: Die Moritat vom Bänkelsang, oder Das Lied der
Strasse (Munich, 1959)
W.V. Ruttkowski: Das literarische Chanson in Deutschland (Berne, 1966)
L. Richter: Der Berliner Gassenhauer: Darstellung, Dokumente,
Sammlung (Leipzig, 1969)
G. Salvetti: ‘Musiche nelle contrade: annotazioni sul Gassenhauer in area
viennese’, Danubio: una civiltà musicale, ii: Austria, ed. C. De
Incontrera and B. Schneider (Trieste, c1992), 261–78
PETER BRANSCOMBE

Gásser Laguna, Luís

(b Barcelona, 1951). Catalan composer, lutenist and guitarist. He
graduated as a guitar teacher at the Barcelona Conservatory (1974) and
went on to study the lute, thereafter furthering his studies at the Schola
Cantorum Basiliensis (1982–3). He completed his doctorate in musicology
at the University of Stanford (1991).
The broad range of his musical interests have spanned performing,
composition, teaching and musicology. At first he concentrated on the
guitar, giving first performances of new works and making recordings.
Since 1978 he has concentrated mainly on the instruments of the lute
family. He has attended conferences and performed concerts in Europe
and North America, both as a solo artist and as a member of a group.
He has composed solo and orchestral pieces and works for the computer.
His compositions have been published in Spain and Germany. His
research has included books on Luys Milán and Mestres Quaderny, and
several articles. His varied interests enable him to transmit valuable ideas
and experiences through his teaching. In 1983 he began the first lute
course in Spain at the Barcelona Conservatory, where he taught guitar
between 1974 and 1988. Since 1992 he has been an associate professor
at Barcelona University.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Columbrión, 1979

Vocal: Christ’s Sermon on the Mount, T, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn, pf, 2 vn, va, vc, db, 1975;
Pater noster, S, fl, gui, 1976; Triskin, 1v, 1 inst ad lib, 1977; 9 canciones populares
(collected by F. García Lorca), 1v, gui, 1977; Celari, 1v/solo inst, gui, 1979; 6
canciones, 1v, gui, 1992; Octeto de adviento, Mez, 8 vc, 1993; Ave María no.5,
chorus, 1995; Ave María no.6, chorus, 1995; Ave María no.8, chorus 16vv, 1997
Chbr: Hacia, fl, cl, bn, perc, 2 vn, vc, 1975; Azar y necesidad, fl, ob, cl, bn, tpt, trbn,
1976; Esquema II, winds, perc, str ad lib, 1977; Willings, perc, str qt, 1979; Ce que
a vu le vent de l’est, wind ens, 1980; Duo, perc, gui, 1983; El tiempo que ni vuelve
ni tropieza, pf trio, 1985; Laetitiae, 3 gui, 1986; Pf Qnt, 1996; 2 duos, fl, gui, 1997
Solo inst: Primera meditación sobre el Padre Nuestro, gui, 1976; Variolitos, pf,
1978; 12 ejercicios, gui, 1980; Sonata, gui, 1987; Fantasía, gui, 1991; Homenaje,
gui, 1992
El-ac (all for cptr): Librarian’s Dance, 1991; Il sogno di Gesualdo, 1991;
Resonancias, 1992; Flux, 1992

Principal publishers: Associació Catalana de Compositors, Catalana d’Edicions Musicals, Clivis,

Alpuerto, W. Hansen, Zimmerman

WRITINGS
‘Aproximación a Santiago de Murcia y la guitarra barroca’, Ritmo, no.524
(1983), 14–18
La música contemporánea a través de la obra de J.M. Mestres Quadreny
(Oviedo, 1983)
‘Andrés Segovia’, Revista musical catalana, xxxv (1987), 5–7
Luis Milán: on Sixteenth-Century Performance Practice (Bloomington, IN,
1996)
‘Algunos elementos para la evaluación de un lenguaje musical’,
Miscelánea en homenaje a Oriol Martorell, ed. X. Aviñoa (Barcelona,
forthcoming)
El círculo Manuel de Falla de Barcelona (Paris, forthcoming)
FRANCESC TAVERNA-BECH

Gasser, Ulrich
(b Frauenfeld, 19 April 1950). Swiss composer and flautist. He studied the
flute at the Winterthur Conservatory, continued his studies with André
Jaunet at the Zürich Conservatory, and was taught composition by Klaus
Huber at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik, Freiburg. Besides his
activities as a composer he teaches at the Kreuzlingen teacher training
college. He is a member of the Zürich Composers’ Secretariat and since
1994 has been chairman of Schweizer Musik Edition. His name soon
became known through his participation in large festivals (including
Donaueschingen, Kassel, Venice and the Darmstadt summer courses) and
his awards for composition in several competitions (including the first prize
of the Stuttgart Bach Academy in 1985).
Gasser’s compositions are consistently marked by extra-musical features,
which are not motivated by a programmatic function but aim to extend the
tonal language. Many of his pieces have been inspired by literary texts and
by works of visual art; the ‘sounding stones’ of the Swiss sculptor Arthur
Schneiter have featured in his work several times since the end of the
1980s. Almost half his works are on spiritual subjects, with the Passion of
Christ occupying a central position, while liturgical works are more
marginal. From his early works onwards Gasser has employed strict
systems of composition, and since the 1980s he has applied them to
consonant intervals, so that his later works often convey effects of tonal
 colour. He was awarded the Thurgau cultural prize in 1991 for his oratorio
Der vierte König, from the story of the same name by Edzard Schaper.
WORKS
(selective list)

Vocal: Passion II/Stationen, 2 S, chorus, 12 insts, 1975–7; Versuch/Gedanken

über/zu ‘Christe, du Lamm Gottes’, chorus, tpt, cl, 1978; Zur kalten Zeit (B. Brecht),
unacc. chorus, 1981–3; Magnolie des Herbstes (R. Borchardt), Bar, rec, 3 ‘sounding
stone’ players, 1988–9; Der vierte König (orat, E. Schaper), 1989–91; Archaischer
Torso Apollos (R.M. Rilke), unacc. chorus, 1991; Von der unerbittlichen Zufälligkeit
des Todes (scenic orat, various authors), 1993–5
Orch: Noten VI, 1977–9; Baum-/Fels-/Eiswasser- und Fischstücke, pf, elec org,
accdn, orch, 1981; 4 Stücke zur Passions- und Weihnachtszeit, orch, 1982;
Pasticcio, chbr orch, 1995
Chbr: Paraphrase III/Hoffnung, wind qnt, 1977–9; Steinstücke II, ob/eng hn, cl/b cl,
bn/cbn, 14 solo str, 1978–9; Versteinerungen, ob d’amore, B -/E -cl, bn/cbn, 1978–
9; Felsen der Meteora-Klöster III/‘Sind wir wie Zugvögel’, 16 insts, 1980;
Christusdornen, str qt, 1977–81; House of Usher, vn, va, vc, 1982–3; Kleiner
Kreuzgang, vn, str, 1982–3; Steinerne Worte zertrümmert, pf trio, 1986–7; Denn da
ist keine Stelle, die dich nicht sieht, vn, pf, 1988–9, rev. 1992; Fries des
Lauschenden, accdn, str, perc, 1991–2; Lamentatio I, t rec, gui, 1990–92; Mappa di
Bedolina, vc, pf, 1992; Valcamonica, 2 gui, 1992–3; Der duftende Garten, a fl, b fl,
1996
Solo inst: Paganini-Variationen, pf, 1978; Klaviermusik II, 1981–3; Eis-Fisch, pf,
1981–6; Schtei, t rec, 1985–6; Engel, den toten Christus haltend, und Maria lächelt,
org, 1995

Principal publishers: Ricordi, Selbstverlag

BIBLIOGRAPHY
U. Mahler: ‘Ulrich Gasser: 12 Bicinien (1982) für 2 Altblockflöten
(Querflöten)’, Üben und Musizieren, iii (1986)
R. Brotbeck: ‘Ausstein: Versuch einer Laudation für Ulrich Gasser’,
Dissonanz, no.32 (1992), 13–16
J.-P. Amann: ‘Ulrich Gasser’, Musique pour une fin de siècle: vingt
entretiens avec des compositeurs suisses (Yverdon, 1994), 40–45
R. Brotbeck: ‘Ausstein: Versuch über/zu Ulrich Gasser’, Musik und Kirche,
lxvi (1996), 23–7
PATRICK MÜLLER

Gassmann, Florian Leopold

(b Brüx [now Most], 3 May 1729; d Vienna, 20 Jan 1774). Bohemian
composer. He may have been educated at the Jesuit Gymnasium in
Komotau (now Chomutov). The most reliable biographical sources name
the regens chori at Brüx, Johann Woborschil (or Jan Vobořil), as his
teacher in singing, the violin and the harp. Against his father’s wish he
decided to make music his profession and left home as a boy, making his
way to Italy where he may have studied with Padre Martini. No details of
his service under Count Leonardo Veneri in Venice are known. The first
datable musical event of Gassmann’s life was the production of his opera
Merope at the Teatro S Moisè, Venice, in Carnival 1757. His operatic
success in Italy led to his being called to Vienna as ballet composer and
successor to Gluck (1763). During the year of mourning on the death of
Franz I (1765–6) the Viennese theatres were closed, and Gassmann again
visited Venice, where his opera Achille in Sciro was produced at the Teatro
S Giovanni Grisostomo. On this trip he met Salieri and brought him back to
Vienna as a pupil. To the end of his life Salieri held Gassmann in high
esteem. In 1770 Gassmann wrote La contessina, his most popular opera,
for a meeting of Joseph II and Frederick the Great in Mährisch-Neustadt;
earlier in the same year he had been to Rome for the production of his
opera Ezio.
Gassmann was the founder of the oldest Viennese musical society, the
Tonkünstler-Societät, of which he was the first vice-president. His oratorio
La Betulia liberata was written for one of the society’s first public
performances (29 March 1772). On 13 March 1772 he succeeded Georg
von Reutter (ii) as Hofkapellmeister, immediately beginning an important
reorganization of the court chapel’s personnel and library. Burney, who
already knew some of Gassmann’s operas from productions in Italy,
attended a performance of I rovinati in Vienna in 1772, and he published
praise of the manuscript string quartets he brought back to England.
Gassmann died as a result of a fall from a carriage in 1774. Empress Maria
Theresa was godmother to his second daughter, born after his death.
Gassmann’s music was generally highly regarded by such 18th-century
musicians as Burney, Gerber and Mozart; his operas were quite popular,
receiving performances in places as far apart as Naples, Lisbon, Vienna
and Copenhagen. Particularly in his two most famous comic operas,
L’amore artigiano and La contessina, Gassmann’s orchestra carries on the
music in a continuous fashion, directing the dramatic action strongly toward
the ensemble finale. In Vienna, his name was closely associated with
Gluck’s. Several writers mention the overriding importance of the orchestra
in Gassmann’s operas. Although the characters and situations in his
librettos (many by Goldoni) are generally stock types with links to the
commedia dell'arte, Gassmann's music imbues them with a dramatic
vividness that is far from conventional. His choices of tempo and metre,
and the melodic and rhythmic design of his themes, all aim to define
character and further the drama. In the early operas, Gassmann favoured
tuneful, italianate melodies with simple chordal accompaniments, but the
orchestra plays an increasingly important role in his later work, contributing
rhythmic and melodic figures that help to delineate the dramatic action. The
sinfonia of La casa di campagna even provides a programmatic sketch of
the opera's plot. Gassmann's use of woodwind is especially varied and
resourceful, and the ritornellos in the da capo arias of his opere serie are
often extensive. Particularly in his ensembles, Gassmann turned the
relative formal freedom of opera buffa to dramatic effect. He often used a
multi-sectional ensemble finale, for example, with sudden shifts of tempo,
key and metre, to mark the stages in a dramatic crescendo. He lavished
particular care on the large-scale planning of these dramatic climaxes; in
L'amore artigiano, for instance, the finales of all three acts are greatly
expanded from Goldoni's original libretto. In his memoirs, Salieri describes
his own first attempt at composing an opera, remarking that he followed the
procedures he had seen Gassmann employ; in composing the first finale,
he claims to have spent three hours sketching the sequence of metres and
keys before writing a single note.
Apart from the operas and 24 of the concert symphonies, Gassmann’s
works can be placed in only approximate chronological order. From the
distribution of the extant manuscript copies it seems reasonable to assume
that the trios come from his Italian period. Kosch believed that Gassmann
wrote most of the church works during his first Viennese years. Most of the
concert symphonies seem to have been written in 1765 or later, and at
least some of the quartets and quintets are also late works.
Besides his operas, Gassmann’s greatest achievements seem to be
among his symphonies; the chamber music appears to be in a more
conservative vein. The concert symphonies are divided almost evenly
between three- and four-movement works, of which most of the three-
movement ones are the earlier. In some respects a distinctly original
composer, Gassmann experimented in his symphonies in a number of
ways. His choice of keys sometimes includes rare ones (A major, B
minor), and one three-movement symphony in D (h7) has a middle
Andante in G minor. Gassmann’s experimental attitude also extended to
formal designs; in a first movement, the recapitulation often occurs in the
subdominant or relative minor. Among other instances of unconventional
treatment, examples can be found of a first-movement coda (h86), the
harmonic connection of one movement to the next (h3, 86, 157) and a
fugal first movement (h65). Five concert symphonies (and the overture to
Amore e Psiche), all written before 1770, have slow introductions to their
first movements.
Gassmann’s lyric gift was considerable, as can be seen from ex.1, the first
theme of one of his late symphonies (h85), and the similarity between the
first theme of his Requiem (ex.2) to that of Mozart’s is close enough to be
striking. In spite of his ability to write memorable melodies, Gassmann
often reduced the number of themes in his expositions by means of
thematic derivations, including repetitions of a fragment of the primary
theme (h153), transposition with a new accompaniment (h137) or
rhythmically related motifs (h161). Although rhythmically Gassmann’s early
works strongly reflect the influence of the Italian opera overture, his later
works exhibit more rhythmic planning. For example, successive sections in
the exposition of the first movement of h86 (1769) show a progressive
increase in the proportion of semiquavers, resulting in heightened rhythmic
tension throughout the exposition. It would perhaps be overstating the case
to characterize Gassmann as a brilliant orchestrator; but he was
consistently sensitive to the possibilities of the orchestral ensemble, such
as giving obbligato passages to the wind or lower strings (as in h15) or
dividing statement-and-answer ideas between two instruments (h1).
 Gassmann’s two daughters, Maria Anna Fux (b Vienna, 1771; d Vienna, 27
Aug 1852) and (Maria) Therese Rosenbaum (b Vienna, 1 April 1774; d
Vienna, 8 Sept 1837), studied music with his protégé, Salieri, and became
opera singers of repute. Therese was soprano soloist for the première of
Haydn’s Die Sieben letzen Worte unseres Erlösers am Kreuze in 1797, and
sang the Queen of Night at the first Kärntnertortheater production of Die
Zauberflöte in 1801. She married Joseph Carl Rosenbaum (1770–1829), a
secretary to Prince Esterházy, in 1800.
WORKS

Edition: Florian Leopold Gassmann: Kirchenwerke, ed. F. Kosch, DTÖ, lxxxiii, Jg. xlv
(1938/R) [K]

operas
Merope (os, 3, A. Zeno), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1757, music lost except ov. and 1
aria, I-MAav, S-Skma, US-Wc; ov. ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. B, x (New
York, 1981)
Issipile (os, 3, P. Metastasio), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1758, A-Wn; ov. ed. H.C.R.
Landon, Diletto musicale, no.28 (1966)
Gli uccellatori (dg, 3, C. Goldoni), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1759, Wn, I-Fc, P-La
Filosofia ed amore (dg, 3, Goldoni), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1760, A-Wn, I-Fc
Catone in Utica (os, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Samuele, 29 April 1761, music lost
except 1 aria, D-Dl
Ezio (os, 3, Metastasio), Florence, Pergola, 1761; rev. Rome, Dame, carn. 1770, A-
Wn
Un pazzo ne fa cento (dg, 3), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1762, A-Wn, DK-Kk
L'olimpiade (os, 3, Metastasio), Vienna, Kärntnertor, 18 Oct 1764, A-Wn, I-Nc, US-
Wc
Il trionfo d’amore (azione teatrale, 1, Metastasio), Vienna, Schönbrunn, 25 Jan
1765, D-Bsb, A-Wn
Achille in Sciro (os, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, spr. 1766, Wn,
P-La, US-Wc
Il viaggiatore ridicolo (dg, 3, Goldoni), Vienna, Kärntnertor, 25 May 1766, A-Wn, CZ-
K, D-Bsb, W, DK-Kk, F-Pn, I-Nc
L’amore artigiano [Die Liebe unter den Handwerksleuten] (ob, 3, Goldoni), Vienna,
Burg, 26 April 1767, A-Wn, CZ-K, D-Bsb, Rtt, DK-Kk, H-Bn, I-Fc, Nc, P-La
Amore e Psiche (os, 3, M. Coltellini), Vienna, Burg, 5 Oct 1767, A-Wgm, Wn (facs.
in IOB lxxxvii, 1983), I-Nc
La notte critica [Die unruhige Nacht] (ob, 3, Goldoni), Vienna, Burg, 5 Jan 1768, A-
Wgm*, Wn
L’opera seria (commedia per musica, 3, R. de Calzabigi/Metastasio), Vienna, Burg,
1769, Wn (facs. in IOB, lxxxix, 1982), P-La
La contessina [Die junge Gräfin] (dg, 3, Coltellini, after Goldoni), Mährisch-
Neustadt, 3 Sept 1770, Wn, B-Bc, CZ-K, D-SWl, F-Pn, I-Fc, MOe, Nc, P-La; ed. in
DTÖ, xlii–xliv, Jg.xxi/1 (1914/R)
Il filosofo inamorato (dg, 3, Coltellini, after Goldoni: Filosofia ed amore), Vienna,
Burg, 1771, A-Wn
Le pescatrici (dg, 3, Goldoni), Vienna, Burg, 1771, Wn
Don Quischott von Mancia [Act 3] (commedia, 3, G.B. Lorenzi), Vienna, Burg, 1771
[Acts 1 and 2 by Paisiello]
I rovinati (commedia, 3, G.G. Boccherini), Vienna, Burg, 23 June 1772, Wn, I-Fc
(inc.)
La casa di campagna (dg, 3, Boccherini), Vienna, Burg, 13 Feb 1773, A-Wn
Contribs. to: B. Galuppi: Il villano geloso; N. Piccinni: Le finte gemelle; P. Anfossi:
Lo sposo di tre e marito di nessuna; A. Sacchini: L'isola d'amore
other vocal
thematic catalogue of sacred music in Kosch, 1924

Sacred: La Betulia liberata (orat, Metastasio), Vienna, 29 March 1772, A-Wgm, Wn

(facs. in IO, xxvi, 1987), H-Bn; 5 masses, incl. Missa S Cecilia, ed. in MacIntyre, 2
Missa solemnis, Missa brevis, 3–4vv, orch, org, 1 in K; Requiem, inc., 4vv, orch,
org, K; 10 grads, 7 offs, some with insts, 2 in K; Stabat mater, 4vv, bc (org), K;
Vespers, double choir, orch, org; 5 settings of Ps cxii: Laudate pueri, 5–8vv, orch; 2
ants, 4vv, insts, 1 in K; 3 hymns, 4vv, insts, 1 in K; 8 motets with orch; 12 other
single works
Secular: Amore e Venere (cant., D. Volpi), 2vv, insts, A-Wgm (Vienna, 1768); L’amor
timido (cant., Metastasio), 1v, insts; other arias and single vocal works

instrumental
thematic catalogue in Hill, 1976 [H]

Orch: 33 syms., 1 ed. K. Geiringer (Vienna, 1933), 1 ed. L. Somfai, Musica rinata,
xviii (1970), 6 ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. B, x (New York, 1981); 27 op
ovs.; fl conc.; 6 orch minuets arr. from str qts; 3 sets of ballet music, 1 inc.; 12 other
works known only from incipits; 24 syms., 1765–9 (h21–6, 41–6, 61–6, 81–6), CZ-
Bm (autographs), copies in A-Wn, CZ-Bm, Pnm
Chbr: 10 wind qnts; 8 str qnts (h501–6 pubd as op.2, 1772); 37 str qts (h431–6
pubd as op.1, 441–2, 435, 444–6 as op.2, 451–6 pubd 1804), 1 ed. K. Šolc
(Prague, 1957), 1 ed. in MVH, xlv (1980), 3 ed. in RRMCE, xvi (1983); 26 fugues,
str qt; 9 qts, fl/ob, str (h481–6 pubd as op.1, 1769), 3 ed. MVH, xxvii (1971), 1 ed.
H. Töttcher (Hamburg, 1962) and F. Schroeder (Berlin, 1967), 2 ed. in RRMCE, xvi
(1983); 37 str trios, 1 ed. E. Schenk, Hausmusik, no.161, 1954 (= Diletto musicale,
no.454, 1969), 2 ed. in HM, ccxlvii (1988), 3 ed. in RRMCE, xvi (1983); 12 fugues,
str trio; 7 trios, fl, str, 6 ed. H. Albrecht, Organum, xlv, xlviii, li, liii, lv, lviii (1950–57), 1
ed. F. Nagel, Hausmusik, no.156 (1977); wind trio ed. K. Janetzky (Adliswil, 1982);
7 str duos; 16 arrs. for qnt; 5 other works; principal MS sources: A-Sca, Wgm, Wn,
CZ-Pnm, D-Bsb, Mbs, H-Bn, I-Mc, MOe, Vnm, S-Skma, US-Wc

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BurneyGN
ES (W. Bollert)
GerberL
GroveO (J. Kosman)
I. von Born: Effigies virorum eruditorum atque artificum Bohemiae et
Moraviae (Prague, 1773–5)
F.M. Pelzel: Abbildungen böhmischer und mährischer Gelehrten und
Künstler (Prague, 1773–7)
J. Sonnleithner: ‘Biographische Skizze über Florian Leopold Gassmann’,
Wiener Theateralmanach für das Jahr 1795, 31–56
G. Donath: ‘Florian Leopold Gassmann als Opernkomponist’, SMw, ii
(1914), 34–211
F. Kosch: Florian Leopold Gassmann als Kirchenkomponist (diss., U. of
Vienna, 1924)
E. Leuchter: Die Kammermusik Florian Leopold Gassmanns (diss., U. of
Vienna, 1926)
F. Kosch: ‘Florian Leopold Gassmann als Kirchenkomponist’, SMw, xiv
(1927), 213–40
K. Vetterl: ‘Bohumír Rieger a jeho doba’ [Bohumír Rieger and his times],
Časopis matice moravské, liii (1929), 46–86, 435–500
J. Pohanka: ‘Bohemika v zámecké hudební sbírce z Náměště n. Osl.’,
ČMm, xlviii (1963), 235–60
G.R. Hill: The Concert Symphonies of Florian Leopold Gassmann (1729–
1774) (diss., New York U., 1975)
G.R. Hill: A Thematic Catalog of the Instrumental Music of Florian Leopold
Gassmann (Hackensack, NJ, 1976)
R. Strohm: ‘Gassmann: La contessina’, Die italienische Oper im 18.
Jahrhundert (Wilhelmshaven, 1979), 278–90
B.C. MacIntyre: The Viennese Concerted Mass of the Early Classic
Period: History, Analysis and Thematic Catalogue (diss., CUNY, 1984)
D.C. Bradley: Judith, Maria Theresa, and Metastasio: a Cultural Study
Based on Two Oratorios (diss., Florida State U., 1985)
M.J. Suderman: Florian Leopold Gassmann's Requiem: a Critical Edition
and Conductor's Analysis (DMA diss., U. of Iowa, 1990)
A. Sommer-Mathis: Tu felix Austria nube: Hochzeitsfeste der Habsburger
im 18. Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1994)
D. Heartz: Haydn, Mozart and the Viennese School, 1740–1780 (New
York, 1995)
GEORGE R. HILL (with JOSHUA KOSMAN)

Gassner, Ferdinand Simon

(b Vienna, 6 Jan 1798; d Karlsruhe, 25 Feb 1851). Austrian composer and
writer on music. In 1812, four years after moving to Karlsruhe, he became
a member of the Hofkapelle, and during this time studied the violin and
attended the Gymnasium. His abilities were recognized by the composers
Johann Brandl, Franz Danzi and Friedrich Fesca, and in 1816 his opera
Der Schiffbruch was performed at the court theatre. His reputation led to
his appointment the same year as a violinist at the newly built National
theater in Mainz, where he also became deputy kapellmeister. He studied
composition with Gottfried Weber, with whom he maintained a long
friendship. In 1818 he was appointed music director at the University of
Giessen, where he lectured on music theory for six years. He also
conducted, taught singing and founded a Gesangverein that performed
oratorios at music festivals that he organized. He returned to Karlsruhe in
1826 to rejoin the Hofkapelle as violinist, and from 1829 also taught
singing. In 1830 he was appointed music director and chorus director at the
Hoftheater.
Gassner is best remembered for his writings and editorial work, although
he also composed lieder, several cantatas and oratorios, operettas,
overtures and ballets. He edited the supplementary volume of Schilling’s
Encyclopädie der gesammten musikalischen Wissenschaften (1842) as
well as the one-volume version of this work, the Universal-Lexikon der
Tonkunst (1849). He contributed many articles to music journals and
newspapers, including Cäcilia and Musikalischer Hausfreund and in 1840
founded the Zeitschrift für Deutschlands Musik-Vereine und Dilettanten to
raise the level of musical taste among the general public. He collaborated
in the organization of the first Salzburg Mozart Festival in 1842, and the
same year he began planning a biography of Beethoven based upon
unpublished Beethoven manuscripts left to him by the music editor and
publisher Anton Gräffer, a project he never completed.
WRITINGS
Tabelle für den Elementarunterricht in der Musik (n.p., 1831)
Partiturkenntnis: ein Leitfaden zum Selbstunterrichte für angehende
Tonsetzer (Karlsruhe, 1838, 2/1842)
ed.: suppl. vol. to Encyclopädie der gesammten musikalischen
Wissenschaften, oder Universal-Lexicon der Tonkunst, ed. G. Schilling
(Stuttgart, 1842)
Lehrgang beim Gesang-Unterricht in Musikschulen (Karlsruhe, 1843)
ed.: Dirigent und Ripienist für angehende Musikdirigenten, Musiker und
Musikfreunde (Karlsruhe, 1844/R)
ed.: Universal-Lexikon der Tonkunst: neue Hand-Ausgabe in einem Bande
(Stuttgart, 1849)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
WurzbachL
A. Schmidt: ‘Reise-Momente, XVII: Carlsruhe. Dr. Gassner’, Wiener
allgemeine Musik-Zeitung, v (1845), 217–18
L. Nohl: Die Beethoven-Feier und die Kunst der Gegenwart (Vienna,
1871), 52–74
G. Haass: Geschichte des ehemaligen Grossherzoglichen Hoftheaters
Karlsruhe, i (Karlsruhe, 1934)
C. Brenneis: ‘Das Fischhof-Manuskript: zur Frühgeschichte der
Beethoven-Biographik’, Zu Beethoven: Aufsätze und Annotationen, ed.
H. Goldschmidt, i (Berlin, 1979), 90–116
SUZANNE M. LODATO

Gast, Peter [Köselitz, Johann

Heinrich]
(b Annaberg, 10 Jan 1854; d Annaberg, 15 Aug 1918). German composer.
He came from a wealthy middle-class family and, though he began a
commercial training, was allowed to attend the Leipzig Conservatory
(1872–5), where he studied composition under E.F.E. Richter. In 1875 he
studied philology, philosophy and the history of civilization at Basle
University, where Burckhardt and Nietzsche both taught, and he became
Nietzsche’s disciple, and later his friend and secretary. From 1878 Gast
lived for many years in Venice; after Nietzsche’s death in 1900 he set up
the Nietzsche Archive at Weimar and worked there until 1910, returning
then to Annaberg to compose and to edit the philosopher’s letters.
Gast’s music was highly praised by Nietzsche, some of whose own
compositions he revised. In a letter to Overbeck (October 1882) Nietzsche
called Gast ‘a new Mozart’, and he promoted Gast's operas as the perfect
antidote to Wagner. Despite such support Gast’s works hardly became
known outside a limited circle of admirers. His opera Der Löwe von
Venedig (based on the libretto of Cimarosa’s Il matrimonio segreto, and
published in vocal score in 1901) was performed at Danzig in 1891 under
the title Die heimliche Ehe. It had a limited success and was revived,
without provoking much interest, at Chemnitz in 1933; it is in the post-
Wagnerian comic tradition of Humperdinck and Wolf-Ferrari and anticipated
the renewal of interest in 18th-century opera buffa, without itself amounting
to much more than a string of lyrical melodies. Gast also composed
incidental music to Goethe’s Scherz, List und Rache (1881, a light touch in
contrast to Gast's earlier, unfinished Wagnerian-style music drama William
und Siegeher, 1879), two other operas, orchestral and chamber music,
choral works and about 50 songs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (G. Lenzewski) [with list of works]
C. Fuchs: Thematikon zu P. Gasts komischer Oper ‘Die heimliche Ehe’
(Leipzig, 1890)
P. Gast and others, eds.: Friedrich Nietzsches gesammelte Briefe (Berlin
and Leipzig, 1900–09)
A. Seidel: Was dünkt euch um Peter Gast? (Berlin, 1902)
P. Gast, ed.: Friedrich Nietzsches Briefe an Peter Gast, Gesammelte
Briefe, iv (Leipzig, 2/1908, 3/1924)
F. Götz: Peter Gast (Annaberg, 1934)
F. Tutenberg: ‘Peter Gasts “Löwe von Venedig”’, ZfM, Jg.107 (1940), 76–
81
F.R. Love: Nietzsche's Saint Peter: Genesis and Cultivation of an Illusion
(Berlin and New York, 1981)
ALFRED LOEWENBERG/DAVID CHARLTON/CHRISTOPHER FIFIELD

Gastatz [Gastharts], Mathias.

See Gastritz, Mathias.

Gastoldi, Giovanni Giacomo

(b Caravaggio, nr Cremona, c1554; d 4 Jan 1609). Italian composer. He is
recorded for the first time at Mantua in 1572 as a sub-deacon at the
Palatine Basilica of S Barbara. In the following year he was promoted to
the position of deacon, a post which he held until at least 1574. At the end
of 1575, shortly before being ordained, Gastoldi was granted a
mansionaria in S Barbara. From September 1579 until August 1587 he
taught counterpoint to the novices at the basilica; the records mention him
as a singer for the first time in 1581. In 1582 Cardinal Carlo Borromeo
requested that Gastoldi be allowed to enter his service in Milan; Duke
Guglielmo Gonzaga replied that on no account would he allow himself to
be deprived of Gastoldi's talents. Both in that year, and in 1585–6, Gastoldi
acted as maestro di cappella in place of Wert, who had fallen ill; in 1588 he
succeeded Wert as maestro di cappella, a post that he retained until his
death. For the performance of Guarini's Il pastor fido, given in 1598,
Gastoldi composed the Ballo della cieca (II; ii), a notoriously difficult
moment in the play which had defeated earlier attempts to produce it;
Gastoldi's setting was published in his Quarto libro de madrigali of 1602.
One of his last commissions at the court was to compose music for one of
the intermedii devised to accompany Guarini's L'Idropica, performed in
1608 as part of the extensive celebrations marking the marriage of Prince
Francesco Gonzaga to Margarita of Savoy. In his will Gastoldi left his
collection of sacred music to the chapter of S Barbara and his editions of
madrigals to Fulvio Gonzaga, Marchese of Vescovato and the dedicatee of
the Messe e motetti … libro primo of 1607.
Gastoldi's most popular compositions during his lifetime, and for some time
after his death, were his ballettos, of which he published two sets: one for
five voices and one for three. The five-voice collection, published in 1591,
was reprinted some 30 times, both in Venice and north of the Alps (the last
as late as 1657). The success of these works must be attributed to their
simplicity and tunefulness. They are cast in two repeated sections each of
which finishes with a refrain; their textures are strongly homophonic, and
according to the title-page they were to be sung, played and danced. Each
balletto bears a characterizing title (e.g. ‘Il Piacere’, ‘La Bellezza’, ‘Amor
Vittorioso’), but there is no attempt to represent these characteristics in the
music, and indeed it would be hard to do so given the limitations of the
genre. The book finishes with a six-voice mascherata and an eight-voice
chorus; both are probably remnants of theatrical works. The three-voice
ballettos, although less frequently reprinted, were still enormously popular.
They are written in a style similar to that of the earlier collection (which are
effectively conceived as trios with the inner parts added to fill out the
texture), and like them were intended to be danced. A fondness for the
lighter styles of writing is also evident in other secular publications such as
the Primo libro de madrigali a sei voci (which concludes with another
theatrical piece, the Danza de pastori written for two four-voice choirs) and
the two books of canzonettas.
Despite the undoubted popularity of the ballettos, most of Gastoldi's efforts
as a composer went into the composition of sacred music, some of which
also found favour in the market. This aspect of his production, sometimes
overlooked, not only reflects his career at S Barbara, but also his
commitment to Counter-Reformation idealism of the kind advocated by
Carlo Borromeo, with its emphasis on accessibility. The Missarum quatuor
vocibus liber primus, for example, is designed for the resources and
capabilities of a modest choir, while the Psalmi ad vesperas in totius anni,
which was reprinted five times, relies on a mixture of homophony and
simple counterpoint, and shows little interest in chromatic inflection, even in
the De Profundis; this book includes Wert's seventh-tone Magnificat setting
and is dedicated to the Abbot of S Barbara. Homophony also predominates
in the six-voice Salmi intieri … libro secondo, sometimes fused with
falsobordone passages as in Monteverdi's Vespers of 1610. Most popular
of all was his Integra omnium solemnitatum vespertina psalmodia, settings
 of the most frequently encountered psalm texts, which was reprinted as
late as 1705. His simplest are the two-voice psalms of 1609, a sequence of
14 settings together with a Magnificat, while the 1601 collection for eight
voices uses double-choir and alternatim techniques; a speciality of S
Barbara practice. These publications suggest that Gastoldi was aiming at a
wide market which included, as something of a priority, choirs of modest
ambitions. The Messe e motetti, on the other hand, are explicitly described
as a monument to the music performed at Porticuolo (now Portiolo). The
contents are grander in manner and come equipped with an organ score.
WORKS
published in Venice unless otherwise stated

sacred vocal
Sacre lodi a diversi santi con una canzona al … S Francesco, 5vv (1587)
Psalmi ad vesperas in totius anni solemnitatibus, 4vv (1588 7)
Completorium ad usum S Romanae Ecclesiae perfectum sacraeque; illae laudes,
quibus divinum terminatur officium, 4vv (1589)
Sacra omnium solemnitatum vespertina psalmodia, cum beatae virginis cantico,
alternis versiculis concinenda, 6vv (1593)
Completorium perfectum ad usum Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae sacraeque illae
laudes, quibus divinum terminatur officium … liber secundus, 4vv (1597)
Magnificat per omnes tonos, videlicet primus, & secundus chorus, 4vv (1597)
Integra omnium solemnitatum vespertina psalmodia, cum cantico beatae virginis,
5vv (2/1600)
Messe … libro primo, 5, 8vv (1600)
Tutti li salmi che nelle solennita dell'anno al vespro si cantano, con duoi cantici della
Beata Vergine uno del settimo tuono, & uno del secondo tuono, che risponde in
eco, 8vv (2 choirs) (1601); Magnificat ed. in AMI, ii (1897/R)
Missarum … liber primus, 4vv (1602)
Vespertina omnium solemnitatum psalmodia … liber secundus, 5vv (1602)
Messe et motetti … libro primo, 8vv, org, op.30 (1607)
Salmi intieri che nelle solennita dell'anno al vespro si cantano, con il cantico della
Beata Virgine … libro secondo, 6vv, bc (org) (1607)
Officium defunctorum integrum, 4vv (1607)
Salmi per tutti li vespri de l'anno, commodi, & facili per introdure i figliuoli a cantare
in compagnia, 2vv (1609)
Salmi per tutto l'anno, 5vv, bc (ad lib) (Bologna, 1673) [repr. of vol. now lost]
Psalm, 5vv; 2 litanies, 8vv, bc; 3 motets; 12 other works: 1592 3, 160813, 16141,
16196

Missa die Jovis, 5vv; Passione secondo S Giovanni, 6vv; falsobordone: I-MAc, Mc
secular vocal
Canzoni … libro primo, 5vv (1581)
Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (1588)
Il secondo libro de madrigali, … con un dialogo, & una mascherata, 5, 7, 10vv
(1589)
Balletti, 5vv, con li suoi versi per cantare, sonare, & ballare; con una mascherata de
cacciatori, 6vv, & un concerto de pastori, 8vv (1591); ed. in Le pupitre, x (Paris,
1968); ed. H.C. Schmidt (New York, 1970)
Il primo libro de madrigali, con una danza de pastori, 6, 8vv (1592); 2 ed. in AMI, ii
(1897/R)
Canzonette, con un baletto nel fine, 3vv (1592, repr. 1595 as Canzonette … libro
primo)
Balletti, con la intavolatura del liuto, per cantare, sonare, & ballare, 3vv (1594)
Canzonette … libro secondo, 3vv (1595, repr. 1615 17 incl. works by A. Savioli); ed.
G. Vecchi (Bologna, 1959)
Il terzo libro de madrigali, 5, 6, 8vv (1598)
Il quarto libro de madrigali, 5, 9vv (1602); 1 ed. in NewcombMF
Concenti musicali con le sue sinfonie, commodi per concertare con ogni sorte di
stromenti, 8vv (160421)
Italian texted works, 158811, 158818, 158819, 159011, 159211, 159214, 15986, 16048,
160512, 16066, G. de Wert: Il duodecimo libro de madrigali (1608)
instrumental
Il primo libro della musica, 2vv (Milan, 1598 13)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BertolottiM
EinsteinIM
FenlonMM
KermanEM
NewcombMF
F. Picinelli: Ateneo dei letterati milanese (Milan, 1670), 302
P. Canal: Della musica in Mantova (Venice, 1881), 36–7
R. Schwartz: ‘Hans Leo Hassler unter dem Einfluss der italiänischen
Madrigalisten’, VMw, ix (1893), 1–61
K. Jeppesen: ‘The Recently Discovered Mantova Masses of Palestrina: a
Provisional Communication’, AcM, xxii (1950), 36–47
D. Arnold: ‘Gastoldi and the English Ballett’, MMR, lxxxvi (1956), 44–52
P.M. Tagmann: Archivalische Studien zur Musikpflege am Dom von
Mantua (1500–1627) (Berne, 1967)
K. Jeppesen: ‘Monteverdi, Kappelmeister an S. Barbara?’, Claudio
Monteverdi e il suo tempo, Venice, Mantua and Cremona 1968, 313–
22
P.M. Tagmann: ‘La cappella dei maestri cantori della basilica palatina di
Santa Barbara a Mantova (1565–1630)’, Civiltà mantovana, iv (1970),
376–400
D. Crawford: ‘The Francesco Sforza Manuscript at Casale Monferrato’,
JAMS, xxiv (1971), 457–62
R.A. Rasch: ‘The Balletti of Giovanni Giacomo Gastoldi and the Musical
History of the Netherlands’, TVNM, xxiv/2 (1974), 112–45
O. Beretta: ‘Documenti inediti su Giovanni Giacomo Gastoldi scoperti negli
archivi mantovani’, RIMS, xiv (1993), 270–77
O. Beretta: ‘Giovanni Giacomo Gastoldi: Profilo biografico’, RIMS, xvi
(1995), 121–41
I. Fenlon: ‘Guarini, de' Sommi and the Pre-History of Italian Danced
Spectacle’, Leone de' Sommi and the Performing Arts, ed. A. Belkin
(Tel-Aviv, 1997), 49–65
IAIN FENLON (text, bibliography), DENIS ARNOLD/R (work-list)
 Gaston Fébus, 3rd Count of Foix
and 11th of Béarn
(b 1331; d 1391). French patron. A relatively large number of pieces were
addressed to him by 14th-century composers. In addition, he is credited
with the composition of a Pyrenean folksong, but this ascription is purely
traditional. He was a ruthless fighter and politician with wide interests: his
passion for hunting caused him to write a book on the subject, and
Froissart went to his court to read to him during the winter months. It is
significant, however, that the ballades, rondeaux and virelais interpolated in
Froissart’s Méliador were what pleased the count most. In the second half
of the 14th century these poems, especially in musical settings,
represented the latest fashion. This is doubtless why four of the pieces
addressed to Gaston are ballades. Two have his motto, ‘Febus avant’, in
the refrain. Others (like Phiton, Phiton) hint more indirectly at his domain or
enemies. All four appear in a manuscript (F-CH 564) related to the Avignon
composers and those who visited the small states on both sides of the
Pyrenees.
In addition, three motets were addressed to Gaston: two of them, from the
Ivrea manuscript (I-IV), probably date from the 1360s. The third, Inter
densas deserti/Imbribus irriguis/Admirabile est nomen tuum, however, is
unusually complex and hardly likely to have been written before 1380: it is
virtually a set of variations on the short tenor, which is repeated seven
times, each time with a new rhythm.
Instruments were popular with Gaston: King John I of Aragon had to beg
him to return some of his minstrels who were, naturally enough, players of
the principal dance instruments such as the shawm and bagpipe. Gaston
also, according to Froissart, enjoyed unusual entremets (mimed
entertainments which included music).
WORKS ADDRESSED TO GASTON
motets
Altissonis aptatibus/In principes/Tenor tonans, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, v (1968)
Febus mundo oriens/Lanista vipereus/Cornibus equivocis, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, v
(1968)
Inter densas deserti/Imbribus irriguis/Admirabile est nomen tuum, 4vv, H, ed. in
CMM, xxxix (1965) [with solus tenor facilitating performance by 3 voices]
ballades
Magister Franciscus: Phiton, Phiton, beste tres venimeuse, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, xviii–
xix (1981–2), W. Apel, French Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, i
(Amsterdam, 1970)
Jo. Cunelier: Se Galaas, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, xviii–xix (1981–2), W. Apel, French
Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, i (Amsterdam, 1970)
Trebor: Se July Cesar, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, xviii–xix (1981–2), W. Apel, French
Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, i (Amsterdam, 1970)
Anon: Le mont Aon de Trace, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, xviii–xix (1981–2), W. Apel, French
Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, ii (Amsterdam, 1971)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StrohmR
G. Reaney: ‘The Manuscript Chantilly, Musée Condé 1047’, MD, viii
(1954), 59–113
P. Tucoo-Chala: Gaston Fébus et le vicomté de Béarn (Bordeaux, 1960)
U. Günther: ‘Eine Ballade auf Mathieu de Foix’, MD, xix (1965), 69–81
U. Günther: ‘Problems of Dating in Ars Nova and Ars Subtilior’, La musica
al tempo di Boccaccio e i suoi rapporti con la letteratura: Siena and
Certaldo 1975 [L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iv (Certaldo, 1978)],
289–301
GILBERT REANEY

Gastorius [Bauchspiess], Severus

(b Öttern, nr Weimar, 1646; d Jena, bur. 8 May 1682). German composer.
After attending the Lateinschule at Weimar, where his father taught from
1647, he went to the University of Jena in 1667. In 1670 he became the
substitute for the Jena Kantor, Andreas Zöll, whose daughter he married in
1671. He became Kantor on Zöll’s death in 1677 and held the post until his
own early death. He is remembered primarily as the composer of the
chorale Was Gott tut, das ist wohlgetan, which formed the basis of cantatas
by, among others, Pachelbel and J.S. Bach (bwv100; he also used it in
bwv98–9). According to the Nordhausen Gesangbuch (1687), Samuel
Rodigast wrote the text for Gastorius in 1675, when the latter was severely
ill. His melody first appeared, with the text ‘Brich an, verlangtes
Morgenlicht’, in the collection Andächtige Elends-Stimme by C. Klesch
(Jena, 1679), which contains 38 melodies by Gastorius and J. Hancke,
none of them specifically assigned to either composer. He modelled his
melody on a tune by Werner Fabricius that had appeared in E.C.
Homburg’s Geistliche Lieder, i (Jena, 1659). Gastorius also published five
funeral motets at Jena. Die Gerechten werden ewiglich leben (1672), Du
aber gehe hin, biss du aufstehest in deinem Theil (1672) and Es ist genug,
so nimm nun, Herr, meine Seele (1674) are for five voices, O Trauer-Fall
(1679) is for four voices and Du aber gehe hin und ruhe (1674) is for six
voices, all with continuo. They show the influence of W.C. Briegel and J.M.
Bach; towards the end of each piece a chorale cantus firmus is introduced
in the highest voice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
MGG1 (W. Blankenburg)
WaltherL
C. von Winterfeld: Der evangelische Kirchengesang, ii (Leipzig, 1845/R)
J. Zahn: Die Melodien der deutschen evangelischen Kirchenlieder, iii
(Gütersloh, 1890/R); vi (1893/R)
S. Fornaçon: ‘Werke von Severus Gastorius’, Jb für Liturgik und
Hymnologie, viii (1963), 165–91
R. Jauernig: ‘Severus Gastorius’, Jb für Liturgik und Hymnologie, viii
(1963), 163–4
R. Jauernig: ‘Severus Gastorius: Forschungen zum Melodisten des Liedes
“Was Gott tut, das ist wohlgetan”’, In disciplina Domini: in der Schule
des Herrn (Berlin, 1963), 81
J. Stalmann and J. Heinrich, eds.: Handbuch zum evangelischen
Kirchengesangbuch, Liederkunde (Göttingen, 1990), ii: 299–301
DOROTHEA SCHRÖDER

Gastoué, Amédée(-Henri-Gustave-
Noël)
(b Paris, 19 March 1873; d Clamart, Seine, 1 June 1943). French
musicologist. He studied the piano with Adolphe Deslandres, the organ
with Alexandre Guilmant (at the Paris Conservatoire and then the Schola
Cantorum), harmony with Albert Lavignac and composition with Albéric
Magnard. Joseph Pothier and Charles Bordes awakened his interest in
ecclesiastical chant, and in 1896 he became editor of the Revue du chant
grégorien (until 1905). The Schola Cantorum’s own journal, the Tribune de
St Gervais, published articles by Gastoué from 1897 (he was its secretary
for over 20 years), and in 1898 he began lecturing at the Schola Cantorum
on chant. He was appointed precentor of the sister foundation of the
Schola Cantorum in Avignon in 1899, and was able to carry out research in
libraries of that area; when recalled to Paris by d’Indy he extended the
scope of his lectures and publications to include later medieval music. In
1911 he became a lecturer at the Institut Catholique and succeeded
Pothier as professor at the Petit Collège Stanislas, a post he held until the
year of his death. He also taught at the Lycée Montaigne (1904–14) and
the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales, where Romain Rolland was
director. From 1934 to 1937 he was president of the Société Française de
Musicologie.
Gastoué’s work on chant was early recognized to be of major importance,
and in 1905 Pope Pius X appointed him consultant to the commission
under Pothier for the new Vatican edition of liturgical books; he was made a
Knight of the Order of St Gregory in 1908. His book Les origines du chant
romain (1907) was awarded the prize of the Académie des Inscriptions et
Belles Lettres; other awards included the Institut Catholique’s Bernier Prize
(1935) and the Légion d’Honneur (1938).
Gastoué wrote numerous manuals of practical instruction on chant and did
important work on the relationship between Gregorian and older chant
repertories. He was one of the first musicologists to stress the oriental
rather than Hellenistic origins of Gregorian chant, making important
observations, for example, on the Syrian riš-qolo and the development of
hymnody, the chant of Gnostic sects, the Jewish origin of the tonus
peregrinus, recitation cadence formulae, and the relationship between
Gregorian, Ambrosian and synagogal traditional in the verses of graduals.
Although some of his work on Byzantine music, particularly as regards
transcription, has been superseded, his documentary studies were of first
importance. Besides his editions of plainsong, Gastoué made modern
editions of a wide range of medieval, Renaissance and Baroque music. He
was also a prolific composer, particularly of sacred choral music. Of his
large-scale works, an opera Jeanne d’Arc and an oratorio Les mystères du
Rosaire (on his own text) were published.
WRITINGS
‘Les anciens chants liturgiques des églises d'Apt et d'Avignon’, Revue du
chant grégorien, x (1902), 152–60, 166–70
Cours théorique et pratique du plain-chant romain grégorien (Paris, 1904,
2/1917)
Histoire du chant liturgique à Paris, i: Des origines à la fin des temps
carolingiens (Paris, 1904)
‘La musique à Avignon et dans le Comtat du XIVe au XVIIIe siècle’, RMI, xi
(1904), 265–41; xii (1905), 555–78, 768–77; repr. in La vie musicale
dans les provinces françaises, iv (Geneva, 1980), 179–237
Introduction à la paléographie musicale byzantine: catalogue des
manuscrits de musique byzantine de la Bibliothèque nationale de
Paris et des bibliothèques publiques de France (Paris, 1907)
Les origines du chant romain: l’antiphonaire grégorien (Paris, 1907/R)
Nouvelle méthode pratique de chant grégorien (Paris, 1909)
Traite d’harmonisation du chant grégorien sur un plan nouveau (Lyon,
1910)
L’art grégorien (Lyons, 1911, 3/1920/R)
La musique d’église (Lyons, 1911)
Variations sur la musique d’église (Paris, 1912)
‘La musique byzantine et le chant des Eglises d’Orient’, ‘La musique
occidentale [au Moyen Age]’, EMDC, I/i (1913), 541–56, 556–81
Le graduel et l’antiphonaire romains: histoire et description (Lyons, 1913/R)
‘Three Centuries of French Mediaeval Music’, MQ, iii (1917), 173–88
L’orgue en France, de l’antiquité au début de la période classique (Paris,
1921)
Les primitifs de la musique française (Paris, 1922)
Le cantique populaire en France (Lyons, 1924)
‘Chant juif et chant grégorien’, Revue du chant grégorien, xxxiv (1930),
157–63; xxxv (1931), 9–13, 52–4, 70–74, 113–17, 129–33
‘Le motet’, EMDC, II/v (1930), 3015–45
Solfège vocal grégorien (Paris, 1932)
‘Notes sur les manuscrits et sur quelques oeuvres de M.-A. Charpentier’,
Mélanges de musicologie offerts à M. Lionel de La Laurencie (Paris,
1933), 153–64
ed., with others: La musique française du Moyen-Age à la Révolution,
Galerie Mazarine, Bibliothèque Nationale, 1933 (Paris, 1934)
[exhibition catalogue]
with L. de La Laurencie: Catalogue des livres de musique (manuscrits et
imprimés) de la Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal à Paris, PSFM, 2nd ser., vii
(Paris, 1936)
L’Eglise et la musique (Paris, 1936)
Le chant gallican (Grenoble, 1939) [orig. pubd in Revue du chant
grégorien, xli–xliii (1937–9)]
EDITIONS
François Couperin: Oeuvres complètes, ix: Musique de chambre III (Paris,
1933, rev. 2/1987 by K. Gilbert and D. Moroney); x: Musique de
chambre IV (Paris, 1933, rev. 2/1992 by K. Gilbert and D. Moroney)
Le manuscrit de musique du trésor d’Apt (XIVe–XVe siècle), PSFM, 1st
ser., x (1936)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (M. Briquet)
R. Bernard: ‘Amédée Gastoué’, Information musicale (11 June 1948)
N. Dufourcq: ‘Souvenirs sur Amédée Gastoué’, Musique et liturgie, no.37
(1954), 8–10; no.38 (1954), 8–10
DAVID HILEY/JEAN GRIBENSKI

Gastritz [Gastritzsch, Gastharts,

Gastatz], Mathias
(d Amberg, Bavaria, 9 Dec 1596). German composer and organist. He was
appointed civic organist of Amberg on 22 December 1561. He appears to
have been a difficult and contentious man, and early in 1589, following
frequent lawsuits, he resigned. There are two volumes of music by him.
The motets that make up the first, Novae harmonicae cantiones ut piae, ita
etiam suaves et iucundae for five voices (Nuremberg, 1569), begin
imitatively but soon become homophonic; the voices are sometimes
divided into upper and lower groups, giving an impression of cori spezzati
writing. Gastritz's other collection is Kurtze und sonderliche newe Symbola
etlicher Fürsten und Herrn, neben andern mehr schönen Liedlein … auff
alle Instrument zu gebrauchen gantz dienstlich for four to six voices
(Nuremberg, 1571). This includes 16 symbola – settings of mottoes of
prominent people – in the manner of Caspar Othmayr, which are
homophonic pieces with the cantus firmus in the tenor, as well as 20
sacred songs, also homophonic and most of them in the then old-fashioned
genre of the Tenorlied.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (H. Schwämmlein)
H. Schwämmlein: 300 Jahre Musik in Amberg: Versuch einer
Musikgeschichte vom 14.–17. Jahrhundert (diss., Staatliche
Hochschule für Musik, Munich, 1967)
AUGUST SCHARNAGL

Gat
(Hin.: ‘a [manner of] going’). A term used in North Indian art music.
(1) A composition for sitār, sarod or other melody instrument in a particular
rāg and tāl. Two common gat types for sitār, the Masītkhānī and
Razākhānī, are distinguished by their rhythmic plucking-patterns (see India,
§III, 6(i), and exx.4 and 5).
(2) A type of composition for the drum tablā, often characterized by unusual
rhythmic devices (see India, §III, 6(iii)).
(3) A type of dance composition (see India, §IX).
 RICHARD WIDDESS

Gatayes.
French family of musicians.
(1) Guillaume-Pierre-Antoine Gatayes
(2) Joseph-Léon Gatayes
(3) Félix Gatayes
ALICE LAWSON ABER-COUNT
Gatayes
(1) Guillaume-Pierre-Antoine Gatayes
(b Paris, 20 Dec 1774; d Paris, Oct 1846). Guitarist, singer, harpist and
composer. The son of the Prince de Conti and the Marquise de Silly, he
was placed in a seminary, where he took the name of Abbé Vénicourt. In
1788 he escaped to pursue a career as a guitarist and composer, calling
himself Gatayes. He began to compose romances, some of which (‘Mon
délire’, ‘Le pauvre aveugle’) became extremely popular. In 1790 he
published a Méthode de cistre and, having in the meantime learnt the harp,
Une méthode de harpe facile à conçevoir in 1795; a Nouvelle méthode de
guitarre ou lyre followed in 1802. Besides his romances, many of which
remained unpublished, he wrote over 100 instrumental works, mostly for
the guitar, harp and piano.
Gatayes
(2) Joseph-Léon Gatayes
(b Paris, 26 Dec 1805; d Paris, 1 Feb 1877). Harpist, composer and music
critic, son of (1) Guillaume-Pierre-Antoine Gatayes. He studied the harp
with his father and Cousineau, and later with Labarre at the conservatoire,
and became harpist at the Théâtre de l'Odéon. A virtuoso and teacher of
the Erard double-action harp, he wrote music for his own performance,
much of which was considered too difficult for publication. Later a
friendship with Alphonse Karr drew him away from the harp into journalism
and he wrote for Chronique musicale, Le corsaire, Gazette musicale,
Journal de Paris and Le ménestrel. His interest in horsemanship produced
some articles in Journal des haras.
Gatayes
(3) Félix Gatayes
(b Paris, 1809; d ? after 1860). Pianist, composer and conductor, son of (1)
Guillaume-Pierre-Antoine Gatayes. Apart from some lessons from Liszt he
was self-taught as a pianist. Unsuccessful as a performer, he nevertheless
gained popularity in Paris with his symphonies and overtures, and in 1842
was commissioned to write a ballet. He left Paris for Ireland before it was
finished and thereafter led a wandering life for 20 years, conducting and
composing in England, America and Australia. Eventually, unable to
assemble orchestras to perform his works, he turned to composing for
military band; his pieces include Marche héroïque and Les moissonneurs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (D. Mégevand) [with list of G.-P.-A. Gatayes' works]
M.G. Scimeca: L'arpa nella storia (Bari, 1938), 142–3
A.N. Schirinzi: L'arpa (Milan, 1961), 93

Gates, Bernard
(b The Hague, 23 April 1686; d North Aston, Oxon, 15 Nov 1773). English
bass, teacher and composer. His father, also named Bernard, came to
England in 1688 and became Page of the Back Stairs to William III. He was
a chorister at the Chapel Royal from 1697 to 1705, and thus one of Blow’s
latest pupils. He was appointed a Gentleman of the Chapel in 1708, and
received a second place there in 1734. In 1727 he succeeded Croft as
Master of the Children and as Tuner of the Regals and Organs. In 1711 he
became in addition a lay vicar of Westminster Abbey, and from 1740 he
was also Master of the Choristers there. For a brief period in 1714 he was
also a lay clerk at St George’s Chapel, Windsor. He retired from active
duties in 1757, though nominally remaining a member of the Chapel Royal
and Westminster Abbey choirs. He spent his later years at North Aston,
near Oxford, where a memorial tablet to him was erected by his pupil T.S.
Dupuis. He was buried at Westminster Abbey.
A number of leading musicians received their early training from him in the
Chapel Royal, and he was thus a link between the late 17th century and
members of a generation surviving into the 19th century, for example
Samuel Arnold. Hawkins (General History, 1776) commented on his
excessive use of the shake, and noted also that in his teaching he restored
the method of solmization by hexachords instead of the debased English
method using four syllables only.
Gates is named as a bass soloist on Handel’s autographs of the Ode on
the Birthday of Queen Anne and the Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate (1713).
He was concerned with three staged productions of Handel’s Esther at the
Crown and Anchor Tavern in the Strand in February and March 1732, in
which boys from the Chapel Royal and Westminster Abbey took part.
Burney (Account of the Musical Performances in Westminster Abbey,
1785), writing on the authority of John Randall (who as a boy had taken the
part of Esther in 1732), noted that the performances at the Crown and
Anchor had been preceded by a private one – possibly a full rehearsal – at
Gates’s own house (the date as given by Burney, 1731, is ‘old style’). His
last contribution as a soloist for Handel was in the Dettingen Te Deum in
1743, but he seems to have provided chorus (and sometimes solo) trebles
for Handel’s oratorio performances regularly until his retirement. Gates was
a founder-member of the Academy of Vocal Music and the Society of
Musicians: his withdrawal from the academy in 1734, taking his choristers
with him, seems to have been a significant gesture in the musical politics of
the period, and encouraged the academy’s move towards ‘Ancient’ music.
His surviving compositions comprise a Morning Service in F and six
anthems (GB-Ge, Lbl (Chapel Royal Partbooks; partly autograph), WRch;
most anthems are incomplete in the surviving sources): the anthems
include substantial solo movements for his choristers. There is a portrait of
Gates in the Oxford Music School Collection; another portrait, depicting him
at a slightly younger age, was offered for sale at Sothebys in 1990.
 WATKINS SHAW/DONALD BURROWS

Gattermeyer, Heinrich
(b Sierning, nr Steyr, 9 July 1923). Austrian composer. After military
service, he attended the Vienna Hochschule für Musik (1945–50), where
his teachers included Bruno Seidlhofer (piano), Ferdinand Grossman
(conducting) and Alfred Uhl (composition), and the University of Vienna,
where he studied German language and literature. After completing his
studies, he worked as a choral conductor (1949–73), and taught in
secondary schools (1946–69) and at the Hochschule für Musik (1964–90),
where he was appointed professor of composition in 1977. He has also
served as chair of the Austrian society of authors, composers and music
publishers (AKM, 1984–90), chair of the Austrian Composers' Association
(from 1992) and chair of the Music Association of the Stephansdom (from
1996). As a composer, he does not view tonality and atonality as opposites,
understanding pitch organization to determine how a composition is
expressed but not the content of the composition. Rhythm is a central
feature of his works. He prefers a freely-organised tonality, but also works
with tone rows rather in the manner of Haver. In the Bruckner-Epitaph, for
instance, a synthesis between these techniques is sought. Immediacy is
important to him, and is achieved through a sound-world which ranges
from echoes of folksong and traditional dances through chorale-like writing
to strict forms and aleatory procedures; all of these are combined in the
stage work Kirbisch. His many distinctions include the Austrian Cross of
Honour for Science and Art (1964), the Gold Medal of the city of Vienna
(1988) and the prize of Lower Austria (1993).
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: 38 shadow plays and TV tales (TV scores), 1965–75; Kirbisch (szenische
Ballade, A. Wildgans), 1984–7, Linz, 13 May 1987; other TV and incid music
Orch: Concertino, pf, orch, 1962; Concerto grosso no.1, str, 1970; Skolion, small
orch, 1970–71; Concertino, gui, str, 1972; Intention no.1, 1973; 7 Interludien, 1973
[from Der Turmbau zu Babel]; Symphonische Antithesen, 2 str orch, 1974–90;
Concerto grosso no.2, 1976, rev. 1986; 5 Szenen, str, 1978; Symphonische
Tanzstücke, 1980; Kirbisch-Suite, 1984–7; Symphonische Reminiszenzen, 1989;
Traum und Tod, sym. poem, 1991 [after S. George]; Tripelkonzert, vn, vc, pf, str,
1991; Vn Conc., 1995; Bruckner-Epitaph, 1996
Vocal: Weihnachtsoratorium, S, A, T, B, SATB, orch, 1951; Asinus rex
(Gattermeyer), solo vv, SATB, fl, cl, 2 tpt, str, perc, 1955; Missa Bernardi, TB, str,
1959; Der Turmbau zu Babel (orat), Bar, SATB, orch, 1960, rev. 1964, 1976, 1983;
Te Deum, solo vv, SATB, orch, 1963; Lieder unserer Heimat, TB, 1965; Morgenlied
(Gattermeyer), SATB, orch, 1970; Provokationen (orat, Gattermeyer), spkr, Bar, TB,
str, perc, 1971; Trakl-Fragmente, SATB, pf, 1974; De profundis (orat, Gattermeyer),
spkr, Mez, SATB, orch, 1975; Gesänge Hiobs (orat, Gattermeyer), SATB, fl, cl, pf,
1980; Missa Sancta Barbara, SATB, fl, cl, bn, 2 hn, 2 tpt, 3 trbn, perc, 1981; Die
chinesische Nachtigall (H.C. Andersen), spkr, pf, 1993; Ignatius-Messe, S, T, B,
SATB, hn, 2 tpt, trbn, tuba, str, 1993; many songs, 1v, pf; works for male chorus
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt no.1, 1953; Ww Trio, 1962; Wind Qt, 1965; Duo, 2 gui,
1969; Geistliche Suite, brass, 1970; Str Qt no.2, 1970; 6 Grotesken, va, pf, 1971;
Suite, chbr ens, 1971; Concertino da camera, (ob, gui, pf)/(gui, str)/(gui, ww, str),
1972; Divertimento, cl, va, pf, 1973; Kassation no.1, fl, va, gui, 1973; Serenade, str,
1978; Kammermusik, 3 tpt/hn, 2 trbn/tuba, 1979; Partie im Dialog, fl, gui, 1980; Str
Qt no.3, 1981; Phantastischer Dialog, 3 tpt, 3 trbn, org, 3 perc, 1984; Perioden-
Quartett, fl, vn, va, db, 1986; Englische Brass-Suite, brass qnt, 1989;
Metamorphosen, cl, hn, 2 vn, vc, pf, 1993

Principal publishers: Doblinger, Universal, Edition Modern, Thomas Sessler

BIBLIOGRAPHY
LZMÖ [incl. further bibliography]
H. Lauermann: ‘Heinrich Gattermeyer: Porträt’, Chor aktuell, iii (1980), 15
only
F. Zamazal: ‘Heinrich Gattermeyer: ein Oberösterreicher in Wien’,
Oberösterreichischer Kulturbericht, xli/11 (1987), 8–9
LOTHAR KNESSL

Gatti, Daniele
(b Milan, 6 Nov 1961). Italian conductor. He studied at the Milan
Conservatory and began his career conducting Verdi's Giovanna d'Arco in
Milan in 1982, after which he appeared with opera companies throughout
Italy until his début at La Scala with Rossini's L'occasione fa il ladro (1988).
In 1989 he was in charge of Bianca e Falliero at the Rossini Festival in
Pesaro. He made his US début at Chicago conducting Madama Butterfly in
1991. The following year he first appeared at Covent Garden, with I
puritani, returning there for Turandot in 1994, after which he was made
principal guest conductor. In 1995 he directed the first modern performance
of Verdi's I due Foscari at Covent Garden. His Metropolitan début was in
1994, with Madama Butterfly. Orchestras he has conducted include the
Vienna PO, New York PO, Cleveland Orchestra, Boston SO, Chicago SO
and the Accademia di S Cecilia, Rome. Gatti was appointed music director
of the RPO in 1995. His tastes range wide, from Haydn to Respighi and
beyond, and he has a penchant for Italian opera of all periods. He is an
instinctive rather than a didactic interpreter, emphasizing naturalness of
expression and freedom of phrase, but with a tendency to the brilliant and
assertive at the expense of a long view of the work in hand, all qualities
found in his recordings of, among others, Mahler, Prokofiev and Respighi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Seckerson: ‘When in Rome’, Gramophone, lxxv/July (1997), 14–16
[interview]
ALAN BLYTH

Gatti [Pesci], Gabriella

(b Rome, 5 July 1908). Italian soprano. She studied singing after gaining a
diploma for the piano, made her professional début at the Maggio Musicale
Fiorentino in 1933 as Anna (Nabucco) and the following year sang an
acclaimed Desdemona at the Rome Opera. She sang up to 1953 in all the
leading Italian theatres, most often in Rome and Florence, but also at La
Scala between 1938 and 1947. Her voice was lyrical in character, graceful
in timbre and expression, and she stood as an example of the refined,
classical style at a time when the opposite manner prevailed among Italian
sopranos. She was a notable Mathilde in Guillaume Tell (the role of her
farewell in Rome) and Desdemona in Verdi’s Otello, though her wide
repertory ranged from Monteverdi’s Orfeo to Marie in Wozzeck, of which
she gave the Italian première (1942, Rome).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (R. Celletti); GV (R. Celletti; R. Vegeto)
L. Morris Hall: ‘Gabriella Gatti’, Record Collector, xxxi (1986), 171–229
[with discography]
RODOLFO CELLETTI/VALERIA PREGLIASCO GUALERZI

Gatti, Guido M(aggiorino)

(b Chieti, 30 May 1892; d Grottaferrata, nr Rome, 10 May 1973). Italian
musicologist, editor and administrator. He began to play the violin when he
was six and the piano when he was 12, and after schooling in Chieti he
studied engineering at the University of Turin (1909–14). At 20 he was
made editor-in-chief of the weekly Riforma musicale, published in 1913–15
and briefly in 1918; concurrently he organized concerts of contemporary
chamber music in Turin. He founded and edited Il pianoforte (1920–27),
which in 1928 became the Rassegna musicale (later with Ronga and Mila
as co-editors); after an interruption during the war (1944–6) it moved to
Rome (1947), where it subsequently became Quaderni della Rassegna
musicale (1962). He also founded Studi musicali (1972–3). The first
Congresso Italiano di Musica (Turin, 1921) was held partly under the
auspices of Gatti's journal Rivista musicale italiana. He was also editor of
several series: I Grandi Musicisti, I Maestri della Musica, I Grandi Interpreti
and Symposium. He was editor, with Basso, of La musica (1966–71) and
music editor of the Dizionario letterario Bompiani delle opere e dei
personaggi (1946–50) and the Dizionario letterario Bompiani degli autori
(1956–7).
Gatti's keen musical insight, coupled with rare administrative capabilities,
enabled him to realize several projects successfully: he was director-
general of the Teatro di Torino (1925–31), secretary-general of the first
Maggio Musicale Fiorentino (1933) and secretary-general of the
international congresses of music held in Florence (1933, 1935, 1936). He
was also active as administrator of Lux films (1934–66), and as music critic
of the weekly Tempo (1951–69). His own research, generally directed
towards modern music, resulted in the series ‘Musicisti stranieri’ (later
‘Musicisti contemporanei’), consisting of articles on (3) Eugene Goossens,
Malipiero, Grovlez, Casella, Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Perrachio, Debussy,
Ireland, Pratella, Alfano and Bloch, that appeared in La critica musicale
(1918–20) and the book Musicisti moderni d'Italia e di fuori (1920). His
sympathetic appreciation of his contemporaries is also evident in the
librettos he provided for Ghedini (Gringoire, unperf.) and Davico (La
dogaressa), as well as the numerous compositions dedicated to him. He
gave unfailing encouragement and support to young composers and
musicologists; in 1950 he founded the Amfiparnaso, a theatrical enterprise
in Rome which in its one brief season presented Il turco in Italia (with
Callas) and Petrassi's Morte dell'aria, Dallapiccola's Job and Tommasini's Il
tenore sconfitto, all specially commissioned. He served as vice-president of
the Accademia di S Cecilia (1966–72), president of the Accademia
Filarmonica Romana (1953–5) and president of the Società Aquilana dei
Concerti (1969–73). In 1956 he received a gold medal from the Ministry of
Education.
WRITINGS
I ‘Lieder’ di Schumann (Turin, 1914)
Figure di musicisti francesi (Turin, 1915)
Giorgio Bizet (Turin, 1915)
Musicisti moderni d'Italia e di fuori (Bologna, 1920, 2/1925)
‘Débora e Jaèle’ di I. Pizzetti: guida attreverso il poema e la musica (Milan,
1922)
Le barbier de Séville de Rossini (Paris, ?1924)
with A. Della Corte: Dizionario di musica (Turin, 1925, 6/1959, Sp. trans.,
1949, 2/1965)
‘Quelques caractéristiques de la musique italienne contemporaine’, EMDC,
II/i (1925), 146–58
Ildebrando Pizzetti (Turin, 1934, 2/1955; Eng. trans., 1951/R)
ed., with L. Dallapiccola: F.B. Busoni: Scritti e pensieri sulla musica
(Florence, 1941, 2/1954)
Introduction to L'opera di Gian Francesco Malipiero (Treviso, 1952)
Cinquanta anni di opera e balletto in Italia (Rome, 1954)
‘Italian Opera in the Twentieth Century’, Opera Annual, iii (1956–7), 73–8
‘“L'armonia del mondo”, ultima opera di P. Hindemith’, Nuova antologia, xcii
(1957), 383–8
ed., with F. D'Amico: Alfredo Casella (Milan, 1958)
Victor de Sabata (Milan, 1958)
‘Rileggendo le opere di Puccini’, Giacomo Puccini, ed. C. Sartori (Milan,
1959), 89–108
‘The Music-Drama of Ildebrando Pizzetti’, Opera Annual, vii (1960–61), 94–
101
‘The Development of the Florence Festival’, Opera (1961), festival issue,
9–13
with A. Basso: La musica: enciclopedia storica, i–iv (Turin, 1966); La
musica: dizionario, i–ii (Turin, 1968–71)
‘Torino musicale del passato’, NRMI, i (1967), 80–88, 319–28, 559–67
ed. M. Bernardi: Riccardo Gualino e la cultura torinese: le manifestazioni
del Teatro di Torino (Turin, 1971)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Casella: ‘Lettera a Guido M. Gatti’, RaM, xvi (1943), 200–01
L. Pestalozza, ed.: La rassegna musicale: antologia (Milan, 1966), esp.
pp.ix–clxxxv
A. Basso: ‘Guido M. Gatti (1892–1973)’, Studi musicali, ii (1973), 3–14
F. D'Amico: ‘La parte di Gatti e quelle di Labroca’, NRMI, vii (1973), 171–5
‘Testimonianze, studi e ricerche in onore di Guido M. Gatti (1892–1973)’,
Quadrivium, xiv (1973) [memorial issue: incl. list of writings and
correspondence with Guido Alberto Fano]
CAROLYN GIANTURCO

Gatti, Luigi (Maria Baldassare)

(b nr Mantua, 11 June 1740; d Salzburg, 1 March 1817). Italian composer.
He probably received his earliest musical training in Mantua, where his first
opera, Alessandro nell’Indie was well received in 1768 and where he
became a tenor at the church of S Barbara. The maestro di cappella, G.B.
Pattoni, described him as a ‘reliable tenor … as well as a good organist
and composer’ (29 January 1768). In 1770 he met the Mozarts, then on
their first Italian journey, and copied one of Wolfgang’s masses (probably
k66). In 1773 he competed unsuccessfully to become Pattoni’s successor
and on 16 July 1779 was appointed vice-maestro of S Barbara. For the
inauguration of the Teatro Scientifico, the private theatre of the Reale
Accademia of Mantua, he wrote the cantata Virgilio e Manto (1769). He
served the academy as secondo maestro until 1783, composing occasional
works such as Il certame of 1771 (with dialogue spoken by members of the
academy). Even after he left Mantua, his music was performed at the
academy: his oratorio La madre dei Maccabei (1775), revised and
enlarged, had 14 performances at the Teatro Scientifico in 1793.
In 1778 Salzburg Cathedral began negotiations with Gatti, though he did
not want to leave Mantua then for more than two or three months. On 14
February 1783 he became the last Italian Kapellmeister of the Salzburg
court and cathedral. Leopold Mozart had sought the post and his
disparaging remarks may reflect jealousy (letter to Wolfgang, 12 October
1782). However, Wolfgang showed respect for Gatti when, on 22 January
1783, he asked his father to have Gatti procure an Italian libretto for him. In
Salzburg Gatti directed the chapel boys’ choir (after 1796), taught
composition (his principal student was J.J. Fuetsch), composed much
sacred music for the cathedral and compiled a thematic catalogue of the
music in its library. He composed a mass based on Haydn’s Creation
(autograph in I-OS) and also adapted Haydn’s oratorio for keyboard. He is
mentioned in other Mozart correspondence (1782–6) and in letters of
Nannerl to Breitkopf & Härtel (1801–4), when Gatti was helping her locate
some of her brother’s scores. Gatti also wrote letters to this publisher
(1803–6), which before World War II were in their archive.
Few of Gatti’s works were published in his lifetime, though a large number
are extant in manuscript copies (especially in A-Sd, I-OS and A-KR). A
good proportion of these manuscripts are autographs, frequently showing
extensive revision. The works reveal a composer of great facility and
assuredness. His instrumental pieces have the melodic fluidity and lyricism
that would be expected of a composer whose roots lay in vocal, and
especially operatic, writing. They contain considerable rhythmic flexibility,
and the suavity is enhanced by frequent charming and surprising details.
He composed in the forms typical of his time, but achieved a fine variety
through changes of texture and rhythm so that phrases are not often
repeated exactly. There are also many interesting harmonic excursions,
 particularly at the beginning of development sections. Gatti had a
predilection for the oboe, although he was not trained on that instrument.
While there is little interest in virtuosic display, per se, his instrumental
parts are always interesting and often challenging. He did not generally
explore extremes of range, but his F major oboe quartet (dating from about
1806) takes the oboe part up to g''' and is one of the earliest such
passages written for the instrument.
WORKS
opere serie
Alessandro nell’Indie (P. Metastasio), Mantua, Ducal, 24 Jan 1768, P-La, 1 aria I-
MAav
Nitteti (Metastasio), Mantua, Ducal, spr. 1773, arias GB-Lbl, D-Dl (2), D-WRtl, I-Bc,
Gl, OS, S-Skma
Armida (G. de Gamerra), Mantua, Ducal, 29 Jan 1775, 2 arias D-Dl, 1 aria I-Mc
Olimpiade (Metastasio), Salzburg, Hof, 30 Sept 1775, arias I-Gl, OS*, Tf, P-La (Act
1 only), duet D-WRtl
Antigono (Metastasio), Milan, Scala, 3 Feb 1781, with some music by Anfossi; F-Pc,
arias I-Mc, OS*, P-La (Act 3 only)
Demofoonte (Metastasio), Mantua, Ducal, 12 May 1787, arias I-Rsc, S-Skma,
quartetto Skma, ?duetto I-MAav

Arias in: A-Wgm, Sca, D-Dl, I-Gl, MAav, Mc, OS; 1 pubd (London, n.d.)
oratorios
La madre dei Maccabei, Mantua, Scientifico, 2 April 1775; rev. Mantua, Scientifico,
27 Feb 1793; I-OS*, copies Pca, Gl, aria, duet, trio MAav, aria Mc
Il martiro dei SS. Nazario e Celso, Brescia, for completion of church of S Nazarius
and S Celsus, 1780; score, pts, Pca*
Il voto di Jefte, 1794, collab. V. Benatti, L. Caruso; OS*
Abel’s Tod (after Metastasio), Salzburg, 23 July 1806, possibly perf. in It., Mantua,
1788; OS*, copies A-Wn, I-Gl
Il trionfo di Gedeone, Fc
other works
Ballets: Germanico in Germania (I. Gambuzzi), Milan, Interinale, 27 Dec 1777; Il
ratto delle Sabine (S. Gallet), Mantua, April 1780; La grotta di Merlino, Salzburg,
1808
Cants. and occasional works: Virgilio e Manto, Mantua, Scientifico, 3 Dec 1769; Il
certame, Mantua, Scientifico, 1771; Cantata (G.B. Bugnanza), Mantua, Scientifico,
for the wedding of Archduke Ferdinand, June or early July 1775; Cantata in lode del
Principe Arcivescovo di Olmütz, Mantua, Scientifico, 8 March 1778, I-OS*; L’isola
disabitata (cant., Metastasio), Salzburg, 19 Jan 1783; Per il gloriosissimo
anniversario del … ingresso … in Salisburgo di … l’Arciduca Ferdinando (cant.),
Salzburg, c1804, A-Sca; Cantata per le nozze dell’imperatore Francesco I con
Luigia d’Este, 1808, I-OS*; Ino (Ger. text), 1v, pf, Salzburg, 1812; Cantata per il
giorno dell’Epifania, Fc*; Ah! se a me fosse concesso (cant.), S, orch, Mantua,
MAav; Christus verurtheilet, 4vv, ?Salzburg, OS*; German cant. for Hyeronimus
Coloredo, OS*; Il sacrificio ad amore (cant.), OS*; arias in CH-E, D-Dl, HR, WRtl,
HR-Zha, I-MAav, Mc, Tf
Sacred: 11 masses: 5 in A-KR, 3 in D-HR, 1 in D-KZa, 1 in OB, 1 in I-OS* (based on
Haydn’s Creation); 1 Requiem, A-KR; ?4 requiem settings, KR; Ave Maria, 4vv, orch
(Florence, n.d.); Ave maris stella, 4vv, HR-Zha, I-PEd, PEsl; Beatus vir, A-KR; Ecce
sacerdos magnus, KR; Laudate Dominum, KR; lit, HR-Zha; 2 lits, A-KR; Mane
nobiscum Domine, Imf; Meditabor in mandatis, KR; O Jesu mi dulcissime, MS, KR,
HR-Zha; O Maria alma, A-KR; O quam suavis est, HR-Zha*, A-KR; O salutaris
hostia, CH-E; Offertorium de SS Sacramento, A-FK; Pange lingua, CH-E; Quis
Deus magnus, A-KR; Stabat mater, HR-Zha, A-KR; Stupendum, KR; TeD, ed. C.E.
Ruzicka (Fort Lauderdale, FL, 1989), Veritas mea, HR-Zha (?2 copies); other works
in A-Sd, Wgm, Wn, CH-E, GB-Lbl, I-Bc, Fc, Li, OS, Pca
Inst: Concs., hpd, bn, vn, I-OS*; Conc., hpd, orch, HR-Zha; 2 sinfonie, D-DS;
Ouverture, D, I-Mc; Concertone, vn, va, vc, b, 2 ob, 2 hn, orch, MAav; Serenata, 2
vn, ob, 2 hn, bn, str, Salzburg, 1792, OS*; Adagio, ob, orch, OS*; March, fl, str, HR-
Zha; 2 Septuor concertante, ob, str, OS*; Sextet, OS; Qnt, ob, str, OS; Qt, ob, str,
OS*; Qt, ob, vn, va, bc, dated 1806, A-Sca; Trio, cl, va, vc, I-OS*; Trio, 2 fl, b, HR-
Zha; Divertimenti, 2 fl, b; vn, vc, b; vn, eng hn, hpd, I-OS*; Adagio, org [voce
umana], vc, OS; VI sonate, vn, va, A-Sca*; Sonate, vn, va; fl, va; hp, vc, I-OS*;
Sonata terza, fl/vn, vc, hpd, OS*
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LipowskyB
EitnerQ
SchmidlDS
WurzbachL
AMZ, vii (1804–5), 626
J. Peregrinus: Geschichte der salzburgischen Dom-Sängerknaben
(Salzburg, 1889), 94
G.G. Bernardi: La musica nella Reale Accademia Virgiliana di Mantova
(Mantua, 1923), esp. 23–31
W. Hitzig, ed.: Katalog des Archivs von Breitkopf & Härtel, ii (Leipzig,
1926), 10
C. Schneider: Geschichte der Musik in Salzburg (Salzburg, 1935/R), 142,
165
O.E. Deutsch and B. Paumgartner, eds.: Leopold Mozarts Briefe an
seine Tochter (Salzburg, 1936), 60, 110, 328, 350, 421–2
E. Schenk: ‘Mozart in Mantua’, SMw, xxii (1955), 1–29, esp. 15–21
G. Barblan and A. Della Corte, eds.: Mozart in Italia (Milan, 1956), 58–60
A. Kellner: Musikgeschichte des Stiftes Kremsmünster (Kassel, 1956),
552, 599
M. Gemacher: Luigi Gatti: sein Leben und seine Oratorien (diss., U. of
Vienna, 1959)
W.A. Bauer and O.E. Deutsch, eds.: Mozart: Briefe und Aufzeichnungen
(Kassel, 1962–75), i, 305; ii, 373; iii, 221, 237, 252, 254, 309, 409,
559, 626; iv, 405–6, 408, 420, 424ff, 432, 434, 438
W. Senn: ‘Der Catalogus musicalis des Salzburger Doms (1788)’, MJb
1971–2, 182–96
C. Sartori: ‘Nascita, letargo e risveglio della biblioteca Greggiati’, FAM, xxiv
(1977), 126–38
N. Schwindt-Gross: ‘Zwei bisher unbekannte Salzburger “L'isola
disabitata”-Vertonungen’, MISM, xxxvii/1–4 (1989), 161–76
M. Schimek: Musikpolitik in der Salzburger Aufklärung: Musik, Musikpolitik
und deren Rezeption am Hof des Salzburger Fürsterzbischofs
Hieronymus Graf Colloredo (Frankfurt, 1995)
SVEN HANSELL/T. HERMAN KEAHEY
Gatti, Theobaldo [Teobaldo] di
[Théobalde]
(b ?Florence, c1650; d Paris, 1727). French composer, bass viol player
and teacher of Italian birth. According to Titon du Tillet it was the impact on
him of some of Lully’s music that he heard in Florence that prompted him to
move to Paris. He did so about 1675, was granted letters of naturalization
by Louis XIV and was generally known in France simply as ‘Théobalde’. He
made his name in Paris as a teacher of the viol, and he played the bass
viol in the orchestra of the Académie Royale de Musique. He seems to
have enjoyed the protection of the Dowager Princess Conti (an excellent
musician who was taught by François Couperin and d’Anglebert). He
published a Recueil d’airs italiens (Paris, 1696), a set of ten solo songs and
two duets that helped to create a demand for Italian music in France. Two
stage works by him are also known: Coronis, a heroic pastoral to a libretto
by Chappuzeau de Beaugé that was given in Paris in 1691 (manuscripts in
F-Pn, Po and GB-Cfm where it is incorrectly attributed to Lully), and Scylla,
a tragédie lyrique, with a libretto by Duché de Vancy (performed and
published in Paris in 1701). The style of these works has much in common
with that of Lully, but its more individual and lyrical elements are closer to
that of Campra: indeed Scylla to some extent foreshadows the latter’s
Tancrède (1702).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AnthonyFB
E. Titon du Tillet: Le Parnasse françois (Paris, 1732/R)
M. Barthélémy: ‘Theobaldo di Gatti et la tragédie en musique Scylla’,
RMFC, ix (1969), 56–66
MAURICE BARTHÉLÉMY

Gatti-Aldrovandi, Clelia
(b Mantua, 30 May 1901; d Rome, 12 March 1989). Italian harpist. Her
early musical training was at the Liceo Musicale Giuseppe Verdi in Turin.
She made her professional début in Vienna and Berlin in 1921, receiving
artistic advice from Busoni. She encouraged many important composers to
write for solo harp. Casella, Hindemith and Tommasini dedicated sonatas
to her and among works with orchestra she inspired concertos by Mortari,
Pizzetti, Rota, Vlad and Zafred, and a Concertino for harp and six
instruments by Castelnuovo-Tedesco. She was married to the critic and
writer Guido Gatti.
ANN GRIFFITHS

Gatti-Casazza, Giulio
(b Udine, 3 Feb 1869; d Ferrara, 2 Sept 1940). Italian impresario. He
succeeded his father as head of the board of directors of the Teatro
Comunale in Ferrara, 1893, and was later director of La Scala, Milan
(1898–1908). In conjunction with the young Toscanini, he revitalized La
Scala during his tenure; with Toscanini, he was engaged by the
Metropolitan Opera, New York, in 1908. Until 1910 he shared directorial
control with Andreas Dippel and from 1910 to 1935 was sole general
manager, the longest tenure in the history of the Metropolitan. The years
until Toscanini’s resignation (1915) are generally considered the finest in
the history of the house.
Gatti-Casazza brought a thorough-going professionalism to the
Metropolitan, in terms of singers, staging and design, managing an
incredibly large repertory of between 40 and 50 operas in the short season.
Under his aegis, the performance of opera in the original language became
normal. He introduced, though with little success, American operas and
ballets. From Caruso to Flagstad (who appeared first in his final season),
Gatti-Casazza’s roster included major singers and the Metropolitan
became the principal showcase for the designer Josef Urban.
As time wore on, however, a sameness of vision became ever more
evident, and the Depression years exposed the financial and artistic
shakiness of Gatti-Casazza’s cumbersome repertory policies. From 1935
he lived in retirement in Italy. He was married first (1910–28) to the soprano
Frances Alda and from 1930 to the ballerina Rosina Galli. His Memories of
the Opera (New York, 1941; trans. and ed. H. Taubman) cover the years to
1933.
PATRICK J. SMITH

Gatto, Simone [Simon]

(b Venice, 1540–50; d ?Graz, before 1 Feb 1595). Italian composer,
trumpeter and trombonist, active also in Austria. In 1565–6 he served as a
trombonist at Padua Cathedral. Leaving Venice, where presumably he had
been trained, he went to the court at Munich, where from 1568 to 1571 he
was active as a trombonist and in 1568 helped to improvise a comedy with
Lassus, Massimo Troiano and others. Apparently he then returned to
Venice but soon went as trombonist and trumpeter to the court of Archduke
Karl II at Graz, where he pursued a successful career. By 1577 he had
become superintendent of the court instrumentalists and on 1 August 1581
was appointed Kapellmeister in succession to Annibale Padovano (who
had died six years earlier). He recruited singers in Venice (e.g. Giovanni
Battista Galeno in 1584) and was responsible for the purchase of
instruments. After the death of Archduke Karl in 1590 he was entrusted
with the effects of the court band, which was dispersed until the accession
in 1595 of Archduke Ferdinand (who in 1590 was still a minor). He was
also selected in advance to direct the band when it was re-formed, but his
evidently unexpected death prevented his doing so; his successor Pietro
Antonio Bianco was appointed on 1 February 1595. Lodovico Zacconi, a
singer in the court chapel from 1585, included a laudatory reference to him
in his autobiography.
Gatto’s surviving music is almost exclusively sacred and is varied in
character: as with Annibale Padovano, who influenced him, there are works
written in traditional imitative counterpoint and others clearly influenced by
 Venetian music in their sonority and use of double choirs. Music of the
latter kind was ideally suited to the instrumental forces at Graz, which he
helped to develop. The Missa ‘Scarco di doglia’ for five voices (1579) is a
good example of his work in the older, Netherlandish style; it may have
been inspired by a mass of the same name by Lassus, based on the same
well-known madrigal by Rore. Venetian influence is apparent in the Missa
‘Andrà la nave mia’; it is written for two four-part choirs, and the melodic
line no longer dominates. The dialogue principle of the seven-part
Magnificat ‘Alma se stata fossi’ is derived from the dialogue by Bartolomeo
Spontone on which it is based. In both this work and the Magnificat
‘Domine Dominus noster’ (based on a motet by Lassus), Gatto treats the
order of voices in a freer manner within a pseudo-polyphonic texture. Like
Annibale Padovano, Gatto did much to italianize music at the Graz court,
which was the first important centre of Venetian music in Austria.
WORKS
3 masses, 5, 6vv (Venice, 1579); contains ‘Scarco di doglia’, 5vv, ed. H. Federhofer,
DTÖ, xc (Vienna, 1954); ‘Hodie Christus natus est’, 5vv; ‘Dont vient cela’, 6vv
Motectorum … noviter collectorum, 4–8, 10, 12vv (Venice, 1604); 1 ed. in MAM,
xlvii (1979)
Obsecro vos fratres, 8vv, 16111; 1 madrigal, 5vv, 156919
Missa ‘Veni Domine et noli tardare’, 6vv, A-Wn; Missa ‘Aller mi fault’, 5vv, SI-Lu;
Missa ‘Stabunt iusti’, 5vv, Lu; Missa ‘Andrà la nave mia’, 8vv, A-Gu; Missa, 15vv,
Wn
Magnificat ‘Alma se stata fossi’, 7vv, Gu; Magnificat ‘Domine Dominus noster’, 6vv,
Magnificat primi toni, 5vv, both SI-Lu, ed. in DTÖ, cxxxiii (1981); Asperges me, 5vv,
A-Wn
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Federhofer: Musikpflege und Musiker am Grazer Habsburgerhof der
Erzherzöge Karl und Ferdinand von Innerösterreich (1564–1619)
(Mainz, 1967)
G. Gruber: ‘Magnificatkompositionen in Parodietechnik aus dem Umkreis
der Hofkapellen der Herzöge Karl II. und Ferdinand von
Innerösterreich’, KJb, li (1967), 33–60
HELLMUT FEDERHOFER

Gatzmann, Wolfgang.
See Getzmann, Wolfgang.

Gaubert, Philippe
(b Cahors, Lot, 5 July 1879; d Paris, 8 July 1941). French flautist,
conductor and composer. The most celebrated student of Paul Taffanel, he
won a premier prix for flute at the Paris Conservatoire in 1894. He also
studied composition and won second prize in the Prix de Rome in 1905. He
joined the orchestras of the Paris Opéra and Société des Concerts du
Conservatoire in 1897 and was renowned as a soloist. Encouraged by
Taffanel he also pursued a parallel career as a conductor from 1904 when
he became assistant at the Société des Concerts. In 1919, after active
service in World War I, he was appointed principal conductor of the Société
des Concerts and professor of flute at the Conservatoire. The following
year he also became principal conductor at the Opéra, and in 1931 artistic
director. Gaubert was a prolific composer, not only of flute music, but also
of operas, ballets, orchestral works and songs. In style his music is
somewhere between Fauré and Dukas – colourful in harmonic language,
with elegant melodic lines and brilliant, rhapsodic passagework. The supple
and expressive artistry of his playing can be heard on a series of
recordings for the French Gramophone Company in 1919. He collaborated
with Taffanel on a Méthode complète for flute (Paris, 1923).
EDWARD BLAKEMAN

Gauci, Miriam
(b Malta, 3 April 1957). Maltese soprano. She studied in Malta and Milan,
winning international prizes at La Scala, Treviso and Bologna, where she
made her début in Poulenc’s La voix humaine in 1984. Her well-managed
voice, of moderate volume and fine quality, fitted her well for the lyric Italian
repertory and she was soon in demand throughout Europe and the USA. At
Santa Fe in 1987 she made her US début as Butterfly, the role with which
she has become most closely associated. Later that year she appeared as
Mimì in La bohème with Domingo on the opening night of the season at
Los Angeles. In 1992 her recording of Madama Butterfly and a solo recital
aroused wide interest and speculation that here might be a successor to
Mirella Freni. Her career has continued successfully, and though her stage
presence was sometimes felt to lack colour she can be deeply touching in
roles such as Verdi’s Desdemona and Puccini’s Sister Angelica. In 1997
she appeared at the Vienna Staatsoper singing both Margherita and Elena
in Boito’s Mefistofele and was re-engaged for performances of Don Carlos,
Pagliacci and Verdi’s Requiem under Muti.
J.B. STEANE

Gaucquier, Alard du.

See Du Gaucquier, Alard.

Gaudeamus Foundation.
Dutch organization. It was founded in 1945 by Walter A.F. Maas, a Jewish
émigré from Mainz, at Bilthoven in the Netherlands. It is based in the Huize
Gaudeamus, a villa built in the shape of a grand piano by the composer
Julius Röntgen (i), and its aim is the promotion of new music, particularly
that of Dutch composers. From 1947 it held an annual music week of Dutch
compositions and national and international weeks were held alternately
until 1959, when they became fully international. From 1960 the foundation
organized concerts of Dutch music abroad, including tours by the
Gaudeamus Quartet, and in 1963 the International Gaudeamus
Competition for Interpreters of Contemporary Music was inaugurated. More
recently the foundation has held a biannual International Composers'
Workshop, a workshop for young musicians from France, Germany and the
Netherlands, and a number of festivals. The monthly bulletin Gaudeamus
informatie was published from 1965 and the bi-monthly Gaudeamus
Information for international readers from 1967. In 1970 the foundation
joined the Dutch section of the ISCM.

Gaudentius
(fl 3rd–4th century ce). Writer on music. He was the author of a Harmonic
Introduction (Harmonikē eisagōgē), an eclectic mixture of Aristoxenian and
Pythagorean theory, together with a treatment of notation. The statesman
and writer Cassiodorus knew his treatise in a Latin translation credited to
Mutianus (otherwise unknown). He cites Gaudentius both at the very
beginning of the section on music (Institutiones, ii.5) and at the end, where
he singles him out for special praise: ‘if you read him over again with close
attention, he will open to you the courts of this science’ (quem si sollicita
intentione relegatis huius scientiae vobis atria patefaciet). Cassiodorus
clearly made significant use of Gaudentius's treatise in his own treatment
of consonances.
The treatise is transmitted in 31 manuscripts, the earliest of which is I-Rvat
gr.2338 (RISM, B/XI, 234), dating from the late 12th century or early 13th.
Its eclecticism is unusual: it begins as if Gaudentius were an Aristoxenian,
moves abruptly in the middle section to the story of Pythagoras's discovery
of harmonic phenomena, returns to a discussion of the various species of
consonant intervals and concludes with a section devoted to a description
of ancient Greek musical notation. This last section breaks off in the middle
of the Hypoaeolian tonos, but it is probable that the treatise originally
included all 15 tonoi of the ‘younger theorists’ in each genus. As the
treatises survive today, only the tables of Alypius – an author also
mentioned by Cassiodorus – provide a more complete representation of
ancient Greek notation. The consistency of the notational symbols as they
appear in surviving pieces of Greek music and in the treatises of Alypius,
Aristides Quintilianus, Bacchius and Gaudentius attests the importance of
musical notation in antiquity.
The treatments of various topics in Gaudentius's treatise parallel for the
most part treatments found in other treatises, but there are a few unique or
unusual features. His definition of paraphonic notes (§8) is distinct from the
definitions of Bacchius and Theon of Smyrna; and he recognizes (§19) the
possibility of 12 different species of the octave through the various
combinations of the individual species of the 4th and the 5th, although he
concludes that only the traditional seven species of the octave are ‘melodic
and consonant’ (emmelē kai sumphona). Gaudentius regards the 11th as a
consonance (§§9–10); while this is not unprecedented, it is unusual in a
treatise showing some adherence to the Pythagorean tradition. Finally, his
incisive explanation (§20) of the purpose of musical notation and the
reason why there cannot be just a single sign for each note-name (e.g.
proslambanomenos, hypatē hypatōn etc.) is not found in any other treatise.
Gaudentius must have been known throughout the Middle Ages only as a
shadow in the references of Cassiodorus. In the 16th century, however, the
treatise was known to Giovanni Del Lago, Gioseffo Zarlino (Istitutioni
harmoniche, iii.5), Girolamo Mei, Francisco de Salinas (De musica, ii.9)
and others. Meibom included the treatise in his collection of 1652, after
which it became generally known.
WRITINGS
StrunkSR2, i, 66–85 [Harmonic Introduction]
M. Meibom, ed. and trans.: ‘Gaudentii philosophi: Harmonica introductio’,
Antiquae musicae auctores septem (Amsterdam, 1652/R), i
[separately paginated; with parallel Lat. trans.]
K. von Jan, ed.: ‘Gaudenti philosophi harmonica introductio’, Musici
scriptores graeci (Leipzig, 1895/R), 317–56
C.E. Ruelle, trans.: Alypius et Gaudence … Bacchius l'Ancien (Paris,
1895)
L. Zanoncelli, ed. and trans.: ‘Gaudenzio, Introduzione all'armonica’, La
manualistica musicale greca (Milan, 1990), 305–69 [incl. commentary]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Ein vergessenes Problem der antiken Konsonanztheorie’,
Festschrift für Walter Wiora, ed. L. Finscher and C.-H. Mahling
(Kassel, 1967), 164–9
A. Barbera: The Persistence of Pythagorean Mathematics in Ancient
Musical Thought (diss., U. of North Carolina, 1980)
A. Barbera: ‘The Consonant Eleventh and the Expansion of the Musical
Tetraktys’, JMT, xxviii (1984), 191–224
A. Barbera: ‘Octave Species’, JM, iii (1984), 229–41
T.J. Mathiesen: Ancient Greek Music Theory: a Catalogue Raisonné of
Manuscripts, RISM B/XI (1988)
T.J. Mathiesen: Apollo's Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity
and the Middle Ages (Lincoln, NE, 1999), 498–509
THOMAS J. MATHIESEN

Gaudibert, Eric
(b Vevey, 21 Dec 1936). Swiss composer and pianist. After training at the
Lausanne Conservatoire (where he studied the piano with Denise Bidal
and composition with Hans Haug) he continued his studies at the Paris
Ecole Normale de Musique (Alfred Cortot, Jules Gentil and Jeanne
Blancard, piano; Nadia Boulanger and Henri Dutilleux, composition). From
1972 to 1975 he directed the musical activities of the Maison de la Culture
in Orléans. Since returning to Switzerland in 1975 he has worked as a
freelance composer, and has also taught the piano, analysis and
composition at the Geneva Conservatoire and analysis at the Neuchâtel
Conservatoire.
The various influences marking his early works also give a close idea of the
style of his mature and independent compositions: he has adopted sound
patterns with strong tonal colour from Dutilleux, physicality of sound from
Bartók, modal (and polymodal) thinking from Messiaen, and rigorous
development of his material from Stockhausen. The open character of his
 tonal language enables him to integrate different techniques, and passages
in conventional, experimental and aleatory notation quite often occur in
close proximity. Between 1969 and 1976 he also wrote some electro-
acoustic works at the Geneva Centre de Recherches Sonores of Suisse
Romande radio. Since the 1980s a restriction of tonal material has been
evident in his compositions. His use of quotations (from composers
including Stravinsky, Schumann and Machaut) and his critical re-reading of
familiar genres and forms shows his interest in the historical dimension of
music. In 1989 and 1995 he received prizes from the Association Suisse
des Musiciens and the city of Geneva for his work as a composer.
WORKS
Vocal: Ecritures, opéra parlé, 1v, tape, 1973; Chacun son singe, chbr op, S, Bar,
inst ens, tape, 1979; Le regardeur infini, 6 scenes, chorus, nar, perc, hpd, 1991;
Bruit d’ailes, chorus, 1992; Concerto lirico, S, vc, perc
Orch: Divertimento, chbr orch, 1978; Gemmes, 1980; L’écharpe d’Iris, 1984;
Océans, fl, chbr orch, 1988; Ob Conc., 1991; Vc Conc., 1993; Jardins d’est, 1994;
Concertino, cl, str, 1994; Conc. grosso, str, 1998
Chbr: Entre se taire et dire, str qt, 1971; Solstice, pf, tape, 1971; Syzygy, fl, prep pf,
1971; Contrechamp, fl, ob, vc, hpd, 1979; Astrance, wind qnt, 1980; Un jardin pour
Orphée, hn, str, 1985; Orées, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1986; Feuillages, 3 perc, 1988;
Songes/songs, vn, pf, 1988; Songes, bruissements, vn, vc, pf; 3 tableaux, 2 pf,
1993; Canzone, fl, vc, 1998
Works for solo inst

Principal publishers: Hug, Papillon

BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Barras, J. Demierre and A. Zimmerlin: ‘Les oeuvres récentes d’Eric
Gaudibert’, Dissonanz, no.12 (1987), 4–9
J.-L. Matthey: Eric Gaudibert: catalogue des oeuvres (Lausanne, 1993)
E. Gaudibert: ‘Essai sur les différentes catégories du silence musical’, Les
cahiers du CIREM, nos.32–4 (1994), 113–20; repr. Dissonanz, no.45
(1995), 15–17
PATRICK MÜLLER

Gaudio, Cavalier Antonio dal [del]

(b ?Rome; fl 1669–82). Italian composer. According to La Borde he was of
Roman origin, but the libretto of his L'Eudosia (performed Mantua, 1669,
text by di Mileto; music lost) describes him as being from Naples. In 1675,
when he wrote the music for Almerico in Cipro (text by G. Castelli; scores
in I-Vnm and, according to its catalogue, Nc), performed at the Teatro S
Moisè, Venice, he was in the service of Prince Gonzaga, Duke of
Sabbioneta (presumably Gian Francesco II, Duke of Bozzolo). He also
composed Ulisse in Feaccia (performed Venice, 1681; text anon., not by
Filippo Acciaiuoli; music lost), signing the dedication of the libretto for the
Naples performance on 28 January 1682. His only other known works are
a duet for two sopranos and continuo, Ti lascio, anima mia (in Bc and Bsp),
and a cantata, Mentre oppresso (in Nc). The score of Almerico in Cipro
includes most of the aria types common in Venice in the 1670s but is more
than usually stereotyped, repetitive and lacking in invention.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
GerberL
La BordeE
C. Ivanovich: Minerva al tavolino (Venice, 1681, 2/1688)
B.L. Glixon: ‘Scenes from the Life of Silvia Gailarti Manni, a Seventeenth-
Century Virtuosa’, EMH, xv (1996), 97–146
THOMAS WALKER/R

Gauk, Aleksandr Vasil'yevich

(b Odessa, 3/15 Aug 1893; d Moscow, 30 March 1963). Ukrainian
conductor and composer. After studying at the Petrograd (St Petersburg)
Conservatory with Glazunov (composition) and Nikolay Tcherepnin
(conducting), he became conductor at the Petrograd Music Drama Theatre
(1917), and at the State Opera and Ballet Theatre, now the Kirov (1923–
31). He was then chief conductor successively of the Leningrad PO, 1930–
34, of the USSR State SO in Moscow, 1936–41, and of the All-Union RSO,
1953–63. During this period he gave several first performances of works by
Khachaturian, Myaskovsky, Shaporin, Shostakovich and others, and his
conducting was distinguished by his sense of orchestral ensemble and
perception of style. He taught at the conservatories of Leningrad (1927–
33), Tbilisi (1941–3) and Moscow (1939–63), and his pupils included
Mravinsky, Melik-Pashayev, Rabinovich and Svetlanov. His compositions
include a symphony, concertos for piano and harp, and works for strings
and solo piano, and he made orchestral arrangements of works by
Tchaikovsky and Musorgsky (including the latter’s unfinished opera, The
Marriage). He also reconstructed the score of Rachmaninoff’s Symphony
no.1 from the parts found in the Leningrad Conservatory library, and in
1945 restored the work to the concert repertory for the first time since its
initial failure in 1897. Chapters from his memoirs were published as a
collection, Masterstvo muzïkanta-ispol'nitelya (‘The mastery of a musician-
performer’, Moscow, 1972).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Memuarï, izbrannïye stat'i, vospominaniya sovremennikov Aleksandra
Vasil'yevicha Gauka [Memoirs, selected articles, reminiscences of
Gauk’s contemporaries] (Moscow, 1975)
I.M. YAMPOL'SKY

Gaul, Alfred (Robert)

(b Norwich, 30 April 1837; d Birmingham, 13 Sept 1913). English organist,
conductor and composer. He was a chorister in Norwich Cathedral from
1846 and was afterwards articled pupil and assistant to Zechariah Buck.
He became organist at Fakenham and then settled in Birmingham, where
he was organist first at St John’s, Ladywood, and later at St Augustine’s,
Edgbaston. He took the degree of MusB at Cambridge in 1863. He was
appointed conductor of the Walsall Philharmonic Society in 1887 and
taught harmony and counterpoint at the school of music attached to the
Birmingham and Midland Institute, and elsewhere.
Gaul’s compositions, whose superficial fluency won them a wide popularity,
include an oratorio and about a dozen cantatas, many psalm settings,
anthems, hymns, partsongs and piano pieces, some of them pedagogic
works. The most important of his cantatas were all published in London:
Ruth (1881), his best-known work The Holy City (1882), Joan of Arc
(1887), The Ten Virgins (1890), Israel in the Wilderness (1892), Una (1893)
and The Prince of Peace (1903). (Obituary, MT, liv (1913), 661)
J.A. FULLER MAITLAND

Gaultier [Gautier, Gaulthier], Denis

(b Paris, 1597 or 1603; d Paris, 1672). French composer and lutenist. To
distinguish him from his cousin, Ennemond Gaultier, he was often referred
to as ‘Gaultier le jeune’; he was also known as ‘Gaultier de Paris’. He was
a pupil of Charles Racquet, on whose death he wrote a tombeau. Married
in 1635 to Françoise Daucourt, he had one son, Philippe Emmanuel, who
became adviser to the king. Unlike Ennemond, he held no official court
appointment, despite the high esteem in which he was held by the king and
certain of his musicians. He practised his art in the city of Paris and in the
salons, including that of Ninon de L’Enclos. Until 1631, when Ennemond
left Paris, his career was so closely linked with his cousin’s that writers of
the time refer to them without attempting to distinguish between them. Both
had dealings with Blancrocher and L’Enclos and enjoyed a fame at least
equal to that of the lutenists Dufaut, Dubut le père, Jacques Gallot and
Charles Mouton, who were influenced by them and with whom they were
united in expressions of general admiration.
Denis and Ennemond Gaultier are also confused in many French and
foreign printed and manuscript collections of lute music; a number of
pieces are signed simply with the surname. Moreover, it is sometimes
impossible to be certain about the authorship of pieces attributed to ‘Vieux
Gaultier’, ‘Denis Gaultier’, ‘Gaultier de Paris’ or ‘Gaultier le jeune’ since the
same pieces are sometimes ascribed to both in different collections. La
rhétorique des dieux and Pièces de luth sur trois différens modes
nouveaux, which according to the title-pages consist only of works by
Denis Gaultier, include pieces attributed elsewhere to Ennemond. The
Livre de tablature, which Denis Gaultier began and which was completed
after his death by his pupil Montarcis, does however contain an almost
equal number of pieces clearly attributed either to Denis or to Ennemond.
Pièces de luth (c1669) and the Livre de tablature (c1672) both begin with
brief instructions on how to play the lute. La rhétorique des dieux (c1652),
a sumptuous manuscript compiled under the patronage of Anne de
Chambré, is divided into 12 parts, each named after one of the Greek
modes, and is illustrated with engravings after Le Sueur, Abraham Bosse
and Robert de Nanteuil. His output (and that of Ennemond too), which was
 originally entirely for lute, comprises principally dances, some of which are
indicated by subtitles selected from mythology. The two composers
developed the tombeau, which in fact they pioneered in lute music. Their
use of tonality is often more adventurous than that of their predecessors.
Froberger was one of several composers of keyboard music who found
inspiration in the style of their music, not least the textures; some
compositions by the Gaultiers indeed were transcribed for harpsichord in
the 17th century. Perrine also used pieces by them when he experimented
about 1680 with the writing of lute music in staff notation.
WORKS
all for lute

La rhétorique des dieux, c1652, ed. A. Tessier, PSFM, vi–vii (1932/R)

Pièces de luth sur trois différens modes nouveaux (Paris, c1669/R)
Livre de tablature des pièces de Mr. Gaultier Sr. de Nève et de Mr. Gaultier son
cousin (Paris, c16726/R)
Works in: Perrine: Livre de musique pour le luth contenant 1 métode (Paris, 1680);
Pièces de luth en musique avec des règles pour les toucher parfaitement sur le
luth, et sur le clavessin, ed. Perrine (Paris, 1680 6)

For full list of sources see Rollin and Goy

BIBLIOGRAPHY
O. Fleischer: ‘Denis Gaultier’, VMw, ii (1886), 1–180
E.W. Häfner: Die Lautenstücke des Denis Gaultier (Endingen, 1939)
M. Rollin and F.P. Goy, eds.: Oeuvres de Denis Gautier (Paris, 1996)
MONIQUE ROLLIN

Gaultier [Gautier, Gaulthier],

Ennemond
(b Villette, Dauphiné, 1575; d Nèves, nr Villette, 11 Dec 1651). French
composer and lutenist. To distinguish him from his cousin Denis Gaultier,
he was often referred to as ‘le vieux Gaultier’; he was also known as
‘Gaultier de Lyon’ (Lyon is the nearest important city to his birthplace). He
was page to the Duchess of Montmorency in Languedoc. He then served
as valet de chambre to Henri IV’s queen (the former Maria de’ Medici) from
the beginning of her reign in 1600 until her exile in 1631. During these
years he won fame at court as a lutenist and teacher of the lute; about
1630 he was sent to England, where he played before Charles I, Queen
Henrietta Maria and the Duke of Buckingham. He retired to Dauphiné in
1631: presumably this is why none of his works, which were widely
admired, were published during his lifetime.
Lack of publication is one of the factors that have made it so difficult to
separate Ennemond Gaultier’s music (all originally for lute) from that of his
cousin Denis, with whom he was so closely identified: the question is
discussed more fully in the article on Denis Gaultier, as is the nature of
 their music. They were the most important French lutenists of the 17th
century, and their works are the most significant French contribution to the
lute music of the period.
WORKS
For solo lute unless otherwise stated, and ed. with complete sources and concordances in
G; the list includes some works possibly by Denis Gaultier.

Edition: Oeuvres du Vieux Gautier, ed. A. Souris and M. Rollin, CM and Corpus des
luthistes français, unnumbered vol. (Paris, 1966, 2/1980) [G]

printed collections containing works by gaultier

Livre de tablature des pièces de Mr. Gaultier Sr. de Nève et de Mr. Gaultier son
cousin, ed. D. Gaultier, 16726/R
Livre de musique pour le luth contenant une métode, ed. Perrine (Paris, 1680 6)
Pièces de luth en musique avec des règles pour les toucher parfaitement sur le
luth, et sur le clavessin, ed. Perrine, 16806
Suittes faciles pour 1 lute ou un violon et une basse continue de la composition de
Messiers Du Fau, L’Enclos, Pinel … (Amsterdam, 1703)
manuscripts
12 allemandes: Allemande Le Languetock [La pompe funèbre, Le Bucentaure];
Allemande La roze d’or; La tombeau de L’Enclos; The Loss of the Golden Rose
Lute; Tombeau de Mezangeau; 7 untitled allemandes
6 canaries: Chevreau; La chèvre; Le loup; 3 untitled canaries (incl. 1 for 2 lutes)
3 chaconnes
32 courantes: L’adieu; La belle homicide; Le canon; La Champré; La conquérante;
Courante des anges; Courante du someil; Cleopatre amante; Diane; L’immortelle
(2 lutes); Les larmes de Boisset (2 lutes); La petite bergère; La pleureuse;
Rossignol; La superbe; 17 untitled courantes
10 gigues: Carillon; La poste; Testament de Mezangeau; 7 untitled gigues
Pavanne; 7 sarabandes; Volte
Several kbd transcrs. of works originally for lute
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Brenet: ‘Notes sur l’histoire du luth en France’, RMI, v (1898), 637–76;
vi (1899), 1–44; pubd separately (Turin, 1899/R)
J. Ecorcheville: ‘Le luth et sa musique’, BSIM, iv (1908), 131–64
L. de La Laurencie: Les luthistes (Paris, 1928)
M. Rollin: Introduction to Oeuvres du Vieux Gautier, ed. A. Souris and M.
Rollin, CM and Corpus des luthistes français, unnumbered vol. (Paris,
1966, 2/1980)
MONIQUE ROLLIN

Gaultier, Jacques.
See Gautier, Jacques.

Gaultier, Pierre.
See Gautier, Pierre (i).

Gaultier de Marseille.
See Gautier, Pierre (ii).

Gauntlett, Henry John

(b Wellington, Shropshire, 9 July 1805; d London, 21 Feb 1876). English
organist, composer and critic. He was the son of a well-known evangelical
clergyman, Henry Gauntlett, who was curate of Olney, Buckinghamshire,
from 1811 and vicar from 1815. The vicar appointed his son organist at the
age of ten, and he held the post for ten years. But in spite of the boy's
remarkable talent and Attwood's wish to take him as a pupil, his father had
him articled to a London solicitor in 1826. He became a solicitor in 1831,
and practised law successfully for 15 years. Meanwhile he became
organist of St Olave's, Southwark, in 1827, and took further lessons from
Samuel Wesley. He soon became recognized as a brilliant organist. From
about 1836 he began his ultimately successful campaign to introduce the C
organ compass long preferred on the Continent; at Christ Church Newgate
Street, where he was evening organist, the transformation was made in
time to allow Mendelssohn to play some of Bach's larger organ works in
autumn 1837. In 1846 he was chosen by Mendelssohn to play the organ
part in the production of Elijah at Birmingham, which he did from the full
score, to the composer's entire satisfaction.
Thistlethwaite lists 20 organs designed by Gauntlett between 1838 and
1849, mostly built by William Hill, which ‘may be said to have delineated
the principal features of the mature Victorian organ’. It was Gauntlett's
imagination and energy that established the ‘German’ organ design and
compass that made possible both the accompaniment of a reformed style
of congregational singing and the effective performance of the works of
Bach. Gauntlett also took out a patent for electric action in 1852. After
resigning his post at St Olave's in 1846, he later held other organists' posts,
notably at the Union Chapel, Islington, from 1853 to 1861: while there, he
collaborated with the minister, the Rev. Dr Henry Allon, in the production of
the influential Congregational Psalmist (1858). In 1842 he had been given
the degree of Doctor of Music by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
From 1839 until the end of his life Gauntlett was constantly engaged in the
compilation of hymnbooks and in the composition of hymn tunes and
chants; his own tunes probably exceed 1000 in number. They are generally
of the plainer type, free from the sensuous chromatics of Dykes and
Barnby; many have remained popular, above all ‘Irby’ (1849), which, linked
with Mrs Cecil Frances Alexander's carol Once in royal David’s city, is a
permanent part of Christmas to millions of people. Gauntlett's musical
tastes were wide-ranging, from the popular vein of melody found in many
of his hymn tunes to the choral music and organ fugues of Bach. He was
an enthusiastic advocate of Gregorian plainsong, though he did not
necessarily hold Tractarian views in other matters.
 Although his work as performer and composer was concerned with church
music alone, as a lecturer and critic he revealed wider musical sympathies.
Much of his literary work is hidden away in musical periodicals and in the
prefaces to unsuccessful hymnbooks. He was a frequent contributor to,
and for a time editor of, the Musical World in 1836–7; an article by him on
the ‘Characteristics of Beethoven’, treating the composer's late style
sympathetically, attained a more than temporary celebrity. He also
contributed articles to the Sun, Morning Post, Morning Chronicle, Christian
Remembrancer, Notes and Queries, Orchestra (intermittently, 1864–73),
and British Quarterly Review (on Rossini, 1869), and in 1850–51 he
founded and edited a monthly called the Church Musician. (An earlier
attempt at founding a serious music journal, said by Gauntlett to have
secured promised contributions from Moscheles, Klingemann, A.B. Marx,
Schumann and Chorley among others, failed in 1840.) In the last year of
his life he was writing articles for the newly founded Concordia. He was
also a notable collector of early music: his library, which he sold as early as
1847 and in 1849, included some extremely rare early theory books
(Diruta, Gaffurius and Salinas among them) and two large 16th-century
manuscripts of organ music. Gauntlett's outspoken views and theories,
however, and his eagerness to achieve recognition, disaffected some of his
fellow critics. Holmes and Davison, for example, considered him
pretentious and pedantic. But Mendelssohn had a more positive opinion,
according to an obituary in The Athenaeum:
His literary attainments, his knowledge of the history of music,
his acquaintance with acoustical laws, his marvellous
memory, his philosophical turn of mind, as well as practical
experience, render him one of the most remarkable
professors [i.e. professional musicians] of the age.
WORKS
The Song of the Soul, 12 canzonets (London, 1877); other songs
Many anthems, 10 listed in Foster
Hymn tunes and chants; organ pieces and arrs.
The Congregational Psalmist (London, 1858); many other collections of psalm and
hymn tunes, chants, anthems, other church music, 25 listed in DNB
WRITINGS
ed., with others: The Comprehensive Tune Book (1846)
Notes, Queries and Exercises in the Science and Practice of Music
(London, 1859)
Articles in British Quarterly Review, Christian Remembrancer, Church
Musician, Concordia, Morning Chronicle, Morning Post, Musical World,
Notes and Queries, Orchestra, Sun
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DNB (J.A. Fuller Maitland)
Grove1 (W.H. Husk) [with list of publications]
MGG1 (A. Niland)
H. Gauntlett: Sermons (London, 1835) [with a memoir by his daughter]
Correspondence: H.J. Gauntlett with W. Ayrton, 25 July 1840 (GB-Lbl
Add.52339, item 53)
 Obituaries, The Athenaeum (1876), pt.1, no.2522, p.305–6; Musical
Standard, x (1876), 134
Royal Literary Fund, case file 1988 (March 1876) [application of his widow,
Mrs Henrietta Gipps Gauntlett, for financial assistance]
M.B. Foster: Anthems and Anthem Composers (London, 1901/R)
‘Dr. Gauntlett: his Centenary’, MT, xlvi (1905), 455–6
A.H. King: Some British Collectors of Music c.1600–1960 (Cambridge,
1963), 45–6
L. Langley: The English Musical Journal in the Early Nineteenth Century
(diss., U. of North Carolina, 1983)
N. Thistlethwaite: The Making of the Victorian Organ (Cambridge, 1990),
185–95
N. Thistlethwaite: ‘The Hill-Gauntlett Revolution: an Epitaph?’, JBIOS, xvi
(1992), 50–59
NICHOLAS TEMPERLEY

Gaussin, Allain
(b St Sever, Calvados, 6 Nov 1943). French composer. He abandoned his
scientific studies at the age of 20 to devote himself to studying music at the
Paris Conservatoire (1966–76), where he won a first prize for composition
(in Messiaen’s class). He also studied electro-acoustic music with Pierre
Schaeffer (1973–5). Between 1981 and 1992 Gaussin taught composition
and orchestration at the Schola Cantorum in Paris. He has been professor
of composition and orchestration in the Paris municipal conservatories
since 1991. He won the SACEM prize in 1983 and 1989, and the Grand
Prix du Disque for Irisation-rituel, Camaïeux and Arcane in 1995. He held
bursaries from the Académie de France in Rome between 1977 and 1979,
from the DAAD in Berlin in 1985, and from the Villa Kujoyama in Kyoto in
1994.
Gaussin also writes poetry, and sees his composition as an essential part
of a vast poetic project going beyond craftsmanship, using sound as a
material. His music makes its mark through its particularly energetic
concept of sound (Colosseo, Eclipse, Irisation-rituel), its distinctive melodic
sense (Ogive) and its use of striking gestures to clarify structure (Chakra,
Arcane, Mosaïque céleste). An independent spirit, Gaussin is not aligned
with post-serialism, spectral music or the use of technology in his music,
but affirms his individuality in a free synthesis of various techniques.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ogive, (12 str, hpd)/(12 str), 1977, arr. fl, hpd, 1977, arr fl, pf, 1987; Colosseo, 6
perc. 1978; Eclipse, 2 pf, 16 insts, 1979; Irisation-rituel (Gaussin), opt., spkr, S, fl,
orch, 1980; Eau-forte, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1982; Camaïeux, 3 synth, elec gui, tape
1983; Chakra, str qt, 1984; Arcane, pf, 1988; Années-lumière, orch, 1992–3;
Mosaïque céleste, 11 insts, 1997

Principal publishers: Ricordi, Salabert

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Gaussin: Transes et lumière (Paris, 1976)
I. Stoianova: ‘Klangliche Irisierungen: ein Portrait des französischen
Komponisten Allain Gaussin’, MusikTexte, no.16 (1986), 4–8
J.-N von der Weid: ‘Allain Gaussin’, Silences, iii (1986), 268–9
M. Thion: La musique contemporaine en France (Paris, 1994)
J.-N. von der Weid: La musique du XXe siècle (Paris, 1996)
IVANKA STOÏANOVA

Gauterius de Castello Rainardi

[Gauthier of Château-renard
(Bouches-du-Rhône)].
Composer. He is known only from the 12th-century Calixtine manuscript
(E-SC), which credits him with two-part settings of the Kyrie Cunctipotens
genitor and a Benedicamus domino as well as the discant of a conductus,
Regi perhennis glorie. A monophonic version of the conductus appears
elsewhere in the manuscript, notated a 4th higher and ascribed to ‘a
certain Gallican doctor’. Gauterius has sometimes been identified
circumstantially with Galterus, a cantor at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in
the 12th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. López-Calo: La musica medieval en Galicia (La Coruña, 1982), 48, 51
J. López-Calo: La musica en la Catedral de Santiago, v: la edad media
(La Coruña, 1984), 307–17, 356, 406, 412
SARAH FULLER

Gautier, Denis.
See Gaultier, Denis.

Gautier, Ennemond.
See Gaultier, Ennemond.

Gautier, (Jean-François-)Eugène
(bVaugirard, Paris, 27 Feb 1822; d Paris, 1 April 1878). French composer,
teacher and critic. At the Paris Conservatoire he studied the violin with
Habeneck and composition with Halévy, winning the Second Prix de Rome
in 1842. He played first violin at the Opéra (1838) and the Société des
Concerts du Conservatoire (1846), and became assistant conductor at the
Opéra-National (1847–8). His association with opera continued at the
Théâtre Italien, where from about 1849 to 1852, and again from 1863 to
1864, he was chef des choeurs. The Opéra-National, later the Théâtre
Lyrique, presented most of Gautier’s early operas. His most popular work
 there, the opéra comique Flore et Zéphire (1852), had 126 performances
as a curtain-raiser. Though some critics found the harmony complicated
and the orchestration too rich, Berlioz praised the score’s freshness and
skilful orchestration, and the elegant and lively style of the melodies.
Gautier’s greatest success came with another light one-act opera, Le
mariage extravagant (1857, revived in 1871), presented 175 times by the
Opéra-Comique. Its score includes an overture whose orchestral style
comes close to that of Auber. The most remarked-upon piece, given an
encore at the première, consists of light, catchy couplets for the madman
Darmancé, a comic bass. Gautier was appointed professor of harmony at
the Conservatoire in 1864, and largely gave up composing for the theatre,
although in 1866 he provided translations of Don Giovanni and Der
Freischütz for the Théâtre Lyrique; in 1872 he became professor of music
history. As a music critic he occasionally wrote articles for Le ménestrel, the
Grand journal and Le constitutionnel, and from 1874 he wrote regularly for
the Journal officiel. He also wrote a book: Un musicien en vacances (Paris,
1873). At his death his writing was described as ‘a bit virulent’ as well as
‘not always kindly nor very scrupulous in questions of scholarship’; he was,
however, generally regarded as a skilful composer of second rank who
continued Auber’s tradition. At their best his opéras comiques show
sparkling orchestration, clean phrasing and good taste.
WORKS
first performed in Paris unless otherwise stated

all printed works published in Paris

stage
Le club des arts (?oc), ov. only, Conservatoire, Nov 1843, F-Pc*
L’anneau de Mariette (oc, 1, L. Jourdain, after Laurencin [P.-D.-A. Chapelle] and E.
Cormon [P.-E. Piestre]), Versailles, 12 June 1845; as L’anneau de la marquise,
Paris, Spectacles-Concerts, 20 Dec 1848, Pc* (inc.)
Léona, ou Le parisien en corse, 1847 (?oc), unorchd, Pc*
Les barricades de 1848 (opéra patriotique, 1, E.-L.-A. Brisebarre and Saint-Yves [E.
Déaddé]), Opéra-National, 6 March 1848, collab. A. Pilati
Le marin de la garde (oc, 1, Saint-Yves), Beaumarchais, 21 June 1849, Pc*, vs
(n.d.)
Murdock le bandit (oc, 1, A. de Leuven and an unknown librettist), Opéra-National,
23 Oct 1851, vs (1852)
Flore et Zéphire (oc, 1, de Leuven and C. Deslys), Lyrique, 2 Oct 1852, Pc*, vs
(1853)
Choisy-le-roi (oc, 1, de Leuven and M. Carré), Lyrique, 14 Oct 1852
Le lutin de la vallée (légende, 2, Carré, J.E. Alboize de Pujol and A. Saint-Léon [C.-
V-.A. Michel]), Lyrique, 22 Jan 1853, Po (? partly autograph)
Le danseur du roi (opéra-ballet, 2, Carré, Alboize and Saint-Léon), Lyrique, 22 Oct
1853, ? collab. Saint-Léon
Schahabaham II (opéra bouffon, 1, de Leuven and Carré), Lyrique, 31 Oct 1854,
Pc, vs (?1855)
Le mariage extravagant (oc, 1, Cormon, after M.-A.-M. Désaugiers and J.-J.-C.
Mourier), OC (Favart), 20 June 1857, Pc*, vs (1857)
La bacchante (oc, 2, de Leuven and A. de Beauplan [A. Dumas père]), OC (Favart),
4 Nov 1858, Pc*
Le docteur Mirobolan (oc, 1, Cormon and H. Trianon, after N. de Hauteroche:
Crispin médecin), OC (Favart), 28 Aug 1860, Pc*, vs (1861)
Jocrisse (oc, 1, Cormon and Trianon), OC (Favart), 10 Jan 1862, Pc*, vs (1862)
Le trésor de Pierrot (oc, 2, Cormon and Trianon), OC (Favart), 5 Nov 1864, Pc*
La clé d’or (comédie lyrique, 3, O. Feuillet and L. Gallet), National Lyrique, 14 Sept
1877, Pc*, vs (1877)
Bulfarargue (opéra), ?inc., unperf., Pc*
La pagode (oc), unperf., Pc
Romance in La poularde de Caux (opérette, 1, de Leuven and V. Prilleux), Palais
Royal, 17 May 1861, vs (1861), collab. L. Clapisson and others
choral
Sacred: Ave Maria, S, A, T, B, org, 1855, F-Pc*; La mort de Jésus (orat); O salutaris,
T, SATB, org, Pc*; Les sept paroles de Christ, T, SATB, orch, ?1855, Pc*
Prix de Rome cants.: La reine Flore (de Pastoret), 1842, Pc*, ballade, vs (Paris,
1842); Le chevalier enchanté (de Pastoret), 1843, Pc*; Imogine (Vieillard), 1845,
Pc*; Vélasquez (Doucet), 1846, Pc*
Other secular: Hymne à Bacchus, SATB, orch, Pc*; Fantaisie sur des vieux airs
français, S, SATB, pf, 1855, Pc*; Cantate pour le 15 août (E. Pacini), 1861; Le
bouquet de fête (?cant.), inc., unperf., Pc*
other works
Songs: Le postillon du roi (St Preux) (Paris, 1844); Les larmes, F-Pc*; Villanelle and
other songs, mentioned in the press
Fugues, misc. drafts for voice and pf, and for orch, Pc*, Pn*
Allegro pour orchestre, lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
FétisBS
MGG1 (E. Haraszti)
F. Clément and P. Larousse: Dictionnaire lyrique (Paris, 1867–81); ed. A.
Pougin as Dictionnaire des opéras (2/1897, 3/1905)
Obituaries: Art musical, xvii (1878), 111; RGMP, xlv (1878), 111
L. Gallet: Notes d’un librettiste (Paris, 1891)
A. Soubies and C. Malherbe: Histoire de l’Opéra-Comique (Paris, 1892)
C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation:
documents historiques et administratifs (Paris, 1900)
T.J. Walsh: Second Empire Opera (London, 1981)
LESLEY A. WRIGHT

Gautier, François.
See Franz, Paul.

Gautier [Gaultier], Jacques

[Gwaltier, James]
(b late 16th century; d before 1660). French lutenist and composer. He was
sometimes known as ‘Gautier d’Angleterre’; he was probably not related to
Denis and Ennemond Gaultier nor to Pierre Gautier (i) and certainly not to
Pierre Gautier (ii). He left France in 1617 after being involved in a murder
and fled to England, where he was attached to the court from 1625. He is
mentioned in court records until about 1649, and his post was given to
John Rogers at the Restoration in 1660. In 1627 he was imprisoned in the
Tower of London and tortured for making scandalous remarks about King
Charles I, his patron the Duke of Buckingham and Queen Henrietta Maria,
whom he taught the lute. He seems to have been restored to favour by
about 1629, when he sat for the portraitist Ian Lievens, probably at court.
He went to the Netherlands in 1630 and later to Madrid, where he
performed before the court; he may at that time have been Van Dyck’s
model for a portrait now in the Prado (see illustration). He took part in the
masque The Triumph of Peace in 1634 and in Britannia triumphans in
1637. Contemporaries praised his brilliant, accurate and smooth playing;
for example Constantijn Huygens, who corresponded with him,
complimented his playing in 1622. A few of Gautier’s compositions are
found in manuscripts (D-ROu, GB-En).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LafontaineKM
W.J.A. Jonckbloet and J.P.N. Land, eds.: Correspondance et oeuvres
musicales de Constantin Huygens (Leiden, 1882), pp.ccvii ff
M. Brenet: ‘Notes sur l’histoire du luth en France’, RMI, vi (1899), 1–44,
esp. 26; pubd separately (Turin, 1899/R)
L. de La Laurencie: ‘Le luthiste Jacques Gaultier’, ReM, v/3 (1923–4), 32–
9
I. Spink: ‘Another Gaultier Affair’, ML, xlv (1964), 345–7
MONIQUE ROLLIN

Gautier, Judith
(b Paris, 25 Aug 1845; d St-Enogat, Britanny, 26 Dec 1917). French author
and writer on music. She was the daughter of Théophile Gautier and
Ernesta Grisi, a cousin of the dancer Carlotta Grisi and sister of Giulia and
Giuditta Grisi. Already an ardent partisan of Wagner at 16 (during the
interval at the first performance of Tannhäuser in Paris she had rebuked
Berlioz for his obvious delight in Wagner’s humiliation), she married his
leading French spokesman Catulle Mendès in 1866. They visited Wagner
at Triebschen in 1869, and separated in 1874. Two years later she went to
Bayreuth, where she began a liaison with Wagner; its importance to him
during the composition of Parsifal is reflected both in his letters to her and
in the opera itself. In 1893 she established a marionette theatre in Paris, at
which she produced Parsifal in her own French translation.
WRITINGS
Richard Wagner et son oeuvre poétique depuis Rienzi jusqu’à Parsifal
(Paris, 1882; Eng. trans., 1883)
Les musiques bizarres à l’Exposition de 1900 (Paris, 1900)
Le collier des jours [memoirs], i–iii (Paris, 1902–9/R; Eng. trans. of iii, 1910
as Wagner at Home)
Le roman d’un grand chanteur [Mario di Candia] (Paris, 1912)
Articles on Wagner in several journals, incl. ‘Richard Wagner chez lui’, Le
rappel (3 Aug 1869)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Schuh: ‘Die Freundschaft Richard Wagners mit Judith Gautier’, Die
Briefe Richard Wagners an Judith Gautier, ed. W. Schuh (Zürich and
Leipzig, 1936)
M.D. Camacho: Judith Gautier, sa vie et son oeuvre (Paris, 1939) [with list
of writings]
L. Guichard, ed.: Richard et Cosima Wagner: Lettres à Judith Gautier
(Paris, 1964)
E. Brody: ‘La famille Mendès: a Literary Link between Wagner and
Debussy’, MR, xxxiii (1972), 177–89
I. Cazeaux: ‘La part de la musique dans la vie et l'oeuvre de Judith
Gautier’, Théophile Gautier et la musique: Montpellier 1986, 107–13
R. Sabor: ‘Judith Gautier’, Wagner, xi (1990), 119–34
BRUCE CARR

Gautier [Gaultier], Pierre (i)

(b Orleans, 1599; d after 1638). French composer and lutenist, active in
Italy. He was sometimes called ‘Gautier d’Orléans’ and ‘Gautier de Rome’;
he was not related to Denis and Ennemond Gaultier, Jacques Gautier and
Pierre Gautier (ii), but he may be identified with Pierre Gautruche, a Jesuit
from Orléans who was a teacher at Caen from 1640 and the author of
some pedagogical works in Latin. Among these, Philosophiae ac
mathematicae totius institutis (Vienna, 1661) includes an important section
Musica inspired by Mersenne’s Harmonie universelle (1636–7); it appeared
in numerous new editions in France and abroad up until the beginning of
the 18th century. Pierre Gautier’s Oeuvres (Rome, 1638) consists of lute
pieces arranged according to their keys; it is dedicated to Prince Johann
Anton d’Eggenberg, Duke of Crumau, who was the imperial ambassador
extraordinary to Pope Urban VIII in 1638. (M. Rollin, ed.: Oeuvres de
Pierre Gautier, Paris, 1984)
MONIQUE ROLLIN

Gautier, Pierre (ii) [Gaultier de

Marseille]
(b La Ciotat, ?1642; d at sea nr Sète, 1696). French composer, opera
director, organist and teacher. He probably studied in Paris. In 1682 he
was in Marseilles as organist and teacher of the organ, harpsichord and
composition. On 8 July 1684 he received permission from Lully to establish
an academy of music there: this was Lully’s first authorization of an opera
house in the provinces. The first performance, on 28 January 1685, was Le
triomphe de la paix, with libretto as well as music by Gautier; it was
performed successfully several times a week until the beginning of Lent.
Later in 1685 Gautier was in Paris to hire new performers. The 1685–6
season met with equal success, with performances of Lully’s Le triomphe
de l’amour, Phaëton and Armide. On 5 February 1687 Gautier’s opera Le
 jugement du soleil was performed before an audience of over 1000 on the
terrace of the home of the superintendant of the galleys to celebrate Louis
XIV’s successful recovery from an operation. During the summer and
autumn of 1687 the company performed Phaëton and Armide in Avignon
with great success. At Marseilles early in 1688 Gautier successfully
produced Lully’s Atys, which he took in June to Avignon, where he also
prepared Lully’s Bellérophon for two private performances at the residence
of the Marquess of Blauvac. On 4 September of that year he was
imprisoned for debt and was forced to sell all his company’s properties in
both Avignon and Marseilles. Released on 10 September, he left for Lyons,
where one of his dancers, Jean-Pierre Legnay, had gone the previous year
to organize an opera company; he was now hired as co-manager and
conductor. On 16 March 1689 he resigned the post of co-manager but
remained as conductor until the company was dissolved in 1692. In 1693
the privilege of giving operas in Marseilles was sublet to his brother
Jacques, a sculptor employed as a set designer in Lyons, who became
director-in-chief of the academy of music at Marseilles. The performances
began successfully in January 1694. The company performed at Aix-en-
Provence in the spring of 1695 and at Toulon during the summer. They
performed Lully’s Alceste at Marseilles in 1696 and in May of that year
were at Aix, at Avignon in October, at Arles in November and at Montpellier
in December. At the end of December Gautier embarked with his brother,
some of the company and all his equipment on a return voyage by sea for
reasons of economy. The ship was lost in a storm.
As an opera director Gautier was concerned with the quality of his
repertory, mostly tragédies en musique, in which he showed himself to be a
representative of French classicism. He was concerned too with the quality
of the performance and staging: a number of singers and dancers from
Paris, including some from the Académie Royale, followed him to
Marseilles. He also paid reasonable salaries to his artists, to the extent of
leaving his other debts unpaid. As a composer he wrote, according to
Brossard’s Dictionaire de musique (1703), ‘dans le style et à l’imitation de
Lully’. Yet his surviving works are not those of a mere imitator: his
published airs and dances (for flute or violin and continuo) are spirited and
carefully composed; his use of descending melodic patterns is individual,
his imitative writing varied, his bass lines expressive, his rhythms lively, and
his use of instrumental colour evocative.
WORKS
Le triomphe de la paix (P. Gautier), 1685, lost; ov., F-Pn
Le jugement du soleil (op, Bennecorse), 1687, lost
Recueil de trio nouveaux, vn, fl, ob (Paris, 1699)
Syms., fl/vn, bc (Paris, 1707), contains 9 dance suites
10 airs in Recueil d’airs sérieux et à boire (Paris, 1694–1703)
2 dances in Pièces de clavecin de différent autheurs; 1 piece, fl; 1 motet, Ad te
clamo, 1v, bc: Pn
23 pieces, Pn; upper parts only extant, cited in La Laurencie
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. de La Laurencie: ‘Un émule de Lully: Pierre Gautier de Marseille’,
SIMG, xiii (1911–12), 39–69
J. Cheilan-Cambolin: Un aspect de la vie musicale à Marseille au XVIIIe
siècle: cinquante ans d’opéra (diss., U. of Aix-en-Provence, 1972)
MARCEL FRÉMIOT

Gautier, Théophile
(b Tarbes, 30 Aug 1811; d Paris, 23 Oct 1872). French poet, novelist and
theatre critic. In musical circles, Gautier is best known as the poet of Les
nuits d’été, the creator of several mid-century ballets, and a critic of dance
and opera. He made his début as theatre critic of La presse in July 1837,
sharing the post with Gérard de Nerval until June 1838 (hence the
combined signature ‘G.G.’); he remained with La presse until the end of
March 1855, thereafter working almost exclusively for government papers:
the Moniteur universel (later Journal officiel du soir) until 1871, and finally
the Gazette de Paris. From 1855 to 1864 the presence of Pier Angelo
Fiorentino (A. de Rovray) as music and theatre critic for the Moniteur
universel prevented Gautier from writing on those subjects. From 1850 to
1855, Ernest Reyer gave technical help in the preparation of music
reviews.
Though Gautier lacked formal musical training, his writings in all genres are
suffused with musical references, and his music criticism is valuable for its
incisiveness and its sensitivity to socio-cultural context. Unable to describe
music in technical terms, he had a gift for interdisciplinary simile, often
employing anachronism to make his point. His ballet criticism was biassed,
his music criticism more open-minded. Gautier’s taste was eclectic,
embracing various Asian musics (which he experienced at first hand),
Mozart, and contemporary Western composers on both sides of critical
divides. He prized originality and, like many of his contemporaries,
spontaneity of musical expression. For him, Meyerbeer’s Les Huguenots
was an uncomfortable mixture of calculation and expressive writing; by
contrast, Bellini’s Norma, for all its composer’s limitations in harmony and
orchestration, inspired admiration. Gautier remained equivocal about
Meyerbeer’s compositional talent, but collaborated with him on the
prologue to Struensée (1846). In 1838 he defended Benvenuto Cellini on
the grounds that Berlioz was upholding an extreme position during a time
of cultural and political compromise. Despite becoming increasingly
Wagnerian, Gautier remained supportive of Berlioz throughout the
composer’s lifetime, writing a generous obituary for the Journal officiel.
Gautier first heard Wagner’s music in 1850, and soon counted himself a
Wagnerian. His Wagnerism was counterbalanced by a longstanding
appreciation of Verdi as the head of a new Italian school of opera, but
became dominant in the 1860s. In 1857 Gautier was invited with other
French critics to Tannhäuser at Wiesbaden: disconcerted by the opera’s
traditionalism in relation to what he knew of Wagner’s (later) theories, he
likened it to a modern painter’s imitation of Van Eyck. By 1869 his view of
early Wagner had changed, and his study of Rienzi (to coincide with the
French première) claimed the composer as a genius and hero. Gautier’s
attitude towards Wagner was undoubtedly influenced by his daughter
Judith and her husband Catulle Mendès, both of whom were prominent
Wagnerians.
 Contact with Félicien David and Ernest Reyer allowed Gautier to find
musical expression for his love for the East. He admired David’s Le désert
of 1844, collaborating with him the following year on a sequence of three
Arab-inspired songs. His most fruitful collaborations with Reyer were the
symphonie orientale Le sélam (1850), inspired by Gérard de Nerval, and
the ballet-pantomime Sacountalâ (1858). Gautier’s travel diaries illustrate
his anthropological sensitivity to exotic musics. In the final version (1865) of
his diary of a trip to Algiers in 1845, he was dismissive of second-hand
academic evaluations of Eastern repertories as ‘barbaric’, finding instead in
Bedouin music a sinuous complexity which he compared to the white
threading in Venetian glass.
Within his literary output, music appears as the central subject (the
nouvelle entitled Le nid de rossignols); as a dramatic episode (the dialogue
concerning Wagner’s merits in Spirite); or as an allusive reference (the
abstract poem Symphonie en blanc majeur from Emaux et camées, which
presents a set of variations on the word ‘white’, ending 18 virtuoso stanzas
with a surprise modulation to the word ‘pink’). A follower of Hoffmann in his
contes and nouvelles fantastiques, Gautier was an important contributor to
the establishment of a Romantic vision of music in France.
WORKS
(selective list)

all canevas chorégraphiques, first performed at Paris Opéra unless otherwise stated

Giselle, Adam, 1841; La péri, Burgmüller, 1843; Pâquerette, Benoist, 1851;

Gemma, Gabrielli, 1854; Yanko le bandit, Deldevez, Paris, Porte Saint-Martin,
1858; Sacountalâ, Reyer, 1858

WRITINGS
with J. Janin and P. Chasles: Les beautés de l’opéra (Paris, 1845)
Histoire de l’art dramatique en France depuis vingt-cinq ans (Paris, 1858–
9/R)
Souvenirs de théâtre, d’art et de critique (Paris, 1883)
La musique (Paris, 1911)
C.W. Beaumont, ed.: The Romantic Ballet as Seen by Théophile Gautier,
being his Notices of all the Principal Performances for Ballet Given at
Paris during the Years 1837–1848 (London, 1932)
I. Guest, ed.: Gautier on Dance (London and Princeton, NJ, 1986)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Reyer: Notes de musique (Paris, 1875)
E. Bergerat: Théophile Gautier: entretiens, souvenirs et correspondance
(Paris, 1879)
J. Torchet: ‘Théophile Gautier, critique musical’, Guide musical, i (1904),
723–32, 747–56, 767–74
F. Noske: La mélodie française de Berlioz à Duparc (Amsterdam, 1954;
Eng. trans., rev. R. Benton and F. Noske, 1970/R), 69ff
J. Richardson: Théophile Gautier: his Life and Times (London, 1958) [incl.
full list of writings]
E. Binney: Les ballets de Théophile Gautier (Paris, 1965)
M. Spencer: ‘Théophile Gautier, Music Critic’, ML, xlix (1968), 4–17
J.-M. Bailbé: Le roman et la musique en France sous la monarchie de
juillet (Paris, 1969)
A. Gann: Théophile Gautier and Music (diss., U. of Toronto, 1979)
P. Edwards: ‘L’Opéra en 1847: un article de Gautier et Nerval’, Bulletin de
la Société Théophile Gautier, v (1983), 53–62
A. Gann: ‘La musique élément structurant dans les récits fantastiques de
Gautier’, ibid., vi (1984), 73–82
P. Laubriet, ed.: ‘Théophile Gautier et la musique’, ibid., viii (1986)
[collection of 18 articles]
A. Gann: ‘Les orients musicaux de Théophile Gautier’, ibid., xii (1990),
135–49
KATHARINE ELLIS

Gautier de Châtillon.
See Walter of châtillon.

Gautier de Coincy
(b Coincy-l’Abbaye, 1177 or 1178; d Soissons, 25 Sept 1236). French
trouvère. He was the author of the Miracles de Nostre-Dame and of a
number of religious chansons, some of which he seems to have set to
music. His date of birth is known from the Chronicum S. Medardi
Suessonensis: ‘In the year 1193 Gautier de Coincy became a monk, and
was 15 or 16 years old at the time’. In August 1214 he became prior of the
monastery at Vic-sur-Aisne, about 16 km west of Soissons. He returned to
St Médard in Soissons as abbot on 19 June 1233, where he remained until
his death. The extensive learning revealed in his work and his obvious
familiarity with contemporary secular song has led some writers to
speculate that he spent time at the University of Paris before 1214, but this
cannot be supported by documentary evidence.
The Miracles de Nostre-Dame is a massive verse narrative, some 30,000
lines in length, recounting the numerous miracles associated with the
Virgin. Gautier explained that he found these stories in a Latin manuscript.
No such source now survives, however, thus making it impossible to trace
the origins of all the material contained in the work. It was written in two
large sections, the first between 1214 and about 1222, the second between
1222 and 1233. Gautier identified himself in the work as ‘Li prior de Vi’ (Vic-
sur-Aisne), indicating that his literary activities were probably confined to
the years between 1214 and 1233. The popularity and importance of
Miracles is attested by the fact that it survives in over 80 sources (22 with
music) and inspired numerous imitations.
Perhaps following the example of the contemporary Roman de la rose,
Gautier incorporated a number of songs with music into his narrative.
These are set in two larger groups and one smaller one at various places
in the text and are, in the majority of cases, new poems in praise of the
Virgin set to pre-existent melodies from a variety of sources. The
manuscripts in which Miracles is extant also include a number of similar
songs (some without music) that are not part of the cycle but which
 nevertheless may be Gautier’s work. Gautier left no doubt about his
intention of including songs within the narrative. In the text preceding the
first group he said: ‘We should sing of the Virgin both day and night as the
angels do. All those who sing sweetly enchant the devil and lull him to
sleep. Now listen as I sing’.
Gautier is important to the music historian largely for two reasons. First, his
work represents the earliest substantial collection of sacred and, above all,
Marian songs in the vernacular – songs that were widely imitated in France
and elsewhere throughout the later Middle Ages (e.g. Pour conforter). This
is in sharp contrast to the almost exclusively secular repertory of the
worldly trouvères who were his contemporaries or near-contemporaries.
Second, the large number of contrafacta that use contemporary trouvère
melodies would seem to indicate that Gautier made a conscious effort to
put secular melodies to sacred or at least devotional use – he ‘sang
sweetly’ to ‘enchant the devil and lull him to sleep’. This concern finds a
parallel in the Latin verses of Gautier’s contemporary, Philip the Chancellor,
who likewise set most of his poems to melodies of secular origin.
Eight of Gautier’s poems are set to trouvère melodies, the largest number
being contrafacta of songs by Blondel de Nesle (Amours dont sui, Je pour
iver, Qui que face); a further five draw on various other musical sources:
two are based on the same conductus by Perotinus (De sainte Leocade,
Entendez tuit), two on anonymous monophonic conductus (Ma viele,
Talens m’est pris), one on a motet (Hui matin) and one on a sequence (Hui
enfantés). Three songs that use borrowed melodies survive in one or more
sources in two-part polyphonic form (Amours dont sui, De sainte Leocade,
Entendez tuit), including a unique two-part setting of Perotinus’s Beata
viscera. Gautier was, however, no mere musical parodist: a number of the
songs that are certainly by him are set to melodies elsewhere unknown;
most notable, perhaps, is the very beautiful strophic lai Roine celestre.
WORKS

Edition: Les chansons à la vierge de Gautier de Coinci, ed. J. Chailley, PSFM, xv (Paris,
1959) [complete edn except for doubtful works]

nm no music
Amours dont sui espris (De chanter), 1/2vv, R.1546 [contrafactum of: Blondel de
Nesle, ‘Amours dont sui espris (m’efforce)’, R.1545] (melody also used for three
conductus: ‘Procruans odium’, 2vv – duplum = R.1546; ‘Purgator crimium’, 3vv;
‘Suspirat spiritus’, 1v)
Amours qui set bien enchanter, R.851 [contrafactum of: ‘Sour cest rivage’] (two
melodies)
De sainte Leocade, 1/2vv, R.12 [contrafactum of: Perotinus, ‘Beata viscera’]; ed. in
Gennrich (1948), 230
D’un amour coie et serie, R.1212 [contrafactum of: Gilles de Maisons, ‘Je chant,
c’est mout mauvais signes’, R.1356]
Entendez tuit ensemble, et li clerc et li lai, 1/2vv, R.83 [contrafactum of: Perotinus,
‘Beata viscera’]; ed. in Gennrich (1948), 230, Gennrich (1960), 28 (three melodies)
Esforcier m’estuet ma vois, R.1836
Hui enfantés, R.9246 [contrafactum: sequence, ‘Letabundus’]
Hui matin a l’ajournee, R.491a [contrafactum of: ‘Hier matin a l’enjournee’, motet
764]
Je pour iver, pour noif ne pour gelee, R.520 [modelled on: Blondel de Nesle, ‘Li plus
se plaint d’Amours mai je n’os dire’, R.1495]
Las, las, las, las, par grant delit, R.1644
Ma viele, R.617a [contrafactum: monophonic conductus, ‘O Maria, o felix puerpera’]
Mere Dieu, vierge senee, R.556 (two melodies)
Pour conforter mon cuer et mon courage, R.20 [textual contrafactum of Guilhem de
Cabestanh, ‘Mout m’alegra douza vos’, PC 213.7; model for: Alfonso el Sabio,
‘Como Deus é comprida Trinidade’]
Pour la pucele en chantant me deport, R.1930 [modelled on: Pierre de Molins or
Gace Brulé, ‘Chanter me fet ce dont je crien morir’, R.1429; anon., ‘Destroiz
d’amours et pensis sans deport’, R.1932] (two melodies)
Pour mon chief reconforter, R.885 [contrafactum of: Walter of Châtillons ‘Sol sub
nube latuit’; Thibaut de Blason, ‘Chanter et renvoisier seuil’, R.1001] (R.885 and
‘Sol sub nube latuit’ share a refrain which is missing in R.1001)
Puis que voi la flour novele, R.600 [contrafactum of: Gautier de Dargies or Gontier
de Soignies, ‘Au tens gent que reverdoie’, R.1753]
Quant ces floretes florir voi, R.1677 [contrafactum of: Vielart de Corbie, ‘De chanter
me semont Amours’, R.2030]
Qui que face rotruenge novele, R.603 [contrafactum of: Blondel de Nesle, ‘Bien doit
chanter cui fine Amours adrece’, R.482] (three melodies)
Roine celestre, R.956; ed. in MGG1
Sour cest rivage, a ceste crois, R.1831 [contrafactum of: ‘Armours qui set’] (on the
rediscovery of the relics of St Leocadia in 1219)
Talens m’est pris orendroit, R.1845 [contrafactum: monophonic conductus, ‘Ave
virgo sapiens’]

doubtful works
A ce que je vuel comencier, R.1272 (nm)
Bele douce creature, R.2090
Chanter m’estuet, car nel doi contredire, R.1491 (nm)
Chanter m’estuet de la Vierge Marie, R.1181a
Chanter voel, or men souvient, R.1246a
Chanter voel par grant amour, R.1957a
De la mieus vaillant, R.364 (nm)
De la vierge qui ot joie, R.1739b
Douce dame, sainte flour, R.1984a
Flours ne glais [contrafactum of: ‘Le Lai Markiol’], R.192, ed. in Gennrich (1942), 4
Mere au Sauveour, R.2012
Mere de pitié, R.1094a (lai)
Ne flours ne glais, R.192a (lai)
Nete glorieuse, R.1020
Puis que de chanter me tient, R.1247a
Quant je suis plus en perilleuse vie, R.1236 [contrafactum of: Blondel de Nesle,
‘Quant je plus sui en paor de ma vie’, R.1227]
Tant ai servi le monde longuement, R.709a [contrafactum of: Thibaut IV, ‘Tant ai
amours servies longuement’, R.711]
Vers Dieu mes fais disirrans sui forment, R.677 (nm)
Virge glorieuse [ = Nete glorieuse], R.1020 [contrafactum of: Philip the Chancellor,
‘Ave virgo virginum’]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (F. Gennrich)
Abbé Poquet, ed.: Les Miracles de la Sainte Vierge traduits et mis en vers
par Gautier de Coincy (Paris, 1857) [edn of complete text]
P. Meyer: ‘Types de quelques chansons de Gautier de Coinci’, Romania,
xvii (1888), 429–37
F. Gennrich: ‘Die beiden neuesten Bibliographien altfranzösicher und
provenzalischer Lieder’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xli
(1921), 289–346, esp. 314
A. Långfors: ‘Mélanges de poésie lyrique française, II–III: Gautier de
Coinci’, Romania, liii (1927), 474–538; lvi (1930), 33–79 [edn of song
texts]
A.P. Ducrot-Ganderye: Études sur les Miracles Nostre-Dame de Gautier
de Coinci (Helsinki, 1932), 5
H. Spanke: ‘Zu den lyrischen Einlagen in den Versmirakeln Gautiers de
Coinci’, Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, xxxiv (1933), 154
A. Långfors: Miracles de Gautier de Coinci: extraits du manuscrit de
l’Ermitage (Helsinki, 1937), 337 [with facs.]
E. Lommatsch: ‘Anatole France et Gautier de Coinci’, Zeitschrift für
romanische Philologie, lviii (1938), 202
F. Gennrich: ‘Zwei altfranzösische Lais’, Studi medievali, new ser., xv
(1942), 1–68, esp. 4
F. Gennrich: ‘Perotins Beata viscera Marie virginis und die “Modaltheorie”’,
Mf, i (1948), 230 [incl. edns of De sainte Leocade, Entendez tuit]
F. Gennrich: Troubadours, Trouvères, Minne- und Meistergesang, Mw, ii
(1951; Eng. trans., 1960), 28 [incl. edn of Entendez tuit]
J.H. Marshall: ‘Gautier de Coinci imitateur de Guilhem de Cabestanh’,
Romania, xcviii (1977), 245–9
H.-H.S. Räkel: Die musikalische Erscheinungsform der Trouvèrepoesie
(Berne, 1977), 107, 375
L. Rossi and A. Ziino: ‘Mout m’alegra douza vos per boscaje’, Cultura
Neolatina, xxxix (1979), 69–80 [incl. analysis of Pour conforter]
S.N. Rosenberg and H. Tischler: ‘Chanter m’estuet’: Songs of the
Trouvères (Bloomington, IN, 1981)
U. Malizia: ‘Guatier de Coinci: la volontà di rinnovare la musica lirica ne
“les Miracles de Nostre Dame”’, La lengua y la literatura en tiempos de
Alfonso X [Murcia 1984], ed. F. Carmona and F.J. Flores (Murcia,
1985), 319–32
U. Malizia: ‘Intorno al lessico tecnico-musicale ne “les Miracles de Nostre
Dame” di Gautier de Coincy’, Congrès international de linguistique et
de philologie romanes XVIII [Trier 1986], ed. D. Kremer (Tübingen,
1989–92), vi, 405–17

For further bibliography see Troubadours, trouvères.

ROBERT FALCK

Gautier de Dargies
(b c1165; d after 1236).French trouvère. His forebears had participated in
the First Crusade in 1099, and he himself took part in the Third Crusade
(1189). His name appears as witness or principal in documents of 1195,
1201, 1206 and 1236. These mention also a wife named Agnes and three
brothers, Rainaut, Drogo and Villardus. Gautier's father, Sagalo de
Dargies, was either a younger son or a descendant of a younger son. Thus
the trouvère's arms, shown in miniatures in the Manuscrit du Roi (F-Pn
fr.844) and the Chansonnier d'Arras (F-AS 657: see illustration), display
martlets of gules rather than of sable, the latter colouring being indicative of
the main branch of the family. The hamlet of Dargies is in the département
of Oise, Beauvais arrondissement.
The chansons Ainc mais ne fis chançon and Desque ci ai tous jours chanté
are dedicated to Gace Brule, mentioned also in Or chant novel. A vous,
messire Gautier is a tenso addressed to Gautier de Dargies by a certain
Richart, while Amis Richart is one addressed to Richart de Fournival by a
certain Gautier; presumably the same pair of participants is involved in
both. It is possible that Gautier was also acquainted with other trouvères
active in the third crusade, including the Chastelain de Couci, Conon de
Béthune, and Hugues de Berzé.
In addition to the customary chansons courtoises and the two tensos,
Gautier de Dargies wrote three descorts (De celi me plaing, J'ai par
maintes fois and La douce pensee), the earliest known works of this genre.
His themes and imagery derive for the most part from the fashionable stock
of his time, but these materials are handled very skilfully. Greater originality
is evident in the treatment of poetic form; several works depart from the
average by virtue either of asymmetrical design (Chançon ferai, Desque ci
ai, Maintes fois) or of greater than normal length of strophe (Autres que je
ne suel fas, Bien me cuidai, En icel tens and Hé Dieus).
Individuality of form is present also in the melodies. While bar form remains
the norm, Hé Dieus has pedes of three phrases each, and Bien me cuidai
uses pedes of four phrases each. Four melodies are non-repetitive (Ainc
mais ne fis chançon, Chançon ferai, Desque ci ai and La gent dient), and
Haute chose repeats later phrases rather than the customary opening
ones. Highly unusual are the late settings of Chançon ferai and Maintes
fois in the Chansonnier d'Arras; in these, the phrase lengths (defined by
repetition patterns) often differ in length from the poetic phrases, creating a
complex interplay. A similar technique, carried out more subtly, is present in
the main setting of Maintes fois. The descorts, containing 47, 63 and 85
verses, are normally analysed as falling into six, seven and nine strophes
respectively, no two being structurally identical in the same poem. Most
musical phrases are grouped in twos, each group being stated two, three
or four times. There are also groups of three phrases as well as twofold
and threefold statements of single phrases. A few strophes conclude with
one or two phrases not part of a larger repetition.
Gautier's melodies move vigorously. None is restricted to less than an
octave, and examples covering a 10th, 11th or 12th are common. The late
setting of Se j'ai esté in the Manuscrit du Roi spans an extraordinary two
octaves and a 2nd, a range made possible by an early use of the G clef on
the lowest line of a four-line staff. (If octave transposition for this clef were
used in order to keep the melody within a smaller span, leaps which are
highly uncharacteristic of the style would result at the two points of
transition; the range of an octave and a 7th in the Noailles reading of De
 celi me plaing seems, however, to result from transpositions which
represent a late – and perhaps unintended – revision of the original.) Modal
organization is frequently individual also, and often varies from one reading
to another. In several works there is important use of notes below the final.
In the reading of Bien me cuidai in the Manuscrit du Roi, for example, the
final is a 7th above the lowest note. In general, Gautier favoured modes
with a major 3rd above the final. In most melodies the final is a tonal centre
of importance; some, however, reach an unexpected final while others
display little sense of tonal gravitation.
The late setting of Chançon ferai in the Manuscrit du Roi is given in fully
mensural notation and is cast in the 2nd rhythmic mode. The applicability of
this information to the florid original setting is, however, doubtful. The
ligatures used in the main setting of Autres que je ne suel fas are disposed
in patterns that invite the use of the 2nd mode, but there is little other
evidence of such regularity. On the contrary, the irregular and often highly
ornate settings appear quite inappropriate to the use of modal rhythm. The
individuality of form, combined with breadth of motion and richness of
rhythmic design, show Gautier's melodies to be among the more forceful
creations of their kind.
Sources, MS
WORKS

Editions:Trouvères-Melodien, ed. H. van der Werf, MMMA, xi–xii (1977–9), iiTrouvère

Lyrics with Melodies: Complete Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler, CMM, cvii (1997)

[K] etc. indicates a MS (using Schwan sigla: see Sources, ms); italics indicate uncertain
identification

Ainc mais ne fis chançon jour de ma vie, R.1223; ed. in Bittinger

Au comencier, R.176 (no music)
Autres que je ne suel fas, R.376 [R]
Bien me cuidai de chanter, R.795 (3rd Crusade)
Chançon ferai mout marris, R.1565 [M, A]
De celi me plaing qui me fait languir, R.1421 (descort); ed. in Jeanroy, Brandin and
Aubry
Desque ci ai tous jours chanté, R.418
En grant aventure ai mise, R.1633 (no music)
En icel tens que je voi la froidour, R.1989
Haute chose ai dedens mon cuer emprise, R.1624
Hé Dieus, tant sont mais de vilaine gent, R.684
Humilités et franchise, R.1626 [A]
J'ai par maintes fois chanté, R.418 (descort); ed. in Jeanroy, Brandin and Aubry
Je ne me doi plus taire ne tenir, R.1472
La douce pensee, R.539 (descort); ed. in Jeanroy, Brandin and Aubry
La gent dient pour coi je ne fais chans, R.264 [M, A]
Maintes fois m'a on demandé, R.419 [A]
Or chant novel, car longuement, R.708
Quant la saisons s'est demise, R.1622
Quant li tens pert sa chalour, R.1969
Se j'ai esté lonc tens hors du païs, R.1575 [M, V, R] (3rd Crusade); ed. in Aubry
 doubtful works
N'est pas a soi qui aime coraument, R.653 [V]
works of joint authorship
Amis Richart, j'eüsse bien mestier, R.1290 (no music) (tenso with Richart de
Fournival)
A vous, messire Gautier, R.1282 (A, a) (tenso with Richart [?de Fournival])
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Jeanroy, L.Brandin and P. Aubry: Lais et descorts français du XIIIe
siècle (Paris, 1901/ R)
P. Aubry: Trouvères et troubadours (Paris, 1909, 2/1910; Eng. trans.,
1914/R)
G. Huet, ed.: Chansons et descorts de Gautier de Dargies (Paris, 1912/R)
[edn of texts]
E. Langlois: ‘Remarques sur les chansonniers français, I: à propos de
Gautier de Dargies’, Romania, xlv (1918–19), 321–50
H. Petersen Dyggve: ‘Personnages historiques figurant dans la poésie
lyrique française des XIIe et XIIIe siècles, xxiii: Gautier de Dargies’,
Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, xlvi (1945), 77–91
W. Bittinger: Studien zur musikalischen Textkritik des mittelalterlichen
Liedes (Würzburg, 1953)
R. Dragonetti: La technique des poétique trouvères dans la chanson
courtoise: contribution à l'étude de la rhétorique médiévale (Bruges,
1960/R)
T. Karp: ‘Interrelationships between Poetic and Musical Form in Trouvère
Song’, A Musical Offering: Essays in Honor of Martin Bernstein, ed.
E.H. Clinkscale and C. Brook (New York, 1977), 137–61
A.M. Raugei, ed.: Gautier de Dargies: Poésie (Florence, 1981)
M. O'Neill: ‘L'art mélodique dans “les chanz fors et pesans” de Gautier de
Dargies’, RdM, lxxxi (1995), 165–90

For further bibliography see Troubadours, trouvères.

THEODORE KARP

Gautier de Lille.
See Walter of châtillon.

Gautier d'Espinal [Epinal]

(b before 1220; d before July 1272).French trouvère. He is generally
assumed to have been a member of the family of the seigneurs of Epinal;
identification has been based on this and on the dedication of Quant voi
iver to the Count of Bar. A Gautier d'Espinal is mentioned in documents of
1232 to 1272. Some scholars feel, on the other hand, that the style of
Gautier's works points to an author active earlier in the 13th century.
 A few of the chansons attributable to Gautier survive in more than six
sources, but several are in no more than three. The opening strophes of
Aïmans fins and Desconfortés et de joie parti were quoted by Girart
d'Amiens in his roman Méliacin. While the imagery of the poems remains
wholly within the stock vocabulary of the chanson courtoise, Gautier
handled his material with considerable skill. Most strophes contain the
same number of syllables per line – generally ten, though sometimes
seven or eight. Partis de doulour, Tout esforciés and Comencement de
douce saison, however, are of elaborate construction. Gautier did not
depend as heavily as most on the standard abab rhyme pattern for the
opening of the strophe; this in turn is reflected in the formal freedom of a
number of melodies.
While bar form still constitutes the norm, Puis qu'en moi a recouvré and
Par son dous comandement are non-repetitive, and Tout autresi concludes
an otherwise through-composed setting with a variant of the third phrase.
Aïmans fins presents an irregular pattern of repetition using variation. The
structure of Ne puet laissier fins is unusual: the rhyme scheme suggests a
strophic division into groups of four lines plus three, while the syntactical
grouping of the first strophe is three plus two plus two: the melody, on the
other hand, may be described as ABCA'B'C'D. With regard to melodic
construction, Gautier favoured the G modes; a trait characteristic of many
of his melodies is the use of one or more tonal centres that exert a force
equal to that of the final. In Tout esforciés the repeated use of the opening
leap of a 5th, d–a, forms a strong counterbalance to the final, g, while a
similar function is filled by the contrast of the chain of 3rds, a–c'–e', against
the g final in Aïmans fins. Strong centres on the fourth degree and on the
subfinal are found in Amours et bone volenté and …Quant voi iver. None of
the melodies survives in mensural notation and there are apparently no
regular patterns of rhythmic construction. In general, there is an increase in
rhythmic activity as the phrases progress towards the cadences. The
validity of modal rhythm in his works seems dubious.
WORKS
(nm) no music

Edition: Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete and Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler,
CMM, cvii (1997)

Aïmans fins et verais, R.199 [model for: Jaque de Cambrai, ‘O dame qui Deu
portais’, R.197a; Lambert Ferri, ‘Aïmans fins et verais’, R.198]
Amours et bone volenté, R.954
Desconfortés et de joie parti, R.1073
Ja pour longue demouree, R.504 (nm)
Ne puet laissier fins cuers c'adès se plaigne, R.119
Outrecuidiers et ma fole pensee, R.542
Partis de doulour, R.1971 (nm)
Puis qu'en moi a recouvré seignourie, R.1208
Quant je voi l'erbe menue, R.2067, ed. in Gennrich
Quant voi iver et froidure aparoir, R.1784
Se j'ai lonc tens amours servi, R.1082 (nm)
Se par force de merci, R.1059 [music = Thibaut de Blaison, ‘Amours, que porra
devenir’, R.1402, amplified by repetition of last 2 lines]
Tout autresi com l'äimans deçoit, R.1840
Tout esforciés avrai chanté souvent, R.728

possibly by Gautier
A droit se plaint et a droit se gamente, R.749
Comencement de douce saison bele, R.590 [model for: Anon., ‘Chanter mestuet de
la sainte pucele’, R.610]; ed. in Gérold
Par son dous comandement, R.649
doubtful works
Amours, a cuis tous jours serai, R.104 [text only]
En toute gent ne truis tant de savoir, R.1816 (nm)
Jherusalem, grant damage me fais, R.191 (nm)
Quant je voi par la contree, R.501 (nm)
Quant je voi fenir iver et la froidure, R.1988 (nm)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
U. Lindelöf and A.Wallensköld: ‘Les chansons de Gautier d'Epinal’,
Mémoires de la Société néophilologique de Helsinki, iii (1902), 205–
319
F. Gennrich: Grundriss einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes als
Grundlage einer musikalische Formenlehre des Liedes (Halle, 1932/R)
H. Petersen Dyggve: ‘Personnages historiques figurant dans la poésie
lyrique française des XIIe et XIIle siècles, ii: Gautier d'Epinal’,
Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, xxxvi (1935), 19–29
T. Gérold: Histoire de la musique des origines à la fin du XIVe siècle
(Paris, 1936/R)
R. Dragonetti: La technique poétique des trouvères dans la chanson
courtoise: contribution à l'étude de la rhétorique mediévale (Bruges,
1960/R)

For further bibliography see Troubadours, trouvères.

THEODORE KARP

Gauzargues, Charles
(b Tarascon, c1725; d Paris, 1799). French theorist and composer. He
trained as a choirboy in Tarascon; after being ordained as a priest he
became maître de chapelle at Nîmes and later at Montpellier. According to
Laborde he went to Paris in 1756 to submit his compositions to Rameau.
He acted as sous-maître of the royal chapel from 1758 to 1775, when he
retired to Saint-Germain. He seems to have returned to Paris for the last
years of his life. He is credited with having written 40 motets, though only
two are extant: In te Domine speravi (F-AIXm) and Cantate Domine
(published in the Traité de composition).
He published two treatises. The Traité d’harmonie (Paris, n.d., ?2/1798)
adheres to Rameau's theory of the fundamental bass, and a clear and
methodical presentation of chordal nomenclature is emphasized. He uses
Rameau's original terminology for dissonance treatment, cadence types
and supposition chords, yet incorporates concepts from post-Ramist
theorists such as d'Alembert and Roussier. Most notably, he makes a
distinction between an invertible 7th chord on the second scale degree and
a fundamental 6-5 chord on the subdominant, and he discusses
augmented 6th chords in modulatory passages involving dominant chords.
In the Traité de composition (Paris, 1797) he provides musical examples to
show how theoretical rules of chordal harmony apply to actual practice. He
concludes the work with a discussion of fugue and includes his own five-
voice composition as a model.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
GerberL
GerberNL
La BordeE
R. Machard: ‘Les musiciens en France au temps de Jean-Philippe
Rameau’, RMFC, xi (1971), 5-177, esp. 134ff
B. Lespinard: ‘La Chapelle royale sous le règne de Louis XV’, RMFC, xxiii
(1985), 131–75
M. Benoit: Dictionnaire de la musique en France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe
siècles (Paris, 1992), 315
CYNTHIA M. GESSELE

Gavaldá, José
(b Vinaroz, nr Tortosa, 2 Oct 1818; d Madrid, 21 April 1890). Spanish
bandmaster. At the age of nine he was chosen to be a choirboy at Tortosa
Cathedral. After five years’ study with the maestro de capilla, Juan Antonio
Nin (1804–67), he was named organist of the church of S Blas in that city.
Drafted into the army during the Carlist wars, he was stationed at Morella
and at 22 held the rank of músico mayor in the Guardia Real. At 25 he was
sent to Galicia and at 31 became director of music at the Colegio Militar in
Toledo. In 1856 he moved to Madrid, where he started the periodical for
army bandmasters El eco de Marte. In 1867 he sold this highly successful
magazine and the copyright of all his military band compositions to the firm
of Romero Andía. His other compositions include two symphonies, a six-
voice mass with military band accompaniment, written for the Toledo
Colegio de Infantería, and a five-voice orchestral Salve regina. (LaborD)
ROBERT STEVENSON

Gavaldá, Miguel Querol.

See Querol Gavaldá, Miguel.

Gavaux, Pierre.
See Gaveaux, Pierre.
Gavazzeni, Gianandrea
(b Bergamo, 27 July 1909; d Bergamo, 5 Feb 1996). Italian conductor,
composer and writer. He studied at the Accademia di S Cecilia, Rome, and
with Pizzetti at the Milan Conservatory. His conducting début was in 1940,
after his own opera Paolo e Virginia had been well received in 1935, but in
1949 he abruptly gave up composition and refused to allow further
performances of his works. From 1948 he was associated with La Scala,
Milan, where he was artistic director (1965–8) and continued to conduct
into the 1990s. He was a perceptive exponent of the verismo school, both
in performance and in print, and his edition of Mascagni’s Le maschere
was staged at the Florence Maggio Musicale in 1955 and several times
revived elsewhere. His British début was at the 1957 Edinburgh Festival in
Il turco in Italia with the company from the Piccola Scala, and the same
year he conducted La bohème at the Chicago Lyric Opera. He conducted
the Bol'shoy Opera at Moscow in 1964 and appeared at the Glyndebourne
Festival in 1965 (Anna Bolena) and at the Metropolitan in 1976 (Il
trovatore). He recorded several operas by Rossini, Verdi, Mascagni and
Puccini, wrote music criticism for Il corriere della sera, and published
studies of Bellini, Donizetti, Mascagni, Pizzetti, Musorgsky and Janáček, as
well as guides to the operas of Mozart and Wagner.
LEONARDO PINZAUTI, NOËL GOODWIN

Gaveau.
French firm of piano and harpsichord makers. Joseph Gaveau (b
Romorantin, 1824; d Paris, 1893) founded the firm in 1847, working with
his employees in a small shop at the rue des Vinaigriers in Paris; the
workshop and the offices were later transferred to the rue Servan. The firm
established an excellent reputation for its small upright pianos, and by the
1880s the business was producing about 1000 pianos a year, achieving a
degree of success due to commercial acumen rather than intrinsic quality.
Joseph was succeeded by his son Etienne Gaveau (b Paris, 7 Oct 1872; d
Paris, 26 May 1943), who organized the construction of a larger new
factory at Fontenay-sous-Bois and, following the example of other well-
known piano makers, in 1907 opened a new concert hall, the Salle
Gaveau, in the rue la Boëtie, Paris. This street also housed the offices of
the firm from 1908. Arnold Dolmetsch joined the firm in 1911, and under his
direction it produced spinets and small unfretted clavichords along
historical principles; this continued after his departure in 1914. The firm
undoubtedly hoped to capture part of the new market for plucked keyboard
instruments and clavichords from its great rivals, Pleyel. Etienne’s sons
Marcel and André Gaveau succeeded their father in running the firm. In
December 1959 Gaveau joined Erard to form Gaveau-Erard S.A. In 1971
the production of Gaveau pianos was taken over by the German firm
Schimmel, but since 1994 the instruments have been made by the French
manufacturer Rameau.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Chenaud: Les facteurs de pianos et leurs recherches (Paris, 1970)
C. Ehrlich: The Piano: a History (London, 1976, 2/1990)
O. Barli: La facture française du piano de 1849 à nos jours (Paris, 1983)
MARGARET CRANMER

Gaveaux [Gavaux, Gaveau], Pierre

(b Béziers, 9 Oct 1760; d Charenton, nr Paris, 5 Feb 1825). French singer
and composer. At the age of seven he became a choirboy at Béziers
Cathedral, where he was a soloist for nearly ten years. Intended for the
clergy, he studied Latin and began philosophical studies while working at
composition with the cathedral organist, Abbé Combès. On the death of the
Bishop of Béziers he accepted a post as first tenor at St Séverin,
Bordeaux. He continued his musical studies under the direction of Franz
Beck and his early success as a composer of motets decided his vocation.
He abandoned his clerical plans and was engaged as a conductor and
tenor at the Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux. In 1788 he was active in
Montpellier and toured in the south of France, and the following year was
called to Paris to sing in the Théâtre de Monsieur, which at that time was in
the Tuileries. His light and agreeable voice had a fine timbre so that he
could sing such major roles as Floresky in Cherubini’s Lodoïska in 1791
and Romeo in Steibelt’s Roméo et Juliette in 1793. He was, moreover, an
excellent musician and an intelligent actor, and was highly valued as a
member of the company because of his competence and dynamism. He
remained with the company when it moved to the Théâtre Feydeau, where
he began his career as a composer of dramatic works with minor opéras
comiques; these remained fashionable from his Le paria, ou La chaumière
indienne (1792) to Le traité nul (1797).
Meanwhile, in 1793 Gaveaux founded with his brother Simon a music
shop, ‘A la Nouveauté’, in the Passage Feydeau, in which he published his
own works. During the Revolution he wrote a number of patriotic songs,
including Le réveil du peuple, first sung on 19 January 1795, six months
after the fall of Robespierre. This hymn prompted unrest at every
performance and was prohibited by the Directory on 8 January 1796.
Gaveaux produced his finest works, Sophie et Moncars (1797) and,
particularly, Léonore, ou L’amour conjugal (1798), during a period in which
the nature of the opéra comique was becoming diversified. Dalayrac and
Cherubini were writing veritable drames lyriques on affecting subjects, and
the influence of German music was imposing a new style (similar to
Singspiel) on the genre; but the traditional form, with its characteristic
mixture of airs and spoken dialogue, was retained. Léonore, a fait
historique with a libretto by Bouilly, later provided Beethoven with the
subject of Fidelio. It enjoyed considerable success; Gaveaux himself sang
the part of Florestan and Mme Scio that of Leonore. Ovinska, ou Les exilés
de Sibérie (1800) and La rose blanche et la rose rouge (1809) suffered
from mediocre librettos, but Le bouffe et le tailleur (1804) and Monsieur
Deschalumeaux (1806) were more successful and were revived several
times during the 19th century.
When the companies of the Théâtres Favart and Feydeau merged in 1801,
Gaveaux remained a member, but he took only secondary roles as his
 voice was losing its grace and it was becoming difficult for him to keep up
with such rivals as Elleviou or Martin. In 1804 he was appointed a singer in
the imperial chapel. He was affected by mental illness and left the stage in
1812. Apparently cured, he resumed his publishing activities, directing the
shop in the Passage Feydeau himself from 1813 to 1816. He wrote one
more opéra comique, Une nuit au bois, ou Le muet de circonstance (1818).
In 1819 he retired to a mental asylum.
Gaveaux’s older brother, Simon Gaveaux (b Béziers, 1759), was a
répétiteur and music prompter at the Théâtre Feydeau. He managed (with
Pierre) the publishing company in the Passage Feydeau until 1812 and
from 1813 to 1829 directed a new shop in the rue Feydeau by himself. He
was probably the author of a Nouvelle méthode pour le flageolet suivie de
petits airs, though the title-page attributes it to a G. Gaveaux l’aîné.
WORKS
stage
unless otherwise stated, all are opéras comiques, first performed in Paris, Théâtre
Feydeau (to 1801) and OC (after 1801), and published in Paris shortly after first
performance

L’amour filial, ou Les deux Suisses (opéra, 1, C.A. Demoustier), 7 March 1792, later
as L’amour filial, ou La jambe de bois
Le paria, ou La chaumière indienne (opéra, 2, Demoustier), 8 Oct 1792
Les deux ermites (opéra, 1, B. Planterre), 17 April 1793
La partie carrée (opéra-bouffe, 1, L. Hennequin), 26 June 1793, unpubd
La famille indigente (fait historique, 1, Planterre), 24 Mar 1794
Sophronime, ou La reconnaissance (opéra, 1, Demoustier), 13 Feb 1795
Delmon et Nadine (2, E.-J.-B. Delrieu), 11 June 1795
Le petit matelot, ou Le mariage impromptu (opéra, 1, C.-A.-G. Pigault-Lebrun), 28
Dec
Lise et Colin, ou La surveillance inutile (opéra, 2, E. Hus), 4 Aug 1796
La gasconnade (1, Leroi), 10 Oct 1796
Tout par hasard (1, Monnet), 22 Oct 1796
Céliane (opéra, 1, J.M. Souriguière de Saint Marc), 31 Dec 1796
Le mannequin vivant, ou Le mari de bois (1, R.C.G. de Pixérécourt), 1796, unperf.
Le traité nul (com., 1, B.J. Marsollier des Vivetières), 23 June 1797
Sophie et Moncars, ou L’intrigue portugaise (op. vaudeville, 3, J.-H. Guy), 30 Sept
1797
Léonore, ou L’amour conjugal (fait historique, 2, J.-M. Bouilly), 19 Feb 1798
Le diable couleur de rose, ou Le bonhomme misère (opéra bouffon, 1, G. Lévrier-
Champrion), Arts, 23 Oct 1798
Les noms supposés (com., 2, J.-B. Pujoulx), 11 Dec 1798, rev. as Les deux jockeys,
17 Jan 1799
Le locataire (OC, 1, C.-A. Sewrin), 26 July 1800
Le trompeur trompé (OC, 1, B. Valville), 2 Aug 1800
Ovinska, ou Les exilés de Sibérie (3, Bidon de Villemontez), 20 Dec 1800
Le retour inattendu (1, Valville), 29 March 1802
Un quart d’heure de silence (OC, 1, P. Guillet), 9 June 1804
Le bouffe et le tailleur (1, P. Villiers and A Gouffé), Paris, Montansier, 21 June 1804
Avis aux femmes, ou Le mari colère (com., 1, Pixérécourt), 27 Oct 1804
Le mariage inattendu (1), Paris, Montansier, 1804
Trop tôt (1), Montansier 1804
Le diable en vacances, ou La suite du diable couleur de rose (opéra-féerie, 1, M.-A.
Désaugiers and J.-S.-F. Bosquier-Gavaudan), Montansier, 16 Feb 1805
L’Amour à Cythère (2, ballet-pantomime), Opéra, 29 Oct 1805, F-Po
Monsieur Deschalumeaux, ou La soirée de Carnaval (opéra bouffe, 3, Creuzé de
Lesseur), 17 Feb 1806
L’échelle de soie (OC, 1, F.-A.-E. de Planard), 22 Aug 1808
La rose blanche et la rose rouge (drame lyrique, 3, Pixérécourt), 20 March 1809
L’enfant prodigue (opéra, 3, Riboutté and Souriguière), 23 Nov 1811
Pygmalion (scène lyrique, J.-J. Rousseau), 1816, ?unperf.
Une nuit au bois, ou Le muet de circonstance (1), 10 Feb 1818
1 air in L.-C.-A. Chardiny: L’histoire universelle, 1790; numerous other excerpts,
arrs. pubd

other works
Vocal: 6 romances imitées de Athala (Paris, n.d.); Recueil de canzonettes italiennes
(Paris, 1800); other romances; L’apothéose de J.-J. Rousseau; Hymne de l’Etre
suprême (Paris, 1792); La réveil du peuple (Paris, 1795); other Revolutionary works
Insts: 7 ouvertures, orch (Paris, n.d.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
HopkinsonD
C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution (Paris, 1904/R)
J.-G. Prod’homme: ‘Léonore ou L’amour conjugal de Bouilly et Gaveaux’,
SIMG, vii (1905–6), 636–9
A. Sandberger: ‘Beiträge zur Beethoven-Forschung’, AMw, ii (1920), 394–
410
M. Pincherle, ed.: Musiciens peints par eux-mêmes (Paris, 1939)
W. Dean: ‘French Opera’, NOHM, viii (1982), 26–117
R. Cadenbach: ‘Die “Léonore” des Pierre Gaveaux: ein Modell für
Beethovens “Fidelio”?’, Collegium musicologicum: Festschrift Emil
Platen, ed. M. Gutiérrez-Denhoff (Bonn, 1985, 2/1986), 100–21
D. Charlton: ‘On Redefinitions of “Rescue Opera”’, Music and the French
Revolution: Cardiff 1989, 169–88
W. Wolf: ‘De la Léonore de Pierre Gaveaux à celle de Fidelio’, 1789–1989:
musique, histoire, démocratie (Paris, 1992), 107–14
M. McClennan: Battling Over the Lyric Muse (diss., U. of North Carolina,
1994)
E. Kennedy and others: Theatre, Opera and Audiences in Revolutionary
Paris (Westport, CT, 1996)
L. Mason: Singing the French Revolution (Ithaca, NY, 1996)
K. Kutsch and T. Riemans: Grosses Sängerlexicon (Bern, 3/1997–2000)
PAULETTE LETAILLEUR

Gaviniés [Gaviniès, Gaviniez,

Gavigniès, Gavignès, Gabignet
and other variations], Pierre
(b Bordeaux, 11 May 1728; d Paris, 8 Sept 1800). French violinist and
composer. He was Leclair’s successor as leader of the French violin
school. The esteem with which he was regarded is indicated by his
inclusion in Fayolle’s Notices sur Corelli, Tartini, Gaviniés, Pugnani et Viotti
(Paris, 1810) and by Viotti’s having labelled him (according to Pipelet) ‘the
French Tartini’. He was admired as a performer, composer, teacher and
philanthropist.
Gaviniés was the son of François Gaviniés, a violin maker, and Marie
Laporte. Accurate information about his early training is limited, though his
talent was undoubtedly nurtured by the artists who frequented his father’s
violin shop. By 1734, possibly to further Pierre’s musical education, his
father moved the family and business to Paris. At the age of 11 he
appeared in private concerts, and at 13 he made a successful Concert
Spirituel début, performing a Leclair duet with L’abbé le fils, a pupil of
Leclair; there is no evidence to suggest that Gaviniés was also one of his
pupils. Later in 1741 he performed ‘Spring’ from Vivaldi’s ‘Four Seasons’ at
the Concert Spirituel, after which his activities are not known for several
years; some believe that he was employed by the Duke of Orleans during
this period. From 1748 Gaviniés performed frequently at the Concert
Spirituel, playing both alone and with others, including the violinist
Guignon, the flautist Blavet and the singer Marie Fel. His whereabouts from
1753 to 1759 remain a mystery except for the fact that one year was spent
serving a prison sentence for an illicit affair with a young countess. In
prison he composed his famous ‘Romance’ – a work which appeared in
numerous versions during his lifetime. In 1759 he returned to the Concert
Spirituel, and on 6 November 1760 his Le prétendu, an intermède in three
acts, was presented by the Comédie-Italienne.
The early 1760s were perhaps the apex of Gaviniés’s career. He published
three sets of sonatas for violin and basso continuo, one set for two violins
and six concertos. Several symphonies were performed at the Concert
Spirituel, where he conducted the orchestra from his position as leader. In
the winter of 1763–4, the Mozart family attended some of his concerts.
After 1765 he performed little, perhaps because of his envy of Antonio Lolli,
a phenomenal virtuoso who had become popular for a novel effect
involving scordatura. Between 1769 and 1772, Gaviniés organized five
benefit concerts for a free school of design. With Simon Leduc and
Gossec, he directed the Concert Spirituel from 1773 to 1777, during which
time the orchestra was enlarged and the quality of performance improved
remarkably. After this he remained in Paris but seldom played in public. A
wealthy benefactress bequeathed him an annuity of 1500 livres in 1788;
the annuity may not have survived the Revolution, however, for Gaviniés
took a position playing in the orchestra of the Théâtre de la rue de Louvois
in the 1790s.
When the Paris Conservatoire was established in 1795, Gaviniés accepted
the position of violin professor. He is reported to have been an enthusiastic
and well-liked teacher. Although physical infirmities eventually forced him to
remain in his home, his fabulous technique was not affected and he
remained active until his death. In 1800 (or possibly 1794) he published his
famous Vingt-quatre matinées, a series of difficult études.
 Gaviniés was a charming and affable humanitarian. He never married, but
he had numerous female admirers and friends. He was a friend of J.-J.
Rousseau and other French writers. Partly due to his generous nature – he
favoured pupils who were less affluent, in some cases giving them free
lessons or even supporting them – he died in relative poverty. The most
valuable belongings that he left were several manuscripts of unpublished
works and some musical instruments. He was given a grand and dignified
funeral, attended by pupils and friends; the cortège included Gossec,
Méhul and Cherubini.
Gaviniés was best known to his contemporaries as a violinist; nearly every
aspect of his playing was praised. He was most profusely complimented for
his expressiveness, for the purity and dimension of his tone and for the
remarkable flexibility of his bowing. His improvisations were admired and
his sight-reading ability was renowned. His own études reflect an interest in
the development of dexterity of the left hand and a supple bow technique.
Among his many famous pupils were Baudron, Capron, M.-A. Guénin,
Simon Leduc, Moria and L.H. Paisible.
Gaviniés’s works for the violin, comprising sonatas, duos, concertos and
études, reveal something of his own virtuosity. All of the sonatas and duos
have three movements. Many of the slow middle movements are
romances. In the early works, some of the finales take the form of a
moderate theme and variations or a minuet. The first movements of the
second set of sonatas usually have two strongly contrasting themes. The
entire range of the violin is exploited, with unusual emphasis on the lower
register. Double stopping is employed in various ways and there is much
ornamentation, despite the broad, sweeping, melodic curves. Gaviniés was
extremely explicit regarding dynamics and articulation, although fingerings
were added infrequently. In the duos, the violins have parts of equal
importance.
The concertos, perhaps the best of Gaviniés’s works, share many traits
with the sonatas but demand greater virtuosity. Broken chords, flourishes of
notes in one bowstroke, pedal points, wide melodic leaps and extensions
to the upper register abound. The solo part has no separate theme. Some
critics detect influence from the Mannheim school, and some believe that
Gaviniés’s concertos were precursors of the Romantic concerto. Wyzewa
and Saint-Foix felt that Gaviniés’s influence was apparent in Mozart’s violin
concerto k211.
The études in the Vingt-quatre matinées represent the acme of 18th-
century violin technique. Even more difficult than the works of Tartini, they
remained unsurpassed until the advent of Paganini. Although the extreme
upper register is avoided, enormous leaps and complex passages in the
fourth to seventh positions are characteristic. The études vary in style from
archaic to progressive and, unlike the studies of many contemporaries,
display various moods and technical problems within each piece.
WORKS
printed works published in Paris

Le prétendu (intermède, 3, A.-F. Riccoboni), Paris, Comédie-Italienne, 6 Nov 1760

(after 1760)
Vocal: ‘Qu’il est doux, qu’il est charmant’ [Romance de Gaviniés], c1755, pubd in
many arrs.; ‘On craint un engagement’ [Romance from Le prétendu]; ‘Vous dittes
toujours maman’, romance, F-Pn; arrs. and songs in contemporary anthologies,
incl. ‘La chute imprévue’, the possible origin of ‘Der vorgegebene Zufall’, an
‘operette’ attrib. Gaviniés by Gerber
Orch: 6 concs., solo vn, str, 2 ob, 2 hn, op.4 (1764); Dernière étude en concerto,
solo vn (1805), lost; ?3 syms., perf. c1762, lost; 2 vn concs., Pc; 1re suite sur des
noëls, vn, 2 orch, Pc; 2me suite sur des noëls, Pc; Chaconne, composed as
interlude for perf. of Rameau: Hippolyte et Aricie, 1767, lost
Chbr: 6 sonates, vn, bc, op.1 (1760), ed. A.F. Ginter (Madison, WI, 1995); Recueil
d’airs à 3 parties, 2 vn, va/vc (c1763); 6 sonates, vn, bc, op.3 (1764); 6 sonates, 2
vn, op.5 (c1774), ed. A.F. Ginter (Madison, WI, 1999); 3 sonates, vn, vc ad lib
(1801) [no.1 entitled ‘Le tombeau’]; Airs en quatuor, perf. 1763, lost; Sonata, vn, db,
Pc
Other inst: Vingt-quatre matinées, études, vn (1800 [1794 according to Fétis]);
Sonata, hpd, Pc

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetC
BrookSF
FétisB
GerberNL
La BordeE
La Laurencie
EF [incl. detailed description of pubd works]
MGG1 (E. Borrel)
MoserGV
NewmanSCE
PierreH
C. Pipelet [Princesse du Salm]: Eloge historique de Pierre Gaviniés
(Paris, 1802)
F. Fayolle: Notices sur Corelli, Tartini, Gaviniés, Pugnani et Viotti (Paris,
1810)
T. de Wyzewa and G. Saint-Foix: Wolfgang Amédée Mozart: sa vie
musicale et son oeuvre (Paris, 1912–46)
L. de La Laurencie: ‘Gaviniès et son temps’, ReM, iii/3–5 (1921–2), 135–
48
H. Bordes: ‘Pierre Gaviniès, violiniste bordelais (1728–1800)’, Actes de
l’Académie nationale des sciences, belles-lettres, et artes de
Bordeaux, xxii/4 (1967), 53
K.M. Stolba: A History of the Violin Etude to about 1800 (Hays, Kansas,
1968–9)
A.F. Ginter: The Sonatas of Pierre Gaviniés (diss., Ohio State U., 1976)
JEFFREY COOPER/ANTHONY GINTER

Gavioli.
Italian family of mechanical instrument makers, later active in France.
Giacomo Gavioli (b Cavezzo, nr Modena, 16 Feb 1786; d Paris, 1875)
began as a maker of horse-drawn cabriolets. In 1818 he went to Modena to
work for the county watch repairer. In 1828 he advertised as a
‘manufacturer and retailer of carillons and organs’. He became Modena’s
leading watch and clock-maker; his clock for the Palazzo Comunale is still
in use there.
His son Lodovico [Louis] Gavioli (i) (b Cavezzo, 5 Aug 1807; d Paris, 1875)
began to show his mechanical genius in his early innovations in clock
design. During the 1830s he began making mechanical or self-playing
instruments, including a harp-playing android David (1838). He also made
a mechanical orchestra called the Panarmonico. He undertook repairs to
small mechanical instruments (barrel pianos and organs) for street
musicians, and eventually mastered their manufacture. At the 1845
Triennial Exhibition in Modena he was awarded a prize for a street organ of
his own design, as a result of which he decided to manufacture the
armonico a mano as his main source of income. He also built a barrel
recital organ for Queen Isabella II of Spain. In 1854 he moved to Paris and
set up as a maker of mechanical orchestras, taking over the old Pleyel
piano and harp factory in Faubourg Saint-Antoine. The Italian king allowed
Gavioli to use the Austro-Estense coat of arms on his factory. The following
year he received a gold medal at the Paris Exposition for a mechanical
flute-playing android; he also took out an English patent for the Clavi-
accord, a portable reed organ. Lodovico and his sons Anselmo [Anselme]
(1828–1902) and Claudio [Claude] (1831–1905) began making street
pianos, and later made fairground and dance organs. The firm’s reputation,
however, was based on the building of the Stratarmonica, the first true
street organ; this was a large barrel organ on wheels with moving figures in
its prospect.
Anselmo took over the management of the firm in 1863, but suffered a
setback when his factory was destroyed during the Franco-Prussian War in
1870. With financial backing from Prosper Yver and Leonce Julaguier, in
1871 he reorganized the company under the name of Gavioli & Cie. In
1876 Anselmo patented an improvement in pipe construction called the
frein harmonique, or harmonic bridge. This consisted of a piece of metal
positioned in front of the mouth of a narrow-scaled pipe to stabilize the
wind curtain at the languid, allowing the pipe to be blown at high pressure
without overblowing, an innovation soon used by makers of church and
concert-hall organs as well. Until almost the end of the 19th century all
street organs had been operated by pinned barrels (see Barrel organ). In
1892, using the principle of the Jacquard loom, Anselmo invented the
‘keyframe and music book’ system, in which a long series of hinged
perforated cards (the ‘book’) is fed through the keyframe mechanism for
playing. The advantages of the system were the compactness of the music
programme, the simplicity of the method of preparing ‘the book’ (the holes
were punched out on a treadle-operated machine) and, above all, that the
music played could be much longer and more complex. This invention,
together with Anselmo’s two-pressure system, patented in 1891 (low
pressure for the pipes, high pressure for the action), heralded the
beginning of a new era for street and fairground organs. Anselmo’s son and
successor Lodovico (ii) (1850–1923) excelled in arranging music, and this
period in the company’s history marked the high point in its musical
superiority over other fairground organ makers. The firm produced some of
the finest mechanical instruments of the age: around the turn of the century
Claudio invented a book-playing ‘mechanical band’ called the Coelophone
Orchestre but it seems to have had limited production, and none is now
known to exist.
The Gavioli firm did not benefit as it should have done from these and
other inventions. Financial problems plagued Lodovico (ii) and shortly after
his father’s death his foreman Charles Marenghi left, with others trained by
Gavioli, to start a rival business. Despite this setback, the firm went on to
develop what many consider its masterpiece, the large 110-key
Gavioliphone, which, after six years of design work, was put on the market
in 1906 and seems to have been particularly popular in England. The
centre of book-organ building was shifting from Paris to Belgium, where
thriving builders such as Mortier and Hooghuys were capitalizing on a new
interest in organs for dance halls. Gavioli tried to counter this, opening a
branch factory in Waldkirch where a small number of ‘German Gavioli’
organs were made to suit the different demands of a German market. The
firm might have held its lead in the industry, had it not tried to produce an
even more ambitious 112-note keyless instrument (using paper rolls) with
an experimental action and wind system. Patented in 1907, this new
instrument was beset with mechanical problems, and purchasers sued
Gavioli for damages under the terms of their guarantee. This, along with
the fact that Mortier was infringing Gavioli’s patents, is probably what
prompted the sale of the business to Limonaire Frères in 1910.

For illustration see Mechanical instrument, fig.8.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.C. Spinelli: I due Gavioli (Modena, 1901)
R. de Waard: Van speeldoos tot pierement (New York, 1964; Eng. trans.,
1967)
E.V. Cockayne: The Fairground Organ (London, 1970)
A.W.J.G. Ord-Hume: Barrel Organ (London, 1978)
H. Rambach and O. Wernet: Waldkircher Orgelbauer (Waldkirch, 1984)
ARTHUR W.J.G. ORD-HUME, BARBARA OWEN

Gavotte
(Fr.; Old Eng. gavot; It. gavotta).
A French folkdance still performed in Brittany in the mid-20th century; also
a French court dance and instrumental form popular from the late 16th
century to the late 18th. The courtly gavotte was a lively duple-metre
successor to the 16th-century branle; it often had a pastoral affect in the
18th century, and frequently appeared as a movement of a suite, usually
after the sarabande.
‘Gavotte’ is a generic term covering many types of folkdance from the area
of Basse-Bretagne in France, but it is used also in Provence and the
Basque areas. J.-M. Guilcher’s study of the gavotte in Brittany (1963)
revealed great variety in modern practice, especially in the type of steps
used, floor patterns and formations and musical accompaniment. Gavottes
in some areas are accompanied by singing, with a soloist alternating either
with a group or with another soloist; in other areas gavottes are
accompanied by instruments such as the violin, drum, bagpipe or a kind of
shawm. Various metres are used, including 4/4, 2/4, 9/8 and 5/8. Gavottes
written in the 20th century are thought to derive from 19th-century practices
and thus are probably not related to the court dances that gained popularity
in the late 16th century.
The earliest description of the gavotte as a court dance appeared in
Arbeau’s Orchésographie (1588). Apparently the gavotte was a set of
branle doubles or variations. Arbeau described it as a relatively new form of
the branle, consisting of the same sideways motion by a line or circle of
dancers. Unlike the branle, in which sideways motion was achieved by the
dancer’s continually bringing the feet together, the gavotte required
crossing of the feet twice in each step pattern, and each step was followed
by a hop. Various pantomimic motions, such as the choice of a leader for
the next dance, usually formed part of a gavotte performance. The gavotte
was mentioned as a popular court dance related to the branle by other
writers as well, including Michael Praetorius (Terpsichore, 1612), F. de
Lauze (Apologie de la danse, 1623), Mersenne (Harmonie universelle,
1636), and even by Pierre Rameau as late as 1725 (Le maître à danser).
No further information as to steps and movements was given by any of
these writers: Lauze wrote that ‘the steps and actions are so common that
it will be useless to write of it’; Rameau described the gavotte as a regular
part of the ceremonial of formal court balls, but as he failed to describe the
steps it is not certain how much the dance may have changed by his time.
Ex.1 shows how the steps mentioned by Arbeau might fit with one of the
gavottes included in Praetorius’s Terpsichore. Like the example, most 17th-
century gavottes were in duple metre and consisted of repeated four- and
eight-bar phrases, and most were uncomplicated by counterpoint,
syncopation or attempts at musical relationships between successive
strains. Apparently a wide variety of rhythmic figures was possible within
the duple metre, one of the most common being frequent use of dotted
crotchet–quaver figures at the beginnings of bars. Occasionally, as in a
collection of ballets performed at the Vienna court in the 1660s and 1670s
(see DTÖ, lvi, 1921/R), phrases had an odd number of bars. A ballet by
J.H. Schmelzer in that collection includes five consecutive gavottes, each
titled as though it represented the national gavotte of a different country
(e.g. ‘gavotte tedesca’, ‘gavotte anglica’ etc.); the national titles probably
referred to costumes worn during the dances for which the music was
written, rather than to any particular national traits in the music. Ex.2 shows
two of the opening strains of these national gavottes. Other sources for the
17th-century gavotte include the Kassel Manuscript (Ecorcheville), a
collection of 17th-century dances now in Uppsala (S-Uu Imhs.409), and
G.M. Bononcini’s op.1 (Venice, 1666).
Another type of dance called gavotte, whose relationship to the branle-
gavotte is unclear, was one of the French court dances introduced during
the reign of Louis XIV, probably in the 1660s or earlier. At least 17 actual
choreographies are extant in the Beauchamp-Feuillet notation, all dating
from after 1700 (see Little and Marsh). Most are social dances, although
two (Little and Marsh, nos.4220 and 4520) are for theatrical performance.
Ex.3 (Little and Marsh, no.4880) shows the opening phrase of a typical
social gavotte, a couple dance (rather than a circle or line dance) popular
in aristocratic circles in the early 18th century. The dance phrases, like
those of the branle-gavotte, are generally four bars long as seen here, with
a rhythmic point of arrival at the beginning of the fourth bar. The phrase of
music that accompanies it, which begins one minim beat earlier than the
dance phrase, is eight minims long, divided into two groups of four, with
rhythmic point of arrival strongest on the fourth and eighth beats. In
practice dance and music form counter-rhythms, and the tension is
released only at the common point of arrival at the beginning of the fourth
bar. A characteristic step pattern of the couple gavotte was the
contretemps de gavotte followed by an assemblé, which may be
abbreviated as ‘hop–step–step–jump’; the second half of ex.3 shows how it
fitted the music (the landing on both feet in the jump occurs on the first
beat of the fourth bar). Gavotte step-units were widely used in the
contredanse.

Gavottes were popular in ballets and other theatrical works. Lully set 37
titled gavottes in his stage works, beginning as early as 1655 in the Ballet
des plaisirs. Later French ballet composers, including Campra, Destouches
and Rameau, continued this practice, Rameau in particular using it more
than any other dance in his stage works (e.g. in the prologue to Hippolyte
et Aricie, 1733, in Act 2 of Les Indes galantes, 1735, and in the prologue
and Act 4 of Castor et Pollux, 1737). Other productions including danced
gavottes were Handel’s Amadigi (1715) and Il pastor fido (2nd version,
1734), Grétry’s Céphale et Procris (1773) and Mozart’s Idomeneo (1781).
Like most Baroque dances, the gavotte was used as both an instrumental
and a vocal air as well as for dancing. The stylized gavotte, like the dance,
had a time signature of 2 or C, a moderate tempo, phrases built in four-bar
units and a performing style often characterized by quavers executed as
notes inégales. Mattheson claimed that the gavotte expressed ‘triumphant
joy’, but most others thought the affect to be one of moderate gaiety –
pleasant, tender, avoiding extremes of emotional expression. It was often
considered a pastoral dance, an association emphasized in J.S. Bach’s
settings of gavottes in the first two English suites for keyboard, both of
which have a drone bass that may be intended to imitate the sound of a
musette (ex.4; note also the drone in Schmelzer’s Gavotta bavarica,
ex.2b). The tempo varied according to the character of the piece and the
amount of ornamentation. J.-J. Rousseau (1768) wrote that the gavotte,
while usually a ‘gay’ dance, could also be slow and tender. Unlike the more
serious Baroque dances such as the allemande and courante the gavotte
never lost its relative simplicity of texture and clear phrasing. Gavottes
were most often written in binary form, or as a set of variations, or as a
rondeau (see Rondo). Occasionally two gavottes occurred consecutively in
a suite, the first then repeated da capo.

Gavottes and gavotte rhythms abound in French vocal music, not only in
brunettes and other songs but also in secular and sacred ensemble music.
As early as 1668 Bacilly spoke of ‘enchanting’ French songs that were
gavottes, including suggestions for their performance (Remarques
curieuses sur l’art de bien chanter, i, chap.11). Sung gavottes may be
found in the works of L’Affilard (Principes, 5/1705) and in cantatas by André
Campra and Montéclair.
In the first half of the 18th century the gavotte was one of the most popular
instrumental forms derived from a dance, frequently forming part of
keyboard and instrumental suites, where it usually appeared after the more
serious movements (allemande, courante, sarabande), along with other
popular dances like the minuet and the bourrée. Gavottes for keyboard
were composed by D’Anglebert, Blow, Purcell, J.C.F. Fischer, Johann
Krieger, Lebègue, Gaspard Le Roux and François Couperin. Gavottes
were also used in music written for small ensemble (e.g. solo and trio
sonatas), such as G.B. Vitali’s Sonate da camera op.14 (1692), Marin
Marais’ Pièces de violes (1711; gavotte ‘La petite’) and Couperin’s Les
nations (1726). Instrumental gavottes appeared in both French and Italian
styles. The Italian style, characterized by a fast tempo, contrapuntal texture
and virtuoso performance techniques without the use of notes inégales,
was popular in violin music. Examples abound in the works of Corelli, and
include pieces entitled ‘Gavotta’ which begin on the bar, not before it (op.4
no.5), and pieces entitled ‘Tempo di gavotta’ (op.2 no.8). Several gavottes
by Bach also illustrate this style (e.g. the orchestral suites bwv1066 and
1069, most of the gavottes for solo string instruments and the ‘Tempo di
gavotta’ in the sixth keyboard partita bwv830), as do the famous
‘Harmonious Blacksmith’ variations by Handel (keyboard suite no.5, 1720),
although they are not so titled. A gavotte aria, ‘Sehet in Zufriedenheit’,
closes Bach’s wedding cantata Weichet nur, betrübte Schatten,
accompanied by strings and the pastoral oboe, and a choral gavotte, ‘Love
and Hymen, hand in hand’, forms part of a wedding scene in Handel’s
Hercules.
The title ‘gavotte’ has appeared in more recent compositions, including
Johann Strauss’s ‘Gavotte der Königin’ from Das Spitzentuch (1880);
Richard Strauss’s Suite for 13 wind instruments op.4 (1884); Saint-Saëns’s
Gavotte for piano solo op.23 (1872), Orchestral Suite op.49 (1877) and
Suite op.90 (1892); Prokofiev’s Classical Symphony op.25 (1916–17); and
Schoenberg’s Suite for piano op.25 (1925). While all these share the duple
metre of the old dance, none seems to have more than a vague neo-
classical association with older music, nor exhibits any of the rhythms
characteristic of the Baroque gavotte.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (C. Marcel-Dubois)
J. Ecorcheville: Vingt suites d’orchestre du XVIIe siècle français 1640–
1670 (Paris, 1906/R)
J.-M. Guilcher: La tradition populaire de danse en Basse-Bretagne (Paris,
1963)
J.-M. Guilcher: La contredanse (Paris, 1969)
W. Hilton: Dance of Court and Theater (Princeton, NJ, 1981/R)
M. Little and N. Jenne: Dance and the Music of J.S. Bach (Bloomington,
IN, 1991), 47–61
M. Little and C. Marsh: La danse noble: an Inventory of Dances and
Sources (Williamstown, MA, 1992)
F. Lancelot: La belle dance: catalogue raisonné (Paris, 1996)
MEREDITH ELLIS LITTLE

Gavoty, Bernard
(b Paris, 2 April 1908; d Paris, 24 Oct 1981). French critic, writer on music
and organist. He studied the organ and harmony at the Paris Conservatoire
(1934–7) under Marcel Dupré and Georges Caussade, and took a degree
in literature at the Sorbonne. He was in charge of the Jeunesses Musicales
de France and in 1942 was appointed resident organist at St Louis-des-
Invalides in Paris, the great organ of which he inaugurated after its
reconstruction in 1957. He was music critic for the Figaro under the
pseudonym of Clarendon from 1945 until his death. He was also a radio
and television producer at the ORTF from 1948.
Many of Gavoty’s works are enthusiastic biographies of organists (Vierne,
Jehan Alain) and other famous musicians whom he knew personally; he
was author of Les Grands Interprètes, a popular series of biographies of
contemporary musicians illustrated by the photographer Roger Hauert
(Geneva, 1953–62; Ger. trans., 1953–62). He was also known for his
critical attitude to the experiments of the avant garde. His writings are
characterized by polished language and a style that is lively and vivacious
with a frequent use of paradox.
WRITINGS
Louis Vierne: la vie et l’oeuvre (Paris, 1943/R)
Jehan Alain, musicien français (1911–1940) (Paris, 1945/R)
Les Français sont-ils musiciens? (Paris, 1950)
Deux capitales romantiques: Vienne–Paris (Paris, 1954)
Beethoven (Paris, 1955)
ed.: Les souvenirs de Georges Enesco (Paris, 1955)
with Daniel-Lesur: Pour ou contre la musique moderne? (Paris, 1957)
La musique adoucit les moeurs? (Paris, 1959)
with E. Vuillermoz: Chopin amoureux (Geneva, 1960)
Dix grands musiciens (Paris, 1962)
Vingt grands interprètes (Paris, 1966)
Parler … parler! (Paris, 1972)
Frédéric Chopin (Paris, 1974)
Les grands mystères de la musique (Paris, 1975)
Reynaldo Hahn: le musicien de la Belle Epoque (Paris, 1976)
Alfred Cortot (Paris, 1977)
Anicroches (Paris, 1979)
Liszt, i: Le virtuose, 1811–48 (Paris, 1980)
Chroniques de Clarendon, 1945–1981, ed. J. Lonchampt (Paris, 1990)
CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER

Gavrilin, Valery Aleksandrovich

(b Vologda, 17 Aug 1939; d 28 Jan 1999). Russian composer. He started to
study music at a children’s home in Vologda with the pianist T.D.
Tomashevskaya. He studied at the Leningrad special middle school for
music attached to the conservatory in the class of S. Ya. Vol'fenzon (1953–
8), and then at the Conservatory itself (1958–64) with Orest Yevlakhov
(composition) and F.A. Rubtsov (folklore). He taught composition at the
N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov Music School in Leningrad (1965–73). He became a
member of the USSR Union of Composers in 1965, was nominated
People’s Artist of Russia (1965), and was a laureate of state prizes of the
RSFSR (1967), and of the USSR (1985).
The recollection of his childhood in Vologda and the surrounding villages
during the war have played a major role in Gavrilin’s artistic development.
His impressions of life in the north-western Russian backwoods, the
tragedy of that time (the composer’s father died in 1941 on the Leningrad
front) and his contact with the rich and lively traditions of folk singing in
many ways defined his future musical language. His years at the
conservatory coincided with the epoch of Khrushchev liberalism, and the
slight lifting of the Iron Curtain. The young composer became acquainted
with not only the classical heritage, but the music of Stravinsky, Prokofiev,
Shostakovich, Bartók, Hindemith, Berg and contemporary works of the
Polish avant garde.
 Gavrilin achieved recognition with his Russkaya tetrad' (‘Russian Exercise-
Book’) for voice and piano (1965) which was unanimously welcomed by the
patriarchs of Soviet music – Kabalevsky, Khachaturian, Khrennikov,
Shostakovich and Sviridov. In this work the composer found a musical
image which became characteristic of him – the portrait of a northern
Russian peasant girl. The story of her unfulfilled love (the theme of a
woman’s fate is traditional for Russian peasant lyrics) is the basis of the
cycle. The musical material is virtually indistinguishable from its folk source,
but nonetheless bears an individual stamp. Feelings of despair, bitterness
and solitude dominate the ingenuous transitions from chastushka to
lament; commentaries take the form of economic but varied piano
accompaniment. The harmony is largely tonal but encompasses effects
ranging from two-part writing in parallel 4ths to multi-layered, highly
dissonant polytonal clusters. Frequently unusual progressions are primarily
governed by the modal gravitation of the melodic pitches. These
tendencies are further developed in the three Nemetskiye tetradi (‘German
Exercise-Books’) which are unique manifestos of the Russian neo-
romanticism of the 1960s and 70s, and testify to the spiritual kinship
between certain Russian composers and the German Romantics.
The years Gavrilin spent in the theatre and the cinema gave rise to the
creation of the genre which the composer called an ‘action’. In these
‘actions’ there are no librettos, stage directions, recitatives, or arias. They
usually consist of a succession of songlike solo numbers, alternated with
choruses and occasionally linked by short instrumental intermezzos. There
is however a strong theatrical element; whatever the symbolic or
psychological content of a song, it is easy to guess the identity of the
characters and the images. Thus, the Voyennïye pis'ma (‘Wartime Letters’)
convey those feelings so well known to the wartime generations:
expectations of a letter from the front, the terrible moment of receiving a
‘killed in battle notice’, the happy recollections of times before the war. The
main hero – a soldier who has not returned from the front – is easily
recognizable as a native of a northern Russian village. His largest
composition in this genre is Perezvonï (‘Chimes’). It represents a fusion of
heterogeneous elements originating from the folk theatre, fairy tales,
rituals, superstitions and children’s games. The composer compiled the text
in the spirit of folk poetry, priskazki (story teller’s introductions), pribautki
(humorous catch-phrases) and nonsense rhyme; the subject manner
represents the succession of images which appear to a person before
death. The musical language is an amalgamation of a folk style and
virtuoso choral writing; the score abounds in numerous devices which
originate from folk polyphony (such as chastushka pod yazïk, in which the
voice imitates the sounds of instruments in lines of humorous folk poetry),
from Russian polyphonic liturgical singing (especially the ‘strochnoye
peniye’ (line singing) of the 17th century) in addition to choral recitation,
quasi-aleatory devices, imitative techniques and complex polyphonic
forms. Perezvonï is considered a model work of 20th-century Russian
choral music.
WORKS
Ops: Povest' o skripache Vanyushe, ili Utesheniya [The Tale of the Fiddler
Vanyusha, or Consolations] (N. Butovsky, after G. Uspensky), 1972; Anyuta (A.
Belinsky, after A. Chekhov), 1982; Dom u dorogi [The House near the Road]
(Belinsky, after A. Tvardovsky), 1984; Podporuchik Romashov [Lieutenant
Romashov] (B. Eyfman, after A. Kuprin), 1985; Zhenit'ba Bal'zaminova [The
Marriage of Balzaminov] (Belinsky, after A.N. Ostrovsky), 1990
Choral: Skomorokhi [Folk Entertainers] (B. Korostïlyov), Bar, male chorus, orch,
1967; Voyennïye pis'ma [Wartime Letters] (A. Shul'gina) S, Bar, chorus, orch, 1972;
Svad'ba [The Marriage] (V. Gavrilin, Shul'gina, trad.), S, chorus, orch, 1978–81;
Perezvonï [Chimes] (Gavrilin, Shul'gina, trad.), soloists, spkr, chorus, ob, perc,
1981–2; Pastukh i pastushka [The Shepherd and Shepherdess] (after V. Astaf'yev,
V. Gavrilin, trad.), chorus, inst ens, 1983; cants., choruses
Vocal: Nemetskaya tetrad' [Ger. Exercise-Bk] (H. Heine), B, pf, 3 bks, (1963–76);
Russkaya tetrad' [Russ. Exercise-Bk] (trad.), Mez, pf (1965); Vecherok [Evening], S,
Mez, pf: Al’bomchik [Little Album] (Gavrilin, Shul'gina, trad.), Tantsï, pis'ma,
okonchaniye [Dances, Letters, Conclusion] (A. Akhmatova, I. Bunin, Gavrilin, S.
Nadson, Shul'gina), 1973–5; other song cycles
Suites and sym. poems for orch, str qts, pf pieces, other inst works

Principal publishers: Sovetskiy kompozitor, Muzïka

BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Volkov: ‘ Novoye, no nevïdumannoye: Valeriy Gavrilin’ [New, but not
concocted: Valery Gavrilin], Molodïye kompozitorï Leningrada [Young
composers of Leningrad] (Leningrad, 1971), 70–83
A. Belonenko: ‘ Russkiy golos: Valeriy Gavrilin’ [A Russian voice: Valery
Gavrilin], Kniga i iskusstvo v SSSR [The book and art in the USSR],
iii/38 ( 1983), 56–7
O. Belova: ‘ Valeriy Gavrilin’, Kompozitorï Rossiyskoy Federatsii [The
composers of the Russian Federation], iii (1984), 3–38
R. Petrushanskaya: ‘Vernost' sebe, vernost' prizvaniyu: V. Gavrilin’ [Being
faithful to oneself, being faithful to one’s calling], Sovetskiye
kompozitorï – laureatï premii Leninskogo komsomola [Soviet
composers and laureates of the Lenin komsomol prize] (Moscow,
1989), 163–83
A. Zolotov: ‘ Gavrilinskiye perezvonï’ [Gavrilin’s ‘Chimes’], … Listopad, ili v
minutï muzïki [… Leaf-fall, or in moments of music], ed. A. Zolotov
(Moscow, 1989), 187–99
R.L. Nikolayevich: O dukhovnom renessanse v russkoy muzïke 1960–
80kh godov [The Spiritual Renaissance of Russian Music during the
1960s–80s] (St Petersburg, 1998)
ALEKSANDR SERGEYEVICH BELONENKO

Gavrilov, Andrey
(b Moscow, 21 Sept 1955). Russian pianist. His early studies with his
mother, a great believer in ‘emotional richness’ were countered by later
work with Tat'yana Kestner (a student of Goldenweiser), whom he
described as ‘very German’. He completed his studies with Lev Naumov
who, he claims, curbed his ‘ungovernable temperament’. His international
career was launched when he won the 1974 Tchaikovsky Competition, and
memorable débuts followed in Salzburg, France, Finland and, in 1976, the
USA and England, where his performances of Prokofiev’s First Concerto
and Ravel’s Concerto for the left hand at the Royal Festival Hall caused a
sensation. Appearances with the Berlin PO were followed in 1979 by a tour
of Japan. In the same year his career was effectively terminated when, on
returning to the USSR, he was accused of anti-Soviet bias and of open
criticism of the musical-political establishment. It was not until 1984, after
severe privation, that Gavrilov was able to resume his international
appearances. However, these were increasingly dogged by controversy.
References to undue aggression and an overbearing keyboard manner
became frequent, although his recordings of the complete Bach concertos,
the Goldberg Variations and the French suites can be as reflective as they
are virtuosic. His formidable brio and articulacy in works such as
Balakirev’s Islamey, the complete Chopin études, Ravel’s Gaspard de la
nuit and Rachmaninoff’s Third Concerto have justifiably won him many
awards. Gavrilov’s finest performances are both intensely personal and of
true Russian Romantic vintage.
BRYCE MORRISON

Gawriloff, (Siegfried Jordan)

Saschko
(b Leipzig, 20 Oct 1929). German violinist of Bulgarian origin. He studied
until 1937 with his father, a violinist in the Gewandhaus Orchestra, then at
the Leipzig Conservatory (1942–4) and in Berlin (1945–7). He was leader
of the Dresden PO (1947–8), the Berlin PO (1948–9), the Berlin Radio SO
(1949–53), the Museum and Opera Orchestra in Frankfurt (1953–7) and
the Hamburg Radio SO (1961–6). He taught at the Nuremberg
Conservatory (1957–61) and was a professor at the North-west German
Music Academy in Detmold (1966–9) and at the Folkwanghochschule in
Essen (1969–82); in 1963 he established a violin class at the Darmstadt
summer courses. In 1982 he succeeded Max Rostal at the Hochschule für
Musik in Cologne. He won the international competitions at Berlin and
Munich in 1953 and the Genoa Paganini Competition in 1959, when he
was awarded the city of Nuremberg prize.
Gawriloff has toured Europe, the USA, East Asia and Africa. A player of
clear tone and clean lines, he is an eloquent interpreter and has made
many recordings and broadcasts. He gave the first performance of
Maderna’s Widmung for solo violin (1971, Darmstadt), Hans Jürgen Bose’s
Sonata for solo violin (1976) and works by Frank Michael Boyer, Werner
Heider, Dieter Kaufman, Ligeti, Wolfgang Rihm, Schnittke and Isang Yun,
among others. He plays with Aloys Kontarsky and Siegfried Palm and in
1970 formed a trio with Alfons Kontarsky and Klaus Storck. He has also
performed and recorded sonatas with Arnulf von Arnim.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin, 1889–1971 (Toronto, 1974)
RUDOLF LÜCK/TULLY POTTER
 Gawroński [Rola-Gawroński],
Wojciech
(b Sejmany, Troitsk district, 28 March 1868; d Kowanówko, nr Poznań, 5
Aug 1910). Polish pianist, composer and conductor. His dates of birth and
death have been given incorrectly in other sources. At the Warsaw Music
Institute he studied the piano with Strobl, theory with Roguski and
composition with Noskowski. He left in 1891, but also studied composition
privately in Warsaw with Minchejmer, later in Berlin with Moszkowski. For a
short time he gave music lessons in Kaunas and for several months played
in the orchestra at Vilnius Cathedral. After his wife’s death he went to
Vienna, where he became acquainted with the Leschetizky method of
teaching; it is possible that he also studied orchestration with Brahms. As a
pianist he gave concerts in various towns in Poland and Russia, being
particularly admired for his interpretations of Chopin and Bach. From 1895
to 1902 he was director of the music school in Orel. He taught in Warsaw
from 1902, and also became professor of the music school in Łódź. He
provided illustrations to Przybyszewski’s lectures Chopin i naród (‘Chopin
and the nation’) at the Philharmonia in Warsaw.
Gawroński’s music is very varied both in nature and in quality. It comprises
works for piano and violin, chamber music, choral and orchestral works,
operas and songs. A number of his works were published by Gebethner
and Wolff in Warsaw, a few by Röder of Leipzig. The music is eclectic, but
his successful career included the award of prizes at composers’
competitions in Leipzig (first prize for the String Quartet in F major op.16,
1898), Moscow (String Quartet in F minor op.17, 1903), as well as the K.
Wołodkowicz competition (the opera Maria) and others; these prizes
brought him wide renown. His songs, piano pieces and string quartets were
often performed. Now they are of historical importance only.
WORKS
Ops: Samuel Zborowski, c1896; Maria, 1899, Warsaw, 1911 or 1913–14, orch pts.
PL-Wtm; Pojata, c1900
Choral: Samuel Zborowski, poem, chorus, orch, c1896; Antygona, poem, chorus,
orch, c1900
Inst: Conc. for orch (Sym.), Wtm; 4 str qts, F, op.16, f, op.17, D, op.19, A, op.23, all
unpubd; Sonata, vn, pf, op.27, unpubd; Sonata, va, pf, op.22 (Kraków, 1953); other
vn and vc pieces, pubd Warsaw and Leipzig
Songs
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PSB (W. Hordyński)
SMP
S.M. Stoiński: ‘Wojciech Rola-Gawroński: w 25 rocznicę śmierci’ [On the
25th anniversary of his death], Śpiewak, xv/7–8 (1935), 97 [incl. list of
compositions]
L.T. Błaszczyk: Dyrygenci polscy i obcy w Polsce działający w XIX i XX
wieku [Polish and foreign conductors working in Poland in the 19th
and 20th centuries] (Kraków, 1964)
ZOFIA CHECHLIŃSKA
Gay.
See Gai.

Gay, Jesús Bal y.

See Bal y Gay, Jesús.

Gay, John
(b Barnstaple, c30 June 1685, bap. 16 Sept 1685; d London, 4 Dec 1732).
English playwright and poet. As a member of the Scriblerus Club he was a
close friend, collaborator and long-time correspondent of Alexander Pope
and Jonathan Swift. His importance to the history of opera lies in his
invention of the ballad opera, a form that took the London theatre by storm
and permanently affected its artistic development. The Beggar’s Opera had
its première at Lincoln’s Inn Fields on 29 January 1728 and was performed
62 times during the season – a figure without precedent in the history of
the London theatre. Evidence of its success is the appearance of a pirate
production at the Little Theatre, Haymarket, as early as June 1728,
something that had never happened before in London. The extraordinary
success of Gay’s opera proved the existence of a large, almost untapped
theatre public in London and triggered a boom in new theatres and
experimental drama in the following decade.
The Beggar’s Opera has often been taken as a harsh attack on both Italian
opera and Sir Robert Walpole, but neither seems to be true. Gay had
provided the libretto for Handel’s Acis and Galatea (1718) and, while he
mocks the Faustina–Cuzzoni rivalry in Polly and Lucy, he does so without
real animus. The Royal Academy of Music was in financial trouble of its
own making, and there is no evidence that the success of The Beggar’s
Opera played any significant part in its collapse. The satire on Walpole in
Macheath and Peachum is more clever than devastating. Gay’s sequel,
Polly, is by far the more damaging attack on Walpole. It was suppressed
before the planned performances in December 1728. In Polly he turned
Macheath into a West Indian pirate, and the work concludes with his richly
deserved execution. Polly is rather lifeless, and Gay probably benefited
from its suppression. He rushed a huge edition into print (10,500 copies)
and reaped a handsome profit. It was eventually performed in 1779.
Modern critics have been inclined to see the suppression of Polly as
vengeance for The Beggar’s Opera. Gay responded wittily in The
Rehearsal at Goatham (unperformed), a farce about an innocent puppet
show misinterpreted as personal satire by an audience of country
bumpkins.
Gay’s last venture into ballad opera, Achilles (Covent Garden, 10 February
1733), was a posthumous success but has found few subsequent
admirers. Achilles in petticoats has possibilities, but the piece is short on
action and only intermittently funny. Gay must be viewed as a clever, minor
writer with one stupendous and virtually inexplicable success to his credit.
How he got the idea for The Beggar’s Opera no-one has ever been able
satisfactorily to explain: it is one of the most genuinely original works in the
history of the theatre, and it is still revived regularly with great success.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FiskeETM
GroveO (‘The Beggar’s Opera’; R.D. Hume)
W.E. Schultz: Gay’s ‘Beggar’s Opera’: its Content, History and Influence
(New Haven, CT, 1923)
W.H. Irving: John Gay: Favorite of the Wits (Durham, NC, 1940)
B.H. Bronson: ‘The Beggar’s Opera’: Studies in the Comic (Berkeley,
1941), 197–231
S.M. Armens: John Gay, Social Critic (New York, 1954)
B.A. Goldgar: Walpole and the Wits (Lincoln, NE, 1976)
H. Erskine-Hill: ‘The Significance of Gay’s Drama’, English Drama: Forms
and Development, ed. M. Axton and R. Williams (Cambridge, 1977),
142–63
J. Fuller, ed.: John Gay: Dramatic Works (Oxford, 1983)
R.D. Hume: ‘“The World is all Alike”: Satire in The Beggar’s Opera’, The
Rakish Stage: Studies in English Drama, 1660–1800 (Carbondale, IL,
1983), 245–69
R.D. Hume: ‘The London Theatre from The Beggar’s Opera to the
Licensing Act’, ibid., 270–311
P. Lewis: ‘“An Irregular Dog”: Gay’s Alternative Theatre’, Yearbook of
English Studies, xviii (1988), 231–46
C. Winton: John Gay and the London Theatre (Lexington, KY, 1993)
ROBERT D. HUME

Gay [née Pichot Gironés], María

(b Barcelona, 13 June 1879; d New York, 29 July 1943). Spanish mezzo-
soprano. She studied with Juan Gay Planella, her first husband, and then
in Paris with Ada Adini. She sang in concerts at Brussels, and soon
afterwards (in 1902) appeared there at the Théâtre de la Monnaie as
Carmen. Until the late 1920s she performed at the world’s leading opera
houses, including Madrid, Covent Garden, La Scala, the Metropolitan and
Chicago, where she sang regularly between 1910 and 1927. She was a
mainstay of the Boston Opera Company and its short-lived successor
(1909–14, 1915–17), singing such roles as Delilah, Amneris and Santuzza.
With her second husband, the tenor Giovanni Zenatello, she featured
prominently in the first open-air seasons in the Verona Arena (from 1913)
and, after her retirement, directed a school of singing in New York. If her
merits as a singer were debatable (though her middle and lower registers
were rich and resonant) she owed her fame above all to her realistic
Carmen, a portrait inspired by the atmosphere of the notorious gypsy
quarter in Seville.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GV (R. Celletti; R. Vegeto)
Q. Eaton: ‘Shameless Siren’, ON (8 Jan 1972), 6–7
M. Scott: The Record of Singing, i: To 1914 (London, 1977), 166–7
RODOLFO CELLETTI/VALERIA PREGLIASCO GUALERZI
 Gay, Noel [Armitage, Reginald
Moxon]
(b Wakefield, 15 July 1898; d London, 4 March 1954). English composer,
lyricist and publisher. He became the honorary deputy organist at
Wakefield Cathedral at the age of 12, then won a scholarship to the RCM
at 15, studying with Sir Frederick Bridge and Sir Walter Parrott. After brief
service in World War I he took a degree in music at Christ’s College,
Cambridge; while there he began to compose popular songs, and
subsequently Charlot commissioned him to write for his 1926 revue.
Having adopted his now familiar pseudonym, Gay became a leading writer
of popular songs, several of which became closely identified with leading
British performers. These included I took my harp to a party (Gracie
Fields), There’s something about a soldier (Cicely Courtneidge), Run,
rabbit, run (Bud Flanagan) and All over the place (Tommy Trinder). Many of
his songs were interpolated into films and became dance-band favourites.
Alongside his collaborations with other lyricists, most notably with Frank
Eyton in the 1940s, his own lyrics include Leaning on a Lamp-Post, made
popular by George Formby. He sometimes adopted the pseudonym
Stanley Hill for his more sentimental writing.
Gay’s most successful work and a perennial of the repertory remains the
musical comedy Me and My Girl, first given in London in 1937. The show
includes possibly the most famous of his songs, ‘The Lambeth Walk’, which
is typical of Gay in its short-phrased melody, rhythmic repetition and simple
harmony, and whose stylistic immediacy is to be found in all of his best
work, such as The sun has got his hat on and Let the people sing. Me and
My Girl was revived with a new book and additional interpolated songs in
1984 under the auspices of Gay’s publishing firm (founded in 1938), by
then an international entertainment agency headed by his son Richard
Armitage (1928–86). It also played on Broadway for some 1500
performances from 1986. A further show, Radio Times, was staged in 1992,
one of many compilations drawing upon Gay’s catalogue.
WORKS
(selective list)

Musical comedies: Hold my Hand, 1931; That’s a Pretty Thing, 1933, rev. as La-Di-
Da-Di-Da, 1943; Jack o'Diamonds, 1935, rev. as Susie, 1942; Love Laughs–!, 1935;
Me and My Girl, 1937 [incl. The Lambeth Walk; film, 1939 as The Lambeth Walk];
Wild Oats, 1938; Present Arms, 1940; The Love Racket, 1943; Meet Me Victoria,
1944; Ring Time, 1944; Sweetheart Mine, 1946; Bob’s Your Uncle, 1948
Contribs. to revues, incl. The Charlot Show of 1926, 1926; Clowns in Clover, 1927;
Folly to be Wise, 1931 [incl. The King’s Horses]; Stop Press, 1935; Lights Up, 1940
[incl. Let the people sing, Only a Glass of Champagne, You’ve done something to
my heart]; Gangway, 1942
Individual songs, incl. The sun has got his hat on, 1932; Round the Marble Arch,
1932; I took my harp to a party, 1933; Leaning on a Lamp-Post, 1937; Love makes
the world go round, 1938; [as Stanley Hill] I’ll pray for you, 1939; The moon
remembered but you forgot, 1939; Run, rabbit, run, 1939; Hey, Little Hen, 1941; My
Thanks to You, 1950
Songs for films, incl. Tondeleyo (White Cargo, 1929); There’s something about a
soldier (Soldiers of the King, 1933); Who’s been polishing the sun? (The Camels
are Coming, 1934); The fleet’s in port again (Okay for Sound, 1937); All Over the
Place (Sailors Three, 1940)
Works for orch and military band

Principal publishers: Chappell, Lawrence Wright, Noel Gay Music

BIBLIOGRAPHY
GänzlBMT; GänzlEMT
E. Rogers and M. Hennessey: Tin Pan Alley (London, 1964), 88–90
JOHN SNELSON

Gay and lesbian music.

This article considers the record, in both historical documentation and
biographical reclamation, of the struggles and sensibilities of homosexual
people of the West that came out in their music, and of the contribution of
homosexual men and women to the music profession. In broader terms, it
is further concerned with the special perspectives from which Western
music of all kinds can be heard and examined.
1. Homosexuality and musicality.
2. The gay and lesbian movement.
3. Musical theatre, jazz and popular music.
4. AIDS and HIV.
5. The 1990s.
6. Divas and disco.
7. Anthropology and history.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHILIP BRETT, ELIZABETH WOOD
Gay and lesbian music
1. Homosexuality and musicality.
To think about sexual categories as arbitrary, or contingent on historical or
social practice, is still difficult because sexuality, like musicality, has been
so thoroughly naturalized during the 20th century and intimately embedded
in an individual sense of self (Jagose, 1996, pp.17–18). But, while
maintaining the importance for modern society of the categories of
heterosexuality and homosexuality and the process of acculturation that
surrounds them, thinking historically about that sense of self has,
paradoxically, become the basis of much gay and lesbian critical work. It
also underwrites ‘queer theory’, the intellectual phenomenon based on the
recuperation of the pejorative term ‘queer’ and the inflecting of gay and
lesbian knowledge with postmodern knowledge and ways of thinking.
Arguing along lines proposed by Foucault, Halperin (1990, pp.24–5)
pinpoints the historical difficulty: ‘Homosexuality presupposes sexuality,
and sexuality itself … is a modern invention’ which ‘represents the
appropriation of the human body and of its erogenous zones by an
ideological discourse’. Before the beginning of the 19th century deviant
sexual acts such as sodomy were not particularized according to gender or
even species, and some ancient modes of same-sex desire, such as
Sapphism and pederasty, can be traced through Western culture. By the
end of the century, however, the dominant model of heterosexuality was
posited upon its binary opposition to an actual (but still incoherent)
homosexual identity. A similar process of identity formation can be seen in
music, where ‘musicality’ replaced the earlier and vaguer ‘musicalness’ as
an inherent quality attributed to ‘nature’ but actually constructed in musical
institutions of various kinds, particularly educational ones involved in the
development of musical talent (see Kingsbury, 1988).
The connection between musicality and homosexuality, and a strong
supposition that the music profession was made up largely of
homosexuals, entered public discourse as an indirect result of sexology,
the scientific work fundamental to the modern understanding of sexuality,
beginning with K.F. Ulrich's pioneering work on Uranism in the 1860s and
expanded by Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Magnus Hirschfeld, Albert Moll and
other German authorities. English studies around the turn of the century
advocating a liberal attitude towards the ‘invert’ or ‘Urning’ frequently refer
to the German sources. ‘As to music … this is certainly the art which in its
subtlety and tenderness – and perhaps in a certain inclination to indulge in
emotion – lies nearest to the Urning nature. There are few in fact of this
nature who have not some gift in the direction of music’ (Carpenter, 1908,
p.111). Havelock Ellis addressed the topic even more arrestingly (‘it has
been extravagantly said that all musicians are inverts’) and quoted
Oppenheim to the effect that ‘the musical disposition is marked by a great
emotional instability, and this instability is a disposition to nervousness’,
concluding that ‘the musician has not been rendered nervous by his music,
but he owes his nervousness (as also, it may be added, his disposition to
homosexuality) to the same disposition to which he owes his musical
aptitude’ (1915, p.295).
Such beliefs, when juxtaposed with the public scandals in many European
countries (most importantly the trials and imprisonment of Oscar Wilde in
1895) created a climate in which neither the presence of homosexuals in
music nor their contributions to it could be acknowledged, and in which the
experience of social oppression that informs gay and lesbian lives could
not be connected to musicality. Discussion of forbidden and illegal sexuality
and music was impossible. The art of music, the music profession and
musicology in the 20th century were all affected by attitudes to
homosexuality that have played a part in forming the widespread belief that
music transcends ordinary life and is autonomous of social effects or
expression. These attitudes have also contributed to the resistance to
critical inquiry into the politics, especially the sexual politics, of music and
into issues related to sexual diversity such as gender, class, ethnicity and
race, religious belief and power.
Conversely, the non-specificity of musical language and the doctrine of its
autonomy from social issues led to a special situation in which music plays
an important part as both safety valve and regulator in the mechanism of
the ‘closet’, which is not only a symbol of the hidden nature of many gay
and lesbian lives but is arguably the most important attribute of 20th-
century homosexuality. In the words of the gay author Wayne
Koestenbaum, ‘Historically, music has been defined as mystery and
miasma, as implicitness rather than explicitness, and so we have hid inside
music: in music we can come out without coming out, we can reveal
without saying a word’ (1993, pp.189–90). The privilege of freely
expressing desire and other feelings in music, a lifeline to those whose
basic emotions are invalidated, appears also to have led to an unspoken
agreement to preserve the status quo. Although heavily populated by gays
and lesbians, the various branches of music have been slow to exhibit any
overt opposition to the heteronormative order of things (Brett, in Queering
the Pitch, 1994, pp.16–18).
Most homosexuals internalized their oppression. According to Weeks
(1981, p.105), Wilde complained that he had been led astray by
‘erotomania’ and extravagant sexual appetite; the Irish patriot Roger
Casement thought his homosexuality a terrible disease that ought to be
cured; and the liberal humanist Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson saw it as a
misfortune (‘I am like a man crippled’). Many homosexual musicians
combined such internalization of oppression with some manner of protest.
The various mechanisms thus employed are sometimes difficult to decipher
and musicology has as yet little experience with their cryptography, but
they are arguably always there. Ravel's ‘conspicuous sublimation’ (Kramer,
1995, p.203); Strayhorn's self-effacement; Smyth's guarded codes in her
operas and memoirs yet exultant lesbian erotic in her suffrage music
(Wood, in Solie, Musicology and Difference, 1993, and 1995); the social
radicalism of Blitzstein and Tippett; the eccentricity of Vladimir Horowitz;
Ned Rorem's separation of his two roles as gay man and composer;
Britten's pacifism and homoerotic discourse under cover of the musical
treatment of canonic literature; Poulenc's musical camp juxtaposed with
religiosity; the insider allusions in the songs of Cole Porter and Noël
Coward; Landowska's fixing on the antediluvian harpsichord as the vehicle
for her virtuosity; Henze's flight from serialism, and from Germany; Ferrier's
(and many other singers') cultivation of a ‘sapphonic’ voice (Wood, in Brett,
Queering the Pitch, 1994); the audacity and despair of blues singers such
as Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith and Billie Holiday; Dent's debunking of
Beethoven and other received notions; Szymanowski's involvement with
the Dionysian (and his two-volume homoerotic novel, Ephebos); Copland's
early embrace of eroticism (figured through orientalism or ‘blackness’) and
subsequent eradication of corporeal or erotic elements in favour of a ‘pure
and absolute’ style achieved by means of what has been called a
‘compositional scorched-earth campaign’ (Metzer, 1997); Virgil Thomson's
collaboration with Gertrude Stein and the subversiveness of his criticism;
Partch's ‘hobo’ voices; the falsetto-enhanced ‘lonesome-cowboy’ vocal
disguise of Elton John, or his representation in music at the funeral of
Princess Diana, the royal outcast; Cage's dual embrace of both noise and
silence within music; Harrison's gamelan and championing of Esperanto;
Oliveros's cultivation of communal ‘deep listening’, and her attachment to
the accordion; Bernstein's exaggerated showmanship; even the
aggressively blank faces of the Pet Shop Boys: all these, or yet other
aspects of the art and self-presentation of these men and women, might be
read as signs of both an accommodation to as well as subversion of the
pervasive fact of the closet.
It will be objected that in many cases a ‘straight’ equivalent may be found.
But a list of this kind, which could easily be expanded, shows not only how
very considerable the homosexual presence has been in 20th-century
Western music but also prompts questions as to how and why, in the post-
Freudian age, a basic element of subjectivity could have been so little
examined in relation to music, or why that relation should have been so
obsessively denied. The fact that homosexual people represent different
sometimes, opposing, stylistic and ideological positions, no matter what
part of the music business they are involved in, argues against a unified
‘homosexual sensibility’ in music, any simple relation between sexual
identity and musical expression. It does not support the view that there is
no connection between the two.
Enabling the weird dissociation of homosexuality and music, in spite of
their being so patently intertwined for an entire century, is the mechanism
described as the ‘open secret’; its function ‘is not to conceal knowledge, so
much as to conceal the knowledge of the knowledge’ (Miller, 1988, p.206),
and its effect is to strengthen the binary oppositions (public/private,
inside/outside, hetero/homosexuality) and to consign homosexuality to the
private sphere, always on the verge of visibility and therefore always under
surveillance as an unthinkable alternative. To the extent that music, as a
performance art, must occupy the public sphere, with (as it were) all its
secrets on display, then what Miller calls a ‘fantasmatic recovery’ of
enormous proportions has to be mounted to keep those secrets from
making any difference. To what degree resistance can be effective in such
a situation is a matter of considerable debate in queer theory. Some incline
to what has been termed the entrapment model (Sinfield, 1994, pp.21–7:
derived from Althusser and various interpretations of Foucault), in which
subversion merely contributes to containment or to a general
postmodernist notion of the subject as completely determined by ideology
and therefore without agency. Theories developed from Gramsci, Raymond
Williams and Žižek, on the other hand, offer more possibilities of effective
resistance by refusing to accept a totalizing system and by recognizing that
any ‘dominant ideology’ is itself constantly undergoing diverse internal
disturbances which dissidence may turn to its advantage in particular
historical situations. ‘Coming out’ has been the most undeniably effective
political action in recent years. Earlier times demanded different tactics.
One of the most effective of these, retaining a certain power to the present,
is ‘camp’, a disruptive style of humour that defies canons of taste and by its
very nature evades any stable definition. Other solutions existed for those
who refused this self-marking performative style. Britten, for instance, was
arguably better advised in exploiting the open secret and capitalizing on his
success to ensure wide circulation of the powerful critiques of the family,
heterosexual relations, organized religion, patriarchal authority and
militarism contained in his works.
Gender adds layers of complexity to the social situation of homosexuals in
almost all musical contexts (as do race and ethnicity and class). The male
homosexual has been in a particularly ambiguous position in most Western
contexts because, especially if white, he had the option of exerting male
privilege and power, providing he was not publicly exposed. Some who
adopted that expedient behaved in particularly oppressive or offensive
ways towards others, for they often overcompensated in elaborating their
disguise. Lesbians, on the other hand, were treated as a minority not only
because of their sexuality but also, in most musical contexts, because of a
hierarchical gender system that pressed all women into certain roles (diva,
harpist, pianist), castigated them for transgressing them and put severe
obstacles in their path towards others (composer, conductor, saxophone
player, impresario).
This system (by no means extinct) was exacerbated to an unusual degree
in the concert hall context by the emphasis in the Romantic era on the
enduring artwork of ‘absolute music’ and therefore on its creator, who
became arguably more powerful, in spite of the reaction against
Romanticism, as a result of high modernism's war on the non-subservient
virtuoso performer (see Women and music and Feminism). Male and
female homosexuals, therefore, have had very different experiences in
various music worlds, but the basis for their common interest is the
codification and regulation of gender roles with appropriate sexual
positions and identities. The assignment of the male homosexual to a
feminine position is mirrored, though not exactly, by the mockery aimed at
a challenging or creative lesbian whose work is constantly labelled ‘virile’,
‘manly’ and ‘unnatural’, or ‘deficient in the feminine charm that might have
been expected of a woman composer’, as demonstrated in turn-of-the-
century critical responses to the music of Ethel Smyth and Rosalind Ellicott
(Kertesz, 1995; Fuller, 1994). That similar criticism was directed at that icon
of womanly respectability, Mrs H.H.A. Beach, when she wrote a powerful
mass or symphony (the composer George Chadwick called her ‘one of the
boys’), indicates the link and overlap between gynophobia and
homophobia, as in the ‘masculine protest’ of Charles Ives (Solomon, 1987;
Tick, in Solie, Musicology and Difference, 1993; Kramer, 1995, pp.183–8).
Threatened masculinity tends to see all musicians and their activities as
feminine and to value (or devalue) them accordingly. Since people in music
all share to some extent the taint of the effeminate or feminized, powerful
institutional forces had to be mobilized to counteract that image, especially
with the large-scale entry of music into the universities after World War II.
The widespread adoption of a neo-serialist technique, the development of
arcane forms of music analysis, the separation of a high art from any form
of popular cultural expression and the equation of musical scholarship with
scientific inquiry are all signs of a dominant masculinist, highly rational,
heteronormative discourse in music all too unhappily but accurately
characterized by the word ‘discipline’.
Gay and lesbian music
2. The gay and lesbian movement.
In the wake of the 1950s civil rights movement, which began to change the
status of African-Americans in the USA, various New Left counter-
discourses arose, including a reinvigorated feminist movement for women's
rights. A militant gay and lesbian movement, fomenting in the USA after
World War II, was catalysed by the Stonewall riot of 1969, when patrons of
a New York gay bar, mostly working-class men and drag queens, fought a
pitched battle with police on a routine raid. The movement borrowed from
the struggle of oppressed racial minorities, devised its own tactics and
linked its theory to both the sexual freedom movement and to the new
oppression theories of feminism. Consensus grew among the various
counter-discourses that unless a sexual revolution was incorporated into a
political revolution there could be no real transformation of society and
social relations. Alliances led in some contexts not only to the inclusion of
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and transsexual concerns under one
umbrella but also, somewhat later, to the involvement of the sexual
minorities with the politics of race and class.
The subsequent global spread of the movement was complemented by
initiatives in humanistic scholarship, consisting (as with feminism) of both a
historical branch designed to uncover those ‘hidden from history’ and a
theoretical branch concerned with the pertinent questions of sexual identity
and subjectivity and their relation to capitalist society, although the two
often overlapped. This scholarly initiative has given rise to a situation in
which modern sexuality is both ‘the most meaning intensive of human
activities’ (Sedgwick, in Stanton, 1992, pp.1–46) and ‘a sign, symbol, or
reflection of nearly everything in our culture’ (Gould, ibid.) as well as ‘the
name that can be given to a historical construct’ (Foucault) of social and
sexual relations whose contents and meanings are in constant change and
flux.
From the start, homosexual identity was seen as contingent: ‘our
homosexuality is a crucial part of our identity, not because of anything
intrinsic about it but because social oppression made it so’ (Altman, 1971,
p.230; 1993, p.240). Questions about identity persisted, however, for a
variety of reasons: identity categories were perceived by many as
instruments of the homophobic and heterosexist order they sought to
oppose; they tended to efface ‘hyphenations’ in identities as white
domination of the movement came under fire; and they were thrown into
disorder by the onset of the decentred, split subject of postmodern thought.
Accordingly, emphasis moved from identity towards representation. Some
sense of this can be gained from Morrissey's self-presentation as ‘a
prophet for the fourth gender’, punning on 19th-century sexology's ‘third
gender’ while refusing to be determined by it (Hubbs, 1996). In an attempt
to establish self-determination in the feminist subject, it was suggested that
the role playing of working-class lesbian bar culture could be rehabilitated
as a ‘combo butch-femme subject’ that seduces the sign system with
artifice and camp rather than internalizing the torments of dominant
ideology (Case, in Abelove and others, 1993, pp.294–306; for a musical
application, see Peraino, 1992). Music, especially popular music, often
seems to respond in its playful, coy or disruptive tactics around the vocal
as well as the visual representation of sex and gender (consider Madonna,
Prince or Boy George) to Judith Butler's notion of these supposedly natural
characteristics as ‘performative’ utterances (i.e. like speech-acts) to which
subjects submit in a constrained repetition as part of entry into language
and society. Butler proposes the notable inversion in which ‘if a regime of
sexuality mandates a compulsory performance of sex, then it may be only
through that performance that the binary system of gender and the binary
system of sex come to have intelligibility at all’, (ibid., 307–20; for a musical
explication, see Cusick, in Barkin and Hamessley, Audible Traces, 1998).
It might have been expected that the academic investigation of gay and
lesbian musics, the critique of heteronormative assumptions in such areas
as music theory and an exploration of music and subjectivity, would also
have begun in the 1970s. But the hermetic nature of postwar musicological
discourse, and the policing of music that led many to acquiesce in the
status quo, hindered the process. This policing, sometimes overt, as in the
imprisonment of Henry Cowell (Hicks, 1991), but more often silent and
insidious, also hindered feminist inquiry in musicology and the acceptance
of women composers into the concert hall repertory and in opera.
Avenues for protest did of course exist or could be created, as left-wing
radicals demonstrated through a revivified folksong movement in the
1960s. During the 1970s gay and lesbian musicians began to find the
means to give their sexuality musical expression in various interesting
ways, often by a radical reinterpretation of an existing musical genre or
institution. Concert music and its scholarship were virtually impermeable at
this stage because of the venues, conventions and institutions governing
its performance and the aseptic ideological pressure of high modernism.
Even opera, with its enormous gay and lesbian following (and open
invitation to ridicule), was less susceptible than ballet to queer subversion:
La Gran Scena Opera Company (founded in 1981) never became as
successful as its older sister, the virtuoso drag ballet company Les Ballets
Trockaderos de Monte Carlo (founded in 1974). On the other hand, the
entire opera world (and to some extent that of musical comedy and other
music-theatre genres) had long been a stage on which gays and lesbians
could perform, or see performed, their presence and humanity.
Impresarios, managers, producers, critics, librettists and composers
contributed to this atmosphere along with singers, characters and roles.
‘Where else can you see two women making love in a public place?’
(Reynolds, in Blackmer and Smith, En Travesti, 1995, p.133). Such
coupling runs the gamut, moreover, from the ‘principal boy’ of lower-class
British pantomime, with her fish-net stockings and full-hipped swagger, to
the aristocratic Oktavian playing butch to the Marschallin's femme in a fin-
de-siècle Viennese bedroom, which has sometimes been seen as a
symbolic performance of lesbian desire (Mary Garden refused to ‘out’
herself by creating the role); and the potential for such interpretation grew
when modern performing practice, putting original tessitura before gender
sensibility, assigned full-throated mezzos and sopranos to castrato roles.
Historical female couplings without cross-dressing, too, can take on fresh
significance as a result of being exposed to a marginal perspective, like
Dido and the Sorceress in Judith Peraino's account of Purcell's opera (in
Blackmer and Smith, En Travesti, 1995, pp.99–131). Closet dramas or
parables abound: Szymanowski's King Roger, Henze's The Bassarids,
Britten's Albert Herring, Owen Wingrave and Death in Venice; Britten's
Peter Grimes is a powerful allegory of homosexual oppression (Brett, 1977,
1983) along lines suggested already by operas, such as Janáček's Káť'a
Kabanová and (more especially) Shostakovich's Lady Macbeth of the
Mtsensk District, that explore the oppression of women. ‘Real’ gay or
lesbian characters are harder to find. Mel and Dov, the inter-racial couple in
Tippett's The Knot Garden (1970), appear to be opera's first ‘out’ gay
males; predictably, they break up, one of them returning to heterosexual
lifestyle. Countess Geschwitz, the one heroic and truly loving character of
Berg's Lulu, stands as a shining example of musico-dramaturgy that
manages to transcend essentialism and stereotyping (see Morris, in
Blackmer and Smith, En Travesti, 1995).
A remarkable phenomenon of the period immediately after the Stonewall
incident was the emergence of lesbian-feminist or ‘women-identified’
singer-songwriters, bands, choruses, record labels and production
companies (Olivia and Redwood were both founded in 1973). Venues such
as women's coffee-houses and women-only music festivals were also
established, with largely lesbian audiences. Rarely broadcast, ‘women's
music’ was a grass-roots movement from its beginnings in Maxine
Feldman's Angry Atthis and Madeline Davis's Stonewall Nation (both 45
rpm singles, 1971) and Alix Dobkin's album Lavender Jane Loves Women
(1973) through its growth and achievement in the work of such artists as
Holly Near, Meg Christian and Cris Williamson, whose first album, The
Changer and the Changed (1975), has been described as ‘the best-selling
independent album of all time’ (Post, All Music Guide, 1994, p.1039). With
an emphasis on acoustic instruments, the music is grounded in folksong
styles, sometimes inflected with blues, rock, jazz, reggae and even
classical music. Openly addressing lesbian desire and relationships as well
as the feminist critique of patriarchy, misogyny and homophobia, it became
important as an arena in which lesbian community could be forged in the
USA.
Another phenomenon was the inception of gay and lesbian bands and
choruses. Among the earliest was New York's Victoria Woodhull All-
Women's Marching Band (1973), named after a 19th-century feminist and
presidential candidate (and not exclusively lesbian, although its theme
song was ‘The dykes go marching in’), and Catherine Roma's Anna Crusis
Women's Choir in Philadelphia (1975), a leading organization in the
performance of new music by women. The Gotham Male Chorus, founded
in 1977, later incorporated women to become the Stonewall Chorale, the
first gay and lesbian chorus. In 1978 Jon Sims founded the San Francisco
Gay Freedom Day Marching Band and Twirling Corps, which became a
noted focus for the political aspirations of the large gay and lesbian
community in that city; a Gay Men's Chorus soon followed.
While several of these initiatives began as different expressions of
communal pride, they have burgeoned into cultural institutions and lasting,
full-scale artistic movements across the world. The choruses in particular
have thrived, founding their own international organization, Gay and
Lesbian Association of Choruses, at the Gay Games in San Francisco in
1982, and now greatly outnumbering the bands, who also founded a
national association, Lesbian and Gay Bands of America, in 1982. In
particular, they have contributed to the queer critique of musical institutions
and authorized culture by mixing traditional, popular and highbrow musics
of all kinds within single concerts; and, by means of a substantial
commissioning programme supported by frequent performances and
festivals and faithful audiences, have stimulated creativity among gay and
lesbian composers and given support to other significant contemporary
music seen as sympathetic to the movement. A Society of Gay and Lesbian
Composers was founded in San Francisco in the 1980s in response to this
and other stimuli.
Gay and lesbian music
3. Musical theatre, jazz and popular music.
The musical theatre has been a special place for gay identification and
expression, arguably exceeding even opera in this regard. Not only have
gay men traditionally had great affinity for it, but they have shared in its
production at every level. Among them are leaders in the field such as Cole
Porter, Ivor Novello, Lorenz Hart, Noël Coward, Arthur Laurents, Leonard
Bernstein and Stephen Sondheim. If the dream of every sensitive gay
young man was to take Broadway or the West End by storm, the actual
thematics of musical theatre were as heterosexist as those of any other
representational form of the pre-Stonewall era. Nevertheless, ways were
found to introduce coded or not-so-coded messages (like ‘You're a queer
one, Julie Jordan’ in Carousel, 1945) for a knowing homosexual audience
while staying within conventional narrative boundaries. These might include
title (Novello's final work, Gay's the Word, 1950), lyrics such as Coward's
‘Mad about the boy’ (from Words and Music, 1933), with its coded
references to A.E. Housman and Greta Garbo, or Porter's Farming
(Bronski, 1984, p.113), characters and plot, such as the ‘tomboy’ Maria in
The Sound of Music (Wolf, 1996), and performers such as Mary Martin as
a cross-dressed lesbian in the role of Peter Pan (Wolf, 1997). There has
also been a long tradition of appropriation of the material from musicals in
every conceivable gay context. With the 1970s articulation of gay and
lesbian identity, musicals with gay themes or characters arrived, many of
them becoming mainstream commercial successes. If Cabaret
(Masteroff/Kander/Ebb, 1966) both spectacularized and masked
homosexuality, and Applause (Comden/Green/Strauss/Adams, 1970)
presented it as pathology, Michael Bennett's A Chorus Line
(Hamlisch/Kirkwood/Dante/Kleban, 1975) sentimentalized it in a
characteristically liberal way. La cage aux folles (Fierstein/Herman, 1983),
affectionately portrays a gay couple, one of whom is a drag queen, and
Kiss of the Spider Woman (McNally/Kander/Ebb, 1992) adapted Manuel
Puig's powerful novel about the growing attachment between two
prisoners, one homosexual and the other heterosexual. The musical
theatre has even dealt with the HIV/AIDS crisis, most notably in
Falsettoland (1990), the final part of William Finn's trilogy, and also in
Jonathan Larson's Rent (1996), based on Puccini's La bohème.
Jazz's more limited relation to homosexuality can be delineated through
two careers. Billy (Dorothy) Lee Tipton, the jazz pianist, performed gender
as undetected drag, but her impeccable improvisations, gift for mimicry,
same-sex ‘marriages’ and adopted sons may have had more to do with
success in a male-dominated music and its venues than in a dildo and
tuxedo, and serve to show that difference is in the eye of the beholder
(Middlebrook, 1998). Billy Strayhorn, composer of one of the most famous
titles in the history of jazz, ‘Take the A train’, and a good deal else many
people associate with his mentor, Duke Ellington, seems willingly to have
accepted virtual anonymity and the hiding of his abundant talent behind
Ellington's benign and affectionate protection in order to be openly gay
(Hajdu, 1996, pp.79–80). Queer lore sees jazz itself (like heavy metal) and
its audience as fundamentally heterosexual, but John Gill (1995) explores
this half-truth and critiques attitudes towards gay or bisexual jazz
musicians, such as Sun Ra, Cecil Taylor and Gary Burton, in a manner that
has opened up the topic.
The long tradition of male and female impersonators, who always sang as
part of their act, unlike the lip-synching drag artists of the technological
age, is closely linked with queer presence and representation in popular
culture. The famous openly lesbian male impersonator, Gladys Bentley,
who attracted the rich and famous to her act in Harlem and introduced
scat-singing and lewd extemporary parodies of popular songs as well as
explicit lesbian lyrics into her act, represents an extreme of the interwar
years. At times her strong, fierce voice ascends into what sounds like a
male falsetto, tapping what Emma Calvé called the ‘fourth voice’ to mark
her ‘third sex’. In the USA at least, drag and (to a lesser extent) male
impersonation carried the stigma of gender liminality that also marked
homosexuality, leading to bans in many places (e.g. Los Angeles) in the
repressive 1930s. British drag, on the other hand, survived into the
television age, usually through impersonators. Impersonation and popular
music were not outside the force of the closet and the ‘contract’ to which
highbrow musicians were obliged to subscribe. Even Julian Eltinge,
perhaps the most celebrated female impersonator of the earlier part of the
century (with a pleasing alto voice), went to great lengths to hide his
homosexuality; many pop stars have shown extraordinary reluctance to
disclose their sexual orientation.
On the other hand, Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith could record a number of
overtly lesbian songs in the 1920s, and gay and lesbian performers could
become popular in the New York Prohibition era ‘pansy craze’ (Chauncey,
1994). Later, rock and roll included homosexuality among its counter-
culture effects, through flamboyant performers like Little Richard and songs
like his 1956 hit Tutti Frutti, or even Elvis Presley's Jailhouse Rock (1957)
with its reference to homoerotics behind bars. Later groups such as the
Doors (Jim Morrison singing I'm a Backdoor Man, 1968) and the Rolling
Stones (whose notorious Cocksucker Blues, 1970, Decca refused to
release) maintained this tradition. ‘Raga-rock’, almost exclusively
associated with George Harrison and the Beatles, was in fact initiated by
the lead singer and principal songwriter of the Kinks, Ray Davies, with an
Indian-influenced song, See my Friends (1965), about his own sexuality; it
confirms the often-observed link between exoticism or orientalism and
Western homosexual culture (Bellman, 1998). Further steps led to Lou
Reed's Walk on the Wild Side (1972), with its tribute to Andy Warhol's New
York clique, already been reflected in the work of the influential group
Velvet Underground, Elton John's popular gay love song, Daniel (1972), to
Rod Stewart's The Killing of Georgie (1976), the first top-40 hit
unambiguously about gay people, and to Tom Robinson's celebratory Glad
to be Gay (1977). The era also saw a number of independent (even
rebellious) women singers. Janis Joplin, whose major relationships were
with women, and who seemed as unashamed of this as of the rest of her
colourful life, possessed an intensity that might have founded an entire
movement but for her premature death in 1970. Dusty Springfield, the
spirited British soul singer who was a lesbian icon, survived a career slump
in the 1970s and cemented her gay following by later recording with The
Pet Shop Boys.
In the 1980s the mainstream music industry seemed to respond to the
increasing conservatism of Britain and the USA with further closeting of
artists and their music. David Bowie, for instance, and others who
responded to the swinging-both-ways 1970s, would no longer advertise
their sexual ambivalence or pretend to be gay, and gay performers in the
mainstream were usually guarded and their songs still coded. A number of
British male groups composed largely of gays – Soft Cell, Frankie Goes to
Hollywood, Erasure, The Pet Shop Boys – maintained a discreet front.
Even gender-bending Boy George and Culture Club kept up evasive talk
long after almost anyone had ceased speculating about them (Morrissey
theorized this evasiveness). Jimmy Somerville and his group Bronski Beat
were a notable exception, performing out songs in an out manner and
reaching the charts at the same time. The openly gay duo Romanovsky
and Phillips became widely known and developed beyond their San
Francisco folk beginnings with Trouble in Paradise (1986). Surprisingly, the
moody balladeer Johnny Mathis, long an idol for soulful gay youths, came
out in 1982 without much fuss.
Gay and lesbian music
4. AIDS and HIV.
The growing crisis over AIDS and HIV infection (from about 1981) which,
because it was at first associated with male homosexuals and intravenous
drug users in Western societies, received little governmental attention,
eventually spurred activism, particularly as the homosexual artistic
communities, which were particularly hard hit by it, felt themselves to be
further targeted by repressive governmental measures. The resulting wave
of politicization of the arts produced in music a sense of community
manifest in the numerous AIDS benefits and memorials of the late 1980s
and early 90s: for example, the Live Aid event at Wembley Stadium, north-
west London, and many tributes to the casualties in classical and popular
music; the 1985 hit (That's what friends are for) by Dionne Warwick and
Elton John; concerts among classical music organizations; and a string of
commemorative works. These included John Corigliano's Symphony no.1
(1989) and a continuing, collectively produced AIDS Quilt Songbook (first
performed at Alice Tully Hall, New York, in 1992) that alludes to the great
quilt of the NAMES project (a collective, international work of art,
numbering over 43,000 panels, to commemorate individually those who
have died of AIDS). As much a work of protest as commemoration is
Diamanda Galás's three-album project, begun in San Francisco in 1984
with the title Masque of the Red Death (after Edgar Allan Poe), eventually
becoming the four-movement Plague Mass (as recorded in the Cathedral
of St John the Divine, New York, in 1990).
A feature of the effect of AIDS and HIV in music was the re-use and
reinterpretation of earlier music associated with gay consciousness. Two
famous disco hits of the Village People, whose creator, Jacques Morali,
died of AIDS in 1991, resurfaced allusively, Go West as an AIDS anthem by
the Pet Shop Boys and YMCA in a lugubrious ‘classical-music’ version for
cello, voice and guitar with clarinet obbligato in the film Longtime
Companion (1990). This, the opening number in a ‘Living with AIDS’
concert near the end of the film, both mourns the recent dead (as well as
the era of sexual freedom and its music) and encourages survival through
gay humour and irony. The first CD of the Chrysalis ‘Red Hot’ series
promoting AIDS awareness and benefiting research and relief consisted of
covers of Cole Porter by various artists in a context that gave new and
poignant meaning to such songs as ‘I've got you under my skin’: the record
not only literally made ‘gay music’ of Porter's songs for the first time but
also carried a warning to the listener against letting the music ‘reinforce an
overall sense of social abstraction’. Though gays and lesbians devised
more radical forms of social protest during the same period, the adoption
by liberal people in general of an issue strongly affecting the queer
community marked a distinct change and support was particularly strong in
music and other artistic fields.
Gay and lesbian music
5. The 1990s.
This second wave of political action coincided with changes within
musicology and criticism brought about by the belated impact of post-
structural interdisciplinary ways of thinking: this began a process of
wresting ‘absolute’ music from the ideology of universal values,
transcendence and autonomy; it also heralded a more inclusive, as well as
more firmly located, critical practice that refused to leave the category
‘music’ unmarked in the traditional manner but embraced all musical
phenomena and avoided meaningless comparisons between different
genres and cultural practices. There soon emerged a group of gay and
lesbian scholars and critics prepared to work on gay and lesbian topics and
with a set of procedures, derived from feminist and post-structuralist
critiques, with which to accomplish it, work characterized by the same
refusal to obey traditional genre separations as had been characteristic of
the earlier gay and lesbian musical organizations. In the USA, the founding
in 1989 of the Gay and Lesbian Study Group of the American Musicological
Society constituted a recognition of this phenomenon.
Among the effects was to throw into greater relief gay and lesbian
composers of the post-World War II era. No lesbian in music before or
since Ethel Smyth had been as publicly committed to feminist activisim or
as candid about same-sex desire as Pauline Oliveros, who strongly
represented her own lesbian feminism and community among the
American avant garde from the 1960s onwards. The increasingly
celebrated Lou Harrison had always been assertive of his gay identity. The
death of John Cage in 1992 opened the way for long-delayed discussions
of his partnership with Merce Cunningham and the radicalism that stopped
short of declaring his sexuality. Important during the mid-90s was the self-
identifying of 11 gay male composers on a CD, Gay American Composers
(1996), followed a year later by a disc devoted largely to an earlier
generation of males as well as one celebrating lesbian composers of the
present day. Several mainstream recording companies had already issued
recordings under such titles as Out Classics, Sensual Classics and
Classical Erotica, but what these principally illustrated was the increasing
commodification of gay or lesbian desire and its commercial exploitation.
Lesbian musicians and composers, in particular, have a tradition of not only
remaining outside commercial and institutional networks but also of
resisting all musical models, and the work of the composer Sorrel Hays
(formerly recorded as the pianist Doris Hays), as well as that of the
performance artist and composer Meredith Monk, strongly maintains that
tradition at a time when gay and lesbian artists were under increasing
pressure to join the mainstream.
The gay presence in music during the 1990s was enhanced by such works
as John Corigliano's Of Rage and Remembrance, a new version of the
third movement of his Symphony no.1 incorporating chorus and soloists,
who sing a text by William Hoffman, librettist of The Ghosts of Versailles,
and, in a startling application of chance technique, the names of personal
friends they have lost to AIDS and wish to commemorate. Harvey Milk, an
opera by Stewart Wallace and Michael Korie on the life and times of a gay
activist assassinated in 1978, was not a critical success. But opera
companies marketing to their audience, are more frequently producing gay
and lesbian operas, for example Matthias Pintscher's Thomas Chatterton
(Dresden) and Paula M. Kimper's Patience and Sarah (New York).
In popular music, the 1990s also saw a reversal of the cautious approach
of the 1980s and the emergence of openly lesbian musicians into the
mainstream from the alternative space of women's music. The
extraordinary singer and songwriter k d lang, who had earlier invaded the
heterosexist field of country music with strongly woman-identified music
and had gained a lesbian following, came out in 1992 (see Mockus in Brett,
Queering the Pitch, 1994). So did Melissa Etheridge and Indigo girls, which
gave lesbians clear representation in popular culture, consolidating, as it
were, the sexually ambiguous representations of Tracy Chapman, Michelle
Shocked and Madonna, as well as the out-lesbian images of Phranc and
Two Nice Girls. The growth in women's punk bands and the ‘riot grrrl’
phenomenon of the Pacific Northwest meant that lesbians could also
project a more aggressive image in music.
Rob Halford, famous for three decades as front man of the heavy metal
group Judas Priest, came out in 1998 and revealed how simple it had been
to transfer the sometimes scary accoutrements of the gay leather world on
to the metal stage without disturbing the primarily straight male audience. A
knowing gay heavy-metal audience invested in super-masculinity had
always understood homoerotics in place of straight homosocial bonding
(Walser, 1993, pp.108–36). At the close of century, numerous gay and
lesbian singers and queercore bands had a crossover popular following, or
recorded on mainstream labels. The institution of the Gay/Lesbian Music
Awards in 1996 consolidated and encouraged an already prolific field of
endeavour.
By the end of the 1990s, then, an art-form, a scholarly discipline and a
journalistic medium that had all set their faces rather sternly against the
notion that deviant sexualities had anything to do with them, though the
evidence to the contrary lay all around, found themselves with a modest
inundation of ‘queer’ material – to use the term which, once a form of
abuse, had been reclaimed around 1990 as an umbrella for the alliance of
people of all unorthodox sexualities and those willing to associate with
them.
Gay and lesbian music
6. Divas and disco.
The approach so far in this discussion has been along the traditional
modernist lines of emphasizing production: the composer and, perhaps
less so, the performer. An arguably better way of defining ‘gay and lesbian
music’, is to invert that model and, invoking the ‘politics and epistemologies
of location, positioning, and situating’ (Haraway, 1991, p.196), to consider
both the audience and particular venues as creating (if only by contingency
and for the moment) a label for the music.
In answer to the question ‘What is Gay Music?’ posed by Out magazine
(November 1996, pp.108–14), Peter Rauhofer said: ‘It's all about the diva
effect, an attitude that gay people immediately identify with’. This statement
has a certain appeal as a generalization across 20th-century homosexual
cultures in the West, including both gay males and lesbians. Among
affluent males the diva effect tends to produce a devotion to sopranos
(Joan Sutherland or Maria Callas, most notably, the latter being central to
Terrence McNally's play The Lisbon Traviata) and a subject position known
as the Opera Queen, widely discussed and theorized (Bronski, 1984;
Mordden, 1984; Koestenbaum, 1993; Morris in Solie, Musicology and
Difference, 1993; Robinson, 1994). Lesbian devotion may be equally
intense, as instanced by the story of the young woman who committed
suicide after being refused admission to Mary Garden's dressing room
(Castle, in Blackmer and Smith, En Travesti, 1995, pp.25–6). It differs in
attaching itself to dramatic sopranos, mezzo-sopranos or contraltos,
especially if they are suspected of ‘belonging’ (like Garden) or if they cross-
dress frequently in such roles as Orpheus, Oktavian or the Poet in Ariadne
auf Naxos. The tradition goes back beyond Garden (George Sand was
‘mad’ about Malibran) and included among its celebrated divas Olive
Fremstad, the Wagnerian soprano who is the heroine of Willa Cather's The
Song of the Lark and Marcia Davenport's Of Lena Geyer (Castle, and
Wood, in Brett, Queering the Pitch, 1994).
In the cult of the queer, Judy Garland is a saint, heaven is ‘Somewhere
over the rainbow’ (from The Wizard of Oz) and ‘friend of Dorothy’ the secret
mantra of its votaries. Other such divas might include Marlene Dietrich,
Mae West, Edith Piaf, Zarah Leander (the deep-voiced diva of the German
scene), Bette Midler (who began her career in a New York bathhouse),
Barbra Streisand and Madonna. Any supposed lesbian leanings among
these idols are beside the point: more crucial are certain characteristics,
portrayed in their singing, such as vulnerability (or actual suffering) mixed
with defiance, to which their admirers relate; the quality of their humour is
also an important ingredient.
The diva effect may have less strong a hold upon exclusively straight
audiences; when it does occur, it is often imbued with camp elements of
excess and style associated in straight culture with homosexuals. Liberace,
for instance, appealed to a broad (but not gay or lesbian) audience by
developing a canny mixture of sentimentalism and transvestism around his
candelabra and piano. His repertory included musical as well as sartorial
camp, for example his cross-dressing of Porter's ‘Night and Day’ in the
haute couture of Beethoven's ‘Moonlight’ Sonata (for a cultural appraisal
see Kopelson, 1996, pp.139–85, and Garber, 1992). His manipulation of
the ‘open secret’ was more extreme than that of many less flamboyant but
also closeted gay musicians: the openly flaunted markings of a hidden
identity allowed those who adored him to use their adoration (and his and
their mother-love) to bolster their own sense of identity and superiority.
Another notable sphere of queer interest and sponsorship has been the
dance floor. Disco (not simply a category of music but ‘also kinds of
dancing, club, fashion, film, etc., in a word, a certain sensibility, manifest in
music, clubs, etc., historically and culturally specific, ideologically and
aesthetically determined – and worth thinking about’: Dyer, 1992, p.149) is
widely maligned; but dance-club life throughout Europe and the USA was
transformed after the 1970s with the advent of Gloria Gaynor, Sister
Sledge, Sylvester, the Weather Girls and many others, to whose fast-and-
heavy beat, colourfully synthesized sounds and comforting sentiments gay
men and sometimes lesbians gyrated and celebrated ‘family’ in safe queer
spaces that were close to realizing what opera and The Wizard of Oz could
only begin to suggest. More localized and specialized forms, such as the
even faster and louder House music of the 1980s, and later Acid and
Techno, developed as Disco moved into the straight mainstream. In the
1990s gay dance music was strongly affected by the artistry of RuPaul,
possibly the recording industry's most successful drag queen. Like rock
and roll before them, Disco and House were heavily derived from black
performing styles and sounds, the African-American diva from Grace Jones
to RuPaul being as important here as in the opera house. They
momentarily displaced racial tensions to create an idealized arena for
queer identity to be performed (Currid, 1995); this is as close as can be to
gay music, one might think, yet its placing of queer performativity on the
platform of black ‘diva-inity’ leads to a complicated play of identification.
Focus on a particular audience and its ‘situated knowledge’ may also
undermine traditional critical arguments seeking to eradicate all identity in
music save nationality. The New York Times review (by Paul Griffiths, 7
July 1998) of Kimper's opera and the CRI recording of the music of lesbian
composers mentioned above, concludes that ‘sexual preference, as well as
sex, is inaudible’, and calls that conclusion ‘inevitable’. The response
immediately suggests itself, ‘inaudible to whom’? Modernist criticism,
anxious to check the proliferation of meaning and keep forms of authority
and canons of taste in place, puts the onus of proof on ‘the music itself’.
But the notes cannot so easily be separated from their context (of
performance, venue, genre and audience, as well as musical allusion): if
stripped of all associations – an impossibility – they can yield no meaning.
In some few cases, such as the bizarre juxtapositions in Poulenc's
instrumental music, a homosexual sensibility is clearly audible, but then
only to someone who has some grasp of the aesthetics of that much-
discussed but uneasily defined phenomenon known as ‘camp’. Further, the
orientalism or exoticism of a great range of 19th- and 20th-century music
can be heard not simply as decorative acculturation but as an audible
manifestation of some dissatisfaction with prevailing Western mores. More
complicated musical strategies, such as the set of motivic and tonal
interactions that signal the tragedy of internalized oppression in Peter
Grimes, may be revealed as criticism involves itself more deeply and
widely with such questions. Such markers, however, are possibly more
prevalent in (closeted) homosexual culture in which classical music is so
heavily implicated than in openly lesbian or gay music, such as Disco or
the kinds of alternative women's music mentioned above. Here, context
exerts so powerful an influence as to overthrow conventional associations:
even the opening of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, that quintessential model
of heroic masculinity, met its gay destiny when, tricked out with a heavy
beat and other accoutrements, it hit the Disco scene in the 1970s as A
Fifth of Beethoven.
The identity of music is the sacred issue … that women, working-class
laborers, gays and lesbians, blacks, religious or ethnic communities, or
anyone else should identify music in some other way or imagine music to
embody completely different and differentiated cultural spaces, that
becomes blasphemy against what MUSIC is. Imagined in this way it may
not be MUSIC anymore. (Bohlman, 1993, p.417: after McClary, 1991)
Accordingly, an important strategy among gay and lesbian critics is to insist
on the possibility and the importance of different receptions of all kinds of
music, an insistence which can undermine any authority or objectivity
criticism might claim for itself and of destroying the essentializing or
minoritizing drive to confine gay or lesbian music criticism to style analysis.
A special lesbian relationship to music itself has been insisted upon and
explored (Cusick, in Brett, Queering the Pitch, 1994: originally proposed at
the first Feminist Theory and Music conference, 1991); this prepared the
ground for a good deal of later critical work (not all of it by self-identifying
gay, lesbian or bisexual critics) that refuses previous protocols in an effort
to reach imaginative and varied views as to what kinds of phenomena
might coexist as ‘lesbian and gay – or queer – music’ and how these might
relate to sets of other positions, even the hegemonic one.
Gay and lesbian music
7. Anthropology and history.
The discussion so far has pertained to the 20th century, to Europe, North
America and their outposts, and has largely been confined to recent
musical phenomena. ‘Gay and Lesbian Music’ is arguably confined to
these specific times and places. Beyond the West, the dilemma becomes
even more apparent. In non-Western musics, gender and sexual
ambiguities and inversions, not to mention same-sex sexual practices,
found in many cultures with different musics and different sexualities, have
drawn the imagination of the West, with its attraction to and cultural
fantasies about them. The symbolic inversions around the cross-dressed
male ‘talèdhèk’ in Balinese song and dance; transsexual performance by
spirit-guides or ‘halaa’ among Temiar people; the Hawai'in ‘māhū’ of
indeterminate gender; or the Mapuche of the southern Andes: all these
bear witness to the warning that ‘gay, lesbian, bisexual, homosexual,
heterosexual … conjure but a limited glimpse of the variations on gender
that are beginning to emerge from cross-cultural research’ and ‘reduce the
complexity of personhood to a handful of oppositions contrived by an
ethnocentric discourse’ (Robertson, 1992).
Some of the musics of non-Western cultures became source material for
homosexual Western composers cruising off-limits but cannot be
amalgamated with or subsumed under a Western category. Homosexual or
pederastic composers from Saint-Saëns onwards were at one time
particularly susceptible to the attractions of orientalism, perhaps because
of the projection of illicit sex discerned by Said's critique (1978), perhaps,
as Lou Harrison has suggested, because of an identification with the Other
or even (as in the case of Cage) because of dissatisfaction with available
resources: this topic remains problematic and interesting in relation to gay
and lesbian music. But since orientalism in music at the turn of the present
century is represented most strongly by non-gay minimalism, no
essentialist link ought to be imagined. Interestingly, ethnomusicology has
been even more nervous of categories of sexual behaviour manifest in
music than has historical musicology.
Given that the study of sexuality is a modern phenomenon, a long history
of homosexuality in music is an impossibility. There is room, however, to
explore how same-sex sexual or erotic relations have been regarded in
different times and places and how the social experience of being involved
in them might affect musical utterance: ‘it will be history written from the
perspective of contemporary gay interests’ (Halperin, 1990, p.29) asking
questions never posed during musicology's long preoccupation with
straight fact. An example might be the placing of Hildegard of Bingen's
lyrical effusions in a context of the medieval eroticization of the body
focussed (in her case) on same-sex desire: pointing out ‘how insistently
“queer” medieval Christianity can be’, Holsinger (1993, p.120) suggests
that ‘rather than looking for “actual” lesbians and gay men in the Middle
Ages, why not try outing medieval devotion itself?’ Turning to organum, he
explores the writings that constantly represent polyphonic practice in
corporeal terms as ‘coupling’ (copula) and in relational terms as the product
of their male singers. Such rhetoric, he suggests, not only explains the link
between sodomy and polyphony in the puritan tradition but uncovers a
queerness at the heart of organum that is also represented in some
homoerotic verses of its leading composer, Leoninus (Holsinger, 2001,
chap.4). Ironically, then, the polyphony and harmony that differentiate
Western music most notably from that of other cultures can be seen as
from the start connected to same-sex desire and ‘art music’ originally fell
into disrepute through roughly the same association that it has been trying
so hard to avoid in the 20th century.
There seem few enough clues at present about how the frequent
accusation of sodomy against musicians of the late medieval and early
modern periods should play into a notion of the music they produced. It is
not known whether composers like Nicolas Gombert, Dominique Phinot,
Tiburzio Massaino, Johann Rosenmüller and Jean-Baptiste Lully shared
anything but shame for their sexual desires, and whether even that affected
their composition. The first four undoubtedly suffered, Gombert serving a
three-year stint in the galleys, Phinot being executed (his body was burnt),
Massaino going into exile and Rosenmüller being imprisoned together with
the schoolboys involved. A canon at Loreto, Luigi Fontino, was beheaded
in 1570 for sodomy with a choirboy (Sherr, 1991); and it has been
suggested that Gombert's first book of motets (1539) may have been
assembled as an apologia with a view to gaining him a pardon (Lewis,
1994, pp.333–67). Lully, on the other hand, made a fortune and founded an
operatic tradition, apparently undamaged by attacks on ‘les sodomites’ at
court that culminated for him in the removal from his house of the page
whom he was suspected of sodomizing. Moreover, since the librettist
Campistron was a member of the sodomitical court circle, Lully's last two
stage works, Acis et Galatée (1686) and Achille et Polyxène (1687) may
represent the earliest known gay collaboration.
If Lully's case is well documented, particularly in ribald contemporary
comments, recent speculation about Zelenka appears to derive solely from
a structural and semantic analysis of his trio sonatas (Reich, 1987); no
evidence concerning Zelenka's sexuality or sexual practices survives: he
remained unmarried and was a solitary, unassuming figure, seen by some
contemporaries as a reserved, even bigoted, Catholic. It is one thing to
infer a musician's participation in same-sex culture and to examine
ideological traces of homophobia in the literature that result from his status
as a ‘suspect’ (as with Thomas's essay on Handel in Brett, Queering the
Pitch, 1994), but another for same-sex desire to be discerned internally
and then used to make a lesser-known composer of the period appear
deviant and exciting and his music therefore more marketable. This new
Zelenka image belongs rather to the late 19th century, as exemplified in the
decadent movement and such key figures as J.-K. Husymans, Walter Pater
and Oscar Wilde (see Hanson, 1997), than to the early 18th.
Very different from this case is the increasing number of examinations of
works for cultural traces that are writ large in the surrounding societal
context, or identity-based critical interpretations enriched with a sense of
the history of culture. Work on communities of nuns and on the many
women composers of Italy, for instance, has prompted questions about
how early modern religious eroticism might reflect an erotics of these
suppressed voices, and has invited lesbian interpretations of the work of
the many religious women who exhibit extravagant devotion to the Virgin
Mary. Recent work (by Cusick) on Francesca Caccini also shows how a
feminist and specifically lesbian approach can enliven and illumine the
discussion of historical issues around music and the patriarchy. In view of
the various inflections of the Orpheus legend, too, significance has been
read into the fact that in the Monteverdi-Striggio Orfeo the male singer
loses his female lover only to ascend to heaven in the arms of another
man. Whether or not Handel had homosexual relationships, the revelations
about the circles in which he moved – and exactly how his modern
biographers articulate their anxiety about the possibility he might have
done so – makes Thomas's essay a salutary contribution to Handel
scholarship. The castrated male who is the central figure of every opera
seria in Handel's time not only complicated questions of gender and
sexuality but also embodied the threat represented by the music itself:
these ‘Italian Syrens’ are compared by the anonymous author of Satan's
Harvest Home (1749) to the ‘Chromatic Musick’ of ancient Greece and the
‘Women Singers and Eunuchs from Asia’ by whose agency, apparently, the
ancient Romans ‘quite lost the Spirit of Manhood, and with it their Empire’.
Italy was ‘the Mother and Nurse of Sodomy’ where ‘not a Cardinal or
Churchman of Note but has his Ganymede’ (pp.51, 56). In North Germany
an Italian castrato was not needed to sound the anti-effeminate alarm:
mere minuets in symphonies seemed to J.A. Hiller ‘like beauty spots on the
face of a man: they give the music a foppish appearance, and weaken the
manly impression made by the … serious movements’ (Head, 1995).
A gay and lesbian discourse about music will undoubtedly wish to do more
in the way of exhuming those musicians identified with same-sex desire.
But there are equally important issues to be addressed. Attention has been
drawn to a vein of homophobia in traditional musical scholarship. Whether
it be reaction against the prospect of a great composer's deviance, the
invention of an ‘artistic persona’ (following literary New Criticism) to
evacuate the connection between the life of a gay or lesbian artist and his
or her work of all meaning, or the recent movement to import from literary
criticism Harold Bloom's theory of the ‘anxiety of influence’, with its
assumption that male relations are always fraught with contention rather
than love (Whitesell, 1994–5), an opposing or context-providing protest has
to be registered. Procedures need to be followed that do not leave
homosexuality lying unregistered in the clothes of the open secret as mere
decadence or a taste for elaboration. Inevitably part of the focus will be
questions of artistic collaboration, sponsorship (for example by the Paris
salon and circle of the Princesse de Polignac, including Nadia Boulanger,
and in American music around Bernstein, Copland and Barber) and even
the effect on heterosexually identified composers of being liberated by a
circle consisting largely of homosexuals and their culture, as was
Stravinsky by the Mir iskusstva (‘World of Art’) group around Diaghilev, or
of their music becoming the centre of a homosexual cult, as Wagner's
appears to have become in Germany.
The greatest challenge for a gay and lesbian approach is undoubtedly the
German canon in art music and its satellites. Composers in this tradition
are still assumed to be stable entities; and idealization surrounding them
includes the default position of exclusive heterosexual activities. The
literature about them, however, frequently reveals an embarrassment or
evasion that implies an ingrained homophobia in musical scholarship.
Since sexual orthodoxy can never be assumed, especially among
musicians, the constant parade of heroism and masculinity in the repertory
from Beethoven to Strauss, and its representation in criticism and
scholarship, may seem like a ruse to divert attention from an endemic
queerness so firmly repressed that even to suggest it is an error of taste
and judgment (as in the cases of Handel, Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann
and Brahms). More nuanced studies of the circumstances of such
composers may link them to patterns of same-sex love or desire, such as
have been discerned among the literary figures of the age of sensibility and
of Romanticism (whether or not these patterns included sexual acts).
Reception of their music from a gay or lesbian standpoint (e.g. Cusick,
1994; Brett, 1997; Wood, 2000) should broaden the range of criticism
across the entire historical spectrum, throw new light on the meanings
people attach to the music they identify with and help to open the way
towards new discussion of the power of music of various kinds in peoples'
lives.
Following the inception of a homosexual identity (see §1), Tchaikovsky
became the first musician widely known to fit the role. As early as 1908 he
was called the one ‘thorough-going Uranian’ to attain ‘to the highest
eminence in this art’ (Carpenter, p.111). Tchaikovsky was without peer in
reaching a German level of technique and formal command. His manifest
deviance enabled critics so minded to keep the German symphonists
themselves untainted. It is worth noting, in the light of some of the criticism
that has linked Tchaikovsky's supposed sentimentality, morbidity and lack
of formal values with his sexuality, that his concert music was initially heard
as ‘free from the frightful effeminacy of most modern works’ (Bernard
Shaw) and as ‘impersonal’ and containing ‘glimpses of the strong man's
hand’ (Ernest Newman; see Brown, 1999).
In novels, plays, films and other representations in dominant culture, the
homosexual always dies: and it is significant that a fierce controversy has
developed around Tchaikovsky's death. Suicide has been suggested –
whether at the direction of Tsar Alexander III, of his own volition, at the
behest of his (homosexual) brother Modest to avoid a homosexual scandal
or (stranger still) at the direction of former classmates worried about the
honour of the old school. Defenders of the ‘official’ account of cholera in
Modest's biography attribute these rumours to an essentialist (and
homophobic) image of Tchaikovsky as tragically pathological without
perhaps allowing sufficiently for the equally essentialist (and unrealistic)
implications of the composer's being fully accepting of his sexuality and its
consequences. A gay or lesbian approach to him will in any case wish to
redress the balance towards his lively aspects, and the difference he made
to the fields of concert music, opera and ballet. For instance, Matthew
Bourne's remarkable reinterpretation of Swan Lake (1995), in which a
tightly feathered male corps replaced the swans in tutus and the love music
became the occasion for breathtakingly homoerotic spectacle, attained for
some an authenticity beyond anything imagined by historically informed
performing practice. Tchaikovsky's own life also reveals moments of
potential resistance, such as the entire ballet he and Saint-Saëns danced
for each other on the story of Pygmalion (Tchaikovsky) and Galatea (Saint-
Saëns). That occasion in December 1875 epitomizes the social
predicament of homosexual musicians throughout the ensuing century: two
composers, celebrated throughout Europe, occupying a central site, the
stage of the Moscow Conservatory, to enact a closet drama; private delight
cannot have been unmixed on that occasion, as on so many others in so
many other lives, with the apprehension of disclosure. Such tensions of the
human spirit brought about by the forces of oppression and the
counterforces it also generates are much in need of deciphering in order to
make greater sense of social and musical experience, both then and now.
By focussing on such matters, a gay and lesbian perspective has the
means to expand the entire critical and historical enterprise.
Gay and lesbian music
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Perceptions’, Repercussions, iv/2 (1995), 97–130
C.E. Blackmer and P.J. Smith, eds.: En Travesti: Women, Gender
Subversion, Opera (New York, 1995)
C.K. Creekmur and A. Doty: Out in Culture: Gay, Lesbian, and Queer
Essays on Popular Culture (London, 1995)
B. Currid: ‘“We are Family”: House Music and Queer Performativity’,
Cruising the Performative: Interventions into the Representation of
Ethnicity, Nationality, and Sexuality, ed. S.-E. Case, P. Brett and S.L.
Foster (Bloomington, IN, 1995), 165–96
D. Eder, S. Staggenborg and L. Sudderth: ‘The National Women's Music
Festival: Collective Identity and Diversity in a Lesbian-Feminist
Community’, Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, xxiii/4 (1995),
485–515
J. Gill: Queer Noises: Male and Female Homosexuality in Twentieth-
Century Music (London, 1995)
W. Grega and R. Jones: Out Sounds: the Gay and Lesbian Music (New
York, 1995)
M. Head: ‘“Like Beauty Spots on the Face of a Man”: Gender in 18th-
Century North-German Discourse of Genre’, JM, xii (1995), 143–67
E. Kertesz: ‘“Dare one say, a Trifle Old-Maidish?”: Tackling Gender in the
Critical Reception of Ethel Smyth's Music’, Context, x (1995), 41–6
L. Kramer: Classical Music and Postmodern Knowledge (Berkeley, 1995)
D. Metzer: ‘Reclaiming Walt: Marc Blitzstein's Whitman Settings’, JAMS,
xlviii (1995), 240–71
T. Ortega: ‘“My Name is Sue! How do you Do?”: Johnny Cash as Lesbian
Icon’, South Atlantic Quarterly, xciv/1 (1995), 259–72
E. Rieger: ‘Junge Pfauen und Cellini: Anmerkungen zur jüngsten
Diskussion um Schuberts Leben’, Musik und Unterricht, vi/32 (1995),
51–3
M.E. Rogan and K. Winkler: ‘The Impact of AIDS on Archival Collections
in the Performing Arts’, Performing Arts Resources, xix (1995), 17–24
R. Smith: Seduced and Abandoned: Essays on Gay Men and Popular
Music (London, 1995)
E. Wood: ‘Performing Rights: a Sonography of Women's Suffrage’, MQ,
lxxix (1995), 606–43
S. Abel: Opera in the Flesh: Sexuality in Operatic Performance (Boulder,
CO, 1996)
K. Bergeron: ‘The Castrato as History’, COJ, viii (1996), 167–84
L. Fleming, ed.: Hot Licks: Lesbian Musicians of Note (Charlottestown,
Prince Edward Island, 1996)
T. Geyrhalter: ‘Middle Eight: Effeminacy, Camp, and the Sexual
Subversion of Rock: the Cure and Suede’, Popular Music, xv/2 (1996),
217–24
D. Hajdu: Lush Life: a Biography of Billy Strayhorn (New York, 1996)
N. Hubbs: ‘Music of the “Fourth Gender”: Morrissey and the Sexual Politics
of Melodic Contour’, Bodies of Writing, Bodies in Performance, ed. T.
Foster, C. Seigel and E.E. Berry (New York, 1996)
A. Jagose: Queer Theory: an Introduction (New York, 1996)
K. Kopelson: Beethoven's Kiss: Pianism, Perversion, and the Mystery of
Desire (Stanford, CA, 1996)
S. McClatchie: ‘Benjamin Britten, Owen Wingrave, and the Politics of the
Closet; or, ‘He shall be Straightened out at Paramore’’, COJ, viii
(1996), 59–75
L.D. Mass: ‘Musical Closets: a Personal and Selective Documentary
History of Outing and Coming out in the Music World’, Taking
Liberties: Gay Men's Essays on Politics, Culture, and Sex, ed. M.
Bronski (New York, 1996), 387–440
S. Wolf: ‘The Queer Pleasures of Mary Martin and Broadway: The Sound
of Music as a Lesbian Musical’, Modern Drama, xxxix/1 (1996), 51–63
R. Dellamora and D. Fischlin, eds.: The Work of Opera: Genre,
Nationhood, and Sexual Difference (New York, 1997)
E. Hanson: Decadence and Catholicism (Cambridge, MA, 1997)
D. Metzer: ‘“Spurned Love”: Eroticism and Abstraction in the Early Works
of Aaron Copland’, JM, xv (1997), 417–43
J. Rycenga: ‘Sisterhood: a Loving Lesbian Ear Listens to Progressive
Heterosexual Women's Rock Music’, Keeping Score, ed. D. Schwarz,
A. Kassabian and L. Siegel (Charlottesville, VA, 1997), 204–28
P. Brett: ‘Piano Four Hands: Schubert and the Performances of Gay Male
Desire’, 19CM, xxi (1997–8), 149–76
S. Wolf: ‘Never-gonna-be-a-man/Catch-me-if-you-can/I-won't-grow-up’: A
Lesbian Account of Mary Martin as Peter-Pan’, Theatre Journal, xlix
(1997), 493–509
E. Barkin and L. Hamessley, eds.: Audible Traces: Gender, Identity, and
Music (Zürich, 1998)
J. Bellman: ‘Indian Resonances in the British Invasion, 1965–1968’, The
Exotic in Western Music, ed. J. Bellman (Boston, 1998)
N. Hubbs: ‘Classical Music’, St. James Press Gay & Lesbian Almanac, ed
N. Schlager (Detroit, 1998)
D.W. Middlebrook: Suits Me: the Double Life of Billy Tipton (New York,
1998)
M.H. Brown: ‘Tchaikovsky and his Music in Anglo-American Criticism’,
Tchaikovsky and his Contemporaries, ed. A. Mihailovic (Westport, CT,
1999), 61–73
D.A. Miller: Place for Us [Essays on the Broadway Musical] (Cambridge,
MA, 1998)
B. Zimmerman and G. Haggerty, ed.: Encyclopedia of Lesbian and Gay
Histories and Cultures (New York, 2000)
E. Wood: ‘Decomposition’, in Decomposition: Post-Disciplinary
Performance, ed. S.-E. Case, P. Brett and S.L. Foster (Bloomington,
IN, 2000), 201–13
B.W. Holsinger: Music, Body, and Desire in Medieval Culture: Hildegard of
Bingen to Chaucer (Stanford, CA, 2001)

Gaye [Gay], Marvin

(b Washington, DC, 2 April 1939; d Los Angeles, 1 April 1984). American
soul singer, drummer, songwriter and producer. He started singing
professionally as a member of the Rainbows, a Washington-based doo-
wop group. He subsequently joined the Marquees, who signed a recording
contract with Chess Records and through which Gaye met the producer
and vocalist Harvey Fuqua, joining his doo-wop group, the Moonglows. In
1960 Fuqua and Gaye moved to Detroit and were both signed to Motown
Records. Gaye adopted the new spelling of his surname at this point and
made solo recordings for the Motown subsidiary Tamla Records in the
mould of a jazz-pop ballad singer. When these proved commercially
unsuccessful, he recorded more youth-oriented rhythm and blues, first
entering the charts with Stubborn Kind of Fellow in 1962. Most of his hits
from this time were gospel-influenced dance tunes written by Gaye and
Mickey Stevenson or one of a variety of other Motown songwriters.
Beginning with Can I get a witness (1963) Gaye recorded several
transitional hits written for him by Holland, Dozier and Holland. At the same
time he sang a series of duets such as What's the matter with you baby
(1964, with Mary Wells), It takes two (1967, with Kim Weston) and Ain't no
mountain high enough (1967, with Tammi Terrell). During this period he
also played the drums for a number of Motown sessions (including
recordings by Smokey Robinson and the Miracles and ‘Little’ Stevie
Wonder) and co-wrote Martha and the Vandellas' 1964 hit Dancing in the
Streets.
In the late 1960s Gaye made such seminal recordings as I heard it through
the grapevine, Too busy thinking about my baby and That's the way love is,
but after the death in 1970 of his duet partner, Tammi Terrell, he went into
temporary seclusion. When he returned to recording he embarked on a
new stage in his career, insisting on total artistic control of every aspect of
his recordings. Inspired by Isaac Hayes's Hot Buttered Soul (Stax, 1969),
he recorded the conceptually unified album What's going on (1971) in
which he combined the percussive vogue of the early 1970s with a jazz
sensibility and touches of classical string writing. His lyrics addressed a
variety of social concerns, some specific to African Americans and others of
universal relevance. In addition to the title song, Mercy Mercy Me (The
Ecology) and Inner City Blues (Makes me wanna holla) were top ten pop
and rhythm and blues hits. He subsequently produced similarly innovatory
and complex material, some of which was uneven as he dealt with a
number of personal and professional problems and a drug addiction. After
signing with Columbia Records in 1982, he had a top ten hit with Sexual
Healing. Shortly after this comeback he was shot by his father.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Davis: Marvin Gaye (London, 1984)
D. Ritz: Divided Soul: the Life of Marvin Gaye (New York, 1985)
D. Ritz: disc notes, Marvin Gaye Collection, Motown MOTD4-6311 (1990)
D. Ritz: disc notes, The Master: 1961–84, Motown 31453 0492–4 (1995)
ROB BOWMAN
 Gayer [Gaier, Geyer], Johann
Christoph (Karl)
(b ?1668; d Prague-Hradčany, 16 Nov 1734). Bohemian composer and
choirmaster. He was an unpaid musician at Prague Cathedral, from about
1690, and from about 1701 to 1726 was choirmaster of the church of the
Nativity in the Loreto at Hradčany. On 6 October 1705 he succeeded
Wentzeli as capellae magister seu praefectus chori to the cathedral and
held that post for nearly 30 years until his death (when he was succeeded
by Görbig); by a careful choice of members he raised the standard of the
ensemble. Besides his musical activities he was German registrar to the
Prague court of appeal. His son Vojtěch (Adalbert) was viol player or cellist
of the cathedral from 1727, and assisted as choirmaster during his father's
final illness. By 1705 Gayer had begun to assemble a library of
contemporary Italian sacred music and of his own compositions, and he
enlarged it in 1717 with new acquisitions from Naples and Rome (some of
these were apparently bought by the cathedral chapter). His music
collection was acquired after his death by the Crusaders' monastery in
Prague (now partly in CZ-Pnm, see Koronthály).
Gayer's style is close to that of late Baroque Venetian church music. In
most of his works vocal counterpoint alternates with homophonic sections
accompanied by strings, trombones, trumpets and organ; sometimes the
instruments merely double the voices. Little use is made of the da capo
aria. Gayer's best works, for example his Regina coeli, are remarkable for
skilful use of fugue and other contrapuntal procedures. Some of his music
was in use up to the early 1760s at the Crusaders' monastery.
WORKS
in CZ-Pnm unless otherwise indicated

Requiem, c, ed. in EDM, 2nd ser., Sudetenland, Böhmen und Mähren, iv (1943);
Requiem, F; Dies irae, Tuba mirum, Lachrymosa, g; 2 TeD, C, both for 2 choirs
Regina coeli, A, ed. in EDM, 2nd ser., Sudetenland, Böhmen und Mähren, iv (1943);
Laudes de dominica, A; Eja fideles, off, A; Omnes gentes plaudite, recit, b, aria, G,
from off; Deus meus, ad te de luce vigilo, ps, G
Lamentatione del giovedi sera, F; Ecce Dominus veniet, advent aria, C; Caeli
sydera rorate, aria and chorus, c; Gloria in excelsis, versetto, C
Missa solemnis, CZ-Bm; Pleno choro jubilemus, motet, C: both of doubtful
authenticity
Other works cited in 18th-century inventories, incl. Cistercian monastery, Osek,
1706, and Crusaders' monastery, Prague, 1737–8: lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ČSHS
DlabacžKL
R. Quoika: ‘Zur Geschichte der Musikkapelle des St. Veitsdomes in Prag’,
KJb, xlv (1961), 102–23
T. Volek: ‘Pražská Loreta jako hudební instituce’ [The Prague Loreto as a
musical institution], Domus lauretana pragensis, i–ii (Prague, 1973),
12–15
V. Koronthály: Hudební sbírka Kryštofa Gayera [Gayer's music collections]
(diss., Prague U., 1977)
M. Kostílková: ‘Nástin dějin svatovítskêho hidebního kůro’ [Historical
survey of St Vitus's choir], ibid., 14–33
J. Štefan: Preface to Ecclesia metropolitana pragensis: catalogus
collectionis operum artis musicae, i (Prague, 1983), 5–13
O. Bentheim and M.Stegermann: ‘Vivaldi und Böhmen: wenige Fakten,
viele Fragen’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, ix (1988), 75–89
MILAN POŠTOLKA

Gayer, Johann (Andreas) Joseph

Georg (Jakob)
(b Andělská Hora, nr Karlovy Vary, 18 May 1746; d ?Homburg, 1811).
Bohemian composer and violinist. His relationship to J.C.K. Gayer (?1668–
1734), if any, is not known. He acquired his musical education at minor
Bohemian towns and became an organist; later he studied the violin with
Václav Pichl and composition with K. Loos in Prague. Then he left
Bohemia, and in 1774 he was appointed Konzertmeister to the Landgrave
of Hesse at Homburg.
Gayer's works, listed in detail by Gerber according to the composer's own
specification, included 30 symphonies, 40 violin concertos, 26 concertos
for horn and other wind instruments, four piano sonatas and sacred music
(a Mass in E ascribed to him in I-MOe may not be authentic); all his music
is apparently lost.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ČSHS
DlabacžKL
GerberL
J.G. Meusel: Teutsches Künstlerlexikon, i (Lemgo, 1778, 2/1808–14/R),
279–80
G.J. Dlabacž: ‘Versuch eines Verzeichnisses der vorzüglichern Tonkünstler
in oder aus Böhmen’, Materialien zur alten und neuen Statistik von
Böhmen, ed. J.A. Riegger, xii (Leipzig and Prague, 1794), 225–98,
esp. 229
R. Quoika: Die Musik der Deutschen in Böhmen und Mähren (Berlin,
1956)
MILAN POŠTOLKA

Gaytán y Arteaga, Manuel

González.
See González gaytán y arteaga, manuel.

Gaz, José.
 See Gas, José.

Gazarossian, Koharik Alis

[Łazarosyan, Goharik Alis]
(b Constantinople [now Istanbul], 21 Dec 1907; d Paris, 29 Oct 1967).
Armenian composer and pianist. As a child she studied the piano in her
native city with a pupil of Liszt, the Hungarian musician Professor H. Hege.
In 1926 she entered the Paris Conservatoire, where her teachers were
Paul Dukas (composition) and Lazare Lévy (piano). In 1947, during a stay
in the United States she worked with Edward Weiss, a student of Busoni.
She travelled extensively in Europe, performing in Great Britain, France,
Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, as well as in Egypt, Lebanon and
Turkey. Gazarossian devised 24 programmes of piano music (by other
composers), arranged according to their tonality and named ‘bien tempéré’,
which she performed on occasion in her recitals. Many of her compositions
were inspired by Armenian liturgical chants and, in particular, the folksongs
collected by Komitas. Her piano music is gracious, immediate and well-
balanced, written with a sense of pianistic flair.
WORKS
(selective list)

Pf Suite, 1934; Prélude et fugue, 1v, str qt, perf. 1938; Arkayc crag [The Flickering
Lantern] (after D. Varuzhan), 1v, orch, 1939; 3 chansons populaires arméniennes,
1v, pf, 1940; Cantiques, vn, pf, perf. 1945; Les arméniennes, pf, 1947; Sonate, pf,
1956; 24 études, pf, 1958; Mi mor patmut'yun [The Story of a Mother] (ballet, after
H.C. Andersen), 1960; Pf Conc. no.1, perf. 1960; Mouvement perpétuel, vn, pf,
1961; Pf Conc. no.2, 1964; 11 préludes, pf, 1967; 30 songs, choral works, folksong
arrs.

Principal publisher: Choudens

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Y. Hagopian: ‘Goharik Łazarosyani mštadalar yišatakin’ [To the everlasting
memory of Koharik Gazarossian], Haratch (1, 3 Nov 1972)
Y. Koptagel: ‘Ölümününün 30uncu Yilında koharik Gazarosyan’ [About
Gazarossian on the thirtieth anniversary of her death], Orkestra
[Istanbul], no.297 (1998)
S. Arzruni: ‘A Fusion of the Musical Traditions of France and Armenia’,
Armenian Mirror-Spectator (16 Jan 1999)
SAHAN ARZRUNI

Gazkue y Murga, Francisco.

See Gascue y murga, francisco.
 Gaztambide (y Garbayo), Joaquín
(Romualdo)
(b Tudela, 7 Feb 1822; d Madrid, 18 March 1870). Spanish composer and
conductor. Orphaned at an early age, he became a choirboy at Tudela
Cathedral in 1830 and studied there with Rubla. In 1834 he was a pupil of
Guelbenzu at Pamplona and in 1842 entered the Madrid Conservatory to
study the piano with Pedro Albéniz y Basanta and composition with Ramón
Carnicer. In 1845 the Italian company at the Teatro de la S Cruz in Madrid
made him the director of its chorus. In 1846 he went to Paris as conductor
of a ballet company, but in 1848 returned to Madrid as director of the Teatro
Español, where his first zarzuela, La mensajera, had its première in
December 1849. This began a series of successes for Gaztambide as a
conductor of opera and zarzuela companies in Madrid. For several
seasons he conducted operas at the Teatro Real, and he directed the first
performance in Spanish of Meyerbeer’s Le prophète.
In 1862 he was appointed director of the concert society at the Madrid
Conservatory, which was later, under Francisco Barbieri, to become the
Madrid Sociedad de Conciertos. In 1868 Barbieri appointed him its director,
and in that capacity he brought to the Spanish public the most modern
works of the time. He was the first to conduct in Spain a work by Wagner,
the overture to Tannhäuser, which met with great enthusiasm. In 1869 he
formed a large zarzuela company and set off on a tour of South America,
beginning in Havana. His own work Catalina was the first to be presented,
but during the performance a popular uprising took place, which caused
the suspension of all theatrical spectacles. Badly shaken economically, the
company went on to Mexico, where it achieved success. However,
Gaztambide fell ill there; in Veracruz he gave his last concert and in
January 1870 he embarked for Spain, reaching Cádiz seriously ill. In
Madrid he underwent a liver operation, and died a few days later.
Gaztambide composed 44 zarzuelas, of which Catalina (1854) was the
best and most successful. Also important were Los magyares (1857), El
juramento (1858) and La conquista de Madrid (1863). He composed
several works in collaboration with Barbieri and others. Javier Gaztambide
was his cousin.
WORKS
all zarzuelas, all first performed in Madrid

La mensajera (2, L. Olona), Español, 24 Dec 1849; A última hora (1, J. Olona),
Basilios, 29 May 1850; Las señas del archiduque (2, C. Suarez Bravo), Basilios, 8
June 1850; Escenas en Chamberí (1, J. Olona), Variedades, 19 Nov 1850, collab.
R.J.M. Hernando, C.D. Oudrid and F.A. Barbieri; La picaresca (2, E. Doncel y
Asquerina), Circo, 29 March 1851, collab. Barbieri; Al amánecer (1, M. Pina), Circo,
29 May 1851; Tribulaciones (2, T.R. Rubí), Circo, 14 Sept 1851
Por seguir a una mujer (4, L. Olona), Circo, 24 Dec 1851, collab. Hernando,
Barbieri, Oudrid and J. Inzenga; El sueño de una noche de verano (3, P. Escosura),
Circo, 21 Feb 1852; El estreno de un artista (1, D.V. de la Vega), Circo, 5 June
1852, vs (Madrid, ?1857); El secreto de la reina (3, L. Olona), Circo, 13 Oct 1852,
collab. Hernando and Inzenga, vs (Madrid, 1852); El valle de Andorra (3, L. Olona,
after J.H. Vernoy de Saint-Georges), Circo, 5 Nov 1852, vs (Madrid, ?1855); La
cotorra (1, L. Olona), Circo, 26 April 1853
Don Simplicio Bobadilla (3, M. and V. Tamayo y Baus), Circo, 7 May 1853, collab.
Barbieri, Gaztambide and Hernando; La cisterna encantada (3, Vega), Circo, 17
Nov 1853; El hijo de familia (3, L. Olona), Circo, 24 Dec 1853, collab. Oudrid; Un
día de reinado (3, J. García Gutierrez and L. Olona), Circo, 15 Feb 1854, collab.
Barbieri, Gaztambide and Oudrid; Catalina (3, L. Olona, after E. Scribe: L’étoile du
nord), Circo, 23 Oct 1854, vs (Madrid, ?1860); Estebanillo (3, Vega), Circo, 5 Oct
1855, collab. Oudrid; Los comuneros (3, A. Lopez de Ayala), Circo, 14 Nov 1855
El sargento Federico (4, L. Olona), Circo, 22 Dec 1855, collab. Barbieri; El amor y
el almuerzo (1, L. Olona), Circo, 23 March 1856, vs (Madrid, ?1865); Entre dos
aguas (3, A. Hurtado), Circo, 4 April 1856, collab. Barbieri; El lancero (1, D.F.
Camprodón), Zarzuela, 31 Jan 1857, vs (Madrid, ?1860); Los magyares (4, L.
Olona), Zarzuela, 12 April 1857, vs (Madrid, ?1870); Amar sin conocer (3, L. Olona),
Zarzuela, 24 April 1858, collab. Barbieri; Casado y soltero (1, L. Olona), Zarzuela, 8
June 1858, vs (Madrid, ?1870)
Un pleito (1, Camprodón), Zarzuela, 22 June 1858, vs (Madrid, ?1865); El
juramento (3, L. Olona), Zarzuela, 20 Dec 1858, vs (Madrid, ?1870); La hija del
pueblo (2, E. Alvarez), 22 Dec 1859; El diablo las carga (3, Camprodón), Zarzuela,
21 Jan 1860; Una vieja (1, Camprodón), Zarzuela, 11 Dec 1860, vs (Madrid, ?
1865); Anarquía conyugal (1, J. Picón), Zarzuela, 17 April 1861; Una niña (1,
Camprodón), Zarzuela, 24 April 1861; La edad en la boca (1, N. Serra), Zarzuela,
11 May 1861; Una historia en un mesón (1, Serra), Zarzuela, 5 June 1861
Del palacio a la taberna (3, Camprodón), Zarzuela, 20 Dec 1861; En las astas del
toro (1, C. Frontaura), Zarzuela, 30 Aug 1862, vs (Madrid, ?1860); Las hijas de Eva
(3, L.M. de Larra), Zarzuela, 8 Oct 1862; Matilde y Malek-Adel (3, Frontaura),
Zarzuela, 7 March 1863, collab. Oudrid; La conquista de Madrid (3, L. Olona),
Zarzuela, 23 Dec 1863; Antes del baile, en el baile y después del baile (1, Palacio,
Alvarez), Zarzuela, 3 June 1864; Los caballeros de la tortuga (3, E. Blasco),
Zarzuela, 23 Dec 1867; La varita de virtudes (magia, 3, Larra), Zarzuela, 7 March
1868

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Peña y Goñi: La opera española y la música dramatica en España en
el siglo XIX (Madrid, 1881); abridged E. Rincón as España desde la
opéra a la zarzuela (1967), 377, 533ff
‘Gaztambide y Garbayo (Joaquín)’, Enciclopedia universal ilustrada
europeo-americana (Barcelona, 1907–30)
E. Cotarelo y Mori: Historia de la zarzuela, o sea el drama lirico (Madrid,
1934)
A. Fernández-Cid: Cien años de teatro musical en España (1875–1975)
(Madrid, 1975)
R. Alier and others: El libro de la zarzuela (Barcelona, 1982, 2/1986 as
Diccionario de la zarzuela)
R.J. Vázquez: The Quest for National Opera in Spain and the Reinvention
of the Zarzuela (1808–1849) (diss., Cornell U., 1992)
TOMÁS MARCO/R

Gazzaniga, Giuseppe
(b Verona, 5 Oct 1743; d Crema, 1 Feb 1818). Italian composer. His father
intended him for the priesthood, but he studied music secretly and after his
father’s death devoted himself to it entirely. In 1760 he went to Venice to
study with Porpora, who encouraged Gazzaniga to accompany him to
Naples. There Porpora obtained a free place for his young pupil at the
Conservatorio di S Onofrio in Capuana for six years. During this time
Gazzaniga studied composition and counterpoint with his patron. In 1767
he became a composition pupil of Piccinni, with whom he studied for three
years; a year later he made his début with his comic intermezzo Il barone
di Trocchia in Naples. In 1770 he returned to Venice; there he made friends
with Sacchini, whose generous advice was of great benefit to him in his
compositions. In the 1770s Gazzaniga wrote operas for various Italian
theatres. In 1780 he was again in Naples, where he directed the revival of
Jommelli’s Armida abbandonata at the Teatro S Carlo and in the following
year revived his own Antigono. His Il finto cieco, on a libretto by Da Ponte,
was performed at the Burgtheater, Vienna, in 1786 and brought Gazzaniga
commissions from Italy, Germany and England; but Da Ponte in his
memoirs had little to say in his favour.
Gazzaniga achieved widespread acclaim with his one-act Don Giovanni, o
sia Il convitato di pietra to a libretto by Bertati (1787, Venice), later also
known as Don Giovanni Tenorio. The work was performed not only in Italy,
but also in Paris (1792), Lisbon (1792) and London (1794); Kunze has
recorded no fewer than 32 editions of the libretto up to 1821. Though
Bertati’s text was decisive in Da Ponte’s own Don Giovanni for Mozart, it is
unclear whether Mozart had studied Gazzaniga’s score; his letters say
nothing of Gazzaniga’s opera, and no Viennese performance of the work is
known, though he may have encountered Gazzaniga’s music through his
Ottavio, Antonio Baglioni, who had been Gazzaniga’s Giovanni in Venice.
Four years after the Venice première Gazzaniga accepted an appointment
as maestro di cappella at Crema Cathedral, and subsequently composed
few dramatic works. Little is known of the composer’s final years, though
letters and documents mention responsibilities beyond the cathedral and
allude to economic hardship. Stefano Pavesi, who was his pupil from 1802,
succeeded Gazzaniga as maestro di cappella following the latter’s death
from colic in 1818.
Gazzaniga belongs to the last generation of Italian buffa composers whose
most brilliant representatives, Paisiello and Cimarosa, provide a link with
the comic opera of Rossini. His music typifies the late 18th-century opera
buffa style. It is less rich in harmony and texture than Paisiello’s, but
nevertheless closer to the combination of conciseness and judiciously
applied sentiment of Paisiello than to the extravagant comic prolixity of
Cimarosa. Gazzaniga’s style tends to be concise and relatively thin in
texture, emphasizing the forward motion of the music as well as the
declamation of the text. He seems to have been less tied to symmetrical
groups of two and four bars than some of his contemporaries, and
interesting rhythmic or melodic details often make up for rather basic
harmonies and lean textures. One of the more striking aspects of
Gazzaniga’s music for his opere buffe is its expressive clarity; there is
never any doubt about the emotional content or the type of character
singing. Though sometimes predictable he often avoided dullness with witty
details that enhance the dramatic situation. Gazzaniga was not well
 educated, but a letter to Simon Mayr shows that he took an interest in older
masters as well as in contemporary music, and that he possessed a
substantial library.
WORKS
operas
Il barone di Trocchia (int, 2, F. Cerlone), Naples, Nuovo, carn. 1768
La locanda (dg, 3, G. Bertati), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1771, D-Dl, Rtt, DK-Kk, F-Pn,
H-Bn, I-MOe, Pl, Tf, US-Bp, Wc
Calandrano (dg, 3, Bertati), Venice, S Samuele, 1771, A-Wn, D-Dl, F-Pn; rev. G.
Rust, as L’avaro deluso, Bologna, Formagliari, 1773
Ezio (os, 3, P. Metastasio), Venice, S Benedetto, Feb 1772, P-La
La tomba di Merlino (dg, 3, Bertati), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1772
L’isola di Alcina (dg, 3, Bertati, after L. Ariosto: Orlando furioso), Venice, S Moisè,
1772, A-Wn, D-Dl, DS, F-Pn, H-Bn, I-Fc, Tf, DK-Kk, S-Skma
Zon-Zon (L’inimico delle donne) (dg, 3, Bertati), Milan, Regio Ducal, aut. 1773, F-
Pn, I-Rmassimo
Armida (os, 3, after T. Tasso: Gerusalemme liberata), Rome, Argentina, 1773, arias
Mc, Nc, Rc
Il matrimonio per inganno (ob), Pavia, 1773
Il ciarlatano in fiera (dg, 3, P. Chiari), Venice, S Moisè, 1774
Perseo ed Andromeda (os, 3, V.A. Cigna-Santi), Florence, Pergola, 15 Sept 1775; ?
as Andromeda, Prague, 1781 (private perf.), Brunswick, 1783
L’isola di Calipso (os, G. Pindemonte), Verona, Filarmonica, 1775
Il re di Mamalucchi (dg), Prague, 1775; as Il Mamalucco, Pesaro, Sole, 1776
Gli errori di Telemaco (os, C.L. Rossi), Pisa, Prini, 1776
Il regno dei pazzi, Ferrara, 27 Dec 1777 (private perf. at Count Pinamonte
Boncossa’s); as Il re dei pazzi (int), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, aut. 1778
La bizzaria degli umori (dg, 2), Bologna, Zagnoni, 1777, B-Bc, F-Pn, I-Bc
Il marchese di Verde Antico (int, 2), Rome, Capranica, Jan 1778; collab. F. Piticchio
[early version of La vendemmia], I-Rdp (sinfonia only), US-SFsc
La vendemmia (opera giocosa, 2, Bertati), Florence, Pergola, 12 May 1778, A-Wn,
D-Dl, Wa, F-Pn, H-Bn, I-Fc, US-LOu; rev. G. Petrosellini, as La dama incognita (int),
Vienna, Burg, 11 Feb 1784
La finta folletto (int, 2), Rome, Capranica, 29 Dec 1778
Il disertore (Il disertor francese) (dg, 2, F. Casorri, after L.S. Mercier), Florence,
Pergola, 5 April 1779, D-Wa, I-Bc
Antigono (os, 3, Metastasio), Rome, Argentina, 1779, Nc
Il ritorno di Ulisse a Penelope (melodramma, 2, G.A. Moniglia), Rome, Argentina,
1779
La viaggiatrice (dg, 2, F.S. Zini), Naples, Fondo, 1780
Antigona (os, G. Roccaforte), Naples, S Carlo, 1781, Nc (inc.)
La stravagante (commedia, 2, Zini), Naples, Fondo, 1781
Amor per oro (dg, 3, C. Arcomeno), Venice, S Samuele, 1782, US-Wc
La creduta infedele (commedia, 3, Cerlone), Naples, Fiorentini, 1783
L’intrigo delle mogli (commedia, 2, G. Palomba), Naples, Fondo, 1783
La dama contadina (int, 2), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1784
Il serraglio di Osmano (dg, 2, Bertati), Venice, S Moisè, 27 Dec 1784, D-DO, Wa, F-
Pc, I-Fc, Tf (Act 2 only); as La fedeltà di Rosana, Perugia, Pavone, carn. 1786; as Il
palazzo di Osmano, Lisbon, 1795
Tullo Ostilio (os, 3, F. Ballani), Rome, Argentina, 1784, Tf
La moglie (donna) capricciosa (dg, 2, F. Livigni), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1785, A-Wn,
D-Dl, Wa, F-Pn, H-Bn, HR-OMf (Act 2 Finale only), I-Fc, Gl; lib. rev. Giotti (int),
Florence, 1791
Il finto cieco (dramma buffo, 2, L. Da Ponte, after M.-A. Legrand: L’aveugle
clairvoyant), Vienna, Burg, 20 Feb 1786, F-Pn, I-Fc, US-Bp
Circe (os, 3, D. Perelli), Venice, S Benedetto, 20 May 1786, ?D-Bsb, P-La
La contessa di Novaluna (dg, 2, Bertati), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1786
Le donne fanatiche (dg, 2, Bertati), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1786
Don Giovanni (Tenorio), o sia Il convitato di pietra (dg, 1, Bertati), Venice, S Moisè,
5 Feb 1787 as pt 2 of G. Valentini and others: Il capriccio drammatico; A-Wgm, F-
Pn, GB-Lbl, I-Bc, Mc, OS, US-Wc; ed. S. Kunze (Kassel and Basle, 1974)
La Didone (os), Vicenza, Nuovo, sum. 1787
La cameriera di spirito (dg, 2, G. Fiorio), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1787
L’amore costante (La costanza in amor rende felice) (commedia, 4, Bertati), Venice,
S Moisè, 1787, F-Pn
Erifile, Venice, S Samuele, aut. 1789, I-Mc (scena and duet ony)
Gli Argonaliti in Colco (os, 3, S.A. Sografi), Venice, S Samuele, carn. 1790, D-Mbs,
GB-Lbl, US-Wc
Idomeneo (os, 3, G. Sertor), Padua, Nuovo, 12 June 1790, D-Mh, US-Wc
La disfatta dei Mori (os, 3, G. Boggio), Turin, Regio, 1791, P-La
La dama soldato (dg, 2, C. Mazzolà), Venice, S Moisè, 1792, I-Tf (Act 1 only)
La pastorella nobile (dg), Fortezza di Palma, aut. 1793
La donna astuta (dg, 2), Venice, S Moisè, 1793 [?rev. version]
Il divorzio senza matrimonio, ossia La donna che non parla (dg, 2, Sertor), Modena,
Rangoni, 5 Feb 1794
Fedeltà e amore alla pruova (dramma eroicomico, 1, G. Foppa), Venice, S Moisè,
1798, A-Wn, F-Pn
Il marito migliore (dg, 2, T. Menucci di Goro [A. Anelli]), Milan, Scala, 3 Sept 1801;
as I due gemelli, Bologna, Comunale, 1807
Martino Carbonaro, o sia Gli sposi fuggitivi (farsa, 1, Foppa), Venice, S Moisè, 1801
Arias in L’ape musicale (commedia, Da Ponte), Vienna, 27 Feb 1789
Scena and aria in L. Brusasco: Il Manescalco, I-Tf
Doubtful: La Pallacorda (int), Rome, 1770; Le orfane svizzere (dg, Chiari), Novara,
1774; La fedeltà d’amore, 1776; Il marchese carbonaro (ob), Vienna, 1777; Le
gelosie villane (ob, T. Grandi), Novara, 1778; Achille in Sciro (os, Metastasio),
Palermo, 1780; L’amante per bisogno (dg, C.G. Lanfranchi Rossi), Venice, 1781;
L’Orvietano (ob), Rome, 1781; Demofoonte (os, Metastasio), Palermo, 1782; La
vivandiera (ob), Berlin, 1786; L’italiana in Londra (ob, G. Petrosellini), Piacenza,
1789; Giasone e Medea (os, G. Palazzi), Venice, 1790; La schiava della China (ob),
Ancona, 1790; I due sposi ridicoli (ob), Rome, 1793; Gl’amori in villa (ob), Piacenza,
1793
other vocal
Orats: I profeti al Calvario, 4vv, orch, 1781, I-CHf, Nc, Pca; Susanna, 6vv, orch,
1787, Mc; Humanae fragilitatis exemplum, Venice, 1792, lib only; San Mauro abate,
4vv, insts, 1793, Bc; Sansone, 5vv, orch, Bc
Liturgical: Messa breve concertata, C, 4vv, 1791, I-CRE, Mc; Messa per li defonti, E
, 3vv, orch, 1792, D-MÜs, I-CRE; Miserere, f, 4vv, orch, 1794, Mc; Messa in
pastorale, 3vv, org, US-R*, Missa pro defunctis, 4vv, insts, D-Mbs; Mag, D, 4vv,
orch, I-CHf, Mc; Mag, B , 4vv, orch, CRE; TeD, 4vv, insts, D-Dl, TeD, C, 4vv, org,
orch, MÜs, I-Mc, Sd; Requiem, Tantum ergo, 4vv, insts, I-Bc, CRE, Mc; Ky breve,
Gl, Cr, 3vv, insts, Bc; Tantum ergo, S, vns, Bc; Stabat Mater, c, 4vv, orch, D-MÜs, I-
BGc, CRE; Stabat Mater, d, CRE; other works in A-Sl, CH-E, D-Hs, MÜs, I-Baf,
CRE, Mc, Sd
Other sacred: Cant. … per la promozione alla sacra porpora dell’ … Cardinale
Mariolini (G. Manfredini) (Bologna, 1777); Cant., Fano, 1777, lib only; Salmi, cantici
ed inni cristiani (L. Tadini), 1–3vv, kbd, (Milan, 1817), collab. S. Pavesi; other works
in I-BGc, CHf, CRE, Fa, Mc, S-Smf
Single arias, duets etc. in A-Sl; CH-E, Gc, N, Zz; CZ-BER; D-Bsb, Dl, F, GÖs, HR,
Hs, LEm, RH, Rtt, ZI; DK-Kk, Sa; GB-Lbl; HR-Dsmb, Sk, Zha; I-AN, BGc, BGi, CHf,
MAav, Mc, Rc, Tf; RUS-Mk, S-L, Skma, Smf, St; US-BEm, Eu, R, SFsc, Wc
instrumental
Sinfonias and ovs.: D, 1771, CH-Zz, HR-Dsmb (inc.); D, 1772, I-BGc; C, D-Dl; C,
US-BEm; D, I-Rdp; S-Skma; E , I-CHc (inc.)
3 piano concertos, A-Wgm
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM (T. Chini); FlorimoN; SartoriL
F. Crysander: ‘Die Oper “Don Giovanni” von Gazzaniga und von Mozart’,
VMw, iv (1888), 351–435
L. Schiedermair: ‘Briefe Teresa Belloc’s, Giuseppe Foppa’s und Giuseppe
Gazzaniga’s an Simon Mayr’, SIMG, viii (1906–7), 615–29
E.J. Dent: Mozart’s Operas: a Critical Study (London, 1913, 2/1947/R)
H. Abert: W.A. Mozart (Leipzig, 1919–21, 3/1955–6)
S. di Giacomo: Il Conservatorio di Sant’Onofrio a Capuana e quello di
S.M. della Pietà dei Turchini (Palermo, 1924)
A. Capri: ‘“Don Giovanni” e “Fidelio”’, RMI, xlvii (1943), 188–211
L. Conrad: Mozarts Dramaturgie der Oper (Würzburg, 1943)
A.E. Singer: A Bibliography of the Don Juan Theme: Versions and
Criticism (Morgantown, WV, 1954, suppls. 1–3 in West Virginia
University Philological Papers, nos.10–12, 1956–9; enlarged 3/1993
as The Don Juan Theme: an Annotated Bibliography of Versions,
Analogues, Uses and Adaptations)
A. Damerini: ‘Giuseppe Gazzaniga e Giovanni Simone Mayr’, Immagini
esotiche nella musica italiana, Chigiana, xiv (1957), 57–62
G. Macchia: ‘Di alcuni precedenti del “Don Giovanni” di Mozart e Da
Ponte’, Studi in onore di Pietro Silva (Florence, 1957), 169–94
C. Bitter: Wandlungen in den Inszenierungsreformen des ‘Don Giovanni’
von 1787 bis 1928: zur Problematik des musikalischen Theaters in
Deutschland (Regensburg, 1961)
G. Macchia: Vita, avventure e morte di Don Giovanni (Bari, 1966, enlarged
1991)
S. Kunze: Don Giovanni vor Mozart: die Tradition der Don-Giovanni-Opern
im italienischen Buffa-Theater des 18. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1972)
D. Heartz: ‘Goldoni, Don Giovanni and the dramma giocoso’, MT, cxx
(1979), 993–8
S. Sadie: ‘Some Operas of 1787’, MT, cxxii (1981), 474–7
J. Rousset: ‘Don Juan dans l’opéra avant Mozart’, L’opéra au XVIIIe
siècle: Aix-en-Provence 1982
W.J. Allanbrook: ‘Mozart’s Happy Endings: a New Look at the
“Convention” of the “lieto fine”’, MJb 1984–5, 1–5
H. Geyer-Kiefl: Die Heroisch-komische Oper, ca. 1770–1820 (Tutzing,
1987)
A. Meier: ‘Mythus und Gattungs gesetz: Don Juan und Faust in
Prokrustesbett des Librettos’, Europäische Mythen der Neuzeit: Faust
und Don Juan: Salzburg 1992, 113–28
F. Arpini: ‘La produzione sacra di Giuseppe Gazzaniga nella Biblioteca
Comunale di Crema’, Gli affetti convenienti all’idee: studi sulla musica
vocale italiana, ed. M. Carcai Vela, R. Cafiero and a. Romagnoli
(Naples, 1993), 529–45
RUDOLPH ANGERMÜLLER, MARY HUNTER/CARYL L. CLARK

Gazzaniga, Marietta
(b Voghera, nr Milan, 1824; d Milan, 2 Jan 1884). Italian soprano. After her
début at Voghera in 1840 as Jane Seymour in Anna Bolena and Romeo in
I Capuleti e i Montecchi she sang in Italian cities, notably in Verdi roles.
She created the title role in Luisa Miller (1849, Naples) and Lina in Stiffelio
(1850, Trieste). Verdi claimed in 1852 that he had disliked her in both; he
was irritated just then at the failure of Rigoletto in Bergamo, which was
blamed on her performance as Gilda. She went on nonetheless with such
lyric coloratura parts as well as with heroic ones (Norma and Paolina in
Poliuto at Bologna in 1852). She undertook several North and Central
American tours, during the first of which (1857–8) her husband, Count
Malaspina, died of smallpox on the voyage to Havana. In New York in
1866–7 an admiring critic reported ‘greater purity and less vehement
forcing of tone’. She went on singing in the Americas each year until 1870;
by then she had exchanged her old part of Leonora in Il trovatore for the
lower-lying part of Azucena.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.C.D. Odell: Annals of the New York Stage (New York, 1927–49)
M. Conati: La bottega della musica: Verdi e la Fenice (Milan, 1983)
JOHN ROSSELLI

Gazzelloni, Severino
(b Roccasecca, Frosinone, 5 Jan 1919; d Camino, 21 Nov 1992). Italian
flautist. He studied at the Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome, gaining his
diploma in 1942 and making his début there in 1945. He quickly became a
teacher at the conservatory in Pesaro and first flautist of the Rome RAI SO.
With a catholic musical taste, he showed great affection for Baroque music,
particularly Bach's sonatas and Vivaldi's Concertos op.10, which he
recorded and which he played with a beautiful full tone, impeccable
phrasing and astonishing articulation. He was even more renowned for his
performances of avant-garde works, many of which were composed for
him. Notable among these are Interpolation by Haubenstock-Ramati, Hi-
kyò by Kazuo Fukushima, Serenata no.2 by Maderna, and Quanti by Hans
Ulrich Lehmann. These works formed part of his recorded repertory, which
also included superb performances in Le marteau sans maître by Boulez,
Berio's Serenata I and Nono's Y su sangre ya viene cantando. Because of
his great virtuosity in this music and obvious sympathy with its style, he
enlightened composers in the possibilities of the new developments in flute
techniques with which some leading composers had been experimenting.
Gazzelloni, one of the outstanding players of his generation, also gave
international masterclasses throughout Europe.
WRITINGS
Gazzelloni su Severino Gazzelloni (Rome, 1977)
with others: Facciamo musica con Severino Gazzelloni (Bologna, 1977)
with E. Granzotto: Il flauto d'oro (Turin, 1984) [autobiography]
NIALL O’LOUGHLIN

Gdańsk
(Ger. Danzig).
City in Poland on the Baltic coast. First mentioned in 997 as ‘urbs
Gyddanyzc’, it was originally a Slavonic settlement, and in the 12th century
became the seat of Pomeranian princes subordinated to the Polish crown.
In 1308 the town was captured by the Teutonic Knights, and between 1454
and 1793 it was subject to the Polish kings. It was part of Prussia until
1807, a free city dependent on France until 1814, and then part of
Germany. A free city once more after 1920, it was annexed by Germany in
1939 and finally returned to Poland after 1945.
1. To 1600.
Gregorian chant was sung in many churches and monasteries during the
Middle Ages, particularly by the Cistercians at Oliwa (1186), at St Mary’s
and St Catherine’s in the city itself, and in the Dominican church of St
Nicholas (1227). Sacred music was also cultivated in schools, and in the
14th century lay clerks contributed to ecclesiastical music; in the 15th
century organists and Kantors were appointed. The church of St Mary was
built between 1343 and 1502, and became the centre of the city’s music.
Blasius Lehmann of Budziszyn installed a new organ (1509–11),
transferring the previous instrument to another part of the building. In 1522
another organ was installed at the high altar and in 1524 Lehmann built yet
another instrument (the fifth in the church) over the chapel of St Rajnold. A
further organ was built in 1585 by Antonius Friese; this fine 60-rank
instrument survived several modifications until it was destroyed in World
War II. There were also organs in the churches of St Catherine and St
Nicholas by the middle of the 15th century, and at other churches by the
end of the 16th. In the first half of the 16th century the Reformation
reached Gdańsk; several churches remained Catholic, while both Catholic
and Protestant services were held in St Mary’s until 1572 when it became
wholly Protestant. Church music was instrumentally accompanied in St
Mary’s as early as the mid-16th century, and the Kantor was also a teacher
at the attached choir school.
The earliest records of the city’s musicians’ guild date from the late 14th
century. The guild’s apprenticeship lasted seven years, and members
enjoyed many privileges; however, itinerant minstrels were permitted to
perform in the town for a maximum of two weeks, and were even invited to
play at the Dwór Artusa (Ger. Artushof). The municipal trumpeters formed
an independent guild; they played from the towers of St Mary’s, St
Catherine’s and St Peter’s. In the second half of the 16th century the town
council formed a city band (Kapelle), combining its four permanent
instrumentalists (employed since the early 15th century) with the singers
and instrumentalists of St Mary’s. The city Kapelle was conducted by the
organist of St Mary’s, who became the most influential figure in the city’s
musical life. Outstanding Kapellmeister in the 16th century who were also
composers were the Netherlanders Franziscus de Rivulo (1560–66) and
Johannes Wanning (1569–99); Piotr Druziński, organist at the church of St
Barbara from 1586 to 1603, was also a fine composer. In 1593 a balcony
with a positive organ was constructed at the Dwór Artusa for the Kapelle,
which performed there alternately with guild members.
2. 17th and 18th centuries.
Musical life remained concentrated at St Mary’s, whose many outstanding
musicians and composers were also members of the city Kapelle, taking
part in performances at the Dwór Artusa; the same man was customarily
Kapellmeister of both church and city. Nikolaus Zangius (1599–1602) and
Andrzej Hakenberger (1608–27), both used the Venetian polychoral style in
their compositions. Gregor Schnitzkius, employed by St Mary’s School, had
a great interest in didactic music, as is shown by his Musices praecepta
(1619). Paul Siefert, born in Gdańsk, won a scholarship from the city
council to study with Sweelinck in Amsterdam; after short stays in
Königsberg and Warsaw he returned to Gdańsk, and became organist of St
Mary’s from 1623 until his death in 1666. The great antagonist of Siefert
was Kaspar Förster the elder, Kapellmeister (1627–52) and bookseller. He
engaged in a famous theoretical debate with Siefert and the Polish court
maestro di cappella Marco Scacchi, a debate which started with the
criticism of Siefert’s first volume of psalms (Gdańsk, 1640), published by
Scacchi in his Cribrum musicum (Venice, 1643). His son Kaspar Förster
the younger was a pupil of Carissimi in Rome, singer at the Polish court,
maestro di cappella at the Danish court and composer of sonatas, church
concertos and dramatic dialogues in the new style. He was Kapellmeister
of St Mary’s only from 1655 to 1657, but under him music in the city
reached a peak. Afterwards the Kapelle declined, despite the numerous
petitions to the council of Förster’s successor Balthasar Erben (1658–86),
a pupil of Froberger. Johann Valentin Meder was his successor as
Kapellmeister (1687–99) and Henry Doebelius, grandson of Siefert, was
organist from 1673 to 1693.
In the 17th century most Gdańsk churches had musical establishments
which attempted to compete with those of the city and St Mary’s. At St
John’s the post of organist was held from 1643 to 1666 by Ewaldt Hintz,
also a pupil of Froberger, and St Catherine’s had several outstanding
Kantors, including Christoph Werner (1646–50) and Crato Bütner,
composers of music in the seconda pratica. Thomas Strutz, organist at
Holy Trinity (1642–68) and St Mary’s (1668–78), composed sonatas,
sacred songs and chorale cantatas, as well as passions and oratorios of
which only the texts (in German) survive. Vocal music with organ only was
cultivated at the Catholic church of St Bartholomew. Testimony to an
interest in music in the new Italian style is offered by manuscripts copied by
Gdańsk musicians and containing a lot of fine Italian and German works,
and also by the compositions of Gdańsk composers or Polish court
musicians. Most such collections, which belonged to the churches of St
John, St Catherine (copies prepared by Bütner) and St Bartholomew, were
lost during World War II.
Chamber music was also cultivated in the 17th century. The most
prominent musicians were related to the city Kapelle and included the
English viol player Valentine Flood (1634–6), the Italian violinist Carlo
Farina (1636–7), the lutenists Esias Reusner and Paweł Roszkowicz, and
the composer and guildmaster Martin Gremboszewski (1626–55). The first
opera was staged in 1646, when the city Kapelle assisted the Warsaw
court ensemble in Le nozze d’Amore e di Psiche for the arrival of Louise
Maria Gonzaga, the second wife of the Polish king Władysław IV Vasa. The
libretto was by Virgilio Puccitelli, and the music was prepared at the Polish
court, probably by Scacchi, possibly with contributions by other royal
musicians. In 1695 J.V. Meder performed his Nero, the first German opera
heard in Gdańsk; the city council was not keen to support him, however,
and forbade the performance of his Die wiederverehligte Coelia (1698),
which he was forced to take to the nearby town of Schottland.
In the 18th century the standards of Gdańsk church music declined, and
with worsening economic conditions the city ceased to be an attractive
place of work. The organ gradually became the only instrument used in
churches. The city Kapelle and the Kapelle of St Mary’s were led by
Maximilian Dietrich and Johann Balthasar Freisslich (1699–1731 and
1731–64 respectively), Friedrich Christian Möhrheim (1764–1780), Georg
Simon Löhlein (1780–1782) and Beniamin Gotthold Siewert (1782–1811),
after whose death the post was combined with that of organist at St Mary’s
under the title Musikdirektor. In 1818 the city Kapelle ceased to exist.
During this period the other church ensembles were dissolved, firstly that of
Holy Trinity (1750) and subsequently those of St Catherine (1788), St
Bartholomew (1796) and St John (1826). Yet several fine organs were
installed during the 18th century; notable composers for the instrument
were Daniel Magnus Gronau (at St Mary’s 1712–17) and Tobias Volckmar
(St Catherine’s 1717–30). The musicians’ guild ceased its activities during
the 18th century; church and civic music was increasingly replaced by
public concerts, initiated in 1740 by the organist Jean Du Grain and
centred on the city Kapelle. These concerts often featured travelling
virtuosos, including Farinelli (1765) and Georg Joseph Vogler (1782 and
1789).
3. From 1800.
A large number of both secular and ecclesiastical music societies were
formed during the 19th century. Oratorios were performed by the
Singakademie (founded by T.F. Kniewel in 1818), which was particularly
outstanding under F.W. Markull, organist of St Mary’s from 1836 to 1858,
and Georg Schumann (1890–96). Other choral societies included the
Freunde der Singkunst and the Gesangverein zu Danzig (both 1817).
Polish choirs were also formed later in the century, including the Jedność
society (1884) and the Lutnia choir (1896). The Danziger Theater was built
in 1801, and operas, operettas and, less frequently, symphony concerts
were given there. Richard Genée was the son of a bass at the theatre, and
held the post of Theaterkapellmeister, as did Felix Weingartner from 1885
to 1887. From 1879 Carl Fuchs was an important figure in the city’s
musical life; he was active as pianist, conductor, organist, writer and critic.
Music schools were established early in the 19th century by C.A. Reichel
and C.F. Ilgner, and in 1899 a conservatory was founded by Ludwig
Heidingsfeld, becoming the Westpreussisches und Riemann-
Konservatorium in 1906.
During the insecure interwar period four German music schools and a
single Polish academy of music (1929) were active. Many Polish choirs
were founded, particularly as a result of the Polish choral festivals held
after 1921. Concerts were sponsored by the Polish Society of Music
(1925); orchestras included those of the Polish Society of Music (1925–33)
and the Polish Catholic Youth Association (1933–9). Music was also taught
at all levels in schools. The theatre continued to be run by Germans, and
was rebuilt in 1935–6; the theatre orchestra also gave symphony concerts
as the Danziger Landesorchester. From 1929 operas were also performed
in the open air at the resort of Sopot, including Wagner’s Ring in 1939.
Although Gdańsk was badly damaged during World War II, concert life and
music education revived relatively rapidly after 1945. Polish Radio began
broadcasts in that year, and offered support to young musicians, amateur
groups and choral societies; organ music was broadcast from Oliwa. The
Baltic PO was founded in 1945 under exceptionally unfavourable
conditions and was run by the Gdańsk Music Society until 1949, when it
was nationalized. However, in the same year an opera studio was founded;
this had an adverse effect on the orchestra, reducing the number of its
performances to two, and later one, monthly. The situation improved in
1961–2 when attempts to broaden its repertory were made; the orchestra’s
activities expanded to include chamber concerts and solo recitals, school
concerts, jazz and, from 1964, festivals of young musicians. The first
postwar opera performance was of Moniuszko’s Halka (1949),
experimentally prepared by Iwo Gall. The first performance by the
Philharmonic Opera Studio took place in 1950; at first Romantic works
prevailed, but under the directorship of Kazimierz Wiłkomirski (1952–5)
Classical and contemporary works were introduced. A particularly
outstanding aspect of Gdańsk’s musical life has been its ballet (managed
by Janina Jarzynówna), which performed its first complete programme in
1952. In 1961 the opera, under Jerzy Katlewicz, resumed the practice of
open-air performances at Sopot.
Ensembles active in the city include the Baltic PO (1975) and Baltic State
Opera, the Capella Gedanensis and the Schola Cantorum Gedanensis
(1978). The Gdańsk Institute of Music was founded in 1945; it was followed
by the State High School of Music (1947), renamed the Stanisław
Moniuszko Academy of Music, as well as secondary and elementary
schools of music. There are periodic music festivals, meetings and
competitions, such as the International Festival of Organ Music at Oliwa
Cathedral, the Gdańsk Meetings of Young Composers (1987), the
Meetings of Guitarists International (1985), the Baltic Opera Meetings
(1984) and the International J.P. Sweelinck Organ Competition.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Glummert: Briefwechsel über Danziger Musik und Musiker (Berlin,
1785)
[J.G. Hingelberg]: Über Danziger Musik und Musiker (Elbing, 1785)
G. Döring: Zur Geschichte der Musik in Preussen (Elbing, 1852–5)
O. Günther: Katalog der Handschriften der Danziger Stadtbibliothek, iv:
Die Musikalischen Kirchenbibliotheken von St. Katharinen und St.
Johannis in Danzig (Danzig, 1911)
J.M. Müller-Blattau: Geschichte der Musik in Ost- und Westpreussen von
der Ordenszeit bis zur Gegenwart (Königsberg, 1931, 2/1968)
H. Rausching: Geschichte der Musik und Musikpflege in Danzig (Danzig,
1931)
W. Kmicic-Mieleszyński: Polska kultura muzyczna w Wolnym Mieście
Gdańsku (1920–1939) [Polish musical culture in the free city of
Gdańsk, 1920–39] (Gdańsk, 1965)
B.M. Jankowski and M. Misiorny: Muzyka i życie muzyczne na ziemiach
zachodnich i północnych 1945–65 [Music and musical life in the west
and north regions, 1945–65] (Poznań, 1968)
F. Kessler, ed.: Danziger Kirchenmusik: Vokalwerke des 16. bis 18.
Jahrhunderts (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1973)
K.-G. Hartmann: ‘Musikgeschichtliches aus der ehemaligen Danziger
Stadtbibliothek’, Mf, xxvii (1974), 387–412
J. Janca: ‘Abriss der Geschichte des Orgelbaus in den Kirchen Danzigs
bis 1800’, Herder-Forschungsrat Symposium: Eichstätt 1984, 17–73
D. Popinigis and D. Szlagowska: Musicalia gedanensia: rekopisy
muzyczne z XVI i XVII wieku w zbiorach Biblioteki Gdanskiej Polskiej
Akademii Nauk Katalos [The 16th and 17th century musical
manuscripts in the Gdańsk Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences
Catalogue] (Gdańsk, 1990)
J. Janca: Zarys historii muzyki w klasztorze oliwskim [An outline of the
history of music in the Oliwa monastery] (Gdańsk, 1991)
B. Przybyszewska-Jarminska: Kasper Förster junior Tekst: muzyka w
dialogach biblijnych [Kaspar Förster the younger: text and music in
biblical dialogues] (Warsaw, 1997)
PAWEŁ PODEJKO, BARBARA PRZYBYSZEWSKA-JARMINSKA

Ge, Gangru
(b Shanghai, 8 July 1954). Chinese-American composer and violinist. He
received degrees in violin performance (1978) and composition (1981)
from the Shanghai Conservatory, where he later taught composition (1981–
3). After emigrating to the USA, he completed the DMA in composition
(1991) at Columbia University. His principal teachers included Chen Gang,
Alexander Goehr, Chou Wen-chung and Mario Davidovsky. Among his
honours are commissions and awards from Lincoln Center and ASCAP; his
works have been performed by the New York, Tokyo and Hong Kong
Philharmonic Orchestras, the BBC SO and the American Composers
Orchestra.
Ge has been called the first Chinese avant-garde composer. Yi feng
(1982), his controversial work for unaccompanied cello, employed
unorthodox methods of sound production and notation at a time when
China was largely unfamiliar with 20th-century Western music. The cello
 strings, tuned in 4ths an octave below normal pitch, are bowed and
plucked in unconventional ways and the body of the instrument is struck to
produce timbres simulating Chinese percussive instruments. Rhythmic and
polyphonic complexity contribute to the difficulty of the work. In Gu yue
(‘Ancient Music’, 1986), a piano evokes the sounds of traditional Chinese
instruments, the four sections of the work referring successively to the
gong, qin, pipa and drum. The piano concerto Wu (1991) explores a wide
range of non-traditional piano techniques, while blending piano and
orchestral timbres in a panaroma of tone colours. Ge has explained that
‘while in Western music, composers are deeply concerned with the
relationships between pitches, in Chinese music what is important is the
particular pitch and its microtonal and timbral character’. Chinese
Rhapsody (1993), which uses major and minor modes, fugue and melodic
fragments, is more familiar to the Western ear, although its sliding string
figures and accelerated rhythms allude to Chinese influence.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: A Great Wall (film score), synth, pf, perc, 1986; Today with Dragon (dance
score), fl, cl, tpt, trbn, perc, vn, db, 1986; Who Killed Vincent Chin? (film score),
synth, 1987; Color Schemes (TV score), pf, 1988; Resonance (dance score), fl, vc,
Tibetan cymbals, 1988; Tang Dynasty (TV score), zheng, perc, 1990; Lost Angeles
(dance score), vn, va, vc, 1996
Inst: Vn Conc., 1976; 12 Preludes, pf, 1979; Moment of Time, pf, 1981; Chbr Sym.,
orch, 1982; Yi feng, vc, 1982; Capriccio, fl, pf, 1984; Fu (Str Qt no.1), 1984; Db Qt,
1985; Gu yue (Ancient Music), pf, 1986; Dao (Str Qt no.2), 1987; Ingrain, fl, cl, db,
pf, 1987; Gu zheng, conc., koto, orch, 1988; Hao, fl, pf, 1988; Taipei, orch, 1988; Si,
vn, cl, pf, 1989; Yun, fl, ob, cl, pf, vn, vc, perc, 1990; Str Qt no.3, 1991; Wu, pf, orch,
1991; Chinese Rhapsody, orch, 1993; Str Qt no.4, 1997; Sym. no.1, orch, 1997
Vocal: Trio, S, fl, cl, 1981; Ji (sym. requiem), mixed chorus, orch, 1989; Xiang zhan,
S, 1989

WEIHUA ZHANG

Geary, Thomas Augustine

[Timothy]
(b Dublin, 1775; d Dublin, Nov 1801). Irish composer and keyboard player.
He assumed the names Thomas Augustine for professional purposes,
presumably as a tribute to Arne. In Warburton, Whitelaw and Walsh’s
History of the City of Dublin (London, 1818) it is stated that ‘labouring
under some depression of mind he rushed out of the house, and was found
drowned in the canal’. His premature death undoubtedly robbed Irish music
of a sensitive and promising talent. There is no evidence for the assertion
by Flood that he either entered or graduated at Trinity College.
His precocious talent was publicly recognized by the award of the prize of
the Amateur Society to ‘Timothy Geary of the choir, aged 14’ for the six-part
glee With wine that blissful joy bestows. While still in his teens he acted as
assistant organist to Philip Cogan at St Patrick’s Cathedral. In 1793 he
performed a piano concerto by Dussek at a concert which also featured his
canzonet Soft is the Zephyr’s breezy wing.
Although Geary was the first Irish composer to exploit systematically the
form of sets of variations and rondos for the keyboard based on popular
airs, for which there was a great demand at the time, it was as a composer
of vocal music that he excelled, showing remarkable sensitivity and
maturity in word-painting, and an assured mastery of apt keyboard
accompaniments. His best work is to be found in a set of ten canzonets
dedicated to Mrs Dean Cradock, published by subscription c1795, and
some of his delicate pastoral songs, such as Come, gentle Zephyr, were in
popular demand for some time after his death. His four-part anthem With
humble pleasure, Lord is included in Melodia sacra (Dublin, 1814).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W.H.G. Flood: A History of Irish Music (Dublin, 1905, 3/1913/R, 4/1927)
I.M. Hogan: Anglo-Irish Music 1780–1830 (Cork, 1966)
BRIAN BOYDELL

Gebauer (i).
French family of musicians, apparently of German or Swiss origin.
(1) Michel Joseph Gebauer
(2) François René Gebauer
(3) Pierre Paul Gebauer
(4) Etienne Jean François Gebauer
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Choron-FayolleD
FétisB
Almanach général de tous les spectacles (1791)
J.F. Reichardt: Vertraute Briefe aus Paris geschrieben (Hamburg, 1804)
C. Pierre, ed.: Musique des fêtes et cérémonies de la Révolution française
(Paris, 1899) [incl. compositions by M.J. and F.R. Gebauer]
C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation (Paris,
1900)
H.G. Farmer: Military Music (London, 1950)
T. Fleischman: Napoléon et la musique (Brussels, 1965), 258
D. Swanzy: The Wind Ensemble and its Music during the French
Revolution (diss., Michigan State U., 1966)
D. Dondeyne and F. Robert: Nouveau traité d’orchestration à l’usage des
harmonies, fanfares et musiques militaires (Paris, 1969) [incl.
compositions by M.J. and F.R. Gebauer]
B. François-Sappey: ‘Le personnel de la musique royale de l’avènement
de Louis XVI à la chute de la monarchie (1774–1792)’, RMFC, xxvi
(1988–90), 155–60
DAVID CHARLTON/HERVÉ AUDÉON
Gebauer (i)
(1) Michel Joseph Gebauer
(b La Fère, Aisne, 1763; d Dec 1812). Oboist, bandmaster and composer.
The son of a military musician, Christian (Jean Chrétien) Gebauer, he
entered the royal wind group of the Swiss Guard at Versailles as an oboist
in 1777 or 1779 and remained with it until 1781. (His father was a horn
player in the group from at least 1767 to 1786). Between 1788 and 1792 he
was a viola player in the royal chapel at Versailles, but his career as a
string player was ended by a finger injury. He became a musician of the
National Guard in 1791, and played in the orchestra of the Théâtre
Français from that year, and probably in that of the Salle Louvois in 1793.
From 1794 he was oboist at the Théâtre des Amis de la Patrie. He was a
professor at the Paris Conservatoire from its foundation in 1795 until 1800,
when economics dictated reductions in the teaching staff. He then became
director of music of the Consular (later Imperial) Guard, and composed for
his band many marches and pas redoublés, which were recognized as
models of their kind. Reichardt reported in 1802–3: ‘This excellent band …
during the march past, continued to play varied music, some pieces slow
and mournful, against which the cavalry trumpets made a bizarre contrast’.
Gebauer, who was also an oboist in Napoleon’s private chamber
ensemble, participated in the French campaigns of 1805, 1806, 1809 and
1812, and as a result of the first three he is said to have imported into
France some German improvements to the mechanism of wind instruments
and to the organization of bands. He died in the retreat from Moscow. His
other compositions include 12 violin duos op.10 (Paris, c1790), clarinet and
violin duos op.12 (Paris, c1796), six string quartets, two quartets for flute,
clarinet, horn and bassoon, and three quartets for clarinet and strings.
Presumably he (rather than his brother) was the composer of the opéra
comique Aimée, ou la fausse apparence (Pépin, Théatre Montansier, 20
May 1790)
Gebauer (i)
(2) François René Gebauer
(b Versailles, 15 March 1773; d Paris, 28 July 1845). Bassoonist and
composer, brother of (1) Michel Joseph Gebauer. He studied with his elder
brother and Devienne. Before the Revolution (from 1788) he was a
member of the band of the Swiss Guard at Versailles, and in 1790 entered
the band of the National Guard. He was bassoonist in the Théâtre Français
in 1791–2, possibly played in the orchestra of the Salle Louvois in 1793
and was listed in the orchestra of the Théâtre des Amis de la Patrie in
1794. By 1799 or 1800 he had joined the orchestra of the Opéra, where he
remained until 1826. He also played in the imperial chapel orchestra,
retaining his place under the Bourbon restoration until the chapel’s closure
in the upheavals of 1830. His playing was particularly noted for its beauty
of tone. He was professor of bassoon at the Conservatoire from 1795 until
about 1802, and again from 1824 to 1838. According to Pierre (1900) he
was made an honorary professor in 1816. His compositions include 13
bassoon concertos, eight symphonies concertantes, wind quintets, quartets
for two clarinets, horn and bassoon op.10 (Paris, 1795), for flute, clarinet,
horn and bassoon op.20 (Paris, c1799), trios for clarinet, bassoon and horn
(Paris, c1799, c1804), trios for clarinet or oboe, flute and bassoon opp.29
and 32 (Milan, c1806), six clarinet duos opp.20 (sic) and 21 (Paris, 1794–
5), duos for clarinet and bassoon op.8 (Paris, c1796), and three duos for
clarinet or oboe and bassoon op.22 (Paris, c1819), as well as many solos
and arrangements for wind instruments, especially the bassoon. He also
published a bassoon method (c1820).
Gebauer (i)
(3) Pierre Paul Gebauer
(b Versailles, ?1775; d Paris). Horn player, brother of (1) Michel Joseph
Gebauer. The parish registers of Versailles mention the baptism of Pierre
Philippe Gebauer (b Versailles, 1 Jan 1770), brother of Michel Joseph; this
may be a reference to Pierre Paul. He was employed for a time at the
Théâtre du Vaudeville in Paris, and also played at the Théâtre Français in
1800–01. His playing was noted for its accuracy. Although he died young
he published a set of 20 horn duets.
Gebauer (i)
(4) Etienne Jean François Gebauer
(b Versailles, 7 March 1776; d Paris, 1823). Flautist and composer, brother
of (1) Michel Joseph Gebauer. He studied with his eldest brother and
Hugot. He was attached to the consular Guard and entered the orchestra
of the Opéra-Comique in 1801 as second flute. He was first flute from 1813
until his retirement at the end of 1822. He made numerous skilful
arrangements of operatic excerpts for instrumental duet, as well as
composing more than 100 pieces for solo flute. His son, Michel Joseph
Gebauer (fl early 19th century), was a noted viola player who published six
duos for violin and viola and a viola method (Paris, 1820).

Gebauer (ii).
Romanian firm of music publishers. It was founded as a music shop and
publishing firm in Bucharest in 1859 by Alexis Gebauer (1815–89), a pupil
of Liszt and Sechter, who published mostly Romanian folklore collections,
transcriptions and opera librettos. After 1880 the firm was run by his son
Constantin Gebauer (b Bucharest, 18 Oct 1846; d Bucharest, 9 March
1920) and subsequently by N.I. Eliad, Jean Feder and Georg Degen.
Under Constantin Gebauer, an enthusiastic supporter of Romanian musical
life, it developed considerably, publishing exquisite editions of the standard
repertory as well as the central repertory of Romanian music; Gebauer was
awarded the Silver Medal at the 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle. After
1886 he became chief editor of the musical magazine Doina. In 1899 he
transferred the shop, which dealt in instruments and scores, to Jean Feder,
licensing him to print new Romanian music in 1905. For almost half a
century Feder (1869–1941), himself an editor, supported Romanian art and
folk music by his publishing activity, also issuing Romanian teaching
manuals and international music literature. He published the Revista
muzicală şi teatrală (1904–8) and the Revista instrumentelor muzicale şi a
maşinilor vorbitoare (‘Musical instruments and mechanical reproduction
review’, 1905–8). Feder paid particular attention to classical and
contemporary Romanian chamber music, publishing works by Constantin
Dimitrescu, Emil Monţia, G.A. Dinicu and others. The firm ceased activity in
1945.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amadeus: ‘Correspondenz (A. Gebauer)’, Siebenbürger Wochenblatt
(1839), no.27, p.221
Amadeus: ‘Un bucureştean pe zi’ [A Bucharester by day], Adevărul (1898),
no.3340, p.2
C. Brăiloiu: Societatea Compozitorilor Români [Society of Romanian
composers] (Bucharest, 1930)
L. Predescu: ‘Gebauer, Alexis’, Enciclopedia Cugetarea (Bucharest, 1940),
346
VIOREL COSMA

Gebauer, Franz Xaver

(b Eckersdorf, nr Glatz [now Kłodzko], Silesia, 1784; d Vienna, 13 Dec
1822). German organist, conductor and composer. After studying with his
father, he became organist at Frankenstein (1804). In 1810 he went to
Vienna, where he made a reputation as a cellist and piano teacher, also
becoming known for his reed organ playing. In 1816 he became
choirmaster of the Augustinerkirche, an appointment which prompted Franz
Oliva’s comment to Beethoven, ‘Since Gebauer has taken over, the music
at the Augustin has improved very much and now the best church music is
there’.
Gebauer was one of the earliest members of the Gesellschaft der
Musikfreunde as well as founder and first conductor of the Spirituel-
Concerte (1819), held at the Hotel Zur Mehlgrabe in the Neue Markt. The
idea of these concerts (which lasted until 1848) was to enlarge the choir
rehearsals into meetings of music lovers, at which a symphony as well as
the choral work for the next feast day was rehearsed. Although inevitably
erratic in standard of performance, the meetings were more selective in
programme than the Gesellschaft: in the 18 concerts of the first season the
works included Beethoven’s first four symphonies and Mass in C, in the
second, Beethoven’s Fifth, Seventh and Eighth Symphonies and Christus
am Ölberge. Ignaz von Mosel deplored the performance of ‘only
symphonies and choruses excluding all virtuoso music and bravura singing’
(Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, 5 April 1820). Beethoven, who had to
write Gebauer a sharp note demanding the return of the Prometheus
score, referred to him as ‘Geh’ Bauer’ or ‘Der Bauer’ (the peasant). His
compositions include choral works (among them a Tantum ergo) and
songs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
E. Hanslick: Geschichte des Concertwesens in Wien (Vienna, 1869–70/R)
K.-H. Köhler and others, eds.: Ludwig van Beethovens
Konversationshefte (Leipzig, 1968–93)
E. Anderson, ed. and trans.: The Letters of Beethoven (London, 1961/R)
E. Forbes, ed.: Thayer’s Life of Beethoven (Princeton, NJ, 1964, 2/1967)
C.F. POHL/JOHN WARRACK

Gebauer, Johan Christian

(b Copenhagen, 6 Dec 1808; d Copenhagen, 24 Jan 1884). Danish
composer and organist. He studied with Kuhlau (1826–8) and later with
C.E.F. Weyse, P.C. Krossing and J.P.E. Hartmann. Soon becoming well
known as a teacher of piano and of music theory, he was appointed to
teach harmony at the Copenhagen Conservatory from its founding in 1868
until September 1883. From 1848 until his death he was also an organist in
Copenhagen, first at St Petri, and from 1859 at the Helligåndskirke. He
composed about 40 hymn tunes, some of which are still in use; in his essay
‘Om menighedssangen’ (‘Concerning congregational singing’, published
posthumously in N.K. Madsen-Stensgaard’s chorale book, 1891), he
criticized the growing use of unsuitable or poor hymn tunes, and his
opinions may have influenced the reforming activities of his pupil Thomas
Laub.
Gebauer is remembered chiefly as a song composer. His romances seem
to have been influenced by those of Weyse and especially Kuhlau; in
particular their plain, yet expressive melodic style makes them notable mid-
century representatives of the folk music ideals of J.A.P. Schulz. Even
more important are his children’s songs (published in collections from
1844), of which several are familiar to every Danish child; owing to their
graceful and uncomplicated tunes and harmonic style, they hold a unique
position in Danish music.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N.K. Madsen-Stensgaard: Til minde om Professor Johan Christian
Gebauer (Copenhagen, 1894)
N.M. Jensen: Den danske romance 1800–1850 og dens musikalske
forudsaetninger (Copenhagen, 1964), 149ff [with Ger. summary]
TORBEN SCHOUSBOE

Gebel.
German family of organists and composers.
(1) Georg Gebel (i)
(2) Georg Gebel (ii)
(3) Georg Siegmund [Sigmund, Sigismund] Gebel
GEORGE J. BUELOW
Gebel
(1) Georg Gebel (i)
(b Breslau [now Wrocław], 1685; d Breslau, c1750). His autobiography in
Mattheson records most of the known facts about his life. His father (also
Georg Gebel), a musketeer in Breslau, apprenticed his son as a tailor at
the age of 14. However, at 18 Gebel turned to music as a career, beginning
lessons with Franz Tiburtius Winckler, a Viennese organist employed at
both the cathedral and the Heilige Kreuz church in Breslau. In 1709 he
became organist at the parish church in Brieg (now Brzeg) while continuing
his musical studies with the Kapellmeister at Gotha, G.H. Stöltzel, who
(Gebel said) gave him valuable instruction in Kuhnau's compositional
practice and Johann Theile's rules of counterpoint. In 1713 Gebel returned
 to Breslau as organist of St Christoph, and a year later also became
musical director. He credited himself with a large number of compositions,
sacred and secular. Few of his works survive and it is difficult to separate
his works from those of his son (2) Georg Gebel (ii). Gebel mentioned in
his autobiography that he had constructed a clavichord tuned in quarter
tones, an intriguing experiment for his time.
WORKS
Komm mit Jesu, Seel und Sinn (Passion oratorio), chorus, 2 fl, 2 ob, 2 hn, bn, str, b
viol, theorbo, vc, bc, D-Bsb
Sacred cants., all Bsb: Aber der Herr warf unser aller Sünde auf ihn, chorus; Ach
dass ich Wasser genug hätte, B, bc; Jesus Christus hat uns geliebet, SATB; Wir
gingen alle in der Irre wie die Schafe, SATB, 4 trbn, 2 ob, 2 vn, va, vc, bc; Wir
gingen alle in der Irre wie die Schafe, SATB, 3 trbn
Der Herr ist mein Licht, motet, SATB, LÜh
1 mass and a ps setting, both for double chorus; 48 chorale variations with
interspersed arias; 60 sacred cants.; 24 ps with insts; Passion orat in 7 parts; 24
chorale variations, org/hpd; Grosser musicalischer Schneckenzirkel, kbd; 48 kbd
concs., most with wind acc.; 24 large-scale kbd concs.; 24 preludes and fugues,
kbd; numerous canons, partitas, chaconnes, arias with variations, all for kbd;
numerous secular cants.: cited in Gebel's autobiography (see MatthesonGEP), all
lost
Gebel
(2) Georg Gebel (ii)
(b Brieg [now Brzeg], 25 Oct 1709; d Rudolstadt, 24 Sept 1753). Eldest son
of (1) Georg Gebel (i) and Anna Barbara (née Opitzin). According to his
father, the younger Georg Gebel was a precocious child, learning the
harpsichord at the age of three and playing in the homes of Breslau nobility
by the age of six. At 11 he went to Oels (now Oleśnica) to play for the
aristocracy. While continuing his music studies with his father, he entered
the Maria Magdalena Gymnasium, learning French and Italian among other
subjects. He began to compose music, including wedding cantatas, and
was taught improvisation by the cathedral organist, J.H. Krause. At the age
of 16, his father reported, he composed a number of serenades and a
German opera. In 1729 he was appointed organist at St Maria Magdalena,
wrote music for Catholic monasteries, and directed performances of a
visiting Italian opera company. While retaining his position in Breslau he
also became Kapellmeister at the court of Oels. At 26 he moved to Warsaw
as court composer and harpsichordist to Count Brühl, first minister to the
Saxon court. At his employer's request he learnt to play the pantaleon from
the inventor of the instrument, Pantaleon Hebenstreit, a popular figure at
the Dresden court. After 12 years in the service of Count Brühl at Dresden,
Gebel became leader and, in 1750, Kapellmeister at the Rudolstadt court.
WORKS
Partita (G), kbd (Rudolstadt, n.d.)
Jauchzet ihr Himmel (Christmas orat), S, A, T, B, 4vv, 2 tpt, fl, bn, vn, va, bc, D-SWl
5 sinfonias (G, G, G, D, D), 2 hn, 2 ob/tpt, 2 vn, va, vc; 4 sonatas (D, b, F, F), 2 vn/fl,
bc: all SWl
2 sonatas (G, F), 2 fl/vn, bc, ‘Georg Gebel’, Bsb
6 sinfonias, cited in the Breitkopf catalogues; sinfonia, 2 vn, va, b, formerly DS: all
lost
At least 12 ops incl. Serpillo und Melissa, Dresden, c1750, and ops to libs by J.G.
Kloss, all perf. in Rudolstadt: Oedipus, 1751; Medea, 1752; Tarquinius Superbus,
1752; Sophonisbe, 1753; Marcus Antonius, 1753: all lost
4 cant. cycles; 2 Passions; more than 100 inst works, incl. sinfonias; ovs.; partitas;
kbd, vn, fl, lute, and 6 viol concs.; fl and pantaleon sonatas; trios and duos; kbd
works: all lost, see MatthesonGEP, Marpurg, Hiller and BrookB
Gebel
(3) Georg Siegmund [Sigmund, Sigismund] Gebel
(b Breslau [now Wrocław], c1715; d Breslau, 1775). Second son of (1)
Georg Gebel (i). He became second organist at St Elisabeth in Breslau in
1736. In 1744 he became second organist at St Maria Magdalena, in 1748
organist at the Dreifaltigkeitskirche, and in 1749 first organist at St
Elisabeth, where he remained until 1762. He composed church cantatas
and organ pieces, none of them known to survive.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookB
MatthesonGEP
F.W. Marpurg: Historisch-kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik, i
(Berlin, 1754/R), 250
J.A. Hiller: Lebensbeschreibungen berühmter Musikgelehrten und
Tonkünstler (Leipzig, 1784/R), 66

Gebel [Göbel], Franz Xaver

(b Fürstenau, nr Breslau, 1787; bur. Moscow, 3 May 1843). German
composer. A pupil of Vogler and Albrechtsberger, he was also on personal
terms with Beethoven. From 1810 he was Kapellmeister at the
Leopoldstadt theatre in Vienna, then moved to Pest and Lemberg, and in
1817 to Moscow. There he enjoyed a high reputation as a teacher,
composer and pianist (perhaps also as a cellist), and his organization of
regular chamber music evenings attracted a wide public. He played a
prominent role in the musical life of Moscow in the 1830s through his
excellent knowledge of Viennese Classicism, and especially of the works of
Beethoven. Glinka became acquainted with Gebel in 1834 and praised the
faultless workmanship of his string quartets and quintets, in which Borodin
traced Russian influence. The eight quintets show Gebel’s melodic gift,
able craftsmanship and confident treatment of instruments, as well as a
certain preference for the cello, for which he wrote some particularly
expressive passages. His output includes four symphonies, an overture,
chamber music (eight string quintets, a double quintet, two string quartets
and a piano trio), sonatinas, variations and fantasias for piano, a mass, an
oratorio and some German songs. His manual on composition was
translated into Russian and published in Moscow in 1842.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Nachrichten aus Moskau’, AMZ, xxxvii (1835), 467 only
F.-A. Gebhard: Obituary, AMZ, xlv (1843), 476–7
V.A. Natanson: Iz muzïkal’nogo proshlogo moskovskogo universiteta
[From the musical past of Moscow University] (Moscow, 1955), 93
E. Stöckl: Musikgeschichte der Russlanddeutschen (Dülmen, 1993)
ERNST STÖCKL

Gebethner & Wolff.

Polish bookselling and publishing firm. Gustaw Adolf Gebethner (b
Warsaw, 3 Jan 1831; d Vladikavkaz, 18 Sept 1901) served his
apprenticeship at Spiess & Friedlein in Warsaw. There he met Robert Wolff
(b Zgierz, nr Łódź, 10 Jan 1832; d Sopot, 20 Aug 1910), with whom he
founded in 1857 a bookshop and publishing house. Initially called
Gebethner & Spółka and renamed Gebethner & Wolff in 1860, it became
one of the leading bookselling and publishing enterprises in Warsaw. Its
first music publication, the piano score of Moniuszko's Halka, appeared in
1857; this was followed by other works by Moniuszko and editions of music
by many other Polish composers, including an edition of Chopin's collected
works, edited by Jan Kleczyński (1882). Gebethner & Wolff also published
many educational books, songbooks, manuals and numerous books on
music history. They published over 7000 items of music, besides 7010
other titles, in almost 45 million copies. In 1893 they were awarded a gold
medal at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The firm was in the
hands of Gebethner's successors until 1939, with numerous branches in
Poland and abroad. The firm was nationalized in 1960.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Muszkowski: Z dziejów firmy Gebethner i Wolff 1857–1937 [The history
of the firm of Gebethner & Wolff] (Warsaw, 1938)
K. Konarska: ‘Gebethner Gustaw Adolf’, Słownik pracowników książki
polskiej [Dictionary of the Polish book trade], ed. I. Treichel (Warsaw,
1972)
K. Mazur: ‘Gebethner’, Encyklopedia muzyczna PWM, ed. E. Dziebowska
(Kraków, 1979–)
W. Tomaszewski: Warszawskie edytorstwo muzyczne w latach 1772–
1865 [Music publishing in Warsaw, 1772–1865] (Warsaw, 1992)
KORNEL MICHAŁOWSKI

Gebhard, Heinrich
(b Sobernheim, 25 July 1878; d North Arlington, NJ, 5 May 1963).
American pianist and composer of German birth. He studied the piano with
Leschetizky and composition with Heuberger in Vienna (1896–9). After
making his début with the Boston SO in 1899, he appeared 35 times with
that orchestra in the years 1901–33; he also performed with other leading
American orchestras, giving the first performance in the USA of Strauss’s
Burleske and the premières of Frederick Shepherd Converse’s Night and
Day, Loeffler’s A Pagan Poem and his own Fantasy, a work in two
extended movements, with the New York PO (12 November 1925). He was
a noted interpreter of Impressionist music. Among his pupils was Bernstein,
who wrote an introduction for Gebhard’s The Art of Pedaling (New York,
1963).
WORKS
 (selective list)

Orch: Fantasy, pf, orch, 1925; Divertissement, pf, chbr orch, 1932; Across the Hills,
tone poem, 1940
Songs: You Walked into the Garden, 1920; 15 Songs from ‘Looking Out of Jimmie’
(H.H. Flanders), 1929
Pf: Waltzes, 2 pf, 1920; Harlequin’s Serenade, Mazurka lente, Slumber Song,
Meadow Brooklets, 1921; Giant of the Mountains, 1942

MSS in US-NYp

Principal publishers: Axelrod, Ditson, Dutton, E.C. Schirmer

MAURICE GEROW/R. ALLEN LOTT

Gebrauchsmusik
(Ger.: ‘music for use’, ‘utility music’).
A term adopted in Germany in the early 1920s, first in musicological circles
and then in music criticism. Within a decade it had become a slogan with
international currency, causing some of those who had initially contributed
to its prominence either to distance themselves from it or to abandon it
altogether.
The term arose from attempts to challenge, or at least to relativize, its
conceptual antonym – musical autonomy. Invariably its use implies, if not
actually involves, an opposite term as part of a dualistic system of thought.
One of the first writers to employ Gebrauchsmusik systematically as one
half of a binarism was the musicologist Paul Nettl. In his study of 17th-
century dance music he distinguished between Gebrauchsmusik and
Vortragsmusik (1921–2, p.258). By the former term Nettl referred to ‘dance
pieces that were really danced to’, by the latter to ‘music without any
secondary purpose’. With historical developments in mind, Nettl observed
an ‘increasing stylization’ that attended dance music’s emancipation in the
cyclical suite of mixed dance forms, a stylization that involved a ‘certain
removal from popular primordiality [volkstümliche Ursprünglichkeit]’. Around
the same time Leo Kestenberg, music adviser to the Prussian Ministry of
Science, Culture and Education, used Gebrauchsmusik to describe
‘occasional music’ as distinguished from ‘concert music’. In making this
distinction, Nettl and Kestenberg openly expressed a value judgment soon
to be widely shared by musicologists, critics and composers alike.
Gebrauchsmusik, Kestenberg wrote, ‘is artistically as important as, and
nowadays materially more promising than, concert music’ (1921, p.108).
Like other Germans, he was no doubt influenced by parallel developments
in France, especially the group of composers known as Les Six.
But it was Heinrich Besseler, in whose work the descriptive and the
normative nicely combine, who produced the philosophically most
sophisticated account of Gebrauchsmusik at the time. An early-music
specialist, he had studied philosophy with Martin Heidegger. Beyond a
scholarly, historical attempt at understanding earlier musical cultures on
their own terms, Besseler also raised general phenomenological questions
of the kind posed by Heidegger. In his dissertation on the German suite in
the 17th century, Besseler noted that ‘the aesthetic access [Zugangsweise]
to this music is not through listening but through participation, whether
through playing, dancing or singing along; in general, through use [das
Gebrauchen] (Beiträge zur Stilgeschichte der deutschen Suite im 17.
Jahrhundert, diss., U. of Freiburg, 1923, p.14). Besseler pursued this basic
perspective further in his Habilitationsschrift, this time focussing on 13th-
and 14th-century motets. This music, he stressed, was not ‘created for
“aesthetic enjoyment”’; nor did it ‘concern the “listener” in the usual sense,
but rather only believers in prayer and observation’ (1925, p.144). In a
much-quoted lecture, delivered as part of his dissertation defence, he
addressed ‘basic questions of musical listening’, both from a historical,
diachronic perspective and from a systematic one. Acknowledging his debt
to Heidegger, he translated his philosophy teacher’s fundamental
distinction between ‘thing’ (Ding) and ‘equipment’ (Zeug) into specifically
musical concepts: ‘autonomous music’ (eigenständige Musik) and ‘utility
music’ (Gebrauchsmusik). The first type he associated with concert music,
a relatively recent phenomenon, but one which ‘for generations has
counted as the highest and, as it were, solely legitimate form of performing
and listening to music’. With the second type, aesthetic contemplation is
secondary or even irrelevant. Invoking Heideggerian terminology, one
could say that its mode of existence belongs to the sphere of ‘readiness-to-
hand’ (Zuhandenheit), as opposed to ‘presentness-at-hand’
(Vorhandenheit). Besseler defined such music as ‘umgangsmässig’,
something analogous to the vernacular in language (Umgangssprache) in
the sense of being inseparable from everyday life rather than autonomous.
Active participation or involvement is key. The gist of Besseler’s theory is
encapsulated in this central passage from his lecture (1925, pp.45–6):
For the individual, Gebrauchsmusik constitutes something of
equal rank to his other activities, something with which he has
dealings in the way he has dealings with things of everyday
use, without first having to overcome any distance, that is,
without having to adopt an aesthetic attitude. With this in
mind we might define the basic characteristic of
Gebrauchsmusik as something with which we are directly
involved [umgangsmässig]. All other art … in some way
stands in contrast to Being as self-sufficient, as autonomous
[eigenständig].
In later writings Besseler replaced his original binarism with
Darbietungsmusik(‘presentation music’) versus Umgangsmusik (literally
‘ambient music’, a term which has unfortunately become synonymous with
background music).
Besseler’s interest in Gebrauchsmusik did not stop with his scholarly work
as a music historian; it spilled over into the opinions he held about
contemporary trends in composition. Epistemology, aesthetics and cultural
politics overlapped. Besseler found himself supporting current efforts to
create ‘umgangmässige Musik’, above all in the work of the German Youth
Movement, but also in the cultivation of Gebrauchsmusik by composers
such as Hindemith, Fortner and Pepping.
Besseler ended the first chapter of his magisterial handbook Die Musik des
Mittelalters und der Renaissance with an account of the effects of
historicism on the present, seeing in the call for ‘community music’
(Gemeinschaftsmusik) the protest of a younger generation against the
artistic stance of traditional musical life, against large symphony orchestras
and the professional specialization of virtuosos. ‘One avoided patriarchal
tradition’, he wrote in a confessional tone, ‘in order to learn from earlier
ancestors’ (1931, p.21).
Although Hindemith was not responsible for coining the term
Gebrauchsmusik, as is often asserted, he could maintain in 1930, without
too much exaggeration, that he had ‘almost completely turned away from
concert music in recent years and written, almost without exception, music
with pedagogical or social tendencies: for amateurs, for children, for radio,
mechanical instruments, etc.’ (Briefe, ed. D. Rexroth, Frankfurt, 1982,
p.147). One of the principal genres developed to reflect these tendencies
was the Lehrstück. The piece entitled Lehrstück, a collaboration between
Hindemith and Brecht that established the genre, compromised the
composer’s autonomy to the extent that the nature of the performing forces
was left open. It was thus less a work designed for concert presentation
than one which served the learning process of those actively involved. The
audience, too, was expected to participate by singing along in the choral
sections. Although a secular piece which ironically defamiliarized sacred
traditions, it was intended to function in a manner analogous to a sacred
cantata in the 18th century.
Recognizing in 1929 that ‘the idea of Gebrauchsmusik has now established
itself in all those camps of modern music that it can reach’, Hindemith’s
contemporary and rival Weill asserted the need for music to be ‘useful for
society at large’. To this end he and Hindemith collaborated with Brecht on
the experimental piece Der Lindberghflug, first performed together with
Lehrstück at the festival of new music in Baden-Baden in 1929. The
question of quality, Weill said, was a separate matter, one that determined
whether what he was doing could be considered art. ‘To have this attitude
expressed by a representative of “serious music”’, he went on, ‘would have
been unthinkable a few years ago’ (‘Die Oper–wohin?’, p.68)
The call for socially useful music did not go unchallenged, formulated as it
often was in explicitly political terms and as an implicit critique of the
Expressionist isolation commonly associated at the time with the Second
Viennese School. Schoenberg himself was especially defensive, often
construing the reforms proposed by the younger generation of composers
as personal attacks (1976).
One demands New Music for all! Gebrauchsmusik! But it
transpires that no use can be found for it. … And what use?
For want of a use, many of the business-like
Gebrauchsmusiker have become ideal artists. More ideal
than those outmoded ones, who may at least hope for
success after they die, whereas the involuntary idealists have
composed for particular use and have no hope or desire for
the future.
No less vitriolic and certainly more extensive were the involved polemics
directed against the supporters of Gebrauchsmusik by Schoenberg’s
apologist Theodor W. Adorno. With his characteristic ear for the news of
the day, Adorno eagerly took up the term, albeit in a derogatory sense, as
early as 1924, and he continued to write critically about Gebrauchsmusik
for the rest of his life. He began by dismissing the latest music of Hindemith
and Stravinsky as ‘fiktive Gebrauchsmusik’ (1924), music with only
apparent utility and little expressive value of the kind he associated with
‘absolute music’. By 1932, in his sociological tract ‘Zur gesellschaftlichen
Lage der Musik’, Adorno was using Gebrauchsmusik to describe one of
four types of contemporary music, the others being ‘modern music’
(Schoenberg), ‘objectivism’ (Stravinsky) and ‘surrealism’ (Weill). He
associated Gebrauchsmusik above all with Hindemith, whose music he
criticized for identifying itself with a fictitious collective. The only use-value
of music in capitalist society, he argued, was that of a commodity (in the
Marxist sense). Any attempt to restore pre-capitalist immediacy he
dismissed as ideology in the sense of ‘false consciousness’. As he
concluded in Einleitung in die Musiksoziologie of 1962, ‘Gebrauchsmusik,
is tailor-made for the administered world’.
The idea of Gebrauchsmusik, as the work of musicologists such as
Besseler illustrates, derives first and foremost from methodological
reflection; it does not so much capture the essence of music as reflect a
perspective of the scholar or listener. As such, it identifies a philosophical
viewpoint, in this case one indebted to phenomenology. The same piece of
music can be viewed both in terms of its use-value and in terms of its
autonomous features. These two perspectives are not necessarily mutually
exclusive. Understood in this way, autonomy must be seen less as an
idealistic construct that precludes consideration of social utility than as itself
a complex of artistic practices embracing the social, the aesthetic and the
theoretical. These three areas overlap. Social autonomy encompasses
various aspects of music sociology: the composer’s employment status or
sources of patronage, the context of musical presentation and the nature of
music’s social function. Aesthetic autonomy also touches on questions of
presentation, on how musical objects are approached, as well as on the
status of music as a discrete work, on the kind of criticism and
interpretation it attracts, and on matters of musical form. The dimension of
theory encompasses questions of formal taxonomy and other structural
factors. Historically, it is possible to observe a process of increasing
‘autonomization’: composers become their own bosses, freed from direct
service to institutions and patrons; their musical works are conceived less
for specific social occasions, more as discrete works, independent of
immediate social function; and the identity of their works, in formal and
structural terms, increasingly resists their being subsumed under generic
norms. Autonomy and the postulate of originality are closely linked.
One need not subscribe to Adorno’s negative dialectics, which posits social
relevance in artistic isolation, in order to appreciate one principal point of
his critique: namely, that proponents of Gebrauchsmusik could not – or
rather would not – relinquish certain facets of their autonomy as
composers. They remained modern professional composers, with all the
aims and aspirations implied by the ultimately irreversible division of labour.
The choice, then, was not a simple one between ‘autonomy’ and ‘utility’,
concepts which insofar as they denote types of music exist merely as
abstract constructs. Even ‘autonomous’ music has its uses. Rather, the call
for Gebrauchsmusik functioned historically as a corrective to extreme
manifestations of autonomy. Composers in the 1920s were rejecting not
the hard-won autonomies of Beethoven so much as the extreme isolation
of the Schoenberg school.
In different circumstances, on the East Coast of the USA in the early 1950s
rather than in 1920s Berlin, Hindemith spoke of his earlier music as though
the attendant politics and struggles had never existed. In the preface to his
Norton lectures, delivered at Harvard University in 1950, he appeared to
take credit for coining the term Gebrauchsmusik; at the same time he tried
to distance himself from it (1952, p.viii). History has proved him more
successful in the former venture than the latter.
A quarter of a century ago, in a discussion with German
choral conductors, I pointed out the danger of an esoteric
isolationism in music by using the term Gebrauchsmusik.
Apart from the ugliness of the word – in German as hideous
as its English equivalents workaday music, music for use,
utility music, and similar verbal beauties – nobody found
anything remarkable in it, since quite obviously music for
which no use can be found, that is to say, useless music, is
not entitled to public consideration anyway and consequently
the Gebrauch is taken for granted. … [When] I first came to
this country, I felt like the sorcerer’s apprentice who had
become the victim of his own conjurations: the slogan
Gebrauchsmusik hit me wherever I went, it had grown to be
as abundant, useless, and disturbing as thousands of
dandelions in a lawn. Apparently it met perfectly the common
desire for a verbal label which classifies objects, persons, and
problems, thus exempting anyone from opinions based on
knowledge. Up to this day it has been impossible to kill the
silly term and the unscrupulous classification that goes with it.
In the period following World War II, not only was the term regarded as
‘silly’, if not ‘useless’, but in an age that sought autonomy at all costs, even
at the expense of ‘public consideration’, Gebrauchsmusik acquired a
pejorative connotation. Thus Stockhausen dismissed his modernist
colleague Zimmerman as a ‘Gebrauchsmusiker’ because he used pre-
existing materials rather than generating totally new and original ones.
Lack of absolute autonomy became synonymous with a lack of artistic
value. The earlier generation in the inter-war years had thought otherwise;
it was for them that the term had had its positive, historically significant
meaning.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
STEPHEN HINTON
Gebrauchsmusik
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Kestenberg: Musikerziehung und Musikpflege (Leipzig, 1921)
P. Nettl: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte der Tanzmusik im 17. Jahrhundert’, ZMw,
iv (1921–2), 257–65
T.W. Adorno: ‘Gebrauchsmusik’ (1924), Gesammelte Schriften, ed. R.
Tiedemann, xix (Frankfurt, 1984), 445–7
H. Besseler: ‘Grundfragen des musikalischen Hörens’, JbMP 1925, 35–52;
repr. in Aufsätze zur Musikästhetik und Musikgeschichte, ed. P. Gülke
(Leipzig, 1978), 29–53
K. Weill: ‘Verschiebungen in der musikalischen Produktion’, Berliner
Tageblatt (1 Oct 1927); repr. in Kurt Weill: Musik und Theater:
Gesammelte Schriften, ed. S. Hinton and J. Scheber (Berlin, 1990),
45–8
K. Weill: ‘Die Oper – wohin?’ (31 Oct 1929); repr. in Kurt Weill: Musik und
Theater: Gesammelte Schriften, ed. S. Hinton and J. Scheber (Berlin,
1990), 68–71
H. Besseler: Die Musik des Mittelalters und der Renaissance (Potsdam,
1931)
T.W. Adorno: ‘Zur gesellschaftlichen Lage der Musik’, Zeitschrift für
Sozialforschung, i (1932), 103–24, 356–78
P. Hindemith: ‘Betrachtungen zur heutigen Musik’ (1940), Aufsätze,
Vorträge, Reden, ed. G. Schubert (Zürich, 1994), 131–76
A. Schoenberg: ‘New Music, Outmoded Music’, Style and Idea, ed. D.
Newlin (New York, 1950, enlarged 2/1975 by L. Stein), 113–24
P. Hindemith: A Composer’s World (Cambridge, MA, 1952)
H. Besseler: Das mujsikalische Hören der Neuzeit (Berlin, 1959); repr. in
Aufsätze zur Musikästhetik und Musikgeschichte, ed. P. Gülke
(Leipzig, 1978), 104–73
T.W. Adorno: ‘Ad vocem Hindemith’, Impromptus (Frankfurt, 1968,
3/1970), 51–87
S. Hinton: ‘Gebrauchsmusik’ (1988), HMT; repr. in Terminologie der Musik
im 20. Jahrhundert, ed. H.H. Eggebrecht, i (Wiesbaden, 1995), 164–
74
S. Hinton: The Idea of Gebrauchsmusik (New York, 1989)

Gebrüder Späth.
See Freiburger Orgelbau.

Gebunden (i)
(Ger.: ‘fretted’).
In a Clavichord said to be fretted (gebunden) each string can be struck by
more than one tangent. Thus each string produces several different
pitches, depending on its point of contact with the tangent. See also Fret.

Gebunden (ii)
(Ger.).
See Legato.
Gebundener Stil
(Ger.).
A term used to describe 17th- and early 18th-century compositions written
in a strict contrapuntal style, such as fugues, ricercares and chorale-
preludes.

See also Strict counterpoint.

Geck, Martin
(b Witten, Ruhr, 19 March 1936). German musicologist. From 1955 he
studied musicology, philosophy and Protestant theology at the universities
of Münster and Kiel and the Free University of Berlin, where his teachers
included Dräger, Friedrich Blume and Wiora. He took the doctorate at Kiel
in 1962 with a dissertation on the vocal music of Buxtehude and the early
Pietists. After a period as consultant to Kiel University on Schleswig-
Holstein customs (1961–2), he became an editor of the Wagner collected
edition in Munich (1966–70). Since then he has been adviser in music
education to the publishing house of Ernst Klett in Stuttgart, for whom he
edits the Curriculum Musik. In 1975 he completed his Habilitation in
Dortmund and the following year became professor of musicology at the
city's university. He has worked on German music history of the 16th–19th
centuries, with particular reference to Buxtehude, Bach, Beethoven,
Mendelssohn and Wagner. In his work he seeks to replace traditional
methodologies used in historiology with a more modern, critical approach.
In 1996 he was made director of the Dortmunder Bach-Symposium.
WRITINGS
Die Vokalmusik Dietrich Buxtehudes und der frühe Pietismus (diss., U. of
Kiel, 1962; Kassel, 1965)
Die Wiederentdeckung der Matthäuspassion im 19. Jahrhundert
(Regensburg, 1967)
Nicolaus Bruhns: Leben und Werk (Cologne, 1968)
Die Bildnisse Richard Wagners (Munich, 1970)
‘Max Bruchs Oratorium “Gustav Adolf”: ein Denkmal des Kultur-
Protestantismus’, AMw, xxviii (1970), 138–49
ed., with E. Voss: Dokumente zur Entstehung und ersten Aufführung des
Bühnenweihfestspiels Parsifal, Richard Wagner: Sämtliche Werke, xxx
(Mainz, 1970)
Deutsche Oratorien 1800 bis 1840: Verzeichnis der Quellen und
Aufführungen (Wilhelmshaven, 1971)
Musiktherapie als Problem der Gesellschaft (Stuttgart, 1973; Swed. trans.,
1977, Dan. trans., 1978)
with R. Frisius and G. Küntzel: Sequenzen: Unterrichtswerk in Musik,
Schülerbuch und Lehrerband (Stuttgart, 1976)
‘Das Neue in der Musik um 1600 als Spiegel gesellschaftlichen Wandels’,
Beiträge zur historischen Sozialkunde, lxxxiv (1984), 48–58
E. Voss and J. Deathridge: Thematisches Verzeichnis der Werke Richard
Wagners (Mainz, 1985)
P. Schleuning: “Geschrieben auf Bonaparte”: Beethovens “Eroica”:
Revolution, Reaktion, Rezeption (Reinbek, 1989)
J.S. Bachs Johannespassion (Munich, 1991)
Johann Sebastian Bach (Reinbek, 1993; Jap. trans., 1995, Vietnamese
trans., 1996)
Von Beethoven bis Mahler: die Musik des deutschen Idealimus (Stuttgart,
1993/R)
‘V. Symphonie in C-Moll, op.67’, Die 9 Symphonien Beethovens, ed. R.
Ulm (Kassel, 1994)
‘Architektonische, psychologische oder rhetorische Form? Franz Liszts
Klaviersonate h-moll’, Festschrift Klaus Hortschansky, ed. A. Beer and
L. Lutteken (Tutzing, 1995), 425–33
‘Humor und Melancholie als kategoriale Bestimmungen der “absoluten”
Musik’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte: eine Festschrift für Ludwig
Finscher, ed. A. Laubenthal and K. Kusan-Windweh (Kassel, 1995),
309–16
Ludwig van Beethoven (Reinbek, 1996)
‘Zur Philosphie von Beethovens Grosser Fuge’, Festschrift Walter Wiora
zum 90. Geburtstag, ed. C.-H. Mahling and R. Seiberts (Tutzing,
1997), 123–32
Die Geburtsstunde des ‘Mythos Bach’: Mendelssohns Weiderentdeckung
der Matthäuspassion (Wiesbaden, 1998)
‘Denn alles findet bei Bach statt’: Erforschtes und Erfahrenes (Stuttgart,
1999)
J.S. Bach: das Leben, das Werk (Reinbek, 2000)
‘Via Beethoven & Schönberg: Adorno's Bach-Verständnis’, Adorno und die
Musik (Frankfurt, forthcoming)
EDITIONS
with F. Stein: Nicolaus Bruhns: Orgelwerke (Frankfurt, 1968)
with O. Drechsler: C. Bernhard: Geistliche Harmonien, EDM, 1st ser., lxv
(1972)
with E. Voss: R. Wagner: Parsifal I, Sämtliche Werke, xiv/1 (Mainz, 1972)
HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT/MATTHIAS BRZOSKA

Gedackt
(Ger.).
See under Organ stop.

Gédalge, André
(b Paris, 27 Dec 1856; d Chessy, 5 Feb 1926). French composer and
teacher. He began a career as a bookseller and entered the Paris
Conservatoire when he was 28. There he studied composition with
Guiraud, won the second Prix de Rome (1885) and remained as an
assistant to Guiraud and Massenet. He published a monumental Traité de
la fugue (Paris, 1901; Eng. trans., 1964), which remains unsurpassed, and
in 1905 he was appointed professor of counterpoint and fugue at the
 Conservatoire. An excellent and highly respected teacher, he taught many
of the leading French composers from Schmitt and Ravel to Milhaud and
Honegger. His appointment in 1906 as inspector of provincial
conservatories brought him into contact with musical education at a lower
level, and these experiences produced his L’enseignement de la musique
par l’éducation méthodique de l’oreille (Paris, 1920). In his music he
followed the tradition of Saint-Saëns and Lalo, remaining uninfluenced by
the developments of impressionism; his attitude to these is well expressed
in the inscription to his Third Symphony (1910): ‘sans littérature ni
peinture’. His works show, as might be expected, a comprehensive
command of counterpoint, but he was also a masterly orchestrator.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Pris au piège (opéra bouffe, 1, M. Carré, after La Fontaine), Paris, Opéra-
Comique, 1890; Le petit savoyard (pantomime, 4, Carré), Paris, 1891; Hélène
(drame lyrique, 2 scenes), 1893; La farce du cadi (3, Rémond, Loiseau), 1897;
Phoebé (ballet, 1, G. Berr), Paris, 1900
Orch: Sym. no.1, D, 1893; Pf Conc., op.16 (1899); Sym. no.2, c, 1902, reorchd
1912; Sym. no.3, F, 1910; Sym. no.4, A, inc.
Chbr: Str Qt, B, 1892; 2 vn sonatas, G, op.12 (1897), a, op.19 (1900)
Pf: 4 préludes et fugues, op.2; 4 pièces, op.18, 4 hands; 3 études de concert, op.23
(1903)
Songs: 5 mélodies, op.13; 6 mélodies, op.15 (1898); Dans la forêt, op.22 (M.
Bouchoz) (1902); 7 chansons (R. Burns) (1909); 20 chansons pour les enfants (H.
Renaudin) (1924); Vaux de vire (15th century) (n.d.)

Principal publishers: Dupont, Enoch, Ricordi

BIBLIOGRAPHY
André Gédalge (Paris, 1926) [collection of obituaries]
C. Koechlin: ‘André Gédalge’, ReM, vii/5 (1926), 242–54
M. Ravel, F. Schmitt, A. Honegger and D. Milhaud: ‘Hommages à André
Gédalge’, ReM, vii/5 (1926), 255–9
G. Faure: Silhouettes du Conservatoire: Charles-Marie Widor, André
Gédalge, Max d’Ollone (Paris, 1986)
ALAIN LOUVIER

Gedda [Ustinoff], Nicolai (Harry

Gustaf)
(b Stockholm, 11 July 1925). Swedish tenor. His Russian father was a
member of the Kuban Don Cossack Choir and subsequently choirmaster at
the Russian Orthodox church in Leipzig; his mother, whose maiden name
he adopted professionally, was Swedish. He studied with Carl Martin
Oehman, and at the Swedish Royal Academy of Music in Stockholm. In
1951 he made his début at the Swedish Royal Opera in the première of
Sutermeister’s Der rote Stiefel; in the following year he sang there as
Chapelou in Le postillon de Lonjumeau, to immediate acclaim. He made
his début at La Scala as Don Ottavio in 1953 and at the same theatre
created the Groom in Orff’s Il trionfo di Afrodite. In 1954 he sang Huon in
Oberon at the Paris Opéra, and the next year made his Covent Garden
début as the Duke of Mantua in Rigoletto. He sang regularly for 22
seasons at the Metropolitan from 1957, the year of his American début (at
Pittsburgh as Faust), creating Anatol in Barber’s Vanessa (1958) and
singing Kodana in the first American performance of Menotti’s Le dernier
sauvage (1964). At the 1961 Holland Festival he sang Berlioz’s Cellini, a
role he repeated at Covent Garden in 1966, 1969 and 1976.
A fine linguist, speaking and singing in seven languages, Gedda
commanded the range of vocal and idiomatic style for Cellini, Pfitzner’s
Palestrina, Tchaikovsky’s Hermann, Lohengrin, Faust, Riccardo, Pelléas,
Pinkerton and Nemorino (which he sang at Covent Garden in 1981). He
continued to sing fluently into his 70s. He was also an accomplished
recitalist, his repertory encompassing songs in German, French, Russian
and Swedish. His many recordings include his concert repertory and his
major roles in both opera and operetta, most notably Dmitry, Lensky, Cellini
and Gounod’s Faust, which indicate the plaintive yet virile quality of his
tone and his sure, instinctive understanding of the style needed for different
genres. He published a volume of memoirs, Gåvan är inte gratis [The
present is not free] (Stockholm, 1978).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Storjohann: ‘Nicolai Gedda’, Opera, xvii (1966), 939–44
J.B. Steane: The Grand Tradition (London, 1974/R), 471–3
HAROLD ROSENTHAL/ALAN BLYTH

Geddes, John Maxwell

(b Glasgow, 26 May 1941). Scottish composer. He attended the Royal
Scottish Academy of Music and Drama (1959–62), and later studied in
Copenhagen with Niels Viggo Bentzon (1967). He held various teaching
posts in Glasgow and Edinburgh before being appointed lecturer at Notre
Dame College, Glasgow (1973–9). He then spent a year as associate
professor of music education at Oregon State University (1979–80) before
returning to Glasgow to become director of the music diploma at St
Andrew's College. He has served on the BBC Scottish Music Advisory
panel (1970–75), as chair of the Scottish branch of the Composers' Guild
of Great Britain (1976–8) and on the committees of the Scottish Society of
Composers (1980–84, 1987–91) and the Scottish Arts Council (1984–6).
Geddes's interest in Scottish traditional music informs a number of his
works: Callanish IV (1978) for solo cello combines elements derived from
Gaelic psalm singing with an individual, thoroughly contemporary musical
idiom which replicates in a very different fashion the rhythmic freedom and
bold expressivity characteristic of that ancient tradition. His most
impressive work, however, has been written for orchestral forces. Clarity of
orchestration and tightly-knit musical argument are already hallmarks of his
First Symphony (1974–5) and remain evident in three works of the
following decade which reflect his abiding interest in astronomy – Lacuna
 (1977), Ombre (1984) and Voyager (1985). The last of these, with its
complex, shifting structures, subtle coloration and densely interwoven
textures, was successfully taken up after its Scottish première by
orchestras in Poland, Russia and the USA. More recent works include the
skilfully crafted A Caledonian Pageant, incorporating old Scottish airs, and
his Symphony no.3.
WORKS
Orch: Fiddlers' Folly, str, 1968; Portrait of a City, 1971; Sym. no.1, 1974–5; Lacuna,
1977; The Queen's Brangil, 1977; Ombre, 1984; Voyager, 1985; A Galloway
Bouquet, concert band, 1987; A Young Person's Guide to the Galaxy, str, 1987;
Sym. no.2 ‘in memoriam Bryden Thomson’, 1992; Dances at Threave, 1993; Ob
Conc., 1994; Soundposts, str, 1995; A Castle Suite, 1996; Postlude, str, 1996; A
Caledonian Pageant, 1997; Gui Conc., 1998; Sinfonietta, 3 str orch, 1998; Sym.
no.3, 1998–9
Brass: Four Basilican Pieces, 3 tpt, 1964; Fanfare, brass band, 1966; Fanfare on
EABEH, brass, timps, 1977; Wolf of Badenoch, brass octet, 1978; Dances of the
Scottish Court, brass qnt, 1988; Gallery Fanfare, brass qnt, 1989; Ane Buke o
Courtlie Ayres, brass qnt, 1992; Suite, 3 natural tpt, 1993
Chbr: Variations, fl, pf, 1966; Sonata, ob, pf, 1972; Voila!, 12 va, 1981; Diversion, fl,
ob, cl, hn, gui, vn, va, vc, 1983; Callanish III, fl, gui, 1986; Muzyka kameralna, cl, str
qt, 1988; Dances of the Scottish Court, fl, va, gui, 1990; Sonata, vc, pf, 1990; Trio,
fl, va, gui, 1990; Ane Buke o Courtlie Ayres, 2 gui, 1992; Dances of the Scottish
Court, 2 gui, 1992
Solo inst: 3 Antique Pieces, pf, 1964; Solos, ob/eng hn, 1974; Apt for viola, va,
1976; Callanish IV, vc, 1978; Winter, cl, 1978; Callanish V, gui, 1985; Callanish I, fl,
1986; Callanish II, gui, 1986; Callanish VI, gui, 1993; Grande étude d'execution
transcendante, tpt, 1995; Stars over Carnac, gui, 1997
Vocal: Cantica nova, SATB, org, perc, 1971; My love is like a red, red rose, B-Bar,
orch, 1971; The Three Ravens, T, orch, 1971; Come, Holy Spirit, SATB, pf, perc,
1972; Rune, SATB, orch, 1973; 4 Burns Songs, AT, chbr ens, 1978; 7 Scots Songs,
Mez, pf, 1989; A Burns Collection, Mez, fl, va, gui, 1990; In tempore belli,
SSSSAATTBB, 1991; Lasses, Love and Life, Mez, pf, 1991; 2 Scots Songs, S, str
qt, 1993; Bardsangs, children's vv, pf, 1996; Down in yon bank, S, str qt, 1997
Tape: Altamira, 1974; Coronach, hn, tape, 1974; Night on the Calapooia, 1980; Nite
Shift, 1980; Faustmusik, 1982; Leo, dreaming …, trbn, tape, 1988
6 film scores
KENNY MATHIESON

Gedike [Goedicke], Aleksandr

Fyodorovich
(b Moscow, 20 Feb/4 March 1877; d Moscow, 9 July 1957). Russian
composer and pianist. He studied the piano at the Moscow Conservatory
with Galli, Pabst and Safonov. Although he had no formal training in
composition, he did benefit from advice on music theory from Konyus,
Nikolay M. Ladukhin and Arensky, and was influenced by S.I. Taneyev. He
appeared in Russia and abroad as a concert pianist, and in 1909 he was
appointed professor of piano at the Moscow Conservatory, where from
1919 he took classes in chamber music and organ. His music is notable for
 its use of polyphony, and he was regarded as the guardian of strict
classical traditions in Russian music.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ops: Virineya (5, Gedike), op.25, 1913–15; U perevoza [By the Ferry] (5, Gedike),
op.44, 1933; Zhakeriya (5, Gedike), op.55; Makbet [Macbeth] (5, after W.
Shakespeare), op.76, 1944
Orch: Dramaticheskaya uvertyura, op.7; Pf Conc., op.11, 1900; Sym. no.1, op.15,
1902–3; Sym. no.2, op.16, 1905; Na voyne [At War], 6 improvisations, op.26; Sym.
no.3, op.30, 1922; Org Conc., op.35, 1927; Zarnitsï [Summer Lightning], sym.
poem, op.39; Hn Conc., op.40, 1929; Tpt Conc., op.41, 1930; Uvertyura 1941,
op.68, 1941; 25 let Oktyabrya [25 Years of October], ov., op.72; Vn Conc., op.91,
1951
Chbr: Sonatas, op.10, vn, pf, 1899; Pf Trio, op.14, 1902; Pf Qnt, op.21, 1908
Other: vocal and choral music, pf and org pieces, arrs. of music by Bach for org, pf
and various ens

BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (G. Grigor'yeva)
B. Levik: ‘Tvorchestvo A.F. Gedike’ [The works of Gedike], SovM (1933),
no.4, pp.39–43
B. Levik: Aleksandr Gedike (Moscow, 1947)
L. Royzman: ‘Krupnïy sovetskiy muzïkant’ [An important Soviet musician],
SovM (1952), no.4, pp.108–9
Obituaries, Sovetskaya kul'tura (11 July 1957); SovM (1957), no.9, p.160
A.F. Gedike: Sbornik statey i vospominaniy [Collected articles and
reminiscences] (Moscow, 1960)
GALINA GRIGOR'YEVA

Gedoppelter Accent
(Ger.).
A type of ornament. See Ornaments, §8.

Geehl, Henry (Ernest)

(b London, 28 Sept 1881; d London, 14 Jan 1961). English composer. After
early piano studies in Vienna he was active as a theatre conductor (1902–
8). In 1918 he joined the staff of Trinity College of Music, retiring in 1960.
Arguably his best known composition was the ballad For You Alone,
reputedly the first and possibly the only song Caruso ever sang in English:
although better than most ballads, his many other songs were less popular.
His orchestral pieces, suites and individual movements gained some
popularity, although they display less individuality than the works of his
contemporaries Coates and Haydn Wood. He composed much for brass
band and helped Elgar score his Severn Suite, which Geehl later arranged
as one of his many skilled transcriptions for military band. Of his own
original band compositions Oliver Cromwell (1923), On the Cornish Coast
 (1924), Robin Hood (1936) and Scena sinfonica (1952) were all adopted as
test pieces at the Open or National brass championships between 1923
and 1952; they are evocative, dramatic and technically demanding. His
work is discussed in P.L. Scowcroft: British Light Music: a Personal Gallery
of Twentieth-Century Composers (London, 1997).
WORKS
(selective list)

Concs. for vn and pf

Orch: Fairyland, 1914; From the Samoan Isles, suite, 1922; A Comedy Overture,
1937; Phantom Dance, pizzicato morceau, 1951; Countryside Sketches;
Harlequin's Serenade; Indian Patrol; 'Neath the Desert Stars; Caprice concertante,
pf, str; many short genre pieces
Brass band: Oliver Cromwell, ov, 1923; On the Cornish Coast, 1924; Robin Hood,
1936; Normandy, 1946; Sinfonietta pastorale (1946); In Tudor Days (1947); Scena
sinfonica, 1952; James Hook, suite (1956); Bolero brilliante; Festival Overture; A
Happy Suite; Romanza, trbn, brass band; Thames Valley; Threnody; Variations on
Jenny Jones
Many arrs. and trans, incl. works by Elgar
Pf solo: Poème de printemps, op.11 (1907); Scènes italiennes, 5 morceaux
caractéristiques (1909); [6] Kleine Sonaten, op.53, 1912; 6 Romantic Pieces (1915);
Harlequin and Columbine, miniature suite (1918); 1745, miniature suite (1918); The
Bay of Naples, Italian suite (1920)
Vocal: The Mountains of Allah (E. Teschmacher), song cycle, 6 songs (1913); many
ballads incl. For You Alone (P.J. O'Reilly), 1909
Many partsong arrs., incl. works by Bizet, Brahms, Gounod, Schubert and
Tchaikovsky

PHILIP L. SCOWCROFT

Geeres, John
(d Durham, bur. 4 March 1642). English composer and singer. He was
appointed a lay clerk at King's College, Cambridge, in 1623, the same year
in which he took the Cambridge MusB degree. He appears to have held
this position until 1626, although he is mentioned in the college ‘Mundum’
books as late as 1628. In that year he moved to Durham Cathedral, where
he became a lay clerk. He held this position until his death. Three
undistinguished anthems by him are contained in various 17th-century
Durham Cathedral manuscripts (now in GB-DRc and Lbl). One is an eight-
part verse setting of the collect for St John the Evangelist's Day found also
in autograph copies in Cambridge (Cp). An anonymous five-part setting of
the Compline antiphon In manus tuas for ‘3 Tribles’ (Cp) is in Geeres's
hand and is likely to have been composed by him, possibly for his degree.
He may have been related to Gabriel Geeres, who was a lay clerk at Christ
Church, Oxford, in 1670.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Morehen: The Sources of English Cathedral Music, c.1617–c.1644
(diss., U. of Cambridge, 1969), 160–67
R.T. Daniel and P. Le Huray: The Sources of English Church Music,
1549–1660, EECM, suppl.i (1972)
JOHN MOREHEN

Geerhart.
Composer, possibly identifiable with Derrick Gerarde.

Geerhart [Geerheart], Jan.

See Gerard, Jan.

Geering, Arnold
(b Basle, 14 May 1902; d Vevey, 16 Dec 1982). Swiss musicologist. He
studied musicology under Nef, Handschin and Merian at Basle University
and received the teaching diploma in singing from the Basle Conservatory
in 1925. He took the doctorate with a dissertation on Swiss vocal music
during the Reformation and also studied singing with Alfredo Cairati in
Zürich, after which he sang professionally. He took a teaching position at
the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis (1944–50) and in 1947 he completed his
Habilitation at Basle University with a study of medieval German
polyphony. In 1950 he succeeded Kurth to the chair of musicology at Berne
University. He served as secretary to the IMS (1948–51) and director of the
Schweizerisches Volksliedarchiv (1949–63). He was made professor
emeritus in 1972.
Geering was noted for his studies of the music history and folk music of
Switzerland. His dissertation was both a broad survey of the performance
of vocal music in 16th-century Switzerland and a detailed study of the three
most important Swiss musicians of the period – Bartholomäus Franck,
Johannes Wannenmacher and Cosmas Alder. His Habilitationsschrift was a
significant contribution to the literature of medieval music history, giving for
the first time a detailed description of polyphony in the German-speaking
countries and correcting the prevailing judgment of it as conservative; at
the same time it gave a comprehensive overview of the location of sources.
He earned recognition largely through his work on Senfl and his editions for
the Gesamtausgabe; Geering was also known for his Calvin studies.
WRITINGS
Die Vokalmusik in der Schweiz zur Zeit der Reformation (diss., U. of Basle,
1931; Aarau, 1933)
‘Homer Herpol und Manfred Barbarini Lupus’, Festschrift Karl Nef (Zürich
and Leipzig, 1933), 48–71
‘Textierung und Besetzung in Ludwig Senfls Liedern’, AMf, iv (1939), 1–11
Die Organa und mehrstimmigen Conductus in den Handschriften des
deutschen Sprachgebietes vom 13. bis 16. Jahrhundert
(Habilitationsschrift, U. of Basle, 1947; Berne, 1952)
‘Die Nibelungenmelodie in der Trierer Marienklage’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949,
118–20
‘Vom speziellen Beitrag der Schweiz zur allgemeinen Musikforschung’, Mf,
iii (1950), 97–106
‘Calvin und die Musik’, Calvin-Studien 1959, ed. J. Moltmann (Neukirchen,
1960), 16–25
‘Eine tütsche Musica des figurirten Gesangs 1491’, Festschrift Karl Gustav
Fellerer zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Regensburg,
1962), 178–81
‘Senfl, Ludwig’, MGG1
‘Von den Berner Stadtpfeifern’, Schweizer Beiträge zur Musikwissenschaft,
i (1972), 105–8
‘Georg Friedrich Händels französische Kantate’, Musicae scientiae
collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum siebzigsten
Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Cologne, 1973), 126–40
EDITIONS
ed., with W. Altwegg: Ludwig Senfl: Sämtliche Werke, ii, v–vii: Deutsche
Lieder zu vier bis sechs Stimmen (Wolfenbüttel, 1938–61/partial R)
[vols. ii and iv = EDM, 1st ser., vols. x and xv]; vii: Instrumental-
Carmina … Lieder in Bearbeitungen (Wolfenbüttel, 1960)
with H. Trümpy: Das Liederbuch des Johannes Heer von Glarus, SMd, v
(1967)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Ravizza, ed.: Festschrift Arnold Geering zum 70. Geburtstag (Berne,
1972) [incl. complete list of writings]
VICTOR RAVIZZA

Geertsom, Jan van

(fl Rotterdam, mid-17th century). Dutch musician and publisher. He may be
related to Géry Ghersem, maître de chapelle to Philip II in Spain at the
beginning of the 17th century. Archives at Rotterdam show that Geertsom
rented a house there from 1665 to 1669; his publications of 1656–7 give
his address as ‘Rotterdam, in de Meulesteegh’. Four music collections,
published between 1656 and 1661, are known. The composers
represented are all Italian, including many active in Rome: Abbatini,
Carissimi, Stefano Fabri (ii), Gratiani, Marcorelli (= Marco Aurelli) and
Tarditi. The volume Scelta di motetti, for example, contains (with one
exception) motets by composers who held positions at various churches in
Rome. Geertsom appears to have had business connections with the firm
of Phalèse in Antwerp. Not only does his music type bear a distinct
resemblance to that of Phalèse, but also ‘Mr Jan Gersem’ is listed in a
1655 inventory of the Phalèse firm as owing 27 guilders.
PUBLICATIONS
all published in Rotterdam

Canzonette amorose, libro I, 1–3vv, hpd/spinet/theorbo/other inst, raccolta

da Gio. van Geertsom, con una serenata a 3 di Marco Aurelli (1656)
 Scelta di motetti raccolti da Gio. van Geertsom, 2–3vv, bc
(org/hpd/spinet/other inst) (1656)

F. de Silvestri: Alias cantiones sacras … 3vv, bc (org) (1657)

XIV motetta … sive bicinia sacra, 2vv, bc (1661)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
GoovaertsH
MGG1 (A. Smijers)
Vander StraetenMPB, ii
SUSAN BAIN

Gefors, Hans (Gustaf)

(b Stockholm, 8 Dec 1952). Swedish composer and teacher. He first wrote
rock music in the style of Bob Dylan, before studying composition privately
with M. Karkoff. He then abandoned the Royal College of Music in
Stockholm and took the diploma in composition with Nørgård in Århus in
1977. Between 1975 and 1981 he lived in Helsingborg and taught at
Holstebro Community College in Denmark, after which he worked (1981–8)
in Copenhagen as a composer, music critic and the editor of Dansk
Musiktidsskrift. In 1988 he was appointed professor of composition at the
College of Music in Malmö. Since 1993 he has been a member of the
Board of the Swedish National Council for Cultural Affairs.
As a composer he has been most successful as a musical dramatist,
creating works in a broadly tonal idiom which have melody as the
supporting foundation. His made a successful début on a large scale with
his opera Christina, staged at the Stockholm Opera in 1986; the work was
also broadcast on television and performed at the Mai-Festspiele in
Wiesbaden in 1988. His second large opera, Parken, for which he wrote
the libretto, after Botho Strauss’s play Der Park, was also a great success
at the Mai-Festspiele in 1992. The subject matter, a midsummer
celebration in which the rootlessness of the present meets ancient magic,
provided an opportunity for refined stylistic allusions.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ops: Ur hav av rök [From Sea of Smoke] (G. Ekelöf), 1972; Poeten och
glasmästaren [The Poet and the Glazier] (chbr op, L. Forssell and C. Baudelaire),
1979; Me moriré en Paris (music theatre, Vallejo), 1979; Christina (2, Gefors and
Forssell), 1983–6; Parken [The Park] (3, Gefors, after B. Strauss: Der Park), 1986–
91; Vargen kommer [The Wolf is Coming] (3, Klein-Perski and Gefors), 1994–6;
Clara (2, J.-C. Carrière), 1997–8
Other vocal: 4 visor [4 Ballads], 1v, pf, 1969, rev. 1972; Sånger om förtröstan
[Songs about Confidence] (G. Tunström), 1v, gui, 1972; Sånger om glädje [Songs
about Joy] (P. Lagerkvist), (1v, pf)/(1v, cl/a fl, vc, pf), 1973, rev. 1993; Reveille
(Ekelöf), Mez, vc, pf, elec org, perc, 1974–5; En gång skall du vara en av dem som
levat för längesen [Once you will be one of them who lived a long time ago]
(Lagerkvist), S, fl, cl, vn, vc, gui, 1977; Sjöbergsånger, 1v, pf/gui, 1978; Profvet [The
Text] (W. von Braun), S, wind qnt, 1979; Kära jord och andra sånger [Dear Earth
and Other Songs] (E. Diktonius, G. Björling, E. Södergran), 1v, pf, 1981, rev. 1984;
L’invitation au voyage (Baudelaire), S, vn, gui, 1981; Flickan och den gamle [The
Girl and the Old Man] (Alexandre), S, Bar, fl, cl, vn, vc, gui, pf, perc, 1982–3;
Whales weep not (D.H. Lawrence), SATB, 1987; Total okay (Strauss), S, vn,
org/synth, 1992; Paradisfragment (P. Damiani), SATB, 1993
Orch: Tidlossning [Timebreak], mar, 14 wind, 1975; Vandring i skogen [Wandering in
the Forest], small orch, 1978; Musik: no.1 ‘Slits’, 1981, no.2 ‘Christina-scener’
(Forssell), 3vv, orch, 1986, no.3 ‘Twine’, 1988, no.4 ‘Die Erscheinung im Park’,
1990, no.5 ‘Det himmelska biet med gyllene gadd’ [The Celestial Bee with the
Golden Sting], sinfonietta, conc. for 5 perc, 1993, no.6 ‘Lydias sånger’ (H.
Söderberg, H. Heine, J.P. Jacobsen and others), Mez, orch, 1995–6; Snurra [Top],
wind ens, 1994
Chbr and solo inst: Aprahishtita, vc, pf, tape, 1970–72; Through Mirrors of Harmony,
pf, 1973; La boîte chinoise, gui, 1975; Krigets eko (Sonido de la guerra) [The Echo
of War], perc, 1975; Tjurens död (Muerto del toro) [The Death of the Bull], vc, 1983;
One, Two, pf, 1983; Möte med Per i parken [Meeting with Per in the Park], str qt,
1992; Ett jagande efter vind [A Hunting for the Wind], org, 1994
El-ac: Galjonsfiguren [The Figure Head], tape music for dance, 1982–3; Skapelsen
2 [The Creations 2] (E. Beckman), text-sound composition, 1985, rev. 1987

Principal publisher: Nordiska musikförlaget/Warner; Swedish Music Information Centre

WRITINGS
‘Att komma till tals med Adorno’, Nutida musik, xxxi/6 (1987–8), 3–13 [in
conversation with O. Billgren and H. Engdahl]
‘Reflektioner kring verklig närvaro’, Artes, xix/4 (1993), 68–78
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Fabian: ‘Hans Gefors: ein Gespräch mit dem Komponisten der Oper
Christina’, OW, xxvii/12 (1986), 12–14
G. Petersén: ‘Jag hade sån lust att skriva stor opera’, Operan (1987), no.2,
pp.20–31
C. Lundberg: ‘Hellre förhäxa än forska’, Nutida musik, xxxiv/1 (1991), 4–9
S. Levin: ‘Vargen kommer’, Nutida musik, xl/2–3 (1996), 72–81
ROLF HAGLUND

Gegenbewegung
(Ger.).
Contrary motion. See Part-writing.

Gegenfuge
(Ger.).
See Counter-fugue. See also Inversion.
 Gehlhaar, Rolf (Rainer)
(b Breslau [now Wrocław, Poland], 30 Dec 1943). American composer. The
son of a German rocket scientist, he emigrated to the USA in 1953, took
American citizenship in 1958, and studied philosophy at Yale University
(BA 1965) and music at University of California, Berkeley (1965–7). He
then moved to Cologne to become Karlheinz Stockhausen’s assistant and
a member of his ensemble (1967–70). He was a co-founder (in 1969) of
the Feedback Studio Verlag, Cologne, a performance centre and later
publishing company (1971) devoted to new music. He has lectured at the
Ferienkurse für Internationale Neue Musik, Darmstadt (1974, 1976), and at
Dartington College of Arts, England (1976–7), and was a founding member
of the Electro-Acoustic Music Association of Great Britain (1979). He has
also carried out research at IRCAM, which culminated in the first digital
reproductions of ‘three-dimensional’ sounds (1981). He has received
several European awards. Gehlhaar’s mature works (such as Tokamak)
reveal an increasing interest in ‘structural polyphony’. He has worked
equally in acoustic and electro-acoustic music, and since 1979 has used a
computer to determine all compositional elements. He employs a wide
harmonic spectrum including conventional tonality, microtones, and ‘noise’.
Since 1985 he has concentrated on the development and implementation
of an interactive computer-controlled music environment called
Sound=Space, originally developed as a permanent installation for the
National Museum of Science, La Villette, in Paris. This large installation
has become a major focus for many different aspects of his work: a
resource for the design and development of algorithms for real-time
computer-aided composition, as a new instrument for performance of his
own live electronic compositions, as a musical environment for dancers
and as a musical play/therapy environment for special needs groups. He
has established two Sound=Space centres, one in Edinburgh and the other
at Musicworks London (Brixton) where workshops in music and movement
for special needs groups are carried out on a regular basis.
WORKS
Orch and vocal: Phase, orch, 1972; Prototypen, 4 orch groups, 1973; Liebeslied (D.
Mellor), A, orch, 1974; Resonanzen, 8 orch groups, 1976; Isotrope (Gehlhaar),
mixed chorus, 1977; Lamina, trbn, orch, 1977; Tokamak, pf, orch, 1982
Chbr and solo inst: Cello Solo, vc, 1966; Klavierstück 1–1, 1967; Beckenstück, 6
amp cymbals, 1969; Klavierstück 2–2, 2 pf, 1970; Wege, 2 amp str, amp pf, 1971;
Musi-Ken, str qt, 1972; Spektra, 4 tpt, 4 trbn, 1971; Solipse, vc, tape delay, 1974;
Rondell, trbn, tape delay, 1975; Camera oscura, brass qnt, 1978; Linear A, mar,
1978; Polymorph, b cl, tape delay, 1978; Strangeness, Charm and Colour, pf, 3
brass, 1978; Pixels, 8 wind, 1981; Naïri, amp vn/va, 1983; Infra, 10 amp insts, 1985;
Origo, 5 amp insts, 1987; Suite for Pf, 1990; Chronik, 2 pf, 2 perc + elecs, 1991;
Grand Unified Theory of Everything, fl, b cl, pf, 1992; Angaghoutiun, pf qt, 1994;
Amor, fl, 1994; Quantum Leap, pf, 1994; 8 others incl. 2 pf pieces
El-ac: 5 German Dances, 4-track tape, 1975; Particles, chamber ens, elec, 1978;
Sub Rosa, 4-track tape, 1980; Worldline, 4 solo vv, elec, 1980; Pas à pas … Music
for Ears in Motion, 4 insts, elec, 1981; Sound=Space, 1985 [interactive musical
environment], Eichung-Singularity, 3 insts in a Sound=Space, 1987; Head Pieces, 2
heads in a Sound=Space, 1988 [written to be performable by 2 quadruplegics];
Diagonal Flying, pf, elecs, 1989; Strange Attractor, computer controlled pf, 1991;
Cusps, Swallowtails and Butterflies, amp perc, tape, 1 perf. in a Sound=Space,
1992

MSS and tapes in US-NYamc

Principal publisher: Feedback Studio

BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Ritzel: ‘Musik für ein Haus’, Darmstädter Beiträge zur Neuen Musik, ed.
E. Thomas (Mainz, 1968)
C.-H. Bachmann: ‘Die gespielte Mitbestimmung: Komponierte “Orchester-
Werkstätten”’, SMz, cxviii (1978), 20–6
B. Schiffer: ‘Rolf Gehlhaar: Strangeness, Charm and Colour’, SMz, cxviii
(1978), 379–80
D. Bosseur and J.-Y. Bosseur: Revolutions musicales (Paris, 1979)
R. Gehlhaar: ‘Sound=Space: an Interactive Musical Environment’, CMR, vi
(1992), 59–72
STEPHEN MONTAGUE

Gehot, Joseph
(b Brussels, 8 April 1756; d USA, after 1795). Flemish violinist, composer
and teacher, active in England and the USA. At the age of 11 he was
presented to Prince Charles of Lorraine, then staying in Brussels. He was
entrusted to the care of Pierre van Maldere, whose early death did not,
however, interrupt his apprenticeship; he continued to be supported by
Charles of Lorraine until 1780. Gehot seems to have had the job of helping
to organize the soirées held at Mariemont, the governor's hunting lodge.
According to Fétis, he soon began doing concert tours in Germany and
France. The only evidence of his success is the interest taken by
publishers in his early works, some of which were printed by more than one
publisher. His early tours in England in 1780 were also successful. Gehot
seems to have benefited from the protection of the Duke of Pembroke, to
whom he dedicated the London edition of his early works. As his reputation
grew his works were published in Berlin, as well as London, and his
theoretical and practical treatises on the violin, harmony, counterpoint and
figured bass were also published.
Gehot played at the Professional Concert and taught the violin at the
Opera House, Hanover Square. In the summer of 1792, together with
James Hewitt, B. Bergman, William Young and Phillips, Gehot decided to
leave London for the United States. The arrival of these musicians caused
a great stir in New York, and Gehot scored a veritable triumph at an
opening concert on 21 September 1792 with his Overture in twelve
movements, expressive of a voyage from England to America (now lost),
evoking his ocean crossing. With some associates, Gehot launched into a
series of concerts but they proved a commercial failure. Taken on by
Alexander Reinagle and Thomas Wignell, Gehot left for Philadelphia. There
 he became a first violinist at the New Theatre from its opening in 1793.
After that there is no trace of him and he died, according to John Parker, ‘in
obscurity and indigent circumstances’.
WORKS
vocal

Stage (all perf. London): 2 songs in Shield: The Cobbler of Castlebury (op), CG, 1779; The
Maid's Last Shift, or Any Rather than Fail (burletta), Royal Circus, 1787; The Enraged
Musician, Royal Grove, 1789; The Marriage by Stratagem, or The Musical Amateur,
Royal Grove, 1789; The Royal Naval Review at Plymouth, Royal Grove, 1789; She
Would Be a Soldier, Royal Grove, 1789Other vocal: The Reconsaliation (1v, pf)/fl/vn, in
Young's Vocal and Instrumental Musical Miscellany, i (Philadelphia, 1793)

instrumental
all printed works published in London

6 str qts, op.1 (1777); 6 Trios, vn, va, vc, op.2 (?1780); 6 Easy Duettos, vn, vc, op.3
(?1780); 24 Military Pieces, 2 cl, 2 hn, bn, op.4 (?1780); 6 Trios, 2 vn, vc, op.5
(1781); 6 Duettos, 2 vn, op.6 (n.d.); 6 str qts, op.7 (?1788); 6 Duetts, vn, vc, op.9 (?
1790); 6 Duetts, vn, tenor (?1790); 5 str qts, D-Mbs; Aria, with 30 variations, in A
Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Music (1784); others, lost, incl. Ov. in 12
movts., vn concs.

theoretical works
A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Music together with Scales of Every
Musical Instrument (London, 1784) [incl. aria with 30 variations, vn, bc]
The Art of Bowing the Violin (London, c1790)
Complete Instructions for Every Musical Instrument (London, c1790)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
J.R. Parker: ‘Musical Reminiscences: Gehot’, The Euterpeiad, ii (1821–2),
178
O.G.T. Sonneck: Early Concert-Life in America (1731–1800) (Leipzig,
1907/R)
M. Stockhem: ‘Joseph Gehot (1756–1820): un musicien et virtuose
bruxellois à l'époque de Mozart’, Bulletin de la société liégeoise de
musicologie, no.81 (1993), 11–18
PHILIPPE VENDRIX

Gehrmans.
Swedish firm of music publishers. Carl Gehrman founded the firm in
Stockholm in 1893; in 1930 it was sold to Einar Rosenborg, who made it a
joint-stock company with himself as main owner and managing director,
and in 1950 Inge and Einar Rosenborg’s Foundation for Swedish Music
took over ownership. Lennart Bagger-Sjöbäck was managing director from
1953 to 1975, when he was succeeded by Kettil Skarby. At first the firm
concentrated on popular music, although the standard repertory and
Swedish art music were also published. Under Rosenborg’s leadership the
firm’s activities expanded and a comprehensive catalogue of orchestral
music was initiated. With the acquisition of Hirsch’s Förlag (founded in
1837) in 1943 the art music catalogue was enlarged; it now includes four
series of choral music for various voice combinations, chamber and
instrumental music. The firm continues to publish popular music, and since
the 1950s educational music (e.g. tutors for the recorder, piano, violin,
trumpet, clarinet, flute and various ensembles, as well as booklets for
compulsory school music education) has been stressed. The main focus of
publication during the 1980s and 90s has been on church music, both
choral and organ works. Orchestral works, chamber music and solo pieces
by composers such as Wilhelm Stenhammar, Hugo Alfvén, Lars-Erik
Larsson and Daniel Börtz reflect different epochs of Swedish music
published by Gehrmans.
KETTIL SKARBY

Geib.
German family of organ builders, piano makers, instrument dealers and
music publishers. One branch of the family worked first in England and
later in the USA. Johann Georg Geib (i) (b Staudernheim an der Nahe, 9
Sept 1739; d Frankenthal, 16 April 1818) established his own business
around 1760 in St Johann, near Saarbrücken. In 1790 the business was
transferred to Frankenthal, and from about 1786 his son Johann Georg (ii)
worked in partnership with him. Geib’s work was typical of the Middle Rhine
school of organ building. Of the 16 instruments that can be attributed to
him only six survive: the best-preserved is in the Protestant parish church
in Lambrecht.
Johann Georg Geib (ii) (b Saarbrücken, 14 June 1772; d Frankenthal, 5
March 1849) ran the family business after his father’s death, first on his
own and then jointly with Josef Littig. Only about nine of his organs can be
traced; his work did not attain the same quality as his father’s, and the firm
ceased after his death.
Ludwig [Louis] Geib (b Piestorf, 7 Nov 1759; d Schiltigheim, nr Strasbourg,
26 Feb 1827), the nephew of Johann Georg Geib (i), worked in Montbéliard
in France and in Alsace. He is believed to have built about eight organs, as
well as some restorations.
John [Johann] Geib (b Staudernheim, 27 Feb 1744; d Newark, NJ, 30 Oct
1818), the brother of Johann Georg Geib (i), migrated to London, where he
claimed to be the first to make ‘organized pianos’. His factory finished eight
to ten pianos every week, and in all he made about 5400 pianos, as well as
church and chamber organs. He is known to have made pianos for the
dealers Longman and Broderip. A Geib case (housing a modern organ)
survives at St Mary’s, Stafford. In 1786 he patented a double action (patent
no. 1571) for the square piano (which in a modified form eventually
superseded the single action in England and is sometimes described as
the grasshopper action), with a buff stop along the treble to facilitate tuning
(see Pianoforte, §1, 4, esp. fig.11). His 1792 patent (no. 1866) enabled
players to combine two keyboard instruments by means of two-manual
mechanism. On 11 February 1792 he received British denizenship.
On 24 July 1797 Geib sailed with his wife and seven children to New York.
In the Argus: Greenleaf’s New Daily Advertiser for 27 December 1798 he
advertised an organ built for the German Lutheran Church in New York. In
this work he had been joined by his twin sons, John (1780–1821) and
Adam (1780–1849). By 1800 the firm was known as John Geib & Co., and
Geib became a leading figure in American organ building of this period. His
instruments could be found in New York, Providence, Rhode Island, Salem,
Massachusetts, Bethlehem, Pennsylvannia, and Baltimore. In the American
Spectator for 19 March 1800 the firm advertised their organ for Christ
Church, New York, and listed their instruments:
Church Organs, to any value above a thousand dols.;
Chamber Organs, also; Church and Chamber Organs, to play
with barrels and fingers, which will be very convenient and
can be used by persons who have no knowledge of music;
Organized Piano Fortes; Grand and Patent small Piano
Fortes; Common Action ditto [i.e. single action]; Pedal Harps,
etc.
From c1804 until c1814 the firm was known as John Geib & Son (this
probably refers to the elder of the twins, John Geib jr) and from 1814 their
activities included music publishing. The elder John Geib seems to have
retired by 1816, and there is no evidence of organ-building activity after this
time. Adam Geib joined his twin in the business: they had a piano
warehouse at 23 Maiden Lane, New York, where Adam also taught. In
1818, the year of their father’s death, a third brother, William (1793–1860),
joined the firm, which then became J.A. & W. Geib. Square pianos with this
inscription survive, as do instruments marked A. & W. Geib, presumably
dating from 1821, when John died. In 1828 William left the business to
study medicine, and Adam managed it alone until the following year, when
he formed a partnership with his son-in-law Daniel Walker. By this time the
firm’s activities were devoted largely to publishing, in which they shared
engraved plates with the Ditson firm in Boston. In 1843 Walker left the
company, and in 1844 Adam’s son, William, joined it. Adam retired in 1847.
Between 1849 and 1858 the firm’s affairs were increasingly supervised by
S.T. Gordon, of Hartford, but William Geib remained with the firm and is
listed as a piano and music dealer in New York directories until 1872.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ClinkscaleMP
Dichter-ShapiroSM
A.C. Gildersleeve: John Geib and his Seven Children (Far Rockaway, NY,
1945)
J.E. Mangler: ‘Some Letters from Mr. John Geib of New York’, The
Tracker, ii/2 (1957–8), 2ff
R. Wolfe: Secular Music in America, 1801–1825: a Bibliography (New York,
1964)
P. Meyer-Siat: ‘Louis Geib, facteur d’orgues’, Pays d’Alsace, lxv (1969),
17–21
O. Ochse: The History of the Organ in the United States (Bloomington, IN,
and London, 1975)
B.H. Bonkhoff: ‘Die Orgelbauerfamile Geib und ihr Werk’, Der Turmhahn,
i/2 (1977)
200 Jahre Geib-Orgel Lambrecht: Festschrift zur feierlichen
Wiederindienststellung der restaurierten historischen Geib-Orgel
(Lambrecht, 1977) [incl. articles by G. Kaleschke and H. Klotz]
J. Ogasapian: Organ Building in New York City 1700–1900 (Braintree, MA,
1977)
J. Ogasapian: ‘New Data on John Geib’, The Tracker, xxiii/4 (1979), 12–14
MARGARET CRANMER, BARBARA OWEN, W. THOMAS MARROCCO,
MARK JACOBS, G. KALESCHKE

Geige
(Ger.). Violin or ‘fiddle’.
In the Middle Ages the term Geige, used without qualification, might refer to
any bowed string instrument. By about 1500, and perhaps a decade or two
before, the term came to be associated with newly emerging types of
instruments. By the mid-16th century a distinction was made between the
grosse Geigen (viole da gamba, that is, the viol family), and the kleine
Geigen (viole da braccio, the violin family). In 1619, Praetorius used
Geigen to mean members of the violin family (he used Violen to mean
viols); he distinguished the violin as the treble member of the violin family
by the term Discant-Geig (‘treble violin’) – or, more exactly, by rechte
Discant-Geig (‘treble violin proper’). The latter term established the
meaning precisely in a terminology where Discant-Geig might refer not only
to the violin proper but also, used loosely, to a small ‘violin’ (kleine Discant-
Geig), tuned a 4th higher than the normal violin; it might even be used for a
still smaller ‘violin’ with three strings (rather than four), tuned g'-d''-a'' – that
is, an octave higher than the lower three strings of the regular violin.
According to Praetorius, the term Fiddel was used as the equivalent of
Geige among the ‘common people’.
DAVID D. BOYDEN

Geigen
(Ger.).
See under Organ stop.

Geigenharz
(Ger.).
See Rosin.

Geigenwerk.
Name (Geigenwerck) given by Hans Haiden to an instrument of his own
invention, probably the most successful and certainly the most influential of
all bowed keyboard instruments. Haiden produced a working example of
his instrument by 1575 and an improved version in 1599, for which he
received an imperial privilege in 1601. He described this version in a
pamphlet, Musicale instrumentum reformatum (Nuremberg, n.d., and 1610;
Lat. trans. 1605). His account in the latter was quoted in full by Praetorius
(1618), who also provided the only surviving picture of the instrument,
which resembled a rather bulky harpsichord (see illustration). At various
times Haiden used gut or wire strings, with parchment-covered wire strings
in the bass. The bowing action was provided by five parchment-covered
wheels against which the individual strings (one for each note) could be
drawn by the action of the keyboard. These wheels were turned by means
of a treadle. Haiden claimed that the instrument was capable of producing
all shades of loudness, of sustaining notes indefinitely, and of producing
vibrato. The principle of a string instrument bowed with a rosined wheel
and played with a keyboard is used in the hurdy-gurdy, known throughout
Europe since the 12th century. Diaries of Leonardo da Vinci show that he
also applied his ingenuity to producing various devices employing bowed
strings. Vincenzo Bolcione in Florence produced an instrument in 1608
which played a ‘consort of viols’ (Davari, 40); this was probably also a
Geigenwerk. An instrument made in Spain in the first half of the 17th
century, and apparently based on Haiden’s writings, is in the Instrument
Museum of the Brussels Conservatory. As late as the second decade of the
18th century, there was a Geigenwerk in the Medici Collection in Florence,
made by David Haiden, Hans’s son, and another at Dresden was examined
by J.G. Schröter. (see Haidenfamily, (2) and (4).) Several other inventors
also modelled bowed keyboard instruments on Haiden’s Geigenwerk (see
Sostenente piano, §1).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PraetoriusSM, ii, 67–72
PraetoriusTI, pl.iii
G. Kinsky: ‘Hans Haiden: der Erfinder der Nürnbergischen Geigenwerks’,
ZMw, vi (1923–4), 193–214
F.J. de Hen: ‘The Truchado Instrument: a Geigenwerk?’, Keyboard
Instruments, ed. E.M. Ripin (Edinburgh, 1971, 2/1977), 17–26
S. Davari: ‘Notizie di fabbricatori d’organi e d’altri instrumenti’, Atti e
Memorie [Accademia Virgiliana di Mantova] new ser., xliii (1975), 29–
47
S. Marcuse: A Survey of Musical Instruments (London, 1975), 308ff
E. Winternitz: Leonardo as a Musician (New Haven, CT, 1982)
C.W. Simons: The History of Mechanically Bowed Keyboard Instruments
With a Description of Extant Examples (diss., U. of Iowa, 1996)

For further bibliography, see Sostenente piano

EDWIN M. RIPIN/DENZIL WRAIGHT

Geijer, Erik Gustaf

 (b Ransäter, 12 Jan 1783; d Stockholm, 23 April 1847). Swedish historian,
poet and composer. He studied at the University of Uppsala from 1799 to
1806. In 1810 he became a reader in history at the university; he was
professor there from 1817 to 1846. One of the most remarkable figures in
19th-century Sweden, he exercised a profound influence on philosophy
and theology through his writings; as a member of the Riksdag he was an
ardent supporter of liberalism.
Though not a professional musician, he achieved a high standard as a
composer of chamber music, vocal quartets and solo songs. He and his
friends in Uppsala cultivated a lively interest in old Swedish folksongs, and
together with A.A. Afzelius he published the important collection Svenska
folkvisor (1814–16; Ger. trans., abridged, Leipzig 1857). They also played
the music of the Classical composers and discussed the ideas of
Romanticism as they applied to music. Geijer’s songs, which reveal a rich
variety of styles and forms, offer many examples of his work as both a poet
and a composer; they were well known in Sweden throughout the 19th
century. His instrumental works, undeservedly, received less attention. In
many details they reveal not only his intimate knowledge of the music of
the Classical composers, above all Mozart and Beethoven, but also the
influence of his contemporaries Weber, Mendelssohn and Schumann. They
are remarkably modern in their feeling for instrumental and harmonic
sonority.
WORKS
Pf qnt, f, 1823; pf qt, e (Stockholm, 1825); pf trio, A , 1827
2 str qts: no.1, F; no.2, B , 1846
2 sonatas, vn, pf: no.1, g, 1819; no.2, F; sonata, vc, pf, ?1838
2 sonatas, pf 4 hands: no.1, E (Stockholm, 1819); no.2, F, 1819–20
Pf solo: sonata, g, 1810; fantasia, 1810; divertimento (Uppsala, 1824)
Partsongs: 4 male vv; chorus, pf
c60 songs, 1v, pf [selections in Musik för sång (Uppsala, 1824) and Geijers sånger
vid piano, ed. A. Lundquist (Stockholm, n.d.)]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SBL (E. Norberg)
T. Norlind: Erik Gustaf Geijer som musiker (Stockholm, 1919)
J. Landquist: Erik Gustav Geijer (Stockholm, 1924)
I. Bengtsson: ‘Tonsättaren Geijer’, Geijerstudier, iii (1958), 153–249
S. Walin: ‘Geijer och musiken’, Geijerstudier, iii (1958), 100–152
AXEL HELMER/R

Gein, van den.

See Vanden Gheyn family.

Geiringer, Karl (Johannes)

(b Vienna, 26 April 1899; d Santa Barbara, CA, 10 Jan 1989). American
musicologist. He studied composition with Hans Gál and Richard Stöhr,
and musicology with Adler and Wilhelm Fischer in Vienna and with Sachs
and Johannes Wolf in Berlin, gaining a PhD at the University of Vienna in
1922 for a dissertation on musical instruments in Renaissance painting.
Shortly afterwards he went into music publishing with the Wiener
Philharmonischer Verlag. In 1929 he was appointed to the commission of
the Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Österreich and added editions of music by
Peuerl, Posch and Caldara to the series. He succeeded Mandyczewski as
museum curator and librarian of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in
1930. There he was able to devote himself to a wide range of subjects from
the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, the most important outcome being a
vivid and still valuable study of Brahms (1935, for which the Gesellschaft’s
archive was a significant source) and his first study of Haydn (1932).
Following the Nazi invasion of Austria in 1938, Geiringer took his family to
London, where he worked for the BBC, wrote numerous articles for the
fourth edition of Grove’s Dictionary, and taught at the RCM. His earlier
catalogue of the musical instruments in the Salzburg Museum and his
curatorship of the early instruments at the RCM provided the source
material for his history of musical instruments, published in 1943.
After one year as visiting professor at Hamilton College, Clinton, New York
(1940–41), Geiringer became professor and head of graduate studies in
music at Boston University, where he remained for 21 years. This proved to
be a very fruitful period: his study of Brahms was revised and enlarged;
Haydn was the subject of a full-length study (1946); an extensive study of
the Bach family appeared (1954) and was supplemented in the following
year by an anthology of the music; and there was a continuous flow of
articles, programme notes for the Los Angeles PO (1955–60), editions of
music, and committee work for the AMS of which he was elected national
president in 1955 and 1956, and an honorary member in 1970. In 1959 he
was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and
was subsequently decorated by the Austrian government. In 1962 he
moved to Santa Barbara to develop the musicological studies of the
University of California’s campus. It was in Santa Barbara that he wrote his
book on J.S. Bach, and began the university’s Series of Early Music with
an edition of Isaac Posch’s Harmonia concertans (1968–72). After retiring
in 1972 he was invited to spend a term as visiting professor of humanities
at the University of Kentucky at Louisville. He was an honorary member of
the American chapter of the Neue Bach-Gesellschaft and of the
Österreichische Gesellschaft für Musikwissenschaft.
WRITINGS
‘Eine Geburtstagkantate von Pietro Metastasio und Leonardo Leo’, ZMw, ix
(1926–7), 270–83
‘Vorgeschichte und Geschichte der europäischen Laute bis zum Beginn
der Neuzeit’, ZMw, x (1927–8), 560–603
‘Christoph Strauss’, ZMw, xiii (1930–31), 50–60
with H. Kraus: Führer durch die Josef Haydn Kollektion im Museum der
Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Wien (Vienna, 1930, 2/1932)
Alte Musik-Instrumente im Museum Carolino Augusteum, Salzburg
(Leipzig, 1932)
ed.: ‘Johannes Brahms in Briefwechsel mit Eusebius Mandyczewski’, ZMw,
xv (1932–3), 337–70
Joseph Haydn (Potsdam, 1932)
‘Brahms as a Reader and Collector’, MQ, xix (1933), 158–68
Johannes Brahms: Leben und Schaffen eines deutschen Meisters (Vienna,
1935, enlarged 2/1955; Eng. trans., 1936, enlarged 3/1982 by I.
Geiringer)
‘Wagner and Brahms, with Unpublished Letters’, MQ, xxii (1936), 178–89
‘W.A. Mozart the Younger’, MQ, xxvii (1941), 456–73
Musical Instruments: their History from the Stone Age to the Present Day
(London, 1943, 3/1978 as Instruments in the History of Western Music)
Haydn: a Creative Life in Music (New York, 1946, enlarged 3/1982)
‘Haydn and the Folksong of the British Isles’, MQ, xxxv (1949), 179–208
‘Artistic Interrelations of the Bachs’, MQ, xxxvi (1950), 363–74
A Thematic Catalog of Haydn’s Settings of Folk Songs from the British
Isles (Superior, WI, 1953)
with I. Geiringer: The Bach Family: Seven Generations of Creative
Genius (London,1954/R; Ger. trans., enlarged, 1958, 2/1977)
Joseph Haydn: der schöpferische Werdegang eines Meisters der Klassik
(Mainz, 1959, 2/1986)
‘The Small Sacred Works by Haydn in the Esterhazy Archives at
Eisenstadt’, MQ, xlv (1959), 460–72
with I. Geiringer: Johann Sebastian Bach: the Culmination of an Era (New
York, 1966; Fr. trans., 1970; Ger. trans., 1971, 2/1978; Jap. trans.,
1970)
‘Concepts of the Enlightenment as Reflected in Gluck’s Italian Reform
Opera’, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, no.88 (1972),
567–76
‘Haydn and his Viennese Background’, Haydn Studies: Washington DC
1975, 3–13
Die Flankenwirbelinstrumente in der bildenden Kunst der Zeit zwischen
1300 und 1550 (Tutzing, 1979)
‘Schubert’s Arpeggione Sonata and the “Super Arpeggio”’, MQ, lxv (1979),
513–23
with I. Geiringer: ‘Stephen and Nancy Storace in Vienna’, Essays on the
Music of J.S. Bach and Other Divers Subjects: a Tribute to Gerhard
Herz, ed. R.L. Weaver (Louisville, KY, 1981), 235–44
‘Das Bilderbuch der Geschwister Ettlinger’, Musik in Bayern, xxxvii (1988),
41–68
This I Remember (Santa Barbara, CA, 1993)
EDITIONS
Neue Paduanen, 1611 … [von] Paul Peuerl; Musikalische Tafelfreude,
1621 [von] Isaac Posch, DTÖ, lxx, Jg.xxxvi/2 (1929/R)
Antonio Caldara: Ein Madrigal und achtzehn Kanons, Cw, xxv (1933/R)
Music of the Bach Family: an Anthology (Cambridge, MA, 1955/R)
Joseph Haydn: Werke, xxxii/1: 100 schottische Lieder (Munich, 1961);
xxv/11: Orlando Paladino (Munich, 1972–3); xxv/1: Acide und andere
Fragmente italienischer Opern (Munich, 1985)
I. Posch: Harmonia concertans (1623), SEM, i, iv, vi (1968–72)
C.W. Gluck: Telemaco, Sämtliche Werke, i/2 (Kassel and Basle, 1972)
J. Haydn: Symphony No.103 in E-Flat Major (New York, 1974)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M.M. Scott: ‘Dr. Haydn and Dr. Geiringer’, MT, lxxxix (1948), 9–11
 A.M. Silver, ed.: Karl Geiringer: a Check-List of his Publications in
Musicology (Santa Barbara, CA, 1969)
H.C.R. Landon and R.E. Chapman, eds.: Studies in Eighteenth-Century
Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer (New York and London, 1970) [incl.
list of pubns, 407–19]
C.E. Steinzor: ‘Karl Johannes Geiringer’, American Musicologists, c.1890–
1945: a Bio-Biographical Sourcebook to the Formative Period (New
York, 1989), 81–97
CECIL HILL/PAULA MORGAN

Geisenhof [Geisenhofer], Johann

[Hans]
(b Schongau, c1570; d probably at Pfullendorf, after 1614). German
composer, singer and organist. In about 1585 he was a choirboy in the
imperial Hofkapelle in Vienna. After becoming a priest he entered the choir
of Konstanz Cathedral as succentor on 25 June 1594 and received a
benefice. At the end of 1595 the cathedral chapter threatened to dismiss
him on account of his laziness. In order to avert such proceedings he
dedicated a motet to the chapter on 27 April 1601 and promised to
improve. In 1605 fresh proceedings were apparently brought against him
for behaviour not befitting a priest, during the course of which he lost his
position and benefice. He then became chaplain and organist of the parish
church of the free imperial town of Pfullendorf, where in 1615 he was
reprimanded for neglecting his duties. The fact that Bernhard Klingenstein
included a composition by him in his Rosetum Marianum (RISM 16047)
indicates the esteem in which Geisenhof must have been held as a
composer; this view is confirmed by the acceptance of an eight-part mass
into the repertory of the Bavarian court chapel and its appearance in a
choirbook alongside seven masses by Lassus.
WORKS
Missae aliquot sacrae, ad imitationem selectissimarum quarandam cantionum …
adiuncto psalmo Miserere per totum, 6vv (Dillingen, 1610)
Hortus musicus, quem sacris, profanis odis … instruxit (Munich, 1615), lost
3 motets: 16047, 16271, 16291
Mass, 8vv, D-Mbs; motet, intabulated org, Mbs
MANFRED SCHULER

Geiser, Walther
(b Zofingen, canton of Aargau, 16 May 1897; d Oberwil, nr Basle, 6 March
1993). Swiss composer, teacher and string player. He studied the violin
with Fritz Hirt and composition with Hermann Suter at the Basle
Conservatory. After brief periods of study with Arrigo Serato in Bologna and
Bram Eldering in Cologne, Geiser entered Busoni’s masterclass in
composition at the Akademie der Künste in Berlin (1922–3). In 1924 Geiser
was appointed to teach at the Basle Conservatory, where he initially taught
violin and ensemble playing and later composition and conducting until his
retirement in 1963. For several years he played viola with the Basle String
 Orchestra and String Quartet and from 1955 to 1972 he was conductor of
the Basle Bach Choir. Geiser was also active as a committee member of
the Schweizerischer Tonkünstlerverein and as president of the Basle
branch of the ISCM. In 1962 he was awarded the composer’s prize of the
Schweizerischer Tonkünstlerverein.
Geiser’s music shows his indebtedness to both the literature and the poetry
of the German Romantic tradition and to the classicist teachings of his
mentor Busoni. Although influenced early on by the music of the late
Romantics (especially Mahler), he quickly took Busoni’s lessons to heart,
developing a passion for the music of Bach and Mozart which remained
undiminished throughout his life. He consequently turned in his own
compositions to traditional forms, Baroque elements such as fugue,
transparent chamber music textures, simplicity of means and tonal
harmony with modal inflections. His chamber works, in particular, develop a
classicist Heiterkeit that demonstrates Geiser’s allegiance to modernist
developments in composition between the two world wars. His entire
output, however, is marked by the composer’s profound ethical stance,
sense of responsibility as an artist and belief in classical values.
WORKS
(selective list)

complete list published by Schweizerisches Musikarchiv, Zürich, 1967

orchestral
Concertino, op.2, fl, small orch, 1921, unpubd; Ouvertüre zu einem Lustspiel, op.5,
1922; Nocturne, op.12, 1927; Vn Conc., op.16, 1930; Divertimento, op.20, chbr
orch, 1933; Concertino, op.22, hn, chbr orch, 1934; Präambulum, op.25, 1938;
Konzertstück, op.30, org, chbr orch, 1941; Fantasie no.1, op.31, pf, str, timp, 1942;
Fantasie no.2, op.34, 1945; Vorspiel zu einer antiken Tragödie, op.35, 1947;
Fantasie no.3, op.39, str, 1949; Sym. no.1, op.44, 1953; Festliches Vorspiel, op.47,
1955; Conc. da camera, op.50, 2 vn, hpd, str, 1957; Intrada, op.52, brass, timp, str,
1959; Pf Conc., op.53, 1959; Fantasie no.4, op.57, fl, str, 1963; Sym. no.2, op.60,
1967
vocal
Das Hohe Lied Salomonis, op.7a, A, T, chbr orch, 1924, unpubd; Nachtgesang
(J.W. von Goethe), op.9, B, orch, 1925, unpubd; Symbolum (Goethe), op.14, male
chorus, chbr orch, 1929; Adventslied (Thauler), op.18, chorus, str, hp, 1931; Stabat
mater (J. de Benedetti), op.23, B, chorus, orch, org, ?1936; Chorphantasie (A.
Gryphius), op.24, male chorus, orch, org, 1938; ‘Siehe, es kommt die Zeit’ (cant.,
Bible), op.32, B, chorus, org, 1943; Der Einsiedler (J. Eichendorff), op.37/2, T, org,
1948; Inclyta Basilea (T. Meyer), op.40, solo vv, chorus, children’s chorus, orch,
1951; Hymnus (Bible), op.43, chorus, orch, org ad lib, 1953; TeD, op.54, 4 solo vv,
chorus, orch, org, 1960; choruses, songs
instrumental
Str Qt no.1, op.3, 1921, unpubd; Str Qt no.2, op.6, 1923; Str Trio, op.8, 1924;
Sonatine, op.33b, fl, 1944; Suite, op.41, pf, 1952; Metamorphosen, op.62, va/vn,
1979; inst sonatas, sonatinas, pieces for pf, org
MSS in CH-Bps

Principal publisher: Bärenreiter

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (E. Mohl)
SML
P. Mieg: ‘Walther Geiser’, 40 Schweizer Komponisten der Gegenwart
(Amriswil,1956)
E. Mohr: ‘Das Werk Walther Geisers’, SMz, xcvii (1957), 174–7
‘Walther Geiser’, Schweizer Komponisten unserer Zeit (Zürich, 1993), 89–
90
T. Levitz: Teaching New Classicality: Ferruccio Busoni’s Master Class in
Composition (Berne, 1996)
K. Lessing: ‘Hommage à Walther Geiser: ein persönlisches
Erinnerungsblatt anlässlich seines 100. Geburtstag am 16. Mai 1997’,
Mitteilungen der Paul Sacher Stiftung, x (1997), 43–6
TAMARA LEVITZ

Geisler, Paul
(b Stolp [now Słupsk], Pomerania, 10 Aug 1856; d Posen [now Poznań], 3
April 1919). German conductor and composer. He studied with his
grandfather, conductor at Marienburg (now Malbork), and for a time with
Konstantin Decker. He was répétiteur at Leipzig (1881–2), then joined
Angelo Neumann’s travelling Wagner company (1882–3), before becoming
Kapellmeister in Bremen under Anton Seidl (1883–5). He later also worked
in Leipzig and Berlin, finally moving to Posen, where he founded a
conservatory and conducted symphony and choral concerts. He was made
royal Kapellmeister in 1902. Once popular and respected as representative
of the New German School, Geisler’s music was overshadowed by that of
the leading members of the movement and after his death soon fell into
neglect. His works include seven operas, Ingeborg (1884, Bremen), Die
Ritter von Marienburg (1891, Hamburg), Hertha (1891, Hamburg), Palm
(1893, Lübeck), Wir siegen (1898, Berlin), Prinzessin Ilse (1898, Posen)
and Warum? (1899, Berlin), and a ‘dramatic episode with music’,
Wikingertod. He also wrote symphonies, symphonic poems (Der
Rattenfänger von Hameln, performed with success at Magdeburg in 1880,
Till Eulenspiegel, Heinrich von Ofterdingen), cantatas (Golgatha, Sansara),
songs, and piano music (including Réminiscences de l’opéra
‘Tannhäuser’). (A. Huch: ‘Paul Geisler’, NZM, Jg.83 (1916), 276–7)
EDWIN EVANS/JOHN WARRACK

Geissenhof, Franz [Franciscus]

(b Füssen, 15 Sept 1753; d Vienna, 2 Jan 1821). Austrian violin maker.
Geissenhof holds the same place in the history of Viennese violin making
that his contemporary Lupot holds in Paris. Each had comparatively
ordinary professional origins, yet raised his art to a very high level, through
fine craftsmanship allied to a growing appreciation of the work of Stradivari.
Geissenhof went to Vienna to be apprentice and successor to Johann
Georg Thir. By about 1790 he had clearly seen the work of Stradivari, but
his own instruments remained predominantly Old Viennese, round in the
arching, with Germanic scroll and chocolate-brown varnish. By the turn of
the century he had progressed a long way, and a few years later was
copying Stradivari wholeheartedly. His varnish became less brittle and
lighter in colour as the years advanced. Tonally his results were from the
first superior to those of his Viennese predecessors. His violas were of
small size, and he made very few cellos. Most of his instruments have a
brand ‘F.G.’ on the button at the top of the back. He used the latinized form
of his name, Franciscus, on his labels.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LütgendorffGL
VannesE
F. Farga: Geigen und Geiger (Zürich, 2/1940; 7/1983 by U. Dulberg, K.F.
Mager and W. Wendel; Eng. trans., 1950 with additions by E.W.
Lavender, 2/1969)
R. Bletschacher: Die Lauten- und Geigenmacher des Füssener Landes
(Hofheim am Taunus, 1978)
CHARLES BEARE/RICHARD BLETSCHACHER

Geissler, Benedict
(fl 1741–59). German composer. Nothing is known of his life except that he
was an Augustinian monk, possibly at the monastery of Trieffenstein, to
whose abbot his offertories of 1743 are dedicated.
Geissler’s surviving publications show him to have been one of the more
versatile composers publishing church music in the 1740s and 50s. By
1740 the simple, tuneful church style suitable for ordinary choirs, which had
been popularized by composers such as Rathgeber, was beginning to
develop in two directions. Some composers were writing more elaborate
music for better equipped town churches, while others were simplifying the
style even further for less well equipped village choirs. Geissler was one of
the few who managed to use both styles reasonably successfully.
His masses of op.2 are large-scale pieces, typical of the way the former
style was developing. The alternation of solo and tutti voices in the same
movement, which had been characteristic of the Bavarian church style, had
disappeared. The Gloria and Credo are subdivided into several
movements, some of which are long and difficult arias, often with elaborate
written-out organ accompaniments; much of the choral writing is
contrapuntal. The offertory motets which Geissler published in 1743 show a
command of both styles. Some are recitatives and arias, with merely a
short concluding alla breve tutti, but in others the choral writing is more
interesting and the solos are shorter and simpler. He was at his best,
however, when being most straightforward, in the masses of op.5. These
are ‘rural’ pieces for very small choirs, in which only the soprano, alto, first
 violin and organ are essential, the other parts being optional. The long
sections are through-composed, there are no elaborate solos, and Geissler
displays a melodic gift not shown in his more ambitious works.
WORKS
all published in Augsburg

6 missae, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 cornetts, vc, bc (org), op.2 (1741)

Flirenta roris nectarei e petra stillante tertia iam vice promanantia, Vesperas, 4vv, 2
vn, 2 cornetts ad lib, vc, bc (org), op.3 (1742)
Fons de novo prae gaudio saliens e petra stillante … in XVIII. offertoria diffusus,
op.4 (1743)
Missae breves et 2 requiem, 4vv, insts, bc, op.5 (1744)
Cunctus marianus sive 6 litaniae Lauretanae … 4vv, 2 vn, 2 cornetts ad lib, bc, op.6
(1746)
6 missae (1759)

ELIZABETH ROCHE

Geissler, Fritz
(b Wurzen, Saxony, 16 Sept 1921; d Bad Saarow, 11 Jan 1984). German
composer. After playing in dance bands as a young man, he studied at
Musikhochschulen in Leipzig (1948–50) and Berlin-Charlottenburg (1951–
3). During 1950–51 he played the viola in the Gotha State SO. He went on
to teach at Leipzig University, the Musikhochschule Carl Maria von Weber,
Dresden (1969–75) and the Leipzig Musikhochschule (from 1974). His
numerous awards included the National Prize of the DDR (1970) and
membership in the DDR Akademie der Künste (1972).
The most complex and important works in Geissler’s substantial output are
his symphonies, particularly the third (1965–6) and fifth (1968–9). In these
the metamorphosis of a single, central theme effects a dramatic
developmental process, in which it is combined with moments of lively,
ironic, lyrical and virtuoso music. Elsewhere he made use of dodecaphony,
tone clusters, Klangflächen and noise. His advocation of such
compositional materials during the 1960s and 70s led many in the DDR to
consider him a member of the avant garde. His return to tonality in the
Ninth Symphony (1979) provoked astonishment and controversy. One of
his most successful works is the chamber opera Der zerbrochene Krug
(1968–9).
WORKS
(selective list)

stage
Pigment (ballet), 1960, orch suite, 1960; Ein Sommernachtstraum (ballet, after W.
Shakespeare), 1964–5; Der zerbrochene Krug (komische Oper, after H. von
Kleist), 1968–9; Der verrückte Jourdin (op, after M.A. Bulgakow), 1971; Der
Schatten (op, after J. Schwarz), 1973–4; Die Stadtpfeifer (Spieloper), 1976–8;
Das Chagrinleder (op, after H. de Balzac), 1977–8; incid music
 instrumental
Syms.: Chbr Sym. no.1, 1954; no.1, 1960–61, rev. as Sinfonische Suite, 1964–5;
no.2, 1962–4; no.3, 1965–6; no.4, str, 1967; no.5, 1968–9; Chbr Sym. no.2, 1970;
no.6 ‘Konzertante Sinfonie’, wind qnt, str, 1971; no.7, 1972; no.8 ‘Chorsinfonie’ (J.R.
Becher), 1973–4; no.9, 1974–8; no.10, 1978; no.11, A, orch, 1982
Other orch: Conc., cl, chbr orch, 1954; Italienische Lustspielouvertüre, 1956 [after
Rossini]; November 1918, 3 sym. movts, 1958; Chbr Conc., fl, str, hpd, 1966;
Essay, 1967; Pf Conc., 1969–70; 2 sinfonische Szenen, 1970; Conc. for Orch, 1972
Chbr and solo: Str Qt no.1, 1952; Ode an eine Nachtigall, wind qnt, str qt, 1966;
Sonata, pf, 1968; Sonata, va, pf, 1969; Pf Trio, 1970; Sonata no.2, pf, 1971; Wind
Qnt, 1971; Nonet, wind qnt, vn, va, vc, db, 1972; Str Qt no.2, 1972; Sonata, vn, pf,
1975; Cl Qnt ‘Frühlingsquintett’, 1976
vocal
Choral: Gesang vom Menschen (orat, Kuba), S, Bar, mixed chorus, orch, 1968;
Schöpfer Mensch (orat, G. Deicke), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1970–71; Die Flamme
von Mansfeld (orat, Deicke), A, Bar, chorus, orch, 1978
Other vocal: Odi et amo (G.V. Catullus), Bar, pf, 1971–2; Saarower Lieder (J.R.
Becher, Preissler), Mez, str trio, 1982

Principal publishers: Breitkopf & Härtel, Peters, Deutscher Verlag, Verlag Neue Musik, Friedrich
Hofmeister

BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Schneider: ‘Werkeinführungen zur 5. Sinfonie und dem Klavierkonzert
von Fritz Geissler’, Momentaufnahme: Notate zu Musik und Musikern
der DDR (Leipzig, 1979)
E. Kneipel: Fritz Geissler: Ziele, Wege (Berlin, 1987)
FRANK GEISSLER

Geisslerlieder
(Ger.: ‘flagellant songs’).
The name given to a group of sacred songs sung by the flagellants (It.
flagellanti, disciplinati) of the 13th and 14th centuries during their
pilgrimages and acts of penance.
Geisslerlieder are in the vernacular and belong equally to the tradition of
the Italian laude of the late Middle Ages, and to that of the German pilgrim's
song, the one-line invocation and multi-line hymn to a saint. Whereas most
of the rest of the popular sacred songs of the Middle Ages are lost because
those capable of writing them down did not consider them worth saving for
posterity, some at least of the songs of the German flagellants were
preserved because the spectacular events connected with them led
several contemporary chroniclers to record them. These events arose in
Italy in the middle of the 13th century from the desperate situation in the
political, social and moral spheres. Faced with the absence of any power to
deal with public suffering or the permanent warfare in town and country
(e.g. between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines), hermits and travelling
preachers called the world to contemplation and to atonement through
penance, so that the individual might be the source of improvement. The
movement started in Umbria in 1258; with ‘pax et misericordia’ as their
watchword, organizations of lay brothers (for example, the Disciplinati di
Gesù Cristo in Perugia) were formed to perform communal public acts of
penance lasting 33 ½ days in memory of Christ's suffering for the sake of
the world, and to spread the movement by making pilgrimages which
excited the attention of the masses. At the beginning ‘nobiles et
mercatores’ as well as ‘rustici’ took part, but as the movement spread
further (as far as Poland in 1261) it was increasingly the lower social
classes that were involved, although no unified sects were formed, nor was
there any overt agitation for social revolution. The personal act of penance,
religious in motivation and defined in terms of the Last Judgment, remained
at the heart of the manifestations. Every act was subject to a strict ritual
and performed in penitential garments, under vows of silence and directed
by a ‘magister’, ‘minister’ or ‘meister’. In Italy ‘laudes divinas et incondita
carmina’ (Bologna, 1260) and ‘hymnos in latina vel vulgari lingua’ were
sung during these acts, but instrumental music and ‘amatorie cantilene’
were forbidden. The flagellants adopted some of the singing practices of
the Laudesi fraternities and enriched the liturgy peculiar to those groups
with more sophisticated sacred songs. One of these laude, Chi volo de
mondo desprezzare, has survived with its melody from the 13th century;
otherwise the musical settings of these ‘canti’ or ‘buozlieder’ from the first
eruption of that lay mass movement are lost.
It was the second wave in 1349, spreading over wide areas of Europe like
a natural catastrophe in its effect on the entire population, that shocked the
priests into noting down the flagellants' penitential songs, linked with
events caused by plague and other sufferings, as documents worthy of
recording. An immense outbreak, aggravated by the fear that the Last
Judgment was imminent, spread on this occasion across the Low
Countries as far as Britain and Scandinavia. Large and small processions
of penitents formed, chose leaders, confessed their sins and, while singing,
with due ritual ‘beat themselves most energetically’ (Bohemia, 1349). ‘Cum
canto devoto dulcique melodia’ they went from place to place with their
message, the singing of the Leisen being led by two or three singers (see
Leise).
The Leisen can be divided into two groups, the songs sung while the
flagellants were in procession or on pilgrimage, and those sung during the
penances. Some were notated in neumes in the Chronicon Hugonis
sacerdotis de Rutelinga (1349; RF-SPsc O XIV, 6), a work in hexameters
rediscovered in 1880. Hugo Spechtshart of Reutlingen was a Swabian
priest and teacher, an exceptionally skilled musician and an acutely
observant spectator of the processions. His claim to a place in the history
of folksong collecting in Germany is that as a conscientious chronicler he
was the first to take pains to notate exactly what he heard. He was also the
first to notate the variants from strophe to strophe usual in living folksong,
so that his record of what was actually sung in the 14th century has a
unique documentary value. As he watched the processions, led by banners
and crosses, Hugo heard the cantica Nu ist diu betfart so here (ex.1),
Maria muoter reiniu meit and Maria unser vrouwe. These are old pilgrims'
songs, known over a wide area; they survived in the folksong of some
Catholic regions until the 17th century. They are characterized by
invocations to the Virgin and remembrances of Christ’s sufferings, which
are linked together by internal and final refrains to form stanzas, like a
song.

Such formulae – invocations and recurrent rhyme patterns – are among the
traditional components of European folksong that emerge from
comparative melodic study of processional and dance-songs, and of songs
connected with particular customs collected over a wide area. Like the old
pilgrims' songs these too were in general metrically extendable, as the lead
singers were allowed latitude to introduce variations within a well-known
framework; the recurring refrains sung by the crowd were confined to
simple formulae, which seem to have been the nuclei from which longer
epic invocations and strophic songs of petition developed in the Middle
Ages.
During the flagellation rituals performed in circles outside churches, songs
made up on the journeys of flagellation (‘in den geiselnfarten’) were also
sung. The principal song is believed to have been the eight-part ‘cancio’ Nu
tret her zů der büssen welle, in which the singing was led by the best
singers. During the singing the flagellants walked round and round, flung
themselves on the ground, knelt down with raised hands and bemoaned
the evil of the world. Parts of this ritual survived in the popular memory
after the flagellant processions of 1349 had ceased, and became the object
of mockery. In Switzerland in 1350, for instance, people are supposed to
have danced to a song of which the original words were:
Der unserr bůzze welle pflegen,
Der sol gelten und wider geben.
Er biht und lass die sunde varn,
So wil sich got ubr in erbarn.
(‘Let him who wants to join our penance pay and give again, let him
confess and renounce sin, then God will have mercy on him’), substituting
the following text:
Der unser Buss well pflegen
Der soll Ross und Rinder nehmen,
Gäns und feiste Swin!
Damit so gelten wir den Win.
(‘Let him who wants to join our penance take horse and cattle, geese and
fat swine! That's how we shall pay for the wine’). In the Middle Ages the
fear of death is often juxtaposed with the lighthearted joy of existence in
this manner.
The Geisslerlieder are medieval religious folksongs, of which the texts
express the particularly urgent needs of the flagellants within a strophic
framework characteristic of the genre as a whole, while the melodies are
typical of songs of pilgrimage and petition, which probably formed part of
the general repertory of religious songs in the 14th century.

See also Lauda spirituale.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2(J. Janota)
E.G. Förstemann: Die christlichen Geisslergesellschaften (Halle, 1828)
K. Lechner: ‘Die grosse Geisselfahrt des Jahres 1349’, Historisches Jb
der Görresgesellschaft, v (1884), 437–62
P. Runge, ed.: Die Lieder und Melodien der Geissler des Jahres 1349
nach der Aufzeichnung Hugo's von Reutlingen (Leipzig, 1900/R)
A. Hübner: Die deutschen Geisslerlieder (Berlin, 1931)
J. Müller-Blattau: ‘Die deutschen Geisslerlieder’, ZMw, xvii (1935), 6–18
W. Salmen: ‘Gesang der Geissler in Westfalen’, Westfalenspiegel, xi
(1956), 5
W. Wiora: ‘The Origins of German Spiritual Folk Song’, EthM, viii (1964),
1–13
N. Ruwet: ‘Méthodes d'analyse en musicologie’, RBM, xx (1966), 65–90;
Eng. trans. in MAn, vi (1987), 3–36
C. Petzsch: ‘Nachrichten aus Städtechroniken (Fortsetzung) and
Weiteres’, Historische Volksmusikforschung: Seggau 1977, 119–36
F. Graus: Pest, Geissler, Judenmorde das 14. Jahrhundert als Krisenzeit
(Göttingen, 1987)
W. Salmen: Tanz und Tanzer im Mittelalter und in der Renaissance
(Hildesheim, 1999)
WALTER SALMEN

Geist, Christian
(b Güstrow, ?1650; d Copenhagen, 27 Sept 1711). German composer and
organist, active in Scandinavia. He probably received his early musical
education from his father, Joachim Geist, Kantor at the cathedral school in
Güstrow. In 1665–66 and 1668–69 he was salaried as Kapellknabe at the
court of Duke Gustav Adolph of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, which means that
he can hardly have been born c1640 as has previously been assumed.
From later spring 1669 he first worked temporarily as a bass singer at the
Danish court in Copenhagen and then, in June 1670, took a permanent
position in Stockholm as a musician at the Swedish court under Gustaf
Düben (i). He remained there until June 1679, when he was appointed
organist at the German church in Göteborg. Unhappy with the conditions
there he moved to Copenhagen in November 1684. There he succeeded
J.M. Radeck as organist at the Helligaandskirke and at the Trinitatis Kirke,
securing both positions by marrying Radeck’s widow Magdalena Sibylla on
1 May 1685. He retained the first of these posts until his death but gave up
the second after a few years. From 1689 he was also organist of the
Holmens Kirke in succession to Johann Lorentz. He died of the plague
along with his third wife and his children.
 Virtually all of Geist’s surviving works with Latin texts were composed
during his years in Stockholm. Most are sacred works intended for court
services, but there are some larger works written for royal ceremonies (e.g.
Quis hostis in coelis and Domine in virtute, for the king’s accession to the
throne in 1672). Geist’s Latin works, in the autographs consistently
designated motetto, are clearly related to contemporary Italian concerted
motets. Most of them are in distinct sections, alternating in scoring and
texture, including vocal solos in arioso or aria style. Geist’s expressive
harmonic and melodic style and simple, flowing counterpoint is typically
Italian, whereas the occasionally extravagant violin and viol parts bear
witness to his German heritage. Geist’s Latin pieces are closely related to
the music of the Dresden Italians Peranda and Vincenzo Albrici, as well as
to the vocal works of Kaspar Förster and Buxtehude. Six of the seven
works with German texts stem from Geist’s time in Göteborg. In contrast to
the Latin works, they belong to typically German Protestant genres, with
three chorale settings, three elaborate sacred arias and one concerto with
aria (Die mit Tränen säen).
WORKS
all in S-Uu unless otherwise stated

Edition: C. Geist: 15 Ausgewählte Kirchenkonzerte, ed. B. Lundgren, EDM, 1st ser., xlviii
(1960) [L]

sacred vocal
Adiuro vos, o filiae Jerusalem, SSSB, 2 vn, bc; Alleluia, absorpta est mors, SSB, 2
vn, bc, L; Alleluia, de funere ad vitam, A, vn, bc, L; Alleluia, surrexit pastor bonus,
SSTTB, 2 vn, bc; Alleluia, virgo Deum genuit, SSB, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Altitudo, quid hic
jaces, SSB, 2 vn, bc, L; Beati omnes qui timent, B, 2 vn, bc, L
Die mit Tränen säen, SSATB, 3 viols, bc, L; Dieses ist der Tag der Wonne, SAB, 2
vn, bc; Dixit Dominus, SATB, 2 vn, bc, L; Domine in virtute tua laetabitur Rex,
SSATB, 2 tpt, 2 vn, 2 va, b viol, bc; Domine ne secundum, SATB, 2 vn, vle, bc, L;
Domine, qui das salutem regibus (i), SSATB, 2 vn, va, b viol, bc; Domine, qui das
salutem regibus (ii), SSTTB, 2 tpt, 2 vn, 2 va, vle, bc; Domine, qui das salutem
regibus (iii), SSATB, 2 vn, va, vle, bc
Emendemus in melius, SATB, 2 vn, bc; Es war aber an der Stäte, Mez/T/B, 2 viols,
bc, L; Exaudi Deus orationem meam, SSATB, 2 tpt, 3 vn, vle, bc; Festiva laeta,
SSB, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Haec est dies quam fecit Dominus, SSB, 2 vn, theorbo, bc; In
te Domine speravi (i), SSB, 2 vn, b viol, bc; In te Domine speravi (ii), SATB, 2 vn, b
viol, bc; Invocavit me, SSTB, 2 vn, b viol, theorbo, vle, bc; Jesu delitium vultus,
SATB, 2 vn, bc, D-F, S-Uu
Laetemur in Christo redemptore, S/T, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Laudate pueri Dominum, SSB,
2 vn, bc; Laudet Deum mea gloria, SSB, 2 vn, b viol, bc, ed. B. Lundgren
(Stockholm, 1953); Media vita in morte sumus, SSB, 2 vn, va, vle, bc; O admirabile
commersium, SB, 2 vn, bc; O coeli sapientia, SSB, bc; O immensa bonitas, SSB, 2
vn, b viol, bc; O Jesu amantissime, SST, 2 vn, bc; O Jesu dulcis dilectio, SST, 2 vn,
b viol, bc; O iucunda dies, SSB, 2 vn, theorbo, bc; O piissime Jesu, SATB, 2 vn, b
viol, bc; Orietur sicut sol salvator mundi, SB, 2 vn, bc, L
Pastores dicie, STTB, 2 vn, bc, L; Quam pulchra es, SB, 2 vn, bc, L; Qui habitat in
adiutorio, SATB, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Quis hostis in coelis, SSATB, 2 tpt, 2 vn, 2 va, bc;
Resonet in laudibus, SSB, 2 vn, bc, ed. B. Grunswick (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1977);
Resurrexi et adhuc tecum sum, S, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Skapa i mig Gud ett rent hjärta,
SSB, 2 vn, b viol, bc, L; Schöpfe Hoffnung, meine Seele, SSATB, 2 vn, bc, L; Se
huru gott och lustigt är det, B, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Selig, ja selig, wer willig erträget,
SSTB, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Se univit Deus coeno, SSB, 2 vn, bc; Surrexit pastor bonus,
SB, 2 vn, bc
Tristis anima, SATB, 2 vn, bc, D-Bsb; Vater unser, S, 2 vn, bc, L; Veni salus
pauperum, SS, 2 vn, bc; Veni Sancte Spiritus, et emitte, SS, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Veni
Sancte Spiritus, reple, SSB, 2 vn, bc; Verbum caro factum est, SS, 2 vn, b viol (ad
lib), bc, ed. J. Foss (Copenhagen, 1948); Vide pater mi (i), SST, 2 vn, bc, D-Bsb, S-
Uu; Vide pater mi (ii), S, 2 vn, bc [version of the former]; Wie schön leuchtet der
Morgenstern, S, 2 vn, bc, L
secular vocal
Io, musae, nova sol rutilat, SSAB, 2 vn, 2 va, b viol, bc
Zitto hoggi Faune, SSTB, 2 vn, bc
organ
Allenaste Gud i himmelrik; Lovad vare du, Jesu Krist; O Jesu Krist, som mandom
tog: all doubtful, ed. B. Lundgren, Tre koralförspel (Stockholm, 1943)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MatthesonGEP
A. Pirro: Dietrich Buxtehude (Paris, 1913/R), 107ff
T. Norlind: Från tyska kyrkans glansdagar [From the Golden Age of the
German Church], iii (Stockholm, 1945), 144ff
B. Lundgren: ‘Helligåndsorganisten Christian Geist’, Dansk kirkesangs
årsskrift 1958–9
B. Lundgren: Introduction to C. Geist: Kirchenkonzerte, EDM, xlviii (1960)
M. Geck: Review of EDM, xlviii, Mf, xvi (1963), 305–6
B. Grusnick: ‘Die Dübensammlung: ein Versuch ihrer chronologischen
Ordnung’, STMf, xlvi (1964), 27–83; xlviii (1966), 63–186
F. Krummacher: Die Choralbearbeitung in der protestantischen
Figuralmusik zwischen Praetorius und Bach (Kassel, 1978), 149ff
K. Krummacher: ‘Die geistliche Aria in Norddeutschland und
Skandinavien: ein gattungsgeschichtlicher Versuch’, Weltliches und
geistliches Lied der Barock, ed. D. Lohmeier (Amsterdam, 1979), 229–
64
G. Webber: North German Church Music in the Age of Buxtehude (Oxford,
1996)
L. Berglund: The Vocal Music of Christian Geist (diss., U. of Uppsala,
forthcoming)
KERALA J. SNYDER/LARS BERGLUND

Geistliches Konzert
(Ger.: ‘sacred concerto’).
A term used principally in 17th-century Germany for a sacred vocal work,
usually in several sections, setting a biblical text.

See Motet, §III; Cantata, §II; Concerto, §I, 2(ii).

Gelber, Bruno Leonardo
(b Buenos Aires, 19 March 1941). Argentine pianist of Austrian and
French-Italian origin. He was taught the piano by his mother from the age
of three and by Vicente Scaramuzza from the age of five, making his début
in Argentina in 1946. At seven he contracted polio and was confined to bed
for more than a year, practising on a piano specially mounted over his bed,
but the following year was able to give his first radio recital. At 15 he was
given a grant to study in Paris, where he became the last pupil of
Marguerite Long. A prize at the 1961 Marguerite Long-Jacques Thibaud
Piano Competition launched his career, which has taken him to all the
world’s major music centres. His repertory extends from Bach to
Schoenberg, but he is most admired for his interpretations of the great
Germanic composers of the 19th century, most notably Beethoven (whose
complete piano sonatas he has recorded), Schumann, Brahms and Liszt.
He commands a wide tonal palette, which he uses with exemplary
discretion, and a powerful sonority untainted by stridency. The finesse of
his phrasing and melodic inflection is complemented by an equally
impressive grasp of large-scale structures.
JEREMY SIEPMANN

Gelbrun, Artur
(b Warsaw, 11 July 1913; d Tel-Aviv, 23 Dec 1985). Israeli composer and
conductor of Polish origin. He graduated with honours in the violin (1935)
and conducting (1936) at the Warsaw State Conservatory. Conducting
studies continued at the Accademia S Cecilia (with Molinari) and the
Accademia Musicale Chigiana, Siena (with Casella); later in Switzerland he
studied conducting with Scherchen and composition with Burkhard.
Gelbrun played the violin and the viola with the Warsaw PO (1935–7), for
Radio Lausanne (1941–4) and with the Zürich Tonhalle Orchestra (1944–
8). After emigrating to Israel in 1949 he devoted his time to conducting and
composition. He was permanent guest conductor with the Israel RSO
(1949–53), chief conductor of the Israel Youth Orchestra (1950–56) and
chief conductor of the Inter-Kibbutz SO (1950–55); he was then made
professor of composition and conducting at the Academy of Music of the
University of Tel-Aviv.
Gelbrun’s early output is essentially post-Romantic in style; of his
instrumental pieces, his Violin Sonatina (1944) was influenced by
Honegger, and the String Trio (1945) by Ravel, while his vocal music
contains settings of, among others, Eluard and García Lorca. His Lieder
der Mädchen (1945), to poetry by Rilke, was given its première in 1947 by
the soprano Hilde Richlik and the Vienna SO with Gelbrun conducting.
From 1957 on, he adopted, at times, the use of 12-note technique, for
example in the Five Caprices (1958), Four Preludes (1959), Three Prayers
(1959), and in the development sections of Symphony no.2 (1961). He also
employed aleatory techniques in the Concerto-Fantasia (1963), and
unmetred structures in the oratorio The Scroll of Fire (1964) and Symphony
no.3 (1973). Of his some 50 Israeli works, 11 are vocal pieces which set
biblical texts or Hebrew poetry and are nationalist in sentiment. Other
 source materials include a Mixolydian ancient hymn in the Woodwind
Quintet (1971), a Yemenite folk theme in the Concertino for chamber
orchestra (1974) and canticles from Lamentations in the Adagio for string
orchestra (1974). Among the awards made to him was the Israeli
Broadcasting Prize (1973).
WORKS
(selective list)

Ballet: Miadoux, 1967–8; Prologue pour Decameron, 1968; King Solomon and the
Hopooes, 1976; Hedva, 1951
Orch: Suite, 1947; Preludio, passacaglia e fuga, 1954; Variations, pf, orch, 1955;
Prologue symphonique, 1956; Sym., 1957–8, 5 Caprices, 1958; Sym., 1961; Vc
Conc., 1962; 4 Pieces, str, 1963; Concerto-Fantasia, fl, hp, str orch, 1963; Piccolo
divertimento, str, 1963; Sym. no.3: Jubilee, 1973; Adagio, str, 1974; 6 Bagatelles,
str, 1974; Concertino, chbr orch, 1974; Hommage à Rodin, 1979–81; Conc., ob, str
orch, 1985
Vocal: Lieder der Mädchen (R.M. Rilke), v, orch, 1945; 10 esquisses (Chin. poems),
nar, fl, hp, 1946; Une longue réflexion amoureuse (P. Eluard), T, pf, 1947; Halleluja
(Bible: Psalm 117), SATB, 1951; 2 Night Songs (L. Goldberg), Mez, pf, 1951;
Lament for the Victims of the Warsaw Ghetto (Y. Katzenelson), B, SATB, orch,
1954; 3 Prayers, v, pf, 1959; Songs of the Jordan River (Goldberg), S, orch, 1959;
The Scroll of Fire (orat, ps 13), S, A, T, B, SATB, orch, 1964; Salmo e alleluyah, S,
chbr orch, 1968; Holocaust and Revival (cant. Biblical and Liturgical texts, M.
Jatzrun, I.M. Lask and others), nar, SATB, orch, 1977–8; 3 Songs on My Wife’s
Poems, v, pf, 1983; Blessed Is … (H. Szenes, Psalms 86:16 [Askrei]), S, str qt,
1985
Chbr: Sonatina, 2 vn, 1944; Str Trio, 1945; Str Qt, 1969; Ww Qnt, 1971; Brass Trio,
hn, tpt, trbn, 1972; Introduction and Rhapsody, hp, 1973; Pf Trio, vn/cl, vc, pf, 1977,
rev. 1985; Aria e 3 frammenti, ob/fl, hp, 1982–3; Easy Variations, 2 rec, 1983;
Picture of Faith, 2 pf, 1983; Septet, fl, cl, hp, str qt, 1984
Solo inst: 6 Encores, pf, 1943–52; Sonatina, pf, 1945; Sonatina, vn, 1957; 4
Preludes, pf, 1959; 5 Pieces, vc, 1962; 5 Messages, pf, 1965; Miniatures, bn, 1969;
Partita, cl, 1969; Intrada and Passacaglia, org, 1982; Variations faciles, pf, 1982

Principal publishers: Israel Music Institute, Suvini Zerboni, Universal

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Y. Cohen: Neimej smiroth Israel [The Heirs of the Psalmist: Israel’s New
Music] (Tel-Aviv, 1990)
A. Tischler: A Descriptive Bibliography of Art Music by Israeli Composers
(Warren, MI, 1988)
YOHANAN BOEHM/NATHAN MISHORI

Gelineau, Joseph
(b Champs-sur-Layon, Maine et Loire, 31 Oct 1920). French Jesuit
liturgical scholar and composer. He studied music at the Ecole César
Franck in Paris and theology at Lyon-Fourvière. A member of the Society of
Jesus since 1941, he was ordained in 1951 and has been active in
liturgical development, both before and after the Second Vatican Council,
producing a number of influential books and articles and a stream of
liturgical compositions. In Paris he worked with the Centre de Pastorale
Liturgique and was professor in liturgical and pastoral music at the Institut
Catholique. He co-founded the international church music research group
Universa Laus.
At the time of the Second Vatican Council (1962–5) there existed within the
Roman Catholic Church two musical camps, one concerned with the
‘pastoral’ aspect of liturgical music and the participation of the people, the
other focussed on the ‘sacred’ dimension of traditional chant and
polyphony and the idea of ‘music-as-art’. Gelineau’s writings from this
period influenced the pastoral group. From his knowledge of liturgical
history and a comparative study of non-Western rites, he argued for a
radical review of the place of music in the reformed Catholic liturgy. In
Chant et musique dans le culte chrétien (1962) he reappropriated the idea
of liturgical ‘art’ music for the purposes of the pastoral camp by speaking of
‘functional art’, suggesting that the value of liturgical music be judged
according to the capacity of such music to fulfil a ritual function. This
function, he contended, should determine musical form: for example, when
the priest represents God to the people and they respond, the result is
dialogue. Thus, if everyone is to participate, only simple, monodic songs,
with clear, rational meaning, can be considered strictly liturgical: ‘art for
art’s sake’, the esoteric (including wordless ‘jubilus’, with its sometimes
unchristian, even ‘magical’ resonances) and styles with ‘profane’
associations are inappropriate within a liturgical context.
Gelineau concluded that the song forms traditionally regarded by the
Church as ideally suited to the liturgy had in fact become adulterated over
the centuries and that it was necessary to ‘restore’ their original function as
popular chants. He wished, for example, to reintroduce the people’s
response in the graduals of the Mass. Restricted by the ornate style of
Gregorian melodies, however, he developed his own form of responsorial
psalmody for the French language that recaptures the poetic structure and
imagery of the original Hebrew. This system, with its melodically simple
tones designed to express the asymmetrical three- or four-line text
structure, has come to be known as ‘Gelineau psalmody’; widely adapted
for use in other languages (in English as The Psalms: a New Translation,
London, 1963), it has also been much imitated. In present-day celebrations
of the Mass the traditional graduals are usually replaced by a responsorial
psalm.
Although the ‘pastoral’ argument was not accepted in toto by the Second
Vatican Council, its main principles were overwhelmingly adopted in
practice. In Gelineau’s later writings, therefore, especially Demain la
liturgie: essai sur l’évolution des assemblées chrétiennes (1975), a different
emphasis is evident. He argued that since the Church’s traditional song
had been swept away after the Council, new forms must be created, but he
recognized that the nature of those forms could be determined only when
the Christian Assembly itself had stabilized after a period of flux. From this
it may appear that Gelineau was no longer seeking to ‘restore’ song forms
that had been ‘altered’ in the Middle Ages. However, in ‘Liturgical Music:
France and Beyond’ (1985) he was to question the use of ‘everyday’ music
in worship, and the tendency of each culture to ‘homogenize’ the rich
variety of song forms, which resulted, for example, in a preponderance of
responsorial singing in Africa and the use of strophic forms in Europe. He
has also expressed regret for such trends as the preference for hymns
rather than a restoration of the singing of scriptural and liturgical texts, and
the modern division between singing and speaking (see Demain la liturgie)
that has led to the abandonment of the cantillation of scripture readings
and prayers (a matter to which he had earlier devoted considerable
attention; see especially Chant et musique dans le culte chrétien).
Gelineau’s historical theories have found general acceptance among
pastoral theologians, but the response of music historians has been mixed.
Hucke (1980), following Gelineau, has emphasized the discontinuity of
form between early eucharistic psalmody and ‘Gregorian’ graduals. Jeffery
(1992), on the other hand, has rejected the premise that a division exists
between ‘sacred’ and ‘pastoral’ music: he regards as anachronistic
Gelineau’s application of the label ‘artistic’ to ‘Gregorian’ chant (and draws
attention to the links between the chant and ‘folk’ song); he questions
whether responsorial psalmody was in fact the norm in the early Church,
whether early singing was necessarily simpler in style than later singing,
and whether each chant genre (e.g. introit) was of congregational origin; he
is thus sceptical of the view that later chant necessarily represents a radical
break from earlier chant.
As a composer, Gelineau is particularly known for his output of psalms and
hymns, including Psaumes (1953–5, from the Jerusalem Bible) for unison
voices and chorus, the well-known Vingt-quatre psaumes et un cantique
(1953) and Cinquante-trois psaumes et quatre cantiques (1954), Psaumes
à quatre voix mixtes I et II (1958), Refrains psalmiques (1963), Dix hymnes
du matin et du soir (1968) and Huit cantiques du Nouveau Testament
(1970). He has also written a setting for soloists and four-part choir of the
Cantique des cantiques (1995), a number of masses, including the Latin
Messe responsoriale (1953) for choir and congregation and the Festival
Mass (1974), a liturgy of the Dead, Qu’ils reposent (1984–7), for four-part
choir and orchestra (1984–7), as well as music in French Mass and Office
books (Missel noté, 1988; Le chant des Heures, 1977–97).
WRITINGS
Chant et musique dans le culte chrétien (Paris, 1962; Eng. trans., 1964, as
Voices and Instruments in Christian Worship)
‘Deuxième Concile du Vatican: la constitution sur la liturgie: commentaire
complet, vi: La musique sacrée’, La Maison-Dieu, lxxvii (1964), 193–
210
‘Programme musical d’une pastorale liturgique’, ‘Les chants
processionaux: recherches sur leur structure liturgique’, Musique
sacrée et langues modernes: deux colloques internationaux: Cresuz
and Wolfsburg 1963 (Paris, 1964), 17–38, 105–18
‘The Rôle of Sacred Music’, The Church and the Liturgy, ed. J. Wagner
(Glen Rock, NJ, 1965), 59–65
Psalmodier en français: méthode complète de psalmodie (Paris, 1969)
Dans vos assemblées: sens et pratique de la célébration liturgique (Paris,
1971)
Demain la liturgie: essai sur l’évolution des assemblées chrétiennes (Paris,
1975)
‘Music and Singing in the Liturgy’, The Study of Liturgy, ed. C. Jones and
others (Oxford, 1978, 2/1992), 440–64
‘Liturgical Music: France and Beyond’, Pastoral Music, ix/4 (1985), 23–9
‘When Dealing with Symbols, Nothing is Ever Automatic’, Pastoral Music,
x/4 (1986), 37–41
‘Cries of Supplication, Cries of Joy’, Pastoral Music, xiv/1 (1989), 40–43
‘The Path of Music’, Music and the Experience of God, ed. M. Collins, D.
Power and M. Burnim (Edinburgh, 1989)
‘Cantillation: Prayer is More Important than Song’, Pastoral Music, xv/3
(1991), 38–41
‘Les divers lieux de la célébration’, La Maison-Dieu, cxlii/4 (1992), 35–43
‘For Clergy and Musicians: Text Revision: the Missal of Paul VI: Valuable,
Durable, Questionable’, Pastoral Music, xvii/1 (1992), 14–17
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Hucke: ‘Le problème de la musique religieuse’, La Maison-Dieu, cviii/4
(1974), 7–20
H. Hucke: ‘Towards a New Historical View of Gregorian Chant’, JAMS,
xxxiii (1980), 437–67
P. Jeffery: ‘Chant East and West: toward a Renewal of the Tradition’,
Music and the Experience of God, ed. M. Collins, D. Power and M.
Burnim (Edinburgh, 1989), 20–29
P. Jeffery: Re-Envisioning Past Musical Cultures: Ethnomusicology in the
Study of Gregorian Chant (Chicago and London, 1992), 78–84, 113–
14
PETER WILTON

Gelinek [Gelineck, Jelínek], Josef

(b Sedlec, nr Sedlčany,3 Dec 1758; d Vienna, 13 April 1825). Czech
composer, pianist and piano teacher. He studied music at Sedlec and at
the Jesuit college at Svatá Hora, near Příbram. At Prague, where he
attended the university, he studied the organ and composition with J.N.
Seger, whom he also assisted as organist. In 1783 he entered the Prague
general seminary, and in 1786 was ordained priest. According to Dlabač,
Gelinek met Mozart during the latter’s visit to Prague in 1787, and after
successfully improvising on a theme by Mozart in the composer’s presence
at the house of Count Philipp Kinsky, he was recommended by Mozart to
the count. (This episode is not documented in the Mozart literature.)
Gelinek went with Kinsky to Vienna (probably as early as 1789 but not later
than 1792), where for about 15 years he was a domestic chaplain, piano
teacher and tutor for the Kinsky family. He spent the rest of his life as a
domestic chaplain to Prince Nikolaus II Esterházy.
After completing his studies in counterpoint with J.G. Albrechtsberger in
Vienna, Gelinek became popular as a pianist, composer of variations and
music teacher for noble families. In addition to his personal contacts with
Mozart and Haydn, he was a friend of the young Beethoven. In about
August 1793, after Beethoven’s lessons with Haydn proved unsatisfactory,
Gelinek introduced him to another teacher, J.B. Schenk. Despite later
 misunderstandings (see Schenk’s memoirs and Tomášek’s autobiography),
the relationship between Gelinek and Beethoven could not have
deteriorated by 1804 (as evidenced by Gelinek’s piano reduction of
Beethoven’s First Symphony) or even as late as 1816 (his variations on the
second movement of Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony). Mozart’s cadenzas
k624/626a for piano concertos are dedicated to Gelinek, not by the
composer but by the publisher Artaria (1801).
Most of Gelinek’s works are piano variations based on melodies from stage
works (by Gluck, Paisiello, Mozart, Salieri, Méhul, Cherubini, Weigl, Müller,
Winter, P. Wranitzky, Gyrowetz, Boieldieu, Rossini, Weber etc.),
instrumental compositions (Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony, second
movement), Viennese folktunes and his own themes. Their execution
demands an advanced performer. They show considerable inventiveness
and occasionally employ imitative counterpoint. They were appreciated by
contemporaries both as agreeable music and for their pedagogical value,
but were characterized as being ‘without any special inner content’ (AMZ,
iii, 1800–01, col.804). In his variations and original compositions, pre-
Romantic emotionalism in the form of chromaticism and a propensity for
Beethovenian pathos sometimes occur (e.g. the slow introduction to the
first movement of his Piano Trio op.21). Stylistic differences between
Gelinek and Beethoven are most distinct when both composers wrote
variations on the same subject (Beethoven, op.120 and woo68, 70) or set
the same text (woo133). Gelinek’s musicality and pianistic skill are well
documented by his excellent transcriptions of Mozart’s Quintet in E k614
(1803) and Symphony in G minor k550 (1806), Haydn’s String Quartet
movement h III:80I (1802) and Beethoven’s First Symphony (1804).
Most of Gelinek’s compositions were printed during his lifetime. Many of
the numerous variations, fantasias and potpourris attributed to him are
spurious.
WORKS
(selective list)

printed works first published in Vienna unless otherwise stated

variations
solo piano; thematic catalogue of 120 sets of variations in Proier

[10] on Là ci darem la mano (Mozart: Don Giovanni) (1791); [6] on Seid uns zum
zweitenmal willkommen; [8] on Wie stark ist nicht dein Zauberton, [6] on Ein
Mädchen oder Weibchen (Mozart: Die Zauberflöte (1792–3); [6] on Nel cor più non
mi sento (Paisiello: La molinara) (1796); Andante avec variations (1799); [6] on
march (Mozart: Die Zauberflöte) (Offenbach, 1805)
[6] on Ein Mädel und ein Glasel Wein (Müller: Die Schwestern von Prag) (c1810);
[4] on Ah, perdona (Mozart: La clemenza di Tito) (1810); [8] on pas de deux (Haibel:
Le nozze disturbate) (1811); on 2nd movt (Beethoven: Sym. no.7) (1816); on waltz,
[6] on hunters’ chorus (Weber: Der Freischütz) (1822); [1] on Diabelli’s waltz (1824)

other works
Orch: 2 hpd concs., CZ-KRa
Over 30 chbr works, incl.: Sonata, hpd/pf (1795); Sonatina, leicht und angenehm,
pf, no.2 (1795); Trio, hpd/pf, vn, vc, op.10 (1798), ed. in MVH, vi (1962); Sonate
facile, hpd/pf, vn, op.11 (1798); Grand trio, hpd/pf, vn, vc, op.21 (1802); Sonata, pf,
vn, vc (1805); Sonata, pf, fl/vn (1810); Rondo, pf (c1810); Rondo, avec la pédale
nommée la musique turque, pf, no.3 (1812); Rondo, czakan, pf (c1813–14); Rondo
ou Polonoise favorite, pf (c1813–14); Concertante variations, pf, fl/vn (1815); over
30 dances, hpd/pf/(vn, bass); marches, pf; variations, fl solo
Over 40 pf arrs. of works by Beethoven, Giuliani, Hänsel, Haydn, Mayseder, Mozart,
Romberg, Viotti etc.
Vocal (1v, pf): Hymne guter Bürger (1799); In questa tomba oscura, arietta (1808); Il
passeggio (canzonetta), La partenza, in XXXIV canzonette o romanzi (?c1808–15);
1 song in 6 deutsche Gedichte (1815); other songs in collections
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ČSHS
DlabačzKL
GerberNL
MGG1 (K.M. Komma and F. Vernillat)
J.F. von Schöfeld, ed.: Jb der Tonkunst von Wien und Prag (Vienna,
1796/R), 18, 82, 117
J. Čeleda: ‘Mozartovec J. Jelínek’ [The Mozartian Josef Gelinek],
Bertramka, ii/2 (1950), 5
P. Nettl: Forgotten Musicians (New York, 1951/R), 272ff
C. Czerny: Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben (MS, 1842, A-Wgm); Eng.
trans., MQ, xlii (1956), 302–17; ed. W. Kolneder (Strasbourg 1968)
G. Proier: Abbé J. Gelinek als Variationenkomponist (diss., U. of Vienna,
1962) [incl. thematic catalogue of variations]
F. Eibner: ‘Die authentische Klavierfassung von Haydns Variationen über
“Gott erhalte”’, Haydn Yearbook 1970, 281–306
MILAN POŠTOLKA

Gellert, Christian Fürchtegott

(b Hainichen, Saxony, 4 July 1715; d Leipzig, 13 Dec 1769). German poet.
His studies at Leipzig University were interrupted because of poverty, and
not completed until 1743. From 1744 he taught poetry, rhetoric and later
moral philosophy at Leipzig. He was the most important figure in the
German Enlightenment before Lessing, and his simple, honest fables and
songs had a broad appeal. His most important work is probably the novel
Leben der schwedischen Gräfin von G*** (1747–8); he also wrote plays
and a quantity of verse, including Lieder (1743), Fabeln und Erzählungen
(1746 and 1748) and the enduringly popular Geistliche Oden und Lieder
(1757), 55 of which were included in C.P.E. Bach’s Herrn Professor
Gellerts geistliche Oden und Lieder mit Melodien (Berlin, 1758; Anhang,
1764; wq194–5). His Singspiel Das Orakel (1747) was eventually set by
Fleischer and, incompletely, by Hiller. Beethoven’s six Gellert songs op.48
(including ‘Die Himmel rühmen des Ewigen Ehre’), four Haydn settings of
the late 1790s, and songs by Loewe and Tchaikovsky, indicate the wide
appeal of his verses to composers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FriedlaenderDL
MGG1 (F. Wodtke)
C.F. Gellert: Sämmtliche Schriften, i–ix, ed. J.A. Schlegel and G.L. Heyer
(Leipzig, 1769–74/R)
C.F. Gellert: Poetische Werke (Berlin, n.d.)
K. Goedeke and others: Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen
Dichtung, iv/1 (Dresden, 1891, 3/1916/R), 35ff
M. Schneiderwirth: Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied unter dem
Einfluss Gellerts und Klopstocks (Münster, 1908)
E. Werth: Untersuchung zu Gellerts geistlichen Oden und Liedern (diss.,
U. of Breslau, 1936)
F. Helber: Der Stil Gellerts in den Fabeln und Gedichten (diss., U. of
Tübingen, 1937)
S. Town: ‘Sechs Lieder von Christian Fürchtegott Gellert (1715–1769) as
set by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven: a
comparative analysis’, NATS Bulletin, xxxvi/5 (1979–80), 30–36
D.P. Schroeder: ‘Haydn and Gellert: Parallels in Eighteenth-Century Music
and Literature’, CMc, no.35 (1983), 7–18
PETER BRANSCOMBE

Gelmetti, Gianluigi
(b Rome, 11 Sept 1945). Italian conductor. His first studies were at the
Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome, from which he received a diploma in
conducting in 1965. Gelmetti also worked with Franco Ferrara (1962–7)
and Celibidache, and with Hans Swarowsky in Vienna. In 1980 he was
appointed music director at Milan's Orchestra dei Pomeriggi Musicale, and
from this period his national reputation developed. It led to his appointment
(1982–4) as music director for RAI in Rome, and as music director at the
Rome Opera (1984–5). Gelmetti took up the post of principal guest
conductor at the Stuttgart RSO in 1987, and was its principal conductor
from 1989 to 1995. In 1990 he also assumed the conductorship of the
Monte Carlo PO, and held the post for two seasons. Since 1992 he has
appeared as a guest conductor at La Scala, La Fenice and other leading
European houses, at numerous festivals and with the Berlin PO, Munich
PO and Dresden PO, among other orchestras. Gelmetti has developed a
reputation as an accomplished Rossinian, as recordings of Il barbiere di
Siviglia and La gazza ladra confirm, and in recent years has been closely
associated with Siena's Accademia Musicale Chigiana.
CHARLES BARBER

Geltzmann [Gelzmann], Wolfgang.

See Getzmann, Wolfgang.

GEMA.
Gesellschaft für Musikalische Aufführungs- und Mechanische
Vervielfältigungsrechte. See Copyright(§VI, under Germany).
Gemblaco, Johannes Franchois
de.
See Franchois de Gemblaco, Johannes.

Gemell.
See Gymel.

Geminiani, Francesco (Saverio)

[Xaviero]
(b Lucca, bap. 5 Dec 1687; d Dublin, 17 Sept 1762). Italian composer,
violinist and theorist. His contemporaries in England considered him the
equal of Handel and Corelli, but except for the concerti grossi op.3, a few
sonatas and the violin treatise, little of his musical and theoretical output is
known today. He was, nevertheless, one of the greatest violinists of his
time, an original if not a prolific composer and an important theorist.
1. Lucca, Rome, Naples, 1687–1714.
2. First London period, 1714–32.
3. London, Paris, Dublin, 1732–62.
4. Reception.
5. Concertos.
6. Sonatas.
7. ‘The Inchanted Forrest’.
8. Reworkings and transcriptions.
9. Treatises.
10. Vocal music.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ENRICO CARERI
Geminiani, Francesco
1. Lucca, Rome, Naples, 1687–1714.
Although the exact date is not known, Geminiani was probably born two
days before his baptism, on 3 December 1687, the feast day of St Francis
Xavier. His father, Giuliano, a violinist in the Cappella Palatina of Lucca,
may have been his first violin teacher. Several contemporary sources name
Corelli, Alessandro Scarlatti and Carlo Ambrogie Lonati as his teachers. It
is still not certain where and when he received his musical training, but we
may assume it to have been when he was not in Lucca. His name figures
in the register of S Maria Corteorlandini, the parish to which the Geminiani
family belonged, between 1691 and 1704. In December 1706, and during
the carnival of the following year, he was certainly in Naples: it is evident
from a contractual document expiring on 17 March 1707 that he played first
violin for a whole season at the Teatro dei Fiorentini. On 27 August 1707 he
took over his father's position with the Cappella Palatina and remained
there until September 1709.
Thus April 1704 to December 1706 is the period in which Geminiani was
most likely a pupil of Corelli and Alessandro Scarlatti in Rome, though his
name is not found in archival documents relating to musical activity there.
The most plausible explanation for this is that he spent only a short time in
Rome; perhaps the presence there of a fair number of highly regarded
violinists, such as Giuseppe Valentini, Matteo Fornari, Domenico
Ghirladucci, Giuseppe Mellini and Antonio Montanari, persuaded him to try
his luck elsewhere. That he was, however, close to Corelli is beyond doubt.
In the preface to A Treatise of Good Taste in the Art of Musick (1749)
Geminiani said that he had the pleasure of discussing with Corelli the
latter's ‘Follia’ (op.5 no.12) ‘and heard him acknowledge the Satisfaction he
took in composing it, and the Value he set upon it’. We have no knowledge
of Geminiani between the end of 1709 and his departure for London, but it
is not impossible that he took up his musical studies again, even though
the high fees he earned in Lucca suggest that he was already a fully
fledged artist. Naples brought humiliation; according to Burney, Geminiani
was demoted from first violin to viola because of his inability to play in time,
and this was perhaps one of the reasons that prompted the young and
promising virtuoso to seek his fortune elsewhere. In 1714 he left Italy,
perhaps never to return.
Geminiani, Francesco
2. First London period, 1714–32.
England was a particularly happy choice. Italian music was familiar all over
Europe, but the English devotion to Corelli could not but favour a violinist
trained in his school. England offered other advantages too. Violin
technique was inferior to that in Italy, and it was not difficult for a pupil of
Corelli to make his way as a virtuoso. Nor was there any lack of patrons
whose love of Italy, inspired by the Grand Tour, made them ready to take
an Italian artist under their wing. Geminiani dedicated the op.1 sonatas
(1716) to Baron Johann Adolf Kielmansegge, his first London patron.
According to Hawkins, Kielmansegge favoured the composer by arranging
a performance before the king in which Geminiani was accompanied on
the harpsichord by Handel. With these sonatas, which clearly stem from
Corelli, Geminiani presented himself to the public as Corelli's pupil. To
judge by the number of editions and reprintings that followed the Meares
edition, they enjoyed considerable success at the time, though Burney
maintained that few players were capable of performing them. They must
have been in Geminiani's repertory as a virtuoso from the time of his arrival
in London, and may have been composed while he was still in Italy. His
success was connected also with the performance of some concerti grossi,
which were published only some years later as opp.2 and 3 (1732). He was
admired principally as a player, even if his public performances were quite
rare events. ‘Geminiani’, wrote Burney, ‘was seldom heard in public during
his long residence in England. His compositions, scholars, and the
presents he received from the great, whenever he could be prevailed upon
to play at their houses, were his chief support’.
In 1725 Geminiani was one of the founder-members of the Philo-Musicae
et Architecturae Societas, a masonic lodge known as Queen's Head; in
confirmation of the distinction he had achieved during his more than ten
years in London, he was awarded the office of Perpetual Dictator. The first
decision of the lodge was to organize a subscription for printing
Geminiani's concerto arrangements of the first six sonatas of Corelli's op.5.
We do not know the specific aims of the lodge, but most probably it was a
musical society with a masonic rite, rather than a corporate mutual
assistance association on the lines of the Congregazione dei Musici di S
Cecilia in Rome. The concertos, dedicated to the ‘Sacra Maestà di Giorgio,
Re della Gran Brettagna, Francia ed Ibernia’ and subscribed to by leading
members of the English nobility, were published in 1726 and enjoyed
considerable success. The Philo-Musicae was not the only society to which
Geminiani belonged; his name appears beside those of Giovanni
Bononcini and Nicola Haym as one of the first members of the Academy of
Vocal Music on 1 March 1726.
In the competition to appoint an organist of St George's Church on 19
November 1725, Geminiani was chosen as an examiner along with the
most renowned musicians in London. Thus he was considered an authority
in London musical circles even before the publication of the concerti grossi
opp.2 and 3. His reputation rested also on his teaching, which, to judge
from the number of his pupils alone, must have been one of his principal
activities. Many of these achieved fame, including the violinist Matthew
Dubourg, the composers Avison, Festing and Carey, the organists and
composers Joseph Kelway and John Worgan, the singer Cecilia Young and
the publisher Robert Bremner.
In 1728 William Capel, 3rd Earl of Essex, who had been a patron and pupil
of Geminiani, offered him the possibility of becoming Master and Composer
of the State Music in Ireland, but Geminiani declined since it was
incompatible with his Catholic faith. The offer came at a delicate moment in
his life. A time of relative stability was coming to an end, a period spent
entirely in London, where the composer had enjoyed the highest esteem.
He was now about to enter a much more difficult phase, characterized by
frequent journeys between London, Paris and Dublin, by often risky
commercial and editorial ventures, and by a period of intense musical
activity in the wake of his success with the opp.2 and 3 concerti grossi – a
success he would never quite match in the future.
At the end of 1731 Geminiani organized a series of 20 concerts in London
at Hickford's Room. This was a concert season of the modern kind, lasting
five months and run by subscription; the proceeds would help him to
publish the concerti grossi the following year. These must have been
played there regularly, as must have been the concerto transcriptions of
Corelli's op.5, of which the second collection had appeared in 1729. The
concerts began on 2 December 1731 and ran until the end of April 1732.
On 22 April the Daily Journal announced the first Walsh edition of op.3, and
on 8 June the Daily Post gave notice of the printing of op.2. These two
collections of concerti grossi remained in his later years (and are again
today) the most commonly performed and highly esteemed of Geminiani's
works. Their publication brought his first London period to a close. From
this point the composer's fortune went into a gradual and irreversible
decline. It is true that his fame remained more or less intact in Europe up to
his death, but this rested almost wholly on the fact that his op.3 became a
classic, like the op.5 of Corelli and the op.6 of Handel.
Geminiani, Francesco
3. London, Paris, Dublin, 1732–62.
The year 1714 had been decisive in Geminiani's life, for it was then that he
left Italy for good. 1732 was even more important, as it represented both
the culmination of his fame and the start of his difficulties. Towards the end
of this year he went to Paris and stayed there until 20 September 1733.
This can be deduced from letters in the correspondence of William Capel
which allow us to follow the composer's movements from Paris to London
and then to Ireland. The letters also give us the name of his Irish patron,
Charles Moore, Baron of Tullamore. Further, there are hints here for the
first time of his activity as an art dealer, which was to become one of his
chief occupations. In a letter dated 1 October 1733, sent to Capel from
Paris by Thomas Pelham, we read, ‘Geminiani went from hence about ten
days ago with Ld Tullamore for England. I believe he got just money
enough here, with the help of some Pictures, to defray his Expences’.
On 6 December 1733 Geminiani arrived in Dublin to join Moore's retinue,
and on 15 December he gave his first public concert there. He opened a
concert hall in Dame Street, Spring Gardens, later known as ‘Geminiani's
Great Room’, which he used also for selling pictures. According to Flood,
Geminiani gave two concerts in spring 1734 just before returning to
London, and in 1737 he again settled in Dublin, where he remained until
1740. It was above all his publishing activities that took him from Dublin to
Paris where his presence is documented from November 1740. The first
indication is a request for a printing privilege, submitted by the composer in
person on 17 November; it was obtained on 31 December. There followed
soon afterwards the French editions of the concerti grossi op.3, and in
1743 the Pièces de clavecin. Geminiani spent about a year in Paris, time
enough for the engraving and printing of his music and perhaps also for
acquiring paintings for resale in England.
A letter from G.G. Zamboni in London to Michael Maittaire, dated 31
October 1741, tells us that Geminiani was in the English capital once
again. Certainly he was there on 19 March 1742 to give a concert ‘by
command of their Royal Highnesses the late Prince and Princess of Wales’
in the Haymarket Theatre. Shortly afterwards he dedicated to the Prince of
Wales the concerto grosso arrangement of his second set of violin sonatas
op.4, the original version having been published in 1739. These were years
of intense compositional and publishing activity; in addition to the
arrangement of op.4, the English edition of the Pièces de clavecin and
numerous reprintings of earlier works, he had the op.5 cello sonatas in
hand and a new collection of concerti grossi, op.7.
On 9 February 1745 Geminiani directed, at the New Theatre in Haymarket,
L'incostanza delusa, a pasticcio opera which was not a success with the
public. Between the acts he performed his new concerti grossi, which were
published the following year as op.7. The engraving of the concertos and
the op.5 cello sonatas was carried out in the Netherlands, where Geminiani
went in 1746. The two new collections did not meet with the success he
had hoped for, and from 1748 he devoted himself mainly to theoretical
writings. Except for the arrangements of earlier works and the brief
digression marked by The Inchanted Forrest (see below), his work as a
composer was now effectively over.
In April 1750 Geminiani was once again in London to direct a concerto
spirituale at the Drury Lane Theatre. According to Hawkins, the profits from
the concert allowed Geminiani to indulge his passion for travel and to
return to Paris. The first indication of this is again a request for a printing
privilege, submitted on 7 October 1751. In the same year he was
publishing at his own expense his treatise The Art of Playing on the Violin
(op.9). A third stay in Paris lasted longer than the earlier two. Geminiani
was again in the city on 31 March 1754 for the performance at the Théâtre
des Tuileries of La forest enchantée, a pantomime for which he had written
the music. On his return to London he published a concert version, which
enjoyed only limited success. In spring 1759 he was back in Ireland, and
established himself at Coothill as music master to Charles Coote, later
Count of Bellomont. On 3 March 1760 Geminiani appeared in public for the
last time at the Great Musick Hall in Fishamble Street. He died two years
later, on 17 September 1762, ‘at his Lodgings on College-Green’, as the
Dublin Gazette announced the next day. According to Flood, he was buried
on 19 September ‘in the Churchyard of St. Andrew, near College Green,
the Church of the Irish Parliament’.
Geminiani, Francesco
4. Reception.
With few exceptions, contemporary criticism of Geminiani was quite
favourable, and not only with regard to his own music. He was credited with
having set English musical taste on the right path by encouraging the study
and performance of Corelli's music, and with having made an important
contribution to the forming of an English school of violinists and
composers. The tone is frequently enthusiastic, as for example in the
writings of Avison, John Potter and Jean-Adam Serre. Geminiani's name is
often placed next to those of Handel and Corelli; even Burney, who was
critical of him, wrote in a letter to Thomas Twining on 8 December 1781
that Handel, Geminiani and Corelli had been the only gods of his younger
days. It is perhaps in the severe criticisms of Burney, partly anticipated by
William Hayes (1753), that we may find the source of the poor esteem in
which Geminiani's music is held in our own time. The main points of
Burney's criticism were Geminiani's rhythmic and melodic irregularity, the
asymmetry of his phrases, and above all ‘a confusion in the effect of the
whole, from the too great business and dissimilitude of the several parts’.
Irregularity, asymmetry and confusion have remained the keywords in a
critical tradition that has shown little interest in developing any greater
depth of argument. To these has been added the epithet ‘conservative’,
used in Geminiani's case in a pejorative sense. He was a conservative, it
was claimed, because he did not contribute to the general renewal of
instrumental forms, but remained bound to the Corellian tradition; he did
not play any active part in the development of musical language. This
charge has often rested on the premise that a work, to be valid, must
necessarily be original and contribute something new. In fact, the use of
terminology derived from the concept of evolution often tends to simplify
what is in essence rather more complex. It would be hard to deny that
Geminiani's earliest compositions drew inspiration from Corelli's works, as
did those of many other composers of his generation. But Geminiani was
also the composer of the cello sonatas op.5, the concerti grossi op.7 and
The Inchanted Forrest. These works cannot be reduced to any precise
model; they are certainly not Corellian.
Geminiani, Francesco
5. Concertos.
Geminiani composed 47 concertos; if we exclude the arrangements of
Corelli's opp.1, 3 and 5 and of his own op.4, the number is just 23. In
Geminiani's concerti grossi opp.2 and 3 (1732) Corelli is the principal point
of reference, but Geminiani also demonstrated a style of his own. The
concertos are in four movements on the model of the Corellian sonata da
chiesa, which has led critics to dismiss Geminiani as a conservative, as if
this structure were itself sufficient grounds for a historical and aesthetic
appraisal rather than merely a distinctive aspect of his Roman training. It is
true that the concertos contain rhythmic and melodic formulae and
harmonic formations that can be clearly linked to his teacher's style. There
are, indeed, some genuine quotations: for example, the Adagio that opens
op.3 no.3 clearly recalls the Allemande of Corelli's op.5 no.8. But the use of
common components of musical language does not necessarily mean that
the results are similar. Both in the homophonic movements and in the
fugues Geminiani showed little regard for the structural value of themes
and subjects. In the former he faithfully adhered to a principle of
spontaneous germination, in which the initial phrase has no thematic or
‘punctuating’ function but is simply the antecedent of the next phrase,
which in turn leads to the next, and so on. Similarly, in the fugues the
subject rarely returns in full, and is often reduced to its initial notes. There
is, however, no lack of unity in the music; the phrases are asymmetrical,
but the total effect is far from chaotic. The irregularity of the phrases, and
the rhapsodic effect that results from this, are tempered by rhythmic and
melodic homogeneity.
Geminiani's concertos are characterized by firm harmonic stability.
Modulations are frequent but usually transitory; however, they were
perceived as individual and characteristic. ‘It is observable’, wrote Hawkins,
‘upon the works of Geminiani, that his modulations are not only original, but
that his harmonies consist of such combinations as were never introduced
into music till his time’. It was the variety of transitory modulations that
surprised Hawkins, rather than the harmonic organization of the whole
movement, which was in itself unoriginal. The perceived novelty was not so
much in the choice of new keys as in the way of arriving at them and in
preparing the modulations.
Op.7 (1746) resulted from two contrasting tendencies in the composer. On
the one hand, Geminiani had in mind a new and original kind of music not
tied to the past; on the other hand, he intended to create a model such as
Corelli's op.6 had been for half a century. This contradiction is the strongest
characteristic of Geminiani's op.7, and was perhaps one cause of its
failure. The first tendency may be seen in the third, fourth and sixth
concertos, the second in the fugue of the first concerto and in the
dedication. A work with claims to classicism could not but be dedicated to
the Academy of Ancient Music and presented in terms of the final victory of
a tradition firmly rooted in the past. In the sixth concerto ‘a 5, 6, 7, 8 Parti
reali’, the experimental character of op.7 is particularly evident, and it was
perhaps the composer's intention to impress the public with novelty. It
consists of 14 ‘movements’, varying in length, key, rhythm, form and
instrumentation, which for the most part are not separated from each other
by double bars.
Geminiani, Francesco
6. Sonatas.
The three principal collections of sonatas shared the same fate as the
concerti grossi; they were reworked, transcribed for different instruments,
and ‘nuovamente ristampate e con diligenza corrette’. Of op.1 alone there
were no fewer than five versions: the original one for violin (1716), the trio
sonatas (in their turn performable as concertos by adding the ripieno parts
provided), the edition of 1739 (fig.2), the transcriptions for harpsichord and
those for flute. The op.4 violin sonatas (1739), of which another version
exists for concerto grosso, were transcribed almost unchanged for
harpsichord. Op.5 (1746) was published at the same time in both its
original version for cello and in a transcription for violin. The other sonatas,
with few exceptions, are derived from earlier works: the two collections of
Pièces de clavecin (1743, 1762) from opp.1, 2, 4, 5 and 7 and from the
treatises for violin and guitar. Not counting the arrangements and
transcriptions, Geminiani's sonatas number just 30: 24 for violin (opp.1 and
4) and six for cello (op.5). The first violin sonatas, or at any rate some of
them, were probably composed in Italy and clearly show the strong
influence of Corelli's op.5 (1700). With the second collection, published a
full 23 years later, Geminiani distanced himself decisively from the
Corellian model and appears to have drawn inspiration from contemporary
French music. The cello sonatas are entirely original and it would be hard
to refer these to any particular style or model.
In op.1, where his master's influence is particularly evident, Geminiani
nevertheless reveals a style in some ways diametrically opposed to
Corelli's; we need notice only the extreme irregularity of rhythm and
melody, the asymmetry of the musical phrases and, above all, the greater
complexity and variety of the harmony. The 12 sonatas follow the same
ordering as Corelli's op.5: the first six are da chiesa, the others da camera.
But Geminiani seems to have preferred the four-movement scheme of
Corelli's da chiesa trio sonatas, and in this respect he did not follow the
example of op.5. According to Burney, the sonatas were considered ‘still
more masterly and elaborate than those of Corelli’ and few players were
able to perform them. This was not only because of the frequent double
stopping, wide intervals and complex ornaments and arpeggios, but also
because of the unusually wide compass, g–a'''. Despite their relative tonal
stability, the sonatas are harmonically more complex than the concertos,
and their modulations more frequent, more rapid and sometimes more
daring. This is both the cause and the effect of an often irregular and
involved melodic articulation.
In the op.4 violin sonatas Geminiani showed more interest in the
expressive possibilities of the upper part; the prevalent idiom is decidedly
homophonic, and there is not even a single fugue. Greater attention is paid
to the internal organization of the movements, and there is a marked
tendency towards cyclic forms. The influence of French music is evident in
the frequent use of the rondo, of the air tendre in slow movements and of
trios in parallel tonality, and it can be felt also in the use of particular
harmonies. The most striking features of op.4 are the extraordinary
abundance of ornamentation and expressive marks and a notable
simplification of the bass line, both resulting from the adoption of a
predominantly homophonic idiom.
The op.5 cello sonatas continue the lines of development initiated with
op.4. But although the first subject has now assumed major importance,
the compositional principle has not changed: the phrases succeed each
other freely, and their rhythmic and melodic attraction is as between
contiguous elements. Their irregularity or asymmetry depends not on the
number of bars, but rather on the systematic use of elision, contraction,
syncopation and retardation; the whole is further complicated by numerous
embellishments and diminutions. This does not mean, as Burney put it, a
‘confusion in the effect of the whole’, because Geminiani created different
points of reference by repeatedly restating the same rhythmic figurations
and the same thematic motifs. It is in the cello sonatas, more than in op.7,
that his mature style is fully revealed.
Geminiani, Francesco
7. ‘The Inchanted Forrest’.
La forest enchantée was commissioned from Geminiani by the architect
and theatre director Giovanni Niccolò Servandoni, one of the most
interesting figures in late Baroque French theatre. He was known for
illusionist effects in his spectacles, which he made use of in this
pantomime, staged in Paris in the Salle des Machines at the Tuileries. The
subject, from Tasso's Gerusalemme liberata (xiii, xviii), enabled Servandoni
to realize some remarkable scenic effects; in the words of the review in
Annonces, affiches, et avis divers (10 April 1754), ‘Tous ce que l'Art de la
Peinture, de la Perspective & des Méchaniques peut fournir de plus noble
& de plus surprenant, est déployé dans ce Spectacle’. The show was not a
success, however, and after the first performance an anonymous marquis
published a letter in strongly ironic tones, apparently attempting to restore
the play's fortunes. This made no mention at all of Geminiani's music, but
in a review dated 15 April 1754 Friedrich Melchior Grimm stated that the
pantomime ‘is accompanied by bad music [une mauvaise musique] by M.
Geminiani, which is meant to depict the various events’. It is hard to say
whether or not the ‘mauvaise musique’ of Geminiani contributed to the
show's failure. The composer was much appreciated in Paris, but his
success there, as in London, was tied almost exclusively to the concerti
grossi op.3, and his later compositions did not find favour with the public.
The play is in five acts; the first, third and fifth are set in the forest of Saron,
the second in a mosque in Jerusalem and the fourth in the Christian
encampment. The concert version, of which we have both the autograph
score and the printed edition, is differently divided: there are two parts, the
first in D minor and the second in D major. In this guise it certainly appears
original, or at any rate unusual – a kind of programme music on a
considerable scale. But if we examine the programme, the reviews and,
above all, the verses of Tasso, we find something rather different. A
comparison of the individual movements with the various scenes of the
pantomime reveals that the music of the first four acts consists of four
distinct concerti grossi. The final act is different: here the music more
directly follows the action (Rinaldo's heroic exploit) and cannot be classified
in terms of any normal concerto grosso form. What we have in the work as
a whole is essentially an adaptation of previously composed music typical
of Geminiani, or, if we allow that the music was newly composed for the
occasion, evidence of his inability to conceive of compositional processes
other than those of the concerto grosso. There is an obvious stylistic unity
in The Inchanted Forrest, and it is therefore highly improbable that the
music was composed at different periods, as were, for instance, the two
collections of Pièces de clavecin. This is not programme music, but music
adapted to a programme (the possibility that the music already existed
does not affect the substance of this argument). It does not seek to imitate
or describe anything, as Vivaldi did, for example, in the ‘Four Seasons’, but
is simply a background for the pantomime. Many features of Geminiani's
earlier compositions, especially the prevalence of contrapuntal writing,
have now almost completely disappeared. Although the style of the
composer is still recognizable, it has now changed profoundly, and in some
respects could be described as galant.
Geminiani, Francesco
8. Reworkings and transcriptions.
The music reworked by Geminiani can be divided into three categories:
transcriptions of his own compositions for various instruments, those of
other composers' music, and works ‘newly reprinted and carefully
corrected’. To the first category belong the trio sonatas (c1742) taken from
op.1, the two collections of Pièces de clavecin (1743, 1762) from opp.1, 2,
4, 5 and 7 and from the treatises on the guitar and the violin, the concerti
grossi (1743) from the violin sonatas op.4, and the violin transcriptions
(1746) of the op.5 cello sonatas. In the second category come the concerti
grossi from Corelli's op.5 (1726, 1729) and opp.1 and 3 (1735), and the
transcriptions reproduced in the treatises. In the third are the violin sonatas
op.1 (1739) and the concerti grossi opp.2 and 3 in score (c1755).
Comparing these with their respective originals, we find one common
feature: with only a few exceptions, Geminiani tended to simplify his own
music, to make it more easily playable. This is not to say that the original
compositions are thereby impoverished; the simplification is often a means
by which Geminiani sought to modernize his music. The work of
transcription responds to an essentially practical purpose, and there is also
the desire to keep music alive which has been otherwise judged to be out
of fashion. Geminiani's motives for reworking pieces often overlap; there
was the desire to improve a composition tout court, to update it for modern
taste, to illustrate his own theoretical principles, to make the music
enjoyable for a wider public, to keep his own reputation alive and of course
to make money. The emphasis differs from one case to another, but all
factors are normally present in some measure.
Geminiani, Francesco
9. Treatises.
During the last 15 years of his life, between 1748 and 1762, Geminiani
published no fewer than six treatises. Hawkins tells us that a seventh was
stolen from the composer during his final stay in Dublin. A common feature
in the treatises is extreme brevity in the non-musical text, limited for the
most part to the preface and, in a few cases, some introductory rules.
Rather than treatises as such, these are manuals of essentially practical
application; and yet they are sources of great interest, not only because
they clarify certain matters relating to Geminiani's style but also because
they deal with important questions concerning performing practice, such as
the use of vibrato, realization of continuo, and dynamic markings.
The aim of the first two treatises was to explain the most appropriate use of
trills, mordents, turns, crescendos and diminuendos ‘for playing any
Composition in a good Taste’. Geminiani considered the correct
performance of ornaments to be essential if a composition is to ‘move the
listener’ and communicate ‘the highest Degree of Pleasure’. In the Treatise
of Good Taste in the Art of Musick (1749) he described the meaning of
each embellishment and the sentiments it is supposed to express; he also
gave a table ‘of the elements of playing and singing in a good Taste’. Of
particular interest is what he said about vibrato (he advised its use ‘as often
as possible’), and about dynamic signs and the acciaccatura.
In The Art of Playing on the Violin (1751) Geminiani offered a small number
of precepts; for true knowledge of the instrument he resorted to notes
rather than words. Much space is again devoted to ornaments, which are
considered the chief vehicle for expressing the sentiments. Depending on
its position and method of execution, a mordent can express ‘Fury, Anger,
Resolution’, or ‘Mirth, Satisfaction’, or again ‘Horror, Fear, Grief,
Lamentation’; it is for the violinist to communicate one or another sentiment
‘according to the intentions of the composer’.
In the eighth lesson Geminiani advised avoiding ‘that wretched Rule of
drawing the Bow down at the first Note of every Bar’. The main
disadvantage of this rule, codified in France and deriving essentially from
the need to keep time in dance music, lay in the inevitable consecutive
bowings, whether up or down. Considering the normal brevity of the verbal
text, relatively generous space is given to dealing with the still graver error
of marking time with the bow. In this connection we must remember
Burney's comment on Geminiani, that ‘as a player he was always deficient
in Time’, and that at Naples, where he had been called to conduct, ‘he was
soon discovered to be so wild and unsteady a timist, that instead of
regulating and conducting the band, he threw it into confusion; as none of
the performers were able to follow him in his tempo rubato, and other
unexpected accelerations and relaxations of measure’. Again, concerning
the failure of the concerto spirituale that Geminiani directed at Drury Lane
in 1750, Burney wrote that ‘the unsteady manner in which he led seemed
to confirm the Neapolitan account of his being a bad mental arithmetician,
or calculator of time’. Thus we have, on the one hand, Geminiani
maintaining that not every beat should be strongly marked (as was
recommended in other contemporary treatises), and, on the other, his
being criticized as ‘a bad mental arithmetician’ (i.e. not being able to keep
time). Since there was also frequent criticism of his music for its rhythmic
and melodic irregularity and asymmetry of phrases, we might conclude that
Geminiani, as player, composer and theoretician, must have differed from
his contemporaries in his ideas on rhythm. His objection to metrical
accentuation, his tempo rubato and the rhythmic complexity of his music
are three indications of the same concept of rhythm. As against the rigid
grammatical scansion of accents, Geminiani advanced what Giulio Caccini
called ‘sprezzatura di canto’ and Nicola Vicentino ‘quel certo ordine di
procedere nelle composizioni che non si può scrivere’; and for a regular
organization of phrases and periods he substituted more involved and
irregular rhythmic procedures.
Of the greatest interest, finally, are the indications he gave of the correct
method of holding the violin and the bow, for the positions advised by
Geminiani are one of the few points of reference for interpreting the post-
Corellian string repertory. The treatise is, in fact, the first to be addressed to
non-amateur players, and it was followed five years later by that of Leopold
Mozart; therefore it is one of the few important sources on violin technique
in use in the first half of the 18th century.
The Guida armonica (c1752) is the most original and least known of
Geminiani's treatises. It is a kind of dictionary, designed by the author to
offer composers a wider range of harmonies than was normally in use. On
each of its 34 pages (except the first and last) there are 66 short passages
of figured-bass, none exceeding five notes. The final note is marked with a
number referring the reader to a page on which can be found the harmonic
passages starting with this note. In this way one can continue ‘from
Passage to Passage to what Length you please’. The originality of the work
lies precisely in the idea that the collage of harmonic passages is
theoretically infinite, and is what determines the musical form. The
composer has only to choose and combine an unlimited number of
fragments from among the 2236 at his disposal, without concerning himself
with the upper parts or the rhythm, as if once the bass is complete the
composition can be considered effectively finished. Thus Geminiani's
musical style and theoretical thought seem to agree; if a composition takes
its form from a figured bass, the rhythm and melody will inevitably reflect
this, and indeed it is the harmonic richness that is frequently praised in
Geminiani's music, while censure has focussed on its formal irregularity
and asymmetry.
The Art of Accompaniament (c1756) consists of a series of figured-bass
patterns, each followed by several possible realizations. The same
harmonic progressions are repeated several times, following a variation
principle not unlike that of Corelli's ‘Follia’, with the aim of offering the
beginner an ample repertory of scales, arpeggios, broken chords and
different figurations that can be employed in harpsichord accompaniment.
The basic principle of the treatise is summarized by Arnold as ‘economy of
the evanescent tone of the Harpsichord’; to prolong the sound of the
instrument the player should not neglect the possibilities contained in a
chord, but should know how to apply them economically.
 The final treatise, The Art of Playing the Guitar or Cittra (1760), is devoted
to the instrument known in England as the ‘lesser guitar’ or ‘English guitar’.
It consists of a short introduction followed by 11 sonatas performable both
on this instrument and on the violin. Unlike the compositions included in the
violin treatise, these sonatas are of purely didactic value and inferior in
quality to all the composer's other sonatas.
Geminiani, Francesco
10. Vocal music.
Despite the scant interest Geminiani always showed in vocal music, some
compositions attributed to him enjoyed wide circulation, as is shown by the
many surviving manuscript and printed copies. But these are parodies or
adaptations, in which the composer, notwithstanding his distinct inclination
towards transcriptions, probably had no part. It was, in fact, common
practice to set texts to successful instrumental compositions and publish
them in miscellaneous volumes or in songsheets. The only certain example
of Geminiani's vocal writing is a short cantata for soprano, Nella stagione
appunto, probably composed in Rome or Naples before he left for London.
It consists of two arias, each with preceding recitative; stylistically it
resembles many Roman cantatas of the early 18th century. Nevertheless,
one can recognize in both the vocal line and the lower parts the rhythmic
and melodic mobility so characteristic of the composer.
Geminiani, Francesco
WORKS
published in London unless otherwise stated

sonatas

op.

1 [12] Sonate (A, d, e, D, B ,

g, c, b, F, E, a, d), vn, vle,
hpd (1716), rev. with added
ornaments and fingerings,
pubd as Le prime sonate
(1739/R); ed. R.L. Finney
(Northampton, MA, 1935),
and ed. W. Kolneder
(Mainz, 1961)
— Six Solos … compos'd by
Mr Handel, sigr. Geminiani,
sigr. Somis, sigr. Brivio
(1730), no.5 (D), vn, bc, by
Geminiani
4 [12] Sonate (D, e, C, d, a,
D, A, d, c, A, b, A), vn, bc
(1739) [not the same as the
 rev. op.1 (1739), see
above]
— [6] Sonatas of three Parts,
2 vn, bc (c1742); pubd as
Six Sonatas, 2 vn, vc/hpd
(c1757) [arrs. of vn sonatas
op.1 nos.1–6]
5 [6] Sonates (A, d, C, B , F,
a), vc, bc (Paris, 1746); ed.
W. Kolneder and W. Schulz
(Leipzig, 1964)
5 [6] Sonates (A, f , C, D, B ,
d), vn, bc (The Hague,
1746), pubd as Le VI
sonate (1747); ed. W.
Kolneder (Leipzig, 1965)
[arrs. of vc sonatas op.5]
— VI Sonatas, 2 vn, bc
(c1757) [arrs. of vn sonatas
op.1 nos. 7–12, with some
addl movts]
concertos
instrumentation listed in the order concertino; ripieno

— [6] Concerti grossi … della prima parte dell'op.5 d'Arcangelo Corelli (D, B , C, F,
g, A), 2 vn, va, vc; 2 vn, bc (1726) [arrs. of Corelli's op.5 nos. 1–6]
— [6] Concerti grossi … della seconda parte del op.5 d'Arcangelo Corelli (d, e, A,
F, E, d), 2 vn, va, vc; 2 vn, bc (1729) [arrs. of Corelli's op.5 nos. 7–12]
2 [6] Concerti grossi (c, c, d, D, d, A), 2 vn, va, vc; 2 vn, bc (1732; rev. edn in
score, c1755); ed. H.J. Moser, Musik-Kränzlein (Leipzig, n.d.)
3 [6] Concerti grossi (D, g, e, d, B , e), 2vn, va, vc; 2 vn, bc (1732; rev. edn in
score, c1755); ed. R. Hernried (Zürich, 1935)
— [6] Concerti grossi … del op.3. d'Arcangelo Corelli (F, B , b, f, a, G), 2 vn, va,
vc; 2vn, bc (1735); ed. M. Lütolf (Laaber, 1987) [arrs. of Corelli's op.3 nos. 1, 3,
4, 9, 10, and op.1 no.9]
— [6] Concerti grossi … dalle sonate … dell'op.4 (D, B, e, a, A, c), 2 vn, va, vc; 2
vn, bc (1743) [arrs. of Geminiani's op.4 nos.1, 11, 2, 5, 7, 9]
7 [6] Concerti grossi (D, d, C, d, c, B ), 2 fl, bn, 2 vn, va, vc; 2 vn, va, bc (1746)
— The Inchanted Forrest, 2 fl, 2 hn, tpt, 2 vn, 2 va, vc; 2 vn, bc (c1756); ed. E.
Careri (Lucca, 1996); as La selva incantata, GB-Lcm*
— Two Concertos (D, G), 2 vn, va, vc, bc (c1761)

miscellaneous
— Pièces de clavecin tirées
des differens ouvrages de
Mr F. Geminiani adaptées
par luy même, hpd
(1743/R) [mostly arrs. from
opp.1, 4]
— The Harmonical Miscellany,
i (1758) [periodical
 containing 14 pieces ‘in the
Tone Minor’, 4 insts, basso
ostinato]; ii (1758)
[containing 16 pieces ‘in
the Tone Major’, 4 insts,
basso ostinato]
— The Second Collection of
Pieces … Taken from
Different Works of F.
Geminiani, and adapted by
himself, hpd (1762/R) [arrs.
from opp.1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and
treatises for vn and gui]
Corelli's op.5 no.9, vn, bc, ‘grac'd’ by Geminiani, in
HawkinsH, 904–7
Nella stagione appunto, cant., S, bc, I-Bc
Several minuets, with and without variations [probably
incl. the ‘favorite’ minuet from op.2 no.1] pubd singly;
numerous pieces pubd in 18th-century anthologies
[complete list in Careri, 1993]

For further works see treatises below

treatises

op.

8 Rules for Playing in a True

Taste (c1748) [incl. 4 tunes,
each with variations, solo
inst, bc]
— A Treatise of Good Taste in
the Art of Musick (1749/R
1969 with introduction by
R. Donington) [incl. 4
songs, solo v, 2 vn, 2 fl, va,
bc; 3 ‘Airs made into
Sonatas’, 2 vn, bc; 4 ‘Airs’,
each with a variation, vn
bc]
9 The Art of Playing on the
Violin (1751, facs. ed. D.D.
Boyden, London, 1952)
[incl. 12 compositions, vn,
bc]
10 Guida armonica (c1752)
— L’art de bien accompagner
du clavecin (Paris, 1754),
 rev. as op.11
11 The Art of
Accompaniament, pts1–2
(c1756)
— A Supplement to the Guida
armonica (c1756)
— The Art of Playing the
Guitar or Cittra (Edinburgh,
1760) [incl. 11 sonatas]
Geminiani, Francesco
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BurneyH; HawkinsH
C. Avison: An Essay on Musical Expression (London, 1752, 2/1753/R,
3/1775)
[W. Hayes]: Remarks on Mr. Avison's Essay on Musical Expression
(London, 1753)
J.-A. Serre: Essais sur les principes de l'harmonie (Paris, 1753/R)
C.H. de Blainville: L'esprit de l'art musical (Geneva, 1754/R)
J. Potter: Observations on the Present State of Music and Musicians
(London, 1762)
J.-A. Serre: Observations sur les principes de l'harmonie (Geneva,
1763/R)
W.H.G. Flood: ‘Geminiani in England and Ireland’, SIMG, xii (1910–11),
108–12
F.T. Arnold: The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass (London,
1931/R)
A. Betti: ‘Francesco Geminiani’, Lucca, vii–viii (1934), 7–20
R. Hernried: ‘Francesco Geminiani's Concerto grossi Op.3’, AcM, ix
(1937), 22–30
R. Hernried: ‘Francesco Geminiani's Life and Work’, JAMS, i (1948), 47–8
D.D. Boyden: ‘Prelleur, Geminiani, and Just Intonation’, JAMS, iv (1951),
202–19
M.E. McArtor: Francesco Geminiani (diss., U. of Michigan, 1951)
D.D. Boyden: Introduction to F. Geminiani: The Art of Playing on the Violin
(London, 1952)
G. Barblan: ‘Un concerto in “tre stili” di Francesco Geminiani’, Immagini
esotiche nella musica italiana, Chigiana, xiv (1957), 51–5
D.D. Boyden: ‘Geminiani and the First Violin Tutor’, AcM, xxxi (1959), 161–
70
F. Giegling: ‘Geminiani's Harpsichord Transcriptions’, ML, xl (1959), 350–
52
D.D. Boyden: ‘A Postscript to “Geminiani and the First Violin Tutor”’, AcM,
xxxii (1960), 40–47
G. Barblan: ‘Un ignoto omaggio di Francesco Geminiani ad Arcangelo
Corelli’, Musiche italiane rare e vive da Giovanni Gabrieli a Giuseppe
Verdi, Chigiana, xix (1962), 35–41
D.D. Boyden: ‘Francesco Geminiani: a Reappraisal’, Lucca: rassegna del
Comune, iv/4 (1962), 3–8
T. Dart: ‘Francesco Geminiani and The Rule of Taste’, The Consort, xix
(1962), 122–8
M. Fabbri: ‘Le acute censure di Francesco M. Veracini a “L'arte della fuga”
di Francesco Geminiani’, Le celebrazioni del 1963 e alcune nuove
 indagini sulla musica italiana del XVIII e XIX secolo, Chigiana, xx
(1963), 155–94
N. Jenkins: ‘Geminiani's “The Enchanted Forest”: a Conspectus’,
Chigiana, xxiv, new ser. iv (1967), 167–79
R. Donington: Introduction to F. Geminiani: A Treatise of Good Taste in the
Art of Musick (New York, 1969)
R. Donington: ‘Geminiani and the Gremlins’, ML, li (1970), 150–55
D.D. Boyden: ‘The Corelli “Solo” Sonatas and their Ornamental Additions
by Corelli, Geminiani, Dubourg, Tartini, and the “Walsh Anonymous”’,
Musica antiqua III: Bydgoszcz 1972, 591–606 [with Fr. summary]
B. Tonazzi: ‘L'arte di suonare la chitarra o cetra di Francesco Geminiani’, Il
Fronimo, i (1972), 13–20
R. Hickman: ‘The Censored Publications of The Art of Playing on the
Violin, or Geminiani Unshaken’, EMc, xi (1983), 73–6
S. Kirokowska: ‘Geminiani the Editor’, MR, xliv (1983), 13–24
P. Walls: ‘“Ill-Compliments and Arbitrary Taste”? Geminiani's Directions for
Performers’, EMc, xiv (1986), 221–35
E. Careri: ‘Händel e Geminiani: the Rubens and Titian of Music’, Studi
musicali, xx (1991), 141–53
E. Careri: ‘The Correspondence between Burney and Twining about Corelli
and Geminiani, ML, lxxii (1991), 38–47
E. Careri: ‘Tartini e Geminiani’, Tartini: Padua 1992, 179–98
E. Careri: Francesco Geminiani (1687–1762) (Oxford, 1993) [with further
bibliography and a complete list of surviving manuscripts of
Geminiani’s work]
E. Careri: ‘Francesco Geminiani e il culto inglese per Corelli’, Studi
Corelliani V: Fusignano 1994, 347–73
P. Walls: ‘Geminiani and the Role of the Viola in the Concerto Grosso’,
Liber Amicorum John Steele: a Musicological Tribute, ed. W. Drake
(New York, 1997), 379–413

Gemmel.
See Gymel.

Gemshorn
(Ger., from Gemse: ‘chamois’).
A medieval folk ocarina made originally from the horn of the chamois,
though later from that of any convenient animal (it is classified as an
Aerophone: Duct flute). Gemshorns were depicted by Virdung (1511) and
Dürer (in a prayer book for Maximilian I, 1515) but seem not to appear
thereafter, save in texts deriving from Virdung. From about 1450, organ
builders imitated its characteristic ocarina-like quality with the short, wide-
scale stop which bears its name; Schlick regarded it as the third most
important rank of any organ (see Organ stop).
The gemshorn is blown from the wider end of the horn, which is blocked
with a plug of wood or other material, leaving a duct to lead the air to the
mouth; the point of the horn is left intact. Virdung shows three finger-holes
and a thumb-hole which, if correctly sized, would allow a range of about an
 octave; as with any other ocarina the pitch produced depends on the total
area of the open holes. Thus holes of different diameter can be used in
different combinations. The only known surviving gemshorn, in the
Musikinstrumenten-Museum des Staatlichen Instituts für Musikforschung,
Berlin, has six finger-holes and no thumb-hole (see illustration).
The gemshorn has been revived by the early music movement, initially by
Horace Fitzpatrick, and is now available in a family of sizes, from descant
to bass, usually of cowhorn, and with a fingering which, for the
convenience of players, has been brought close to that of the tin whistle,
though the range is still limited to about an octave. The attractive tone
quality and ease of fingering has given it a spurious popularity, far greater
than it seems to have had in the 15th and 16th centuries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Schlick: Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten (Speyer, 1511/R); ed.
E. Flade (Mainz, 1932); Eng. trans. in Bibliotheca organologica, cxiii
(Buren, 1980)
S. Virdung: Musica getutscht (Basel, 1511/R; Eng. trans., 1993)
C. Sachs: ‘Das Gemshorn’, ZMw, i (1918–19), 153–6
H. Fitzpatrick: ‘The Gemshorn: a Reconstruction’, PRMA, xcix (1972–3),
1–14
JEREMY MONTAGU

Gena, Peter
(b Buffalo, NY, 27 April 1947). American composer and pianist. He studied
composition with Feldman and Lejaren Hiller at SUNY, Buffalo (BA 1969,
MA 1972, PhD 1976). His activities as a composer, teacher, performer and
concert organizer have centred on Chicago since 1976; he has taught at
Northwestern University (1976–83, 1992–6) and in 1982 joined the staff at
the school of the Art Institute of Chicago. His position as a composer at a
visual arts school speaks of his long-held interest in cross-disciplinary
studies. His compositions reflect also his study of literature and biological
phenomena. As a concert organizer he was the motivating force behind the
celebrated 1982 New Music America Festival in Chicago. Gena worked
with John Cage and has written several monographs on the composer.
Gena’s own music tends more towards the repetitive, minimalist style of his
contemporaries, as in Beethoven in SoHo (1980), a quasi-satirical piece in
which two pianists overlap and dovetail fragments from a Beethoven
sonata. Although much of Gena’s music is composed using computers or
digital synthesizers, it is marked by melodic and lyrical concerns. In later
works, and in collaboration with a geneticist, he has developed musical
interpretations of DNA sequences; For Yvar Mikhashoff (1995), in
particular, is based on digitally synthesized DNA sequences of the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus. As a pianist Gena has performed the works of
Cage, Cardew, Julius Eastman and Don Pullen.
WORKS
Scenes from Paterson, nar, pf, tape, 1969; Homage to G.K. Zipf, 8 insts, elecs,
1971; Aleutian Lullabies, chorus, org, 1972; EGERYA, cptr, 1972; Schoenberg in
Italy, S, nar, pf, hpd, 1973; Modular Fantasies, 8 insts, 1974; Modular Fantasies II,
orch, tape, 1974–5; Unchained Melodies, pf, cptr, 1974, rev. 1981; Logos I, elecs,
1975; Stabiles, after Calder, pf, 1977; Valse, pf, 1977; Stabiles, first Clone, 10 insts,
cptr, 1978; Skylab, 3 pf, perc, vn, 2 fl, 1979; S-13, S-14, fl + pic, fl, 2 cl, elec db, 2
hp, pf, 1979; Beethoven in SoHo, 2 pf, elec db, 1980; 100 Fingers, 3 pf, amp cel, 20
hands, 1980; Before Venice, pf, 1982, rev. cptr, 1984; McKinley, vn, pf, perc, 1983;
Mother Jones, S, pf, 1985; John Henry, pf, 1986; For Morton Feldman, pf, 1988;
Elegy for Morton Feldman, pf, 1989; Hoketus, cptr, 1989; Interlude for 2 People,
cptr, 1990; Markoff in: Milwaukee, cptr, 1991; Markoff in: Brazil, cptr, 1992; Markoff
in: Darmstadt, cptr, 1992; Joe Hill Fantasy, Bar, didjeridu, wind insts, Brazilian
rainstick, pf, cptr, 1992–3; Beta Globin, cptr, 1994; Botulism, cptr, 1994; Botulism,
cptr, 1995; For Yvar Mikhashoff, cptr, 1995; Red Blood Cells, cptr, 1995–6; Liver
Proteins, cptr, 1996; Collagen and Bass Clarinet, b cl, cptr, 1997
INGRAM D. MARSHALL

Gencebay, Orhan
(b Samsun, Aug 1944). Turkish popular musician. Gencebay is widely
credited as the inventor of arabesk, a popular genre which has dominated
the Turkish recording industry since the mid-1970s and which has been
widely condemned by the Turkish nationalist intelligentsia (see Turkey, §V,
3). As a child, he received an early training in the religious repertory and
Western art music from his family circle. He studied the reformed rural
music genre at local music societies, played guitar in a rock band while at
lycée and learnt the popular dance band hits of the day as a saxophonist
during military service at an officers' club in Istanbul. In 1967 he was
recruited to the Istanbul radio station but resigned a year later to continue
his work in the popular market as a singer and film star, in 1973 managing
his own recording company, Kervan. His early work, characterized by his
first Columbia recording of 1968, Bir teselli ver (‘Console Me’), was an
eclectic mix of Western rock, Turkish art and folk music and Egyptian
popular dance styles, initially much inspired by his mentor, Ahmet Sezgin.
The lyrics of the songs are typical of the arabesk repertory as a whole,
dealing with the fated love of the virtuous poor man. While his songs follow
the broad outlines of urban art music şarkı form (see Turkey, §IV, 4),
Gencebay composes at the bağlama (the rural long-necked plucked lute)
and combines modal structures in ways which are incompatible with art
music theory, but demonstrate considerable wit and sophistication. (M.
Özbek, Popüler kültür ve Orhan Gencebay arabeski, Istanbul, 1991,
2/1994)
MARTIN STOKES

Gencer [Ceyrekgil], (Ayshe) Leyla

(b Istanbul, 10 Oct 1928). Turkish soprano. A pupil of Giannina Arangi-
Lombardi, she made her début at Ankara in 1950 as Santuzza, the role of
her Italian début at the Arena Flegrea, Naples, in 1953. She sang at La
Scala in 1957 as Madame Lidoine in the world première of Poulenc’s
Dialogues des Carmelites. Subsequently she appeared throughout Europe
and America, but until her retirement in 1983 was most often heard in Italy.
Although her voice was limited in volume and not very even, she was able,
thanks to her technique, strong temperament and theatrical intelligence, to
tackle with success such dramatic roles as Gioconda or Aida. Lighter roles
such as Gilda and Amina made the best use of her vocal flexibility and
impressive soft singing; but her interpretative powers found most scope in
the dramatic coloratura repertory, particularly in Donizetti and early Verdi:
Elisabetta, regina d’Inghilterra, Anna Bolena, Maria Stuarda, Lucrezia
Borgia, Attila, I due Foscari and La battaglia di Legnano.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (R. Celletti)
R. Celletti: ‘Leyla Gencer’, Opera, xxiii (1972), 692–6
R. Celletti: ‘Il trono s’addice alla Gencer’, Discoteca, no.117 (1972), 12–19
F. Cella: Leyla Gencer (Venice, 1986) [with discography]
RODOLFO CELLETTI/VALERIA PREGLIASCO GUALERZI

Gendang.
(1) A generic Indonesian and Malaysian term for any double-headed laced
drum, cylindrical or conical. Other cognate terms are gandang (in the
Dayak areas of Kalimantan and in west and north coastal Sumatra), gimar
(among the Tanjung Benua people of east Kalimantan), gondang, gordang,
gonrang and genderang (Batak languages), geundrang (Acehnese),
ganrang (Makassarese and Buginese) and gandar (Flores).
(2) Term used in Sumatra and Malaysia for various instrumental pieces in
which the gendang (1) is prominent and hence for the ensembles that play
them.

Gender (i).
The cultural, social and/or historical interpretation of the biological and
physiological category of sex. Nearly every experience of music, including
its creation, performance and perception, may incorporate assumptions
about gender; and music itself can produce ideologies of gender.
Uncovering the workings of gender in even the most ‘absolute’ musical
contexts has thus emerged as a basic task of the critical exploration of
music.
Gender, like sex, is often taken to be a category ruled by and reducible to a
simple binary division, the ‘man’ and ‘woman’ of sex translating into the
‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ of gender. But recent thinking, supported by the
systems of gender used in different times and cultures, has called this
foundational dimorphism into question. This suggests, to critics of
ideological aspects of contemporary systems of gender, historical and
cross-cultural models that undermine the perceived constraints on identity
implicit in modern categories of masculine and feminine.
Scholars have also challenged the chain of reasoning that might lead to the
supposition that biological categories of sex ‘translate’ into cultural
categories of gender. This goes beyond the commonsensical observation
that men and women may in equal measure embrace ‘feminine’ and
‘masculine’ habits. Critics increasingly doubt that the meanings of gender
derive from any kind of core premises, claiming instead that gender
signifies in culture by means of ‘performative’ (Judith Butler) or
‘representational’ (Teresa de Lauretis) practices that produce gendered
identities by means of their persistent repetition. This does not render it any
less real or concrete than if the term were grounded in an essential, fixed
definition; instead, a performative or representational model draws
attention to gender as a learnt phenomenon. This model begins to account
for why concepts of gender alter over time and take on different shapes in
diverse cultural contexts.
Gender is a relational phenomenon. For any historical moment, the terms
within a system of gender are measured against one another in various,
sometimes contradictory ways, allowing the analysis of both individual and
larger cultural patterns of validation, marginalization and rejection. Certain
trends recur, in particular the repeated devaluation, across a wide range of
time and societies, of cultural productions and utterances understood to be
‘feminine’. Although this has normally led to the devaluation of the work of
women, it would be an oversimplification to collapse ‘feminine’ into the
category of ‘woman’, for men too have had their expressions labelled
‘feminine’. Indeed, from as far back as the time of Plato and Aristotle, the
entire category of ‘music’, gauged against such domains as science and
the military, has commonly been viewed as a feminine realm of human
activity. Critics, particularly feminist critics, have studied the hierarchical
implications of gender, not only to expose accounts of exclusion on a
gendered basis but also to discover where individuals have escaped the
control of the dominant, usually patriarchal tradition.
Exploring concerns related to gender permits fresh critical perspectives on
music, ones that complement traditional formal, source-critical, historical
and biographical approaches, even as they may partake of and even
reinforce these traditional modes of enquiry. Early investigation into the
effects of gender in music resulted mostly from the efforts of feminist
scholars engaged in the study of the lives and works of marginalized
women composers from past eras. Uncovering forgotten biographical
narratives and compelling compositions have led critics to reflect on the
societal constraints that originally obscured these particular composers and
their works. From such reflections followed inquiries into the gendered
nature of musical education, the various obstacles, including parental,
institutional and financial, that until well into the 20th century have hindered
the access of women to the kinds of educational resources routinely
granted men and into the roles of gender in both the constitution of core
musical repertories and in the conceptions of musical talent and creativity.
What has more substantively transformed thinking about music are studies
in which the sounds themselves – considered both from the perspectives of
the composer who creates them and the listener or performer who
interprets them – have come under scrutiny from the standpoint of gender.
Most such inquiries broach the topic of gender through some kind of
semantic content attached to or construed in the musical work. The words
of texted works provide the most obvious source because they may
introduce ideas about gender that the critic or historian may ‘read back’ into
the music. Not surprisingly, then, most critical enquiry into gender in music
focusses on texted repertories, especially opera and song from the 17th
century to the present, with a smaller but important corpus of work on
earlier texted repertories. A signal achievement of gender criticism in music
is the demonstration that the music of such works as Schumann's
Frauenliebe und -leben or Bizet's Carmen, both as crafted by their
composers and sung and played by their performers, contributes with
complexity and force to the signification of gender in culture writ large.
For instrumental music, the search for semantic content can be more
difficult. Many critics turn to passages where commentators have invoked
gendered language of some kind, and then extrapolate these gendered
terms on to an analysis of the formal and technical structure of particular
works. For example, several theorists, from the 19th century onwards, have
described the relationship between first and second subject material in
sonata forms in terms that invoke gender (A.B. Marx and Vincent d'Indy
portrayed a contrast of ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ thematic character;
Schoenberg construed the tonic key of the first theme as a ‘patriarchal
ruler’). Judging such formulations to reflect generally upon beliefs held
during the eras from which they emerged, critics have used them to inform
otherwise traditional formal analyses that then reveal dialectics of gender
at work in particular symphonic movement by such composers as
Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms and Tchaikovsky. When such approaches
take care to ground the extrapolation of gender on to the formal constructs
in solid networks of historical context, they can shed significant light on the
way that ‘pure’ sound can become gendered. The danger remains,
however, that filtering gender through the formalistic vocabularies of
modern musical analysis could perpetuate anachronistic interpretations for
eras in which concerns with form remained secondary to other kinds of
musical engagement.
Recognizing this risk, some critics prefer to seek gendered meanings in
instrumental music by plumbing musical categories that in the past held a
broader currency in society at large. Important insights have followed from
investigating such notions as ‘character’ (the later Enlightenment notion
that music could encompass human characteristics) and genre (when
properly construed as a communicative rather than classificatory
phenomenon), musical categories defined by a convergence of musical
and social thought. The study of genre, a notion with broad chronological
relevance, can be particularly profitable to students of gender. Evidence of
its value has begun to emerge from research on instrumental music from
the first half of the 19th century. Learning, for example, that the audience
for the nocturne was understood to be primarily female may help explain
the kinds of decision composers made when writing such works: when
Chopin chose to include sharply contrasting, agitated middle sections in
some of his nocturnes, he may have wished to distance the genre from the
exclusively feminine sphere. It may also help account for listeners'
reactions when hearing nocturnes: its construal as ‘feminine’ contributed to
the aesthetic devaluation of the genre in the 19th century. Similar kinds of
evidence help identify a range of possible associations with gender in this
period. Hence the battle piece has been upheld as an epitome of
‘masculine’ music, the symphony as an amalgamation of feminine and
masculine, and ‘fairy music’ as an evocation of gender ambiguity.
The idea that discourse about music might contain clues about gendered
meanings also resonates for present-day musical cultures. Celebrations of
and conflicts about gender permeate all manner of musics, from the
popular (Madonna) to the symphonic (the reluctance of some orchestras to
admit women members); scholarship on these contemporary composers,
performers and institutions tends to follow the parameters outlined above
for music and musicians of the past. Investigations that interrogate the
gendered natures of some of the scholarly disciplines devoted to music
offer a somewhat different view of contemporary engagements with gender
and music. The study of music theory, for example, has been criticized for
the ‘masculine’ orientation of its scholarly discourse, the tendency to prefer
a scientific tone of objectivity over one that explores the passionately
experiential nature of music. Conversely, and with a less confrontational
goal, ethnomusicologists have been likened to feminine midwives, figures
who bring traditions and beliefs from the periphery of awareness to the
centre of attention. While both kinds of study derive to some extent from
the demographics of the respective professions (more men than women
are music theorists, more women than men are ethnomusicologists), both
properly separate the purported gendering of discourse from the sexes of
actual writers. In effect, such investigations return to a basic set of
concerns: how music and discourse on music signify gender, even when
the ostensible subject may cloak its relationship to the topic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
general
T. de Lauretis: Technologies of Gender (Bloomington, IN, 1987)
J.W. Scott: ‘Gender: a Useful Category of Historical Analysis’, Gender and
the Politics of History (New York, 1988), 28–50
C. Battersby: Gender and Genius: Towards a Feminist Aesthetics
(Bloomington, IN, 1989)
D. Fuss: Essentially Speaking: Feminism, Nature, and Difference (New
York and London, 1989)
J. Butler: Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New
York and London, 1990)
R. Trumbach: ‘London's Sapphists: from Three Sexes to Four Genders in
the Making of Modern Culture’, Body Guards: the Cultural Politics of
Gender Ambiguity, ed. J. Epstein and K. Straub (New York and
London, 1991), 112–41
D. Summers: ‘Form and Gender’, New Literary History, xxiv (1993), 243–
71
M. Jehlen: ‘Gender’, Critical Terms for Literary Study, ed. F. Lentricchia
and T. Mclaughlin (Chicago and London, 1995), 263–73
E. Carter: ‘Gender’, A Dictionary of Cultural and Critical Theory, ed. M.
Payne (Oxford, 1996), 217–18
music
E. Rieger: Frau, Musik und Männerherrschaft (Frankfurt, 1981)
N.B. Reich: Clara Schumann: the Artist and the Woman (Ithaca, NY, 1985)
C.E. Robertson: ‘Power and Gender in the Musical Experiences of
Women’, Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. E.
Koskoff (New York, 1987), 225–45
L. Kramer: ‘Liszt, Goethe, and the Discourse of Gender’, Music as Cultural
Practice, 1800–1900 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1990), 102–34
P. Higgins: ‘Parisian Nobles, a Scottish Princess, and the Woman's Voice
in Late Medieval Song’, EMH, x (1991), 145–200
F. Hoffmann: Instrument und Körper: die musizierende Frau in der
bürgerlichen Kultur (Frankfurt, 1991)
S. McClary: Feminine Endings: Music, Gender and Sexuality (Minneapolis,
1991)
S. McClary: Georges Bizet: ‘Carmen’ (Cambridge, 1992)
R.A. Solie: ‘Whose Life? the Gendered Self in Schumann's Frauenliebe
Songs’, Music and Text: Critical Inquiries, ed. S.P. Scher (Cambridge,
1992), 219–40
L.P. Austern: ‘“Alluring the Auditorie to Effeminacie”: Music and the Idea of
the Feminine in Early Modern England’, ML, lxxiv (1993), 343–54
M. Citron: Gender and the Musical Canon (Cambridge, 1993)
S.G. Cusick: ‘Gendering Modern Music: Thoughts on the Monteverdi–
Artusi Controversy’, JAMS, xlvi (1993), 1–25
K. Marshall, ed.: Rediscovering the Muses: Women's Musical Traditions
(Boston, 1993)
F.E. Maus: ‘Masculine Discourse in Music Theory’, PNM, xxxi/2 (1993),
264–93
R.A. Solie, ed.: Musicology and Difference: Gender and Sexuality in Music
Scholarship (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1993) [incl. C.E. Robertson:
‘The Ethnomusicologist as Midwife’, 107–24]
P. Brett: ‘Musicality, Essentialism, and the Closet’, Queering the Pitch: the
New Gay and Lesbian Musicology, ed. P. Brett, E. Wood and G.C.
Thomas (New York and London, 1994), 9–26
S.C. Cook and J.S. Tsou, eds.: Cecilia Reclaimed: Feminist Perspectives
on Gender and Music (Urbana, IL, 1994)
S.G. Cusick: ‘Gender and the Cultural Work of a Classical Music
Performance’, Repercussions, iii (1994), 77–110
L.C. Dunn and N.A. Jones, eds.: Embodied Voices: Representing Female
Vocality in Western Culture (Cambridge, 1994)
M.A. Guck: ‘A Woman's (Theoretical) Work’, PNM, xxxii/1 (1994), 28–43
J. Hepokoski: ‘Masculine-Feminine’, MT, cxxxv (1994), 494–9
S. McClary: ‘Of Patriarchs … and Matriarchs, too’, MT, cxxxv (1994), 364–
9
T. McGeary: ‘Gendering Opera: Italian Opera as the Feminine Other in
Britain, 1700–42’, JMR, xiv (1994), 17–34
C.E. Blackmer and P.J. Smith, eds.: En Travesti: Women, Gender,
Subversion, Opera (New York, 1995)
M. Head: ‘“Like Beauty Spots on the Face of a Man”: Gender in 18th-
Century North-German Discourse on Genre’, JM, xiii (1995), 143–67
L. Kramer: ‘The Lied as Cultural Practice: Tutelage, Gender, and Desire in
Mendelssohn's Goethe Songs’, Classical Music and Postmodern
Knowledge (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1995), 143–73
E. Rieger: ‘“Gender Studies” und Musikwissenschaft – ein
Forschungsbericht’, Mf, xlviii (1995), 235–50
J. Kallberg: ‘The Harmony of the Tea Table: Gender and Ideology in the
Piano Nocturne’, Chopin at the Boundaries: Sex, History, and Musical
Genre (Cambridge, MA, 1996), 30–61
R.P. Locke and C. Barr, eds.: Cultivating Music in America: Women
Patrons and Activists since 1860 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1997)
I. Monson: ‘Music and the Anthropology of Gender and Cultural Identity’,
Women and Music: a Journal of Gender and Culture, i (1997), 24–32
L.P. Austern: ‘Nature, Culture, Myth, and the Musician in Early Modern
England’, JAMS, li (1998), 1–47
S.G. Cusick: ‘Gender, Musicology and Feminism’, Rethinking Music, ed. N.
Cook and M. Everist (Oxford, 1999), 471–98
JEFFREY KALLBERG

Gender (ii).
Multi-octave Metallophone of Java and Bali. In the Central Javanese
gamelan it usually has 12 to 14 bevel-edged keys suspended over
individual tube resonators and is played with two padded disc-shaped
mallets, using an elaborate damping technique. In a complete gamelan
there are three gendèr barung (lower-pitched gendèr, approximately 105
cm long) and three gendèr panerus (higher-pitched, approximately 90 cm
long), one of each type for the slèndro tuning and two of each type for the
pélog tuning (one for the pélog sub-scale bem, featuring pitches 12356,
and the other for barang, featuring pitches 72356). (For further information
on Central Javanese performing practice, see Indonesia, §III and Mode,
§V, 4(ii)).
Balinese gender are metallophones with bevel-edged, bronze keys
suspended over tuned, bamboo resonators and played with two disc-
headed mallets. The damping technique required is technically demanding
since the sound must be stopped by the same hands that are striking the
keys. Tuned to pentatonic slendro, a pair or quartet of ten-key gender
wayang (the second pair tuned one octave higher and doubling the lower
pair) accompany wayang kulit (shadow puppet theatre) and ceremonies for
tooth-filing and cremation. Compositions are mostly contrapuntal and
intricate, with stratified textures and rapid tempos typical of larger
ensembles. Balinese musicians consider this to be one of the most difficult
instruments to master. In slow pieces both hands play in parallel octaves or
empat (the interval spanning four keys, approximately a 5th) with delicate
grace notes and rubato. This latter technique is typical of gender in the
larger gamelan palegongan, where a pair or quartet of 13-key gender
rambat, tuned to a pentatonic pelog-derived tuning, play a leading melodic
role.
In a more general sense, gender denotes a metallophone family of the
same construction common to many ensembles (e.g. gamelan semar
pagulingan, gong kebyar). These instruments vary in size and register from
the large jegogan through jublag, penyacah, ugal, and gangsa pemade to
the highest gangsa kantilan, with a single or double-octave range. They are
struck with a single mallet (panggul) held in the right hand and damped
with the left-hand thumb and forefinger. All gender exist in pairs (see
Indonesia, §II, 1(ii)(c)).
 MARGARET J. KARTOMI/LISA GOLD

Gendre, Jean le.

See Le Gendre, Jean.

Gendron, Maurice
(b Nice, 26 Dec 1920; d Grez-sur-Loing, Seine-et-Marne, 20 Aug 1990).
French cellist and conductor. He entered the Nice Conservatoire when he
was 12, and went to Paris five years later, where he studied with Gérard
Hekking at the Conservatoire and was awarded a premier prix. His
international career began in the postwar period with a London visit in
1945, when he gave the first performance in western Europe of Prokofiev’s
Cello Concerto op.58 with the LPO, and two recitals with Britten as the
pianist.
Gendron later appeared on several occasions with Britten at the Aldeburgh
Festival, and with Menuhin at the Bath Festival; together with Yehudi and
Hephzibah Menuhin he formed a distinguished trio that toured widely. He
taught at the Menuhin School in England and in 1954 initiated a
masterclass at the Hochschule für Musik in Saarbrücken. From 1970 to
1987 he was a professor at the Paris Conservatoire. Gendron also
developed a secondary career as a conductor, working particularly with the
Saar Chamber Orchestra and the Bournemouth Sinfonietta. He continued
to enjoy wide renown as a cellist, both as a soloist of elegant style whose
playing was full of life and resonance, and as a responsive partner in
chamber ensembles. In 1975 his career was interrupted by a car accident,
but he successfully resumed playing in 1984. He played a Stradivari cello,
and his outstanding recordings include the Bach suites, concertos by
Haydn and Boccherini (directed by Casals) and 20th-century French music.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Wilson: ‘Cellist as Conductor’, Records and Recording, xiv/4 (1970–71),
33
N. Goodwin: Obituary, The Independent (22 Aug 1990)
NOËL GOODWIN

Genée, (Franz Friedrich) Richard

(b Danzig [Gdańsk], 7 Feb 1823; d Baden, nr Vienna, 15 June 1895).
German conductor, librettist and composer. He was the son of Friedrich
Genée (b Königsberg, 1796; d Berlin, 1859), conductor at a theatre in
Danzig, and, although first intended for the medical profession, took up
music, studying with A. Stahlknecht in Berlin. Between 1847 and 1867 he
was successively Kapellmeister at theatres at Reval (now Tallinn), Riga,
Cologne, Düsseldorf, Danzig, Mainz, Schwerin and Prague. In 1868 he
became conductor at the Theater an der Wien, Vienna, and in the following
years was increasingly involved with not just the musical but also the
literary side of the works produced there. At first concerned with adapting
foreign works for production, he became much in demand as a clever
 writer of operetta librettos. This side of his activities developed particularly
through his association with Johann Strauss (ii) who, being unfamiliar with
writing for the theatre, used Genée not just as a lyricist but for the detailed
working out of his melodic ideas. Thus Genée’s handwriting is to be found
extensively in the autograph score of Die Fledermaus. Genée’s work as
librettist reached its height in his collaboration with F. Zell (Camillo Walzel),
the latter concerning himself more with the plots and the final elaboration of
the librettos of their works while Genée concentrated on the lyrics. They
went on to write librettos for Suppé and Millöcker, as well as for Genée’s
own compositions, often making use of French sources. In 1878 Genée
was able to retire from conducting to his villa at Pressbaum, near Vienna.
His translations include the librettos of several works by Lecocq, Offenbach
and Sullivan.
Genée’s own operettas rarely attained more than an ephemeral success,
though Der Seekadett (1876) and Nanon, die Wirtin vom goldenen Lamm
(1877) made a considerable hit at the Theater an der Wien and travelled as
far afield as America. Both had librettos attributed to Zell, though almost
certainly Genée wrote the lyrics, as usual. Genée also wrote many
partsongs, among which one for male voices, Italienischer Salat, is most
amusing in its satire on the older style of Italian operas, being sung to
nonsense words. His brother Rudolf (b Berlin, 12 Dec 1824; d Berlin, 19
Jan 1914) also wrote some librettos.
WORKS
(selective list)

all stage works, in order of first performance; for more detailed list and for list of librettos
see GroveO

Polyphem [Ein Abenteuer auf Martinique] (komische Oper), 1856; Der Geiger aus
Tirol (komische Oper), 1857; Der Liebesring (romantische Oper), 1860; Ein
Trauerspiel (Operette), 1860; Ein Narrentraum (Karnevalsposse), 1861; Der
Musikfeind (Operette), 1862; Der Generalprobe (Operette), 1862; Die Herren von
der Livree (Posse),1862; Die Talismänner (Karnevalsposse), 1863; Rosita
(romantische komische Oper), 1864; Der Zopfabschneider (Operette), 1866; Der
schwarze Prinz (komische Oper), 1866; Am Runenstein (romantische Oper), 1868,
collab. F.A.F. Flotow; Schwefeles, der Höllenagent (Operette), 1869; Der
Hexensabbath (Int), 1870; Cleopatra [Drei Jahrtausende] (Burleske), 1875;
Luftschlösser (Posse), 1876; Fliegende Blätter (Quodlibet), 1876
Der Seekadett (komische Operette), 1876; Nanon, die Wirtin vom goldenen Lamm
(Operette), 1877; Im Wunderlande der Pyramiden (Singspiel), 1877; Die letzten
Mohikaner (Operette), 1878; Nisida (komische Operette), 1880; Rosina (Operette),
1881; Eine gemachte Frau (Posse), 1885; Die Zwillinge (Operette), 1885, collab. L.
Roth; Die Piraten (Operette), 1886
Die Dreizehn (Operette), 1887; Signora Vendetta (Vaudeville-Operette), 1892;
Rotkäppchen (Vaudeville-Posse), 1892; Die Mädchen-Schule (Vaudeville-Posse),
1892; Die wachsame Schildwache (Zwischenspiel), 1893; Freund Felix (Operette),
1893

BIBLIOGRAPHY
LoewenbergA
MGG1 (F. Hadamowsky) [incl. full list of writings]
R. Holzer: Die Wiener Vorstadtbühnen: Alexander Girardi und das Theater
an der Wien (Vienna, 1951), 409ff
A. Bauer: 150 Jahre Theater an der Wien (Vienna, 1952)
B. Hiltner-Henneberg: Richard Genée: Eine Bibliographie (Berne, 1998)
ALFRED LOEWENBERG/ANDREW LAMB

Generalbass
(Ger.: ‘thoroughbass’ or
Continuo). The term itself was taken by Niedt (Musicalische Handleitung, i,
Hamburg, 1700) to reflect the fact that the continuo bass line contains all or
nearly all the other parts generaliter or insgemein (‘in common’). Earlier, in
1611, C. Vincentius had called a bass part he added to Schadaeus’s
Promptuarium musicum the basin vulgo generalem dictam. But generalis is
not German and cannot be a translation of ‘continuo’; rather it was one of
the optional names for figured or unfigured bass parts, like basso
principale (Orfeo Vecchi, Missarum liber secundus, 1598 and In septem
Regii Prophetae psalmos, 1601), basso generale (Fattorini, 1600; Billi,
1601), sectione gravium partium ad organistarum usum (Zucchini, 1602),
basso continuo (Viadana, 1602) and basso continuato (Girolamo Calestani,
1603). That Viadana’s so-called continuo bass part was, unlike the others,
independent of the vocal bass may or may not be significant in this respect.
Praetorius (Syntagma musicum, iii, Wolfenbüttel, 2/1619) headed his
chapter on this subject ‘De basso generali seu continuo’, and he may have
meant to give the two as optional alternative names; later German theorists
such as Johann Staden (Kurz und einfältig Bericht, Nuremberg, 1626),
Heinrich Albert (prefaces to Arien, i–ii, Königsberg, 1638–40) and Wolfgang
Ebner (1653) either followed Praetorius in using both terms or kept only
bassis generalis, in which they were followed by all later writers. The term
Generalbass became a kind of synecdoche for the science of harmony in
general; to learn Generalbass (or, as in France after Rameau, the basse
fondamentale) meant to learn the science of tonal harmony, made more
direct and clear by figured harmony than by the old German keyboard
tablatures. Many writers from 1650 to 1850 scarcely mentioned the art of
figured bass accompaniment in their treatises on Generalbass.
A further instructive use was as the basis for keyboard improvisation, either
in the form of Partimento (as in Mattheson's Exemplarische Organisten-
Probe, Hamburg, 1719) or as a harmonic framework on which to build a
free improvisation (as in Niedt's Musicalische Handleitung, ii, Hamburg,
1706 and C.P.E. Bach's Versuch, ii, Berlin, 1762). Conversely, a
composition could be reduced to its underlying harmonic structure in the
form of a Fundamental bass, as demonstrated by Rameau (1722 onwards)
and J.A.P. Schulz (1773). Instructive and analytical uses of Generalbass
continued throughout the 19th century, as reflected by the large number of
Generalbass and thoroughbass tutors published in Germany and England.
Many composers also continued to use it as a form of shorthand notation in
the process of composition. It gained new impetus in the theory of analysis
through the influence that C.P.E. Bach's discussion of improvisation and
the Generalbassregeln attributed to J.S. Bach had on the development of
Heinrich Schenker's system. More recently it has lent itself again to
instructive use in educational computer programs. For further analytical
uses of figures see Notation, §III, 4(viii).

See also Thoroughbass.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.S. Bach: Vorschriften und Grundsätze zum vierstimmigen Spielen des
General-Bass oder Accompagnement (Leipzig, 1738); ed. and trans.
P.L. Poulin (Oxford, 1994)
P. Benary: Die deutsche Kompositionslehre des 18. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig,
1961)
W. Heimann: Der Generalbass-Satz und seine Rolle in Bachs Choral-Satz
(Munich, 1973)
D.W. Beach: ‘The Origins of Harmonic Analysis’, JMT, xviii (1974), 274–
306
W. Schenkmann: ‘Mattheson's “Forty-eight” and their Commentaries’, MR,
xlii (1981), 9–21
A. Mann: ‘Bach and Handel as Teachers of Thoroughbass’, Bach, Handel,
Scarlatti, ed. P. Williams (Cambridge, 1985), 245–57
R.W. Wason: Viennese Harmonic Theory from Albrechtsberger to
Schenker and Schoenberg (Ann Arbor, 1985/R)
I. Bent and W. Drabkin: Analysis (London, 1987)
T. Christensen: ‘The Règle de l'octave in Thorough-Bass Theory and
Practice’, AcM, lxiv (1992), 91–117
J. Lester: Compositional Theory in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge,
MA, 1992)
S.M. Schwanauer: ‘A Learning Machine for Tonal Composition’, Machine
Models of Music, ed. S.M. Schwanauer and D.A. Levitt (Cambridge,
MA, 1993), 511–32
PETER WILLIAMS/DAVID LEDBETTER

Generali, Pietro
(b Masserano, nr Vercelli, 23 Oct 1773; d Novara, 3 Nov 1832). Italian
composer. His surname was Mercandetti until his father changed it when,
bankrupt, the family moved to Rome. There Generali studied counterpoint
with Giovanni Masi, interrupted by four months spent at the Conservatorio
di S Pietro a Majella at Naples. He graduated from the Congregazione di S
Cecilia in Rome and began his career as a composer of sacred music,
producing his first opera only in 1800 (Gli amanti ridicoli). His first great
success was Pamela nubile, composed for Venice in 1804 and repeated in
Vienna in 1805. This was followed by other comic operas and farces which
were widely performed in Italy and abroad (Le lagrime d’una vedova,
Adelina, La Cecchina, La vedova delirante, Chi non risica non rosica, La
contessa di Colle Erboso). He did not attempt opere serie until 1812 with
Attila, but thereafter produced a considerable number; one of the most
successful was I baccanali di Roma (1816), which was in demand for many
years. In spring 1817, when his popularity began to be obscured by
 Rossini’s successes, he went to Barcelona as director of the opera
company at the Teatro de la S Cruz. He held the position for about three
years, often travelling in Italy and abroad, and contributed one original work
(Gusmano de Valhor, 1817) and some revivals. From late 1820 to 1823 he
was in Naples, composing several operas and teaching; Luigi Ricci was
among his pupils.
With the Naples period his activity as an opera composer came virtually to
an end. In 1823 he became music director of the Teatro Carolino in
Palermo. In spring 1825 he was replaced by Donizetti; he returned to his
post the following season, but in 1826 he was charged with being maestro
venerabile of a masonic lodge and expelled from the kingdom. In poor
health and disappointed by the cold reception of his works, he returned to
the north of Italy and in 1827 became maestro di cappella at Novara
Cathedral, a position he held until his death. In his last years he had a few
opere serie performed, without much success.
Generali composed at least 55 operas as well as sacred works and
cantatas. Contemporaries had conflicting opinions of his work. His early
comic operas sounded ‘moderne’ and even ‘stravaganti’ in their vigorous
and brilliant orchestration and a certain unusual harmonic richness. But at
the end of his career, like many composers of the same generation, he
appeared a pale imitator of Rossini. In 1828 Tommaso Locatelli wrote of
Francesca da Rimini: ‘There prevails a certain carelessness, a certain
triviality of style, as if the maestro had been working almost per otium’
(Gazzetta di Venezia). In fact, in spite of their fine melodic qualities and
effective delineation of character, his works sometimes lack substance and
structural coherence and do not always escape a certain stylistic
standardization, partly the result of completing many operas during
rehearsals. His use of dramatic orchestral effects (including the crescendo)
anticipates Rossini, but the attribution to Generali of the invention of the
orchestral crescendo, as stated on his commemorative tablet in Novara
and repeated by Pacini in his memoirs, would seem to be an exaggeration.
WORKS
c55 operas, 1800–33, incl. Pamela nubile (farsa, 1, G. Rossi, after C. Goldoni),
Venice, S Benedetto, 12 April 1804, as La virtù premiata dall’amore, Vienna, Burg,
20 July 1805; Le lagrime d’una vedova (farsa, 1, G.M. Foppa, after C. Federici),
Venice, S Moisè, 26 Dec 1808; Adelina [Luigina; Luisina] (farsa, 1, Rossi, after S.
Gessner), Venice, S Moisè, 15/16 Sept 1810; La Cecchina suonatrice di ghironda
(farsa, 1, Rossi), Venice, S Moisè, 26 Dec 1810; La vedova delirante (ob, 2, J.
Ferretti), Rome, Valle, Jan 1811, as Bernardino, Barcelona, S Cruz, late 1815; Attila
(os, Rossi), Bologna, Comunale, sum. 1812; Bajazet (os, 2), Turin, Imperiale, 26
Dec 1813; La contessa di Colle Erboso, ossia Un pazzo ne fa cento [La contessa di
Colle Ombroso; Tutti matti; La finta contessa] (dg, 2, Foppa), Genoa, S Agostino,
Dec 1814; I baccanali di Roma [I baccanti; Le baccanti di Roma] (os, 2, Rossi),
Venice, La Fenice, 14 Jan 1816, vs (Bonn and Cologne, ?1818), rev. as Die
Bacchanten, Vienna, An der Wien, 12 June 1820, as I baccanali aboliti, Milan, Re,
sum. 1832; Gusmano de Valhor (os, ?Peracchi, after Voltaire: Alzire), Barcelona, S
Cruz, 1 Dec 1817; Chiara di Rosemberg (op eroicomica, 2, A.L. Tottola), Napes,
Nuovo, Dec 1820; Elena e Olfredo [Alfredo], Naples, S Carlo, 9 Aug 1821; Jefte [Il
voto di Jefte] (azione tragico-sacra, 2, ?Foppa, ? after F. Gnecco), Florence,
Pergola, 11 March 1827; Francesca da Rimini (os, P. Pola, after Dante: Commedia),
Venice, Fenice, 26 Dec 1828, excerpts (Milan, 1831)
Other works: cants., incl. Roma liberata, 1801, Lo scudo d’Astrea, 1828; La caduta
di Gerico (orat), Palermo, 1824; many sacred works, incl. masses, Requiem, Mag,
lit, offs, seqs; didactic works, incl. solfeggi
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (C. Sartori)
FlorimoN
GroveO (A. Lanza) [incl. fuller list of operas]
‘Nachrichten: Mayland’, AMZ, xix (1817), 473–4
L. Schiedermair: ‘Eine Autobiographie Pietro Generalis’, Festschrift …
Rochus Freiherrn von Liliencron (Leipzig, 1910/R), 250–53
G. Bustico: ‘Saverio Mercadante a Novara’, RMI, xxviii (1921), 361–96
[incl. list of Generali’s church music composed at Novara]
J. Subirá: La ópera en los teatros de Barcelona: estudio histórico
cronológico desde el siglo XVIII al XX, i (Barcelona, 1946/R), 72ff
O. Tiby: Il Real Teatro Carolino e l’Ottocento musicale palermitano
(Florence, 1957)
J. Freeman: ‘Pietro Generali in Sicily’, MR, xxxiv (1973), 231–40
A. Galazzo, ed.: Contributi alla bibliografia di Pietro Generali (Biella, 1981)
[incl. chronology of performance]
M. Conati: ‘L'amante statua, ovvero La magìa di un flauto (a proposito di
due opere di Farinelli e di Generali)’, Napoli e il teatro musicale in
Europa tra Sette e Ottocento: studi in onore di Friedrich Lippmann, ed.
B.M. Antolini and W. Witzenmann (Florence, 1993), 383–405
ANDREA LANZA

Generalpause
(Ger.).
A rest for the whole orchestra, usually unexpected and sometimes marked
with the letters ‘GP’.

Genesis.
English progressive rock band. It was formed when its members were at
Charterhouse School, Surrey. Its first recording was in 1967, but the first
‘mature’ offering was Trespass, released in 1970, after Phil Collins (drums)
had joined Peter Gabriel (vocals), Tony Banks (b 1950; keyboards) and
Mike Rutherford (b 1950; bass guitar); Steve Hackett (b 1950; guitar) was
recruited soon after. Their early style was marked by extended structures
frequently shunning verse-refrain patterns, with a heavy reliance on
keyboards (particularly the mellotron) and some extended tonal harmonic
patterns. They were criticized for dispensing with blues scales and rhythms
in favour of showy instrumental virtuosity. Their subject matter was typically
progressive, with a general avoidance of love songs and with tales redolent
of science fiction (Return of the Giant Hogweed, Watcher of the Skies),
surrealism (Supper's Ready and much of the album Selling England by the
Pound) and allegory (the concept album The Lamb Lies Down on
Broadway). Their initial stage presence was marked by Gabriel's
outrageous costumes, illustrative of the songs. After five studio albums in
this style, Gabriel went solo (1975), Hackett followed, and the remaining
trio began the move towards middle-of-the-road, soul-influenced stadium
rock, and far greater commercial success. Bestselling albums included
Duke (1980), Abacab (1981), Genesis (1983), Invisible Touch (1986) and
We Can Dance (1991). These later works retained some stylistic
fingerprints, particularly in the realm of harmony, but lyrics have become
straightforward, textures thicker and rhythmically anticipatory bass and
drum-kit lines the norm. Banks, Collins and Rutherford have all maintained
separate recording careers since 1979, with Collins making several film
appearances.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Gallo: Genesis: the Evolution of a Rock Band (London, 1978)
G. Parkyn: Genesis: Turn it on Again (London, 1984)
A. Gallo: Genesis: I Know What I Like (London, 1987)
D. Hepworth: ‘Up the Hill Backwards’, Q, no.11 (1987), 76–82
D. Bowler and B. Dray: Genesis: a Biography (London, 1992)
ALLAN F. MOORE

Genest, Charles-Claude
(b Paris, 17 Oct 1639; d Paris, 20 Nov 1719). French poet and playwright.
He was squire to the Duke of Nevers and tutor to Mlle de Blois, and was
accepted into the Académie Française in 1698. He became abbot of St
Vilmer Abbey. The regent awarded him a pension of 2000 livres. His
Divertissements de Sceaux (Paris, 1712) is a primary source for the
divertissements composed and performed for the Duchess of Maine prior
to her famous ‘Grandes nuits de Sceaux’ (1714–15). These fêtes, ‘pure
amusement, unrehearsed … a type of impromptu entertainment’, were
performed in Châtenay, near Sceaux, at the château of Nicolas de
Malézieu. Jean-Baptiste Matho composed three ‘petits opéras’ (music lost)
for these divertissements. Genest's book provided the texts for all the vocal
music and describes the theatre, a tent of ‘prodigious size’ seating 300
spectators.
JAMES R. ANTHONY

Genet, Elzéar.
See Carpentras.

Geneva
(Fr. Genève; Ger. Genf).
Swiss city. In the Middle Ages, after the Roman occupation, the practice of
church music there differed slightly from that of Rome, possibly through the
influence of the abbey of Solesmes. Calvin organized church music during
the Reformation (from 1536): psalm singing took the place of the Mass and
he had editions made of psalters such as the one by Clément Marot, which
was continued by Théodore de Bèze and set to music by two French
refugees, Guillaume Franc and Loys Bourgeois. Calvin railed against
musical amusements, including dancing, which had hitherto been a
favourite pastime, a sort of round-dance called a virolt being performed in
the squares on summer evenings and nights. He had all the organs
demolished or sold. The bands of fifes and trumpets disappeared and
satirical and frivolous songs were condemned.
A musical renaissance began in the 18th century. In 1738 the theatre was
established; in 1756 the organ in the cathedral of St Pierre was
reconstructed and Gaspard Fritz, a violinist and composer born in Geneva,
of a Hanover family, enlivened local music. He took part in concerts
organized by Thomas Pitt, brother of the English statesman, and played
before Voltaire. During this period famous musicians visited Geneva; for
example, Mozart went there in 1766, and at about the same time Grétry
wrote his opera Isabelle et Gertrude there. Rousseau wrote a Lettre sur les
spectacles complaining about abuses in the theatre, which he wanted
replaced by collective festivals. There was a considerable expansion of the
arts in the 19th century: in 1826 there were 20 music teachers in Geneva;
the Société de Chant Sacré was founded in 1827; in 1835 the
Conservatoire de Musique was established and in its first winter had the
attraction of a free course given by Liszt; an increasing number of concerts
was promoted by the Société Musicale de Genève, founded in 1823 by the
violinist Christian Haensel. Charles Samuel Bovy-Lysberg, François-
Gabriel Gras and Hugo von Senger, instigators of several winegrowers’
festivals in Vevey, Otto Barblan and Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, inventor of
eurhythmics, also contributed to the increase of music in Geneva.
Spurred by the inauguration of a purpose-built concert hall and the
founding of the city’s first permanent orchestra, musical activity developed
rapidly in the 20th century, matching Geneva’s growth and importance as a
seat of international organizations. The 1700-seat Victoria Hall, presented
to the city in 1894 by a British patron of the arts, Daniel Barton, has an
ornate shoebox design and fine acoustics. Most of the world’s great
orchestras, conductors and soloists have played there, and it has been the
home of the internationally renowned music competition, the Concours
International d'Exécution Musicale CIEM-Genève, since 1939, when the
19-year-old Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli won first prize. It has also been
extensively used for recordings. The hall was devastated by fire in 1984,
but such was the affection in which it was held by the Geneva public that it
was restored to the original design.
Ernest Ansermet founded the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande in 1918
and remained music director for 50 years. During that period he was the
city’s presiding musical spirit, introducing much new music, attracting high-
calibre soloists and developing the orchestra’s international reputation
through tours and recordings. He excelled in his interpretations of Debussy,
Ravel and Stravinsky, and championed the music of Frank Martin.
Ansermet’s successors were Paul Kletzki (1967–70), Wolfgang Sawallisch
(1970–80), Horst Stein (1980–85), Armin Jordan (1985–97) and Fabio Luisi
(from 1997). The orchestra divides its time between concerts (with
occasional visits to other French-speaking Swiss towns), opera and studio
work for Swiss Radio. Despite Ansermet’s pioneering efforts, the Geneva
public is conservative in its musical taste.
The opera season has steadily grown in stature. Performances are given in
the Grand Théâtre, which opened in 1879 and was severely damaged by
fire in 1951, not reopening until 1962. Ansermet conducted there regularly
from 1915, and many neglected and unfamiliar works were performed
while Herbert Graf was director in the late 1960s. Under Hugues Gall,
director from 1980 to 1995, the theatre won international acclaim for its
imaginative casting and balanced repertory. Rolf Liebermann’s fifth opera,
La forêt, had its première there in 1987.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SML
G. Becker: La musique en Suisse depuis les temps les plus reculés
jusqu’à la fin du 18ème siècle (Geneva, 1923)
C. Tappolet: ‘Fragments d’une histoire de la musique à Genève’, SMz, xciii
(1953), 15–17, 263–5, 456–9; xciv (1954), 139–42, 414–16; xcv
(1955), 190–91, 477–80; xcviii (1958), 296–8
R.A. Mooser: Deux violonistes genevois: Gaspard Fritz (1716–1783),
Christian Haensel (1766–1850) (Geneva, 1968)
R. de Candolle: Histoire du Théâtre de Genève (Geneva, 1978)
J.-J. Roth: Grand théâtre de Genève: opéras, moments d’exception (Paris,
1987)
PIERRE MEYLAN/ANDREW CLARK

Gengenbach, Nikolaus
(b Colditz, Saxony, c1590; d Zeitz, 4 Sept 1636). German music theorist
and teacher. From 1609 he attended the Thomasschule, Leipzig, under
Sethus Calvisius. About 1613 he became Kantor at Rochlitz, near his
birthplace, and in 1618 at Zeitz. He is known by a school textbook, Musica
nova, Newe Singekunst, so wol nach der alten Solmisation, als newen
Bobisation und Bebisation (Leipzig, 1626/R). It begins with traditional
elementary rules, but as early as the first theoretical part, solmization is
contrasted with the new seven-step systems of bocedization (described by
Calvisius) and bebization (after Hitzler), through which the difficulties of
mutation could be avoided. The treatment of organ tabulation is also
unusual for a school textbook. As the second, practical part Gengenbach
published a self-contained collection of practice examples graded from the
simple to the difficult. In the third part, which became a pattern for
numerous appendixes in later school treatises, he explained Greek, Latin
and Italian musical terms; he relied here on the third volume of Michael
Praetorius's Syntagma musicum (2/1619) for ideas about the stile nuovo.
He could justifiably call his book Musica nova because he no longer
directed his students to Lassus but to Schütz, Schein and Viadana. Musica
nova is a complete, gradated primer for music instruction which shows
Gengenbach to be, along with Calvisius, Hitzler and others, one of the
more progressive educators of the early 17th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Preussner: ‘Die Methodik im Schulgesang der evangelischen
Lateinschulen des 17. Jahrhunderts’, AMw, vi (1924), 407–49
 A. Werner: Städtische und fürstliche Musikpflege in Zeitz, bis zum Anfang
des 19. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1922)
E. Preussner: ‘Solmisationsmethoden im Schulunterricht des 16. und 17.
Jahrhunderts’, Festschrift Fritz Stein zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. H.
Hoffmann and F. Rühlmann (Brunswick, 1939), 112–28
A. Scott: Nikolaus Gengebach's Musica nova, Newe Singekunst: a
Commentary, Critical Edition, and Translation (Ottawa, 1996)
MARTIN RUHNKE/DALE ALLEN SCOTT

Genin, Vladimir Mikhailovich

(b Moscow, 31 March 1958). Russian composer. He graduated from the
Moscow Conservatory (1983) and completed his postgraduate training in
1990 with Ledenyov (composition), Il'ya Klyachko (piano) and Yury Butsko
(orchestration). He composes in various genres, showing a predilection for
vocal music. He is frequently attracted by historiographical sources, old
Russian literature, the Old Russian chronicles, the lives of the saints and
the supernatural as the basis for his works.
Combining elements of various techniques of composition (tonal, polytonal
and modal), Genin has developed the traditions of Sviridov, particularly in
his colourful harmonic treatment of ancient folklore and old Russian motifs;
it was to Sviridov that Genin devoted one of his published articles.
The work which brought the composer acclaim and recognition was Plach
po Andreyu Bogolyubskomu, Velikomu knyazyu Vladimirskomu (‘Lament
for Andrey Bogolyubsky, Grand Prince of Vladimir’). The work was
commissioned by the Vladimir Chamber Choir and composed in 1987 to
mark the millennium of Russia's adoption of Christianity; it has been
performed extensively and recorded by Melodiya (Moscow). In its use of
choral recitative (a recitative based on chords) the work highlights the
composer's individualized and expressive inflection. His next opus Ispoved'
blazhennogo Avgustina (‘The Confession of St Augustine’) represents an
original genre which may be described as musical hagiography. In 1992
Genin orchestrated Musorgsky's cycle Pesni i plyaski smerti (‘Songs and
Dances of Death’) for the singer Hvorostovsky; it received its première in St
Petersburg in 1993.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Plach po Andreyu Bogolyubskomu, Velikomu knyazyu Vladimirskomu

[Lament for Andrey Bogolyubsky, Grand Prince of Vladimir] (play, 7 scenes, Genin
after Old Russ. chronicles, trad. text, historiographical sources), vv, chorus, 1987;
Detskiy ostrov [Children's Island] (children's music theatre, S. Chornïy), 1988;
Deystvo o strashnom sude/Apokrificheskie pesnopeniya [Play about the Terrible
Judgement/Apocryphal Chants] (mystery play, 7 scenes, Genin after Russ. trad.),
vv, nar, chorus, inst ens, 1990; Infernaliya, ili khozhdenie po mïtarstvam [Infernalia,
or a Walk through Tribulation] (mystery play, 8 scenes, Genin after F. Dostoyevsky),
chorus, 1991
Choral: Ispoved' blazhennogo Avgustina [The Confession of St Augustine] (cant., St
Augustine, Bible: Gospels, Orthodox texts in Lat., Eng. and Russ.), vv, nar, chorus,
1990; Posledneye puteshestviye [The Last Journey] (chbr cant., Ye. Boratïnsky), B,
chorus, orch, 1994; Song of the Sky Loom [Amerindian text], 1989; And there Shall
be Delay no Longer (Russ. and Eng. poetry), 1990; Remember me O Lord (Bible:
Gospels), 1990
1v, pf: Svet nezakatnïy [Never-Setting Light] (I.A. Bunin), song cycle, B, pf, 1985;
Kitauyskaya pėysazhnaya lirika [Chinese Landscape Lyrics] (classical Chin. poetry),
B, pf, 1986; Kak mïshi s kotom voyevali [How the Mice Went to War with the Cat]
(N. Zabolotsky), B, pf, 1987
Inst: Intermezzo, vn, gui, pf, db, 1983; Sym. Poem, vn, va, orch, 1986; Sym. Conc.,
pf, orch, 1988; Sonata Repercussa, pf, 1995

Principal publishers: Muzïka, Sovetskiy kompozitor (Moscow)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Na voprosï anketï otvechayet molodoy kompozitor Vladimir Genin’ [The
young composer Vladimir Genin replies to a questionnaire], SovM
(1988), no.6, pp.6–8
M. Arkad'ev: ‘Razmïshleniya o molodom kompozitore’ [Reflections about a
young composer], SovM (1989), no.12, pp.38–42
Yu. Paisov: ‘Voskresheniye ideala: pesnopeniya svyatïm v sovremennoy
muzïke Rossii’ [The resurrection of an ideal: chants to the saints in
contemporary music of Russia], Mak, no.4 (1993), 152–4
YURY IVANOVICH PAISOV

Genis
(It.).
See Tenor horn.

Genis corno
(It.).
See Mellophone.

Genishta, Iosif Iosifovich

(b Moscow, 13/24 Nov 1795; d Moscow, 25 July/6 Aug 1853). Russian
composer, conductor, pianist and cellist. Born into a musical family, he took
lessons in keyboard and composition with J.W. Hässler (1747–1822) and
by the early 1820s had gained a reputation as a skilful pianist as well as a
composer. As a performer he was a renowned exponent of Classical music,
and was responsible for bringing much of Beethoven's orchestral and
instrumental music to the attention of Russian audiences for the first time.
The earliest performances in Russia of Beethoven's piano concertos were
the result of his skills as a promoter of large-scale musical events.
Genishta composed in a variety of genres, often in collaboration with other
leading Muscovite composers of his day, but his success in his lifetime was
principally for short vocal compositions. He composed a number of opera-
vaudevilles, including Bal'donskiye vodï (‘The Baldon Waters’; St
Petersburg, 1825), a satire on fashionable health resorts, Syurpriz (‘The
Surprise’), based on a libretto of I. Velikopolsky (1829), and Starïy gusar, ili
Pazhki Fredrikha II (‘The Old Hussar, or Pages of Frederick II’), a
collaboration with Alyab'yev, Maurer and Shol'ts. His songs are in a
Romantic though generally unsentimental vein and include several to
words by Pushkin, a set of five to texts by Victor Hugo (1842),
arrangements of two Russian folktunes and Vasily Zhukovsky’s Mladïy
Roger svoy ostrïy mech beryot (‘Young Roger seizes his sharp sword’)
(1824), an early example of the heroic songs which became popular
towards the mid-19th century.
Genishta's instrumental music, in contrast to his songs, is based more
firmly in a Classical idiom. Among his most noteworthy compositions are
three sonatas for cello and piano (op.6, 1834; op.7, 1837; op.13, 1847), the
second of which was particularly praised by Schumann, and a set of
nocturnes for cello and piano (1841). He composed at least two string
quartets, a sextet for piano, two violins, viola, cello and bass, and a piano
sonata in F minor (1840), based loosely on Beethoven's ‘Appassionata’
Sonata op.57 and favourably mentioned by Schumann in one of his
surveys of European keyboard music.
Genishta remained a dominant force in Moscow musical life up to his
death, apparently becoming noted as a teacher during the 1840s. Berlioz,
in his Mémoires, relates how, in 1847, Genishta acted as his rehearsal
accompanist in the preparations for a concert performance in Moscow of
his revised version of La damnation de Faust.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V.I. Muzalevsky: Russkaya fortepiannaya muzïka (Leningrad and Moscow,
1949), 190–96
L.S. Ginzburg: Istoriya violonchel'nogo iskusstva [History of the art of cello
playing], ii (Moscow, 1957), 472–9, 498–501
Ye. Tinyanova: ‘I.I. Genishta’, SovM (1941), no.2, pp.62–5
GEOFFREY NORRIS/NIGEL YANDELL

Genlis [née Ducrest de Saint-

Aubin], Stéphanie-Félicité,
Countess of
(b Champcéry, nr Autun, 25 Jan 1746; d Paris, 31 Dec 1830). French
writer, educationist and harpist. She received a thorough education in
singing, dancing and in playing several instruments; her performances on
the harp attracted attention in Paris while she was still a child. Her charm,
wit and skill enabled her to make her way in salons as well as in public as a
performer. At 16 she married the Count of Genlis, to whom she bore three
children. In later years she became the mistress of the Duke of Orléans,
the ‘Philippe-Egalité’ of the revolutionary period, whose legitimate children
she brought up with her own. Her gifts as a teacher brought her (in the face
of much opposition) the post of governess to the family of the Duke of
Chartres; for her charges she wrote several comedies, and anticipated
modern methods by fieldwork in botany and by the use of lantern slides. A
painting by Mauzaisse shows her giving a harp lesson (see illustration); as
one of the most intelligent and beautiful women of her day, she was much
in demand by painters and sat for Romney as well as many others.
In 1791 she was forced to leave France for Switzerland and Germany,
where she earned her living from harp lessons, writing and painting.
Napoleon welcomed her back to France in 1802; she brought with her the
eight-year-old Casimir Baeker, alleged descendant of a noble Berlin family,
and devoted herself to his education as a virtuoso harpist. In 1811 her
niece Georgette Ducrest married the harp virtuoso Bochsa; they were later
divorced.
Mme de Genlis’ voluminous writings, which reflect her sharp intelligence
and independence of mind, include essays, novels, popular romances,
plays, poetry, her memoirs and a manual of harp instruction (Paris, 1802,
1811/R); she also wrote songs with harp accompaniment, and a ballet. Her
pedagogical works advocate novel methods of education and original
music theories; her harp manual contains instructive practice material and
innovatory methods of touch and technique, among which her efforts to
accommodate the fifth finger are especially noteworthy. Her theory of
harmonics incited La Borde to write his Lettre à Mme de Genlis (1806).
Wilhelm Raabe mentioned her capacities as an educationist in his novel
Der Schüdderump (1869).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. de La Borde: Lettre à Mme de Genlis sur les harmoniques (Paris, 1806)
Mme de Genlis: Mémoires inédits … sur le dix-huitième siècle et la
Révolution française (Paris, 1825, 2/1825) [10 vols.]
H. Bonhomme: Madame la contesse de Genlis: sa Vie, son oeuvre, sa
mort (1746–1830) (Paris, 1885)
[M.-A.] Viscomte de Reiset: Mme de Genlis et ses historiens (Paris, n.d.)
M. Brenet: ‘Mme de Genlis, musicienne’, BSIM, viii/2 (1912), 1–14
J. Bertaut: Mme de Genlis (Paris, 1941)
HANS J. ZINGEL

Gennrich, Friedrich
(b Colmar, 27 March 1883; d Langen, nr Frankfurt, 22 Sept 1967). German
musicologist and philologist. He studied Romance philology with Gröber
and Bédier and musicology with Ludwig in Strasbourg and Paris (1903–
10), and took the doctorate at Strasbourg in 1908 with a critical edition of
Le romans de la dame à la lycorne et du beau chevalier; he subsequently
held university posts at Strasbourg (1910–19) and Frankfurt (from 1921).
After completing the Habilitation in 1927 he taught at Frankfurt University
until 1964, occupying a titular chair from 1934. His extensive library and
scholarly papers were destroyed during the war, but he continued to work,
instituting two privately published series, the Musikwissenschaftliche
Studien-Bibliothek (1946–65) and the Summa Musicae Medii Aevi (1957–
67). These constitute some 40 volumes in all; he edited and wrote them
entirely by himself, showing remarkable tenacity and energy in his 70s and
80s. From 1938 he also edited the series of monographs Literarhistorisch-
musikwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (Würzburg), and contributed over
70 articles to the first edition of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart.
Gennrich’s lifelong interest was in the secular poetry and monophonic
music of France and Germany in the Middle Ages. His greatness lay in the
equally high level of his skills as palaeographer, philologist and
musicologist. His bibliographical work on manuscript sources, his
classification of poetic and melodic forms, and the extension of rhythmic
modal theory in his transcriptions are particularly important; in all these the
influence of Ludwig is evident, most clearly in the first, which is much in the
tradition of Ludwig’s monumental Repertorium (1910). Gennrich’s
Rondeaux, Virelais und Balladen (1921–63), his Bibliographie der ältesten
französischen und lateinischen Motetten (SMM, ii, 1957) and his Der
musikalische Nachlass der Troubadours (SMM, iii–iv, xv, 1958–65) are
representative of his work in this field. His bibliographical scholarship rests
on two fundamental and highly influential principles: his belief in the unity of
words and music in medieval song, and his ‘repertory theory’ which
accounts for the many variants of these songs by maintaining that the great
manuscript chansonniers which now survive were a late codification of an
oral tradition and reflect directly the repertories of medieval musicians.
His Grundriss einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes (1932) was
the culmination of his early work on structure and form and a serious
attempt to apply concrete scientific principles to the phenomenon of
melody. In it he classified songs as litany-type, rondel-type, sequence-type
and hymn-type, positing strong influence of sacred on secular music. His
work on rhythm represents the most uncompromising continuation of
Ludwig’s, Beck’s and Aubry’s early rhythmic modal theories applied to
secular song. He adhered exclusively to triple metre, but developed a
highly sophisticated system of rhythmic ‘progressions’ to reflect the inner
metre of the poem from line to line. This system, which involved three
levels of rhythm – ‘Distinktion (D-Rhythmik)’, ‘Einheiten (E–Rhythmik)’ and
‘Tongruppen (G-Rhythmik)’ – is set out in his edition Übertragungsmaterial
zur Rhythmik der Ars Antiqua (1954), his two books (1951, 1953–6)
exemplify its final form.
WRITINGS
MSB
Musikwissenschaftliche Studien-Bibliothek (Nieder-Modau, 1946–8;
Darmstadt, 1953–65)
Les romans de la dame à la lycorne et du beau chevalier: eine
literarhistorische und sprachliche Untersuchung (diss., U. of
Strasbourg, 1908)
Musikwissenschaft und romanische Philologie (Halle, 1918)
‘Die Musik als Hilfswissenschaft der romanischen Philologie’, Zeitschrift für
romanische Philologie, xxxix (1919), 330–61
‘Die beiden neuesten Bibliographien altfranzösischer und
altprovenzalischer Lieder’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xli
(1921), 289–346
‘Das Frankfurter Fragment einer altfranzösischen Liederhandschrift’,
Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xlii (1922), 726–40
‘Zu den Liedern des Conon de Béthune’, Zeitschrift für romanische
Philologie, xlii (1922), 231–41
‘Zur Rhythmik des altprovenzalischen und altfranzösischen Liedverses’,
Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur, xlvi (1922–3), 205–
26
Der musikalische Vortrag der altfranzösischen chansons de geste (Halle,
1923)
‘Sieben Melodien zu mittelhochdeutschen Minneliedern’, ZMw, vii (1924–
5), 65–98
‘Die altfranzösische Liederhandschrift London, British Museum, Egerton
274’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xlv (1925), 402–44
Die altfranzösische Rotrouenge (Halle, 1925)
‘Der Chansonnier d’Arras’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xlvi (1926),
325–35
‘Der deutsche Minnesang in seinem Verhältnis zur Troubadour- und
Trouvère-Kunst’, Zeitschrift für deutsche Bildung, ii (1926), 536–66
‘Trouvèrelieder und Motettenrepertoire’, ZMw, ix (1926–7), 8–39; 65–85
‘Zur Musikinstrumentenkunde der Machaut-Zeit’, ZMw, ix (1926–7), 513–
17
‘Glossen zu Johannes Brahms’ “Sonett” op.14 Nr.4: Ach, könnt’ ich, könnte
vergessen sie, zum 3. April 1927’, ZMw, x (1927–8), 129–39
‘Internationale mittelalterliche Melodien’, ZMw, xi (1928–9), 259–96, 321–
48
‘Zur Ursprungsfrage des Minnesangs’, DVLG, vii (1929), 187–228
‘Lateinische Kontrafakta altfranzösischer Lieder’, Zeitschrift für romanische
Philologie, l (1930), 187–207
‘Das Formproblem des Minnesangs’, DVLG, ix (1931), 285–349
Grundriss einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes (Halle, 1932/R)
‘Grundsätzliches zu den Troubadour- und Trouvère-weisen’, Zeitschrift für
romanische Philologie, lvii (1937), 31–56
ed.: Literarhistorisch-musikwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (Würzburg,
1938)
‘Der Sprung ins Mittelalter: zur Musik der altfranzösischen und
altprovenzalischen Lieder’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, lix
(1939), 207–40
Die Strassburger Schule für Musikwissenschaft (Würzburg, 1940)
‘Melodien Walthers von der Vogelweide’, ZDADL, lxxx (1942) 24–48
‘Zwei altfranzösische Lais’, Studi medievali, new ser., xv (1942), 1–68
‘Zu den Melodien Wizlavs von Rügen’, ZDADL, lxxx (1943), 86–102
‘Refrain-Tropen in der Musik des Mittelalters’, Studi medievali, new ser., xvi
(1943–50), 242–54
Abriss der frankonischen Mensuralnotation nebst übertragungsmaterial,
MSB, i–ii (1946, 2/1956)
‘Bemerkungen zu Spankes System des lateinisch-romanischen
Strophenkunst’, ‘Der Gesangswettstreit im “Parfait du Paon”’,
Romanische Forschungen, lviii–lix (1944–7), 114–26, 208–32
Abriss der Mensuralnotation des XIV. und der ersten Hälfte des XV.
Jahrhunderts, MSB, iii–iv (1948, 2/1965)
‘Liedkontrafakturen in mhd. und ahd. Zeit’, ZDADL, lxxxii (1948), 105–41;
repr. in Der deutsche Minnesang, ed. H. Fromm (Darmstadt, 1961),
330–77
‘Perotins Beata viscera Mariae virginis und die “Modaltheorie”’, Mf, i (1948),
225–41
‘Deutsche Rondeaux’, Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache
und Literatur, lxxii (1950), 130–41
‘Die Melodie zu Walthers von der Vogelweide Spruch: Philippe, künec
hêre’, Studi medievali, new ser., xvii (1951), 71–85
‘Simon d’Authie, ein pikardischer Sänger’, Zeitschrift für romanische
Philologie, lxvii (1951), 49–104
Troubadours, Trouvères, Minne- und Meistergesang, Mw, ii (1951; Eng.
trans., 1960)
Aus der Formenwelt des Mittelalters … Beispiele zum Bestimmen
musikalischer Formen, MSB, viii (1953, 2/1962)
‘Mittelalterliche Lieder mit textloser Melodie’, AMw, ix (1952), 120–36
Altfranzösische Lieder (Tübingen, 1953–6)
‘Grundsätzliches zur Rhythmik der mittelalterlichen Monodie’, Mf, vii
(1954), 150–76
‘Vier deutsche Lieder des 14. und 15. Jahrhunderts’, AMw, xi (1954), 269–
79
‘Zur Liedkunst Walthers von der Vogelweide’, ZDADL, lxxxv (1954), 203–9
‘Ist der mittelalterliche Liedvers arhythmisch?’, Cultura neolatina, xv (1955),
109–31
‘Refrain-Studien’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, lxxi (1955), 365–90
‘Die Repertoire-Theorie’, Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur,
lxvi (1956), 81–108
‘Die Deutungen der Rhythmik der Kalenda-maya-Melodie’, Romanica:
Festschrift für Gerhard Rohlfs, ed. H. Lausberg and H. Weinrich (Halle,
1958), 181–92
‘Wer ist der Initiator der “Modaltheorie”? Suum cuique’, Miscelánea en
homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona, 1958–61), 315–30
‘Streifzüge durch die erweiterte Modaltheorie’, AMw, xviii (1961), 126–40
‘Zur Ausgabe der Lieder des Gautier de Coinci von J. Chailley’,
Romanische Forschungen, lxxiii (1961), 308–26
‘Die Laudes sancte crucis der Hs. Darmstadt, Hessische Landesbibliothek
2777’, Organicae voces: Festschrift Joseph Smits van Waesberghe
(Amsterdam, 1963), 45–58
Studien über die Geschichte der mehrstimmigen Musik im Mittelalter,
SMM, xvi (1966)
EDITIONS
MSB
Musikwissenschaftliche Studien-Bibliothek (Nieder-Modau, 1946–8;
Darmstadt, 1953–65)
Rondeaux, Virelais und Balladen aus dem Ende des XII., dem XIII., und
dem ersten drittel des XIV. Jahrhunderts, i (Dresden, 1921); ii
(Göttingen, 1927); iii as Das altfranzösische Rondeau und Virelai im
12. und 13. Jahrhundert, SMM, x (1963)
Die Sankt Viktor-Clausulae und ihre Motetten, MSB, v–vi (1953, 2/1963)
Melodien altdeutscher Lieder: 47 Melodien in handschriftlicher Fassung,
MSB, ix (1954)
Mittelhochdeutsche Liedkunst: 24 Melodien zu mittelhochdeutschen
Liedern, MSB, x (1954)
Übertragungsmaterial zur Rhythmik der Ars Antiqua: 101 ausgewählte
Beispiele aus dem Bereich der mittelalterlichen Monodie, MSB, viii
(1954)
Pérotin: Das Organum ‘Alleluia nativitas gloriose virginis Marie’, und seine
Sippe, MSB, xii (1955)
Lateinische Liedkontrafaktur: eine Auswahl lateinischer Conductus mit
ihrem volkssprachigen Vorbildern, MSB, xi (1956)
Musica sine littera: Notenzeichen und Rhythmik der Gruppennotation,
MSB, xiii–xiv (1956)
Franco of Cologne: Ars cantus mensurabilis, MSB xv–xvi (1957) [repr. of
CS, i, 17–36 and diplomatic transcrs. of J-Ma and F-SDI MSS]
Bibliographie der ältesten französischen und lateinischen Motetten, SMM, ii
(1957)
Exempla altfranzösischer Lyrik: 40 altfranzösische Lieder, MSB, xvii (1958)
Der musikalische Nachlass der Troubadours, SMM, iii–iv, xv (1958–65)
Lo gai saber: 50 ausgewählte Troubadour-Lieder, MSB, xviii–xix (1959)
F. Ludwig: Repertorium organorum, SMM vii–viii (1961–2)
Adam de la Halle: Le jeu de Robin et de Marion [et] Li rondel Adam, MSB,
xx (1962)
Neidhart-Lieder: kritische Ausgabe der Neidhart von Reuental
zugeschriebenen Melodien, SMM, ix (1962)
Aus der Frühzeit der Motette: der erste Zyklus von Clausulae der Hs W1
und ihre Motetten, MSB, xxii–xxiii (1963)
Die autochthone Melodie: Übungsmaterial zur musikalischen Textkritik,
MSB, xxi (1963)
Bibliographisches Verzeichnis der französischen Refrains des 12. und 13.
Jahrhunderts, SMM, xiv (1964)
Jehannot de L’Escurel: balades, rondeaux et diz entez sur refroiz de
rondeaux, SMM, xiii (1964)
Die Kontrafaktur im Liedschaffen des Mittelalters, SMM, xii (1965)
Cantilenae piae: 31 altfranzösische geistliche Lieder der Hs. Paris, Bibl.
Nat. nouv. acq. fr. 1050, MSB, xxiv (1966)
Florilegium motetorium: ein Querschnitt durch das Motettenschaffen des
13. Jahrhunderts, SMM, xvii (1966)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Kippenberg: Der Rhythmus im Minnesang: eine Kritik der literar-und
musikhistorischen Forschung (Munich, 1962), 138–45
W. Bittinger: ‘Friedrich Gennrich in memoriam’, Mf, xxi (1968), 417–21
J.G. Schubert: ‘Friedrich Gennrich zum Gedenken’, AcM, xl (1968), 199–
201
IAN D. BENT/R

Genoa
(It. Genova).
Italian city, capital of Liguria. The earliest recorded musical activity in
Genoa dates from the Middle Ages, with documented references to
troubadours (Bonifacio Calvo, Lanfranco Cigala), devotional songs
(cantegore) and liturgical music. Early evidence for the cultivation of music
includes the 12th-century neumatic codex in S Maria delle Vigne, the
presence of organs, and the legacy of Bertolino Fieschi (1313), which
ensured that singing was taught to clerics and boys in the cathedral of S
Lorenzo. The Adorno family brought Franchinus Gaffurius to the city
(1478), and Paolo Campofregoso (1494) established a choir in the
cathedral where polyphony was taught.
More documents survive from the 16th and 17th centuries. A cappella of
wind players was established in the Palazzo Ducale in 1540; in the 17th
century this was augmented by singers and string instruments. Musicians
who worked there include Ferdinando Pagano (1590–92), Francesco
Guami (1594), Marco Corrado (1594–1625), Simone Molinaro (1625–36),
Giovanni Paolo Costa (1636–8), his brother Giovanni Maria Costa (1640–
56) and Giovanni Stefano Scotto (1659–74). The directors of the choir of
the cathedral (founded by Lorenzo Fieschi) were Vincenzo Ruffo (1544),
Andrea Festa (1552–9), Antonio Dueto (1576–84), Giovanni Battista Dalla
Gostena (1584–9), his nephew Molinaro (1601–17), Carlo Abbate (1640–
61) and Agostino Guerrieri. Organists at the two organs (built by Giovanni
Battista Facchetti, 1554, and Giuseppe Vitani, 1604) were the Parma-born
Orazio Briolano and the Genoese Lelio Rossi (de Rubeis), assisted by his
nephew Michelangelo, Giovanni Battista Strata and Scotto. Music was
important in the various churches, convents and monasteries: Francesco
Antonio Costa worked in S Francesco di Castelletto, while Francesco
Righi, Pietro Simone Agostini, Giovanni Maria Pagliardi and Matteo Bisso
directed the choir (founded 1609) of the Jesuit church, S Ambrogio;
Giovanni Battista Rossi and Giovanni Battista Bianchi belonged to the
Somasci and Augustinian orders respectively, and in the monasteries of S
Leonardo and S Bartolomeo the outstanding figures were Anfione
Ferrabosco's daughters Elena and Laura. Willem Hermans from Flanders
built organs for the churches of S Ambrogio, S Maria Assunta in Carignano
and S Maria Maddalena. Printed editions for the Dottrina Christiana and
the Piarists testify to the singing of laude in the city.
The Genoese publishing trade in the 16th and 17th centuries rivalled that
of Venice and Rome; the leading printers included Girolamo Bartoli,
Giuseppe Pavoni and the Calenzani family. Molinaro edited Gesualdo's
Partitura delli sei libri de madrigali a cinque voci, published by Pavoni in
1613, and opened a music-printing business in Loano, whose management
he entrusted to Francesco Castello.
The Genoese nobility fostered the cultivation of secular music: the Doria
family maintained a choir directed by Ruffo (1545–6); Andrea Bianchi
worked for the Cybo family (1611); a group of aristocrats brought Giulio
Caccini to Genoa in 1595, while Francesco Rasi was a guest of the
Grimaldis (1607) and Francesca Caccini of the Brignole Sale family (1617).
Genoese citizens heard many musical events: at the port, in the streets
and during processions, particularly of the confraternities (the casacce) and
the city authorities. Performances were given by the academies,
particularly the Accademia degli Addormentati (1587), to which Angelo
Grillo (Livio Celiano), Gabriello Chiabrera and Ansaldo Cebà all belonged.
The lutenists Marco Corrado, Dalla Gostena and Molinaro were active in
Genoa. Many eminent composers, singers and instrumentalists born or
educated in Genoa worked elsewhere, including Johannes and Antonius
de Janua in the 14th and 15th centuries and, in the 16th and 17th
centuries, Giovanni Battista Pinello di Ghirardi, Bernardino Borlasca,
Michelangelo Rossi, Claudio Cocchi, Giovanni Battista Fossato, Giovanni
Filippo Cavalliere, Giovanni Francesco Tagliavacca and Pietro Reggio.
Around 1640, when public theatres were beginning to develop in Venice,
the Teatro del Falcone opened, presenting operas by Righi, Giovanni Maria
Costa, Carlo Ambrogio Lonati and Alessandro Stradella. In 1677 the
theatre, originally owned by the Adorno family, was acquired by a group of
noblemen who opened its doors to a more popular audience. In 1680 it
was taken over by the Durazzo family, who ran the theatre until it was
acquired by the Savoia family in 1824. In the meantime, more theatres
opened: S Agostino in 1702, the Teatro delle Vigne (c1730), and theatres in
the summer retreats of Albaro, Sampierdarena, Sestri Ponente and Voltri.
Featured composers were Pasquale Anfossi, Cimarosa, Isola, Luigi and
Giocondo Degola. The opening of the Oratorio di S Filippo Neri (for which
Boccherini wrote Giuseppe riconosciuto) encouraged the performance of
oratorios and vocal and instrumental music, by composers such as
Domenico Balduino, Antonio Maria Tasso, Nicolò Uccelli, Luigi Cerro and
Giacomo Costa.
In the 18th century a school of violin playing developed in Genoa; among
its leading exponents were Martino Bitti and Giovanni Antonio Guido.
Paganini began his career as composer and performer in the city at the
end of the 18th century, but in later years appeared in Genoa only
sporadically. After Paganini, the violinists Camillo Sivori, Nicola and
Domenico De Giovanni, Agostino Dellepiane and Giovanni Battista
Pedevilla all gained an international reputation.
Opera in Genoa received a new impetus in 1828, when the Teatro Carlo
Felice (see illustration) opened with Bellini's Bianca e Fernando. The
theatre hosted other important premières by composers including Donizetti
(Alina, regina di Golconda, 1828), Mascagni (Le maschere, 1901) and
Malipiero (Giulio Cesare, 1936); the Italian première of Strauss's Arabella
was given at the Carlo Felice in 1936. The theatre was destroyed by
bombing in September 1943; it reopened with Il trovatore in October 1991.
Orchestral and chamber concerts are given by a number of organizations,
notably the Giovine Orchestra Genovese, founded in 1912.
In 1829 Antonio Costa founded the Scuola Gratuita di Canto for the training
of opera singers; after various transformations it became the present
Conservatorio di Musica N. Paganini. The library holds autograph scores
by Galuppi and valuable letters, documents and papers of Paganini.
Musicological associations in Genoa include the Instituto di Studi
Paganiniani (founded in 1972 and run by the city since 1990), and the
Associazione Ligure per la Ricerca delle Fonti Musicali (1990). The Premio
Paganini international violin competition has been held regularly since
1954, and the Festival Internazionale del Balletto di Nervi was inaugurated
in 1955.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (A.F. Ivaldi)
L.T. Belgrano: ‘Delle feste e dei giuochi dei genovesi’, Archivio storico
italiano, xiii (1871), 39–71, 191–221; xiv (1871), 64–118; xv (1872),
417–77; xviii (1873), 112–37
R. Bresciano: Catalogo delle opere musicali della R. Biblioteca
universitaria (Parma, 1929)
R. Giazotto: La musica a Genova nella vita pubblica e privata dal XIII al
XVIII secolo (Genoa, 1951)
S. Pintacuda: Catalogo del fondo antico della Biblioteca del Conservatorio
musicale ‘Paganini’ di Genova (Milan, 1966)
C.M. Rietmann: Il violino e Genova (Genoa, 1975)
E. Frassoni: Due secoli di lirica a Genova (Genoa, 1980)
A.F. Ivaldi: ‘Gli Adorno e l'“hostaria”-teatro del Falcone di Genova (1600–
1680)’, RIM, xv (1980), 87–152
S. Pintacuda: Il Conservatorio di musica ‘Nicolò Paganini’ di Genova:
storia e documenti dalle origini ai giorni nostri (Genoa, 1980)
I.M. Botto, ed.: Il Teatro Carlo Felice di Genova: storia e progetti, Genoa,
22 Feb – 15 April 1985 (Genoa, 1986) [exhibition catalogue]
M. Mannucci: Genova a concerto: 75 anni della Giovine Orchestra
Genovese (Genoa, 1987)
C. Bongiovanni: Il fondo musicale dell'Archivio capitolare del duomo di
Genova (Genoa, 1990)
R. Iovino, I. Mattion and G. Tanasini: I palcoscenici della lirica: dal
Falcone al Carlo Felice (Genoa, 1990)
M.R. Moretti: Musica e costume a Genova tra Cinquecento e Seicento
(Genoa, 1990/R)
A. Cantù and G. Tanasini: La lanterna magica: Ottocento strumentale
nella vita pubblica e privata della Superba (Genoa, 1991)
Musica a Genova tra Medio Evo e Età Moderna: Genoa 1989
D. Calcagno, G.E. Cortese and G. Tanasini: La scuola musicale
genovese tra XVI e XVII secolo: musica e musicisti d'ambiente
culturale ligure (Genoa, 1992)
R. Iovino and I. Aliprandi: I palcoscenici della lirica: dall'impresariato
all'ente lirico: il nuovo Carlo Felice (Genoa, 1992)
M. Balma: Genova Novecento: concerti e associazioni musicali (1900–
1993) (Genoa, 1993)
R. Iovino and others: I palcoscenici della lirica: cronologia dal Falcone al
nuovo Carlo Felice (1645–1992) (Genoa, 1993)
MARIA ROSA MORETTI

Genouillère
(Fr.).
See Knee-lever.

Genovés (y Lapetra), Tomás

(b Zaragoza, 29 Dec ?1806; d Burgos, 5 April 1861). Spanish composer.
He was a choirboy in Zaragoza and later moved to Madrid, where he gave
singing lessons. Under the influence of Rossini, he set Romani’s libretto
Enrico e Clotilde, ossia La rosa bianca e la rosa rossa (previously set by
Mayr), from an episode in the Wars of the Roses. In 1832 he wrote
numbers for the zarzuela El rapto, to a text by the journalist Mariano José
de Larra. Awarded a pension by the Spanish government, Genovés went to
Italy in 1834, residing first at Bologna, where he wrote religious
compositions, operas and programmatic orchestral works, the last with
such bellicose titles as Numancia destruída, Los últimos días del sitio de
Roma and El sitio de Zaragoza. Ricordi published his collection of ballads
and duets, Sere d’autunno al Monte Pincio which were praised for their
melodic appeal.
Genovés’s first opera performed in Italy was Zelma (1835, Bologna); its
agreeable melodies are said to have pleased a public that desired easy
amusement. Other operas of his Italian years were La battaglia di Lepanto
(1836, Rome), Bianca di Belmonte (1838, Venice) and Iginia d’Asti (1840,
Naples). He continued to be influenced by Rossini, but employed musical
themes reminiscent of the Spanish zarzuela. Luisa della Vallière (1845)
brought him modest success when it was performed at La Scala. In 1846
he returned to Madrid, where Luisa della Vallière had four performances at
the Teatro de la Cruz in February and March.
He married the singer Elisa Villó in 1851 and spent his last decade mostly
at his retreat in Burgos.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (J. Dowling) [incl. list of stage works]; StiegerO
B. Saldoni: Diccionario biográfico-bibliográfico de efemérides de músicos
españoles (Madrid, 1868–81), ii, 231–4; iii, 386–7
A. Peña y Goñi: La ópera española y la música dramática en España en
el siglo XIX (Madrid, 1881), 158–65
R. Mitjana y Gordón: ‘La musique en Espagne’, EMDC, I/iv (1920), 1913–
2351, esp. 2308–9
E. Cotarelo y Mori: Historia de la zarzuela (Madrid, 1934), 175–7
J. Subirá: El teatro del Real Palacio (1849–1851) (Madrid, 1950), 135–6
C. Gómez Amat: Historia de la música española, v: Siglo XIX (Madrid,
1983), 111–12
R.J. Vázquez: The Quest for National Opera in Spain and the Reinvention
of the Zarzuela (1808–1849) (diss., Cornell U., 1992)
JOHN DOWLING

Genre.
A class, type or category, sanctioned by convention. Since conventional
definitions derive (inductively) from concrete particulars, such as musical
works or musical practices, and are therefore subject to change, a genre is
probably closer to an ‘ideal type’ (in Max Weber's sense) than to a Platonic
‘ideal form’.
Genres are based on the principle of repetition. They codify past
repetitions, and they invite future repetitions. These are two very different
functions, highlighting respectively qualities of artworks and qualities of
experience, and they have promoted two complementary approaches to
the study of genre. The first is properly a branch of poetics, and its students
have ranged from Aristotle to present-day exponents of an analytical
aesthetic. The second concerns rather the nature of aesthetic experience,
and is best understood as an orientating factor in communication. This
perspective has been favoured by many recent scholars of literature and
music, and reflects a more general tendency to problematize the relation
between artworks and their reception.
1. Typologies.
Since Aristotle, a central concern of Western poetics has been with the
classification of works of art. The principal role of classification is arguably
pragmatic – to make knowledge both manageable and persuasive – but its
effect can be to shape, and even to condition, our understanding of the
world. In this sense the underlying tendency of genre is not just to
organize, but also to close or finalize, our experience. This implies a
closed, homogeneous concept of the artwork, where it is assumed to be
determinate and to represent a conceptual unity. Only then is it readily
classifiable.
In literary studies, and in studies of operatic and other vocal music from the
Western tradition, typologies have been conditioned in large part by the
philological orientation of scholarly inquiry, at least until relatively recently.
This has privileged classical genres such as tragedy, comedy, epic and
lyric, with the novel a more recent addition. A classical emphasis has
likewise shaped ethnological classifications, foregrounding genre titles
such as ballad, legend, proverb and lyric folksong, all of which have been
used extensively as a focus for the collection and classification of folk
poetry and folk music. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries some of
these genre titles began to infiltrate art music, where they joined functional
titles such as those associated with courtly, rural or (increasingly) ‘national’
dances. Since these genres, like key characteristics and affective figures,
were part of a larger complex of representations with a basis in rhetorical
concepts, they had an explicit communicative function. This function was
rather less apparent (though it was by no means excluded) when the genre
title referred to a work of so-called ‘absolute music’. Titles such as sonata,
symphony and quartet did, after all, mark a quest for autonomy within
instrumental art music.
The repetition units that define a musical genre can be identified on several
levels. In the broadest understanding of the concept, they may extend into
the social domain, so that a genre will be dependent for its definition on
context, function and community validation and not simply on formal and
technical regulation. Thus the repetitions would be located in social,
behavioural and even ideological domains as well as in musical materials.
The lyric piano piece of the early 19th century might be considered an
undivided genre in these terms, and so might contemporary rock music. A
narrower understanding of genre, and a more common usage, separates
musical works from the conditions of their production and reception, and
identifies genre as a means of ordering, stabilizing and validating the
musical materials themselves (the lyric piano piece has its own constituent
genres, as does contemporary rock). This was largely the understanding of
Gattung promoted by Guido Adler in his influential scheme for
Musikwissenschaft. Yet even here repetition units would normally reach
beyond ‘the notes themselves’, embracing instrumentarium and
performance-site, as well as less tangible qualities such as ‘tone’ and
‘character’. Formal archetypes and stylistic schemata may well be
constitutive of a genre, but they are not in any sense equivalent to it.
Indeed a genre, working for stability, control and finality of meaning, might
be said to oppose the idiomatic diversity and evolutionary tendencies
characteristic of both form and style.
The classification of genres – essentially a systematic activity – begs larger
historical questions. How are genres created, and why? Within literary
criticism, several evolutionary models have been proposed (see Bovet and
Brunetière). Of these, one of the most persuasive was the theory
developed by Russian Formalist critics such as Shklovsky, Tïnyanov and
Tomashevsky. Here the governing principle is one of ‘struggle and
succession’ (Shklovsky), a process, internal to the art, in which the
dominant or canonized line comes into conflict with co-existing minor lines
and is eventually overthrown by these minor lines, now duly canonized.
New genres emerge, then, as accumulating minor devices acquire a focus
(a dominant), and challenge the major line. An alternative view, and one
applied more directly to music, emerges from Adorno's Aesthetic Theory.
Here the dialectic is not between major and minor lines, but between
Universal and Particular, where deviations from a schema in turn generate
new schemata. Moreover, the deviations are seen as indispensable to the
function and value of the schema in the first place. ‘Universals such as
genres … are true to the extent that they are subject to a countervailing
dynamic’.
Unlike the Russian Formalists (or for that matter New Critical students of
genre such as Northrop Frye), Adorno located artistic genres within a larger
social dialectic, and for that reason his analysis is historically contingent.
Thus he could refer to ‘nominalism and the demise of artistic genres’ in the
19th century. Similar arguments were presented by Irving Babbitt and
Croce, and they were made specific to music by Carl Dahlhaus, who
claimed that from the early 19th century onwards musical genres rapidly
lost substance. The suggestion here is that the performance- and genre-
orientated musical culture of the 18th and early 19th centuries was
increasingly undermined by a swerve towards the musical work. This work-
centred perspective (the product of a more general intellectual shift from
doctrinal to rational knowledge) was ultimately formalized in the discipline
of music analysis, which tended to minimize the power of genre in its
discourses. Musical works, in other words, were less concerned to
exemplify genres than to make their own statement. It is notable, then, that
genre definitions and classification systems have played a subsidiary role
in discussions of 20th-century art music, though ‘the quest for norms’ (Ki
Mantle Hood) continues to inform the work of folklorists and ethnologists
such as Alan Dundes and Dan Ben-Amos.
2. Genre and social practice.
From the mid-1960s a very different approach to the study of genre
developed, due in large part to a shift in critical perspective from the nature
of artworks to the nature of aesthetic experience. That shift was
accompanied by a parallel shift in the understanding of genre from the
classification of historically sedimented categories towards a more fluid,
flexible concept concerned above all with function, with the rhetoric or
‘discourse’ of genre within artistic communication and reception. The
simplest semiology recognizes the ‘sign’ as bipartite, with both parts
essential to its meaning. Thus a genre title is integral to an artwork and
partly conditions our response to its stylistic and formal content, but it does
not create a genre. Nor will a taxonomy of shared characteristics of itself
define a genre. It is the interaction of title and content that creates generic
meaning. Clearly, within this interaction, the content may subvert the
expectations created by the title, though it can do so only where a sufficient
correspondence of title and content has been established in the first place.
In this sense, as Heather Dubrow has noted (in her chapter ‘The Function
of Genre’), a genre behaves rather like a contract beween author and
reader, a contract that may be purposely broken. Genre, in short, is viewed
as one of the most powerful codes linking author and reader.
While this approach was developed above all in literary studies, it very
soon found applications in ethnology and in art music. A seminal
ethnological study was William Hanks's ‘Discourse Genres in a Theory of
Practice’, where a genre is viewed as a pairing of (socially and historically
produced) conventions and expectations. This highlights the
‘communicative properties’ of genre. Genres, according to Hanks, ‘consist
of orienting frameworks, interpretive procedures, and sets of expectations’,
and as such they may be manipulated for a wide variety of communicative
ends. This more flexible, open-ended conception of genre has also been
developed in recent writing by musicologists. One signal of a renewed
interest in the subject was a group of papers on genre at the Annual
Meeting of the American Musicological Society in 1986, given by Leo
Treitler, Anthony Newcomb, Laurence Dreyfus and Jeffrey Kallberg.
Kallberg in particular went on to develop the notion of genre as contractual
in two influential papers: ‘Understanding Genre: a Reinterpretation of the
Early Piano Nocturne’, and ‘The Rhetoric of Genre: Chopin's Nocturne in G
minor’. By revealing that Chopin subverted genre titles in ways that created
specific historical meanings, he demonstrated that the communicative
properties of genre depend not only on a consensual code that enables
meaning to be created, but also on the ‘reconstruction of contexts’ in a
historiographical sense.
An attractive aspect of this understanding of the concept has been its
capacity to accommodate the mixing or blending of genres, a device that
might well confuse the classifier, but which greatly strengthens the
communicative and programmatic potential of genre. Since genres
possess certain recognizable identifying traits (genre markers), they can be
counterpointed within an artwork to generate a ‘play’ of meanings which
may, in some later style systems, extend into irony or parody, or even point
beyond the work into the sphere of referential meaning. Thus in the 18th
century a sequence of generic ‘topics’ (Leonard Ratner), closely tied to
conventional affective meanings, might well have registered more forcefully
with contemporary listeners than any sense of the work as a unified
structure. The work, in other words, would have been heard in sequential
terms – less a structure than a succession. In the 19th century there was a
greater degree of cross-fertilization, as emotionally loaded, popular genres
increasingly penetrated the world of the symphony, the sonata, the quartet.
In such cases an ironic mode may be introduced. The work is not itself a
march, a waltz or a barcarolle but rather refers to a march, a waltz or a
barcarolle. The popular genre is part of the content of the work rather than
the category exemplified by the work.
By the end of the 19th century this counterpoint of genres could be a
powerful agent of expression, strongly suggestive of reference. Robert
Samuels has suggested (in his chapter ‘Genre and Presupposition in the
Mahlerian Scherzo’) that the play of three generic types in the Scherzo of
the Sixth Symphony (march, ländler, folkdance) succeeds in ‘teasing out’ a
referential meaning which is neatly embodied in the topos of the Dance of
Death, itself a resonant allegorical motif in Western culture. The strength of
genre for Samuels's purpose is its double existence as a musical category
and a social construct, inviting a journey through musical intertextuality to
the world beyond the notes. What the analysis demonstrates is that the
‘demise of artistic genres’ is real only to the extent that an auteur-based
model of history is allowed to dominate, and with it a one-sided
understanding of genre as a generalized typology of shared materials. The
recognition that a social element can participate in both the definition and
the function of genre releases its energy and confirms its continuing value
for our culture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Brunetière: L’évolution des genres dans l'histoire de la littérature (Paris,
1890, 6/1914)
B. Croce: Estetica come scienza dell'espressione e linguistica generale
(Bari, 1902, 4/1912; Eng. trans., 1909, 2/1922/R)
I. Babbitt: The New Laokoon: an Essay on the Confusion of the Arts
(Boston, 1910)
E. Bovet: Lyrisme, épopée, drame (Paris, 1911)
P. Kohler: ‘Contribution à une philosophie des genres’, Helicon, i (1938),
233–44; ii (1939), 135–42
N. Frye: Anatomy of Criticism (Princeton, NJ, 1957)
V. Propp: Morphology of the Folktale (Bloomington, IN, 1958, 2/1968/R;
Russ. orig., Leningrad, 1928)
G. Adorno and R. Tiedemann, eds.: T.W. Adorno: Ästhetische Theorie
(Frankfurt, 1970, 2/1972; Eng. trans., 1984)
P. Hernadi: Beyond Genre (Ithaca, NY, 1972)
A. Dundes: Analytical Essays in Folklore (The Hague, 1975)
D. Ben-Amos, ed.: Folklore Genres (Austin, 1976)
T. Todorov: ‘The Origins of Genres’, New Literary History, viii (1976), 159–
70
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Die neue Musik und das Problem der musikalischen
Gattungen’, Schönberg und andere (Mainz, 1978), 72–82; Eng. trans.
in Schoenberg and the New Music (Cambridge, 1987), 32–44
L.M. O'Toole and A. Shukman, eds.: Formalism: History, Comparison,
Genre (Oxford, 1978)
H. Dubrow: Genre (London, 1982)
F. Fabbri: ‘A Theory of Musical Genres: Two Applications’, Popular Music
Perspectives, ed. P. Tagg and D. Horn (Göteborg and Exeter, 1982),
52–81
W. Hanks: ‘Discourse Genres in a Theory of Practice’, American
Ethnologist, xiv (1987), 666–92
J. Kallberg: ‘Understanding Genre: a Reinterpretation of the Early Piano
Nocturne’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, 775–9
J. Kallberg: ‘The Rhetoric of Genre: Chopin's Nocturne in G minor’, 19CM,
xi (1987–8), 238–61
J. Samson: ‘Chopin and Genre’, MAn, viii (1989), 213–32
R. Pascall: ‘Genre and the Finale of Brahms's Fourth Symphony’, MAn, viii
(1989), 233–46
C. Goodwin and A. Duranti, eds.: Rethinking Context (Cambridge, 1992)
R. Samuels: Mahler's Sixth Symphony: a Study in Semiotics (Cambridge,
1995)
JIM SAMSON

Gens, Véronique
(b Orléans, 19 April 1966). French soprano. Having won prizes in her
native city, and in early music at the Paris Conservatoire, Gens made her
début with Les Arts Florissants in 1986. Under William Christie's guidance
she quickly became a proficient and appealing interpreter of, among
others, Purcell, Lully and Rameau, including appearances at the Aix-en-
Provence Festival in The Fairy-Queen (1989) and Castor et Pollux (1991),
both recorded. She sang in Lully's Phaëton at the reopening of the Lyons
Opera in 1993, followed at the same theatre with Countess Almaviva
(1994). The same season she took part in a production, jointly staged by
the Théâtre du Châtelet and Covent Garden, of Purcell's King Arthur. She
has since added Idamante, Donna Elvira and Lully's Galatea to her stage
repertory. In addition to Christie, Gens has worked with such conductors as
Minkowski, Malgoire, Herreweghe, Jacobs and Rousset in the Baroque
repertory, and in 1998 recorded an admired Fiordiligi in Jacobs's set of
Così fan tutte. With Herreweghe, in concert and on disc, she has
undertaken Mary in L'enfance du Christ. She is also a sympathetic,
involving interpreter of French mélodies as can be heard on a disc of
Fauré, Debussy and Poulenc. Her flexible, finely tuned voice, deployed
with an innate sense of style, is used with eloquence and a strong sense of
dramatic purpose.
ALAN BLYTH

Gent
(Flem.).
See Ghent.

Gentian [Gentien, Gentiam]

(fl ?Paris, 1538–59). French composer. 20 of his extant chansons
appeared in Attaingnant’s publications in Paris between 1538 and 1549.
Moderne of Lyons printed one song, Du fons de ma pensée (Marot's
version of the psalm De profundis), in 1544, and Granjon printed four in his
 first and second Trophée de musique (RISM 155914, 155915). Most of the
texts are anonymous épigrammes or voix de ville composed in a largely
homophonic manner akin to that of Sandrin. O foible esprit represents one
of the first French settings of a complete sonnet; this one is to a text by Du
Bellay. The popularity of three of Gentian's chansons is attested by their
intabulations for lute by Alberto da Ripa, Guillaume Morlaye and Julien
Belin. Three chansons (Si quelque fois, Toutes les fois and Vous qui
voulez) were reprinted by Le Roy & Ballard with attributions to De Bussy.
WORKS
all for four voices

Celle qui a fascheux mari, 15438, ed. in Call, ii; C’est trop pensé, 154512; C’est ung
grand cas, Onziesme livre contenant xxviii chansons nouvelles, 4vv (Paris, 1541);
De ce brandon, 15437-8, ed. in Call, ii; De faire bien et servir loyaulement, 1543 8;
Dieu qui conduictz, 154924 (intabulation in 156227); Dieu te garde bergiere, 15524;
Du fons de ma pensée, 15449
J’ay supporté son honneur, 15478; Je sens mon heur, 154512; Je seuffre passion,
154920; Je suis Robert, 154920, ed. in Call, ii; La loy d’honneur, ed. PÄMw, xxiii
(1899); La peine dure, 154920, ed. in Call, ii; Le temps peult bien, 1548 4; O foible
esprit, 154922, ed. in Dobbins (arr. insts in C. Gervaise: Quart livre de danceries,
Paris, 1550; intabulation in 155232); O temps qui est vaincueur, 154920
Si de mon mal, 15484; Si quelque fois devant vous, 154512, ed. in Call, ii
(intabulation in 155435); Toutes les fois que je pense au tourment, 1547 11; Une dame
par ung matin, 154012 (attrib. Belin in 153814), ed. in Call, ii; Vous qui voulez, 155914;
Voyez le tort, 155914
L’eccho, intabulation (of Dieu qui conduictz) in 1554 34
Doubtful: Qui souhaittez avoir tout le plaisir, attrib. Sandrin in 1549 20, attrib. Gentian
in 155631 (intabulation), 155914, 158623 (intabulation); Voyez le tort, attrib. Sandrin in
153810, attrib. Sandrin in 155914

BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Dobbins: ‘Joachim Du Bellay et la musique de son temps’, Du Bellay:
Angers 1989, ed. G. Cesbron (Angers, 1990), 587–605
J.M. Call: A Chansonnier from Lyons: the Manuscript Vienna,
Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Mus.Hs.18811 (diss., U. of Illinois,
1992)
SAMUEL F. POGUE/FRANK DOBBINS

Gentile, Ada
(b Avezzano, 26 July 1947). Italian composer. She took diplomas in piano
playing (1972) and composition (1974) and then took Petrassi's
postgraduate composition course at the Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome
(1975–6). She made her name in various international competitions
(Gaudeamus 1982, ISCM, Budapest 1986 and Essen 1995), and was
honoured ‘for cultural services’ by the Polish Ministry of Culture in 1988. In
parallel with her compositional activities she has been adviser of the
Venezia Biennale Festival (1993–7) and artistic director of various musical
institutions: Nuovi Spazi Musicali, Rome (since 1979), the Goffredo
Petrassi Chamber Orchestra, Rome (1986–8) and the opera house in
 Ascoli Piceno (1996–9). She was appointed to teach at the Rome
Conservatory in 1978. Her music displays an experimental attitude towards
timbre and sounds are often presented at the limit of perceptibility. The
cornerstone of her expressive idiom is an ethereal soundworld in which the
tiniest gestures emerge elegantly from silence while the musical texture is
continually fragmented and recomposed. Her work is notable for structural
unity and a stylistic security. In her chamber and orchestral pieces, she
aims to create a counterpoint of diffused sounds which work against each
other in extremely rapid rhythms to produce a kaleidoscopic, continually
changing web of sound.
WORKS
(selective list)

Chbr op: La liberazione di Ruggiero dall'isola di Alcina (after L. Ariosto: Orlando

furioso), 1992, Munich, Biennale, 30 April 1994 [free reconstruction of F. Caccini op]
Orch: Veränderungen, 1976; Flighty, 1982; Criptografia, va, orch, 1985; 2 episodi,
1v, org, orch, 1988; Shading, gui, chbr orch, 1988; Concertante, fl, gui, orch, 1989;
Conc., female v/cl, orch, 1993; Adagi, str, 1993–6; Conc., cl, orch, 1995; Adagio per
un'estate, fl, str, 1998
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt no.1, 1978; Str Qt no.2, 1980; Misty, fl, hn, 1981; Come
dal nulla, cl, 1983, arr. b cl, 1991; Around, fl, cl, va, 1984; Insight, 2 vn, va, 1984;
Small Points, fl, ob, cl, vn, va, vc, pf, 1984; In un silenzio ordinato, fl, cl, 2 perc, vn,
pf, 1985; Flash back, fl, vc, 1986; Quick Moments, fl, gui, 1990; Ricordando un
suono, fl, cl, 2 perc, db (5 str), pf, 1990; Landscapes of the Mind, cl, str qt, 1991; Il
flauto di Vertebre (V. Mayakovsky, trans. I. Ambrogio), spkr, fl, ob, cl, a sax, vn,
perc, 1994; Nonsense, hpd, 1994; Animali di Stranalandia (S. Benni), spkr, bar sax,
1995; Zapping, fl, cl, vn, va, 1995; Studietti di Betty Boop, pf, 1997
MSS in Gaudeamus Foundation, Amsterdam; H. Washington Public Library,
Chicago; Northwestern University, Chicago

Principal publishers: Ricordi, Edipan

SUSANNA PASTICCI

Gentile, Ortensio
(fl 1616). Italian composer. He is known only by his Il primo libro de
madrigali a cinque voci (Venice, 1616), which he dedicated to the Duke of
Mantua. It includes one madrigal with continuo (‘in modo di sinfonia’) and a
setting over the romanesca. The first madrigal in the book abounds in
syncopation and textural contrasts but includes some unusual harmonic
effects suggesting that Gentile found five-part writing difficult.
COLIN TIMMS

Gentili, Giorgio
(b Venice, ?1669; d ?Venice, after 1730). Italian composer and violinist.
Appointed as a violinist to the ducal chapel of S Marco on 10 July 1689, he
acquired the duty of playing solos for the Elevation in 1693. He remained in
 the same post until at least 1731, in which year he was one of the
signatories to the document attesting Lotti's authorship of the disputed
madrigal In una siepe ombrosa, styling himself first violinist in the ducal
chapel. The few written references to Gentili in the intervening years
confirm his continuing attachment to S Marco, though from about 1702 to
about 1717 he also held the post of maestro di istromenti at the Ospedale
dei Mendicanti.
Gentili left six collections of printed instrumental music comprising 72
works. Externally similar (and perhaps not coincidentally so) to works in the
same genres by his fellow citizen and contemporary Tomaso Albinoni, they
reveal a competent but not very individual creative personality, although the
violin technique required is rather more demanding than that in Albinoni's
works of the same period. The trio sonatas of Gentili's op.1 (1701)
command interest through their absorption of display elements associated
with the solo sonata and concerto genres and the presence of ‘solo’ and
‘tutti’ cues in three slow movements, which suggests performance with
doubled instruments. Both features are exploited more fully in the two sets
of concertos, opp.5 and 6, the ‘concerti’ of op.2 being chamber sonatas.
(MoserGV; ScheringGIK)
WORKS
all published in Venice

[12] Sonate a tre, op.1 (1701)

[12] Concerti da camera a tre, op.2 (1703)
[12] Capricci da camera a violino e violoncello o cimbalo, op.3 (before 1706)
[12] Sonate a tre, op.4 (1707)
[12] Concerti a quattro e cinque, op.5 (1708)
[12] Concerti a quattro, op.6 (1716)

1 conc. in a transcr. for org attrib. to J.G. Walther pubd in DDT, xxvi–xxvii (1906),
303

MICHAEL TALBOT

Gentilucci, Armando
(b Lecce, 8 Oct 1939; d Milan, 12 Nov 1989). Italian composer and writer
on music. He studied composition at the Milan Conservatory with Donatoni
and Bettinelli, and received the diploma in 1963. Gentilucci also took
diplomas in the piano (1961) and choral music and direction (1962) and
courses in conducting with Votto there. He taught at the conservatories in
Bolzano and Milan from 1964 to 1969, when he became director of the
Instituto Musicale in Reggio nell’Emilia, a post which he held until 1989.
During the 1970s he was one of the organizers of Musica/Realtà, and one
of the founders of the journal of the same name which he also edited.
His musical and critical output of the 1960s is characterized by the search
for a musical idiom beyond both Adorno’s idea of the Stravinsky–
Schoenberg conflict, and aleatory procedures, maintaining a strain of
contemporary music which has its roots in composers such as Bartók,
Varèse, Ives and Dallapiccola. From his earliest works Gentilucci’s concern
 is with sound, understood as a synthesis of timbre, harmony and melody;
out of this he derived a compositional process which evolves from moment
to moment. He was critical of the ‘aesthetics of negativism and informality’
in music, with a point of reference for his own development lying in the
work and ideas of Nono. Following Nono’s example, at the beginning of the
1970s he linked his pieces to political and social themes (e.g. Canti di
Majakovskij, Cile). An important aspect of this phase, which came to an
end with Che voi pensiate in 1975, was an enriched conception of sound,
including electronic manipulation (as in Come qualcosa palpita nel fondo)
and Ives-like quotations in the famous Studi per un Dies irae. The large
amount of music produced from 1976 to 1978 is a witness to a final
maturity, with a wide variety of source material taken as a point of
departure. His approach could embrace echoes from the past (contrapuntal
techniques, quotations, quasi-tonal centres) as much as avant-garde
procedures and sounds, while retaining a coherent style far from the spirit
of collage. The first significant work of this last period was Il tempo sullo
sfondo for orchestra of 1978, the year he wrote his long essay Oltre
l’avanguardia: un invito al molteplice, which during the 1980s became a
reference point of musical theory for the new generation of Italian
composers. Central too in these years were his opera Moby Dick (1986–8),
his passionate, lyrical works for women’s voices and his many pieces for
solo instruments.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Che voi pensiate (azione musicale), tape, Bologna, Comunale, 25 June
1975; Moby Dick (azione musicale), 1986–8, unperf.
Orch: Conc., pf, str, perc, 1962; Fantasia [no.1], fl, str, pf, perc, 1963; 3 movimenti
sinfonici, 1963; Ov., 1963; Figure, 32 insts, 1966; Sequenze, chbr orch, 1967–8;
Fantasia no.2, fl, str, perc, 1968; Phonomimesis, chbr orch, 1969; Studi per un Dies
irae, 1971–2; Coinvolgimento, 2 vn, va, small orch, 1974; In divenire, vn, orch,
1975–6; Scontri, vn, chbr orch, 1976; Il tempo sullo sfondo, 1978; Voci dal silenzio,
1981; Ritorno di un canto dimenticato, ob, small orch, 1983; Azzurri abissi, cl, orch,
1986; Frammenti sinfonici da Moby Dick, 1988
Str ens: Diario, 1965; Rifrazioni, 1969; Mensurale, 1977
Vocal: Canti da Estravagario di Neruda, Bar, ob qt, 1965; Strofe di Ungaretti, 6 solo
vv, 1967; Siamo prossimi al risveglio (anon., Novalis), Bar, pf, perc, db, 1968; Canti
di Majakovskij, spkr, S, 23 insts, 1970; Lied senza parole, S, pf, 1977; Le secrete
vie, chorus, orch, 1981; Ramo di foglia verde, 2 solo vv, orch, 1982; Canto notturno,
S, orch, 1983; Il chiarore dell’Utopia, S, orch, 1985; Sparì la luna, S, gui, 1985; 2
arie cameristiche e coro da Moby Dick, S, chorus, insts, 1988; Nell’ombra della tua
notte, chorus, 1988; Frammenti poetici di Marina Cvetaeva, S, insts, 1989; Oltre il
mare aperto, S, Renaissance insts, 1989; Rien de plus, S, insts, 1989
5–11 insts: Conc., 5 insts, 1966; Contrasti, 7 insts, 1966; Diacronie, vn, 9 insts,
1970; Diario II, wind qnt, 1971; Cile, wind qnt, 1973; Trama, 2 wind qnt, 1977;
Haleine, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, tuba, 1980; Nei quieti silenzi, wind qnt, trbn, str qt, db, 1983;
Un mutevole intreccio, 2 wind qnt, 1983; Specchi della memoria, fl, pic + a fl, cl, b
cl, hn, pf, 1984; Una trasfigurata rievocazione cubana, fl, cl, hn, vn, va, pf, cel, 1988
2–4 insts: Elegie, pf trio, 1966; Momenti, str qt, 1966; Epitaffio per C. Pavese, cl, vn,
vc, 1967; Diagramma, cl, vn, pf, 1970; Crescendo, pf trio, 1971; Come qualcosa
palpita nel fondo, vn, tape, 1973, rev. 1980; … e ho alzato gli occhi … , 2 vn, va,
1973; Tensioni, va, pf, 1976; Molteplice, vn, va, vc, tape, 1977; Gesti e risonanze,
cl, perc, 1980; Intervalli del tempo, str qt, 1981; Un traccia sommessamente, vn, pf,
1981; Le clessidre di Dürer, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1985; Selva di pensieri sonanti, cl, pf,
1988
Solo inst: Iter, pf, 1969; Dal suono al suono, pf, 1977; Oh, voce che mi sfuggi, fl,
1981; Polifonie per Andrea Centazzo, perc, 1981; Memoria di un Gondellied, pf,
1982; Al telaio del tempo, cl, 1983; Frammenti di un diario d'autunno, pf, 1983; In
Lebenfluten, ob, 1983; Dal fondo di uno specchio, inst, 1984; Metafore del tempo,
pf, 1984; Dove non sono confini, vc, 1985; Fibre di una tela all'orizzonte, db, 1985;
In acque solitaire, fl, 1986; Metamorfosi su un alleluja, bn, 1986; Le trame di un
labirinto, sax, 1986; Lo scrigno dei suoni, pf, 1989

Principal publishers: Ricordi, Sonzogno, Suvini Zerboni

WRITINGS
‘Il futurismo e lo sperimentalismo musicale d’oggi’, Convegno musicale, i
(1964), 275–303
with L. Pestalozza: ‘Verdi’, I protagonisti della storia universale, x (Milan,
1966, 2/1972), 365
‘La tecnica corale di Luigi Nono’, RIM, ii (1967), 111–29
‘L’alea oggi’, Discoteca, 77 (1968), 24–5
‘Giacomo Manzoni’, NRMI, ii (1968), 1147–61
Guida all’ascolto della musica contemporanea (Milan, 1969)
‘Šostakovič anno 1925’, NRMI, iv (1970), 445–62
‘“L’action ne doit pas être une réaction mais une creation’’: appunti su una
recente opera di Luigi Nono’, Quaderni della RaM, no.5 (1972), 67–74
Introduzione alla musica elettronica (Milan, 1972)
‘Vittorio Fellegara: una presenza’, NRMI, viii (1974), 579–91
Oltre l’avanguardia: un invito al molteplice (Fiesole, 1979, 2/1980/R)
‘Gestualità drammatica nel teatro musicale italiano del dopoguerra’,
Musica/Realtà, i (1980), 81–93
‘György Ligeti’, Ligeti, ed. E. Restagno (Turin, 1985), 58–64
‘La figura musicale e la terza dimensione’, Quaderni della Civica Scuola di
Musica, xiii (1986), 83–5
‘La musica contemporanea a cavallo tra due decenni: 1970/80’,
Musica/Realtà, vii (1986), 59–74
‘Attorno a Moby Dick: appunti sulla composizione di un’opera di teatro
musicale’, il verri, 8th ser., nos.5–6 (1987), 34–45
‘Gli anni sessanta’, Nono, ed. E. Restagno (Turin, 1987), 157–68
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.W. Heister: ‘Kantabilität und Klangkonstruktion: ein Werkporträt des
italienischen Komponisten Armando Gentilucci’, Musiktexte, (1985), xii,
7–10
Various authors: ‘Su Armando Gentilucci’, Musica/Realtà, xi (1990), 29–54
H.W. Heister: ‘Scrigno dei suoni e Chiarore dell’utopia: aspetti dell’opera di
Armando Gentilucci’, Musica/Realtà, xi (1990), 117–32
GIORDANO FERRARI

Gentlemen's Concerts.
 A concert series given in Manchester from 1770. See Manchester, §2.

Genuino, Francesco
(b ?Naples, c1580–85; d ?Naples, before 1633). Italian composer. A
member of a prominent family in Naples, he may have been identical with,
or related to, the abbot Francesco Genoino, imprisoned in 1620 with other
relatives of Giulio Genoino, who led an uprising against Cardinal Borgia,
the Viceroy of Naples. Girolamo Genuino’s book of anagrams of names,
Metamorphoses nominum (Naples, 1633), contains one for Francesco
Genuino in the past tense, praising his musical ability. The first and fourth
of Genuino’s five books of five-voice madrigals are lost. The remaining
books show that the style of his madrigals changed little over his career.
They are serious works, with only a few chordal phrases in triple metre and
no fast declamation on repeated notes. Their textures, more than those of
any other Neapolitan madrigals of the period, avoid the lightness of the
canzonetta. Almost two thirds of the phrases are points of imitation, whose
rhythmically nervous motifs are often crowded together, when not doubled
in 3rds or 10ths. Neither these motifs nor the chordal phrases are as
melodically cogent as those of Fontanelli, Gesualdo or Nenna. Genuino’s
second book (1605), to texts by Guarini and Tasso among others, shows
less contrapuntal mastery than the later books; there are several parallel
octaves and duplicated contrapuntal lines. Altri goda al tuo canto is partly
modelled on Fontanelli’s setting of the same text of 1595. There is only a
little chromaticism of the type Gesualdo used. The third book (1612) has
none of the earlier contrapuntal crudities. It is the most imitative of the
three extant books and includes less repetition than do other Neapolitan
madrigal books of the time. Poets represented include Marino and
Rinuccini along with Guarini.
There are more durezze e ligature than in the earlier book. The madrigals
in the fifth book, to texts by Guarini, Marino and Murtola, are shorter than
other Neapolitan madrigals but more complex than most. Incessant
rhythmic activity, in which all the lower voices take part, makes the points of
imitation quite involved. Dissonances are handled freely, and there are
some striking deceptive cadences, original durezze e ligature and novel
entry effects.
WORKS
Libro secondo di [22] madrigali, 5vv (Naples, 1605)
[21] Madrigali, libro terzo, 5vv (Naples, 1612), inc.
[22] Madrigali, libro quinto, 5vv (Naples, 1614); 1 ed. in G. Watkins: Gesualdo: The
Man and His Music (London, 1973, 2/1991)
4 madrigals, 5vv, 161514, 162213
KEITH A. LARSON

Genus
(Lat., pl. genera; Gk. genos, pl. genē: ‘kind’).
 A term in the tradition of ancient Greek music theory defining various
dispositions of (1) the two movable notes within the tetrachord and (2)
patterns of rhythm. The term is also used in its common logical sense to
define other distinct groupings that appear from time to time in the
theoretical tradition.
There were three basic genera of the tetrachord: diatonic, chromatic and
enharmonic; the diatonic and chromatic genera could also exhibit various
‘shades’ (chroai) or ‘species’ (eidē). In the treatise of Aristoxenus, it is clear
that these shades are merely abstractions of the possibility for nearly
infinite variation in the pitch of the two movable notes, as long as they
remained within a certain region and retained a proportionate relationship
to each other and to the two outer notes of the tetrachord. Nevertheless, in
the later theoretical tradition the six shades assume the status of specific
subcategories of the genera (for a chart of the six shades see Greece, §I,
6(iii)(c)). In patterns of rhythm Aristides Quintilianus defined three genera:
equal, sesquialteran and duple; but he conceded that some add a fourth,
sesquitertian. Dactylic or anapestic rhythms are equal; paeonic,
sesquialteran; and iambic and trochaic, duple. (See also Greece, §I, 7(ii).)
THOMAS J. MATHIESEN

Genzmer, Harald
(b Blumenthal, nr Bremen, 9 Feb 1909). German composer. He studied
theory with Hermann Stephani in Marburg (1925–8) and composition with
Paul Hindemith at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik, where his teachers also
included Rudolph Schmidt (piano), Alfred Richter (clarinet), Curt Sachs and
Georg Schünemann (musicology). After completing his studies, he worked
as chorus répétiteur and vocal coach at the Breslau Opera (1934–7). From
1938 to 1940 he was on the staff at the Volkmusikschule, Berlin-Neukölln.
He later served as professor of composition and acting director at the
Musikhochschule, Freiburg (1946–57) and chair of composition at the
Hochschule für Musik, Munich (1957–74).
Unlike many of his contemporaries, Genzmer was not interested in
composing abstract music; instead, he consistently placed the human
being at the centre of his compositional activity. Erich Valentin aptly
described Genzmer as a ‘humanist among musicians’, a title originally
given to Paul Hoffhaimer. An interest in amateur music-making, particularly
music involving young people, has been an enduring aspect of his huge
output (over 300 works). Combining Hindemith's craftsmanship with the
emotive aural sensuality of Richard Strauss, the expressive character of his
works is as important to his style as harmonic, melodic and rhythmic
elements. His technique of motivic development places him among the
Classical symphonic composers. In spite of its technical and aesthetic
demands, his music is accessible and remains intelligible to a wide range
of audiences.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ballets: Kokua (W.M. Schede), Freiburg, 1952; Der Zauberspiegel (H. Stadlmair),
1965
Orch: Trautonium Conc. no.1, 1939; Concertino no.1, fl/vn, pf, str, 1946; Pf Conc.,
1948; Vc Conc. 1950; Trautonium Conc. no.2, 1952; Fl Conc., 1954; Sym. no.1,
1957; Sym. no.2, 1958; Conc. da camera, vn, chbr orch, 1959; Concertino, pf, str,
1963; Vc Conc. no.2, vc, wind, 1969; Musik für Orchester nach einem Fragment
von Friedrich Hölderlin (1977–8); Conc., org, str, 1980; Conc., vc, db, str, 1985;
Sym. no.3, 1986; Sym. no.4, 1990
Vocal: Mass, E, S, A, Bar, vv, orch, 1953; Südamerikanische Gesänge (V.G. Kemp,
N. Guillen, L. Lugones, M.G. Najera), 4–9vv, 1957; Irische Harfe (anon., Macleod,
Young, J. Joyce), 4–8 mixed vv, 1965; Kantate 1981 (Eng. Baroque poetry), S,
mixed chorus, orch, 1981; Petrarca-Chöre (Petrarch), SATB, 1973–4; many works
for vv, orch; lieder; solo cants.
Chbr: Pf Trio no.1, F, 1944; Septet, fl, cl, hn, str trio, hp, 1944; Trio, fl, va, hp, 1947;
Str Qt no.1, 1949; Pf Trio no.2, 1954; Str Qt no.2, 1954; Wind Qnt, 1957; Nonet, ob,
cl, bn, hn, str qt, db, 1962; Kammermusik, cl, pf trio, 1964; Sextet, 2 cl, 2 bn, 2 hn,
1966; Qt, vn, va, vc, db, 1967; Musik, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1968; Wind Qnt, 1970; Partit á
tre, tpt, trbn, org, 1986; many sonatas for solo inst and pf; works for dulcimer/glass
hp
Kbd: Pf Sonata no.1, 1938; Tripartita, F, org, 1945; Pf Sonata no.2, 1950; Org
Sonata no.1, 1953; Org Sonata no.2, 1956; Org Sonata no.3, 1963;
Adventskonzert, org, 1966; Die Tageszeiten, org, 1968; Pf Sonata no.3, 1981; Pf
Sonata no.4, 1982; Pfinstkonzert, org, 1983; Pf Sonata no.5, n.d.

Principal publishers: Schott, Peters

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Interpreten über Harald Genzmer (Frankfurt, 1969)
F. Herz: ‘Die Orgelwerke von Harald Genzmer’, Ars organi, xxix/2 (1981),
97–101
E. Valentin and others: Harald Genzmer (Tutzing, 1983)
H. Müllich: ‘Zum Wort-Ton-Verhältnis in Harald Genzmers Chorschaffen’,
Musik in Bayern, xxviii (1984), 27–44
JÖRG RIEDLBAUER

Geoffroy, Jean-Baptiste
(b diocese of Clermont, 1601; d Paris, 30 Oct 1675). French composer. He
entered the Jesuit order as a novice in 1621, studied grammar, the
humanities, rhetoric and philosophy at Paris, and from 1660 until his death
directed the music at the convent of his order in Paris (see A. de Backer
and others: Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus, ed. C. Sommervogel,
iii, Brussels, 1892). Three volumes of sacred music by him are known to
have been published in Paris: Musicalia varia ad usum ecclesiae (1650,
lost); Musica sacra ad vesperas aliasque in ecclesia preces for one, two
and four voices with organ (1659); and a companion volume to the latter,
Musica sacra ad varias ecclesiae preces … pars altera (1661), for four
voices. It is noteworthy that he allowed the works in these last two books to
be sung either by a solo voice (accompanied or unaccompanied) or by a
group of solo voices contrasted with a full chorus (see D. Launay: La
Musique religieuse en France du Concile de Trente à 1804, Paris, 1993,
p.322). There are a few other sacred works in manuscript.

Geoffroy, Jean-Nicolas
(d Perpignan, 11 March 1694). French composer, organist and writer. He
was the author of the largest collection of harpsichord music of 17th-
century France. The only reliable information about him is given on the title-
page of his harpsichord book and in a few archival documents at
Perpignan. There are a number of references to ‘Geoffroy’ or to ‘Nicolas
Geoffroy’ in Parisian documents between 1658 and 1713, suggesting that
at least two musicians of this name were active there, but it is impossible to
know how many more there were or how they were related. Jean-Nicolas
was organist of St Nicolas du Chardonnet in Paris, probably until 1690. In
that year his name first appears in documents at Perpignan and he was
there accused by the cathedral organist, Villeneuve, of having usurped his
functions and perhaps his salary. Geoffroy may have been engaged for his
technical knowledge, since Jean de Joyeuse, builder of the new organ, had
failed despite his best efforts to instruct Villeneuve in the maintenance of
the organ, especially the Parisian-style reed stops. At any rate, on 8 April
1691, ‘Jean-Nicolas, dit Jofré’ took over Villeneuve's post by mutual
consent and was formally installed as organist of the cathedral on 15
August 1692. At his death, Villeneuve returned, and the organ no doubt fell
into disrepair.
The only music clearly ascribed to Jean-Nicolas is a manuscript copy, Livre
des pieces de clavessin de tous les tons naturels et transposéz (F-Pn Rés.
475; ed. J. Frisch, Bourg-la-Reine, n.d./R), made after his death and once
owned by the choir school at Rouen, of no fewer than 213 pieces ‘drawn
from his works’, of which 42 exist in a second, transposed version. Most
are grouped into 16 harpsichord suites (including four transpositions), but
there are also a few pieces for viols, dialogues for viols and harpsichord,
and organ pieces.
Although most of his pieces are typical of the period and resemble those of
Lebègue as much as anyone's, their style and particularly their harmony
reveal Geoffroy as an extraordinarily inventive and even experimental
composer. However, he had little ability to control his ideas and many of his
startling dissonances and chromatic inflections have an arbitrary effect
instead of intensifying the expression of the music. He was fond of mixing
the major and minor scales and was prodigal with the resulting false
relations; the part-writing is often harmonically out of phase, producing
anticipations, retards and clashing 2nds; his textures sometimes generate
complete 7th and 9th chords in such a way as to make them sound like
chords in their own right. When by chance or by extra care his experiments
succeed, the effect is arresting, expressive and forward looking. Another
volume that belonged to the choir school at Rouen (F-Pn Rés 476) has
often been misattributed to Geoffroy but there is no musical connection.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Roche: ‘Un livre de clavecin français de la fin du XVIIe siècle’, RMFC,
vii (1967), 39–73
B. Gustafson: French Harpsichord Music of the 17th Century (Ann Arbor,
1979)
B. De Boer: The Harpsichord Music of Jean Nicolas Geoffroy (diss.,
Northwestern U., 1983)
DAVID FULLER (with BRUCE GUSTAFSON)

Geoffroy-Dechaume, Antoine
(b Paris, 7 Oct 1905). French musicologist, organist and harpsichordist. He
studied the organ with Eugène Gigout and composition with Georges
Caussade at the Paris Conservatoire (1923–31). He was organist at Notre-
Dame de Pontoise (1922–37), professor at the Collège de Normandie
(1937–9) and harpsichordist with such societies as Ars Musica before
becoming a professor at the Schola Cantorum in Paris (1962–4) as well as
professor of interpretation and harpsichord at the university and
conservatory in Poitiers (1967). In 1968 he was a visiting fellow at
University College, Cambridge, and was awarded the Cambridge MA.
Geoffroy-Dechaume’s interest in early music and its interpretation was
stimulated by Arnold Dolmetsch, a family friend from the time of his
residence in Fontenay-sous-Bois (1912) and one who continued to
influence his musical development through personal and scholarly contact.
Geoffroy-Dechaume’s studies relate in particular to Rameau and Couperin
as well as to more general questions of performing techniques (notably for
the organ and harpsichord), transcription, realization and interpretation. He
has applied the results of his research – with a rigour which sometimes
arouses controversy – to the preparation of many concerts of early music
given by the BBC, the ORTF, the Orchestre de l’Opéra, and the Orchestre
National de Paris (1947–52), by the Société de Musique d’Autrefois (from
1955), and at the Aix-en-Provence (1955), Bath (1965) and English Bach
festivals (Oxford, 1965 and 1968).
WRITINGS
‘Réalisation’, FasquelleE
Les ‘secrets’ de la musique ancienne: recherches sur l'interprétation XVIe-
XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles (Paris, 1964/R)
‘Connaissance de Rameau’, ReM, no.260 (1965), 37–45
‘De l’interprétation de la musique ancienne’, Musique de tous les temps,
no.38 (1965) [whole issue]
‘Racine et la musique’, Cahiers raciniens, xxii (1967), 43–55
‘Du problème actuel de l’appogiature ancienne’, L’interprétation de la
musique française aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles: Paris 1969, 87–105
‘Techniques d’exécution de la musique ancienne de clavier’, Connaissance
de l’orgue, no.5 (1973), 2–7; repr. as ‘De quelques secrets de la
musique ancienne’, Carnet musical, xi (1974), 11–19
Introduction to J.J. Quantz: Essai, méthode de flûte traversière (Paris,
1975/R) [facs. of 1752 edn]
Langage du clavecin (Tours, 1986)
‘Rythme, inégalité et ornamentation dans la musique de Bach’, Analyse
musicale, no.7 (1987), 11–15
‘L'accompagnement sur basse dans le continuo: un véritable art
d'improviser’, Analyse musicale, no.14 (1989), 19–29
Editions of works by Rameau, Rebel and D. Scarlatti
CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER

George, Michael
(b Thetford, 10 Aug 1950). English bass-baritone. A chorister at King's
College, Cambridge, he later studied at the RCM with Gordon Clinton,
making his début in 1972 at The Maltings, Snape, in Handel's Saul. He has
sung regularly with the Academy of Ancient Music, English Baroque
Soloists, the Sixteen, the King's Consort and other groups in concerts
throughout the world. His repertory, much of which he has recorded,
stretches from medieval music to Stravinsky and Pärt (whose Miserere he
sang at the 1990 Proms), and includes Bach's B minor Mass and the
Passions, most of Handel's oratorios and Haydn's Creation. He has also
performed and recorded many of the odes, anthems and stage works of
Purcell. George's operatic recordings include Monteverdi's Orfeo and
Handel's Ottone. An intensely musical singer with a firm, agile voice, he
has deep understanding of the varied stylistic demands of composers in
different periods.
ELIZABETH FORBES

George, Stefan (Anton)

(b Rüdesheim, nr Bingen, 12 July 1868; d Minusio, nr Locarno, 4 Dec
1933). German poet. He attended the Gymnasium in Darmstadt before
matriculating at Berlin University, though he soon abandoned his studies.
Possessed of ample means (his father was a prosperous Rhenish wine
merchant), he began a life of travel that took him throughout Europe. From
1889 to 1893 (and again in 1896) he resided in Paris, where his intimacy
with Mallarmé exerted a long-term influence. Later in life he began to
accept the public attention and adulation that he had avoided earlier. The
so-called George-Kreis, a group of younger poets that included Friedrich
Gundolf, Karl Wolfskehl and, briefly, Hugo von Hofmannsthal, helped to
spread his fame. From 1892 to 1919 he edited the influential Blätter für die
Kunst. The publication of Das neue Reich (Berlin, 1928) led to a perceived
association with the emergent Nazi party, though he refused an invitation to
become president of the new Academy of Poetry.
George’s literary output was almost entirely confined to lyric verse. His
earliest collections, Hymnen (1890) and Pilgerfahrten (1891), were printed
privately for distribution to his friends; these already reveal the
characteristics of his best-known works: emphasis on art for art's sake, a
restricted range of subject matter, formal perfection, beauty of presentation
and the avoidance of capital letters except at the start of a line. Many of his
poems were set by composers of the Second Viennese School:
Schoenberg's Second String Quartet includes settings of Litanei and
Entrückung; Webern's songs opp.3 and 4 are also to George's verse; and
Berg’s Der Wein is a setting of George's translation of Baudelaire. Best
known of all of the George settings, however, is Schoenberg’s Das Buch
 der hängenden Gärten (1908–9). Other composers who set his verse
include Cyril Scott, Clemens von Franckenstein and Gerhard Frommel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Stefan George: Gesamt-Ausgabe der Werke (Berlin, 1927–34/ R) [i–xviii]
W. Osthoff: Stefan George und ‘les deux musiques’: Tönende und
vertonte Dichtung im Einklang und Widerstreit (Stuttgart, 1983)
M. Stern: ‘Poésie pure und Atonalität in Österreich: Stefan Georges
Wirkung auf das Junge Wien und Arnold Schoenberg’, Modern
Austrian Literature, xxii/3–4 (1989), 127–41
W.A. Strauss: ‘Airs from Another Planet: the Second Viennese School and
the Poetry of George, Rilke and Trakl’, Studies in the Schoenbergian
Movement in Vienna and the United States, ed. A. Trenkamp and J.G.
Suess (Lewiston, NY, 1990), 1–31
PETER BRANSCOMBE

Georgescu, Corneliu Dan

(b Craiova, 1 Jan 1938). Romanian composer and ethnomusicologist,
active in Germany. After early musical training at the Popular School of Arts
in Craiova (1949–55) he studied composition with Andricu, Mendelsohn
and Olah at the Bucharest Academy (1955–61). He was a researcher at
the Institute of Ethnomusicology and Dialectology (1962–83), editor of the
journal Muzica (1983–4) and a researcher at the Institute of Art History
(1984–7). In 1987 he moved to Germany, becoming naturalized in 1996.
His comprehensive knowledge of Romanian folklore and traditional music
informs his compositions, which are particularly inventive and rich in
fantastical elements. Drawing on such traditions as monody, ison and
isorhythm, he has also undertaken research into timbre and the harmonic
series. Georgescu has developed a personal variety of minimalism, rich in
arabesque-like figuration.
WORKS
(selective list)

vocal
5 liduri, S, orch, 1960; A Mioritic Model (ballad-op, 1, Georgescu, after trad. text),
1973, Cluj-Napoca, Română, 1 Oct 1975; choral works
Schiţe pentru o frescă [Sketches for a Fresco], chorus, orch: 1 Colinde [Carols]
(cant.), 1972; 2 Imnuri [Hymns], 1978; 3 Et vidi caelum novum (cant.), 1996
orchestral
Motive Maramureşene [Motifs from the Maramureş], 1962; Partita, 1968
Jocuri [Plays]: 1 Plays, 1962; 2 Bihor Landscape, 1964; 3 Festive Plays, 1965; 4
Collages, 1966; 5 Refrains, 1967; 6 Pianissimo, 1972; 7 Long Songs, 1973; 8
Variants of a Dance, 1974; 9 Dance Echoes, 1982; 10 Manifold Plays, 1982
Models: 1 Yellow Black, 1967; 2 Continuo, 1968; 3 Zig-Zag, 1969; 4 Rubato, 1970
Homage to Ţuculescu: Sym. no.1 ‘Armonii simple’, 1982, Sym. no.2 ‘Orizontale’,
1980, Sym. no.3 ‘Privirile culorilor’ [The Looks of the Colours], 1985
works with tape
8 compoziţii statice, pf, tape, 1968; Studii atemporale, 12 pieces and projects,
1980–92; Semne [Signs], 12 insts, tape, 1987
Omagiu lui Piet Mondrian, str qt, tape: 1 Composition in a Square with Red, Yellow
and Blue, 1980; 2 Composition with Tones of Pure Colour on a White Background,
1982; 3 Composition in Grey and Black, 1984; 4 Composition in Black and White,
1985; 5 Composition with Straight Lines, 1986; 6 Composition with Triangles and
Squares, 1992; 7 Composition with Discontinuous Lines, 1994
other works
Invenţiuni, pf, 1957; Sonata, pf, 1958; Trio-Divertisment, fl, cl, bn, 1958; Sonata, 2
vn, 1960; Preludii contemplative, org: 1 Ascendo, 1991; 2 Spatium, 1991; 3 Orbis I–
II, 1995; film scores
WRITINGS
Melodii de joc din Oltenia [Dance tunes from Oltenia] (Bucharest, 1968)
Repertoriul pastoral: semnale de bucium, tipologie muzicala si corpus de
melodii [The pastoral repertory: bucium signals, a musical typology
and collection of melodies] (Bucharest, 1987)
Improvisation in der traditionellen rumänischen Tanzmusik (Eisenach,
1995)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KdG (R. Stan)
V. Cosma: Muzicieni români (Bucharest, 1970)
C. Cazaban: ‘Corneliu Dan Georgescu: Jocuri festive’ [Georgescu: Festive
Plays], Muzica, xxii/5 (1972), 7–8
C. Tautu: ‘Continuo de Corneliu Dan Georgescu’, Muzica, xxii/9 (1972), 8–
9
D. Scurtulescu: ‘Corneliu Dan Georgescu: portrait’, Muzica, xxxii/11
(1982), 35–49 [in Fr.]
G. Tartler: Melopoetica (Bucharest, 1984)
OCTAVIAN COSMA

Georgescu, George
(b Sulina, 12 Sept 1887; d Bucharest, 1 Sept 1964). Romanian conductor
and cellist. He began violin lessons at the age of five, but turned to the
cello (under Constantin Dimitrescu) at the Bucharest Conservatory,
continuing under Hugo Becker at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik (1910–
14), where he also studied composition and conducting. His first success
was as a cellist and member of the Marteau Quartet, 1911–16, but a
physical handicap forced him to abandon the cello and, on the advice of
Richard Strauss, he sought a career as a conductor, taking further
coaching from Nikisch in Leipzig. After a successful début with the Berlin
PO in 1918, he returned to Romania and founded the Bucharest PO (1920;
now the Enescu PO), of which he remained chief conductor until his death.
In addition he was musical director and conductor of the Romanian Opera
at various periods between 1922 and 1940, and a professor at the
Bucharest Conservatory, 1950–53. He raised the Bucharest PO to
international standard, performing with such musicians as Cortot,
Rubinstein, Casals, Richter and Menuhin, and toured with the orchestra in
the USSR and Europe, making his British début at the Royal Festival Hall
in 1963. He was admired for his eloquence and style across a wide
repertory, especially in Strauss and Enescu. As a guest conductor
Georgescu toured throughout Europe and in the USA. He was made a
member of the Légion d’Honneur in 1929, received the Romanian State
Prize in 1949 and 1957, and was made a People’s Artist of the Romanian
People’s Republic in 1954.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Voiculescu: George Georgescu (Bucharest, 1957)
T.G. Georgescu: George Georgescu (Bucharest, 1971)
E. Pricope: Dirijori si orchestre (Bucharest, 1971)
V. Cosma: Interpreţi din România: lexicon (Bucharest, 1996)
VIOREL COSMA

Georgia.
Country in Transcaucasia. An independent kingdom for over 2000 years, it
adopted Christianity in the 4th century ce while under Byzantine influence.
It was invaded by the Mongols in 1234 and thereafter became subject to
incursions by Arabs, Turks and Persians. It was annexed by Russia in the
19th century. After a brief period of independence (1918–20), it was
renamed the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1921. With the collapse
of the Soviet Union it declared itself an independent republic in April 1991.
I. Art music
II. Orthodox church music
III. Traditional music
LEAH DOLIDZE (I), CHRISTIAN HANNICK/DALI DOLIDZE (II), GRIGOL
CHKHIKVADZE/JOSEPH JORDANIA (III)
Georgia

I. Art music
The development of Georgian art music followed a course characteristic of
many Eastern European schools of composition during the end of the 19th
century and the first half of the 20th century. A few decades saw a rapid
advance from the first experiments in composition and an amateur musical
culture to a thoroughly professional approach to composition in the context
of increased musical activity in the concert hall and opera house. The
evolution of Georgian music from the 1960s to the 90s had much in
common with that of Western music in the late 20th century.
The incorporation of Georgia into the Russian Empire in 1801 created
permanent links with European musical culture. In the second half of the
19th century, alongside the continuing oral medieval Orthodox tradition,
conditions gradually emerged for a new art music in the European tradition.
From 1851 Tbilisi, which had become the musical centre not only of
Georgia but of the whole of Transcaucasia, staged productions of operas
by Donizetti, Rossini, Bellini and Verdi, adding works by Russian
composers from the 1880s onwards. During this period music-making
reached beyond the aristocratic salons to other levels of society. A new
musical culture sprang up in Tbilisi, a city at the crossroads of Europe and
Asia, unique in its mingling of many different national styles. Melodies
borrowed from Italian opera and Russian romances and mediated through
Georgian traditional music took on exotic colouring from the eastern
cultures represented in the city’s population. This complex folk amalgam
later became a potent source for Georgian art music.
Georgian composers forged an independent style through a synthesis of
Western music with national elements. Until the 1960s the latter consisted
primarily of traditional music of various kinds. The period from the 1890s to
the early 1930s was dominated by the first generation of composers,
founders of the new era of professional music in Georgia: prominent
among these were Meliton Balanchivadze, Dimitri Arakishvili, Viktor Dolidze
and Niko Sulkhanishvili, with the figure of Zakharia Paliashvili occupying a
special place.
These composers devoted themselves in particular to vocal music,
especially opera, which developed along 19th-century Romantic lines. In
1897 an excerpt from Balanchivadze’s opera Tamar tsbieri (‘Perfidious
Tamar’) was performed in St Petersburg (the opera was retitled Darejan
tsbieri in 1937). In 1919, an important year for Georgian music, the first
Georgian operas were performed at the Tbilisi Opera Theatre: Arakishvili’s
lyrical Tkmuleba Shota Rustavelze (‘The Legend of Shota Rustaveli’),
Paliashvili’s monumental operatic saga Abesalom da Eteri (‘Abesalom and
Etery’) and Dolidze’s comic opera Keto da Kote (‘Keto and Kote’). Between
these years Sulkhanishvili also composed choral music and Arakishvili and
Balanchivadze songs. The first period of Georgian opera culminated in the
1920s with productions of operas by Paliashvili, Arakishvili, Dolidze and
others. Among these Paliashvili’s Daisi (‘Twilight’) ranks with Abesalom da
Eteri as one of the peaks of Georgian opera. Paliashvili’s operas draw on
an international musical language, and their style established the general
Western orientation of 20th-century Georgian composers.
In the decades after the establishment of Georgian national opera the
symphony became the leading genre in Georgian music. Instrumental art
music was developed by the second generation of Georgian composers, in
parallel with a rapid growth in opportunities for performance. A symphony
orchestra and a string quartet were formed early in the Soviet era (1924),
but the first essays in instrumental music in Georgia, especially in the
symphony, were modest. The leading representatives of the second
generation of composers were Shalva Mshvelidze, who composed his
symphonic poem Zviadauri in 1940, and Andria Balanchivadze, whose First
Symphony (1944) represents a milestone in the history of the Georgian
symphony. In their combination of Classical-Romantic symphonic principles
with national traditions, Georgia’s second-generation composers showed
an affinity with 19th-century Russian composers, above all The Five.
During the war years (1941–5) Georgian symphonies became
predominantly heroic and epic in tone, a trend that predominated up to the
end of the 1950s. In the immediate postwar years a third generation of
Georgian composers emerged, continuing in the direction taken by
Mshvelidze and Balanchivadze. The aesthetic and technical principles of
the Georgian national school held sway in their work in the major genres:
symphony, concerto, symphonic poem, chamber music, ballet, opera and
oratorio. The shared ideals among composers of the second and third
generations makes it natural to view Georgian music composed between
the 1930s and the 50s as forming a single stylistic period.
Between the 1930s and the 50s socialist realism dominated every aspect
of art in the Soviet Union. Art music was systematically ‘democratized’, and
composers were required to create music that was national in form and
socialist in content. The hero of this new art was the Soviet people, and
personal feelings were replaced by those of ‘the people’ as a whole. This
principle was profoundly inculcated into all aspects of Georgian music.
Most works composed during the period 1930 to 1960 had national and
popular foundations, manifested primarily through the extensive use of
traditional music. Composers either quoted folktunes directly or composed
melodies in the style of folksongs and folkdances. At the same time,
Georgian composers drew increasingly on the Romantic symphonic
tradition, using its schemes and structural principles with some freedom
and variety.
The most notable Georgian compositions from the 1930s, 40s and 50s
include Mshvelidze’s symphonic poems Zviadauri and Mindiya, Andria
Balanchivadze’s first and second symphonies and Third Piano concerto,
Alexi Machavariani’s Violin Concerto and ballet Otello, Otar Taktakishvili’s
First Piano Concerto and opera Mindia, David Toradze’s ballet Gorda and
opera Chrdiloetis patardzali (‘Bride of the North’), the symphonic piece
Sachidao by Revaz Lagidze, A. Chimakadze’s cantata Kartlis guli (‘The
heart of Kartli’) and Sulkhan Tsintsadze’s miniatures for quartet and Fourth
String Quartet. However, with these few exceptions, the music composed
in Georgia during this period has merely local significance.
The 1960s and 70s saw an intensive upsurge in all genres as Georgian art
music engaged fully with 20th-century ideas. This development arose
directly from the cultural liberalization following the 21st Party Congress of
1959. Increased contacts with other cultures enabled musicians to take
part in international festivals of contemporary music. The freer social
climate and access to contemporary European music provided a stimulus
to Georgian composers. The history of Georgian music during these years
shows the speed with which Georgian composers assimilated the major
innovations of 20th-century music. New ideas were especially striking in
the work of younger composers, Bidzina Kvernadze, Giya Kancheli, Nodar
Mamisashvili, Natela Svanidze, Sulkhan Nasidze and Nodar Gabunia, and
later Felix Glonti, Vazha Azarashvili, Mikhail Shugliashvili, Teimuraz
Bakuradze, Ioseb Bardanashvili and Tengiz Shavlokhashvili. All these
composers wrote primarily in instrumental genres, and their works display a
new emotional and intellectual complexity, eschewing the neo-Romanticism
characteristic of the preceding decades.
The high level of performers graduating from the Tbilisskaya
Gosudarstvennaya Konservatoriya (Tbilisi State Conservatory), founded in
1918, significantly contributed to Georgia’s musical development. There
were several orchestras active in Tbilisi at this time, the foremost of which
was the Georgian State SO. A number of Georgian singers,
instrumentalists and conductors gained worldwide reputations. Choral
music, which had the richest of traditions in Georgia, developed greatly.
From the beginning of the 1960s Georgian composers began to separate
into three distinct groupings. The first of these, associated with the work of
the composers of the second and third generations, remained within the
traditions of the Georgian Romantic school. One of the achievements of
this period was the creation of a national style of declamation in both vocal
and instrumental music, rooted in the stresses and cadences of folk music.
Works that exemplify this development are the oratorios Rustavelis
nakvalevze (‘In the steps of Rustaveli’) and Nikoloz Baratashvili and the
cantata Guruli simgerebi) (‘Gurian Songs’), by Otar Taktakishvili, works for
unaccompanied chorus by Ioseb Kechakmadze, the oratorio Pirosmani by
Svanidze, the opera Iko mervesa tselsa (‘And in the Eighth Year …’) by
Kvernadze, and the fifth, sixth and seventh string quartets by Tsintsadze.
Another grouping was represented by the fourth generation of Georgian
composers, the so-called ‘Shestidesyatniki’ (‘1960s group’), whose work
displayed an assimilation of new influences, most significantly the music of
Bartók and Stravinsky. Best known among the works of the
‘Shestidesyatniki’ are Gabunia’s Igav-araki (‘Fable’), Kancheli’s first and
second symphonies, Nasidze’s first and second string quartets and
Chamber Symphony, Tsintsadze’s fifth, sixth and seventh string quartets,
and Kvernadze’s Koreograpiuli novelebi (‘Choreographic Novellas’) and his
ballet Berikaoba. Works by composers of the older generation, including
Revaz Gabichvadze’s Rostock Symphony, Toradze’s Second Symphony
Kebatakeba Nikortsmindas (‘In Praise of Nikortsminda’) and
Machavariani’s Second Symphony, also showed major stylistic advances.
The 1970s saw a spate of symphonic works by the two major figures,
Kancheli and Nasidze. With his Third Symphony, Kancheli began to receive
general recognition as one of the foremost representatives of Georgian
music, while Nasidze won deserved success with a triad of symphonies
(nos.5, 6 and 7) and his Double Concerto. Other notable symphonic works
were Glonti’s Sixth Symphony (Vita nova) and Azarashvili’s Cello Concerto.
Georgian composers devoted less attention to experimental music,
although new musical thinking and the influence of the postwar Western
avant garde found a partial reflection in the third grouping of composers
who emerged in the 1960s and 70s: Bakuradze, Shugliashvili,
Bardanashvili and others, to whom may be added Svanidze and
Mamisashvili of the older generation. These composers made adventurous
use of a variety of techniques – total serialism, aleatorism, collage,
minimalism and electronics. For a long time the experimentalism of these
composers baffled listeners, limiting their audience to a small number of
intellectuals.
At the end of the 1970s a synthesis began to emerge between various
compositional styles and techniques in Georgian music, a process that
continues to this day. Indicative of this is the use of the polystylistic method,
in allusion, quotation and collage. Baroque and Classical stylistic features
have been absorbed organically into the Georgian national style. This has
produced many different, sometimes highly original, kinds of stylistic fusion,
in the work, for example, of Kancheli, Nasidze, Kvernadze, Mamisashvili,
Bakuradze and Bardanashvili, and also of one of the leading figures of the
youngest generation, Z. Nadareishvili. In Kancheli’s symphonies and
chamber music the sense of memory, free association, temporal stasis and
effects of time arrested or tightly compressed are akin to developments in
contemporary cinema and theatre.
Between the 1960s and the 80s opera was considerably less significant
than instrumental music. Two representative operas of this period are
Kvernadze’s Iko mervesa tselsa and Kancheli’s Da ars musika (‘Music for
the Living’). Among operas by composers working in a traditional idiom,
Lagidze’s Lela, with its wealth of expressive melody, has proved the most
popular.
Georgian composers have also been productive in the fields of ballet
(beginning with Andria Balanchivadze’s Mzechabuki of 1936), operetta,
musicals, film and theatre music and popular music. The works of
Azarashvili, V. Kakhidze and others reveal an interesting combination of
serious and lighter styles.
In the 1990s chamber music became increasingly important, reflecting the
broader cultural climate. Several composers of chamber music adopted
elements of minimalism. Outstanding works of these years include
Kancheli’s cycle Sitsoskle shobis gareshe (‘Life without Christmas’),
Nasidze’s Fifth String Quartet and Piano Trio Antiphonie, and Bakuradze’s
Ori tsigni kvintetisatvis (‘Two Books for a Quintet’).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Tsulukidze, ed.: Gruzinskaya muzïkal'naya kul'tura [Georgian musical
culture] (Moscow, 1957)
A. Tsulukidze: ‘Zametki o gruzinskoy muzïke’ [Notes on Georgian music],
SovM (1958), no.4, pp.20–27
V. Gorodinsky: ‘Ėtyudï o gruzinskoy muzïke’ [Studies on Georgian music],
Izbrannïye stat'i (Moscow, 1963), 110–23
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Znakom'tes': molodost'!’ [Get to know each other: the
young people!], SovM (1963), no.8, pp.14–21
L. Raaben: ‘Kamerno-instrumental'naya muzïka Gruzii’ [Chamber-
orchestral music of Georgia], Sovetskaya kamerno-instrumental'naya
muzïka (Leningrad, 1963), 234–57
E. Bokshanina: ‘Muzïkal'naya kul'tura Gruzii’ [Georgian musical culture],
Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR (Moscow, 1969), 85–136
V. Donadze: ‘Gruzinskaya muzïka’, Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR, i:
1917–1932 (Moscow, 1970), 307–20
V. Donadze: ‘Gruzinskaya muzïka’, Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR, ii:
1932–1941 (Moscow, 1971), 364–80
A. Mshvelidze: Ocherki po istorii muzïkal'nogo obrazovaniya v Gruzii
[Sketches on the history of musical education in Georgia] (Moscow,
1971)
A. Tsulukidze: Kartuli sabchota musika [Georgian Soviet music] (Tbilisi,
1971)
V. Donadze: ‘Gruzinskaya muzïka’, Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR, iii:
1941–1945 (Moscow, 1972), 380–402
S.L. Ginzburg: ‘Gruzinskaya klassicheskaya opera’ [Georgian classical
opera], Iz istorii muzïkal'nïkh svyazey narodov SSSR (Leningrad,
1972), 6–17
G. Toradze and A. Tsulukidze: ‘Gruzinskaya muzïka’, Istoriya muzïki
narodov SSSR, iv: 1946–1956 (Moscow, 1973), 558–86
G. Toradze: Kompozitorï Gruzii [Composers of Georgia] (Tbilisi, 1973)
G. Toradze: ‘Sovremennaya gruzinskaya muzïka’ [Contemporary Georgian
music], Tvorchestvo, i (Moscow, 1973), 186–204
A. Balanchivadze: ‘Kartuli musika khuti tslis mandzilze’ [A five-year period
of Georgian music], Sabchota khelovneba (1974), no.1, pp.20–34
G. Toradze: ‘Gruzinskaya SSR’, Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR, v
(Moscow, 1974), 150–90
V. Donadze: Ocherki po istorii gruzinskoy sovetskoy muzïki [Essays on the
history of Soviet Georgian music], i: 1921–1945 (Tbilisi, 1975)
I. Nest'yev and Ya. Solodukho: ‘Gruzinskaya muzïka segodnya’
[Georgian music today], SovM (1977), no.8, pp.29–35
G. Orjonikidze: Tanamedrove kartuli musika estetikisa da sotsiologiis
shukze [Contemporary Georgian music in the light of aesthetics and
sociology] (Tbilisi, 1985)
I. Urushadze and M. Borada, eds.: Voprosï stilya i dramaturgii gruzinskoy
muzïki: Sbornik trudov TGK im. V. Saradzhishvili [Questions of style
and dramatization in Georgian music: a selection of work from the V.
Saradzhishvili State Conservatory of Tbilisi] (Tbilisi, 1985)
V. Donadze: Kartuli musikis istoria [A history of Georgian music], i (Tbilisi,
1990)
Georgia

II. Orthodox church music

1. History.
Georgia formally converted to Christianity in 337 as a result of the
missionary activity of St Nino. The east and south of the country were
influenced by Syria at this time, and Byzantium influenced the west
(Colchis). The earliest records of the Georgian language date from the 5th
century, and it was during this century that King Vakhtang I (446–99)
established the office of ‘catholicos’ (patriarch). After the Council of
Chalcedon (451) Georgia, like Armenia, embraced monophysitism, but in
about 600, under Catholicos Kirion I (595–610), the country turned to
Chalcedonian Orthodoxy and hence Byzantine influence (see Syrian
church music, §1). The subsequent development of Georgian church music
was strongly influenced by the activity of Georgian monasteries and other
religious centres outside Georgia, including the Holy Cross in Jerusalem,
St Sabas (Palestine), Mount Sinai, Bithynia, Iviron (Mount Athos; founded
980) and Bachkovo (Bulgaria; founded 1083).
2. Liturgical books.
Georgian liturgical books generally correspond to those of the Byzantine
rite, but because of the great age of the Georgian liturgy and the activity of
Georgian hymnographers, their arrangement and content display certain
peculiarities. The Georgian oktōēchos, manuscripts of which survive from
the 9th century, and its enlarged version the paraklitoni, equivalent to the
Byzantine paraklētikē, are each divided into two books: the khmani and the
gverdni, containing respectively the chants in the authentic and plagal
modes. The hymns for Lent and Easter were originally collected in a book
known as the khvedrni (‘share’); this collection was later divided into the
markhvani and zatiki, corresponding respectively to the Byzantine triōdion
and pentēkostarion. The 12 volumes of the mēnaia were first introduced
into Georgia by Georgy Mtatsmideli (‘from the Holy Mountain’, d 1065),
under the name ttueni atormetni. They have never been published in their
entirety, and the excerpts from them contained in the gamokrebuli ttueni
(corresponding to the anthologion) thus represent an important source of
the chant.
The Georgian equivalent of the Byzantine stichērarion is the iadgari
(‘memorial’). A notable example of this collection is a manuscript, with
neumes, dating from 978–88 (fig.1), containing many Proper chants
composed by one of the greatest hymnographers of the Georgian Church,
Mikayel Modrekili, who was probably the brother of St Euthymius (Eqvtime)
of Iviron (d 1028). The heirmologion may have been translated into
Georgian as early as the 8th or 9th century at the monastery of St Sabas
near Jerusalem, but the earliest surviving examples date from the 10th
century. The Georgian heirmologion is termed the dzlispirni da
gmrtismshoblisani (‘heirmoi and theotokia’), since it contains, unlike the
Byzantine heirmologion, both the heirmoi and the corresponding theotokia.
In Greek heirmologia before the 13th century, the heirmoi were arranged
according to the akolouthiai (in an order often given the symbol KaO in
modern literature; see Heirmologion, §2), but the arrangement of the
Georgian heirmologia followed the ōdai (symbol OdO) as early as the 10th
century.
3. Hymnody.
According to a Georgian version of the Great Lectionary of the Church of
Jerusalem, Georgian hymnography originated between the 5th and 8th
centuries. The first compositions were akolouthiai for national saints to be
added to the mēnaia. The iadgari of Grigol of Khandzta (759–861) was
praised by his biographer. In the 10th and 11th centuries Mikayel Modrekili
in south Georgia and Ioanne Minchkhi at Mount Sinai supplemented the
Georgian mēnaia and oktōēchos with their own compositions. At the same
time, many texts were translated into Georgian at the Georgian monastery
of Iviron on Mount Athos, by Euthymius and Georgy Mtatsmideli, and on
the Black Mountain near Antioch, by Ephrem Moire (d c1100). These
translations retained the isosyllabic structure and metre of their Greek
originals, sometimes at the expense of correct word order; and the oldest
manuscripts of the Georgian heirmologion cite the original Greek incipit, in
phonetic transliteration, before each heirmos. Thus the Georgian hymns
must originally have been sung to their Greek melodies. However, these
cannot have been the only melodies of the Georgian Church: indigenous
Georgian hymns of the same period were composed according to
Georgian metrical principles, iambic dodecasyllabic verses being the most
common.
4. Theory and style.
A notable characteristic of Georgian liturgical music, evident since the 12th
century at least, is the use of three-voice polyphony. The three voices are
known as mzakhr (in modern terminology: tqma), zhir (modern: mozahili)
and bami (modern: bani); the mzakhr has the main melody and may extend
in range to an octave, but the three voices together do not exceed a major
10th. The rhythm of the mzakhr and bami is virtually the same, but it may
differ from that of the zhir (ex.1).
Georgian liturgical music has a system of eight modes that corresponds
overall to the Byzantine system; diatonic intervals are used in modern
practice only. There are similarities between the liturgical melodies and
those of traditional music, suggesting that the two genres may share a
common origin; in performance, however, the tempo of the church
melodies is generally slower.

5. Notation.
In the 10th century the Georgian Church adopted Byzantine ekphonetic
notation for the liturgical recitation of the Bible. Manuscripts of the 11th,
12th and 13th centuries contain tables of ekphonetic signs. The
‘Synodikon’ for the Sunday of Orthodoxy is an important example of a text
marked throughout with such signs. A system of notation was also
developed for hymns (fig.1): the neumes, which are written above and
below the text, indicate melodic formulae rather than fixed tones, as in
Byzantine chant of the same period. The occasional use of two or three
signs above a single syllable may prove that polyphony was in use as early
as the time of Mikayel Modrekili (10th century). With the decline of
monasticism, Georgian hymn notation gradually fell into disuse (as was the
case in the Armenian and Byzantine systems). (Ingoroqva’s interpretation
of this notation is now considered unsatisfactory.)
A new system of 24 signs or chreli, indicating the intonation formulae of the
chants, was introduced in the 17th and 18th centuries, but it is not known
how this system relates to the earlier one. The term chreli is also used in
the sense of Papadikē. In the 19th century Ioane Bagrationi introduced yet
another notational system, although it never became popular. It is based on
the first eight letters of the old Georgian alphabet (a, b, g, d, e, v, z, ey) and
uses supplementary dots and other signs; each letter signifies a fixed pitch
and the melodic rise and fall is indicated by means of dots above or
beneath the letter. Other systems of notation, whose purpose was to
remind the cantor of the melodic outline and the intonation formulae of the
chants, are found in Georgian manuscripts of the second half of the 18th
century and the 19th century.
The transmission of Georgian liturgical music throughout its history
depended more on oral tradition than on written notation. When, however,
during the 19th century, Old Church Slavonic replaced Georgian as the
language of the liturgy, the oral tradition of chanting began to decline. A
committee for chant restoration was therefore founded in 1860 to
transcribe the entire liturgical repertory into staff notation. The chant
collections, organized according to the oktōēchos system, consist of music
for three voices: the principal melody is assigned to the first voice, with the
supporting voices conforming to Georgian theoretical principles. Active
attempts have been made during the post-Soviet period to restore the
authentic Georgian repertory; the scholarly and practical endeavours of M.
Erqvanidze together with his male choir Anchiskhati (founded 1989) have
been particularly notable in this respect.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
editions
E. Metreveli, ed.: Dzlispirni da gmrtismshoblisani: ori dzveli redaktsia X–XI
ss. khelnacerebis mikhedvit’ [Heirmoi and theotokia: two old redactions
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M. Erqvanidze, ed.: Kartuli galoba: mtsukhri, tsiskari, tsirva: Gelatisa da
Martvilis skola [Georgian chants: Vespers, Matins, Divine Liturgy:
Gelati and Martvili schools] (Tbilisi, 1995)
M. Erqvanidze, ed.: Kartuli galoba: 12 sauplo da udzrav dgesastsaulta
sagaloblebi [Georgian chants: for saint’ days and fixed feasts] (Tbilisi,
2000)
studies
MGG2 (‘Orthodoxe Kirchenmusik’, §IX; C. Hannick)
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Georgian MSS], Khristianskiy vostok, iii (1914), 207–12
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1955)
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Byzantinischen’, Oriens christianus, xli (1957), 76–96
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classique’, Bedi kartlisa, xiii–xiv (1962), 47–55
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60
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BMw, ix (1967), 284–304
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8. Jh.) (Vienna, 1970)
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anciens hirmologia géorgiens’, Le muséon, lxxxviii (1975), 331–59
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of a few heirmoi], Matsne enisa da literaturis seria (1976), no.1, pp.71–
9
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kartlisa, xxxvi (1978), 43–8
E. Métrévéli and B. Outtier: ‘La compréhension des termes
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68–75
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tropologion géorgien’, Bedi kartlisa, xxxix (1981), 54–62
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Georgian musical signs of the 10th–13th centuries], Musica antiqua
VI: Bydgoszcz 1982, 765–75
L. Dzhgamaia: ‘Meore galobis sakitkhi X saukunis kartuli himnograpiul
kanonshi’ [The 2nd ōdē of the 10th-century Georgian hymnographic
kanōn], Mravaltavi, x (1983), 114–21
L. Heiser: Die georgische orthodoxe Kirche und ihr Glaubenzeugnis (Trier,
1989)
S. Ziegler: ‘Kirchengesang in Georgien: zwischen nationaler
Eigenständigkeit und russischer Bevormundung’, Music und Religion:
Bamberg 1990, 71–90; rev. version in Georgica, xvi (1993), 64–76
P. Jeffery: ‘The Sunday Office of Seventh-Century Jerusalem in the
Georgian Chantbook (Iadgari): a Preliminary Report’, Studia liturgica,
xxi (1991), 52–75
D. Sugliasvili: ‘Kartuli galobis bunebisatvis’ [On the nature of Georgian
chanting], Khelovneba, nos.9–10 (1991), 108–12
Tbilisis Sakh. Konservatoriis sametsniero shromebis krebuli [The collection
of scientific works of Tbilisi State Conservatory] (Tbilisi, 1991) [S.
Aslanishvili: ‘Dzveli kartuli sanoto nishnebis sakitkhisatvis: sanoto
nishnebis sistema dzvel kartul khelnatserebshi (X–XII s.s.)’ (The
problem of Old Georgian musical signs: the system of neumes in Old
Georgian MSS of the 10th–13th centuries), 22–61; M. Ositashvili:
‘“Chrelebis” shestsavlis zoghierti sakitkhisatvis’ (Some problems in
studying chrelis), 93–111; D. Sugliasvili: ‘Kartuli galobis stota
ertianobis shesakheb’ (The unity of the branches of Georgian chant),
122–71; M. Erqvanidze: ‘Kartuli musikis tskhoba ’ (The structure of
Georgian music), 172–93]
D. Sugliasvili: ‘Kartuli galoba: samgaloblo skolis traditsiis shesakheb’ [The
Georgian art of chanting: choir-school traditions], Kristianoba da kartuli
kultura: Tbilisi 1997 [Christianity and Georgian culture] (Tbilisi, 1997),
96–106
D. Dolidze: ‘Ekfoneticheskaya notatsiya v gruzinskikh rukopisyakh’
[Ekphonetic notation in Georgian manuscripts], Akhali paradigmebi
[The new paradigms], i (1998), 92–8
M. Erqvanidze: La polyphonie géorgienne et ces aspects historiques
(Paris, 1998)
sound recordings
Sen gigalobt, Patriarchal choir of Sioni Cathedral, Tbilisi, cond. N.
Kiknadze, Melodiya C30 29107 000 (1989) [incl. commentary by E.
Garakanidze]
‘Aġdgomasa shensa’ [Thy resurrection], Anchiskhati Choir, Tbilisskaja
studija gramzapisi (1991) [Easter carols]
Sashobao sagaloblebi [Christmas carols], Anchiskhati Choir, Tbilisskaja
studija gramzapisi (1992)
Georgian Sacred Music from the Middle Ages, Anchiskhati Choir,
DDP5ANCD (1998) [Canada]
Georgia

III. Traditional music

The history of Georgian traditional music is primarily that of Georgian
folksong: the vocal repertory, with or without instrumental accompaniment,
is particularly rich and there are also many types of traditional instruments.
Polyphonic singing, complex musical structures and variety of styles
distinguish Georgian folksong from the basically monodic styles of states
long connected with Georgia economically, politically and culturally.
Complex choral polyphony is characteristic of Georgian folk music.
Folksong traditionally accompanies work, hunting, weddings, burials,
historic or heroic events, military campaigns, popular entertainments and
dancing. Each ethnic group – the Khevsur, Tush, Pshav, Mokhev, Mtiul,
Kartlian-Kakhetian and Meskh in eastern and south-western Georgia, and
the Rachian, Svan, Imeretian, Guria, Megrel and Acharian in western
Georgia – has its own musical style that is different in form, structure and
manner of performance.
Traditional polyphonic songs are performed by a chorus in which the higher
parts are sung by soloists and the bass part by a group. Unison singing is
rare. Solo songs can be divided into three categories: work songs for
unaccompanied solo male voice; women’s solo songs, mainly lullabies; and
lyrical, historical, heroic and humorous songs performed by both men and
women accompanied by various instruments. Georgians do not usually
sing in mixed ensembles: polyphonic songs are performed by a chorus of
one sex, usually male. In families that have preserved and transmitted their
own musical traditions, however, all members, irrespective of age or sex,
perform the choral songs. Singing (and dancing) in mixed ensembles is
usual among the Svan and Rachian. The limited repertory for female
chorus includes songs connected with family life and ritual songs. The
traditional styles of eastern and western Georgia differ: in eastern Georgia
folk music is characterized more by monodic songs and two- and three-part
songs as, for example, among the Kartlian-Kakhetian; in western Georgia
three- and four-part singing predominates.
1. Regional and ethnic traditions.
2. Polyphony.
3. Instruments.
4. Urban and contemporary songs.
5. Sources, history, studies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Georgia, §III: Traditional music
1. Regional and ethnic traditions.
(i) Eastern Georgia.
(ii) Western Georgia.
Georgia, §III, 1: Traditional music: Regional and ethnic traditions
(i) Eastern Georgia.
Ethnic groups in eastern Georgia fall into three groups: the Khevsur, Tush,
Pshav, Mokhev and Mtiul in the mountainous north-east, the Kakhetian and
Kartlian in the central plains, and the Meskh in the south-west. In Georgian
folklore studies, it is customary to classify the Khevsur, Tush and Pshav as
one sub-group. The Khevsur, living in the gorges of the Caucasian range,
used to be isolated from urban life and have retained old vocal forms,
reflecting the difficult conditions of their former life. Khevsur songs are
mainly monodic, performed solo or to the accompaniment of the panduri
(three-string lute). The Russian balalaika, played like the panduri, appeared
recently. Songs are simple in structure and the melodic material, which
uses much glissando, often resembles agitated, heightened speech. Many
are variants of a single melodic formula, that is, a downward progression
from a 7th (or a 6th and sometimes the octave) to the lowest point in the
scale. In such two-part singing (ex.2), the basses enter in unison with the
top voice only at the end of every line, emphasizing the tonic (which also
shows the downward progression of the melodic line).

The Khevsur are gifted poets for whom singing, which is used only for
declaiming verse, is of secondary importance. They often sing different
texts to the same tune. The number of genres is limited, the main types
being work, ritual and heroic song. Women’s genres are even more
restricted, comprising songs of family and everyday life and ritual songs but
they are more developed in intonation than men’s songs. Lullabies are
usually in 6/8 metre and consist of frequent repetition or variation of a basic
melodic formula. Ritual laments occupy an important place in the traditional
music of the Khevsur. They are performed in a quiet narrative style
reminiscent of sing-song speech; the metre depends on the text and
phrases end with a descending line. They may also be performed as a
‘lament with singing voice’, khmit tirili, with a professional female mourner,
motirali, alternating with a unison chorus.
The Tush live close to the Khevsur. They are shepherds who spend much
of the year in the northern Caucasus or in Azerbaijan and consequently
some of their performance styles show influences from those areas. For
example, the dala (lament for the dead) which is performed alternately by
soloist and unison chorus parallels the song styles of the peoples of the
northern Caucasus. Certain Tush melodies also have rhythmic structures,
such as 3 + 5 and 5 + 3, not generally used in Georgian traditional music.
Themes of the solo songs are ritual, historical, heroic, lyrical or pastoral
and some are accompanied by the panduri (three-string lute) or the
accordion (mostly played by women), which is now well established among
the mountain people of eastern Georgia. Songs of different genres have
similar melodic characteristics and songs that differ in form and content are
sometimes sung to the same tune, as in Khevsur folksong. Descending
melodic lines and the variation of a basic melodic phrase are also typical of
Tush songs, although the melodies and rhythms are more complex than
those of Khevsur songs. Two-part Tush songs have simple structures,
consisting basically of a solo voice performing the melody and a drone
sung by a group. Such songs are usually in the A mode and the drone is
usually on the tonic and seventh degree (A–G–A); cadences are
approached from below. The salamuri (flute) is played commonly by
shepherds.
The Pshav, neighbours of the Khevsur and the Tush, also perform two-part
songs. Specific characteristics of these are the use of two-part drone
polyphony that changes its pitch in the range of a major 2nd, the
alternation of two soloists against a drone bass sung by a chorus, and use
of the Frigian mode with a major 6th customarily known as the Pshav scale
(ex.3). Together with the Khevsur, the Pshav are the most skilful creators of
oral poetry in Georgia. The texts are in couplets and often take the form of
a poetic contest, kapiaoba, during which the two performers improvise. The
panduri is popular.

The Khev and Mtiul share many characteristics in both music and everyday
life. Both have been affected economically and culturally by the mountain
road, built more than 200 years ago, that traverses their regions and
connects the trans-Caucasus with Russia. Mokhev and Mtiul folksongs are
melodically richer and more varied than those found in other mountainous
regions of eastern Georgia. Mokhev songs are mostly in two or three parts;
solo songs are performed exclusively to the accompaniment of the panduri.
Unlike the Khevsur and Pshav songs and short two- or three-bar phrases,
in Mokhev songs the melody is developed throughout the stanza. The song
types of the Mokhev include work, ritual and everyday songs, love songs,
historical and heroic songs and dance-songs. Dance-songs are usually
performed in two parts in which two soloists alternate or one soloist is
accompanied by a bass part which has its own independent melodic and
rhythmic structure (an exceptional practice in Georgian folk polyphony).
Mtiul polyphony appears primarily in three-part songs which are similar,
stylistically, formally and textually, to Kartlian three-part songs. The Mtiul,
moreover, have adopted solo songs from the Kartlian repertory. In Mtiul
song the tune is often embellished with grace notes; one or two notes only
(or one note with an ornament) correspond to a syllable – a rare feature in
the songs of the other mountain peoples. Ritual songs are highly regarded
by the Mtiul, particularly the widely known Jvaris tsinasa (‘Before the
cross’); this is performed at weddings, in round-dances with the traditional
text (and with a different text) before the start of agricultural work.
Kartlian-Kakhetian groups have developed a great variety of folksong
styles, forms and genres. Unaccompanied solo songs include women’s
lullabies and men’s agricultural work songs. Orovela is the general name
for ploughing, threshing and winnowing songs which are all related in
name, musical structure and textual content to the horovel of Armenia (see
Armenia, §I, 1(i)). They also have parallels (in terms of intonation and
terminology) with songs from Azerbaijan and Central Asia. The texts
describe the hard conditions of the people, their lack of rights and their
dependence on master-landowners. The close relationship of the Armenian
and Georgian agricultural songs suggests their age – dating back to the
time when the states shared a common agrarian culture. The melody of
each stanza of orovela songs generally begins in a high register, then
quickly descends and ends in a half- or a full cadence. Recitative
alternates with richly ornamented melody and the rhythm is free. ‘Urmuli’
orob (‘bull carters’) songs comprise a further popular genre similar to
orovela. Two-part songs that accompany work (mostly reaping and
winnowing, and more rarely threshing) are known as hopuna, herio or heri
ega, depending on which of these exclamations is used in the song. Such
songs are strictly rhythmic, melodies are simple and texts often appear to
be improvised. They may be humorous or amatory, but most describe the
work. The lower part performs either a drone or an ostinato figure.
Three-part songs may be subdivided according to function and musical
characteristics. Ritual, round dance and work songs form a separate group
from ‘table’ songs (Kakheti is the most ancient and important centre of
viticulture in Georgia). They are distinguished musically by their energetic
character, clean-cut metre and rhythms, and frequent use of a recitative
drone and ostinato figures in the bass (ex.4). ‘Table’ songs are more
festive: they develop slowly on a pedal drone without clear-cut metre and
rhythm, and melismas are frequently used in the melodic lines (ex.5). The
musical conventions of ‘table’ songs from eastern Georgia, which have
colourful modulations, are similar to orovela and urmuli songs. Among
musical instruments, the panduri and salamuri are popular.
The Meskh are one of the oldest Georgian groups; Meskheti was the
economic and cultural centre of Georgia during the 11th and 12th centuries
and from the 16th to 19th centuries it was under Turkish rule. Although
polyphony was still practised there in the early years of the 20th century, it
has since been lost. It is, then, the only region in Georgia without this
tradition. Meskh songs are similar to Kartlian songs. The tulum, a type of
bagpipe from Turkey, is played.
More research is needed on Georgian groups who live beyond the
country’s borders, such as the Ingilo in Azerbaijan, and the Shavsh and
Lazi in Turkey. Shavsh singing traditions are similar to those of the
Acharian.
Georgia, §III, 1: Traditional music: Regional and ethnic traditions
(ii) Western Georgia.
The traditional musics of western Georgia fall into two categories: that of
groups in the high mountains of Svaneti and Racha, and that of groups in
the plains of Imereti, Guria, Samegrelo and Achara.
Racha is situated between Alpine Svanetia and the plain-like terrain of
Imeretia, and is divided into lower, upper and mountainous regions. The
Rachians in the lower region show musical similarities with neighbouring
Imeretians and those in the mountainous region with neighbouring Svans.
Rachian musical style shows the closest links with the traditions of eastern
Georgia: the restricted use of melismas, elements of the diatonic scale
system of fourths, and sometimes a pedal drone. These links are
particularly evident in ‘table’ songs. Ritual songs, performed antiphonally by
two choruses, and round-dances are important. As among other western
Georgian groups no two-part choral or unaccompanied solo songs are
performed by the Rachin (with the exception of unaccompanied lullabies
performed by women). Choral songs are exclusively three-part. Solo songs
are sung to the accompaniment of gudastviri (bagpipes; fig.2): these are
recitative-like songs with free rhythm. Gudastviri are played by professional
musicians called mestvire who enjoy great popularity. Their numbers are
gradually decreasing, even though younger people are now learning to
play this instrument. The repertory of the mestvire is varied. They compose
songs in couplet form about historical figures, national heroes and people
enslaved by feudal lords; as well as topical and humorous songs, timed to
coincide with a specific festival or feast, which demonstrate their wit,
resourcefulness and special talent for improvisation. They also have an
important function as social commentators. The chianuri (two-string bowed
lute; see fig.5 below) is used to accompany singing.
The Svans are frequently snowbound and are cut off from the town for
more than six months of the year; even in summer they are reluctant to
leave the mountains and go down into the valley. Urban musical culture
has not penetrated Svanetia and its traditional songs have been preserved.
Svan vocal and instrumental music is striking for its disciplined harmonic
and tonal structure; melodies are confined in a tight framework. Svan
traditional music includes many ritual songs, which also reflect historical
events and the struggle with feudal lords.
Three-part songs are the basis of Svan choral singing. The second voice,
which starts most of the songs, is usually the leader, followed by the
highest voice and a bass. The bass is more mobile than in the songs of the
eastern Georgian groups. Although it provides the harmonic basis, both
rhythmically and melodically it is more flexible, and its compass sometimes
reaches a 5th. Within these limits it moves not only stepwise but also in
3rds, leaping even a 4th or a 5th, usually downwards. The frequent
occurrence of 2nds in the two top voices and the parallel movement of all
three voices in basic triads are peculiar to Svan folksongs. The outer
voices occasionally leap a 7th or an even greater interval. Although the
songs are usually short they often vary in metre (as in ex.6), which may
change for a few beats, while within the beat syncopation – very
characteristic of Svan songs – is frequent. Svan songs have a narrow
compass (a 3rd or 4th); all are short and strophic and most are in duple
metre. Dance-songs begin in slow tempo and then, accompanied by hand-
clapping, grow faster. Round dance-songs are performed standing in two
and three circles. Solo songs are rare. They are performed by men or
women accompanied by the chuniri (a three-string bowed lute) or the
changi (a six-string harp; fig.3a).

The people of Imereti, a large central region, have strong links with the
musical traditions of their western neighbours in Samegrelo and especially
Guria. Ritual songs and round dances have survived to a limited extent;
lyrical and travelling songs are frequently found (ex.7). The Imeretian
repertory, like the Gurian, includes historical, work and drinking-songs and
songs of everyday life. Most Imeretin songs have three parts and are lively
and bold. They are mainly composed in couplet form, with the exception of
songs for field work such as khelkhvavi or naduri. The naduri, still to be
heard during work in the village of Dutskhuni, Van region, begins in a slow
tempo with exchanges between the second voices and the basses. As the
tempo quickens a third voice enters. The melodic line is broad at the
opening of the song, then its melodic phrases are gradually reduced to one
bar. The single-bar motif is repeated many times until the song is
enthusiastically brought to an end by two groups of workers who compete
in turn in their calls for intensifying the work. The song ends with a coda,
which is slower, performed by the entire group to mark the completion of
the work.
Cradle songs are the only solo Imeretian songs to have been recorded.
European songs, Russian church and soldiers’ songs and the popular
romance are widespread in Imereti as a result of the social relations with
other states which were gradually established in Georgia after its
unification with Russia. The influx of peasants into the town and the
introduction of urban elements into the village strengthened the cultural
exchange between town and country. The nature of musical culture
changed, and folksongs with new themes and new musical structures
entered the tradition. These tunes drew their material mainly from opera
and the Russian popular romance, which in the second half of the 19th
century were being cultivated in Georgian towns. Kutaisi, the central town
of Imereti and western Georgia, was a focal point for dissemination of this
Western-influenced music. As a result the complicated polyphonic-
harmonic structure of Imeretian songs was simplified, parallel 3rds were
introduced into the two top parts, and the creation of songs with a
European tonic-dominant harmony was facilitated, particularly in a large
number of feasting and toasting songs for chorus (ex.8). The guitar, which
in some instances replaced the Georgian national instrument, the chonguri
(four-string lute), also played a significant part in this process. Widespread
too is the Russian seven-string guitar with a different tuning: D–G–c–g–b–
d.

Guria and Samegrelo present a completely different picture. Although

European and Russian music penetrated these regions (the guitar again
playing a large role) the vocal and instrumental music of the Gurian and the
Megrelian has preserved its characteristic features. Megrelian song is
typically lyrical; Gurian songs are technically rich, complex and varied, and
are based on polyphonic structures. The bass part is often the most
melodically and rhythmically active; in one group of songs it is performed
by a single singer, usually the most experienced and venerated of the
group. The bass contributes to the polyphonic and melodic development of
the song. It is often the opening voice and then becomes one of the leading
voices, a technique not practised by other Georgian groups. The high part
may be performed in different ways: tsvrili (thin), gamkivani (‘similar to a
cock-a-doodle-doo sound’), and the most complex, extremely high register
krimanchuli (‘distorted falsetto/jaw’). In this guttural falsetto various
ornaments and technically difficult vocal figures are sung, with equal ease
whether fast or slow. The krimanchuli is always sung on stereotypical
glossalalia (e.g. ‘i-a-u-a-o, ir-va-ur-va-ho, i-ri-a-ho-u-ru-a-ho’). Moreover,
the ‘i’ and ‘u’ are articulated on high notes, ‘a’ on middle notes and ‘o’ on
lower ones. It is considered a high form of musical art in Guria and its
exponents are greatly respected. Krimanchuli is generally used in
marching, wedding, heroic, historical and work songs, but not in lyrical, love
and ritual songs as it would distort their quiet, melodic character. In Gurian
songs, the text has secondary importance. Much of the text appears
exclusively in the middle (second) voice, which sings in recitative, moving
from song to semi-speech. Singers often use the same texts for songs from
different genres. In one large corpus of songs, there is no text at all.
Antiphonal alternation of choruses is also common. There is a distinctive
antiphonal form in which the trio and chorus alternate.
The Gurians sing with great enthusiasm; each performer tries to show his
virtuosity, creating intricate three-part linear polyphony with almost no
harmonic elements (ex.9). Because of their complexity the songs are
usually performed by two groups of singers in turn so that each group may
rest between sections. In Gurian work songs, naduri, four-voice
combinations may be heard, usually in the second half of the song (ex.10).
In Gurian songs, major scales predominate and, despite some rhythmic
variety, most are in quadruple time. The only solo unaccompanied songs
performed are lullabies sung by women. Solo Gurian songs, performed
only to the accompaniment of the chonguri, have much in common with
their Megrelian counterparts, also performed with the chonguri (both
Gurian and Megrelian women play this instrument with great skill). Solo
Gurian songs are in couplet form; their melodies depend on the text, which
may be lyrical, humorous or topical, and their rhythmic structure is closely
connected with the verse metre. The accompaniment played on the
chonguri may follow the vocal part in unison or provide single chords,
harmonic figurations or even an independent part in the songs in recitative
form. Soinari (panpipes) survived in mountainous regions until the
beginning of the 20th century.
Ancient traditions of vocal and instrumental music survive in Samegrelo.
Lyrical songs, which couple harsh sound combinations with soft intonation
(ex.11), occupy an important place in the repertory. The tradition of the trio
is also common here. Sometimes the trio and chorus sing antiphonally. As
distinct from Guria, minor scales are used. Songs for one voice have been
preserved only as female solos accompanied by the chonguri. Two-part
songs recorded at the beginning of the 20th century have lively and supple
melodies consisting of two figures and a sustained bass. They are
generally accompanied on the chonguri which doubles both voices in the
minutest detail. In solo songs, a similar accompanimental style is used in
which the entire melody is reproduced by the chonguri.
The majority of Megrelian songs are three part. These may be divided into
two basic groups according to musical structure and text. The main group,
with light melodic lines, consists of songs of everyday family life and love-
songs. The metre and rhythm of these songs is dependent on the metre of
the verse and their style is calm and even. The second group comprises
bold, dynamic and dramatic songs, including work, marching, wedding and
dance-songs, in which all three voices form polyphonic–harmonic
combinations. They are sung in full voice and with great expression. Texts
do not play a dominant role; they are often interrupted by isolated
exclamations such as ‘o’, ‘okho’ and ‘oida’, or the expressions ‘orira’, ‘dela’
or ‘abadela’, which accompany the song for several beats. These
exclamations are often substitutes for a text, a characteristic of other
Georgian polyphonic work songs. Ritual, round-dances and work songs are
dynamic. Round-dance songs are often constructed on ostinato figures
(ex.12).

The ancient type of panpipe known as soinari or larchemi (‘reed’; fig.4) is

played in Guria and Samegrelo (ex.13) (though its use is now dying out).

Achara was populated from the 11th century by the Megrelian and Laz
‘tribes’ and then by the Gurians. In the 7th century it came under Georgian
rule; from 1627 it was ruled by Turkey, which held it until 1878 when it was
annexed by Russia. During this sequence of events the Acharian
embraced Islam and absorbed both Georgian musical culture and some
Turkish influence. This can also be observed in Acharian folk music.
Although Turkish influence is hardly detectable in the vocal style, several
Muslim instruments were appropriated and ‘table’ songs – a common
feature of other regions of Georgia – were lost. Acharian choral music has
adopted all the elements of Georgian and some of Gurian (the Georgian
group in the plains adjacent to the Acharians) folk polyphony. These three-
and four-part polyphonic songs are constructed on the same principles as
Gurian songs, but in a simpler form; the top register, krimanchuli, is not as
rich as in Guria; the second voice has a primarily recitative style and the
bass maintains its individual role. The most well-developed genre is the
naduri (‘work song’; ex.14). The mountainous Achara region is the only part
of western Georgia where two-part singing is widespread. Distinguishing
features are the recitative style of the top voice and the melodically active
bass (ex.15). This recitative quality is also peculiar to Acharian solo songs
and songs accompanied on the chiboni or chimoni (a type of bagpipe).
Acharian traditional music includes a rich variety of dances and dance
music. Dances are accompanied by singing or by the chiboni, sometimes
accompanied by the doli (drum). An ancient war-dance, khoroni (or
khorumi), is performed in 5/8 time.

Georgia, §III: Traditional music

2. Polyphony.
Polyphony is characteristic of all regions of Georgia and is still found in
most of them. Monodic songs without instrumental accompaniment are
rarely encountered, being performed only while working on the land or
when travelling alone. Unaccompanied songs for solo male voice are
known only in eastern Georgia, and the traditions of unison monophony
(and variant heterophony) are not common.
The distinction between performers and listeners is not characteristic.
Usually, all the participants of a festival (wedding or feast) take an active
part. Polyphonic songs are performed by a chorus in which the high
melodic parts are taken by soloists; all others sing the bass part.
Antiphonal singing is widespread. In eastern Georgia, usually in ‘table’
songs, two soloists alternate against the background of a solo (drone)
bass. Songs are divided according to gender: the women’s repertory
consists of lullabies, as well as ritual and lyrical songs; the men’s embraces
most genres. Round-dances are common, including those with two or three
vertical circles, that is, with each dancer standing on the shoulders of
another. In certain mountainous regions of western Georgia (Svaneti and
Racha), the tradition survives of men and women singing ritual round-
dances together. Songs are performed within families by mixed ensembles.
Three-part singing is widespread. In the mountainous regions of the east,
two-part singing is common, and in the west and south-west, examples of
four-part singing are found, especially in naduri, ‘work songs’. There are
more than 60 terms for denoting parts and their functions in the chorus.
The middle voice (mtkmeli, ‘story-teller’) generally leads and is referred to
as the ‘first voice’; the upper voice (modzakhili, ‘echo voice’; magali bani,
‘high bass’) usually follows the middle one. A variant of the upper voice in
western Georgia is a falsetto, krimanchuli, often compared with the Alpine
yodel. The bass (bani) is the only voice performed by a group singing in
unison. In four-part work songs there are two bass voices: shemkhmobari,
the ‘supporting voice’, which sings a pedal drone in the middle of the
texture, and bani, a sophisticated melody in which the main note lies a 5th
below the shemkhmobari (see exx.10 and 14). Both bass parts are
performed by groups of singers.
The rich variety of polyphonic types is based on four main principles:
drone, ostinato, parallel motion and free polyphony. Drone and ostinato are
conveyed by one voice, usually the bass, and parallel motion and free
polyphony are based on various types of voice co-ordination.
The two types of drone are the rhythmic and the pedal. Both alter their
pitch and usually move in 2nds, rarely in 3rds or 4ths. The rhythmic
(recitative) drone is common in all regions and may be the most ancient; it
articulates either the song text, along with the high voices, or stereotyped
glossalalia. The pedal drone appears mainly in the ‘table’ songs of eastern
Georgia; it is sung without words, usually to the sound ‘o’. In the course of
a song the pedal drone changes its pitch several times enabling unusual
modulations (see ex.5).
Ostinato polyphony is widespread in the round-dance songs of eastern and
especially western Georgia (ex.11). Ostinato formulae are usually sung in
the bass voice. Parallel polyphony, which appears in fragmentary form (see
ex.6), is mainly characteristic of the mountainous west. Free polyphony (or
free counterpoint) is also encountered only in fragmentary form (see ex.9)
and is characteristic of the western plains. Imitative polyphony is not used;
the voices have contrasting melodic lines and no words are uttered; the
voices produce various stereotypical glossalalia formulae. In practice, pure
polyphonic types rarely occur; these four principles interact, creating mixed
and transitional types. Exx.10 and 14 illustrate this: the pedal drone is in
the middle of the texture, recitation in the middle voice, ostinato figures in
the upper voice, and free melodic motion in the bass.
Scale systems are rich and varied. Anhemitonic scales occur among
groups living in mountainous regions. Another scale system is found in
various song types in western Georgia, and in ritual and round-dance
songs of eastern Georgia. The system consists of two, three or four
identical pentachords joined together. The aim is to preserve the purity of
the 5ths, which results in augmented octaves (b –b'; f'–f ''; ex.16). Scales
built on the diatonic system of 4ths are not encountered in their pure form
in polyphonic singing; they appear only in the monophonic (solo) work
songs of eastern Georgia and comprise two, three or four identical
tetrachords joined together. This diatonic system is very similar to the
tetrachordal modes of the Middle East. In these scales one encounters
diminished octaves (b–b '; e'–e ''; ex.17).
In ‘table’ and sometimes lyrical songs of eastern Georgia, scales contain
elements of diatonic systems of 4ths and 5ths. The former predominates,
occurring above the tonal centre (the pedal drone) in the melodies of the
high voice; the latter appears in the bass voice during cadences and
modulation.
‘Dissonant’ chords comprising various combinations of 2nds, 4ths, 5ths,
7ths and 9ths are characteristic of Georgian polyphony (ex.18). The
harmonic system is based on a relationship of 2nds. The most common
cadences are: I–VII–I; I–VI–VII–I; I–II–III; II–III–IV–I. In addition to
resolutions by movements of seconds, there are also resolutions by
movements of fourths. A musical phrase usually concludes on the tonic or
the fifth, although they may conclude on the fourth, a 5-8 chord, a 4-5
chord or even a chord consisting of the fifth, octave and ninth.

Modulations are very common in sophisticated songs, both in eastern and

western Georgia. In the ‘table’ songs of eastern Georgia, modulations may
be to a major or minor second above or below, or to a major or minor third
below. In western Georgia one also encounters modulations to a fourth or
fifth below.
Simple duple and triple-time rhythms are common: in western Georgia
duple rhythms (4/4, 2/4) predominate, and in eastern Georgia triple
rhythms (3/4, 6/8) frequently occur. In the ‘table’ songs of eastern Georgia
the metre is free, and, in Svanetian songs, changes in metre occur.
Contrapuntal songs of western Georgia are more rhythmically active,
although all are in 4/4 metre.
Musical rhythm prevails over textual rhythm in all regions. 4 + 4
constructions are typical for a line of verse in western Georgia, but in
eastern Georgia asymmetrical constructions of 3 + 5 and 5 + 3 are
characteristic. The importance of the poetical text ranges from complete
domination in the mountainous regions of eastern Georgia to a minor role
in Guria, western Georgia. In three-part songs, the text may be delivered
by one (middle) voice, by two (middle and high) voices or by the three
voices simultaneously.
Southern and eastern parts of Georgia share borders with Turkey, Armenia
and Azerbaijan, the peoples of which practise vocal monody. Vocal
polyphony, mainly two-part, is widespread among those who populate the
northern slopes of the Caucasian range. It is similar to its Georgian
counterpart in that it uses various types of drone and ostinato, a functional
relationship based on 2nds, ‘dissonant’ intervals, the singing of melodic
lines by soloists, and a bass part provided by a chorus. Parallels are also
noted with the polyphonic traditions of groups in the Balkan mountains, and
certain other polyphonic traditions of the Mediterranean basin and eastern
Europe.
Georgia, §III: Traditional music
3. Instruments.
The salamuri end-blown flute is one of the older Georgian instruments. An
archaic version excavated in a burial ground at Mtskheta, the capital of
ancient Georgia, is made from a swan’s tibia and has three finger-holes.
The type of burial suggests that this small salamuri belonged to a young
shepherd. Modern salamuri generally have seven finger-holes on the front
and one on the back; they are sometimes played in classical as well as in
folk music and are popular among shepherds in eastern Georgia. The
soinari or larchemi (panpipe; fig.4) is another ancient instrument which
survived into the 20th century. It consists of six reed pipes of various
lengths, made of cane or the stem of an umbellate plant, fastened in a row.
They are tuned in 3rds from the bass pipes, which are positioned in the
middle and are a 2nd apart. The tuning varies according to the piece being
performed. Sometimes the pieces are performed by two players who can
divide the instrument into two, taking three pipes each. It is generally
considered a shepherd’s instrument, but is also used during the hunt,
during the ritual of ‘bringing the spirit of the deceased’ home from the place
of death; and during the nirzi, a contest in which the six pipes are divided in
two groups, each group being played in turn. Two-part music is also played
on the larchemi, when the player blows simultaneously into two pipes
(ex.13).
The gudastviri (bagpipe) is traditionally associated with the mestvire,
professional musicians who perform heroic, patriotic or satirical songs of
social comment as well as shairis (popular verses). The gudastviri consists
of a bellows (guda), a small tube (chreko) fitted into one hole of the bellows
and two pipes (stviri), one with six finger-holes and the other with three.
The instrument is often decorated with metal, coloured glass, small chains
and even gems. It originated among the Kartlian in eastern Georgia but is
also occasionally played in Racha in western Georgia. The chiboni or
chimoni (bagpipe) of Achara is similar in construction to the gudastviri but
has a more penetrating timbre; it is played solo, used to accompany
dancing and, less frequently, song. Both gudastviri and chiboni are two-
voice instruments and, as in vocal music, the bass voice is never
stationary.
The changi (harp; fig.3a) of Svaneti in western Georgia, one of the oldest
surviving string instruments, is used mainly to accompany song. It is
rectangular, often with carved ornaments, and the number of strings varies
(usually six to nine). The strings, which are tuned diatonically in 2nds, may
be played singly or in groups to produce chords. In performance the changi
is held upright on the knee. The most popular strummed or plucked string
instruments are the panduri (three-string fretted lute) of eastern Georgia
and the chonguri (four-string unfretted lute) of western Georgia. The
panduri is made in various shapes and sizes; the strings are strummed in
both directions or, less frequently, plucked. The chonguri has a pear-
shaped body and long neck and is also strummed or plucked. The
instrument has a short string called zili (‘thin’) which produces a steady
high drone. Both panduri and chonguri are used for accompanying song
and for solo performance. The panduri is played mainly by men; the
chonguri predominantly by women. The chianuri (two-string bowed lute;
fig.5) and the somewhat larger chuniri (three-string bowed lute) originated
in western Georgia. The chianuri, generally used to accompany epics, love-
songs or comic popular verses, is often played in unison with the vocal
melody. The chianuri and chuniri repertories also include solo instrumental
pieces and dance music.
Percussion instruments include the daira, a tambourine made in various
sizes and played with both hands, mostly by women. The hoop is
sometimes inlaid with mother-of-pearl, and small bells, rings or coins are
attached along the inside. The instrument is used to accompany song or
dance, and is also played solo. The doli (double-headed cylindrical drum of
various sizes) is sounded with two sticks or with the hands. The performer
may sit or stand and he usually sings while playing. Doli are generally used
in ensembles together with wind instruments such as the salamuri, the
duduki (flute) and the zurna (shawm). Rhythms played on the doli are
varied. The diplipito (fig.3b) is a small kettledrum played in pairs or
occasionally in groups of threes. The body is made of clay and the
membrane is struck with a thin stick. The buzika (small accordion) is
popular. During recent years, the Russian balalaika has also found its way
from the north into mountainous regions of eastern Georgia, and is played
in the same way as the panduri. The guitar is common in western Georgia.
Georgia, §III: Traditional music
4. Urban and contemporary songs.
(i) Eastern and Western influences.
In the capital city, Tbilisi, and in Kutaisi, the city in the centre of Imeretia,
two distinctive urban musical traditions were established long ago. The
‘eastern branch’, influenced by the music of the Middle East, began to
develop in Tbilisi more than a thousand years ago. Monodic melodies with
characteristic Middle Eastern modes (incorporating an augmented 2nd)
gradually became distinctively Georgian as the original melody became
preserved in the middle register of three-part melodies (ex.19).
The ‘western branch’ was influenced by the European harmonic system
which found its way to Georgia in the mid-19th century through Italian
opera and the Russian romance. A large group of choral songs based on
this system quickly developed (see ex.8), as did a substantial body of
songs with guitar accompaniments. The centre of Western urban music is
considered to be Kutaisi but, from the 1950s, it began also to acquire
dominance in Tbilisi. During the 1970s a new tradition of four-part singing
(chartulit, ‘with included voice’) appeared. The popularity of urban music in
certain regions (particularly in Imeretia) brought about changes in
traditional music. This ‘western branch’ forms the basis of contemporary
music in the main towns. In some village areas, traditional repertories and
styles are no longer performed, but in most regions they can still be found.
In many areas, ensembles and choirs are organized by experts in
traditional music who have not had a European professional musical
education.
(ii) The Soviet Union.
The period when Georgia was a part of the Soviet Union (1921–91) was
marked by political and cultural totalitarianism. All choirs and ensembles
that performed in concerts were forced to include in their repertories songs
about the Communist Party and the political leaders of the Soviet Union.
Such songs were composed very quickly. In the 1930s, under the dictates
of both the political leaders of the USSR and the local (regional)
administrative bodies, huge choral collectives began to appear. Political
administrators of different regions often competed to assemble the largest
choirs. Traditional ensembles with established performing traditions that
used solo voices for melodic parts were deemed to be ‘out of date’. In the
huge choral collectives, these were replaced with unison singing in all three
registers. Traditional musicians protested because unison singing
destroyed one of the fundamentals of Georgian polyphonic song, its
improvisatory character.
During the 1930s, as in other republics of the Soviet Union, modified folk
instruments were produced (larger instruments with chromatic tuning) and
folk-instrument orchestras were established. There was no traditional basis
for these in Georgia and therefore they did not become popular. However,
small instrumental ensembles gained some popularity, particularly trios
comprising salamuri, chonguri and panduri. Usually, the instruments in
these ensembles use chromatic tuning, and in addition to a traditional
repertory, they often perform works by contemporary Georgian composers
as well as the European classics.
In post-Soviet Georgia, there are numerous folksong ensembles playing
the traditional songs of various regions, for instance the State Ensemble of
Georgian Folksong, the Rustaveli State Ensemble, and the ensembles
Pazisi, Kartuli Khmebi, Mtiebi, Mzetamze and Georgika. During the 1980s
and 90s ensembles that performed Georgian folksongs began to appear in
the USA, UK, France, Norway, Canada and Australia.
Georgia, §III: Traditional music
5. Sources, history, studies.
Archaeological finds from the 2nd and 1st millennia bce, depicting
instruments and dancing figures, provide the oldest evidence of the
musical cultures of different Georgian groups. Information about their
musical traditions can also be found in ancient Greek literary documents,
such as Xenophon’s Anabasis Kirosa, which describes the events of 401
bc. Georgian written sources existing from the 5th century highlight the
development of professional music in the middle ages. Later sources
describe the struggle with pagan songs and dances and the development
of musical culture during the ‘Golden’ 10th, 11th and 12th centuries. Much
information about musical terms is contained in the first Georgian dictionary
compiled by Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani in the 18th century. At the beginning
of the 19th century a descendant of Georgian kings, Ioan Bagrationi,
described the musical life of Georgia and particularly the tradition of church
singing in his work Kalmasoba (‘A journey’).
From the 1860s the fight to preserve cultural identity began, and from the
1870s the first collections of Georgian folksongs appeared. The first
professional Georgian folksong choir, founded by Lado Agniashvili, gave its
inaugural performance in 1886. It went on to play an important role in
popularizing the folksong tradition. Research into traditional music also
began. The composers Zakharia Paliashvili and D. Arakishvili were
important in this respect. Arakishvili, who published a large number of
folksong collections and many seminal works on Georgian folk music, is
considered to be the founder of Georgian ethnomusicology. Russian
musicians, for example M. Ippolitov-Ivanov, K. Klenovsky and K. Grozdov,
have recorded and published Georgian folksongs. An influential
monograph on the soinari (or larchemi) was published by V. Steshenko-
Kuftina and another, by I. Javakhishvili, remains one of the finest source
work studies. G. Chkhikvadze compiled the first educational course on the
musical folk art of Georgia and founded the Department of the Musical Folk
Art of Tbilisi V. Sarajishvili State Conservatoire, and Sh. Aslanishvili laid the
foundations of research into the theoretical bases of Georgian folk music. A
rich collection of material has been gathered at various times by
composers and musicologists, for instance Sh. Mshvelidze, G. Kokeladze,
V. Akhobadze and O. Chijavadze. Various aspects of music have been,
and are being, studied by scholars: B. Gulisashvili (scales); K. Rosebashvili
(musical instruments); M. Jordania (scales and the functions of the voices);
M. Iashvili (interrelation between folk and professional polyphony in ancient
times); M. Shilakadze (musical instruments); N. Maisuradze (singing
traditions of eastern Georgia); V. Magradze (vestiges of polyphony in
Meskhetia); I. Zhgenti (questions of harmony); G. Gvardzhaladze (rhythm);
E. Chokhonelidze (scales and intervals); V. Gogotishvili (scales of the
diatonic system of pentachords); E. Garakanidze (dialectology and
questions of performance); N. Zumbadze (female aspects of folklore); T.
Gabisonia (classification of polyphonic types); N. Tsitsishvili (ethnocultural
links); N. Makharadze (lullabies); and J. Jordania (an interdisciplinary study
of the origins of polyphony).
Materials from field studies undertaken in different regions are held at the
laboratory attached to the Department of the Georgian Musical Folklore at
the Tbilisi V. Sarajishvili State Conservatoire. Research into the traditional
music of Georgia is also carried out at the Institute of History and
Ethnography, Centre for Archaeological Studies, and Centre for
Mediterranean Studies at the University of Tbilisi (1988–95).
The interest in Georgian music grew in Europe after World War I when G.
Schunemann and R. Lach recorded traditional songs from Georgian
prisoners of war. These are housed in the Berlin Phonogram Archive. R.
Lach, Z. Nadel and M. Schneider studied Georgian polyphony and its
possible links with professional polyphony of the Middle Ages. Various
aspects of traditional Georgian music have been touched upon in the
works of P. Collaer, E. Emsheimer, E. Stockmann, J. Grimaud and Z.
Ziegler.
Matters connected with the traditional music of Georgia are discussed at
the annual conferences of the Co-ordinating Council for Georgian Folklore
attached to the Georgian Academy of Sciences, and also at the
conferences of the Music and Choreography Society of Georgia (later
called the Music Society of Georgia). In 1984, 1986 and 1988 international
conferences on folk polyphony were held in Georgia. In 1990 the first
International Festival of the Musical Folklore of Georgia was held.
Georgia, §III: Traditional music
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources

collections and editions in georgian

A. Benashvili: Kartuli khmebi [Georgian songs] (Tbilisi, 1886)
Z. Chkhikvadze: Salamuri [The flute] (Tbilisi, 1896)
F. Koridze: Mitsvalebulis sagalobelni [Songs of lament] (Tbilisi, 1899)
I. Kargareteli: Kartuli sakhalkho simgerebi [Georgian folksongs] (Tbilisi,
1899–1909)
Z. Paliashvili: Kartuli khalkhuri simgerebi [Georgian folksongs] (Tbilisi,
1910)
D. Arakishvili: Kartuli musika [Georgian music] (Kutaisi, 1925, 2/1940;
Russ. trans., 2/1940)
A. Partskhaladze: Acharis khalkhuri tsekva da simgera [Acharian
folkdance and song] (Batumi, 1936)
I. Javakhish(ili: Kartuli musikis istoriis dzivitadi sakit khebi [Main issues in
the history of Georgian music] (Tblisi, 1938)
G. Chkhikvadze: Kartveli khalkhis udzvelesi samusiko kultura [The ancient
musical culture of the Georgian people] (Tbilisi, 1948)
D. Arakishvili: Svanuri khalkhuri simgerebi [Svan folksongs] (Tbilisi, 1950)
Sh. Aslanishvili: Narkvevebi kartuli khalkhuri simgerebis shesakheb
[Essays on Georgian folk music] (Tbilisi, 1954–6)
V. Akhobadze: Kartuli (svanuri) khalkhuri simgerebi [Georgian (Svan)
folksongs] (Tbilisi, 1957)
G. Chkhikvadze: Kartuli khalkhuri simgera [Georgian folksong] (Tbilisi,
1960)
V. Akhobadze: Kartuli (acharuli) khalkhuri simgerebi [Georgian (Acharian)
folksongs] (Batumi, 1961)
G. Chkhikvadze: Acharuli musikaluri folkloris masalebidan [From Acharian
musical folklore material] (Batumi, 1961)
T. Mamaladze: Shromis simgerebi Kakhetshi [Work songs in Kakheti]
(Tbilisi, 1963)
O. Chijavadze: Kartuli (kakhuri) khalkhuri simgerebi [Georgian (Kakhetian)
folksongs] (Tbilisi, 1969)
M. Shilakadze: Kartuli khalkhuri sakravebi da sakravieri musika [Georgian
folk instruments and instrumental music] (Tbilisi, 1970)
Sh. Aslanishvili: Kartl-khakhuri khalkhuri sagundo simgerebis harmonia
[The harmony of Kartlian-Kakhetian choral folk music] (Tbilisi, 1971)
N. Maisuradze: Agmosavlet Sakartvelos musikaluri kultura (vokaluri
musika) [The musical culture of eastern Georgia (vocal music)] (Tbilisi,
1971)
A. Mshvelidze: Kartuli kalakhuri khalkhuri simgerebi [Georgian urban
folksongs] (Tbilisi, 1971)
O. Chijavadze: Kartuli khalkhuri simgerebi (megruli) [Georgian folksongs
(Megrelian)] (Tbilisi, 1974)
M. Iashvili: Kartuli mravalkhmianobis sakitkhisatvis [About Georgian
polyphony] (Tbilisi, 1975; Russ. trans., 1987)
A. Erkomaishvili: Kartuli khalkhuri simgerebi (guruli) [Georgian folksongs
(Gurian)] (Tbilisi, 1980)
K. Rosebashvili: Kartuli khalkhuri simgerebi [Georgian folksongs] (Tbilisi,
1983)
G. Kokeladze: Asi kartuli khalkhuri simgera [100 Georgian folksongs]
(Tbilisi, 1984)
V. Magradze: Meskhuri khalkhuri simgerebi [Meskh folksongs] (Tbilisi,
1986)
other languages
MGG1 suppl. (E. Eimsheimer)
I. Yevlakhov: ‘O narodnïkh pesnyakh i pevtsakh v Gruzii’ [Folksongs and
singers in Georgia], Kavkaz (16 Aug 1850)
K. Grozdov: Mingrel'skiye narodnïye pesni [Megrelian folksongs] (Tbilisi,
1894)
M. Ippolitov-Ivanov: ‘Gruzinskaya narodnaya pesnya i ego sovremennoye
sostoyaniye’ [The Georgian folksong and its modern form], Artist, i/5
(1895), 134
D. Arakishvili: Kratkiy ocherk razvitiya gruzinskoy kartalino-kakhetinskoy
narodnoy pesni [A brief study of the development of Georgian Kartlian-
Kakhetian folksong] (Moscow, 1905)
D. Arakishvili: Narodnaya pesnya zapadnoy Gruzii [Folksong of western
Georgia] (Moscow, 1908)
D. Arakishvili: Gruzinskoye narodnoye muzïkal'noye tvorchestvo
[Georgian folk music] (Moscow, 1916)
R. Lach, ed.: Gesänge russischer Kriegsgefangener, iii/1: Georgische
Gesänge (Vienna, 1931)
V. Belyayev: ‘The Folk-Music of Georgia’, MQ, xix (1933), 417–33
S.F. Nadel: Georgische Gesänge (Berlin, 1933)
M. Schneider: Geschichte der Mehrstimmigkeit, ii (Berlin, 1935, 2/1969),
7–33
V. Belyayev: ‘Kvoprosu izucheniya gruzinskogo muzïkal'nogo
instrumentarya’ [Questions of studying Georgian musical instruments],
Vestnik gosudarstvennogo muzeya, ix (1936), 1–40
V. Steshenko-Kuftina: Drevneyshiye instrumental'nïye osnovï gruzinskoy
narodnoy muzïki [The ancient musical traditions of Georgian folk
music] (Tbilisi, 1936)
M. Schneider: ‘Kaukasische Parallelen zur europaisch mittelalterlichen
Mehrstimmigkeit’, Acta Musicologica, xii (1940), 52–61
D. Arakishvili: Obzor narodnoy pesni vostochnoy Gruzii [A survey of
eastern Georgian folksong] (Tbilisi, 1948)
P. Collaer: ‘Notes concernant certain chants espagnols, hongrois, bulgares
et géorgiens’, AnM, ix–x (1954–5)
G. Chkhikvadze: Gruzinskiye narodnïye pesni [Georgian folksongs]
(Moscow, 1956)
E. Stockmann: ‘Kaukasische und albanische Mehrstimmigkeit’,
Kongressbericht Gesellschaft für Musikforschung (Hamburg, 1956),
229–31
V. Akhobadze: Abkhazskiye narodnïye pesni [Abkhazian folksongs]
(Moscow, 1957)
V. Akhobadze: Georgian Folk Work Songs ‘Naduri’ (Moscow, 1961)
O. Chijavadze and V. Tsagareishvili: Gruzinskiye narodnïye pesni
[Georgian folksongs] (Moscow, 1964)
G. Chkhikvadze: Main types of Georgian Polyphonic Singing (Moscow,
1964)
E. Emsheimer: ‘Georgian Folk Polyphony’, JIFMC, xix (1967), 54–7
A. Andriashvili and V. Makharadze: Gruzinskiye narodnïye pesni
[Georgian folksongs] (Tbilisi, 1971)
A. Erkomaishvili: Gruzinskiye narodnïye pesni [Georgian folksongs]
(Moscow, 1972)
Y. Grimaud: ‘Musique vocale géorgienne (Europe orientale)’, Bedi Kartlisa:
revue de kartvélologie, xxxv (1977), 52–72
J. Jordania: ‘Gruusialaister kansanlaulujen alkuperaisesta polyfoniasta ja
harmoniasta’ [Distinctive forms of polyphony and harmony in Georgian
folk music], Musiikki, iv (1980), 215–29
J. Jordania: ‘Georgian Folk Singing: its Sources, Emergence and Modern
Development’, International Social Science Journal, xxxvi/3 (1984),
537–49
L. Gvaramadze: Gruzinskiy tantsevalnïy folklor [Georgian folkdances]
(Tbilisi, 1987)
E. Tschokhonelidze: ‘Das Wesen der georgischen poliphonen
Volksmusik’, Georgika, xi (1988), 63–6
J. Jordania: Gruzinskoye traditsionnoye mnogogolosiye v
mezhdunarodnom kontekste mnogogolosnïkh kul'tur: k probleme
genezisa mnogogolosiya [Georgian traditional polyphony in an
international context of polyphonic cultures: on the problem of the
origin of polyphony] (Tbilisi, 1989)
Z. Ziegler and A. Traub: ‘Mittelalterliche und kaukasische
Mehrstimmigkeit’, BMz, xliii (1990), 214–27
recordings
Onis raionis momgeralta sakhalkho gundi [Traditional chorus from the Oni
district], Melodiya C30 25981 003 (1987) [Rachian folksongs]
Kvarlis kulturis sahltan arsebuli vazhta gundi ‘Kvareli’ [Male chorus Kvareli
from the culture department of the town of Kvareli], Melodiya C30
27199 003 (1988) [Kakhetian folksongs]
Svanuri khalkhuri simgerebi [Svan folksongs], perf. Traditional ensemble
from Latali village from upper Svanetia, Melodiya C30 27547 009
(1988)
Tsalenjihis raionis vazhta etnograpiuli gundi ‘Bedinera’ [Traditional male
chorus Bedinera from Tsalenjiha District], Melodiya C30 27547 009
(1988) [Megrelian folksongs]
Chohatauris folkloruli ansambli ‘Guria’ [Traditional ensemble Guria from
Chohatauri], Melodiya C30 30305 005 (1990) [Gurian folksongs]
Ozurgetis folkloruli ansambli ‘Elesa’ [Traditional ensemble Elesa from
Ozurgeti], Melodiya C30 30447 005 (1990) [Gurian folksongs]
Kartuli khalkhuri simgerebi: Sakhelovani tsinaprebi [Georgian folksongs:
illustrious ancestors], various pfmrs., rec. 1900–30, Melodiya M30
49487 005 (1991)
Penomeni [Phenomenon], dir., M. Kokochashvili, M. Shevardnadze, D.
Gugunava, Kartuli Telefilmiz (Tbilisi, 1992) [film about Georgian
traditional polyphony]

Georgiades, Thrasybulos
G(eorgios)
(b Athens, 4 Jan 1907; d Munich, 15 March 1977). German musicologist of
Greek origin. He studied engineering at the Athens Technical High School
(1923–8) and attended the Athens Conservatory (1921–6), where his
principal subject was the piano. He then studied musicology with Rudolf
von Ficker at Munich University (1930–35); he was much influenced there
by the classical archaeologist Ernst Buschor, the Byzantine specialist Franz
Dölger and the philosopher Kurt Huber; he also pursued practical training
with Carl Orff. He took the doctorate at Munich in 1935 and the next year
was appointed professor of form and analysis at the Athens Conservatory,
subsequently (1939–41) becoming director. In 1936 he married the
harpsichordist Anna-Barbara Speckner. At this time he was principally
engaged in folksong research and Byzantine liturgical music. From 1939 to
1941 he also served on the board of Radio Athens. He completed his
Habilitation in musicology at Munich in 1947 with a dissertation on Greek
rhythm and joined the faculty at Heidelberg University (1948), becoming
director of the musicology department in 1949 and professor in 1955. In
1956 he was appointed to a professorship at Munich University, retiring in
1972. In 1974 he was elected to the German Order Pour le Mérite.
Georgiades was editor of the Münchner Veröffentlichungen zur
Musikgeschichte (Tutzing, 1959–) and of Musikalische Edition im Wandel
des historischen Bewusstseins (Kassel, 1971).
Georgiades was renowned among colleagues for the originality and depth
of thought apparent in both his teaching and his writings. Often highly
critical of established musicological methods, he was influenced by the
mousikē of antiquity, which he viewed as the union through rhythm of
music, verse and dance. In later music he was particularly fascinated by
the relationship between music and language on the one hand and on the
other between music as live performance and as written document. This
led to a search for historical unity, concentrated around two poles: early
polyphony and the beginnings of notation in the Carolingian period, and the
works of the mature Viennese Classics. In the former he questioned the
traditional methods of modern edition and in the latter those of form and
analysis, insisting on an approach that combines historical insight with
attention to detail. In some ways Georgiades anticipated the concerns
which led in the 1990s to new approaches to criticism. The music itself,
however, the ‘here and now’, always remained the focus of his attention.
With his keen insight into music and its history, and his dual German and
Greek heritage, Georgiades had a wide influence by no means confined to
the many who studied directly under him.
WRITINGS
Englische Diskanttraktate aus der ersten Hälfte des 15. Jahrhunderts
(diss., U. of Munich, 1935; Munich, 1937)
‘Bemerkungen zur Erforschung der byzantinischen Kirchenmusik’,
Byzantinische Zeitschrift, xxxix (1939), 67–88
Der griechische Rhythmus: Musik, Reigen, Vers und Sprache
(Habilitationsschrift, U. of Munich, 1947; Hamburg, 1949/R; Eng.
trans., 1956/R)
‘Volkslied als Bekenntnis’, Kurt Huber zum Gedächtnis: Bildnis eines
Menschen, Denkers und Forschers, ed. C. Huber (Regensburg, 1947),
98–111
Review of T.W. Adorno: Philosophie der neuen Musik (1949), Deutsche
Beiträge, v (1950), 381–4
‘Aus der Musiksprache des Mozart-Theaters’, MJb 1950, 76–98
‘Zur Musiksprache der Wiener Klassiker’, MJb 1951, 50–59
Musik und Sprache: das Werden der abendländischen Musik dargestellt an
der Vertonung der Messe (Berlin, 1954, 2/1974/R; Eng. trans., 1982;
Gk. trans., 1994)
‘“Das Wirtshaus” von Schubert und das Kyrie aus dem Gregorianischen
Requiem’, Gegenwart im Geiste: Festschrift für Richard Benz, ed. W.
Bulst and A. von Schneider (Hamburg, 1954), 126–35
Musik und Rhythmus bei den Griechen: zum Ursprung der
abendländischen Musik (Hamburg, 1958)
Sakral und Profan in der Musik (Munich, 1960)
Musik und Schrift (Munich, 1962, 2/1964)
Das musikalische Theater (Munich, 1965)
Schubert: Musik und Lyrik (Göttingen, 1967)
ed.: Musikalische Edition im Wandel des historischen Bewusstseins
(Kassel, 1971)
Kleine Schriften (Tutzing, 1977) [reprs. of selected essays]
Nennen und Erklingen: die Zeit als Logos, ed. I. Bengen (Göttingen, 1985)
[incl. preface by H.G. Gadamer]
‘Lyric as Musical Structure: Schubert’s Wanderers Nachtlied (“Über allen
Gipfeln” D.768)’, Schubert: Critical and Analytical Studies, ed. W.
Frisch (Lincoln, NE, 1986), 84–103
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Obituaries: W. Clemen, Jb der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
1978, 200–05; T. Göllner, Mf, xxx (1977), 273–6; W. Osthoff, Musik in
Bayern, xiv (1977), 5–17
D. Dorner: Musik als Repräsentationsgeschehen: ein musik-
philosophischer Rekurs auf Thr. Georgiades (Frankfurt, 1998)
HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT/MARIE LOUISE GÖLLNER

Georgia Tom.
See Dorsey, thomas a.

Georgiceus [Georgiceo,
Georgievich, Georgijević,
Grgičević, Jurjević], Athanasius
(b Split, c1590; d c1640). Croatian diplomat, author and composer. He was
educated at Split, Ljubljana and at the Jesuit University in Graz. Between
1611 and 1613 he was secretary to the Bishop of Bamberg. His knowledge
of several Slavonic languages secured him an important position at the
court of Archduke Ferdinand II, who sent him on diplomatic missions to
Poland and Bosnia. During the 1630s he lived in Graz, Vienna, Rijeka and
Zagreb, where he was in 1637.
He never took holy orders, but much of his activity was closely connected
with the affairs of the Jesuits and the Franciscans. In 1629 he published his
Croatian translation of Thomas à Kempis’s De imitatione Christi and
followed it with two moralistic treatises of his own. As a musician he is
known for his [12] Pisni za naypoglavitiye, naysvetye i nayveselye dni
svega godischia sloxene: i kako se u organe s’yednim glasom mogu spivati
(Songs for the most important, most holy and most joyous feasts of the
whole year, which can be sung with the organ and one voice; Vienna,
1635; 6 ed. in Spomenici hrvatske glazbene prošlosti (Monuments of
Croatian music), i, ii; Zagreb, 1971), the oldest Croatian songbook with
preserved music. The songs are simple and strophic, with melodies often
reminiscent of hymn tunes, consisting of repeated motifs and sequential
patterns. Georgiceus himself wrote the čakavian-ikavian texts in his native
(Dalmatian) dialect. The songs have no great artistic aspirations, but were
an attempt to simplify the idiom of sacred monody that he must have
known in his youth in Graz, in order to make it acceptable to the large body
of worshippers in Croatian churches. The view has been advanced that he
borrowed some of the melodies, but their origin cannot be established with
certainty.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (H. Federhofer)
J. Mantuani: ‘Hrvatska crkvena pjesmarica iz god. 1635’ [A Croatian
songbook of 1635], Sveta Cecilija, ix (1915)
L. Županović:Centuries of Croatian Music (Zagreb, 1984), 83–6
E. Stipčević: Hrvatska glazbena kultura 17. stoljeća [17th-century Croatian
musical culture] (Split, 1992), 93ff, 146–7
J. Mihojević: Bogorodica u hrvatskom pjesništvu od 13. stoljeća do kraja
19. stoljeća [The Madonna in Croatian poetry from the 13th century to
the end of the 19th] (Zagreb, 1994), 368–75
E. Stipčević: ‘Habent sua fata libelli: “Pisni” (1635) [by] Atanazija Jurjevića’,
Arti musices, xxvi (1995), 65–72 [with Eng. summary]
BOJAN BUJIĆ/STANISLAV TUKSAR

Georgius a Brugis
(d Bruges, 1438). Composer. He is probably identifiable with the south
Netherlandish musician Georgius Martini, a singer at Treviso Cathedral
(1427–31) and in the chapel of Pope Eugenius IV (1431–2), who was also
a priest of the diocese of Tournai and who in 1431 became a canon of the
church of St Donatian, Bruges. His sole surviving composition, a fine Credo
setting in I-TRmp 87 (ed. in DTÖ, lxi, Jg.xxxi, 1924/R, 30), is reminiscent of
Ciconia in such features as its disposition of voices, its roving melodic style
and its use of brief snatches of imitation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StrohmM
M. Schuler: ‘Zur Geschichte der Kapelle Papst Eugens IV.’, AcM, xl
(1968), 220–27
PETER WRIGHT

Georg Rudolph, Duke of Liegnitz

[now Legnica], Brieg [now Brzeg]
and Goldberg
(b Ohlau [now Oława], nr Breslau [now Wrocław], 22 Jan 1595; d Breslau,
14 Jan 1653). German patron, bibliophile, composer and poet. The son of
Joachim Friedrich, Duke of Brieg-Liegnitz, he became duke in 1613 at the
age of 18. He was educated at the university at Frankfurt an der Oder
(Słubice). In his early years he was active as composer and poet. He
displayed his love of music as early as 1610. The first collection of his
music consisted of several partbooks in manuscript, most containing the
series of initials GRHZLVB (Georg Rudolph Herzog zu Liegnitz und Brieg),
followed by the date 1612. Two of the partbooks, however, conclude thus:
‘1610. 15. Maij … Georgius Rudolphus, Dux Lignicencis et Bregnsis
Mannupp/ria’.
On assuming power Georg Rudolph continued the Kapelle at his court, but
his interest in music mainly assumed a different form. In the course of a
journey throughout Europe, he began collecting books for what was to
 become known as the Bibliotheca Rudolphina. His first wife, Princess
Sophie Elisabeth of Anhalt, whom he married in 1614 and who died eight
years later, contributed valuable works in French and Italian. By the time
the first catalogue was compiled in 1618, five years after the collection was
begun, it boasted more than 3000 works; this number later doubled.
Housed originally in the Johanneskirche, Liegnitz, the library was moved
several times during the 17th and early 18th centuries; it was ultimately
housed in the Ritterakademie, Liegnitz, in 1741.
The Thirty Years War diverted the duke’s attention from both music and
books. Between 1627 and 1635 both Protestant and Catholic armies
occupied Liegnitz at various times and confiscated many of the library’s
holdings, especially works on law, theology and medicine. The duke was
most interested in his music collection which apparently survived intact. It
consisted of 460 volumes containing works by more than 700 composers
of the 16th and 17th centuries. Most of the pieces were Franco-Flemish,
but Italian and German works also accounted for a large proportion of the
collection. The duke’s widespread reputation as a connoisseur of music is
clear from the number of works in his library that were dedicated to him by
their composers, among them Schütz and Schein. In 1621, on his way to
Breslau with his Kapelle, Schütz visited Duke Rudolph in Liegnitz, and on 3
November directed performances of his two motets Syncharma musicum
and Tentonium dudum belli there while Elector Johann Georg of Saxony,
representing the Emperor, received the oath of loyalty sworn by the
Silesian estates to the house of Habsburg. Nor did he neglect the
musicians of his own district as can be seen by the inclusion of pieces by
Samuel Besler, Thomas Fritsch, Thomas Stoltzer and other local musicians
of his own and earlier times. The collection remained intact until World War
II, when Soviet troops removed it from Liegnitz; it is now dispersed among
at least four libraries in Poland (PL-LEtpn, Lk, Wn, WRu).
WORKS
Alleluya, alleluya, 5vv (2 settings); Ave gratiosa, 5vv; Benedicta in mulieribus, 5vv;
Exultemus et laetemus, 5vv; Fiat cor meum, 5vv; Miserere mei fili David 5vv;
Surrexit pastor bonus, 4vv; Da der Herr Christ zu Tische sass, 4vv; Da Jesus
Christ verachtet ward, 4vv; Der May, der May bringt uns gar viel, 5vv; Hertzlich
thut mich erfrewen, 4vv; Ich passiert einmahl allein, 2vv; Mein Seele erhebt den
Herren mein, 4vv; O Gott zu diesem unser Stindelein, 5vv; Von Joseph dem
züchtigen helt, 4vv; Wer Gott allein vertrawet, 4vv; Wir Christenleut, 4vv
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
J.P. Wahrendorff: Lignitzische Merckwürdigkeiten, oder Historische
Beschreibung der Stadt und des Fürstenthums Lignitz im Herzogthum
Schlesien (Budissin, 1724)
A. Sammter and A.H. Kraffert: Chronik zu Liegnitz, ii/2: Vom Tode
Friedrichs II bis zum Aussterben des Piastenhauses, 1547–1675
(Liegnitz, 1871)
E. Pfudel: Die Musik-Handschriften der Königlichen Ritter-Akademie zu
Liegnitz (Leipzig, 1886)
W. Scholz: Beiträge zur Musikgeschichte der Stadt Liegnitz von ihren
Anfängen bis etwa zum Jahre 1800 (Liegnitz, 1941)
W. Scholz: ‘Das musikalische Leben in Liegnitz bis ca. 1800’, Musik des
Ostens, v (1969), 113–43
W. Elsner: Liegnitzer Stadtgeschichte von ihren Anfängen bis zum Ende
der Oertel-Zeit: 1242–1912 (Lorch, 1971)
A. Kolbuszewska: ‘Cenne muzykalia w Bibliotece Towarzystwa Przyjaciol
Nauk w Legnicy’ [Valuable musical materials in the library of the
Society of Friends of Science in Legnica], Szikce Legnickie, vii (1973),
245–50
T. Grabska, ed.: Zycie muzyczne Legnicy XIII–XIX wieku [Musical life in
Liegnitz from the 13th to the 19th centuries] (Legnica, 1984)
L. Hoffmann-Erbrecht: ‘Heinrich Schütz und Schlesien’, Jb der
schlesischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Breslau, xxvi (1985),
65–73
A. Kolbuszewska: Kataloge zbiorów muzycznych legnickiej biblioteki
ksiecia Jerzego Rudolf ‘Bibliotheca Rudolphina’ [Catalogue of the
music collections in Prince Jerzy Rudolf's library in Legnica, the
Bibliotheca Rudolphina] (Legnica, 1992)
CHRISTOPHER WILKINSON

Geraert, Jan.
See Gerard, Jan.

Gerald de Barri.
See Giraldus Cambrensis.

Geraldo [Bright, Gerald W.]

(b London, 10 Aug 1903; d Vevey, 4 May 1974). English band-leader. He
studied the piano at the RAM; after working as a cinema pianist and
restaurant organist he led the resident band at the Hotel Majestic, St
Anne's-on-Sea, for almost five years during the late 1920s and made
frequent broadcasts. He led the Gaucho Tango Band at the Savoy Hotel
(1930–37) and in 1933 formed a dance orchestra into which he introduced
some good jazz soloists and which gave a short series of Sunday Night
Swing Club Concerts at St Martin's Theatre (1939). In 1940 he left the
Savoy to tour, became supervisor of the Entertainments National Services
Association Band Division and played in the Middle East, North Africa and
Italy, strengthening his band throughout the war (unlike most leaders).
From then until the mid-1950s he was the leading dance-band leader in
Britain, showing an adventurous sense for current idioms. In parallel with
his bandleading, Geraldo ran a theatrical booking agency from the late
1940s. Among his contracts was the supply of bands to North Atlantic
passenger liners, and his musicians became known as ‘Geraldo's Navy’.
He gave up bandleading in the late 1950s, but occasionally re-formed his
band for concerts and broadcasts. He continued his management activities
and for a time was music director of Scottish Television.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 A. McCarthy: The Dance Band Era (London, 1971)
C.H. Ward: Geraldo Reference Book and Discography (n.p., 1982)
K. Harris: Geraldo's Navy (Brandon, Suffolk, 1998)
ALYN SHIPTON

Gerald of Wales.
See Giraldus Cambrensis.

Gérard, Henri-Philippe
(b Liège, 9 Nov 1760; d Versailles, 11 Sept 1848). Flemish composer and
teacher of singing. He began his musical studies as a choirboy at Liège
Cathedral and was then sent to Rome; there he studied singing and
composition under Grégoire Ballabene, who was in charge of the music at
S Pietro and was composer of a celebrated 48-part mass. In about 1788
Gérard, who was also a talented violinist and pianist, went to Paris to
devote himself to teaching. With the help of Grétry he joined the staff of the
Conservatoire in 1802 and in January 1819 was appointed professor of
singing, a post he held until he retired to Versailles early in 1828. His
compositions are of little importance but his writings are of much historical
interest for the teaching of singing.
WORKS
all published in Paris, n.d.

Musique religieuse écrite dans le style dit à la Palestrina, several works, 2–4vv, inst
acc.
Romances et petits airs, several collections, pf/hp acc.
Canons en français et en italien, 2 collections
Couplets chantés par les élèves du Musée d’émulation
Le chant de la concorde
Les moulins de Fervacques: fugue imitative suivie d’une pastorale, pf

WRITINGS
Méthode de chant (Paris, 1816–c1825)
Considérations sur la musique en général et particulièrement sur tout ce
qui a rapport à la vocale, avec des observations sur les différents
genres de musique, et sur la possibilité d’une prosodie partielle dans
la langue française entremêlées et suivies de quelques réflexions ou
observations morales (Paris, 1819)
Traité methodique d’harmonie … mise à la portée des commençants
(Paris, 1833)
JOHN LADE

Gerard [Geraert, Girard, Gerardus,

Geerhart, Ghirardo], Jan
(fl 1548–75). Flemish countertenor. He sang in the chapel of Charles V and
Philip II in Madrid (1547–75) and was a prebend of Nivelles and of various
hospitals in Flanders and Brabant. On 25 February 1575 he was given a
pension for his ‘long and good services in the chapel’. He is often confused
with Derick Gerarde, Gerard Avidius and Geert van Turnhout. Three of his
motets were published by Susato (RISM 155316); four chansons by
Phalèse (155212, 155423); three by Susato (154412, 155013, 155118); and one
by Gardane (155718). (EitnerQ; VannesD)
P. ANDRIESSEN

Gérard, Yves(-René-Jean)
(b Châlons-sur-Marne, 6 Jan 1932). French musicologist. He studied
philosophy at Nancy University (1949–55) and the piano at Nancy
Conservatory (1950–52). He then went to Paris, where he studied under
Chailley at the Sorbonne (1955–6) and at the Conservatoire (1953–60)
under Dufourcq (music history and musicology) and Roland-Manuel
(aesthetics), taking premiers prix in all three subjects. From 1965 to 1975
he was a researcher at the CNRS. In 1975 he succeeded Dufourcq as
professor of music history and musicology at the Paris Conservatoire, a
post which he held until his retirement in 1997. He was president of the
Société française de musicologie (1980–83) and the French representative
on the IMS Council (1982–92).
Gérard specializes in Boccherini, chamber music of Italy, Spain, Austria
and France during the second half of the 18th century, Saint-Saëns and
French music of the 19th and early 20th centuries. His most important
work, however, is devoted to Berlioz: he co-edited the fourth volume of
Berlioz’s Correspondance générale and La critique musicale, 1823–1863, a
collection of Berlioz’s writings.
WRITINGS
ed.: ‘Lettres de Henri Duparc à Ernest Chausson’, RdM, xxxviii (1956),
125–46
‘Notes sur la fabrication de la viole de gambe et la manière d’en jouer
d’après une correspondance inédite de Jean-Baptiste Forqueray au
Prince Frédéric-Guillaume de Prusse’, RMFC, ii (1961–2), 165–72
with N. Alvarez Solar-Quintes: ‘La bibliothèque musicale d’un amateur
éclairé de Madrid: la Duchesse-Comtesse de Benavente, Duchesse
d’Osuna (1752–1834)’, RMFC, iii (1963), 179–88
‘Luigi Boccherini and Madame Sophie Gail’, The Consort, xxiv (1967),
294–309
Thematic, Bibliographical and Critical Catalogue of the Works of Luigi
Boccherini (London, 1969)
‘Luigi Boccherini’, Einzeldrucke vor 1800, RISM, A/I/i (1971), 322–49
ed., with P. Citron and H. Macdonald: Hector Berlioz: Correspondance
générale, iv (Paris, 1983)
‘Saint-Saëns et l'Opéra de Monte-Carlo’, L'Opéra de Monte-Carlo au
temps du prince Albert Ier de Monaco, ed. J.M. Nectoux (Paris, 1990),
29–36
ed. C. Saint-Saëns: Regards sur mes contemporains (Arles, 1990)
‘L’art pour la beauté: Samson et Dalila de Saint-Saëns’, La musique
française, de Berlioz à Debussy (Paris, 1991), 25–32
‘L'oeuvre de Saint-Saëns: éclats et ombres de la célébrité’, 150 ans de
musique française: Lyons 1991, 97–103
ed., with A. Bongrain and M.-H. Coudroy-Saghai: Le Conservatoire de
Paris, 1795–1995: des Menus-Plaisirs à la Cité de la musique (Paris,
1996)
ed., with H.R. Cohen: Hector Berlioz: La critique musicale, 1823–1863
(Paris, 1996–)
‘Le Rossignol: le paradoxe des codes détournés’, Stravinsky-Schoenberg
(Paris, 1997), 52–8
EDITIONS
Luigi Boccherini: Sei quintetti con chitarra (Paris, 1974)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Blay and R. Legrand, eds.: Sillages musicologiques: hommages à
Yves Gérard (Paris, 1997)
M.-C. Mussat, J. Mongrédien and J.-M. Nectoux, eds.: Echos de France
et d’Italie: liber amicorum Yves Gérard (Paris, 1997)
CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER/JEAN GRIBENSKI

Gerarde [Gerard, Gerardus,

Gerrarde], Derrick [Dethick,
Dyricke, Theodoricus]
(fl c1540–80). Flemish composer, active in England. Nothing is known
about his origins, musical upbringing or career outside England. During the
third quarter of the 16th century he was associated with Henry Fitzalan,
12th Earl of Arundel (d 1580), and Arundel’s son-in-law and heir John, Lord
Lumley (d 1609). Details of the connection are lacking; it is unclear whether
music was Gerarde’s main interest or occupation, and claims that he
served as Arundel’s composer-in-residence or choirmaster are unproven.
Evidence of Gerarde’s residence in England can be gleaned from six sets
of manuscript partbooks, most of which are devoted exclusively to his own
compositions. All six sets, which can be placed in chronological order on
grounds of handwriting and notation, were owned either by Arundel or
Lumley, and in 1596 formed part of the celebrated library at Nonsuch
Palace. Four of them survive intact (GB-Lbl Roy.App.17–22, 26–30, 31–5
and 49–54), the others are incomplete (Lbl Roy.App.23–5 and 57). No
trace remains of a manuscript described in the 1596 Nonsuch inventory as
‘A rolle of Cannons of Dethick Gerrarde’.
Gerarde’s Flemish origins are implied not only by his name, but also by the
contents of Lbl Roy.App.49–54, a collection of motets and chansons by
Clemens non Papa, Gombert and their contemporaries, copied largely in
Gerarde’s hand and containing many unica. However, even those
partbooks may have been compiled partly or wholly in England; a chanson
by ‘Morel’, an unidentified composer whose name is linked with Arundel’s in
other Nonsuch books, occurs on the opening pages, apparently as a late
addition. Gerarde’s other partbooks also have English connections. Two of
them (Lbl Roy.App.23–5 and 31–5) include English-texted works by
Gerarde. Another (Lbl Roy.App.57) is copied on printed music-paper of a
design that occurs in English manuscripts of the 1560s. Taken together,
these clues suggest that Gerarde had a long-term involvement with
England; yet his music appears to have had very limited circulation in
English musical circles. Beyond the Nonsuch partbooks, only two other
works by Gerarde are known: a six-voice setting of Sive Vigilem, copied by
John Baldwin (Och 979–83, c1580), and an untexted piece, Chera la
fontayne (?Chiara fontana), attributed to ‘Gerardus’ in Lbl Add.31390
(c1578). Neither Thomas Whythorne nor Thomas Morley included
Gerarde’s name in their lists of composers resident in England.
Most attempts to shed further light on Gerarde’s life and works have been
speculative; some have proved to be misleading. Palaeographical
evidence suggests (but does not conclusively prove) that Gerarde copied
some of the instrumental music in Lbl Roy.App.74–6. If this is the case,
then he may have been connected with a violin consort of the kind that was
retained by the English court. Two further manuscripts formerly claimed as
Gerarde’s and used in the construction of his biography are now known not
to be in his handwriting; they are Lbl Roy.App.59–62 (Italian villote etc.,
c1560), and Lbl Roy.App.55 (monophonic airs de cour and Italian
monody, ? c1610). Beyond the coincidence of names, nothing obviously
connects Derrick Gerarde to the ‘Gerrard Derrick’, singing-man at York
Minster c1590–1604, some of whose English service-music survives in
17th-century Cambridge and Durham sources, and who may also have
been responsible for ‘Mr Dethicks Pavan’ in Lbl Add. 30826–8.
Gerarde’s biographical elusiveness is regrettable, since his partbooks
reveal much about his working methods and musical mentality. No other
16th-century composer is more richly provided with surviving autograph
materials. A large number of his works exist in two or more states; early
versions were often modified through deletion or erasure, and in a few
cases substantial passages of music or even whole pieces were obliterated
under paste-down cancels. (Microfilms of Gerarde’s autograph partbooks
made before the paste-down cancels were lifted do not reveal the full
extent of his revisions.) Text-placement in particular was subject to
alteration, especially when pieces were re-copied from one set of
partbooks to another. A few fragmentary sketch-leaves formerly concealed
within the Nonsuch partbooks show that Gerarde did not necessarily rely
upon exact score alignment in order to devise complex polyphonic
textures, but could compose directly into independent voice-parts. In sum,
the partbooks document the workings of a competent, sensitive and self-
critical composer, whose music negotiates a path between the densely
imitative techniques of Gombert’s generation and the more text-sensitive
manner of Lassus.
Approximately 170 compositions by Gerarde survive, scored for between
four and ten voices. With the exception of the tentatively attributed
instrumental pieces in Lbl Roy.App.74–6, all are vocal, the majority of them
with Latin or French words. There are no masses or Magnificat settings,
and few motet texts derive from the Roman Catholic liturgy. An exception is
Egrediente Domino, a responsory constructed around a monorhythmic
 cantus firmus, which may have been written in emulation of similar works
by English composers. The piece evidently caused Gerarde some trouble,
since his first version was cancelled by a second, inserted into Lbl
Roy.App.26–30 on pastedown leaves. Gerarde’s early works favour
continuously imitative polyphony; pieces found only in his later partbook
sets often make greater use of homophonic textures and less rigorously
imitative techniques. Gerarde also composed several Italian madrigals, two
English-texted pieces (one of which, Lorde be my Judge, is a metrical
psalm setting), and one work, Pandalidon, in an apparently invented
language. No collected edition of Gerarde’s music has yet been attempted.
WORKS

In GB-Lbl Roy.App.17–22, 23–5, 26–30, 31–5, 49–54, 57, unless otherwise stated.

motets and Latin-texted songs

Adhesit pavimento, 5vv; Ad te levavi oculos meos, 6vv; Angelus ad pastores, 8vv;
Angelus Domini descendit, inc.; Animam meam, 6vv; Ascendens Christus, 5vv;
Aspice Domine, 6vv (2 settings); Beati omnes, 5vv; Benedictus Dominus, 5vv;
Christus factus est, 5vv; Cognovi Domine, 8vv; Congregati sunt inimici, 5vv; Creator
omnium, inc.; Da mihi Domine, 6vv; Da pacem Domine, 5vv; Derelinquat impius,
6vv (2 settings); Derelinquat impius (iii), inc.; Deus in nomine tuo, 4vv; Deus qui
superbis, 7vv; Domine clamavi, 6vv; Domine da mihi, 7vv; Domine ne memineris,
6vv; Dulces exuviae, 5vv; Dum transisset sabatum, 6vv
Ego autem cantabo, 7vv; Ego autem cantabo, 5vv; Ego Dominus hoc est, inc.; Ego
flos campi, inc.; Egrediente Domino, 5vv (2 settings); Ex animo cuncti, inc.; Fidem
refondens, 4vv; Fortem vocemus, 5vv; Fortem vocemus, 4vv; Fremuit spiritus
Jesus, inc.; Gloria tibi trinitas, inc.; Gratia vobis et pax a Deo, 9vv; Heu michi
Domine, inc.; Hodie Christus natus est, 8vv; Hodie nobis coelorum rex, 8vv; Hodie
nobis de celo, 5vv; Honor virtus et potestas, 7vv; Illuminare Jerusalem, 8vv; In
Monte Oliveti, 7vv; In patientia vestra, 4vv; In tribulatione mea, 8vv
Lactare Jherusalem, 6vv; Laudate Dominum in sanctis eius, 8vv; Laudate Dominum
omnes gentes, 5vv; Laudate Dominum omnes gentes, 4vv; Laudem dicite Deo
nostro, 7vv; Laudemus omnes Dominum, 8vv; Laus Deo patri, 10vv; Levavi oculos
meos, 5vv; Magi veniunt ab oriente, 6vv; Miserere mei Deus, inc.; Miserere mei
Domine, 5vv; Misericordia et veritas, 6vv; Misit me vivens pater, inc.; Multiplicati
sunt, 5vv; Murus aeneus, 8vv; Noe noe exultemus, 8vv; Non me vincat, 6vv;
Nunquid adheret, inc.; Occurrerunt Maria et Martha, 6vv (2 settings); O Maria
vernans rosa, 5vv; Omnibus in rebus, inc.; Omnis caro foenum, 6vv
Parvulus filius, inc.; Peccantem me quotidie, 6vv; Peccata mea Domine, inc.; Proba
me Domine, inc.; Puer qui natus est, 6vv; Quare fremuerunt gentes, 5vv; Quare
tristis es anima mea, 6vv; Respice in me, 4vv; Si bona suscepimus, inc.; Sic Deus
dilexit, 6vv; Sive vigilem, 6vv, GB-Och 979–83; Timor et tremor, 8vv (2 settings);
Tribulationem nostram, 6vv; Tua est potentia, 5vv; Tu Bethleem, 5vv; Urbs beata
Jerusalem, inc.; Versa est in luctum, 6vv; Vias tuas Domine, inc.; Viri Galilei, 6vv;
Vivere vis recte, 5vv; Voce mea ad Dominum clamavi, 5vv
chansons
Adieu celle qui j’ay servi, inc.; Adieu l’espoir, 5vv; Adieu mon esperance, 6vv; Adieu
mon esperance, 5vv; Aiez pitie de votre amant, 5vv; Amour au coeur, inc.; Amour au
coeur, 5vv; Amy soufrez, 5vv; Avecques vous, 8vv; Bon jour m’amye, 5vv; Ce mois
de may, 5vv; Ce mois de may, inc.; Ceste belle petite bouche, 6vv; C’est grand
plaisir, 6vv; Dictes pour quoy, 5vv; Donez secours, inc.; En attendant d’amour, 8vv,
En attendant d’amour, inc.; En attendant secours, 5vv; Est il possible, 5vv
Hatez vous de ma faire grace, 6vv; Hellas quel jour, 6vv; J’attens secours, 6vv; J’ay
mis mon cueur, 6vv; J’ay si fort bataillez, 5vv; J’ay tant chasse, 8vv; J’ay veu le
temps, 5vv; Je l’aime bien, 5vv; Je ne desire, inc.; Je ne me puis tenir, 5vv; Je ne
scay pas coment, 5vv; Je ne scay pas coment, inc.; Je ne suis pas de ces gens,
5vv; Je ne suis pas de ces gens, inc.; Je suis aimez, inc.; Je suis amoureulx, 5vv;
Je suis disheritee, 6vv; Joieusement il faict, inc.
Las voules vous, 6vv; Le bergier et la bergiere, 5vv (2 settings); Le rossignol
plaisant, 6vv; Le souvenir d’aimer me tient, 5vv; Mon ceur chante joyeusement, 6vv;
Mon ceur chante joyeusement, 5vv; Mon coeur chante joieusement, inc.; Oncques
amour, 6vv; Oncques amour, inc.; Or est venu le printemps, 6vv; O souverain
pasteur et maistre, 5vv; Par vous seule, inc.; Pere eternel, 5vv; Petite fleur, 6vv;
Plaisir n’ay plus, 6vv; Pour une las j’endure, 6vv; Pour une seulle, 5vv; Prenez
plaisir, inc.; Puisque fortune, 6vv; Puis qu’elle a mis, 5vv
Reiouissons nous, 6vv; Reveillez vous, 6vv; Reviens vers moy, inc.; Se dire ie
losoie, 5vv; Si j’ay du mal, inc.; Soions joieulx joieulement, inc.; Soions joyeulx sur
la plaisant verdure, 8vv; Ta bonne grace, inc.; Tant ay souffert, 6vv; Tant que en
amour, inc.; Tous mes amis, 5vv (2 settings); Vivons joieusement, 5vv; Vivre ne
puis, 5vv (2 settings)
madrigals
Amor piangeva, 5vv; Chera la fontayne (?=Chiara fontana), 5vv, GB-Lbl Add.31390;
Die lume, 5vv; Gia piansi, 5vv; Il foco ch’io sentia, 4vv; La neve i monti intorno, inc.
miscellaneous vocal
Lorde be my Judge, inc.; Pandalidon, inc.; Yf Phebus stormes, 5vv
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. van den Borren: Les musiciens belges en Angleterre à l’époque de la
Renaissance (Brussels, 1913)
S. Jayne and F.R. Johnson, eds.: The Lumley Library: the Catalogue of
1609 (London, 1956)
D. Epps: The Life and Work of Deryck Gerarde (diss., Edinburgh U., 1964)
C.W. Warren: The Music of Derick Gerarde (diss., Ohio State U., 1966)
C.W. Warren: ‘Music at Nonesuch’, MQ, liv (1968), 47–57
I. Fenlon and J. Milsom: ‘“Ruled Paper Imprinted”: Music Paper and
Patents in Sixteenth-Century England’, JAMS, xxxvii (1984), 139–63
J.A. Bernstein: ‘An Index of Polyphonic Chansons in English Manuscript
Sources, c1530–1640’, RMARC, no.21 (1988), 21–36
I. Payne: ‘British Library Add. MSS 30826–28: a set of Part-Books from
Trinity College, Cambridge?’, Chelys, xvii (1988), 3–15, esp. 7
P. Holman: Four and Twenty Fiddlers: the Violin at the English Court
1540–1690 (Oxford, 1993, 2/1995)
J. Milsom: ‘The Nonsuch Music Library’, Sundry Sorts of Music Books:
Essays on the British Library Collections Presented to O.W. Neighbour
on his 70th Birthday, ed. C. Banks, A Searle and M. Turner (London,
1993), 146–82
J.A. Owens: Composers at Work: the Craft of Musical Composition 1450–
1600 (New York, 1997)
J. Brooks: ‘A Singer’s Book in the British Library’, EMc, xxvi (1998), 29–48
 JOHN MILSOM

Gerardis, Giovanni Battista

Pinellus de.
See Pinello di Ghirardi, Giovanni Battista.

Gerardo.
Name of two 16th-century musicians who may be identifiable with Derrick
Gerarde.

Gerardus.
Composer, possibly identifiable with Derrick Gerarde.

Gerardus, Jan.
See Gerard, Jan.

Gerber, Christian
(b Gornitz, nr Borna, 1660; d Lockwitz, nr Dresden, 25 May 1731). German
clergyman and writer. He studied theology at the universities of Leipzig and
Wittenberg, receiving a master's degree from the latter in 1684. In 1685 he
became a minister at Rothschönberg and in 1690 at Lockwitz. He wrote the
chorale text Wohl dem, der Gott zum Freunde hat, but his more significant
connection with music developed out of one of his several theological
works, Unerkandte Sünden der Welt, nach Gottes heil. Wort, und Anleitung
vornehmer Lehrer unserer Kirche, der sichern Welt zu ihrer Bekehrung vor
Augen gestellt (Dresden, 1690, 5/1703). In chapter 81, ‘Von dem
Missbrauch der Kirchen-Music’, he denounced, as a true Pietist, the use of
music in the Protestant church, citing the scriptures and the words of
Luther to prove that the church music of his time was sacrilegious. His
overzealous criticisms and his frequently faulty citations from the Bible and
Luther engendered an effective and interesting counter-attack in defence of
church music by Georg Motz, who in his Die vertheidigte Kirchen-Music
(1703) provided colourful and instructive arguments in favour of it, using as
proof not only the Bible and Luther's works but also relevant passages from
many music theorists of the 16th to 18th centuries. Motz continued his
arguments in a second work, Abgenötigte Fortsetzung der vertheidigten
Kirchen-Music (1708), and Gerber responded in turn in the preface to his
Unerkannte Wohlthaten Gottes (Dresden, 1711). Gerber's well-known
denunciation of theatrical Passion music performed in some ‘large town’,
which appeared posthumously in his Historie der Kirchen-Ceremonien in
Sachsen (Dresden, 1732), has sometimes been understood as an
indictment of Bach's Passion services at Leipzig, but there is nothing to
show that these were what Gerber had in mind.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Stiller: Johann Sebastian Bach und das Leipziger gottesdienstliche
Leben seiner Zeit (Berlin, 1970; Eng. trans., 1984)
W. Reich: ‘Periphere Beiträge zur Bachforschung’, BMw, xiv (1972), 241–2
A. Beer: ‘“Gesunde Luft” und Mangel an “Leichen” in Leipzig: eine verbale
Entgleisung Bachs?’, Mf, xlvi (1993), 285–6
GEORGE J. BUELOW

Gerber, Ernst Ludwig

(b Sondershausen, 29 Sept 1746; d Sondershausen, 30 June 1819).
German music scholar, organist and composer. He was the son of the
composer and Bach pupil Heinrich Nikolaus Gerber, who was also his first
teacher of the organ and music theory. In 1765 Gerber began to study law
at Leipzig University and then worked as an assistant in a solicitor’s office.
He also appeared as a cellist at public concerts and at the theatre.
Unsatisfactory professional circumstances caused him to return to
Sondershausen, where he practised as a lawyer and taught the children of
the Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen. In 1775 he succeeded his
father as court organist and at the same time acted as accountant to the
management of the prince's estate, and later became secretary to the
court. He held these posts until his death.
Gerber won some distinction as a composer, but achieved lasting fame as
a collector and lexicographer. During his lifetime he amassed one of the
greatest private music libraries of the 18th century, in which he
incorporated his father's collections and portions of the libraries of J.V.
Eckelt and J.G. Walther. The Leipzig firm of Breitkopf also presented him
with copies of many of its publications. Gerber's library and music
collection, the scope of which is described in a manuscript index of 1791
and in a printed catalogue of musical writings, dated 1804, was sold by him
in 1815 to the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna, on condition that
he should retain its use during his lifetime. At his death, however, his
collection seems not to have passed to the new owners in its entirety, for
valuable individual items, such as Florilegium portense (Nuremberg, 1713),
reached the library of the Institute of Musicology at Vienna University, and
Zarlino's Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1558) the library of the
Benedictine monastery at Göttweig. Manuscript and printed music from
Gerber's property entered the private library of J.A. André. Items from the
expanded André library were auctioned in 1845, and were sold by the
antiquarian dealer Hans Schneider (Tutzing) as recently as 1956
(catalogue no.54).
Gerber’s work as a music lexicographer grew principally from his private
collection, beginning with the set of biographical articles for his own
collection of musical portraits. In its first state, known as the old
Tonkünstler-Lexicon of 1790–92, it was simply a two-volume enlargement
of J.G. Walther's Musicalisches Lexicon (Leipzig, 1732), and included the
innumerable items of supplementary material collected by Walther himself.
Several appendixes containing information on musicians' portraits,
medallions, busts and statues, and pictures of famous organs, are still
valuable aids to musical iconography. After the completion of this work, J.F.
Reichardt (1792) and E.F.F. Chladni (1795) contributed substantial
additions which Gerber combined with the material he had himself already
assembled to form the four-volume new Tonkünstler-Lexikon of 1812–14.
This therefore does not constitute a new edition of the old lexicon but,
rather, amplifies it. The work continued to hold the interest of the scholarly
world: Gerber himself collected further additions, and Carl Mainberger
(1816) and F.S. Kandler (1817–20) were among others who published
supplementary material. A new edition was announced in 1825 but came to
nothing.
Particularly as it has never been fully incorporated into more recent music
reference works, Gerber's work is still indispensable, especially concerning
personalities of the 18th century. The published supplements to the two
lexicons, together with all the corrections entered in Gerber's own copies
and his numerous manuscript supplements, amendments and additions,
were brought together and published in one volume by Othmar Wessely in
1969. Gerber's lexicons formed the basis (though not acknowledged) of
Choron and Fayolle's Dictionnaire historique des musiciens (Paris, 1810–
11), Bingley's Musical Biography, or Memoirs of the Lives and Writings of
the Most Eminent Musical Composers and Writers (London, 1814), and
Sainsbury's A Dictionary of Musicians (London, 1824). His own ‘Versuch
eines vollständigen Verzeichnisses von Haydns gedruckten Werken’,
published by H.P. Bossler in 1792 and later expanded in the new lexicon,
forms an important contribution to knowledge of the transmission of
Haydn's works.
Of Gerber's compositions only three small pieces reached publication, in
contemporary music periodicals. Others, including six sonatas and smaller
works for keyboard and about 50 organ chorale preludes and postludes,
are listed in manuscript collections by Eitner. Among Gerber's lost works
are a concertino for wind instruments and orchestra and marches for wind
instruments, all featuring the newly invented bass-horn.
WRITINGS
Historisch-biographisches Lexicon der Tonkünstler (Leipzig, 1790–92/R)
[addns in Wessely, 1969]
‘Versuch eines vollständigen Verzeichnisses von Haydns gedruckten
Werken’, in H.P. Bossler: Musikalische Correspondenz (Speyer, 1792);
rev., enlarged in GerberNL
‘Geschichte der Musik in Deutschland im Jahre 1794’, Annalen
Deutschlands (1794)
‘An Kenner und Liebhaber der Musik; auch einige Worte an Nichtkenner
und Gleichgültige gegen diese Kunst’, Berlinisches Archiv der Zeit und
ihres Geschmacks, ii (1795), 139
‘Etwas ueber den Einfluss des Buchhandels auf die musikalische Literatur’,
Allgemeiner literarischer Anzeiger (1797), 177
‘Ueber den Geschmack des Publikums an Singspielen’, Allgemeiner
literarischer Anzeiger (1797), 833
‘Etwas über den sogenannten musikalischen Styl’, AMZ, i (1798–9), 292–7,
305–12
‘Die Lerche und der Maulwerf: eine Fabel; nebst ihrer speciellen
Anwendung’, AMZ, ii (1799–1800), 207–8
‘Etwas Politisches aus dem Reiche der Harmonie’, AMZ, ii (1799–1800),
625–9
‘Ueber die Entstehung der Oper’, AMZ, ii (1799–1800), 481–7
‘Versuch einer nähern Beleuchtung des Serpent’, AMZ, vi (1803–4), 17–24
‘Fortgesetzte Unterhaltungen über einige im 50. Stücke des vorigen
Jahrgangs dieser Zeitung zur Sprache gekommene Gegenstände’,
AMZ, vi (1803–4), 138–42
‘Bemerkungen über eine Stelle im Intelligenz-Blatte der Jenaischen
Allgemeinen Literatur-Zeitung, 1804’, AMZ, vi (1803–4), 549–56
Wissenschaftlich geordnetes Verzeichnis einer Sammlung von
musikalischen Schriften nebst einer Anzahl von Bildnissen berühmter
Tonkünstler und musikalischer Schriftsteller, wie auch von
verschiedenen Orgel-Prospekten als ein Beitrag zur
Literaturgeschichte der Musik (Sondershausen, 1804)
‘Nachtrag zu den … “Gedanken über den Geist der heutigen deutschen
Setzkunst”’, AMZ, vii (1804–5), 571b–78
‘Die Komponisten der bisher gebräuchlichen Choral-Melodieen’, AMZ, ix
(1806–7), 161–73, 177–89
‘Noch etwas über den Choralgesang und dessen Begleitung mit der Orgel’,
AMZ, xii (1809–10), 433–40
‘Nachricht von einem in Thüringen seltenen Musikfeste’, AMZ, xii (1809–
10), 745–58
Musikfeste (MS, 1811, A-Wgm)
‘Gesangbildungslehre aus früheren Jahrhunderten’, AMZ, xiv (1812), 33–
41, 49–59
Neues historisch-biographisches Lexikon der Tonkünstler (Leipzig, 1812–
14/R) [addns in Wessely, 1969]
‘Etwas über die Oper, von einem Freunde der frühern Zeit’, AMZ, xv
(1813), 293–8
‘Eine freundliche Vorstellung über gearbeitete Instrumentalmusik,
besonders über Symphonien’, AMZ, xv (1813), 457–63
‘Ueber Bässe, zu starkbesetzten Instrumentalstücken’, AMZ, xvi (1814),
157–61
‘Rückblicke beym Schluss des Jahres’, AMZ, xvi (1814), 849–57, 869–80
‘Etwas über grosse Singstücke, zum Behufe ausserordentlicher
Musikfeste’, AMZ, xx (1818), 829–33
Reviews in Erfurtische gelehrte Zeitung, Jena Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung
Reports from Sondershausen, AMZ, xi (1808–9), 413, 422; xvii (1815),
222; xx (1818), 612, 626
Catalog über dessen Musicalien, musikalische Bücher, Tonkünstler-
Portraits (MS, A-Wgm)
Ueber die Mittel, das Andenken der Tonkünstler zu sichern (MS, Wgm)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
GerberNL
F. Rochlitz: ‘Ernst Ludwig Gerber’, AMZ, xxi (1819), 717–31; enlarged in F.
Rochlitz: Für Freunde der Tonkunst, ii (Leipzig, 1825, rev. 3/1868 by A.
Dörffel), 35–66
M. Schneider: ‘Ernst Ludwig Gerber und die Musikwissenschaft’, Fünfzig
Jahre Hochschule für Musik in Sondershausen, ed. W. Promnitz
(Sondershausen, 1933)
J.P. Larsen: Die Haydn-Überlieferung (Copenhagen, 1939/R), 182ff
O. Wessely, ed.: Ergänzungen, Berichtigungen und Nachträge zu Ernst
Ludwig Gerbers Tonkünstler-Lexika (Graz, 1969, 2/1977)
W. Plath: ‘Zum Schicksal der André-Gerberschen Musikbibliothek’,
Bachiana et alia musicologica: Festschrift Alfred Dürr, ed. W. Rehm
(Kassel, 1983), 209–25
OTHMAR WESSELY

Gerber, Heinrich Nikolaus

(b Wenigenehrich, nr Sondershausen, 6 Sept 1702; d Wenigenehrich, 6
Aug 1775). German composer and organist, father of ernest ludwig Gerber.
His father was a farmer, and he received his first tuition in music from the
organist Irrgang in Bellstedt. In 1717 he went to Mühlhausen, where he
found a stimulating musical environment and met Johann Friedrich Bach.
In 1721 he went to Sondershausen to complete his schooling. He studied
composition with the town organist J.V. Eckold, and composed his first
keyboard works under his direction. In May 1724 Gerber went to Leipzig
University to study law, and towards the end of the year became a private
pupil of J.S. Bach, who taught him keyboard and figured bass. Gerber
made copies of several of Bach’s keyboard works (including part 1 of Das
wohltemperirte Clavier) in 1725–6. In 1727 (or perhaps the previous year)
he returned to his home town, and in 1728 became organist in Heringen,
but soon had to give up this position after a disastrous fire there. At the end
of 1731 he took up the position of court organist in Sondershausen, where
he was also harpsichordist in the court Kapelle and taught many pupils
keyboard and composition. In Sondershausen he also had the opportunity
of meeting J.A. Scheibe (in 1736) and J.P. Kirnberger (in 1740). In 1749 he
was obliged, against his will, to take up the position of court secretary.
Continually pressed, until the age of 35, by recruiters who wanted to force
him into the Prussian Army, he had to turn down many concert and
educational trips. He is said to have called again on Bach in Leipzig about
1737.
Gerber wrote numerous keyboard works (harpsichord and organ
concertos, preludes and fugues, sonatas, suites, inventions, trios and
chorale settings) as well as church music (motets and cantatas). Those
that survive are for organ (see McLean): four inventions (US-NH), a
concerto (D-Bsb) and chorales (nine in US-PRu; two in D-Bsb; two in
private hands, formerly in Gb; and one in US-NH). Gerber also constructed
a straw fiddle, or xylophone, and worked on technical improvements to the
clavichord and organ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GerberL
P. Spitta: Johann Sebastian Bach (Leipzig, 1873–80, 5/1962; Eng. trans.,
1884, 2/1899/R)
H.T. David and A. Mendel, eds.: The Bach Reader (New York, 1945, rev.
2/1966), 263–5
H.-J. Schulze, ed.: Dokumente zum Nachwirken Johann Sebastian Bachs
1750–1800, Bach-Dokumente, iii (Leipzig, 1972)
A. Dürr: ‘Heinrich Nicolaus Gerber als Schüler Bachs’, BJb 1978, 7–18
H.J. McLean: ‘The Organ Works of Heinrich Nicolaus Gerber’, Aspects of
Keyboard Music: Essays in Honour of Susi Jeans, ed. R. Judd
(Oxford, 1992), 60–80
ANDREAS GLÖCKNER

Gerber, Rudolf
(b Flehingen, Baden, 15 April 1899; d Göttingen, 6 May 1957). German
musicologist. He began his musical studies at the Karlsruhe Conservatory,
where he concentrated on the violin. Between 1918 and 1922 he studied
under Hermann Abert at the universities of Halle and Leipzig, and took the
doctorate at Leipzig in 1922 with a dissertation on Hasse's operatic arias.
In 1923 he followed Abert to Berlin as assistant lecturer and at the same
time pursued his violin studies. In 1928 he submitted his Habilitationsschrift
at the University of Giessen, where he directed the department of
musicology, and was appointed reader in 1937. He also taught at the
University of Frankfurt (1933–5) and – while still professor at Giessen –
gave lectures on the history of church music at the Frankfurt
Musikhochschule (1938–43). Upon Hitler's rise to power, Gerber outlined
the tasks of musicology in the Third Reich (1935) and went on to work on
several projects for the Rosenberg Bureau, including the inventory and
seizure of library materials in occupied France. From 1943 he was full
professor at Göttingen University. He was elected to membership in the
Göttingen Akademie der Wissenschaften in 1952.
Gerber's publications reveal a wide variety of interests, including exploring
the nature of German art music, aspects of race and genealogy, and
German folk music. His dissertation was the first extended study of Hasse's
Metastasian operas and is consequently of fundamental importance. He
returned to opera in his work on Gluck, which resulted in a completely new
picture of the composer and a projected complete works. In addition, he
made substantial contributions to research into Brahms's music and that of
Schütz and his contemporaries. In his last years his principal interest lay in
the polyphonic hymn of the 15th century. Gerber's work was characterized
by thoroughness of scholarship and penetrating treatment of material; his
writings represent important advances in the areas in which he worked.
WRITINGS
Die Arie in den Opern Johann Adolf Hasses (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1922;
Leipzig, 1925/R, as Der Operntypus Johann Adolf Hasses und seine
textlichen Grundlagen)
‘Harmonische Probleme in Mozarts Streichquartetten’, Mozart-Jb 1924,
55–77
‘Wort und Ton in den “Cantiones sacrae” von Heinrich Schütz’,
Gedenkschrift für Hermann Abert, ed. F. Blume (Halle, 1928/R), 57–71
Das Passionsrezitativ bei Heinrich Schütz und seine stilgeschichtlichen
Grundlagen (Habilitationsschrift, U. of Giessen, 1928; Gütersloh,
1929/R)
‘Formprobleme im Brahmsschen Lied’, JbMP 1931, 23–42
‘Über Geist und Wesen von Bachs h-moll-Messe’, BJb 1932, 119–41
‘Die Aufgaben der Musikwissenschaft im Dritten Reich’, ZfM, Jg.102
(1935), 497–501
‘Zu Luthers Liedweisen’, Festschrift Max Schneider zum 60. Geburtstag,
ed. H.J. Zingel (Halle and Eisleben, 1935), 26–39
‘Carl Maria von Weber und der deutsche Geist’, Völkische Musikerziehung,
ii (1936), 603–11
‘Haydn und Mozart: über die “Bewertung” unserer Klassiker’, Die Musik,
xxix (1936–7), 542–8, 620–25
Johannes Brahms (Potsdam, 1938)
‘Die Musik der Ostmark’, Zeitschrift für deutsche Geisteswissenschaft, ii
(1939), 55–78
Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck (Potsdam, 1941, 2/1950)
‘Neue Beiträge zur Gluck'schen Familiengeschichte’, AMf, vi (1941), 129–
50
‘Die deutsche Wesensform bei Händel und Gluck’, Deutsche Musikkultur,
vi (1941–2), 107–17
‘Brahms und das Volkslied’, Die Sammlung, iii (1947–8), 652–62
‘Über Formstrukturen in Bachs Motetten’, Mf, iii (1950), 177–89
Bachs Brandenburgische Konzerte: eine Einführung in ihre formale und
geistige Wesensart (Kassel, 1951, 2/1965)
‘Apel, Nikolaus’, ‘Arie’, ‘Brahms, Johannes’, ‘Deutschland: E. Klassik und
Romantik’, ‘Hymnus: C. der Mehrstimmige’, MGG1
EDITIONS
Michael Praetorius: Gesamtausgabe der musikalischen Werke, i, ii: Musae
Sioniae 1605–10 (Wolfenbüttel and Berlin, 1928–9); x: Musarum
Sioniarum motectae et psalmi latini 1607 (Wolfenbüttel and Berlin,
1931); xii: Hymnodia Sionia 1611 (Wolfenbüttel and Berlin, 1935)
Georg Rhaw: Sacrorum hymnorum, liber primus I, i: Proprium de tempore;
ii: Proprium et commune, EDM, 1st ser., xxi, xxv (1942–3)
Christoph Willibald von Gluck: Echo et Narcisse, Paride ed Elena, Alceste,
Sämtliche Werke, i/4, 7, 10 (Kassel, 1953–7)
Der Mensuralkodex des Nikolaus Apel, EDM, 1st ser., xxxii–xxxiii (1956–
60) [vol.iii completed by L. Finscher and W. Dömling, 1975]
Johann Adolph Hasse: Arminio, EDM, 1st ser., xxvii–xxviii (1957–66)
Heinrich Schütz: Symphoniae sacrae I, Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke,
xiii (Kassel, 1957)
Spanisches Hymnar um 1500, Cw, lx (1957)
Johann Sebastian Bach: Werke für Violine, Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher
Werke, vi/1 (Kassel, 1958)
Johann Jeep: Studentengärtlein 1614, EDM, 1st ser., xxix (1958)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.A. Abert: ‘Rudolf Gerber in Memoriam’, AcM, xxix (1957), 51–3
W. Boetticher: ‘Rudolf Gerber zum Gedächtnis’, Mf, x (1957), 384–7
L. Finscher: ‘Rudolf Gerber’, Musica, xi (1957), 582–3
G. Croll, ed.: Zur Geschichte des mehrstimmigen Hymnus: gesammelte
Aufsätze (Kassel, 1965) [incl. complete list of writings]
S. Döhring: ‘Das Hasse-Bild Rudolf Gerbers: zur Geschichte der
deutschen Seria-Rezeption’, AnMc, xxv (1987), 67–77
F. Lippmann: ‘Hasses Arienstil und seine Interpretation durch Rudolf
Gerber’, AnMc, xxv (1987), 17–65
ANNA AMALIE ABERT/PAMELA M. POTTER
Gerbert, Martin, Freiherr von
Hornau
(b Horb am Neckar, 11 or 12 Aug 1720; d St Blasien, 13 May 1793).
German music historian, theologian, abbot and composer. He received
training with the Jesuits and entered the Benedictine monastery at St
Blasien. After ordination in 1744 he served as instructor in theology and
philosophy and as librarian of the chapter. From 1754 to 1764 he published
a series of didactic theological works and travelled extensively in France,
Italy, Switzerland and Germany. On these journeys he met leading scholars
and surveyed the contents of libraries for medieval sources of theology,
liturgy and music history. In 1762 he issued a prospectus for a history of
sacred music, soliciting information from archivists about the contents and
location of medieval music manuscripts.
On 15 October 1764 he was named Prince-Abbot of St Blasien, becoming
both a spiritual leader and a princely subject of the imperial court at Vienna.
In July 1768 a fire destroyed his monastery, church and library including
most of his manuscript collection. Fortunately the first volume of his De
cantu et musica sacra had already been printed and copies of the materials
for the second volume had been sent to Padre Martini in Bologna, with
whom Gerbert had intended to collaborate. The complete work was finally
published in 1774, and was followed in 1784 by his three-volume
Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum, an edition of the texts
of more than 40 medieval music treatises. In the years after the fire, with
the help of Maria Theresa, he rebuilt the monastery, founded schools and
hospitals and defended his ecclesiastical estates from political confiscation.
Gerbert’s work places him among the founders of modern historical
musicology with Burney, Hawkins and Forkel. Though the texts as
rendered in his Scriptores are faulty by modern standards, they are one of
the most important collections of original documents in medieval music and
music theory. Only with extensive scholarly study after 1945 have
substantial improvements been made on Gerbert’s editions. De cantu et
musica sacra also anticipates modern music scholarship, dealing
chronologically with music for the Mass, Office, psalms, hymns and
national traditions in chant. Coussemaker’s Scriptorum (1864–76)
supplements this collection.
Gerbert’s compositions include an offertory published in Remigius Klesatl’s
XXIV offertoria solennia (Augsburg, 1747), and an eight-part Missa in
coena Domini published at the end of the second volume of De cantu et
musica sacra.
WRITINGS
Iter alemannicum, accedit italicum et gallicum: sequuntur glossaria
theotisca ex codicibus manuscriptis a saeculo ix usque xiii (St Blasien,
1765, 2/1773; Ger. trans., 1767)
De cantu et musica sacra a prima ecclesiae aetate usque ad praesens
tempus (St Blasien, 1774/R)
Vetus liturgia alemannica disquisitionibus praeviis, notis, et
observationibus illustrata (St Blasien, 1776/R)
Monumenta veteris liturgiae alemanniae (St Blasien, 1777–9)
Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum (St Blasien, 1784/R,
3/1931)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C.F. Nicolai: Beschreibung einer Reise durch Deutschland und die
Schweiz im Jahr 1781 (Berlin and Stettin, 1783–95)
A.H.F. von Schlichtegroll: Nekrolog auf das Jahr 1793, ii (Gotha, 1795),
1; repr. in Musiker-Nekrologe, ed. R. Schaal (Kassel, 1954), 65
G. Pfeilschifter, ed.: Korrespondenz des Fürstabtes Martin II. Gerbert von
St Blasien (Karlsruhe, 1931–4)
C. Grossmann: ‘Fürstabt Martin Gerbert als Musikhistoriker’, KJb, xxvii
(1932), 123–34
E. Hegar: Die Anfänge der neueren Musikgeschichtsschreibung um 1770
bei Gerbert, Burney und Hawkins (Strasbourg, 1932)
J. Bayer: Die Stellung Martin Gerberts in der Geschichte der
Liturgieforschung und der liturgischen Bewegung (diss., U. of Freiburg,
1943)
G. Pfeilschifter, A. Allgeier and W. Müller, eds.: Briefe und Akten des
Fürstabts Martin II. Gerbert von St Blasien, 1764–1793 (Karlsruhe,
1957)
M. Huglo: ‘La musicologie au XVIIIe siècle: Giambattista Martini et Martin
Gerbert’, RdM, lix (1973), 106–18
G.A. Anderson: ‘Martin Gerbert (1720–1793): an Eighteenth-Century
Historian’s View of Church Music’, Musicology, vi (1980), 2–22
F. Haberl: ‘Martin Gerbert von St. Blasien und seine Beziehungen zu
Padre Giambattista Martini von Bologna’, Singende Kirche, xxxii
(1985) 101–4
M. Bernhard: Clavis Gerberti: eine Revision von Martin Gerberts
Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum (St. Blasien
1784), i (Munich, 1989)
HOWARD SERWER

Gerbert d'Aurillac [Silvester II]

(b Aquitaine, c940; d 12 May 1003). Scholar and pope. His influence in the
history of thought was such that the 10th century has been called the
‘century of Gerbert’. His importance for music lies in his comments on
Boethius's De musica institutione and his treatise on the division of the
monochord and the measurement of organ pipes.
In three letters dating from 986/7 to members of the abbey of Aurillac,
Gerbert deals with problems relating to the organ, not as regards chant
accompaniment, but the use of the instrument for didactic purposes, as did
Hucbald of St Amand in his Musica. Gerbert had entered the monastery of
Aurillac reformed by Odo of Cluny, c925. His primary interests lay in
scholarship: he travelled to Catalonia to study under Arab mathematicians
and astronomers. Adalbero, archbishop of Reims, summoned him,
probably in 972, to teach the subjects of the Quadrivium (geometry,
arithmetic, astronomy and music) at the episcopal school at Reims, where
he probably wrote his treatise and his letters commenting on Boethius. He
was elected Abbot of Bobbio and, in 999, pope, taking the name Silvester
II.
In two letters addressed to Constantinus, master of the Fleury monastic
school, Gerbert comments on two passages from Boethius's De musica
institutione (ii, 10; ii, 21), concerning the relationship between mathematics
and music. These letters survive in anthologies of treatises, almost all of
which originated in Lorraine (B-BRs, 531; Br 4499–503, f.41v; 10162–6,
f.85; D-DS 1988, f.168v, from St Jacques de Liège; GB-Ob C.270, from
Lorraine).
A treatise on the measurement of organ pipes is attributed to Gerbert in
one source (E-Mn 9088, f.125v; ed. in Sachs, 1970, p.59), and this
attribution should be accepted even though the treatise has elsewhere
been attributed to Bernelinus, Gerbert's pupil. Richer, Gerbert's biographer,
ascribed to Gerbert a treatise on the division of the monochord: this is the
same treatise; it deals with both organ pipes and the monochord, and
shows that the same method of measurement is not appropriate for both
(‘De commensuralitate fistularum et monocordi cur non conveniant’). The
treatise survives in five early manuscripts (E-Mn 9088, ff.125–128v; F-MOf
H.491, f.81; Pn lat.7377 C, ff.44v–47; I-Rvat lat.4539, ff.85–91v; Rvat
Reg.lat.1661, ff.34v–39v; ed. in GerbertS, i, 312–30 and PL, cli, 653–74,
and attributed to Bernelinus).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PL, cxxxix, 85–350
P.F. Lausser: Gerbert: étude historique sur le Xe siècle (Aurillac, 1866)
A. Olleris, ed.: Oeuvres de Gerbert, pape sous le nom de Sylvestre II
(Clermont-Ferrand and Paris, 1867)
J. Havet: ‘L'écriture secrète de Gerbert’, Comptes-rendus de l'Académie
des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 4th ser., xv (1887), 94–112
J. Havet, ed.: Lettres de Gerbert (Paris, 1889)
N. Bubnov, ed.: Gerberti … opera mathematica, 972–1003 (Berlin,
1899/R)
B. Lefèvre: Notes d'histoire des mathématiques dans l'antiquité et au
Moyen-Age (Leuver, 1920), 37, 83–90
M. Manitius: Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur des Mittelalters, ii
(Munich, 1923/R), 729–42
J. Leflon: Gerbert, humanisme et chrétienté au Xe siècle (St Wandrille,
1946)
K.-J. Sachs: Mensura fistularum: die Mensurierung der Orgelpfeifen im
Mittelalter, i (Stuttgart, 1970), 59
M. Huglo: Les tonaires: inventaire, analyse, comparaison (Paris, 1971),
129, n.2
K.-J. Sachs: ‘Gerbertus cognomento musicus: zur musikgeschichtliche
Stellung des Gerbert von Reims (nachmaligen Papstes Silvester II.)’,
AMw, xxix (1972), 257–74
C.E. Lutz: Schoolmasters of the Tenth Century (Hamden, CT, 1977), 127–
47
P. Riché: Gerbert d'Aurillac, le pape de l'an mil (Paris, 1987), 51–3
P. Riché and J.P. Callu, eds.: Gerbert d'Aurillac: correspondance (Paris,
1993), ii, 686–93
M. Passalacqua: ‘Un papa e tre codici (Silvestro II ed Erlangen,
Universitätsbibliothek, 380; Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek, Misc. Class.
25; Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek, Hist. 5)’, Scriptorium, xlviii (1994), 147–
51
C.W. Brockett: ‘The Frontspiece of Paris B.N. Ms. Lat. 776: Gerbert's
Acrostic Pattern Poems’, Manuscsripta, xxxix (1995), 3–25
O. Guyot-Jeannin and E. Poulle, eds.: Autour de Gerbert d’Aurillac, le
pape de l’an mil (Paris, 1996)
C. Meyer: ‘Gerbertus musicus: Gerbert et les fondements du système
acoustique’, Gerbert l’européen: Aurillac 1996, ed. N. Charbonnel and
J.E. Iung (Aurillac, 1997)
MICHEL HUGLO

Gerbič, Fran
(b Cerknica, 5 Oct 1840; d Ljubljana, 29 March 1917). Slovenian composer
and singer. He was taught music by C. Mašek in Ljubljana, and from 1865
to 1867 he attended the Prague Conservatory, studying singing with F.A.
Vogl and composition with Josef Krejčí. As an operatic tenor he sang in
Prague (1867–9), Agram (now Zagreb, 1869–78), Ulm (1880–81) and
Lemberg (now L'viv, 1881–2). Ill-health forced him to give up his operatic
career and from 1882 to 1886 he taught singing at the Lemberg
Conservatory. In 1886 he went to Ljubljana, and was active there until his
death, having connections with various institutions as choral director,
conductor and teacher; he was also director of the music school of the
Glasbena Matica society. His most important compositions are the piano
mazurkas, the orchestral Jugoslovanska balada (1910) and Lovska
simfonija (‘Hunting Symphony’), and some of his solo songs. He also wrote
two operas, Kres (not performed) and Nabor (performed in Ljubljana,
1925), two cantatas, works for unaccompanied male choir, lieder, some
church music (three masses, hymns), orchestral music (including two
symphonies) and piano works. He was a very versatile musician,
successfully active as singer and teacher, as publisher (of a collection of
hymns, Lira Sionska, Prague, 1866), and as the director of the periodical
Glasbena zora. In 1892 he established the first professional opera
ensemble in Slovenia. At the same time he made an important contribution
to the organization of the music school in Ljubljana and to the general
development of Slovenian music at the end of the 19th century. He also
published a singing method (1912).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Mantuani: ‘Fran Gerbič’, Dom in svet, xxx (1917), 186–8
D. Cvetko: Histoire de la musique slovène (Maribor, 1967), 265–7
J. Sivec: ‘Neuprizorjena Gerbičeva opera “Kres”’, MZ, xi (1975), 54–73
DRAGOTIN CVETKO/ZORAN KRSTULOVIĆ

Gerbich [Gerbig], Johann Anton.

See Görbig, Johann Anton.
 Gerdes, Federico
(b Tacna, 19 May 1873; d Lima, 18 Oct 1953). Peruvian pianist, conductor
and composer. He received his training in Wiesbaden with Spangenberg
(piano) and from 1893 at the Leipzig Conservatory with Weidenbach and
Reinecke (piano), Jadassohn (harmony and counterpoint) and Panzner
(orchestration and conducting). Before 1908 he held various conducting
positions, including those of orchestra and choral director at theatres in
Düsseldorf and Stettin, director of the Schola Cantorum at the Royal Opera
in Berlin (1906), and choral conductor in Bayreuth under Hugo Rüdel
(1908). He also appeared as a concert pianist in Germany and Russia. In
1908 the Peruvian government made him director of the Philharmonic
Society as well as head of the National Academy of Music in Lima, a
position he held until 1929 and again from 1932 to 1943. During his tenure
of more than 40 years as conductor of the Philharmonic, he presented for
the first time in Lima the symphonies of Beethoven and Schubert.
WORKS
(selective list)

Vocal: Rimas de Becquer, 4 songs, op.37, 1911; La fanciulla abbandonata, 1920;

Lied des Harfenmädchen, 1920
Inst: Gavota ‘Homenaje a Watteau’, pf, 1917; Berceuse ‘Homenaje a Becquer’, pf,
1919; Impresiones de la Tarde, vn, pf, 1925; Habanera, pf, 1942

Principal publisher: Brandes (Lima)

JOHN M. SCHECHTER

Geremia, Giuseppe
(b Catania, 19 Nov 1732; d Catania, Jan 1814). Italian composer. He
studied in Naples at the Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto, where he was
a pupil of Francesco Durante, and later taught Giuseppe Sigismondo. Two
oratorios (1758 and 1760) and a harpsichord sonata (1769, ed. R.
Musumeci; Palermo, 1999) have survived from his Neapolitan period.
Together with Logroscino and Insanguine he composed the music for the
comic opera L'innamorato balordo (1763, Naples), of which only the libretto
has survived. In 1773, after declining posts in Rome, and at the courts of
Turin, St Petersburg and Spain, he became maestro di cappella in Catania
at both the cathedral and the Benedictine abbey of S Nicolò l'Arena; he left
the cathedral post to his pupil Giacinto Castorina in 1800 but retained the
abbey position at least until 1807 if not until his death. Together with V.T.
Bellini, Vincenzo Bellini's grandfather, he was the leading figure in musical
life in Catania in his day; both men enjoyed a high reputation as teachers,
producing a number of skilled musicians, but never collaborated on any
compositions.
Geremia's surviving works include about 100 sacred compositions held in
manuscript mostly in Catania, with other sources in London, Dresden,
Vienna, Naples and Noto (Siracusa). Among these are the dialogo teatrale
La città d'Abella liberata of 1780 (only the first part of the three-part festa
teatrale version of 1783 survives), 12 other oratorios including Mosé
trionfante (1800) and Il ritorno di Noemi (1802), two secular and two sacred
cantatas and 23 masses (two of which differ only in sections of the music
and in instrumentation) including a Missa pro defunctis (1809) and Messa
breve in F of 1810.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Policastro: Catania nel Settecento (Turin, 1950), 353–79
Registri dei pagamenti (MS, July 1773 and March 1807, I-CATa)
M. D'Arrigo: I manoscritti musicali di Giuseppe Geremia (Catania, 1954),
178–95
F. Pastura: Secoli di musica catanese (Catania, 1968), 102–11
R. Pagano, ed.: Elenco cronologico aggiornato dei drammi rappresentati o
pubblicati a Catania dal 1700 al 1800 (MS, 1968, I-CATus) [19pp]
ROSALBA MUSUMECI

Gergalov, Aleksandr
(b 5 July 1955). Russian baritone. A principal with the Kirov Opera, he
made his début with the company as Rossini's Figaro in 1982, the year he
graduated from the Leningrad Conservatory. He was a prizewinner at
Geneva (1985) and in the Chaliapin All-Russian Vocalists Contest (1989).
His important roles include Onegin, Di Luna and the Marquis of Posa. He
was much admired as Andrey Bolkonsky in War and Peace at the
Mariinsky Theatre in 1991, televised in Europe and recorded on disc and
video. Other parts recorded with the Kirov include Yeletsky (Queen of
Spades), the Venetian (Sadko), Prince Ivan (Kashchey the Immortal) and
Ferdinand (Prokofiev's Betrothal in a Monastery). His focussed voice is
distinctive for its dark, eloquent tone.
JOHN ALLISON

Gergely, Jean
(b Budapest, 23 May 1911; d Paris, 9 Sept 1996). French
ethnomusicologist of Hungarian birth. In Budapest he studied composition
with Siklós at the academy (1929–35), and linguistics with Sauvageot,
Hungarian and Finno-Ugrian linguistics with Gombocz and
ethnomusicology with Kodály at the university (1930–33). In Paris he
attended musicology lectures by Pirro and Masson at the Sorbonne (1938–
41), and by Le Guennant and Potiron at the Institut Grégorien (1939–43).
He was first a music teacher (Mohács, 1935–6) and then a music critic
(Budapest, 1936–8); in Paris (1938) he was initially choirmaster of the
Hungarian Catholic Mission (until 1947), and then worked at, and became
interim director of, the Institut Hongrois (until 1959). From 1949 he taught
Hungarian language and civilization at the Institut National des Langues et
Civilisations Orientales. For six years he also worked with Schaeffner at the
Musée de l’Homme (1959–65). Although Gergely wrote a number of
studies in linguistics (he gained the doctorate from the Sorbonne in 1968
with a dissertation on the Hungarian language), he devoted himself
primarily to musicology. His two main fields of interest were
ethnomusicology in Central Europe and Hungarian music, notably Kodály
and Bartók. Gergely became one of the leading authorities on Bartók,
publishing a significant monograph devoted to him in 1980 (originally
submitted as his doctoral dissertation in 1975) and compiling a volume of
his documents in 1984.
WRITINGS
Zoltán Kodály: músico húngaro e mestre universal (Lisbon, 1954)
‘Les choeurs a cappella de Béla Bartók’, ReM, no.224 (1953–4), 127–69
with J. Vigué: La musique hongroise (Paris, 1959, 2/1976)
‘L'état actuel des études finno-ougriennes en France’, Revue de l’Ecole
nationale des langues orientales, ii (1965), 125–43
‘Zoltán Kodály et la conscience musicale de son pays’, Etudes finno-
ougriennes, ii (1965), 13–33
Introduction à la connaissance du folklore musical (Lausanne, 1967)
‘Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967)’, Etudes finno-ougriennes, iv (1967), 7–11
‘Gábor Mátray folkloriste’, Etudes finno-ougriennes, viii (1971), 93–106
Béla Bartók, compositeur hongrois (diss., U. of Strasbourg II, 1975; Paris,
1980)
‘A propos du jodel’, Etudes finno-ougriennes, xiv (1977), 157–68
‘L'ethnomusicologie dans les pays d'Europe centre-orientale’, Etudes
finno-ougriennes, xvi (1980–81), 73–91
‘Le “Chant Kossuth” et son contexte sociologique’, RdM, lxviii (1982), 136–
52
ed.: Béla Bartók vivant: souvenirs, études et témoignages (Paris, 1984)
‘Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967) et l'opinion française’, Institut national des
langues orientales (1984), 29–36
‘Béla Bartók vivant (postface à une publication récente)’, Etudes finno-
ougriennes, xxi (1985), 133–40
‘Liszt et l'Ecole hongroise de Paris’, Franz Liszt: Paris 1986 [ReM,
nos.405–7 (1987)], 75–86
CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER/JEAN GRIBENSKI

Gergiyev, Valery (Abissalovich)

(b Moscow, 2 May 1953). Russian-Ossetian conductor. Brought up in
Ordzhonikidze (now Vladikavkaz), North Ossetia, he studied piano and
conducting at the Ordzhonikidze Music College and conducting with Il'ya
Musin at the Leningrad Conservatory. While still a student he won second
prize (no first prize awarded) in the Herbert von Karajan conducting
competition and first prize in the All-Union conducting competition in
Moscow. On graduation in 1977 he became assistant conductor to Yuri
Temirkanov, then artistic director at the Kirov Theatre, Leningrad (now
Mariinsky, St Petersburg). He made his début with the Kirov Opera in 1978,
conducting Prokofiev's War and Peace. Between 1981 and 1985 Gergiyev
was chief conductor of the Armenian State Orchestra and in 1988 he
succeeded Temirkanov as chief conductor and artistic director of the Kirov
company. In his first season he instigated a festival of five Musorgsky
operas and in the following years mounted festivals commemorating
Tchaikovsky (1990), Prokofiev (1991) and Rimsky-Korsakov (1994).
Gergiyev has also taken the Kirov on numerous international tours. He
made his British début in 1990 and appears regularly with the RPO. In
1992 he made his Metropolitan début with a highly successful Otello, and
in 1995 was appointed principal conductor of the Rotterdam PO. Gergiyev
has established a reputation for fervent, highly individual performances,
especially of the Russian repertory, and has made notable recordings of
The Queen of Spades, Khovanshchina, War and Peace and symphonies
by Borodin and Rachmaninoff.
MARTYN BRABBINS

Gerhard.
German family of organ builders. They were active in the 18th and 19th
centuries. Justinus Ehrenfried Gerhard (b 1710 or 1711; d Lindig bei Kahla,
16 Jan 1786) probably learnt the art of organ building from the craftsman
Tröbs in Weimar. About 1739 he founded a works at Lindig, in which town
he married in 1741. He was a great craftsman, whose art is equal to that of
Gottfried Silbermann. His instruments are solidly built, with beautiful
Baroque façades, good dispositions and fine tone quality. The organ at
Ziegenhain (1764; one manual and pedal, nine speaking stops and pedal
coupler) is outstanding for its exceptionally powerful, clear sound and
excellent voicing.
Christian August Gerhard (b Lindig, 1 Sept 1745; d Lindig, 15 Dec 1817),
son of Justinus Ehrenfried, continued the business in Lindig. A grandson,
Johann Christian Adam Gerhard (b Lindig, 17 Aug 1780; d Dorndorf an der
Saale, 6 May 1837), opened a branch at Dorndorf.
Johann Ernst Gottfried Gerhard (b Lindig, 21 April 1786; d Merseburg, 23
Oct 1823), another grandson, was an organ builder in Merseburg; his firm
survives today under the name of Kühn.
An organ builder with the name Gerhard worked in Boppard in the 19th
century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.L. Back: Chronik der Stadt und des Amtes Eisenberg (Eisenberg, 1843)
J. and E. Löbe: Geschichte der Kirchen und Schulen des Herzogthums
Sachsen-Altenburg (Altenburg, 1886–91)
F. Oehme: Handbuch über ältere, neuere und neueste Orgelwerke im
Königreiche Sachsen (Dresden, 1889–97/R1978, with suppl. and
index by W. Hackel and U. Dähnert), ii, 242–3
WALTER HÜTTEL

Gerhard, Anselm
(b Heidelberg, 30 March 1958). German musicologist. After studying
musicology with Finscher (Frankfurt, 1977–9) and Dahlhaus (Berlin, 1979–
82), he took the doctorate at the Technical University of Berlin in 1985 with
a study on the urbanization of 19th-century opera in Paris. He completed
his Habilitationsschrift on the instrumental music of Muzio Clementi (1991)
and was awarded a Heisenberg scholarship from the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft. He was appointed assistant lecturer at the
University of Münster (1992–4) and professor at the University of Berne
(1994–), and is founding president of the Swiss national office of RISM
(1996–). As a noted authority on opera history and music aesthetics of the
18th and 19th century, he combines the history of aesthetics and
institutions with aspects of sociology in his work. His dissertation has done
much to stimulate research on the grand opéra of Paris.
WRITINGS
‘“Sortire dalle vie comuni”: wie Rossini einem Akademiker den Guillaume
Tell verdarb’, Oper als Text: romantistische Beiträge zur
Librettoforschung, ed. A. Gier (Heidelberg, 1986), 185–219
ed.: E. de Jouy: ‘Essai sur l'opéra français’, Bollettino del Centro
rossiniano di studi (1987), 61–91
‘Die französische “Grand Opéra” in der Forschung seit 1945’, AcM, lix
(1987), 220–70
‘Nicht Gift, sondern Kontrapunkt: Mozarts Requiem und sein Ende’, NZM
Jg.150/9 (1989), 6–12
‘Rollenhierarchie und dramaturgische Hierarchien in der italienischen Oper
des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Opernheld und Opernheldin im 18.
Jahrhundert: Münster 1989, 35–55
‘Ballade und Drama: Frédéric Chopins Ballade opus 38 und die
französische Oper um 1830’, AMw, xlviii (1991), 110–25
Die Verstädterung der Oper: Rossini, Meyerbeer, Verdi und die
Ausprägung modernen Musiktheaters in der Parisien ‘Grand Opera’
(diss., Technical U. of Berlin, 1985; Stuttgart, 1982 as Die
Verstädterung der Oper: Paris und das Musiktheater des 19.
Jahrhunderts)
‘Muzio Clementi, il “padre del pianoforte”, e il ruolo di Londra nella
formazione della “musica assoluta”’, Chigiana, xliii, new ser. xxiii
(1993), 311–26
‘“Man hat noch kein System von der Theorie der Musik”: die Bedeutung
von Johann George Sulzers “Allgemeiner Theorie der Schönen
Künste” für die Musikästhetik des ausgehenden 18. Jahrhunderts’,
Schweizer im Berlin des 18. Jahrhunderts: Berlin 1994, ed. M. Fontius
and H. Holzhey (Berlin, 1996), 341–53
‘Republikanische Zustände: der tragico fine in den Dramen Metastasios’,
Zwischen Opera buffa und Melodramma: italienische Oper im 18. und
19. Jahrhundert, ed. J. Maehder and J. Stenzl (Frankfurt, 1994), 27–
65
‘Stilübung oder Karikatur? Mozarts Klaviersuite KV 399 und die Negation
des “klassischen Stils”’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte: eine Festschrift
fur Ludwig Finscher, ed. A. Laubenthal and K. Kusan-Windweh
(Kassel, 1995), 393–404
‘Leonhard Euler, die Französische Gemeinde zu Berlin und die ästhetische
Grundlegung der “absoluten Musik”’, Schweizer Jb für
Musikwissenschaft, new ser., xiv (1996), (forthcoming)
‘Jan Ladislav Dusseks “Le Retour à Paris”: eine Klaviersonate zwischen
“Aufklärung” und “Romantik”’, AMw, liii (1996), 207–21
London und der Klassizismus in der Musik: die Ausprägung einer
autonomen Instrumentalmusik in der britischen Musikästhetik des 18.
Jahrhunderts und in Muzio Clementis Klavierwerk (Habilitationsschrift,
U. of Münster 1991; Stuttgart, 1998)
MATTHIAS BRZOSKA

Gerhard, Livia.
See Frege, Livia.

Gerhard, Roberto [Gerhard

Ottenwaelder, Robert]
(b Valls, 25 Sept 1896; d Cambridge, 5 Jan 1970). Catalan composer,
active in England. The most significant figure of the generation after Falla,
he continued and extended the folkloric vein of his predecessors, while
also internationalizing it through his firm commitment to an altogether more
broadly based European modernism, and through his relocation to Britain
after the civil war. Establishing a wider reputation only in the 1950s, he
displayed an increasingly radical and exploratory outlook and until his
death contributed energetically to the development of serial and electronic
composition, and to timbral and textural innovation.
1. Beginnings.
2. Catalonia and the Spanish Civil War.
3. Exile.
4. Final years.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MALCOLM MacDONALD
Gerhard, Roberto
1. Beginnings.
Gerhard's family origins (German-Swiss father, Alsatian mother) produced
a polyglot European conversant in several cultural traditions; nevertheless
he identified strongly with the region of his birth, considering himself a
Catalan. In Catalan as in German his given name was Robert; he assumed
the Castilian form ‘Roberto’ in exile, after the defeat of the republic and
Franco's suppression of Catalan autonomy, language and culture. The
Spanish Civil War marked the great fissure in Gerhard's life, around which
so much of his music resonates with irony, longing and defiance.
Though Gerhard displayed an early aptitude for music his father, a wine
exporter, discouraged aspirations in that direction and sent him in 1908 to
study commerce at Lausanne, where he contrived to take lessons in
harmony and counterpoint with Hugo Strauss. He next enrolled at the
Musikhochschule in Munich, but after four months his studies were
terminated by the outbreak of world war. Gerhard returned to Catalonia and
began to take piano lessons in Barcelona from Granados; after the latter's
death in the mid-Atlantic in 1916 lessons continued with Granados's
disciple Frank Marshall.
He also became the last composition pupil of Pedrell – mentor to Albeniz,
Granados and Falla, and advocate of a Spanish national style which would
apply the methods of central European symphonism to a creative blend of
the many regional idioms of Iberian folk music. Under Pedrell's patronage
Gerhard achieved public performances of his early works and came to
assist the distinguished Catalan folklorist Joan Amadés in notating and
editing folksongs collected with a phonograph, in the manner of Bartók. He
became part of the still vibrant intellectual circle of Catalan modernisme,
and absorbed Parnassian, symbolist and surrealist influences through
associating with the poets Josep Carner (whose noucentisme movement
was dedicated to combining the arts and sciences), Josep Vincent Foix and
J.M. Lopez-Picó. His musical companions included Mompou, Frederic
Longas and Adolfo Salazar; he began a lasting friendship with the soprano
Concépcio Badia, who was to champion his vocal works.
Nevertheless Gerhard's ‘Catalanism’ (Catalanitat) was always tempered by
an international perspective. He concentrated at first on chamber, piano
and vocal music. Among the earliest scores the surviving Piano Trio shows
a remarkably assured and sophisticated assimilation of French
instrumental technique (Ravel's Trio of 1914 seems a specific model)
combined with allusion to Spanish folkloric idioms, rather in the Franco-
Andalusian manner so successfully developed by Falla. But the intense, if
not overheated, chromaticism of the song cycle L'infantament meravellós
de Schahrazada had few precursors in Spanish music (apart from Pedrell's
Wagnerian enthusiasms) and suggests an engagement with contemporary
German and Russian trends that required careful development.
Ceasing his apprenticeship with Pedrell in 1920, Gerhard sought to
broaden his artistic horizons, visiting Paris (where he considered studying
with Koechlin), Berlin and London. After Pedrell's death in 1922 he
besought Falla for further tuition, but was rebuffed. His two most recent
works – the aphoristic Dos Apunts for piano and the Sept Haïki for voice
and ensemble, which attests knowledge of Pierrot Lunaire – signalled a
radical reorientation of creative outlook. Their sparse textures and
disciplined, almost ‘proto-serial’ handling of chromatic cells pointed in a
direction where the Spanish nationalist tradition offered no guidance. In
October 1923 Gerhard wrote to Schoenberg, sending these scores. After
an interview he was accepted as a student and remained with Schoenberg
as pupil and assistant until 1928, first in Vienna – where Gerhard met his
future wife, Leopoldina (‘Poldi’) Feichtegger, and was befriended by Berg
and Webern – and from 1925 in Berlin, where Schoenberg took over
Busoni's masterclass at the Preussische Akademie der Künste.
The numerous chamber and vocal works written during these years of strict
tutelage have remained virtually unknown, for the only scores Gerhard
released for performance were the last two, a Concertino for strings and
the Wind Quintet. They show a thorough assimilation of cardinal
Schoenbergian precepts: clarity and concision of form, intricate
contrapuntal working, textural variety and a unified harmonic idiom. The
Quintet, especially, is clearly composed in the context of Schoenberg's own
contemporary chamber music, with its neo-classical formal preoccupations
and exploration of the potential of the serial method. Gerhard deftly
articulates total chromaticism through serial principles – though he bases
the work on a row of only seven notes, deployed with increasing freedom
and admitting more quasi-diatonic reference than Schoenberg would have
allowed himself at this period.
Among such references, significantly, are stylized evocations of Spanish
folktunes: even after his Second Viennese ‘finishing school’, Gerhard had
no intention at this stage of putting an unbridgeable gulf between himself
and his musical roots. Shortly afterwards he celebrated the end of his
Schoenbergian studies, and his return to Barcelona, with works of an
almost defiantly nationalistic character: the 14 cançons populars catalanes
and two sardanas (in the measure of the Catalan national street dance)
scored for the traditional ensemble of folk wind instruments, the cobla.
Gerhard, Roberto
2. Catalonia and the Spanish Civil War.
Simultaneously a member of the predominantly conservative Associació
Compositors Independents de Catalunya (CIC) and a founder – with Miró,
Josep Lluis Sert and Dali – of the radical Agrupación d'Amics de l'Art Nou
(ADLAN), Gerhard closely identified with the Catalan artistic heritage and
his compatriots' cultural aspirations, yet became a propagandist for the
best in contemporary European music, both as a writer and as an initiator
and conductor of new music concerts in Barcelona. In 1930, the year he
married Poldi Feichtegger, he presented an all-Gerhard concert which
provoked the now elderly but widely respected Luis Millet, conductor of the
Orfeó Català and leading representative of an older generation of
folklorists, to severe criticism in the pages of Revista musical catalana.
Gerhard's retorts to Millet inaugurated a regular column in the weekly arts
journal Mirador, through which he campaigned tirelessly on a wide range of
topics. A perennial theme, naturally, was the need for a wider reception and
understanding of Schoenberg, for whose first visit to Barcelona – to
conduct Pierrot Lunaire in 1925 – Gerhard had been partly responsible. In
1931–2 Schoenberg and his wife spent eight months in the city as guests
of the Gerhards: it was during this time that the bulk of Moses und Aron
was composed, and Gerhard, in association with Casals, arranged for
Schoenberg (and later Webern) to conduct concerts with Casals's
orchestra. But loyalty to Schoenberg did not blind Gerhard, – as it did some
of his fellow pupils – to the importance of Bartók and Stravinsky. His
journalism attests a deep admiration for both composers, and the
conviction that their handling of the motivic cells of folkloric material was a
discipline Spanish composers must acquire.
In 1931 Gerhard became professor of music at the Escola Normal de la
Generalitat in Barcelona. When it was merged the next year with the
Biblioteca de Catalunya, he headed the music department until 1938,
producing editions of 18th-century Catalan composers. With the
establishment of an autonomous Catalan Government in 1932, Gerhard
also became a member of the advisory council to the Ministry of Fine Arts.
Working as a translator, he made available Catalan versions of several
(mainly German) theoretical texts. The climax of his internationalist
advocacy, however, was the 16th ISCM festival, held in Barcelona in 1936.
Gerhard had belonged to the ISCM since its 1932 Vienna Festival, where
Concépcio Badia, conducted by Webern, had introduced some of the
Cançons populars catalanes. He was the principal organizer and moving
force behind the Barcelona ISCM festival, in which Berg's Violin Concerto
received its world première, as did, in the same concert, Gerhard's ballet
Ariel.
A short cantata and two ballets (both originally conceived as collaborations
with Massine and Miró for Colonel de Basil's Ballets Russes de Monte-
Carlo) constitute Gerhard's chief works of the 1930s. All three examine
issues of Catalan identity, though from different perspectives. The cantata
L'alta naixença del rei en Jaume, drawn from a poetic novel of Carner, veils
a slightly indelicate national myth in mock-religious form. It deploys the
free-tonal harmony of the folksong arrangements in much more complex
and sophisticated structures, but despite the 11-note kernel of a 15-note
passacaglia ground, concerns itself little with serial procedures or the total
chromatic. Ariel, a surrealist reinterpretation (scenario by J.V. Foix) of
Shakespeare's The Tempest in the imagery of the ‘Patum de Berga’ and
other Catalan folk festivals, was in fact rejected by Massine as ‘too
symphonic’, and remains unstaged. Perhaps uneasily, certainly
uncharacteristically, it blends generalized ‘Spanish-style’ gestures and neo-
classical rhythms with a broodingly intense Bergian chromaticism.
Shortly after the concert première of Ariel in 1936 Gerhard obtained a
commission from de Basil's company for a full-scale ballet based directly
on the traditional Catalan dances and festival folklore – with fire, fireworks
and masks – surrounding the summer solstice. The scenario was by
Gerhard's friend Ventura Gassol, arts minister in the Catalan government.
Less than a month later the nationalist insurrection touched off the Spanish
Civil War; Catalonia was a principal centre of Republican resistance, and
Barcelona, where Gerhard remained throughout, saw street battles and
bombings. Though elevated in 1937 to the Central Music Council of the
Republican government, he steered clear of direct political involvement; his
brother Carles, however, a member of the Catalan parliament, had care of
the defence of the great monastery of Monserrat, where Manuel Azaña,
president of the Spanish republic, took up residence for the war's duration.
Gerhard's creative energies were channelled into the new Catalan ballet; in
it he put his Stravinskian-Bartókian precepts into practice by combining the
folksongs, patriotic songs and ritual dances of his native region into a
monument of the Catalan culture menaced by Franco's forces.
In January 1939 he flew to Perpignan en route to an ISCM meeting in
Warsaw; within days Barcelona fell to the nationalist offensive of General
Yagüe. Compelled to remain in France, Gerhard continued work on the
ballet score, now entitled Soirées de Barcelone, but it was definitively
abandoned some months later, largely orchestrated but with its final
sections only partly scored and in variant drafts. Whether penned in the
closing months of the civil war, or from beyond the Spanish border, the
‘Dawn’ music of the ballet's last tableau, with its heroic-elegiac brass
statement of ‘Els segadors’ (‘The Reapers’) – Catalonia's national hymn
and a communist marching song in the civil war – is clearly a tragic
meditation on the region's fate.
Gerhard, Roberto
3. Exile.
In France the Gerhards, with Miró and Sert, resorted to Paris and an artists'
colony in Meudon. However, in June Gerhard accepted a one-year
fellowship at King's College, Cambridge, arranged by E.J. Dent and J.B.
Trend. In Cambridge he was to remain, supporting himself precariously
after 1940 as a freelance composer. In England his Catalan and
Schoenbergian roots meant equally little, and no audience existed for his
principal works. Ironically, his ‘Spanish’ identity was his most useful
passport to remunerative work. He wrote and presented Spanish-language
features for the BBC's overseas service, and developed a fruitful
association with the BBC Concert Orchestra through copious arrangements
of, and fantasias on, Spanish light music and zarzuela melodies, under the
pseudonym of ‘Juan Serralonga’ (a 17th-century Catalan fighter against
Castilian oppression).
Gerhard (who only assumed British citizenship in 1960) must initially have
hoped for the fall of Franco and the restoration of Spanish liberty as the
likely outcome of a world war against fascism. From 1940 on he composed
much more copiously; the major works of the decade maintain and extend
his involvement with Spanish culture even as, by a subtle osmosis, they
become ever more deeply infused with a developing view of post-
Schoenbergian serial practice. In 1941, Pedrell's centenary year, he
produced two commemorations of his former master. Like the orchestral
homage which Falla, unknown to Gerhard, was writing in Argentina, the
Symphony (‘Homenaje a Pedrell’) is based on themes from Pedrell's
unperformed opera La celestina. Only the finale (‘Pedrelliana’) was heard
in Gerhard's lifetime, but Cançionero de Pedrell, songs from different
regions of Spain arranged from Pedrell's monumental collection, has
become one of his best-known works.
More important was the substantial Don Quixote ballet, composed for
chamber orchestra to Gerhard's own scenario in 1940–41. Further
developed through his score for an extended BBC radio dramatization of
Cervantes's novel, the music was reshaped in a ‘symphonic suite’ before
being re-cast, in a new and shorter form, for the Sadler's Wells production
which finally took place in 1951 with choreography by Ninette de Valois and
décor by Edward Burra. This personal interpretation of the emblematic
figure of Spanish literature as ‘the knight of the hidden images’, the major
project of the war years, remains a central achievement. Meanwhile two
further ballets had been composed and staged – Alegrías, a
‘divertissement flamenco’ in Andalusian style for the Ballet Rambert, and
Pandora, an anti-fascist fable for the Ballets Joos, saturated with Catalan
musical symbolism.
In Don Quixote and the bravura Violin Concerto he composed for the
Catalan virtuoso Antonio Brosa (the slow movement, a tribute to
Schoenberg on his 70th birthday, includes chorale-like writing on the 12-
note row of Schoenberg's Fourth Quartet), Gerhard perfected, as far as
was possible in a tonal context, a freely serial handling of Hispanic and
diatonic materials. His last major work of the decade, the comic opera The
Duenna after Sheridan's comedy of money and marriage in old Seville,
expands this to recreate elements of the zarzuela and the Spanish
Baroque tonadilla escenica along with a near-perfect mating of Spanish
musical idioms to English speech-rhythms. The result, the summatory
masterwork of his first 50 years, remained unstaged in Gerhard's lifetime,
though a BBC studio broadcast (1949) led to a concert performance at the
1951 ISCM festival in Wiesbaden – where its idiom was criticized,
doubtless predictably, as passé.
In fact Gerhard had already moved into closer engagement with traditional
serial technique in the flute Capriccio, the piano Impromptus and above all
the Piano Concerto, whose movement titles refer to Renaissance Spanish
keyboard music and whose searing slow movement, ‘Differéncias’, based
even yet on a Catalan folk melody, is his darkest elegy for Spain. Having at
last embraced strict 12-note writing he began at once to transcend it.
‘A composer’, Gerhard once wrote, ‘needs grace (inspiration), guts,
intellect, madness; and systems are a sine qua non, because the intellect
can only work, only take grip, when confronted by a system’. His lifelong
fascination with (and distrust of) systems co-existed with an unusually
acute awareness of music as an art of sound, not paper, and a fascination
with sound as such. In the music of his last 20 years he sought to extend
and develop serialism in new directions – not, though he closely studied
the work of his younger contemporaries, those of Darmstadt – while
treating it where necessary with quixotic freedom (the epithet is his). Part of
the quixotry, and certainly an intuitive counterbalance to serialism's
intellectual structures, was his delight in producing vibrant, almost tactile
sonic structures with both conventional and unconventional means. This
quest for new sounds and tone-colours made him the first important
composer in Britain to embrace electronic techniques, still in their infancy.
Working largely with reel tape recorders in a tiny home studio, Gerhard
collected raw sounds of all kinds for electronic manipulation, evolving his
own brand of musique concrète, which he termed ‘sound composition’.
Even in Spain his works were rarely played or published before 1939; after
that date they were proscribed there, and hardly better accommodated in
Britain until the late 1950s. From 1949 (when he began an enduring
collaboration with the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, Stratford-upon-
Avon) right up to his death, Gerhard earned his living principally through
incidental scores for radio, stage and screen – some of them the test-bed
for radical sonic innovations. His music for Bridget Boland's The Prisoner
was probably the first in Britain involving tape, and Gerhard's electronic
music was one notorious aspect of Peter Brook's controversial 1955
Stratford production of King Lear.
Gerhard, Roberto
4. Final years.
With the première that year of the Symphony no.1 in Baden-Baden, and a
60th birthday issue of The Score devoted to Gerhard in 1956, his major
works came to command wider attention. They were more frequently
programmed by the BBC, where his friend William Glock became
Controller of Music. Gerhard appeared as a teacher, lecturer and
broadcaster: his deep humanity and extremely wide general culture, added
to his creative interest in the other arts, in science, mathematics, and
philosophy, infused an elegant prose style. At Glock's request he taught at
several Dartington Summer Schools; in 1960 he was visiting professor of
composition at the University of Michigan and in 1961 he taught at the
Berkshire Music Center, Tanglewood. The BBC commissioned the
Symphony no.2, the cantata The Plague after Camus (with whom Gerhard
collaborated on an unrealized operatic treatment of L'étranger), and the
Concerto for Orchestra: the latter, specifically for the BBC SO's American
tour, was premièred in Boston. Further commissions came from the
Koussevitzky Foundation (Symphony no.3), the New York PO (no.4), the
London Sinfonietta (Libra) and the Fromm Foundation (Symphony no.5,
never completed).
This international recognition coincided with a highly productive and boldly
exploratory ‘late style’. By the time he wrote the First Symphony, while
recuperating from the first onslaught of the heart condition that eventually
killed him, he had already seized on what he considered the central
paradox of 12-note technique. Schoenberg had sought to make the
principle of thematicism all-pervasive; in his 1956 article ‘Developments in
12-Tone Technique’ Gerhard responded that ‘where literally everything is
thematic, nothing is’. The series, he reasoned, should rather ‘be
understood as a “code”, i.e. stripped of any concrete motivic-thematic
obligations’ (p.68). In the First Symphony's ‘athematic’ sound-world, texture
and recurrent interval groups constitute powerful unifying factors, even
though (as in the First Quartet and the Harpsichord Concerto) analogies
with traditional forms lurk beneath the surface. Maintaining that ‘twelve-
tone technique is in fact a new formulation of the principle of tonality’,
Gerhard developed aspects of Schoenberg's own practice (e.g. in Von
Heute auf Morgen), tending to divide 12-note series into two hexachords
(occasionally three tetrachords) within which the notes could be reordered
to form what, when reads upward amounted to scale-like figurations that
retained their shapes through all other transpositions and permutations.
But the cardinal unifying force was Gerhard's vital and energetic rhythmic
sense, linked to his fascination with pulsation and resonance, which carried
over from his folkloristic works into the radical utterances of his last
decade.
He was always acutely aware of music as drama: a phenomenon ‘bound to
the peripetie of a given temporal cycle or life-span’ with ‘a beginning, a
period of growth and an end’, like ‘the life-cycle of a blade of grass, the
course of an avalanche, the impact of a drop of rain on a sheet of water’.
The drama, he would add, was of course in the mind of the beholder; but
clearly for Gerhard ‘sound’ and ‘time’ constituted the double essence of
musical experience. From the early 1950s his aim was to discover forms
that articulated the temporal dimension of structure. He began to combine
the interaction of the 12-note pitch series, governing intervallic relations,
with a 12-step time series determining durations and proportions – from
note values and metronome markings, through rhythm, metre and
phrasing, to the length of paragraphs, of movements and ultimately of the
entire piece. The first work wholly articulated by such a time series was the
Symphony no.2, achieved with difficulty; those that followed were
polymorphic single-movement structures, no two alike but each fluidly
expressive of its very essence in purely musical terms, i.e. as sound.
Increasingly unwilling to discuss his methods and intentions in articles or
programme notes, Gerhard evolved a credo encapsulated in his remark ‘I
stand by the sound of my music. It is the sound that must make the sense’.
In their violent gestures and vibrant colours, their intricate, virtuoso
percussion writing, their alternations of fleet, furious activity with
mysterious, almost visionary stasis (which he likened to ‘action in very slow
motion … the magic sense of uneventfulness’), the works of Gerhard's final
decade justify that stance and reveal a kinship with the music of Varèse,
whom he had known in Catalonia in 1933. Like that other lonely pioneer in
tape composition, Gerhard found the experience of electronic music
enlarged and enriched his approach to conventional instruments. Though
he continued to create short tape compositions into the early 1960s, his
most significant electronic works came in 1959–60, with the García Lorca
setting Lament on the Death of a Bullfighter for recitation and taped sound,
partly created with the resources of the recently-established BBC
Radiophonic Workshop, and in the Symphony no.3 (‘Collages’) for
orchestra and tape. The latter, which reflects the experience of transatlantic
flight, may be regarded as the spiritual successor to Varèse's Déserts, but
whereas Varèse's taped and instrumental sounds are discretely
juxtaposed, Gerhard's are polyphonically combined.
Subsequent major works dispensed with any electronic component, yet
many of their unusual sonorities – timpani glissandos, cymbal harmonics
obtained with a well-resined cello bow, piano clusters, clustered string
harmonics and percussive attacks on the body of the instrument, the shrill
exhalations of an accordion – surely evoke sine tones, white noise and
other electronic phenomena. Some scores include a carefully calculated
aleatory element, such as the improvised percussion-ensemble breaks of
Epithalamion or the graphically represented string glissandos of the late
‘astrological’ works.
Even these innovative and forward-looking scores do not deny their
composer's national roots. Spanish idioms and points of reference recur
with almost surreal effect: a folktune in the Nonet, flamenco allusions and
rasgueado guitar strummings in Concert for 8, Fallaesque fanfare in the
Symphony no.4 and, in the coda of that work, a long and deeply nostalgic
oboe duet alluding to the Catalan song of a condemned man, El Cotiló,
which had haunted several of Gerhard's tonal scores as a tragic leitmotif.
However, the pentatonic clarinet tune which casts its spell over the
ostinato-coda of Libra – a coda reprised and enriched at the end of Leo,
Gerhard's last completed work – seems to symbolize a universal folklore,
the essential contact with the earth and land that nourishes the creative
imagination.
Gerhard was made a CBE in 1967, and the following year was awarded an
honorary DMus by King's College, Cambridge, and a fellowship at
University College, London. After 1965, his health was precarious, though
he continued to work until the end. He died at his Cambridge home at the
age of 73. Not until the end of the century did Gerhard's achievement
become more widely understood. Recognition as probably the most
important Spanish composer after Falla (and, as a leading Catalan
musician wrote in his centenary year, ‘Catalonia's most important
composer in four centuries’) had perforce to await the restoration of
 democracy in Spain and the reassertion of Catalan regional identity. With
the triumphant 1992 stage premières of The Duenna at the Teatro Lirico
Nacional in Madrid and the Gran Teatre del Liceu in Barcelona, given by
the British company Opera North under a Spanish conductor, Antoni Ros
Marbà, the two halves of Gerhard's career began to be understood as a
creative unity and his long spiritual and cultural exile came to an end.
Gerhard, Roberto
WORKS
stage
Ariel (ballet, Gerhard and J.V. Foix, designed J. Miró), 1934, unperf.; concert perf.,
cond. Scherchen, Barcelona, ISCM Festival, 19 April 1936
Soirées de Barcelone (ballet, 3 tableaux, V. Gassol), 1936–9, unperf., inc.; perf. edn
orchd M. MacDonald, 1995–6
Don Quixote (ballet, 1, Gerhard, after M. Cervantes), 1940–41, unperf.; 2nd version
(choreog. Valois, designed E. Burra), 1947–9, cond. R. Irving, London, CG, 20 Feb
1950
Alegrías (ballet, Gerhard, choreog. E. Brunelleschi), 1942, Birmingham, Theatre
Royal, 16 July 1943
Pandora (ballet, 1, scenario and choreog. K. Jooss, designed H. Heckroth), 2 pf,
perc, 1943–4, Cambridge, Arts, 24 Jan 1944; version with orch, 1944–5, London,
1945
The Duenna (op, Gerhard and C. Hassall, after R. Sheridan), 1945–7, concert perf.,
London, Camden, 23 Feb 1949; rev. 1950s, inc., perf. edn D. Drew, incorporating
arrs. by D. Smirnov, 1991, staged Madrid, Lirico Nacional, 21 Jan 1992
orchestral
Concertino, str, 1927–8 [version of Str Qt, ?1927–8]; Albada, interludi i dansa, 1936;
Vn Conc., 1940, inc., destroyed; Sym. ‘Homenaje a Pedrell’, 1940–41, [3rd movt
performable separately as ‘Pedrelliana (En memoria)’]; Don Quixote, suite no.1,
small orch, 1941 [based on ballet]; Soirées de Barcelone, suite, 1940s, inc. [based
on ballet]; Alegrías, suite, 1942 [based on ballet]; Vn Conc., 1942–3; Pandora, suite,
1944–5 [based on ballet]; Don Quixote, sym. suite, 1947 [based on ballet]; Pf
Conc., 1951; Sym. no.1, 1952–3; Hpd Conc., 1955–6; Lamparilla Ov. 1956 [based
on themes by F. Barbieri]; Sym. no.2, 1957–9; reworked as Metamorphoses, 1967–
8, last movt inc., perf. edn arr. A. Boustead, 1973; Dances from Don Quixote, 1958
[from ballet]; Sym. no.3 ‘Collages’, orch, tape, 1960; Conc. for Orch, 1964–5;
Epithalamion, 1965–6, rev. 1968; Sym. no.4 ‘New York’, 1967, rev. 1968; Sym. no.5,
1968–9, inc., unperf.
vocal
L'infantament meravellós de Schahrazada (song cycle, J.M. López-Picó), S/T, pf,
1916–17; Verger de les galanies (2 songs, J. Carner), S, pf, 1917–18, unpubd; Lied
(Ger., anon.), 1v, pf, ?1918, unpubd; 3 cançons (Catalan, anon.), 1v, pf, ?1918,
unpubd; Cante jondo (4 songs, Andalusian folk texts), 1v, pf, ?1918; 7 Haïki (J.
Junoy), S/T, fl, ob, cl, bn, pf, 1923, rev. 1958; 14 cançons populars catalanes, S/T,
pf, 1928, 6 orchd 1931 as 6 cançons populars catalanes; L'alta naixença del rei en
Jaume (cant., Carner), S, Bar, chorus, orch, 1932, rev. 1933; Lassa, mesquina, que
faré puix mon amant se'n vol partir (P. Serafi), 1v, pf, c1932, unpubd; El ventall (V.
Gassol), S, pf, 1930s, unpubd; Madrigal a Sitges (Carner), S, pf, 1930s, unpubd;
Cançons i arietes, S, pf, 1936, lost; Cançionero de Pedrell (after folksongs coll.
Pedrell), S/T, pf, 1941, arr. S/T, 13 insts, 1941; La fulla i el nuvol, 1v, pf, ?1942;
Sevillanas, S/T, pf, 1943; The Akond of Swat (E. Lear), Mez/Bar, 2 perc, 1954;
Cantares (Sp. folk texts), 7 songs, S/T, gui, 1956; Interlude and Arias from The
Duenna, Mez, orch, 1961 [based on op]; The Plague (cant., Gerhard, after A.
Camus), spkr, chorus, orch, 1963–4
chamber and solo instrumental
Sonatine a Carlos, pf, 1914, unpubd; Pf Trio no.1, 1918 or before, lost; Str Qt, 1918,
lost; Pf Trio no.2, 1918; 2 apunts, pf, 1921–2; 3 Pf Trios, c1923–4, unpubd, one inc.;
Divertimento, wind qnt, 1926, 2 versions, unpubd, inc.; Suite, wind, str, pf, 1927,
unpubd, lost; El conde sol, tpt, hn, bn, vn, vc, pf, ?1927, unpubd [possibly part of
Suite, 1927]; Str Qt, ?1927–8, inc.; Sonata, cl, pf, 1928, unpubd, inc.; Wind Qnt,
1928 [with opt. t sax part, inc.]; Andantino, cl, vn, pf, ?1928, unpubd; Sardana no.1,
cobla (12 insts), 1928–9, arr. brass band, 1940, arr. 11 wind, perc, 1956; Sardana
no.2, cobla, insts, 1928–9; Sevillana, fiscorn, bn, str trio, ?1936, unpubd; Alegrías,
suite, 2 pf, 1942 [from ballet]; Pandora, suite, 2 pf, perc, 1944 [from ballet]; Dances
from Don Quixote, pf, 1947 [from ballet]; Sonata, va, pf, 1948, withdrawn, reworked
for vc, pf, 1956; Capriccio, fl, 1949; 3 Impromptus, pf, 1950; Str Qt no.1, 1950–55;
Sardana no.3, 8 wind, perc, 1951, unpubd [from film score Secret People, 1952];
Sonata, vc, pf, 1956; Nonet, wind qnt, tpt, trbn, tuba, accdn, 1956–7; Fantasia, gui,
1957; Chaconne, vn, 1959; Soirées de Barcelone, suite, pf, 1950s [based on ballet];
Str Qt no.2, 1961–2; Concert for 8, fl, cl, mand, gui, accdn, perc, pf, db, 1962;
Hymnody, fl, ob, cl, hn, tpt, trbn, tuba, 2 perc, 2 pf, 1963; Gemini (Duo concertante),
vn, pf, 1966; Libra, fl + pic, cl, gui, perc, pf, vn, 1968; Leo, fl + pic, cl, hn, tpt, trbn, 2
perc, pf + cel, vn, vc, 1969
tape
Audiomobiles I, II ‘DNA’, III, IV, c1958–9 [II is version of film score DNA in
Reflection]; Lament on the Death of a Bullfighter (F. García Lorca), spkr, tape, 1959;
10 Pieces, c1961 [extracts from Audiomobile II]: Asyndeton, Bubblecade,
Campanalog, Dripsonic, Meteoroids, Speculum, Stridor, Suspension, Telergic,
Uncle Ned; Caligula, 1961 [version of radio score]; Sculptures I–V, 1963 [II–V
assembled 1963 but probably never edited]
incidental music
Films: Secret People (dir. T. Dickinson), 1952; War in the Air, 5 films for BBC TV,
1952; All Abroad, 1958; Your Skin, 1958; DNA in Reflection, 1963 [version for
concert perf. Audiomobile II, tape, c1961]; This Sporting Life (dir. L. Anderson),
1963
Theatre (by W. Shakespeare unless otherwise stated): Romeo and Juliet, Stratford,
c1949; Cymbeline, Stratford, 1949; The Taming of the Shrew, Stratford, 1954; A
Midsummer Night’s Dream, Stratford, 1954; The Prisoner (B. Boland), London,
Globe, 1954; King Lear, Stratford, 1955; Pericles, Prince of Tyre, Stratford, 1958;
Coriolanus, Stratford, 1959; The Cherry Orchard (A. Chekov), Stratford, 1961;
Macbeth, Stratford, 1962
Radio: The Adventures of Don Quixote (E. Linklater), 1940–41; Cristobal Colón (S.
de Madariaga), 1943; Conquistador (A. McLeish), 1953; L'étranger (A. Camus),
1954; A Leak in the Universe (I.A. Richards), 1955; Good Morning Midnight (J.
Rhys), 1956; Maria Stuart (F. von Schiller), 1956; The Revenge for Love (W. Lewis),
1957; The Unexpected Country (Wymark), 1957; Asylum Diary (C. Lavant), 1959;
Don Carlos (Schiller), 1959; Caligula (Camus), 1961; The Overcoat (N.V. Gogol),
1961; Woyzeck (G. Büchner), 1961; The Tower (H. von Hofmannsthal), 1962; The
World's Great Stage (P. Calderón), 1962; The Philosopher's Den (Z. Herbert), 1963;
The Anger of Achilles (R. Graves), 1964; Funnyhouse of a Negro (A. Kennedy),
1964; For whom the Bell Tolls (E. Hemingway), 1965; The Man Born to be King
(D.L. Sayers), 1966; Background Patterns I and II, lost
TV: You Know what People are (J.B. Priestley), 1955; The Count of Monte Cristo (A.
Dumas), 1964; Macbeth (Shakespeare) 1964
EDITIONS
D. Terradellas: Merope (Barcelona, 1935–6)
A. Soler: Six Quintets, org, str (Barcelona, 1938)
J. Plá: Sonata no.3, 2 ob, vns/fls, continuo, 1930s (Barcelona, 1986)
Numerous unpubd edns (1930s – early 1950s, some lost) Spanish madrigals and
theatre music from the 16th – 18th centuries
arrangements
L. de Milán, D. Pisador, E. de Valderrábans, J. Vasquez: 7 Canciones de Vihuela,
S/T, pf, 1942
Esteve, Laserna and others: 6 tonadillas, 1v, pf, 1942
Por do pasaré la sierra (folksong), S/T, pf, 1942
F. Schubert: Rondo from Sonata, D.850; Marche militaire, D.733, no.1; Marche
characteristique, D.886, no.1, small orch, c1943, unpubd [arr. for radio score
Cristobal Colón, 1943]
6 chansons populaires françaises, S/T, pf, 1944
Anon.: Jacara a solo, 1v, mixed chorus, pf, 1940s
Boleras, S, orch, 1940s, lost
El trebole, S, chorus, orch, 1940s, lost
F. Barbieri: El barberillo de Lavapiés, orch, 1954 [Lamparilla (operetta, P. Knepler
and F. Tisch, after L.M. de Larra)], 1955–6 [based on arr. of El barberillo de
Lavapiés with additional arrs. of music by Barbieri and ov. by Gerhard]
6 French Folksongs, S/T, pf, 1956
Several other titles, lost
pseudonymous works
written under the name of Juan Serrallonga

Engheno novo, S/Mez/T/Bar, orch, c1943

Gigantes y cabezudos, orch, c1943 [free fantasia after Caballero]
3 canciones toreras, Mez/Bar, pf/orch, c1943
La viejecita, orch, c1943 [free adaptation after Caballero]
Cadíz, orch, 1943 [free fantasia after F. Chucca and J.F. Valverde]
Arr. F. Barbieri: Segiduillas and Tirana from El barberillo de Lavapies, orch, 1943
Arr. R. Milán: Cancion y Fado from El Pajaro Azul, orch, c1943
MSS in GB-Cu, GB-Cfm (Vn Conc.), GB-Lbl (Conc. for Orch), US-Wc (Sym. no.3),
Institute for Valls Studies, Valls

Principal publishers: Belwin-Mills, OUP, Prowse

Gerhard, Roberto

WRITINGS
‘L'obra de Felip Pedrell’, Revista musical catalana, xix (1922), 231–2
Dictado musical (Barcelona, 1928) [trans. of H. Riemann: Handbuch der
Musik-Diktats: (Systematische Gehörsbildung), Berlin, 7/1923]
Compendio de armonia (Barcelona, ?1928) [trans. of H. Scholz:
Harmonielehre, Leipzig and Berlin, 1920]
Composición musical (Barcelona, 1929) [trans. of H. Riemann:
Katechismus der Kompositionslehre, Leipzig, 1889]
Musica bizantina (Barcelona, 1930) [trans. of E. Wellesz: Byzantinische
Musik, Breslau, 1927]
Articles in Mirador (1930–36); some repr. in J. Homs: Robert Gerhard i la
seva obra (Barcelona, 1991)
La melodía (Barcelona, 1931/R) [trans. of E. Toch: Melodieletire, Berlin,
1923]
La orquesta moderna (Barcelona, 1932) [trans. of F. Volbach: Das
moderne Orchester, Leipzig, 1919–21]
El arte de dirigir (Barcelona, 1933, 2/1988) [trans. of H. Scherchen:
Lehrbuch des Dirigierens, Leipzig, 1929]
Historia de la musica (Barcelona, 1934) [trans. of J. Wolf: Geschichte der
Musik, Leipzig, 1925–9]
‘Música i poesia’, Quaderns de poesia, i/2 (1935), 18; repr. in J. Homs:
Robert Gerhard i la seva obra (Barcelona, 1991)
‘English Musical Life: a Symposium’, Tempo, no.11 (1945), 2–3; repr. as
‘England, Spring 1945’, Tempo, no.100 (1972), 4–8
‘On Music in Ballet’, Ballet, xi (1951), no.3, pp.19–24; no.4, pp.29–35
‘Tonality in 12-Tone Music’, The Score, no.6 (1952), 23–5
‘Reply to George Perle’, The Score, no.9 (1954), 59–60
‘Pau Casals, símbolo de la nacionalidad catalana’, Libro blanco de
cataluna (Buenos Aires, 1956)
‘The Contemporary Musical Situation’, The Score, no.16 (1956), 7–18
‘Developments in 12-Tone Technique’, The Score, no.17 (1956), 61–72
‘Twelve-Note Technique in Stravinsky’, The Score, no.20 (1957), 38–43
‘Apropos Mr Stadlen’, The Score, no.23 (1958), 50–57
‘Don Quixote’, The Decca Book of Ballet, ed. D. Drew (London, 1958),
153–6
‘Concrete and Electronic Music Composition’, Hinrichsen Music Yearbook
(1959), 30
Is New Music Growing Old?, University of Michigan Official Publication,
lxii/18 (Ann Arbor, 1960)
‘Some Lectures by Webern’, The Score, no.28 (1961), 25–8
‘Thoughts on Art and Anarchy’, The Listener (23 March 1961)
‘Reluctant Revolutionary’, Sunday Telegraph (Dec 1961); repr. in The
London Sinfonietta: Schoenberg/Gerhard Series (London, 1973), 43
‘Musa y música, hoy’, Shell (1962), 64; repr. in J. Homs: Robert Gerhard i
la seva obra (Barcelona, 1991), 225–38
‘Composer's Forum: The Plague’, Musical Events, xxi/4 (1964), 6–8
‘Schoenberg Reminiscences’, PNM, xiii (1974–5), 57–65
‘Apunts’, Cultura [Barcelona], no.29 (1991); no.42 (1993) [extracts from
journals]
M. Bowen, ed.: Gerhard on Music: Selected Writings (London, 2000)
Unpubd BBC radio talks: The Heritage of Spain, 1952; Twelve-Note
Composition Explained, 1955; Sound and Symbol, 1957; Introduction
to Symphony no.2, 1958; Introduction to ‘Lament on the Death of a
Bullfighter’, 1960; Irrelevant Art, 1961; Primitive Folk Music, 1963;
Sound Observed, 2 parts, 1965
Gerhard, Roberto
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Trabal: ‘Una conversa amb Robert Gerhard’, Mirador, no.47 (1929), 5
L. Millet: ‘A en Robert Gerhard’, Revista musical catalana, xxvii (1930),
110–13
R. Llates: ‘La tècnica de Robert Gerhard’, Mirador, no.126 (1931), 5
R. Llates: ‘Els compositors independents’, Mirador, no.127 (1931), 5
R. Llates: ‘Un català mundial: Robert Gerhard’, Mirador, no.229 (1933), 5
J. Pahissa: ‘La música de Robert Gerhard’, Mirador, no.231 (1933), 5
B. Selva: ‘Evocacions d'art VI: a Robert Gerhard, músiques modernes,
músiques antigues … música!’, Revista musical catalana, xxxiii (1936),
225–34
E. Sackville-West: ‘The Music of Roberto Gerhard’, The Arts, no.2 (1947),
19–27
D. Drew: ‘Gerhard's Wind Quintet and the Dilemma of Spanish Music’,
New Orpheus Review, i/1 (1952), 4–5
The Score, no.17 (1956) [Gerhard number incl. articles by D. Drew, J.
Gardner, N. Del Mar, D. Mitchell, L. Picken, R. Vlad]
C. Mason: ‘Roberto Gerhard's First Symphony’, MT, ciii (1962), 99–100
C. Mason: ‘Chamber Music in Britain since 1929’, Cobbett's Cyclopedic
Survey of Chamber Music, ed. C. Mason, iii (London, 2/1963/R), 82–
122
C.M. Mason: ‘Roberto Gerhard’, Music in Britain (London, 1965)
A. Whittall: ‘England, Italy and Spain’, MO, lxxxix (1965–6), 663–8
H. Keller: ‘Roberto Gerhard's Two Ears’, The Listener (24 July 1969)
J. Buller: ‘Roberto Gerhard: Leo’, Tempo, no.91 (1969–70), 27–9
N. Kay: ‘Late Harvest’, Music and Musicians, xviii/7 (1969–70), 44 only, 71
only
D. Drew: ‘Roberto Gerhard’, MT, cxi (1970), 307–8
J. Homs: ‘Record de Robert Gerhard’, Serra d'Or, no.125 (1970), 69–71
A. Orga: ‘Roberto Gerhard; 1896–1970’, Music and Musicians, xix/2
(1970–71), 36–46, 62–3
C. Ballantine: ‘The Symphony in the 20th Century’, MR, xxxii (1971), 219–
32
C. MacDonald: ‘Sense and Sound: Gerhard's Fourth Symphony’, Tempo,
no.100 (1972), 25–9
K. Potter: The Life and Works of Roberto Gerhard (diss., U. of
Birmingham, 1972)
K. Potter: ‘Gerhard's Metamorphoses’, Music and Musicians, xxi/9 (1972–
3), 8–10
The London Sinfonietta: Schoenberg/Gerhard Series (London, 1973) [with
essays by D. Drew, A. Orga, K. Potter, S. Smith, list of works, MS facs.
of ‘The Akond of Swat’]
Tempo, no.139 (1981) [Gerhard issue; incl. articles by P.P. Nash, G.
Walker, D. Drew, C. MacDonald, S. Bradshaw, L. Anderson, H. Davies,
M. Donat]
B. Casablancas i Domingo: ‘Recepció a Catalunya de l'Escola de Viena i
la seva influència sobre els compositors catalans’, Recerca
musicològica, iv (1984), 243–80
E. Martínez Miura: ‘Roberto Gerhard, creador de la vanguardia musical
española’, Ritmo, no.542 (1984), 95–6
C. MacDonald: ‘Rugged Individual’, The Listener (2 Aug 1985)
Revista musical catalana, new ser., no.23 (1986) [Gerhard issue; incl.
articles by P. Artís, J. Casanovas, A. Lewin-Richter]
J. Homs: ‘Robert Gerhard, primer introductor de la música de Schönberg a
Catalunya’, L'Avenc, no.119 (1988), 38–41
R. Paine: Hispanic Traditions in Twentieth-Century Catalan Music (New
York, 1989)
D. Drew: ‘Gerhard's Duenna and Sheridan's’, Opera, xlii (1991), 1393–8;
xliii (1992), 40–47
J. Homs: Robert Gerhard i la seva obra (Barcelona, 1991) [incl.
bibliography]
A. Ros Marbà: ‘La Dueña, una obsessió de Robert Gerhard’, Cultura
[Barcelona], no.25 (1991)
Scherzo, no.61 (1992) [Gerhard issue; incl. articles by J. Alfaya, S.
Bradshaw, E. Colomer, D. Drew, S. Martín Bermudez, V. Pablo Pérez,
E. Rincón]
M. Albet: ‘Robert Gerhard, de nou’, Revista de Catalunya, 2nd ser., no.59
(1992), 75–89
J. White: ‘National Traditions in the Music of Roberto Gerhard’, Tempo,
no.184 (1993), 2–13
D. Drew: ‘Notes on Gerhard's Pandora’, ibid., 14–16
D. Sproston: ‘Thematicism in Gerhard's Concerto for Orchestra’, ibid., 18–
22
Faig ARTS, no.36 (1996) [Gerhard issue; incl. articles by M. Albet, J.
Noguero, L. Calderer, D. Padros, J. Vilar, O. Pérez]
J. Busqué i Barceló, ed.: Centenari Robert Gerhard (1896–1996)
(Barcelona,1996)
J. White: ‘Catalan Folk Sources in Soirées de Barcelone’, Tempo, no.198
(1996), 11–21
C. MacDonald: ‘Soirées de Barcelone: Towards a Performing Version’,
ibid., 22–6
I. Cholij: ‘Gerhard, Electronic Music and King Lear’, ibid., 28–32
J. White: ‘Symphony of Hope: Gerhard's Secret Programme’, MT, cxxxix
(1998), 19–28

Gerhardt, Elena
(b Leipzig, 11 Nov 1883; d London, 11 Jan 1961). German soprano and
mezzo-soprano, active in England. She studied at the Leipzig
Conservatory (1900–04), whose director, Nikisch, having heard her sing as
a student, took the unprecedented step of accompanying her himself at her
first public recital on her 20th birthday. At that time she made several
pioneering records of lieder with Nikisch, with whom she was romatically
involved. After a few stage appearances at the Leipzig Opera in 1905–6
(as Mignon and Charlotte), she devoted herself wholly to concert work, and
soon became a notable interpreter of German song. She sang for the first
time in England in 1906, and in the USA in 1912. After World War I she
soon resumed her international career, but continued to live in Leipzig. In
1932 she married Fritz Kohl, the director of the Leipzig radio, who was
arrested in the following year under the Nazi regime. Although he was
eventually acquitted, he and his wife left Germany in 1934 and settled in
England, where Gerhardt had always been very popular. Her fame
increased during World War II when she took part in several of the National
Gallery Concerts organized by Myra Hess. She continued to sing for some
years after the war, both in public and for the BBC, but devoted herself
increasingly to teaching.
Gerhardt’s voice deepened to mezzo-soprano during her maturity, and
became an ideal instrument for the lieder repertory, enabling her to sing
many nominally masculine songs without any sense of strain or incongruity.
For instance, her numerous performances of Winterreise had a memorably
exalted and tragic character. Her recitals and records contributed notably to
the then growing fame of Hugo Wolf. In her best vocal period, the
sensuous beauty of her floating tones in Brahms’s Feldeinsamkeit or in the
da lontano final verse of Schubert’s Der Lindenbaum could hold an
audience enthralled. In later years minor technical faults intruded, but
seemed unimportant beside her penetrating interpretations, her mastery of
light and shade, her humour, rhythmic energy and wide variety of tone-
colour. Although her style was very much of its period (especially in her
liberal use of portamento), she made every song she sang a part of her
own warm and rich personality.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Gerhardt: Recital (London, 1953/R) [with appx: ‘Elena Gerhardt and the
Gramophone’, and discography by D. Shawe-Taylor]
W. Radford: ‘Elena Gerhardt’, Recorded Sound, no.40 (1970), 671–7
J.B. Steane: The Grand Tradition (London, 1974/R), 225–8
DESMOND SHAWE-TAYLOR/ALAN BLYTH

Gerhardt, Paul [Paulus]

(b Gräfenhainichen, nr Wittenberg, 12 March 1607; d Lübben, Lower
Lusatia, 27 May 1676). German poet. He attended the Fürstenschule at
Grimma, a school of Orthodox Lutheran direction, from 1622 to 1627, then
studied theology at the Lutheran Orthodox University of Wittenberg from
1628 to 1634. He went to Berlin as a private tutor in 1643. His first 15
chorales appeared in the second edition of Johannes Crüger’s Praxis
pietatis melica (1647); the fifth edition (1653) contains 81 of his hymns. He
assumed his first ministry as late as 1651. In 1657 he became deacon at
the church of St Nicolai, Berlin; Crüger was the Kantor there until 1662,
followed by J.G. Ebeling. Both musicians were responsible not only for
setting Gerhardt’s texts but also for their publication: Ebeling in fact
published a complete edition (1666–7). Because of his Orthodox
convictions Gerhardt refused to sign a declaration of tolerance towards the
Calvinists imposed by his Calvinist sovereign Friedrich Wilhelm, the Great
Elector. He was dismissed from his post in 1666 and did not find a new
position until 1669, when he was appointed minister at Lübben, where he
remained until his death.
Gerhardt, like many of his contemporaries, regarded hymn writing as part
of a larger spiritual restoration in the wake of the Thirty Years War. Although
his verses reverberate with the horrors of war, pestilence and personal
tragedy, Gerhardt summons the listener to contemplate God’s might, to
experience it as a living force and to deliver himself into his care. This
meditative trait and the emphasis on personal commitment and experience
point to one of Gerhardt’s sources, the personal, subjective devotional
books of the early 17th century, in particular Johann Arndt’s
Paradiesgärtlein (1612). Gerhardt’s other sources include the Bible
(particularly the Psalms) and some literary models, such as the seven
Salve hymns ascribed to St Bernard but more likely by Arnulph of Leuven;
the seventh of these, Salve caput cruentatum, became the famous O
Haupt voll Blut und Wunden, immortalized by Bach in the St Matthew
Passion. However, almost half of Gerhardt’s hymns are original. They fuse
formal elements of folksong and sermon into chorales that have the
directness and intimacy of prayer (and are in fact often used as spoken
prayers).
Gerhardt’s entire output consists of 134 hymns, only seven of them in new
strophe forms demanding newly composed melodies. But the relatively
fixed canon of hymns used in the service did not easily incorporate new
ones, and his hymns were used – and probably intended – mainly for
private devotional practice. Only with the rise of Pietism in the last quarter
of the 17th century did they become part of the regular church service. The
pietistic Geistreiches Gesangbuch, edited by J.A. Freylinghausen,
contained 52 hymns by Gerhardt in its first edition of 1704, increased to 82
in the complete edition of 1741. In the 19th and 20th centuries his hymns
attained a prominent place in the Protestant service, equalled only by
Luther’s.
Crüger must be regarded as Gerhardt’s most congenial and popular
composer, but many others – Ebeling, Nikolaus Hasse, Hintze, Graupner,
J.F. Doles (i) and possibly Bach – were attracted to his texts: Zahn listed 14
different melodies for Gib dich zufrieden und sei stille. This seems to have
been a favourite of Bach too, for there are three settings (of two melodies)
in the Notenbüchlein für Anna Magdalena Bach (bwv510–12) as well as the
setting in the Schemelli-Gesangbuch (bwv460) and an isolated chorale
setting (bwv510). The incorporation of individual stanzas by Gerhardt into
Erdmann Neumeister’s cantata cycle, into Heinrich Brockes’s text of the St
John Passion (set to music by Handel, Mattheson and Telemann among
others) and into Picander’s text for Bach’s St Matthew Passion brought
them to the attention of ever larger audiences.
EDITIONS
ed. J.G. Ebeling: Pauli Gerhardi geistliche Andachten (Berlin, 1666–7); ed.
F. Kempe (Berne, 1975)
C. von Winterfeld: Der evangelische Kirchengesang, ii (Leipzig, 1845/R),
exx.89–90 (Crüger), 94 (Hintze), 96–8 (Ebeling)
ed. J.F. Bachmann: Paulus Gerhardts geistliche Lieder: historisch-
kritische Ausgabe (Berlin, 1866, 2/1877)
J. Zahn: Die Melodien der deutschen evangelischen Kirchenlieder, v
(Gütersloh, 1892/R), 416–17 (Crüger), 433 (Ebeling); lists 94 melodies
by Ebeling
ed. K. Ameln: J.G. Ebeling: Zwölf geistliche Lieder Paul Gerhardts, 4vv, 2
vn, bc (Kassel, 1934)
ed. E. von Cranach-Sichart: Paul Gerhardt: Dichtungen und Schriften
(Munich, 1957)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Petrich: Paul Gerhardt: seine Lieder und seine Zeit (Gütersloh, 1907)
E. Aellen: Quellen und Stil der Lieder Paul Gerhardts (Berne, 1912)
T. Brown Hewitt: Paul Gerhardt as a Hymn Writer and his Influence on
English Hymnody (New Haven, CT, 1918/R)
W. Zeller: ‘Paul Gerhardt: zum 350. Geburtstag des evangelischen
Kirchenlieddichters’, Musik und Kirche, xxvii (1957), 161–9
W. Blankenburg: ‘Die Lieder Paul Gerhardts in der Musikgeschichte’,
Musik und Gottesdienst, xxx (1976), 97–105
C. Bunners: Paul Gerhardt: Weg, Werk, Wirkung (Berlin, 1993)
M. Jenny: ‘Paul Gerhardt in der Musikgeschichte’, Max Lütolf zum 60.
Geburtstag, ed. B. Hangartner and U. Fischer (Basle, 1994)
TRAUTE MAASS MARSHALL

Gericke, Wilhelm
(b Schwanberg, Styria, 18 April 1845; d Vienna, 27 Oct 1925). Austrian
conductor and composer. He studied at the Vienna Conservatory under
F.O. Dessoff (1862–5) before conducting operas in small towns and
subsequently becoming conductor of the municipal theatre in Linz. In 1874
he was appointed assistant conductor of the Vienna Hofoper, where he
conducted the first performance of Goldmark’s Die Königin von Saba
(1875) and the first Vienna performance of Wagner’s Tannhäuser (Paris
version). From 1880 he conducted the concerts of the Gesellschaft der
Musikfreunde (formerly conducted by Brahms, 1872–5) and also directed
the Singverein. After hearing Gericke conduct Aida in autumn 1883 Henry
Lee Higginson invited him to become conductor of the Boston SO
beginning in 1884; he held this post for five years before returning to
Vienna in 1889 because of poor health. He again conducted the
Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde (1890–95), then moved to Dresden for a
year before resuming residence in Vienna. He returned to Boston in 1898
for a second term as conductor of the Symphony Concerts, but went back
to Vienna in 1906 as a freelance conductor and composer.
Gericke’s compositions, which include chamber music, two piano sonatas,
an operetta Schön Hannchen (1865), a Requiem, choruses (including
Chorus of Homage) and songs, are largely forgotten. As a conductor in
Vienna, Gericke was known for his performances of French, Italian and
Wagnerian opera. But his most important contribution was as conductor of
the Boston Symphony Concerts. It was Gericke who, in Higginson’s words,
‘made the orchestra’ by enforcing strict discipline at rehearsals,
discouraging the former casual attitude of players and replacing 20
members in his first season with young Europeans (including a new leader,
Franz Kneisel). Through his energy and expertise he raised the performing
standards; he always advocated precision and abhorred excesses. He
extended the season through the establishment of the summer Popular
Concerts, which provided the musicians with longer contracts. His
programmes were considered heavy at first; but if in 1887 and 1888
Brahms, Bruckner and Richard Strauss were unpopular, by Gericke’s
second term they had become staple fare and new works were introduced,
including Debussy’s L’après-midi d’un faune in 1904, as well as
compositions by American composers such as George Chadwick, Amy
Beach and Arthur Foote. He also gave the American première of César
Franck's Symphony. His concert tours, especially the New York début in
1887, helped to spread the orchestra’s reputation. Boston's Symphony Hall
was constructed during Gericke's tenure and became the orchestra's
permanent home.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAB (F. Martens)
M.A. De W. Howe: The Boston Symphony Orchestra (Boston, 1914;
enlarged 1931/R with J.N. Burk as The Boston Symphony Orchestra,
1881–1931)
B. Perry: Life and Letters of Henry Lee Higginson (Boston, 1921)
Obituary, New York Times (30 Oct 1925)
J.N. Burke: ‘Wilhelm Gericke: a Centennial Retrospect’, MQ, xxxi (1945),
163–87
P. Hart: Orpheus in the New World: the Symphony Orchestra as an
American Cultural Institution (New York, 1973)
GAYNOR G. JONES/CHRISTOPHER FIFIELD

Gerig.
German firm of music publishers. Its founder Hans Gerig (b Freiburg, 16
July 1910; d Cologne, 15 March 1978) took the doctorate in 1935 and
represented the German authors’ association at the Bureau International
de l’Edition Mécanique in Paris, where he was also manager of Editions
Continental. In 1946 he founded the Bühnen- und Musikverlag Hans Gerig
in Cologne. The Gerig group gradually expanded to 36 separate publishing
houses, including Sidemton, Mondial, Rialto, Excelsior and Volk, covering a
wide range of music publishing activities. Increasing internationalization led
to an emphasis on dance and entertainment music, of which the Gerig
group is one of the leading German publishers; chamber music and stage
works are also published. An educational branch was started in 1955 with
the publication of the Neue Reihe, a series of over 100 titles comprising
works for choir and orchestra and chamber music. In 1956 Die Garbe, a
school music publication in several volumes, was taken over from the
Tonger publishing house. Tutors and orchestral studies have been
published for a variety of instruments. From 1964 the side of the business
dealing with serious music was reorganized and a new emphasis given to
contemporary music; anthologies of contemporary piano music from
various countries (including Brazil, Greece, Israel and several in eastern
Europe) have been published, as well as the series Pro Musica Nova
(studies for playing avant-garde music). Gerig also publishes the series
Instrumentalmusik des 16.–18. Jahrhunderts (Urtext editions) and series of
books on music. The Gerig group represents Eaton Music (London), B.
Liechti & Cie (Geneva) and Curci (Milan).
RUDOLF LÜCK

Gerigk, Herbert
(b Mannheim, 2 March 1905). German musicologist. He studied
musicology with Müller-Blattau in Königsberg and received the doctorate in
1928 with a dissertation on the history of music in Elbing. Thereafter he
served as a music adviser for the Rheinisch-Westfälische Zeitung, director
of the regional chamber of culture in Dresden and head of an
entertainment division of radio programming. In 1935 he joined Nazi
ideologue, Alfred Rosenberg, serving as head of Rosenberg’s music
division and personnel archive and editor of Die Musik once it came under
Rosenberg’s control. Gerigk also oversaw the ideological evaluations of
musicological literature, approval of engagements in Nazi ‘Strength through
Joy’ subscription programmes, and the plundering of musical treasures in
territories invaded by German troops. Under Rosenberg’s sponsorship he
edited a series of music biographies (Unsterbliche Tonkunst, 1936–44), a
series on musicians’ writings and letters (Klassiker der Tonkunst in ihren
Schriften und Briefen, 1937–45), and an unfinished music encyclopaedia,
and co-authored a directory of Jews in music, co-sponsored by the Nazi
institute for Jewish research; he also contributed regularly on music and
politics to Die Musik, Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte, and Musik im
Kriege from 1933 to 1945. After the war, Gerigk was music reviewer for the
Ruhrnachrichten in Dortmund.
WRITINGS
Musikgeschichte der Stadt Elbingen (diss., U. Königsberg, 1928; pubd in
Elbinger Jahrbuch, viii, 1929, 1–104)
Giuseppe Verdi (Potsdam, 1932/R)
ed.: Meister der Musik und ihre Werke (Berlin, 1936)
with T. Stengel: Lexikon der Juden in der Musik (Berlin, 1940)
Puccini (Berlin, c1942)
Fachwörterbuch der Musik (Munchberg, 1954/R/1983 as Wörterbuch der
Musik; Dutch trans., 1980)
ed.: G. Schünemann: Geschichte der Klaviermusik (Hamburg, 1956)
Neue Liebe zu alten Schriften: vom Autogrammjäger zum
Autographensammler (Stuttgart, 1974)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Rothfeder: A Study of Alfred Rosenberg’s Organization for National
Socialist Ideology (diss., U. Michigan, 1963)
W. de Vries: Sonderstab Musik: Music Confiscations by the Einsatzstab
Reichleiter Rosenberg under the Nazi Occupation of Western Europe
(Amsterdam, 1996)
P.M. Potter: Most German of the Arts: Musicology and Society from the
Weimar Republic to the End of Hitler’s Reich (New Haven, CT, 1998)
PAMELA M. POTTER

Gerl [Görl].
Austrian family of singers and composers.
(1) Franz Xaver Gerl
(2) Barbara Gerl [née Reisinger]
(3) (Judas) Thaddäus Gerl
PETER BRANSCOMBE
Gerl
(1) Franz Xaver Gerl
(b Andorf, Upper Austria, 30 Nov 1764; dMannheim, 9 March 1827). Bass
and composer. The son of a village schoolmaster and organist, Gerl by
1777 was an alto chorister at Salzburg, where he must have been a pupil
of Leopold Mozart. He was at the Salzburg Gymnasium from 1778 until
1782 and he then went on to study logic and physics at the university. In
the autumn of 1785 he went to Erlangen as a bass, joining the theatrical
company of Ludwig Schmidt, who had been at Salzburg earlier that year. In
the autumn of 1786 he joined G.F.W. Grossmann's company, performing in
the Rhineland, and specialized in ‘comic roles in comedies and Singspiele’.
By 1787 he was a member of Schikaneder's company at Regensburg,
making his début in Sarti’s Wenn zwei sich streiten (Fra i due litiganti) and
appearing as Osmin in Die Entführung. From the summer of 1789 Gerl was
a member of Schikaneder's company at the Freihaus-Theater auf der
Wieden, Vienna. On 2 September 1789 he married the soprano Barbara
Reisinger (see (2) below). His name first appears as one of the composers
of Der dumme Gärtner aus dem Gebirge (Die zween Anton), Schikaneder's
first new production at his new theatre, on 12 July 1789; it is unlikely that
this was Gerl's first theatre score, since Schikaneder would hardly have
entrusted such an important task to someone without experience. Der
dumme Gärtner proved so successful that it had no fewer than five
sequels; Gerl certainly performed in two of these, though it is uncertain
whether he and Schack wrote the scores for all of them. Between 1789 and
1793 Gerl wrote music for several more plays and Singspiele, and even
after he left the company one or two further scores by him were heard
there.
Gerl played a wide variety of parts in plays and operas (including Don
Giovanni and Figaro in German) during his Vienna years, though he is
most often associated with the role of Sarastro in Die Zauberflöte, which he
created on 30 September 1791 and continued to sing at least until
November 1792 (the 83rd performance, announced by Schikaneder as the
100th). The Gerls appear to have left the Freihaus-Theater in 1793; they
were at Brünn (Brno) from 1794 until 1801, and from the beginning of 1802
Gerl was a member (with good salary and reasonable pension
arrangements) of the Mannheim Nationaltheater. Apart from operatic roles
he also appeared frequently in plays (including at least five Schiller parts).
After his wife's death in 1806 he continued to appear at the Mannheim
theatre until his retirement in 1826; on 12 April that year he remarried. His
second wife was Magdalena Dengler (née Reisinger – his first wife's elder
sister), the widow of Georg Dengler, director of the Mainz theatre.
Although the paucity of the surviving material and the difficulty of identifying
Gerl's contribution to joint scores make it impossible to evaluate him as a
composer, the works he wrote were popular in their day. His career as a
singer is better documented. When Schröder, the greatest actor-manager
of his age, went to Vienna in 1791 he was told not to miss hearing Schack
and Gerl at Schikaneder's theatre. At the end of May he heard Wranitzky's
Oberon, in which both were singing. Schröder thought Gerl's singing of the
Oracle ‘very good’; and Mozart's high regard for his qualities is evident in
the aria ‘Per questa bella mano’ (k612), written for Gerl in March 1791, and
above all in Sarastro's music. It was on the song ‘Ein Weib ist das
 herrlichste Ding’ from the first Anton sequel (music by Schack and/or Gerl)
that Mozart wrote the piano variations k613. Mozart's friendly relationship
with Gerl is attested by the fact that Gerl was one of the three singers who
is said, on the last afternoon of Mozart's life, to have joined the dying
composer in an impromptu sing-through of the Requiem (the others were
Schack and Mozart's brother-in-law Franz Hofer).
WORKS
Singspiele, performed Vienna, Freihaus, unless otherwise stated

Der dumme Gärtner aus dem Gebirge, oder Die zween Anton (2, E. Schikaneder),
12 July 1789, vs (Bonn, n.d.), collab. B. Schack, [1st ‘Anton’ Spl]
Jakob und Nannerl, oder Der angenehme Traum (Oper, 3, Schikaneder), 25 July
1789; also attrib. Pecháček, Schack
Die verdeckten Sachen (2, Schikaneder), 26 Sept 1789, vs I-Fc, songs A-Wgm,
collab. J.G. Lickl and Schack, [2nd ‘Anton’ Spl]
Was macht der Anton im Winter? (2, Schikaneder), 6 Jan 1790, vs I-Fc, songs A-
Wgm, collab. Schack and others [3rd ‘Anton’ Spl]
Don Quixotte und Sancho Pansa (3, K.L. Gieseke), 17 April 1790
Der Frühling, oder Der Anton ist noch nicht tot (2, Schikaneder), 18 June 1790,
songs Wgm, collab/ Schack and others [4th ‘Anton’ Spl]
Der Stein der Weisen, oder Die Zauberinsel (heroische-komische Oper, 2,
Schikaneder), 11 Sept 1790, D-Bsb, vs I-Fc, collab. Mozart and Schack
Die Wiener Zeitung (3, Gieseke), collab. Schack, 12 Jan 1791
Anton bei Hofe, oder Das Namensfest (2, Schikaneder), 4 June 1791, collab.
Schack and others [5th ‘Anton’ Spl]
Das Schlaraffenland (2, Gieseke), collab. Schack, 23 June 1792
Der Renegat, oder Anton in der Türkei (2, Schikaneder), 15 Sept 1792, collab.
Schack and others [6th ‘Anton’ Spl]
Der wohltätige Derwisch, oder Die Schellenkappe (3, Schikaneder), collab.
Henneberg, ?W. Müller and Schack, 10 Sept 1793; as Die Zaubertrommel, D-MH
Graf Balbarone (3, Franzky), Brünn; as Die Maskerade, oder Liebe macht alle
Stände gleich, 9 Dec 1797
Dirge, for [Die Spanier in Peru, oder] Rollas Tod (A. von Kotzebue), Brünn, 1796

Gerl

(2) Barbara Gerl [née Reisinger]

(b Vienna or ?Pressburg [now Bratislava], 1770; d Mannheim, 25 May
1806). Singer and actress, wife of (1) Franz Xaver Gerl. By 1780 she was a
member of Georg Wilhelm's troupe, playing in Moravia and Silesia; she is
listed in the Gotha Theater-Kalender for 1781: ‘children's roles, and sings
in operettas’. Later numbers of the Theater-Kalender trace her rise from
soubrette roles to ‘first dancer’ and player of queens etc. During these
years Wilhelm's company performed at Olmütz (Olomouc), Troppau
(Opava), Brünn (Brno) and Vienna (the ‘Fasantheater auf dem Neustift’,
and in 1783 also in the Kärntnertortheater), and in many provincial Austrian
towns. Early in 1789 she joined Schikaneder's company at Regensburg,
making her début as Kalliste in a German version of Guglielmi's La sposa
fedele (Robert und Kalliste). That summer she, Franz Gerl and Benedikt
Schack joined Schikaneder in Vienna when he began his directorship at
the Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden. Barbara Gerl took the principal
female roles in Schikaneder's sequel to Martín y Soler's Una cosa rara,
Der Fall ist noch weit seltner, in May 1790, and in Robert und Kalliste and
Schikaneder's Der Stein der Weisen(in which she and Schikaneder sang
the duet ‘Nun, liebes Weibchen’ k625/592a, written or orchestrated by
Mozart), both in September. She also performed in a number of spoken
plays. On 30 September 1791 she achieved her one link with immortality
by creating the part of Papagena in Die Zauberflöte. She and her husband
appear to have left Schikaneder's company in 1793; they were at Brünn
from 1794 until 1801 and from 1802 in Mannheim, where she died shortly
after the birth of her second child.
Gerl
(3) (Judas) Thaddäus Gerl
(b Andorf, Upper Austria, 28 Oct 1774; d ?Bayreuth, 13 April 1844). Bass,
brother of (1) Franz Xaver Gerl. From 1785 until 1792 he was a chorister at
Salzburg Cathedral and then studied logic and physics at Salzburg
University until 1795. He sang bass with the choirs of the university church
and St Peter's as a student, and from November 1796 until 1805 he was
second bass in the court music establishment, from 1801 also appearing at
the municipal theatre. He was granted two years' leave of absence from 1
February 1804 in the interest of ‘perfecting his knowledge of singing and
the theatre’; he was a member of the Lemberg (L'viv) company during his
leave of absence (which was extended), but on his return to Salzburg he
found that the court music establishment had been dismissed. The
remainder of his life (after the birth in Salzburg of a son, Johannes
Thaddäus, on 28 September 1807) is shrouded in mystery; he may be
identical with the Gerl who died at Bayreuth in 1844 as bailiff of the castle.
Another brother, Johannes Nepomuk Gerl (b Andorf, 12 May 1769), was a
chorister at Salzburg from 1783 to 1785.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NDB (K.M. Pisarowitz)
WurzbachL
F.L.W. Meyer: Friedrich Ludwig Schröder: Beitrag zur Kunde des
Menschen und des Künstlers (Hamburg, 1819, 2/1823)
E. Komorzynski: Emanuel Schikaneder: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des
deutschen Theaters (Berlin, 1901, 2/1951)
O.E. Deutsch: Das Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden (Vienna, 2/1937)
E. Komorzynski: Der Vater der Zauberflöte: Emanuel Schikaneders
Leben (Vienna, 1948/R)
A. Orel: ‘“Sarastros” Brüder als Salzburger Sängerknaben’, Acta
mozartiana, ii (1955), 49–54
A. Orel: ‘Sarastro … Hr. Gerl/Ein altes Weib … Mad. Gerl’, MJb 1955, 66–
89
A. Orel: ‘Neue Gerliana’, MJb 1957, 212–22
K.M. Pisarowitz: ‘Ein Brief “Sarastros” und sonstige neueste Gerl-
Miszellen’, Acta mozartiana, x (1963), 38–42
R. Würtz: ‘Mozarts Opern im biedermeierlichen Mannheim (1800–1850)’,
MJb 1980–83, 126–35
P. Branscombe: W.A. Mozart: Die Zauberflöte (Cambridge, 1991)
Gerlach [Gerlacz, Gerlatz].
German family of printers. Katherina Gerlach (b ?Nuremberg, c?1515–20;
d Nuremberg, bur. 12 Aug 1592), born Katherina Bischoff, was married to
Niclas Schmidt on 17 May 1536, and bore a daughter, also named
Katherina (bap. 8 May 1539), who later became a printer and bookseller in
her own right. After Schmidt's death in 1540, Katherina married Johann
vom Berg on 1 February 1540/41; the couple, along with Ulrich Neuber, set
up a printing and publishing company on Katherine's property ‘bei dem
Kalckhütten’, an address given in the colophon of the Berg and Neuber
prints for many years. Katherine remained in partnership with Ulrich
Neuber after Berg died in 1563; she is listed as a printer and the owner of
the firm from 1564, and the firm's colophon changed to ‘Ulrich Neuber und
die Bergsche Erben’ for a short while.
Katherina married again in 1565. Her third husband was Dietrich (Theodor,
Theodoricus) Gerlach, perhaps one of her employees. The firm continued
briefly as ‘Gerlach and Neuber’, but Neuber soon left the partnership to
found his own firm, and after 1566 the Gerlachs continued printing as
‘Gerlach and Berg's heirs’. They continued publishing many of the Berg
and Neuber titles, and further works by the same writers, including
especially those of Johannes Mathesius. The firm stopped printing the
enormous motet anthologies favoured by Berg, and focussed instead on
single-composer prints, especially of Lassus's motets. Some 150 editions
of music and music treatises were published in the years 1565–75, with an
increasing emphasis on works in the vernacular.
After Dietrich Gerlach's death on 17 August 1575, Katherina carried on the
firm for 17 years, using the colophon ‘Katherina Gerlach(in) and Johann
vom Berg's heirs’, and it became one of the two official printers to the
Nuremberg city council. One of the most prolific music printers of the 16th
century, she printed at least 200 editions of music and at least as many
books on other subjects, primarily theology and science. During her tenure
as head of the firm, the emphasis in music publishing continued to move
towards collections of motets by single composers each containing about
25–30 pieces, and she issued volumes by Lassus, Lechner, Lindner,
Orazio Vecchi and Uttendal among others. Katherine also printed many
books of German secular music, as had Berg and Neuber, but also started
printing editions of Italian madrigals, including collections by Lassus,
Regnart, Scandello and Zanotti. She printed at least 37 editions of
Kirchenlieder, and also at least a dozen music treatises. The amount of
music published by the firm continued to increase through the 1570s and
80s.
Katherina bequeathed the firm proper to her younger daughter Veronica
(bap. Oct 1545), by now the wife of the preacher Johannes Kauffmann, and
left some property and titles to her elder daughter, Katherina. The firm was
however managed by Veronica's son Paul Kauffmann, who had apparently
been working with his grandmother for many years; it formally became Paul
Kauffmann's in 1595.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 P. Cohen: Musikdruck und -Drucker zu Nürnberg im sechzehnten
Jahrhundert (Nuremberg, 1927) [incl. list of titles]
R. Wagner: ‘Ergänzungen zur Geschichte der Nürnberger Musikdrucke
des 16. Jahrhunderts’, ZMw, xii (1929–30), 506–8
R. Wagner: ‘Nachträge zur Geschichte der Nürnberger Musikdrucker im
sechzehnten Jahrhundert’, Mitteilungen des Vereins für Geschichte
der Stadt Nürnberg, xxx (1931), 109–51
S. Jackson: ‘Who is Katherine? The Women of the Berg & Neuber –
Gerlach – Kauffmann Firms’, Music Fragments and Manuscripts in the
Low Countries; … Music Printing in Antwerp and Europe in the 16th
Century: Antwerp 1995 [Yearbook of the Alamire Foundation, ii (1997)]
S. Jackson: Johann vom Berg and Ulrich Neuber: Music Printers in
Sixteenth-Century Nuremberg (diss., CUNY, 1998)
SUSAN JACKSON

Gerlach, Carl Gotthelf

(b Calbitz, nr Oschatz, Saxony, 31 Dec 1704; d Leipzig, 9 July 1761).
German organist and composer. He was a pupil at the Thomasschule in
Leipzig, and from 1716 until about 1723 received his musical training from
Johann Kuhnau; he was probably also taught by J.S. Bach in 1723. As an
alto singer, violinist and harpsichordist, he became a valuable assistant to
Bach when he left school, helping to provide figural music for the two
principal churches in Leipzig, and he sometimes accompanied Bach on
concert tours. In April 1727 he enrolled to study law at Leipzig University,
and on 10 May 1729, on Bach’s recommendation, he was appointed
organist and music director at the Leipzig Neukirche, succeeding Georg
Balthasar Schott. He acted as deputy when Bach was ill or away, and
between spring 1737 and autumn 1739 he took over temporarily from Bach
as director of the student collegium musicum, becoming permanent
director in 1741 or at the latest, 1744. He was also involved as violinist and
orchestral leader in the new Grosse Konzert, a forerunner of the Leipzig
Gewandhaus concerts, founded in 1743 by businessmen of the city. He
died after a long illness, unmarried and without heirs.
Gerlach’s extensive library of manuscripts came into the possession of the
Leipzig publisher J.G.I. Breitkopf, who included the music in his catalogues
for the Michaelmas fair in 1761 and the years that followed. Only two of
Gerlach’s own works survive, one of which is of doubtful authenticity. He
obviously occupied a prominent position in Leipzig’s musical life from 1729
onwards, and comparison with the grants made to Bach shows that
Gerlach received a disproportionate amount of financial support from the
city council. The musical practices he introduced at the Neukirche were
seen in many respects as a modern alternative to the more traditional
music favoured by Bach at the Thomaskirche and the Nikolaikirche.
WORKS
music lost unless otherwise stated

3 cants. for bicentenary of the Augsburg Confession, 1730 (texts pubd): Auf, ihr
gottergebnen Seelen; Jauchzet ihr Himmel, frohlocke du Erde; Lasset uns den
Herrn loben
Other cants.: Der Fortgang unsrer Osterfreuden, 1729 (text pubd); Easter cant.,
listed in Breitkopf catalogue, 1836; Friede sei mit euch, D-Dl; Jubelkantate, listed in
Breitkopf catalogue, 1836
Org: Fugue, g, doubtful, US-Wc; Chorale, Ich dank dir schon durch deinen Sohn,
extract in F.W. Marpurg: Abhandlung von der Fuge, i (Berlin, 1753/R)
Orch: Sinfonia, F, 2 ob, 2 hn, str, listed in Breitkopf catalogue, 1766, suppl.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Schering: Johann Sebastian Bach und das Musikleben Leipzigs im 18.
Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1941), 67ff
W. Neumann: ‘Das “Bachische Collegium Musicum”’, BJb 1960, 5–27
H.-J. Schulze: “‘Das Stück in Goldpapier”: Ermittlungen zu einigen Bach-
Abschriften des frühen 18. Jahrhunderts’, BJb 1978, 19–42
A. Glöckner: ‘Handschriftliche Musikalien aus den Nachlässen von Carl
Gotthelf Gerlach und Gottlob Harrer in den Verlagsangeboten des
Hauses Breitkopf 1761–1769’, BJb 1984, 107–16
A. Glöckner: Die Musikpflege an der Leipziger Neukirche zur Zeit Johann
Sebastian Bachs, Beiträge zur Bach-Forschung, viii (Leipzig, 1990),
88–138
ANDREAS GLÖCKNER

Gerlandus.
12th-century theorist. Gerbert identified Gerlandus with the 12th-century
canon regular and scholastic of St Paul’s, Besançon, noted for his writings,
including a work on the liberal arts. His very brief tract on the mathematics
of organ pipes and bells, in A-Wn Cpv 2503 (GerbertS, ii, 277f; RISM,
B/III/1, 35, 44), resembles in its wording many tracts from contemporary
manuscripts. Beginning Item de fistulis Gerlandus. Si fistule equalis…, and
ending Eodem modo per acutam invenies, it first describes the length of
pipes needed to produce the diatonic scale, including B . The final section
considers more precise adjustments of length depending on the diameter.
Bells, and their relative weights, are described in the middle section. See
also M. Gerbert: De cantu et musica sacra a prima ecclesiae aetate usque
ad praesens tempus, St Blasien, 1774/R, i, 285.)
ANDREW HUGHES

Gerlatz.
See Gerlach.

Gerle, Conrad
(d Nuremberg, 4 Dec 1521). German lute maker. He was active at
Nuremberg in 1465 and became well known for his instruments in France
as well as in Germany. In 1469 Charles the Bold of Burgundy bought three
of his lutes for players at his court. Gerle lived at one time in the Kotgasse
in Nuremberg, and moved from there to the Breitengasse in 1516. He was
buried in the Rochuskapelle, Nuremberg, leaving a widow and several
young children, one of whom was probably the instrumentalist and lute
maker Hans Gerle.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LütgendorffGL
VannesE
C.G. von Murr: ‘Versuch einer nürnbergischen Handwerksgeschichte vom
dreyzehnten Jahrhundert bis zur Mitte des sechszehnten’, Journal zur
Kunstgeschichte und zur allgemeinen Litteratur, v (1777), 114
LYNDA SAYCE

Gerle, Georg
(d Innsbruck, c1589). German instrument maker. According to Vannes he
came from Immenthal (near St Gall), and in 1548 was made a citizen of
Füssen. In 1569 he was employed as organ blower and instrument maker
by the Archduke Ferdinand at Innsbruck, and since reference was made in
1572 to his long service it may be supposed that he was previously in the
same employ at Prague. An ivory lute by Gerle, made about 1580, is in the
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. It is probably the only surviving six-
course lute in apparently original condition and bears the label, ‘Georg
Gerle, Fürstlicher Durchleuchtig-/kait Chalkandt zu Ynnsprugg’. A ‘cembalo
del Gherla’ is mentioned in the 1598 catalogue of the Este collection at
Modena.
Three of Gerle’s sons are known. Melchior succeeded to his father’s post
at Innsbruck in 1589; after 1596, when the Archduke Ferdinand died and
the court was dissolved, he remained at Innsbruck where he had married in
1591 and had a son, Anton, in 1605. Another of Georg Gerle’s sons, also
called Georg, became organ blower to the Innsbruck court in 1583; at the
beginning of the 17th century he was living at Füssen and in 1615 at
Immenstadt. A third son, Jacob, his father’s pupil and assistant, is known to
have been active at Graz in 1585.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LütgendorffGL
VannesE
F. Waldner: ‘Verzeichnis der Organisten, Sänger und Instrumentisten am
Hofe zu Innsbruck unter Erzherzog Ferdinand 1567–1596’, MMg, xxxvi
(1904), 163–73
F. Waldner: Nachrichten über tirolische Lauten- und Geigenbauer
(Innsbruck, 1911), 51–2
LYNDA SAYCE

Gerle, Hans
(b Nuremberg, c1500; d Nuremberg, 1570). German instrumentalist, lute
maker and compiler and arranger of several volumes of instrumental
music. He was probably the son of Conrad Gerle (d 1521), a well-known
lute maker in Nuremberg. He may be presumed to have spent his life in his
 native city. He may have been related to Georg Gerle who worked as an
instrument maker in Innsbruck during the second half of the 16th century.
Hieronymus Formschneider of Nuremberg published three volumes of
music by Hans Gerle: Musica teusch, auf die Instrument der grossen unnd
kleinen Geygen, auch Lautten (1532), Tabulatur auff die Laudten (1533)
and Eyn newes sehr künstlichs Lautenbuch (1552). On the title-page of the
last volume the author called himself ‘Hans Gerle den Eltern’ (the elder),
implying the existence of a younger relative with the same forename.
The first volume, Musica teusch, includes introductory essays on playing
‘Grossgeigen’ (violas da gamba), ‘Kleingeigen’ (rebecs or violins) and lutes,
and on musical notation. The collection contains music for solo lute and for
ensembles of Gross- and Kleingeigen. Most of the compositions are
intabulations of lieder and psalm settings by German composers – Stoltzer,
Senfl, Hofhaimer, Johann Walter (i), Heinrich Isaac and so on – but there
are as well two preludes (‘Priambeln’) for solo lute, reprinted from Hans
Judenkünig’s lutebook of 1523.
Gerle’s second volume, Tabulatur auff die Laudten, is restricted to music
for solo lute: preludes and intabulations of chorales, popular and courtly
lieder, chansons and motets. Quite unusually, Gerle included works by
older composers such as Hayne van Ghizeghem, Josquin des Prez, Isaac
and Obrecht, as well as music by his own contemporaries, Claudin de
Sermisy, Willaert, Jean Mouton and Senfl. His third volume, Eyn newes
sehr künstlichs Lautenbuch, likewise for solo lute, is entirely devoted to
fantasias and dances taken from earlier lutebooks and transcribed from
Italian into German tablature. In so doing Gerle made the works of the
following lutenists available to German musicians: Giovanni Maria da
Crema, Domenico Bianchini, Simon Gintzler, Antonio Rotta, Francesco
Canova da Milano, Pietro Paolo Borrono and Alberto da Ripa.
Gerle’s volumes with their preponderance of intabulations and their brief
introductory remarks on performing techniques are a valuable source of
information about standard practices of the time and the general level of
achievement expected of a professional performer, even though the books
themselves are not of great artistic significance. His tuning and fretting
instructions have received considerable attention from modern scholars
and performers. Some of his music for lute also appears in 16th-century
manuscrsipt sources (in D-Bsb, Mbs, F-Pn, NL-Au, PL-WRu, S-Sk).

For illustrations see Notation, fig.116; ..\Frames/F006281.htmlSources of

instrumental ensemble music to 1630, fig.3.

WORKS
Musica teusch, auf die Instrument der grossen unnd kleinen Geygen, auch Lautten
(Nuremberg, 1532, rev., enlarged 3/1546/R1977 as Musica un Tablatur); 7 pieces
for lute ed. H. Mönkemeyer, Die Tabulatur, ii (Hofhaim am Taunus, 1965); 5 pieces
for 4 viols ed. in Early Music Series, xiv (London, 1974)
Tabulatur auff die Laudten (Nuremberg, 1533); preludes ed. in PSFM, v/1 (1975)
Eyn newes sehr künstlichs Lautenbuch (Nuremberg, 1552)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrownI
J.K.S. Kiefhaber: ‘Bibliographische Nachrichten von Hans Gerle dem
Älteren, berühmten Lautenisten zu Nürnberg im 16. Jahrhundert’,
AMZ, xviii (1816), 309–15, 325–9
W. Tappert: ‘Die Lautenbücher des Hans Gerle’, MMg, xviii (1886), 101–11
J. Pierce: Hans Gerle: Sixteenth-Century Lutenist and Pedagogue (diss.,
U. of North Carolina, 1973) [see also JLSA, vi (1973), 17–29]
R. Chiesa: ‘Storia della letteratura del liuto e della chittarra – il
cinquecento. XVIII–XXI: Hans Gerle’, ‘Fronimo’, v (1977), no.18,
pp.15–18; no.19, pp.24–7; no.20, pp.15–17, no.21, pp.16–18; vi
(1978), no.22, pp.18–20
E. Dombois: ‘Die Temperament für Laute bei Hans Gerle (1532)’, Forum
musicologicum: Basler studien zur Interpretation der alten Musik, ii
(1980), 60–71; Eng. trans. in LSJ, xxii (1982), 3–13, 89 only
C. Meyer: ‘Observations pour une analyse des tempéraments des
instruments à cordes pincées: le luth de Hans Gerle (1532)’, RdM, lxxi
(1985), 119–41
HOWARD MAYER BROWN/LYNDA SAYCE

Gerle, Melchior.
German instrument maker, son of Georg Gerle.

Gerlin, Ruggero
(b Venice, 1 May 1899; d Paris, 17 June 1983). Italian harpsichordist. After
a classical education he gained the master diploma in piano playing at the
Milan Conservatory. In 1920 he began to study the harpsichord with
Landowska in Paris, and he continued working with her until 1940, often as
her partner in concerts of music for two keyboard instruments. He then
returned to Italy, becoming harpsichord professor at the S Pietro a Majella
Conservatory in Naples (1941), and inaugurating annual summer
masterclasses at the Accademia Musicale Chigiana in Siena (1947). Gerlin
toured throughout Europe as a soloist and chamber musician, and made
many recordings. He also edited works by Grazioli, Alessandro Scarlatti
and Benedetto Marcello in I Classici Musicali Italiani.
HOWARD SCHOTT

Germain.
See Goermans.

German, Sir Edward [Jones,

German Edward]
(b Whitchurch, Shropshire, 17 Feb 1862; d London, 11 Nov 1936). English
composer. He grew up in a musical household but a career in music was
not encouraged until serious illness had disrupted his education and plans
for an apprenticeship in marine engineering. After private study with Walter
Hay of Shrewsbury he entered the RAM in 1880, there adopting his
professional name. The organ soon gave way to the violin as his principal
study, but although he won the Tubbs Bow and other prizes for
performance he was increasingly drawn towards composition, which he
studied under Ebenezer Prout. Several of German’s student works were
played at RAM concerts and in 1885 his Te Deum won the Lucas Medal.
Prophetic in relation to German’s future career were the operetta The Two
Poets, produced at the RAM in 1886 and taken on tour by the students,
and the Symphony in E Minor, performed by the RAM Orchestra under
Joseph Barnby in 1887. Appointed a sub-professor of violin at the RAM in
1884, he combined teaching with playing in theatre orchestras at the Savoy
and elsewhere, finally leaving the RAM in 1887. He visited Germany in
1886 and 1888/9 and was impressed by its opera, particularly at Bayreuth.
In 1888 he became Musical Director at the Globe Theatre. The resulting
composition of music for Shakespeare’s Richard III (1889) brought his
name before a wider public and the music written subsequently for Henry
Irving’s production of Shakespeare’s Henry VIII (1892) firmly established
his reputation. German’s career in both theatre and concert hall, to where
his theatre music was successfully transferred, burgeoned with
commissions from leading impresarios and festivals. A second symphony,
written for the 1893 Norwich Festival, was generally well received but an
element of negative reaction rankled: Bernard Shaw thought that both
symphonies by German were marred by inappropriate theatricality.
Thereafter German cautiously cast his large-scale four-movement works,
The Leeds Suite (1895) and The Seasons (1899), as symphonic suites.
Much of his theatre music became enormously popular, particularly the
Three Dances from Henry VIII and the Nell Gwyn Dances (1900) which
exploit a distinctive, if limited, ‘olde English’ manner, a species of musical
mock Tudor with which German came to be particularly associated. Of his
many songs, mostly aimed at the drawing-room market, some achieved
considerable popularity, including Rolling Down to Rio (from his clever
settings of Kipling, The Just So Song Book, 1903) and Glorious Devon
(1905). German’s instrumental works include a number written for his friend
and RAM contemporary, the leading British flautist Frederic Griffith. In
addition to solo piano music, German composed an attractive Suite for
Four Hands (c1890) and also arranged many of his orchestral scores for
piano duet.
In 1901 German completed The Emerald Isle, the operetta left unfinished
on Sullivan’s death, abandoning a violin concerto commissioned for the
Leeds Festival in order to do so. Following its success, operetta became
his main focus as a composer during the Edwardian decade. His most
celebrated pieces, Merrie England (1902) and the even finer Tom Jones
(1907), were designed as vehicles for his popular ‘olde English’ style.
Neither achieved the success of the greatest Gilbert and Sullivan works. In
truth, by continuing the Savoy tradition German had allied himself to a type
of theatre piece for which public taste was dwindling. Nevertheless, as
reinforcements of the myth of England’s merriness in days of yore (a once
potent element in English self-perception) Merrie England and, to a lesser
extent, Tom Jones retained a special place in the affections of native
audiences, and are still occasionally performed. For his last operetta,
Fallen Fairies (1909), German collaborated with W.S. Gilbert. No more than
a succès d’estime, the production was not entirely happy and this may
have influenced him to withdraw from composition: certainly he wrote
relatively little thereafter. His two last orchestral works, Theme and Six
Diversions and The Willow Song, were completed in 1919 and 1922
respectively.
German remained active as a conductor of his own music until poor health
and eyesight forced his retirement in the late 1920s. Having been, in 1897,
the first in a distinguished line of British composers invited by Dan Godfrey
to conduct their music at Bournemouth, he had become much in demand
for personal appearances at concerts and festivals. He was meticulous in
rehearsal, and testimony to his standards of precision can be heard in his
gramophone recordings, including a ‘complete’ Merrie England and Theme
and Six Diversions. Another aspect of German’s perfectionism is revealed
in his fondness for revising and rearranging his works, even after
publication, an activity he continued to the end of his life. Knighted in 1928
and awarded the Royal Philharmonic Society’s Gold Medal in 1934,
German lived to become a doyen of British music, the respected founder of
the flourishing school of native light orchestral music whose leadership had
passed to such younger composers as Eric Coates and Haydn Wood. A
constant champion of composers’ rights to fair financial rewards, he was a
leading supporter during the early years of the Performing Rights Society.
In his lifetime German’s music earned both general popularity and the high
regard of leading British musicians (Elgar was a great admirer). After his
death the serious orchestral works fell into neglect and the ‘olde English’
style was often dismissed as spurious and mannered. Nevertheless, his
best-known works in that style, the Henry VIII and Nell Gwyn dances,
retained a place in the repertory, but with the result that they were often
thought to represent German’s entire range as an orchestral composer.
Through recordings and broadcasts his more ambitious works are being
heard again and reveal his much broader talent. The Romeo and Juliet
(1895) music shows considerable dramatic gifts and, of his large-scale
works, the Norwich Symphony (1893) and The Seasons (1899) are
especially strong. Theme and Six Diversions (1899) cogently combines
German’s lighter and more serious styles and is regarded by some as his
masterpiece, but the brilliantly scored Welsh Rhapsody (1904), a miniature
symphony based on Welsh traditional melodies, is probably his most
frequently performed extended orchestral work.
French influences are clearly apparent in German’s music and there are
even occasional reminders of Tchaikovsky but paradoxically he was, like
Elgar, a stylistic cosmopolitan who wrote music that is quintessentially
English. Indeed, German’s serious orchestral music reveals striking
affinities with the language of Elgar’s earlier works. However, it is with
Sullivan that he is most often compared. Although he is widely regarded as
Sullivan’s heir in operetta and light music, it is notable how dissimilar they
are in style. German’s lyrical ballads, in particular, reveal a romantic
warmth that struck a new note in British operetta. His elegant, beautifully
crafted music has its own distinctive voice and secures his place among
the finest British composers for the genre.
 WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAVID RUSSELL HULME
German, Sir Edward
WORKS
many MSS in private collection: the Edward German Archive, D.R. Hulme, Aberystwyth

All pubd in London in year of composition or first performance, unless otherwise stated

operettas
pubd in vs only; many songs, duets, ensembles, dances and selections pubd separately

The Two Poets (2, W.H. Scott), RAM, July 1886; revised as The Rival Poets, St
George’s Hall, 1901 (1901)
The Emerald Isle or The Caves of Carrig-Cleena (2, B. Hood), Savoy, 27 April 1901;
completion by German of work begun by A. Sullivan; concert arr. (c1910)
Merrie England (2, Hood), Savoy, 2 April 1902; concert version (1908)
A Princess of Kensington (2, Hood), Savoy, 22 Jan 1903; concert selection (1909)
Tom Jones (3, R. Courtneidge, A.M. Thompson, C.H. Taylor after H. Fielding),
Manchester, Prince’s, 30 March 1907; concert version (1913)
Fallen Fairies or The Wicked World (2, W.S. Gilbert), Savoy, 15 Dec 1909 [vs also
pubd under temporay title of Moon Fairies]

incidental music
for orch unless otherwise stated; where published, in part only

Antigone (Sophocles), c1885, ?pf, vv (c1886) untraced

Richard III (W. Shakespeare), Globe, 16 March 1889 (?1890/?1891/1920); addns
1910
Henry VIII (Shakespeare), Lyceum, 5 Jan 1892; suite (?1893–8); addns 1910 [see
sacred music: Grace; partsongs: Orpheus with his lute, Shepherd’s Dance]
The Tempter (H.A. Jones), Haymarket, 20 Sept 1893; suite (?1894/?1900)
Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare), Lyceum, 21 Sept 1895; suite (1895/96)
Michael and his Lost Angel (Jones), Lyceum, 15 Jan 1896, unpubd, lost
As You Like It (Shakespeare), St James’s, 1896; suite (1897) [see songs: It was a
lover and his lass]
Much Ado about Nothing (Shakespeare), St James’s, 16 Feb 1898
English Nell (A. Hope, E. Rose), Prince of Wales’s, 2 Aug 1900 (1901); later known
as Nell Gwyn
The Conqueror (Millicent, Duchess of Sutherland), Scala, 23 Sept 1905
Arrs. as suites, dances and selections

orchestral
The Guitar, str, St James’s Hall, 27 June 1883 (?1887)
Bolero, vn, orch, St James’s Hall, 4 July 1884 (vn, pf, RAM, 26 Oct 1883) (c1885),
untraced
Sym. no.1, e, St James’s Hall, 16 July 1887, rev. Crystal Palace, 13 Dec 1890; arr.
pf duet (1904)
Marche solennelle, d, St James’s Hall, 15 Jan 1891, orch unpubd, lost, arr military
band (D. Wight) (?1937)
On German Airs, ov., 1891, unpubd, lost
Gipsy Suite, Crystal Palace, 20 Feb 1892 (1894)
Sym. no.2, a, (‘Norwich’), Norwich Festival, 4 Oct 1893 (1931); arr. pf duet (1894)
Symphonic Suite, d, (‘Leeds’), Leeds Festival, 3 Oct 1895; 2nd mvt. rev. c1915
In Commemoration – English Fantasia, Philharmonic Society, 17 June 1897; rev.
1902 as Rhapsody on March Themes, later as March Rhapsody on Original
Themes (1902–4; rev. 1912)
Hamlet, sym. poem, Birmingham Festival, 5 Oct 1897 (1898–9); rev. 1934
The Seasons, sym. suite, Norwich Festival, 5 Oct 1899 (1900); rev. 1914
Welsh Rhapsody, Cardiff Festival, 21 Sept 1904 (1905)
Coronation March and Hymn, Westminster Abbey, 22 June 1911; based on
incidental music to Henry VIII [see incidental music
Theme and Six Diversions, Royal Philharmonic Society, Queen’s Hall, 26 March
1919
The Willow Song, tone picture, RAM, 19 July 1922
chamber
Nocturne, vn, pf, RAM, 21 Oct 1882, unpubd; Album Leaf, pf, vn, c1882, unpubd
[previously titled Souvenir]; Chanson d’Amour, vn, pf, RAM, 26 Oct 1883, unpubd;
The Sprite’s Dance, vn, pf, Nov 1883, unpubd; Cradle Song, vn, pf, 1883, unpubd
[previous titled Barcarolle, Serenade]; Trio, D, vn, vc, pf, c1883, unpubd; Encore
Piece, vn, pf, Dec 1884, unpubd; [Untitled], vn, pf, ?1884, unpubd [companion to
Encore Piece]
Suite, fl, pf (1889), arr. vn, pf (1898); Salterello, fl/pic, pf (1889); Moto Perpetuo, vn,
pf (1890); Romance no.1, fl, pf (1890), arr. cl, pf (?1892); Romance no.2, fl, pf
(1890), untraced; Salterelle, vn, pf (1890); Scotch Sketch, 2 vn, pf (1890), orch arr.,
collab. H Gheel and German (1935); Andante and Tarantella, cl, pf (1891);
Pastorale and Bourée, ob, pf (1891), arr. fl, pf (?1892), vn, pf (?1892), cl, pf (?
1895); Bachanalian Dance, Berceuse, vn, pf (1893) [arr. (un-noted) from The
Tempter, see incidental music]; Serenade, wind, 1892, unpubd, lost; Andante and
Rondo, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn, pf, c1893, unpubd, lost
Intermezzo, fl, pf (1894), arr. vn, pf (?1914); Souvenir, vn, pf (1896); 3 Sketches, vc,
pf (1896): Valsette, Souvenir, Bolero, arr. vn, pf (1897), orch. arr., collab. A. Wood
and German, as Cloverley Suite (1934); Song Without Words, cl, pf (1898), arr. vn,
pf (1898); Old English Melody, Early one morning, arr. fl, pf (1901)
Arrs. of his operatic, orchestral and incid music for various insts, especially vn, pf
piano and organ
for pf solo unless otherwise indicated

Three Pieces for American Organ, c1882–7, ?unpubd, lost

Andante, B , org, c1883, unpubd
Suite, c1883–5 (?1889): Impromptu, Valse-Caprice, Bourée, Elegy, Mazurka,
Tarantella
Sonata, G, 1884 [mvt 1 only] (York, 1987; missing final bars added by J. Brown)
Suite for Four Hands: Humoresque, Reverie, Valse Fantastique, Caprice; first pubd
as Four Piano Duets (?1890): Allegretto, E, Andante, a, Allegro Moderato (Tempo di
Valse), A, Allegro Spiritoso, g
Duet for Pf, c1890, unpubd; Valse, A (1890); Valse, g, c1890, unpubd; Graceful
Dance (1891), arr. small orch, unpubd; Polish Dance (1891); Album Leaf (1892);
Intermezzo, a (1892); Valsette (1892); Berceuse, 1893 [arr. (un-noted) from The
Tempter (see incidental music)]; Minuet, G (?1893); Concert Study, A (1894);
Impromptu no.2 (1894); Melody, E (1895); Columbine, air de ballet (1899); Song
Without Words (1899); Abendlied (1900); Melody, E (1905); The King of Love,
hymn-tune prelude, org (?), 1907, unpubd; Hymn (Homage to Belgium), 1914
Arrs. of his operatic, orchestral and incid music for pf solo, pf duet

sacred music and hymns

hymns and chants (1883), lost; Te Deum, F, S, A, T, B, SATB, org, 1885 (1899);
Canada, patriotic hymn (H. Boulton), SATB, pf (1904), orch (Toronto, 1904);
Bread of Heaven, introit (J. Couder), SATB, kbd (1909); Grace (Non nobis,
Domine), SATB, arr. Henry VIII, 1910 (1911), also TTBB (1921) [see incidental
music]; Morning Hymn, unis. vv, kbd, 1912, unpubd; Intercessory Hymn (Father
Omnipotent!), (W.H. Scott), SATB, kbd (1915) [arr. of Hymn (Homage to
Belgium), see piano and organ]
partsongs
SATB and with pf unless otherwise stated

The Chase (E. Oxenford), (?1886)

Orpheus with his lute (Shakespeare), arr. from Henry VIII for S, S, A, pf or SSA, pf
(1892); SATB, pf (1921), SSAATTBB, pf (1921), str qt (?with voices) c1920–25,
unpubd [see incidental music]
O Lovely May (H. Wethered), (1894), SSA, pf (1921)
Who is Sylvia? (Shakespeare), unacc. (1894)
O peaceful night! (W.H. Scott), unacc. (1904), TTBB, unacc. (1904), SSA
The Three Knights (A. Cleveland), unacc. (1911), also TTBB, unacc. (1922)
Beauteous Morn (O.W. Holmes), SCC, pf (1912)
In Praise of Neptune (T. Campion) unacc. (1912), unison vv, pf (1925)
My bonnie lass, she smileth (trad.), unacc. (1912), 3 female vv, pf (1924)
Sleeping (trad. old English), unacc. (1912), TTBB, unacc. (1914)
London Town (J. Masefield), unacc. (1920), TTBB, unacc. (1921) lv, pf (1926)
Shepherds’ Dance (W.G. Rothery) SS, pf (1920), arr. of orch. dance from Henry VIII
[see incidental music]

songs
for 1v, pf, unless otherwise stated

A Serenade (W.H. Pollock), 1v, pf, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn (?1890) [text reset in Lady mine
(1913)]
3 Spring Songs (H. Boulton) (1898): All the world awakes today, The Dew upon the
Lily, My song is of the sturdy North
4 Lyrics (Boulton) (1900): Sea Lullaby, Birds on wing, Fair flowers, In Summer Time
The Just So Song Book (R. Kipling) (1903): When the cabin portholes, The camel’s
hump, arr. S, A, pf (1926), SATB pf (1927), This uninhabited island, I keep six
honest serving-men, I am the most wise Baviaan, Kangaroo and Dingo, Merrow
Down, Of all the tribe of Tegumai, The Riddle, The First Friend, There was never a
Queen like Balkis, Rolling Down to Rio, arr. TTBB, pf (1916), SATB, pf (1925), SA,
pf (1925)
6 Lyrics (Boulton) (1903): Wake up my nestling, White Snowdrops, Over the
Heather, A Wild Rose, Meadows Green, From Wave to Wave
2 Lyrics (H.H. Spencer) (1904): A Fancy, Heigh-Ho!
3 Baritone Songs (1905): Come to the woods (S. Waddington), My Lady (F.E.
Weatherly), Glorious Devon (Boulton)
3 Songs of Childhood (M. Lawrence) (1914): Wondering, The Chinese Mandarin,
Bye-Low Land
Other songs (1881–5): Twilight, 1881, unpubd; Ode to the Woodlark (R. Burns),
c1884, unpubd; A Midsummer Ghost, unpubd, lost; Molly Malony, unpubd, lost;
Nevermore, unpubd; A Summer Idyll, unpubd, lost; Three Heavens, unpubd, lost; 3
leider, unpubd, lost
(1886–1900): Fine Feathers (J.E. Carpenter), (?1886); Fancy Free (A. Chapman),
(?1887); Little Sweethearts (R.S. Hichens), (?1888); His Lady (Hichens), (?1889);
Story of a Monk (c1889) untraced; A Wayside Story (c1889) untraced; The Banks of
the Bann (S. Lennox), (?1890), rev. as The Land of the Past (1904); Little Boy Blue
(Weatherly), (?1891); Little Lovers (Hichens), (1891); Ever Waiting (G.H.
Newcombe), (1893); In a Northern Land (Weatherly), (1893); In the Merry Maytime
(M. Blackett), (1894); Springtime (?R. Jones), c1894 unpubd; Who’ll buy my
lavender? (C. Battersby), (1896), arr. lv, orch, unpubd; Love, the pedlar (Battersby),
(1899); Sweet Rose (Bingham), (1899); Woo me not (Battersby), (1899); Early one
morning (trad. old English), (1900); Roses in June (Bingham), (1900)
(1901–25): Daffodils A-Blowing (Battersby), (1901); Love’s Awakening (B. Hood),
c1901, unpubd; Restless river (Bingham), (1901); Cupid at the ferry (Battersby),
(1904); The Land of the Past (Bingham), (1904) [rev. of The Banks of the Bann (?
1890)]; When Maidens go A-Maying (Boulton), (1906); This England of ours
(Boulton), (1907); The Drummer-Boy (Boulton), (1908); Little girl in red (A. Wilkins),
(1908); Love’s Barcarolle (Hood), (1908); To Katherine Unkind (Hood), (1908);
Memories (Boulton), (1909); Bird of Blue (Chrystabel), (1910); Love in all Seasons
(Hood), (1910); Moorish Lullaby (M. Byron), (1910); Big Steamers (Kipling), (1911);
An Old English Valentine (M. Farrah), (1911); What ‘Dane-Geld’ Means (Kipling),
(1911); When we grow old (Spencer), (1911); Alistair (S. Grant), (1912); Court
Favour (Hood), (1912)
Lady mine (Pollock), (1913) [see also: A Serenade (?1890)]; To Phyllis (?1914); The
Arrow That Went Wrong, parody (?E. German), 1916, unpubd; Be well assured
(Kipling), (1916); Countryman’s Chorus (H. Taylor), (1916); All Friends round the
Wrekin (W.H. Scott), (1917); Charming Chloe (Burns), (1917); Have you news of my
boy Jack? (Kipling), also with SSC (1917), orch. acc., unpubd; The Irish Guards
(Kipling), (1918), also arr. quick-step, pf duet, mil. band, 1918, unpubd; Sails, ?
c1920–25, unpubd; The Lordling’s Daughter (anon. Elizabethan), (1925)
Songs for plays: Lady Hilda’s Song (W.S. Gilbert: Broken Hearts), Savoy, 4 June
1888, 1v, orch, arr. 1v, pf; It was a lover and his lass, S, C, orch, arr. S, C, pf (1897),
1v, pf (1919) [see incidental music: As You Like It]; 3 Songs: Evadne’s Song, O
Love that knew the morning, Cupid, Fickle Cupid, 1v, orch, arr. 1v, pf (1905) [see
incidental music: The Conqueror]
Also separately pub. songs, duets and ensembles from operettas

German, Sir Edward

BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Edward German: a Biographical Sketch’, MT, xlv (1904), 20–24
‘Edward German: an Appreciation’, Whitchurch Herald (24 Feb 1912)
G. Lowe: ‘The Piano Works of Edward German’, The Musical Standard (5
June 1915), 433–5
W.H. Scott: Edward German: an Intimate Biography (London, 1932)
G.B. Shaw: Music in London 1890–94 (London, 1932/R), i, 104–5; iii, 119–
120
T.F. Dunhill: ‘Edward German 1862–1936’, MT, lxxvii (1936), 1073–7
T.C. Duggan and E.C. Parsons: Sir Edward German (Whitchurch, 1938)
R. Elkin: ‘Edward German: 1862–1936’, The Music Masters, ed. A.L.
Bacharach, iii (London, 1952), 161–9
E. Coates: Suite in Four Movements (London, 1953), 147–8, 208
E. Irving: Cue for Music (London, 1959), 47–51
G. Hughes: Composers of Operetta (London, 1962), 209–12
A. Hyman: Sullivan and his Satellites (London, 1978), 151–68
R. Traubner: Operetta: a Theatrical History (London, 1984), 192–5
J. Brown: ‘Edward German’, British Music Society Journal, vii (1985), 11–
16
D. Guyver: ‘Edward Elgar and Edward German’, Elgar Society Journal, iv/2
(1985), 15–18; iv/3 (1985), 10–17
B. Rees: A Musical Peacemaker: the Life and Work of Sir Edward German
(Bourne End, 1986)
K. Ganzl: The British Musical Theatre, i: 1865–1914 (London, 1986)
L. Briggs, ed.: A Shropshire Christmas (Stroud, 1993) 58–62

German Dance
(Ger. Deutsche, Deutscher Tanz, Teutsche; Fr. allemande; It. tedesco).
A term used generically during the late 18th and early 19th centuries for
couple-dances in triple metre; it was eventually replaced in general usage
by the names of the two most common types, the Ländler (in which couples
turned with arms interlaced) and the Waltz (in which they took swift turns
while in a close embrace). It is difficult to say just when the term ‘German
Dance’ was first used, or when the French word Allemande began to refer
to the relatively new couple-dance rather than to the Renaissance-Baroque
processional dance that so often appeared in Baroque suites. French
dancing-masters were apparently familiar with the German couple-dance
early in the 18th century, for they included some ländler-like movements in
the Contredanse (see Feuillet’s Recueil de dances, 1705), although these
were modified to suit French taste (omitting, for example, the seemingly
vulgar and inelegant embrace). After about 1760, however, the
independent German Dance became popular; it was included in published
dance manuals, such as Guillaume’s L’almanach dansant (1771; see
illustration), and it was mentioned in plays in both France and England. The
new, socially accepted German Dance of the late 18th century consisted of
a series of ländler-like passes, ending with a tentative (not too close)
embrace. Tunes were at first in 2/4 or 3/8, the former being particularly
characteristic of the ländler type of German Dance. Guillaume described a
duple-metre German Dance that resembled the waltz, danced with a
springing movement, and a triple-metre version, sometimes called the
boiteuse (‘limping’), that consisted of a ‘step and hop’. The author failed to
show exactly how the steps fit with accompanying music but the
movements he described fall most happily on the first and third beats of a
bar, as shown in ex.1.
The musical style of the German Dance is quite simple: usually each dance
consists of two repeated phrases eight bars long (occasionally the first
phrase is to be repeated da capo, as in Beethoven’s Allemande für Clavier
woo81). Virtually all are written in major keys, with some tendency,
especially in the dances of Schubert, to suggest the relative minor at the
beginning of the second phrase; most are in 3/8 or 3/4, and most have a
slow harmonic rhythm, usually one harmony per bar. A number of
stereotyped rhythmic motifs seem to have been characteristic of the
German Dance, as shown in ex.2, as were ‘oom-pah-pah’ and block-chord
accompaniment patterns and simple folklike melodies.

Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert each wrote many sets of

Deutsche, for keyboard, orchestra and chamber groups, apparently
intended both for use at balls in Vienna’s Redoutensaal and to satisfy
amateurs’ desires for new and fairly undemanding music. Often these
works were published abroad under the titles ‘waltzes’ or ‘allemandes’
(Mozart’s Sechs deutsche Tänze k571 appeared under both titles), and
eventually it was the title ‘waltz’ that became the common designation for
the form. Normally a set of Deutsche included three, six or 12 dances in
related keys, some of which had trio sections (e.g. the third and sixth
dances of Beethoven’s Sechs Deutsche für Clavier und Violin woo42),
although other national dances such as the Ecossaise and Polonaise and
independent pieces called ‘trio’ could also be included. While the longer
sets usually have a certain amount of tonal coherence (the last dances
return to the key of the first), some of Schubert’s shorter Deutsche sets
have strikingly unbalanced key schemes; his Drei Deutsche für Clavier
d972, for example, are in D , A and A respectively.
Other composers who contributed German Dances for ballroom use (many
of them entitled ‘waltz’ after 1810) include J.N. Hummel, Daniel Steibelt,
E.A. Förster and Ignaz Moscheles. Under its several possible names, the
German Dance appeared in much music not intended for dancing during
the late 18th and early 19th centuries, often in stylized form. The first
movement of Beethoven’s Sonata op.79 for piano, marked ‘Presto alla
tedesca’, and the last movement of Haydn’s Piano Trio in E (h XV:29),
marked ‘allemande’, are two such examples, as is, perhaps, the
Bauerntanz in the third movement of Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony. In
the last scene of Act 1 of Mozart’s Don Giovanni, Leporello and Masetto
perform the German Dance (called ‘la Taitsch’) while Donna Anna and Don
Ottavio dance a minuet and Don Giovanni and Zerlina a contredanse, a
scene that carries a clear implication of the social status of the German
Dance. Weber’s Tedesco for orchestra (1816) may mark the last
appearance of the generic usage, for after about 1815 the more specific
titles ‘ländler’ and ‘waltz’ were increasingly common, as in Schumann’s title
‘Valse allemande’ for a German Dance in Carnaval op.9.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (‘Deutscher Tanz’; W. Litschauer, W. Deutsch)
G.B. Gherardi: Twelve New Allemandes and Twelve New Minuets
(London, 1769)
S. Guillaume: Almanach dansant, ou Positions et attitudes de l’allemande
(Paris, 1770)
Dubois: Principes d’allemande (Paris, 1791)
P. Nettl: The Story of Dance Music (New York, 1947/R)
E. Reeser: De geschiedenis van de wals (Amsterdam, 1947; Eng. trans.,
1949)
E. Campianu: ‘Die Tänze der Haydn-Zeit’, Joseph Haydn: Vienna 1982,
470–75
M. Mittendorfer: ‘Quellen der Salzburger Tanzmusik’, MJb 1991, 403–8
M. Woitas: ‘“[…] Freylich hat jeder Tanz seine eignen Schönheit […]” oder
Anmerkungen zu einigen Nationaltänzen der Mozart-Zeit’, MJb 1991,
409–16
CLIFF EISEN

German flute.
An older name for the transverse flute, used to distinguish it from the
Recorder, also called ‘English flute’. See Flute, §II.

Germani, Fernando
(b Rome, 5 April 1906; d Rome, 10 June 1998). Italian organist. At the age
of eight he entered the Rome Conservatory as a pupil of Bossi and then
Bajardi (piano), Dobici (theory) and Respighi (composition). His only organ
teacher was Raffaele Manari. In 1921 he became organist of the Augusteo
Orchestra and began a career as a virtuoso organist, and at the age of 21
played for the first time in the USA. He was appointed professor at the
Accademia Musicale Chigiana in 1932 and at the Rome Conservatory in
1934, and became head of the organ department of the Curtis Institute,
Philadelphia, in 1936 for two years. From 1932 he was, except during the
war years, a frequent visitor to England, and like Vierne formed a
productive relationship with Henry Willis (iii). Germani’s technique and
prodigious musical memory soon established him at the forefront of touring
organ recitalists, and drew distinguished pupils from all over the world. In
1945, at S Ignazio in Rome, he gave the first performance in Italy of Bach’s
complete organ works, for many years repeating them there or at the
Basilica of S Maria in Aracoeli. In 1949 he published in book form (Guida
illustrativa alle composizioni per organo di J.S. Bach) the notes written for
this series. For 11 years from 1948 he was first organist at S Pietro, Rome.
In the postwar years Germani extended his already considerable repertory
to encompass much Reger, including the large-scale compositions, and
also occasionally performed the complete works of Franck. He started
recording in the 1930s, and after the war recorded prolifically, playing much
early repertory as well as Bach, Franck and Reger; a number of his
recordings have been reissued on CD. He published a Toccata for organ
(1937) and an influential organ method in four volumes (1939–52), and
also produced an important edition of Frescobaldi’s Fiori musicali and
Toccate; a Concerto in C minor was lost after Germani lent the manuscript
to a stranger. Germani received many honours during his lifetime, including
the Special Cultural Prize of the Italian State in 1997. His papers are held
by the Fernando Germani Society in Reykjavík.
FELIX APRAHAMIAN/PAUL HALE

Germania Musical Society.

See New York, §5.

Germanos of New Patras

[Germanos Neōn Patrōn]
(b Tyrnavo, Thessaly, ?1625; d ?Wallachia, 1685). Romaic (Greek)
composer, cantor and hymnographer. He studied Byzantine chant in
Constantinople under the patriarchal prōtopsaltēs Panagiotes the New
Chrysaphes. Some time before 1665 he was elevated to the episcopacy,
possibly at the instigation of Patriarch Dionysios III (a fellow native of
Thessaly), becoming Metropolitan of New Patras (now Ipati). He appears to
have resigned from the see before 1683 and subsequently travelled to
Wallachia.
Musically active from at least the early 1660s, Germanos is known to have
produced five autographs: two copies of his edition of the Stichērarion, a
Mathēmatarion in two volumes and an anthology of the Papadikē. An
abundance of grammatical and spelling errors in these manuscripts
suggest that he had received little more than a rudimentary general
education, but he was neverthless highly respected as a musican, teaching
the composers Balasios and Kosmas Makedonos as well as the
Wallachian prōtopsaltēs Giovaskos Vlachos. He continued the work begun
by Panagiotes of enriching the received repertory through the introduction
of new melodic formulae (theseis). Devoting most of his energies towards
the creation of a florid style suitable for major solemnities, Germanos
produced an influential Stichērarion for the Divine Office, containing both
original compositions and ‘beautified’ versions of works by older masters;
this collection of stichēra for the liturgical year mostly displaced not only its
medieval predecessor but also the more recent Stichērarion of Panagiotes.
He also composed for the Divine Office a Heirmologion of the katabasiai of
great feasts and Holy Week, as well as various chants for Orthros, and
made important contributions to the post-Byzantine genre of paraliturgical
kalophonic heirmoi.
Despite the transcription by Chourmouzios the Archivist of Germanos's
complete Stichērarion (GR-An MPT 747-50), relatively few of his works
have appeared in modern printed editions. They include a number of
hymns, transcribed into Chrysanthine notation by Gregorios the
Protopsaltes (ed. Phōkaeus, 1835); the troparion for Holy Saturday Ton
hēlion krypsanta tas idias aktinas (‘As the sun hid its rays’, ed. Phōkaeus,
1834); and a kalophonic hymn for 15 August, transcribed by Gregorios (ed.
Lampadarios and Stephanos the First Domestikos). (For a fuller list of
works see Stathēs, 1995.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
chrysanthine music editions
T. Phōkaeus, ed.: Tameion anthologias [Treasury of an anthology]
(Constantinople, 1834), i, 130–36
T. Phokaeus, ed.: Heirmologion kalophōnikon (Constantinople, 1835), 2–3,
77–9, 90–92, 152–5 [transcr. Gregorios the Protopsaltes]
I. Lampadarios and Stephanos the First Domestikos, eds.: Pandektē
(Constantinople, 1850–51), iii, 243–54 [transcr. Gregorios the
Protopsaltes]
studies
S.I. Karas: ‘Hē orthē hermēneia kai metagraphē tōn byzantinōn mousikōn
cheirographōn’ [The correct interpretation and transcription of
Byzantine musical MSS], Hellēnika, ix (1955), 140–49 [repr., with an
afterword, Athens, 1990]
C.G. Patrinelis: ‘Protopsaltae, Lampadarioi and Domestikoi of the Great
Church during the Post-Byzantine Period (1453–1821)’, Studies in
Eastern Chant, iii, ed. M. Velimirović (London, 1973), 141–70
G.T. Stathēs: Ta cheirographa byzantinēs mousikēs: Hagion Oros [The
MSS of Byzantine Music: Holy Mountain] (Athens, 1975–93)
G.T. Stathēs: Hē dekapentasyllabos hymnographia en tē byzantinē
melopoiïa [15-syllable hymnography in Byzantine composition]
(Athens, 1977) [with Fr. summary]
G.T. Stathis: ‘An Analysis of the Sticheron Ton Hēlion krypsanta by
Germanos, Bishop of New Patras (The Old “Synoptic” and the New
 “Analytical” Method of Byzantine Notation)’, Studies in Eastern Chant,
iv, ed. M. Velimirović (Crestwood, NY, 1979), 177–227
M. Chatzēgiakoumēs: Cheirographa ekklēsiastikēs mousikēs (1453–
1820) [MSS of ecclesiastical music] (Athens, 1980)
G.T. Stathis: ‘The “Abridgements” of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine
Compositions’, Cahiers de l'Institut du Moyen-Age grec et latin, no.44
(1983), 16–38
D. Conomos: ‘Sacred Music in the Post-Byzantine Era’, The Byzantine
Legacy in Eastern Europe, ed. L. Clucas (Boulder, CO, 1988), 83–105
[based on Chatzēgiakoumēs, 1980]
G.T. Stathēs: ‘Germanos archiereus Neōn Patrōn’ [Germanos, archbishop
of New Patras], Melourgoi tou iz aiōna [Composers of the 17th
century], ed. E. Spanopoulou (Athens, 1995), 33–41
ALEXANDER LINGAS

German Reed, Thomas.

See Reed, Thomas German.

German sixth chord.

The common name for the Augmented sixth chord that has both a major
3rd and a doubly augmented 4th or perfect 5th in addition to an augmented
6th above the flattened submediant.

German String Trio.

German ensemble. It was established in Stuttgart in 1972 by the violinist
Hans Kalafusz (b The Hague, 3 Sept 1940), the viola player Christian
Hedrich and the cellist Reiner Ginzel. Soon after its foundation the group
won the prize for the best string trio at the International Chamber Music
Competition in France. In 1981 Hedrich was replaced by Jürgen Weber.
The ensemble has toured widely and has recorded much of the string trio
repertory, including works by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert,
Dohnányi, Wolf-Ferrari, Reger, Hindemith and David; and many composers
have dedicated works to it, among them Nikolaus Brass, Arthur Dangel,
Adriana Hölszky, Milko Kelemen, Joachim Krebs, Hans Peter Jahn, Anton
Ruppert, Ernst Sauter, Carlos Veerhoff, Roland Leister-Mayer, Alessandro
Solbiati and Krzysztof Penderecki. All three members hold major orchestral
and teaching positions, the leader in Stuttgart, the viola player in Munich
and the cellist in Baden-Baden and Munich. As an ensemble they play with
beautiful tone, immaculate intonation and impressive stylistic sense. The
trio’s instruments are a 1699 Pietro Giovanni Guarneri of Mantua, a 1780
Lorenzo Storioni of Cremona and a 1690 Giovanni Grancino of Milan.
TULLY POTTER

Germany, Federal Republic of

(Ger. Deutschland).
Country in Northern Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea and the North
German Plain to Lake Constance and the Bavarian Alps and Plateau, and
from the North Sea and the French border to the Oder and Neisse rivers
and the mountainous eastern regions of the Erzgebirge and the
Fichtelgebirge. It is bordered by Denmark, Poland, the Czech Republic,
Austria, Switzerland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands.
After World War II, from 1949 to 1990, Germany was divided, with Bonn as
the capital of West Germany; the historic capital Berlin was restored after
reunification in 1990 (East Berlin having served as the capital of East
Germany from 1949 to 1990).
I. Art music
II. Folk music
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JOHN KMETZ (I, 1), LUDWIG FINSCHER (I, 2–4), GISELHER
SCHUBERT (I, 5), WILHELM SCHEPPING (II, 1, 3), PHILIP V. BOHLMAN
(II, 2, 4)
Germany

I. Art music
1. To 1648.
2. 1648–1700.
3. 1700–1806.
4. 1806–1918.
5. Since 1918.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Germany, §I: Art music.
1. To 1648.
Exactly when German history began has been a matter of debate ever
since Goethe and Schiller felt obliged to ask the question ‘Germany? But
where is it?’. Some modern historians start with the anointing of the first
Carolingian king, Pippin the Short, in 751; or the re-foundation of the
‘Roman’ Empire in the West by his son Charlemagne (768–814) when he
was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III in 800. Other
scholars have suggested the division of the Carolingian Empire in 843 by
the Treaty of Verdun, or 911, the year that Conrad I, Duke of Franconia,
was elected as the first king of the East Franks; and still others look to the
coronation of Otto I, king of the East Franks, in 936, or to his imperial
coronation in Rome in 962 as the country’s birthdate. It is clear, however,
that by the end of the 10th century the four East Frankish peoples – the
Franks, Swabians, Bavarians and Saxons – formed what was known as the
land of the Germans (terra teutonica). From the 11th century such terms as
regnum Alamannae, regnum Germaniae, Teutonicae or Romanorum were
encountered frequently enough in contemporary historical accounts to
conclude that a German land did exist. However, any account of German
history must commence with Charlemagne, whose reign marked the
beginnings of what was later to become known as the First Reich; by 800
Charlemagne’s empire included much of present-day Germany and
Austria, Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg,
as well as a narrow strip of northern Spain and most of northern Italy.
During the reign of Pippin the Short (751–68) attempts were made to
introduce the Roman liturgy and its chant into the Frankish Church, a policy
that was continued with particular vigour by Charlemagne and his
successor, Louis the Pious (814–40). Through the efforts of several leading
churchmen the various native Gallican traditions were gradually replaced
and a single rite and chant repertory established throughout the Empire.
Although this repertory was intended to be identical to that sung in the
Church of Rome, it is clear from contemporary accounts that by 840 the
‘Roman’ music taught in the Carolingian Empire had significantly diverged
from its origin. This Frankish version of the Roman repertory is known as
Gregorian chant (see Plainchant, §II). During the late 8th century and the
9th a systematic method of classifying liturgical melodies was developed in
Francia based on the eight psalm tones and a means of recording the
music evolved in the form of neumatic notation. Many of the earliest
surviving sources of notation originate from monastic houses in the
Germanic areas of the Empire; the oldest known example (D-Mbs clm
9543) is thought to have been written at the monastery of St Emmeram,
Regensburg, by the scribe Engyldeo between 817 and 834. Other
ecclesiastical centres in the German-speaking lands that are known to
have been important in the cultivation of liturgical chant are Aachen (where
Charlemagne established his court), Augsburg, Cologne, Einsiedeln,
Reichenau and St Gallen. German monasteries also played a significant
role in the expansion of the Gregorian repertory and in the development of
new plainchant forms (see Trope (i) and Sequence (i)). As early as the 9th
century the practice of appending or interpolating long, untexted melismas
into pre-existing chants, which seems to have originated in centres in
present-day France, made its way to the German-speaking lands in East
Francia, especially St Gallen. Here, in the hands of the monk Notker
Balbulus (c840–912), the sequence repertory was refined. By assigning a
syllable of text to each tone of a melisma, Notker produced sequentiae
cum prosae that were fully syllabic, a style that continued to flourish in
Germany and elsewhere throughout the Middle Ages.
German monastic houses also contributed significantly to the development
of music theory and pedagogy. The earliest known treatises dealing with
polyphony and containing examples of parallel organum are the Musica
enchiriadis and the Scolica enchiriadis, both dating from the late 9th
century. Although it is now reasonably clear that these sources originate
from a northern part of West Francia (i.e. northern France and the
Netherlands), and not from a southern part of East Francia (i.e. German-
speaking Switzerland), there is no question that they were produced in the
wake of the intense cultural and musical activities fostered earlier under
Charlemagne’s reign. Many important works on medieval music theory,
however, were composed by writers from the Germanic areas of the
Empire; they include the treatise and tonary of the Benedictine monk
Regino of Prüm (c842–915). Written in about 900, this tonary is one of the
largest that is still extant. Other theorists of the 10th and 11th centuries,
many of whom lived in the Rhineland, were Hucbald, abbot of St Amand
(c850–930), Berno, abbot of Reichenau (d 1048), Hermannus Contractus,
also of Reichenau (1012–54) and Wilhelm of Hirsau, a monk of St
Emmeram (d 1091), who, like his contemporaries, wrote on the species of
intervals and their relationship to octave scales and the eight church
modes. Although these theorists all wrote in Latin, several works dating
from this period were written in German. The earliest treatises on music in
German have been attributed to the monk of St Gallen, Notker Labeo
(c950–1022). Among Labeo’s five essays in Old High German, his treatise
on the measurement of organ pipes is especially noteworthy in that it
represents one of the first in a long line of works on this subject written by
German speakers.
Aside from the many medieval German writings on plainchant, mode, the
monochord and organ building, one of the most important theoretical
discussions of polyphony and of mensural notation can be attributed to the
German-speaker Franco of Cologne (fl mid to late-13th century), who,
while working in Paris, established a system of musical notation in his Ars
cantus mensurabilis that formed the foundation upon which mensural
notation emerged. Franconian notation, however, had little influence on the
musical scene of medieval Germany. Only one of the eight extant copies of
Franco’s treatise is of German origin (F-SDI 42, ff.43–53v), and this one is
late, dating from the 14th century. Indeed, there is little evidence of
Franco’s writings having any influence in Germany or, for that matter, that
Germans had any interest in composing polyphony until the second half of
the 14th century. The Engelberg Codex 314, written predominantly by the
monks Walter Mirer and Bartholomaeus Fridower between about 1360 and
1400, contains examples of polyphony, as does the Mondsee-Weiner
Liederhandschrift (A-Wn 2856), which dates from around 1460 but contains
polyphonic songs written at least a half a century earlier by the Monk of
Salzburg (fl late 14th century). However, these examples of German
polyphonic writing were isolated and, compared to their French
counterparts, primitive. That polyphony was slow to develop in Germany
could be attributed to the fact that Germany, unlike France, was slow to
develop as a unified nation. By the 13th century France had a centre of
commerce and of culture, wherein the so-called Parisian organum of Notre
Dame and the motets of the Ars Antiqua flourished. Germany, on the other
hand, had at this time no commercial or cultural centre, nor a musical
genre that it could call its own. It is true that the earliest vernacular hymns
developed from Gregorian chant (e.g. Christ ist erstanden and Nun bitten
wir den heiligen Geist), as well as some important liturgical dramas with
music (e.g. Hildegard of Bingen’s Ordo virtutum), are of German origin. Yet
when one compares these musical accomplishments with those produced
in France at this time, they are neither progressive nor particularly original.
Ironically, under the Ottonian (919–1024), Salian (1024–1125) and
Hohenstaufen (1138–1254) dynasties, it was Germany, not France, that
was the pre-eminent power in Europe in the Middle Ages. But the German
empire was inherently weak, because it was too large to be effectively
ruled. Rivalry between the Welf and the Hohenstaufen dynasties further
abraded the empire and, from the beginning of the 13th century when
France grew predominant in Europe, Germany became a power vacuum
controlled by territorial princes, several of whom looked to France for their
cultural inspiration. However, despite the political chaos of the
Hohenstaufen period, the population of Germany grew from an estimated
eight million in 1200 to around 14 million in 1300, and the number of towns
increased tenfold. Indeed, it was at this time that German cities like
Augsburg, Cologne and Nuremberg began to develop, and a prosperous
merchant class began to emerge. Within the walls of these urban centres
civic bands were formed, a class of professional singers developed, dance
halls were built and penitential processions of flagellants heard who, in the
wake of the Black Death of 1349, sang Geisslerlieder for their salvation. A
number of German universities that are still renowned centres of
scholarship were also founded at this time. They included not only Prague
(1348), but also the universities of Vienna (1365), Heidelberg (1386) and
Leipzig (1409). Here music was taught in the context of the Quadrivium to
a new class of professional bureaucrats, lawyers and secular scholars,
including Johannes Klein, whose extant books document the musical
interests and abilities of this 15th-century Leipzig professor.
As universities began to replace monasteries as centres of learning in the
14th century, we also see castles and secular courts replacing
ecclesiastical communities as centres of culture. Growing out of this courtly
life, German medieval literature reached its peak in the narrative epic
poems of Tristan, Parzivâl and the Nibelungenlied as well as in the lyrical
love poetry of the Minnesinger. These German poet-musicians of noble
birth produced a monophonic song repertory that unquestionably
represents the primary manifestation of German music during the high
Middle Ages, though they were inspired by French troubadours. Yet the
Minnesang differs considerably from its French counterpart. While both the
French and German texts are amorous or idyllic, the German texts tend to
be more narrative and devotional, with many in praise of the Virgin. The
German melodies are demonstrably more modal and, given their narrative
style, often take on extensive proportions which, in turn, make the rhythms
of the trouvères difficult to apply. The French refrain forms are replaced in
the German repertory by both the Leich, derived from the French lai, and
the bar form, derived from the French ballade, the latter of which, with its
Stollen (section a) and Abgesang (section b), became the dominant form
for the Meistersinger and Tenorlied composers of the 15th and 16th
centuries. Among the more prominent Minnesinger were Walther von der
Vogelweide (c1170–c1230), Neidhart von Reuental (c1180 – after 1237)
and Heinrich von Meissen (d1318), whose many poems in praise of courtly
women and of the Virgin earned him the nickname ‘Frauenlob’ (‘Praiser of
women’). Manuscript transmission of the poetry dates from the 13th
century, the primary source being the Manesse Codex (D-HEu), whose
illuminations demonstrate that the Minnesang was accompanied by
instruments. Manuscript transmission of the music, however, dates from
the 14th and 15th centuries, with the sources preserved in Jena (D-Ju
El.f.101, Jenaer Liederhandschrift), Munich (Mbs Cgm 4997, Colmar
Liederhandschrift) and Vienna (A-Wn 2701, Frauenlob Codex or Wiener
Leichhandschrift) being the chief witnesses. Since polyphony was slow to
develop within the German-speaking realm, it is not surprising that a
monophonic song repertory continued to flourish in Germany far longer
than elsewhere in Europe. By the beginning of the 15th century Hugo von
Montfort (1357–1423) was still writing monophonic songs in the Minnesang
tradition. By the end of the century, a middle-class version of this noble art
emerged in the hands of the Meistersinger. These conservative
songwriters, whose activities could be heard especially in the civic singing
schools of Augsburg and Nuremberg, organized themselves into Guilds. Its
most famous practitioner was the Nuremberg craftsman Hans Sachs
(1494–1576; fig.2).
As the Minnesang tradition died out and the Meistergesang tradition began
to take root in the first half of the 15th century, we see for the first time
German musicians like the Monk of Salzburg taking an active interest in
polyphonic composition, as evidenced by the contents of the Mondsee-
Wiener Liederhandschrift (A-Wn 2856) and by the earlier Strasbourg
manuscript (F-Sm C.22) copied around 1410, but destroyed by fire in 1870.
Indeed, it seems to be no coincidence that around the same time German
speakers began composing polyphony, foreign composers who wrote
polyphony began appearing in large numbers at German courts and
chapels. In the 1440s, for example, we find Johannes Brassart and
Johannes de Sarto on the payroll of the Habsburg Emperor Friedrich III,
the father of the famous Weisskönig Maximilian I. These two Netherlandish
composers are important because they represent the first in a long line of
foreign musicians who served Habsburg rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.
It is also at this time that we begin to see large amounts of Burgundian and
English music, both sacred and secular, appearing in German sources. The
Aosta manuscript, the St Emmeram Codex, the Trent Codices and the
Buxheim Organ Book, as well as the songbooks of Schedel, Glogau and
Lochamer demonstrate that Germans had good musical taste. These
sources also show that German-speakers were not yet able to compose
music of their own that was of the quality of the music they were collecting.
The German songs preserved in the Liederhandschriften contain all the
distinctive signs of the emerging German Tenorlied, with its bar form and
Hofweise sung by the tenor voice. Yet a song like the anonymous In feurs
hitz from the Glogauer Liederbuch clearly lacks the refined handling of
melody, rhythm and texture brought later to the genre by the South
Netherlandish composer Henricus Isaac and his Swiss-born student
Ludwig Senfl. Together, these composers transformed the Tenorlied from
its woodcut-like texture into a sophisticated hybrid combining German and
Franco-Flemish techniques. As Franco-Flemish and Burgundian songs
began to appear in 15th-century German sources, we also see the
Tyrolean knight Oswald von Wolkenstein creating German translations and
contrafacta of this foreign song repertory, a tradition that continued in
German-speaking lands well into the 17th century. At the same time, and
with the same repertory, we also see Conrad Paumann transcribing the
music of Du Fay and his contemporaries into German organ tablature, and
later see Hans Judenkünig transcribing the next generation of foreign
music into tablature for the lute. The interest in having foreign songs sung
in German or performed on instruments that were plucked, blown, touched
or bowed softly was related to the needs of a burgeoning merchant class,
whose influence on German music history would prove decisive from the
beginning of the 16th century onwards.
By the late Middle Ages, a macroeconomic change was clearly underway in
central Europe. It entailed a steady shift from ecclesiastical goods to
worldly goods, from a feudal system to a mercantile system, from an
agrarian economy to a sophisticated urban society that promoted
international trade and fostered investment in emerging technologies. In
short, it signified the beginning of the capitalist world. This macroeconomic
shift had a profound effect on the business of making, performing and
transmitting music in early modern Germany. However, it must be
emphasized that, with little more than 1% of the population musically
literate, it was a business that at best could be categorized as
microeconomic.
Between 1450 and 1550 musical culture in the German-speaking lands
entered a new phase. During this period the region cultivated a polyphonic
soundscape that could be classified for the first time as not only truly
‘Germanic’ but also musically sophisticated. By the middle of the 15th
century, for example, the region witnessed the birth of its first important
‘school’ of polyphonic composers, represented by Adam von Fulda,
Heinrich Finck and Paul Hofhaimer. Together, these three played a
significant role in establishing the German Tenorlied as a viable genre,
which finally secured Germany a respectable place among the musical
nations of Europe. They also adapted the Franco-Flemish style of
composition to secular and sacred music alike, and in so doing brought this
‘new art’ to the German courts, universities and cities where they were
employed. At the court of Frederick the Wise of Saxony and at the newly
founded University of Wittenberg (1502), Adam von Fulda took the lead. At
the court of Duke Ulrich of Württemberg, it was Heinrich Finck. Finally, and
perhaps most importantly, it was the internationally renowned keyboard
virtuoso Paul Hofhaimer, working together with the Flemish master
Henricus Isaac, who raised the level of music making to new heights in
Germany at the court of Maximilian I. In the hands of Hofhaimer’s many
students, including Hans Buchner, Dionisio Memo and Wolfgang Grefinger,
Hofhaimer’s legacy and Germany's position as a land endowed with some
of the best instrumentalists began to emerge. Aside from Hofhaimer and
his school of ‘Paulomines’, Arnolt Schlick, Sebastian Virdung and Hans
Neusidler set new standards in instrumental music. German
instrumentalists like the Schubingers and German-made instruments
produced by the Neuschel family were in demand outside Germany in
much the same way that Franco-Flemish composers of vocal music were
sought after in Germany and throughout Europe.
German speakers were also integral to the development of music printing
as a viable commercial industry. In addition to the immense impact they
had on the printing of chant from woodblock during the second half of the
15th century, they played an important role in the development of printing
mensural music from type in the first half of the 16th century. Very soon
after the Venetian printer Petrucci released his alphabet series of
polyphonic songs between 1501 and 1503, the Augsburg printer Erhard
Oeglin issued polyphonic settings of Horace's odes (1507) and the Basle
printer Georg Mewes published four masses of Jacob Obrecht (c1510).
Likewise, as volumes of frottolas and strambotti rolled off Italian presses
during the second decade of the century, the publishing houses of Oeglin,
Schoeffer and Arnt von Aich were also releasing large and important
collections of German Tenorlieder. There were not only for courtly
consumption but also for the educated nouveaux riches of German society,
among whom were such dynastic houses of ‘corporate’ finance as the
Fuggers, Welsers and Herwarts of Augsburg. By the third and fourth
decades, when such printers as Attaingnant and Gardano were busy
marketing the new style of chanson and madrigal by Sermisy and Arcadelt,
the Nuremberg publishing houses of Petreius, Berg and Neuber, and
Formschneider were busy printing the new style of German Tenorlied by
Ludwig Senfl and his contemporaries, together with other music by a wide
range of composers. In the case of the Nuremberg printer Johann Petreius,
this included, in addition to the Tenorlied, chansons, madrigals, psalms,
masses, motets, hymns, sequences, antiphones, odes, instrumental
dances and intabulations, as well as numerous excerpts from these and
other genres printed as examples in theoretical discussions.
The diversity of music printed by Petreius is matched by the diversity of the
composers. Of the 172 represented, only 60 were German-speaking. While
their reputations ran the gamut from important figures of the imperial court
orbit (e.g. Hofhaimer and Senfl) to Kleinmeister attached to local parish
churches (e.g. Rupert Unterholtzer), the remaining 112 international
composers were mostly seasoned professionals whose talents were
appreciated throughout Europe's emerging international economy. They
hailed from France, Italy and the Low Countries and included such
celebrated figures as Ockeghem, Obrecht, Josquin, Sermisy, Arcadelt,
Verdelot, Gombert and Willaert. Indeed, if one compares the output of
German music printers with that of contemporary French, Italian and
Flemish printers, three aspects emerge which generally set German music
printers apart. They published a repertory that was far more international in
scope; they printed the works of composers whose careers spanned
collectively nearly a century of Western music history; and they issued
more pedagogical volumes intended to teach the art of singing to students
at local Latin schools or, indeed, to anyone who could read Latin. Nikolaus
Listenius’s Musica, Georg Rhau’s Enchiridion and Sebald Heyden’s De
arte canendi were the first in a long line of practical music texts which
appeared in the wake of the German Reformation.
Few people, and even fewer events, had such an impact on Germany as
Martin Luther and his Reformation. Aside from causing religious, political
and socio-economic upheaval, it was of musical significance in that the role
of music was redefined both in terms of the Lutheran service and the
Christian way of life in general. Unlike the Swiss reformers Zwingli and
Calvin, who either banished music altogether or restricted its use in their
reformed services, Luther saw music and theology as inextricably woven
together. In keeping with his principle of congregational participation, his
main vehicle for the delivery of the Word of God was the Protestant hymn,
which was to be sung in the vernacular to simple, tuneful melodies. For his
texts Luther resorted chiefly to Roman Catholic hymns, which he (or his
collaborators) translated into German. These included Nun Komm der
Heiden Heiland, a reworking of the Veni Redemptor gentium, and Komm
Heiliger Geist, a translation of Veni sancte spiritus. Aside from capitalizing
on a well-known Latin repertory, Luther relied heavily on the German folk
tradition. Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ and Nun bitten wir den Heiligen
Geist were either altered or considerably extended by Luther, whilst the
famous 11th-century hymn Christ ist erstanden was completely rewritten to
form Christ lag in Todesbanden. Luther also created newly composed
hymns such as Nun freut euch, lieben Christen g’mein and Ein’ feste Burg
ist unser Gott (see Lutheran church music). By 1523 broadsheets
containing German hymns complete with melodies were printed in
Wittenberg. In 1524 the ‘Achtliederbuch’, a collection of 40 monophonic
hymns, over half of which were written by Luther himself, was issued in
Nuremberg. This important publication was soon followed by numerous
others which appeared not only in Nuremberg and Wittenberg, but also in
Leipzig, Strasbourg, Worms and Erfurt. Although the Protestant chorale
was conceived as a monophonic tune, it was quickly reworked into
polyphonic settings by Johann Walter (i) who, working closely with Luther
and the Wittenberg printer Georg Rhau, published the first polyphonic
collection of Luther’s hymn repertory (Geystliches gesangk Buchleyn,
1524).
Walter’s partbooks, as well as others issued later by Rhau, were clearly
intended for choral use in school and in church. Yet the complex
polyphonic textures one finds in these collections would certainly have
alienated most of Luther’s musically illiterate congregation. Indeed, it was
not until 1586, when Lucas Osiander published his Fünffzig geistliche
Lieder und Psalmen, that Luther’s dream of congregational singing began
to be fully realized. Here Osiander took the melody and placed it in the
descant voice and then adopted a simple homophonic style in the
accompanying lower parts to support it. Osiander’s more user-friendly
‘cantional’ style was embraced by Sethus Calvisius (Harmonia cantionum
ecclesiasticarum, 1597), Hans Leo Hassler (Kirchengesäng: Psalmen und
geistliche Lieder, 1608) and Samuel Scheidt (Tabulatur-Buch hundert
geistlicher Lieder und Psalmen, 1650) and later reached its zenith in the
chorale harmonizations of Bach (see Chorale).
There is no question that Luther played an important role in shaping the
curricula of musical education in the modern age and in establishing
congregational singing in church. Yet his reformed music still remained
heavily dependent on the traditional style of polyphony cultivated by
Roman Catholic composers. For example, much of the so-called
‘Protestant’ music of Martin Agricola, Sixt Dietrich and Balthasar Resinarius
is not remarkably different from music written by such Catholic composers
as Arnold von Bruck, Lupus Hellinck, Ludwig Senfl and Thomas Stoltzer.
Indeed, soon after the Peace of Augsburg was signed in 1555 (a treaty that
granted equal rights to Lutherans and Roman Catholics alike), one begins
to detect a reaction against congregational singing among some Protestant
German strongholds. Latin again asserted itself. More complex polyphony
began to be written by such composers as Jobst vom Brandt, Gallus
Dressler and Matthaeus Le Maistre, who in 1554 succeeded Johann Walter
as Kapellmeister to the Elector of Saxony in Dresden.
In fact, throughout the second half of the 16th century the lines of
demarcation between Protestant and Catholic music often become blurred,
as Protestant composers wrote music in Latin, and Catholic composers set
Protestant German texts. This duplicity is perhaps best illustrated by the
career of the Protestant organist Hassler who, while employed by the
Catholic banker Octavian Fugger, wrote in all sacred genres, Protestant as
well as Catholic, in German as well as in Latin. Indeed, Hassler’s collected
works, when taken together with those of the Bavarian court composer
Lassus, demonstrate how 16th-century musicians were able to adapt to
‘free market forces’ by diversifying their portfolio of musical assets.
From the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 to the outbreak of the Thirty Years
War in 1618, Germany enjoyed a period of relative peace. At the same
time, it witnessed the beginning of an economic decline compounded by
rampant inflation. As the European economy shifted westward to the
Atlantic states of Spain, France, England and the Low Countries, in search
of such precious commodities as gold, silver and sugar from the New
World, Germany was no longer at the centre of European commerce.
Consequently, the thriving economies of many German towns in the late
Middle Ages and in the first half of the 16th century gradually dried up.
Germany as a whole entered a long period of economic recession that
continued well into the 19th century.
Although Germany’s musical culture continued to flourish, its main
practitioners were no longer composers like Senfl, writing in a style
demonstrably German. Rather they were foreigners or native Germans
who, like the Minnesinger before them, drew heavily on foreign influence.
From the Netherlands came Lassus, who settled in Munich; Le Maistre,
who moved to Dresden; Phillipe de Monte, who resided in Prague; and Jan
Pieterszoon Sweelinck who, while never leaving the Low Countries, had an
immense impact on several generations of German organists. From
England came John Dowland, William Brade and Thomas Simpson, each
of whom resided at German courts.
The most important influence, however, came from Italy, first with
instrumental music and then the introduction of the madrigal and villanella.
From the mid-1560s to the end of the century, expatriates and native
Germans alike published collections of German songs which were so
heavily influenced by the style of the villanella and madrigal that, but for the
language of their texts, they were virtually indistinguishable from their
Italian originals. The popularity of this new Italian style, which ultimately
resulted in the collapse of the German Tenorlied, is evidenced not only by
the makers of this music but also by its consumers. As early as 1566, the
catalogue of Raimund Fugger’s music library in Augsburg recorded about
70 prints of Italian madrigals and villanellas. By 1586, when virtually the
whole musical establishment of the Munich court hailed from Italy, Johann
Heinrich Herwart, another Augsburg patrician and merchant, had 200
printed volumes of this Italian secular song repertory in his collection.
These madrigalian songs were enjoyed not only at the courts and private
homes of Germany’s élite, but also by its middle-class citizens. This is
evident from the activities of the Musicalische Krentzleins-Gesellschaft of
Nuremberg founded in 1568; from the collection of Italian music amassed
by the Danzig merchant and bibliophile Georg Knoff; and from the German
keyboard music belonging to the lawyer Christoph Leibfried, who
singlehandedly created hundreds of intabulations of this Italian vocal
repertory for his own enjoyment while living in Würzburg, Tübingen and
Basle between 1585 and 1600.
Apart from the madrigal and villanella craze, German enthusiasm for
foreign music, especially Italian, is evident in the reception of monody, of
the concertato principle and stile rappresentativo, and of instrumental
music. ‘The result of this assimilation of foreign influences’, as Christoph
Wolff noted, ‘was a plurality of styles in German Baroque music not found
in any other European country.’ That such Italian innovations as monody,
figured bass and concertato were adopted in Germany more quickly than
anywhere else and continued unabated well into the 17th century can be
attributed to the strong trade routes that developed between the two
countries, and especially between the cities of Venice and Nuremberg, the
so-called ‘German Venice’. By 1620 the new style of Italian music could not
only be heard throughout most of Germany, but read in theory as well. In
the monumental treatise Syntagma musicum (1614–19), Michael
Praetorius analysed the implications of the new style in remarkable detail.
What one read in his treatise could be heard in his Musae Sioniae (1605–
11), a veritable encyclopedia of chorale arrangements ranging from simple
harmonizations to sensational polychoral settings in the Venetian style.
However, the most important German practitioner of the Italian style was
the Venetian-trained composer Heinrich Schütz, one of Giovanni Gabrieli’s
favourite students. In his first great work of German church music, the
Psalmen Davids (1619), Schütz adopted the polyphonic concertato style of
Gabrieli in compositions for two, three and four choruses with instruments.
In his Kleine geistliche Concerte (1636–9) he demonstrated his ability to
handle modern monody. In the Geistliche Chor-Music (1648), a
retrospective collection of polyphony, Schütz succeeded in doing the
apparently impossible by combining stile antico with stile moderno. And in
the three instalments of his Symphoniae sacrae (1629, 1647 and 1650), he
proved that each one of these different styles and approaches to
composition could co-exist. That German music soared to unprecedented
heights in the works of Schütz could also be attributed in part to the delight
that he derived from setting German speech rhythm within the musical-
rhetorical context of the musica poetica. The relationship between text and
music found in his vocal works represents as perfect a union of words and
music in the German language as was ever achieved.
The first half of the 17th century also witnessed important developments in
the history of German keyboard music, especially as the already highly
developed German organ came to assume a leading position within the
church. At this time, three regional schools of organ playing emerged: a
southern school conditioned by the Italian influence of Gabrieli and Merulo;
a northern school influenced by the unique English-Dutch style of
Sweelinck; and a central school around Samuel Scheidt, Sweelinck’s
student in Halle.
It was with Scheidt that the central style of German organ music came into
its own. In his epoch-making Tabulatura nova (1624), Scheidt abandoned
traditional German organ tablature and the colourist style of Leipzig’s Elias
Nikolaus Ammerbach (Ein new künstlich Tabulaturbuch, 1575), and in its
place adopted a fresh new approach to composition which he transcribed
into Italian keyboard partitura. Within this modern notational framework
employing a separate staff for each voice, Scheidt composed variations on
chorales, secular songs and dances, produced chorale fantasies and wrote
elaborate fugues. His music marked the beginning of a new age in German
organ composition that was to continue up to the death of Bach. In
harpsichord music, German keyboard composers also looked to Italy and
France for examples on which to base their works, as is evident in the
music of Johann Jacob Froberger, who combined the bold harmonic
language of his teacher Frescobaldi with the delicate agréments of French
dance music.
The musical accomplishments of such dominating figures of the early
German Baroque as Schütz, Scheidt and Schein are unquestionable. Yet
to appreciate their achievements fully and to place them within a context,
account must be taken of the Thirty Years War (1618–48) through which
they lived. Schütz wrote only vocal music. Yet in the case of this vocal
music, as in that of Scheidt and Schein, sacred music far outnumbers
secular works. This to some extent underscores the differences between
German and Italian musical life and the circumstances that produced these
differences. As Italy staged spectacles of music, dance and drama in a
peaceful political climate, Germany was devastated by three decades of
war. The courts were often impoverished and had to improvise. Citizens
were almost always afraid for their lives. Consequently, it seems to be no
coincidence that German composers, like Schütz, frequently sought refuge
in the south. When they returned, they felt more compelled to write music
of religious observation and solace than to write opera. Ironically, Dafne
(1627), the only opera composed by Schütz, is now lost.
Germany, §I: Art music.
2. 1648–1700.
The Thirty Years War was the greatest political, economic and cultural
watershed in the German territories before World War II. Pomerania,
Mecklenburg, Thuringia and parts of Saxony, the Palatinate and
Württemberg lost about half their population; Brandenburg, Hesse,
Franconia and Swabia lost a third, while the Catholic south-east and
Protestant north-west remained largely spared. However, the speedy
recovery of most urban areas after the war, assisted by very swift
demographic growth in the second half of the 17th century, created
favourable conditions for the rapid regeneration of cultural life in towns,
cities and courts. A large number of cultural centres emerged within a wide
variety of political structures which remained fundamentally stable until
1803. Some of these centres were free imperial cities or trading centres
such as Hamburg, Lübeck, Frankfurt, Leipzig and Nuremberg, others were
small principalities under ecclesiastical or secular rule, others again were
territorial states. The variety of the cultural structures themselves and the
rivalry between them encouraged mobility, stylistic diversity and a
receptiveness to outside influences. These factors are all evident in
German music of the time, with its eclecticism and readiness to adopt
foreign styles, forms and techniques, a process which was to lead to J.J.
Quantz’s famous discussion of the ‘mixed’ or ‘German’ style in his Versuch
einer Anweisung die Flöte traversière zu spielen (1752); according to
Quantz, this ‘German’ style derived from a combination of the best
elements of the music of other nations.
The wide variety of German musical culture in the 17th and 18th centuries,
which had no counterpart in other countries, was further increased by two
specific phenomena: the schism between the mainly Protestant north and
the mainly Catholic south, and the co-existence until well into the 18th
century of the most up-to-date music from outside Germany (especially
Italy) with the continuing traditions of the 16th century. In short, the varied
development of music in Germany during the 17th and 18th centuries
arose from religious, political and economic conditions: differences
between Catholic and Protestant regions on the one hand, and between
rural, urban and court musical cultures on the other.
We have very little direct information about the music of the lower classes,
although a certain amount can be inferred from literature, the visual arts
and (in the 19th century) folksong collections. We can be sure, however,
that there was much singing, music-making and dancing in towns and
villages during the 17th and 18th centuries, both in daily life and on festive
occasions. Many performances were also given by itinerant musicians,
often war veterans, who played the dulcimer, bagpipes and fiddle. The
novels of Grimmelshausen, in particular Simplicissimus (1669), present a
vivid picture of such musicians. There was some blurring of the distinctions
between traditional music, expecially folksong, and melodies composed by
professional musicians, particularly for hymns in which the whole
community could join. Akin to the simple hymns were numerous sacred
songs in which poets deplored the troubles of the times and expressed
their hopes for modest happiness on earth and bliss in the life to come. The
17th century was a century of song in Germany; some 10,000 sacred
poems were written and about 3000 of them set to music. Notable Catholic
poets included Friedrich von Spee and Angelus Silesius; their Protestant
equivalents were Johann Rist and Paul Gerhardt. Silesius collaborated with
the musician Georg Joseph, who was in the service of the Prince-Bishop of
Breslau and wrote melodies for most of Silesius’s poems. The poems of
Rist and Gerhardt were sung to both new and traditional hymn tunes, and
sometimes had more elaborate settings with basso continuo. The most
important composers of such songs included Johannes Crüger, S.T.
Staden, Andreas Hammerschmidt, Johann Schop (i), Thomas Selle and
Heinrich Scheidemann.
The extraordinary flowering of sacred song in the 17th century reflected the
need of many people, particularly in the towns, for spiritual consolation,
while the dissemination of more musically demanding songs attested to the
new culture of middle-class music-making, combining the tradition of the
strophic song with such Italian innovations as the basso continuo. The
same is true of secular song, which also flourished in the second half of the
century; its principal exponents included Heinrich Albert and Johann
Sebastiani of Königsberg, the court Kantor J.P. Krieger of Weissenfels and
the organist Andreas Hammerschmidt of Zittau.
Hymn-singing was not the only link between the musical cultures of town
and country in the 17th century. Lay choirs were formed to sing sacred
music on the model of the urban Kantorei (and encouraged by the
progressive spread of literacy), and lay musicians made up instrumental
ensembles to play at festivals and ceremonies for a fee. Resentment of
these lay musicians by professional town musicians led to a number of
decrees towards the end of the century stating that only performers of
sacred music might ‘serve’ within a parish.
In urban musical culture the traditions and organizations of the 16th
century persisted independently of all stylistic change, especially in
Protestant areas. (17th-century urban musical life was richer and more
varied in Lutheran than in Catholic regions, and the role of music was
naturally even smaller in Reformed Church areas.) The town musicians,
who regarded themselves as a kind of guild, played for ceremonial
occasions such as festivals and civic receptions and signalled the hours
from church towers. They also performed in church and at private
ceremonies. Their ‘official’ instruments were cornetts and trombones, with
some string instruments, although initially these were not highly regarded.
Oboes were added at the end of the century. Sacred music was provided
by the Kantor and the organist, and the Kantor would very often teach at
local schools. At the bottom of the musical hierarchy in Protestant towns
was the choir of Kurrende, schoolboys who walked the streets singing for
alms, a custom not abolished until the middle of the 18th century.
The development of urban musical life organized in this way depended
directly on the economic power of the town or city concerned. It found its
clearest expression in the creation of collegia musica, which incorporated
the scholarly and humanistic ideals of the Italian academies and frequently
concerned themselves with language and poetry as well as music. The first
collegia musica had been founded in the 16th century, particularly in
Nuremberg, the leading commercial metropolis of its time. After (and in
some cases during) the Thirty Years War they were concentrated in trading
cities that had been spared in the hostilities (Nuremberg, Elbing,
Königsberg) or had made a swift recovery (Sagan, Görlitz, Memmingen,
Leipzig). Königsberg was a special case because of the literary and
musical talents in the circle around Simon Dach and Heinrich Albert. The
musical societies of Frankfurt and Hamburg were notable for their swift
acceptance of the latest music from Italy. They were financed by merchant
patricians, and in Hamburg the musical society was a joint stock company.
Nuremberg was almost the only place where the 16th-century tradition of
music printing continued, although on a small scale. Music was generally
transmitted in manuscript form, in marked contrast to the situation in Italy;
and musicians, working in near-isolation, tended to produce music for
specific local conditions. These circumstances hardly favoured stylistic
uniformity, as did the different conditions prevailing in the 18th and
especially the 19th centuries. On the other hand, the small scale and the
diversity of these musical ‘urban landscapes’ meant that a composer had
considerable scope to develop his individuality.
The reception accorded to foreign music, particularly from Italy, differed
from genre to genre and from region to region, as did the nature of its
adaptation to native German forms. Adaptation was most successful where
older German traditions could be fused with the new, for instance in motets
in the style of Palestrina and in the sacred madrigal, sung predominantly in
Latin in the Catholic south and in German in the Protestant north
(examples include Schütz’s Geistliche Chor-Music of 1648 and works by
Hammerschmidt, W.C. Briegel and others). Out of these genres grew the
polychoral motet designed for special occasions, a tradition leading from
Sebastian Knüpfer and Johann Schelle through Johann Michael and
Johann Christoph Bach to its culmination in the examples of J.S. Bach. The
transformation of Italian traditions into the chorale concerto and choral
cantata of northern and central Germany derived entirely from the role of
sacred song in Protestant divine service, a development that had begun
with Praetorius and was continued by Schein, Scheidt, Knüpfer and
Buxtehude right through to J.S. Bach; the extension of the form by adding
free textual commentary between the chorale verses shows that the sacred
song had a central position in the Protestant church.
At the same time the cantata not based on a chorale was developing, with
texts in German or Latin in the work of such composers as J.C. Kerll in
Munich and Christoph Bernhard in Dresden and Hamburg (both of them
pupils of Carissimi), the Dresden Kapellmeister Vincenzo Albrici and M.G.
Peranda, and Matthias Weckmann, David Pohle, Dieterich Buxtehude and
F.W. Zachow, the teacher of Handel. The cultivation of sacred concertos
and symphoniae sacrae (a term first used by Schütz) for small forces
originally reflected the needs of musical ensembles in and directly after the
war (as in Schütz’s works of 1629, 1647 and 1650), just as the
development of large-scale works, chiefly in the Carissimi tradition and
including historiae (the Christmas and Easter stories) and Passions, is
symptomatic of the recovery of some of the large Protestant courts, such
as Dresden, and the relative prosperity of cities such as Breslau that had
been little affected by the war. The composition of historiae seems to have
been concentrated in central Germany (Schütz in Dresden) and eastern
Germany (Tobias Zeutschner and others in Breslau). The Passion, a
specifically Protestant genre and far more ambitious musically than the
unassuming Catholic Passion music of the period, was widespread
throughout central and northern Germany in the 17th and early 18th
centuries. The genre included works by Schütz, Selle, Sebastiani, Johann
Theile and J.V. Meder, reaching its culmination in the Passions of J.S.
Bach. In the early 18th century the Passion oratorio developed in the
progressive musical atmosphere of Hamburg. Keiser set the Passion
poems of C.F. Hunold in 1704 and of B.H. Brockes in 1712; further settings
of the Brockes text were composed by Telemann in 1716, Handel in 1716–
17, Mattheson in 1718, G.H. Stölzel in 1720 and J.F. Fasch in 1723.
Oratorios on subjects other than the Passion scarcely spread beyond the
imperial court in Vienna; Das jüngste Gericht (c1680), attributed to
Buxtehude, was a special case and had no perceptible influence. Sacred
opera seems to have provided a substitute, but today its merits can be
assessed only from the librettos of C.C. Dedekind and from accounts of
performances.
Although it is difficult to draw strict distinctions between the history of
musical composition in towns or cities and at court, some genres were
clearly associated with the development of court culture. Those German
courts that had emerged relatively unscathed from the Thirty Years War,
like the electoral court of the Palatinate at Heidelberg, took advantage of a
new start to look towards the French court of Louis XIV, which had become
a paradigm for all Europe. However, the influence of French court music
proved limited, probably because Italian influence on court music in
Germany had become too deeply ingrained since the last third of the 16th
century, and perhaps, too, because Italy, with its many small states and
cities, provided an inexhaustible supply of musicians who were willing to
travel, while the centralized court culture of France attracted all talents to
Versailles. The few German courts that followed the French musical model
included Celle and, at various times, Hanover, Schwerin, the court of the
Palatinate at its alternative residence of Düsseldorf, and the court of the
Margrave of Baden in Schlackenwerth and later in Rastatt. The types of
music cultivated at a particular court were largely dictated by the taste and
the economic circumstances of the ruler himself.
Hardly any musical genres were exclusively confined to courts in 17th-
century Germany. An exception was the Italian chamber duet, whose
principal exponent was Steffani. Concertante canzonets and concertante
madrigals were written and performed at court, but the Kantor of the
Thomaskirche, Sebastian Knüpfer, also composed such works; the
chamber cantata was not cultivated in Germany until the end of the 17th
century, and then by urban composers such as Keiser in Hamburg (1698
and 1717).
The situation is particularly complex in opera, ballet and Singballett, where
French and Italian influences coincided with various attempts to create a
German-language opera. These genres were chiefly performed at courts,
in line with the widespread taste for French court culture, in which ballet,
opéra-ballet and opera played a prominent part. Stylistically, however, only
the ballet obviously imitated French models. Municipal opera on the
Venetian model developed only in a few large commercial cities; those with
opera houses of their own were Hamburg (from 1678 to 1738), Nuremberg
(from 1668) and Leipzig (from 1693). In 1690 Duke Anton Ulrich of
Brunswick tried to make opera both a highly subsidized form of court
theatre and an economic enterprise in the form of a joint stock company
(as in Hamburg), but without lasting success. Indeed, success eventually
eluded Hamburg too. In the second half of the 17th century many halls
were fitted out as theatres in the princely castles, Komödienhäuser were
built for both spoken and music drama, and magnificent opera houses
were constructed at the great courts (Munich, 1654, Dresden, 1667,
Stuttgart, 1674, and Hanover, 1689).
The spread of the Singballett in Germany preceded that of opera, and as in
opera (with his Dafne, 1627, Torgau), Schütz created the prototype:
Orpheo und Euridice (1638, Dresden). The original programme indicates
the work’s stylistic syncretism, typical of opera in 17th-century Germany: it
was ‘written in German verse … composed in the Italian manner …
performed in ten ballet dances’ (i.e. probably with French choreography).
The Dresden court had given the lead and was followed – in each case
with occasional works written for specific events at court – by Wolfenbüttel
in 1646, Gotha in 1649, Gottorf in 1650, Altenburg in 1652, Celle in 1653
and Stuttgart and Brunswick in 1660.
Operatic style was shaped by the individual tastes of the princes who paid
for opera, by the taste of the middle-class public in the cities and by the
Kapellmeister themselves, who probably wielded greater influence here
than in other genres of court music. This, combined with the large number
of opera houses and competition between courts and cities which often
entailed enticing famous Kapellmeister from one appointment to another,
resulted in a plurality of styles. The style of J.S. Kusser, who had studied
with Lully in France, left its mark on the repertory successively in Ansbach,
Brunswick, Hamburg and Stuttgart; and at courts with a French-orientated
musical culture, composers were encouraged to introduce French
elements into their operatic style (as Steffani did in his works for Hanover
and Düsseldorf). However, the repertory at most courts was predominantly
Italian. The mixed forms produced for commercial reasons in Leipzig and
Hamburg contained arias in the Italian style sung in Italian interspersed
with recitatives in German.
In the last third of the 17th century efforts were made to develop an
independent type of German opera sung in German. Musically, it was
based on the Italian model, but it also included French elements. The first
German operas were isolated works such as Schütz’s Dafne and S.T.
Staden’s Seelewig (1644, Nuremberg). In most places the German and
Italian and/or French repertories existed side by side; in many (for
instance, in Darmstadt early in the 18th century) there were performances
of German and Italian operas and French plays. In addition there were
translations of French and Italian librettos, and Italian operas were
performed in German translation (the six three-act works by Steffani,
performed in Hamburg in 1695–9). The main centres of attempts to
develop German opera were Altenburg (until 1738), Ansbach (from 1665),
Bayreuth (1662–1726), Brunswick (1690–1730), Dresden (from 1671),
Darmstadt (from 1673), Durlach (from 1712), Gotha (1681–1744),
Hamburg (1678–1738), Leipzig (from 1693), Meiningen (1702–7),
Nuremberg (from 1679 to c1685), Neuburg an der Donau (from 1678),
Weissenfels (from 1680), Wolfenbüttel (from 1655) and Zeitz (from 1711).
The final flowering of this type of German opera was in Rudolstadt in
1729–54. Elsewhere it was superseded around 1740 by the international
system of Italian opera.
The development of instrumental music after the Thirty Years War was
characterized by the gradual reduction of the variety of forms and
ensembles of the 16th and early 17th centuries, and by the influence of
Netherlandish, French and Italian models, from which independent forms
and genres emerged towards the end of the century. Instrumental music
was performed at court (solos and ensembles), in church (organ music)
and to a lesser extent in towns and cities (ceremonial music, especially for
wind instruments, and domestic chamber music). Lute music on the French
model was primarily a courtly genre, although it was also written for
domestic performance (Esaias Reusner (ii) in Brieg and Berlin; S.L. Weiss
in Dresden). Italian influence dominated ensemble music. It was produced
in large quantities, some of it for courts, some for the urban middle class
(for instance, for the collegia musica and student musical societies). There
was no strict line of demarcation between the sonata and the suite based
on French dances in the work of such composers as Johann Rosenmüller
and J.R. Ahle. The trio sonata did not become fashionable until the 18th
century, in the wake of general European enthusiasm for Corelli; in the late
17th century, however, a number of trio sonatas were written by Reincken,
Krieger, P.H. Erlebach and Buxtehude.
Not surprisingly, French influence was most pronounced in the ensemble or
suite for several instrumentalists or solo performer, and in dance collections
for ensembles, primarily intended for court performance but also written for
the urban middle class. Keyboard music, also on the French model, saw
the development of the keyboard suite and of an idiomatic harpsichord
style (J.J. Froberger, Matthias Weckmann and Fischer). Gottlieb Muffat,
with his ensemble suites and concerti grossi synthesizing the models of
Lully and Corelli, stands alone, an epoch-making figure comparable to
Buxtehude in the north. Muffat’s work marks the beginning of the great
period when French and Italian music merged to create the characteristics
of a ‘German’ mixed style, as defined by Quantz (see above), which
reached a peak in Telemann and J.S. Bach.
In the 17th century organ building and organ composition developed
particularly in northern Germany, an area little affected by the Thirty Years
War. The prime influence here was the work of Sweelinck, with whom
Scheidt, Jacob Praetorius (ii) and Heinrich Scheidemann studied in
Amsterdam. Organ composers of the next generation included Reincken
and Matthias Weckmann. 17th-century German organ music reached its
peak in the works of Buxtehude and Johann Pachelbel, with their wealth of
forms and techniques, their independent and virtuoso treatment of the
pedal, and their exploitation of the uniquely wide range of stops in the
organs of north German organ builders such as Gottfried Frizsche,
Friedrich Stellwagen, Jonas Weigel and, in particular, the internationally
renowned Arp Schnitker.
Germany, §I: Art music.
3. 1700–1806.
The musical history of the German-speaking territories in the 18th century
– leaving aside Austria and Switzerland, which followed paths of their own
in line with local conditions – can be best understood by examining a
number of significant aspects. Courtly musical culture centred on a few
large courts, generally absolutist and influenced by the Enlightenment,
while the many smaller courts were historically less important. Urban
middle-class musical culture developed above all in the wealthy cities; new
forms of communication evolved, and there were rapid developments in
music written for domestic performance. Protestant church music declined
after the middle of the century (which by chance coincided with the death
of Bach), while Catholic church music continued to flourish.
These developments went hand in hand with what Quantz saw as the
stylistic synthesis achieved in the first half of the century and the
emergence of new forms and genres in the second half. The courts
concentrated on Italian opera seria, which became the established norm in
the first half of the century, while the German Singspiel developed after
1750. Instrumental music came to the fore with the genres of the concerto,
symphony and sonata, composed on Italian models but with ever-
increasing independence. Above all, there was a general stylistic change
after the 1720s, when German music became a productive rather than a
merely receptive force for the first time in its history. This development was
fostered by the fact that outstanding individual artists could make their
influence more widely felt through new, improved forms of communication
(music journalism, music publishing and concert tours). Such musicians
included Telemann, Johann Stamitz and C.P.E. Bach. In terms of musical
history J.S. Bach, for 27 years Kantor at the Leipzig Thomaskirche, seems
to stand alone, and his work influenced no major composer before Mozart
and Beethoven. The vigour of German musical culture and the outstanding
achievements of individual composers should not, however, disguise the
fact that late 18th-century developments that would have a far-reaching
effect on the future of music took place on the periphery of the German-
speaking lands. Indeed, Viennese Classicism should be regarded as
neither a German, nor even an Austrian, but as a purely Viennese
phenomenon.
Most of the courts that were musically active in the 17th century continued
to cultivate music, depending on their finances and the taste of the prince.
New courts emerged with important musical establishments, notably the
court of the princes of Thurn and Taxis in Regensburg and the court of
Oettingen-Wallerstein. However, they were all outshone by the three royal
residences at Dresden, Berlin and Mannheim. From the 1720s Dresden
became a major centre for new Italian instrumental music (especially that
of Vivaldi) and its assimilation by such composers as Bach and J.G.
Pisendel. With the opening of Daniel Pöppelmann’s opera house in 1719
until 1763, opera seria and the music of the court church flourished in
Dresden, especially in the Hasse-Bordoni era (1731–63). Even after this
date Italian opera and italianate church music remained important and
exerted an influence far beyond Dresden itself. The Italian court opera of
Dresden survived as an institution until 1832. In the late 18th century the
music of the Dresden court church developed an established repertory
which included earlier works such as those of Hasse. Elector Friedrich
August was a practising musician himself, and the Dresden court was one
of the first places where the new Viennese repertory of Haydn and Mozart
found an appreciative audience.
Matters were quite different in Berlin, which had very quickly become a
great metropolis, its population growing from about 20,000 in 1688 to
172,000 around 1800. Court and civic culture were closely linked in the city,
and music flourished at court, principally under Frederick the Great (1740–
86) and to a lesser extent under Friedrich Wilhelm II (1786–97). Frederick
the Great, himself a talented and prolific composer and librettist, promoted
both opera seria and modern Italian instrumental music; his
encouragement of opera was also politically motivated, since he sought to
outshine the absolutist magnificence of the Dresden court opera. For
similar reasons, the king took a close and detailed interest in the
productions staged at the opera house built by his court architect G.W. von
Knobelsdorff and opened in 1742. The court musicians of Berlin included a
number of major talents, although none of Hasse’s significance and
international reputation: C.H. Graun, J.F. Agricola and J.F. Reichardt in
opera, Quantz, Franz and Georg Benda and J.G. Graun in instrumental
music. Besides Reichardt, the leading musician to write for Friedrich
Wilhelm II was Boccherini, who became his court composer.
The situation in Mannheim was different again. The city was unique in that
musical activity was overwhelmingly centred on the court and depended
entirely on a single ruler, Elector Carl Theodor of the Palatinate, who had
little in common with Frederick the Great save a liking for playing the flute.
Mannheim had been almost entirely destroyed in the Thirty Years War, and
after a brief period of recovery was then devastated in the War of the
Palatine Succession in 1689. The court of the Palatinate did not move back
to the city until 1720. In 1742 the opera house built in the castle by
Alessandro Galli-Bibiena was inaugurated, ushering in a period when
opera and instrumental music flourished at court. There were more major
virtuosos and composers working for the Hofkapelle than for any other
musical ensemble in Europe, with Carlo Grua and Ignaz Holzbauer at the
opera, and works commissioned from J.C. Bach, Jommelli, Traetta and
Giuseppe de Majo. The members of the orchestra, besides Holzbauer from
Vienna, included Johann Stamitz from Bohemia and his pupil Christian
Cannabich, who was a brilliant orchestral trainer, C.J. Toeschi, F.X. Richter
from Bohemia, Anton Fils from Bavaria, Ignaz Beck, Ignaz Fränzl, and
Anton and Carl Stamitz. Other names that deserve mention are those of
Franz Danzi and Peter Winter, who both studied composition with the Abbé
Vogler. The fame of the Hofkapelle was spread by musical visitors to
Mannheim, not least Charles Burney. The fact that its composers drew on
varied European traditions probably contributed to the creation of a new
style in Mannheim which made full use of the opportunities offered by a
virtuoso orchestra. Mannheim musicians made a crucial contribution to the
development of the symphony, in particular; and the treatment of the
orchestra in Mannheim influenced many composers, including Mozart and
Weber. The performances given from 1754 onwards by Mannheim virtuoso
instrumentalists in Paris caused a sensation; subsequently the Mannheim
School had a decisive influence on concert life there, notably with the new
genre of the symphonie concertante which Carl Stamitz introduced to the
French capital. This was the first time the influence of German music had
extended beyond the German-speaking countries. Finally, there was a
significant movement towards German opera in Mannheim, connected with
the founding of an Academy of Sciences, and of the Nationaltheater in
1779, in emulation of similar efforts in Vienna. The great period of
Mannheim court music came to an end early in 1778, when Carl Theodor
succeeded as ruler of Bavaria and moved his court to Munich.
In terms of musical history, the three major German cities of the 18th
century were Hamburg and Leipzig, with their commercial prosperity, and
Berlin, a royal residence, an administrative seat and a middle-class
metropolis. Hamburg, as a trading seaport, was much influenced by
London; Leipzig was an international trade fair centre; and Berlin profited
from the enlightened climate of the court and its role as the capital of a
rapidly expanding power. Forms of public music-making tried and tested in
London were further developed in Hamburg: civic ceremonies were
repeated for a paying public, public concerts featured appearances by
touring virtuosos, charity concerts were given, journalism flourished in
Mattheson’s and Scheibe’s musical periodicals, and works were published
by subscription. Musical enthusiasm was widespread among a relatively
large class of wealthy patricians and merchants, and was at the root of the
shift away from scholarly works of musical theory written for professionals,
towards well-informed musical writings for the galant homme. Two of the
greatest German composers of their day, Telemann and C.P.E. Bach, also
lived and worked in Hamburg for several decades.
Leipzig came to rival Hamburg in musical importance in the second half of
the century. In the first half of the century musical life in Leipzig was
dominated by vocal and instrumental church music, in particular the music
of J.S. Bach and by student and middle-class collegia musica. In line with
the spirit of the Enlightenment, L.C. Mizler von Kolof tried to establish
music (including musical history) as a department of study at the university,
and founded the Neu eröffnete musikalische Bibliothek (1736), the journal
of the Societät der Musicalischen Wissenschaften, in direct competition
with Mattheson in Hamburg. The importance of church music declined after
the death of Bach, but in 1743 a group of merchants founded a public
concert organization to supersede the collegia musica. This organization in
turn was replaced by the concerts of J.A. Hiller in 1778, and these were
followed in 1781 by concerts organized by the city and given in the newly
reconstructed Gewandhaus. At the end of the century Leipzig had 14
concert societies and was unequalled for its flourishing concert life.
The internationalism of Leipzig was particularly evident in the development
of opera in the city. After the closure of the German opera in 1720,
travelling theatrical companies such as those of Mingotti, Locatelli and
Nicolini gave guest performances of the Italian repertory during the Leipzig
fairs. An adaptation of the English ballad opera The Devil to Pay was
performed in 1743 in Berlin and 1750 in Leipzig; the local poet C.F. Weisse
then retranslated the work which, with new music by J.C. Standfuss,
became the prototype of a new vernacular genre: the Singspiel. Leipzig
was the major centre of Singspiel up to the foundation of the Stadttheater
in 1817 and was visited by the theatrical troupes of Koch, Bondini and
Seconda, as well as Domenico Guardasoni’s company, which brought the
Italian repertory to the city between 1782 and 1794. But the most important
development of all was in music publishing. A city famous for its trade fairs
was the ideal location, and the leading figure in this field was J.G.I.
Breitkopf, with his new system of printing notation (1755) and his music
trade which collected and sold works from all over Europe. The firm
became Breitkopf & Härtel in 1795, and in 1798 founded the influential
Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung. In 1800 the rival firm of Hoffmeister &
Kühnel was founded, publishing as Bureau de musique simultaneously in
Leipzig and Vienna. The scene was set for Leipzig to become Europe’s
most important centre of music publishing.
After the accession of Frederick the Great in 1740 and the flowering of
musical culture in Berlin, there was a fruitful interrelationship, sometimes
with a competitive edge, between court and civic musical life. The music of
the court remained strongly orientated towards Italy and Italian opera.
Private and public concerts of sacred and secular music were held from the
1720s, organized by court and cathedral musicians, and the influence of
the Sing-Akademie, founded in 1791, extended far beyond Berlin itself.
From about 1750 men of letters (K.W. Ramler, C.G. Krause), theorists
(F.W. Marpurg) and composers developed the ideal of the simple, sensitive
quasi-folksong with keyboard accompaniment, a genre further developed
by the group of composers known as the Berlin Lieder School. The
combination of theory and practice and a rationalistic character typified the
vigorous musical journalism of Marpurg, Krause, Quantz and C.P.E. Bach,
which culminated in J.G. Sulzer’s encyclopedic Allgemeine Theorie der
schönen Künste (1771–4). Notable musical figures in Berlin were Princess
Anna Amalia, Frederick the Great’s youngest sister, and J.P. Kirnberger,
who became her Hofkapellmeister in 1758. A fervent champion of the
contrapuntal tradition against the galant style, he collected an extensive
music library for the princess, including autograph manuscripts by J.S.
Bach and works by Handel and Palestrina. Musical attitudes, and musical
journalism, in Berlin were markedly conservative in any case, and these
tendencies were further reinforced by Kirnberger and his circle. While the
conservative attitudes that prevailed in Berlin were regarded (not least by
Haydn in his autobiographical sketch of 1776) as inimical to the
development of the new language of instrumental music that reached its
peak in Viennese Classicism, the music-making that reflected those
attitudes helped to create a historically based public concert repertory,
exemplified in the programmes of the Sing-Akademie that culminated in the
rediscovery of the St Matthew Passion in 1829.
After the 1720s there was an increasing distinction between styles in line
with the functions of different musical genres. The new style developed
most obviously in the galant keyboard piece and the undemanding song for
social and private entertainment, especially in middle-class circles. More
demanding chamber music for private or public performance by
accomplished amateurs and professionals either imitated widely accepted
models or combined Italian and French styles and genres, as in
Telemann’s Musique de table (1733). Similarly, the French suite and the
Italian concerto were sometimes kept strictly separate (in works by Bach,
Telemann and many others), or sometimes combined into hybrid forms, as,
again, in many works by Telemann. The trio sonata, a ‘learned’ genre par
excellence, and the quartet sonata deriving from it, both of them north
German specialities, remained the ‘touchstone of a true contrapuntalist’
(Quantz) even when their contrapuntal idiom was infused by galant
elements.
Sacred vocal music and organ music also adhered to the Baroque
tradition, but became less important in Protestant areas in the second half
of the 18th century; Bach’s cantatas and organ works were anachronisms
even in their own time, although the type of cantata pioneered by the poet
and theologian Erdmann Neumeister was a relatively modern form. The
tradition of ceremonial Catholic church music for Mass and Vespers
survived unbroken into the 19th century, following the Habsburg and Italian
examples. In Protestant Germany, music for divine service was replaced by
edifying devotional music influenced by Rationalism and the aesthetic of
Empfindsamkeit; the prototype for such works was Graun’s Der Tod Jesu,
and later examples include the oratorios of Telemann and C.P.E. Bach.
Handel’s oratorios, revived in Hamburg in the 1770s and subsequently
elsewhere, were also regarded as sacred music to edify the Christian not
as the member of a community but as an individual.
In instrumental music two genres dominated the second half of the century:
the symphony and, to a lesser extent, chamber music with keyboard
obbligato. The string quartet played a surprisingly small part, although the
quartets of Haydn, in particular, were performed to enthusiastic audiences
everywhere. As in Italy, the symphony initially grew out of the opera
sinfonia; but the genre soon became independent as symphonies were
written specifically for chamber or concert performance. Italian influence
quickly dwindled as the symphonies of Austrian composers, especially
Haydn, became increasingly popular. Until the end of the century the
symphony in Germany (unlike in France and England) was primarily a court
phenomenon, although many symphonies were played in the growing
number of concerts for the urban middle classes. The most important
symphonists, all of them court musicians, included C.P.E. Bach, J.G. Graun
and Franz Benda in Potsdam, J.M. Molter in Durlach, Antonio Rosetti in
Oettingen-Wallerstein and Schwerin, Christian Cannabich in Mannheim
and Munich and Georg Benda in Gotha. Of these the outstanding figure
was undoubtedly C.P.E. Bach, although his style, original to the point of
eccentricity and highly rhetorical, does not fit into any general pattern of
development. The ‘Hamburg Bach’ was also idiosyncratic in his chamber
and keyboard music, which far surpassed anything produced by his
contemporaries.
In a country as enamoured of theory as Germany, it was inevitable that the
body of instrumental music composed after the stylistic changes around
1720 should be defined within a theoretical system. Elements of traditional
rhetoric were used at first, relating an apparently autonomous form back to
the rhetorical arts (Mattheson, Joseph Riepel and H.C. Koch). The
rhetorical theory of form was abandoned in the early 19th century in favour
of ideas from English musical aesthetics and formal theory going back to
Shaftesbury (as formulated by Charles Avison, Adam Smith and A.F.C.
Kollmann). These ideas, deriving from theories of architecture and the
visual arts, were concerned with the analytical understanding of
instrumental forms of music, and were developed by C.G. Krause (Von der
musikalischen Poesie, 1752), Moses Mendelssohn (Über die
Empfindungen, 1755), Leonhard Euler (Lettres à une princesse
d’Allemagne, 1768), in various writings by J.C. Forkel, and above all by
C.F. Michaelis (Über den Geist der Tonkunst, 1795; Zweyter Versuch …,
1800; Über die wichtigsten Erfordernisse und Bedingungen der Tonkunst,
1805). In the writings of E.T.A. Hoffmann these theoretical ideas were
combined with the Romantic aesthetic of feeling.
Germany, §I: Art music.
4. 1806–1918.
The official end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 was a less significant
date in musical history than the Edict of the Deputation of the German
Estates of 1803. The dissolution of many small courts and the closure of
most monasteries, with their wealth of musical culture, set in train a
process of cultural standardization that continued until the founding of the
German Reich in 1871. Culturally, Austria became further and further
removed from Germany, although Austrian, or rather Viennese, influence
on German music (as opposed to the other arts) increased enormously,
through Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert, and later Brahms,
Bruckner, Mahler and Strauss. These developments were fostered by
industrialization, the accumulation of wealth in the big cities, the German
Customs Union of 1834 and greatly improved communications. The
musical landscape changed rapidly in the first half of the 19th century,
although the Napoleonic Wars and the failed revolution of 1848–9 had
remarkably little influence on the structures of musical life. The second half
of the century was an era of consolidation, and the end of World War I in
1918 brought no essential change to musical institutions and public
musical life.
Important social developments included the spread of musical culture
among the urban middle classes, the increasing numbers of cities where
music played an important role, and the standardization of musical culture,
together with its separation from mass culture. As music at the princely
courts diminished, music-making in the cities became increasingly
dominant. After the Wars of Liberation in the second decade of the century,
political conflicts between court and bourgeois society could still manifest
themselves through opera, as in the confrontation between Spontini and
Weber at the première of Der Freischütz in Berlin in 1821. Kaiser Wilhelm
II’s attempts to mould the opera and theatre of Berlin to suit his own tastes
were strongly criticized by the public and particularly the press, a force to
be reckoned with by 1900. The musical interests of rulers now held sway at
only a few, usually minor, courts such as Weimar, which became a musical
centre principally through Liszt and his circle and retained that status until
the abdication of the grand dukes in 1918, and Meiningen, particularly
under Duke Georg II (ruled 1866–1914), who made the Hofkapelle a model
institution with an up-to-date repertory and retained the court theatre for the
performance of classical German drama.
Court opera aside, musical life in the major German cities during the 19th
century was much as it is today. Opera, ballet and drama, and later
operetta, were performed in municipal theatres that were usually
subsidized by the civic authorities. The repertory was international and the
large music publishing houses (particularly Schott in Mainz) published
translations of foreign-language works, both Italian and French (opéra
comique and the grand operas of Meyerbeer). German opera did not
feature significantly until the time of Wagner, when there was an increase
of national feeling in music generally, especially after 1860. Opera featured
far more prominently in musical life than in the 18th century because it now
reached large sections of the population, and its significance was reflected
in the building of many municipal opera houses and some magnificent
court opera houses (notably in Dresden). This development reached its
peak in the economic boom after the founding of the Reich in 1871.
Rivalling opera in popularity were the public concerts given by the
orchestras of opera houses, by independent orchestras, by local or touring
ensembles (especially string quartets), by visiting virtuosos and sometimes
by touring ensembles such as the Meiningen Hofkapelle. Concerts were
often performed in handsome buildings containing a large concert hall and
a more intimate hall for chamber music (as in the new Leipzig
Gewandhaus, opened in 1884).
Growing prosperity also brought a rise in domestic music-making, which
stimulated the composition of lieder, piano music and chamber music
(fig.11). Domestic music-making also encouraged the industrial
manufacture of pianos on the American model, and piano factories were
opened by Bechstein in 1860, Blüthner in 1864, Grotrian in 1865 and
Steinway in 1880. The rapidly growing popularity of the piano, however,
meant that the needs of amateur pianists (and singers) had to be met with
the mass production of technically and aesthetically undemanding music.
In reaction to this, attempts were made towards the end of the century to
introduce reforms, through a higher standard of private music-teaching,
through popular music libraries intended to supersede the purely
commercial lending institutions, through educational writings and through
public campaigns against ‘cheap trashy music’. Public music libraries to
which anyone could have free access were founded in many cities after
1894. Conservatories, organized privately or by the civic authorities, had
been providing professional musical training since the founding of the
Academisches Musikinstitut in Würzburg in 1804. Until 1871 there were
only a few foundations in the major musical centres (in Berlin in 1822 and
1833, in Leipzig in 1843, in Munich in 1846, Cologne in 1850 and Dresden
and Stuttgart in 1856). After 1871, however, there was a boom in the
creation of conservatories, as there was in the building of theatres. By far
the most influential conservatory was in Leipzig, which, under the
directorship of Mendelssohn and his successors, attracted composition
pupils from all over Europe, particularly Scandinavia and Russia, and from
the United States. In general, the high standards of institutionalized
musical education did as much as the great composers, conductors and
interpreters to ensure the worldwide reputation of 19th-century German
music.
The musical and intellectual climate of 19th-century Germany was also
shaped by the growth of music publishing, music journalism, music theory
and aesthetics, and the acceptance of musicology as an academic
discipline. German music publishing firms dominated large sections of the
market in Europe and the USA; they played an important role in the
dissemination of mass-produced music and the spread of musical
education through the cheap editions published from 1864 by Litolff, Peters
and Breitkopf & Härtel, and the miniature scores published by Payne and
later Eulenburg. One far-sighted music publisher, Oskar von Hase, was
also active in promoting musical copyright. The major musical periodicals,
mostly belonging to the large publishing firms, greatly influenced public
opinion and taste, often employing a partisan approach deplored by many
composers, including Brahms and Bruckner.
The 19th century, a period of progress and belief in science, saw the
construction of the last comprehensive systems of music theory, from A.B.
Marx to Hugo Riemann and Heinrich Schenker. Musical aesthetics and the
philosophy of history were shaped by philosophical aesthetics. Franz
Brendel, who made Schumann’s Neue Zeitschrift für Musik the mouthpiece
of modern German music, was influenced by Hegel; Wagner and Nietzsche
by Schopenhauer; the hermeneutics of Hermann Kretzschmar and Arnold
Schering by Dilthey. Musicology also developed independent concepts of
the aesthetics of autonomy (Eduard Hanslick, 1854) and the aesthetics of
heteronomy (Friedrich von Hausegger, A.W. Ambros and Otakar
Hostinský). The profound changes of attitude to composition that occurred
in the years before World War I were accompanied by the pioneering
writings of Busoni and A.O. Halm. All these developments were of great
significance to the German-speaking countries, in particular Germany itself,
ever ready to indulge in speculation and theory. However, they had little
effect elsewhere in Europe or in the USA. The growth of musicology,
deriving from a historical view of the repertory, had been prepared by the
first major works of musical history (Kiesewetter and Ambros) and
biography (Otto Jahn, Friedrich Chrysander, J.G. Gervinus and Philipp
Spitta), and by memorial publications and scholarly critical complete
editions of Bach, Handel, Palestrina, Mozart, Schubert, Beethoven, Schütz
and Lassus.
The establishment of musicology in universities began with the
appointment of musical directors who could lecture on the history of music
as well as carrying out their more practical musical duties; they included
J.N. Forkel in Göttingen and D.G. Türk in Halle, both appointed to their
posts in 1779. The first professorship was the appointment of Carl
Breidenstein to Bonn in 1826; Berlin followed suit in 1830 with A.B. Marx,
Munich in 1865 with K.F.L. Nohl, Leipzig in 1872 with Oscar Paul and
Strasbourg in 1875 with Gustav Jacobsthal. The first full university
lectureships were awarded in Vienna in 1856 (Eduard Hanslick) and in
Heidelberg in 1860 (Nohl). However, the subject was not fully recognized
until professorial chairs and institutes were founded: in Vienna in 1898
(Guido Adler), in Bonn in 1915 (Ludwig Schiedermair) and in Halle in 1918
(Hermann Abert). German musicology attracted foreign students for many
decades, and was a model for the development of the subject in other
European countries and the USA. Only with the Nazis did Germany lose its
pre-eminence in the field of musicology.
During the 19th century traditional folksong continued to decline, though
this decline was partly counteracted by the efforts to renew folksong in the
wake of Herder’s writings (see §II, 4 below). In urban areas folksong was
replaced by such genres as the street ballad, which saw its heyday in the
19th century, stimulated by the production and distribution of broadsheets.
Offshoots of the street ballad were the political song and the worker’s song,
the latter reaching a peak under the Weimar Republic. The male-voice
choir movement was also political in origin, and it was in a spirit of
patriotism that Zelter founded the Berlin Liedertafel. The new democratic
impetus was especially strong in student choral societies; Metternich
described the male-voice choir as the ‘plague from Germany’, and had it
suppressed in Austria. After the failure of the 1848–9 revolution, the
middle-class male-voice choir adapted more and more to the prevailing
circumstances and became a merely social institution.
The rapid standardization of an increasingly commercialized middle-class
musical culture after the 1830s encouraged the dissociation of the more
challenging genres of art music from any functional purpose, placing them
in a realm of quasi-autonomous art, as postulated by the aesthetics of
Romanticism. Such functional genres as church music became less
important, despite such attempts at historically inspired reform as
Cecilianism in the Catholic church and its Protestant counterpart in Prussia.
The standardization of musical culture also brought with it the increasing
importance of generic norms and the growing influence of the works of the
acknowledged masters. Schumann’s Piano Quintet had its counterpart in
the Piano Quintet of Brahms, and together they inspired an explosion in the
genre during the second half of the century, including the Piano Quintet of
César Franck, written partly in protest against the hegemony of German
music.
That hegemony, against which opposition had been developing in
neighbouring countries since around the middle of the century, was
dominated by instrumental music. German operas hardly travelled abroad
at all during the first part of the century; the success of Der Freischütz in
Paris was an exception. The situation changed only with the European
influence of Wagner, whose early works are a perfect example of the way
German operatic composers adapted foreign models: Die Feen can be
viewed as a German Romantic opera and Das Liebesverbot as an opéra
comique (Wagner himself thought it an Italian melodramma), while Rienzi
draws on the models of French and Italian grand opera. Der Freischütz
itself owes much to opéra comique and attained the status of a national
opera for political reasons as much as for its Romantic forest setting.
However, it was through its stylistic syncretism that Romantic opera
became a specifically German genre in the works of Weber, Spohr,
Marschner, Lindpaintner and other composers, with an offshoot in the
Spielopern of Lortzing and Flotow, a form of comic opera derived partly
from German Singspiel and from opéra comique. Romantic opera
remained a central part of the repertory even when few new Romantic
operas were being composed.
If the works of Wagner’s middle period, for all their originality, remained
within the genre of German Romantic opera, his works after Das Rheingold
changed the course of the history not only of opera but of music in general.
The Wagner phenomenon, however, extended far beyond music. It was
European in nature and encompassed the arts, intellectual thought and
even politics. In operatic history, the indirect effects of Wagnerian music
drama were greater than any direct imitation. The symphonic leitmotif
technique could be transferred to very different genres, including the fairy-
tale operas of Humperdinck and Siegfried Wagner, the verismo operas of
Max von Schillings and Eugen d’Albert, and the fantastic operas of Franz
Schreker. The intellectual ambitions of Wagner’s librettos from the Ring
onwards encouraged both the emergence of ‘literary opera’, culminating in
Richard Strauss’s Salome (1905) and Elektra (1909), and the tendency to
use opera as a means of examining issues such as the role of the artist in
society, beginning with Die Meistersinger (1868) and continued in Pfitzner’s
Palestrina (1917) and Strauss’s Ariadne auf Naxos (second version, 1916).
On the other hand, the works of Wagner’s direct successors were usually
epigonal and in the long term unsuccessful, as in such monumental works
as August Bungert’s Homerische Welt (of which only the tetralogy Die
Odyssee (1896–1903) was completed), and in operas where ambitious
débutant composers declared their adherence to Wagnerism, such as
Strauss’s Guntram (1894) and Pfitzner’s Der arme Heinrich (1895).
Wagner’s influence was naturally easier to escape in comic opera, for
instance in Cornelius’s Der Barbier von Bagdad (1858) and Goetz’s Der
Widerspenstigen Zähmung (1874). It was no coincidence that Hugo von
Hofmannsthal and Strauss began their stylistic change of direction with a
comedy, Der Rosenkavalier (1911), although they returned to a Wagnerian
type of mythology in Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919). The material expense
of staging the large-scale works of Wagner’s successors had risen
constantly, sustained on a wave of optimism engendered by the apparently
stable political and social order of the Reich and the economic boom that
had continued unbroken since about 1890. A radical change began before
World War I, when German variants of the international movement towards
classicism renounced such extravagance; examples were Busoni’s Die
Brautwahl (1912), Arlecchino and Turandot (both 1917), and the opere
buffe of Wolf-Ferrari, which had their first success on German stages.
In the first half of the century, especially, the decline of church music went
hand in hand with the growing popularity of the non-ecclesiastical sacred
oratorio, whose finest examples were Mendelssohn’s St Paul (1836) and
Elijah (1846). Oratorio was promoted by the choral societies popular at the
time, and by festivals such as the Niederrheinisches Musikfest which, in
addition to new works, also encouraged the performance of Handel’s
oratorios, continuing the process of reclaiming Handel as a ‘German’
composer that had begun in the 18th century. The most important
composers of sacred oratorio in the first half of the century, after
Mendelssohn, were Spohr, Friedrich Schneider, Bernhard Klein and Carl
Loewe. Secular oratorios were much rarer, but included Schumann’s Das
Paradies und die Peri (1841–3) and Der Rose Pilgerfahrt (1851). The
second half of the century saw a marked decline in the composition of
oratorio and such smaller related forms as the choral cantata and choral
ballad; the only works of lasting influence were Liszt’s Heilige Elisabeth
(1857–62) and Christus (1862–7).
The decline in native German comic opera in the later 19th century,
together with the emergence of a mass audience seeking lavishly staged
musical entertainment, led to the growing popularity of Parisian and,
especially, Viennese operetta, and in the final years of the century to the
creation of an independent Berlin operetta, incorporating elements of farce,
burlesque and even cabaret. The works of the first generation of Berlin
operetta composers, who included Paul Lincke, Victor Hollaender, Rudolf
Nelson, Walter Kollo, Jean Gilbert and Leon Jessel, remained popular even
during the Weimar Republic.
The 19th century was the century of the symphony in Germany par
excellence, and German symphonic influence extended throughout Europe
and to the USA. Romantic musical aesthetics (J.H. Wackenroder, Ludwig
Tieck) made the symphony the paradigm of ‘pure’ instrumental music;
E.T.A. Hoffmann, a fervent admirer of Beethoven, postulated on the one
hand the autonomy of instrumental music, and on the other the
‘transcendental language’ of the symphony. This divergence in the
aesthetics of the symphony lasted into the 20th century; it is reflected in
concepts of the symphony as an instrumental choir (H.C. Koch); as an
‘opera of instruments’ (Hoffmann) or an instrumental drama; in Wagner’s
pronouncement that the symphony ended with Beethoven’s Ninth; in
discussion of the symphony, from Wagner to Paul Bekker and T.W. Adorno,
as ‘a public discourse to mankind’; and not least in attempts in the second
half of the century to reformulate the symphony by incorporating
programmatic elements and verbal texts.
The 19th-century symphony grew from the examples of Haydn, Mozart and
Beethoven, with the influence of Haydn swiftly declining, the influence of
Beethoven shifting from the practical to the aesthetic sphere (except in a
few undistinguished imitators), and that of Mozart becoming scarcely
perceptible except in the works of Spohr; at the same time, however,
Mozart’s late symphonies and the symphonies of Beethoven formed the
core of an established concert repertory. The German contemporaries of
Beethoven, such as Friedrich Witt and J.F.X. Sterkel, modelled themselves
on Haydn; Beethoven’s direct influence is to be found in the symphonies of
Ferdinand Ries and Friedrich Schneider, and the C major Symphony of
Wagner (1832). Most composers of symphonies, however, sought to avoid
confronting the mighty example of Beethoven, declining a pathetic or
heroic tone in favour of a lighter, Biedermeier style, as in the works of
Nicolai, J.W. Kalliwoda, C.G. Müller and A.F. Hesse. Other composers,
such as Spohr and Lachner, composed symphonies based on a poetic
idea, often expanded into an explicit programme. The development of the
‘poetic’ symphony culminated in the works of Schumann and Mendelssohn.
Mendelssohn’s Reformation Symphony (1832) commemorated the
Augsburg Confession in programmatic terms, while his Lobgesang (1840)
created in effect a new genre, the symphonic cantata.
Drawing on the examples of Beethoven and Berlioz, Mendelssohn also
introduced the concert overture into Germany. It was immediately
recognized as a potentially fruitful genre, somewhere between the overture
and the symphony, and was cultivated by many composers. The
symphonic poems of Liszt (12 works, 1848–57), based on great works of
literature, took programme music a stage further and were immensely
influential, not only in Germany but also in France, the Czech lands and
Russia. Most programmatic symphonies followed Liszt’s aesthetic lead in
his symphonic poems and Faust and Dante symphonies, but did not adopt
his technical and formal innovations; works such as Anton Rubinstein’s
Second Symphony, Ocean (1857), J.J. Abert’s Columbus (1865), Carl
Reinecke’s Second Symphony, Hakon Jarl (1875), and, in particular, the 11
symphonies by Joachim Raff (1859–76) expressed their programmes in
relatively traditional forms. The claim that a unique form was being
developed from programme music, using the most advanced techniques,
was fulfilled in the symphonic poems of Strauss who, like Liszt, eventually
returned to the concept of the symphony in the Symphonia domestica
(1902–3) and Eine Alpensinfonie (1911–15).
Carl Dahlhaus coined the term ‘second age of the symphony’ to denote the
age of Brahms and Bruckner, beginning with Brahms’s First Symphony
(1855–76) and Bruckner’s Third Symphony (1873–7); but contemporary
listeners would have been just as likely to speak of the age of Bruch (three
works, 1867–82) or Felix Draesecke (five works, 1868–1912). On the other
hand, it was already clear to some perceptive critics that Brahms’s First
Symphony was something fundamentally new: a direct confrontation with
Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony from which Brahms developed a new
symphonic style in his second, third and fourth symphonies (1877, 1883
and 1884–5). His younger contemporaries, influenced by the later works
rather than the First Symphony, included Heinrich von Herzogenberg, the
young Richard Strauss (his Symphony in F minor of 1884), Wilhelm Berger,
Felix Woyrsch and Waldemar von Baussnern. The symphonies of Bruckner
had very little influence on other composers, an exception in Germany
being the three symphonies of Richard Wetz (the first written in 1914–17).
The paradigm ‘from darkness to light’, developed from Beethoven’s Fifth
Symphony, determined most of the ‘great’ symphonies of the 19th and
early 20th centuries. It was adopted by most symphonic composers in the
tradition of Liszt and Wagner, who included Hugo Kaun, Siegmund von
Hausegger, Paul Graener, Paul Juon, Max Trapp, Ernest Bloch and Heinz
Tiessen. A change in approach came with the radical subjectivity of the so-
called Weltanschauungs-Symphonie, where the distinctions between
symphony and cantata are blurred (in Mahler’s Viennese works and in
Germany in J.L. Nicodé’s Gloria! (1900–04). A reaction to the gargantuan
scale and forces of Nicodé’s work and Mahler’s Eighth Symphony
produced works such as the sinfoniettas of Reger (1904–5), Korngold
(1912) and Hindemith (1916) and the chamber symphonies of Schoenberg
(1906) and Schreker (1917).
Compared with the symphony, chamber music played a relatively small role
in the 19th century. Many works for various ensembles were produced for
domestic music-making, together with a small group of more demanding
works, notably the chamber music of Schumann and Mendelssohn, for
performance in the concert hall. As with the Viennese Classical composers,
the string quartet was the pre-eminent chamber genre in the first part of the
19th century, giving rise to professional quartets such as that led by Karl
Möser in Berlin (from 1813). However, as chamber music moved into the
concert hall, the string quartet lost its pre-eminence to chamber works with
piano.
Brahms dominated chamber music in the second half of the century to
such an extent that chamber music became synonymous with
conservatism in music. The works of Brahms and his followers exerted a
profound influence throughout Europe; and it was in reaction to this
influence that Franck and his circle founded a new French school of
instrumental music.
As the importance of the string quartet declined, so did that of the piano
sonata, which after the sonatas of Beethoven was regarded as an
essentially German genre. The few major 19th-century sonatas, including
those by Schumann, Brahms, Liszt and Julius Reubke, are clearly related
to Beethoven’s late sonatas in their intellectual demands, if not their
keyboard techniques. Piano music was dominated quantitatively by
virtuoso concert music and light salon pieces, and qualitatively by the
poetic piano pieces of Schumann, Mendelssohn and Brahms. Outside
Germany, Schumann’s works exerted the strongest influence; in the 20th
century the late piano works of Brahms were to prove influential through
their use of techniques which Schoenberg and his school regarded as
avant-garde. Conversely, no area of German music in the 19th century was
as open to external influence, above all that of Chopin.
Diametrically opposite was the situation with the lied, so clearly identified
as a German genre that the word ‘lied’ itself was adopted in English and
French for this type of German art song. The unique flowering of the genre
and the impossibility in principle of transferring it to other national cultures
are explained by the way in which German Classical and Romantic lyric
poetry came together with a later, poetically sensitive group of composers
anxious to make music more lyrical, and by the cultural prominence of
Classical and Romantic poetry in the minds of the educated middle
classes. In the background, particularly with Brahms, stood the great
example of Schubert; Beethoven had inspired the idea of the song cycle
itself (An die ferne Geliebte, 1815–16). The dependence of the genre on
poetry found its clearest expression in the many new settings of the same
major lyrics. Its generic development followed the emergence of the lieder
recital as a concert form and the lieder singer as a specialist interpreter (for
instance Julius Stockhausen).
The linking of the genre to the Classical and Romantic canon of great
poetry, however, was at first restricted; in Reichardt and Zelter the
connection is evident, especially in setting Goethe, but it is considerably
less in Zumsteeg, Loewe, Marschner, Mendelssohn and his sister Fanny
Hensel. A consciously literary approach to lied composition began with
Schumann, who was also the greatest master of the song cycle after
Schubert, and, to a lesser degree, with Robert Franz and Cornelius. As the
genre developed, two distinct types of lieder composers emerged: on the
one hand those who set great poems by great poets and accepted the
principle of textual primacy (Pfitzner and, supremely, Wolf), on the other
hand composers such as Brahms, Strauss and Reger who avoided great
poetry (notably Goethe) and laid the prime emphasis on broad-spanned
melody. It is arguable that lieder represent the finest and most
characteristic achievement of 19th-century German music.
Germany, §I: Art music.
5. Since 1918.
The defeat of Germany in 1918 plunged the country into a crisis that
brought far-reaching changes to political, social and cultural life. There was
a general feeling that, as Karl Mannheim put it, ‘all ideas were discredited,
all utopias subverted’. In music the Expressionism of the Schoenberg
school, in particular, rapidly lost its influence, although major Expressionist
works such as Schoenberg’s one-act opera Erwartung, his Die glückliche
Hand and Berg’s opera Wozzeck had not yet been performed. The
revolutionary sense of liberation from tradition that had accompanied
Expressionism in the years around 1910, leading to the disintegration of
tonality, yielded after 1918 to feelings of perplexity and disillusionment,
which in turn led to a partial renaissance of traditional compositional
techniques.
After 1924, when political stability was established under the Weimar
Republic, musical life split into various mutually hostile tendencies. Older
composers like Richard Strauss and Hans Pfitzner sought an aesthetic
revival in a return to Romantic and pre-Romantic ideals, or in the evocation
of a traditional, specifically German culture (as in Pfitzner’s cantata Von
deutscher Seele), a tendency that was to develop increasingly aggressive
nationalist features. On the other hand Schoenberg, who had been
teaching at the Preussische Akademie der Künste in Berlin since 1925, had
codified certain technical aspects of Expressionist music (total
chromaticism, atonality and the emancipation of dissonance) in developing
dodecaphony as a principle which he believed would ensure the
supremacy of German music for the next 100 years.
Younger composers who emerged in Germany after 1921, notably Paul
Hindemith, Philipp Jarnach, Ernst Krenek, Kurt Weill and Hanns Eisler,
developed a fundamentally new concept of how music was to be
composed under the radically changed social conditions of the time. The
term Neue Sachlichkeit (‘new objectivity’) was borrowed from the visual
arts of the period to describe their stance. In the words of Hindemith: ‘A
composer today should write only if he knows for what purpose he is
writing; the days of composing for oneself alone may be gone for ever’.
These young composers supported the new democratic order of society –
although by no means uncritically – and sought to make themselves
‘useful’ in their profession. They developed a functional concept of music,
often defined by the term Gebrauchsmusik (‘music for use’), and wrote for
well-defined purposes: for the new media of cinema and radio, for
amateurs, for children, politically committed music for the working class,
and music for such traditional institutions as the opera house and the
concert hall. They chose their technical and stylistic methods according to
functionalist criteria, extending (sometimes even within a single work) from
Expressionism to the neo-Baroque (Hindemith’s song cycle Das
Marienleben), from street ballads to cabaret chansons and jazz (Weill’s
Dreigroschenoper), from parody to light music (‘Zeitopern’ by Krenek,
Hindemith and Weill). They preferred to use small, soloistic ensembles and
harsh, stark sonorities (Hindemith in his series of Kammermusiken). The
Jugendmusikbewegung was also influential in the musical culture of the
time. Its adherents sought to create a new genre that was neither serious
art music nor light music, had a particular sympathy for early music and folk
music, and emphasized the importance of amateur musical performance.
The movement recruited an increasing number of young composers.
With its new political and social stability and the flourishing diversity of its
musical life, Germany quickly emerged from its isolated position of the
immediate postwar years. Works by such composers as Bartók, Stravinsky,
Prokofiev, Milhaud and Honegger received important premières in
Germany. Due to Leo Kestenberg’s progressive musical policy, Berlin
gained a reputation as one of the major musical centres of the time.
Between 1927 and 1932 Schoenberg, Schreker, Zemlinsky, Furtwängler,
Erich Kleiber, Klemperer, Bruno Walter, Artur Schnabel, Hindemith, Weill
and Eisler were all in the city. Yet thanks to the federal structure of the
Reich, many other centres, notably Dresden, Leipzig, Hamburg, Cologne,
Frankfurt and Munich, had a flourishing and progressive musical life. There
was great international acclaim for the festival of chamber music
(Kammermusikaufführungen zur Förderung Zeitgenössischer Tonkunst)
held first in Donaueschingen (1921–6) and then in Baden-Baden (1927–9);
the content of the festivals was largely determined by Hindemith, and their
programmes centred on the study and performance of specific musical
genres. Schoenberg, Bartók, Stravinsky and Webern performed their own
works at the festivals, while composers such as Berg, Hauer, Toch,
Schulhoff, Hindemith, Martinů, Milhaud, Weill, Eisler, Antheil and Krenek
first attracted international attention here.
The splintering of musical developments led to irreconcilable controversies,
which Schoenberg even protrayed in one of his works (Drei Satiren op.28).
Traditionalists attacked the late Expressionism of the Schoenberg school
and the Neue Sachlichkeit movement as the betrayal of a specifically
German tradition; the Expressionists condemned the traditionalists and the
adherents of Neue Sachlichkeit as conformists whose compositional
techniques were anachronistic; the practitioners of Neue Sachlichkeit
accused the traditionalists and Expressionists of aesthetic conservatism,
criticizing them for failing to sense the needs of the time; and the
Jugendmusikbewegung could hear nothing but ‘decadent’ sounds ‘alien to
the people’ in all recently composed music. Thus the opposing musical
tendencies of the 1920s inadvertently developed the arguments that the
National Socialists would deploy after 1933 in attacking all the music of this
period.
The Wall Street crash of October 1929 plunged the pluralistic and
cosmopolitan musical life of Germany into a crisis that led to a significantly
changed intellectual climate and paved the way for many of the musical
developments of the 1930s. The composers of the Neue Sachlichkeit
movement, in particular, feeling less and less in sympathy with a time of
radical political change, reacted by excluding anything contemporary from
their music. In 1930 Hindemith could still write: ‘In recent years I have
almost entirely turned away from concert music, writing instead music for
educational or social purposes: for amateurs, for children, for the radio, for
mechanical instruments, etc. I believe this kind of composition is more
important than writing for concert performance, since the latter is little but a
technical exercise for the musicians and does hardly anything for the
further development of music’. But in 1931 he wrote: ‘It seems as if the tide
is gradually turning towards serious music on a large scale again’. The
reversion to serious, large-scale music after 1930–31 quickly made itself
felt, as composers turned to traditional genres such as the symphony
(Weill’s Second Symphony) and the oratorio (Hindemith’s Das
Unaufhörliche).
While the totalitarian Nazi regime established in January 1933 appeared
from the outside to have a strict, hermetically sealed hierarchy, chaos
prevailed among the party authorities, with rival institutions obstructing
each other and proclaiming allegiance to Hitler alone. The system did in
fact offer a certain latitude, but it was hardly ever exploited. Instead, a
climate of suspicion, denunciation and intrigue prevailed. All Nazi musical
policies had a common aim: the suppression and exclusion of Jews from
public musical life and the banning of those composers who had been
influential during the Weimar Republic. The exclusion of Jews from
Germany’s musical life was smoothly accomplished, with minimal
resistance, by the setting up of a Reichsmusikkammer to which all
musicians were obliged to belong, and which decreed who was allowed to
practise a musical profession in Germany. Innumerable Jewish musicians
were forced to emigrate, and those unable to escape abroad could practise
only within the Kulturbund Deutscher Juden, which became the
Reichsverband Jüdischer Kulturbünde in 1935, coming to a violent end in
1941 with the so-called ‘final solution’. Those musicians who were not
Jewish but were identified with the Weimar Republic usually had a chance
of ‘probation’, which with few exceptions they took; among leading figures
only Fritz Busch, Erich Kleiber and Hindemith preferred to emigrate. The
depths of this state-sanctioned process of humiliation and denunciation
were reached in 1938 with the Düsseldorf exhibition of Entartete Musik
(‘degenerate music’). Some of the major works of the time were banned in
Germany, among them Berg’s Lulu and Hindemith’s Mathis der Maler,
which had their premières in Zürich in 1937 and 1938 respectively.
Those composers who did not participate in the obligatory composition of
marches, choruses and songs and cantatas propounding Nazi ideology,
were either forced into isolation, like Heinrich Kaminsky, Berg and Webern,
or withdrew into a kind of internal exile, like Karl Amadeus Hartmann. The
Church offered some scope and many composers, including J.N. David,
Günter Raphael, Ernst Pepping, Hugo Distler and Kurt Thomas, turned
almost exclusively to sacred music. No composer emerged whose works
epitomized the spirit of Nazi Germany; and those composers who did
achieve recognition were strongly influenced by music that was now taboo:
Wolfgang Fortner and Ottmar Gerster were of the school of Hindemith;
Rudolf Wagner-Régeny was influenced by both Weill and Hindemith;
Werner Egk wrote works that synthesized Bavarian folk music with rhythms
and bitonal harmonies deriving from Stravinsky; and Blacher’s music also
betrayed his admiration of Stravinsky. Only one composer achieved lasting
international fame at this period: Carl Orff with his Carmina burana, to
medieval texts on which even the Nazis could hardly claim an ideological
monopoly. While older composers such as Strauss and Pfitzner merely
continued to write in the same style as before, most of these younger
composers embraced Neue Sachlichkeit, making it both more accessible
and more monumental in style.
After the defeat and collapse of Germany in 1945 and the division of the
country into two German states – the democratic, western Federal
Republic of Germany (BRD) and the communist German Democratic
Republic (DDR) – musical life in West Germany revived with astonishing
speed in parallel with the economic recovery. In Strauss and Pfitzner, who
both died in 1949, Germany still had two living composers whose musical
styles had been formed before the turn of the century, and they both wrote
significant late works after 1945. In an urgent need to make up for lost
time, there were numerous performances of the works composed from the
1920s onwards by Stravinsky and, especially, Hindemith, who had been
driven into exile. After about 1948 the music composed around 1910
(described by Theodor W. Adorno as the first great ‘heroic age’ of new
music) was rediscovered, and the 12-tone works of Schoenberg and, even
more so, Webern, attracted particular attention. Serial music developed not
least through the theoretical ideas propounded by Messiaen and Boulez in
France.
The development of serial music around 1950 also highlights a
fundamental change in aesthetic thinking, which was largely the work of
Adorno. It was proposed that analytical thought about music is more
influential than the experience of hearing it, that judgments of musical
value are bound up with a work’s innovatory aspects, and that a work is
more valuable as a record of a particular development or trend than as an
entity in itself. Serial music, the mainstream music of West Germany in the
1950s, developed as a narrative of compositional problems in which works
derived their techniques from each other. This development was
encouraged by many institutions, music festivals and organizations
devoted to new music, with public assistance and, in particular, with the
support of the radio stations. Notable among them were the Darmstadt
Ferienkurse für Neue Musik (from 1946), the revived Donaueschingen
Festival (from 1950), the concert series of the broadcasting stations in
Cologne (Musik der Zeit), Hamburg (Das Neue Werk), Bremen (Pro Musica
Nova) and the Musica Viva series in Munich. As an expression of the re-
establishment of freedom, new music became almost institutionalized in
West Germany, which consequently attracted many foreign musicians,
including Mauricio Kagel, Boulez and Ligeti.
Musical trends, however, diverged once more. While serial composers
such as Karlheinz Stockhausen soon became increasingly significant,
composers such as Hartmann, Bernd Alois Zimmermann and Wilhelm
Killmayer, who approached the serial mainstream only cautiously or not at
all, were condemned as ‘outsiders’. Hans Werner Henze even left West
Germany and settled in Italy in 1953. Furthermore, none of the famous
composers who had emigrated from Nazi Germany returned to live
permanently in the German Federal Republic, and only since the 1990s
has there been a revival of their music in the reunified Germany (as with
the works of Berthold Goldschmidt).
East Germany remained entirely untouched by the musical developments
of West Germany. After a period of severe repression under the imposition
of ‘socialist realism’, which ended with Stalin’s death in 1953, influential
positions were filled by composers such as Ottmar Gerster, Rudolf
Wagner-Régeny, Max Butting and Fidelio F. Finke, who had begun their
careers in the 1920s and had won recognition in Nazi Germany. In addition,
composers such as Hanns Eisler, Paul Dessau and E.H. Meyer returned to
the DDR from exile. The functionalist musical concepts of the 1920s, in
particular, were developed and given a new ideological slant in East
Germany. In this way music in West and East Germany developed in
antithetical directions: in the Federal Republic it was predominantly
hermetic, radical and avant-garde, an emblem of social freedom and
progress, while in the German Democratic Republic composers who felt a
responsibility to society developed and adapted their ‘bourgeois’ musical
inheritance.
During the 1960s musical developments in the German Democratic
Republic more closely approached those of the Federal Republic. The
building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 by the East German regime led to
internal political stability and introduced a period of cultural liberalization,
enabling the composers of the Democratic Republic to study Western
avant-garde techniques that had been condemned as decadent. The
younger generation of composers, including Paul-Heinz Dittrich, Siegfried
Matthus and Georg Katzer, may also have been aware of the risk of
stagnation by comparison with other, more liberal Eastern bloc countries,
particularly Poland. But what seemed to these composers a third way, a
compromise between reactionary conservatism and the extravagant,
socially ‘irrelevant’ avant garde, attracted little attention in West Germany.
Instead, developments in the German Democratic Republic seemed to
West Germans like a hesitant approach to methods of composition that had
already been superseded in the Federal Republic, where serial music had
entered a post-serial phase in the 1960s.
John Cage exerted a decisive influence when he came to Darmstadt in
1958; his concept of aleatory music led serial composers to relax their strict
procedures. With melodic, rhythmic and harmonic processes restored, their
works acquired recognizable form again. At the beginning of the 1950s,
serial technique had been seen as a means of emancipation from tradition,
the conquest of sound worlds never before experienced; at the beginning
of the 1960s, conversely, traditional musical dimensions were restored in
order to break with the demands of number and series in serial music. In
West Germany itself, forms of politically committed music emerged in the
mid-60s, with composers such as Henze, Helmut Lachenmann, Mathias
Spahlinger and Nicolaus A. Huber employing various stylistic methods in
the cause of political and social engagement. While Henze, for instance,
intensified and radicalized his methods of composition, using avant-garde
techniques, Huber simplified his style, adopting elements of light music.
It was not until the mid-1970s that serial and post-serial musical thinking in
West Germany was superseded by a younger generation of composers,
forming a relatively homogeneous group and holding comparable aesthetic
ideas; their compositions attracted wide attention and the support of the
media. Among these composers were Manfred Trojahn, Detlev Müller-
Siemens, Wolfgang von Schweinitz, Ulrich Stranz, Hans-Jürgen von Bose
and, in particular, Wolfgang Rihm, the outstanding talent of his generation.
It was a feature of this group that they turned away from certain aesthetic
and technical assumptions about composition that had gone unchallenged
since the early 1950s. Their techniques were eclectic and included
traditional harmonic and tonal procedures. They rejected all forms of
experimentation such as aleatory music, improvisation, graphic notation,
Geräuschmusik and electronic music. In contrast to Adorno’s ideas of linear
and teleological musical progress, a pluralism of techniques and
procedures now prevailed. Rihm devised the term ‘inclusive composition’
for this new musical paradigm, which is open to all technical methods
governed by the necessity of musical expression and is the opposite of
‘exclusive composition’, which excludes, rejects and withdraws into itself.
The attitude towards the musical tradition also changed. Webern’s music,
the epitome of ‘exclusive composition’, became less influential, while the
music of the turn of the century, particularly that of Mahler, increasingly
served as a point of reference. Those composers who had become
‘outsiders’ since the 1950s were now reassessed, among them the oldest,
Günter Bialas, who was also an influential teacher of composition, Henze,
Killmayer and B.A. Zimmermann, with his notion of time as Kugelgestalt
(‘globe structure’) in which all historical styles are present.
Against the background of these developments in the Federal Republic,
differences in musical styles between West and East Germany became
ever more insignificant. Young East German composers such as Friedrich
Goldmann, Friedrich Schenker and Udo Zimmermann were part of the
same developments as their West German contemporaries; and Tilo
Medek, exiled from the Democratic Republic in 1977 on political grounds,
continued to work in the Federal Republic without making any stylistic
adaptations. The reunification of Germany in 1989 set the seal on a
process that had already been completed in the mid-1970s.
Expectations fostered by the new ‘inclusive’ paradigm of the mid-70s,
however, remained largely unfulfilled: pluralism in musical composition
acquired arbitrary features wherever there was a lack of solid technical
ability. Reference to the styles and techniques of the turn of the 20th
century provoked unfavourable comparisons: the aim of composers to
express themselves in a musical language as comprehensible as possible
had been better achieved by music of the past in more authentic forms. In
the late 1990s a new radical approach to composition was beginning to
emerge in Germany, albeit without any immediately identifiable overall
tendencies. Habermaas has termed the aesthetic uncertainties facing
composers as the ‘neue Unversichtlichkeit’ (‘the new inability to ensure’).
Modern disavowal of musical traditions and fragmentation of styles forces
every composition to justify its existence independently, unmediated by
commentary on its aesthetics or techniques.
Germany, §I: Art music.
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Deutschland (Berlin, 1961)
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1984)
M. Geck: Von Beethoven bis Mahler: die Musik des deutschen Idealismus
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19. Jahrhunderts (Regensburg, 1977)
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Dichotomie von hoher und niederer Musik im musikästhetischen
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T. Widmaier and A. Ballstaedt: Salonmusik: zur Geschichte und Funktion
einer bürgerlichen Musikpraxis (Stuttgart, 1989)
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Publikum: die Rahmenbedingungen des Musikschaffens in
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(Habilitationsschrift, U. of Münster, 1995)
B. Schmid: Volk, Nation, Stamm und Rasse: die Politisierung der
deutschen Musik 1850–1945 (diss., U. of Heidelberg, 1997)
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O. Elben: Der volksthümliche deutsche Männergesang, seine Geschichte,
seine gesellschaftliche und nationale Bedeutung (Tübingen, 1855,
2/1887/R)
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M. Geck: Deutsche Oratorien 1800 bis 1840: Verzeichnis der Quellen und
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O. Schreiber: Orchester und Orchesterpraxis in Deutschland zwischen
1780 und 1850 (Berlin, 1938/R)
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bis 1850 (Habilitationsschrift, U. of Saarbrücken, 1972)
H.-W. Heister: Das Konzert: Theorie einer Kulturform (Wilhelmshaven,
1983)
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ersten Hälfte der 19. Jhts (Düsseldorf, 2/1987)
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Wolfenbüttel, 1642–1700 (Wiesbaden, 1989)
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Institution (Wilhelmshaven, 1991)
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(Mannheim, 1992)
f: periodicals, publishers, musicology
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Journalistik (Kassel, 1929)
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Gründung des Vereins der deutschen Musikalienhändler 1829–1929
(Leipzig, 1929)
M. [Bruckner-]Bigenwald: Die Anfänge der Leipziger Allgemeinen
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R. Heinz: Geschichtsbegriff und Wissenschaftscharakter der
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(Regensburg, 1968)
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Pressewesens in Deutschland: Dargestellt vom Ausgang des 18. bis
zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts (Regensburg, 1972)
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musikalischen Fachpresse (1815–1848) (Hamburg, 1986)
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Gebrauchswert musikalischer Bildung in Deutschland um 1800
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(diss., U of Heidelberg, 1997)
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und Topographie einer Form gewerblicher Musikdistribution vom
späten 18. bis zum frühen 20. Jahrhundert (Saarbrücken, 1997)
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J. Brockmeiers (Munich, 1976; Eng. trans., 1982)
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Musik (Mainz, 1978)
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geben Auskunft über inhren Standort’, NZM, Jg.140 (1979), 5–24
F. Schneider: Momentaufnahme: Notate zu Musik und Musikern der DDR
(Leipzig, 1979)
W. Scholz and W. Jonas-Corriere, eds.: Die deutsche
Jugendmusikbewegung in Dokumenten ihrer Zeit von den Anfängen
bis 1933 (Wolfenbüttel, 1980)
‘Die Musik der 1930er Jahre’, GfMKB: Bayreuth 1981, 142–82
[symposium, incl. contributions by R. Stephan, A. Reithmüller and C.
Dahlhaus]
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H. Danuser: Die Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts (Laaber, 1984)
H.-W. Heister, ed.: Musik und Musikpolitik im faschistischen Deutschland
(Frankfurt, 1984)
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R. Stephan: Vom musikalischen Denken: gesammelte Vorträge (Mainz,
1985)
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U. Dibelius, ed.: Neue Musik im geteilten Deutschland, i: Dokumente aus
den fünfziger Jahre (Berlin, 1993)
M. Thrun: Neue Musik im deutschen Musikleben bis 1933 (Bonn, 1995)
J. Häusler: Spiegel der Neuen Musik, Donaueschingen: Chronik,
Tendenzen, Werkbesprechungen (Kassel, 1996)
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Ferienkurse für Neue Musik, Darmstadt 1946–1966 (Freiburg, 1997)
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Reich (New York, 1997)
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P.M. Potter: Most German of the Arts: Musicology and Society from the
Weimar Republic to the End of Hitler's Reich (New Haven, CT, 1998)
N. Grosch: Die Musik der Neuen Sachlichkeit (Stuttgart, 1999)
Germany

II. Folk music

1. The subject area.
2. Musical issues.
3. History of ‘folk music’.
4. Modern and postmodern contexts.
Germany, §II: Traditional Music
1. The subject area.
(i) Background.
Historical and ontological concerns are fundamental to understanding what
German folk music is and how it relates to and interacts with other types of
German music. German scholars were among the earliest to identify and
then to develop theories of folk music, beginning with Johann Gottfried
Herder's coining of the term ‘Volkslied’ (‘folksong’) in the late 18th century
(Herder, 1778–9). The historical concerns of German scholars address
both the ways in which folk music persists across time and the processes
of change that occur from performance to performance. The ontological
concerns arise because of conflicting views about the fundamental nature
of folk music, whether it is an object with its own identity – a folksong or
dance – or whether it is a set of social, performative practices with
identifiable functions. German scholars have debated extensively the ways
in which it is possible to delimit and define folk music, and it is therefore
necessary to survey the field of German folk music scholarship by first
distinguishing the predominant definitions and approaches that constitute
its subject area (cf. Levy, 1911; Pulikowski, 1933).
The history of German music has unfolded along two parallel paths, which,
in sociological terms, produce two larger cultural domains (Wiora, 1971).
The ‘first’ musical culture, though historically later, contains secular and
sacred ‘art music’; the ‘second’ contains the broad range of musical
practices now called ‘musical folk culture’ (Schepping, 1988). Scholars
examine the subject matter of the second musical culture under the rubric
‘folk music’, further dividing it into four subcategories of music: ‘folksong’,
‘instrumental folk music’, ‘folkdance’ and ‘folk-like music’ (volkstümliche
Musik). The categories subsumed under ‘folk music’ also have social and
cultural significance, therefore making it possible to study them and the
phenomena surrounding them from sociological and anthropological
perspectives (Bausinger, 1968).
Although there have been recent attempts to reconceive and rename folk
music by employing a variety of neutral terms, notably ‘traditional music’,
they have not succeeded in capturing the long history of folk music or its
sustained relevance in modern Germany. The term ‘traditional’ relegates
the second musical culture to the past, while implicitly suggesting that it is
no longer being created in the modern era. Attempts to replace ‘folk music’
with ‘traditional music’, moreover, ignore the original meanings intended by
Herder in the 18th century. Herder had already used the term to embrace
more than folksong alone, broadening it to include folk dance and folk-like
and popular musics in literate tradition. Herder's approach was subject-
rather than object-based and gave birth to a field of study that was
concerned with sociological issues as well as musical pieces and style
histories. It is only when distorted as an object-orientated field that folk-
music scholarship became primarily concerned with normative rather than
empirical definitions, thus treating folksong as ‘invention’ rather than real
practices of music-making (Klusen, 1969).
(ii) Normative definitions.
The ‘normative definitions’ of folk music – the characteristics that music
should demonstrate in order to qualify as folk music – fall into six
categories. No definition has been more historically tenacious than that of
oral transmission, the process of learning songs by hearing them sung by
others; instrumental folk music and folkdance are transmitted in an
equivalent way through direct interaction between musicians. In German
scholarship, it is the transmission rather than composition of music that is
crucial to orality. Written and printed manuscripts provided the basis for
orally transmitted songs prior to recorded sound, which in the 20th century
through technologies, such as the Walkman cassette recorder, provided a
further basis for the oral transmission of music. Concert sing-alongs and
karaoke, too, contributed to the persistence of orally-transmitted musics at
the end of the 20th century, indicating the need to qualify ‘oral transmission’
with concepts such as ‘primarily aural’ or ‘directly or indirectly personal’ or
‘by imitation’.
The second normative condition of folk music, also regarded as a
‘historical’ criterion, is popularity, whereby German scholars meant to
identify music that was widely distributed. 20th-century scholars have more
often dismissed widespread popularity as a condition, turning instead to the
smaller groups that tend to create and cultivate folk music. In one important
theory, Ernst Klusen (1986) has suggested even that the term ‘group song’
replace ‘folksong’. Other scholars have noted that the type of popularity
growing from mass-mediated music does not adequately describe the
more local and vernacular uses of popular music.
One of the most empirically relevant criteria of folk music is variability, the
condition allowing music created for one function to undergo changes that
permit its adaptation to others. John Meier was the first folk music scholar
to postulate a theory of variability, in which he argued for the virtual
autonomy of a work of folk music; however fixed a piece might be in its
initial version (e.g. in a printed medium), it was nonetheless sufficiently
malleable for personal and other uses, ranging from new settings for
different ensembles to more complete alteration through harmonization and
the alteration of text. With much folk music transmitted by electronic media
in the 20th century, the condition of variability lost much of its significance.
The fourth characteristic, anonymity of authorship, though an important
criterion of folk music throughout the 19th century, underwent substantial
revision in the 20th. Beginning with John Meier's influential formulation of
folksong as ‘art music in the mouths of the folk’, scholars introduced
various notions and processes of creativity (Meier, 1906). A major split
between Austrian and German theories of authorship characterized the first
decades of the 20th century, with the Austrian Josef Pommer holding more
steadfastly to the ‘production theory’ of Herder. In the second half of the
20th century, concepts of reception replaced those of production, with
scholars such as Walter Wiora identifying the ways in which the reception
and transmission were themselves the true sites of creativity, thus making
‘fidelity’ to an ‘original’ authorial act irrelevant (Wiora, 1950).
One of the very first aesthetic conditions applied by Herder to folk music,
dignity, became virtually inapplicable in the course of the 20th century, as
the value of folk music was more closely related to its practicability in
culture. Because earlier claims about aesthetic value had led to the
exclusion of many pieces from research and collecting, 20th-century
scholars replaced aesthetic restrictions made on a piece's dignity with
neutral claims about folk music as ‘value-free’.
A final normative criterion for folk music, antiquity, has never lent itself to
empirical proof. Much of the earliest scholarship treated folksongs as if they
were relics from the distant past. Accordingly, theories that stressed the
decline of folk music, based on the relative abundance of newer songs
gathered in the field, were tautological in their unwillingness to consider as
folk music any work that was not demonstrably antique. Nonetheless,
German folk music repertories at the end of the 20th century contained an
extensive mixture of songs that were centuries old and the recent and
modern.
(iii) Subject-orientated definitions.
Because the normative criteria for defining folk music are biassed and
problematical, it has become necessary to shift attention from ‘objects’ to
‘subjects’ in order to rethink folk music as primarily a constituent of musical
folk culture. An empirically statistical approach provided one of the most
basic ways of making this transition. It did so by accepting as folk music all
musical phenomena at any historical moment that fulfilled the most general
functions of folk music. Statistical approaches have revealed that a given
repertory might contain a mixture of old and new songs, orally transmitted
songs with mediated examples, songs derived from art-music repertories
and popular music of all kinds. The music itself (i.e. questions about its
origin, genre, form etc.) is therefore secondary or incidental to musical
performance (Schepping, 1988).
Sociological approaches have traditionally focussed on the individuals,
groups and classes that have performed folk music. In the 19th century
such approaches defined the performers of folk music as a lower class, a
‘basic stratum’ or even a ‘mother stratum’ of society (Danckert, 1966). In
the 20th century sociological approaches recognized that the performers of
folk music could belong to any class, and that for the transmission of folk
music to be most extensively realized, all ‘strata’ of society must participate
in the processes of transmission in some way.
Claims that a musical folk culture is only possible when performers have
direct and personal contact were largely debunked by approaches that
accounted for the existence of mediated repertories and practices.
Whereas the exponents of theories espousing face-to-face contact, such
as Ernst Klusen, continued to look for folk music in small communities or
groups with social affinities, the fact that music can gain popularity when
disseminated over vast distances, creating a large community whose
members may know nothing of each other, has generated approaches that
look at contact between the producers and consumers of music in quite
complex ways.
Approaches predicated on amateur or lay performance, though once
common, had few advocates at the end of the 20th century. Performers of
folk music may range from the entirely untrained to those with extensive
training in art music.
(iv) Definitional categories involving action.
The approaches to understanding the ontology of folk music at the end of
the 20th century generally shared a concern for action, in other words the
actual situation involved in singing, the process of singing and the sound
production in action. As a form of social action, folk music retains its
functional characteristics. It never exists simply to be performed in formal
contexts, separated from the performance capabilities of its audiences.
Dancing and making music are never ends in themselves, but rather
components of social exchange between people, be that in music for the
enactment of customs, in political song or the music of sport.
Concepts of exchange have further led scholars to recognize the essential
significance of interaction. When performance encompasses folk music, it
does so because a large number of people in a group or performance are
involved in music-making. Theories of interaction account for all aspects of
a performance, determining the ways in which they are integrated into the
music. Logically, then, everything ‘musical’ produced at moments of
extensive interaction should be considered part of modern folk music.
One of the most extensive qualities of action is the operational quality of
folk music, the complete autonomy that any performance of folk music
possesses (Baumann, 1976). From performance to performance the object
of folk music – a folksong or dance – can and does change, lending
performance a quality of improvisation. Folk music therefore expresses the
personalities of individual performers, who have social licence to make folk
music their own by introducing change. Insofar as certain electronic media
arrest rather than enhance the operational quality of performance, they
limit rather than enhance the functional conditions of folk music.
Germany, §II: Traditional Music
2. Musical issues.
(i) Genre.
German concepts of folk music are inseparable from the extensive and
complex divisions of folksong and dance into genre. The musical structure,
social function and cultural identity of each piece or repertory are bounded
by the ascription of genre. Interpretation of genre, therefore, reveals not
only how a given piece reflects musical form, but also who performs it, why
and under what circumstances (Wiora, 1977). More than any other
interpretative or analytical method, knowledge of genre is crucial to
understanding the basic ontology of German folk music (see Brednich,
Röhrich and Suppan, 1973–5).
Genre is determined primarily by four different factors: text and language;
dance; instruments and ensemble; and social function. Text and language
form genres that locate folksong on various social levels, though primarily
on a socially high level when texts are in High German or derived from
printed sources, or on a socially lower level when texts are in a vernacular
or dialect reflecting oral transmission (Laufhütte, 1991, and Petzoldt, 1982).
The classical genre with texts in High German is the ballad, a narrative
genre with strophic forms. German folksong scholars have historically
focussed on the ballad and its literate counterpart, the Flugblattlied
(‘broadside’), because of its potential to illuminate historical questions and
the spread of German culture and settlement beyond Germany (Braungart,
1985, and J. Meier and others, 1935–96). Dialect song, in contrast,
consists of genres with local forms of the German language. Dialect songs
undergo rapid change, even within relatively small linguistic and cultural
regions. They become fixed as stereotyped genres only when they enter a
written tradition, such as the Wienerlied (‘Viennese song’) (Schepping,
1991).
Genre also connects folk dance to place and time. The transition from rural
to urban occurs when one genre develops from another during periods of
migration to the city and urbanization. The waltz, for example, evolved from
the Ländler and the march from the polka during the 19th century. Dance
genres may be local, as in the case of the Zwiefach, a genre with
alternating meters and characteristic of only a few areas in Bavaria. Dance
genre also forms according to social function; rural genres may retain the
use of dance figures for courting or during calendric rituals, whereas urban
genres may rely on more generalized form that different groups appropriate
as they cross social and class boundaries. Instrumental musicians absorb
the genres of dance music, further transforming them into new genres with
both musical and social meaning. Instrumental ensembles accompany
secular dance and entertainment but in some areas also ritual and religious
activities. Therefore instrumental music often translates genre from one
social setting to another.
Social function remains one of the fundamental frameworks for the division
of folk music into genre. At one level, genre accrues to the different uses of
music within the private sphere of the family, for example by creating
genres connected to rites of passage or local occupations. In contrast,
genre also ascribes functions that reflect the use of music in a more public
social sphere. Heimatlieder (‘songs of the homeland’) and Arbeiterlieder
(‘workers' songs’) are among the most notable cases of genres that have
characterized political folk music in German society (I. Lammel and others,
1975; Lammel, 1970). Genre has persisted as a trait of postmodern
contexts for folk music, underscoring the processes of negotiation between
the local and the national, as well as between the private and the public
(Mossmann, 1980).
(ii) Melody and classification.
Theories of German folk music rely extensively on convictions that melody
demonstrates order and coherence. Melodies relate to prototypes, and
despite variation across geography and time, melody in German folk music
bears witness to German identity and history (Tappert, 1868; Wiora, 1952;
Wittrock, 1969). The distinctive forms and functions of melody provide the
foundation for the order and the stability in processes of change in German
folk music (Koller, 1902–3, and Krohn, 1906). Attempts to identify what
does or does not make folk music German at any given historical moment
usually begin with descriptions of melody itself.
The relation of melody to form depends on theories asserting that the
overall shape, or Gestalt, of melody is the product of the dominance of
strophic forms, which in turn rely on underlying harmony. Melodic
movement, therefore, moves largely stepwise, though also in 3rds, with
stress engendered by the pitches of triads that mark strategic points in the
strophic form. Two larger classificatory principles provide frameworks for
the ways melody expresses age and relative stability over time. Firstly,
relatively old melodies are marked by limited range, whereas more recent
songs demonstrate complex forms; secondly, melody becomes internally
more complex, expanding the length of individual lines but, more
importantly, of the number of lines constituting a strophe (Suppan, Stief and
Braun, 1976–83).
Melodic form, however complex, maintains the stable underpinnings of
harmonic movement, with analytical approaches (e.g. Schenkerian
analysis) adapted to the interpretation of melody accordingly (Bratislava
1965). Concepts of form, therefore, postulate that stereotypic melodic
gestures, such as the rise from stable to unstable pitches, especially from
tonic to dominant and beyond to secondary dominants, create melodic
tension that must be resolved by returning to stable pitches. Further
stereotypic gestures, such as a propensity for arched melodies, permit an
extension of basic forms (Rodziejów 1967).
The potential of melody to yield patterns of order provides the basis for
both traditional and modern analytical approaches. Computer analysis of
melodic patterns became relatively widespread in the 1980s and 90s, with
most programs designed to identify coherent patterns and their variants,
and then to re-examine traditional concepts of genre (e.g. Jesser, 1991)
and harmonic architecture embedded in melody (e.g. Steinbeck, 1982).
Computer-assisted analysis confirmed the traditional belief in the primacy
of melody as a structural core capable of withstanding change.
(iii) Form.
It is a measure of the relation of German folk music to the cultural history of
modernity that form has been relatively fixed since the 18th-century
Enlightenment. The form of individual pieces depends on origins and
functions in song, either secular or sacred, or in dance. Hybrid forms, too,
have been present in German folk music throughout modern history,
bearing witness to the contact and exchange with ethnic groups within
Central Europe and with the many non-German cultures at the peripheries.
Form in German folksong emphasizes the textual and musical functions of
the verse or strophe. Genres with forms based on single lines, such as the
epic, are quite rare in central European repertories, whereas genres that
depend on strophic form, such as the ballad, are quite common. Ballads in
oral tradition employ strophic forms to provide a narrative and dramatic
framework, with each strophe setting the stage for a scene in the narrative.
This capacity of the strophe to provide form for the telling of a story was
exploited by composers of the 19th century (e.g. Franz Schubert and
Johannes Brahms), who composed works based on ballads and other
narrative forms. Popular song in the 20th century, for example semi-staged
traditions such as Couplettlieder (‘couplet songs’) or cabaret, also relied on
strophic form for narrative and dramatic structure.
Strophic forms also pervade the many genres of religious folk music
(volksfromme Musik). In Protestant areas, primarily in northern Germany,
the formal properties of Lutheran chorales, especially Bar-Form (AAB), are
evident in many religious folk repertories. The strophic structures of
Catholic folk repertories in southern Germany and the Alpine regions rely
more extensively on antiphonal structures, whether in folk hymns or in
more specialized repertories, such as pilgrimage songs.
Form in folk dance relies in two different ways on the tension between two
contrastive sections. Many folk dances establish the tension by employing
an ABA form, with a marked shift in mode, instrumentation and rhythmic
structure in the move from the outer section to the inner and back again.
Other folk dances, such as the Ländler and the Schottisch, extend form by
spinning it out by means of a ‘chain’ of sections. The return to the A section
anchors the folk dance in a familiar melody and set of figures or pattern on
the dance floor but the introduction of new musical links to the chain also
permits the form of folk dance to develop, even spawning new dances.
Hybrid forms frequently result when German folk music interacts with non-
German traditions. Strophic forms, for example, may provide a template for
introducing Czech, Polish and Slovak verses to folksongs in areas of
German settlement in Eastern Europe. Folkdance, particularly because of
the prevalence of non-German dance musicians in many areas and
because of the use of dance to introduce the exotic, also serves as the
basis for hybridization. Hungarian dance forms, such as the czardás,
influenced the eastern regions of central Europe throughout the 19th
century and at the end of the 20th century such diverse forms as those in
tango and Jewish klezmer music brought about widespread formal change
in German folkdance.
(iv) Folk musicians.
From the moment it was coined by Johann Gottfried Herder in the late 18th
century, the concept of Volkslieder has not so much identified musicians as
the Volk as it has a mass of people from which individual musicians did not
stand out. Many, if not most, concepts of German folk music admit to the
possibility that individuals were creative (e.g. in the composition, production
and dissemination of broadsides), but concern for equating folk music with
historical meaning and durability necessitated removing and repressing the
individual musician, thereby perpetuating the paradox that the Volk did not
comprise music-making individuals (Bohlman, 1996).
As greater attention has been paid to the musical aspects of folk music and
to performing practice in the second half of the 20th century, German folk
music scholarship has mapped musicians across a spectrum with seven
general categories. In the first category, the Volk as an undistinguished
music-making population remains at one extreme, albeit with emphasis on
widespread involvement in musical activity. In the second, folk musicians
remain widespread in society, but the folk musician possesses an unusual
degree of talent and is therefore valued in his or her community. In the
third, folk music is increasingly the domain of special institutions, such as
local choruses or wind bands, transforming the members of such
institutions into folk musicians, albeit without extensive formal training. In
the fourth, folk musicians are specialists responsible for accompanying folk
dance or for the performance of religious folk music. In the fifth, folk
musicians are creative musicians, therefore bringing about musical change
and standing out in their communities as specialists and extraordinary
musicians. In the sixth, musicians from outside local, regional and national
culture (e.g. ethnic minorities, foreigners or social outsiders) have become
the folk musicians most responsible for maintaining folk music (James,
1981), and, in the final category, folk music no longer resides in the culture
of the Volk but has rather become entirely the purview of professional folk
musicians who earn some part of their livelihood from the performance of
folk music.
At the end of the 20th century the anxiety about who was or was not a folk
musician, and about the folk musician as an insider or outsider in German
society, mirrored the broader anxiety about how German society could
include diversity in a culture historically linked to shared notions of
Germanness. The changing model of the folk musician became linked to
the problem of extending a concept of the Volk beyond the self to include
multiple ‘others’. In the second half of the 20th century the German folk
musician had come to play not one kind of German folk music, but many
kinds.
Germany, §II: Traditional Music
3. History of ‘folk music’.
Although little written evidence for traditional musics in the German-
speaking regions of central Europe appears until after ce 100, the
presence of melodies with probable vernacular origins in medieval
manuscripts (e.g. the Carmina Burana, c1300, and the Jenaer
Liederhandschrift, from c1350) reveals a long history of melodic
predilection toward a Mediterranean melos, such as that in Gregorian
chant, with its rich melismas and multitude of diatonic modes. Children's
repertories and songs associated with Christian holidays, such as
Christmas and Easter, and religious traditions, such as local rituals and
European pilgrimage, together constitute the earliest stage in a history of
German folk music.
By the high Middle Ages various forms of secular music also appeared in
the records of fairs, of city marketplaces and of guilds (Schwab, 1982).
Both itinerant and town musicians contributed to the musical life of
medieval Germany, and we have some sense of the repertories from which
they played because these are preserved in manuscript collections such as
the Lochamer Liederbuch from Nuremberg, from about 1460, and the
Glogauer Liederbuch from about 1480 (Liliencron, 1865–9) .
In the Renaissance the presence of vernacular songs and dances
proliferated in both secular and religious domains. The rise of an educated
merchant class led to new possibilities for performance in the home, which
was often depicted in the visual art of the time. The rise of print culture,
moreover, created further opportunities for the dissemination of traditional
music, and there is ample evidence that Renaissance concepts of music
recognized the ways in which local musics that were ‘German’ were distinct
from other repertories that were not marked by a distinct sense of place,
either in their texts or in the ensembles used to perform them. This
evidence appears first in printed works such as Sebastian Virdung's
Musica getutscht (Basle, 1511) and Martin Agricola's Musica instrumentalis
deudsch (Wittenberg, 1529; fig.17), from which some pieces entered oral
tradition and survived until the end of the 20th century in traditional
practice. The German Reformation and Counter-Reformation provided
occasions for the composition of new sacred songs, which in turn entered
traditional and folk practice very rapidly (e.g. Catholisch Gesangbuechlein,
1613).
Throughout the Baroque era there was extensive exchange between folk
and art music and as the distinction between the two increased, so too did
the criteria that led to the growth of folk music practices. Dances that
formed the basis for composed dance suites, for example, appeared in
growing numbers and variations in folkdances of the time. The growth of
print technology, moreover, expanded the possibilities for the rapid
composition and dissemination of vernacular songs, especially broadsides
and ‘moral songs’ (Moritaten) (Harms, 1985). Both Catholics and
Protestants adapted composed works from oral tradition into folk practices,
for example, in the uses of Marian songs, such as those by the Cologne
Jesuit, Friedrich von Spee (fig.18). During the Baroque, folksongs and
dances appear in the works of many German art music composers.
Organological works published during the Baroque suggest that an
instrumentarium for German folk music was relatively standardized. The
second volume of Michael Praetorius's Syntagma musicum (De
organographia, Wolfenbüttel, 1618), as well as Weigel's engravings in
Musicalisches Theatrum from a century later, depicted folk musicians
playing the barrel organ, dulcimer, cowhorn and alphorn, shawm and
various bagpipes (fig.19), pipe and tabor, jew's harp and hurdy-gurdy.
Many of these instruments survived to the 20th century, and the early
engravings have provided sources for their revival in folk music at the end
of the 20th century.
Both religious and secular traditions underwent a radical popularization in
the late 18th century, effecting a profound change in the forms and styles of
German-language folksong traditions throughout the 19th century (Objartel,
1988). Enlightenment reforms in Catholic regions led to the composition of
‘German masses’, many of which had vernacular texts. In Protestant areas,
a parallel movement of religious awakening stimulated the creation and
increased availability of folk hymns (ex.1). Because all of these songs were
largely strophic and relied on the harmonic structure of choral performance,
they spilled beyond religious practices alone, influencing almost all forms of
secular song: couplets and ballads, school songs, soldiers' songs, patriotic
songs, student songs, waltzes and urban dance forms, and even operetta
and music for the popular stage (Erk and Böhme, 1893–4).

The second half of the 19th-century witnessed extensive institutionalization

of folk music through folk music movements (Gansberg, 1986), influenced
by the publications of folksong collections and arrangements of songs for
choral ensembles. First as men's choruses and then as mixed choruses,
the German choral movement spread to all parts of central Europe and
was fundamental to the music cultures of German emigrant groups
throughout the world, whether they responded to the political events of the
aborted 1848 revolution or the flood of emigration unleashed by economic
difficulties from the 1880s until World War I. Within Germany, the
‘Wandervogel’ (‘wandering bird’) movement took shape in 1896, employing
folk music as a symbolic means of returning to nature. As an
institutionalized form of folk music, the Wandervogel movement was
immensely popular, reaching a membership of some seven million by
1933, when the Nazi dictatorship assumed power and liquidated the youth
movement. The repertory of the Wandervogel included a vast array of
songs, in various styles and from various historical periods, which were
published by Hans Breuer as a songbook, Der Zupfgeigenhansl (Breuer,
1908). The folksongs of the Wandervogel were absorbed by other youth
groups in the early 20th century, for example by the German Zionist ‘Blau-
Weiss’, whose songbook contained many common German folksongs, as
well as songs in Yiddish and Hebrew (Bohlman, 1989).
In the course of the 20th century, youth movements in Germany adapted
to, altered and even resisted the hegemony of a common canon of German
folksongs. Socialist and communist groups drew upon French and Russian
folksong repertories, building and expanding repertories that would serve
as the basis for the central youth movement of the German Democratic
Republic (Moritz, 1991). The youth group of the Nazi Period, the ‘Hitler
Youth’, made extensive use of folksong in quite different ways, using it to
consolidate a common cultural vocabulary of Germanness. To resist the
ideological uses of folk music by fascist groups, smaller groups
incorporated jazz into their activities, transforming it from an entertainment
music imported from the US into a symbol of resistance.
Popular musics from within and outside Germany extensively shaped the
music of youth movements after World War II, a period in which the
Germanness of folksong was used to consolidate fascism in German youth
organizations. These popular musics stimulated a radical change in both
repertories and functions. The influence of popular music led to an
increasing number of styles, stimulating the absorption of the blues,
spirituals, gospel, rock and roll, pop, techno, rap and hip hop. Musical folk
culture at the end of the 20th century was able to preserve its character
and vitality, despite the loss of some traditions and of national and regional
distinctiveness, and sometimes being pronounced dead. It compensated
for the loss of some repertories and practices by reviving other repertories
and expanding the variability of musical style and forms of expression
fulfilling the functions of ‘folk music’ in modern Germany.
Germany, §II: Traditional Music
4. Modern and postmodern contexts.
(i) ‘Volkstümliche Musik’.
(ii) Regionalism and nationalism.
(iii) Ideology and politics.
(iv) Historicism.
(v) Other folk musics and the folk musics of others.
Germany, §II, 4: Traditional Music: Modern & Postmodern Contexts
(i) ‘Volkstümliche Musik’.
During the course of the 20th century Germany followed a path of rapid
modernization, industrialization and military–political expansionism, all
conditions that were anathema to the traditional world of folksong.
Whereas the model of folk music in the 19th century had been authenticity,
with function connected closely to the common production and
consumption by the Volk, the alienation of an industrialized society
produced cultural displacement, stimulating the mass production of culture
but driving producer and consumer apart. However folk music did not
disappear from German society in the 20th century but rather underwent
extensive transformation into new genres, repertories and functions that
accommodated the spread of modernity and, by the second half of the 20th
century, the onset of postmodernity.
Folk music that responds to the displacement of consumption from
production generally falls under the rubric, volkstümliche Musik (‘folk-like
music’). Folk-like music may reflect specifically musical meanings, that is
as a music consciously conceived and composed as if it were folk music.
Music may be given folk-like functions in order to emulate the cultural
identity and political agency of folk music. In folk-like music it is the
representation of Germanness as rooted in the Volk, real or imaginary, that
is important, and therefore volkstümliche Musik enjoyed its greatest
popularity at times when anxiety about the loss of Germanness was at its
most extreme.
The history of folklike music predates the 20th century. Broadside ballads
and Moritaten, printed and hawked narrative folksongs, were among the
first folk-like genres, and their history parallels that of the expansion of
music publishing and literacy. Folk-religious genres of music, such as
pilgrimage songs and workers' songs, have also depended extensively on
the mass dissemination of printed sources. They bore witness to folk-like
musical repertories throughout the 20th century, influencing singer-
songwriters and religious revivalism even in the 1990s.
Folklike music has benefited from the diversification of modern sources,
which in turn has encouraged the professionalization of vernacular
traditions. The use of folklike music for entertainment (Gelegenheitsmusik)
connected urban and rural settings, creating contexts for an urban
cosmopolitanism that depended on rural genres. Two other sources for
folklike music at the turn of the 20th century were military music and
operetta.
At the end of the 20th century folklike music was heavily mediated. German
hit songs, or Schlager, utilized the electrified instrumentarium of rock
music, but retained many of the sonic markers of folk music, thereby
making the Schlager unmistakably modern and popular but nostalgically
traditional and German (Bausinger, 1973). The producers of folklike music
used the mass media to fabricate the authenticity of a German folk culture
that had disappeared. One of the most popular of all television
programmes in the German-speaking countries of central Europe was
‘Musikantenstadl’ (‘Musicians’ Stable’), in which ensembles aspiring to
professional success played electrified versions of their own folklike
compositions on a stage made to look like a farmyard, filled with audience
members in local costumes (Trachten). Immensely popular mediated
performances such as Musikantenstadl increasingly recombined the
producers and consumers of folk music under postmodern conditions at
the end of the 20th century.
Germany, §II, 4: Traditional Music: Modern & Postmodern Contexts
(ii) Regionalism and nationalism.
Folk music has responded in complex ways to the devastating tragedy of
German nationalism in the 20th century. At various historical moments
folksong has provided the vocabulary and language for nationalism's
claims to power and military expansion, as well as prejudice and racism.
Folk music has also voiced opposition to nationalism and served to
counterbalance the hegemony of the nation-state, particularly by
expressing regionalism and local identities. At the end of the 20th century,
as a reunified Germany sought to reintegrate regions into a single national
whole, folk music no less expressed the tensions between local culture and
the political power of the nation-state than in the 19th century, when the
rise of German nationalism had signalled widespread consolidation of
German folk music.
The tension between nationalism and regionalism has traditionally
manifested itself in the texts, functions and genres of folksong. The ballad,
a narrative genre whose texts are by definition in High German, represents
the nation, not only because of its dependence on a shared literary
language but also because of the implication that its narrative texts were
constituents of a larger historical tradition. Dialect songs, in contrast, were
the folksongs unique to the region. By definition their texts resisted the
centripetal pull of national historical narratives (Stockmann, 1962; Röhrich,
1990).
Before and during the two world wars regional folk music was mustered for
nationalist agendas, thereby defusing the tension between the regional and
the national, and elevating the political potential of folk music to nationalist
ends. The struggle between the regional and the national is evident in
folksong collections from the Lorraine region of north-east France, where
Louis Pinck gathered five volumes of songs, almost entirely ballads,
historical songs and religious folksongs in High German, thus canonizing
the German presence in a region contested by Germany and France for
centuries (Pinck and Merkelbach-Pinck, 1926–62). Even more explicitly
expansionist in the overt integration of regional folk music into a national
tradition was the 43-volume anthology, Landschaftliche Volkslieder
(‘Folksongs of Landscape’), a publishing endeavour fostered by the
German Folksong Archive in Freiburg im Breisgau in 1924 but completed
only in 1971. The volumes of this series figuratively mapped the German
regions of central and eastern Europe through the Weimar and Nazi
periods, with additional volumes added after World War II under the
conditions of the Cold War (Landschaftliche Volkslieder, 1924–71; see
Bohlman, forthcoming).
The tension between regionalism and nationalism plays out in
volkstümliche Musik, especially in the annual ‘Grand Prix der Volksmusik’.
Beginning with local and regional competitions throughout German-
speaking central Europe – not only Germany, Austria and Switzerland but
also in neighbouring nations that use folk music to claim Germanness (e.g.
South Tyrol in northern Italy) – regional folk music groups compete on radio
and television to determine the best German folk music ensemble of the
year, with the national stage of competition broadcast to millions
throughout central Europe.
Through expanded ethnographic techniques in the second half of the 20th
century, German ethnomusicology and musical folklore (musikalische
Volkskunde) redefined the ways in which local folk music traditions related
to regional and national repertories and practices (e.g. Kiehl, 1987–92;
Holzapfel, 1993). Caution informed research projects that attempted to
open up smaller regions and urban areas as the sites at which folk music
narrated modern German history after World War II, accordingly eliminating
the pervasive presence of nationalism in folk music (e.g. Brandl, Bröcker
and Erier, 1989). However the debates about nationalism in music did not
subside, manifesting themselves particularly in the ways any music could
represent the German nation-state at the end of the century (Kurzke,
1990). The German national anthem, the so-called Deutschlandlied, with
music by Joseph Haydn and text by Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben,
was officially stripped of those verses that represented the expansionist
history of German nationalism (Knopp and Kuhn, 1988).
Germany, §II, 4: Traditional Music: Modern & Postmodern Contexts
(iii) Ideology and politics.
Two general ideological trajectories have influenced the political uses of
German folk music in the 20th century. The first trajectory, generally
conservative in character, shifted folksong repertories and folk music
practices toward the nationalist centre, where they could shore up the
nation-state. Historically, conservative ideologies emphasized the
centripetal pull of German history, and they did so by exaggerating the
presence of a German folk music presumably shared by all Germans. In
contrast, the second trajectory, referred to as both liberal and democratic,
mobilized folk music so that it would serve the peasant, the worker, the
student or simply the ‘common’ German (Steinitz, 1954–62; Buhmann and
Haeseler, 1983). Liberal ideologies were therefore centrifugal, generating
both greater variety and more extensive utility in folk music as it
modernized and responded to the hegemony at the nationalist centre.
Throughout the course of the 20th century the institutions of German
political power utilized folk music to implement a common ideology of
‘Germanness’. Within the first year of World War I, a two-volume anthology
of 604 folksongs appeared, which was to be shared by soldiers at the war
front and Germans at the home front (see M. Friedländer, 1915). During
the rise of fascism and the intensification of racism between the world
wars, the editors and publishers of folk music collections consolidated
repertories that nationalized some repertories while racializing others. Folk
music, in fact, lent itself particularly well to the racial ideologies of the Nazis
during both the Weimar and Nazi periods (Potter, 1998). Nationalist youth
movements, for example, the Hitler Youth, relied on the potential of folk
music to provide a shared vocabulary for the nation in order to create a
common rhetoric; this potential was not lost upon the DDR, which also
mobilized its youth movement with folk music (Freitag, 1993). For groups at
both the ideological fringe and the politicized centre, folk and folk-like
musics retained an intensely racialized significance. The racialization of
music by the Nazis, for example, was reworked by German neo-Nazis in
the 1980s and then intensified by disenfranchised youths from the former
east Germany in the 1990s, particularly in ‘Oi-Musik’ (Funk-Hennigs, 1995;
Schwarz, 1997).
The liberal and democratic uses of folk music in the 20th century stood in
sharp contrast with nationalist uses. At all moments when ideological power
shifted to the right, folk music traditions and repertories arose on the left to
counter and resist the abuses of nationalism. During the 1930s, for
example, Jewish communities throughout Germany included folk music
among new musical practices that overtly and covertly resisted the growing
exclusion and repression of Jews (Bohlman, 1995). Folksong provided a
sense of common purpose and a vehicle for survival in concentration
camps, such as Sachsenhausen, a primary collection of which survived the
Holocaust in manuscript (fig.20). After World War II, ‘democratic folk music’
provided groundwork in east Germany for a re-imagined history of workers’
struggle and resistance against fascism in Germany (Steinitz, 1954–62). It
is therefore hardly surprising that Germany's best known singer-
songwriters, such as Wolf Biermann, were east Germans and that the
folksong repertories used by left-wing student movements after 1968 drew
heavily upon the socialist canon of the DDR (Buhmann and Haeseler,
1983). It is similarly not surprising that these same singer-songwriters and
student movements used folk music to break radically with the increasingly
centralized politics of the DDR in the late 1970s and 1980s.
Germany, §II, 4: Traditional Music: Modern & Postmodern Contexts
(iv) Historicism.
One of the most significant and widespread uses of German folk music at
the end of the 20th century was to re-imagine the past in the present, that
is, to historicize German culture from previous times and places. Folk-like
music, for example, which traditionally relied on nostalgic stereotypes,
undergirded the memory of German histories in which the nation was re-
imagined through displaced traditions, such as folk music traditions from
former German-speaking settlements in eastern Europe. In contrast, the
folk music revival of the 1960s and 1970s postmodernized the struggle of
peasants and workers in order to create a culture that deliberately
abnegated the resurgence of nationalist ideologies, while at the same time
historicizing folk music practices common to both Germanys.
As different as the ideological and political motivations were that
characterized late 20th-century historicism, folk music was a critical
component because of the shared history it signified (Schünemann, 1923).
In the first decade after World War II, when the residents of former German
Sprachinseln (‘speech islands’) were resettled in Germany or as
immigrants in North and South America, their folk musics were gathered
and elevated to symbolic narratives of the past (cf. Brednich, Kumer and
Suppan, 1969–84; Scheierling, 1987). The Germanness of these
repertories was therefore magnified, enlarging their common history
(Teutsch, 1997). Post-colonial criticism of the historicist theories of shared
Germanness was more common in the final decades of the 20th century,
when historical patterns of cultural exchange (Schenk, 1992) and
‘interethnicity’ (Weber-Kellermann, 1978) in the German speech islands
were emphasized.
Historicism has also stimulated the re-imagination and reintegration of folk
music in German emigrant and diaspora cultures into a larger German
history. Both literate and folk-religious traditions provide many scholars with
evidence for investigating the historical longue durée, particularly ways of
tracing emigrant movements that responded to periods of prejudice against
religious and ideological sects, from the 17th to the 20th centuries (e.g.
Bachmann-Geiser and Bachmann, 1988; Bohlman, 1985; Holzach, 1980).
In the formation of immigrant and ethnic musics in diaspora communities,
folk-like music has played a particularly crucial role, enabling German
traditions, especially ‘Dutchman’ polka music from the American Midwest
and the ubiquitous ‘piano accordion’ (Wagner, 1993), to participate in the
mediation of multicultural popular musics in North America (Bohlman and
Holzapfel, 2000). Though the historicization of German folk music lends
these musics an old, even anachronistic ‘sound’ – at times, they bear the
label ‘old-time’ music – historicism signifies ethnic mixing and integration
into the North American mainstream (Pietsch, 1994).
Germany, §II, 4: Traditional Music: Modern & Postmodern Contexts
(v) Other folk musics and the folk musics of others.
The folk music of ethnic groups and religious minorities was almost entirely
absent in German folk music scholarship until the final decades of the 20th
century. Neither the groups themselves nor their musical practices were
considered sufficiently ‘German’ to warrant opening up canonic repertories
to make space for them or to alter theoretical approaches equating
German traditions with demonstrable authenticity and long history. Two
historical factors stimulated new studies of ethnic and minority musics at
the end of the 20th century. First, there was growing pressure to account
for groups devastated by racism in the Holocaust, especially Jews but also
Roma and Sinti, the two largest Gypsy groups in Germany (Djurić, 1997;
Renner, 1997). Second, the presence of non-German guest workers,
especially Turks, had become so widespread that their folk music in many
cases had a greater presence in German popular culture than did historical
German traditions.
By the end of the 20th century, non-German traditions were inseparably
woven into the folk music of a unified Germany. It became much more
accurate to speak of ‘folk music in Germany’ rather than German folk
music, for the modern and postmodern turns in history had created new
contexts for a multicultural mix. The street music dominating the public
sphere was overwhelmingly non-German, and it attracted musicians from
eastern Europe, Africa and Latin America (Bohlman, 1994). Minority and
ethnic groups, moreover, controlled radio and television stations, several of
which, such as Turkish television in Berlin, predominantly broadcast music
(Baumann, 1985).
Ethnic and religious minorities in Germany have traditionally been ‘people
without history’, and it was not until the end of the 19th century that many
ethnic minorities were extended the full rights of citizens. In the 1980s and
90s, folk music provided one of the most important means for restoring
history to minorities. Jewish music, for example, enjoyed an upsurge in
popularity as the small Jewish communities in post-Holocaust Germany
sought ways to assert their presence, and, more importantly, revival groups
turned to Yiddish song and klezmer repertories to historicize musics that
had disappeared during the Holocaust (H. and T. Frankl, 1981).
The full integration of ethnic and minority musics into German folk music
proceeded slowly, with both ideological and political impediments. Folk
music regarded as non-German, for example, drew attention from the
extreme right, thereby also endangering neighbourhoods with large foreign
populations. Despite reunification of Germany in 1990, the extension of
citizenship to non-Germans hardly expanded at all, making it impossible for
most minorities to enter German society fully, even when born in Germany.
The process of integrating German society with folk and popular musics is
therefore notable (Adamek, 1989). Turkish singing groups, such as Kartell,
constantly exchanged music between Germany and Turkey, while several
Turkish singers, such as Tarkan, enjoyed success in the German
mainstream; the 1999 German national entry in the Eurovision Song
Contest was for the first time a non-German, Sürpriz, whose repertory
included both German songs and Turkish songs with traditional Muslim
themes.
At the end of the 20th century, folk music in Germany was undergoing a
sea change, with new and multicultural genres, repertories and histories
transforming those that had provided the prototypes for Herder's 18th-
century concept of Volkslieder and the 19th- and 20th-century musical and
national histories which that concept was rallied and constructed to justify.
Germany
BIBLIOGRAPHY

A General. B Musical issues. C History. D 20th century.

a: general
J.G. Herder: ‘Stimmen der Völker in Liedern’, Volkslieder (1778–9/R)
J. Meier: Kunstlieder im Volksmunde (Halle, 1906/R)
P. Levy: Geschichte des Begriffes Volkslied (Berlin, 1911)
J. von Pulikowski: Geschichte des Begriffes Volkslied im musikalischen
Schrifttum: ein Stück deutscher Geistesgeschichte (Heidelberg,
1933/R)
W. Wiora: Das echte Volkslied (Heidelberg, 1950)
W. Danckert: Das Volkslied im Abendland (Berne, 1966)
H. Bausinger: Formen der ‘Volkspoesie’ (Berlin, 1968, 2/1980)
E. Klusen: Volkslied: Fund und Erfindung (Cologne, 1969)
W. Wiora: Das deutsche Lied: zur Geschichte und Ästhetik einer
musikalischen Gattung (Wolfenbüttel, 1971)
M.P. Baumann: Musikfolklore und Musikfolklorismus: eine
ethnomusikologische Untersuchung zum Funktionswandel des Jodels
(Winterthur, 1976)
Musik im Brauch der Gegenwart: Vienna 1986
E. Klusen: ‘The Group Song as Object’, German Volkskunde: a Decade of
Theoretical Confrontation Debate and Reorientation (1967–1977), ed.
J.R. Dow and H. Lixfeld (Bloomington, IN, 1986), 184–202
W. Schepping: ‘Lied- und Musikforschung: Einführung in die
Forschungsfelder der Europäischen Ethnologie’, Grundriss der
Volkskunde, ed. R.W. Brednich (Berlin, 1988), 399–422
b: musical issues
W. Tappert: Wandernde Melodien (Leipzig, 1868, 2/1890/R)
O. Koller: ‘Die beste Methode, volks- und volksmässige Lieder nach ihrer
melodischen Beschaffenheit lexikalisch zu ordnen’, Sammelbände der
internationalen Musikgesellschaft, iv (1902–3), 1–15
I. Krohn: ‘Über das lexikalische Ordnen von Volksmelodien’, IMusSCR:
Basle 1906, 66–75
J. Meier and others, eds.: Deutsche Volkslieder mit ihren Melodien:
Balladen (Berlin, 1935–96)
W. Wiora: Europäischer Volksgesang: gemeinsame Formen in
charakteristischen Abwandlungen (Cologne, 1952; Eng. trans., 1966)
Methoden der Klassifikation von Volksweisen: Bratislava 1965
Analyse und Klassifikation von Volksmelodien: Rodziejów 1967
W. Wittrock: Die ältesten Melodietypen im ostdeutschen Volksgesang
(Marburg, 1969)
I. Lammel: Das Arbeiterlied (Leipzig, 1970)
R.H. Brednich, L. Röhrich and W. Suppan, eds.: Handbuch des
Volksliedes (Munich, 1973–5)
I. Lammel and others: Bibliographie der deutschen Arbeiterliedblätter
1844–1945 (Leipzig, 1975)
W. Suppan, W. Stief and H. Braun, eds.: Melodietypen des deutschen
Volksgesanges (Tutzing, 1976–83)
W. Wiora: ‘“Gattungen des Volksliedes” und “Gattungen der Musik”’, Neue
ethnomusikologische Forschungen: Festschrift Felix Hoerburger zum
60. Geburtstag, ed. P. Baumann, R.M. Brandl and K. Reinhard
(Laaber, 1977), 37–44
W. Mossmann: Flugblattlieder, Streitschriften (Berlin, 1980)
B. James: ‘“Freiheit und Glück!” Strassenmusik heute: ein Sänger und sein
Repertoire’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxvi (1981), 75–99
L. Petzoldt: Bänkellieder und Moritaten aus drei Jahrhunderten (Frankfurt,
1982)
W. Steinbeck: Struktur und Ähnlichkeit: Methoden automatisierter
Melodienanalyse (Kassel, 1982)
W. Braungart: Bänkelsang: Texte, Bilder, Kommentare (Stuttgart, 1985)
B. Jesser: Interaktive Melodienanalyse: … Typologische Untersuchung
der Balladensammlung des DVA (Berne, 1991)
H. Laufhütte, ed.: Deutsche Balladen (Stuttgart, 1991)
W. Schepping: ‘Zur Situation des Dialektliedes heute: Belege aus dem
Niederrheinraum’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxxvi (1991), 29–47
P.V. Bohlman: Central European Folk Music: an Annotated Bibliography of
Sources in German (New York, 1996)
c: history
Catholisch Gesangbuechlein (Munich, 1613); ed. O. Holzapfel
(Amsterdam, 1979)
R.F. von Liliencron: Die historischen Volkslieder der Deutschen vom 13.
bis 16. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1865–9)
L. Erk and F.M. Böhme: Deutscher Liederhort (Leipzig, 1893–4)
H. Breuer, ed.: Der Zupfgeigenhansl (Leipzig, 1908, many later edns.)
H.W. Schwab: Die Anfänge des weltlichen Berufsmusikertums in der
mittelalterlichen Stadt: Studie zu einer Berufs- und Sozialgeschichte
des Stadtmusikantums (Kassel, 1982)
W. Harms, ed.: Deutsche illustrierte Flugblätter des 16. und 17.
Jahrhunderts (Tübingen, 1985)
I. Gansberg: Volksliedsammlungen und historischer Kontext: Kontinuität
über zwei Jahrhunderte? (Frankfurt, 1986)
G. Objartel: ‘Studentenlied und Kunstlied im ausgehenden 18.
Jahrhundert: die Liederhandschrift Friedrich August Koehlers (1791)’,
Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxxiii (1988), 19–45 [with Eng. summary]
P.V. Bohlman: ‘The Land Where Two Streams Flow’: Music in the
German-Jewish Community of Israel (Urbana, IL, 1989)
M. Moritz: ‘Zur Rezeption volkskultureller Traditionen in der DDR: der
Veruch einer vorläufigan Bilanz’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxxvi
(1991), 13–17
d: 20th century
M. Friedländer, ed.: Volksliederbuch für gemischten Chor (Leipzig,
1915/R)
G. Schünemann: Das Lied der deutschen Kolonisten in Russland (Munich,
1923)
Landschaftliche Volkslieder, ed. Deutsches Volksliedarchiv (Breslau and
elsewhere, 1924–62)
L. Pinck and A. Merkelbach-Pinck, eds.: Verklingende Weisen:
Lothringer Volkslieder (Metz and Kassel, 1926–62)
W. Steinitz: Deutsche Volkslieder demokratischen Charakters aus sechs
Jahrhunderten (Berlin, 1954–62, 2/1972/R)
D. Stockmann: Der Volksgesang in der Altmark: von der Mitte des 19. bis
zur Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1962)
R.W. Brednich, Z. Kumer and W. Suppan, eds.: Gottscheer Volkslieder
(Mainz, 1969–84)
H. Bausinger: ‘Schlager und Volkslied’, Handbuch des Volksliedes, i: Die
Gattungen des Volksliedes, ed. R.W. Brednich, L. Röhrich and W.
Suppan (Munich, 1973), 679–90
I. Weber-Kellermann, ed.: Zur Interethnik: Donauschwaben, Siebenbürger
Sachsen und ihre Nachbarn (Frankfurt, 1978)
Das Lagerliederbuch: Lieder gesungen, gesammelt und geschrieben im
Konzentrationslager Sachsenhausen bei Berlin, 1942 (Dortmund,
1980/R)
M. Holzach: Das vergessene Volk: ein Jahr bei den deutschen Hutterern
in Kanada (Hamburg, 1980)
H. and T. Frankl, eds.: Jiddische Lieder: Texte und Noten mit Begleit-
Akkorden (Frankfurt, 1981)
H. Buhmann and H. Haeseler: Das kleine dicke Liederbuch: Lieder und
Tänze bis in unsere Zeit (Schlüchtern, 1983/R)
M.P. Baumann, ed.: Musik der Türken in Deutschland (Kassel, 1985)
P.V. Bohlman: ‘Deutsch-amerikanische Musik in Wisconsin: Überleben im
“Melting Pot”’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxx (1985), 99–116
K. Scheierling: Geistliche Lieder der Deutschen aus Südosteuropa
(Kludenbach, 1987)
E. Kiehl: Die Volksmusik im Harz und im Harzvorland (Leipzig and
Clausthal-Zellerfeld, 1987–92)
B. Bachmann-Geiser and E. Bachmann: Amische: die Lebensweise der
Amischen in Berne, Indiana (Berne, 1988)
G. Knopp and E. Kuhn: Das Lied der Deutschen: Schicksal einer Hymne
(Berlin, 1988)
K. Adamek, ed.: Rüzgargülü – Windrose: Deutsch-türkisches Liederbuch,
almanca-türkçe Sarkılar (Bonn-Bad Godesberg, 1989)
R.M. Brandl, M. Bröcker and A. Erier, eds.: Lüneburg und Umgebung
(Göttingen, 1989)
H. Kurzke: Hymnen und Lieder der Deutschen (Mainz, 1990)
L. Röhrich: ‘“…und das ist Badens Glück”: Heimatlieder und
Regionalhymnen im deutschen Südwesten: auf der Suche nach
Identität’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxxv (1990), 13–32
A. Schenk: Deutsche in Siebenbürgen: ihre Geschichte und Kultur
(Munich, 1992)
T. Freitag: ‘Alles singt, oder, Das Ende von Lied? Liederbe und Singekultur
der ehemaligen DDR’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxxviii (1993), 50–63
O. Holzapfel: Das deutsche Gespenst: wie Dänen die Deutschen und sich
selbst sehen (Kiel, 1993)
C. Wagner: Das Akkordeon: eine wilde Karriere (Berlin, 1993)
P.V. Bohlman: ‘Music, Modernity, and the Foreign in the New Germany’,
Modernism/Modernity, i/1 (1994), 121–52
R. Pietsch: ‘Zu den Begriffen “Ethnic Music” und “Ethnic Mainstream”’,
Vergleichend-systematische Musikwissenschaft: Beiträge zu Methode
und Problematik der systematischen, ethnologischen und historischen
Musikwissenschaft, Franz Födermayr zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. E.T.
Hilscher and T. Antonicek (Tutzing, 1994), 451–74
P.V. Bohlman: ‘Musik als Widerstand: Jüdische Musik in Deutschland
1933–1940’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xl (1995), 49–74
E. Funk-Hennigs: ‘Skinheadmusik, Oi-Musik, Nazi-Rock?’, ibid., 84–100
R. Djurić: Märchen und Lieder europäischer Sinti und Roma (Frankfurt,
1997)
E. Renner: Und wir waren auch Naturmenschen’: Der autobiographische
Bericht des Sinti-Musikers und Geigenbauers Adolf Boko Winterstein
und andere persönliche Dokumente von und über Sinti und Roma
(Frankfurt, 1997)
D. Schwarz: ‘Oi: Music, Politics and Violence’, Listening Subjects: Music,
Psychoanalysis, Culture (Durham, NC, 1997), 100–32
K. Teutsch, ed.: Siebenbürgen und das Banat: Zentren deutschen
Musiklebens im Südosten Europas (Sankt Augustin, 1997)
P.M. Potter: Most German of the Arts: Musicology and Society from the
Weimar Republic to the End of Hitler's Reich (New Haven, CT, 1998)
P.V. Bohlman and O. Holzapfel, eds.: The Land without Nightingales:
Music in the Making of German-America (Madison, WI, 2000)
P.V. Bohlman: ‘Landscape/Region/Nation/Reich: German Folk Song in the
Nexus of National Identity’, Music and German Nationalism, ed. C.
Applegate and P.M. Potter (Chicago, forthcoming)

Gern, August Friedrich Hermann

(b Berlin, 1837; d London, 7 Nov 1907). German organ builder, active in
England. Gern initially trained with provincial Bavarian organ builders. He
worked for Cavaillé-Coll from 2 April 1860 to 31 July 1866 rising to the
position of contre-maître. Gern erected the Cavaillé-Coll organ in Our Lady
of Mount Carmel, Kensington, London, in 1866. He established his own
business at Orleans House, 2 Holland Street, Kensington, in 1866;
subsequent addresses were at Queens Buildings, Pancras Street,
Tottenham Court Road; 3 Boundary Road, Notting Hill (1872–1906); and
Turnham Green Terrace, Chiswick (1906–7). Gern cast metal pipework in
the Notting Hill premises. His early instruments (1868–79) were in the style
of Cavaillé-Coll with reverse consoles and pipework from Zimmermann,
Paris. Early pneumatic actions used a slider-chest design by Georg Sander
of Brunswick. In 1883 Gern patented a pneumatic sliderless soundboard,
and in 1885 a coupling action which was awarded a gold medal at the
Inventions Exhibition, London. This action design was used by Walcker of
Ludwigsburg. Gern made casework in oak, walnut or mahogany, with
burnished front tin pipes for important contracts. His son August Albert
Gern (b London, 1870; d London, 1938) continued the business from 1907
to 1915, selling the Chiswick premises to John Compton (of Nottingham) in
1919. He continued from 1923 to 1938 at 519a Harrow Road, London,
using pipework from Fonseca, Kentish Town, for new work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BicknellH
Hopkins-RimbaultO
Letter from T. Casson, MO, xviii (1894–5), 154–5
P. Goslin: August-Gern (thesis, U. of Reading, 1995)
PAUL JOSLIN

Gernsheim, Friedrich
(b Worms, 17 July 1839; d Berlin, 11 Sept 1916). German composer,
conductor and pianist. After piano lessons from his mother, he studied the
piano and theory with Louis Liebe before moving to Mainz (1848–9) to
study with Ernst Pauer. In 1849 he moved to Frankfurt for further
instruction; at the age of ten he appeared as pianist and violinist in a
programme that also included a performance of an overture of his at the
Frankfurt Stadttheater (4 May 1850). After a successful concert tour that
took him to Karlsruhe (1850–51), he studied for two years at the Leipzig
Conservatory with Moscheles (piano), Hauptmann (theory) and Ferdinand
David (violin). He then spent several years in Paris (1855–61), where he
studied the piano with Marmontel and met Lalo, Saint-Saëns, Rossini,
Heller, Rubinstein and Liszt. On his return to Germany, he conducted two
choirs and an orchestra in Saarbrücken before taking a post at the Cologne
Conservatory (1865). He was active as a conductor in Cologne until 1874,
when he moved to Rotterdam to direct the Maatschappij tot Bevordering
van Toonkunst. Though he declined an invitation to conduct the Stern
Choral Society in Berlin in 1880, he accepted a second offer and a
teaching post at the Stern Conservatory in 1890, taught there until 1897
and conducted the choir until 1904. He also gave a masterclass in
composition at the Akademie der Künste and continued to perform as
 pianist and conductor; the town of Dortmund celebrated his 75th birthday
with a festival in his honour.
As a young conductor Gernsheim favoured the works of Brahms; later, at
Berlin, he included the music of Bruch, Humperdinck (who was his pupil at
Cologne) and Verdi in his programmes. A conservative composer, he was
strongly influenced by Brahms’s harmony and orchestration. He wrote
neither operas nor oratorios and seems to have been at his best in
chamber music (e.g. the String Quartet in E minor and the Piano Quintet in
B minor; the latter occupies a central place in his output). His main venture
as a composer of programme music was the Symphony no.3 in C minor,
subtitled ‘Mirjam’ (1888). In his composition, Gernsheim aimed above all for
unity, believing that each bar should be both essential and inevitable in its
place in the conception of the whole. His music shows technical mastery
and a command of form, although only some of the last works, such as the
symphonic poem Zu einem Drama (1910) and the String Quartet no.5
(1911), show greater innovation.
WORKS
Published unless stated otherwise; principal collection of MSS and papers in IL-J

Orch: Waldmeisters Brautfahrt, ov., op.13; Pf Conc., c, op.16; 4 syms., g, op.32, E ,

op.46, c ‘Mirjam’, op.54, B , op.62; 2 vn concs., D, op.42, F, op.86; Phantasiestück,
vn, orch, op.33; Vc Conc., e, op.78, Elohenu, vc, orch (Leipzig, 1882); Zu einem
Drama, sym. poem, op.82; In memoriam, ein Klagegesang, str orch, org, op.91
Chamber: Divertimento, fl, 2 vn, va, vc, db, E, op.53; 2 pf qnts, d, op.35, b, op.63; 2
str qnts, D, op.9, E , op.89; 3 pf qts, E , op.6, c, op.20, F, op.47; 5 str qts, c, op.25,
a, op.31, F, op.51, e, op.66, A, op.83; 2 pf trios, F, op.28, B, op.37; 4 vn sonatas, c,
op.4, C, op.50, F, op.64, G, op.85; Introduction and Allegro appassionato, vn, pf,
op.38; Andante and Andantino, vn, pf, 1853, 1893, both unpubd; 2 vc sonatas, d,
op.12, e, op.87, unpubd
Kbd: various pf pieces, incl. Sonata, f, op.1, variations, prelude, suite, romance,
fantasias, waltzes; dance pieces, pf 4 hands; org pieces, incl. Fantasia and Fugue,
op.76, Prelude and Fugue, 1904, unpubd
Mixed vv, orch: Nordische Sommernacht (H. Lingg), solo vv, op.21; Agrippina
(Lingg), A/Mez solo, op.45; Der Zaubermantel (F. Dahn), solo vv, pf, op.55; Ein
Preislied (biblical), solo vv, op.58; Der Nornen Wiegenlied (A. Matthäi), op.65; Der
Nibelungen Überfahrt (Matthäi), S and Bar solo, op.73; Te Deum, with org, op.90;
Nänie (F. von Schiller), op.92, unpubd
Male vv, orch: Wächterlied aus der Neujahrsnacht 1200, op.7; Salamis (Lingg),
op.10; Römische Leichenfeier (Lingg), op.17; Germania (E. Rittershaus), op.24;
Odins Meeresritt (Schreiber), Bar solo, op.48; Das Grab im Busento (A. von Platen),
op.52; Phoebos Apollon (H. Allmers), solo vv, op.60
Other vocal: works for mixed vv, pf/org, male vv unacc., female/children’s vv unacc.;
solo songs

BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Altmann: ‘Friedrich Gernsheim’, Die Musik, viii/4 (1908–9), 98–104
L. Schmidt, ed.: Johannes Brahms: Briefwechsel, vii (Berlin, 1910)
C. Fuchs: ‘Zu einem Drama’, NZM, Jg.79 (1912), 283–6
Obituaries, AMz, xliii (1916), 506; NZM, Jg.83 (1916), 295–6
W. Altmann: Handbuch für Streichquartettspieler (Berlin, 1928–31,
2/1972–4), ii, 37–40; iii, 155–6; iv, 166–7
K. Holl: Friedrich Gernsheim: Leben, Erscheinung und Werk (Leipzig,
1928) [with list of works]
W. Altmann: ‘Friedrich Gernsheim’, Cobbett’s Cyclopedic Survey of
Chamber Music (London, 1929–30, rev. 2/1963/R by C. Mason), 457–
8
W. Kahl: ‘Gernsheim, Friedrich’, Rheinische Musiker, iii, ed. K.G. Fellerer
(Cologne, 1964)
A. Meier: ‘Die Kammermusik Friedrich Gernsheims’, Symbolae historie
musicae: Hellmut Federhofer zum 60 Geburtstag (Mainz, 1971), 263–
71
A.L. Ringer: ‘Friedrich Gernsheim (1839–1916) and the Lost Generation’,
Musica judaica, iii/1 (1980–81), 1–12
GAYNOR G. JONES

Gero [Ghero, Giero], Jhan [Ihan,

Jehan, Jan, Giovan]
(fl 1540–55). Composer of northern, perhaps Walloon extraction, active in
Italy. He had close connections with the Venetian publishers Antonio
Gardane and Girolamo Scotto. He may even have been in their employ, as
is suggested by the preface to a collection of Gero's madrigals and
chansons a 2 (1541) which, Scotto said, were composed at his instigation.
Gardane also published a collection of three-voice madrigals, reprinted in
1541 under the curious title Di Constantio Festa il primo libro de madrigali
a tre voci, con la gionta de quaranta madrigali di Ihan Gero; all but one of
the madrigals in this collection are attributed to Gero in later prints. The
chansons in the book of duos are chiefly arrangements of well-known four-
part chansons; this may be true of some of the two- and three-voice
madrigals as well. Thus Gero apparently began his career as a composer-
arranger for Gardane and perhaps for Scotto as well. There may be proof
for this: a sonnet by Girolamo Fenaruolo (printed in 1546) addressed to
‘Jan’ describes its subject as a timid unknown whose fame and fortune
were made through the presses of the ‘grande Antonio [Gardane]’.
Gero's duos enjoyed an extraordinarily long life (being reprinted about 20
times, the last in 1687) probably because they served a useful pedagogical
purpose. His three-voice madrigals were also popular, both in Italy and in
Germany. He wrote a number of four-voice note nere madrigals during the
1540s, publishing two books of his own and contributing to anthologies. In
the dedication to Gero's first book of motets, one Pietro d'Arezzo, ‘cantor di
S Marco’, calling himself a pupil of Gero, said that the composer had been
maestro di cappella for Pietro Antonio Sanseverino, Prince of Bisignano.
Just where Gero may have served in this capacity is unclear and the motet
texts do not help a great deal; one, O Deus qui beatum Marcum, suggests
Venice; another, O decus ecclesie, is addressed to the dying or dead King
of France (?François I).
WORKS
 sacred
Motetti, 5vv, libro primo (Venice, 1555), inc.
Motetti, 5vv, libro secondo (Venice, 1555), inc.
Motets in 15469, 15499 (1 ed. in AMI, i, 1897/R), 154912, 155410, 15569
secular
Il primo libro de madrigali italiani et canzoni francese, 2vv (Venice, 1541 14); ed. L.
Bernstein and J. Haar (New York, 1980)
Libro primo delli madrigali, 4vv, a notte negre (Venice, 1549)
Libro secondo delli madrigali, 4vv, a notte negre (Venice, 1549), inc.
Quaranta madrigali, 3vv (Venice, 2/1553) [1st edn perhaps lost, but the contents are
in 154113 and most are also in a German publication, 1541 2]
Il secondo libro di madrigali, 3vv (Venice, 2/1556) [1st edn lost]
Secular works in 15407, 154318 (3 ed. in Wagner; 2 in AMI, i), 154931 (1 ed. in AMI,
i), 155110
Lute intabulation of madrigal in 156323
A few pieces, all of them copied from publications, in GB-Cfm, Lbl, D-Bsb

The madrigals attrib. Gero in I-Fn Magl.XIX.130 are not by him but by Ruffo,
Arcadelt, Du Pont and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (L. Tagliavini)
P. Wagner: ‘Das madrigal und Palestrina’, VMw, viii (1892), 423–98 [incl. 3
madrigals by Gero]
R. Giazotto: Harmonici concenti in aere veneto (Rome, 1954)
J. Haar: ‘A Gift of Madrigals to Cosimo I: the MS Florence, Biblioteca
Nazionale Centrale, Magliabecchi XIX 130’, RIM, i (1966), 167–89
JAMES HAAR

Gérold, (Jean) Théodore

(b Strasbourg, 26 Oct 1866; d Allenwiller, 15 Feb 1956). French
musicologist. He studied singing, the violin and music theory at Strasbourg
Conservatory, and music history (with Jacobsthal) and theology at the
University of Strasbourg; later singing teachers included Julius
Stockhausen in Frankfurt (from 1890) and Romaine Bussine and Charles
Bordes in Paris (from 1892). After serving as assistant professor to
Stockhausen (1895) he was appointed his successor. He sang bass solos
in important performances of the choir of St Guillaume, Strasbourg (1888–
1906), and drew on this practical experience in his singing method Kleine
Sängerfibel. He took the doctorate at the German University of Strasbourg
in 1910 with a dissertation on the French art of singing in the 17th century.
Throughout this period Gérold continued his studies in composition, music
history and Romance philology. He lectured on music at the University of
Basle (1914–18) before joining the staff of the French University of
Strasbourg, where he held appointments in the faculties of philosophy
(from 1919) and Protestant theology (from 1922). L’art du chant en France
au XVIIe siècle gained him the doctorat ès lettres and the Prix de
l’Académie des Beaux-Arts et de l’Académie Française in 1921; he
submitted a second thesis, Les pères de l’église et la musique, for the
doctorat d’Etat in theology in 1931. Having been made maître de
conférences in 1927, he was honorary professor from 1931 until his
retirement in 1936; he taught for another year after the sudden death of his
successor Yvonne Rokseth (1948). From 1922 to his death he was pastor
of the Lutheran parish of Allenwiller.
Gérold was a scholar of unusually wide interests. Les pères is a standard
work on the attitude of the church fathers to music, tracing ideas from Philo
and Plotinus, through the early Christian era to the theorists of the 12th
century, with discussions of the execution of chant and the role of
instruments in church. His two general history books, La musique au
Moyen Âge and Histoire de la musique des origines à la fin du XIVe siècle,
are particularly notable for their extended and richly illustrated chapters on
medieval minstrel song and instruments; though he generally transcribed
the songs in modal rhythm, he was not a rigid modalist. His collections of
references to instruments indicate an extensive knowledge of French
medieval literature. His last published work appropriately drew on both his
theological and his musicological experience to trace the early musical
history of Protestantism.
WRITINGS
‘De la valeur des petites notes d'agrément et d'expression’, Congrès
international d’histoire de la musique: Paris 1900 (Paris, 1901), 251–8
Kleine Sängerfibel: sprachliche Übungen für Sänger (Mainz, 1908, 2/1911)
Zur Geschichte der französischen Gesangskunst im 17. Jahrhundert (diss.,
German U. of Strasbourg, 1910; Leipzig, 1910)
‘Das Liederbuch einer französischen Provinzdame um 1620’, Festschrift
zum 15. Neuphilologentage in Frankfurt am Main 1912 (Frankfurt,
1912), 92–126
ed.: Chansons populaires des XVe et XVIe siècles avec leurs mélodies
(Strasbourg, 1913)
ed.: Clément Marot: Psaumes avec les mélodies (Strasbourg, 1920)
‘Remarques sur la chanson populaire de la Suisse romande’, RdM, ii
(1920–21), 6–10
L’art du chant en France au XVIIe siècle (diss., French U. of Strasbourg,
1921; Strasbourg, 1921/R)
ed.: Le manuscrit de Bayeux (subsidiary diss., French U. of Strasbourg,
1921; Strasbourg, 1921/R)
Schubert (Paris, 1923)
J.S. Bach (Paris, 1925)
with E. Wagner: Les plus anciennes mélodies de l’église protestante de
Strasbourg et leurs auteurs (Paris, 1928)
‘Les airs de danse’, EMDC, II/v (1930), 3082–120
‘Monodie et lied’, EMDC, II/v (1930), 2757–865
ed. with A. Jeanroy: Le jeu de Sainte Agnès, drame provençal du XIVe
siècle (Paris, 1931)
Les pères de l’église et la musique (Strasbourg, 1931/R)
‘L’évolution des idées de Goethe sur la musique’, Goethe: études publiées
pour le centenaire de sa mort, ed. R. Ayrault and others (Paris, 1932),
249–84
La musique au Moyen Âge (Paris, 1932/R)
‘Le réveil en France, au XVIIIe siècle, de l’intérêt pour la musique du
Moyen Âge’, Mélanges de musicologie offerts à M. Lionel de La
Laurencie (Paris, 1933), 223–34
‘Les drames liturgiques médiévaux en Catalogne’, Revue d’histoire et de
philosophie religieuses, xvi (1936), 429–44
Histoire de la musique des origines à la fin du XIVe siècle (Paris, 1936/R)
with others: Un grand musicien français, Marie-Joseph Erb: sa vie et son
oeuvre (Strasbourg and Paris, 1948) [incl. ‘La musique de chambre,
les oeuvres symphoniques et la musique dramatique’, 51–65]
‘La musique religieuse française au XVe siècle’, ReM, no.222 (1953–4),
44–61
‘Protestant Music on the Continent’, NOHM, iv (1968), 419–64
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Münch: ‘In memoriam Théodore Gérold (1866–1956)’, Revue d’histoire
et de philosophie religieuses, xxxvi (1956), 173–4
DAVID HILEY/JEAN GRIBENSKI

Gerrish-Jones, Abbie
(b Vallejo, CA, 10 Sept 1863; d Seattle, 5 Feb 1929). American composer,
librettist and music critic. Her paternal grandfather was a bandmaster; her
father, Samuel Howard Gerrish, a flautist; and her mother, Sarah Jones
Rogers, a singer. Abbie Gerrish began serious music study at the age of
seven, was composing for voice and piano at 12 and became a church
organist at 14. Her first published works appeared when she was 18. Her
teachers included Humphrey J. Stewart and Wallace Sabine. She married
a naval officer, A. Widmore Jones.
Active chiefly as a composer of operas, Gerrish-Jones wrote eight (five to
her own librettos): Priscilla, Abon Hassan, The Milkmaid's Fair, The Snow
Queen (G.W. Hoffmann), The Andalusians (Percy Friars), Two Roses,
Sakura-San (Hoffmann) and Aztec Princess. Only four published songs are
extant. She also wrote five song cycles, 100 songs, piano works and
teaching pieces. In 1906 she won a prize for her Prelude for piano in a
competition sponsored by Josef Hofmann. She was a music critic for
Pacific Town Talk and Pacific Coast Musical Review, and the West Coast
representative for Musical Courier.
CAROL NEULS-BATES

Gerschefski, Edwin
(b Meriden, CT, 19 June 1909; d Chattanooga, TN, 18 Dec 1992).
American composer, pianist and teacher. He studied composition at Yale
University (1926–31), winning the Frances E. Osborne Kellogg Prize in
fugue and the first Charles Ditson Fellowship for study abroad. This took
him to the Tobias Matthay Pianoforte School in London (1931–3), where he
received the Jeffrey Reynolds Scholarship and became the first American
to receive a diploma. He continued piano studies with Schnabel in Como
(1935) and composition studies with Schillinger in New York (1936–8). He
spent the summers of 1936 and 1937 at the Yaddo Foundation. In 1940 he
 began teaching at Converse College, Spartanburg, South Carolina, where
he was dean of the music school (1945–59) and director of an annual
music festival. He was also head of the music departments at the
universities of New Mexico (1959–60) and Georgia (1960–80). His awards
include a Carnegie grant for composition (1947) and the gold medal of the
Arnold Bax Society (1963). He was a featured composer on the American
Music Festival series of radio station WNYC, New York, during the years
1969–73.
Gerschefski’s early compositions, such as the Piano Preludes and the
Classic Symphony, both from 1931, have a conservative, academic flavour.
A decisive turning-point came with his studies with Schillinger, whose
system he employed in the Second Sonatine, the ‘Schillinger’ Nocturne and
some later works. Several of his choral works are word-for-word settings of
newspaper articles or material from other informal sources, for example
Letter from BMI (1981). In general his music is marked by strong rhythmic
propulsion, a clear lyrical strain and frequent ostinato passages.
WORKS
Orch: Classic Sym., op.4, 1931, 1 movt arr. pf as Concert Minuet; Pf Conc., op.5,
1931; Vn Conc., op.35, 1951–2; Celebration, op.51, vn, orch, 1964; other works
Chbr: Workout, op.10, 2 vn, 2 va, 1933; Pf Qnt, op.16, 1935; Septet, op.26, 2 tpt, 2
hn, 2 trbn, tuba, 1938; Variations ‘America’, opp.44–5, wind, 1962; Rhapsody,
op.46, vn, vc, pf, 1963; The Alexander Suite, op.66, 2 vc, 1971; Poem, op.75 no.1,
vc, pf, 1973; numerous other works
Solo inst: Preludes, op.6, pf, 1931, nos.2–4, 6 arr. orch as Saugatuck Suite, no.5
arr. orch as Prelude, no.6 arr. band as Guadalcanal Fantasy; The Portrait of an
Artist, op.13, pf, 1934; Pf Sonata no.1, op.22, 1936; Sonatine no.2, op.20 no.2, pf,
1936; ‘Schillinger’ Nocturne, op.31 no.3, pf, 1942; 100 Variations, op.38, vn, 1952;
Suite, op.49, trbn, 1963; 7 Pieces, op.47, pf, 1963; Pf Sonata no.2, op.61, 1968; 6
Pieces, op.67, pf, 1971; numerous other works
Vocal: Half Moon Mountain (cant., Time article), op.33, Bar, female chorus, orch,
1947–8; The Lord’s Controversy with his People (cant., W. Barton), op.34 no.1, 1v,
female chorus, small orch/pf, 1949, arr. 1v, male chorus, small orch, also arr. S, pf,
perc, opt. hp, pt 3 also arr. vc as Black-Haired Woman; Psalm c (cant.), op.53, S,
Bar, SATB, perc, pf, 1965; Border Raid (Time article), op.57 no.1, SATB, pf, 1966;
Letter from BMI, op.83, SATB, small orch, 1981; 14 solo songs, other choral pieces
Other: incid music for 2 plays; 9 film scores, 1937–74; band arrs.; teaching pieces
for pf, other insts

Principal publishers: Associated, Belwin-Mills, Composers Facsimile, Presser, M. Witmark

BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.A. Linen: ‘Letter from the Publisher’, Time (17 May 1948)
D. McRae: ‘Edwin Gerschefski’, American Composers Alliance Bulletin, x/1
(1961), 1–7
A.J. Vaglio: The Compositional Significance of Joseph Schillinger’s
System of Musical Composition as Reflected in the Works of Edwin
Gerschefski (diss., U. of Rochester, 1977)
S.C. Yerlow: Edwin Gerschefski’s Preludes, op.6, nos.1–6, and Three
Dances, op.11, nos.1–3 (DMA diss., U. of Rochester, 1980)
 DAVID E. CAMPBELL/MICHAEL MECKNA

Gersem, Géry.
See Ghersem, Géry.

Gershwin, George [Gershvin,

Jacob]
(b Brooklyn, NY, 26 Sept 1898; d Hollywood, CA, 11 July 1937). American
composer, pianist, and conductor. He began his career as a song plugger
in New York’s Tin Pan Alley; by the time he was 20 he had established
himself as a composer of Broadway shows, and by the age of 30 he was
America’s most famous and widely accepted composer of concert music.
1. Boyhood.
2. From Broadway to ‘Rhapsody in Blue’.
3. Years of celebrity and expansion.
4. Gershwin as a songwriter.
5. Concert works and ‘Porgy and Bess’.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
RICHARD CRAWFORD (text), WAYNE J. SCHNEIDER (work-list),
NORBERT CARNOVALE (bibliography)
Gershwin, George
1. Boyhood.
Gershwin’s parents, Moshe Gershovitz and Rose Bruskin, emigrated from
Russia to the USA in the 1890s and settled in New York, where they met
and married in 1895. The family lived under one roof until long after the
four children were grown. George found an artistic collaborator in the
person of his older brother Ira, who wrote the lyrics for most of his songs.
Gershwin’s boyhood was marked by an interest in athletics and an
indifference to school. Music was seldom heard at home until 1910, when
the Gershwins bought their first piano. Though it had been intended for Ira,
George quickly took it over; he progressed rapidly in lessons with
neighbourhood teachers and about 1912 was accepted as a pupil of
Charles Hambitzer. Recognizing ‘genius’ in Gershwin, Hambitzer took him
to concerts and assigned him pieces by composers such as Chopin, Liszt
and Debussy. In 1914, however, Gershwin turned to a musical world closer
to home when he dropped out of high school and went to work for Jerome
H. Remick & Co., a music publishing firm on Tin Pan Alley, for $15 per
week.
Remick hired the 15-year-old Gershwin as a song plugger – a salesman
who promoted the firm’s songs by playing and singing them for performers.
Endless hours at the keyboard improved his playing: he cut his first piano
rolls in 1915 (by 1926 he had made more than 100), and he became a
skilled vocal accompanist. He also began to compose songs and piano
pieces of his own, though with no encouragement from his employers.
Finally, he aspired to move from Tin Pan Alley, with its emphasis on songs
written to commercial formulas, to the Broadway musical stage, where men
like Jerome Kern were applying a more highly developed musical artistry to
writing scores for entire shows.
Gershwin, George
2. From Broadway to ‘Rhapsody in Blue’.
Gershwin left Remick & Co. in March 1917 and by July was working as the
rehearsal pianist for Miss 1917, a show by Kern and Victor Herbert. After
the show opened in November at the Century Theater, he stayed on as the
organizer of and accompanist for popular concerts held there on Sunday
evenings. His talent as a composer was also noticed. Although he had
previously published little, in early 1918 Max Dreyfus, the head of Harms
publishing company, offered him $35 per week for the rights to any songs
he might compose in the future. Before the year was out, three Broadway
shows carried songs by Gershwin. Soon thereafter he composed his first
full Broadway score, for La La Lucille which opened on 26 May 1919. Well
before his 21st birthday, Gershwin, known as an outstanding pianist, could
also claim a Broadway show on the boards, several songs in print, and a
prestigious publisher awaiting more.
The 1920s saw Gershwin realize his early promise. Swanee, recorded in
1920 by the popular singer Al Jolson, was his first hit song, yielding some
$10,000 in composer’s royalties in that year alone. Under contract to the
producer George White, he composed the music for five annual Broadway
reviews (1920–24). For other producers he wrote scores for three
Broadway shows and two London ones. Primrose (1924), his second
London show, was a success, followed in the same year by Lady be Good!,
starring Fred and Adele Astaire and the first of his shows for which Ira
wrote all the lyrics. The latter included the songs Fascinating Rhythm and
Oh, lady, be good!, both of which became standards of the American song
repertory.
In 1924 Gershwin became famous for composing and then performing, in a
well publicized concert organized by the dance band leader Paul
Whiteman, the Rhapsody in Blue for piano and orchestra. The work was
first performed in New York’s Aeolian Hall on 12 February in a concert
billed as ‘An Experiment in Modern Music’. It purported to demonstrate that
the new, rhythmically vivacious dance music called jazz, which most
concert musicians and critics considered beneath them, was elevated by
the ‘symphonic’ arrangements in which Whiteman’s band specialized.
Gershwin’s Rhapsody won both the audience’s approval and the critics’
attention. Performed repeatedly, and also recorded, the work also won
renown for its composer, as a historical figure – the man who had brought
‘jazz’ into the concert hall.
Although most observers saw Rhapsody in Blue as a new departure for the
young songwriter, in fact it reaffirmed Gershwin's continuing involvement
with classical music. In 1915 he had begun to study harmony, counterpoint,
orchestration and musical form with Kilenyi, continuing at least to 1921. His
first classical piece, the Lullaby for string quartet (c1919), was apparently
composed as a harmony exercise for Kilenyi. His second, a brief opera
called Blue Monday, opened the second act of George White’s Scandals
for 1922 but was withdrawn after its first performance. On 1 November
1923 Gershwin performed in an Aeolian Hall recital by the Canadian mezzo
soprano Eva Gauthier that helped to set the stage for Whiteman’s concert
less than three months later. In a programme that ranged from songs by
Purcell and Bellini to works by Schoenberg, Hindemith and Bartók,
Gauthier included compositions by Gershwin, Kern, Irving Berlin and
Walter Donaldson, the latter group accompanied by Gershwin. The musical
juxtapositions of Rhapsody in Blue had roots in a sensibility that never fully
accepted a separation between popular and classical genres.
Gershwin, George
3. Years of celebrity and expansion.
Growing fame and affluence (between 1924 and 1934 Gershwin received
more than a quarter of a million dollars from performances, recordings and
rental fees of the Rhapsody in Blue alone) brought about changes in
Gershwin’s life. In 1925 he moved his family from an apartment to a town
house in a fashionable neighbourhood on New York’s upper west side.
About the same time he began to develop his interest in the visual arts,
collecting paintings, sculptures, prints and drawings, and taking up painting
himself. He also became known as a figure in New York theatrical and
literary circles, enlivening and often dominating parties with his piano
playing.
After the success of the Rhapsody, new patterns emerged in Gershwin’s
composing life. He continued to write scores for the musical theatre,
though at a somewhat slower rate. He gave more and more attention to
concert music, studying with a succession of teachers including Rubin
Goldmark, Riegger and Cowell. He devoted much of the summer of 1925
to composing the Concerto in F for piano and orchestra, commissioned by
Walter Damrosch and the New York SO. The Preludes for Piano were
introduced in December 1926 as part of a recital in which he accompanied
the contralto Marguerite d’Alvarez. During much of 1928 Gershwin was
occupied with the composition of the tone poem An American in Paris,
written in part during a trip to Europe from mid-March to June. Travelling
with family members, Gershwin was welcomed as a musical celebrity; he
met many composers, including Prokofiev, Milhaud, Poulenc, Ravel,
Walton and Berg, and heard both Rhapsody in Blue and the Concerto in F
played in his honour by French musicians. In the summer of 1929 he made
his début as a conductor in an open-air concert at Lewisohn Stadium in
New York where before an audience of more than 15,000 he conducted the
New York PO in An American in Paris and Rhapsody in Blue, playing the
piano part of the latter himself. In October of that year, he signed a contract
to compose a ‘Jewish opera’, to be called The Dybbuk, for the Metropolitan
Opera, but he never fulfilled that commission. Even during his first stay in
Hollywood (from November 1930 to February 1931), Gershwin maintained
his commitment to concert music; while he and Ira wrote the score for the
film Delicious (for which they were paid $100,000) and began the
Broadway musical Of Thee I Sing, he also composed most of his Second
Rhapsody for Piano and Orchestra.
Remarkably, Gershwin broadened his musical scope without sacrificing his
popularity. Free of false modesty, he reveled in success, which he
accepted as no more than his due. By the early 1930s his fame, earning
power, and the range of his works made Gershwin unique among American
composers.
Established as a composer of talent and ambition, Gershwin maintained
his place on Broadway by writing some of his most successful musicals,
including Strike up the Band (1927; rev. 1930), Girl Crazy (1930) and Of
Thee I Sing (1931), which won a Pulitzer Prize for drama. Apparently never
happier than when performing his own music, he played Rhapsody in Blue
with the Whiteman band during New York showings of The King of Jazz
(1930), a revue-style film featuring Whiteman. He also continued his
concerts and tours, and in 1934–5 he hosted and played on ‘Music by
Gershwin’, a radio programme broadcast by CBS. Nor did he lose his touch
as a songwriter. He and Ira signed a contract in June 1936 with RKO film
studios, and by August they had moved to Hollywood. The songs they
supplied for Shall we Dance? (1937), A Damsel in Distress (1937) and The
Goldwyn Follies (1938) were among their best. In addition, Gershwin
maintained his study and composition of concert music. While taking
lessons with Joseph Schillinger (1932–6) he wrote the Cuban Overture
(1932), a set of variations for piano and orchestra on the song I got rhythm
(1914) and his magnum opus, Porgy and Bess (1935).
The idea of composing a full-length opera based on DuBose Heyward’s
novel Porgy about life among the black inhabitants of ‘Catfish Row’ in
Charleston, South Carolina, first occurred to Gershwin when he read the
book in 1926. After many delays, Heyward and the Gershwin brothers
signed a contract in October 1933 with the Theatre Guild in New York, and
the collaboration was under way. Gershwin began the score in February
1934; during most of the next summer he stayed in South Carolina,
composing and absorbing local colour. By early 1935 the composition was
finished, and Gershwin spent the next several months orchestrating the
work. Billed as ‘an American folk opera’, Porgy and Bess opened in New
York in October 1935 – in a Broadway theatre and not an opera house. It
ran for 124 performances, not enough to recover the original investment.
Few events in the history of American music were more shocking than
Gershwin’s death, seemingly on the threshold of new musical
achievements. During the first half of 1937, although he complained of
intermittent dizzy spells and feelings of emotional despondency, he
continued to perform in public and to compose. On 9 July he fell suddenly
into a coma. A brain tumour was diagnosed and emergency surgery
performed, but on the morning of 11 July 1937 Gershwin died at the age of
38. Four days later, after memorial services in New York and Hollywood, he
was buried in Mount Hope Cemetery, Hastings-on-Hudson, New York.
Gershwin, George
4. Gershwin as a songwriter.
Throughout his professional life Gershwin was first and foremost a
songwriter, composing hundreds of songs for Tin Pan Alley, the Broadway
stage and Hollywood films, and submitting his work to the judgement of a
mass audience. When Gershwin reached maturity around the end of World
War I, American popular song was entering an era, the conventions of
which, including verse-chorus form and an emphasis on romantic love,
would remain standard for decades to come. In the interest of heightening
emotional intensity, he and his contemporaries enriched the diatonic idiom
they inherited with modulations, melodic chromaticism and unexpected
plunges into remote harmonic territory, excursions quickly followed by
returns to more familiar terrain, for phrases seldom exceeded eight bars in
length. As Gershwin himself told an interviewer around 1929, ‘ordinary
harmonies, rhythms, sequences, intervals and so on failed to satisfy my
ear’. Composing at the piano, ‘I would spend hour upon hour trying to
change them around so they would satisfy me’. He was also a leader
among Broadway songwriters in exploring the possibilities of a rhythm that
was at once relaxed, flexible and driving, showing the influence of black
American dance.
Two favourites from Gershwin’s early years show his mastery of song types
introduced by others: Swanee is in the square-cut, striding, declamatory
style of George M. Cohan; and The Man I Love, in which the
pervasiveness of one melodic motif is offset by shifting harmonies, employs
a tonal idiom and a flexible beat similar to Jerome Kern’s earlier songs and
to operetta. The Man I Love, a slow, romantic song of a type often called a
ballad, was followed by others the choruses of which, dominated by
melodic figures beginning on an offbeat, invite rubato: Someone to Watch
Over Me (1926), But Not for Me (1930) and Embraceable You (1930). In
each of these songs the title phrase or a variant of it appears as both a
verbal refrain and as the chorus’s last words. All three, and all of the songs
mentioned below, carry deft lyrics by Ira Gershwin, who once wrote wryly of
his craft: ‘Since most of [my] lyrics … were arrived at by fitting words
mosaically to music already composed, any resemblance to actual poetry,
living or dead, is highly improbable’.
Although in songs like Strike up the band (1927), Of thee I sing (1931) and
Love is sweeping the country (1931) Gershwin continued to write in the
march-like style of Swanee, he is remembered more for songs like
Fascinating Rhythm (1924) and I got rhythm (1930), both dominated by
syncopation. I got rhythm was introduced by Ethel Merman in the musical
Girl Crazy. Its pattern of circulation shows that once a popular song enters
the public marketplace, there is no predicting how it will be used. From the
early 1930s into the 1950s I got rhythm was widely performed and
recorded by popular singers and pianists, by swing bands and ‘pops’
orchestra leaders, and by jazz performers. Moreover, its harmonic
framework, separated from Gershwin’s melody and supplied with new ones
under such titles as Cotton Tail, Little Benny, and Rhythm-a-ning, served
as the most common 32-bar structure in the jazz tradition: the so-called
‘rhythm changes’.
In addition to rhythm songs and ballads, the Gershwin brothers also
mastered a medium-tempo song style with a relaxed, swinging beat and a
jazz-tinged idiom. Nice Work if You can Get It (1937) exemplifies this kind
of song. The chorus’s A section features a strong contrast as the smooth,
stepwise descent of the first four bars is followed by a sharp, syncopated
upturn (ex.1a). After a bridge in the relative minor, climaxing on ‘Who could
ask for anything more?’ (a quotation from I got rhythm), the last phrase of
the AABA form brings an added twist: the singer, until now posing as an
authority on successful romance, reveals in a two-bar phrase extension
that he has been speaking more from imagination than experience. Here
the music, after preparing for a cadence identical to those of the first and
second sections, delivers one that is different, yet so offhandedly satisfying
that it seems inevitable (ex.1b). The words keep emotion at an arm’s
length, treating love as a rational game, and the song wears its
craftsmanship as lightly as its narrator does his disappointment. Its general
tone of civility and its inventive details of musical construction, absorbed by
the relaxed insistence of its rhythm, combine to create one more sensibility
in the Gershwin brothers’ exploration of romantic love.
Gershwin, George
5. Concert works and ‘Porgy and Bess’.
Gershwin approached the concert world with assets that no other American
composer of his generation enjoyed. A proven master of melody, he was
also accustomed to having his works judged by audiences. Because his
music consistently gained approval, he wrote with confidence that his
talents outweighed his deficiencies of technique or experience. That
confidence was borne out by his composing – in less than 12 years, while
maintaining separate careers as a songwriter, pianist and conductor – four
large-scale works of enduring appeal: the Rhapsody in Blue, the Concerto
in F, An American in Paris and Porgy and Bess.
The melodies of Gershwin’s concert works are surely the chief reason for
their appeal. They share with many of his popular songs a trait that helps to
imprint them firmly on the listener’s memory: the opening material is
consistently restated before contrasting material is heard. This is most
conspicuous in the soaring, lyric, if somewhat square themes of Rhapsody
in Blue, in the first movement of the Concerto and in An American in Paris,
but it can also be found in more fragmentary material. The Rhapsody, for
example, begins with two distinctive melodies, each of which first stands on
its own, yet within a short time becomes the first phrase of a longer melody
with an AABA design.
Some thematic phrases that Gershwin restates are themselves built from
repetitions of smaller motifs. The Rachmaninov-like opening of the
Concerto’s third movement, which is repeated four times in the first 38
bars, begins with a statement and restatement of a two-bar figure. The first
20 bars of An American in Paris contain a full statement and restatement of
an eight-bar theme that presents the same one-bar motif six times. This
technique is found not only in Gershwin’s themes but in introductory,
transition and development sections as well. The Concerto starts with a 50-
bar introduction in which all but six bars state or restate one of three
figures; the transition out of the first thematic section of An American in
Paris (rehearsal nos.20–23) is similarly structured. Although in these and
other such passages phrase units may occasionally be three or five bars
long, four-bar units are by far the most common, and their absence, as at
the start of the Concerto’s third movement, creates a sense of disruption.
Tending towards symmetry both in the pairing of opening phrases and in
the reliance on parallel units of two, four and eight bars, Gershwin’s
melodic materials seem designed to impose regularity and coherence even
in the ear of an inexperienced listener.
If Gershwin’s melodic structures seem old-fashioned for a composer writing
concert music in the 1920s and 30s, his tonal vocabulary sounds more up-
to-date. Perhaps the most striking characteristic of Gershwin’s melodies is
their reliance on blue notes. Sometimes these notes function as
dissonances, as in one theme of the Rhapsody, where on strong beats
they clash with the bass (ex.2). At other times they soften the melodic
contour. In the Rhapsody’s opening theme, the presence of both major and
minor 7ths in the second chord, and of both major and minor 3rds in the
melody (bars 2–3) manifests in sound the aptness of the work’s title (ex.3).
In the Concerto, blues-tinged tonality appears more subtly in the opening
theme, which avoids the tonic chord until its tenth bar and then touches it
only briefly, and on a weak beat, before moving on from the raised to the
lowered 3rd of the tonic triad (ex.4). Occasionally the blues idiom provides
a harmonic structure for Gershwin, as in the second of his three piano
preludes on the 12-bar blues progression. That progression also serves as
a reference in the Concerto’s second movement and in An American in
Paris.

Because Gershwin’s concert works draw heavily on black American

elements, it seems fitting that his largest composition, Porgy and Bess,
should be a drama about black Americans. Nor is it surprising that the
work’s melodic idiom – from Porgy’s identifying motif, to the opera’s main
love duet, to the satirical songs of the drug peddler Sportin’ Life, to the
choral numbers – is saturated with the inflected 3rds, 5ths and 7ths of
black American popular music, and sometimes infused with its syncopated,
driving rhythm. Although both opera critics and black American
commentators have criticized Porgy and Bess for hybrid features, the work
is full of moments that show Gershwin at his most convincing. Act 1 scene
ii, for example, opens with a scene of mourning based on call and
response. A soloist and chorus alternate, one impassioned solo call being
answered by darkening series of chords, supporting a whole-tone descent
through an octave, like the tolling of a bell. The harmonies are generated
by unusual voice-leading: against five descending upper voices the bass
line ascends. Parallel octaves between soprano and tenor, alto and
baritone, lend an artless quality to the passage; yet only a sophisticated
ear could have calculated the progression’s freshness (ex.5).

Gershwin’s approach to form in his concert works shows him as a practical

composer who took care that technique did not overshadow expression.
Rhapsody in Blue, reportedly written in three weeks, draws vitality from its
juxtapositions of the piano and orchestra, and of jazz-like and classical
materials. Its essence lies more in these contrasts, and in the strength of
Gershwin’s melodies, than in its overall shape. The Concerto, a more
ambitious undertaking, filled several months of Gershwin’s time and even
received a trial performance before its delivery to Damrosch and the New
York SO. Like the Rhapsody, it also uses sharp juxtapositions, but its
integration through cyclic form and thematic transformation, both standard
19th-century techniques, reflects Gershwin’s study. More than the earlier
Rhapsody, the Concerto forms a convincing whole, the impact of which
derives as much from its entire structure as from its separate parts. In that
way too the Concerto outdoes the tone poem An American in Paris, whose
form was apparently inspired by a programme. For all of its élan, An
American in Paris is more or less a medley of excellent tunes, varied and
extended, and clad in attractive orchestral garb. Gershwin’s treatment of
the main lyric theme recalls his own piano playing and the arrangements
he published in his Song-Book. In each restatement of the melody, he
varies the orchestration and the harmony, or the ‘responses’ to the theme’s
opening ‘call’, but the melody itself remains intact.
The presence of Gershwin’s music at the end of the 20th century ensures
him a place in American music history. Yet it is not quite the place claimed
for him by some of his contemporaries. For them, his great achievement
lay in bringing together musical spheres that had been considered
separate: popular and classical traditions in his concert pieces, black
American folk music and opera in Porgy and Bess. Such matters of
taxonomy no longer seem as important; rather it is the sheer musical
 satisfaction that his compositions – songs and concert works alike – still
provide for listeners, thanks in large part to the skill and commitment and
artistry of the many musicians who perform them, that is his legacy.
Gershwin, George
WORKS

Only published songs listed for stage and film scores; for fuller details see W. Rimler: A
Gershwin Companion: a Critical Inventory and Discography, 1916–1984 (Ann Arbor, 1991)
and E. Jablonski: Gershwin: a Biography (New York, 1987). Songs marked with an
asterisk were completed by Kay Swift from Gershwin’s tune notebooks with lyrics provided
by Ira Gershwin. Unless otherwise stated lyrics for all songs are by Ira Gershwin. Most of
Gershwin’s music for the theatre was not orchestrated by the composer although he may
have scored some works from the mid-1920s on. Most extant MSS are in DLC.

stage works

songs for shows by other composers

songs for films

miscellaneous published songs

orchestral

other works

index to published songs

Gershwin, George: Works

stage works
(all first performed in New York unless otherwise stated)

Title, genre: song title (lyricist) Book author First Remarks

performance

Half Past Eight, revue ? E.P. Perkins Empire unpubd;

Theatre, closed out of
Syracuse, town
NY, 9 Dec
1918
La-La-Lucille!, musical comedy F. Jackson Henry Miller
Theatre, 26
May 1919
The Best of Everything (B.G. DeSylva, A.J. Jackson)
From Now On (DeSylva, Jackson)
Nobody But You (DeSylva, Jackson)
Somehow it seldom comes true (DeSylva, Jackson)
Tee-oodle-um-bum-bo (DeSylva, Jackson)

There’s more to the kiss than the sound (I. Caesar) rev. of
There’s more
to the kiss
than the x-x-
x, 1919 [orig.
listed under
Songs for
Shows by
other
composers]

Morris Gest’s Midnight Whirl, revue DeSylva, J.H. Century

Mears Grove,
Century
Theatre, 27
Dec 1919
Limehouse Nights (DeSylva, Mears)
Poppyland (DeSylva, Mears)
George White’s Scandals of 1920, revue A. Rice, G. Globe
White Theatre, 7
June 1920
Idle dreams (Jackson)
My Lady (Jackson)
On my Mind the Whole Night Long (Jackson)
Scandal Walk (Jackson)
The Songs of Long Ago (Jackson)
Tum on and tiss me (Jackson)
A Dangerous Maid, musical comedy C.W. Bell Atlantic City, closed out of
NJ, 21 March town
1921
Boy wanted (Arthur Francis [pseud. I. Gershwin])
Dancing Shoes (Francis)
Just to Know you are Mine (Francis)
The Simple Life (Francis)
Some rain must fall (Francis)
George White’s Scandals of 1921, revue A. Baer, Liberty
White Theatre, 11
July 1921
Drifting Along with the Tide (Jackson)
I love you (Jackson)
She’s just a baby (Jackson)
South Sea Isles (Jackson)
Where East meets West (Jackson)
Blue Monday (opera ala Afro-American, DeSylva, 1) Globe unpubd;
Theatre, 28 orchd W.H.
Aug 1922 Vodery; orig.
part of
George
White’s
Scandals of
1922,
withdrawn
after 1st perf.
retitled 135th Street concert perf., reorchd F.
Carnegie Grofé
Hall, 29 Dec
1925
George White’s Scandals of 1922, revue W.C. Fields, Globe orig. incl.
Rice, White Theatre, 28 Blue Monday,
Aug 1922 see above
Across the Sea (DeSylva, E.R. Goetz)
Argentina (DeSylva)
Cinderelatives (DeSylva)
I found a four leaf clover (DeSylva)
I’ll build a stairway to paradise (DeSylva, Francis [pseud.
I. Gershwin])
Oh, what she hangs out (DeSylva)
Where is the man of my dreams (DeSylva, Goetz)
Our Nell, ? musical comedy B. Hooker, Nora Bayes incl. other
A.E. Thomas Theatre, 4 songs by W.
Dec 1922 Daly
By and By (Hooker)
Innocent Ingenue Baby (Hooker) collab. Daly
Walking Home with Angeline (Hooker)
The Rainbow, musical comedy A. de Empire
Courville, N. Theatre,
Scott, E. London, 3
Wallace April 1923
Beneath the Eastern Moon (C. Grey)
Good-night, my dear (Grey)
In the Rain (Grey)
Innocent Lonesome Blue Baby (Grey, Hooker) tune same as
that of
Innocent
ingenue baby,
1922
Moonlight in Versailles (Grey)
Oh! Nina (Grey)
Strut lady with me (Grey)
Sweetheart (I’m so glad that I met you) (Grey)
Sunday in London Town (Grey)
George White’s Scandals of 1923, revue W.K. Wells, Globe
White Theatre, 18
June 1923
Let’s be lonesome together (DeSylva, Goetz)
The Life of a Rose (DeSylva)
Lo-la-lo (DeSylva)
(On the beach at) How’ve-you-been (DeSylva)
There is nothing too good for you (DeSylva, Goetz)
Throw her in high! (De Sylva)
Where is she? (DeSylva)
You and I (DeSylva) collab. J.
Green
Sweet Little Devil, musical comedy F. Mandel, L. Astor
Schwab Theatre, 21
Jan 1924
Hey! Hey! Let ’er go! (DeSylva)
The Jijibo (DeSylva)
Mah-Jongg (DeSylva)
Pepita (DeSylva)
Someone believes in you (DeSylva)
Under a One-Man Top (DeSylva)
Virginia (DeSylva)
George White’s Scandals of 1924, revue Wells, White Apollo
Theatre, 30
June 1924
I need a garden (DeSylva)
Kongo Kate (DeSylva)
Mah-Jongg (DeSylva)
Night time in Araby (DeSylva)
Rose of Madrid (DeSylva)
Somebody loves me (DeSylva, MacDonald)
Tune in (to station J.O.Y.) (DeSylva)
Year after year (DeSylva)
Primrose, musical comedy G. Bolton, G. Winter vs (1924)
Grossmith Garden
Theatre,
London, 11
Sep 1924
Act 1:
Leaving Town While we May (D. Carter)
Till I Meet Someone Like You (Carter)
Isn’t it wonderful (I. Gershwin, Carter)
This is the life for a man (Carter) When Tobyis
Out of Town
(Carter)
Some Far-Away Someone (Gershwin, DeSylva) [tune
same as that of At Half Past Seven, 1923]
The Mophams (Carter)
Can we do anything? (Gershwin, Carter)
Act 2:
Roses of France (Carter)
Four Little Sirens (Gershwin)
Berkeley Square and Kew (Carter)
Bow wanted (Gershwin, Carter) [rev. of Boy wanted,
1921]
Wait a bit, Susie (Gershwin, Carter)
Naughty Baby (Gershwin, Carter)
It is the fourteenth of July (Carter)
Act 3:
I make hay while the moon shines (Carter)
That New-Fangled Mother of Mine (Carter)
Beau Brummel (Carter)
Lady, be Good!, musical comedy Bolton, F. Liberty
Thompson Theatre, 1
Dec 1924
Fascinating Rhythm
The Half of it, Dearie, Blues
Hang on to me
The Man I Love cut before
New York
opening
Little Jazz Bird
Oh, lady, be good!
So am I
Tell me More, musical comedy Thompson, Gaiety
 Wells Theatre, 13
April 1925
Baby! (DeSylva, I. Gershwin)
Kickin’ the Clouds Away (DeSylva, I. Gershwin)
My Fair Lady (DeSylva, I. Gershwin)
Tell me more! (DeSylva, I. Gershwin)
Three Times a Day (DeSylva, I. Gershwin)
Why do I love you? (DeSylva, I. Gershwin)
Tip-toes, musical comedy Bolton, Liberty
Thompson Theatre, 28
Dec 1925
Looking for a Boy
Nice Baby! (Come to Papa!)
Nightie-Night
Sweet and Low-Down
That Certain Feeling
These Charming People
When do we dance?
Song of the Flame, operetta O. 44th Street incl. other
Hammerstein Theatre, 30 songs by H.
II, O. Harbach Dec 1925 Stothart
Cossack Love Song (Don’t forget me) (Hammerstein, collab.
Harbach) Stothart
Midnight Bells (Hammerstein, Harbach)
The Signal (Hammerstein, Harbach)
Song of the Flame (Hammerstein, Harbach) collab.
Stothart
Vodka (Hammerstein, Harbach) collab.
Stothart
You are you (Hammerstein, Harbach) collab.
Stothart
Oh, Kay!, musical comedy Bolton, P.G. Imperial
Wodehouse Theatre, 8
Nov 1926
Bride and Groom
Clap yo’ hands
Dear Little Girl (I hope you’ve missed me)
Do-Do-Do
Don’t ask
Fidgety Feet
Heaven on Earth (H. Dietz, I. Gershwin)
Maybe
Oh, Kay! (Dietz, I. Gershwin
Someone to Watch Over Me
The Woman’s Touch
Strike up the Band, musical [1st version] G.S. Shubert closed out of
Kaufman Theatre, town
Philadelphia,
5 Sept 1927
Military Dancing Drill
The Man I Love
Seventeen and Twenty-One
Strike up the band
Yankee Doodle Rhythm
Funny Face, musical comedy P.G. Smith, Alvin Theatre,
Thompson 22 Nov 1927
The Babbitt and the Bromide
Dance Alone with You
Funny Face
He loves and she loves
High Hat
In the Swim
Let’s kiss and make up
My One and Only
’S wonderful
The world is mine
Rosalie, musical comedy Bolton, W.A. New incl. other
McGuire Amsterdam songs by
Theatre, 10 Romberg
Jan 1928
Ev'ry body knows I love somebody tune same as
that of Dance
alone with
you, 1927
How long has this been going on?
Oh Gee! Oh Joy! (I. Gershwin, Wodehouse)
Say So! (I. Gershwin, Wodehouse) orig.
composed for
Oh, Kay!
Show me the town
Treasure Girl, musical comedy V. Lawrence, Alvin Theatre,
Thompson 8 Nov 1928
Feeling I’m Falling
Got a rainbow
I don’t think I’ll fall in love today
I’ve got a crush on you
K-ra-zy for You
Oh, so Nice
What are we here for?
Where’s the boy? Here’s the girl!
Show Girl, musical comedy McGuire, J.P. Ziegfeld
McEvoy Theatre, 2
July 1929
Do what you do! (I. Gershwin, G. Kahn)
Harlem Serenade (I. Gershwin, Kahn)
I must be home by twelve o’clock (I. Gershwin, Kahn)
Liza (All the clouds’ll roll away) (I. Gershwin, Kahn)
So are you! (I. Gershwin, Kahn)
Strike up the Band musical [operetta; 2nd version] M. Ryskind, Times Square vs (1930)
after Theatre, 14
Kaufman Jan 1930
Act 1:
Fletcher's American Choc'late Choral
Society
I mean to say
A Typical Self-Made American
Soon
The Unofficial Spokesman
Three Cheers for the Union
If I Became the president
Hangin' Around with You
He know milk
Strike up the band
Act 2:
In the Rattle of the Battle
Mademoiselle in New Rochelle
I've got a crush on you
How about a boy like me?
I want to be a war bride [cut from show and vs]
Official Resume
Ding Dong
Girl Crazy, musical comedy Bolton, J. Alvin Theatre, vs (1954)
McGowan 14 Oct 1930
Act 1:
The Lonesome Cowboy
Bidin’
My Time Could you use me?
Broncho Busters
Barbary Coast
Embraceable You
Goldfarb!
That’s I’m Sam and Delilah
I got rhythm
Act 2:
Land of the Gay Caballero
But Not for Me
Treat me rough
Boy! What love has done to me!
When it’s Cactus Time in Arizona
Of Thee I sing, musical [operetta] Kaufman, Music Box vs (1932);
Ryskind Theatre, 26 Pulitzer Prize,
Dec 1931 1932
Act 1:
Wintergreen for President
Who is the lucky girl to be?
Because, Because
Never was there a girl so fair
Some girls can bake a pie
Love is sweeping the country
Of thee I sing
Here’s a kiss for Cinderella
I was the most beautiful blossom
Act 2:
Hello, Good Morning!
Who cares?
Garçon, s’il vous plaît
The Illegitimate Daughter
The Senator from Minnesota
Jilted I’m about to be a mother
Posterity is just around the corner
Trumpeter blow your golden horn
Pardon my English, musical comedy H. Fields Majestic
Theatre, 20
Jan 1933
Isn’t it a pity?
I’ve got to be there
Lorelei
Luckiest Man in the World
My Cousin in Milwaukee
So what?
Where you go I do
Let ’em Eat Cake, musical [operetta] Kaufman, Imperial sequel to Of
Ryskind Theatre, 21 Thee I Sing,
Oct 1933 1931
Blue, Blue, Blue
Let ’em eat cake
Mine
On and On and On
Union Square
Porgy and Bess (American folk opera, I. Gershwin, DuBose Alvin Theatre, vs (1935)
DuBose Heyward, after play by DuBose and Dorothy Heyward 10 Oct 1935
Heyward: Porgy)
Act 1:
Jasbo Brown Blues
Summertime
A woman is a sometime thing
Here come de honey man
The Pass By Singin’
Oh Little Stars
Gone, Gone, Gone
Overflow My man’s gone now
Leavin ‘for the promise’ lan’
Act 2:
It take a longpull to get there
I got plenty o’ nuttin’
Buzzard Song
Bess you is my woman
Oh, I can’t sit down
I ain’ got no shame
It ain’t necessarily so
What you want wid Bess?
Oh, doctor Jesus
Strawberry Woman
Crab Man
I loves you, Porgy
Oh, Hev’nly Father
Oh, de Lawd shake de heavens
Oh, dere’s somebody knockin’ at de do’
A red Headed Woman
Act 3:
Clara, Clara
There’s a boat dat’s leavin’ soon for New York
Good mornin’, sistuh!
Oh, Bess, oh where’s my Bess
Oh Lawd, I’m on my way

Gershwin, George: Works

songs for shows by other composers

 (all first performed in New York unless otherwise stated)

Song title (lyricist) Show title (genre, First performance

book author)

Making of a Girl (H. Atteridge) The Passing Show Winter Garden

of 1916 (revue, H. Theatre, 22 June
Atteridge) 1916

Remarks :
music mainly by O. Motzan and S. Romberg; Making of a girl, collab. Romberg

You-Oo just You (Caesar) Hitchy-koo of 1918 Globe Theatre, 6

(revue, G. June 1918
MacDonough)

Remarks :
music mainly by E.R. Goetz

The Real American Folk Song (Francis [pseud. I. Gershwin]) Ladies First Broadhurst
(musical comedy, Theatre, 24 Oct
H.B. Smith) 1918

Remarks :
music mainly by A.B. Sloane

Some Wonderful Sort of Someone (S. Greene) ibid.

I was so young (you were so beautiful) (A. Bryan, Caesar) Good Morning, Shubert Theatre, 6
Judge (musical Feb 1919
comedy, F.
Thompson)

Remarks :
music mainly by L. Monckton and H. Talbot

There’s more to the kiss than the x-x-x (Caesar) ibid.

Some Wonderful Sort of Someone (Greene) The Lady in Red Lyric Theatre, 12
(musical comedy, May 1919
A. Caldwell)

Remarks :
music mainly by R. Winterberg; Some Wonderful Sort of Someone, rev. for this
show

Something about Love (L. Paley) ibid.

Remarks :
later used in London production of Lady, be Good!, 1926

Come to the Moon (Paley, N. Wayburn) Capitol Revue Capitol Theatre, 24

(revue) Oct 1919

Remarks :
music by many composers
Swanee (Caesar) ibid.
We’re pals (Caesar) Dere Mabel Academy of Music,
(musical comedy, Baltimore, 2 Feb
E. Streeter) 1920

Remarks :
music by many composers

Oo, how I love you to be loved by you (Paley) Ed Wynn’s Carnival New Amsterdam
(revue, E. Wynn) Theatre, 5 April
1920

Remarks :
music mainly by E. Wynn

Waiting for the Sun to Come Out (Francis [pseud. I. The Sweetheart Knickerbocker
Gershwin]) Shop (musical Theatre, 31 Aug
comedy, Caldwell) 1920

Remarks :
music mainly by H. Felix

Lu Lu (A. Jackson) Broadway Brevities Winter Garden

of 1920 (revue, G. Theatre, 29 Sept
Le Maire) 1920

Remarks :
music by many composers

Snowflakes (Jackson) ibid.

Spanish love (Caesar) ibid.
My Log-Cabin Home (Caesar, DeSylva) The Perfect Fool George M. Cohan
(musical comedy, Theatre, 7 Nov
Wynn) 1921

Remarks :
music mainly by Wynn

No One Else but that Girl of Mine (Caesar) ibid.

Someone (Francis [pseud. I. Gershwin]) For Goodness Lyric Theatre, 20
Sake (musical Feb 1922
comedy, F.
Jackson)

Remarks :
music mainly by W. Daly and P. Lannin

Tra-la-la (Francis) ibid.

Do it again! (DeSylva) The French Doll Lyceum Theatre,
(play with music, 20 Feb 1922
A.E. Thomas)

Remarks :
music by many composers
The Yankee Doodle Blues (Caesar, DeSylva) Spice of 1922 Winter Garden
(revue, J. Lait) Theatre, 6 July
1922

Remarks :
music mainly by J.F. Hanley

That American Boy of Mine (Caesar) The Dancing Girl Winter Garden
(musical comedy, Theatre, 24 Jan
Atteridge, Caesar) 1923

Remarks :
music mainly by Romberg

I won’t say I will but I won’t say I won’t (DeSylva, Francis Little Miss Lyceum Theatre,
[pseud. I. Gershwin]) Bluebeard (play 28 Aug 1923
with music, A.
Hopwood)

Remarks :
music by many composers

At Half Past Seven (DeSylva) Nifties of 1923 Fulton Theatre, 25

(revue, S. Bernard, Sept 1923
W. Collier)

Remarks :
music by many composers

Nashville Nightingale (Caesar) ibid.

That Lost Barber Shop Chord Americana (revue, Belmont Theatre,
McEvoy) 26 July 1926

Remarks :
music by many composers

By Strauss The Show is On Winter Garden

(revue, D. Theatre, 25 Dec
Freedman, M. Hart) 1936

Remarks :
music by many composers

Gershwin also contributed songs to the revues Piccadilly to

Broadway (1920), Blue Eyes (1921), and Selwyn’s
Snapshots (1921), although none of these was published.

Gershwin, George: Works

songs for films

(musicals unless otherwise stated)

Film, title, song title (lyricist) Date, production Remarks

 company

The Sunshine Trail, silent film 1923, Thomas H. music as acc. for
Ince film, perf. by pf/ens
The Sunshine Trail (Francis [pseud. I. Gershwin])
Delicious 3 Dec 1931, Fox screenplay by
Bolton and S.
Levien
Blah, blah, blah
Delishious
Katinkitschka
Somebody from Somewhere
Shall we Dance 7 May 1937, RKO screenplay by A.
Radio Scott and E.
Pagano
(I’ve got) Beginner’s Luck
Let’s call the whole thing off
Shall we dance?
Slap that bass
They all laughed
They can’t take that away from me
A Damsel in Distress 19 Nov 1937, RKO screenplay by S.K.
Radio Lauren, E. Pagano,
and Wodehouse
A Foggy Day
I can’t be bothered now
The Jolly Tar and the Milk Maid solo song; also
choral arr. by
Gershwin
Nice work if you can get it
Sing of Spring choral arr. by
Gershwin
Stiff Upper Lip
Things are looking up
The Goldwyn Follies, revue 23 Feb 1938, screenplay by B.
Goldwyn-United Hecht; Gershwin
Artists died during filming,
Vernon Duke
completed
Gershwin’s songs
and supplied others
I love to rhyme
I was doing all right
Love is here to stay
Love walked in
The Shocking Miss Pilgrim 1946, 20th screenplay by G.
Century-Fox Seaton
*Aren’t you kind of glad we did?
*The Back Bay Polka
*Changing my Tune
*For You, for Me, for Evermore
*One, two, three
Kiss me, stupid 1964, United Artists screenplay by B.
Wilder and I.A.L.
Diamond
*All the Livelong Day (and the Long, Long Night)
*I’m a poached egg
*Sophia

Gershwin, George: Works

miscellaneous published songs

(listed by year of first performance)

1916: When you want ’em, you can’t get ’em, when you’ve got ’em, you don’t want
’em (M. Roth)
1919: The Love of a Wife (A.J. Jackson, B.G. DeSylva); O Land of Mine, America
(M.E. Rourke)
1920: Yan-Kee (Caesar)
1921: Dixie Rose (Caesar, DeSylva); In the Heart of a Geisha (F. Fisher); Swanee
Rose (Caesar, DeSylva) [tune same as that of Dixie Rose]; Tomale (I’m hot for you)
(DeSylva)
1925: Harlem River Chanty [orig. for 4vv chorus, composed for Tip-toes, but not
used]; It’s a great little world! [orig. composed for Tip-toes, but not used]; Murderous
Monty (and Light-Fingered Jane) (D. Carter) [composed for London production of
Tell Me More, 1925]
1926: I’d rather charleston (Carter) [composed for London production of Lady, be
Good!, 1926]
1928: Beautiful gypsy [orig. composed for Rosalie, but not used; tune same as that
of Wait a bit, Susie, 1924]; Rosalie [orig. composed for Rosalie, but not used]
1929: Feeling Sentimental [orig. composed for Show Girl, but not used]; In the
Mandarin’s Orchid Garden
1931: Mischa, Yascha, Toscha, Sascha [orig. composed for Delicious, but not used]
1932: You’ve got what gets me [composed for film version of Girl Crazy, RKO 1932]
1933: Till Then
1936: King of Swing (A. Stillman); Strike up the band for U.C.L.A. [tune same as
Strike up the band, 1927, 1930]
1937: Hi-Ho! [orig. composed for Shall we Dance, but not used]
1938: Just Another Rhumba [orig. composed for The Goldwyn Follies, but not
used]; *Dawn of a New Day

Gershwin, George: Works

orchestral
Rhapsody in Blue, pf, jazz band, 1924, orchd Grofé, rev. orch for full orch by Grofé,
1926 [Gershwin’s orig. 2-pf score unpubd; solo pf and 2-pf pubd versions not
Gershwin’s arrs.]
Concerto in F, pf, orch, 1925 [orig. pubd as 2-pf score; pubd orch version rev. F.
Campbell-Watson]
An American in Paris, tone poem, 1928 [Gershwin’s orig. 2-pf score unpubd; pubd
orch version arr. F. Campbell-Watson, pubd 2-pf version rev. G. Stone; solo pf
version arr. W. Daly]
Second Rhapsody for Piano and Orchestra, 1931 [orig. MS unpubd, pubd rev.
version by R. McBride, orig. composed as Manhattan Rhapsody for Delicious]
Cuban Overture, orig. entitled Rumba, 1932
‘I got Rhythm’ Variations, pf, orch, 1934 [orig. MS unpubd, pubd rev. version by
W.C. Schoenfeld]
Catfish Row: Suite from Porgy and Bess, 1935–6, unpubd
 Gershwin, George: Works
other works
Chbr: Lullaby, str qt, c1919–20; Short Story, vn, pf, c1923–5 [orig. Novelettes, pf,
c1919, 1923, arr. S. Dushkin for vn, pf, 1925]
Pf: Rialto Ripples, c1916, collab. W. Donaldson; Three-Quarter Blues (Irish Waltz),
early 1920s; [3] Preludes, c1923–6; Impromptu in 2 Keys, c1924; Swiss Miss, 1926
[orig. song in Lady, Be Good!, 1924]; Merry Andrew, by 1928 [orig. dance piece in
Rosalie, 1928]; George Gershwin’s Song-Book, 18 arrs. of refrains from Gershwin’s
songs, 1932; 2 Waltzes, C, by 1933 [orig. as 2-pf piece in Pardon my English, 1933,
arr. pf solo by I. Gershwin, S. Chaplin]; Promenade, by 1937 [orig. as interlude,
Walking the Dog, in Shall we Dance, 2 pf, chbr orch, 1937, transcr. pf solo by H.
Borne]; additional works edited and pubd by A. Zizzo incl.: 3 Preludes, pf [from
MSS]; Suite, pf [from Blue Monday]; various MSS frags.
Gershwin, George: Works
index to published songs
(dates refer to year of first performance)

Across the Sea, 1922; A Foggy Day, 1937; All the Livelong Day (and the Long, Long
Night), 1964; A Red Headed Woman, 1935; Aren’t you kind of glad we did?, 1946;
Argentina, 1922; At Half Past Seven, 1923; A Typical Self-Made American, 1930; A
woman is a sometime thing, 1935; The Babbitt and the Bromide, 1927; Baby!, 1925;
The Back Bay Polka, 1946; Barbary Coast, 1930; Beau Brummel, 1924; Beautiful
Gypsy, 1928; Because, Because, 1931; Beneath the Eastern Moon, 1923; Berkeley
Square and Kew, 1924; Bess you is my woman, 1935; The Best of Everything,
1919; Bidin’ my Time, 1930; Blah, Blah, Blah, 1931
Blue, Blue, Blue, 1933; Boy wanted, 1921, 1924; Boy! What love has done to me!,
1930; Bride and Groom, 1926; Broncho Busters, 1930; But Not for Me, 1930;
Buzzard Song, 1935; By and By, 1922; By Strauss, 1936; Can we do anything?,
1924; Changing my Tune, 1946; Cinderelatives, 1922; Clap yo’ hands, 1926; Clara,
Clara, 1935; Come to the moon, 1919; Cossack Love Song (Don’t forget me), 1925;
Could you use me?, 1930; Crab Man, 1935; Dance Alone with You, 1927; Dancing
Shoes, 1921; Dawn of a New Day, 1938; Dear Little Girl (I hope you’ve missed me),
1926; Delishious, 1931; Ding Dong, 1930
Dixie Rose, 1921; Do-Do-Do, 1926; Do it again!, 1922; Don't ask, 1926; Do what
you do!, 1929; Drifting Along with the Tide, 1921; Embraceable You, 1930; Ev’ry
body knows I love somebody, 1928; Fascinating Rhythm, 1924; Feeling I’m Falling,
1928; Feeling Sentimental, 1929; Fidgety feet, 1926; Fletcher’s American Choc’late
Choral Society, 1930; For you, for me, for evermore, 1946; Four Little Sirens, 1924;
From Now On, 1919; Funny Face, 1927; Garçon, s’il vous plaît, 1931; Goldfarb!
That's I'm, 1930; Gone, Gone, Gone, 1935; Good mornin’, sistuh!, 1935; Good-
night, my dear, 1923; Got a rainbow, 1928; The Half of it, Dearie, Blues, 1924;
Hangin’ Around with You, 1930
Hang on to me, 1924; Harlem River Chanty, 1925; Harlem Serenade, 1929; Heaven
on Earth, 1926; He knows milk, 1930; Hello, good morning, 1931; He loves and she
loves, 1927; Here come de honey man, 1935; Here’s a kiss for Cinderella, 1931;
Hey! Hey! Let ’er go!, 1924; High Hat, 1927; Hi-ho!, 1937; How about a boy like
me?, 1930; How long has this been going on?, 1927, 1928; I ain’ got no shame,
1935; I can’t be bothered now, 1937; Idle Dreams, 1920; I don’t think I’ll fall in love
today, 1928; I’d rather charleston, 1926; If I Become the President, 1930; I found a
four leaf clover, 1922; I got plenty o’ nuttin’, 1935; I got rhythm, 1930
I’ll build a stairway to paradise, 1922; The Illegitimate Daughter, 1931; I loves you,
Porgy, 1935; I love to rhyme, 1938; I love you, 1921; I’m about to be a mother,
1931; I make hay while the moon shines, 1924; I’m a poached egg, 1964; I mean to
say, 1930; I must be home by twelve o’clock, 1929; I need a garden, 1924; Innocent
Ingenue Baby, 1922; Innocent Lonesome Blue Baby, 1923; In the Heart of a
Geisha, 1921; In the Mandarin’s Orchid Garden, 1929; In the Rain, 1923; In the
Rattle of the Battle, 1930; In the swim, 1923; Isn’t it a pity?, 1933; Isn’t it wonderful,
1924; It ain’t necessarily so, 1935; It is the fourteenth of July, 1924; It’s a great little
world!, 1925
It take a long pull to get there, 1935; I’ve got a crush on you, 1928, 1930; I’ve got
beginner’s luck, 1937; I’ve got to be there, 1933; I want to be a war bride, 1930; I
was doing all right, 1938; I was so young (you were so beautiful), 1919; I was the
most beautiful blossom, 1931; I won’t say I will but I won’t say I won’t, 1923; Jasbo
Brown Blues, 1935; The Jijibo, 1924; Jilted, 1931; The Jolly Tar and the Milk Maid,
1937; Just Another Rhumba, 1938; Just to Know You are Mine, 1921; Katinkitschka,
1931; Kickin’ the Clouds Away, 1925
King of swing, 1936; Kongo Kate, 1924; K-ra-zy for You, 1928; Land of the Gay
Caballero, 1930; Leavin’ for the Promise’ Lan’, 1935; Leaving Town While we May,
1924; Let ’em eat cake, 1933; Let’s be lonesome together, 1923; Let’s call the
whole thing off, 1937; Let’s kiss and make up, 1927; The Life of a Rose, 1923;
Limehouse Nights, 1919; Little Jazz Bird, 1924; Liza (All the clouds’ll roll away),
1929; Lo-La-Lo, 1923; The Lonesome Cowboy, 1930; Looking for a Boy, 1925;
Lorelei, 1933; Love is here to stay, 1938; Love is sweeping the country, 1931; The
love of a wife, 1919; Love walked in, 1938
Luckiest man in the world, 1933; Lu Lu, 1920; Mademoiselle in New Rochelle,
1930; Mah-Jongg, 1924; Making of a Girl, 1916; The Man I love, 1924, 1927;
Maybe, 1926; Midnight Bells, 1925; Military Dancing Drill, 1927; Mine, 1933;
Mischa, Yascha, Toscha, Sascha, 1931; Moonlight in Versailles, 1923; The
Mophams, 1924; Murderous Monty (and Light-Fingered Jane), 1925; My Cousin in
Milwaukee, 1933; My Fair Lady, 1925; My Lady, 1920; My Log-Cabin Home, 1921;
My man’s gone now, 1935
My One and Only, 1927; Nashville Nightingale, 1923; Naughty Baby, 1924; Never
was there a girl so fair, 1931; Nice Baby! (Come to papa!), 1925; Nice work if you
can get it, 1937; Nightie-Night, 1925; Night time in Araby, 1924; Nobody but You,
1919; No One Else but that Girl of Mine, 1921; Official Resume, 1930; Of thee I
sing, 1931; Oh, Bess, oh where’s my Bess, 1935; Oh, de Lawd shake de heavens,
1935; Oh, dere’s somebody knockin’ at de do’, 1935; Oh, Doctor Jesus, 1935; Oh
Gee! Oh Joy!, 1928; Oh, Hev’nly Father, 1935; Oh, I can’t sit down, 1935
Oh, Kay!, 1926; Oh, lady, be good!, 1924; Oh Lawd, I’m on my way, 1935; Oh Little
Stars, 1935; Oh! Nina, 1923; Oh, so Nice, 1928; Oh, What she Hangs Out, 1922; O
Land of Mine, America, 1919; On and On and On, 1933; One, Two, Three, 1946; On
My Mind the Whole Night Long, 1920; On the Beach at How’ve-you-been, 1923;
Oo, how I love to be loved by you, 1920; Overflow, 1935; Pepita, 1924; Poppyland,
1919; Posterity is just around the corner, 1931; The Real American Folk Song,
1918; Rosalie, 1928; Rose of Madrid, 1924; Roses of France, 1924
Sam and Delilah, 1930; Say so!, 1928; Scandal Walk, 1920; The Senator from
Minnesota, 1931; Seventeen and Twenty-One, 1927; Shall we dance?, 1937; She’s
just a baby, 1921; Show me the town, 1926; The Signal, 1925; The Simple Life,
1921; Site of Spring, 1937; Slap that bass, 1937; Snowflakes, 1920; So am I, 1924;
So are you!, 1929; Somebody from Somewhere, 1931; Somebody loves me, 1924;
Some Far-Away Someone, 1924; Some girls can bake a pie, 1931; Somehow it
seldom comes true, 1919; Someone, 1922; Someone believes in you, 1924;
Someone to watch over me, 1926
Some rain must fall, 1921; Something about love, 1919, 1926; Some wonderful sort
of someone, 1918, rev. 1919; Song of the Flame, 1925; The Songs of Long Ago,
1920; Soon, 1930; Sophia, 1964; South Sea Isles, 1921; So what?, 1933; Spanish
love, 1920; Stiff Upper Lip, 1937; Strawberry Woman, 1935; Strike up the band,
1927, 1930; Strike up the band for U.C.L.A., 1936; Strut lady with me, 1923;
Summertime, 1935; Sunday in London town, 1923; The Sunshine Trail, 1923;
Swanee, 1919
Swanee Rose, 1921; Sweet and Low-Down, 1925; Sweetheart (I’m so glad that I
met you), 1923; ’S wonderful, 1927; Tee-oodle-um-bum-bo, 1919; Tell me more!,
1925; That American Boy of Mine, 1923; That Certain Feeling, 1925; That Lost
Barber Shop Chord, 1926; That New-Fangled Mother of Mine, 1924; There is
nothing too good for you, 1923; There’s a boat dat’s leavin’ soon for New York,
1935; There’s more to the kiss than the x-x-x, 1919; These Charming People, 1925;
They all laughed, 1937
They can’t take that away from me, 1937; They pass by singin’, 1935; Things are
looking up, 1937; This is the life for a man, 1924; Three cheers for the Union!, 1930;
Three Times a Day, 1925; Throw her in high!, 1923; Till I Meet Someone like You,
1924; Till Then, 1933; Tomale (I’m hot for you), 1921; Tra-la-la, 1922; Treat me
rough, 1930; Trumpeter blow your golden horn, 1931; Tum on and tiss me, 1920;
Tune in (to Station J. O. Y.), 1924; Under a One-Man Top, 1924; Union Square,
1933; The Unofficial Spokesman, 1930; Virginia, 1924; Vodka, 1925; Wait a bit,
Susie, 1924; Waiting for the Sun to Come Out, 1920
Walking Home with Angeline, 1922; We’re pals, 1920; What are we here for?, 1928;
What you want wid Bess?, 1935; When do we dance?, 1925; When it’s Cactus
Time in Arizona, 1930; When Toby is Out of Town, 1924; When you want ’em, you
can’t get ’em, when you’ve got ’em, you don’t want ’em, 1916; Where East meets
West, 1921; Where is she?, 1923; Where is the man of my dreams, 1922; Where’s
the boy? Here’s the girl!, 1928; Where you go I go, 1933; Who cares?, 1931; Who is
the lucky girl to be?, 1931; Why do I love you?, 1925; Wintergreen for President,
1931; The Woman's Touch, 1926; The world is mine, 1927
Yan-Kee, 1920; The Yankee Doodle Blues, 1922; Yankee Doodle Rhythm, 1927,
1928; Year after Year, 1924; You and I, 1923; You are you, 1925; You-Oo just You,
1918; You’ve got what gets me, 1932

Principal publishers: Chappell, New World

Gershwin, George

BIBLIOGRAPHY
catalogues and bibliographies
A Catalogue of the Exhibition Gershwin: George the Music: Ira the Words
(New York, 1968)
C.M. Schwartz: George Gershwin: a Selective Bibliography and
Discography, Bibliographies in American Music, no.1 (Detroit, 1974)
W. Rimler: A Gershwin Companion: a Critical Inventory and Discography,
1916–1984 (Ann Arbor, 1991)
N. Carnovale: George Gershwin: a Bio-Bibliography (Westport, CT, 2000)
life and works
GroveA (R. Crawford, W. Schneider) [incl. further bibliography]
I. Goldberg: George Gershwin: a Study in American Music (New York,
1931, rev. and enlarged 2/1958)
M. Armitage, ed.: George Gershwin (New York, 1938; repr. 1995 with a
new introduction by E. Jablonski)
V. Duke: ‘Gershwin, Shillinger and Dukelsky’, MQ, xxxiii (1947), 102–15
D. Ewen: A Journey to Greatness (New York, 1956; rev. and enlarged
2/1970/R as George Gershwin: his Journey to Greatness)
M. Armitage: George Gershwin: Man and Legend (New York, 1958/R)
E. Jablonski and L.D. Stewart: The Gershwin Years (Garden City, NY,
1958, rev. 2/1973)
C.M. Schwartz: Gershwin: his Life and Music (Indianapolis, IN, 1973) [incl.
catalogue of works and bibliography]
E. Jablonski: ‘Gershwin at 80: Observations, Discographical and
Otherwise, on the 80th Anniversary of the Birth of George Gershwin,
American Composer’, American Record Guide, xli (1977–8), no.11,
pp.6–12, 58 only; no.12, pp.8–12, 57–9
D. Jeambar: George Gershwin (Paris, 1982)
E. Jablonski: Gershwin: a Biography, Illustrated (New York, 1987)
E. Jablonski: Gershwin Remembered (Portland, OR, 1992)
D. Rosenberg: Fascinating Rhythm: the Collaboration of George and Ira
Gershwin (New York, 1991)
J. Peyser: The Memory of All That (New York, 1993)
musical studies
G. Gershwin: ‘The Relation of Jazz to American Music’, American
Composers on American Music, ed. H. Cowell (Palo Alto, CA, 1933/R)
Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions [Library of Congress], iv (1946–
7), 65–6; xi (1953–4), 15–26; xii (1954–5), 47 only; xiv (1956–7), 13
only; xvi (1958–9), 17 only; xvii (1959–60), 23–4; xviii (1960–61), 23
only; xix (1961–2), 22–3; xx (1962–3), 34–5, 60–61; Quarterly Journal
of the Library of Congress, xxi (1963–4), 23–4, 45 only; xxiii (1965–6),
41, 44–5; xxv (1967–8), 53–5, 75, 78 only; xxvi (1968–9), 22, 37 only;
xxvii (1969–70), 53, 77 only; xxviii (1970–71), 46, 67–8; xxix (1971–2),
49, 61, 64, 75 only; xxx (1972–3), 50 only; xxxi (1973–4), 32, 50, 57,
62–3 [reports on acquisitions by E.N. Waters and others]
F.C. Campbell: ‘Some Manuscripts of George Gershwin’, Manuscripts, vi
(1953–4), 66–75
F.C. Campbell: ‘The Musical Scores of George Gershwin’, Quarterly
Journal of Current Acquisitions [Library of Congress], xi (1953–4),
127–39
L. Bernstein: ‘Why Don't You Run Upstairs and Write a Nice Gershwin
Tune’, Atlantic Monthly, cxcv/4 (1955), 39–42; repr. in The Joy of
Music (New York, 1959), 52–64
H. Keller: ‘Rhythm: Gershwin and Stravinsky’, Score and I.M.A. Magazine,
no.20 (1957), 19–31
H. Levine: ‘Gershwin, Handy and the Blues’, Clavier, ix/7 (1970), 10–20
R. Crawford: ‘It ain't Necessarily Soul: Gershwin's Porgy and Bess as
Symbol’, Yearbook for Inter-American Musical Research, viii (1972),
17–38
A. Wilder: ‘George Gershwin (1898–1937)’, American Popular Song (New
York, 1972), 121–62
R. Crawford: ‘Gershwin's Reputation: a Note on Porgy and Bess’, MQ, lxv
(1979), 257–64
W.D. Shirley: ‘Reconciliation on Catfish Row: Bess, Serena and the Short
Score of Porgy and Bess’, Quarterly Journal of the Library of
Congress, xxxviii (1980–81), 144–65
L. Starr: ‘Toward a Reevaluation of Gershwin's Porgy and Bess’, American
Music, ii/2 (1984), 25–37
S.E. Gilbert: ‘Gershwin's Art of Counterpoint’, MQ, lxx (1984), 423–56
W.D. Shirley: ‘Scoring the Concerto in F: George Gershwin's First
Orchestration’, American Music, iii (1985), 277–98
R. Wyatt: ‘The Seven Jazz Preludes of George Gershwin’, American
Music, vii (1989), 68–85
H. Alpert: The Life and Times of Porgy and Bess (New York, 1990)
C. Hamm: ‘A Blues for the Ages’, A Celebration of American Music, ed. R.
Crawford, R.A. Lott and C.J. Oja (Ann Arbor, 1990), 346–55
R. Crawford: ‘George Gershwin's “I Got Rhythm” (1930)’, America's
Musical Landscape (Berkeley, CA, 1993), 213–36
P. Nauert: ‘Theory and Practice in Porgy and Bess: the Gershwin-
Schillinger Connection’, MQ, lxxviii (1994), 9–33
C.J. Oja: ‘Gershwin and American Modernists of the 1920s’, MQ, lxxviii
(1994), 646–68
A. Forte: ‘Ballads of George Gershwin’, The American Popular Ballad of
the Golden Era: 1924–1950 (Princeton, NJ, 1995), 147–76
S.E. Gilbert: The Music of Gershwin (New Haven, CT, 1995)
C. Hamm: ‘Towards a New Reading of Gershwin’, Putting Popular Music in
its Place (Cambridge and New York, 1995), 306–24
G. Block: ‘Porgy and Bess: Broadway Opera’, Enchanted Evenings: the
Broadway Musical from Show Boat to Sondheim (New York and
Oxford, 1997), 60–84, 328–9
D. Schiff: Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (New York, 1997)
R. Crawford: ‘Rethinking the Rhapsody’, ISAM News Letter, xxviii/1
(1998), 1–2, 15
W.J. Schneider, ed.: The Gershwin Style: New Looks at the Music of
George Gershwin (New York, 1999)

Gershwin, Ira [Gershvin, Israel]

(b New York, 6 Dec 1896; d Beverly Hills, CA, 17 Aug 1983). American
lyricist. He submitted light verse to newspapers and periodicals as a
student and while working at various jobs before joining his brother George
Gershwin to write songs. Their first song to receive a public hearing was
The Real American Folk Song, a salute to ragtime, which was introduced
by Nora Bayes in Ladies First (1918). Although Gershwin collaborated with
other composers (at first under the pseudonym Arthur Francis to avoid
being judged by George’s reputation), his close partnership with his brother
extended from 1924, when they wrote their first musical comedy, Lady be
Good!, until George’s death in 1937. In addition to more than a dozen
Broadway shows, including the first musical comedy to be awarded a
Pulitzer Prize for drama, Of Thee I Sing (1931), they also contributed
songs to a number of films. After George’s death Ira worked with a
succession of composers, including Weill (Lady in the Dark, 1941), Kern
(Cover Girl, 1944), Schwartz (Park Avenue, 1946), and Arlen (A Star is
Born, 1954).
 During his lifetime, Ira Gershwin was considered by many to be the less
talented of the brothers and they rarely accorded his lyrics the same
attention as that of his contemporaries such as Hart or Porter.
Subsequently, however, Gershwin’s lyrics have come to be considered
among the finest in popular American culture and recent revivals and new
recordings of his works have earned him a prominence he rarely enjoyed
during his long career.
Unlike some of his contemporaries, Gershwin presented no consistent view
of life in his lyrics. His verses are generally humorous and sunny, and make
frequent recourse to such slang shortcuts as ‘gloom can jump in the riv’’.
He had a deep understanding of his brother’s music, and established at the
Library of Congress a Gershwin Archive consisting of carefully annotated
documents mostly associated with George. He published a collection of his
lyrics, with discursive annotations, as Lyrics on Several Occasions (New
York, 1959, 2/1997).
WORKS
(selective list)

music by George Gershwin unless otherwise stated

stage
Dates are those of the first New York performance

Two Little Girls in Blue (P. Lannin, V. Youmans), 3 May 1921 [incl. Oh, Me! Oh, My!]
Lady, Be Good!, 1 Dec 1924 [incl. Fascinating Rhythm, Oh lady, be good!, So am I;
film, 1941]
Tell Me More, 13 April 1925 [incl. Kickin’ the Clouds Away]
Tip-toes, 28 Dec 1925 [incl. Sweet and Low-Down, Looking for a Boy, That Certain
Feeling]
Oh, Kay!, 8 Nov 1926 [incl. Someone to watch over me, Do-Do-Do, Clap yo’ Hands,
Maybe]
Funny Face, 22 Nov 1927 [incl. S’wonderful, High Hat, Funny Face, He loves and
she loves, The Babbitt and the Bromide]
Rosalie, 10 Jan 1928 [incl. How long has this been going on?]
Treasure Girl, 8 Nov 1928 [incl. I’ve got a crush on you, Feeling I’m falling]
Strike Up the Band, 14 Jan 1930 [incl. Strike up the band; film, 1940]
Girl Crazy, 14 Oct 1930 [incl. I got rhythm, Embraceable You, Bidin’ my Time, But
Not for Me; films, 1932, 1943, 1965 as ‘When the Boys Meet the Girls’]
Of Thee I Sing, 26 Dec 1931 [incl. Love is sweeping the country, Of thee I sing,
Who cares?)
Pardon My English, 20 Jan 1933 [incl. Lorelei, Isn’t it a pity?]
Let ’em Eat Cake, 21 Oct 1933 [incl. Mine]
Porgy and Bess, 10 Oct 1935 [incl. Bess, you is my woman, I got plenty o’ nuttin’, It
ain’t necessarily so, I loves you, Porgy; film, 1959]
Ziegfeld Follies of 1936 (V. Duke), 30 Jan 1936 [incl. I can’t get started]
Lady in the Dark (K. Weill), 23 Jan 1941 [incl. My Ship, The Saga of Jennie,
Tchaikowsky; film, 1944]
The Firebrand of Florence (Weill), 22 March 1945 [incl. Sing me not a ballad]
Park Avenue (A. Schwartz), 4 Nov 1946 [incl. Don’t be a woman if you can]
My One and Only, 1 May 1983 [incl. S’wonderful, Strike up the band, He loves and
she loves, My One and Only]
Crazy for You, 19 Feb 1992 [incl. I got rhythm, What causes that?, Slap that bass]

films
Delicious, 1931
Shall We Dance, 1937 [incl. Slap that bass, They can’t take that away from me,
Let’s call the whole thing off, They all laughed, (I’ve got) Beginner’s luck]
A Damsel in Distress, 1937 [incl. Nice Work if you can get it, I can’t be bothered
now, A Foggy Day, Things are looking up]
The Goldwyn Follies, 1938 [incl. Love walked in, Love is here to stay]
Rhapsody in Blue, 1945 [incl. I’ll build a stairway to paradise, The man I love]
Cover Girl (J. Kern), 1944 [incl. Put me to the test, Long Ago and Far Away, Sure
Thing]
The Shocking Miss Pilgrim, 1946 [incl. The Back Bay Polka]
The Barkleys of Broadway (H. Warren), 1949 [incl. My One and Only Highland
Fling, Shoes with Wings On]
An American in Paris, 1951 [incl. Love is here to stay, I don’t think I’ll fall in love
today, I got rhythm]
Give a Girl a Break (B. Lane), 1953 [incl. Applause, Applause]
A Star is Born (H. Arlen), 1954 [incl. The Man that Got Away, Here’s what I’m here
for]
Funny Face, 1957 [incl. How long has this been going on?, Funny Face]
Porgy and Bess, 1959 [incl. Dere’s a boat dat’s leavin’ soon for New York]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Gershwin, Ira’, CBY 1956
E. Jablonski and L.D. Stewart: The Gershwin Years (Garden City, NY,
1958, 2/1973)
R. Kimball and A. Simon: The Gershwins (New York, 1973)
E. Jablonski: Gershwin (Garden City, NY, 1987)
D. Rosenberg: Fascinating Rhythm: the Collaboration of George and Ira
Gershwin (New York, 1991)
R. Kimball: The Complete Lyrics of Ira Gershwin (New York, 1993)
P. Furia: Ira Gershwin: The Art of the Lyricist (New York, 1996)
GERALD BORDMAN/THOMAS S. HISCHAK

Gerson, George
(b Copenhagen, 10 Oct 1790; d Copenhagen, 16 Feb 1825). Danish
composer and violinist. As a child he was taught the violin, and in 1805 he
was sent for a commercial education to Hamburg. There he learnt to play
the piano, and he soon became an active member of private musical
circles, for which he composed songs and chamber music. Of his 219
compositions, 60 were composed during his years in Hamburg, some (e.g.
the string quartets nos.2–4, 1808) under the supervision of the violinist
Andreas Romberg. On his return to Copenhagen in 1812 he was employed
by the merchant Joseph Hambro, who made him his partner in 1816. Both
as a violinist and as an organizer Gerson played a leading role in the
musical life of Copenhagen, which was then largely based on private clubs
and societies.
Only a few of Gerson’s many piano pieces and songs have been printed
(notably 6 songs published in Copenhagen, 1842); their musical style
shows the influence of his models, Haydn, Romberg and especially Mozart.
His best songs reveal an original melodic gift and a refined sense of
declamation, and though his instrumental works, including a symphony
(1813–17) and a violin concerto (1821), are more impressive for his
assured handling of form and texture than for musical invention, they are
important as they illustrate an interesting chapter of Danish music history.
His collected works in five autograph volumes and an autograph thematic
catalogue are in the Royal Library, Copenhagen. (N.M. Jensen: Den
danske romance 1800–1850 og dens musikalske forudsaetninger
(Copenhagen, 1964) [with Ger. summary])
TORBEN SCHOUSBOE

Gerson, Jean Charlier de [Doctor

Christianissimus]
(b Gerson-lès-Barby, diocese of Reims, 13 December 1363; d Lyons, 12
July 1429). French theologian, reformer, educator, poet and mystic. At the
age of 14 he entered the Collège de Navarre, where he studied under
Egide Deschamps and Pierre d’Ailly. In 1381 he obtained the licence ès
lettres and began his study of theology. His first course of lectures on
biblical exegesis in 1387–8 marked the beginning of a lifelong career of
university teaching. He took the degree of Master of Theology in 1392 and
three years later succeeded Pierre d’Ailly as chancellor of the University of
Paris. In this capacity he was responsible for bringing France back to the
obedience of the Antipope Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna) in 1402, and of
restoring the Dominicans (1403) after their expulsion from the university
because of their views on the Immaculate Conception. Apart from the
chancellorship, Gerson’s ecclesiastical appointments included the deanery
of St Donatian in Bruges (1394), a benefice offered him by his patron,
Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, a canonry of Notre Dame de Paris
(1403) which brought him the responsibility (1404) for the choir school of
Notre Dame, and the incumbency of St Jean-en-Grève (1408). He
attended the Council of Konstanz (1414–18) where his influence was far-
reaching and decisive. For political reasons he never returned to Paris. He
died in retirement, having completed his last work three days before his
death.
Besides his teaching and pastoral duties Gerson was deeply involved in
wider issues, both religious and political. He strove to promote reform of
the Church, and worked actively to heal the breach between East and West
that was dividing Christendom.
Gerson’s writings include studies on the constitution and authority of the
Church, sermons, university lectures, spiritual and pastoral writings in Latin
and French, other doctrinal works, poetical works and some 87 letters that
are of historical and personal interest. As an early promoter of the cult of St
Joseph (1413–14), he also wrote the text of a mass and an Office in
honour of the saint. A number of the writings deal with music viewed from a
philosophical or mystical angle. He developed an all-encompassing view of
music in which Christ is the heavenly precentor in the total harmony of
creation. The Tres tractatus de canticis contain the De canticorum originali
ratione (before 1426), the De canticordo (before 1423) and the De canticis
(between 1424 and 1426). The point of departure in these writings is the
definition of the term ‘canticum’. Many traditional and contemporary
musical instruments are listed. His exposition of musical theory is
traditionally orthodox, firmly rooted in Boethius and Isidore of Seville. The
second part of De canticis is a poem in praise of music, Carmen de laude
musice. The Collectorium super Magnificat published in Esslingen in 1473
contains one of the earliest examples of music printing (only five notes); it
is a series of 12 tracts collected and edited by the author himself, and in it
he attributed moral significance to the musical notes sol, fa, mi, re and ut
and the five vowels A E I O U.
But Gerson’s interest in music was not merely speculative and mystical.
His very practical instructions to those in charge of the choir school of
Notre Dame show the author of the Doctrina pro pueris ecclesie parisiensis
(written to complete the new rules prescribed by the chapter on 15 April
1411) to have had a profound understanding of the problems of education,
in particular that of medieval choristers. The master of song was to teach
the boys plainchant, principally, and counterpoint, and a few well-chosen
discants, but no frivolous or lewd airs. Discant was banned by statute until
the boys’ voices had changed, and even then choristers were not to spend
too long in the study of it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
L.E. du Pin, ed.: Gerson: opera omnia (Antwerp, 1706, 2/1728)
J.B. Schwab: Johannes Gerson, Professor der Theologie und Kanzler der
Universität Paris: eine Monographie (Würzburg, 1858/R)
J.L. Connolly: John Gerson, Reformer and Mystic (Leuven, 1928/R)
A. Thomas: Jean de Gerson et l’éducation des dauphins de France (Paris,
1930)
A. Machabey: ‘Remarques sur le lexique musical du De Canticis de
Gerson’, Romania, lxxix (1958), 175–236
P. Glorieux, ed.: Jean Gerson: Oeuvres complètes (Paris, 1960–73) [incl.
lists of all known edns from the 15th century onwards, a critical
analysis of Du Pin’s edn, a description of the principal MSS and
bibliographical notes, in vol.i, Introduction générale]
C. Page: ‘Early 15th-Century Instruments in Jean de Gerson’s “Tractatus
de canticis”’, EMc, vi (1978), 339–49
J.L. Irwin: ‘The Mystical Music of Jean Gerson’, EMH, i (1981), 187–201
G. Kirkwood: ‘Kings, Confessors, Cantors and Archipellano: Ockeghem
and the Gerson Circle at St-Martin of Tours’, Johannes Ockeghem:
Tours 1997, 101–37
MARY BERRY

Gersonides [Levi ben Gershom

(Gershon, Gerson); Leo Hebraeus;
Magister Leon de Bagnols;
RaLBaG]
(b Bagnols, 1288; d Provence, 1344). French mathematician. He lived in
Provence, primarily in Orange, north of Avignon, an area that offered
protection to Jews and a haven from King Philip the Fair’s expulsion of
Jews in 1306. His works were known in both Jewish and Christian circles.
He wrote in Hebrew, and his writings were translated into Latin; as a result
he is known by several different names. He is referred to as Levi ben
Gershom or RaLBaG (an acronym of Rabbi Levi ben Gershom) in Hebrew
texts, and as Gersonides, Gerson and several other variants in Latin
sources. His mathematical works include a commentary on Euclid and a
treatise on trigonometry. He was also an astronomer, biblical exegete and
neo-Aristotelian philosopher. In addition to commentaries on Aristotle and
Ibn Rushd, his major work was Sefer milhamot Adonai (‘The Wars of the
Lord’, 1317–29), which treats the central philosophical debates of his time,
such as the immortality of the soul and the creation of the world.
At the request of Philippe de Vitry, Gersonides wrote De numeris
harmonicis in 1343. Based on a postulate given by Vitry, it includes the
following:
omnium numerorum armonicorum quilibet 2 numero
distinguntur praeter istos 1 et 2, 2 et 3, 3 et 4, 8 et 9.
Armonicum autem numerum sic describit: armonicus
numerus est, qui et quelibet ejus pars praeter unitatem per
equa 2 vel 3 continuo vel vice versa usque ad ipsam unitatem
findi potest. Sunt igitur continui, 1, 2, 4, 8 … et 1, 3, 9, 27 …
et vice versa 6, 12, 1[8], et 24 … (Carlebach, 129)
(The difference between any of the harmonic numbers is 2
except between 1 and 2, 2 and 3, 3 and 4, and 8 and 9. He
[Vitry] defines harmonic numbers as follows: a harmonic
number is divisible (except for 1) either by 2 or 3 in
succession or alternately one with the other continuously
down to one. They are, therefore, in succession: 1, 2, 4, 8 …
and 1, 3, 9, 27 … and alternately 6, 12, 18 and 24 …)
Gersonides and Vitry defined a harmonic number as one that is a power of
2 or 3 and is therefore divisible by 2 or 3. Except for the smallest numbers
(1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 9), the difference between any two harmonic numbers
will be 2 or more; consequently, no number is repeated.
Nineteenth-century musicologists, such as Riemann, believed that De
numeris harmonicis concerned the calculation of musical intervals. In the
1940s Werner and Sonne proposed that De numeris harmonicis was a
mathematical proof of Vitry’s mensural system (as explained in the
collection of writings formerly thought to be a treatise known as Ars nova)
and was intended to demonstrate that any combination of perfect and
imperfect mensural divisions would produce only one, unique number of
minime (even allowing for differences due to dots of alteration or dots of
perfection). The numerical patterns in De numeris harmonicis, however, are
similar to those in a passage in Plato’s Timaeus (35ff) in which the Creator
marks off divisions of the soul by doubling and tripling a given unit to
produce the series 1, 2, 4, 8 and the series 1, 3, 9, 27. The ratios between
the two series produce the basic musical intervals (3:2, 4:3 and 9:8). The
term ‘harmonic number’ was later used by Aristotle (De anima [On the
Soul] 406b.25ff) and was then passed on to medieval writers through
commentaries on Plato’s and Aristotle’s works. Gersonides’ De numeris
harmonicis, therefore, is not an effort to generate a mathematical proof of
the Ars nova mensural system, but a development within the commentaries
on the ‘Timaeus-scale’ to extend the sequence of harmonic numbers.
Whereas Plato limited the harmonic numbers to eight, Gersonides’ treatise
expands each series indefinitely and uses the two series as factors to
create new ‘harmonic numbers’ (i.e. 2 x 3 = 6; 3 x 4 = 12; 2 x 9 = 18; 3 x 8
= 24 …). Gersonides probably transmitted this concept to the theorist
Johannes Boen (Musica) and to the Parisian scholastic philosopher Nicole
Oresme (Le livre du ciel et du monde and Tractatus de configurationibus
qualitatum et motuum). A reliable critical text of Gersonides’ De numeris
harmonicis has yet to be undertaken (Carlebach’s 1910 edition is generally
regarded as seriously flawed). Although no Hebrew sources of the works
are known to have survived, there are at least two extant Latin sources:
CH-Bu F.II.33 (used by Carlebach) and F-Pn lat.7378A.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grove6 (‘Leo Hebraeus’; G. Anderson)
MGG1 (‘Leo Hebraeus’; E. Werner)
RiemannG
The Jewish Encyclopedia (‘Levi Ben Gershon’, M. Seligsohn, I. Broydé),
ed. I. Singer (New York, 1904/R, 2/1925)
J. Carlebach: Lewi ben Gerson als Mathematiker (Berlin, 1910) [incl. edn
of De numeris harmonicis, 129–44]
E. Werner and I. Sonne: ‘The Philosophy and Theory of Music in Judeo-
Arabic Literature, II’, Hebrew Union College Annual, xvii (1942–3),
511–72, esp. 564ff
E. Werner: ‘The Mathematical Foundation of Philippe de Vitri's Ars Nova’,
JAMS, ix (1956), 128–32
A.D. Menut and A.J. Denomy, ed. and trans.: Le livre du ciel et du
monde (Madison, WI, 1968), 472–87
J. Samsó: ‘Levi ben Gerson’, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. C.C.
Gillispie (New York, 1970–80)
W. Frobenius: Johannes Boens ‘Musica’ und seine Konsonanzenlehre
(Stuttgart, 1971)
F. Della Stella: ‘Scienza e filosofia nella teoria musicale dell’ Ars Nova in
Francia’, NRMI, x (1976), 357–83
W. Frobenius: ‘Numeri armonici: die Zahlen der Timaios-Skala in der
Musiktheorie des 14. Jahrhunderts’, Kontinuität und Transformation
der Antike im Mittelalter: Freiburg 1987, ed. W. Erzgräber
(Sigmaringen, 1989), 245–60
K. Chemla and S. Pahaut: ‘Remarques sur les ouvrages mathématiques
de Gersonide’, Studies on Gersonides, ed. G. Freudenthal (Leiden,
1992), 149–91
T.M. Rudavsky: ‘Gersonides’, Medieval Philosophers, ed. J. Hackett
(Detroit, 1992), 200–04
 C. MATTHEW BALENSUELA

Gerson-Kiwi, (Esther) Edith

(b Berlin, 13 May 1908; d Jerusalem, 16 July 1992). Israeli musicologist
and ethnomusicologist of German origin. She studied at the Stern
Conservatory (1918–25) and in 1930 she obtained a diploma in piano from
the Leipzig Musikhochchule, working principally under Ramin. In 1931 she
studied the harpsichord with Wanda Landowska at the Ecole de Musique
Ancienne; she then returned to Germany to study musicology with Gurlitt at
the University of Freiburg and Kroyer at the University of Leipzig; she
completed the doctorate in 1933 under Besseler at the University of
Heidelberg with a dissertation on the 16th-century Italian canzonetta. In
1934 she taught at the Liceo Musicale, Bologna, while studying
palaeography and earning a diploma in library studies at Bologna
University (1934).
The nascent Nazi regime prompted her and her parents to emigrate in
1935 to Palestine where they settled in Jerusalem. From 1937 she taught
the piano and music history at the music academies in Jerusalem and Tel-
Aviv. Her interest in ethnomusicology began with her association with
Robert Lachmann at the Jerusalem Archive for Oriental Music. As his
assistant, she became, by extension, a student of the Berlin school of
comparative musicology whose concepts and methods she incorporated in
her subsequent ethnomusicological researches. In 1947 she took charge of
the archive, which was then linked with the Palestine Institute of Folklore
and Ethnology (in 1953 both the institute and the archive were incorporated
into the School of Oriental Studies at the Hebrew University) and in 1949
she joined the faculty at the Music Teacher’s College. Soon after the
establishment of the musicology departments at the Hebrew University
(1965) and Tel-Aviv University (1966) she became a senior lecturer at both
and was appointed professor at Tel-Aviv in 1969. In 1963 she founded the
Museum of Musical Instruments of the Rubin Academy of Music,
Jerusalem. She served on the executive boards of the IFMC (1970–82),
the International Institute of Comparative Studies of Music and
Documentation and as a council member of the IMS and the Society for
Ethnomusicology. In 1974 she was elected chairman of the Israeli
Musicological Society and served later as its vice-chairman and treasurer
(1978–9); she was also on the editorial board of Orbis musicae.
As an indefatigable collector of traditional music, she took advantage of the
multi-ethnic communities residing in and around Jersualem whose sacred
and secular music she recorded, transcribed and studied. Her publications
testify to a wide spectrum of interests, the core of which centres on Jewish
(primarily Oriental and Sephardi), Arabic and Persian traditions, on which
she became an outstanding authority. Gerson-Kiwi laid the foundation for
ethnomusicological studies in Israel, but unlike A.Z. Idelsohn whose
fieldwork in Jersusalem preceded hers by one generation, she was able to
train numerous scholars. She left a vast legacy of precious archival
material (including recordings, documentary films, manuscripts), which still
awaits investigation.
WRITINGS
‘Stil und Gemeinschaft’, Collegium musicum, i (Kassel, 1932), 109–13
Studien zur Geschichte des italienischen Liedmadrigals im XVI.
Jahrhundert (diss., U. of Heidelberg, 1933; Würzburg, 1937)
‘Die Triosonate von ihren Anfängen bis zu Haydn und Mozart: ein
Literaturübersicht’, Zeitschrift für Hausmusik, iii (1934), 37–63
‘Jerusalem Archive for Oriental Music’, Music hebraica, i–ii (1938), 40–42
‘Wedding Dances and Songs of the Jews of Bokhara’, JIFMC, ii (1950),
17–18
‘Migrations and Mutations of Oriental Folk Instruments’, JIFMC, iv (1952),
16–19
‘Towards an Exact Transcription of Tone-Relations’, AcM, xxv (1953), 80–
87
‘Béla Bartók: Scholar in Musical Folklore’, ML, xxxviii (1957), 149–54
‘Musicology in Israel: a Survey of the Historical Development’, AcM, xxx
(1958), 17–26
‘Synthesis and Symbiosis of Styles in Jewish-Oriental Music’, Studies in
Biblical and Jewish Folklore, ed. R. Patai, F.L. Utley and D. Noy
(Bloomington, IN, 1960/R), 225–32
‘Religious Chant: a Pan-Asiatic Conception of Music’, JIFMC, xiii (1961),
64–7
‘Sulla genesi delle canzoni popolari nel ’500’, In memoriam Jacques
Handschin, ed. H. Anglès and others (Strasbourg, 1962), 170–87
The Legacy of Jewish Music through the Ages in the Dispersion
(Jerusalem, 1963)
The Persian Doctrine of Dastgah-Composition: a Phenomenological Study
in the Musical Modes (Tel-Aviv, 1963)
‘On the Musical Sources of the Judaeo-Hispanic Romance’, MQ, l (1964),
31–43
‘The Bards of the Bible’, IFMC Conference: Budapest 1964 [SMH, vii
(1965)], 61–70
‘Women’s Songs from the Yemen: their Tonal Structure and Form’, The
Commonwealth of Music, in Honor of Curt Sachs, ed. G. Reese and R.
Brandel (New York,1965), 97–103
‘“Justus ut Palma”’, Festschrift Bruno Stäblein, ed. M. Ruhnke (Kassel,
1967), 64–73
‘Migrating Patterns of Melody among the Berbers and Jews of the Atlas
Mountains’, JIFMC, xix (1967), 16–22
‘Der Sinn des Sinnlosen in der Interpolation sakraler Gesänge’, Festschrift
für Walter Wiora, ed. L. Finscher and C.-H. Mahling (Kassel, 1967),
520–28
‘The Oriental Musician’, World of Music, x/4 (1968), 8–18
‘Vocal Folk Polyphonies in the Western Orient in Jewish Tradition’, Yuval, i
(1968), 169–93
‘Beethoven’s Sacred Drama: a Revaluation’, GfMKB: Bonn 1970, 402–5
[on Christus am Oelberge]
‘On the Technique of Arab Taqsim Composition’, Musik als Gestalt und
Erlebnis: Festschrift Walter Graf, ed. E. Schenk (Vienna, 1970), 66–73
‘The Music of Kurdistan Jews: a Synopsis of their Musical Styles’, Yuval, ii
(1971), 59–72
‘Drone and “Dyaphonia Basilica”’, YIFMC, iv (1972), 9–22
Mehqarim ethnomusikologi’im ‘al ’edoth Yisrael [Ethnomusicological
studies on Israel’s communities] (Tel-Aviv, 1972)
‘The Near Eastern Influence on Western Music’, Tatzlil, no.12 (1972), 14–
19 [in Heb., with Eng. summary]
‘Harfen- und Lautentypen aus Mittelasien und ihre topographischen
Abwandlungen’, Studien zur Tradition in der Musik: Kurt von Fischer
zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. H.H. Eggebrecht and M. Lütolf (Munich,
1973), 217–23
‘The Musician in Society: East and West’, Cultures, i/1 (1973), 165–94
‘Die Tonsysteme Asiens in ihrer Formung’, Festschrift für Ernst Hermann
Meyer, ed. G. Knepler (Leipzig, 1973), 93–6
‘Two Anniversaries: Two Pioneers in Jewish Ethnomusicology (A.Z.
Idelsohn and R. Lachmann)’, Orbis musicae, ii (1973–4), 17–28
‘Horn und Trompete im Alten Testament’, Festschrift to Ernst Emsheimer:
Mythos und Wirklichkeit, ed. G. Hilleström (Stockholm, 1974), 57–60
‘Robert Lachmann: his Achievement and his Legacy’, Yuval, iii (1974),
100–08
ed.: R. Lachmann: Posthumous Works, i: Zwei Aufsätze: die Musik im
Volksleben Nordafrikas, Orientalische Musik und Antike (Jerusalem,
1974), ii: Gesänge der Juden auf der Insel Djerba (1978)
‘Musical Settings of the Andalusian Muwashshah-Poetry in Oral Tradition’,
Festschrift Kurt Blaukopf, ed. I. Bontinck and O. Brunsati (Vienna,
1975), 33–47
‘Zur Musiktradition der Samaritaner’, Beiträge zur Musik des Vorderen
Orients und seinen Einflussbereichen: Kurt Reinhard zum 60.
Geburtstag, ed. A. Simon, Baessler Archive, new ser., xxiii/7 (Berlin,
1975), 139–44
‘Melodic Patterns in Asiatic Rituals: the Quest for Sound Alienation’, Israel
Studies in Musicology, ii (1980), 27–31
Migrations and Mutations of the Music in East and West: Selected Writings
(Tel-Aviv, 1980)
‘Archetypes of the Prelude in the East and West’, Essays on the Music of
Bach and Other Diverse Subjects: a Tribute to Gerhard Herz
(Louisville, KY, 1981), 60–68
with A. Shiloah: ‘Musicology in Israel, 1960–1980’, AcM, liii (1981), 200–
16
‘A.Z. Idelsohn: a Pioneer in Jewish Ethnomusicology’, Yuval, v (Jerusalem,
1986), 46–52
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Adler: ‘Introduction’, Israel Studies in Musicology, i (1978), 7 only
M. Gorali: ‘Edith Gerson-Kiwi, Pioneer Musicologist’, Tatzlil, no.20 (1980),
30–34 [in Heb., with English summary]
E. Seroussi: ‘In Memoriam: Edith Gerson-Kiwi’, Musica judaica, xii (1991–
2), 75–7
ISRAEL J. KATZ

Gerstenberg, Heinrich Wilhelm von

(b Tondern, 3 Jan 1727; d Altona, 1 Nov 1823). German poet, critic and
musician. From 1757 he studied law at Jena, where inspired by such
literary associates as Claudius, Münter and J.L. Schlosser he began his
own poetic creations. In 1759, after the considerable success of his
dramatic poem Tändeleyen (part of which was later set as a cantata by
C.P.E. Bach), he abandoned law in favour of Danish military service,
participating in the Russian campaign of 1762 and eventually settling in
Copenhagen for about 12 years. There he became the close friend of
Klopstock, studied music with J.A. Scheibe, and instituted a series of
musical evenings at his home, attended equally by poets and musicians, in
which he himself sometimes performed and sang. This custom was
continued after he moved to Lübeck as ‘Danish Resident’ in 1775.
Financial considerations forced him to sell this position in 1783, and from
1785 he was a lottery official in Altona.
Gerstenberg was a major figure of the Sturm und Drang movement, in
which his tragedy Ugolino (1768) and his critical series Briefe über
Merkwürdigkeiten der Literatur (1766–70) were important early landmarks.
Interested in the new possibilities of relating words to music, like many
other north European poets of his time, he established correspondence
with C.P.E. Bach, J.C.F. Bach and other musicians on the problem of
expressing poetic meaning through purely instrumental music. His addition
of two separate texts to C.P.E. Bach’s Fantasy in C minor (the last of the
Probestücke which accompanied his Versuch) was an attempt not merely
to rise above the dry piety of contemporary lied texts, but also to produce a
new synthesis of word and note, combining pure instrumental music, pure
song and programme music. His Ariadne auf Naxos (1767), one of the
most important cantata texts of its time, was set by Scheibe, J.C.F. Bach
and J.F. Reichardt, and was adapted by Brandes as the text of Benda’s
melodrama. Gerstenberg also wrote a melodrama Minona oder Die
Angelsachsen (1786), and Das Mohrenmädchen (set as the solo cantata
Die Amerikanerin by J.C.F. Bach, 1776), and published articles on
recitative and figured bass.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.W. von Gerstenberg: Vermischte Schriften (Altona, 1815–16/R)
F. Chrysander: ‘Eine Klavier-Phantasie von Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach mit
nachträglich von Gerstenberg eingefügten Gesangs-Melodien zu zwei
verschiedenen Texten’, VMw, vii (1891), 1–27
O. Fischer: ‘H.W. Gerstenberg’s Rezensionen in der Hamburgischen
Neuen Zeitung 1767–1771’, Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und
19. Jahrhunderts, no.128 (1904)
A.M. Wagner: Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg und der Sturm und
Drang (Heidelberg, 1920)
A. Schering: ‘Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach und das “redende Prinzip” in der
Musik’, JbMP 1938, 13–29
E. Helm: ‘The “Hamlet” Fantasy and the Literary Element in C.P.E. Bach’s
Music’, MQ, lviii (1972), 277–96
P.F. Marks: ‘The Application of the Aesthetics of Music in the Philosophy of
the Sturm und Drang: Gerstenberg, Hamann and Herder’, MR, xxxv
(1974), 247–59
P. Benary: ‘Vom Als-ob in Musik und Musikanschauung des 18.
Jahrhunderts’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, xiii (1989), 99–
139
E. EUGENE HELM
Gerstenberg, Johann Daniel
(b Frankenhausen, 26 March 1758; d Hildesheim, 7 Dec 1841). German
music publisher and composer. From 1778 to 1786 he attended the
Gymnasium Andreanum in Hildesheim as a singer, and then studied law in
Leipzig until 1788. On 26 March 1792 he opened a music and book shop in
St Petersburg after spending a short period as a private tutor in Kiev; in
1793 he made his schoolfriend Friedrich August Dittmar a partner in the
business, which had come to the fore with many musical and literary
publications. He opened his own music engraving works in 1795, and in
1796 went to Gotha, where he founded a branch of the St Petersburg firm,
but moved to Hildesheim in the same year. Connections with the parent
firm in St Petersburg steadily weakened, and Dittmar carried on the
business alone under many different trade names until 1808. Between
1792 and 1799 the firm published more than 200 musical works. Known as
both a composer and an author, Gerstenberg wrote six piano sonatas and
two collections of lieder as well as many contributions for various journals
and yearbooks that he published in St Petersburg.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MooserA
T.N. Livanova: Russkaya muzïkal'naya kul'tura XVIII veka v yego
svyazyakh s literaturoy, teatrom i bïtom [Russian musical culture of the
18th century and its links with literature, the theatre and everyday life]
(Moscow, 1952–3)
D. Lehmann: ‘Johann Daniel Gerstenberg und die Anfänge des
musikalischen Verlagswesens in Russland am Ende des 18.
Jahrhunderts’, Die deutsch-russische Begegnung und Leonhard Euler,
ed. E. Winter, i (Berlin, 1958), 176–83
C. Hopkinson: Notes on Russian Music Publishers (Bath, 1959)
R.-A. Mooser: ‘L’apparition des oeuvres de Mozart en Russie’, MJb 1967,
266–85
W. Gerstenberg: ‘Aus Petersburger Anfängen des Verlegers Johann
Daniel Gerstenberg (1758–1841)’, Musik und Verlag: Karl Vötterle
zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. R. Baum and W. Rehm (Kassel, 1968), 293–8
B. Steinpress: ‘Haydns Oratorien in Russland zu Lebzeiten des
Komponisten’, Haydn-Studien, ii/2 (1969), 77–112
P. Raabe, ed.: Von St. Petersburg nach Hildesheim: Festschrift zum 200-
jährigen Jubiläum des Hauses Gerstenberg, 1792–1992 (Hildesheim,
1992)
WALTER GERSTENBERG

Gerstenberg, Walter
(b Hildesheim, 26 Dec 1904; d Tübingen, 26 Oct 1988). German
musicologist. He studied musicology from 1924 at Berlin University and
from 1926 at Leipzig University (especially with Kroyer and Zenck); in 1929
he took the doctorate at Leipzig with a dissertation on Scarlatti’s keyboard
works. From 1929 to 1932 he was assistant lecturer at the musicological
institute and research assistant at the instrument museum of Leipzig
University. From 1932 to 1938 he was assistant lecturer at the
musicological institute of Cologne University, where in 1935 he completed
the Habilitation with a historical study of Protestant church music. He was
then professor of musicology at Rostock University (1941–8), the Free
University, Berlin (1948–52), Tübingen University (1952–8), Heidelberg
University (1958) and from 1959 until his retirement in 1970 again at
Tübingen University. In 1974 he was made honorary professor of
musicology at Salzburg University.
Gerstenberg’s research centred on music history from the 16th century to
the beginning of the 19th, particularly Bach, Mozart and Schubert. He
wrote a series of studies on music performance and was editor of Senfl’s
motets for the complete edition of that composer’s works. He succeeded
Zenck as director of the complete edition of the works of Willaert, to which
he contributed four volumes. He was editor of the Tübinger Bach-Studien
and co-editor of the Archiv für Musikwissenschaft. His main importance for
German musicology lay in the field of organization. He played an important
role in founding the new collected editions of Bach, Mozart and Schubert;
he was also president of the Internationale Schubert-Gesellschaft.
WRITINGS
Die Klavierkompositionen Domenico Scarlattis (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1929;
Regensburg, 1933/R)
ed. with H. Schultz and H. Zenck: Theodor Kroyer: Festschrift
(Regensburg, 1933) [incl. ‘Eine Neumenhandschrift in der
Dombibliothek zu Köln (Codex 215)’, 8–16]
Beiträge zur Problemgeschichte der evangelischen Kirchenmusik
(Habilitationsschrift, U. of Cologne, 1935)
‘Motetten- und Liedstil bei Ludwig Senfl’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949, 121–4
Zur Erkenntnis der Bachschen Musik (Berlin, 1951)
Die Zeitmasse und ihre Ordnungen in Bachs Musik (Einbeck, 1952; repr. in
Johann Sebastian Bach, ed. W. Blankenburg (Darmstadt, 1970), 129–
49)
‘Die Krise der Barockmusik’, AMw, x (1953), 81–94
ed. H. Zenck: Numerus und affectus: Studien zur Musikgeschichte
(Kassel, 1959)
ed.: Musikerhandschriften von Palestrina bis Beethoven (Zürich, 1960)
‘Senfliana’, Festschrift Helmuth Osthoff, ed. L. Hoffmann-Erbrecht and H.
Hucke (Tutzing, 1961), 39–46
‘Ein Dictionnaire Momignys und seine Lehre vom musikalischen Vortrag’,
Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H.
Hüschen (Regensburg, 1962/R), 182–5
ed. with J. LaRue and W. Rehm: Festschrift Otto Erich Deutsch (Kassel,
1963) [incl. ‘Schubertiade: Anmerkungen zu einigen Liedern’, 232–9]
Über Mozarts Klangwelt (Tübingen, 1966)
‘Tonart und Zyklus in Bachs Musik: Anmerkungen zu Suite, Konzert und
Kantate’, Bach-Interpretationen, ed. M. Geck (Göttingen, 1969), 119–
25
‘Um den Begriff einer Venezianischen Schule’, Renaissance-muziek 1400–
1600: donum natalicium René Bernard Lenaerts, ed. J. Robijns and
others (Leuven, 1969), 131–42
‘Betrachtungen über Mozarts “Idomeneo”’, Festschrift Georg von Dadelsen,
ed. T. Kohlhase and V. Scherliess (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1978), 148–
54
EDITIONS
Adrian Willaert: Opera omnia, CMM, iii/5, 7–8, 13 (1957–72)
Ludwig Senfl: Sämtliche Werke, iii, viii–xi (Wolfenbüttel, 1962–74) [vol.i
orig. pubd as EDM, 1st ser., xiii (1939)]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. von Dadelsen and A. Holschneider, eds.: Festschrift Walter
Gerstenberg (Wolfenbüttel, 1964) [incl. biographical information, 5]
G. von Dadelsen: ‘Walter Gerstenberg (1904–1988)’, Mf, xlii (1989), 1–2
HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT/WOLFGANG HORN

Gerstenbüttel, Joachim
(b Wismar, 27 June 1647; d Hamburg, 10 April 1721). German composer
and instrumentalist. He attended school in Wismar and studied theology at
the universities of Rostock (1662–7) and Wittenberg (1667–72). He had
learnt music as a boy, but applied himself to it more seriously when he
suffered an attack of melancholia hypochondriaca in 1669. Since he never
enjoyed good health, he broke off his theological studies in spite of his
success in them and settled in Hamburg in 1672 as a music teacher and
domestic tutor. He played keyboard instruments and the violin and became
a ‘good bassist’ (Walther ML). In 1674 he was appointed Christoph
Bernhard’s successor as Kantor at the Johanneum Lateinschule and
director musices of the city’s main churches, but he did not take up his post
until 10 February 1675 because of a complaint of unconstitutionality.
Meanwhile, the Convictorium founded by Thomas Selle had been
dissolved, and Gerstenbüttel attempted to reorganize and strengthen the
church music and the Kantorei, but with only limited success because of
strong competition from opera and oratorio. Gerstenbüttel laboured for
years on a translation of the Cantica sacra (1588) of Franz Eler. Since
(unlike his successor Telemann) he regarded his position as being
exclusively dedicated to the praise of God, he rejected opera out of hand –
an attitude consistent with the position of some Orthodox theologians and
Pietistic pastors.
The structure of Gerstenbüttel’s cantatas was also designed to put music to
the service of God. He employed various types of text and musical settings,
but not solo cantatas or exclusively free texts. His works are not strongly
expressive, but the declamation is suited to the meaning of the text, which
is presented rather than interpreted. However, his compositions do contain
some complex contrapuntal movements (Wo soll ich fliehen hin) and
expressive constructions (Ich schreie zu dem Herrn). An exception to
Gerstenbüttel’s usual preference for string instruments is Lobet den Herrn,
ihr seine Engel, for which he indicates the use of wind instruments (see
Webber, 113). In respect of their technical requirements, as well as their
structures, Gerstenbüttel’s compositions differ considerably from the
sacred works of organists, opera composers and Kapellmeisters trained in
Italian music. They reflect not only the influence of central German
 traditions in north Germany, but his own endeavours to write church music
that would serve the liturgy and make the text easily comprehensible.
WORKS
all extant works in D-Bsb Bokemeyer Collection, dated before 1695

Ach Herr lass deine lieben Engelein, SAB, 2 clarino, timp, 2vn, bn, bc (anon., see
Krummacher, 1965, p.170); Ach Herr wie ist meiner Feinde, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn,
bc, 1686; Da die Zeit erfüllet war, SAB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Dazu ist erschienen der Sohn
Gottes, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Der Gerechte wird grünen, SATB, 2 vn, bn, bc;
Der Herr ist mein Hirte, SSB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Der Herr sprach zu meinem Herren,
SSATTB, 2 vn, 3 va, bn, bc; Die Güte des Herrn ists, ATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Erhalt
uns Herr bey deinem Wort, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Gelobet sey der Herr täglich,
SAT, 2 vn, bc; Gelobet sey Gott, SATB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Habe deine Lust an den Herrn,
SATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Herr erhöre mein Gebeth, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Heut
triumphieret Gottes Sohn, STB, 2 clarino, timp, bc (anon., see Krummacher, 1965,
p.170)
Ich bin ein verwirret und verlohren Schaff, dialogue, SATB, 2 vn, violetta, bn, bc; Ich
schreie zu dem Herrn, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; In dich hab ich gehoffet, SSATB,
2 vn, 2 va, bc; Jauchzet Gott alle Land, T, 2 vn, 2 va, bc; Lieber Herre Gott weck
uns auff, SATB, 2 vn, bc; Lobe den Herrn meine Seele, SB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Lobet den
Herrn, ihr seine Engel, SATB, 2 clarino/ob, 2 ob/violetta, bn, bc; O Vater aller
Frommen, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bc; O welch eine Tieffe des Reichthums SSATB, 2
vn, 2 va, bn, bc
Samlet euch Schätze, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Treuffelt ihr Himmel von oben,
SSATB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Waschet, reiniget euch, SSTB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Wenn wir in
höchsten Nöthen sein, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bc; Wer sich rächet, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va,
bn, bc; Wo der Herr nicht das Hauss bauet, SAB, 2 vn, bc; Wo Gott der Herr nicht
bey uns hält, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Wo soll ich fliehen hin, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va,
bn, bc; Wohl dem der in Gottes Furcht steht, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Zweierley
bitt ich von dir, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc
Lost: Ach Herr straff mich, 1v, 4 va, bc, see Greve; Benedictus esto Jehova, 1713,
see Kremer, 1995, p.249; Das von Gott dem Allerhöchsten durch vieler Jahre
Prüfung mannigfaltig bewährete und hoch begnadete Exempel, 1711, D-HVl (text
only); Jubilate Jehovae omnes, 1713, see Kremer, 1995, p.249; 40 other cants.,
formerly Lm, see Seiffert

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (F. Stein)
WaltherML
M. Seiffert: ‘Die Chorbibliothek der St. Michaelisschule in Lüneburg zu
Seb. Bach’s Zeit’, SIMG, ix (1907–8), 593–621
F. Krummacher: Die Überlieferung der Choralbearbeitungen in der frühen
evangelischen Kantate: Untersuchungen zum Handschriftenrepertoire
evangelischer Figuralmusik im späten 17. und beginnenden 18.
Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1965)
F. Krummacher: Die Choralbearbeitung in der protestantischen
Figuralmusik zwischen Praetorius und Bach (Kassel, 1978)
M. Roske: Sozialgeschichte des privaten Musiklehrers vom 17. zum 19.
Jahrhundert (Mainz, 1985)
W. Greve: Braunschweiger Stadtmusikanten: Geschichte eines
Berufsstandes 1227–1828 (Brunswick, 1991), 270
J. Kremer: Das norddeutsche Kantorat im 18. Jahrhundert:
Untersuchungen am Beispiel Hamburgs (Kassel, 1995)
G. Webber: North German Church Music in the Age of Buxtehude (Oxford,
1996)
J. Kremer: Joachim Gerstenbüttel (1647–1721) im Spannungsfeld von
Oper und Kirche: ein Beitrag zur Musikgeschichte Hamburgs
(Hamburg, 1997)
JOACHIM KREMER

Gerster, Etelka
(b Kassa [now Košice, Slovakia], 25 June 1855; d Pontecchio di Bologna,
20 Aug 1920). Hungarian soprano. She studied with Mathilde Marchesi in
Vienna, and made her début in 1876 as Gilda (Rigoletto) at La Fenice,
Venice, where she also sang Ophelia (Hamlet). She made her London
début at Her Majesty’s Theatre in 1877 as Amina (La sonnambula) and
also sang Lucia, Elvira (I puritani), Gilda and the Queen of Night. The
following year she made her New York début as Amina at the Academy of
Music, where she appeared in the first American performance of Balfe’s Il
talismano (1878) and also sang Elsa (1881). Her rivalry with Patti was
aggravated when they sang together on tour in Les Huguenots (Gerster as
Marguerite de Valois, Patti as Valentine). Although she had a voice of great
brilliance and flexibility, as well as complete security of technique, Gerster
was unable to match the elder diva in personality or experience. In 1890
she gave one performance of Amina at Covent Garden, then retired. From
1896 to 1917 she taught singing in Berlin.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.H. Mapleson: The Mapleson Memoirs (London, 1888); ed. H. Rosenthal
(London, 1966)
M. Marchesi: Marchesi and Music (London, 1897/R)
ELIZABETH FORBES

Gerster, Ottmar
(b Braunfels, Hesse, 29 June 1897; d Borsdorf, nr Leipzig, 31 Aug 1969).
German composer. After studying the violin with Adolf Rebner and
composition with Sekles at the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt (1918–20),
he worked as a performer, playing viola with the Frankfurt SO and in the
Lenzewski Quartet. In 1926 he won the Schott composition prize for his
Divertimento for violin and viola. The following year he was appointed to
teach violin, viola, harmony and counterpoint at the Folkwang-Schule in
Essen, where he remained for 20 years. Gerster’s early association with
workers’ choirs and his commitment to the German socialist movement
during the 1920s and early 30s did not seem to hinder his success as an
operatic composer during the Third Reich. His opera, Madame Liselotte,
heard in Essen only eight months after Hitler came to power, attracted
favourable reviews on account of its quasi-nationalist plot. Enoch Arden,
first performed three years later (1936), proved even more successful and
was given over 500 times in Germany between 1936 and 1944. The
directness of musical language in this and his next opera Die Hexe von
 Passau (1941) was harnessed after 1945 to make Gerster one of the
leading figures in the musical life of the DDR. From 1947 to 1951 he taught
harmony, counterpoint and composition at the Weimar Musikhochschule, of
which he was also the director from 1948. In 1951 he became a professor
of composition at Leipzig Musikhochschule, a position he held until 1962.
He was actively involved in arts policies in the DDR and also played a part
in the restructuring of higher education. He was a founding member of both
the Akademie der Künste (1950) and the Verband Deutscher Komponisten
(1951), an organization of which he was chairman until 1960. His desire to
write accessible music is clearly demonstrated in his works of the 1950s
and 60s, such as Eisenhüttenkombinat Ost (1951), the Second Symphony
(1953) and the Symphonic Variations (1963). His awards include the
Düsseldorf Schumann Prize (1941), the Leipzig Arts Prize (1965) and the
National Prize of the DDR (1951, 1967).
WORKS
(selective list)

stage
Ops: Frau Potiphar (Der Rock des Joseph) (M. Goldschmidt), 1927; Madame
Liselotte (F. Clemens, P. Ginthum), Essen, 1933; Enoch Arden (K.M. von Levetzow,
after A. Tennyson), Düsseldorf, 1936; Die Hexe von Passau (R. Billinger),
Düsseldorf, 1941; Das verzauberte Ich (P. Koch, after F. Raimund), Wuppertal,
1949; Der fröhliche Sünder (O. Gerster, after L. Solowjow, V. Witkowitsch), Weimar,
1963
Ballet: Der ewige Kreis (Clemens), 1934, Duisburg, 1938
instrumental
Orch: Sinfonietta, 1929; Pf Conc., chbr orch, 1931, rev. for large orch, 1955; Kleine
Sinfonie, 1934; Ernste Musik, 1938; Oberhessische Bauerntänze, 1938; Vn Conc.,
1939; Festliche Toccata, 1942; Vc Conc., 1946; Festouvertüre, 1948; Sym. no.2
‘Thüringische’, 1953; Dresdner Suite, 1956; Hn Conc., 1959; Sym. Variations ‘Wir
lieben das Leben’, 1963; Sym. no.3 ‘Leipziger’ (H. Rusch), SATB, orch, 1965, rev.
orch, 1966
Chbr: Str Qt no.1, 1921; Sonata no.1, va, pf, 1922; Str Sextet, 1922; Divertimento,
vn, va, 1925; Heitere Musik, 5 wind insts, 1928; 6 kleine Stücke, vn, va, 1929;
Sonata, vn, pf, 1951; Str Qt no.2, 1954; Sonata no.2, va, pf, 1955; Suite en
miniature, vn, pf, 1967; Sonatine, ob, pf, 1969
Pf: Phantasie, 1922; Sonatine, 1923; Divertimento, 1928; Spiel um Quart und Quint,
1941; Introduktion und Perpetuum, 1945; 5 Klavierstücke, 1947; 8 Klavierskizzen,
1948; Rhythmen, 1968
vocal
Der geheimnisvolle Trompeter (W. Whitman), S, T, B, SATB, orch, 1928; Das Lied
vom Arbeitsmann (A. Auerbach), S, T, B, SATB, orch, 1929; Rote Revue (H.
Hellfried), solo vv, spkr, SATB, orch, 1930; Wir! (H. de Man), spkrs, speaking
chorus, chorus, 1932; An die Sonne (L. Andersen), S, male vv, boys’ vv, orch, 1937;
Hanseatenfahrt (A. Höpner), S, Bar, spkr, male vv, orch, 1941; Eisenhüttenkombinat
Ost (H. Marchwitza), S, T, B, SATB, children's vv, orch, 1951; Hüter des Lebens (H.
Zinner), A, SATB, chbr orch, 1952; Ballade vom Manne Karl Marx und der
Veränderung der Welt (W. Victor), B, spkr, SATB, orch, 1958; Vorwärts! (A. Müller),
Bar, spkr, SATB, chbr orch, 1959; numerous songs and choral works
Principal publishers: Friedrich Hofmeister, Peters, B. Schott's Söhne
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (E. Levi); KdG (V. Grützner)
E. Rebling: ‘Zwei neue Friedenskantaten’, MG, ii (1952), 210–12
K. Laux: Ottmar Gerster, Leben und Werk (Leipzig, 1961)
O. Goldhammer: Professor Ottmar Gerster (Berlin, 1963)
S. Stampor: Ottmar Gerster: Der fröhliche Sünder (Leipzig, 1964)
H. Bitterlich: ‘Ottmar Gerster’, Musiker in unserer Zeit: Mitglieder der
Sektion Musik der Akademie der Künste der DDR, ed. D. Brennecke,
H. Gerlach and M. Hansen (Leipzig, 1979), 48–56, 358–360
R. Wehner: ‘Kolloquium – Ottmar Gerster 90.’, MG, xxxvi (1987), 498 only
R. Malth: Ottmar Gerster: Leben und Werk (Leipzig, 1988)
VERA GRÜTZNER (with ERIK LEVI)

Gertler, André [Endre]

(b Budapest, 26 July 1907). Belgian violinist of Hungarian birth. He studied
the violin with Hubay and composition with Kodály at the Franz Liszt
Academy in Budapest (1914–25). His international career began in 1920
and in 1928 he settled in Brussels. With his impeccable intonation,
commitment and strong, forthright yet lyrical style, he was an authoritative
interpreter of 20th-century music, and gave first performances of works by
Bentzon, Larsson, Seiber, Tansman and Voss. From 1925 to 1938 he
played in duo concerts of Classical and contemporary music with Bartók, a
close friend, and in 1945 gave the first European performance of Bartók’s
Solo Sonata in London. His recordings of all Bartók’s violin compositions
were awarded the Grand Prix du Disque in Paris in 1967; other recordings
include Berg’s Violin Concerto (of which he gave some 150 public
performances) and the concertos of Milhaud, Hartmann and Hindemith.
In 1931 in Brussels Gertler founded a string quartet bearing his name (it
disbanded in 1951). In recital he was often heard with his wife, the pianist
Diane Andersen. He was appointed a professor at the Brussels
Conservatory in 1940; from 1954 to 1959 he taught at the Staatliche
Hochschule für Musik in Cologne and from 1964 at the Hochschule für
Musik und Theater, Hanover. He regularly held masterclasses and served
on international competition juries. Gertler transcribed Bartók’s Piano
Sonatina for violin and piano, and composed cadenzas to the violin
concertos of Beethoven and Mozart (G major).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Gertler: ‘Souvenirs de collaboration avec Béla Bartók’, ReM, no.224
(1955), 99–110
B.A. Varga: Zenészekkelzeneről [Musicians on music] (Budapest, 1972),
143ff
J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin, 1889–1971 (Toronto, 1974)
RUDOLF LÜCK/TULLY POTTER

Gertsman, Yevgeny Vladimirovich.

See Hertzmann, Yevgeny Vladimirovich.

Gervais, Charles-Hubert
(b Paris, 19 Feb 1671; d Paris, 15 Jan 1744). French composer. The son of
Jeanne Mercier and Hubert Gervais, who was garçon de la chambre to the
Duke of Orléans (brother of Louis XIV), he grew up in the Palais Royal,
where he probably studied music with the duke's musicians. He may also
have been a page in the choir school of his parish of St Eustache. From
1697 he was ordinaire de la musique to Philippe de Bourbon, Duke of
Chartres (who became Duke of Orléans in 1701 and Regent of France in
1715), and succeeded Sieur de Sablières in the position of maître de
musique de la chambre in 1700. He was subsequently made intendant
(perhaps in 1701) and then surintendant (perhaps in 1722). In this capacity
he taught music to the Duke of Chartres, who had a great love of Italian
music, and helped him to compose two operas, Penthée (c1703) and Suite
d'Armide, ou Jérusalem délivrée (c1704). On 18 October 1701 Gervais
married Françoise du Vivier (d1732), who bore him three children. He
succeeded his father as garçon de la chambre on 24 April 1702 and
retained that appointment until his death (he seems to have lost his post as
surintendant when the regent died). Gervais had his first public successes
with his opera Hypermnestre (1716) and his ballet Les amours de Protée
(1720). In January 1723, at the regent's request, Michel-Richard de
Lalande officially relinquished three of his four three-month terms of duty as
sous-maître of the Chapelle Royale. The three posts were then
redistributed, on a non-competitive basis, to André Campra, Nicolas
Bernier and Gervais. In 1726 Lalande's position fell vacant on his death,
and his duties were shared between the remaining sous-maîtres. When
Bernier died in 1734 Campra and Gervais carried out this work on their
own until 1738, when Henri Madin and Antoine Blanchard were appointed
to help them. Several of Gervais's motets were enthusiastically received at
the Concert Spirituel between 1736 and 1738, and five continued to be
sung at Versailles until 1792.
Gervais's style, which is sometimes conservative, reflects the quest of the
musicians of the Palais Royal for a goûts réunis. Méduse, his first tragédie
en musique, failed to achieve the success expected because of a cabal
against its librettist, Claude Boyer. The music, which owes much to the
example of Lully, already shows a real feeling for instrumentation which
was to flower in Hypermnestre, the best opera of the Regency period.
Hypermnestre and Les amours de Protée also contain passages written in
concertante style which anticipate Rameau. The six cantatas published in
1712 are in the same italianate vein. The grands motets follow established
models; the clarity of their style is reminiscent of Lalande, their melodic and
harmonic freshness of Campra and their contrapuntal density of Bernier.
Some movements also call Carissimi and Corelli to mind. The récits
oscillate between the declamatory French style and Italian concertante
writing; the choruses usually begin with imitation, but frequently continue in
homophonic style, with the exception of some fugues, as in one of the
Lauda Jerusalem settings; the orchestral texture is often in five parts. While
Gervais does not always manage to avoid grandiloquence (notably in his
 use of many dissonances), his motets are among the best written for the
Chapelle.
WORKS
operas
Méduse (tragédie en musique, prol., 5, C. Boyer), Paris, Opéra, 19 May 1697, F-Pn,
Pa, Po
Penthée (tragédie en musique, prol., 5, C.A. de la Fare), Paris, Palais Royal, c1703,
Pa*, collab. Philippe de Bourbon
Suite d'Armide, ou Jerusalem délivrée (tragédie en musique, prol., 5, Baron de
Longepierre), Fontainebleau, c1704, F-Pa*, collab. Philippe de Bourbon
Hypermnestre (tragédie en musique, prol., 5, J. de La Font), Paris, Opéra, 3 Nov
1716 (Paris, 1716) [Act 5 rev. S.-J. Pellegrin 1717]
other works
[6] Cantates françoises avec et sans simphonie, livre premier: Tircis, Aréthuse,
Célimène, L'Amour vengé, Le triomphe de Bacchus, Télémaque (Paris, 1712);
L'Amour vengé, ed. J. Arger (Paris, 1910)
Les amours de Protée (opéra-ballet, prol., 3, La Font), Paris, Opéra, 16 May 1720
(Paris, 1720)
Pomone, cant. (Paris, 1720) [added to Les amours de Protée]
Airs contributed to Ballard's Recueil d'airs sérieux et à boire (Paris, 1695 3, 16962,
16992, 1710, 1711, 1712, 1716, 1717, 1720), Les parodies nouvelles (Paris, 1731),
Nouveau recueil de chansons choisies (The Hague, 1731), Nouvelles poésies
spirituelle et morales (Paris, 1752), Mercure de France (Sept 1745), and Le Tribut
(Paris, n.d.)
Suite de [15] noëls (1733), fls, obs, vns, bns, bc, F-Pn*

42 grands motets, Pc*, Pn*; 7 petits motets, Pn*; 1 ed. in RRMBE, lxxxiv (1998)
Cantate Domino qui mirabilia, lost; 2 divertissements, 1698, 1722, lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Titon du Tillet: Le Parnasse françois, suppl.ii (Paris, 1755), 19
Etat actuel de la Musique du Roi et des trois spectacles de Paris (Paris,
1773), 6, 14–15
J.-B. de La Borde: Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne (Paris,
1780/R), 425
D. Tunley: The Eighteenth-Century French Cantata (London, 1974,
2/1997)
R. Fajon: L'Opéra à Paris du Roi Soleil à Louis le Bien-Aimée (Geneva,
1984), 280–88, 353–5
J.-P. Montagnier: The Church Music of Charles-Hubert Gervais (1674–
1744), ‘sous-maître de musique’ at the Chapelle Royale (diss., Duke
U., 1994)
J.-P. Montagnier: Un mécène-musicien: Philippe d'Orléans, Régent
(1674–1723) (Paris, 1996)
J.-P. Montagnier: ‘Claude Boyer, librettiste: remarques sur Méduse
(1697)’, Revue d'histoire du théâtre, cxci (1996), 303–20
JEAN-PAUL MONTAGNIER

Gervais, Laurent [de Rouen]

 (fl 1683–1747). French composer and harpsichordist. He was born in
Rouen in the second half of the 17th century and is thought to have been
maître de musique at Senlis Cathedral in about 1683, at which time he
applied for a post at the Chapelle Royale and met Henry Desmarets. He
may have succeeded Nicolas Bernier at St Germain-l'Auxerrois in 1704.
According to the title-page of his first book of cantatas (1727), he was
maître de musique at the academy in Rouen, and then, according to his
Méthode pour l'accompagnement du clavecin (1733), at the academy in
Lille. He is thought also to have been a music dealer in Paris.
Gervais's pedagogic output does not stand out among contemporary
teaching methods, but his cantatas and cantatilles are well written, if
without a strongly personal style. Their harmonic progressions, virtuoso
vocal writing and frequent use of da capo form reveal Italian influence,
while their elegant and graceful melodies, declamatory features and dance
rhythms evoke the French style. Ragotin, ou Sérénade burlesque (written
before about 1726 but published c1732), to a text by a certain Van-Essen
(inspired by Scarron's Le roman comique), is one of the few comic cantatas
in the French repertory. It opens with a prelude which parodies Italian
chromatic writing, a fine example of musical humour intended to depict ‘les
accords les mieux choisis’.
WORKS
all published in Paris

Cantatas: bk 1, La ruse d’amour, Les sirènes, Le jour, Les forges de Lemnos

(1727); bk 2, La rose, L’hiver, Didon aux Champs-Elysées, Le triomphe de Bacchus
(?1732); Andromède et Persée (?1732); Ragotin, ou Sérénade burlesque
(c1732/R1991 in ECFC, xvii)
Cantatilles: Le printems (c1732–42); L’aurore (c1740); Ixion (1741); Le musicien
(1744); La rose (c1747)
Airs in Ballard’s Recueils (1712–20) and Recueil de nouveaux airs … année 1750
(F-Pn)
3 bks of airs sérieux et à boire (c1732–44)

theoretical works
Méthode pour l'accompagnement du clavecin qui peut servir d'introduction à la
composition et apprendre à bien chiffrer les basses (Paris, 1733/R1974 in
BMB, section 2, cxlii)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Bachelier: Recueil de cantatas (The Hague, 1728)
M. Antoine: Henry Desmarest (1661–1741): biographie critique (Paris,
1965)
D. Tunley: The Eighteenth-Century French Cantata (London, 1974,
2/1997)
G.E. Vollen: The French Cantata: a Survey and Thematic Catalog (Ann
Arbor, 1982)
JEAN-PAUL MONTAGNIER

Gervais, Pierre-Noël
(b Mannheim, c1746; d ? Bordeaux, c1805). French violinist and
composer. The son of a French musician in the service of the Elector of
Mannheim, and the brother of a dancer (the future Mme Pérignon), he
studied with Ignaz Fränzl and Franz Beck. He went to Paris, where he
played some 20 times at the Concert Spirituel between 1 April 1784 and 25
December 1786, notably performing symphonies concertantes by Davaux
and concertos by Fränzl and Viotti. He also played at the Société
Académique des Enfants d'Apollon and the Wauxhall d'hiver concerts in
1784. His talents were much admired: in April 1784 the Mercure de France
praised his ‘superb sound, fine manner, great accuracy and precision’.
Gervais settled in Bordeaux in 1791 as first violin at the Grand Théâtre.
According to Fétis, he returned to Paris in 1801, and he seems to have
ended his days in Bordeaux.
His three-movement violin concertos (all published in Paris, c1798–1800)
call for considerable virtuosity, and have the melodic qualities peculiar to
the French school; their idiomatic writing employs all the instrument's
resources and exploits the principal technical demands of the period (with
varied bowing, high positions, passages on the fourth string, double
stopping, etc.). Gaviniés set them for his students to study.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetC
BrookSF
Choron-FayolleD
FétisB
GerberL
GerberNL
La LaurencieEF
PierreH
A. Chastel: ‘Etude sur la vie musicale à Paris à travers la presse pendant
le règne de Louis XVI’, RMFC, xvi (1976), 37–70
MICHELLE GARNIER-BUTEL

Gervaise, Claude
(fl Paris, 1540–60). French editor, composer and arranger. He was
employed as an editor by Pierre Attaingnant in Paris, where he was known
as a ‘musicien compositeur’. The title-pages of books 3, 4 and 5 of
Attaingnant’s Danceries state that the music was ‘looked over’ or ‘looked
over and corrected’ by Claude Gervaise, sçavant musicien’. After
Attaingnant’s death Gervaise continued to give editorial assistance to Marie
Lescallopier Attaingnant, who maintained the printing establishment,
bringing out volumes of music sporadically until 1558. His circle of friends
is known to have included at least one other Parisian musician, Julien Le
Maître, court oboist and violinist.
Gervaise is remembered principally for his instrumental music. In addition
to editing three books of Danceries, he composed the music of the sixth
volume. It contains numerous ensemble dances, almost all of them four-
part, and closely resembles the other volumes of the series. The dance
 forms employed are the pavane and gaillarde, as well as various types of
branle: courant, gay and simple.
The books of ensemble dances edited by Gervaise include other dance
types, among them the allemande and such local varieties of the branle as
those of Poitiers and Burgundy. They also contain dances modelled on
polyphonic chansons by well-known composers, such as Certon, Gentian,
Janequin and Moulu. Perhaps Gervaise also served as the arranger of the
chanson dances, for his work as an arranger of vocal polyphony is amply
evident. He is known, moreover, to have intabulated ten chansons for viol
in his now lost tutor (published before 1548); this book, the first printed
example of viol tablature in France, is known only from a citation of the
1554 edition in the manuscript catalogue of the Brossard collection (F-Pn
Rés.Vm821).
Gervaise’s oeuvre also includes 49 polyphonic chansons. Of these, 20 are
for four voices and appear in various anthologies of Attaingnant, Veuve
Attaingnant and Du Chemin printed between 1541 and 1553. They are
freely composed and reflect the tendency of chanson composers in the
1540s to select poems of significant length (generally huitains) and set
them to music that is both concise and directional. The 26 chansons for
three voices (printed in Attaingnant’s last music book) are arrangements of
earlier four-part chansons. Invariably, the model’s superius is taken over
intact as one of the two upper voices in a tightly knit three-voice texture.
WORKS
chansons
Quart livre contenant xxvi. chansons musicales, 3vv (Paris, 1550); 1 ed. in
Bernstein (1969) 3 ed. M. Grace, Claude Gervaise: Three Chansons (Colorado
Springs, 1962); 1 ed. F. Dobbins, The Oxford Book of French Chansons (Oxford,
1987); 3 ed. M. Grace, Claude Gervaise: Three Chansons (Colorado Springs,
1962); 1 ed. F. Dobbins, The Oxford Book of French Chansons (Oxford, 1987)
20 chansons, 4vv, in 15415–6; 154510–11; 154923; 154924; 154927; 15507; 15509;
155010; 155011; 15519; 15524–5; 155320; one of these in I-Bc Q26; 1 ed. in Bernstein
(1965); 1 ed. in Bernstein (1969); 1 ed. A. Seay, Pierre Attaingnant: Dixseptiesme
livre (1545) (Colarado Springs, 1979); 2 ed. A. Seay, Pierre Attaingnant: Trente
troysiesme livre (1549) (Colorado Springs, 1982)
3 chansons, 6vv, in Whalley, Stonyhurst College, MS B.VI.23, tenor part only
(Fenlon, 1984)
instrumental
Premier livre de violle contenant dix chansons (Paris, c1547, 2/1554), lost
ed.: Quart livre de danceries, a 4 (Paris, 1550/R), ed. B. Thomas (London, 1975)
ed.: Cinquiesme livre de danceries, a 4 (Paris, 1550/R), ed. B. Thomas (London,
1973)
Sixième livre de danceries, a 4 (Paris, 1555/R), ed. B. Thomas (London, 1972)
ed.: Troisième livre de danceries, a 4, 5 (Paris, 1556 [1557]/R), ed. B. Thomas
(London, 1972)

Numerous works ed. in MMRF, xxiii (1908/R); for additional modern edns of instrumental music, see
BrownI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L.F. Bernstein: ‘Claude Gervaise as Chanson Composer’, JAMS, xviii
(1965), 359–81
L.F. Bernstein: ‘The Cantus-Firmus Chansons of Tylman Susato’, JAMS,
xxii (1969), 197–240
C.M. Cunningham: Estienne Du Tertre, scavant musicien, Jean d’Estrée,
joueur de hautbois du Roy, and the Mid-Sixteenth Century Franco-
Flemish Chanson and Ensemble Dance (diss., Bryn Mawr College,
1969)
D. Heartz: Pierre Attaingnant, Royal Printer of Music (Berkeley, 1969)
C.M. Cunningham: ‘Estienne Du Tertre and the Mid-Sixteenth Century
Parisian Chanson’, MD, xxv (1971), 127–70
J.L. Staley: Claude Gervaise and the ‘Troisiesme livre’ (1557 3), ‘Quart livre’
(15505), ‘Cinquiesme livre’ (15506), and ‘Sixième livre’ (15555) of
Danceries Published by Pierre Attaingnant (diss., Catholic U. of
America, 1977)
I. Fenlon: ‘An Imperial Repertory for Charles V’, Studi musicali, xiii (1984),
21–40
LAWRENCE F. BERNSTEIN

Gervase Elwes Memorial Fund.

British institution founded in 1921 and renamed the Musicians Benevolent
Fund.

Gervasius de Anglia.
See Gervays.

Gervasoni, Carlo
(b Milan, 4 Nov 1762; d Borgotaro, nr Parma, 4 June 1819). Italian theorist,
music historian, teacher and organist. Although he had studied music as a
child (playing such instruments as the harpsichord, psaltery, archlute, violin
and organ), he prepared for a career as an engineer. These studies ended
in 1781 with the death of his father. After the failure of his commercial
business in 1789 he became maestro di cappella at the Chiesa Matrice in
Borgotaro, where he remained until his death. In this post he composed
vocal and instrumental sacred music, directed the amateur orchestra,
organized music for the salons of noble families (who provided him with
pupils), was active as a teacher and gave public performances on the
organ. Among his more successful students were Pietro Giovanni Parolini,
from Pontremoli, and Francesco Canetti, formerly maestro di cappella at
Brescia Cathedral. The high regard in which he was held in contemporary
musical circles can be taken from his correspondence or from reports of his
travels in northern Italy. There is no doubt that it is largely due to him that
the town of Borgotaro saw the construction of a powerful and original organ
(described in detail in La scuola della musica, pp.270–74) in the Chiesa
Matrice di S Antonino. Constructed in 1795, it reflects Italian organ building
of the day, but is also the product of Gervasoni’s own interest in developing
technology and tone-colour.
Gervasoni’s most significant publication is La scuola della musica
(Piacenza, 1800), a basic instructional manual containing much informative
material on theory and performing practice. This book, together with its
accompanying volume of music examples, Esempj della Scuola della
musica (Piacenza, 1801) attracted the attention of many Italian and foreign
musicians. Choron took the first two parts, which deal with the theory and
practice of music, and made them the basis of the first part of his Manuel
complet de musique vocale et instrumentale (Paris, 1836–9). Gervasoni
himself published a work which publicized La scuola della musica by
reprinting some of the correspondence he had had with Italian musicians
and theorists about it, Carteggio musicale di Carlo Gervasoni … in cui
dimostra l’utilità della Scuola della musica e si sciolgono alcuni dubbi alla
medesima Scuola relativa (Parma, 1804, 2/1804): the final letter contains a
lengthy, autobiographical note. Gervasoni’s other major publication, the
Nuova teoria di musica (Parma, 1812), provides an interesting picture of
the musical scene in Italy during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, as
well as a useful biographical dictionary of musicians, mostly Italian, of the
same period, including less well-known figures and women musicians
(especially singers). His Dissertazione on the state of music in Italy,
inserted as a preface, gained him entrance to the competition for
membership of the Società Italiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti in 1810.
These works were used in several Italian music schools during the early
19th century, including the Liceo Musicale in Bologna, and are of interest
today because of their inclusion of one of the first theoretical descriptions
of sonata form and important aspects of organ performing practice of the
day, particularly with reference to instruments with several keyboards. His
surviving compositions include some organ sonatas (in I-Gl) and a Te
Deum (in I-Baf).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Sutter: ‘Aspetti della prassi organistica in Italia nel Settecento e nel
primo Ottocento’, L’organo, xi (1973), 139–55
[M. Bernadi and R. Broglia]: Carlo Gervasoni, maestro di cappella a
Borgotaro (1718–1819) (Borgotaro, 1977)
O. Mischiati: ‘Regesto dell'Archivio Serassi di Bergamo’, L’organo, xxix
(1995), 19–23
F. Giudotti: ‘Musica d'organo in Italia nel tardo Settecento e primo
Ottocento: aspetti stilistici e idiomatici’, Studi musicali, xxvi (1997),
223–61
A. Beccarelli: Carlo Gervasoni e Borgotaro (?Borgotaro, after 1977)
S. Roncroffi: ‘Carlo Gervasoni (1762–1819): compositore e trattatista
borgotarese’, La montagna tosco-ligure-emiliana e le vie di commercio
e pellegrinaggio: Borgotaro 1998
MILTON SUTTER/PATRIZIA RADICCHI

Gervasoni, Stefano
(b Bergamo, 26 July 1962). Italian composer. He studied composition with
Lombardi, Castiglioni and Corghi at the Milan Conservatory. He also
attended Ligeti's courses at the International Bartók Seminar in
Szombathely, Hungary (1990) and studied computer music at IRCAM
(1992–3). Other composers who have influenced Gervasoni include
Ferneyhough, Eötvös, Lachenmann and Nono, from whom he developed
his ideas on the infinite possibilities of listening implicit in a single sound
and silence. Gervasoni has commented upon the importance of observing
daily objects with a ‘suspended and diverging glance, lowering your voice
so as to activate perception, looking through things and from different
viewpoints in order to discover the inherent complexity in apparent
simplicity’ (Gervasoni, 1992). His work consists not of development, but of
repetition transformed by formal and timbral elaboration. Thus, for
example, the two thematic cells in Descdesesasf (1995), derived from a
motif from Schumann's third Fantasiestück, are repeated with variations of
colour and combination, in order to obtain multiplicity and constant mobility
from a single element. The same process is used in Lilolela (1994) and the
Viola Concerto (1994–5); and, in an anti-utopian, postmodern fashion,
applied to subjects which would ordinarily be considered insignificant, such
as a tale of a toad which falls from a platform (Concertino per voce e
fischietti 1989–93, Dialogo del fischio nell'orecchio e di un rospo, 1989–90)
or the plant and animal descriptions in Ponge's Parti pris des choses,
which are the basis for Animato (1992). In his use of the poetry of
Ungaretti, Beckett and Rilke, Gervasoni has also applied his technique of
varied combination to textual fragements, thus representing the manifold
meanings contained therein. In another work involving text, L'ingenuo
(1992–4), electro-acoustic sounds and procedures are used to explore the
invisible and imperceptible. Gervasoni has received numerous awards,
including the Petrassi Prize (1987–9) and the Mozart Prize (1991).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. De Lisa: ‘La macchina del sentire o i travestimenti dell'inquietudine’,
Sonus, viii/3 (1991), 37–44 [interview]
S. Gervasoni: ‘…Considérer l'évident comme énigmatique’, Saison
musical Centre Pompidou (Paris, 1992) [programme book]
S. Gervasoni: ‘Babel felix’, Les cahiers de l'IRCAM: recherche et musique,
no.4 (1993), 120–21
L. Feneyrou: ‘Innocence et mémoire’, Festival d'Automne (Paris, 1996)
[programme book]
WORKS

Orch and large ens: In Eile Zögernd III, orch, 1987; Sensibile, orch, 1989; Concertino, db,
ens, 1989–90; Adagio für Glasorchester, orch, 1990–92; Su un arco di bianco
(Sinfonietta), vn, fl, ens, 1991; Lilolela (Vagabonderia severa), 23 insts, 1994; Va Conc.,
15 insts, 1994–5; Parola, 16 insts, 1996; Atemseile (Hommage à Schumann-Celan),
obbl str trio, 3 echo trios, fl, wind qnt, perc, pf, str qnt, 1997; Far niente, db, 17 insts,
1998Vocal: Quattro voci (V. Sereni, M. Luzi, E. Sanguinetti, G. Caproni), S, fl, cl, pf,
1988; Un recitativo (F. Fortini), S, 9 insts, 1988; Dialogo del fischio nell'orecchio e di un
rospo (T. Scialoja), lv, fl, ens, tape, 1989–90; Concertino per voce e fischietti (Scialoja),
1v, 10 insts, 1989–93; Least Bee (E. Dickinson), 1v, chbr ens, 1991–2; L'ingenuo
(Scialoja), S, tuba, live elecs, 1992–4; 2 poesie francesi d'Ungaretti, 1v, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf,
1994; 2 poesie francesi di Beckett, 1v, b fl, va, perc, 1995; 2 poesie francesi di Rilke, 1v,
fl, cl, str qt, perc, pf, 1995–6Chbr and solo inst: Trittico grave, 1988–94: 1 Tornasole, va,
2 Vigilia, vc, 3 Terzo paesaggio senza peso, db; An (Quasi una serenata con la
complicità di Schubert), a fl, cl, str trio, 1989; Equale, cl qt, 1989; Due voci, fl, vn, 1991;
Macchina del baccano sentito, perc ens, 1991; Animato, fl, cl, bn, hn, vn, va, vc, pf,
 1992; Dal belvedere di non ritorno, ens, 1993; Bleu jusq'au blanc, 6 perc, 1995;
Descdesesasf (Trio rito), str trio, 1995

Principal publisher: Ricordi

MARINELLA RAMAZZOTTI

Gervays [Gervasius de Anglia]

(fl c1400). English composer. The name suggests a possible connection
with the Yorkshire Cistercian abbey of Jervaulx. A Roger Gerveys was a
junior clerk of the Royal Household Chapel in 1376–7. Gervays’s sole
surviving composition is a three-part Gloria which is preserved both in the
Old Hall Manuscript (ed. in CMM, xlvi, 1969–73; no.31) and in I-Bc Q15. It
is an unpretentious but competent piece, with much of the fresh charm
found in Ciconia’s music. The upper part is texted, and there is some
evidence of deliberate declamation. There is no particular reason to identify
him with the G. de Auglier who copied the theory manuscript US-Cn 54.l, at
Pavia in 1391.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Wathey: Music in the Royal and Noble Households in Late Medieval
England: Studies of Sources and Patronage (New York, 1989)
A. Wathey: ‘John of Gaunt, John Pycard and the Negotiations at Amiens,
1392’, England and the Low Countries in the Late Middle Ages, ed. C.
Barron and N. Saul (Stroud and New York, 1995), 29–42

For further bibliography see Old Hall Manuscript.

MARGARET BENT

Gervés du Bus.
French notary and writer, author of the Roman de Fauvel.

Ges
(Ger.).

G . See Pitch nomenclature.

Gesangvoll
(Ger.).
See Cantabile.
Geschwind
(Ger.: ‘quick’).
A word normally used as the German equivalent of the Italian allegro
(though presto would perhaps be a more accurate translation), as in the
designation mässig geschwind, which means the same as allegro
moderato. It also appears in the adverbial form geschwinde.

See also Tempo and expression marks.

DAVID FALLOWS

Geschwindmarsch
(Ger.).
Quick march. See March, §1.

Gese, Bartholomäus.
See Gesius, Bartholomäus.

Geselliges Lied.
See Gesellschaftslied.

Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde.

Viennese music society. Founded officially in 1814 (succeeding the
Gesellschaft Adeliger Frauen, founded in 1812), it organized the foundation
of a conservatory in 1817. Originally it had an amateur orchestra; now it
organizes concerts at the Musikverein with local or visiting orchestras, as
well as recitals. It has an important music collection. See Vienna, §§5 and
6(ii); and Libraries, §II, 1(i).

Gesellschaft für Musikalische

Aufführungs- und Mechanische
Vervielfältigungsrechte [GEMA].
See Copyright, §VI (under Germany).

Gesellschaft für Musikforschung

[Society for Music Research].
An organization founded in 1946 in Germany to bring together
musicologists, church musicians, music teachers, performers and amateur
musicians, to promote musical research, to publish information, and to
support the cultivation of associated studies and international musicological
cooperation. This aim is achieved by three means: international
congresses, which have been held in 1949 (Rothenburg), 1950 (Lüneburg),
1953 (Bamberg), 1956 (Hamburg), 1962 (Kassel), 1966 (Leipzig), 1970
(Bonn), 1974 (Berlin), 1981 (Bayreuth), 1985 (Stuttgart), 1993 (Freiburg)
and 1998 (Halle); the formation of special groups within the society to study
specific topics; and the publication of the periodical Die Musikforschung
(1948–) and the monograph series Musikwissenschaftliche Arbeiten. The
latter covers a wide variety of topics and includes Richard Schaal’s
Verzeichnis deutschsprachiger musikwissenschaftlicher Dissertationen
1861–1960 (Kassel, 1963; suppl. 1974). Friedrich Blume was the first
president; he was succeeded by K.G. Fellerer, Martin Ruhnke, Ludwig
Finscher, Carl Dahlhaus, Rudolf Stephan, Klaus W. Niemöller and
Christoph Mahling.

Gesellschaftslied
(Ger.).
A term for a German polyphonic song that evolved in the 15th to 17th
centuries and was derived from the courtly Minnelied. Often in four parts,
Gesellschaftslieder were intended for the educated classes, are
distinguishable by their texts from the Hofweise (court song) and the
Volkslied (folksong), and typically are love songs. Gesellschaftslieder are
based on a pre-existing melody, usually in the tenor or the discantus, but
occasionally in one of the middle voices. A characteristic of 16th-century
Gesellschaftslieder is the melodic quality of all the voices. There is a
frequent use of imitation, revealing the influence of the French chanson,
although some songs are set in a seemingly chordal manner. The under-
third (‘Landini’) cadence appears quite often and sections are generally of
uneven length. The songs are usually in bar form, though some are
through-composed. Examples, dating from the early to mid-15th century,
can be found in the Lochamer, Schedel and Glogau songbooks. Among
important composers of the genre in the early 16th century, Ludwig Senfl
was the most prolific. Publisher-arrangers of 16th-century
Gesellschaftslieder include Georg Forster and Hans Ott. The term is
occasionally applied to choral songs of the 18th to 20th centuries or as a
synonym for ‘geselliges Lied’ (‘sociable song’), which refers to the 19th-
century custom of guests performing music at social gatherings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ReeseMR
L. Denecke: ‘Ein Gesellschaftslied des 15. Jahrhunderts aus einer
Handschrift der Dombibliothek zu Fritzlar’, Jb für Volksliedforschung,
xxi (1976), 157–9
J. Klima, ed.: Die Lautenhandschrift des Prämonstratenserstiftes Strachov
(Prag): ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des deutschen Gesellschaftsliedes im
18. Jahrhundert, Themenverzeichnis (Vienna, 1976)
W. Kaden: ‘The Early Music Culture of Miners’, BMw, xxxi (1989), 59–62
M.M. Stoljar: ‘Speculum ludi: the Aesthetics of Performance in Song’,
Music and German Literature: their Relationship since the Middle
Ages (Columbia, SC, 1992), 119–31
L. Finscher: ‘Lied und Madrigal, 1580–1600’, Music in the German
Renaissance: Sources, Styles, and Contexts, ed. J. Kmetz
(Cambridge, 1994), 182–92
M. Staehelin: ‘The Constitution of the Fifteenth-Century Tenor Lied:
Drafting the History of a Musical Genre’, ibid., 174–81
J. Steinheuer: ‘Zum Wandel des italienisches Einflusses auf das deutsche
Gesellschaftslied und vor allem das Quodlibet in der ersten Hälfte des
17. Jahrhunderts’, Relazioni musicali tra Italia e Germania nell'età
barocca: Loveno di Menaggio 1995, 137–70
ANGELA MIGLIORINI

Geses
(Ger.).

G . See Pitch nomenclature.

Gesius [Gese, Göse, Göss],

Bartholomäus [Barthel]
(b Müncheberg, Brandenburg Marches, ?1555–62; d Frankfurt an der
Oder, 1613). German composer. In 1575 he went to the University at
Frankfurt an der Oder where, with some interruptions, he studied until
about 1580. It is possible that he also studied briefly at Wittenberg in 1580.
In 1582 he was for a short time Kantor at Müncheberg, and then probably
returned to Frankfurt. Before 1588 he was a domestic tutor to Freiherr
Hans George von Schönaich of Carolath in Muskau and Sprottau (now
Szprotawa, Upper Lusatia), a prominent poet. Gesius set some of his
poems to music (none of the settings survive). In 1588 Gesius was again in
Wittenberg, probably to prepare for the printing of his St John Passion
which was published there. At the end of 1592 while in Muskau, he was
offered the post of Kantor at the Marienkirche in Frankfurt; this he took up
in the following year and held for the rest of his life.
Gesius presumably acquired his musical training either from Christoph
Zacharias, the organist of the Marienkirche, or the Kantor, Gregor Lange.
He represents the tradition of humanist Lutheran theology that flourished
during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. His compositions are
exclusively for church and school, and comprise settings of pre-
Reformation Latin songs and Protestant hymns. The Psalmodia choralis of
1600, containing 631 hymn melodies, shows to what extent he embraced
and developed the inherited Latin and German liturgical repertory. In his
cantus-firmus arrangements there is a wealth of different styles ranging
 from four-part note-against-note counterpoint in the manner of Lucas
Osiander, to fully developed, polychoral textures. Gesius's works show a
preoccupation with cantus-firmus techniques and an interest in alternatim
methods of word-setting, which he recommended in his Geistliche
deutsche Lieder of 1601. He took no part in the change of styles around
1600, particularly in the move towards the Baroque style.
Gesius is important for his role in the history of the Protestant Passion.
With his St John Passion of 1588, he made a significant contribution to the
small group of Passions of a type brought to Germany from Italy by Antonio
Scandello – a mixed type between the German dramatic Passion and the
motet Passion. In such works, only the words of the Evangelist are sung in
plainsong, whereas the rest of the dialogue is set in two to three parts, the
words of Jesus in four, and the turbae and the opening and closing
choruses in five. The St Matthew Passion of 1613 in three to six parts is a
motet Passion: but it nevertheless shows the influence of Scandello. The
part of the Evangelist and the turbae are here in six parts, as are the first
and last choruses; the words of Jesus are in four parts and those of the
remaining dialogue in three. Also of note are the Magnificat settings of
1607 in which there are a number of Christmas songs; these reveal
Gesius's contribution to a particularly popular Christmas tradition extending
from the late Middle Ages to the time of J.S. Bach.
WORKS

Edition: Antiqua Chorbuch, ed. H. Mönkemeyer, i–ii (Mainz, 1951–2) [incl. 7 pieces from
1601 and 1605 publications]

published in Frankfurt an der Oder unless otherwise stated

Historia vom Leiden und Sterben … Jesu Christi, wie sie uns der Evangelista
Johannes … beschrieben, 2–5vv (Wittenberg, 1588); ed. in Handbuch der
deutschen evangelischen Kirchenmusik, i/3–4 (Göttingen, 1974)
Hymni, 5vv, de praecipuis festis anniversariis (Wittenberg, 1595)
Novae melodiae harmonicis, 5vv (1596)
Hymni scholastici … per 12 modos musicos … 4vv … et … precationes, 3vv, una
cum cantionibus gregorianis (1597); 2/1609 as Melodiae scholasticae sub horarum
intervallis decantandae, cum cantionibus gregorianis; 4/1621 as Vierstimmiges
Handbüchlein … der Altväter Ambrosii, Augustini … Lobgesänge, nebenst den
deutschen Kirchenliedern)
Der Lobgesang Mariae (Meine Seel erhebt den Herren), Herr Gott dich loben wir
und andere geistliche Lieder, 5vv, sampt einem neuen Jahrgesang, 8vv (1598)
Psalmodia choralis continens antiphonas cum intonationibus, psalmos, responsoria,
hymnos, introitus et caeteras cantiones missae … in fine lamentationibus … quae
Vesperis in hebdomade palmarum canuntur, 1v (1600)
Geistliche deutsche Lieder D. Martini Lutheri: und anderer frommen Christen … 4–
5vv, nach gewöhnlicher Choralmelodien (1601; 2/1605 as Ein ander neu Opus
geistlicher Lieder … in 2 Theile, 4, 5vv, schlecht Contrapunctsweise nach
bekandten gewöhnlichen KirchMelodien; 3/1607 as Geistliche deutsche Lieder …
gebessert und mit etlichen Gesängen vermehrt. Dazu … ein neuer langwährender
Kalender [in 3 parts]); 6 ed. in WinterfeldEK
Enchiridium etlicher deutschen und lateinischen Gesengen, 4vv (1603)
Christliche Hauss und Tisch Musica. Darin … Gesänge … durch den Catechismum
D. Martini Lutheri, auff alle Tag, 4vv, zum theil nach bekandter Choralmelodien
(Wittenberg, 1605)
Synopsis musicae practicae variis exemplis illustrata … in usum scholasticae
iuventutis Francofurtensis cis Viadrum conscripta (1606)
Canticum BMV sive Magnificat per quintum et sextum tonum, insertis cantionibus
aliquot natalitijs, Resonet in laudibus, in dulci jubilo, 6vv (1607), lost
Concentus ecclesiasticus, 4vv, darinnen alle geistlichen deutschen Lieder D. Martini
Lutheri und vieler anderen frommen Christen mit den gewöhnlichen Kirchen
Hymnis, Sequentien und anderen lateinischen Gesängen: Item Introitus, Kyrie,
Sanctus, Psalmen und Magnificat, 4vv (1607), lost
Synopsis musicae practicae variis exemplis illustrata … in usum scholasticae
iuventutis Francofurtensis cis Viadrum conscripta (1606)
10 tröstliche schöne Psalmen des königliches Propheten Davids, … Luca Osiander,
4vv (?1610), lost
Cantiones sacrae chorales: Introitus, ut vocantur, Kyrie, sequentia et plures aliae de
praecipuis diebus festis aniversariis, 4–6vv (1610)
Missae ad imitationem cantionum Orlandi, et aliorum, 5vv (1611) [also pubd with
Cantiones sacrae chorales as: Opus plane novum cantionum ecclesiasticarum in 2
partes divisum. Prior continet missas ad imitationem cantionum Orlandi, Marentii et
aliorum … 5–8 et plurium vocum: posterior continens introitus, Kyrie, sequenti, etc,
4–6vv … quibus praemissa est historia Passionis Domini nostri Jesu Christi ex
Evangelista Matthaeo, 6vv (1613)]
Motetae selectissimae latinae germanicae (1615), lost; cited in Draudius (1625)

17 individual or small collections of occasional pieces, 5, 6, 8, 10vv, pubd in

Frankfurt, survive; c30, now lost, incl. in list in MGG1
Works in 160712, 160726, 161012, 16136a, 16171, 16416, 16463; Gothaer Cantional
sacrum (1646–8); Vopelius's Leipziger Gesangbuch (1682), PL-GD, Liegnitz,
Kgl.Ritter Akademie, WRu

The following prints are listed in GerberNL:

Deutsche geistliche Lieder, 4vv (1594)
Melodiae, 5vv (1598)
Hymni patrum cum cantu (1603)
Christliche Choral- und Figural-Gesänge deutsch und lat. bei Leichenbegängnissen
zu gebrauchen (1611)
Fasciculus etlicher deutscher und lateinischer Motetten auf Hochzeiten, 4–8vv
(1616)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (A. Adrio)
WinterfeldEK [appx incl. edn of 6 songs from 1601 pubd]
R. Schwarze: ‘Die Gesius'schen Gesangbücher’, Mitteilungen des
Historisch-statistischen Vereins zu Frankfurt/Oder (Frankfurt an der
Oder, 1873)
O. Kade: Die ältere Passionskomposition bis zum Jahre 1631 (Gütersloh,
1893/R)
F.W. Schönherr: Bartholomäus Gesius Munchbergensis (diss., U. of
Leipzig, 1920)
P. Blumenthal: Der Kantor Bartholomäus Gesius zu Frankfurt/Oder
(Frankfurt an der Oder, 1926)
N. Hampel: Deutschsprachige protestantische Kirchenmusik Schlesiens
bis zum Einbruch der Monodie (diss., U. of Breslau, 1937), 47
H. Grimm: Meister der Renaissancemusik an der Viadrina (Frankfurt an
der Oder, 1942)
H. Borlisch: ‘Bartholomäus Gesius’, Musik und Kirche, xxii (1952), 19–24
M. Geck: ‘J.S. Bach's Weihnachts-Magnificat und sein
Traditionszusammenhang’, Musik und Kirche, xxxi (1961), 257–66
B. Gissel: Untersuchungen zur mehrstimmigen protestantischen
Hymnenkomposition in Deutschland um 1600 (Kassel, 1983)
S. Gissel: ‘Zur Modusbestimmung deutscher Autoren in der Zeit von 1550
bis 1650’, Mf, xxxix (1986), 201–17
M. Hůlková: L'ubický spevník [The hymnbook of L'ubica], Musicalogica
slovaca, xii (1998), 11–134
WALTER BLANKENBURG/CLYTUS GOTTWALD

Gesner, Conrad [Gessner, Konrad]

(b Zürich, 16 March 1516; d Zürich, 13 Dec 1565). Swiss humanist scholar,
physician and bibliographer. He was among the most important members
of the great circle of humanists who flourished in Basle and Zürich during
the first half of the 16th century. Trained in classical philology and
medicine, Gesner held professorial posts at the academy of Lausanne, the
Collegium Carolinum in Basle and the Stiftsschule of Zürich. He was the
author of pioneering works in the fields of balneology, botany, linguistics,
medicine, philology and zoology. It is for his contributions as a
bibliographer, however, that he is remembered by music historians.
In 1545 Gesner published the Bibliotheca universalis (facs. with
introduction by H. Widmann, Osnabrück, 1966), a comprehensive
bibliography of all works in Greek, Hebrew and Latin known to him. Three
years later he continued this massive project with the publication of the
Pandectarum sive partitionum universalium libri XIX. Book seven of this
work is devoted to music and represents one of the central bibliographical
documents in the history of Renaissance music. In almost 300 entries, he
listed some 140 volumes of printed music, mainly of polyphony, together
with writings about music by nearly 100 authors. About half of these are
Renaissance writers and the rest, in nearly equal proportion, are medieval
theorists and Greek and Roman authors. Gesner’s music list identifies
numerous items that are no longer extant, including missing publications of
Attaingnant, Petrucci, Petreius, Schöffer and Varnier, as well as many lost
theoretical works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Hanhart: Conrad Gessner, ein Beytrag zur Geschichte des
wissenschaftlichen Strebens und der Glaubensverbesserung im 16ten
Jahrhundert (Winterthur, 1824)
Gesnerus, xxii/3–4 (1965)
H. Fischer, ed.: Conrad Gessner, 1516–1565: Universalgelehrter,
Naturforscher, Arzt (Zürich, 1967)
L.F. Bernstein: ‘The Bibliography of Music in Conrad Gesner’s Pandectae
(1548)’, AcM, xlv (1973), 119–63
L. Braun: Conrad Gessner (Geneva, 1990)
 U.B. Leu: Conrad Gesner als Theologe: ein Beitrag zur Zürcher
Geistesgeschichte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Berne, 1990)
LAWRENCE F. BERNSTEIN

Gesolreut.
The pitches g and g' in the Hexachord system.

Gestalt.
See Psychology of music, §I, 2. See also Analysis, §II, 4.

Gestewitz, Friedrich Christoph

(b Preischka, nr Meissen, 3 Nov 1753; d Dresden, 1 Aug 1805). German
composer, pupil and brother-in-law (not son-in-law) of Johann Adam Hiller.
In the early 1780s he wrote two German operas, Der Meyerhof and Die
Liebe ist sinnreich, and what may be either a third German opera, or
incidental music to Gozzi’s play, Das öffentliche Geheimnis. (Pamela
nubile is by Generali, not Gestewitz as Eitner suggested.) Later he became
conductor of Bondini’s Italian opera company, for which he wrote
L’orfanella americana (1791) and added a finale to Portugal’s Le donne
cambiate (1799). He also wrote a few sacred and keyboard works.
WORKS
operas
Der Meyerhof, Leipzig, 20 Sept 1780; 1 song in Hiller’s Sammlung der
vorzüglichsten Arien, vi (Leipzig, 1780)
Die Liebe ist sinnreich, Dresden, 27 Nov 1781; B-Bc, 2 arias in Hiller’s Arien und
Duetten des deutschen Theaters (Leipzig, 1781)
Das öffentliche Geheimnis (F.W. Gotter, after Gozzi), c1780–81; 2 songs in Hiller’s
Arien und Duetten (Leipzig, 1781)
L’orfanella americana, Dresden, Jan 1791; D-Dl, ov. and ?1 song (Dresden, c1791)
Finale to Portugal’s Le donne cambiate, Dresden, 2 Oct 1799
other works
2 masses: 1790, D-Bsb; 1793, Dl
Sonata, E , pf (Dresden, n.d.); Marche militaire, pf (Dresden, n.d.)
ALFRED LOEWENBERG/R

Gestopft
(Ger.: ‘stopped’).
A term applied to hand-stopping on a horn. It affects the pitch and the tone
quality of the instrument. See Horn, §3(ii).

Gestossen
(Ger.).
See Abstossen.

Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa,

Count of Conza
(b ?Naples, c1561; d Gesualdo, Avellino, 8 Sept 1613). Italian nobleman
and composer.
1. Life.
2. Literary and stylistic sources.
3. Secular works.
4. Sacred works.
5. Posthumous reputation.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LORENZO BIANCONI
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
1. Life.
The Gesualdo family was invested with the principality of Venosa by Philip
II in 1560, when Carlo’s father Fabrizio (d 1591) married Girolama
Borromeo, niece of Pope Pius IV and sister of Cardinal Carlo Borromeo.
About the same time (1561) Carlo’s uncle, Alfonso (Archbishop of Naples,
1596–1603), was elected cardinal. At Naples in 1586, after the death of
Fabrizio and Girolama’s eldest son, Carlo Gesualdo, heir to the title,
married his cousin Maria d’Avalos, daughter of the Marquis of Pescara.
The outcry and rumour excited by the assassination on 16 October 1590 of
Maria, surprised by her husband ‘in flagrante delicto di fragrante peccato’,
and Fabrizio Carafa, the Duke of Andria, notorious for two years as her
lover, reached a level commensurate with the noble rank attained by the
Gesualdo family in Naples. The double aristocratic murder was given
suitable publicity in the widely disseminated Corona Manuscript chronicle
(see A. Borzelli: Successi tragici et amorosi, Naples, 1908), and in a
collection of verses commemorating the tragic lovers composed by Tasso
and the best-known Neapolitan poets including G.B. Marino, Pignatelli,
G.C. Capaccio and Cortese (see A. Quondam in Storia di Napoli, v/1,
Naples, 1972, pp.405ff). This event, romanticized by novelists from
Brantôme to Anatole France, still results in accounts of Gesualdo with such
titles as Carlo Gesualdo, Prince of Venosa: Musician and Murderer (C.
Gray and P. Heseltine) or Assassinio a cinque voci (A. Consiglio, Naples,
1967); they show how effective has been his act of retribution in spreading
his fame. Nevertheless, Gesualdo prudently retired to his estate at
Gesualdo, which became his permanent residence. Because of the
notoriety generated by the incident, his passionate dedication to music,
which until then had been cultivated in semi-secrecy (his first book of
madrigals was originally published under the name of Gioseppe Pilonij),
also became renowned.
Music provided the chief interest of Gesualdo’s visit to Ferrara in 1594, as
may be seen in the letters of Count Alfonso Fontanelli (see Newcomb,
1968 and Pirrotta, 1971), who was appointed the prince’s equerry by Duke
Alfonso II. Gesualdo’s marriage to Leonora d’Este, the duke’s niece,
contracted in 1593, offered Gesualdo not only the rehabilitative value of an
illustrious marriage outside the kingdom of Naples, but also the attraction
of a brilliant musical centre. In accordance with Ferrarese custom, music
played a large part in the marriage celebrations on 21 February 1594.
Bottrigari described the festivities in La mascara (in I-Bc), the organist
Ercole Pasquini composed a favola boscareccia for the occasion, I fidi
amanti (Verona, 1593), Vincenzo Rondinelli dedicated his treatise on
acoustics De soni, e voci (in I-FEc) to the prince, and the local poets wrote
special verses. Above all, Gesualdo was chiefly occupied with music-
making throughout the time he spent at Ferrara, until early 1596,
interrupted by at least two visits to Gesualdo, from 15 May to 29 December
1594, and from late summer to 4 December 1595.
Cavalieri, whom Gesualdo met at Rome on his way to Ferrara on 19
December 1593, commented ironically in a letter on the prince’s mad
passion for music, and Fontanelli, after his first meeting with Gesualdo on
18 February 1594, related that the prince was exhibiting the scores of his
first two books of madrigals, that he praised Luzzaschi, that he took with
him on his travels musicians such as Scipione Stella and (it seems)
Francesco Rasi, and that he played the guitar and the lute. Alessandro
Piccinini later recounted (Intavolatura di liuto … libro primo, Bologna, 1623)
that in the same year (1594) he gave two of his archlutes to Gesualdo, who
afterwards presented one of them to the ‘Cavalier del Liuto’. At Ferrara
Gesualdo heard the famous nuns of S Vito. At Venice, according to
Fontanelli’s letters of 21 and 23 May 1594, he chose to remain incognito in
order to avoid official ceremonies, but continued to discuss music, praising
the musicians of Ferrara and scorning those of Venice, including Giovanni
Gabrieli. He also composed madrigals, and presumably arranged the
printing rights of his madrigals with Gardane. At Padua he visited Costanzo
Porta. In Gesualdo, between June and October 1594, he wrote some
music for performance by the Ferrarese Concerto di donne, and during the
Christmas period he was the guest of Jacopo Corsi at Florence. By the end
of 1594 he had returned to Ferrara with the lutenist Fabrizio Filomarino and
the singer and viol player Ettore Gesualdo.
Gesualdo’s presence in Ferrara, and his obsessive melomania, sustained
with an ‘affetto napoletanissimo’ (Fontanelli), seem to have provoked the
ducal printer Baldini to start publishing again the most important local
madrigalists, the earliest deliberate manifestation of the seconda pratica.
After the publication between May and June 1594 of his first two books,
signed by Stella, Gesualdo himself, having discarded ‘quel primo stile’,
composed and published his third and fourth books in March 1595 and
1596 respectively. Ettore Gesualdo, who signed them, admired their
‘invention, artifice, imitation and observance of the words’, in contrast to the
‘lightness’ of the first two books. During the same period Fontanelli
published his own Primo libro, and Luzzaschi three more books of
madrigals of which the fourth, dated 10 September 1594, is dedicated to
Gesualdo. These publications of 1594–6 consolidated the professional
reputation of Gesualdo, who had previously been considered merely an
accomplished amateur. Before 1594 there is only an unspecific mention of
Gesualdo’s artistic merit, in canto xx of Tasso’s Gerusalemme conquistata,
but in February 1595 Raval, a professional musician, described Gesualdo
as a madrigal composer in his Madrigali a 3, 5, 8 voci (Rome, 1595).
During his months at Ferrara, Gesualdo profited from the unique
opportunity offered to him by the duke’s musical establishment, where he
could meet Luzzaschi and virtuoso court musicians on a professional basis
without departing from the aristocratic reserve that was a feature of avant-
garde musical circles at Ferrara, where reserve, competence and
esotericism were shared by composers, performers and listeners alike.
Gesualdo’s attempt, from about 1595, to establish a group of court
musicians at the castle of Gesualdo, outside the influence of the
Neapolitan academies, was probably inspired by Ferrarese example.
Micheli related in the preface to his Musica vaga et artificiosa (Venice,
1615) that he worked for Gesualdo before 1599, together with Stella, G.B.
di Paola, Nenna and Effrem, only the last of whom is known to have served
Gesualdo until 1613. From that time Gesualdo spent almost his entire time
on his estate; his visits to Naples became infrequent, and music-making
seems to have constituted his refuge from the world. In 1603 G.P.
Capuccio, one of his courtiers, had Gesualdo’s two books of Sacrae
cantiones published by Costantino Vitale at Naples, but in 1611, for his last
works (the fifth and sixth books of madrigals, still signed by Capuccio, and
the Responsoria), Gesualdo acquired his own palace printer, G.G. Carlino
from Naples, perhaps in imitation of the court printer at Ferrara.
The prince’s melancholy, already known before 1594, grew deeper. A
secret and therefore reliable political document draws an eloquent portrait
of Gesualdo in 1600: ‘he has an income of more than 40,000 ducats-worth
of grain. His ancestors were very French [i.e. anti-Spanish] in outlook, but
he is opposed to innovation, attends to money-making and does not delight
in anything but music. He keeps a company of men-at-arms’. There are
also reports on the ill-treatment of his wife, and of divorce proceedings
begun by the Este family. Leonora frequently complained of the boredom
she suffered on the estate, where in fact she did not arrive until the end of
1597, after the inevitable transfer of the duchy of Ferrara to the papacy;
even then she spent long periods at Modena with her brother Duke
Cesare, thus provoking urgent messages from Gesualdo, who disapproved
of her absences. A letter written in September 1609 confirms that, contrary
to the general state of the Neapolitan nobility, the prince’s financial position
was good, and that he was willing to purchase the domain of
Castellammare di Stabia from the Farnese family, so that Leonora, who
disliked the climate at Gesualdo, could enjoy more salubrious air. The letter
also illustrates the prince’s social intolerance; he proposed that Leonora
should spend the winter at one of his villas in the outskirts of Naples, where
he would not be able to join her, because his own ill-health would not allow
him to attend the vice-regal court. The prince’s psychopathic deterioration
during his last years is amply documented; and Gesualdo’s morbid, bigoted
veneration for his uncle, Carlo Borromeo, canonized in 1610, as seen in his
obstinate correspondence with Cardinal Federico Borromeo to obtain relics
and a portrait (see illustration and Piccardi), completes the clinical picture
of the prince’s melancholy. After the death in October 1600 of Alfonsino, his
son by Leonora, he commissioned the famous altarpiece in the church of
the Capuchins at Gesualdo; beneath a sacra conversazione, it depicts
Carlo Borromeo, Leonora, Gesualdo himself and the purified soul of their
dead son. Gesualdo’s preoccupation with the extinction of his line proved
justified: his death came three weeks after that of his only surviving child,
Emanuele, his son by his first marriage, who had been entrusted with the
entire management of the family estates.
Gesualdo’s complete retirement from city life was part of a general return to
feudalism in the kingdom of Naples during a period of grave economic,
social and political crises which resulted in direct control by the nobility over
its own lands. Nevertheless, his renunciation even of the exercise of this
power, despite his relatively flourishing financial position, and his refuge in
music, imply an anguished knowledge of his loss of real power, exclusion
from the world and the absence of any future.
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
2. Literary and stylistic sources.
Gesualdo’s output can be divided neatly into two sections; the works he
formally acknowledged (his six books of five-voice madrigals, the two
books of Sacrarum cantionum and the Responsoria) but had published, as
was the custom of the nobility, by a courtier; and those not originally
intended for publication. To the latter category belong the few works printed
after his death: the madrigals for six voices published by Effrem in 1626,
three canzonettas for five voices (in RISM 1616 15 and 161811), a psalm in
the Salmi delle compiete (Naples, 1620), and some works known only in
manuscript. This latter group comprises two canzonettas in a book of
spiritual parodies, mostly Neapolitan in origin, a chromatic galliard for four
voices entitled ‘Principe di Venosa’ in a keyboard manuscript, and an
extensive and complex ‘Canzon francese del Principe’ in the extravagant
and fantastic style of Macque (ed. in CEKM, xxiv). The works that
Fontanelli mentioned in his letter of 25 June 1594, ‘a motet, an aria’ and ‘a
dialogue for three soprano lines’ as well as five or six ‘madrigals full of
artifice’, can also be placed in this category. This list not only demonstrates
Gesualdo’s versatility in every kind of musical style, including monody, but
also clearly underlines his intentional discrimination between the lighter
sorts of composition and the deliberate contrapuntal complexity of the
works destined for publication. A. Bossarelli Mondolfi, with some
justification, suggested the attribution to Gesualdo of an unsigned piece in
Verovio’s Lodi (RISM 15956) and it is possible to suspect Gesualdo as the
composer of much other anonymous music, such as the responses for
Holy Week, ‘written by a composer who wishes to conceal his name’,
included in Fabrizio Dentice’s Lamentationi(Milan, 1593); but this is to
ignore the essential fact that with his nine official publications Gesualdo
purposely gave a specific image of himself. This image is itself problematic
enough, as an examination of his choice of poetry for the madrigals shows.
The first two books, disguised under a false name until their unexpected
publication at Ferrara in 1594, set epigrammatic texts by Guarini, Gatti,
Alberti, Celiano, Grillo and particularly Tasso, which had frequently been
set to music before. Tasso was acquainted with Gesualdo, and during
November and December 1592 sent him from Rome 36 madrigals to set, of
which Gesualdo published only one, Se così dolce e il duolo. The textual
parody Sento che nel partire of d’Avalos’s famous Ancor che col partire is
also the most chromatic of the madrigals in the first two books. It is
particularly remarkable that Gesualdo, then and later, invariably used the
madrigal form alone, renouncing the sonnet (with the exception of Mentre
madonna il lasso fianco posa) and therefore all Petrarchism, and the
sestina and ottava and therefore all epic texts. Of authors of the verses in
books three to six, issued after his first experience of Ferrara, only three
(all Ferrarese and including Guarini) are identifiable. Many texts of the later
madrigals are in the style of Guarini, and one by Guarini himself, T’amo
mia vita, appears at the end of the fifth book – a madrigal that had already
been issued in a collection of previously unpublished works by Neapolitan
composers (RISM 160916). It shows Gesualdo’s most ‘public’ vein,
characterized by an exceptionally sparing use of dissonance, chromaticism
and widely ranging note values, in contrast to the other madrigals in the
fifth book. Guarini, Pocaterra and Marino figure among the authors of the
posthumous madrigals. It is worth noting that, despite Gesualdo’s
preference for epigrammatic, conceptual texts, Marino, the paragon among
writers of such poetry, does not appear in the six five-voice madrigal books,
possibly because Gesualdo did not wish to borrow from his Rime, which
had been too extensively plundered by composers since their first
publication in 1602.
It is important to realize that the selections made in the last two books are
from musical rather than poetic models, made by the rejection of certain
possibilities rather than by adherence to them. The madrigals in the first
two books include those set to music during the 1580s by many other
composers (e.g. Marenzio, Monte, Macque and Monteverdi), and it is
impossible to pick out any definite stylistic influences from this broad and
unspecific relationship, apart from those in the Libro secondo written
‘all’imitazione del Luzzasco’. The 1595 and 1596 books, on the other hand,
consist mainly of compositions with few previous connections. The last two
books (and the madrigals for six voices) contain, as well as numerous texts
set only by Gesualdo, many shared with Luzzaschi’s sixth and seventh
books (11), and with the madrigals of Nenna (six) and Fontanelli (two). The
debt to Luzzaschi and Nenna is immediately evident since most of these
texts had not been set by any other composer. It is known from Leonora
d’Este’s letter of 7 April 1600 that Nenna was no longer among Gesualdo’s
courtiers at that date, so it may be presumed that the madrigals in
Gesualdo’s fifth and sixth books that reveal a considerable adherence to
Nenna, not merely textually, but particularly musically, were all composed
before 1600, and that they were written in rivalry or in imitation of each
other. The textual borrowings from Luzzaschi’s sixth book (1596) also
probably date from the period immediately after Gesualdo’s stay at Ferrara,
or perhaps from a time when he was still in personal touch with Luzzaschi.
The retrospective dating inferred by G.P. Capuccio when in 1611 he
published the fifth and sixth books, ‘after the world had been waiting avidly
for 15 years since they were composed’, does not sound totally fictitious.
Nor is it impossible that Nenna, who published his Gesualdian madrigals
only after he left the prince’s service, should figure among those unnamed
imitators and plagiarists of the prince’s madrigals, intended solely for
‘domestic consumption’, who were denounced by Capuccio.
But it is more likely that this was a conscious if limited concession to a
fundamental principle of madrigal composition, the imitation of other
composers’ works. An obvious example is Itene, o miei sospiri, a parody of
Luzzaschi’s Itene mie querele, which uses not only the verbal imagery, but
also, one by one, the musical metaphors of its model. An even more
striking case, if it is not a plagiarism, is Mercè grido piangendo; the motifs
and their treatment by Nenna and Gesualdo are practically the same, and
at the words ‘morrò dunque tacendo’, both use a simultaneous chromatic
alteration for all the voices (‘quae omnibus chordis signum usurpat’, as
Doni noted in 1647, Lyra Barberina, i, 243). It is not possible in such
circumstances to establish the order of priority between model and
imitation, nor is it very important; Gesualdo’s compositions are always the
more audacious and complex. That he purposely reserved his imitations to
a court musician (Luzzaschi) and to a ‘cavalier di Cesare’ (Nenna) confirms
that membership of the avant garde of the seconda pratica was then the
prerogative of nobility, and in this respect it is noteworthy that Monteverdi’s
examples of seconda pratica composers are all noblemen: Gesualdo,
Cavalieri, Fontanelli, Branciforte, Del Turco and Pecci (preface to C.
Monteverdi: Scherzi musicali, Venice, 1607).
Gesualdo’s admitted admiration for Luzzaschi, shared by the entire
Neapolitan circle of musicians, had several causes. The prince
wholeheartedly followed Luzzaschi’s habit of clothing even the least
pretentious madrigal in serious, expressive, richly worked music. In
practice this ‘nuova maniera’, outlined in the preface to Luzzaschi’s Sesto
libro, justified any compositional or stylistic licence in the interests of
musical effect or affect. In Farnetico savio (Ferrara, 1610), Alessandro
Guarini compared Luzzaschi and Gesualdo with Dante, because, ‘in
imitation of the words … they do not avoid harshness, nor shun dissonance
itself, artistic against the rules of the art’ and ‘do not fear to employ hard,
unusual and strange sounds’ (see F. Degrada, Chigiana, xxii, 1965, p.268).
But while the eccentric style of a madrigal such as Itene mie querele
represents an extreme case in Luzzaschi’s works, Gesualdo, ‘with his
nobility and fanciful talent’, used the style constantly. In the same way, the
striking similarity between the expressive music of Nenna and Gesualdo
does not extend to Nenna’s sacred music, which, unlike Gesualdo’s,
conforms to the stylistic limits prescribed by liturgical rules.
Gesualdo shared Luzzaschi’s interest in the chromatic arcicembalo made
by Vicentino and kept at the court of Ferrara. The chronicler Sardi related
that Luzzaschi played this instrument during the Este–Venosa wedding
celebrations, and it is known that Stella and Gesualdo later tried, in vain, to
construct a similar chromatic instrument in Naples. The practice and theory
of such an instrument had an undoubted influence on Gesualdo’s stylistic
evolution; his writing encompassed an almost complete chromatic scale
(the only chromatic change which never appears is F ), and frequently
used variations on the ancient chromatic tetrachord (ex.1 and ex.3, bars 5–
7 below). Had the arcicembalo been less impractical, it would have
constituted the one possible link between chromatic counterpoint and the
newer forms of mixed vocal and instrumental music; thus Gesualdo’s
coherent choice of the madrigal style based on artifice rather than any kind
of ‘nuova musica’ should be seen in the light of the inability of
contemporary keyboard instruments to cope with extreme chromaticism. It
also destroys the myth, believed by Ambros among others, of an empirical,
irrational Gesualdo, trying out his chromaticism ‘auf dem Klavier oder der
Orgel’.

Gesualdo’s artistic ‘models’ are not confined to Luzzaschi and Nenna. His
formation probably took place through an interchange of experiences with
the musicians frequenting Fabrizio Gesualdo’s house about 1585, and the
early madrigals are not unlike those dedicated to Michele and Scipione
Gesualdo by Marien. But Carlo Gesualdo’s first published composition was
a motet in the Liber secundus motectorum by Felis (RISM 15852), so he
was presumably a disciple of the latter, and also of Macque, who included
three of Gesualdo’s ricercares in his Ricercate et canzone francesi,
dedicated on 1 October 1586 to Gesualdo himself. Felis’s membership of
Fabrizio Gesualdo’s academy is conjectural; Macque’s is verified.
Moreover, Gesualdo adopted a number of devices typical of Macque’s later
madrigals, such as the deliberately archaic use of the falsobordone for the
three upper voices (cf Macque, Tu segui, o bella Clori and Gesualdo, ex.2
and 4); chromatic tetrachords (Macque, Io piango and Gesualdo, ex.1); a
falling sequence of chromatic semitones (cf Macque, Poi che’l cammin, and
Gesualdo, Or, che in gioia credea, and see Doni, ii, 73); relationes non
harmonicae (Macque, La mia doglia, and Gesualdo, Resta di darmi noia,
penultimate bar); and sudden rests and emphatic repetitions, or
unexpected changes of rhythm. More generally, a madrigal such as
Macque’s cheerful Cantan gli augelli (RISM 160916) shows that harmonic
progressions by 3rds, far from representing any kind of ‘triadic atonality’,
are rather a neutral extension of modality as commonly practised by
Neapolitan musicians, and not only by Gesualdo. But while Macque freely
scattered such devices through his works, Gesualdo used similar methods
and irregularities continuously, sometimes simultaneously and inevitably
ostentatiously.
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
3. Secular works.
The ostentatious display of cleverness, irregularity and complexity that
particularly distinguishes Gesualdo’s last three books of madrigals
develops from the essential rules of the madrigal form without breaking
them. The basic principle that every verbal image is matched by a separate
musical formulation remains valid, and the madrigal is a series of clearly
differentiated, even disparate musical sections. The significance of the
musical images is provided by conventional melodic, rhythmic, contrapuntal
and other figures, musical unity is guaranteed by the mode (and thus by a
conventional sequence of cadences) and by an unchanging distribution of
voices, and formal unity is obtained solely by poetic conceit, which binds
together verbal-musical images. Musical correspondences are found within
a madrigal only when justified by the repetition of words or poetic lines, as
in Donna, se m’ancidete, or by the obvious conceptual relationship in a
strophic form, as in the odicina Luci serene e chiare. Gesualdo frequently
repeated for emphatic purposes a single musical-verbal phrase or a
complete final section, and these repetitions are often not literal but more
complex. It is symptomatic of Gesualdo’s respect for the individuality of the
word that he hardly ever superimposed two verbal phrases and thus two
different musical motifs, a method commonly used by Wert and by
Monteverdi in his early works. But from his earliest works he used double
imitation, two subjects for each phrase announced together and then
interchanged; as this usually happens with rhythmically identical motifs,
they coincide with the more homophonic passages and are thus perceived
as chords and inversions rather than as imitiative episodes. Such
ambiguity is probably intentional; in the last books melodic interchange is
used primarily to ensure that the most dissonant and chromatic passages
are contrapuntally orthodox.
Gesualdo usually avoided pastoral and narrative poetry, preferring
madrigals that offer greater scope to musical imagination. His texts abound
in metaphors of the ‘mali d’amore’ that substitute concrete symbols such as
‘fire’, ‘death’ and ‘ardour’ for the abstraction of ‘love’, use expressive strings
of adjectives such as ‘obscure, interrupted, sweet, tormented’, and employ
opposites and oxymorons (e.g. ‘O dolorosa gioia’). One of his few sacred
madrigals is the embodiment of this last usage:
Pietà, Signor, pietade,
io peccator mi pento
e della gioia mia mi fo tormento …
The persistent recurrence of antithetical images such as ‘death’ and ‘life’,
‘joy’ and ‘sorrow’ in Gesualdo’s madrigals has often been wrongly
interpreted as the product of the composer’s neurotic obsession with
confession, but in fact some texts which are perhaps personally truly
relevant can be found, significantly, only among the posthumous six-voice
madrigals. In reality such images are simply rhetorical correlatives of the
enormous differentiation of his musical representation, the three chief
means of which are dissonance, chromaticism and rhythm.
Although Gesualdo’s use of individual dissonance can usually be set
against the accepted practices of late 16th-century counterpoint, his music
also readily adopts pre-Palestrinian contrapuntal methods, adapting them
to serve as expressive agents (see Dahlhaus, 1967 and 1974). The
consecutive or simultaneous accumulation of dissonances, each
individually correct, has the effect of blurring the intervallic relationships
that justify them. Thus one line may be correctly dissonant in respect of a
second, which is itself dissonant in respect of a third
(ex.2..\Frames/F922848.html), and at the cadence this practice is often
combined with one or more pedal points. The melodic counterpart is an
angularity and elasticity of thematic materials, and a wide range of
intervals.
Chromatic alteration of the harmonic interval is an expressive ornament of
the melody and does not alter the nominal contrapuntal value of the
interval, and so although augmented 5ths and diminished 4ths have a
dissonant effect, they are treated as consonances
(ex.2..\Frames/F922848.html, ‘tormenti’). This heterogeneity of melodic and
contrapuntal terms of reference is fundamental to Gesualdo’s use of
chromaticism. Burney considered the beginning of Moro, lasso ‘extremely
shocking and disgusting’ because it moves ‘from one chord to another in
which there is no relation, real or imaginary’, but in the chordal succession
of C major to A minor in first inversion, the interval c–e' is common to both
chords, independent of the alteration; the same is true of the first two
chords of ex.2..\Frames/F922848.html, also criticized by Burney. Chromatic
alteration can involve the whole extent of a chord, or of several consecutive
chords. In ex.2..\Frames/F922848.html the syllables ‘-tà poi che t’assen-’ can
be interpreted as altered by a semitone from the imaginary ‘normal’ chordal
sequence g–E –D –G –D 6–G (= F ), this last chord being one of many
examples of enharmonics, explicit or implicit, in Gesualdo’s music.
Transposition, as well as chromatic alteration of the entire chord, can also
be found: in ex.3 below the cadence on ‘morte’ can be interpreted as
ideally transposed up a tone; the effect, extended to all the voices, is the
same as the transitory chromatic ‘eclipses’ in Avella’s theory (Regole di
musica, Rome, 1657), or the ‘metabolism’ of the three genera, as
documented by Kircher (Musurgia universalis, Rome, 1650/R). Similar
explanations, legitimized also by the analyses and remarks of such
contemporaries as Doni, rationalize Gesualdo’s pervasive chromaticism but
do not solve its deliberate ambivalence; while the dissociation of intervallic
and chromatic structures is firmly based on the validity of contrapuntal
rules, it also allows, as a legitimate collateral effect, ‘vertical’ apperceptions.
While his predecessors and contemporaries used chromaticism only
occasionally and briefly, Gesualdo used it extensively and as a normal
device, thereby increasing the representational powers of the madrigal.
Thus Beltà, poi che t’assenti can be subdivided into six sections, each
quite different in character and structure.
Beltà, poi che t’assenti/come ne porti il cor:
homophony–chromaticism–consonance
porta i tormenti: imitation–chromaticism–(consonance)
che tormentato cor può ben sentire: pseudo-polyphony
(falsobordone)–diatonicism-(consonance)
la doglia del morire: imitation–(diatonicism)–dissonance
e un’alma senza core: homophony–diatonicism–consonance
non può sentir dolore: imitation–diatonicism–
chromaticism–dissonance
Although Gesualdo did not usually alter the modal framework of a
madrigal, he often weakened the cohesion and viscosity of the 16th-
century tactus. The scattering of dissonances on its every beat conceals its
profile. The rhythm of Gesualdo’s madrigals is subject to excessive
variation, which leads not only to further individualization but also to
musical fragmentation of each line or half-line. His frequent use of the
emphatic pause is a part of this practice. The slow contortions of chromatic
or dissonant episodes alternate abruptly with fast declamations in quavers,
or with interwoven diatonic melismas in quavers or semiquavers. The
individual episodes of Deh, coprite (ex.3) are based on rhythmically unified
declamation ranging from the quaver to the semibreve, and the latter is
also subdivided on the word ‘vita’ into melismatic semiquavers. The sixth
book of madrigals contains several quite delirious examples of melismas
figuring ‘joy’ (one is quoted by Kircher as ‘Paradigma affectus gaudiosi’),
and metrical polarity allied to the chromatic–diatonic polarity is a constant
characteristic. In such cases, to delegate a formal function to the poetic
conceit, binding the various verbal-musical images by antiphrasis or by
analogy, no longer represents madrigalian normality, but rather an extreme
and challenging extension of the stylus phantasticus.
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
4. Sacred works.
The musical characteristics of Gesualdo’s sacred works are, in diluted
form, those of his madrigals, with the exception of the rhythmic scheme
and of the graphic appearance; while the madrigals are always written with
the C mensuration sign, the motets and responses are in C (ex.4). In the
Sacrarum cantionum contrapuntally through-composed motets are the
norm, sometimes with canonic artifice and cantus firmus (Da pacem,
Domine and Assumpta est Maria: their missing parts and those of Illumina
nos misericordiarum were imaginatively fabricated by Stravinsky in 1957–
9). Some of the motets make discreet but manifest expressive use of
harmony and dissonance; the five-voice setting of O vos omnes almost
literally anticipates the more complex and grief-ridden six-voice version in
the Responsoria (1611). The latter are treated, in disturbing contravention
of all rules of post-Tridentine liturgical practice, in a free style enriched with
the molles flexiones of the madrigals. In ex.4 there is a concentration of
dissonance, chromaticism and melodic extravagance, especially in the
sextus part, which is nearly as affecting as the elaboration of the erotic
madrigals; despite the textual clarity of the setting, it contravenes the
liturgical decree that ordains a complete renunciation of all ornament
during Holy Week. Throughout the Responsoria Gesualdo used the
emotive style that his contemporaries reserved for rare single motets
(Wert’s Vox in Rama or Lassus’s Timor et tremor) and for their sacred
madrigals. It must be admitted that like the madrigals, the Responsoria
were meant for private performance at Gesualdo’s castle, and, moreover,
were intended for one listener, the composer himself. His paradoxical
identification with the religious theme is also evident in the 1603 motets,
settings of antiphonal, responsorial or para-liturgical texts, which dwell on
contrition, self-deprecation and a sinner’s supplications to the Virgin Mary
and to St Francis. Following a practice that is again characteristic of the
madrigal, Gesualdo borrowed no fewer than 14 of the motet texts from
Scipione Stella’s motet publication at Ferrara in 1595.
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
5. Posthumous reputation.
The extremism and individuality of Gesualdo’s music, confirmed by the
arbitrariness of his sacred works, are provocations, just as his personal
notoriety must have been, and in these circumstances it is impossible to
make a calm judgment on his output. Interpretation of his music is
compromised, more than that of any other 16th-century composer’s work,
by a change of harmonic perspective that has brought about a mistaken
overemphasis on his chromatic style. Stravinsky, whether consciously or
not, exploited just this misunderstanding when he orchestrated the
madrigal Beltà, poi che t’assenti (in Monumentum pro Gesualdo, 1960). In
the opening phrase, played by the strings, the horns are given only the
chromatic chords, corresponding to the syllables ‘-tà, -ti, -me, por-, cor’,
and thus by accentuating the implicitly vertical nature of modern
chromaticism, Stravinsky obliterated the contrapuntal relationship which
justified those chords in the original madrigal. Stravinsky’s poetics of the
arbitrary, a quasi-elective affinity, alienates Gesualdo’s music without
seeming to change it. Critical evaluation of it can properly be practised only
in the light of the contradictory reactions provoked by its conscious
exceptionality.
 The historical influence of Gesualdo’s madrigal style was slight, and the
chromaticism in the works of other Neapolitan composers is more the basis
than the consequence of his own use of it. His influence on G.B. Bartoli
and d’India (in monody too) seems clearer, lying in the ostentatious
dissociation of the musical images. The only serious attempt at an imitation
of Gesualdo’s style was made by Cifra, who set 18 of Gesualdo’s texts to
music in his Madrigali concertati libro quinto (Venice, 1621), imitating his
melodic and rhythmic excesses; but this was more a scholastic exorcism
than a stylistic adherence to the ‘affetto pietoso e compassionevole’
admired by Pietro della Valle (Della musica dell’età nostra, 1640). By that
time Gesualdo’s music, no longer fashionable in avant-garde circles, was
reduced to a paradigm of ‘exquisite counterpoint, with difficult but pleasing
fugues in each part’, sometimes ‘harsh and rugged’, to use Vincenzo
Giustiniani’s words.
Simone Molinaro made the major contribution towards the use of
Gesualdo’s music as an instructional model for free counterpoint by
republishing the five-voice madrigals in score at Genoa (1613). Banchieri
quoted Gesualdo as an example in Moderna pratica, and Domenico
Mazzocchi also praised him; G.B. Martini, in his contrapuntal wisdom,
appraised the figurae and licences of two of his madrigals. Burney
measured their harmonic audacity with reference to tonal harmony, without
keeping in mind that they result from the extension rather than the negation
of modality. Through the incommensurability of such terms of reference his
verdict against Gesualdo is that of arrogant dilettantism: he ‘seldom
succeeded to the satisfaction of posterity’. Even in the 20th century some
scholars still appeal against Burney’s verdict, taking it as implicitly valid,
and try to decipher Gesualdo by means of a functional harmonic system
(Keiner), by Hindemith’s theory of root progression (Marshall) or by a
presumptive ‘triadic atonality’ (Lowinsky), which, paradoxically, is now
meant to be much more understandable than it could have been in 1600,
and assigns Gesualdo to an imaginary, heroic history of visionary prophets.
Stravinsky’s irreverent and arbitrary approach came nearer to the now
fossilized Gesualdian reality. The problematic nature of Gesualdo’s music
lies in its complex relationship of dialectic mediation with the tradition of
counterpoint (Dahlhaus, 1974), and cannot easily be accounted for by the
stylistic category ‘mannerism’ (Finscher and Watkins), which by analogy is
perhaps legitimate for the madrigal in general, but is at the same time too
generic and sweeping to grasp the essential extraordinariness of Gesualdo
and of his artifice-laden style. His exhibitionist and at the same time
secretive individualism is socially and historically conditioned by his
melancholy evasion of history and society (Pirrotta, 1961).
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
WORKS

Edition: Carlo Gesualdo: Sämtliche Werke, ed. W. Weismann and G.E. Watkins
(Hamburg, 1957–67) [W]

sacred vocal
Sacrarum cantionum liber primus, 5vv (Naples, 1603) [1603a]
Sacrarum cantionum liber primus, 6, 7vv (Naples, 1603), inc. [1603b]
Responsoria et alia ad Officium Hebdomadae Sanctae spectantia, 6vv (Gesualdo,
1611) [1611]
Works in 15852, Salmi delle compiete de diversi musici napolitani, 4vv, ed. M.
Magnetta (Naples, 1620)

Adoramus te, Christe, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 51

Ad te levavi, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 77
Aestimatus sum (Sabbato Sancto), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 87
Amicus meus (Feria V), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 20
Animam meam dilectam (Feria VI), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 54
Ardens est cor meum, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 65
Assumpta est Maria, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 58; completed by I. Stravinsky, Tres sacrae
cantiones (London, 1960)
Astiterunt reges terrae (Sabbato Sancto), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 85
Ave, dulcissima Maria, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 17
Ave, regina coelorum, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 11
Ave, sanctissima Maria, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 26
Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel, 6vv, 1611; W vii, 93
Caligaverunt oculi mei (Feria VI), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 64
Da pacem, Domine, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 19; completed by I. Stravinsky, Tres sacrae
cantiones (London, 1960)
Deus refugium, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 54
Dignare me, laudare te, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 24
Discedite a me omnes, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 35
Domine, ne despicias, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 28
Ecce quomodo moritur justus (Sabbato Sancto), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 82
Ecce vidimus eum (Feria V), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 16
Eram quasi agnus innocens (Feria V), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 29
Exaudi, Deus, deprecationem meam, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 42
Franciscus humilis et pauper, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 81
Gaudeamus omnes diem festum celebrantes, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 39
Hei mihi, Domine, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 30
Illumina faciem tuam, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 60
Illumina nos misericordiarum, 7vv, 1603b; W ix, 89; completed by I. Stravinsky, Tres
sacrae cantiones (London, 1960)
In monte Oliveti (Feria V), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 9
In te, Domine, speravi, 4vv, Salmi delle compiete (Naples, 1620); W x, 26
Jerusalem, surge (Sabbato Sancto), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 72
Jesum tradidit impius (Feria VI), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 61
Judas mercator pessimus (Feria V), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 24
Laboravi in gemitu meo, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 33
Maria, mater gratiae, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 63
Miserere mei, Deus, 6vv, 1611; W vii, 96
Ne derelinquas me, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 69
Ne reminiscaris, Domine, 5vv, 15852; ed. in Piccardi
O anima sanctissima, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 85
O beata mater, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 73
O crux benedicta, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 48
Omnes amici miei (Feria VI), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 40
O Oriens, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 31
O sacrum convivium, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 47
O vos omnes, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 40
O vos omnes (Sabbato Sancto), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 80
Peccantem me quotidie, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 36
Plange quasi virgo (Sabbato Sancto), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 75
Precibus et meritis beatae Mariae, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 45
Recessit pastor noster (Sabbato Sancto), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 77
Reminiscere miserationum tuarum, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 21
Sana me, Domine, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 23
Sancti Spiritus, Domine, corda nostra, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 26
Seniores populi (Feria V), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 37
Sepulto Domino (Sabbato Sancto), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 90
Sicut ovis (Sabbato Sancto), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 68
Tamquam ad latronem (Feria VI), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 49
Tenebrae factae sunt (Feria VI), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 51
Tradiderunt me (Feria VI), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 59
Tribularer si nescirem, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 51
Tribulationem et dolorem inveni, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 57
Tristis est anima mea (Feria V), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 13
Una hora non potuistis (Feria V), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 33
Unus ex discipulis meis (Feria V), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 26
Velum templi (Feria VI), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 44
Veni Creator Spiritus, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 43
Veni sponsa Christi, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 54
Venit lumen tuum, 5vv, 1603a; W viii, 14
Verba mea, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 61
Vinea mea electa (Feria VI), 6vv, 1611; W vii, 47
Virgo benedicta, 6vv, 1603b; W ix, 15
secular vocal
Madrigali libro primo, 5vv (Ferrara, 1594; 4/1608, 5/1617 as Madrigali libro
secondo; 6/1617 as Madrigali libro primo) [1594a]
Madrigali libro secondo, 5vv (Ferrara, 1594 [pubd earlier under the name of
Gioseppe Pilonij]; 4/1616 as Madrigali libro primo) [1594b]
Madrigali libro terzo, 5vv (Ferrara, 1595) [1595]
Madrigali libro quarto, 5vv (Ferrara, 1596) [1596]
Madrigali libro quinto, 5vv (Gesualdo, 1611) [1611a]
Madrigali libro sesto, 5vv (Gesualdo, 1611) [1611b]
Partitura delli sei libri de’madrigali, 5vv, ed. S. Molinaro (Genoa, 1613) [= contents
of above 6 vols.]
Madrigali, 6vv, ed. M. Effrem (Naples, 1626) [1626]
Works in 160916, 161615, 161811

Ahi come tosto passa, 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 46

Ahi, disperata vita, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 18
Ahi, dispietata e cruda, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 26
All’apparir di quelle luci ardenti, 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 53
All’ombra degl’allori, canzonetta, 5vv, 1618 11; W x, 32
Alme d’Amor rubelle, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 49
Al mio gioir il ciel si fa sereno, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 84
Ancide sol la morte, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 66
Ancidetemi pur, grievi martiri, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 58
Ancor che per amarti, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 92
Arde il mio cor, ed è si dolce il foco, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 62
Ardita Zanzaretta, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 57
Ardo per te, mio bene, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 62
Asciugate i begli occhi, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 57; orchd I. Stravinsky, Monumentum pro
Gesualdo di Venosa ad CD annum (London, 1960)
A voi, mentre il mio core, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 55
Baci soavi e cari (Guarini), 5vv, 1594a; W i, 13
Bella Angioletta, da le vaghe piume (Tasso), 5vv, 1594a; W i, 76
Beltà, poi che t’assenti, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 16; orchd I. Stravinsky, Monumentum pro
Gesualdo di Venosa ad CD annum (London, 1960)
Candida man qual neve, 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 45
Candido e verde fiore, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 53
Caro amoroso neo (Tasso), 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 13
Che fai meco, mio cor, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 27
Chiaro risplender suole, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 25
Come esser può ch’io viva (A. Gatti), 5vv, 1594a; W i, 24
Come vivi cor mio, 5vv, 161811; W x, 34
Cor mio, ben che lontano, 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 41
Cor mio, deh, non piangete (Guarini), 5vv, 1596; W iv, 37
Correte, amanti, a prova, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 54
Crudelissima doglia, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 51
Dalle odorate spoglie, 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 48
De’bei colori aurate, 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 45
Deh, come invan sospiro, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 40
Deh, coprite il bel seno, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 64
Deh, se già fu crudele, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 64
Del bel de’bei vostri occhi, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 23
Dolce spirto d’amore (Guarini), 5vv, 1595; W iii, 31
Dolcissima mia vita, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 23
Dolcissimo sospiro (Pocaterra), 5vv, 1595; W iii, 66
Donna, se m’ancidete, 6vv, 1595; W iii, 71
Dove fuggi, o mio core, 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 40
Dove s’intese mai d’un cor dolente, canzonetta spirituale, 2 or 3vv, inc., I-BRq
Ecco, morirò dunque, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 59
Felice primavera (Tasso), 5vv, 1594a; W i, 68
Felicissimo sonno, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 33
Fra care danze in real tetto io vidi, 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 44
Gelo ha madonna il seno (Tasso), 5vv, 1594a; W i, 28
Già piansi nel dolore, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 96
Gioite voi col canto, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 13
Gravid’il ciel d’amore, 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 46
Hai rotto e sciolto e spento, 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 18
Il leon infernal pien di furore, 2 or 3vv, inc., BRq
Il sol, qualor più splende, 6vv, 1596; W iv, 69
In più leggiadro velo, 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 27
Io parto, e non più dissi, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 29
Io pur respiro in cosí gran dolore, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 44
Io tacerò, ma nel silenzio mio, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 21
Itene, o miei sospiri, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 19
Ite sospiri ardenti, canzonetta, 5vv, inc., 161615
Languisce al fin chi da la vita parte, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 45
Languisco e moro, ahi, cruda, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 20
L’arco amoroso e bello, 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 43
Luci serene e chiare (R. Arlotti), 5vv, 1596; W iv, 13
Madonna, io ben vorrei, 5vv, 1594a; W i, 20
Mentre gira costei, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 51
Mentre madonna il lasso fianco posa (Tasso), 5vv, 1594a; W i, 31
Mentre mia stella, miri, 5vv, 1594a; W i, 57
Meraviglia d’Amore, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 45
Mercè grido piangendo, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 49
Mille volte il dí moro, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 33
Moro, e mentre sospiro, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 46
Moro, lasso, al mio duolo, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 74
Non è questa la mano (Tasso), 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 41
Non è questa l’aurora, 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 42
Non mai non cangerò, 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 51
Non mirar, non mirare (F. Alberti), 5vv, 1594a; W i, 61
Non mi toglia il ben mio, 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 56
Non t’amo, o voce ingrata, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 43
Occhi del mio cor vita (after Guarini), 5vv, 1611a; W v, 42
O chiome erranti, o chiome (Marino), 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 42
O com’è gran martire (Guarini), 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 35
O dolce mio martire, 5vv, 1594a; W i, 46
O dolce mio tesoro, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 37
O dolorosa gioia, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 27
Or, che in gioia credea, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 33
O tenebroso giorno, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 72
O voi, troppo felici, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 51
Parlo, misero, o taccio (Guarini), 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 39
Pietà, Signor, pietade (Pocaterra), 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 41 (sacred)
Poichè l’avida sete, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 67; 2p. orchd I. Stravinsky, Monumentum pro
Gesualdo di Venosa ad CD annum (London, 1960)
Quale spada guerriera, 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 38
Qual fora, donna, un dolce ‘Ohimè’, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 31
Quando ridente e bella, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 100
Quel ‘no’ crudel che la mia speme ancise, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 70
Questa crudele e pia, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 30
Questi leggiadri odorosetti fiori (L. Celiano), 5vv, 1594a; W i, 64
Resta di darmi noia, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 23
Se chiudete nel core, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 65
Se così dolce e il duolo (Tasso), 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 30
Se da sí nobil mano (Tasso), 5vv, 1594a; W i, 37
Se la mia morte brami, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 13
Sento che nel partire, 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 37
Se per lieve ferita, 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 22
Se piange, ohimè, la donna, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 54
Se taccio, il duol s’avanza (Tasso), 5vv, 1594b; W ii, 33
Se tu fuggi, io non resto, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 76
Se vi duol il mio duolo, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 37
Se vi miro pietosa, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 61
Sí gioioso mi fanno i dolor miei, 5vv, 1594a; W i, 42
S’io non miro non moro, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 17
Son sí belle le rose (Grillo), 1594a; W i, 73
Sospirava il mio core, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 35
Sparge la morte al mio Signor nel viso, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 42 (sacred)
Talor sano desio, 5vv, 1596; W iv, 18
T’amo mia vita, la mia cara vita (Guarini), 1609 16, 1611a; W v, 79
Tirsi morir volea (Guarini), 5vv, 1594a; W i, 50
Tu che con vari accenti, 6vv, 1626; facs. in W x, 39
Tu m’uccidi, oh crudele, 5vv, 1611a; W v, 60
Tu piangi, o Filli mia, 5vv, 1611b; W, vi, 19
Tu segui, o bella Clori, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 89
Veggio, sí, dal mio sole, 5vv, 1595; W iii, 40
Voi volete ch’io mora (Guarini), 5vv, 1595; W iii, 13
Volan quasi farfalle, 5vv, 1611b; W vi, 77
instrumental
3 ricercari, a 4, in G. de Macque: Ricercate et canzoni francese (Rome, 1586)
Canzon francese, a 4, kbd, GB-Lbl Add.30491; W x, 16
Gagliarda, a 4, I-Nc 4.6.3; W x, 22
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AmbrosGM
BurneyH
EinsteinIM
HawkinsH
G.B. Martini: Esemplare o sia Saggio fondimentale pratico di contrappunto
fugato (Bologna, 1774–6/R), 198, 237
F. Keiner: Die Madrigale Gesualdos von Venosa (Leipzig, 1914/R)
L. Torri: ‘Nei parentali (1614–1914) di Felice Anerio e di Carlo Gesualdo,
Principe di Venosa’, RMI, xxi (1914), 492–508
P. Guerrini: ‘Canzoni spirituali del Cinquecento: una piccola raccolta
bresciana’, Santa Cecilia, xxiv/1 (1922), 6
C. Gray and P.Heseltine: Carlo Gesualdo, Prince of Venosa: Musician and
Murderer (London, 1926/R)
U. Prota-Giurleo: ‘La musica a Napoli nel Seicento (dal Gesualdo allo
Scarlatti)’, Samnium, i/4 (1928), 67–90
G. Pannain: L’oratorio dei Filippini e la scuola musicale di Napoli, IMi, v
(1934)
F. Vatielli: Il principe di Venosa e Leonora d’Este (Milan, 1941)
R. Giazotto: ‘Poesia del Tasso in morte di Maria Gesualdo’, RaM, xviii
(1948), 15–28; repr. as ‘Pianto e poesia del Tasso’, Musurgia
nova(Milan, 1959), 157
G.R. Marshall: The Harmonic Laws in the Madrigals of Carlo Gesualdo
(diss., New York U., 1956)
W. Weismann: ‘Die Madrigale des Carlo Gesualdo Principe di Venosa’,
DJbM, v (1960), 7–36
E. Lowinsky: Tonality and Atonality in Sixteenth-Century Music (Berkeley,
1961/R)
N. Pirrotta: ‘Gesualdo da Venosa nel IV centenario della nascità’, Terzo
programma (1961), no.2, p.199
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Zur chromatischen Technik Carlo Gesualdos’, AnMc, no.4
(1967), 77–96
L. Bianconi: ‘Struttura poetica e struttura musicale nei madrigali di
Monteverdi’, Claudio Monteverdi e il suo tempo: Venice, Mantua and
Cremona 1968, 335–48
A. Newcomb: ‘Carlo Gesualdo and a Musical Correspondence of 1594’,
MQ, liv (1968), 409–36
G. Pannain: ‘Note sui Responsori di Carlo Gesualdo da Venosa’, Chigiana,
new ser., v (1968), 231–7
A. Bossarelli Mondolfi: ‘Uno sconosciuto esemplare de Le Lodi della
Musica di Simone Verovio: la canzonetta ‘L’amoroso Delfino’ è di
Gesualdo da Venosa?’, Annuario del Conservatorio di musica ‘S.
Pietro a Majella’ di Napoli (1969)
R. Jackson: ‘On Frescobaldi’s Chromaticism and its Background’, MQ, lvii
(1971), 255–69
N. Pirrotta: ‘Gesualdo, Ferrara e Venezia’, Studi sul teatro veneto fra
rinascimento ed età barocca, ed. M.T. Muraro (Florence, 1971), 305
L. Finscher: ‘Gesualdo’s “Atonalität” und das Problem des musikalischen
Manierismus’, AMw, xxix (1972), 1–16
H. Meister: Untersuchungen zum Verhältnis von Text und Vertonung in
den Madrigalen Carlo Gesualdos (Regensburg, 1973)
C. Sartori: ‘Madrigali del Passerini e ricercari di De Macque e Gesualdo’,
Quadrivium, xiv (1973), 181–6
F.E. Silverman: ‘Gesualdo: Misguided or Inspired?’, CMc, no.16 (1973),
49–54
G. Watkins: Gesualdo: the Man and his Music (London, 1973, 2/1991)
E. Apfel and C.Dahlhaus: Studien zur Theorie und Geschichte der
musikalischen Rhythmik und Metrik (Munich, 1974), 282ff
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Gesualdos manieristische Dissonanztechnik’, Convivium
musicorum: Festschrift Wolfgang Boetticher, ed. H. Hüschen and D.-R.
Moser (Berlin, 1974), 34
C. Piccardi: ‘Carlo Gesualdo: l’aristocrazia come elezione’, RIM, ix (1974),
67–116
G. Watkins: ‘Carlo Gesualdo and the Delimitations of Late Mannerist
Style’, Studi musicali, iii (1974), 55–74
F. Lippmann: ‘Giovanni de Macque tra Roma e Napoli: nuovi documenti’,
RIM, xiii (1978), 243–79
M.F. Burdick: ‘Phrase Painting and Goal Orientation in two late Gesualdo
Madrigals’, Indiana Theory Review, v/2 (1982), 16–33
H. Poos: ‘Gesualdos Madrigal Moro, lasso, al mio duolo: Eine Studie zur
Formtechnik des musikalischen Manierismus’, Chormusik und
Analyse, ed. H. Poos (Mainz, 1983)
D. Arnold: Gesualdo (London, 1984)
P. Cecchi: ‘Le scelte poetiche di Carlo Gesualdo: Fonti letterarie e
musicali’,La musica a Napoli durante il seicento: Naples 1985, 47–75
E. Watkins: ‘Imitatio and emulatio: Changing Concepts of Originality in the
Madrigals of Gesualdo and Monteverdi in the 1590s’, Claudio
Monteverdi: Festschrift Reinhold Hammerstein, ed. L. Finscher
(Laaber, 1986), 453–87
P. Cecchi: ‘Cadenze e modalità nel quinto libro di madrigali a cinque voci
di Carlo Gesualdo’, RIM, xxiii (1988), 93–131
E. Durante and A.Martellotti: ‘Tasso, Luzzaschi e il Principe di Venosa’,
Tasso, la musica, i musicisti, ed. M.A. Balsano and T. Walker
(Florence, 1988), 17–44
K. Wettig: Satztechnische Studien an den Madrigalen Carlo Gesualdos
(Frankfurt, 1989)
D. Stevens: ‘Carlo Gesualdo’, MT, cxxxi (1990), 410–11
A. Stroë: ‘Bifurcations chez Gesualdo’, Quadrivium: Musiques et sciences:
Metz, 1991, 67–75
B. Pizzichelli: I Responsoria di Gesualdo (thesis, U. of Rome, 1992)
G. Iudica: Il principe dei musici (Palermo, 1993)
R. Jackson: ‘Gesualdo's Cadences: Innovation Set Against Convention’,
Musicologia Humana: Studies in Honor of Warren and Ursula
Kirkendale, ed. S. Gmeinwieser, D. Hiley and J. Riedlbauer (Florence,
1994), 275–89
B. Pizzichelli: Introduzione a Gesualdo da Venosa (Rome, 1995)
M.C. Bradshaw: ‘The Aristocratic Responsories of Cavalieri and Gesualdo,
and the “New Music”’, Music in Performance and Society: Essays in
honor of Roland Jackson, ed. M. Cole and J. Koegel (Warren, MI,
1997), 129–47
C. Reynolds: ‘Gesualdo's Languishing Steps’, Music in Renaissance
Cities and Courts: Studies in Honor of Lewis Lockwood, ed. J.A.
Owens and A. Cummings (Warren, MI, 1997), 373–80

Geteilt
(Ger.; abbreviated ‘get.’).
See Divisi.

Getragen
(Ger.: ‘solemn’, ‘ceremonious’).
A mark of tempo (and mood) found either by itself or as a qualification to
some other tempo marks: langsam getragen (‘slow and solemn’).

Gétreau, Florence
(b Boulogne-Billancourt, nr Paris, 16 May 1951). French musicologist. After
studying literature and the history of art at the University of Aix Marseille I
(1969–72), she was appointed assistant curator of the instrumental
museum of the Paris Conservatoire in 1973, becoming curator in 1979.
She was head of projects for the Paris Musée de la Musique (1986–92),
and later curator there (1993–4), and in 1994 was appointed both curator
of the Musée national des arts et traditions populaires and also head of its
music department. Concurrently she was a researcher at the CNRS, where
from 1992 to 1996 she was head of the research group on her two main
fields of study, organology and musical iconography. In 1993 she began
teaching these subjects at the Paris Conservatoire and in 1996 became
responsible for them at the CNRS Institut de Recherche sur le Patrimoine
Musical en France. Within the field of organology Gétreau specializes in
the history of French instrument making in the 17th and 18th centuries, the
history of collections of musical instruments in France and the history and
ethics of the restoration of musical instruments. In musical iconography her
work is centred on the painters Watteau and Veronese, and on the French
harpsichord and French bow. In addition to her publications she has
organized several exhibitions and is editor of the journal Musique-images-
instruments, which she founded in 1995.
WRITINGS
ed. with others: Musiques anciennes: instruments et partitions acceptés à
l’Etat en paiement de droits de succession, Bibliothèque nationale,
Paris 6 Nov – 7 Dec 1980 (Paris, 1980) [exhibition catalogue]
‘La restauration des instruments de musique’, Courrier du CNRS, no.38
(1980), 28–37
Restauration des instruments de musique (Fribourg, 1981)
‘Watteau et la musique: réalité et interprétation’, Antoine Watteau (1684–
1721): le peintre, son temps et sa légende: Paris 1984, 235–46
‘Contribution à l’histoire de la conservation en France’, Per una carta
europea del restauro: conservazione, restauro e riuso degli strumenti
musicali antichi: Venice 1985, 255–67
ed.: La facture instrumentale européenne: suprématies nationales et
enrichissement mutuel, Musée instrumental du Conservatoire National
Supérieur de Musique, Paris, 6 Nov 1985 – 1 March 1986 (Paris,
1985) [exhibition catalogue]
‘Watteau et sa génération: contribution à la chronologie et à l’identification
de deux instruments pastoraux’, Imago musicae, iv (1987), 299–314
ed.: Instrumentistes et luthiers parisiens: XVIIe-XIXe siècles, Paris, Marie
du Ve arrondissement, 4 Feb – 28 March 1988 (Paris, 1988)
[exhibition catalogue]
‘La Commission temporaire des Arts section de musique: naissance et
diffusion d’un modèle de Musée Instrumental’, L’image de la révolution
française: Paris 1989, ed. M. Vovelle (Oxford, 1989), iii, 2107–14
‘Le museum, section de musique: une utopie révolutionnaire et sa
descendance’, Orphée Phrygien: les musiques de la Révolution, ed.
J.-R. Julien and J.-C. Klein (Paris, 1989), 217–31
‘Restaurer l’instrument de musique: l’objet sonore et le document sont-ils
conciliables?’, Geschichte der Restaurierung in Europa/Histoire de la
restauration en Europe: Interlaken 1989, 145–53
Le Musée instrumental du Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique
de Paris: histoire et développement des collections (diss., U. of Paris
IV, 1991; Paris, 1996, as Aux origines du Musée de la musique: les
collections instrumentales du Conservatoire de Paris 1793–1993)
‘La musique’, ‘Les Noces de Cana’ de Véronèse: une oeuvre et sa
restauration, Musée du Louvre, Paris, 16 Nov 1992 – 29 March 1993
(Paris, 1992), 239–55 [exhibition catalogue]
with J. Dugot and others: ‘La recherche en organologie: les instruments
de musique occidentaux, 1960–1992’, RdM, lxxix (1993), 12–74
‘Collectionneurs d’instruments anciens et ensembles de musique ancienne
en France (1850–1950)’, HJbMw, xii (1994), 73–82
‘Orphée et les instruments de musique dans l’Occident moderne’, Les
métamorphoses d’Orphée, ed. C. Camboulivès and M. Lavallée,
Musée des Beaux-Arts, Tourcoing, 19 Nov 1994–30 Jan 1995
(Tourcoing, 1995), 95–103 [exhibition catalogue]
ed.: Musiciens des rues de Paris, Musée national des arts et traditions
populaires, 18 Nov 1997 – 27 April 1998 (Paris, 1997) [exhibition
catalogue]
with D. Herlin: ‘Portraits de clavecins et de clavecinistes français’,
Musique-images-instruments, no.2 (1997), 88–114
JEAN GRIBENSKI
 Getty, Gordon (Peter)
(b Los Angeles, 20 Dec 1933). American composer. An heir to the Getty oil
fortune, he studied the piano as a child and, after terms of duty in the army
and the family businesses, enrolled at the San Francisco Conservatory of
Music (1961–2), where he studied theory with Sol Joseph. He holds
honorary doctorates from the University of Maryland, Pepperdine
University, the University of California at San Francisco, the San Francisco
Conservatory of Music and the Mannes College of Music. Through the
Gordon and Ann Getty Foundation he has been a generous supporter of
the performing arts in the San Francisco region and elsewhere. Getty’s
music, much of it vocal, is written in a smoothly tonal idiom, with careful
attention to the demands of a poetic text. His most frequently performed
work is The White Election (1981), a cycle of 32 Emily Dickinson settings
that has been performed by and recorded by Kaaren Erickson. His Plump
Jack (1987) is an operatic treatment of Shakespeare’s Falstaff to an
original libretto.
WORKS
(selective list)

Homework Suite, pf, 1954; The White Election (song cycle, E. Dickinson), S, pf,
1981; 3 Diatonic Waltzes, pf, 1985–6; Plump Jack (op, 2, Getty, after W.
Shakespeare), 1987; 3 Waltzes, pf, orch, 1988, arr. orch, 1991; Victorian Scenes
(A. Tennyson, A.E. Housman), chorus, pf/orch, 1989; Annabel Lee (E.A. Poe),
chorus, pf/orch, 1990; Waltzes from Fall of the House of Usher, pf, 1992–5; All
Through the Night (folksong), chorus, pf, 1998; Joan and the Bells, S, B, chorus,
pf/orch, 1998

Principal publisher: Rork Music

JOSHUA KOSMAN

Getz, Stan(ley)
(b Philadelphia, 2 Feb 1927; d Malibu, CA, 6 June 1991). American jazz
tenor saxophonist and bandleader. At the age of 12 he started on the
harmonica and within a year switched to the string bass and then to the
alto saxophone. He also played the bassoon in his high school orchestra.
He was playing professionally at the age of 15 in New York and a year later
made his first recording, having left school to tour as a sideman with Jack
Teagarden. He joined several important big bands, including those of Stan
Kenton (1944–5) Jimmy Dorsey (1945) and Benny Goodman (1945–6,
1947); while with Kenton he became addicted to heroin. In 1947 he joined
Woody Herman’s Second Herd, where with his fellow saxophonists Zoot
Sims, Serge Chaloff and Ray Steward (soon replaced by Al Cohn) he
formed the famous reed section known as the Four Brothers. In 1948
Getz’s improvisation on Ralph Burns’s Early Autumn (Cap.) established
him instantly as a major soloist. After leaving Herman in 1949 Getz began
to lead his own small groups and immediately started to dominate jazz
popularity polls for his instrument, as he did for many years. From the
1950s he made a succession of outstanding recordings for Norman
Granz’s labels, despite his career being interrupted by difficulties
associated with his addiction to drugs. He went to Europe with Granz’s
Jazz at the Philharmonic in 1958 and remained there working freelance,
until 1960.
After returning to the USA in 1961 he recorded the album Focus(Verve),
which included outstanding arrangements by Eddie Sauter, providing one
of the first convincing amalgamations of jazz and European art music. In
the following year with Charlie Byrd, Getz initiated a fusion of cool jazz and
Brazilian bossa nova which captured the public’s fancy and brought Getz
much popular acclaim. Getz became cynical in the face of widespread,
tasteless appropriations of bossa nova, even though he had proved himself
to be the consummate improviser in this style in his solos on Desafinado
from the album Jazz Samba (1962, Verve) and The Girl from Ipanema (on
Getz/Gilberto, 1963, Verve). Getz continued to lead small groups in which
he helped to launch the careers of Gary Burton, Steve Swallow and Chick
Corea, but he found himself out of touch with the free-jazz and jazz-rock
movements and spent the years 1969 to 1971 in semi-retirement in
Europe. He resumed performing in the USA in 1972 and thereafter led
small groups with many important young musicians, moving into the realm
of synthesized jazz in the late 1970s, but in 1981 he rejected that path and
returned to his traditional approach, based in bop and swing. From 1985 to
1988 he worked regularly in the San Francisco Bay area and served as the
artist-in-residence at Stanford University. Although suffering from cancer,
he continued to play as well as ever, most notably in a duo recorded live at
the Jazzhus Montmartre in Copenhagen with the pianist Kenny Barron
(1991, Verve).
Getz was one of the supremely melodious improvisers in modern jazz. His
style was deeply rooted in the swing period. Drawing his light, vibrato-less
tone and basic approach from Lester Young, he developed a highly
personal manner which, in its elegance and easy virtuosity, stood apart
from the aggressive bop style of the late 1940s and 50s. His justly
celebrated performance on Early Autumn (1948), with its characteristically
languorous melody and delayed rhythm, captured the imagination of many
young white jazz musicians of the time and helped to precipitate the ‘cool’
reaction to bop in the years that followed. Although ballad renditions of this
sort were the basis of Getz’s popularity, he was also among the few jazz
musicians who could remain lyrical even at very fast tempos, thanks to a
secure technical command of his instrument; performances such as Crazy
Chords (1949, New Jazz), a breakneck rendering of the blues in all 12
keys, set new standards of virtuosity for jazz improvisation on the tenor
saxophone.
For many years Getz lacked the near-universal critical acclaim accorded
his contemporaries John Coltrane and Sonny Rollins and his
predecessors, the great tenors of the swing era. Reservations about his
place in the jazz pantheon arose from Getz’s obvious and substantial early
borrowings from Young (and the broader implications of such appropriation
to questions of audience and racism in jazz), from a feeling that his delicate
style was perhaps too precious, lacking soul (that is to say, cold rather than
cool), and also from critical concerns about a repetitive, mechanical
approach heard in a number of fast-tempoed improvisations which he
made during his first decade of recordings. But gradually, perhaps more so
than that of any other jazz musician, the criticisms largely evaporated. One
reason for this was that his playing became more varied at fast tempos,
and heavier throughout; and he routinely modified his already beautiful,
inimitable, instantly recognizable tone by incorporating soulful,
individualized cries. Later, as the bop revival of the 1980s onwards
gathered steam, Getz’s approach came back in fashion; with most of the
giants of this instrument having died, and Rollins exploring fusion styles, it
was Getz (and Joe Henderson) who defined the lingua franca of jazz tenor
saxophone playing, notably in his recordings with Abbey Lincoln and
Barron. Finally, and perhaps most significantly, as the Brazilian component
of Latin jazz became integrated into all sorts of jazz styles, including the
very fusion and free-jazz movements from which he had distanced himself,
it became apparent that Getz had had a substantial impact upon the
development of jazz; his playing in this realm remains, with seeming
permanence, unsurpassed. A collection of transcriptions of Getz’s solos,
Stan Getz: Improvised Saxophone Solos, has been published by T.
Kynaston (Hialeah, FL, 1982).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. James: ‘Stan Getz’, Ten Modern Jazzmen: an Appraisal of the
Recorded Work of Ten Modern Jazzmen (London, 1960), 15–25
D. DeMicheal: ‘A Long Look at Stan Getz’, Down Beat, xxxiii (1966), no.10,
pp.17–20; no.11, pp.15–17
A. Astrup: The Stan Getz Discography (Texarkana, TX, 1978; enlarged
2/1984 as The Revised Stan Getz Discography; enlarged3/1991 as
The New Revised Stan Getz Discography)
R. Palmer: Stan Getz (London, 1988)
D.L. Maggin: Stan Getz: a Life in Jazz (New York, 1996)
J. BRADFORD ROBINSON/BARRY KERNFELD

Getzelev, Boris Semyonovich

(b Kuybïshev, 27 Dec 1940). Russian composer. He received his musical
education at the Glinka Conservatory in Gor'kiy (1961–6), studying with
A.A. Nesterov (composition) and B.S. Marants (piano). He completed his
studies as a probationary assistant lecturer at the Moscow Conservatory
under Shchedrin (1968–72). In 1965 he began teaching at the Gor'kiy
conservatory, first in the department of musical theory and composition,
and from 1988 as head of the department of composition and
instrumentation. He became an Honoured Artist of Russia in 1993 and was
appointed to a chair in 1994.
Getselev is the foremost composer of Gor'kiy (now known again as Nizhniy
Novgorod) which is considered the third city of Russia. He is intimately
connected with the musical life of the city (many of his compositions have
sprung from his contacts with its performing groups and soloists); he has
written music for a number of productions at the Theatre for Young
Audiences and for television films. Almost all his choral works have been
written for the Nizhniy Novgorod Boys’ Choir and Chamber Choir. During
 the mid-1960s the greatest influence on his work was that of his teacher
Shchedrin; the rationalism of his style which lends his work an anti-
Romantic flavour, is traceable to Shchedrin, as are the chromatic melodics,
prevailing timbre and his fondness for dynamic ostinato figures. Getselev,
however, was dissatisfied with the general level of the teaching of
composition, and after graduating he set about re-equipping himself
technically. He learnt 12-tone and aleatory technique and experimented
with timbre, his chief model being Polish music and Lutosławski in
particular. But these and other avant-garde techniques are not found in
Getselev’s work; his mature style explores new compositional approaches
in more traditional ways. Although his reputation is based primarily on his
choral, theatre and children’s music, he himself considers the instrumental
genres central to his work. The influences of Shostakovich, Prokofiev,
Stravinsky and Bartók are evident in his symphonies and concertos.
However, neither in structure nor in surface features are these works in any
sense copies of the models mentioned.
WORKS
(selective list)

Op: Mart–aprel' [March–April] (TV op, L. Shereshevsky), 1968

Orch: Burlesque, str orch, 1966; Freska [Fresco], 1970; Pf Conc., 1972; Vc Conc.,
1974; Sym. no.1, 1981; March and Rondo in Russian Style, folk insts, orch, 1984;
Marsh muzïkal'nïkh puteshestvennikov [March of Musical Travellers], 1986; Sym.
no.2 ‘Fantasmagorii’, 1991; Conc. for Str Orch and Brass Qnt, 1996; Conc., Cl,
orch, 1999
Choral: Vspïl'chivïy mal'chik [The Boy with a Temper] (A. Barto), Tr, children’s
chorus, 1965; Zelyonnaya luna [The Green Moon] (song cycle, Al'Bayati), Bar, orch,
1966; Posledniy vecher [The Last Evening] (M. Marash), T, chorus, 1973; Pro
medvedey [About Bears], (cant., M. Alechkovich, A. Barto, K. Chukovsky, R.
Desnos, I. Krïlov, Marshak, A.A. Milne, N. Nekrasov), children's chorus, 1975;
Somneniya izdatelya [A Publisher’s Doubts] (Nekrasov), chorus, 1978; Angliyskiye
pesenki [English Songs] (V. Levin), children’s chorus, 1981; Reka vremyon [The
River of Time] (triptych, M.Yu. Lermontov, G. Derzhavin, F. Tyutchev), chorus, 1987;
Letyat po nebu shariki [Balloons are Flying in the Sky] (cant., D. Kharms, N.
Oleynikov), children’s chorus, orch, 1988; Khrani menya, moy talisman [Keep me
Safe, my Talisman] (cant., A.S. Pushkin), S, Bar, B, orch, 1993; Vrednïye sovetï
[Dangerous Advice] (cant., G. Ostyor), children’s chorus, orch, 1994; Novïye
zapovedi [New Commandments] (cant., G. Oster), 1994; Telega zhizni [The Wagon
of Life] (cant., Pushkin), 1998
Chbr and solo inst: Pf Trio, 1966; Sonata, fl, pf, 1973; Qnt, fl, ob, vn, vc, pf/hpd,
1984; Triptych, pf, 1984/91; Barel'yevï [Bas-Reliefs], sym., org, 1985; Trio, cl, vc, pf,
1986; Nizhegorodskiy kreml' [The Nizhniy Novgorod Kremlin], org, 1988; Trio, cl, 2
vc, 1993; Fantaziya na staroangliyskuyu temu [Fantasia on an Old English Theme],
pf, 1995; 3 khoral'niye prelyudii dlya organa [3 Choral Preludes for organ], 1997
Vocal: Liven' [Downpour] (R. Rozhdestvensky), Bar, pf, 1960; 5 canons (S.
Pavlyuchenko, S. Chornïy, L. Shereshevsky), B, inst ens 1969; Tvoyo vremya [Your
Time] (song cycle, Yu. Nemtsov), B, pf, 1976; Diptych (N. Gumilyov), T, pf, 1979; Iz
angliyskoy poezii [From English Poetry] (song cycle, R. Kipling, W. Linton, W.
Shakespeare, R.L. Stevenson), bar, pf, 1982; 2 stikhotvoreniya [2 Poems] (Yu.
Morits), S, pf, 1982; Balagan [Farce] (song cycle, M. Kulinov, B. Zakhoder), Bar, pf,
1990; Lirika Khodasevicha [Lyrics of Khodasevich] (song cycle), T, pf, 1994;
Gor'kiye strofï [Bitter Verses] (song cycle, Pushkin), Bar, pf, 1998; Ironicheskiye
strofï [Ironic Verses] (song cycle, Pushkin), 1998; Frivol'nïye strofï [Frivolous
Verses] (song cycle, Pushkin), T, pf, 1998

WRITINGS
‘Faktorï formoobrazovaniya v krupnïkh instrumental'nïkh proizvedeniyakh
vtoroy polovinï XX veka’ [Factors in form and structure in major
instrumental works of the second half of the 20th century], Problemï
muzïki XX veka (Gor'kiy, 1977)
‘O dramaturgii krupnïkh instrumental'nïkh form vo vtoroy polovine XX veka’
[Dramatic structure in major instrumental forms in the second half of
the 20th century], Problemï dramaturgii v muzïke XX veka [Problems
in dramatic form in 20th-century music] (Moscow, 1984)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Krïlova: ‘Muzïka na “vïrost'”’ [Music for ‘growth’], SovM (1978), no.10, 9–
11
N. Bordyug: ‘Boris Getselev’, Kompozitorï Rossiskoy Federatsii, v
(Moscow, 1994)
S. Savenko: ‘O Borise Getseleve, muzïkante i cheloveke’ [Boris Getselev,
musician and man], MAk (1996), no.1, pp.106–12
SVETLANA SAVENKO

Getzen Co.
American firm of brass instrument manufacturers. It was first established in
Elkhorn, WI, as a band instrument repair shop in 1939 by T.J. (Anthony
James) Getzen (b Grand Rapids, MI, 25 Sept 1894; d Harvard, IL, 10
March 1968), who had formerly worked for York, Wurlitzer and Holton.
Manufacturing of student-quality cornets, trumpets, trombones and piston
bugles began in 1946. In June 1960 Getzen absorbed the Hoosier Band
Instrument Co. of Elkhart, IN. Under the presidency of Harold M. Knowlton
(October 1960 to December 1985) the firm gained world prominence,
importing Meinl-Weston tubas from 1967 and introducing the popular
‘Eterna’ model trumpet and E.L. DeFord flutes in 1972, in the latter year
also expanding their space by 75% through the purchase of a second
factory in Marango, IL. The trumpeter Carl (‘Doc’) Severinsen was vice-
president for research and development from 1969 to 1980. The firm went
bankrupt in 1991.
In the meantime, Getzen’s son (James) Robert had founded Allied Music
Corp. (AMC) in 1959 and Allied Music Supply Co. (AMSC) in 1967.
Robert’s sons Edward (Michael) (b Elkhorn, 17 June 1950) and Thomas
(Robert) (b Elkhorn, 10 June 1948) took over AMSC in 1974 and AMC in
1985. In 1988 they founded the Edwards Band Instrument Co. in Elkhorn,
and began to manufacture high-quality trombones and trumpets with
interchangeable parts. They rescued the ex-family firm from bankruptcy in
1991 and Getzen Company, Inc. became the parent company, with AMC
the repair division. In 1998 Getzen was making instruments with the
Getzen, Edwards and Canadian Brass trade names and manufacturing
component parts for Monette.
In 1965 Donald E(arl) Getzen (b Elkhorn, 15 May 1928), another son of T.J.
Getzen, founded DEG Music Products in Lake Geneva, WI, selling a full
line of band instruments. Until 1991 his instruments were made by AMC,
after that by Weril in Brazil.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Getzen’s Remarkable Rebirth: how Family Members Saved a Venerable
Brass Maker from Certain Liquidation’, Music Trades, cxliii/1 (1995–6),
121–7
EDWARD H. TARR

Getzmann [Geltzmann, Gelzmann,

Gatzmann], Wolfgang
(fl Frankfurt, 1605–13). German composer and organist. He was a pupil of
Alexius Neander, probably at Würzburg, and he saw through the press four
posthumous volumes of Neander’s motets (1605–10). From 1610 at the
latest he was organist of St Bartholomäus, Frankfurt. He published
Phantasiae sive cantiones mutae, ad duodecim modos figurales tam
autenticos quam plagales, naturales non transpositos et transpositos,
variis instrumentis musicis accomodatae, ex diversis demum musicae
coryphaeis collectae, jamque primo in lucem editae (RISM 161315);
according to Georg Draudius (Biblioteca classica, 1611), this volume
appeared in 1610, so the print of 1613 may be a second edition. It is a
collection of some of his vocal works and instrumental fantasias and
canzonas. Getzmann dedicated the volume to Nicolaus Gereon of Mainz, a
member of the Archbishop-Elector’s council, for whose marriage in 1609 he
composed the eight-part motet Veni de Libano, which is included in the
collection and may well be identical with the lost Epithalamium musicum,
composed for the same occasion and his only other recorded publication.
The only composers whom he names in his collection are Thomas
Bodenstein and Konrad Hagius, who are represented by one piece each.
The fantasias show some influence of polyphonic English fantasias as well
as of a new German instrumental style, which is evident particularly in the
sequential writing that replaces polyphony derived from vocal music.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MeyerMS
C. Valentin: Geschichte der Musik in Frankfurt am Main vom Anfange des
14. bis zum Anfange des 18. Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt, 1906/R)
FRIEDRICH BASER

Geuck, Valentin
(b Kassel, 1570–72; d Kassel, 3 Nov 1596). German composer and writer
on music. He grew up at Kassel, attended the local school and sang
descant in the choir of the Martinskirche. He had private tuition to prepare
him for service as a musician at the court of Wilhelm IV, Landgrave of
Hesse, and by 1585 he was a treble in the Hofkapelle. There he was
 strongly influenced by Georg Otto, who was Kapellmeister from 1586. In
1588 he became a tenor, and in 1592, on the accession of the 20-year-old
Landgrave Moritz, he was also appointed a court official: he first worked as
a clerk in the excise office, and then, in 1594, the landgrave made him his
valet. The landgrave, a highly educated man and a proficient musician,
held him in high esteem and not only encouraged him to compose but after
his untimely death completed some unfinished works and was instrumental
in getting some of his music printed. The texts of the Novum et insigne
opus are paraphrases in tetrastichs by Landgrave Moritz of the Gospels for
the Sundays and festivals of the church’s year. Some 60 motets by Geuck
survive and bear witness to his great promise. They are closely related in
style to those of Georg Otto: they are in a smooth, predominantly harmonic
idiom, with natural word-setting and expressive declamation. His Musica is
a school manual written according to the method of Petrus Ramus; he was
encouraged to write it by Landgrave Moritz, who partly edited it after his
death. It shows that he was familiar with all the most important writings of
the time on theory of music and that he possessed an intimate knowledge
of the latest music and instruments from Italy. Its second part, ‘De
harmonia’, which covers all aspects of polyphonic music – including text-
setting, tempo, dynamics and musical genres – is particularly well
conceived.
WORKS
Liber secundus: continens motetas dominicales, 6vv (Kassel, 1603 3)
Liber tertius: continens motetas dierum feriarum, 5vv (Kassel, 1603 4)
Tricinia, das ist dreystimmige weltliche Lieder, beydes zu singen und sonst auff
Instrumenten zu spielen, 3vv (Kassel, 1603); lost, see MGG1
Novum et insigne opus continens textus metricos sacros … liber primus motetarum
festalium, 5, 6, 8vv (Kassel, 16045); [? 2nd edn, see list inMGG1]; 3 ed. F. Blume,
Geistliche Musik am Hofe des Landgrafen Moritz von Hessen (Kassel, 1931)
Cantio in solennitatem nuptiarum illustrissimi principis ac domini Mauritij … et …
dominae Agnetis … Qualis est dilectus tuus, 6vv,D-MGs
theoretical works
Musica methodice conscripta et in ordinem brevem redacta, Kl [partly ed. Moritz,
Landgrave of Hesse] (Kassel, 1598)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (W. Brennecke)
E. Zulauf: Beiträge zur Geschichte der landgräflich-hessischen Hofkapelle
zu Cassel bis auf die Zeit Moritz des Gelehrten (Kassel,1902), 28, 31–
2, 43, 52
F. Blume: Introduction to Geistliche Musik am Hofe des Landgrafen Moritz
von Hessen (Kassel,1931); repr. in Zeitschrift des Vereins für
hessische Geschichte und Landeskunde, lxviii (1957), 131–40
E. Gutbier: ‘Die Familie Geuck in Niederhessen: ihr Name und ihre
Herkunft’,Hessische Familienkunde, iv (1958), 235–7
E. Gutbier: ‘Valentin Geuck und Landgraf Moritz von Hessen, die
Verfasser einer Musiklehre’, Hessisches Jb für Landesgeschichte, x
(1960), 212–28
C. Bernsdorff-Engelbrecht: ‘Musik zwischen den Generationen:
Gebrauchs- und Repräsentationsmusik am Hofe des Landgrafen
Moritz von Hessen’, Sagittarius, ii (1969), 29–35
C.L. Alwes jr: Georg Otto’s ‘Opus musicum novum’ (1604) and Valentin
Geuck’s ‘Novum et Insigne Opus’ (1604): a Musico-Liturgical Analysis
of Two Collections of Gospel Music from the Court of Hesse-Kassel
(DMA diss., U. of Illinois, 1982)
WILFRIED BRENNECKE

Gevaert, François-Auguste
(b Huysse, nr Oudenaarde, 31 July 1828; d Brussels, 24 Dec 1908).
Belgian musicologist, teacher and composer. He first studied music with
the organist J.-B. Christiaens, a relative, and gave early evidence of an
exceptional gift. At the age of 13 he entered the Ghent Conservatory to
study the piano with De Somere and harmony with Mengal. Two years later
he became a piano teacher himself; subsequently he was the organist at
the Jesuit college in Ghent. In 1847 his Flemish cantata België won first
prize in a competition organized by the Société des Beaux-Arts de Gand,
and in the same year his cantata Le roi Lear won him the Belgian Prix de
Rome. Because of his age he was permitted to postpone his foreign tour
for two years, during which time he composed the operas Hugues de
Zomerghem and La comédie à la ville. They were both published by the
Gevaert family, who ran a music printing shop first in Huysse and later in
Ghent. From 1849 to 1852 he travelled in France, Spain, Italy and
Germany. In Madrid he composed the orchestral Fantasia sobre motivos
españoles, a work which favourably impressed Queen Isabel II. He also
wrote a Rapport sur l’état de la musique en Espagne, published in the
bulletin of the Belgian Royal Academy in 1851; later he published a similar
report on the state of music in Italy.
After a brief return to Ghent, Gevaert established himself in Paris, where
his comic opera Georgette, ou Le moulin de Fontenoy was given with great
success at the Théâtre Lyrique on 27 November 1853. He followed this
with a series of operas over the next ten years, most of which were first
performed at the Opéra-Comique. In 1867 he was appointed music director
at the Opéra, a position he held until the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian
War. He then returned to Belgium and succeeded Fétis as director of the
Brussels Conservatory; under his energetic leadership, which covered a
37-year period, the conservatory grew to be one of the most important
centres of musical learning in the world. He initiated fundamental reforms
in teaching and organization, setting up new courses and expanding the
teaching staff to include outstanding musicians such as Ysaÿe, De Greef,
Tinel and Gilson.
Although not an important composer, Gevaert cultivated a number of
genres with success; he wrote chiefly operas and cantatas, but also sacred
music, secular songs and partsongs, and orchestral and organ music. His
pedagogical works, however, are of greater significance: the Nouveau
traité d’instrumentation (1885), a reworking of the 1863 Traité général
d’instrumentation, was translated into German (by Riemann), Russian (by
Tchaikovsky), English and Portuguese, and declared ‘a monument of
universal knowledge’. His Vade-mecum de l’organiste and Traité
d’harmonie théorique et pratique were also much praised.
 Most of Gevaert’s historical writings deal with ancient and early medieval
music. His exhaustive Histoire et théorie de la musique de l’antiquité
regards the history of music as a part of cultural history. In Les origines du
chant liturgique de l’église latine and La mélopée antique he made a
thorough study of the Greek modes and reached the conclusion that it was
not Gregory but one of his predecessors who was responsible for
reorganizing the hymnology of the Roman Church; at the time this theory
was strongly disputed, especially by the Benedictine monks. He also
published numerous editions of early music, including a collection of
Chansons du XVe siècle (Paris, 1875/R) in collaboration with Gaston Paris.
Under Gevaert’s influence, music schools throughout Belgium underwent
significant reform and new schools were established. He was held in great
respect by his contemporaries, being composer to the King of Belgium, a
member of the Belgian Royal Academy, the Institut de France and the
Royal Academy in Berlin, and a holder of the Leopoldsorde and the Order
of the Queen of Spain. At the end of his long and fruitful life he was made a
baronet for composing the national anthem of the Belgian Congo.
WORKS
operas
first performed, and printed works published, in Paris unless otherwise stated

Hugues de Zomerghem (grand opéra, 3, V.Prilleux), Ghent, Grand théâtre, 23

March 1848, vs (Ghent, 1848)
La comédie à la ville (opéra bouffon, 1, Prilleux), Ghent, Grand, 5 Jan 1849, vs
(Ghent, Paris, 1853)
Les empiriques (oc, 1, G. Vaëz), 1851, unperf., B-Bc
Georgette, ou Le moulin de Fontenoy (opéra bouffe, 1, Vaëz and A. Royer), Lyrique,
27 Nov 1853, vs (Brussels, 1854)
Le billet de Marguerite (oc, 3, A. De Leuwen and Brunswick), Lyrique, 7 Oct 1854,
vs (c1854)
Les lavandières de Santarem (oc, 3, A.-P. Dennery and Grangé), Lyrique, 25 Oct
1855, vs (c1855)
Quentin Durward (oc, 3, E. Cormon and M. Carré, after W. Scott), OC (Favart), 25
March 1858 (c1858
Le diable au moulin (oc, 1, Cormon and Carré), OC (Favart), 13 May 1859, vs
(1859)
Le Château Trompette (oc, 3, Cormon and Carré), OC (Favart), 23 April 1860, vs
(1864)
La poularde de Caux (opérette, 1, De Leuwen and Prilleux), Lyrique, 17 May 1861,
vs (1861) [collab. Clapisson, E. Gauthier, Poise, A. Bazille and S. Mangeant]
Les deux amours (oc, 2, Cormon and A. Achard), Baden-Baden, Maison de la
Conversation, 31 July 1861, B-Bc
Le capitaine Henriot (oc, 3, after V. Sardou and Vaëz), OC (Favart), 29 Dec 1864,
vs (1864)

sacred choral
Jérusalem, ou Le départ des Croisés (Ghent, n.d.); Super flumina Babylonis,
chorus, orch (Ghent, 1847)
Te Deum, 1843, B-Bc; Requiem, male vv, orch (Ghent, 1853); Litanies du Très-
Saint Nom de Jésus (Ghent, 1864); Christmas Mass, 3 children’s/female vv, org
(Paris, Brussels, 1908); 9 motets; other shorter works
secular vocal
Cants.: Le départ (Ghent, 1846); België, 1847, B-Bc; Le roi Lear, 1847, Bc;
Evocation patriotique, 1856, Bc; De nationale verjaerdag, c1856 (Ghent, 1856); Le
retour de l’armée, 1859; Lyderic, premier forestier de Flandre (Ghent, 1859); Jacob
van Artevelde (Ghent, 1864)
Other choral works; Les cloches de Noël, 1v, orch, Bc; many songs, 1v, pf, incl.
Verzameling van [8] oude Vlaemsche liederen (Ghent, 1854)
instrumental
Orch: Fantasia sobre motivos españoles, 1851; Flandre au Lion, ov., 1848, B-Bc;
La feria andaluza, 1851, Bc
Chbr and pf: Quatuor, cl, hn, bn, pf, Collège Melle-Lez-Gand, Ghent; Grande
fantaisie, pf 4 hands/pf solo
WRITINGS
Méthode pour l’enseignement du plainchant (Ghent, 1856)
Traité général d’instrumentation (Ghent, 1863)
Vade-mecum de l’organiste (Ghent, 1871)
Histoire et théorie de la musique de l’antiquité (Ghent, 1875–81/R)
Nouveau traité d’instrumentation (Paris and Brussels, 1885)
25 leçons de solfège à changement de clefs (Paris and Brussels, 1887)
Cours méthodique d’orchestration (Paris and Brussels, 1890)
Les origines du chant liturgique de l’église latine (Ghent, 1890/R)
Abrégé du nouveau traité d’instrumentation (Paris and Brussels, 1892)
La mélopée antique dans le chant de l’église latine (Ghent, 1895–6/R)
with J.C. Vollgraff: Les problèmes musicaux d’Aristote (Ghent, 1903/R)
Traité d’harmonie théorique et pratique (Paris and Brussels, 1905–7)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Dufour: Le baron François-Auguste Gevaert (Brussels, 1909)
E. Closson: Gevaert (Brussels, 1929)
L. Dubois: ‘Notice sur François-Auguste Gevaert’, Annuaire de l’Académie
royale des sciences, les lettres et les beaux-arts de Belgique, xcvi
(Brussels, 1930), 97–147
C. van den Borren: Geschiedenis van de muziek in de Nederlanden
(Antwerp, 1951)
J. Subirá: ‘Epistolario de F.-A. Gevaert y J. de Monasterio’, AnM, xvi
(1961), 217–46
J. Hargot: François-Auguste Gevaert (diss., Catholic U., Leuven, 1987)
ANNE-MARIE RIESSAUW (work-list with JEAN HARGOT)

Gevanche, Adam de.

See Adam de Givenchi.

Gevicenus [Gevicensis], Andreas

Chrysoponos.
See Chrysoponus Gevicenus, Andreas.
Gewandhaus Orchestra.
Leipzig orchestra. It developed in the mid-18th century and became
associated with the new Gewandhaus built in 1781. See Leipzig, §II, 3.

Gewgaw.
See Jew's harp.

Geyer, Johann Christoph.

See Gayer, Johann Christoph.

Geyer, Stefi
(b Budapest, 23 June 1888; d Zürich, 11 Dec 1956). Swiss violinist of
Hungarian origin. A pupil of Hubay at the Budapest Academy, she travelled
in Europe and to the USA as a child prodigy. From 1911 to 1919 she lived
in Vienna; she then settled in Zürich, where in 1920 she married the
composer and pianist Walter Schulthess. She made numerous concert
tours and held a master class at the Zürich Conservatory from 1923 to
1953. In 1927 she played the solo violin part in the première of Berg’s
Chamber Concerto in Berlin. From 1941 she was leader and soloist of the
Collegium Musicum Zürich, conducted by Paul Sacher. In 1907 Bartók
conceived a passion for Stefi Geyer which she was unable to return. For
her he wrote the First Violin Concerto (1907–8) with ‘her’ motif, C –E–G –
B , but she never played it in public (the autograph copy, with Bartók’s
letters to her, are in the possession of Paul Sacher). The first movement
appeared as ‘The Ideal’ in the Two Portraits for Orchestra op.5. Further
works for Geyer were written by Othmar Schoeck, who was in love with her
(Violin Sonata op.16, 1908–9, and Violin Concerto op.21, 1911–12), by
Willy Burkhard (Second Violin Concerto op.69, 1943), and by Schulthess
(Concertino op.7, 1921).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Schuh and E. Refardt, eds.: Schweizer Musikbuch, ii (Zürich, 1939),
73 only
E. Mohr: Willy Burkhard: Leben und Werk (Zürich, 1957)
W. Schuh: ‘Stefi Geyer†’, SMz, xcvii (1957), 35–6
B. Szabolcsi, ed.: Béla Bartók: Weg und Werk, Schriften und Briefe (Bonn
and Budapest, 1957, 2/1972), 233–8
J. Demény, ed.: Béla Bartók: ausgewählte Briefe (Budapest, 1960), 62, 71
W. Fuchss: Béla Bartók und die Schweiz (Berne, 1973)
J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin (Toronto, 1974, 2/1994)
C. Walton: Othmar Schoeck (Zürich, 1994)
JÜRG STENZL

Geysen, Frans
 (b Oostham, 29 July 1936). Belgian composer. He studied at the Lemmens
Institute in Mechelen and the Antwerp and Ghent conservatories. He was
appointed professor of harmony and analysis at the Lemmens Institute
(1962), moved to Leuven in 1968 and from 1975 taught at the Brussels
Conservatory. He won several composition prizes, including some for
carillon composition in Mechelen and Bruges.
He started composing in 1958 and studied serialism from 1962 to 1965.
From 1967 he reacted against the aperiodicity and discontinuity of
serialism, developing a technique of evolutionary repetition which was free
of the influence of American minimalism, maintained the constructivism of
serial thinking and referred to Netherlandish Renaissance polyphony. His
repetitive processes emphasize evolution and transformation, excluding
pure repetition. Geysen writes abstract music, in which construction of
sound is the only principle, sensory experience is possible and in which
emotion as expression or goal is excluded. He is interested in the plastic
arts, especially their abstract and minimalist tendencies. This has resulted
in many collaborations with artists such as Ado Hamelrijck, Luc Peire and
Piet Stockmans. Geysen has written several articles on modern music for
Adem, Arsis, Muziek & woord, Orgelkunst and Restant.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Orpheus is in ons (TV op, H. Speliers, S. Decostere), 1983–8; Vuurvast

(music theatre, Geysen), 1992; Wildzang (music theatre, P. Wittenbols), 1995
Orch: Staalkaarten voor een hoboconcert, 1991
Choral: Als in roze mist (Speliers), equal vv, 1979; Het gejuich der intervallen (J.T.
Celem, J. Van Moorhem, Speliers), SATB, 1987
Chbr: Periferisch-diagonaal-concentrisch, rec qt, 1979; Stadssteeg, city
environment music, 6 ob, 4 tpt, 2 trbn, 1979; Brass Quintet, 2 tpt, hn, trbn, b trbn,
1981; Stockmans-installaties, rec qt, 1983; Late spiegels, pf, fl, ob, db, 1984;
Digitaal-analoog-identiek, rec qt, 1986; Langs hoeken en kanten, rec qt, 1990;
Verticale gloed, sax sextet, 1992; Ottoflotto, double rec qt, 1995
Works for carillon, piano and organ

Principal publishers: CeBeDeM, Mieroprint

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Y. Knockaert: ‘Vlaamse componisten: de generatie 1930–’39’, Ons
erfdeel, xxxii (1989), 223–8
Y. Knockaert: ‘Nieuwe muziek in Vlaanderen, 1980–’90’, De Vlaamse gids,
lxxiv/4 (1990), 2–8
Y. Knockaert: ‘De grote canon van Frans Geysen’, Kunst en Cultuur, xxv/2
(1992), 26–7
YVES KNOCKAERT

Ghana, Republic of [formerly Gold

Coast].
Coastal West African country. It has 19·93 million people (2000 estimate)
and an area of 238,540 km2. Its musical traditions reflect the variety of
musical styles found in West Africa, for, although Ghana is a comparatively
small country, it is made up of several ethnic groups that have historical,
cultural or linguistic affinities with societies beyond its borders (fig.1). The
Northern and Upper regions of the country, which are occupied by about
two and a quarter million people, form part of the savanna belt of West
Africa and belong to the Sudanic cultural area. The rest of the country,
consisting of the rain-forest belt and the coastal plains, belongs to the so-
called Guinea Coast area.
About 36 different languages are spoken in Ghana, although only six of
these are cultivated officially as written languages. Of these, Akan, in the
form of its Twi and Fante dialects, is the most widely spoken. It is also the
language whose cultural expressions, including music, have had the
greatest impact on other Ghanaian societies.
1. Music of the main ethnic groups.
2. Music and society.
3. Musical instruments.
4. Vocal styles.
5. Melody, polyphony and rhythm.
6. Performance.
7. Modern developments.
J.H. KWABENA NKETIA
Ghana
1. Music of the main ethnic groups.
The most outstanding characteristic of traditional music, which
distinguishes it from the new music, is the great diversity of its forms and
the usages to which it is put. Ethnic groups show considerable flexibility in
their choice of contexts of performance, musical types, musical items,
instruments and vocal styles, as well as in details of form and structure.
The choices that each society makes, however, are not always unique to it
and may overlap with those made by others. Some societies use similar
instruments but not the same scales; others cultivate similar types of music
but develop them out of different resources; and similar ceremonies and
rites are performed with different selections of music.
Certain patterns of distribution emerge, therefore, when traditional music
and musical practice are viewed on a regional or country-wide basis. Some
resources and usages are concentrated in the north – a major culture area
– while others are based in the south. For example, varieties of the jongo
musical type are performed in Frafra (Gurunsi), Kusasi (Kusaal), Kasena–
Nankani (Naani), Builsa (Buli) and Sisala (Sisaala) areas in northern
Ghana, but not in the south. Damba music and dance are performed at
festivals of Islamic origin in Dagomba, Gonja and Wa (Wala or Wali) areas,
but hardly anywhere else found. On the other hand, a few musical types
and instruments are found throughout Ghana.
These patterns of distribution reflect the continuing social, cultural and
linguistic affinities of Ghanaian societies, which have in the past developed
their own political identities. The Dagbon (Dagbani), Mamprusi and
Nanumba (Nanuni) peoples, for example, speak closely related languages
and share cultural usages, for they are related historically to the Mossi and
Gurma of Burkina faso. A similar situation exists among other societies
such as the Lowiili, comprising the Lobrifor, Lopiel, Lodagaa (Dagaaba)
and Sisala, in north-west Ghana, the Ga and Adangme of southern Ghana,
or the many groups that make up the Akan cluster – the Asante (Ashanti),
Brong (Abron), Akim (Akyem), Kwahu (Kwawu), Akwapim (Akuapem),
Agona, Asen, Wasa, Fante (Fanti) and Akwamu. It is thus possible to group
traditional societies in Ghana together into large clusters on the basis of
the similarity of their musical cultures or areas of emphasis.
The Mamprusi-Dagomba cultural group of north-eastern Ghana includes
the Dagomba, Mamprusi, Kusasi, Frafra, Namnam and some of the Gonja
societies. This is the culture of the one-string fiddle, of two-string lutes and
of hourglass drum ensembles. There is a tradition of professionalism, with
a strong emphasis on praise-chanting, performed by specialists. The
scales used are of the pentatonic varieties, the anhemitonic predominating.
Slight ornamentation characterizes the vocal and instrumental styles,
particularly those of the one-string fiddle. Islamic influence is particularly
marked in the customs and festivals of the Dagomba, Mamprusi and
Gonja, but is less evident in their music.
The Grusi group of north-central Ghana includes the Kasena-Nankani, the
Builsa and the Konkomba (the last being included in this group solely on
stylistic grounds). The Grusi chiefly use aerophone and drum ensembles.
Three to six flutes or horns, or a mixed ensemble of both, accompanied by
drums, play in a hocket style, which allows for the use of definite
polyphonic structures. Grusi music is heptatonic and polyphony is based
on the 3rd as a consonant interval. At final cadences, parts moving in
parallel 3rds resolve into unison.
The Lobi, Brifor, Lopiel, Dagarti, Sisala and some of the societies in the Wa
district constitute the Lowiili group of the north-western region. Their main
instrument is the xylophone, played alone or with the support of a small
drum ensemble. Finger bells and ankle bells are often used in the dances
of this area. The scales are largely pentatonic, both hemitonic and
anhemitonic. Xylophones tuned to a tetratonic scale are found in the Lobi
area.
The south-central Akan group includes the Asante, Brong, Akim, Kwahu,
Akwapim, Akwamu, Wasa, Asen, Agona, Fante and societies with a
predominantly Akan singing style: the Awutu, Guan (Gua or Guang) and
Ewe of the Ho administrative district and some of the speakers of Togo
remnant languages. The Akan have an elaborately organized court and use
a large number of drum ensembles (see Asante music). Trumpet
ensembles and instrumental speech surrogates are common. There is also
an elaborate military structure with a highly organized repertory of
traditional songs and drum music. Akan music is predominantly heptatonic;
polyphony is based on the 3rd as a consonant interval, the main difference
between this music and that of the Grusi being that parallelism is
maintained at final cadences.
The Ga-Adangme of south-east Ghana are a small group composed of the
Ga, Dangme (Adangme) and Krobo. Their traditions are mixed because of
intensive interaction with their neighbours: for example the court traditions
and military organization are derived from the Akan. However, there are
indigenous musical features, which are shared to some extent by the
Awutu and Guan, who belong to the Akan group. The chief instruments
used in the indigenous music are drums, but there are few varieties. The
most notable features are the cultivation of klama songs (accompanied by
an ensemble of three drums and a bell), kple (music for kple gods) and
various types of religious music. Indigenous songs are mainly anhemitonic
pentatonic; polyphony is used in vocal refrains.
The Anlo-Ewe of east coastal Ghana are a fairly homogeneous group
musically closer to societies in Togo and Benin than to those in other parts
of Ghana. The organization of musical associations or dance clubs, a
distinctive feature of musical life, has led to the development of many
different types of recreational music. The main instruments are drums,
rattles and bells, played in ensembles (fig.2), which use highly organized
rhythms and distinctive techniques and internal structures. There is also a
strong choral tradition and the song leader, the hasino, often develops a
reputation as a poet and composer. Melodies are based on complex
pentatonic scales that allow for transposition; singing in parallel octaves is
an important feature.
Ghana
2. Music and society.
In traditional societies music-making tends to be confined within the
boundaries of social life. Specific types of music are customarily assigned
to social occasions, and social groups create and maintain their own
musical types. Some categories of music belong exclusively to the royal
court and may be performed only on prescribed state occasions, such as
ceremonies of installation, durbars, state festivals and royal funerals. Some
may also be performed simply for the entertainment of the chief. This
practice is customary in northern Ghana where royal musicians perform at
court at least once a week as a tribute to the chief. Performances of court
music other than on prescribed formal occasions are more or less
controlled. Thus in southern Ghana, court drums can be played only with
the permission or knowledge of the chief. A royal drum ensemble may be
sent to a funeral if the deceased or one of his relatives is connected with
the court, or if the chief wants to convey his sympathy. In northern Ghana,
on the other hand, musicians who regularly perform for chiefs may also
perform on the same instruments for the general public, although a
different repertory is selected for such performances. The court
nevertheless has priority: the musicians may perform elsewhere only when
they are not needed. Instruments that have sounds with symbolic
connotations or are connected with the chief’s rituals may not be played for
the general public.
Certain musical types are identified with esoteric groups such as religious
cult groups, others with the traditional associations, for example warriors,
heroes and different occupations. Such music is played only when the
group meets to perform a ritual or ceremony or for a celebration.
Other types of music belong to the public domain. Some are for
entertainment or recreation and may be performed in the evening or on any
social occasion that allows for spontaneous musical expression by
members of the community. In northern Ghana, the performance of such
music is intense in the dry season, which may last for six or seven months.
During this time, crops planted in the rainy season are harvested and work
on the farms is not as heavy, so time can be given to the performance of
music and the celebration of funerals held in abeyance during the sowing
season. There is no seasonal fluctuation in the frequency and intensity of
recreational musical activity in southern Ghana.
Music in the public sphere includes types for rituals and ceremonies
connected with events in the life-cycle – birth, puberty, marriage and death
rites – or that honour particular individuals. Ghanaian societies differ in the
kind of events they celebrate with music. The Dagomba perform naming
ceremonies with music, but the Akan of southern Ghana do not. Puberty
ceremonies are musical events in the south, but are not as important in the
north. Marriages in the north are celebrated with music, but rarely among
the Asante.
The ceremony celebrated everywhere with much music is the funeral.
Special songs or musical types are set aside for particular events of the
funeral and for particular individuals and groups of individuals. However,
the ceremonial and ritual details vary in their degree of elaboration or
intensity. In many places in northern Ghana, funerals are community
events, organized in a very elaborate manner within a dramatic framework
that allows the mourners to express themselves individually and collectively
in special songs and dances at various stages of the ceremony. In the
south, only the funerals of royals and other special categories of people
reach a similar level of dramatic intensity. Another very important occasion
celebrated in all Ghanaian societies with music is the festival designed for
re-enacting the history and traditions of a society, for marking agricultural
activities, for bringing together divinities and their community of
worshippers, and for stating or affirming those values on which the
solidarity of the group depends. There is hardly any area in Ghana that has
no festival, for the festival brings together all sections of the community.
In addition to music for entertainment and celebration, certain types of
music and repertories of songs are performed during domestic activities
and during organized labour by cooperative work groups and other social
groups. Apart from fishermen’s songs, this kind of music is now apparently
far less common in the south than in the north, where groups of musicians
still perform for those clearing the farm or harvesting crops and where
grinding songs, pounding songs, floor-beating songs, boat-launching songs
and the music of boys herding cattle can still be heard.
Ghana
3. Musical instruments.
The instruments used by Ghanaian societies include a variety of
idiophones. Rattles are the most common, although they are used in many
different contexts. Among the Akan, they are used in only a few types of
music such as the kete court drum music, the Fante adzewa drum music
and the music of the gods (such as akom and apo); among the Anlo-Ewe
(Anglo-Ewe), nearly all musical types include rattles and the number may
range from two to 20, depending on the particular type of music performed.
There are container rattles made from a gourd or of wicker, and rattles
consisting of gourds strung with nets of beads, cowries, pieces of bamboo
shoot, metal or coins. The latter type is found in the south among the Anlo–
Ewe, the Fante and Ga, and in the north among the Dagomba, who use it
to accompany dimbu (songs for rattle accompaniment). In some parts of
northern Ghana, stick or rod rattles, seed shell rattles made out of the fruit
of the baobab, and the sistrum are also used.
Secondary rattles (i.e. rattles attached to the bodies of performers –
dancers or instrumentalists – or to musical instruments) are also common,
especially in northern Ghana. Many dances in the north require the
wearing of ankle buzzers, or occasionally belts of cowries, and players of
xylophones in the Sisala area sometimes wear the bulo, a metal buzzer on
their wrists.
Bells of different types and sizes are played in Ghana: these include both
clapper bells, which in the south are used mainly in ritual contexts, and
clapperless bells, which are of two types. The single clapperless bell is
either conical and held at the apex or boat-shaped and held loosely in the
palm of the hand (the former is struck with a piece of stick, the latter played
with an iron rod). The double clapperless bell consists of two conical bells
of different pitches flanged together (in southern Ghana) or held together
by an arch (in northern Ghana, particularly among the Dagomba and the
Mamprusi). There are also globular or conical finger bells worn on the
middle finger and struck by a ring worn on the thumb.
Other idiophones include the forged iron hoe played in northern Ghana in
certain types of music, in which double discs in the form of two hoe blades,
joined together at the base, are struck with a metal ring. Pellet bells
(generally strapped to the wrist of an instrumentalist) and the buguloo
(large pellet bells of cast brass, strung on a wire or sewn to a band of hide,
and attached to a single clapper bell) are used in Sisala areas. In some
types of music, animal horns are used as struck idiophones instead of
bells. Two pieces of flat stick or bamboo may be struck together to provide
an accompanying rhythm, either as a substitute for or in addition to hand-
clapping or bells. Percussion logs are used occasionally among the Asante
(in asonko recreational music), while percussion vessels consisting of a
hemispherical inverted gourd are found in a few places. In the north they
are placed on the ground and struck with the fingers; in the south they are
placed in a bowl of water and struck with the hands (by the Akan) or with
two pieces of stick (by the Anlo-Ewe).
In addition to struck idiophones, scrapers are used in some types of music
in the south: they consist of single notched sticks scraped with a hard shell.
Stamping sticks and stamping tubes made out of gourd or bamboo are also
found in the south.
These idiophones are used principally as rhythm instruments and cannot
be used for playing melodies. Two types of tuned idiophone occur in
Ghana: the mbila (sansa) or thumb piano, called prempensua in Akan and
gidirigo in Gonja, and the gyilli xylophone. Lamellophones are of two types:
the ahyewa adaka, consisting of a large box on which three to five metal
lamellae are fixed, and a smaller instrument used for playing tunes or for
accompanying solo singing. Ghanaian xylophones may have 12, 14 or 17
keys mounted on wooden frames, underneath which are suspended gourd
resonators graduated in size, one for each key; children sometimes
practise on xylophone keys laid across a pit or trench.
A variety of open and closed drums are found throughout Ghana. Societies
in northern Ghana favour closed and double-headed drums, as well as
frame drums consisting of potsherd over which a membrane has been
stretched, whereas societies in the south prefer single-headed open
drums; but as a result of historical interaction some drums of the north
have been adopted in the south for use in specific types of music, while in
the north some southern drums are used at the royal court. Thus the
atumpan, an Akan talking drum (fig.3), is found throughout Ghana and the
apentemma (operenten) hand drum is similarly widespread. The donno
hourglass drum (for illustration, see Drum, fig.1f) and the gourd drum
(bentere, pentre), two northern drums, are used in the south.
The drums of the Anlo-Ewe of the south-eastern coast are distinct from
other Ghanaian drums, for they are made of strips of wood joined together
by iron hoops and are always painted red and blue or green. No other
Ghanaian society has so far adopted the drum technology of Anlo-Ewe.
Of the aerophones, horns are the most widespread, although they tend to
be restricted to royal courts and also, in the north, to special types of
music. They vary in size and may be made of animal horns or the tusks of
elephants. They are played singly, in pairs or in larger ensembles. One
such ensemble is the ntahera, a set of five or seven ivory trumpets played
at the court of paramount chiefs of southern Ghana (fig.4). Flutes are more
common in the north than in the south. The yua, a small flute carved out of
solid wood with a notch or round embouchure, is found throughout northern
Ghana, but is particularly common among the Builsa and the Kasena-
Nankani. In the south the atenteben bamboo flute is played in the Kwawu
area both as a solo instrument and in ensembles. The odurugya, a long
notched flute made out of the husk of cane, is played at the court of the
Asantehene, head of the traditional Asante political union. The taletenga,
an idioglot reed pipe, is made from a stalk of millet or maize. A small flap is
cut towards one end of the millet stalk to serve as the reed, but is not
completely severed.
Like flutes, chordophones are less common in the south than in the north.
The benta mouth bow and the seperewa, a six-string bridge-harp, are still
found in isolated places in Asante but are fast dying out. The chordophones
found in the north are the gonje (a one-string fiddle, fig.5, see Goge),
varieties of lutes (kologo, kono, mogolo), the jinjeram musical bow with
gourd resonator and the cheeng raft zither made of 11 single and double
courses of split reeds tuned and tied together in the form of a raft.
Ghana
4. Vocal styles.
Although there is some variety of instrumental types in Ghana, the
apparent function of many instruments is to provide support for the voice
as a rhythm section or an accompanying ostinato, or to substitute for the
speaking or singing voice. The Ghanaian vocal style is varied: some
societies (e.g. the Akan and the Ga) use an open throat quality, while the
Frafra and the Kusasi use a more tense quality. The use of a high tessitura
is quite widespread in the north and is sometimes closely related to the
range of melodic instruments such as flutes, xylophones and lutes that
accompany singing.
Divergences in vocal style are partly attributable to linguistic factors, for the
melodies of traditional music reflect very closely the intonation and rhythms
of speech. Melodies generally have a downward trend, the rise and fall
within phrases reflecting linguistic intonation patterns within phrases as
well as at phrase junctures. This trend is accompanied by a variation in
dynamic range that in some societies, such as the Kusasi and the Frafra, is
very marked and is cultivated as an aspect of musical communication: in a
praise-song the singer will begin with a loud outburst intended to draw
attention, and then drop to a softer level.
Ghana
5. Melody, polyphony and rhythm.
The music of different Ghanaian societies does not all conform to the same
set of scales: some are heptatonic varieties, others hexatonic and
pentatonic. Of these, the heptatonic appear to be the least variable.
Variants of specific scale steps may occur as alternants within the same
song, for instance perfect or augmented 4ths, minor or major 7ths.
Societies that use this scale are the Kasena-Nankani, the Builsa and the
Konkomba in northern Ghana and, in the south, the Akan, the Ga, the Ewe
of the hinterland of the Volta region and some of the speakers of Togo
remnant languages.
The hexatonic scale appears in two main forms: as a simple hexachord,
that is, as a conjunct sequence of two trichords, and as a combination of a
trichord and a three-note sequence, either a 3rd followed by a 2nd or a 2nd
followed by a 3rd. Hexatonic music is performed by the Kusasi and the
Frafra of northern Ghana and also by societies whose music is mainly in
the pentatonic scale.
The pentatonic scale is found in a large number of different ethnic groups,
but with slight differences in intonation. It occurs in both anhemitonic and
hemitonic varieties. Some societies (e.g. the Anlo-Ewe, the Dagbani and
the Frafra) have both, others only one (the Lobi, Dagarti and Sisala).
Songs based on these scales also differ in their melodic organization. In
many societies they are confined to one series of notes in the scale, while
in others, such as the Frafra and the Anlo-Ewe, they are extended by the
use of simple transposition techniques. Whatever the scale commonly
found in a given society, the range of songs need not always include all the
notes in the series. Thus in many children’s songs, action songs,
processional songs and games, the range may be a trichord, a tetrachord
or a pentachord.
Polyphonic practices are generally related to scale types and forms of
melodic organization. Most societies that have pentatonic traditions sing in
unison, but among the Adangme a form of polyphony is used in vocal
refrains in which two voices move in contrary motion against a held or
repeated note. Societies in which the heptatonic scale is found sing in
parallel 3rds throughout, as in Akan tradition, or end in unison at final
cadences, as in the music of the Builsa, Kasena-Nankani and the
Konkomba of northern Ghana. Even in traditions in which unison singing is
usual, polyphonic forms of instrumental music may occur. In the xylophone
traditions of the Lobi and the Sisala a fixed accompanying pattern played
by the left hand is set against a melody played by the right.
In traditional music the treatment of rhythm is much more uniform than that
of pitch. Music may have a linear organization in free or in strict time, and
in the latter case the metre is either predominantly duple or based on a
combination of duple and triple motifs. However, it may have a multi-linear
organization. This is particularly notable in the polyrhythms of some drum
music. The structure of the rhythmic patterns may be simple, with all the
parts following simple divisions of a single regular beat, or complex, with
the various parts using different divisions of a common time span. The
latter practice is typical of the xylophone music of the Sisala and the
Dagarti.
An important element in the organization of rhythm is the ordering of
patterns into phrases and the control of the length of phrases. In some
types of music this is very clearcut: short phrases or phrases equivalent to
the span of a bell pattern are used. In others there are longer phrases or
phrases of a more fluid structure, as in the drumming of the Kasena-
Nankani and the Builsa. The most complex type of rhythmic organization
occurs in the royal music performed by fontomfrom drum ensembles in the
Akan area and by the obonu and vuga ensembles of the Ga and Ewe. In
this music clearcut short phrases, phrases of the standard time span and
longer fluid patterns are all used in various sections of a piece.
The use of an accompanying bell pattern which functions as a time line (or
underlying metre; ex.1) is widespread, although in northern Ghana it is
generally restricted to certain types of music. For example in the Dagomba
area a bell pattern is used in the music of the nyindogu and kanbonwaa
dances, but not in the music of the damba (hourglass drum music played at
damba festivals), the takai (a stick dance) and the bamaya dance. The
Kasena flute and drum music has no bell pattern, but sinye (rattles) may be
played as time markers and denkenkelen (iron bells) may be played at
funerals. Instead of a bell a soda bottle may be used, as in the agoro (drum
ensemble and chorus music) of the Gonja or the music of the Dagomba
jinjeram (musical bow) and the moglo (a three-string lute).

Ghana
6. Performance.
Ghanaian music allows for both individual and collective performance in
specific contexts. Firstly, there are items that may be performed as solos,
including cradle songs and songs performed during domestic work;
ceremonial songs such as individual dirges or laments forming part of
funeral ceremonies; praise-songs; flute, xylophone, trumpet or horn solos;
ritual songs sung by a diviner or other individual in a ritual context; and
music performed in seclusion by a person establishing ritual contact with
the gods.
Secondly, music may be performed by an individual supported by one or
two people or by a small group which performs a subsidiary musical role,
for example music for the Frafra-Kusasi durunga or the Dagomba gonje
(both one-string fiddles) in which the fiddle player is accompanied by one
or two rattle players. Similarly, in the xylophone music of north-western
Ghana, the principal instrumentalist is supported by a second player, who
taps an accompanying rhythm on one of the keys of the instrument while
duplicating the main melody. There are solo songs with chorus
accompaniment, such as the Asante kurunku, and duets such as the
Kasena Le sena, in which one singer plays a leading role.
The third type of performance, an extension of the second, is by
instrumental ensembles cultivated at royal courts. They may consist of
three to nine drums, such as the kete, apirede and fontomfrom ensembles
of the Akan, or the lunsi hourglass drum ensemble of the Dagomba. Such
ensembles are also common in other contexts in northern Ghana, where
they provide the music for household and community ceremonies and
rituals, and also play for formation dances by small teams.
The fourth type of performance is choral. The chorus may be composed of
men or women, or it may be mixed and led by one or more soloists who
sing the call, while the rest sing the response. The response may simply
follow the solo, or the two parts may overlap, so that the soloist begins to
sing before the choral response ends. He may sing with the chorus in the
overlapping section, or he may use different material. Sometimes a pair of
soloists sing simultaneously, the second entering after the first; sometimes
they may sing the call sections alternately. A traditional chorus either sings
unaccompanied or is accompanied by hand-clapping or rhythms played on
an idiophone (ex.2) or by a drum or xylophone ensemble.

Ghana
7. Modern developments.
Until the latter part of the 19th century, when active British colonization of
Ghana (then known as the Gold Coast) began, many Ghanaian societies
were culturally homogeneous. In the 20th century two distinct types of
cultural expression became evident, one embodying the heritage of the
past and reflecting the life of traditional societies, the other arising from
Ghana’s contact with Western culture and technology. This duality is
reflected in the contrast between the well-established traditions of
indigenous music and the evolving inter-cultural musical traditions that
began to serve the new urban institutions such as the ballroom, the café,
the night club, the concert hall and the theatre, as well as educational
institutions and the church.
Musicians who practise this new music use both African and non-African
resources. While they sometimes use traditional African instruments, they
more commonly use Western instruments to play tunes that are basically
African in rhythm and melody. They may organize multi-part structures on
traditional lines or base them on models from Western music. Thus,
although traditional forms of polyphony in parallel 3rds can be found in their
music, the trend is towards the selective use of Western harmonic
techniques rather than the consolidation of traditional African practice.
The new Ghanaian music is developing in two particular areas. The first is
Highlife, a form of popular music that originated in the early 20th century
and is cultivated by a large number of touring bands based in the principal
cities. The second is the new Ghanaian art music, which owes its
development to the search for an African idiom to replace the Western
hymn and anthem and which is now identified both with the church and
with the concert hall and educational institutions. A new generation of
literate composers and performers has consequently appeared, and music
education is no longer an aspect of socialization in the community only but
is also part of the school curriculum.
The recognition and support of contemporary developments in music have
not minimized the historical and cultural importance of traditional music.
This has continued to occupy a dominant position not only in the musical
life of traditional societies but also, through the mass media and
educational programmes, at arts festivals and on certain national
occasions, as it is regarded as a medium for the expression of identity and
the new generation of musicians, inspired by the new cultural awareness,
are turning to it increasingly for material and ideas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
M. Manoukian: Akan and Ga-Adangme Peoples of the Gold Coast
(London, 1950)
M. Manoukian: Tribes of the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast
(London, 1951)
M. Manoukian: The Ewe-speaking People of Togoland and the Gold Coast
(London, 1952)
S. Cudjoe: ‘The Techniques of Ewe Drumming and the Social Importance
of Music in Africa’, Phylon, iii (1953), 280
J.R. Goody: The Social Organisation of the Lowiili (London, 1956)
A.M. Jones: Studies in African Music (London, 1959)
J.H.K. Nketia: African Music in Ghana (Evanston, 1963)
J.H.K. Nketia: Drumming in Akan Communities of Ghana (Edinburgh,
1963)
J.H.K. Nketia: Folk Songs of Ghana (Legon, 1963)
J.H.K. Nketia: The Music of Africa (New York 1974)
B. Aning: ‘Atumpan Drums: an Object of Historical and Anthropological
Study’, Essays for a Humanist: an Offering to Klaus Wachsmann (New
York, 1977), 58
J.M. Chernoff: African Rhythm and African Sensibility: Aesthetic and
Social Action in African Musical Idioms (Chicago, 1979)
D. Avorgbedor: ‘The Construction and Manipulation of Temporal
Structures in Yeve Cult Music: a Multi-dimensional Approach’, AfM, vi
(1987), 4–18
S. Arom: African Polyphony and Polyrhythm: Musical Structure and
Methodology (Cambridge, 1991)
A.A. Agordoh: Studies in African Music (Accra, 1994)
K. Agawu: African Rhythm: a Northern Ewe Perspective (Cambridge,
1995)
T. Wiggins: ‘Techniques of variation and concepts of musical
understanding in Northern Ghana’, British Journal of Ethnomusicology,
xii (1998), 117–142
recordings
Rhythms of life, songs of wisdom: Akan Music from Ghana, West Africa,
perf. various, coll. R. Vetter, Smithsonian Folkways SFCD40463
(1996)
Bewaare/They are Coming: Dagaare Songs and Dances from Nandom,
Ghana, perf. various, coll. T. Wiggins, PAN 2052CD (1996)
In the Time of My Fourth Great-grandfather: Western Sisaala Music from
Lambussie, Ghana, perf. various, coll. T. Wiggins, PAN 2065CD (1998)

Ghantā [ghant, ghantī, ghantikā,

ghanto].
A South Asian term found in Sanskrit and the derived North Indian
languages; it is often translated ‘bell’ but it also denotes, both historically
and in different regions, other percussion or shaken metallophones.
In many of the modern North Indian languages the masculine form ghantā
denotes the large suspended bell of the temple, and the feminine ghantī a
handbell, either the medium-sized variety rung by the priests at certain
points of temple ritual or the small bell of domestic worship. The Tamil term
for a bell is mani, in Andhra Pradesh the bell is called ghantā and in
Karnataka gante; the hāth ghantī (‘handbell’) is the equivalent in Orissa.
The suspended temple bell with interior clapper is an essential element of
the Hindu shrine: hung at the gateway of small open shrines or, in the large
temples, in the foyer leading to the inner sanctum, it is rung by each
approaching worshipper to invoke the deity. In the larger temples they can
be very large. They are generally cast in bell-metal (kāmsya, or ksā).
However, sometimes a special alloy known as saptadhātu (‘the sevenfold
metal’) is used.
Another use of the term is for round percussion plaques. These relatively
thick bell-metal plates of various sizes are suspended from the hand by a
cord and beaten with a wooden stick; they are also called ghatī in Sanskrit.
Of this type is the ghant of Orissa. These are used in the traditional context
of temples and other religious places but can also appear in drum
ensembles for dancing; above all, they are the traditional Indian clock on
which the hours are beaten.
The term ghantā (and variants) may also denote gongs but not percussion
trays with which they may be confused. The latter (the common Indian
eating-tray used as a metallophone) are known by the generic term thālī.
The Orissan ghanto is a gong made of bell-metal, about 22 cm in diameter,
with a rear flange, inward-sloping and about 5 cm deep and half a cm thick.
The front plate, almost imperceptibly convex, is thicker in the centre; this is
emphasized by filing or scoring, creating a round, thicker central area
about 12 cm in diameter, cross-scored in ellipse, and a thinner outer ring,
scored circularly, parallel to the edge of the gong and about 5 cm wide. The
outer half of the flange (but not the edge) and the corner are coated with
dry black resin; a cord passes through two holes near the edge. The
central and outer sections of the plate have different tones, but the ghanto,
when properly struck in the centre, also produces a deep, slowly rising
note. The kasar of Bengal is of similar construction. Bossed gongs are not
typical of South Asia, except in the North-East, where they are used by
Tibeto-Burman- and Thai-speaking peoples. The ghantā of the Santals of
Orissa is a gong about 19 cm wide with a slightly outward-sloping rim 4 cm
high. It is struck with a stick.
The Sanskrit term ghantī, or the diminutive ghantikā, can also denote small
metal pellet bells, worn cosmetically or on various parts of the body for
dancing (female dancers traditionally wear 101 bells and male dancers 151
around the lower legs). The spheres, of bell-metal, with a slit on one side
and interior pellets of tiksna (probably cast-iron), are threaded on to strings
by an integral ring at the top. Bells of this type are common throughout
South Asia,known in North India as ghungrū. Another common type,
consisting of hollow rings with multiple pellets, is the nūpur.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Marcel-Dubois: Les instruments de musique de l’Inde ancienne (Paris,
1941)
K.S. Kothari: Indian Folk Musical Instruments (New Delhi, 1968)
B.C. Deva: ‘The Santals and their Musical Instruments’, Jb für
musikalische Volks- und Volkerkunde, viii (Cologne, 1977), 36–46
B.C. Deva: Musical Instruments of India (Calcutta, 1978)
ALASTAIR DICK/R

Gharānā
(Hindi: ‘household, lineage’). In North Indian art-music, a community of
musicians, linked by ties of family and discipleship and identified by a
distinctive musical style (see India, §II, 3(iii). In general use the term may
be applied to a tightly-knit family (khāndān) of Muslim hereditary musicians,
together with their disciples (often Hindu); or to a larger network of
interrelated families, Muslim or Hindu, with a common place of origin; or
more casually, to any group of musicians tracing their tradition from a
common teacher or place of origin. To be recognized as an established and
significant gharānā the community must have a distinct vocal or
instrumental style (gāyakī, bāj), attributed to a respected founder and
maintained by at least two further generations after him. Many gharānā
cultivate a particular musical specialization: either one of the classical vocal
styles (dhrupad, khyāl, thumrī), or an instrument, melodic (sitār, sarod, bīn
etc.) or percussion (tablā, pakhāvaj). Other gharānā may combine a variety
of vocal and instrumental specializations. The musical repertory of a
gharānā often includes special techniques, compositions or rāg known only
to its members.
RICHARD WIDDESS

Ghata [ghatam, gharā].

Terms used in South Asia for a waterpot; the Sanskrit ghata, the South
Indian form ghatam and the modern North Indian derivative gharā signify a
pot, usually of terracotta, spherical, with a wide belly and narrow mouth.
They occur widely in various musical contexts. The modern northern and
southern terms denote primarily struck pots (percussion vessels or
idiophones), but the historical usage (in addition to other names) may also
apply to skin-covered pots, pot-drums or membranophones.
1. Percussion vessels or pots.
These, sometimes made of a special sonorous clay, are widely used in
various musical contexts. They are struck with the fingers on belly, neck
and mouth and are sometimes played with drums.
In modern times the northern gharā is common, though it is sometimes
known by other names such as mātki (Rajasthan), nūt (Kashmir) and dilo
(Sind). The gagrī (gagrā) is similar, but is made of metal.
The ghatam of South India is used in several contexts, including the
Karnatak music, for which special pots are made at Panruti and
Manamadura. The pot is placed on the seated player’s lap and its mouth is
sometimes pressed against the abdomen to vary the resonance. It is
played at the mouth, belly and bottom with hands, wrists, fingertips and
nails. It is said that the ghatam was sometimes thrown in the air to shatter
on the ground on the last beat.
2. Pot-drums or membranophones.
The waterpot also provides a natural resonator on which to stretch a skin.
Although the term ghata and its modern derivatives usually denote
percussion vessels, the ghata briefly described in the 13th-century
Sangītaratnākara is a pot-drum. Pot-drums have a persistent history in the
subcontinent, perhaps reflecting their easy availability at every level.
Pot-drums may be grouped in several classes: whole-pot drums, half-pot or
goblet drums and bowl-drums. The skin of a whole-pot drum may cover a
wide or narrow mouth, with either a short neck as in the Tamil milāvu with
its strong tradition in temple and dramatic music, the southern kudamula
and the very large, five-necked pañcamukhavādyam) or a long neck, like
the ghumera or gumra of Orissa. They may have an opening at the bottom
of the pot. The long-necked pot-drums occur more often in reversed form
as goblet or half-pot drums, with the skin covering the base of the pot’s
wide belly, which is partly cut away (or moulded in that form). The open
mouth at the neck can be covered or partly covered by the hand to
manipulate resonance. Long-necked pot drums include the ghumat of Goa
and Maharashtra, the gummati and the burra of Andhra and the tumbaknārī
of Kashmir (related directly to the Persian tombak or zarb). The ghumat is
interesting for its construction: the upper side has the thick rim of the short-
necked pot, round which the skin is tied, and at the lower side is an open
neck or stem of the long-necked type. In the bowl-type pot-drum (such as
the pābūjī ke māte of Rajasthan) the mouth is appreciably wide relative to
the overall width (see illustration).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Sambamoorthy: Catalogue of Musical Instruments Exhibited in the
Government Museum, Madras (Madras, 3/1962)
B.C. Deva: Musical Instruments of India (Calcutta, 1978)
ALASTAIR DICK/R

Ghazal.
Poetic form widely used in West, Central and South Asia and in other
Muslim cultures, particularly associated with Persian and Urdu, but applied
in other languages. It is composed of several independent couplets with a
unified rhyme scheme: aa, ba, ca, etc. See India, §IV, 2.

Ghazālī, Abū Hāmid Muhammad al-

(b Tus, Persia, 1058; d Tus, 1111). Persian theologian, jurist and religious
reformer, brother of Majd al-Dīn Ahmad al-Ghazālī. After studying in Persia,
he taught at the Nizāmiyya University in Baghdad from 1091 to 1095, and
from 1106 in Neyshābur. Although of Persian descent, he wrote mostly in
Arabic. Between his teaching duties he retired to Damascus and Tus, lived
as a Sufi, and wrote his principal work, Ihyā’ ‘ulūm al-dīn (‘Revival of the
religious sciences’) in which he attempted to reconcile Islamic orthodox
tradition and Sufi experience. The four parts of the book cover all aspects
of the religious life of a devout Muslim. In the first part, on the practice of
worship, al-Ghazālī deals with Qur’anic recitation (tilāwa) and the call to
prayer (adhān). The second part, on morals and customs, includes a
detailed chapter on the extent to which performing and listening to music
(samā‘) should be permitted. Noting that nowhere in the Qur’an is music
expressly forbidden, al-Ghazālī demonstrates with numerous examples
that the issue is not one of condemning specific musical forms or
instruments, but depends on whether the intention is to arouse or
strengthen good or bad qualities through music. He quotes many dogmatic
and legal works, and refutes too strict interpretations of verdicts by
recognized authorities that were against the practice of music. His views
culminate in the remarkable statement that ‘singing (ghinā’) is more
powerful than the Qur’an in arousing to ecstasy (wajd)’. This is
substantiated by seven reasons (trans. D.B. Macdonald, adapted and
abridged):
(1) All verses of the Qur’an do not suit the state of the
listener. (2) The Qur’an is known too well. Whatever is heard
from a song text for the first time makes a greater impression
on the heart. The singer has at his disposal new verses of
poetry for each occasion, but he has not at his disposal for
each occasion a new verse of the Qur’an. (3) A pleasant
voice with metre (wazn) is not like a pleasant voice without
metre; and metre is found in poetry as opposed to verses of
the Qur’an. (4) Metrically measured poetry varies as to
making impression on the soul with the kind of melodies
(alhān) called tarīqa or dastān. This is allowable in poetry, but
in the case of the Qur’an it is only allowable to recite as it was
revealed. (5) Measured melodies are strengthened by metre
and rhythm (īqā‘), and by the use of instruments to underline
the metre such as the wand (qadīb) and the framed drum
(daff). But it is necessary that the Qur’an should be protected
from such companions. (6) The singer sometimes sings a
verse which does not fit the state of the hearer, so he rejects
it and asks another. If the sense of a verse of the Qur’an does
not fit the hearer, he must either pervert its sense or reject it –
both are sins. (7) The Qur’an is the uncreated word of God. It
is a truth which humanity cannot comprehend. But pleasing
melodies and poetry stand in relationship to natural
dispositions. They are nearer to the hearts of men, because
created is joined to created.
His liberal attitude to the dervish dance (‘allowable, unless ecstasy is
shown off’) and religiously motivated music (‘desirable’) has influenced the
theory and practice of mosque and monastery music, especially in Turkey.
The chapter on music in the Miftāh al-sa‘āda by the Turk Tāshkuprī-zādah
(Tāshköprüzāde) (d 1561), for example, is wholly indebted to al-Ghazālī.
WRITINGS
Ihyā’ ‘ulūm al-dīn [Revival of the religious sciences]; trans. D.B. Macdonald:
‘Emotional Religion in Islām as affected by Music and Singing: being a
Translation of a Book of the Ihyā’ ‘Ulūm al-Dīn of al-Ghazzālī with
Analysis, Annotation, and Appendices’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society (1901), 195–252, 705–48; (1902), 1–28; ed. (Cairo, 1928–9)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EI2 (W. Montgomery Watt)
H.G. Farmer: ‘The Religious Music of Islām’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society (1952), 60–65
Tāshkuprī-zādah [Ahmad ibn Mustafā]: Miftāh al-sa‘āda wa-misbāh al-
siyāda [Key to blissfulness and the lantern towards greatness], iii
(Cairo, 1968), 285–301
A. Shiloah: The Theory of Music in Arabic Writings (c.900–1900), RISM,
B/X (1979)
M. Abul Quasem, trans.: The Recitation and Interpretation of the Qur’ān:
al-Ghazālī’s Theory (London, 1982)
J. During: Musique et extase: l’audition mystique dans la tradition soufie
(Paris, 1988)
J. Michot: ‘L’Islam et le monde: al-Ghazâlî et Ibn Taymiyya à propos de la
musique (samâ‘)’, Figures de la finitude: études d’anthropologie
philosophiques (Paris, 1988), 246–61
A. Gribetz: ‘The samā‘ Controversy: Sufi vs. Legalist’, Studia islamica,
lxxiv (Paris, 1991), 43–62
F. Shehadi: Philosophies of Music in Medieval Islam (Leiden, 1995), 115–
31
ECKHARD NEUBAUER

Ghazālī, Majd al-Dīn Ahmad al-

(b Tus, Persia; d Qazvin, 1126). Persian religious scholar and preacher,
brother of Abū Hāmid Muhammad al-Ghazālī. In 1095 he succeeded his
brother as a teacher at the Nizāmiyya University in Baghdad. His writings,
composed in Arabic, include a condensed version, now lost, of his brother's
Ihyā‘ ‘ulūm al-dīn (‘Revival of the religious sciences’), and a longer essay
on the question of listening to music (samā‘), entitled Bawāriq al-ilmā‘ fī l-
radd ‘alā man yuharrim al-samā‘ (‘Flashes of enlightenment in refutation of
those who declare listening to music to be forbidden’). He believed that
performing and listening to music were not forbidden by Islamic principles,
and dealt with the subject independently of his brother, his essay being
less comprehensive and more directly concerned with the musical customs
of the dervish orders of Sufism. It begins with a justification of his outlook,
then presents arguments against the opponents of music and for the value
of music as an aid in attaining spiritual experience. It ends with a
description of a dhikr ceremony (see Islamic religious music, §II, 3).
WRITINGS
Bawāriq al-ilmā‘ [Flashes of enlightenment] (MS, D-BSb 5505); ed. and
trans. J. Robson: Tracts on Listening to Music (London, 1938); repr. in
al-Mawrid, xiii/4 (1984), 65–78
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EI2 (H. Ritter)
J. During: Musique et extase: l'audition mystique dans la tradition soufie
(Paris, 1988)
A. Gribetz: ‘The samā‘ Controversy: Sufi vs Legalist’, Studia islamica, lxxiv
(Paris, 1991), 43–62
ECKHARD NEUBAUER

Ghazarian [Kazarian], Yury

Shaheni
(b Tbilisi, 4 Dec 1933). Armenian composer. He studied at the Yerevan
Conservatory with Yeghiazarian (1959–64) before joining the Armenian
Composers’ Union, of which he was later secretary (1971–4). After being a
 member of and heading several artistic organizations, he was awarded a
Doctor of Arts degree by UNESCO in 1993, the year in which he took up
temporary residence in California. His musical interests developed under
the sway of the Russian tradition, as represented by Shostakovich and
Prokofiev. From the latter came Ghazarian’s interest in grotesque, poster-
like characterization, which he transformed into a kind of montage
technique (as in the ballet Adam and Eve and the symphonic poem
Encounters). His chamber works demonstrate his preference for classical
forms, harmonic logic and a kind of functional instrumentation. His
fascination with American jazz, and especially the lyrics of blues singing,
and compound chordal rhythmic structures is evident in the ballets The
Pink Town and The World of Picasso. His creative style finds a generalized
reflection in the opera Ernest Hemingway; based on the Cuban period of
the writer’s life, the work is constructed on a fusion of the principles of
drama, cinematography, vocal cantilena and declamation. The climax
occurs in the choreographic picture ‘The Old Man and the Sea’, which is
based on Afro-Cuban folk music.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Adam i Eva (ballet, G. Khokhlov, after drawings by J. Eiffel), 1968; Rozovïy
gorod [The Pink Town] (TV jazz ballet, Ghazarian), 1972, TV broadcast, Moscow,
1972; Kak kot remeslu uchil [How the Tomcat Learnt a Trade] (children’s musical, G.
Chiginov and A. Grigoryan), 1981, Yerevan, K. Stanislavsky Theatre of Drama,
1981; Ėrnest Kheminguėy (op, 2, Chiginov, after E. Hemingway), 1984, Havana,
Grand Teatro de La Habana, 17 Oct 1987; Mir Pikasso [The World of Picasso]
(ballet, Ghazarian), 1997
Inst: Str Qt, 1965; Pf Sonata, 1967; Ww Qt, 1967; Sonata, vn, pf, 1972; Sonata, tpt,
pf, 1974; Lilit (sym. pictures, after A. Isahakyan), orch, 1975; Starik i more [The Old
Man and the Sea] (after Hemingway), orch, 1986; Sonata no.2, vn, pf, 1987
Vocal: Vstrechi [Encounters] (sym. poem, V. Myakovsky, V. Lugovskoy and V.
Karents), Bar, chorus, orch, 1969; 5 pesen [5 Songs] (Karents), 1973; 6 sonetov [6
Sonnets] (R. Gamzatov), 1974; Dobroye utro, rodina [Good Morning, My Homeland]
(Karents), 1975; Maski [Masks] (P. Sevak), 1980; incid music

BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Campoamor: ‘Hemingway en escena, cantando a la vida’, Bohemia
[Havana], lxxix/42 (1987), 36–8
P. Garcia Albela: ‘Yury Kazaryan iz stranï muzïkantov i poėtov’ [Ghazarian
from the land of musicians and poets], Cuba International, no.4 (1988),
15–23
A. Bayeva: ‘Prazdnik opernogo iskusstva v Gavane’ [A festival of operatic
art in Havana], Latinskaya Amerika (1988), no.5, pp.66–71
G. Tigranov: Armyanskiy muzïkal'nïy teatr [The Armenian Music Theatre],
iv (Yerevan, 1988), 78–86
SVETLANA SARKISYAN

Ghedini, Giorgio Federico

(b Cuneo, 11 July 1892; d Nervi, nr Genoa, 25 March 1965). Italian
composer and teacher.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JOHN C.G. WATERHOUSE
Ghedini, Giorgio Federico
1. Life.
He had piano and organ lessons as a child and in 1905 moved to Turin,
where he spent three years as a student of the cello and harmony and
counterpoint at the Liceo Musicale. He studied composition privately with
Giovanni Cravero, and briefly with Marco Enrico Bossi at the Liceo
Musicale, Bologna, where he received his diploma in 1911. After a period
(1909–20) in which he tried to launch himself as a conductor (acting,
among other things, as assistant conductor at the Teatro Regio, Turin), he
turned to teaching, first (from 1918) at the Scuola Municipale di Canto
Corale, Turin. In the immediate postwar years he was in close touch with
such leaders of Turin’s musical life as Alfano, Andrea Della Corte,
Romualdo Giani and G.M. Gatti. These men, especially Giani, exerted
strong but not always wholly beneficial influences: it is possible that some
of their ideas may have inhibited Ghedini’s early development. In the early
1920s he returned to the Turin Liceo Musicale (later Conservatory) as a
teacher, first of the piano, then of harmony and eventually of composition.
He subsequently taught composition at the conservatories of Parma
(1938–41) and Milan (1941–51, director 1951–62). He was also active at
various times as an adviser to Italian radio and to the Teatro alla Scala, and
as an organizer of the Settimane Musicali Senesi and the Italian branch of
the ISCM.
Ghedini, Giorgio Federico
2. Works.
As a composer Ghedini was slow in making his mark outside a small circle
of friends and colleagues, and began to attract wider notice only in the late
1920s. Nevertheless, there is no shortage of lively inventiveness in some
of his early works, for example, the Doppio quintetto of 1921. The stylistic
elements may be old-fashioned by Ghedini’s later standards, never
advancing beyond Pizzetti or mild Ravel; but it is already apparent that
timbre was to play a paramount role in Ghedini’s best music, causing
Italian critics to speak of his ‘demone sonore’, ‘libido timbrico’ and so on.
Moreover, the Doppio quintetto’s slow sections already – though still in
relatively ‘safe’, conservative terms – foreshadow that mood of rapt, coldly
mystical contemplation which is a recurrent feature of Ghedini’s music of
the 1940s. By the 1930s his horizons were widening, both through an
increasing involvement with early Italian music and a growing awareness of
his more radical contemporaries. This expansion, however, inevitably
undermined stylistic unity, and even the orchestral Partita, once regarded
as his first real affirmation, seems transitional: the explosively dynamic first
movement, which anticipates the harsh world of Architetture, sets the
wrong premise for the other four, which are harmonically more
conservative, though the wistfully evocative ‘Giga’ is a remarkable
movement in itself.
The Partita is neo-classical only in a broad sense, and owes less than
might be expected to Casella’s fashion-setting Partita of the previous year.
Nevertheless, Ghedini before long also showed signs of a more thorough
involvement with Baroque styles. Such pieces as the Concerto grosso and
the Concerto a cinque border on pastiche. The composer’s individual voice
is only intermittently audible, though the works were, no doubt, necessary
steps towards his far more original adaptations of Baroque idioms in the
1940s. Meanwhile, the more fiercely ‘radical’ elements in his later music,
adumbrated in the first movement of the Partita, were preparing to assert
themselves more fully: if in the Marinaresca e baccanale the effect is still
rather uncontrolled, by the end of the 1930s it was becoming clear that
Ghedini was belatedly taking his place in the front rank of modern Italian
composers.
The Lectio libri sapientiae is arguably the first perfect example, in its small
way, of Ghedini’s mature style; but the work which, more than any other,
marked his full emergence as a ‘modern’ composer was Architetture, a
terse, boldly sculptured series of ‘edifici sonori’ (as the composer called
them), in which Stravinsky’s influence is unmistakable, though the interval
patterns have a very distinctive flavour. Moreover, the quietest of the seven
sections (no.5) is entirely original: the mysteriously chiming chords on the
piano and the strangely poetic interplay of solo and tutti string sounds
already belong to the world of the Concerto dell’albatro, though without the
later piece’s sustained lyricism.
An important by-product of the experience of Architetture was Ghedini’s
arrival at maturity as an opera composer. Only four years earlier Maria
d’Alessandria, like much of his other early vocal music, had still been too
traditional – especially (above all in the effective choral and ensemble
scenes) Pizzettian – to seem like a wholly individual statement. And Re
Hassan, though it marked an enormous step forward in sheer harmonic
boldness, had a slightly awkward air taken as a whole, mainly due to the
static quality of Ghedini’s new musical language, which he had not yet fully
mastered. After Architetture, however, Le baccanti came as a fiercely
compelling utterance. The distinctive interval structure of the work strikes a
fine balance between tonal and quasi-serial forces; the orchestration is
highly original, often stark and lapidary in effect, but with quieter interludes
that give scope for a unique, cold, hypnotic lyricism. Although controversial
when it was new, this is by far Ghedini’s finest theatre work, even if its
oratorio-like stylization perhaps confirms that he was more naturally at
ease in more abstract music.
Other key works of the early 1940s include the Concerto spirituale, in which
the composer’s fondness for radiant textures of female voices (evident,
many years earlier, in the ingenuously archaic, lauda-like Litanie della
Vergine) reasserts itself in more subtle terms. Archaisms, both neo-
Baroque and neo-Gregorian, are remoulded in a highly personal idiom in
which diatonicism is continually modified by false relations and other
harmonic ambiguities. The result, especially in the quieter sections, has a
haunting, airy lightness and fragrance which does not, however, preclude
passages of almost operatic eloquence and drama. Here again Stravinsky
is an important influence, not least in the crisp, bright, multi-coloured
instrumentation. A comparably individual transformation of archaic idioms
can be seen in the Sette ricercari for piano trio, whose slow sections at
times break right away from the neo-Baroque framework, to explore
unusual relationships between the piano and strings which again
foreshadow the Antarctic chill of the Concerto dell’albatro.
This work (commonly regarded in Italy as Ghedini’s masterpiece and one
of the high peaks of modern Italian music in general) thus came as a
culmination and fulfilment. Even the idea of evoking a desolate seascape,
by musical means which are totally independent of Debussy, had been
anticipated in the Marinaresca and in some of the more original pages of
Maria d’Alessandria. Once again, as in so many pieces from the Partita
onwards, the broad outline is neo-Baroque, and there are ricercare-like
textures at several points. But these are externals. The concerto’s poetic
power arises more from its many striking manifestations of Ghedini’s
‘demone sonore’: the unusually intimate, unpredictable interactions
between solo and tutti strings which have lost all connection with the
concerto grosso principle; the icy, crystalline sounds high on the piano; the
unobtrusive yet telling delayed entry of the wind instruments. When, nearly
three quarters of the way through, the speaking voice enters, reading the
passage from Moby Dick about Ishmael’s mystical awe on first seeing an
albatross in the Antarctic, the words seem merely to give a ‘local habitation
and a name’ to what was already evident in the music.
Having at last, in his early 50s, reached the height of his power, Ghedini
was quick to follow up the Concerto dell’albatro with other works of
comparable individuality; though even in this ‘visionary period’ his self-
criticism could still be deficient. The Piano Concerto, for instance, after a
tense, aggressively chromatic first movement (one of his closest
approaches to dodecaphony), seems to lose its stylistic grip and tails off, in
the finale, in facile scale passages. Even so, the better compositions of the
late 1940s are more than sufficient to confirm his stature as a major
composer. They include the mysterious, bleakly atmospheric Musica
notturna, with its uncanny use of the mandolin ‘a guisa di cembalo’ in its
closing section, and, still more important, those two supreme
manifestations of the more explicitly ‘archaic’ side of his genius, the
Canzoni for orchestra and the Concerto funebre per Duccio Galimberti. In
both pieces pre-Classical idioms, though far more pervasive than in
Architetture or even the Concerto dell’albatro, are powerfully remoulded,
although the Canzoni contain sounds that recall his imaginative
Frescobaldi arrangements of 1931. The last and longest of the Canzoni’s
fast sections develops neo-madrigalian syncopations with a dancing
vivacity that parallels some of Tippett’s earlier music; while the Concerto
funebre transforms late Baroque rhythms and textures in an impassioned,
highly unorthodox requiem for one of the heroes of the Resistance.
During the 1950s and 60s Ghedini showed little inclination to break new
ground. He tended, rather, to retreat from his ‘advanced’ position of the
1940s and sometimes, as in the Credo di Perugia, made tired
compromises with 19th-century idioms. Even his more individual music of
 these years sometimes has a self-imitative air, and the fast movements too
often reiterate short motifs, not (as in Architetture) as a necessary factor in
the music’s cumulative power, but simply as a mask for a shortage of
ideas. Such reiterations could still, however, yield surprisingly positive
results when backed by sufficiently trenchant harmony and orchestration,
as is the case in long stretches of the rather neo-Beethovenian Ouverture
pour un concert. And Ghedini’s ‘demone sonore’ is still often in evidence:
parts of the Musica da concerto and the Second Quartet are virtually
meaningless when played on the piano, but acquire a full measure of the
Ghedinian magic when performed by strings. The anguished neo-Baroque
intensity of the Concerto funebre reappears forcefully in at least the
opening section of the Lectio Jeremiae prophetae; and Ghedini’s
posthumously reconstructed last work, Symphonia, though described by
the composer (provocatively and exaggeratedly) as being built entirely of
common chords, rounds off his career on a strangely questioning note.
Ghedini, Giorgio Federico
WORKS
(selective list)

dramatic
Gringoire (op, G.M. Gatti, after T.F. de Banville), unperf.
L’intrusa (op, R. Giani), 1921, unpubd, unperf.
Maria d’Alessandria (op, 3, C. Meano), 1936, Bergamo, Novità, 9 Sept 1937
Re Hassan (op, 3, T. Pinelli), 1937–8, Venice, Fenice, 26 Jan 1939; rev., Naples, S
Carlo, 20 May 1961
La pulce d’oro (op, 1, Pinelli), 1939, Genoa, Carlo Felice, 15 Feb 1940
Le baccanti (op, Pinelli, after Euripides), 1941–4, Milan, Scala, 22 Feb 1948
Billy Budd (op, 1, Quasimodo, after H. Melville), 1949, Venice, Fenice, 8 Sept 1949
Lord Inferno (radio op, 1, F. Antonicelli, after M. Beerbohm: The Happy Hypocrite),
RAI, 22 Oct 1952; rev. for stage as L’ipocrita felice, Milan, Piccola Scala, 10 March
1956
Il girotondo (children’s ballet, 1, M. Pistoni), 1955, Venice, 1959
4 film scores, 1935–9; 4 incid scores, 1938–61
orchestral
Ouverture drammatica, 1922, unpubd; other early pieces, unpubd; Partita, 1926;
Conc. grosso, wind qnt, str, 1927; Pezzo concertante, 2 vn, va, orch, 1931;
Marinaresca e baccanale, 1933; Sym., 1935, unpubd; Intermezzo sinfonico (1939)
[from op Maria d’Alessandria]; Architetture, 1940; Invenzioni, vc, timp, cymbals, str,
1940–41; Pf Conc., 1946; Musica notturna, 1947; Conc., 2 pf, orch, 1947; Conc.
detto ‘Il belprato’, vn, str, 1947; Canzoni, 1947–8, rev. 1949; Conc. detto ‘L’alderina’,
fl, vn, timp, cel, str, 1950
Conc. detto ‘L’olmoneta’, 2 vc, orch, 1951; Musica da concerto, va, str, opt. va
d’amore, 1953; Concentus basiliensis, vn, chbr orch, 1954; Conc. for Orch, 1955–6;
Sonata da conc., fl, timp, perc, str, 1958; Fantasia, pf, str, 1958; Divertimento, vn,
orch, 1959–60; Studi per un affresco di battaglia, 1961, rev. 1964; Appunti per un
Credo, 1962; Contrappunti, str trio, orch, 1962; Musica concertante, vc, str, 1962;
Ouverture pour un concert, 1963; Symphonia, 1965, inc., reconstructed G. Salvetti
choral
With orch: Il pianto della Madonna (cant spirituale, Jacopone), Mez, Bar, vv, orch,
1921, unpubd; Ecco el re forte (cant.), solo vv, double chorus, orch, 1923, unpubd;
Litanie della Vergine, S, S chorus, orch, 1926; La Messa del Venerdì Santo, solo vv,
vv, orch, 1929; Antigone (cant sinfonica, G. Debenedetti), solo vv, vv, orch, 1933,
unpubd; Litanie gaudiose (O. Castellino), vv, ob, str, 1933, rev. 1935; Conc.
spirituale ‘de l’Incarnazione del Verbo Divino’ (Jacopone), 2 S and/or S chorus, chbr
orch, 1943; Conc. detto ‘Il rosero’, 2 S, Mez, female vv, hp, pf, str, 1950; Lectio
Jeremiae prophetae, S, vv, orch, 1960; Credo di Perugia, vv, orch, 1961–2
Other works: early partsongs, 1911, 1928–33, most unpubd; 3 sets of 3 responsorii,
4vv, 1930, part pubd; Mass, D, male vv, org, 1930, unpubd; Missa monodica in
honorem S Gregorii Magni, unison vv, opt. org/hmn, 1932; Antifona per Luisa, Tr, S
chorus, org/str, 1944; 5 canzoni, children’s vv, opt. acc., 1952; Fu primavera allora
(piccola cant, Virgil, trans. Quasimodo), solo vv, vv, pf, 1953
solo vocal
With orch: 2 lettere, 1v, str, 1930, unpubd; Cantico del sole (St Francis), 1v, str,
1932; Capitolo XII dell’Apocalisse, 1v, chbr orch, 1937–8, unpubd; Lectio libri
sapientiae (cant. spirituale), 1v, tpt, pf, str, 1938; Conc. dell’albatro (H. Melville),
spkr, pf trio, fl + pic, 2 trbn, timp, perc, str, 1945; Conc. funebre per Duccio
Galimberti (requiem mass, Bible: Ezekiel), T, B, 2 trbn, timp, str, 1948; Vocalizzo da
concerto, Bar/vc, orch/pf, 1957
With pf: 3 liriche di Tagore, 1919, unpubd; many other songs, 1915–26, unpubd; 4
canti su antichi testi napoletani, 1925; 4 strambotti di Giustiniani, 1925; 3 other
works, 1925–8; Canto d’amore (Jacopone), 1926, orchd 1932; Diletto e spavento
del mare (Gk., trans. G. Mazzoni), 1926; La quiete della notte (Gk., trans. Mazzoni),
1926; Di’Maria dolce (G. Dominici), 1926; 4 duetti su testi sacri, 2vv, 1930; 3 canti di
Shelley, 1934; 4 liriche del Boiardo, 1935; In gravi annelli, Il prato dorme (E.
Schiavi), 1941, unpubd; Vagammo per la foresta di pini (P.B. Shelley), 1956; 3
liriche (R. Bacchelli), 1963
Other works: Oggi è nato un bel bambino, 3 female vv, cel, 1933, unpubd
chamber and solo instrumental
4 or more insts: Wind Qnt, 1910, unpubd; Pf Qt, 1917, unpubd; Doppio quintetto,
wind qnt, hp, pf, str qt, db, 1921, unpubd; Str Qt, G, 1927, inc., unpubd; Str Qt no.1,
a, 1927; Conc. a 5, fl, ob, cl, bn, pf, 1930; Adagio e allegro da concerto, fl, cl, hn,
hp, str trio, 1936; Concentus, str qt, 1948; Str Qt no.2, 1959
2–3 insts: 2 intermezzi, pf trio, 1915; 2 sonatas, vn, pf, 1918, 1922, unpubd; Elegia,
vc, pf, 1923; Sonata-fantasia, vc, pf, 1924; several small pieces, vn, pf, 1930;
Concertato, fl, va, hp, 1941, unpubd; 7 ricercari, pf trio, 1943; Canoni, vn, vc, 1946;
Musiche per 3 strumenti, fl, vc, hp, 1963
1 inst: early pieces, pf, 1909–16, only 1 pubd; hmn pieces, 1913–14; Puerilia, pf,
1922; Sonata pastorale, pf, 1922, unpubd; Pastorale elegiaco, pf, 1926, orchd,
unpubd; Divertimento contrappuntistico, pf, 1940; Capriccio, pf, 1944; Ricercare, pf,
1944, unpubd; Studio da concerto, gui, 1959; 3 pezzi, fl, 1962
arrangements and editions
4 pezzi di Gerolamo Frescobaldi, orchd 1931
Corona di sacre canzoni, S, chorus ad lib, str, pf, 1945 [free arr. of various laudi
spirituali]
J.S. Bach: Musical Offering, orchd 1946
Edns of works by A. Gabrieli, G. Gabrieli, Monteverdi, Schütz, 1943–53

Principal publishers: Carisch, Curci, Ricordi, Suvini Zerboni, Universal

Ghedini, Giorgio Federico
WRITINGS
Diary of 1926–7 (MS, I-Mcom)
‘Note su Le baccanti e su altri lavori’, Agorà [Turin], ii/1 (1946), 23
‘Le point de vue du compositeur’, La musique dans l’éducation: Brussels
1953 (Paris, 1955), 309
‘Appunti per un autobiografia’, Musicalia, i/2 (1970), 52–5
Ghedini, Giorgio Federico
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. D[?esderi].: ‘Ghedini, G.F.: Due laudi spirituali, due liriche greche’,
‘Ghedini, G.F.: Partita per orchestra’, RMI, xxxv (1928), 136–8, 302–4
C. Pinelli: Re Hassan di’ Giorgio Ghedini (Milan, 1930)
‘Lettera da Venezia: Re Hassan di Ghedini’, RaM, xii (1939), 129–32
C. Pinelli: ‘Esordio di un operista italiano: Maria d’Alessandria di G.F.
Ghedini’, RMI, xliii (1939), 75–96
G. Gavazzeni: ‘La musica di Ghedini’, Letteratura, ix/2 (1947), 152; repr. in
G. Gavazzeni: Musicisti d’Europa (Milan, 1954), 181–90
A.M. Bonisconti: ‘Giorgio Federico Ghedini e le sue ultime opere’, RaM,
xix (1949), 98–109
‘Voci aggiunte e rivedute per un dizionario di compositori viventi: Giorgio
Federico Ghedini’, RaM, xix (1949), 123–37 [incl. work-list]
M. Mila: ‘Lettera da Venezia: Billy Budd di Ghedini’, RaM, xix (1949), 223–
5
A. Piovesan: ‘Premio Italia 1952’, La scala, no.38 (1953), 50–51 [on Lord
Inferno]
N. Castiglioni: Giorgio Federico Ghedini (Milan, 1955)
A. Capri: ‘Natura e interiorità in Ghedini’, La scala, no.86 (1957), 37–41
M. Mila: ‘Il libertino allegorico di Ghedini’, Cronache musicali 1955–1959
(Turin, 1959), 176–8 [on L’ipocrite felice]
A.M. Bonisconti: ‘Il teatro musicale di Giorgio Federico Ghedini’, Musica
d’oggi, new ser., iv (1961), 194–200
J.S. Weissmann: ‘La musica di Ghedini e il suo significato europeo’,
Musica d’oggi, new ser., iv (1961), 201–5; Eng. trans. in Ricordiana,
vi/1 (London, 1961), 1–3, 14 only
G. Ugolini: ‘Dramma e spiritualità di Ghedini’, La Scala, no.159 (1963), 7–
15
R. Amadei: ‘Intorno ad alcune opere di Giorgio Federico Ghedini’, Musica
d’oggi, new ser., viii (1965), 237–42
Giorgio Federico Ghedini: catalogo delle opere (Milan, 1965) [Ricordi
catalogue, incl. introduction by G. Barblan]
G. Salvetti: ‘I Responsori di Giorgio Federico Ghedini’, Chigiana, new ser.,
iii (1966), 283–9
G. Salvetti: ‘La lirica da camera di Giorgio Federico Ghedini’, CHM, iv
(1966), 271–8
C. Mosso and E. Rescigno: Ghedini issue, Musica moderna (1967–9),
65–80 [incl. sound disc]
G. Salvetti: ‘Un diario inedito del 1926 e l’opera postuma “Symphonia”’,
Chigiana, new ser., vi–vii (1969–70), 123–36
G. Salvetti: ‘L’“antipoetica” di G.F. Ghedini nella musica italiana tra le due
guerre’, Studi musicali, i (1972), 371–417
Ghedini e l’attivita musicale in Torino fra le due guerre: Turin 1986
 R.C. Lakeway and R.C. White: Italian Art Song (Bloomington, IN, 1989)

Gheerkin.
Composer, possibly identifiable with Derrick Gerarde.

Gheerkin [Gheerken, Gheraert] de

Hondt
(fl 1539–47). South Netherlandish composer. The only biographical
information about him comes from the account books of the Confraternity
of Our Lady in 's-Hertogenbosch. He emigrated from Bruges in 1539,
having been engaged by the brotherhood in September, and began his
official duties as choirmaster on 31 December. He held the post until 2
October 1547, when he was dismissed on charges arising from the
improper maintenance of choirboys under the care of him and his wife.
Leaving 's-Hertogenbosch, he travelled north into the Friesland sector of
Holland.
The attribution of works to Gheerkin is complicated by the assignment in
contemporary sources of all but one to composers identified simply as
‘Gheerkin’. The ascription of the Missa ‘Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel’ in
the Cambrai partbooks to both ‘Gheerkin’ (in two books) and ‘Gheerkin de
Hondt’ (in the other two) indicates that here, at least, they are identifiable. A
payment that he received in 's-Hertogenbosch ‘for writing some motets in
honour of the brotherhood’ makes it clear that he is the composer of certain
motets ascribed to ‘Gheerkin’, and he probably wrote the two masses
ascribed to ‘Gheerkin’ (in NL-SH 74). In other instances, however, more
documentary evidence is needed.
Eitner regarded Gheerkin as a gifted, resourceful composer of appealing
works, and Vander Linden (in MGG1) thought that the chansons revealed a
composer of assurance and skill in the invention and development of ideas.
WORKS
attributed ‘Gheerkin’ or ‘Gheerken’ unless otherwise stated

Edition: Trésor musical, ed. R. van Maldeghem (Brussels, 1865–93) [M]

masses
Missa ‘Ave mater Christi’, lost; formerly B-Br, attrib. Gheerkin de Hondt in FétisB
Missa ‘Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel’, 4vv, F-CA 125–8 (attrib. Gheerkin de
Hondt); Kyrie ed. in Coussemaker
Missa ‘Ceciliam cantate pii’, 5vv, NL-SH 74
Missa ‘In te Domine speravi’, 5vv, SH 74
Missa ‘Panis quem ego dabo’, 4vv, F-CA 125–8; ed. in EMN, ix (1975)
Missa ‘Vidi Jerusalem’, 4vv, CA 125–8
motets
Benedicite Dominus, 4vv, CA 125–8; Inclina Domine aurem tuam, 4vv, CA 125–8;
Jubilate Deo omnis terra, 4vv, CA 125–8; Vox dicentis clama, 4vv, CA 125–8
secular
all for 4 voices

A vous me rens, F-CA 125–8, 15358 (attrib. Willaert), M xv (as Si je l'amais); Contre
raison pour t'aymer, CA 125–8, M xv (as Le mois de mai); D'un profond cueur j'ay
crie, CA 125–8; Helas malheur prens tu contentement, CA 125–8, M xv (as Ton
amitié); Het was my wel te vooren gezeyt, 1551 18 (attrib. Geerhart), CA 125–8, M
xv, xxv, ed. in Coussemaker, ed. in UVNM, xxix (1908)
Je me repens de vous avoir ayme, CA 125–8; Langueur d'amour m'est sur venue,
CA 125–8, M xv (as Nature a pris sur nous); Mon petit cueur n'est point à moy, CA
125–8, M xv (as Mon pauvre coeur); Oncques ne sceux avoir, 1553 24

BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
A. Smijers: ‘De Illustre Lieve Vrouwe Broederschap te 's-Hertogenbosch’,
TVNM, xvii/3 (1950), 195–230
M.A. Vente: ‘De Illustre Lieve Vrouwe Broederschap te 's-Hertogenbosch’,
TVNM, xix/1–2 (1960–61), 32–43
G.K. Diehl: The Partbooks of a Renaissance Merchant, Cambrai:
Bibliothèque municipale, MSS 125–128 (diss., U. of Pennsylvania,
1974)
H. van Nieuwkoop: Introduction to Gheerkin de Hondt: Missa Panis
quemego dabo, EMN, ix (1975)
GEORGE KARL DIEHL

Gheine, van den.

See Vanden Gheyn family.

Gheluwe, Leo van.

See Van Gheluwe, Leo.

Ghent
(Flem. Gent; Fr. Gand).
Belgian city. Originally a minor agricultural settlement at the conflux of the
Scheldt and Leie rivers, the town rose to prominence with the foundation,
in the early 7th century, of two major Benedictine abbeys: St Peter
(Pieterskerk) and St Baaf. With the formation of the county of Flanders, in
the 9th century, Ghent also became the primary residence of the Flemish
counts, with a castle (the later Gravensteen), household church (St
Pharaïldis, or St Veerle, later raised to collegiate status) and necropolis
(the abbey of St Peter). Ghent's earliest parish church was St John
(Janskerk, first mentioned in 964). By about 1100 the town's expansion had
necessitated the subdivision and formation of further parishes: St James
(Jacobskerk), St Nicholas (Niklaaskerk) and St Michael (Michielskerk). Two
centuries later, after a period of sustained economic growth, large-scale
building projects for all of these churches were well under way. Although
religious establishments were to proliferate during the later Middle Ages,
the two abbeys, collegiate church and four parish churches mentioned here
remained the dominant musical centres of Ghent during the period of its
greatest economic and political power, the 14th to 16th centuries.
Daily observance of the Benedictine liturgy in the abbeys of St Peter and St
Baaf must have constituted the earliest regular musical practice in Ghent.
At the beginning of the 13th century a chapter of canons (endowed by the
counts of Flanders) was established in St Pharaïldis. The canons may have
followed the use of Paris, since the counts were vassals of the French king.
In the richer parishes of Ghent, collective efforts were made to establish
trusts with which to sustain bodies of priests to sing the daily liturgy in the
nave (the so-called cotidianen). Annual cotidiane accounts for St James,
listing individual priests and their salaries, stretch back as far as 1379.
Although similar accounts for other parishes do not survive until the next
century, it may be assumed that most of them had established cotidianen
by the 14th century as well.
As a major town in a northern-French county, Ghent has always been
bilingual, and thus it need occasion no surprise to find a Mahieu de Gant
among the trouvères of the 13th century. The earliest city accounts, dating
from the middle of the 14th century, refer repeatedly to minstrels; their
repertory may have included songs in both French and Flemish. Evidence
of early polyphonic practice is provided by two sets of fragments from the
last decades of the 14th century (Rijksarchief 133 and 3360). They contain
Glorias in motet style as well as French courtly songs by Machaut, Pierre
de Molins and anonymous composers. If the fragments originate from
Ghent, as seems likely, they were probably written and used by musicians
at the court of Flanders – perhaps alternatively in the Gravensteen and St
Faraïlde. A choral foundation at this church, involving choirboys and parvi
cotidiani, had been established by the merchant and courtier Simone de
Mirabello about 1331.
Early polyphonic practice in the parish churches is difficult to document,
since cotidiane accounts record mainly the attendance of priest-singers,
but hardly ever specify their musical skills. However, St James is known to
have possessed a liber motetorum by 1387. (Up to the middle of the 15th
century the term motetum could cover individual mass movements as well
as secular motets; it is likely that this motet book contained only the former,
including such Glorias as survive in the Rijksarchief 133.) Moreover, in the
course of the 15th century one finds increasing numbers of cotidianisten in
this and other parishes who can be identified as singers of polyphony
elsewhere. It is safe to assume that in most churches, the choral forces
necessary for the regular performance of polyphony were fully in place by
at least the first decades of the 15th century. This in turn allowed these
resources to be employed for other purposes: liturgical celebrations in side
chapels (endowed by private individuals and confraternities), Salve or Lof
services in honour of the Virgin and other saints, and civic processions.
At St John, a private endowment from 1446 required the cotidianisten of
the church to sing a ‘mottet’ annually in the chapel of St Michael on the eve
of the saint's feast, ‘as one is already accustomed to do every year for St
Agatha’. A private foundation from 1460 called for an office to be celebrated
daily after mass ‘by seven priests, singing descant’. The single surviving
15th-century cotidiane account from St John, for the year 1484–5, identifies
two singers as ‘tenorists’, and rewards one of these for the copying of two
‘messen in discant’. One of the major musical benefactors in the church
was the Guild of Our Lady, which had already contracted the cotidianisten
and the choirboys of St Pharaïldis for weekly Marian Vespers and masses
by 1447–8, and established a daily polyphonic Salve in 1503.
Similar private initiatives are documented in other churches. At St Nicholas,
the confraternity of St Anne founded a weekly mass in polyphony in 1445;
the guild of the city carillonneurs founded three annual polyphonic masses
in 1479. A weekly polyphonic mass for the Holy Ghost was endowed at St
James in 1470. These examples suggest that Ghent had become a thriving
centre for the cultivation of vocal polyphony by the middle of the 15th
century. The relatively permanent nature of these foundations, and the
continuous addition of new endowments and augmentations, secured the
continuation of these musical practices into the next century and beyond,
until the French invasion of 1794 at the latest. Major Renaissance
composers known to have been active at Ghent or associated with the
town include Jacob Obrecht, Alexander Agricola, Pierre de la Rue,
Cornelius Canis, Jheronimus Vinders and Jacques Buus.
In the later Middle Ages Ghent was also a major centre of instrumental
music. The professionalization of instrumental trades can be witnessed in
the establishment of guilds of trumpeters (by 1451), carillonneurs (1473)
and players of soft instruments (by 1478). The services of the trumpeters
were frequently called on in liturgical celebrations, processions,
announcements and all manner of civic festivities. The carillonneurs rang
the church bells in the event of danger, and were almost always involved in
the more richly endowed liturgical services. The players of soft instruments
seem to have operated mainly in domestic environments, especially at
weddings.
After the 16th century, as Ghent rapidly lost its international prominence as
a musical centre, instrumental music played an increasingly dominant role
in its musical life. A collegium musicum was founded in 1649. Its members
organized private concerts in the homes of the wealthy bourgeoisie, with
programmes that were heavily orientated towards Italian musical taste.
Since the late Middle Ages there has also been a strong tradition of
instrument making at Ghent. Well-known families of organ builders and
bellfounders during the Baroque period, such as the Hemony and Van
Peteghem families, continued their trades over many generations,
receiving commissions from all over the southern Netherlands. Similar
dynasties can be identified among 18th-century instrumental performers
such as the Boutmy and Loeillet families.
The first opera at Ghent was staged in 1683. 15 years later the town
opened a new opera house with a performance of Lully's Thésée. By 1706
Ghent possessed a permanent opera company, the Académie Royale de
Musique. However, a public concert life in the modern sense did not exist
until very late in the 18th century, and the real breakthrough came only in
the first half of the 19th. The Grand Théâtre (from 1921 the Koninklijke
Opera), finished in 1840, featured operas by such local composers as
Antoine Bovery, Karel Miry and Martin-Joseph Mengal. Until the 1940s
most opera was given there in French; a Flemish theatre was opened in
1871. In 1981 the opera company joined with that of Antwerp to form
Opera voor Vlaanderen, now the Vlaamse Operastichting.
Mengal was the first director of the Koninklijk Conservatorium Gent,
founded in 1812. In the realms of concert life and education Ghent
continued its musical life with vigour through the 20th century. Among
noteworthy developments were the foundation in 1964 of the Instituut voor
Psychoacoustica en Electronische Muziek (IPEM) at the University of
Ghent, where Lucien Goethals achieved prominence as a composer of
electro-acoustic music. The department of musicology (until 1986 under the
direction of Jan L. Broeckx) has earned a distinguished reputation in
musical aesthetics and sociology.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (C. Pitt)
F. De Potter: Gent, van den oudsten tijd tot heden (Ghent, 1882)
P. Claeys: ‘Le grand théâtre de Gand: représentations et répertoire’,
Pages d'histoire locale, i (1885), 170–85
P. Bergmans: La vie musicale gantoise au 18e siècle (Brussels, 1897)
M. Sabbe: De muziek in Vlaanderen (Antwerp, 1928)
E. Closson and C. van den Borren: La musique en Belgique du Moyen
Age à nos jours (Brussels, 1950)
R. Wangermée: De Vlaamse muziek in de maatschappij van de 15e en
16e eeuw (Brussels, 1965)
G. Verriest: Het lyrisch toneel te Gent (Ghent, 1966)
K. Polk: ‘Wind Bands of Medieval Flemish Cities’, BWQ, i (1966–8), 93–
113
K. Polk: ‘Ensemble Instrumental Music in Flanders 1450–1550’, Journal of
Band Research, xi/2 (1975), 12–27
R. Strohm: ‘The Ars Nova Fragments of Gent’, TVNM, xxxiv (1984), 109–
31
M.J. Bloxam: A Survey of Late Medieval Service Books from the Low
Countries: Implications for Sacred Polyphony, 1460–1520 (diss., Yale
U., 1987)
M.J. Bloxam: ‘In Praise of Spurious Saints: the Missae Floruit egregiis by
Pipelare and La Rue’, JAMS, xliv (1991), 163–220
K. Polk: German Instrumental Music of the Late Middle Ages: Players,
Patrons and Performance Practice (Cambridge, 1992)
M. Lesaffre: ‘Muziekleven’, Gent: Apology van een rebelse stad, ed. J.
Decavele (Antwerp, 1994), 419–26
P. Trio and B. Haggh: ‘The Archives of Confraternities in Ghent and
Music’, Musicology and Archival Research, ed. B. Haggh (Brussels,
1994), 44–90
R.C. Wegman: Born for the Muses: the Life and Masses of Jacob Obrecht
(Oxford, 1994)
ROB C. WEGMAN

Ghent, Emmanuel (Robert)

 (b Montreal, 15 May 1925). American composer. He studied medicine and
music (the piano and the bassoon) at McGill University (BS 1946, MD
1950). In 1951 he emigrated to the USA and studied privately with Shapey.
While influenced by Varèse and Shapey, his music concentrates on the
harmonic and melodic exploration of fixed intervallic groupings. He was a
pioneer in the use of polytempo coordination, synchronization of electronic
sounds with live instruments and in the application of algorhythmic
procedures to the composition of computer music. Certain works also
explore complexities of rhythmic coordination, utilizing techniques and
electronic devices of his own invention, including equipment for
transmitting synchronization signals to performers. He has documented
these developments in articles in Perspectives of New Music, Electronic
Music Review and other publications. Ghent has received MacDowell
fellowships (1964, 1965), a Guggenheim Fellowship (1967) and NEA
grants (1974 and 1975; collaborative grants in 1976 and 1981). From 1969
to 1978 he worked extensively at Bell Telephone Laboratories, using the
GROOVE program for his computer-generated works. His collaborative
grants have been devoted to developing systems of computer-controlled
lighting as well as working with visual artists to produce computer music for
computer-graphics film. Since the late 1970s he has devoted himself
primarily to psychoanalytic practice, writing and teaching. (EwenD)
WORKS
Entelechy, va, pf, 1963; Dithyrambos, brass qnt, elec, 1965; Hex, an Ellipsis, tpt, 11
insts, tape, elec, 1966; Helices, vn, pf, tape, 1969; Innerness, cptr tape, 1970;
Phosphones, cptr tape, lighting, 1971; Lustrum, elec str qt, brass qnt, cptr tape,
1974; Brazen [cptr realization of Lustrum], 1975; 5 Brass Voices [cptr realization of
Dithyrambos], 1977; Program Music 1–29, cptr tape, 1977–9; Baobab, cptr, 1979
[for film by K. Knowlton]; 3°K, cptr, film, collab. L. Schwartz, 1982
Early inst works, children’s songs, many other cptr, tape works, mixed-media works

Principal publishers: OUP, Persimmon

BRIAN FENNELLY

Gheorghiu, Angela
(b Adjud, 7 Sept 1965). Romanian soprano. She studied with Arta Florescu
at the Enescu Academy in Bucharest and made her professional début at
18 as Solveig in Peer Gynt and her opera début at the Cluj Opera as Mimì
in 1990, the year she won the Belvedere International Competition in
Vienna. She first appeared at Covent Garden as Zerlina in 1992 and the
same year sang an acclaimed Mimì there. Further Covent Garden
appearances have been as Nina in Massenet’s Chérubin, Liù, Micaëla and
Adina. However, her most admired appearance was as a vocally and
dramatically near-ideal Violetta in Richard Eyre’s staging of La traviata
(1994), conducted by Solti and preserved on CD and video, in which her
deeply eloquent singing is supported by her dark looks and a naturally
affecting interpretation (for a later revival see illustration). Gheorghiu first
sang at the Vienna Staatsoper in 1992 as Adina, returning as Mimì and
Nannetta, and made her Metropolitan début, as Mimì, in 1993. Her voice is
one of the most natural and individual of her generation, capable both of
notable flexibility and of expressing intense feeling. Among recordings that
catch the essence of her art are Magda in La rondine, Juliette in Gounod’s
opera and Charlotte in Werther, in all of which she is partnered by her
husband Roberto Alagna. On video, from the Lyons Opéra, a delightfully
insouciant Adina to Alagna’s Nemorino reveals her gifts in comedy. She is
also an accomplished recitalist, as revealed in a CD recital embracing
songs in many idioms and languages.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Blyth: ‘Angela Gheorghiu’, Opera, l/3 (1999), 254–60
ALAN BLYTH

Gheraert de Hondt.
See Gheerkin de Hondt.

Gherardello da Firenze [Magister

Ser Ghirardellus de Florentia;
Niccolò di Francesco]
(b c1320–25; d Florence, 1362 or 1363). Italian composer. He is first
mentioned in 1343 as a ‘cherico’ (clerk) at what was then the Cathedral of
Florence, S Reparata. He was ordained priest two years later and was
chaplain at this church at least from 1345 to 1351. He must have changed
his name to Ser Gherardello in about 1351: this was presumably
connected with his entry into the order of Vallombrosa. Later he accepted a
priorship in the church of S Remigio in Florence. He is recorded several
times in the period 1360–62 as a visitor to the monastery of Santa Trìnita,
which also belonged to the Vallombrosa order. His deathdate is derived
from the lack of any information after 1362, and also from the sonnet sent
by Simone Peruzzi to Franco Sacchetti mourning the death of Gherardello.
Gherardello was known during his lifetime above all for his liturgical
compositions, but of these only two mass movements have survived. His
secular works are found exclusively in Tuscan manuscripts; the section of
the Squarcialupi Manuscript (I-Fl 87) devoted to his music has at its head a
portrait which may be of the composer (see Caccia, illustration). Other
works by him are known only from literary references. His style is closely
related to that of Giovanni da Cascia’s more mature work. The division of
the madrigal lines into melismatic and syllabic sections is more marked in
Gherardello’s work than in Giovanni’s. The frequent changes of
mensuration in the stanza part, the texting of both voices in the madrigals
(which are always for two voices), and the treatment of the lines of verse as
self-contained units, usually by means of cadences in the music, are
characteristic features of Gherardello’s work and follow the older Trecento
style. Monophonic transitional passages between the lines occur rarely.
Canonic sections – probably adopted from the style of the caccia – are to
be found at the beginning of Intrando ad abitar and in La bella e la
 vezzosa. The surviving ballatas are monophonic throughout. In contrast to
the madrigals, they contain few extended melismas. It is interesting that,
even though they are monophonic (and in contrast to the ballatas of I-Rvat
215), the ‘under-3rd’ cadence appears at the end of the piedi – though
never at the end of the ripresa. The two surviving mass movements are
modelled on the madrigals in their style. Their construction is clearly
different from that of the Credo of Bartholus de Florentia, who was also in
the employment of Florence Cathedral.
Gherardello’s brother Jacopo and his son Giovanni were both composers,
for whose known works (all on texts by Sacchetti) no music survives; the
former (recorded as a guest at Santa Trìnita in 1360) wrote a madrigal
Vana speranza and two ballatas, Di tempo in tempo and Se ferma stesse,
the latter two ballatas, Chi più ci crede and Se la mia vita.
WORKS

Editions: The Music of Fourteenth-century Italy, ed. N. Pirrotta, CMM, viii/1 (1954) [incl. all
Gherardello’s works] [P]Der Squarcialupi-Codex: Pal.87 der Biblioteca Medicea
Laurenziana zu Florenz, ed. J. Wolf (Lippstadt, 1955) [W]Italian Secular Music, ed. W.T.
Marrocco, PMFC, vii (1971) [M]

sacred
Gloria, 2vv, P 53; Agnus Dei, 2vv, P 55; both also ed. in PMFC, xii (1976); Ave,
Credo, Osanna (lost; mentioned in sonnet by Simone Peruzzi)
secular
monophonic ballatas
Dè, poni amor a me (text inc.), P 77, W 61, M 87; Donna, l’altrui mirar, P 77, W 62,
M 88; I’ vivo amando sempre (text inc.), P 78, W 56, M 91; I’ vo’ bene (N.
Soldanieri) (lauda contrafactum: ‘Chi ama in verità’); P 79, W 57, M 92; Per non far
lieto, P 80, W 56, M 98
madrigals
all for 2 voices

Allo spirar dell’aire, P 56, W 53, M 75; Cacciand’un giorno, P 58, W 57, M 78; Con
levrieri e mastini, P 60, W 52, M 81, 84; Intrando ad abitar, P 62, W 61, M 89; La
bella e la vezzosa, P 63, W 51, M 93; L’aquila bella (Soldanieri), P 65, W 59, M 96;
Per prender cacciagion, P 67, W 60, M 99; Sì forte vola la pernice, P 68, W 49, M
101; Sotto verdi fraschetti, P 70, W 50, M 103, 106; Una colomba più, P 71, W 55,
M 117

caccias
Tosto che l’alba, 3vv, P 74, W 47, M 109, 113
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (N. Pirrotta)
N. Pirrotta: ‘Lirica monodica trecentesca’, RaM, ix (1936), 317–25; repr. in
Poesia e musica e altri saggi (Florence, 1994), 35–46
K. von Fischer: Studien zur italienischen Musik des Trecento und frühen
Quattrocento (Berne, 1956)
G. Reaney: ‘The Manuscript London, B.M., Add.29987 (Lo)’, MD, xii
(1958), 67–91, esp. 73
B.J. Layton: Italian Music for the Ordinary of the Mass 1300–1450 (diss.,
Harvard U., 1960), 91ff
G. Corsi, ed.: Poesie musicali del Trecento (Bologna, 1970), 61–72
F.A. D’Accone: ‘Music and Musicians at the Florentine Monastery of Santa
Trinità, 1360–1363’, Quadrivium, xii/1 (1971), 131–51
M.P. Long: ‘Landini's Musical Patrimony: a Reassessment of some
Compositional Conventions’, JAMS, xl (1987), 31–52
F. Brambilla Ageno, ed.: F. Sacchetti: Il libro delle rime (Florence and
Perth, 1990)
K. von Fischer: ‘Le biografie’, Il codice Squarcialupi, ed. F.A. Gallo
(Florence, 1992), i, 127–44, esp. 132–3
N. Pirrotta: ‘Le musiche’, ibid., 193–222, esp. 200–02
M. Gozzi: ‘La cosidetta Longanotation: nuove prospettive sulla notazione
italiana del Trecento’, MD, xlix (1995), 121–49, esp. 145
KURT VON FISCHER/GIANLUCA D’AGOSTINO

Gherardeschi, Filippo Maria

(b Pistoia, 1738; d Pisa, 1808). Italian composer. He began his musical
education in his home town, where his father, Giuseppe, was organist at
the churches of SS Trinità and S Maria dell’Umiltà, and his uncle, Atto, was
cantor in the chapel of Pistoia Cathedral. He continued his studies in
Bologna with Martini from 1756 to about 1761, when he was admitted to
the Accademia Filarmonica (test piece in I-Baf). The rest of his life was
spent in Tuscany, but he corresponded with Martini until the latter’s death
in 1784 (39 letters in I-Bc). In 1761 he went to Livorno, where he gave
private lessons and played the organ in various churches in the town.
Despite Padre Martini’s assistance, he was unsuccessful in his application
for the post of maestro di cappella (which had become vacant with C.A.
Campioni’s move to Florence), the position going to Orazio Mei, then
organist at Pisa Cathedral. He was made maestro di cappella in Volterra in
1763 and, four months later, organist at Pisa Cathedral. There he soon
attained notable fame, being invited to play the harpsichord at court, for the
patrician families of Pisa, and at the town theatre of the Accademia dei
Costanti. In 1770 he was appointed maestro di cappella at Pistoia
Cathedral, but only played there on major feast days. In 1771 he resigned
from the cathedral, and the post was taken up by his brother Domenico
(1733–1800), who was already organist there. In 1783 Pietro Leopoldo,
Grand Duke of Tuscany, appointed Gherardeschi maestro di musica to his
children and director of concerts (when the court was resident in Pisa), and
in 1785 appointed him organist and maestro di cappella at the Chiesa
Conventuale dei Cavalieri di S Stefano at Pisa, a post he retained until his
death.
The greater part of Gherardeschi’s work is church music, primarily for
chorus, soloists and orchestra. As a student of Martini, Gherardeschi
became familiar with Italian Renaissance church music; in a letter to Martini
from Volterra he wrote that he was continuing to study Palestrina’s music.
Yet his own church music was not in the stile antico, but stemmed from the
Bolognese tradition of his teacher and his primarily homophonic, galant
 style. Notable among his sacred works are the 26 masses, almost all of
which are for soloists, chorus and orchestra; the Gran messa solenne da
requiem (I-Nc Mus.relig.705) was sung at Pisa in 1803 in memory of the
deceased Ludovico I, King of Etruria. Gherardeschi’s hymns and psalms
also occupy an important place in his output; a good example of this is a
Confitebor, dated Pisa, 1773 (I-PS B 111.3), for four solo voices, chorus
and strings, which alternates arias and choral movements (sometimes
polyphonic, sometimes homorhythmic) and shows Gherardeschi to have
been a skilful and appealing composer. According to his obituary in the
Magasin encyclopédique, he was also an admirer of J.S. Bach and the
masters of the German school. Of Gherardeschi’s six operas (all performed
exclusively in Tuscany, except for L’astuzia felice, which was performed in
Venice in 1767), only librettos and scattered arias are extant. He seems to
have written no operas after 1769, although there are in Genoa, Parma
and Pistoia individual arias referring to performances of earlier operas after
that date. His keyboard music had some popularity during his lifetime. His
Tre sonate per cembalo o fortepiano, published in Florence, probably in
1785, and dedicated to the Archduchess Marcia Theresa of Austria, are
attractive, with a certain melodic suavity and with expression marks and
nuances indicative of piano writing.
WORKS
operas
all lost except librettos and some arias, I-PS, Gl, PAc

L’amore artigiano (C. Goldoni), Lucca, 1763

Il curioso indiscreto (3, ? G. Petrosellini), Pisa, Pubblico, 1764
I visionari, Pisa, 1764
L’astuzia felice (dg, 3, ?Goldoni, after Goldoni: La cameriera spiritosa), Venice, S
Moisè, aut. 1767
I due gobbi, Pisa, Teatro Nuovo, carn. 1779
La notte critica (dg, 3, Goldoni), Pisa, Pubblico, carn. 1769
Arias in F.L. Gassmann: La contessina, Pisa, 1774

other works
Sacred: numerous masses, hymns, psalms, ants, canticles, lits, Lamentations,
principal sources: I-Bc, PIst, PS; also A-Wn, I-Baf, Fc, Fn, Gl, Li, MAC, Nc, PAc, PIp
Other vocal: fughe vocali, Bc
Inst: 3 sonate, hpd/pf (Florence, c1785); 4 sonate, org/hpd, Bc; sonata (‘pastorale’),
2 ob, str, bc, PIst; sonata (‘patetica’), vn, bn, str, bc, PIst; str qt, Bc; counterpoint
exercises, Bc, Ps
Pedagogical works: Elementi per sonare il cembalo, Bc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Obituary, Magasin encyclopédique (1809), no.1, 135–6
V. Capponi: Biografia pistoiese o Notizie della vita e delle opere dei
pistoiesi illustri (Pistoia, 1878)
G.C. Rospigliosi: Notizie dei maestri ed artisti di musica pistoiesi (Pistoia,
1878)
A. Chiappelli: Storia del teatro in Pistoia dalle origini alla fine del secolo
XVIII (Pistoia, 1913/R)
F. Baggiani: ‘Musicisti in Pisa’, Bollettino storico pisano, lii (1983), 117–62
 S. Barandoni: Filippo Maria Gherardeschi: organista e maestro di cappella
della Chiesa conventuale dei Cavalieri di S Stefano (thesis, U. of Pisa,
1990)
HOWARD BROFSKY/STEFANO BARANDONI

Gherardeschi, Giuseppe
(b Pistoia, 3 Nov 1759; d Pistoia, 6 Aug 1815). Italian organist and
composer. He began his musical education with his father Domenico
(1733–1800), maestro di cappella of Pistoia Cathedral, and his uncle
Filippo Maria. He then completed his studies with Nicola Sala at the
Conservatorio di S Maria della Pietà dei Turchini in Naples. He returned to
Pistoia where he became organist at S Maria dell'Umiltà. In 1785 he
married Alessandra Leporatti who gave him seven children before her
death in 1794. In 1795 he married Francesca Maestripieri, who gave him a
daughter. In 1800, on his father's death, he was appointed maestro di
cappella of Pistoia Cathedral. All his organ pieces, written especially for the
cathedral organ, contain very specific registration instructions. He was
succeeded at the cathedral first by his son Luigi (1791–1871) and then by
his grandson Gherardo (1835–1905). They were also composers and much
of their sacred and instrumental music survives (mostly in I-PS).
WORKS
MSS in I-PS

vocal
Daliso e Delmita (op), 1782; Angelica e Medoro (cant.), 1783; L'apparenza inganna
(op), 1784, collab. Carlo Spuntoni, lost; L'ombra do Catilina (cant.), 1789;
L'impazienza (cant.), 1798; Il sacrificio di Jeft (orat), 1803; La speranza coronata
(cant.), 1804–9; choruses, arias, duettos
Sacred: 30 masses, 3 matins, 37 Lamentations, 90 motets, 5 TeD, other works
instrumental
6 sonate, hpd/pf, vn obbl (Florence, before 1800); 7 syms.; several concertoni; wind
qnt; 6 trios, 2 vn, vc, 1784; 2 sonatas, hpd; other works
Numerous works for org, ed. in: Musiche pistoiesi per organo, ii, MMI, 1st ser., vi
(1978, 2/1984); Antologia del Settecento organistico pistoiese (Brescia, 1983);
Musiche d'organo a Pistoia (Brescia, 1989); Letteraturo organistica toscana al XVII
al XIX secolo (Pistoia, 1999): all ed. U. Pineschi
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.C. Rospigliosi: Notizie dei maestri ed artisti di musica pistoiesi (Pistoia,
1878), 18–20
U. Pineschi: Introduction to Musiche pistoiesi per organo, i (Brescia,
2/1988), pp.ix–xvi
G. Bartelloni, A. Duma and U. Pineschi: Alla riscoperta di Giuseppe
Gherardeschi (Pistoia, 1995)
U. Pineschi: Giuseppe Gherardeschi di Pistoja: compositore, maestro di
cappella e organista (Pistoia, 1999)
UMBERTO PINESCHI
Gherardi, Biagio
(b Castelleone, nr Crema; fl 1635–50). Italian composer. He was maestro
di cappella at Cingoli, near Ancona, in 1635 and at Verona Cathedral in
1650; later he is known to have held a similar post at Ancona Cathedral.
His two publications of church music – Il primo libro de motetti concertati,
for two to five voices (Venice, 1635) and Compiete concerte, for three to six
voices (Venice, 1650) – are both in the progressive concertato style of the
day for a few voices and organ, and some pieces in the second, which
consists of music for Compline, include parts for two violins and violone.
Though not very competently written, these pieces display certain mid-
17th-century traits in church music: an increased proportion of a work is in
triple time (perhaps more than is in 4/4 time), with greater rhythmic variety
and a more flowing manner than previously; string parts are idiomatically
written, and typically instrumental figurations begin to be absorbed into the
vocal lines in 4/4 sections; a greater emphasis on vocal display is
paralleled by a decrease in syllabic word-setting; and musical devices (e.g.
chaconne techniques) overrule textual considerations. (J. Roche: North
Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi, Oxford, 1984)
JEROME ROCHE

Gherardi, Giovanni.
See Giovanni da Prato.

Gherardi, Giovanni Battista Pinello

di.
See Pinello di Ghirardi, Giovanni Battista.

Gherardini, Arcangelo
(b Siena; fl 1585–7). Italian composer. According to the title-page of his
Primo libro de madrigali a cinque voci (Ferrara, 158524), he was a member
of the Servite order. That he may have been living in Ferrara at that time is
suggested not only by the fact that the book was printed there, but also that
it is dedicated to the composer Alfonso Fontanelli, who arrived in Ferrara in
the retinue of Cesare d’Este at about the same time. In addition to 15
pieces by Gherardini himself, this book also includes a spiritual madrigal by
Paola Massarenghi of Parma. Gherardini’s only other known publication is
the Motecta cum octo vocibus (Milan, 1587).
IAIN FENLON

Gherl, Johann Caspar [Kaspar].

See Kerll, Johann Caspar.
Ghero, Jhan.
See Gero, Jhan.

Ghersem [Gersem], Géry (de)

(b Tournai, c1573–5; d Tournai, 25 May 1630). Franco-Flemish composer
and singer. For five years he was a choirboy at Tournai Cathedral. George
de la Hèle, maître de musique in Tournai, may have taught him briefly, but
de la Héle became director of music at Philip II’s court in Madrid in 1582,
when Ghersem was at the most eight, and he was dying when Ghersem
himself arrived in Madrid on 28 June 1586. Ghersem was one of 14 boys
‘between seven and twelve years, no more’ recruited in Flanders for the
Capilla Flamenca. He was a cantorcillo until his promotion in 1593 to the
position of cantor. He spent these formative years under the direction of
Philippe Rogier, who succeeded La Hèle in 1588. Rogier died in 1596 and
in his will requested that Ghersem undertake the publication of five of his
masses. Six masses appeared (Madrid, 1598), financed by Philip II (d
1598) and Philip III; the sixth is Ghersem’s own Missa ‘Ave virgo
sanctissima’. Also in 1598 Ghersem was passed over for the position of
director of music in favour of his younger compatriot Mateo Romero, but he
became assistant director.
Perhaps because of this disappointment Ghersem returned to his native
country in 1604; the will he wrote before leaving Spain, in which his
collection of music is described in detail, has been preserved. He became
director of the domestic chapel of Archduke Albert and Archduchess
Isabella in Brussels and in 1607 became chaplain of the oratory; he held
these two positions until shortly before his death. His colleagues at the
court in Brussels included Peter Philips, Peeter Cornet and, for a short
time, John Bull. He also figures as cantor in the accounts of the Capilla
Flamenca in Valladolid from 1609 to 1630; presumably the payments to
him are for past services and do not imply another journey to Spain. He
was also a priest and as such received the honour and revenue of several
canonries: the chapel of St Jean-Baptiste at Ste Waudru, Mons (1606); Ste
Gudule, Brussels (1608), exchanged in 1614 for a canonry at Tournai; and
St Jacques at Coudenberg, Brussels (1622), replacing the canonry at
Mons.
Ghersem was highly esteemed by Philip III and Archduchess Isabella, as
well as by João IV of Portugal, whose library contained many of his works;
and Cerone (El melopeo y maestro, 1609) and the historian Catullius
mentioned his compositions in admiring terms. It is unfortunate, therefore,
that the only work to survive complete is the seven-part Missa ‘Ave virgo
sanctissima’ (ed. in CMM, lxix, 1974). The motet by Francisco Guerrero on
which it is based has a canon at the unison between the upper two voices;
taking this as his cue, Ghersem uses canons in every movement of his
mass, with the exception of the ‘Crucifixus’. Of his motet Benedicam
Dominum (E-VAcp) slightly over half remains, with only the second tenor
complete. The second bass part of an eight-part Missa sine nomine
(Antwerp, 1642) also survives. All his villancicos, which were greatly
appreciated, seem to be lost. Lost works by him mentioned in the
 catalogue of João IV’s library include some 170 villancicos (written for
Christmas and royal feast days, several of them with added instrumental
parts), at least seven masses, about 20 motets, some psalms, Magnificat
settings, Lamentations and other sacred works, some 15 chansons and a
few Spanish songs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JoãoIL
Vander StraetenMPB
G. Bourligueux: ‘Géry de Ghersem, sous-maître de la chapelle royale
d’Espagne (documents inédits)’, Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez, ii
(1966), 163–78
P. Becquart: Musiciens néerlandais à la cour de Madrid: Philippe Rogier et
son école (1560–1647) (Brussels, 1967)
L.J. Wagner: ‘Music of Composers from the Low-Countries at the Spanish
Court of Philip II’, Musique des Pays-Bas anciens – musique
espagnole ancienne: Brussels 1985, 193–214
MARY ARMSTRONG FERRARD/LAVERN J. WAGNER

Gheyn, van den.

See Vanden Gheyn family.

Ghezzi, Ippolito
(b Siena, ?1650; d 1709 or later). Italian composer and theorist. The title-
pages of his publications identify him as a Sienese, an Augustinian monk
and a Bachelor of Sacred Theology. In 1699–1700 he was maestro di
cappella of Montepulciano Cathedral, and in 1707–9 he was in Siena. His
sacred Latin dialogues, or motets, in his publications of 1699 and 1708 are
mostly settings of non-dramatic texts. The four Italian works comprising his
Oratorii sacri, however, are dramatic dialogues on the Old Testament
stories of Abel, Adam, Abraham and David. They are late examples of the
type of brief sacred dialogue found in many earlier publications, such as
G.F. Anerio's Teatro armonico spirituale (Rome, 1619) and Cazzati's Diporti
spirituali (Bologna, 1668). The use of the term ‘oratorio’ for quite brief
works is exceptional, for it was normally used at this period for works
lasting about two hours or more. The treatise Il setticlave canoro, in 15
chapters, is devoted primarily to the system of ‘mutations’ used in solfeggio
during Ghezzi's time; it also deals with transposition.
WORKS
Op.
1 Sacri dialoghi o vero [12] mottetti, 2 S, bc (org) (Florence, 1699)
2 Salmi, S, B, bc (org), andanti e brevi in stile lombardo (Bologna, 1699)
3 [4] Oratorii sacri, 3vv, bc, cavati dalla scrittura sacra (Bologna, 1700)
4 Lamentationi per la Settimana Santa, 1v, bc (Bologna, 1707)
— Dialoghi sacri o vero motetti, 2 S, 2 vn, bc (org) (Bologna, 1708)
WRITINGS
 6 Il setticlave canoro dove s'insegano [sic] gli elementi musicali et il modo
di dare il solfeggio a tutte le sette chiavi (Bologna, 1709)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GaspariC, i-iv
F. Noske: Saints and Sinners: the Latin Musical Dialogue in the
Seventeenth Century (Oxford, 1992)
HOWARD E. SMITHER/R

Ghezzo, Dinu D.
(b Constanţa, 2 July 1941). Romanian composer, active in the USA. He
studied conducting (1959–64) and composition with Stroe, Olah and Marbe
(1961–6) at the Bucharest Conservatory then taught at the Arts Lyceum in
Constanţa (1964–9) and lectured at the Bucharest Conservatory (1969–70)
before moving to the USA, where in 1971 he studied composition at UCLA
with Roy Harris, Paul Chihara, Murray Bradshaw and Nicolas Slonimsky
(PhD 1973). Ghezzo became professor at New York University in 1977 and
has held professorships at Queens College, CUNY (1974–6), Lehman
College (1984–90) and SUNY at Stony Brook (1991–2). He has promoted
contemporary music as a conductor and pianist of international renown; in
1980 he became director of the International New Music Consortium.
Drawn to new compositional techniques, Ghezzo has allied himself with
multimedia music. His scores are an amalgamation of elements ranging
from tonality, modality, jazz and folk music to electronic sounds, natural
harmonics, repetitive cycles and improvisation. These diverse elements are
combined to produce works of sincerity and powerful expression.
WORKS
(selective list)

Principal publishers: Salabert, Seesaw

orchestral and vocal

Orch: Celebrations, chbr orch, tape, 1980; Concertino, cl, sym. band; 7 Short
Pieces, chbr orch, 1981; Sketches, cl, chbr orch, 1982; Echoes of Romania, str,
1989–90
Vocal: Letters to Walt Whitman (R. Johnson), S/Mez, cl, pf, 1983; 2 Prayers, S,
tape, 1988; A Book of Songs (Canti Montevarchini), S, ens, tape, 1989; Poemele
luminii [Poems of Light] (L. Blaga), S, nar, fl ens, 1993; 5 Corrado Songs, B,
tape/cptr, 1996; 3 Italian Love Songs (P. Tanzini), 1997
chamber
4 or more pfmrs: Kanones II, 6 pfmrs, 1978; Pontica II, nars, brass, perc, 1979;
Thalla, pf, 17 insts, 1979; Cantos nuevos, 3 trios, tape, 1981; Nonetto, 1982; From
Here to … There, 6 pfmrs, 1986; Freedom, cl, pf, chbr ens, tape, 1990; Ostrom, qt,
slides, tape, 1990; Ostrom II, 6–18 pfmrs, 1990; December Epitaphs (Tanzini, A.
Blandiana), nars, solo cl/sax, pf, ens, tape, 1990–1; Echoes of Tomis, nars, chbr
ens, tape, 1994; Five Village Scenes, chbr ens, 1995; Checkmate for John Cage,
chbr ens, tape, opt. slides, opt. dancers, 1995
1–3 pfmrs: Kanones, fls, vc, hpd, 1979; Music for Fls and Tape, 1979; Aphorisms,
cl, pf, 1981; 3 Pieces, vn, 1984; Sound Shapes, 5 studies, ww inst, 1985; Sound
Shapes II, 5 pieces, brass inst, 1985; Prelude and Improvisation, b cl, 1987;
Breezes of Yesteryear, fl, cl, pf, 1985–6; Prayer, cl, fl, sax, 1990; Wind Rituals, ww
inst, prep pf, tape, 1995; In Search of Euridice, sax, pf, tape/sequencer, 1995;
Sound Etchings, cl, 1997; Imaginary Voyages, cl, vc, perc/pf, 1997
OCTAVIAN COSMA

Ghiaurov, Nicolai
(b Velingrad, 13 Sept 1929). Bulgarian bass. He was a pupil of Brambarov
at the Bulgarian State Conservatory and then continued his studies in
Leningrad and Moscow. He made his début at Sofia in 1955 as Don Basilio
in Il barbiere, winning the Concours International de Chant de Paris the
same year, and in 1958 made the first of many appearances in Italy at the
Teatro Comunale, Bologna, in Faust; from 1959 he also sang, to great
acclaim, at La Scala, where his roles included Boris and Philip II. He made
his début at Covent Garden in 1962 (as Padre Guardiano) and at the
Metropolitan in 1965 (as Méphistophélès), as well as touring Germany with
the Sofia Opera. He first appeared at the Vienna Staatsoper in 1957, as
Ramfis, singing regularly there from 1962; his roles included Ivan
Khovansky (1989). At the Opéra he sang Massenet’s Don Quichotte
(1974), and he appeared at the Salzburg Festival, notably as Boris in 1965
and Philip II in 1975. These were among his most notable roles; he also
sang Boris at the Metropolitan in 1990. He possessed a voice of unusually
rich and varied colour allied to an excellent vocal technique and
remarkable musicality. A vigorous and painstaking actor, as an interpreter
he tended to express the strong and violent emotions rather than the finer
and more intimate shades of meaning. He has left notable souvenirs of his
appreciable art on disc, among them his Philip II under Solti, Boris under
Karajan and his Don Quichotte. He is a sonorous bass soloist in Giulini's
recording of the Verdi Requiem and the video of the same work conducted
by Karajan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GV (R. Celletti; R. Vegeto)
A. Blyth: ‘Nicolai Ghiaurov’, Opera, xxviii (1977), 941–7
RODOLFO CELLETTI/ALAN BLYTH

Ghidjak [ghichak, gidzhak, gijak,

g'ijjak].
Spike fiddle of northern Afghanistan and the Turkmen, Uzbek, Uighur, Tajik
and Karakalpak peoples in Central Asia. The instrument is mentioned in
10th-century manuscripts which indicate that almond shells were used to
construct the bridge (harrak). The ghidjak depicted in 15th-century Persian
miniature paintings is similar in construction to the 20th-century ghidjak.
Among the more westerly Central Asian peoples the ghidjak (or ghichak,
gidzha, gijak) resembles the Persian Kamāncheh; it has a short, fretless
neck, a spherical resonator with a skin soundtable and three or four strings.
During the 19th century the Uzbeks made ghidjaks with two, three, four or
seven strings, but by the end of the 20th century only the four-string
ghidjak was in use in Uzbekistan. It is played as a solo instrument and is
also used to accompany singers. The Karakalpaks know it as the ghirzhak,
and related instruments include the Azerbaijani kemancha and the Andijan
kaman.
In northern Afghanistan the instrument has the following form. The brightly
painted round neck of the ghidjak projects through the resonator and a
large iron nail 8–10 cm long is hammered into the bottom of the neck to
serve as the spike. The top of the neck is grooved to form a pegbox with
two lateral tuning-pegs, one each side. The neck is turned on a lathe and
the resonator, usually fitted by the player, often consists of a large square
tin, for instance a one-gallon oil can. The instrument has two metal strings
supported by a nut at the head and by a bridge placed on the resonator.
The bow is of horsehair tied to a curved stick; tension is applied by the
fingers of the right hand. The strings may be bowed together or singly by
rotating the instrument slightly. A modified type of ghidjak has recently
come into use; it has a resonator carved from a square block of walnut or
mulberry wood, with a skin belly and eight sympathetic strings with tuning-
pegs along the side of the neck.
The origins of the ghidjak are not known, but the instrument is mentioned in
10th-century manuscripts which indicate that almond shells were used to
construct the bridge (harak). The ghidjak depicted in 15th-century Persian
miniature paintings is similar in construction to the 20th-century ghidjak but
has a longer spike.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Vertkov, G. Blagodatov and E. Yazovitskaya, eds.: Atlas muzïkal'nïkh
instrumentov naradov SSSR (Moscow, 1963, 2/1975 with 4 discs)
M. Slobin: Music in the Culture of Northern Afghanistan (Tucson, 1976),
243–8
T. Levin: The Hundred Thousand Fools of God (Bloomington, IN, 1996)
JOHN BAILY, RAZIA SULTANOVA

Ghibel [Ghibelli, Ghibellini], Eliseo

(b Osimo, nr Ancona, c1520; d after 1581). Italian composer. The
dedications of his 1546 and 1548 motet books were signed from Naples,
and the text of one of the motets suggests that he may have been maestro
di cappella of the church of the Croce di Lucca in that city. He dated the
dedication of his four-part madrigals from Naples, 9 March 1554. In 1558
he was named maestro of the newly established cappella of Messina
Cathedral. He remained there until 1561, but felt himself the victim of ill-
feeling, as he reported in the preface to his Introits of 1565. In 1581 he was
maestro di cappella of SS Sacramento in Ancona, where he signed the
dedication of his first book of five-voice madrigals.
 Ghibel’s music is well-crafted, with clear harmonic movement and
abundant word-painting. His first publication was probably his Madrigali a
note negre for three voices, which survives only in reprints of 1551 and
later but was listed by Doni in 1550. One piece, Madonna io son un medico
perfetto, was attributed to Festa in a 1543 edition of the latter’s three-part
madrigals. At least two pieces in Ghibel’s volume show evidence of musical
borrowing. Phillida mia was also set twice by Gero; the three settings, while
they do not share any actual musical figures, nonetheless show a clear
resemblance in their melodic outline (Haar, 1966). Ghibel’s settings of three
sections of Petrarch’s Chiare fresch’e dolci acque are based on the famous
setting of this canzone by Arcadelt. The four-part madrigals of 1554 are
also mostly note nere pieces. Some of the texts contain topical references:
one refers to a specific ecclesiastical controversy and several name
individual women.
The motet book of 1546 includes rare examples of note nere motets. Most
are cantus-firmus motets, with the chant also supplying material for points
of imitation. In the first seven motets the chant notation includes neume-
like ligatures in white notation which the unnamed printer (possibly
Ottaviano di Amadio Scotto) apparently could neither understand nor
produce correctly with the type available to him. Ghibel complained in the
dedication of the trouble he had getting the book published; his 1548 book
of motets includes corrected versions of some works in the 1546 volume.
The motets are notable for their syncopation and cross-rhythms.
WORKS
Motetta super plano cantu … liber primus, 5vv (Venice, 1546), ed. in SCMot, xxi
(1993)
Motectorum … liber primus, 5vv (Venice, 1548)
Il primo libro di madrigali a note negre, 3vv (Venice, ?2/1551/R1984); 1 ed. in CMM,
xxv/7 (1977)
Il primo libro de madrigali, 4vv (Venice, 1554)
De festis introitibus missarum … liber primus, 5vv (Rome, 1565)
Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1581)
2 madrigals, 5vv, 156812, 156816
Il primo libro de canzoni villanesche alla napolitana, 3vv (Venice, 1554), lost,
indexed in VogelB
Liber secundus motectorum, 5vv (Venice, 1561), lost but seen by Pitoni
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EinsteinIM
GaspariC, ii, iii
PitoniN
C. Gesner: Pandectarum sive partitionum universalium … libri XXI (Zürich,
1548), 84
A. Doni: La libraria del Doni Fiorentino (Venice, 1550/51), 66r
J. Haar: ‘Pace non trovo: a Study in Literary and Musical Parody’, MD, xx
(1966), 95–149
J. Haar: ‘The Libraria of Antonfrancesco Doni’, MD, xxiv (1970), 101–23,
esp. 112
H. Musch: Costanzo Festa als Madrigalkomponist (Baden-Baden, 1977),
35, 140
G. Donato: ‘La cappella musicale del duomo e della città di Messina nei
secoli XVI e XVII’, Musica sacra in Sicilia tra Rinascimento e Barocco:
Caltagirone 1985, 147–64, esp. 150
K. Larson: The Unaccompanied Madrigal in Naples from 1536–1654
(diss., Harvard U., 1985)
R. Sherr: Introduction to Helysei Gibelli musici eccellentissimi motetta
super plano cantu cum quinque vocibus et in festis solennibus
decanenda liber primus, SCMot, xxi (1993)
THOMAS W. BRIDGES

Ghiglia, Oscar
(b Livorno, 13 Aug 1938). Italian guitarist. He studied at the Accademia di S
Cecilia in Rome, with Segovia at the Accademia Chigiana in Siena (1958–
63) and at Santiago de Compostela. In 1963 he won the International
Guitar Competition of the ORTF, Paris, gaining a scholarship for a year at
the Schola Cantorum there and studying musicology under Jacques
Chailley. Segovia chose him as his assistant at his 1964 summer school at
Berkeley, California. He made his débuts in New York and London in 1966
and in Paris in 1968. In 1969 he founded the guitar department of the
Aspen Music Festival, Colorado; he remained its chairman until 1986. In
1976 he began teaching at the Accademia Chigiana, and in 1983 became
professor at the Musikakademie in Basle. Ghiglia has performed as soloist
with many major orchestras, and with various chamber music groups
including the Juilliard and Cleveland quartets. His other collaborations
include recitals and recordings with Victoria de Los Angeles, Eliot Fisk, Jan
De Gaetani and Jean-Pierre Rampal. A refined and thoughtful player with a
formidable technique, he is also acknowledged as one of the most
distinguished teachers of his generation, and gives masterclasses
throughout the world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Bosman: ‘Oscar Ghiglia’, Guitar, iii/1 (1974–5), 26–7 [interview]
C. Otero: ‘Oscar Ghiglia’, Guitar International, xvii/12 (1988–9), 8–13
[interview]
M.J. Summerfield: The Classical Guitar: its Evolution and its Players since
1800 (Newcastle upon Tyne, 4/1996)
PETER SENSIER/GRAHAM WADE

Ghignone, Giovanni Pietro.

See Guignon, Jean-Pierre.

Ghinste, Peter van der

(b Courtrai, 1789; d Courtrai, 21 Oct 1861). Flemish composer. He was
maître de chapelle at Courtrai Cathedral. In 1810 his opera, Het pruisisch
soldatenkwartier, one of the first with a Flemish libretto, was produced in
his native town. Among his compositions are also two masses, a requiem,
an Ave Maria with orchestra, a Regina coeli for three voices and organ, 12
easy piano pieces, and other works.
ERIC BLOM/R

Ghinzer, Giovanni.
See Chinzer, Giovanni.

Ghirardellus de Florentia.
See Gherardello da Firenze.

Ghirardi, Giovanni Battista Pinello

di.
See Pinello di Ghirardi, Giovanni Battista.

Ghirardo.
Composer, possibly identifiable with Derrick Gerarde.

Ghirardo, Jan.
See Gerard, Jan.

Ghircoiaşiu, Romeo (Mircea)

(b Cluj, 22 Nov 1919; d Cluj, 21 March 1995). Romanian musicologist. In
Cluj he studied sociology, aesthetics and philosophy at the university
(1939–48), taking doctorates in politics (1943) and law (1948); at the
Conservatory he studied the piano, musicology and composition, taking the
doctorate in musicology in 1970 with a study of Romanian music history.
He also took a pianist’s diploma (1949) and a diploma in music education
(1953). After working as a lecturer in sociology and legal philosophy at Cluj
University, he was lecturer (1949–52), director of studies (1952–7), senior
lecturer (1957–69), professor of musicology (1969–79), rector (1970–76)
and director of postgraduate work in music history and ethnomusicology at
the Cluj Conservatory. His other appointments included head of research at
the Romanian Academy (1956–9, 1968–72) and vice-president of the
Romanian Composers’ and Musicologists’ Union (1968–89). His main
research interests were Romanian music history, ethnomusicology,
aesthetics and the sociology of music; his publications include articles on
Enescu, Brăiloiu and Cantemir.
WRITINGS
‘Muzica pură – muzica naţională’, Tribuna Ardealului [Cluj] (19 Nov 1942)
‘Aspecte în evoluţia muzicii româneşti’ [Aspects in the evolution of
Romanian music], Tribuna Ardealului (10 Dec 1942)
‘Eusebiu Mandicevschi, 1857–1957’, Steaua, viii/8 (1957), 57–9
‘Melodia dansului “Banul Mărăcine” şi dansurile haiduceşti în feudalism’
[The melody of the Banu Mărăcine dance and the robber dances in the
feudal era], Studii muzicologice (1957), no.4, p.33
‘“Codex Caioni” şi unele probleme ale istoriei muzicii româneşti’ [Codex
Caioni and some problems of Romanian music history], Steaua, ix/8
(1958), 92–5
‘O colecţie de piese corale din secolul XVI: “Odae cum harmoniis” de
Johannes Honterus’ [A collection of 16th-century choral pieces: ‘Odae
cum harmoniis’ by Honterus], Muzica, x/10 (1960), 22–6
‘Antonin Ciolan’, Muzica, xiv/4 (1964), 11–12
‘Rolul artei lui George Enescu în dezvoltarea şcolii muzicale romîneşti’
[The role of Enescu’s art in the development of the Romanian school
of music], LM, i (1965), 7–13
‘Les mélodies roumaines du XVIe–XVIIIe siècles’, Musica Antiqua Europae
Orientalis I: Bydgoszcz and Toruń 1966, 431–52
‘Personalitatea lui C. Brăiloiu în lumina unor scrisori inedite’ [Brăiloiu’s
personality in the light of some unpublished letters], LM, ii (1966), 211–
18
‘Dezvoltarea creaţiei simfonice româneşti în secolul XIX’ [The development
of 19th-century Romanian symphonic music], LM, iii (1967), 125–32
‘Considérations sur la périodicité de l’oeuvre de Georges Enesco’, Studii
de muzicologie, iv (1968), 4
‘Curentul romantic în cultura muzicală românească din secolul XIX’ [The
Romantic trend in 19th-century Romanian musical culture], LM, iv
(1968), 47–52
Contribuţii la istoria muzicii româneşti [Contributions to Romanian music
history] (diss., U. of Cluj, 1970; Bucharest, 1963; vol.ii, Bucharest,
1992)
‘Elemente luministe in cultura muzicală românească din epoca şcolii
ardelene’ [Elements of the Enlightenment in Romanian musical culture
at the time of the Transylvanian school], LM, vi (1970), 105–14
‘Traditii ale cîntecului patriotic’ [Traditions of patriotic song], Studii de
muzicologie, vii (1971), 59–77
‘Démètre Cantemir, éthnographe et musicien’, Musica Antiqua Europae
Orientalis III: Bydgoszcz 1972, 529–50
‘Histoire de la musique et esthétique musicale, tradition et actualité de
leurs relations’, Actes du VII congrès international d’esthétique:
Bucharest 1972, ed. I. Pascadi, i (Bucharest, 1976), 883–5
‘Un humaniste: Georges Enesco’, La personnalité artistique de Georges
Enesco: Bucharest 1973, 175–80
‘Das Musikleben in Grosswardein (Oradea) im 18. Jahrhundert’, Die Musik
auf den Adelssitzen rund um Wien: Oberschützen 1975 [Haydn
Yearbook 1978], 45–55
Studii enesciene (Bucharest, 1981)
‘Byzantinische Elemente in Michael Haydns Missa Sancti Cyrilli et
Methodii’, GfMKB: Baden, nr Vienna, 1991, 635–42
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Firca: ‘Une histoire de la musique roumaine’, Revue roumaine, i (1965)
V. Cosma: Muzicieni români Lexicon (Bucharest, 1970), 220–21
VIOREL COSMA
Ghironda
(It.).
See Hurdy-gurdy.

Ghiseghem, Hayne van.

See Hayne van Ghizeghem.

Ghiselin [Verbonnet], Johannes

(fl 1491–1507). South Netherlandish composer. He is called ‘da Piccardia’
in a 1493 Florentine chapel register and ‘fiamengo’ in a similar register
from Ferrara of 1502. The register of the SS Annunziata, Florence,
contains his own signature, ‘Johannes Ghiselin alias Verbonnet’, thus
confirming the identity of Ghiselin and Verbonnet, suggested by an
ascription in I-Fc Basevi 2439. Since Ghiselin composed the devise of
Charles the Bold, Je lay empris, Hortschansky surmised that he had ties
with the ducal chapel in Burgundy in the 1470s. In a petition to Duke Ercole
I of Ferrara in 1491 he asked for a prebend in Rubiera for the benefit of his
young son, Hercules, but the success of the petition is unknown. In the
same year Isabella d'Este sent him to France to enlist two young singers
for the chapel. He left Ferrara in 1492 at the latest. From October 1492 to
March 1493 he was a singer at the baptistery of S Giovanni in Florence. In
1494 he composed Le cueur la syuit on the occasion of Margaret of
Austria's farewell to Paris after her engagement to Charles VII was
dissolved (see Winn). In Crétin's Déploration on the death of Ockeghem
(1497) Ghiselin is listed second among the composers mentioned,
between Agricola and Prioris, from which it is possible to infer that he was
Ockeghem's pupil. In 1501 the Ferrarese ambassador to the French court
in Blois sent compositions by Ghiselin to the Estensi and in an
accompanying letter referred to him as a singer to the King of France. That
year Ghiselin himself forwarded compositions by Josquin to Ferrara, and
he maintained his connection with the Ferrarese court for the next few
years. In 1503 the elderly Ercole I succeeded in obtaining Josquin as
maestro di cappella, and Ghiselin was ordered to accompany Josquin from
Paris to Ferrara. On 12 April 1503 the Mantuan ambassador to the French
court at Lyons reported that Ghiselin and Josquin, arriving from Paris in a
splendid carriage, were received by him and spent the night at his house.
In the same year Petrucci published a volume of masses by Ghiselin, the
second volume devoted to a single composer since the 1502 volume of
Josquin's masses. Misse Ioannis Ghiselin contains the masses ‘La belle se
siet’, De les armes, ‘Narayge’, ‘Gratieuse’ and ‘Je nay dueul’. In 1504
Obrecht arrived in Ferrara (probably accompanied on his journey by
Ghiselin), to take up the post of court composer to the Estensi. However,
the splendour of the chapel, with Josquin, Ghiselin and Obrecht, lasted
only a short time. Ercole I died in 1505, and in the same year there was an
outbreak of the plague. Josquin and Ghiselin apparently fled the city in
time, both returning to the Netherlands, but Obrecht remained and became
a victim of the plague. The last surviving reference to Ghiselin is in the
 accounts of the Onze Lieve Vrouwe Gilde in Bergen op Zoom for 1507.
The size of Ghiselin's stipend suggests that he had been there for at least
a year, but the accounts for the next few years are missing, and when they
resume in 1511 his name no longer appears. Considering the small number
of his compositions dated after 1505, it is likely that he died young.
Ornithoparchus described him in 1517 as one of the most famous
composers of his time, and Heyden, Glarean and Wilfflingseder drew many
examples from his works.
Coclico ranked Ghiselin among the ‘mathematici’, a category inferior to the
‘musici poetici’. Particularly in the works of his middle years, he was given
to displays of technical skill, as for example in the hexachord mass De les
armes, or in the Missa ‘Gratieuse’ in which he deliberately employed all the
mensuration signs available at that time. This tendency towards rational
construction should not be understood as mere intellectualism, however,
such as is found in Claudius Sebastiani's Bellum musicale of 1563; rather it
was a means of achieving formal structures of a precision not to be
attained in later masses of the century. The problem of form was most
important in the large-scale masses of the second half of the 15th century,
and, like Josquin and Obrecht, Ghiselin worked on its solution.
WORKS

Edition: Johannes Ghiselin-Verbonnet: Opera omnia, ed. C. Gottwald, CMM, xxiii/1–4

(1961–8) [G i–iv]

masses
Misse, 4vv (Venice, 1503) [1503]

Missa De les armes, 4vv, 1503, G ii (hexachord mass)

Missa ‘Ghy syt die wertste boven al’, 4vv, G iii (on his own song)
Missa ‘Gratieuse’, 4vv, 1503, G iii (on Busnoys' chanson)
Missa ‘Je nay dueul’, 4vv, 1503, G iii (on Agricola's chanson)
Missa ‘Joye me fuyt’, 4vv, G iv (only San and Ag; on Busnoys' chanson)
Missa ‘La belle se siet’, 4vv, 1503, G ii (on Du Fay's chanson)
Missa ‘Le renvoy’, Leipzig, Thomaskirche 51 (only T and B) (on Compère's
chanson)
Missa ‘Narayge’, 4vv, 1503, G ii (on Morton's chanson)
motets
all edited in G i

Ad te suspiramus, 2vv; Anima mea liquefacta est, 3vv; Anima mea liquefacta est,
4vv; Ave domina, sancta Maria, 4vv; Favus distillans, 3vv (no text); Inviolata, integra
et casta, 4vv (uses T of Binchois' Comme femme)
Maria virgo semper laetare, 4vv; Miserere, Domine/In patientia, 3vv; O florens rosa,
3vv (no text); O gloriosa domina, 4vv; Regina caeli laetare, 4vv (uses T of Binchois'
Comme femme); Salve regina, 4vv; Tota scriptura, 3vv (contrafactum of Pleni sunt
caeli from Missa ‘Narayge’)

Da pacem, 3vv, attrib. Ghiselin in I-Fc Basevi 2439, is probably not by him on
stylistic grounds.
 secular vocal
all edited in G iv

A vous madame, 3vv (no text); De tous biens playne, 3vv (no text); Fors seulement,
3vv (no text); Fors seulement, 4vv (no text); J'ayme bien mon amy, 3vv; Je lay
empris, 3vv (no text; contrafactum of Ky of Missa De les armes or vice versa); Je
loe amours, 3vv (no text); Je suis treffort, 3vv (no text); Las mi lares vous donc, 3vv
(no text); Le cueur la syuit, 3vv; Rendez le moy mon cueur, 3vv; Si jay requis, 3vv
(no text); Vostre a jamays, 3vv (no text)
Een frouwelic wesen, 3vv (no text); Ghy syt die wertste boven al, 4vv; Helas hic
moet my liden, 3vv (no text); Wet ghy wat mynder jonghen herten dert, 3vv (no text)
De che te pasci amore, 3vv (no text); Dulces exuviae, 4vv

instrumental
Carmen in sol, a 3, G iv; L'Alfonsina, a 3, G iv; La Spagna, a 4, G iv
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F.A. D’Accone: ‘The Singers of San Giovanni in Florence during the 15th
Century’, JAMS, xiv (1961), 307–58
C. Gottwald: Johannes Ghiselin-Johannes Verbonnet: stilkritische
Untersuchung zum Problem ihrer Identität (Wiesbaden, 1962)
M. Staehelin: ‘Quellenkundliche Beiträge zum Werk von Johannes
Ghiselin-Verbonnet’, AMw, xxiv (1967), 120–32
M.B. Winn: ‘Le cueur la suyt, Chanson on a Text for Marguerite d'Autriche:
Another Trace in the Life of Johannes Ghiselin-Verbonnet’, MD, xxxii
(1978), 69–72
H. Kümmerling: ‘Dona nobis pacem: die Offenbarung des neuen Himmels
und der neuen Erde in Agnus Dei-Vertonungen Josquins und Ghiselin-
Verbonnets’, Fusa [Hürth], no.11 (1983)
L. Lockwood: Music in Renaissance Ferrara (Oxford, 1984)
S. Boorman: ‘A Case of Work and Turn: Half-Sheet Imposition in the Early
Sixteenth Century’, The Library, viii (1986), 301–21
K. Hortschansky: ‘Eine Devisenkomposition für Karl den Kühnen’,
Festschrift Martin Ruhnke (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1986), 144–57
CLYTUS GOTTWALD

Ghiselin Danckerts.
See Danckerts, Ghiselin.

Ghisi, Federico
(b Shanghai, 25 Feb 1901; d Luserna San Giovanni, 18 July 1975). Italian
musicologist and composer. His father was a diplomat and he spent his
early years in China. In 1908 he moved to Milan and studied harmony and
counterpoint at the conservatory with Carlo Gatti, and the piano privately;
he also took a degree in chemistry at the University of Pavia (1923). After a
period abroad he returned to Turin, where he worked as a chemist and
studied with Ghedini to take the conservatory's diploma in composition. In
1932 he moved to Florence, where his interest in Renaissance music was
stimulated by discussions with Einstein; he began to study music history
 with Torrefranca (libera docenza 1936) and became the first lecturer of the
new music history course at the university (1937–40). After the war he
taught at the Università per Stranieri, Perugia (1945–74), and (again as the
first lecturer in music history) at the University of Pisa (1963), retiring in
1970. As a lecturer at the Institut des Hautes Etudes, Brussels (1948), he
initiated a series of conferences, and he also lectured at Harvard, Yale and
the University of California, Berkeley. He was a council member of the IMS
(1947–52), the Herausgaber Kollegium (1956) and the Società Italiana di
Musicologia (1965–7), and in 1967 became an honorary member of the
Royal Musical Association, London.
Ghisi's fundamental study of the canti carnascialeschi (1937) was the first
in a series of pioneer works on the music of Renaissance Florence
covering both secular polyphony of the Trecento and monody of the early
Seicento. An important discovery in the latter area was of two excerpts of
Peri's Dafne (Alle fonti della monodia, 1940). His wide and thorough
knowledge of textual and musical sources led to other important
contributions, such as his identification of fragments of the Lucca
manuscript at Perugia (1942–6), which helped to determine Ciconia's
presence in Italy; he established that the unique Italian tendency towards
monody was already present in 14th- and 15th-century music, and
documented and demonstrated the passage from an Ars Nova style to a
more homophonic treatment in the second half of the Quattrocento. His
research interests included the lauda, Renaissance instruments and the
work of Carissimi, whose historic position was first clarified by Ghisi
through his archival investigations and musical analyses. He also studied
the folk music of the bilingual Valdesi people of the Piedmont Alps, heard
during summer vacations. Ghisi's own compositions (operas, ballets, and
chamber, choral and symphonic works) often grew out of his musicological
studies and have an affinity with Falla, Orff and Prokofiev.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Piramo e Tisbe (cantare di piazza, 1, after W. Shakespeare), 1941–3; Il

passatempo (divertimento coreografico, A. Millos), 1952; Le istorie cinesi di messer
Marco Polo (pantomime sceniche, prol, 4 scenes), 1955; Il dono dei Re Magi
(scena lirica, 1, after O. Henry), 1959; Il vagabondo e la guardia (scena popolare, 1,
after O. Henry), 1965
Orch: Sinfonia italiana, 1939; 3 canzoni strumentali, pf obbl, str, 1946; Fantasia
allegra, 1951; Sinfonia concertante, 2 chbr orchs, 1960
Choral: Sequenza e giubilo (Notker Balbulus: Media vita and Alleluia), chorus, insts,
1945; Sant'Alessio, vita, morte e miracoli, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1956–7; L'ultima
visione (Plato, Cicero), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1967–72
Chbr works, unacc. choral pieces, songs

Principal publishers: Carisch, Suvini Zerboni

WRITINGS
‘Un terzo esemplare della “Musica practica” di Bartolomeo Ramis de Pareia
alla Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze’, NA, xii (1935), 223–7
I canti carnascialeschi nelle fonti musicali del XV e XVI secolo (Florence,
1937/R)
Feste musicali della Firenze medicea (1480–1589) (Florence, 1939/R)
Alle fonti della monodia: due nuovi brani della ‘Dafne’ e il ‘Fuggilotio
musicale’ di G. Caccini (Milan, 1940/R)
‘Bruchstücke einer neuen Musikhandschrift der italienischen Ars Nova’,
AMw, vii (1942), 17–39
‘Frammenti di un nuovo codice musicale dell'Ars Nova italiana e due saggi
inediti di cacce del secondo Quattrocento’, La rinascita, v (1942), 72–
103
‘Le musiche di Isaac per il “San Giovanni e Paolo” di Lorenzo il Magnifico’,
RaM, xvi (1943), 264–73
‘Italian Ars Nova Music: the Perugia and Pistoia Fragments of the Lucca
Musical Codex and other Unpublished Early Fifteenth Century
Sources’, JRBM, i (1946–7), 173–91 [incl. music transcrs.]
‘Canzoni profane italiane del secondo Quattrocento in un codice musicale
di Montecassino’, RBM, ii (1947–8), 8–20
‘An Early Seventeenth Century MS., with Unpublished Italian Monodic
Music by Peri, Giulio Romano and Marco da Gagliano’, AcM, xx
(1948), 46–60 [repr. in Studi e testi (1971)]
‘A Second Sienese Fragment of Italian Ars Nova’, MD, ii (1948), 173–7
‘Ballet Entertainments in Pitti Palace, Florence (1605–1630)’, MQ, xxxv
(1949), 421–36 [repr. in Studi e testi (1971)]
‘La musique religieuse de Marco da Gagliano à Santa Maria del Fiore,
Florence’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949, 125–8
‘The Oratorios of Giacomo Carissimi in Hamburg Staats-Bibliothek’,
GfMKB: Lüneburg 1950, 103–07 [repr. in Studi e testi (1971)]
‘Strambotti e laude nel travestimento spirituale della poesia musicale del
Quattrocento’, CHM, i (1953), 45–78
‘Un aspect inédit des intermèdes de 1589 à la cour médicéenne et le
développement de courses masquées et des ballets équestres devant
les premières décades du XVIIe siècle’, Les fêtes de la Renaissance
[I]: Royaumont 1955, 145–52
‘La persistance du sentiment monodique et l'évolution de la polyphonie
italienne du XVe au XVIe siècle’, L'Ars Nova: Wégimont II 1955, 217–
31
‘Rapporti armonici nella polifonia italiana del Trecento’, L'Ars Nova italiana
del Trecento I: Certaldo 1959, 32–9
‘Gli aspetti musicali della lauda fra il XIV e il XV secolo’, Natalicia
musicologica Knud Jeppesen septuagenario collegis oblata, ed. B.
Hjelmborg and S. Sørenson (Copenhagen, 1962), 51–7
‘Un canto narrativo popolare su Francesco I, re di Francia, nella tradizione
bilingue del Piemonte’, Festschrift Friedrich Blume, ed. A.A. Abert and
W. Pfannkuch (Kassel, 1963), 146–50
‘La tradition musicale des fêtes florentines et les origines de l'opéra’,
Musique des intermèdes de ‘La Pellegrina’, Les fêtes du mariage de
Ferdinand de Médicis et de Christine de Lorraine, Florence, 1589, ed.
D.P. Walker, i (Paris, 1963), pp.xi–xxii
‘Alcune canzoni a ballo del primo Cinquecento’, Festschrift Hans Engel, ed.
H. Heussner (Marburg, 1964), 125–33
‘Antiche canzoni popolari nella “Corona di sacre laudi” di Matteo Coferati
(1689)’, Liber amicorum Charles van den Borren (Antwerp, 1964), 69–
81
‘An Angel Concert in a Trecento Sienese Fresco’, Aspects of Medieval and
Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J.
LaRue and others (New York, 1966/R), 308–13
‘Contributo alla canzone popolare nelle valli valdesi del Piemonte’, CHM, iv
(1966), 153–63
‘Le musiche per “Il ballo di donne turche” di Marco da Gagliano’, RIM, i
(1966), 20–31
‘G. Carissimi e la bibliografia delle sue opere musicali’, LaMusicaE
‘Alcuni aspetti stilistici della musica sacra monteverdiana in Giacomo
Carissimi’, Claudio Monteverdi e il suo tempo: Venice, Mantua and
Cremona 1968, 305–12
‘Danza e strumenti musicali nella pittura senese del Trecento’, L'Ars Nova
italiana del trecento: Convegno II: Certaldo and Florence 1969 [L'Ars
Nova italiana del Trecento, iii (Certaldo, 1970)], 83–104
‘Di una lauda nel codice pavese Aldini’, Essays in Musicology in Honor of
Dragan Plamenac, ed. G. Reese and R.J. Snow (Pittsburgh, 1969),
61–4
Studi e testi di musica italiana dall'Ars Nova a Carissimi (Bologna, 1971)
[repr. earlier articles]
‘Folklore et professionalisme dans la musique de l'Europe centrale aux
XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles en relation aux chansons des vallées vaudoises
du Piémont’, Musica antiqua III: Bydgoszcz 1972, 683–98
‘“Il mondo festeggiante” balletto a cavallo in Boboli’, Scritti in onore di Luigi
Ronga (Milan and Naples, 1973), 233–40
EDITIONS
Canti artigiani carnascialeschi (Padua, 1939)
Le feste musicali della Firenze medicea (Florence, 1939/R)
with C. dall'Argine and R. Lupi: C. Carissimi: Historia di Job; Historia de
Ezechia, PIISM, Monumenti, iii, Oratori, i (1951)
FOLKSONG EDITIONS
with E. Tron: Anciennes chansons vaudoises (Torre Pellice, 1947)
with E. Tron: La canzone ‘Charles Albert et la liberté’ (Torre Pellice, 1948)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Memorie e contributi alla musica dal Medioevo all'età moderna offerti a
Federico Ghisi’, Quadrivium, xii/1–2 (1971) [70th birthday Festschrift;
incl. G. Vecchi: ‘Federico Ghisi: notizie biografiche e bibliografiche’,
17–23; C. Terni: ‘Federico Ghisi: il compositore’, 35–51; list of
publications, 24–33]
A. Basso: Obituary, RIM, xi (1976), 3–4
CAROLYN GIANTURCO

Ghislanzoni, Antonio
(b Lecco, 25 Nov 1824; d Caprino Bergamasco, 16 July 1893). Italian
writer and librettist. After Boito, he was the most important Italian librettist
between 1860 and 1890. He is usually credited with 85 librettos, but this
seems to be a considerable overestimate, the correct total being about half
that number. He was also a prolific journalist, responsible, on his own
count, for more than 2000 articles. Originally intended for the priesthood,
he was removed from the seminary at the age of 15 and studied medicine
at Pavia instead. In 1846, finding that he had a fine baritone voice, he
abandoned his studies and determined on a singing career, which he
followed for about eight years. This experience of the theatre served as the
raw material for his novel Gli artisti da teatro, published serially in the
Cosmorama pittorico in 1856, then issued as a book. He was fervently
patriotic, and in 1848 he founded two republican journals in Milan. He was
arrested by the French in Rome and after a brief period of detention in
Corsica he returned to the stage, incidentally singing Carlo in Verdi’s
Ernani in Paris in 1851. Three years later he arrived, ill, in Milan, and
established himself in literary circles, later editing the Gazzetta musicale di
Milano and the Rivista minima, and contributing to literary and artistic
journals. He later made his home in Lecco, for whose theatre he wrote five
librettos, but in 1890 retired to Caprino Bergamasco.
Although he began his career as a librettist in 1857, Ghislanzoni is best
known for his later work for Verdi. In 1869, the composer, whom he had
met 20 years earlier, asked him to help with the revision of La forza del
destino. The collaboration was successful, so that Ghislanzoni was the
obvious choice for Aida when a poet was needed to turn a prose text into
verse. In the event, Verdi always treated the writer with respect, and also
sought his help with the revision of Don Carlos in 1872. Ghislanzoni
provided a number of first-class librettos for other composers, such as I
promessi sposi (1869) for Petrella, Fosca (1873) and Salvator Rosa (1874)
for Gomes and Francesca da Rimini (1878) for Cagnoni, but his best was
probably I lituani (1874) for Ponchielli, a noble if rather monochrome work.
His sense of dramatic structure was conventional yet secure, and although
his work was strongly rooted in traditional forms, he used these with
imagination and versatility. His verse was always clear and correct, and he
had a gift for the neat and unhackneyed turn of phrase; his librettos are
mercifully free from ‘librettists’ doggerel’. He was in sum a reliable and
accomplished literary craftsman. It is easy to see why Verdi found him a
congenial collaborator but also clear why it was Boito and not Ghislanzoni
who stimulated the composer’s last two masterpieces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (J. Black) [incl. list of libs]
L. Miragoli: Il melodramma italiano nell’Ottocento (Rome, 1924)
M. Morim: ‘Antonio Ghislanzoni, librettista di Verdi’, Musica d'oggi, new
ser., iv (1961), 56–64, 98–103
P. Gossett: ‘Verdi, Ghislanzoni, and Aida: the Uses of Convention’, Critical
Inquiry, i (1974–5), 291–334
H. Busch: Verdi’s ‘Aida’: the History of an Opera in Letters and Documents
(Minneapolis, 1978)
J. Nicolaisen: Italian Opera in Transition, 1871–1893 (Ann Arbor, 1980)
J. Budden: The Operas of Verdi, iii: From ‘Don Carlos’ to ‘Falstaff’
(London, 1981)
JOHN BLACK

Ghitalla, Armando
(b Alfa, IL, 1 June 1925). American trumpeter. He studied with William
Vacchiano at the Juilliard School (1946–9). From 1949 to 1951 he played in
the Houston SO, and from 1951 to 1979 with the Boston SO, as first
trumpeter from 1965. He gave a memorable Town Hall concert in New York
in 1958 – the first full trumpet recital, including the first modern
performance of Hummel's concerto – and one in Carnegie Hall in 1960. He
has influenced a generation of American trumpet players, in part because
of his recordings as a soloist. Vacchiano has influenced him most as an
orchestral player, but his highly lyrical solo style is probably due to his solo
cornet playing in his youth. He has experimented extensively in
mouthpiece and instrument construction with the makers Tottle (Boston)
and Schilke (Chicago). He was professor of the trumpet at the University of
Michigan from 1979 to 1993, and in 1994 was appointed to Rice University,
Texas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Tunnel: ‘Armando Ghitalla: Master Trumpeter, Master Teacher, Master
Musician’, Journal of the International Trumpet Guild, xxi/4 (1997), 4–
16
EDWARD H. TARR

Ghivizzani [Guivizzani],
Alessandro
(b Lucca, c1572; d ?Parma, 1634–6). Italian composer. In his youth he
worked in Florence. In 1604 he became a member of the Compagnia
dell'Arcangelo Raffaello and was organist at S Pancrazio. In 1609 he
married Giulio Caccini's younger daughter Settimia and joined the payroll
of musicians at the Florentine court. Banished from Tuscany in 1611, he
returned to Lucca but left for the Mantuan court in 1613. In 1617 he
collaborated with Monteverdi, Salamone Rossi and Mutio Effrem by
providing a madrigal for the sacred play La Maddalena by G.B. Andreini,
staged at Mantua in honour of the marriage of Ferdinando Gonzaga and
Caterina de' Medici. The following year he was represented by three
motets in an anthology of Mantuan church music. On 19 October 1620 he
was appointed maestro di cappella to the seignory of Lucca. He was
granted leave of absence in 1622 to serve Cardinal Odoardo Farnese at
Parma, where he probably remained until his death.
His surviving compositions represent various musical styles. The piece in
Musiche … per la Maddalena (Venice, 16173), for three voices and
continuo, has a homophonic texture embellished only at a few cadences.
Of the three motets (RISM 16184), that for solo voice emphasizes recitation
on a single pitch over a slow-moving bass and includes some expressive
ornamentation; the other two, for two and three voices respectively,
generally follow the harmonic and imitative principles of the prima pratica,
though there are occasional virtuoso passages; the continuo is rarely
independent of the bass voice. There are four secular solo songs by
Ghivizzani (in I-Bc Q49), one of which ends with a section on a chaconne
bass. This song is one of five attributed to Ghivizzani in the Národní
Muzeum, Hudební Oddelení, Prague (II La 2, formerly in the Lobkowitz
library at Roudnice), but because of conflicting attributions between the two
manuscripts the total number of his surviving songs cannot be determined.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Nerici: Storia della musica in Lucca (Lucca, 1879/R)
P. Nettl: ‘Über ein handschriftliches Sammelwerk von Gesängen
italienischer Frühmonodie’, ZMw, ii (1919–20), 83–97
N. Pelicelli: ‘Musicisti in Parma nel secolo XVII’, NA, x (1933), 233–48,
esp. 238
N. Fortune: ‘A Florentine Manuscript and its Place in Italian Song’, AcM,
xxiii (1951), 124–36
J.W. Hill: ‘Oratory Music in Florence, i: Recitar cantando, 1583–1655’,
AcM, li (1979), 108–36
S. Parisi: Ducal Patronage of Music in Mantua, 1587–1627: an Archival
Study (diss., U. of Illinois, 1989)
W. Kirkendale: The Court Musicians in Florence during the Principate of
the Medici, Historiae musicae cultores biblioteca, lxi (Florence, 1993),
333–7
WILLIAM V. PORTER

Ghizeghem, Hayne van.

See Hayne van Ghizeghem.

Ghizzolo.
See Pasino, Stefano.

Ghizzolo, Giovanni
(b Brescia; d Novara, ?1625). Italian composer. He became a Franciscan
friar and lived in Novara in 1609 but had moved to Milan by 1610. From
1613 to 1615 he was maestro di cappella to Prince Siro of Correggio. He
was working at Ravenna Cathedral in 1618. He was appointed maestro di
cappella of S Antonio, Padua, on 6 October 1621 but arrived only in August
1622 and stayed 12 months before returning to Novara.
Ghizzolo wrote a good deal of church music and also a fair amount of
secular music. This includes ensemble madrigals and canzonets but
consists mainly of monodies: madrigals in a declamatory manner (one or
two marked ‘in stile recitativo’), more tuneful arias and strophic variations;
there are also a few duets and dialogues (some with parts for chorus). His
first book of Madrigali et arie (1609) contains an intriguing setting of the
Giuoco della cieca from Guarini's Il pastor fido, but on the whole his songs
are less successful and less in tune with the new currents of the day than
those of composers who were primarily monodists.
As a church composer Ghizzolo also stands on the boundary between
conservative and progressive. Only in his motets (published under the title
‘concerti’) did he adopt modern concertato textures for two or three voices;
the psalm and mass music is all for four or five voices or double choir. The
 concerti of 1611 are described as being ‘all'uso moderno’ but are in an
imitative polyphonic style without florid writing. In his collection of 1613
Ghizzolo uses old-fashioned falsobordone laid out in a manner similar to
Anglican double chant, the two choirs alternating from verse to verse with
different halves of the chant. An interesting example of adaptability occurs
in the collection of 1619, which can be sung in five parts by using one choir
only or in nine by adding a second choir. Ghizzolo explained that this choir
could, if desired, be an instrumental group, that the quintus part could be
sung by a tenor if there was no second soprano and that nobody should be
surprised to hear consecutive 5ths or octaves between this voice and the
organ part. This is typical of the free-and-easy approach in some liturgical
music of the time.
WORKS
sacred
Integra omnium solemnitatum psalmodia vespertina, 8vv (Milan, 1609)
Concerti all'uso moderno, 4vv, libro secondo, op.7 (Milan, 1611)
Messe, concerti, Mag, falsi bordoni, 4vv, bc (org), op.8 (Milan, 1612)
Messe, motetti, Mag, canzoni francese falsi bordoni et Gloria Patri, 8vv, op.10
(Milan, 1613)
Il terzo libro delli concerti, 2–4vv, con le Letanie della B.V., 5vv, bc (org), op.12
(Milan, 1615)
Salmi intieri, 5vv, bc (org) ad lib, op.14 (Venice, 1618 6)
Messa, salmi, Lettanie della B.V., falsi bordoni et Gloria Patri concertati, 5, 9vv,
servendosi del secondo coro a beneplacito, bc (org), op.15 (Venice, 1619)
Salmi, messa e falsi bordoni concertati, 4vv, op.17 (Venice, 1620)
Il IVo libro de concerti, 2–4vv, con le Letanie della B.V., op.16 (Venice, 1622,
2/1640) [1st edn inc.]
Compieta, antifone et Letanie della Madonna, 5vv, op.20 (Venice, 1623)
Messe parte per capella e parte per concerto, 4–5vv, op.19 (Venice, ?/1625) [1st
edn lost]
2 motets, 2, 4vv, bc (org) in 16129; 2 motets, 3–4vv, in 161513; 2 motets, 2–3vv, bc,
in 16214; 4 motets, 1–2, 4vv, bc, some with str, in 1624 2; 1 motet, 1v, bc, in 16243; 4
motets, 4vv, bc (org), in 16262
secular
Madrigali, 5vv, libro primo (Venice, 1608)
Madrigali et arie per sonare e cantare nel chit/lute/hpd, 1–2vv, libro primo (Venice,
160921)
Canzonette et arie, 3vv, libro primo (Venice, 1609 20)
Il secondo libro de madrigali et arie, 1–2vv, chit, op.6 (Milan, 1610)
Il terzo libro delli madrigali, scherzi et arie, 1–2vv, chit, con uno epitalamio, op.9
(Milan, 1613/R1986 in ISS, iv)
Secondo libro di madrigali, 5–6vv, bc (hpd/other inst), op.11 (Venice, 1614)
Il IIIo libro de madrigali, 5vv, bc, op.18 (Venice, 1621), inc.
Madrigali et arie, libro quatro, lost, listed in Indice (1621)
Frutti d'Amore in vaghe e variate arie libro V o et op.21 (Venice, 1623)
1 madrigal, 2vv, bc, in 162411
1 madrigal, 4vv, in Trattenimenti da villa concertati del Banchieri (Venice, 1630)

MSS in D-Rp 506 (1 motet, 1v, 2 vn), W 19 (11 compositions, 1v, bc, 1 madrigal, 1v,
chorus)
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
FortuneISS
Indice di tutte le opere di musica che si trovano nella Stampa della Pigna di
Allesandro Vincenti (Venice, 1621, 1635, 1649, 1658, 1662); repr. in O.
Mischiati: Indici, cataloghi e avvisi degli editori e librai musicali italiani
dal 1591 al 1798 (Florence, 1984), 135–241
G. Tebaldini: L'archivio musicale della Cappella Antoniana in Padova
(Padua, 1895)
J.L.A. Roche: ‘Musica diversa di Compietà: Compline and its Music in
Seventeenth-Century Italy’, PRMA, cix (1982–3), 60–79
J.L.A. Roche: North Italian Chuch Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford,
1984)
D.A. Blazey: The Litany in Seventeenth-Century Italy (diss., U. of Durham,
1990)
S. Leopold: Al modo d'Orfeo: Dichtung und Musik im italienischen
Sologesang des frühen 17. Jahrhunderts, AnMc, no.29 (1995)
T. Carter: ‘New Songs for Old? Guarini and the Monody’, Guarini e la
musica, ed. A. Pompilio (Florence, forthcoming)
JEROME ROCHE/R

Ghoneim, Mauna
(b Cairo, 21 Aug 1955). Egyptian composer. From the age of eight she
studied the piano at the Cairo Conservatory. Later she joined the
composition class founded by Abdel-Rahim, studying composition and the
traditional Arab modal system. She graduated in composition (1977) and
piano (1978), both with distinction. From 1981 she took postgraduate
studies in composition from the Vienna Hochschule für Musik with Thomas
Christian David and Francis Burt, graduating with distinction in 1987 and
obtaining Magister Artium in 1988. She returned to Egypt in 1989 and to a
teaching post at the Cairo Conservatory. Many of her compositions have
been performed outside Egypt: in Vienna, Rome, Berlin, Bonn and Prague.
In 1991 she was awarded the prize for musical creativity by the Academy of
Arts, Cairo. A well-known composer of documentary film music, she won a
prize (1991) for her music for the documentary film An Evening’s Fishing
(1991).
Her compositions include many piano works and many using the flute,
besides vocal and orchestral works. Her style is distinguished by tender
melodic lines using the tetrachords and pentachords of Arab music in a
very personal way, accompanied by contemporary Western harmonies.
She uses irregular metres in accordance with the Arab rhythmic modes, for
example in El Mashrabia for strings (1987), the Elegy for orchestra (1990)
and the Suite for flute and harp (1993).
WORKS
Pf Sonata, 1983; 2 Pieces, ww, str, 1984; Pf Conc., 1984; 1984: Small Pieces, perc,
1984; Lied, S, pf, 1985; Str Trio, 1985; Str Qt, 1985; Pf Pieces, 2vv, pf, 1986; Suite,
fl, ob, str, 1986; Ww Qt, 1986; El Mashrabia, str, 1987; Baum der Nacht, lied, S, a fl,
perc, 1988; 2 Dances, pf, perc, 1988; 2 Portraits, str, 1988; Elegy, orch, 1990; Suite,
fl, pf, 1991; Baum der Nacht, suite, fl, 1991; 3 Pieces, 2 pf, 1993; Suite, fl, hp, 1993
Film scores, incl. saìd-ĕlassără, [An Evening’s Fishing], 1991
AWATEF ABDEL KERIM

Ghosh, Nikhil Jyoti

(b Barisal; d Bombay, 3 March 1995). Indian tablā player. Born into a family
of musicians, he was trained initially in sitār playing and vocal music before
choosing the tablā as his main instrument. Following his elder brother, the
flautist Pannalal Ghosh, first to Calcutta and later to Bombay, he learnt the
tablā from Pandit Jnan Prakash Ghosh of the Farrukhabad and Punjab
gharānās. He later became a disciple of Ustad Amir Hussain Khan and
Ustad Ahmedjan Thirakwa, both of whom were disciples of Ustad Munir
Khan, preceptor of the Laliyana gharānā. Having mastered the traditional
repertory of the styles of Delhi, Ajrada, Farrukhabad, Lucknow and Punjab,
Ghosh was acclaimed both for his solo recitals of traditional tablā
compositions and for his refined accompaniment. His solo recordings were
released by HMV India (1974) and UNESCO (1978).
He developed graded systems of music training for use in mass education
and the training of professional performers which were implemented at the
Sangit Mahabharati in Bombay. He also established a system of notation.
In 1961 he began to compile material for an encyclopedia of music, dance
and drama in India, the completion of which he did not live to see. Most
prominent among his tablā disciples are his son Nayan Ghosh and Aneesh
Pradhan. He also trained his son Dhruba Ghosh in sārangī playing and his
daughter Tulika Ghosh-Pathak in vocal music.
GERT-MATTHIAS WEGNER

Ghosh, Pannalal
(b Barisal District, East Bengal, 1911; d 20 April 1960). Indian bānsurī
player (see Vamśa) and composer. His father Akshaya Kumar played the
sitār and his younger brother Nikhil Ghosh was a distinguished tablā player
and musicologist. He was largely self-taught as a flautist, picking up
technique by observation and imitation of traditional players, although he
studied music with Khurshid Ahmad Khan and Girija Shankar Chakravorty.
He is known principally as a disciple of the multi-instrumentalist Ustad
Allauddin Khan, with whom he studied from 1947.
He worked in the film industry for many years in both Calcutta and Bombay
as a musician and composer (music director), and in 1938 toured Europe
for six months with the Saraikala Nrityamandali dance troupe. In 1947 he
was appointed music director at All India Radio, where he set up the
National Orchestra. As a soloist he is regarded as a pioneer who
reintroduced the flute to the concert stage in North Indian (Hindustani)
music, and he was responsible for developing several elements of modern
bānsurī technique. He is also credited with the introduction of the ‘tenor’
flute (approximately 80 cm long, with very wide hole-spacing), when
previously much smaller instruments had been prevalent, and he used
flutes of different sizes during a single performance. These innovations
 have since been taken up and developed further by other musicians,
notably Pandit Hari Prasad Chaurasia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
L.N. Garg: Hamāre sangīt ratn [Our music jewels] (Hathras, 1957)
R. and J. Massey: The Music of India (London, 1976/R)
D. Neuman: The Life of Music in North India (Detroit, 1980/R)
A.D. Sharma: Musicians of India Past and Present (Calcutta, 1993)
recordings
Pannalal Ghosh, GCI EALP 1252 (n.d.) [rāgs Yaman and Shri]
The Magic Flute of Pannalal Ghosh, Odeon MOAE 5006 (1968) [rāgs
Marwa and Sarang]
Great Master, Great Music, perf. P. Ghosh, HMV EALP 1367 (1971) [rāgas
Pilu and Darbari, Bhairavi thumrī]
MARTIN CLAYTON

Ghro, Johann.
See Groh, Johann.

Giaccio, Orazio [Horatio]

(b Aversa, nr Naples, c1590; d ?Naples, in or after 1660). Italian composer
and singer. He sang bass at SS Annunziata, Naples, intermittently between
1614 and 1632. In 1620 he entered the Celestine convent of S Pietro a
Majella, Naples, and in 1660 he was a hebdomadary at Naples Cathedral.
Between 1613 and 1618 he published three books of secular three-part
canzonettas with guitar accompaniment; many of the texts in the two
surviving volumes are by members of the Oziosi, the leading literary
academy in Naples. Giaccio’s op.6, for one to three voices (1645), is a
sacred counterpart to these books. Its contents are like the secular
canzonettas in that their usual triple metre is varied by syncopations and
hemiola, but they are more concertante: there are contrasts of dynamics
and between solo and ripieno, and there are little continuo interludes.
WORKS
Armoniose voci, canzonette in aria spagnola, et italiana … libro primo, 3vv (Naples,
1613, 2/1618, both lost; 3/1620)
Fiori armonici, canzonette libro secondo, 3vv, lost (printed between 1613 and 1618,
mentioned in ded. of Laberinto amoroso)
Laberinto amoroso, canzonette … libro terzo, 3vv (Naples, 1618)
Hinni e frottole … libro primo, 3–4vv, op.4 (Naples, 1621)
Canzone sacre in musica, 1–3vv, op.6 (Naples, 1645)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
U. Prota-Giurleo: ‘La musica a Napoli nel Seicento (dal Gesualdo allo
Scarlatti)’, Samnium, i/4 (1928), 67–90, esp. 85
KEITH A. LARSON
 Giaches da [Giacchetto de]
Mantua.
See Jacquet of Mantua.

Giacobbe, Juan Francisco

(b Buenos Aires, 7 March 1907; d Buenos Aires, 31 Jan 1990). Argentine
composer and teacher. He attended the National Conservatory in Buenos
Aires, where he studied harmony and instrumentation with Ugarte,
graduating in 1929. He continued his education in Paris, Milan, Rome and
at the abbey of the Madonna del Monte, Cesena, with Dom Bonifacio for
Gregorian chant. In 1934 he returned to Buenos Aires and created the
Argentine Society of Polyphonic Music. He held numerous teaching
positions, including professorships in fugue, composition, Gregorian chant,
history, counterpoint and ethnomusicology at the National and Municipal
conservatories in Buenos Aires. His interests in ethnomusicology and
philosophy are reflected in his essays. As a composer he was noted for his
stage works and sacred choral music.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Nuestra Señora de Luján (mystery), 1931; Natividad (Chanza Calchaquí)

(chbr op), 1935; Juventus (op), 1941; Tema perpetuo (choreog. sym.), 1965; Il re
nascosto (op), 1968
Choral: Stabat mater, unacc., 1956; El diálogo secreto, speaking vv, orch, 1959;
Gregorian Mass (Sp.), 1966; 2 TeDs, chorus, orch, 1976, 1976–7
Orch: Danzas medievales lombardas, 1945; Imágenes del tango, 1960; Concerti da
chiesa, orch, 1977
Chbr music; choruses; music for solo insts; pf music; songs

JOHN M. SCHECHTER

Giacobbi, Girolamo
(b Bologna, bap. 10 Aug 1567; d Bologna, 23 Dec 1628). Italian composer.
He was closely associated with the basilica of S Petronio, Bologna, where
he began his career as a choirboy in 1581, becoming a paid singer in
1584. He was an assistant (promagister) to the maestro di cappella from
1595 and was himself maestro from 18 August 1604 to 1628, when he
resigned because of a serious illness. From February to April 1618 he was
also maestro di cappella of the new Oratorio dei Filippini, Bologna, and
from 1625 to 1628 he directed the choir at S Giovanni in Monte. A close
friend of Banchieri, he was an active member of the Bolognese Accademia
dei Floridi, which Banchieri had founded in 1614. In 1625 it took the new
name of Accademia dei Filomusi and met in Giacobbi's house until it was
disbanded in 1630; on 13 June 1620 it was visited by Monteverdi.
Reference to Giacobbi's death is made in a letter from Banchieri to
Monteverdi.
 Giacobbi was one of the first composers outside Florence to write in the
new monodic style. In 1605 he composed four intermedi for the pastoral
play Il Filarmindo by Count Ridolfo Campeggi. The intermedi were
published in 1608 as L'Aurora ingannata in the several editions of the
libretto, but the music was published under the title of Dramatodia. The
recitatives are in an intense, pathetic style reminiscent of Jacopo Peri's
Euridice, and they alternate with short ensembles and strophic,
homophonic choruses. In 1613 Giacobbi wrote the music for new
intermedi, called Proserpina rapita, for the same play. In his sacred music
he displayed both conservative and progressive features. The motets of
1601 are fluently composed in the late Renaissance idiom of Palestrina,
with a sensitive awareness of tonal balance and contrast in those for two
choirs. The concerted vesper psalms of 1609 are influenced by the more
recent innovations of the Venetians. Written in long continuous sections,
with organ continuo, they are expressive and dramatic in character, with
frequent changes of scoring and tone colour. In a preface Giacobbi gave
instructions and suggestions regarding the disposition of the choirs,
soloists and instrumentalists.
WORKS
stage
all music lost except for 1st item

Dramatodia, overo Canti rappresentativi sopra L'Aurora ingannata, 4 intermedi for Il

Filarmindo (R. Campeggi) (Venice, 1608/R)
L'Andromeda (tragedia, 5, Campeggi), Bologna, carn. Feb 1610
Proserpina rapita, 4 intermedi (Campeggi), Bologna, 1613
Amor prigioniero (S. Branchi), Bologna, 1615
Tancredi (Campeggi), Bologna, 1615
Il Reno sacrificante (Campeggi), Bologna, 1617
La selva dei mirti (B. Marescotti), Bologna, 1623
La montagna fulminata, tourney, Bologna, 1628
Ruggero liberato, tourney

sacred vocal
[22] Motecta multiplici vocum numero concinenda, 5–10vv (Venice, 1601)
Prima parte dei [7] salmi concertati, 8, 9, 18vv, bc (org) (Venice, 1609) [incl. 2
Magnificat]
Vespri per tutto l'anno, 4vv, some with bc (org) (Venice, 1615)
[4] Litanie e [8] motetti da concerto e da cappella, 8vv (Venice, 1618)
4 masses, 4vv, 1659: Missa ‘Cantate Domino’, Missa sine nomine, Missa ‘Veni
Creator Spiritus’, Missa ‘Veni Domine’: I-Bsp
Sanctissimae Deiparae canticum: 8 Magnificat, 4vv, 1628, Bsp
36 hymns, 4vv, Bsp
Messa, 4vv; Magnificat, 8vv; 2 Magnificat, 4vv; [5] Salmi della Beata Vergine, 8vv;
Invitatorio e Salmi da Morti, 8vv; Bof
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM (C. Vitali)
EitnerQ
MGG1 (G. Vecchi)
RicciTB
SartoriL
SchmidlD
A. Solerti: Gli albori del melodramma, i (Milan, 1904/R), 27 [incl. note on
Ruggero liberato]
L. Frati: ‘Per la storia della musica in Bologna nel secolo XVII’, RMI, xxxii
(1925), 544–65, esp. 552–5
G. Vecchi: Il melodramma a Bologna: l'aurora ingannata di G. Giacobbi
(1605–1608) (Bologna, 1963)
C. Vitali: ‘G.P. Colonna maestro di cappella dell'Oratorio filippino in
Bologna: contributi bio-bibliografici’, RIM, xiv (1979), 128–54
O. Gambassi: ‘Nuovi documenti su G. Giacobbi’, RIM, xviii (1983), 29–48
A.F. Carver: Cori Spezzati, i: The Development of Sacred Polychoral
Music to the Time of Schütz (Cambridge, 1987), 218, 257
O. Gambassi: La Cappella Musicale di S. Petronio: maestri, organisti,
cantori e strumentisti dal 1436 al 1920 (Florence, 1987), 5, 20–24, 89–
116
M. Vanscheeuwijck: De religieuze muziekproduktie in de San Petronio-
kerk te Bologna ten tijde van Giovanni Paolo Colonna (1674–1695)
(diss., U. of Ghent, 1995), 146–53
PETER SMITH/MARC VANSCHEEUWIJCK

Giacobetti, Pietro Amico

(b Ripatransone, nr Ascoli Piceno; fl 1579–1616). Italian composer.
According to Gaspari he was a cleric at Ripatransone from 1579 until his
death. Two of his works are known: Motectorum quatuor quinque et sex
vocibus, liber primus (Venice, 1589), and the five-voice Lamentationes cum
omnibus responsoriis in triduo hebdomadae sanctae (Venice, 1601). As
might be expected, the movements of the latter are composed in a stark,
largely homophonic manner and the book ends with two settings of the
Passion, one ‘In Domenica Palmarum’ and the other (whose texture
expands to six voices at its conclusion) ‘In die Parasceves’. These too are
written in a style of the utmost simplicity, thus respecting the tradition of
Passion settings while at the same time being accessible to choirs of
modest ability.
IAIN FENLON

Giacomelli [Jacomelli], Geminiano

(b Piacenza, c1692; d Loreto, 25 Jan 1740). Italian composer. In his early
years in Parma he studied singing, counterpoint and keyboard with G.M.
Capelli, maestro di cappella of the cathedral. The story of his being sent to
study with Alessandro Scarlatti in 1724, and afterwards being in the service
of Charles VI in Vienna was doubted by Eitner, and there is little evidence
to support either contention: Scarlatti died in October 1725, and the opera
L’Arrenione, supposed to have been composed for the Viennese court, is
not by Giacomelli.
From 1719 to 1727 and from 1732 to 1737 Giacomelli was maestro di
cappella of the court of Parma and the church of the Madonna della
Steccata, serving jointly with his aged teacher Capelli; in the intervening
 years (1727–32) he held the same position at S Giovanni in Piacenza. In
1737 he directed performances of his opera Cesare in Egitto in Graz
before succeeding Tommaso Redi as maestro di cappella of the Santa
Casa, Loreto, on 24 November 1738. The announcement of his death,
discovered by Tebaldini, states that he died at about 48 while still serving at
Loreto.
Giacomelli wrote 19 operas for various Italian cities; his most successful
was Cesare in Egitto (1735). The set of intermezzos, Golpone e Birina,
performed in Rome for Carnival 1739 with his Achille in Aulide, were written
by Fini and Zanetti for Venice in 1732, not by Giacomelli. He also
composed two oratorios and many sacred compositions of which only a
few survive. Giacomelli seems to have been highly esteemed by his
contemporaries; Benedetto Marcello published Giacomelli’s letter of
recommendation in the preface to volume seven of his Estro poetico-
armonico (Venice, 1724–6/R).
WORKS
operas
drammi per musica in three acts, lost, unless otherwise indicated
Ipermestra (A. Salvi), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, carn. 1724; Parma, Ducale,
1724
Scipione in Cartagine nuova (C.I. Frugoni), Parma, Ducale, spr. 1728, D-Mbs
Zidiana, Milan, Ducale, 28 Aug 1728
Lucio Papirio dittatore (Zeno, Frugoni), Parma, Ducale, spr. 1729
Gianguir (A. Zeno), Venice, S Cassiano, 1729, B-Bc
Semiramide riconosciuta (P. Metastasio), Milan, Ducale, Jan 1730
Annibale (F. Vanstryp), Rome, Capranica, Jan 1731, arias I-IBborromeo
Epaminonda (?D. Lalli), Venice, 1732, S Giovanni Grisostomo, carn. B-Bc
Rosbale (C.N. Stampa), ?Rome, Argentina, carn. 1732
Alessandro Severo (Zeno), Piacenza, Ducale, aut. 1732
Adriano in Siria (Metastasio), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, carn. 1733, D-Bsb
La caccia in Etolia (pasticcio), Vienna, Kärntnertor, 8 April 1733
Merope (Zeno, Lalli), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, carn. 1734, A-Wgm, B-Bc
Cesare in Egitto (G.F. Bassani), Milan, Ducale, carn. 1735, Bc
Nitocri, regina d’Egitto (Zeno), Rome, Tordinona, carn. 1736
Arsace (Salvi, G. Boldoni), Prato, Pubblico, 1736
Demetrio (Metastasio), Turin, Regio, carn. 1737
La costanza vincitrice in amore, Parma, Ducale, carn. 1738, ?collab. Genocchi (?
Gnocchi)
Achille in Aulide, Rome, Argentina, carn. 1739
Egloga amebea (int), A-Wgm
?Pasticcios: Catone in Utica (Metastasio), Vienna, 1744; Catone in Utica
(Metastasio), Vienna, 1749
Cants. and arias, some from ops, in La muse lyrique italienne avec des paroles
françoises (Paris, 1773); A-Wgm, Wn; F-Pn; D-Bsb, Dl, SWl, W; GB-Lbl, Cfm; I-Mc,
Nc; S-Uu
sacred
La conversione di S Margherita da Cortona (orat), ?D-LEm
S Giuliana Falconieri (orat, Torribilini), Genoa, Oratorio dei Filippini, 1740, collab.
Rolandi
Ky, D-Dl; 2 lit, 4vv, Mag, 4vv, I-LT; 3 motets, 4vv, D-Bsb; 1 motet: Domine noster, 3
male vv, PL-WRu (EitnerQ), as Quam admirabile ed. F. Commer, Musica Sacra, ii
(Berlin, 1839)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
LaMusicaD
MGG1 (L.F. Tagliavini)
G. Tebaldini: L’archivio musicale della Cappella lauretana (Loreto, 1921)
N. Pelicelli: ‘Musicisti in Parma nel secolo XVIII’, NA, xi (1934), 29–57
C. Anguissola: Geminiano Giacomelli e Sebastiano Nasolini, musicisti
piacentini (Piacenza, 1935)
GORDANA LAZAREVICH

Giacometti, Bortolomeo (Antonio)

(b Verona, 30 Dec 1741; d Verona, 4 Jan 1809). Italian composer and
singer. He entered the choir school at Verona Cathedral in March 1755
where, in addition to the academic curriculum, he studied plainsong and
counterpoint under the maestro di cappella Daniel dal Barba. After his
ordination he joined the chapter choir as cappellano and from 1775 was a
bass in the cathedral choir. In addition to clerical duties at a local church,
he probably served as apprentice to Dal Barba. In December 1779
Giacometti assumed full teaching responsibilities at the choir school and
was accorded rights of succession to the cathedral position on Dal Barba’s
death. From 1789 he was the leading composer at the cathedral, where he
continued in service until the end of his life.
Of special interest among Giacometti’s compositions are an expressive
Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel and the virtuoso lectiones for Holy Week
in which simple recitative sections alternate with florid solo passages. A
small instrumental complement of two violas and violone is often used in
his choral music; full orchestral ensembles were used only in pontifical
celebrations. A facile declamatory style with little melodic inventiveness
prevails in many works, especially his responsories, but occasionally
contrasts of key and metre create striking effects. Giacometti’s
compositions retained popularity into the 19th century; in Spagnolo’s
opinion he ‘was justly considered the most skilful composer of his time’.
WORKS
only principal sources

Masses, mass movts: 3 masses (G, 3vv; A, 4vv; 4vv), I-RVE; Ky–Gl, 4vv, insts,
VEcap; Gl, 4vv, insts, VEcap; 2 Credo: 4vv, RVE, 4vv, org, VEcap
Requiem mass, 4vv, bc, VEcap; Messa di morti, 3vv, b, OS
Int, grad, off, 3vv, VEcap; 2 sequences: Veni Sancte Spiritus, 4vv, RVE, Victimae
paschali, 4vv, RVE
Mag, 4vv, org, RVE; Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel, 4vv, insts, VEcap; TeD, 4vv,
RVE
Responsories: 4 (3vv, insts; 2 for 4vv, insts; 5vv, insts), VEcap; Responsori del 1o
notturno, RVE; Responsori per i defunti, 4vv, bc, VEcap; Improperia, 3vv, VEcap;
Domine ad adjuvandum, 3vv, RVE
2 Salve regina, RVE; 9 Miserere, 1–3vv, insts, VEcap
Psalms: Lauda Jerusalem, 3vv, Lauda pueri, 3vv, RVE; Dixit Dominus, vv, orch,
Libera me, 4vv, insts, VEcap
Hymns: 2 Pange lingua (3vv, RVE; 4vv, insts, VEcap); 4 Tantum ergo (2 for 3vv, 1
for 4vv, RVE; 4vv, b, VEcap); 3 Vexilla (3vv; 3vv, insts, 1775; 4vv, insts), VEcap;
Vexilla regis, 4vv, str, VEcap
Lessons, 1v, b, VEcap; Lezione terza del venerdì santo, 1v, bc, VEc
Passio D.N.J.C., 1793, 3vv, b, VEcap; 3 Turba passionis (3vv, b; 3vv; 3vv, b, 1789),
VEcap; Turbe per venerdì santo, RVE

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Sala: I musicisti veronesi (1500–1879) (Verona, 1879/R), 9
A. Spagnolo: Le scuole accolitali in Verona (Verona, 1904), 157ff
G. Turrini: Il patrimonio musicale della Biblioteca Capitolare di Verona del
secolo XV al XIX (Verona, 1952), 34–5
V. Donella: ‘Un deposito di musiche in S. Giorgio’, Vita Veronese, xxv
(Verona, 1972), 412
E. Paganuzzi and others: ‘La Musica Sacra nel settecento’, La musica a
Verona (Verona, 1976), 257–72, esp. 269–71, tav. ix
M. Dubiaga: The Life and Works of Daniel Pius Dal Barba (1715–1801)
(diss., U. of Colorado, 1977)
E. Negri: Il fondo musicale Malaspina nell'archivio di stato di Verona
(Rome, 1989), 96
MICHAEL DUBIAGA JR

Giacometti, Giovanni Battista.

See Jacomelli, Giovanni Battista.

Giacomini, Bernardo
(b Florence, 2 May 1532; d after 1562). Italian composer. He is called
‘gentilhuomo fiorentino’ on the title-page of his only known collection, Il
primo libro di madrigali a cinque voci (Venice, 1563). He may have been
one of the several Florentine amateurs of a certain social status who tried
their hand at composition during the period. He was a member of the
Knights of St Stephen. A reference to ‘il nostro Cav Giacomini’ in an
unpublished work by Giovanni de’ Bardi may indicate that he was also a
member of Bardi’s circle. The madrigal book is dedicated to Paolo
Giordano Orsini, Duke of Bracciano, who in 1558 married Isabella,
daughter of Duke Cosimo I de’ Medici of Florence. The madrigal Nobil
coppia gradita, which opens the volume, celebrates the union of these two
noble families and was perhaps written for performance at the wedding
festivities. The remaining works include settings of no fewer than nine
sonnets by Petrarch, each divided into the customary two sections. These
pieces, composed in a style typical of the time, are characterized by mild
chromaticism and a high regard for correct text setting. His five-voice
setting of Petrarch’s sonnet Zefiro torna appears in Gardano’s 1592 edition
of Spoglia amorosa. Two other works, the five-voice Ma folle io spargo and
the six-voice La bella mano, were intabulated by Vincenzo Galilei, who
published them in the 1584 edition of his Fronimo. Another madrigal, Claro
dolce ben mio, appears in a manuscript addition to the 1568 edition of this
work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
VogelB
B. Romena: Oroscopi diversi (MS, I-Fn), f.13
C.V. Palisca: ‘Vincenzo Galilei’s Arrangements for Voice and Lute’, Essays
in Musicology in Honor of Dragan Plamenac, ed. G. Reese and R.J.
Snow (Pittsburgh, 1969/R), 207–32, esp. 211
FRANK A. D’ACCONE

Giacomini, Giuseppe
(b Veggiano, nr Padua, 7 Sept 1940). Italian tenor. He studied at Padua
and Milan, making his début in 1967 at Vercelli as Pinkerton. Having sung
in Vienna and Berlin (1972), at La Scala (1974) and the Paris Opéra
(1975), he made his Metropolitan début in 1976 as Don Alvaro, returning
as Don Carlos, Macduff, Pinkerton, Canio and Manrico. He made an
impressive Covent Garden début in 1980 as Dick Johnson, returning in
other lyric and spinto roles: Turiddu (which he has recorded), Manrico,
Cavaradossi, Radames, Pollione and Calaf. Giacomini’s other parts range
from Edgardo and Don José through Puccini’s Des Grieux and Luigi (Il
tabarro), both of which he has recorded, to Lohengrin (in Italian) and
Verdi’s Otello, which he first sang in 1986 at San Diego and has repeated
in Vienna, Naples and Monte Carlo. His powerful, firmly focussed voice is
well suited to the heavier Italian repertory, while his dramatic involvement
has greatly increased over the years.
ELIZABETH FORBES

Giacomo, Salvatore di.

See Di Giacomo, Salvatore.

Giacomo da Chieti.
See Jacobus Theatinus.

Giacopone da Todi [Giacopone de’

Benedetti].
See Jacopone da Todi.

Giacosa, Giuseppe
(b Colleretto Parella, Ivrea, 21 Oct 1847; d Colleretto Parella, 2 Sept 1906).
Italian playwright and librettist. After graduating in law at Turin University he
joined his father’s legal practice until the success of his one-act verse
comedy Una partita a scacchi (1873) induced him to take up a literary
career. He became a member of Boito’s circle, specializing at first in
stylized period drama. Then followed a number of prose plays in the
tradition of the French Théâtre Libre, of which Tristi amori (1887) and
Come le foglie (1900) still hold the stage as worthy examples of intimate
bourgeois tragedy. La comtesse de Chaillant (1891) was written in French
for Sarah Bernhardt. From 1888 to 1894 Giacosa held the chair of literature
and dramatic art at the Milan Conservatory. At the time of his death he was
editor of the literary periodical La lettura. His output also includes a number
of prose sketches associated with his native region and entitled Novelle e
paesi valdostani (1886) and an account of a visit to America in 1891.
Regarded at the turn of the century as Italy’s leading playwright, Giacosa is
remembered chiefly for his association with Puccini in double harness with
the librettist Luigi Illica. The partnership was organized by the publisher
Giulio Ricordi in 1893. After Puccini had turned down Giacosa’s offer of a
Russian subject, Ricordi set the two librettists to work on the text of La
bohème (1896); it would seem to have been Giacosa’s idea to base the
character of the heroine on a blend of Murger’s Mimì and Francine, so
ensuring a total contrast between the two female leads such as eluded
Leoncavallo in his treatment of the same subject. The collaboration
continued with Tosca (1900) and Madama Butterfly (1904) with equally
successful results. In each case Illica’s task was to plan the scenario and
draft the dialogue which Giacosa would then put into polished verse.
Although he found the work uncongenial and frequently protested against
Puccini's ideas he always ended by giving way to them; and his calm,
benign presence at their conferences (he was known affectionately as ‘the
Buddha’) did much to smooth their difficulties. In addition to his work for
Puccini Giacosa adapted Una partita a scacchi for a one-act opera by the
Piedmontese composer Pietro Abbà-Cornaglia (1892) and sketched out the
text for an oratorio, Cain, for Lorenzo Perosi. The plan to write a libretto for
Mascagni with Illica never came to fruition.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Rumor: Giusenpe Giacosa (Padua, 1940)
P. Nardi: Vita e tempo di Giuseppe Giacosa (Milan, 1949)
A. Barsotti: Giuseppe Giacosa (Florence, 1977)
JULIAN BUDDEN

Giai [Giaii, Giaij, Giay], Francesco

Saverio
(b Turin, 27 Sept 1729; d Grugliasco, nr Turin, 12 Aug 1801). Italian
composer, son of Giovanni Antonio Giay. He studied initially in Turin,
probably at the Collegium Puerorum Innocentium at the cathedral, under
the direction of F.M. Montalto. Between 1759 and 1762 he continued his
studies, spending a year each in Bologna, with Padre Martini, Naples, with
Giuseppe de Majo, and Rome, where his compositions were favourably
received in the Papal chapel. On his father's death he was made director of
the Turin royal chapel, as officially documented in a letter of 9 February
 1764. Until 1798 his principal assistant in this post was the celebrated
violinist Gaetano Pugnani, and together with him he took part in the
musical life of the court, directing, among other things, the music played at
the wedding of Clotilde de France with Carlo Emanuele IV in 1775. Like his
father, Francesco seems to have been concerned primarily with the sacred
music of the court, although he composed a violin concerto. Mozart, during
his visit to Turin in 1771, listed Giai as one of the musicians he wished to
meet, along with Quirino Gasparini, maestro di cappella of the cathedral
and the violinist and composer Ignazio Celoniati.
Giay, Giovanni Antonio
WORKS
in I-Td, unless otherwise stated

Violin Concerto, B , D-Dl

11 masses, 3 Requiem, 3 Ky–Gl, 1 Ky, 2 Gl
3 Dies irae, 2 Dixit Dominus, 2 Confitebor, 3 Beatus vir, 16 Miserere, 2 Laudate
Dominum, 3 Mag, 2 TeD
4 lits, 26 lessons for Holy Week, Responsori per il Castrum Dolores, Profezia
duodecima di Nabuconodosor, various motets

For bibliography see Giay, giovanni antonio.

GORDANA LAZAREVICH/MARIE-THÉRÈSE BOUQUET-BOYER

Giai [Giaj], Giovanni Antonio.

See Giay, Giovanni Antonio.

Giaiotti, Bonaldo
(b Ziracco, nr Udine, 25 Dec 1932). Italian bass. He studied with Alfredo
Starno in Milan where he made his début at the Teatro Nuovo in 1957.
Within the next three years he established himself as one of the leading
Italian basses of his time, and was engaged in 1960 by the Metropolitan,
New York, remaining a valued member of the company for the next 25
years. The priestly roles in La forza del destino and Aida were his
speciality, though the part he sang most frequently in the house was that of
Timur in Turandot. At La Scala he was introduced as Rodolfo in La
sonnambula (1986), and at the Verona Festival of 1992 he appeared as
King Philip in Don Carlos. He also made a concert tour of South America in
1970. His sonorous, evenly produced voice served him well over a long
career, and can be heard in many recordings. Among these is Luisa Miller
(1975, with Maag), where Count Walter’s aria in Act 1 is a fine example of
his art.
J.B. STEANE

Giamberti, Giuseppe [Gioseppe]

 (b Rome, c1600; d Rome, 1662–4). Italian composer. He was a pupil of
G.B. Nanino and Paolo Agostini, as he announced on the title-page of his
op.1. His studies with them probably took place in 1615–16 when he was a
boy soprano at S Lorenzo in Damaso, where Nanino and Agostini were
successive maestri di cappella. From 1624 at the earliest to at least 1628
Giamberti was maestro di cappella of Orvieto Cathedral. From at least
1630 until 1645 he was maestro di cappella of S Maria Maggiore, Rome,
and in 1662 he held a similar position at the church of the Madonna dei
Monti, Rome. To a great extent he was a typical composer of the Roman
school and produced mainly sacred music. His most important publication
is his Antiphonae et motecta (1650), a comprehensive collection of over
200 pieces. Like most of his music it is in the concertato style. Unlike many
Roman composers he also wrote lighter music: his final publication, of
1657, was popular enough to go into three further editions, and the eight
short strophic solo songs are the most attractive music in his op.1.
WORKS
Poesie diverse poste in musica, 1–3vv, op.1 (Rome, 1623 13)
Sacrae modulationes, 2–5vv, org, cum litanijs BVM, liber primus, op.2 (Orvieto,
1627)
Laudi spirituali poste in musica in diversi stili, 1–6vv, op.3 (Orvieto, 1628)
Antiphonae et motecta festis omnibus propria, 2–4vv (Rome, 1650)
Duo tessuti con diversi solfeggiamenti, scherzi, perfidie, et oblighi (Rome, 1657);
some transcr. from 4/1689 in Goldschmidt
2 songs, 1v, bc, 16402; 1 ed. in Racek
1 motet, 3vv, bc, 16622
Missa ‘Veni, sponsa Christi’, 4vv; ricercari, solfeggi, 2vv: D-Bsb
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Goldschmidt: Die italienische Gesangsmethode des XVII.
Jahrhunderts und ihre Bedeutung für die Gegenwart (Breslau, 1890/R,
2/1892), 131; appx, 56–7
J. Racek: Stilprobleme der italienischen Monodie (Prague, 1965), esp.
165–7, 238–9
J.W. Hill: Roman Monody, Cantata and Opera from the Circles around
Cardinal Montalto (Oxford, 1997)
NIGEL FORTUNE (with JOHN WALTER HILL)

Gianacconi, Giuseppe.
See Jannacconi, Giuseppe.

Gianella, Louis [Ludovico, Luigi]

(b ?1778; d Paris, 1817). Italian flautist and composer. He was engaged in
1790 as an instrumentalist in the orchestra of La Scala in Milan, and in the
same year two ballets by him were performed there. He went to Paris in
about 1800 and earned his living by playing in various theatre orchestras,
possibly including that of the Opéra-Comique. He achieved some fame as
a composer with his collaboration on L’officier cosaque (1803). Like many
of his colleagues, he was attracted to the revival of freemasonry after the
 Revolution. In 1805 he was admitted to the Anacreon Lodge, whose
membership consisted almost entirely of theatre musicians and theatrical
staff. The most notable of his fellow masons were the flautist Jean-Louis
Tulou, the singer Jean-Pierre Garat, the violinist Antoine Kreutzer (brother
of Rodolphe Kreutzer) and the composer Pierre Gaveaux, author of a
version of Fidelio which preceded Beethoven's.
WORKS
stage
Il denaro fa tutto (ballet), Milan, La Scala, Aug 1790, lost
Idante ed Asseli (ballet), Milan, La Scala, Aug 1790, lost
L’officier cosaque (comic op, 1, J.G.A. Cuvelier and J.M. Barouillet), Paris, Porte-St-
Martin, 8 Apr 1803, collab. C.F. Dumonchau; score (Paris, 1803)
Acis et Galathée (ballet, A. Duport), Paris, Opéra, 10 May 1805, collab. B.
Darondeau; score, F-Po; airs in Leduc’s Journal, xii (Paris, c1805)
vocal
Arianna a Nasso (cant., P.A. Cratisto Jamejo), music lost
3 canzonettes, pf/gui acc., separately pubd (London, c1810); romances, pf acc.
(Paris, n.d.), cited by FétisB; Io sono un po difficile, aria from Dame soldade
instrumental
published in Paris, n.d., unless otherwise indicated

3 fl concs.
Trios, fl, vn, b, opp.1–2; 3 fantaisies, fl, vn, 2 va, vc, op.6; 3 duos concertants, fl, hp,
op.24; 3 Quartetts, fl, vn, va, vc, op.32 (London, c1815); Solos, fl, b, opp.33–4, 43;
6 variations, fl, vn acc.; 3 sonates, fl, b/vn ad lib
3 nocturnes, 2 fl, bn, op.12; [3] Trios, 3 fl, opp.27, 36 (London, ?1810–?15);
Nocturnes, 2 fl, vc, opp.28–31; Quartetto, 4 fl, op.52 (London, c1815); Sonates, 2 fl,
pf; 4 collections of fl duos
Steibelt’s pf sonatas, op.45, arr. 2 fl; Elegant Extracts, fl, ed. Gianella (London and
Dublin, n.d.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
HoneggerD
MGG1 (‘Darondeau’, ‘Dumoncheau’; R. Cotte)
SchmidlD
R.J.V. Cotte: Les musiciens Franc-Maçons à la cour de Versailles et à
Paris sous l'ancien régime (doctorat d'Etat, diss., 1982, F-Pn)
ROGER COTTE

Gianelli, Francesco
(fl 1592). Italian composer. Although his only known work, Il primo libro de
madrigali a tre voci (Venice, 1592, inc.; Eitner incorrectly read the date as
1582), is dated from Ferrara on 15 January 1592 and dedicated to Cardinal
Alessandro d'Este, his name does not appear in the surviving salary rolls of
the Este cappella. (A copy of the Primo libro survives among the holdings
of the Ferrarese court chapel.) Many of the pieces, described in the
dedication as ‘questi miei primi terzetti’, suggest a rather uncomfortable
alliance between the canzonetta and the rhetoric of the serious madrigal.
(EitnerQ; NewcombMF)
IAIN FENLON

Gianelli, Pietro
(b Friuli, ?1770; d Venice, early 1830). Italian music lexicographer, teacher
and composer. He studied music in Padua with Jacopo Agnola and then
went to Venice, where he taught theory and composition. There, in 1801,
he published his Dizionario della musica sacra e profana, the first music
dictionary in Italian, which he described as modelled on the French works
by Brossard and Rousseau, and Grammatica ragionata della musica, an
introduction to the elements of music and musical instruments, which
included an annotated bibliography of writers on the theory and practice of
music from 1500 to the end of the 18th century. Second editions of both
works, the Dizionario revised and much enlarged, appeared in 1820. A
reprint of this edition of the Dizionario appeared in 1830 (called the third
edition on its title-page). Although much of the material in both editions of
the Dizionario is superficial and incorrect, a few of the entries are useful,
providing information not easily found elsewhere. In 1822, the year in
which he became dean of Torcello Cathedral, Gianelli also announced the
publication of a series, Biografia degli uomini illustri nella musica, but only
the first volume was published (Venice, 1822). An antiphon for three voices
(Alma Redemptoris) by Gianelli is in the Venice Conservatory library.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
‘Nachrichten: Literarische Notizen’, AMZ, xxxiii (1831), 174–6 [review of
3rd edn of the Dizionario]
M. Sutter: ‘Aspetti della prassi organistica in Italia nel Settecento e nel
primo Ottocento’, L’organo, xi (1973), 139–55
MILTON SUTTER/CARLIDA STEFFAN

Gianneo, Luis
(b Buenos Aires, 9 Jan 1897; d Buenos Aires, 15 Aug 1968). Argentine
composer, conductor and pianist. He received his earliest musical training
from his father, later studying with Ernesto Drangosch (piano), Luis
Romaniello (piano), Constantino Gaito (harmony) and Eduardo Fornarini
(composition). From 1923 to 1942 he lived in Tucumán, where he co-
directed the Instituto Musical and conducted the Asociación Sinfónica.
Beginning in 1943, he settled permanently in Buenos Aires, teaching at the
Conservatorio Provincial de Música (1949–65), the Universidad Nacional
de la Plata (1956–66) and the Universidad Católica Argentina (1964–8). He
served as Interventor (1955–8) and Director (1958–60) of the
Conservatorio Nacional de Música. In addition, Gianneo founded and
directed two youth orchestras, which maintained outstanding standards of
 musical performance. He was a member of the Academia Nacional de
Bellas Artes, vice-president of the Sociedad Argentina de Educación, and
the recipient of a grant from the Comisión Nacional de Cultura.
Gianneo is acknowledged as a leading Latin American composer and one
of the first in Argentina to integrate folk idioms with contemporary musical
techniques. He composed 80 works covering all genres (except opera),
and he is especially known for his orchestral and chamber music.
Gianneo’s early compositions (1923–32) reveal a fascination with the
indigenous culture and landscape of northwestern Argentina. Later, he
embraced a neo-classical aesthetic (1933–60), and in his final works
(1960–68) adapted a dissonant harmonic language and the free use of
serialism. His popular symphonic poem, El tarco en flor (1930), pays tribute
to the exquisite blooming trees of Tucumán. His Concierto Aymará (1942),
based on pentatonic themes, won second prize in an international
competition sponsored by the Edwin A. Fleischer Collection. Gianneo’s
music has been recorded on historical and contemporary labels (including
Preludio, Pampa, Qualiton, Angel, Odeón, Dorian and RCA Camden), and
numerous taped copies of his works survive in national and municipal radio
archives of Buenos Aires.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ballet: Blanca Nieves (1, Gianneo and J. Ghidoni de Gianneo, after J. and W.
Grimm), 1939, Buenos Aires, Colón, 16 Aug 1963
Vocal-orch: Transfiguración (J. Zocchi), Bar, orch, 1944; Angor Dei (J. de
Ibarbourou), S, orch, 1962; Poema de la Saeta (F. García Lorca), 1v, orch, 1966
Orch: Turay-Turay, sym. poem, 1928; El tarco en flor, sym. poem, 1930; Obertura
para una comedia infantil, 1937; Sinfonietta ‘Homanaje a Haydn’, 1940; Pf Conc.,
1941; Concierto Aymará, vn, orch, 1942; Sinfonía de las Américas, 1945; Pericón,
1948; Variaciones sobre tema de tango, 1953; Obertura del sesquicentenario, perf.
1966
Chbr: 3 piezas criollas, str qt, 1923; 4 cantos incaicos, str qt, 1924; Pf Trio no.1,
1925; Sonata, vc, pf, 1934; Sonata, vn, pf, 1935; Cuarteto criollo no.1, str qt, 1936;
5 piezas, vn, pf, 1942; Pf Trio no.2, 1943; Cuarteto criollo no.2, str qt, 1944; Str Qt
no.3, 1952; Str Qt no.4, 1958
Songs: Pampeanas (R. Chirre Danós), 1924; 6 coplas (trad.): ser. 1, 1929, ser. 2,
1930
Pf: Sonata no.1, 1917; Preludios criollos, 1927; Bailecito, 1931; Suite, 1933;
Sonatina, 1938; 3 danzas argentinas, 1939; Música para niños, 1941; Sonata no.2,
1943; Sonata no.3, 1957
A cappella choral works, educational music

Some MSS in US-PHff

Principal publishers: Editorial Argentina, Ricordi, Ricordi Americana

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Ginastera: ‘Eight from the Argentine’, MM, xxiii (1946), 226-72
L. Gianneo: ‘Posibilidades que ofrece el folklore como elemento de
orientación’, Buenos Aires musical, vii/104 (1952), 9 only
A. Terzián de Atchabahian: ‘Luis Gianneo: músico argentino’, Clave
(Montevideo), no.50 (1962), 23–4, 32
J. Pickenhayn: Luis Gianneo (Buenos Aires, 1980)
DEBORAH SCHWARTZ-KATES

Giannettini [Gianettini, Zanettini,

Zannettini], Antonio
(b Fano, 1648; d Munich, bur. 14 July 1721). Italian composer, organist and
singer. According to testimony given in 1678, Giannettini came to Venice
around 1662; during the 1660s he lived for a time with the composer
Sebastian Enno, who was probably one of his first teachers in that city. By
14 January 1674, and possibly by 1672, he was singing bass in the choir of
S Marco, Venice. When on 5 December 1676 he was appointed organist at
the church of SS Giovanni e Paolo, he was described as a pupil of Carlo
Grossi; the evidence for his having studied also with Legrenzi is unclear.
He served at SS Giovanni e Paolo at the usual salary of 40 ducats a year
until April 1679, and on 25 January 1677 he also became one of two
organists in the galleries at S Marco (not second organist as has
sometimes been stated). As a singer his annual salary reached 100 ducats
on 17 January 1680, with a further 12 for his work as organist. He may
have visited Vienna during this period. During the early 1680s Giannettini
composed a number of motets for Ippolito Bentivoglio, Marquis of Ferrara.
In 1685 and 1686 he composed three of the serenatas mounted in Venice
by Ernst August, Duke of Brunswick and Lüneberg (in 1686 Giannettini was
listed as the maestro di cappella for the Duke's Venetian residence).
Giannettini left S Marco on 1 May 1686 to take the post of maestro di
cappella to the Duke of Modena, which he retained, with interruptions,
almost until the end of his life. The duke had to order a large boat to
transport Giannettini and his family’s personal effects from Venice. At
Modena he was responsible for the selection and payment of musicians, as
his correspondence (in I-MOs and Bc) shows, and for organizing the
performance of his own and others’ works. He maintained his connections
with Venice and during his visits, often at Carnival, he recruited musicians
for the duke. At Venice in 1694, to general applause, he directed music for
the convent of S Daniele. In Modena he was called on to produce oratorios
and small occasional works more often than operas and he may have
composed new music for the 1690 performance in Modena of Legrenzi's
Eteocle e Polinice. His salary was considerable: 396 lire a month, with an
annual lodging allowance of 115 scudi. When, during the War of the
Spanish Succession, the French occupied Modena in 1702, Duke Rinaldo
fled to Bologna, and Giannettini accompanied him. He soon moved on to
Venice with his family, however, and again took up the composition of
opera. During this period he is supposed to have returned to Modena twice
as opera director. After the war, in February 1707, he resumed his earlier
activities at Modena. His salary was lower, perhaps because of the court’s
straitened circumstances, and in September 1720 it was further reduced to
200 lire a month. This may have prompted his decision to accompany his
 daughter Maria Caterina, who from June 1721 was employed as a singer
at the Bavarian court at Munich.
Giannettini was among the most talented Italian composers of his
generation; his works were fairly popular, and two of his operas circulated
in Germany. Medea in Atene, his first and most widely performed opera,
shows an unusually large range of gesture and a lively rhythmic style. The
vocal writing is smooth but demanding, and the work includes a particularly
effective aria on a chromatic ostinato; there is considerable use of the stile
concitato. Giannettini’s cantatas show similar contrapuntal facility and
melodic character. His only published work is a set of vesper psalms with
instruments, whose choral parts are simple and harmonically complete and
meant to be suitable for beginners.
WORKS
oratorios
Amore alle catene, oratorio di S Antonio [Miracolo terzo di S Antonio], Modena, S
Carlo, 1687, I-MOe
Jefte (G.B. Neri), Modena, Confraternita della SS Annunziata, 1687, music lost
L’uomo in bivio, Modena, S Carlo, 1687, MOe
La creatione de’ magistrati [Sesto oratorio intorno la vita di Mosè] (3, G.B. Giardini),
Modena, S Carlo, 1688, MOe
La conversione della beata Margherita di Cortona (Giardini), Modena, S Carlo,
1689, music lost
Il martirio di S Giustina (F. Sacrati), Modena, S Carlo, 1689, music lost
La vittima d’amore, ossia La morte di Cristo (F. Torti), Modena, Confraternita della
SS Annunziata, 1690, A-Wn
Dio sul Sinai (Giardini), Modena, Confraternita della SS Annunziata, 1691, music
lost
Le finezze della divina grazia nella conversione di S Agostino (Torti), Modena, 1697,
music lost
secular dramatic
Medea in Atene (A. Aureli), Venice, S Moisè, 14 Dec 1675, I-Vnm; arias for 1688
perf. as Teseo in Atene, MOe
L’Aurora in Atene (G. Frisari), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, 10 Feb 1678, Vqs
(arias)
Echo ravvivata (festa musicale), 3 acts, composed Venice, 1681, A-Wn; probably
identical to ‘operetta in musica’ of the same title perf. as intermedi, Innsbruck, 21
May 1681 (see SennMT)
Irene e Costantino (A. Rossini), Venice, S Salvatore, 1681, I-Vnm, Vqs (arias)
Temistocle in bando (A. Morselli), Venice, S Cassiano, 4 Dec 1682, Vqs (arias)
L’Ermione riacquistata (F. Pazzaglia), Venice, palace of Prince Alessandro Farnese,
29 March 1683, as described in Vnm, music lost
Il giuditio di Paride (trattenimento da camera), 1 act, Venice, June 1685, A-Wn, aria
ed. in Dubowy
La Fedeltà consolata dalla Speranza (N. Beregan, serenata), Venice, August 1685,
I-MOe, MOe (arias), D-Müs (aria); 1 arioso, 2 arias, sinfonia ed. in Dubowy
Amor sincero (N. Beregan, serenata), Venice, July 1686, I-MOe (arias); GB-Lbl
(arias)
L’ingresso alla gioventù di Claudio Nerone (G.B. Neri), Modena, Fontanelli, 4 Nov
1692, I-MOe, Rvat (arias)
Introduzione alla festa d’armi e balli (E. Pinamonte Bonacossi), Modena, 15 Jan
1699, music lost, text MOs
Tito Manlio (M. Noris), Reggio nell'Emilia, Commedie, spr. 1701
Virginio consolo (Noris), Venice, S Angelo, 1704, music lost
Artaserse (A. Zeno and P. Pariati), Venice, S Angelo, 1705, music lost
I presagi di Melissa (F. Torti), introduzione ad una festa di ballo, Modena, spr. 1709,
music lost, text MOs
Publio Scipione, ossia Il riparatore delle glorie romane (accademico tributo),
Modena, July 1710, music lost
L’unione delle tre dee Pallade, Giunone e Venere (serenata, G.M. Tommasi),
Modena, 1716, music lost
La gara di Minerva e Marte (?cant), Modena, 1716, music lost
Il Panaro in giubilo (serenata, Tommasi), Modena, 1717, music lost
La corte in gala (cant, Tommasi), Modena, 25 April 1717, music lost
other vocal
Salmi … ne’ vespri dell’anno, 4vv, 5 insts (Venice, 1717)

Kyrie, 5vv, 7 insts, mentioned in GerberNL

?8 Magnificat settings, 2–6vv, str, D-Bsb, DS (according to EitnerQ)
11 motets, 1–5vv, str, Bsb
La passione, mentioned in MGG1
Cantata morale, Bsb

25 cantatas, I-MOe
2 cantatas, duet, GB-Lbl
Cantatas, canzone, aria, D-Bsb, Kl, Mbs (according to EitnerQ)
Cantata, I-Fn (according to Luin, but not in library catalogue)
doubtful works
La schiava fortunata, Hamburg, 1693, mentioned by Mattheson as having music by
Giannettini and poetry by Cesti
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AllacciD
CaffiS
EitnerQ
FétisB
GaspariC
GerberL
GerberNL
LaMusicaD
MGG1(L.F. Tagliavini)
RicordiE
SchmidlD
SchmidlDS
SennMT
WaltherML
J. Mattheson: Der musicalische Patriot (Hamburg, 1728/R)
G. Tiraboschi: Biblioteca modenese (Modena, 1781–6)
A. Gandini: Cronistoria dei teatri di Modena dal 1539 al 1871 (Modena,
1873/R)
T. Wiel: I teatri musicali veneziani del settecento (Venice, 1897)
R. Haas: Die Musik des Barocks (Potsdam, 1928)
A. Mabellini: ‘Cristina regina di Svezia in Fano nel 1655’, Studia picena, v
(1929), 145
E.J. Luin: ‘Antonio Giannettini e la musica a Modena alla fine del secolo
XVII’, Atti e memorie della R. Deputazione di storia patria per le
provincie modenesi, 7th ser., vii (1931), 145–230
S.T. Worsthorne: Venetian Opera in the Seventeenth Century (Oxford,
1954/R)
R. Brockpähler: Handbuch zur Geschichte der Barockoper in Deutschland
(Emsdetten, 1964)
E. Selfridge: ‘Organists at the Church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo’, ML, l
(1969), 393–9
A. Chiarelli: I Codici di musica della raccolta estense: ricostruzione
dall'inventario settecentesco, Quaderni della RIM, xvi (1987)
V. Crowther: The Oratorio in Modena (Oxford, 1992)
R. Emans: ‘Giovanni Legrenzis Oper “Eteocle e Polinice” in der
Bearbeitung Antonio Giannettinis: ein Beitrag zur musikästhetischen
Entwicklung der Aria’, Seicento inesplorato: Lenno, nr Como 1989,
561–90
N. Dubowy: ‘Ernst August, Giannettini und die Serenata in Venedig
(1685/86)’, AnMc, no.30 (1998), 167–235
THOMAS WALKER/BETH L. GLIXON

Giannetto.
See Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da.

Giannini, Dusolina
(b Philadelphia, 19 Dec 1902; d Zürich, 29 June 1986). American soprano.
She studied first with her father, the Italian tenor Ferruccio Giannini, then
with Marcella Sembrich, and made her operatic début at Hamburg as Aida
in 1925. Subsequent engagements took her to Berlin, Vienna and Covent
Garden, as well as to Salzburg (1934–6), where she sang Donna Anna
under Walter and Alice Ford under Toscanini. In 1938 she created the part
of Hester Prynne in The Scarlet Letter, an opera by her brother, Vittorio
Giannini. Her career at the Metropolitan began with Aida in 1936 and lasted
until 1941, during which period she also played Donna Anna, Santuzza and
Tosca. After appearing in Chicago (1938–42) and San Francisco (1939–43)
she took part in the first season of New York City Opera (1943), as Tosca at
the opening, and then Carmen and Santuzza. She retired some 20 years
later and devoted herself to teaching. Giannini’s voice was a true dramatic
soprano, backed by strong temperament and impeccable musicianship, as
revealed by her recordings, notably her Aida. She was also a noted concert
singer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W.R. Moran: ‘Dusolina Giannini and her Recordings’, Record Collector, ix
(1954), 26–51 [with discography]
J.B. Steane: The Grand Tradition (London, 1974/R), 282–3
L. Rasponi: ‘Con principio: Dusolina Giannini’, ON, xliv/8 (1979–80), 8–13
 MAX DE SCHAUENSEE/R

Giannini, Vittorio
(b Philadelphia, 19 Oct 1903; d New York, 28 Nov 1966). American
composer and teacher. Born to a highly musical family, he began learning
the violin at an early age and soon won a scholarship to attend the Milan
Conservatory (1913–17). He entered the Juilliard School in 1925, studying
violin with Hans Letz and composition with Rubin Goldmark. In 1932 he
won the first of three consecutive Prix de Rome. Major European premières
during the 1930s (Lucedia, The Scarlet Letter, Requiem) were critical and
popular triumphs. Returning to the USA, he joined the teaching staff at the
Juilliard School (1939), the Manhattan School (1941) and later the Curtis
Institute of Music (1956). In 1965 he became the first director of the North
Carolina School of the Arts, where he served until his death.
Giannini quickly absorbed the techniques, as well as the ethos, of late
Romanticism, and his early works reveal thorough mastery of a relaxed,
italianate vocal style, enriched by Wagnerian chromaticism. In the late
1940s he began to shed excessive sentimentality, moving towards a lighter,
neo-classical style. From this period came The Taming of the Shrew, his
most popular opera. During his last years he turned to a darker, more
intense Romanticism, marked by greater dissonance and tonal freedom.
Although mid-century arbiters of taste rejected Giannini’s conservative
style, his best works – The Medead, Antigone, Psalm cxxx and several of
the operas – are fine examples of the modern Romantic tradition. A number
of his songs hold an enduring place on recital programmes.
WORKS
Ops: Lucedia 3 (K. Flaster), 1934; Not all Prima Donnas are Ladies; Flora (radio op,
3), 1936; The Scarlet Letter (2, Flaster, after N. Hawthorne), 1938; Beauty and the
Beast (radio op, 1, R. Simon), 1938; Blennerhasset (radio op, 1, P. Roll and N.
Corwen), 1939; The Taming of the Shrew (3, Giannini and D. Fee, after W.
Shakespeare), 1950; Christus (tetralogy, Flaster), 1956, ?unperf.; The Harvest (3,
Flaster), 1961; Rehearsal Call (3, F. Swann and Simon), 1961; Servant of 2 Masters
(2, B. Stambler, after C. Goldoni), 1966; Edipus Rex (4, ?Giannini, after Sophocles),
inc.
Orch: Suite, 1931; Pf Conc., 1935; Sym. ‘In memoriam Theodore Roosevelt’, 1935;
Org Conc., 1937; Conc., 2 pf; Opera Ballet, 1939; Prelude, Chorale, and Fugue,
1939; Sym. ‘IBM’, 1939; Vn Conc., 1944; Tpt Conc., 1945; Conc. grosso, str, 1946;
Frescobaldiana, 1948; Sym. no.1 ‘Sinfonia’, 1950; Divertimento no.1, 1953; Prelude
and Fugue, str, 1955; Sym. no.2, 1955; Suite ‘Love’s Labour Lost’, chbr orch, 1958;
Sym. no.4, 1960; Divertimento no.2, 1961; Psalm cxxx, db/vc, orch, 1963;
Divertimento no.3, 1964; Sym. no.5, 1965
Sym. band: Preludium and Allegro, 1958; Sym. no.3, 1958; Fantasia, 1963;
Dedication Ov., 1964; Variations and Fugue, 1964
Vocal: Stabat mater, SATB, orch, 1922; Resurrection, SATB, pf; 2 Madrigals, SSAA,
1929; Madrigal, 4 solo vv, str qt, 1931; Primavera (cant.), 1933; Life’s Span, 1v, str;
Requiem, SATB, orch, 1937; Triptych, S, str, 1937; Lament for Adonis (cant.), 1940;
Mass, TTBB, org, 1943; Canticle of Christmas, Bar, SATB, orch, 1951; Canticle of
the Martyrs, SATB, orch, 1956; The Medead, S, orch, 1960; 3 Devotional Motets,
SATB, 1960; Antigone, S, orch, 1962; many songs, incl. Tell me oh blue sky, Heart
Cry, Longing, Be still my heart, I did not know, Far above the purple hills, I shall
think of you, There were two swans, Sing to my heart a song, Spring Night
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt, 1930; Pf Qnt, 1931; Pf Trio, 1931; Ww Qnt, 1933; Sonata
no.1, vn, pf, 1940; Sonata no.2, vn, pf, 1944; Sonata, vn, 1945; Variations on a
Cantus firmus, pf, 1947; other pf pieces and duets, 1 org work

Principal publishers: Belwin-Mills, Presser, Schirmer

BIBLIOGRAPHY
EwenD
R. Parris: ‘Vittorio Giannini and the Romantic Tradition’, Juilliard Review,
iv/2 (1956–7), 32–46
M.L. Mark: ‘The Band Music of Vittorio Giannini’, Music Educators Journal,
lv/8 (1968–9), 77–80
M.L. Mark: The Life and Works of Vittorio Giannini (1903–1966) (diss.,
Catholic U. of America, 1970)
A. Simpson and K.W. Flaster: ‘A Working Relationship: the Giannini-
Flaster Collaboration’, American Music, vi (1988), 375–408
J. Price: The Songs of Vittorio Giannini on Poems by Karl Flaster (diss.,
Florida State U., 1989)
WALTER G. SIMMONS

Gianotti [Giannotti], Giacomo

(b ?Ravenna; fl 1584). Italian composer. His only surviving publication is
the Canzoni … raccolte per Francesco Ramhaldi … libro primo (Venice,
1584), for four voices.

Gianotti, Pietro [Giannotti, Pierre]

(b Lucca, early 18th century; d Paris, 19 June 1765). Italian composer,
teacher and double bass player. His first set of violin sonatas appeared in
Paris in 1728. In March 1739 he was engaged as a double bass player at
the Paris Opéra, a position he held until his retirement in 1758; his name
also appears in a 1751 list of the members of the Concert Spirituel
orchestra. His numerous compositions suggest that he may also have
played the violin. One of his two-violin sonatas was performed at the
Concert Spirituel in 1749, the only time he was so honoured. Yet he must
have enjoyed some success, for his sonatas opp.2 and 5 remained in the
catalogues of the music publisher Bailleux for eight years after his death.
He also edited the collections of 12 Sinfonie opp.1 and 2 (Paris, n.d.) by
Alberto Gallo, and of Sinfonie … dei più celebri autori d'Italia (Paris,
c1745).
His compositions, lacking in originality, are overshadowed by his
importance as a teacher and as writer of Le guide du compositeur (Paris,
1759, 2/1775). This serious, two-volume manual applies Rameau's
principles to the practical tasks of composition and accompaniment. In the
preface, Gianotti claimed that he had studied with Rameau; his own most
famous student was P.-A. Monsigny. Gianotti also published a Méthode
 abrégée d'accompagnement à la harpe et au clavecin but no copy is
extant.
WORKS
all published in Paris

[12] Sonate, vn, bc, opp.1, 2, vn/fl, bc, op.5 (1728–before 1740)
[6] Sonate a 3, 2 vn, bc, opp.3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 13 (c1730–50); opp.10, 13, ?lost
[6] Sonate, 2 vn, opp.7, 11 (c1741–48)
[6] Nouveaux duo, 2 vn/tr viol, op.16 (c1753)
?Lost works: Les soirées de Limeil, vielles/musettes/vn/other insts, op.8 (c1744);
Sonates, 2 vc/viol, op.12 (c1750); Les petits concerts de Daphnis et Chloe,
sonates en trio, vielles/musettes/other insts, op.14 (c1751); Concertini à 4
parties, op.15 (c1752); Les amusements de Terpsicore, en 6 sonates en 3, op.17
(after c1753)
L'école des filles (cant.), solo v, vn acc., ?bc (n.d.), ?lost
Le guide du compositeur (1759, 2/1775)
Méthode abrégée d'accompagnement à la harpe et au clavecin (1764), lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetC
La LaurencieEF
T. Christensen: Rameau and Musical Thought in the Enlightenment
(Cambridge, 1993)
MICHELLE FILLION

Giansetti, Giovanni Battista

(b ?Rome; fl 1670–98). Italian composer. At least between 1670 and 1675
he was maestro di cappella of S Giovanni in Laterano, Rome, and in 1682
he held a similar position at another prominent Roman church, the Gesù. In
his publication of 1670 he explained that he had earlier served the Duke of
Sermoneta and claimed to have been the only pupil of Bonifatio Gratiani.
H.-J. Marx (‘Die Musik am Hofe Pietro Kardinal Ottobonis unter A. Corelli’,
AnMc, no.5, 1968, p.118) lists Giansetti as a ‘violinespieler’ at the Ottoboni
palace during the period 1694–8. He founded an academy, one of whose
members was Carlo Mannelli. He published two books of motets, the first,
op.1 (Rome, 1670), for two to six voices and continuo, the second, op.2
(Rome, 1671), for one voice and continuo. He is also represented by single
sacred pieces in two anthologies (RISM 1675 2 and 16831), and there are
manuscripts of three arias by him (A-Wn and D-Kl) and of a cantata (I-
MOe).

Gian Toscan
(fl ?c1400). Italian composer, probably Florentine. One ballata by him
survives, Se’ tu di male in peggio (with the name ‘Caterina’ concealed in
the text as a so-called Senhal), for two voices. It is archaic in style and
altogether clumsily written. The piece stands at the end of the first of two
later fascicles in F-Pn it.568 (f.60v; ed. in CMM, viii/5, 1964, p.42, and in
PMFC, x, 1977, p.88). Both names are perhaps in an abbreviated form; he
may be identifiable with Giovanni Mazzuoli.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F.A. D’Accone: ‘Giovanni Mazzuoli: a Late Representative of the Italian
Ars Nova’, L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento: convegni di studio 1961–
1967, ed. F.A. Gallo (Certaldo, 1968), 23–38
KURT VON FISCHER

Gianturco [née Dooley], Carolyn

M(argaret)
(b Jersey City, NJ, 15 July 1934). American musicologist, active in Italy.
She studied music at Marywood College (BA 1955), and after working as
an accompanist for singers in New York (1955–9) and as associate music
director of the Turnau Opera Company, Woodstock (1961), she took the
MA in music at Rutgers University (1964) while working there as a teaching
assistant and lecturer. She took the doctorate in 1970 at Oxford with a
dissertation on the operas of Alessandro Stradella. She was subsequently
appointed external lecturer (1971–3), lecturer (1973–82) and associate
professor (from 1982) at the University of Pisa. She has also been invited
to lecture at Oxford University, Harvard University, Queen’s University
(Belfast), and Koç University (Istanbul). In 1987 she founded the
Associazione Toscana per la Ricerca delle Fonti Musicali, of which she is
president, and the series Studi Musicali Toscani, of which she is editor-in-
chief. She has served on the council of the International Musicological
Society (1977–), and has been vice-president (1994–7) and president
(1997–) of the Società Italiana di Musicologia. Her main areas of study are
Stradella, the music of Tuscany, and Baroque vocal genres, particularly the
cantata. In 2000 Gianturco was appointed president of the project
(supported by the Italian Minstry of Culture) to publish Stradella’s Opera
Omnia. She also received the Marywood Professional Achievement Award.
WRITINGS
‘Notes on Carissimi’s Oratorios’, American Choral Review, viii/1 (1965–6),
6–8
The Operas of Alessandro Stradella (1644–1682) (diss., U. of Oxford,
1970); extracts in ‘Caratteri stilistici delle opere teatrali di Stradella’,
RIM, vi (1971), 212–45, and ‘Sources for Stradella’s Moro per amore’,
Quadrivium, xii/2 (1971), 129–40
‘The Revisions of Alessandro Stradella’s Forza dell’amor paterno’, JAMS,
xxv (1972), 407–27
‘The Oratorios of Alessandro Stradella’, PRMA, ci (1974–5), 45–57
‘Evidence for a Late Roman School of Opera’, ML, lvi (1975), 4–17
Le opere del giovane Mozart (Pisa, 1976, 2/1978; Eng. trans., 1981)
‘Il melodramma a Roma nel Seicento’, Storia dell’opera, ed. A. Basso and
G. Barblan, i (Turin, 1977), 183–233
Claudio Monteverdi: stile e struttura (Pisa, 1978)
‘Il Trespole tutore di Stradella e Pasquini: due diverse concezioni dell’opera
comica’, Venezia e il melodramma nel Settecento, ed. M.T. Muraro
(Florence, 1978), 185–98
ed., with G. Rostirolla: Alessandro Stradella e il suo tempo: Siena 1982
[Chigiana, xxxix, new ser., xix (1982)] [incl. ‘Cantate dello Stradella in
possesso di Andrea Adami’, 125–53]
‘Nuove considerazioni sul ‘Tedio del recitativo’ delle prime opere romane’,
RIM, xviii (1982), 212–39
‘L’orchestra del Settecento: alcuni commenti dell’epoca’, Restauro,
conservazione e recupero di antichi strumenti musicali: Modena 1982,
160–70
ed.: Alessandro Stradella e Modena: Modena 1983 [incl. ‘Catelani
rivisitato’, 11–16]
with G. Biagi Ravenni: ‘The Tasche of Lucca: 150 Years of Political
Serenatas’, PRMA, cxi (1984–5), 45–65
‘Evidence of Lay Patronage in Sacred Music in a Recently Discovered
Document of 1631’, JRMA, cxiii (1988), 306–13
‘The Italian Seventeenth-Century Cantata: a Textual Approach’, The Well
Enchanting Skill: Music, Poetry and Drama in the Culture of the
Renaissance: Essays in Honour of F.W. Sternfeld, ed. J.A. Caldwell,
E.D. Olleson and S. Wollenberg (Oxford and New York, 1990), 41–51
with E. McCrickard: Alessandro Stradella (1639–1682): a Thematic
Catalogue of his Compositions (New York, 1991)
‘Cantate spirituali e morali with a Description of the Papal Sacred Cantata
Tradition for Christmas 1676–1740’, ML, lxxiii (1992), 1–31
‘Naples: a City of Entertainment’, The Late Baroque Era: from the 1680s to
1740, ed. G.J. Buelow (London, 1993), 94–128
‘Opera sacra e opera morale: : due altri tipi di dramma musicale’, Il
melodramma italiano in Italia e Germania nell’età barocca: Como
1993, 170–77
Alessandro Stradella (1639–1682): his Life and Music (Oxford, 1994)
with L. Pierotti Boccaccio: ‘Teofilo Macchetti and Sacred Music in Pisa’,
Musicologia humana: Studies in Honor of Warren and Ursula
Kirkendale, ed. S. Gmeinwieser, D. Hiley and J. Riedlbauer (Florence,
1994), 393–415
‘Il Trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno: Four Case-Studies in Determining
Italian Poetic-Musical Genres’, JRMA, cxix (1994), 43–59
ed., with G. Biagi Ravenni: Giacomo Puccini: l’uomo, il musicista, il
panorama europeo (Lucca, 1997)
Alessandro Stradella e la Notte in Cantata (Modena, 1998)
La musica vocale da camera: Atlante mondiale del Barocco (1580–1770),
ed. A. Basso (forthcoming)
EDITIONS
The Italian Cantata in the Seventeenth Century: Facsimiles of Manuscripts
and Prints of Works by Leading Composers including an Edition of the
Poetic Texts, i–xvi (New York, 1985–7)
L. Boccherini: La confederazione dei Sabini con Roma: storia, testo,
musica (Lucca, 1997) [facs.]
A. Stradella: Tre cantate per voci e strumenti, Concentus musicus, x
(Laaber, 1997) [incl. Cantata per il Santissimo Natale, ‘‘Ah! troppo è
ver’’]
 PIERLUIGI PETROBELLI/TERESA M. GIALDRONI

Giaranzana.
See Chiarentana.

Giardini [Degiardino], Felice (de)

(b Turin, 12 April 1716; d Moscow, 28 May/8 June 1796). Italian violinist
and composer of French descent. He showed an early talent for the violin,
but his father sent him to Milan as a cathedral chorister, and to study
singing, composition and harpsichord with Paladini. He returned to Turin to
study violin with G.B. (not Lorenzo) Somis, and while still a youth joined an
opera orchestra in Rome. Soon after, he moved to the Teatro S Carlo in
Naples, and quickly advanced from the back desks to the position of
deputy leader. It was here, probably on 30 May 1747 at the revival of
Eumene or 4 November 1748 at the revival of Ezio, that Jommelli cured
him of his excessive love of impromptu decoration in performance, as he
later reported to Burney:
One night, during the opera, Jomelli, who had composed it,
came into the orchestra, and seating himself close by me, I
determined to give the Maestro di Capella a touch of my taste
and execution; and in the symphony of the next song, which
was in a pathetic style, I gave loose to my fingers and fancy;
for which I was rewarded by the composer with a violent slap
in the face; which … was the best lesson I ever received from
a great master in my life.
Shortly after this incident Giardini settled to a career of solo violin playing
(saying later that he had given up the harpsichord after hearing the playing
of Mme de St Maur, a pupil of Rameau), and he left Italy to begin a concert
tour of Europe. After great success in Berlin, he came to England by way of
France, making his first public appearance at a benefit for the aging
Cuzzoni on 27 April 1751. The enthusiastic reception, amplified by the
support of such aristocrats as Mrs Fox Lane (Lady Bingley), soon
established him with the English public.
During the 1751–2 season Giardini led a major series of subscription
concerts at the Great Room, Dean Street, and he promoted further series
here in 1753 and 1755. Also in 1752 he performed at a concert in aid of the
Lock Hospital, with which he was to be associated until 1780 as concert
organizer, composer and governor. About 1753–4 he married the singer
Maria Vestris, but the marriage was apparently of brief duration. In 1754 he
took over and revitalized the orchestra of the Italian Opera at the King’s
Theatre, initiating a ‘new discipline, and a new style of playing’ (Burney).
He retained a connection with the Opera for 30 years, sometimes as
leader, but also, and less successfully, as impresario for the 1756–7 and
1763–4 seasons.
Despite the appearance of a serious rival in Wilhelm Cramer, who made his
London début in 1773, and later competition from Salomon, Giardini
 maintained his position as a player; Burney called him ‘the greatest
performer in Europe’. He took part in the Bach-Abel concerts (sometimes
playing the viola), and also appeared in the provinces, taking charge of the
orchestra for the Three Choirs Festival from 1770 to 1776. He was in great
demand as a teacher and held important morning concerts for his violin,
singing and harpsichord pupils in his house. By 1767 he had been
appointed music master to the Duke of Gloucester and the Duke of
Cumberland; and in 1782 he took over the same post in the Prince of
Wales's establishment. From 1774 to 1779 he often led the orchestra at the
Pantheon Concerts in Oxford Street and in the 1776–7 and 1782–3
seasons was again leader at the King’s Theatre. He was a governor of the
Foundling Hospital, ran the annual benefit concerts for a time, and even,
with Burney, planned the setting up of a music academy there. Despite
these activities, he appears to have grown embittered and quarrelsome,
‘spoke well of few’ (not even of Haydn on his first London visit), and
eventually left England for Italy in 1784. There he lived in Naples at the
home of Sir William Hamilton, who had been one of his first violin pupils in
London.
In 1790 Giardini attempted to return to the English operatic scene, directing
the orchestra from the harpsichord at the Haymarket Theatre (the King’s
Theatre having burnt down the previous year). The attempt proved
unsuccessful, owing partly to the poor response to his protégée, the
soprano Marianna Laurenti. After a farewell performance at Ranelagh
Gardens on 22 May 1792, he seems to have travelled to St Petersburg:
certainly by 1796 he was in Moscow, where he died in great poverty.
Giardini’s contributions to pasticcio operas are widely scattered; those
pieces that were basically his own work were Rosmira, Enea e Lavinia and
Il re pastore. In 1763 he collaborated with Charles Avison on an English
oratorio Ruth, which was performed at the Lock Hospital Chapel; a final
version, set entirely by Giardini and performed at the chapel five years
later, became one of his most popular compositions. Among his many
published instrumental works, the earlier examples show the most
originality. In his Sei quintetti op.11 (1767) he joined Tommaso Giordani in
exploiting the new medium of the keyboard quintet, and his Sei sonate di
cembalo con violino o flauto traverso op.3 (1751) are the earliest examples
of the accompanied sonata in England. Newman mentioned them as being
‘remarkable for supplying a missing link between the solo/bass and the true
duo types’. Although tradition has long (and mistakenly) associated Giardini
with the melody of the Russian God Save the Tsar (by L'vov), he is still
represented in English hymnals with his tune ‘Moscow’.
WORKS

Collection: Miscell: Works (London, 1790) [M]

stage
all first performed in London
Rosmira (os, 3, S. Stampiglia), King’s, 30 April 1757, lost
Enea e Lavinia (os, 3, G. Sertor), King’s, 5 May 1764; excerpts (London, 1764)
Il re pastore (os, 3, P. Metastasio), King’s, 7 March 1765, lost
Sappho (lyric drama), c1778, lost (if written); incid music to W. Mason, Elfrida,
Covent Garden, 23 Feb 1779, lost

Music in: Cleonice, 1763; Siroe, 1763; Didone, 1775; Astarto, 1776
instrumental
published in London unless otherwise stated; some reissued Paris with different opus
numbers

Vn, b: 6 sonate, op.1 (1751); 6 sonate, op.4 (Paris 1755–6); 12 sonates, op.6 (?
1755–6); 6 soli, op.7 (probably 1759); 12 sonate, [op.10] (1765); 6 Solos, op.16
(1772); 6 Solos, op.19 (1777); 6 Favourite Solos (1790); 1 in M
Duets: 6 for 2 vn, op.2 (1751); 6 for 2 vn, op.13 (1767), 1 ed. in K. Schultz-Hauser
(Mainz, 1965); 6 for vn, vc, op.14 (1769); 1 for vn, va, in M
Trios: 6 for gui, vn, b (probably 1760); 6 for vn, va, vc, op.17 (1773); 6 for (gui, vn,
pf)/(hp, vn, vc), op.18 (1775); 6 for vn, va, vc, op.20 (1778); 6 for vn, va, vc, op.26
(1784); 6 for 2 vn, b, op.28 (1789–90); 6 for 2 vn, pf/vc, op.30 (1790); 1 for vn, va,
vc, in M
Qts: 3 for hpd, vn, va, vc, 3 for hpd, 2 vn, vc, op.21 (1778–9); 6 for 2 vn, va, vc,
op.22 (1779–80); 2 for vn, 2 va, vc, 2 for 2 vn, va, vc, 2 for vn, ob, va, vc, op.23
(1782); 3 for vn, ob/fl, va, vc, 3 for 2 vn, va, vc, op.25 (1783); 6 for 2 vn, va, vc,
op.29 (1790); 1 in 6 Quartettos by Bach, Abel and Giardini (1776)
Other works: 6 sonate, hpd, vn/fl, op.3 (1751); 4 ovs. and qt for 2 vn, bn, b (1755); 6
quintetti, hpd, 2 vn, vc, b, op.11 (1767); 6 vn concs., op.15 (1771–2); Devonshire
Minuet, pf, vn (c1781); 2 Sonatas, pf/hpd, vn, op.31 (1790–91); 2 sonatas, hpd/pf,
vn, 1 for hpd/pf, vn, va/vc, in M
Pedagogical: Esercizii per il cembalo, Istruzioni per violoncello, Istruzioni ed
esercizii per il violino, all I-Mc

MSS: 3 qts, 9 trios, 12 duets, GB-Lbl; other works in D-Bsb, KA, Mbs, I-Gl, Mc

vocal
Ruth (orat), Lock Hospital Chapel, 15 April 1763 (pt 2 by Giardini, pts 1 and 3 by
Avison), 13 Feb 1765 (pts 2 and 3 by Giardini, pt 1 by Avison), 25 May 1768 (all by
Giardini), lost; addns to Hasse, I pellegrini, Drury Lane, 25 March 1757, lost
6 arie, 1v, orch, op.4 (1755); La libertà [13 songs], 1v, b (1758); 6 arie, 1v, orch
(1762); 6 duetti, 2vv, b (1762); In dimostrazione d’affetto [1 duet, 6 glees] (1765);
many single songs, glees, catches, hymns, MS, pubd separately, and in M
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDA
BurneyH
LS; MooserA; MoserGV; NewmanSCE
Rees's Cyclopaedia (London, 1819–20)
T. Busby: Concert Room and Orchestra Anecdotes of Music and
Musicians Ancient and Modern, i (London, 1825)
‘Memoir of Felice Giardini’, The Harmonicon, v (1827/R), 215–17
W.T. Parke: Musical Memoirs (London, 1830/R)
C.F. Pohl: Mozart und Haydn in London, i (Vienna, 1867/R)
W.C. Smith: The Italian Opera and Contemporary Ballet in London, 1789–
1820 (London, 1955)
A. Damerini: ‘I quartetti di Felice Giardini’, Musicisti piemontesi e liguri,
Chigiana, xvi (1959), 41–9
G. Salvetti: ‘Un maestro italiano del “quartetto”: Felice Giardini’, Chigiana,
xxiii, new ser. iii (1966), 109–33
R.R. Kidd: ‘The Emergence of Chamber Music with Obligato Keyboard in
England’, AcM, xliv (1972), 122–44
F.C. Petty: Italian Opera in London 1760–1800 (Ann Arbor, 1980)
S. McVeigh: ‘Felice Giardini: a Violinist in Late Eighteenth-Century
London’, ML, lxiv (1983), 162–72
S. McVeigh: ‘Music and Lock Hospital in the 18th Century’, MT, cxxix
(1988), 235–40
S. McVeigh: The Violinist in London’s Concert Life, 1750–1784: Felice
Giardini and his Contemporaries (New York, 1989)
C. Price, J. Milhous, R.D. Hume: The Impresario's Ten Commandments:
Continental Recruitment for Italian Opera in London 1763–64 (London,
1992)
C. Price, J. Milhous, R.D. Hume: Italian Opera in Late Eighteenth-Century
London, i (Oxford, 1995)
CHRISTOPHER HOGWOOD, SIMON McVEIGH

Giay, Francesco Saverio.

See Giai, Francesco Saverio.

Giay [Giai, Giaj], Giovanni Antonio

(b Turin, 11 June 1690; d Turin, 10 Sept 1764). Italian composer. He
received his early training under Francesco Fasoli in the Cappella degli
Innocenti of Turin Cathedral, to which he was admitted in 1700. He
probably then went to Rome to complete his studies. On his return to Turin
he wrote Il trionfo d’Amore ossia La fillide, in collaboration with A.S. Fiorè.
The work was performed at the Teatro Carignano in 1715. His collaboration
with Fiorè continued in 1717 with Sesostri, rè d’Egitto, and in 1728 with I
veri amici. His own operas were performed over the next 35 years in Turin,
Venice, Milan and Rome. Fetonte sulle rive del Po was written for the
marriage of Vittorio Amedeo and Maria Antonia Ferdinanda of Spain in
Madrid (1750) and Le tre Dee riunite was performed in Madrid on the same
occasion. In 1727 and 1728, in his capacity as maestro di capella of the
city of Turin, he composed two serenades, which were sung in Malta ‘nella
Piazza di Palazzo’. The second of these was probably revived there in
1731. Giay was in Malta in 1728, his departure being officially recorded on
21 July (the record states that at this time he was 22 years old, some 16
years younger than his birth date suggests).
After Fiorè died in 1732, Giay assumed the duties of maestro di cappella
and was confirmed in the position by Carlo Emanuele III in a patent of 24
October 1738. In this capacity he directed the instrumental and vocal
forces of the court and composed a large amount of church music. Giay
held this position until his death and was succeeded by his son, Francesco
Saverio (1729–1801), the composer of the violin concerto sometimes
attributed to his father.
 Among known members of the Giay family was Giovanni Antonio’s first
cousin Michele Antonio Giay, mentioned by Vallas as a professor of music
at the Jesuit college in Lyons in 1759.
WORKS
operas
music lost, unless otherwise stated

dm dramma per musica

Il trionfo d’Amore ossia La Fillide, Turin, Carignano, 1715, collab. A.S. Fiorè
Sesostri, rè d’Egitto (dm, 3, Bursetti, after P. Pariati), Turin, Carignano, carn. 1717,
F-Pn, collab. Fiorè
Artenice (dm, after A. Zeno), Turin, Regio, carn. 1723, addns with others to G.M.
Orlandini: Ormisda
Publio Cornelio Scipione (dm, A. Salvi), Turin, 1725
Il Tamerlano (tragedia per musica, 3, A. Piovene), Milan, 1727
I veri amici [Act 1] (os, 3, F. Silvani and D. Lalli, after P. Corneille: Héraclius
empereur d’Orient), Turin, Ducal, 1728, arias A-Wgm, F-Pn [Acts 2 and 3 by Fiorè]
Mitridate (dm, 5, Zeno and Lalli), Venice, 1730
Demetrio (P. Metastasio), Rome, 1732, 6 arias in D-Dl, 2 in GB-Lbl
Eumene (dm, 3, Zeno), Turin, 1737
Gianguir (dm, 3, Zeno), Venice, 1738
Adriano in Siria (dm, 3, Metastasio), Venice, 1740, D-Dl
Fetonte sulle rive del Po (componimento drammatico, 1, G.M. Baretti), Turin, 1750
Le tre dee riunite, Madrid, 1750

Arias in D-Dl, KA, GB-Cfm, I-Fc, Vnm

other works
2 serenatas (I. Provana), Malta, 1727, 1728; 2 sinfonias, a 7, a 9, S-Uu; 3 sinfonias,
vn conc., D-Dl; 2 cants., S, bc, GB-Lbl; Pastoralle, 2 fl, str, I-Td; arias, fl, Vqs
5 masses, 1 requiem, 1 Ky–Gl–Cr, 5 Ky–Gl, 5 Cr, 4 Dixit Dominus, 4 Beatus vir, 4
Laudate pueri, 2 Confitebor, 2 Mag, 3 Miserere, 7 Veni Sancte Spiritus, 2 Victimae
paschali laudes, 7 lits, 16 hymns, Antifone per la novena di natale, 3 Lamentations,
Duodecima profetia di Nabucodonosar, c36 motets: all I-Td
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
LaMusicaD
G. Roberti: La cappella regia di Torino, 1515–1870 (Turin, 1880)
G. Sacerdote: Teatro regio di Torino: cronologia … dal 1662 al 1890
(Turin, 1892)
L. Vallas: Un siècle de musique et de théâtre à Lyon, 1688–1789 (Lyons,
1932/R), 273
M.T. Bouquet: Turin et les musiciens de la Cour, 1619–1775: vie
quotidienne et production artistique (Paris, 1987)
GORDANA LAZAREVICH/MARIE-THÉRÈSE BOUQUET-BOYER

Giazotto, Remo
(b Rome, 4 Sept 1910; d Pisa, 26 Aug 1998). Italian musicologist and critic.
He took a degree in literature and philosophy at the University of Genoa
(1931–3) and studied the piano and composition at the Milan Conservatory
under Torrefranca, Pizzetti and G.C. Paribeni. He was music critic (from
1932) and editor (1945–9) of the Rivista musicale italiana and was
appointed co-editor of the Nuova rivista musicale italiana in 1967. He
taught music history at the University of Florence (1957–69) and in 1962
was nominated to the Accademia Nazionale di S Cecilia. In 1949 he
became director of chamber music programmes for RAI and in 1966 its
director of international programmes organized through the European
Broadcasting Union. He was also president of RAI’s auditioning committee
and editor of its series of biographies of composers. He wrote studies of
the music history of Genoa, and romanticized biographies of various
composers (Albinoni, Stradella, Viotti, Vivaldi); he also contributed to Italian
and foreign music dictionaries. His elaboration of a fragment supposedly
from one of Albinoni’s sonatas has become famous as ‘Albinoni’s Adagio’.
WRITINGS
Il melodramma a Genova nei secoli XVII e XVIII (Genoa, 1941)
Tomaso Albinoni, ‘musico di violino dilettante veneto’ (1671–1750) (Milan,
1945)
Busoni: la vita nell’opera (Milan, 1947)
La musica a Genova nella vita pubblica e privata dal XIII al XVIII secolo
(Genoa, 1952)
Poesia melodrammatica e pensiero critico nel Settecento (Milan, 1952)
‘Il Patricio di Hercole Bottrigari dimostrato praticamente da un anonimo
cinquecentesco’, CHM, i (1953), 97–112
Harmonici concenti in aere veneto (Rome, 1955)
La musica italiana a Londra negli anni di Purcell (Rome, 1955)
Annali mozartiani (Milan, 1956)
Giovan Battista Viotti (Milan, 1956)
Musurgia nova (Milan, 1959)
Vita di Alessandro Stradella (Milan, 1962)
Vivaldi (Milan, 1965)
‘La guerra dei palchi’, NRMI, i (1967), 245–86, 465–508; iii (1969), 906–33;
v (1971), 1034–52
‘Nel CCC anno della morte di Antonio Cesti: ventidue lettere ritrovate
nell’Archivio di Stato di Venezia’, NRMI, iii (1969), 496–512
‘Quattordici lettere inedite di Pietro Mascagni’, NRMI, iv (1970), 493–513
Quattro secoli di storia dell’Accademia nazionale di S. Cecilia, 2 vols.
(Rome, 1970)
Antonio Vivaldi (Turin, 1973)
‘Un ignoto trattato d'anonimo romano scritto tra il 1660 e il 1670’, Chigiana,
new ser., xix (1982), 437–46
Le due patrie di Giulio Caccini musico mediceo, 1551–1618: nuovi
contributi anagrafici e d’archivio sulla sua vita e la sua famiglia
(Florence, 1984)
‘Da congregazione ad accademia: momenti, aspetti, progetti e personaggi’,
Studi musicali, xiv (1985), 5–23
‘Maria Malibran: una donna con tre anime’, NRMI, xxi (1987), 411–20
Il grande viaggio di Pietro Della Valle il ‘Pellegrino’ (1612–1626) (Rome,
1988)
Le carte della Scala: storie di impresari e appaltatori teatrali, 1778–1860
(Pisa, 1991)
‘Un omaggio di Clementi a Mozart’, Mozart e i musicisti italiani del suo
tempo: Rome 1991, 129–36
‘Puccini nello sgomento ed altre testimonianze e confessioni inedite dei
suoi famigliari’, Musica senza aggettivi: studi per Fedele d’Amico, ed.
A. Ziino (Florence, 1991), 551–82
CAROLYN GIANTURCO/R

Gibbes, Richard.
See Gibbs, Richard.

Gibbons, (Richard) Carroll

[‘Gibby’]
(b Clinton, MA, 4 Jan 1903; d London, 10 May 1954). American pianist,
bandleader and composer, active in Britain. He played the piano as a child,
appearing in public aged ten, and going on to attend the New England
Conservatory. In 1924 he came to Britain to study the piano at the RAM,
but he soon took up an alternative career in dance music, playing with the
Boston Orchestra at the Berkeley Hotel. He led the Sylvians at the Savoy in
1926, taking over leadership of the hotel’s popular Orpheans orchestra
from Debroy Somers in 1927, but disbanding it the following year. He
became a musical director for the Gramophone Company (1928–9), for
whom he led the New Mayfair Orchestra, recording prolifically and
providing accompaniments for almost all the popular singers and variety
turns recorded by the company. In 1929 he worked for the British and
Dominion Film Company as a musical director, spending most of 1930–1 in
the USA in a similar capacity for MGM.
In 1931 he returned to London and co-led the New Savoy Orpheans with
Howard Jacobs, in due course becoming sole leader. At the same time he
made frequent broadcasts (often with his Boy Friends, using his own
composition On the Air as his theme), cut numerous records, and wrote
music for films and stage. His stage career began in the late 1920s,
supplying music for songs in musical plays and revues, and during this
period and again in the 1940s, he composed a number of full length
musical stage works.
In 1939 he formed a touring band with 16 members; their most popular
feature was Gibbons’s piano playing. In 1940 he returned to the Savoy,
where he subsequently became director of entertainment (1950–4). The
frenetic pace of work for much of his career, and his facility as a pianist,
which made him both a quick and sensitive accompanist and rapidly able
to master new popular songs, meant that although he recorded a great
deal, making hit records both in Britain and the US, he produced little that
outlasted the fashion of the day, with the exception of his song Garden in
the Rain.
WORKS
 (selective list)

stage
unless otherwise stated, music by Gibbons and dates those of the first London
performance; librettists shown as (lyricist; book author)

Sylvia (comedy with music, 3, J. Dryenforth after St.J. Ervine: Mary, Mary, Quite
Contrary), Vaudeville, 14 Dec 1927
Open Your Eyes (musical comedy, Dryenforth and C. Knox; F. Jackson), Edinburgh,
Empire, 26 Aug 1929 [addl. music by V. Duke]
Gaeities (Furber), 29 March 1945
Big Boy (musical comedy, 2, F. Emney and D. Furber; Emney, Furber and M.
Kester), Saville, 12 Sept 1945
Interpolated songs: 2 songs (Dreyenforth) in P. Braham: Up with the Lark, 1927

vocal
lyrics by James Dryenforth, unless otherwise stated; all published in London

Many songs, incl. I’m so jealous (1927); Misunderstood (1927); Possibly (1927);
Garden in the Rain (1928); I’ll be getting along (1929); Peace of Mind (1929); On
the Air (J. Campbell and R. Connelly), (1932); On the Other Side of Lovers’ Lane
(1932); I think of you (D. Furber), (1945); It was swell while it lasted (Furber), (1945)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
GänzlBMT
A. McCarthy: The Dance Band Era (London, 1971)
B. Rust: The Dance Bands (London, 1972)
B. Rust: London Musical Shows on Record 1894–1954 (London, 1958,
enlarged 2/1977 by B. Rust and R. Bunnet as London Musical Shows
on Record, 1897–1976, rev. 3/1989 by R. Seeley and R. Burnett as
London Musical Shows on Record 1889–1989)
P. Gammond and R. Horricks, eds.: Big Bands (Cambridge, 1981)
ALYN SHIPTON

Gibbons, Christopher
(b Westminster, London, bap. 22 Aug 1615; d Westminster, 20 Oct 1676).
English composer and organist, second son (the eldest surviving) of
Orlando Gibbons. He served Charles I in ‘his youth’, presumably as a
chorister of the Chapel Royal. Wood noted that he ‘was bred up from a
Child to Music under his uncle Ellis Gibbons’, but this cannot be correct,
and it has generally been inferred that after his father's death he was taken
under the care of his uncle Edward Gibbons, succentor of Exeter
Cathedral. In January 1627 he was nominated through the Signet Office for
admission as a scholar of the Charterhouse; the Governors approved his
election on 21 June, though it is not certain that he was actually admitted.
In 1638 he succeeded Thomas Holmes as organist of Winchester
Cathedral, but in 1642 he saw the ‘faire organs in the Minster broken down’
by parliamentarian soldiers. He married Mary Kercher, daughter of a
Winchester prebendary, on 23 September 1646, and settled in London,
where in 1651 he was listed in Playford’s A Musicall Banquet (RISM 16516)
among teachers ‘for the Organ or Virginall’. According to Aubrey he was
also organist to Sir John Danvers, whose house in Chelsea contained ‘an
excellent organ of stoppes of cedar’. Lodewijck Huygens heard him play
there on 10 March 1652, and also in a consort at Davis Mell's house a
fortnight later. In July 1654 Evelyn, visiting Magdalen College, Oxford,
where the Robert Dallam organ in the chapel still stood, heard ‘Mr Gibbon
that famous Musitian, giving us a tast of his skill & Talent on that
Instrument’. It appears that his wife Mary was dead by 1655, and that on
22 April of that year he married a widow, Elizabeth Filbridge (née Ball); five
children were baptised at St Clement Danes between February 1656 and
June 1660. In 1656 he was one of six players in the ‘Instrumental Musick’
for Davenant’s The Siege of Rhodes given at Rutland House. Locke’s
score for the 1659 production of Shirley’s Cupid and Death includes vocal
and instrumental music by Gibbons; it is uncertain whether this had formed
part of the ‘musical compositions’ of the 1653 production given before the
Portuguese ambassador.
At the Restoration Gibbons received appointments as musician to Charles
II and as organist of the Chapel Royal and Westminster Abbey; he resigned
his place at Winchester. As a musician-in-ordinary he served in a dual
capacity, as virginalist ‘in the Presence’ (instructions were given in 1660 for
‘an organ to be made for him’), and as a member of the King’s Private
Musick, at yearly salaries of £46 and £40 respectively. He occupied this
place, and that of Chapel Royal organist, until his death. In 1660 he
became organist, and in 1664 Master of the Choristers, of Westminster
Abbey, posts he held until 1666. It was apparently from him that Froberger,
who was in London in 1662 at the time of Charles II’s marriage, obtained
employment as an organ-blower so that he might hear the music at the
English court; Mattheson recorded that during a banquet Froberger
overblew and received a drubbing from the organist, who apologized after
hearing him perform on the harpsichord. Between 1662 and 1665 he was
involved in a scandal over plans for a new organ at Worcester Cathedral,
and was accused of corruptly seeking to procure the contract for William
Hathaway. In 1663 he was nominated by the king for the degree of DMus
at Oxford University, and this was conferred in July 1664; his exercises for
the Act (performed, Wood related, ‘with very great honour to himself and
his faculty’) survive, and a portrait of him in doctoral robes was presented
to the Music School (see illustration). Wood described him as ‘a person
most excellent in his faculty, but a grand debauchee’: this seems to be
borne out by his autograph comment on an organ verse, ‘drunke from the
Cather[i]ne Wheele’ (GB-Och 1142A). Pepys wrote of his taking part in
music at the Earl of Sandwich's residence on several occasions, and on 3
August 1668 was promised ‘some things for two flagelettes’ from him. In
1665 the Gibbons family was living in Great Almonry, and in 1671 in New
Street, Westminster. Gibbons was buried on 24 October 1676 in
Westminster Abbey cloisters.
As a keyboard player, Gibbons was an outstanding figure in Restoration
music. As a composer, his style, though vigorous, is cruder and less
eloquent than Locke’s; North, who called him ‘a great master in the
ecclesiasticall stile, and also in consort musick’, characterized his work as
‘bold, solid, and strong, but desultory and not without a little of the
barbaresque’. The verse anthems belong to a transitional type, with organ
 accompaniment but without ‘symphonies’, and usually employ two solo
trebles; considerable demands are sometimes made of these boy soloists.
How long wilt thou forget me seems to have been the most widely
performed of his anthems. Here, and also in his fantasia-suites for violins
and bass viol, Gibbons's practice was to write out imitative passages for
solo organ in full, but usually his organ parts are shown as a thoroughbass
line. The fantasia-suites are among the last examples of a genre
established by Coprario, while two four-part fantasias (probably written in
the 1660s for the Oxford Music School) are good examples of that ‘chief
and most excellent’ genre from a time when it was falling out of fashion.
Though only a few keyboard pieces survive, the double voluntaries in
particular are a valuable record of the ‘skill & Talent’ that Evelyn admired,
and anticipate the style of Gibbons's pupil Blow.
WORKS

Editions: M. Locke and C. Gibbons: Cupid and Death, ed. E.J. Dent, MB, ii (1951, rev.
2/1965 by B. Harris) [D]C. Gibbons: Keyboard Compositions, ed. C.G. Rayner, CEKM,
xviii (1967, rev. 2/1989 by J. Caldwell) [R]

sacred english vocal

verse anthems unless otherwise stated

Above the stars my Saviour dwells, 2 Tr/4vv, org, before 1664, GB-Och 92
(autograph org pt), Y
Ah, my soul, why so dismay'd?, devotional song, 2 Tr, B, org, Lbl, Och
God be merciful unto us, 2 Tr, B/4vv, org, Cfm, GL, Och, Y
Have pity upon me, inc., 2 Tr/4vv [org pt wanting], DRc, Lbl, Y
Help me, Lord, inc., 2 Tr, B/4vv [org pt wanting], Y
How long wilt thou forget me, 2 Tr/4vv, org, before 1664, 1674 2, Cfm, DRc, EL, Lbl,
Lkc, Lsp, LF, Ob, Och, WRch, Y, US-BEm
Lord, I am not high-minded, inc., Tr, 4vv [org pt wanting], GB-Y
Not unto us, O Lord (for Oxford Act), 1664, 2 Tr, T/8vv, bc, Ob
O praise the Lord, all ye heathen, 2 Tr/4vv, org, DRc, Och, Y
Sing unto the Lord, O ye saints, 2 Tr/4vv, org, 1674 2, Cfm, Ckc, Lbl, Ob, Och, WB,
Y
Teach me, O Lord, 2 Tr/4vv, org, 16742, Cfm, DRc, Lbl, Lkc, Lsp, Ob, Och, Y
The Lord said unto my lord, 3 Tr/5vv, org, Cfm, Lwa, Och, Y

Doubtful: Sing we merrily, Och, org score only, for Eng. adaptation of Palestrina’s
Exsultate Deo, 5vv, attrib. ‘Gibbons’, see TCM, iv, pp.340–1; The Lord is my
shepherd, 2 Tr/4vv, org, attrib. in Ob Tenbury 1176–82 to ‘Dr. Gibbons or Mr. Wise’,
probably by Wise

Lost: Evening Service with Verses, copied into Chapel Royal partbooks, 1677–80,
see AshbeeR, i, 193

sacred latin vocal

Celebrate Dominum, Tr, B, bc, 16742, GB-Ob, Och
Gloria Patri (for Oxford Act), 1664, 2 Tr, T, bc, Ob, Och
Laudate Dominum (for Oxford Act), 1664, 2 Tr, Ct, B, 6vv, bc, Ob, Och
O bone Jesu, Tr, 2 Ct, B, bc, Ob, Och
 masque music
Cupid and Death (J. Shirley), London, Military Ground, Leicester Fields, 1659,
collab. M. Locke, D
consort music
Airs, vn, b viol, bc, IRL-Dm, GB-Och
Airs, 2 vn, b viol, bc, IRL-Dm, GB-Ob, Och
3 fantasias, 2 vn, b viol, bc, Och
Fantasia, 2 tr viols, 2 b viols, Ob, Och
Fantasia, 2 tr viols, t and b viols, Ob
4 fantasia-suites, vn, b viol, org, before 1662, Lcm, Och
6 fantasia-suites, 2 vn, b viol, org, Lbl, Lcm, Ob, Och
keyboard
2 airs, hpd, R
4 verses or voluntaries, org, R
3 verses or voluntaries, double org, R
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AshbeeR, i, iii, v, viii
BDA
DoddI
MatthesonGEP
A. Wood: Athenae oxonienses … to which are added the Fasti or Annals
(London, 1691–2, rev. and enlarged 3/1813–20/R by P. Bliss)
A. Clark, ed.: The Life and Times of Anthony Wood (Oxford, 1891–5)
J. Aubrey: ‘Brief Lives’, Chiefly of Contemporaries, Set Down … Between
the Years 1669 & 1696, ed. A. Clark (Oxford, 1898)
R.L. Poole: ‘The Oxford Music School, and the Collection of Portraits
Formerly Preserved there’, MA, iv (1912–13), 143–59
B. Marsh and F.A. Crisp, eds.: Alumni Carthusiani: a Record of the
Foundation Scholars of Charterhouse, 1614–1872 (London, 1913)
E.H. Fellowes: Orlando Gibbons and his Family: the Last of the Tudor
School of Musicians (Oxford, 1925, 2/1951/R)
E.H. Meyer: English Chamber Music (London, 1946/R, rev. 3/1982 by D.
Poulton as Early English Chamber Music)
E.S. de Beer, ed.: The Diary of John Evelyn (London, 1955)
J. Wilson, ed.: Roger North on Music (London, 1959)
C.G. Rayner: A Little-Known Seventeenth-Century Composer, Christopher
Gibbons (1615–1676) (diss., Indiana U., 1963)
F.B. Zimmermann: Henry Purcell, 1659–1695: His Life and Times
(London, 1967, 2/1983)
C.D.S. Field: The English Consort Suite of the Seventeenth Century (diss.,
U. of Oxford, 1970)
C.G. and S.F. Rayner: ‘Christopher Gibbons: “That famous Musitian”’, MD,
xxiv (1970), 151–71
J.T. Johnson: The English Fantasia-Suite, ca. 1620–1660 (diss., U. of
California, Berkeley, 1971)
R.T. Daniel and P. Le Huray, eds.: The Sources of English Church Music
1549–1660, EECM, suppl. i (London, 1972)
J. Caldwell: English Keyboard Music before the Nineteenth Century
(Oxford, 1973)
B. Matthews: The Music of Winchester Cathedral (London, 1974)
P. Vining: ‘Orlando Gibbons: the Portraits’, ML, lviii (1977), 415–29
A.G.H. Bachrach and R.G. Collmer, eds.: Lodewijck Huygens: the
English Journal, 1651–1652 (Leiden, 1982)
J. Harper: ‘The Dallam Organ in Magdalen College, Oxford’, JBIOS, ix
(1984), 51–64
I. Cheverton: English Church Music of the Early Restoration Period, 1660–
c1676 (diss., U. of Wales, Cardiff, 1985)
B. Cooper: English Solo Keyboard Music of the Middle and Late Baroque
(New York, 1989)
G. Cox: Organ Music in Restoration England: a Study of Sources, Styles
and Influences (New York, 1989)
I. Spink, ed.: The Seventeenth Century, Blackwell History of Music in
Britain, iii (Oxford, 1992)
J. Bray: Review of C. Gibbons: Keyboard Compositions, EMc, xxi (1993),
121–7
P. Holman: Four and Twenty Fiddlers: the Violin at the English Court
1540–1690 (Oxford, 1993, 2/1995)
M. Duffy: Henry Purcell (London, 1994)
I. Spink: Restoration Cathedral Musik 1660–1714 (Oxford, 1995)
A. Ashbee, D. Lasocki and P. Holman: A Biographical Dictionary of
English Court Musicians, 1485–1714 (London, 1998)
CHRISTOPHER D.S. FIELD

Gibbons, Edward.
English choirmaster and composer, brother of Orlando Gibbons.

Gibbons, Ellis.
English composer, brother of Orlando Gibbons.

Gibbons, Orlando
(b Oxford, bap. 25 Dec 1583; d Canterbury, 5 June 1625). English
composer and keyboard player. He was a leading composer of vocal,
keyboard and ensemble music in early 17th-century England. Orlando was
the youngest son of William Gibbons (d 1595), a town wait in Cambridge
from 1567. William took a similar post in Oxford in 1580 and then moved
back to Cambridge around 1588. Orlando’s eldest brother, Edward (b
Cambridge, 1568; d Exeter, ?c1650), was master of the choristers at King’s
College, Cambridge (1592–8), and later lay vicar and (by dispensation)
succentor of Exeter Cathedral, being appointed ‘teacher of the choristers’
in 1608, a post he held until the Interregnum (1649).
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JOHN HARPER (text, bibliography), PETER LE HURAY/JOHN HARPER
(work-list)
Gibbons, Orlando
1. Life.
From February 1596 until May 1599 (regularly to Michaelmas 1598)
Orlando Gibbons is listed as a chorister at King’s College, Cambridge,
where his brother Edward was master of the choristers. He entered the
university in 1598, and was a sizar of King’s College. Payments ‘pro
musica … ’ in the college accounts, 1595–1602, made to ‘Gibbons’ may be
for the town waits. Gibbons witnessed his mother’s will in Cambridge in
March 1603. From 1603 until his death he was a musician in the Chapel
Royal. His name first appears in the Chapel Royal Cheque Book in a list of
41 signatories to an agreement, dated 19 May 1603, on conditions of
service under James I. According to a summary of appointments compiled
about 1627, he was formally sworn in as Gentleman of the Chapel Royal
on 21 March 1605, succeeding Arthur Cock (d Jan 1605) who, as organist
of Exeter Cathedral (1598–1602), knew Gibbons’s brother Edward.
Between 1603 and 1605 he may have served as Gentleman Extraordinary
(i.e. unsalaried substitute). His particular skill was as a keyboard player, but
not until 1615 is there a record in the Cheque Book naming him (with
Edmund Hooper) as one of the two organists of the Chapel Royal: at that
time the organists agreed to a schedule of duties drawn up and confirmed
by the Dean of the Chapel (James Montague, then Bishop of Bath and
Wells). According to the Cheque Book, Gibbons was senior organist of the
Chapel Royal in 1625, with Thomas Tomkins as junior organist.
In 1606 Gibbons married Elizabeth, daughter of John Patten, Yeoman of
the Vestry of the Chapel Royal; they lived in the Woolstaple (now Bridge
Street) in the parish of St Margaret’s, Westminster, where many court
musicians and servants resided. Their seven children were baptized at St
Margaret’s. In the dedication to Sir Christopher Hatton II, of The First Set of
Madrigals and Mottets (1612), Gibbons claimed to have composed the
works in Hatton’s house. This may have been his house near St
Bartholomew-the-Great in Faringdon, since Hatton did not move to a house
in Westminster (very close to Gibbons’s) until 1612. Hatton was a minor
figure of the gentry; his wife was sister to Sir Henry Fanshawe, patron of
music and an officer in the household of Henry, Prince of Wales.
Gibbons’s endeavours and compositions suggest that he hoped for
significant preferment at court. In 1611 he petitioned the Queen as ‘an
humble suitor’ for her help to gain a lease worth 40 marks (£26 14s 2d), a
matter referred to Lord Salisbury. He was by far the junior of the three
contributors to Parthenia (RISM 161314), the keyboard collection published
to celebrate the marriage of the king’s daughter, Princess Elizabeth, to
Frederick, Elector Palatine, in 1613; the prominence of the notes E and F
in The Queen’s command may be a musical reference to the names of the
bride and groom. The pavan and galliard ‘Lord Salisbury’, the wedding
anthem Blessed are all they (1613) for the Earl of Somerset, and anthems
associated (in GB-Och Mus 21) with senior clergy who held royal
chaplaincies (Godfrey Goodman, William Laud, and Anthony Maxey) imply
that he was well connected in court circles. In 1615 he was rewarded by
two grants totalling £150 from King James I ‘for and in consideration of the
good and faithful service heretofore done unto ourself by Orlando Gibbons
our organist, and divers other good causes and considerations us
thereunto moving’. He composed an anthem, Great King of Gods, and a
court song, Do not repine, fair sun, for the king’s visit to Scotland in 1617,
attended by the Chapel Royal.
The court musical establishment was affected by the death of Henry,
Prince of Wales in 1612, and the departure to Heidelberg of Princess
Elizabeth after her marriage in 1613. Gibbons may have been among the
Heidelberg entourage, as an attendant of the Earl of Arundel (Coprario and
the harpist, Daniel Callinder, attended the Duke of Lennox). From 1613
Gibbons was the most talented keyboard player and keyboard composer
available to the court. His two eminent predecessors, Byrd and Bull, had
marked him out as such by his inclusion in Parthenia; Byrd was long retired
to Essex, and Bull, who had worked in the households of both Prince
Henry and Princess Elizabeth, had fled abroad. The king’s eldest surviving
son, Charles, became Prince of Wales at the age of 16 in 1616, and
Gibbons is listed in the first payments of 1617 as one of 17 musicians who
formed the nucleus of the prince’s musical establishment. A number of
these had previously served in the slightly smaller musical establishment of
Prince Henry. Charles’s regular musicians also included Alfonso
Ferrabosco (ii), Thomas Ford, Robert Johnson, Thomas Lupo and Angelo
Notari: all were composers as well as performers, and all received an
annual salary of £40. Other musicians associated with the household
include John Coprario, whose work in Charles’s musical establishment
seems to have been particularly important: Holman (1993) argued
convincingly that what was to become the Caroline court orchestra was
formed in the prince’s household at this time, and that Coprario and
Gibbons collaborated in composing for the ensemble.
Gibbons added a third post associated with the court in September 1619.
The accounts of the king’s Treasurer of the Chamber record that he was to
attend in the royal privy chamber as virginalist at £46 per annum from
Michaelmas 1619. The dedication of the first printing of Gibbons’s
Fantasies of Three Parts to Edmund Wray, groom of the privy chamber,
may be significant: Wray was a protégé of George Villiers, favourite of
Prince Charles and a rising court star, but was disgraced and sent from
court in 1622. In 1623 Gibbons and Thomas Day, a fellow member of both
the Chapel Royal and the prince’s household, succeeded John Parsons at
Westminster Abbey. The duties of organist and master of the choristers
combined by Parsons were shared by Gibbons and Day. At this time almost
half of the singing men at Westminster Abbey were also Gentlemen of the
Chapel Royal, and the closeness of the abbey to the court may be
observed in its use for an official visit by the French ambassador and his
retinue in 1624:
At their entrance, the organ was touched by the best finger of
that age, Mr. Orlando Gibbons … and while a verse was
played, The Lord Keeper presented the ambassadors and the
rest of the noblest quality of their nation with [the] liturgy as it
spoke to them in their own language. The Lords
ambassadors and their great train took up all the stalls, where
they continued half an hour while the choirmen, vested in
their rich copes, with their choristers, sang three several
anthems, with most exquisite voices before them.
Gibbons took the degree of MusB at Cambridge in 1606. There is now
doubt as to whether he received the degree of DMus at Oxford in May
1622, when William Heyther and Nathaniel Giles received doctorates
(Harley). Both Anthony Wood and William Gostling assert that Gibbons’s O
clap your hands was used as Heyther’s doctoral exercise. At the funeral of
James I in March 1625 Gibbons was listed among the Chapel Royal as
senior organist in the Cheque Book and as privy organist in the Lord
Chamberlain’s accounts (representing a conflation of two posts); he was
also listed as organist of Westminster Abbey in the Lord Chamberlain’s
accounts. In May 1625 preparations were made to receive the new queen,
Henrietta Maria, whom Charles I had married by proxy in Paris at the
beginning of the month. On 31 May the court set out for Canterbury, with
the Chapel Royal in attendance. Gibbons was taken ill suddenly, and the
royal physicians were summoned: there was fear that he had the plague.
The doctors described precisely his coma and final seizure, attributed at
the post mortem to a brain haemorrhage. The attention attracted by his
death, in particular its formal observation, investigation and reporting,
perhaps suggests how close he may have been to the new king. Gibbons
died on Whitsunday, 5 June, at Canterbury. A plaque was subsequently
placed in Canterbury Cathedral, with a fine bust of the composer, but with
hasty wording, which omitted his age. He died intestate: after some 13
months letters of administration were granted on 13 July 1626 to his widow
by the dean and chapter of Westminster, but she was already dead (bur. 2
July 1626). A letter from the royal signet office (20 January 1627) directed
that their eldest son, Christopher, be granted a scholarship at
Charterhouse, confirmd by the govenors in June. A remark by Antony
Wood suggests that he may have moved to Exeter to be brought up by his
uncle, Edward.
Gibbons, Orlando
2. Works.
All four appointments that Gibbons held at his death were associated with
his skills as a keyboard player. As a composer his reputation has
traditionally rested on his church music, which circulated widely: there are
over 30 surviving 17th-century sources of the Short Service. By their
inclusion in printed collections (Barnard, 1641; Boyce, 1760–73) some
anthems have remained in the repertory of English cathedral choirs since
the Restoration. Late 19th- and early 20th-century publications have also
emphasized his church music: Ouseley’s anthology (1873), Tudor Church
Music, iv (1925), selections in the Tudor Church Music Octavo Series, and
the use of 11 of his ‘hymn’ tunes in The English Hymnal (1906). His
instrumental music has fared less well: although some items were edited
and printed, including Rimbault’s pioneering edition of the Fantasies in
Three Parts (1843), the collected keyboard music appeared only in 1962,
and the ensemble music in 1982.
Gibbons has been presented as a master of serious polyphonic music; his
full anthems have attracted particular praise. However, the seriousness
and contrapuntal dexterity of these works and the Madrigals and Mottets
are complemented by vitality in his verse anthems and wit in his consort
music. The sacred music in the full style includes music for four voices in
the largely syllabic, ‘short’ style (the anthem Almighty and everlasting God
and the First or Short Service), as well as more extended, polyphonic,
psalms and anthems for five and six voices (Hosanna to the son of David
and O Lord, in thy wrath). Gibbons’s attention to word-setting is apparent
even in the simpler works, as in the declamation of ‘stretch forth thy right
hand’ in Almighty and everlasting God. His instinctive contrapuntal facility is
evident in all the movements of the through-composed Short Service, but
especially in the canon of the Gloria patri in the Nunc dimittis. The setting
for eight voices of O clap your hands has motivic clarity, polyphonic
richness, textural interchange, and rhythmic energy more typical of an
Italian canzona or polychoral motet. The Second Service is an outstanding
example of an early 17th-century ‘verse’ service with accompaniment, and
his verse anthems are among the finest of the genre. They range from
simple alternation of solo voice and five-part chorus, as in Behold, thou
hast made my days, This is the record of John and the strophic The secret
sins, to the more complex scoring patterns of the majority, including See,
the Word is incarnate. Gibbons shows little interest in overt word-painting,
but the expressive declamation (the opening phrases of See, the Word is
incarnate), the rhythmic treatment of the choral writing (‘let us welcome
such a guest’ from the same work, and the second half of Glorious and
powerful God), and the short passages of vocal bravura in both of these
works, are hallmarks of a vitality and modernity sometimes suppressed in
ponderous 20th-century performances by cathedral-style choirs. Some of
the anthems are occasional works, and others are found only in sources of
non-liturgical provenance; some have only keyboard accompaniment,
others only ensemble parts, and others exist with both. They should not be
categorized too rigidly: a work performed with wind instruments in the
Chapel Royal may have been performed with organ in a provincial
cathedral, or with viols in a domestic setting.
No substantial sacred work by Gibbons was published in his lifetime.
However, he contributed to two published collections. William Leighton’s
Teares or Lamentacions of a Sorrowfull Soule (RISM 16147) includes two
fine small-scale pieces for four voices. Fifteen ‘songs’ (melody and bass)
appeared in George Wither’s Hymnes and Songs of the Church (London,
1623), a publication bound in with all editions of the metrical psalms; two of
the melodies were used more than once, and three were either adapted by
or attributed to Gibbons.
Most of Gibbons’s secular vocal music is found in the Madrigals and
Mottets (1612), completed before he was 30. Kerman (1961) remarked his
affinity with Byrd and the traditions of English partsong and consort song,
evident respectively in The silver swanne and Nay let me weepe, a work
perhaps written to mark the death of Prince Henry. The seriousness of the
whole collection may have been affected by the prince’s death as much as
the pervasive spirit of Jacobean melancholy typified by Walter Raleigh’s
What is our life. Even the pastoral settings are fluent essays in imitative
polyphony: like Byrd, Gibbons set secular texts with less emphasis on
mood and expression of textual detail than in his sacred music. He did not
favour strophic settings: Joshua Sylvester’s four-stanza I weigh not
fortune’s frown is set in four independent sections. Two secular vocal works
are found outside the 1612 publication. Do not repine, fair sun, written for
the king’s visit to Scotland in 1617, is in the consort-song tradition, though
on a larger scale. The Cryes of London is a witty combination of vendors’
common street cries sung by solo voices with the high polyphonic tradition
of the instrumental In Nomine played by viols.
The assumption that Gibbons wrote ensemble music exclusively for viols is
now untenable. The fantasias for ‘great dooble basse’ (MB, xlviii, nos.16–
25) and certain of the three-part printed fantasias (MB, xlviii, nos.11–15)
are particularly suited to violins; others suggest performance by wind
instruments (e.g. MB, xlviii, nos.37–8). There remains a substantial body of
music for two to six instruments which is apt for viol consort, including the
unusual two-part fantasias, the varied group of In Nomines, the rich-
textured six-part fantasias, and the finely wrought variations on Go from my
window with its duel of divisions between the bass viols. Gibbons often
writes more for the moment than the cumulative whole, with emphasis on
clear articulation of imitative motives, shaping of phrases, control of texture,
and rhythmic and periodic use of harmony. The fantasias for ‘great dooble
basse’ are deliberately sectional, include changes of metre, have style and
tempo indications, and quote from popular melodies and idioms; they were
perhaps written specifically for the burgeoning string band entertaining
Charles I during his years as Prince of Wales. John Woodington was
instructed to copy some of them posthumously in 1634, an indication of
their continuing popularity at court (GB-Och Mus 712–15). John Lilly and
Stephen Bing also copied other ensemble works into Christopher Hatton
III’s ‘great set’ of partbooks (Och) in the 1630s. The printed fantasias
(c1620) were reissued in Amsterdam in 1648; Henry Purcell used a
manuscript which contained some of his ensemble music (Lkc 3); other
works appear in sources used by viol consorts in Oxford in the later 17th
century, including those owned by Narcissus Marsh, later archbishop of
Dublin (IRL-Dm).
Gibbons’s corpus of keyboard music is not so extensive as that of Byrd and
Bull, but it ranks with them in quality. The keyboard fantasias range from
ten to over 100 breves. They are more flexible in their treatment of
polyphonic voices and more diverse in their use of figuration than those for
ensemble. Although four parts are introduced at the beginning, the
counterpoint is normally for three parts: voice-leading implies contrapuntal
richness, but reduced textures allow clarity and rapid passagework.
Gibbons used small rhythmic and melodic motives, sometimes in dense
counterpoint and framed within larger periods; his particular penchant for
end climax may be observed in the fantasia ‘for double organ’ (MB, xx,
no.7) and the one on A (MB, xx, no.12). Of the dances, only Lord
Salisbury’s pavan and galliard from Parthenia are paired. That pair and a
single pavan on A (MB, xx, no.17) are untypical: the other pavans and
galliards have written-out reprises. All the pavans and galliards are wrought
with polyphonic detail and keyboard bravura, and display a mannerism less
evident in the almans, corantos and masque dances. The latter provide the
only evidence of Gibbons’s possible association with Jacobean masque,
probably settings made after the event. Of the grounds and variations The
Italian ground and The Queen’s command are relatively short, and make
use of written-out reprises; The woods so wild and The hunt’s up (or
Peascod time) are more extended sets of variations in the tradition of Byrd
(who set both), Bull and Farnaby. Gibbons is less interested in the
obsessive application of figurative and rhythmic patterns (an English
characteristic dating back to Preston and Blitheman in the mid-16th
 century), but there is ample evidence of virtuoso keyboard writing,
tempered by contrapuntal ingenuity and innate musical judgement.
Gibbons’s career was almost entirely Jacobean and he worked with a
progressive group of musicians who held particular favour with Charles I
before and after he came to the throne. Overemphasis of the serious and
polyphonic qualities of his music can obscure the modern features in
Gibbons’s music: the wit and vitality, the responsive, declamatory treatment
of text, even in a contrapuntal idiom, and the use of rhythmic figures and
periodic harmony. The absence of chromatic harmony and decoration is
notable, even in the melancholy texts of the Madrigals and Mottets;
chromatic alteration is part of the harmonic plan, as in the desending,
modulating sequence in the final strain of Lord Salisbury’s pavan. This is
no constraint on expressiveness, whether in the polyphonic intensity of O
Lord, in thy wrath, the dramatic declamation of Glorious and powerful God,
or the exuberance of O clap your hands.
Gibbons’s brother Edward is known by a polyphonic verse anthem (in GB-
Lbl), an incomplete vocal piece (in Och), and the Kyrie and Creed to
William Mundy’s Short Service. Another brother, Ellis (b Cambridge, 1573;
d ?London, May 1603), contributed one madrigal, or perhaps two, to The
Triumphes of Oriana (RISM 160116).
Gibbons, Orlando
WORKS

Editions: Orlando Gibbons [Services and Anthems], ed. P.C. Buck and others TCM, iv
(1925) [B]Orlando Gibbons: Keyboard Music, ed. G. Hendrie, MB, xx (1962) [H]Orlando
Gibbons: Verse Anthems, ed. D. Wulstan, EECM, iii (1964) [W]Orlando Gibbons: The
First Set of Madrigals and Mottets (1612), ed. E.H. Fellowes, rev. T. Dart, EM, v (1914,
2/1964) [F]Orlando Gibbons: Full Anthems, Hymns and Fragmentary Verse Anthems,
ed. D. Wulstan, EECM, xxi (1978) [FA]Orlando Gibbons: Consort Music, ed. J. Harper,
MB, xlviii (1982) [C]

services
Short [First] Service (Ven, TeD, Bs, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 4vv, 1641 5, GB-Cfm, Cp,
Cpc, Cu, DRc, GL, Lbl, Lcm, Ob, Och, Ojc, Omc, WB, WRch, Y; B 30
Second [Verse] Service Ob (TeD, Jub, Mag, Nunc), verse, 1–5vv, org, 16415, Cp,
Cpc, DRc, GL, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Ojc, US-NYc, GB-Och; B 68
First preces and psalm for Evensong on Whitsunday (Ps cxlv), verse, 1641 5, GB-
Cp, Cpc, DRc, GL, Lbl, Llp, Och, Ojc, Y
First preces and psalms for Evensong on Easter Day (Ps lvii.9, Ps cxviii.19), verse,
Cp, DRc, Y; B 3
Second preces and psalm (Ps cxlv.1), full, Cp, Cpc, Llp, Och, Ojc; B 20
Te Deum (Lat. adaptation of TeD from Short Service), 4vv, Cp
Te Deum (Lat.), inc., Cp
anthems
Almighty and everlasting God, 4vv, 16415, GB-DRc, GL, Lbl, Lcm, Lsp, Ob, Och,
Ojc, WRch, Y, US-BEM; FA 1, B 126
Almighty God, which hast given us, verse, inc., GB-Llp, Ob, Och, Ojc; FA 123, B
326
Almighty God, who by thy Son, verse, DRc, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Ojc, Y; W 1, B 130
Awake up my glory (part of the First preces and psalms for Evensong on Easter
Day; see Services)
Behold, I bring you glad tidings, verse, Cp, Cpc, Cu, DRc, Lbl, Lcm, Llp, Ob, Och,
WRch, Y; W 11, B 137
Behold, thou hast made my days, verse, 1641 5, Cfm, Ckc, Cp, Cpc, DRc, GL, Lbl,
Lcm, Ob, Och, Ojc, WB, Y; W 24, B 148
Blessed are all they that fear the Lord, verse (1613), DRc, Lbl, Lcm, Ob, Och, Ojc,
Y; W 38, B 159
Deliver us, O Lord, our God (2p. Blessed be the Lord God of Israel), 4vv, 1641 5, GL,
Lbl, Lcm, Lsp, Och, WRch, Y; FA 6, B 151
Glorious and powerful God, verse, Ckc, Cp, Cpc, Cu, DRc, GL, Lbl, Lcm, LF, Ob,
Och, Ojc, WB, WRch, Y, US-NYp; W 52, B 174
Grant, O Holy Trinity, verse, GB-DRc, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y; W 68, B 193
Great King of Gods [Lord of Lords], verse, Lbl, Ob, Och; W 76, B 198
Hosanna to the son of David, 6vv, 16415, Cfm, DRc, GL, Lbl, Lsp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y,
US-BEM; FA 13, B 209
I am the resurrection, 5vv, inc., GB-Lbl; FA 24, B 335
If ye be risen again with Christ, verse, Cp, DRc, Lbl, Lcm, LF, Llp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y,
US-NYp; W 89, B 215
I will magnify thee, O God my King (part of the Second preces and psalm; see
Services)
Lift up your heads, 6vv, 16415, GB-Cfm, DRc, GL, Lbl, Lsp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y, US-
BEM; FA 32, B 221
Lord, grant grace, we humbly beseech thee, verse, GB-Och; W 100, B 228
Lord, we beseech thee, pour thy grace, verse, inc., Och; FA 134, B 338
O all true faithful hearts, verse, Och; W 123 (as O thou the central orb; see below);
B 232
O clap your hands (2p. God is gone up), 8vv, Lbl, Y; FA 40, B 237
O glorious God, O Christ, verse, text only, in J. Clifford: The Divine Services and
Anthems (London, 1663), FA 193
O God, the King of Glory, verse, DRc, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y; W 111, B 250
O Lord, how do my woes increase, 4vv, 16147; B 258, ed. in EECM, xi (1970), 72
O Lord, I lift my heart to thee, 5vv, 16147, Lbl, Llp, Ob; B 259, ed. in EECM, xi
(1970), 115
O Lord, in thee is all my trust, 5vv, Och; FA 73, B 260
O Lord, in thy wrath rebuke me not [O Lord, rebuke me not], 6vv, Lbl, Lcm, Ob; FA
88, B 268
Open me the gates of righteousness (part of the First preces and psalms for
Evensong on Easter Day; see Services)
O thou the central orb (words by H.R. Bramley, adapted by F.A.G. Ouseley in 1893
to the music of O all true faithful hearts); W 123
Praise the Lord, O my soul, verse, inc., Ob Tenbury; FA 142, B 339
See, the Word is incarnate, verse, Lbl, Och; W 134, B 272
Sing unto the Lord, O ye saints, verse, DRc, Lbl, Mp, Ob, Och, WB, Y; W 156, B
283
So God loved the world, verse, inc., Lbl, Ob, FA 157, B 342
Teach us by his example, verse, text only, Lbl, Ob; FA 192
The eyes of all wait upon thee (part of the First preces and psalm for Evensong on
Whitsunday; see Services)
This is the day wherein the Lord hath wrought, verse, text only, Lbl, Ob; FA 193
This is the record of John, verse, Cp, DRc, Lbl, Lcm, Mp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y; W 179, B
298
Thou God of wisdom, verse, inc., Lbl, Ob; FA 166, B 344
Thou openest thy hand (part of the First preces and psalm for Evensong on
Whitsunday; see Services)
Unto thee O Lord, verse, inc., Lbl, Ob Tenbury; FA 175, B 345
We praise thee, O Father, verse, Cp, DRc, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y; W 193, B 305
hymn tunes
17 tunes in G. Wither: The Hymnes and Songs of the Church (London, 1623); FA
106, B 318
madrigals
The First Set of Madrigals and Mottets, apt for Viols and Voyces, 5vv (London,
1612); F: Ah, deere hart; Daintie fine bird; Faire is the rose; Faire ladies that to love
captived are (2p. Mongst thousands good); How art thou thrald (2p. Farewell all
joyes); I waigh not fortunes frowne (2p. I tremble not at noyse of warre; 3p. I see
ambition never pleasde; 4p. I faine not friendship); Lais now old; Nay let me weepe
(2p. Nere let the sun; 3p. Yet if that age had frosted ore his head); Now each flowry
bank of May; O that the learned poets of this time; The silver swanne; Trust not too
much, faire youth; What is our life
1 madrigal, 5vv, 160116 (possibly by Ellis Gibbons; see Fellowes)
consort songs
Do not repine, fair sun, 3/5vv, 5 viols, GB-Lbl (texts only), US-NYp; ed. P. Brett
(London, 1961)
The Cryes [Crye] of London [God give you good morrow, my masters], 5vv, 5 viols,
GB-Ckc, Lbl, Lcm, Och, US-NYp; ed. in MB, xxii (1967), 114
ensemble music
all ed. in C
6 fantasias a 2, GB-Ckc
[9] Fantasies of three parts (London, c1620); see Dart and Pinto
7 fantasias a 3, for ‘great dooble basse’, IRL–Dm, F-Pc, GB-Lkc, Och, US-CLwr
(frag.) [incl. 3 possibly by Coprario; see Charteris and Holman]
2 fantasias a 4, for ‘great dooble basse’ GB-Och
9 fantasias a 6, Och; [incl. 1 possibly vocal in origin]
Galliard a 3, IRL-Dm
Go from my window, variations a 6, GB-Och
In Nomine a 4, Ob
3 In Nomines a 5, IRL-Dm, GB-Lbl, Ob, Och
Pavan a 5, inc., Lbl
Pavan and galliard a 6, IRL-Dm, GB-Ob, Och
keyboard
all ed. in H
Almans: The King’s jewel; 4 untitled
Corantos: French; 2 untitled
10 fantasias [1 for double organ]
Galliards: Lady Hatton; 5 untitled
Grounds: Italian; 1 untitled
Pavan and galliard Lord Salisbury
3 untitled pavans
4 preludes
French air
Lincoln’s Inn mask; Mask ‘The Fairest Nymph’; Mask ‘Welcome home’; Nann’s
mask (French alman); The Temple mask
The hunt’s up (Peascod time)
The Queen’s command
The woods so wild
Whoop, do me no harm, good man
works with conflicting attributions
anthems
Arise, O Lord God, verse, GB-DRc, LF, Lbl, Lcm, Ob Tenbury (by L. Woodson (i))
Behold, the hour cometh, verse, Cp, DRc, Lbl (by T. Tomkins)
God, which [who] as at this time, verse, Cp, Cpc, DRc, Lbl, Och, Ojc, Y, US-NYp
(by N. Giles)
Have mercy upon me, O God, verse, GB-DRc, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Ojc, SHR, Y (by W.
Byrd)
Have pity upon me, O God, verse, inc., DRc, Lbl, Y(by C. Gibbons)
O Lord, increase our [my] faith, 4vv, Lbl, US-NYp (by H. Loosemore; see Morehen,
1971)
Out of the deep, 6vv, GB-Ob, Och, Ojc, US-NYp (?by W. Byrd); FA 94
Sing we merrily, GB-Och (adaptation of Palestrina: Exultate Deo, by C. Gibbons)
The secret sins, verse, inc., DRc, Lbl, LF, Ob Tenbury, Ojc (probably by W. Mundy);
W 175
Why art thou so heavy, 4vv, Lbl, Ob Tenbury (by H. Loosemore)
keyboard
5 pieces, kbd, in H appx I (possibly by Gibbons); incipits of 9 others, in H appx II
(probably not by Gibbons)
Gibbons, Orlando
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AshbeeR
BDECM
DoddI
HawkinsH
KermanEM
LafontaineKM
Le HurayMR
MeyerECM
E.F. Rimbault: The Old Cheque-Book, or Book of Remembrance of the
Chapel Royal (London, 1872/R)
E.H. Fellowes: Orlando Gibbons: a Short Account of his Life and Work
(Oxford, 1925, 2/1951/R as Orlando Gibbons and his Family)
G.A. Thewlis: ‘Oxford and the Gibbons Family’, ML, xxi (1940), 31–3
J. Jacquot: ‘Lyrisme et sentiment tragique dans les madrigaux d’Orlando
Gibbons’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle: Paris 1953, 139–51
T. Dart: ‘The Printed Fantasies of Orlando Gibbons’, ML, xxxvii (1956),
342–9
G. Hendrie: ‘The Keyboard Music of Orlando Gibbons’, PRMA, lxxxix
(1962–3), 1–15
J. Morehen: ‘The Gibbons-Loosemore Mystery’, MT, cxii (1971), 959–60
[on O Lord, increase our faith]
J. Caldwell: English Keyboard Music before the Nineteenth Century
(Oxford, 1973)
F. Routh: Early English Organ Music (London, 1973)
P. Vining: ‘Orlando Gibbons: the Incomplete Verse Anthems’, ML, lv
(1974), 70–76
P. Vining: ‘Orlando Gibbons: the Portraits’, ML, lviii (1977), 415–29
N. Bergenfeld: The Keyboard Fantasy of the Elizabethan Renaissance
(diss., New York U., 1978)
J. Ward: ‘The Hunt’s Up’, PRMA, cvi (1979–80), 1–26
G. Dodd, ed.: The Viola da Gamba Society of Great Britain Thematic
Index of Music for Viols (London, 1980–92)
P. Brett: ‘English Music for the Scottish Progress of 1617’, Source
Materials in the Interpretation of Music: a Memorial Volume to
Thurston Dart, ed. I. Bent (London, 1981), 209–26
R. Charteris: ‘A Postscript to John Coprario: a Thematic Catalogue of his
Music with a Biographical Introduction (New York, 1977)’, Chelys, xi
(1982), 13–19
C. Monson: Voices and Viols in England, 1600–1650 (Ann Arbor, 1982)
G. Beechey: ‘Orlando Gibbons’s Song Tunes’, MO, cvi (1983), 197–9
J. Harper: ‘Orlando Gibbons: the Domestic Context of his Music and Christ
Church Mus. 21’, MT, cxxiv (1983), 767–70
J. Harper: ‘The Distribution of the Consort Music of Orlando Gibbons in
Seventeenth-Century Sources’, Chelys, xii (1983), 3–18
J.A. Irving: ‘Matthew Hutton and York Minster MSS M 3/1–4 (S)’, MR, xliv
(1983), 163–77
O. Neighbour: ‘Orlando Gibbons (1583–1625): the Consort Music’, EMc, xi
(1983), 351–7
P. Vining: ‘Gibbons and his Patrons’, MT, cxxiv (1983), 707–9
D. Wulstan: Tudor Music (London, 1985)
J.A. Irving: The Instrumental Music of Thomas Tomkins (New York, 1989)
F. Knights: ‘Magdalen College MS 347: an Index and Commentary’,
Journal of the British Institute of Organ Studies, xiv (1990), 4–9
J. Caldwell: The Oxford History of English Music, i (Oxford, 1991)
P. Phillips: English Sacred Music, 1549–1649 (Oxford, 1991)
W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists (Oxford, 1991)
R.S. Shay: Henry Purcell and ‘Ancient’ Music in Restoration England (diss.,
U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1991)
A. Ashbee: The Harmonious Musick of John Jenkins, i (Surbiton, 1992)
I. Spink: The Blackwell History of Music in Britain, iii (Oxford, 1992)
P. Holman: Four and Twenty Fiddlers: the Violin at the English Court,
1540–1690 (Oxford, 1993)
R. Bray, ed: The Blackwell History of Music in Britain, ii (Oxford, 1995)
J. Morehen, ed.: English Choral Practice, 1400–1650 (Cambridge, 1995)
D. Pinto: ‘Gibbons in the Bedchamber’, John Jenkins and his Time:
Studies in English Consort Music, ed. A. Ashbee and P. Holman
(Oxford, 1996)
J.P. Wainwright: Musical Patronage in Seventeenth-Century England:
Christopher, First Baron Hatton (1605–70) (Aldershot, 1997)
J. Harley: Orlando Gibbons and the Gibbons Family of Musicians
(Aldershot, 1999)

Gibbs, Alan (Trevor)

 (b Chipping Norton, Oxon., 21 April 1932). English composer. He studied
music at Durham University (1950–53) and privately with Edwin Rose and
Mátyás Seiber (composition) and John Webster and Conrad Eden (organ).
From 1957 to 1986 he taught at Archbishop Tenison's School in London.
Though he has written a good deal of chamber and educational music for
various instruments, he is known mainly for his organ and church music.
Most of the choral pieces are in a freely tonal and rhythmically inventive
style; the instrumental music is noteworthy for its subtle, resourceful and
often witty manipulation of motifs and rows. Gibbs edited Holst's Music: a
Guide (London, 1995), which was left unpublished by its author A.E.F.
Dickinson; he has written several articles on Holst.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Verity Street (op, 2, Gibbs), 1981; incid music for radio
Vocal: 4 Short Motets, SATB, 1958; 5 Elizabethan Songs, Bar, pf, 1963; Sir Patrick
Spens, Bar, pf, 1979; Northern Landscape (J.G. Brown), SATB, 1983; Tenison
Psalms, Tr, SATB, org, perc, 1985; Congaudeat, S, SATB, str, org, 1994
Orch: Viendrà l'aube, str, 1984; Reflections on a Life, vn, orch, 1987; Festival
Concertino, chbr orch, 1989
Org: Sonata no.1, 1955; Viewpoints, 1963; Peacehaven Preludes, 1970; Sonata
no.2, 1970; Hologram, 1984; Dichotomy, duet, 1986; Jazzogram, 1986; Oxford May
Music, 1987; Celebration, 1989; 5 Hymn Preludes, 1989; Contrasts, duet, 1990;
Magic Flutes, 1990, arr. duet, 1991; Calgary Flourish, 1991; Trio, 1991; Prelude and
Allegro on a Holst Fragment, 1992; Washington Toccata, 1996; Isleworth Bells,
1998; Snow in Winter, 1999
Other inst: 3 Pieces, pf, 1960; Sonatina, vc, pf, 1964; Accumulations, fl + pic + a fl,
cl + a sax, vc, pf + cel, perc, 1982; Sonata da chiesa, tpt, org, 1986; A Coptic
Fantasy, pf, 1987; Wisconsin, str qt, 1987; Easter Sonata, 3 tpt, timp, org, 1988;
Scottish Scenes, 2 pf, 1988; 1789 Fragments, vn, org/pf, 1989; A Lament for Young
China, pf, 1989; Tartuffe Suite, vn, org/pf, 1989; Dawn Music, pf trio, 1990; Baroque
Suite, 2 vn, 1991; Marburg Suite, pic tpt, org, 1997; O aeterne Deus, tpt/pic tpt,
1998

Principal publisher: Bardic

MALCOLM BOYD

Gibbs, Cecil Armstrong

(b Great Baddow, Essex, 10 Aug 1889; d Chelmsford, 12 May 1960).
English composer. He read history and music at Trinity College, Cambridge
(BA 1911, MusB 1913) where he received help and tuition from Edward
Dent and Charles Wood. He then taught at Copthorne School, East
Grinstead, and, having been refused by the army on medical grounds,
worked at the Wick School, Hove, from 1915. Gibbs commissioned Walter
de la Mare to write a play, Crossings, for the school in 1919. This
production (stage-managed by Dent) brought Gibbs into personal contact
with de la Mare, who was to become his lifelong friend and inspiration;
Adrian Boult conducted Gibbs’s music for the play and was so impressed
 that he offered Gibbs the financial backing to enable him to take up
composition professionally. Gibbs moved to Danbury, Essex, where he
lived for the rest of his life except for a five-year ‘exile’ in Windermere
during World War II. He studied for a year at the RCM with Vaughan
Williams for composition, Charles Wood (theory) and Boult (score-reading,
conducting). Gibbs subsequently served on the staff of the RCM (1921–
39). His active and enthusiastically pursued career as a festival adjudicator
spanned the years 1923–52, and he held office as vice-president of the
British Federation of Music Festivals 1937–52. He was awarded the
Cambridge MusD in 1931.
Gibbs published a wealth of music for choirs and amateur orchestras. His
dream of making a living as a theatre composer faded after Midsummer
Madness closed in 1924, and he was unlucky that his ambitious choral
symphony Odysseus missed its first performance because of the outbreak
of war. Nevertheless, Gibbs achieved great commercial success with his
slow waltz, Dusk. His substantial output of songs, many of them of high
quality, ensure his continuing recognition as a fine exponent of the genre.
In the 1990s, recordings of some of his solo songs and his First and Third
symphonies kindled a renewed interest in his work as a whole.
WORKS
songs complete, remainder selective

songs
for 1 voice, piano unless otherwise stated
op.
— Near and Far (A.R. Ropes), 1909
— The Knight’s Song (J.L. Crommelin-Brown), 1910
— An English Carol of the XIVth century, 1911
2 2 Songs: Night, When the Lamp of Night is Shattered (P.B. Shelley), c1912
3 Lullaby (W. Blake), ?1914
4 The Rainy Day (H. Longfellow), 1914
9 In the Highlands (R. L. Stevenson), ?1914, orig. op.11
— The Bee's Song (W. de la Mare), 1v, chorus, pf, 1917, arr. SSC, pf, 1937
12 Nod (de la Mare), 1918, The Scarecrow (de la Mare), T/B-Bar, orch, 1918
13 Philomela (The Nightingale) (P. Sidney), 1914
— Dream Song (de la Mare), 1917
14 2 Songs (de la Mare): Music Unheard (Sweet Sounds, Begone), 1918, The
Bells, 1918
15 [3 Songs] (de la Mare), S, str qt: The Little Green Orchard (1917), Five Eyes,
1917, A Song of Shadows, 1917; no.2 as duet (1921); no.3 arr. SSA, pf
(1921), orig. op.9
17 2 Songs (de la Mare): Bluebells, Bunches of Grapes, 1918
19 [2 Songs] (de la Mare): Love in the Almond Bough, The Mountains, 1918
20 Crossings (fairy play, de la Mare), 4 songs, 1919: Ann’s Cradle Song, Araby,
Beggar’s Song, Candlestick Maker’s Song
21 [2 Songs] (de la Mare): The Linnet, The Stranger, 1919
— As I Lay in the Early Sun (E. Shanks), 1920
— The Fields are Full (Shanks), 1920
— For Remembrance (Shanks), 1920
30 John Mouldy (de la Mare), 1920, Silver (de la Mare), 1920
— 2 Short Songs (R. Herrick), 1v, str qt, early 1920s: A Child’s Grace, A Child’s
Epitaph; 2 Pastorals, 1920s: In the Spring the Runnels Flow, Upon the Grass
(H. T. Wade-Gery); Lyonesse (T. Hardy), ?1921; The Mad Prince (de la Mare),
1921; Summer Night (M. Agrell), 1921; The Tiger-lily (D.P. Bouverie), 1921; To
One Who Passed Whistling (Agrell), ?1921; When I was one and twenty (A.E.
Housman), 1921; Covent Garden (E. Carfrae), ?1922;
44 2 Elizabethan Songs (S. Daniel), 1922: Love Is a Sickness, In Youth Is
Pleasure; The Exile (de la Mare), 1922; Gray and Gold (H. Taylor), ?1922:
The Miracle, The Wind In Your Hair, Requiescat, I Shall Remember, April’s
Hour, ?1922; Mistletoe (de la Mare), 1922, arr. 1v, str qt, 1933; The Sleeping
Beauty (de la Mare), 1922
— Lullaby (de la Mare), 1923
— The Little Salamander (de la Mare), 1923
— By a Bierside (This is a Sacred City) (J. Masefield), 1924; The Galliass (de la
Mare), ?1924; Slow, Horses, Slow (T. Westwood) ?1924 (1924)
— Take Heed, Young Heart (de la Mare), 1925; The Wanderer (de la Mare), ?
1925; Every Little Child (W.H. Draper), ?1926; Proud Maisie (Scott) ?1926
(1926); The Market (J. Stephens), 1926; The Birch Tree (G. Mase), 1926;
Jenny Jones (D. Rowley), ?1926 (1927); On Duncton Hill (G. Grant), ?1927;
Resting (Grant) ?1927 (1928); The Ballad of Semmerwater (W. Watson),
1930; Danger (Currie), ?1930; Impromptu (Currie), ?1930; Thee Will I Love
(R. Bridges), 1930; The Flooded Stream (M. Cropper), ?1931; The Orchard
Sings to the Child (Cropper), ?1931; Padraic the Fidiler (P. Gregory), with vn
ad lib, ?1931; Dream Song (de la Mare), 1932; February (Currie), 1932; In the
Woods in June (Currie), 1932; Juliet Anne (Currie), ?1932; Oh, Nightingale
upon my Tree (Currie) ?1932 (1932); The Ship of Rio (de la Mare), 1v, str trio,
1932; The Starlighters (A. Gibbs), 1932; Sussex Ways (Currie), ?1932
— Old Wine in New Bottles, 4 Restoration Songs, 1932: When Arthur First in
Court Began, Pious Celinda (W. Congreve), If Music be the Food of Love,
sing on, ’Tis Wine that Inspires
— 2 Songs (trad.), ?1932: Down in Yonder Meadow, Lily-bright and Shine-a
— 5 Children’s Songs from ‘Peacock Pie’ (de la Mare), ?1932: The Barber’s,
Miss T., Old Shellover, Hide and Seek, Then
— The Love Talker (E. Carbery), A, Mez, orch, 1933
— Love’s Prisoner (Blake), 1933, arr. SSA, pf; Titania (Currie), ?1934, orig. 2vv,
pf, ?1934
— Love’s Wisdom (Currie) ?1934 (1934); Tom o’ Bedlam, 1934; Sledburn Fair,
1934; Sailing Homeward (Chin., trans. Waley), 1934; Midnight (J. Lang), 1934
83/3 Fulfilment (Currie) ?1935 (1935)
— A Ballad-maker (P. Colum), 1935; Maritime Invocation (A.C. Boyd), ?1935;
Immortality (Currie), ?1935
88 Henry Brocken Song-Cycle (de la Mare), ?1936: Lorelei’s Song, Jane Eyre’s
Song, The Doctor’s Song
— To Anise (N. Downes, arr. Currie) ?1937 (1937); Why Do I Love? (Ephelia),
1937; The Witch (Currie), 1937, orchd D. Bowden
91 A Voice in the Dusk (J. Irvine): Spring, In the Faery Hills, The Wind Comes
Softly, Moon Magic, ?1937; 2 Songs (E. Rogers), 1938: Lye Still My Deare,
Fyer fyer; Rest in the Lord (E.B. Sargant), 1939; Grade A (Gibbs), 1939,
unpubd; A Greeting (Gibbs), 1942
— The Splendour Falls (A. Tennyson), 1943, arr. 1v, orch; Before Sleeping,
1944; The Hawthorn Tree (H. Maude), ?1944; Quiet Conscience (Charles I),
 1944
102 Joan of Arc (Currie), ?1943 (1944): Revelation, Victory, Crowning, Defeat,
Mors janua vitae
— Old May Song (trad.), 1945, unpubd
111 Songs of the Mad Sea-captain (B. Martin), B-Bar, orch, 1946: Hidden
Treasure, Abel Wright, Toll the Bell, The Golden Ray
— The Cherry Tree (M. Rose), ?1947; Nightfall (H. Dawson), ?1947
116 2 Old English Lyrics: Chloris in the Snow (W. Strode), Amaryllis (trad), ?1949
(1949)
126 Willow Leaves (J. Irvine): To Yüan, The Dancing Girl, Meeting with Friends,
1949
— Hypochondriacus (C. Lamb), ?1949; The Old House (G.H. Kirkus), 1949; Lyric
Intermezzo (B. Jonson), 1v, orch, 1949; The Oxen (Hardy), 1951; The
Summer Palace (B. Ellis), 1952; Summer Time (Ellis), 1952
131 3 Lyrics (C. Rossetti), ?1952: The Lamb and the Dove, A Birthday, Gone were
but the Winter
— Philomel (R. Barnefield), ?1955; Prayer Before Sleep (L.E. Eeman), ?1955;
Elephantiaphus, ?1956, arr. unison vv, pf; Gipsies (H.H. Bashford), ?1956
(1956); Lament for Robin Hood (A. Munday), ?1956
— Nursery Rhymes for Nursery Singers: I Saw a Little Bird, Who’s Above?, The
Fox, I Love Little Pussy, I Love Sixpence, Lullaby, 1957
— Evening in Summer (J. Fletcher), 1959; Gone is my Love (E. Harrhy) ?1959;
Twice Sixteen; Velvet Shoes
choral
46 Before Dawn (de la Mare),
chorus, str, org/pf, 1922
53 Songs of Enchantment (de
la Mare), S, chorus, pf,
orch, 1925: Arabia,
Sleepyhead, The Prince of
Sleep
61 3 Festival Choruses,
SA/TB, pf, ?1927 (1927):
Beyond the Spanish Main
(A. Noyes), May in the
Greenwood (15th century),
The Emigrant (J. Masefield)
64 La belle dame sans merci
(J. Keats), chorus, orch,
1928
66 The Birth of Christ (cant.),
S, T, Bar, chorus, orch,
1929
72 The Highwayman (Noyes),
chorus, orch/small orch/str,
pf, drums, 1932
76 Songs of Childhood (de la
Mare), arr. SATB, pf, 1933
78 The Ballad of Gil Morrice
(arr. M. Currie), chorus,
orch, 1934
— Haunted phantasy for male
 voice choir (Currie), 1934
81 Choruses from pageant
play St Elizabeth of
Hungary (A.J.G. Nicholson)
?1935 (1935)
88 Deborah and Barak (Currie,
after Bible: Judges), A, Bar,
chorus, orch, ?1936 (1936)
89 The Three Kings (nativity
play, 4, Currie), S, A, pf/org
(1937)
90 Odysseus (sym., Currie), S,
Bar, chorus, orch, 1937–8
Forest Idyll (Currie), SSA,
str, pf, 1939
— Mag and Nunc, SATB,
1939
100 Before Daybreak
(Bottomley), A, female vv,
qt, str, pf, 1941
107 Evening Service, C, SATB,
org, 1944
— The Passion According to
St Luke, chorus, org, 1945
The New Jerusalem (17th
century), SSA, pf, 1947
121 As Lucy Went A-walking
(de la Mare), SA, pf, 1948
123 Pastoral Suite, Bar, chorus,
orch, 1948–9: Clock-a-clay
(J. Clare), Molly Green o’
Maldon (L. Cranmer Byng),
Waken, Lords and Ladies
Gay (J. Strutt), Essex (A.S.
Cripps)
130 In a Dream’s Beguiling (de
la Mare), Mez/semi-chorus,
SSA, str, pf, ?1951: The
Night Swans, The Horn,
King David, Melmillo, The
Changeling, Off the Ground
— The Listeners (de la Mare),
TTBB, ?1951
133 A Saviour Born (B. Ellis),
Mez, SSA, str, pf, 1952
— Behold the Man (Ellis), solo
vv, chorus, orch/org, 1954
136 The High Adventure (Ellis),
chorus, orch, ?1955 (1955)
— The Turning Year (Ellis),
chorus, pf, ?1958 (1958)
c35 anthems, motets, carols and psalms; c100
partsongs, c25 unison songs with pf
dramatic
20 Crossings (incid music, W. de la Mare), 1919
26 The White Devil (incid music, Webster), 1920, unpubd
31 The Betrothal (faery play, M. Maeterlinck), London, Gaiety, 1921
33 The Oresteia (Aeschylus, trans. R.C. Trevelyan), Cambridge, 1920–21
— The Blue Peter (comic op, 1, A.P. Herbert), ?1923
51 Midsummer Madness (play with music, C. Bax), 1923–4, Lyric, June 1924
— April Fools (children’s play, V.M. Methley), 1925
56 The Sting of Love (comic op, 1, L. Gibbs), 1926
60 When one isn’t There (children's operetta, C.W. Emlyn), 1927
— Lorna Doone (film score, dir. B. Dean, after R.D. Blackmore), ?1933
83 Twelfth Night (incid music, W. Shakespeare), 1936
115 Twelfth Night (op, 3, M. Currie, after Shakespeare), 1946–7
— The Great Bell of Burley (children’s op, 3, N. Bush), 1950
— The Promised One (incid music, B. Ellis), 1951
— Mr Cornelius (TV operetta, A. Ellis), 1952–3
— The Gift (B. Ellis), nar, 2vv female chorus, miming troupe, str, pf, ?1957
orchestral
23 Crossings, suite for small orch, 1919, arr. of op.20
25 The Enchanted Wood, dance phantasy, pf, str, 1919
48 Ob. Conc., 1923
70 Sym. no.1, e, 1931–2
82 Fancy Dress, dance suite, ?1934
— Essex Suite, str qt, str, ?1937
84 A Spring Garland, suite, str, ?1937
103 Concertino, pf, str, 1942
104 Sym. no.3 ‘Westmorland’, B , orch, 1943–4, arr. 2 pf
112 Prelude, Andante and Finale, str, 1946
124 Miniature Dance Suite, pf, str, ?1949
— Barcarolle, 1952
— Folksongs from the British Isles, 15 pieces, ?1952
132 6 British Traditional Tunes (Ariel), small orch, ?1952
— Dale and Fell, suite, pf, str, 1953
— Mediterranean, slow valse, pf, orch, 1953
— A Simple Conc., pf, str, ?1954
— Music for Str, 1956
— Threnody for Walter de la Mare, str qt, str, 1956
— A Simple Suite, str, ?1957
— Shade and Shine, suite, str, 1958
— Suite for Str, 1958–9
— Suite, vn, small orch, 1959
— 4 Orch Dances, 1959
chamber and instrumental
Str qt; Str Qt, C, op.1, ?1912; Str Qt, G, op.7, 1916; Str Qt, a, op.8, 1917, unpubd;
Str Qt, E, op.18, 1918; Str Qt, F , op.22, 1919; Pastoral Qt, op.41, 1921–2;
Mistletoe, 1922; 3 Pieces, 1927; Dream Pedlary, ?1933; Peacock Pie, suite, str qt,
db ad lib/str, pf, ?1933; Str Qt, A, op.73, 1933; Miniature Qt, op.74, ?1933; Str Qt, C,
op.95, 1940; Str Qt, g, op.99, 1941; A Simple Str Qt, op.140, 1954, unpubd; Str Qt,
e, 1958, unpubd
Other str pieces: Sonata, F, vc, pf; Rhapsody, vn; Phantasy, op.5, vn, pf, 1915;
Country Magic, op.47, pf trio, 1922; 3 Pieces, vn, pf, 1923; The Yorkshire Dales, 3
impressions for pf trio, op.58, 1926; Lyric Sonata, op.63, vn, pf, 1928; Henry
Brocken Suite, str qt, pf, ?1936; The Three Graces, op.92, light suite, pf trio, ?1940
(1941); Pf Trio, D, op.97, 1940; Suite, op.101, vn, pf, 1942 (1943); 3 Pieces, op.121,
vc, pf, 1948; Sonata, E, op.132, vc, pf, 1951; She’s Like the Swallow, pf trio
Wind, acc: 2 Pieces, cl, pf, 1931; Little Suite, cl, str qt, 1941; Rhythm Roundabout,
tpt, pf, ?1942; A Breath of Nostalgia, tpt/cl, pf, ?1949; Silver Stream, Quiet Evening,
cl, pf, 1951; 3 Pieces, cl, pf, 1956; Suite, A, op.144, fl, pf/str, 1956
Pf: Valse, G, 1906; 3 Sketches, op.35, 1921; An Essex Rhapsody, op.36, 1921,
unpubd; Everyday Doings, op.39, suite, 1922; Five o’Clocks and Cuckoo Flowers,
op.49, 1923; In the High Alps, op.52, suite, ?1924; 4 Preludes, op.62, 1927;
Children’s Suite, 1928; Lakeland Pictures, 8 preludes, op.9, 1940; Dusk, waltz,
1946; Bridal March, pf duet, 1947; Dawn, slow waltz, 1952; 2 Pieces, ?1954 (1955)
Org: 6 Sketches, 1953; Lullay, thou Little Tiny Child, 1955; Minuet in Classical Style,
1955; Postlude, D, 1955
arrangements
4 Songs [after E. Miller], 1937: The Happy Pair (Pilkington), The Despairing
Shepherd (Scroope), I Prithee Send me Back my Heart (Suckling), To Althea, from
Prison (Lovelace)
3 Irish Airs (Moore), 1940: Let Erin Remember, I’d Mourn the Hopes, Avenging and
Bright
Canadian Folksong Cycle (trad.), ?1959: My Canadian Bride, She’s Like the
Swallow, The Morning Dew, I’se the B’y that Builds the Boat, The Stormy Scenes of
Winter, Bonovist Harbour
WRITINGS
The Festival Movement (London, 1946)
‘Setting de la Mare to Music’, Journal of the National Book League, no.301
(1956), 80–81
Common Time, 1958 [unpubd autobiography]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Brook: Composers' Gallery (London, 1946), 64–70
J. Frank: ‘An English Trio’, MO, lxxxii (1958–9), 793, 795 only
S. Banfield: Sensibility and English Song (Cambridge, 1985)
E.A. Rust: ‘Cecil Armstrong Gibbs: a Personal Memoir’, British Music, xi
(1989), 45–66
R. Hancock-Child: A Ballad-Maker: the Life and Songs of C. Armstrong
Gibbs (London, 1993)
STEPHEN BANFIELD/RO HANCOCK-CHILD

Gibbs, Joseph
(b Colchester, 12 Dec 1698; d Ipswich, 12 Dec 1788). English organist and
composer. He was the son of John Gibbs, a Colchester wait, and was
presumably trained by his father, though he may also have studied in
London. GB-Ckc 121, a volume of keyboard music and violin sonatas
apparently in his hand, contains music by Handel, Babell, Pepusch, Corelli
and a copy of Thomas Roseingrave's Eight Suits of Lessons (London,
1728). Gibbs seems to have lived in Colchester until he became organist of
Dedham in about 1744, and regularly promoted concerts in the area. He
was appointed organist of St Mary-le-Tower in Ipswich in 1748, and the
next year the churchwardens there ensured he moved from Dedham by
offering to raise his salary to £12 a year ‘if he comes to reside in the town’;
however, he continued to play a prominent role in the musical life of the
whole region.
He was a friend of Thomas Gainsborough, who painted his portrait (see
illustration), and they were both members of the Ipswich Musical Society; a
lost Gainsborough sketch of one of its meetings apparently featured him in
the audience, asleep. He was married and had at least six children.
According to his obituary in The Gentleman's Magazine, he was ‘eminently
distinguished, both as a composer and performer’, and ‘the mildness,
simplicity and integrity of his manners rendered him universally beloved
and respected’. He was given a civic funeral at St Mary-le-Tower on 18
December 1788. His effects, including music, instruments and two
Gainsborough paintings, were sold at Ipswich on 21 March and 27 June
1789.
Gibbs is best known for his Eight Solos for a Violin with a Thorough Bass
for the Harpsicord or Bass Violin (op.1; London, 1746/R), published for the
author with a subscription list that includes William Boyce and Maurice
Greene as well as many local musical figures. They are inventive,
accomplished and often technically demanding works in an idiom heavily
influenced by Geminiani and M.C. Festing. By contrast, his Six Quartettos
for Two Violins, a Tenor and Violoncello or Harpsichord (op.2; London,
1777) are often clumsy and apparently incompetent, though it is hard to
say whether the solecisms are the result of old age, careless proofreading
or a botched attempt to modernize some existing trio sonatas. He also
wrote five organ voluntaries (GB-Lbl Add.63797), which are surprisingly
varied in style and range from an archaic ‘Double Voluntary’ with Purcellian
trumpet imitations to elegant works in the two-movement idiom popularized
by John Stanley.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.H. Mann: Notebooks on East Anglian music and musicians (MSS, GB-
NWr)
S.J. Sadie: British Chamber Music, 1720–1790 (diss., U. of Cambridge,
1958)
S. Bezkorvany: ‘The 8 Violin Sonatas of Joseph Gibbs’, The Strad, lxxxix
(1978–9), 189, 191
J. Cooper: ‘Joseph Gibbs’, The Strad, lxxxix (1978–9), 185–7
J. Bensusan-Butt: Thomas Gainsborough in his Twenties: a
Memorandum Based on Contemporary Sources (Colchester, 1993)
E. Skinner: ‘Eight Solos for a Violin with a Thorough-Bass for the
Harpsicord or Bass Violin’ composed by Joseph Gibbs 1698–1788: an
Interpretative and Stylistic Study (thesis, U. of London, 1997)
PETER HOLMAN

Gibbs [Gibbes], Richard

 (b ?late 16th century; d ?mid-17th century). English organist and
composer. He was appointed organist of Norwich Cathedral in 1622 and
from Michaelmas 1629 Master of the Choristers, posts which he held
nominally until 1649 although choral services were discontinued in 1643.
He is described as ‘Organist of Christ Church, Norwich [Norwich
Cathedral]’, in Clifford’s Divine Services, beside the words of his anthem
See, sinful soul, a substantial work, lacking at least one high voice part,
which resembles the larger-scale verse anthems of John Bull and Dering. A
further anthem, If the Lord himself (in Clifford’s Divine Services), and a
service in C major (GB-DRc MSC 18), sometimes attributed to Gibbs, are
by John Gibbs, Master of the Choristers of Westminster Abbey in the early
17th century.
Thomas Gibbs, possibly a relative of Richard Gibbs, was organist at
Norwich Cathedral from 1664 until he succumbed to the plague in 1666.
He may also have been the Gibbs who was organist at Canterbury
Cathedral between 1661 and 1663. Thomas Gibbs contributed a number of
two-part dances to Playford’s Courtly Masquing Ayres (1662).
WORKS
Have mercy upon me, O God, 4vv, 1635, GB-Lbl, Cu; version for 2vv in 16636
See, sinful soul, for Good Friday, verse, DRc, Lbl, Y, all inc.
Lord, in thy wrath, text only in J. Clifford, Divine Services and Anthems (London,
2/1664)
Allmaine, corant, kbd, Och
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R.T. Daniel and P. le Huray: The Sources of English Church Music 1549–
1660, EECM, suppl.i (1972)
W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists (Oxford, 1991)
P. Aston and T. Roast: ‘Music in the Cathedral’, Norwich Cathedral:
Church, City and Diocese 1096–1996, ed. I. Atherton and others
(London, 1996), 688–704
PETER ASTON, TOM ROAST

Gibelius [Gibel], Otto

(b Burg auf Fehmarn, 1612; d Minden, 20 Oct 1682). German composer,
theorist and teacher. In 1629 he fled from a plague in Burg (of which his
father died) and moved to Brunswick to live with relatives. In 1631 he
began to study both theoretical and practical music with Heinrich Grimm
(who had himself studied with Michael Praetorius). After three years' study
he became Kantor at Stadthagen. He remained there until 1642, when he
was appointed a teacher at the Gymnasium, and also assistant Kantor, at
nearby Minden. Six years later he was made Kantor, a position he held for
the rest of his life.
Although he lived in relative obscurity, Gibelius was well known throughout
Germany as a teacher, composer and particularly as a theorist. His
treatises were referred to frequently by other writers on music theory well
into the 18th century. As late as 1740 Mattheson could say of him: ‘I believe
that thousands have gone to universities and spent many years there
 without becoming the equal of this man who had never attended one’. His
significance for music historians is as an observer and teacher of German
music theory. His five brief books are primarily instruction manuals for
teaching singing in church schools. He was an erudite scholar who had
read widely in most of the major treatises of antiquity as well as in those of
the 16th and 17th centuries. He singled out Grimm, Lippius and
Baryphonus as the most important writers to influence his own publications.
In his Bericht von den vocibus musicalibus (1659) he proposed a 14-note
octave, for which he constructed a keyboard including both D and E and
G and A . Of his compositions only two brief funeral cantatas are extant.
WORKS
Erster Teil geistlicher Harmonien, 1–5vv, ?bc (Hamburg, 1671), lost
Die Eitelkeit der Welt (Es ist alles gantz eitel), 5vv, 3 va, bc (Minden, 1673)
Die Liebe Gottes (Ich hab dich je und je geliebet), 4vv, 2 vn, vle, bc (Minden, 1673)
theoretical works
Seminarium modulatoriae vocalis, das ist: Ein Pflantzgarten der Singkunst, welcher
in sich begreiffet etliche Tirocinis, oder Lehr-Gesänglein … für alle vier Menschen-
Stimmen (Celle, 1645, 2/1657)
Compendium modulatoriae, darin … die fürnehmste Praecaepta beim Singen
(Jena, 1651)
Kurtzer, jedoch gründlicher Bericht von den vocibus musicalibus (Bremen, 1659)
Introductio musicae theoreticae didacticae (Bremen, 1660)
Propositiones mathematico-musicae, das ist: Etliche fürnehme und gar nützliche
musicalische Auffgaben, aus der Mathesi demonstriret (Minden, 1666)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MatthesonGEP
A. Ganse: Der Cantor Otto Gibelius (1612–1682): sein Leben und seine
Werke (Leipzig, 1934)
GEORGE J. BUELOW

Gibelli, Lorenzo [Gibellone]

(b Bologna, 24 Nov 1718; d Bologna, 5 Nov 1812). Italian singing teacher
and composer. Endowed with a voice encompassing the bass, baritone
and alto ranges, he studied singing and counterpoint with Martini. In 1744
he was appointed maestro di cappella in the church of S Salvatore in
Bologna and in 1749 became a member of the Accademia Filarmonica, of
which he was elected principe five times from 1753 to 1810. He was also
maestro di cappella in other churches of Bologna, such as the Oratorio di S
Filippo Neri (1762), and at the Arciconfraternita di S Maria della Morte
(1773), and maestro al cembalo of the Teatro Comunale.
Gibelli was one of the most celebrated singing teachers of his day. Among
his most successful pupils were the castratos Crescentini and Francesco
Roncaglia and the tenor Matteo Babbini. In 1804 he was appointed
professor of singing at the new Liceo Filarmonico, where he gave some
lessons to the young Rossini. Pancaldi listed 467 religious compositions
found in the possession of Gibelli’s wife, Gertrude Gibelli Fornasari; a much
smaller number survive. All modelled on the style of Martini, they
 demonstrate a solid knowledge of academic counterpoint combined with a
melodic flexibility that caused Gibelli to be called ‘Gibellone dalle belle
fughe’; some of the themes, according to Pancaldi, were based on popular
tunes.
WORKS
Ops: Diomeda (pasticcio), nr Bologna, S Giovanni in Persiceto, Sept 1741; Gli
sponsali di Enea (pasticcio), Bologna, Formagliari, 1744; Evergete, Venice, S
Giovanni Grisostomo, aut. 1748; Demetrio (P. Metastasio), Alessandria, Solerio, Oct
1751; only libs extant; Il filosofo Anselmo e Lesbina (intermezzo), I-Bc*
Orats, only libs extant: Davidde in Terrebinto, 1744; Gionata figliuol di Saule, 1752;
Il Giuseppe riconosciuto, 1762; La Passione del Signore, 1763; La passione e
morte di Gesù Cristo, 1785
Cantata (G. Montanari), 2vv, 1761, only lib extant
Other sacred, I-Baf, Bam, Bc, incl.: Mass, 4vv, insts; 2 Ky–Gl, 4vv, insts; 2 Cr, 4vv,
insts; 2 Confitebor, 2–3vv, insts; Domine ad adjuvandum, 4vv, insts; Laudate pueri,
3vv, insts; Regina coeli, 4vv
Pedagogical: Solfeggi, B, T, Bc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SartoriL
C. Pancaldi: Vita di Lorenzo Gibelli, celebre contrappuntista e cantore
(Bologna, 1830)
C. Sartori: Il Regio Conservatorio di musica ‘G.B. Martini’ di Bologna
(Florence, 1942)
GIORGIO PESTELLI

Gibert, Paul-César
(b Versailles, 1717; d Paris, 1787). French singing teacher and composer.
While very young he was sent to Naples by his father, an officer of the
maison du roi. He probably took music lessons there with several
conservatory masters, and he eventually recruited Italian singers, the
popular Antoine Albanese among them, for the Chapelle Royale in Paris.
On his return to France about 1750, Gibert apparently lived as a teacher of
singing and composition, and also became known as a composer of
opéras comiques. Of these, La fortune au village (1760), Soliman second,
ou Les trois sultanes (1761) and Apelle et Campaspe (1763) are the most
notable. La fortune au village, performed when the Comédiens Italiens
returned to their (remodelled) theatre at the Hôtel de Bourgogne after a
summer’s absence, was Gibert’s first real comédie mêlée d’ariettes, in
which vaudeville timbres had been completely eliminated. It was received
favourably by the Mercure de France as the work of a ‘young musician [he
was already 43] of considerable promise and taste’. Soliman second was
at once a chef d’oeuvre of C.-S. Favart, a highpoint in the theatrical career
of Mme Favart, and an important and influential work in the development of
the 18th-century ‘Turkish’ opera, of which Mozart’s Die Entführung aus
dem Serail is the crowning representative. The lack of success of the
historical comédie héroïque, Apelle et Campaspe was probably occasioned
principally by the volatile personality of its librettist, A.A.H. Poinsinet.
Gibert’s music, though Grimm found it ‘detestable’, is of quite high quality.
 After composing three motets, Diligam te, Confitebor tibi Domine and
Laetatus sum (1766–8), all successfully performed at the Concert Spirituel,
Gibert returned to stage works with a serious opera, Deucalion et Pyrrha
(1772); after its performance he reportedly received a gold medal valued at
300 livres. His commitment to teaching was particularly strong during the
last two decades of his life; his Solfèges, ou Leçons de musique, usually
dated 1783, had already appeared in print in late 1769. It was followed by
two lesser-known printed collections: Mélange musical: premier recueil
(Paris, 1775), and IIme recueil d’airs nouveaux (Paris, ?1783). The first of
these is by far the more substantial, containing everything from
occasionally awkward Italianate ariettes, often borrowed from his own
opéras comiques, to highly developed dramatic scenes in the manner of
Rameau or Gluck. Many pieces are parodied after solfège exercises from
the 1769 publication. Despite a pervasive Italian character, Gibert’s
frequent use of rondeau and romance forms, the parallel minor, and
diminished chords clearly allies him first to Rameau, and then more
particularly to Grétry. The strong influence of Gluck in the dramatic scenes
is not surprising, yet it reveals one of Gibert’s major weaknesses as a
composer, his tendency towards imitation rather than originality.
WORKS
unless otherwise stated, all stage works first performed in Paris at the Hôtel de Bourgogne
by the Comédiens Italiens

Soliman second, ou Les trois sultanes (cmda, 3, C.-S. Favart, after J.F. Marmontel),
9 April 1761 (Paris, n.d.)
La fausse Turque (oc, 1, P.-N. Brunet), Paris, Foire St Laurent, 3 July 1761
Apelle et Campaspe (oc, 2, A.A.H. Poinsinet), Paris, OC (Bourgogne), 21 April 1763
(Paris, n.d.)
Deucalion et Pyrrha (?opéra-ballet, 4, C.H. Watelet), Paris, Vauxhall de la Foire St
Germain, 29 April 1772, lost
Parodies: La Sybille [A. Dauvergne: Les fêtes d’Euterpe] (Harny de Guerville), 21
Oct 1758 (Paris, n.d.); Le carnaval d’été, ou Le bal aux boulevards [J.J.
Mondonville: Le carnaval du Parnasse] (1, A.J. Labbet de Morambert and A.J.
Sticotti), 11 Aug 1759; La fortune au village [P. de La Garde: Aeglé] (1, M.-J.-B.
Favart, C.-S. Favart and M. Bertrand), 8 Oct 1760 (Paris, 1761)

other works
Solfèges, ou Leçons de musique (Paris, 1769)
Mélange musical: premier recueil (Paris, 1775)
IIme recueil d’airs nouveaux (Paris, ?1783)
Traduction de Catulle, vv, orch/kbd/hp (Paris, 1775) (cited in MGG1)
3 motets, perf. Paris, Concert Spirituel, 1766, 1768
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Affiches, annonces et avis divers (1758–76)
Mercure de France (1759–87)
J.J.L. de Lalande: Voyage d’un François en Italie fait dans les années
1765 & 1766, vii (Paris, 1769), 193
C.-S. Favart: Mémoires et correspondance littéraires, dramatiques et
anecdotiques (Paris, 1808)
M. Tourneux, ed.: Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique par
Grimm, Diderot, Raynal, Meister, etc. (Paris, 1877–82)
M.-C. Skuncke: ‘Soliman II in French and Swedish Garb’, Gustave III and
the Swedish Stage: Opera, Theatre and other Foibles: Essays in
Honor of Hans Astrand, ed. B.H. van Boer (Lewiston, NY, 1993), 37–
48
KENT M. SMITH

Gibson.
American firm of fretted string instrument makers. It was founded by Orville
H. Gibson (b Chateaugay, NY, 1856; d Ogdensburg, NY, 21 Aug 1918) in
Kalamazoo, Michigan. He began making instruments in the 1880s, and the
Gibson name was established as a marque in 1894; mandolins dominated
Gibson’s output until the mid-1920s. In the 1880s he began to apply violin
construction techniques to the production of flat-back mandolins, and
Gibson’s scroll-body F-model and pear-shaped A-model mandolins
dominated their market until the 1920s. Before the turn of the century
Gibson was making arch-top guitars with oval soundholes, based on the
construction techniques he had been using for mandolins.
In 1902 a group of businessmen joined Gibson to form the Gibson
Mandolin-Guitar Manufacturing Co., Ltd, later renamed the Gibson
Mandolin-Guitar Mfg. Co. (1904), then the Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Co.
(1906). O.H. Gibson left in 1903; he received a regular royalty from the
company until 1908 and then a monthly income until his death. In 1917 the
company moved to new premises on Parsons Street, Kalamazoo, which it
occupied until 1984.
In the 1920s banjos became Gibson’s most important product; they were
later superseded by guitars. In 1923 Gibson introduced the L-5, the first f-
hole guitar, designed by Lloyd Loar, which was one of the earliest models
to have a neck strengthened with a truss rod – another Gibson innovation.
The years following World War I also saw the unveiling of a harp-guitar
(based on an invention by O.H. Gibson patented in 1908), several types of
banjos including those in the Mastertone series (1918–25; for illustration
see Banjo, fig.1a), and the F-5 (an f-hole mandolin, 1922). In an attempt to
compete with Martin Dreadnought guitars, Gibson entered the market for
flat-top instruments in 1934 with the Jumbo model; the Super Jumbo
(subsequently J-200) model appeared four years later. At the same time
Gibson introduced its first electric guitars, the Electric Hawaiian steel guitar
(1935) and the Spanish hollow-bodied ES-150 (1936).
The company became Gibson, Inc., in 1924 and in 1944 was taken over by
the Chicago Musical Instrument Co., which in 1969 was bought by Norlin
Industries. In 1952 Gibson introduced the solid-body Les Paul electric
guitar (for illustration see ..\Frames/F001851.htmlElectric guitar, fig.1), and
the factory changed progressively to electric guitar production. Throughout
the following decades Gibson introduced several more solid-bodied electric
guitars, including the Flying V (1958), Explorer (1958), and Firebird (1963)
models, all of which had unorthodox body shapes, as well as the semi-
hollow ES-335 (1958).
In 1957 Gibson acquired the Epiphone marque and in the 1970s moved
production of Epiphone guitars to Japan. A plant was opened in Elgin,
Illinois, in 1973 to produce pickups and strings (the firm had sold its own
brand of strings from 1907), and in June 1975 a large factory for the
production of guitars was opened in Nashville, principally because the
overcrowded Kalamazoo site was unable to meet the demand for electric
guitars. In the early 1980s it reduced its staff and in 1984 all manufacturing
was moved to Nashville. In 1986 the firm was sold to Henry Juskiewicz,
David Berryman and Gary Zebrowski.
Gibson’s instruments have traditionally been among the most elegant and
costly in their class, and the best examples are highly sought after by
musicians and collectors; the firm set standards for appearance and sonic
quality that influenced many instrument makers throughout the world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Bellson: The Gibson Story (Kalamazoo, MI, 1973)
T. Wheeler: American Guitars: an Illustrated History (New York, 1982,
3/1992)
T. Bacon and P. Day: The Gibson Les Paul Book (London, 1993)
W. Carter: Gibson Guitars: 100 Years of an American Icon (Los Angeles,
1994)
A. Duchossoir: Gibson Electrics: the Classic Years (Milwaukee, 1994)
S. Chinery and T. Bacon: The Chinery Collection: 150 Years of American
Guitars (London, 1996)
TONY BACON/R

Gibson, Sir Alexander

(Drummond)
(b Motherwell, 11 Feb 1926; d London, 14 Jan 1995). Scottish conductor.
He studied piano at the Royal Scottish Academy of Music, and read music
at Glasgow University. On his return from military service in 1948 he won a
scholarship to the RCM, London, later studying with Markevich at Salzburg
and van Kempen at Siena. In 1951 he joined the Sadler’s Wells Opera as a
répétiteur, and made his professional début there the following year
conducting The Bartered Bride. Gibson next spent two years (1952–4) as
associate conductor of the BBC Scottish SO, gaining experience of the
concert repertory before returning to Sadler’s Wells as a staff conductor. In
1957 he became the company’s youngest musical director, and made his
Covent Garden début that year. At Sadler’s Wells he conducted 26 operas,
including the première of John Gardner’s The Moon and Sixpence (1957).
He also began to appear more widely as a symphonic conductor with
British and foreign orchestras, but forsook his London appointment in 1959
to become the Scottish National Orchestra’s first native principal conductor
and artistic director, a post he held until 1984.
Gibson remained based in Scotland, where he made the (Royal) Scottish
National Orchestra a vital influence on the national as well as the regional
scene. Contemporary music featured prominently in his programmes, and
he introduced numerous new works including several by Henze, and
Stockhausen’s Gruppen at Glasgow in 1961, six years in advance of
London. In 1962 he helped to form Scottish Opera, of which he also
became artistic director, conducting the first complete performance of
Berlioz’s Les Troyens (1969), the first German-language Ring cycle in
Scotland (1971) and premières of operas by Orr and Hamilton.
Gibson made his American début in 1970 with the Detroit SO, and toured
in North and South America as well as in most European countries. In 1981
he became principal guest conductor of the Houston SO. A firm orchestral
disciplinarian, he developed a persuasive skill over a broad stylistic range,
often achieving distinction in performance, perhaps most memorably in his
colourful, grandly conceived 1971 Ring cycle. Among his recordings are
Mozart’s complete works for violin and orchestra (with Szeryng and the
NPO), a cycle of Sibelius symphonies and tone poems (with the Scottish
National Orchestra) and scenes from Les Troyens (with Janet Baker and
the LSO). He was made a CBE in 1967, knighted in 1977, and became
president of the Royal Scottish Academy of Music in 1991.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Wilson: ‘Alexander Gibson’, Opera, xix (1968), 617–20
J.L. Holmes: Conductors: a Record Collector’s Guide (London, 1988), 90–
92
A. Clark: ‘Turning out for the Scottish Knight’, Classical Music (12 May
1990)
C. Wilson: Playing for Scotland: a History of the Royal Scottish National
Orchestra (Glasgow, 1993)
A. Stewart: ‘Mellow Gibson’, Opera Now (1994), Oct, 32–3
NOËL GOODWIN

Gibson, Jon (Charles)

(b Los Angeles, CA, 11 March 1940). American composer, woodwind
instrumentalist and graphic artist. He studied at Sacramento State
University and with Henry Onderdonk and Wayne Peterson at San
Francisco State University (BA 1964). In San Francisco and, after 1966, in
New York he performed in early works of Reich (including the 1967 Reed
Phase that Reich wrote for him, and the première of Drumming in 1971);
Riley (the première of In C, 1964); and La Monte Young (as a member of
the drone ensemble The Theatre of Eternal Music in 1970). He was a
founding member of the Philip Glass Ensemble, in which he has performed
since 1968, the year Glass dedicated the soprano saxophone solo Gradus
(originally entitled for Jon Gibson) to him. He has frequently performed in a
duo with Glass and has collaborated with such composers as Christian
Wolff, Behrman, Budd, Curran and Rzewski. The dancer-choreographers
for whom he has written and performed include Nancy Topf (The Great
Outdoors, 1976), Margaret Jenkins (Equal Time, 1976), Merce
Cunningham (Fractions, 1977, and other projects), Lucinda Childs
(Relative Calm, 1981), Elaine Summers (Solitary Geometry, 1983), Simone
Forti (Framing Music, 1992) and Elisabetta Vittoni (La Spezia, 1993). An
accomplished graphic artist, Gibson also provided the visual elements
(slide projections and video) for several of these performances. His visual
work is most often a structural representation of some aspect of a musical
composition (e.g. in the second book of Melody III, 1975). He collaborated
with French artists Tania Mouraud and Kuntzel on the gallery installation
 Trans (1977), with video artist Peter d’Agostino on Teletapes (1981),
Double You (and XYZ) (1985) and Transmissions (1987–8), and with
JoAnne Akalaitis on the music-theatre piece Voyage of the Beagle (1983–
7). In 1985 he produced the computer animation Interval 30.9A.
Gibson began his own early experimental work as an improviser and
composer, performing in the New Music Ensemble with the composers
Larry Austin, Richard Swift and Stanley Lunetta. His compositions reveal
the underlying minimalist, postmodernist vocabulary which he helped
pioneer. Other major influences are jazz, which he studied from his
teenage years onwards, notably with saxophonist John Handy in the early
60s; and South Indian vocal music which he studied at the Ali Akbar
School. The Indian musicians Pandit Pran Nath, Bismillah Khan and
Mahalingam have been especially important. Gibson’s style ranges widely
from the multi-track density of Visitations – an ‘environmental soundscape’
incorporating layers of ocean, bird, percussion and wooden flute sounds –
which anticipates and has rarely been equalled by practitioners of ambient
and New Age music, to the austere sustained-tone harmonics of Cycles;
and from the medieval-tinged additive process of Song I and II to the
pristine lyricism of jazz-flavoured ballads such as ‘Mont Blanc’, from
Voyage of the Beagle.
WORKS
Stage: Voyage of the Beagle (music theatre, J.A. Akalaitis), 1983–7; Extensions
(dance score, choreog. L. Childs), s sax, tape, 1980; Q-Music (dance score,
choreog. Childs), small ens, 1980; Relative Calm (dance score, choreog. Childs),
small ens, tape, 1981
Vocal: Running Commentary (A–Z), 1 or more vv, 1980–87; Running Commentary
(Arbitrary Excerpts), 1v, small ens, 1992; Talk is Cheap, 1v, small ens, 1996; Big
Fish Little Pond, 4vv, 1997
Inst: Single Stroke Bell, perc, opt. insts, 1968; 30’s, any insts, 1970; Fluid Drive,
ens, 1972 [version of Visitations, tape, 1972]; Fl Duet, 1972; Multiples, any melody
insts, 1972; Song I, small ens, 1972, II, small ens, 1973–4, IV, small ens, 1978–9;
Untitled, 1–3 melody insts, 1974–5; Melody IV, parts 1 and 2, 9 insts, 1975; 32/11, 1
inst, opt. kbd, 1975; Return, small ens, 1979; Variations, small ens, 1980; Waltz,
open insts, 1982; No Tango, small ens, 1983; Full Circle, kbd/small ens, 1987, rev.
1989; Essence, small ens, 1988; It Doesn’t Matter, small ens, 1988; Turn of Events,
2 pf, 1990; Southern Climes, small ens, 1993; Chorales from Relative Calm, small
ens, 1993; Waltz for Orch, 1995; Lines, small ens, 1996; Unfinished Business I,
small ens, 1997; Changes, 4 melody insts
Solo inst (for 1 melody inst unless otherwise stated): Melody I, prep pf, 1973,
Melody II, 1973; Cycles, org, 1973; Song III, s sax, 1976; Equal Distribution I, 1977;
Recycle I, II, 1977; Call, 1978; Equal Distribution III, 1978; One, Two, Three, 1978–
9; Criss Cross, 1979; Ballade, 1986–8; Companion Piece, 1989; La Spezia, pf,
1991; Surface Tension, 1993; Fanfare I, 1993; Chrome, 1995; A Rose It Isn’t, 1997
Tape: Who are You, 1966; Vocal/Tape Delay, 1968; Visitations: an Environmental
Soundscape, tape collage, 1968–72, arr. live ens as Fluid Drive, 1972; Radioland,
1972; Melody III, tape, slides, 1975; Jungle Collage, tape, insts, 1983 [incl. in
Voyage of the Beagle]
Other: RSFVHF (Rhythm Study for Voice Hands Feet), pfmr, 1974, arr. video tape,
1974; One Way, video tape, 1976; Interval, video tape, 1985 [incl. 30’s with graphic
score]
Principal publisher: Undertow Music

BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Heubach, ed.: Interfunktionen 10 (Cologne, 1972) [scores, drawings]
T. Johnson: ‘Getting Fogbound in Sound’, Village Voice (20 Dec 1973)
W. Sharp: ‘The Phil Glass Ensemble’, Avalanche, no.10 (1974)
SoHo: Downtown Manhattan, Akademie der Künste, 5 Sept–17 Oct 1976
(Berlin, 1976) [exhibition catalogue]
D. Reck, ed.: Music of the Whole Earth (New York, 1977, 2/1997)
R. Kostelanetz, ed.: Seventh Assembling (New York, 1977)
R.F. Crone: Numerals 1924–1977, Leo Castelli Gallery, 7 Jan–28 Jan 1978
(New York, 1978) [exhibition catalogue]
R. Palmer: ‘Sciences Inspires Soho Avant-Garde Composers’, New York
Times (31 July 1977)
R. Teitlebaum: ‘Less and Less’, Soho News (26 March 1980)
R. Johnson, ed.: Scores, an Anthology of New Music (New York, 1981)
[incl. commentary]
A. Pomarede: ‘Jon Gibson, paysage sonore’, Art présent, no.9 (1981), 51
R.E. Bandt: Models and Processes in Repetitive Music, 1960–1983 (diss.,
Monash U., 1983)
T. Johnson: The Voice of New Music New York City 1972–1982
(Eindhoven, 1989)
D. Suzuki: Minimal Music (diss., U. of Southern California, 1991)
E. Strickland: Minimalism: Origins (Bloomington, IN, 1993)
W. Duckworth: Talking Music (New York, 1995)
D. Goode, ed.: The Frog Peak Rock Music Book (Lebanon, NH, 1995)
B.G. Tyranny: All Music Guide (San Francisco, 3/1997)
R. Kostelanetz, ed.: Writings on Glass (New York, 1997)
EDWARD STRICKLAND

Gidayu.
See Takemoto Gidayū.

Gideon, Miriam
(b Greeley, CO, 23 Oct 1906; d New York, 18 June 1996). American
composer. Early in life, she studied the piano with Hans Barth, Felix Fox
and her uncle Henry Gideon, an organist and choral director. She later
received degrees from Boston University (BA 1926), Columbia University
(MA 1946) and the Jewish Theological Seminary (DSM 1970) and studied
composition privately with Saminsky (1931–4) and Sessions (1935–43).
She taught at Brooklyn College (1944–54) and City College, CUNY (1947–
55, 1971–6), the Jewish Theological Seminary (1955–91) and the
Manhattan School of Music (1967–91). Her honours included awards and
commissions from the Ernest Bloch Society, the Ford and Rockefeller
foundations and the Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge Foundation, among
others. In 1975 she was elected to the American Academy and Institute of
Arts and Letters.
 Gideon did not rely on a preconceived compositional system but let each
work suggest its own style and form; her musical language can be
described as freely atonal. Its prevailing lyricism at times is contrasted by a
pointed and dramatic intensity: textures are ‘characterized by lightness, the
sudden exposure of individual notes, constantly shifting octave
relationships [and] a technique that imposes economy and the exclusion of
irrelevancies’ (Perle). Fascinated by the idea of setting a poem in more
than one language, she often used both the original language and a
translation within a single composition. In Steeds of Darkness (1986), for
example, a setting of an Italian poem by Felix Pick is followed by its English
‘recreation’, based on a poem by Eugene Mahon. In Gideon’s own words,
the setting of Mahon’s poem ‘extracts at white heat the fantasy of the
original poem’. Together, the settings exhibit a striking musical reflection on
death’s ‘relentless and despairing chase’.
WORKS
opera
Fortunato (3 scenes, Gideon, after S. and J. Quintero), S, Mez, T, Bar, orch/pf, 1958
vocal
Choral: Slow, Slow Fresh Fount (B. Jonson), SATB/TTBB, 1941; Sweet Western
Wind (R. Herrick), SATB, 1943; How Goodly are thy Tents (Ps lxxxiv), SSA/SATB,
org, pf, 1947; Adon olom [Master of the World] (Heb. liturgy), S, A, T, SATB, ob, tpt,
str orch, 1954; The Habitable Earth (Bible: Proverbs), S, A, T, B, SATB, ob, pf/org,
1965; Spiritual Madrigals (F. Ewen, S. von Trimperg, H. Heine), TTB, bn, va, vc,
1965; Sacred Service for Sabbath Morning (Heb. liturgy), cantor, S, A, T, B, SATB,
fl, ob, bn, tpt, org, va, vc, 1970; Shirat Miriam l’shabbat (Heb. liturgy), cantor, SATB,
org, 1974; Where Wild Carnations Blow – a Song to David, solo vv, SATB, inst ens,
1983
Song cycles: Sonnets from Shakespeare, 1v, pf/(tpt, str qt/str orch), 1949; 4
Epitaphs (R. Burns), 1v, pf, 1952; Songs of Voyage (J.P. Peabody, F. Wilkinson), 1v,
pf, 1961; The Condemned Playground (Horace, J. Milton, G. Spokes, S. Akiya, C.P.
Baudelaire, E. St Vincent Millay), S, T, fl, bn, str qt, 1963; Rhymes from the Hill (C.
Morgenstern), med v, cl, mar, vc, 1966; Songs of Youth and Madness (F. Hölderlin,
trans. M. Hamburger), high v, orch, 1977; Ayelet hashakhar [Morning Star] (C.N.
Bialik, M. Stekelis, L. Goldberg), med v, pf, 1980; Wing’d Hour (C. and D.G.
Rossetti, W. de la Mare), med v, pf/(fl, ob, vib, vn, vc), 1983; Creature to Creature
(N. Cardozo), med high v, fl, hp, 1985; Poet to Poet: an Ode to Ben Jonson (R.
Herrick, Byron, A.C. Swinburne), high v, pf, 1987; The Shooting Starres Attend Thee
(R. Herrick, T. Carew, S. Menashe), high v, fl, vn, vc, 1987; 8 other song cycles,
1952–81
Songs: The Hound of Heaven (F. Thompson), med v, ob, vn, va, vc, 1945; Little
Ivory Figures (A. Lowell), low/med v, gui, 1950; The Adorable Mouse (Gideon, after
J. de La Fontaine), low v, fl, cl, bn, hpd, timp, 1960 [arr. nar, pf/(fl, cl, 2hns, pf, timp,
str)]; Steeds of Darkness (F. Pick, E. Mahon), high v, fl, ob, vc, pf, perc, 1986;
Böhmischer Krystall (A. Giraud, trans. O.E. Hartleben), high v, fl, ob, cl, bn, vc, pf,
1988; Songs from the Greek for Pipes and Strings (ancient Gk. poets), Mez, ob, cl,
bn, pf, 1989; 24 songs, lv, pf, 1929–66
instrumental
Orch: Epigrams, suite, chbr orch, 1941, unpubd; Lyric Piece, str, 1941; Symphonica
brevis, 1953
Chbr: Lyric Piece, str qt, 1941 [arr. str orch]; Str Qt, 1946; Divertimento, ww qt,
1948; Fantasy on a Javanese Motive, vc, pf, 1948; Sonata, va, pf, 1948; Air, vn, pf,
1950; Biblical Masks (vn, pf)/org, 1960; Sonata, vc, pf, 1961; Suite, cl/vn, pf, 1972;
Fantasy on Irish Folk Motives, ob, bn, va, perc, 1975; Trio, cl, vc, pf, 1978; Eclogue,
fl, pf, 1988; Rondo appassionato, vc, pf, perc, 1990
Pf: 3-Cornered Pieces (Suite no.1), 1935 [arr. fl, cl, pf]; Sonatina ‘Hommage à ma
jeunesse’, 2 pf, 1935; Sketches (Suite no.2), 1937–40; Canzona, 1945; Suite no.3,
1951; Six Cuckoos in Quest of a Composer, suite, 1953; Of Shadows Numberless,
suite, 1966; Sonata, 1977
Recorded interviews in US-NHoh
Principal publishers: ACA, Mobart, Peters
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EwenD
VintonD
G. Perle: ‘The Music of Miriam Gideon’, American Composers Alliance
Bulletin, vii/4 (1958), 2–9
B.A. Peterson: ‘The Vocal Chamber Music of Miriam Gideon’, The Musical
Woman: an International Perspective, ii, ed. J. Lang Zaimont and
others (New York, 1991), 226
L. Ardito: ‘Miriam Gideon: a Memorial Tribute’, PNM, xxxiv (1996), 202–14
LINDA ARDITO

Gidino da Sommacampagna
(fl Verona, 14th century). Italian poet and theorist. He lived at the court of
the Scaligers at Verona under Mastino II, Bartolomeo and Antonio, and
dedicated to Antonio his Lo tractato et la arte de li rithimi volgari, written
between 1381 and 1384 (edited by G.B.C. Giuliari as Trattato dei ritmi
volgari, Bologna, 1870/R). This is a treatise on metrics, with examples, in
which Gidino described the main poetic forms of the 14th century: sonnets,
ballatas or canzoni, rotondelli, marighali, serventesi and moti confetti. The
text is derived from the treatise by Antonio da Tempo, but the examples are
Gidino's own. Music is mentioned in connection with the ballata and the
polyphonic madrigal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Paganuzzi: ‘Medioevo e Rinascimento’, La musica a Verona, ed. P.
Brugnoli (Verona, 1976), 1–216, esp. 33–7
F.A. Gallo: ‘Sulla fortuna di Antonio da Tempo: un quarto volgarizzamento’,
L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, v, ed. A. Ziino (Palermo, 1985), 149–
57
N. Pirrotta: ‘A Sommacampagna Codex of the Italian Ars Nova?’, Essays
in Medieval Music: in Honor of David G. Hughes, ed. G.M. Boone
(Cambridge, MA, 1995), 317–32
F. ALBERTO GALLO

Gieburowski, Wacław
(b Bydgoszcz, 6 Feb 1878; d Warsaw, 27 Sept 1943). Polish musicologist,
conductor and composer. Ordained priest in 1902, he studied music at
Regensburg with Haberl and Haller and musicology with Kinkeldey in
Breslau (Wrocław) and with Wolf and Kretzschmar in Berlin. He took the
doctorate at Breslau in 1913 with a dissertation on a 15th-century treatise.
From 1925 to 1939 he was an assistant professor at the University of
Poznań. He also taught at the Poznań Conservatory and at the theological
seminary. From 1916 he was conductor of the Poznań Cathedral Choir and
succeeded in making it one of the finest choirs in Poland between the
wars. His main interest was church music, both early and contemporary.
He was responsible for several editions and composed a number of church
works himself.
WRITINGS
Die ‘Musica Magistri Szydlovite’: ein polnischer Choraltraktat des XV.
Jahrhunderts und seine Stellung in der Choraltheorie des Mittelalters
(diss., U. of Breslau, 1913; Poznań, 1915)
Chorał gregorjański w Polsce od XV do XVII wieku, ze specjalnem
uwzględnieniem tradycji i reformy oraz chorału Piotrkowskiego [The
Gregorian chorale in Poland from the 15th century to the 17th, with
special reference to tradition and reform as well as to the Piotrkowski
chorale] (Poznań, 1922) [with Fr. summary]
EDITIONS
Cantica selecta musices sacrae in Polonia (Poznań, 1928–39)
Cantionale ecclesiasticum ad normam editionis Vaticanae ratione habita
ritualis pro Polonia approbati (Poznań, 1933)
Śpiewnik kościelny [Hymnbook] (Poznań, 1938)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Młodziejowski: ‘Ks. Dr Wacław Gieburowski’, RM, ii/20–21 (1946), 27
S. Duszyński: ‘Wspomnienie pośmiertne o ks. dr W. Gieburowskim’, Życie
muzyczne, nos.3–4 (1947), 1 only
ZYGMUNT M. SZWEYKOWSKI

Giegling, Franz
(b Buchs, nr Aarau, 27 Feb 1921). Swiss musicologist. He studied the
piano with Walter Frey and theory with Paul Müller at the Zürich
Conservatory, where he gained a theory teaching diploma in 1950. He
studied musicology with Kurth at Berne University and with Cherbuliez at
Zürich University, where he obtained the doctorate in 1950 with a
dissertation on the importance of Torelli in the history of the solo concerto.
He was music critic of the Neue Zürcher Zeitung (1947–53) and made
extensive studies in Italy of the Baroque concerto. In 1960 he qualified at
Basle as a sound engineer, and worked in this capacity at Radio Zürich
until 1967, when he became editor for music broadcasts including speech
at Radio Basle; he was also the artistic planning manager of the Basle
RSO, 1972–7. He became a member of the editorial board of the Gluck
collected edition in 1992.
Giegling had worked principally on the music of the Italian Baroque and
Mozart. In 1954 he became a contributor to the new Mozart collected
edition; he was co-editor of the revised sixth edition of the Köchel
catalogue, and in 1969 he joined the Zentralinstitut für Mozartforschung,
Salzburg. He edited a number of volumes for the Mozart collected edition
and many 18th-century north Italian instrumental works.
WRITINGS
Giuseppe Torelli: ein Beitrag zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des italienischen
Konzerts (diss., U. of Zürich, 1949; Kassel, 1949)
‘Giacomo Antonio Perti (1661–1756)’, Mf, viii (1955), 445–52
‘Geminiani’s Harpsichord Transcriptions’, ML, xl (1959), 350–52
Volkmar Andreae (Zürich, 1959)
ed., with A. Weinmann and G. Sievers: L. von Köchel: Chronologisch-
thematisches Verzeichnis sämtlicher Tonwerke Wolfgang Amadé
Mozarts (Wiesbaden, 6/1964)
‘Metastasios Oper “La Clemenza di Tito” in der Bearbeitung durch
Mazzola’, MJb 1968–70, 88–94
‘Die neue Mozart-Ausgabe: Wissenschaft und Praxis’, Alte Musik: Praxis
und Reflexion, ed. P. Reidemeister and V. Gutmann (Winterthur, 1983),
353–7
‘Mozart und Gessner: zum Besuch der Mozarts in Zürich 1766’, Schweizer
Jb für Musikwissenschaft, new ser., xii (1992), 99–109
EDITIONS
Francesco Antionio Bonporti: ‘La Pace’: Inventionen für Violine und Basso
Continuo, op.10, HM, xliv–xlv, lxxvii (1950–55)
Giuseppe Torelli: Sonate G-Dur für Violoncello und Basso Continuo, HM,
lxix (1955; repr. 1974)
Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni: Sonate g-moll für Streicher and Basso
Continuo, op.2, no.6, NM, clxxxix (1956); 7 ob. concertos from op.9
(London, 1972–6)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, I/4/iv:
Kantaten (Kassel, 1957); I/4/i: Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebots
(Kassel, 1958); II/5/xx: La clemenza di Tito (Kassel, 1970); V/14/iv:
Klarinetten Konzert (Kassel, 1977); V/14/iii: Konzerte für Flöte, Oboe,
Fagott (Kassel, 1981); V/14/vi: Konzert für Flöte und Harfe (Kassel,
1983); VII/17/i: Divertimenti für Bläser (Kassel, 1984); V/14/v:
Hornkonzerte (Kassel, 1987); X/28: Weke Zweifelkafter Echtheit:
Divertimenti für Bläser (Kassel, 1993)
Die Solosonate, Mw, xv (1959; Eng. trans., 1960)
Luigi Boccherini: 3 Quintets f. ob., str qnt, op.45, nos.4–6 (Hamburg, 1959)
Guiseppe Torelli: Concertino per camera, op.4; Lumi dolenti (1977)
C.A. Lonati: 12 Violinsonaten (Winterthur, 1981)
Christoph W. Gluck: La clemenza di Tito (Kassel, 1995)
JÜRG STENZL

Gielen, Michael (Andreas)

(b Dresden, 20 July 1927). Austrian conductor and composer. A son of the
producer Josef Gielen and nephew of Steuermann, he studied the piano
and composition with Erwin Leuchter in Buenos Aires (1942–9) and with
Polnauer in Vienna (1950–53). He began his career in Buenos Aires as a
pianist (during 1949 he performed Schoenberg's complete piano works)
and as a répétiteur at the Teatro Colón (until 1950). From 1951 to 1960 he
 was répétiteur and conductor at the Vienna Staatsoper, and during this
period he conducted radio and concert performances of contemporary
music, including works of his own. He was principal conductor at the Royal
Opera of Stockholm from 1960 until 1965, when he left for Cologne; there
he was responsible for the première of Zimmermann's Die Soldaten (1965).
In 1969 he was appointed principal conductor of the Belgian National
Orchestra, in 1973 principal conductor of the Netherlands Opera, and in
1977 director of opera at Frankfurt, a post he held until 1987. From 1978 to
1981 Gielen was chief guest conductor of the BBC SO, and from 1980 to
1986 music director of the Cincinnati SO. In 1986 he became chief
conductor of the SWF SO, Baden-Baden, and the following year was
appointed professor of conducting at the Salzburg Mozarteum. During the
1990s he developed a close relationship with both the Berlin SO and the
Berlin Staatsoper, and in 1995 made his Salzburg Festival début with Lulu.
Gielen's performances are marked by a sharp, analytic intellect, coupled
with an ability to present music with force and vitality. His facility in
mastering complex avant-garde scores has earned him a high reputation in
this field; he has been involved in many first performances (including those
of Ligeti's Requiem, Stockhausen's Carré, Zimmermann's Requiem für
einen jungen Dichter and Henze's Dramatische Szenen aus ‘Orpheus’) and
has recorded works by Kagel, Ligeti, Nono, Zimmermann and many others.
Of earlier 20th-century music, he has been most associated with Mahler,
Schoenberg, Berg and Webern, making the first commercial stereo
recording of Moses und Aron in 1974. He has also given distinctive
performances of works from the Romantic and Classical periods and has
recorded a Beethoven symphony cycle with the SWF SO; his operatic
repertory includes Mozart and Wagner, as well as Falstaff, to which he
brings a Toscaninian dry brilliance and clarity.
In Gielen's earlier compositions, the influence of the Second Viennese
School is strong. For example, the Vier Gedichte von Stefan George have
quite patent serial structures, in which the range of harmony is firmly
restricted, somewhat in the manner of Webern, while the orchestration
owes much to Schoenberg's op.22; the use of George texts, too, is
obviously significant. In later works Gielen has absorbed the techniques
and aesthetics of more recent music.
WORKS
(selective list)

Variationen, str qt, 1949; 4 Gedichte von Stefan George, chorus, 19 insts, 1955–8;
Variationen, 40 insts, 1959; Ein Tag tritt hervor (Neruda), Pentaphonie, obbl pf, vib,
mar, elec gui, hmn, ondes martenot, 5 qnts, 1960–63; die glocken sind auf falscher
spur (H. Arp), melodramas and interludes, female v, speaker, vc, gui, pf, perc,
hmn, tapes, 1967–9; Einige Schwierigkeiten bei der Überwindung der Angst, orch,
1976; Un vieux souvenir, str qt, 1983

Principal publishers: Gerig, Universal

BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Eggert and H.-K. Jungheinrich: Durchbrüche: 10 Jahre Musiktheater
mit Michael Gielen (Weinheim, 1987)
J. Früchtl: ‘Avancierte Musik ist von den Menschen weit entfernt’, Geist
gegen den Zeitgeist: Erinnern an Adorno, ed. J. Fruchtl and M. Calloni
(Frankfurt, 1991), 136–49 [interview with Gielen]
M. Gielen and P. Fiebig: Beethoven im Gespräch: die neun Sinfonien
(Stuttgart, 1995)
P. Fiebig, ed.: Michael Gielen: Dirigent Komponist, Zeitgenosse (Stuttgart,
1997) [incl. discography]
WOLFRAM SCHWINGER/MARTIN ELSTE

Giero, Jhan.
See Gero, Jhan.

Gieseking, Walter
(b Lyons, 5 Nov 1895; d London, 26 Oct 1956). German pianist. The son of
a distinguished German doctor and entomologist, he spent much of his
childhood in southern France and Italy. He began to play the piano at the
age of four but received no consistent tuition until the age of 16 when he
worked with Karl Leimer at the Hanover Conservatory (1911–13). At the
age of 20 he played a virtually complete cycle of Beethoven’s sonatas in
Hanover. His Berlin début in 1920 was so successful that he stayed on in
the city to give seven further concerts in which his refined artistry in
Debussy and Ravel was already evident. An intensive international career
followed. Gieseking gave his first London recital in 1923, and the same
year he gave with Fritz Busch the first performance of Pfitzner’s Piano
Concerto. His American début (in Hindemith’s concerto) followed in 1926,
and his Paris début in 1928. But his career was blighted when he was
blacklisted as a Nazi sympathizer, a taint which provoked continuing
hostility in the USA and led him to confine his career for some time to
Europe, South America and Japan. After being cleared of cultural
collaboration with the Nazis, he returned triumphantly to the USA in 1955
(when he gave an all-Debussy programme in Carnegie Hall) and in 1957.
He later gave a series of masterclasses at the Musikhochschule in
Saarbrücken where he focussed on the problems of transcending
difficulties that are essentially mental rather than physical.
Blessed with a rare photographic and aural memory, Gieseking would often
memorize entire scores away from the keyboard before playing them in
concert. His repertory was immense (he gave a New York recital in 1930
entirely devoted to contemporary music), and he recorded all Mozart’s solo
piano music (1953), a complete Ravel cycle (1956) and virtually all the solo
works of Debussy (1951–4). His Mozart has been criticized for its over-
exquisite miniaturist approach; but his Debussy, in which his aural
sensitivity and pedal technique contributed to the subtlest gradations of
tone and colour, has not been excelled. A project to record the complete
Beethoven sonatas and much Schubert was left incomplete because of his
sudden death. Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninoff also featured in his
repertory, and his performance of the latter’s second and third concertos
revealed an impetuous virtuosity far removed from the luminous delicacy of
his Debussy. Gieseking’s Debussy recordings, reissued on CD, remain his
most enduring legacy.
WRITINGS
with K. Leimer: Modernes Klavierspiel nach Leimer – Gieseking (Mainz,
1931; repr. 1998 with the following; Eng. trans., 1932, repr. 1972 with
the following as Piano Technique)
with K. Leimer: Rhythmik, Dynamik und andere Probleme des Klavierspiels
nach Leimer – Gieseking (Mainz, 1938; repr. 1998 with the preceding;
Eng. trans., 1938, repr. 1972 with the preceding as Piano Technique)
So wurde ich Pianist (Wiesbaden, 1963, 4/1975) [with discography by I.
Hajmássy]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Gavoty and R. Hauert: Walter Gieseking (Geneva, 1955)
J. Chissell: ‘Walter Gieseking’, Gramophone Record Review, no.45
(1957), 703 [with discography by F.F. Clough and G.J. Cuming]
BRYCE MORRISON

Gievenci, Adam de.

See Adam de Givenchi.

Gifford, Helen (Margaret)

(b Melbourne, 5 Sept 1935). Australian composer. She studied at the
University of Melbourne with Le Gallienne, who influenced her decision to
become a full-time composer when she graduated (MusB) in 1958. In that
year her second work, Fantasy for flute and piano, had its first performance
and broadcast, in the Netherlands. In 1964 her Phantasma for string
orchestra was chosen by the Australian jury for submission to the ISCM
Festival, Copenhagen. She won the Dorian Le Gallienne Award for
composition in 1965, and in 1974 she held a senior composer's fellowship
from the Australian Council for the Arts and was composer-in-residence to
the Australian Opera. She was attached to the Melbourne Theatre
Company as composer of incidental music from 1970 to 1982 and in 1980
was appointed to the Australia Council's Artists in the Schools programme.
She has been involved with several arts organizations and was chairman
of the Composers' Guild of Australia, 1976–8. In 1996 she was awarded an
Order of Australia medal for her services to music. She also received a
degree (DLitt) from Monash University.
A sensitive and individual composer, Gifford was at first influenced by the
music of the French Impressionists. Travel in Europe in 1962 brought her
into direct contact with contemporary idioms, and she has remained
indebted to Lutosławski and the Polish school in general. Her travels in
India in 1967 and a visit to Indonesia in 1971 brought the increasing
influence of Asian music into her work. Several of her scores for the
Melbourne Theatre Company have been produced as the result of
experimental workshops. Her music, though apparently using serially
 derived atonalism, is best described as being free of tonal orientation, with
its delicate textures relying at times on tensions created through percussive
and vocal counter-effects. The intricacy of her finely wrought scores reveal
an assured but nonconformist style.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Jo Being (1, P. Murphy), part perf. Melbourne, 4 June 1978; Regarding
Faustus (music-theatre, 1, Gifford, after C. Marlowe), 1983, Adelaide, 12 March
1988; Iphigenia in Exile (music theatre, 1, R. Meredith, after Euripides), 1985, part
perf. Melbourne, ABC FM Radio, 1 Oct 1990; Music for the Adonia (music-theatre),
1992; incid music to B. Brecht, W. Congreve, C. Fry, P. Shaffer, W. Shakespeare, T.
Stoppard, C. Tourneur
Orch: Phantasma, str, 1963; Chimaera, 1969; Imperium, 1969
Vocal: As Dew in Aprille, S, pf/hp/gui, 1955; The Wanderer, male spkr, fl, eng hn, va,
perc, 1963; Red Autumn in Valvins, Mez, pf, 1964; The Glass Castle, S, chorus 5vv,
1968; Bird Calls from an Old Land, 5 S, female chorus, 5vv, perc, 1971; Point of
Ignition (J. Aldridge), Mez, orch, 1997; The Western Front World War I, 40 vv choir,
inst ens, 1999
Chbr and solo inst: Fantasy, fl, pf, 1958; Pf Sonata, 1960; Catalysis, pf, 1964; Str
Qt, 1965; Waltz, The Spell, Cantillation, pf, 1966; Fable, hp, 1967; Canzone, 9 wind,
cel, 1968; Of Old Angkor, hn, mar, 1970; Company of Brass, 9 brass, 1972; Going
South, 2 tpt, hn, 2 trbn, 1988; Toccata attacco, pf, 1990; A Plaint of Lost Worlds, fl +
pic, cl, pf, 1994; As Foretold to Khayyar, pf, 1999

Principal publisher: Sounds Australian

WRITINGS
ed. P. Grimshaw and L. Strahan: The Half Open Door (Sydney, 1982),
172–93 [autobiographical chapter]
‘Subliminal Co-ordinates – Drawing Threads’, New Music Articles, vii
(1989), 5–9 [autobiographical article]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Murdoch: ‘Regarding Faustus’, Arts National, iii/2 (1985), 70–71
Lord Harewood: ‘Festival Drama through Music’, Adelaide Festival
Review, xlviii/March (1988), 16–17
THÉRÈSE RADIC

Giga
(It.).
See Gigue (i).

Gigault, Nicolas
(b ?Paris, c1627; d Paris, 20 Aug 1707). French organist and composer.
According to documentation by Hardouin his parents were without
expectation of heirs as late as May 1626, so the earlier date of birth
deduced by Pirro cannot be correct. That the family lived in poverty is
indicated by a document of 1648 in which, following the death of their
father, Gigault and his brothers renounced their rights of succession to
avoid his debts. But the contract relating to the first of his two marriages, in
1662, shows him already prosperous and the owner of an extensive
collection of instruments, including an organ, several harpsichords, spinets
and clavichords and a number of string instruments (there is evidence that
he was also a string player who was sometimes engaged for important
Parisian orchestral performances). He held four positions as an organist in
Paris – at St Honoré (1646–52), St Nicolas-des-Champs (1652 until his
death), St Martin-des-Champs (from 1673) and the Hôpital du Saint Esprit
(from 1685) – and his repute is shown by a 1695 tax roll of keyboard
players in which his name is inscribed among those of the first rank, along
with such men as D’Anglebert and Couperin. He was twice involved in
lawsuits, the first time in a vain attempt to recover damages from one
Janson, the printer of his 1683 Livre de musique, the second in 1693 in
connection with the long legal process between the ménétriers and the
keyboard players of Paris. A document pertaining to the latter suit lists him
as a teacher of Lully; in 1706 he was one of a jury that awarded Rameau
the post of organist of the church of Ste Madeleine-en-la-Cité. Of his five
children three were connected with music, although not as composers.
Lacking a modern edition, Gigault’s 1683 volume has been little studied. It
contains 20 popular noëls with variations, the earliest example of this
genre, besides a few versets based on Christmas plainsongs. Most of the
noëls follow a somewhat mechanical scheme, progressing from two to
three to four voices, the latter treated ‘à 2 choeurs’. The better-known
second volume of 1685 contains 183 versets, mostly very brief, in a rather
loose arrangement. It begins with three groups of versets for the Ordinary
of the Mass followed by a series of pieces arranged according to the
church modes; interspersed with these are several settings of plainsong
hymns and a series of Te Deum versets. More than his contemporaries
Gigault remained faithful to the liturgy and to the spirit of Titelouze (whose
name he invoked in the preface) through frequent settings of plainsong
either as a cantus firmus in bass or tenor or in fugal elaboration, and also
through the use of optional cadence points by which the versets may be
abbreviated to the needs of the service. A majority of the free pieces are
termed ‘fugues’; nevertheless in these as well as in the preludes, récits and
dialogues one sees the secular spirit from dances and airs that permeates
the later years of the French Baroque organ school, a quality further
emphasized by Gigault’s continuous use of the ‘pointed’ style in which
virtually all series of quavers are notated in dotted rhythms. Although the
preludes contain occasional striking harmonic progressions, Gigault’s
music is frequently monotonous: in particular he lacks harmonic direction
and fails to develop his fugue subjects adequately.
WORKS

Edition: Nicolas Gigault: Livre de musique pour l’orgue, ed. A. Guilmant and A. Pirro,
Archives des maîtres de l’orgue, iv (Paris, 1902/R1972) [contains the music of the 1685
collection, and an allemande from the 1683 publication]
Livre de musique dédié à la Très Saincte Vierge … contenant les cantiques sacréz
qui se chantent en l’honneur de son Divin Enfantement. … Une pièce diatonique en
forme d’allemande marqué simple & avec les ports de voix,
org/hpd/lute/viols/vns/recs/other insts (Paris, 1683)
Livre de musique pour l’orgue … plus de 180 pièces … pour servir sur tous les jeux
à 1, 2, 3, et 4 claviers et pedalles en basse et en taille (Paris, 1685)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ApelG
FrotscherG
MGG1 (J. Bonfils)
A. Pirro: ‘Un organiste au XVIIe siècle: Nicolas Gigault’, RHCM, iii (1903),
302–7, 550–57
G. Servières: Documents inédits sur les organistes français des XVIIe et
XVIIIe siècles (Paris, 1924)
A. Pirro: ‘L’art des organistes’, EMDC, ll/ii (1926), 1181–374, esp. 1339
N. Dufourcq: La musique d’orgue française de Jehan Titelouze à Jehan
Alain (Paris, 1941, 2/1949)
P. Hardouin: ‘Quatre Parisiens d’origine: Nivers, Gigault, Jullien, Boyvin’,
RdM, xxxix–xl (1957), 73–8
W. Maul: ‘Some Observations on the French Organ School of the
Seventeenth Century’, American Organist, lii/3 (1969), 17–24, lii/4
(1969), 14–16
N. Dufourcq: Le livre de l'orgue français, iv: La musique (Paris, 1972)
B. François-Sappey: ‘Nicolas Gigault’, Guide de la musique d'orgue, ed.
G. Cantagrel (Paris, 1991)
ALMONTE HOWELL/FRANÇOIS SABATIER

Gigler, Andre [Andreas]

(b Anger, Styria; d Graz, Jan 1570). Austrian hymnographer. In 1553 Gigler
was a Catholic priest in Graz – at that time a predominantly Protestant city.
His Gesang Postill, das ist: Evangelia auff alle und jede fürnemste Feste
durchs gantze Jar in Gesang verfast, vor und nach der Predig zu singen
Sampt einem Christlichen Gehet (Graz, 1574) was the first musical work to
be published in Styria, and it represents an outstanding technical
achievement on the part of the printer, Andreas Franck. In content the
Gesang Postill closely followed the Protestant Sonntagsevangelia of
Nicolaus Herman (Wittenberg, 1561). All of the Gospel readings are
presented in identical rhymed, seven-line verses. Like Herman, Gigler
supplied only a handful of melodies for use throughout the book; at the
back there are some 20 four-part tenor melodies without text and with
figured accompaniments. The first ten are well-known Wittenberg melodies;
the rest, according to Gigler’s introduction, are his own compositions,
though they are very close to their Wittenberg models. The four-part
arrangements are the work of Johannes de Cleve who was then
Kapellmeister at the court in Graz. Gigler’s Gesang Postill is a thoroughly
characteristic example of its kind, stemming from a border area in which
religious allegiances had not yet been stabilized.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Amon: ‘Der Grazer Stadtpfarrer Andre Gigler und seine Gesangpostille’,
Jb für Liturgik und Hymnologie, xv (1970), 1–31
H.J. Moser: Die Musik im frühevangelischen Österreich (Kassel, 1954)
R. Flotzinger, ed.: Musik in der Steiermark, Admont Abbey, 10 May–19
Oct 1980 (Graz, 1980) [exhibition catalogue]
WALTER BLANKENBURG

Gigli.
See Lilius family.

Gigli, Beniamino
(b Recanati, 20 March 1890; d Rome, 30 Nov 1957). Italian tenor. In
Rome, after lessons from Agnese Bonucci, he won a scholarship to the
Liceo Musicale; his teachers were Cotogni and Rosati. In 1914 he won an
international competition at Parma, and on 14 October that year made a
successful début in La Gioconda at Rovigo. In 1915 his Faust in Boito’s
Mefistofele was highly appreciated at Bologna under Serafin and at Naples
under Mascagni. Spain was the scene of his first successes abroad, in
1917. The climax of his early career was his appearance in the memorial
performance of Mefistofele at La Scala on 19 November 1918. On 26
November 1920 he made a brilliant début (again in Mefistofele) at the
Metropolitan Opera, where he remained as principal tenor for 12
consecutive seasons, singing no fewer than 28 of his total of 60 roles.
In the lyrical and romantic repertory, Gigli was regarded as the legitimate
heir of Caruso (Martinelli excelled in the more dramatic and heroic parts).
The operas in which he was most often heard were La bohème, La
Gioconda, L’Africaine, Andrea Chénier (see illustration) and Mefistofele.
His Covent Garden début was in Andrea Chénier on 27 May 1930, with
subsequent appearances in 1931, 1938 and 1946. In 1932 he left the
Metropolitan, declining to accept a substantial reduction of the salary paid
him before the Depression. Thereafter he pursued his career more actively
in Italy, elsewhere in Europe, and in South America, returning to the
Metropolitan, for five performances only, in 1939. A favourite of Mussolini,
Gigli was at first under a cloud after the dictator’s fall, but returned to sing
in Tosca at the Rome Opera in March 1945, and in November 1946
reappeared at Covent Garden with the S Carlo company in La bohème,
with his daughter, Rina Gigli, as Mimì. He continued to appear in opera at
Naples and at Rome as late as 1953, and in concerts almost until his
death.
Smoothness, sweetness and fluency were the outstanding marks of Gigli’s
singing. His style was essentially popular, both in its virtues and its
limitations: natural, vital and spontaneous on the one hand, but always
liable to faults of taste – to a sentimental style of portamento, for instance,
or the breaking of the line by sobs, or ostentatious bids for stage applause
‘like a picturesque beggar appealing for alms’ (Ernest Newman). He
missed refinement in Mozart, and was unequal to the technical demands of
‘Il mio tesoro’; in Verdi he was more at home, although notably happier
when, as in the second scene of Un ballo in maschera or the last act of
Rigoletto, his grandees had adopted popular disguise; best of all in Puccini
and the melodramatic lyricism of Andrea Chénier and La Gioconda. His
mellifluous cantilena in such pieces as Nadir’s romance in Les pêcheurs
de perles was consummately beautiful. Gigli was something less than a
great artist; but as a singer pure and simple he was among the greatest.
His many recordings offer a complete portrait of his long career;
outstandingly successful are the arias from Mefistofele, Martha, L’elisir
d’amore, La Gioconda and Faust, duets with De Luca from La forza del
destino and Les pêcheurs de perles, and the complete recordings of
Andrea Chénier and La Bohème. Gigli was also a seductively charming
interpreter of Neapolitan and popular songs, and delighted 1930s cinema
audiences with his portrayals of ingenuous and lovestruck tenors.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Rosner: Beniamino Gigli (Vienna, 1929)
R. de Rensis: Il cantatore del popolo: Beniamino Gigli (Rome, 1933)
D. Silvestrini: Beniamino Gigli (Bologna, 1937)
A.-M. and G. Cronstrom: ‘Beniamino Gigli’, Record Collector, ix (1954–5),
199–269; xiii (1960–61), 184–8 [with discography]
B. Gigli: Memorie (Milan, 1957; Eng. trans., 1957/R) [with discography by
M. Ricaldone]
T. Peel and J. Holohan: ‘Beniamino Gigli Discography’, Record Collector,
xxxv (1990), 110–18
N. Douglas: Legendary Voices (London, 1994), 81–106
DESMOND SHAWE-TAYLOR/ALAN BLYTH

Gigli, Giovanni Battista [‘Il

Tedeschino’]
(b Finale Emilia; d ?Florence, after 1692). Italian composer. No
biographical links with Germany have been found to explain his nickname,
‘Il Tedeschino’, so it may simply have described his personal appearance.
He was in the service of Grand Duke Ferdinando III of Tuscany in Florence
when he published Sonata da chiesa e da camera a 3 strumenti, col basso
continuo per l'organo op.1 (Bologna, 1690), which he described as ‘an
immature part of my early composition’. He may also have worked at
Modena for the Este family, since two oratorios (S Caterina and S
Genovefa Palatina), six trio sonatas and one cantata for solo voice with
continuo survive in manuscript in the library there (I-MOe). Four pieces are
also included in a 17th-century manuscript collection of arias and cantatas
(in I-Bc), and he appears to have written a sacred history, La libertà
prodigiosa (Florence, 1692).
JOHN HARPER

Giglio, Tommaso
(b Enna, Sicily; fl 1600–03). Italian composer. He was present at Palermo
in 1600 as a supporter of Raval in his musical dispute with Falcone; he
remained there until at least 1603 when Raval asked him to contribute a
composition to the collection Infidi lumi (Palermo, 1603), which is now lost.
His Secondo libro de madrigali a sei voci (Venice, 1601) exemplifies the
later phase of the seconda pratica. Only the bass part survives but six of
the pieces were reprinted (in RISM 160412, 161310; ed. in MRS, vi, 1991).
His madrigals are florid and inventive, with full sonorities and a charm that
hides any dissonances or false relations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Falcone: ‘Relatione del successo seguito in Palermo tra Achille Falcone
musico cosentino e Sebastian Ravalle musico spagnolo’, introduction
in Achille Falcone: Madrigali a cinque voci (Venice, 1603), 4, 8–9
A. Mongitore: Bibliotheca Sicula, ii (Palermo, 1714/R1871), 260
P.E. Carapezza: ‘Dialogo immaginario di Antonio Il Verso con il suo
discepolo Giuseppe Palazzotto e Tagliavia nel giorno del santo natale
dell’anno 1617 in Palermo’, Madrigali siciliani in antologie transalpine
(1583–1616), MRS, vi (1991), pp.ixl [xlix]–li
F. Piperno: ‘Polifonia italiana e mercati europei: i madrigalisti di Sicilia nelle
pubblicazioni antologiche d’Oltralpe’: introduction to Madrigali siciliani
in antologie transalpine (1583–1616), MRS, vi (1991), pp.ix–xxxv
PAOLO EMILIO CARAPEZZA/GIUSEPPE COLLISANI

Gigout, Eugène
(b Nancy, 23 March 1844; d Paris, 9 Dec 1925). French organist and
composer. He began his musical apprenticeship at Nancy Cathedral choir
school, then in 1857 went to the Ecole Niedermeyer where he was taught
by Saint-Saëns and Clément Loret. After marrying Caroline-Mathilde, the
director's daughter, he stayed at the Ecole Niedermeyer to teach plainsong,
counterpoint, fugue and the organ. He founded a school of organ and
improvisation in 1885. In 1863 he was appointed organist of St Augustin (a
post that he held until his death), but had to wait five years for Barker to
complete his instrument; it was built using an electro-pneumatic system
unfamiliar at the time, and had to be reconstructed by Cavaillé-Coll–Mutin
in 1899. Gigout succeeded Guilmant as professor of organ and
improvisation at the Paris Conservatoire in 1911. Among those he taught at
the Ecole Niedermeyer, at his own school (founded in 1885) and at the
Conservatoire, his nephew Léon Boëllmann, Fauré, Messager, Roussel
and André Marchal stand out.
According to accounts by his contemporaries, Gigout, like Guilmant, played
in a very clean style, which did not prevent him from performing the music
of Franck with great intensity. As an improviser he is reported to have been
eclectic, but was drawn particularly to classicism.
His organ music testifies to this ambivalence between a refined language
derived from Bach, or certain passages in a classical style, and symphonic
effects in the grand manner, sometimes making use of plainsong. Based on
an aesthetic close to that of Saint-Saëns, his output is dominated by his
organ works, completely overshadowing his piano pieces and mélodies.
The pieces for harmonium or organ without obbligato pedal, simple in
execution but useful to the church organist, and often making interesting
 use of Gregorian style (100 pièces brèves dans Ia tonalité du plain-chant),
are quite distinct from the grand compositions with pedal, divided between
a series of major collections including the 6 pièces of 1881, the 10 pièces
of 1890 and the 3 pièces of 1896. Worthy of note among these are the
Grand choeur dialogué (1881) which alternates foundation stops and reeds
to memorable effect, the Toccata in B minor (1890) which can stand
alongside similar compositions by Boëllmann, Widor or Dubois, and the
Scherzo and Cantilène, also in the 1890 collection, which contain more
picturesque and decorative material. A different style is represented in the
Introduction et thème fugué (from the 1881 collection) or the Pièce
jubiliaire en forme de prélude et fugue (1918), which is entirely classical in
inspiration, or the charming Rhapsodie sur des Noëls (in the 1890
collection), which places folk music in a symphonic context, following the
example pioneered by Alexis Chauvet in 1867–9.
Gigout is also the composer of numerous sacred choral works, mélodies
and piano music of an unashamedly nationalist character including En
souvenir! (2 legends) and ‘Hymne à la France’
WORKS
(selective list)

Org: 3 pièces, 1872–6; 6 pièces, 1881; Pièces diverses en deux suites, 1885–6;
100 pièces brèves dans la tonalité du plain-chant, 1888; Suite de 3 morceaux,
c1889; 10 pièces, 1890; Pièces diverses, 1891; Album grégorien, 1895; 3 pièces,
1896; Prélude et fugue, E, 1897; Rhapsodie sur des airs catalans, 1897; Rhapsodie
sur des airs populaires du Canada, 1898; 2 pièces, 1900; Poèmes mystiques, 1903;
L'orgue d'église, 1904; 70 pièces dans les tons les plus usités, 1911; 12 pièces,
1913; Pièce jubilaire en forme de prélude et fugue, 1918; 100 pièces nouvelles,
1922; 10 pièces, 1923
Other kbd (solo pf, unless otherwise stated): Etude, impromptu et capriccio, 1880; 6
morceaux, pf 2/4 hands c1885; Andante symphonique, pf, hmn, 1887; Marche
funèbre, pf, hmn, 1887; Hymne à la France, 4 hands, 1892, also arr. wind orch; Au
guery!, 1894; Sonate, F, 1904; Suite enfantine, 1904; 3 improvisations
caractéristiques, 1913; En souvenir!, 2 legends, 1914–15, no.2 for pf 4 hands; Aux
Escaldes, 1925
Vocal: Chants du graduel et du vespéral romains, 4vv, c1880; Ave verum, SATB,
org, c1884; 3 mélodies (A. de Givrins, V. Hugo), Mez, pf, c1884; Tantum ergo, 4vv,
org, c1884; Cantique à la Vierge Marie (l'Abbé de Beauchamp), 1v, chorus ad lib,
org, 1886; Ave verum, S/T, org, 1888; Antienne pontificale, 4vv, org, c1892; Le
prêtre (Henry B.), 1v, hp, org, 1893; 2 motets, female vv, org, 1900; Tota pulchra,
1v, org, 1900; Alleluia de Pâques, 4vv, org, 1901; 2 cantiques, 1v, 3vv, org/pf, 1902;
Le Noël de Joséphine (R. Fraudet), 1v, pf, 1908; Barcarolle sablaise, 1921; Le
vallon (A. de Lamartine)
Other works: Méditation, vn, orch, 1890; transcrs. of works by Bach, Boëllmann,
Niedermeyer, Sacchini and Saint-Saëns

Principal publishers: Durand, Hamelle, Heugel, Leduc

BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Fauré: Hommage à Gigout (Paris, 1923)
N. Dufourcq: ‘Eugène Gigout’, Cahiers et mémoires de l'orgue, no.27
(1982) [entire issue]
F. Sabatier: ‘Eugène Gigout’, Guide de la musique d'orgue, ed. G.
Cantagrel (Paris, 1991), 403–404
FRANÇOIS SABATIER

Gigue (i)
(Fr.: ‘jig’; It. giga, gighe).
One of the most popular of Baroque instrumental dances and a standard
movement, along with the allemande, courante and sarabande, of the
suite. It apparently originated in the British Isles, where popular dances and
tunes called ‘jig’ have been known since the 15th century. Although 17th-
century gigues were notated in simple duple metre, most are in some kind
of compound metre (i.e. with a triple subdivision of the duple beats), and
most are in binary form. During the 17th century, distinct French and Italian
styles emerged. The French gigue was written in a moderate or fast tempo
(6/4, 3/8 or 6/8) with irregular phrases and an imitative, contrapuntal
texture in which the opening motif of the second strain was often an
inversion of the first strain’s opening. The Italian giga sounded much faster
than the French gigue but had a slower harmonic rhythm; it was usually in
12/8 time and marked ‘presto’, with balanced four-bar phrases and a
homophonic texture. From about 1690 gigues and gigas appeared that
were highly complex virtuoso solo pieces which used a wide variety of
compositional techniques, usually with joyful affect.
1. Etymology and origin.
The various words for the dance form known as the jig or gigue have rather
confused histories that in turn have led to confusion about the origins of the
musical form. In French, Italian and German, the word seems to be derived
from a medieval word for fiddle (as in Dante, Paradiso, xiv.110: ‘E come
giga ed arpa in tempratesa, Di molte corde, fan dolce tintinno’), a word also
used to refer to the musician who played such a fiddle (see Gigue (ii)). The
usage survives in modern German as Geige (violin), a survival that has
contributed most to past uncertainty about the gigue’s origin. It is now
believed that if the English word came from the Continent, it came not from
gigue or fiddle but rather from the verb ‘giguer’, to frolic, leap or gambol.
Although no choreographies have survived for the 16th-century jig,
contemporary literary references suggest that jigs were fast pantomimic
dances for one or more soloists with lively rhythms created by virtuoso
footwork, and that they were somewhat bawdy (Shakespeare, Much Ado
about Nothing, Act 2 scene i: ‘Wooing is hot and hasty like a Scottish
jigge’). Dean-Smith pointed out that the word ‘jig’ may have derived from
slang in a manner similar to the more recent evolution of the word ‘jazz’,
becoming a generic term encompassing many forms of non-aristocratic
music and dance. As with the first American meaning of the slang ‘jass’,
most 16th-century connotations of the English word ‘jig’ were vulgar.
2. Jigs in 17th-century England.
Sung and danced jigs were a prominent feature of the stage entertainment
called Jigg, an improvised, farcical, burlesque comedy for two to five
actors, developed in Elizabethan England and enthusiastically adopted in
Scandinavia and northern Germany. Cotgrave’s definition of ‘jig’ as
‘strambot’ (Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, 1611), a form of
Italian frottola poetry adapted by the French for satiric and insulting verse,
probably refers to the prevalence of such verse in theatrical jigg
performances. Little is known about either the music or the dances used in
jiggs; verses were sung to popular tunes, some of which remained well
known in instrumental versions (e.g. Walsingham, Goe from my window,
Watkins Ale, Spanish Pavan). It is possible that the style of the original
dance accompaniments is reflected to some extent in these pieces, and in
the jigs that appeared in English art music at the turn of the 17th century.
Jigs began to appear in English collections of instrumental music early in
the 17th century, as independent pieces in binary form, as themes for
variation sets, and occasionally as movements of longer works. Collections
such as Antony Holborne’s The Cittharn Schoole (1597), Thomas
Robinson’s Schoole of Musicke (1603), Thomas Ford’s Musicke of Sundrie
Kindes (1607) and the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book contain pieces explicitly
entitled ‘jig’ or ‘gigg’, as well as versions of some of the tunes thought to be
associated with theatrical jiggs. The actual jigs are all written in four-bar
phrases with a homophonic texture, some of them in simple duple metre
(i.e. C or ) and some in compound duple (i.e. 6/4, 6/2 etc). Apparently no
particular rhythmic or metrical pattern was yet implied by the English term
‘jig’, but rather a style that can no longer be understood fully. Interestingly
enough, all the tunes from theatrical jiggs contained in the Fitzwilliam
Virginal Book are in the compound duple metre that was to be
characteristic of both gigue and giga by the end of the 16th century.
The jig seems to have retained its association with light and potentially
vulgar things throughout the century, for as late as 1676 Thomas Mace
wrote ‘Toys or Jiggs, are Light-Squibbish Things, only fit for Fantastical and
Easie-Light-Headed People’ (Musick’s Monument, ii). Nonetheless, jigs
continued to appear in consort and ensemble music, and as incidental
music for plays. Matthew Locke’s jigs, typical of those appearing at the
middle of the century, tend to have homophonic textures with occasional
points of imitation at the opening, and to have clear four- or eight-bar
phrases. Only one of his jigs was written in compound duple metre, the rest
appearing either in C or (ex.1); several use the so-called Scotch snap as
the main rhythmic idea and all are in binary form. Purcell’s jigs, most of
them written as act tunes to such plays as The Married Beau (1694) and
The Gordian Knot Untied (1691), are all written in 6/8, and most have
imitative textures, one (the jig in The Gordian Knot) including a double
fugue as the second strain, perhaps reflecting trends on the Continent.
3. French gigue.
The French lutenist Jacques Gautier, who for 30 years worked as court
lutenist in London, is credited with having introduced some form of the jig
into his native country when he returned there in the early days of the
Commonwealth. Soon pieces called ‘gigue’ began to appear in French lute
and harpsichord collections. Like their English counterparts, these gigues
could apparently be written in either simple or compound metre, but other
elements of the original style, particularly the clarity of phrase and texture,
began to change under the influence of the distinctive style brisé of 17th-
century France. Phrase lengths became ambiguous and irregular, and
strong emphasis on motivic play lent the gigue a growing rhythmic and
textural complexity. The newly stylized French gigue was first included
regularly in suites by Nicolas-Antoine Lebègue, although it appeared in its
traditional place as the last movement in the suites of relatively few
composers. Ex.2 shows the typically complex opening of a gigue by
D’Anglebert.
It seems that for the French, as perhaps for the English, the gigue implied
a certain style as well as a specific dance, for, beginning in the works of
Ennemond and Denis Gaultier, several pieces appeared entitled
‘allemande giguée’ or ‘allemande en gigue’. Explanation of this curious
labelling comes from Perrine’s indication in his Pièces de luth en musique
(Paris, c1680) that two allemandes were to be played ‘en gigue’. Following
each is a transcription of the allemande ‘en gigue’ (in fact, the pieces are
re-labelled ‘gigue’) in which the even quavers of the original have been
altered to dotted quaver and semiquaver figures.
17 dances called ‘gigue’ appear in the stage works of Lully, including the
ballets Les gardes, Les saisons, Amadis, Persée and Roland. Like Purcell,
Lully preferred the compound duple kind of gigue; most make extensive
use of imitative counterpoint, cross-rhythms and long irregular phrases, as
well as a quaver–crotchet upbeat borrowed from another popular dance,
the Canary. At least 16 choreographies for the gigue survive from the early
18th century, by both French and British choreographers (see lists in Little
and Marsh, 1992). Steps to one of the simplest are shown in ex.3, set to a
gigue from Lully’s Roland, with the ‘canary’ upbeat and contrapuntal style
favoured by the French.
The earliest appearance of the term ‘gigue’ in Germany was as the title of a
variation in Wolfgang Ebner’s Aria 36 modis variata for lute (1648), but the
real popularity of the form seems to date from its introduction by Froberger
as the standard second movement of his keyboard suites, beginning in
1657. Froberger visited Paris in 1652, where he was influenced by such
composers as Denis Gaultier and Chambonnières, and his gigues show
fugato, style brisé and delicate nuances characteristic of French lutenists.
Esaias Reusner’s Delitiae testudinis (1667) for lute seems to have been
the first publication consistently to include the gigue as the last movement
of the suite, following the allemande, courante and sarabande, a position
that was to become commonplace. After Froberger, south German
composers such as Pachelbel tended to compose rather simple gigues,
relinquishing the fugato techniques brought from France, while composers
in central and northern Germany like J.C.F. Fischer, J.A. Reincken,
Buxtehude, Kuhnau, Mattheson and Georg Böhm preferred imitative
gigues modelled on those of Lully and French harpsichordists, often
unifying them by using an inversion of the opening motif as the main idea
of the second strain. German ensemble suites by such composers as
Dietrich Becker, J.C. Pezel, J.H. Schmelzer, Alessandro Poglietti, Biber and
Georg Muffat also incorporated the fugato French gigue as the usual last
movement.
4. Italian ‘giga’.
The Italian giga is a related instrumental air apparently derived from the
English jig. It is not certain how the form was introduced in Italy, but its first
known use was in G.B. Vitali’s op.4 (Balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, e
sarabande, Bologna, 1668). No choreographies are available, so the dance
cannot be compared with its English and French counterparts. Unlike the
French gigue with its many unbalanced phrases, the beats in the giga are
arranged in balanced groups of four and eight (ex.4). Harmonic and
melodic sequences appear frequently, and the texture tends to be less
complicated and more homophonic than in the French form. Gighe are
particularly associated with violin music, with its characteristic chordal
figurations and large melodic leaps, and many gighe occur as last
movements in Italian solo and trio sonatas by composers such as Corelli,
Domenico Zipoli, G.M. Bononcini, Antonio Veracini, Geminiani, Tartini, F.M.
Veracini, G.B. Sammartini and pseudo-Pergolesi. The giga was adopted by
some French composers, notably J.M. Leclair and Mondonville, and by
such Germans as Reincken, Telemann, Handel and J.S. Bach.

5. Gigues after c1690.

French composers of the first half of the 18th century continued to use the
gigue, particularly in keyboard and small ensemble suites. Many works by
Marin Marais, J.F. Rebel, François Couperin, Charles Dieupart, Jacques
Hotteterre, Michel de La Barre and Rameau, for example, include gigues
written in the tradition of D’Anglebert and Lebègue; some, however, also
show influences from the Italian giga style, the new contredanse, or the
emerging Rococo style. In fact it is virtually impossible to classify the gigue
as a particular type after 1700 because it absorbed so many variants. The
title ‘gigue’ may mean a French gigue, an Italian giga, or some combination
of the two. Some of the longest, most complex and contrapuntal gigues
may be seen in the works of J.S. Bach, appearing under such diverse titles
as ‘gigue’, ‘giga’, ‘jig’ and ‘gique’ (see Little and Jenne, 1991). A few are
clearly in the French style, such as those of the French Suite in C minor
bwv813 and the B minor Partita for keyboard bwv831 (ex.5a). Those in the
Italian style fall into two metric categories: one has ternary groupings on
the lowest level of rhythm as in ex.4, such as those of the English Suites
nos.1, 3, 4 and 6, the G major French Suite and the keyboard partitas
nos.1, 3 (ex.5b), 4 and 6. A second type has a duple level of rhythm below
the ternary groupings, often with harmonic changes within the ternary
figure and few internal cadences (ex.5c), as in the English Suites nos.1
and 5 and the French Suites nos.1, 3, 4 and 6. Indeed, many Baroque
gigues present formidable problems to the modern interpreter, and
scholars are still debating the question of whether the many gigues notated
with duple subdivisions of the beat (i.e. in C, C, 2/4) should be played in
the uneven rhythms of a triple subdivision (4/4 with triplets, or the
equivalent of 12/8). Another problem occurs when a dotted quaver and
semiquaver figure is set simultaneously against a triplet: should one of the
two figures be resolved to fit the other, and if so, which should take
precedence, or should the counter-rhythm stand as notated? (These and
related problems are debated by Collins and Jenne.) One of the most
difficult gigues of all is that of J.S. Bach’s E minor keyboard partita, written
in the mensuration (2/1 in most modern editions) with four minim beats to
the bar. Handel’s ‘gigues’ offer fewer problems, since most of them are
clearly of the Italian type.
The influence of gigue and giga continued into the late 18th century; ‘gigue’
was described by many theorists as a piece in 6/8 metre, with a cheerful
affection and a lively tempo (Mattheson, Kern melodischer Wissenschaft,
1737, p.115; Kirnberger, Kunst, 1776–9, ii, 129; Türk, Clavierschule, 1789,
p.401). As such one may consider as in gigue style the first movements of
Mozart’s Quartet in B major k458 and the Quintet in E major k614; the
Oboe Quartet k370, last movement, Haydn’s Symphony no.100 (‘Military’),
last movement, and pieces in Beethoven’s piano sonatas such as the
presto finale of op.2 no.1. The balanced, graceful phrases of these
movements imply more influence from the giga than the gigue.
Pieces entitled ‘jig’ or ‘gigue’ appeared only occasionally in the 19th and
20th centuries, for example in Schumann, op.32; Debussy, Images for
orchestra (1912); Reger, op.36 for keyboard, op.42 for violin solo and
op.131c for cello solo; Schoenberg, suites op.25 and 29; Stravinsky, Duo
concertant (1932) and Septet (1952–3); Henry Cowell, Jig in four (1936);
Jean Françaix, Sonatine (1952); and Philipp Jarnach, Quintett op.10.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (C. Marsh)
W. Danckert: Geschichte der Gigue (Leipzig, 1924)
M. Collins: ‘The Performance of Triplets in the 17th and 18th Centuries’,
JAMS, xix (1966), 281–328
N. Jenne: Certain Problems of Rhythm and Articulation in the Performance
of J.S. Bach’s Harpsichord Music (diss., Stanford U., 1967)
K.H. Taubert: Höfische Tänze (Mainz, 1968)
J.R. Anthony: French Baroque Music from Beaujoyeulx to Rameau
(London, 1973, 2/1978)
W. Hilton: Dance of Court and Theater (Princeton, NJ, 1981/R)
W.J. Allanbrook: Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart: Le nozze di Figaro and
Don Giovanni (Chicago, 1983)
A.L. Witherell: Louis Pécour’s 1700 ‘Recueil de dances (Ann Arbor, 1983)
S. Reichart: The Influence of Eighteenth-Century Social Dance on the
Viennese Classical Style (diss., CUNY, 1984)
M. Little and N. Jenne: Dance and the Music of J.S. Bach (Bloomington,
IN, 1991), 143–84
M.E. Little and C.G. Marsh: La Danse Noble: an Inventory of Dances and
Sources (Williamstown, MA, 1992)
F. Lancelot: La belle dance: catalogue raisonné (Paris, 1996)
MEREDITH ELLIS LITTLE

Gigue (ii)
(Fr. gigue, gigle; It. and Sp. giga).
A term widely used in medieval Europe to denote a bowed instrument. It is
generally believed to have been the rebec because the name gigue
gradually went out of fashion as that of the rebec gained ground in the 14th
century and gigue was not normally synonymous with vièle or fidel
according to both fictional literature and historical accounts, which often
mention these instruments together. Johannes de Garlandia, in his early
13th-century Dictionarius, lists the giga and viella as being played in rich
Parisian households. It is also known that three German gigatores
performed at the Feast of Westminster in 1306, together with fiddlers,
crowders and many other minstrels (Bullock-Davies, 106–8), and in 1375
the ‘violam et gigam’ were played by two German musicians in the
presence of the Duke of Savoy (Bachmann, 150). There are many poetic
descriptions in different languages of the gigue and vièle being played
together in celebrations, particularly to accompany singing and dancing.
However, the early 14th-century German poem Der Busant, in its vivid
description of a ‘fedele’ having silk strings and decorations of gold,
precious stones and ivory, finally declares ‘Thus the gige was made’,
showing that, after all, the two words could sometimes mean the same
instrument (Page, 241).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Bachmann: Die Anfänge des Streichinstrumentenspiels (Leipzig, 1964,
Eng. trans., 1969, as The Origins of Bowing and the Development of
Bowed Instruments up to the Thirteenth Century)
C. Bullock-Davies: Menestrellorum multitudo: Minstrels at a Royal Feast
(Cardiff, 1978)
M.A. Downie: The Rebec: an Orthographic and Iconographic Study (diss.,
U. of West Virginia, Morgantown, 1981)
C. Page: Voices and Instruments of the Middle Ages: Instrumental Practice
and Songs in France, 1100–1300 (Berkeley, 1986)
M. Remnant: English Bowed Instruments from Anglo-Saxon to Tudor
Times (Oxford, 1986)
P. Bec: Vièles ou violes? Variations philologiques et musicales autour des
instruments à archet du Moyen Age: Xie–XVe siècle (Paris, 1992)
MARY REMNANT

Gil, Gilberto [Moreira, Gilberto

Passos Gil]
(b Salvador, Bahia, 29 June 1942). Brazilian composer, singer and
instrumentalist. He first studied the accordion, then in 1960 organized the
popular music ensemble Os Desafinados. In 1963, while at the Federal
University of Bahia studying business administration, he composed his first
piece, the bossa nova samba Felicidade vem depois. In 1964 he moved to
São Paulo, participating in shows and composing film music, and had his
first songs recorded, among which Procissão and Roda revealed his affinity
with folk music. The pop singer Elis Regina promoted several of his pieces
on television.
In late 1966 he went to Rio de Janeiro, where he performed alongside
Vinicius de Morais and Maria Betânia, and in 1967 abandoned business
administration for music. His first LP, Louvação (1967), revealed a socio-
political agenda centred on the plight of the poor, and was based on
expressive cultural elements of the backlands of the state of Bahia. His
song Domingo no Parque (1967) showed his interest in the Beatles and
pop art, with an instrumental arrangement by the experimental composer
Rogério Duprat and the backing of the pop group Os Mutantes. In 1968,
together with Caetano Veloso, Gil was a main protagonist in the birth of
‘Tropicalismo’ (presaged by Domingo no Parque), with the release of the
album Tropicália ou Panis et Circencis, which included Batmacumba (with
Veloso), Miserere nobis and Geléia Gera'. Considered a subversive figure
by the military régime of the period, he was briefly imprisoned and soon
afterwards left for England, where he remained until 1972. During this time
he assimilated Anglo-American acoustic rock which, a few years later,
became an important aspect of his phase of internationalization. Besides
his popular album Expresso 2222 (1972), the 1970s and early 80s marked
a newly found empathy with the sertão (hinterland), as seen in the album
Refazenda, and with black artistic and social consciousness, as on the
album Refavela, which drew upon his own African-Brazilian heritage. Since
the early 1980s he has become a major icon of Brazilian popular music
and culture, touring extensively in Europe, the USA and Brazil.
In the 1980s and 90s Gil showed some concession to fashionable dance
genres and aesthetic trends, but also produced some fine and innovative
works. His great talent as a composer-poet, seen in such albums as
Tropicália 2 (with Veloso; 1993), Gilberto Gil Unplugged (1994) and Quanta
(1997), together with his unique qualities as a vocalist and instrumentalist,
 make him one of the most original figures of his time in Brazilian popular
music.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Béhague: ‘Bossa and Bossas: Recent Changes in Brazilian Urban
Popular Music’, EthM, xvii (1973), 209–33
G. Gil: Nova história da música popular brasileira (São Paulo, 1977)
C. Veloso: Alegria, alegria (Rio de Janeiro, 1977)
C.F. Favaretto: Tropicália: Alegoria, Alegria (São Paulo, 1979, 2/1996)
A. Risério, ed.: Gilberto Gil: Expresso 2222 (São Paulo, 1982)
C.A. Perrone: Masters of Contemporary Brazilian Song (Austin, TX, 1989)
C. McGowan: ‘Gilberto Gil: Cultivator of the Spirit’, The Beat, x/2 (1991),
48
GERARD BÉHAGUE

Gilardi, Gilardo
(b San Fernando, 25 May 1889; d Buenos Aires, 16 Jan 1963). Argentine
composer and teacher. He studied with his father and then with Pablo
Berutti. An excellent teacher, he was professor of harmony, counterpoint,
composition and fugue at the Buenos Aires National Conservatory and at
the University of La Plata, whose fine arts school he directed. He was also
a founder of the Grupo Renovación, a member of the Cinematography
Academy and an adviser to the National Cultural Commission and to the
National SO. Although in his early works he used the pentatonic scale
within a nationalistic style, Gilardi’s mature works show a more universal
language, particularly such religious works as the Misa de Requiem and
Misa de Gloria and the Stabat mater (1952). His first opera, Ilse, o Amore
di un giorno (1919) is clearly influenced by Puccini, and his second, La
leyenda del urutaú, is set at the time of the conquistadors and relates an
indigenous legend about a bird with a nocturnal song. In this work Gilardi
uses pentatonic scales and other indigenous themes and dances. The
operas were first performed at the Teatro Colón in 1923 and 1929
respectively. He also composed a humorous symphonic piece for children,
El gaucho con botas nuevas (1936), first performed in the USA with José
Iturbi conducting.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Ilse, o Amore di un giorno (op, 2), 1919, Buenos Aires, Colón, 13 July 1923;
La leyenda del urutaú (op, prol, 3, J. Oliva Nogueira), 1929, Buenos Aires, Colón,
25 Oct 1934; incid music
Choral: Misa de Requiem, S, A, T, chorus, org, orch, 1914–18; Misa de Gloria,
soloists, female chorus, org, orch, 1936; TeD, female chorus, orch, 1938; El
libertador (cant.), spkr, chorus, orch, 1948; Stabat mater, S, A, chorus, org, orch,
1952
Orch: Serie argentina, 1929; Piruca y yo, 1938; Obertura tritemática, 1952; Sinfonía
cíclica, 1961
Pieces for children’s chorus, songs, chbr music, pf suites and preludes, film scores

BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (J.M.Veniard)
Compositores de América/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan-American
Union, xii (Washington DC, 1966)
J.O. Pickenhayn: Gilardo Gilardi (Buenos Aires, 1966)
M. Ficher, M. Furman Schleifer and J.M. Furman: Latin American
Classical Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and
London, 1996)
SUSANA SALGADO

Gilardoni, Domenico
(b Naples, 1798; d Naples, 1831). Italian librettist. Little is known about his
background. Dogged by bad luck and ill-health, he died young, having
written 20 librettos in five years; the whole of his short career was based in
Naples. His first published libretto was for Bellini (Bianca e Gernando,
1826), but much of his early work was for the Teatro Nuovo and typically
contained long stretches of prose and buffo roles in dialect; collaboration
with Donizetti, from L’esule di Roma onwards, took him to the royal
theatres, the S Carlo and the Fondo. When working with Donizetti he
achieved a high level not matched when writing for others, probably due to
the influence of the composer, who himself finished Fausta after the
librettist’s death. Although never officially described as a poet of the royal
theatres, Gilardoni was widely credited with raising standards there. His
most accomplished libretto was Il paria, set by Donizetti in 1829; his most
frequently performed was certainly Il ventaglio (Raimondi, 1831), which
demonstrates all too clearly the slack versification that often marred his
work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (John Black) [incl. list of libs]
E. Bursotti: Domenico Gilardoni, autore di dramma per musica (Naples,
c1883)
W. Ashbrook: Donizetti: le opere (Turin, 1987)
JOHN BLACK

Gilbert, Anthony
(b London, 26 July 1934). English composer. After training as a translator
he studied composition privately with Mátyás Seiber (1957–9) and at
Morley College, London (1959–63) with Alexander Goehr and Anthony
Milner. He worked as a music editor with Schott (1965–70) before
beginning a teaching career at Goldsmiths College, London (1968–73;
acting director of music 1971–3). He was appointed to the Royal Northern
College of Music in 1973, where he was head of composition until 1999.
Simon Holt, Priti Paintal and Luke Stoneham have been numbered among
his students.
Tough yet often humorous, Gilbert's music reflects the uncompromising
spirit of its creator. His dogged individualism is clear not only from his
determination, relatively late in life, to become a composer, but also from
his subsequent pursuit of artistic goals that answered personal challenges
 rather than topical concerns of the avant-garde. Although he has written in
most of the major genres, his output resists conventional classifications of
either sensibility or technique. The common factor in his works is his fertile
imagination, which is charged both by his musical ideas and his thoughts
on the nature of performance.
In his Missa brevis (1964–5) and Nine or Ten Osannas (1967) Gilbert
developed fresh meanings for serial and combinatorial raw materials by
employing them with the formal concision of a miniaturist. In The Incredible
Flute Music (1968) he used simultaneously fast and slow music to create a
musical paradox. A new approach to familiar concepts is also characteristic
of the Piano Sonata no.2 for four hands (1966). These scores, as well as
the chamber-orchestral Sinfonia (1965), Regions for two orchestras (1966)
and the Symphony (1973, rev. 1985), demonstrate his keen sense of
instrumental scope and timbre. Ghost and Dream Dancing for orchestra
(1974, rev. 1981), Inscapes for speaker, soprano and small ensemble
(1975, rev. 1981), and Long White Moonlight for soprano and electric
double bass (1980), mark a further stage in his exploration of unusual
sonorities. The radio opera The Chakravaka-Bird (1977) and Towards
Asâvari for piano and chamber ensemble (1978) attest to his interest in
non-Western cultures.
Gilbert's works of the 1980s and 90s continue to stress both humour and
seriousness. A relaxed voice is heard in the musical ‘bestiaries’ for
chamber ensembles (the Quartet of Beasts, 1984; Beastly Jingles, 1984;
and Six of the Bestiary, 1985) and in a number of pieces for sopranino
recorder, such as Midwales Lightwhistle Automatic (1996). In contrast, the
orchestral song cycle Certain Lights Reflecting (1989), to poems by the
Tasmanian poet Sarah Day, and the Violin Concerto ‘On Beholding a
Rainbow’ (1998) continue the style of composition that first brought Gilbert
to prominence in the 1960s.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ops: The Scene Machine (1, G. Macbeth), 1970, Kassel, 4 April 1971; The
Chakravaka-bird (radio op, A.K. Ramanujan, Daniel H.H. Ingalls, Gilbert, after
Indian sources) 1977
Orch: Sinfonia, chbr orch, 1965; Regions, 2 orch, 1966; Sym., 1973, rev. 1985 [incl.
material from Regions]; Ghost and Dream Dancing, 1974, rev. 1981; Welkin, 1976;
Towards Asâvari, pf, chbr orch, 1978; Dream Carousels, wind, 1988; … into the
Gyre of a Madder Dance, wind, 1994; Vn Conc. ‘On Beholding a Rainbow’, 1998
Vocal: Missa brevis, SATB, 1964–5; Love Poems (F. Horovitz, Li Shangyin, G.
Barron), S, ens, 1970; Inscapes (G.M. Hopkins), spkr, S, 2 ww, perc, 1975, rev.
1981; Long White Moonlight (Asian texts), S, elec db, 1980; Beastly Jingles (C.G.
Leland, W. MacGonagll, anon.), S, ens, 1984; Certain Lights Reflecting (S. Day),
Mez, orch, 1989; Upstream River Rewa (V. Naidu, after Mahabharata, A.K.
Ramanuhan), nar, fl, vc, sitar, tabla, kbd, 1991; Handles to the Invisible (Day),
SATB, 1995
Chbr and solo inst: Sonata no.1, pf, 1962; Duo, vn, va, 1963; Sonata no.2, pf 4
hands, 1966; Brighton Piece, perc, ens, 1967; 9 or 10 Osannas, cl, hn, pf trio, 1967;
The Incredible Flute Music (Peal I), fl, pf, 1968; Treatment of Silence, vn, tape,
1969; Str Qt with Pf Pieces, 1972; Calls Around Chungmori, fl, cl, va, vc, perc,
1979; Crow Undersongs, va, 1981; Vasanta with Dancing, 1v ad lib, fl, ob, vn, va,
hp, perc, opt. dancer, 1981; 2 Moonfaring, vc, perc, 1983, rev. 1986; Qt of Beasts,
fl, ob, bn, pf, 1984; Six of the Bestiary, sax qt, 1985; Fanfarings, 6–8 brass, 1986;
Str Qt no.2, 1987; Str Qt no.3 ‘Super hoqueto David’, 1987; Ziggurat, b cl, mar,
1994; Stars, tr rec, pf, 1995; Midwales Lightwhistle Automatic, sopranino rec, pf,
1996

Principal publishers: Schott, Forsyth Bros., York

Principal recording company: NMC

BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.W. Hopkins: ‘Anthony Gilbert’, MT, cix (1968), 907–10; also music
suppl. ‘Shepherd Masque’ (Oct 1968)
R. Henderson: ‘Anthony Gilbert’, Music and Musicians, xx/7 (1971–2), 42–
9
S. Walsh: ‘“Time Off” and “The Scene Machine”’, MT, cxiii (1972), 137–9
[interview]
NICHOLAS WILLIAMS

Gilbert, Geoffrey (Winzer)

(b Liverpool, 28 May 1914; d De Land, FL, 18 May 1989). English flautist.
He gained a scholarship to the RMCM at the age of 14 and joined the Hallé
Orchestra and the Royal Liverpool PO two years later. He was principal
flute in the LPO under Beecham from 1933 to 1948, and later played in the
BBC SO and RPO. In 1948 he founded the Wigmore Chamber Ensemble
and directed it for over 20 years. He also gave the British premières of
concertos by Ibert, Nielsen and Jolivet. In the 1930s Gilbert was greatly
influenced by Marcel Moyse and studied for a while with René le Roy,
adopting a silver flute and modifying his technique to play in the flexible
and expressive French style, in contrast to the straighter, more reedy style
favoured by English players on the wooden flute. Gilbert taught the French
style to generations of English players at Trinity College of Music, London,
and the GSM, and was director of wind studies at the RMCM from 1957 to
1969 before moving to Stetson University, Florida, for ten years. He also
travelled widely to give masterclasses. His life and influence are
documented by Angeleita S. Floyd in The Gilbert Legacy (Iowa, 1990).
EDWARD BLAKEMAN

Gilbert, Henry F(ranklin Belknap)

(b Somerville, MA, 26 Sept 1868; d Cambridge, MA, 19 May 1928).
American composer. The son of a church organist and a soprano, he learnt
to play the violin and piano, and studied theory and composition with
George E. Whiting, George Howard and Edward MacDowell (1886–92),
but never attained a thorough musical education. After working as a
freelance violinist, he held various posts for a printer, real-estate agency
and music publishers, but poor health forced him into an early retirement.
Among his other activities, he assisted Arthur Farwell with the Wa-Wan
Press, devoted to the publication of American music, wrote articles for
music journals and lectured on music. Advocating the use of musical
humour and popular idioms in composition, he emphasized the need for
independence from musical authorities and European-based ideals of
beauty. The Wa-Wan Press published several of his piano pieces and
songs, among them the popular Pirate Song.
In 1893 Gilbert visited the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, where
he was introduced to ragtime and other world musics. Convinced of the
importance of nationalistic forms of expression, he came to admire the
styles of Dvořák, Grieg and several French and Russian composers, and
collected and studied Amerindian, black American and Celtic traditional
musics. His own compositions feature both lyrical and roughhewn
melodies, are always tonal and usually diatonic, and are regularly shaped
by popular and folk antecedents. Uncomplicated triadic harmonies, sharply
outlined rhythms, duple metres, abrupt modulatory schemes and clearly
sectionalized structures are characteristics of many of his works,
particularly those influenced by black American music. Comedy Overture
on Negro Themes and The Dance in Place Congo became quite popular
and received many American performances, winning him praise as a
composer and a number of commissions; some works were also performed
in France and Russia where, championed by Glazunov, Gilbert attracted an
enthusiastic following.
Gilbert’s later music (from 1915) is less known. Beginning with the one-act
opera Fantasy in Delft (1920), he put aside the influence of the black
American tradition; his phrasing grew more flexible, rhythms became less
regular and harmonies more subtle. Works such as the vivid suite from the
Pilgrim Tercentenary Pageant (1921), the Whitmanesque Symphonic Piece
(1925) with its loud rhythmic outbursts and Stephen Foster-like balladry
and the poignant Nocturne after Whitman (1926), inspired by the Whitman
lines beginning ‘I am he that walks with the tender and growing night’,
capture the spirit of a wider America.
On the whole, Gilbert demonstrated a rugged independence of thought in
his works. Though his music often sounded coarse to his critics, he
considered his lucid, unaffectedly direct style admirable, attesting to a
genuine honesty of expression. One of the first composers to be influenced
by Amerindian and black American music, he felt a powerful desire to
endow the majority of his works with an American character, whether
particularized, wide-ranging or idealized. Beginning with The Fantasy in
Delft, a fully developed personal style emerged that was not indebted to
any particular nationalistic source. While his compositional techniques were
European in derivation, the vitality of his music was uniquely American. To
say something meaningful to ordinary Americans and to say it eloquently
and without pretence, these were his guiding principles.
WORKS
(selective list)
 for fuller list see Longyear (1968)

unpublished unless otherwise stated

dramatic
Cathleen ni Houlihan (incid suite of Irish melodies, W.B. Yeats), New York, 1903
Pot of Broth (incid song, Yeats), New York, 1903
Riders to the Sea (incid music, J.M. Synge), Boston, 1904; sym. prologue, rev. 1913
(1919), also for pf duet
The Twisting of the Rope (incid reel, D. Hyde), Boston, 1904
Uncle Remus (op, C. Johnston, after J.C. Harris), c1906, unfinished; source of
Comedy Ov., Tempo di rag, [5] Negro Dances, [3] American Dances
The Intimate Story of Indian Tribal Life (The Story of a Vanishing Race) (E.S.
Curtis), 21 small pieces for lectures, orch, 1911; source of [6] Indian Sketches, [5]
Indian Scenes
Fantasy in Delft (op, 1, T.P. Robinson), 1915–20
Pilgrim Tercentenary Pageant: First Episode, band, 1921; orch suite, 1921
orchestral
Gavotte, 1890s; 2 Episodes, op.2, c1895 (1897) [no.2 also for pf]; Summer-Day
Fantasie, op.4, c1899 [after H.D. Thoreau]; Americanesque, op.5, c1902–8
[pubd as Humoresque (1913)]; [3] American Dances, c1906 [arr. pf duet
(1919)]; Comedy Ov. on Negro Themes, c1906 (1912) [also for pf duet]; The
Dance in Place Congo, op.15, sym. poem, c1908, rev. 1916 (1922) [after G.W.
Cable; perf. as pantomime-ballet, New York, 1918]; Strife, 1910–25; [6] Indian
Sketches, 1911, rev. 1914 [also for pf duet]; Negro Rhapsody (Shout), 1912
(1915); To Thee, America (F. Manley), chorus, orch, 1914 [also for SATB, pf
(1914)]; The Island of the Fay, sym. poem, 1923 [after E.A. Poe; rev. of pf work
(1904)]; Dance, jazz band, 1924; Nocturne after Whitman, 1925–6; Sym. Piece,
1925; Suite, chbr orch, 1926–7
songs
In May (H. Heine), 1891; The Roses are a Regal Trop (T.B. Aldrich), 1893; A Group
of [8] Songs, op.1 (1894) [no.2 orchd]; The Curl (A. Rives), op.3/2, 1897 (n.d.),
orchd; The Lament of Deirdré (S. Ferguson), op.3/3, c1897 (1903); O were you my
love yon lilac fair (R. Burns) (1897); Perdita (J.T. Field) (1897); The Pirate Song
(R.L. Stevenson, A.C. Hyde) (1902) [orchd; arr. Bar, male chorus (1921)];
Salammbô's Invocation to Tänith (G. Flaubert), op.6 (1902), orchd; Zephyrus (H.W.
Longfellow) (1903); Croon of the Dew (G.T. Phelps), op.7/2 (1904); [4] Celtic
Studies (1905); Faery Song (W.B. Yeats) (1905); Tell me, where is fancy bred? (W.
Shakespeare) (1905); 2 South American Gypsy Songs (L.A. Smith), with vn ad lib
(1906); Orlamonde (M. Maeterlinck, trans. M.J. Serrano) (1907); Fish Wharf
Rhapsody (G.W. Beauchamp [F. Manley]) (1909); The Owl (A. Tennyson) (1910); A
Rouse for Roosevelt (G.L. Farwell) (1912); Give me the Splendid Silent Sun (W.
Whitman) (1914); Homesick (H. Weedon) (1919); Breath of Night (G.T. Phelps);
Loafing Souvenir (F. Manley); many others, incl. 16 under pseudonym of Frank
Belknap
Edn: One Hundred Folk Songs from Many Countries (Boston, 1910)
chamber and solo instrumental
Gavotte, str qt, early 1890s, rev.; Scherzino, pf trio, ?1890s; Quartette, a, 1st
movt, ?late 1890s; Waltz, str qt, ?late 1890s; Mazurka, Scherzo, pf (1902); 2
Verlaine Moods, op.8, pf (1903); Tempo di rag, fl, ob, B -cornet, pf, 2 vn, vc,
c1906–17 [also for pf]; [5] Indian Scenes, pf (1912); [5] Negro Dances, pf (1914);
Str Qt, 1920; A Rag Bag, 6 pieces, op.19, pf (1927)

MSS in US-Wc, US-Bp

Principal publisher: Wa-Wan Press

WRITINGS
‘American Spirit’, Wa-Wan Press Monthly, vi (1907), 21–2
‘Indian Music’, New Music Review, xi (1912), 56–9
‘Personal Recollections of Edward MacDowell’, New Music Review, xi
(1912), 494–8
‘The American Composer’, MQ, i (1915), 169–80
‘Folk Music in Art Music; a Discussion and a Theory’, MQ, iii (1917), 577–
601
‘The Disease of Harmony’, New Music Review, xviii (1919), 269–72
‘A Chapter of Reminiscences’, New Music Review, xx (1921), 54–7, 91–4
‘Concerning Jazz’, New Music Review, xxi (1922), 438–41; repr. in Etude,
liii (1935), 74 only
‘Humor in Music’, MQ, xii (1926), 40–55
‘Notes on a Trip to Frankfurt in the Summer of 1927; with Some Thoughts
on Modern Music’, MQ, xvi (1930), 21–37
BIBLIOGRAPHY
O. Downes: ‘An American Composer’, MQ, iv (1918), 23–36
H.G. Sear: ‘Henry Franklin Belknap Gilbert’, MR, v (1944), 250–59
K.M.E. Longyear: Henry F. Gilbert: his Life and Works (diss., U. of
Rochester, 1968)
K.E. and R.M. Longyear: ‘Henry F. Gilbert’s Unfinished Uncle Remus
Opera’, Yearbook for Inter-American Musical Research, x (1974), 50–
57
A. Nesnow, ed.: Henry Gilbert Papers (New Haven, CT, 1983)
N.E. TAWA (text), KATHERINE LONGYEAR (work-list, bibliography)

Gilbert, Jean [Winterfeld, Max]

(b Hamburg, 11 Feb 1879; d Buenos Aires, 20 Dec 1942). German
composer and conductor. As a child he took piano lessons and later
studied music in Kiel, Sondershausen and Berlin. He began his
professional career in 1897 as a theatre conductor in Bremerhaven, moved
to Hamburg in 1898 and, after military service, to Berlin in 1902. He
adopted his nom de plume for his first operetta, Das Jungfernstift (1901).
He conducted with a touring circus and at provincial theatres, and achieved
wide and lasting success with his operetta Die keusche Susanne (1910).
He then returned to Berlin as conductor and composer to the Thalia-
Theater and produced a rapid succession of operettas – he was to
compose more than 50 in all – in the lively, commercial style of the Berlin
school, among them Polnische Wirtschaft (1910), Autoliebchen (1912), Die
 elfte Muse (1912), Puppchen (1912) and Die Tangoprinzessin (1913); most
of these achieved international currency. His postwar successes included
Die Frau im Hermelin (1919, Berlin), and Katja die Tänzerin (1923,
Vienna), but his later operettas, film scores and theatrical management
ventures were less successful. In 1933 he emigrated to Buenos Aires,
where he became conductor for a radio station. His son Robert Gilbert
(1899–1978) wrote the words for many German films and operettas,
including Benatzky’s Im weissen Rössl, for which he also composed one
song; in addition he adapted numerous American musicals for the German
stage.
WORKS
Operettas, most first performed in Berlin; for more detailed list see GroveO

Das Jungfernstift, 8 Feb 1901; Der Prinzregent, 12 Sept 1903; Jou-Jou, 23 Oct
1903; Onkel Casimir, 1 Nov 1908; Polnische Wirtschaft, 26 Dec 1909; Die keusche
Susanne, 26 Feb 1910; Die lieben Ottos, 30 April 1910; Die moderne Eva, 11 Nov
1911; Autoliebchen, 16 March 1912; So bummeln wir, 21 Nov 1912; Puppchen, 19
Dec 1912; Die elfte Muse, 23 Nov 1912 (rev. as Die Kinokönigin; Die Reise um die
Erde in vierzig Tagen, 13 Sept 1913; Die Tangoprinzessin, 4 Oct 1913; Fräulein
Trallala, 15 Nov 1913; Die Sünden des Lulatsch, 15 March 1914; Wenn der Frühling
kommt, 28 March 1914
Kam’rad Männe, 3 Oct 1914; Woran wir denken, 25 Dec 1914; Jung muss man
sein, 27 Aug 1915; Drei Paar Schuhe, 10 Sept 1915; Das Fräulein von Amt, 2 Sept
1915; Der tapfere Ulan, 20 Nov 1915; Arizonda, 1 Feb 1916
Blondinchen, 4 March 1916; Die Fahrt ins Glück, 2 Sept 1916; Das
Vagabundenmädel, 2 Dec 1916; Die Dose Sr. Majestät, 7 March 1917; Der verliebte
Herzog [Prinz], 1 Sept 1917; Der ersten Liebe goldene Zeit, 8 March 1918;
Eheurlaub, 1 Aug 1918; Zur wilden Hummel, 10 March 1919; Die Schönste von
allen, 22 March 1919; Die Frau im Hermelin, 23 Aug 1919; Der Geiger von Lugano,
26 Sept 1920; Onkel Muz, 2 April 1921; Die Braut des Lukullus, 26 Aug 1921;
Prinzessin Olala, 17 Sept 1921; Dorine und der Zufall, 15 Sept 1922; Katja die
Tänzerin, 5 Jan 1922; Die kleine Sünderin, 1 Oct 1922; Das Weib in Purpur, 21 Dec
1923
Die Geliebte seiner Hoheit, 24 Sept 1924; Der Gauklerkönig, 1924; Zwei um Eine,
1924; Uschi, 24 Jan 1925; Annemarie, 4 July 1925; Spiel um die Liebe, 18 Dec
1925; Der Lebenskünstler, 25 Dec 1925; In der Johannisnacht, 1 July 1926; Lene,
Lotte, Liese, Josefinens Tochter, 14 Jan 1926; Eine Nacht in Kairo, 22 Dec 1928;
The Red Robe, 25 Dec 1928; Hotel Stadt Lemberg, 1 July 1929; Die Männer der
Manon, 1929; Das Mädel am Steuer, 17 Sept 1930; Lovely Lady, 25 Feb 1932; Die
Dame mit dem Regenbogen, 25 Aug 1933

BIBLIOGRAPHY
GänzlEMT
B. Grun: Kulturgeschichte der Operette (Munich, 1961, 2/1967)
O. Schneidereit: Operette von Abraham bis Ziehrer (Berlin, 1966)
R. Traubner: Operetta: a Theatrical History (New York, 1983)
ANDREW LAMB

Gilbert, Kenneth (Albert)

(b Montreal, 16 Dec 1931). Canadian harpsichordist and organist. After
receiving his diploma from the Montreal Conservatory in 1953, he
continued his musical education in Paris, studying the organ with Gaston
Litaize, composition with Nadia Boulanger and the harpsichord with
Ruggero Gerlin. From 1955 to 1967 he was a church organist and
choirmaster in Montreal, as well as a concert organist and harpsichordist in
Canada and the USA. During this time he was a leading figure in the organ
reform movement in Canada, which brought about the installation of many
new tracker-action instruments. After his London début in 1968 he
performed extensively in Europe but continued to appear frequently in
North America. He has occupied a number of teaching posts in Canadian
and European universities and conservatories, and in 1989 was appointed
professor of harpsichord at the Salzburg Mozarteum.
Gilbert’s repertory includes a wide range of Baroque works for harpsichord
and organ, but he is especially acclaimed for his stylistically elegant
interpretations of French music of the 17th and 18th centuries. He has
made numerous recordings, including all of François Couperin’s Pièces de
clavecin, which he has also edited. His other editions include the complete
sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti, the harpsichord works of Rameau and
D’Anglebert, the toccatas of Frescobaldi and Michelangelo Rossi, and his
own keyboard transcriptions of the lute music of Kapsberger. Gilbert's
collection of instruments includes harpsichords by Taskin, Goermans and
Delin.
HOWARD SCHOTT

Gilbert, Olive
(b Carmarthen, c1880; d Hove, 19 Feb 1981). English contralto. She
trained with the Carl Rosa Opera Company, and sang at Covent Garden
and the Lyceum and Strand theatres. She was appropriately cast as a
singing teacher with an operatic background in two of Ivor Novello’s Drury
Lane musicals: as Madame Simonetti in Careless Rapture (1936), and as
Cäcilie Kurt in The Dancing Years (1939). She became a stalwart of
Novello’s unofficial repertory company with whom she spent the best part
of her career. With Muriel Barron she introduced one of Novello’s most
popular songs, the duet ‘We’ll gather lilacs’ in Perchance to Dream (1945),
a show which displayed both her powerful contralto voice and a gift for
comic acting. Her relationship with Novello also extended beyond the
stage, as his unofficial housekeeper in London. She later appeared as
Sister Margaretta in a long run of The Sound of Music (1961–7) and then in
the London production of Man of La Mancha (1968).
PAUL WEBB

Gilbert Islands [now Republic of

Kiribati].
See Micronesia, §III.
Gilberto, João (do Prado Pereira
de Oliveira)
(b Juazeiro, Bahia, 10 June 1931). Brazilian popular singer, composer and
guitarist. He moved to Rio de Janeiro at the age of 18, singing mostly
Romantic samba-canções in various groups and frequenting the nightclub
Plaza in Copacobana and the Murray Recordshop in downtown Rio de
Janeiro. His first solo recording came in 1952, but it was the July 1958
record containing Jobim's Chega de Saudade and his own Bim-bom that
called attention to his new singing style, unassuming but secure and very
intimate. In April 1958 he had accompanied on the guitar the pop singer
Elisete Cardoso singing Chega de Saudade, and revealed for the first time
his distinctive guitar beat that came to be known as the violão gago
(stammering guitar), a trademark of the bossa nova made up of previously
unknown syncopated patterns on the samba beat. In November of the
same year he recorded Jobim's Desafinado and his own Oba-lá-lá; with
direct reference to the new trend in the lyrics of the song, Desafinado
became a sort of hymn of bossa nova. In March 1959 the LP Chega de
Saudade was released, featuring Gilberto as a solo singer with
arrangements by Jobim, and became the model of bossa nova aesthetics,
with Gilberto as its most sought-after representative. In his next album, O
amor, o sorriso e a flor (1960), he recorded another famous song by Jobim,
Samba de uma nota só, which won him great popularity.
In 1962 Gilberto took part in the Bossa Nova Carnegie Hall concert and
decided to settle in New York. He then collaborated with Stan Getz, and the
resulting album Getz/Gilberto, although not released until 1963, received
six Grammy awards and sold almost a million copies. Between short trips
to Brazil he appeared in various shows in America, and in the late 1960s
and early 70s lived in Mexico, where his João Gilberto en México album
was released in 1971. Returning to the USA, the rest of his career saw a
number of new recordings of classic Brazilian, American and even Italian
and French songs in his inimitable Brazilian accent and bossa nova style:
understated, restrained and relaxed, these recordings are all the more
appealing and emotional for their simplicity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Ramalho Neto: Historinha do desafinado (Rio de Janeiro, 1965)
A de Campos, ed.: Balanço da Bossa: Antologia crítica da moderna
música popular brasileira (São Paulo, 1968, 3/1978)
G. Béhague: ‘Bossa and Bossas: Recent Changes in Brazilian Urban
Popular Music’, EthM, xvii (1973), 209–33
B. Borges: Música popular do Brasil/Brazilian Popular Music (São Paulo,
1990)
GERARD BÉHAGUE

Gilboa, Jacob
(b Košice, 2 May 1920). Israeli composer of Czech birth. At first educated
in Vienna, he emigrated to Israel in 1938 studying architecture at the Haifa
 Technological Institute and music at the Jerusalem Music Academy and
Teachers Seminary, from which he graduated in 1947. His composition
teachers were Tal and Ben-Haim. Before 1957 Gilboa’s music was tonal,
showing the Middle Eastern influence typical of the Israeli ‘Mediterranean’
style. After attending the Cologne new music courses given by
Stockhausen and Pousseur in 1963, his work changed radically to include
clusters, quarter-tones, electronics and unconventional instrumental
combinations, generally deployed in miniature forms. Among many awards
he won the Israel Composers and Authors Association Prize on four
occasions and the Prime Minister's Award in 1983; he has also represented
Israel at the ISCM festival four times (1969, 1973, 1978, 1989). In 1973 he
contributed an untitled article, and one on the 1973 ISCM Festival in
Reykjavik, to the periodical Musical Prose (no.1, p.7; no.3–4, p.1); in 1983
he wrote on ‘Fashions and Styles’ in the yearbook New Music in Israel
(1981–3, pp.24–6).
WORKS
(selective list)

Inst: Crystals, fl, va, vc, pf, perc, 1967; Pastels, 2 prepared pf, 1970; Cedars, orch,
1971–2; Lament of Klonimos, orch, 1974; Microtoccata, pf, 1976; Kathros u-
Psanterin, orch, 1978; Kathros, vn, 1979; Reflections on 3 Chords of Alban Berg, pf,
1979; Gittit, chbr orch, hp/pf obbl, 1980; 7 Ornaments on a Theme by Paul Ben-
Haim, pf, orch, 1981; Sonata, vc, pf, 1983; Str Qt, 1984; 3 Lyric Pieces in
Mediterranean Style, chbr orch, 1984; Ce qu'a vu le vent d'est, pf, 1985; 3 Strange
Visions of Hieronymus Bosch, org, 1987; Blossoms in the Desert, fl, pf, 1993
Vocal: 12 Glass Windows of Chagall in Jerusalem, S, 5 female vv, ens, 1966; Dew,
children's chorus, hp, 1972; Irit Flowers, C, fl, vn, va, vc, perc, 1986; Steps of
Spring, children's/women's chorus, 1986; Lyric Triptychon, Mez, girls' chorus, synth,
chbr orch, 1992; 4 Gobelins for Franz Kafka, S, vn, va, vc, hp, pf, 1993
Works with tape: From the Dead Sea Scrolls, chorus, children's chorus, 2 org, orch,
tape, 1972; Bedu: Metamorphoses on a Bedouin Call, Bar, fl, vn, vc, pf, tape, 1975;
The Beth-Alpha Mosaic, Mez, chbr ens, tape, 1976; 3 Red Sea Impressions, vn, cl,
gui, hp, org, pf, tape, 1978; 3 Vocalises for Peter Breughel, Mez, chbr orch, tape,
1979; The Grey Colours of Käthe Kollwitz, Mez, chbr orch, synth, tape, 1990
MSS in IL-J, Tmi

Principal publisher: Israeli Music Publications

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Y.W. Cohen: Werden und Entwicklung der Musik in Israel (Kassel, 1976)
[pt ii of rev. edn of M. Brod: Die Musik Israels], 64, 85, 88, 138–9
P. Gradenwitz: Music and Musicians in Israel (Tel-Aviv, 1978), 21–2, 123,
128
Z. Keren: Contemporary Israeli Music (Ramat Gan, 1980), 85–7
D. Golomb and B.-Z. Orgad: Guide for Listening to Israeli Compositions
(Tel-Aviv, 1984), 120–30
A. Tischler: A Descriptive Bibliography of Art Music by Israeli Composers
(Warren, MI, 1988), 110–13
O. Tourny: Jacob Gilboa: Compositeur israelien contemporain (Lyons,
1988)
 URY EPPSTEIN

Gilchrist, Anne Geddes

(b Manchester, 8 Dec 1863; d Lancaster, 24 July 1954). English musical
antiquary and authority on folk music, psalmody and hymnody. Trained at
the Royal Academy of Music, she began research in folklore in 1895, when
she noted similarities between newly discovered folksongs and the modal
tunes of 16th- and 17th-century hymns. Between 1895 and 1910 she
collected folklore in south-eastern and northern England; her main interest,
however, was historical research and fellow scholars benefited particularly
from her expertise in sourcing tunes. She joined the Folk-Song Society in
1905 as part of a new wave of collector-musicians associated with its
revitalization and contributed numerous articles and notes to the Journal of
the Folk-Song Society and its successor the Journal of the English Folk
Dance and Song Society; from 1906 until her death she also served as a
member of the editorial board, where she worked closely with Frank Kidson
and Lucy Broadwood. A liberal Presbyterian, her attention to nonconformist
religious music was unusual among contemporary folklorists and was
reflected in articles for The Choir written between 1920 and 1937. Admitted
as a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1935, she was appointed as
OBE in 1945 for services to folksong. Her book and manuscript collection is
held in the Vaughan Williams Memorial Library, London.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E.A. White and M. Dean-Smith: An Index of English Songs Contributed to
‘The Journal of the Folk-Song Society’ and its Continuation ‘The
Journal of the English Folk Dance and Song Society’ to 1950 (London,
1951)
M. Dean-Smith: ‘The Gilchrist Bequest’, JEFDSS, vii (1952–5), 218–27
M. Dean-Smith: ‘The Work of Anne Geddes Gilchrist, OBE, FSA, 1863–
1954’, PRMA, lxxxiv (1957–8), 43–53
V. Gammon: ‘Folk Song Collecting in Sussex and Surrey 1843–1914’,
History Workshop Journal, x (1980), 61–89
GEORGINA BOYES

Gilchrist, William Wallace

(b Jersey City, NJ, 8 Jan 1846; d Easton, PA, 20 Dec 1916). American
composer and conductor. The family moved to Philadelphia in 1855.
Starting in 1865, he studied singing, the organ and composition with Hugh
A. Clarke for three years. After a brief period in Cincinnati he returned to
Philadelphia in 1874, and became organist and choirmaster at St
Clement's Episcopal Church. Around 1877 he became organist at Christ
Church, then moved to the Church of the New Jerusalem
(Swedenborgian), where he served for many years as organist and
choirmaster. Among the composition prizes he won were the Abt Male
Singing Society Prize in 1878, the Cincinnati Festival Association Prize in
1882 for his setting of Psalm xlvi (judged by Saint-Saëns, Carl Reinecke
and Theodore Thomas), and three prizes awarded by the Mendelssohn
 Club of New York in the 1880s. Colleagues honoured him with six
testimonial concerts between 1882 and 1916.
Gilchrist founded the Philadelphia Mendelssohn Club, which he conducted
from 1874 to 1914; he taught privately and at the Philadelphia Musical
Academy from around 1881, and conducted the Symphony Society of
Philadelphia from 1892 to 1899. In 1891 he founded the Manuscript Music
Society, dedicated to the promotion and performance of music by local
composers. The University of Pennsylvania awarded him an honorary
doctorate in 1896, the year he became one of the founder members of the
American Guild of Organists.
Gilchrist was a serious, romantic composer whose works are thoughtfully
constructed. Important American firms published most of the choral music
and songs. The Philadelphia Orchestra performed his Symphony in C
during its first season in 1901. He edited the Presbyterian Church's official
hymnal (1895) and The Hymnal for Use in Congregational Churches
(1902), and co-edited 17 widely used music readers.
WORKS
(selective list)

vocal
God is our Refuge and Strength (Psalm xlvi), S, 4vv, orch (New York, 1882)
8 Songs (Boston, 1885)
The Rose (J.R. Lowell), ballad, Mez, 4vv, orch, vs (New York, 1887)
Prayer and Praise, solo vv, 4vv, pf/org (New York, 1888)
The Legend of the Bended Bow (F. Hemans), cant., Mez, male vv, pf 4 hands (New
York, 1888)
330 Exercises for Sight Singing Classes (Philadelphia, 1891)
Uplifted Gates, 4vv, pf 4 hands (New York, 1894)
Songs for the Children (Philadelphia, 1897)
A Christmas Idyll, solo vv, 4vv, orch (Boston, 1898)
6 Scotch Songs (R. Burns) (Philadelphia, 1898)
The Syrens (Lowell), 4 female vv, fl, hn ad lib, vn, vc, pf (New York, 1904)
An Easter Idyll, solo vv, 4vv, orch, org, vs (New York, 1907)
2 Tennyson Songs (Boston, 1908)
The Lamb of God (orat, J. Montgomery), vv, orch/org (New York, 1909)
The Knight of Toggenberg (trans. from F. von Schiller), ballad, A, female vv, orch,
vocal score (Boston, 1911)
instrumental
Orch: Sym. no.1, C, 1891, US-PHf; Sym. no.2, D, inc., completed by W. Happich,
1933, PHf; Sym. poem, g, c1910, PHf; Suite, G, pf, orch, PHf
Chbr: Une petite suite, pf 4 hands (Boston, 1885); Nonet, g, fl, cl, hn, str, pf, 1910,
PHf; Quintet [no.1], c, pf, str, unpubd; Quintet no.2, F, pf, str, perf. 1914, PHf
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAB (F.H. Martens)
The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, x (New York, 1900/R),
350
Obituary, Philadelphia Public Ledger (21 Dec 1916), 17
F.A. Wister: Twenty-five Years of the Philadelphia Orchestra (Philadelphia,
1925), 12–13, 95, 235
M.F. Schleifer: William Wallace Gilchrist, 1846–1916: a Moving Force in
the Musical Life of Philadelphia (Metuchen, NJ, 1985)
MARTHA FURMAN SCHLEIFER

Gilels, Emil (Grigor'yevich)

(b Odessa, 19 Oct 1916; d Moscow, 14 Oct 1985). Russian pianist. He
began his piano studies with Yakov Tkach and Bertha Ringold at the
Odessa Institute of Music and Drama and gave his first recital at the age of
12. In 1931 he won the National Competition of the Ukraine and the
following year played for Artur Rubinstein, who expressed astonishment at
his virtuoso prowess. Between 1935 and 1937 he studied with Heinrich
Neuhaus in Moscow and in 1936 he was awarded second prize in the
International Competition in Vienna. His first prize in the 1938 Concours
Eugène Ysaÿe in Brussels brought him to international prominence and
launched a career which was soon thwarted by the start of World War II.
Gilels returned to Russia, working as Neuhaus’s assistant at the Moscow
Conservatory, where he taught intermittently throughout his life. After the
war he played throughout the Soviet bloc countries and also gave two-
piano recitals with Jacov Flier and concerts with his violinist sister
Elizabeth. In 1945 he formed a trio with Leonid Kogan (his brother-in-law)
and Rostropovich and in 1947 he appeared as a soloist outside the USSR
for the first time, later touring Italy, Scandinavia, Switzerland, France and
Belgium. His long delayed American début took place in 1955 when he
appeared with the Philadelphia Orchestra under Ormandy in Tchaikovsky’s
First Concerto. He repeated this concerto with Bernstein in New York and
gave a unanimously praised solo recital at Carnegie Hall. His British début
in 1959 met with similar acclaim. By 1968 he was touring for as many as
nine or ten months every year. In 1981 he suffered a heart attack after
giving a recital at the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam, and from then on his
health declined.
Gilels’s recordings, many pirated, chart a development from early
impulsiveness and heaven-storming bravura to readings no less exciting
but imbued with the greatest subtlety, delicacy and inner concentration. His
youthful manner is exemplified by discs of Liszt’s Fantasia on Themes from
Le nozze di Figaro and Ravel’s Toccata, his later performances by a
selection from Grieg’s Lyric Pieces in which, to quote his own words, he
‘discovered a whole new world of intimate feeling’. He recorded his
commanding, intensely poetic readings of the Beethoven and Brahms
concertos several times, and had virtually completed a set of Beethoven’s
sonatas at the time of his death. His magisterial technique and rich,
sumptuous sonorities are supremely in evidence in his 1955 recording of
Rachmaninoff’s Third Concerto, while his highly strung reading of
Skryabin’s Fourth Sonata recorded at a Moscow recital displays the sort of
wildness he allowed himself when playing before Russian audiences.
Gilels was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1946 and declared a People’s Artist
in 1954. He received the Order of Lenin in 1961 and again in 1966, the
Order of Commandeur Mérite Culturel et Artistique de Paris in 1967 and
Belgium’s Order of Leopold in 1968.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S.M. Khentova: Emil Gilels (Moscow, 1959/R) [incl. bibliography]
H.O. Spingel: ‘Emil Gilels: Phänomen der Tasten’, Fono Forum, vi (1961),
14 [with discography]
F. Schwarz: An Emil Gilels Discography (London, 1980)
BRYCE MORRISON

Giles, Alice (Rosemary)

(b Adelaide, 9 May 1961). Australian harpist. Having studied with the
Salzedo method exponents June Loney (Sydney) and Alice Chalifoux
(Cleveland, Ohio), she came to prominence as winner of the 1982 Israel
Harp Contest. In 1994 she recorded a CD devoted to the solo harp music
of Carlos Salzedo, and the same year was co-founder of Eolus, the
international society dedicated to promoting his work and ethos. With an
interest in experimental techniques and a repertory centring on later 20th-
century works, she has recorded the Ginastera and Jolivet concertos, is a
notable interpreter of Berio's Sequenza II and has commissioned several
new works for the Camac ‘Blue’ electric harp she acquired in 1999. She
taught at the Frankfurt Hochschule from 1990 to 1998, and in 1999 was
appointed to teach at the School of Music in Canberra.
ANN GRIFFITHS

Giles [Gyles], Nathaniel

(b in or nr Worcester, c1558; d Windsor, 24 Jan 1634). English composer,
organist and choirmaster. He was the son of William Gyles (d 1568), a
parishioner of St Clement’s, Worcester, and a member of a well-known
Worcester family. Thomas Giles, vicar-choral at St Paul’s Cathedral,
London, was apparently not related. Nathaniel was probably a pupil of
John Colden (d 1581), Master of the Choristers at Worcester Cathedral
from 1569 to 1581; he was a witness to Colden’s will, and a beneficiary.
Giles succeeded Colden at the cathedral until Michaelmas 1585, when he
became Master of the Children, lay clerk, and one of the organists at St
George’s Chapel, Windsor. On 14 June 1587, Giles married Anne Stainer
at St Helen’s, Worcester. One of their sons (also called Nathaniel b 1591)
received the DD and became a canon of both Windsor and Worcester.
Giles received the BMus from Oxford on 26 June 1585, at which time he
described himself as having been a student of music for 12 years (i.e.
since 1573, when he was 15 years old). It is possible that he had been a
clerk at Magdalen College in 1577. He supplicated for the DMus in 1607;
for some reason he did not compose the required ‘choral Hymn of 8 Parts’,
but the doctorate was finally granted in 1622.
He was appointed Gentleman and Master of the Children of the Chapel
Royal on 9 June 1597; he kept both this and the Windsor appointments
until his death. From 1600 to 1602 he was involved in the production of
choirboy plays, and collaborated with Henry Evans at the Blackfriars
Theatre, beginning in the autumn of 1600. Giles and Evans ran into trouble
 for using the authority of Queen Elizabeth to conscript boys more with a
view to their acting in the plays than for their singing in the Chapel Royal
choir. Because of a complaint their collaboration ended in 1602, although
the choirboys continued to be used in plays into the reign of James I.
According to Wood, Giles was ‘noted as well for his religious life and
conversation (a rarity in musicians) as for excellence in his faculty’. He was
buried in the chapel at Windsor.
Giles’s anthems, only a few of which were printed, reflect the contemporary
diversity of approaches to the genre: the two works in Leighton’s Teares or
Lamentations (16147) are in simple four-part homophony; others, such as
the five-part O give thanks to the Lord, are densely contrapuntal. Most are
verse anthems, calling for an alternation of soloists and chorus with organ
accompaniment. In his service music, Giles was partial to canon technique;
one entire service is canonic.
WORKS
MSS source information for all sacred works in Daniel and Le Huray

Edition: Nathaniel Giles: Anthems, ed. J.B. Clark, EECM, xxiii (1979) [A]

First Service (TeD, Jub, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 8/6vv, 1641 5
Second Service (TeD, Jub, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 6/6vv; Mag, Nunc only complete
Short Service, 2 parts in 1 (TeD, Jub, Ky, Cr), 2vv, inc.
3 full anthems (1 text only), 3–5vv, insts, A
16 verse anthems (6 inc.), 10 in A
2 sacred songs, A
6 motets (3 without text), 2, 3, 5vv
2 madrigals, 4, 5vv, GB-Lbl, Lcm
1 consort song, ed. in MB, xxii (1967)
1 acc. song, GB-Lbl

Blessed are all they that fear the Lord, attrib. in one source to Giles and Gibbons, is
by Gibbons; Lord in thy wrath, attrib. in some MSS to Giles, is probably by John
Amner; O Lord, in thee is all my trust, attrib. in some MSS to Giles and Tallis, is
probably by Tallis; O Lord, thou hast searched me out and known me, attrib. in one
source to Giles, is also attrib. to Adrian Batten; Thou God, that guid’st, attrib. in one
source to Giles and Byrd, was published in Barnard (1641 5) under Byrd’s name.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.H. Giles: Aegidiana, or Gleanings among Gileses at Home and Abroad
(London, 1910)
I. Atkins: The Early Occupants of the Office of Organist and Master of the
Choristers of the Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Virgin
Mary, Worcester (Worcester, 1918)
H.N. Hillebrand: The Child Actors: a Chapter in Elizabethan Stage History
(Urbana, IL, 1926)
E.H. Fellowes: Organists and Masters of the Choristers of St. George’s
Chapel in Windsor Castle (London and Windsor, 1939, 2/1979 with
addenda by M.F. Bond)
E.H. Fellowes: The Vicars or Minor Canons of His Majesty’s Free Chapel
of St. George in Windsor Castle (Windsor, 1945)
 J. BUNKER CLARK

Gilfert, Charles H., jr

(b ? Hesse-Cassel, Germany, 1787; d New York, 30 July 1829). American
theatre manager and composer. He probably arrived in New York in 1802.
He is listed as a music teacher in the New York Directory for 1805,
presented a concert and ball in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1807, and
opened the Commonwealth Theater in New York in 1813. After that date
his activities are clearly documented. In 1815 he moved to Charleston
where he served as musical director of the theatre managed by his father-
in-law Joseph George Holman. After Holman’s death in 1817, Gilfert
assumed management of the Charleston theatre and the following year
established a theatre circuit that included Savannah and Augusta. In 1817
he had created a circuit in Virginia which included theatres in Norfolk and
Richmond. These two circuits continued until 1825 when, owing to financial
problems, Gilfert moved to Albany, New York. Two years later he returned
to New York City where he opened the San Souci Theater. He remained
there until his death.
Five songs, three to poems by Thomas Moore, were composed before
1813, but most of his 32 extant songs date from 1813–25, his years of
intense theatre activity. Seven were from ballad operas: The Spanish
Patriots (1814), Freedom Ho (1815), The Champions of Freedom (1816)
and Virgin of the Sun (1823). Gilfert’s 27 extant piano pieces include
eleven waltzes, three marches, eight sets of variations and five other
pieces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Dorman: Theater in the Ante Bellum South (Chapel Hill, NC, 1967)
A. Stoutamire: Music of the Old South (Rutherford, NJ, 1972)
J. Hines: Musical Activity in Norfolk, Virginia, 1680–1973 (diss., U. of North
Carolina, 1974)
N. Stephenson: The Charleston Theater Management of Charles Gilfert,
1817–1822 (diss., U. of Nebraska, 1988)
JAMES R. HINES

Gilfry, Rodney
(b Covina, CA, 11 March 1959). American baritone. He made his European
début in 1986 at Hamburg as Mozart's Figaro. After singing Demetrius (A
Midsummer Night's Dream) at Los Angeles in 1988, he returned in roles
that included the four villains (Les contes d'Hoffmann), Mozart's and
Rossini's Figaro, Orestes (Elektra), Ford, Papageno, Guglielmo, Don
Giovanni (of which he has made a vivid recording under Gardiner) and
Malatesta. In 1988 he also sang Petya in Liebermann's La forêt at
Schwetzingen and, in 1989, Lescaut (Manon) and Otho (L'incoronazione di
Poppea) at Geneva. From 1990 he has appeared regularly at Zürich,
where he has undertaken such roles as Mercutio (Roméo et Juliette),
Ernesto (Il pirata), Massenet's Herod, and Ford. Gilfry's other parts have
included the title role in the US première of Wolfgang Rihm's Oedipus at
Santa Fe (1991), Olivier (Capriccio) at Chicago (1994) and Valentin (Faust)
in San Francisco (1995). He made his Metropolitan début as Demetrius in
1996. His strong lyric baritone and fine stage presence make him an ideal
Billy Budd, a role he sang at Geneva (1994) and for his débuts at Covent
Garden (1995) and the Opéra Bastille (1996).
ELIZABETH FORBES

Gil García, Bonifacio

(b Santo Domingo de la Calzada, Logroño, 14 May 1898; d Madrid, 22 Dec
1964). Spanish folklorist and composer. He received his early musical
education in Burgos, where, influenced by the musicologist Nemesio
Otaño, he became deeply interested in traditional folk music. He qualified
as a military bandmaster in 1923 and served as bandmaster for the
Spanish army until 1960. In 1926 he founded the Conservatory of Music at
Badajoz, where he was the director and an instructor for 20 years. As an
active collaborator with the Centro de Estudios Extremeños (1926–46) and
the Spanish Institute of Musicology (from 1944) he participated in many
field trips throughout the provinces of Extremadura (1924–31), La Rioja
(1944–5), Granada (1946, 1960), Ciudad Real (1947), Toledo (1949),
Cádiz (1957), Badajoz (1958) and Ávila (1959). He was a fellow of the
Fundación Juan March, a corresponding member of the Hispanic Society
of America and a member of the IFMC, and chaired many conferences
throughout Spain as well as in Paris, Oporto and Lisbon. As a composer he
is best remembered for his symphonic poem En una aldea extremeña
(1944) and the oratorio El Santo (1964). Gil García’s works are
fundamental to the study of Spanish folk music; they provide both
penetrating insights, and innumerable transcriptions of texts and melodies
with contextual analyses. His two most important studies are the
Cancionero popular de Extremadura (1931, for which he acquired the First
National Prize in Music in 1932) and the Cancionero taurino (1964–5); he
also produced numerous essays and anthologies of popular songs, and
edited recordings.
WRITINGS
‘La música popular en Extremadura: consideracion es generales’, Revista
de estudios extremeños, i (1927), 350–60; iii (1929), 419–21
‘Folklore musical extremeño’, Revista de estudios extremeños, ix (1935),
205–16; x (1936), 51–62, 183–92, 291–303; xi (1937), 87–106
‘El canto de relación en el folklore infantil de Extremadura’, Revista de
estudios extremeños, xvi (1942), 263–95
‘Romances populares de Extremadura’, Revista de estudios extremeños,
xvii (1943), 123–64, 265–80; xviii (1944), 53–82, 165–92, 385–416;
pubd separately (Madrid, 1944)
‘Juegos infantiles de Extremadura y su folklore musical’, RMC, no.33
(1949), 18–39
‘Noticias del folklore riojano: importancia de su recogida’, Berceo, iv
(1949), 269–75; see also ‘El tema de “La doncella guerrera” en el
folklore riojano’, ibid., v (1950), 723–32
‘Apéndice a los romances populares de Extremadura’, Revista del centro
de estudios extremeños, new ser., vii (1951), 333–51
‘Nuevos dictados tópicos de Extremadura’, Revista del centro de estudios
extremeños, new ser., viii (1952), 123–51
‘Dictados tópicos de la Rioja’, Berceo, viii (1953), 361–74, 505–20
‘Juegos infantiles de la provincia de Badajoz’, Berceo, ix (1953), 637–51
‘Canciones del folklore riojano recogidas por Kurt Schindler’, Berceo, xi
(1956), 391–414
‘La canción taurina en la tradición extremeña’, Revista del centro de
estudios extremeños, new ser., xii (1956), 225–51
‘La canción vaquera en la tradición hispánica: el tema del toro en el
campo’, Miscelánea en homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés, i
(Barcelona, 1958–61), 335–59
La fama de Madrid según la tradición popular (Madrid, 1958)
‘La jerigonza en la actual tradición’, AnM, xiii (1958), 129–58
‘La canción histórico en el folklore español’, Revista de dialectología y
tradiciones populares, xvii (1961), 452–69; pubd separately (Madrid,
1961)
‘Panorama de la música popular murciana’, Primera semana de estudios
murcianos: secciones de historia, literatura y derecho, i (1961), 149–
72; pubd separately (Murcia, 1961)
‘Panorama de la canción popular burgalesa’, AnM, xviii (1963), 85–102
‘Romances tradicionales de la Rioja’, Berceo, xvii (1962), 311–26, 383–98;
xviii (1963), 51–68
FOLKSONG EDITIONS
Cancionero popular de Extremadura, i (Valls, 1931, 2/1961); ii (Badajoz,
1956)
Canciones taurinas (Torerismo rural) (Madrid, 1948)
Jugar y cantar: juegos y canciones para los niñas (Madrid, 1956, 2/1961)
El libro de las canciones (Madrid, 1958)
Cantan las ninás de España (Madrid, 1961)
Cancionero infantil (antología) (Madrid, 1964, 6/1987)
Cancionero infantil universal (Madrid, 1964)
Cancionero taurino, popular y profesional (Madrid, 1964–5) [3 vols.]
Cancionero del campo (antología) (Madrid, 1965)
ed. J.R. Figueras, J. Tomas and J. Crivillé i Bargalló: Cancionero
popular de la Rioja (Barcelona, 1987)
In MS: Cancionero histórico; Cancionero de todos los continentes;
Cancionero de la Rioja; Romancero de Extremadura (2nd edn);
Cancionero infantil tradicional; Romances y danzas de Extremadura;
Cancionero de las flores; Cancionero universal de villancicos
navideños; Juegos infantiles de España; Cancioneros regionales
[Avila, Cádiz, Ciudad Real, Granada, Rioja and Toledo]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. García Matos: ‘Bonifacio Gil García’, JIFMC, xviii (1966), 78–9
Amigos de la Rioja: Bonifacio Gil y el folklore riojano (Logroño, 1988)
F. Asín y Ramírez de Esparza: Introduction to Cancionero histórico
carlista, ed. B. Gil García (Madrid, 1990)
V. Gutiérrez Macias: ‘Gil García, Bonifacio’, Diccionario histórico de la
antropología española, ed. C. Ortíz García and L.A. Sánchez Gómez
(Madrid, 1994), 348–50
ISRAEL J. KATZ
 Giliardi, Arnolfo [Ser Arnolfo da
Francia; Arnolfo d’Arnolfo]
(fl 1473–92). Franco-Flemish composer. From 1473 to 1492 he lived and
worked sporadically in Florence, employed as a singer at the cathedral, the
baptistry and the SS Annunziata. He also taught music to the novices at
the Ss Annunziata's convent, where he resided for a number of years. He
was a friend of Lorenzo de' Medici, for whom he recruited singers, and he
knew the English theorist John Hothby, who mentioned him (Arnulphus
Gilardus) in the Dialogus in arte musicae. In 1479 he was commissioned by
the cathedral to write music for Holy Week (now lost) that was performed
there well into the 16th century; a ceremonial motet in honour of Siena,
Sena vetus, was composed for an unnamed patron in the mid-1480s. Only
one work, Le souvenir, is set to a French text; it quotes the opening of
Morton's chanson of the same name, though it continues differently.
Piangeran gli occhi mey and O invida fortuna may be contrafacta of French
chansons. The sacred works are set in alternatim style and paraphrase
chant melodies while making abundant use of fauxbourdon. The surname
‘Giliardi’ comes only from the ascription of Piangeran gli occhi, which is
hard to read with confidence. There is a distinct possibility that he is to be
identified with the theorist Arnulf of St Ghislain and/or the writer and
musician Arnoul Greban.
WORKS
Magnificat, 3vv, F-Pn
Magnificat, 4vv, I-Md, ed. in AMMM, xv (1969)
Ave maris stella, 3vv, A-Wn, Sup only; F-Pn, anon.

Le souvenir, 3vv, attrib. Arnulfus G, I-Rvat C.G.XIII.27, ed. in A. Atlas: The Cappella
Giulia Chansonnier (New York, 1975–6)
O invida fortuna, 3vv, Fn Magl.XIX.176, ed. in D'Accone, 1970
Piangeran gli occhi mey, 3vv, Fn Magl.XIX.176, ed. in D'Accone, 1970
Sena vetus, 4vv, Sas, ed. in Luciani and D'Accone, 1997
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S.A. Luciani: La musica a Siena (Siena, 1942), 33–43
A. Seay: ‘The Dialogus Johannis Ottobi Anglici in arte musica’, JAMS, viii
(1955), 86–99, esp. 92
H.M. Brown: Music in the French Secular Theater, 1400–1550
(Cambridge, MA, 1963), 134–5
F.A. D'Accone: ‘Some Neglected Composers in the Florentine Chapels’,
Viator, i (1970), 263–88, esp. 264–71
W.F. Prizer: ‘Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Rés. Vm.7 676 and Music in
Mantua’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, 235–9
F.A. D'Accone: The Civic Muse: Music and Musicians in Siena During the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Chicago, 1997)
FRANK A. D'ACCONE

Gille, Jacob Edvard

 (b Stockholm, 10 Aug 1814; d Stockholm, 8 Nov 1880). Swedish
composer. As a musician, Gille seems to have been largely self-taught, and
his principal occupation was as a notary in the government service.
Despite his lack of formal training, he managed to acquire an impressive
degree of technical skill, and his musical activities were varied and
numerous. From 1842 to 1844 he taught the piano at the Stockholm
Sångförening, and from 1850 to 1876 he was organist and choir director at
the Catholic church in Stockholm, for which he wrote nine masses and
many other works. He was also a conductor at two private Stockholm
theatres, the Humlegårdsteater and the Mindre Teater, and he was elected
to the Royal Academy of Music, Stockholm, in 1865.
Gille’s output was large, comprising most musical genres. His choral works,
in particular the masses, may be said to represent the tenets of a moderate
Cecilianist position, although the contrapuntal writing is seldom carried
through with any consistency and frequently lapses into pure homophony;
at times, influences from composers like Spohr and Mendelssohn are
clearly evident. A markedly linear texture predominates in his three organ
sonatas (one of which consists of a fugue and two double fugues ‘à 3
soggetti’) which, however, remain little more than contrapuntal exercises.
His orchestral and chamber music has in common with that of his Swedish
contemporaries a strong debt to Viennese Classical models, both in formal
structure and harmonic-melodic details. His composition textbook, ‘based
on Albrechtsberger, Fux, Koch, Beethoven, Schilling and others’, provides
a clue to his stylistic ideals. Although hardly original or imaginative, in his
preference for large forms and his technical knowledge, Gille far surpasses
the average Swedish amateur composer of his time.
WORKS
principal source S-Skma

Stage: 4 operas, Masken, 1845, Abraham, 1854, Lamech med svärdet, 1855, inc.,
Allt för kungen, 1872; incid music for Douglas, 1856
Other vocal: Guds lof, orat; 9 masses, incl. no.7, A (Stockholm, 1863); Requiem, c,
chorus, 3vv, orch, 1851; Te Deum, chorus, org, acc., 1864; Konung Davids 51.
psalm, solo vv, chorus, orch; Stabat mater, 1844; secular cants., incl. Höstjakten
[Autumn Hunt], male vv, orch, 1846, songs
Orch: 5 syms. incl. Midsommar Festen Symphonie, F, op.29, perf. 1850, Populär
Symphonie, G; Conc.-Ouverture, e; Ouverture, D, op.60
Other inst: 5 str qts, 4 pf trios, pf sextet, duos, vn, pf; pf works incl. 3 sonatas; org
works incl. 3 sonatas

For fuller list, see SBL.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
SBL (A. Lönn)
F.A. Dahlgren: Förteckning öfver svenska skådespel uppförda på
Stockholms theatrar 1737–1863 (Stockholm, 1866)
O. Morales and T. Norlind: Kungliga musikaliska akademien 1771–1921
(Stockholm, 1921)
C.-A. Moberg: Kyrkomusikens historia (Stockholm, 1932)
Å. Lellky: Musikaliska konstföreningen 1859–1959 (Stockholm, 1959)
ANDERS LÖNN

Gillebert, Gloria Caroline.

See Trebelli, Zélia.

Gillebert [Guillebert] de Berneville

(fl c1250–80). French trouvère. The approximate period of Gillebert's
activity can be deduced from references in his poems to prominent nobles
and figures within the Arras poetic circle (Berneville is situated 7 km south-
west of Arras). Among his four jeux-partis, Henri III, Duke of Brabant, and
Thomas Herier appear as partners, while Charles d'Anjou, Raoul de
Soissons, the Châtelain de Beaumetz, Hue d'Arras and a countess,
possibly Béatrice de Brabant (sister of Henri III and widow of Guillaume de
Dampierre) appear as judges. Dedicatees of chansons by Gillebert include
Charles d'Anjou, Huitace de Fontaines, Béatrice d'Audenarde and Colart le
Boutellier. Apparently his poetry was much appreciated: Je n'ëusse ja
chanté was designated a chanson couronnée by the Arras puy, seven
works (including one uncertain and one doubtful) served as models for ten
later poems, and Gillebert was probably the intended subject of a flattering
reference in Roussiaus le Taillier's Arras est escole de tous biens entendre
(R.630). Nevertheless, few of his poems survive in a large number of
sources.
Neither original nor profound, Gillebert's talent lay in facility, grace and
mastery of form. Playful and parodistic elements appear to advantage in,
for example, L'autrier d'Ais a la Chapele and Thumas Herier, j'ai partie. He
had a definite preference for short lines and heterometric constructions.
Only five of his works use decasyllables (and only three of those
consistently) while no more than seven are isometric. The number of lines
per strophe is usually greater than the average in works by other poets;
only four of his works have eight lines or fewer per strophe. Most
frequently, three different line lengths are used per strophe, but J'ai fait
maint, J'ai souvent d'Amours, Je feisse chançons and Hé, Amours each
have four different line lengths, and D'amours me vient has six. Refrains
are used prominently in half of the poems.
Most of the melodies are simple and forthright but not imaginative. Nearly a
third unfold within the interval of a 6th, from the sub-final to the 5th degree,
with occasional upward embellishment by one step. In a few other
melodies this basic ambitus is exceeded only in one phrase. On the other
hand there are four melodies, Amours, vostre seignourie, Aucune gent,
Onques mais si esbahis and Ja mès chançon, that display the range of a
10th or 11th (Ja mès chançon departs sufficiently from the norm of
Gillebert's modal practice to raise doubts concerning the accuracy of the
single ascription). With the exception of De moi douloureus, which is of
disputed authorship, all melodies are in bar form. Normally the first and
third phrases end with ouvert cadences, while the second and fourth close
on the final. In seven works the second phrase is basically a variant of the
first. Some of the melodies clearly lack invention: the caudas often contain
 varying amounts of literal or varied repetition, a tendency that is most
prominent in Au besoing voit.
Partly because of the limited range of the melodies, partly because of their
repetition structure, there is normally a strong insistence on the final as a
main tonal centre. Nevertheless there are occasional significant differences
in modal structure between different readings of the same work. Although
clear evidence of mensural notation is rare (as in the Chansonnier Cangé's
reading of Au besoing voit), the disposition of ligatures in more than a third
of the melodies is sufficiently regular and other melodies are frequently
syllabic enough for an assumption of modal rhythm to appear acceptable.
Normally it is the 2nd mode that is implied, although Onques d'Amours,
which is decasyllabic, seems to call for the 3rd mode. But there are some
phrase constructions that proceed from simple beginnings to more
elaborate cadences and the stylistic appropriateness of modal rhythm for
these is more doubtful.
Sources, MS
WORKS

Edition:Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete and Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler,
CMM, cvii (1997)

Abbreviations: (V) etc. indicates a MS (using Schwan sigla: see Sources, ms) containing a
late setting of a poem; when the letter appears in italics, the original setting cannot be
identified with certainty.

Adès ai esté jolis, R.1553

Amours, je vous requier et pri, R.1075 [text only]
Amours, pour ce que mes chans soit jolis (jeu-parti), R.1560 [model for: Anon., ‘De
vous, Amours, me complaing par raison’, R.1889]
Amours, vostre seignourie, R.1211
Au besoing voit on l'ami, R.1028
Au nouviaus tens que li ivers se brise, R.1619; ed. in Gennrich (1926), 413
Aucune gent m'ont enquis, R.1528
Biaux Guillebert, dites s'il vous agree (jeu-parti), R.491 (with Henri III, Duke of
Brabant) [model for music of: Anon., ‘Au comencier de l'amour qui m'agree’, R.488];
ed. in Gérold, 295
Cuident dont li losengier, R.1287 [model for: Anon., ‘Je ne vueil plus de Sohier’,
R.1310]
Dame de Gosnai, gardés (jeu-parti), R.931 (no music)
D'amours me vient li sens dont j'ai chanté, R.410
Fois et amours et lëautés, R.934 (R)
Haute chose a en Amour, R.1954 [model for: Estiene de Meaux, ‘Trop est mes
maris jalous’, R.2045]; ed. in van der Werf, 139
Hélas je sui refusés, R.939 [model for: Anon., ‘Lasse, por quoi refusai’, R.100]
J'ai fait maint vers de chanson, R.1857 [model for: Anon., ‘Je chant par droite
raison’, R.1883; Anon., ‘De la mere au Sauveour’, R.2013; Anon., ‘Longuement ai a
folor’, R.1986]
J'ai souvent d'Amours chanté, R.414 = 412
Jamais ne perdroie maniere, R.1330
Ja mès chançon ne feroie, R.1720
Je feisse chançons et chans, R.263
Je n'ëusse ja chanté, R.417
Jolivetés de cuer et remembrance, R.246 (V, R)
L'autrier d'Ais a la Chapele, R.592 (a, K, N, X)
Li joli pensé que j'ai, R.49
Merci, Amours, car j'ai vers vous mespris, R.1566
Onques d'Amours n'ai nule si grief paine, R.138
Onques mais si esbahis, R.1539
Puis qu'Amours se veut en moi, R.1669a = 1282bis
Tant me plaist a estre amis, R.1515 (V)
Thumas Herier, j'ai partie (jeu-parti), R.1191 [modelled on: Moniot d'Arras, ‘Li dous
termines m'agree’, R.490]

works of uncertain authorship

Dehors Loncpré el bosquel, R.750 [model for Anon., ‘Avant hier en un vert pré’,
R.471]
De moi douloureus vos chant, R.317; ed. in Gennrich (1925), 49
works of doubtful authorship
Hé, Amours, je fui nouris, R.1573 [model for: Anon., ‘Mout sera cil bien nouris’,
R.1570; Anon., ‘Aucune gent m'ont blasmé’, R.405a]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Waitz: ‘Der kritische Text der Gedichte von Gillebert de Berneville mit
Angabe sämtliche Lesearten nach den Pariser Handschriften’,
Festgabe für Gustav Gröber (Halle, 1899/R), 39–118
F. Gennrich: Die altfranzösische Rotrouenge (Halle, 1925)
F. Gennrich: ‘Die altfranzösische Liederhandschrift London, Brit. Mus.
Egerton 274’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xlv (1926), 402–44
A. Långfors, A.Jeanroy and L. Brandin, eds.: Recueil général des jeux-
partis français (Paris, 1926)
T. Gérold: Histoire de la musique des origines à la fin du XIVe siècle
(Paris,1936/R)
R. Dragonetti: La technique poétique des trouvères dans la chanson
courtoise: contribution à l'étude de la rhétorique mediévale (Bruges,
1960/R)
H. van der Werf: The Chansons of the Troubadours and Trouvères: a
Study of the Melodies and their Relation to the Poems (Utrecht, 1972)
D. Mayer-Martin: Melodic Materials in Trouvère Music: a Comparative
Analysis of the Chansons of Châtelain de Coucy, Gace Brulé, Thibaut
de Champagne, and Gillebert de Berneville (diss., U. of Cincinnati,
1981)
K. Fresco, ed.: Gillebert de Berneville: Les poésies (Geneva, 1988)
THEODORE KARP

Gilles, Jean
(b Tarascon, nr Avignon, 8 Jan 1668; d Toulouse, 5 Feb 1705). French
composer. The son of an illiterate labourer, Gilles enrolled on 6 May 1679
in the choir school of the Cathedral of St Sauveur at Aix-en-Provence. His
teacher was Guillaume Poitevin, who also taught a number of Provence’s
other most reputable composers, including Campra and Blanchard. In 1687
Gilles left the boys’ choir but continued in the service of the cathedral. On 5
November 1688, at Poitevin’s request, he shared the positions of sous-
maître and organist with another student, Jacques Cabassol. Poitevin
retired on 4 May 1693 and Gilles succeeded him as maître de musique.
But despite an increase in his salary and several remunerative privileges
his action in April 1695 in leaving without notice to become maître de
musique of Agde Cathedral indicates that he was dissatisfied with his lot at
Aix.
He soon attracted the attention of the Bishop of Rieux, who wanted him to
succeed Campra as maître de musique of the Cathedral of St Etienne at
Toulouse, although the position had recently been given to Michel Farinel.
Farinel, for unknown reasons, left Toulouse in November 1697, and on 18
December 1697 Gilles, who was in Toulouse at the time, was appointed to
direct the choir school.
In 1701 the Duke of Burgundy and the duc de Berry, grandsons of Louis
XIV, visited Toulouse with great ceremony. Four of Gilles’s motets,
including Diligam te, Domine, were performed with applause during the
celebrations. With the attention this event brought him, Gilles’s reputation
grew, and in July 1701 he was offered the directorship of the choir school
at Notre Dame des Doms, Avignon. Evidently he agreed to accept, and
Rameau was appointed to deputize until he arrived, but although Gilles
may have spent a short time at Avignon he never left his post at Toulouse.
He renewed his contract there for four years on 3 December 1701 and the
chapter records show that he was still there when he died (there is no
evidence to support suggestions that he died in Avignon).
In the 18th century Gilles’s Messe des morts became one of the most
famous works in all France. According to M.A. Laugier's Sentiment d’un
harmoniphile (Amsterdam, 1756), ‘Today there is seldom a funeral service
with music (meloyl) without a performance of Gilles’s mass’. It was
performed at services for Rameau in 1764 and for Louis XV ten years later.
It was praised by many critics, including Mattheson, who called it ‘one of
the most beautiful of musical works’.
With the motets of Lalande, Gilles’s Requiem and the motets Diligam te
and Beatus quem elegisti remained popular at the Concert Spirituel during
the first three-quarters of the 18th century. Diligam te remained in the
repertory of the royal chapel at Versailles until the fall of the monarchy in
1792.
Gilles’s motets are constructed on the same principles as Lalande’s, that is
in the form of the Versailles grand motet. Like Lalande’s, his orchestra is
relatively independent of the chorus. His harmony is less dissonant than
Lalande’s; he made less use of 7ths. His fast movements often suggest
dance rhythms, with frequent use of hemiola in those in triple time. His
motets show his early maturity, and his earliest surviving works
demonstrate exceptional expression and pathos, particularly the
Lamentations (probably dating from 1692), which constitute one of the few
choral settings for Holy Week by a French composer.
 The choral writing in Gilles’s later works shows a convincing balance
between polyphony and homophonic declamation. His well crafted and
expressive fugal choruses usually contribute substantially to the overall
structure of his works. In the Messe des morts, for example, after a pattern
alternating polyphony with homophonic, dance-like textures, the fugal
‘Requiem aeternam’ crowns a polyphonic development that has been
unfolding throughout the work. In the Te Deum of 1697 two choral fugues
(‘Te per orbem’ and ‘Aeterna fac’) frame an arresting trio, ‘Tu devicto mortis’
for three basses-tailles, which forms the centre of a completely symmetrical
11-movement structure. A similar design is found in the seven-movement
Cantate Jordanis incolae.
The works identified as petis motets in two anthologies are known, or
presumed, to be from larger works by Gilles; Afferte Domine and
Cantemus Domine in the Recueil de mottets (F-Pc Rés.1899), however,
are from grands motets by Lalande. Gilles undoubtedly composed petis
motets, but none has survived in its original form.
WORKS
Messe en D, 5vv, bc, F-Pc
Messe des morts, B , 5vv, str, bc (Paris, 1764), with carillon added at the end of the
mass by Mr Corrette; ed. L. Boulay and J. Prim (Paris, 1958); ed. in RRMBE, xlv
(1984)
Grands motets, soloists, chorus (4 or 5vv), bc, most with str, some with wind
(fls/obs/hns): Beatus quem elegisti: Benedictus Dominus Deus meus; Cantate
Jordanis incolae; Diligam te, Domine, ed. in Hajdu, 1973; Dixit Dominus; Dixit
Dominus (‘très court’); Domine Deus meus; Laetatus sum; Laudate nomen Domine;
Paratum cor meum; Te Deum, 1697, ed. H.A. Durand (Paris, 1962); Trois
Lamentations ?1692, ed. M. Prada (Béziers, 1987); Velum templi scissum est;
AIXmc, C, Pc, Pn, US-Wc
Petits motets (taken from grands motets) in Recueil de mottets à une et deux voix,
Pc, Rés.1899, 7 ed. G. Morche, Le pupitre, 1v (1975): Beatus quem elegisti;
Cantate Jordanis; Cantus dent uberes; Diligam te, Domine; Domine salvum fac
regem; Dominus illuminatio; Salve virgo florens; Usquequo Domine
Petits motets (taken from grands motets) in Recits et duo de Msr De La Lande et de
quelques autres maitres, 1v, bc, MS dated 1765 in Pn, Vm 13123: Beatus quem
elegisti; Diligam te, Domine; Dominus Deus meus; Laudans invocabo; O res
mirabilis; Pinguescent specio; Qui tollis peccata mundi; Te decet
Laudate Dominum in sanctis ejus (doubtful), AlXmc
Lost, cited in Signorile: Messe en G; Salvum me fac
Others lost (listed by Bougerel) include the grands motets: Beatus vir qui timet
Dominum; Cantus dent uberes; Deus, judicium tuum regi (2 settings); Deus,
venerunt gentes; Jubilate Deo; Magnificat (3 settings); Quemadmodum desiderat
cervus; and the motets ‘sans symphonie’: Beatus vir qui non abiit; Benedicam
Dominum; Benedic, anima mea; Confitebor tibi; Cum invocarem; Custodi me,
Domine: Dominus illuminatio mea; Judica, Domine; Lauda, anima mea, Dominum;
Saepe expugnaverunt me
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetC
HawkinsH
J. Bougerel: Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de plusieurs hommes
illustres de Provence (Paris, 1752), 299ff
P.-L. d’Aquin: Lettres sur les hommes célèbres … sous le règne de Louis
XV (Paris, 1752)
T. Nisard [Abbé Normand]: Monographie de Jean Gilles (Paris, 1866)
E. Marbot: Gilles – Cabassol – Campra (Aix-en-Provence, 1903)
L. de La Laurencie: ‘Notes sur la jeunesse d’André Campra’, SIMG, x
(1908–9), 159–258
H.-A. Durand: ‘Sur une prétendue Messe des morts de Gilles et Campra’,
RdM, xlv (1960), 86–9
P. Verwijmeren: ‘Jean Gilles, een herontdekt componist’, Mens en
melodie, xix (1964), 82–5
J. Robert: ‘Maîtres de chapelle à Avignon, 1610–1715’, RdM, li (1965),
149–65, esp. 152
J.H. Hajdu: The Life and Works of Jean Gilles (1668–1705) (diss., U. of
Colorado, 1973)
J.H. Hajdu: ‘Jean Gilles (1668–1705): a Biography’, Musicology at the
University of Colorado, ed. W. Kearns (Boulder, CO, 1977), 80–94
J. Hajdu: Introduction to Jean Gilles: Messe des morts, RRMBE, xlvii
(1984), i–xx
M. Prada: Jean Gilles: l’homme et l’oeuvre (Béziers, 1986)
M. Signorile: Musique et société: le modèle d’Arles à l’époque de
l'absolutisme (Geneva and Paris, 1993), 247, 272
JOHN HAJDU HEYER

Gilles le Vinier.
See Le Vinier, Gilles.

Gillespie, Dizzy [John Birks]

(b Cheraw, SC, 21 Oct 1917; d Englewood, NJ, 6 Jan 1993). American jazz
trumpeter, composer and bandleader. He was one of the principal
developers of bop in the early 1940s, and his styles of improvising and
trumpet playing were imitated widely.
1. Life.
Gillespie taught himself to play the trombone and the trumpet and later
took up the cornet. His musical ability enabled him to attend Laurinburg
Institute, North Carolina, in 1933, for the school needed a trumpet player
for its band. During his years there he practised the trumpet and piano
intensively, still largely without formal guidance. In 1935 he moved to
Philadelphia and soon joined a band led by Frankie Fairfax, which also
included the trumpeter Charlie Shavers. Shavers knew many of the trumpet
solos of Roy Eldridge, and Gillespie learnt them by copying Shavers. While
he was in Fairfax’s band his clownish behaviour led to the nickname Dizzy.
Moving to New York in 1937, Gillespie earned a job with Teddy Hill’s big
band, largely because he sounded much like Eldridge, who had been Hill’s
trumpet soloist; the band toured France and Great Britain for two months.
On his return to New York Gillespie worked with Al Cooper’s Savoy Sultans
and the Afro-Cuban band of Alberto Socarras as well as with Hill. In 1939
he joined Cab Calloway’s big band, where, largely because of his
friendship with Mario Bauzá, who was also in the band, he began to
develop an interest in the fusion of jazz and Afro-Cuban music. During the
same period he was beginning to diverge from Eldridge’s playing style both
formally, in his solos with the band – such as Pickin’ the Cabbage (1940,
Voc./OK) – and in an informal context, with the group’s double bass player
Milt Hinton.
While on tour in 1940 Gillespie met Charlie Parker in Kansas City. Soon he
began participating in after-hours jam sessions in New York with Parker,
Thelonious Monk, Kenny Clarke and others. This group of young,
experimenting players gradually developed the new, more complex style of
jazz that was to be called bop. Recordings, such as Kerouac (1941, on the
album The Harlem Jazz Scene, Eso.), made at Minton’s Playhouse,
exemplify this emergent style.
A dispute with Calloway led to Gillespie’s dismissal in 1941. He then
worked briefly with many leaders, including Lucky Millinder and Earl Hines
(whose band also included Parker). With Millinder he recorded a near-bop
solo within a swing-band context on Little John Special (1942, Bruns.).
After his solo the band plays a riff which he developed into the composition
Salt Peanuts. During the winter of 1943–4 Gillespie led a small group with
the double bass player Oscar Pettiford. In 1944 Billy Eckstine, the singer
with Hines’s band, formed a bop band and engaged Gillespie to play and to
be musical director. At about the same time Gillespie made some of the
first small-group bop recordings, including Salt Peanuts (1945, Guild) and
Hot House (1945, Guild), under his own name with Parker.
In 1945 Gillespie organized his own short-lived big band and in March
formed a bop quintet with Parker. He later expanded the group to a sextet,
but his desire to lead a big band inspired him to try once more in 1946. The
following year the band made pioneering attempts to fuse Afro-Cuban
rhythms with jazz (seeAfro-Cuban jazz). Gillespie added percussionist
Chano Pozo to the band which recorded Cubana Be/Cubana Bop (1947,
Vic.; written by George Russell) and Manteca (by Gillespie, Pozo and Gil
Fuller). In addition to Pozo the band included, in 1946, John Lewis, Milt
Jackson and Kenny Clarke, who, with Percy Heath, went on to form the
Modern Jazz Quartet. After disbanding in 1950 Gillespie organized a
sextet.
Gillespie toured as a featured soloist with Stan Kenton from late 1953 to
early 1954 and then resumed his role as leader. In 1954 he began using a
trumpet built for him with the bell pointing upwards at a 45° angle. The
design became his visual trademark (see illustration).
In 1956, after several years leading small groups, Gillespie formed another
big band specifically to tour the Middle East and South America on cultural
missions for the US State Department. Two years later he returned to
leading small groups, with which he continued to perform and record
extensively into the late 1980s. In addition he appeared occasionally in all-
star groups such as the Giants of Jazz (1971–2), a sextet with Kai Winding,
Sonny Stitt, Thelonious Monk, Al McKibbon and Art Blakey, and was a
regular performer on Caribbean cruise ships that featured jazz artists. In
1988 he formed the Latin-jazz orientated United Nation Superband. He
became an elder statesman of jazz, and his outgoing personality and
impish sense of humour endeared him to the general public through
appearances on television.
2. Musical style.
Gillespie’s first recorded solos sound much like those of Roy Eldridge. But
during the years 1939 to 1944 he established his own style: he began
using a lighter vibrato; his phrasing contained both swing quavers (ex.1a)
and even quavers (ex.1b) instead of being dominated by the former; his
melodies became more chromatic (sometimes self-consciously so),
especially in his extensive use of the lowered second degree of the scale
(used more sparingly by his swing-era elders Eldridge and Coleman
Hawkins); and early versions of some of his characteristic melodic formulas
(such as the phrase in triplets in ex.2) began to appear. By the mid-1940s
his mature style was fully formed.

Gillespie’s was a dramatic style, filled with startling contrasts. Simple,

almost folklike phrases could suddenly give way to long, complex phrases
filled with fast notes (ex.3). Similarly, soft, mid-register phrases could
suddenly give way to high notes played fortissimo. And the drama was
visual as well as aural, for he allowed his cheeks to fill with air when he
played; over the years his cheek muscles stretched, and the increase in
the size of his face when he played was striking. His tone was less full and
rich than that of some of his predecessors and many of his followers, and
sometimes he seemed little concerned about accurate intonation. But his
fertile melodic and rhythmic imagination, his technical facility and his
tireless dedication to bop earned him a place among the great figures of
jazz history.
 Gillespie wrote and collaborated with others on a variety of well-known
pieces: the chromatic Woody ’n’ You, filled with half diminished seventh
chords, one of his favourite harmonic sonorities; the simple, humorous and
riff-like Salt Peanuts (based on I got rhythm and written in collaboration
with Kenny Clarke); the frantically fast Bebop; the Latin-tinged A Night in
Tunisia and Manteca; the melodically complex Groovin’ High (based on
Whispering) and Anthropology (based on I got rhythm and written in
collaboration with Charlie Parker); the harmonically ingenious Con Alma;
and the basic blues theme Birks Works.
WORKS
(selective list)

Bebop (1945, Manor); Groovin’ High (1945, Guild); Hot House (1945, Guild); Salt
Peanuts (1945, Guild), collab. K. Clarke; A Night in Tunisia (1946, Vic.);
Anthropology (1946, Vic.), collab. C. Parker; Manteca (1947, Vic.), collab. G.
Fuller and C. Pozo; Woody ’n’ You (1947, Vic.); Birks Works (1951, Dee Gee);
Con Alma (from Duets with Sonny Rollins and Sonny Stitt; 1957, Verve)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Feather: Inside Be-Bop (New York, 1949/R1977 as Inside Jazz), 19–32
R.O. Boyer: ‘Bop: a Profile of Dizzy’, Eddie Condon’s Treasury of Jazz, ed.
E. Condon and R. Gehman (London, 1957), 223–38
M. James: Dizzy Gillespie (London, 1959); repr. in Kings of Jazz, ed. S.
Green (South Brunswick, NJ, 1978), 175–207
M. James: Ten Modern Jazzmen (London, 1960), 27–38
G. Hoefer: ‘The Glorious Dizzy Gillespie Orchestra’, Down Beat, xxxiii/8
(1966), 27–30, 47 only
J. Burns: ‘Dizzy Gillespie: the Early 1950s’, JJ, xxii (1969), no.1, p.2 only
J. Burns: ‘Early Birks’, JJ, xxiv/3 (1971), 18–23, 40 only
J. Burns: ‘Dizzy Gillespie: 1945–50’, JJ, xxv/1 (1972), 12–14
L. Feather: ‘Diz’, From Satchmo to Miles (New York, 1972/R), 147–70
R. Wang: ‘Jazz Circa 1945: a Confluence of Styles’, MQ, lix (1973), 531–
46
R.J. Gleason: Celebrating the Duke, and Louis, Bessie, Billie, Bird,
Carmen, Miles, Dizzy, and other Heroes (Boston, 1975)
S. Dance: The World of Earl Hines (New York, 1977) [interviews]
D. Gillespie and A. Fraser: To be, or not … to Bop: Memoirs(Garden City,
NY, 1979/R)
J. Evensmo: The Trumpets of Dizzy Gillespie, 1937–1943, Irving
Randolph, Joe Thomas (Oslo, c1982) [discography]
R. Horricks: Dizzy Gillespie and the Be-Bop Revolution (Tunbridge Wells,
1984) [incl. discography by T. Middleton]
P. Koster and C. Sellers: Dizzy Gillespie, i: 1937–1953 (Amsterdam,1985)
[discography]
J. Woelfer: Dizzy Gillespie: sein Leben, seine Musik, seine Schallplatten
(Waakirchen, nr Bad Tölz, 1987)
B. McRae: Dizzy Gillespie: His Life and Times (New York, 1988)
L. Clarke and F. Verdun: Dizzy atmosphere: conversations avec Dizzy
Gillespie (Arles, 1990)
G. Lees: Waiting for Dizzy (New York and Oxford, 1991)
W. Enstice and P. Rubin: Jazz Spoken Here: Conversations with Twenty-
Two Musicians (Baton Rouge, LA, 1992/R)
G. Giddins: ‘Dizzy Like a Fox’, Faces in the Crowd: Players and Writers
(New York, 1992), 176–87
L. Tanner, ed.: Dizzy: John Birks Gillespie in his 75th Year (San Francisco,
1994)
T. Owens: Bebop: the Music and its Players (New York, 1995)
S. DeVeaux: The Birth of Bebop: a Social and Musical History (Berkeley
and London, 1997)
A. Shipton: Groovin’ High: the Life of Dizzy Gillespie (New York, 1999)

Oral history material in US-NEij

THOMAS OWENS

Gillet, Georges(-Vital-Victor)
(b Louvier, 17 May 1854; d Paris, 9 Feb 1920). French oboist and teacher.
He studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Charles Colin, receiving his
premier prix in 1869. His orchestral positions included the Théâtre Italien
(1872–4), Concerts Colonne (1872–6), Société des Concerts du
Conservatoire (1876–99) and the Opéra-Comique (1878–95). From 1879
he also played for 15 years with the Société de Musique de Chambre pour
Instruments à Vent, with which he took part in many premières, including
Gounod's Petite symphonie and the Lefebvre Suites. In 1881 he became
the youngest-ever professor at the Paris Conservatoire, a position which
allowed him to exercise considerable influence on the development and
technique of his instrument until his retirement in 1919. He was responsible
for the establishment of the Triébert model A6 as the Système du
Conservatoire, and his Etudes pour l'enseignement supérieur du hautbois
have become a staple part of the oboist's practice routine. In 1904 he was
made a member of the Légion d'Honneur. The most famous for his
students were Louis Bas, Louis Bleuzet, Georges Longy, Marcel Tabuteau,
Alfred Bartel, Pierre Mathieu, and his nephew Fernand Gillet (1882–1980),
who was principal oboe in the Boston SO from 1925 to 1946 and taught at
the New England Conservatory in Boston, and in Montreal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Northrup: ‘Fernand Gillet’, The World's Oboists, v/2 (1975), 1–6
L. Storch: ‘Georges Gillet, Master Performer and Teacher’, Journal of the
International Double Reed Society, v (1977), 1–19
L. Storch: ‘The Georges Gillet Etudes: a Little-Known Early Edition’, The
Double Reed, viii/2 (1983), 134–8
T. Margelli: ‘The Paris Conservatoire Concours Oboe Solos: the Gillet
Years (1882–1919)’, Journal of the International Double Reed Society,
xxiv (1996), 41–55
GEOFFREY BURGESS

Gillett & Johnston.

English firm of bell founders. It pioneered the extension of the range of the
carillon with both higher- and lower-pitched bells. Between World Wars I
and II its exports of carillons, with those of John Taylor & Co., made the
carillon widely known outside Europe for the first time.
The firm was founded by a clockmaker, William Gillett, who had a shop first
in the village of Hadlow, Kent, then in Clerkenwell, London, in the early
19th century. In 1844 it moved to Croydon, Surrey, where it began
manufacturing tower clocks under the name Gillett & Bland. In 1877 Gillett
formed a partnership with Arthur Johnston (d 1916). Under the name of
Gillet & Johnston the firm cast chimes and swinging peals. In the late
1890s the firm, following principles developed by Canon A.B. Simpson
through his research on bell partials, devised a method of casting bells
better in tune with themselves and with others in a set (see Bell (i), §2).
Cyril Frederick Johnston (1884–1950) succeeded his father in 1916 and
continued his work on bell tuning. In 1918 he began to make small
carillons; these instruments provided the basis for the development of the
first four and a half octave carillon (53 bells), for Park Avenue Baptist
Church, New York (1925). Johnston’s casting of bells (the largest, an e,
weighed 9.98 tonnes) and the mechanism he devised to play them earned
him a reputation as an excellent designer and engineer. The lower bells,
however, developed an unwanted partial, a ‘wild’ fourth, which was never
completely eradicated. Other important ‘grand’ carillons built by the firm
include those for the University of Chicago (72 bells; 1932), the Parliament
Buildings, Ottawa (53 bells; 1927), and the Catholic University of Leuven
(48 bells; 1928). The firm’s interest in carillons waned after the death of
C.F. Johnston.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.B. Simpson: ‘On Bell Tones’, Pall Mall Magazine, vii (1895), 183–94; x
(1896), 150–55; partially reprinted in Bulletin of the Guild of
Carillonneurs in North America, xxxii (1983), 9–18
P. Price: The Carillon (London, 1933)
A.L. Bigelow: The Acoustically Balanced Carillon (Princeton, NJ, 1961)
T.D. Rossing, ed.: Acoustics of Bells (New York, 1984)
K. and L. Keldermans: Carillon: the Evolution of a Concert Instrument in
North America (Springfield, IL, 1996)
PERCIVAL PRICE/KAREL KELDERMANS

Gillier, Jean-Claude
(b Paris, 1667; d Paris, 30 May 1737). French composer. He entered the
choir school at Notre Dame in 1674 under the instruction of Jean Mignon.
He was in Amsterdam sometime around 1690, but had returned to Paris by
1692. In 1693 he was appointed basse de violon player in the orchestra of
the Comédie-Française, a post he held for 30 years. By 1694 he was
working for the playwright Regnard and until 1717, when he stopped
writing for the Comédie-Française, he collaborated with several authors,
notably F.-C. Dancourt with whom he worked on many productions, both for
the Comédie-Française and for aristocratic entertainments. Apparently the
plays of Regnard and Dancourt, with Gillier’s music, together with Molière’s
dramas, provided the aging Louis XIV with what little entertainment he
permitted himself. From 1713 onwards, Gillier was involved in the
productions of the Théâtres de la Foire, working extensively with Lesage
and other popular playwrights, including Fuzelier, D’Orneval and Favart; he
was concerned in some musical capacity with over 70 plays up to 1735. He
may have made several visits to England: his Collection of New Songs …
Sett to Musick by Mr. Gillier was published in London about 1698, he
provided two songs for William Burnaby’s The Ladies’ Visiting-day, given in
1701, took part in a concert in York Buildings in 1703, and wrote the music
for Farquhar’s The [Beaux] Stratagem in 1707; a later visit, between 1716
and 1727, is supported by the publication of a Recueil d’airs … serieux et à
boire … composé en Angleterre … en MDCCXXIII, and by a record of
payment from Lincoln’s Inn Fields to ‘Mr Gillier of the Musick for a Hand
Organ used in Proserpine’ during the 1726–7 season (probably The Rape
of Proserpine by Lewis Theobald). Despite Gillier’s large output, and his
long period in the public eye, his career is little documented and his death
went largely unremarked. But his collaborators Lesage and D’Orneval paid
enthusiastic tributes to his fame, talents and devotion in the 1722 edition of
Le Théâtre de la Foire, which included as an appendix the music to the
plays published.
The tone of Gillier’s work at both theatres seems to have been one of
cautious innovation. His first commission with Regnard, La sérénade,
involved simply the overhauling of once-used airs; but there was a public
demand for music with plays, and instrumental sections were increasingly
used. The addition of prologues to old plays gave opportunity for newly
composed music, as did the divertissements often added after the final
acts. The format of the plays written for the fairs was less amenable to new
music. The vaudeville, with new words set to a well-known tune, was the
staple fare, and it was the musician’s job to find a tune appropriate to the
new words, possibly to orchestrate it, and to direct its performance. Much
of the entertainment lay in the skill with which familiar tunes were adapted
to new situations: a double entendre could be implied by the choice of a
tune whose original first line (or timbre) would conflict with the new words.
Dialogue songs were effective in this respect. In La princesse de Carizme
(Lesage, 1718) Harlequin and the Prince converse, with alternating lines of
the same tune, outside an asylum, while three inmates interrupt, each with
his own timbre; the effect is of a jigsaw of familiar tunes, made incongruous
by juxtaposition.
One of Gillier’s main contributions was the introduction of an increasing
proportion of new music. As in the plays for the Comédie-Française, there
was opportunity for original composition in the divertissements, and in the
 vaudeville finale. His tunes are folklike and easily singable. His
orchestration is mainly restricted to strings, though music for special
occasions or depicting an exotic situation may demand larger or more
varied forces. When Les musettes de Suresnes (possibly a revised version
of the Dancourt play Les vendanges de Suresnes, given at the Comédie-
Française in 1695) was given at Lyons in 1710 between 15 and 25
separate parts were required, while the parody of Télémaque given in 1715
required eight violins, one contrabass, flute, oboe, bassoon, two horns and
harpsichord. This was the most ambitious orchestration yet attempted at
the Théâtre de la Foire; Gillier’s normal restraint may be attributed more to
the restrictions imposed by the Opéra on other theatres than to any lack of
imagination.
Gillier had an elder brother Pierre (b Paris, 1665), sometimes known as
‘Gillier l’aîné’ while Jean-Claude was called ‘le jeune’; a pupil of Michel
Lambert, Pierre held a musical appointment in the royal household and by
1691 was established as a singing teacher. He published a collection Livre
d’airs de symphonies meslez de quelques fragmens d’opéra (1697), and
songs in Ballard collections between 1699 and 1713. A son of Jean-
Claude, known as ‘Gillier le fils’, was a bass player in the Comédie-
Française orchestra and collaborated with playwrights and the Opéra-
Comique in the 1720s and 30s; he may have contributed music to the
plays Le bouquet de roy and Les deux suivantes (both given at the Foire St
Laurent, 1730) and L’Europe et la Paix, and he wrote songs which were
published in the Mercure de France. A Gillier known as ‘the younger’ was
active in London about the middle of the century; this may be ‘le fils’, but
proof of any relationship to the other Gilliers is lacking. He was an
instrumental composer, publishing eight trio sonatas and a concerto
(London, 1755) and, as his opp.2 and 3, two sets of harpsichord lessons.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MARY HUNTER
Gillier, Jean-Claude
WORKS
performed in Paris and all printed works published there; all works for the Théâtres de la
Foire published in A.-R. Lesage and D’Orneval: Le Théâtre de la Foire (Paris, 1721–37)
unless otherwise stated. Vocal parts of music to plays by Dancourt published in Le
Théâtre de M. Dancourt (Paris, 1760).

com comédie
CF Comédie-Francaise
SG Foire St Germain
SL Foire St Laurent
B Recueil d’airs sérieux et à boire (Paris, 1698–1724)
R Airs de la Comédie française (Paris, 1704–13)

dramatic
La sérénade (J.F. Regnard), CF, 3 June 1694, airs in 3e Recueil d’airs des
comédies modernes (1706)
La foire des Bezons (F.-C. Dancourt), CF, 13 Aug 1695, airs (1696), vaudeville ‘Au
bon papa d’une fillette’, in Mercure de France (Oct 1735)
Les vendanges de Suresnes (Dancourt), CF, 15 Oct 1695, airs (1700)
Le bal (Regnard), CF, 14 June 1696
La Foire St Germain (Dancourt), CF, 19 Jan 1696, airs in Airs de la Comédie italien
(1696) and R (1704–5)
Le moulin de Javelle (Dancourt), CF, 7 July 1696, airs (1696)
Les eaux de Bourbon (Dancourt), CF, 4 Oct 1696, divertissement (1697)
Amphion (op, 3), 1696, F-Pn
Les vacances (Dancourt), CF, 31 Oct 1696
Le charivary (Dancourt), CF, 19 Sept 1697, airs (1697)
Le retour des officiers (Dancourt), CF, 19 Oct 1697, airs, divertissement, symphonie
(1698)
Les plaisirs de l’amour et de Bacchus (idylle), 1697, F-Pn
Les curieux de Compiègne (Dancourt), CF, 4 Oct 1698, airs and full score (1698)
Le mary retrouvé (Dancourt), CF, 29 Oct 1698, airs (1699) and in B (1698)
Les festes du cour (com, prol, 1, Dancourt), CF, 1699, rev. 5 Sept 1714, prol and
divertissements (n.d.), airs (1714)
La noce interrompue (C. Dufresny), CF, 1699, cited in MGG1
Le vert-galant (com, 1, Dancourt), CF, 1699, rev. 24 Oct 1714
L’hymenée royale (divertissement, S.-J. Pellegrin), ‘présenté à la Reyne des
Romains’, 1699 (1699)
La fête de village (com, 3, Dancourt), CF, 13 July 1700, prol and airs in B (1700),
rev. as Les Bourgeoises de qualité, CF, 25 Sept 1724
Les trois cousines (com, prol, 3, Dancourt), CF, 18 Oct 1700, prol in B (1700), airs
in R (1704–5)
Les trois gascons (com, 1, N. Boindin), CF, 4 June 1701, music also attrib. N.R. de
Grandval
Colin-Maillard (com, 1, Dancourt), CF, 28 Oct 1701, airs (n.d.), and in R (1704–5)
The Ladies’ Visiting-day (com, W. Burnaby), London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 1701;
only 2 songs by Gillier, ‘Chloe is divinely fair’, ‘For mighty love’s unerring dart’
(London, c1701)
Le bal d’Auteuil (com, prol, 3, Boindin), CF, 22 Aug 1702, music also attrib.
Grandval
L’opérateur Bary (com, prol, 1, Dancourt), CF, 11 Oct 1702, ?lib (1702), airs in B
(1702)
Le mari sans femme (com, 1, Montfleury), CF, 1702, airs in R (?1702)
L’inconnu (Dancourt), CF, 1703, divertissements (n.d.), airs, collab. M.A.
Charpentier, in B (1703)
Les amants magnifiques (Dancourt), CF, 1703, airs in R (1704–5)
Les aggréments de Psiché de village, CF, 1704, cited in MGG1
Les folies amoureuses (com, prol, 3, Regnard), CF, 15 Jan 1704, divertissements
and symphonies générales in R (1704–5)
Le port de mer (com, 1, Boindin), CF, 27 May 1704, music also attrib. Grandval, airs
and closing vaudeville in B (1704)
Le galant jardinier (com, 1, Dancourt), CF, 22 Oct 1704, airs in R (1704–5)
Le médecin de village (com, 1, ?Romanet), CF, 1704, divertissement (n.d.), airs in
R (1704–5)
Circé (tragédie à machines, ?Dancourt), CF, 1705 [revival]
L’impromptu de Livry (comédie-ballet, 1, Dancourt), Livry-le-Château, 12 Aug 1705,
airs (1705)
Le divertissement de Sceaux (comédie-ballet, Dancourt), Château de Sceaux, 3
Sept 1705
The [Beaux] Stratagem (G. Farquhar), London, Queen’s Theatre, 8 March 1707
(London, c1707)
Le diable boiteux (com, prol, 1, divertissement, Dancourt), pt.i (prol, 1), CF, 1 Oct
1707, pt.ii (prol, 2), CF, 20 Oct 1707, ?lib (1707), airs (1708), music also attrib.
Grandval
L’Amour diable (com, 1, M.-A. Legrand), CF, 30 June 1708, ?lib (1708)
La famille extravagante ou Les proverbes (com, 1, Legrand), CF, 20 Sept 1709,
music also attrib. Grandval, ?lib (1709), divertissement (n.d.)
L’amant masqué (com, 1, Dufresny), CF, 8 Aug 1709
La Foire St Laurent (com, 1, Legrand), CF, 20 Sept 1709, music also attrib.
Grandval
La joueuse (com, 5, divertissements, Dufresny), CF, 22 Oct 1709
Le naufrage, ou La pompe funèbre de Crispin (com, 1, Lafont), CF, 14 June 1710, ?
lib (1710)
L’Amour charlatan (Dancourt), CF, 1710, ?lib (1710), divertissements (1710)
Céphale et Procris (com, prol, 3, Dancourt), CF, 27 Oct 1711, divertissements (n.d.)
Sancho Pança gouverneur (com, 5, Dancourt), CF, 15 Nov 1712, ?lib (1713)
Arlequin, roi de Serendib (pièce, 3, A.-R. Lesage), SG, 3 Feb 1713
L’impromptu de Suresne (comédie-ballet, prol, 1, Dancourt), Suresnes, 21 May
1713, prol and divertissements (1718)
Arlequin Thétis (1, Lesage, parody of B.L. de Fontanelle: Thétis et Pelée), SL, 25
July 1713
Arlequin invisible chez le roi de Chine (pièce, 1, Lesage), SL, 30 July 1713
Arlequin Mahomet (pièce, 1, Lesage), SL, 25 Sept 1714
Le tombeau de Nostradamus (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 25 Sept 1714
La foire de Guibray (prologue en vaudevilles, Lesage), SL, 25 ?Sept 1714
Arlequin sultane favorite (oc, 3, J.-F. Letellier), SG, 3 Feb 1715
Arlequin défenseur d’Homère (oc, 1, L. Fuzelier), SL, 25 July 1715
Colombine Arlequin et Arlequin Colombine (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 25 July 1715
Les eaux de Merlin (oc, prol, 1, Lesage), SL, 25 July 1715
Le temple du destin (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 27 July 1715
La ceinture de Venus (oc, 2, Lesage), SG, 1715
Télémaque (1, Lesage, parody of Pellegrin: Télémaque), SG, 1715
Le temple de l’ennui (Lesage and Fuzelier), SG, 3 Feb 1716
L’école des amants (oc, 1, Lesage), SG, 3 Feb 1716
Le tableau du mariage (oc, 1, Lesage), SG, 3 Feb 1716
Arlequin traitant (oc, 3, D’Orneval), SG, 27 March 1716
Le triple mariage (com, 1, P.-N. Destouches), CF, 7 July 1716, airs, divertissement
(1716)
Le Pharaon (oc, 1, Fuzelier), SG, 20 Feb 1717
Le métempsicose des amours ou Les dieux comédiens (com, prol, 3, Dancourt),
CF, 17 Dec 1717, ?lib (1718); as La métempsicose, perf. for Prince de Conti, 1718
(1718)
Les animaux raisonnables (1, Fuzelier and M.-A. LeGrand), SG, 25/27 Feb 1718;
collab. J. Aubert
Le monde renversé (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 2 April 1718
La querelle des théâtres (Lesage), SL, July 1718
La princesse de Carizme (oc, 3, Lesage), SL, July 1718, music also attrib. Lacoste
Les amours de Nanterre (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 1718
Les funerailles de la foire (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 1718
Le jugement de Paris (Lesage, parody of Pellegrin: Le jugement de Paris), SL, 1718
L’île des Amazones (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 1720
La statue merveilleuse (oc, 3, Lesage), SL, 1720
La forêt de Dodone (oc, 1, Lesage, Fuzelier and D’Orneval), SG, 3 Feb 1721
Arlequin Endymion (pièce, 1, Fuzelier), SG, Feb 1721
Le rappel de la foire à la vie (oc, 1, Lesage, Fuzelier and D’Orneval), SL, 1 Sept
1721
Le régiment de la calotte (oc, 1, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 1 Sept 1721,
collab. Aubert
Pierrot Romulus ou Le ravisseur poli (oc, 1, Fuzelier), SG, 3 Feb 1722
Le remouleur d’amour (oc, 1, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SG, 3 Feb 1722
L’ombre du cocher poète (Fuzelier), 1722
Les dieux à la foire (Fuzelier), 1723
Les trois commères (A. Piron), 1723
Le mariage du caprice et de la folie (oc, 1, A. Piron), SL, 16 Aug 1724
L’enchanteur mirliton (Fuzelier), SL, 21 July 1725
Les enragés (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 21 July 1725
Les noces de la folie ou Le temple de mémoire (oc, 1, Fuzelier), SL, 21 July 1725
Les pèlerins de la Mecque (oc, 3, Lesage), SL, 29 July 1726
Les comédiens corsaires (Fuzelier), SL, 20 Sept 1726
La gran’mère amoureuse (pièce, 3, Fuzelier, parody of P. Quinault: Atys), SG, 1726
L’amante retrouvée (oc, 1, F. de Largillière), SL, 6 Aug 1727 (1728)
Sancho Pança gouverneur ou La bagatelle (oc, prol, 2, Thierry), SL, 28 Aug 1727,
unpubd, F-Pn [?lib only]
Achmet et Almanzine (oc, 3, Lesage, Fuzelier and D’Orneval), SL, 30 June 1728
La Pénélope moderne (oc, 2, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 6 Sept 1728
Les amours de Protée (Fuzelier), 1728
La reine du Barostan (oc, 1, Lesage and D’Orneval), SG, ?8 Feb 1729
Les couplets en proces (Lesage and D’Orneval), SG, 18 Feb 1729; rev. as La
Basoche du Parnasse (oc, 1), SL, 6 Sept 1738
Argénie (oc, 3, C.-F. Pannard and F.-C.B. de Pontau), SG, 26 Feb 1729, unpubd
Le corsaire de Sale (oc, 1, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 20 Aug 1729
Les spectacles malades (Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 20 Aug 1729
L’impromptu du Pont-Neuf (oc, 1, Pannard, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 9 Sept
1729, 2 vaudevilles, ‘Au jardin de Versailles’, ‘Plein d’une ardeur extrême’, in
Mercure de France (Sept 1729)
La princesse de Chine (oc, 3, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 1729, music also attrib.
Lacoste, couplet ‘Ma foy! di diamantine’ in Mercure de France (June 1729)
Le malade par complaisance (oc, 3, Fuzelier, Pontau and Pannard), SG, 3 Feb
1730
L’Opéra-comique assiègé (oc, 1, Lesage and D’Orneval), SG, 26 March 1730
L’industrie (Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 27 June 1730
Les routes du monde (oc, 1, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 27 June 1730
Zémire et Almazore (oc, 1, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 27 June 1730
L’amour marin (oc, 1, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 5 Sept 1730
L’espérance (oc, 1, Fuzelier), SL, 5 Sept 1730
L’indifférence (Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 5 Sept 1730
Roger de Sicile, surnommé le roi sans chagrin (oc, 3, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL,
28 July 1731
La nièce vengée ou Les petits comédiens (oc, prol, 1, Pannard and B.-C. Fagan),
SL, 27 Aug 1731 (St Laurent, 1750)
L’acte pantomime ou La comédie sans paroles (Pannard), SG, 13 Feb 1732
Les désespérées (Lesage), SL, 7 July 1732
Sophie et Sigismund (oc, 1, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 7 July 1732
La sauvagesse (oc, 1, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 7 July 1732
La reveil de l’Opéra-Comique (D. Carolet), SL, 18 Aug 1732
La lanterne magique ou Le Mississippi du diable (oc, 3, Carolet), SL, 19 Aug 1732
(St Laurent, 1732) [?lib only]
Le parterre merveilleux (Carolet), SL, 19 Aug 1732
Le rival de lui-même (oc, 1, Carolet), SL, 19 Aug 1732
La mère jalouse (oc, 1, Carolet), SL, 19 Sept 1732
L’allure (oc, 1, Carolet), SL, 27 Sept 1732 (1732)
La comédie sans hommes (Pannard), 1732
Les mariages du Canada (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, July 1734
La première représentation (Lesage), SL, July 1734
La répétition interrompue ou Le petit-maître malgré lui (oc, 1, C.-S. Favart, Pannard
and Fagan), SL, 6 Aug 1735, rev. SG, 14 March 1757, vaudeville ‘Mars et l’Amour
en tous lieux’, in Mercure de France (Aug 1735); music in Le Théâtre de Pannard
(Paris, 1763)
La foire de Bezons (ballet-pantomime, 1, Favart), SL, 11 Sept 1735
Le mari préféré (Lesage), 1736
L’art et la nature (Pontau), 1737
other vocal
A Collection of New Songs: with a Thorowbass to Each Song, 1v,
hpd/theorbo/lute/spinet (London, 1698)
Recueil d’airs françois, sérieux et à boire … composé en Angleterre (London, 1723)
Musick made for the Queens Theatre (?London, n.d.)
Songs pubd separately and in 18th-century anthologies
Benedictus, 4vv, insts, D-DS, cited in EitnerQ
Gillier, Jean-Claude
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (M. Briquet)
F. and C. Parfaict: Histoire du théâtre françois depuis son origine jusqu’à
present (Paris, 1734–49/R)
E. Campardon: Les spectacles de la Foire (Paris, 1877/R)
G. Cucuel: Les créateurs de l’opéra-comique français (Paris, 1914)
C.D. Brenner: A Bibliographical List of Plays in the French Language,
1700–89 (Berkeley, 1947, 2/1979)
C.R. Barnes: ‘Instruments and Instrumental Music at the “Théâtres de la
Foire” (1697–1762)’, RMFC, v (1965), 142–68
C.R. Barnes: ‘Vocal Music at the “Théâtres de la Foire” 1697–1762, I:
Vaudeville’, RMFC, viii (1968), 141–60
M. Benoit and N. Dufourcq: ‘Documents du Minutier central’, RMFC, ix
(1969), 216–38
M. Benoit: Versailles et les musiciens du roi, 1661–1733 (Paris, 1971)

Gillis, Don
(b Cameron, MO, 17 June 1912; d Columbia, SC, 10 Jan 1978). American
composer. He was trained in music at Texas Christian University (BA and
BM) and later studied at North Texas State University (MM 1943). After a
year as production director for NBC radio in Chicago, he was transferred in
1944 to New York, where he was a producer and also composed,
conducted and wrote radio scripts (for, among other programmes, the NBC
SO broadcasts under Toscanini). From 1958 to 1961 Gillis was vice-
president of the National Music Camp at Interlochen, Michigan. After
serving as chairman of the music department at Southern Methodist
 University (1967–8) and chairman of fine arts and director of media
instruction at Dallas Baptist College (1968–72), he was appointed
composer-in-residence and director of the institute for media arts at the
University of South Carolina (1973–8).
Although he composed widely, if conservatively, in traditional genres, Gillis
often based his music on American subject matter and popular and
traditional musical source materials. But he was best known as a delver
into wit and whimsy: as early as 1937, in The Woolyworm and Thoughts
Provoked on Becoming a Prospective Papa, both for orchestra, he
revealed a jocular bent, which was turned almost full circle in the highly
successful ‘symphony for fun’, Symphony no.5½ (1947), one of the few
American works ever performed by Toscanini; it was also choreographed
for the Festival Ballet, London, under the direction of Dorati. A number of
his works for band have become staples in the repertory. He is the author
of The Unfinished Symphony Conductor (1967) and The Art of Media
Instruction (1973).
WORKS
Ops: The Park Avenue Kids (1), 1957; Pep Rally (2, Gillis), 1957; The Libretto (1),
1958; The Legend of Star Valley Junction, 1961–2; The Gift of the Magi (1, after O.
Henry), 1966; World Premiere, 1966–7; The Nazarene (liturgical drama, 1), 1967–8;
Behold the Man, 1973;
Other orch: The Panhandle, suite, 1937; The Woolyworm, 1937; Thoughts
Provoked on Becoming a Prospective Papa, suite, 1937; 10 syms., 1936–67;
Intermission – 10 Minutes, 1940; Prairie Poem, tone poem, 1943; The Alamo, tone
poem, 1944; A Short Ov. to an Unwritten Opera, 1944; To an Unknown Soldier, tone
poem, 1945; Rhapsody, hp, orch, 1946; Tulsa: a Sym. Portrait in Oil, 1950; Dude
Ranch, suite, 1967; 2 pf concs.
Band: Band Concert Suite, 1958; The Land of Wheat, 1959; Saga of a Pioneer,
1961
Str qts, 1936–47
Other chbr and solo inst: 3 suites, ww qnt, 1938, 1939, 1939; Sonatina, 4 tpt, 1943
Vocal: The Crucifixion, nar, soloists, chorus, orch, 1937; The Raven, nar, orch,
1937; This is Our America, Bar, orch, 1945; Ceremony of Allegiance, nar, band,
1964; Toscanini: a Portrait of a Century, nar, orch, 1967; The Secret History of the
Birth of a Nation, nar, chorus, orch, 1976
Ballets, other vocal, band, and inst works

MSS and papers in US-DN, US-FW

Principal publishers: Belwin-Mills, Boosey & Hawkes, Broadman, Treasure

BIBLIOGRAPHY
EwenD
GroveO
W.E. Fry: The Band Music of Don Gillis: an Annotated Catalog (DMA diss.,
U. of North Carolina, Greensboro, 1991)
H. WILEY HITCHCOCK/MICHAEL MECKNA
Gilly, Dinh
(b Algiers, 19 July 1877; d London, 19 May 1940). French baritone. After
studies in Toulouse and Rome he won a premier prix at the Paris
Conservatoire in 1902 and made his début on 14 December of that year as
Silvio in Pagliacci at the Opéra, where he remained until 1908. He sang in
Latin America, Spain, Germany and Monte Carlo. From 1909 to 1914 he
was a member of the Metropolitan Opera, with which he sang Sonora in
the world première of La fanciulla del West, Rigoletto, Count di Luna,
Amonasro, Lescaut (Manon), Albert (Werther) and other leading roles. In
1911 he made his Covent Garden début as Amonasro and also sang Jack
Rance (in the first London Fanciulla), Sharpless, Rigoletto and Athanaël in
Thaïs. He appeared in several later seasons and was last heard in 1924 as
Germont. He was admired as a highly musical and expressive singer, an
excellent linguist and a fine actor. He taught in London, where his pupils
included John Brownlee. Between 1908 and 1928 he made approximately
40 recordings displaying a rounded tone, a sophisticated style and a
dramatic presence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Harvey: ‘Dinh Gilly’, Record Collector, v (1950), 147–54 [with
discography by J. Dennis]
M. Scott: The Record of Singing, ii (London, 1979), 40–41
HAROLD BARNES/R

Gilman, Benjamin Ives

(b New York, 19 Feb 1852; d Boston, 18 March 1933). American
psychologist and ethnomusicologist. He studied at Williams College (AB
1872) and did postgraduate work as a Fellow in Logic at Johns Hopkins
University (1881–2); he then attended the University of Berlin (1882), was
a graduate student in psychology at Harvard (1883–5) and in 1886 studied
at the University of Paris. He lectured at Princeton, Columbia and Harvard
on the psychology of music (1890–92) and was assistant professor of
psychology at Clark University (1892–3). He then became secretary of the
Boston Museum of Fine Arts until his retirement in 1925.
Much of Gilman’s musical research was given impetus by Mary
Hemenway, who commissioned an expedition to study the Pueblo Indians;
in 1890 she entrusted the study of the songs to Gilman, who was the first
to scientifically analyse Amerindian melodies through recordings. He held
that the Amerindians had their own set of conscious norms for intervallic
relationships and, in his article on Zuñi melodies (1891), showed minute
discrepancies in the deviations from the Western tempered scale. Stumpf
pointed out technical flaws in the equipment that affected the recordings’
reliability, while John Comfort Fillmore argued that the deviations from the
Western scale were accidental and insignificant. Gilman’s publication
nevertheless served as a model for many later treatises based on recorded
material.
In 1891 the Hemenway Expedition moved on to Hopi villages. The Hopi
transcriptions, which include a chapter with a detailed description of his
methodology, appeared both in standard music notation and in a more
precise graphic notation. His tabular analysis of melodic intervals in the
songs used the ‘cents’ measurement employed by A.J. Ellis and the
German comparative musicologists. In 1893 Hemenway commissioned
Gilman to record exotic music at the World’s Columbian Exposition in
Chicago. He had already recorded Chinese music for his 1892 article and
returned with 101 cylinders of the performances at the Javanese, Samoan,
Serbian and Kwakiutl Indian exhibits, which he never published; these
appear to be the earliest extant recordings of indigenous music from Java,
Samoa and Serbia. He also devoted six cylinders to the tunings of the
individual gamelan instruments. The cylinder recordings he prepared for
the 1893 exhibition were rediscovered in 1976 and now provide
fundamental evidence of change in the structure and form of these musics
during the 20th century.
WRITINGS
‘Zuni Melodies’, Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, i (1891),
63–91
‘On some Psychological Aspects of the Chinese Musical System’,
Philosophical Review, i (1892), 54–71, 154–78
‘Hopi Songs’, Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, v (1908)
[whole issue]
‘The Science of Exotic Music’, Science, new ser., xxx (1909), 532–5
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E.M. von Hornbostel and O. Abraham: ‘Studien über das Tonsystem und
die Musik der Japaner’, SIMG, iv (1902–3), 302–60; repr. in
Hornbostel: Opera omnia, i (The Hague, 1975)
O. Abraham and E. von Hornbostel: ‘Über die Bedeutung des
Phonographen für die vergleichende Musikwissenschaft’, Zeitschrift
für Ethnologie, xxxvi (1904), 222–36; repr. in Hornbostel: Opera omnia,
i (The Hague, 1975)
F. Densmore: ‘The Study of Indian Music in the Nineteenth Century’,
American Anthropologist, xxix (1927), 77–86
C. Haywood: A Bibliography of North American Folklore and Folksong
(New York, 1951, 2/1961)
B. Nettl: North American Indian Musical Styles (Philadelphia, 1954)
J. Hickerson: Annotated Bibliography of North American Indian Music
North of Mexico (diss., Indiana U., 1961)
SUE CAROLE DeVALE

Gilman, Lawrence
(b Flushing, NY, 5 July 1878; d Franconia, NH, 8 Sept 1939). American
music critic. He was self-taught in music, and by 1907 was proficient
enough to prepare thematic guides to Richard Strauss’s Salome and
Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande. After serving as music critic (1901),
assistant editor (1903) and managing editor (1911) of Harper’s Weekly he
joined the staff of Harper’s Magazine (1913) and then became music,
drama and literary critic for the North American Review. In 1923 he was
appointed music critic for the New York Tribune (later Herald-Tribune), a
post he held until his death. From 1919 to 1939 he was programme
annotator for the New York National SO (after 1928 the Philharmonic SO)
and from 1921 to 1939 for the Philadelphia Orchestra; he was also radio
commentator for the broadcasts conducted by Toscanini (1933–5).
Gilman’s criticism was rooted in the tradition that holds that music is ideally
a vehicle for the expression of philosophical ideas: he was a champion of
Wagner, the impressionists (especially Debussy and Loeffler) and
MacDowell. Although he published no essays on the course of music after
1914 he remained a sympathetic and intelligent critic of later musical
developments. Devotees of opera considered him to be particularly gifted
in describing the individual styles of singers.
WRITINGS
Phases of Modern Music (New York, 1904/R)
Edward MacDowell (London, 1906, enlarged 2/1909/R, with introduction by
M.L. Morgan)
Debussy’s ‘Pelléas et Mélisande’ (New York, 1907)
Stories of Symphonic Music: a Guide to the Meaning of Important
Symphonies, Overtures and Tone-Poems from Beethoven to the
Present Day (New York, 1907/R)
Strauss’ ‘Salome’ (London and New York, 1907)
The Music of To-morrow and Other Studies (London, 1907/R)
Aspects of Modern Opera (New York, 1909/R)
Nature in Music and Other Studies in the Tone-Poetry of Today (New York,
1914/R)
‘Taste in Music’, MQ, iii (1917), 1–8
Foreword to C. Debussy: Monsieur Croche, the Dilettante Hater (Eng.
trans., 1927/R)
Wagner’s Operas (New York, 1937)
Toscanini and Great Music (New York, 1938)
ed. E. Cushing: Orchestral Music: an Armchair Guide (New York, 1951)
[collection of programme notes]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Engel: ‘Views and Reviews’, MQ, xxvi (1940), 113–21
B. Mueser: The Criticism of New Music in New York, 1919–1929 (diss.,
CUNY, 1975)
J. Horowitz: Understanding Toscanini (New York, 1987)
WAYNE D. SHIRLEY

Gilmore, Patrick S(arsfield)

(b Ireland, 25 Dec 1829; d St Louis, 24 Sept 1892). Irish-American
bandmaster, impresario and composer. His birthplace cannot be confirmed
(Ballygar, Co. Galway or Mullingar, Co. Westmeath), but his early years
were spent in Ballygar. He began his musical career as a cornet player in
the Athlone Amateur Band (Co. Westmeath) before emigrating to the USA
in October 1849. He settled in Boston, where he secured a position with
the music dealer and publisher John P. Ordway. He was also agent for and
played the tambourine and cornet with the minstrel group, Ordway’s
Aeolian Vocalists. His first position as a bandleader was with the
Charlestown Band, from which he went on to lead other Massachusetts
Bands – the Suffolk Band (1852), the Boston Brigade Band (1853), and (in
1855) the Salem Brass Band. The Salem band acquired an enviable
reputation under his direction, performing on many important occasions
including the inaugural parade for President James Buchanan in
Washington in 1857. Gilmore resigned the Salem post in 1858 to establish
his own ensemble, known as Gilmore’s Band. Its first appearance, at the
Boston Music Hall on 9 April 1859, was followed by a series of concerts
that were very favourably received. During the Civil War the band became
attached to the 24th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment as part of the Union
Army.
In 1864 Gilmore organized the first of the gigantic concerts that established
his national reputation. For the inauguration of Michael Hahn as Governor
of Louisiana he assembled a band of 500 members, a chorus of 6000, 50
cannons, and 40 soldiers to strike anvils, and even arranged for the
simultaneous ringing of all the church bells in the city. These forces were
doubled and tripled for the National Peace Jubilee and Musical Festival
(1869) and the World Peace Jubilee and International Music Festival
(1872), both held in Boston. The first of these attracted enormous crowds
to the specially constructed 50,000-seat auditorium, where an orchestra of
1000 (led by Ole Bull), a chorus of 10,000 and six bands (including a bass
drum measuring 8-feet in diameter with a shell of 25-feet in circumference)
performed. Euphrosyne Parepa-Rosa sang the Bach–Gounod Ave Maria
accompanied by 200 violinists. For the 1872 festival Gilmore obtained the
services of Johann Strauss and his orchestra from Austria, the Band of the
Grenadier Guards from England, the French Garde Républicaine band, the
Prussian band of the Kaiser Franz Grenadiers, the US Marine Band and a
host of instrumental and vocal performers totalling over 20,000 people.
Gilmore left Boston in 1873 to associate himself with the 22nd Regiment of
New York. For his new band he recruited the very finest instrumentalists,
and it became the foremost professional band in the USA for the next 19
years. In 1875 he leased P.T. Barnum’s Hippodrome, which he converted
into a picturesque indoor park, renaming it Gilmore’s Garden; the band
presented a highly successful series of 150 concerts there. Tours to the
West Coast and Europe followed in 1876 and 1878, with Emma Thursby
and Lillian Nordica as vocal soloists. Gilmore’s band opened the first
season at Manhattan Beach in summer 1879 and returned annually
thereafter. Its winter season usually included promenade concerts at the
22nd Regiment Armory and other venues in New York. During the 1880s
the Gilmore Band made extensive autumn and spring tours of the USA,
performing one or two concerts each day. The summer season at
Manhattan Beach was always extremely successful, as was an annual
residency at the St Louis Exposition. Gilmore died while fulfilling that
engagement in 1892 and was buried in New York with all the pomp
accorded to a dignitary and leader of the highest order.
Gilmore composed a number of Civil War songs, including Freedom on the
Old Plantation, The Spirit of the North and God save the Union (1861); his
most popular song was When Johnny comes marching home (1863),
which first appeared as part of The Soldier’s Return March and was later
published separately under the pen name Louis Lambert. He also
composed numerous marches (including The Twenty-Second Regiment
March) and other short instrumental pieces, some of which were published
under the imprint of Gilmore & Russell. In addition he was engaged in the
manufacture of brass instruments as a partner in the firm of Gilmore,
Graves & Co. (later Gilmore & Co., and Wright, Gilmore & Co.). Gilmore's
reputation, however, rested on his activities as a bandmaster and
impresario.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAB (F.H. Martens)
Illustrated History of the Great Peace Jubilee (New York, 1869)
P.S. Gilmore: History of the National Peace Jubilee (Boston, 1871)
Obituaries: St. Louis Post-Dispatch (25 Sept 1892); New York Times (25
Sept 1892)
T. Carroll: ‘Bands and Band Music in Salem’, Historical Collections of the
Essex Institute, xxxvi (1900), 265–85
G.R. Leighton: ‘Bandmaster Gilmore’, American Mercury, xxx (1933),
172–83
F.C. Damon: ‘P.S. Gilmore, Bandmaster’, Salem Evening News (5 April
1936–2 July 1937) [series of 23 articles]
M. Darlington: Irish Orpheus: the Life of Patrick Gilmore
(Philadelphia,1950)
F.J. Cipolla: ‘The Music of Patrick Gilmore’, The Instrumentalist, xxxii/9
(1978), 64–5
FRANK J. CIPOLLA

Gilse, Jan (Pieter Hendrik) van

(b Rotterdam, 11 May 1881; d Oegstgeest, 8 Sept 1944). Dutch composer.
He studied composition and conducting with Franz Wüllner at Cologne
University (1897–1902). In 1902 he was awarded a prize for his First
Symphony by the Beethoven Haus in Bonn. After studying with
Humperdinck at the Akademische Meisterschule in Berlin, he worked as a
conductor at the Bremen Opera, then at the Noord-Nederlandsche Opera
in Amsterdam. In 1909 his Third Symphony was awarded the Michael Beer
prize, which enabled him to work and study in Italy for two years.
Afterwards he settled in Munich. During World War I van Gilse and his
family returned to the Netherlands, and in 1917 he was appointed
conductor of the Utrecht SO, with whom he gave many performances of
works by contemporary French and Dutch composers. A conflict with the
young Dutch composer Willem Pijper led to his resignation in 1922. After a
short stay in Switzerland van Gilse settled in Berlin, where he started work
on his autobiography (MS, NL-DHgm). He returned to the Netherlands,
where he was appointed principal of the Utrecht Conservatory. In 1937 he
resigned his position in order to devote himself to composition. In 1940 he
completed his opera Thijl, based on the story of Tijl Uilenspiegel. After the
Germans invaded the Netherlands in May 1940, van Gilse publicly
opposed the banning of Jews from concert halls. After organizing a petition
in protest against the Nazification of Dutch artistic life, he was accused of
high treason and went into hiding. During this period his two sons, also
 active in the resistance movement, were killed by the Nazis. Van Gilse
could not cope with his grief and died after a short illness.
In addition to his work as a composer, van Gilse played a role in founding
institutions designed to promote the interests of Dutch composers: the
Genootschap van Nederlandsche Componisten (1911), the Bureau voor
Muziek Auteursrecht (BUMA, the composers’ performing rights society,
1913). In 1935 van Gilse founded the Stichtung Nederlandsche
Muziekbelangen to promote the performance of Dutch music. The
foundation’s archive containing microfilms of Dutch music manuscripts
became, after van Gilse’s death, the basis of the publishing house
Donemus (founded in 1947).
Van Gilse took a relatively long time to develop a personal style as a
composer. His German training, and the music of Mahler especially, left its
mark on his early works up to 1916. Those written during and shortly after
his years in Utrecht (1917–22) testify to his intensive study of the works of
French composers such as Debussy, Ravel and Roussel, particularly in
their use of short motifs, augmented chords, parallel harmonies and their
striving after colourful, transparent orchestration. From these German and
French influences, a synthesis gradually developed, culminating in the
cantata Der Kreis des Lebens (1928–9), the opera Thijl (1938–40) and the
unfinished declamation Rotterdam (1942). In these three works van Gilse
achieved an individual style, which rejects the anti-Romanticism of the
French-style works. In Rotterdam and Thijl he makes use of elements from
folk music.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ops: Frau Helga von Stavern (Musikdrama, J. van Gilse), 1911–13; Thijl (dramatic
legend, 3, H. Lindt, after C. de Coster), 1938–40
Choral: Sulamith, S, T, B, chorus, orch, 1902; Eine Lebensmesse, S, A, T, B, 2
mixed choruses, 2 children’s choruses, orch, 1904; Der Kreis des Lebens (R.M.
Rilke), S, T, chorus, orch, 1929
Orch: Concert Ov., c, 1900; Sym. no.1, F, 1901; Sym. no.2, E , 1903, rev. 1928;
Sym. no.3 ‘Erhebung’, d, S, orch, 1907; Variaties over een St Nicolaasliedje, 1909,
arr. pf 4 hands, 1910; Sym. no.4, A, 1910–15; 3 Tanzskizzen, pf, chbr orch, 1926,
arr. 2 pf, 1926; Prologus brevis, 1928; Kleine wals, 1936; Treurmuziek bij den dood
van Uilenspiegel, 1940
Chbr: Nonet, ob, cl, bn, hn, 2 vn, va, vc, db, 1916; Str Qt, 1922; inc.; Trio, fl, vn, va,
1927
Solo vocal: 3 Gesänge (F. Nietzsche, M. Madeleine, D. Mollinger-Hooÿer), c, orch,
1905; 3 Gesänge (R. Tagore: Gitanjali), S, orch, 1915; 3 Gesänge (R. Tagore: Der
Gärtner), S, orch, 1921–3; 4 Gedichte (C.F. Meyer), low v, pf, 1927; other songs, 1v,
pf, mainly 1901–11 incl. settings of R. Dehmel, G. Keller, D. von Liliencron and M.
Maeterlinck

MSS in NL-DHgm

Principal publisher: Donemus

BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Reeser: Een eeuw Nederlandse muziek (Amsterdam, 1950)
W. Andriessen: ‘Jan van Gilse’, Mens en melodie, xiv (1959), 333–5
A. van Gilse-Hooijer: Pijper contra van Gilse (Utrecht, 1963)
H. van Dijk: Jan van Gilse en zijn opera ‘Thijl’ (Amsterdam, 1980)
H. van Dijk: Jan van Gilse: strijder en idealist (Buren, 1988)
H. van Dijk and M. Flothuis: 75 jaar Geneco: de geschiedenis van het
Genootschap van Nederlandse Componisten (Amsterdam, 1988)
HANS VAN DIJK

Gilson, Paul
(b Brussels, 15 June 1865; d Brussels, 3 April 1942). Belgian composer
and teacher. He was given his first lessons in music theory by the organist
of Ruisbroek, a village near Brussels, where he spent his youth, and he
studied elementary harmony with C. Duyck, the director of the Anderlecht
school of music. However Gilson was in the main self-taught; precociously
talented, he started to compose at the age of 16. His aesthetic outlook was
determined by two revelatory experiences before he was 21. In 1883 he
was present at the Théâtre Royal de la Monnaie for a performance of Der
Ring des Nibelungen by Angelo Neumann’s company, and three years later
the ‘Concerts Populaires’ in Brussels revealed to him the music of The
Five. He learnt his craft more through the study of scores than in Gevaert’s
composition course, which he followed at the Brussels Conservatory
(1887–9). In 1889 he was awarded the Prix de Rome for his cantata Sinaï,
a public performance of which aroused unwonted enthusiasm. The
prizewinner’s traditional journey took him to Bayreuth (1892), Paris (1893–
4) and Italy (1895). The first performance of his La mer, on 20 March 1892
in Brussels, was a great success, and Gilson was acclaimed as the most
representative Belgian composer of his time. This opinion was confirmed
by the success the work had abroad, except in Paris. Appointed professor
of harmony at the Conservatories of Brussels (1899) and Antwerp (1904),
he gave up these two positions when he became inspector of music
education (1909–30).
Gilson composed his most important works between 1890 and 1905. La
mer, a set of ‘symphonic sketches’ intended to illustrate a mediocre poem
by Eddy Levis, is his greatest work. This Impressionist piece, based on a
single theme, comprises four movements in sonata form. Gilson obeyed
the traditional rules of harmony but his orchestration was quite original.
Like Strauss he manipulated orchestral masses with shrewdness, exploited
differences of timbre to good effect and created an impression of grandeur
by means of rich polyphonic writing. The qualities to be found in La mer
reappeared in later compositions, although without providing any full
confirmation of Gilson’s putative talents. The oratorio Francesca da Rimini,
based on Dante, is a work of exemplary clarity in its construction, although
its language is markedly conventional. This work has the effect of a huge
fresco which astonishes but leaves one unmoved. Gilson’s only major work
with no literary basis was the Variations symphoniques, originally
composed for brass ensemble; this brilliant work gives proof of unusual
inventive verve. Seeking a success in the theatre, Gilson composed
Prinses Zonneschijn in the Wagnerian tradition. The score develops from
two contrasting leitmotifs, one of them ascending, symbolizing youth and
light, the other descending, evoking death and hate.
Whatever the qualities of these scores, none of them achieved the success
of La mer. Disillusioned and embittered, Gilson was further exasperated by
the way in which music was evolving. As a self-taught man who knew his
craft in depth, he could not countenance the deliberate rejection of the
rules which he had taken so much trouble to assimilate and on which he
had founded his aesthetic ideas. Although a Romantic in imagination, he
was fundamentally a Classical composer: he used only traditional forms
and his harmonic language became more and more reliant on familiar
chords. Since he was a poor melodist, he followed the example of the
Russian school in making use of folk music and investigating the
picturesque. Although his rhythmic writing was sometimes well conceived,
Gilson was above all a master of orchestration.
After 1905 he somewhat neglected composition. He gave up writing more
extended works, composed a lot for wind band or brass band, took up
chamber music and also wrote a great deal for the voice. In addition he
rewrote several of his scores. His most remarkable work of this period was
the Suite nocturne for piano. This work, whose source was Bertrand’s
Gaspard de la nuit, is notably adventurous in certain passages of
successive dissonant chords. Gilson also devoted increasingly more time
to teaching. Although he was not a conservatory teacher for long, he
played a central role in that he gave lessons throughout his life and wrote
important theoretical works. His monumental Traité d’harmonie
demonstrates his encyclopedic musical learning: to his theoretical
exposition he appended numerous examples by major composers from
J.S. Bach to Debussy, Ravel, Stravinsky and Schoenberg. He did his
utmost to understand the developments of his contemporaries and to
recognize that no rule is to be regarded as absolute. Despite his tolerance,
Gilson held conventional rhetoric and traditional syntax in respect.
This is even more noticeable in his work on orchestration, Le tutti
orchestral, in which the greater part of the examples are selected from the
works of Beethoven, Wagner and Richard Strauss. Gilson thought it
possible to enhance the effect of any music through orchestration – he
even arranged some of Debussy’s preludes. He considered that the
orchestra of the Romantics was best suited to this, as he thought that the
most mediocre music might be saved by means of grandiloquent artifices.
Among his many pupils, those who remained faithful to his ideas grouped
together in 1925 to form the ‘Synthétistes’. Their aims were defined
somewhat vaguely: ‘To mould into well-defined, well-balanced forms
everything that contemporary music has to offer: to synthesize’. The
Synthétistes were not united by a common aesthetic and the formation of
the group was due in large part to a need for publicity, since it was not easy
for young composers to get their works published and played. Among the
 most important composers of the group were Bernier, Brenta, Poot and de
Bourguignon who joined the group later.
In 1925 the same Gilson pupils also founded the Revue musicale belge,
which continued in existence until 1939. Poot was its editor-in-chief and
Gilson its artistic director. Gilson was involved in music criticism throughout
his life and worked for numerous newspapers and journals. He also wrote
a number of booklets for Belgian radio and left a short autobiography of a
fairly anecdotal nature. In his writings one finds again that spirit of
tolerance which marks his theoretical works, and his analysis of The Rite of
Spring in the Revue musicale belge is a perfect illustration of this.
According to Gilson, ‘everything in this music is adventurous’, but he
emphasized the influence of Rimsky-Korsakov. He admitted that ‘there is
more than one concept of aesthetics’ and ‘that everyone is more or less
bound by certain traditions, those which are rooted in the impressions one
has received in one’s youth’, so that ‘today’s youth … is in a better position
than the men of yesterday and the day before to appreciate without bias
Stravinskian tendencies’. Undoubtedly Gilson felt himself to be in the latter
group. Gilson’s importance lies above all in his activities as a teacher. A
whole generation of Belgian composers profited from his vast musical
learning, although it went back only as far as J.S. Bach. Despite his evident
good intentions, he retained in his teaching the prejudices that resulted
from his view of fidelity to tradition.
WORKS
(selective list)

Principal publishers: Breitkopf & Härtel, Buyst, Cranz, Schott (Brussels)

dramatic
Le démon (drame lyrique, 2, L. de Casembroot, after M.Y. Lermontov), 1890, Mons,
Bourse, 9 April 1893
La captive (ballet), 1896–1900
Prinses Zonneschijn (légende féerique, 4, P. de Mont, after C. Perrault), Antwerp,
Vlaamse, 10 Oct 1903; as La princesse Rayon de Soleil, Brussels, Monnaie, 9 Sept
1905
Gens de mer (Zeevolk) (drame lyrique, 2, G. Garnir, after V. Hugo), Antwerp,
Vlaamse, 15 Oct 1904; in French, Brussels, Monnaie, 16 Dec 1929
Rooversliefde (I briganti) (drame musical, 1, J.F. Elslanders), Antwerp, Vlaamse, 30
Jan 1910
Les deux bossus (ballet), 1910–21
Thamara (op, 3, L. du Catillon), inc.
Incid music for theatre and cinema
orchestral
Concertino, fl, orch, 1882–1920; Suite, 1885; 3 pieces, 1885–92; Alla mazurka,
1887; Fanfare inaugurale, 1887; Humoresques, 1889; Alla marcia, str, 1889–90;
Scherzo, 1889–1907; Eglogue et danse rustique, 1890; 3 mélodies populaires
flamandes, str, 1891–2; Fantaisie sur des mélodies populaires canadiennes, 1891;
Prélude et scherzo, str, 1891; Mélodies écossaises, str, 1891–2; Suites, 1891–
1941; La mer, 1892; Fantaisie-scherzo, ?1892; Fantasy, brass, 1894; Marche
festivale sur le Te Deum, 1894–7; L’oubli, tpt, orch, 1895–6
Fanfaluca, fl, orch, 1896; Fackelzug, brass, 1899; Méditation élégiaque, 1900; Ov.
dramatique, 1900; Elégie, str, c1900; Conc. no.1, a sax, orch, 1902; Conc. no.2, a
sax, orch, 1902; 3 petites pièces en pizzicato, str, 1903; Variations symphoniques,
brass, 1903; Romance-fantaisie, vn, orch, 1903; Ov. symphonique no.3, 1903–4;
Concertstuck, tpt, orch, 1905–6; Andante et scherzo, vc, orch, 1906; Rapsodie en
fantazijstuk, brass, 1906; Prélude-récitatif et romance-sérénade, hp, orch, 1906;
Scherzo fantastique, brass, 1906
Prélude symphonique: Le chant du coq, 1906; Prélude pour le drame ‘Henry VIII’ de
Shakespeare, 1906–16; Symphonie inaugurale, 1909–10; Suite à la manière
ancienne, str, 1913–14; 3 préludes, chbr orch, 1914; Cavatine, 1921; Epithalame,
1925; 5 paraphrases sur des chansons populaires flamandes, 1929; Cramignon
pentapodique, 1932; Préludes hébraïques, 1934; Sous le chêne de St Louis, 1934–
5; Caledonia, 1939; 4 pièces, brass, 1940; Air de timbales avec 6 variations, timp,
orch, 1940; Scherzando, pf, orch, 1941
c70 pieces for wind/brass band
chamber and solo instrumental
Qt sur des mélodies alsaciennes, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1885; Scherzino, 3 tpt, baritone,
1890; Suite, 7 fl, 1895; Suite, hp, 1901–37; Prelude, 4 bn, 1902; Str Qt no.1, 1907;
Petite suite no.2, vn, pf, 1907; Suite, 4 vc, 1910–35; 5 preludes, hn, pf, 1913–14;
Suite, vc, pf, 1914–16; Str Trio, 1915–17; Interlude, org, 1916; Str Qt no.2, 1918–
19; Préliminaires (vn, pf)/vn, 1922; 3 suites, 3 vn, vc, db, pf, 1924–6; Sonatina,
carillon, ?1925; 4 exercises, tpt, pf, 1930; Préludes romantiques, ob, pf, 1933–6;
Trio, ob, cl, bn, 1934
piano
3 sonatinas, 1886–1914; Prélude, mazurka et mélopée, 1888–9; Nocturne, 1889;
Suite nocturne, 1896–1901; Paysages, 1899–1901; Prélude, 1900–17; Petite suite
rustique, 1902; Prélude, sarabande et gavotte, 1908; Suite no.2, 1908; 3 pièces,
1908; Conte de Noël, 1911; Chant vespéral, 1911; 3 préludes, 1914; Par les routes
(Suite no.5), 1914–18; A la jeunesse, 1915; Polka, c1915; Prélude et improvisation,
1917; Cloches et clochettes de Noël, 1917; Ballabille, 1918; Variations, 1918;
Oppositions, 1921; Prelude, 1924
vocal
Au bois des elfes (cant.), 1887; Sinaï (cant.), 1889; Francesca da Rimini (orat),
1892; Et la lumière descend sur tous (cant.), 1896; Hymne à l’art (cant.), 1897;
Ludus pro patria (cant.), 1905; La voix de la forêt (cant.), 1934
c65 mélodies; 25 choral pieces
WRITINGS
Le tutti orchestral (Brussels, 1913)
Traité d’harmonie (Brussels, 1919)
Quintes, octaves, secondes et polytonie (Brussels, 1921)
‘Le sacre du printemps’, Revue musicale belge, i (1926), 1–4
Manuel de musique militaire (Antwerp, 1926)
Notes de musique et souvenirs (Brussels, 1942)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Revue musicale belge, xi (1935) [special Gilson number]
A. Corbet: ‘Paul Gilson: Flemish Composer’, ML, xxvii (1946), 71–3
 C. van de Borren: Geschiedenis van de muziek in de Nederlanden, ii
(Antwerp, 1951), 250ff, 301ff, 337–8, 371–2
R. Wangermée: La musique belge contemporaine (Brussels, 1959)
G. Brenta: Paul Gilson (Brussels, 1965)
J. Quitin: ‘Douze lettres inédites de Guillaume Lekeu à Paul Gilson’,
Bulletin de la Société liégeoise de Musicologie, xix (1977), 1–7
HENRI VANHULST

Gimel.
See Gymel.

Giménez [Jiménez] (y Bellido),

Jerónimo
(b Seville, 10 Oct 1854; d Madrid, 19 Feb 1923). Spanish composer and
conductor. He studied music first with his father and then the violin with
Salvador Viniegra. At the age of 12 he joined the orchestra of the Teatro
Principal in Seville as a first violinist and at 17 became director of the
Opera. Receiving a scholarship from the Diputación of Cádiz, he went to
the Paris Conservatoire, where he studied with Alard, Savart and Thomas,
winning first prizes in harmony and counterpoint in 1877. After travelling in
Italy, he became director of the Teatro Apolo in Madrid in 1885, then of the
Teatro de la Zarzuela, where he gave the first performance in Spain of
Bizet’s Carmen. He was also director of the Unión Artístico-Musical and the
Madrid Concert Society, where he introduced works from the Classical
German repertory and modern French and Russian compositions. He
wrote orchestral and instrumental music, but his chief interest was the
zarzuela, especially the género chico (one-act zarzuela). His music was
inspired by Spanish folksong and folkdance, and his orchestration
achieved skilled colouristic and dramatic effects. Orchestral selections from
his chief works, De vuelta del vivero, La tempranica and La boda de Luis
Alonso, remain popular favourites. He was elected to the Real Academia
de Bellas Artes on 23 March 1914, but never took up this position.
WORKS
zarzuelas
first performed in Madrid unless otherwise stated

† vocal score published Madrid shortly after first performance

†Las niñas desenvueltas (1, E. Arango), 1878, collab. R. Chapí; El esclavo, 1887;
Escuela modelo, 1888; La tiple, 1889; †Tannhauser el estanquero (1, E. Gonzalvo),
Apolo, 26 April 1890; †La república de Chamba (1, S. Delgado), 1890; †Tannhauser
cesante (1, Gonzalvo), 1890; †Trafalgar (2, J. de Burgos), Barcelona, 1890; ¡Pero
cómo está Madrid!, 1891; La cencerrada (1, G. Perrín and M. Palacios), 1892; †El
hijo de su excelencia (1, L. Larra and M. Gullón), 1892; †La madre del cordero,
1892; El ventorrillo del Chato, 1892; †Candidita (1, Burgos), 1893; †La mujer del
molinero (1, P. Iraizoz), 1893; †Los voluntarios, 1893
†Viento en popa (1, Iraizoz), 1894; La sobrina del sacristán, 1895; †De vuelta del
vivero (madrileña, 1, Iraizoz), 1895; †Las mujeres (sainete lírico, Burgos), 1896; †El
mundo comedia es, o El baile de Luis Alonso (Burgos), 1896; †Aquí va a haber algo
gordo, o La casa de los escándalos (sainete lírico, R. de la Vega), 1897; †La boda
de Luis Alonso, o La noche del encierro (Burgos), 1897; †La guardia amarilla, 1897;
†Amor engendra desdichas, o El guapo y el feo y verduleras honradas (Vega),
1899
†Los borrachos (1, A. Quintero), Zarzuela, 3 May 1899; †La familía de Sicur
(sainete lírico, 1, Burgos), 1899; †Joshé Martín, el tamborilero (1, Iraizoz), 1900;
†La tempranica (1, J. Romea), Zarzuela, 19 Sept 1900; †El barbero de Sevilla,
1901, collab. M. Nieto; Correo interior (apropósito, cómico-lírico, 1, Perrín, Palacios,
Fernández Lapuente), 1901, collab. Nieto and G. Cereceda; †Enseñanza libre
(apropósito-cómico-lírico, 1, Perrín and Palacios), 1901; †Los timplaos (1, E.
Blasco, C.F. Shaw), 1901; †María del Pilar (3, F. García and G. Briones), 1902; †El
morrongo, 1902; †La torre del oro (1, Perrín and Palacios), 1902
†La camarona (1, Perrín and Palacios), 1903; †El general (1, Perrín and Palacios),
1903; †La morenita (1, Perrín and Palacios), 1903; La visión de Fray Martín, 1903;
Cuadros al fresco, 1904; †El húsar de la guardia (1, Perrín and Palacios), 1904,
collab. Vives; †Los pícaros celos (sainete lírico, 1, Arniches and Shaw), 1904; La
sequía, 1904; †El amigo del alma (humorada lírica 1, F. de Torres, Olmedo and C.
Cruselles), 1905, collab. Vives; †El arte de ser bonita (pasatiempo lírico, 1, Paso
and J. Prieto), 1905, collab. Vives; Cascabel, 1905; Las granadinas, 1905, collab.
Vives; Los guapos, 1905; ¡Libertad!, 1905, collab. Vives
El diablo verde, 1906, collab. Vives; †La gatita blanca (humorada lírica, 1, J. Veyán
and J. Capella), 1906, collab. Vives; †El golpe de estado (1, A. Melantuche and S.
Oria), 1906, collab. Vives; †El guante amarillo (1, Veyán and Capella), 1906, collab.
Vives; †La Machaquito (1, Larra and Capella), 1906, collab. Vives; La marcha real,
1906, collab. Vives; La venta de la alegría, 1906; La antorcha del himeneo, 1907;
†Cinematógrafo nacional (revista cómico-lírica, 1, Perrín and Palacios), 1907; El
príncipe real, 1907
†A.B.C. (fantasía cómico-lírica, 1, Perrín and Palacios), 1908; La dos rivales, 1908;
La eterna revista (J. Asensio Más and J. Capella), 1908, collab. Chapí; El grito de
independencia, 1908; La leyenda mora, 1908; El trust de las mujeres, 1908; †Las
mil y pico de noches (1, Perrín and Palacios), 1909; El patinillo, 1909; †Pepe el
liberal (sainete lírico, 1, Perrín and Palacios), Cómico, 19 Feb 1909; †Los juglares
(poema escénico, 2, Shaw and R. Asensio), 13 Dec 1911; Lirio entre espinas, 1911;
†La suerte de Isabelita (1, M. Sierra), 1911, collab. Calleja; Los viajes de Gulliver
(3, Paso and Abati), 1911, collab. Vives
Los ángeles mandan, 1912; El coche del diablo, 1912; El cuento del dragón, 1912;
Las hijas de Venus, 1912; †¡Los hombres que son hombres! (sainete, 2, J.
Moyrón), 1912; Ovación y oreja, 1913; El príncipe Pío, 1913; El gran simulacro,
1914; Malagueñas, 1914; El ojo de gallo, 1914; Las castañuelas, 1915; Cine
fantomas, 1915; La pandereta, 1915; La última opereta, 1915; Ysidrín, o Las
cuarenta y nueve provincias, 1915; †La embajadora (3, Lepina and G. del Toro),
1916; La Eva ideal, 1916; La guitarra del amor, 1916, collab. T. Bretón
†La costilla de Adán (fantasía cómico-lírica, 1, Moyrón and Toro), 1917; Esta noche
es nochebuena, 1917; El Zorro, 1917; Abejas y zánganos, 1918; La bella persa,
1918; †Tras Tristán (1, J.R. Martín), 1918; La España de la alegría, 1919; El gran
Olávide, 1919; Soleares, 1919; La cortesana de Omán, 1920
Without date: Ardid de guerra; Caballeros en plaza; El estudiante de maravillas; Las
figuras de cera; Los húngaros; Panorama nacional; Peluquero de señoras; La
puerta del infierno; Un viaje de los demonios; Los voluntarios; Ya soy propietario

instrumental
Orch: Tempranica, fantasía (Barcelona, c1900); 2 syms.
Other works: 3 cadenzas, for Beethoven’s Vn Conc. (Madrid, n.d.); Cavatina, vn/vc,
pf (Madrid, n.d.); Polaca de concierto, pf, pubd
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Muñoz: Historia de la zarzuela española y del género chico (Madrid,
1946)
J. Deleito y Piñuela: Origen y apogeo del ‘género chico’ (Madrid, 1949)
GUY BOURLIGUEUX

Giménez, Raúl (Alberto)

(b Santa Fé, Argentina, 14 Sept 1950). Argentine tenor. He studied in
Buenos Aires, making his début there in 1981 as Ernesto (Don Pasquale).
In 1984 he sang Filandro (Cimarosa’s Le astuzie femminili) at Wexford,
returning as Lurcanio (Ariodante). He made his US début at Dallas (1989)
and his Covent Garden début (1990) as Ernesto, returning as Almaviva
and Don Ramiro (La Cenerentola). His repertory also includes Ferrando,
Fenton, Elvino (La sonnambula), Tonio (La fille du régiment) and Lynceus
(Salieri’s Les Danaïdes), which he sang at Ravenna (1990) and has
recorded; but his high-lying, keenly focussed voice and virtuoso coloratura
technique are heard to best advantage in Rossini, in whose operas he is a
specialist: as Gernando/Carlo (Armida), Giocondo (La pietra del paragone),
Florville (Signor Bruschino), Roderick Dhu and James V (La donna del
lago), Count Alberto (L’occasione fa il ladro), Lindoro (L’italiana in Algeri)
and Argirio (Tancredi), which he sang at La Scala (1993). Giménez’s
Rossini recordings include Don Ramiro, Narciso (Il turco in Italia) and
Almaviva, the role of his Metropolitan début in 1996.
ELIZABETH FORBES

Gimpel, Bronislav
(b Lemberg, 29 Jan 1911; d Los Angeles, 1 May 1979). American violinist.
He studied first with his father, Adolf Gimpel, then with Moritz Wolfstahl in
Lwów, Robert Pollack at the Vienna Conservatory (1922–6) and finally with
Flesch (1928–9). In 1926 he was invited to play Paganini’s famous
Guarneri and this was followed by command performances before the King
of Italy and Pope Pius XI. He was a prizewinner in the 1935 Wieniawski
Competition. He led orchestras in Königsberg (1929–31), Göteborg (1931–
6) and Los Angeles (1937–42); he also founded and conducted the
Hollywood Youth Orchestra. After serving in the US Army (1942–5), he
resumed his career in the USA and Europe. He was leader of the American
Artist Quartet, and a member of the New Friends of Music Piano Quartet
and the Mannes Piano Trio (1950–56). He toured Europe as a soloist from
1947 to the mid-1960s, held a masterclass in Karlsruhe (1959–61) and was
leader of the Warsaw Quintet (1962–7). From 1967 to 1973 he was
professor at the University of Connecticut and leader of the New England
String Quartet. His many recordings cover most of the solo and chamber
music repertories. Particularly impressive is his album of Bach’s solo
works.
Gimpel played with flair and effortless technique. His fiery temperament
matured and mellowed in later years. His vibrato was intense and his
interpretations authoritative. For a time he performed large-scale concertos
such as Beethoven’s or Mendelssohn’s without a conductor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SchwarzGM
J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin, 1889–1971 (Toronto, 1974)
BORIS SCHWARZ/MARGARET CAMPBELL

Gimpel, Jakob
(b Lemberg [now L'viv], 16 April 1906; d Los Angeles, 12 March 1989).
American pianist and teacher of Polish birth. Having graduated from the
Lwów (formerly Lemberg) Conservatory at the age of 15, he went to Vienna
and became a pupil of Steuermann, also taking private lessons in
composition from Berg. He made his Vienna début in 1923. Before World
War II Gimpel toured with the violinists Erica Morini and Nathan Milstein,
and also with his younger brother, Bronislav. He emigrated to the United
States in 1939, settling in Los Angeles. One of the first pianists to record for
the newly founded company Vox, he also made widely admired discs for
Columbia. In 1954 he resumed playing in Europe. Gimpel gave concerts
with the Palestine SO (later the Israel PO) from its inception and
maintained a busy career until the time of his death. He taught at the
California State University at Northridge from 1971 to 1986. Especially
effective in large-scale works, Gimpel never quite achieved the reputation
he deserved. A dynamic and authoritative player in Beethoven's ‘Emperor’
Concerto and Brahms's D minor Concerto, he was equally at home in less
familiar works by such composers as Reger and Szymanowski. He had a
thoroughly schooled and well-controlled virtuoso technique which, allied to
an ability to phrase with sophistication, ensured that his performances were
invariably distinguished.
JAMES METHUEN-CAMPBELL

Ginastera, Alberto (Evaristo)

(b Buenos Aires, 11 April 1916; dGeneva, 25 June 1983). Argentine
composer. His original creative achievement established his position as
one of the leading 20th-century composers of the Americas.
1. Life.
2. Style and works.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEBORAH SCHWARTZ-KATES
Ginastera, Alberto
1. Life.
Born to Argentine parents of Catalan and Italian descent, Ginastera
showed an early inclination towards music, receiving his first formal training
at the age of seven. Five years later he enrolled in the Williams
Conservatory, graduating in 1935 with a gold medal in composition. The
following year he entered the National Conservatory of Music, studying
harmony with Athos Palma, counterpoint with José Gil and composition
with José André. An auspicious opportunity came in 1937 when Juan José
Castro conducted the first performance of an orchestral suite from his ballet
Panambí at the Teatro Colón. This performance, which took place while
Ginastera was still a student, revealed a work of rhythmic verve and
orchestral brilliance, establishing his reputation as an Argentine composer
of significance. A year later he completed his professional training at the
National Conservatory, receiving the Professor's Diploma for his Psalm cl,
submitted as a graduation piece.
One year after the successful première of his complete ballet Panambí in
1940, Lincoln Kirstein, director of the American Ballet Caravan,
commissioned a second choreographic work, Estancia (1941). Even
though Kirstein's troupe disbanded in 1942, postponing the staged
production of the ballet for the next ten years, Ginastera extracted an
orchestral suite from its score which was received warmly on its 1943
performance. The fresh spontaneity of shorter pieces of the early 1940s,
such as Malambo (1940), Cinco canciones populares argentinas (1943)
and Obertura para el ‘Fausto’ criollo (1943), contributed to his growing
stature as one of the most technically adept and musically eloquent
composers associated with the nationalist movement.
His teaching career began in 1941 when he joined the faculties of the
National Conservatory and the San Martín National Military Academy. On
11 December of that year he married Mercedes de Toro, with whom he had
two children. His circumstances in Argentina remained stable until 1945,
when the Peronist regime forced his resignation from the National Military
Academy for signing a petition in support of civil liberties. He took
advantage of a Guggenheim grant (received in 1942 but postponed during
the war) to travel to the USA with his family, where he remained from
December 1945 until March 1947. There he visited Juilliard, Harvard, Yale,
Columbia and Eastman music schools and heard performances of his
works by the NBC Orchestra, Pan American Union and League of
Composers. He benefited from the guidance of Copland, whom he had
previously met in 1941, participating in his Tanglewood composition course,
absorbing his stylistic influence and forging a close personal friendship.
In 1948 he played a fundamental role in founding the Argentine section of
the ISCM, and he organized and became director of the conservatory of
music and theatre arts at the National University of La Plata. His String
Quartet no.1 of that year figures as one of his most powerful musical
statements, fusing abstract folk music segments with traditional
constructive principles and contemporary techniques. In 1951 the ISCM
selected this work for performance at its 25th festival in Frankfurt. This
marked Ginastera's first trip to Europe, where he also participated in
meetings of the International Music Council of UNESCO. Following this
exposure he travelled frequently abroad, receiving performances on ISCM
programmes in Oslo in 1953 (Piano Sonata no.1), Stockholm in 1956
(Pampeana no.3), Rome in 1959 (String Quartet no.2) and Madrid in 1965
(Cantata Bomarzo).
In Argentina he faced further difficulties with the Perón government. In
1952 he was forced to resign his directorship at La Plata and did not regain
his post until 1956, the year following Perón's defeat. Despite the
professional difficulties of those years, his creative output flourished, and
he produced three superbly crafted works, the Piano Sonata no.1 (1952),
Variaciones concertantes (1953) and Pampeana no.3 (1954), that earned
him great recognition. While outside commissions alleviated some of the
financial strain, he still needed to compose film music to support himself. It
should be noted, however, that this cinematic output (1942–58) both
preceded and postdated the Perón years (1946–55), and there is
considerable evidence to suggest that, under Copland's influence, he
regarded film composition as a vital communicative media.
In 1958 he earned a full professorship at La Plata, but resigned later that
year when asked to organize and direct the faculty of musical arts and
sciences at the Catholic University of Argentina. There he served as dean
(1958–63), developing a progressive music programme that offered
advanced degrees in composition, musicology, sacred music and
education. In 1958 he composed the String Quartet no.2 in which he
combined a masterful synthesis of previous styles and techniques with
early incursions into serialism. At its première by the Juilliard String Quartet
it was hailed as the culmination of the First Inter-American Music Festival.
From this point forward his international reputation was assured. Brilliant
first performances of his Piano Concerto no.1 and Cantata para América
mágica at the Second Inter-American Music Festival consolidated his
artistic stature. He now composed almost exclusively by commission.
When the Latin American Centre for Advanced Musical Studies at the
Instituto Torcuato di Tella was founded in 1962, Ginastera was asked to
assume its leadership. The following year he resigned all other university
posts to devote his full attention to this endeavour and to composing.
Under his direction (1963–71), the di Tella music centre promoted avant-
garde techniques, offering young Latin American composers two-year
fellowships to study with a distinguished faculty that included Copland,
Messiaen, Xenakis, Nono and Dallapiccola. His own music of the period
also assumed experimental directions. His grand opera Don Rodrigo
(1963–4) incorporated serialism, structural symmetry, microtones and
extended vocal techniques. The New York City Opera selected this work to
inaugurate its new performance venue at the New York State Theatre at
Lincoln Center; its spectacular performance there on 22 February 1966
engendered an overwhelming critical response and established Ginastera's
reputation as a major opera composer. The success of Don Rodrigo
sparked a new commission for Bomarzo (1966–7) from the Opera Society
of Washington. Its first performance met with ebullient praise, but its explicit
eroticism provoked heated controversy. The municipality of Buenos Aires
cancelled a production of the opera that was scheduled to take place later
that year, and Ginastera responded by refusing to allow performances of
his works until the ban was rescinded.
A troubled period in his life ensued, with a difficult marital situation leading
to a separation from his wife in 1969. Distraught and unable to work, he
was overwhelmed by unfinished commissions, particularly for his third
opera, Beatrix Cenci, whose first performance was scheduled to take place
at the Kennedy Center to inaugurate its new opera house. A deep and
enduring bond with the Argentine cellist Aurora Nátola rekindled his
creativity in time to complete the work, which was well received despite its
difficult genesis. In September 1971 he married Aurora, settling
permanently with her in Switzerland and devoting his time entirely to
composition.
During his last 12 years he composed prodigiously, creating some of his
most innovative works, including the monumental Turbae ad passionem
gregorianam (1974), along with a significant body of cello music. He died
with many commissions unfulfilled, though he did complete seven of the
eight symphonic frescoes of his final Popol vuh (1975–83), bequeathing
the work in a performable state. He was a member of the National
Academy of Fine Arts of Argentina (1957), the Brazilian Academy of Music
(1958), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1965) and the
American Academy of Arts and Letters (1968). He received honorary
doctorates from Yale (1968) and Temple University (1975). He was
awarded the grand prize of the Argentine National Endowment for the Arts
in 1971 and the UNESCO International Music Council music prize in 1981.
Ginastera, Alberto
2. Style and works.
Traditional studies have divided Ginastera's output into three stylistic
periods: firstly ‘objective nationalism’ (1934–47), in which he referred
directly to Argentine folk materials with traditional tonal means, secondly
‘subjective nationalism’ (1947–57), in which he integrated sublimated
symbols in forging an original Argentine style, and thirdly ‘neo-
Expressionism’ (1958–83), in which he combined magic surrealism with
dodecaphony and avant-garde procedures. Even though Ginastera
formulated this periodization himself, he did so in the late 1960s, thus
excluding a large body of later works from consideration. If we accept his
schemata without revision, his third period would encompass almost 30
works composed over a period of 26 years. Moreover, careful examination
of the repertory reveals that his late style is far from monolithic. Beginning
with Puneña no.2 (1976), Ginastera applied complex post-serial techniques
to recreate the spirit of the Americas as exemplified in its collective
indigenous heritage. It is therefore reasonable to add a fourth period, ‘final
synthesis’ (1976–83) to account for this unique blending of tradition and
innovation.
Although Ginastera's officially numbered catalogue begins with his ballet
Panambí, he started composing in the early 1930s. His unrelenting sense
of self-criticism, however, caused him to withhold or destroy many works.
According to a recent inventory of the Paul Sacher Archives, where his
original manuscripts are housed, 25 early surviving pieces remain
unnumbered (Kuss and Handschin, 25–7). Of these, the Impresiones de la
Puna for flute and string quartet (1934), has recently been reinstated and
stands as a charming example of his youthful style. Despite its unabashed
affiliation with Impressionism, it prefigures definitive features of his
subsequent works including the identification of nationalism with a
determined geographical region (in this case, the puna, or plateau of the
Andes), the iconic representation of localized instrumental prototypes
(most notably the indigenous kena, referentially invoked by the flute), and
the unification of musical works through recurrent motivic cells (here, the
three-note Andean formula that serves as an opening motto).
The point of departure for understanding Ginastera's early style is the
system of musical codes that Argentine composers formulated during the
late 19th century to convey their national identity. Some of the most
characteristic formulas associated with this system include melodies based
on vernacular scales, rhythms rooted in stylizations of Argentine dances,
textures imitative of idiomatic guitar writing, voicings in 3rds modelled on
Iberian folk polyphony, and harmonies derived from bimodal relationships.
Before Ginastera, many nationalist composers concentrated on cultivating
intimate miniatures based on Argentine folk genres, and he continued in
this tradition with his earliest repertory, which is dominated by solo piano
pieces and songs. His Cinco canciones populares argentinas stylized the
chacarera, triste, zamba, arrorró and gato genres. He openly modelled this
song cycle on the post-Romantic vocal works of Carlos López Buchardo
(1881–1948), to whom he dedicated the collection and whose Cinco
canciones argentinas al estilo popular (1935) are suggested by its title. Yet
even within these early works Ginastera exceeded traditional expectations
in passages employing bold polytonal juxtapositions, non-functional parallel
progressions and dissonant pandiatonic harmonies.
From his earliest works he showed a remarkable ability to forge new
symbols expressive of Argentine musical identity. In doing so he drew his
inspiration from the gauchesco tradition that upheld the gaucho (horseman)
as an idealized national emblem. He created a powerful image of this
figure with a chord derived from the open tuning of the gaucho's guitar
strings. The resulting sonority, E–A–d–g–b–e', evokes a sound image of
the instrument, while embodying a second folk identity as a reordered form
of the Argentine minor pentatonic scale, E–G–A–B–D.
A second potent symbol that Ginastera constructed was the malambo, a
competitive choreographic genre in which a gaucho affirmed his strength
and virility by challenging his opponent with increasingly vigorous dance
steps. Few memorable representations of the malambo existed in the art
music literature prior to Ginastera's works, and the original Argentine folk
models were distinguished more for their choreographic display than for
their musical interest. What mattered most to him, however, was the
abstract idea of the dance, and his original characterizations of it will
remain among his enduring contributions. In representing the malambo, he
associated its characteristic foot-tapping motion (known as zapateo) with
six rapid quavers per measure, evoking an image of the gaucho's moving
feet. Upon this pattern he superimposed codified dance rhythms of genres
such as the gato and zamba, accelerating and intensifying this rhythmic
complex with percussive Bartókian ostinatos.
Two of his early orchestral works, Estancia and Obertura para el ‘Fausto’
criollo, relate to Argentine nationalism through their reference to gauchesco
literary sources. The Estancia ballet incorporates sung and spoken
passages from the Argentine epic poem Martín Fierro (1872). It evokes
profoundly nationalist sentiments by combining these eloquent verses with
ballet scenes that portray the changing times of day on an Argentine ranch.
Abundant stylizations of gaucho music (including the guitar chord and
malambo) enhance Ginastera's nationalist representation, whose effect is
produced less by the integration of such elements than by their evocative
power and cumulative effect. The Obertura para el ‘Fausto’ criollo is a
humorous work based on the poem Fausto (1866), which tells of a
gaucho's misadventures when he visits Buenos Aires and stumbles upon a
performance of Gounod's Faust at the Teatro Colón. To portray this comic
situation, Ginastera's music interweaves memorable passages from
Gounod's opera with Argentine folk features; as in the original gauchesco
poetry, his juxtaposition of urban and rural contradictions is witty,
sophisticated and ingeniously arranged.
During his second stylistic period, Ginastera elaborated abstract musical
forms with complete technical mastery. In his String Quartet no.1 and Piano
Sonata no.1 he evolved specific musical prototypes for each movement,
the possibilities of which he explored throughout his career. A work
generally opened with a bithematic sonata movement whose initial motivic
cells generated melodic, harmonic and formal processes. He cast his
second movements into mysterious scherzos that echoed sublimated
malambo rhythms using evanescent pianissimo effects. He balanced the
chromatic intensity of his expressive third movements with diatonic
malambo finales which achieved an unprecedented vigour through their
increasing use of irregular beat patterns and changing metres.
Ginastera counterbalanced his concern for strict construction by enhancing
the improvisatory freedom of his music. His Pampeana no.1 (1947) and
Pampeana no.2 (1950) both bear the subtitle ‘rhapsody’ and feature
extended solo cadenzas. All three Pampeanas and the Variaciones
concertantes share an expressive melodic prototype that embellishes a
central reiterated pitch and uses irregular declamatory rhythms (ex.1,
cello). This musical idea exemplifies the very essence of his ‘subjective
nationalism’. While the theme itself is wholly original, it embodies
Ginastera's assimilation of improvised vernacular idioms, and, as such,
represents his own rhapsodic utterance rooted in Argentine tradition.
During this period he distilled Argentine folk music references down to their
bare symbolic essence; at the same time, he accorded such symbolic
structures an extended formal function. He endows the arpeggiated
opening chord (ex.1, harp) with multiple structural roles. Delineating the
guitar's open strings, it generates the harmonic milieu of the work,
establishes E as the pitch centre and summarizes the other main key areas
of the work as B, D, A and G, thus projecting its linear properties onto the
long range tonal structure.
The composers of the Second Viennese School provided important models
for Ginastera's adaptation of dodecaphony during his third stylistic period.
His Cantata para América mágica (1960), for soprano and 53 percussion
instruments, reveals the influence of Webern. Its fourth movement is
palindromic, repeating its materials in retrograde after arriving at a central
12-note cluster. It uses a symmetrical series reminiscent of Webern, with its
second hexachord a transposed retrograde of the first. Tritones and minor
2nds dominate the row, with the latter most often transcribed as major 7ths
or minor 9ths, resulting in a pointillist sonic effect. Ginastera's free use of
the series, his preference for multiple 12-note rows and his predilection for
opera, however, reveal his affinity with Berg. Schoenberg also influenced
Ginastera's stylistic development, in his use of Klangfarbenmelodie in
Milena (1971) and String Quartet no.3 (1973), and in his addition of a
soprano to the latter ensemble, specifically recalling Schoenberg's String
Quartet no.2. In general, Expressionism dominated his aesthetic outlook of
the period, while he enhanced its intensity with microtones, clusters,
indeterminacy, polymetre and unusual sound effects.
His three operas portray a grim, pathological world, inhabited by violent,
grotesque and tormented characters, and exemplified by the portrayal of
incest, torture, execution and patricide in Beatrix Cenci. Ginastera's talent
for matching his theatrical situation with a corresponding sonic equivalent,
usually orchestral, produces an intensely dramatic effect. All three operas
employ atonality, serialism, microtones, spatial effects and extended vocal
techniques; they differ, however, in their progressive development of his
musico-dramatic conception. The first opera, Don Rodrigo, has an
architectonic design that has been widely discussed (Ginastera, 1964;
Suárez Urtubey, 1965; Orrego-Salas, 1967; Kuss, 1980). It uses three
balanced acts, organized symmetrically into exposition, crisis and
dénouement; each act is further subdivided into three scenes retaining the
same dramatic progression. In Bomarzo Ginastera refers to tripartite
internal divisions, but creates an overriding sense of expansion through his
use of ‘clusters’ (massive sound columns), ‘clouds’ (suspended sound
mobiles) and ‘constellations’ (erupting sound cascades). In Beatrix Cenci
he significantly departs from symmetrical structures and enhances musico-
dramatic unity through an enrichment of aleatory, colouristic and cinematic
effects. After the success of his Turbae ad passionem gregorianam, a
theatrical concert version of the Passion story, Ginastera conceived of a
fourth opera, Barabbas, based on a biblical theme and relying on
continuous music within each act. This project was left incomplete.
Ginastera's fascination with the dramatic also inspired the large body of
concertos he composed during the period, including one for harp (1956–
65), one for violin (1963), two for piano (1961, 1972) and two for cello
(1968, rev. 1977; 1980–81). He highlighted the talents of the orchestral
principals in the second movement of his Violin Concerto, entitled Adagio
per 22 solisti, which he conceived ‘as an homage to the soloists of the New
York Philharmonic’. Throughout his concertos he brought virtuosity to the
foreground by creating innovative first-movement structures which begin
with bravura cadenzas and conclude with brilliant studies or variations,
each of which features a formidable technical challenge. He applied avant-
garde techniques to the traditional conception of the concerto, collaborating
closely with the performers upon whom the success of his works
depended.
Following his second marriage he created fresh, lyrical pieces in honour of
Aurora as his new companion, collaborator and interpreter. He relaxed the
austerity of previous dramatic works in favour of a new intimacy, in which
he set exquisite love poetry, including that of García Lorca (String Quartet
 no.3, 1973) and Neruda (Serenata, 1973). Programmatic references
involve plays on the word ‘aurora’ in Variazioni e Toccata sopra ‘Aurora
lucis rutilat’ (1980) and other works. He entwined such amorous symbolism
deeply into his cello compositions. The slow movement of his Sonata
(1979) alludes to love motifs drawn from his operas and contains an
expressive melodic setting of the word ‘amor’ from his String Quartet no.3
(ex.2). In his Cello Concerto no.2, created for Aurora on their tenth wedding
anniversary, he adds romantic epigraphs to a reworking of his earlier
Sonata, interweaving veiled references to the cello theme from the third
movement of Brahms's Piano Concerto no.2 into the newly composed first
movement.
Ginastera's final compositions form a consummate synthesis of his creative
trajectory. With the exception of his Guitar Sonata (1976, rev. 1981), which
musically refers to the gaucho, he departed from specifically Argentine folk
models and aligned himself with a pan-continental Americanism. As he
explained in an interview (Tan, 1984, p.7):
I am evolving … This change is taking the form of a …
reversion … to the primitive America of the Mayas, the
Aztecs, and the Incas. This influence in my music I feel as not
folkloric, but … as a kind of metaphysical inspiration … what I
have done is a reconstitution of the transcendental aspect of
the ancient pre-Columbian world.
He verged on an aesthetic breakthrough in works such as his Piano
Sonata no.2 (1981), which prefigures a new fusion of indigenous and post-
serial styles with its cellular ostinatos, percussive rhythms, chromatic
clusters and irregular metres. His visionary Popol vuh, based on the Mayan
creation story, embarked on a new integration of ‘primitive’ melody and
kaleidoscopic sound colour. This final synthesis closed the circle he began
with his earliest numbered work, Panambí, which likewise conjoined
indigenous elements with what were then radical references to Stravinsky
and serial technique. As a composer who delighted in symmetry, he
personally came to embody his own aesthetic by returning at the end of his
life to the wellsprings of his earliest inspiration.
Ginastera, Alberto
WORKS
dramatic
op.
1 Panambí (ballet, 1, F. Errico, after Guaraní legend), 1934–7; Buenos Aires,
Colón, 12 July 1940
8 Estancia (ballet, 1), 1941; Buenos Aires, Colón, 19 Aug 1952
31 Don Rodrigo (op, 3, A. Casona), 1963–4; Buenos Aires, Colón, 24 July 1964
34 Bomarzo (op, 2, M. Mujica Láinez), 1966–7; Washington DC, 19 May 1967
38 Beatrix Cenci (op, 2, W. Shand and A. Girri), 1971; Washington DC, 10 Sept
1971
— Barabbas (op, after M. de Ghelderode), 1977, inc.
orchestral
1a Panambí, suite, 1935–7; Teatro Colón Orch, cond. J.J. Castro, Buenos Aires,
27 Nov 1937 [from ballet Panambí, op.1]
— Concierto argentino no.1, pf, chbr orch, 1936, withdrawn
8a Estancia, suite, 1941; Teatro Colón Orch, cond. F. Calusio, Buenos Aires, 12
May 1943 [from ballet Estancia, op.8]
— Symphony no.1 (‘Porteña’), 1942, withdrawn
9 Obertura para el ‘Fausto’ criollo, 1943; Chile SO, cond. J.J. Castro, Santiago,
Chile, 12 May 1944
— Symphony no.2 (‘Elegíaca’), 1944, withdrawn
17 Ollantay, 3 sym. movts, 1947; Teatro Colón Orch, cond. E. Kleiber, Buenos
Aires, 29 Oct 1949
23 Variaciones concertantes, chbr orch, 1953, Asociación Amigos de la Música
Orch, cond. I. Markevitch, Buenos Aires, 2 June 1953
24 Pampeana no.3, sym. pastoral, 1954; Louisville SO, cond. R. Whitney,
Louisville, 20 Oct 1954
25 Harp Concerto, 1956–65; N. Zabaleta, Philadelphia Orch, cond. E. Ormandy,
Philadelphia, 18 Feb 1965
28 Piano Concerto no.1, 1961; J.C. Martins, National SO, cond. H. Mitchell,
Washington DC, 22 April 1961
30 Violin Concerto, 1963; R. Ricci, New York PO, cond. L. Bernstein, New York, 3
Oct 1963
31a Sinfonía ‘Don Rodrigo’: see choral and solo vocal
33 Concerto per corde, str orch, 1965; Philadelphia Orch, cond. Ormandy,
Caracas, 14 May 1966
34a Music from Bomarzo, suite: see choral and solo vocal
35 Estudios sinfónicos, 1967; Vancouver SO, cond. M. Davies, Vancouver, 31
March 1968
36 Cello Concerto no.1, 1968, P. Olefsky, Dartmouth SO, cond. M. di
Bonaventura, Hanover, NH, 7 July 1968; rev. 1977, A. Nátola-Ginastera,
National SO, cond. M. Rostropovich, Washington DC, 31 Jan 1978
39 Piano Concerto no.2, 1972; H. Somer, Indianapolis SO, cond. K.
Schermerhorn, Indianapolis, 22 March 1973
44 Popol vuh, 1975–83; St Louis SO, cond. L. Slatkin, St Louis, 7 April 1989, inc.
[7 of 8 movts completed]
46 Glosses sobre temes de Pau Casals, str orch, str qnt, 1976; Interamerican
Youth Str Orch, cond. A. Schneider, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 14 June 1976
48 Glosses sobre temes de Pau Casals, orch; 1976–7; National SO, cond.
Rostropovich, Washington DC, 24 Jan 1978 [version of op.46]
50 Cello Concerto no.2, 1980–81; Nátola-Ginastera, Buenos Aires PO, cond. S.
Wislocki, Buenos Aires, 6 July 1981
51 Iubilum, sym. celebration, 1979–80; Teatro Colón Orch, cond. B. D'Astoli,
Buenos Aires, 12 April 1980
choral and solo vocal
(selective list)

— El arriero canta, chorus, 1937, withdrawn

3 2 canciones (F. Silva Valdés), 1v, pf, 1938; Buenos Aires, 25 Aug 1939
4 Cantos del Tucumán (R. Jijena Sánchez), 1v, fl, hp, 2 Amerindian drums, vn,
1938; Buenos Aires, 26 July 1938
5 Psalm cl, chorus, boys’ chorus, orch, 1938; Teatro Colón Orch and Chorus,
cond. A. Wolff, Buenos Aires, 7 April 1945
10 5 canciones populares argentinas (trad.), 1v, pf, 1943; Buenos Aires, 17 July
1944
11 Las horas de una estancia (S. Ocampo), 1v, pf, 1943; Montevideo, 11 June
 1945
14 Hieremiae prophetae lamentationes, chorus, 1946; Lagún Onak Chorus, cond.
Castro, Buenos Aires, 21 July 1947
27 Cantata para América mágica (pre-Columbian text), S, perc orch, 1960; R.
Adonaylo, National SO, cond. Mitchell, Washington DC, 30 April 1961
31a Sinfonía ‘Don Rodrigo’ (Casona), S, orch, 1964; S. Bandin, Spanish National
Orch, cond. R. Frühbeck de Burgos, Madrid, 31 Oct 1964 [from op Don
Rodrigo, op.31]
32 Cantata Bomarzo (Mujica Láinez), T/Bar, nar, chbr orch, 1964; R. Murray,
National SO, cond. W. Hendl, Washington DC, 1 Nov 1964
34a Music from Bomarzo, suite, chorus, orch, 1970; rev. orch, S/cl, 1970 [from op
Bomarzo, op.34]
37 Milena (cant., F. Kafka), S, orch, 1971; P. Curtin, Denver SO, cond. B.
Priestman, Denver, 16 April 1973
40 String Quartet no.3: see chamber and solo instrumental
42 Serenata (P. Neruda), Bar, solo vc, wind qnt, 2 perc, hp, db, 1973; J. Díaz,
Nátola-Ginastera, Chbr Music Society of Lincoln Center, cond. Ginastera, New
York, 18 Jan 1974
43 Turbae ad passionem gregorianam (Vulgate Bible, Liber usualis), T, Bar, B-
Bar, chorus, boys' chorus, orch, 1974; Mendelssohn Club Chorus,
Philadelphia Orch, cond. R. Page, Philadelphia, 20 March 1975

chamber and solo instrumental

— Piezas infantiles, pf, 1934, withdrawn
— Impresiones de la Puna, fl, str qt, 1934
2 Danzas argentinas, pf, 1937
— Sonatina, hp, 1938
6 3 piezas, pf, 1940
7 Malambo, pf, 1940
12 12 Preludios americanos, pf, 1944
13 Duo, fl, ob, 1945
15 Suite de danzas criollas, pf, 1946, rev. 1956
16 Pampeana no.1, rhapsody, vn, pf, 1947
18 Toccata, Villancico y Fuga, org, 1947
19 Rondó sobre temas infantiles argentinos, pf, 1947
20 String Quartet no.1, 1948; Mozart Qt, Buenos Aires, 24 Oct 1949
21 Pampeana no.2, rhapsody, vc, pf, 1950
22 Piano Sonata no.1, 1952
26 String Quartet no.2, 1958, rev. 1968; Juilliard Str Qt, Washington DC, 19 April
1958
29 Piano Quintet, 1963; Chigiano Qnt, Venice, 13 April 1963
40 String Quartet no.3 (R. Alberti, F. García Lorca, J.R. Jiménez), S, str qt, 1973;
B. Valente, Juilliard Str Qt, Dallas, 4 Feb 1974
41 Puneña no.1, fl, 1973, inc.
45 Puneña no.2, vc, 1976
47 Sonata, gui, 1976, rev. 1981
49 Sonata, vc, pf, 1979
51a Fanfare, 4 tpt, 1980 [from orch work Iubilium, 1979–80]
52 Variazioni e Toccata sopra ‘Aurora lucis rutilat’, org, 1980
53 Piano Sonata no.2, 1981
54 Piano Sonata no.3, 1982
film scores
Malambo (dir. A. de Zavalía), 1942; Rosa de América (dir. Zavalía), 1945; Nace la
libertad (dir. J. Saraceni), 1949; El puente (dir. C. Gorostiza), 1950; Facundo, el
tigre de los llanos (dir. M. Tato), 1952; Caballito criollo (dir. R. Pappier), 1953; Su
seguro servidor (dir. E. Togni), 1954; Los maridos de mamá (dir. Togni), 1956;
Enigma de mujer (dir. E.C. Salaberry), 1956; Hay que bañar al nene (dir. Togni),
1958; Primavera de la vida (dir. A. Mattson), 1958
incidental music
Don Basilio malcasado (T. Carella), 1940; Doña Clorinda la descontenta (Carella),
1941; Las antiguas semillas (J. Vier), 1947; El límite (Zavalía), 1958; A Maria el
corazón (Zavalía, after C. de la Barca), 1960; La doncella prodigiosa (Zavalía),
1961
MSS in CH-Bps

Principal publisher: Boosey & Hawkes

Ginastera, Alberto
WRITINGS
(selective list)

‘A propósito de Don Rodrigo’, Buenos Aires Musical, xix/310 (1964), 1, 3–4

‘How and why I wrote Bomarzo’,Central Opera Service Bulletin, ix/5 (1967),
10–13

‘Personal Viewpoint’, Tempo, no.81 (1967), 26–9

‘Homage to Béla Bartók’,Tempo, no.136 (1981), 3–4

Ginastera, Alberto

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grove6 (G. Chase)
G. Chase: ‘Alberto Ginastera: Argentine Composer’, MQ, xliii (1957), 439–
60
G. Chase: ‘Alberto Ginastera: Portrait of an Argentine Composer’, Tempo,
no.44 (1957), 11–16
D. Wallace: Alberto Ginastera: an Analysis of his Style and Techniques of
Composition (diss., Northwestern U., 1964)
P. Suárez Urtubey: ‘Ginastera's Don Rodrigo’, Tempo, no.74 (1965), 11–
18
J. Orrego-Salas: ‘Don Rodrigo de Ginastera’, Artes Hispánicas, i/1 (1967),
94–133
P. Suárez Urtubey: Alberto Ginastera (Buenos Aires, 1967)
P. Suárez Urtubey: ‘Ginastera's Bomarzo’, Tempo, no.84 (1968), 14–21
P. Suárez Urtubey: Alberto Ginastera en cinco movimientos (Buenos
Aires, 1972)
I. Lowens: ‘Ginastera's Beatrix Cenci’, Tempo, no.105 (1973), 48–53
M.A. Hanley: ‘The Solo Piano Music of Alberto Ginastera’, American Music
Teacher, xxiv/6 (1975), 17–20; xxv/1 (1975), 6–9
M. Kuss: ‘Type, Derivation and Use of Native Idioms in Ginastera's Don
Rodrigo (1964)’, LAMR, i (1980), 176–95
J.A. Alcaraz: Hablar de música: conversaciones con compositores del
continente americano (Mexico City, 1982), 153–61
F. Spangemacher, ed.: Alberto Ginastera (Bonn, 1984)
L. Tan: ‘An Interview with Alberto Ginastera’, American Music Teacher,
xxxiii/3 (1984), 6–8
LAMR, vi/1 (1985) [incl. articles by G. Chase, W.S. Pope, C.S. Smith, R.
Stevenson]
A. Nátola Ginastera andM. Kuss: introduction to Alberto Ginastera: a
Complete Catalogue (New York, 1986) [Boosey & Hawkes catalogue]
M. Kuss and L.Handschin: ‘Alberto Ginastera: Musikmanuskripte’,
Inventare der Paul Sacher Stiftung, viii (Winterthur, 1990)
M. Tabor: ‘Alberto Ginastera's Late Instrumental Style’, LAMR, xv (1994),
1–31
G. Scarabino: Alberto Ginastera: técnicas y estilo (1935–1954) (Buenos
Aires, 1996)
D. Schwartz-Kates: The ‘Gauchesco’ Tradition as a Source of National
Identity in Argentine Art Music (ca. 1890–1955) (diss., U. of Texas,
1997)

Gindron, François
(b c1491; d ?Lausanne, after 1560). Swiss composer and clergyman. He
spent his life at Lausanne. He is first mentioned in 1518 as the priest in
charge of the cathedral choir (he was a minor cleric and not a canon as
some writers have stated). In 1531 he was appointed a church councillor,
and he participated in the dispute of October 1536 between Roman
Catholic and Reformed theologians at the cathedral. On 16 February 1537
he renounced the Catholic faith in favour of Calvinism. From then on he
was comfortably off and took part in civic affairs. In 1552 he was given
permission by the Berne authorities, then in control of the region of Vaud,
to have a collection of psalms printed. According to the preface to his
Proverbes de Salomon, ensemble l’Ecclésiaste, mis en cantiques et rime
françoise selon la vérité hébraïque, par A.D. du Plessis (Lausanne, 1556;
music lost) he was pensioned off by Berne in 1556. A total of five pieces by
him appear in publications prepared in Geneva by Simon Du Bosc and
Guillaume Guéroult (RISM 155514 and 155515).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
O. Douen: Clément Marot et le psautier huguenot, i (Paris, 1878), 613, 665
P. Pidoux, ed.: Le psautier huguenot du XVIe sièle, ii (Basle, 1962)
L. Guillo: Les éditions musicales de la Renaissance lyonnaise (Paris,
1991)
PAUL-ANDRÉ GAILLARD

Giner y Vidal, Salvador

(b Valencia, 19 Jan 1832; d Valencia, 3 Nov 1911). Spanish composer.
Born into a family of musicians, he had his first lessons from his father,
studying later under the organist of Valencia Cathedral, Pascual Pérez y
 Gascón. From 1875 to 1879 he worked in Madrid, afterwards returning to
Valencia where he was an active promoter of music. He played an
important part in the foundation of the city’s conservatory and was
appointed director in 1894 in succession to José María Úbeda. He formed
the municipal band and the choral society El Micalet, which in 1928
became the Giner Institute of Music. Giner was responsible for the
introduction to Valencia of concert music as it is now understood, and he
also tried to create nationalist music by composing operas based on
Valencian folk music. Although they were failures he did succeed in writing
characteristically Valencian music, notably the symphonic poems Una nit
d’albaes and Es chopà … hasta la Moma, and L’entrà de la murta, written
for the municipal band in 1903. But it is liturgical music which has pride of
place in his output. He composed a requiem in 1878 for the funeral of
Queen Mercedes. An even finer requiem setting was written in 1880 after
the death of Cristobal Pascual y Genís; this is a work of remarkable
vividness and strength.
WORKS
(selective list)

stage
¿Con quién caso a mi mujer? (zar, 3, Chocomeli), Valencia, Principal, 2 May 1883;
El rayo de sol (zar, 3, Nogués), Madrid, Jovellanos, 10 Nov 1875; Sagunto (comic
op, 3, Cebrián), Valencia, Principal, 20 Dec 1890; Los mendigos (zar, 3, Guillén),
Valencia, Principal, 1896; El soñador (comic op, 3, Danvila), Valencia, Principal, 10
April 1901; El fantasma (comic op, 3, Giner), Valencia, Principal, 13 April 1901;
Morel (comic op, 3, Chocomeli), Valencia, Principal, 18 April 1901
choral
Sacred: 18 masses, solo vv, unacc. or with chorus, org, orch; 11 requiem masses,
chorus unacc. or with orch; responsories for the dead; motets, hymns, settings of
pss, Miserere and Lamentations
Secular: 43 works, incl. La feria de Valencia, 1871; La festa del poble; La trilla,
1896; La tempestad, 1897; Al surcar el lago, 1875; Ecos del Turia
orchestral
Sym., on themes from Mercadante’s Le 7 parole di nostro signore, 1858; Sym. ‘Las
fases del campo’, 1864; Elegia a Rossini, 1878; 8 sym. poems, incl. Es chopà …
hasta la Moma, 1886; Una nit d’albàes, 1881; El festín de Baltasar, 1893
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Ruiz de Lihory: La música en Valencia: diccionario biográfico y crítico
(Valencia, 1903)
A. Fernández-Cid: Cien años de teatro musical en España (1875–1975)
(Madrid, 1975)
J. Climent: Historia de la música contemporánea valenciana (Valencia,
1978)
JOSÉ CLIMENT

Ginés Pérez, Juan.

See Pérez de la Parra, Ginés.

Gingold, Josef
(b Brest Litovsk [now Brest], 28 Oct 1909; d Bloomington, IN, 11 Jan 1995).
American violinist and teacher of Belarusian birth. He moved to New York
in 1920 and studied with Vladimir Graffman (1922–7). After his New York
début in 1926, he went to Ysaÿe in Brussels (1927–30) and gave many
concerts in northern Europe. After his return he became a first violinist in
Toscanini's NBC SO (1937–43), leader of the Detroit Orchestra (1943–6)
and of the Cleveland Orchestra (with whom he often appeared as a soloist)
under Szell (1947–60). He belonged to the Primrose String Quartet (1939–
42) and the NBC String Quartet (1941–3).
Gingold taught at Western Reserve University (1950–60) and the
Meadowmount School of Music (1955–81). In 1960 he was appointed
professor of the violin at Indiana University, establishing a reputation as an
outstanding teacher (Laredo, Miriam Fried, Yaron, Silverstein, Hoelscher
and Joshua Bell were among his pupils). He gave annual masterclasses at
the Paris Conservatoire (1970–81), and was a guest teacher at the Toho
Music School, Tokyo. He held the Mischa Elman Chair at the Manhattan
School of Music (1980–81). He represented the USA on juries of such
international contests as the Queen Elisabeth in Brussels and the
Wieniawski in Poland, and helped to found the International Violin
Competition of Indianapolis, serving as honorary chairman and president
from its foundation in 1982 until 1994. He published useful teaching
material and made numerous recordings. Gingold was a distinguished
performer with a style of particular sweetness and elegance, and an
imposing technical mastery. He played the Martinelli Stradivari made in
1683.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SchwarzGM
M. Campbell: ‘Joseph Gingold’, The Strad, xciii (1983–4), 798–802
J. Gingold: ‘Golden Years’, The Strad, c (1989), 968–71
BORIS SCHWARZ/MARGARET CAMPBELL

Ginguené [Guinguené], Pierre-

Louis
(b Rennes, 26 April 1748; d Paris, 16 Nov 1816). French man of letters,
musicologist, theorist and composer. The son of Pierre-François Ginguené,
a procurator in the Presidial court of Rennes, and of Anne(-Marie) Gagon,
he received a good education in his native city, which included the study of
English and Italian language and literature, and lessons in music from
Signoretti. He went to Paris in 1772 and became a tutor, and six years later
obtained a post in the finance ministry. He was a member of the masonic
lodge of the Neuf Soeurs between 1782 and 1784, and in 1786 he married
Marie-Anne Poulet, a friend of the future Marquise de Condorcet. He
established links with the leading figures of the Revolution, wrote for the
Gazette nationale and the Feuille villageoise (which he also edited), and in
1794 he and five associates founded the Décade philosophique. He was
imprisoned in St Lazare during the Reign of Terror, but was set free on the
fall of Robespierre. He led a very active life as deputy commissioner and
then director general of the Instruction Publique, and as a member of the
Institut, ambassador to Turin and a member of the Tribunate, from which he
was dismissed in 1802 because of his opposition to Bonaparte; he also
taught Italian literature at the Athénée. On his death he left a library of
some 5000 books, including around 130 works on music, almost
exclusively concerned with musical theory and history.
As an enthusiastic lover of Italy and a friend and fervent champion of
Piccinni, Ginguené took part in the disputes against the Gluckists. He wrote
music criticism for the Journal de Paris and the Mercure de France, and in
1783 published an interesting article (Mélophile, à l'homme de lettres), in
which he expressed his admiration for Piccinni's Atys. He also published a
Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Nicolas Piccinni which is a valuable
source of information. In 1791 he and Framery co-edited the first volume of
the music dictionary of the Encyclopédie méthodique, and in 1813 he
embarked on the editing of the second volume of this work, which was
published in 1818, after his death. He put his name to a number of articles
on the history of music, for instance under the headwords ‘Angleterre’,
‘Espagne’, ‘France’, ‘Italie’ and ‘Russie’, and on such subjects as ‘Cantate’,
‘Castrato’, ‘Choeur’, ‘Concerto’, ‘Dialogue’, ‘Expression’ and ‘Génie’. He
also published articles on music in the Décade philosophique. He
contributed to the study of music (writing, in particular, on Guido d'Arezzo
in the 11th century, on the Provençal troubadours and on the birth of music
drama) in his Histoire littéraire d'Italie, and he published biographical
articles on French poets, Provençal troubadours and others (Bernart de
Ventadorn, Jaufre Rudel, Guillaume Adhémar, Hoger de Laon, Peire Vidal,
Raimbaut d'Aurenga) in the Histoire littéraire de la France.
He was passionately devoted to music. In his youth at Rennes he
composed airs with accompaniment, and in 1784 he published 12 petits
airs drawn from the novel Galatée. For the theatre, he wrote incidental
music for Les confidences à la mode, Le bon convive and La fille
ignorante. He wrote the libretto for Pomponin, ou Le tuteur mistifié (1777, a
parody of Piccinni's Lo sposo burlato), revised the libretto for Piccinni's
Iphigénie en Tauride and wrote the words for his Hymene e l'Hymen
(1799). His other works include a Traité d'accompagnement pour le
clavecin (F-Pn).
As an advocate of liberty who engaged in political activities, Ginguené was
not so much a creator as an ideologist and one who opened up paths for
others. A poet, a gifted journalist and a highly regarded literary and music
critic, he was not only an erudite scholar with a modern mind, a European
in advance of his time, and an amateur composer, but also a perceptive
musicologist in whom the culmination of the thinking of the philosophers
and writers of the Enlightenment may be traced. He set his ideas in the
perspective of their historical development, and foreshadowed new trends
in art.
WRITINGS
only those relating to music

Instruction du procès, entre les premiers sujets de l'Académie royale de

musique & de danse (Paris, 1779)

Mélophile, à l'homme de lettres chargé de la rédaction des articles de

l'Opéra, dans le Mercure de France (Naples and Paris, 1783)

ed., with N.E. Framery: Encyclopédie méthodique: musique, i (Paris,

1791/R) [also incl. some articles by Ginguené]

Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Nicolas Piccinni (Paris, 1800); ed. M.
Garnier-Butel (forthcoming)

Histoire littéraire d'Italie, i–ix (Paris, 1811–19) [vols. x–xiv by F. Salfi, Paris,
1823–35; whole series rev. 2/1824–35 by P.C.F. Daunou]

Rapport … sur une nouvelle exposition de la séméiographie ou notation

musicale des Grecs, par F.L. Perne (Paris, 1815)

‘Musique’, Catalogue des livres de la bibliothèque de feu M.P.-L. Ginguené

(Paris, 1817), 33–9

ed. with N.E. Framery and J.J. de Momigny: Encyclopédie méthodique:

Musique, ii (Paris, 1818/R) [also incl. some articles by Ginguené]

Articles in: Décade philosophique (esp. 1801, signed ‘G’); Journal de

Paris; Mercure de France (esp. 1781–3, as ‘Mélophile’); Histoire
littéraire de la France, ouvrage commencé par des religieux
Bénédictins (Paris, 1814–20, some vols. 2/1869/R)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Choron-FayolleD
FétisB
P.-C.-F. Daunou: ‘Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. Ginguené’,
Histoire littéraire d'Italie, i (Paris, 2/1824), pp.v–xxxii
C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution (Paris, 1904)
P. Hazard, ed.: Journal de Ginguené, 1807–1808 (Paris, 1910)
M.F. Robinson: ‘Opera buffa into opéra comique, 1771–90’, Music and the
French Revolution, ed. M. Boyd (Cambridge, 1992), 37–56
E. Guitton, ed.: : Ginguené (1748–1816): idéologue et médiateur (Rennes,
1995) [incl. M.-C. Mussat: ‘Ginguené musicologue: de la pratique à la
théorie’, 33–49; M. Garnier-Butel: ‘Ginguené et Jérôme-Joseph
Momigny face à la musique instrumentale du siècle des Lumières’,
51–78; B. Didier: ‘Ginguené et l'Encyclopédie méthodique (Musique)’,
79–88; J.-D. Candaux: ‘La bibliothèque de Ginguené’, 89–94; F.
Fanouillère: ‘Chronologie de Ginguené’, 253–7]
M. Garnier-Butel: ‘Récitatif et déclamation théâtrale dans les écrits de
Pierre-Louis Ginguené (1748–1816)’, Entre théâtre et musique:
récitatifs en Europe aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, ed. R. Legrand and L.
Quétin (Tours, 1999), 237–51
G. Severand and L. Chermat: ‘Retour sur ì ascendance de Pierre-Louis
Ginguené (1748–1816)’, Bulletin et mémoires de la Société
archéologique d'Ille-et-Vilaine, ciii (2000)
MICHELLE GARNIER-BUTEL

Gintzler, Simon
(fl 1547). German lutenist. He was court musician to Cristoforo Madruzzo
(1512–78), Cardinal and Prince-Bishop of Trent and administrator of the
diocese of Brixen. Gintzler’s dedication to Madruzzo of his Intabolatura de
lauto (Venice, 154722, 2/1589) suggests that he may have been in the
cardinal's service for some time. Gintzler was one of the few German
lutenists to use Italian tablature. He put great emphasis on legato playing
and carefully indicated that a note should be held by placing a small ‘x’
after its figure. In common with most Italian lutenists, he indicated use of
the right-hand forefinger by a dot beneath the figure. He composed six
ricercares and intabulated 19 motets, six madrigals and six chansons, by
Arcadelt, Jachet of Mantua, Jacquet de Berchem, Josquin, Lupus, Mouton,
Senfl, Verdelot, Willaert, Sandrin and Villiers (the six ricercares and one
motet ed. in DTÖ, xxxvii, Jg.xviii/2, 1911/R). The ricercares, called
Priambeln by Gerle (1552) and Fantasiae by Phalèse (1552), are primarily
in imitative counterpoint, with interspersed passage-work and sections of
homophony. The vocal transcriptions are full-voiced and moderately
embellished. He was clearly concerned to use all the techniques at his
disposal in order to create expressive works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrownI
MGG1 (W. Boetticher)
O. Chilesotti: ‘Chansons françaises du XVIe siècle en Italie: (transcrites
pour le luth)’, RHCM, ii (1902), 63–71, 202–5, esp. 68 [incl. edns of
intabulations of 2 chansons by Sandrin]
E. Engel: Die Instrumentalformen in der Lautenmusik des 16.
Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Berlin, 1915)
W. Boetticher: Studien zur solistischen Lautenpraxis des 16. und 17.
Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1943)
H.C. Slim: The Keyboard Ricercar and Fantasia in Italy ca.1500–1555
(diss., Harvard U., 1961) [incl. thematic index and concordances for
lutes, ricercares and fantasias]
HANS RADKE

Ginzburg, Grigory (Romanovich)

(b Nizhniy Novgorod, 17/29 May 1904; d Moscow, 5 Dec 1961). Russian
pianist and teacher. He had known the pianist and pedagogue
Goldenweiser for some years before becoming his pupil at the Moscow
Conservatory, and it was in the latter's home that he heard such pianists as
Rachmaninoff, Skryabin and Medtner. Ginzburg graduated from the
conservatory in 1924, and was an instructor there from 1929, being
promoted to professor in 1935. His first success as a pianist came at the
inaugural Chopin Competition in Warsaw in 1927, in which he was
awarded fourth prize. In 1946 he was made Honoured Art Worker of the
RSFSR.
Unlike many musicians of his generation, Ginzburg used his consummate
mastery of the instrument solely as the tool with which to express the
subtleties of the music he was playing. He eschewed special effects and
outbursts of temperament in favour of presenting the music with the utmost
lucidity and tonal beauty. He had a naturally communicative tone that was
ideally suited to the bel canto works of Chopin and Liszt. Fortunately, he
warmed to the recording process and his many discs, particularly those of
Liszt, convey his immaculate artistry in all its glory. He made a few virtuoso
transcriptions for piano that also demonstrate his taste and sense of style.
His discs with Goldenweiser of Rachmaninoff's two suites for two pianos,
opp.5 and 17, are memorably idiomatic and stand as significant
documents.
JAMES METHUEN-CAMPBELL

Ginzburg, Lev Solomonovich

(b Mogilev-na-Dnepre, Belorussia, 15/28 Jan 1907; d Moscow, 22 Nov
1981). Soviet cellist and musicologist. In 1931 he graduated from the
Moscow Conservatory, where he studied the cello with Semyon Kozolupov,
music history with Valentin Ferman and Konstantin Kuznetsov, and
chamber music with Aleksandr Gedike. He completed his postgraduate
studies in 1937, and in the following year took the Kandidat degree with a
dissertation on Boccherini; he was awarded the doctorate in 1947 for his
work on the early history of the cello. At the Moscow Conservatory
Ginzburg taught the cello (1936–68) and the history and theory of
performance; he was appointed senior lecturer in 1940 and professor in
1950. Ginzburg wrote books on several string players, including Casals,
Rostropovich, Maréchal, Ysaÿe and Tartini, and produced a four-volume
history of cello playing. He taught in the West and did much for
international cultural relations.
WRITINGS
Luidzhi Bokkerini i yego rol' v razvitii violonchel'nogo iskusstva [Boccherini
and his role in the development of the art of cello playing] (diss.,
Moscow Conservatory, 1938; Moscow, 1938)
Violonchel'noye iskusstvo ot yego istokov do kontsa XVIII stoletiya [The art
of cello playing from its origin to the end of the 18th century] (diss.,
Moscow Conservatory, 1947)
Istoriya violonchel'nogo iskusstva [The history of the art of cello playing], i:
Violonchel'naya klassika [The cello classics] (Moscow and Leningrad,
1950); ii: Russkoye violonchel'noye iskusstvo do 60-kh godov XIX
veka [The art of Russian cello playing before the 1860s] (Moscow and
Leningrad, 1957); iii: Russkaya klassicheskaya violonchel'naya shkola
(1860–1917) [The Russian classical school of cello playing (1860–
1917)] (Moscow, 1965); iv: Zarubezhnoye violenchel'noye iskusstvo
XIX–XX vekov [The art of cello playing abroad in the 19th and 20th
centuries] (Moscow, 1978); Eng. trans., 1983)
K. Yu. Davïdov (Moscow and Leningrad, 1950)
A.A. Brandukov (Moscow and Leningrad, 1951)
Ferdinand Laub (Moscow and Leningrad, 1951)
O rabote nad muzïkal'nïm proizvedeniyem [Working on musical
compositions] (Moscow, 1953, enlarged 4/1981)
ed., with A. Solovtsov: O muzïkal'nom ispolnitel'stve [Musical
interpretation] (Moscow, 1954) [collections of essays]
Ganush Vigan i Cheshskiy kvartet [Wihan and the Czech Quartet]
(Moscow, 1955)
Yosef Slavik [Slavík] (Moscow, 1957)
Pablo Kazal's [Casals] (Moscow, 1958, enlarged 2/1966)
Yezhen Izai [Ysaÿe] (Moscow, 1959; Eng. trans., 1980)
Mstislav Rostropovich (Moscow, 1963)
‘Skripach Mikhail Ėrdenko’ [The violinist Erdenko], Voprosï muzïkal'no-
ispolnitel'skogo iskusstva, iv, ed. A.A. Nikolayev and others (Moscow,
1967), 216–25
Dzhuzeppe Tartini (Moscow, 1969; Eng. trans., 1981)
‘Zur Geschichte der Aufführung der Streichquartette Beethovens in
Russland’, GfMKB: Bonn 1970, 135–40
Issledovaniya, stat'i, ocherki [Research, articles and essays] (Moscow,
1971) [incl. complete bibliography]
‘Die Kammermusik in der modernen Musikpraxis (nach den Erfahrungen
der sowjetischen Interpretationsschule)’, Musica cameralis: Brno VI
1971, 23–35
Moris Mareshal [Maréchal] (Moscow, 1972)
O muzïkal'nom ispolnitel'stve (Moscow, 1972; Ger. trans., 1975)
Anri V'yetan [Vieuxtemps] (Moscow, 1983; Eng. trans., 1984)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.B. Bernandt and I.M. Yampol'sky: Kto pisal o muzïke [Writers on
music], i (Moscow, 1971)
Obituary, SovM (1982), no.4, p.144 only
IGOR BĖLZA/LYUDMILA KORABEL'NIKOVA

Ginzburg, Semyon L'vovich

(b Kiev, 23 May 1901; d Leningrad, 4 April 1978). Russian musicologist
and historian. After taking private lessons with the conductor M.I.
Chernyakhousky, he studied cello at the Baku Music School with V.S.
Dobrokhotov and played in an orchestra (1916–18). From 1918 he studied
musicology at the Institute for the History of the Arts in Petrograd with
Asaf'yev, S.K. Bulich and Karatïgin and the cello and the viola da gamba
with Yu.G. Van-Oren (1919–22); he also attended Glazunov’s ensemble
class at the conservatory and completed a degree in history and philology
at Petrograd University (1918–23).
From 1919 Ginzburg taught at music schools and colleges (including the
Institute of Dramatic Arts, 1924–6), and he was appointed research fellow
at the Institute for the History of the Arts in 1922, a post he retained until
1930. In 1925 he joined the faculty at the Leningrad Conservatory, where
he was appointed senior lecturer in 1928 and professor in 1935 and served
as department chair, 1940–62. During this time he was also a lecturer at
Leningrad University (1927–30), curator of the museum of the Leningrad
PO (1929–32), head of the department of musical culture and technology
at the Ėrmitazh, artistic director of the historical concerts at the Ėrmitazh
Theatre (1932–5) and research fellow at the Institute for Theatre and Music
(1938–40; 1946–8). He retired in 1978.
During the 1920s and early 30s Ginzburg was an active member of the
Leningrad Association of Contemporary Music and played a significant role
in the concert life of Leningrad as a cellist, playing in chamber concerts
with I.A. Braudo and N.I. Golubovskaya. From 1927 he co-edited with
Asaf'yev the six collections issued by Novaya muzïka. A prolific author (his
complete list of writings contains 336 items), he contributed to various
newspapers and journals and edited many scholarly collections, books and
translations. He is known particularly for his book on the music history of
the peoples of the USSR (1940–52), researched during the 1930s.
WRITINGS
‘Inostrannaya nauchno-muzïkal'naya literatura za godï voynï (1914–21)’
[Foreign literature on music during the war years (1914–21)], Orfey, i
(1922), 208–28
‘Karl Yul'yevich Davïdov: kharakteristika-portret’, Muzïkal'naya letopis', ii,
ed. A.N. Rimsky-Korsakov (Petrograd, 1923), 92–100
‘Ėkskursionnïy metod v muzïkal'noy pedagogike’ [The excursion method in
music teaching], Muzïka v shkole (Leningrad, 1925), 21
with I. Glebov and S. Badlov: Frants Shreker i yego opera ‘Dal'nïy zvon’
(Leningrad, 1925) [incl. ‘Frants Shreker: ocherk zhizni i tvorchestva’
[Schrecker: an outline of his life and creative work], 3–18]
with I. Glebov and D. Milhaud: Novaya frantsuzskaya muzïka: shest'
[New French music: The Six] (Leningrad, 1926) [incl. ‘Shestyorka’ [Les
Six], 8–24]
‘Ob instrumentakh dzhaz-banda’ [On the instruments of the jazz band],
Dzhaz-band i sovremennaya muzïka (Leningrad, 1926), 42
with S. Radlov and V. Dranishnikov: ‘Votstsek’ Al'bana Berga (Leningrad,
1927) [incl. ‘Al'ban Berg’, 5–11]
ed., with I. Glebov: Pyat' let novoy muzïki [Five years of new music]
(Leningrad, 1927) [incl. ‘Novaya muzïka’, 5–19]
‘Muzïka v yaponskom teatre’ [Music in the Japanese theatre], Melos, viii
(1929), 437–40
Chto nado znat' o simfonicheskom orkestre [What one should know about
the symphony orchestra] (Leningrad, 1930, 4/1967)
‘Correspondance russe inédite de Berlioz’, ReM, no.104 (1930), 417–24
Bor'ba za realizm v frantsuzskoy muzïke XVIII veka [The struggle for
realism in French music of the 18th century] (Leningrad, 1933)
‘Sluzhanka-gospozha’: opera-buff Dzhovanni Batista Pergolezi [‘La serva
padrone’: the opera buffa by Pergolesi] (Leningrad, 1933)
Frantsuzskaya muzïka ėpokhi razlozheniya feodalizma i burzhuaznoy
revolyutsii [French music in the era of the break-up of feudalism and
the bourgeois revolution] (Leningrad, 1933)
Muzïka v muzeye [Music in the museum] (Leningrad, 1934)
Karl Yul'yevich Davïdov: glava iz istorii russkoy kul'turï i metodicheskoy
mïsli [Davïdov: a chapter from the history of Russian culture and
methodical thought] (Leningrad, 1936)
K.Yu. Davïdov (Leningrad, 1936)
Istoriya russkoy muzïki v notnïkh obraztsakh [History of Russian music in
music examples] (Leningrad, 1940–52, 2/1968–70)
Russkiy muzïkal'nïy teatr 1700–1835gg. (Leningrad and Moscow, 1941)
ed.: Puti razvitiya uzbekskoy muzïki [The development of Uzbek music]
(Moscow, 1946) [incl. ‘Muzïkal'no-istoricheskoye nasledstvo
Sovetskogo Uzbekistana’ [The heritage of Soviet Uzbekistan’s music
history], 11–26]
Antologiya klassicheskoy muzïki narodov SSSR [Anthology of classical
music of the peoples of the USSR] (Moscow, 1955–7, rev. 2/1978–84
as Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR v notnïkh obraztsakh [The history of
the peoples of the USSR in musical examples])
ed.: Charl'z Berni: muzïkal'nïye puteshestviya: dnevnik puteshestviya 1770
g. po Frantsii i Italii [Charles Burney: musical travels: diary of travels in
1770 through France and Italy] (Leningrad, 1961) [incl. ‘Putevïye
dnevniki Charl'za Berni’ [The travelling diaries of Burney], 3]
Muzïkal'naya literatura narodov SSSR [The musical literature of the
peoples of the USSR] (Leningrad, 1963)
‘Russkaya klassicheskaya violonchel'naya shkola (1860–1917)’ [The
Russian classical cello school (1860–1917)], in L.S. Ginzburg Istoriya
violonchel'nogo iskusstva, iii (Moscow, 1965), 17–121
ed.: Charl'z Berni … Dnevnik puteshestviya 1772 g. po Bel'gii, Avstrii,
Chekhii, Germanii i Gollandii (Moscow and Leningrad, 1967) [incl.
‘Dnevniki Berni kak muzïkal'no-istoricheskiy istochnik’ [Burney’s diaries
as a musico-historical source], 3]
Iz istorii muzïkal'nïkh svyazey narodov SSSR [The history of musical links
between the peoples of the USSR] (Leningrad, 1972) [collected
articles]
ed.: Muzïka i muzïkantï bratskhikh narodov Sovetskogo Soyuza [The music
and the musicians of the fraternal peoples of the Soviet Union]
(Leningrad, 1972)
‘100 let so dnya rozhdeniya Roberta-Aloisa Moozera’ (1876–1969) [The
centenary of Robert Aloys Mooser (1876–1969)], Yezhegodnik
pamyatnïkh muzïkal'nïkh dat i sobïty (1976), 118–19
‘Zametki, prodiktovannïye opïtom’ [Notes dictated by experience], SovM
(1980), no.2, pp.77–80
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L.A. Barenboym and others, eds.: 100 let Leningradskoy konservatorii:
istoricheskiy ocherk [100 years of the Leningrad Conservatory:
historical sketch] (Leningrad, 1962)
G.B. Bernandt and I.M. Yampol'sky: Kto pisal o muzïke [Writers on
music], i (Moscow, 1971) [incl. list of writings]
L. Kazanskaya: ‘Ėrmitazhnïy teatr (istoricheskiye kontsertï 1932–35)’ [The
Hermitage Theatre (historical concerts (1932–35)], SovM (1987), no.9,
pp.93–8
T. Broslavskaya, ed.: ‘Voprosï izucheniya muzïkal'no-istoricheskikh
vzaimosvyazey v rabotakh S.L. Ginzburga’ [Questions surrounding the
musico-historical interconnections in the writings of S.L. Ginzburg],
Istoricheskiye vzaimosvyazi muzïkal'nïkh kul'tur: sbornik nauchnïkh
trudov Sankt-Petersburgskoy konservatorii (St Petersburg, 1992), 5–
25
L. Kazanskaya: ‘Avtobiografiya i spisok trudov S.L. Ginzburga’
[Autobiography and a list of the writings of S.L. Ginzburg], ibid., 241–
67
L. Kazanskaya: ‘Kruzhok druzey kamernoy muzïki’ [Circle of friends of
chamber music], MAk (1995), nos.4–5, pp.110–15; (1996), no.1,
pp.206–16
L. Belyakayeva-Kazanskaya: ‘S.L. Ginzburg u istokov otechestvennogo
muzïkoznaniya (maloizvestnïye rabotï 20-kh – 30-kh godov)’ [S.L.
Ginzburg at the inception of Russian musicology (little-known works of
the 20s and 30s)], L. Belyakayeva-Kazanskaya: ėkho serebryanogo
veka (St Petersburg, 1999), 215–24
YELENA ORLOVA/LARISA KAZANSKAYA

Giocoso
(It.: ‘jocular’; adjective from gioco, a game).
A designation of mood often found qualifying some tempo mark as in
allegro giocoso. But it also appears alone as a tempo designation in its
own right.

Gioia [Gioja], Gaetano

(b Naples, c1760; d Naples, 30 March 1826). Italian dancer and
choreographer. By 1775 he was a principal dancer at the Teatro Regio,
Turin. He appeared there regularly up to 1778 and in 1784–9, but also
danced in Florence (1776, 1779–80), Lucca (1779), Rome (1781, 1787)
and Naples (1783, 1785). He made his choreographic début at Turin in
1789, then worked in Venice and at La Scala, Milan. He was subsequently
principal choreographer and dancer at the major theatres of Naples (1793,
1795–6), Milan (1793–4), Florence (1798–9), Turin (1799) and Genoa
(1800). A period in Vienna from 1800 exposed him to important new stimuli,
notably the instrumental music of resident composers, the new lighting
techniques and stage effects of the Zauberopern and acquaintance with
the younger choreographer Salvatore Viganò. Gioia returned to Italy in
1802; his prodigious output amounted to some 95 different ballets in more
than 220 productions.
Gioia’s works show the cross-fertilization between opera and pantomime
ballet. Several of his early ballets follow a common 18th-century practice of
borrowing plots from successful Italian and French operas. At least two,
Nina, o La pazza per amore (1794) and Gli Orazi e i Curiazi (1798), also
used music drawn exclusively from their operatic models (Dalayrac and
Cimarosa), arranged for orchestra. The scores of most of his ballets,
however, were compilations, often containing music from the newest
operas. Among the composers of original scores for Gioia was Pietro
Romani. Gioia’s ballets were important models for Italian operas of his and
the following generation. His themes were among the first to inspire
librettos of vocal works. One of the earliest was Generali’s Cesare in Egitto
(1816, Turin), based on Gioia’s most famous choreography (1807, Naples).
At least three of Donizetti’s operas, Gabriella di Vergy (1826), Otto mesi in
 due ore (1827) and Elisabetta al castello di Kenilworth (1829), owe their
plots to similarly titled ballets by Gioia.
The realistic acting technique of dancers in Gioia’s ballets influenced the
expressive art of such outstanding young singers as Pasta and Malibran;
and his use of large numbers of dancers and spectacular scenic effects
gave audiences a taste for visual extravagance matched only when grand
opera conquered Italian stages in the 1850s.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K.K. Hansell: ‘Il ballo teatrale e l’opera italiana’, SOI, v (1988), 252–72
KATHLEEN KUZMICK HANSELL

Giordani, Carmine
(b Cerreto, c1685; d Naples, 1758). Italian composer. He was enrolled in
the Conservatorio della Pietà dei Turchini in Naples on 9 May 1701, as a
pupil of Gennaro Ursino and Nicola Fago. In 1712 he became deputy
organist of the royal chapel, a post he held for the rest of his life, and in the
same year wrote part of the music for La vittoria dell'amor coniugale, which
was performed at the Teatro S Bartolomeo. There is no evidence to
connect Carmine with Tommaso Giordani.
WORKS
La vittoria dell'amor coniugale (op), Naples, 1712, I-Nc
Cantata, S, bc, GB-Lbl; Pianger vidi (cant.), S, Lcm; Terrestre paradiso (cant.), S, I-
Mc; Nei giorni tuoi felice (duet, P. Metastasio: Olimpiade), S, A, 4 insts, Mc; other
arias, Nc
Credo, 5vv, insts, GB-Ob; Dormi benigne Jesu, motet, 4vv, vns, bc, org, I-Mc; Quem
vidistis pastores, motet, 4vv, chorus, str, bc, org, Mc; other motets, Nc
CHRISTOPHER HOGWOOD

Giordani [Giordano], Giuseppe

(Tommaso Giovanni) [Giordaniello]
(b Naples, 19 Dec 1751; dFermo, 4 Jan 1798). Italian composer. The son
of Domenico Giordani (d Naples, 31 March 1770) and Anna Maria Tosato,
he was a pupil at the Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto, Naples, where his
teachers were Gennaro Manna, Sacchini, P.A. Gallo and Fenaroli, and
where his fellow students included Cimarosa and Zingarelli. In 1774 he
was appointed supernumerary maestro di cappella of the Tesoro di S
Gennaro, Naples, taking over from Manna and becoming a leading figure
in the city. As well as composing sacred music during this period, he was
probably involved in teaching, as is attested by a manuscript counterpoint
manual, attributed to him, set out in the customary form of a dialogue
between pupil and teacher.
On 25 May 1779 Giordani married the singer Emanuela Cosmi (b Naples,
March 1754), by proxy, in the collegiate church of Foggia; known as ‘La
Positanella’, she was active in companies touring the south of Italy. Fétis’s
 claim that Giordani’s operatic début was in Pisa in 1769 or 1771, with
L’astuto in imbroglio, remains undocumented. In the autumn of 1779 he
inaugurated the Teatro della Palla a Corda, Florence, with L’Epponina.
During the 15 years between this work and his Betulia liberata (1796) he
composed almost 40 works, including opere serie, opere buffe and
oratorios, totalling about 80 performances. In 1780 he was admitted to the
Accademia Filarmonica of Modena, and subsequently that of Parma. Apart
from some brief visits to Naples and Rome, he then concentrated his
activity on the principal cities of northern Italy, making Bologna his centre.
In the spring of 1788 he inaugurated the Teatro Comunale in Faenza with
Cajo Ostilio.
Giordani’s La distruzione di Gerusalemme, produced in Lent 1787
(repeated in Lent 1790), apparently the first dramma sacro to be staged in
a theatre, was an enormous success, and was hailed by the Gazzetta di
Napoli (13 March 1787) as ‘vigorous and apposite music’. Goethe, who
was present at the performance, recorded his impressions in his
Italienische Reise (part ii, Naples, 9 March 1787), describing it as a type of
spectacle almost indistinguishable from secular opera and almost equally
as florid.
On 14 February 1789, after the successful production of La disfatta di
Dario at La Scala, Milan, Giordani was elected maestro di cappella of
Fermo Cathedral; he also took up the post of organist on 4 August. On 4
November 1791 he assumed the same responsibilities at the oratory
church of Santo Spirito. A revival of his La morte di Abele (trial run 26
September 1790) and La distruzione di Gerusalemme (after 20 August
1791) inaugurated the local Teatro dell’Aquila. For his opera Ines de Castro
(1793, Venice) Giordani adopted the conventions of late 18th-century
opera seria, with more complex and more cohesive dramatic unities and
the introduction of passages for the chorus. He then worked in the
Marches, devoting himself principally to composing oratorios and sacred
music. His inspired and intense Le tre ore di agonia di N.S.G.C. (1793,
Fermo) was widely performed.
Giordani enjoyed a high reputation in his day. His works were heard in the
leading Italian theatres and abroad, in Lisbon, Madrid and Dresden. His
music is characterized by a sound compositional technique, inventiveness
and formal precision; in his opere serie graceful cantabile passages
alternate with fluent bel canto virtuosity. The authorship of the popular
song, Caro mio ben, attributed to both Tommaso and Giuseppe Giordani,
remains unresolved.
WORKS
operas
dg - dramma giocoso dm - dramma per musica

fa - farsa int - intermezzo

L’Epponina (dm, 3, P. Giovannini and G. Sertor), Florence, Palla a Corda, aut. 1779
Il Demetrio (dm, 3, P. Metastasio), Modena, Corte, carn. 1780
Erifile (dm, 3, G. de Gamerra), Genoa, S Agostino, carn. 1780, D-Ds, I-PAc
La Nitteti (dm, 3, Metastasio), Livorno, S Sebastiano, carn. 1781, I-Pl, P-La
Gl’inganni scambievoli (int, 2), Rome, Valle, carn. 1781
La fiera di Brindisi (commedia per musica, 3, G. Palomba), Naples, Fondo, sum.
1781
Lo sposo di tre, e marito di nessuna (commedia per musica, 3, A. Palomba),
Naples, Fondo, sum. 1781; rev. of P. Anfossi and P.A. Guglielmi, 1763
Il convito (fa, 2, G. Palomba), Naples, Fondo, carn. 1782
La Principessa di Tingi (ballo eroico pantomimico, P. Franchi and G. Traffieri) and
La vendemmia, ossia La contadina impertinente (ballo comico, Franchi and
Traffieri), Naples, S Carlo, 30 May 1782, in G. Insanguine: Calipso
L’acomate (dm, 2), Pisa, Prini, 21 April 1783; rev. as Elpinice (dm, 3), Bologna,
Zagnoni, aut. 1783
Pizzarro nelle Indie, o sia La distruzione del Perù (dm, 3), Livorno, Armeni, aut.
1783
Osmane (dm, 3, Sertor), Venice, S Benedetto, carn. 1784, P-La (inc.)
Tito Manlio (dm, 3, G. Roccaforte or M. Noris), Genoa, S Agostino, carn. 1784
La vestale (dm, 3, ? L. Romanelli), Bologna, Zagnoni, carn. 1785, I-FERd* (qnt
only)
Ifigenia in Aulide (dm, 3, ? L. Serio), Rome, Argentina, carn. 1786
L’impegno, o sia Chi la fa l’aspetti (fa, 2), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1786
Alciade e Telesia (dm, 2, E. Manfredi), Bologna, Zagnoni, carn. 1787, FERd*
Fernando nel Messico (dm, 3, F. Tarducci), Rome, Argentina, carn. 1787, FERd*, B-
Bc
Li ripieghi fortunati (farsetta, 2), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1787
Il corrivo (commedia per musica, 2, G.M. Diodati), Naples, Nuovo, spr. 1787
Li tre fratelli ridicoli (fa, 2), Rome, Capranica, 1788, I-Bc
Cajo Ostilio (dm, 3, Manfredi), Faenza, Comunale, spr. 1788, Fc
Scipione (dm, 2, E. Giusti), Rovigo, aut. 1788
Ariarate (dm, 3, F. Moretti), Turin, Regio, carn. 1789, P-La
Cajo Mario (dm, 3, Roccaforte), Lodi, Nuovo, aut. 1789
La disfatta di Dario (dm, 3, N. Morbilli), Milan, Scala, carn. 1789, I-FERd*, F-Pn, I-
Nc
Aspasia (dm, 3, Sertor), Venice, S Benedetto, carn. 1790
Nicomede (dm, 3, Manfredi), Genoa, S Agostino, carn. 1790, FERd*
Medonte, re di Epiro (dm, 2, de Gamerra), Rome, Argentina, carn. 1791, FERd*
(Act 1 only)
Don Mirtillo contrastato (dg, 2), Venice, S Cassiano, aut. 1791, FERd* (Act 1 only)
Atalanta (dm, 3, C. Olivieri), Turin, Regio, carn. 1792, FERd*
Ines de Castro (dm, 3, C. Giotti), Venice, Fenice, carn. 1793, FERd*, Gc, Vnm
Doubtful: L’astuto in imbroglio (ob), Pisa, 1771, cited by Fétis; Il ritorno di Ulisse
(A.G. Moniglia), Mantua, Ducale, 26 Dec 1782
Arias, duets and trios in A-SL, Wgm; CH-BM, E, Gc, N; D-BFb, Dl, DO, HR, Hs,
MÜs, SWl, WRtl; DK-Kc, Kk; HR-Dsmb; I-Bc, BRc, BZtoggenburg CHc, CHf, FOc,
FZc, MAC, Mc, Nc, OS, PAc, PEsp, PS, Raf, Rc, Rsc, Sd, Tf, Tn, VEss, Vnm; US-
LAum

oratorios
La fuga in Egitto, 1775, I-Nc (pt 2 inc.)
Passio per il Venerdì Santo (after St John’s Gospel), 1776, FERd*
Il ritorno delle sacre reliquie della vergine e protomartire S Agata, Catania, 1783,
cited in Policastro (1950)
La morte d’Abelle (2, P. Metastasio), Iesi, Pubblico, Sept 1785, FERd*, Mc; sinfonia
ed. U. Gironacci and I. Vescovo in Monumenti musicali marchigiani, i (Milan, 1990)
La distruzione di Gerusalemme (azione sacra, 2, C. Sernicola), Naples, S Carlo,
Lent 1787, CH-N, I-Mc, PAc, FERd* (pt 2)
La risurrezione, 1788, Mc
Le tre ore di agonia di N.S.G.C., Fermo, 1793, D-Bsb, I-Ad, Bsf, FERd, Fn, Mc,
MOe, Nc, OFma, Rc, Ria, Rsc, RPTd
Isacco figura del redentore (2, Metastasio), Camerino, Publico, ? 18 May 1794,
FERd* (pt 2 only)
Il figliuol prodigo (componimento sacro, 2), Ascoli Piceno Cathedral, 1795, FERd
(str pts only, some autograph), Mc, dated 1793
La Betulia liberata (2, Metastasio), Ancona, Fenice, 8 May 1796, FERd*
Saul, cited in Atti di Nicola Ferrari (MS, 1798, FERas)
cantatas, occasional works
Licenza, in P. Guglielmi: Enea e Lavinia, Novara, spr. 1789
Leandro ed Ero, cited in Atti di Nicola Ferrari
Oh Dio Fileno, S, orch, FERvitali
sacred
MSS, autograph in I-FERd, unless otherwise stated; mostly for SATB, accompanied by
organ or orchestra

Masses: 10 missa brevis, 1 in CH-E, 1 in I-Bc, 1 in CHf, 1 in LU, 1 in Nc, 1 in Sd;

Requiem, c, str (inc.)
Mass sections: Gratias; 2 Domine Deus, 1 in Sd; 3 Cr (inc.), 1 in Mc; Libera me
Domine
85 offs: 11 in D-MÜs, 24 in I-MAC; 7 ed. in U. Gironacci and I. Vescovo (1987)
Psalms: 4 Dixit; 4 Domine, 1 in D-MÜs; Lauda Jerusalem; 3 Laudate pueri, 1 in CH-
E; Qui habitat in adjutorio
Hymns: Laudibus cives; 10 Tantum ergo, 1 in I-Bsf; TeD, dated 1788; TeD, BRs*;
Veni Creator Spiritus, copy also in MAC
Canzoncine per i Venerdì di Marzo: Per le piaghe; Gesù caro al fin tu sei; Sommo
ben dell’alma mia
Motets: Clamate mortales; Dirae molestae sortis; Af Lirae dulces resonate, D, 1773;
Lirae dulces resonate, B Tubae sonorae et clarae, 1773
Lamentations, incl. Quomodo sedet, ed. in Gironacci and Vescovo (1987); Miserere;
Christus; Haec dies; lit; vespers; 27 responsories; 7 lit lauretanae, 1 in D-MÜs, 2 in
I-Mc; 4 Mag, 1 inc.; 2 Salve regina, 1 in CH-BM; Stabat mater, D-MÜs; Veni sponsa;
Victimae paschali (inc.)

instrumental
3 sonate, hpd, vn (Florence, before 1787); 3 sonatas, D, E , F, kbd, I-Ad; 2 sonatas,
C, F, kbd, PEsp
Conc., C, hpd, orch, LU; 4 notturni, vn, va, vc, Gl; 6 trios, 2 vn, b, Rc (vn 1 only), Fn
(vn 2 only); Divertimento, F, fl, hpd/(vn, b), LU
pedagogical
Prattica della musica, cioè Dell’arte del contrapunto, I-Nc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FlorimoN; SartoriL
B. Croce: I teatri di Napoli, secolo XV–XVIII (Naples, 1891/R, abridged
2/1916 as I teatri di Napoli dal Rinascimento alla fine del secolo
decimottavo, 5/1966)
G. Policastro: Catania nel Settecento (Turin, 1950), 379
J.G. Paton: ‘Caro mio ben: Some Early Sources’, NATS Bulletin, xxxviii/2
(1981), 20–22
U. Gironacci: ‘Il periodo Fermano di Giuseppe Giordani, detto
Giordaniello: 1789–98’, Quaderni dell’Archivio Storico Arcivescovile di
Fermo, i/1 (1986), 105–46
U. Gironacci and I. Vescovo, eds.: Giuseppe Giordani: Otto arie sacre
per soprano ed organo (Fermo, 1987) [incl. further bibliography]
M.G. Genesi: ‘“E non m’invola a sì rea fatalità?”: il repertorio di una
soprano d’opera seria, Accademica filarmonica “ad honorem”, Maria
Brigida Giorgi-Banti di Monticelli d’Ongina: per una radiografia della
vocalità belcantistica “di maniera” dal 1770 al 1790 circa’, Archivio
storico per le province Parmensi, xliii (1991), 189–213
M. Marx-Weber: ‘L'intenzione delle “Tre ore di agonia di N.S.G.C.” di
Giuseppe Giordani’, Quaderni musicali marchigiani, iv (1997), 25–42
UGO GIRONACCI

Giordani, Tommaso
(b Naples, c1730–3; d Dublin, Feb 1806). Italian composer, active in the
British Isles. All the members of his family were singers, apart from himself
and his brother Francesco, a dancer. About 1745, under the management
of their father, Giuseppe (unrelated to the composer Giuseppe Giordani
known as Giordaniello), the Giordani family formed a small opera troupe
and, with a few other singers, travelled across Europe. After performing at
Ancona and Pesaro (1745), Senigallia and Graz (1747), Frankfurt and
Salzburg (1750), Amsterdam (1752) and Paris (1753), they were invited by
John Rich to perform four burlettas in the 1753–4 season at Covent
Garden. On 17 December 1753, at the première of the first of these, Gli
amanti gelosi (with words by Tommaso's father and music attributed to
Cocchi), the singing of Tommaso's sister, Nicolina, caused a sensation; she
was nicknamed ‘La Spiletta’ after her role. The family performed again in
London in 1755 and 1756. Tommaso's name is not mentioned, although he
composed the music to the burletta La comediante fatta cantatrice, given in
January 1756. He may have arranged music and played the harpsichord in
the theatre band while the rest of the family was on stage.
The family was in Dublin late in 1764, having been invited to perform at the
Smock Alley Theatre, and remained in Dublin for three years, during which
time Tommaso's career as an opera composer was launched. His first
major composing venture in Dublin, however, proved a miscalculation;
failing to understand the satirical nature of the work, Giordani mistakenly
‘improved’ the simple airs of The Beggar's Opera by ‘italianizing’ them. But
his next three comic operas, Don Fulminone, The Enchanter and The Maid
of the Mill, all produced between January and March 1765, were better
received. The following season Giordani remained at Smock Alley,
although the rest of the family transferred to the Theatre Royal, Crow
Street. For Smock Alley he composed two operas: Love in Disguise, which
was written by a Trinity College student, Henry Lucas (the performance
was attended by a crowd of Trinity students); and L'eroe cinese, apparently
the first opera seria to be staged in Ireland. Giordani then moved to Crow
Street, where his Phyllis at Court was performed in 1767. Charges of
plagiarism, however, drove him back to London.
By early 1770 he was very active with the Italian Opera at the King's
Theatre. Over the next 13 years he composed the entire music to three
operas, collaborated in a pastoral, L'omaggio (1781), and arranged,
adapted and added new overtures or airs to a number of Italian pasticcios.
He also directed many operas at the King's Theatre and contributed
incidental music to plays, including the songs to Sheridan's The Critic at
Drury Lane (25 October 1779). Giordani's activities were not confined to
the theatre. He composed many songs for Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens,
several sets of canzonets, and a large number of instrumental works which
show a partiality for combinations involving keyboard. His quintets (op.1)
for keyboard and strings are among the earliest in this genre. The number
of pieces that Giordani wrote for younger, less experienced players is also
noteworthy
In summer 1783 Giordani returned to Dublin, where he joined the male alto
Michael Leoni in a series of concerts at the Rotunda. With Leoni he then
rented a theatre in Capel Street, calling it the English Opera House, and
put on a season of ‘English’ operas, with librettos mostly by minor Irish
writers and the music by himself. He composed the music for seven staged
musical works and adapted music for another half-dozen pieces for an
outwardly successful season, which opened, on 18 December, with
Gibraltar and The Haunted Castle. Yet the smallish size of the theatre
meant that Leoni and Giordani failed to meet their expenses, and the
venture ended in bankruptcy in July 1784.
The following season Giordani worked at Smock Alley under Richard Daly;
he moved to Crow Street in 1787 when Smock Alley closed, and became
musical director there the following year. (In 1784 he had married one of
the daughters of Tate Wilkinson, the manager of the theatre.) Giordani had
several successes at both theatres, but seems to have given up composing
after writing his comic opera The Cottage Festival (1796). The exact date
of his death is unknown, but the minutes of the Irish Music Fund (of which
he had been president since 1794) record, on 24 February 1806, the
payment of five guineas for his funeral. Giordani's gifts as a prolific and
versatile composer were sufficient for him to be respected in London and to
dominate the Dublin musical scene for many years. He wrote in the
prevailing italianate style, with expressive and inventive melodies, his best
written with specific singers in mind. He was also a sensitive orchestrator.
Generally, though, he was a somewhat indifferent composer, and was
frequently accused of plagiarism. The authorship of the popular song Caro
mio ben, attributed to both Tommaso and the unrelated composer
Giuseppe Giordani, remains unresolved: Tommaso's father, Giuseppe, has
also recently been posited as the author.
WORKS
dramatic
some music published in Dublin or London shortly after performance
DBCS Dublin, Theatre Royal, Crow Street
DBEOH Dublin, English Opera House, Capel Street
DBSA Dublin, Smock Alley
LCG London, Covent Garden
LDL London, Drury Lane
LKH London, King's Theatre, Haymarket
LLH London, Little Theatre, Haymarket
La comediante fatta cantatrice (comic op), LCG, 12 Jan 1756
Don Fulminone, or The Lover with Two Mistresses (comic op), DBSA, 7 Jan 1765
The Enchanter, or Love and Magic (comic op), DBSA, 17 Jan 1765
The Maid of the Mill (comic op, 3, I. Bickerstaff, after S. Richardson, J. Fletcher and
W. Rowley), DBSA, 26 March 1765
Love in Disguise (comic op, H. Lucas), DBSA, 24 April 1766
L'eroe cinese (os, 3, P. Metastasio), DBSA, 7 May 1766
Phyllis at Court (comic op, 2, R. Lloyd after C.-S. Favart), DBCS, 25 Feb 1767
The Elopement (pantomime), LDL, 26 Dec 1767
Il padre e il figlio rivali (comic op), LKH, 6 Feb 1770
Acis and Galatea (cant., G. Farranio), London, New Rooms, Tottenham Street,
1777
Il re pastore (os, 3, Metastasio), LKH, 30 May 1778
Il bacio (comic op, 2, C.F. Badini), LKH, 9 April 1782
Gibraltar (comic op, R. Houlton), DBEOH, 18 Dec 1783
The Haunted Castle (afterpiece, W.C. Oulton), DBEOH, 18 Dec 1783
The Enchantress, or The Happy Island (musical entertainment, A.M. Edwards),
DBEOH, 31 Dec 1783
The Happy Disguise (comic op, Oulton), DBEOH, 7 Jan 1784
Genius of Ireland (masque), DBEOH, 9 Feb 1784
The Dying Indian (musical entertainment), DBEOH, 11 March 1784
Orfeo ed Euridice (burlesque op, Houlton), DBEOH, 14 June 1784
The Hypochondriac (afterpiece, A. Franklin), DBSA, 4 Jan 1785
The Island of Saints, or The Institution of the Shamrock (pantomime, Messink),
DBSA, 27 Jan 1785
Calypso, or Love and Enchantment (serio-comic op, Houlton), DBSA, early April
1785
Perseverance, or The Third Time the Best (musical interlude, 2, Oulton), DBCS, 12
March 1789
The Distressed Knight, or The Enchanted Lady (comic op), DBCS, 12 Feb 1791
The Ward of the Castle (comic op, 2, Mrs Burke), LCG, 24 Oct 1793
The Cottage Festival, or A Day in Wales (comic op, L. MacNally), DBCS, 28 Nov
1796
Collaborations: L'omaggio (pastoral, 3), LKH, 5 June 1781, with G.B. Bianchi, V.
Rauzzini; The Contract (comic op, 2, R. Houlton), DBSA, 14 May 1782, with P.
Cogan and I.A. Stevenson; To Arms, or The British Recruit (musical interlude, 1, T.
Hurlstone), LCG, 3 May 1793, with W. Shield and Stevenson
Adaptations (mostly new accs. or new ovs., songs and finales; orig. composer
named if substantial part of his music retained): Gli amanti gelosi, DBSA, 23 Nov
1764, most music by B. Galuppi; The Beggar's Opera, DBSA, 2 Jan 1765; J.A.
Hasse: Artaserse, LKH, 25 April 1772, collab. M. Vento; Hasse: Antigono, LKH, 8
March 1774, collab. Vento and T. Traetta; A. Sacchini: Armida, LKH, 8 Nov 1774; G.
Paisiello: Le due contesse, LKH, 4 Nov 1777; J. Hook: The Lady of the Manor,
DBEOH, 25 March 1784; T.A. Arne: Love in a Village, DBSA, 30 Oct 1784; Shield:
Robin Hood, or Sherwood Forest, DBSA, 13 Dec 1784; S. Arnold: Gretna Green,
DBSA, 7 Jan 1785; Shield: Fontainbleau, or Our Way in France, DBSA, 29 Jan
1785; Arne, after H. Purcell [Weldon]: The Tempest, DBCS, 26 Nov 1789; Arnold:
The Battle of Hexham, DBCS, early Dec 1789; S. Storace: The Haunted Tower,
DBCS, 18 Feb 1790; Storace: The Siege of Belgrade, or The Turkish Overthrow,
DBCS, 14 Dec 1791
Numerous songs and ovs. in pasticcios and comic ops (many written specially),
incl.: Le vicende della sorte (1770); Il trionfo d'amore (1773); La marchesa
giardiniera (1775); La frascatana (1776); Il geloso in cimento (1777); La vera
costanza (1778); Alessandro nelle Indie (1779); L'Arcifanano (1780); Il barone di
Torre Forte (1781); Ezio (1781); The Silver Tankard (Arnold, 1781); I viaggiatori felici
(1781); Silla (1783); Love in a Village (1791); Inkle and Yarico (1791)
Songs in plays, incl.: The Way to Keep Him (comedy, 3, A. Murphy), LDL, 24 Jan
1760; The Critic (farce, 3, R.B. Sheridan), LDL, 29 Oct 1779; The Musical Lady
(farce, Williams, after G. Colman the elder), DBEOH, 4 March 1784

other vocal
all printed works published in London

op.

6 Six duettini italiens (c1773)

11 Six Canzonets, 1v, pf/hp
(1775)
13 Six Italian Canzonets, 1,
2vv, pf/hp (1775 or 1776)
15 Eight English Canzonets,
2vv, pf/hp/hpd (1776)
16 Six English Canzonets, 1v,
pf/hp (1777)
20 At the Close of the Day: the
Hermit, a favourite English
Ballad, 1v, pf/hp (1778)
22 A Fourth Sett of English
Canzonetts, 1v, pf/hp
(c1780)
28 Six English Canzonets, 1v,
pf/hp (1781)
Six Favorite Songs The Words taken from the Reliques
of Ancient English Poetry (c1785)
Six Canzonets, 1v, pf (1795)
Occasional works (music lost unless pubd): Isaac (orat,
Metastasio), Dublin, Fishamble Street Music Hall,
March 1767; The Castle Ode (G.E. Howard), Dublin,
Rotunda, 1 Aug 1769; Cant. for the farewell of A.
Heinel, London, 1773; Elliott's Wreath, or Gibraltar
Preserved (cant., R. Houlton), Dublin, Rotunda, 26 Sept
1783; Ode on the Prince of Wales attaining his Majority
(Houlton), Dublin, Rotunda, Sept 1783, ov. arr. pf
(London, n.d.); Ode on the Passions (W. Collins),
Dublin, Theatre Royal, Crow Street, 21 March 1789;
TeD for the Recovery of George III, Dublin, Francis
Street Chapel, April 1789; Ky and Gl, Dublin, 24 March
1792
Collections of favourite songs and cants. sung at
Vauxhall (1772–9); other songs pubd singly and in 18th-
century anthologies; canzonets etc., GB-Lbl
instrumental
all the printed works were first published in London, unless otherwise stated; many were
also published in Paris, Berlin or Frankfurt with conflicting opus numbers

op.

— A Select Ov. in 8 parts, D

(c1767) [ov. to The
Elopement]
[1] Sei quintetti, hpd, 2 vn, va,
vc (1771), 3 ed. in RRMCE,
xxv (1987)
2 Six Quartettos, 4 for str qt,
2 for fl, vn, va, vc (1772)
3 Six Chamber Concerto's, fl,
2 vn, bc (c1773)
4 Six Sonatas … dedicated
to Mrs Hobart, hpd/pf/org,
vn (c1773)
5 Six Sonatas, hpd, vn
(c1773)
7 Six Duets, 2 fl (before Sept
1775)
8 Sei quartetti, str qt (c1775)
9 Six Easy Solos, fl, bc
(1774)
10 VI Sonatas, hpd/pf/org
(1775)
12 Six Trios, fl, va, vc (1775)
14 Six Concerto's, pf/hpd, 2
vn, bc (1776)
— Cadences for the Use of
Young Practitioners,
hpd/pf/org (1777)
17 Six quatuor, hpd, fl, vn, b
(1778)
— Six Trios … selected from
the Favorite Songs in the
Italian Operas, fl, vn, bc
(1779)
— A Second Set of Six
Sonatas, 2 fl/(fl, vn) (c1779)
18 Six Duettos, 2 vc (c1780)
19 Six Concertos, fl, 2 vn, bc
(c1780)
21 Six Duettos, 4 for vn, vc, 2
for 2 vn (c1780)
23 A second Sett of Six
 Concertos, hpd/pf, 2 vn, bc
(1779)
24 Six Sonatas, hpd/pf, vn/fl
(c1779)
— A First Sett of three Duetts,
hpd/pf (c1780)
— A Second Sett of three
Duetts, hpd/pf (c1780)
— Fourteen Preludes in all the
Different Keys, hpd/pf
(c1780)
— A Favourite Overture in 8
parts, E (c1780)
— Six Solos, gui, hpd, and
one Trio, gui, vn, b (c1780)
— Six Marches, Six Quick
steps and Two Concertos
Militaire, hpd/pf (1780)
25 Twelve Progressive
Lessons … composed for
the Improvement of Young
Practitioners, hpd/pf/org
(1780)
27 Six Sonatas, hpd/pf, vn
(1781)
30 Three Sonatas, pf/hpd,
fl/vn, b viol/va (1782)
— A Duetto, pf/hpd (1783)
— Six Sonatinas, pf/hpd, vn
(1783)
— Six Progressive Lessons,
hpd/pf (1784)
— Four Favorite Duettinos,
hpd/pf (1784)
31 Three Sonatas, pf/hpd, vn,
vc (c1785)
32a Three Favourite Sonatas,
hpd/pf, vn (1786), spurious
[1st pubd as J. Schobert,
op.20]
32b Six Grand Lessons, hpd/pf,
vn (c1785)
33a Three Concertos … Third
Set, hpd/pf, 2 vn, bc (1786)
33b Fourteen Preludes or
Capricio's and Eight
Cadences, pf/hpd/hp/org
(c1785)
34 Three Sonatas, hpd/pf, vn
(1788)
— A Third Set of Six Duetts, 2
fl (before 1789)
— Countess of Antrim's
Minuet (Dublin, after
c1790)
— Lady Letitia MacDonell's
Minuett (Dublin, after
c1790)
35 Six Sonatas, pf, vn (1794)
Arrs. of various pieces pubd, incl.: Haydn's Quartet's
and Symphonies, arr. pf 4 hands (c1775); favourite fl
concs., vn concs. and op ovs.; music for 2 hpd, D-Dl,
cited by Eitner attrib. Giuseppe Giordano
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDA
BurneyH
EitnerQ
FiskeETM
LS
SartoriL
ABC Dario Musico (Bath, 1780)
R. Hitchcock: An Historical View of the Irish Stage, From the Earliest
Period down to the Close of the Season 1788, Interspersed with
Theatrical Anecdotes, and an Occasional Review of the Irish Dramatic
Authors and Actors (Dublin, 1788)
J. O'Keeffe: Recollections of the Life of John O'Keeffe (London, 1826)
W. Hepworth Dixon, ed.: Lady Morgan's Memoirs: Autobiography, Diaries
and Correspondence (London, 1862)
W.J. Lawrence: ‘Tommaso Giordani: an Italian Composer in Ireland’, MA, ii
(1910–11), 99–107
A. Loewenberg: ‘The Songs in “The Critic”’, Times Literary Supplement
(28 March 1942)
S. Rosenfeld: Foreign Theatrical Companies in Great Britain in the 17th
and 18th Centuries (London, 1955/R)
T.J. Walsh: Opera in Dublin 1705–1797: the Social Scene (Dublin, 1973)
J.G. Paton: ‘Caro mio ben: Some Early Sources’, Bulletin of the National
Association of Teachers of Singing, xxxviii/2 (1981), 20–22
E. Zanetti: ‘Di alcuni interrogativi intorno a Caro mio ben’, Musica senza
aggettivi: studi per Fedele D'Amico, ed. A. Ziino (Florence, 1991), 61–
83
IRENA CHOLIJ

Giordano, Umberto (Menotti Maria)

(b Foggia, 28 Aug 1867; d Milan, 12 Nov 1948). Italian composer. The son
of a chemist who intended him for the career of a fencing master, he
devoted himself to music against his parents’ will. In 1882 he was admitted
to the Naples Conservatory, where his teachers included Paolo Serrao and
Giuseppe Martucci.
While still a student he entered a one-act opera, Marina, for the Sonzogno
competition of 1889. Although short-listed among the 73 submissions it
was awarded only sixth place (the winner being Mascagni with Cavalleria
rusticana). Nonetheless Sonzogno thought sufficiently well of it to
commission from Giordano a full-length opera, Mala vita (1892, Rome),
based on a novella of low-life in Naples by Salvatore Di Giacomo (see
illustration). With its wealth of local colour and strong story line it proved
highly successful in Austria and Germany, where it began a temporary
vogue for operas in a Neapolitan setting. In Italy it was found too shocking,
and five years later Giordano revised it as Il voto, without beneficial results.
However, following Ricordi’s example with Puccini, Sonzogno provided
Giordano with a monthly stipend against the composition of his next opera.
This was Regina Diaz (1894, Naples), intended for the celebrations of
Mercadante’s centenary. The subject (essentially that of Donizetti’s Maria
di Rohan) failed to inspire the composer; and the opera was withdrawn
after the second performance. As a result, Edoardo Sonzogno decided to
withhold Giordano’s retainer, but he was persuaded otherwise by Alberto
Franchetti, who ceded the libretto of Andrea Chénier to his younger
colleague.
That same year Giordano settled in Milan, where he married Olga Spatz-
Wurms, whose family owned the hotel in which Verdi regularly stayed
during his last years – a circumstance which enabled the younger
composer to make his acquaintance and receive from him valuable advice.
The success of Andrea Chénier (1896, Milan) established Giordano in the
front rank of the giovane scuola. He then returned to a long-cherished
project of an opera based on Sardou’s Fedora, which was launched at
Sonzogno’s Teatro Lirico in 1898, with Caruso as the tenor lead. This too
was destined to remain in the repertory. A third triumph, though more
temporary, followed with Siberia (1903, Milan), after which Giordano’s
fortunes declined. Marcella (1907, Milan), a story of love and renunciation
across the class barrier, failed, as did Mese Mariano (1910, Palermo), in
which Giordano returned to Di Giacomo with a plot which anticipates to a
surprising extent that of Puccini’s Suor Angelica. Following an old
suggestion of Verdi's that he write an opera showing Napoleon en
pantoufles he turned to Sardou’s comedy Madame Sans-Gêne (1915, New
York). Owing to the outbreak of war the première was given in his absence
with a cast that included Geraldine Farrar, Giovanni Zenatello and
Pasquale Amato; the conductor was Toscanini. But this too made little
impression. Together with Franchetti he wrote an operetta, Giove a Pompei
(1921, Rome), his own contribution having been mostly composed 20
years earlier.
Then came an unexpected success, La cena delle beffe (1924, Milan),
written to a libretto by Sem Benelli, adapted (with the help of Giovacchino
Forzano) from his own gruesome play set in Florence during the reign of
Lorenzo the Magnificent. Held by some to be Giordano’s dramatic
masterpiece, the opera is still occasionally revived. His last work for the
stage was the one-act Il re (1929, Milan), a lighthearted moralistic fantasy
by Forzano composed as a vehicle for the coloratura soprano Toti Dal
Monte. Under Toscanini it enjoyed a certain vogue during the 1930s with
Maria Caniglia and Lina Pagliughi as well as Dal Monte. A ballet, L’astro
magico, remained unperformed, while an opera to a libretto by Forzano on
the subject of Rasputin never materialized. The compositions of Giordano’s
last years consisted mostly of songs and a few occasional pieces, among
 them incidental music for a play, Cesare, by Forzano and even a fanfare
(1943) for the Italian radio news programme.
Although he showed no great individuality as a melodist, Giordano handled
the late Romantic, emotionally vehement idiom of the giovane scuola with
ease and fluency, being particularly skilful in weaving into his scores
elements of local and historical colour – Neapolitan dance rhythms (Mala
vita and Mese Mariano), French Revolutionary songs (Andrea Chénier and
Madame Sans-Gêne), Russian folk music (Fedora and Siberia), 18th-
century pastiche (Chénier), pseudo-Chopin piano music, Swiss ranz des
vaches (Fedora) and Tuscan street song (La cena delle beffe). Musically
his operas are loosely organized, with sparing use of recurring themes. His
grandest work (his own favourite) is Siberia, which achieved the rare
distinction of a performance at the Paris Opéra in 1911, having won the
approval of Fauré and Bruneau. In his later operas the somewhat crude
scoring gives way to a more refined technique, which yields telling results
in La cena delle beffe, even if the subject could be thought to require a
more astringent musical vocabulary. His stage sense is always sure, and
his vocal writing unfailingly effective. Andrea Chénier owes its place in the
repertory to the opportunities it offers to a star tenor, while Fedora endures
as a grateful vehicle for the ‘mature’ prima donna. Several of his songs
were recorded by leading artists of the day, such as Claudia Muzio and
Beniamino Gigli. A certain curiosity value attaches to his teaching editions
of well-known orchestral scores, including all of Beethoven’s symphonies,
which use only treble and bass clefs throughout, with each instrument
notated at sounding pitch.
WORKS
stage
Marina, (op, 1, E. Golisciani), c1889, unperf.
Mala vita (op, 3, N. Daspuro, after S. Di Giacomo), Rome, Argentina, 21 Feb 1892;
rev. as Il voto, Milan, Lirico, 10 Nov 1897
Regina Diaz (op, 2, G. Targioni-Tozzetti and G. Menasci, after Lockroy: Un duel
sous le cardinal de Richelieu), Naples, Mercadante, 5 March 1894
Andrea Chénier (dramma istorico, 4, L. Illica), Milan, Scala, 28 March 1896
Fedora (op, 3, A. Colautti, after V. Sardou), Milan, Lirico, 17 Nov 1898
Siberia (op, 3, Illica), Milan, Scala, 19 Dec 1903; rev. Milan, Scala, 7 Oct 1947
Marcella (op, 3, L. Stecchetti, H. Cain and J. Adenis), Milan, Lirico, 9 Nov 1907
Mese Mariano (op, 1, Di Giacomo), Palermo, Massimo, 17 March 1910
Madame Sans-Gêne (op, 3, R. Simoni, after Sardou and E. Moreau), New York,
Met, 25 Jan 1915
Giove a Pompei (op, 3, Illica and E. Romagnoli), Rome, Pariola, 5 July 1921, collab.
A. Franchetti [Giordano's part mostly composed by 1901]
La cena delle beffe (poema drammatico, 4, S. Benelli), Milan, Scala, 20 Dec 1924
L’astro magico (ballet), 1928, unperf.
Il re (novella, 1, G. Forzano), Milan, Scala, 12 Jan 1929
Cesare (incid music, G. Forzano), 1939
vocal
O salutaris hostia (Thomas Aquinas), T, pf, 1900; Inno del decennale (G. Gabriel),
chorus, orch, 1933; La festa degli alberi, chorus, pf, 1938; Bone pastor, chorus,
1944; Serenata, Tarantella e Ceruli, v, orch, 1944; Kyrie, chorus, 1946, unpubd;
Mensa regalis, chorus, org, 1951; Serenata malinconica, 1951
Songs (1v, pf): Come farfalla, 1891; Amor di madre, 1900; Alla mia bambina, 1904;
Crepuscolo triste (R. Carugati), 1904; Canzone guerresca, 1906; Campane di
Natale, 1909; At even, 1913; Per non soffrire (P. Scoppetta), 1917; 6 liriche
(Scoppetta, D. Rago, R. Pagliara), 1919; L’april che torna a me, 1932; lnno del
decennio (Gabriel), 1932; Lamento, 1941; Volo tra i fiori, 1941; Che fai tu, luna, in
ciel, 1950
instrumental
Orch: Delizia, sym., 1886, unpubd; Ov., 1888, unpubd; Scherzo, str, 1888, unpubd;
Zampugnata pugliese, 1910; Piedigrotta; Largo e fuga, hp, org, str, 1948
Chbr and solo inst: Mazurka, pf, 1882; Melodia, zither, 1886, unpubd; Idillio, pf,
1890; Gerbes de feu, pf, 1890; Str Qt, 1890, unpubd; Suite, str qt, 1890, unpubd;
Natale dei bambini, pf, 1897; Coktail, pf, 1906; Microbi, pf, 1916; Melodia, ob, 1942

Principal publisher: Sonzogno

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Galli, G. Maochi and G.C. Paribeni: Umberto Giordano nell’arte e nella
vita (Milan, 1915)
G.C. Paribeni: Madame Sans-Gêne (Milan, 1923)
Musica e scena, iii (1926) [Giordano issue]
R. Rinaldi: Musica e verismo: critica ed estetica di una tendenza musicale
(Rome, 1932)
R. Giazotto: Umberto Giordano (Milan, 1949)
G. Pannain: Ottocento musicale italiano (Milan, 1952)
G. Confalonieri: Umberto Giordano (Milan, 1958)
D. Cellamare: Umberto Giordano (Rome, 1967)
M. Morini, ed.: Umberto Giordano (Milan, 1968)
L’avant-scène opéra, no.121 (1989) [Andrea Chénier issue]
M. Sansone: Il verismo di Fedora e di Zazà (Milan, 1993)
M. Sansone: ‘Giordano’s Mala vita: a verismo Opera too True to be Good’,
ML, lxxv (1994), 381–400
JULIAN BUDDEN

Giorgetti, Ferdinando
(b Florence, 25 June 1796; d Florence, 22 March 1867). Italian composer
and violinist. He began violin lessons with G.F. Giuliani at the age of five. In
1811 he became a chamber musician to Elisa Buonaparte, accompanying
her retinue to Spain and France, where he is said by Fétis to have
modelled his style of playing on that of Rode. He returned to Florence in
1814 and, because of a paralysing illness, gave up his concert career and
turned to composition, studying harmony with Disma Ugolini. His music
was admired in Germany, where it was published by Breitkopf & Härtel and
reviewed in the Allgemeine musikaliche Zeitung. Modelling his instrumental
style on Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven (which earned him the nickname
‘Tedescone’), he was one of the initiators of the movement, centred in
Florence, to make the German Classics more widely appreciated in Italy.
However, he also published a Lettera (Florence, 1828) defending his friend
Rossini against the attacks of Eleuterio Pantologo. He was appointed to
 teach the violin and viola at the Florence Istituto Musicale in 1839; and in
1840, with Luigi Picchianti, he founded the first Italian music magazine, the
Rivista musicale fiorentina. In 1850 he and his pupil Giovacchino
Giovacchini started a series of instrumental concerts, attended by the
publisher G.G. Guidi and the critics Basevi and Picchi, later leaders of the
Florentine musical revival.
Giorgetti composed a considerable amount of chamber music, as well as
sacred works and an oratorio. He also published a Metodo per esercitarsi a
ben suonare l’alto viola (Milan, ?1856). The most genuine and personal
qualities of his style are to be found in the unhackneyed and charming
popular touches that give it fluidity and spontaneity, especially in the three
quartets and two sextets.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
M. Fabbri: ‘Ignoti momenti rossiniani: le segrete confessioni a Ferdinando
Giorgetti e le sconosciute “variazioni” per Alessandro Abate (1817)’,
Chigiana, xxv, new ser. v (1968), 265–85
P. Paolini: ‘Beethoven a Firenze nell’ottocento’, NRMI, v (1971), 753–87,
973–1002
S. Martinotti: Ottocento strumentale italiano (Bologna, 1972)
SERGIO MARTINOTTI

Giorgi, Geltrude.
See Righetti, Geltrude.

Giorgi, Giovanni
(b 1st half of 18th century; d June 1762). Italian composer and priest. He is
said to have come from Venice. In September 1719 he succeeded G.O.
Pitoni as maestro di cappella of S Giovanni Laterano, Rome. He had a high
reputation for his superior musical abilities. In January 1725 he went as
mestre de capela to the court at Lisbon.
Giorgi's early work was done chiefly in Rome. He completed a stylistic
transition from the high Baroque to the pre-Classical in his works up to
about 1758, which were long assumed lost. Giorgi drew together the
various stylistic tendencies of the Roman School, to the point of using short
instrumental overtures, whereby precedence is given to individual
expression rather than liturgical function. The 16-part Missa ‘Servite
Domino’, on the other hand, still bears the marks of Benevoli's style.
WORKS

Editions: Documenta liturgiae polychoralis, xii, xiii, xix, xx, ed. L. Feininger (Rome, 1961–
70)Documenta maiora liturgiae polychoralis, vi–ix, xi, ed. L. Feininger (Rome, 1961–3,
1969)Monumenta liturgiae polychoralis, I/C/ii, III/A/i–ii, III/B/i–ii, ed. L. Feininger (Trent,
1960–63)Laetentur coeli, 4vv, ed. R. Ewerhart, Die Motette, i (Cologne, 1956)Offertoria,
facs. with Preface by S. Gmeinwieser (Trent, 1979) [only of part of the work]

33 masses, 2, 4, 8, 16vv, some with insts

145 grad, 2, 4, 8vv, some with insts
137 ant, 2–4vv, some with insts
152 off, 2–4, 8vv, 1 with insts
162 ps, 4–5, 8vv, some with org
49 hymns, 4vv
20 responsories, 4, 8vv, insts
162 motets, 2–4, 8, 16vv
5 seq, 4vv
Lamentations, 8vv
Canon … in subdiapason, 16vv, c1719
5 cant, S, org; madrigali, 5vv
Principal sources: D-Mbs, Mk, Mm, MÜs, Rp, TRb; I-Bc, Nc, Rf, Rims, Rsg, Rsm,
Rvat; P-La, Ln; full thematic catalogue in Feininger

BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
MGG1 suppl. (S. Gmeinwieser)
F.J. Solano: Nova instrucção musical, ou Theorica pratica da musica
rythmica (Lisbon, 1764) [incl. 41 music exx. by Giorgi]
G. Baini: Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle opere di Giovanni
Pierluigi da Palestrina (Rome, 1828/R)
J. Killing: Kirchenmusikalische Schätze der Bibliothek des Abbate
Fortunato Santini (Düsseldorf, 1910)
O. Ursprung: Die katholische Kirchenmusik (Potsdam, 1931/R)
L. Feininger: Catalogus thematicus et bibliographicus Joannis de Georgiis
operum sacrarum omnium, i (Trent, 1962); iii (1971)
SIEGFRIED GMEINWIESER

Giorgi-Belloc, Teresa.
See Belloc-Giorgi, Teresa.

Giornovichi, Giovanni [Jarnović,

Jarnovicki, Jarnowick; Ivan] Mane
(b Palermo, 26 Oct 1747; d St Petersburg, 23 Nov 1804). Italian violinist
and composer, possibly of Croatian descent. The bewildering variety of
spellings encountered for his name has sometimes led music historians to
suggest possible confusion with violinists such as Janitsch and Janiewicz.
No such confusion exists, however, in 18th-century records nor in
attributions to his works. An early but unsupported tradition holds that he
was a pupil of Lolli. The first certain fact of his career is his arrival in Paris
in 1770. His public début three years later (25 March 1773) at the Concert
Spirituel was so successful that he quickly became the city’s favourite
violinist, and the publication of his concertos began shortly thereafter. This
success was soon followed by stories about his scandalous and
quarrelsome behaviour. He gave frequent public performances until 1777,
when he probably became leader of the orchestra for Prince Rohan-
Guémémee. In 1779 he suddenly left Paris, reportedly under questionable
circumstances.
After appearing in Frankfurt he went to Berlin where he was appointed
leader of the orchestra to the Crown Prince of Prussia late in 1779. Less
than three years later he left because of quarrels with the cellist Duport. He
played in Warsaw in September 1782 and early the next year went to St
Petersburg where he entered the service of Catherine II. His departure
from St Petersburg after some four years seems to have been amicable. In
1786 he went to Vienna and made an excellent impression on such
discerning artists as Dittersdorf, Leopold Mozart and Gyrowetz. He was in
Moscow in April 1789. Early in 1791 he began to play regularly in London.
He was repeatedly successful at Salomon’s Hanover Square series and
took part in Haydn’s first benefit concert (16 May). He also played in Ireland
and Edinburgh, and most of the 1792 season he spent in Bath. In 1793
Viotti displaced him as the featured violinist at Hanover Square, but
Giornovichi continued to play in the rival Professional Concert. Once again
his personality created difficulties. Parke reported that he behaved
arrogantly to royalty at the Duke of York’s house, and Gerber that he nearly
provoked a duel with J.B. Cramer. Towards the end of 1796 he left London.
For the next six years he reportedly lived in Hamburg, more active as a
billiard player than as a violinist. His musical powers evidently did not
decline, however, for in March 1802 he gave a successful concert in Berlin.
The following autumn he played in St Petersburg, where he was once
again given a place in the court orchestra, probably as leader. He held the
position until he died of a stroke apparently suffered during a game of
billiards. He was honoured with an elaborate funeral.
Giornovichi was the most popular of the violinists who preceded Viotti in
Paris in the 1770s, and he continued to be widely admired for 30 years.
Dittersdorf described his performance:
He draws a beautiful tone from his instrument, and he has
pure intonation. He plays an allegro with precision and sings
excellently in an adagio. Most beautiful of all, he plays easily,
without affectation. In a word, he plays for art, and for the
heart.
A report from London in the Berliner Musikzeitung (1793) praised his
charming style, adding that it was ‘bound to please both connoisseurs and
amateurs, but the latter perhaps more’. Although Michael Kelly specifically
mentioned his powerful tone, the obituary in the Berliner Musikzeitung
(1804) indicated that his tone, while pleasing, was not strong; this criticism
was repeated in a number of early dictionaries. He was apparently active
as a teacher: Franz Clement was his pupil in Vienna, and he played a
concerto for two violins with a pupil named Taylor in London. But his erratic
career, and perhaps his difficult personality, prevented his influence from
being strong. He was not regarded as a significant teacher by his
contemporaries.
Giornovichi’s most important compositions are his violin concertos, which
evidently reflect his performing style. Simple in texture and harmony, clear
in structure, and charming but limited in expression, they epitomize the
later stages of the galant style. None is in a minor key. They contain none
of the drama, none of the breadth of passage-work, and little of the
symphonic character that Viotti brought to the violin concerto. Giornovichi’s
 later concertos, although probably written in the 1780s or early 90s, show
only slight advance over the early examples. Within the limitations of his
style, however, he had skill, taste and a degree of imagination. He did
much to stabilize certain typical aspects of the French violin concerto in the
1770s: he was a pioneer in the use of the romance, which quickly became
the most characteristic type of slow movement, and he was influential in
establishing the rondo as a finale. His first movements reflect the
conventions of Classical sonata form more firmly and consistently than
those of his contemporaries in the 1770s, excepting only Mozart. There are
occasional striking and even forward-looking freedoms in form, such as a
solo opening of the first movement (nos.3, 16) and the joining of the
second and third movements (nos.7, 13). His concertos did not demand
extraordinary technique for their time; despite brilliance, they emphasized
elegance, sentiment and order.
Giornovichi’s concertos achieved considerable popularity, some appearing
in as many as six editions. They continued to be issued even after Viotti
had replaced him in the 1780s as the most popular violin composer. By the
time of his death, however, Giornovichi’s works were distinctly old-
fashioned. Later Romantics, from E.T.A. Hoffmann onwards, centred their
interest on his eccentric personality, which has served several times as the
basis for fiction.
WORKS
violin concertos
numbers in parentheses refer to Hummel series (op.: libro), others to Paris–London–
Offenbach series; date refers to earliest known edition

no.

1 (I:3) A (1773); without no.

(Paris, Lyons and Brussels,
n.d.); arr. J.B. Bréval for va,
insts. (Paris, c1800)
2 (I:4) D (1775)
3 (I:6) G (1775)
4 (I:5) A (1777)
5 (I:1) E (1777)
6 (I:2) F (1779)
7 (II:7) G (c1782)
8 (II:8) B (1782)
9 (II:9) G (1782)
10 (II:10) F (1787); arr. Giornovichi in
2 Sonatas, pf/hpd, vn acc.
(London, c1795)
11 B (1787); Rondeau (Paris,
c1792)
12 (II:11) D (1787); without no.
(Vienna, 1796)
— (II:12) E (1787)
13 A (1789)
14 (III:14) A (1789); arr. Giornovichi in
2 Sonatas, pf/hpd, vn acc.
(London, c1795)
15 (III:13) E (1789)
16 (III:16) G (c1795); as Concerto
favori (Paris, n.d.); as
Violino concerto (London,
n.d.)
Favorite Sonata, F, arr. Giornovichi for pf/hpd, vn acc.
(London, 1792)
2 Violin Concertos, A, B , arr. Giornovichi for pf, vn acc.
(London, c1795)
2 Favourite Concertos, F, G, arr. J. Dussek for pf, vn
acc. (London, c1795); as nos.17–18 (Paris, n.d.;
Offenbach, n.d.)
Favorite Rondo, arr. for pf/hpd, vn acc. (London, c1795)
Giornovichi’s Concerto, F, 1796, arr. J.B. Cramer for pf,
insts (London, 1796)
Violin Concerto, A, arr. D. Corri for hpd (Edinburgh,
n.d.)
Concerto, arr. Lachnith for pf, 2 vn, b (Paris, n.d.)
Celebrated Concerto, F, arr. S. Dussek for hp/pf, with
vn, b ad lib (London, c1800)
2 sonates, tirées de 2 concertos, arr. hpd/pf, vn acc.
(Offenbach, 1793)
Rondo, arr. Corri for pf (Baltimore, c1803)
Variazioni, vn, insts, I-MOe; 2 vn concs., F, F, doubtful,
Vnm
chamber music
Favorite Duet, vn, vc/2 vn (Paris, c1786; London, c1788; Amsterdam, c1790)
6 duos dialogués, 2 vn (Paris, n.d., Offenbach, n.d.)
6 duos concertans, 2 vn, bk 2 (Paris, c1793; London, c1795; Offenbach, n.d.)
Original Duet, 2 vn (London, c1796)
3 quatuors concertans, 2 vn, va, vc (Hamburg, Berlin and Paris, c1800); arr. as 3
duos, 2 vn, op.3 (Hamburg, c1800; Paris, n.d.)
Sonate, D, vn, b (Paris, c1803)
Favorite Solo, A, vn, vc acc. (London, c1806)
6 sonates, 2 vn, vc, I-Gl; Trio concertato, 2 vn, vc, Gl
miscellaneous
[6] Airs variés, vn, vc (Berlin and Amsterdam, c1782; Paris, c1783; Amsterdam,
c1785); as 6 Favourite Airs from French operas (London, c1800)
Mr Jarnovichi’s Reel, pf (Edinburgh, c1796)
Jolis airs variés, vn, vc (Paris and Lyons, n.d.)
Fantasia in rondo, hpd/pf (Naples, n.d.)
Linen Hall Slow March, Linen Hall Quick March, Linen Hall Quick Step, all arr. P.
Cogan for pf (Dublin, n.d.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GerberNL
MooserA
ScheringGIK
C. Ditters von Dittersdorf: Lebensbeschreibung (Leipzig, 1801; Eng.
trans., 1896/R); ed. N. Miller (Munich, 1967)
Abbé Robineau: Les caprices de la fortune (Paris, 1816), 17
M. Kelly: Reminiscences (London, 1826, 2/1826/R1968 with introduction
by A.H. King); ed. R. Fiske (London, 1975)
W.T. Parke: Musical Memoirs (London, 1830/R)
A. Gyrowetz: Biographie des Adalbert Gyrowetz (Vienna, 1846); ed. R.
Fischer-Wildhagen (Stuttgart, 1993)
C.F. Pohl: Mozart und Haydn in London (Vienna, 1867/R)
A. Schneider: ‘Un virtuose croate en France au XVIIIe siècle: Ivan M.
Jarnović’, Annales de l’Institut français de Zagreb, vi–vii (1942–3), 63–
85
R.A. Mooser: ‘Violinistes-compositeurs italiens en Russie au XVIIIe siècle,
VIII: Giovanni-Mane Giornovicchi, dit Jarnowick’, RMI, lii (1950), 64–70
S. Djurić-Klajn: ‘Un contemporain de Mozart, Ivan-Mane Jarnović’,
Musikwissenschaftlicher Kongress: Vienna 1956, 134–8
M. Pincherle: Le monde des virtuoses (Paris, 1961; Eng. trans., 1963)
N.K. Nunamaker: The Virtuoso Violin Concerto before Paganini: the
Concertos of Lolli, Giornovicchi, and Woldemar (diss., Indiana U.,
1968)
C. White: ‘The Violin Concertos of Giornovichi’, MQ, lviii (1972), 24–45
W. Lebermann: ‘RISM und Giornovichi (Jarnovick); die Violinkonzerte’, Mf,
xxxviii (1985), 281–8 [incl. thematic catalogue]
I. Boškovič: ‘Gdje je i kad rodjen Ivan Mane Jarnović?’ [Where and when
was Giornovichi born?], Marulić, xix (1986), 239–50; see also
responses by L. Županović and S. Tuksar: Arti musices, xvii (1986),
147–56
S. Žmikić: ‘Ivan Mane Jarnović: pokušaj logičkog razmišljanja o njegovom
prezimenu’ [Giornovichi: an attempt to think logically about his last
name], Sveta Cecilija, lvii (1987), 67–9
V. Katalinić: ‘Sonatni stil i njegove značajke u violinskim koncertima Ivana
Jarnovića’ [The sonata style and its characteristics in the violin
concertos of Giornovichi], Arti musices, xxi (1990), 175–92
C. White: From Vivaldi to Viotti: a History of the Classical Violin Concerto
(Philadelphia, 1992)
CHAPPELL WHITE

Giorza, Paolo
(b Milan, 11 Nov 1832; d Seattle, 4 May 1914). Italian composer and
conductor. He studied music with his father, Luigi Giorza, a baritone and
organist at Desio, and counterpoint with La Croix. He wrote a large amount
of light music, which was highly popular at the time, and between 1853 and
1866 was in fashion as a composer of ballets, most of which were
produced at La Scala. He worked in Vienna in 1856, and in 1863 had great
success in London, composing the ballet La farfalletta and other dance
music there as part of Queen Victoria’s Jubilee celebrations. In Paris the
next year he was less well received. An attempt at opera at La Scala in
1860, Corrado console di Milano, was unsuccessful. In 1866 he composed
an Inno di guerra for Garibaldi to words by Plantulli, the general’s secretary,
and Garibaldi was pleased with the result. That year marked the end of
 Giorza’s important creative period. In 1867, because of financial troubles,
he went to America, where he toured in Mexico and visited the USA as an
opera conductor. He later visited Australia, where he became music
director at the International Exhibition in Sydney in 1879. He spent his last
years, poverty stricken, in the USA.
Giorza was considered a reformer of the ballet because of his attempts to
make his music, often pantomimic and sometimes melodramatic in
character, fit the given subject by creating a sense of atmosphere, and he
was one of the first composers to be listed with the dancers and
choreographers in reports of the ballet. Perhaps his best work was in
straightforward popular songs.
WORKS
stage
More than 70 ballets, most perf. Milan, many pubd, arr. pf (Milan)
Ops: Corrado console di Milano (os, 3, L. Gualtieri), Milan, Scala, 10 March 1860;
Alba Barozzi (A. Ghislanzoni) (Milan, 1884)
other works
Vocal: Cant., for opening of Sydney International Exhibition, 1879; masses, other
sacred works; many songs, incl. La bella Gigôgin, polka, with ritornello Dàghela
avanti un passo, 1858
Pf: numerous dances, several collections pubd (Milan), incl. Alle dame fiorentine,
Alle dame milanesi, Maschere italiane, Petit bouquet, Pierrot o la settimana grassa
a Milano; 4 salti
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM
ES (C. Sartori) [incl. more details of works]
FétisB
RicordiE
SchmidlD
Official Record of the Sydney International Exhibition, 1879 (Sydney,
1881), p.lvi ff
E. Haraszti: ‘La musique de ballet au XIXe siècle’, Histoire de la musique,
ed. Roland-Manuel, ii (Paris, 1963), 738–65, esp. 754
FRANCESCO BUSSI

Gioseffo da Lucca.
See Guami family, (1).

Giovan Maria da Crema.

See Giovanni Maria da Crema.

Giovannelli [Giovanelli], Ruggiero

(b Velletri, nr Rome, c1560; d Rome, 7 Jan 1625). Italian composer. He
may have been a pupil of Palestrina, although this was not claimed until
1685. His career in Rome is documented from 1583 until his death. From 8
August 1583 until February or March 1591 he was maestro di cappella of S
Luigi dei Francesi. He and Marenzio composed intermedi for Cristoforo
Castelletti’s comedy Le stravaganze d’Amore, performed at the palace of
Giacomo Boncompagni, Duke of Sora, in March 1585. For an unknown
period beginning in 1587 he directed the music at the Collegio Inglese on a
part-time basis. From 1591 (probably 1 April) until 12 March 1594 he
served as maestro di cappella at the Collegio Germanico. He was a
member of the Virtuosa Compagnia dei Musici di Roma which was officially
founded in 1585. He was in charge of music for the Oratorio di SS Trinità
dei Pellegrini in 1589, and at some point was also maestro di cappella of
the private chapel of Duke Giovanni Angelo Altaemps. On 12 March 1594
he succeeded Palestrina as maestro di cappella of the Cappella Giulia at S
Pietro. He took holy orders on 24 November 1595. On 7 April 1599 he
became a singer of the Cappella Sistina, and resigned his former position
at the Cappella Giulia three days later. From 1598 to 1605 he was
frequently absent from the chapel to serve his patron Cardinal Pietro
Aldobrandini, whom he accompanied to Ferrara between 1598 and 1599.
In 1600 he directed the music at the Aldobrandini church, S Nicola in
Carcere. He served as puntatore (secretary) of the Cappella Sistina in
1607, as camerlengo (treasurer) from 1610 to 1613, and as maestro di
cappella in 1614. Although he was not re-elected to this position in 1615,
he completed the term of his successor, Paolo Facconio, who died in office
that year. He retired on 7 April 1624. His works achieved great popularity
and were frequently reprinted, both in Italy and abroad.
Giovannelli’s madrigals are generally less serious and more influenced by
the style of the canzonetta than those of Marenzio. The poets he set most
frequently are Tasso, Guarini and Sannazaro. The first two books of five-
voice madrigals are characterized by lighthearted texts, clear textures, high
tessituras, short and distinctive imitative motifs, strong accents and
frequent sectional repetitions. Small-scale symmetries, created by melodic
or contrapuntal inversion or by the use of contrasting groups of voices, are
quite common. Textural clarity is often enhanced by the combination of two
sharply contrasting imitative motifs, one slow and the other fast, or by the
use of one slow-moving voice as a foil to the faster movement of the
others, a device which is almost a mannerism of these early pieces. Tonal
structures are always clear, and are often the basis for the organization of
whole pieces. The later five-voice madrigals are influenced by the
Ferrarese madrigal of the 1590s. They are shorter, less symmetrical, and
less dependent on the formulae of the canzonetta style. The two books of
four-voice madrigals contain pieces of a different type. Except for the
quasi-dramatic Caccia de lup’ at the end of the second book, the texts are
all from Sannazaro’s Arcadia, mostly the sdruccioli (lines ending with two
unaccented syllables). The music is more homorhythmic and declamatory
than most madrigals, and there is little text-painting. Phrase ends are
emphasized by the distinctive dotted rhythm that concludes each
sdrucciolo line. Giovannelli also wrote villanellas, canzonettas (both secular
and spiritual) and laude in the popular styles of his time.
Among his sacred works, the most conservative are the five-voice motets;
they are in the style of Palestrina, although they make less use of chant as
a source of melodic material than do Palestrina’s and their harmonic idiom
 is more modern. Greater stress is placed on regular accents, and they
occasionally use rhythmic patterns not found in Palestrina’s works,
including fusae with independent syllables. They are mostly in minor
modes. The eight- and 12-voice motets and masses, which constitute over
half of Giovannelli’s sacred music, are more modern in style. The motets
usually begin with an imitative exposition of a relatively slow motif and
proceed to a homophonic texture with fast, declamatory rhythms and
frequent alternations of the choirs. They are predominantly in major modes
and often use musical figures to interpret individual words of the text.
Giovannelli also wrote a small number of pieces in the stile moderno,
including five motets for two or three voices with basso continuo and
several polychoral works with concertante solo voices. The two- and three-
voice pieces use some modern ornamentation, but are conservative in
other respects. Giovannelli contributed to the reform of the Gradual
undertaken at the request of Pope Paul V, but his role in this has often
been exaggerated.
WORKS

Edition: Ruggero Giovannelli: Composizioni sacre: messe, mottetti, salmi, ed. P. Teodori,
Fonti musicali, ii (Palestrina, 1922) [T]M. Giuliani, ed.: Ruggiero Giovannelli: Villanelle,
canzonette e arie: alla napolitana (Trent, 1996)

sacred
Sacrarum modulationum … liber primus, 5, 8vv (Rome, 1593); 1 ed. in AMI, ii
(c1897), 1 ed. in G.P. da Palestrina: Werke, xxx (Leipzig, 1891)
Motecta … liber secundus, 5vv (Venice, 1604); 2 ed. in Musica divina, ii
(Regensburg, c1855); 10 ed. in T
16 Latin sacred works, 2–8, 12vv: 15922, 1 ed. in G.P. da Palestrina: Werke, vi
(Leipzig, 1876), 1 ed. in AMI, ii (c1897); 15992, 1 ed. in Musica sacra, xxv
(Regensburg, 1885); 15994; 160011; 16072; 160914; 160915; 16143, 3 ed. in Musica
sacra, xxv, xxvi (Regensburg, 1885–6); 16151; 16161, 2 ed. in [T]; 16183, 1 ed. in T
3 spiritual canzonettas, 3–4vv: 15862
Missa ‘Iste est qui ante Deum’, 4vv, I-Rn (on Palestrina’s motet); ed. in T
Missa ‘Sicut lilium inter spinas’, 8vv, Rvat (almost identical to Missa ‘Vestiva i colli’)
Missa ‘Vestiva i colli’, 8vv, Rvat (almost identical to Missa ‘Sicut lilium’); ed. in T
Missa, 12vv, Rn
Missa ‘Cantantibus organis’, 12vv, Rsg [Et in spiritum only; collab. Palestrina and
other composers]; ed. in Monumenta polyphoniae italicae, i (Rome, 1930)
28 motets, 2–5, 8, 12, 14vv, some with bc: D-Bsb; Mbs (1 doubtful); Rp (2 inc.); I-
Bc; Rn (2 doubtful), 1 ed. in Musica divina, ii (Regensburg, c1855); Rvat, 1 ed. in
AMI, ii (c1897), ed. in T; PL-Wu; RUS-KA (1 inc.)
secular
Gli sdruccioli … Il primo libro de madrigali, 4vv (Rome, 1585)
Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1586); 1 ed. in Chater
Il primo libro delle villanelle et arie alla napolitana, 3vv (Rome, 1588); 1 ed. in
DeFord (1985)
Gli sdruccioli … libro secondo, 4vv, con una caccia in ultimo, 4–8vv (Venice, 1589)
Il secondo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1593); 1 ed. in AMI, ii (c1897)
Il terzo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1599) [pubd with Il primo libro (1586) and Il
secondo libro (1593) as Madrigali … novamente in un corpo ridotto, 5vv (Antwerp,
1606)]
Canzonette, with lute intabulations, 3vv; lost, mentioned in PitoniN, 438
37 works, 3–6vv: 15825, 1 ed. in Newcomb; 158310, 1 ed. in Newcomb; 158312;
15857; 158518; 158529; 158610, 1 ed. in M. Giuliani, I lieti amanti: madrigali di venti
musicisti ferraresi (Florence, 1990); 15876; 158817, 1 ed. in H.B. Lincoln, L’amorosa
Ero (New York, 1968); 158820; 15897; 158911; 159015; 159112; 159113; 15925; 159211
(Ger. contrafacta in 161313); 159214; 15933 (inc.); 15955; 15956; 15988; 15996; 16005;
16048; 160917
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AmbrosGM
NewcombMF
PitoniN
A. Liberati: Letter to O. Persapegi; (1685); repr. in R. Casimiri: Preface to
Missa Cantantibus organis, Monumenta polyphoniae italicae, i (Rome,
1930)
E. Schelle: Die päpstliche Sängerschule in Rom genannt die Sixtinische
Capelle (Vienna, 1872)
R. Molitor: Die nachtridentische Chorall-Reform zu Rom (Leipzig, 1901–
2/R), i, 178, 243; ii, 132
E. Celani: ‘I cantori della Cappella pontificia nei secoli XVI–XVIII’, RMI, xiv
(1907), 83–104, 752–90; xvi (1909), 55–112
A. Gabrielli: Ruggiero Giovannelli: musicista insigne (Velletri, 1907)
H.-W. Frey: ‘Ruggiero Giovannelli: eine biographische Studie’, KJb, xxii
(1909), 49–62
A. Cametti: ‘Ruggiero Giovannelli: note biografiche’, Musica d’oggi, vii
(1925), 211–12
A. Gabrielli: Ruggiero Giovannelli nella vita e nelle opere (Velletri, 1926)
C. Winter: Ruggiero Giovannelli: Nachfolger Palestrinas zu St. Peter in
Rom (Munich, 1935)
R. Casimiri: ‘“Disciplina musicae” e “mastri di capella” dopo il Concilio di
Trento nei maggiori istituti ecclesiastici di Roma: Seminario romano –
Collegio germanico – Collegio inglese (sec. XVI–XVII)’, NA, xix (1942),
102–29; xx (1943), 3–17
H.-W. Frey: ‘Die Gesänge der Sixtinischen Kapelle an den Sonntagen und
hohen Kirchenfesten des Jahres 1616’, Mélanges Eugène Tisserant, vi
(Vatican City, 1964), 395–437
H.-W. Frey: ‘Die Kapellmeister an der französischen Nationalkirche San
Luigi dei Francesi in Rom im 16. Jahrhundert’, AMw, xxiii (1966), 32–
60, esp. 39
T.D. Culley: Jesuits and Music, i: A Study of the Musicians Connected with
the German College in Rome during the 17th Century and of their
Activities in Northern Europe (Rome, 1970), 50–51
R.I. DeFord: Ruggiero Giovannelli and the Madrigal in Rome, 1572–1599
(diss., Harvard U., 1975) [incl. edns of music]
J. Chater: ‘Castelletti’s Stravanganze d’amore (1585): a Comedy with
Interludes’, Studi musicali, viii (1979), 85–148
T.D. Culley: ‘Musical Activity in some Sixteenth Century Jesuit Colleges,
with Special Reference to the Venerable English College in Rome from
1579 to 1589’, AnMc, no.19 (1979), 1–29
S. Leopold: ‘Madrigali sulle egloghe sdrucciole di Iacopo Sannazaro:
struttura poetica e forma musicale’, RIM, xiv (1979), 75–127
R.I. DeFord: ‘The Evolution of Rhythmic Style in Italian Secular Music of
the Late Sixteenth Century’, Studi musicali, x (1981), 43–74
R.I. DeFord: ‘Musical Relationships between the Italian Madrigal and Light
Genres in the Sixteenth Century’, MD, xxxix (1985), 107–68
P. Ludwig: Studien zum Motettenschaffen der Schüler Palestrinas
(Regensburg, 1986)
C. Assenza: La Canzonetta dal 1570 al 1615 (Lucca, 1997)
RUTH I. DeFORD

Giovanni Ambrosio.
See Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro.

Giovanni da Cascia [Jovannes de

Cascia, Johannes de Florentia,
Maestro Giovanni da Firenze]
(fl northern Italy, 1340–50). Italian composer. No definitive documentary
evidence relating to Giovanni’s life has yet come to light. It would seem
from the surname ‘de Florentia’ or ‘de Cascia’ that he came from the village
of Cascia on the Via Cassia near Florence (not to be confused, as it
sometimes has been, with the Umbrian Cascia). There is no support for the
view that Giovanni was active at Florence Cathedral. This theory can be
traced back to the corrupt edition by Galletti of Villani’s Florentine chronicle
(see Li Gotti, 1947). No documents are extant which prove Giovanni’s stay
in Florence, but the ‘Ser Giovanni degli Organi’ who is mentioned about
1360 at the church of Santa Trìnita (Florence) might conceivably be
Giovanni da Cascia. A cutler named Giovanni da Firenze is mentioned in
the lists of the Laudesi brotherhood of S Reparata (the former Florentine
Cathedral) intermittently between 1345 and 1362. It would appear, from the
portrait in the Squarcialupi Manuscript, that Giovanni was not a priest.
On the other hand, Villani stated that, as a composer, Giovanni competed
with Jacopo da Bologna at the court of Mastino II della Scala (d 1351) in
Verona. Comparison of certain texts by Giovanni and by Jacopo (and also
Piero) reinforces this. The songs for ‘Anna’, who was praised by all three of
the above composers, and for a ‘Spina’ (? from the Malaspina family, linked
to Mastino della Scala), known also to Jacopo, must have been composed
in Verona. Alternatively, the caccia Con brachi assai, set to music by both
Giovanni and Piero, would seem, judging by the reference to the river
Adda, to have originated within the sphere of influence of the Visconti, with
whom Jacopo was already acquainted. Giovanni’s Donna già fu’
(composed in reply to Jacopo’s Posando sopr’un’ acqua) and Fra mille
corvi are madrigals from the period of Giovanni’s competition with Jacopo;
Fra mille corvi used the same bird metaphor (‘crow’) as Jacopo’s Vestise la
cornachia. All in all, it would appear that Giovanni was an elder
contemporary of Jacopo.
Giovanni’s surviving works – 16 madrigals and three cacce – are contained
within a total of nine manuscripts. He was the first Florentine composer
before Landini whose works also appear in north Italian sources. However,
most of the works are in two Tuscan manuscripts (I-Fn 26: 18 works, and
Fl 87: 12 works that begin the chronological sequence of the manuscript).
Among the north Italian sources the oldest (I-Rvat 215, presumably from
the Padua-Verona area) contains two works with anonymous ascriptions,
but known to be by Giovanni, and another (F-Pn n.a.fr.6771, written c1400)
contains three works. Prudenzani’s Liber Saporecti shows that works by
him were still being performed up to 1420; two madrigals were named in
this connection – Agnel son bianco and Nel meço a sei paon. Appress’un
fiume chiaro, quoted by Anonymus 5 (CoussemakerS, iii, 392), was sung
with a sacred text as a lauda. The ‘soni multi et ballate’ (see Li Gotti, 1947,
p.198, note 7), presumably monophonic, mentioned by Villani, do not
survive. The autobiographical features of some texts (e.g. Fra mille corvi
and O tu, cara sciença) suggest that Giovanni also wrote some of his own
texts.
Giovanni played a decisive part in the consolidation of the style of the
Italian madrigal. Among the essential characteristics of this style are the
melismas on the first and penultimate syllables of a line (sometimes
involving hockets), a rapid syllabic declamatory style in the central part of
the line, a schematic marking off of the individual lines by cadences and
the texting of both voices. Several of his pieces have features in common
with the anonymous madrigals of the manuscript I-Rvat 215, of which at
least some are earlier: the older type of tenor that lacks independence,
running intermittently in parallel 5ths or octaves with the upper voice; the
free treatment of the number of syllables in a line (i.e. taking into account
the necessary contractions, as in Nascoso el viso: five or six syllables);
and, with the exception of canonic sections, the almost invariably
simultaneous declamation of syllables in the two voices and the absence of
part-crossing (ex.1).

The markedly different versions in which certain madrigals survive (see

Appress’un fiume, Nascoso el viso, O tu, cara sciença, Più non mi curo,
Sedendo a ll’ombra) are particularly striking and suggest that in the early
Trecento madrigal up to Giovanni’s time strong improvisatory forces were
prevalent. Linked with this, perhaps, is the singular lack of tonal unity; only
in exceptional cases are the opening and final notes identical, and in
Nascoso el viso there is a different final note at the end of each line of the
verse. (Differences in readings may also be attributable to uncertainties as
to how to interpret the Italian notation, and to a general change in
notational habits in later manuscripts.) On the other hand, among
progressive elements there are isolated examples of imitation between
superius and tenor, especially in melismatic passages. However, it is
remarkable that even where free rhythmic imitation occurs in syllabic
passages the syllables are not necessarily shifted out of alignment to follow
the imitation (ex.2).
 Exceptionally, in a few madrigals (e.g. Appress’un fiume chiaro, In sul la
ripa, Togliendo l’una l’altra) there are textless linking phrases between the
lines of verse – a feature otherwise characteristic of Jacopo da Bologna’s
work. It is not impossible that Jacopo, presumably the younger of the two,
influenced Giovanni in this. In the three cacce, Giovanni may perhaps have
taken Piero’s works as models, yet even here he consolidated the style and
form of this typically Italian genre. Villani’s description of Giovanni’s music
as ‘mire dulcedinis et artificiosissime melodie’ reinforces the view that his
works achieved their popularity primarily through their elegant melodic
writing.
For a madrigal by Giovanni da Cascia see Sources, MS, fig.35.
WORKS

Editions:The Music of Fourteenth-Century Italy, ed. N. Pirrotta, CMM, viii/1 (1954)

[P]Italian Secular Music, ed. W.T. Marrocco, PMFC, vi (1967/R) [M]Der Squarcialupi-
Codex Pal.87 der Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana zu Florenz, ed. J. Wolf (Lippstadt,
1955) [W]

madrigals
Agnel son bianco, 2vv, P 7, M 22, W 3 (text by ?Sacchetti; see Debenedetti, no.25
and Corsi)
Appress’un fiume chiaro, 2vv, P 8, M 24, 26, W 13 (Senhal: ‘Anna’; lauda
contrafactum: ‘Appresso al volto chiaro’)
Deh, come dolcemente, 2vv, P 11, M 32
Donna già fu’, 2vv, P 12, M 34, W 10
Fra mille corvi, 2vv, P 14, M 36, W 14 (text inc.; see Jacopo’s ‘Vestisse la
cornachia’)
In su la ripa, 2vv, P 16, M 38 (inc. text mentions ‘Spina’ and alludes to the river
Adige)
La bella stella (?L. Anguissola), 2vv, P 18, M 40, W 4 (dated c1354 in Gallo, 1987;
1363 in Paganuzzi)
Nascoso el viso, 2vv, P 20, M 42, W 8
Nel meço a sei paon, 2vv, P 24, M 48, 50, W 9 (Debenedetti, no.48; attrib. Jacopo
da Bologna in I-Fl S Lorenzo 2211)
O perlaro gentil, 2vv, P 26, M 52, 54, W 11 (Senhal: ‘Anna’)
O tu, cara sciença, 2vv, P 28, M 56, 59, W 12
Per ridda andando ratto, 2vv, P 32, M 66 (canonic ritornello)
Più non mi curo, 2vv, P 35, M 68, 70, W 5
Quando la stella, 2vv, P 38, M 72 (2 ritornelli, one after each stanza)
Sedendo all’ombra, 2vv, P 39, M 74, 76, W 6
Togliendo l’una a l’altra, 2vv, P 42, M 78, W 7
 cacce
Con brachi assai, 3vv, P 44, M 28
Nel bosco sença foglie, 3vv, P 46, M 44 (metrically a madrigal)
Per larghi prati, 3vv, P 49, M 62 (text inc.; see Corsi, 24)
doubtful works
De soto ’l verde, 2vv (CMM, viii/2, 1960, pp.15–18; for more doubtful works see N.
Pirrotta, ed.: Il codice Rossi 215, Lucca, 1992, pp.51–2)
lost works
Soni multi et ballate, 1v (see Galletti)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Villani: De civitatis Florentiae et eiusdem famosis civibus; ed. G.C.
Galletti (Florence, 1847); ed. G. Tanturli (Padua, 1997)
S. Debenedetti, ed.: ‘Il “Sollazzo” e il “Saporetto” con altre rime di Simone
Prudenzani di Orvieto’, Giornale storico della letteratura italiana,
suppl.xv (Turin, 1913)
E. Li Gotti: ‘Il più antico polifonista italiano del sec. XIV’, Italica, xxiv
(1947), 196–200
K. von Fischer: ‘On the Technique, Origin, and Evolution of Italian
Trecento Music’, MQ, xlvii (1961), 41–57
K. von Fischer: ‘Quelques remarques sur les relations entre les laudesi et
les compositeurs florentins du Trecento’, L’Ars Nova italiana del
Trecento: Convegno II: Certaldo and Florence 1969 [L’Ars Nova
italiana del Trecento, iii (Certaldo, 1970)], 247–52
G. Thibault: ‘Emblèmes et devises des Visconti dans les oeuvres
musicales du Trecento’, ibid., 131–60
G. Corsi, ed.: Poesie musicali del Trecento, xxx (Bologna, 1970), 11–28
F.A. D’Accone: ‘Music and Musicians at the Florentine Monastery of Santa
Trinità, 1360–1363’, Quadrivium, xii/1 (1971), 131–51
K. von Fischer: ‘Zum Wort-Ton Problem in der Musik des italienischen
Trecento’, Festschrift Arnold Geering, ed. V. Ravizza (Berne, 1972),
53–62
K. von Fischer: ‘“Portraits” von Piero, Giovanni da Firenze und Jacopo da
Bologna in einer Bologneser Handschrift des 14. Jahrhunderts’, MD,
xxvii (1973), 61–4
F.A. Gallo: ‘Antonio de Ferrara, Lancilloto Anguissola, and the 14th-century
madrigal’, Studi e problemi di critica testuale, Italy, xii (1976), 40–45
M.P. Long: Musical Tastes in Fourteenth-Century Italy: Notational Styles,
Scholarly Traditions, and Historical Circumstances (diss., Princeton U.,
1981)
J. Nádas: ‘The Structure of the MS Panciatichi 26 and the Transmission of
Trecento Polyphony’, JAMS, xxxiv (1981), 393–427
N. Pirrotta: ‘Back to Ars Nova Themes’, Music and Context: Essays for
John M. Ward, ed. A.D. Shapiro and P. Benjamin (Cambridge, MA,
1985), 166–82
F.A. Gallo: ‘Critica della tradizione e storia del testo: seminario su un
madrigale trecentesco’, AcM, lix (1987), 36–45
V. Newes: ‘Chace, Caccia, Fuga: the Convergence of French and Italian
Traditions’, MD, xli (1987), 27–57
M. Long: ‘Landini's Musical Patrimony: a Reassessment of some
Compositional Conventions in Trecento Polyphony’, JAMS, xl (1987),
31–52
B. Toliver: ‘Improvisation in the Madrigals of the Rossi Codex’, AcM, lxiv
(1992), 165–76
F.A. Gallo, ed.: Il codice Squarcialupi (Florence, 1992) [incl. K. von
Fischer: ‘Le biografie’, 127–44, esp. 130–31; N. Pirrotta: ‘Le musiche
del codice Squarcialupi’, 193–222, esp. 195–8]
M. Gozzi: ‘La cosiddetta Longanotation: nuove prospettive sulla notazione
italiana del Trecento’, MD, xlix (1995), 121–49
B.McD. Wilson: ‘Madrigal, Lauda, and Local Style in Trecento Florence’,
JM, xv (1997), 137–77
E. Paganuzzi: ‘Nota sul madrigale “Suso quel monte che fiorise l'erba”’,
NRMI, xxxi (1997), 337–42
KURT VON FISCHER/GIANLUCA D’AGOSTINO

Giovanni da Foligno.
See Johannes Fulginatis.

Giovanni da Prato [Giovanni

Gherardi]
(b Prato, c1367; d Florence, c1445). Italian man of letters. He studied
under the scientist Biagio Pelacani at Padua University from 1384 to 1388.
He wrote several poems in the style of Dante and Boccaccio, but his most
important work is an unfinished narrative poem (I-Fr 1280, autograph; ed.
F. Garilli, Palermo, 1976) which was given the title Il paradiso degli Alberti
by the first modern editor (A. Wesselofsky, Bologna, 1867/R), after the
name of the Florentine villa of Antonio degli Alberti in which the story was
set. This work, possibly written in about 1425, describes the meetings in
1389 of a group of learned men (Pelacani, Coluccio Salutati, Luigi Marsili,
Francesco Landini and others), who discussed various topics and related
stories. These meetings included musical entertainment, mainly provided
by Landini, who is here celebrated not only as the greatest musician of the
time, but also as a renowned intellectual. The third book includes a
transcription of the text of Landini's ballata Or su, gentili spiriti as well as a
description of its musical performance. The narrative also refers to the
singing of madrigals by Bartolino da Padova, and to the singing of
sicilianas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Baron: Humanistic and Political Literature in Florence and Venice at the
Beginning of the Quattrocento (Cambridge, MA, 1955/R)
F. Garilli: ‘Cultura e pubblico nel Paradiso degli Alberti’, Giornale storico
della letteratura italiana, cxlix (1972), 1–47
A. Lanza: Polemiche e berte letterarie nella Firenze del primo
Rinascimento (1375–1449) (Rome, 1989)
F. ALBERTO GALLO/GIANLUCA D'AGOSTINO
Giovanni degli Organi.
See Mazzuoli, Giovanni.

Giovanni Gherardi.
See Giovanni da Prato.

Giovanni Leonardo dell’Arpa.

See Dell’Arpa, Giovanni Leonardo.

Giovanni [Joan, Giovan] Maria da

Crema
(b ?Crema; fl 1540–50). Italian lutenist and composer. He is frequently
confused with Giovanni Maria Alemanni (Hebreo), Giovan Padovano del
Cornetto and other 16th-century musicians. The proximity of his presumed
birthplace to Cremona suggests that he may be the Giovan Maria da
Cremona who was one of a sextet of Italian viol players heard at the court
of Henry VIII in 1540.
His Intabolatura de lauto … libro primo (Venice, 1546/R, ed. G. Gullino and
R. Smith Brindle, Florence, 1955/R; 2nd edition as Libro terzo, Venice,
1546) contains 15 ricercares and seven dances (including five
passamezzo-saltarello pairs), as well as 25 intabulations of vocal
compositions: French chansons by Claudin de Sermisy, Janequin, Willaert
and others, Italian madrigals by Verdelot and Arcadelt, and motets by
Gombert, Mouton and their contemporaries (two motets are incorrectly
ascribed to Josquin). The ricercares are notable for their advanced use of
imitation, full three- and four-voice textures, and for the relative absence of
lutenistic figuration and ornamentation. Since several of these pieces are
ascribed elsewhere to Julio Segni and Francesco da Milano, they may
have originally been written for keyboard or instrumental ensemble and
arranged by Giovanni Maria for the lute (as Thibault suggested). The
Intabolatura de lautto libro settimo (Venice, 154813) contains 13 ‘new’
ricercares by Francesco da Milano and 12 that were ‘intabulated and
adapted for the lute’ by Giovanni Maria from ensemble music by Segni. A
number of Giovanni Maria's compositions were reprinted in later lute
anthologies by Gerle, Phalèse, Matelart and Guillaume Morlaye. Some of
his music has been edited in MRM, i (1964) and in R. Darsie: Giovanni
Maria da Crema/Giulio Segni da Modena: The Ricercars for Solo Lute
(Davis, 1996).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrownI
O. Chilesotti: ‘Note circa alcuni liutisti italiani della prima metà del
Cinquecento’, RMI, ix (1902), 36–61, 233–63, esp. 253–9
G. Thibault: ‘La musique instrumentale au XVIe siècle: Italie, Allemagne,
France’, Histoire de la musique, ed. Roland-Manuel, i (Paris, 1960),
cols.1197–1336
G. Dardo: ‘Contributo alla storia del liuto in Italia: Johannes Maria Alamus
e Giovanni Maria da Crema’, Quaderni della RaM, no.3 (1965), 143–
57
G. Dardo: ‘Considerazioni sull'opera di Giovan Maria da Crema, liutista del
Cinquecento’, CHM, iv (1966), 61–77
H.C. Slim: ‘Gian and Gian Maria: some Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century
Namesakes’, MQ, lvii (1971), 562–74
R. Chiesa: ‘Storia della letteratura del liuto e della chitarra, LV–LVI: il
Cinquecento – Joan Maria da Crema’, Il Fronimo, xiv/55–6 (1986), 21–
5, 34–8
D. Fabris: ‘Una composizione per liuto di Gherardo Cibo’, Gherardo Cibo,
alias Ulisse Severino da Cissgoli: desegni, ed. A. Nesselroth
(Florence, 1989), 49–53, 93–5
ARTHUR J. NESS

Giovanni Mazzuoli.
See Mazzuoli, Giovanni.

Giovannini [de Giovannini; first

name unknown]
(fl mid-18th century; d ?1782). Italian composer and violinist. According to
Gerber, who supplied his date of death, he lived in Berlin in 1740. He wrote
eight violin sonatas, the incipits of which are in Breitkopf’s catalogue of
1762, and, at the editor’s request, contributed seven songs to J.F. Gräfe’s
Sammlung verschiedener und auserlesener Oden (1737–43). It is not
known whether or not he was related to the Giovannini mentioned by
Marpurg as a cellist and composer in Rome (Historisch-kritische Beyträge,
i, 1754, p.226).
For two reasons this obscure composer has become an object of more
than ordinary historical interest. Firstly, it has been stated (see GerberNL)
that Giovannini had also appeared in London as the Count of Saint
germain (perhaps having concealed his identity until he was able to receive
the inheritance of his supposed mother, Marie-Anne de Neubourg, who
died in 1740). The identity of the two is unlikely, however: during Saint
Germain’s conspicuous career (which took him to Berlin for some time) the
identity with Giovannini, if true, would probably have been discovered,
particularly considering the keen contemporary interest in Saint Germain’s
origin, and the existence of a portrait of Giovannini (engraved by Thönert;
see GerberL). No later biographies of Saint Germain have established a
connection with Giovannini, nor do any of Giovannini’s known works bear a
stylistic resemblance to Saint Germain’s.
Secondly, in the larger of the two music books (1725) of Anna Magdalena
Bach there is a song described as ‘Aria di Giovannini’. Spitta held that this
music could not be by Bach, an opinion supported by Friedlaender
because it would have been Bach’s only vocal piece to use the violin clef.
(Heuss, however, felt the work to be by Bach because of its excellence.) In
view of Giovannini’s unimportance his authorship of the work is unlikely; if
accepted as his, however, the piece must have been inserted into the book
at a later date, presumably by C.P.E. Bach.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookB
GerberL
GerlerNL
E.O. Lindner: Geschichte des deutschen Liedes im XVIII. Jahrhundert, ed.
L. Erk (Leipzig, 1871/R)
P. Spitta: Johann Sebastian Bach (Leipzig, 1873–80, 5/1962; Eng. trans.,
1884, 2/1899/R)
M. Friedlaender: Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart and
Berlin, 1902/R)
A. Heuss: ‘Ob das Lied “Willst du dein Herz mir schenken” nicht doch nur
von Bach sein kann!’, ZfM, Jg.92 (1925), 133–42
G. von Dadelsen: Kritischer Bericht, J.S. Bach: Die Klavierbüchlein für
Anna Magdalena Bach, Neue Ausgabe, Sämtlicher Werke, v/4
(Kassel, 1957), 113 only
J.H. Calmeyer: ‘The Count of Saint Germain or Giovannini: a Case of
Mistaken Identity’, ML, xlviii (1967), 4–16
J.H. CALMEYER

Giovannini, Simone
(b Tuscany, c1550; d Pistoia, 15 Feb 1621). Italian composer and organist.
He was a priest and the brother of Baccio de’ Giovannini, a highly
respected secretary to the grand dukes of Tuscany and almoner to Maria
de’ Medici after she moved to France as Henri IV’s queen. Simone
Giovannini was a Florentine citizen when in March 1578 he was appointed
to succeed Vincenzo Ruffo as maestro di cappella of Pistoia Cathedral; he
was a favourite of the Grand Duchess of Tuscany, Johanna of Austria, who
recommended him for this post, and he was also recommended by the
Archbishop of Florence, Alessandro de’ Medici, later Pope Leo XI. In 1589
he also became organist of the Servite church, Santo Spirito. He held both
posts until his death. As a cleric of the post-Tridentine church he was an
honorary canon, rector of his own parish, S Liberata, and a founder of the
Confraternita di S Sebastiano. As a composer he is known by five
Magnificat settings for three to six voices (one based on a madrigal by
Alessandro Striggio (i), Ancor ch’io possa dire), four five-part hymns and
three four-part antiphons (all in I-PS 216, two of the antiphons also in 215);
they were all written for Pistoia Cathedral. They display technical mastery
and a notable sensitivity of line. Since they show the unmistakable
influence of the Tuscan school, it can be surmised that Giovannini received
his musical training in Florence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Fabbri: ‘Una preziosa raccolta di musica sacra cinquecentesca: il
Codice 315 dell’Archivio del Duomo di Pistoria’, CHM, vi (1966), 103–
23
MARY JOAN RYAN

Giovannino da Roma [Giovannino

del Violoncello].
See Costanzi, Giovanni Battista.

Giovannino del Violone.

See Lulier, Giovanni Lorenzo.

Giovenardi, Bartolomeo
[Bartolomé].
See Jovernardi, Bartolomé.

Gippius, Yevgeny Vladimirovich

(b Tsarskoye Selo [now Pushkin], 24 June/7 July 1903; d 5 June 1985).
Russian ethnomusicologist. After studying at the Petrograd Institute of the
History of the Arts (until 1924) and with Asaf'yev, he took the graduate
degree at the institute (1935). He taught at the Leningrad Conservatory for
about ten years from 1929 and as professor at the Moscow Conservatory
(1944–9), and was also affiliated to the Soviet Academy’s Institute of
Ethnography (1946–52) and the Institute of the History of the Arts (1959–
63). He was awarded the doctorate of arts in 1958 for his critical edition of
the Balakirev folksong collections. From 1973 to 1984 he worked as a
scientific consultant with the folklore commission of the Russian Federation
Union of Composers. His early fieldwork included notating songs of
German colonists in the Leningrad region (1925), recording songs with his
wife Zinaida Ewald during five expeditions to the Russian North (1926–30)
and studying solo and part-singing styles in the Archangel district.
The 1600 recordings Gippius and Ewald made in the Russian North formed
the basis of the Phonogram Archive (founded 1927, affiliated with the
Soviet Academy in 1931), which he directed until 1944. During the same
period he participated in expeditions to Armenia, Georgia and Uzbekistan
and collected in the Belorussian Poles'ye region and the Ryazan region of
central Russia. He directed expeditions among the Mari, Mordvinian,
Udmurt and Komi peoples (1936–8) and did important stationary recording
from students of the Leningrad Institute of Peoples of the North, who
provided examples of their indigenous music. During the 1930s he brought
together pre- and post-revolutionary recordings of 63 Soviet nationalities; in
1939 this archive moved to the academy’s Institute of Russian Literature
(Pushkin House) in Leningrad.
Gippius’s articles and studies are among the most sophisticated and
scientific analyses of traditional music of the USSR. The volume of songs
of the Pinega region documents north Russian part-singing, and is
probably the finest modern scholarly publication of Russian folk music; his
essays in the Balakirev edition are thorough historical and functional
investigations of individual Russian folksongs. He also studied music of the
non-Slavonic peoples of the USSR and revolutionary songs; in later years
he worked on classifying and cataloguing methodologies and on
developing unified terminologies and transcription methods. His papers
and manuscripts are housed in the Central Museum of Musical Culture in
Moscow.
WRITINGS
‘Krest'yanskaya muzïka Zaonezh'ya’ [Peasant music of the trans-Onega
region], Krest'yanskoye iskusstvo SSSR: iskusstvo severa, i
(Leningrad, 1927), 147
‘Kul'tura protyazhnoy pesni na Pinege’ [Culture of the protyazhnaya song
along the Pinega river], Krest'yanskoye iskusstvo SSSR: iskusstvo
severa, ii (Moscow and Leningrad, 1928), 98
‘Problema muzïkal'nogo fol'klora’, SovM (1933), no.6, pp.65–89
‘Fonogramm-arkhiv Fol'klornoy sektsii Instituta antropologii, ėtnografii i
arkheologii Akademii nauk SSSR’ [The Phonogram Archive of the
folklore section of the Institute of anthropology, ethnography and
archaeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences], Sovetskiy fol'klor
(1936), nos.4–5, p.405
‘Intonatsionnïye ėlementï russkoy chastushki’ [Intonational elements of the
Russian chastushka], Sovetskiy fol'klor (1936), nos.4–5, pp.97–142
with V. Chicherov: ‘Sovetskaya fol'kloristika za 30 let’ [Soviet folklore
studies over 30 years], Sovetskaya ėtnografiya (1947), no.4, pp.29–51
‘O russkoy narodnoy podgolosochnoy polifonii v kontse XVIII – nachale XIX
veka’ [On Russian descant polyphony at the end of the 18th century
and beginning of the 19th], Sovetskaya ėtnografiya (1948), no.2,
pp.86–104
ed.: M. Balakirev: Russkiye narodnïye pesni (Moscow, 1957) [incl.
‘Sborniki russkikh narodnïkh pesen M.A. Balakireva’ [Balakirev’s
Collections of Russian folksongs], 193–347; partial Ger. trans. as ‘Zur
textologischen Untersuchung musikalischer Veröffentlichungen
russischer Volkslieder auf Grund der Sammlung von M.A. Balakirev’,
Sowjetische Volkslied- und Volksmusikforschung: ausgewählte
Studien, ed. E. Stockmann and others (Berlin, 1967), 239–55]
Ėy, ukhnem, Dubinushka: istoriya pesen [Ėy, ukhnem, Dubinushka: the
history of the songs] (Moscow, 1962)
‘Raskinulos' more shiroko’ [The sea stretched out widely], Muzïkal'naya
zhizn', no.21 (1962), pp.12–13
‘Die Entstehung des Liedes “Le drapeau rouge”’, BMw, x (1968), 16–32
‘Programmno-izobrazitel'nïy kompleks v ritual'noy instrumental'noy muzïke
“Medvezhego prazdnika” u Mansi’ [Imitative programme music
complex in the ritual instrumental music of the ‘bear festival’ among
the Mansi], Sbornik referatov uchastnikov Pervoy
instrumentovedcheskoy nauchnoy konferentsii Fol'klornoy komissii
soyuza kompozitorov RSFSR, ed. A. Medvedev (Moscow, 1974), 72
‘Obshcheteoreticheskiy vzglyad na problemu katalogizatsii narodnïkh
melodiy’ [A general theoretical view of the problem of cataloguing folk
melodies], Aktual'nïye problemï sovremennoy fol'kloristiki, ed. V.Ye.
Gusev (Leningrad, 1980), 23
‘Problemï areal'nogo issledovaniya traditsionnoy russkoy pesni v
oblastyakh ukrainskogo i belorusskogo pogranich'ya’ [The problems of
the regional study of the Russian song in the provinces of the
Ukrainian and Belorussian frontier], Traditsionnoye narodnoye
muzïkal'noye iskusstvo i sovremennost', ed. M.A. Yengovatova
(Moscow, 1982), 5
FOLKSONG COLLECTIONS
Yarenskiye pesni, napetïye A.A. Ėpovoy [Songs of the Yarensk region,
sung by A.A. Epova] (Moscow, 1935) [transcr. of phonograph
recordings (Leningrad, 1926)]
ed., with Z. Ewald: Krest'yanskaya lirika (Leningrad, 1935) [incl.
‘Krest'yanskaya lirika’ [The peasant lyric song], 5–64]
with Z. Ewald: Pesni Pinezh'ya, ii: Materialï fonogramm-arkhiva,
sobrannïye i razrabotannïye Ye.V. Gippiusom i Z.V. Ewald [Songs of
the Pinega river region: materials of the Phonogram Archive collected
and prepared by Gippius and Ewald] (Moscow, 1937) [i unpubd]
with Z. Ewald: A.M. Astakhova: Bïlinï severa [The bïlinas of the north], i
(Moscow and Leningrad, 1938)
Russkiye narodnïye pesni: pesennik [Russian folksongs: a songbook]
(Leningrad, 1943)
Dvadtsat' russkikh narodnïkh pesen [Twenty Russian folksongs] (Moscow,
1979)
EDITIONS OF FOLKSONG COLLECTIONS
with Z. Ewald: Narodnïye pesni Vologodskoy oblasti: sbornik
fonograficheskikh zapisey [Folksongs of the Vologda province:
collection of transcriptions from recordings] (Leningrad, 1938)
Russkiye narodnïye pesni Podmoskov'ya, sobrannïye narodnïm
pyevtseom-umyel'tsem P.G. Yarkovïm s 1890 po 1930 g. [Russian
folksongs of the Moscow area, collected by the folksinger and artist
P.G. Yarkov 1890–1930] (Moscow and Leningrad, 1951) [transcrs. by
A.V. Rudneva, ed. with foreword by Gippius]
M. Balakirev: Russkiye narodnïye pesni dlya odnogo golosa s
soprovozhdeniyem fortepiano [Russian folksongs for solo voice with
piano accompaniment] (Moscow, 1957)
L. Kershner: Karel'skiye narodnïye pesni [Karelian folksongs] (Moscow,
1962)
A. Aksyonov: Tuvinskaya narodnaya muzïka [Tuvinian folk music]
(Moscow, 1964)
B. Galayev: Osetinskiye narodnïye pesni sobrannïye B.A. Galayevïm v
zvukozapisyakh [Ossetian folksongs collected in sound recordings
made by B.A. Galayev] (Moscow, 1964)
Z. Ewald: Pesni belorusskogo Poles'ya [Songs of the Belorussian Poles'ye]
(Moscow, 1979)
A.P. Razumova and T.A. Koski: Russkaya svad'ba karel'skogo pomor'ya
[The Russian wedding ceremony of the Karelian seaboard]
(Petrozavodsk, 1980)
Narodnïye pesni i instrumental'nïye naigrïshi adïgov [The folksongs and
instrumental folk tunes of the Adïg] (Moscow, 1980–90) [vol.iii with V.K.
Baragunov and Z.P. Kardangushev]
N.I. Boyarkin, with others: Pamyatniki mordovskogo narodnogo
muzïkal'nogo iskusstva [Monuments of Mordvinian musical art], iii
(Saransk, 1981–8)
V. Zakharchenko and M. Mel'nikov: Svad'ba Obsko-Irtïshskogo
mezhdurech'ya [The wedding ceremony in the region between the
rivers Ob and Irtïsh] (Moscow, 1983)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ye. Gippius: ‘Hippius (Gippius), Evgenij Vladimirovič’, Sowjetische
Volkslied- und Volksmusikforschung: ausgewählte Studien, ed. E.
Stockmann and others (Berlin, 1967), 355–7
A. Medvedev, Z. Mozheyko and M. Nigmedzyanov: ‘Vïdayushchiysya
teoretik i issledovatel' narodnoy muzïki’ [An outstanding theorist and
investigator of folk music], Muzïkal'naya zhizn' (1974), no.1, pp.22–3
L. Mukharinskaya: ‘Neutomimïy issledovatel'’ [A tireless investigator],
SovM (1974), no.1, pp.33–7
L. Mukharinskaya and Z.Y. Mozheyko: ‘Put' uchyonogo’ [The path of a
scholar], SovM (1983), no.12, pp.76–9
Ye.V. Gippius: Obituary, SovM (1985), no.9, p.127 only
B.V. Asaf'yev: ‘Ye.V. Gippius: fol'klorist-issledovatel' narodnogo
muzïkal'nogo tvorchestva’ [Gippius: as a folklorist and researcher of
musical folk art], O narodnoy muzïke, ed. A. Kunanbayeva and I.I.
Zemtsovsky (Leningrad, 1987), 217
M.A. Lobanov: ‘Mnogogolosiye russkoy pesennoy liriki Pinezh'ya po
sovremennïm dannïm’ [The polyphony of the Russian lyric song of the
Pinezh'ye on the basis of up-to-date data], Pesennaya lirika ustnoy
traditsii, ed. I.I. Zemtsovsky (St Petersburg, 1994), 232
BARBARA KRADER

Gipps, Ruth (Dorothy Louisa)

[Wid(dy) Gipps]
(b Bexhill-on-Sea, 20 Feb 1921; d Eastbourne, 23 Feb 1999). English
pianist, composer and conductor. Her music education began at the age of
three at the Bexhill School of Music, where her mother was principal. She
gave her first performance aged four, and her first composition was
published by Forsyth Brothers when she was eight. She gained her
performer's ARCM at 15 and in the same year entered the RCM, London.
Here she studied composition with Gordon Jacob, R.O. Morris and
Vaughan Williams, the oboe with Leon Goossens, and the piano with Arthur
Alexander and Kendall Taylor. On leaving college she studied the piano
with Matthay. While at the RCM she won a number of prizes for
composition, including the Cobbett Prize and the grade five composition
prize for her First Symphony (1942). Her tone poem Knight in Armour was
conducted by Sir Henry Wood on the last night (22 August) of the 1942
Promenade concerts. In 1948 she obtained a DMus at the University of
Durham.
 While trying to establish herself as a concert pianist Gipps took a position
playing oboe and english horn with the City of Birmingham Orchestra
(1944–5), whose conductor, George Weldon, encouraged her to undertake
conducting work. From this time on her career took a change of direction.
She became chorus master of the City of Birmingham Choir and later
conductor of the Birmingham Co-Operative Amateur Orchestra. At this time
there were very few female conductors, and gaining support often proved
very difficult. Undeterred, Gipps decided to set up her own orchestras. In
1955 she founded the London Repertoire Orchestra, which she ran until
1986. In 1961 she formed the professional Chanticleer Orchestra; among
the orchestras she conducted were the LSO and the Boyd Neel and Pro
Arte Orchestras. Between 1960 and 1991 Gipps worked as a music
professor at Trinity College of Music (1960–66), the RCM (1967–77) and
Kingston Polytechnic (1977–9). In 1967 she became chairwoman of the
Composers' Guild of Great Britain, in which role she was instrumental in
establishing the British Music Information Centre. She was awarded an
OBE in 1981.
Gipps's long and varied career reflected her energy and multi-faceted
musical ability, yet it was as a composer that she made her most sustained
contribution, particularly in the genres of orchestral and chamber music.
Her music parallels other British composers who were influenced by the
folksong revival and the new Franco-Russian movement. Her style is easily
accessible and rich in character, marked by highly melodic tonal and modal
themes, chromatically complex harmonic language and vibrant
orchestration.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Knight in Armour, op.8, 1940; Ob Conc., d, op.20, 1941; Sym. no.1, op.22,
1942; Vn Conc., B , op.24, 1943; Suite: the Chinese Cabinet, op.29, 1945; Sym.
no.2, op.30, 1945; Pf Conc., op.34, 1948; Conc., op.49, vn, va, small orch, 1957;
Sym. no.3, op.56, 1960; Hn Conc., op.58, 1968; Sym. no.4, op.61, 1972; Sym. no.5,
op.64, 1982; Ambarvalia, small orch, op.70, 1988; Hn Conc, op.58, 1997
Chbr: Trio, op.10, ob, cl, pf, 1940; Qnt, op.16, ob, cl, vn, va, vc, 1941; Flax and
Charlock, op.21, eng hn, str trio, 1941; Rhapsody, op.23, cl, str qt, 1942; Sonata,
op.42, vn, pf, 1954; Sonata, op.45, cl, pf, 1955; Str Qt, op.47, 1956; Sonata, op.63,
vc, pf, 1978; Wind Octet, op.65, 1983; Sonata, op.6, ob, pf, 1985; Sinfonietta,
op.73, 10 wind, 1989; Wealden Suite, op.76, B -cl, E -cl, A-cl, b cl, 1991; Sonata,
op.80, a trbn, 1995; Sonata, op.81, db, pf, 1996
Choral: The Temptation of Christ, op.6, S, T, SATB, orch, 1939; Rhapsody without
Words, op.18, S, small orch, 1941; The Cat, op.32, A, Bar, double chorus, orch,
1947; The Prophet, op.35, spkr, S, B, chorus, children's chorus, orch, 1950; Goblin
Market, op.40, S, S, SSA, str orch, 1953; Mag and Nunc, op.55, SSTAB, org, 1959

BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Halstead: A Study of Ruth Gipps Illustrating her Musical Development
through Detailed Reference to Symphonies Two to Five (thesis, U. of
Sheffield, 1991)
D.C.F. Wright: ‘Ruth Gipps’, British Music, xiii (1991), 3–13
C. Pluygers: ‘Discrimination … the Career and Struggle for Recognition of
Dr Ruth Gipps’, Winds (1992), spr., 14–15
M. Campbell: ‘Ruth Gipps: a Woman of Substance’, Signature, i/3 (1996),
15–20, 32–4
L. Foreman: ‘Ruth Gipps’, The Independent (3 March 1999) [obituary]
J. Halstead: The Woman Composer: Factors Affecting Creativity and the
Gendered Politics of Musical Composition (forthcoming)
JILL HALSTEAD (with LEWIS FOREMAN, J.N.F. LAURIE-BECKETT)

Giraldoni, Eugenio
(b Marseilles, 20 May 1871; d Helsinki, 23/24 June 1924). Italian baritone,
son of the baritone Leone Giraldoni and the soprano and violinist Carolina
Ferni (1839–1926). Eugenio was taught by his mother, and he made his
début in 1891 as Escamillo at Barcelona. He became well known
throughout Italy and in South America and in 1900 was given the role of
Scarpia in the world première of Tosca at the Costanzi in Rome. He
repeated the part later that year at La Scala and in other houses including
Covent Garden (1906), but was generally considered to exaggerate the
sadism and underplay the refinement of the part. In his single season at
the Metropolitan, in 1904, he was also found somewhat coarse in his
performances. He nevertheless continued to be in great demand in Europe
and South America. He was a widely admired Boris, a part he first sang at
Buenos Aires in 1909. He was also Italy’s first Yevgeny Onegin in 1900 and
Golaud in the Rome première of Pelléas et Mélisande. Other roles outside
the standard Italian repertory were Hans Sachs, Telramund, Ochs and
Rubinstein’s Demon. He was considered the best singer of Gérard in
Andrea Chénier and in 1906 took part in the première of Franchetti’s La
figlia di Iorio. He retired from the stage in 1921 and thereafter taught in
Helsinki. His recordings, magnificent in quality of voice, often show him as
a colourful stylist too; strangely, they do not include any excerpts from
Tosca.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GV (E. Gara and R. Celletti; R. Vegeto)
J.B. STEANE

Giraldoni, Leone
(b Paris, 1824; d Moscow, 19 Sept/1 Oct 1897). Italian baritone, father of
Eugenio Giraldoni. He studied in Florence, making his début in 1847 at
Lodi. After singing in Florence and, from 1855, at La Scala, he created the
title role of Simon Boccanegra at La Fenice in 1857 and Renato in Un ballo
in maschera at the Teatro Apollo, Rome, in 1859. He also sang other Verdi
roles, notably Count di Luna (Il trovatore). In 1877 he sang Rossini’s Figaro
at La Scala and in 1878 at Cagli he took part in the first performance of
Mercuri’s Il violino del diavolo, written for his wife, Carolina Ferni, a virtuoso
violinist as well as a singer. He created the title role of Donizetti’s
posthumously produced Il duca d’Alba at the Teatro Apollo, Rome (1882),
and after his retirement in 1885 taught singing in Moscow. A sensitive artist,
he had a rich, high-lying voice.
 ELIZABETH FORBES

Giraldus Cambrensis [Gerald de

Barri, Gerald of Wales]
(b Manorbier, c1146; d ?Lincoln, c1223). Welsh-Norman ecclesiastic and
author. Educated in arts and canon law at Paris, he was archdeacon of
Brecon from about 1175 to 1203; from 1184 to 1194 he was also in royal
service. After visits to Ireland in 1183 and 1185–6 he wrote a Topographia
Hibernica (c1187) and Expugnatio Hibernica (c1188). Likewise, after his
travels around Wales in 1188 he wrote Itinerarium Kambriae (1191) and
Descriptio Kambriae (1194). His later works include the largely
autobiographical De rebus a se gestis (c1204). His writing is characterized
by fascination with detail, vigorous expression of personal opinion and a
fondness for controversy and debate.
Both the Topographia and the Descriptio contain passages referring to
music which have been variously translated and interpreted by scholars
musicologically untrained or nationalistically motivated, but which have
latterly been subjected to more critical examination. The extent of
Giraldus's musical training is unknown, so the accuracy of his use of
musical terms is not certain, but the passages are nonetheless a unique
source of information about the music that they describe. He stated
(Topographia, III, ix) that Irish instrumentalists were more skilled than any
other people; their music was characterized by rapidity of the fingers,
ornamented measures or melodies (‘crispati moduli’) and extremely
intricate polyphony or counterpoint (‘organa multipliciter intricata’). He
referred to the intervals of the strings, which, whether they sounded 4ths or
5ths, always began from ‘B mollis’ and returned to it; the significance of the
note name is not known. He stated that Scotland and Wales imitated
Ireland in musical style. Ireland used only two instruments, the harp
(‘cithara’) and the timpán or lyre (‘tympanum’); Scotland used these as well
as the chorus (a type of wind instrument, or perhaps, the crwth), and Wales
the harp, chorus and pipe (‘tibia’). He noted that brass strings (rather than
leather/gut) were used; this remark may refer to Ireland, or to Wales, or to
all three countries.
In keeping with the affinity that he noted between Irish and Welsh music-
making, much of the account of Irish string-playing is repeated verbatim in
the Descriptio (I, xii). Another passage (I, xiii) describes a Welsh practice of
part-singing (for an alternative interpretation see Rondellus):
When they make music together, they sing their songs not in
unison [uniformiter], as is done elsewhere, but in parts
[multipliciter], with many modes [modis] and phrases
[modulis], so that in a crowd of singers … you would hear as
many songs and differentiations of voices [discrimina vocum
varia] as you could see heads, coming together finally in one
consonance and organic melody [organicam melodiam] with
the enchanting sweetness of B mollis.
He compared this practice with a similar one in northern Britain, where the
polyphony was confined to two parts; in both districts the skill was acquired
not by training but by long usage. He speculated that since the English
south of the Humber did not share the habit, the northerners may have
learnt it from the Danes and Norwegians. Hibberd interpreted the passage
to mean heterophony for a group of singers, whereas Burstyn suggested
controlled improvisation on a known, perhaps traditional, pattern of vertical
sonorities.
Aside from these clues regarding practical music-making, later recensions
of the Topographia included a lengthy exegetical passage on the effects of
music and its earlier practitioners and theorists; in it, Giraldus referred to a
practice of funeral lamentation characteristic of both Ireland and Spain,
which he called planctus.
WRITINGS
ed. J.F. Dimock: Giraldi Cambrensis opera, v–vi (London, 1867–8/R)
ed. and trans. L. Thorpe: The Journey through Wales – The Description
of Wales (Harmondsworth, 1978)
ed. and trans. J.J. O'Meara: The History and Topography of Ireland
(Harmondsworth, 1982)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ll. Hibberd: ‘Giraldus Cambrensis and English “Organ” Music’, JAMS, viii
(1955), 208–12
Ll. Hibberd: ‘Giraldus Cambrensis on Welsh Popular Singing’, Essays on
Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison (Cambridge, MA,
1957), 17–23
M. Richter: Giraldus Cambrensis: the Growth of the Welsh Nation
(Aberystwyth, 1976)
R. Bartlett: Gerald of Wales (Oxford, 1982)
B.F. Roberts: Gerald of Wales (Cardiff, 1982)
S. Burstyn: ‘Gerald of Wales and the Sumer Canon’, JM, ii (1983), 135–50
S. Burstyn: ‘Is Gerald of Wales a Credible Musical Witness’, MQ, lxxii
(1986), 155–69
P.J. Nixon: ‘Giraldus Cambrensis on Music: How Reliable are his
Historiographers?’, Medieval Studies: Skara 1988, 264–89
R. Crocker: ‘Polyphony in England in the Thirteenth Century’, NOHM, ii
(2/1990), 679–720
P. Weller: ‘Gerald of Wales’s View of Music’, Welsh Music History, ii
(1997), 1–32
ANDREW HUGHES/ANDREA BUDGEY

Giramo [Girolamo], Pietro Antonio

(fl ?Naples 1619–after 1630). Italian composer. In 1620 he contributed to
the festa a ballo Delizie di Posilipo boscarecce, e maritime, performed at
Naples on 1 March to celebrate Philip III's return to health. The prefaces to
his Arie of 1630 and to Il pazzo … et Uno hospedale were also signed in
Naples, though the music of the latter volumes was dedicated to Anna de'
Medici. In the preface to his 1630 book Giramo stated that he had written
its contents under the patronage of the Duke of Crosia, who also took part
 in its performance. The later volume of Arie (not that of 1630 as Ghisi
stated) contains variations on the romanesca, Ruggiero, chaconne and
other basses for three and four voices. At the end Giramo referred to rules
for the performance of such pieces that had appeared in an earlier book,
which must be lost, for they are not in the 1630 book. Nearly all the pieces
in this latter book have directions for performance such as ‘affettuosa’,
‘allegra’ and ‘grave’.
WORKS
Delizie di Posilipo boscarecce, e maritime (festa a ballo), Naples, 1 March 1620; ed.
in RRMBE, xxv (1978)
Arie, 2–4vv, bc (Naples, 1630), 1 piece in GB-Lbl MS Add. 31, 440
Arie, 3–4vv, bc [libro I, op.2] (n.p., n.d.)
Il pazzo con la pazza [1, 3vv, bc], ristampata, et Uno hospedale per gl'infermi
d'amore [1–5vv, bc] (?Naples, n.d.) [comprises 2 separate collections]
3 secular works in 161911, 1 in 162014
Chi non mi conosce dirà (text mainly from Uno hospedale), US-Eu MS 1, Music
Library
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Ghisi: Alle fonti della monodia (Milan, 1940/R), 75
C. Piccardi: ‘Giovanni Giacomo Porro, Francesco Robbiano e altri musici
di frontiera’, La musica sacra in Lombardia nella prima metà del
Seicento: Como, 1985, 313–56, esp. 328
M. Murata: ‘Singing about Singing, or the Powers of Music’, In cantu et in
sermone: for Nino Pirrotta on his 80th Birthday, ed. F. Della Seta and
F. Piperno (Florence, 1989), 363–82, esp. 380–81
JOHN WHENHAM

Girard.
Italian firm of music publishers. In 1809 Giuseppe Girard opened a music
copyist’s business in Naples at Via Toledo 165, and at the end of 1817 he
established the Calcografia e copisteria dei Reali teatri. Guglielmo Cottrau
(1797–1847) was director from 1824 to 1846. Giuseppe Girard retired in
1826 to be succeeded by his son Bernardo, who in 1827 entered into
partnership with Cottrau. When Bernardo died in 1835 Gugliemo Cottrau
became a partner of the Girard heirs and continued to do business under
the name Bernardo Girard e C. Cottrau's experience and reputation kept
the business flourishing, thanks to the cordial rapport he enjoyed with the
leading musicians of the time; his French origins possibly account for the
good relations the firm enjoyed with the French publishers Troupenas,
Latte and Launer, to whom rights were given for some of Bellini’s operas
and Donizetti’s Lucia, Roberto Devereux and Betly. Under Cottrau the firm
published Passatempi musicali (1835–47), a collection of 129 Neapolitan
songs that he edited; the first edition had been published privately in 1826
and reprinted in 1830. Bernard Latte published the collection in a
translation by A. de Lauzières, and in 1833 it was sold to the Paris
publisher Pacini. By paying an annual fee to the S Carlo, del Fondo and
Nuovo theatres, Girard secured the copyright of the operas and ballets
expressly written for and performed in those theatres.
On Cottrau’s retirement in 1846 he left the management of the firm to his
son Teodoro Cottrau, who became the sole proprietor in 1855. The firm’s
1847 catalogue contains 210 pages of titles. Michele Pasinati supervised
the music engraving. From 1853 the firm took the name Stabilimento
musicale partenopeo (successore di B. Girard e C.).
The firm’s 1847 catalogue lists mainly operas, generally in vocal score,
written by the most important Italian composers (Rossini, Pacini, Bellini,
Donizetti, Mercadante) and works by minor Neapolitan musicians. The firm
also issued a complete edition of Beethoven’s piano sonatas and some of
his chamber music, the complete works of Chopin, Mendelssohn’s Lieder
ohne Worte and Thalberg’s Oeuvres choisies. Other music was published
in the series Euterpe drammatica estera: scelta di pezzi vocali delle migliori
opere moderne francesi e tedesche con versione italiana. A journal,
Gazzetta musicale di Napoli, was published from 1852 to 1868. About
1870, Teodoro Cottrau’s interest in publishing declined; in the closing years
of the century it was run by Teodoro’s brother Felice Cottrau and Nicola
Ercole. It is likely that at the beginning of the new century at least a part of
the Cottrau material was acquired by the publisher Santojanni. The last
catalogue of the archive was published in 1886.
Bernardo Girard’s son Federico (d 6 April 1877) ran an independent
publishing business in the 1860s and 70s. He published more than 1000
titles, generally romanzas and piano pieces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SartoriD
G. Cottrau: Lettres d’un mélomane pour servir de document à l’histoire
musicale de Naples de 1829 à 1847 (Naples, 1885)
R. Cafiero and F. Seller: ‘Editoria musicale a Napoli attraverso la stampa
periodica: il “Giornale del regno delle due Sicilie” (1817–1860)’, Le
fonti musicali in Italia: studi e ricerche, iii (1989), 57–90; iv (1990),
133–70
B.M. Antolini: ‘Le edizioni rossiniane’, Rossini 1792–1992, Pesaro,
Palazzo Montani Antaldi, 27 June–30 Sept 1992, ed. M. Bucarelli
(Perugia, 1992), 355–66 [exhibition catalogue]
B.M. Antolini: ‘Copyists and Publishers in Italy between 1770 and 1830’,
The Dissemination of Music, ed. H. Lenneberg (Lausanne, 1994),
107–15
P. Maione and F. Seller: ‘Il Tribunale di Commercio di Napoli: documenti
sull’attività teatrale del primo Ottocento’, Fonti musicali italiane, i
(1996), 145–62
F. Seller: ‘Giraud-Cottrau’, Dizionario degli editori musicali italiani, 1750–
1930, ed. B.M. Antolini (Rome, forthcoming)
STEFANO AJANI/R

Girard, Jan.
See Gerard, Jan.

Girard, Narcisse
(b Mantes, 27 Jan 1797; d Paris, 17 Jan 1860). French conductor, violinist
and composer. He was in Baillot's class at the Paris Conservatoire
(winning second prize in 1819 and first prize in 1820), and studied
counterpoint with Reicha. He composed several works, including two
opéras-comiques: Les deux voleurs (1841) and Les dix (1842). However, it
was principally as a violinist and conductor that he made his name. A
member of the orchestra of the Opera Buffa and the Théâtre Feydeau, he
was one of the group that founded the Société des Concerts du
Conservatoire in 1828, together with Habeneck, whom he was to succeed.
According to Dandelot (in La Société des concerts du Conservatoire,
1828–1923, Paris, 1923), he made his début as a conductor with the
orchestra of the Athénée Musical at the Hôtel de Ville. He replaced Grasset
as conductor of the orchestra of the Théâtre Italien (1830–32), and was
then conductor at the Théâtre-Nautique (1834–5), and succeeded
Valentino at the Opéra-Comique (1836–47). Habeneck recommended that
Girard succeed him as conductor of the orchestra of the Académie Royale
de Musique on 1 October 1846; he remained there until his sudden death
in 1860, during a performance of Les Huguenots. Girard also continued
Habeneck's work with the orchestra of the Société des Concerts du
Conservatoire, which he conducted 112 times between 1849 and 1860. In
1843 he was made a Chevalier of the Légion d'Honneur, and on 1 January
1847 he was appointed professor of a new violin class at the
Conservatoire, holding that post until his death. He also conducted the
orchestras of the Chapelle Impériale (1853), and the Opéra, earning the
title of music director of the Académie Impériale de Musique (1855–6).
Despite the forthright opinion of Saint-Saëns, who considered Girard's
reputation somewhat exaggerated, and held him responsible for the
introduction of many errors of interpretation into works by composers of the
past, which had to await Deldevez to recover their original meaning, it may
be noted that in continuing the tradition he inherited from Cherubini and
Habeneck, Girard gave a modern direction to the repertory of the Société
des Concerts du Conservatoire from the early days of his appointment. In
particular, he included works by composers of the younger generation such
as Berlioz (La damnation de Faust, 15 April 1849), Halévy (Prométhée
enchaîné, 18 March 1849) and Félicien David (a symphony, 1853).
GÉRARD STRELETSKI

Girardeau, Isabella
(fl 1709–12). Italian soprano. Very little is known of her: Burney thought she
was an Italian married to a Frenchman and tentatively identified her with
one Isabella Calliari. She was a member of the Queen’s Theatre company
in London from January 1710 (perhaps October 1709) until spring or
summer 1712 and sang in six pasticcios, Almahide, Idaspe fedele, Pirro e
Demetrio, Etearco, Antioco and Ambleto, and in Handel’s Rinaldo, in which
she was the original Almirena. This is an exceptionally modest part for an
opera seria heroine, and neither elaborate nor taxing (the compass is d' to
a''); moreover much of the material was not new. Girardeau was evidently
no great virtuoso; but she could not have lacked power, for in Ambleto she
had ‘a noisy song for trumpets and hautbois obligati’ (Burney). She is said
to have been a bitter rival of Elisabetta Pilotti-Schiavonetti, Handel’s first
Armida.
WINTON DEAN

Girardi, Alexander
(b Graz, 5 Dec 1850; d Vienna, 20 April 1918). Austrian tenor and comic
actor. For over 40 years the much loved, popular favourite of the Vienna
theatre, he created roles in more than 50 musical plays and operettas,
chiefly at the Theater an der Wien, where he was engaged from 1874 to
1896 and again from 1902 to 1905. He inspired many characters in Johann
Strauss operettas, including Blasoni (Cagliostro in Wien), Don Sancho
(Das Spitzentuch der Königin), Marchese Sebastiani (Der lustige Krieg),
Zsupan (Der Zigeunerbaron), Kassim Pasha (Fürstin Ninetta) and Müller
(Waldmeister). For Millöcker he created Andredl (Das verwunschene
Schloss), Plinchard (Die Jungfrau von Belleville), Symon Rymanowicz (Der
Bettelstudent), Benozzo (Gasparone), Piffkow (Der Feldprediger) and the
title role of Der arme Jonathan. Zeller wrote Adam (Der Vogelhändler) and
Martin (Der Obersteiger) for him, while Lehár’s Wiener Frauen, Eysler’s
Bruder Straubinger, Oscar Straus’s Mein junger Herr, Kálmán’s Der
Zigeunerprimas and Fall’s Der Nachtschnellzug contain original Girardi
roles. His inimitable humour and expressiveness are preserved in four
recordings made in 1903.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K.F. Nowak: Alexander Girardi: sein Leben und sein Wirken (Vienna, 1908)
R. Holzer: Die Wiener Vorstadtbühnen: Alexander Girardi und das Theater
an der Wien (Vienna, 1951)
B. Grun: Kulturgeschichte der Operette (Munich, 1961, 2/1967)
ELIZABETH FORBES

Giraud, François-Joseph
(d ?Paris, after 1788). French cellist and composer. He held the post of
maître de musique in Laon before going to Paris, where he was employed
as a cellist at the Académie Royale de Musique (1752–76). From 1752 to
1767 he was a cellist in the Paris Opéra orchestra and at the Concert
Spirituel. His collection of sonatas for cello op.1 probably dates from the
early 1750s. Among its unusual features are continuous multiple stops in
some slow movements, and somewhat less adventurous fast movements
in which the solo line is sometimes in unison with the continuo. Chromatic
bass lines and suspensions are both interesting characteristics of his style.
Between 1752 and 1765 at least seven grands motets by Giraud (none of
which survives) were performed at the Concert Spirituel, Regina coeli, in
particular, several times. His other successful genre was the comédie-
ballet, with L'opéra de société receiving more than 20 performances at the
Opéra. Noiray considers his most important work to be Deucalion et
Pyrrha, a one-act ballet composed in collaboration with P.-M. Berton. This
work contains in miniature many of the traditional elements of French
 serious opera as exemplified by Rameau; the storm and the combat with a
mythical creature are both vividly depicted.
WORKS
printed works published in Paris

stage
first performances in Paris

Les hommes (comédie-ballet, 1, G.-F.P. de Saint-Foix), Comédie-Français, 27 June

1753, vaudeville pubd in Mercure de France (Aug, 1753)
L'amour fixé (ballet-pantomime, 1, Vestris [G.-A.-B. Vestri]), Comédie-Français, 14
Aug 1754, lost
Deucalion et Pyrrha (ballet, 1, Saint-Foix), Opéra, 30 Sept 1755 (n.d.), vs (1755),
collab. P.-M. Berton
La gageure de village (comédie, 1, C. de Seillans), Comédie-Française, 26 May
1756, excerpts pubd in Mercure de France (July 1756)
L'opéra de société (comédie-ballet, 1, A. Gautier de Mondorge), Opéra, 1 Oct 1762,
F-Po
Acante et Cidippe (pastorale-héroïque, 1, M.-J. Boutillier), Nicolet, 1764 [parody of
Rameau: Acanthe et Céphise]

other works
Choral motets (all lost): Regina coeli, 1752; Super flumina Babylonis, 1752; Quam
dilecta, 1753; Salvum me fac Deus, 1754; Deus noster refugium, 1755; Exaltabo
te, 1758; Cantemus, 1763
Inst: 6 sonates, vc, bc, op.1 (c1750); 6 sonates, vn, vc, ad lib bc, op.2 (n.d.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
GroveO (M. Noiray)
La BordeE
PierreH
G.J. Shaw: The Violoncello Sonata Literature in France during the
Eighteenth Century (diss., Catholic U. of America, Washington DC,
1963)
MARY CYR/VALERIE WALDEN

Giraud, Marthe.
See Carré, Marguerite.

Giraud, Suzanne
(b Metz, 31 July 1958). French composer. She was a student at the
Strasbourg Conservatoire before entering the Paris Conservatoire, where
her principal composition teachers were Ballif, Constant and Dufourt. She
also studied the techniques of electro-acoustic composition and spectral
music at IRCAM, the Groupe de Recherches Musicales and with Murail,
 before undertaking further studies with Donatoni and Ferneyhough. She
was resident at the Villa Medici, Rome, from 1984 to 1986. She has
received a number of awards, including the Enesco Prize of the SACEM,
and commissions from French Radio and the Ensemble
InterContemporain. She taught at the Paris Conservatoire from 1988 until
1993, when she became director of the Conservatoire de Paris 20e
Arrondissement.
Most of Giraud’s works are written for chamber groups of varying size and
configuration; her often unusual choice of instruments, as for example in
Episode en forme d’oubli and Le rouge des profondeurs, enables her to
create a noticeable interplay of subtle timbres, a feature reminiscent of,
and maybe derived from, the work of Marius Constant. Although she uses
strict combinatorial serial techniques, the evocative titles of her
compositions suggest that her work is informed by a naturalistic aesthetic,
one that is at once dreamlike and exultant.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Terre essor, 1984, Non, peut-être, str orch, 1994

Chbr: Homo homini lupus, 8 insts, 1983; Regards sur le jardin d’Eros, str qt, 1983;
Ergo sum, 15 insts, 1985; L’offrande à Vénus, 8 insts, 1985; Contrées d’un rêve, 15
insts, 1987; L’aube sur le désir, 2 fl, hp, str trio, 1988; Episode en forme d’oubli, cl,
mar, db, 1989; Fantasia, 2 ob, bn, hpd, 1989; Le rouge des profondeurs, 6 insts,
1990; Crier vers l’horizon, bn, ens, 1991; Le rivage des transes, 2 pf, 2 perc, 1991;
Str Trio, 1991, L’âge de colère, 3 fl, 1992; Bleu et ombre, db/Mez, db, 1993; Comme
un murmure amoureux, fl/pic, ob/eng hn, hn, vc, 1995; La musique nous vient
d’ailleurs, ens, 1995; Orphée, fl, ob/eng hn, vc, 1995; Envoûtements, vn, 1996;
Envoûtements II, fl, mar, 1997
Vocal: La dernière lumière, S, 8 insts, 1985; Voici la lune, S, fl, pf, 1986; Petrarca,
6vv, 1996; Oedipe, 13vv, 8 wind
Solo perc: Tentative-univers, 1983; L’oeil et le jour, 1990

MSS in F-Pn

Principal publishers: Salabert, Editions du Visage, Editions Musicales Européennes

DANIEL KAWKA

Giraut [Girautz, Guiraut] de

Bornelh [de Borneill]
(b Bourney, nr Périgueux, c1140; d c1200). Troubadour. He was called by
his contemporaries the ‘maestre del trobadors’. His vida (for sources, see
Pillet and Carstens, p.203) states that he was born in modest
circumstances but managed to acquire a good education, and that he was
held in high esteem for the subtlety and perfection of his poems by
‘noblemen and by connoisseurs’. His songs show that he travelled widely,
 visiting virtually every court in southern France and northern Spain. This is
confirmed in the vida, which reports that in winter he taught in school, and
in summer he travelled from court to court accompanied by two singers
who performed his songs. From references in two poems (PC 242.33 and
41), it seems likely that he was at some time a participant in the Third
Crusade.
77 poems are attributed to Giraut, among them three tensos (including
S’ie·us quier conseil) that are among the oldest examples of this genre.
Three of Giraut’s poems were cited by Dante in his De vulgari eloquentia,
indicating the high regard in which he was held even a century after his
death. Only four poems have survived with music, of which the alba, Reis
glorios, is probably the best known and justly admired of all troubadour
songs in modern times. The distinctive opening and general shape of Reis
glorios suggest its relation to such 1st-mode plainchant melodies as the
hymn Ave Maris Stella. Of the remaining poems with music, S’ie·us quier
conseil is of interest as one of the few surviving examples of the tenso with
music: in it, Giraut addressed Alamanda, whom Rieger has identified as the
trobairitz Alamanda Castelnau (1160–1223). Like Reis glorios, the melody
for S'ie·us quier conseil must have been well known. Bertran de Born
apparently used it for one of his poems (PC 80.13), calling it ‘el son de
N'Alamanda’ (the tune of Lady Alamanda). Giraut's popularity is further
attested by the fact that two of the surviving melodies later reappear as
contrafacta. Musically, his surviving songs depart from the main troubadour
tradition of through-composed melodies. Both Reis glorios and S’ie·us
quier conseil are written in clear bar form, and the other two songs also
employ melodies with internal repetitions.
WORKS

Editions:Der musikalische Nachlass der Troubadours: I, ed. F. Gennrich, SMM, iii (1958)
[complete edn]Las cançons dels trobadors, ed. I. Fernandez de la Cuesta and R. Lafont
(Toulouse, 1979) [complete edn]The Extant Troubadour Melodies, H. van der Werf and
G. Bond (Rochester, NY, 1984) [complete edn]The ‘Cansos’ and ‘Sirventes’ of the
Troubadour Giraut de Borneil: a Critical Edition, ed. R.V. Sharman (Cambridge, 1989)
[complete edn]

Leu chansonet’e vil, PC 242.45

Non posc sofrir qu’a la dolor, PC 242.51 [contrafactum: Peire Cardenal, ‘Ar mi posc
eu lauzar d’amor’, PC 335.7] [facs. in MGG1]
Reis glorios, verais lums e clardatz, PC 242.64 [contrafactum: ‘Reis glorios, sener,
per qu’hanc nasquei’, PC 461.215b]
S’ie·us quier conseil, bel’ amig’ Alamanda’, PC 242.69 (tenso)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (F. Gennrich)
A. Kolsen: Sämtliche Lieder des Trobadors Guiraut de Bornelh (Halle,
1910–35) [edn of texts]
J. Boutière and A.-H. Schutz: Biographies des troubadours (Paris, 1950,
rev. 2/1964 by J. Boutière), 39
B. Stäblein: ‘Eine Hymnusmelodie als Vorlage einer provenzalischen Alba’,
Miscelánea en homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona,
1958–61), 889–94
H. van der Werf: The Chansons of the Troubadours and Trouvères: a
Study of the Melodies and their Relation to the Poems (Utrecht, 1972),
96 [edn of Reis glorios]
W. Arlt: ‘Zur Interpretation zweier Lieder: A Madre de Deus und Reis
glorios’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, i (1977), 117–30
R. Labaree: ‘Finding’ Troubadour Song: Melodic Variability and Melodic
Idiom in Three Monophonic Traditions (diss., Wesleyan U., 1989), 168
A. Rieger: ‘Alamanda de Castelnau: une trobairitz dans l'entourage des
comtes de Toulouse?’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, cvii
(1991), 47–57
M. Switten: ‘Modèle et variations: Saint-Martial de Limoges et les
troubadours’, Contacts de langues, de civilisations et intertextualité:
Congrès international de l'Association internationale d'études
occitanes III [Montpellier 1990], ed. G. Gouiran (Montpellier, 1992),
679–96
M.T. Bruckner, L. Shepard and S. White: Songs of the Women
Troubadours (New York, 1995), 42, 158 [trans. and commentary of PC
242.69]

For further bibliography see Troubadours, trouvères.

ROBERT FALCK/JOHN D. HAINES

Girdlestone, Cuthbert M(orton)

(b Bovey Tracey, Devon, 17 Sept 1895; d St Cloud, 10 Dec 1975). English
writer on music. He obtained the licence ès lettres at the Sorbonne in 1915
and studied for a year at the Schola Cantorum; he entered Trinity College,
Cambridge, in the same year. After serving with the army in France and
Egypt he returned to Cambridge in 1919 and began lecturing there in 1922.
Four years later he was appointed professor of French in the Newcastle
division of the University of Durham, now the University of Newcastle upon
Tyne. After his retirement in 1960 he lived at St Cloud, France.
Girdlestone’s teaching consistently extolled classical ideals, especially
clarity of expression and control of emotion by form. His first book,
Dreamer and Striver: The Poetry of Frédéric Mistral (London, 1937),
vindicated classical qualities in a 19th-century poet, and his first on music,
Mozart et ses concertos pour piano (1939), concerned ‘absolute’ music by
a supremely classical genius. The neglect of Rameau’s music, even in
France, and the scant attention it had received from writers outside France
led him to write Jean-Philippe Rameau: his Life and Work (1957); he also
wrote a study of French tragic opera texts of the period of Rameau. He was
a Chevalier de la Légion d’honneur.
WRITINGS
‘Le Cerf de la Viéville’s Comparaison: its Non-Musical Interest’, French
Studies (1922), July
‘Muzio Clementi’, ML, xii (1932), 286–97
Mozart et ses concertos pour piano (Paris, 1939; Eng. trans., 1948,
3/1978)
Jean-Philippe Rameau: his Life and Work (London, 1957, 2/1969)
‘Voltaire, Rameau, et Samson’, RMFC, vi (1966), 133–43
La tragédie en musique (1673–1750) considérée comme genre littéraire
(Paris, 1972)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E.T. Dubois and others, eds.: Essays Presented to C.M. Girdlestone
(Newcastle upon Tyne, 1960) [incl. list of writings]
ARTHUR HUTCHINGS

Girelli (Aquilar) [Aguilar, Anguilar],

Antonia Maria
(fl 1752–73). Italian singer. She apparently began as a dancer in 1752 at
the Teatro S Samuele, Venice, but was engaged as a singer in Florence
from 1756 to 1757. In 1759 she returned to Venice to sing at the Teatro S
Angelo. In 1760–61 she sang in Prague, in Giuseppe Scarlatti’s Adriano in
Siria, and was resident in Prague in 1764–5. The highpoints of her career
were her performances in the premières of Gluck’s operas Il trionfo di
Clelia (1763, Bologna), in the title role, particularly impressing Dittersdorf,
and Le feste d’Apollo (1769, Parma), as well as her contribution (as Silvia)
to Mozart’s festa teatrale Ascanio in Alba (1771, Milan), when Leopold and
Wolfgang mentioned her as having had to repeat an aria. But in 1772–3,
when she appeared in England (in Vento’s pasticcio Sofonisba and
Sacchini’s Il Cid and Tamerlano), Burney found her intonation ‘frequently
false’, though he commented on her ‘spirited and nervous style’. A Barbara
Girelli, perhaps her sister, sang in Parma (1758), Reggio nell’Emilia (1760,
1770), Venice (1763–4), Prague (1768–9), Pesaro (1771) and Siena
(1771). Her last performance was in Guglielmi’s La sposa fedele.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BurneyH
GerberL (‘Aguillar’)
SartoriL
C. Ditters von Dittersdorf: Lebensbeschreibung (Leipzig, 1801; Eng.
trans., 1896/R); ed. N. Miller (Munich, 1967)
T. Wiel: I teatri musicali veneziani del Settecento (Venice, 1897/R)
P. Clive: Mozart and his Circle: a Biographical Dictionary (London, 1993),
61–2
GERHARD CROLL, IRENE BRANDENBURG

Girelli, Santino
(b Brescia; fl 1620–27). Italian composer. According to the title-page of his
publication of 1626 he had studied under Lelio Bertani. He seems to have
remained in Brescia. He is not known to have held a church appointment,
though his surviving output is all of church music. The three collections
consist entirely of masses and psalms, suggesting that he was not so
 interested in the fashionable small concertato motet. However his psalms
of 1620 demonstrate the way the double-choir style was developing at this
date. Three of them are written for a first choir of soloists accompanied by
the organ, whereas the second choir, marked ‘cappella’, need not have
organ support, though there is an independent second organ part in the
basso continuo partbook. Girelli occasionally drew soloists from the second
choir as well, as in the Dixit Dominus: in this work modern concertato
sections alternate with impressive antiphonal or imitative effects involving
the whole ensemble.
WORKS
all published in Venice

Salmi brevi di tutto l'anno, con 2 Dixit, 1 Magnificat … letanie della Beata Virgine,
8vv, bc (org) (1620)
Salmi intieri … con 1 Dixit e Magnificat, 5vv, bc (org) (1626)
[4] Messe, 5, 8vv, con 1 da morto, con li ripieni delle prime 2, a 5 ad lib, op.3 (1627)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Valentini: I musicisti bresciani e il Teatro Grande (Brescia, 1894), 54
J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford,
1984)
JEROME ROCHE

Giribaldi, Tomás
(b Montevideo, 18 Oct 1847; d Montevideo, 11 April 1930). Uruguayan
composer. A member of a noted musical family, he studied with the
cathedral organist Carmelo Calvo, the double bass player Rodolfo Battesini
and the band director José Strigelli. His Parisina, produced at the Teatro
Solís by a visiting Italian company, aroused such enthusiasm that he was
awarded a government grant to study at Milan Conservatory. In 1879 he
settled in Paysandú, where he wrote his second opera, Manfredi di Svevia,
again given at the Solís by an Italian company (including Romilda
Pantaleoni, Verdi's first Desdemona). His other operas, Inés de Castro and
Magda, remain unproduced; all four are preserved in the Museo Histórico
Nacional, Montevideo. A plaque honouring him as the first Uruguayan
opera composer was installed in the Teatro Solís in 1930, and two years
later a street behind the Museo de Bellas Artes was named after him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Salgado: Breve historia de la música culta en el Uruguay (Montevideo,
1971)
ROBERT STEVENSON

Girò [Tessieri], Anna (Maddalena)

(b Mantua, c1710; d after 1747). Italian mezzo-soprano. She is known
above all for her professional association with Vivaldi – a relationship
suspected, at the time, of carrying over into their private lives, although
modern research suggests the opposite. Her father was a wig-maker of
French extraction. About 1722 she went to Venice to study singing, living
with an elder half-sister, Paolina, who acted as her chaperone. She made
her operatic début in Treviso in autumn 1723; her first appearance on the
Venetian stage was in Albinoni's Laodice (autumn 1724). In 1725 she
briefly became a protégée of Alderano IV Cybo, Duke of Massa and
Carrara. Her very successful career lasted until 1748, when, after singing in
Piacenza at Carnival, she married a count from that city, Antonio Maria
Zanardi Landi, and retired honourably from the stage.
Girò sang in over 50 operatic productions. She started, in her early teens,
with minor travesty roles, then graduated to seconda donna and soon also
to prima donna roles. Vivaldi, for whom she sang (nearly always as prima
donna) in over 30 productions from 1726 to 1739, appears to have been
her principal mentor. He once declared, with evident exaggeration, that he
could not put on an opera without her, but she was well able to operate
independently of him, as she proved during his transalpine tour of 1729–31
and again after his death in 1741.
Contemporary commentators paid tribute to Girò's attractive appearance
and distinct acting ability, but found her voice a little weak. The
amendments to the libretto of Zeno's Griselda that Vivaldi instructed
Goldoni to make in 1735 were designed to hide her defects and promote
her strengths.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Goldoni: Introduction to Commedie, xiii (Venice, 1775), 10–11
C. Goldoni: Mémoires de M. Goldoni pour servir à l'histoire de sa vie, et à
celle de son théâtre, i (Paris, 1787), 286–90
J.W. Hill: ‘Vivaldi's Griselda’, JAMS, xxxi (1978), 53–82
R. Strohm: ‘Vivaldi's Career as an Opera Producer’, Antonio Vivaldi:
Venice 1981, 11–63; repr. in Essays on Handel and Italian Opera
(Cambridge, 1985), 122–63
L. Moretti: ‘Un cembalo per la Girò’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, i
(1980), 58–60
G. Vio: ‘Antonio Vivaldi prete’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, i (1980), 32–
57
G. Vio: ‘Per una migliore conoscenza di Anna Girò (da documenti
d'archivio)’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, ix (1988), 26–45
C. Vitali: ‘I fratelli Pepoli contro Vivaldi e Anna Girò: le ragioni di una
assenza’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, xii (1991), 19–46
MICHAEL TALBOT

Giró [Jiró], Manuel

(b Lérida [Lleida], Catalonia, 5 Sept 1848; d Barcelona, 20 Dec 1916).
Spanish composer. He received his first musical training at the cathedral
school in Lérida, where he studied organ with Miguel Puntí and harmony
with Francisco Oliver. Relinquishing a career as a priest, he went to
Barcelona in 1870, and to Paris in 1874 for further study. During his 11
years in Paris, many of his works were performed; a Salve and
Lamentaciones de Jeremías for chorus and orchestra, the symphonic suite
Granada, and the ballet Divertissement andalous (at the Opéra in 1883). In
1884 he returned to Barcelona; his opera Il rinegato Alonso García was
performed there with great success in 1885. Other successful works were a
Requiem, written upon the death of his friend Julián Gayarre, the noted
tenor, and the opera El sombrero de tres picos, based on a novel by
Alarcón and performed in Madrid in 1893. His vast output also includes
works for chorus, chamber ensemble and piano.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (J. Dowling)
LaborD
F. de Arteaga: Celebridades musicales (Barcelona, 2/1885)
ANTONIO IGLESIAS

Girolamo, Pietro Antonio.

See Giramo, Pietro Antonio.

Girolamo da Udine.
See Dalla Casa, Girolamo.

Giroust, François
(b Paris, 10 April 1737; d Versailles, 28 April 1799). French composer. He
was a member of the choir school of Notre Dame from January 1745 until
October 1756, where he studied with Louis Homet and Antoine Goulet. As
head boy he had two works performed on 17 June 1756: the motet Lauda
Jerusalem and a Magnificat. He was ordained and took minor orders
before leaving to become maître de musique at Orléans Cathedral.
Giroust also led the Académie de Musique in Orléans. Some programmes
survive from the ambitious weekly concerts he led (1764–5 and 1768–9).
These usually included opera extracts (Rameau, Campra, Mouret and
others) and a grand motet – often by Giroust himself. At least 22 of his
motets date from this period, although most survive only in later revisions.
His works were first performed at the Concert Spirituel in Paris in 1762. His
Exaudi Deus, performed four times in 1764, was praised by Rameau,
whom Giroust admired greatly. He subsequently wrote a Dies irae for
Rameau which was played at a memorial service held in Orléans on 15
January 1765. For a contest sponsored by the Concert Spirituel in 1768,
Giroust submitted two settings of Super flumina Babylonis. There were
three finalists, and when Giroust was revealed as the composer not only of
the first prize, but also of a specially demanded second prize, there was a
great sensation. The second setting was compared with the work of
Pergolesi and it seems d’Alembert and others supported it believing it to be
by Philidor.
For the next seven years Giroust was the most frequently performed
composer at the Concert Spirituel, aside from the director, Dauvergne. In
1769 he became maître de musique at Saints-Innocents in Paris. Two
years later he married Marie Françoise d’Avantois de Beaumont, a soprano
at the Concert Spirituel and Académie Royale who was related to the
Archbishop of Paris. They had nine children; Louis XVI and Marie
Antoinette stood, by proxy, as godparents to the first child born in
Versailles, Louisa Antoinette.
On 17 February 1775 Giroust replaced Gauzargues as sous maître de
chapelle at the Chapelle Royale in Versailles. He composed many motets
for the chapel, together with the Coronation Mass for Louis XVI and a
memorial Missa pro defunctis for Louis XV. On 16 June 1780 he purchased
the position of surintendant de musique, en survivance, from de Bury,
assuming the post in 1785. He retained the post of maître de chapelle, to
the chagrin of Le Sueur and others. Some secular works, including
masonic entertainments, date from this period.
Giroust stayed in Versailles after the fall of the monarchy in 1792 and,
whether from fear or desperation, threw in his lot with the Revolution. He
conducted nearly all the Revolutionary ceremonies in the city, and wrote
over 50 songs, hymns and occasional pieces for them. Many were to texts
by Félix Nogaret, a fellow freemason and radical colleague of Robespierre.
The Chant des versaillais was performed for the National Convention and
circulated throughout the country, becoming his most famous work and one
of the best-known tunes of the Revolution (it survives in more than 50
versions and parodies). He suffered some financial hardship during this
time, but in May 1793 was given the modest post of concièrge at the
Château in Versailles, and in 1795 was awarded a government pension.
On 13 February 1796 he became the first non-resident composer elected
to the Institut de France, joining Méhul, Gossec and Grétry. He was much
appreciated by the Commune of Versailles and received many tributes at
his death, although later he was criticized for his political turn-around.
Giroust’s main legacy is the grand motet, of which he was the last master.
He followed in the tradition of Du Mont, Delalande and others, but his
music is unmistakably late 18th-century in style: light melodies, regular
phrases, simple harmonies and clear forms. Most of the motets have 5 or 6
individual numbers which often divide into slow/fast sections. Rounded
binary is the commonest form in both solo and choral numbers; less
frequent are operatic scene-complexes (e.g. ‘Surge Domine’ in Memento
Domine David). Giroust’s melodies are typically graceful and lyrical
(‘Jucundum sit ei’ in Benedic anima), but there is greater strength in the
choral writing. He dropped the basse-taille from the traditional five-part
French chorus in about 1780, but did not abandon counterpoint, writing
fugues such as ‘Sic psalmum dicam’ in Ecce quam bonum as late as 1790.
He often combined several themes (‘Quia contrivit’ in Confitemini), or
contrasted polyphony with forceful chordal passages or unisons (‘Peccator
videbit’ in Beatus vir). He also delighted in orchestral word-painting. The
first prizewinning Super flumina opens with fluvial murmurings; other
subjects include storms (Diligam te), racing chariots (Exaudiat te) and
earthquakes (Dominus regnavit). His surviving oratorios, despite their
French titles, are all in Latin. The stirring Passage de la Mer Rouge was
performed in royal, Revolutionary and Restoration times. The Paris
Conservatoire acquired almost all of the surviving scores early in the 19th
century from his widow, but many Revolutionary works are missing, and
 most of the masonic works were signed out of the library in the 19th
century and not returned.
WORKS
MSS in F-Pn unless otherwise stated

motets
grands motets for solo voice, chorus and orchestra unless otherwise stated; where
revisions are indicated only the latest version survives

Lauda Jerusalem, ?1756, rev. 1777; Magnificat [I], ?1756, rev. 1770, inc.; Assumitur
virgo, c1756–9; Descendat alto divus (for Ste Cecilia), c1756–9; O salutaris, 1760
(ed. J. Prim, Paris, 1954); Magnus Dominus, 1762, rev. 1778; Deus judex justus,
1763, rev. 1784; Benedic anima, 1764; Dominus regnavit, 1764, rev. 1778; Exaudi
Deus (Ps liv), 1764, rev. 1781; In convertendo, 1764, rev. 1766, 1787; Judica me,
1764, lost; Nisi Dominus, 1764, lost; Notus in Judea, 1764, rev. 1777; TeD, 1764,
rev. 1782, inc.
Beatus vir, 1765, rev. 1777; Cantate Domino, 1765, rev. 1774; Confitemini Domino,
1765, rev. 1773; Dies irae, 1765; Levavi oculos, 1765, lost; Miserere mei [I] (Ps lvi),
1765, rev. 1766; Misericordia Domini, 1765, lost; Quam dilecta, 1765, rev. 1779;
Quare fremuerunt, 1765, rev. 1778; Quemadmodum, 1765, rev. 1775; 10ème Ode
de Rousseau (?‘Paroissez, roi des rois’, book 1; Ps xciii), 1765, lost; for Saintes
Cathedral, 1765, lost; Confitebor tibi (Ps ix), 1767, rev. 1784; Super flumina
Babylonis [I], 1767; Judica Domine, 1768; Super flumina Babylonis [II], 1768;
Confitebor tibi (from Ps cxxxviii), solo v, c1769
De profundis [I], 1770; Domine salvum fac regem, 1770; Exurgat Deus, 1770, rev.
1787; 1772, Diligam te, Domine, 1772; Dixit Dominus, 1772; Confitebor tibi (Ps cx),
1773; Jubilate Deo, 1773; Magnificat [II], 1774, rev. 1777; Deus noster refugium,
1775; Exultate justi, 1775; Iste dies, elevation motet, 1775; Laudate pueri, 1775; O
filii [I], 1775; O sacrum convivium, elevation motet, 1775; Tantum ergo, elevation
motet, 1775 (ed. A. Lafitte, Paris, 1859); O filii [I], solo v, org, c1775; Exultavit cor
meum, 1776; In te Domine speravi, 1778; Miserere mei Deus (Ps l), solo v, org,
1778; Regina coeli, 1778; Regina coeli, 2v, org, c1778
Ave verum, elevation motet, 1779; Domini audivi, 1779; Ecce panis, elevation
motet, 1779; Lauda Sion, elevation motet, 1779; Laudate Dominum de coelis (Ps
cxlviii), 1779; Miserere mei Deus (Ps l), 1779; Miserere nostri Domine (from Ps
xxx), solo v, c1780–90; Audite coeli, 1780; Laudate Dominum quoniam bonus (Ps
cxlvi), 1780; Deus deorum Dominus, 1781; Exaudi Deus, deprecationem (Ps lx),
1781; Laudate Dominum in sanctis ejus (Ps cl), 1781; Panis angelicus, elevation
motet, 1781; O filii [II], 1782; De profundis [II], 1783; In exitu Israël, 1783; Noli
aemulari, 1783; Exaudi Deus (Ps lxiii), 1784; Salve Regina, 1784
Deus venerunt, 1785; Exaudiat te, 1787; Omnes gentes, 1787; Salvum me fac,
1787; Veni creator, 1787; Verbum caro, elevation motet, 1787; Veni de Libano
(‘Cantique des Cantiques’), 1787; 12 Mag, for Orléans, 1787, lost; Domine, quid
multiplicati, 1788; In Domino confido, 1788; Memento Domine David, 1789; Ecce
quam bonum, 1790; Exultate Deo, 1790; Coeli enarrant, 1791; Deus stetit in
synagoga, 1791; Miserere mei Deus [II] (Ps lvi), solo v, 1792
Doubtful: Adonaï Domine (parody of Beatus vir); Deus in nomine tuo (from Ps liii);
Deus misereatur nostri; Lumen ad revelationem; 9 Mag

other religious works

5 masses, 1760–89
Missa brevis, ‘Gaudete in Domino semper’, 1775 (ed. J. Prim, Paris, 1954)
Missa pro defunctis, 1775
Messe de Girou, doubtful
Orats: Le passage de la Mer Rouge, 1779; Les fueurs de Säul (Moline), 1781, lost;
Le Mont-Sinai, ou Le décalogue, 1785
secular
Stage (all lost): Divertissement sur la paix, 1765; Rosamonde (de la Morlière),
1781; Amphion (ballet, 1), La guerre (divertissement) mentioned in Brosset (1911);
Télèphe (op, 3)
Cantate sur l’amour, before 1769 [text in Brosset, 1911]
Le déluge, cantate funèbre, 1784
Irruption de l’océan, US-AAu
Texts for 6 further works pubd in F. Nogaret: Fictions, discours, poèmes lyriques et
autres pièces adonhiramites (Versailles, 1787)
Ariette de reconnoissance villageoise; Ariette de M. Giroust; Overture
revolutionary hymns and songs
all for solo voice

Pubd, Versailles/Paris, 1793–5: L’appel aux nations, Le bon conseil, Cantique de

l’opinion, Cantique de mille forgerons, Chant des versaillais (and many parodies),
Le décade du canonier, Le départ du soldat républicain (text only), Les déserteurs,
La fête civique ou Le banquet des cent couverts, La forfanterie aux abois
(‘Cobourg’), Hymne à la Raison, J’ai tout perdu et je m’en fxxx (‘Résignation du
soldat républicain’), Le procès de l’âge d’or, Ronde des versaillais, Station des
versaillais devant le buste de Marat, Tyrtée aux plaines de Fleurus, La victoire en
permanence, Les voluntaires en gaîté à la bataille de Fleurus
Unpubd: Apothéose de Marat et Pelletier, L’arbre de la liberté, Chant des versaillais
(with orch, ed. C. Pierre, 1899), Chant pour la fondation de la république, Couplet
pour de nouveaux époux (F-Vam), Hymne à la Patrie (Gazard), Le reveil des
républicains ou Le 18 fructidor (Pan), Scène dithyrambique … à la manufacture
d’armes de Versailles, Serment
Lost: Chant de la piété filiale, Chant nocturne, Distribution des prix (Gilles), Hymne
à l’Amitié, Hymne à la Patrie (Boinvilliers), Hymne à la Raison (trio), Retour à la
nature, Scène sur la mort de Fargeau
Texts for 15 more songs, F-Pn

BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Giroust: Analyse des motets de M. Giroust (Paris, 1781)
M.-F. de Beaumont d’Avantois [Giroust]: Notice historique sur François
Giroust (Versailles, 1799, 2/1804)
C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution française (Paris,
1904)
J. Brosset: François Giroust (Blois, 1911)
C. Pierre: Histoire du Concert spirituel, 1725–1790 (Paris, 1975)
J. Eby: François Giroust (1737–1799) and the Late Grand Motet in French
Church Music (diss., U. of London, 1988)
R. Cotte: ‘François Giroust, a Versailles musician of the Revolutionary
period’, Music and the French Revolution, ed. Malcolm Boyd
(Cambridge, 1992), 93–104
J. Eby: ‘Was there a Requiem Mass composed for Louis XV?’, EMc
(forthcoming)
 JOHN D. EBY

Girowetz, Adalbert.
See Gyrowetz, Adalbert.

Gis
(Ger.).
G#. See Pitch nomenclature.

Gisis
(Ger.).

G . See Pitch nomenclature.

Gismondi [Resse; Hempson],

Celeste
(d London, 11 March 1735). Italian soprano. Acclaimed for her
interpretation of intermezzo soubrette roles in Naples between 1725 and
1732, she succeeded Santa Marchesini as partner to the bass Gioacchino
Corrado. During that period she created the female roles in all Hasse’s
intermezzos and in others by Vinci and Sarro. In 1732 she married an
Englishman named Hempson who took her to London, where she sang
under various names from November 1732 to 1734 in works by Handel and
others. She created the role of Dorinda in Handel’s Orlando and took part
in performances of his Alessandro, the pasticcio Catone, Tolomeo and
Deborah as well as works by Porpora (Arianna in Nasso, Davide e
Bersabea and Enea nel Lazio) and Giovanni Bononcini (Astarto).
She had a voice of brilliant quality particularly suited to syllabic declamation
but also capable of virtuoso passages; arias written for her often parody
the emotional heights of serious roles. Dorinda’s music calls for a compass
from b to b ''.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LS
R. Strohm: ‘Händels pasticci’, AnMc, no.14 (1974), 209–67
F. Piperno: ‘Buffe e buffi’, RIM, xviii (1982), 240–84
F. Piperno: ‘Note sulla diffusione degli intermezzi di J.A. Hasse’, AnMc,
no.25 (1987), 287–303
F. Piperno: ‘L’intermezzo a Napoli negli anni di Pergolesi: Gioacchino
Corrado e Celeste Resse’, Studi pergolesiani, iii (1999)
FRANCO PIPERNO

Gismonti, Egberto
 (b Carmo, 5 Dec 1947). Brazilian composer. He began piano studies at the
age of six at the Nova Friburgo Conservatory, studying classical music for
15 years. He moved to Rio de Janeiro in 1968, where he successfully
participated in the Third Rio International Song Festival. He then went to
Paris to study orchestration and analysis with Nadia Boulanger and
composition with Jean Barraqué. After his return to Brazil, Gismonti
developed a personal style incorporating Arabian and Italian melodies (his
family’s heritage), classical and contemporary music (especially Villa-Lobos
and Stravinsky), traditional national genres (folklore, choro, bossa nova),
Brazilian Indian themes and jazz. Influenced by the choro, Gismonti taught
himself to play the guitar. He has played, recorded and toured throughout
the world with several musicians. Since his first recording in 1969 he has
made about 50 albums of his own compositions (most released by ECM
Records and EMI-Brazil), in which he plays the piano, guitar, various flutes
(including Indian instruments), kalimbas and other instruments, winning
several prizes. He has also worked as a producer, arranger or player in
several other musicians’ recordings. Gismonti’s compositions encompass a
great diversity of musical elements and forms, both Brazilian and
international, and have been written for solo instruments, ensembles,
symphony orchestras, dance, theatre, films, exhibitions and poetic
anthologies.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Dança das sombras, chbr orch, 1983; Música de sobrevivência, 1990;
Realejo, chbr orch, 1991; Cabinda, a cantiga dos espíritos, 1992; Imagem e
variações, 1992; Forró, 1993; Frevo, 1993; Lundu, 1993; Music for 48 Strings;
Ritmos e danças, gui, orch
10 str qts, 1987–90
Gui: Salvador, 8-string gui, 1979; 10 guitar studies, 1979–90; Cavaquinho, 1981;
Alegrinho (Amarelo), 1989; Dança dos escravos, 1989; Lundu (Azul), 1989
Pf: Baião malandro, 1978; Ano zero, 1979; Frevo, 1979; Palhaço, 1987; 10 piano
studies, 1989–90; A fala da paixão, 1993; 7 anéis, 1993

BIBLIOGRAPHY
P.N. Wilson: ‘Ein Niemandsland zwischen E und U: über die Annäherung
von Jazz und minimal music’, Musica, xxxix (1985), 360–65
IRATI ANTONIO

Gistelinck, Elias
(b Beveren aan de Leie, 27 May 1935). Belgian composer. He studied at
the music academy in Harelbeke (trumpet and piano) and at the Brussels
Conservatory and Paris Conservatoire. He studied composition with Victor
Lepley. From 1961 he was connected with Belgian Radio and Television, of
which he was chief producer of BRT 1 until he left in 1994. The influence of
jazz is clearly discernible in his work, not superficially in a melody or a
rhythm, but quite fundamentally, inflecting all its principal features. This is
evident in the Suite for woodwind quintet (1962), the Five Portraits for
clarinet solo (1965), dedicated to the American clarinet player Bill Smith,
 and the cantata for Jeanne Lee and 15 instruments on Dove Hazelton’s
poems (1968). Three outstanding works are Ndessée ou Blues on four
poems of Leopold Sédan Senghor (Italia Prize 1969), the ballet
Terpsychore and Euterpe, presented by Flemish Television for the Italia
Prize 1972, and Three Middelheim Sculptures for jazz trio and wind band
(1972). In the 1970s he explored a more tonal idiom, for example in
Funeral Music for Ptah IV (1975) and Elegy for Jan (1976). In Belgium he
has been awarded the Fuga and Koopal Prizes. For his entire output he
was awarded the Prix de la Fondation de France.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Ndessé ou blues, nar, jazz trio, jazz orch, orch, 1969; Composition for
Terpsychore and Euterpe, ballet, 1971; The Bees, ballet, 1972; Elegy for Jan, 1976;
3 Movts, jazz qnt, orch, 1985; Vn Conc., 1986; Music for Halloween, 1988;
Sinfonietta, chbr orch, 1989; Cl Conc., 1990; Sym. no.1, 1992
Brass: Per Che, nar, b cl, big band, 1967; 3 Middelheim Sculptures, tpt, db, drums,
band, 1972; Music for 3 Mixed Groups, brass, perc, 1975
Chbr: 2 str qts, 1967, 1991; Brass Qnt; Cl Quartet, 1962; Trio, ob, cl, bn, 1962;
duos; pieces for solo fl, cl, ob, vn, vc, pf; Funeral Music for Ptah IV, vn, vc, pf, 1975

Principal publishers: CeBeDeM, Euprint

BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Delaere, Y. Knockaert and H. Sabbe: Nieuwe muziek in Vlaanderen
(Bruges, 1998)
CORNEEL MERTENS/DIANA VON VOLBORTH-DANYS

Gistou [Gistow], Nicolas

(b ?Brussels; d Copenhagen, 19 July 1609). Danish composer and singer
of Flemish origin. He was engaged on 1 May 1598 as an alto for the chapel
of King Christian IV of Denmark by Gregorius Trehou, who had been sent
to the Netherlands to recruit musicians. He contributed a five-part madrigal
in two partes, Quel augellin che canta and Ma ben arde nel cor, to RISM
16065 (ed. in Dania Sonans, iii, Copenhagen, 1967) and four five-part
dances survive in RISM 160930 (ed. in UVNM, xxxiv, 1913; ed. J.
Bergsagel, Music in Denmark at the Time of Christian IV, ii, Copenhagen,
1988).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Hammerich: Musiken ved Christian den Fjerdes hof (Copenhagen,
1892)
A. Hammerich: ‘Niederländische Musiker in Dänemark im 16.–17.
Jahrhundert’, Gedenkboek aangeboden aan Dr. D.F. Scheurleer (The
Hague, 1925), 135–42
JOHN BERGSAGEL
 Gitarre
(Ger.).
See Guitar.

Giteck, Janice
(b New York, 27 June 1946). American composer and pianist. She studied
at Mills College, California, with Milhaud and Subotnick (BA 1968, MA
1969), at the Paris Conservatoire with Messiaen (1969–70), and at the
Aspen School, Colorado, with Milhaud and Charles Jones. She also
studied electronic music with Lowell Cross and Anthony J. Gnazzo,
Javanese gamelan with Daniel Schmidt and West African percussion with
Obo Addy. She gained a second MA, in psychology, at Antioch University,
Ohio (1986), and worked part-time as a music therapist (1986–91). Giteck
held teaching positions at California State University, Hayward (1974) and
the University of California, Berkeley (1974–6), before joining the faculty of
the Cornish College of the Arts, Seattle (1979), as a teacher of both
composition and women's studies. She was a founder and co-director of
the Port Costa Players, a contemporary-music ensemble based in San
Francisco (1972–9), and, in 1978–9, music director of KPFA Pacifica
Radio, Berkeley. Her awards include grants from the California Arts Council
(1978) and the NEA (1979, 1983), and she has received commissions from
the San Francisco SO (Tree, 1981) and others, including a joint
commission from new-music groups in Portland (Oregon), Syracuse and
Atlanta (funded by the Meet the Composer/Reader's Digest Consortium
Commissioning Program) for the ‘performance piece’ The Screamer (1993)
on the theme of love and rage.
Giteck has long been concerned with music as ritual. From the early 1970s
her works reflected her interest in the cultures of the Amerindians. A'agita,
an opera based on Pima and Papago mythologies, was performed by the
Port Costa Players throughout the American West and in Europe. In the
1980s she began to pursue the relationship between music and healing,
particularly in connection with AIDS. Om Shanti (1986), Tapasya (1987),
Home (1989, revised 1992) and Leningrad Spring (1991) are part of a
‘music and healing series’, issued as recordings on CD as a benefit for the
support of AIDS patients. (CC1, B. Weir)
WORKS
(selective list)

Op: A'agita (R. Giteck, after Pima and Papago texts), 3 singer-actors, dancer, 8 inst
player-actors, 1976
Orch and inst: Trio, ob, vn, vc, 1964; Pf Qnt, 1965; Str Qt no.2, 1967; Trey, 3
Pieces, pf, 1968; Helixes, fl, trbn, vn, vc, gui, pf, perc, 1974; Breathing Songs from a
Turning Sky, fl, cl, bn, vc, pf, perc, lights, 1980; When the Crones Stop Counting, 60
fl, 1980; Ah Ah Sh! Listen, gamelan, vcs, bns, drums, nar, dancer, 1981; Tree, chbr
sym., orch, 1981; Loo-wit, va, orch, 1983; Tapasya, va, perc, 1987; Leningrad
Spring, fl + pic + a fl, pf + mallets, perc, 1991; Sleepless in the Shadow, fl, ob, sax,
bn, va, db, pf, perc, 1993–5; Puja: Songs to the Divine Mother, gui, 1995–6;
Agrarian Chants, fl + pic + a fl + b fl, 1997; First Puja: 1997, cathedral bells, 35
perfs./4 perc, 1997
Choral: How to Invoke a Garden (cant., J. Jones), SATB, 10 insts, 1969; Sun of the
Center (cant., R. Kelley), male v, fl, cl, vn, pf, 1970; Magic Words to Feel Better,
SATB, 1974; Far North Beast Ghosts the Clearing (after Swampy Cree text, trans.
H. Norman), chorus, 1978; Pictures of the Floating World, chorus, 10 insts, 1987;
Home, chorus 400vv, 23 insts, 1989, rev. 1992 as Home (revisited), 6 male vv,
gamelan pacifica, vc, synth; I am Singing (Giteck), women's chorus unacc., 1990;
From Childhood (A. Rimbaud), men's chorus unacc., 1992
Vocal: Anew (L. Zukofsky), 1v, pf, 1969; L'ange Heurtebise (J. Cocteau), 1v, pf,
1971; Magic Words (poems), T, S, pf, 1973; Messalina (A. Jarry), male v, vc, pf,
1973; Matinée d'ivresse, monody (Rimbaud), high v, 1976; 8 Sandbars on the
Takano River (G. Snyder), 5 female vv, fl, bn, gui, 1976; Thunder like a White Bear
Dancing (ritual based on the Ojibwa Mide Picture Songs), S, fl, pf, hand perc,
slides, 1977; Callin' Home Coyote: a Burlesque (L. MacAdams), T, steel drums, db,
1978; Om Shanti (Shankaracharaya), S, sextet, 1986; The Screamer, performance
piece, S, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, synth, perc, 1993
Elec: Traffic Acts, 4-track tape, 1969; Peter and the Wolves, trbn + actor, tape,
1978; Hinget and Lakota, 1997
Film scores: Hopi: Songs of the Fourth World, 1983; Hearts and Hands, 1987; Yield
to Total Elation, 1998

MSS in US-NYamc, OAm, Cornish College of the Arts, Seattle

INGRAM D. MARSHALL, CATHERINE PARSONS SMITH

Gitlis, Ivry
(b Haifa, 22 Aug 1922). Israeli violinist. He began violin studies at the age
of five with Karmy, and gave his first public concert when he was eight. At
the age of ten he played to Huberman who sent him to study at the Ecole
Normale de Musique, Paris, where three years later he won a premier prix.
After graduating he studied with Enescu, Thibaud and Flesch. In the late
1930s he went to London and during the war he worked first in a munitions
factory there and then for the army's entertainment service. After the war
he made his débuts with the LPO, the BBC SO and other British
orchestras. In 1951 he won the Thibaud Prize. The following year he
returned to Israel and made his début there with the Israel PO and the
radio orchestra. From the mid-1950s he toured widely and recorded the
concertos of Tchaikovsky, Berg, Hindemith and Stravinsky, among others.
He performed frequently in Paris, where he first appeared in 1951 and
where he later settled. A specialist in 20th-century music, he was noted for
his brilliant technique and his vital, rhythmic style.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SchwarzGM
T. Potter: ‘Against the Flow’, The Strad, cviii (1997), 822–7
WILLIAM Y. ELIAS
Gittern [gyterne]
(Fr. guisterne, guitarre, guiterne, guiterre, quinterne, quitaire, quitarre; Ger.
Quinterne; It. chitarino, chitarra; Sp. guitarra).
A short-necked lute of the Middle Ages outwardly similar to the 16th-
century Mandore. Like its relative the lute, it had a rounded back but was
much smaller, and it had no clear division between the body and neck. This
lute-shaped gittern (or ‘guitar’ – the two words were then synonymous) was
displaced in the 15th and 16th centuries by the Renaissance Guitar, which
combined the small size of the gittern with the body outline of the much
larger vihuela. Thus the medieval gittern bore much the same relationship
to the lute as the Renaissance guitar did to the vihuela. It has since
become customary to call the medieval instrument ‘gittern’ and the later
one ‘guitar’, a useful but artificial distinction.
Confusion over the identity of the gittern has existed since the 19th century.
It has been referred to, inaccurately, as the mandore, mandora or mandola
(an instrument with a different tuning which became common only around
1570); and the name ‘gittern’ has wrongly been given to the Citole,
because the latter’s outline resembled that of the (vihuela-shaped) guitar
(see Wright, 1977). Consequently, many modern works refer to
representations of gitterns as mandoras, and to those of citoles as gitterns.
1. Nomenclature.
All the above names for the gittern derive ultimately from the Greek
‘kithara’ via the Arabic ‘qītārā’. The Arabic form gave ‘chitarra’ in Italian and
‘guitarra’ in Spanish. The French forms include ‘quitarre’ (from Arabic or
Italian), ‘gitere’ (perhaps from Catalan), and ‘quitaire’, which became
‘qui(n)terne’ (by confusion with the unrelated Latin word quinterna,
meaning ‘fivefold’). By analogy, the form ‘guiterne’ was created, and this
was the standard word until the 16th century. ‘Guitar(r)e’ (probably from
Spanish) also occurs, but is rare. The English and German names were
borrowed from French.
When the lute shape was displaced by that of the vihuela there was no
immediate change of name: ‘guiterre’ became popular in French alongside
‘guiterne’ in the 16th century; and both were finally displaced by ‘guitare’ in
the 17th century (probably because of Spanish influence), with the English
and German names following suit. The Italian and Spanish names have not
changed since the Middle Ages.
2. Structure.
The back, neck and pegbox are usually made of one piece of wood, as in
the 15th-century gittern (hitherto called a mandora) in the Wartburg
Collection at Eisenach (see Hellwig, 1974). More rarely, the back was built
up from separate ribs (as on the lute); these types occur from the late 15th
century onwards. In all gitterns the body and neck blend in a smooth curve
or straight line: unlike the lute, there is no sharp corner. The pegbox makes
an angle with the neck of 30°–90° and is usually curved, sometimes into a
semicircle (the so-called sickle shape) but often into a short, gently curving
arc (fig.1). Some pegboxes, especially in English representations, are
straight, like those of lutes (fig.2). However, most types of pegbox
terminate in a human or animal head, a feature foreign to the lute.
There are three or four strings (or more commonly pairs of strings),
sometimes five in the later 15th century (as in the Eisenach instrument). On
some instruments (particularly French and English) the strings pass over a
movable bridge and are attached to endpins, one for each course, or to a
single pin or button; on others (notably in Spain and Italy) they terminate at
a fixed frontal stringholder, as on the lute. Italian and Spanish instruments
also show a predilection for multiple soundholes and decorative inlays on
the belly and fingerboard. Frets are shown in some good depictions of
gitterns (notably Italian paintings: fig.3), but they are absent in many good
French and English representations. The use of a quill plectrum seems to
have been almost universal.
3. History.
The gittern probably entered Europe from Arab countries in the second half
of the 13th century, along with other round-backed instruments such as the
lute and rebec. Sachs stated that the lute is called ‘qītāra’ in North African
countries west of Egypt, and Farmer suggested that the kaitara, used in
Muslim Spain from the 10th century, was a type of lute, adding that a
diminutive of the same word, ‘kuwaitira’, is still used for a small lute in the
Maghrib. Thus it seems likely that the gittern came from the Arabs of the
western Mediterranean (for a summary of the evidence see Burzik, 381–5).
Tinctoris (De inventione, c1487) called the gittern ‘the instrument invented
by the Catalans’. He may have meant that they modified it in some way to
create a ‘European’ type distinct from the Arab one. This is one possible
explanation of a reference to ‘guitarra morisca’ and ‘guitarra latina’
(‘Moorish’ and ‘Latin’ guitar) by the Arcipreste de Hita (Libro de buen amor,
c1330), and of references to similarly named instruments in Machaut’s
writings and in records of the French court of 1355–70. Although the
differences between these two types are not known, it can reasonably be
assumed that the two gitterns illustrated on f.104r of the Cantigas de Santa
María (fig.4) are of the ‘Latin’ variety, since the players’ dress implies that
they are not Arabs. However, it has been suggested that another
instrument in the same manuscript, with oval belly, long neck and circular
(ff.133r, 140v) or sickle-shaped pegbox (ff.46v, 147r), is the guitarra
morisca (see Citole, fig.3): none of the players is dressed like an Arab,
however, and the instrument differs considerably from the gittern in that it
has a long neck clearly demarcated from the body and (on ff.46v and 140v)
a raised fingerboard extending on to the belly. There is no more reason to
call this instrument a guitar than to call it a plucked fiddle (vihuela de
peñola).
The earliest datable references to the gittern occur in French literature from
around 1270 onwards, but depictions become common only after 1300.
Johannes de Grocheo, in his treatise De musica (c1300), called it ‘quitarra
sarracenica’ (‘Saracen guitar’), which suggests it was still a foreign novelty
in France. This impression is strengthened by the great variety of its
French names, which grew fewer as the instrument became common. In
England depictions and references do not become frequent until well after
1300: one looks in vain for gitterns among the instruments appearing in the
finely illustrated manuscripts such as the Queen Mary Psalter that were
written in the first two decades of the 14th century.
During the 14th century the gittern gained increasing popularity. Whereas
there was only one gitarer among the 92 musicians named in the accounts
for the Feast of Westminster in 1306, the Duke of Brittany is said (in the
Grandes chroniques de France) to have had in his company ‘seven
guiterne players, and he himself, so they say, began to play the eighth
guiterne’ when he left Brest Castle for England in 1348. By then the gittern
seems to have ousted its rival, the citole, and to have become enormously
popular not only among minstrels but also among the increasing number of
amateur musicians of all classes. Small, portable and doubtless easy to
play, it seems to have been frequently used in serenading and in visiting
taverns, activities that often went hand-in-hand; it is mentioned in this
connection in several French and English poems of the period 1350–1410.
Machaut (Prise d’Alexandrie, c1367) mentioned ‘guiternes dont on joue par
ces tavernes’ (‘gitterns which are played in taverns’), and Chaucer, in three
of the Canterbury Tales, referred to the gittern being played by people who
frequent taverns. The parish clerk Absalom in The Miller’s Tale is a typical
example:
In twenty manere coude he trippe and daunce
After the scole of Oxenforde tho,
And with his legges casten to and fro,
And pleyen songes on a small rubible;
Ther-to he song som-tyme a loud quinible;
And as wel coude he pleye on his giterne.
In al the toun nas brewhous ne taverne
That he ne visited with his solas,
Ther any gaylard tappestere was.
Accompanying himself on the gittern, he sings a serenade to the
carpenter’s wife:
He singeth in his vois gentil and smal,
‘Now, dere lady, if thy wille be,
I preye yow that ye wol rewe on me’,
Ful wel acordaunt to his giterninge.
This association with taverns and serenading is also reflected in French
legal documents of the same period concerning the brawls and murders
which sometimes ensued, making it obvious that gitterns were common
household objects. They are also found in inventories of noble households,
such as one belonging to the French King Charles V dated 1373 which
includes four gitterns, one in ivory and another decorated with silver and
enamel. Another example of the gittern’s popularity can be seen in the
carvings in the nave of Winchester Cathedral (built 1346–1404), where no
fewer than seven of the 21 instruments depicted are gitterns.
In the 15th century the gittern was gradually eclipsed by the lute, which
appears with increasing frequency in iconography. There is often confusion
between them, both in iconography (it is not always possible to distinguish
lutes from gitterns in the less accurate representations) and in
documentary references to lute players as gitterners (for example, the
celebrated Pietrobono, whose lute-playing was praised by Tinctoris, was
usually known by the epithet dal chitarin(o)).
By around 1487 Tinctoris could remark: ‘The ghiterra is used most rarely,
because of the thinness of its sound. When I heard it in Catalonia, it was
being used much more often by women, to accompany love songs, than by
men’. He also gave the only information that survives on the gittern’s
tuning, namely that it was strung like a (four-course) lute, that is, with the
intervals 4th–3rd–4th. By this time the vihuela-shaped guitar had begun to
appear. It must be this instrument, rather than the vihuela itself, which
Tinctoris described in the following quote, since it is much smaller than the
lute:
that [instrument], for example, invented by the Spanish, which
both they and the Italians call the viola, but the French the
demi-luth. This viola differs from the lute in that the lute is
much larger and tortoise-shaped, while the viola is flat, and in
most cases curved inwards on each side.
It is interesting that Tinctoris did not use the name ‘guitar’ for this new
Spanish instrument, but that soon became the practice as the lute-shaped
gittern was abandoned in the 16th century.
The gittern and the guitar must have existed side by side for a considerable
time, the older instrument steadily losing ground to the newer one. The
instruments described as ‘quintern’ and illustrated in the treatises of
Sebastian Virdung (Musica getutscht, 1511) and Martin Agricola (Ein kurtz
deudsche Musica, 1528; Musica instrumentalis deudsch, 1529, enlarged
5/1545) are of the old variety. But already in 1530 there was a ‘gyterneur
suivant le mode espagnole’ (‘guitarist in the Spanish fashion’) in the retinue
of Emperor Charles V. Around 1550 a spate of guitar music was published,
almost certainly for the new instrument. However, references to the guitar
or gittern as a round-backed instrument or small lute are found in the later
16th century, the 17th and even the 18th, suggesting that the lute-shaped
guitar was still occasionally used.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SachsH
K. Geiringer: ‘Der Instrumentenname “Quinterne” und die mittelalterlichen
Bezeichnungen der Gitarre, Mandola und des Colascione’, AMw, vi
(1924), 103–10
V. Denis: De muziekinstrumenten in de Nederlanden en in Italië naar hun
afbeelding in de 15e-eeuwsche kunst (Antwerp, 1944), 112
A. Baines: ‘Fifteenth-Century Instruments in Tinctoris’s De inventione et
usu musicae’, GSJ, iii (1950), 19–26
F. Lesure: ‘La facture instrumentale à Paris au XVIe siècle’, GSJ, vii
(1954), 11–52
H.G. Farmer: ‘The Music of Islam’, NOHM, i (1957), 421–78
F.V. Grunfeld: The Art and Times of the Guitar (New York, 1969/R)
F. Hellwig: ‘Lute-Making in the Late 15th and 16th Century’, LSJ, xvi
(1974), 24–38
H. Turnbull: The Guitar from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New
York and London, 1974)
L. Lockwood: ‘Pietrobono and the Instrumental Tradition at Ferrara in the
Fifteenth Century’, RIM, x (1975), 115–33
L. Wright: ‘The Medieval Gittern and Citole: a Case of Mistaken Identity’,
GSJ, xxx (1977), 8–42
J.M. Ward: ‘Sprightly & Cheerful Musick: Notes on the Cittern, Gittern and
Guitar in 16th- and 17th-Century England’, LSJ, xxi (1979–81) [whole
issue]
M. Burzik: Quellenstudien zu europäischen Zupfinstrumentenformen
(Kassel, 1994)
LAURENCE WRIGHT

Giucci, Carlos
(b Montevideo, 4 Nov 1904; d Montevideo, 7 May 1958). Uruguayan
composer. His Italian-born father Camilo Giucci had studied with Liszt
before settling (c1880) in Montevideo, where he founded the Liceo Musical
Franz Liszt (1895). Carlos learnt the piano from his mother the Uruguayan
pianist Luisa Gallo-Giucci and from the Polish pianist Ignaz Friedmann
when he toured Montevideo. He studied harmony, counterpoint and
composition with Manuel García de la Lera, Tomás Mujica and Guido
Santórsola. In 1937 he began teaching music at secondary schools. He
joined the Uruguayan Folk Society (1945) and the musicology division at
the National History Museum (1946). His early works (c1920–50) are in the
nationalist mould, while his style became more eclectic towards the end of
his life.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Salgado: Breve historia de la música en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1971)
E. Sabatés: ‘Giucci, Carlos’, Músicos de Aquí, ii (Montevideo, 1992), 145–
84
LEONARDO MANZINO

Giudice, Cesare del.

See Del Giudice, Cesare.

Giudici & Strada.

Italian firm of music publishers. It was founded in Turin in 1859 by Augusto
Giudici (b Milan, 1820; d Luino, 28 Aug 1886) and Achille Strada (b Milan,
10 July 1823; d Turin, 2 Nov 1880); both had previously been engravers for
Ricordi. They acquired their firm from Antonio Racca, for whom they were
both working. During the next three decades they increased production,
enlarged the printing department and opened a new hall for exhibition and
sales; between 1887 and 1894 the firm also developed a lithographic
department. Giudici & Strada is specially known for didactic works for the
voice and for the piano (various works by Czerny and the Italian edition of
Henri Herz’s 1000 esercizi applicati all’uso del dactylion), transcriptions for
the piano and various instrumental combinations, and operas by Cagnoni,
Petrella and Flotow. It also published works by Usiglio and Lauro Rossi.
In 1893 Arturo Demarchi merged his own firm with Giudici & Strada; in
1894 he became the sole proprietor and later moved the company to Milan.
Under his ownership it published music by Vincenzo Ferroni, Francesco
Paolo Frontini, Stanislao Gastaldon, and Antonio Scontrino. Subsequently
it was sold to Paolo Mariani, who published vocal scores of works by
Smareglia (including Oceàna, 1903). From 1920 to 1930 the firm was
owned by Luigi Stoppa; when it closed in 1930 part of its repertory was
taken over by other editors, the rest was lost.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SartoriD
C. Nasi: ‘Augusto Giudici’, GMM, xli (1886), 287–8
A. Basso: Il Conservatorio di musica Giuseppe Verdi di Torino: storia e
documenti dalle origini al 1970 (Turin, 1971), 58, 84, 229
B.M. Antolini: ‘L'editoria musicale in Italia negli anni di Puccini’, Giacomo
Puccini: Lucca 1994, 329–59, esp. 332–3
M. Dell’Ara: ‘Giudici & Strada’, Dizionario degli editori musicali italiani,
1750–1930, ed. B.M. Antolini (Pisa, 2000)
STEFANO AJANI

Giuliani, Francesco [‘Il Cerato’]

(b Arzignano, nr Vicenza; fl 1619–29). Italian composer. The title-pages of
his two publications describe him merely as ‘Il Cerato d'Arzignano
Vicentino’ (‘Il Cerato’ may be an academic name). These publications are
Sacri concerti, for from one to four voices and continuo (Venice, 1619), and
Celeste ghirlanda di 40 concerti, for solo voice and continuo (Venice, repr.
1629; date of 1st edn unknown). Giuliani was therefore one of the many
minor north Italians who in the early 17th century contributed to the
repertory of the small-scale concertato motet, in particular the solo motet.
JEROME ROCHE

Giuliani, Giovanni Francesco

(b Livorno, c1760; d Florence, after 1818). Italian composer and conductor.
He studied in Florence with Pietro Nardini (violin) and Bartolomeo Felici
(counterpoint), and from 1783 to 1798 led the orchestra at the Teatro degli
Intrepidi there. He also lectured in music and declamation at the
Accademia di Belle Arti in Florence, where one of his pupils was the
composer Ferdinando Giorgetti. He was apparently based in Florence for
the rest of his life.
Giuliani is one of the few lesser Italian masters of the late 18th century who
was able to make a living as an instrumental composer in his own country
and was not forced either to travel elsewhere or to compose church and
theatre music, although he did write a two-act intermezzo and three ballets.
The principal characteristics of his instrumental music are, on the one
hand, a marked influence from Haydn and, on the other – at least as far as
 his solo concertos are concerned – excessive Classical rigour, on the
model of Nardini’s works, from which Giuliani was only occasionally able to
free himself.
WORKS
stage
Il fido amante (ballet, G. Trafieri), in G. Sarti: Medonte, Naples, S Carlo, 30 May
1783
Ballet in G. Albertini: Virginia, Rome, Dame, carn. 1786
Il generoso perdono (ballet, G. Bossi), in P. Anfossi: La maga Circe, Siena,
Accademia degli Intronati, carn. 1792
Chi ha più giudizio più ne adoperi (int, 2, C. Mazzini), Florence, Intrepidi, carn. 1794
other vocal
6 duetti notturni, S, S, hp/hpd/chit francese (Florence, 1796)
instrumental
Concs.: 3 for hpd, orch, op.2 (n.p., 1784); 3 for hpd, orch, op.4 (n.p., n.d.); 1 for hpd,
insts, op.12 (Florence, n.d.); Vn Conc., D (London, n.d.); Vn Conc., B (London,
n.d.); Vn Conc., F (Paris, n.d.)
Syms.: D, CH-N; E , I-Tf
Qnts: 3 for fl, 2 ob/vn, va, vc (Florence, 1785); fl, 2 vn, va, vc, op.13 (Florence,
1797)
Str Qts: 6 (Florence, 1783); Quatuor périodique no.1 (Offenbach, 1784); 6 as op.2
(London, 1786); 6 as op.7 (London, 1787); 3 as op.10 (Florence, 1797)
Other qts: 6 for 2 mand, va, lute, Ls; 6 for 2 mand, fl, vc, Ls; 6 for 2 mand, fl, va, Ls;
6 for mand, vn, va/vc, lute, A-Wgm
Trios, duos and sonatas: 3 Sonatas, vn, va, vc, op.8 (Florence, 1796); 6 Sonatas,
hpd, vn, vc (London, n.d.); 3 Sonatas, hpd, vn obbl, op.9 (Florence, 1796); 6 Duets,
vn, vc, op.3 (London, n.d.); 6 Duets, op.8 (London, n.d.); 6 duos concertants, 2 vn
(Paris, n.d.); 6 Duets, 2 vn (?Florence, 1791), 3 Duos, 2 vn, op.1 (Berlin, n.d.); 3
Duets, 2 vn (Florence, n.d.); 6 Sonatas, pf, op.6 (London, n.d.)
Other works of doubtful attribution in: A-Wgm, CH-E, HR-Dsmb, I-BGc, Fc,
MTventuri, PEsp, Vc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
SartoriD
SchmidlD
J. Zuth: ‘Die Mandolinhandschriften in der Bibliothek der Gesellschaft der
Musikfreunde in Wien’, ZMw, xiv (1931–2), 89–99
S. Martinotti: Ottocento strumentale italiano (Bologna, 1972)
B.M. Antolini: ‘Editori, copisti, commercio della musica in Italia: 1770–
1800’, Studi musicali, xviii (1989), 273–375
M. de Angelis: La felicità in Etruria: melodramma, impresari, musica,
virtuosi: lo spettacolo nella Firenze dei Lorena (Florence, 1990)
M. de Angelis: Melodramma, spettacolo e musica nella Firenze dei Lorena
(Milan and Florence, 1991)
LUDWIG FINSCHER/GIACOMO FORNARI
 Giuliani, Mauro (Giuseppe Sergio
Pantaleo)
(b Bisceglie, nr Bari, 27 July 1781; d Naples, 8 May 1829). Italian guitar
virtuoso and composer. He studied the cello and counterpoint, but the six-
string guitar became his principal instrument early in life. As there were
many fine guitarists in Italy at the beginning of the 19th century (Agliati,
Carulli, Gragnani, Nava etc.), but little public interest in music other than
opera, Giuliani, like many skilled Italian instrumentalists, moved north to
make a living. He settled in Vienna in 1806 and quickly became famous as
the greatest living guitarist and also as a notable composer, to the chagrin
of resident Viennese talents such as Simon Molitor and Alois Wolf. In April
1808 Giuliani gave the première of his guitar concerto with full orchestral
accompaniment, op.30, to great public acclaim (AMZ, x, 1807–8, col.538).
Thereafter he led the classical guitar movement in Vienna, teaching,
performing and composing a rich repertory for the guitar (nearly 150 works
with opus number, 70 without). His guitar compositions were notated on the
treble clef in the new manner which, unlike violin notation, always
distinguished the parts of the music – melody, bass, inner voices – through
the careful use of note stem directions and rests. Giuliani played the cello
in the première of Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony (8 December 1813) in
the company of Vienna’s most famous artists, including Hummel, Mayseder
and Spohr, with whom he appeared publicly on many subsequent
occasions. He became a ‘virtuoso onorario di camera’ to Empress Marie-
Louise, Napoleon’s second wife, in about 1814. He returned to Italy in
1819, heavily in debt, living first in Rome (c1820–23) and finally in Naples,
where he was patronized by the nobility at the court of the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies until his death. Towards the end of his life he was renowned for
performances on the lyre guitar.
Giuliani had two talented children, Michel (b Barletta, 17 May 1801; d
Paris, 8 October 1867), who became a noted ‘professeur de chant’,
succeeding Manuel Garcia at the Paris Conservatoire, and Emilia (b
Vienna, 1813; d ?after 1840), a famous guitar virtuoso who wrote a well-
known set of preludes for guitar op.46.
WORKS
Thematic catalogue in Heck (1970), ii; reprints of nearly all the works are in B.
Jeffery, ed.: Mauro Giuliani: the Complete Works in Facsimiles (London, 1984–7);
the most complete list of works is in ‘The Compositions of Mauro Giuliani: a
Checklist of the Earliest Editions’, Heck (1995), 194–229
3 gui concs., opp.30, 36, 70; ed. (Milan, 1973)
Chbr: gui, str qt, opp.65, 101–3; gui, fl/vn, opp.24a, 25, 52–3, 63, 74–7, 80–82, 84–
6, 126–7, 6 works without op. no.; gui, pf, opp.68, 93 (with Hummel), Grand duo
concertant (with Moscheles; known also as Moscheles’s op.20), 1 work without op.
no.; 2 gui, opp.66–7, 130, 137, 5 works without op. no., 5 works posth. pubd
Solo gui: Sonate, op.15; Grand ouverture, op.61; 12 variation sets, opp.6, 9, 20, 38,
49, 64, 88, 91, 97, 104, 112, 118; 2 character studies, opp.46, 148; 3 Sonatinas,
op.71; most ed. T.F. Heck, Le pupitre, xlvi (Paris, 1973) and R. Chiesa (Milan,
1974–94); 31 works without op. no., 15 works posth. pubd
Lieder, arias, gui/pf acc.: opp.13, 22, 27, 39, 79, 89, 95; 16 works without op. no.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Isnardi: ‘Cenni biografici intorno a Mauro Giuliano [sic]’, L’omnibus (30
April 1836)
T.F. Heck: The Birth of the Classic Guitar and its Cultivation in Vienna,
Reflected in the Career and Compositions of Mauro Giuliani (d. 1829)
(diss., Yale U., 1970)
T. Heck: ‘Giuliani in Italia’, Il ‘Fronimo’, no.8 (1974), 16–22; no.9 (1974),
19–28; no.10 (1975), 13–19
S. Castelvecchi: ‘Le rossiniane di Mauro Giuliani’, Bolletino del Centro
rossiniano di studi, no.i/3 (Pesaro, 1986), 34–72
M. Riboni: Mauro Giuliani (1781–1829): profilo biografico-critico ed analisi
delle trascrizioni per chitarra (diss., U. of Milan, 1992)
M. Riboni: ‘Mauro Giuliani: un aggiornamento biografico’, Il ‘Fronimo’,
no.81 (1992), 41–60; no.82 (1993), 33–51
M. Riboni: ‘Le trascrizioni per chitarra di Mauro Giuliani’, Il ‘Fronimo’, no.85
(1993), 10–30; no.86 (1994), 14–30; no.88 (1994), 15–27; no.89
(1994), 22–40
F. Araniti: Nuove acquisizioni sull’opera e sulla vita di Mauro Giuliani: gli
anni del soggiorno napoletano (1824–29) (Barletta, 1993)
M. Torta: ‘Le edizioni napoletane di Mauro Giuliani’, Il ‘Fronimo’, no.87
(1994), 12–34
T. Heck: Mauro Giuliani: Virtuoso Guitarist and Composer (Columbus, OH,
1995/R)
THOMAS F. HECK

Giuliano Bonaugurio da Tivoli.

See Tiburtino, Giuliano.

Giulini, Carlo Maria

(b Barletta, 9 May 1914). Italian conductor. He studied the viola under
Remy Principe and composition under Alessandro Bustini at the Accademia
di S Cecilia, Rome, and then conducting under Bernardino Molinari. After
early experience as a viola player in the Augusteo Orchestra, Rome, under
conductors who included Furtwängler, Klemperer and Walter, he made his
début there in 1944, conducting Brahms with the same orchestra (renamed
the orchestra of the Accademia di S Cecilia), and was appointed musical
director for Italian Radio. He broadcast several lesser-known operas by
Scarlatti, Malipiero and others, and in 1950 made his theatre début at
Bergamo in La traviata. The same year he formed and conducted the Milan
Radio Orchestra; a broadcast the following year of Haydn’s then little-
known Il mondo della luna brought him to the attention of Toscanini and De
Sabata, who engaged him at La Scala, where he succeeded the latter as
principal conductor in 1953. There he conducted a number of works new to
the repertory, including Monteverdi’s L’incoronazione di Poppea (in
Ghedini’s edition), Bartók’s Bluebeard’s Castle, and the first stage
performance in Italy of Stravinsky’s The Wedding (with choreography by
Tatiana Gsovsky). Giulini was also closely associated at this time with
Maria Callas (in Alceste and La traviata), and with the producers Luchino
Visconti and Franco Zeffirelli. He gained further notable successes at the
Aix-en-Provence and Holland festivals, and the Maggio Musicale
Fiorentino.
Giulini first appeared in Britain at the 1955 Edinburgh Festival with the
Glyndebourne Opera in Falstaff, but it was the Visconti production of Don
Carlos for the Royal Opera House centenary in 1958 that made his name
in Britain as an outstanding conductor of Italian opera. That year he first
conducted the Philharmonia Orchestra in London, beginning an association
which, during the 1960s, brought memorable performances of such works
as Verdi’s Requiem. He developed his repertory slowly and carefully,
waiting until the 1960s to conduct Bach and the symphonies of Mozart and
Beethoven. After the 1967 Covent Garden production of La traviata (also
with Visconti), Giulini announced his intention to leave opera and
concentrate on the concert repertory. He was principal guest conductor of
the Chicago SO from 1969 to 1978, principal conductor of the Vienna SO
from 1973 to 1976 and chief conductor of the Los Angeles PO from 1978 to
1984. In 1982 he returned to opera, conducting Falstaff in Los Angeles,
London and Milan, performances which were less vivacious than in 1955,
but exceptionally refined and contemplative.
When he first became internationally known in the 1950s, Giulini was
sometimes compared to Toscanini for his combination of lyrical warmth and
rhythmic dynamism, and for his ability to achieve precision in complex
operatic textures (notably in the ensembles of Falstaff). But Giulini never
had the aggressive drive of Toscanini, and his tempos, which were always
expansive, have become more so over the years. Opinion has been
divided about his slow tempos, but there is widespread acknowledgement
of the exceptional mellowness of his interpretations, the richness of his
string textures and the seriousness of purpose with which he inspires both
instrumentalists and singers. Of his later appearances, which became
increasingly rare during the 1990s, his concerts with the European
Community Youth Orchestra in 1994 were particularly admired. Giulini’s
recordings include two much praised performances of Verdi’s Requiem (the
first made in 1964, the second, with broader tempos, in 1989), Don Carlos,
Rigoletto and Il trovatore, Mozart’s Don Giovanni and Le nozze di Figaro,
and, with the Los Angeles SO, symphonies by Beethoven, Brahms,
Schumann and Tchaikovsky.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Jacobson: ‘Carlo Maria Giulini on Brahms’, Conductors on Conducting
(London, 1979), 209–27
H. Matheopoulos: Maestro: Encounters with Conductors of Today
(London, 1982), 167–91
R. Chesterman, ed.: Conductors in Conversation (London, 1990), 53–75
ROBERT PHILIP

Giulini, Johann Andreas Joseph

(bap. Augsburg, 15 Oct 1723; d Augsburg, 21 Aug 1772). German
composer. The son of an Augsburg businessman and language teacher, he
studied at St Salvator, the Jesuit Gymnasium in Augsburg, and then
attended the theological seminary at Pfaffenhausen in Swabia, taking
priestly vows in 1749. Even as a student his compositions attracted
attention. After joining the choir of Augsburg Cathedral, he became vicar-
choral and, in 1755, cathedral Kapellmeister, a post he held for 17 years.
He wrote the music for school dramas for St Salvator, some of the texts of
which have survived (D-As, DI), as well as symphonies (Brook), sacred
arias and much sacred music (masses, vespers, litanies, psalms, etc.), in
which ‘the late Baroque contrapuntal style merges with what are
sometimes early classical melodic and harmonic aspects to form an
organic unity’ (Krautwurst, 1984). His Canticum Zachariae (in D-Mbs), a
masterpiece of counterpoint, was performed regularly in Augsburg
Cathedral during Holy Week from 1767 to 1797. His manuscript works
(mainly in A-ST, CH-E, D-As, EB, Mbs, OB, WEY) show that he favoured a
strict, academic style of church music. He was a sound theorist and an
excellent teacher, especially of singing and composition; his pupils included
F.F. Cavallo, later Kapellmeister at Regensburg Cathedral, Johann Michael
Demmler, cathedral organist at Augsburg, and Johann Chrysostomus
Drexel, later music director and Kapellmeister at Augsburg Cathedral.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookB
EitnerQ
FétisB
GerberNL
MCL
MGG1 (A. Layer)
SchillingE
P. von Stetten: Kunst- Gewerb- und Handwerks-Geschichte der Reichs-
Stadt Augsburg (Augsburg, 1779)
F. Krautwurst: ‘Musik nach dem Dreissigjährigen Krieg bis zum Ende der
reichsstädtischen Zeit’, Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg von der
Römerzeit bis zur Gegenwart, ed. G. Gottlieb and others (Stuttgart,
1984), 504–14, esp. 510
F. Krautwurst and W. Zorn: Bibliographie des Schrifttums zur
Musikgeschichte der Stadt Augsburg (Tutzing, 1989)
H. Ullrich: Johann Chrysostomus Drexel (1758–1801): Leben und Werk,
zugleich ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Augsburger Dommusik
(Augsburg, 1992), 47–54, 371–85
ADOLF LAYER/HERMANN ULLRICH

Giulio Romano.
See Romano, Giulio (ii).

Giunta [Giunti; Zonta; Junta;

Juncta; de’ Giunti Modesti].
Italian family of booksellers and printers. They originated in Florence and
were active from the late 15th century until well into the 17th, and had
branches in Venice, Rome, Lyons and Spain.
The Venetian branch was founded by Luc’Antonio Giunta (1454–1538),
who became a bookseller soon after his arrival in 1477 and in 1489 began
to publish, using various printers, notably Johann Emerich of Speyer (fl
1487–1506), who excelled in liturgical books. Giunta began printing on his
own in 1499. The firm prospered greatly, notwithstanding various financial
and other disasters, including a fire of 1557 which destroyed the company’s
plant and much of its stock. By then, Luc’Antonio’s sons Giovan Maria (d
c1569) and, principally, Tommaso (1494–1566) were in charge. After
Tommaso’s death the direction passed to Giovan Maria’s son, also called
Luc’Antonio (d 1602), and thereafter to the latter’s sons, Tommaso (d 1618)
and Giovan Maria (d c1632), but after 1618 they left the management of
the firm to a distant cousin, Bernardo di Filippo di Benedetto Giunta (d
1648). When Bernardo returned to Florence in 1644, Tommaso’s heirs
continued the firm until 1657, when it passed to Niccolò Pezzana, whose
heirs continued to print with the Giunta device until 1801.
Throughout the life of the firm liturgical books made up a large proportion
of its production; no competitor produced them in such quantity, or with
greater taste and skill. Those intended for choir use were so carefully
edited, at first by the Franciscan friar Francesco de Brugis, that their
musical texts have scarcely been superseded. Luc’Antonio’s editions of the
Graduale romanum (1499–1501) and Antiphonarium romanum (1503–4),
printed by Emerich with new music and text types and large woodcut
initials, were unrivalled in quality and size. The similarly splendid
Psalterium(1507) was printed in Giunta’s workshop at his own expense.
His Cantorinus (1513), a compendium of chants ‘for beginners’, was
equally reliable in its readings. These volumes were reprinted by Giunta
many times, and sometimes by rival printers, as were the numerous
liturgical books intended for the clergy and new types of books for choirs.
About half the liturgical books contain at least some music, normally with
black notes printed on a red staff in separate impressions. The Breviarium
romanum of 1571 was the first book to incorporate the liturgical changes
ordered by the Council of Trent, and was the liturgical model for post-
Tridentine liturgical books. Virtually all are examples of fine printing, usually
adorned with handsome woodcuts and decorative initials (see illustration).
The elder Luc’Antonio was the only member of the Venetian branch who
was concerned with polyphonic music. In 1520 he cooperated with Andrea
Antico in the production of eight books of frottolas, chansons and motets,
using Antico’s woodcuts for the notes and staves (including RISM c15162,
c15171), frottolas by Tromboncino and Cara, and anthologies of chansons
and motets. Giunta’s collaboration in some of these is signalled only by his
printer’s mark, a Florentine lily with the initials L.A.Z. (Luc’Antonio Zonta).
The first Giunta to collaborate with Antico was Antonio, who printed for
Antico the Liber quindecim missarum (Rome, 1516; for illustration see
Antico, Andrea). Antonio’s father, Jacomo di Biagio Giunta (1478–c1528), a
nephew of Luc’Antonio, financed several volumes in Rome, including two
of 1518 made with Antico’s woodcuts and cooperation – the second and
third books of Canzoni sonetti strambotti & frottole, both printed by
Giacomo Mazzocchi. In 1522 Giunta financed the Missarum decem
clarissimis musicis compositarum … liber primus printed by Giovanni
Giacomo Pasoti. This was printed in two impressions, like the eight or more
books that Giunta sponsored in 1526, most of them reprints of Petrucci
volumes: Canzoni frottole & capitoli … libro primo de la Croce, three
volumes of masses by Josquin, and the four volumes of Motetti de la
corona. These all have colophons that identify the printers as Pasoti and
Valerio Dorico. The second edition of the Motetti de la corona, libro tertio,
also printed for Giunta by Pasoti and Dorico, was dated April 1527, shortly
before the Sack of Rome. Music printing in Rome resumed in 1530; the last
music book to bear Giunta’s mark was Canzoni frottole & capitoli … libro
secondo de la Croce, printed by Dorico in 1531.
Filippo Giunta (1456–1517) established a bookselling and printing business
in Florence which became very successful but never printed books of
music. In 1563 Filippo di Bernardo Giunta (1533–1600) was obliged to
commission Rampazetto in Venice to print Giovanni Razzi’s Laudi spirituali
because Florence lacked a music press. In 1571 and 1573 petitions by
Filippo’s brothers Jacopo and Bernardo, for exclusive rights to print music
and to sell certain music editions in Tuscany, were denied by the grand
duke. In 1602 Filippo’s son Modesto (c1577–1644) reprinted Galilei’s
Dialogo della musica antica e moderna. In 1605 Filippo’s heirs printed a
catalogue of works for sale which included a long list of musical editions,
none of which were published by them.
Around 1521 Giovanni di Filippo Giunta, thereafter Juan de Junta (c1485–
1561), established the family in Spain. He printed works with music in
Burgos: a Baptisterium (1527) and reprints of Martínez de Bizcargui’s Arte
de canto llano (1528 and 1535); and in Salamanca: Manuale secundum
consuetudinem ecclesie Salmanticensis (1532). His son Felipe printed a
Missale romanum (Burgos, 1580). Tommaso di Bernardo (d 1624) and
Giulio, probably his uncle (fl 1583–1618), worked in Madrid, using from
1594 the imprint ‘Typographia Regia’ or ‘Imprenta Real’. They published
numerous liturgical books, including a sacramentary for use among the
Amerindians of the New World (1617) and a few volumes of polyphony,
including Philippe Rogier’s Missae sex (1598), Victoria’s Missae,
Magnificat, motecta (1600) and Officium defunctorum (1605), Alonso
Lobo’s Liber primus missarum (1602) and Stefano Limido’s Armonia
espiritual (1624). After Tommaso’s death his widow Teresa managed the
Typographia Regia, which in 1628 printed López de Velasco’s Libro de
missas, motetes, salmos, Magnificats, y otras cosas.
The Lyons branch of the firm was founded by Jacques (Jacopo di
Francesco) Giunta (1487–1564), who was sent there around 1520 for that
purpose by his uncle, Luc’Antonio. His heirs employed the excellent printer
Corneille de Septgranges for several liturgical books, including three with
music: Missale ad usum romanum (1550), Missale sacri ordinis S. Ioannis
Hierpsolymita(1553) and Missale iuxta ritum sancte ecclesie Lugdunensis
(1556).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (C. Sartori)
MischiatiI
SartoriD
StevensonSCM
A.M. Bandini: De florentina Iuntarum typographia (Lucca, 1791), esp.
facing p.2
J. Riaño: Critical & Bibliographical Notes on Early Spanish Music (London,
1887/R)
C. Pérez Pastor: Bibliografia madrileña (Madrid, 1891–1907)
V. Masséna: Etudes sur l’art de la gravure sur bois à Venise: les missels
imprimés à Venise de 1484 à 1600 (Paris, 1896)
H. and J. Baudrier: Bibliographie lyonnaise, vi (Lyons, 1904/R), 77–424,
437–85
A. Palau y Dulcet: Manual del librero hispanoamericano (Barcelona,
1923–7/R)
H. Thomas: Spanish Sixteenth-Century Printing (London, 1926), 32, pl.23
A. Tenenti: ‘Luc’Antonio Giunti il Giovane stampatore e mercante’, Studi in
onore di Armando Sapori (Milan, 1957), ii, 1021–60
F. Ascarelli: Annali tipografici di Giacomo Mazzocchi (Florence, 1961),
119, no.121
Å. Davidsson: Bibliographie der musiktheoretischen Drucke des 16.
Jahrhunderts (Baden-Baden, 1962), 20, 22
P. Camerini: Annali dei Giunti (Florence, 1962–3)
G. Massera: La ‘Mano musicale perfetta’ di Francesco de Brugis dalle
Prefazioni ai Corali di L.A. Giunta (Florence, 1963)
C.W. Chapman: Andrea Antico (diss., Harvard U., 1964)
P. Kast: ‘Die Musikdrucke des Kataloges Giunta von 1604’, AnMc, no.2
(1965), 41–71
K. Jeppesen: ‘An Unknown Pre-Madrigalian Music Print in Relation to
Other Contemporary Italian Sources (1520–1530)’, Studies in
Musicology: Essays … in Memory of Glen Haydon, ed. J.W. Pruett
(Chapel Hill, NC, 1969), 3–17
J. Haar: ‘The Libraria of Antonfrancesco Doni’, MD, xxiv (1970), 101–23,
esp.119
D. Decia, R. Delfiol and L.S. Camerini: I Giunti tipografi editori di Firenze,
1497–1570: annali (Florence, 1978)
L.S. Camerini: I Giunti tipografi editori di Firenze, 1571–1625: annali
(Florence, 1979)
W.A. Pettas: The Giunti of Florence: Merchant Publishers of the Sixteenth
Century (San Francisco, 1980)
S.G. Cusick: Valerio Dorico: Music Printer in Sixteenth-Century Rome
(Ann Arbor, 1981)
D. Crawford: ‘A Chant Manual in Sixteenth-Century Italy’, MD, xxxvi
(1982), 175–90
L. Guillo: ‘Les motets de Layolle et les psaumes de Piéton: deux nouvelles
éditions lyonnaises du seizième siècle’, FAM, xxxii (1985), 186–91
M. Schiavotti Morena: ‘L’esamplare completo di un Antifonario giuntino
(Venezia 1504) alla Nazionale di Firenze’, La bibliofilia, lxxxvii (1985),
281–8
S. Pogue: Letter to the Editor, FAM, xxxiii (1986), 293–4
T. Carter: ‘The Music Trade in Late Sixteenth-Century Florence’, AcM, lix
(1987), 289–91
M. Picker: The Motet Books of Andrea Antico (Chicago, 1987)
S. Pogue: ‘The Earliest Music Printing in France’, Huntington Library
Quarterly, l (1987–8), 35–57
M.K. Duggan: Italian Music Incunabula: Printers and Type (Berkeley, 1991)
 W. Pettas: A Sixteenth-Century Spanish Bookstore: the Inventory of Juan
de Junta (Philadelphia, 1995)
THOMAS W. BRIDGES

Giuranna, (Elena) Barbara

(b Palermo, 18 Nov 1898; d Rome, 31 July 1998). Italian composer and
pianist. She studied the piano with Guido Alberto Fano at the Palermo
Conservatory and composition with Camillo De Nardis and Antonio Savasta
at the Naples Conservatory, before taking a course in advanced
composition with Ghedini at the Milan Conservatory. She taught at the
Rome Conservatory from 1937, at first theory of music and solfeggio, then,
from 1942 to 1970, harmony, counterpoint and fugue. Between 1948 and
1956 she was music consultant to RAI in Rome. In 1982 she was elected a
member of the Accademia di S Cecilia.
Her stage works, like the opera Jamanto, demonstrate her strong leaning
towards traditional verismo. In her earlier compositions she favoured a
descriptive, programmatic mode of writing in the manner of Respighi;
indeed, works such as the symphonic poems X legio and Patria are clearly
conditioned by the political and cultural climate of the 1930s: in them,
Zanetti, writing in 1985, identified ‘the entire baggage of fascist celebratory
rhetoric and ingenuous striving after a pseudo-Roman epic style’. Toccata
and her Concerto for Orchestra bear witness to her interest in the
possibilities of neo-classicism, and her later works exhibit a more eclectic
modernism. She also worked as an editor of 18th-century music.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: La trappola d’oro (ballet), 1929; Jamanto (op, 3, Giuranna), Bergamo,

Novità, 1941; Mayerling (op, 3, V. Viviani), Naples, S Carlo, 1960; Hosanna (op, 1,
C. Pinelli), Palermo, Massimo, 1978
Choral: 3 cori, male chorus, 1940; 3 canti alla Vergine, S, female chorus, small
orch, 1949; Missa sinite parvulos, children’s chorus, hp, org, 1992; other choral
works and songs for v, pf
Orch: Notturno, 1923; Apina rapita dai nani della montagna, suite after A. France,
small orch, 1924; Marionette, 1927; X legio (Poema eroico), sym. poem, 1936;
Toccata, 1937; Patria, sym. poem, 1938; Conc. for orch, 1942; Episodi, wind, brass,
timp, pf, 1942; Conc. for orch no.2, 1965; Musica per Olivia, small orch, 1970
Chbr and solo inst: Adagio e Allegro da concerto, 9 insts, 1935; Sonatina, pf, 1935;
Toccata, pf, 1937; Sonatina, hp, 1941; Solo per viola, 1982
Arrs. of 18th-century music incl. Vivaldi, Cimarosa and Paisiello

Principal publisher: Ricordi

BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Zanetti: La musica italiana nel Novecento (Busto Arsizio, 1985), 986–7
A. Olivier and K. Weingartz-Perschel: ‘Giuranna, Barbara’,
Komponistinnen von A–Z (Düsseldorf, 1988)
P. Adkins Chiti: Almanacco delle virtuose, primedonne, compositrici e
musiciste d’Italia (Novara, 1991), 250, 274–6
P. Adkins Chiti: Donne in musica (Rome, 1996), 300–03
ANTONIO TRUDU

Giuranna, Bruno
(b Rome, 6 April 1933). Italian viola player, son of Barbara Giuranna. He
studied the violin under Emanuele and Corti and the viola under Principe
and Leóne at the Rome Conservatory, where he graduated in both
instruments. He made his solo début in 1954 under Karajan in Ghedini’s
Musica da concerto. He established an international reputation as a soloist
in the standard viola repertory and as a viola d’amore player, touring widely
in Europe, the USA, Africa and the Orient, and gave the first performances
of works by Lengley, Ghedini, Testi and Zafred. He was a member of the
ensemble I Musici, 1952–9, and in 1960 became a founder-member of the
Italian String Trio. He taught at the Milan Conservatory (1961–5), the
Detmold Hochschule für Musik (1969–72), and was a professor at the
Rome Conservatory (1965–72); from 1966 to 1972 he held masterclasses
at the Accademia Musicale Chigiana, Siena. After playing with the Végh
Quartet from 1978 to 1980, he became director of the Padua Chamber
Orchestra in 1983 and a professor at the Berlin Hochschule the same year.
In 1985 he formed a string trio with Mutter and Rostropovich. He plays a
viola by Carlo Tononi dated 1690. (D. Blum: ‘Alto Artistry’, The Strad, xcix
(1988), 386–9)
PIERO RATTALINO/MARGARET CAMPBELL

Giuseppino.
See Cenci, Giuseppe.

Giustini, Lodovico (Maria)

(b Pistoia, 12 Dec 1685; d Pistoia, 7 Feb 1743). Italian composer, organist
and harpsichordist. He was from a family of Pistoiese musicians: his uncle
Domenico Giustini composed a mass for 12 voices and chorus in 1615 (in
I-PS), and a great-uncle, Francesco Giustini, spent 50 years as a singer in
the cathedral choir from about 1607. Lodovico's father, Francesco, was
organist of the Congregazione dello Spirito Santo. Lodovico himself was
elected to membership on 21 July 1695 and succeeded his father as
organist on 10 July 1725, remaining in the post until his death. This
congregation was affiliated to the Jesuits and Lodovico also acted as
organist at their church, S Ignazio (now the Chiesa dello Spirito Santo). His
position incorporated the duties of music master of the Jesuit seminary, the
Collegio dei Nobili, for which he probably provided compositions;
performances of a cantata in 1724 and an oratorio and cantata in 1739 are
documented. Two other oratorios are known: La fuga di S Teresia (text by
Luigi Melani, music lost) was given in the Palazzo Melani in 1726, and a
pasticcio for which Giustini wrote the recitative and several arias, Il martirio
di S Jacopo, protettore della città di Pistoia (libretto by F.M. Aldobrandi,
music in I-PS), was performed in July 1727 (see Grundy Fanelli, 1998). In
1728 Gaetano Berenstadt and others performed the Lamentations that
Giustini composed jointly with G.C.M. Clari (music lost).
In 1730 Giustini's name was put forward by Gian Gastone dei Medici for
the post of organist at S Maria dell'Umiltà, but he failed to win on the
voting. He was, however, elected as cathedral organist in 1734, working
until his death under the maestro di cappella Francesco Manfredini, who
was related to Lodovico (their mothers were members of the Spampani
family). Lodovico also played the harpsichord in many oratorio
performances in the city, probably on a regular basis for the Oratorian
church of S Prospero.
Giustini's fame rests entirely on his set of 12 Sonate da cimbalo di piano e
forte detto volgarmente di martelletti op.1 (Florence, 1732, facs.
Cambridge, 1933, and Florence, 1982), which are sonate da chiesa in four
or five sections alternating slow and fast tempos. These are the earliest
known pieces written especially for the piano, and as such were to stand
alone for 30 years. They exploit the capabilities of the instrument, using
gradations of tone from the softest piano (in the Alemanda of Sonata no.9)
to a strong forte (in the Dolce of no.6). Giustini showed pre-Classical trends
in his choice of harmony (e.g. the Italian 6th), firm tonality with wide-
ranging modulations, and some attractive melodies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R.E.M. Harding: ‘The Earliest Pianoforte Music’, ML, xiii (1932), 194–9
W.S. Newman: ‘A Checklist of the Earliest Keyboard “Sonatas” (1641–
1738)’, Notes, xi (1953–4), 201–12
U. Pineschi: ‘Jacopo Melani e Lodovico Giustini, organisti nella chiesa
della Congregazione dello Spirito Santo di Pistoia’, Bullettino storico
pistoiese, lxxv (1973), 89–94
A. Botti Caselli: ‘Le “Sonate da cimbalo di piano, e forte” di Lodovico
Giustini’, NRMI, xii (1978), 34–66
D.E. Freeman: ‘J.C. Bach and the Early Classical Italian Masters’,
Eighteenth-Century Keyboard Music, ed. R.L. Marshall (New York,
1994), 230–69
J. Grundy Fanelli: ‘La musica patrocinato dei Rospigliosi: il Collegio dei
Nobili’, Bullettino storico pistoiese, xcviii (1996), 113–28
J. Grundy Fanelli: A Chronology of Operas, Oratorios, Operettas,
Cantatas and Miscellaneous Stage Works with Music Performed in
Pistoia 1606–1945 (Bologna, 1998)
JEAN GRUNDY FANELLI

Giustiniana [justiniana, vinitiana,

viniziana]
(It.).
Term used broadly in the 15th century for a kind of song related to the
poetry and singing of Leonardo Giustiniani; it re-emerged in the 1560s for a
specifically (and programmatically) Venetian style of three-voice light
madrigal.
In the 15th century the word is never associated with any known music.
Giustiniani’s own performances were famous but their music was evidently
unwritten. Surviving polyphony for poetry ascribed to him (but by no means
generally agreed to be his) begins with Ciconia’s Con lagrime bagnandome
nel viso and his innovative O rosa bella. Although certain stylistic patterns
can be seen here (Fallows, 1992), the earliest clearly characterized genre
is in the four justiniane printed in Petrucci’s Frottole libro sexto (RISM
15063, nos.2–5, identified in Rubsamen, 1957; ed. Disertori, 1964, pp.248–
63): two of these have texts from poems associated with Giustiniani, and
one is a florid rearrangement of a song first found in the 1460s. They all
have unusually florid discantus lines and a disarmingly dissonant approach
to cadences, both features quite apart from what is otherwise in Petrucci’s
frottola collections or indeed in earlier known polyphony.
The later tradition is first found in Girolamo Scotto’s three-voice collections
of canzoni napoletane, 156512 and 15667, and most specifically in his
Primo libro delle justiniane a tre voci (157017 and later reprints; ed. M.
Materassi, Milan, 1985), as well as in Andrea Gabrieli’s Greghesche et
iustiniane a tre voci (1571). While these are in one sense just a Venetian
response to similar Neapolitan genres (see Einstein), they may have roots
in the earlier tradition, with its text repetitions, stuttering and coarse
counterpoint (see Rubsamen). This genre also carried names like canzone
alla venetiana and Greghesca, continuing to the first decade of the 17th
century.

See also Villanella.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (‘Justiniana’; D. Fallows, T. Carter)
A. Einstein: ‘The Greghesca and the Giustiniana of the Sixteenth Century’,
JRBM, i (1946–7), 19–32
W.H. Rubsamen: ‘The Justiniane or Viniziane of the 15th Century’, AcM,
xxxix (1957), 172–84
B. Disertori: Preface to Le frottole per canto e liuto intabulate da
Franciscus Bassinensis, IMi, new ser., iii (1964)
G. Brunello: ‘Considerazioni sulla giustiniana del Cinquecento e il
contributo di Andrea Gabrieli’, La musica nel Veneto dal XVI al XVIII
secolo, ed. F. Passadore and I. Cavallini (Adria, 1984), 47–88
N. Pirrotta: ‘Echi di arie veneziane del primo Quattrocento’, Interpretazioni
veneziani: Studi di storia dell’arte in onore di Michelangelo Muraro, ed.
D. Rosand (Venice, 1984), 99–108
P. Fabbri: ‘Andrea Gabrieli e le composizioni su diversi linguaggi: la
giustiniana’, Andrea Gabrieli e il suo tempo: Venice 1985, 249–72
D. Fallows: ‘Leonardo Giustinian and Quattrocento Polyphonic Song’,
L’edizione critica tra testo musicale e testo letteraria: Cremona 1992,
247–60
DAVID FALLOWS
Giustiniani [Giustinian], Leonardo
(b Venice, c1383; d Venice, 10 Nov 1446). Italian poet, humanist and
statesman. From one of Venice’s leading families, he studied in Padua
soon after 1400, married Lucrezia di Bernardino da Mula in 1405, joined
the Maggior consiglio of Venice in 1407, and was appointed procuratore of
S Marco in 1444. As a pupil of Guarino Veronese and Gasparino Barzizza
he was in touch with many leading humanists.
His Italian poetry can be divided into four main genres: the devotional
laude (see Luisi), for which there is some music, albeit without any
distinctive style; the strambotti, heavily contested in authorship and with no
known musical settings; the extended love poems in his Canzoniere (ed. in
Wiese, Poesie, 1883, based on I-Fn Pal.213; necessary completions from
F-Pn it.1032 are in Wiese, ‘Zu den Liedern’, 1883), apparently the basis for
the unwritten singing to the lute for which he was famous in his own day
(see Pirrotta, 1972); and the shorter and perhaps earlier poems included in
the posthumous Il fiore delle … canzonette del … Lunardo Iustiniano
(Venice, c1472 and 12 later editions; those not also found in the
Canzoniere are ed. Wiese, 1885). This last volume contains all the poems
ascribed to Giustiniani that survive in polyphonic settings before about
1480; but of its 30 poems at least four are definitely spurious, so many
writers have doubted the authority of the others (the case for accepting
them is outlined in Fallows). All his poetry has a relaxed and informal style
that betokens a new direction in Italian literature; much use is made of
Venetian dialect, ‘translated’ into more formal Italian for the manuscripts
used in the only available modern edition of his Canzoniere.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Wiese, ed.: Poesie edite ed inedite di Giustiniani (Bologna, 1883)
B. Wiese: ‘Zu den Liedern Lionardo Giustinianis’, Zeitschrift für
romanische Philologie, xvii (1883), 256–76
B. Wiese: ‘Neunzehn Lieder Leonardo Giustinianis nach den alten
Drucken’, Bericht vom Schuljahre 1884–85 über das grossherzogliche
Realgymnasium zu Ludwigslust, xiv (Ludwigslust, 1885), 4
B. Fenigstein: Leonardo Giustiniani (1383?–1446): venezianischer
Staatsmann, Humanist und Vulgärdichter (Halle, 1909)
L. Pini: ‘Per l’edizione critica delle canzonette di Leonardo Giustinian
(indice e classificazioni dei manoscritti e delle stampe antiche)’, Atti
dell’Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei: classe di scienzi morali, storiche,
critiche e filologiche, 8th ser., ix (1960), 419–543
N. Pirrotta: ‘Ricercare e variazioni su “O rosa bella”’, Studi musicali, i
(1972), 59–77
F. Luisi: Laudario giustinianeo (Venice, 1983)
D. Fallows: ‘Leonardo Giustinian and Quattrocento Polyphonic Song’,
L’edizione critica tra testo musicale e testo letterario: Cremona 1992,
247–60
DAVID FALLOWS

Giustiniani, Vincenzo
(b Chios, 13 Sept 1564; d Rome, 28 Dec 1637). Italian writer on music. His
father, the Genoese governor of Chios, brought the family to Rome after
the Turks conquered the Aegean island in 1566. There he made a fortune
in banking, which gave his son the means to pursue a lifelong passion for
art. Giustiniani was one of the most discerning patrons of his time: an early
supporter of Caravaggio and Poussin, he also published one of the first
illustrated guides to an art collection, the Galleria Giustiniana (Rome,
1631). Here he assembled engravings of the statues on display at his villa
in Bassano di Sutri (now Bassano Romano), near Viterbo.
Giustiniani’s importance for music rests on his Discorso sopra la musica of
1628, which describes musical trends in Italy during the previous half
century. While it is concerned primarily with Rome, such leading centres as
Ferrara and Florence are not forgotten. His narrative places changes in
musical style as early as 1575, the result of interactions between
performers, composers and patrons. The Discorso thus provides an
important corrective to modern historiographical obsessions with Florence
and the year 1600. It also offers a glimpse of how a sophisticated layman,
rather than a trained theorist, perceived the developments unfolding
around him. Finally, Giustiniani made music historically contingent, linking
its mutability with that of taste and custom. The only source of the work (in
I-La), part of a larger collection of Giustiniani’s writings, was copied in
1640. It remained unpublished until the 19th century (ed. S. Bongi, Lucca,
1878; pr. in A. Solerti: Le origini del melodramma, Turin, 1903/R, pp.98–
128; ed. and Eng. trans. in MSD, ix, 1962).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Haskell: Patrons and Painters: a Study in the Relations between Italian
Art and Society in the Age of the Baroque (New Haven, 2/1980), 29–
30, 94–5
A. Newcomb: The Madrigal at Ferrara 1579–1597 (Princeton, 1980), i, 46–
52
E. Cropper and C. Dempsey: Nicolas Poussin: Friendship and the Love of
Painting (Princeton, 1996), 23–105
J.W. Hill: Roman Monody, Cantata, and Opera from the Circles around
Cardinal Montalto (Oxford, 1997), i, 8–10, 84–118
ROBERT R. HOLZER

Giusto
(It.: ‘just’, ‘exact’).
A word found in musical contexts most often within the complicated
concept Tempo giusto. But it has other uses: Liszt and several other
composers of his time used giusto for a return to the normal tempo after a
section marked a piacere, and Schubert designated the controlled tempo in
the finale of his ‘Trout’ Quintet with the marking allegro giusto.

See also Tempo and expression marks, §4.

 Givenci, Adam de.
See Adam de Givenchi.

Giyenko, Boris Fyodorovich

(b Vladikavkaz, 26 July/8 Aug 1917). Russian composer. He studied with
B. Nadezhdin at Tashkent Conservatory where he taught from 1945
(professor from 1981). He has received a number of awards including
People's Artist of Uzbekistan (1988). Although Russian by nationality,
Giyenko has lived and worked in Uzbekistan and this is reflected in his
musical thinking. He has written a manual of orchestration for Uzbek
traditional instruments and has composed romances to words by Uzbek
poets. His often sumptuous style combines Western formal traditions with
typical elements of Uzbek folk music.
WORKS
(selective list)

Sym. no.1, 1941; Sym. no.2 ‘Uzbekistan’, 1950; Khorezmskaya syuita [Suite of
Khorezm], orch, 1951; Golodnaya step' [Fasting Steppes], sym. poem, 1954;
Liricheskiye kartinki Uzbekistana [Lyrical Pictures of Uzbekistan], orch, 1954;
Suzanne, sym. dance, 1954; Ov., 1955; Sym. no.3, 1962; Sym. no.4 ‘Pamyati
14 Bakuskikh komissarov’ [In Remembrance of the 14 Baku Commissars],
1966; Suite, str, 1973; Sym. no.5, str, perc, 1973; Pf Conc., 1976; Concertino
(Na karakalpakskiye temï), [on Karakalpak tunes] vc, orch, 1978; Oynisa
(ballet), 1981, collab. D. Zakirov; Sinfonietta for 2000 Years of Tashkent, 1983;
Conc., vc, chbr orch, 1985; works for Uzbek folk orch; chbr works; songs and
romances

RAZIA SULTANOVA

Gizzi, Domenico
(b Arpino, 12 March 1687; d Naples, 14 Oct 1758). Italian male soprano
and singing teacher. According to tradition he studied in his home town
with M.T. Angelio, then moved to Naples to complete his training at the
Conservatorio di S Onofrio. He was a singer in the Treasury of S Gennaro,
Naples, from 1700 to 1707 and again from 1717 to 1736. In 1706 he was
appointed singer of the Neapolitan royal chapel, a post he held throughout
his career. From 1717 he was often absent from the choir for artistic
reasons: on 17 November 1718 he requested three months' leave to sing
at the Teatro Pace in Rome; on 16 December 1719 he set off for Messina,
where he remained until May 1720; on 7 October he left for a stay of four
months in Rome; and on 12 September 1724 he asked permission to
‘perform in the coming November and Carnival’ at the Teatro S Cassiano in
Venice. In August 1725 he was singing in Florence, in February 1728 he
petitioned for leave to sing in Genoa, and in August 1728 he requested
permission to remain in Venice to sing until Carnival 1729. His reputation
reached its height during the 1720s when he sang in several of the leading
Italian opera houses. Between 1722 and 1724 and again in 1726 he took
part in operas at the Teatro Alibert (Teatro delle Dame after 1726), Rome.
In 1725 he was one of the singers in the first production of Porpora's
Didone abbandonata at Reggio nell'Emilia. In 1728 and 1729, his name
appeared in the cast of operas by Porpora and Leo at the Teatro S
Giovanni Grisostomo, Venice. Throughout this period he was also active as
a singing teacher. His most famous pupil was the castrato Gioacchino
Conti, who made his début at Rome in 1730 and who took the name of
‘Gizziello’ in honour of his master.
Gizzi seems to have spent his last years in comparative obscurity. On 20
December 1752 and 26 April 1758 he was a member of the examining
commission for new entrants to the Neapolitan royal chapel. The surviving
account books of the chapel (now in I-Na) show that he was awarded a pay
rise on 16 February 1744, and they also state his date of death.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
RosaM
SartoriL
G. Pannain: ‘Una pagina inedita della storia musicale di Napoli’, RMI, xxi
(1914), 737–46
S. Di Giacomo: Maestri di cappella, musici & istromenti al Tesoro di San
Gennaro nei secoli XVII & XVIII (Naples, 1920)
U. Prota-Giurleo: Breve storia del teatro di corte e della musica a Napoli
nei secoli XVII–XVIII (Naples, 1952)
F. Cotticelli and P. Maione: Le istituzioni musicali a Napoli durante il
Viceregno austriaco (1707–1734): materiali inediti sulla Real Cappella
ed il Teatro di San Bartolomeo (Naples, 1993)
F. Cotticelli and P. Maione: Onesto divertimento, ed allegria de' popoli:
materiali per una storia dello spettacolo a Napoli nel primo Settecento
(Milan, 1996)
S. Gizzi: Un celebre musico del XVIII secolo: Domenico Gizzi e il suo
allievo Gizziello (Rome, 1999)
MICHAEL F. ROBINSON/PAOLOGIOVANNI MAIONE

Gizziello.
See Conti, Gioacchino.

Gjevang, Anne
(b Oslo, 24 Oct 1948). Norwegian mezzo-soprano. She studied in Oslo,
Rome and Vienna, and made her début at Klagenfurt in 1972 as Baba the
Turk. She was successively a member of the companies in Ulm (1973–7),
Bremerhaven (1977–9) and Karlsruhe (1979–80). Her Bayreuth début in
1983 as Erda led to engagements at Covent Garden and the Metropolitan
Opera in the same role. In Zürich (1985–90) her repertory included
Carmen, Ulrica, Maddalena (Rigoletto) and Isabella (L’italiana in Algeri).
She created the role of Lady Macbeth in Bibalo’s Macbeth at Oslo in 1990.
A versatile singer-actress, Gjevang is also an impressive concert singer.
Her distinctive voice, with its northern contralto colouring, can be heard in
 recordings ranging from Messiah and Mozart’s Mitridate to Mahler’s
symphonies nos.3 and 8 and Nielsen’s Saul og David.
ANDREW CLARK

Gjoka, Martin
(b Tivari, Montenegro, 20 April 1890; d Shkodra, 3 Feb 1940). Albanian
composer and choral conductor. Born allegedly to a noble family, he
studied music at the ecclesiastical college of Shkodra. Later Palok Kurti
and Frano N'doja taught him to play the piano, violin and flute, and initiated
him to Bach, Handel, Mozart and Beethoven. Already destined for an
ecclesiastical career, he graduated from the Salzburg seminary in 1912
where he also studied music with Pater Hartmann. Reportedly back in
Albania in 1913, he worked as a schoolteacher, also founding (1917) and
conducting a chorus and orchestral ensemble. He worked hard to develop
the music departments of the Rozafa (founded 1918) and Bogdani
(founded 1919) art societies in Shkodra, and as a teacher sought to
replace foreign school songs with Albanian ones.
Gjoka was one of the most important musical figures in pre-socialist
Albania. His example was influential to the following generation of
Shkodran composers (including Jakova, Daija, Harapi and Zadeja) and
even after the 1967 ban on religion his name was still mentioned, although
his membership of the Franciscan order was scarcely mentioned. Gjoka's
surviving works usually adhere to a rather simple compositional technique,
usually based on simple, homophonic textures. His melodies, for instance
in the instrumental diptych Dy lule mbi vorr të Skanderbegut (‘Two Flowers
on Scanderbeg's Grave’), occasionally allude to Shkodran urban song.
WORKS
(selective list)

stage
Juda Makabe (op, 3 pts, Gj. Fishta), 1915–?19, unfinished; Shqiptarja e qytetnueme
[The Civilized Albanian Woman] (?op, Fishta), after 1929, only sketches extant
vocal
Masses: In honorem Nativitatis BMV, op.9, before 1913; Mass, ATB, org, 1913;
Requiem, SATTB, hmn, 1914; Da pacem Domine, AB, hmn, 1915; In honorem BMV
matris boni consilii, AB, hmn, 1915; Refugium peccatorum, AB, hmn, 1915; In
solennitate immaculatae conceptionis BMV, SATB, hmn, 1915; Mass, e, SATB,
hmn, 1918; Auxilium Christianorum, ABar, hmn, 1937; Popullore, G, ST; Dominicalis
secunda, mater amabilis, AT, hmn; In honorem St Antonii de Padua, e, 4vv, hmn; In
honorem annunt. BMV, vv, hmn
Other sacred vocal: Ave Maria, B , op.5a, SATB, hmn/pf, before ?1910; Ave Maria,
e , op.7, T, pf, before ?1910; Tantum ergo, A , op.6, SATTBarBB, ?1910 or before;
Ave Maria, C, Bar, hmn/pf, 1910; 6 Litanies: no.1, C, nos.2–3, G, 3vv, no.4 ‘Sul 42
del Leybach’, C, 1v, pf, no.5, D, 1910, no.6, B , 2vv, 1910; Ave Maria, E , 2vv, hmn,
1913; Tota pulchra, Bar, hmn/pf, 1913; Tota pulchra, E , 2vv, hmn, 1913; Non vos
relinquam orphanos, Bar, hmn, 1916; Propitius esto Domine, 1v, hmn, 1916; Psalm
cli (Quemadmodum desiderat), Bar, hmn, 1916; Tantum ergo, A , SATBarB, hmn,
1916; Quid retribuam Domino, 7vv, hmn, 1919; Tantum ergo, e, ATB, orch, 1933;
Tantum ergo, e, 1v, TTBB, 1936; Iste confessor, 3vv, 1937; Tu es sacerdos, 3vv,
1937; Super flumina, B , 4vv, hmn, 1939; other undated motets, incl. further
settings of Ave Maria, Tota pulchra
Secular vocal: Wo ist der Friede? (F. Eichendorff), Bar, pf, 1917; Atmes [Fatherland]
(?N. Mjeda, ?H. Mosi), 1v, pf, version for S, Ca, B, pf; Gruja Shqyptare [Albanian
Woman], A; Hymni i gimnazit Françeskan [Hymn of the Franciscan High School],
4vv, version for 4vv, orch; Kângë shkolle [School Songs], 1v; Kangët t'melodramit t'
Kshnellave [Songs from the Christmas Melodrama], vv, pf, hmn; O, ata të lumt që
dhanë jetën [Happy those that Gave their Life], male chorus; Peshkatari [The
Fisherman], 1v, fl, pf; I d'buemi [Persecuted] (Fishta), 1v; Shqyptarët dhe muzika
[Albanians and Music], inc.; Shqypnisë [To Albania] (?Fishta), STTB; Të nisunit enji
bariut [The Departure of a Shepherd], 1v
instrumental
Marsch!, D, ?pf, 1910; Saffo, hmn, 1910; Atdhee e gjuh Shqyptare [Albanian
Fatherland and Language], pf, before 1912; Liria [Freedom], pf, before 1912; Marsh
për v'dekun: nji pomëndim t' 26it Fruer [Funeral March: a Remembrance of the 26th
February], hmn, 1916; Dy lule mbi vorr të Skanderbegut [Two Flowers on
Scanderbeg's Grave], fantasia, 2 fl, 2 cornets, 2 bombardon, 3 trbn, str qnt, pf,
1919; Dy lule mbi vorr të Skanderbegut, small orch, 1922, arr. large orch; Rapsodi
mbi kânga popullore shqype [Rhapsody on Albanian Folksongs], band, ?1922;
Album për harmonium, 24 pieces, ?inc.; Pastorale no.1, 2 fl, cl, t sax, 2 vn, vc, db,
hmn; Përmbi lume e Babilonit [By the Rivers of Babylon], vn, hmn, inc.; Të ura a
Shalës [At the Bridge of Shala], vn/fl, pf, ?lost; frags., lost works
MSS in Central State Archive, Tirana
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Sokoli: Figura e Skënderbeut në muzikë [The figure of Scanderbeg in
music] (Tirana, 1978)
T. Zadeja: ‘Martin Gjoka, 1890–1940’, Nëntori, no.3 (1983), 191–8
N. Kraja: ‘Fillimet e traditës muzikore instrumentale në Shqipëri’ [The
beginnings of the tradition of instrumental music in Albania], Studime
mbi artin (Tirana, 1997), 120–35
GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

Gjoni, Simon
(b Shkodra, 28 Oct 1927; d Tirana, 31 Oct 1991). Albanian conductor and
composer. Self-taught in theory and solfège, he joined various Shkodran
choruses and wind bands, composing songs of lasting popularity. He then
went to Prague, where he studied at the Conservatory (1952–3) and the
Academy of Musical Arts (1953–8). On his return to Albania, he was
appointed conductor at the Tirana Theatre of Opera and Ballet, where he
was responsible for the Albanian premières of a number of operas,
including Il barbiere di Siviglia (1958) and Pagliacci (1962). He
subsequently served as conductor of the Tirana RSO (1963–5), director of
the Jordan Misja Art Lyceum, Tirana (1965–8), and director of music at Fier
(1972–81). As a member (from 1981) of the Union of Albanian Writers and
Artists he wrote music criticism for the periodicals Drita and Nëntori. He
 taught chamber music at the Tirana Music Academy from 1985 until his
death.
Gjoni's orchestral works were among the most successful composed in
Albania during the 1960s and 70s. His imaginatively orchestrated Albanian
Symphonic Dances use folksong material as a pretext for bold dramatic
gestures, while his Symphony no.1 is memorable for its thorough
assimilation of classical form and its clearcut, memorable themes.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Fatos Berberi (ballet, 1, Y. Reso), 1977; musical sketches for children, vv, pf,
dancers, 1980; Katërmbëdhjetëvjeç dhënderr [The 14-Year-Old Bridegroom] (comic
op, 3 after A.Z. Çajupi), unfinished
Vocal-orch: Dielli i së ardhmes qesh mbi ne [The Sun of our Future Smiles upon
us], mixed chorus, orch, 1956; Pranvera jonë [Our Spring] (I. Kadare), T, Bar, mixed
chorus, orch, 1960; Suite no.1, no.2 (Myzeqeja folksongs), T, mixed chorus, orch,
1969; Ushto këngë e gjemo hap i klasës punëtore [The Song Resounds and the
Tread of the Working Class Thunders] (cant., trad.), mixed chorus, orch, 1972; Suite
no.1, no.2 (Partisan songs), mixed chorus, orch, 1984
Orch: Kujtime nga atdheu im [Memories of my Fatherland], tone poem, 1955; 8
Albanian Sym. Dances, 1961–9; Sym. no.1, E , 1969–72; Sym. Suite no.1, 1974;
Shqipëria ne festë [Albanian Festival] (Sym. Suite no.2), 1975–6; Pjesë [Piece], vn,
str, 1983; Sym. no.2, f, 1981–5; Festë popullore në fshatin tonë [Folk Feast in our
Village] (Sym. Suite no.3), ?1983; Sym. Dance, ?1984; Përse mendohen këto male
[Why are these mountains so pensive?], 1985; Lart frymen e aksioneve [Keep High
the Spirit of Voluntary Work], ov., 1985
Chbr: Album, 12 pieces, pf, 1979; 3 Preludes, pf, 1979; Album, 10 pieces, pf,
Romanca, 2 fl, ob, 2 cl, bn, hn, 1987; Pf Trio, 1988–9
Songs (1v, pf unless otherwise stated): Floriri i bardhë [The White Florin], after
1944; Flamuri i fitorës [The Banner of Victory]; Lule borë [Anemone] (Z. Pali), S, T,
pf/orch, 1949; Sulmuesja e tisazhit [The Textile Factory Girl] (D. Shuteriqi), 1950;
Poema e rapsodit [The Rhapsode's Poem] (A. Banushi), B, vc, pf, 1960; Lufton
shqipja e plagosur [The Wounded Eagle Fights On] (H. Minarolli), T, pf, 1961; O
bjeshqë male kreshniqe [Ye Proud Albanian Highlands] (Banushi), before 1978;
Album më [10] romancat [Album with [10] Songs] (Banushi, S. Mato, L. Cukalla),
1978 [incl. O bjeshqë male kreshniqe]; Moj jelek praruar [O Gold-Embroidered
Waistcoat] (trad.), before 1979; Album më [10] romancat [no.2] (various texts), 1984

BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Kalemi: Arritjet e artit tonë muzikor: vepra dhe krijues të muzikës
shqiptare [Achievements of our musical art: creations and creators of
Albanian music] (Tirana, 1982), 85–90
A. Paparisto, A. Çefa, F. Hysi and others: Historia e muzikës Shquiptare
(Tirana, 1983), i, pp.128, 131, 241; ii, pp.402–6
GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

Glachant, Antoine-Charles
(b Paris, 19 May 1770; d Versailles, 9 April 1851). French composer and
violinist, son of Jean-Pierre Glachant. He received his early training from
 his father. In 1790 he became orchestra director of the Théâtre du
Délassement-Comiques, an opera house where young artists obtained
performing experience. There in the same year his first works, the operas
Pharamond and L’homme à la minute, were performed. Glachant had left
the theatre in disappointment by 1791, and joined the military campaign in
Belgium in 1792. By 1795, when he married, he had settled in Arras as
commander of the third company of the Corps des Mille Canonniers de
Paris, and later (1813) became commander in charge of the Arras defence.
There in 1806 he helped to found a music conservatory which maintained a
close relationship with the Paris Conservatoire, and in 1812 he founded an
active amateur music society which later became the Philharmonic Society.
He also attempted further theatre pieces – Le mannequin vivant, which
was well received at its Paris performance in 1796 but was never
published, and Les deux dragons. In about 1823 he moved to Paris where
he led the orchestra at the Théâtre Français and witnessed the success of
his duos and quartets at the soirées organized by Baillot. He returned in
1830 to Arras where he continued his previous work until his retirement to
Versailles in 1846.
Glachant’s chamber works are the most important of his creations. It is
particularly in his duos and quartets that he seemed at ease and able to
express, with individuality, the ideas of a man well trained in French style
yet influenced by Italian virtuosity and the harmonic and formal techniques
of the Mannheim school. In this respect his style reflects that of his
compatriots Gossec, Le Duc, Vachon and Blasius. His duos are all in three
movements; two of these works follow the French tradition and the other
the Italian. Certain passages are quite difficult to perform and melodies are
often long and Romantic in concept. His string quartets attempt to balance
attractive themes and dance rhythms with an independent movement of
instrumental parts. His harmony frequently ventures beyond the simple and
direct modulations used by most French quartet composers of this period.
WORKS
vocal
printed works published in Paris

Pharamond (drame mêlé de choeurs et de chants, 5, P.-A.-L.-P. Plancher de

Valcour), Paris, Délassement-Comiques, 1790
L’homme à la minute (oc, 2, Valcour), Paris, Délassement-Comiques, 1790
Les deux dragons (oc, 1), Arras

Doubtful: Le mannequin vivant, ou Le mari en bois (oc, 1), Paris, Feydeau, 1796
Hymn for the Sovereignty of the People (Leducq), Arras, 20 March 1799
Several romances incl. Le bon avis (n.d.), Je ne t’aime pas (Lévêque) (n.d.),
Plaintes d’amour (n.d.), Le portrait (n.d.), Le serment (n.d.), d’amour (d’Hermilly)
(n.d.); other vocal pieces, cited by Cardevacque

instrumental
op.
1 Trois duos, 2 fl (c1790)
2 Symphonie concertante, 2 vn, orch (c1808)
3 Trois duos, 2 fl (n.d.), lost
5 Trois quatuors, 2 vn, va, b (c1820)
8 Trois grands trios concertants, 2 vn, b (n.d.), lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
C. Glachant: Notice biographique (MS, F-Pc)
Almanach général de tous les spectacles (Paris, 1791), 216, 219
A. de Cardevacque: ‘La musique à Arras depuis les temps les plus reculés
jusqu’à nos jours’, Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences, lettres et
arts d’Arras, 2nd ser., xvi (1885), 41–177, esp. 137–40
DEANNE ARKUS KLEIN

Glackemeyer, Frederick [Johann

Friedrich Conrad; Frédéric]
(b Hanover, 10 Aug 1759; d Quebec, 12/13 Jan 1836). Canadian musician
of German birth. The son of a military band musician, he is reported to
have been a violin prodigy. In 1777 he enlisted in one of the Brunswick
regiments destined for Canada. Discharged in 1783, he settled in Quebec,
where he made a living as instrumentalist, teacher, tuner, repairman, and
importer of instruments and sheet music. He was probably the first full-time
musician in Canada who left a mark both immediate and lasting. His
activities, probably as a director and conductor, enhanced the holding of
subscription concerts in Quebec in the 1790s, featuring orchestral and
chamber music by J.C. Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Pleyel and others. Many of
the printed parts assumed to have been supplied by Glackemeyer are still
preserved. Prince Edward (later Duke of Kent), in Quebec 1791–4, is said
to have appointed him a regimental bandmaster.
Glackemeyer served as organist of the local basilica (1816–18) and as vice
president of the Quebec Harmonic Society (1819–22). Two surviving
marches suggest his acquaintance with Mozart’s music; there are also
arrangements of two voyageur songs. A son, the notary Louis Edouard
(1793–1881), was an amateur flautist and member of Quebec chamber
music ensembles; a daughter married Theodore Molt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EMC2 (H. Kallmann)
L. Poirier: ‘Glackemeyer, Frederick’, Dictionary of Canadian Biography
(Toronto, 1988), 348–50
HELMUT KALLMANN

Gladkovsky, Arseny Pavlovich

(b St Petersburg, 9/21 May 1894; d Leningrad, 31 July 1945). Russian
composer. In 1917 he graduated from the faculty of mathematics and
physics at the Petrograd University, and then graduated in 1924 from
Kalafati's composition class at the Leningrad Conservatory. He served for a
while as secretary and teacher of music theory for the Petrograd University
Music Society (1915–17) before lecturing for Politprosvet (‘The Political
 Enlightenment’) in Red Army units (1918–22). He then headed the music
department of the First Artistic Studio (1922–32) and the music department
of the Leningrad College of Choreography where he taught musical and
theoretical disciplines (1928–32). He later taught composition at the music
college and special music school attached to the Leningrad Conservatory
(1934–41). In collaboration with Ye. Prussak, he wrote one of the first
Soviet operas on a revolutionary theme – Za Krasnïy Petrograd (1919)
(‘For Red Petrograd (1919)’) – which was first staged in 1925 at the Malïy
Theatre.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Za krasnïy Petrograd (1919) [For Red Petrograd (1919)] (musico-

dramatic chronicle, 3, V.P. Lebedev), 1925, collab. Ye. Prussak, Leningrad, Malïy,
24 April 1925, rev. Gladkovsky as Front i tïl' [The Front and the Home Front] (op-
orat), 1930, Leningrad, Malïy, 7 Nov 1930; Rustam (musical comedy, Ye. Gerken
and B. Timofeyev), 1932; Poėt i barabanshchik [The Poet and the Drummer]
(operetta), 1937; Kol'tso s izumrudom [The Emerald Ring] (musical comedy,
Timofeyev), 1938; Tom Soyer (ballet, after M. Twain), 1939–40
Inst: Poėma, pf, orch, 1919–24; 2 Preludes, pf, 1930; Detskaya syuita [A Children's
Suite], pf, 1934; Sym. [no.1] ‘Geroicheskaya’ [The Heroic], orch, 1935; Sym. [no.2]
‘Pushkin’, orch, 1937; Sym. [no.3] ‘Karel'skaya’ [The Karelian], orch, 1941–5; Pf
Trio, unpubd; Sonata, Variations, pf, unpubd; Str Qt
Incid music: Krasnoarmeyskiye pesni [Red Army Songs] (V. Azarov and others),
1932–3

WRITINGS
‘Bïtovaya muzïka: odna iz boyevïkh zadach sovetskogo kompozitora’
[Popular music: one of the urgent tasks of the Soviet composer], Itogi
pervoy godovshchinï postanovleniya TsK VKP(b) o perestroyke
literaturno-khudozhestvennïkh organizatsiy: sbornik statey, ed. V.
Tobol'kevich (Leningrad, 1933), 46–7
‘Vïstupleniye na diskussii o sovetskom simfonizme 4–6 fevralya 1935’ [A
speech delivered during the discussion about Soviet symphonism on
4–6 Feb 1935], SovM (1935), no.5, pp.27–31
‘Protiv formalizma i fal'shï: vïstupleniye na tvorcheskoy diskussii v
Leningradskom otdelenii Soyuza sovetskikh kompozitorov’ [Against
formalism and falsehood: a speech delivered during a creative
discussion at the Leningrad branch of the Soviet Composers' Union],
SovM (1936), no.5, pp.31–2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V.M. Bogdanov-Berezovsky: ‘“Za krasnïy Petrograd (1919)”: opera A.P.
Gladkovskogo i Ye.V. Prussaka’, Sovetskaya opera, ed. M.A. Glukh
(Leningrad and Moscow, 1940), 39–51
‘A.P. Gladkovskiy: nekrolog’, Leningradskaya pradva (2 Aug 1945)
I. Glebov [B.V. Asaf'yev]: ‘A. Gladkovskiy: “Za krasnïy Petrograd (1919)”’,
Ob opere (Leningrad, 1976, 2/1985), 290–92
IOSIF GENRIKHOVICH RAYSKIN
Gladney, John
(b Belfast, 12 Aug 1839; d Manchester, 12 Dec 1911). English clarinettist,
brass band conductor and teacher. He was the son of a military
bandmaster and had a precocious musical talent; by the age of 11 he was
appearing as a piccolo soloist with Louis Jullien’s orchestra. He also
appears to have been a talented pianist, but it was as a clarinettist that he
made his mark as a player. After touring with a number of theatre bands he
became leader of the Harrogate Spa Band, and in 1861 he joined the Hallé
Orchestra in which he remained for most of his playing career. In the 1850s
he started to conduct brass bands, and he went on to have influential
associations with the most successful Victorian bands, particularly the
Meltham Mills Band. At the time of his death Gladney was widely referred
to as the father of the brass band movement. With two other successful
Victorian band conductors, Edwin Swift and Alexander Owen, he shaped
the format and idiom of the British brass band. The standard
instrumentation comes from their preferred combination of forces (see
Band (i), §IV, 3), and there is little doubt that Gladney, the most urbane and
well-educated of the three, was the defining influence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Obituary, British Bandsman (23 Dec 1911)
T. Herbert, ed.: The British Brass Band: a Musical and Social History
(Oxford, 2000)
TREVOR HERBERT

Gladwin, Thomas
(b c1710; d ?London, ?1799). English organist, harpsichordist and
composer. According to Burney, he emerged as a performer on the organ
and harpsichord in London about 1736. Although a proposed date of 1738
is questionable, Gladwin was evidently an early orgainst at Vauxhall
Gardens where he perpetuated the tradition of the Handelian organ
concerto. Gladwin's concertos were not published, but a gavotte from a
concerto provided the substance for a popular song, Greenwood-Hall: or
Colin's Description (to his Wife) of the Pleasures of Spring Gardens. From
1760 or earlier Gladwin was organist at Audley Chapel, Grosvenor Square.
A set of Lessons for the harpsichord or organ, three with violin
accompaniment, was issued in the 1750s by J. Johnson, reissued in 1768
by Welcker, and still later printed by Bland. The sonatas with violin
accompaniment were probably the earliest in this category by an English
composer, and the solo works among the earliest English keyboard
sonatas (as opposed to suites). The keyboard style reflects the impact of
Scarlatti's sonatas in England and incorporates various orchestral effects
translated from the currently fashionable Italian concerto. Gladwin's songs
were very popular and were included in numerous 18th-century collections.
Burney, in Rees's Cyclopaedia, asserted that ‘John’ Gladwin died at ‘a
great age’ in 1799; the cited connections with Vauxhall and Audley Chapel
suggest that this is the same person.
WORKS
8 Lessons, hpd/org (London, c1755), 3 with vn
Lamentation on Parting with a Dog, glee, 3vv, 1783, US-Bp
Single songs: By Love Possess'd (c1735); Charming Chloe (Jersey) (c1735);
Greenwood-Hall (?Lockman), in Gentleman's Magazine, xxi (1742), 440;
Whilst in the Verdant Spot we Stray (Lockman) (1743); The Invitation to Mira
(c1745); all except By Love Possess'd and The Invitation to Mira repr. in
18th-century anthologies
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BurneyH
EitnerQ
GerberNL
T. Mortimer: The Universal Director (London, 1763); repr. as ‘An
Eighteenth-Century Directory of London Musicians’, GSJ, ii (1949),
27–31
‘Gladwin: the Melody’, MA (1910–11), 122–3
R.R. Kidd: ‘The Emergence of Chamber Music with Obbligato Keyboard in
England’, AcM, xliv (1972), 122–44, esp. 130
H.D. Johnstone and R. Fiske, eds.: Music in Britain: the Eighteenth
Century (Oxford, 1990)
RONALD R. KIDD

Gladys Knight and the Pips.

American soul vocal group. Its most consistent line-up was Gladys Knight
(b Atlanta, GA, 28 May 1944), her brother Merald ‘Bubba’ Knight (b Atlanta,
4 Sept 1942) and her cousins William Guest (b Atlanta, 2 June 1941) and
Edward Patten (b Atlanta, 2 Aug 1939). Gladys was a child prodigy, singing
in church and winning a television talent contest at the age of eight. At this
time she and other family members became the Pips, a group which was
renamed Gladys Knight and the Pips in 1957 to emphasize the leading role
of her strong alto. Their first hit recording came in 1961 with a version of
the Johnny Otis song Every Beat of my Heart. In 1967 they joined the
Motown label where Knight's versatile singing was presented in such well-
crafted songs as the romantic ballad Take me in your arms and love me,
the stirring call and response song I heard it through the grapevine (1967)
by Norman Whitfield and Barret Strong, and Kris Kristofferson's Help me
make it through the night. Having signed to Buddah Records, the group
had even greater commercial success in the mid-1970s; their version of
Jim Weatherly's Midnight Train to Georgia was one of their finest recorded
performances, where Knight's gospel-tinged singing was matched by the
Pips' urgent close harmonies. This signalled a move to recordings of more
mainstream pop ballads such as The Best Thing that Ever Happened to
Me and the film theme The Way We Were. In later years Gladys Knight
made numerous television and concert appearances and recorded the
theme song to the James Bond film Licence to Kill (1989).
DAVE LAING

Glaeser, Franz.
See Gläser, Franz.
Glagolitic Mass, Glagolitic chant.
The term ‘Glagolitic’ (neo-Lat. glagoliticus, from Croatian glagoljica: ‘the
Glagolitic alphabet’; related to Old Church Slavonic glagolŭ, ‘word’) refers
to a distinctive alphabet devised for the Slavonic literary language in the
9th century by Constantine (monastic name, Cyril) and Methodius, apostles
of the Slavs. By extension it is used to refer to the Catholic (as opposed to
Orthodox) Mass translated into Church Slavonic, and to compositions such
as the Glagolitic Mass of Leoš Janáček that are settings of such texts,
whether written in the original alphabet or transcribed into Latin letters.
‘Glagolitic chant’ or ‘Glagolitic singing’ (glagoljaško pjevanje) refers in a
broader sense to a repertory of paraliturgical as well as liturgical Catholic
chant in the Slavonic vernacular transmitted orally, principally in Croatia.
In 862 Prince Rostislav requested the Byzantine Emperor to send a Slav-
speaking mission to Great Moravia. Accordingly, Cyril and Methodius in
863 established the Catholic liturgy there, and with it a centre for the
Catholic faith within the whole of Slavonic Europe. Since that time, in
Catholic Slavonic countries, a continuous tradition of the Catholic Slavonic
or Glagolitic liturgy has existed side by side with the Latin liturgy of the
Western Church, even though subject to some local interruptions. Early
sources include fragments of a 10th–11th-century sacramentary at Kiev
(UKR-Kan DA/P.328) and fragments of an 11th-century missal, besides
several complete late-medieval missals; the Mass Ordinary melodies
(‘Věruju’, ‘Svet’, ‘Blagoslovlen’, ‘Agneče Boži’) in a Glagolitic missal of the
14th or 15th century were shown by Vajs (1910, p.436) to be precisely
those of the corresponding Latin texts in another missal of the same date
and geographical provenance. The privilege of celebrating the Slavonic
liturgy has been repeatedly confirmed by the Holy See, for example, at the
Council of Trent, up to and including the 20th century. Within this tradition,
in turn, some of the areas of south-eastern Europe now falling within
Croatia and Slovenia have played a particularly important part, together
with the basilica of S Hieronimo in Rome, a centre of the Slavonic liturgy
especially since the late 16th century.
Interest in the Glagolitic liturgy received a particular impetus owing to the
coincidence of the millennial celebrations for the mission to Moravia of Sts
Cyril and Methodius in 1863, those for St Cyril's death in 1869 and so on
with the rise of Slavonic nationalism, and the participation in the nationalist
movement by Catholic priests such as František Sušil in Moravia. (The
1863 celebration was also marked in Rome, and Liszt composed his
‘Slavimo slavno slaveni!’ for this occasion, to a Croatian rather than Old
Slavonic text.) A concordat between the Vatican and Montenegro in 1886
allowed the re-introduction into Slovenia and Bohemia of the Glagolitic rite
(against the protests of some ecclesiastics); the edition of the Glagolitic
missal that was subsequently authorized for Bohemia and Croatia was the
Missale romanum slavonico idiomate (Rome, 1905). Almost immediately,
the Glagolitic Mass began to be set also in a modern style: the first such
setting by a Czech composer was the Missa glagolskaja by Ladislav
Kožušníček (1907), and later settings include the Glagolská mše of J.B.
Foerster (1923) besides that of Janáček (1926).
Croatian Glagolitic chant (Glagolitic singing) is attested in a report sent to
Rome between 1740 and 1742 by Matej Karaman, bishop of Osor (HR-
ZAn 22321, ms.546): in villages the parish priests and lower clergy
employed a style of singing ‘without instruments and without learning,
composed of a certain natural and affective melody that awakens devotion’
(senza istromenti, e senza studio, composto d'una certa melodia naturale,
e patetica, ch'eccita divozione). Transcriptions of specific melodies from
this repertory began to appear during the 19th century, and field recordings
have been made since the early 20th (the oldest, c1910–30, are preserved
in the Phonogrammarchiv of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna);
the Croatian Academy of Sciences is responsible for collecting and
publishing the sources. The repertory has a wide geographical provenance
in the northern Adriatic islands, especially Krk, in Istria, and in the Croatian
coastal mainland of northern and central Dalmatia; various different
regional styles can be distinguished (see the studies by Bezić and Doliner).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SČHK (‘Církevně slovanský zpěv’ [Church Slavonic chant]; J. Brabcová-
Bajgarová, J. Fukač); MGG2 (‘Messe, III’; J. Bezić, C. Hannick)
J. Vajs: ‘Etwas über den liturgischen Gesang der Glagoliten der vor- und
nachtridentinischen Epoche’, Archiv für slavische Philologie, xxx
(1909), 227–33; xxxi (1910), 430–42
V. Žganec: ‘Folklore Elements in the Yugoslav Orthodox and Roman
Catholic Liturgical Chant’, JIFMC, viii (1956), 19–22
J. Bezić: Razvoj i oblici glagoljaškog pjevanja u sjevernoj Dalmaciji [The
development and features of Glagolitic chant in northern Dalmatia]
(diss., U. of Ljubljana, 1969)
J. Bezić: ‘Glagoljaško pjevanje’ [Glagolitic chant], Muzička enciklopedija, i
(Zagreb, 1971), 686–7
J. Martinić: Glagolitische Gesänge Mitteldalmatiens (Regensburg, 1981)
G. Doliner: ‘Historical Data about the “Glagolitic Chant” in the Area of
Istria’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, iii, 555–8
P. Wingfield: Janáček: Glagolitic Mass (Cambridge, 1992)
G. Doliner: ‘Glagolitic Singing in the Light of Certain New Data on Music
Culture in Novi Vinodolski’, Narodna umjetnost, xxxii (1995), 1, 183–
200
J. Bezić: ‘Glagoljaško pjevanje’ [Glagolitic chant], Hrvatska i Europa:
kultura, znanost i umjetnost [Croatia and Europe: culture, science, art],
ed. I. Supičić (Zagreb, 1997), 569–76
G. Doliner: ‘Glagoljaško pjevanje kao dio fenomena glagoljaštva’
[Glagolitic chant as an element of the Glagolitic tradition], Glazba,
riječi i slike: svečani zbornik za Koraljku Kos [Music, words and
images: essays in honour of Koraljka Kos] (Zagreb, 1999), 361–8
GEOFFREY CHEW

Glahn, Henrik
(b Hornstrup, nr Vejle, 29 May 1919). Danish musicologist. He studied the
piano and organ at the Royal Danish Conservatory (organ diploma 1941)
and musicology with Abrahamsen and Larsen at Copenhagen University
(MA 1945), being awarded the university gold medal for an essay on the
treatment of rhythm in the hymn tunes of the Reformation period (1947)
and the doctorate in 1954 with a dissertation on the melodies of Lutheran
hymns in the 16th century. After serving as organist and choirmaster of
Jaegersborg Church (1947–59) he joined the succession of distinguished
organists (Gade, Laub, Wöldike, Jeppesen, Sørensen) at Holmens Kirke,
Copenhagen (1959–64). He began teaching at Copenhagen University in
1945, later becoming reader (1964) and professor of musicology (1967–
89). In 1954 he was appointed to the Music History Museum as assistant to
Godtfred Skjerne, whom he succeeded as director, and also as curator of
the Carl Claudius Collection of Musical Instruments (1956–80). Under his
leadership the museum became a model institution and an important part
of Danish musical life; in 1966 it moved into a fine 18th-century mansion,
the former parsonage of the Reformed Church near the centre of
Copenhagen, gaining much enlarged exhibition, library and concert
facilities where the two instrument collections were amalgamated in 1979.
As a leading authority on all aspects of Danish church music and on
Lutheran hymnody, Glahn has been a member of the government liturgical
commission (1970–73) and was editor of a revised edition of the Danish
hymnbook (1992). He was president of the Society for Danish Church
Music (1954–71) and the Danish Musicological Society (1969–80),
chairman of the Organizing Committee for the 11th IMS Congress
(Copenhagen, 1972) and a member and vice-president of the IMS Council
(1972–82). In 1968 he became a member of the editorial committee of
Monumenta Musicae Byzantine, succeeding Oliver Strunk as director
(1971–93). He was elected a member both of the Royal Danish Academy
of Sciences in 1972, later becoming vice-president (1977–83), and of the
Norwegian Academy of Sciences in 1994. The Festschrift Festskrift Henrik
Glahn, ed. M. Müller (Copenhagen, 1979), which contains a list of his
writings, was published to mark his 60th birthday.
WRITINGS
‘Gabriel Voigtländer’, DMt, xviii (1943), 217–23
‘Om reformationstidens salmemelodier og deres rytme’, Dansk kirkesangs
årsskrift 1947, 51–68
‘De danske Kyriesalmer i historisk, tekstlig og musikalsk belysning’, Dansk
kirkesangs årsskrift 1952, 60–78
‘Entwicklungszüge innerhalb des evangelischen Kirchengesanges des 16.
Jhts. im Lichte vergleichender Quellenforschung’, IMSCR V: Utrecht
1952, 199–210
Melodistudier til den lutherske salmesangs historie fra 1524 til ca. 1600
(diss., U. of Copenhagen, 1954; Copenhagen, 1954)
‘Et fransk musikhåndskrift fra begyndelsen af det 16. århundrede’, Fund og
forskning, v–vi (1958–9), 90–109
‘Om messehåndbøgernes melodistof’, Danske messebøger fra
reformationstiden, ed. S.H. Poulsen (Copenhagen, 1959), 132–50
‘Tysk Barok-cembalo og fransk Rokoko-harpe’, Kunstindustrimuseet i Oslo
årbok, ed. S. Ryggel (1960), 79–105
‘En ny kilde til belysning af det preussiske hofkapels repertoire på Hertug
Albrechts tid’, STMf, xliii (1961), 145–61
‘Ein Kopenhagener Fragment aus dem 15. Jh.’, Natalicia musicologica
Knud Jeppesen septuagenario collegis oblata, ed. B. Hjelmborg and
S. Sørensen (Copenhagen, 1962), 59–100
‘Nogle hidtil ukendte forlaeg til melodier i Hans Thomissøns Psalmebog
1569’, DAM, iii (1963), 69–85
‘Om melodiforholdene i Kingos Graduale’, Postscript to T. Kingo: Gradual:
en ny almindelig kirke-salmebog, under behørige noder og melodier
(Odense, 1967) [facs. edn]
‘Et orgeltabulatur-fragment i det Kgl. bibliotek i København’, Festskrift til
Olav Gurvin, ed. F. Benestad and P. Krømer (Drammen and Oslo,
1968), 73–85 [incl. Eng. summary]
‘Nogel kirkelige lejlighedskompositioner af J.A.P. Schulz’, DAM, vi (1968–
72), 113–30
‘Om melodierne til Alt står i Guds faderhånd’, Dansk kirkesangs årsskrift
1969–70, 63–74
ed., with N. Schiørring and C.E. Hatting: Festskrift Jens Peter Larsen
(Copenhagen, 1972) [incl. ‘J.H. Scheins Kantional “in die Tabulatur
transponiert von J. Vockerodt, Mühlhausen 1649” ’, 47–72]
‘Salmemelodien i dansk tradition’, Salmen som lovsang og litteratur, ed. T.
Borup Jensen and K.E. Bugge (Copenhagen, 1972), 191–234
‘Omkring en håndskreven tysk koralbog fra pietismens tid’, DAM, vii (1973–
6), 69–102
‘I Jesu Navn: en gammel visemelodi med mange udløbere’, Dansk
kirkesangs årsskrift 1975–6, 22–42
‘Lidt mere om Hans Christensen Sthens melodibrug’, Musik & forskning, vi
(1980), 129–41
‘Melodistoffet i “Pontoppidans salmebog” 1740/1742’, Dansk kirkesangs
årsskrift 1981–2, 12–81
‘Et håndskrift-fragment fra den sene middelalder’, Hvad fatter gjør…essays
tilegnet Erik Dal (Herning, 1982), 150–70
‘Mogens Pedersøns drei Motetten’, Heinrich Schultz und die Musik in
Dänemark: Copenhagen 1985, eds. A.Ø. Jensen and O. Kongstead
(Copenhagen, 1989), 183–96
‘Number Symbolism and other Speculative Traits in Two Marian Motets
from a 16th-Century Danish Manuscript’, Analytica: Studies in the
Description and Analysis of Music in Honour of Ingmar Bengtsson, ed.
A. Lönn and E. Kjellberg (Stockholm, 1985), 133–48
‘Om melodistoffet i Niels Jesperssøns Graduale’, Postscript to Gradual: en
Almindelig Sangbog…1573 (Copenhagen, 1986) [facs. edn]
with E. Nielson and E. Dal: ‘Om melodierne til L.P. Thuras
Højsangsparafrase (1640)’, Hymnologiske meddelelser, xvii (1988),
224–46
‘“Sandraegtihedens velsignelse”: musikalsk belyst gennem nogle motetter
fra det 16. århundrede’, Musik & forskning, xv (1989–90), 7–34
‘Otto Kades breve til Thomas Laub 1889–1898’, Dansk kirkesangs årsskrift
1989–93, 141–71
‘Hvo som vil salig udi Verden leve: en salme af Peter Palladius og dens
melodi’, Festskrift Søren Sørensen, ed. F.E. Hansen and others
(Copenhagen, 1990), 223–40
‘Melodierne bag Brorsons salmer i Troens rare Klenodie med saerlig vaegt
på pietismens toner’, Hymnologiske meddelelser, xxiii (1994), 283–93
EDITIONS
with J.P. Larsen and others: Musikbilag til Prøveritualbogen 1963
(Copenhagen, 1963)
with S. Sørensen: The Clausholm Music Fragments (Copenhagen, 1974)
Musik fra Christian IIIs tid: idvalgte satser fra det danske Hofkapels
stemmebøger (1541) [Music from the time of Christian III: selected
compositions from the Part Books of the Royal Chapel], Dania
Sonans, iv–v (Egtved, 1978, 1985); see also DAM, xvii (1986), 65–7;
xx (1992), 22–5
A.C. Arrebo: Samlede Skrifter, iv: Melodierne i K. Davids Psalter 1627
(Copenhagen, 1983)
Musik i Danmark på Christian IV’s tid, iii: Musik for tasteinstrumenter
‘Voigtländer tabulaturet (Copenhagen, 1988); iv: Messe og motetter af
Mogens Perdersøn (Copenhagen, 1988); with J. Bergsagel, vi:
Anonym messe og lejlighedmotetter (Copenhagen, 1988)
with H. Elmer: The Netherlands & N. Germany, c.1590–c.1650, Faber
Early Organ Series, ed. J. Dalton, x–xii (London, 1988)
with T. Schousboe: Musikken til den danske højmesse (Copenhagen,
1992)
Melodier til salmer af Hans Adolph Brorson, 1694–1764: et udvalg of
pietismens åndelige sange (Copenhagen, 1994)
JOHN BERGSAGEL

Glam rock.
A highly theatrical mode of presentation found in 1970s rock and pop
which, in its parade of an inauthenticity that hardly appeared to sell out to
commercial interests, prepared the way for the eruption of punk rock by the
middle of the decade. Glam, a contraction of the slightly seedy glamour,
proclaimed dissatisfaction with the excessive machismo prevalent in
growing hard rock. By 1971 the New York Dolls, David Bowie and Marc
Bolan's T. Rex had begun experimenting with overt feminine make-up and
some cross-dressing on stage. Bowie's transgressions were most
calculated, perceiving most clearly the value of image, both on stage and in
print. They shared an emphasis on short, well-constructed, hook-based
songs in opposition to the lengthy meanderings of progressive rock,
although Bowie's contemporary work in particular, for example Ziggy
Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, was stylistically little removed from
hard rock. Around 1972 Roxy Music combined this demeanour with a
progressive style founded on Brian Eno's atmospheric tape treatments and
Andy Mackay's raucous saxophone. The irony of the genre's inauthenticity
became particularly apparent in the UK glitter rock bands of the early
1970s, particularly Slade, Sweet and Gary Glitter. These shared pared-
down guitar textures and teen-orientated promotion, often becoming
indistinguishable from mainstream teenage pop by the mid-1970s.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Morley: ‘The Very Dream of Smartness’, Cool Cats, ed. T. Stewart
(London, 1981), 83–101
W. Faustlich: Zwischen Glitter und Punk (Rottenburg-Oberndorf, 1986)
S. Frith: ‘Only Dancing: David Bowie Flirts with the Issues’, Zoot Suits and
Second Hand Dresses, ed. A. McRobbie (London, 1989), 132–40
 V.M. Cagle: Reconstructing Pop/Subculture (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1995)
B. Hoskyns: Glam! (London, 1998)
ALLAN F. MOORE

Glandien, Lutz
(b Oebisfelde, Altmark, 4 June 1954). German composer. In 1977 he
became a member of the Dresden multimedia ensemble Schicht, a group
active in the politicized singing movement of the DDR. He studied at the
Deutsche Hochschule für Musik, Berlin, where his teachers included
Wolfram Heicking (1979–83), among others, and at the DDR Akademie der
Künste (1985–7), where he was a masterclass student of Georg Katzer. In
his instrumental works, such as Ruhestörung (1986) and Und war es noch
still (1989), he has focussed on critical questioning and developed a
compelling language of sonic and rhythmic gesture. In 1989 he began to
explore electro-acoustic music and in this medium devoted himself
increasingly to the genres of applied music. As well as writing pieces for
solo instrument and tape (to be performed by friends), he created sound
installations, music for video, and radio plays. He began to work with
musicians such as Chris Cutler and others from the avant-garde rock
scene in 1990. As he included improvisatory techniques from that sphere in
his own music, his development of musical gestures accelerated and his
works became more playful. Later he became interested in virtual and
recycled music, taking pre-recorded sound as a starting point for
composition, and since 1997 exploration of tonal phenomena in the voices
of humans and primates. (KdG, A. Kopp)
WORKS
(selective list)

Radio: Die Ableitung, 1996; Das Zeichen der Drei, 1997

Inst: Tuba Solo, 1985; 365, pf, 1986; Betrachtung, tuba, 1986; Ruhestörung, wind,
prep pf, perc, 1986; Conc., tuba, orch, 1987; Und war es noch still, chbr ens, 1989;
Drei kehren zurück, chbr ens, 1993; Sechs kommen durch die Welt, 6 perc, 1994;
Ebenso zufrieden wie du, spkr, str qt, 1995; Die Ableitung, virtuelles cl qnt (1996); A
- vorübergehend gestört, turbo-tuba, 1998; Konstellation Vier Vier, chbr ens, 1998
El-ac: cut, elecs, 1988; Es lebe, tuba, tape, 1989; Weiter so, str qt, tape, 1989; Aus
Verstreutem ein Ganzes, tuba, tape, 1992; Schattenspiel, pf, tape, 1992; die
abgestürzt sind, 2 perc, tape, 1993; Feuer zu Ton, fl, pf, tape, 1994; Südlich von
Alexandreia, cl, tape, 1995; Projekt Holle, installation, 1996

Principal publishers: Peters, Verlag Neue Musik, Bärenreiter

Principal recording companies: Wergo, RER, Cybele, Buschfunk

GISELA NAUCK

Glanert, Detlev
 (b Hamburg, 6 Sept 1960). German composer. He studied in Hamburg with
Diether de la Motte (1980–81) and Günter Friedrichs (1982–4) before
moving to Cologne to study with Henze (1984–8). He also attended the
Tanglewood Festival (1986) and was a guest at the Villa Massimo, Rome
(1992–3). From 1989 to 1992 he co-organized the Cantiere Internazionale
d'Arte, Montepulciano. His opera Der Spiegel des grossen Kaisers won the
Lieberman Opera Prize in 1993.
Glanert cites Mahler and Ravel as his primary influences. His Symphony
no.1 (1985) explores a Mahlerian symphonic landscape and quotes briefly
from Das Lied von der Erde. Mahler/Skizze (1989), based on the
experience of visiting Mahler's grave, explores, in delicate instrumental
sonorities, the borders between disparate Expressionism and structural
formalism. Henze's sound world has also made an impact on Glanert's
style, as has his predilection for music drama, particularly chamber opera.
Glanert frequently brings diverse elements into a dialogue without
combining them in a final synthesis. His opera Leyla und Medjnun (1987–
8), for example, combines Turkish folk melodies and characters with
European art music in a deliberately discontinuous montage.
WORKS
(selective list)

Ops: Leyla und Medjnun (Märchen für Musik, A. Ören and P. Schneider, Ital. trans.
M. Marica and M. D'Amico, after Nizami), op.16, 1987–8, Munich, 28 May 1988; Der
Spiegel des grossen Kaisers (2, Glanert and U. Becker, after A. Zweig), op.24,
1989–93, Mannheim, 23 Nov, 1995; Der Engel, der das Wasser bewegte (chbr op,
T. Wilder, Ger. trans. H. Herlitschka), op.30, 1994, Bremen, 16 May 1995; Der Engel
auf dem Schiff (chbr op, T. Wilder, Ger. trans. Herlitschka), op.31, 1995, Bremen, 16
May 1995; Joseph Süss (op, 13 scenes, W. Fritsch and U. Ackermann), 1999,
Bremen, 13 Oct 1999
Orch: Sym. no.1, op.6, 1985; Aufbruch, op.11, 1986; 3 Gesänge aus ‘Carmen’
(Sym. no.2) (W. Wondratschek), op.21, Bar, orch, 1988–90; Pf Conc. no.1, op.27,
1994; Musik, op.33, vn, orch, 1995–6; Sym. no.3, op.35, 1996
Chbr and solo inst: Sonata, op.5, vn, pf, 1984; Str Qt no.1, op. 14, 1984–6; Nordern
(5 Bildern), op.9, fl + a fl + pic, cl + b cl, perc, pf, va, vc, db, 1985–6; 4 Fantasien,
op.15, pf, 1987; Mahler/Skizze, op.20, fl, cl, hn, trbn, perc, cel, hp, str qnt, 1989;
Paralipomena (7 Stücke zu einem Märchen von Novalis) op.28, gui, 1994;
Vergessenes Bild (Kammersonate no.1), op.29, fl, cl, perc, vn, va, vc, db, 1994;
Gestalt (Kammersonate no.2), op.32, fl, cl, perc, vn, va, vc, db, 1995; Wind Qnt,
1997
Other: Miserere (Wondratscheck), op.34, chorus, 1996; arr. Brahms: Schumann
Variations, op.9, cl, bn, hn, str qt, db, 1996

Principal publisher: Bote & Bock

RACHEL BECKLES WILLSON

Glanner, Caspar
(d Salzburg, before 17 Aug 1577). Austrian composer and organist.
According to his own account he served as a singer in several court
chapels before entering lifelong employment with Michael of Khuenberg,
Archbishop of Salzburg, in 1556. There he was employed as server and
cathedral organist, and was in addition charged with the duty of instructing
one boy each year in the playing of the organ.
Apparently he had already begun work on his song collection, Neue
teutscher geistlicher und weltlicher Liedlein, planned in four volumes, but
only the first two volumes appeared in print (posthumously, in 1578 and
1580 respectively). Of the other two, which remained in manuscript and
have since been lost, only one work is extant; the song All Ding auff Erd
zergencklich sind (in RISM 155820). The remaining 49 lieder from the first
two parts amply demonstrate Glanner’s mastery of the transitional style
between the older Gesellschaftslied (songs in the Minnesinger tradition for
the educated classes) and the Italianate song of the second half of the 16th
century. They are largely treble-dominated songs with quasi-polyphonic
lower voices. Glanner used half-choir techniques and four of his pieces are
in the homophonic style of the villanella. His occasional use of polyphonic
devices, such as the canonic doubling of the tenor cantus firmus in the
treble of his five-part Erbarm dich mein, O Herre Gott from the 1578
publication, seems anachronistic in comparison with his other works.
Ruprecht Glanner (i), the brother of Caspar, was an organ builder who
repaired the organs at Mariahof in Styria in 1518 and Salzburg Cathedral in
1529 and 1530. His son Ruprecht (ii), Caspar’s nephew, lived with Caspar
in Salzburg in about 1564. He was also an organ builder, and collaborated
with Kaspar Bockh on restoring the Salzburg Franciscan church organ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Spies: Kaspar Glanner, fürstlich-salzburgischer Organist (Salzburg,
1895)
H. Spies: ‘Aus der musikalischen Vergangenheit Salzburgs bis 1634’,
Musica divina, ii (1914), 314–45
M.-L. Lascar: Glanerstudien (diss., U. of Bonn, 1927)
H.J. Moser: ‘Das deutsche Chorlied zwischen Senfl und Hassler als
Beispiel eines Stilwandels’, JbMP 1928, 43–58
H. Federhofer: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte des Orgelbaues in der
Steiermark’, Aus Archiv und Chronik, iv (1951), 22–48, esp. 30
OTHMAR WESSELY

Glantz, (Yehuda) Leib

(b Kiev, 1 June 1898; d Tel-Aviv, 27 Jan 1964). Israeli cantor and composer
of Ukrainian birth. Born into a family of cantors (both of his grandfathers
were cantors, as was his father), he made his cantorial début in Kiev at the
age of eight. At the age of 14 he became the choir director at his father's
synagogue, where he helped to introduce the 19th-century polyphonic
repertory. He studied the piano and theory at the Totovsky Conservatory
and later counterpoint and composition with Glier. In 1920 he moved to
Cişinău, now in Moldova, where he served as cantor and continued his
studies with Abraham Berkowitsch (known as Kalechnik), an authority on
 cantorial recitatives. After emigrating to the USA in 1926 he served as
cantor for congregations in New York and Los Angeles. His extensive
recordings with Asch and RCA Victor made him famous in Ashkenazi
Jewish communities. In 1954 he emigrated to Israel and settled in Tel-Aviv,
where he continued to work as a cantor. He founded a cantorial school, the
Tel-Aviv Institute for Religious Jewish Music, in 1961; a year after his death
the institution was transformed into a foundation for the publication of his
music, which remained active until 1971.
One of the greatest virtuoso cantors of the 20th century, Glantz possessed
an unusual lyric tenor voice of great agility and amazing coloratura, a wide
range and a rich palette. He used his vocal ability to generate virtuoso
improvisations based on Eastern European Ashkenazi modes, traditional
prayer chants and melodies of the Hasidim. He was particularly famous for
his dramatic interpretation of prayer texts. Most of his numerous
compositions, all of which are based on his improvisations, remain in
manuscript. His published works for cantor also incorporate elements of
European music, especially the harmonic language of early 20th-century
Russia.
An ardent Zionist, Glantz believed that the foundation of the state of Israel
in 1948 was the sprouting of Jewish and worldly redemption, an event that
called for the renovation of synagogue music. He advocated a new style of
cantorial recitative that de-emphasized a mournful traditional Eastern
European sound and encouraged joy and thanksgiving. He believed that
cantors should sing more in modes close to major than in modes close to
minor. While he realized this himself in his later cantorial recitatives, most
cantors did not follow his lead.
WORKS
(selective list)

Beshuv Adonai (Ps cxxvi), 1v, pf (1943–4); Ich bin a Yisroel (E. Auerbach), 1v, pf
(1943–4); Matai? [When?], Palestinian song, 1v, pf (1943–4); Deror yiqra [Nigun
from Talne], 1v, pf (1951); Rinat Ha-qodesh, prayer modes (1965) [cantorial recits
for the Sabbath and festival prayers]; Friday Evening Service, cantor, SATB, org
(1967); Hallel and 3 Festivals, cantor, SATB, org (1968); High Holidays, cantor,
SATB, org (1970); Sabbath Morning Service, cantor, SATB, org (1971)

Principal publishers: Transcontinental, Bloch, Institute for Religious Jewish Music, Israeli Music
Institute

BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Steinmann: Zeharim: in Memory of Leib Glantz (Tel-Aviv, 1965) [incl.
articles and letters by Glantz; in Hebrew and Yiddish]
A. Soltes: Off the Willows: the Rebirth of Modern Jewish Music (New York,
1970), 116–25
A. Zimmermann: Be-ron yahad: Essays, Research and Notes in Hazzanut
and Jewish Music (Tel-Aviv, 1988), 217–23 [in Heb.]
ELIYAHU SCHLEIFER
Glanville-Hicks, Peggy
(b Melbourne, 29 Dec 1912; d Sydney, 25 June 1990). Australian
composer. She was a major figure in American musical life as a New York
City critic, composer, and concert organizer from the late 1940s into the
1960s. From about 1960 she spent increasing amounts of time outside the
USA, especially in Greece. In 1967 she underwent surgery in New York to
remove a brain tumour; she recovered but virtually ceased composing. In
1975 she moved from Greece to Australia, where her music attracted
renewed attention from performers and audiences. In 1987 the University
of Sydney awarded her the honorary DMus.
She received her first training from 1927 at the Melbourne Conservatorium,
where she studied with the conductor and opera composer Fritz Hart. In
1931 she won a scholarship to the RCM, where she studied with Vaughan
Williams (composition), Arthur Benjamin (piano), and Constant Lambert
and Malcolm Sargent (conducting). The award of an Octavia Travelling
Scholarship (1936–8) enabled her to further her studies with Wellesz in
Vienna and with Nadia Boulanger in Paris.
In 1938 Glanville-Hicks married the English pianist and composer Stanley
Bate and on occasion wrote as Peggy Bate until their divorce in 1949. In
1940 to 1941 she accompanied Bate on his concert tours to Melbourne
and Sydney, then Boston and New York, where they decided to settle. In
1951 she married Rafael da Costa, an Austrian-Israeli critic, whom she
divorced in 1953. She lived in the USA from 1941 to the early 1960s, taking
American citizenship in 1948.
In 1947 she became a New York Herald Tribune critic; Virgil Thomson was
her senior colleague. During the next eight concert seasons, October
through April, the paper published over 500 of her reviews, mostly of new
music. She also published reviews and essays in Musical America, Music
& Letters, Musical Quarterly, the New York Times and other journals. She
updated the American material in Grove’s Dictionary (5th edition, 1954) and
herself contributed 98 entries on current American composers and eight
articles on Danish composers.
She was active in support of other musicians, first through the League of
Composers and then with the American Composers Alliance. She
organized concerts and commercial recordings of new music, usually
including a work of her own. She assisted Menuhin in presenting concerts
of Indian music (1955). As a director of the New York Composers’ Forum,
she organized concerts of new American music with discussion by the
composers.
As a critic and writer she was as concerned with identifying a composer’s
source of inspiration as with explaining compositional technique, including
atonalism, serialism, neo-classicism, musique concrète, and the mid-
century avant garde. She described the qualities of American inspiration in
the music of Ives, Virgil Thomson, Copland, Douglas Moore, the young
Bernstein and others. Yet her outlook was thoroughly international. She
was most interested in the music of the ‘exotics’ or ‘musical explorers’ such
as John Cage, Lou Harrison, Paul Bowles, Colin McPhee, Alan Hovhaness
 and Edgard Varèse. Like them, she found in various non-Western musical
cultures more authentic, even mystical sources of inspiration.
After the concert season, from May to September, she had more time to
write music and to gather inspiration. She travelled to other parts of the
USA and to England, Germany, Italy, Greece, Jamaica, Morocco, India,
Australia and elsewhere. Her work was supported by several major
awards, including a grant from the American Academy of Arts and Letters
(1953–4), two Guggenheim Fellowships (1956–8), a Fulbright Fellowship
(1960) and a Rockefeller Grant (1961–3) for travel and research in the
Middle East and East Asia.
As a composer she had an affinity, probably reinforced by her training with
Hart and Vaughan Williams, for tonal music, consonant and often non-
diatonic harmonies, and modal melodies such as are heard in traditional or
folk musics. Her melodic writing is distinctive, as are her clear textures and
rhythmic patterns, often reinforced by a variety of percussion instruments.
She was inspired by the melodies and rhythms of several traditions: Spain
(in the Sonata for Harp), India (The Transposed Heads), North Africa
(Letters from Morocco), sub-Saharan Africa (Sonata for Piano and
Percussion), South America (Prelude and Presto for Ancient American
Instruments), the Italian peninsula (Concertino antico, Etruscan Concerto),
and, in her mind the most authentic of all, ancient Greece (Nausicaa,
Sappho).
The plots of her operas and ballets involve subjects close to her heart. The
Transposed Heads explores the dilemma of a woman whose marriage to a
high-born man enhances her social position, but who then falls in love with
his best friend, a less ascetic type, and is unable to live without both of
them. The plot of Nausicaa (produced at the 1961 Athens Festival)
explores female authorship, specifically the female tradition in ancient
Greek mythology. Indeed, Glanville-Hicks saw herself as the only woman
who had ever written music of any merit, that is, as part of a male tradition.
She was a successful innovative artist in an essentially commercial system.
She cultivated men and women with influence and money to sponsor her
productions. She found leading performers, conductors and
choreographers whose styles and interests suited her own. Her skills as a
publicist, as well as the quality of her work, helped attract audiences.
Although she once said that ‘in America they handed me fame and fortune
on a platter’, in reality she worked very hard for her musical and spiritual
values.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage (libretto by Glanville-Hicks unless otherwise stated): Caedmon (op, 3

scenes), 1933; The Transposed Heads (op, 6 scenes, after T. Mann: Die
vertauschten Köpfe), 1953, Louisville, KY, Columbia Auditorium, 3 April 1954; The
Glittering Gate (op, 1, after Lord Dunsany), 1956, New York, 15 May 1959; The
Masque of the Wild Man, ballet, 1958; Nausicaa (prol, 3, R. Graves and A. Reid,
after Graves: Homer’s Daughter), 1960, Athens, Herodus Atticus, 19 Aug 1961;
Saul and the Witch of Endor, tv ballet, 1964; Sappho (op, 3, after L. Durrell), 1965; A
Season in Hell, ballet after A. Rimbaud, 1965; Tragic Celebration (Jephtha’s
Daughter), ballet, 1966
Inst: 3 Gymnopedie, ob, cel, hp, str, 1934 [rev. 1953]; Sonatina, fl/rec, pf, 1939;
Concertino da camera, fl, cl, bn, pf, 1945; Sonata, hp, 1951; Sonata, pf, 5 perc,
1952; Sinfonia da Pacifica, 1953; Concertino antico, hp, str qt, 1955; Etruscan
Conc., pf, chbr orch, 1956; Musica antiqua no.1, 2 fl, hp, mar, 2 perc, timp, 1957;
Conc. romantico, va, orch, 1957; Prelude and Presto, ancient insts, 1957; Tapestry,
orch, 1964; Meditation, orch, 1965; Drama, cl, tpt, pf, 3 perc, str, 1966
Vocal: Pastoral (R. Tagore), female chorus, eng hn, 1933; Choral Suite (J. Fletcher),
female chorus, ob, str, 1937; Last Poems (A.E. Housman), 5 songs, 1v, pf, 1945;
Profiles from China (E. Tietjens), 5 songs, T, pf/chbr orch, 1945; Ballade (P.
Bowles), 3 songs, 1v, pf, 1945; 13 Ways of Looking at a Blackbird (W. Stevens), S,
pf, 1947; Thomsoniana (V. Thomson), S/T, fl, hn, pf, str qt, 1949; Letters from
Morocco (Bowles), 6 songs, T, chbr orch, 1952
Film scores, incl. The Robot, 1936; Clouds, 1938; Tulsa, 1949; Tel, 1950; The
African Story, 1956; A Scary Time, 1958

MSS in AUS-Msl, Mitchell Library, AUS-Ssl

Principal publishers: Associated, Colfrank, Hargail, Peters (New York), Schott (New York), Weintraub

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGGI (A. Silbermann)
GroveA (E. Wood)
GroveO (T. Radic)
GroveW (E. Wood and T. Radic)
G. Antheil: ‘Peggy Glanville-Hicks’, Bulletin of American Composers
Alliance, iv/1 (1954), 2–9
P. Glanville-Hicks: ‘At the Source’, ON, xxvi/6 (1961–2), 8–13 [on
Nausicaa]
A.D. McCredie: Musical Composition in Australia (Canberra, 1969)
J. Murdoch: Australia’s Contemporary Composers (Melbourne, 1972)
J.W. LePage: ‘Peggy Glanville-Hicks’, Women Composers, Conductors
and Musicians of the Twentieth Century: Selected Biographies, ii
(Metuchen, NJ, 1983), 142–62
D. Hayes: Peggy Glanville-Hicks: a Bio-Bibliography (Westport, CT, 1990)
D. Hayes: ‘Peggy Glanville-Hicks: a Voice from the Inner World’, The
Musical Woman: an International Perspective, iii: 1986–90, ed. J.L.
Zaimont and others (Westport, CT, 1991), 371–409
W. Beckett: Peggy Glanville-Hicks (Sydney, 1992)
J. Murdoch: P. Glanville-Hicks: a Transposed Life (forthcoming)
DEBORAH HAYES

Glarean, Heinrich [Glareanus,

Henricus; Loriti]
(b Mollis, canton of Glarus, June 1488; d Freiburg, 28 March 1563). Swiss
music theorist, geographer and humanist. His father was a prosperous
landowner and a member of the town council for 40 years. As a child
Glarean first studied music and other subjects in Berne under Michael
Rubellus. In 1501 Rubellus moved to Rottweil in the Black Forest and
Glarean followed him, continuing his studies there for almost five years.
More than 30 years later Glarean praised his teacher in his musical treatise
Dodecachordon. On 5 June 1506 Glarean enrolled in the University of
Cologne, where he first studied philosophy and theology, later mathematics
and music. His music teacher was Johannes Cochlaeus, afterwards
renowned as a theologian and opponent of Luther. Glarean admired him
greatly and included several of Cochlaeus's musical examples in the
Dodecachordon. After completing his university studies in 1510, Glarean
received a licence to teach.
In 1512 Glarean composed a poem in praise of Maximilian I, which he
sang before the emperor and an assembly of German princes in Cologne.
So great was the emperor's enthusiasm that he crowned Glarean with a
laurel wreath and placed a ring on his finger. In 1514 Glarean went to
Basle, where he met Erasmus, who later became the dominant influence in
his life (see illustration). He venerated the older man as a teacher and
valued friend, writing with warm affection in the Dodecachordon about the
literary labours they had shared. He enthusiastically embraced the
Erasmian concept of a world of antiquity illuminated by Christian faith.
Erasmus in turn called Glarean the champion of Swiss humanism and
wrote several letters of recommendation on his behalf.
In Basle Glarean directed a boarding school, which included music in its
curriculum as well as Latin literature and Greek grammar. He spent 1516 in
Pavia and Milan and in the following year went to Paris. Here he became
friendly with many humanists, including Heinrich Faber and Guillaume
Budé, and conversed through an interpreter with the celebrated composer
Mouton. Returning to Basle in 1522 Glarean resumed his teaching and
gave lectures at the university; in the same year he was married. Basle
was fast becoming an important centre of the Reformation movement.
Glarean's opposition to it crystallized during this period in spite of his
former admiration for Luther and his erstwhile friendship with Zwingli and
Oecolampadius. When certain reformers advocated the substitution of
vernacular song for plainsong Glarean wrote a vigorous defence of
Gregorian chant in the tenor partbook of his own collection of motets (D-
Mu 324).
In 1529 Glarean moved to Freiburg im Breisgau. There he became
professor of poetry at the university and later professor of theology. He also
conducted an educational institute similar to the one in Basle. Most of his
important writings on music and mathematics, as well as his editions of
works of classical Roman authors, were published after 1530. Between
1530 and 1536 he visited the nearby Benedictine monastery at St
Georgen, where he studied the works of numerous Greek and Roman
writers. From this came the impetus to make an edition of Boethius's De
musica and to develop his own system of 12 modes. In 1558 he was made
an adviser in the reorganization of the school curriculum in Solothurn,
Freiburg and Lucerne, and also took part in the plans for a Swiss Catholic
Hochschule. He gave strong support to current musical endeavours and
was influential in the appointment of teachers of singing. Among his more
renowned pupils were the Swiss historian Aegidius Tschudi and the
composer Homer Herpol, whose collection of gospel motets entitled
Novum et insigne opus musicum is based on Glarean's system of 12
modes. Glarean knew many musicians of his day including Sixt Dietrich,
Jean Mouton, Ludwig Senfl and Johannes Wannenmacher. In his old age
he was troubled with blindness.
Glarean's first musical treatise, Isagoge in musicen (Basle, 1516), is a
characteristic cantus-planus manual containing chapters on the elements
of music, solmization and the eight modes. Gaffurius and Erasmus are
among the authorities cited. Although mensural music is not treated, Pierre
de La Rue and Obrecht are called important composers. Glarean's fame as
a musical theorist rests above all on his Dodecachordon, published in
Basle in 1547 by Heinrich Petri. In the letter of dedication to Cardinal Otto
Truchsess, Glarean stated that he had been working on his modal system
for no less than 20 years. This vast tome is divided into three books: book
1, based mainly on Boethius and Gaffurius, treats the elements of music,
consonance and dissonance, and solmization; book 2 concerns the theory
of 12 modes applied to plainsong and other monophony; book 3 discusses
mensural music and the theory of 12 modes applied to polyphonic music.
Since the title-page of the Dodecachordon advertises the modal names of
his new system, it is clear that Glarean considered it the outstanding
contribution of his treatise. To the medieval eight modes he added four
more, an Ionian and Hypoionian with finals on C, and an Aeolian and
Hypoaeolian with finals on A. He attempted to show that his system was
based on the old Greek modes and believed that it was a renewal of modal
usage in antiquity. But its value lay in his recognition of Ionian (or major)
and Aeolian (or natural minor). He asserted that the Ionian was the mode
most frequently used in his time. In applying his system to polyphony
Glarean analysed the mode of individual voices. If one voice is in an
authentic mode the adjacent voice range (above or below it) usually will be
in the plagal of the same mode; sometimes, however, his analyses are
polymodal (e.g. a tenor in the Phrygian mode and a bass in the Aeolian;
see Mode, §III, 4).
The impact of the Dodecachordon on Renaissance musical thought was
considerable. Although Glarean's system was by no means universally
adopted, it was acknowledged either openly or tacitly by many writers. In
1558, 11 years after the publication of the Dodecachordon, Zarlino's
Istitutioni harmoniche reproduced Glarean's modal system but without
naming Glarean as its author. The Stralsund cantor Eucharius Hoffmann
wrote both musical compositions and a theory book (1582) based on
Glarean's teaching. Other writers who acknowledged his modal
contribution include Cerone, Morley and Zacconi. From a musical point of
view the most fruitful results of Glarean's modal principles are found in the
many instrumental compositions of late Renaissance composers who
applied his ideas. Such men as Merulo, Padovano, and Andrea and
Giovanni Gabrieli wrote toccatas and ricercares in all 12 modes, or ‘tones’
as they were almost invariably called. For modern scholars the value of the
Dodecachordon consists in the extraordinary diversity of its contents.
Ambros, for example, called Glarean the founder of musical biography and
praised the breadth of his text. Others have stressed the work's
significance as a musical anthology, since it contains over 120
compositions (29 by Josquin Des Prez, the remainder by Obrecht,
Ockeghem, Isaac and others). Some modern writers have praised the
work's contribution as a monument of musical humanism, or cited its
exhaustive treatment of the polyphonic method of composition of the
Franco-Netherlandish school, or pointed out its subtle defence of Catholic
orthodoxy.
In 1557 Glarean published, with his stepson J.L. Wonnegger as general
editor, a 151-page abridgment of his magnum opus entitled Musicae
epitome. This modest treatise contains nine polyphonic pieces, seven of
which come from the larger work. A German version, Uss Glareani Musick
ein Usszug, which includes a motet by Homer Herpol, was published in the
same year. Early in his career Glarean wrote a poem, Panegyricon, which
praised the 13 members of the Swiss confederation. In 1558 the poem was
set to music by Manfred Barbarini Lupus. Three portraits of Glarean are
known. One, a woodcut reproduced in the Geschichte der Familie
Ammann (Zürich, 1904), shows him at the age of about 35; another, the
bust on his tomb in the Cathedral of Freiburg, portrays him in old age; the
third, in Basle, is a full-length sketch (see illustration) by Hans Holbein (ii) in
a copy of Erasmus's The Praise of Folly formerly owned by Oswald
Myconius.
WRITINGS
for Glarean's non-musical works see Fritzsche or Fenlon

Isagoge in musicen (Basle, 1516; Eng. trans. in Turrell)

ed.: Boethius: Opera quae extant omnia (Basle, 1546, 2/1570 [incl. De
institutione musica])

Dodecachordon (Basle, 1547/R; Eng. trans., MSD, vi, 1965)

Musicae epitome sive compendium ex Glareani Dodecachordo (Basle,

1557, 2/1559)

Uss Glareani Musick ein Usszug mit Verwilligung und Hilff Glareani (Basle,
1557, enlarged 2/1559)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
O.F. Fritzsche: Glarean: sein Leben und seine Schriften (Frauenfeld,
1890)
E. Tatarinoff: Die Briefe Glareans an Johannes Aal (Solothurn, 1895)
J. Bütler: Männer im Sturm (Lucerne, 1948), 1–88
F.B. Turrell: ‘The Isagoge in Musicen of Henry Glarean’, JMT, iii (1959),
97–139
B. Meier: ‘Heinrich Loriti Glareanus als Musiktheoriker’, Aufsätze zur
Freiburger Wissenschafts- und Universitätsgeschichte (Freiburg,
1960), 65–112
C.A. Miller: ‘The Dodecachordon: its Origin and Influence on Renaissance
Thought’, MD, xv (1961), 155–66
C.A. Miller: Preface to the English translation of Dodecachordon, MSD, vi
(1965)
E. Lichtenhahn: ‘“Ars perfecta”: zu Glareans Auffassung der
Musikgeschichte’, Festschrift Arnold Geering, ed. V. Ravizza (Berne,
1972), 129–38
S. Gissel: ‘Die modi phrygius, hypophrygius und phrygius connexus’, MD,
xlv (1991), 5–94
I. Fenlon: ‘Heinrich Glarean's books’, Music in the German Renaissance:
Sources, Styles, and Contexts, ed. J. Kmetz (Cambridge, 1994), 74–
102
S. Fuller: ‘Defending the Dodecachordon: Ideological Currents in Glarean's
Modal Theory’, JAMS, xlix (1996), 191–224

For further bibliography see Theory, theorists.

CLEMENT A. MILLER

Glasenapp, Carl Friedrich

(b Riga, 3 Oct 1847; d Riga, 14 April 1915). German writer on music. He
was educated in Riga and in Dorpat, where he studied linguistics, classical
philology and the history of art. He taught in Pernau (now Pärnu) from 1873
to 1875, when he returned to Riga, where he remained as a teacher of
language and literature until 1912. At the age of 16 he had heard Wagner’s
works in Riga, and while still a student began assembling material for a
biography; the first volume was ready by 1876, and Glasenapp was able to
take it to show Wagner at the first Bayreuth Festival. He became a trusted
member of the Wagner circle, and was given access by Cosima to much
information and material. A dedicated and painstaking enthusiast, he made
use of a vast amount of documentary evidence and brought it into
systematic order; but his loyalty to the ideal of Wagner as presented to him
by Cosima and the inner Wahnfried circle led him to accept an ‘authorized’
view of Wagner and in that interest to suppress and even alter evidence
when it was deemed ‘unnecessary’ to the official portrait of Wagner. This
unreliability was quickly observed, and Glasenapp was vigorously
defended by another partisan, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, in his own
book on Wagner (1896). Nevertheless, there is much invaluable material in
the book; and not all of this survives in the English version by W. Ashton
Ellis, who himself altered and suppressed some of Glasenapp’s material.
‘No student in this field can feel anything but gratitude to Glasenapp for his
tireless industry’, wrote Ernest Newman in the preface to his own Life of
Richard Wagner (1900–08). The lexicon and encyclopedia remain valuable
resources, although his writings about Siegfried Wagner are marred by his
polemical position. His papers are held at the Richard-Wagner-
Nationalarchiv in Bayreuth.
WRITINGS
Richard Wagner’s Leben und Wirken (Kassel, 1876–7, 3/1894–1911 as
Das Leben Richard Wagners, 5/1910–23; Eng. trans. enlarged by
W.A. Ellis 1900–08/R, as Life of Richard Wagner)
with H. von Stein: Wagner-Lexikon: Hauptbegriffe der Kunst- und
Weltanschauung Richard Wagners in wörtlichen Anführungen aus
seinen Schriften (Stuttgart, 1883)
Wagner-Enzyklopädie: Haupterscheinungen der Kunst- und
Kulturgeschichte im Lichte der Anschauung Richard Wagners (Leipzig,
1891)
Siegfried Wagner (Berlin, 1906)
Siegfried Wagner und seine Kunst (Leipzig, 1911) [essays on the operas];
new ser., i: Schwarzschwanenreich (Leipzig, 1913); ii:
Sonnenflammen, ed. P. Pretzsch (Leipzig, 1919)
Numerous essays in Bayreuther Blätter
EDITIONS
Gedichte von Richard Wagner (Berlin, 1905)
Bayreuther Briefe von Richard Wagner (1871–1883) (Berlin, 1907; Eng.
trans., 1912/R, as The Story of Bayreuth)
Familienbriefe von Richard Wagner 1832–1874 (Berlin, 1907; Eng. trans.,
1911/R)
JOHN WARRACK/JAMES DEAVILLE

Gläser [Glaeser], Franz (Joseph)

(b Obergeorgenthal [now Horn i Jířetín], 19 April 1798; d Copenhagen, 29
Aug 1861). Bohemian composer and conductor. He was a chorister at
Dresden before studying at the Prague Conservatory from 1815. In 1817
he went to Vienna, where for the next 13 years he provided the three
popular theatres with a series of mainly unsuccessful scores for farces,
parodies and pantomimes: in 1817–18 he wrote ten works for the Theater
in der Leopoldstadt, starting with Bärenburgs Sturz (22 August 1817), from
1819 until 1827 he provided the Theater in der Josefstadt with some 60
works (including an arrangement of Weber’s Oberon, 20 March 1827), and
from 1827 until 1830 the Theater an der Wien with a further 20. On 3
October 1822 it was Gläser’s responsibility as Kapellmeister at the Theater
in der Josefstadt to supervise the performance of Beethoven’s music to
Meisl’s Die Weihe des Hauses. Probably his most successful score was
that to Rosenau’s Sküs, Mond und Pagat (29 January 1820), performed 73
times in this theatre alone.
In 1830 Gläser went to Berlin, where his best-known works were written
and performed: Aurora, Die Brautschau auf Kronstein, Andrea and Des
Adlers Horst (libretto by Holtei). The last, after its première at the
Königstädtisches Theater on 29 December 1832, was performed widely
and often for half a century; the richness, variety and expressive power of
this score show how quickly Gläser matured once he had left behind him
the less exacting demands of Vienna’s suburban theatres; Wagner
conducted Des Adlers Horst at Magdeburg and it is one of several now
forgotten opera scores that left some mark on his later masterpieces. In
1842 Gläser moved to Copenhagen; he was appointed court conductor
three years later and remained there for the rest of his life. Apart from
occasional pieces (funeral cantatas, and an overture for the 50th
anniversary of the foundation of the Prague Conservatory) he wrote only
three major scores during the Copenhagen years: the operas Bryllupet vet
Como-søen (‘The Wedding by Lake Como’), 29 January 1849; Nøkken
(‘The Water-Sprite’), 12 February 1853; and Den forgyldte svane (‘The
Golden Swan’), 17 March 1854. The first two of these Danish operas had
librettos by Hans Christian Andersen. Large collections of his works are
held by the Kongelige Bibliothek, Copenhagen, the Deutsche
Staatsbibliothek, Berlin, and the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, Vienna.
Gläser’s father, Peter, went to Vienna and ran a music copyist’s business of
which Beethoven disapproved less than most with which he had dealings;
and his son Joseph (August Eduard Friedrich) (b Vienna, 25 Nov 1835; d
Hillerød, Denmark, 29 Sept 1891) was organist at Hillerød from 1866, and
the composer of songs, choral and keyboard works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ADB (A. Fürstenau)
DBL (T. Krogh)
GroveO (P. Branscombe) [incl. list of stage works]
MGG1 (F. Lorenz) [incl. selective list of works]
WurzbachL
W. Neumann: Franz Gläser (Leipzig, 1859)
N. Pfeil: Franz Gläser (Leipzig, 1870)
F. Hadamowsky: Das Theater in der Wiener Leopoldstadt 1781–1860
(Vienna, 1934)
A. Bauer: 150 Jahre Theater an der Wien (Zürich, 1952)
A. Bauer: Das Theater in der Josefstadt zu Wien (Vienna, 1957)
L. Santifaller: ‘Gläser, Franz’, Österreichisches biographisches Lexikon
1815–1950, ed. E. Obermeyer-Marnach (Graz, 1957)
F. Lorenz: ‘Franz Gläser: Autobiographie – Erinnerungen an Beethoven’,
Mf, xxxi (1978), 43–6
M. Busnelli: ‘Il matrimonio sul lago di Como’, NRMI, xxi (1987), 246–54
PETER BRANSCOMBE

Glaser, Werner Wolf

(b Cologne, 14 April 1913). Swedish composer of German descent. His
mother Julie, née Wolff, was a concert pianist and a pupil of Clara
Schumann. Glaser attended the Hochschule für Musik in Cologne from the
age of 12, studying the piano with Dahm, conducting with Ehrenberg, and
composition with Jarnach (1929–30). He later studied composition with
Hindemith in Berlin. From 1931 to 1932 he was Kapellmeister of the opera
in Chemnitz, but, dismissed from this post because of his Jewish ancestry,
he became a choirmaster in Cologne. In 1933 he fled from the Nazis to
Paris, but soon moved to Denmark, where in 1939, with Irène Skovgaard,
he founded a school of music in Lyngby. In 1943 he was forced to flee
again, and went to Sweden where he became music critic for the
newspaper Västmanlands Lans Tidning in 1944. In 1945, with Gunnar
Axén, he founded the music college in Västerås and was director of studies
there between 1954 and 1975. He has been on the management
committee of the music therapists of Sweden and the Swedish Composers'
Union. In 1993 the King of Sweden awarded him the medal of the Swedish
Royal Academy of Music for his services to Swedish music.
 Glaser is a prolific composer, with an output exceeding 540 works. His style
is neo-classical and makes use of polytonal and polyrhythmic techniques.
The early works of the 1930s are largely reminiscent of Hindemith,
although he later developed his own distinctive idiom characterized by an
absence of repetition, a predominant use of the intervals of the 2nd and 7th
and the employment of unexpected pauses. He has also written volumes of
poetry.
WORKS
(selective list)

Operas: Kagekyio, 1961; Möten [Encounters], 1969; En naken kung [A Naked King],
1972; Cercatori, 1972
Several cants., incl. Media vita, 1970
13 syms.; Trilogia, orch, 1939; Paradosso, orch, 1972; concs. and other orch works
14 str qts; Fem strukturer [5 Structures], S, fl, sax, vc; Lettre à une âme, vc; other
chbr works
Songs, choruses, pf and org pieces

BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Utterström: ‘Tonsättare i dagens Västerås’, Musikrevy, v (1972), 273–5
OTFRIED RICHTER

Glasgow.
Scottish city. Located on the river Clyde, it has been a university city since
1451 and the largest city in Scotland since about 1800. It is the home of
the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama (RSAMD), the Royal
Scottish National Orchestra, the BBC Scottish SO, Scottish Opera and
Scottish Ballet. It is also the base of BBC radio and television in Scotland
as well as the independent Scottish Television.
A set of services for the feast day of Glasgow’s patron saint, St Kentigern
(or Mungo; bur. early 7th century), in the 13th-century Sprouston Breviary
(GB-En) has many antiphons of great beauty, in monodic chant on 11th-
and 12th-century texts. St Mungo’s own church bell was worn out by the
17th century, but a similar 9th-century quadrangular Celtic bell survives in
nearby Dumbarton. The 12th-century Parisian material in the St Andrews
Music Book was probably known in Glasgow, as Robert Bernham (c1200–
1253), later bishop of St Andrews, was a precentor at Glasgow Cathedral
in the 1230s; in that post he would have been in charge of the vicars choral
and the music library. The dedicatory stone of a 15th-century building
declares it to have been built ‘for the priests who serve the flourishing choir
of Glasgow’.
The earliest reference to organs in Glasgow dates from 1520, when the
Maister of the Sang Schule, John Paniter, was required to deputize for his
organist. The third prebendary at St Mary and St Anne in 1539 taught the
organ to the boys of the song school as well as Gregorian chant, discant
and part-singing. The Reformation silenced all Glasgow’s organs until the
18th century and had a devastating effect on music in general; but in 1638
the city council allowed the composer Duncan Burnett to begin teaching
again ‘seeing that the musik school is altogether dekayit within this burgh
to the great discredit of this citie’. Burnett’s pupils would have known the
keyboard music of William Kinloch and other late 16th-century composers,
collected in the Duncan Burnett Book (En). The late 17th century and the
early 18th were largely barren of musical activity. In 1756, hoping to
improve psalm singing in the churches the city magistrates funded free
music lessons for parishioners of good character. No organs were used
until 1785, when the Episcopal chapel acquired a Snetzler organ from
Edinburgh and employed a music teacher. Presbyterians described the
church as ‘the Whistlin’ Kirk’, and it is unlikely that many of them attended
the concerts given there; but in 1798 the newly formed Sacred Music
Institution gave a vocal concert in the cathedral with organ accompaniment
– possibly the first use of an organ in a Scottish Presbyterian church since
the 1630s. Apart from occasional appearances by the violinist William
McGibbon, the 18th century saw little instrumental music or concert
promotion. The burning of the New Concert Hall in 1764 ‘by a riotous
company of enthusiasts’ need not, however, be taken as an attack on
music, the term ‘concert hall’ being applied to what were really theatres to
circumvent a nationwide ban on theatrical entertainment. Concerts were
given in weekly alternation with dancing and card parties in 1777, some of
the musicians coming from Edinburgh.
With the industrialization of the late 18th century and the 19th, Glasgow
expanded rapidly and musical provision consequently improved. James
Aird (c1750–1795) began publishing music in 1782, and the Gentlemen’s
Subscription Concerts started in 1799; by 1821 they were making their
programmes more accessible to the general public. Vocal music
burgeoned with choirs and concerts organized by the precentors of the
numerous churches, and glee clubs such as the Glasgow Larks (1805) run
by William Euing (1788–1874). The Amateur Musical Society was founded
in 1831, the Philharmonic Society in 1832 and the Choral Society in 1833.
The Caledonian Theatre, opened in 1823, mounted occasional opera
performances; in 1848 Jenny Lind sang there in La sonnambula and La
fille du régiment. The short-lived City Theatre, opened and then destroyed
by fire in 1845, gave The Bohemian Girl and Der Freischütz.
A new City Hall was opened in 1841, and in 1843 the Glasgow Musical
Association was formed; on 2 April 1844 it gave the first Glasgow
performance of Handel’s Messiah. It became the Glasgow Choral Union in
1855 and held oratorio festivals in 1860 and 1873. In 1874 it formed the
Glasgow Choral Union Orchestra, which gave an annual eight-week
season. In 1877 the opening of St Andrew’s Hall, its acoustics among the
finest in the world, doubled the audience capacity. In 1877 and 1878 the
orchestra gave a series of weekly concerts under Hans von Bülow. August
Manns conducted it from 1879 and introduced works by British composers,
including the Scots MacCunn and MacKenzie: he conducted Berlioz’s
Grande messe des morts in 1885. A rival group, Scottish Orchestra, was
formed in 1891, giving 26-week seasons; the two merged in 1898 as the
Scottish Orchestra. Among musicians to perform in the City Hall were
Joachim, Paderewski, Sarasate, Busoni and two Glasgow-born pianists,
Eugen d’Albert and Frederic Lamond. In 1902 the Glasgow Corporation
promoted popular concerts there at nominal charges and children’s
concerts were initiated. The Glasgow Orpheus Choir (1901–1951),
conducted by Hugh Robertson, achieved international renown. It was
succeeded by the Phoenix Choir, but the number of choral societies in
Glasgow had dropped dramatically by the late 20th century. The Scottish
Orchestra became the Scottish National Orchestra in 1950, with a full-time
rather than seasonal schedule. In 1992 it became the Royal Scottish
National Orchestra. Its 20th-century conductors included Barbirolli,
Susskind, Rankl, Swarowsky and, from 1959, Alexander Gibson (the first
Scot to hold the post). Gibson inaugurated the Musica Viva concert series,
which ran from 1959 to 1961 and gave premières of works by Scottish
composers, notably Thea Musgrave, Iain Hamilton and Thomas Wilson (ii),
as well as the British premières of Schoenberg’s Violin Concerto and
Stockhausen’s Gruppen. St Andrew’s Hall was destroyed by fire in 1962. In
1990 the Royal Concert Hall was opened, its auditorium seating nearly
2500.
The BBC Scottish Orchestra, founded in 1935, was the first full-time
professional orchestra in Scotland. Its long association with the conductor
and composer Ian Whyte established its credentials in the performance of
contemporary music, and it expanded, notably under Norman Del Mar
(from 1960), becoming the BBC Scottish SO 1967. It tours at home and
abroad and has a wider repertory than the Royal Scottish National
Orchestra. It has commissioned many works and given many premières,
not least from composers active in Glasgow: Wilson (b 1927), Edward
McGuire (b 1948), John Geddes (b 1941), William Sweeney (b 1950),
Martin Dalby (b 1942) and James Macmillan (b 1959).
From the 1870s Glasgow was an important stop for professional touring
opera companies. Italian troupes appeared in 1872 and 1875 and the Carl
Rosa company made the first of many visits in 1877, later performing
operas by MacKenzie and MacCunn. The Moody-Manners company was
active in the city from 1900, and its collection of scores is held in the
Mitchell Library. A flourishing music hall brought forward such figures as
Will Fyffe (1885–1947) and Harry Lauder (1870–1950). The Royal
Colosseum was built in 1867 with 4000 seats, and in 1869 became the
Theatre Royal. It burnt down in 1879 and was rebuilt with 3000 seats.
Other theatres used for opera included the Lyceum Theatre (opened in
about 1897; burnt down 1937), the King’s Theatre (from 1904) and the
Coliseum (from 1905), which gave the Ring in the 1920s but then became
a cinema. The Glasgow Grand Opera Society was founded in 1905; in
1934 it gave the British première of Mozart’s Idomeneo, and the following
year that of Berlioz’s Les troyens. In 1951 it revived MacCunn’s 1894 opera
Jeanie Deans. Scottish Opera was established in 1962 by Alexander
Gibson, Richard Telfer and Ainslie Millar, later joined by Sidney Newman
and Robin Orr. The ballet company that took part in Scottish Opera’s 1969
production of Les troyens had moved from Bristol to Glasgow in 1968,
taking the name of Scottish Theatre Ballet; in 1974 it became Scottish
Ballet. In the same year, Scottish Opera bought the Theatre Royal which
became its permanent base. Its wide and adventurous repertory has
included a number of works by Scottish composers, among them Hamilton,
Orr, Wilson and Musgrave. The company tours regularly in Scotland, the
north of England and abroad.
The music publishing companies of Bayley & Ferguson (founded 1884)
and Mozart Allen (founded 1868), both now defunct, led the field in the first
half of the 20th century. Music criticism was published on a large scale
from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, with generous and
thoughtful coverage by such writers as James Webster, including extensive
notices of music festivals in other British cities. The Glasgow branch
(opened 1857) of Paterson & Sons was dominant among a number of
musical instrument manufacturers.
The university instituted a chair of music in 1929. Outstanding among
musicologists there was Henry George Farmer. A bequest from John
McEwen (d 1948) sustained a series of commissions and concerts devoted
to Scottish chamber music. The Athenaeum, founded in 1847 as a literary
and scientific club, established the Athenaeum School of Music in 1890,
and provided a building for it that included a concert hall. The school
became the Scottish National Academy of Music in the 1920s and the
Royal Scottish Academy of Music in 1944; a drama school was added six
years later. The need for a true national conservatory in Scotland was not
fully met until after World War II, when Henry Havergal (1902–89; principal
1953–69) was the first principal of the academy not to occupy the
university’s chair of music simultaneously. The RSAMD offers degree
courses in a full range of subjects including Scottish traditional music. Its
opera department, one of its strongest elements, was established in 1968.
In 1987 the academy moved to new premises including the Athenaeum
Theatre (cap. 344). There are fine music collections in the Mitchell Library
(opened 1877), Glasgow University Library and the RSAMD. The Glasgow
Art Gallery and Museum has a small but significant collection of musical
instruments, as does Dean Castle in nearby Kilmarnock. Glasgow is also
the home of the Scottish Music Information Centre (which succeeded the
Scottish Music archive in 1985), with unique holding of Scottish music of all
types, including a sound archive; and the Piping Centre (1996), which has
a small library and museum.
The triennial Musica Nova festival (established 1971) has brought leading
composers and their works to Scotland. The biennial Glasgow International
Early Music Festival was established in 1990. Among pop groups that have
emerged from Glasgow are Simple Minds (established 1976–7), Blue Nile
(1979–80), Wet Wet Wet (1984–5) and Deacon Blue (1985).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Strang: Glasgow and its Clubs, or Glimpses of the Condition, Manners,
Characters & Oddities of the City During the Past & Present Century
(London, 1856, 3/1864)
G.W. Baynham: The Glasgow Stage (Glasgow, 1892)
J. Coutts: A History of the University of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1909)
R. Turnbull: ‘Old Musical Glasgow’, Old Glasgow Club Transactions, iii:
1913–18 (Glasgow, 1919), 206–15
R. Craig: A Short History of the Glasgow Choral Union from its Foundation
in 1491 to 1909 (Glasgow, 1944)
The History of the Glasgow Society of Musicians, 1884–1944 (London,
1945)
R.W. Grieg: The Story of the Scottish Orchestra (Glasgow, 1945)
C. Wilson: Scottish Opera: the First Ten Years (London, 1972)
M.H. Hay: Glasgow Theatres and Music Halls (Glasgow, 1980)
C. Oliver: It is a Curious Story: the Tale of Scottish Opera, 1962 to 1987
(Edinburgh, 1987)
K.P. Colville, ed.: The Glasgow Royal Concert Hall: the First Five Years,
1990–1995 (Glasgow, 1995)
JOHN PURSER

Glasgow, Robert (Ellison)

(b Shawnee, OK, 30 May 1925). American organist. Early musical studies
in the double bass as well as the organ led to membership in all-state
orchestras and to a church job at the age of 15. During three years of army
service he held a position as organist at the First Presbyterian Church of El
Paso, Texas. Following his discharge in 1946 he entered Oklahoma City
University, where he studied the piano for one year with Nancy Ragsdale.
This was followed by concentrated studies at the Eastman School of Music,
where he worked with Harold Gleason and Catharine Crozier, earning the
MMus and performer's certificate in the organ in 1951. During the next 11
years he taught the organ and various music courses at MacMurray
College in Jacksonville, Illinois. This college later awarded him the DMus
honoris causa in recognition of his accomplishments in the concert and
academic worlds. Since 1962 he has been on the faculty of the school of
music, University of Michigan. In 1979 he was promoted to professor of
organ, and in 1981 he received the Harold Haugh award for excellence in
teaching. Many of his students have been winners in national and
international competitions. He has given many concerts in the USA, and
performed and given lectures and masterclasses at the International
Congress of Organists in Cambridge. His playing, especially of 19th- and
20th-century music, has been highly praised. As a recording artist he has
devoted his energies to the organ music of César Franck.
CHARLES KRIGBAUM

Glass, Louis (Christian August)

(b Frederiksberg, 23 March, 1864; d Gentofte, 22 Jan 1936). Danish
composer, pianist, conductor and teacher. He received early musical tuition
from his father, the piano teacher and composer Christian Henrik Glass
(1821–93), but it was probably his brief period of instruction from Gade that
was particularly influential. Following cello studies with Albert Rüdinger and
piano studies with Franz Neruda, Glass made his début in 1882 in the
Tivoli Concert Hall as a cellist and pianist. In 1884 he moved to Brussels,
where he studied at the conservatory with Juliusz Zarembski and Józef
Wieniawski (piano), Joseph Servais (cello) and Hubert Ferdinand Kufferath
(counterpoint); he left the conservatory in 1885, but continued to study with
Wieniawski. He returned to Copenhagen and worked as a musician and
teacher, but in 1889 travelled with funds granted from Det Anckerske Legat
to Germany (where he met Reinecke in Leipzig), Austria, Estonia and
Russia (where he visited Anton Rubinstein in St Petersburg).
Returning to Copenhagen, Glass became a member of the board of the
progressive chamber music society Symphonia, and in 1894 took over his
 father’s piano conservatory, which he ran until its closure in 1932. Glass
was interested in music education, and in 1898 co-founded the
Musikpaedagogisk Forening (now the Dansk Musikpaedagogisk Forening),
whose chairman he was from 1903 to 1921 and 1927 to 1929. In 1901
Glass was the co-founder of the Dansk Koncert-Forening, and from 1915
to 1918 he was the society’s conductor.
Glass composed in most genres apart from opera. The early influence of
Schumann, Gade and Grieg was soon supplemented by that of Franck,
whose music Glass had probably heard in Brussels and whom he greatly
admired. In the six symphonies, Glass’s most important works, the impact
of Bruckner is also clearly apparent. The first two symphonies are broadly
written and for large orchestra, while the idyllic Third Symphony,
Skovsymfoni [Wood Symphony], has in its concentrated intimacy a certain
chamber music quality. Contrasting with this is the monumental hour-long
Fourth Symphony. The Fifth Symphony, Sinfonia svastika, is a highly
dynamic and tightly arranged work; the title refers to the old Indian symbol
of the wheel of life, the swastika, and the work is one of several which bear
witness to the composer’s intense occupation with theosophy. The Sixth
Symphony, Skjoldungeæt [Birth of the Scyldings], is a peculiarly sombre
work with a pronounced retrospective character. In his later works Glass
shows a growing interest in the element of sound, as in the suite Episoder
fra H.C. Andersens Eventyr ‘Elverhøj’, and also in simple and intimate
forms of expression, as in the Trio for violin, viola and guitar.
WORKS
(selective list)

orchestral
Artemis, ballet, op.50, 1914–15, suite pubd (1939); Flugten fra Clausholm [The
Flight from Clausholm], ballet
6 syms: no.1, E, op.17, 1894; no.2, c, op.28, with male vv, 1899; no.3 ‘Skovsymfoni’
[Wood Symphony], D, op.30, 1901 (1926); no.4, e, op.43, 1910; no.5 ‘Sinfonia
svastika’, C, op.57, 1919–20; no.6 ‘Skjoldungeæt’ [Birth of the Scyldings], op.60,
1924
Symphonic Conc, ob, orch, op.3 (lost); Fantasy, pf, orch, op.47, 1913; Conc, vn,
orch, op 65, 1930; ov., ‘En Folkefjende’ [An Enemy of the People], op.34,
1902/1923; ov., ‘Danmark’, op.37; Romantisk Ouverture, op.69, 1932
5 suites: op.2, c1884 (only the 4th movt has survived); Sommerliv [Summer Life],
op.27 (1901); Blade af Aarets Billedbog [Pages from the Picture Book of the Year],
op.62, 1926; Drømmen: Koldinghus [The Dream: Koldinghus], op.64, 1928;
Episoder fra H.C. Andersens Eventyr ‘Elverhøj’ [Episodes from H.C. Andersen’s
Fairy-Tale ‘The Elf Hill’], op.67, 1932
Symfoniske Fragmenter af ‘Artemis’ [Symphonic Fragments from ‘Artemis’], op.50,
c1917; Livets Dans [The Dance of Life], op.51; Havets Sang [The Song of the Sea],
op.54, 1920; Når Storstaden vågner [When the City Awakes], op.68, c1932;
Dannevang [Denmark], op.70, with unison male vv, 1934
chamber
4 str qts: no.1, F, op.10, 1891; no.2, E , op.18, 1893, lost; no.3, a, op.23,
1896/1929; no.4, f , op.35 (1907); Str Sextet, d, op.15, 1892; Pf Qnt, op.22, 1896;
Pf Trio, op.19 (c1895); Trio, vn, va, gui, op.76, 1934; Trio, ob, cl, bn, op.77, c1935,
lost; Vc Sonata, F, op.5, 1889/1914; 2 vn sonatas, op.7, E , op.29, C
piano
2 sonatas: no.1, E, op.6 (1889), no.2, A , op.25 (1897); Fantasy pieces op.4;
Polonaise op.8; Foraarsstemning [Spring mood], op.9; I det Fri [In the Open Air],
op.20; Skitser [Sketches] op.21 (1896); An die Kinder, op.24; Lyriske Bagateller,
op.26 (1899); Fantasy, op.35 (1904); Kleine Tonbilder, op.39 (1911); Variatoner over
danske Viser og Sange [Variations on Danish Ballads and Songs], op.41 (1911);
Stimmungsbilder, op.45 (1912); Landlige Billeder [Rural Pictures] op.48 (1915);
Impromptu et Capriccio, op.52 (1919); Sange, op.55 (1925); Aquareller, op.58
(1921); Klaverstykker, op.66 (1931)
vocal
Sommerliv [Summer life], 1v, pf, op.13, 1892; Songs (J.P. Jacobsen), 1v, pf, op.16;
5 Lieder, 1v, pf, op.38 (1907); Songs, 1v, pf, op.44 (1912), op.46 (1918), op.56
(1925), op.59 (1922); Songs, male vv, op.42 (1910), op.73
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Lynge: Danske Komponister i det 20. Aarhundredes Begyndelse
(Århus, 1917, 2/1917), 145–79 [with selective worklist], 91–111 [with
selective worklist]
R. Hove: ‘Louis Glass, 1864–1936’, DMt, xi (1936), 87–99
E. Jacobsen and V. Kappel: Musikkens Mestre (Copenhagen, 1944–7), ii,
354–62
S. Berg: Traek af dansk musikpaedagogiks historie (Copenhagen, 1948)
K.A. Bruun: Dansk musiks historie fra Holberg-tiden til Carl Nielsen
(Copenhagen, 1969), ii, 285–93
N. Schiørring: Musikkens Historie i Danmark (Copenhagen, 1977–8),
163–5
N.V. Bentzon: ‘Louis Glass og hans “cirkel”’, DMt, lx (1985–6), 219–23
CLAUS RØLLUM-LARSEN

Glass, Paul (Eugène)

(b Los Angeles, 19 Nov 1934). American composer, active also in England,
France and Switzerland. While studying at the University of Southern
California (BMus 1956), he took private lessons with Blacher, Dahl and
Friedhofer. He later studied with Petrassi in Rome and Sessions in
Princeton, New Jersey. In 1962, after a period of study with Lutosławski in
Warsaw, he returned to the USA to devote himself to composing for the
cinema and concert hall. After spending time in England during the
shooting of Otto Preminger’s film Bunny Lake is Missing (1965), for which
he wrote the score, he moved to France, where he spent four years
studying the works of Webern. In 1973 he relocated from the USA to
Switzerland where he has taught at the Lugano Conservatory (from 1981)
and where he became a naturalized citizen. Although each of his works is
the subject of a new compositional experiment, he is always concerned
with communicating with the public, a preoccupation acquired from his
work for the cinema. Each of his works distills a deep, patient act of
reflection on a musical process; his Sinfonia no.3 demonstrates as well the
possibility of a bringing together of dodecaphony with diatonicism. His film
 scores are discussed in Irwin Bazelon’s Knowing the Score (New York,
1975).
WORKS
(selective list)

Sinfonia no.1, orch, 1959; Conc., vc, orch, 1961; Suite symfonyczna (Sinfonia no.2),
orch, 1961; 5 chansons pour une princesse errante, Bar, pf/orch, 1968; Echanges,
16 insts, 1973; Wie ein Naturlaut, 10 insts, 1977; Sax Qt, 1980; Pf Conc., 1982; 5
pezzi, pf, 1983; Sinfonia no.3, orch, 1986; Deh, spiriti miei, quando mi vedete (G.
Cavalcanti), mixed chorus, 1987; Pianto della madonna (Jacopone da Todi), S, Bar,
mixed chorus, orch, 1988; Str Qt no.1, 1988; Lamento dell'acqua, orch, 1990;
Sinfonia no.4, orch, 1992; quan shi qu, orch, 1994; Corale per Margaret, str orch,
1995; Omaggio, pf, 1995; hour to begin, orch, 1995; film scores, incl. The
Abductors, Bunny Lake is Missing, Catch my Soul, Lady in a Cage, The Late Nancy
Irving, Overlord

Principal publisher: Müller & Schade AG

JEAN-PIERRE AMANN

Glass, Philip
(b Baltimore, 31 Jan 1937). American composer and performer. Along with
Reich, Riley and Young, he was a principal figure in the establishment of
minimalism in the 1960s. He has since become one of the most
commercially successful, and critically reviled, composers of his
generation.
1. Childhood and early training.
2. Emergence of minimalism.
3. The Philip Glass Ensemble.
4. Dramatic works.
5. Further collaborations.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EDWARD STRICKLAND
Glass, Philip
1. Childhood and early training.
He began to study the violin at the age of six, then at eight the flute with
Britton Johnson at the Peabody Conservatory. At 12 he started composing,
while taking harmony lessons with Louis Cheslock and working in his
father’s record shops after school. He left school at 15 for the University of
Chicago (BA in Liberal Arts 1956) under their early entrance programme. In
Chicago he was a piano pupil of Marcus Rasking, who introduced him to
the 12-note technique, which he then adopted but abandoned by
graduation. In 1956–7 he took extension courses at the Juilliard School,
and then returned to Baltimore for six months to earn enough money as a
crane operator at Bethlehem Steel to finance formal Juilliard studies. He
enrolled in late 1957 (diploma in composition 1959; MA in composition
1961), studying with Bergsma (1957–9) and Persichetti (1959–61) and
followed them in composing in the tonal vein of the American Symphonist
school. He studied analysis in Milhaud’s summer class at Aspen in 1960,
and privately with fellow student Albert Fine, who had studied with
Boulanger. Of some 70 compositions in widely varied genres at Juilliard,
almost all were performed by fellow students and a few published by
Elkan-Vogel (later subsumed by Presser), of which Persichetti was the
editor. Foreshadowing his mature work Glass also wrote music for the
dance department and took a course in film scoring.
Glass, Philip
2. Emergence of minimalism.
In Pittsburgh from 1961 to 1963 on a Ford Foundation grant, Glass
continued to write for a variety of ensembles – this time selected from the
city’s schools – with many compositions published by Elkan-Vogel. Then on
a Fulbright scholarship he went to Paris to study for two years with
Boulanger (he had already spent the summer of 1954 studying French
there) in what he describes as a re-education in the elements of music,
during which time he composed little. Unimpressed by the avant-garde
establishment represented by Boulez, Glass encountered a more important
influence in the additive processes and cyclic structures of Indian music
when he was hired by the film director Conrad Rooks to transcribe for
Western musicians Ravi Shankar’s score for the phantasmagoric
Chappaqua. Although Glass also provided some conventionally ‘modern’
music for sections of the film, his minimalist style was now beginning to
emerge, most particularly in the spare lines of the theatre pieces he wrote
in 1965 for what would become the Mabou Mines troupe (all works before
this have since been disavowed). The score for Beckett’s Play comprised
the overlapping of two soprano saxophones, each assigned a single
interval multiply repeated in different rhythms, while Music for Ensemble
and Two Actresses – foreshadowing the voice-overs of the libretto of
Einstein on the Beach – included a soufflé recipe declaimed over a wind
sextet. The 1966 String Quartet is a more significant representative of
Glass’s transitional style, with its repetition of cells and strict formal
subdivision into component modules recurring in different voices. It does
not, however, reveal any particular Indian influence and lacks the bare-
boned tonality of his subsequent works (chromaticism and dissonance
abound and, though the work is not serial, all 12 tones are introduced at
the start). Furthermore, the underlying structural principle is that of
symmetry rather than additive cycles; despite its uninflected metre, the
work does not exhibit the rock-like pulsation of his later New York works.
After leaving Paris, Glass travelled in North Africa and the Indian
subcontinent. He returned to New York early in 1967 and on 18 March he
visited the Park Place Gallery for a concert of Reich’s music performed by
the composer and Arthur Murphy, both Juilliard acquaintances, along with
Jon Gibson, Tenney and Corner. Reich and Glass began analysing one
another’s works, while performing in each other's ensembles (Reich in that
of Glass until May 1970, Glass less frequently in Reich’s until 1971).
Glass’s works in 1967 progress from Strung Out, Music in the Shape of a
Square and In Again Out Again to the fully-fledged additive process of One
Plus One (originally 1+1), written when he began lessons with Alla Rakha,
Shankar’s long-time tabla accompanist, who was living in New York. It is
here rather than in Paris that the Indian influence comes to the fore.
Interestingly, One Plus One (possibly because of its unusual scoring of
hands rapping on a table-top with a microphone attachment) was the only
one of these pieces not played in the first public performances of Glass’s
new music in 1968 – at Queens College (13 April), at the New School (9
May, Strung Out only), and at the Filmmakers’ Cinemathèque (19 May),
which Glass considers to be his début. There Dorothy Pixley-Rothschild,
Glass and Gibson were the respective soloists in Strung Out, How Now
and Gradus (originally entitled /\ for Jon Gibson, indicating the direction of
the soprano saxophone’s melodic line). Glass formed a flute duo with
Gibson in Music in the Shape of a Square, and a keyboard duo with Reich
in In Again Out Again.
Glass, Philip
3. The Philip Glass Ensemble.
Throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s Glass developed a wholly
distinctive ensemble style of highly amplified, diatonic, additive and
subtractive cycles in mechanical rhythms and intially in simple unison – a
music more evocative of rock than any classical Western style, much less
the serialism and late modernism of the period. In the process the Philip
Glass Ensemble was established: Gibson was joined in the wind section by
Dickie Landry, Richard Peck, Jack Kripl and Richard Prado; later keyboard
players included Steve Chambers and Michael Riesman, who was also to
conduct many of Glass’s works. The amplified keyboard and woodwind
instruments that formed the core of the ensemble were occasionally
supplemented for specific pieces by voices (e.g. sopranos Iris Hiskey and
Dora Ohrenstein), and the occasional string player (e.g. cellist Beverly
Lauridsen and violinist Barbara Benary). Kurt Munkacsi, the sound
engineer who had worked in recording sessions with John Lennon, joined
the ensemble in 1970 and helped in Glass’s first recordings on the
Chatham Square label which began the following year.
Glass reached full maturity as a composer at this time, and his period of
minimalism proper includes works entitled with similarly minimal directness:
Two Pages (originally Two Pages for Steve Reich), Music in Contrary
Motion, Music in Fifths, Music in Similar Motion, Music in Eight Parts,
Music for Voices, Music with Changing Parts and Music in Twelve Parts.
Other works from these years have subsequently been considered
experimental ephemera and withdrawn, e.g. 6oo Lines, comprising a score
projected for the players on film slides, and Long Beach Island, Word
Location, 32 speakers with tape-loops of the word ‘is’ in an outdoor
installation by the sculptor Richard Serra.
Apart from four more works for Mabou Mines, until the late 1970s Glass
wrote exclusively for his own ensemble – for the simple reason that no
other group would (or perhaps could) play his work. Initially, then, it was
crucial for him to maintain the ensemble as his only public voice; later,
when others took an interest, he resisted releasing performance rights in
order to ensure that the ensemble would remain employed on international
tours. Performances at this time were held in New York ‘lofts’ (Glass’s in
Greenwich Village, sculptor Donald Judd’s in SoHo), private art galleries
(those of Leo Castelli and Paula Cooper) and museums (the Guggenheim
and the Whitney). At the Whitney both Glass and Reich appeared as part
of a 1969 multimedia exhibition called ‘Anti-Illusion: Materials/Procedures’.
The post-minimalist process art of melting blocks of ice (Rafael Ferrer) and
films of dripping water (Michael Snow) was complemented by the ‘process
music’ of Glass’s additive cycles and Reich’s self-propelled phasing and
feedback pieces. Significantly, Glass’s compositions, adumbrating his later
multimedia work, were played during short films of hands by Serra, for
whom he worked as a studio assistant when not surviving as a plumber or
taxi-driver, or touring with his ensemble in the USA, Canada and Europe.
The places in which they performed remained unconventional, including
concerts at the nightclub and restaurant Max’s Kansas City and in public
parks in each of the five boroughs of New York. The first traditional concert
hall to include Glass’s music was New York's Town Hall, which Glass
himself hired in 1974 to put on the complete Music in Twelve Parts,
composed in sections over more than three years. The ‘twelve parts’ of the
title had originally referred simply to the vertical texture, but Glass decided
to extend the work from one to twelve sections (and over four hours). The
work marks the culmination of Glass’s minimalism, which, taken as a
whole, may be seen to have moved progressively in the direction of greater
vertical complexity – from unison through parallel intervals and multiple
parts to the functional harmony in the conclusion of Music in Twelve Parts.
In its embrace of functional harmony, it marks a transition into what
Rockwell has termed the ‘maximalism’ of his work from Einstein on the
Beach onwards. Even more than other minimalist composers, Glass
collaborated extensively with downtown visual and theatrical artists during
this period of artistic cross-pollination.
Glass, Philip
4. Dramatic works.
Einstein on the Beach, which brought Glass immediate fame after its
American première at the Metropolitan Opera on 21 November 1976, was
a collaboration with Robert Wilson, whose mixed-media work has been
variously termed a ‘theatre of visions’ or ‘theatre of images’, combining
media in a non-sequential manner more reminiscent of dream than the
conventional linear narrative of opera. In place of plot there is a series of
dramatized icons drawn from Einstein’s life (such as his violin) and work
(such as the trains of the theory of relativity) and their implications (such as
a trial, a spaceship). The libretto consists of solfège and numbers, originally
used to train the singers in pitch and rhythm and left unrevised, and the
sometimes evocative and often incoherent notebook jottings by
Christopher Knowles, a special-education student of Wilson, with
monologues by cast members Lucinda Childs and Samuel M. Johnson.
The opera combined some of Glass’s most propulsive music with
choreography by Andrew de Groat (Childs choreographed her own solos)
and bizarre costume, lighting and stage design in a five-hour performance
which the audience was invited to exit and re-enter at will.
Einstein in good part determined the direction of Glass’s subsequent
career: he has primarily become a composer of music for the theatre, film
and dance rather than for the concert hall. Interestingly, Glass has
commented that he ‘was able to condense the music’ (Glass, 1987, p.56)
for the first recording of Einstein (Tomato, TOM-4-2901, 1979), cutting the
first Trial scene from 40 to 20 minutes. That he was able to do this (the
number of clearly specified cellular repetitions in earlier works
notwithstanding) may suggest the somewhat arbitrary nature of a musical
exfoliation dictated more by process than by theme. It may also suggest
that although Glass’s style of ‘repetitive music’ is essentially formalist, it
may be inherently ancillary (multimedia aside, early minimalism – not only
that of Glass – was often put to use as a ‘trance’ accompaniment to
meditation or the taking of drugs). Glass himself has played down his
success by attributing it to good work habits and to his being the ‘theatre
composer’ among his contemporaries.
His next two large-scale dramatic works, Satyagraha (1980) and Akhnaten
(1984), form along with Einstein an unpremeditated trilogy of ‘character
operas’, a category Glass has used, though he has also frequently
expressed his preference for the less limiting term of ‘music theatre’.
Satyagraha is a somewhat awkward hybrid, both in terms of its
orchestration – an orchestral translation of the Philip Glass Ensemble –
and in its conception of Gandhi, a mixture of hagiography, fairy tale and
comic book; the intermittent sublimity of the work is dwarfed by its
absurdity. Akhnaten is more successful: a study of the Egyptian pharoah
who introduced monotheism, it is much the most affecting of the three, and
also the most traditional in form and style. Glass considers it his ‘tragic’
opera, after the ‘apocalyptic’ Einstein and ‘lyrical’ Satyagraha; it also marks
his approach to more conventional instrumental forces and linear narrative
as opposed to tableaux.
Glass, Philip
5. Further collaborations.
Following Akhnaten, Glass again collaborated with Wilson, on the Cologne
and Rome section of the CIVIL warS; he also worked with other artists on
several smaller-scale operatic productions, such as The Juniper Tree, The
Fall of the House of Usher and 1000 Airplanes on the Roof (notable for
Richard Foreman’s set design). The motoric pulse of much of Glass’s
music has also attracted numerous choreographers, including Jerome
Robbins and Twyla Tharp. Glass’s music accompanies Child’s
choreography and films by Sol LeWitt in Dance, and Matthew Maguire’s
adaptation of Poe and Molissa Fenley’s dance in A Descent into the
Maelstrom. His ability to adapt his distinctive style to a remarkable range of
material has led to his scoring numerous films over the past two decades,
from the wordless, visionary cinema of Godfrey Reggio, Paul Schrader’s
experimental Mishima and Errol Morris’s intense documentary The Thin
Blue Line to Hollywood war films (Hamburger Hill) and horror films
(Candyman and its sequel). His often luminous, if self-derivative, score for
Kundun received an Oscar nomination, while The Truman Show won him a
Golden Globe. He inventively scored the 1931 Dracula for the Kronos
Quartet on its 1999 reissue.
Now a public figure, Glass was invited to compose the torch-lighting
ceremony music for the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, while in 1992, to mark
the 500th anniversary of Columbus’s landing in the Americas, the
 Metropolitan Opera commissioned him to write The Voyage. This three-act
opera on the exploratory impulse (Columbus is the focus of only the
second act) has proved to be one of his most controversial works, praised
for its daring and criticized for its vulgarity. Shortly after The Voyage, he
began what has become his finest achievement since the character
operas, in the form of another trilogy, based on Cocteau’s films Orphée, La
belle et la bête and Les enfants terribles. As with Einstein in the genre of
opera, here the notion of film music is reconceived, and new multimedia
forms invented in the process: in La belle et la bête the Cocteau script is
treated as a cinematic opera libretto to be performed by singers and the
Philip Glass Ensemble during the projection of the film, with the original
soundtrack removed. The trilogy has attracted international acclaim,
including comparison to the purity of Puccini in the Italian journal Corriere
della sera – praise unlikely to have been foreseen earlier in Glass's career.
Glass has undertaken many other varied collaborations: with pop singers
Paul Simon, David Byrne, Suzanne Vega and Laurie Anderson in the song-
cycle Songs from Liquid Days; with Allen Ginsberg in Hydrogen Jukebox;
with Ravi Shankar in Passages; with Doris Lessing on two science-fiction
operas, The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 and The Marriages
between Zones Three, Four and Five; and with Foday Musa Suso in the
music for JoAnne Akalaitis’s revival of Genet’s The Screens. He has had as
much influence on subsequent rock and film scores as on classical music;
in an interesting example of reciprocation, in 1992 Glass produced a
symphonic version of the art-rock album Low on which David Bowie and
Brian Eno, 15 years previously, had acknowledged Glass as the primary
influence. In addition to continuing frequent tours with his group, he has
worked as a duo with Jon Gibson and given solo concerts of his own piano
miniatures. This now quite extensive body of piano works displays what
has increasingly played a part in Glass’s aesthetic: lyricism achieved with
minimal resources. Though his early period of formalist minimalism (from
the mid-1960s to early 1974) remained almost without ‘affect’, his
subsequent output has grown in expressive content: from the simple
repetition of a Phrygian mode in the final aria from Satyagraha and a single
chanted word in the title music of the film Koyaanisqatsi, to a true Romantic
expansiveness, both instrumentally (e.g. Itaipu, 1989, and The Canyon)
and vocally (e.g. sections of the CIVIL warS and the Cocteau trilogy).
Glass, Philip
WORKS
dramatic and multimedia
Music for Ensemble and Two Actresses, wind sextet, 2 spkrs, 1965; Paris
Einstein on the Beach (op, 4, C. Knowles, S.M. Johnson, L. Childs), 1975–6, collab.
R. Wilson; Avignon Festival, 25 July 1976
Dance (multimedia perf., choreog. Childs), 1979; Amsterdam, 19 Oct 1979
Mad Rush (dance piece, choreog. Childs), 1979 [from org work Fourth Series, part
4, 1979]
A Madrigal Opera, 1980; Amsterdam, Carré, 25 June 1980 [orig. title Attaca (1980),
then The Panther (1981)]
Satyagraha (op, 3, C. DeJong, after the Bhagavad Gita), 1980; Rotterdam,
Netherlands Opera, 5 Sept 1980
The Photographer (music theatre, 3, Glass and R. Malasch), 1982; Amsterdam,
Netherlands Opera, 30 May 1982
Akhnaten (op, 3, Glass and others), 1983; Stuttgart, Staatsoper, 24 March 1984
Glass Pieces (ballet, choreog. J. Robbins), 1983 [from Glassworks and op
Akhnaten]; New York, Lincoln Center
the CIVIL warS ‘a tree is best measured when it is down’ (music theatre, M. di
Nascemi and Wilson), 1984, collab. Wilson; Rome, 22 March 1984; concert perf.,
Los Angeles, Nov 1984
The Juniper Tree (chbr op, prol., 2, A. Yorinks, after J.L. and W.C. Grimm), 1984,
collab. R. Moran; Cambridge, MA, American Repertory, 11 Dec 1985
A Descent into the Maelstrom (dance theatre piece, M. Maguire, after E.A. Poe,
choreog. M. Fenley), 1985; Adelaide
In the Upper Room (dance piece, choreog. T. Tharp), 1986
The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (op, 3, D. Lessing), 1986; Houston,
Grand Opera, 8 July 1988
Phaedra (ballet), 1986; Dallas [from film score Mishima, 1984]
Pink Noise (installation), 1987, collab. R. Serra; Columbus, OH, Wexner Center
The Fall of the House of Usher (chbr op, 1, Yorinks, after Poe), 1988; Cambridge,
MA, American Repertory, 18 May 1988
1000 Airplanes on the Roof (music theatre, Glass, D. Hwang and J. Serlin), 1988;
Vienna, International Airport Hangar no.3, 15 July 1988
Hydrogen Jukebox (music theatre, 2, A. Ginsberg), 1990; concert perf.,
Philadelphia, 29 April 1990; staged Charleston, SC, 26 May 1990
The White Raven (op, 5, L. Costa Gomaz), 1991; Lisbon, 26 Sept 1998
The Voyage (op, 3, Hwang), 1992; New York, Met, 12 Oct 1992
Orphée (chbr op, 2, J. Cocteau), 1993 [setting of screenplay from film Orphée, dir.
Cocteau]; Cambridge, MA, American Repertory, 14 May 1993
La belle et la bête (op, Cocteau), 1994 [setting of screenplay from film La belle et la
bête, dir. Cocteau]; Seville, Maestranza, 4 June 1994
T.S.E. (installation with perf.), 1994; Philadelphia, Annenberg Center
Witches of Venice (ballet), 1995
Les enfants terribles (dance op, Cocteau), 1996 [setting of screenplay from film Les
enfants terribles, dir. Cocteau]; Zug, Theatre Casino, 18 May 1996
The Marriages between Zones Three, Four and Five (op, 2, Lessing), 1997;
Heidelberg, Stadt, 10 May 1997
Monsters of Grace (music theatre), 1998, collab. Wilson; Los Angeles, UCLA Center
for the Performing Arts, 15 April 1998
incidental music
Play (S. Beckett), 1965; Red Horse Animation (Breuer), 1968; Music for Voices,
1970; The Lost Ones (Beckett), 1975; The Saint and the Football Player (Thibeau
and Breuer), 1975; Dressed Like an Egg (after Colette), 1977; Company (Beckett),
1983, arr. as Str Qt no.2, 1983, orchd 1983; Pages from Cold Harbor (Worsley and
Raymond), 1983; Endgame (Beckett), 1984; The Screens (J. Genet), 1990, collab.
F.M. Suso; Cymbeline (W. Shakespeare), 1991; Mysteries and What’s So Funny
(Gordon), 1991; Henry IV, Parts I and II (Shakespeare), 1992; In the Summer
House (Bowles), 1993; Woyzeck (G. Büchner), 1993
film scores
North Star, 1977 [for film Mark Di Suvero, Sculptor]; Geometry of a Circle, 1979;
Koyaanisqatsi (dir. G. Reggio), 1982; Mishima (dir. P. Schrader), 1984;
Hamburger Hill (dir. J. Irvin), 1987; Powaqqatsi (dir. Reggio), 1987; The Thin
Blue Line (dir. E. Morris), 1988; Mindwalk, 1990; A Brief History of Time (dir.
Morris), 1991; Merci la Vie (dir. B. Blier), 1991; Anima mundi (dir. Reggio), 1992;
Candyman (dir. B. Rose), 1992; Compassion in Exile, 1992; Candyman II (dir. B.
Condon), 1995; Jenipopo, 1995; The Secret Agent (dir. C. Hampton), 1995; Bent
(dir. S. Mathias), 1996; Kundun (dir. M. Scorsese), 1997; The Truman Show (dir.
P. Weir), 1998; Dracula (dir. T. Browning), 1999
vocal
Choral: Haze Gold, Spring Grass, Winter Gold (C. Sandburg), chorus, c1964;
Dreamy Kangaroo (G. Norman), c1965; Wind Song (Sandburg), SATB, 1968; Knee
Play no.3, SATB, 1976 [from op Einstein on the Beach]; Another Look at Harmony,
pt 4, SATB, org, 1977; Fourth Series, pt 1, SATB, org, 1977; the CIVIL warS (Rome
Section), S, A, T, Bar, B, SATB, orch, 1984 [from music theatre piece, 1984]; Music
from the CIVIL warS (Cologne section), opt. SATB, orch, 1984 [from music theatre
piece, 1984]; The Olympian ‘The Lighting of the Torch’, chorus, orch, 1984, arr. pf,
1984; 3 Songs (O. Paz, R. Levesque, L. Cohen), SATB, 1986; Itaipu, SATB, orch,
1988
Other vocal: Habeve Song, S, cl, bn, 1982; Vessels, S, S, Mez, T, Bar, B, kbd, 1983
[from film score Koyaanisqatsi, 1982]; Hymn to the Sun, Ct, orch, 1984 [from op
Akhnaten, 1983]; Songs from Liquid Days, 1v, insts, 1986, arr. 1v, pf: Changing
Opinion (P. Simon), Forgetting (L. Anderson), Freezing (S. Vega), Lightning (D.
Byrne), Liquid Days, pt one (Byrne), Open the Kingdom (Liquid Days, pt two)
(Byrne); Songs of Milarepa, Bar, chbr orch, 1997
instrumental
Orch: Piece for Chbr Orch, 1965; Arioso no.2, str orch, 1967; Music in Similar
Motion, chbr orch, 1981 [from works for ens, 1969]; Company, str orch, 1983 [from
Str Qt no.2, 1983]; Glass Pieces, 1983 [from ballet Glass Pieces, 1983]; Dance
from Akhnaten, 1984 [from op Akhnaten, 1984]; Music from the CIVIL warS
(Cologne section), opt. SATB, orch, 1984 [from music theatre piece, 1984]; The
Light, tone poem, 1987; Vn Conc., 1987; The Canyon, 1988; Itaipu, 1989;
Passages, chbr orch, 1990, collab. Ravi Shankar; Conc. grosso, chbr orch, 1992;
Low Symphony, 1992 [based on D. Bowie, B. Eno: Low]; Sym. no.2, 1994; Sym.
no.3, 1994; Conc. for Sax Qt and Orch, 1995; Heroes Sym., 1996 [based on Bowie,
Eno: Heroes]
Glass Ens: Music in Contary Motion, 1969; Music in Fifths, 1969; Music in Similar
Motion, 1969, orchd 1981; Music in Eight Parts, 1969; Music with Changing Parts,
1970; Music in Twelve Parts, 1971–4; Two Pages, pf, ens, 1974 [from kbd work,
1969]; Another Look at Harmony, pts 1 and 2, 1975; The Lost Ones, 1975: see
incidental music; Dance no.1, no.3 [from multimedia perf., Dance, 1979];
Glassworks, 1981: Closing, Facades, Floe, Islands, Opening, Rubric; A Descent
into the Maelstrom, 1985: see dramatic and multimedia
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt no.1, 1966; One Plus One, amp table-top, 1967; Head
On, vn, vc, pf, 1967; Music in the Shape of a Square, 2 fl, 1967; Strung Out, amp
vn, 1967; Gradus, s sax, 1968; Another Look at Harmony, pt 3 ‘Cascando’, cl, pf,
1975; Modern Love Waltz, fl, cl, 2 pf, opt. hp, opt. vib, 1977 [arr. of pf work, 1977];
Fourth Series, pt 3, cl, vn, 1979; Str Qt no.2 ‘Company’, 1983; Str Qt no.3
‘Mishima’, 1985 [from film score, 1984]; Prelude to Endgame, db, 4 timp, 1986; Str
Qt no.4 ‘Boczak’, 1989; Str Qt no.5, 1991; Melodie, sax, 1995
Kbd: In Again and Out Again, 2 pf, 1967; How Now, pf/ens, 1968; Music in Fifths, pf,
1969 [version of work for ens, 1969]; Two Pages, 4 elec kbd, 1969, rev. pf, ens,
1974; Fourth Knee Play, pf, 1977 [from op Einstein on the Beach, 1975–6]; Fourth
Series, pt 2 (Dance no.2), org, 1978; Fourth Series, pt 4, org, 1979, rev. pf as Mad
Rush, 1979, choreog. as dance piece, 1979; Olympian, pf, 1984 [from choral work
The Olympian, 1984]; Cadenza: W.A. Mozart: Pf Conc. no.21, k467, 1987;
Metamorphosis I–IV, pf, 1989; Anima mundi, 1992, pf [from film score Anima Mundi,
1992]; Tesra, pf, 1993; Etudes, pf, 1994

Principal publishers: Peters, Dunvagen (Presser)

Glass, Philip
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Moore: ‘Music: Zukofsky’, Village Voice (1 May 1969)
P.G. Davis: ‘3 Pieces by Glass Probe the Sonic Possibilities’, New York
Times (17 Jan 1970)
M. Nyman: ‘Steve Reich, Phil Glass’, MT, xcii (1971), 463–4
L. Borden: ‘The New Dialectic’, Artforum, xii/7 (1974), 44–51
F. Geysen: ‘Eigen kompositorische bevindigen in vergelijking met her werk
van de jonge amerikaanse school’, Adem, x/1 (1974), 24–30
M. Nyman: Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond (London, 1974)
D. Smith: ‘Phil Glass’, Contact, no.11 (1975), 27–33
K. Potter and D. Smith: ‘Interview with Philip Glass’, Contact, no.13
(1976), 25–30
W. Zimmerman: Desert Plants (Vancouver, 1976)
P. Gordon: ‘Philip Glass: Music of the Moment’, Painted Bride Quarterly
[Philadelphia], iv/2 (1977), 56
J. La Barbara: ‘New Music’, High Fidelity/Musical America, xxvii/11 (1977),
MA14–MA15
I. Stoianova: ‘Musique répétitive’, Musique en jeu, no.26 (1977), 64–74
M. Osterreich: ‘Music with Roots in the Aether’, PNM, xvi/1 (1977–8), 214–
18
S. Brecht: The Theatre of Visions: Robert Wilson (Frankfurt, 1978)
H. Danninger: ‘Destruktion und Heimweh: Anmerkungen zur Neuen Musik
Amerikas’, Musica, xxxii/1 (1978), 20–24
J. Lentin: ‘Interview with Phil Glass’, Le monde de musique (Paris, 1978)
A. Porter: Music of Three Seasons (New York, 1978)
K. McKenna: ‘Philip Glass: the Future is Now’, Rolling Stone (8 March
1979)
D. Bither: ‘Philip Glass: an Avant-Garde Composer for the ’80s’, Horizon,
xxiii/3 (1980), 39–43
A. Timar and M. Frasconi: ‘A Talk with Philip Glass’, Musicworks, no.13
(1980), 10–12, 20–28
R. Coe: ‘Philip Glass Breaks Through’, New York Times Magazine (25 Oct
1981)
D. Henahan: ‘The Going-Nowhere Music and Where It Came From’, New
York Times (6 Dec 1981)
T. Page: ‘Framing the River: a Minimalist Primer’, High Fidelity/Musical
America, xxxi/11 (1981), 64, 68, 117
K. Ebbeke: ‘Minimal-Music’, Schweizerische Musikzeitung, cxxii/3 (1982),
140–47
M. Kirkeby: ‘Philip Glass Alters the Shape of Classical Music’, Rolling
Stone (21 Jan 1982)
M. Lichtenfeld: ‘Minimal Music in den USA’, Musik und Bildung, xiv (1982),
140–46
G. Sandow: ‘Music: the Uses of Structure’, Village Voice (13 Jan 1982)
J. Truman: ‘New York Glass’, The Face, no.22 (1982)
P. Carles: ‘Entretien avec Philip Glass’, Jazz Magazine, no.317 (1983), 28–
9
D. Garland: ‘Philip Glass: Theatre of Glass’, Down Beat, l/12 (1983), 16–
18
R.T. Jones: ‘An Outburst of Minimalism’, High Fidelity/Musical America,
xxxiii/2 (1983), 26–7
R.T. Jones: ‘Pied Piper’, Ballet News, v/4 (1983), 22–4, 42
W. Mertens: American Minimal Music (London, 1983)
J. Rockwell: ‘The Orient, the Visual Arts, and the Evolution of Minimalism:
Philip Glass’, All-American Music (New York, 1983)
A. Kozinn: ‘Philip Glass’, Ovation, v/1 (1984–5), 12–16
W. Mellers: ‘A Minimalist Definition’, MT, cxxv (1984), 328 only
A. Porter: ‘Musical Events: a Desert Song’, New Yorker (19 Nov 1984)
G. Sandow: ‘Popular Music’, Village Voice (17 Jan 1984)
G. Sandow: ‘Other People’s Words’, Village Voice (18 Sept 1984)
M. Zwerzin: ‘The Moveable Feast: Philip Glass’, Jazz Forum, no.88
(1984), 28–9
B. Bebb: ‘Interview with Philip Glass’, L.A. Reader, viii/3 (1985)
M. Walsh: ‘Making a Joyful Noise’, Time (3 June 1985)
P. Glass: Music by Philip Glass, ed. R.T. Jones (New York, 1987)
T. Page: ‘Glass’, ON, lii/8 (1988), 8–12
T. Johnson: The Voice of New Music (New York, 1989)
E. Broad: ‘A New X? An Examination of the Aesthetic Foundations of
Minimalism’, Music Research Forum, v (1990), 51–62
E. Strickland: American Composers (Bloomington, IN, 1991)
D. Suzuki: Minimal Music (diss., U. of Southern California, 1991)
J.R. Oestreich: ‘A Persistent Voyager Lands at the Met’, New York Times
Magazine (11 Oct 1992)
K.R. Schwarz: ‘Glass Plus’, ON, lvii/4 (1992–3), 10–12
J.W. Bernard: ‘The Minimalist Aesthetic in the Plastic Arts and Music’,
PNM, xxxi/1 (1993), 86–132
C. Gagne: Soundpieces 2 (Metuchen, NJ, 1993)
E. Strickland: Minimalism: Origins (Bloomington, IN, 1993)
R. Kostelanetz, ed.: Writings on Glass: Essays, Interviews, Criticism (New
York, 1996) [incl. writings by Glass]
K.R. Schwarz: Minimalists (London, 1996)
K. Gann: American Music in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1997)
K. Potter: Four Musical Minimalists (Cambridge, 2000)

Glasschord [glass chord,

glassichord].
The name said to have been given by Benjamin Franklin to the fortepiano
à cordes de verre, a crystallophone invented by one Beyer of Paris c1785.
The instrument consisted of a series of glass bars with a three-octave
compass, variously given as c to c''', f to f''' and g to g''', laid horizontally on
a thick cloth strip and struck from above by small wooden cloth-covered
hammers controlled by a keyboard. There were no dampers. Similar
instruments were produced by other makers well into the following century,
including Chappell’s Pianino. The musical uses of the glasschord, difficult
 to specify precisely, probably involved giving the pitch to choirs and
perhaps assisting amateurs in tuning pianos in an age when they were less
stable and professional tuners less available. The term is occasionally
applied to the armonica (see Musical glasses), invented by Benjamin
Franklin in 1761.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Sachs: Real-Lexikon der Musikinstrumente (Berlin, 1913/R, enlarged
2/1964)
S. Marcuse: Musical Instruments: a Comprehensive Dictionary (New York,
1964/R)
S. Marcuse: A Survey of Musical Instruments (New York, 1975)
HOWARD SCHOTT

Glasser, Stanley
(b Johannesburg, 28 Feb 1926). South African composer. After taking a
degree in economics in South Africa he went to England in 1950 to study
music, first with Frankel and then Seiber. In 1952 Glasser won a Royal
Philharmonic Society prize, and from 1955 to 1958 read music at
Cambridge. After three years as a lecturer at Cape Town University he
returned to England in 1963; from 1969 to 1991 he was head of music at
Goldsmiths College, University of London, and was appointed to the first
chair in Music in 1989. In 1997 he was awarded an honorary DMus from
Richmond College, the American International University of London.
Glasser's output covers many different styles and genres, popular and
serious. His lighter music includes jingles for South African radio, a full-
length musical, Mr Paljas (1962), several numbers from the first African
musical King Kong (1959), for which he was also musical director, and the
first full-length South African ballet, The Square (1961). He was also the
country's first composer of electronic music in his incidental music to
Eugene O'Neill's Emperor Jones. His earliest extant pieces are neo-
classical essays, which display a characteristic fusion of traditional and
modern procedures, often with a tonally orientated use of serial technique.
Several of his later works incorporate both the techniques of Western
popular music and of African folk music, the latter reflecting Glasser's
activity as an ethnomusicologist who has worked with the Pedi and Xhosa
people of the northern Transvaal and Transkei. In The Chameleon and the
Lizard (1970), based on a South African legend about the origin of death,
the style is mostly direct and uncomplicated, and a strong element of music
theatre is involved. Zonkizizwe (‘All the People’), an ebullient cantata sung
in English, Zulu and Afrikaans, is reminiscent of Walton and Bernstein in its
rhythmic verve and melodic appeal. Glasser is the author of The A–Z of
Classical Music (London, 1994).
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Emperor Jones (E. O'Neill), tape, 1959; The Square (ballet, 2), orch, jazz
ens, 1961; Mr Paljas (musical), 1962; The Gift (comic chbr op, 1, R. Duncan), 1976;
Ezra (biblical drama, E. Ingles), 1996; incid music
Orch: Lament, 1984; Beat Music, 1986; Pf Conc., 1993; Lament for a Warrior, sym.
wind band, 1997; Noon, 1997; Dance Arena, 1998
Vocal: 4 Simple Songs (A. Wood), Bar, pf, 1956; The Chameleon and the Lizard (L.
Nkosi), SATB, chbr orch, 1970; Lalela Zulu (Nkosi), 2 Ct, T, 2 Bar, B, 1977; The
Navigators (Wood), Bar, gui, 1980; Exile (Wood), T, hpd, 1981; Memories of Love
(F. Dobbins), Ct, archlute, 1983; Praises (Wood, after Shona poetry), SATB, pf duet,
1983; The Ward (Duncan), Mez, 4 ob, 2 eng hn, 2 bn, 1983; Lamentations (Bible), 2
Ct, T, 2 Bar, B, 1988–94; Zonkizizwe [All the People] (Glasser), SATB, 21 ww, perc,
pf, b gui, 1991; Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis, 1995; The Baboon and the Crocodile,
2 spkrs, trebles, SSA, chbr orch, 1996; Songs of a Woman (A. Ambert), Mez, va,
1998; Zulu Proverbs (Nyembezi), T, Ba, B, 1998; A Greenwich Sym., chorus, orch,
1999; folksong arrs.
Chbr and solo inst: 4 Inventions, vn, va, 1954; 3 Pieces, pf, 1955; Trio, 2 tpt, trbn,
1957; 3 Dances, trbn qt, 1961; Jabula, fl, 1971; Serenade, pf, fl + pic, ob, cl + t sax,
hn, 2 tpt, trbn, elec gui, synth, perc, db, 1974; Nuances, fl, hn, elec gui, 1977; Arbor,
gui, 1982; Bric-à-brac, sets 1–8, pf, 1985–97; From out of my BL Mini, 2 vc, pf,
1986; An Affair, pf trio, 1987; Week-End Music, sax qt, 1987; Funky Buzz, pf qt,
1997

Principal publishers: Woza Music, Piers Press, Griffiths

ARNOLD WHITTALL/MALCOLM MILLER

Glass harmonica.
See Musical glasses.

Glaucus [Glaukos] of Rhegium

(fl Rhegium [now Reggio Calabria], c400 bce). Greek writer from the south-
west coast of Italy. He was the author of a treatise (now lost) On the
Ancient Poets and Musicians, a major source for portions of the Pseudo-
Plutarch On Music. The musical writings of the philosopher known as
Heraclides Ponticus may have been an intermediary source. Pseudo-
Plutarch mentioned the author, title and contents of this treatise in On
Music (1132e, 1133f, 1134d–f); at least a portion of the material on
Terpander's supposed debt to Homer and Orpheus (1132f) and concerning
Clonas and Archilochus (1133a) may also derive from Glaucus.
Glaucus's work apparently showed a practical concern with compositions
and composer-poets; the latter he attempted to arrange in a sequence
based on the line of succession from master to pupil. His familiarity with
technical details recalls the expertise of Damon, his contemporary, and
foreshadows that of Aristoxenus. Conjectures that he, like Aristoxenus,
came from a family of musicians and was himself a professional have no
support except his stress on the prior development of aulos playing and
singing to aulos accompaniment. To be sure, this emphasis is strikingly
evident. It provides a welcome counterbalance to the usual concentration
on the kithara; moreover, it came at a time when the aulos had few
champions but many attackers, among them Aristophanes. The influence
Glaucus exercised was probably more extensive than the available
evidence would suggest.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Jacoby: ‘Glaukos (36)’, Paulys Real-Encyclopädie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft, vii/1 (Stuttgart, 1910), 1417–20
B. Einarson and P.H. De Lacy, ed. and trans.: Plutarch's Moralia, xiv
(London and Cambridge, MA, 1967), 363ff
A. Barker, ed.: ‘The Plutarchian Treatise On Music’, Greek Musical
Writings, i: The Musician and his Art (Cambridge, 1984), 205–57
WARREN ANDERSON/THOMAS J. MATHIESEN

Glaus, Daniel
(b Berne, 16 July 1957). Swiss composer and organist. He trained as a
primary school teacher and then studied music at Berne Conservatory with
Theo Hirsbrunner (theory diploma, 1980) and Heinrich Gurtner (diploma as
organ soloist, 1983), and he also studied conducting with Paul Theissen.
From 1981 he studied composition with Klaus Huber at Freiburg and
continued his organ studies in Paris with Gaston Litaize and Daniel Roth.
Glaus is a church musician in the widest sense of the word: he is organist
at the municipal church of Biel, where he is also concerned with organ
building, he teaches at the conservatories of Biel (organ) and Zürich (music
theory and contemporary music), and he also writes compositions which
attract much attention both within and beyond the field of church music. His
works, which lay great emphasis on the human voice, are mainly on
religious subjects, even when purely instrumental, and show both a
particular liking for mystical traditions (such as those of Swedenborg and
Eckhart) and an obvious sense of political commitment. While in his earlier
compositions Glaus tended to set different stylistic layers against each
other, since the mid-1980s his works have shown progressive thinning of
the tonal material, with the aim of making it possible to experience time and
space in new ways. He has several times worked in collaboration with the
Biel pastor and writer Andreas Urweider.
WORKS
(selective list)

Chbr ops: Zerstreute Wege (H.G. Nägeli), 1981–3; Die hellen Nächte (A. Urweider),
1987–97
Choral: Hüllen des Abgrunds (orat, Bible), 1986–7; Sunt lacrimae rerum (orat, K.
Marti, A. Muschg, D. Sölle), 1988–9; Teschuvah, 16 vv, 1989; De angelis II
(Urweider, R.M. Rilke), 1990–91; De angelis IV, motets and songs for Good Friday,
1992; Komposition zu Meister Eckhart, 1994–5; Das Schweigen verflochten im
Haar (cant., Urweider), 1995–6; Omnia tempus habent (cant.), 1996
Orch: Traum, 1987–9; Florestan und Eusebius, 1981; Meteorsteine, 1987; De
angelis V, 2 org, orch, 1993
Other works: Str Qt, 1980; Kirchen(-Raum) Musik, A, spkr, vn, 2 org, 1981; Stille,
vn, 1982; Triologie I, org, 1983; Trilogie II, 2 org, hpd, 1983; Trilogie III, hpd, fl, clav,
1983–4; Il y a une autre espèce de cadence, vn, 1984; Toccata per Girolamo ( ...
per Claude), pf, 1985; Toccatacet, org, 1986; Zieh’ einen Kreis aus Gedanken, v, 13
str, tape, 1986; Str Qt, 1986–7; In hora mortis, vn, vc, pf, 1987–93; Chammawet
ahawah (cant., Bible), 1988–9; De angelis I, org, 1990; De angelis III, fl, org, 1991;
Str Qt, 1992–4; Kulla, Bar, 11 str, 1992–8; De angelis V, 2 org, cl, 3 insts, 1993;
Lied, septet, 1997–8; Tastendes Leuchten, pf 4 hands, 1998; Pasa Calle, fl, 1998

Principal publisher: Müller & Schade

BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Nyffeler: ‘Zur Kammeroper “Zerstreute Wege” von Daniel Glaus’,
Dissonanz, no.11 (1987), 12–14
R. Brotbeck: ‘Gott im Kindbett wie eine Frau: “Komposition zu Meister
Eckhart”: von Daniel Glaus’, Dissonanz, no.47 (1996), 31–2
T. Hirsbrunner: ‘Daniel Glaus – ein Porträt’, Dissonanz, no.49 (1996), 11–
15
PATRICK MÜLLER

Glazunov, Aleksandr
Konstantinovich
(b St Petersburg, 29 July/10 Aug 1865; d Paris, 21 March 1936). Russian
composer. His father was a book publisher, his mother a pianist. Gifted with
an exceptional ear and musical memory, he began to study the piano at the
age of nine and to compose at the age of 11; his first teacher was
Ėlenkovsky. In 1879 he met Balakirev, who recommended Rimsky-
Korsakov as a private composition teacher. These studies lasted less than
two years as the pupil progressed ‘not from day to day but from hour to
hour’, in Rimsky-Korsakov's words. A lifelong friendship developed
between teacher and student, despite the difference in age. When he was
16 Glazunov completed his First Symphony, which was given a successful
première on 29 March 1882 under Balakirev's direction. In November of the
same year Glazunov's First String Quartet was performed. His precocious
talent aroused the interest of the art patron Mitrofan Belyayev, who devoted
his immense fortune to furthering the career of Glazunov and the younger
generation of Russian composers. In 1885 Belyayev organized the
Russian Symphony Concerts in St Petersburg and a music publishing
house in Leipzig. The ‘Belyayev Circle’, as it became known, assembled
every Friday in the palatial home of the patron, and Glazunov, despite his
youth, became a prominent member, with Rimsky-Korsakov, Lyadov, Vītols,
Blumenfeld, V.V. Ėval'd and others. In a way, the Belyayev Circle continued
from where The Five had left off, but with an important difference: by the
1880s, the battle for a national Russian school had been won; the
Belyayev Circle consolidated the gains and effected a rapprochement with
the West. As Rimsky-Korsakov said: ‘The Balakirev circle represented a
period of battle and pressure on behalf of the development of Russian
music’.
In 1884 Belyayev took Glazunov on a trip to western Europe; they met Liszt
in Weimar, where Glazunov’s First Symphony was performed. After
Borodin's sudden death in 1887, Glazunov (together with Rimsky-
Korsakov) became deeply involved in completing and revising the
unfinished works left by him. Glazunov's exceptional memory enabled him
to write down the overture to Prince Igor as he had heard it played by the
composer on the piano; he also completed Act 3 after extant sketches and
orchestrated the incomplete Third Symphony. In 1888 Glazunov made his
début in orchestral conducting, an art which he loved but never fully
mastered. The following year he conducted his Second Symphony in Paris
at the World Exhibition. Although he enjoyed international acclaim, he
experienced a creative crisis in 1890–91, yet soon emerged to a new
maturity; during the 1890s he completed three symphonies, two string
quartets, and the successful ballet Raymonda (1896–7). In 1899 he was
appointed professor at the St Petersburg Conservatory, with which he
remained connected for some 30 years. During the revolutionary year 1905
he resigned on 4 April in protest at the dismissal of Rimsky-Korsakov, who
was in sympathy with the striking students. On 14 December Glazunov
agreed to return after most of the demands of the liberal-minded professors
had been met. Two days later he was elected director of the conservatory,
a post he kept until 1930, although he had left for western Europe in 1928.
During his long tenure he worked ceaselessly to improve the curriculum,
raise the standards of staff and students, and defend the dignity and
autonomy of the conservatory. Among his innovations were an opera studio
and a students' philharmonic orchestra. He showed paternal concern for
the welfare of needy students (for example, Shostakovich). At the end of
each academic year he personally examined hundreds of students and
wrote brief comments on each. After the October Revolution of 1917 he
established a sound working relationship with the new regime, especially
with Lunacharsky, the minister of education; because of Glazunov's
immense prestige, the conservatory received special status among
institutions of higher learning. Yet there were attacks on him from within the
conservatory: the teaching staff demanded more progressive methods, the
students greater rights. He viewed with a sense of pain the tide of
innovation and its destructive tendencies, and was deeply affected by the
unjust way in which the classical heritage was being treated. Tired of the
controversy, he welcomed the opportunity to go abroad in 1928; some
bitterness is evident in his letters to Steinberg, who directed the
conservatory in his absence.
At the time Glazunov was elected director of the conservatory (1905), he
was at the height of his creative powers. His best works date from that
period, among them the Violin Concerto and Eighth Symphony. This was
also the time of the greatest international acclaim: he went abroad in 1907,
conducted the last of the Russian Historical Concerts in Paris on 17 May
and received the honorary DMus from the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. While in London he spent a considerable time at the Royal
Academy of Music and the Royal College of Music, studying their curricula.
In the meantime, there were cycles of all-Glazunov concerts given in St
Petersburg and Moscow in celebration of his 25th anniversary as a
composer. But the time and energy he spent on revitalizing the St
Petersburg Conservatory took their toll: there was a decided decline of
creative productivity in the succeeding years. He left his Ninth Symphony
unfinished (the first movement was written in piano score in 1910), and
only his First Piano Concerto (1910–11, although conceived earlier) reflects
his former mastery, while the Second Concerto (1917) shows an autumnal
decline. He composed his Sixth String Quartet (1921) specially for a young
and highly talented group which called itself the ‘Glazunov Quartet’; this
ensemble toured Europe in the 1920s with immense success.
 Like all Russians, Glazunov suffered much deprivation during World War I
and the ensuing civil war years. Despite all hardships he remained active:
he conducted concerts in factories, clubs and Red Army posts, participated
in organizational work (with the All-Russian Union of Professional
Musicians and the Leningrad PO) and was named People's Artist of the
Republic in 1922 (in honour of his 40th anniversary as a composer). He
played a prominent role in the Russian observation of Beethoven's
centenary in 1927 as both speaker and conductor. On 15 June 1928 he left
for Vienna to represent the USSR at the Schubert centenary celebrations;
he extended his leave of absence several times to remain abroad, although
he kept in close touch with events in Leningrad, showing much concern for
the conservatory. On 19 December 1928 he conducted an evening of his
works in Paris; during the years 1929–31 he conducted in Portugal, Spain,
France, England, Czechoslovakia, Poland, the Netherlands and the USA.
In 1932 his health deteriorated and he settled in Paris with his wife Ol'ga
Gavrilova and adopted daughter Yelena Gavrilova, a pianist. (Under the
name of Yelena Glazunov, she appeared frequently as soloist in his piano
concertos with him conducting.) Although he now composed little, some of
his last works show professional polish, as, for example, the Saxophone
Concerto op.109 (1934). His last thoughts turned to his former teacher and
friend Rimsky-Korsakov, who had died in 1908: he wrote some
recollections about him and accepted membership in a Soviet-sponsored
committee to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Rimsky-Korsakov's
death. On 14 October 1972 Glazunov's remains were transferred to
Leningrad and reinterred in an honoured grave. A research institute
devoted to him was established in Munich and a Glazunov archive is
maintained in Paris.
Within Russian music, Glazunov has a significant place because he
succeeded in reconciling Russianism and Europeanism. He was the direct
heir of Balakirev's nationalism but tended more towards Borodin's epic
grandeur. At the same time he absorbed Rimsky-Korsakov's orchestral
virtuosity, the lyricism of Tchaikovsky and the contrapuntal skill of Taneyev.
There was a streak of academicism in Glazunov which at times
overpowered his inspiration, an eclecticism which lacks the ultimate stamp
of originality. The younger composers (Prokofiev, Shostakovich)
abandoned him as old-fashioned. But he remains a composer of imposing
stature and a stabilizing influence in a time of transition and turmoil.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BORIS SCHWARZ
Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich
WORKS
orchestral
symphonies and concertos
Syms.: no.1 ‘Slavyanskaya’, E, op.5, 1881–2, rev. 1885, 1929; no.2, f , op.16, 1886;
no.3, D, op.33, 1890; no.4, E , op.48, 1893; no.5, B , op.55, 1895; no.6, c, op.58,
1896; no.7 ‘Pastoral'naya’, F, op.77, 1902; no.8, E , op.83, 1906; no.9, D, 1 movt,
1910, orchd G. Yudin
Concs.: Vn Conc., a, op.82, 1904; Pf Conc. no.1, f, op.92, 1910–11; Pf Conc. no.2,
B, op.100, 1917; Conc. ballata, C, op.108, vc, orch, 1931; Conc., E , op.109, a sax,
str, 1934
other works
Ov. no.1 on 3 Gk. Themes, g, op.3, 1882; Ov. no.2 on Gk. Themes, D, op.6, 1883;
Serenade no.1, A, op.7, 1883; Pamyati geroya [To the Memory of a Hero], c –D ,
elegy, op.8, 1885; Suite caractéristique, D, op.9, 1884–7; Serenade no.2, F, op.11,
small orch, 1884; Poème lyrique, D , op.12, 1884–7; Stenka Razin, b, sym. poem,
op.13, 1885; 2 Pieces, op.14, 1886–7: Idylle, Rêverie orientale; Mazurka, G, op.18,
1888; Les [The Forest], c , fantasy, op.19, 1887; 2 morceaux, op.20, vc, orch,
1887–8: Mélodie, Sérénade espagnole
Svadebnoye shestviye [Wedding Procession], E , op.21, 1889; Slavyanskiy
prazdnik [Slav Holiday], G, essay, op.26a, 1888 [after Str Qt, op.26: finale]; More
[The Sea], E, fantasy, op.28, 1889; Rhapsodie orientale, G, op.29, 1889; Kreml'
[The Kremlin], C–E , sym. picture, op.30, 1890; Vesna [Spring], D, musical picture,
op.34, 1891; Triumphal March, E , op.40, orch, chorus ad lib, 1892; Carnaval, F,
ov., op.45, 1892; Chopiniana, op.46, 1893; Concert Waltz no.1, D, op.47, 1893;
Cortège solennel, D, op.50, 1894
Concert Waltz no.2, F, op.51, 1894; Scènes de ballet, A, suite, op.52, 1894; Fantasy
‘Ot mraka ko svetu’ [From Darkness to Light], b–C, op.53, 1894; Allegro vivo, E ,
1895; Oriental Suite, 1895; Suite from ‘Raymonda’, op.57a, 1898; Pas de caractère,
G, op.68, 1899 [insert for Raymonda]; Romantic Intermezzo, D, op.69, 1900; Chant
du ménéstrel, op.71, vc, orch, 1900; Ouverture solennelle, op.73, 1900; Marche sur
un thème russe, E , op.76, 1901; Valse lente, F, 1901; Ballade, F, op.78, 1902
Iz srednikh vekov [From the Middle Ages], E, suite, op.79, 1902; Gadaniye i plyaska
[Fortune-telling and Dancing], A, ballet scene, op.81, 1904; Pesn' sud'bï [Song of
Destiny], d, dramatic ov., op.84, 1908; 2 préludes, op.85, 1906, 1908; Russkaya
fantaziya, A, balalaika orch, op.86, 1906; Pamyati N. Gogolya [In Memory of
Gogol'], C, sym. prologue, op.87, 1909; Fantasie finnoise, C, op.88, 1909; Petite
suite de ballet, 1910; Esquisses finnoises, E, op.89, 1912; Cortège solennel, B ,
op.91, 1910; Paraphrase sur les hymnes des nations alliées, op.96, 1914–15
Variatsii [Variations], op.97, str, 1918; Karelian Legend, a, op.99, 1916; Poème
épique, 1933–4
stage and vocal
Ballets: Raymonda, (3), op.57, 1896–7; Barïshnya-sluzhanka (Les ruses d’amour)
(1), op.61, 1898; Vremena goda [The Seasons] (1), op.67, 1899
Incid music: Introduction and Dance of Salome for ‘Salomé’ (O. Wilde), op.90, 1908;
Tsar' Iudeyskiy [The King of the Jews] (K. Romanov), op.95, 1913; Maskarad (M.Yu.
Lermontov), 1912–13
Choral: Koronatsionnaya Kantata [Coronation Cant.], op.56, 4 solo vv, chorus, orch,
1896; Festive Cant. for the 100th Anniversary of the Pavlovsk Institute, op.63, 1898;
Cant. in Memory of Pushkin's 100th Birthday, op.65, 1899; Hymn to Pushkin, op.66,
female vv, pf ad lib, 1899; Lyubov' [Love], op.94, 1907; Zdravitsa [Toast], 1903; Ėy
ukhnem [Song of the Volga Boatmen], chorus, orch, 1905; Prelyudiya-kantata k 50–
letiyu Peterburgskoy konservatorii [Prelude-Cant. for the 50th Anniversary of the St
Petersburg Conservatory], 1912; Vniz po matushke po Volge [Down Mother Volga],
1921 [from Russ. folksong]
Many songs and romances incl.: 5 romansï [5 Romances], op.4, 1882–5; 2
mélodies (A. Pushkin), op.27, 1888–90, orchd as op.27bis; 6 mélodies (Pushkin
etc.), op.59, 1898; 6 mélodies (Pushkin etc.), op.60, 1898; Ėkh tï, pesnya [Oh You,
Song], op.80, S, A, pf, 1900; Romance de Nina (Lermontov), op.102, 1916 [from
Maskarad]; other settings of Pushkin, Lermontov, A. Maykov, W. Shakespeare, H.
Heine; songs without op.no.
chamber and solo instrumental
Str qts: no.1, D, op.1, 1882; no.2, F, op.10, 1884; no.3 ‘Slavyanskiy’ [The Slavonic],
G, op.26, 1888; no.4, a, op.64, 1894; no.5, d, op.70, 1898; no.6, B , op.106, 1921;
no.7 (Hommage au passé), C, op.107, 1930
Other chbr works: 5 novelettes, op.15, str qt, 1886; Elégie, D , op.17, vc, pf, 1887;
Rêverie, D , op.24, hn, pf, 1890; Meditation, D, op.32, vn, pf, 1891; Suite, C, op.35,
str qt, 1887–91; Brass Qt ‘In modo religioso’, op.38, tpt, hn, 2 trbn, 1892; Str Qnt, A,
op.39, str qt, vc, 1891–2; Elégie, g, op.44, va, pf, 1893; Albumblatt, D , tpt, pf, 1899;
Mazurka-oberek, D, vn, pf, 1917, orchd 1917; Ėlegiya pamyati M.P. Belyayeva
[Elegy in Memory of Belyayev], op.105, str qt, 1928; Sax Qt, op.109, 1932; ww
duos, other str qnts
Pf: Suite sur le thème du nom diminutif russe ‘Sascha’, op.2, 1883; 2 morceaux,
op.22, 1889: Barcarolle, Novelette; Waltzes on the Theme ‘Sabela’, op.23, 1890;
Prélude et mazurkas, op.25, 1888; 3 études, op.31, 1891; Petite valse, op.36, 1892;
Nocturne, op.37, 1889; Grande valse de concert, op.41, 1893; 3 miniatyurï [3
Miniatures], op.42, 1893; Valse de salon, op.43, 1893; 3 morceaux, op.49, 1894; 2
Impromptus, op.54, 1895; Prélude et fugue, d, op.62, 1899; Thème et variations,
op.72, 1900; Sonata no.1, b , op.74, 1901; Sonata no.2, e, op.75, 1901; 4 Préludes
et fugues, op.101, 1918–23; Idylle, op.103, 1926; Fantaisie, op.104, 2 pf, 1920;
Preludio e Fuga, e, 1926, arr. org 1929; Fantaisie, 2 pf, 1929–30
Org: Prélude et fugue, D, op.93, 1906–7; Prélude et fugue no.2, d, op.98, 1914;
Fantaisie, 1934–5
collaborative works
Str Qt ‘B–La–F’, finale, 1886, other movts by Borodin, Lyadov, Rimsky-Korsakov;
Imeninï [Nameday], 3 essays, str qt, 1887–8, collab. Lyadov, Rimsky-Korsakov;
Fanfarï, wind, perc, 1889, collab. Cui; Shutka [Joke], quadrille, pf 4 hands, 1890,
collab. Lyadov and others; Slavleniye (Les fanfares), 1890, collab. Lyadov;
Slavleniye, pf 4 hands, 1893, collab. Blumenfeld, Lyadov; Variations on a
Russian Theme, str qt, 1898, collab. Skryabin and others
Pyatnitsï [Fridays], str qt, set 1 1898, set 2 1898–9, collab. Borodin and others;
Variations on a Russian Theme, pf, 1899, collab. Lyadov and others; Variations
on a Russian Theme, orch, 1901, collab. Lyadov and others; Cantata in Memory
of M. Antokol'sky (S. Marshak), 1903, collab. Lyadov; Minuet, pf, collab. Arensky
and others
orchestrations and arrangements
A. Arensky: Variations, op.35, str qt, orchd
A. Borodin: Prince Igor, ov. and Act 3 completed and orchd, 1888
A. Borodin: Sym. no.3, 2 movts orchd
M. Musorgsky: Tsar Saul, orchd
Orchestrations of works by Chopin, Cui, Dargomïzhsky, Liszt, Schumann,
Tchaikovsky etc.

Principal publisher: Belaieff (Leipzig)

Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich
WRITINGS
‘Moyo znakomstvo s Chaykovskim’ [My acquaintance with Tchaikovsky],
Sbornik Chaykovskiy vospominaniya i pis'ma, ii (Moscow, 1924)
‘Betkhoven kak kompozitor i mïslitel'’ [Beethoven as composer and thinker],
Pechat' i revolyutsiya (1927), no.3, pp.94–5
F. Schubert (Leningrad, 1928)
‘En souvenir du séjour de M. Glinka à Paris’, Musique (1929), no.5
‘Pamyati M.P. Belyayeva’, Sbornik pamyati M.P. Belyayeva (Paris, 1929)
‘Moy podarok I. Vitolyu’ [My present to Vītols], Mūzikas apskats (1933),
no.9
‘Vospominaniya o A. Spendiarove’ [Recollections of Spendiarian], SovM
(1939), nos.9–10, pp.11–13
Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.V. Ossovsky: Aleksandr Konstantinovich Glazunov: yego zhizn' i
tvorchestvo [Glazunov: his life and works] (St Petersburg, 1907)
V. Belyayev: Aleksandr Konstantinovich Glazunov: materialy k yego
biografii [Glazunov: extracts of his biography] (Petrograd, 1922)
I. Glebov [B. Asaf'yev]: Glazunov: opït kharakteristiki [Glazunov: an
attempt at characterization] (Leningrad, 1924)
A. Glazounov: catalogue complet des oeuvres (Leipzig, 1935) [Belaieff
publication]
G. Abraham: On Russian Music (London, 1939/R)
G. Fyodorova: A. Glazunov (Leningrad, 1947, 2/1961)
V. Vanslov: Simfonicheskoye tvorchestvo A. Glazunova [Glazunov's
symphonic works] (Moscow, 1950)
Ye. Bogatïryova: ‘Zametki o muzïkal'nom stile A.K. Glazunova’
[Observations on Glazunov's musical style], Voprosï muzïkoznaniya, i
(1953–4), 285–301
H. Günther, ed.: A. Glasunow (Bonn, 1956) [incl. source material]
M. Ganina, ed.: A. Glazunov: pis'ma, stat'i, vospominaniya [Glazunov:
letters, articles, recollections] (Moscow, 1958)
Glazunov: issledovaniya, materialï, publikatsii, pis'ma [Glazunov: research,
materials, publications, letters] (Leningrad, 1959–60)
M. Ganina: Aleksandr Konstantinovich Glazunov: zhizn'i tvorchestvo
[Glazunov: life and works] (Leningrad, 1961)
A.E. Cherbuliez: ‘A. Glasunows Kammermusik’, Musik des Ostens, iv
(1967), 45–64
B. Schwarz: Music and Musical Life in Soviet Russia 1917–1970 (London,
1972)
A.N. Kryukov: A.K. Glazunov (Moscow, 1982)
M. Mishchenko: ‘Molchan'ye krasotï’ [The silence of beauty], Muzïkal'naya
zhizn' (1990), no.22

Gleason, Frederick G(rant)

(b Middletown, CT, 17/18 Dec 1848; d Chicago, 6 Dec 1903). American
composer. He studied with Dudley Buck in Hartford, before working further
in Leipzig (1869–70), Berlin and London. He returned to Connecticut in
1875 where he began teaching, composing and performing. From 1877 he
lived in Chicago, becoming a prominent musician there, first as a teacher
at the Hershey School of Music, then in 1891 as head of the theory
department at the American Conservatory, and from 1900 as its director.
He was music critic for the Chicago Tribune, 1884–9, and editor of the
Music Review, 1891–4. He belonged to both the New York Manuscript
Society and the Chicago Manuscript Society (as its first president).
Gleason composed in nearly all genres, and wrote two operas to his own
librettos. He finished the three-act Otho Visconti in 1880, but it was not
performed in its entirety until 1907 at the College Theater, Chicago. His
second opera, Montezuma (1885), never had a complete performance; his
Auditorium Festival Ode was first given at the dedication of the Chicago
Auditorium in December 1889. Gleason also wrote two symphonic poems,
cantatas, choral music, a piano concerto and organ works. The conductor
Theodore Thomas championed Gleason's music, which is characterized by
its use of leitmotifs, full orchestrations and luxurious harmonies.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W.S.B. Mathews: A Hundred Years of Music in America (Chicago, 1889),
698
R. Hughes: Contemporary American Composers (Boston, 1900; rev.
2/1914/R by A. Elson as American Composers)
L.C. Elson: The History of American Music (New York, 1925), 195
N. LEE ORR

Gleason, Harold
(b Jefferson, OH, 26 April 1892; d La Jolla, CA, 28 June 1980). American
organist and musicologist. He studied civil engineering at the California
Institute of Technology (1910–12) and also studied music privately while
working as a church organist. In 1917 he moved to Boston, where he
studied with Lynnwood Farnam and directed the Boston Music School
Settlement. In 1918 he was organist and choirmaster of the Fifth Avenue
Presbyterian Church of New York. He then moved to Rochester, where he
became personal organist and director of music in the house of George
Eastman (the founder of Kodak), established and directed the Hochstein
School (1919–29), and played at various churches. During this period he
studied the organ with Joseph Bonnet in Paris (1920, 1922–3). In 1921
Gleason became head of the organ department at the Eastman School of
Music of the University of Rochester and served until 1953. He was also
professor of musicology and music literature and director of graduate
studies. A renowned teacher, he gradually moved into research and writing,
and in 1937 published his widely used Method of Organ Playing (1937,
8/1996). Later publications included Examples of Music before 1400
(1942), Music in America (with W.T. Marrocco, New York, 1964) and the
study guides Music Literature Outlines (1949–55). He was married to the
concert organist Catharine Crozier.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Gleason: ‘Harold Gleason, 1892–1980’, American Organist, xiv/9
(1980), 47 only
 J. Moeser: ‘Harold Gleason Interviewed’, American Organist, xv/9 (1981),
42–6
VERNON GOTWALS/CHARLES KRIGBAUM

Glebov, Igor'.
See Asaf'yev, Boris Vladimirovich.

Glebov, Yevgeny Aleksandrovich

(b Roslavl', Smolensk district, Russia, 10 Sept 1929; d 12 Jan 2000).
Belarusian composer. He graduated from the Conservatory of Belarus
(1956) having studied with Anatoly Bogatïryov. He taught musical and
theoretical disciplines at the Minsk Music School (1953–63), and from 1971
he taught composition at the Conservatory of Belarus (later the Belarusian
Academy of Music), and was appointed professor in 1983. A laureate of the
State Prize of the Belarusian SSR (1970), he was awarded the honorary
title of People’s Artist of the USSR in 1984.
Although Glebov is noted for his use of a wide range of genres, his most
significant achievements are concentrated in symphonic music and ballet
(in these spheres he occupies a leading position among Belarusian
composers). His creative development is palpably influenced by
Shostakovich and, to a lesser degree, by early Stravinsky. His symphonies
and ballets possess a dramatic and confrontational character and
demonstrate a mastery of continuous development, thematic
transformation, polyphony and brilliant orchestral colouring. The opera
Master i Margarita (‘The Master and Margarita’) and his ballets draw their
subjects from classic works of Belarusian and world literature.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Mechta [The Dream] (ballet, Ye. Romanovich), 1961; Alpiyskaya ballada
[The Alpine Ballad] (ballet, R. Cherekhovskaya, after V. Bïkov), 1966, Minsk, 1967;
Izbrannitsa [The Chosen Woman] (ballet, O. Dadishkiliani, A. Vertinsky, after Ya.
Kupala), 1969; Til' Ulenshpigel' (ballet, Dadishkiliani, after C. de Coster), 1973,
Minsk, 1974, rev. 1977 (scenario V. Yelizar'yev), Leningrad, Kirov, 1978; Kurgan
(ballet, Vertinsky, G. Mayorov, after Kupala), Minsk, 1982 [with use of music from
Izbrannitsa]; Malen'kiy prints [The Little Prince] (after A. de Saint-Exupéry), 1981,
Helsinki, 1982; Millionersha [The Millionairess] (musical comedy, O. Ivanova, after
G.B. Shaw), Moscow, 1986; Master i Margarita [The Master and Margarita] (op, Ye.
Glebov, L. Glebova, after M. Bulgakov), 1990, Minsk, 1992; Kolizey [The Coliseum]
(musical comedy, N. Matukovsky, L. Vol'sky), 1995; incid music
Choral: Zvanï [Bells] (orat, N. Altukhov, V. Orlov), 1967
6 syms.: no.1, 1958; no.2, 1963; no.3, 1964; no.4, 1968; no.5, 1985; no.6, 1v, chbr
orch, 1994
Other orch: Poėma-legenda [Poem-legend], sym. poem, after Kupala, 1955;
Vospominaniya o Tile [Memories of Till], sym. poem, 1977; Vc Conc., 1991; Vn
Conc., 1995
Principal publishers: Muzïka, Sovetskiy kompozitor

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Rakava: Yaugen Glebau (Minsk, 1971)
L. Auėrbakh: Belorusskiye kompozitory: Ye. Glebov, S. Cortes, D.
Smol'sky, I. Luchenok (Moscow, 1978), 5–106
ELENA SOLOMAKHA

Glee.
A type of unaccompanied partsong, typically for male voices though often
including female voices, which flourished in England from about 1750 until
World War I. The word is derived from the Old English gleo, meaning ‘mirth’
or ‘entertainment’. The term ‘glee’ first appeared in songbooks of the later
17th century, applied to short songs harmonized for vocal ensemble and
often intended to be accompanied by instruments. It was not until the mid-
18th century that the glee proper developed as a sizable, through-
composed partsong, designed to be sung without instrumental support,
with some sections of its words set contrapuntally.
The main inspiration behind the 18th-century glee was the English
madrigal of 1590–1630, which was being rediscovered and performed at
the time by bodies such as the Academy of Ancient Music (founded in
1710) and the Madrigal Society (founded in 1741). To a generation whose
experience of partsong was largely limited to obscene catches, the flowing
lines, sensuous textures and poetic seriousness of the Elizabethan and
Jacobean madrigal came as a revelation and a challenge.
The Noblemen and Gentlemen’s Catch Club in London gave glees
enormous encouragement from 1763 onwards by offering munificent prizes
for new partsongs (in four categories: serious glee, light glee, catch and
canon). Samuel Webbe (i), who emerged during the 1770s as England’s
most profound and versatile glee composer, won 17 Catch Club prizes for
his work; J.W. Callcott’s career as a composer was launched when he won
three of the Club’s prizes simultaneously in 1785. Another prizewinner was
the Earl of Mornington, whose Here in cool grott was judged the best light
glee in 1779. Many prizewinning glees became popular favourites for
several generations.
The glee borrowed many characteristics from the earlier madrigal: a
tendency to divide the text into small sections and to give each one a
different emotional colouring, irrespective of the poem’s metrical structure;
the inclusion of short homophonic passages where one or more voices
temporarily drop out of the ensemble to give a semichorus effect; imitative
counterpoint and close canon; and unexpected changes of metre from
duple to triple time or vice versa. On the other hand, it also had
contemporary characteristics: detailed dynamics, including sf and fp
markings; multi-sectional forms derived from Baroque and galant
instrumental music; chromatic harmony; and subject matter that reached
beyond romantic love, hunting, fairies and the progress of the seasons to
such topics as income tax (Webbe’s My pocket’s low and taxes high,
c1800), the adventures of a merchant ship in a storm (his When winds
breathe soft, c1775), and the religion of a London businessman (Callcott’s
O snatch me swift, 1790).
The most popular vocal groupings for glees in the late 18th century were
ATB, TTB and ATTB, with the alto parts sung by male falsettists;
increasingly, however, composers wrote for SATB and SSATB groupings,
requiring women to sing the soprano parts and reflecting a general social
acceptance of women into choral clubs and singing groups. Between 1795
and 1815 there was a temporary fashion for glees with instrumental
accompaniment; but this passed, and glees went forward into the 19th
century confirmed as an unaccompanied form.
The later history of the glee is well documented but incompletely
researched. The genre spread to lower social groups during the 19th
century, helped by the formation of large choral societies, the proliferation
of trained choirs in parish churches and the efforts of educationists to make
the lower classes fluent in staff and Tonic Sol-fa notation. By 1870 the
publication of glees was a highly lucrative business, in which Novello & Co.
of London tried, but failed, to corner the market. Leading composers of
glees in the 19th century (also well known for their church music) were
William Beale, William Horsley, R.L. Pearsall, J.L. Hatton, Joseph Barnby
and John Stainer; many more were written by composers whose names
are now forgotten. In about 1885 Baptie drew up a list of nearly 23,000
partsongs published in Britain since 1750 (in GB-Lbl M.R.Ref.3.a; see
Johnson, 1979), and reckoned that as many again had been composed but
had not reached print.
After 1880 composers tended to avoid the word ‘glee’ and to use the term
Partsong instead. The real end of the tradition came, however, with World
War I. In about 1920 a new type of English partsong emerged,
selfconsciously based on medieval and Renaissance models and modal
harmony, and the glee went permanently out of fashion.
A reassessment of the glee is long overdue. Its 160-year history includes a
great deal of inept, hastily written and commercial work, but the genre
deserves to be judged on its finest achievements, which give a touching
picture of the inward, private side of the English psyche at a time when
England’s main energies were turned outwards towards Empire.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1(J. Westrup [contains a list of 18th- and 19th-century pubns])
W.A. Barrett: English Glees and Part-Songs (London, 1886)
D. Baptie: Sketches of the English Glee Composers (London, 1896)
Viscount Gladstone: The Story of the Noblemen and Gentlemen’s Catch
Club (London, 1930)
P.M. Young: The Madrigal in the Romantic Era, American Choral Review,
xix/4 (1977)
P. Hillier: disc notes, The Romantic Englishman, Meridian E77002 (1978)
D. Johnson: ‘ The 18th-Century Glee’, MT, cxx (1979), 200–02
R. Doveton: disc notes, When winds breathe soft, Decca DSLO 33 (1979)
D. Johnson, ed.: Preface to Ten Georgian Glees for Four Voices (London,
1981)
P. Hillier, ed.: Preface to 300 Years of English Partsongs: Glees, Rounds,
Catches, Partsongs, 1600–1900 (London, 1983)
D. Johnson, ed.: Preface to The Scholars’ Book of Glees (London, 1985)
DAVID JOHNSON

Gleichschwebende Temperatur
(Ger.).
See Equal temperament.

Gleim, Johann Wilhelm Ludwig

(b Ermsleben, nr Halberstadt, 2 April 1719; d Halberstadt, 18 Feb 1803).
German poet. After studying law at Halle, he became a tutor at Potsdam
and then entered the service of the Prince of Brandenburg. In 1747 he
became secretary to the cathedral chapter at Halberstadt, and spent the
rest of his life there, held in deep affection by all who knew him, and
corresponding with many of his most distinguished contemporaries.
From the publication of his first verse collection, Versuch in scherzhaften
Liedern (Berlin, 1744–58), Gleim was the acknowledged leader of the
group of anacreontic poets; among those he influenced were his friends
Uz, Götz, Klopstock and Wieland. He sang the praises of wine,
comradeship, women and song, yet a moral tone is always present; the
lightness and ease of his verse held an obvious attraction for composers.
He served in the Second Silesian War, and his patriotic Kriegs- und
Siegeslieder and Preussische Kriegslieder (1758) were extremely popular;
Telemann and Schubart set some of them to music, and Mozart’s Ein
deutsches Kriegslied: ‘Ich möchte wohl der Kaiser sein’ (k539) is of that
type, though later. The anacreontic poems were still more appreciated by
composers – C.P.E. Bach, Beethoven, Haydn, Reichardt, Schubert and
Spohr all set some. Gleim is also important as the translator and adapter of
medieval German love-songs, and as the author of odes and many
occasional pieces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FriedlaenderDL
J.W.L. Gleim: Gedichte (Berlin, 1753–8); ed. J. Stenzel (Stuttgart, 1969)
W. Körte, ed.: Gleims Leben (Halberstadt, 1811)
W. Körte, ed.: J.W.L. Gleims sämmtliche Werke (Halberstadt, 1811–41/R)
K. Goedeke and others: Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen
Dichtung, iv/1 (Dresden, 1891, 3/1916/R), 40ff
E. Ermatinger: Barock und Rokoko in der deutschen Dichtung (Leipzig,
1926, 2/1928)
E. Strobelt: Die Halberstädter Anakreontik, Goeckingk und Bürger
(Leipzig, 1929)
Festschrift zur 250. Wiederkehr der Geburtstage von Johann Wilhelm
Ludwig Gleim und Magnus Gottfried Lichtwer (Halberstadt, 1969)
 PETER BRANSCOMBE

Glein, Erasmus de
(d ?Dresden, 1599). Instrumentalist and composer, active in Germany. He
played the trumpet and possibly other instruments. He was appointed a
member of the orchestra at the Saxon court chapel in Dresden in about
1568, and subsequently became its ‘instrument keeper’. His salary in 1576
was 120 guilders. According to Eitner, in 1589 he received an ‘ex gratia’
payment of 500 guilders. Glein joined three other Dresden musicians –
Scandello, Le Maistre and Wessalius – in producing Epithalamia, in
honorem … Nicolai Leopardi (Nuremberg, 156821). His contribution, the
third of the four pieces, is an imitative six-part motet in two sections,
Nicoleo Kuneganda and Ipse Deus sancto vestras. Two further six-part
motets survive in D-Dlb: Nu kom der heiden Heilandt and Resurrexi et
adhuc tecum sum. The anonymous eight-part setting of Domine probasti
me, which belongs to the introit Resurrexi and immediately follows it in the
manuscript, may also be Glein's work.
RICHARD MARLOW

Gleisman, Carl Erik

(b Stockholm, 1767; d Stockholm, 9 Dec 1804). Swedish amateur organist
and composer. He was employed as a secretary at the state fire insurance
office, but also held the post of organist at the Mariakyrka from 1792. He
was a regular guest at the Palmstedt literary circle and was notable for his
Sällskapsvisor (parlour songs), 11 of which were published in Åhlström’s
periodical collections Musikaliskt tidsfördrif (1795–8) and Skaldestycken
satte i musik (1795–8). Gleisman wrote two arias for Eremiten (1798), an
opera on a libretto after Kotzebue, to which Abbé G.J. Vogler, Johan
Wikmanson and others contributed, and he may have contributed to other
collaborative stage productions. He also composed three polonaises and a
waltz for the piano, which were published in Musikaliskt tidsfördrif (1792–
1802). His style is characterized by harmonic and melodic simplicity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T. Norlind: ‘Olof Åhlström och sällskapsvisan på Anna Maria Lenngrens
tid’, STMf, viii (1926), 1–64
C.-G. Stellan Mörner: Johan Wikmanson und die Brüder Silverstolpe
(Stockholm, 1952)
M. Tegen: ‘Den åhlströmska sångrepertoaren 1789–1810’, STMf, lxx
(1988), 49–54
C.-G. STELLAN MÖRNER/BERTIL H. VAN BOER

Gleissner, Franz
(b Neustadt, 1759; d Munich, 18 Sept 1818). German composer and
lithographer. After early training in the seminary at Amberg he moved to
Munich, where he continued studies in music and philosophy and became
a court musician. There he met Alois Senefelder, the inventor of
 lithography, initially when he was commissioned to compose some songs in
connection with Senefelder's theatrical activities. In 1796 Gleissner was
approached by Senefelder to make commercial use of his method of relief
printing from stone for the publication of music. Gleissner was the first to
see the possibilities of this and had his 12 neue Lieder produced by it the
same year. This was the beginning of a partnership that lasted over 20
years. Between 1796 and 1798 Senefelder and Gleissner printed music
from etched stones, but in 1798 or early in 1799 Senefelder developed a
chemical method of printing from stone, for which he and Gleissner were
granted a 15-year privilege on 3 September 1799 by Maximilian Joseph of
Bavaria. This was the planographic process now called lithography. An
announcement of the privilege in a Munich newspaper on 26 September
1799 was seen by Johann Anton André (see André family, (2)), and within a
month André entered into an agreement with Senefelder and Gleissner to
set up a lithographic workshop in Offenbach. Lithographical music began to
come off André’s presses early in 1800. As the first lithographer with a
knowledge of music, Gleissner probably instructed André’s music
engravers in the new process. Senefelder soon fell out with André over the
latter’s business plans, and in August 1801 he left for Vienna, where he set
up the Chemische Druckerey, eventually securing a privilege to print by
lithography in Lower Austria on 18 January 1803. Gleissner apparently ran
the Chemische Druckerey on a day-to-day basis. The press was not
successful, either technically or commercially, and produced some music
printing of very poor quality. Its output included compositions by Gleissner,
stocks of which remained unsold when Senefelder disposed of the press to
Sigmund Anton Steiner, probably in 1805 (see Haslinger). Gleissner and
Senefelder returned to Munich in October 1806 to establish a new press for
G.J. Vogler and Johann Christoph Freiherr von Aretin. Vogler soon
withdrew from the arrangement, but for some years Gleissner and
Senefelder ran the press, producing a variety of work. In October 1809
Senefelder and Gleissner were offered posts at the lithographic press of
the Bavarian cadastral office, with permission to continue running their own
press.
Gleissner was a composer of some merit, and wrote instrumental and vocal
works, many of which are among the earliest examples of lithography.
However, what remains significant today is his role in promoting the use of
lithography for music printing.

See also Printing and publishing of music.

WORKS
Sacred vocal: Lytaniae Lauretanae solennes, 1787, D-Rp; 6 Missae, op.1
(Augsburg, 1793; incl. 4 syms., 2 hn, str); Lazarus (orat), Munich, 1795, lost, cited in
FétisB; 6 Missae breviores, op.2 (Augsburg, ?1798); 3 Missae solennes, 4vv, insts,
Mbs; Christus factus est, 4vv, 3 trbn, Rp
Secular vocal: 12 neue Lieder, pf acc. (Munich 1796)
Orch: 4 syms., 2 hn, str, pubd with 6 Missae, op.1 (Augsburg, 1793); 3 syms., no.1,
C (Munich, 1798), no.2 (Offenbach, n.d.), op.15 (Vienna, n.d.)
Ens: 30 fl duos, 6 as op.12 (Vienna, 1801), 24 pubd (Offenbach, n.d.); 3 sonatas, pf,
vn, acc., op.6 (Vienna, 1803); 6 minuets, 2 vn, b, opt. wind insts (Vienna, 1803); 6
pièces d'harmonie (Offenbach, n.d.); Qt, fl, vn, va, b, op.38 (Leipzig, n.d.); Str Qt,
op.13 (Vienna, n.d.); 24 duos faciles, hn/tpt (Munich, n.d.); 2 oeuvres de sonates,
pf, vn (Vienna, n.d.); 20 variations sur un thème de Msr. Haydn, fl, op.14 (Vienna,
n.d.); 8 variations sur un thème connu de l'opéra Faniska, fl (Vienna, n.d.)
Pf: Feldmarsch (Munich, 1796); other works
Stage works (according to FétisB) incl. Der Frachtbrief (operetta), Agnes Bernauerin
(melodrama), Paul et Virginie (ballet)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
A. Senefelder: Vollständiges Lehrbuch der Steindruckerey (Munich,
1818/R, 2/1821; Eng. trans., 1911, as The Invention of Lithography)
C. Wagner: Alois Senefelder: sein Leben und Wirken (Leipzig, 1914,
2/1943)
R.A. Winkler: Die Frühzeit der deutschen Lithographie: Katalog der
Bilddrucke von 1796–1821 (Munich, 1975)
G. Vollmer: Alois Senefelder und die ‘Notenfabrique’ André (Offenbach,
1986)
H. Schwarz: Die Anfänge der Lithographie in Österreich, ed. E. Herrmann-
Fichtenau (Vienna, 1988)
M. Twyman: Early Lithographed Music (London, 1996)
VINCENT DUCKLES/MICHAEL TWYMAN

Glen.
Scottish family of makers of bagpipes and other musical instruments and
publishers of bagpipe music.
Thomas Macbean Glen (b Inverkeithing, Fife, 4 May 1804; d Edinburgh, 12
July 1873) established an instrument making firm at 250 Cowgate,
Edinburgh, in 1827. Probably the firm at first undertook various kinds of
business; it is not listed in the Edinburgh Directory specifically as a ‘pipe
and flute maker's’ until 1833. Sets of Glen's bagpipes along with other
intruments have survived and, according to Baptie, he invented the
wooden ophicleide (serpentcleide). He retired in 1867 and the business
was continued as J. & R. Glen by his sons, John Glen (b Edinburgh, 13
June 1833; d Edinburgh, 29 Nov 1904) and Robert Glen (b Edinburgh, 13
Jan 1835; d Edinburgh, 21 Oct 1911). Both sons were distinguished
musical scholars. John Glen formed a collection of old Scottish printed
music books which was acquired at his death by Lady Dorothea Ruggles-
Brise, and passed in 1927 to the National Library of Scotland. Robert Glen
made an important collection of historic musical instruments which was
drawn upon for several major exhibitions; most of the collection is now held
by museums in Edinburgh and Glasgow.
In 1911 the firm of J. & R. Glen moved to premises at 497 Lawnmarket,
Edinburgh, and was thereafter managed by Thomas Glen (b Edinburgh, 5
Aug 1867; d Edinburgh, 21 Aug 1951), son of John Glen, then by Andrew
M. Ross (1891–1979) and his son Andrew J. Ross (b Edinburgh, 1930; d
Edinburgh, 1980), relatives by marriage of the Glens. The firm passed out
of the family's hands in 1978, the premises and name being used for a
further four years by an unrelated proprietor. Archival documents from the
firm survive in the National Library of Scotland and the Edinburgh
University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments.
A separate firm was established in 1833 by Alexander Glen (i) (b
Inverkeithing, 19 Aug 1801; d Edinburgh, 14 March 1873), brother of T.M.
Glen; by 1844 Alexander was known for his skill in bagpipe making. This
firm occupied various premises in Edinburgh. His son David Glen (i) (b
Edinburgh, 3 April 1853; d Edinburgh, 25 June 1916) joined the firm in
about 1869, and continued it in his own name from 1873 (at its final
address, 8 Greenside Place). In 1911 Alexander Glen (ii) (b Edinburgh, 31
Dec 1877; d Edinburgh, 4 Feb 1951) and David Glen (ii) (b Edinburgh, 1
Dec 1883; d Brora, 5 April 1958), sons of David Glen (i), became partners
in the firm, which continued as David Glen & Sons until 1949, when it was
acquired by J. & R. Glen.
Several members of the family published tutors for the bagpipe and
collections of bagpipe tunes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Glen: ‘Notes on the Musical Instruments of Scotland’, Proceedings of
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, xiv (1879–80), 114–25
D. Baptie: Musical Scotland, Past and Present (Paisley, 1894/R)
J. Glen: Early Scottish Melodies (Edinburgh, 1900/R)
R.D. Cannon: ‘The Glen Family’, Piping Times, xxi/1 (1969), 7–9
F. Collinson: The Bagpipe (London, 1975)
R.D. Cannon: A. Bibliography of Bagpipe Music (Edinburgh, 1980)
H. Cheape: ‘The Making of Bagpipes in Scotland’, From the Stone Age to
the ‘Forty-Five’: Studies Presented to R.B.K. Stevenson, ed. A.
O'Connor and D.V. Clarke (Edinburgh, 1983), 596–615
A. Myers, ed.: The Glen Account Book, 1838–1853 (Edinburgh, 1985)
A. Myers: ‘The Glen and Ross Collections of Musical Instruments’, GSJ,
xxxviii (1985), 4–8 [plate 1]
R.D. Cannon: The Highland Bagpipe and its Music (Edinburgh, 1988)
W. and E.Glen: The Glen Descendants of George Glen (1724–1804)
(Bonshaw, PE, 1990)
DAVID JOHNSON/ARNOLD MYERS

Glennie, Evelyn
(b Aberdeen, 19 July 1965). Scottish percussionist. Profoundly deaf since
early childhood, she studied timpani and percussion from the age of 12,
and in 1982 entered the RAM. After winning the Shell/LSO Award in 1984
she embarked on a glittering international career. Her versatility and
virtuosity have gained her an unusually diverse audience, and many
composers have written works for her, including James MacMillan (whose
concerto Veni, veni Emmanuel she first performed at the 1992 Proms),
Dominic Muldowney, John McLeod, Richard Rodney Bennett and Thea
Musgrave. She has also made numerous recordings, several of which
have won awards. Glennie tours regularly throughout the world, and gives
an annual series of concerts and masterclasses in North America.
Fascinated by non-Western musical cultures, she has given recitals and
 workshops in Japan and India, and in 1994 performed with a leading
gamelan orchestra in Indonesia. Her solo concerts are distinguished not
only by her dazzling playing skills but also by her imaginative
programming. Glennie has written music for television, films and
documentaries, and founded the Evelyn Glennie Percussion Composition
Award in 1991 to encourage the creation of new works for percussion. She
has received honorary doctorates from several academic institutions, and
was created an OBE in 1993. Her autobiography, Good Vibrations, was
published in London in 1990.
JAMES HOLLAND

Gletle, Johann Melchior

(b Bremgarten, nr Zürich, July 1626; d Augsburg, ?2 Sept 1683). Swiss
composer and organist. He was organist of Augsburg Cathedral from 1651
and Kapellmeister from April 1654; he held both positions until his death.
After 1670 his poor health greatly restricted his activities.
There are 219 extant compositions by Gletle. All the sacred music is in the
Italian-influenced concertato style common to Austria, southern Germany
and Switzerland in the 17th century. According to Schanzlin, the motets
contain elements found both in sacred concertos such as those of Schütz
and in the church cantatas of the end of the century. There is no clear
separation between aria and recitative, nor do the instrumental parts show
much independence. The text-setting is conscientious in all respects, but
especially with regard to expressive devices such as embellishment and
chromaticism. Gletle also shows a penchant for unusual modulations. In
both the secular and sacred works the melodies are songlike, revealing
both Italian and folk influences.
WORKS
all published in Augsburg

Edition: J.M. Gletle: Ausgewählte Kirchenmusik, ed. H.P. Schanzlin and M. Zulauf, SMd, ii
(1959) [SZ]

op.

1 Expeditionis musicae classis I: Motettae sacrae concertatae XXXVI, 2–8vv, 18

with insts, bc (org) (1667); 6 in SZ
2 Expeditionis musicae classis II: Psalmi, 5/5vv, 5 insts, bc (org) (1668); Mag in
SZ
3 Expeditionis musicae classis III: Missae concertatae, 5/5vv, 5 insts, bc (org)
(1670); some ptbks lost
4 Musica genialis latino-germanica, 1–5vv, theils mit 2 vn ad lib, sambt 2 Sonaten
und 36 Trombeterstücklen auff 2 Trombeten marinen (1675); 2 songs ed. in
Moser, 1 ed. M. Seiffert, in Organum, ii/19 (Leipzig, 1939), 1 song, 12 trumpet
marine duets in W. Schuh, ed.: Zwölf Kleine Duos (Zürich, 1932), 12 trumpet
marine duets in Stern, 17 trumpet marine duets in G. Keller, ed.: Heitere Duette
für 2 Altflöten in Suitenform (Wilhelmshaven, 1959)
5 Expeditionis musicae classis IV: Motettae XXXVI, 1v, 2–5 insts, bc (org) (1677);
1 ed. A. Geering Schweizer Musikbuch (Zürich, 1939); 6 in SZ
6 Expeditionis musicae classis V: Litanie B.V. Lauretanae, 15 for 5vv, chorus, 5
insts, bc (org), 16 for 1–5vv (1681); litany, 5 Marian songs in SZ
7 Musica genialis latino-germanica classis II, 2–3vv, bc (org) (1684)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Stern and W. Schuh, eds.: Schweizer Sing- und Spielmusik (Zürich,
1932–3), vi, x
H.J. Moser: Corydon, das ist Geschichte des mehrstimmigen
Generalbassliedes und des Quodlibets im deutschen Barock
(Brunswick, 1933, 2/1960)
W. Vogt: Die Messe in der Schweiz im 17. Jahrhundert (Schwarzenburg,
1940)
H. Schanzlin: Johann Melchior Gletles Motetten (Berne, 1954)
A. Layer: ‘Johann Melchior Gletles Leben und Wirken’: introduction to
SMd, ii (1959)
C. Blümel, ed.: 36 Trompeter-Stückle (Leverkusen, 1985)
F. Krautwurst: ‘Ein unbekanntes Briefautograph Johann Melchior Gletles’,
Musik in Bayern, xliii (1991), 79–85
CECIL ADKINS

Glick, Srul Irving

(b Toronto, 8 Sept 1934). Canadian composer. He studied music at the
University of Toronto and in Paris. The cantorial music performed by his
father David, who emigrated to Canada from Russia in 1924, was also a
strong influence. From 1962 to 1986 Glick worked in Toronto as a music
producer for the CBC. In 1969 he became the choir director (and in 1978
also the composer-in-residence) at Beth Tikvah Synagogue (Toronto). He
has written nearly 200 pieces of liturgical music and has received three
awards for his contributions to Jewish music. In his earliest concert works,
such as Suite Hébraïque no.1 (1961) and … i never saw another butterfly
… (1968) (a song cycle to poems by children from the Terezín
concentration camp), Glick achieves great expressive power and emotional
depth through economical means: the use of a major scale with a raised
fifth degree, for instance, or the spare but well-calculated use of dissonant
tone clusters. More recently Glick has written in an openly tonal Romantic
idiom, earning much recognition for his large-scale choral works and
chamber music. (EMC2)
WORKS
(selective list)

instrumental
Orch: Sinfonia Concertante, str, 1961; Suite Hébraïque no.1, 1961; Gathering In,
str, 1970; Ps for Orch, 1971; Symphonic Elegy, str, 1974; Vn Conc. 1976; Sonata
‘Devequt’, 1982; Divertimento, str, 1987; The Reawakening, 1991; Pf Conc., pf, str,
1992
Chbr and solo inst: Suite Hébraïque no.1, arr. cl/s sax, pf, 1963; Suite Hébraïque
no.2, cl, vn, va, vc, pf, 1969; Prayer and Dance, vc, pf, 1975; Suite Hébraïque no.3,
str qt, 1975; Suite Hébraïque no.4, a sax/cl/va, pf, 1979; Suite Hébraïque no.5, fl, cl,
vn, vc, 1980; Sonata, fl, pf, 1983; Str Qt no.1, 1984; Suite Hébraïque no.6, vn, pf,
1984; Sonata, ob/s sax, pf, 1987; Trio, fl, va, hp, 1988; Sonata, vc, pf, 1989;
Sonata, a sax, pf, 1990; Trio, vn, vc, pf, 1990; Friendship Qnt, pf, str qt, 1994; Str Qt
no.2, 1994; The Klezmer’s Wedding, cl, vn, pf, 1996; Pf Sonata, 1996
vocal
Choral: Northern Sketches (D. Clenman), SATB, vn, vc, pf, 1982; The Hour has
Come (C. Leckner), SATB, orch, 1985; Sing unto the Lord a New Song (Pss),
SATB, hp/pf/orch, 1986; Canticle of Peace (S. Glick), 1987; Songs of Creation (R.
Brin, R. Chester, L. Cohen, Glick, Pss), SATB, brass qnt, 4 perc, org, 1989;
Moments in Time (M. Waddington, A.M. Klein, J. Reaney, I. Layton, Glick), Tr
chorus, pf, 1990; In Memoriam Leonard Bernstein (Ps xxiii, Bible: Ecclesiastes,
trans. Glick, Glick: Kaddish), SATB, pf, 1993; Triumph of the Spirit (Bible: Jeremiah,
trans. Glick, Hebrew prayers, D. Clenman, R. Cook, trans. B.Z. Bokser), SATB,
orch, 1995
Solo: … i never saw another butterfly … (anon., A. Synkova, M. Kosek, H. Lowy,
Bachner, P. Fischl, P. Friedmann), Mez/A, orch/pf, 1968; 2 Landscapes (K.
Patchen), T, pf, 1973; Poet’s Life (R. Korn), S, str orch/pf, 1992; 7 Tableaux from the
Song of Songs (trans. Glick), S (vn, vc, pf)/pf, 1992

Principal publishers: Gordon V. Thompson, Jaymar, Transcontinental

ROBIN ELLIOTT

Glière [Glier], Reyngol'd

Moritsevich [Glière, Reinhold]
(b Kiev, 30 Dec 1874/11 Jan 1875; d Moscow, 23 June 1956). Russian
composer. He studied at the Moscow Conservatory until 1900 with Hřímalý
for the violin and with Taneyev, Arensky, Konyus and Ippolitov-Ivanov for
theory and composition. From 1920 to 1941 he was a professor of
composition at the conservatory, where his pupils included Davidenko,
Novikov, Rakov and other well-known Soviet composers. He also taught for
a while in Kiev; there, his pupils included Lyatoshyns'ky. He served as
chairman of the organizing committee of the USSR Composers’ Union
(1938–48). He held a doctorate in art criticism, several State Prizes (1942,
1946, 1948, 1950) and the title People’s Artist of the USSR (1938), the
RSFSR, the Uzbek SSR and the Azerbaijani SSR.
Glière was a direct heir to the Russian Romantic tradition, working
predominantly on a grand scale in the large forms (opera, ballet,
symphony, symphonic poem etc.). The most important element in his style
is expressive melody. His ballet music is marked by particular sensitivity
and beauty, colourfulness and pictorialism; the most popular of his works in
this genre are Krasnïy tsvetok (‘The Red Flower’) and Mednïy vsadnik
(‘The Bronze Horseman’). In his symphonic works he drew above all on the
Russian epic tradition, that of Borodin and Glazunov. This is especially
clear in his Third Symphony ‘Il'ya Muromets’, named after a Russian folk
hero, but all his symphonies, concertos and symphonic poems show a
monumentality of image and a brilliant aural imagination.
 His lively interest in the music of Slavonic peoples, notably the Ukrainians,
and in Eastern music led him to write stage works based on the folk culture
of the Transcaucasus and Central Asia (in this he was a pioneer).
Examples include the operas Shakh-Senem, Gyul'sara and Leyli i Mejnun,
which are at once organic offshoots of the Russian tradition and genuinely
national pieces that stimulated the development of professional music in
the eastern republics. Besides his creative work, Glière also appeared
frequently as a conductor and pianist. Many of his compositions have
entered the standard repertory, and he is considered the founder of Soviet
ballet.
WORKS
(selective list)

operas
Zemlya i nebo [Earth and Sky] (op-orat, after Byron), 1900
Shakh-Senem (3, after Azerbaijani legend), 1923; Baku, 4 May 1934
Gyul'sara (music drama), 1936, Tashkent, 24 April 1937; rev. as op, Tashkent, 25
Dec 1949, collab. T. Sadïkov
Leyli i Mejnun, 1940
Rashel' [Rachel] (after G. de Maupassant: Mademoiselle Fifi), 1942
ballets
Khrizis (ballet-pantomime), 1912
Ovechiy istochnik [Sheep’s Spring], 1922; rev. as Komediantï [The Comedians],
1930
Kleopatra (Egipetskiye nochi), 1925
Krasnïy mak [The Red Poppy], 1926–7, Moscow, 1927; rev. as Krasnïy tsvetok [The
Red Flower], 1949
Mednïy vsadnik [The Bronze Horseman] (after A.S. Pushkin), 1948–9; Leningrad
and Moscow, 1949
Taras Bul'ba (after N.V. Gogol), 1951–2
Dog' Kastilii [with music from Sheep’s Spring], 1955
orchestral
Syms.: no.1, E , op.8, 1899–1900; no.2, c, op.25, 1907–8; no.3 ‘Il'ya Muromets’,
op.42, 1909–11
Concs.: Hp Conc., op.74, 1938; Coloratura S Conc., 1943; Vc Conc., 1946; Hn
Conc., 1950; Vn Conc., 1956, completed and orchd by Lyatoshynsk'y
Sym. poems: Les Syrènes, op.33, 1908; The Zaporozhy Cossacks, op.64, 1921;
Zapovit [Testament], op.73, after Shevchenko, 1938
Ovs.: Ferganskiy prazdnik [Ferghana Fête], op.75, 1940; Druzhba narodov [The
Friendship of Peoples], op.79, 1941; Ov. on Slav Themes, 1941; For the Happiness
of the Fatherland, 1942; Twenty-five Years of the Red Army, 1943; War Ov., c1943;
Victory, 1945
Military band: Fantasy for the Festival of the Comintern, 1924; Red Army March,
1924; Heroic March for the Buryat-Mongolian ASSR, op.71, 1936; Solemn Ov. for
the 20th Anniversary of the October Revolution, op.72, 1937
other works
Vocal: Imitation of Ezekiel, nar, orch, 1919; 2 Poems, op.60, S, orch, 1924;
Zazdravnaya [A Toast], 1v, orch, c1939; many songs with pf
Chbr: Str Sextet, op.1, 1900; Str Qt no.1, op.2, 1900; Str Octet, op.5, 1900; Str
Sextet, op.7, 1902; Str Qt no.2, op.20, 1905; Str Qt no.3, op.67, 1928; Str Qt no.4,
op.83 (1946)
Other inst: Romance, op.3, vn, pf, 1902; Ballad, op.4, vc, pf, 1902; 2 Pieces, op.32,
db, pf, 1908; Pieces, op.35, various insts with pf, 1908; 8 Pieces, op.39, vn, vc,
1909; 12 Easy Pieces, op.45, vn, pf, 1909; 12 Pieces, op.51, vc, pf, 1910; 10 Duos,
op.53, 2 vc, 1911; 7 Instructive Pieces, op.54, vn, pf, 1911; many pf pieces and
other works
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Bėlza: Kontsertï Gliera (Moscow, 1955)
I. Bėlza: R.M. Glier (Moscow, 1955, 2/1962)
Obituaries: SovM (1956), no.8, pp.157–8; Sovetskaya Kul'tura (26 June
1994)
S.V. Katonova: Baletï R.M. Gliera (Moscow, 1960)
SovM (1961), no.6, pp.109–14 [special no., incl. articles by E. Gnesina, G.
Litinsky, S. Sinior and D. Person]
M.F. Leonova: Simfonicheskiye proizvedeniya R.M. Gliera: simfonii,
odnochastnïye sochineniya, kontsertï: spravochnik-putevoditel'
[Glière’s symphonic works: symphonies, single-movement works,
concertos: a reference guide] (Moscow, 1962)
S.Ya. Levin: ‘Dva baleta R.M. Gliera “Krasnïy tsvetok”, “Mednïy vsadnik”’
[Glière’s two ballets The Red Flower and The Bronze Horseman],
Muzïka sovetskogo baleta, ed. L.N. Raaben (Moscow, 1962), 126–62
N. Petrova: R.M. Glier (Leningrad, 1962)
B.S. Yagolim: R.M. Glier: notograficheskiy spravochnik [Catalogue of
works] (Moscow, 1964)
V.M. Bogdanov-Berezovsky, ed.: R.M. Glier: stat'i, vospominaniya,
materialï [Articles, reminiscences, materials] (Leningrad, 1965–7)
S. Krebs: Soviet Composers and the Development of Soviet Music (New
York, 1970)
L.S. Ginzburg: Issledovaniya, stat'i, ocherki [Research, articles, essays]
(Moscow, 1971) [incl. article on Glière’s chamber music]
N. Kus'min: ‘Glière v Kiyeve’ [Glière in Kiev], SovM (1975), no.9, pp.100–
13
S. Veksler: Glier i uzbekskaya muzïka [Glière and Uzbek music] (Tashkent,
1981)
GALINA GRIGOR'YEVA

Gligo, Nikša
(b Split, 6 April 1946). Croatian musicologist. He graduated in English and
comparative literature from Zagreb University (1969) and in musicology
from Ljubljana University (1973). He later studied with Koraljka Kos at
Zagreb University (MA 1981) and with Andrej Rijavec at Ljubljana
University, gaining the PhD in 1984 with a dissertation on problems of new
music. He was awarded scholarships to study at the universities of
Cologne, Berlin (with Carl Dahlhaus and Rudolf Stephan) and Freiburg
(with H.H. Eggebrecht). He was artistic director of the Music Salon of
Zagreb University (1969–86) and programme director of the Music Biennial
Zagreb (1973–91). He has taught at the Zagreb Academy of Music since
1986 and the Faculty of Organization and Informatics in Varaždin since
1996. He was on the executive committee of the European Conference of
the Promoters of New Music (1989–94) and is vice-president of the section
for semiotics at the Croatian Society for Social Sciences and Humanities
(from 1995).
Gligo is concerned with the aesthetics, semiotics and terminology of 20th-
century music and the use of computers in musicology. His project on the
standardization of 20th-century Croatian music terminology resulted in his
book Pojmovni vodič kroz glazbu 20. stoljeća, which is relevant to both
musicology and linguistics, and for which he received the Croatian National
Award in the Humanities.
WRITINGS
‘Skladba i njena realizacija’ [The composition and its realization], Telegram,
no.428 (1968), 14–18
‘Prostor i pokret u imanenciji glazbe’ [Space and movement in the
immanence of music], Zvuk, nos.111–12 (1971), 46–58
‘Milko Kelemen: Passionato für Flöte und gemischten Chor:
Voraussetzungen für eine mögliche Analyse’, Zeitschrift für
Musiktheorie, vi/2 (1975), 71–5
‘Odnos “angažmana” i “sredine”: Hrvatski skladatelj Silvio Foretić’ [The
relationship between ‘engagement’ and ‘milieu’: the Croatian
composer Silvio Foretić], Zbornik III. programa Radio Zagreba, iii
(1977), 57–93
‘The Position of the “New Art” in the so-called “Small Cultural
Surroundings”: an Example: the New Music in Croatia after 1950’,
2000 yilina dogru sanatlar sempozyumu/The Symposium of Arts
towards the Year of 2000: Istanbul 1977, ed. M. Çubuk and H.
Karabey (Istanbul, 1977)
Vrijeme glazbe [Time of Music] (Zagreb, 1977)
‘Razvojni kontinuitet u skladateljskom opusu Branimira Sakača: prilog
proučavanju kontinuiteta u poslijeratnom razvoju hrvatske glazbe’
[Developmental continuity in the works of Branimir Sakač: a
contribution to research into continuity in the post-war development of
Croatian music], Zvuk (1979), no.3, pp.33–49; no.4, pp.33–46; (1980),
no.1, pp.17–27
‘Glazbenost nove glazbe 20. stoljeća’ [The musicality of 20th-century
music], MZ, xxi (1984), 75–100 [with Eng. summary]
Problemi nove glazbe 20. stoljeća: teorijske osnove i kriteriji vrednovanja
[Issues in 20th-century music: theoretical basis and evaluation criteria]
(diss., U. of Ljubljana, 1984; Zagreb, 1987)
‘Suvremeno hrvatsko pjesništvo i njegova glazba’ [Contemporary Croatian
poetry and its music], Arti musices, xv (1984), 133–69 [summaries in
Eng., Ger.]
Varijacije razvojnog kontinuiteta: skladatelj Natko Devčić [Variations in
developmental continuity: the composer Natko Devčić] (Zagreb, 1985)
‘Was für ein Werk stellt A Collection of Rocks von John Cage dar? Ein
Beitrag zur Werkdetermination in der experimentellen Musik’,
Entgrenzungen in der Musik, ed. O. Kolleritsch (Vienna, 1987), 247–72
‘Schrift ist Musik? Ein Beitrag zur Aktualisierung eines nur anscheinend
veralteten Widerspruchs’, IRASM, xviii (1987), 145–62; xix (1988), 75–
115
‘Die musikalische Avantgarde als historische Utopie: die gescheiterten
Implikationen der experimentellen Musik’, AcM, lxi (1989), 217–37
‘Nova glazba u postmodernom dobu? Doprinost produbljenju jedne
moderne kontroverze’ [New music in the postmodern age? A
contribution to a modern controversy], MZ, xxvi (1989), 29–39 [with
Eng. summary]
‘“Structure, un des mots de notre époque”: die Komponistentheorie als
notwendiger Beitrag zum Verständnis der neuen Musik’,
Verbalisierung und Sinngehalt: über semantische Tendenzen im
Denken in und über Musik heute, ed. O. Kolleritsch (Vienna, 1989),
83–103
‘Luigi Nono, ein kämpfender Musiker’, Die Musik Luigi Nonos, ed. O.
Kolleritsch (Vienna, 1991), 91–114
‘Über die Wissenschaftlichkeit der Musikwissenschaft: die Analyse als ihre
Gewährleistung’, IRASM, xxiii (1992), 189–206
Pojmovni vodič kroz glazbu 20. stoljeća s uputama za pravilnu upotrebu
pojmova [A guide to 20th-century musical terms with instructions for
their correct usage] (Zagreb, 1996)
ZDRAVKO BLAŽEKOVIĆ

Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich

(b Novospasskoye, nr Yelnya, Smolensk district, 20 May/1 June 1804; d
Berlin, 15 Feb 1857). Russian composer. He was the first Russian
composer to combine distinction in speaking the musical idiom of the day
with a personal and strongly original voice. Emerging from the background
of a provincial dilettante, though with generous access to local music-
making opportunties, he made himself at home in metropolitan centres and
mastered the procedures of Italian and French opera, and complemented
that expertise with skill in motivic and contrapuntal working as well as
instrumentation. His compositions, especially the operas A Life for the Tsar
and Ruslan and Lyudmila and the orchestral fantasia Kamarinskaya,
represent cornerstones of what are known as the ‘Russian classics’, and
furnished models for later 19th-century composers.
1. 1804–34.
2. 1835–42.
3. 1843–57.
4. Style and influence.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JAMES STUART CAMPBELL
Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich
1. 1804–34.
The composer’s first years were spent as the eldest surviving child of a
noble family whose estate was in the Smolensk government. His father
retired from the army with the rank of captain, and several relatives sharing
the Glinka surname were or had been prominent in scholarship, poetry, or
in the service of the tsar. Glinka’s first contact with music was made
through servants who sang folksongs and introduced him to the wider lore
of the Russian tradition. Peasant singing made an impact, too, as well as
church choirs and bells, which in Novospasskoye had benefited from the
interest and investment of Glinka's grandfather. He gained further
experience of music by playing the piano (or violin or piccolo) in small-scale
domestic ensembles, and sometimes participated (on occasion as
conductor) in the work of an uncle’s serf orchestra in a nearby house; this
gave him invaluable practice in working with musicians and in finding out
the effects of particular instrumental effects and combinations across a
broad spectrum of music, from classical overtures to accompaniments for
dancing and arrangements of folk tunes. One composition which made a
powerful impression on him at the age of 10 or 11 was the clarinet quintet
by Bernhard Crusell, played by his uncle’s serf musicians, which, as he
recorded in his memoirs, caused him to discover that his heart was above
all in music. Through his father’s business visits to St Petersburg, through
books, family gatherings, the art tuition of an architect engaged by his
father, and through the teaching of his private tutor, the young composer
probably enjoyed a more mentally and imaginatively challenging childhood
than one might have expected. In his earliest days, however, Glinka was
kept in a room heated to too high a temperature, and much indulged by his
grandmother. His poor health and later unhealthy interest in his ailments
and potential cures are usually traced to early conditions.
In 1818 Glinka enrolled at the new Noble Boarding School attached to the
Pedagogical College in St Petersburg. The 120 or so gentry youths profited
from the instruction of eminent teachers of cosmopolitan background,
among them the poet Wilhelm Kuchelbecker. The course was designed to
provide a general education sufficient for further specialized study
elsewhere, and to train future civil servants; this did not isolate the school
from the current of free thinking then flowing abundantly and which came to
a head in the Decembrist revolt of 1825, but the composer appears to have
been immune from at least that contagion. It was in this period, and outside
school, that Glinka had three piano lessons from John Field, who thereafter
left for Moscow; and after studying with several other piano and violin
teachers, he settled on Charles Mayer who developed his musical gifts
substantially and raised his horizons.
On leaving the school in 1822 Glinka spent some time in Novospasskoye,
where he again exploited the chance of working closely with the orchestral
musicians, now tackling symphonies by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven and
operatic overtures by Cherubini, Méhul, Mozart, Beethoven and others. In
1823 he undertook a journey to the Caucasus, where the wild romantic
landscape and exotic folk music benefited him much more than the various
medicinal waters. On 7/19 May 1824 Glinka began work in the Board of
Communications, one of those undemanding civil service jobs which all the
well-born of Russia seem to have taken up. From this base in St
Petersburg he was able to improve his connections among literary and
musical circles, and with those who attended high-society salons. His
acquaintance with Prince Odoyevsky, Count Wielhorski, Griboyedov,
Del'vig, Pushkin, Zhukovsky, Batyushkov and Mickiewicz dates from the
1820s, and he quarried the poetry of the last five for song texts.
Singing lessons with one Belloli from the winter of 1824 further augmented
the musical skills which Glinka deployed to sociable ends. Civil service,
which in any case had been interrupted by extended leave of absence,
came to an end on 1/13 June 1828, and in an effort to cure his illnesses
Glinka embarked on a three-year sojourn in Italy which had been medically
recommended and which was eventually supported financially by his
father. This course of action provided welcome scope for the further
development of his musical avocation. His companion was the tenor
Nikolay Ivanov, granted leave by the Court Kapella, and they set off
unhurriedly on 25 April/7 May 1830. Among the powerful musical
experiences Glinka obtained in Milan were the premières at the Teatro
Carcano of Anna Bolena and La sonnambula. Glinka’s personal
acquaintance with Donizetti, Bellini and their librettist Felice Romani drew
him still closer to the world of Italian opera, though a meeting with
Mendelssohn was not satisfactory for either side. In Rome en route to
Naples in October 1831, Glinka’s music (as performed by Ivanov with the
composer) strongly attracted Berlioz, who was to be of help to Glinka later.
In Naples the Russian travellers gained invaluable knowledge of singing
from Andrea Nozzari and Josephine Fodor-Mainvielle. Operatic airs
provided the main material for the composer’s improvisations and
compositions at this time, such as the chamber works using themes from
the two operas just mentioned, a Serenata and a Divertimento brillante
respectively (both 1832).
By August 1833 Glinka had become disillusioned with Italy, and set out to
join his sister (and her husband) in Berlin; while travelling via Vienna he
repeatedly and with pleasure heard the orchestras of Strauss and Lanner.
Although his health problems had remained, he had gained insight into the
vocal art, had acquired intimate familiarity with contemporary Italian opera
and its greatest practitioners, and had composed in reasonable quantity
using an idiom which Ricordi was content to publish. But Glinka did not feel
creatively fulfilled, and conceived the notion of writing ‘in a Russian
manner’, rather than trying to continue as, musically speaking, an Italian.
These ideas were sharpened through a period of study in the Prussian
capital between November 1833 and the following spring with Siegfried
Dehn, whom Glinka recognized as the musician to whom he was most
deeply indebted: ‘He … not only put my knowledge in order, but also my
ideas on art in general – and after his teaching I began to work clear-
headedly, not gropingly.’ This was the result of five months of harmonizing
chorales and working at fugues. Glinka’s replacement of the earlier Italian
style by a more Germanic manner is evident in his song Dubrava shumit
(‘The leafy grove howls’, 1834), and in parts of the projected but unfinished
Symphony on Two Russian Themes (1834). A sense of purpose and a new
seriousness seem to have been formed during Dehn’s tuition. The
composer’s father died at Novospasskoye on 4/16 March 1834, and Glinka
now returned there with his sister.
Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich
2. 1835–42.
After spells in Novospasskoye and in Moscow, Glinka went to St
Petersburg, where he met Mariya Petrovna Ivanova. They married on 26
April/8 May 1835 and, after conduct by both parties that might well be
judged unreasonable, separated in November 1839 and were finally
divorced. During the same visit to the capital, Glinka attended one of
Zhukovsky’s literary evenings, at which he told the host of his wish to
compose a Russian opera. Some of the music for this opera was originally
written with Zhukovsky’s Mar'ina roshcha in mind. Zhukovsky suggested
the subject of Ivan Susanin, which the composer adopted and carried
through. The suggestion was astute, because the peasant Susanin had by
his self-sacrifice assisted in the establishment of the Romanovs as
Russia’s ruling house. Showing the devotion of the people to the tsar in this
way affirmed the ideas encapsulated in the minister of education's slogan
of 1833: ‘Autocracy, Orthodoxy and Nationality’ (or ‘Official Nationality’);
Orthodoxy joined the power of God with that of the tsar (‘Autocracy’), and
tsar and Russians of all classes were bound both by Orthodoxy and by
‘Nationality’ (or ‘Official Nationality’), an aspect of Russian statehood to
which little attention had been paid until the Napoleonic wars. Besides his
high position in the world of literature, Zhukovsky was also a well-placed
courtier and would presumably have supplied an excellent libretto setting
forth this line of propaganda. In the event, however, the greater part of the
libretto was written by Baron Rozen, a Baltic German likewise well
connected at court, with contributions by Zhukovsky, Count Sollogub, and
Glinka’s friend Nestor Kukol'nik. Glinka’s ‘Initial Plan’ of late 1834 described
the work as ‘a national heroic-tragic opera’, and aspects of the oratorio-like
conception represented there remained in the final creation.
The subject met Glinka’s requirements by enabling him to exploit Russian
idioms to give musical identity to the subject. Since the hero and his family
are at the centre of the action, the musical aspects of peasant song are the
focus of musical attention, rather than being peripheral sources of local
colour. For the same reason, they are also treated in an entirely new
serious manner (‘Russian folksong is raised to the level of tragedy’, as
Odoyevsky put it), giving Russia its first serious opera to be sung
throughout rather than making use in places of spoken text. Whereas the
Russian peasants are portrayed as individuals, the invading Poles are
shown only en masse, with their stereotyped triple rhythms of mazurka and
polonaise. The most striking aspect of this opera, however, is the artistry
which the composer displays in achieving this first operatic venture – first
both for him and for Russia. Russian and Polish features are absorbed into
a style and structures recognizable to anyone familiar with early 19th-
century opera. This artistry extends to the inventiveness and variety of the
orchestration and the subtle embodiment of the mutual linkage of God, tsar
and people in a motivic idea that recurs frequently, as Serov demonstrated
in 1859. Russian peasants and nobles are symbolically united in a single
nation in the final Slav'sya chorus (‘Epilogue’), which Glinka called a
‘march-anthem’.
The compositional process was difficult because the music was often
completed ahead of the text. The work went into private rehearsal in
sections, was in due course accepted by the Imperial theatre, and,
following the tsar’s visit to a late rehearsal, was renamed Zhizn' za tsarya
(‘A Life for the Tsar’), to emphasize the political message. It was given its
first performance on 27 November/9 December 1836. The première was
attended by the Imperial family and numerous representatives of the court
and the administration. It was well received by the public as well as by
Odoyevsky, Neverov, Gogol' and others in the press.
The success of the opera eased Glinka’s path to a prestigious and well-
rewarded appointment at the Court Chapel Choir, the institution which
provided the men and boys who sang during the Imperial household’s
worship and sometimes at concerts. His superior there was Aleksey L'vov,
the violinist and composer whose work included the Russian national
anthem. Glinka was despatched to Ukraine to recruit singers and he was
away from the capital from 28 April/10 May until 1/13 September 1838. His
interest in the choir’s work seemed to decline, and he left it on 18/30
December 1839. This period saw the composition of a small number of
short pieces of church music and the publication in 1839 of A Collection of
Musical Pieces compiled by M. Glinka, whose 33 items included six
assorted piano pieces and six recent songs by the compiler. Health
problems as well as marital and financial difficulties complicated his life at
this time.
Shortly after the first performances of his first opera Glinka began thinking
about his second. There was some discussion with Pushkin about his
mock-epic Ruslan and Lyudmila as a potential starting point, but Pushkin’s
death in a duel on 29 January/10 February 1837 precluded collaboration
with the poet himself. The music was composed in fits and starts over a
lengthy period beginning in that year. A scheme was drawn up by
Bakhturin, and Shirkov wrote specimen texts for the cavatinas of Gorislava
and Lyudmila. The music composed for the latter was publicly performed in
St Petersburg on 23 March/4 April 1838. Fulfilment of requests for other
pieces intervened, including the set of 12 songs Proshchaniye s
Peterburgom (‘A Farewell to St Petersburg’) to texts by Kukol'nik (the music
partly written afresh and partly using already existing melodies), incidental
music for Kukol'nik’s play Prince Kholmsky, and the Valse-Fantaisie for
orchestra – a graceful, musically varied piece which anticipates
Tchaikovsky’s ballet music. It was only in late 1840 that the composer
resumed work on his opera.
During 1842 Glinka gradually returned to the capital’s society, from which
he had withdrawn as a result of the breakdown of his marriage, a return in
part prompted by the desire of Liszt to meet him and get to know his music;
ironically, in the matter of styles of piano playing, Glinka later professed his
allegiance to the older, pre-Lisztian school. In due course the opera was
completed, accepted, and first performed on 27 November/9 December
1842. Ruslan i Lyudmila (‘Ruslan and Lyudmila’) has a fantastic rather than
a historical subject, and justified Glinka in adding two new elements to his
operatic resources. Magic is embodied in richly inventive musical ideas,
such as the whole-tone scale identified with the wicked sorcerer
Chernomor. Other supernatural elements are represented by, for instance,
two otherwise unrelated dominant 7ths linked by common pitches; musical
ideas of these kinds continued to be associated with fantastic subjects up
to Stravinsky’s The Firebird. Some of the characters and locations which
for Glinka’s generation stood for the orient are evoked by means of, on the
one hand, slow langorous music of yearning and, on the other, extremely
fast and apparently primitive dance music; in this instance too Glinka’s
inventions served Russian composers at least until the early compositions
of Stravinsky. A further new and significant aspect is the epic tone of some
of the work, notably the bïlina style of the Ossianic bard (Bayan), with its
infinitely spacious narrative in primary harmonic colours and gusli-imitating
instrumental writing for piano and harp, a style which was later borrowed
by Borodin and Rimsky-Korsakov. While the music of this opera has been
universally recognized as innovative in the highest degree, its plot was
found to be convoluted and unsatisfactory from even before the first
performance. If this is so, then the haphazard and amateurish way in which
the libretto was put together must bear much of the blame. In truth, though,
despite its historical status, the work has seldom been performed in its
entirety and, moreover, is rarely performed at all outside Russia, so that
opportunities of assessing it in the theatre as its composer intended have
been few. Whereas A Life for the Tsar kept its place by virtue of its musical
accessibility and its political message – at least until the fall of Imperial
Russia and subsequently for further decades with a surrogate libretto –
Ruslan enjoyed at best an initial mixed success, and then gradually
disappeared, a process hastened by the establishment in 1843 of a
permanent and immensely popular Italian opera company in one of the
Imperial theatres in Russia’s capital.
Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich
3. 1843–57.
Glinka was much disheartened by the reception of his second opera, and
never again thought seriously about operatic projects – indeed, for a while
all his musical ventures were on a small scale. In June 1844 he set out for
Paris, where he remained for 10 months. Although he met Auber and
Hugo, it was with Berlioz that he spent most time, both in conversation and
in studying his scores. Berlioz included the Lezginka from Ruslan and
Lyudmila and Antonida’s cavatina in a concert monstre on 16 March 1845.
Glinka himself put on a concert on 10 April which included the Krakowiak
from A Life for the Tsar, Chernomor’s March from Ruslan, the Valse-
Fantaisie and the song Il desiderio. This earned the composer a modest
success, and also won him a notice by Berlioz in the Journal des débats of
16 April 1845 in which he referred to Glinka as ‘among the outstanding
composers of his time’. In May 1845 Glinka set off for Spain, staying in
Valladolid, Madrid, Granada, Murcia and Seville. The country and its music
made a strong impression on him, and it was there that he made the
acquaintance of Don Pedro Fernandez, who was to remain with him for 9
years as friend and secretary. In the summer of 1847 he returned to Russia
by an extended route, arriving at Novospasskoye on 28 July/9 August. The
first fruit of Glinka’s investigation of Spanish folk music was the Capriccio
brillante on the Jota aragonesa, at Odoyevsky’s suggestion later known as
the First Spanish Overture. This short orchestral composition was the first
realization of an idea that had occurred to him in Paris for a fantaisie
pittoresque which would appeal both to ordinary and to better-informed
lovers of music. The dance tune with its simple harmonic outline gives rise
to the most varied treatments (in harmony, counterpoint and
instrumentation) within a satisfying overall structure, and suggests the
composer’s delight in the vitality and colour of Spanish folklore.
After some happy months on the family estate, illness drove him to seek a
consultation with his doctor in St Petersburg. But the illness did not permit
travel beyond Smolensk, where he remained from September 1847 to
March 1848. He then set off for Paris, but in the absence of a passport
could go no further than Warsaw, where he stayed for nine months, during
which time he composed Recuerdos de Castilla and Kamarinskaya. These
two brief orchestral pieces prolong the line of the Jota aragonesa. While
the former (also known as Souvenir d’une nuit d’été à Madrid and as the
Second Spanish Overture) assembles four Spanish melodies in a
potpourri, the latter draws together ingeniously two Russian tunes. Glinka
recorded that
‘by chance I discovered a relationship between the wedding
song “From behind the mountains, the high mountains”,
which I had heard in the country [and had used in
Svadebnaya pesnya (“Wedding Song”)], and the dance tune,
Kamarinskaya, which everyone knows. And suddenly my
fantasy ran high, and instead of a piano piece I wrote an
orchestral piece called “Wedding Tune and Dance Tune”.’
The composer’s insight in discerning the similarity of melodic contour of the
two tunes and in forming a rounded structure exploiting that compatibility,
relying substantially on innumerable varied repetitions of the short dance
tune (naigrïsh) prompted Tchaikovsky to note in his diary on 27 June/9 July
1888 that the Russian symphonic school ‘is all in Kamarinskaya, just as the
whole oak is in the acorn’.
The acquaintances of Glinka’s final years included Meyerbeer (Berlin 1852
and later), the Stasov brothers (Vladimir in 1849, Dmitry in 1851) and
Balakirev (1855), who in due course came to be regarded as Glinka’s
musical heir. In 1850 the First Spanish Overture and Kamarinskaya were
given in St Petersburg in a concert organized by Odoyevsky; Glinka, who
was elsewhere at the time, was delighted by the encoring of
Kamarinskaya, though he disapproved of the performance of the Second
Spanish Overture, since he was at that time dissatisfied with that form. In
June 1851 his mother, on whom he had relied for both financial and moral
support, died. In May 1852 he was distressed to experience A Life for the
Tsar in St Petersburg with tired costumes and sets, poor lighting, the wrong
tempo and a miserable orchestral contribution. That summer he set off
again, spending most of his time until March 1854 in Paris. Returning to St
Petersburg, he was persuaded by Vladimir Stasov and his own sister
Lyudmila Shestakova to write his memoirs. On 27 April/9 May 1856 he left
for Paris, intending to stay for a while in Berlin on the way. With Serov and
Dmitry Stasov, Glinka had since the winter of 1851–2 taken an interest in
the compositions of Bach and Handel, and in 1853 Vladimir Stasov had
introduced him to the music of the Italian Renaissance. Thinking that this
music had a relevance for the development of Russian church music,
Glinka now turned again to Dehn, who introduced him to the music of
Palestrina and Lassus. Whatever the results of this study, there is nothing
to suggest that his hopes for Russian church music were realized.
Berlin afforded him performances of Fidelio, several operas by Mozart, the
B minor Mass, and Gluck’s two Iphigénie (both settings). Meyerbeer
conducted the trio from A Life for the Tsar at a court concert on 9/21
January 1851, which Glinka considered a signal honour. He caught a cold
afterwards, and, weakening rapidly, died on 3/15 February 1857.
Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich
4. Style and influence.
It is not surprising, in view of the rapidity and extent of the development of
Russian music after the 1850s, that Glinka has come to be regarded
primarily as the essential forerunner of all that is associated with the idea of
Russian musical nationalism. This view of him is justifiable, so long as it is
kept in mind that he is the precursor of the phenomenon rather than the
phenomenon itself. The amalgam of national subject matter, whether
borrowed from history or folklore, with its extremes of torpor and hyper-
vitality, embodied in derivatives of national musical folklore, with its strongly
distinctive harmonic patterns and melodic contours, is anticipated rather
than fully realized in Glinka’s compositions.
His background lies in the music of the first part of the 19th century, itself
with roots in the classical restraint and established, elegant structures of
the 18th century. The early chamber music proclaims its origins at the turn
of the century, or even a little earlier, and in instrumental music the names
of Haydn, Beethoven, Schubert, Hummel and Field should be mentioned in
connection with Glinka’s work. It is striking how many chamber music
works Glinka produced, when that genre was scarcely at the heart of the
Italian and French traditions which in other areas are conspicuous in his
music. For all that a work such as the Septet or the String Quartet in F is
scarcely a landmark of the chamber music repertory, its textures, length
and ambition suggest that wide musical horizons could open up before a
dilettante of genius from the Russian provinces. Such works suggest that
the picture of gregarious drifting from a piano piece for one social occasion
to a song prompted by a new friendship – a picture encouraged by the
composer’s own memoirs – is at best an incomplete one.
Glinka’s early experience of writing for instruments, spreading musical
interest among a group of solo players, and composing on a large scale
unprompted by a text gave him an especially solid foundation on which to
place the Italian operatic techniques so obvious from the time of his Italian
stay in the early 1830s. The Rossini style has more of Classicism than of
Romanticism in its standardization and in its method of breaking down a
dramatic situation into its constituent parts and presenting them in a way
which is theatrically persuasive as well as musically satisfying in its
contrast and progression. The entrance arias of Glinka’s two operas, as
well as many other aspects of those works, show a master of that idiom
who commanded other musical resources in addition. Indeed the leading
Italian music publisher of the time, Ricordi, reckoned Glinka the equal of
Bellini or Donizetti, except that he was ‘more learned than them in
counterpoint’.
Salient features of Glinka’s style are evident in two fields which he
cultivated throughout his life: songs and music for solo piano. Their
usefulness in the drawing room is clear, though once more – as with
Schubert – compositions whose starting point is modest social enjoyment
transcend that objective and display an integrity and seriousness worthy of
the concert hall.
The settings of Italian texts that Glinka made in Russia, and later on in Italy,
indicate his study and cultivation of the Italian operatic idiom. Metastasio
settings one imagines as prentice pieces (again, just as Schubert set some
as exercises), but the aria L’iniquo voto, to a text written by one Pini, an
apparently casual acquaintance made during his Italian travels, has a
multi-sectional form complete with a bravura culmination. The period’s
standard genres are exploited (as is also the case with the piano music),
with two barcarolles, a lullaby and a mazurka of impressive harmonic
fluidity to a text by Mickiewicz. A musical idiom which evokes gentle
melancholy through the frequent choice of minor keys, and when using
major keys has early recourse to relative minor or supertonic harmony,
might seem an Italianate feature, but it is found too in the urbanized
species of Russian song (including the kind known as the rossiyskaya
pesnya, ‘Russian song’), a tradition which has a bearing on some of
Glinka’s songs, such as Akh tï, noch' li, nochenka (‘O thou black night’) or
Noch' osennyaya, lyubeznaya (‘O gentle autumn night’). Once more, as
with Schubert, now-forgotten poets occur cheek by jowl with familiar
names, including those of Pushkin, Zhukovsky and Del'vig.
The Germanic practice of finding and maintaining a single musical image
corresponding with the subject also occurs. Just as the spinning-wheel in
Schubert’s Gretchen am Spinnrade (a text which Glinka also set as
Tyazhka pechal' i grusten svet, or Margarita's Song) continues to turn while
Gretchen expresses her love for Faust, so the military march in Glinka’s
Nochnoy smotr (‘The Night Review’) supplies an apt musical context for
Napoleon’s review of his ghostly troops. If the latter is – in concept, if not
musically – an anticipation of The Commander-in-Chief from Musorgsky’s
Songs and Dances of Death, there are more frequent occasions on which
Tchaikovsky’s music seems to be present in embryo, such as the foretaste
of Lensky’s aria in Bednïy pevets (‘The Poor Singer’). In his cultivation of
elegance and tunefulness Glinka is both a child of his time and a soulmate
of Tchaikovsky; the relative rarity of explicit folklore quotations is another
aspect common to their songs.
If Italian bel canto often appears in Glinka’s solo piano music, so too does
Parisian brilliance. Variation sets based on themes by Mozart, Cherubini,
Alyab'yev, Bellini and Donizetti or on folksongs (not all Russian) require of
the executant a light touch and, like most of the composers’ writing for
piano, display thin textures, often with a highly decorated right-hand line in
single notes in a very high register. If Chopin’s sound world comes to mind,
it is probably because of the two composers' roots in the playing and
compositions of John Field rather than direct influence of one on the other.
The early variation sets can outstay their welcome, but later ones offer
greater rewards, such as the turn on two occasions (rather than only one)
to the major key in the course of the Nightingale set. As with the songs,
standard genres are used, often of the kind where the ballroom audibly
adjoins the concert hall. Some of the works (the contredanses, for
example) might indeed serve for dancing, whereas others seem to demand
more attentive listening. That applies especially to the mazurkas (including
the Souvenir d’une mazurka, and those in A minor and C minor) and to the
nocturne La séparation; this nocturne has a delicate mobility stemming
from a good baseline whose often stepwise movement links triads in other
than root position. While a few movements have titles evocative of some
extra-musical association, others are preceded by short passages of text:
the Barcarolle offers two lines from Felice Romani, the Variations on a
Scottish Theme (The Last Rose of Summer) are prefaced by verse by
Batyushkov, and for the Prayer Kol'tsov’s poetry is quarried. Souvenir
d’une mazurka has both title and preliminary text. This development
suggests perhaps that as he grew older Glinka became more sympathetic
to the idea of making the expression of his art more explicit. In the
Tarantella may be heard the Russian folksong In the field there stood a
birch, familiar from its later use by Balakirev and by Tchaikovsky in the
finale of his Fourth Symphony; noteworthy here is a bold shift from the triad
of A minor to that of F minor, with the necessary reversion to the first and
home key skilfully effected. In this instance a Russian song embedded in a
Tarantella seems to preclude any kind of nationalist thinking. The Spanish
strand among Glinka’s orchestral works is modestly present also in such
piano pieces as Las mollares, an Andalusian dance where guitars strum (in
unusually full chords). Though Glinka had enjoyed the advantage of
investigating Spanish music on the ground, bolero rhythms, dissonant
appoggiaturas, plucked-string imitations and so on were by no means
unprecedented and are sometimes to be found in the works of such
composers as Verstovsky.
In this eclectic absorption of contemporary western techniques and idioms,
Glinka was a Russian artist representative of the first half of the 19th
century. As Pushkin assimilated elements from West European literatures
and naturalized them in Russia by means of his choice of subject matter,
so Glinka drew on the musical mainstreams of his day and acclimatized
them in Russia. While Pushkin provided his compatriots with models of the
historical novel, the novel in verse, verse drama as well as lyric verse, so
Glinka supplied examples of historical and fantastic operas, musical
evocations of the ‘orient’, the short orchestral fantasy, and songs of various
types. Neither writer nor composer approached the wilder shores of realism
(in choosing topics or in detailed pictorialism) or nationalism (by making
controversial political statements). Both were firmly grounded in the
classical virtues of detachment and concern for structural integrity. Both
were later claimed for realism and nationalism, when from the 1860s those
values were prized, but the heavy insistence of the preacher and the social
reformer were foreign to their artistic natures.
Almost all Russian composers of the later 19th century – both the
Tchaikovsky and Balakirev camps – regarded Glinka as their forerunner.
His heritage offered a variety of models which were open to creative
development in more than one direction. His harmonic sorcery (in Ruslan)
paved the way for Rimsky-Korsakov’s experiments, and his evocations of
the east (also in Ruslan) prepared ground which was to bear fruit for
Balakirev; his espagnolerie found a successor with Rimsky-Korsakov. His
fusion of the European lingua franca with Russian elements and
combination of learning with originality served as an example to
Tchaikovsky, whose celebrated remark is valid beyond the orchestral
repertory he was discussing at the time.
Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich
WORKS

Edition: M.I. Glinka: polnoye sobranniye sochineniy [Complete Collection of Works], ed.
V.Ya. Shebalin and others (Moscow, 1955–69) [G]

published in St Petersburg unless otherwise stated

 stage
all productions in St Petersburg

Title Descri Librett Compo Publish Produc G

ption o sed ed ed

Rokeby op W. 1824 Mosco — xvii,

Scott w, 139
1969

Remarks :
sketches for entr’acte only

Mar'ina roshcha [Mary’s Grove] op V. 1834 — — —

Zhukov
sky

Remarks :
sketches: used in Zhizn' za tsarya

Zhizn' za tsarya [A Life for the Tsar] op, 4, Y.F. 1834– fs Bol'sho xii/a, b,
epilogu Rozen, 6 1881, y, 27 suppl.
e V. ov. Nov/9 vs, xiii
Sollog only Dec
ub, 1858; 1836
N.V. vs
Kukol'n 1856
ik and or
Zhukov 1857
sky

Remarks :
ov. arr. pf 4 hands, G v, 106; pt. of epilogue arr. solo pf, G vi, 255

Moldavanka i tsïganka [The Moldavian Girl and the aria — 1836 Mosco 8/20 vii, 3
Gypsy Girl] with w, April
chorus 1947 1836

Remarks :
for K. Bakhturin’s play

Scene at the monastery N. 1837 fs 18/30 —

Kukol'n 1881, Oct
ik vs 1837
1856
or
1857
Knyaz' Kholmskiy [Prince Kholmsky] incid — 1840 1862 30 vii, 37
music Sept/1
2 Oct
1841

Remarks :
ov., 3 songs and 4 entr’actes for Kukol'nik’s tragedy: Yevreyskaya
pesnya used as no.2 of Proshchaniye s Peterburgom, 1840; other 2
songs arr. 1v, pf, G x, 271, 273

Tarantella stage I. 1841 1862 13/25 viii, 5

piece, Myatle Jan
reciter, v 1841
chorus,
orch
Ruslan i Lyudmila [Ruslan and Lyudmila] ‘magic’ V.F. 1837– fs Bol'sho xiv/a,
op, 5 Shirkov 42 1878, y, 27 b,
, with ov. Nov/9 suppl.
contrib only Dec vs, xv
s. from 1858; 1842
N.A. vs
Markev 1856
ich,
Kukol'n
ik,
M.A.
Gedeo
nov
and
M.I.
Glinka,
after
A.S.
Puskin

Remarks :
pt. of Finn’s ballad and pt of Lyudmila’s scena arr. pf, 1852, G vi, 251,
254

Dvumuzhnitsa [The Polyandrist] op after 1855 — — —

A.A.
Shakh
ovskoy

Remarks :
sketches, lost

orchestral

Title Composed Published G

Overture, D c1822–6 Moscow, 1955 i, 129

Overture, g c1822–6 Moscow, 1955 i, 85
Andante cantabile and rondo c1823 Moscow, 1955 i, 3
Symphony, B c1824 Moscow, 1969 xvii, 142

Remarks :
inc.

Symphony on two Russian themes 1834 Moscow, 1948 i, 193

Remarks :
inc.

Valse-Fantaisie, b 1839–56 1878 ii, 213

Remarks :
orig. for pf, 1839; orchd 1845, lost; reorchd 1856

Capriccio brillante 1845 1858 ii, 3

Remarks :
on the Jota aragonesa; also known as First Spanish Overture

Kamarinskaya 1848 1860 ii, 105

Remarks :
arr. pf 4 hands (1856)

Recuerdos de Castilla 1848 Moscow, 1956 ii, 71

Remarks :
expanded into Souvenir d’une nuit d’été à Madrid, 1851 (1858); also known as
Second Spanish Overture, G ii, 143

Polonaise, F 1855 1856 ii, 185

Remarks :
on a Spanish bolero theme

Concerto for orchestra, E Moscow, 1969 xvii, 185

Remarks :
inc.

other instrumental
Variations on a theme of 1822 by 1856 theme from Die vi, 13, 20
Mozart, E , pf/hp Zauberflöte; orig. lost, but
written down from Lyudmila
Shestakova’s memory
Septet, E , ob, bn, hn, 2 c1823 Moscow, 1957 inc. iii, 3
vn, vc, db
String Quartet, D 1824 Moscow, 1948 inc. iii, 67
Variations on an original c1824 Moscow, 1878 — vi, 1
theme, F, pf
Sonata, pf, va 1825–8 Moscow, 1932 2 movts only iv, 3
Variations on the song 1826 1839 vi, 51
Sredi dolinï rovnïye
[Among the Gentle
Valleys], a, pf
Variations on a theme from 1826 or 1827 1839 vi, 55
Cherubini’s Faniska, B , pf
Variations on Benedetta sia 1826 by 1829 vi, 26, 39
la madre, E, pf
[5] nouvelles quadrilles ?1826 by 1829 vi, 267
françaises, pf
Cotillon, B , pf by 1828 1829 vi, 67
Mazurka, G, pf by 1828 1829 vi, 70
[4] nouvelles contredanses, by 1828 1829 vi, 71
pf
Nocturne, E , pf/hp 1828 Moscow, 1878 vi, 62
Finskaya pesnya [Finnish 1829 1830 vi, 77, 78
Song], D, pf
Trot de cavalerie, G, pf 4 1829 or 1830 Moscow, 1878 v, 3
hands
Trot de cavalerie, C, pf 4 1829 or 1830 Moscow, 1878 v, 7
hands
String Quartet, F 1830 Moscow, 1878 arr. pf 4 hands, 1830 iii, 125
(Moscow, 1878), G v, 63
Proshchal'nïy val's 1831 1834 vi, 117
[Farewell Waltz], G, pf
Rondino brillante on a 1831 Milan, 1832 vi, 104
theme from Bellini’s I
Capuleti e i Montecchi, B ,
pf
Variazioni brillanti on a 1831 Milan, 1831 vi, 79
theme from Donizetti’s
Anna Bolena, A, pf
Variations on 2 themes 1831 Milan, 1831 vi, 93
from the ballet Chao-Kang,
D, pf
Divertimento brillante on 1832 Milan, 1832 arr. 2 pf (6 hands), G v, 131 iv, 29
themes from Bellini’s La
sonnambula, A , pf, 2 vn,
va, vc, db
Impromptu en galop on the 1832 Milan, 1832 v, 9
barcarolle from Donizetti’s
L’elisir d’amore, B , pf 4
hands
Serenata on themes from 1832 Milan, 1832 iv/suppl.
Anna Bolena, E , pf, hp,
bn, hn, va, vc, db
Gran sestetto originale, E , 1832 Milan, 1832 iv, 81
pf, str qnt
Trio pathétique, d, pf, cl, bn 1832 Moscow, 1878 iv, 173
Variazioni on a theme from 1832 Milan, 1832 vi, 118
I Capuleti e i Montecchi, C,
pf
Variations on Alyab'yev's 1833 1841 vi, 135
Solovey [The Nightingale],
e, pf
3 fugues, pf: 1833 or 1834
3-pt., E Moscow, 1885 vi, 147, 149
3-pt., a by 1844 vi, 151, 154
4-pt., D Moscow, 1885 vi, 157
Mazurka, A , pf 1833 or 1834 1834 vi, 160
Mazurka, F, pf 1833 or 1834 1834 vi, 161
Capriccio on Russian 1834 Moscow, 1904 v, 19
themes, A, pf 4 hands
Motif de chant national, C, ?1834–6 Moscow, 1969 xvii, 227
pf
Mazurka, F, pf ?1835 c1836 vi, 162
[5] contredanses, pf 1838 1839 vi, 166
Waltz, E , pf 1838 1839 vi, 164
Waltz, B , pf 1838 1839 vi, 170
La couventine, 1839 1839 orig. for orch, lost vi, 188
contredanses, pf
Grande valse, G, pf 1839 1839 orig. for orch, lost vi, 175
Polonaise, E, pf 1839 1839 orig. for orch, lost vi, 184
La séparation, nocturne, f, 1839 1839 vi, 204
pf
Le regret, nocturne, pf 1839 — inc., lost; used in no.11 of —
Proshchaniye s
Peterburgom, 1840
Valse-Fantaisie, b, pf 1839 1839 orchd 1845, lost; reorchd vi, 193
1856 (1878)
Galopade, E , pf 1838 or 1839 1839 vi, 174
Bolero, d, pf 1840 1840 arr. 1v, pf as no.3 of vi, 208
Proshchaniye s
Peterburgom, 1840
Tarantella, a, pf 1843 1850 on the Russian song Vo vi, 217
pole beryoza stoyala [In the
field there stood a birch
tree]
Mazurka, c, pf ?1843 1843 vi, 219
Privet otchizne [A Greeting 1847 ?1855
to my Native Land], pf
1 Souvenir d’une mazurka, vi, 220
B
2 Barcarolle, G vi, 225
3 Prière, A arr. 1v, pf, 1855 vi, 232
4 Thème écossais varié based on the Irish tune The vi, 240
Last Rose of Summer
Polka, d, pf 1849 Moscow, 1878 vi, 250
Mazurka, C, pf 1852 Moscow, 1878 vi, 256
Polka, B , pf 4 hands 1840–52 1852 conceived 1840, written v, 47
down 1852
Detskaya pol'ka [Children’s 1854 1861 vi, 257
Polka], B , pf
Las mollares, G, pf ?1855 1856 transcr. of Andalusian vi, 264
dance
Leggieramente, E, pf — Moscow, 1969 xvii, 170

vocal
for 1 voice and piano unless otherwise stated

Title Translati Text Compos Publishe G

on ed d

Moya arfa My Harp Scott, 1824; 1862 x, 1

trans. K. orig.
Bakhturi lost,
n written
down
1855
Ne iskushay menya bez nuzhdï Do not Ye. 1825 before
tempt Baratïns 1854
me ky
needles
sly
1v, pf x, 2, 6
2 vv, pf ix, 23
Pleurons, pleurons sur la Russie, prologue on the Olidor 1826 Moscow, xvi, 17
death of Alexander I and the accession of Nicholas I, 1894
T, SATB, pf, db
Akh tï, dushechka, krasna devitsa Ah, my folksong 1826 c1830 x, 18
sweethe
art, thou
art a
beautiful
maiden
Bednïy pevets The V. 1826 1829 or x, 10
Poor Zhukovs 1830
Singer ky
Utesheniye Consola Uhland, 1826 1830 x, 14, 16
tion trans.
Zhukovs
ky
Chto, krasotka molodaya Why do A. 1827 c1830 x, 40
you cry, Del'vig
young
beauty
Gor'ko, gor'ko mne Bitter, A. 1827 1831 x, 28
bitter it Rimsky-
is for me Korsako
v
Pamyat' serdtsa Heart’s K. 1827 1829 x, 19
Memory Batyush
kov
Ya lyublyu, tï mne tverdila [also known as Le baiser ‘I love’ A. 1827 before x, 24
with Fr. text by S. Golitsïn (1854)] was Rimsky- 1854
your Korsako
assuran v
ce
Bozhe sil vo dni smyateniya, A, T, B, pf O God, biblical 1827 or Moscow, ix, 28
preserve 1828 1878
our
strength
in the
days of
confusio
n
Pour un moment [also pubd with Russ. text, Odin lish' S. 1827 or 1834 x, 35, 38
mig (1855)] Golitsïn 1828
Skazhi zachem Tell me Golitsïn 1827 or 1829 x, 31
why 1828
Mio ben ricordati P. 1827 or
Metasta 1828
sio
A, T, pf 1829 ix, 43
S, pf 1878 x, 63
Due canzonette italiane:
1 Ah, rammenta, o bella Irene P. 1828 Moscow, x, 73
Metasta 1891
sio
2 Alla cetra x, 76
Dovunque il guardo giro, B, pf P. 1828 Moscow, x, 58
Metasta 1955
sio
Ho perduto, il mio tesoro, T, pf P. 1828 1864 x, 47
Metasta
sio
La notte omai s’appressa, SATB, SATB, str, inc. 1828 Moscow, xvii, 196
1969
Mi sento il cor trafiggere, T, pf P. 1828 1864 x, 42
Metasta
sio
O Dafni che di quest’ anima, S, pf 1828 Moscow, x, 68
1955
Pensa che questo instante, A, pf P. 1828 Moscow, x, 56
Metasta 1955
sio
Piangendo ancora rinascer suole, S, pf P. 1828 Moscow, x, 61
Metasta 1955
sio
Pur nel sonno, S, pf P. 1828 1864 x, 52
Metasta
sio
Sogna chi crede d’esser felice, A, T, T, B, str 1828 Moscow, ix, 92
1954
Tu sei figlia, S, pf P. 1828 1864 x, 50
Metasta
sio
Akh tï, noch' li nochenka O thou Del'vig 1828 1831 x, 97, 98
black
night
Dedushka, devitsï raz mne govorili The Del'vig 1828 1829 x, 89, 90
maids
once
told me,
grandfat
her
Molitva, S, A, T, B, pf Prayer 1828 Moscow, ix, 35
1878
Ne poy, krasavitsa, pri mne Sing A.S. 1828 1831 x, 92
not, thou Pushkin
beauty,
in my
presenc
e
Razocharovaniye Disench Golitsïn 1828 1851 x, 82, 85
antment
Zabudu l' ya Shall I Golitsïn 1828 1832 x, 94
forget
Come di gloria al nome, SATB, str 1828 or Moscow, ix, 71
1829 1960
A, ignobil core, B, male chorus, orch, inc. 1828 or Moscow, xvii, 205
1834 1969
Golos s togo sveta A voice Schiller, 1829 1832 x, 100
from the trans.
other Zhukovs
world ky
Noch' osennyaya, lyubeznaya O gentle A. 1829 1831 x, 96
autumn Rimsky-
night Korsako
v
7 studies, A, pf 1829 or 1864 xi, 13
1830
Il desiderio [also known as Zhelaniye] F. 1832 Milan, x, 104,
Romani 1834 108
L’iniquo voto, S, pf Pini 1832 Milan, x, 123
1833
Pobeditel' The Uhland, 1832 Moscow, x, 112
Conquer trans. 1835
or Zhukovs
 ky
Venetsianskaya noch' Venetian I. Kozlov 1832 Moscow, x, 117,
Night 1835 119
6 studies, S, pf 1833 Moscow, xi, 39
1952
Dubrava shumit The Schiller, 1834 1856 x, 139,
leafy trans. 144
grove Zhukovs
howls ky
Ne govori: lyubov' proydyot Say not Del'vig 1834 1843 x, 133
that love
will pass
Ne nazïvay yeyo nebesnoy [orchd 1855, G viii, 119] Call her N. 1834 Moscow, x, 151
not Pavlov 1834
heavenl
y
Tol'ko uznal ya tebya I had but Del'vig 1834 Moscow, x, 159
recogniz 1834
ed you
Ya zdes', Inezil'ya I am Pushkin, 1834 by 1850 x, 161
here, after B.
Inezilla Cornwall
Exercises for smoothing and perfecting the voice 1835 or 1903 xi, 59
1836
Nochnoy smotr, fantasia, orchd c1836–40, G viii, 93; The Zhukovs 1836 ?1838 x, 165
reorchd 1855, G viii, 107 Night ky
Review
Comic canon a 4, collab. V. Odoyevsky Pushkin, 1836 1837 —
Zhukovs
ky, P.
Vyazem
sky, M.
Wielhors
ki
Velik nash Bog, polonaise, SATB, orch Our God V. 1837 fs fs xvi,
is great Sollogub Moscow, 47
1881; vs
Moscow,
1878
Kheruvimskaya, 6-pt chorus Cherubi biblical 1837 Moscow, —
m’s 1878
Song
Gde nasha roza? Where Pushkin 1837 1839 x, 182,
is our 183, 185
rose?
Stansï Stanzas Kukol'ni 1837 1838 x, 173
k
Vï ne pridyote vnov', S, S, pf You will Glinka 1837 or 1854 ix, 49
not 1838
return
Gimn khozyainu (cant.), T, orch, inc. Hymn to N. 1838 1903 viii, 141
the Markevi
Master ch
Gude viter The V. 1838 1839 x, 188
wind Zabella
blows
Ne shchebechi, soloveyku Sing Zabella 1838 1839 x, 186
not, o
nighting
ale
Nochnoy zefir The Pushkin 1838 1839 x, 190
night
zephyr
Somneniye, A, hp, vn [also for 1v, pf, G x, 176] Doubt Kukol'ni 1838 1839 ix, 108,
k 113
V krovi gorit ogon' zhelan'ya The fire Pushkin 1838 1839 x, 180
of
longing
burns in
my heart
Yesli vstrechus' s toboy If I shall A. 1839 1840 x, 199
meet Kol'tsov
you
Priznaniye Declarat Pushkin 1839 c1858 x, 280
ion
Svadebnaya pesnya [also known as Severnaya Weddin Ye. 1839 1862 x, 194
svezda (The North Star)] g Song Rostopc
hina
Zatsvetyot cheremukha The Rostopc 1839 1862 x, 197
bird- hina
cherry
tree is
blossom
ing
Kak sladko s toboyu mne bït' How P. 1840 1843 x, 277
sweet it Rïndin
is to be
with you
Proshchal'naya pesnya vospitannits Yekaterinskogo Farewell P. 1840 fs fs xvi,
Instituta, S, SSA, orch song of Obodov Moscow, 69
pupils of sky 1903; vs
the Moscow,
Yekateri 1878
nsky
Institute
Proshchaniye s Peterburgom A Kukol'ni 1840 1840
Farewell k
to St
Petersb
urg
1 Romans Romanc x, 206
e
2 Yevreyskaya pesnya [from Knyaz' Kholmsky] Hebrew x, 209
Song
3 Bolero [orig. for pf, 1840] x, 211
4 Cavatina x, 215
5 Kolïbel'naya pesnya [arr. 1v, str, 1840 (Moscow, Cradle x, 220
1924), G ix, 120] Song
6 Poputnaya pesnya Travellin x, 226
g Song
7 Fantasia x, 232
8 Barcarolle x, 240
9 Virtus antiqua x, 245
10 Zhavoronok The x, 250
Lark
11 K Molli [based on unfinished nocturne Le regret, To Molly x, 254
pf, 1839]
12 Proshchal'naya pesnya, 1v, TBB, pf Song of x, 259
Farewell
Ya pomnyu chudnoye mgnoven'ye I recall a Pushkin 1840 1842 x, 201
wonderf
ul
moment
4 vocal exercises 1840 or Moscow, xi, 54
1841 1963
Lyublyu tebya, milaya roza I love I. 1842 1843 x, 281
you, Samarin
dear
rose
K ney To Her Mickiewi 1843 1843 x, 283
cz,
trans.
Golitsïn
Milochka Darling 1847 1848 x, 287
Tï skoro menya pozabudyosh' [orchd 1855 (Moscow, Soon Yu. 1847 1848 x, 290
1885), G viii, 133] you will Zhadovs
forget ky
me
Zazdravnaya pesnya, 1v, chorus Toasting 1847 Moscow, ix, 5
Song 1960
Tyashka pechal' i grusten svet Meine J.W. von 1848 1848 x, 302
Ruh’ ist Goethe,
hin trans. E.
Huber
Slïshu li golos tvoy When I Lermont 1848 ?c1850 x, 294
hear ov
your
voice
Zazdravnïy kubok The Pushkin 1848 1848 x, 296
toasting
cup
Adel' Adèle Pushkin 1849 1850 x, 316
Meri Mary Pushkin, 1849 1850 x, 322
after B.
Cornwall
Rozmowa Convers Mickiewi 1849 Warsaw, x, 309
ation cz 1849
Finskiy zaliv [also known as Palermo] The Gulf Obodov 1850 1851 x, 326
of sky
Finland
Proshchal'naya pesnya dlya vospitannits obshchestva Farewell M. 1850 fs fs xvi,
blagorodnïkh devits, SSAA, orch song for Timayev Moscow, 105
the 1903; vs
pupils of Moscow,
the 1880
Society
of
Genteel
Maidens
Kosa, 1v, SATB, orch The A. 1854 1855 fs viii,
Scythe Rimsky- 51; vs
Korsako ix, 131
v
Molitva, 1v, SATB, orch [orig. for pf, 1847] Prayer Lermont 1855 1855 fs viii,
ov 65; vs
ix, 6
Ne govori, chto serdtsu bol'no Say not Pavlov 1856 1856 x, 335
that it
grieves
the
heart
Yekteniya pervaya, SATB First ?1856 Moscow,
Litany 1878
Da ispravitsya molitva moya, T, T, B Let my ?1856 Moscow,
prayer 1878
be
fulfilled
Gimn voskreseniya, T, T, B Resurre 1856 or Moscow, xvii, 112
ction 1857 1969
Hymn
A school of singing 1856 or Moscow, xi, 65
1857 1953

orchestrations of works by other composers

Shterich: Waltz on a theme from Weber’s Oberon, pf, 1829 (Moscow, 1968), G xviii,
1
Hummel: Souvenir d’amitié, nocturne op.99, pf, 1854 (Moscow, 1968), G xviii, 13
Dargomïzhsky: Likhoradushka [Fever], song, 1855 (Moscow, 1968), G xviii, 86
Alyab'yev: Solovey [The nightingale], song; 1856 (Moscow, 1889), G xviii, 89

For a complete list of works, including the titles of fragmentary and lost compositions, see Brown

Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich

BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (R. Taruskin)
M. Glinka: ‘Zametki ob instrumentovke’ [Notes on orchestration],
‘Prilozheniye instrumentovki k muzïkal'nomu sochineniyu’ [The
application of orchestration to musical compositions], Muzïkal'nïy i
teatral'nïy vestnik, i (1856), 21–2, 99–101
L. Shestakova, ed.: ‘M.I. Glinka: zapiski’, Russkaya starina, i (1870), 380,
474, 562; ii (1870), 56, 266, 372, 419–62; pubd separately (St
Petersburg, 1871); Eng trans., as Memoirs (Norman, OK, 1963)
O. Fouque: Michel Ivanovitch Glinka d’après ses mémoires et sa
correspondance (Paris, 1880)
[V. Stasov, ed.]: Zapiski Mikhaila Ivanovicha Glinki i perepiska yego s
rodnïmi i druz'yami [Glinka’s memoirs and correspondence with his
relations and friends] (St Petersburg, 1887)
V. Stasov: ‘M.I. Glinka: novïye materialï dlya yego biografii’ [New material
for his biography], Russkaya starina, lxi (1889), 387
N. Findeyzen: M.I. Glinka: yego zhizn' i tvorcheskaya deyatel'nost' [His life
and creative activity] (St Petersburg, 1896)
N. Findeyzen: Katalog notnïkh rukopisey, pisem i portretov M.I. Glinki,
khranyashchikhsya v rukopisnom otdelenii imperatorskoy publichnoy
biblioteki v S-Peterburge [Catalogue of music manuscripts, letters and
portraits of Glinka, contained in the manuscript section of the Imperial
Public Library in St Petersburg] (St Petersburg, 1898)
N. Findeyzen, ed.: M.I. Glinka: polnoye sobraniye pisem [Complete
collection of letters] (St Petersburg, 1907)
M.D. Calvocoressi: Glinka: biographie critique (Paris, 1911)
M. Montagu-Nathan: Glinka (London, 1916/R)
A.N. Rimsky-Korsakov, ed.: M.I. Glinka: zapiski (Moscow and Leningrad,
1930)
G. Abraham: ‘Glinka and his Achievement’, Studies in Russian Music
(London, 1935), 21–42
G. Abraham: ‘Michael Glinka’, Masters of Russian Music, ed. M.D.
Calvocoressi and G. Abraham (London, 1936/R), 13–64
G. Abraham: On Russian Music (London, 1939) [incl. ‘A Life for the Tsar’,
1–19, ‘Ruslan and Lyudmila’, 20–42, ‘Glinka, Dargomïzhsky and The
Rusalka’, 43–51]
B. Asaf'yev: Glinka (Moscow, 1947, 3/1978)
T. Livanova, ed.: M.I. Glinka: sbornik materialov i stat'yey [Collection of
material and articles] (Moscow, 1950)
A.V. Ossovsky, ed.: M.I. Glinka: issledovaniya i materialï [Researches and
material] (Leningrad, 1950)
A. Serov: ‘“Ruslan” i ruslanistï’ [orig. 1867], Izbrannïye stat'i [Selected
essays], ed. G.N. Khubov, i (Moscow, 1950), 193–253
E. Kann-Novikova: M.I. Glinka: novïye materialï i dokumentï [New material
and documents] (Moscow, 1950–55)
A. Orlova and B.V. Asaf'yev, eds.: M.I. Glinka: letopis' zhizni i tvorchestva
[Record of Glinka’s life and work] (Moscow, 1952, 2/1978 as Letopis'
zhizni i tvorchestva M.I Glinki; Eng. trans., 1988, as Glinka’s Life in
Music)
H. Laroche [G. Larosh]: Izbrannïye stat'i o Glinke [Selected essays on
Glinka] (Moscow, 1953)
T. Livanova and V. Protopopov: Glinka: tvorcheskiy put' [Creative path]
(Moscow, 1955)
A. Orlova, ed.: Glinka v vospominaniyakh sovremennikov [Glinka in the
reminiscences of his contemporaries] (Moscow, 1955)
V. Stasov: Izbrannïye stat'i o M.I. Glinke [Selected essays on Glinka]
(Moscow, 1955)
E. Gordeyeva, ed.: M.I. Glinka: sbornik stat'yey [Collection of articles]
(Moscow, 1958) [incl. complete bibliography of Russ. titles]
V.A. Kiselyov, I.N. Livanova and V.V. Protopopov, eds.: Pamyati Glinki
1857–1957: issledovaniya i materialï [In memory of Glinka 1857–1957:
research and material] (Moscow, 1958)
V. Protopopov: ‘Ivan Susanin’ Glinki (Moscow, 1961)
A.S. Lyapunova, ed.: M. Glinka: Literaturnïye proizvedeniya i perepiska
[Writings and correspondence] (Moscow, 1973)
D. Brown: Mikhail Glinka: a Biographical and Critical Study (London, 1974)
R. Taruskin: ‘Glinka's Ambiguous Legacy and the Birth Pangs of Russian
Opera’, 19CM, i (1977–8), 142–62
G. Sal'nikov: Glinka v Smolenske (Moscow, 1983)
A. Rozanov: M.I. Glinka: chelovek, sobïtiya, vremya [Glinka: the man,
events, time] (Moscow, 1983)
Ye. Kachanova: Ivan Susanin M.I. Glinki (Moscow, 1986)
X. Korabljowa: ‘Michail Iwanowitsch Glinka und Siefgried Wilhelm Dehn:
Glinkas Studien in Berlin’, Studien zur berliner Musikgeschichte vom
18. Jahrhunderts bis zur Gegenwart: Berlin 1987, 127–32
O. Levashova: Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka (Moscow, 1987–8)
S. Frolov: ‘Glinka: “Ivan Susanin” – “Zhizn' za tsarya”’, SovM (1989), no.1,
pp.89–91
N. Ugryumov: Opera M.I. Glinki ‘Zhizn' za tsarya’ [Glinka’s opera A Life for
the Tsar] (Leningrad, 1991)
M. Frolova-Walker: ‘On Ruslan and Russianness’, COJ, ix (1997), 21–45
R. Taruskin: ‘How the Acorn Took Root: a Tale of Russia’, 19CM, vi (1982–
3), 189–212; repr. in idem: Defining Russia Musically: Historical and
Hermeneutical Essays (Princeton, NJ, 1997), 113–51
R. Taruskin: ‘M.I. Glinka and the State’, Defining Russia Musically:
Historical and Hermeneutical Essays (Princeton, NJ, 1997), 25–47
Gliński [Hercenstein], Mateusz
[Matteo]
(b Warsaw, 6 April 1892; d Welland, ON, 3 Jan 1976). Polish music
journalist, conductor and composer. While a law student at Warsaw
University, he studied music with Stanisław Barcewicz (violin), Roman
Statkowski (composition) and Mieczysław Surzyński (theory) at the Institute
of Music in Warsaw (1909–13). He continued his musical education under
Max Reger (composition), Arthur Nikisch and Hans Sitt (conducting) at the
Leipzig Conservatory, at the same time studying musicology at the
university with Hugo Riemann and Arnold Schering (1913–14). He
completed his study of conducting and composition with Nikolay
Tcherepnin, Aleksandr Glazunov and Maximilian Steinberg at the Petrograd
Conservatory (1914–15) and stayed in Russia (Petrograd, Kiev) as
conductor and music critic until 1918, when he returned to Poland. He lived
in Warsaw until 1939, dividing his time between his profession as a lawyer
and his work as a music journalist and critic. In 1924 he founded the
periodical Muzyka, which he edited until 1938. Gliński initiated the Polish
section of the ISCM (serving as vice-chairman 1924–35), and founded the
Polish Association of Music Reviewers (serving as chairman 1926–39).
From 1939 to 1955 he lived in Rome, where he was a musical adviser to
Vatican Radio and was active as a conductor, musical administrator, critic
and editor. He was the founder of the Istituto Internazionale Federico
Chopin in Rome in 1949. In 1956 Gliński moved to the USA, and he
founded the International Chopin Foundation in Detroit in 1957. In 1959 he
went to live in Canada, where he led a busy life as a conductor and
promoted interest in Chopin. Gliński composed an opera (L’aiglon),
orchestral choral music, and piano works and songs.
WRITINGS
‘Ocherki po istorii dirizhorskovo iskusstva: istoriya dirizhorskikh sistem’ [An
outline of the history of the art of conducting: the history of conducting
systems], MS (1916–17), no.3, pp.26–62
Aleksander Skrjabin (Warsaw, 1934; It. trans., 1941)
Asprilio Pacelli, insigne maestro di cappella della corte reale di Polonia
(1570–1623) (Vatican City, 1941)
Spiritualità dell’Ottocento musicale (Rome, 1941)
La prima stagione lirica italiana all’estero (1628) (Siena, 1943)
Lorenzo Perosi (Milan, 1953)
Chopin’s Letters to Delfina (Windsor, ON, 1961)
Chopin the Unknown (Windsor, ON, 1963)
Testament Mateusza Glińskiego (London, 1982) [autobiography]
EDITION
Asprilio Pacelli: Madrigali, Opera omnia (Rome, 1947)
ZYGMUNT M. SZWEYKOWSKI

Glissade
(Fr.).
See Slide, §(2).

Glissando
(italianized, from Fr. glisser: ‘to slide’; It. strisciando).
A term generally used as an instruction to execute a passage in a rapid,
sliding movement. When applied to playing the piano and the harp,
glissando generally refers to the effect obtained not by fingering the key or
strings of scales but by sliding rapidly over the relevant keys or strings with
the fingernails or the fingertips. Because of the nature of the piano and the
harp, every individual tone or semitone of such glissando scales is clearly
heard, no matter how rapid the ‘sliding’ (see Harp, §V, 7(iv) (b)). On the
other hand, with the voice, violin or trombone, a sliding from one pitch to
another is more readily effected without distinguishing any of the
intervening notes, a method of sliding which is often called Portamento
(see Portamento (i) and (ii)). Other instruments capable of sliding are the
clarinet, the horn and the timpani. By their very nature, both types of sliding
must be legato and relatively rapid.
In practice, the terms glissando and portamento are often confused and
used interchangeably. However, if the distinctions made above are kept, it
follows that the piano and the harp, which have fixed semitones, can play
glissando but not portamento; and the voice, members of the violin family
and the trombone can produce either type of sliding, although glissando is
far more difficult for them.
Two examples of sliding on the violin will illustrate the distinctions just
made between the two terms. Ex.1a shows a chromatic glissando (Lalo:
Symphonie espagnole, fourth movement), although no such term is used
by Lalo. The passage shows clearly that Lalo wished every semitone to be
distinguished in the downward slide from e'''' to e'', even at the speed
implied by the demi-semiquavers. The slur directs the player to use a
single bow stroke for the glissando, and the use of a single finger in sliding
is implied (up to the last few notes). This type of glissando probably had its
origins either in the ‘Couler à Mestrino’ (ex.1b), a quasi-portamento
expressive effect illustrated by Woldemar (Grande méthode ou étude
élémentaire pour le violon, Paris, 1798–9) but apparently adopted by
Nicola Mestrino in most slow movements, or in Rameau's idea, in the first
violin part of his opera Platée (1749), of depicting the words ‘Ce sont des
pleurs’ (Act 3 scene iv) by ‘sliding the same finger, and making audible the
two quarter-tones between e' and f'.
In ex.2, taken from the second movement of Bartók's Fourth String Quartet,
the composer indicated a sliding by a diagonal line – he used no terms.
Obviously, at the prestissimo tempo of the movement, the slide must be a
portamento, there being no time to distinguish any intervening notes. All
four instruments of the quartet are directed to slide, as shown.

Flesch proposed that glissando be used to mean a technically essential

type of violin shift (the shift to be carried out quickly and unobtrusively) and
that portamento be used for a type of shift (carried out either slowly or
rapidly) intended to heighten the expression. These distinctions, however,
have not been universally accepted. In Galamian's terminology, for
instance, Flesch's portamento becomes ‘expressive glissando’. Because of
the variety and confusion of terms and meanings, Flesch used the term
‘chromatic glissando’ to describe the passage shown in ex.1a in order to
make explicit the articulation of each individual semitone.
The first known composer to specify glissando was Carlo Farina, whose
imaginative, if ostentatious, efforts to imitate animal and bird sounds in his
Capriccio stravagante (1627) extended the technical and descriptive range
of violin writing. Modifications to the neck and fingerboard of bowed
stringed instruments about 1800 resulted in a marked increase in the
exploitation of the higher positions on all strings, with either tonal uniformity
or bravura effect in mind, and opened the way for 19th-century virtuosos
such as Lolli and Paganini to incorporate the glissando in their technical
vocabulary. Descending glissandos were more common and most
examples of violin glissando occurred on the E string (e.g. as in the first
movement of Bériot's Second Violin Concerto, 1835, or in Vieuxtemps's
Third Violin Concerto op.25, 1844). However, Lolli is reported (AMZ, i
(1798–9), col.577–84, esp. 580) to have ‘glided [from g'], without further
fingering, through all the mediants to [g''] and so on … up to the extreme
end of the fingerboard. Only the bow marked the main notes with a short
staccato, while the finger … slid to the final note’. The una corda
extravaganzas of Paganini (e.g. Introduction and Variations on ‘Dal tuo
stellato soglio’ from Rossini's Mosè in Egitto, ?1819) and his successors
(e.g. Vieuxtemps's Norma op.18, c1845 or Bériot's Air varié op.52) resulted
in the common exploitation of glissandos on the G string. However, the
effect has been prescribed for all strings of the instrument (e.g. ascending
and descending in 6ths in Bériot's Third Violin Concerto, first movement),
for most stringed instruments and in a variety of instrumental genres,
ranging from solo works (e.g. Britten's Violin Concerto, 1939;
Szymanowski's Nocturne and Tarantella op.28, 1915) to chamber music
(e.g. the opening of Penderecki's String Quartet no.1, 1960) and examples
from the orchestral repertory (e.g. Strauss's Till Eulenspiegel, 1894–5). The
glissando has been employed in original and effective ways by such
composers as Giacomo Manzoni (Nuovo incontro, 1984) and Salvatore
Sciarrino (Capricci, 1975).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Flesch: Die Kunst des Violinspiels, i (Berlin, 1923, 2/1929; Eng. trans.,
1924, 2/1939); ii (Berlin, 1928; Eng. trans., 1930)
W. Piston: Orchestration (New York, 1955)
I. Galamian: Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching (Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, 1962, 2/1985)
N. Del Mar: Anatomy of the Orchestra (London, 1981)
R. Stowell: Violin Technique and Performance Practice in the Late
Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (Cambridge, 1985)
DAVID D. BOYDEN/ROBIN STOWELL

Globokar, Vinko
(b Anderny, Meurthe-et-Moselle, 7 July 1934). Slovene composer and
trombonist. He lived in France until 1947, when he moved to Ljubljana to
study at the music school and conservatory, gaining his diploma in 1954. In
1955 he began studies at the Paris Conservatoire, where he won first
prizes for trombone (1959) and chamber music. He studied composition
and conducting with Leibowitz (1959–63) and composition with Berio in
Berlin (1965). In 1966 Globokar joined a performing group for new music at
SUNY (Buffalo), and in 1968 he was appointed to teach the trombone at
the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik in Cologne and composition at the
Cologne Courses for New Music. He founded the Free Music Group in
1969 and a quartet, New Phonic Art, also in 1969, both of which perform
contemporary music, including many of his own works. He also performed
in Stockhausen's group, and from 1973 to 1979 was head of vocal-
instrumental research at IRCAM, Paris.
Having studied in both France and Germany, Globokar was able to make
early contact with the latest compositional trends in Europe. His
 phenomenal virtuoso technique on the trombone also attracted many
composers to write for him, among them Stockhausen (trombone version of
Solo), Berio (Sequenza V) and Kagel (Atem and Morceau de concours).
Globokar's cosmopolitan approach, his prodigious technique and his
riotous imagination, his early interest in jazz and his theatrical sense of
humour have all combined to produce a series of original works. Voie
(1965–6), a sometimes very complex score, shows his handling of large
subdivided groups with the soloistic use of a chorus, while Accord makes
sensitive use of a small chamber group, in which the voice is used as an
instrument, and which fully uses current developments in instrumental
technique. The dramatic implications of these works were made explicit in
a later series of works, including the bizarre and sometimes very funny
Traumdeutung (Gaudeamus Prize 1968) and the nine Discours pieces.
Entrances and exits, for example, are staged in order to reinforce the
musical events; instrumental demands are extended to include singing
while playing and producing many unorthodox sounds. Globokar's
theatrical approach was developed further in works for his performing
groups, including Drama and Correspondences, in which exactly notated
material is gradually abandoned until the players are left only with
improvisation instructions. He has also developed elaborate staged concert
works, sometimes approaching operas in scope, for large ensembles with
speakers and singers, the most notable being Les émigrés (1982–6).
Unlike many of his compatriots, Globokar has not used folksong
extensively, except in the fascinating Etudes pour folklora (1968), where
Yugoslav instruments – the gusle, dvojnice and tambura – are used
prominently.
WORKS
vocal and orchestral
Voie (V. Maiakovsky), narr, chorus, orch, 1965–6; Accord (Globokar), S, fl, trbn, vc,
elec org, perc, 1966; Traumdeutung (psychodrama, E. Sanguineti), 4 chorus, cel,
hp, vib, gui, perc, 1967; Etude pour folklora I, 19 insts, 1968; Etude pour folklora II,
orch, 1968; Concerto grosso, 5 insts, chorus, orch, 1969–75; Ausstrahlungen,
ob/cl/sax/bn, 20 insts, 1971; Vendre le vent, 9 wind, pf, perc, 1972; Laboratorium,
11 musicians, 1973–85; Das Orchester, orch, 1974; Material zur Diskussion eines
historischen Instruments, orch, 1974; Un jour comme un autre, S, 5 inst, 1975;
Carrousel, 4 solo vv, 16 insts, 1976; Standpunkte, chorus, orch, 1977; La tromba e
mobile, wind orch, 1979; Der Käfig, improviser, orch, 1980; Jenseits der Sicherheit,
1v, 1981; Le émigrés, singers, jazz group, orch, 1982–6; Hallo! do you Hear me?,
chorus, jazz qnt, orch, tape, 1986; L'armonia drammatica (op.2, text in Ger., It.,
Slovene, Fr. and Eng. compiled by T. Ažman), 7vv, chorus, orch, 1987–90; Kolo,
chorus, trbn, 1988; Eisenberg, 16 musicians ad lib, 1990; Labour, orch, 1992;
Letters, S, 2 cl, va, vc, db, 1994
chamber and solo instrumental
6 pièces brèves, str qt, c1962; Vibone, trbn, vib, 1963; Plan, zarb, b cl, t sax, cornet,
trbn, 1965; Fluide, 3 hn, 2 tpt, flugel hn, 2 trbn, tuba, 3 perc, 1967; Discours I, trbn,
4 perc, 1967, withdrawn; Discours II, 5 trbn, 1967–8; Discours III, 5 ob, 1969;
Correspondences, 1 ww, 1 brass, 1 perc, 1 kbd, 1969; La ronde, melody inst/insts,
1970; Drama, pf, perc, 1971; Atemstudie, ob, 1972; Notes, pf, 1972; Echanges, 1
inst, 1973; Limites, vn/va, 1973; Res/as/ex/ins-pirer, 1 brass inst, 1973; Toucher,
perc, 1973; Voix instrumentalisée, b cl, 1973; Discours IV, 3 cl, 1974;
Dédoublement, cl, 1975; Monolith, fl, 1976; Vorstellung, 1 wind/1 str/1 brass, film,
1976; Discours V, 4 sax, 1981; Discours VI, str qt, 1981; Tribadabum extensif sur
Par une forêt de symboles, 6 musicians ad lib, 1986; Discours VII, brass qt,
Kvadrat, 4 perc, 1989; Discours VIII, wind qnt, 1989–90; Pendulum, vc, 1991;
Élégie balkanique, fl, gui, perc, 1992; Blinde Zeit, 7 insts, 1993; Discours IX, 2 pf,
1993; Dialog über Erde, perc, 1994; Dialog über Feuer, db, 1994; Dialog über Luft,
accdn, 1994; Dialog über Wasser, elec and acoustic guis, 1994
electro-acoustic
Airs de voyages vers l'intérieur, 8 solo vv, cl, trbn, elec, 1972; Koexistenz, 2 vc,
elec, 1976; Pre-Occupation, org, tape, 1980; Introspection d'un tubiste, tuba, tape,
lighting, 1983; Ombre, singing percussionist, tape, rhythm machine, 1989; Prestop
I, cl, elec, 1991; Prestop II, trbn, elec, 1991

Principal publisher: Peters, Ricordi

WRITINGS
‘Problem instrumentalnega in glasbenega teatra’, MZ, iv (1968), 132–7
‘Vom Standpunkt eines Interpreten’, Melos, xxxvi (1969), 513 only
‘Réagir’, Musique en jeu, i (1970), 70–77
‘Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten der Blasinstrumente’, Sonda (1970)
‘Reagovanje’, Zvuk, nos.80–81 (1970), 91–5
‘Oni improvizuju … improvizujte … improvizujmo’, Zvuk, nos.115–16
(1971), 281–4
‘Interpretator stvaralac’ [Interpreter-composer], Zvuk, no.3 (1975), 5–11
Vdih←→Izdih [Inhalation←→Exhalation] (Ljubljana, 1987)
‘Ob delu Halo! Me slište?/Annotations to my piece Hallo! do you Hear me?’,
MZ, xxiii (1987), 99–102
Einatmen, Ausatmen (Hofheim, 1994)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Jirku: ‘Riječ kao mogućnost muzike’ [The story as a musical possibility],
Telegram (Zagreb, 9 May 1969)
R. Gregory: ‘Recent Developments in Technique’, The Trombone (London,
1973)
W. König: Vinko Globokar: Komposition und Improvisation (Wiesbaden,
1977)
N. O'Loughlin: Slovenian Composition since the First World War (diss., U.
of Leicester, 1978)
A. Rijavec: Slovenska glasbena dela [Slovene musical works] (Ljubljana,
1979), 68–77
E.R. Lund: The Discourse of Vinko Globokar: to Speak is to Play (DMA
diss., U. of Illinois, 1988)
W. Klüppelholz: ‘Vinko Globokar – Fiziognomijska skica’, Zvuk, no.3
(1990), 41–6
K. Bedina: ‘Vinko Globokar: d idejo izseljenstva v glasbi, improvizacijo in
glasbenim gledališčem’ [Vinko Globokar: between the idea of
emigration and music, improvisation and musical theatre], XXVII.
seminar slovenskega jezika, literature in kulture: Ljubljana 1991
(Ljubljana, 1991), 249–59
W. Klüppelholz: ‘Vinko Globokar: fiziognomična skica/Vinko Globokar:
Eine physiognomische Skizze’, Slovenska glasba v preteklosti in
sedanjosti, ed. P. Kuret (Ljubljana, 1992), 288–98
V. Globokar, L. Lebič and J. Jež: ‘Pogovor z Vinkom Globokarjem in
Lojzetom Lebičem ib njuni 60-letnici’ [Conversation with Vinko
Globokar and Lojze Lebič in their 60th years], Naši zbori, xlvi/3–4
(1994), 69–74
N. O'Loughlin: ‘Vinko Globokar, agent provocateur: Shock Tactics in the
Concert Hall’, Provokacija v glasbi, ed. P. Kuret (Ljubljana, 1994), 177–
88
NIALL O’LOUGHLIN

Glock, Sir William

(b London, 3 May 1908; d Oxford, 28 June 2000). English music
administrator, pianist, educationist and critic. He was educated at Christ’s
Hospital and Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, where he was an
organ scholar, and studied with Artur Schnabel in Berlin (1930–33). But
though he developed into a fine pianist and made some successful concert
appearances, notably in chamber music and in a series of Mozart
concertos, which he performed with impeccable technique and style, he at
first became a music critic. After a brief period on the Daily Telegraph he
joined The Observer (1934–45), succeeding A.H. Fox Strangways as chief
critic (1939). He began a new phase of his career as a musical educationist
in 1948, when he founded the Summer School of Music at Bryanston,
Dorset; it moved in 1953 to Dartington Hall, Devon, and Glock remained its
music director until 1979. In 1949 Glock founded The Score, a periodical
which gave special (but not exclusive) attention to contemporary music. 28
issues (reprinted by Kraus in four volumes) appeared in the following 12
years. From 1954 to 1958 as chairman of the ICA Music Section he was
responsible for promoting a notable series of concerts of contemporary
music, at a time when it was neglected in London.
These activities prepared for Glock’s appointment as controller of music at
the BBC (1959–73). In this position he invigorated London’s musical life by
bringing forward music by neglected and living composers and breathing
new vitality into what had become a stagnant scene. An essential element
of his success in this position lay in his imaginative programme planning,
particularly in his ability to bring together old and new music to their mutual
illumination. This was particularly evident in the Third Programme invitation
concerts, which he launched, and in the transformation he brought about in
the Henry Wood Promenade Concerts at the Royal Albert Hall. He was
also responsible for introducing many artists to London, most notably
Boulez, whose appointment as chief conductor of the BBC SO in 1971
crowned Glock’s 14 years at the BBC.
Glock’s talents as a music administrator remained in demand. From 1968
to 1973 he was a member of the board of the Royal Opera House, Covent
Garden, and he directed the Bath Festival from 1975. In 1972 he joined
Schott as general editor of Eulenburg books. After retiring from the BBC he
made appearances as a pianist, mainly in chamber music, including one at
the 1974 Proms. He received honorary degrees at the universities of
Nottingham (1968) and York (1972); he was made a member of the Royal
Philharmonic Society in 1971 and in the same year received the Albert
Medal of the Royal Society of Arts. He was knighted in 1970.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Glock: The BBC’s Music Policy (London, 1963)
A. Orga: The Proms (Newton Abbot, 1974)
PETER HEYWORTH

Glocke
(Ger., pl. Glocken).
See Bell (i) and Tubular bells.

Glockenspiel (i)
(Ger., also Stahlspiel; Fr. (jeu de) timbres, carillon; It. campanelli,
campanette).
A percussion idiophone, a Metallophone with tuned metal bars (usually of
steel) of graduated length, arranged in two rows like the piano keyboard (in
the Hornbostel and Sachs system it is classified as an idiophone: set of
percussion plaques). Modern nomenclature includes the abbreviation
‘glock’ and the American use of ‘bells’, a term now universally recognized
though frequently confused with Tubular bells. In Germany ‘Glockenspiel’,
also means Carillon and is further applied to the smaller diatonic sets of
bells known in England as Chimes. There are two types of orchestral
glockenspiel: the open type (see illustration), played with mallets (the
glockenspiel has sometimes been confused with another mallet-played
instrument, the dulcimer); and that with a keyboard mechanism. Maximum
resonance is obtained by the bars being supported on felt (or similar
insulation) or otherwise suspended at the nodal points. These positions
may be determined by Chladni’s method (metal filings or a similar
substance strewn on the bar will, when the bar is vibrating, form two ridges
transversely where it is to be supported; see Physics of music). The
instrument with a miniature piano keyboard has a compass of two and a
quarter to three and a half octaves; small metal hammers strike the bars
from below. The mallet-played instrument is struck with small hammers
consisting of flexible cane shafts mounted with heads of wood, bone,
plastic, rubber or, in rare cases, metal. The beaters are held as timpani
mallets. In certain cases the open glockenspiel has tube resonators, as for
example the instruments patented in the early 1900s by J.C. Deagan & Co.
of Chicago (‘Deagan Parsifal Bells’). The glockenspiel usually has a range
of two and a half octaves (F–c''), but at the end of the 20th century an
instrument of three octaves (F–e'') with a damping mechanism operated by
a foot pedal was in wide use. The latter instrument, made by Bergerault,
was designed to cope with the larger range required in some contemporary
music. Instruments going down to C are also found.
Metallophones in the form of graduated metal plates struck with beaters
have existed in East Asia for over 1000 years (examples include the
Javanese saron and gendèr). In Europe, the earliest known reference to a
glockenspiel-type metallophone was made by Grassineau (Musical
Dictionary, 1769), who referred to a ‘cymbal’ constructed of bars made of
bell metal and silver, with a compass of more than three octaves. The bars,
which were struck with ‘knobs of wood at the end of sticks’, were arranged
keyboard-fashion ‘in the manner of a spinet’. The earliest use of a
glockenspiel dates from this period, in Handel’s Saul (1739). Handel’s
instrument, which he called a ‘carillon’, consisted of a series of metal plates
(or possibly small bells) with a compass of two octaves and a 4th, and had
a chromatic keyboard. Charles Jennens described this instrument as ‘both
in the make and tone like a series of hammers striking upon anvils’ (letter
to Lord Guernsey, 19 September 1738). Handel scored for this instrument
in other works as well, including revivals of Il Trionfo del Tempo and Acis
and Galatea (both 1739), and in L’Allegro il Penseroso ed il Moderato
(1740). Half a century later Mozart scored for a glockenspiel (strumento
d’acciaio) in Die Zauberflöte (1791), to represent Papageno’s magic bells.
This instrument has been described by Berlioz and Gevaert as a series of
small bells operated by a mechanism of keys.
The mallet-played orchestral glockenspiel, which may have developed from
the lyra-glockenspiel (see Bell-lyra) as used in German military bands, did
not make a firm appearance in the orchestra until the middle of the 19th
century. An instrument of this type may have been used in Adam’s Si j’étais
roi (?1852), and in Wagner’s orchestra in place of the then generally used
continental keyboard glockenspiel. In England at this period, mention is
made of an interesting form of glockenspiel: the ‘New Patent Educational
Transposing Metallic Harmonicon’, an inspiration of Thomas Croger, in
which the metal bars were removable for transposition, rendering the
instrument – according to its inventor – ‘useful in schools where singing is
being studied’.
From Wagner onwards writing for the orchestral glockenspiel suggests a
frequent employment of the mallet-played instrument, though in
circumstances such as Puccini’s operas Turandot and Madama Butterfly
(campanelli a tasteria), Dukas’ L’apprenti sorcier, Debussy’s La mer,
Respighi’s Pini di Roma and Honegger’s Fourth Symphony, an instrument
with a piano action was obviously intended. The better-known examples of
the use of the orchestral glockenspiel include the Dance of the Hours (La
Gioconda) by Ponchielli, the Bell Song (Lakmé) by Delibes, Strauss’s Don
Juan, Tchaikovsky’s suite Nutcracker, Elgar’s The Dream of Gerontius,
Ravel’s Daphnis et Chloé, Vaughan Williams’s A London Symphony,
Holst’s suite The Planets, Kodály’s Dances of Galánta, Copland’s Third
Symphony, Britten’s The Prince of the Pagodas, Orff’s Oedipus der Tyrann
(three glockenspiels, one with keys) and Boulez’s Pli selon pli. An important
part is given to the glockenspiel in Siegfried Strohbach’s Concerto in G
(1959) which is scored for two flutes, glockenspiel and string orchestra.
In the orchestral repertory the glockenspiel has been the most freely used
of all tuned percussion instruments. The keyed glockenspiel was, at the
end of the 20th century, used relatively rarely, as the mallet-played
instrument is superior in tone and offers through choice of mallets a greater
variety of colours. Even parts written specifically for the keyed glockenspiel,
such as that in Messiaen’s Turangalîla-symphonie (1946–8), were
 sometimes assigned to the mallet-played instrument. Composers often
employ its bell-like tone imitatively. The music for the instrument is written
in the treble clef, usually two octaves lower than sounding.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BladesPI
H. Berlioz: Grand traité d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes
(Paris, 1843, 2/1855/R; Eng. trans., 1856, rev. 2/1882/R by J. Bennett)
F.A. Gevaert: Nouveau traité d’instrumentation (Paris and Brussels, 1885)
W. Ellerhorst: Das Glockenspiel (Kassel, 1940)
N. Del Mar: Anatomy of the Orchestra (London, 1981)
JAMES BLADES/JAMES HOLLAND

Glockenspiel (ii).
See under Organ stop.

Glockenspiel, militär
(Ger.).
See Bell-lyra.

Glodeanu, Liviu
(b Dîrja, Cluj, 6 Aug 1938; d Bucharest, 31 March 1978). Romanian
composer. He studied at the Cluj Conservatory (1955–7) with Liviu Comes
(harmony) and at the Bucharest Conservatory (1957–61) with Marţian
Negrea (composition) and Alfred Mendelsohn (orchestration). He began his
career as a researcher at the Institute of Folklore in Bucharest, but his main
work was with the George Enescu PO (1963–78) as music secretary. His
output ranges from orchestral and film music to chamber and choral works
and includes two operas based on ancient classical drama, both to his own
librettos: the five-scene Zamolxe op.23 (1969), after Lucian Blaga, and
Ulysses op.20 bis, a one-act ballet-opera based on a versification of
Homer’s epic by Mihai Ungureanu. Zamolxe was broadcast on 8 October
1969 and both works received their stage premières on 25 April 1973 at the
Romanian Opera House, Cluj. Glodeanu’s highly original melodic and
harmonic writing (usually in a modal or folk style) produced intense and
dramatic music with strong contrasts. He used recitative and drew on
traditional Romanian musical forms (laments, Christmas carols); his
imaginative scoring sometimes includes ancient or primitive instruments
(pipes, drums, wooden plates).
WORKS
(selective list)

Ops: Ulysses (op-ballet, 1, Glodeanu, after M. Ungureanu), op.20 bis, 1968, Cluj,
Romanian Opera, 25 April 1973; Zamolxe (5 tableaux, Glodeanu, after L. Blaga),
op.23, 1969, staged Cluj, Romanian Opera, 25 April 1973; Le tableau parlant de
Gretry (1), broadcast 8 Oct 1969
Vocal: Tinerii soldaţi care au murit [The Young Soldiers who Died] (cant., A.
Macleisch), op.2, A, male chorus, orch, 1958; Inscripţie pe un leagăn [Inscription on
a Cradle] (cant., Z. Stancu), op.4, Mez, Bar, chorus, orch, 1959; 3 cîntece [3 Songs]
(F. García Lorca), op.7, S, fl, pf, 1960; Cant. 1933 (N. Stănescu), op.11, Bar,
chorus, orch, 1961; Suită (trad.), op.9, children’s chorus, wind, perc, 1961; Vocalize
[Vocalizations], op.15, S, fl, va, mar, 1963; Ulysse [Ulysses] (Ungureanu), op.20,
S/T, orch, 1967
Orch: Conc., op.5, str, perc, 1959; Pf Conc., op.8, 1960; Mişcare simfonică
[Symphonic Movement], op.10, 1961; Fl Conc., op.13, 1962; Vn Conc., op.19,
1966; Studii [Studies], op.21, 1967
Chbr and solo inst: Pf Sonata no.1, op.1, 1958; Sonata, op.3, cl, pf, 1959; Preludiu,
coral şi fugă [Prelude, Choral and Fugue], op.12, pf, 1962; Invenţiuni [Inventions],
op.14, wind qnt, perc, 1963; Pf Sonata no.2, op.18, 1963
Film scores and choral works

BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Cosma: Muzicieni români (Bucharest, 1970)
C. Tăranu: ‘Spectacol Glodeanu la Opera din Cluj’ [The performance of
Glodeanu at the Cluj Opera], Muzica, xxiii/10 (1973), 23–5
G.W. Berger: Muzica simfonică contemporană 1950–70 (Bucharest, 1977),
155–276
O.L. Cosma: ‘Impactul genurilor instrumentale asupra celor vocale:
“Zamolxe” de L. Glodeanu’, Cercetări de muzicologie [Musicological
studies], v (1988), 35–52
VIOREL COSMA

Glogauer Liederbuch
(PL-Kj 40098). See Sources, MS, §IX, 7, and Sources of instrumental
ensemble music to 1630, §4.

Glonti, Felix
(b Batumi, 8 Nov 1927). Georgian composer. He studied composition at
Leningrad Conservatory with Kushnaryov (1949–54) and then in Tbilisi
Conservatory with I. Tuskia. Since 1954 he has worked independently, only
taking up a teaching post at the Tbilisi Conservatory in 1978, later being
made a professor. A member of the governing board of the Georgian
Composers’ Union, he is an Honoured Artist (1979) and a National Artist
(1988) of Georgian SSR, has received the State Prize for Georgia (1992)
and is Laureate of the International Prokofiev Competition (1999).
Glonti’s work represents an organic link between the Western symphonic
traditions of the 19th century and the artistic context of recent times in
Georgia. His 12 monumental symphonies, which frequently employ vocal
parts, are essentially dramatic in character, and bear the imprint of an
introspective, alienated temperament.
In his spiritual and ethical outlook, he identifies with humanism and finds
inspiration in the works of Dante, Petrarch, Shakespeare, H. Hölderlin and
Rilke. Taking Mahler as his artistic model, Glonti endeavours to express
 what is inherent in poetry that which is also of importance to the present
day. In his music there prevails a pull towards highly personal, expressive
utterance, psychologism, to the romantic ideal, and explorations of the
psyche of modern man. This tendency has been evident since the earlier
tonal symphonies; over the years his style has embraced new expressive
and structural possibilities (such as atonal, serial and aleatory techniques),
these do not represent a radical change in the composer’s basic form of
communication. In his own view Glonti remains, as before, an adherent to
the Romantic aesthetic. All his symphonic output is written in a single
stylistic key, evidence of his abiding artistic outlook.
A journey from agonising uncertainty to a cleansing catharsis characterizes
the dramatic concept of Glonti’s most successful symphonies, notably the
Sixth, ‘Vita nova’ (1979), the Tenth ‘Pax humana’ (1984) and the Eleventh
‘Mundus apertus’ (1987). The essence of his music lies in the emotional
richness of ideas, the gradual growth of dramatic tension, clashes between
‘interior’ and ‘exterior’ and conflicts of extremes of events. Such antitheses
are created, in part, through contrasts of motion, of timbre and of register.
With the years the symphonies become increasingly slow in tempo and
adopt a meditative quality; such slow sections indeed often constitute a
culmination point in the drama or herald a new inner conflict. Beginning
with the Sixth Symphony, the composer adopts a one-movement form and
serial techniques. The musical language becomes more contemporary,
capacious and laconic, with increasing dissonances and expressiveness in
the melodic line. Increasingly versatile orchestration and the use of clusters
and other effects have served to update the composer’s style and to
address current artistic problems.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Gantiadi [Daybreak] (ballet, 2, V. Chabukiani), 1967, Tbilisi, 29 Oct 1967;

Iberilebi [The Iberians] (op, 4, G. Leonidze and Glonti), 1970, rev. 1994; Kleopatra
(op, 4, R. Tabukashvili, after W. Shakespeare), 1976, rev. 1995
12 syms.: no.l ‘Gorizontiï mira’ [The World’s Horizon’s], 1961, rev. as
‘Romanticheskaya simfoniya’, 1974; no.2, 1966; no.3, 1969; no.4, 1971; no.5, 1974;
no.6 ‘Vita nova’ (Dante), Mez, orch, 1979; no.7 ‘Fiatlux’ (Dante), chorus, orch, 1981;
no.8 ‘Simfonicheskiye gruppï, ikh invariantï i predstavleniya’ [Sym. groups, their
Invariants and Performances], 1982; no 9, elec pf, orch, 1983; no.10 ‘Pax humana’
(L. Bakhtrioneli), solo vv, spkr, chorus, orch, 1984; no.11 ‘Mundus apertus’ (G.
Bruno), Mez, orch, 1987, rev. 1996; no.12 ‘Symfoniya-Liturgiya’ (D.
Agmashenebeli), S, Bar, chorus, orch, 1989
Other orch: Pf Conc., 1954; Sym. poem ‘Bedi Kartlisa’ [Georgia’s Destiny], 1957;
Conc.-Sym. ‘Simfonicheskiye meditatsii’, vc, orch, 1977 [after theme by F. Petrarch];
Conc. grosso ‘Metamorfoza zhini’ [The Metamorphosis of Life], vc, orch, 1985;
Sym.-Conc., vn, orch, 1986; Simfonia concertante ‘Godï stranstviy’ [Years of
Wandering], pf, orch, 1990; Simfonia concertante ‘Marienbadische Elegie’, vc, orch,
1990; Simfonia concertante ‘Symfonicheskiye meditatsii’, vn, orch, 1993 [after
themes by R.M. Rilke]; Simfonia concertante, pf, orch, 1997
Vocal: 2 romansa (I. Chavchavadze and N. Baratashvili), 1v, pf, 1959; Galaktion
‘Geroicheskaya oratoriya’ [A Hero’s Orat.] (G. Tabidze), 1v, chorus, orch, 1980;
Iberiyskiye gimnï’ [Iberian Hymns] (cycle, 5th–11th centuries), chorus, 1980; Ode to
Life, Happiness and Love (J.G. Brown), S, T, chorus, orch, 1996; 3 sonetï (Brown
and Plato), Mez, B, T, pf, 1997
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt, 1953; 10 khoreograficheskikh gravyur [10 Choreographic
Engravings], pf, 1967; Str Qt, 1985; Music for Strs, 1987; Duėt, pf, gui, 1995;
Noktyurn, gui, 1995

Incid music and film scores

Principal publisher: Muzfond Gruzii, Tbilisi

WRITINGS
‘K voprosu ėvolyutsii kompozitorskoy tekhniki XX v’ [Concerning the
development of compositional techniques in the twentieth century],
Sbornik Trudov Tbilisskoi Goskonservatorii, ed. V. Saradzhishvili, x
(1982), 225–47
‘Ėffekt “Satiatsii” kak determinant kompozitsii v violonchel'nom kontserte
Lyutoslavskogo’ [The ‘Satiation’ effect as a compositional determinant
in Lutosławski’s cello concerto], Sbornik Trudov Tbilisskoi
Goskonservatorii, ed. V. Saradzhishvili, xxii (1994), 312–28
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N. Chkheidze: ‘Kartuli baleti’ [New Georgian ballet], Sabchota khelovneba
(1968), no.5, pp.35–8
G. Orjonikdze: ‘Kartuli sabchota musikis 60 tseli’ [60 years of Soviet
Georgian music], Sabchota khelovneba (1977), no.11, pp.28–33
V. Zaridze: ‘Simponia “Vita Nova”’, Literaturuli sakartvelo (4 May 1979)
A. Machavariani: ‘Akhali kartuli simphonia’ [The new Georgian symphony],
Literaturuli sakartvelo (6 Feb 1981)
A. Loriya: ‘Simfoniya-kontsert dlya violoncheli i orkestra F. Glonti’, Sbornik
Trudov Tbilisskoi Goskonservatorii, ed. V. Saradzhishvili, x (1982), 181
only
N. Zhgenti: ‘Khelovani da misi idealebi’ [An artist and his ideals], Sabchota
khelovneba (1988), no.4, 55–8
LEAH DOLIDZE

Gloria in excelsis Deo.

Hymn of praise, sung in the Latin Mass directly after the Kyrie on festal
occasions. Counted as part of the Ordinary of the Mass, the Gloria was
provided with over 50 chant settings during the Middle Ages. The text is
considered one of the great prose hymns of Christian literature, and the
chant melodies are among the more important of medieval chant. The
Liber usualis contains 15 of these chants in the Ordinary cycles plus four
more among the ad libitum chants. (Throughout this article melodies are
referred to by their Vatican number followed by their number in the Bosse
catalogue, e.g. Gloria I/12.)
1. Text and early use.
2. Early melodies: Gloria A/39.
3. Gloria IV/56.
4. Gloria I/12.
5. ‘Doxa en ipsistis’, and Gloria XIV/11.
6. Later melodies.
7. General; tropes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
RICHARD L. CROCKER/DAVID HILEY
Gloria in excelsis Deo
1. Text and early use.
The text begins with the angelic hymn from the account of the Nativity in
Luke ii.14, and continues with a series of disparate elements that includes
reiterated praises (‘Laudamus te …’), acclamatory invocations (‘Domine
Deus …’), petitions (‘… miserere nobis’) and a concluding doxology
(‘Quoniam …’). The whole text is usually construed in three sections: first,
praise to God the Father; second, a Christological section; third, the
concluding Trinitarian clause. The nature of the text, however, makes
several such constructions possible, and the various stages of
development of the text up to the 9th century, as well as the varying
structure of the chants, show that differing interpretations were made.
A shorter Greek version was used in the East as a hymn at morning and
evening prayer, and some comparable version was used in the West (in
Gaul) in the same way in the 6th century. The first extant Latin version,
different in important particulars from the received version, appears in the
Bangor Antiphoner (c690); the received version is first found in Frankish
sources of the 9th century. The Gloria is placed in its familiar liturgical
position after the Kyrie in the Ordines romani, in documents of the 8th
century that presumably report practice of the 7th century. While the text
itself suggests a close relationship to Christmas, liturgical practice
(whereby the Gloria could be used unrestrictedly at Easter but was limited
to the bishop at other times) suggests a closer relationship to Easter. In
any case the use is seasonal, being omitted in Advent and from
Septuagesima to Easter.
Gloria in excelsis Deo
2. Early melodies: Gloria A/39.
Documents containing melodies date from shortly after those containing
the received text: that is, from the 10th century. If any melody is to be dated
before that time it must be on the basis of conjecture. Evidence suggests
that at first the Gloria (after the intonation) was sung by the clergy and
people together, and from this it is usually concluded that the chant settings
must have been simple ones suitable for congregational participation. The
point at which the Gloria was presumably taken over by the Schola
Cantorum (after 800) coincides more or less with the appearance of
melodies far too elaborate for congregational singing. Gloria XV/43 has
often been taken to be the oldest of the Gloria chants, and thought to be in
fact an early congregational melody (in spite of the fact that it does not
appear in the very earliest series of documents). Gloria ad libitum IV is
another simple melody of a different type, taken from a 12th-century
Ambrosian source. It can be said that such melodies are so simple as to be
artistically neutral, basically uninformative about the more elevated
liturgical music of whatever period they may have come from.
In contrast to these simple melodies, the chant that has the best early
representation in the manuscripts is very elaborate, in fact in some ways
the most elaborate of all medieval Gloria settings. This chant, called ‘Gloria
A’ (A/39, sometimes ‘Gloria primus’) since it was not included in the Liber
usualis, was the one most frequently troped in the 9th and 10th centuries,
from which it has been concluded that it was the favourite festal chant at
that time (transcriptions in Rönnau; Evans; Falconer, 1993, MGG2; and D.
Hiley: Western Plainchant, Oxford, 1993, p.228; no critical edition is yet
available). One can go on to conclude that it was the first such chant, and
for a period the only one, and that it is much older than the others; but all
these conclusions are less secure. In any case it is not Gregorian (as the
weight of opinion now seems to agree); whether anything is gained by
calling it ‘Gallican’ seems doubtful. It is clearly distinct from chants of the
Gregorian corpus in the purposefulness of its motivic arrangement, and
closely allied to Frankish chants of the 9th and 10th centuries by the same
feature. The relatively florid style of its figuration, however, which might
superficially suggest Gregorian models, can be more seriously taken to
suggest some other kind of connection before or outside the Frankish 9th
century – possibly to a Byzantine prototype (see §5). Boe (1982) has
pointed out that not only is Gloria A/39 present in the Old Roman sources,
but what appears to be a simpler version of it is also found there, raising
the possibility of Roman origin.
Gloria A/39 is neumatic throughout, with three important melismas marking
off three paragraphs: ‘Glorificamus te’, ‘Jesu Christe’, and ‘Amen’ (not
counting the presumably interpolated melisma on the versicle Regnum
tuum solidum, after ‘altissimus’). The first two paragraphs cadence on a–b
–a, the last on g–f. A single formula is repeated for the laudes in the first
paragraph, with cadence on g–a. More complex formulae, more freely
handled, are used for the acclamations in the second paragraph and for
the petitions in the third, with cadences on g–a–g. Motivic relationships,
sometimes subtle but often obvious, run through the whole piece.
The overall pitch set (not to speak of the mode) is difficult to determine and,
perhaps because of manuscript variants, indeterminate, especially in the
intonation. The intent seems to be, however, to base the piece on f, using
mainly the pitches up to d', with both b and b , and internal cadences on g
and a. By way of exception, the melody descends to d and c, and passes
through e or e ; it ascends at the end to e' (but if the whole chant were
imagined on g instead of f, the top pitch might be f' – that is, e '). There is a
strong emphasis on b in the third paragraph, as opposed to the more
usual a or c'.
Gloria in excelsis Deo
3. Gloria IV/56.
Compared with Gloria A/39, Gloria IV/56 is much more regular in its
construction, and simpler in style, lacking melismas; it is not however,
purely syllabic – indeed, none of the elaborate Glorias are. A single melodic
shape, made up of two or three phrases, is used over and over again
through the body of the chant. This shape, most easily seen at ‘Gratias
agimus … gloriam tuam’, or at ‘Domine Deus … omnipotens’, has an
intonation f, d, then finds its way to a mediant cadence on e(approached
from below, c–d–e) for the end of the first phrase. The second phrase ends
with the neume first heard on ‘Glorificamus te’ distinguished by the descent
from a to e (a–g–f–g–e), the fall from g to e being either filled in or left
open. An alternative ending for the second phrase is found on ‘gloriam
tuam’, with a similar fall to e.
This compound melodic curve is used for every period except the first and
last, with great flexibility of detail. The technique could not be compared to
simple psalmody or even psalmody at the introit; only the verses of the
Matins responsories show a comparable freedom in adapting a formula to
a particular text. And the handling of two-note neumes, their obvious
decoration of a simple underlying line, also resembles the responsory
verses.
The beginning (‘Gloria … benedicimus te’) uses the same motivic material
as the rest of the chant, but more freely. On the one hand there is the
relatively long construction of the angelic proclamation to be set, on the
other hand the manifold short acclamations; it is plain that the composer
was concerned to find appropriate solutions for each of these elements.
Similarly at the end, the motivic material comes in a different order, to suit
the several short syntactic units that make up the closing period beginning
‘Quoniam’. The terminal cadence comes three times in succession on
‘Christe’, ‘Spiritus’ and ‘Amen’, which is thus an integral part of the melody,
since ‘Dei Patris’ ends inconclusively on d.
The melody as a whole moves within the range c to a, with the exception of
four occurrences of c', distributed throughout the piece. The framework c–
e–g is prominent, relieved (again, four times) by a momentary stress on f.
These details, at first glance mere random deviations, seem actually to be
carefully placed in a manner in keeping with the prose nature of the text –
artistic though irregular. Through such detail the potential monotony of a
repeated formula is elevated to a higher level; the melody gives the
impression of variety and larger form even though structure by paragraph
or section is lacking.
Gloria in excelsis Deo
4. Gloria I/12.
Gloria I/12, closely related to Gloria IV/56 in certain idioms (especially at
‘magnam gloriam tuam’), is different in construction. A single melodic shape
is repeated, but the shape is so much longer and more complex as to
produce an entirely different effect. After the opening period, which as
before is more free than the rest, there are four presentations of the basic
shape:
(1) ‘Laudamus … omnipotens’
(2) ‘Domine … filius Patris’
(3) ‘Qui tollis … miserere nobis’
(4) ‘Quoniam … Amen’
The shape moves through a series of sub-phrases centred on g, b, and d,
to a mediant cadence on b; then it rises through the motive a–e'–f' to its
highest point, from which it descends in groups of threes – f'–e'–d', e'–d'–c',
d'–c'–b – disguised in various ways but always present as the underlying
line. This line eventually descends to g, and may stop there (as at
‘miserere nobis’ in section 3), or may add a concluding cadence on b, as in
sections 1, 2 and the Amen. The syntactic division resulting from this
melodic plan preserves a clear Christological section (2) distinct from the
litanies (3).
The tonal range is identical with that of Gloria IV/56, making allowance for
the different location on the scale (g–e' instead of c–a'), except for the high
note, here a semitone above the top of the range (f'). The recurrence of this
range of a major 6th, here and elsewhere in Gloria melodies, suggests that
it represented a common ground, a matrix in which such melodies were
conceived; pitches lying outside – particularly above – the 6th might then
be considered variable: the high note in either of these two chants could be
a semitone, a tone or a minor 3rd without changing the essential structure
of either melody. The same 6th can be used to clarify Gloria A/39, providing
a framework much easier to understand than a modal analysis.
Furthermore, internal cadences in Gloria I/12 fall on g, a, b , in ways that
show careful planning. The flexibility of such cadence points, the
combination of a very clear sense of locus with the unstable deuterus
ending (e or b ), seem to be the result of composition based on this 6th.
Gloria in excelsis Deo
5. ‘Doxa en ipsistis’, and Gloria XIV/11.
A melody was circulated in 9th- and 10th-century manuscripts over the text
Doxa en ipsistis, a Greek version of Gloria (Huglo). What this version
represents is problematic: it might be a survival in the West of an old chant;
it might be an importation in the 8th or 9th century of a Byzantine version;
or it might be a 9th-century Western construction, using materials of
Western tradition or invention and cast in the guise of a Greek version for
reasons that can only be surmised. (There were a number of other such
items circulating in Western sources in the same period.) In any case, the
melody is most comparable in style to Gloria A/39, having the same
neumatic style. Certain phrases, however, have a more individual character
and move more actively through a wider range; and it is precisely these
phrases that appear in Gloria XIV/11, a remarkable melody circulated in
10th-century sources.
Some of the material of Gloria XIV/11 that is definitely not derived from the
Doxa en ipsistis is close to Gloria I/12; and Gloria XIV/11 begins as if it
were to be located within the 6th g–e'; but instead of the high e', the low e
is introduced, almost as an afterthought, in the falling-3rd cadence on
‘voluntatis’. This low e then assumes increasing importance throughout the
chant until it serves as the final, while the b above g, which might have
been taken as a final (as in Gloria I/12), becomes a mediant cadence. The
low e also comes to function as the beginning of a phrase, although in that
role it remains more clearly outside the central range (as at ‘Rex caelestis’
etc.).
The shift in tonal locus is intimately associated with the intricate phrase
structure. There are more periods than in Gloria IV/56, but they are much
less stable than the phrase groups of Gloria I/12. There are nine, as
follows:
(1) ‘Gloria …’
(2) ‘Laudamus …’
(3) ‘Gratias …’
(4) ‘Domine Deus rex …’
(5) ‘Domine fili …’
(6) ‘Domine Deus, agnus …’
(7) ‘Qui tollis, suscipe ’
(8) ‘Quoniam …’
(9) ‘Cum sancto …
… Amen.’
Because of the way motifs are gradually phased in and out, or transmuted,
no clear paragraph structure emerges, even though higher-level
relationships are suggested (as ‘Domine Deus rex … Domine Deus,
agnus’). The result is a continually unfolding form. The motifs derived from
the Doxa en ipsistis play important roles in the development of the form.
(Many of the occurrences of c' would be b in a reconstruction of the 10th-
century state of the melody.)
Gloria in excelsis Deo
6. Later melodies.
Glorias IV/56, I/12 and XIV/11, together with Gloria A/39 and the Doxa en
ipsistis, can be taken as representative of the first stage, or stages, of
Frankish chant provided for the Gloria in the 9th century. Other melodies,
too, can be presumed to go back that far (although the chronological order
of the repertory has yet to be worked out in detail), and other pitch
structures and modes were represented, especially protus plagal (d final)
with Gloria XI/51, and tetrardus plagal (g final) with Gloria VI/30. This early
stage reveals a wide spread of technique varying from simple repetition of
a melodic formula to a flexible, varied motivic development. There is a wide
spread, too, in its complexity. Syntactic structure is different in almost every
case.
The most striking of the subsequent stages of development involves a
substantial increase in the range within a given melody. Often this increase
is apparent within a single phrase or phrase group, giving a bravura aspect
to the melody; it may also be associated with a long, clearly perceptible
ascent towards the top of the range, which gives the melody as a whole a
direction and élan. This use of range seems dependent upon the strength
of the tonal set as found in the early melodies, and also upon their
techniques of motivic control.
Expansion of range can be studied in the several melodies in tetrardus
which appear in the Liber usualis: Glorias VI/30, III/20, V/25, IX/23 and ad
libitum I/24. Gloria V/25 moves regularly through a range of a 7th in
individual phrases. Gloria IX/23 has an overall range of an 11th; the
melodic motion is arranged to show an insistent progress towards the top
of the range at ‘tu solus altissimus’. Gloria ad libitum I/24 is even more
spectacular, having much more elaborate motion within single phrases
(‘Glorificamus te’), and more extreme progressions within phrase groups
(‘Qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis’). As with Gloria IX/23, however,
the active nature of the line has no effect upon the solidity of the tonal
locus, except possibly to enhance the strong returns to g or d after the arcs
have swung wide above and below. Indeed, in some ways the basic tonal
motion here is less than in earlier melodies, for there is no real move away
from the g and the d, which act almost as pedals throughout. Other
grandiose melodies have been reported, especially from German sources
(Stäblein).
Gloria in excelsis Deo
7. General; tropes.
Gloria chants are important in the medieval repertory not so much for their
number, which is relatively small, nor for the structure of the text, which is
different from the most popular medieval categories. Perhaps the most
important aspect of Gloria melodies – an aspect not found in all or even
most, but nonetheless distinctive when it does appear – is the construction
of a piece out of a changing, developing, but highly interrelated series of
motifs. This construction, which is but poorly represented by a tabular
analysis of the motivic material, gives to a piece a unique shape whose
process and continuity deny any clear sectional plan, but with no loss of
clear, forceful design.
Bosse's catalogue (suppl. by Hiley, 1986) includes 56 Gloria melodies from
sources from the 11th century to the 18th. Since the great majority of
Bosse’s 341 sources date from the 13th–15th centuries, his statistics on
the distribution of modes throughout different countries and centuries have
little or no bearing on the development of the earlier melodies. His
demonstration of the late popularity of the f-final (with b ) does, however,
seem significant.
Gloria melodies appear in the earliest 10th-century sources in conjunction
with their tropes (as can be studied in Rönnau's catalogue). Tropes were
provided most frequently for Gloria A/39, less frequently for Glorias IV/56,
VI/30, I/12 and XIV/11. Of great importance in their own right, Gloria tropes
need to be studied for their musical relationship to the Gloria melodies and
for the effect that their interpolation has upon these melodies, for the more
massive tropes can virtually double the length of the Gloria. Subtle
differences in style between Gloria melodies and tropes, even when of the
same period, may perhaps be perceived.
One Gloria may have been conceived with trope verses from the
beginning: Gloria IX/23 with the Marian trope beginning Spiritus et alme
orphanorum (see Schmid), which appears to have been composed in
northern France at the beginning of the 12th century.
Polyphonic settings of Gloria trope verses are already present among the
Winchester organa (GB-Ccc 473, mid-11th century). The manuscript W 1
(D-W 628 Helmst.) from St Andrews, dating from about 1240, has a two-
part setting of a Marian trope, Per precem piissimam (similar in form and
sentiment to Spiritus et alme), but here the complete Gloria is set as well
(ed. M. Lütolf, Die mehrstimmigen Ordinarium Missae-Sätze vom
ausgehenden 11. bis zur Wende des 13. zum 14. Jahrhundert, Berne,
1970). Polyphonic Gloria settings both troped and untroped are common
from the 14th century onwards.
Gloria in excelsis Deo
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (B. Stäblein)
MGG2 (K. Falconer)
O. Marxer: Zur spätmittelalterlichen Choralgeschichte St. Gallens: der
Codex 546 der St. Galler Stiftsbibliothek (St Gallen, 1908) [with edn of
many late medieval Gloria melodies]
M. Sigl: Zur Geschichte des Ordinarium Missae in der deutschen
Choralüberlieferung (Regensburg, 1911) [with edn of many late
medieval Gloria melodies]
M. Huglo: ‘La mélodie grecque du “Gloria in excelsis” et son utilisation
dans le Gloria XIV’, Revue grégorienne, xxix (1950), 30–40
D. Bosse: Untersuchung einstimmiger mittelalterlicher Melodien zum
‘Gloria in excelsis Deo’ (Regensburg, 1955)
K. Rönnau: Die Tropen zum ‘Gloria in excelsis Deo’ (Wiesbaden, 1967)
P. Evans: The Early Trope Repertory of Saint Martial de Limoges
(Princeton, NJ, 1970)
C.M. Atkinson: ‘Zur Enstehung und Überlieferung der “Missa graeca”’,
AMw, xxxix (1982), 113–45
J. Boe: ‘Gloria A and the Roman Easter Vigil’, MD, xxxvi (1982), 5–37
D. Hiley: ‘Ordinary of Mass Chants in English, North French and Sicilian
Manuscripts’, JPMMS, ix (1986), 1–128
B. Schmid: Der Gloria-Tropus Spiritus et alme bis zur Mitte des 15.
Jahrhunderts (Tutzing,1988) [study and edn, pubd separately]
C.M. Atkinson: ‘The Doxa, the Pisteuo, and the Ellenici fratres: some
Anomalies in the Transmission of the Chants of the “Missa graeca”’,
JM, vii (1989), 81–106
J. Boe, ed.: Beneventanum troporum corpus, ii: Ordinary Chants and
Tropes for the Mass from Southern Italy, A.D. 1000–1250, pt 2: Gloria
in excelsis, RRMMR, xxii, xxiii–xxiv (1990)
K.A. Falconer: Some Early Tropes to the Gloria (Modena, 1993)

For further bibliography see Plainchant.

Glosa
(Sp.: ‘gloss’).
(1) A term often used by 16th-century Spanish musicians, in imitation of the
glossing technique highly fashionable among poets, to designate variations
similar to diferencias but generally on a religious theme and less extensive.
Sets of variations called glosas were published by Mudarra (1546),
Enríquez de Valderrábano (1547) and Venegas de Henestrosa (1557). See
Variations, §2.
 (2) The term was also used to mean musical ornamentation, as for
example in Diego Ortiz’s Trattado de glosas (1553). See Ornaments, §2.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Janner: ‘La glosa española: estudio histórico de su métrica y de sus
temas’, Revista de filología española, xxvii (1943), 181–232
V.T. Mendoza: Glosas y décimas de México (Mexico, 1957)
M. Frenk Alatorre: ‘Glosas de tipo popular en la antigua lírica’, Nueva
revista de filología hispánica, xii (1958), 301–34
E.M. Wilson and J. Sage: Poesías líricas en las obras dramáticas de
Calderón: citas y glosas (London, 1964)
C. Jacobs: ‘Ornamentation in Spanish Renaissance Vocal Music’,
Performance Practice Review, iv (1991), 116–85
JACK SAGE/SUSANA FRIEDMANN

Glösch, Carl Wilhelm

(b Berlin, 1732 [1731 according to obituary in AMZ]; d Berlin, 21 Oct 1809).
German composer. His father, Peter Glösch, was an oboist in the Prussian
Hofkapelle until the accession of Friedrich Wilhelm I in 1713, when the
royal musical establishments were dissolved. Carl was instructed in music
by his father, and probably also studied with J.J. Quantz; his style of flute
playing was usually described as resembling that of Quantz. He was also
famous as a keyboard player. In 1765 Princess Ferdinand of Prussia
appointed him maître de musique of her household; he remained in her
service until his death. Eitner stated that he served in the royal Prussian
Kapelle, but the lists of musicians who made up Frederick the Great’s
musical establishment after 1740 do not include his name.
Glösch’s music is craftsmanlike but otherwise unremarkable. His Six
sonatines seem to be derived from the style of C.P.E. Bach, and his sets of
variations are part of the vast and superficial body of such works produced
for popular consumption in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
WORKS
L’Oracle, ou La fête des vertus et des grâces (comédie lyrique, 1), kbd red. (Berlin,
1773)
Other vocal: 2 songs in J.C.F. Rellstab’s Clavier-Magazin (Berlin, 1787); 2 songs in
Rellstab’s Melodie und Harmonie, i (Berlin, 1788); Gesänge am Clavier (Berlin,
c1789), incl. songs by Halter and Wessely
Inst: 6 duos, fl/vn, bc, op.1 (Berlin, 1779); 3 concertos, fl, op.2 (Berlin, 1779);
Marche la Garde passe (Berlin, 1779); Vaudeville de Figaro, hpd/pf (Berlin, c1779);
6 sonatines, hpd, op.3 (Berlin, 1780); Sinfonia, D, str, D-Bsb; 3 exx. in J.J. Quantz:
Solfeggi pour la flûte traversiere, DK-Kk
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
AMZ, xii (1809–10), 105–6
C. von Ledebur: Tonkünstler-Lexicon Berlin’s (Berlin, 1861/R)
C. Sachs: Musik und Oper am kurbrandenburgischen Hof (Berlin, 1910)
 E. EUGENE HELM

Glossolalia.
See Singing in tongues.

Gloucester.
English city. The history of music in Gloucester is inseparable from that of
the cathedral, founded in 1541 to replace the former Benedictine
monastery. Few of its organists earlier than the 19th century were of much
account, but they include the following minor composers: Daniel
Henstridge (1666–73), Daniel Roseingrave (1679–81), William Hine (1713–
30) and Barnabas Gunn (1730–39). From the time of S.S. Wesley, who
held the position from 1865 until his death in 1876, the organists have been
C.H. Lloyd (1876–82), C. Lee Williams (1882–97), Herbert Brewer (1897–
1928), Herbert Sumsion (1928–67), John Sanders (1967–94) and David
Briggs (from 1994). Thomas Tomkins (i), father of the composer, was a
minor canon of the cathedral. William Hayes (1708–77), John Stafford
Smith (1750–1836), celebrated as the composer of the tune to The Star-
Spangled Banner, and John Clarke-Whitfeld (1770–1836) were natives of
the city. Parry's boyhood home was at Highnam Court, a short distance
away, while Holst, Vaughan Williams, Ivor Gurney and Howells were born
in Gloucestershire, the last-named serving his apprenticeship to Brewer at
the cathedral. From 1684 the city was the seat of a bell-founding firm,
established by Abraham Rudhall and carried on by his descendants until
1828–35.
When William Laud became Dean of Gloucester in 1616 he found the
cathedral organ in an outworn condition, but little improvement was
accomplished until 1640 when a new instrument was built by Thomas
Dallam. In 1666 this was superseded by another, constructed by Thomas
Harris, from which a considerable number of pipes from ten stops have
survived through numerous enlargements and reconstructions to form part
of the present organ by Hill, Norman & Beard. The organ case unites two
independent structures, the larger dating from the 17th century and the
smaller (the old chair organ) perhaps from the 16th century.
Concerts were organized in Gloucester in the 18th century by Barnabas
Gunn, when there existed a ‘Musick Clubb of Glocester’ which owned a
score of John Alcock's Sing we merrily (now GB-Lbl Add.31694). The
present leading musical organizations of Gloucester are the Gloucester
Choral Society (founded 1845), the Gloucestershire SO (formerly
Orchestral Society, 1908), the Gloucester Chamber Music Society (1928)
and the Gloucestershire Youth Orchestra, founded in 1960. A junior
academy for talented music, drama and dance students opened in 1993.
Every three years the Three Choirs Festival is held in Gloucester.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.H. Brewer: Memories of Choirs and Cloisters (London, 1931)
R. Downes: ‘The Gloucester Cathedral Organ’, MT, cx (1969), 1176–9
 WATKINS SHAW/JOHN C. PHILLIPS

Glover, Jane (Alison)

(b Helmsley, N. Yorks., 13 May 1949). English conductor. She studied at
Oxford University, taking the DPhil with a dissertation on Venetian Baroque
opera in 1975. This led to her début at Wexford Festival Opera the same
year, where she conducted her own edition of Cavalli's Eritrea, and to her
book, Cavalli (London, 1978). She joined the Glyndebourne staff in 1979,
leading Glyndebourne Touring Opera, 1981–5, and making her festival
début in 1982 with Il barbiere di Siviglia. In 1983 she became music
director, and in 1993 principal conductor, of the London Choral Society, and
from 1984 to 1991 was artistic director of the London Mozart Players, with
whom she has made recordings of works by Haydn, Mozart and Britten.
She made her Proms début in 1985 and her débuts at Covent Garden (Die
Entführung) in 1988 and the ENO (Don Giovanni) in 1989; from 1989 to
1996 she was principal conductor of the Huddersfield Choral Society. She
has also conducted in China and in North America. In addition to her
particular interests in Mozart and 17th- and 18th-century opera, Glover has
conducted operas by Britten and Richard Strauss and premières by Judith
Bingham, David Matthews, Sally Beamish, Roger Steptoe and others.
JOSÉ BOWEN

Glover, John William

(b Dublin, 19 June 1815; d Dublin, 18 Dec 1899). Irish conductor,
composer and teacher. He studied in Dublin, where he played the violin in
a theatre orchestra from 1830. In 1848 he succeeded Haydn Corri as
director of the music at St Mary's, the Roman Catholic Pro-cathedral, and
the same year was appointed the first professor of vocal music in the
Normal Training-School of the Irish National Education Board. In 1851 he
founded the Choral Institute of Dublin, and for many years he was an
energetic promoter of choral music in Ireland. He composed two Italian
operas to librettos by Metastasio; a cantata, St Patrick at Tara (1870),
performed at the O'Connell centenary in 1875; Erin's Matin Song (1873);
an ode to Thomas Moore, One Hundred Years Ago (1879); and an opera
on Goldsmith's The Deserted Village (1880), besides church music,
concertos and songs. (J.D. Brown and S.S. Stratton: British Musical
Biography, Birmingham, 1897/R)
J.A. FULLER MAITLAND/JOSEPH J. RYAN

Glover, Sarah Anna

(b Norwich, 13 Nov 1786; d Malvern, 20 Oct 1867). English teacher.
Daughter of the incumbent of St Laurence’s, Norwich, as a young woman
Glover attained local celebrity for the excellence of the children’s choir
which she trained for her father’s church; and in 1835, in response to
frequent requests, she published an account of her method with the title
Scheme for Rendering Psalmody Congregational (London and Norwich,
1835, 2/1850/R). Her system, evolved during 20 years of teaching in local
schools, was based on a new notation of sol-fa initials with doh always the
major tonic. To avoid the duplication of initials existing between sol and si,
she renamed the 7th degree te, allowing the capital letters D, R, M, F, S, L,
T to represent the rising major scale. Pulse and rhythm were indicated by
equally spaced barlines with subsidiary beats separated by equidistant
punctuation marks. In her own teaching, instead of drilling beginners to
memorize facts and symbols, Glover set them singing straight away,
deducing theory from practice as experience grew. After learning to pitch
intervals from her ‘Norwich Sol-fa Ladder’ (a primitive modulator) her pupils
went on to sing canonic exercises and a selection of songs and hymn
tunes arranged for soprano and contralto and printed in her sol-fa notation.
Only when they could sing competently from sol-fa was staff notation
introduced. In later life, John Curwen was anxious to acknowledge the debt
which tonic sol-fa owed to Glover – perhaps partly because he had
published his first amended version of her system in 1841 without securing
her approval.

For illustration see Norwich sol-fa ladder.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Curwen: The Art of Teaching, and the Teaching of Music: being the
Teacher's Manual of the Tonic Sol-Fa Method (London, 1875/R1986
as The Teacher's Manual of the Tonic Sol-Fa Method)
L. Brown: ‘Reminiscences of Miss Glover’, The Tonic Sol-Fa Jubilee: a
Popular Record and Handbook, ed. J. Curwen and J. Graham
(London, 1891)
B. Rainbow: The Land without Music: Musical Education in England,
1800–1860, and its Continental Antecedents (London, 1967)
B. Rainbow: ‘The Glass Harmonicon Rediscovered’, Music in Education,
xxxviii (1974), 18
P. Bennett: ‘Sarah Glover: a Forgotten Pioneer in Music Education’,
Journal of Research in Music Education, xxxii (1984), 49–65
BERNARR RAINBOW

Glover, William Howard

(b London, 6 June 1819; d New York, 28 Oct 1875). English tenor,
composer, conductor and critic. The son of the actress Julia Glover, he
entered the English Opera House's orchestra at the age of 15. He had
lessons from the company's conductor, William Wagstaff, and completed
his studies on the Continent. After his return to London he helped to found
the Musical and Dramatic Society, Soho. With John Braham he toured in
Scotland, and later formed a provincial opera company at Manchester and
Liverpool, with which he conducted and occasionally sang. He later
conducted in London, where he was also music critic of the Morning Post
(c1850–65). He wrote some appreciative reviews of Berlioz’s 1852 London
concerts, and in 1853 reported his observation that it was organized
opposition which had destroyed the London chances of Benvenuto Cellini.
His cantata Tam O’Shanter was successfully performed in London on 4
July 1855 by Berlioz, who described its style as ‘very piquant but difficult’
(letter to Théodore Ritter, 3 July 1855). Glover’s other works include an
opera, Ruy Blas (1861), several operettas, overtures, piano music and
songs. In 1868 he went to the USA, and spent the last years of his life as
conductor at Niblo’s Garden, New York.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DNB (L.M. Middleton)
A.W. Ganz: Berlioz in London (London, 1950), 143, 204–7
ALFRED LOEWENBERG/JOHN WARRACK

Głowiński, Jan
(b c 1645; d c 1712). Polish organ builder. He worked in Kraków and south-
eastern Poland. In 1679 he built an organ for St Elizabeth’s, Stary Sącz, of
which the case still exists. Between 1683 and 1690 he finished the three
organs begun in 1680 by Stanisław Studziński at the church of the
Annunciation in Leżajsk (the cases and some of the stops survive); the
largest instrument had 64 stops on four manuals and pedal. Another big
undertaking was for the Franciscan church at Kraków (1700–04). In 1712
he was to have built an organ with 30 stops for the parish church of
Żywiec, but the work was eventually carried out by Ignacy Ryszak from
Opava. Głowiński seems to have built in the southern Polish style,
preferring diapason chorus and foundation stops of various kinds, but using
few mutations or reeds. It is not known if he was related to an organ builder
of the same name who worked in Kraków in about 1635.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Chybiński: Słownik muzyków dawnej polski [Dictionary of early Polish
musicians] (Kraków, 1949)
M. Perz: ‘Do historii kunsztu budowy organów w Polsce’ [History of the art
of organ building in Poland], Ruch muzyczny, xxii (1960), 8–10; xxiii
(1961), 6–7
M. Radojewski: ‘Organy xvii-wieczne w kościele Bernardynów w Leżajsku’
[The 17th-century organs in the church of the Observantines in
Leżajsk], Roczniki humanistyczne, x (1961), 41–94
J. Gołos: Zarys historii budowy organów w Polsce [Outline of the history of
Polish organ building] (Bydgoszcz, 1966)
J. Gołos: Polskie organy i muzyka organowa (Warsaw, 1972; Eng. trans.,
1992, as The Polish Organ, i: The Instrument and its History)
J. Banach: Hercules Polonus: studium z ikonografi sztuki nowozytnej
(Warsaw, 1984)
E. Smulikowska: Prospekty organowe w dawnej Polsce (Wrocław, 1989;
Eng. trans., rev., 1993, as The Polish Organ, ii: Organ-Cases in
Poland as Works of Art)
HANS KLOTZ/JERZY GOŁOS

Gluchowicz, Rachel S.
See Galinne, Rachel.

Gluck, Alma [Fiersohn, Reba]

(b Bucharest, 11 May 1884; d New York, 27 Oct 1938). American soprano
of Romanian birth. She was taken to the USA in infancy and studied
singing in New York, making a highly successful début with the
Metropolitan Opera at the New Theatre on 16 November 1909 as Sophie in
Massenet’s Werther. She sang for seven seasons between 1909 and 1918
at the Metropolitan, where her roles included the Happy Spirit in Gluck’s
Orfeo (under Toscanini), Marguerite, Venus, Gilda and Mimì. After a period
of further study with Marcella Sembrich, she devoted herself almost wholly
to concert singing. In the popular ballad repertory she achieved a success
similar to that of John McCormack, rivalling him in purity of tone and line
and clarity of enunciation; she was also a distinguished interpreter of more
serious music, especially Handel. By her first husband Gluck had a
daughter who, as Marcia Davenport, became well known as a novelist and
writer on music; her second husband, the violinist Efrem Zimbalist, often
played obbligato accompaniments to her recordings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Davenport: Of Lena Geyer (New York, 1936) [roman à clef based on
Gluck’s career]
B.T. Eke: ‘Alma Gluck’, Record Collector, i/8 (1946), 5–10; vi (1951), 33–
45, 53 [with discography by H. Chitty]
DESMOND SHAWE-TAYLOR

Gluck, Christoph Willibald, Ritter

von
(b Erasbach, Upper Palatinate, 2 July 1714; d Vienna, 15 Nov 1787).
Bohemian composer. He was long in Habsburg service in Vienna. More
successfully than any of his contemporaries, he translated the widespread
agitation for reform of opera and theatrical dance on the part of European
intellectuals into actual works for the stage, first in pantomime ballets and
Italian serious operas for Vienna and then in operas of various sorts for
Paris. His long experience in setting Metastasian drammi per musica and
his work in Vienna as music director of the Burgtheater (court theatre) were
not without utility in these more innovative efforts.
1. Ancestry, early life and training.
2. Itinerant ‘maestro di cappella’.
3. Vienna, 1752–60.
4. Collaboration with Calzabigi.
5. New directions.
6. Paris, 1774–9.
7. Final years in Vienna.
8. Early Italian operas.
9. ‘Opéras comiques’.
10. Ballets.
11. Italian reform operas.
12. Paris operas.
13. Other works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BRUCE ALAN BROWN (1—5, 7–11, 13, work-list, bibliography), JULIAN
RUSHTON (6, 12)
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
1. Ancestry, early life and training.
Gluck's earliest traceable ancestor is his great-grandfather, ‘Simon Gluckh
von Rockenzahn’; (i.e. from Rokycany), as he is called in the marriage-
contract (1672) of his son, Johann (or Hans) Adam (b c1649; d 1722). The
surname Gluck (variously spelt Gluckh, Klugh, Kluch, etc.) probably derives
from the Czech word kluk (boy). By 1675 Hans Adam was serving as
gamekeeper to Prince Ferdinand August von Lobkowitz, who held vast
tracts of land in Bohemia as well as the county of Schörnstein-Neustadt in
the Upper Palatinate. A document from 1683 refers to Hans Adam also as
a ‘jocolator’, which title, Prod'homme speculated (D1948), might have
indicated musical duties (Marmontel, he noted, later referred to the
composer Gluck as ‘le jongleur de Bohême’).
Gluck's father Alexander Johannes (b Neustadt an der Waldnaab, 28 Oct
1683), one of four sons of Hans Adam who were all foresters or
gamekeepers, served under Prince Philipp Hyazinth von Lobkowitz in the
War of the Spanish Succession, thereafter settling in or around Erasbach,
Upper Palatinate. There he married Maria Walburga (surname unknown)
about 1711; four sons and two daughters from their union survived, of
whom Christoph was the eldest. The future composer was baptized on 4
July 1714 at Weidenwang, a parish that then also included Erasbach; no
place of birth is given in the baptismal register. Christoph Fleischman(n)
stood as godfather. In 1717, following the transfer of the Upper Palatinate
to Bavaria, Gluck's father moved back into imperial territory, taking a
position as forester to Grand Duchess Anna Maria of Tuscany in Reichstadt
(Liberec), northern Bohemia; five years later he accepted a similar post
under Count Philipp Joseph von Kinsky at Oberkreibitz (Chřibská), near
Děčín. In 1727 he returned to the service of the Lobkowitz family at
Schloss Eisenberg (Jezeři, near Chomutov). According to the memoirs of a
later fellow lodger in Paris, the painter J.C. von Mannlich (C1934) it was as
a schoolboy in Bohemia that the young Gluck received his first musical
instruction (including individual lessons from the schoolmaster), learning to
play several instruments and singing in the church choir. This much is
plausible, in view of the country's fame as a breeding-ground for musicians
(though Mannlich's account may itself have been influenced by Burney's
recently published description of musical life in Bohemia; see BurneyGN).
Mannlich's further claim that Gluck took up the jew's harp after his father
confiscated his other instruments is possibly an embellishment, though one
consistent with the composer's later public performances on exotic
instruments. A brief childhood escape to Vienna, reported by both Mannlich
and Schmid (D1854) (the latter relying on informants from Gluck's family),
during which Gluck supposedly played or sang for his supper and lodging,
is more likely to have had Prague as its goal (if it took place at all) and to
have been related to activities during his university studies there (cf Heartz,
E1988). In another late but essentially first-hand account, Gluck's disciple
Salieri told his biographer Mosel (C1827) that the elder composer's ‘native
tongue was Czech’ and that even later in life he ‘expressed himself in
German only with effort, and still more so in French and Italian’. Writing
before Gluck's arrival in Paris, the music theorist Laurent Garcin (Traité du
mélo-drame, Paris, 1772, 114–16) listed Gluck among several composers
of comic operas in Czech (although no such works by him have come to
light).
According to Moser (D1940), Gluck enrolled at the University of Prague in
1731 in the faculties of logic and mathematics, though Mahler (E1974)
found that records of auditors for this period were missing. During this time
Prague boasted a thriving musical life, including Italian opera in the theatre
of Count Sporck. According to early biographers, Gluck participated in
Italian oratorio performances in the Franziskanerkirche and worked as an
organist in the Týn Church in the Old Town Square.
Gluck left the university without taking a degree, and is next found in Milan
in 1737. By most accounts he first passed through the imperial capital,
where he probably became a musician in the household of the Lobkowitz
family. This first Viennese sojourn is more surmised, from the composer's
later professions of gratitude towards his Bohemian patrons, than proved
directly from contemporary evidence. Gluck's arrival in Vienna would
almost certainly have preceded the death of his father's employer, which
occurred near the end of 1734. In the Habsburg capital he would have
been heard by various resident and foreign nobles, among them the
Milanese Prince Antonio Maria Melzi, who engaged him for his own
cappella. According to Croll (Grove6), Gluck's departure for Milan in Melzi's
retinue probably followed the latter's wedding on 3 January 1737 to
Countess Maria Renata von Harrach (a child bride 49 years his junior).
Philipp Hyazinth Lobkowitz's brother Georg Christian, Gluck's presumed
employer following the former's death, was appointed imperial governor of
Lombardy in 1743 and may have helped bring about several early
performances of Gluck's operas, both in Milan and back in Vienna.
Of Gluck's studies in Milan there is little direct testimony, other than
Carpani's statement (C2/1823, p.64) that G.B. Sammartini was the source
of Gluck's ‘practical knowledge of all the instruments’, Gluck having been
‘for several years his pupil’. Sammartini was only marginally an opera
composer, his main employment being as maestro di cappella to an ever-
growing number of churches and as a teacher at the Collegio de' Nobili; he
was also the leading symphonic composer of the Milanese school. But
even outside his formal studies, Gluck would have profited from exposure
to operatic offerings at the Regio Ducal Teatro, a venue gaining in
importance among Italian opera houses. It was during this period that
intermezzi di ballo replaced sung comic intermezzos in that theatre, a
development that may have helped prepare Gluck for his later work as a
ballet composer in the Viennese Burgtheater.
Gluck's début as an opera composer was with a setting of Metastasio's
Artaserse, as the first opera for Carnival 1742 (première on 26 December
1741) at the Regio Ducal Teatro. According to an anecdote in a ‘French
manuscript’ published in 1792 by Reichardt (but possibly based on
information supplied by Gluck himself, according to Howard, A1995), the
public accepted the composer's novel manner in this first opera only when
he added an aria in the superficial local style, as a contrast. Still, that Gluck
was asked to compose four carnival operas for Milan in as many years (the
others were Demofoonte, 6 January 1743; La Sofonisba, 18 January 1744;
and Ippolito, 31 January 1745) must be attributed largely to success with
the public (as is documented by newspaper accounts), though protection
from the Habsburg government was probably also a factor. Gluck also
benefited from association with the principal singers in these works,
particularly Giovanni Carestini and Caterina Aschieri. Two arias in Gluck's
Ippolito survive only in prints commemorating Aschieri's performance in
that work. That singer also took the part of Dircea in performances of
Gluck's Demofoonte at Reggio nell'Emilia several months after the Milan
production, singing two additional arias; the opera was also given in
Bologna (Carnival 1744) and Ferrara (Carnival 1745), without the
composer being present.
Between carnival seasons Gluck produced operas in other northern Italian
cities: Cleonice (Demetrio) for Venice (S Samuele, 2 May 1742); Il Tigrane,
for Crema, near Milan (26 September 1743); Ipermestra, again for Venice
(S Giovanni Grisostomo, 21 November 1744); and Poro (Alessandro
nell'Indie) for Turin (26 December 1744). All but the second of these were
on texts by Metastasio. It has been claimed that Gluck's music was used in
two pasticcios during 1744: in an Arsace for Milan, based on G.B.
Lampugnani's setting of three years earlier, and in La finta schiava, a
Turkish-themed opera staged at the Teatro S Angelo in Venice in May, with
music by Giacomo Maccari and others. Hortschansky (H1966, F1973)
casts doubt on the attributions to Gluck of eight numbers in Arsace on the
basis of evidence both circumstantial and philological, but judged the
authenticity of his contributions to La finta schiava as more likely, given
attributions to ‘Vinzi, Lampugnani e Cluck’ in the libretto of the 1746
production of the work by Angelo Mingotti's troupe.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
2. Itinerant ‘maestro di cappella’.
A recommendation from the Milanese composer Lampugnani, who staged
three operas in London during the 1743–4 season, has sometimes been
cited as the reason for Gluck's having been invited in 1745 to become
house composer at the King's Theatre, though Howard (A1995) pointed to
Francesco Vanneschi (acting for Lord Middlesex) as a more likely conduit,
in part because he recruited several singers from earlier productions of
Gluck's operas at the same time. The composer is supposed to have
travelled by way of Frankfurt, where the coronation of Francis Stephen of
Lorraine (husband of the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa) as Holy Roman
Emperor on 28 September 1745 provided conspicuous opportunities for
musicians; Joseph Maria Carl von Lobkowitz, son of the Austrian governor
in Milan, is known to have been in Frankfurt at the conclusion of the
festivities on 15 October. Another Lobkowitz, Prince Ferdinand Philipp (son
of Philipp Hyazinth, whom Gluck's father had served), was in England
during the same period as Gluck, as Burney notes (BurneyH, ii, 844), but
this may have been coincidental.
The timing of Gluck's London sojourn was hardly opportune; the King's
Theatre had been closed for much of the year, owing to the ongoing
Jacobite rebellion, and Gluck's initial offering, La caduta de' giganti
(première on 7 January 1746), was a transparent allegory of the rebels'
imminent defeat, calculated to forestall anti-foreigner and anti-Catholic
sentiment among spectators. The work was for the most part assembled
from numbers originally composed for Italy. A second opera, Artamene, first
given on 4 March 1746, likewise relied heavily on pre-existing music. This
practice of borrowing or parodying numbers from earlier works presented
elsewhere was to persist throughout Gluck's career. The performers in the
Haymarket company during the 1746 season included Teresa Imer
(Theresa Cornelys), shortly thereafter a member of Pietro Mingotti's opera
troupe along with Gluck, and the Viennese dancer Eva Weigel (‘Mlle
Violetti’), future wife of the reform-minded actor David Garrick. Exposure to
the new, more naturalistic acting style of Garrick (whose pupil Gaetano
Guadagni became the first Orpheus of Gluck's opera) and to the music of
Handel can be counted among the more important results of the
composer's visit to Britain, ahead of more tangible products such as the
above-mentioned operas and the set of trio sonatas published by J.
Simpson (which were probably composed in Milan). No credible evidence
of a direct meeting with Handel survives, though he may have appeared
with him at a charity concert on 25 March 1746, the music of which was
mostly by those two masters and Galuppi. In his account of the 1784
Handel commemoration (specifically, in his ‘Sketch of the Life of Handel’),
Burney reported that Handel, asked for his opinion of Gluck, had
responded with an oath and the statement that ‘he knows no more of
contrapunto, as mein cook, Waltz’ (Burney, C1785). As the singer Gustavus
Waltz seems not to have served Handel in that capacity, it is likely that
Handel's comment had been misreported or misremembered. During
Burney's visit to Vienna in 1772 Gluck told him ‘that he owed entirely to
England the study of nature in his dramatic compositions’ (BurneyGN, i,
267). While a desire to flatter certainly entered into Gluck's remark, Burney
did not find it implausible.
Before leaving for the Continent, Gluck twice exhibited his skill in playing
‘upon Twenty-six Drinking Glasses, tuned with Spring-Water’ (General
Advertiser, 31 March 1746), accompanied by performers from the opera.
He gave similar performances in Copenhagen in 1749, and found occasion
in many later compositions to use other exotic instruments (if not this one).
His choice of the musical glasses for these concerts probably also
indicates that, though competent as an accompanist and orchestral leader
on both the harpsichord and the violin, he was not of a soloist's calibre on
either instrument.
Gluck next surfaces in June 1747, as composer of Le nozze d'Ercole e
d'Ebe, one of two operas (the other being by Hasse) presented by the
troupe of Pietro Mingotti in the gardens of Schloss Pillnitz near Dresden for
the double wedding uniting members of the ruling Bavarian and Saxon
dynasties. Gluck had apparently already become a member of the
company, which he had possibly encountered at the imperial festivities in
Frankfurt two years earlier. For this festa teatrale he again borrowed
heavily from earlier works, and even took a movement of its overture from
a symphony by his teacher Sammartini. A receipt (dated 15 September
1747) for payment to Gluck by the Saxon court of 412 thaler, 12 groschen,
calls him a ‘Sänger’, though this may reflect his rank in terms of the pay-
scale for the festivities, rather than his actual function. Gluck's biographers
have assumed that shortly before or after the Saxon festivities Gluck
travelled to Bohemia to settle his inheritance, his mother having died on 8
October 1740 (not in August 1740, as often reported), and his father on 26
July 1743.
Gluck's next commission, in the spring of 1748, was even more prestigious:
an opera – Metastasio's Semiramide riconosciuta (originally for Rome,
1729) – celebrating the birthday of the empress, Maria Theresa, for the
inauguration of the newly renovated Viennese court theatre (or
Burgtheater). The choice of Gluck (presumably by the impresario Rocco
Lopresti, in consultation with the court) over resident composers such as
Bonno and Wagenseil, or the empress's former music teacher Hasse,
seems to have been due largely to the favourable impression made by his
serenata for Dresden, where representatives of the Habsburg court had
been in attendance. But other factors probably entered into the decision as
well: in 1747 his Demofoonte had been revived in Milan in celebration of
the empress's birthday (13 May), and his works may even have been heard
in the imperial capital (Deutsch, A1969; Antonicek, E1987). It was certainly
also helpful to Gluck's cause that the protagonist of the 1748 opera, Vittoria
Tesi (recently appointed as an imperial virtuosa di camera), had been the
Hypermnestra of his last opera for Venice. Though past her prime as a
singer, this imposing ‘donnone’, possessed of a powerful low register, was
well suited to play the part of an Assyrian queen disguised as her own son;
she had already played the role three and a half years earlier, in Hasse's
setting of the opera for Venice.
The choice of piece probably preceded that of the composer. The story of
the embattled queen Semiramide, acclaimed by her people and reaffirmed
in her right to rule, was perfectly apt as an allegory of Maria Theresa in her
struggle to retain the Habsburg throne, and, as was noted by Croll in his
preface to the edition of the opera (Sämtliche Werke, iii/12), had already
served such a purpose at the empress's Prague coronation in 1743, when
the War of the Austrian Succession was at its height. Metastasio was
almost certainly not involved in the 1748 revision; the variants in the text as
set by Gluck largely derived from Hasse's setting for Venice (1744) and its
revision for Dresden (1747). Conscious of the importance of the occasion,
Gluck wrote a completely original score, but did not moderate all the
extravagances of his style (e.g. in roughness of part-writing). Metastasio
reported that the opera was ‘exalted to the stars’ (it was given 27 times in
all), despite Gluck's ‘archvandalian music [musica arcivandalica], which is
insupportable’ (letter of 29 June 1748, trans. in Burney, C1796). The
negative opinion of so influential a figure as the court poet helps to explain
why Gluck did not remain in Vienna after the success of his opera; it is
likely too that, just as in the case of Mozart, nearly half a century later,
there was no position vacant for a new court composer.
Some time during the summer of 1748 – presumably after the last
performance of Semiramide on 11 July – Gluck left the Austrian capital, and
by September he had rejoined the Mingotti troupe in Hamburg, where he
took over the direction of the orchestra from Paolo Scalabrini, who had
entered the employ of the Danish court. Judging from Mannlich's account
(C1934) of the elaborate, gleeful fantasy about an itinerant opera buffa
troupe in which Gluck and his friends and family indulged during one of his
Parisian sojourns many years later, the composer cherished memories of
his time in the actual Mingotti company. Yet it was also during this period
that Gluck contracted a venereal infection from the prima buffa of the
troupe, Gaspera Beccheroni (the mistress also of the British diplomat John
Wyche); his and his wife's later childlessness can probably be traced to
that illness. In late November the Mingotti troupe moved on from Hamburg
to Copenhagen, where Gluck received a commission for a festa teatrale,
entitled La contesa de' numi, in celebration of the birth to Queen Luise of a
son and heir (Christian). The work (on a text by Metastasio, originally set
by Vinci in 1729) had its première on 9 April 1749; its music was mostly
original, but included an orchestral movement borrowed from Sammartini.
As the queen's confinement was a protracted one, the stay of the Mingotti
troupe was extended, allowing Gluck the leisure again to present concerts
(one of them on 19 April) in which he performed on the musical glasses.
There is mention also of a concert ‘di Cimbalo’, which would be the only
known instance of Gluck performing as a keyboard soloist.
At some point later in 1749 Gluck transferred his allegiances to a former
member of the Mingotti troupe, the impresario Giovanni Battista Locatelli,
whose opera company was then active principally in Prague. A desire to
return to the city in which he had spent much of his youth may well have
entered into the composer's decision. For the Carnival 1750 season at the
Kotzen Opera (Nuovo Teatro) Gluck composed a setting of Metastasio's
Ezio; he was essentially to recompose the same text for Vienna 14 years
later. During 1750 the company also performed Gluck's Ipermestra, and
both operas were performed in Germany (Leipzig and Munich,
respectively) in 1751, though with other music added and without the
composer being present.
Between the 1750 and 1751 Carnival seasons at the Kotzen Opera,
Gluck's principal preoccupation was his marriage on 15 September to
Maria Anna (Marianne) Bergin (or Pergin), the 18-year-old daughter of a
wealthy Viennese merchant, Joseph Bergin, long deceased. According to a
story supplied to Schmid (D1854) by members of Gluck's family, the couple
had met during the composer's previous visit to the capital, but the match
had been opposed by the girl's father; with her guardian, Joseph Salliet,
substituted for her father, this account may be plausible. The bride brought
a considerable fortune to the marriage (some 4000 gulden, not including
the dowry), which secured the composer's future financially (at least until
his ill-fated involvement with the impresario Giuseppe d'Afflisio; see §4
below). Gluck's place of residence is not specified in the marriage-contract,
and it is assumed that the couple lived initially with the bride's mother
Therese in the Laurant'sche Haus (in the present Mariahilferstrasse). They
presumably remained in the city between Gluck's foreign engagements, but
at the time no musical post seems to have been available to him there.
Gluck's continued presence in Vienna during 1751 is implicit in
Metastasio's mention of him (in a letter of 6 November of that year to
Farinelli) as one of two ‘German’ composers known to him there: ‘The first
[Gluck] has surprising fire, but is mad; and the other [Wagenseil] is a great
harpsichord player. Gluck composed an opera for Venice [Ipermestra is
probably meant], which was very unfortunate. He has composed others
here with various success. I am not a man to pretend to judge of him’
(trans. Burney, C1796). When the poet's judgment of Gluck here is at best
equivocal, his opinion of Wagenseil is hardly better: as Heartz has noted
(C1995), his praise for his keyboard skills was certainly meant ironically in
this context. By the end of the year Gluck was again in Prague with
Locatelli's troupe (in the capacity of director, or maestro di cappella), for a
revival of his Ezio and a new setting (apart from one re-used aria) of the
imperial poet's Issipile for Carnival; of the music, only three arias survive.
In terms of prestige, Gluck's next commission rivalled the earlier one for
Semiramide riconosciuta: an opera for the nameday (4 November 1752) of
King Charles III of Naples, to be performed in the vast Teatro S Carlo. The
impresario, Diego Tuffarelli, had sought out the composer specifically in the
hope of procuring a novel operatic setting – ‘una musica di stile tutto vario
e maippiù inteso’ (Prota-Giurleo, C1965) – and Gluck did not disappoint. As
Tuffarelli's correspondence reveals, on arriving in Naples with his wife
towards the end of August, Gluck asked to be allowed to set not the libretto
that had been offered him (Antonio Salvi's Arsace, first written in 1715 as
Amore e maestà), but rather Metastasio's La clemenza di Tito (which had
been proposed as the second opera of the season), on account of the
latter opera's ‘strong situations’ and ‘more attractive and varied scenery’.
Tuffarelli saw the wisdom of agreeing to his request. The main stars of the
cast were the tenor Gaetano Ottani as Titus (he was to repeat the role in
Andrea Adolfati's setting of La clemenza di Tito for Vienna the next year)
and the celebrated but temperamental castrato Caffarelli (Gaetano
Majorano) as Sextus. For the latter Gluck wrote an audaciously (and
expressively) dissonant setting of the Act 2 aria ‘Se mai senti spirarti sul
volto’ that provoked both criticism and admiration in Neapolitan musical
circles (‘in all of Italy’, according to Dittersdorf (C1801)), and also was
distributed in numerous manuscript copies. The highly respected
Neapolitan composer and teacher Francesco Durante was called upon to
pass judgment (according to Reichardt's account (E1792), possibly derived
from Gluck's own): while declining to say whether Gluck's aria was in
accordance with the rules of composition, he declared that he and all his
colleagues ‘should have been proud to have conceived and written such a
passage’. Gluck himself thought well enough of the piece to rework it in his
Iphigénie en Tauride a quarter of a century later. In writing the piece as he
did, he was no doubt consciously seeking notoriety – as he was also in
again performing on the musical glasses while in Naples – but he also
sought to accommodate the wishes of singers in the cast, as is shown by
alternative settings he composed for two arias.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
3. Vienna, 1752–60.
Although a position at the Habsburg court was not yet forthcoming, Gluck
did soon secure employment in the Kapelle of a Viennese melomane,
Prince Joseph Friedrich von Sachsen-Hildburghausen. Even before the
composer's return to the capital in December, the prince had procured a
copy of ‘Se mai senti’ from a Neapolitan correspondent and had it
performed (by the Kammersängerin Therese Heinisch), and in due course
Gluck was introduced to him. According to the memoirs of Carl Ditters von
Dittersdorf (C1801), then a young violinist (Carl Ditters) in
Hildburghausen's orchestra, Gluck soon became an intimate friend of the
prince, not only on account of his musical skills, but also because the
prince found him to be worldly and well-read. He appears also to have held
a regular position in the prince's musical establishment; the semi-official
Wienerisches Diarium referred to him as ‘Fürstl. Capell-meister’ in a report
on musical festivities mounted by the prince in 1754 (‘Extra-Blat’, 12
October), but his arrival on the scene evidently did not displace
Hildburghausen's nominal music director, Giuseppe Bonno. In any case,
Dittersdorf reports that ‘At concerts [in the Palais Rofrano, later the Palais
Auersperg], for which a rehearsal was always held the previous evening …
Gluck sat himself with his violin at the head [of the orchestra]’. The soloists
included not only the prince's regular employees, among whom were such
accomplished musicians as Vittoria Tesi, the Semiramide of Gluck's last
opera for Vienna, and the tenor Joseph Friebert, but also foreign visitors
who had already appeared at court or in concerts in the Burgtheater – such
as the soprano Caterina Gabrielli, the castrato Giovanni Manzuoli, the
violinist Gaetano Pugnani and the oboist Alessandro Besozzi (ii). It was
thus a natural transition when Gluck took up a position as musical director
in the Burgtheater, with particular responsibility for concerts. According to
Dittersdorf, ‘Gluck had many of his compositions, such as symphonies and
arias, copied out for the prince’, and presumably he composed at least
some new works for him as well.
The occasion that again brought Gluck to the attention of the imperial court
was an elaborate feast of musical and theatrical entertainments put on by
Hildburghausen over the course of several days in September 1754 at his
estate of Schlosshof an der March, north-east of Vienna, which the
empress was contemplating purchasing for her husband. (According to
Dittersdorf, Gluck arrived on the scene as early as the middle of May.)
Gluck had received a commission to compose one of the works to be
performed there: a setting of the only comic piece now ascribed to
Metastasio, Le cinesi, newly revised with a fourth, male role. (The work had
originally been written in 1735 for Maria Theresa, her sister and a lady-in-
waiting.) As a remedy for boredom, the Chinese women of the title, and the
brother of one of them, perform samples or parodies of various dramatic
genres – tragic, pastoral and comic – ending with an invitation to the
dance, the whole leavened by Metastasio's gentle irony. With the added
attraction of crystal and transparent décors in Chinese style by Giovanni
Maria Quaglio (i), this was an ideal audition piece for the composer, who
(like Bonno) was rewarded by the emperor with a golden snuff-box filled
with 100 ducats. The work was repeated in the Burgtheater, and in 1761
was given in Russia (it was probably brought there by Joseph Starzer,
whose sister Catharina had sung the role of Tangia).
The key personality in Gluck's recruitment for the Viennese Burgtheater
was the director of spectacles at the court, the Genoan Count Giacomo
Durazzo. Francophile in his artistic orientation, Durazzo had as a long-term
ambition the uniting of French operatic spectacle with Italian lyricism and
poetry, and probably brought Gluck into the Burgheater with this in mind.
Initially, however, Gluck's duties were more mundane: from the third
quarter of the 1755–6 season he is listed in court payment books as
director of and composer for musical ‘academies’ (concerts), which took
place principally during Lent, at a salary of 50, and later 100, ordinary
ducats per year. From the start, however, he functioned as musical director
of the French theatre generally, although payment records only made this
explicit for his final season in that capacity (1763–4). During a dispute
between Durazzo and the acting first Kapellmeister Georg Reutter (ii) in
1761, the count stated that he had chosen Gluck, as ‘someone he could
trust and rely upon’, ‘to compose music for the theatre and for academies,
and to be present at all musical productions that Count Durazzo may
present’; the Obersthofmeister Corfix Ulfeld countered that his office had
‘had not the slightest news’ of Gluck's appointment as Kapellmeister six
years before (see Haas, C1925). In any case, an additional duty was
added in the spring of 1759 when, following the departure for Russia of the
choreographer Franz Hilverding and his usual composer Starzer, Gluck
was appointed as ‘Compositor von der Music zu denen Balletten’ in both
the German and French theatres (later just the French), with additional
compensation of 1000 gulden annually.
The Burgtheater into which Gluck came in 1755 had been thoroughly
reorganized three years earlier under court control, and now featured a
company of French actors (recruited with the aid of the imperial chancellor,
Wenzel Kaunitz), plus a fine ballet troupe. The repertory consisted of
classical and modern works of spoken drama, both tragic and comic, and
Parisian opéras comiques adapted for Viennese tastes and morals; ballets
were mostly presented as independent works between plays or operas, in
part (as Durazzo explained) as a means of entertaining non-francophones
in the audience. Occasional performances of Italian operas – mostly in
connection with the birthdays, namedays, marriages and successful
parturitions of members of the imperial family – drew upon these forces to
a large extent, as well as upon soloists in the employ of the court. The
latter were much reduced during the early stages of the Seven Years War,
effectively silencing Italian opera at court.
Concerts in the Burgtheater were instituted by Durazzo in 1755, and the
season was later expanded from Lent to cover other parts of the year
(mostly Fridays), particularly after 1761, when the revenues went towards
rebuilding the Kärntnertortheater. Large-scale oratorios, mostly on
Metastasian texts, were the featured works, but operatic numbers (even
entire operas), instrumental solos and concertos, symphonies and
symphonies concertantes were also performed, by first-rate local or visiting
artists. The orchestra, which Gluck's later librettist L.H. Dancourt found to
be ‘sublime’, normally numbered six first and six second violins, plus pairs
of violas, cellos and double basses, as well as oboes, one or two flutes,
horns and bassoons, but could be augmented if needed (i.e. by extra
strings, and by choristers and/or trumpeters from the Hofkapelle). (Late in
1761 Ditters, his two brothers and several other musicians from
Hildburghausen's Kapelle were absorbed into the orchestra of the
Burgtheater, when the prince had to return temporarily to his estate in
Saxony.) During Lent, at least, musicians performed within elaborate,
allegorical stage décors (described in the manuscript chronicle of Viennese
theatrical offerings kept for Durazzo's benefit by Philipp Gumpenhuber,
sous-directeur of the French ballet: C1758-63). Among the Gluck works
performed were a setting of Psalm viii, his serenade Tetide and various
‘grands choeurs’. Although other composers such as Hasse and Wagenseil
were more prominent on concert programmes, in his position as director
Gluck was at the centre of Viennese musical life.
During the mid- and late 1750s Gluck received regular commissions for
operas to be performed on court occasions: at first for Italian works
involving virtuosos from the Tafelmusik, and when these had to be released
because of wartime economies, for opéras comiques, several of which
received their premières at the more intimate theatres at the Schönbrunn
or Laxenburg palaces. La danza, given at the latter in May 1755, was a
slight work on a decade-old Metastasian text, with but two singers, serving
as an introduction to a pastoral ballet. But Gluck's next work, L'innocenza
giustificata, given for the emperor's birthday on 8 December of the same
year, was clearly a step in the direction of Durazzo's new model of Italian
opera. Although the arias were all to well-known texts by Metastasio,
Durazzo, acting as librettist, had placed them in a fluid context of recitatives
and dramatic choruses, and linked them (in the French manner) to two
ballets by Hilverding. In requesting a pension for Gluck in 1763, Durazzo
mentioned this opera as the first for which he (as opposed to the court) had
requested the composer's services.
Gluck's next commission, for a setting of Metastasio's Antigono, came from
the Teatro Argentina in Rome, where pro-Habsburg circles may have been
helpful to him – in particular the ‘Protector Germaniae’ in the papal court,
Cardinal Albani. Gluck left Vienna immediately after the first performances
of L'innocenza giustificata, but even so time was short before the première
on 9 February 1756. This and the foreign venue may have been factors in
Gluck's considerable recourse to borrowing in the work. The cast for this,
the composer's only Roman opera, was necessarily all-male, owing to the
prohibition on female actresses in the papal states. While in the Holy City
Gluck was named a papal Knight of the Golden Spur, or cavaliere dello
sperone d'oro, an honour bestowed on numerous artistic and literary
figures of the time (including both Ditters and Mozart). Documentary proof
of the award is lacking; indeed, doubts about its legitimacy were raised
already in Gluck's lifetime. But Gerber (D1941) suggested that the
nomination may have come from Albani himself, as cardinal legate; in any
case, Gluck henceforth used the title proudly, signing himself ‘Chevalier
Gluck’ or ‘Ritter Gluck’. While in Rome Gluck also had his portrait painted
(though without the papal insignia); a copy of it was later ‘updated’ and sent
by Durazzo to Padre Martini in Bologna (Croll, B1987).
Owing to wartime disruptions and his many duties in the Burgtheater, Gluck
did not leave Vienna for the next few years. His new status as a papal
knight seems to have increased his standing at court, and again in 1756 he
was commissioned to write an opera for the emperor's birthday (8
December) – and, by happy coincidence, the birth of Archduke Maximilian
– a setting of Metastasio's Il re pastore. Metastasio wrote to Farinelli that
no opera could fail on such an auspicious occasion, but added caustically
that the music was by ‘a Bohemian composer, whose spirit, noise and
extravagance have supplied the place of merit in many theatres in Europe’
(letter of 8 December 1756, trans. in Burney, C1796). In resetting the
libretto Gluck sought to imitate those features of Bonno's original version of
1751 – performed by amateur courtiers – that had pleased, including its
vocal distribution of four sopranos and a tenor (Alexander), while taking
advantage of the more agile throats of virtuosos such as Caterina Gabrielli
(Elisa) and the castrato Ferdinando Mazzanti (Amyntas). Il re pastore was
to be the last Italian serious opera presented at the Viennese court until the
festivities for the wedding of Archduke Joseph in 1760.
Opéra comique came increasingly to occupy Gluck during the latter years
of the decade. In 1755, when Gluck assumed his duties in the Burgtheater,
Durazzo was beginning to import Parisian opéras comiques – both
comedies in vaudevilles (retexted popular songs) and with parodied or
newly written italianate ariettes – into the repertory of the French troupe.
Gluck's skilful parody of French manners in one scene of Le cinesi made
him an appropriate choice for the task of supervising the arrangement of
imported Parisian works and occasionally contributing replacement ariettes
suited to the limited abilities of singers in the company. His contributions to
scores imported from Paris began at least as early as 1756, when an aria
from L'innocenza giustificata was retexted and used in Charles-Simon
Favart's Tircis et Doristée (itself a parody of Lully's Acis et Galatée), with its
melodic leaps expanded by octave transposition so as to depict the strides
of the giant Horiphême. By 1758, though, he was composing complete
original scores in the genre – a task more worthy of his talents, according
to his later collaborator L.H. Dancourt. A correspondent reporting on his
first opéra comique score (La fausse esclave, première on 8 January 1758)
in the Liège-based Journal encyclopédique of 1 March 1758 put them
squarely in the context of the polemic over this genre then being fought by
Rousseau and others in the French capital, writing presciently that
after the success of this piece, it would be desirable that the
music of the able composer be played in Paris, so that one
might judge if in this first attempt he has managed to
conserve all the truth of expression in the French words,
while giving them, as he has done, all the brilliance of Italian
music in the accompaniments.
Gluck's second opéra comique, L'île de Merlin, ou Le monde renversé,
given at Schönbrunn on 3 October 1758 in anticipation of the emperor's
nameday, was a resetting of a classic piece of social satire from the early
days of the genre. As in La fausse esclave, Gluck replaced only a portion of
the many original vaudevilles, and wrote suitably epigrammatic and dance-
like airs nouveaux to blend in with them. A belated review in the Journal
encyclopédique (15 December 1759) noted that this fairground
entertainment had, through judicious cutting, been made suitable for
presentation before the court; 20 years later Gluck reworked the overture,
with its vivid storm music, in the first scene of Iphigénie en Tauride.
The next year Durazzo acquired the services (by correspondence) of the
opéra comique librettist Favart, in order to keep abreast of Parisian taste,
repertory and opportunities for recruitment of personnel – not only for
opéra comique, but also with the impending wedding festivities of Archduke
Joseph in mind. A collaboration between Gluck and Favart was discussed,
and the composer did set Favart's Cythère assiégée in 1759, but the two
did not directly work together until they revised the opera into an opera-
ballet in Paris in 1775. 1759 was the highpoint of Gluck's activity in the
genre of opéra comique, seeing the production of three very different
works. For Le diable à quatre (given in May at Laxenburg), a quite bawdy
piece of English origin, he wrote new accompaniments for the parodied
Italian ariettes from the Parisian version of the piece, as well as several
airs nouveaux, one of which Haydn took as the main theme of the first
movement of his Symphony no.8, ‘Le soir’ (Heartz, H1981). L'arbre
enchanté, another nameday offering for Emperor Francis Stephen, was a
pastoral piece of modest proportions, based on a tale of Boccaccio by way
of La Fontaine. (When during a performance of the opera in 1761 one of
the singers became ill, a spectator, Count Zinzendorf, noted that Gluck
himself sang the rest of his part from the wings.) The date of the première
of Cythère assiégée is not known, but it was probably in spring 1759, and
certainly after the start of Gluck's activity as a ballet composer (replacing
Starzer). In terms of resources this was the most ambitious of Gluck's
opéras comiques, involving large choruses (60-strong, by one account),
elaborate concertante writing for voices and instruments and numerous
dances integrated into the spectacle. Gluck's skill in setting French is
notably improved in this opera, as is also his control over the large-scale
musical structure.
Gluck's early ballets, many of which are preserved anonymously at the
former Schwarzenberg archive at Český Krumlov, have yet to be studied in
detail, and attributions are mostly tentative. (As functional, repertory works,
they were produced without much regard to publicizing the composer's
role.) But Les amours de Flore et Zéphire (to choreography by Gasparo
Angiolini; fig.2), from August 1759, already exhibits a firm mastery of the
fluid, gestural writing for pantomime typical of his later, better-known
ballets, as well as imaginative handling of textures. Another pre-Don Juan
work, La halte des Calmouckes of March 1761, is notable on account of
Gluck's use of a figure in polonaise rhythm in its sinfonia and each of its ten
movements. The composer's regular involvement with the writing,
rehearsing and performance of ballet music, along with his work in opéra
comique, constituted an essential part of his training for the sort of
spectacle that Durazzo envisaged for Italian opera.
During 1760 Gluck produced numerous repertory ballets, and one further
opéra comique, L'ivrogne corrigé, probably late in the year (see Brown,
E1991). This work, again derived from La Fontaine, demonstrates careful
structural planning on the part of the composer and features a mock-hell
scene that looks forward to Orfeo ed Euridice. 1760 also saw the
reintroduction of Italian serious opera, as an essential part of the
entertainments offered for the October wedding of Archduke Joseph to
Isabella of Parma (a granddaughter of Louis XV), through which the
Habsburg alliance with the Bourbon dynasty was sealed. The commission
for the main wedding opera, Alcide al bivio, on a text by Metastasio, went
to Hasse, apparently with Durazzo's acquiescence (he may even have had
a role in its genesis), while Gluck was given the secondary work, the
serenata Tetide, on a text by the Dresden-based poet G.A. Migliavacca.
Gluck's work was performed on 10 October in the large Redoutensaal of
the Hofburg, without dramatic action, but in an elaborate stage decoration
representing the palace of the aquatic goddess Thetis, created by G.N.
Servandoni, who had been brought from Paris for the purpose by Durazzo.
Gluck's score for this thoroughly allegorical work included much acrobatic
writing for the virtuoso singers (Gabrielli and Manzuoli, among others), but
also numbers more redolent of the French comic operas that the composer
had been writing for the Viennese French troupe. Both operas were given
again in 1761, in the Lenten concerts in the Burgtheater.
During this same period preparations were under way for Durazzo's own
operatic project, an Armida based on Quinault, versified by Migliavacca
and set to music by Tommaso Traetta, of the francophile court of Parma.
But just as the work reached the stage, on 3 January 1761 (the birthday of
Isabella), Durazzo found himself embroiled in a bitter dispute with Reutter
over his use of Gluck. Reutter objected to (among other things) Gluck's
involvement in the court Tafelmusik, which was his prerogative, and
Durazzo's habit of draining off musicians from the Hofkapelle for theatrical
service. Durazzo and his protégé Gluck were considerably chastened by
the episode, paradoxically, just as they were to enter upon the most fruitful
period of their collaboration.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
4. Collaboration with Calzabigi.
A decisive event for Gluck's future was the arrival in Vienna early in 1761 of
the Tuscan poet Ranieri Calzabigi. A relatively minor literary figure with little
practical experience as a librettist, Calzabigi had nevertheless, while in
Paris during the 1750s, edited (with the author's cooperation) a prestigious
complete edition of the works of Metastasio, which he prefaced with a
‘Dissertazione’ mixing high praise with subtle criticisms (his own, and those
of French critics). He was probably also the author of a more direct attack
on the imperial poet's operatic system, in an anonymously published Lettre
sur le méchanisme de l'opéra italien (Paris, 1756; see Heartz, C1995),
which proposed a fusion of the best features of French and Italian serious
opera. While his employment was in the Netherlands Finance Ministry,
Calzabigi quickly came into the orbit of Kaunitz and his protégé Durazzo,
through whom he presumably was introduced to Gluck.
The first product of their collaboration was not an opera but a pantomime
ballet: Don Juan, ou Le festin de pierre, to choreography by Angiolini, first
given on 17 October 1761. Calzabigi was probably considered useful for
the project on account of his familiarity with Parisian debates over the
nature and purpose of theatrical dance, and with practical innovations in
dance in Parisian theatres. Just as significant was his strong classical
orientation (evident from the time of his first published writing, an
explication of two Etruscan inscriptions), and in fact the ballet was one of
the first attempts since ancient times to stage a complete theatrical action
using pantomime and dance alone. The programme essay in French for
Don Juan was signed by Angiolini, but Calzabigi later claimed authorship,
and it is likely that he was primarily responsible for the discussions in it of
ancient writings on dance and pantomime, discussions that were continued
in two later programmes for ballets by Angiolini (Citera assediata, 1762,
and Sémiramis, 1765). In the Don Juan programme Gluck received high
praise for his music, and particularly for his masterful handling of the
terrifying dénouement. The ballet created a sensation in Vienna, and was
quickly and widely imitated. But it should be emphasized that the work was
the product of a long-term effort in the Habsburg capital towards the reform
of theatrical dance, and of the several years' experience that Gluck already
had as a ballet composer. Although innovative in its adoption of a three-act
structure, and in being accompanied by a polemical essay, Don Juan was
well within the norms of Viennese ballet in terms of its proportions, formal
procedures and function in the repertory.
A performance of Angiolini and Gluck's ballet Don Juan, with its fiery finale
(Gumpenhuber's chronicle, C1758–63, lists 44 torches as props and 29
furies), was long thought to have caused the destruction by fire of the
Kärntnertortheater on 3 November 1761, but as Croll (H1976, pp.12–15)
has demonstrated, the ballet had been given in the French (court) theatre,
and the Don Juan at the German theatre that night (already concluded
when the fire broke out) was actually a spoken comedy by Prehauser. This
disaster had direct consequence for Gluck as music director, in that the two
theatres' orchestras were temporarily consolidated into one, their
repertories were mixed, and additional concerts were scheduled in order to
raise funds for the rebuilding of the German theatre. Despite the turmoil,
Gluck's next opéra comique, a ‘Turkish’-genre piece called Le cadi dupé,
was ready for performance for the emperor's birthday on 8 December
1761. Gluck was involved in the preparation of two other works for the
court in the time between Don Juan and Orfeo, though not as a composer
of fully original scores. He was responsible for arranging borrowed (and in
some cases parodied) numbers – described in the libretto as ‘most recently
composed and applauded in Italy’ – and for composing the recitatives for a
one-act pasticcio by Migliavacca, Arianna, presented on 27 May 1762
during the court's annual sojourn at Laxenburg palace. The roles of Ariadne
and Bacchus were taken by the future protagonists of Orfeo ed Euridice,
Marianna Bianchi and Gaetano Guadagni (engaged as court virtuosi since
Easter). In mid-September Angiolini presented Citera assediata, a ballet-
pantomime version of Gluck's earlier opéra comique after Favart; in a later
essay (Lettere … a Monsieur Noverre, 1773) he noted that he had not
introduced a single foreign note into Gluck's music, though he had
considerably abridged the score. Only on account of the need to prepare
decorations for Orfeo (according to Gumpenhuber) were performances of
the highly successful ballet curtailed.
Although in his earlier Italian operas Gluck had made some efforts towards
the integration of chorus (L'innocenza giustificata) and the simplification of
vocal writing (e.g. in certain numbers in Tetide), his and Calzabigi's Orfeo
ed Euridice marked a dramatic break with operatic practice, even taking
into account its genre (azione teatrale, traditionally based on a
mythological plot and including chorus and spectacle). For one thing,
Gluck's complete abandonment of coloratura in this opera constituted a
drastic change in his relations with singers. Previously, as with most
composers of drammi per musica, his successes had been closely
associated with those of the singers; he had often travelled from production
to production with them, and had catered to their specific talents,
particularly as regarded passage-work. His new manner of composition
necessarily brought other aspects into greater prominence, and Durazzo
ensured that all collaborators worked towards a single end. The reduced
role of vocal athleticism was due in part to the nature of Calzabigi's text,
which largely eschewed similes and metaphors (favourite provocations of
word-painting) as well as aria structures conducive to da capo returns (and
thus to improvised ornamentation).
More than two decades later, in a letter to the Mercure de France (dated 15
July 1784, published August 1784), Calzabigi claimed near-total credit for
the innovations in Orfeo, writing that he had read his libretto aloud to
Gluck,
showing him … the nuances that I put into my declamation
and that I wished him to make use of in his composition: the
pauses, the slowing down, the speeding up, the sound of the
voice now strong, now weaker and in an aside. At the same
time, I begged him to forgo passage-work, cadenzas,
ritornellos and all that is gothic, barbaric, and extravagant in
our [Italian] music.
He claimed also to have notated for Gluck the proper inflections in signs
written between the lines of his text, both for this opera and for the later
Alceste, the composer supposedly having only an imperfect knowledge of
Italian. No such manuscripts have come to light, and Calzabigi's account is
highly suspect in any case, dating as it does from a time when the poet
was incensed at what he saw as the misappropriation by Gluck and his
protégé Salieri of his Ipermestra text, in the latter's Parisian opera Les
Danaïdes. A document more nearly contemporary with Orfeo, and more
credible, is Calzabigi's letter of 6 March 1767 to Kaunitz with regard to
plans for his Alceste (still many months off), in which he pleads for singers
appropriate for the expressive purposes of his text and worthy of ‘the
sublime gifts of Sig. Gluck’, and states that ‘Orfeo went well because we
came across Guadagni, for whom it seemed to have been made expressly,
and it would have succeeded miserably in other hands’ (Helfert, A1938).
Indeed, the castrato Guadagni, who had received acting lessons from
David Garrick, frequently incurred the wrath of the public on account of his
refusal to break theatrical illusion by acknowledging applause (a concern of
Durazzo's even in opera buffa): according to Burney, ‘a few notes with
frequent pauses, and opportunities of being liberated from the composer
and the band, were all he wanted’ (BurneyH, ii, 876). In a sense, then,
Gluck's reliance on singers was just as close as before, merely altered in
its nature.
Fundamental to the novelty of Orfeo ed Euridice was Calzabigi's thoroughly
classical orientation, something evident in the simplicity of the basic plan of
the work and of the diction, and in its extensive use of pantomime. That he
managed to communicate his vision of the work to his collaborators is clear
from the stage directions for the opening ballet by Angiolini, which recreate
ancient funerary rites, and (according to the diaries of Count Karl von
Zinzendorf) from the spectators' comparisons of the décors to their sources
in Virgil. Zinzendorf himself found the music ‘divine, completely pathetic,
[and] completely suited to the subject’. Preparations for the opera, which
was to be given for the emperor's nameday (the première was on the
following day, 5 October 1762), apparently stretched over many months;
Gluck was free to devote his full energies to the project, having been freed
from his ballet-composing duties in the German theatre at Easter 1761. On
8 July 1762 and again on 6 August 1762, Zinzendorf (c1747–1813) reports
encountering Gluck at aristocratic dinner gatherings, performing excerpts
from his score, miming the Furies in the choruses. Gumpenhuber lists as
many as 12 rehearsals of the groups involved in the performance, in
various combinations; in a conversation with Burney a decade later, the
composer recounted that he had never ‘suffered them [the performers] to
leave any part of their business, till it was well done, and frequently obliged
them to repeat some of his manoeuvres twenty or thirty times’ (BurneyGN,
i, 344).
Despite some complaints (e.g. about the simplicity of Orpheus's air ‘Che
farò senza Euridice’, and about certain moral ambiguities in the text), Orfeo
was a tremendous success in Vienna, being given 19 times in 1762 alone;
it was revived with equal success during Carnival 1763, with further
performances during February and 11 more between July and September.
Ever anxious to publicize his and the Viennese theatres' productions,
Durazzo commissioned his agent Favart to arrange for publication in Paris
of an engraved full score (in a manner common for French operas but rare
for Italian works), which appeared in 1764. Although few copies were sold,
the circulation of the manuscript of Gluck's opera aroused considerable
interest among musicians and composers in the French capital. (The music
so impressed itself upon Philidor, whom Favart had asked to proofread the
score, that, probably unconsciously, he plagiarized certain passages in Le
sorcier and Ernelinde.) During the summer of 1763 Durazzo had planned
to send Gluck himself (then in Bologna) to Paris to check on the progress
of the edition, but (according to Favart's friend Dancourt; see Favart,
C1808) the count recalled him to Vienna upon hearing that the Paris Opéra
had burnt down. Durazzo's action points towards an ulterior motive for the
trip: an attempt to gain a foothold for Gluck in Paris (presumably with a
performance of a French version of Orfeo), already a decade before
Iphigénie en Aulide.
On 21 January 1763, with the success of Orfeo still echoing, Count
Durazzo petitioned the empress for an annual pension of 600 gulden for
Gluck, and also for Angiolini and the dancer Louise Joffroy-Bodin,
principally as a way of retaining their services in the face of offers from
other courts or theatres. (All three pensions were granted by imperial
decree on 26 April 1763.) The danger of losing these artists was real, for
already during the previous autumn Gluck had been in negotiation with
representatives of the new Teatro Comunale in Bologna for a dramma per
musica – his first foreign commission in seven years. The surviving
correspondence concerning the opera between Count Bevilacqua
(intendant of the Comunale) and his Viennese agent Lodovico Preti shows
Gluck to have been a hard bargainer. Gluck had apparently proposed
Metastasio's L'olimpiade, one of the poet's most famous and pathetic texts,
but Bevilacqua instead suggested a setting of his more recent Il trionfo di
Clelia, which had greater scenic possibilities. That connoisseurs would
inevitably compare Gluck's version with the original setting by Hasse,
written for Vienna only a year before, was probably another advantage of
the latter piece in Bevilacqua's eyes. The preparations and performances
(beginning on 14 May) of Il trionfo di Clelia, as well as such distractions as
visits to the retired singer Farinelli and to Padre Martini, are vividly
described in the memoirs of Gluck's protégé Ditters (Dittersdorf, C1801),
who accompanied him on the trip. They departed after the conclusion of
the Lenten concerts (for whose direction Gluck was still responsible),
travelling via Venice in order to accommodate a young singer, Chiara
Marini, who was returning there with her mother. (During Gluck's absence
his place as musical director in the Burgtheater was taken by F.L.
Gassmann; from Easter 1763 Gassmann also shared with Gluck the job of
composing ballets for the French theatre.) Among the cast in Bologna were
the castrato Giuseppe Manzuoli, for whom Gluck had already written in
Tetide, and the tenor Giuseppe Tibaldi, who four years later created the
role of Admetus in Gluck's Alceste. The singer cast as Cloelia, Antonia
Girelli Aguilar, pressed the composer to write an aria with obbligato oboe
for her to perform with her husband, but Gluck declined to do so.
(Dittersdorf notes that Gluck composed exclusively during the morning and
evening, the afternoon being reserved for visits and the café.) Gluck's
score for Il trionfo di Clelia, which apart from the overture contained only a
single borrowed number, did not fully live up to Bevilacqua's expectations;
Gluck himself (according to Dittersdorf) was dissatisfied with the
orchestra's performance, which, despite ‘seventeen large-scale
rehearsals’, ‘lacked … the ensemble and precision that we had long been
accustomed to hearing from the Viennese orchestra’.
Possibly on account of Gluck's absence from Vienna (until 6 June), the
commission for an opera for the emperor's nameday went to Traetta; the
choice of the piece – an Ifigenia in Tauride to a text by Coltellini –
presumably came from Durazzo. In composing the work Traetta clearly
benefited from the singers' and dancers' recent experience of performing in
such an integrated spectacle as Orfeo, which in fact was revived again in
late July. Around this time Durazzo asked Gluck to compose what later
turned to be his final opéra comique (apart from revisions of earlier works
for Paris), a setting of Les pèlerins de la Mecque. Based on an old classic
of the vaudeville repertory, the work had been adapted as a modern
comédie mêlée d'ariettes and purged of its original doubles entendres by
L.H. Dancourt, an actor friend of Favart's whom Durazzo had brought to
Vienna mainly in order to shorten French plays for performance at
Laxenburg. The new version of Les pèlerins de la Mecque (whose ‘Turkish’
plot has an ancestry in common with that of Die Entführung aus dem
Serail) was conceived in part as a showpiece for a recently acquired haute-
contre by the name of Godard (playing Ali), who had sung premiers rôles at
the Paris Opéra and who far outshined the singer-actors available to Gluck
in the French troupe up until then. The opera was nearly ready for its
première when the illness and subsequent death (on 27 November 1763)
of Archduke Joseph's wife, Isabella of Parma, closed the Viennese
theatres. The opera was finally given on 7 January 1764, with the new title
La rencontre imprévue and with textual revisions that were meant to mask
the similarities between Princess Rezia's feigned death in the original
libretto and the murky circumstances of Isabella's demise. Despite its
extremely episodic plot, the opera quickly became popular through much of
Europe, both in French and in translation.
Even before the première of La rencontre imprévue, another opera by
Gluck reached the stage of the Burgtheater, on 26 December (the
beginning of Carnival): an almost completely new setting of Metastasio's
Ezio (some 14 years after his first version, for Prague). Guadagni sang the
title role; the prima donna (Fulvia) was Rosa Tartaglini-Tibaldi. Besides the
desire to tailor the music to the singers at hand, the advisability of
modernizing the forms of the set pieces worked to discourage Gluck from
making large-scale borrowings from the earlier setting – though he did
parody five arias from his more recent Il trionfo di Clelia. A largely
favourable review of Ezio in the Wienerisches Diarium (7 January 1764;
perhaps written at the instigation of Durazzo) sought to link the opera to
reforms of the sort seen recently in Orfeo, but the work still clearly adheres
to the norms of dramma per musica.
Gluck's compositions over the next two years were almost all written at the
behest of the imperial court. (Few Italian theatres were as yet prepared to
essay his and Calzabigi's brand of Greek-inspired musical tragedy, as the
poet himself later lamented on several occasions.) In spring 1764 Gluck
and a retinue of musicians including Guadagni and Ditters accompanied
Durazzo to Frankfurt for the coronation of Archduke Joseph as King of the
Romans (a preliminary step towards election as Holy Roman Emperor). A
celebratory cantata Enea e Ascanio, to a text by Coltellini, was performed
for the occasion; although the music does not survive, and the libretto
names no composer, circumstances suggest that it was Gluck who
composed the music. Before the festivities Gluck and Durazzo stopped in
Paris to consult with Favart. Another noteworthy event during the trip was
the dismissal of Count Durazzo, on instructions from the empress. His
demise was apparently due to intrigues by Favart and Dancourt, and to his
relationship to the dancer Joffroy-Bodin (who also was let go). Durazzo's
departure (for Venice, where he became imperial ambassador) did not
immediately jeopardize Gluck's position, but it did mean the end of a period
of firm support and guidance from the court theatre director. Durazzo's
replacement, Count Wenzel Sporck, did not commission any further opéras
comiques from Gluck, relying on Parisian imports instead. With regard to
more ambitious projects, Gluck and Calzabigi largely bypassed Sporck,
dealing directly with Kaunitz.
For what was to be the last nameday of Emperor Francis Stephen (4
October 1764), Gluck and Angiolini produced an impressive ballet entitled
Les amours d'Alexandre et de Roxane. It has long been assumed that an
explanatory programme, now lost, accompanied the work at its première,
but this is unlikely; a passing knowledge of Plutarch's life of Alexander was
probably sufficient to acquaint most spectators with the plot, and for a
subsequent performance of the ballet in Moscow, under Angiolini's
direction, no programme was issued. For the next major court occasion,
the remarriage of Archduke Joseph to Maria Joseph of Bavaria in January
1765, Gluck was called upon to produce three works: an azione teatrale by
Metastasio, Il Parnaso confuso, to be performed for the couple as a
surprise by four of Joseph's sisters, with Archduke Leopold directing from
the harpsichord (24 January); a concluding ballet by Hilverding and
Gassmann, Le triomphe de l'amour, was performed by the younger
imperial children); a full-scale dramma per musica, Telemaco, ossia L'isola
di Circe, on a text by Coltellini (30 January); and a new pantomime ballet
with choreography by Angiolini, Sémiramis (31 January). If in the first piece
(the performance of which at Schönbrunn is depicted in two large paintings
by J.F. Greipel; fig.5) Gluck was constrained by the thoroughly encomiastic
text and the necessity of writing for amateur (though skilful) singers, for the
other two works he had fully professional performers at his disposal.
Nevertheless, the production of Telemaco suffered from the haste with
which the closely spaced festivities were arranged, in that (judging from a
remark by the diarist Count J.J. Khevenhüller, later Prince Khevenhüller-
Metsch; see R. Khevenhüller-Metsch and H. Schlitter, C1907–25) its
concluding ballet (copiously described in the libretto) was either omitted or
replaced by a ballet from the repertory. Two years later ( see Helfert,
A1938) Calzabigi wrote privately to Kaunitz that
Telemaco, with the best of poetry and singularly divine music,
went most badly because [Travaglini] Ti[b]aldi was no
actress, Guadagni was a scoundrel and the famous
[Elisabeth] Teyber was unsuited for the role of Circe and had
insufficient voice for a sorceress and for doing justice to
music worthy of an enchantress and an enchantment.
Significantly, in the same letter Calzabigi lists those Viennese operas
created since his arrival – Orfeo, Ifigenia in Tauride (by Traetta), Telemaco
and Alceste – that in contrast to Metastasian works required ‘actresses
who sing what the composer has written, without inserting a trunkful of
notes by repeating 30 or 40 times either a “Parto” or an “Addio” decked out
in musical hieroglyphics’.
The protagonist of Telemaco was probably meant to be seen at least on
some levels as a representation of Archduke Joseph; the same hero had
been the subject of an elaborate, specifically allegorical decoration for a
Burgtheater concert given for the archduke's birthday in 1758. The court
may have helped determine the subject also of Angiolini and Gluck's
pantomime ballet, for a setting by Andrea Bernasconi of Metastasio's
Semiramide riconosciuta – a text closely associated with the empress –
had been given in Munich during the earlier part of the wedding festivities,
beginning on 7 January. But Angiolini's ballet was based on a very different
telling of the story, the tragedy by Voltaire of 1748, in which the motive
forces were regicide, matricide and incest, and which, like Don Juan,
featured a ghost returning to exact revenge. (In deciding to stage a tragic
ballet Angiolini put himself into direct competition with his rival Jean-
Georges Noverre in Stuttgart.) Khevenhüller reported that Sémiramis
‘found no approval at all, and indeed was also far too pathetic and sad for a
wedding feast’.
More even than in the case of Don Juan, Calzabigi was involved with the
conception and explication of Sémiramis. The essay or programme
accompanying it was entitled Dissertation sur les ballets pantomimes des
anciens, on the model of the Dissertation sur la tragédie ancienne et
moderne with which Voltaire had prefaced his play. Much of the pamphlet's
theoretical orientation, as well as various Parisian topical references,
betrays the hand of Calzabigi, who in his Lettera al signor conte Vittorio
Alfieri of 1784 specifically claimed to have written it (see Bellina, A1994).
His authorship is suggested also by his proud assertion, contradicted by all
other witnesses, that the ballet ‘succeeded sublimely’, more so even than
Viennese performances of Voltaire's original tragedy. But the powerful
effect of the work (whether appropriate for the occasion or not) was
ultimately due to the ability of Angiolini and Gluck to translate Calzabigi's
rigorous and concise plan into effective stage spectacle and music. Much
of Gluck's score is starkly functional, with musical gestures intimately tied
to the pantomime; in several numbers Gluck also strives for a specifically
antique tone. Though conceived with this particular plot in mind, more than
half of the music in Sémiramis found its way into Gluck's later Iphigénie en
Tauride.
The next composition of Gluck's of which we have notice is his music to a
ballet by Angiolini, given at Laxenburg on 19 May 1765, ‘taken from the
tragedy of Iphigenia and … better than that of Semiramis’, according to
Khevenhüller. The ‘tragedy’ in question was no doubt Racine's Iphigénie,
familiar to Burgtheater spectators from many performances over the years;
in his Lettere … a Monsieur Noverre (Milan, 1773) Angiolini called his ballet
Ifigenia in Aulide, and admitted that the outcry against his Sémiramis ballet
had forced a ‘prudent silence’ upon him and caused him to compose this
one ‘with a lieto fine, in order to show the public my respect’. The music of
the Iphigenia ballet does not survive, but we know that it pleased Archduke
Leopold (who also named its composer explicitly). When Khevenhüller
heard it again at Innsbruck an 18 August he found it ‘as long as [it is] sad’.
That Innsbruck performance was part of the wedding festivities for
Archduke Leopold and Maria Ludovica of Spain; while leaving the theatre
after the conclusion of the ballet, Emperor Francis Stephen suffered a fatal
stroke, among the results of which were the closing of all theatres in the
Habsburg realms and the disbanding of the French troupe with which
Gluck had worked for over a decade.
The emperor's sudden death left unperformed two already completed
works by Gluck. Already before the court's departure for Innsbruck Gluck
had begun rehearsing another azione teatrale to a text by Metastasio for
the archduchesses, La corona, intended for Francis Stephen's nameday.
(The commission is a sign of the favourable reception of Il Parnaso
confuso.) Another work, the ballet Achille in Sciro, based on the libretto by
Metastasio, was simultaneously being readied for performance at
Innsbruck, according to a later account by its choreographer, Angiolini
(Lettere … a Monsieur Noverre), and likewise fell victim to the closure of
the theatres. (A note of 13 November by Sporck likewise mentions ‘various
well-decorated ballets’ for Innsbruck, ‘of which two were not performed at
all’.) Gluck's music for Achille survives in a set of parts at the former
Schwarzenberg archive at Český Krumlov; the composer salvaged its
concluding Passacaille for use in Paride ed Elena, Iphigénie en Aulide and
the revised version of Cythère assiégée.
The grief of Empress Maria Theresa for her consort was extreme, since
(unusually among sovereigns) her marriage had been a love-match. The
protracted period of mourning led to the dispersal of many musicans,
actors and dancers from the court theatres and enforced inactivity on the
part of those who had stayed, including Gluck. During this period one
opportunity for Gluck both to compose and to conduct presented itself in
Florence, in Habsburg-controlled Tuscany, where (after a decent interval)
Traetta's Ifigenia in Tauride was being given during Carnival 1767. Gluck
was asked to set the purely celebratory prologue by Lorenzo Ottavio del
Rosso that opened the performance, which he also led, in the absence of
Traetta (who was busy producing a new opera in Munich). The text was so
slight (consisting of only a few choruses and one aria) that Gluck was able
to set it in a mere two weeks (not even having received it until 6 February,
nearly a week after his arrival), and the first performance followed on 22
February, a day after the single rehearsal.
In Vienna, there was considerable turmoil after 1765 with regard to the
managerial arrangements and repertory of the theatre. The court
relinquished some – though by no means all – control to a series of
impresarios (including Hilverding), and the increased necessity of pleasing
a paying public led to the recruitment of an opera buffa troupe, which
reopened the Burgtheater in October 1766 with Il viaggiatore ridicolo by
Gassmann. By then Calzabigi and Gluck were already at work on a more
dignified piece – the opera Alceste – with which to console the grieving
empress and tempt her back into the court theatre, a main point of contact
with her people. (Metastasio had made a similar attempt at consolation the
previous year with his poem ‘I voti pubblici’.) The story of Alcestis, the
subject of a famous tragedy by Euripides, was practically synonymous with
conjugal devotion. The resonances of the protagonist's noble sacrifice for
the sake of her husband – who is fated to die unless someone can be
found to take his place – with Maria Theresa's own situation were obvious,
and were specifically emphasized in numerous verses of the libretto and in
Calzabigi's dedication of it to her.
The poet's extraordinarily candid and (with respect to Metastasio) acerbic
letter of 6 March 1767 to Kaunitz on the subject of Alceste (see Helfert,
A1938), quoted in part above, attacked the old manner of composing and
performing drammi per musica mainly in order to emphasize the quite
different requirements of those performing in works on the ‘new plan’. It has
usually been assumed that Calzabigi's request for Kaunitz to guarantee a
proper cast for Alceste indicated that Gluck's music for the opera was
already essentially complete by this time. But it is equally possible that his
letter – sent during the Lenten break between theatrical seasons, when
most decisions on personnel were made – was an attempt to procure
singers for whom Gluck could write just the sort of music he desired. The
eventual choices of protagonists were controversial – Leopold Mozart
scoffed that the opera was being performed by ‘mere opera buffa singers’
(letter of 30 January – 3 February 1768) – but were vindicated in the
lengthy, enthusiastic critique of the opera by Joseph von Sonnenfels, in his
(initially) anonymously published Briefe über die Wienerische Schaubühne
(Sonnenfels, C1768). The singer cast as Alcestis, Antonia Bernasconi (the
German-born stepdaughter of the Munich composer Andrea Bernasconi),
had a small voice, and indeed was a specialist more in comic than in tragic
roles, but she ‘acted … with a truth, feeling, and participation [in the role]
that [were] marvelled at’. Giuseppe Tibaldi, who sang Admetus, Sonnenfels
remarked, gestured more expressively and consistently, now that the upper
part of his range was fading, and Gluck aided the cast generally in that ‘he
put fewer [musical] difficulties in the way of the talent of his actors than any
other [composer]’. The expressive pantomime ballets by the star
choreographer Noverre, newly engaged for the Viennese theatres, were
much appreciated by spectators as well. His recent arrival (during autumn
of that year), too, speaks against Gluck's score having been completed by
March; in fact, the music reflects Noverre's separation of sections of
expressive pantomime (called balli pantomimi in the libretto) and
movements of pure dance (balli ballati), which is much stricter than in
Angiolini's works.
The staging of Alceste was undoubtedly delayed by the deaths first of
Joseph's second wife Maria Josepha of Bavaria on 28 May and then of the
Archduchess Maria Josepha (newly betrothed to the King of Naples) on 15
October, both events entailing the closure of the theatres. Under the
circumstances, it is hardly surprising that Khevenhüller found the opera
Alceste, once it was finally performed, ‘pathetic and lugubrious beyond all
measure’; only the concluding ballet by Noverre in the grotesque vein
found general approbation, he reported. The opera reached a respectable
number of performances, but a year later, when its score was being
prepared for publication (this time in Vienna), Calzabigi insisted (as he
explained to Antonio Greppi on 12 December 1768) that it be accompanied
by a preface explaining ‘the enormous change we have made in dramatic
compositions such as this one’, acknowledging in effect the difficulties that
such works posed for audiences (see Donà, A1974). Although the preface
(dedicated to Archduke Leopold, since 1765 Grand Duke Pietro Leopoldo
of Tuscany; see §11 below) is signed by Gluck, the librettist told others that
he himself was the author; the ruse allowed him more easily to include a
considerable amount of praise for his own efforts as librettist.
The extent of Gluck's output during 1768 in unclear. No score survives to
show exactly what revisions of L'innocenza giustificata (1755) he undertook
for its restaging during the summer as La vestale, with Bernasconi in the
leading role. (In the libretto (A-Wn), Gluck is for the first time called a
member of the Arcadian Academy, under the name ‘Armonide
Terpsicoreo’.) Calzabigi's claim (in the above-cited letter to Greppi) that
Gluck had already set his Paride ed Elena must be viewed with some
scepticism, as that opera was not staged until November 1770.
Presumably Gluck was occupied by early 1769 with Le feste d'Apollo, a
piece of three loosely related acts with a prologue on the model of the
French opéra-ballet, for the wedding of Archduchess Maria Amalia with the
Duke Ferdinand of Parma – Gluck's last opera commissioned for a
Habsburg festivity (if one discounts the revised L'arbre enchanté). The
celebrations in Vienna were on a small scale, with most of the theatrical
productions, including Gluck's, taking place in Parma. The wedding was
postponed by several months on account of delays over a papal
dispensation (since the parties were related) and then the death of the
pope; as a result of the confusion, Gluck made the trip to Parma twice.
Only about half of Gluck's music for the opera was new; the final ‘Atto
d'Orfeo’, included at the request of the archduchess, was a compressed
version of Orfeo ed Euridice, and much of the rest was borrowed from
earlier works, especially Telemaco. The performances of Le feste d'Apollo,
particularly of the ‘Atto d'Orfeo’, were well received; indeed, no court in Italy
could have been more receptive of a Gluckian work of this sort – or
capable of performing it – than that at Parma, where choral and balletic
forces had been employed in Italian opera for more than a decade. At
Parma Gluck met and became friendly with the soprano castrato Giuseppe
Millico (whose vocal range required adjustments in the music originally
written for the alto Guadagni). This singer was to create the role of the
male protagonist in Gluck's next opera, Paride ed Elena, and he became
the singing teacher of Gluck's young niece and ward, Marianne (Nanette).
It was during the latter part of 1769 that Gluck became involved in the
financial and managerial sides of the Viennese theatrical enterprise, at that
time leased to the Venetian adventurer Giuseppe d'Afflisio (or d'Affligio).
This episode (on which see Grossegger, C1995) nearly cost Gluck his
personal fortune, and does not reflect well on his character. On 11 October
1769 Gluck and Franz Lopresti (son of another former entrepreneur of the
Viennese stages) signed a contract with d'Afflisio whereby, investing
30,000 gulden apiece, they became ‘economic directors’, each with a 25%
share of the profits (minus d'Afflisio's considerable debts). According to
Grossegger, Gluck was motivated to participate not only by the hope of
financial gain, but also in order to assure a venue for his opera Paride ed
Elena; that d'Afflisio was a close friend of Calzabigi certainly encouraged
him as well. Kaunitz required that the directors agree to six conditions,
including notably the re-engagement of a French troupe and exclusivity for
Noverre as choreographer. French theatre and ballet were by far the
costliest of the theatrical spectacles, and when not long afterwards
d'Afflisio left on a recruiting trip to Italy, leaving Gluck to administer the
theatres, the partnership was threatened with ruin. Aiming solely for higher
box-office receipts, Gluck vigorously fought efforts towards the reform of
the German repertory, instead promoting the often indecent improvised
fare; in this he was opposed by Gottlieb Stephanie the younger (later the
librettist of Die Entführung aus dem Serail). When the financial situation of
the theatres worsened, Gluck's petitions for relief to Kaunitz earned him the
enmity of his and Calzabigi's former supporter. On 30 March 1770 Gluck
withdrew entirely from the enterprise, without economic loss, as d'Afflisio
ceded his lease to Count Johann Nepomuk Koháry. Gluck's personal credit
with the court and the aristocracy was much damaged, however, and
another result of the débâcle was the departure of Antonia Bernasconi,
who was likewise a friend of Calzabigi and d'Afflisio.
In 1770 two of Gluck's operas were revived in the Burgtheater: Orfeo ed
Euridice, in May, with Millico in the role of Orpheus winning applause ‘on
account of his voice and acting’ (Khevenhüller, 13 May 1770), and Alceste,
on 21 October 1770 (later also in the Kärntnertortheater), Millico taking
over the role of Admetus. The latter work was thus no longer, as originally,
the unusual phenomenon of ‘a serious opera without castratos’
(Sonnenfels, C1768, p.10). Less than two weeks later, on 3 November,
Paride ed Elena received its première, with Millico opposite the Viennese-
born Catharina Schindler (later replaced by Clementina Chiavacci). The
extensive ballets were again by Noverre. The first performance seems to
have been a court occasion only in that Calzabigi had dedicated the libretto
to Archduke Leopold, who had been staying in Vienna for several months.
Calzabigi's later claim, in his mock-picaresque Risposta … [di] Don
Santigliano di Gilblas … (1790; see Bellina, A1994, p.379), that the opera's
lack of success was due to the court's having ordered a ‘festive’ work (thus
precluding the necessary contrasting passions of fear and compassion)
contradicts his statement to Greppi in December 1768 that Paride ed Elena
was already complete, only awaiting an opportunity for performance (see
Donà, A1974). The truth probably lies somewhere in between; the
publication of a full score (by Trattner of Vienna) before the end of 1770
points to the opera having been finished a considerable time before its
production.
Although both Count Zinzendorf (C1747–1813, entry for 3 November 1770)
and the court-sponsored Wienerisches Diarium (7 November 1770)
reported favourably on the première of Paride ed Elena, performances of
which continued into 1771, the apologetic tone that Calzabigi and Gluck
took in their writings on the opera tends to confirm Khevenhüller's
statement that it ‘did not find particular approval, on account of its uneven
and somewhat strange taste’ (3 November 1770). The unusually long
dedication of the score to Duke Juan Carlos de Braganza (one of the
composer's earliest supporters, living in exile in Vienna), signed by Gluck
but probably drafted by Calzabigi, again mentions the lack of contrasting
passions in the opera and explains its ‘strange taste’ as the result of an
attempt to depict ‘the different character of the Phrygian and Spartan
nations, contrasting the roughness and savagery of the one with the
delicacy and softness of the other’. Gluck was later to use similar musical
means in Iphigénie en Tauride to contrast the Greeks and their Scythian
captors.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
5. New directions.
Even before his disastrous experience in the theatre administration, and
the disappointing reception of Paride ed Elena, the generally less
favourable conditions for the sort of Italian spectacles that he and Calzabigi
had been creating led Gluck to start thinking in different directions. (No
celebratory opera, whether from Gluck, Calzabigi or Metastasio, was
commissioned for the wedding of Archduchess Marie Antoinette to the
French dauphin in May 1770, the empress having decided instead on a
banquet at Belvedere palace.) During his sojourn in Vienna in September
1772, Charles Burney heard of Gluck's detailed plan to compose a more
dramatic setting of Dryden's St Cecilia's Day ode Alexander's Feast (see
BurneyGN, i, 242–3), which he had recently heard in an Italian translation
from Florence; had Gluck remained in Vienna, he might well have
contributed to the oratorio productions of the nascent Tonkünstler-Societät.
The increasing cultivation of German letters in Vienna, in preference to
French and Italian, and the reform of the German stage (which he had so
recently opposed, on pecuniary grounds) were probably factors in Gluck's
decision around this time to set to music several texts by F.G. Klopstock.
By 1769 the poet had heard reports of the composer performing several
bardic choruses from his tragedy Hermannsschlacht (first published in
1767) – though Gluck apparently never notated them, and over the next
few years he set several of Klopstock's secular odes. Four of the latter
appeared in almanachs before the entire set of seven was published in
1785. (One further ode, ‘An den Tod’, was notated by J.F. Reichardt in
1783 from the composer's performance of it and published in 1792. In a
letter of August 1773 Gluck told Klopstock that he was sending him eight
songs on his poetry, although the two in ‘bardic’ style were possibly
duplicate settings.) While constituting only a minor part of Gluck's output,
these works exerted a powerful influence on the developing German lied,
in part on account of the esteem in which they were held by leading literary
figures, including Klopstock himself (who met Gluck in 1774 while the
composer was en route to Paris, and later visited him at his suburban
residence in St Marx).
Provocation for another change of direction came from François Louis
Gand Leblanc du Roullet, a nobleman from Normandy temporarily
employed at the French embassy in Vienna, who (probably in 1771)
submitted a text to Gluck: an operatic adaptation of Racine's Iphigénie. The
history of this work belongs almost as much to Vienna as to Paris, since it
apparently already existed in full (at least in a preliminary state) by the time
of Burney's visit to Vienna in September 1772, a year before Gluck's
departure for the French capital. Burney (BurneyGN, i, 265) reported that
though he had not as yet committed a note of it to paper, [it]
was so well digested in his head, and his retention is so
wonderful, that he sang it nearly from the beginning to the
end, with as much readiness as if he had had a fair score
before him.
(The truth of this claim cannot be tested, as Gluck's autograph score does
not survive.) Nor can Calzabigi entirely be excluded from the story of the
genesis of the opera. Praise for Racine's tragedy runs like a refrain through
his critical writings, from the ‘Dissertazione’ in his Metastasio edition
onwards, and he can be presumed to have shared his opinion of the piece
with Gluck. Calzabigi himself was competent at writing French prose, as he
had proved in the ballet programme(s) he had helped to draft, but as a
non-native he was not qualified to versify a full libretto in that language.
The tale of Iphigenia's sacrifice was in any case ripe for operatic setting in
the new manner, having been recommended by both Denis Diderot
(‘Entretiens sur Le fils naturel’, 1757) and Francesco Algarotti, the latter
even going so far as to include a prose libretto in his Saggio sopra l'opera
in musica (1755).
An ample view of Gluck's domestic life around this time is provided by
Burney, who encountered him three times during his stay in Vienna.
Warned that the composer was ‘as formidable a character as Handel used
to be: a very dragon, of whom all are in fear’, at his first meeting he found
him to be in good humour, and extraordinarily willing to perform from and
discuss his own works. Gluck was ‘much pitted with the small-pox, and
very course in figure and look’, but lived elegantly in a large house with
garden in the Rennweg, not far from the Belvedere. He first accompanied
his 13-year-old niece in scenes from Alceste, and then in airs by other
composers, notably Traetta, after which Gluck
was prevailed upon to sing himself; and, with as little voice as
possible … with the richness of accompaniment, the energy
and vehemence of his manner in the Allegros, and his
judicious expression in the slow movements, he so well
compensated for the want of voice that it was a defect which
was soon entirely forgotten. (see BurneyGN, i, 264–5)
On this occasion, and at a later dinner at the residence of the British
ambassador, Lord Stormont, Gluck was at ease among a company that
included several members of the high aristocracy: some patrons from the
days of Durazzo's leadership of the theatres (e.g. Juan Carlos de
Braganza), and others, such as Countess Maria Wilhelmine Thun, who
were later to be among Mozart's strongest supporters. On taking leave of
Gluck several days later, Burney found him ‘like a true great genius … still
in bed’ (BurneyGN, i, 343); Gluck's wife explained ‘that he usually wrote all
night, and lay in bed late to recruit’.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
6. Paris, 1774–9.
In his visits to Paris, Gluck alternately used his social skills and his image
as a rough-hewn genius in order to overcome the many institutional and
personal obstacles he faced in trying to renew French serious opera. His
way was smoothed by Roullet and his diplomatic contacts: negotiations
were carried out by the Austrian ambassador to France, Count Mercy-
Argenteau. In October 1772 Roullet published an open letter in the
Mercure de France, addressed to Antoine Dauvergne, a director of the
Académie Royale de Musique (the Opéra); this was followed up in March
1773 by a letter, signed by Gluck, strongly supporting the possibility of
redeeming the French language for musical purposes. His achievement
was eventually endorsed by none other than Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
Gluck also traded on his former contacts with the daughter of Maria
Theresa, Marie-Antoinette, who was now the dauphine. He had no difficulty
in obtaining leave of absence from the empress, but despite being well
established in Vienna he contemplated for a time a permanent settlement
in Paris, and accepted Dauvergne's condition that he should write six
operas (he eventually produced eight in France, of which four were
revisions of works presented in Vienna). Gluck was generally admitted to
have brought about a revolution in French opera, but his supremacy was
never undisputed. Until his final return to Austria in 1779, motivated by
fatigue, ill-health and disgust at journalistic and administrative intrigue, the
periods he spent in Paris grew shorter, and those in Vienna longer.
Gluck reached Paris in November 1773, accompanied by his wife and his
niece Marianne (Nanette), whose singing was admired in the more intimate
gatherings offered by Parisian society. Early in 1774 the family moved into
the house of Duke Christian IV of Zweibrücken. There they met the painter
Mannlich, whose reminiscences of this period (C1934) provide vivid images
of Gluck during the often turbulent rehearsals. Gluck had to drill the
orchestra and chorus into playing an unaccustomed style of music; he also
had considerable difficulties with the leading singers, notably Sophie
Arnould (Iphigenia) and, despite his warm admiration for Gluck, Henri
Larrivée (Agamemnon). Earlier attempts to reform French opera, by
Philidor and Gossec, had been comparatively half-hearted. Arias perceived
to be Italian in style (ariettes) were deployed during dramatic scenes, but
the declamation prolonged the traditions of the post-Rameau generation.
Gluck viewed French declamation with the experience of Italian opera, as
well as opéra comique, behind him. Nevertheless it was probably his
demand for dramatic verisimilitude as much as his style that caused
difficulties and equally, in due course, was responsible for the success of
his enterprise. Nearly all Gluck's Parisian ventures encountered hostility,
and inspired correspondingly loyal and articulate support. Among the
opposition in 1774 were supporters of traditional French opera, who began
the pamphlet war which continued for the best part of a decade, and Louis
XV's mistress Mme du Barry, who was instinctively opposed to the
dauphine. Besides testimonials from Rousseau and Voltaire, Gluck
received more substantial critical support from Abbé François Arnaud (see
Lesure, C1984). The death of Louis XV interrupted performances of
Iphigénie en Aulide before its success was fully assured. This allowed
Gluck ample time to prepare the next stage in his campaign, the adaptation
of Orfeo ed Euridice as Orphée, with the title role adapted for tenor
(Joseph Legros). The additional ballets included some taken from
Iphigénie en Aulide itself, and the famous flute solo known as ‘Dance of the
Blessed Spirits’. The title role was extended by the virtuoso aria ‘L'espoir
renaît dans mon âme’, which in 1776 Gluck was accused by C.-P. Coquéau
in Entretiens sur l’état de l’Opéra de Paris (see Lesure, C1984) of having
plagiarized from Ferdinando Bertoni (see Howard, A1995, p.202); and a
trio ‘Tendre amour’ from Paride ed Elena signalled that Gluck would not
adapt the latter for Paris.
After the triumphant première of Orphée, Gluck returned to Vienna in
November 1774. He returned three weeks later to present a revised
version of Iphigénie en Aulide, with substantial alterations to the ballets
(which had been severely criticized) and a dénouement clarified by the
appearance of the goddess Diana. The revised version of his opéra
comique L'arbre enchanté, with additional text by the translator and
librettist of Orphée, Pierre Louis Moline, was presented at Versailles. The
success of Orphée and the revised Iphigénie en Aulide may have induced
over-confidence in Gluck, for he allowed his next work for the Opéra, the
revision of Favart's Cythère assiégée, to be performed without his
immediate supervision; it may have been a tactical error, in Paris, to
dismiss the final divertissement as ‘hors d'oeuvre’, albeit in a private letter
to Kruthoffer, a phrase symptomatic of an attitude which was hardly a
secret. Gluck returned to Vienna in March 1775, and was ill for much of the
summer; news of the poor performance and reception of Cythère, supplied
by his generally obliging factotum, Franz Kruthoffer, secretary to Count
Mercy-Argenteau, was kept from him. Kruthoffer was also his intermediary
in the often difficult negotiations with publishers. By the autumn, Gluck was
well enough to work on the French version of Alceste. Because Roullet was
back in Paris, he and Gluck exchanged letters concerning this revision, and
also referring to an intention to compose Armide for 1777.
Gluck arrived in Paris in February 1776 to prepare Alceste, whose success
mattered greatly following a loss of prestige with Cythère. The title role was
taken by Rosalie Levasseur, chosen in preference to Arnould; Levasseur
subsequently created the roles of Armida and Iphigenia in Iphigénie en
Tauride. Alceste was coolly received at first, and further revisions were
undertaken, involving a completely new dénouement with the introduction
of a new character, Hercules. Gluck hurried back to Vienna in May on
hearing the news of his niece's death (from smallpox), and did not return
for nearly a year, by which time Alceste had begun to attract critical and
public approval, although N.E. Framery, in the Mercure de France of
September 1776, attempted a demolition of Alceste, with a further
accusation of plagiarism, this time from Sacchini. On hearing that Piccinni
had been engaged to compose Marmontel's adaptation of Quinault's
Roland, Gluck claimed to have abandoned a setting of his own (but he was
probably concentrating on Quinault's Armide). Characteristically seizing the
chance to renew public interest, he sent a ‘confidential’ letter to Roullet,
which was duly published in L'année littéraire (vii, 1776, 322–3; see
Lesure, C1984), explaining his motives for abandoning Roland and
condemning the practice of making critical comparisons between Orphée
and Alceste, while advertising his progress on Armide.
During 1777 Piccinni was learning French declamation from Marmontel
and composing Roland. Armide, in which Gluck made extensive use of
material from earlier works including Don Juan and Telemaco, was
produced in September. Except for omitting the prologue and adding a few
lines for Armida to the end of Act 3, Gluck set Quinault's libretto with
exceptional fidelity, in contrast to Marmontel's free adaptation of Roland.
Yet Armide attracted the opposition of the remaining champions of Lully,
whose operas were not yet entirely excluded from the repertory, as well as
the venom of Jean François de La Harpe. Gluck responded with heavy
irony in the Journal de Paris (12 October 1777), and enlisted the support of
Jean Baptiste Antoine Suard, under the guise of ‘L'anonyme de Vaugirard’.
Gluck remained to hear the successful première of Roland in January
1778, but spent most of that year in Vienna, working on his last two operas
and negotiating, through Kruthoffer, Roullet and the librettist of Echo et
Narcisse, Baron Ludwig Theodor von Tschudi, for a higher fee than was
usual. The new director of the Opéra, A.P.J. de Vismes, was persuaded to
come to terms following a failed revival of Rameau's Castor et Pollux, but
he also offered an Iphigénie en Tauride libretto to Piccinni with the promise,
subsequently broken, that it would appear before Gluck's.
The libretto of Gluck's Iphigénie en Tauride, founded on a tragedy of 1757
by Guymond de La Touche, may have been in part the work of Roullet, but
was finally attributed to a younger librettist, Nicolas-François Guillard, who
had first offered this text to Gossec. The composer's only letter to Guillard
shows how Gluck controlled the overall shape of the work, as well as
making specific and detailed demands, partly to accommodate the quantity
of recycled music to which new words had to be fitted. Gluck also required
additional material to enhance the characterization of the Scythian king
Thoas, and ran Guillard's second and third acts together, so that Orestes'
vision of his murdered mother's ghost merges with the entry of her
daughter Iphigenia. These touches, which show Gluck at the height of his
powers as a composer of lyric tragedy, make more surprising the effort he
lavished on the pastoral. This ‘opéra d’été‘ (‘summer opera’, an epithet
applied by Gluck himself, according to the Mémories secrets of 6
September 1779) Echo et Narcisse contains less borrowed material,
although its strongest number, ‘Je ne puis m'ouvrir ta froide demeure’, is an
incongruous reworking of a magnificient aria from Paride ed Elena, ‘Le
belle immagini’.
Gluck was back in Paris at the end of 1778 to supervise productions of his
new operas. Iphigénie en Tauride was an almost undisputed triumph, and
its revival in 1781 was considered to defeat, if not quite eclipse, Piccinni's
opera on the same subject. Gluck suffered his first stroke during the
preparation of Echo et Narcisse, and the Opéra, which had paid him the
record sum of 10,000 livres, suffered poor receipts, even for the revival.
Gluck's reputation alone was not enough. In some disgust, he left Paris for
the last time in October 1779, firmly resisting offers to return, although
rumours of a new French opera persisted until the production of Salieri's
Les Danaïdes.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
7. Final years in Vienna.
Despite his precarious health, and his recent disenchantment with Paris
and its operatic public, after his return to Vienna in the autumn of 1779
Gluck still kept a foothold in the French capital, corresponding frequently
with Kruthoffer, his agent there, about revisions to Echo et Narcisse and
other matters. Through Kruthoffer, over the next few years, Gluck kept on
good terms with numerous Parisian friends (including Giuseppe Pezzana,
one of his collaborators on Le feste d’Apollo, then occupied with a new
edition of Metastasio's works), and, encouraged at times by Kruthoffer,
even toyed with the idea of a return visit. But he rejected most operatic
texts that were offered him, whether from Paris or elsewhere. One project
he evidently considered seriously was a Cora (possibly based on
Marmontel) by Baron Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg, who was then (1779)
in the process of founding the Mannheim Nationaltheater; the libretto had
been sent to Gluck by Count Seeau, opera intendant of the Bavarian court.
On 8 June the composer wrote that he would discuss possible singers for
the work when passing through Munich on his return trip to Vienna, but by
January 1780 his interest had apparently cooled. In rejecting an ‘outline of
a tragedy’ from Nicolas Gersin (a playwright better known for vaudeville
farces), in a letter of 30 November 1779, Gluck cited his age and the
disappointing reception of his last opera for Paris, adding ‘I have finished
my career’. Nevertheless, he wrote to Klopstock of his continued intention
to set the poet's Hermannsschlacht to music, as a last but not insignificant
work.
In June 1780 the Mémoires secrets reported on a planned trip by Gluck to
Italy – though mistakenly naming Milan as the destination, rather than
Naples. (The confusion may have stemmed from an earlier report, in J.N.
Forkel's Musikalisch-kritische Bibliothek (1778–9), that Gluck was being
asked to write an opera for Milan – possibly to inaugurate the Teatro alla
Scala.) Though without naming Calzabigi as the conduit for the invitation, in
his letter of 29 November 1780 Gluck spoke of staging four operas in
Naples, one of which presumably would have been a setting of the poet's
Ipermestra. (Already in 1777 a ‘Nobile Accademia delle Dame e dei
Cavalieri’ had performed Gluck's Paride ed Elena, and the return to Naples
of Millico in 1780 was another factor favouring a visit by Gluck.) According
to Calzabigi's letter of 15 June 1784 to the Mercure de France, protesting
the unauthorized appropriation and translation of his libretto, he had written
Ipermestra for Gluck in 1778, after the composer had rejected a
Semiramide of his (see below). In the event, the death of Maria Theresa on
20 November 1780 derailed Gluck's planned trip (Queen Maria Carolina
being the empress's daughter), though a production of Alceste was
mounted in 1785.
Although Gluck was by now semi-retired, his pre-eminence among
composers in Habsburg service was evident during the 1781–2 season,
when four of his operas were staged, as centrepieces of the festivities for
the visit to Vienna of the Russian Grand Duke Paul Petrovich and his wife
Maria Feodorovna, née Sophia Dorothea (travelling incognito, as ‘Count
and Countess of the North’). Despite Kaunitz's urging that a new Italian
opera be commissioned, Joseph II instead ordered productions of Gluck's
Orfeo and Alceste, in the original language, as well as two vehicles with
which to display his German Singspiel troupe: a translation of La rencontre
imprévue, under the title Die Pilger von Mekka, and a new adaptation by
Gluck himself of Iphigénie en Tauride, translated by Johann Baptist von
Alxinger as Iphigenia auf Tauris (or Iphigenia in Tauris). This last reached
the stage first, on 23 October, well before the arrival of the duke and
duchess. (Gluck's work on the opera was mostly complete by the time of
his second stroke in May, which paralysed his right arm.) The adaptation
involved a change of tessitura for both Thoas and Orestes (downward in
the first instance, upward in the second) and numerous rhythmic
alterations, as well as various changes in the orchestral accompaniment.
The composer himself arranged (through Kruthoffer) for the use of the
scenic designs by Jean-Michel Moreau (le jeune) that had served for the
original Parisian production of Iphigénie en Tauride; he later reported in a
letter to Kruthoffer (2 November 1781) that these had ‘contributed
substantially to the [opera's] good reception’ 9letters of 31 Jan and 2 Nov
1781). Unable to attend performances himself, Gluck received the
compliments of Grand Duke Paul in his home.
The production of Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail was
considerably delayed by the presentation of these various operas of
Gluck's (particularly Die Pilger von Mekka, which used many of the same
singers). Several numbers in Die Entführung are indebted to Gluck's opera,
not only in regard to ‘janissary’ style and instrumentation, but also in terms
of form (e.g. the major–minor alternation and run-on construction of the
overture and first vocal number). Some spectators apparently found the
resemblances to be too close, but Gluck effectively countered such
concerns by specially requesting a performance of Die Entführung (as was
his right, as a court composer) in early August 1782, and complimenting
Mozart publicly on his opera.
During the next year, Gluck's generosity towards another younger
composer, Salieri, took a different and more complex form, as he lent his
name and prestige to his protégé's opera Les Danaïdes for the Paris Opéra
(première on 26 April 1784). Unbeknown to Calzabigi, Gluck had given his
libretto for Ipermestra, o Le Danaidi to his former collaborators Roullet and
Tschudi to translate and adapt; unable or unwilling after 1779 to return to
Paris himself, the composer instead passed the project on to Salieri (as he
may have done with regard to the 1777 commission from Milan, and also
when Beaumarchais sent him his Tarare some years later). The directors of
the Opéra, and later the public, were encouraged to believe that Salieri had
composed the work either ‘sous la dictée’ of Gluck or ‘under his direction’;
only when the work proved successful did Gluck write (via Du Roullet, letter
of 26 April 1784) to the Journal de Paris (16 May 1784) and reveal Salieri
as the sole author. Yet as John Rice has shown (C1998), Joseph II, who
actively supported Salieri's attempt to follow his mentor to Paris, was well
aware who the true composer was, and the Opéra directors, too, were
under few illusions. In Vienna, Gluck himself was less than forthright about
the question. Joseph Martin Kraus, visiting the composer in April 1783,
reported that ‘Pan Gluck’ (as he called him, using a Czech honorific)
thought ‘the music [would] have too many of his own ideas in it … for it to
be Salieri's work, yet he did not have sufficient confidence in the young
man's talent to let the music be passed off under his name’.
During the winter of 1783–4 Gluck suffered another stroke, though he
recovered sufficiently to be able to receive occasional visitors, and to carry
on correspondence through his amenuensis Carlo Calin. His last will, dated
2 April 1786, named his wife as sole heiress (apart from gifts to servants,
and token gifts to charities). On 14 November 1787 he suffered yet another
stroke while out on a drive with his wife, supposedly after drinking a liqueur
against doctors' orders. At his death the next day he was attended by
Salieri, who directed a performance of Gluck's motet ‘De profundis clamavi’
(a work of his later years) at the burial two days later at the Matzleinsdorf
cemetery. Gluck was later reburied in the Zentralfriedhof outside Vienna;
his original headstone is preserved in the Historisches Museum der Stadt
Wien.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
8. Early Italian operas.
The operas of Gluck's early Italian and ‘itinerant’ periods formed the basis
for his international reputation; they thus merit re-examination (in so far as
they survive), and not just for what they may predict about his later reform
works.
Gluck's career was initially associated closely with that of the imperial court
poet Metastasio (the author of all but seven of the first 21 texts that he set),
despite the librettist's disdain for his unruly manner of writing. Like most
composers of drammi per musica at that time, Gluck was concerned
primarily with musical and dramatic units no larger than a single set piece,
sometimes with preceding accompanied recitative. Large-scale planning
was mostly the province of the poet, who laid out an array of artfully varied
aria texts (and associated affects), by means of which, with the aid of
appropriate musical ‘clothing’ (partly written out, and partly improvised by
the singers), multi-faceted characterizations were built up. What
distinguished Gluck from his fellow composers in the genre was his fertile
imagination, coupled with a seeming disregard for the rules of part-writing
and harmony, and even of proper melodic writing and prosody. This wild
streak (associated by some commentators with his Bohemian ancestry) put
him in stark contrast to the more craftsmanlike and accommodating –
though no less imaginative – Hasse, who also (at least after the early
1740s) showed greater respect for Metastasio's texts, making fewer cuts
and substitutions. Gluck's compositional roughness was of a piece with his
sometimes brusque social manners and his sure instinct for publicity, which
were to mark the whole of his career.
There is considerable evidence (e.g. in the story of the première of
Artaserse, mentioned in §1 above, and in the words of the Neapolitan
impresario Tuffarelli, quoted in §2 above) that from early on Gluck
consciously cultivated a vigorous, sometimes even bizarre style. In his
Ipermestra (1744), the only work before Le nozze d'Ercole e d'Ebe to
survive complete, the many solecisms of declamation, harmony and part-
writing are in keeping with the violent subject matter, but seem only
intermittently connected with specific provocations in the text. Already in
the overture there are huge leaps in the violins, presaging those in the
melodies of Danaus's and Linceus's first arias, but elsewhere shorthand
accompaniments of throbbing quavers lead to harsh, apparently
unintended clashes with the voice part (e.g. in Danaus's aria ‘Non hai cor
per un'impresa’). The most effective – and recognizably Gluckian –
moments in the opera tend to be pathetic in character: the descending
bass line under the violin figures in tonic harmony that depict
Hypermnestra's tears in her aria ‘Se il mio duol, se i mali miei’, for instance.
At numerous points in Gluck's score, fermatas or changes of metre convey
changes of affect within an aria, distracting the listener from the
predominating da capo structures.
Burney, writing with benefit of hindsight (BurneyH, ii, 844), remarked on
one of the more striking numbers in Gluck's first London opera, La caduta
de’ giganti:
The following air [‘Sì, ben mio, sarò, se il vuoi’], for [Angelo
Maria] Monticelli, is very original in symphony and
accompaniments, which a little disturbed the voice-part in
performance, I well remember, and Monticelli called it aria
tedesca. His [Gluck's] contemporaries in Italy, at this time,
seemed too much filed down; and he wanted the file, which
when used afterwards in that country, made him one of the
greatest composers of his time.
The passage is telling on several counts. Though said to be ‘original in
symphony’, the piece was in fact a parody of an aria in the earlier opera
Tigrane; the combination in Gluck of fervid imagination and frequent
reliance on borrowing and parody (nearly always for an audience different
from the original one) constitutes one of the most intriguing paradoxes of
his career. The labelling of accompanimental complexities as ‘German’ was
a commonplace in the later 18th century, being applied notably also to
Jommelli during and after his Stuttgart years. Interestingly, Burney claims
that it was in Italy that Gluck's style was subject to ‘the file’, by which he
presumably means experience in writing for the finest singers and the most
discriminating opera seria audiences. It is clear that Gluck profited greatly
from his contacts with numerous celebrated singers during his early career,
in ways that will probably become better understood as modern
interpreters recover the vocal and acting techniques of that era and study
the careers of the artists in question. His debt to his teacher Sammartini is
obvious not only from actual borrowings, but also from many similarities of
manner, such as the exchange of motifs between the violin parts (e.g. in
the sinfonia to Don Juan of 1761).
The most applauded number from Gluck's London sojourn was the aria
‘Rasserena il mesto ciglio’ in Artamene, about which however Burney
complained that its ‘motivo’, though grateful, was ‘too often repeated, being
introduced seven times, which, there being a Da Capo, is multiplied to
fourteen’ (BurneyH, ii, 845). (The criticism could be applied to any of a
number of Gluck's sentimental arias, such as the above-mentioned ‘Se il
mio duol’ in Ipermestra.) More than a quarter of a century later, when
Burney reminded Gluck of the fame of the aria, the composer responded
with remarks which were meant to be flattering to the Englishman, but
which also probably contained more than a grain of truth (see BurneyGN, i,
267–8):
 He told me that he owed entirely to England the study of
nature in his dramatic compositions … He … studied the
English taste, and finding that plainness and simplicity had
the greatest effect upon them, he has, ever since that time,
endeavoured to write for the voice, more in the natural tones
of the human affections and passions, than to flatter the
lovers of deep science or difficult execution; and it may be
remarked, that most of his airs in Orfeo are as plain and
simple as English ballads …
The resemblances between Handel's and Gluck's styles are many,
particularly in tender or pathetic airs, where one finds similar galant
configurations of part-writing, and it has been demonstrated (Roberts,
H1995) that Gluck's acquaintance with the elder composer's music (and
even his borrowing from it) predated his stay in England. But the stylistic
differences are rather more numerous (Gluck's slower harmonic rhythm
and greater reliance on accompaniments with drum basses, for example,
and his more independent wind writing), owing to the simple fact that the
composers were of different generations.
From the time of his Semiramide riconosciuta (1748), and especially after
he had settled in Vienna, where several court composers vied for imperial
commissions, Gluck clearly acquainted himself with his rivals’ earlier
settings of texts by Metastasio – whose presence in the imperial capital he
could not ignore either (he lived directly opposite the Burgtheater, in the
Michaelerhaus). The libretto of Semiramide that Gluck set contains variants
which Metastasio had recently supplied to his favourite composer Hasse
and which are not found in standard editions of the poet's works, and, as
Heartz (C1995) has shown, in his setting of Il re pastore (1756) Gluck took
into account metrical choices, and even melodic writing from the original
setting by Bonno from five years earlier. But rather than ‘file’ down his
compositional extravagances, Gluck seems positively to have flaunted
them in Vienna, now with a greater sense of purpose. In Semiramide there
were extravagances sufficient for Metastasio (who had considerable
technical knowledge of music) to complain of intolerably ‘archvandalian
music’. By this he probably meant matters textual (such as the splitting
apart of individual words) as well as strictly musical – for instance the
entrance of the voice without ritornello in as many as six numbers, notably
in the protagonist's harmonically audacious aria ‘Tradita, sprezzata’. (Gluck
had had already used this strategy tellingly in Ipermestra, and even as
early as Demofoonte.) And yet Semiramide ‘went to the stars’, and not only
on account of its rich visual spectacle (on which Khevenhüller commented
admiringly on 14 May 1748).
Though written for Naples, La clemenza di Tito of 1752 helped assure
Gluck's fortunes in Vienna, above all on account of his extraordinary setting
of Sextus's aria ‘Se mai senti spirarti sul volto’. In this opera, as often in his
earlier works, Gluck concentrated a maximum of expression on a few
principal singers and arias, somewhat neglecting the music for more
peripheral characters (a practice in keeping with the hierarchical nature of
Metastasian dramma per musica). ‘Se mai senti’, Sextus's poignant
farewell to his lover and co-conspirator Vitellia, owed much of its effect to
the talents of the star castrato Caffarelli, who in Gluck's characteristically
irregular second phrase is required to cover a span of nearly two octaves.
But it was Gluck's orchestral accompaniment that elicited the most
comment. Over a variegated background of strings and arpeggiated
bassoon, oboes in unison imitate and cross with the elegantly simple vocal
part, suggesting the wafting sighs described in the text. Near the end of the
prima parte, after being silent for some 20 bars, the oboes return with a
chain of suspensions, against which the horns sustain the dominant for five
and a half bars, as an achingly dissonant illustration of the word ‘fido’ in the
lines ‘… gli estremi sospiri / del mio fido che muore per me’ (the last sighs
of my faithful one who dies for me). The effect is intensified when the
passage returns, with Sextus now participating in the pedal point. The
combination of pedals and minor harmonies within a major mode was one
that Gluck was thereafter to exploit again and again.
More immediately indicative of the direction in which Gluck would turn in
the next decade was his setting of the unique Metastasian comedy Le
cinesi, as part of the elaborate fête given by the Prince von Hildburghausen
for the imperial couple at Schlosshof an der March in September 1754.
Here suppleness of characterization was of utmost importance, as each
singer only had one aria in which to present a portrait not only of himself or
herself, but also of a theatrical genre. There is more than a touch of self-
parody in the tragic scena that Gluck wrote for Lisinga (sung by Vittoria
Tesi) – in the vast stretches of tremolo strings in the accompanied
recitative, and even in her histrionic through-composed aria ‘Prenditi il figlio
…! Ah no!’, in which the repeated question ‘Che fo?’ (What am I doing?)
coincides with the off-key return of the first quatrain, in a text that the
audience surely expected would be set da capo. The care that Gluck
lavished on this opera is evident also in his unfailingly inventive string
writing and coloratura passages, and in effective caricatures of the French
foppishness of Silango, the ‘young Chinese, returned from a tour of
Europe’.
Occupying a sort of middle ground between dramma per musica and
reform opera is L'innocenza giustificata of 1755, Gluck's first important
project with Durazzo. Although the count constructed his libretto around
nine aria (or duet) texts by the imperial poet, several of which served as
provocations for stunning displays of coloratura, in its lack of the usual
secondary characters and intrigues the opera diverged distinctly from
Metastasian norms. The principal role, that of Claudia, was sung by
Caterina Gabrielli (making her Viennese operatic début), at the time ‘la
sultane favorite du chancellier’ (in Khevenhüller's words of 29 July 1755)
and thus an unlikely vestal virgin. Claudia's first aria contains spectacular
passaggi, but opens without ritornello, in striking declamatory fashion, and
as the opera progresses Gluck strays ever further from the customary
manner of setting Metastasian texts. In the parte seconda there are
choruses wherein Roman citizens are called upon to act while singing, a
‘cavata’ and an ‘arietta’ (both interrupted before their ends), as well as a
Metastasian aria (‘La meritata palma’) that Gluck declines to set in da capo
form. The ‘cavata’ (‘Fiamma ignota nell'alma mi scende’) had originated in
Gluck's Tigrane, but Durazzo's parody text was in keeping with the music's
throbbing muted accompaniment and other-worldly horns in octaves
(mainly on the tonic and dominant). As often in Gluck, this major-mode
piece spends much time in the minor. The heroine's ‘Ah rivolgi, o casta
diva’ is surely the only ‘arietta’ ever sung while pulling a boat (a bark
carrying a likeness of the goddess Vesta, or Cybele). But its music is of
inspired nobility, utterly devoid of coloratura display, and counts as one of
Gluck's most impressive creations thus far. Beginning without ritornello,
Claudia's vocal phrases intermingle with a pizzicato accompaniment, and
culminate in a ravishing chain of 7th chords and falling phrases depicting
her submission to the goddess. Such music as this did not combine with
Gabrielli's earlier showpieces to make a consistent musical
characterization, but it was sufficient to encourage Durazzo to think again
of Gluck as a collaborator in innovation.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
9. ‘Opéras comiques’.
The nature of Gluck's involvement with French opéra comique changed
several times during his decade as musical director of the French theatre in
Vienna. Although at first he was required by Durazzo merely to supervise
the arrangement of imported Parisian works, contribute replacement
ariettes and lead performances, in 1758 he began composing complete
original scores in the genre. His first opéras comiques were seen as
curiosities, for while the relatively new genre was popular throughout
Europe, few original works were then being written outside Paris. Initially,
Gluck's resettings of Parisian texts suffered from court-imposed
censorship, and in the pasticcio Le diable à quatre (1759) his anonymous
‘airs nouveaux’ still rubbed shoulders with parodied Italian ariettes. But
soon his works were competing successfully on the stage of the Vienna
Burgtheater with the most recent operas by Duni, Monsigny and Philidor.
Gluck did not seriously envisage having his opéras comiques staged in
Paris, although performances of two of his works in the genre were an
incidental result of his visits to France in the 1770s. This was due in part to
the prejudice in France against resettings of operas by living composers;
those of Gluck's comic operas that were given there had started as
vaudeville comedies. The unavailability in Vienna of original opéra comique
texts was a serious handicap; La rencontre imprévue (1764, originally
called Les pèlerins de la Mecque), the one work for which a professional
librettist (Dancourt) was on hand, was a revision of a 1726 text chosen in
consideration of the poet's old-fashioned tastes. Still, in L'ivrogne corrigé
(1760) Gluck was able to insist on improvements in the Parisian libretto by
Anseaume (originally set by J.-L. Laruette) and thereby to create a mock-
hell scene of impressive musical architecture. The skills that he developed
in writing this comic opera were of much help to Gluck in the composition of
Orfeo ed Euridice in 1762.
Critics described Gluck's earliest opéras comiques as italianate, and
indeed, echoes of Pergolesi are to be found in several of them. The multi-
sectional act finales in La rencontre imprévue likewise have their origin in
opera buffa. But Cythère assiégée of 1759 (Favart's parody of Quinault and
Lully's Armide) demonstrates his quick mastery of French declamation and
musical style. In this and other works in the genre Gluck imitated both the
newly composed ariettes (with frequent ports de voix (under-
appoggiaturas) and inégal rhythms) and the traditional vaudeville melodies
(notably in L'arbre enchanté and L'ivrogne corrigé). Yet he remained largely
immune to certain Parisian trends in the genre, such as the romance and
ensembles for large numbers of singers. Tonic-accented rhythms
characteristic of Gluck's Bohemian homeland are prominent in both
Cythère assiégée and L'arbre enchanté, though he mostly excised them
when revising these operas for French audiences in 1775. In other
respects, too, Gluck made use in his opéras comiques of musical
resources unavailable to composers working for the Opéra Comique in
Paris: ‘Turkish’ music (in Le cadi dupé and La rencontre imprévue), large
choral forces (in Cythère assiégée) and italianate coloratura (La rencontre
imprévue).
The influence of Gluck's opéras comiques extended well beyond Vienna.
Habsburg connections ensured that his works were well known in Brussels
in the Austrian Netherlands, and performances of Cythère assiégée at the
court of Mannheim in 1759 earned Gluck a large tun ‘full of excellent wine’
from the elector, according to Burney (BurneyGN, i, 292). Both Le cadi
dupé and La rencontre imprévue circulated widely in German translation
and served as models for Singspiel composers in Austria (e.g. Gluck's
protégé Ditters), southern Germany and even northern Germany. La
rencontre imprévue was translated (by Carl Frieberth) as an opera buffa
and set by Haydn for Eszterháza in 1775. A Viennese revival (in German)
of Gluck's comic opera in the early 1780s provided much of the musical
inspiration for Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail, in which many of
the same cast members sang.
Gluck himself was able to re-use much music from his Viennese opéras
comiques in the divertissements of his lyric tragedies for Paris, particularly
Armide. But although the two genres were rapidly converging in Paris,
Gluck's opéra comiques for Vienna avoid the serious subject matter and
situations of certain works by the likes of Philidor, Monsigny and Grétry.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
10. Ballets.
It was no doubt Gluck's experience as music director in the Burgtheater –
for ballets as well as for operas and concerts – that moved Durazzo to
appoint him as ballet composer for both theatres in 1759, following
Starzer's departure for St Petersburg, for he had composed essentially no
dance music up to then. Not surprisingly, then, Gluck's earliest surviving
ballets adhere closely to the forms and dimensions established by Starzer
and his main choreographic collaborator Hilverding, even while showing
intimations of the achievements to come. The extent of Gluck's
involvement in this area is still unclear, for unlike choreographers,
composers of music for repertory ballets at this time are rarely named in
printed sources, or even in music manuscripts, even though their identities
were often widely known. Borrowing and collaboration in this functional,
semi-anonymous sort of theatre music were thus common, and the
identification of Gluck's contributions so far rests largely on payment
records, and on his re-use of movements from ballets in operas written up
to a quarter of a century later. Anonymity also encouraged experimentation
in such areas as scoring, where onstage, unnotated instrumental parts
(e.g. tambourines and castanets in Le prix de la danse, 1759, and the latter
instrument in Don Juan) sometimes supplemented what was played from
the orchestra.
Gluck was required to compose music for ballets in several different sub-
genres, from simple divertissements and commedia dell'arte farces to
mythological and pantomime ballets on well-developed plots. The few
generally known pantomime ballets with printed programmes represent
only a small fraction of the whole. One ambitious early ballet, given at
Schönbrunn in 1759, was Les amours de Flore et Zéphire (see fig.2
above), whose choreography by Angiolini was an imitation of Marie Sallé's
ballet Les fleurs from Les Indes galantes by Rameau (1735). The
voluptuous music and choreography for the lovers moved one critic to
describe the ballet as ‘aussi galant qu'on puisse en imaginer’ (Journal
étranger, May 1760), but for the scene of Boreas and his retinue Gluck
wrote music of a Sturm und Drang ferocity that presaged the finale of Don
Juan. (Another ballet of the same year, Le naufrage, begins with a stormy
sinfonia that Gluck reworked more than once, notably in the ‘Tempesta’
movement of Le feste d'Apollo.) La halte des Calmouckes of 1761 is an
example of a different sort of ballet, being dependent to a large extent on
exotic décors (described by Zinzendorf, C1747–1813, entry for 23 March
1761) for its effect; practice in writing music evocative of this and other
exotic climes (whether Turkish, Savoyard or Spanish) was to prove
valuable for ballet movements in many of Gluck's later operas (e.g.
Iphigénie en Tauride).
Durazzo, himself a connoisseur of dance and dancers, sensed Gluck's
potential to take ballet beyond its ordinary subjects and functions, and
began in 1761 gradually to free him of routine duties as a ballet composer
so that he could pursue larger projects. Angiolini and Gluck's pantomime
ballet Don Juan, first given in October 1761, was perhaps not the first
complete drama in dance on the modern stage (earlier in the century, John
Weaver and various French choreographers had attempted as much), but
in this work, for the first time, the music was fully equal to the choreography
in ambitiousness and quality, and the creative team (including also
Calzabigi and Durazzo) was able also to link the project to the wider
intellectual concerns of aesthetic theory and the revival of classical art.
Don Juan was not (as has sometimes been said) an ‘evening-length’ ballet,
in the manner of many later Noverre ballets; as staged (initially, along with
a French comedy and an opéra comique) it comprised a short sinfonia and
15 movements (out of the 31 of the complete score). But, no doubt
prompted in part by Angiolini's explanatory programme, and in part by the
elaborate stage spectacle (including towards the end a volcano erupting
furies, and an earthquake), spectators perceived that this was more than
just an ordinary repertory ballet. Writing of a later performance, Zinzendorf
(C1747–1813, entry for 8 February 1762) remarked that ‘there is
something striking and lugubrious in the scene where the ghost preaches
to him [Don Juan] and indicates heaven to him.’
The cemetery-and-hellfire scene in Act 3 that so impressed Zinzendorf,
cast as a large-scale chaconne with slow introduction, was a principal
source of the musical idiom known as Sturm und Drang, with its vocabulary
of rapid string scales, leaping martelé figures, tremolo and diminished
harmonies. On hearing Traetta's Ifigenia in Tauride in 1763, with its
representation of Orestes’ dream, Zinzendorf remarked on 8 December,
‘and that brings on the furies, which since the ballet of Don Juan are all the
rage in Vienna's French theatre’. Orchestral writing of the sort associated
with depictions of furies quickly found its way into the symphonies of
Joseph Haydn and other composers. Gluck emphasized the specifically
eschatological concerns of the finale of the ballet with otherworldly
trombones (an extra expense for Durazzo), which in the Allegro non troppo
section call back and forth to the horns (trumpets, in some later sources),
echoing the dialogue of threats and defiance between Don Juan and the
statue.
Gluck's music for Don Juan has survived the loss of the choreography in
part because it is gestural while also satisfying as pure instrumental music
– in direct response to Angiolini's habit (following Hilverding) of thoroughly
mixing pantomime and dance. (Noverre's clear separation of the danced
and pantomime sections of his works meant that the music for the latter
was rarely self-sufficient when separated from its choreography or the
ballet-master's extremely detailed explanation of the action.) At the
conclusion of the printed programme Angiolini, after high praise for Gluck,
specifically addresses the interdependence of music and gesture:
Music is essential for pantomimes: it is what speaks; we only
make the gestures, like those ancient actors of tragedies and
comedies who had the verses of the piece declaimed, and
limited themselves to gesticulation. It would be nearly
impossible for us to make ourselves understood without
music, and the more it is apt for what we wish to express, the
more we render ourselves intelligible.
Also fundamental to the success of Don Juan (and Gluck's reform operas
in general) is the composer's increased concern for continuity, which he
achieved mainly through linking and recall of movements or sections
thereof, thereby promoting the spectators’ absorption in the spectacle. And
in a way that looks forward to Mozart's treatment in Don Giovanni, Gluck
plants early on in the score musical ideas that will assume major
importance at the catastrophe. Mozart seems also to have remembered
the Fandango in Don Juan (no.19) when composing the dance music that
underlies much of the Act 3 finale of Le nozze di Figaro.
For Sémiramis of 1765, his only other collaboration with Angiolini and
Calzabigi (though by no means his only ballet since Don Juan), Gluck
composed a score of even greater concentration, in keeping with the
increased theoretical rigour of the choreography and accompanying essay
(in which the ballet is said to last a mere 20 minutes). The more functional,
even abstract, style of much of the music was possibly a reflection of
Noverre's influence, in that the protagonist of the ballet, Nancy Trancard
(née Levier), had been a member of the rival choreographer's troupe. Also
reflected in Gluck's music is his conscious effort – no doubt made in
consultation with Calzabigi – to create an atmosphere suggestive of
ancient drama, as in no.9 of the score, an archaic-sounding ‘air that is
supposed [by the audience] to be danced to a canticle’ in praise of Baal.
Although unaccompanied by a programme, and serving no higher purpose
than entertainment, Gluck's ballet Les amours d'Alexandre et de Roxane of
1764 was deemed by the young Ditters, in an article for the Wienerisches
Diarium of 18 October 1766 (supplement) to be one of a handful of works
sufficient to make the composer immortal. This work and the unperformed
Achille in Sciro of 1765 were later to serve as sources of music for Gluck's
Parisian operas, but as originally conceived they were both allegories of
the mutual temperance of amorous and warlike passions, represented first
alternately and then together in a concluding chaconne or passacaille. Both
the chaconne in Alexandre et Roxane, with its voluptuous intertwining of
lines (perhaps representing the lovers’ arms), and the short sinfonia are in
a convincingly French style, which bespeaks Gluck's acquaintance with the
music of Lully and Rameau, but also his prior experience of writing for such
exponents of la haute danse as Antoine Pitrot and Jean Dupré and his
close study of the Ciaccona in Hasse's Alcide al bivio of 1760.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
11. Italian reform operas.
The ‘Gluckian’ reform of opera owed much to the force of the composer's
personality, musical and otherwise – to his ‘fuoco meraviglioso, ma pazzo’,
in Metastasio's words (letter of 6 November 1751, quoted above). But it
should also be seen in the context of a wider effort, led more by literary
intellectuals than by composers and dating back several decades, towards
imposition of more rational control on Italian serious opera than currently
prevailed. In his correspondence, and in his Estratto dell'arte poetica
d'Aristotele (completed in 1772, but written over several decades), the
imperial poet himself articulated many of the same goals as were
espoused by his antagonist Calzabigi. Decrying modern arias as mere
‘symphonies for the voice’ which obscured the audience's perception of the
poetry, Metastasio (like Calzabigi) called for composers and singers alike to
exercise restraint. Both authors likewise cited Horace's admonition that a
drama should be ‘simple and unified’ in plan, and described opera as being
ideally a series of scenic tableaux (quadri) presented for the spectators’
contemplation. But Metastasio's librettos were nevertheless constructed so
as to favour a singer-orientated approach, with carefully placed similes and
‘good’ vowels. The tableaux created by Calzabigi, and realized musically
by Gluck, were on a far vaster scale than Metastasio's, and in many other
respects, too, the Viennese reform operas represented a far more radical
cure than what the court poet would have thought advisable; for example,
Calzabigi insisted that ‘one note should always be sufficient for one
syllable’ (letter of 6 March 1767 to Kaunitz; see Helfert, A1938).
The Viennese reform developed in ways distinct from those of operatic
reform movements elsewhere (whether realized or not), despite numerous
features in common. Most progressive commentators were agreed on the
desirability of reintegrating into dramma per musica the spectacle, dance
and choral forces that had once been a part of that genre, and that French
opera still retained. This was a special concern of Durazzo, and also of the
librettist C.I. Frugoni in Parma, where works by Rameau were the starting-
point of innovations in Italian opera. Le feste d'Apollo, which Gluck
composed for this court in 1769, was on the model of French opéras-
ballets, as Frugoni and Traetta's Le feste d'Imeneo (1760) had also been.
In the libretto of that work Frugoni had excused the loose linking of acts in
the latter work by noting that opera was a genre ‘little subject to the sway of
reason’. In Vienna, however, such thinking was considered too lax, and it
was in a full dramma per musica (Durazzo's own project, Armida, set by
Traetta) that such diverse performing forces were first deployed, and in far
more integrated fashion than in Parma.
At Stuttgart, another court where French and Italian operatic traditions
were coming together, Niccolò Jommelli intermingled accompanied
recitatives, programmatic orchestral music, choruses, ensembles and a
variety of dramatically responsive aria forms in such works as Fetonte of
1768 (text by Mattia Verazi, after Quinault). But this long and costly work (in
which 86 horses appeared on stage during a battle scene) lacked the
simplicity and concision that Calzabigi considered necessary if an audience
were to be moved. His attitude of classical restraint, along with Durazzo's
francophilia and Gluck's experience composing operas in both French and
Italian as well as ballet, combined at the Viennese court to create a unique
possibility of reinventing opera.
The classical orientation of Calzabigi, evident in Orfeo ed Euridice from the
moment the curtain rose on the almost archaeologically recreated ancient
funerary ritual (e.g. the threefold calling of the name of the deceased),
coloured the entirety of his collaboration with Gluck. Despite the
ambiguous attributions of the prefaces signed by the composer, it is clear
that Gluck largely shared his librettist's classical enthusiasms. He was
reported to have been widely read, and, like Calzabigi, he had ready
access to the Viennese aristocratic salons in which literary and artistic
matters were much discussed. (His entrée into these circles probably
became easier after he became a Knight of the Golden Spur in 1756.) As
Gerber (D1941) noted, it is unlikely that Gluck actually met the art historian
J.J. Winckelmann in Rome when there for the production of his Antigono in
that year, as the latter was then quite unknown.) It is revealing that Gluck
sought out subject matter from Greek tragedy, independently of Calzabigi,
after the latter's departure from Vienna – most probably with his inner
conviction mixing with a desire to exploit the goût grec then prevailing in
France.
Already during his lifetime it became a commonplace to compare Gluck's
musical art to the ‘noble simplicity’ that Winckelmann found in the best of
ancient Greek sculpture. And indeed, a great deal of the music from Orfeo
onwards fits neatly into Winckelmann's category of the ‘elevated’
(erhabene), or ‘truly beautiful’ (wahrhafte Schöne), in which grandeur and
unity of expression prevail over the variety and charm to be found in the
merely ‘beautiful’. In Gluck's frequent recourse to the sublime – to close
accumulations of plot reversals and revelations, and of the affect-laden
musical effects that illustrated them – he also practised a kind of theatre in
which, as in Winckelmann's account of certain feats of Greek oratory, the
audience is powerless (except in retrospect) to identify or analyse the
specific means by which it is being moved. As Calzabigi wrote late in life
(intending his remarks to reflect also on the poetry he had supplied to the
composer), ‘Gluck was enamoured of sentiments snatched from simple
nature, of grandiose passions at the boiling point, in a state of violence,
and of noisy theatrical tumult’ (Risposta [di] Don Santigliano; see Bellina,
A1994, p.398). These contrary impulses, both consonant with elements of
Winckelmann's aesthetics of Greek art – a pictorially orientated, serene
stasis on the one hand, and a headlong rush of theatrical and musical
coups on the other – form the two poles of Gluckian music drama.
In a specifically Viennese context, Gluck's works resonated strongly with
the morally tinged aesthetics of Gottfried van Swieten (an early Gluck
enthusiast) and Joseph von Sonnenfels and their efforts at educational and
theatrical reform. Van Swieten's plan for revamping the educational system
of the monarchy was founded on A.A.C. Shaftesbury's notion that one
learns moral behaviour more readily through feeling its pleasurable effects
than through logic and reason, and the theatre was an ideal venue for an
edifying cultivation of feeling. In a way, van Swieten's scheme was simply a
more systematic application of a policy already in effect with regard to the
imperial children, whose moral instruction was a prime consideration not
only for feste teatrali and similar entertainments, but even (according to
Durazzo) for high-minded opéras comiques such as Monsigny's Le roi et le
fermier and Gluck's La rencontre imprévue. Sonnenfels's multipartite
review of Alceste is suffused with Shaftesbury's language of feeling: Gluck
is a composer who knows all ‘the accents of the passions … the accents of
the soul’ and whose ‘arias are novel, and of an expressive melody of which
the ending especially transported me outside of myself’ (Sonnenfels,
C1768, pp.16–17, 19). It was Gluck's good fortune that his and Calzabigi's
reform operas coincided with the birth of serious Viennese theatrical
criticism (if not yet music criticism per se), through which his goals were
explicated and endorsed both within and beyond the boundaries of the
empire (through reprintings and paraphrases).
Although the theatrical criticism of Sonnenfels and his allies was directed in
large part at a growing class of non-noble bureaucrats and professionals, it
should be emphasized (as has been done by Gallarati, C1975) that Gluck
was throughout his career a courtly composer. Nearly all of his operas, and
even some ballets, were written for court occasions, and while some
(Orfeo, Sémiramis) were deemed inappropriate on account of their subject
matter, other works, including even reform operas, contained more or less
veiled allegories directed at the imperial family. In Paris Gluck relied heavily
on the patronage of the former Habsburg archduchess Marie Antoinette,
and he paid homage to her explicitly in the solo with chorus ‘Chantez,
célébrez votre reine’ in Iphigénie en Aulide. In Vienna, the conversations of
noble spectators before, during and after performances (notably in
Kaunitz's nightly assemblée) greatly facilitated the reception of theatrical
innovations by Durazzo and his team, as is clear from Zinzendorf's excited
comments of 19 April 1761 on how ‘Yesterday's tragedy was performed in
the new style that we owe to Melle Clairon in Paris, who has abolished all
affected exclamations and mannerisms on stage …’ (see Zinzendorf,
C1747–1813), or in 1762 on Gluck's informal previews of numbers from
Orfeo.
In light of such opportunities for the casual education of the Viennese
audience, the music and poetry of Orfeo ed Euridice served as their own
manifesto. Certainly the opera was not ambiguous in its anti-Metastasian
aims. Calzabigi's poetry was almost completely devoid of metaphors and
similes, and placed a mere three characters in a fluid context of dances
and choruses (or both simultaneously). The action was reduced to
essentials: a demonstration of the persuasive powers of music, and a
cautionary tale on the dangers of curiosity, with Orpheus bewailing the loss
of his wife already as the curtain rose. (The example of Rameau's Castor
et Pollux is not difficult to discern behind this scene.) Gluck's approach as
composer was no less radical, particularly in his near-complete elimination
of coloratura and of opening ritornellos in the solo numbers. Above all, the
opera was remarkable in its emphasis on continuity, which was achieved
chiefly through the enchaining of harmonically open-ended sections of
music and through the complete avoidance of recitativo semplice in favour
of orchestrally accompanied recitatives (so as to avoid sharp contrasts of
texture with the set pieces). This continuity and the nearly syllabic vocal
writing were calculated to prevent applause, and thus also to promote the
audience's absorption in the spectacle. Such aims were not exclusive to
opera; the reforms of the English actor David Garrick – teacher of the
Viennese Orpheus, Guadagni – likewise encouraged sustained
verisimilitude, and the spectator's complete absorption was also a prime
concern of contemporary French painting and its criticism (e.g. in Diderot's
Salons).
The skill with which choral, orchestral and balletic forces were integrated
with solo song in Orfeo has scarcely been equalled in the subsequent
history of opera. In the first act Gluck arranged blocks of music in static,
symmetrical blocks, befitting a mourning ritual. Yet across the first scene
there is also a clear progression from Orpheus's initial broken utterances,
through recitative, to fully formed song, the latter in a strophic romance
clearly indebted to opéra comique. The first scene of Gluck's second act is
even more continuous, though with a more complex dynamic, in which an
increasingly ardent Orpheus is pitted against a chorus of furies that steadily
weaken in their resolve to block his path to the Underworld. In the crux of
the scene, the arioso and chorus ‘Deh placatevi con me’, Gluck makes
calculated use of the galant style in Orpheus's plaintive melody, which the
furies answer with unison cries of ‘No’, irregular in both notation and
resolution. The offending passage inspired both criticism and high praise,
from the likes of Rousseau and Berlioz. Also controversial in Orfeo was the
air ‘Che farò senza Euridice’, which some spectators found too cheerful a
reaction by the protagonist to the second loss of his wife. To this Gluck
responded (in the foreword to Paride ed Elena) that with the slightest
change in the singer's expression, the air ‘would become a dance for
marionettes [un saltarello di burattini]’.
No less remarkable than the simplicity and fluidity of Gluck's music was its
orchestration, which featured a pastoral and consciously archaic echo-
orchestra of chalumeau and muted strings, cornett, trombones and english
horns for the mourning and Underworld scenes, and an actual harp to
accompany Orpheus's plea to the Furies. (Some of these novelties of
scoring were normalized in the Paris version of 1774.) Gluck's manner of
handling instruments was as imaginative as his choice of them, as in the
orchestra's imitation of the barking of Cerberus (a passage singled out for
praise by Berlioz in his orchestration treatise), or in the arioso ‘Che puro
ciel’, a piece of word-painting (considerably reworked from earlier versions
in Ezio and Antigono) whose long legacy was to include the ‘Szene am
Bach’ in Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony.
For Alceste, their next opera on the ‘new plan’, Calzabigi and Gluck
deemed it necessary to publish an explanatory preface along with the
score – not so much because of the risk of local miscomprehension, but
rather (as is explained in the dedication of the score of Paride ed Elena)
because they hoped that this species of spectacle would find imitators
elsewhere. The fame of this statement of principles has to some extent
eclipsed that of the opera itself, in part because the subject, text and
musical elaboration of Alceste were so closely calculated to local events
and personalities, namely the fortitude of Maria Theresa following the death
of her consort Francis Stephen. The latter is immediately recognizable in
the herald's description of Admetus (in the opening scene) as ‘more a
father than a sovereign’, and throughout the opera the audience is
encouraged to conflate the heroine, in her grief and in her role as
materfamilias, with Maria Theresa. (The dedication of the libretto makes
this identification explicit.) But as Noiray has argued (in L’avant-scène
opéra, G1985), Calzabigi and Gluck exploited the circumstance of the
empress's grief in order to produce a spectacle that was utterly
uncompromising – in contrast to Orfeo, with its festive overture and lieto
fine. Indeed, the criticisms that the opera was too uniformly sombre – a
‘Seelenmesse’ (Requiem Mass) – and Calzabigi's later claim that no sound
was heard from the spectators but sighs testify alike, from different
perspectives, to this basic feature of the work.
Although less caustic than his private letter to Kaunitz on the subject of the
cast, Calzabigi's preface to Alceste (written in Gluck's name) was the most
forceful declaration to date of the principles of the new, anti-Metastasian
type of serious opera:
When undertaking to write the music for Alceste I set myself
the goal of divesting it of all those abuses that, introduced to it
either by the misplaced vanity of singers, or by the excessive
indulgence of composers, have for such a long time
disfigured Italian opera, and made of the most splendid and
most beautiful of all spectacles the most ridiculous, and the
most tedious. I have sought to restrict music to its true
purpose of serving the poetry, as regards the expression, and
the situations of the fable, without interrupting the action or
chilling it with useless and superfluous ornaments, and I have
believed that it should do the same thing [for the poetry] as
vivacity of colour and a well-varied contrast of light and shade
do for a correct and well-ordered drawing, serving to animate
the figures without altering their contours. Thus I have wanted
neither to stop an actor in the greatest heat of the dialogue in
order to wait for a tiresome ritornello, nor to stop in the middle
of a word on a favourable vowel, nor to show off the agility of
his beautiful voice in a long passaggio, nor to wait for the
orchestra to give him time to recover his breath for a
cadenza. I did not believe it my duty to pass quickly over the
second, and perhaps most impassioned and important, part
of an aria [text], in order to have time in which to repeat
regularly four times over the words of the first part, and to
conclude the aria where its sense perhaps does not finish, in
order to give the singer the opportunity of showing that he
can vary a passage in a number of capricious ways; in short, I
have sought to ban all those abuses against which good
sense and reason have for some time cried out in vain.
 I have fancied that the overture should apprise the spectators
of the action that is to be represented, and form, so to speak,
its argument; that the use of concerted instruments should be
regulated in proportion to the interest and passion [of the
text], and not leave that sharp contrast in the dialogue
between aria and recitative, that [their use] not truncate a
period nonsensically, nor inopportunely interrupt the force and
heat of the action.
Furthermore I have believed that my greatest effort should
consist of seeking a beautiful simplicity; and I have avoided
making a display of difficulties at the expense of clarity; I have
not judged it to be praiseworthy to invent some novelty that
did not naturally arise from the situation and from the
expression; and there is no rule of composition that I have not
thought necessary to sacrifice willingly for the sake of the
effect.
These are my principles. Luckily my intentions were served
marvellously by the libretto, in which the celebrated author,
imagining a new plan for the drama, had replaced florid
descriptions, superfluous comparisons and sententious, cold
moralizing with the language of the heart, strong passions,
interesting situations and an ever-varied spectacle. Success
has justified my maxims, and the universal approval of such
an enlightened city [as Vienna] has clearly shown that
simplicity, truth and naturalness are the great principles of the
beautiful in all artistic productions.
With the exception of the remarks on the overture, everything in the
preface could just as easily apply to Orfeo. One important difference
between the operas was signalled in Sonnenfels's review at the very
outset: its lack of castrato singers. But this was not fundamental to Gluck
and Calzabigi's reform, for their next opera, Paride ed Elena, featured the
castrato Millico in one of the title roles. Two other features of Alceste,
passed over in silence by Calzabigi but noted by Sonnenfels, were rather
more significant: the poet's obvious debt to Euripides, which, for informed
spectators, made Alceste more palpably a Greek-revival drama than Orfeo;
and the way in which ‘Every part of [Gluck's] music, considered by itself,
constitutes a very agreeable whole, which however stands in such a
harmonious relationship with the greater whole that, if tones could be made
visible, the Gluckian movements would make up the most well-
proportioned body (Sonnenfels, C1768, p.18). Indeed, to an extent far
greater even than in Orfeo, chorus and solo song are intermingled in
Alceste. There was precedent in French tragédie lyrique for the manner in
which Gluck knitted together the various tableaux in Alceste, with choral
refrains returning in subsequent scenes, after intervening material (whether
sung or danced). But as Petrobelli (G1987) has noted, Gluck himself was
responsible for many subtle but telling musical and rhetorical changes
(affecting the structure of Calzabigi's original libretto), which helped
forestall tedium and permitted him to extend his scene complexes to
unheard-of lengths. In these large musical edifices the solo interjections of
the two confidants, Ismene and Evander, provided worthy musical
occupation for a type of character all too often employed for amorous
intrigues in Metastasian dramas. As implied by Sonnenfels, the solo
numbers in Alceste are scarcely to be appreciated out of their contexts;
those of Alcestis especially develop organically, often in surprising
directions. Notwithstanding the remarks in the preface on avoiding sharp
musical contrasts, Gluck introduces his heroine in simple recitative, as if to
depict her sense of abandonment, and in the ensuing aria is unafraid to
resort to traditional coloratura as an appropriate illustration of her phrase
‘qualche raggio di pietà’ (a few rays of pity). In subsequent arias, though,
he eschews ornament in favour of a heartfelt simplicity of expression so
pure (nowhere more than in the heroine's ‘Non vi turbate, no’) that several
of them were later adapted as sacred parodies.
Although Gluck complained in 1770 that Alceste had not yet inspired other
composers to similar efforts, the opera was eventually widely influential,
notably in Sweden, where the young composer and ardent Gluck-admirer
J.M. Kraus had similarly lavish choral and balletic forces at his disposal.
Leopold Mozart, who was in Vienna with his young son at the time of the
première in 1767, was dismissive of Alceste and its cast of opera buffa
singers, but later implicitly recommended its oracle scenes, with their
crescendo and diminuendo of trombones, as models for those in his son's
Idomeneo, even while urging him (in a letter of 29 December 1780) to
make his oracular pronouncement a ‘masterpiece of harmony’, which
Gluck's was not. Perhaps the greatest lesson Wolfgang Mozart learnt from
the elder composer's opera was that of continuity, which he applied
rigorously throughout Idomeneo, with the same goal of the audience's
complete immersion in the spectacle.
With Paride ed Elena, Calzabigi and Gluck again took up the Homeric
material (already drawn upon in Telemaco) that was to inspire the
composer's two Iphigenia operas for Paris, and the ‘Greekness’ of the work
was emphasized in other ways as well. The poet cast his text in five acts,
as in ancient Greek drama; as in Orfeo, precisely at the centre of the
drama is a reiterated song (strophic, in this case) by the male protagonist
who, accompanying himself on the harp, attempts to overcome the
resistance of his auditor. Gluck's determination to impart a primitive tone to
much of the music of the opera was a bold and interesting experiment,
suggestive of the concurrent resurgence of interest in the stark early orders
of Greek architecture. Despite a certain uniformity of sentiment (a problem
also in Alceste) and a distinct lack of vocal variety (all five characters being
portrayed by sopranos, whether male or female), the roles are well
distinguished, with Paris the more ardent of the lovers and prone to
outbursts of coloratura, and Cupid (Amore) a childlike and taunting
provocateur. Many of Gluck's accompaniments are psychologically
revealing, in a way that looks forward to Iphigénie en Tauride – as in the
penultimate scene of Act 5, where the violas' agitated repeated notes
underscore Helen's irresolution. This music and that which follows,
recapitulated from the overture, provides an ironic undertone to what in
dramatic terms is actually a very open ending, as Paris and Helen ignore
Pallas Athene's prediction of flames, destruction and death in Troy. For a
Viennese public by now accustomed to associating vocal display with
decadence, the incautious lovers' sudden turn to coloratura must have
been all too indicative of their moral weakness.
Gluck scholars, and to a lesser extent audiences of his operas, have long
been troubled by the composer's supposed ‘backsliding’ in the more
traditional Italian serious operas that he wrote during the period of his
Viennese reform. Allegorical works to be performed by Habsburg
archdukes and archduchesses were easily excused, but dramas produced
for professional singers were less so. Prod'homme (D1948) went so far as
to suggest that Telemaco (performed in January 1765) had been conceived
before Orfeo, since its use of extensive simple recitatives, and of numbers
borrowed from operas as early as Sofonisba of 1744, seemed to him
incompatible with the operatic principles underlying the works written with
Calzabigi. But complaints about inconsistency on Gluck's part fail to take
into account the literary genres and subject matter involved. Heroic stories
such as that of Telemachus required a considerable amount of exposition
and dialogue, for which the exclusive use of accompanied recitative would
be tiresome and inappropriate. For operas commissioned for foreign
venues – as in the case of Il trionfo di Clelia (Bologna, 1763) – it was
usually preferable to give performers material suited to their talents, which
generally tended towards vocal agility more than towards realistic acting in
the manner of Guadagni. (Calzabigi made this same point from the
opposite perspective in arguing for an appropriate cast for the reform opera
Alceste in his letter to Kaunitz of 6 March 1767, quoted in §4 above.) The
realization that the ‘new plan’ of serious Italian opera, although historically
the most progressive, was only one among several in which Gluck
excelled, should help present-day listeners to an appreciation of the many
musical and dramatic beauties to be found in his more conventional works.
This Berlioz was able to do only to a certain extent, for although in perusing
the score of Telemaco he found much to admire, his experience in the
theatre of Gluck's reform operas made the instances of coloratura in the
work seem intolerable.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
12. Paris operas.
Hindsight makes Gluck's move to Paris seem inevitable, so pervasive was
French influence in his work over the preceding 20 years. An opera on the
story of Iphigenia in Aulis drew in the greatest French tragedian, Racine,
and the reform ideas of the Encylopedists, also embodied in Algarotti's
Saggio, that the French should retain their operatic forms, while
modernizing their musical language. If the two converted opéras comiques
are excluded, the Gluck operas most French in character are Iphigénie en
Aulide, Orphée, Armide and Echo et Narcisse. The failure of the latter,
following the more italianate Alceste and Iphigénie en Tauride, is an
indication of a shift in taste which Gluck had done much to encourage.
The Iphigénie operas and Armide follow the Viennese Orfeo and Alceste in
their dependence on supernatural intervention and the merveilleux. In its
original and stronger form, the end of Iphigénie en Aulide can be
interpreted, in line with the Jansenist doctrine espoused by Racine, as
naturalistic; the fair wind needed to take the Greeks to Troy is delivered,
but no deity confirms the miracle. Gluck created a new form of operatic
excitement with the verismo argument between Agamemnon and Achilles,
and the latter's sacrilegious armed intervention to prevent the sacrifice
(Rushton, H1992). Iphigénie en Aulide and Armide best show Gluck's study
of earlier French opera in the inclusion of aria forms with short, repeated
sections, and the design of monologues for Armida and Agamemnon,
which mingle recitative and aria-like music. Agamemnon's magnificent
second monologue emerges from Italian recitativo stromentato and the
ombra tradition. The lashing string figure, admired by E.T.A. Hoffmann,
which represents the Furies, is relegated by an unfortunate editorial
decision to an appendix in the Sämtliche Werke (i/5); there is no authority
for its preferred text, a simplified version which appears only in much later
sources. The inclusion of an aria from an Italian opera in Orphée pointed to
a future in which tragédie lyrique was dominated by Italian composers.
Several longer arias in the Italian Alceste are in varied tempos, a type
criticized by Rousseau in ‘Observations sur l’Alceste de M. Gluck’
(Collection complète des oeuvres de J.J. Rousseau, xvi, Geneva, 1782,
p.378) as ‘not an aria, but a suite of several airs’, but nevertheless followed
by Iphigenia's Act 1 aria in Iphigénie en Aulide, and by Alcestis's fine
additional aria ‘Non, ce n'est point un sacrifice’ in the French Alceste.
Roullet's version (it is much more than translation) reduced the spacious
grandeur of Calzabigi's design and diluted the impact of Alcestis's visit to
Hades, but the action is better paced and the opera more theatrically
effective. In hastily adding Hercules' rescue of Alcestis, using an aria from
Ezio, Gluck matched the excitement of the dénouement of Iphigénie en
Aulide. In Armide, the design of Quinault's text required typically French
forms, and the subject revived the colourist in him: ‘I strove to be more
painter and poet than musician … Armide possesses a kind of delicacy not
present in Alceste, because I have contrived to make characters speak so
that you will know at once, from their way of expressing themselves,
whether it is Armida who is speaking, or a confidante’ (letter in Année
littéraire, viii, 1776, p.322; Lesure, C1984). The beauties of the
instrumentation, notably in Renaud's monologue ‘Plus j'observe ces lieux’
and the magical end of Act 2, recall the central act of Orfeo.
Gluck's fashioning of his musical language to suit the subject is
demonstrated by his abandonment of such refinement in Iphigénie en
Tauride, where it is replaced by inspired use of pasticcio (Hortschanksy,
H1966). There is new music in this opera, including the Scythian dances
and recitatives of unmatched subtlety, and its dramatic sequence is sewn
together in masterly fashion; but the longer arias, though hardly typical of
the mid-century Italian style, are taken from earlier works, most famously
‘O malheureuse Iphigénie’ from Sextus's ‘Se mai senti spirarti’ (La
clemenza di Tito). Gluck's disdain for the ‘hors d'oeuvre’ is evident in the
lack of an overture; a contemporary noted in the Journal de Paris of 19
May 1779 that ‘the piece begins, so to speak, with the first coup d'archet’
(see Lesure, C1984), an introductory calm leading to ferocious
development of the storm music from L'île de Merlin. The concluding ballet
was supplied by Gossec, but within the opera several passages are
developed from the ballet Sémiramis, including Orestes' impressive
monologue ‘Le calme rentre dans mon coeur’, in which the agitated viola
rhythm contradicts his words, and the subsequent chorus of Furies. The
masterly incorporation of arias of Italian origin gave support to Gluck's
Italian successors, who took Iphigenia's ‘Je t'implore et je tremble’ (adapted
from Antigono and already recycled in Telemaco) as a model for their own
vehement ostinato-based arias. Iphigénie en Tauride is often considered
Gluck's finest work, and the greatest tragédie lyrique of the period.
 Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
13. Other works.
Like Wagner, Gluck wrote few works that were not intended for theatrical
performance, and the few he did write have remained little known. As
Viennese theatrical and church music were, for the most part, organized
separately, Gluck had little occasion to compose sacred works, except for
the Lenten concerts in the Burgtheater during the time when he was its
music director; those pieces attributed to him in Gumpenhuber's chronicle
are now lost. A number of concert symphonies and arias, some of
uncertain attribution, do survive; these probably date from the period of his
service in the household of Prince Hildburghausen, for the most part. The
symphonies, which have yet to be studied systematically, mostly adhere to
the archetype of the Italian operatic overture in terms of style, scoring and
three-movement form. A C major symphony, listed by Wotquenne (A1904)
as no.1, carries programmatic titles for each movement, and its opening
‘Tempête’ is closely related to the sinfonia from Gluck's ballet Le naufrage
of 1759. Although relatively conservative in terms of the application of
sonata principle (as, indeed, are most of Gluck's dramatic works), these
symphonies exhibit attractive and imaginative figurations and textures,
offering corroboration of Dittersdorf's claim (C1801) that Gluck was ‘… a
man born for the orchestra’. Some of Gluck's trio sonatas from the 1740s
show a style more orchestral than chamber-orientated, and they may have
been conceived for performances with more than one instrument per part,
at least as an option.
Several of the individual Italian arias attributed to Gluck are on texts by
Metastasio that he did not set in their entirety, and were thus probably for
concert use; some carry the names of singers with whom he was
associated early in his career. The French airs published or circulating
under his name during the 1770s and after probably represent attempts by
less talented musicians to profit from his renown. Of Gluck's shorter vocal
works, it was the settings of odes by Klopstock that earned him the most
respect from his contemporaries, in part because they were available in
print. These works, in which (unsurprisingly) operatic techniques are
employed with some frequency, were imitated by several lied composers of
the generation before Schubert, notably Reichardt.
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
WORKS
operas

Edition: Christoph Willibald Gluck: Sämtliche Werke, ed. R. Gerber, G. Croll, C.-H. Mahling
and others (Kassel, 1951–) [G]

Title Genre, acts Libretto G

Artaserse dm, 3 P. Metastasio

First performance :
Milan, Regio Ducal, 26 Dec 1741

Sources; remarks :
arias CH-BEl, A-Wgm, B-Bc, GB-Lbl

Cleonice [Demetrio] dm, 3 Metastasio

First performance :
Venice, S Samuele, 2 May 1742

Sources; remarks :
arias A-Wn, B-Bc, CH-BEl, GB-Mp, I-Bc, Mc, PLcon, S-Uu

Demofoonte dm, 3 Metastasio

First performance :
Milan, Regio Ducal, 6 Jan 1743

Sources; remarks :
B-Bc; excerpts A-Wn, CH-BEl, D-Bsb, Dl, F-Pc, I-GL, Mc, Nc, US-Wc; vs of Act 1,
arias, march, ed. J. Tiersot (Leipzig, 1914)

Il Tigrane dm, 3 C. Goldoni,

after F. Silvani:
La virtù
trionfante dell’
amore, e
dell’odio

First performance :
Crema, 26 Sept 1743

Sources; remarks :
11 arias F-Pc; excerpts CH-BEl, F-Pn, S-VX, US-Wc

La Sofonisba dm, 3 Silvani, with

aria texts by
Metastasio

First performance :
Milan, Regio Ducal, 18 Jan 1744

Sources; remarks :
excerpts A-GÖ, Wgm, B-Bc, CH-BEl, F-Pc, I-Mc, US-Wc

Ipermestra dm, 3 Metastasio

First performance :
Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 21 Nov 1744
Sources; remarks :
iii/6

Poro dm, 3 Metastasio:

Alessandro
nell’ Indie

First performance :
Turin, Regio, 26 Dec 1744

Sources; remarks :
excerpts A-Wn, I-Gl, Tf

Ippolito dm, 3 G.G. Corio

First performance :
Milan, Regio Ducal, 31 Jan 1745

Sources; remarks :
excerpts B-Bc, F-Pc, US-Wc

La caduta de’ giganti dm, 3 ? F. Vanneschi

First performance :
London, King’s, 7 Jan 1746

Sources; remarks :
5 arias, 1 duet (London, 1746)

Artamene dm, 3 ?Vanneschi,

after B. Vitturi

First performance :
London, King’s, 4 March 1746

Sources; remarks :
arias DK-Kk; 6 arias (London, 1746)

Le nozze d’Ercole e d’Ebe festa teatrale,

2

First performance :
Pillnitz, nr Dresden, 29 June 1747

Sources; remarks :
ed. H. Abert, DTB, xxvi, Jg.xiv/2 (1914)
La Semiramide riconosciuta dm, 3 Metastasio

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 14 May 1748

Sources; remarks :
iii/12

La contesa de’ numi festa teatrale, Metastasio

2

First performance :
Copenhagen, Charlottenborg, 9 April 1749

Sources; remarks :
B-Bc, DK-Kk; excerpts CH-BEl, D-Bsb, F-Pc, I-Fc

Ezio [1st version] dm, 3 Metastasio iii/14

First performance :
Prague, Kotzen, carn. 1750

Issipile dm, 3 Metastasio

First performance :
Prague, Kotzen, carn. 1752

Sources; remarks :
3 arias CH-BEl

La clemenza di Tito dm, 3 Metastasio iii/16

First performance :
Naples, S Carlo, 4 Nov 1752

Le cinesi componimento Metastasio iii/17

drammatico, 1

First performance :
Schlosshof, nr Vienna, 24 Sept 1754

La danza componimento Metastasio iii/18

drammatico
pastorale, 1

First performance :
Laxenburg, 5 May 1755

L’innocenza giustificata festa teatrale, G. Durazzo,

1 with aria texts
by Metastasio
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 8 Dec 1755

Sources; remarks :
ed. in DTÖ, lxxxii, Jg.xliv (1937)

rev. as La vestale

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, sum. 1768

Antigono dm, 3 Metastasio

First performance :
Rome, Argentina, 9 Feb 1756

Sources; remarks :
F-Pc; excerpts A-VOR, Wgm, B-Bc, CH-BEl, CZ-BER, Pnm, D-Bsb, HR, GB-Lbl,
I-BGc, Bsf, GL, Mc, Nc, PAc, Rvat, S-Skma, US-AUS, BEm

Il re pastore dm, 3 Metastasio iii/21

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 8 Dec 1756

La fausse esclave oc, 1 after L.

Anseaume
and P.A.L. de
Marcouville:
La fausse
avanturière

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 8 Jan 1758

Sources; remarks :
A-Wn, B-Bc, D-Bsb, F-Pc, I-Tci

L’île de Merlin, ou Le monde renversé oc, 1 Anseaume, iv/1

after A.R.
Lesage and
D’Orneval: Le
monde
renversé

First performance :
Vienna, Schönbrunn, 3 Oct 1758

Le diable à quatre, ou La double métamorphose oc, 3 M.-J. Sedaine iv/3

and P.
Baurans, after
C. Coffey: The
Devil to Pay
First performance :
Laxenburg, 28 May 1759

Cythère assiégée [1st version] oc, 1 C.-S. Favart,

after Favart
and C.B.
Fagan: Le
pouvoir de
l’Amour, ou Le
siège de
Cythère

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, ?spr. 1759 [also Mannheim, 1759]

Sources; remarks :
A-Wn, B-Bc, CDN-Lu (arr.), CZ-K, H-Bn; excerpts A-Wgm, S-Skma; rev. as opéra-
ballet, 1775

L’arbre enchanté [1st version] oc, 1 after J.-J.

Vadé: Le
poirier

First performance :
Vienna, Schönbrunn, 3 Oct 1759

Sources; remarks :
A-Wn, B-Bc, F-Po; sinfonia D-Rtt; excerpts S-Skma

Tetide serenata, 2 G.A. iii/22

Migliavacca

First performance :
Vienna, Hofburg, 10 Oct 1760

L’ivrogne corrigé oc, 2 Anseaume iv/5

and J.-B.
Lourdet de
Santerre

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, late 1760

Le cadi dupé oc, 1 after P.-R. iv/6

Lemonnier

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 8 Dec 1761

Orfeo ed Euridice azione R. Calzabigi i/1

teatrale, 3

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 5 Oct 1762
Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1764)

Il trionfo di Clelia dm, 3 Metastasio

First performance :
Bologna, Comunale, 14 May 1763

Sources; remarks :
B-Bc (2 copies), CH-BEl, D-Bsb, F-Pc; excerpts F-Po, I-Tci

Ezio [2nd version] dm, 3 Metastasio iii/24

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 26 Dec 1763

La rencontre imprévue oc, 3 L.H. Dancourt, iv/7

after Lesage
and D’Orneval:
Les pèlerins
de la Mecque

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 7 Jan 1764

Il Parnaso confuso azione Metastasio iii/25

teatrale, 1

First performance :
Vienna, Schönbrunn, 24 Jan 1765

Telemaco, ossia L’isola di Circe dm, 2 M. Coltellini, i/2

after C.S.
Capece

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 30 Jan 1765

La corona azione Metastasio iii/26

teatrale, 1

First performance :
prepared for 4 Oct 1765 but unperf.

Il prologo prol. L.O. del Rosso

First performance :
Florence, Pergola, 22 Feb 1767

Sources; remarks :
preceded perf. of T. Traetta: Ifigenia in Tauride; ed. P. Graf Waldersee (Leipzig,
1891)
Alceste tragedia, 3 Calzabigi, after i/3a, b
Euripides

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 26 Dec 1767

Sources; remarks :
(Vienna, 1769)

Le feste d’Apollo [festa teatrale], C.I. Frugoni,

prol., 3 Calzabigi,
G.M. Pagnini
and G.
Pezzana

First performance :
Parma, court, 24 Aug 1769

Sources; remarks :
B-Bc, CH-BEl

Paride ed Elena dm, 5 Calzabigi i/4

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 3 Nov 1770

Sources; remarks :
(Vienna, 1770)

Iphigénie en Aulide tragédie M.F.L. Gand i/5a, b

opéra, 3 Leblanc du
Roullet, after
J. Racine,
after Euripides

First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 19 April 1774

Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1774)

Orphée et Eurydice tragédie P.L. Moline, i/6

opéra, 3 after Calzabigi

First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 2 Aug 1774

Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1774); rev. of Orfeo ed Euridice, 1762
L’arbre enchanté [2nd version] oc, 1 Moline, after
Vadé

First performance :
Versailles, Opéra, 27 Feb 1775

Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1776); rev. of L’arbre enchanté, 1759

Cythère assiégée [2nd version] opéra-ballet, 3 Favart

First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 1 Aug 1775

Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1775); rev. of Cythère assiégée, 1759

Le mandarin oc, 1 Moline, after

Lemonnier

First performance :
composed c1775 but unperf.

Sources; remarks :
F-Pn; parody of Le cadi dupé, 1761

Alceste tragédie Roullet, after i/7

opéra, 3 Calzabigi

First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 23 April 1776

Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1776); rev. of Alceste, 1767

Armide drame P. Quinault, i/8

héroïque, 5 after T. Tasso:
La
Gerusalemme
liberata

First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 23 Sept 1777

Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1777)

Iphigénie en Tauride tragédie, 4 N.-F. Guillard, i/9

after C.
Guymond de
La Touche,
 after Euripides

First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 18 May 1779

Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1779)

Echo et Narcisse drame lyrique, L.T. von i/10

prol., 3 Tschudi, after
Ovid:
Metamorphos
es

First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 24 Sept 1779; rev., Paris, Opéra, 8 Aug 1780

Sources; remarks :
(Paris, ?1780)

Iphigenia auf Tauris (Iphigenia in Tauris) tragisches Spl, J.B.E. von i/11
4 Alxinger and
Gluck, after
Guillard

First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 23 Oct 1781

Sources; remarks :
rev. of Iphigénie en Tauride, 1779

Music in: La finta schiava (dm, F. Silvani), Venice, S Angelo,

13 May 1744, pasticcio assembled by G. Maccari, incl. 2/3
arias by Gluck, B-Bc, F-Pc, US-Wc (see Hortschansky,
F1973, pp.265–6); Tircis et Doristée (oc, 1, Favart),
Laxenburg, 10 May 1756, incl. 1 air parodied after
L’innocenza giustificata, 2 others probably by Gluck, A-Wn,
CZ-K, I-Tn (see Brown, E1991, pp.202–5); Le caprice
amoureux, ou Ninette à la cour (oc, 2, Favart), Vienna, Burg,
1760, pasticcio, incl. 2 airs probably by Gluck, A-Wn, I-Tn
(see Brown, E1991, pp.249–53); Arianna (festa teatrale, 1, G.
Migliavacca, largely after P. Metastasio), Laxenburg, 27 May
1762, lost, pasticcio arr. Gluck after unknown music, possibly
incl. his own (see Hortschansky, H1971); Isabelle et Gertrude
(oc, 1, Favart), Paris, Italien, 14 Aug 1765, music mostly by
A.B. Blaise, 2 airs parodied after La rencontre imprévue, one
other possibly by Gluck

Doubtful: Arsace (dm, A. Salvi), Milan, Regio Ducal, 26 Dec

1743, pasticcio, incl. recit and 2 arias F-Pc (see
Hortschansky, F1973, pp.264–5); Enea e Ascanio
(componimento per musica. M. Coltellini), Frankfurt, April
1764, music lost

secular vocal
Berenice, ove sei … Ombra che pallida (recit and aria, A. Zeno: Lucio vero), 1v,
orch, B-Bc, D-Bsb
Klopstocks Oden und Lieder beym Clavier zu Singen (F.G. Klopstock), 1v, kbd
(Vienna, 1785): 1 Vaterlandslied (Ich bin ein deutsches Mädchen); 2 Wir und sie
(Was that dir, Thor, den Vaterland?) [1st pubd in Göttinger Musenalmanach, 1774];
3 Schlachtgesang (Wie erscholl der Gang des lauten Heers) [1st pubd in Göttinger
Musenalmanach, 1774]; 4 Der Jüngling (Schweigend sahe der May) [earlier version
pubd in Göttinger Musenalmanach, 1775]; 5 Der Sommernacht (Wenn der
Schimmer von dem Monde) [different version in Musenalmanach, ed. J.H. Voss
(Hamburg, 1785)]; 6 Die frühen Gräber (Willkommen, o silberner Mond) [1st pubd in
Göttinger Musenalmanach, 1775]; 7 Die Neigung (Nein, ich widerstrebe nicht mehr)
An den Tod (O Anblick der Glanznacht) (ode, Klopstock), 1v, kbd, in Musikalischer
Blumenstrauss (Berlin, 1792)
Minona lieblich und hold, duet, pubd in Musikalische Blumenlese (Berlin, 1795)
Siegsgesang für Freie (Laut, wie des Stroms donnernder Sturz) (F. Matthisson), in
Musenalmanach, ed. Voss (Hamburg, 1795)
Doubtful (arias unless otherwise stated): Benchè copre al sole il volto (Metastasio:
Endimione), 1749, F-Pc, B-Bc; Ah, negli occhi un tal’incanto, private collection,
Basle; Che legge spietata, aria (Metastasio: Catone in Utica), F-Pc; Che pena è la
mia, A-Wn; No, che non ha la sorte … Sì vedrò quell’alma ingrata, recit and aria, F-
Pc, B-Bc; Oh dei che dolce incanto (Metastasio: Temistocle), 1v, str, D-Bsb, D-Dl,
for D. Negri; Pace, Amor, torniamo in pace (Metastasio: Amor prigioniero), A-Wgm;
Quando il mar biancheggia e freme, I-Gl; Rendimi alle ritorte, A-Wgm, S-Skma;
Resta, 1v, orch, I-FZc, for G. Manzuoli; Temer di perdere, D-Bsb; Tremate, mostri di
crudeltà, F-Pc; Les charmes de la solitude (Que ce bois est sombre), ariette, Pc; Le
triomphe de la beauté (Quand la beauté), ariette, 1v, 2 vn, b (Paris, c1780);
Erinnerung am Bach (Süsser Freude, heller Bach), lied, 1v, kbd, D-HVs; Nur einen
Wunsch, nur ein Verlangen, lied, 1v, vn, kbd, US-AUS; Ah pietà se di me senti, duet,
B-Bc, D-Bsb, Dl; Vado a morir, duet, lost
Spurious: Ariette de Mr. Gluk (Amour en ces lieux), 1v, 2 vn, b (Paris, c1780), sung
by Godard in P.-A. Monsigny, Le maître en droit, Vienna 1763, under Gluck’s
direction, probably a retexting of a French work (see Brown, E1991, pp.400–01)
sacred vocal
Miserere, ?8vv (? Turin, 1744–5), lost; Ps viii, c1753–7, lost; ‘Grand choeur’, 3 solo
vv, chorus, perf. Vienna, 18 March 1762, lost; Alma sedes, motet, 1v, orch (Paris,
before 1779); De profundis clamavi, d, 4vv, orch, perf. 17 Nov 1787 at Gluck’s burial
(Paris, c1804); various Lat. arias, mostly parodies of operatic arias
Doubtful: Hoch tut euch auf (Ps xxiv), E , 4vv, D-DO, HER; Hosianna gelobet sei
der da kommt, C, 4vv, 2vv, orch, DK-Ch; Mit fröhlichem Munde, chorus, Ch
ballets
choreographers’ names are shown in parentheses; where an opera is not named it was
given with one or more ballet in rotation

bp ballo pantomimo (ballet pantomime)

L Laxenburg
WB Vienna, Burgtheater
WK Vienna, Kärntnertortheater
WS Vienna, Schönbrunn
Les amours de Flore et Zéphire (G. Angiolini), WS, 13 Aug 1759, CZ-K; Le naufrage
(Angiolini), ?WB, 1759, CZ-K; 4 ballets (Angiolini) for Gluck, Cythère assiégée, WB,
1759, 3 in H-Bn, 1 in CZ-K; La halte des Calmouckes (Angiolini), WB, 23 March
1761, K; Don Juan (Don Jean), ou Le festin de pierre (bp, 3, Angiolini), WB, 17 Oct
1761, G ii/1; Citera assediata (bp, 1, Angiolini), WB, 15 Sept 1762, music lost; 4
ballets (Angiolini) for Gluck, Orfeo ed Euridice, WB, 5 Oct 1762, G i/1; Les amours
d’Alexandre et de Roxane (bp, 1, Angiolini), WB, 4 Oct 1764, A-Wn, CH-BEl, CZ-K,
Pnm, D-Bsb, Dl, DS, MÜu; Sémiramis (bp, 3, Angiolini), WB, 31 Jan 1765, G ii/1;
Ifigenia in Aulide (bp, Angiolini), L, 19 May 1765, music lost; Achille in Sciro (bp,
Angiolini), by sum. 1765, for Innsbruck, unperf., CZ-K; 3 ballets (J.-G. Noverre) for
Gluck, Alceste, WB, 26 Dec 1767, G i/7

probably by Gluck; music lost unless otherwise stated

?ballet (F. Hilverding) for Gluck, La fausse esclave, WB, 8 Jan 1758; ?ballet
(Hilverding) for Gluck, L’île de Merlin, WS, 3 Oct 1758, CZ-K; La foire (V. Turchi),
WK, 16 April 1759; Le port dans une isle de l’Archipel (Turchi), WK, 16 April 1759;
La promenade (Angiolini), L, 15 May 1759, K; La foire de Lyon (Angiolini), L, 19
May 1759; Les jardiniers (Angiolini), L, 24 May 1759, K; new Chinese ballet for Le
chinois poli en France (pasticcio), L, 27 May 1759
ballet of Hauss Gesinde for Gluck, Le diable à quatre, L, 28 May 1759; Les turcs (C.
Bernardi), WK, 30 May 1759, K; Les savoiards (C. Bernardi), WK, 30 May 1759, K;
L’amour vengé, L, 31 May 1759 [with Gluck, La fausse esclave]; La guingette
(Bernardi), WK, 26 July 1759; Le port de Marseille (Bernardi), WK, 26 July 1759;
Les jardiniers (Bernardi), WK, 26 Sept 1759; K; ballet for Gluck, L’arbre enchanté,
WS, 3 Oct 1759
Les perruquiers (La boutique du perruquier) (Bernardi), WK, 3 Oct 1759; Le marché
aux poissons (? Le marchand) (Bernardi), WK, 3 Oct 1759, K; La reccolte des fruits
(Bernardi), WK, 21 Oct 1759; 2 petits ballets (Bernardi), WK, 7 Nov 1759; Le suisse
(Il svizzero) (Bernardi), WK, 17 Nov 1759, K; Les corsaires (Bernardi), WK, 26 Dec
1759, K; Le prix de la danse (Bernardi), WK, 26 Dec 1759, K; Le berger magicien,
WB, 1759, K
Les miquelets (Les miquelets espagnols) (Angiolini), WB, 1759, K; Le nazioni (?
Angiolini), c1759/60, K; 2 ballets (Angiolini) in Numa al trono, WB, carn. 1760; ballet
(Angiolini) for J.-J. Rousseau, Le devin du village, WS, 26 July 1760; arr. of Les
avantures champêtres (Les avantures en campagne; Le aventure alla campagna)
(Bernardi), WB, 19 Oct 1760, K; Les blanchisseuses, WK, 28 Dec 1760, K; Le
moulin de l’amour, WK, 28 Dec 1760; Les matelots, WK, 1760, K
Les faunes, WB, 1760, K; Les trois couleurs, WB, 1760, K; Les quackres à la
guinguette (Angiolini), WB, 1760; ballet for Ninette à la cour (pasticcio), WB, 1760;
ballet for Gluck, L’ivrogne corrigé, WB, 1760; Les fleurs de l’armée, WB, 1760; Le
rendez-vous, WB, 1760; Ballet serieux (Ballet héroïque) (A. Pitrot), WB, 1760;
reworked by J. Dupré, 28 March 1761
Les moissonneurs, ?WK, 1760; Les guerriers, WB, 1760/61; Les amusemens
champêtres (Angiolini), WB, 23 March 1761; ballet of furies (Dupré) for Gluck,
L’ivrogne corrigé, WB, 29 March 1761; ballet (Angiolini) for Rousseau, Le devin du
village, WB, 2 April 1761; 2 ballets (Angiolini) for Gluck, Le diable à quatre, WB, 11
April 1761; La fête de Flore, ou Le retour du printems (Angiolini), L, 3 May 1761;
Les sauvages amériquains (Angiolini), L, 6 May 1761
ballet of furies (Dupré) for Gluck, L’ivrogne corrigé, L, 30 May 1761; L’amour malin
(Angiolini), L, 4 June 1761; Diane et Endimion (Dupré), L, 13 June 1761; Le tuteur
dupé, ou L’amant statue (Angiolini), L, 21 June 1761, K; ballet (Dupré) for E. Duni,
L’isle des foux, L, 28 June 1761; Les jardiniers (Angiolini), WB, 23 July 1761; ballet
(Dupré) for Gluck, L’île de Merlin, WB, 4 Aug 1761; La fée jalouse (Angiolini), WB,
12 Sept 1761
ballet (Dupré) for Rousseau, Le devin du village, WB, 30 Sept 1761; La fête des
provençals (Angiolini), WS, 6 Oct 1761; Les vendanges (Angiolini), WB, 13 Oct
1761; Les pèlerins (Angiolini), WB, 4 Jan 1762; Les amans réunis (Dupré), WB, 27
Jan 1762; ballet (Angiolini) for Gluck, Le diable à quatre, L, 8 May 1762; ballet
(Angiolini) for Arianna, arr. Gluck, WB, 27 May 1762; ballet (Angiolini) for Arianna,
arr. Gluck, WB, 24 June 1762; ballet (Angiolini) for Arianna, arr. Gluck, WB, 31 Aug
1762; 3 ballets (Angiolini) for Gluck, La rencontre imprévue, WB, 7 Jan 1764
doubtful and spurious ballets
Doubtful: ballet (ov., 11 movts), CZ-Bm; ballet, str, H-Bn
Spurious: L’orfano della Cina (L’orphelin de la Chine) (Angiolini), WB, 4 April 1774,
by Angiolini
other instrumental
Orch: 9 syms., C, D, D, D, D, E, F, F, G, most for 2 hn, str, A-Gd, Wgm, B-Bc, CH-
BEb, CZ-Pnm, D-Bsb, Dl, F-Pc, S-L, Skma, listed by Wotquenne (A1904); 12 other
syms., CZ-Bm, Pnm, D-Dl, Rtt, WRl, I-PAc, S-SK, Skma, some doubtful; Chaconne,
B , DK-Kk, doubtful
Chbr: 6 Sonatas, 2 vn, bc (London, 1746), G v/1; Sonata, E, 2 vn, b, G v/1; Sonata,
F, 2 vn, b, G v/1; Adagio, c, wind insts, S-J; Notturno, 2 fl, b, CZ-Bm, Sestetto, fl, ob,
2 vn, va, vc, I-MOe, all doubtful
Hpd: Andante, G, GB-Cfm, US-CA, doubtful
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von
BIBLIOGRAPHY
a: catalogues, bibliographies, editions, letters
b: iconography
c: gluck and his contemporaries
d: monographs
e: life: special aspects
f: works: general
g: ‘orfeo ed euridice’, ‘alceste’, ‘orphée et eurydice’
h: other specific works
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von: Bibliography
a: catalogues, bibliographies, editions, letters
A. Wotquenne: Catalogue thématique des oeuvres de Chr. W. v. Gluck
(Leipzig, 1904/R; Ger. trans., 1904; addns 1911)
Gluck-Jb 1913–18 [with bibliography by E.H. Müller]
V. Helfert: ‘Dosud neznámý dopis Ran. Calsabigiho z r. 1767’ [A hitherto
unknown letter of Calzabigi from 1767], Musikologie, i (1938), 114–22
[letter to W. Kaunitz of 6 March 1767]
W. Boetticher: ‘Über Entwicklung und gegenwärtigen Stand der Gluck-
Edition’, AcM, xxx (1958), 99–112
C. Hopkinson: A Bibliography of the Printed Works of C.W. von Gluck
(London, 1959, enlarged 2/1967) [reviews in Mf, xiii (1960), 227–30;
RdM, liii (1967), 195 only]
H. and E.H. Mueller von Asow, eds.: The Collected Correspondence and
Papers of Christoph Willibald Gluck (London, 1962) [reviews in MT, ciii
(1962), 230–31; Mf, xviii (1965), 469–71]
G. Croll: ‘Gluckforschung und Gluck-Gesamtausgabe’, Musik und Verlag:
Karl Vötterle zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. R. Baum and W. Rehm (Kassel,
1968), 192–6
K. Hortschansky: ‘Glucks Sendungsbewusstsein, dargestellt an einem
unbekannten Gluck-Brief’, Mf, xxi (1968), 30–35
O.E. Deutsch: ‘Das Repertoire der höfischen Oper, der Hof- und der
Staatsoper: chronologischer Teil’, ÖMz, xxiv (1969), 369–70, 379–421
M. Donà: ‘Dagli archivi milanesi: lettere di Ranieri de Calzabigi e di Antonia
Bernasconi’, AnMc, no.14 (1974), 268–300
J.M. Kaplan: ‘Eine Ergänzung zu Glucks Korrespondenz’, Mf, xxxi (1978),
314–17
P. Howard: Christoph Willibald Gluck: a Guide to Research (New York,
1987)
R. Spulak: ‘Ein unbekanntes Schriftstück Christoph Willibald Glucks’, Mf, xl
(1987), 345–9
A.L. Bellina, ed.: Ranieri Calzabigi: scritti teatrali e letterari (Rome, 1994)
P. Howard: Gluck: an Eighteenth-Century Portrait in Letters and
Documents (Oxford, 1995)
P. Howard: ‘Gluck the Family Man: an Unpublished Letter’, ML, lxxvii
(1996), 92–6
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von: Bibliography
b: iconography
E. Vogel: ‘Gluck-Portraits’, JbMP 1897, 11–18
J. Leroux: ‘L’iconographie du Chevalier Gluck’, BSIM, x/6 (1914), 39–47
L.M. Vauzanges: ‘L’écriture de Gluck’, BSIM, x/6 (1914), 35–8
J.-G. Prod’homme: ‘Les portraits français de Gluck’, RMI, xxv (1918), 29–
62
C. van den Borren: ‘Un portrait inédit de Gluck par Duplessis’, RdM, vi
(1925), 105–6
R. Tenschert: Christoph Willibald Gluck, 1714–1787: sein Leben in Bildern
(Leipzig, 1938)
G. Croll: ‘“Il mio ritratto fatto a Roma”: ein neues “frühes” Gluck-Bild’, ÖMz,
xlii (1987), 505–12
O. Jander: ‘The Clavichord as Metaphor in Late Eighteenth-Century
Portraiture’, De clavicordio III: Magnano 1997, 143–9 [on the
Duplessis portrait of 1775]
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von: Bibliography
c: gluck and his contemporaries
BurneyGN; BurneyH
C. von Zinzendorf: diaries (MS, 1747–1813, Vienna, Haus- Hof- und
Staatsarchiv)
P. Gumpenhuber: ‘Repertoire de tous les spectacles, qui ont été donné au
Theatre de la Ville [pres de la Cour] …’ (MS, 1758–63, A-Wn, US-CAt)
J. von Sonnenfels: Briefe über die Wienerische Schaubühne (1768), ed.
H. Haider-Pregler (Graz, 1988)
F.J. Riedel: Ueber die Musik des Ritters Christoph von Gluck (Vienna,
1775)
J.F. Marmontel: Essai sur les révolutions de la musique en France (Paris,
1777)
M.F.L. Gand Leblanc du Roullet: ‘Réponse de l’auteur du poème des
“Danaïdes” à la lettre de M. Cassabiggi imprimée dans le Mercure de
France, no 34’, Mercure de France (Aug 1784), 86–90
C. Burney: An Account of the Musical Performances in Westminster Abbey
and the Pantheon, May 26th, 27th, 29th; and June the 3rd and 5th
1784 (London, 1785)
J.F. Reichardt: ‘Fortsetzung der Berichtigungen und Zusätze zum
Gerberschen Lexikon der Tonkünstler u.s.w.’, Musikalische
Monatsschrift (1792), 72–4; repr. in Studien für Tonkünstler und
Musikfreunde (Berlin, 1793/R), ii
C. Burney: Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Abate Metastasio
(London, 1796)
C. Ditters von Dittersdorf: Lebensbeschreibung (Leipzig, 1801; Eng.
trans., 1896/R); ed. N. Miller (Munich, 1967)
J.F. Reichardt: ‘Ueber Gluck und dessen Armide’, Berlinische
musikalische Zeitung, i (1805), 109–12; ii (1806), 57–60
C.S. Favart: Mémoires et correspondance littéraires, dramatiques et
anecdotiques, ed. A.P.C. Favart (Paris, 1808/R)
E.T.A. Hoffmann: ‘Ritter Gluck’, AMZ, xi (1808–9), 305–19
G. Carpani: Le Haydine, ovvero lettere sulla vita e le opere del celebre
maestro Giuseppe Haydn (Padua, 2/1823)
I.F. von Mosel: Über das Leben und die Werke des Anton Salieri (Vienna,
1827)
G. Desnoiresterres: La musique française au XVIIIe siècle: Gluck et
Piccinni, 1774–1800 (Paris, 1872/R, 2/1875)
E. Thoinan: Notes bibliographiques sur la guerre musicale des Gluckistes
et des Piccinistes (Paris, 1878)
H. Welti: ‘Gluck und Calsabigi’, VMw, vii (1891), 26–42
H. Funck: ‘Glucks zweimaliges Zusammentreffen mit Klopstock am Hofe
Karl Friedrichs von Baden 1774 und 1775’, Euphorion, i (1894), 790–
92
J.J. Khevenhüller-Metsch and H. Schlitter, eds.: Aus der Zeit Maria
Theresias: Tagebuch des Fürsten Johann Josef Khevenhüller-Metsch
(Vienna, 1907–25)
F. Vatielli: ‘Riflessi della lotta Gluckista in Italia’, RMI, xxi (1914), 639–74
E.H. Müller: ‘Gluck und die Brüder Mingotti’, Gluck-Jb 1917, 1–14
J.-G. Prod’homme: ‘Gluck’s French Collaborators’, MQ, iii (1917), 249–71
W. Vetter: ‘Gluck und seine italienischen Zeitgenossen’, ZMw, vii (1924–5),
609–46; repr. in Mythos-Melos-Musica, ii (Leipzig, 1961), 220–51
R. Haas: Gluck und Durazzo im Burgtheater (Vienna, 1925)
H. Abert: ‘Mozart and Gluck’, ML, x (1929), 256–65
H. Abert: ‘Gluck, Mozart und der Rationalismus’, Gesammelte Schriften
und Vorträge, ed. F. Blume (Halle, 1929/R), 311–45
J. Tiersot: ‘Gluck and the Encyclopedists’, MQ, xvi (1930), 336–57
J.C. von Mannlich: ‘Histoire de ma vie’, exerpted in H. Weiss von
Trostprugg, ‘Mémoires sur la musique à Paris à la fin du règne de
Louis XV’, ReM no.148 (1934), 111–19; no.149 (1934), 161–71;
no.150 (1934), 252–62; Ger. trans. of excerpts in Rokoko und
Revolution: Lebenserinnerungen des Johann Christian v. Mannlich, ed.
F. Matthaesius (Stuttgart, 1966)
J. Müller-Blattau: ‘Gluck und Racine’, Annales Universitatis Saraviensis, iii
(1954), 219–29
K. Geiringer: ‘Gluck und Haydn’, Festschrift Otto Erich Deutsch, ed. W.
Gerstenberg, J. LaRue and W. Rehm (Kassel, 1963), 75–81
U. Prota-Giurleo: ‘Notizie biografiche intorno ad alcuni musicisti d’oltralpe
a Napoli nel settecento’, AnMc, ii (1965), 112–43
H. Hammelmann and M. Rose: ‘New Light on Calzabigi and Gluck’, MT,
cx (1969), 609–11
E. Winternitz: ‘A Homage of Piccinni to Gluck’, Studies in Eighteenth-
Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer, ed. H.C.R. Landon and
R.E. Chapman (New York and London, 1970), 397–400
G. Croll: ‘Gluck und Mozart’, ÖMz, xxviii (1973), 300–07
P. Gallarati: ‘Metastasio e Gluck: per una collocazione storica della
“riforma”’, Gluck e la cultura italiana nella Vienna del suo tempo: Siena
1973 [Chigiana, new ser., ix–x (1972–3)], 299–308
K. Hortschansky: ‘Gluck e la famiglia degli Absburgo Lorena’, ibid., 571–
83
G. Croll: ‘Neue Quellen zu Musik und Theater in Wien 1758 bis 1763: ein
erster Bericht’, Festschrift Walter Senn zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. E.
Egg and E. Fässler (Munich, 1975), 8–12
P. Gallarati: Gluck e Mozart (Turin, 1975)
P. Gallarati: ‘L’estetica musicale di Ranieri de’ Calzabigi: la Lulliade’,
NRMI, xiii (1979), 531–63
I. Leux-Henschen: Joseph Martin Kraus in seinen Briefen (Stockholm,
1978)
E. Wangermann: Aufklärung und staatsbürgerliche Erziehung: Gottfried
van Swieten als Reformator der österreichischen Unterrichtswesens
1781–1791 (Munich, 1978)
F. Lesure: Querelle des Gluckistes et des Piccinnistes (Geneva, 1984)
[facs. of orig. documents]
G. Croll: ‘Der “Alte Gluck” und Mozart in Wien’, Gluck in Wien: Vienna
1987, 158–65
H. Seifert: ‘Der junge Gluck – das musikdramatische Umfeld’, ibid., 21–30
E. Wangermann: ‘Wien und seine Kultur zur Zeit Glucks’, ibid., 13–20
C. Del Monte and V. Raffaele Segreto, eds.: Christoph Willibald Gluck nel
200o anniversario della morte (Parma, 1987) [incl. A. Calzolari: A
Parigi: ‘Gluck e i philosophes’, 181–238; L. Mossini: ‘Maria Teresa,
Durazzo, Calzabigi’, 239–58; L. Mossini: ‘Gluck e Klopstock’, 267–70;
G. Gronda: ‘Gluck e Metastasio’, 271–9]
G. Croll: ‘Musiker und Musik in der Privatkorrespondenz von Wenzel Anton
Fürst von Kaunitz: Informanten und Informationen’, Staatskanzler
Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz-Rietberg: neue Perspektiven zu Politik und
Kultur der europäischen Aufklärung: Brno and Austerlitz 1994, ed. H.
Begusch and M. Raffler (Graz, 1996), 341–59
E. Grossegger: Gluck und d’Afflisio: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der
Verpachtung des Burgtheaters (1765/67–1770) (Vienna, 1995)
D. Heartz: Haydn, Mozart and the Viennese School, 1740–1780 (New
York, 1995)
J.A. Rice: Antonio Salieri and Viennese Opera (Chicago, 1998)
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von: Bibliography
d: monographs
A. Schmid: Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck: dessen Leben und
tonkünstlerisches Wirken (Leipzig, 1854)
A.B. Marx: Gluck und die Oper (Berlin, 1863/R)
A. Reissmann: Gluck: sein Leben und seine Werke (Berlin, 1882)
H. Welti: Gluck (Leipzig, 1888)
E. Newman: Gluck and the Opera (London, 1895/R)
J. Tiersot: Gluck (Paris, 1910, 4/1919)
D.F. Tovey: ‘Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787) and the Musical
Revolution of the Eighteenth Century’, The Heritage of Music, ed. H.J.
 Foss, ii (London, 1934/R), 69–117; repr. in Essays and Lectures on
Music, ed. H.J. Foss (London, 1949), 65–102
M. Cooper: Gluck (London, 1935)
A. Einstein: Gluck (London, 1936/R; Ger. orig., Zürich, 1954, 2/1987)
H.J. Moser: Christoph Willibald Gluck: die Leistung, der Mann, das
Vermächtnis (Stuttgart, 1940)
R. Gerber: Christoph Willibald Gluck (Potsdam, 1941, enlarged 2/1950)
W. Brandl: Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck (Wiesbaden, 1948)
J.-G. Prod’homme: Gluck (Paris, 1948/R, 2/1985)
R. Tenschert: Christoph Willibald Gluck, der grosse Reformator der Oper
(Olten, 1951)
A.A. Abert: Christoph Willibald Gluck (Munich, 1959)
W. Felix: Christoph Willibald Gluck (Leipzig, 1965)
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von: Bibliography
e: life: special aspects
J.F. Reichardt: ‘Fortsetzung der Berichtigungen und Zusätze zum
Geberschen Lexicon der Tonkünstler’, Musikalische Monatschrift, iii
(1792), 72–4
J. Tiersot: ‘Soixante ans de la vie de Gluck’, Le ménestrel (28 Dec 1907 –
9 May 1908; 30 May – 26 Dec 1908; 9 Jan – 27 March 1909)
G. de Saint-Foix: ‘Les débuts milanais de Gluck’, Gluck-Jb 1913, 28–46
F.X. Buchner: Das Neueste über Christof Willibald Ritter von Gluck
(Kallmünz, 1915)
G. Kinsky: ‘Glucks Reisen nach Paris’, ZMw, viii (1925–6), 551–62
M. Cauchie: ‘Gluck et ses éditeurs parisiens’, Le ménestrel (15 July 1927)
R. Gerber: ‘Neue Beiträge zur Gluckschen Familiengeschichte’, AMf, vi
(1941), 129–50
M. Kratochwill: ‘Christoph Willibald Glucks Heiratskontrakt’, Jb des
Vereines für Geschichte der Stadt Wien, x (1952–3), 234–9
J. Schmitt: ‘Zur Familiengeschichte des berühmten Oberpfälzers
Christoph W. Ritter von Gluck’, Verhandlungen des Historischen
Vereins für Oberpfalz und Regensburg, xcv (1955), 215–25
A. Nagler: ‘Gluck in Wien und Paris’, Maske und Kothurn, i (1955), 225–67
T. Gotti: ‘Bologna musicale del ’700 e Cristoforo Gluck’, Due secoli di vita
musicale: storia del Teatro comunale di Bologna, ed. L. Trezzini
(Bologna, 1966), i, 45–78
K. Hortschansky: ‘Gluck nella “Gazzetta di Milano” 1742–1745’, NRMI, vi
(1972), 512–25
A. Mahler: ‘Glucks Schulzeit: Zweifel und Widerspruche in den
biographischen Daten’, Mf, xxvii (1974), 457–60
B. Churgin: ‘Alterations in Gluck’s Borrowings from Sammartini’, SM, ix
(1980), 117–34
B. Brown: ‘Gluck als Hauskomponist für das französische Theater in
Wien’, Gluck in Wien: Vienna 1987, 89–99
G.P. Minardi: ‘A Parma …’, Christoph Willibald Gluck nel 200o anniversario
della morte, ed. C. Del Monte and V. Raffaele Segreto (Parma, 1987),
65–82
P. Mioli: ‘“Un probo tedesco, un buon cristiano”: cenni sul carattere di
Gluck’, ibid., 281–6
G. Nello Vetro: ‘I viaggi in Italia del “Cavalier” Gluck’, ibid., 43–64
T. Antonicek: ‘Glucks Existenz in Wien’, Gluck in Wien: Vienna 1987, 31–
41
L. Somfai: ‘Die Wiener Gluck-Kopisten: ein Forschungsdesiderat’, ibid.,
178–82
D. Heartz: ‘Coming of Age in Bohemia: the Musical Apprenticeships of
Benda and Gluck’, JM, vi (1988), 509–27
K. Klinger: ‘Hasse und der aufgeklärte Absolutismus in Österreich’,
Christoph Willibald Gluck und die Opernreform, ed. K. Hortschansky
(Darmstadt, 1989), 353–72
F. Karro-Pelisson: ‘La rencontre du comte de Guibert et de Gluck’, RBM,
xliv (1990), 13–24
B. Brown: Gluck and the French Theatre in Vienna (Oxford, 1991)
G. Croll: ‘Gluck und sein Umkreis’, Die Instrumentalmusik (Struktur –
Funktion – Ästhetik): ethnonationale Wechselbeziehungen in der
mitteleuropäischen Musik: Brno XXVI 1991 and XXVII 1992, 281–6
C. Henzel: ‘Zwischen Hofoper und Nationaltheater: Aspekte der
Gluckrezeption in Berlin um 1800’, AMw, l (1993), 201–16
H. Renggli: Die frühe Gluck-Rezeption in Frankreich: ästhetische,
kompositionstechnische und gattungsgeschichtliche Aspekte (diss., U.
of Berne, 1993)
I. Keys: ‘The 18th-Century Berlioz’, Essays in Honour of David Evatt
Tunley, ed. F. Callaway (Perth, 1995), 25–34
B. Brown: ‘Elementi di classicismo nei balli viennesi di Gasparo Angiolini’,
Creature di Prometeo: il ballo teatrale dal divertimento al dramma, ed.
G. Morelli (Florence, 1996), 121–37
G. Croll: ‘Forschungen zu Christoph Willibald Gluck im Ostseeraum:
Ergebnisse und Desiderata’, Musica baltica: interregionale
musikkulturelle Beziehungen im Ostseeraum (Sankt Augustin, 1996),
62–8
D. Haberl: ‘Forschungen zu Christoph Willibald Glucks Eltern, Kindheit und
Jugend’, Mitteilungen der Internationalen Gluck-Gesellschaft, ii (1997),
7–9
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von: Bibliography
f: works: general
O. de Corancez: ‘Lettre sur le Chevalier Gluck’, Journal de Paris (18 Aug
1788, 21 Aug 1788, 24 Aug 1788)
E. Schuré: ‘Gluck, créateur du drame musical’, Le drame musical, i (Paris,
1875), 324–43
C.H. Bitter: Die Reform der Oper durch Gluck und R. Wagners Kunstwerk
der Zukunft (Brunswick, 1884)
H. Kretzschmar: ‘Zum Verständnis Glucks’, JbMP 1903, 61–76
R. Rolland: ‘Gluck, une révolution dramatique’, Revue de Paris, xi (1904),
736–72
H. Goldschmidt: ‘Eine bezeichnende Äusserung Glucks zur
Musikästhetik’, Gluck-Jb 1913, 82–5
A. Heuss: ‘Gluck als Musikdramatiker’, ZIMG, xv (1913–14), 274–91
M. Arend: Zur Kunst Glucks: gesammelte Aufsätze (Regensburg, 1914)
E. Evans, ed. and trans.: Hector Berlioz: Gluck & his Operas (London,
1915/R) [Eng. trans. of selections from A travers chants]
H. Goldschmidt: ‘Zur Psychologie des Gluckschen Kunstschaffens’,
Gluck-Jb 1917, 15–24
R. Meyer: ‘Die Behandlung des Rezitativs in Glucks italienischen
Reformopern’, Gluck-Jb 1918, 1–90
W. Vetter: Die Arie bei Gluck (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1920)
H.D. Bruger: Glucks dramatische Instrumentationskunst (diss., U. of
Heidelberg, 1922)
R. Sondheimer: ‘Gluck in Paris’, ZMw, v (1922–3), 165–75
W. Vetter: ‘Glucks Entwicklung zum Opernreformator’, AMw, vi (1924),
165–219; repr. in Mythos-Melos-Musica, ii (Leipzig, 1961), 180–219
W. Vetter: ‘Glucks Stellung zur Tragédie lyrique und Opéra comique’, ZMw,
vii (1924–5), 321–55; repr. in Mythos-Melos-Musica, i (Leipzig, 1957),
309–26
E. Istel: ‘Gluck’s Dramaturgy’, MQ, xvii (1931), 227–33
W. Vetter: ‘Der Glucksche Klassizismus und die Gegenwart’, Deutsche
Musikkultur, i (1936–7), 271–82; repr. in Mythos-Melos-Musica, i
(Leipzig, 1957), 298–308
R. Gerber: ‘Wege zu einer neuen Gluck-Betrachtung’, Die Musik, xxxiv
(1941–2), 89–98
J. Kerman: Opera as Drama (New York, 1956, 2/1989)
E. Schenk: ‘Zur Aufführungspraxis des Tremolo bei Gluck’, Anthony van
Hoboken: Festschrift, ed. J. Schmidt-Görg (Mainz, 1962), 137–45
K. Geiringer: ‘Gluck und Haydn’, Festschrift Otto Deutsch zum 80.
Geburtstag, ed. W. Gerstenberg, J. LaRue and W. Rehm (Kassel,
1963), 75–81
P. Howard: Gluck and the Birth of Modern Opera (London, 1963)
L. Finscher: ‘Gluck und das Lieto fine: über ein dramaturgisches Problem
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H. Kaufmann: ‘Glucks Rückkehr zur Sprache’, Forum, xi (1964), 619–21
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K. Hortschansky: ‘Doppelvertonungen in den italienischen Opern Glucks:
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D. Heartz: ‘From Garrick to Gluck: the Reform of Theatre and Opera in the
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H. Kaufmann: ‘Anmerkungen zu Gluck’, Spurlinien: analytische Aufsätze
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K. Hortschansky: ‘Unbekannte Aufführungsberichte zu Glucks Opern der
Jahre 1748 bis 1765’, JbSIM 1969, 19–37
W. Baethge: Philosophisch-ästhetische Untersuchungen zur Opernreform
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A.A. Abert: ‘Die Bedeutung der Opera seria für Gluck und Mozart’, MJb
1971–2, 68–75
R. Angermüller: ‘Opernreformen im Lichte der wirtschaftlichen
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98]
K. Hortschansky: Parodie und Entlehnung im Schaffen Christoph
Willibald Glucks, AnMc, no.13 (1973)
R. Monelle: ‘Gluck and the “Festa teatrale”’, ML, liv (1973), 308–25
G. Gruber: ‘Glucks Tanzdramen und ihre musikalische Dramatik’, ÖMz,
xxix (1974), 17–24
‘Opernreformen’, Die Musik des 18. Jahrhunderts, ed. C. Dahlhaus
(Laaber, 1985), 239–53
B. Brown: Christoph Willibald Gluck and Opéra-Comique in Vienna, 1754–
1764 (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1986)
J. Rushton: ‘The Musician Gluck’, MT, cxxvi (1987), 615–18
C. Del Monte and V. Raffaele Segreto, eds.: Christoph Willibald Gluck nel
200o anniversario della morte (Parma, 1987) [incl. P. Rossini: ‘Gli
strumenti della drammaturgia gluckiana: orchestra, coro, danza’, 475–
96; P. Mioli: ‘Sulle ali del canto nell’aria: osservazioni sulla forma
dell’aria e sulla scrittura del canto’, 497–509; G. Marchesi: ‘Mito,
parola e suono’, 511–20; P. Mioli: ‘Uomini e dei, eroi e semidei:
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S. Kunze: ‘Christoph Willibald Gluck, oder: die “Natur” des musikalischen
Dramas: Versuch einer Orientierung’, Christoph Willibald Gluck und
die Opernreform, ed. K. Hortschansky (Darmstadt, 1989), 390–418
G. Paduano: ‘La riforma di Calzabigi e Gluck e la drammaturgia classica’,
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1989), 15–28
L. Tufano: Le nozze di Orfeo e Partenope: indagini sulla ricezione
napoletana della ‘riforma’ di Gluck (thesis, U. of Naples, 1992–3)
H. Schneider: ‘Gluck als “prosateur en musique”’, Festschrift Klaus
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J. Baudouin: L’Alceste de Gluck (Paris, 1861)
M. Fürstenau: ‘Über die Schluss-Arie des ersten Aktes aus Gluck’s
französischem Orpheus’, Berliner Musik-Zeitung Echo, xix (1869),
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M. Fürstenau: ‘Gluck’s Orpheus in München 1773’, MMg, iv (1872), 218–
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B. G[ugler]: ‘Urform einer Nummer in Gluck’s “Orpheus”’, AMZ, new ser.,
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J. Tiersot: ‘Etude sur Orphée de Gluck’, Le ménestrel (30 Aug – 6 Dec
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R. Engländer: ‘Zu den Münchener Orfeo-Aufführungen 1773 und 1775’,
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W. Vetter: ‘Stilkritische Bemerkungen zur Arienmelodik in Glucks “Orfeo”’,
ZMw, iv (1921–2), 27–50
H.W. von Waltershausen: Orpheus und Eurydike (Munich, 1923)
P. Brück: ‘Glucks Orpheus’, AMw, vii (1925), 436–76
L. de La Laurencie: Orphée de Gluck: étude et analyse (Paris, 1934)
A. Loewenberg: ‘Gluck’s Orfeo on the Stage with some Notes on Other
Orpheus Operas’, MQ, xxvi (1940), 311–39
M. Hastings: ‘Gluck’s “Alceste”’, ML, xxxvi (1955), 41–54
H. Rosendorfer: ‘Wer hilft dem Ritter Gluck? Über die Bearbeitungen der
Oper Orpheus’, NZM, Jg.123 (1962), 449–51
L. Finscher: ‘Der verstümmelte Orpheus: über die Urgestalt und die
Bearbeitung von Glucks “Orfeo”’, NZM, Jg.124 (1963), 7–10
L. Finscher: ‘Che farò senza Euridice? ein Beitrag zur Gluck-
Interpretation’, Festschrift Hans Engel, ed. H. Heussner (Kassel,
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H. Kaufmann: ‘Orpheus zwischen Form und Ausdruck’, ÖMz, xix (1964),
409–21
F.W. Sternfeld: ‘Expression and Revision in Gluck’s Orfeo and Alceste’,
Essays Presented to Egon Wellesz, ed. J. Westrup (Oxford, 1966),
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P. Howard: ‘“Orfeo” and “Orphée”’, MT, cviii (1967), 892–4
L. Finscher: ‘Über die Originalfassung von Glucks Orphée’, Jb der
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P. Petrobelli: ‘L’Alceste di Calzabigi e Gluck: l’illuminismo e l’opera’,
Quadrivium, xii/2 (1971), 279–93
G. Allroggen: ‘La scena degli Elisi nell’ Orfeo’, Gluck e la cultura italiana
nella Vienna del suo tempo: Siena 1973 [Chigiana, new ser., ix–x
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D. Heartz: ‘“Orfeo ed Euridice”: some Criticisms, Revisions, and Stage-
Realizations during Gluck’s Lifetime’, ibid., 383–94
P. Howard: ‘Gluck’s Two Alcestes: a Comparison’, MT, cxv (1974), 642–3
M. Loppert: ‘“Alceste” Reassessed’, Opera, xxv (1974), 675–80
L’avant-scène opéra, no.23 (1979) [Orfeo ed Euridice issue]
F. Degrada: ‘“Danze di eroi” e “saltarelli di burrattini”: vicende dell’ Orfeo di
Gluck’, Il palazzo incantato: studi sulla tradizione del melodramma dal
barocco al romanticismo, i (Fiesole, 1979), 115–31
P. Gallarati: ‘L’Orfeo ed Euridice’ di Gluck: versione viennese del 1762
(Turin, 1979)
M. Noiray: Gluck’s Methods of Composition in his French Operas
‘Iphigénie en Aulide’, ‘Orphée’, ‘Iphigénie en Tauride’ (diss., U. of
Oxford, 1979)
G. Paduano: ‘La “costanza”’ di Orfeo: sul lieto fine dell’Orfeo di Gluck’,
RIM, xiv (1979), 349–77
P. Howard, ed.: C.W. von Gluck: ‘Orfeo’ (Cambridge, 1981)
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S. Mauser: ‘Musikalische Dramaturgie und Phänomene der
Personencharakteristik in Glucks “Orfeo”’, Gluck in Wien: Vienna
1987, 124–30
P. Petrobelli: ‘La concezione drammatico-musicale dell’ “Alceste” (1767)’,
ibid., 131–8
G. Croll: ‘Christoph Willibald Gluck: Orfeo ed Euridice’, Zwischen Bach
und Mozart: Stuttgart 1988, 74–89
B. Brown: ‘Durazzo, Duni, and the Frontispiece to Orfeo ed Euridice’,
Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture, xix (1989), 71–97
B.E. Pozzoli: ‘Dell’alma amato oggetto’: gli affetti nell’Orfeo ed Euridice di
Gluck e Calzabigi (Milan, 1989)
K. Hansell: ‘Gluck’s “Orpheus och Euridice” in Stockholm: Performance
Practices on the Way from “Orfeo” to “Orphée” 1773–1786’, Gustavian
Opera: an Interdisciplinary Reader in Swedish Opera, Dance and
Theatre 1771–1809, ed. I. Mattsson (Stockholm, 1991), 253–80
R. Ulm: Glucks Orpheus-Opern: die Parma-Fassung von 1769 als
wichtiges Bindeglied zwischen dem Wiener Orfeo von 1762 und dem
Pariser Orphée von 1774 (Frankfurt, 1991)
J.-M. Fauquet: ‘Berlioz’s Version of Gluck’s Orphée’, Berlioz Studies, ed. P.
Bloom (New York, 1992), 189–253
G. Croll: ‘Glucks Alceste in Wien und Paris’, ÖMz, xlviii (1993), 231–6
A. Martina: Orfeo/Orphée di Gluck: storia della trasmissione e delle
recezione (Florence, 1993)
M. Garda: ‘Da Alceste a Idomeneo: le scene “terribili” nell’opera seria’, Il
saggiatore musicale, i (1994), 335–60
M. Noiray: ‘Un manifeste en musique’, Cahiers de l’Atelier lyrique de
Tourcoing: C.W. Gluck, Orfeo ed Euridice (1762), xv (1994), 87–100
A. Martina: ‘Orfeo/Orphée, tradizione e tradimenti: il coro come momento
centrale del rinnovamento gluckiano’, Musica/realtà, no.54 (1997),
159–69
Gluck, Christoph Willibald Ritter von: Bibliography
h: other specific works
J.F. Reichardt: ‘Etwas über Gluck und dessen Armide’, Berlinische
musikalische Zeitung, i (1805), 109–12
J.F. Reichardt: ‘Etwas über Glucks Iphigenia in Tauris und dessen
Armide’, ibid., ii (1806), 57–60
F. de Villars: Les Iphigénie de Gluck (Paris, 1868)
M. Fürstenau: ‘Das Festspiel “Il Parnaso confuso” von Gluck’, Berliner
Musik-Zeitung Echo, xix (1869), 205–8
M. Fürstenau: ‘Die Oper “Ezio” von Gluck’, ibid., 157–76
M. Fürstenau: ‘Le nozze d’Ercole e d’Ebe von Gluck’, MMg, v (1873), 2–3
A. Jullien: ‘Les pèlerins de la Mecque’, La cour et l’Opéra sous Louis XVI
(Paris, 1878), 351–9
J. Tiersot: ‘L’ultima opera di Gluck “Eco e Narciso”’, RMI, ix (1902), 264–
96
R. Rolland: ‘Le dernier opéra de Gluck: Echo et Narcisse (1779)’, RHCM,
iii (1903), 212–15
A. Pougin: ‘Armide’, Le ménestrel (16 April 1905)
F. Piovano: ‘Un opéra inconnu de Gluck’, SIMG, ix (1907–8), 231–81, 448
only [on Tigrane]
K. Grunsky: ‘Die Pilger von Mekka’, Die Musik, ix (1912), 169–71
G. Schünemann: ‘Das angeblich von Gluck komponierte Schäferspiel Die
Maienkönigin’, AMz, xxxix (1912), 465–6
H. Abert: ‘Zu Glucks “Ippolito”’, Gluck-Jb 1913, 47–53
R. Engländer: ‘Glucks “Cinesi” und “Orfano della China”’, Gluck-Jb 1913,
54–81
E. Kurth: ‘Die Jugendopern Glucks bis “Orfeo”’, SMw, i (1913), 193–277
J. Tiersot: ‘Les premiers opéras de Gluck’, Gluck-Jb 1913, 9–27
M. Arend: ‘Unbekannte Werke Glucks’, Die Musik, xiv/2 (1914–15), 171–4
H. Abert: ‘Glucks italienische Opern bis zum “Orfeo”’, Gluck-Jb 1915, 1–
25; repr. in Gesammelte Schriften und Vorträge, ed. F. Blume (Halle,
1929), 287–310
M. Arend: ‘Glucks erste Oper “Artaxerxes”’, NZM, Jg.82 (1915), 201–2
W.B. Squire: ‘Gluck’s London Operas’, MQ, i (1915), 397–409
M. Unger: ‘Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des ‘Trionfo di Clelia”’, NZM, Jg.82
(1915), 269–75
M. Arend: ‘Das vollständige Textbuch zu Glucks “Tigrane”’, Die Stimme, x
(1915–16), 130–32
C. van Vechten: ‘Notes on Gluck’s ‘Armide’’, MQ, iii (1917), 539–47
L. Sachse: ‘Bemerkungen zu Gluck-Inszenierungen’, Gluck-Jb 1918, 91–8
M. Arend: ‘Ein wiedergewonnenes Meisterwerk Glucks’, Kunstwart und
Kulturwart, xxxiii/20 (1919–20), 278–85, suppls.i–iv [on Sémiramis]
M. Arend: ‘Die Ouvertüren zu Glucks “Cythère assiégée”’, ZMw, iv (1921–
2), 94–5
G. Cucuel: ‘Les opéras de Gluck dans les parodies du XVIIIe siècle’, ReM,
iii (1921–2), nos.3–5, pp.201–21; nos.6–8, pp.51–68
R. Haas: ‘Die Wiener Ballet-Pantomime im 18. Jahrhundert und Glucks
Don Juan’, SMw, x (1923), 6–36
L. Holzer: ‘Der komischen Opern Glucks’, SMw, xiii (1926), 3–37
R. Haas: ‘Zwei Arien aus Glucks “Poro”’, Mozart-Jb 1929, 307–30
A. Gastoué: ‘Gossec et Gluck à l’Opéra de Paris: le ballet final d’Iphigénie
en Tauride’, RdM, xvi (1935), 87–99
A. Einstein: ‘Gluck’s “La vestale”’, MMR, lxvi (1936), 151–2
R. Haas: ‘Der Wiener Bühnentanz von 1740–1767’, JbMP 1937, 77–93
D. Hussey: ‘Gluck and the Reform of the Ballet’, Dancing Times, xxxix
(1948–9), 118–19, 189–90
R. Gerber: ‘Unbekannte Instrumentalwerke von Christoph Willibald Gluck’,
Mf, iv (1951), 305–18
L. Ronga: ‘Dell’ Ifigenia in Aulide e dello stile gluckiano’, RMI, lvi (1954),
160–63
W. Weismann: ‘Der Deus ex machina in Glucks “Iphigenie in Aulis”’, DJbM,
vii (1962), 7–17
A. Orel: ‘Einige Bermerkungen zu Tanzdramen Christoph Willibald Glucks’,
Festschrift Otto Erich Deutsch, ed. W. Gerstenberg, J. LaRue and W.
Rehm (Kassel, 1963), 82–9
J. LaRue: ‘Gluck or Pseudo-Gluck?’, Mf, xvii (1964), 272–5
O.E. Deutsch: ‘Gluck im Redoutensaal’, ÖMz, xxi (1966), 521–5
K. Hortschansky: ‘Gluck und Lampugnani in Italien: zum Pasticcio
Arsace’, AnMc, no.3 (1966), 49–64
O.E. Deutsch: ‘Höfische Theaterbilder aus Schönbrunn’, ÖMz, xxii (1967),
577–84
L. Finscher: ‘Über die Originalfassung von Glucks Orphée’, Jb der
Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen 1968 (1969), 21–5
B. Geist: ‘Gluckova symfonie D dur rediviva’, HV, v (1968), 147–51
K. Hortschansky: ‘Die Festaufführung fand nicht statt: Bemerkungen zu
Christoph Willibald Glucks “La corona” (1765)’, NZM, Jg.129 (1968),
270–74
G. Croll: ‘Ein unbekanntes tragisches Ballett von Gluck’, Mitteilungen der
Gesellschaft für Salzburger Landeskunde, cix (1969), 275–7
K. Geiringer: ‘Zu Glucks Oper Il Telemaco’, GfMkB: Bonn 1970, 400–02
K. Hortschansky: ‘Arianna (1762), ein Pasticcio von Gluck’, Mf, xxiv
(1971), 407–11
J. Rushton: ‘“Iphigénie en Tauride”: the Operas of Gluck and Piccinni’, ML,
liii (1972), 411–30
Gluck e la cultura italiana nella Vienna del suo tempo: Siena 1973
[Chigiana, new ser., ix–x (1972–3)] [incl. J. Joly: ‘Deux fêtes théâtrales
de Métastase: “Le cinesi” et “L’isola disabitata”’, 415–63; G.C. Ballola:
‘“Paride ed Elena”’, 465–72; G. Gruber: ‘I balli pantomimici viennesi di
Gluck e lo stile drammatico della sua musica’, 501–12; A. Testa: ‘Il
binomio Gluck-Angiolini e la realizzazione del balletto “Don Juan”’,
535–47; L. Tozzi: ‘Attorno a “Don Juan”’, 549–64; L. Tozzi:
‘“Sémiramis”’, 565–70]
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Ethos und Pathos in Glucks “Iphigenie auf Tauris”’, Mf, xxvii
(1974), 289–300
K. Hortschansky: ‘Unbekanntes aus Glucks “Poro” (1744)’, Mf, xxvii
(1974), 460–64
P. Howard: ‘Gluck’s Two Alcestes: a Comparison’, MT, cxv (1974), 642–3
A. and K. Stoll: ‘Affekt und Moral: zu Glucks Iphigenie auf Tauris’, Mf, xxviii
(1975), 305–11
H. Wirth: ‘Gluck, Haydn und Mozart: drei Entführungs-Opern’,
Opernstudien: Anna Amalie Abert zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. K.
Hortchansky (Tutzing, 1975), 25–35
G. Croll: ‘Glucks Debut am Burgtheater: Semiramide riconosciuta als
Festoper für die Wiederöffnung des Wiener Burgtheaters 1748’, ÖMz,
xxxi (1976), 194–202
G. Croll: ‘Glucks Don Juan freigesprochen’, ÖMz, xxxi (1976), 12–15
G. Bimberg: ‘Dramaturgische Strukturmomente in den “Ezio”-Opern von
Händel und Gluck’, Georg Friedrich Händel als Wegbereiter der
Wiener Klassik: Halle 1977, 41–6
F. Schneider: ‘Texte und Kontexte in Glucks Iphigenie auf Tauris:
Marginalien zur neuen Übersetzung für die Inszenierung an der
Komischen Oper Berlin’, MG, xxvii (1977), 597–601
R. Strohm: ‘Coltellini/Gluck: “Il Telemaco” (1765)’, Die italienische Oper im
18. Jahrhundert (Wilhelmshaven, 1979), 305–35
D. Heartz: ‘Haydn and Gluck im Burgtheater um 1760: Der neue krumme
Teufel, Le diable à quatre, unde die Sinfonie “Le soir”’, GfMKB:
Bayreuth 1981, 120–35
J. Hayes: ‘Armide: Gluck’s Most French Opera?’, MT, cxxiii (1982), 408–10
P. Howard: ‘Armide: a Forgotten Masterpiece’, Opera, xxx (1982), 572–6
B.A. Brown: ‘Gluck’s Rencontre imprévue and its Revisions’, JAMS, xxxvi
(1983), 498–418
L’avant-scène opéra, no.62 (1984) [Iphigénie en Tauride issue]
M. Loppert: ‘Gluck’s Chinese Ladies: an Introduction’, MT, cxxv (1984),
321–5
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Tragödie, tragédie, Reformoper: zur Iphigenie in Aulis von
Euripides, Racine und Gluck’, Oper als Text: romantische Beiträge zur
Libretto-Forschung, ed. A. Gier (Heidelberg, 1986), 95–100
M. Beghelli: ‘Le bugie di Oreste’, Christoph Willibald Gluck nel 200o
anniversario della morte, ed. C. Del Monte and V. Raffaele Segreto
(Parma, 1987), 435–45
B. Brown: ‘Le mandarin: an Unknown Gluck Opera?’, MT, cxxvii (1987),
619–23
G. Buschmeier: ‘“Ezio” in Prag und Wien: Bemerkungen zu den beiden
Fassungen von Glucks “Ezio”’, Gluck in Wien: Vienna 1987, 85–8
G. Croll: ‘Eine Premiere nach 222 Jahren: zur Aufführung von Metastasio-
Glucks ‘La corona’ im Schloss Schönbrunn’, ÖMz, xlii (1987), 498–503
M. Girardi: ‘Paride ed Elena, ossia Gli equivoci della “Riforma”’, Christoph
Willibald Gluck nel 200o anniversario della morte, ed. C. Del Monte
and V. Raffaele Segreto (Parma, 1987), 387–401
C. Vitali: ‘Iphigénie en Aulide: cronaca di un successo annunciato’, ibid.,
409–16
G. Croll: ‘Haydn – Philemon und Baucis – Gluck’, Joseph Haydn und die
Oper seiner Zeit: Eisenstadt 1988, 79–87
M. Noiray: ‘Der Brief Glucks an Guillard: zum Parodieverfahren in zwei
Arien der Iphigénie en Tauride’, Christoph Willibald Gluck und die
Opernreform, ed. K. Hortschansky (Darmstadt, 1989), 373–89
R. Strohm: ‘Tradition und Fortschritt in der Opera seria: Tommaso Traetta:
Ifigenia in Tauride (Wien, 1763); Christoph Willibald Gluck: Il
Telemaco, o sia L’isola di Circe (Wien 1765)’, ibid., 325–52
G. Grube: Il Telemaco di Coltellini-Gluck come esempio di conferma della
drammaturgia musicale “riformata” viennese (diss., U. of Venice,
1990–91)
M. Armellini: Le due Armide: metamorforsi estetiche e drammaturgiche da
Lully a Gluck (Florence, 1991)
G. Buelow: ‘A Bach Borrowing from Gluck: another Frontier’, Bach, xxii/1
(1991), 43–61
G. Buschmeier: Die Entwicklung von Arie und Szene in der französischen
Oper von Gluck bis Spontini (Tutzing, 1991)
S. Leopold: ‘Glucks “Chinesinnen”’, Geschichte und Dramaturgie des
Operneinakters, ed. W. Kirsch, S. Döhring and C. Schneider (Laaber,
1991), 75–81
B. Mareschal: Gluck-Piccinni: ‘Iphigénie en Tauride’: dramaturgie
comparée (diss., U. of Strasbourg II, 1992)
J. Rushton: ‘“Royal Agamemnon”: the Two Versions of Gluck’s Iphigénie
en Aulide’, Music and the French Revolution, ed. M. Boyd (Cambridge,
1992), 15–36
L. Moratto: Il Telemaco, ossia, L’isola di Circe di Coltellini-Gluck (diss., U.
of Pavia, 1992–3)
G. Croll: ‘“… mit Leben und Geschick arrangiert …”: zu Glucks Iphigénie
en Tauride’, ÖMz, xlix (1994), 283–8
J. Joly: ‘Paride ed Elena entre galanterie et réforme’, Zwischen Opera
buffa und Melodramma: italienische Oper im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert,
ed. J. Maehder and J. Stenzl (Frankfurt, 1994), 67–79
M. Sperling: Christoph Willibald Glucks ‘Iphigénie en Tauride’ im
Stockholm des gustavianischen Zeitalters (diss., U. of Salzburg, 1994)
B. Brown: ‘Zéphire et Flore: a “Galant” Early Ballet by Angiolini and Gluck’,
Opera and the Enlightenment, ed. T. Bauman and M. McClymonds
(Cambridge, 1995), 189–216
G. Buschmeier: ‘Glucks Armide-Monolog, Lully und die “Philosophes”’,
Festschrift Klaus Hortschansky zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. A. Beer and L.
Lütteken (Tutzing, 1995), 167–80
G. Buschmeier: ‘Opéra-ballet oder festa teatrale? Einige Bemerkungen zu
Funktion und Form der Chöre und Ballette in Glucks Le feste d’Apollo’,
Studien zur Musikgeschichte: eine Festschrift für Ludwig Finscher, ed.
A. Laubenthal and K. Kusan-Windweh (Kassel, 1995), 280–88
J. Cumming: ‘Gluck’s Iphigenia Operas: Sources and Strategies’, Opera
and the Enlightenment, ed. T. Bauman and M. McClymonds
(Cambridge, 1995), 217–40
D. Neville: ‘Semiramide in Vienna: beyond Metastasian Metastasis’, SMw,
xliv (1995), 113–29
J. Roberts: ‘The “Sweet Song” in Demofoonte: a Gluck Borrowing from
Handel’, Opera and the Enlightenment, ed. T. Bauman and M.
McClymonds (Cambridge, 1995), 168–88
D. Schmidt: ‘Cythère assiégée, opéra comique en un acte: Favart, Gluck
und die Möglichkeiten der Parodie’, Opernkomposition als Prozess,
ed. W. Breig (Kassel, 1996), 31–45
B. Brown: ‘Les rêveries renouvelées des Grecs: Facture, Function and
Performance Practice in a Vaudeville Parody of Gluck’s Iphigénie en
Tauride (1779)’, Timbre und Vaudeville: zur Geschichte und
Problematik einer populären Gattung im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert, ed.
H. Schneider (Hildesheim, 1999), 306–43

Glushchenko, Georgy
Semyonovich
(b Rostov-na-Donu, 5 May 1922; d Minsk, 22 Sept 1994). Belarusian
musicologist. He studied at the Gnesin State Institute for Musical
Education, completing his postgraduate studies in 1957. After arriving in
Minsk in the same year, Glushchenko was appointed head of music history
at the Conservatory of Belorussia SSR in 1958, and held the post until
1990. He continued to work there until his death, giving lectures on music
criticism. His scholarly work concerns the history of Russian music criticism
and Belarusian contemporary music. His monograph on the critic Nikolay
Kashkin (1974) was further developed in the study Ocherki po istorii
russkoy muzïkal'noy kritiki kontsa XIX – nachala XX v.v. (1983) and his
doctoral dissertation (1984). The results of his studying Belarusian Soviet
music influenced his essays and reviews, and he edited many
methodological manuals, teaching programmes and teachers' handbooks.
He introduced courses at the Conservatory of Belorussia SSR on foreign
music and music criticism, and directed the work of musicologists in the
Belorussian Composers' Union. He often wrote as a co-author with his
wife, the musicologist Kaleriya Iosifovna Stepantsevich (b 21 March 1926).
WRITINGS
‘N.D. Kashkin, muzïkal'nïy kritik’, Nauchno-metodicheskiye zapiski
Belorusskoy gosudarstvennoy konservatorii, i, ed. M. Berger, A.
Bogatïrov and A. Vashkevich (Minsk, 1958), 3–25
‘Kantata o belorusskoy zemle’ [A cantata about the Belarusian land], SovM
(1959), no.3, pp.75–6 [on Aladau's cantata 1940]
‘Belorusskiy kontsert’ SovM (1959), no.12, pp.33–4 [on Podkovïrov's violin
concerto]
N.D. Kashkin i russkaya opera (Minsk, 1960)
‘Chetvyortaya simfoniya Ye. Titotskogo’ [Titotsky's Fourth Symphony], 55
sovetskikh simfoniy, ed. B.A. Arapov, A.N. Dmitriyev and G.G.
Tigranov (Leningrad, 1962), 252–8
N.D. Kashkin, muzïkal'nïy kritik: opernïye problemï [Kashkin as a music
critic: the problems of opera] (diss., Leningrad Conservatory, 1962;
Minsk 1962)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: Programma po belorusskoy sovetskoy
muzliterature dlya detskikh muzïkal'nïkh shkol [A programme of
Belarusian Soviet musical literature for schools] (Minsk, 1962)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: Shkol'nikam o muzïke [For schoolchildren on the
subject of music] (Minsk, 1962)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: Nashi kampazitarï [Our composers] (Minsk,
1965)
Odoyevsky i russkaya narodnaya pesnya [Odoyevsky and Russian
folksong] (Minsk, 1966)
‘Vtoraya simfoniya Ye. Glebova – chetvyortaya simfoniya Ye. Titotskogo’
[The Second Symphony of Ye. Glebov – the Fourth Symphony of Ye.
Titotsky], Sovetskaya simfoniya za pyat'desyat let, ed. G. Tigranov
(Leningrad, 1967), 94–8
Belorusskaya sovetskaya muzliteratura: uchebnik dlya detskikh
muzïkal'nïkh shkol [Belarusian Soviet music literature: a textbook for
music schools] (Minsk, 1969, 2/1981)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: Puti razvitiya belorusskoy sovetskoy muzïki
[Avenues for the development of Belarusian Soviet music] (Minsk,
1969)
ed.: Gistoriya belaruskay savetskay muzïki [The history of Belarusian
Soviet music] (Minsk, 1971; Russ. trans., 1976)
‘Muzïkal'noye iskusstvo BSSR’ [The musical art of the Belarusian SSR],
Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR, ed. Yu.V. Keldïsh, iv (Moscow, 1973); v
(Moscow, 1974)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: ‘Belaruskaya simfanichnaya muzïka 1950–1960-
kh gadou’ [Belarusian symphonic music of the 1950s and 60s], Muzïka
nashikh dzyon, ed. T. Dedyulya (Minsk, 1974), 20–33 [based on diss.,
1962]
N.D. Kashkin (Moscow, 1974)
with S. Nisnevich: Khrestomatiya po istorii belorusskoy muzïki [An
anthology of the history of Belarusian music] (Moscow, 1979)
Ocherki po istorii russkoy muzïkal'noy kritiki kontsa XIX – nachala XX v.v.
[Essays on the history of Russian music criticism of the late 19th and
early 20th centuries] (Minsk, 1983)
‘B. Asaf'yev i russkaya muzïka nachala XX veka’ [Asaf'yev and Russian
music of the early 20th century], B.V. Asaf'yev i sovetskaya
muzïkal'naya kul'tura: Moscow 1984, 209–13
Osnovï muzïkal'noy kritiki: programma dlya muzïkal'nïkh uchilishch [The
foundations of music criticism: a programme for music colleges]
(Minsk, 1984)
Teoretiko-metodologicheskiye osnovï russkoy muzïkal'noy kritiki kontsa
XIX – nachala XX v.v. [The theoretical and methodological foundations
of Russian music criticism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries]
(diss., Kiev Conservatory, 1984; pubd Kiev, 1984)
ed.: Belorusskaya gosudarstvennaya konservatoriya: ocherki istorii [The
Belarusian State Conservatory: essays on its history] (Minsk, 1984)
‘Tvorchasts'maladïkh kampazitarau Belarusi’ [The work of young
composers of Belarus], Mastatstva Belarusi (1986), no.1
‘Belorusskaya opera 1960–85’, Voprosï kul'turï i iskusstva Belorussii, ix
(1990)
‘P. Chaykovsky v russkoy muzïkal'noy publitsistike kontsa XIX – nachala
XX vv.’ [Tchaikovsky in Russian music journalism of the late 19th and
early 20th centuries], P.I. Chaykovsky: voprosï istorii i stilya, ed. M.Ye.
Rittikh (Moscow, 1990), 150–74
‘Lechebnoye vozdeystviye muzïki: istoriya, sostoyaniye, perspektivï’ [The
curative action of music: the history, state and prospects], Vekhi
kul'turï (1991), no.8, pp.20–23
‘Belorusskoye muzïkoznaniye v 1960–1980-e godï’ [Belarusian musicology
from the 1960s to the 1980s), Voprosï kul'turï i iskusstva Belorussii, xi
(1992)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: Belorusskaya muzïkal'naya literatura:
metodicheskove posobiye dlya prepodavateley detskikh muzïkal'nïkh
shkol [Belarusian musical literature: a handbook of methodology for
teachers in music schools] (Minsk, 1993)
‘Maksim Bagdanovich, muzïchnï krïtik’ [Maksim Bagdanovich, music critic],
Mastatstva (1994), no.12
ed. K.I. Stepantsevich: Istoriya belorusskoy muzïki 1960–1980-kh godov
[The history of Belarusian music from 1960 to the 1980s] (Minsk,
1997)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Bernandt and I. Yampolsky: ‘G.S. Glushchenko’, Kto pisal o muzïke, i
(Moscow, 1971), 218–19
Ye. Rakova: ‘V gostyakh u Glushchenka: Beseda’ [Visiting Glushchenko: a
conversation], SovM (1983), 116–17
Ya. Chartova: ‘Uchova, syonnya, zauzhdï: shtrikhi da tvorchaga partreta
muzïkaznautsa G.S. Glushchanki’ [Yesterday, today, always:
brushstrokes to the works of the musicologist Glushchenko],
Mastatstva Belarusi (1987), no.5, pp.43–4
I. Morikh: ‘U nyaspïnnïm poshuku: da pïtannya ab nauchnay i tvorchay
pratsï G.S. Glushchanki’ [An unstoppable search: questions of the
scholarly and creative work of Glushchenko], Voprosï kul'turï i
iskusstva Belorussii, xii (1993), 10–12
TAISIYA SHCHERBAKOVA

Glykys, Gregorios
(fl c1300). Composer of Byzantine chant. He is not to be confused with
Joannes Glykys (fl late 13th century). He held the office of domestikos (first
singer of the left choir), but it is not known where. Only a few of his
compositions are extant, including a kalophonic stichēron, which was later
‘beautified’ by Joannes Koukouzeles. (See E. Trapp: Prosopographisches
Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit, ii, Vienna, 1977, p.217.)

Glykys, Joannes
(fl late 13th century). Composer of Byzantine chant. Glykys was an older
contemporary of Joannes Koukouzeles (fl c1300–50) and Xenos Korones
and seems to have been active towards the end of the 13th century or in
the early 14th. Many manuscript sources reveal that Glykys held the office
of prōtopsaltēs (choir director) in an unnamed Byzantine church. It has
been argued that he should be identified with the Joannes XIII Glykys,
Patriarch of Constantinople from 1315 to 1319, but this identification is
unlikely.
Glykys’s name appears second in a chronological list, written by Manuel
Chrysaphes in the mid-15th century, of composers of kalophonic strophes
for the Akathistos Hymn: Michael Aneotes, Joannes Glykys, Nikephoros
Ethikos, Joannes Koukouzeles and Joannes Kladas. This order of
composers is partially corroborated by a later copy of a miniature (now lost)
from the late 14th- or early 15th-century Akolouthiai manuscript GR-AOk
475; it depicts Glykys in the role of teacher seated above his two students,
Koukouzeles and Korones. Glykys has his hands raised, and a rubric
states that he is instructing his students in the art of cheironomy. This
miniature displays the cheironomic gestures used for the important neumes
of the ison and oxeia. A basic method of cheironomy is ascribed to Glykys
in manuscripts dating from the 14th and 15th centuries, and a didactic
chant by him, Ison, oligon, oxeia, which demonstrates the Byzantine
neumes and formulae in all the eight modes, was used by Koukouzeles
when he compiled his own didactic piece of the same name. Glykys’s
pedagogical activities and his pioneering contribution to the development of
the kalophonic style earned him the epithet ‘Teacher of the teachers’.
There are more chants by Joannes Glykys transmitted in the akolouthiai
manuscripts and the kalophonic stichēraria than by any other Byzantine
composer before Koukouzeles. The melodies by Glykys in the 14th- and
15th-century akolouthiai manuscripts include a collection of relatively short
settings of selected verses from several psalms sung in the Byzantine
Office, including the amōmos and polyeleos psalms of Orthros. Longer
chants composed by Glykys include settings of the Akathistos Hymn, the
Cheroubikon, the Easter communion hymn (Sōma Christou) and the
Byzantine Sanctus (Hagios, hagios, hagios, kyrios sabaōth).
The musical style of Glykys’s shorter chants is very different from that of
his longer kalophonic settings. In the former, the melodic line is significantly
more conjunct than in the latter; and although the leap of a 4th is rarely
exceeded in the kalophonic settings, in the simple chants, intervals of a 5th
or 6th are common and leaps of a 7th and octave may also be found. In his
three kalophonic melodies for Psalm ii sung at Hesperinos, Glykys set only
a single line of text, whereas Koukouzeles, Korones and others combined
and reworked lines from several psalm verses. Musically, these single-line
kalophonic chants of Glykys are more compact than the kalophonic
settings of his students and followers and may represent an earlier and
less developed stage of the kalophonic style in Byzantine chant (see
Kalophonic chant).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Velimirović: ‘Byzantine Composers in MS. Athens 2406’, Essays
presented to Egon Wellesz, ed. J. Westrup (Oxford, 1966), 7–18
E. Trapp: Prosopograpisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit, ii (Vienna,
1977), 218
D.E. Conomos, ed.: The Treatise of Manuel Chrysaphes, the
Lampadarios, MMB, Corpus scriptorum, ii (1985), 41, 45, 61
N.K. Moran: Singers in Late Byzantine and Slavonic Painting (Leiden,
1986), 44, pl.6
A. Jakovljević: Diglōssē palaiographia kai melōdoi-hymnographoi tou
kōdika tōn Athēnōn 928 [Old bilingual writings and hymn melodies in
Athens codex 928] (Leukosia, 1988), 66–8
C. Troelsgård: ‘The Development of a Didactic Poem: some Remarks on
the “Ison, oligon, oxeia” by Ioannes Glykys’, Byzantine Chant: Athens
1993, 69–85
EDWARD V. WILLIAMS/CHRISTIAN TROELSGÅRD

Glyn, Margaret H(enrietta)

(b Ewell, Surrey, 28 Feb 1865; d Ewell, 3 June 1946). English organist and
musicologist. She studied the organ, violin and viola privately in London
with Yorke Trotter and C.J. Frost. She was among the earliest English
writers to specialize in the study of 16th- and 17th-century English
keyboard music; her most comprehensive work, About Elizabethan Virginal
Music and its Composers (1924), was an important and influential
contribution to musical literature. It was boldly claimed to be ‘based on
experience of all Virginal Manuscripts and a collation of a considerable part
of their contents’; subsequent research has queried many of her
conclusions but has not detracted from her pioneering achievement. Her
edition of Gibbons’s keyboard music (the first) was not superseded for over
35 years. Margaret Glyn composed six symphonies, six orchestral suites,
two overtures, songs and organ music.
WRITINGS
trans.: R. Wagner: Parsifal (London, 1890, 2/1914)
The Rhythmic Conception of Music (London, 1907, 2/n.d.)
Analysis of the Evolution of Musical Form (London, 1909)
About Elizabethan Virginal Music and its Composers (London, 1924,
enlarged 2/1934)
with G.P. Glyn: Poems and Song Translations (London, 1925)
EDITIONS
The Byrd Organ Book (London, 1923)
Thomas Weelkes: Pieces for Keyed Instruments (London, 1924)
Orlando Gibbons: Complete Keyboard Works (London, 1925)
Parthenia (London, 1927)
John Bull: Keyboard Music (London, 1930)
Early English Organ Music (16th Century), Plainsong and Mediaeval Music
Society (London, 1939)
DAVID SCOTT

Glyndebourne.
Opera house near Lewes, East Sussex, about 90 km south of London.
John Christie (1882–1962), whose family owns the estate on which it
stands, built the opera house and founded Glyndebourne Festival Opera in
1934.
Christie initially designed the house, seating 311, for his wife, the soprano
Audrey Mildmay. His intention was to open it with Don Giovanni or Die
Walküre and to later give other Wagner operas. The first season, beginning
on 28 May 1934 and lasting two weeks, was made up of Le nozze di
Figaro and Così fan tutte, which his wife persuaded him would be more
appropriate to the scale of the house. Christie was determined to aim for
the highest standards, and the exodus from Nazi Germany in the 1930s
provided him with the opportunity. He engaged Fritz Busch as musical
director, Carl Ebert as head of production and Rudolf Bing as manager.
The seclusion of Glyndebourne and the natural beauty of its surroundings
attracted performers of the highest quality and allowed them to develop,
during a rehearsal period unlike anything that is possible in a traditional
opera house in a large city, the sense of ensemble and dedicated purpose
that has distinguished Glyndebourne performances and can be perceived
in the Mozart recordings made under Busch in the 1930s.
The house was gradually enlarged and could seat 537 by 1939, by when
the Mozart repertory had been extended; although Christie’s chief
enthusiasms were directed towards German opera, his first extensions
beyond Mozart were Italian, including Macbeth (its professional première in
Britain, 1938) and Don Pasquale. The casts drew on the finest British
singers and also artists from Germany and Italy, including Mariano Stabile,
Salvatore Baccaloni, Luise Helletsgruber and Willi Domgraf-Fassbänder.
Christie was coolly disposed towards French opera.
Productions broke off during the war years and restarted in 1946 with the
première, by the English Opera Group with Glyndebourne support, of
Britten’s The Rape of Lucretia, with Kathleen Ferrier, who sang in Gluck’s
Orfeo the next year, when Britten’s Albert Herring had its première, again
from the English Opera Group. There were performances by the
Glyndebourne company at the Edinburgh Festival most years from 1948 to
1953 (including in 1951 the British professional première of Idomeneo).
With Moran Caplat as head of administration (1949–81), the festival proper
resumed at Glyndebourne in 1950, and during the early 1950s the pattern
of festivals, with five or six productions each season, including at least one
Mozart opera, was established. Operas are normally given in the original
language. The season runs from late May until early August. Performances
begin about 5 p.m. and are divided by a ‘dinner interval’ of about 90
minutes, during which patrons traditionally picnic on the lawns or by the
lake (there are also restaurants). Patrons are expected to wear formal
dinner dress; Christie’s view was that audiences should be seen to be
preparing themselves appropriately to partake in an event over which the
artists have taken much trouble.
The house was further enlarged in 1951 and by 1977 further alterations
had increased the capacity to 830. In 1951 Busch died and was succeeded
as chief conductor by Vittorio Gui, under whom a Rossini tradition
developed. Gluck’s Alceste, given under Gui in 1953, was the first French
opera heard there; the first opera by a French composer, Pelléas et
Mélisande, came nine years later. Christie was followed by his son, Sir
George Christie, who was chairman of Glyndebourne Productions until
1999, when he was succeeded by his son, Augustus Christie. Ebert retired
in 1959 and was succeeded by Günther Rennert, who remained until 1968;
John Cox was head of productions, 1972–81, Peter Hall was artistic
director, 1984–90, and Graham Vick was director of productions, 1993–
2000. Gui’s successors were John Pritchard, musical director 1964–77,
succeeded by Bernard Haitink, 1978–88; and Andrew Davis. The RPO
played in 1950–63, to be succeeded by the LPO, with the Orchestra of the
Age of Enlightenment for period-instrument performances (initially under
Simon Rattle) from 1989. Singers have traditionally been widely recruited,
notably from the USA and central eastern Europe. The company has
occasionally toured abroad, including visits to Scandinavia and Hong Kong;
it has made many sound and video recordings. Each year an opera from
the repertory is performed in semi-concert fashion at the Proms in the
Albert Hall, London.
In spite of Christie’s early hopes, no Wagner opera has been heard at
Glyndebourne, and the first house’s rather cramped acoustic would not
have favoured it. Strauss, however, has been particularly successful,
especially the smaller-scale works such as Ariadne auf Naxos (1950,
conducted initially by Beecham) and Capriccio (1963), as well as Der
Rosenkavalier (1959) and Intermezzo (1974). Verdi’s Macbeth has
remained a favourite, as too has Falstaff (1955). The intimacy of the
auditorium has also proved favourable to Janáček. Monteverdi’s
L’incoronazione di Poppea (1962) inaugurated an important and influential
series of Italian Baroque opera revivals, including works by Cavalli, in
Raymond Leppard’s colourful realizations; Handel’s operas were not
explored until 1998, with Rodelinda, although stagings of two of his
oratorios had earlier been given. Contemporary opera, besides Britten and
Stravinsky, has been represented by works by Maw, Knussen, Osborne,
Tippett and Dove, as well as operas by Henze and von Einem. Porgy and
Bess was given with great success in 1986. Mozart, however, remains
central, partly because his operas lend themselves so ideally to the size of
the house and the rehearsal and production circumstances that
Glyndebourne can uniquely offer; an all-Mozart season, including for the
first time La clemenza di Tito, was given in 1991.
In 1992 work began on the rebuilding of the opera house, involving its
realignment by 180°; it reopened on 28 May 1994 (the 60th anniversary of
its first performance) with Le nozze di Figaro. The new house (cap. 1150),
with a clean, more spacious acoustic, and good sight-lines and facilities,
has enabled Glyndebourne to enlarge its scope and extend its repertory,
which it did with much success in its early seasons.
The Glyndebourne Touring Opera was established in 1968, initially under
the direction of Myer Fredman, to give Glyndebourne productions, with
younger casts, during short seasons in the home house and at other
centres in Britain, over a period of four to eight weeks each year; this
company, which (unlike the parent company) has received Arts Council
support, has occasionally visited Ireland and European cities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Glyndebourne Festival Programme Book (1952–)
S. Hughes: Glyndebourne: a History of the Festival Opera (London, 1965,
2/1981)
W. Blunt: John Christie of Glyndebourne (London, 1968)
R. Bing: 5000 Nights at the Opera (London, 1972)
J. Higgins: The Making of an Opera: Don Giovanni at Glyndebourne
(London, 1978)
F. Corsaro: The Love for Three Oranges: the Glyndebourne Version (New
York, 1984)
J. Higgins, ed.: Glyndebourne: a Celebration (London, 1984)
J.J. Norwich: Fifty Years of Glyndebourne: an Illustrated History (London,
1985)
I. Nowinsky: A Season at Glyndebourne (London, 1988)
M. Chimenes: ‘Une production de l’opéra de Glyndebourne: les décors et
costumes de David Hockney, la mise en scène de John Cox’, The
Rake’s Progress: un opéra de W. Hogarth, W.H. Auden, C. Kallmann
et I. Stravinsky: une réalisation de J. Cox et D. Hockney, ed. J.-M.
Vaccaro (Paris, 1990), 157–76
STANLEY SADIE

Gnattali, Radamés
(b Porto Alegre, 27 Jan 1906; d Rio de Janeiro, 3 Feb 1988). Brazilian
composer, pianist and conductor. The son of a music teacher, he received
musical training from an early age. From 1920 he studied at the Instituto de
Belas Artes of Rio Grande do Sul, winning the piano gold medal in 1924,
and then at the Instituto Nacional de Música in Rio de Janeiro. Gnattali
studied composition on his own and began his professional activities as
pianist and then viola player in the Henrique Oswald Quartet. After settling
in Rio permanently, he became the official conductor of the Radio Nacional
orchestra. He achieved wide popularity through his music for radio serials,
and through his skilful arrangements and orchestrations of fashionable
popular tunes and dance rhythms. This success has prejudiced his
simultaneous career as a composer of art music. But his activities in the
popular field were valuable in his quest for a nationalist expression. His
knowledge of popular music is particularly evident in the first period of his
production (1931–40), characterized by the clear national influences and
post-Romantic idiom of such works as Rapsódia brasileira (1931) and the
Piano Trio (1933). Works of this period sometimes show harmonic formulae
and instrumentations characteristic of jazz.
The second period, which began in about 1945 when he was elected a
founder-member of the Academia Brasileira de Música, exhibits a
subjective nationalism which is expressed with more reserved and simpler
 means. Gnattali continued to cultivate a musical style of easy and
immediate comprehension. The series of Brasilianas illustrates the
composer’s varied approaches to nationalist composition. Brasiliana no.2
(1948), for example, is a clever stylization of the different types of samba:
samba de morro, samba-canção and samba de batucada. Others, such as
no.6 (1954), for piano and orchestra, or no.8, for tenor saxophone and
piano, reveal very imaginative instrumental blendings as well as a more
subdued involvement with national sources.
During the 1950s Gnattali deliberately attempted to remove himself from
music nationalism. He then turned to neo-Romantic and neo-classical
moulds while maintaining the light style often associated with symphonic
jazz. This is exemplified by such works as Concêrto romântico, the four
guitar concertinos, the Sinfonia popular and the concerto for harmonica
and orchestra. The works of the 1960s, however, reveal a further
assimilation of folk and popular musical traditions. The Concertos cariocas,
the Sonatina coreográfica and the Quarteto popular show this trend. The
Second Violin Concerto (1962) exhibits effective experiments with bossa
nova rhythmic patterns. The ballet Negrinho do pastoreio, written in 1959,
is one of the few works based on the folklore of Gnattali’s native state of
Rio Grande do Sul. Among the many solo songs, Azulão and Oração da
Estrela Boieira are the most successful.
During his last 20 years, Gnattali gave more attention to his involvement
with popular music, returning to a direct nationalist style. He won great
success as an arranger and conductor for TV stations in São Paulo and
Rio de Janeiro, and also composed numerous pieces of popular music in
the styles of the 1930s to the 70s such as urban sambas, samba-canções,
choros and valsas. His guitar compositions have been recognised as some
of the most significant in Brazilian guitar literature.
WORKS
Brasiliana: no.1, orch, 1944; no.2, pf, str, drums, 1948; no.3, orch, 1948; no.4, pf,
1949; no.5, pf, 1950; no.6, pf, orch, 1954; no.7, 2 pf, 1957; no.8, t sax, pf, 1957;
no.9, pf, orch, 1960; no.10, orch, 1962; no.12, 2 pf, str, 1968; no.13, gui, 1985
Solo inst with orch: Poema, vn, orch, 1934; Pf Conc. no.1, 1934; Pf Conc. no.2,
1936; Vc Conc., 1941; Concertino, pf, fl, str, 1942; 3 movimentos, pf, str, 2 timp,
1947, Vn Conc. no.1, 1947; Variaĉão sôbre uma série de sons, vn, pf, orch, 1949;
Concêrto romântico, pf, orch, 1949; 4 concertinos, gui, orch, 1953–5; Hp Conc.,
1958; Harmonica Conc., 1958; 2 poemas, vn, orch, 1962; Vn Conc. no.2, 1962;
Concêrto romântico no.2, pf, orch, 1964; Concêrto carioca no.2, pf, insts, 1964;
Conc. de Copacabana, gui, str, 1964; Conc., 2 gui, str, 1967–8; Conc., vn, orch,
1969; Conc., accdn, orch, 1978
Other orch: 3 miniaturas, 1940; Suite para pequena orchestra, 1940; Sinfonia
miniatura, 1942; Canadiana, 1943; Concêrto carioca, 1950; Sinfonia popular, 1955;
Negrinho do pastoreio (ballet), 1959; Sinfonia popular no.2, 1962, no.3, 1969, no.4,
1969
Chbr: Conc., vn, pf, str qt, 1933; Pf Trio, 1933; Sonata, vc, pf, 1935; Qt, 3 vn, vc,
1939; Qt popular, str qt, 1940; Trio miniatura, pf, vn, vc, 1941; 3 movimentos, vn, pf,
1942; Qt no.2, str qt, 1943; Serestas, gui, fl, str qt, 1944; 4 quadros de Jan Zach, str
qt, 1946; Sonatina, fl, gui, 1959; Qt popular, str qt, 1960; Sonata, va, pf, 1969;
Sonata no.2, vc, pf, 1973; Pf Trio no.2, 1984
Pf: Rapsódia brasileira, 1931; 10 valsas, 1939; Canadiana, 1943; Tocata, 1944;
Sonata, 1947; Valsas and choros, 1950; Sonata no.2, 1963
Songs: 3 poemas (A. Meyer), 1931; Para meu Rancho, 1931; Casinha pequenina
(V. Neto), 1940; Modinha (M. Bandeira), 1940; Azulão (Bandeira), 1940; Prenda
minha, 1941; Valsa romântica (Bandeira), 1945; 6 canções, 1983

Principal publishers: Vitale, Mangione, Ricordi

BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Béhague: Music in Latin America: an Introduction (Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, 1979)
J.M. Neves: Música brasileira contemporânea (São Paulo, 1981)
V. Mariz: História da música no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1981, 4/1994)
V. Barbosa and A.M. Devos: Radamés Gnattali, o eterno experimentador
(Rio de Janeiro, 1985)
Z.C. de Lasala: ‘Dos genios de la música brasileña’, Brasil/Cultura, no.61
(1988), 36–40
GERARD BÉHAGUE

Gnecchi, Vittorio
(b Milan, 17 July 1876; d Milan, 5 Feb 1954). Italian composer. The son of
wealthy Como landowners, he studied with Michele Saladino, Gaetano
Coronaro, Serafin and Carlo Gatti. His first work for the theatre was a
pastoral in two acts, Virtù d’amore, privately performed in 1896 at the
family home at Verderio, near Como. In the next, the tragedy Cassandra
(1905), he attempted to recreate the climate of Aeschylus’s tragedy, and
this involved using material based on Greek modes. The opera gave rise to
a violent critical controversy: in 1909 the musicologist Giovanni Tebaldini
published two articles (RMI, xvi, 400–12, 632–59), in which he maintained,
on the basis of a comparative analysis, that there was a similarity so close
as to be telepathic between Cassandra and Strauss’s Elektra. In general,
however, European critics rejected the idea that Elektra (1906–8) had been
inspired by the Italian work, attributing the similarities to chance.
Gnecchi’s next works – the three-act La Rosiera (1927) and Giuditta (1953)
– confirmed the characteristics of his style, which combines modes and an
often dissonant, post-Wagnerian chromatic harmony, creating unusual
effects within classically conceived forms. His orchestral, instrumental and
sacred output demonstrates similar stylistic characteristics. Subjects are
predominantly eulogistic and the tone is an emphatic, nationalistic one
common to minor Italian composers of the inter-war period. Examples of
this are the Invocazione italica (1917), the Poema eroico (1932), the
mythological content of Atalanta (1929) and the religious bombast of both
the Cantata biblica and the Missa salisburgensis.
WORKS
Ops: Virtù d’amore (azione pastorale, 2, M. Rossi Borzotti), Verderio (Como), Villa
Gnecchi, 7 Oct 1896; Cassandra (tragedia, prol., 2, L. Illica), Bologna, Comunale, 5
Dec 1905; rev. version, Ferrara, 29 Feb 1909; La Rosiera (3, V. Gnecchi and C.
Zangarini, after A. de Musset: On ne badine pas avec l’amour), Gera, 12 Feb 1927;
Giuditta (3, Illica), Salzburg, 1953 [as orat.]
Other works: Atalanta, ballet, orch, 1929; Invocazione italica, orch, 1917; Poema
eroico, orch, 1932; Cant. biblica; Missa salisburgensis; Preghiera del soldato, orch
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (G. Graziosi)
M. Barbieri: ‘Curiosità Musicale’, RMI, xxxix (1932), 148–51
M. Horwarth: ‘Tebaldini, Gnecchi and Strauss’, CMc, no.10 (1970), 74–91
F. Nicolodi: Musica e musicisti nel ventennio fascista (Florence, 1984)
RAFFAELE POZZI

Gnecco, Francesco
(b Genoa, c1769; d Milan, 1810/1811). Italian composer. He supposedly
studied with Cimarosa. For a while he was maestro di cappella of Savona
Cathedral, but he was most successful as a composer of comic and
serious operas, writing many of his own librettos. His most famous opera,
La prova d’un opera seria, had a backstage plot; though not the first of this
genre, it was the best. Originally in one act with a libretto by Giulio Artusi
(1803, Venice) and entitled La prima prova dell’opera Gli orazi e curiazi, it
was later changed into a two-act work with Gnecco’s own libretto (1805,
Milan) and was performed until 1860 throughout Europe, with the most
famous singers. The plot of the two-act version concerns a rehearsal, not
of Cimarosa’s Gli Orazi ed i Curiazi, but of a non-existent opera seria,
Ettore in Trabisonda, characterized by all the excesses of a style overripe
for parody. A number of irrelevant but funny backstage problems add spice
to the action: a lesson in instrumentation, a chorus full of mistakes, a
soprano mispronouncing her words and so on. To create some tension at
the end of the first act Gnecco introduced a picnic in the country for the
cast; a storm comes up and the soprano and tenor lovers quarrel. The
music is in the best tradition of Paisiello and Cimarosa. Arias are in two
tempos, preceded by an introduction highlighting a solo instrument. The
few more formal (non-comic) numbers are in da capo form. The ensembles
are multipartite and, in what seems to be contemporary practice, appear
only in the middle and end of the acts. In keeping with turn-of-the-century
opera buffa style the vocal lines are principally patter, the orchestra having
the connective melodic tissue. Nothing in the music is adventurous or
memorable, but the comic backstage shenanigans are first-rate.
Gnecco composed 23 other operas, including Auretta e Masullo, ossia Il
contratempo (1792, Genoa), Il nuovo podestà, later Le nozze di Lauretta
(1802, Bologna), and Filandro e Carolina (1804, Rome). He published sets
of chamber works and also wrote sacred music.
WORKS
operas
Auretta e Masullo, ossia Il contratempo (dg, 2, Gnecco), Genoa, S Agostino, 8 May
1792
La contadina astuta, ossia La finta semplice (dg, 2), Florence, Regio, sum. 1792, I-
Fc
Il nuovo Galateo (dg), San Pier d’Arena, Crosa Larga, aut. 1792
I filosofi in derisione, ossia I filosofi burlati (int), Florence, Intrepidi, carn. 1793
Lo sposo di tre, marito di nessuna (dg, 2, A. Palomba), Milan, Scala, March 1793
L’indolente (dg, 2, G. Palomba), Parma, Corte, carn. 1797
Le nozze de’ Sanniti (dramma, 2, G. Foppa), Padua, Nuovo, June 1797, Gl, Pl
I due sordi burlati (ob, Foppa), Genoa, Falcone, June 1798
Adelaide di Guesclino (os, G. Rossi, after Voltaire), Florence, Pergola, Oct. 1800,
Fc
Alessandro nell’Indie (os, 3, P. Metastasio), Livorno, Regio, Oct 1800
Il nuovo podestà (ob, 2, G. Caravita), Bologna, Comunale, spr. 1802,Fc, Rmassimo;
as Le nozze di Lauretta (Gnecco), Rome, Valle, 23 May 1804
La festa riscaldata (ob, 1, Foppa), Florence, Pallacorda, sum. 1802
Il geloso corretto (farsa, G. Artusi), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 18 April 1803,
OS
Il finto fratello, Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 25 May 1803
La prima prova dell’opera Gli orazi e curiazi (1, Artusi), Venice, S Giovanni
Grisostomo, 8 July 1803, D-Hs, F-Pn, I-Nc, PS; rev. as La prova d’un opera seria
(2, Gnecco), Milan, Scala, 16 Aug 1805,D-Mbs, F-Pn, GB-Lbl, I-Fc, Nc, US-Bp; rev.
as L’apertura del nuovo teatro, Naples, Nuovo, aut. 1807, GB-Lbl, I-Fc, Nc, US-Bp,
Wc
La scena senza scena (ob, Artusi), Venice, S Moisè, 10 Dec 1803
Arsace e Semiramide (os, Rossi, after Voltaire), Venice, Fenice, 31 Jan 1804, I-Mr*
Filandro e Carolina (ob, 1, Gnecco), Rome, Valle, Oct 1804, GB-Lbl, I-Fc, Mc; rev.
as Clementina e Roberto, Genoa, Feb 1810, GB-Lbl, I-Fc
L’incognito (ob), Vicenza, Eretenio, carn. 1805
L’amore in musica (ob, 2, Gnecco), Bologna, Comunale, 1 April 1805, Mr*; as Gli
amanti filarmonici, Rome, Valle, carn. 1807
Gli ultimi due giorni di carnevale (ob, Artusi), Milan, Scala, 7 April 1806, Mr*
I bramini (os, S. Scatizzi), Livorno, Avvalorati, aut. 1806
Argete, Naples, S Carlo, Nov 1808
I falsi galantuomini [gentiluomini] (ob, 2, M. Prunetti), Milan, Scala, 16 Aug 1809,
Mc
other works
Tuona a sinistra il cielo (cant.), S, T, chorus, orch; 3 trii concertanti, cl, vn, bc, op.2
(Vienna, n.d.); 3 quartetti concertanti, 2 vn, va, bc, op.4 (Paris, n.d.); 5 notturni, qt
(1794); 3 syms.; sestetto; 2 qts with cl; notturno, vn, cl, va, vc; Sonata a 4; Messa
a 2vv; motets
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
MGG1 (A. Della Corte)
‘Biographische Nachrichten von Francesco Gnecco, aus dem Giornale
Italiano und aus dem Redattore del Reno im Auszuge mitgetheilt von
Chladni’, AMZ, xiv (1812), 29–30
MARVIN TARTAK

Gnesin, Mikhail Fabianovich

(b Rostov-na-Donu, 2 Feb 1883; d Moscow, 5 May 1957). Russian
composer, musicologist and teacher. He studied at the Rostov Technical
Institute (1892–9) and began music lessons with O.O. Fritch before he left
school. From 1901 to 1909 he studied composition with Rimsky-Korsakov
and Lyadov at the St Petersburg Conservatory; in 1905 he was expelled for
 taking part in a revolutionary student strike, but he was allowed back in
1906. After graduating, and until 1923, he lived in the Rostov-na-Donu
region and in Yekaterinodar, teaching, lecturing and taking a part in the
direction and development of musical life. In the summers of 1912 and
1913 he worked in Meyerhold’s St Petersburg studio. He visited Germany
and France (1911) and Palestine (1914 and 1921). From 1925 to 1936 he
was professor of composition at the Moscow Conservatory, and from 1923
held a similar post at the Gnesin Academy, founded on the site of the music
school by his sisters Yelena, Yevgeniya and Mariya. He was professor at
the Leningrad Conservatory (1935–44), working in Yoshkar-Ola and
Tashkent during World War II. Then between 1944 and 1951 he was
principal of the re-established Gnesin State Institute for Musical Education,
Moscow. His pupils included Khachaturian and Khrennikov. Gnesin’s early
work, with its subtle, ecstatic lyricism, was linked with the Russian
symbolist movement. His collaboration with Meyerhold resulted in music for
Greek tragedies and also in piano accompaniments for readings from
Zhukovsky and Poe. After 1914 he devoted the major part of his work to
Jewish subjects, and after this became dangerous during the Stalinist era,
he became increasingly interested in the music of the various peoples
within the USSR. He was among the first to take the revolution as a
programmatic theme, in the ‘simfonicheskiy monument’ 1905–1917. In
1927 he received the title Honoured Art worker of the RSFSR and in 1943
an arts doctorate.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Antigona (incid music, Sophocles, trans. D. Merezhkovsky), op.13, 1909–

13, St Petersburg, Studiya V. Meyerkhol'da, 1912–13; Finikiyanki (incid music,
Euripides, trans. I. Annensky), op.17, 1912, rev. 1916, St Petersburg, Studiya V.
Meyerkhol'da, 1912; Roza i krest' [The Rose and the Cross] (incid music, A. Blok),
op.14, 1914; Ėdip-Tsar' [Oedipus the King] (incid music, Sophocles, trans.
Merezhkovsky), op.19, 1914–15; Yunost' Avraama [Abraham’s Youth] (operatic
poem, 3 scenes, Gnesin), op.36, 1921–3, unfinished; film scores
Orch: Iz Shelli [From Shelley], sym. fragment after Prometheus Unbound, op.4,
1906–08; Pesni ob Adonise [Songs on Adonais], dances of mournings, op.20, 1917;
Simfonicheskaya fantaziya v yevreyskom rode [Sym. Fantasia in the Jewish
Manner], op.30, 1919; Yevreyskiy orkestr na balu u gorodnichego [The Jewish Band
at the Ball in Nothingtown], op.41, 1926 [suite from incid music to N.V. Gogol': The
Government Inspector]
Vocal: Balagan (dramatic song, Blok), op.6, 1v, orch, 1909; Vrubel' (sym. dithyramb,
V. Bryusov), op.8, 1v, orch, 1911; Posvyashcheniya [Dedications] (V. Ivanov, K.
Bal'mont, F. Sologub), op.10, 1v, pf, 1912–14; Cherv'-pobeditel' [The Conquering
Worm] (poem, E.A. Poe, Bal'mont), op.12, 1v, orch, 1913; Rosarium (Ivanov),
op.15, 1v, pf, 1914; Yevreyskiye pesni [Jewish Songs] (Z. Shneyr and others),
op.37, 1v, pf, 1923–6; 1905–17, simfonicheskiy monument (S. Yesenin), op.40,
chorus ad lib, orch, 1925; Muzïka k ‘Povesti o rïzhëm Motele’ [Music to ‘Tales of the
Red-Haired Motelė’] (I. Utkin), op.44, 1v, pf, 1926–9; V Germanii [In Germany]
(sym. prelude, M. Svetlov), op.50, chorus, orch, 1937; folksong arrs.
Chbr: Requiem, op.11, pf qnt, 1913–14; Variatsii na yevreyskuyu narodnuyu temu
[Variations on a Jewish Folk Theme], op.24, str qt, 1916; Pesnya
stranstvuyushchego rïtsarya [Song of a Wandering Knight], op.28, str qt, hp, 1928;
Sonata, G, op.43, vn, pf, 1928; Adïgeya, sextet, op.48, cl, fr hn, pf, qt, 1933;
Ėlegiya-pastoral', op.57, pf trio, 1939; Suite, op.58, vn, pf, 1940; Trio ‘Pamyati
nashikh pogibshikh detey’ [To the Memory of Our Dead Children], op.63, vn, vc, pf,
1943; Sonata-fantaziya, op.64, pf qt, 1944–5; Suite for Str Qt, op.68, 1953; Theme
and Variations, op.67, vc, pf, 1953; piano music

Principal publishers: Jurgenson, Universal

WRITINGS
‘O prirode muzïkal'nogo iskusstva i o russkoy muzïke’ [On the nature of
musical art and on Russian music], MS (1915), no.3, pp.5–32
‘Muzïkal'nïy fol'klor i rabota kompozitora’ [Musical folklore and the work of
the composer], Muzïka (1937), no.20
Nachal'nïy kurs prakticheskoy kompozitsii [An elementary course in
practical composition] (Moscow, 1941, 2/1962)
‘Maksimilian Shteynberg’, SovM (1946), no.12, pp.29–36
‘O russkom simfonizme’, SovM (1948), no.6, pp.44–50; (1949), no.3,
pp.50–54; (1950), no.1, pp.78–82
Mïsli i vospominaniya o N.A. Rimskom-Korsakove [Reflections and
memories about Rimsky-Korsakov] (Moscow, 1956)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Karatïgin: ‘Molodïye russkiye kompozitorï’ [Young Russian composers],
Apollon (1910), no.12, pp.37–48
L. Saminsky: ‘O tvorcheskom puti M. Gnesina’ [The work of the
composer], Muzïka (1913), no.3, pp.5–8
A. Drozdov: M.F. Gnesin (Moscow, 1927)
I. Rïzhkin: ‘O tvorcheskom puti Mikhaila Gnesina’, SovM (1933), no.6,
pp.32–49
R. Glezer, ed.: M.F. Gnesin: stat'i, vospominaniya, materialï (Moscow,
1961)
B. Klyuzner: ‘O Gnesine’, SovM (1968), no.6, pp.91–4
I.D. Glikman: Meyerkhol'd i muzïkal' nïy teatr (Leningrad, 1989), esp.309–
48
L. Sitsky: Music of the Repressed Russian Avant-Garde, 1900–1929
(Westport, CT, 1994)
INNA BARSOVA/YELENA DVOSKINA

Gniezno.
City in Poland, in Poznań province. It was the national capital until the 11th
century, the place of coronation of the first Polish kings and the seat of an
archdiocese. From the 10th century, Polish cultural life was concentrated at
the Gniezno ducal court and in the church of the Assumption of St Mary the
Virgin (from 1000 a cathedral); even after the capital was moved to Kraków,
Gniezno remained an important religious and cultural centre. From the
Middle Ages there were four parish churches: Holy Trinity, St Laurence, St
Michael Archangel and SS Peter and Paul. Music was taught in the
cathedral school, opened after 1050, and in parish schools; pupils sang for
services. Liturgical books preserved from the cathedral library testify to
high musical standards: a Missale plenarium (11th century); the copy of
Collectio trium partium attributed to St Ivo of Chartres, made in Gniezno
(late 11th century); a Gradual of the nuns of the order of St Clare (1418);
an Antiphoner of Klemens of Piotrków (1503); and a Gradual of Maciej
Drzewicki (1536). In the 15th century a cathedral organ was built, and then
rebuilt by Jan Kopersmit; a new organ was built by Stanisław Zelik in 1522.
In 1420 Archbishop Mikołaj Trąba founded a college of mansionari to sing
offices at the cathedral. From the early 16th century a college of psalterists
was active at the cathedral; during important celebrations they were joined
by mansionari and curates. In the late 16th century the chapel at the
cathedral consisted of an organist, singers and violinists; trumpeters were
added in the early 17th century. Notable later musicians were Mikołaj
Kotkowski (d 1702) and the Luberski family. The composer Mateusz
Zwierzchowski (d 1768) was organist at the cathedral and later conducted
its choir. Most of his works were lost in the fire which destroyed the
cathedral’s collection of musical manuscripts (over 1000 works) in 1760.
Over 30 compositions by Adalbert Dankowski and symphonies by Antoni
Habel are preserved. Professional musical standards fell during the 19th
century; amateur organizations were formed, including the male choir Koło
Śpiewacze (now Dzwon), and between the two World Wars numerous
amateur groups were active. The city now has one music school; the
amateur movement is centred at the Municipal Centre of Culture and Youth
Club, where jazz and rock bands are active.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Biegański: ‘Gnieźnieńskie “Missale plenarium” jako przykład zabytku
izolowanego’ [The ‘Missale plenarium’ of Gniezno as an example of
the isolated monument], Muzyka, xi/3–4 (1966), 75–81
‘Gniezno’, Encyklopedia katolicka, ed. W. Granat and others (Lublin,
1973–)
T. Maciejewski: ‘Antyfona o św. Grzegorzu z gnieźnieńskiego rękopisu
“Tripartity”’ [The antiphon for St Gregory in the Gniezno ‘Tripartita’
manuscript], Muzyka, xxvi/2 (1981), 99–103
W. Zientarski: ‘Muzycy gnieźnieńscy XV–XVII wieku’ [Musicians of
Gniezno in the 15th–17th centuries], Gniezno: studia i materiały
historyczne, i (1984), 73–88
W. Zientarski: ‘Muzycy gnieżnieńscy XVIII wieku’, Gniezno: studia i
materiały historyczne, ii (1987), 111–55
BARBARA PRZYBYSZEWSKA-JARMIŃSKA

Gnocchi, Pietro
(b Alfianello, Brescia, 27 Feb 1689; d Brescia, 9 Dec 1775). Italian
composer. Most of the information concerning Gnocchi's life derives from
his contemporary Cristoni. As the second son of a middle-class family, he
became a priest, devoting himself particularly to the study of music. After
the death of his younger brother, he went to study in Venice. Before
returning to Brescia, he travelled extensively, meeting famous musicians in
Vienna and Munich as well as in Hungary, Bohemia and Saxony. He lived a
withdrawn and ascetic life in Brescia, writing learned books on epigraphy,
geography and ancient history, and earning a wide reputation as a scholar
and master of languages. On 16 June 1723 he was appointed maestro di
 cappella of Brescia Cathedral and in 1733 he competed unsuccessfully for
the post of organist there as well. In April 1762 he reapplied for the position
and was successful, holding both jobs until his death. From about 1745 to
1750 he also worked at the Orfanelle della Pietà in Brescia.
According to Cristoni, Prince Faustino Lechi of Brescia travelled to Bologna
as a young man to study with Padre Martini, who expressed surprise that
the prince had undertaken such a journey when Brescia possessed ‘un
celebre Professore di Musica’ in the person of Gnocchi. Prince Lechi
accepted Martini's advice and became Gnocchi's student, friend and
patron. The Lechi family purchased Gnocchi's 25-volume history of ancient
Greek colonies in the east, and possessed his treatise on Brescian
memorial tablets as well as many of his compositions.
Gnocchi wrote a great quantity of music, almost entirely sacred, which
remains in manuscript. He planned to publish his 12-volume Salmi brevi,
but no more was printed than the title-page and dedication. His interest in
geography is reflected in some of the titles of his works: for example,
Magnificat settings for six voices entitled ‘Il capo di buona speranza’ and ‘Il
rio de la plata’, and masses for four voices ‘Europe’, ‘Asia’, ‘Africa’ and
‘America’. In style, Gnocchi favoured the Venetian technique of alternating
choirs, treating them in a homophonic rather than imitative style: according
to Guerrini, his compositions lack the animation of his Venetian
contemporaries Benedetto Marcello and Lotti; the masses for eight-part
double chorus are considered his best works.
WORKS
Salmi brevi per tutto l'anno, 8vv, vn (Brescia, 1750) [only title-page and ded. pubd;
rest in MS]
60 Requiem and masses, 4–8vv, some with insts; Offertories for Advent and Lenten
masses; 6 sets of Vespers for the church year, 4–8vv, org; 2 Vespers for the Office
of the Dead; Responses for Passion, Holy Week, Christmas; 2 Pontificali; 2 Lit and
Te Deum for Bidding Procession; 12 Mag, 4vv; 2 cycles of hymns for the church
year; 6 Miserere, 4–8vv; various motets, some with insts: all in I-BRd; 9 masses, 2–
4vv; 6 Requiem, 2–4vv; various hymns; 8 canzonette scherzose, all in: BRsmg;
Conc. à 7, str, bc; 3 sonatas, 2 vn, bc: in Gi (l)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (P. Guerrini)
C. Cristoni: Informazioni dell'antica prosapia del Sac. D. Pietro Gnocchi
maestro e organista de' piu insigni nella cattedrale di Brescia (MS,
formerly I-BRq)
R. Prestini: ‘Momenti del Settecento musicale bresciano: le “arie buffe” di
Pietro Gnocchi’, Feste devozionali, spettacoli, divertimenti nel
Settecento a Brescia (Brescia, 1981)
M. Sala: ‘Le cappelle musicali’, La musica a Brescia nel Settecento, ed.
M.T. Rosa Barezzani and others (Brescia, 1981), 57–92
O. Termini: ‘Organists and Chapel Masters at the Cathedral of Brescia
(1608–1779)’, NA, iii, (1985), 73–90
G.B. Bertoni: Pietro Gnocchi nel terzo centenario della nascita (Alfianello,
1989)
MARIANGELA DONÀ
 Gobatti, Stefano
(b Bergantino, Rovigo, 5 July 1852; d Bologna, 17 Dec 1913). Italian
composer. He studied with Busi in Bologna and with Lauro Rossi in Parma
and at the Naples Conservatory. In 1873 his opera I goti was staged in
Bologna and received with extraordinary acclaim. Bologna's cultural circles,
fiercely anti-Verdi, welcomed Gobatti as the new musical paragon to set up
against him. Numerous musicians and men of letters shared the general
infatuation with the opera, but it was not received with equal acclaim
elsewhere in Italy. Verdi himself called it ‘the most monstrous musical
miscarriage ever composed’. His subsequent operas, Luce (1875) and
Cordelia (1881), met with a cold reception even in Bologna. Reduced to
poverty and entirely forgotten, he taught singing in primary schools in
Bologna, afterwards withdrawing to a monastery. He became mentally
deranged and died in an asylum. He wrote a fourth opera (Masias), never
performed, and some vocal chamber pieces.
WORKS
I goti (tragedia lirica, 4, S. Interdonato), Bologna, Comunale, 30 Nov 1873, vs
(Milan, 1874)
Luce (dramma lirico, 5, Interdonato), Bologna, Comunale, 25 Nov 1875, vs (Milan,
1876)
Cordelia (dramma lirico, 5, C. D'Ormeville), Bologna, Comunale, 6 Dec 1881, I-Bc
Masias (op, 3, E. Sanfelice), 1900, unperf.
Romanze; La festa della regina, hymn, arr. pf (Milan, 1886)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Depanis: I concerti popolari ed il Teatro regio di Torino: quindici anni di
vita musicale, i (Turin, 1914), 57ff
G. Monaldi: Ricordi viventi di artisti scomparsi (Campobasso, 1927)
A. Alberti: Verdi intimo: carteggio di Giuseppe Verdi con il conte
Opprandino Arrivabene (1861–1886) (Milan, 1931)
F. Vatielli: ‘L'ultima opera di Stefano Gobatti’, La strenna delle colonie
scolastiche bolognesi, xliv (1941)
P. Nardi: Vita di Arrigo Boito (Verona, 1942), 406–7
F. Abbiati: Storia della musica, iv (Milan, 1939–46, 2/1967–8), 208ff
BRUNO CAGLI

Gobbi, Tito
(b Bassano del Grappa, 24 Oct 1913; d Rome, 5 March 1984). Italian
baritone. He studied in Rome with Giulio Crimi and made his début in 1935
at Gubbio as Rodolfo (La sonnambula). In 1937 he appeared at the Teatro
Adriano, Rome, as Germont. He sang regularly at the Teatro Reale
dell’Opera, Rome, from 1938; his first great success there was as Wozzeck
in the Italian première of Berg’s opera (1942). He first appeared at La Scala
in 1942 as Belcore, the role in which he made his Covent Garden début
with the Scala company in 1951. He appeared regularly in London,
especially in Verdi roles, including Posa (1958), Boccanegra, Iago,
Rigoletto and Falstaff. He also sang Don Giovanni, Almaviva, Gianni
Schicchi and Scarpia.
Gobbi made his American début as Rossini’s Figaro in San Francisco in
1948; from 1954 to 1973 he sang regularly in Chicago in a repertory that
included Gérard, Michonnet, Jack Rance and Tonio, and he made his
Metropolitan Opera début in 1956 as Scarpia. At Rome he created roles in
Rocca’s Monte Ivnor (1939), Malipiero’s Ecuba (1941), Persico’s La
locandiera (1941), Lualdi’s Le nozze di Haura (1943) and Napoli’s Il tesoro
(1958) and at Milan in Ghedini’s L’ipocrita felice (1956). His repertory
consisted of almost a hundred roles. Intelligence, musicianship and acting
ability, allied to a fine though not large voice, made Gobbi one of the
dominant singing actors of his generation. He directed several operas,
notably Simon Boccanegra in Chicago and London, and wrote Tito Gobbi:
My Life (London, 1979) and Tito Gobbi on his World of Italian Opera
(London, 1984). Gobbi’s highly individual timbre and diction and his ability
to colour his tone made him an ideal recording artist, as can be heard in his
Rigoletto, Boccanegra, Iago, Falstaff and Gianni Schicchi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GV
D. De Paoli: ‘Tito Gobbi’, Opera, vi (1955), 619–22
A. Natan: ‘Gobbi, Tito’, Primo uomo: grosse Sänger der Oper (Basle, 1963)
[with discography]
G. Lauri-Volpi: ‘Un grande artista, un amico reale’, Musica e dischi, no.262
(1968), 49
J.W. Freeman: ‘Tito Gobbi Talks’, ON, xxxvi/17 (1971–2), 14–16
A. Blyth: ‘Gobbi: the Singer and the Man’, British Music Yearbook 1975, 3–
21 [with discography by J.B. Steane]
H. Rosenthal: ‘Tito Gobbi 1913–84’, Opera, xxxv (1984), 476–84
HAROLD ROSENTHAL/ALAN BLYTH

Gobbo della regina, Il.

See Lonati, Carlo Ambrogio.

Göbel, Franz Xaver.

See Gebel, Franz Xaver.

Gobelinus Person.
See Person, Gobelinus.

Gobert, Thomas
(b Picardy, early 17th century; d Paris, 26 Sept 1672). French composer
and ecclesiastic. He was a choirboy at the Ste Chapelle probably between
1615 and 1627, canon at St Quentin in 1630 and maître de chapelle at
Peronne, from which position he made ‘a good jump to the employ of M. le
Cardinal [Richelieu] and a better jump still to the service of the king’
(Gantez). He followed Formé as sous-maître at the royal chapel in 1638, a
position he shared first with Picot, then with Veillot and finally, after the
 latter's death in 1662, with Du Mont. He held several administrative posts
at the Ste Chapelle, including that of canon in 1651. In 1664 Louis XIV
decided that there should be four sous-maîtres for his chapel, each to
serve for one quarter: Gobert (January), Robert (April), Expilly (July) and
Du Mont (October). Gobert retired from the royal chapel in 1669 and upon
his death was interred at the Ste Chapelle.
Along with Formé and Veillot, Gobert was a composer of the avant garde.
He admired the many ‘belles et bonnes choses’ in Monteverdi's madrigals,
and did much to stabilize the double-chorus motet in France. The format of
the Versailles grand motet is already present in Gobert's description of
motets composed by him for the royal chapel: ‘The grand choeur, in five
parts, is always sung by many voices. The petit choeur is composed only of
solo voices’ (letter of 17 October 1646 to Constantijn Huygens). None of
Gobert's grands motets survives. The texts for many are found in Perrin's
Cantica pro Capella Regis (1665). In his lost Antiennes récitatives, also
mentioned in this letter, Gobert may have experimented with the basso
continuo before the first printed examples appeared in France (Huygens's
Pathodia sacra, 1647).
Another progressive feature is the simple two-part vocal writing of the
Paraphrase des psaumes de David (Paris, 1659, 5/1686). The fourth
edition, of 1656, begun by Aux-Cousteaux was completed by Gobert who
rendered the Aux-Cousteaux settings ‘plus agéables’ by adding some
‘ports-de-voix’, some ‘anticipations’, some ‘tremblemens’ and some
‘flexions de voix’ (Avis). Pierre le Petit, the printer, justified the ‘new’ edition
on the grounds that he had asked Gobert to set the psalms (in the Godeau
translation) ‘in simple counterpoint appropriate for those who know only a
little music’ and that the earlier setting of 1656 by Aux-Cousteaux in archaic
Renaissance polyphony ‘did not have all the graces that are desirable’.
WORKS
Paraphrase des psaumes de David, en vers françois par Antoine Godeau ... Mis
nouvellement en chant par Thomas Gobert, ... Cinquième Édition, revué et corrigée
(Paris, 1659)
Audite coeli in Paroles tirées de la Ste Ecriture, et mises en motet (Paris, 1660),
text only
A few airs in Recueil des plus beaux airs, ed. B. de Bacilly (Paris, 1661)
6 pieces in F. Berthod: Livre d'airs de dévotion à deux Parties, iii (Paris, 1662)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AnthonyFB
BrenetM
A. Gantez: L'entretien des musiciens (Auxerre, 1643); ed. E. Thoinan
(Paris, 1878/R)
D. Launay: ‘Les motets à double choeur en France dans la première
moitié du XVIIe siècle’, RdM, xxxix–xl (1957), 173–95
D. Launay: La musique religieuse en France du Concile de Trente à 1804
(Paris, 1993)
JAMES R. ANTHONY

Gobetti, Francesco
(b Udine, bap. 4 Jan 1675; d Venice, 10 July 1723). Italian violin maker. His
family moved to Venice in the early 1690s and appears to have been
connected with shoemaking. He described himself as a shoemaker when
he married (1702) but probably took up violin making within a fairly short
time, doubtless as a pupil of Matteo Goffriller, who lived in the same parish.
He began to sign his instruments soon after 1710, but because of ill-health
was obliged to give up working after 1717.
Though he was active for only a few years and his output was
comparatively small, Gobetti ranks as one of the greatest makers of the
Venetian school. He was a meticulous workman, yet possessed of
considerable verve, showing in his work many of the best qualities of
Goffriller and Montagnana. He seems to have made no violas or cellos. His
violins are exciting instruments both tonally and visually, sometimes being
excellent copies of other makers’ work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Toffolo: Antichi strumenti veneziani 1500–1800: quattro secoli di liuteria
e cembalaria (Venice, 1987)
Les violons: lutherie venitienne, peintures et dessins, Hôtel de Ville, Paris,
21 March–7 May 1995 (Paris, 1995) [exhibition catalogue]
CHARLES BEARE

Gobin de Reims [Gobin de Reins]

(fl 13th century). French trouvère. Two satirical poems against women –
On soloit ça en arrier (R.1253) and Pour le tens qui verdoie (R.1768) – are
attributed to Gobin in the Chansonnier de l'Arsenal (F-Pa 5198) and related
manuscripts (see Sources, MS, §III, 4). However, Jehan d'Auxerre named
himself as author of the second. These manuscripts normally present
nearly identical readings, but their versions of On soloit contain significant
variants. In the Chansonnier de l'Arsenal, the form of the nearly syllabic
melody is symmetrical; the melody remains within the range of a 5th and
ends on the seldom-used final of B.

For bibliography see Troubadours, trouvères.

THEODORE KARP

Goble, Robert (John)

(b Thursley, Surrey, 30 Oct 1903; d Oxford, 8 Oct 1991). English
harpsichord and recorder maker. He began to learn instrument making in
1925 in the Haslemere workshop of Arnold Dolmetsch. In 1937 he
established his own workshop in Haslemere, producing clavichords,
spinets and recorders. Except for a period during World War II he remained
in Haslemere until 1947 when he moved to Headington, Oxford. At the new
workshop his production expanded to include larger models of harpsichord.
The demand for keyboard instruments was so great that in 1950 he was
obliged to discontinue recorder making. Until 1971 the Goble workshop
continued to build essentially modern instruments in the Dolmetsch
tradition; thereafter it turned increasingly to building instruments on
historical lines, modelled on prototypes by Ruckers, Taskin, Dulcken,
Fleischer, Zell and Hass. Modern instruments continue to be made on
special commission.
Goble married Elizabeth Brown (b 8 Feb 1907; d Oxford, 23 Dec 1981)
who studied early keyboard instruments and viol playing with Arnold
Dolmetsch under a Dolmetsch Foundation Fellowship, performing
frequently at the Haslemere Festival in both capacities and as a contralto.
She toured Europe and North America as a member of the English Consort
of Viols. She played an important part as an artistic adviser and
administrator in the Goble workshop. Their son Andrea (b 27 June 1931)
joined the firm in 1947, and his son Anthony (b 8 July 1957) joined in 1975.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘A Visit to Robert Goble’, English Harpsichord Magazine, i/1 (1973–6), 6
R. Donington: ‘Elizabeth Goble’, EMc, x (1982), 295 [obituary]
HOWARD SCHOTT

Goblet drum.
A directly struck drum (membranophone) in goblet shape. See Drum, §I,
2(ii)(d).

Goccini, Giacomo.
See Gozzini, Giacomo.

Gocciolo, Giovanni Battista.

See Cocciola, Giovanni Battista.

Godár, Vladimír
(b Bratislava, 16 March 1956). Slovak composer. He studied the piano and
composition, the latter with Pospíšil, at the Bratislava Conservatory (1971–
5). He then continued his composition studies under Kardoš at the
Bratislava Academy of Music and Dramatic Art until 1980. In 1988–9 he
studied with Haubenstock-Ramati at the Vienna Hochschule für Musik.
Godár has held appointments as editor with the Opus publishing house
(1979–88), researcher at the Institute of Musicology of the Slovak Academy
of Sciences (1988–97), editor-in-chief of the journal Slovenská hudba
(1991–6) and as resident composer for the Slovak PO (1993–4). In 1996
he became lecturer in aesthetics at the arts faculty of Comenius University.
His activities also include performing as continuo player in various early
music ensembles. His Partita and Concerto grosso were awarded the Ján
Levoslav Bella Prize (1985 and 1987, respectively), Dariačangin sad
 (‘Dariachanga’s Orchard’) received the 1988 Slovak Critics’ Prize and his
score to the film Neha (‘Tenderness’) won the Zlatý klinec award.
His music is based on the achievements of the postwar European avant
garde combined with elements of European classicism. His early pieces
employ serial techniques and dodecaphonism, combined later with the
sonorism of the Polish school of composition. The confrontation between
past and present in his music provides an additional temporal dimension
which he has tried to embrace. For Godár, time is a complex, multi-
dimensional phenomenon which affects the listener’s subconscious. In
temporal terms, pause and structure he considers equally significant; new
ways of combining the two have become a principal concern of his.
Because of his specific approach to time, form plays a vital role in his
music. He often uses historical forms, techniques and performance styles
(see for example the Partita or Ricercar) as foundation stones upon which
new light is thrown. His most frequent source of inspiration is the virtuoso
skill of individual performers; many of his works have been composed in
consultation with performers, in particular Andrew Parrott, Julian Lloyd
Webber, John Holloway, the Moyzes Quartet and the Slovak Chamber
Orchestra.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Predohra (Hommage à Alfred Jarry) [Ov.], 1978; Sym. no.1, 1980, rev. 1986;
Partita, 54 str, hpd, timp, tubular bells, 1983; Meditácia, vn, 48 str, timp, 1984, rev.
1995; Concerto grosso, 12 str, hpd, 1985; Dariačangin sad [Dariachanga’s
Orchard], after O. Chiladze, va, vc, orch, 1987; Sym. no.2, 1992; Barcarole, vc, hp,
hpd, 12 str, 1993; Emmeleia, vn, str, hp, 1994; Via lucis, 1994; Tombeau de Bartók,
1995
Choral: Spevy o posledných chvíl'ach života [Songs about the Last Moments in Life]
(African poetry), male chorus, 1973; Chryzantémy [Chrysanthemums] (M. Rúfus),
S, fl, 4 va, male chorus, 1975; Totožné [Identical] (O. Paz), mixed chorus, 1977, rev.
1990; Žalostné piesničky [Sorrowful Songs] (18th and 19th century Slovak folk
poetry), male chorus, eng hn, vn, cimb, timp, 1979; Pieseň o belavých hlavách
[Song of the White Heads] (I. Kupec, after Chin. poetry), male chorus, 1980; Orbis
sensualium pictus (orat, J.A. Comenius), S, B, chorus, orch, 1984
Other vocal: Lyrická kantáta, S, chbr orch, 1981; 4 vážne spevy [4 Serious Songs]
(H. Gavlovič), S, orch, 1986; Uspávanky Jana Skácela [Lullabies of J. Skácel]
(Comenius), S, fl, vc, hpd, 1986
Other inst: Variácie (H. Michaux), nar, sax, pf, db, 1970, rev. 1980; Trigram, pf,
1973; Ricercar, vn, va, vc, pf, 1977; Wind Qnt, 1977; Jesenná meditácia [Autumn
Meditation], str qt, 1979; Talizman, nocturne, vn, vc, pf, 1979–83; Trio, vn, cl, pf,
1980; 5 bagately, 1981; Husl'ové duetá [Vn Duets], 72 pieces, 1981; Grave,
Passacaglia, pf, 1983; Suite, 2 vn, 1981; Sonáta na pamät' Viktora Šklovského
[Sonata to the Memory of V. Shklovsky], vc, pf, 1985; Sekvencia [Sequence], vn, pf,
1987; Neha [Tenderness], str qt, 1991; Déploration sur la mort de Witold
Lutoslawsky, pf qnt, 1994; Emmeleia, pf, 1994
Film scores, arrs. of early music

Principal publishers: Opus, Slovak Music Fund

WRITINGS
Kacírske quodlibety [Heretical quodlibets] (Bratislava, 1997)
‘Úvaha o diele Giju Kančeliho’ [A reflection on the work of Giya Kancheli],
Hudobný život, xxii/3 (1990), 12 only
‘Skice k dielu Jozefa Sixtu’ [Sketches on works by Sixta], Hudobný život,
xxii/10 (1990), 12 only
‘Edgar Varese: život, dielo, názory’ [Varese: life, works, views], Hudobný
život, xxiii/2 (1991), 10–11
‘Stravinskij a Borges: pokus o dvojportrét’ [Stravinsky and Borges: an
attempt at a double portrait], Slovenské pohl'ady (1991) no.9, pp.27–
43; no.10, pp.38–53
‘Súčasný kompozičný agnosticizmus a hominizácia hudobného média’
[Contemporary agnosticism in composition and hominisation of the
music medium], SH, xvii (1991), 71–84
‘Slovo a hudba vo svetle dialógu renesancie s antikou (Triáda médií a
dichotómia ciel'ov)’ [Music and word in the light of dialogue between
the Renaissance and antiquity (The triad of media and the dichotomy
of objectives)], SH, xviii (1992), 55–71
‘Ars persuadendi’, SH, xix (1993), 254–87
‘Ridotto camerata fiorentina. Dramatic dispositio’, Slovenské divadlo
(1994), 25–41
‘Einleitend zur Geisteswelt der Kunst’, Ján Albrecht: die Geisteswelt des
Schönen (Bratislava, 1995), 7–11
‘Ikonická inštrumentácia v hudbe 16. a 17. storočia’ [Iconic instrumentation
in music of the 16th and 17th centuries], SH, xxi (1995), 477–94
‘Slovenská elektroakustická hudba a slovenská hudba a slovenská
normalizácia’ [Slovak electro-acoustic music and Slovak
normalization], SH, xxii (1996), 112–20
‘Tri stretnutia: Rozhovor s Mirom Bázlikom’ [Three meetings: an interview
with Miro Bazlik], SH, xxii (1996), 215–46
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KdG (Z. Martináková)
E. Čunderlíková: ‘Skladatel' Vladimír Godár [The composer Godár],
Hudobný život, xvi/7 (1984), 4 only
J. Dehner: ‘Pokus o skupinový portrét [An attempt at a group portrait],
HRo, xxxvii (1984), 324–6
E. Čunderlíková: ‘Vladimír Godár’, Slovak Music, no.4 (1985), 5–6
E. Szczepanska-Malinowska: ‘Z nie napisanych recenzji’ [From the
unwritten reviews], RM, xxxii/21 (1988), 12–13
R. Berger: ‘Some Remarks to Vladimír Godár’s Composition
Dariachanga’s Orchard – a Myth’, Slovak Music, no.2 (1989), 4–8
L. Chalupka: ‘Vladimír Godár’, Slovak Music, no.1 (1989), 1–7
P. Kofroň: ‘Přírodní formování hudby’ [Natural formation of music], Třináct
analýz (Prague, 1994)
P. Malovec: ‘Návrat k povodnej tvorbe’ [A return to the original work],
Literárny týždenník, x/11 (1997), 1, 10
YVETTA LÁBSKA-KAJANOVÁ
 Godard [Godart, Goddart]
(fl 1536–c1560). French composer. 19 four-voice chansons ascribed to him
were published in Paris between 1536 and 1559. Like Janequin and
Passereau, he composed a number of lively anecdotal chansons
characterized by light, syllabic counterpoint. The rest, languishing, amorous
épigrammes, are in the suave style of Certon, Sandrin and Pierre de
Villiers; three of the settings were also attributed to these composers.
Godard’s lively chanson Ce moys de May was reissued in Antwerp and
Lyons and secured a place (sometimes with an ascription to ‘Rogier’) in
Phalèse’s frequently reprinted seventh book of chansons; the work later
appeared in various arrangements for lute, cittern or organ.
He may be identifiable with Robert Godard, who was organist at Beauvais
Cathedral in 1540 and resigned from there in 1560. Fétis recorded a
document naming a ‘Goddart’ who was a tenor at the Ste Chapelle in Paris
between 1541 and 1568, but this was not substantiated by Brenet
(BrenetM). The Laborde index also notes a Georges Godart, organist at St
Nicolas-du-Chardonnet until his death in 1584.
WORKS
for four voices unless otherwise indicated

Amour pence que je dorme et je meurs, 1546 13 (attrib. Sandrin in 154612); Ce moys
de May sur la rousée, ed. in PÄMw, xxiii (1899); De varier c’est ung propre de
femme, 154612; Dieu tout puissant bon pere, 155319; Graces à Dieu à ce point je
consens, 155319; Ha quel tourment, 153812; Hault le boys m’amye Margot, ed. M.
Cauchie, Quinze chansons françaises du XVIe siècle (Paris, 1926); Hélas amour, je
pensoye bien avoir, 153813
J’ay le fruict tant désiré, 15509; Le doulx regard, 15447; L’homme est heureux quand
il trouve amitié, 155323, ed. in SCC, x (1994); Longtemps y a que langueur et
tristesse, 15437–8, ed. in RRMR, xxxviii (1981); Mariez-moy mon pere, 1538 12, ed. in
RRMR, xxxviii (1981); Mon cueur avez que ung aultre, 1546 12; O doulx revoir que
mon esprit contente, 153812 (attrib. Certon in 154917); Puisqu’ainsi est que tous ceux
qui ont la vie, 5vv, 155910, ed. in SCC, x (1994); Quant je vouldrois de vous me puys
venger, 15365; Que gagnés vous à vouloir differer, 15613 (attrib. Villers in 155323);
Voz huys, sont-ilz tous fermez, fillettes, 154711, ed. H.M. Brown, Theatrical
Chansons of the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge, MA, 1963)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
LabordeMP
G. Desjardins: Histoire de la cathédrale de Beauvais (Beauvais, 1865)
L.E. Miller: The Chansons of French Provincial Composers, 1530–1550: a
Study of Stylistic Trends (diss., Stanford U., 1977)
FRANK DOBBINS

Godard, Benjamin (Louis Paul)

(b Paris, 18 Aug 1849; d Cannes, 10 Jan 1895). French composer. At the
age of ten he was enrolled at the Paris Conservatoire where he studied
with Henri Reber. Although he was considered a child prodigy as a violinist,
he did not win any prizes at the Conservatoire, and his submissions in
1863 and 1864 for the Prix de Rome were unsuccessful. A prodigious
worker, he soon began to establish a reputation as a composer in Germany
and Spain as well as in France, and by the 1870s was well known
throughout Europe and considered by many to be one of the most
important of the young French composers of his day, frequently compared
to the young Mozart on account of his early display of talent. Critics agree,
however, that early adulation jeopardized his later career.
Godard composed works in most genres with the exception of church
music, but ultimately he made his reputation as a composer of salon pieces
for piano and of songs, albums of which were translated into English. Also
active as a poet, he provided some of his own song-texts, as well as setting
contemporary French poetry, mainly in a romantic vein. His style was
deliberately traditional and, being of Jewish extraction, he shunned any
influence of Wagner, whose opinions he despised, particularly when he
was critical of Beethoven whom Godard idolized. Mendelssohn’s easily
lyrical style may be identified at the root of much of Godard’s music, which
is founded upon solidly traditional principles of harmony.
His early promise did not really develop in his later works, although his
early death from consumption meant that he had no chance to mature fully
as a composer. The Symphonie légendaire is somewhat unusual as a
genre. More like a song cycle with orchestral interludes, it combines poems
based on legends by Charles Grandmougin, Leconte de Lisle and Godard
himself, among others, and is divided into three parts, the central section
being religious and the outer parts rooted in folklore. In his Symphonie
orientale his collecting of genuine oriental music and its fusion with western
harmony was much admired. Among his operas, Jocelyn had a successful
première in Brussels, while Le Dante was criticized for having too many
triple-time arias. Most successful was La vivandière, an opera set in the
period of the Revolution whose title refers to a military canteen-keeper who
reunites a republican soldier with his royalist father. Set in the Vendée and
employing onstage military music and folksongs, it was unfinished at the
time of Godard’s death but was completed by Paul Vidal, and ran to over
80 performances. His piano pieces, often published with the usual
elaborately illustrated covers that adorned salon-music, display a wide
variety of styles. They range from simple pieces for children and amateurs
to more virtuoso studies, the best of which show considerable
compositional skill and some degree of textural sophistication. These
include the highly successful 12 études artistiques, and Lanterne magique,
which preoccupied Godard over a long period of time, and in which each
song is prefaced by a poem by the composer himself. His songs have
considerable charm and one or two numbers from his operas have
survived in the repertory in their own right.
Where most early 20th-century historians soon forgot Godard, or afforded
him only a passing mention, the influential English critic Arthur Hervey
summed him up well in his history of 19th-century French music, as having
somewhat abused his talent for commercial gain. He saw Godard’s music
as ‘full of charm’ and ‘breathing a gentle spirit of melancholy’, and said of
the composer: ‘he can conjure up visions of the past, stir up memories of
 forgotten days … the best that was in him was perhaps expressed in works
of small calibre, songs and pianoforte pieces’.
WORKS
printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

stage
Les Guelfes (grand opéra, 5, L. Gallet), Rouen, Arts, 17 Jan 1902, vs (1898)
Pedro de Zalamea (opéra, 4, L. Détroyat and A. Silvestre, after P. Calderón de la
Barca), Antwerp, Royal, 31 Jan 1884, vs (1884)
Much Ado about Nothing (incid music, L. Legendre, after W. Shakespeare), Paris,
Odéon, 1887
Jocelyn (op, 4, V. Capoul and Silvestre, after A.-M.-L. de Prat de Lamartine),
op.100, Brussels, Monnaie, 25 Feb 1888, vs (1887)
Le Dante (drame lyrique, 4, E. Blau), op.111, Paris, OC (Lyrique), 13 May 1890, vs
(1890)
Jeanne d’Arc (incid music to drame historique, 5, J. Fabre), op.125, Paris, 1891, vs
(1891)
Ruy Blas, 1891, unperf.
Ballet d’autrefois (petite scène à 2 personnages, G. Boyer), for S (travesti) and
dancer, op.144 (?1893)
La vivandière (oc, 3, H. Cain), inc., Paris, OC (Lyrique), 1 April 1895, with orch
completed by P.A. Vidal; vs (1895)
vocal
Solo vv, chorus, orch: Le Tasse [Tasso] (C. Grandmougin), dramatic sym., op.39,
1877 (1878); Hymne nuptiale, 1880, unpubd; Aurore, op.59 (London, 1881) vs
(1884); Sym. légendaire, S, Mez, Bar, female vv, op.99, 1880–85 (1886)
Chorus: A la Franche-Comté (Grandmougin), 4 male vv (1879); Hymne à la liberté,
4 male vv; other works
Songs, 1v, pf: over 100, incl. Nouvelles chansons du vieux temps, op.24 (1876);
Diane, poème antique (E. Guinand) (1880); 6 fables de La Fontaine, op.17, 1872–9
(n.d.)
6 villanelles, 1876 (1877)
orchestral
Syms.: no.1 (Berlin, n.d.); no.2, B , op.57, 1879 (1889); Sym. gothique, op.23, 1874
(Mainz, 1883); Sym. orientale, op.84, 1883 (Berlin, 1884); Sym. descriptive,
unpubd.
Concs.: Pf Conc. no.1, A, op.31, 1875 (1879); Conc. romantique, vn, op.35, 1876
(1877); Vn Conc. no.2, g, op.131, 1891 (Berlin, 1892); Pf Conc. no.2, G, op.148,
1893 (1899)
Other: Scènes poétiques, op.46, 1878 (1879); Aubade et scherzo, op.61, 1881
(1882); Introduction and allegro, pf, orch, op.49, 1880 (1881); 3 morceaux: Marche
funèbre, Brésilienne, Kermesse, op.51, 1879 (1880), also arr. pf; Suite de danses
anciennes et modernes, op.103 (?1890); Scènes écossaises, ob, orch, op.138 (n.d.
[also arr. ob, pf, see chamber]); Symphonie-ballet, op.60, 1881 (1882), also arr. pf;
Fantaisie persane, pf, orch, 1894 (1896)
chamber
3 str qts: g, op.33, 1876 (1882); A, op.37, 1877 (1884); A, op.136, 1892 (1893)
2 pf trios: op.32, 1875 (1880); F, op.72 (1883)
Vn, pf: 5 sonatas, c, op.1 (1866), a, op.2 (1866), g, op.9 (1869), A , op.12, 1872
(Berlin, 1880), d, op.78 (n.d.); Légende et scherzo, op.3 (1867); Première Sonata,
vn, 1873 (1875); Suite de 3 morceaux, op.78 (Berlin, 1883); 6 morceaux, op.128
(n.d.); En plein air: Suite de 5 morceaux (Berlin, 1893), also arr. vn, orch
Vc, pf: 2 morceaux, op.36 (1877) also arr. orch; Sonata, d, op.104 (1887);
Other: 4 morceaux, vn, va, vc, op.5 (1868); 6 duettini, 2 vn, pf, op.18, 1872 (1878);
Aubade, vn, vc, 1874 (1892); Valse, pf, cl, op.116 (n.d.); Suite de 3 morceaux, pf, fl,
1889 (1890); Scènes écossaises, ob, pf, op.138, 1892 (1893)
piano
Les contes de Perrault, op.6, 1867 (1868); Fragments poètiques, op.13, 1869
(1873); 3 morceaux: Menuet, Andante, Gavotte, op.16 (1874); 12 études artistiques,
op.42 (1878); Lanterne magique, in five parts, opp.50, 55, 66, 110, 1869–93
(1880–); Chemin faisant, 6 morceaux, op.53, 1879 (1880); 20 pièces, op.58, 1881
(1887); Sonate fantastique, op.63, 1881 (1883); Sonata no.2, op.94 (1884); 12
nouvelles études artistiques, op.107, 1884–8 (?1892); 12 pièces, op.112 (n.d.); [12]
Scènes italiennes, op.126, 1890–91 (1891), also arr. orch; Impressions de
campagne, op.123, 1890–92 (1893); Fantaisie, op.143 (1893); Etudes enfantines,
op.149, 1893 (1894); Etudes mélodiques (1894); Etudes rhythmiques (1894);
Etudes de concert (1894); c100 other pieces
Pf 4 hands: [4] Pièces symphoniques, op.28, 1875 (Berlin, 1880), also arr. orch; [6]
Contes de la veillée, op.67 (1882), also arr. orch
2 pf: Duo symphonique, 1877 (1879)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N. Ney: ‘Benjamin Godard’, La vie théâtrale (5 Feb 1895)
M. Clerjot: Benjamin Godard (Paris, 1902)
H. Imbert: Médaillons contemporains (Paris, 1902)
A. Hervey: French Music in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1903)
M. Calvié: Benjamin Godard (Paris, 1906)
J. Tiersot: Un demi-siècle de la musique française, 1870–1919 (Paris,
1918, 2/1924)
C. Le Senne: ‘Benjamin Godard (1849–1895)’, EMDC, I/iii (1914), 1803–5
RICHARD LANGHAM SMITH

Godard de Beauchamps, Pierre-

François.
See Beauchamps, Pierre-François Godard de.

Godbid, William
(d 1679). English music printer. He succeeded Thomas Harper in 1656 and
took over the printing of all of John Playford the elder’s musical
publications until his death in 1679. Godbid was a reliable and
conscientious printer, if not an inspired one. In spite of the fact that the
printing materials he inherited from Thomas Harper dated back over a
generation, and were out of date by the middle of the 17th century, for 23
years Godbid’s press produced the music volumes on which the elder
Playford’s remarkable business was built. He also printed Tomkins’s
Musica Deo sacra in 1668, for which he devised nested type. On his death
in 1679, Godbid’s business in Aldersgate, London, was taken over by his
widow Anne and John Playford the younger. (Humphries-SmithMP;
KrummelEMP)
MIRIAM MILLER

Goddard, Arabella
(b St Servan, St Malo, 12 Jan 1836; d Boulogne, 6 April 1922). English
pianist. At the age of six she went to Paris to study with Kalkbrenner and
after the 1848 revolution came to England where she continued her studies
with Lucy Anderson and Thalberg. She also studied harmony with G.A.
Macfouren, publishing two piano pieces and a ballad in the early 1850s.
Her first London appearance was at Her Majesty’s Theatre on 23 October
1850. Her Philharmonic début was due to take place in 1853 but she
refused to back down when the conductor Michael Costa, engaged in a
long-standing feud with Sterndale Bennett, refused to conduct that
composer’s Concerto in C minor. In 1860 she married the critic j.w.
Davison, with whom she had studied the interpretation of the classics.
Between 1873 and 1876 she toured America, Australia and India. In the
early 1880s she retired from performance but continued to teach,
becoming one of the professors at the Royal College of Music when it
opened in 1883. By 1890, when a benefit concert was organized by
friends, she had fallen into financial difficulties. During much of the second
half of the 19th century Goddard was regarded as England's leading pianist.
Renowned for her high-class repertoire, she had played Beethoven's Piano
Sonata op.106 from memory at one of her earliest appearances and
became one of the first performers to champion his late piano sonatas. Her
technique was widely praised, George Bernard Shaw writing of her
‘wonderful manipulative skill’. (H. Davison: Music during the Victoria Era
from Mendelssohn to Wagner being the memoirs of J.W. Davison, London,
1912)
FRANK HOWES

Goddart.
See Godard.

Godeau, Antoine
(b Dreux, 24 Sept 1605; d Vence, 21 April 1672). French poet and writer.
He was a cousin of Valentin Conrart, a founder-member of the Académie
Française. In his early years he was a member of the brilliant circle centred
on the Hôtel de Rambouillet, Paris. About the age of 30 he became
convinced that he should follow a religious vocation. He began to
paraphrase the psalms in verse while preparing for the priesthood, into
which he was received on 6 May 1636. Six weeks later Richelieu appointed
him Bishop of Grasse. He spent most of his time in his see – which in 1638
was merged with the adjacent see of Vence – and carried out his apostolic
duties assiduously. He devoted nearly all his spare time to reading and
poetry and completed the task that he had begun in Paris of paraphrasing
the 150 psalms. The work appeared as Paraphrase des pseaumes de
David, en vers français (Paris, 1648). In a long preface he outlined a
programme of missionary apostleship based on the use of his
paraphrases. He considered music the best vehicle for spreading the
gospel and invited composers to provide settings of his words that would
be easy to sing, like the settings written at the time of the Reformation for
the translations of the psalms by Marot and Bèze.
King Louis XIII had composed melodies for four of the paraphrases before
they were published, but they have not survived. Godeau held them up as
an example to musicians. In 1650 Jacques de Gouy published four-part
settings of the first 50 paraphrases, but they were criticized as being too
academic to be generally popular, and Gouy did not publish his 100 other
settings. The composers who followed Gouy – Aux-Cousteaux, Gobert and
Lardenois – therefore adopted a simple syllabic manner for solo voice in
the style of the Huguenot Psalter. All of these settings, especially Gobert’s,
which were frequently reprinted, were adopted by the Protestants, since
the use by them of Marot’s psalms was a serious punishable offence. After
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, missionaries also used them for their
new converts. The lack of success of Gouy’s settings did not, however,
deter other composers from writing more elaborate settings of Godeau’s
texts: Moulinié included in his Meslanges (1658) two polyphonic settings in
a concertante style, and in 1663 Du Mont published 40 settings for three
and four voices, with instruments; in the early 18th century P.-C. Abeille
composed a setting for two or three voices, continuo and instruments. As
late as 1724 one ‘R.D.B.’ of Aix published in Paris a collection of airs for
solo voice and continuo to texts from Godeau’s book.
Godeau wrote other paraphrases and sacred texts as well as several
works on church history and other ecclesiastical subjects, but the only one
drawn on by musicians was Oeuvres chrestiennes (Paris, 1633).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Cognet: Antoine Godeau, évêque de Grasse et de Vence, un des
premiers membres de l’Académie Française, 1605–1672 (Paris, 1900)
A. Gastoué: Le cantique populaire en France (Lyons, 1924)
D. Launay: ‘A propos du chant des psaumes en français au XVII siècle: La
“Paraphrase des psaumes” de Godeau et ses musiciens’, RdM, l
(1964), 30–75
Y. Giraud, ed.: Antoine Godeau, 1605–1672: de la galanterie à la sainteté,
actes des journées de Grasse (Paris, 1975)
D. Launay: La musique religieuse en France du concile de Trente à 1804
(Paris, 1993)
DENISE LAUNAY/JAMES R. ANTHONY

Godebrye, Jacob
(d Antwerp, 1529). South Netherlandish singer. See Jacotin.
 Godecharle [Godecharles,
Godschalck], Eugène (-Charles-
Jean)
(b Brussels, bap. 15 Jan 1742; d Brussels, 26 June 1798). Flemish violinist
and composer. He was the eldest son of Jacques-Antoine Godecharle, a
singer at the royal chapel, 1734–80, and Isabelle Delsart. According to
Fétis he was a chorister at the royal chapel and was then sent to Paris by
Prince Charles of Lorraine to perfect his violin playing. He was attached to
the church of St Géry as a musician, and later became maître de musique
there. In 1770 he became second supernumerary violin at the royal chapel;
some years later, he also directed concerts in Brussels, probably at the
Concert Bourgeois. In 1786, after the death of De Croes, he applied for the
post of maître de musique of the royal chapel. Ignaz Vitzthumb was
appointed, but in 1794, thanks to Doudelet, Vitzthumb’s successor, he was
appointed first violinist there. According to Gerber and Burney he was also
a harpist. His music has been little studied; vander Linden commented on
the variety and textural interest of his chamber works.
His brother Joseph(-Antoine) Godecharle (b Brussels, bap. 17 Jan 1746; d
Brussels, 21 March 1829) was first oboist at the royal chapel from 1766
until the chapel was disbanded in 1794, and in 1768 oboist in the orchestra
at the Brussels Opéra. Another brother, Louis-Joseph-Melchior (b Brussels,
bap. 5 Jan 1749; d Brussels, 8 June 1807), was attached to the church of
St Michel et Ste Gudule as a singer, and was a baritone at the royal chapel
until 1794.
WORKS
6 sinfonie a 4 o 8 partite, 2 vn, va, b, ob, hns, op.2 (Paris, c1765)
6 trios, 2 vn, b, op.3 (Brussels and Paris, c1770/R)
6 quartetti, hp/hpd, vn, va, b, op.4 (Paris, n.d.)
6 quatuor, 2 vn, va, vc, op.6 (Brussels and Paris, n.d.)
Sonata, vn, bc, op.1 (Brussels, n.d.); Symphonie nocturne, orch (Brussels, n.d.); 3
sonatas, hpd, op.5 (Brussels, n.d.); 3 sonatas, hp, vn (Brussels and Paris, n.d.): all
cited by Fétis
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BNB (A. vander Meersch)
BurneyGN
Choron-FayolleD (‘Godschalk’)
EitnerQ
FétisB
GerberL
GerberNL
MGG1 (A. vander Linden)
Vander StraetenMPB, v
VannesD
Almanach nouveau … ou Le guide fidèle (Brussels, 1761–75)
S. Clercx: ‘Les Godecharles, musiciens bruxellois au XVIIIe siècle’,
Mélanges Ernest Closson (Brussels, 1948), 69–80
 G. Huybens: ‘Le personnel des maîtrises liturgiques à Bruxelles du XVe au
XVIIIe siècle’, RBM, xxv (1971), 16–45
M. Couvreur, ed.: La Théâtre de la Monnaie au XVIIIe siècle (Brussels,
1996)
PAUL RASPÉ

Godecharle [Godecharles,
Godschalck], Lambert-François
(b Brussels, bap. 12 Feb 1753; d Brussels, 20 Oct 1819). Flemish singer
and composer, brother of Eugène Godecharle and fifth son of Jacques-
Antoine. According to Fétis, he was a chorister at the royal chapel and
studied composition with De Croes. He was employed at the royal chapel
from 1778 as a bass singer, and held the post until the chapel was
dissolved in 1794. He was also a musician at the church of St Nicolas,
where he succeeded his father as maître de musique. He was nominated a
member of the Institut des Pays-Bas in 1817 (Fétis). He composed several
sacred works; vander Linden noted their italianate, theatrical style and their
elaborate rhythmic treatment, figuration and instrumental writing.
Eugène Godecharle
WORKS
in B-Bc

Alma Redemptoris mater, 4vv, fl, str, org

Ave Maria, F, 3vv, 2 vn, tenor vn, org
Ave Maria, 2vv, str, org
Ave regina caelorum, A, 4vv, str, org
Homo quidam, F, 3vv, orch, org
Laudate Dominum, D, 4vv, orch, org
Libera me, Domine, E , T solo, orch
O gloriosa domina, F, 4vv, orch, org
O Maria, virgo pia, F, 4vv, str, org
Salve regina, D, 4vv, vn, bc, 1784
Tria sunt [Motetto pro defunctis], 3vv, org, ed. A. Wotquenne (Leipzig, 1901)

For bibliography see eugène Godecharle.

PAUL RASPÉ

Godefroid, (Dieudonné Joseph

Guillaume) Félix
(b Namur, 24 July 1818; d Villers-sur-Mer, Calvados, 12 July 1897).
Belgian harpist, pianist and composer. He studied the piano and solfège at
the music school founded by his father in Boulogne in 1824. At the Paris
Conservatoire from 11 October 1832, he studied the harp under Naderman,
winning a second prix in 1835. On 9 December 1835 he left the
Conservatoire, dissatisfied with its continued use of single-action harps at a
time when the double-action harps of Erard were winning wide acceptance.
He then studied under Théodore Labarre and Elias Parish Alvars. In 1839
his fame as a harp virtuoso was established by concerts in Belgium and at
the Salle Erard, Paris, followed by later tours of the Middle East, Spain,
England and Holland. In 1858 his opera La harpe d'or was given at the
Théâtre Lyrique in Paris. It included a harp fantasy, which Godefroid
himself played from the wings. He also wrote an oratorio, La fille de Saul.
His studies for the harp, Mes exercices, reflect more interest in left-hand
technique than is evident in the works of earlier composers. Many of his
300 pieces have maintained a firm place in 19th-century harp literature.
Godefroid's brother Jules (b Namur, 23 Feb 1811; d Paris, 27 Feb 1840)
entered the Conservatoire in 1826, studying the harp under Naderman and
composition under Le Sueur. He was awarded a second prix in 1828. His
comic operas La diadesté, ou La gageure arabe (1826) and La chasse
royale (1839) were performed in Paris, the latter with a lack of success that
contributed to a decline in his health and his early death.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
MGG1 (F. Vernillat)
PazdírekH [with list of pubd works]
L. Escudier: ‘Felix Godefroid’, Mes souvenirs: les virtuoses (Paris, 1868),
197–219
M.G. Scimeca: L'arpa nella storia (Bari, 1938), 144–5
A. Schirinzi: L'arpa: storia di un antico strumento (Milan, 1961), 96
D.C. Mielke: ‘19th-Century French Harpists’, Harp News, iv/3 (1966), 11–
12
P. Gilson: ‘Félix Godefroid harpiste-virtuose et compositeur’, Bulletin de la
Société liégeoise de musicologie, xl (1983), 12–24
ALICE LAWSON ABER-COUNT

Godefroy, François
(b Saint Samson, 1740; d Brussels, 24 Dec 1806). French bookseller,
publisher and agent, active in Brussels. First a seller of engravings, he
became one of the principal music sellers in Brussels from 1774. He
published the works of Honauer, Pauwels and G. Ferrari, and made a
request to the Milan engraver C.G. Barbieri to publish the works of C.-L.-J.
André. Godefroy was also the Brussels agent for numerous Parisian
publishers, his name appearing on the title-page of publications by La
Chevardière (for the works of Anfossi and Paisiello), Sieber (Cramer,
Haydn, Kammel), Durieu (Dalayrac), Heina (Eichner, J.A. Lorenziti,
Vanhal), Mmes Le Menu and Boyer (J.H. Schröter), J.-P. Deroullède (B.
Lorenziti, Pieltain, Anton Stamitz), Mondhare (Staes), Bailleux (Chevalier
de Saint-Georges) and Camand (Jean Cremont). Being the Brussels agent
for Heina, Godefroy was the first to distribute the music of Mozart in
Brussels with a Parisian edition of the op.4 piano sonatas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Raspé and H. Vanhulst: ‘L'édition musicale’, La musique en Wallonie et
à Bruxelles, ed. R. Wangermée and P. Mercier (Brussels, 1980), i,
301–5
P. Raspé: ‘Les débuts de la gravure musicale à Bruxelles, à la fin de
l'Ancien Régime’, Annales d'Histoire de l'Art et d'Archéologie, ii (1980),
123–31
M. Cornaz: L'édition et la diffusion de la musique à Bruxelles au XVIIIe
siècle (diss., U. Libre de Bruxelles, 1996)
MARIE CORNAZ

Godescalcus Lintpurgensis.
See Gottschalk of Aachen.

Godfrey.
English family of bandmasters and conductors.
(1) Charles Godfrey (i)
(2) Dan(iel) Godfrey (i)
(3) (Adolphus) Fred(erick) Godfrey
(4) Charles Godfrey (ii)
(5) Charles (George) Godfrey (iii)
(6) Sir Dan(iel Eyers) Godfrey (ii)
(7) Arthur (Eugene) Godfrey
(8) Dan (Stuart) Godfrey (iii)
E.D. MACKERNESS
Godfrey
(1) Charles Godfrey (i)
(b Kingston-upon-Thames, 22 Nov 1790; d London, 12 Dec 1863). He was
originally a drummer in the 1st Royal Surrey Militia, and was posted to the
Coldstream Guards, where he played the bassoon in the band and became
bandmaster in 1825. Although discharged from military duties in 1834, he
maintained his connection with the regiment as a civilian. He was
appointed musician-in-ordinary to the king in 1831, and edited one of the
earliest military band publications, Jullien’s Military Journal (1847).
Godfrey
(2) Dan(iel) Godfrey (i)
(b London, 4 Sept 1831; d Beeston, Notts., 30 June 1903). Son of (1)
Charles Godfrey (i). He trained as a flautist at the RAM and played under
his father. He was bandmaster of the Grenadier Guards from 1856 to 1896.
In 1872 he took the guards’ band to the International Peace Festival at
Boston, Massachusetts, sharing the conducting with P.S. Gilmore. In 1887
he became the first army bandmaster to receive a commission (Hon. 2nd
Lieutenant). When he retired in 1896 he formed his own band and in 1898
toured the USA and Canada. He arranged music for military bands and his
own marches, quadrilles and waltzes were very popular. He also founded a
musical instrument business (Dan Godfrey Sons) in the Strand, London.
Godfrey
(3) (Adolphus) Fred(erick) Godfrey
(b London, 1837; d London, 28 Aug 1882). Son of (1) Charles Godfrey (i).
He was educated at the RAM and succeeded his father as bandmaster of
the Coldstream Guards in 1863, from which post he retired in 1880. He
was well known as an arranger, and his collections of musical
Reminiscences (of Auber, Verdi, etc.) are still in use. (R.F. Camus: ‘Some
Nineteenth-Century Band Journals’, Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von
Wolfgang Suppan (Tutzing, 1993), 335–48)
Godfrey
(4) Charles Godfrey (ii)
(b London, 17 Jan 1839; d London, 5 April 1919). Son of (1) Charles
Godfrey (i). He studied under Macfarren and Lazarus at the RAM and
played in Jullien’s orchestra, with which he went on tour. In 1859 he joined
the Scots Fusiliers as bandmaster, leaving for a similar post with the Royal
Horse Guards (1868–1904), in which he was commissioned Lieutenant
(1899). He was professor of military music at the GSM and for 16 years
adjudicated at the Belle Vue band contests in Manchester. His numerous
compositions and arrangements are well known; he edited the Army
Military Band Journal and founded the Orpheus Band Journal.
Godfrey
(5) Charles (George) Godfrey (iii)
(b London, 2 Dec 1866; d London, 24 July 1935). Son of (4) Charles
Godfrey (ii). He was educated at the RAM and was bandmaster to the
Corps of Commissionaires (1887) and conductor of the Crystal Palace
Military Band from 1889 to 1897. He was also musical director at Buxton
Spa (1897 and 1898) and at the Spa, Scarborough (1899–1909). From
1911 to 1924 he directed the Royal Parks Band at Hyde Park, London.
Godfrey
(6) Sir Dan(iel Eyers) Godfrey (ii)
(b London, 20 June 1868; d Bournemouth, 20 July 1939). Son of (2) Dan
Godfrey (i). After leaving the RAM he succeeded (4) Charles Godfrey (ii) as
bandmaster to the Corps of Commissionaires, and in 1889 became
conductor of the (civilian) London Military Band. In 1891 he left for
Johannesburg to direct an opera company at the Standard Theatre, and on
his return in 1893 undertook to organize a band for the Winter Gardens,
Bournemouth. This was later augmented to become the Bournemouth
Municipal Orchestra, of which Godfrey remained conductor until he retired
in 1934. Despite heavy administrative commitments and conducting
engagements elsewhere, he maintained a high standard of performance
not only of works from the conventional repertory (as well as neglected
symphonies by composers such as Bruch, Raff, Svendsen and Saint-
Saëns) but also of important works by British composers. Parry, Stanford,
Elgar, Ethel Smyth and Mackenzie were all invited to conduct at
Bournemouth, and after the formation of a municipal choir (with 250
members) in 1911 the Winter Gardens festivals became famous. Godfrey
was knighted in 1922 and elected FRAM in 1923. His Memories and Music
(London, 1924) is informative on several aspects of the ‘English musical
renaissance’. (G. Miller: The Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra
(Sherborne, 1970), 10, 17)
Godfrey
(7) Arthur (Eugene) Godfrey
(b London, 28 Sept 1868; d London, 23 Feb 1939). Son of (4) Charles
Godfrey (ii). He was a chorister at St Paul’s Cathedral and later studied at
the RAM. He was a versatile composer and arranger of light music and his
musical comedy Little Miss Nobody (1898) ran for a long time at the Lyric
Theatre, London. He had a considerable reputation as an accompanist,
and also acted as an adviser to publishing firms; from 1921 to 1929 he was
musical director at the Alhambra Theatre, Glasgow.
Godfrey
(8) Dan (Stuart) Godfrey (iii)
(b London, 21 May 1893; d Durban, 24 April 1935). Son of (6) Dan Godfrey
(ii). He was usually called ‘Dan Godfrey jnr.’. He was educated at
Sherborne School and the RAM and enlisted in the Coldstream Guards
with the intention of becoming a bandmaster. After service in World War I,
he conducted orchestras at Harrogate and St Leonards-on-Sea. He was
appointed director of the BBC’s first Manchester station and in 1925 moved
to a similar post at Savoy Hill, London, where he frequently conducted the
London Wireless Orchestra. In 1928 he became musical director to the
corporation of Durban.

Godfroy [Godefroy, Godefroid].

French family of wood-turners and woodwind instrument makers. They
were active in the 18th and 19th centuries.
(1) Clair Godfroy
(2) Vincent Hypolite Godfroy
(3) Pierre Godfroy
TULA GIANNINI
Godfroy
(1) Clair Godfroy
[aîné] [Clair Godfroy dit Buffet] (bLa Couture, 13 Nov 1774; d Paris, 11 Jan
1841). Founder of the firm, son of the woodwind instrument maker Clair. He
was especially noted for his flutes. From about 1800 he worked in Paris as
a woodwind instrument maker and operated a grocery business. In 1814
he established his own workshop at 67 rue Montmartre en face le passage
du Saumon (after 1855, same location renumbered 55), which remained
the location of the firm until its dissolution in 1888. By 1821 Godfroy was
supplying flutes to the Académie Royale de Musique: in that year the solo
flautist of the Académie, Joseph Guillou, ordered from Godfroy a grenadilla
instrument with six keys and corps de rechange, priced at 300 francs. A
price list of 1827 advertises flutes with an improved C-foot and states that
Godfroy’s instruments were used by leading Parisian players. As well as
flutes, he made piccolos, clarinets and flageolets. He retired in 1836 and
was succeeded by a partnership formed by his son Vincent Hypolite and
his son-in-law Louis Lot (1807–96). Another son, Frédéric Eléonor (b Paris,
6 Jan 1805; d after 1844), was also a maker of woodwind instruments in
Paris at 133 rue Montmartre, under the mark ‘F.E. Godfroy fils star’. On 22
August 1834 he was granted a patent (no. 5843) for a spiral spring
designed to facilitate the return action of the keys.
Godfroy
(2) Vincent Hypolite Godfroy
(b Paris, 16 Oct 1806; d Paris, 16 Dec 1868). Son of (1) Clair Godfroy aîné.
Under an agreement of 1833 he formed a partnership with his brother-in-
law Louis Lot under the name ‘Société Godfroy fils et Lot’ and mark
‘peacock Clair Godfroy aîne/CG’ (his father’s from 1828–36). The firm
played a pivotal role in the development and manufacture of the Boehm
flute in France. In 1837 the firm announced the manufacture of a ‘nouvelle
flûte’, their version of Boehm’s 1832 instrument (Courier français, 21
October). In 1847 they purchased Boehm’s patent of the same year for the
cylinder flute (no.6050), granting them exclusive rights to the manufacture
of that instrument in France for 15 years. In collaboration with Louis Dorus
they developed, standardized and popularized the French model cylinder
flute, characterized by five perforated keys in line, a closed G key instead
of Boehm’s open one, a lip plate mounted on a chimney and an elegant
Keywork utilizing sleeves and clutches. The partnership ended in 1855
when Lot left to establish his own firm concentrating on the silver cylinder
flute. Vincent Hypolite continued to make significant numbers of wooden
conical and cylinder flutes and piccolos. After his death the firm was run
successfully for 20 years by his widow, Marie Alexandrine Godfroy [née
Dumont] (d Paris, 10 April 1888).
Godfroy
(3) Pierre Godfroy
[jeune] (b La Couture, 1805; d Paris, after 1836). Brother of (1) Clair
Godfroy aîné. He had a workshop from 1823–30 at 23 rue Montmartre and
in 1836 was at no.46. He made flutes, flageolets, clarinets and military
instruments marked ‘sun/Pierre Godfroy Jne/PG’. According to the Bottin of
1823 he was ‘known for the perfection of his instruments and particularly
for the flute’ and was ‘the inventor of flageolets of two octaves’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Waterhouse-LangwillI
K. Lenski and K. Ventzke: Das goldene Zeitalter der Flöte: die
Boehmflöte in Frankreich 1832–1932: Durchsetzung, Gestaltung,
Wirkung (Celle, 1992)
T. Giannini: Great Flute Makers of France: the Lot and Godfroy Families,
1650–1900 (London 1993)

Godimel, Claude.
See Goudimel, Claude.
Godowsky, Leopold [Leonid]
(b Soshly, nr Vilnius, 13 Feb 1870; d New York, 21 Nov 1938). American
pianist and composer of Polish birth. Following the death of his father, he
exhibited a precocious aptitude for music under the guidance of foster-
parents in Vilnius. By the age of five he had already started to compose, as
well as being proficient on both piano and violin. He gave his first piano
recital when he was nine and subsequently toured throughout Lithuania
and East Prussia. After studying briefly with Ernst Rudorff at the Berlin
Hochschule für Musik he left for America, where he made his first
appearance, in Boston, in 1884. In 1885 he appeared in a series of
concerts at the New York Casino, and the following year toured the north-
eastern USA and Canada with the violinist Ovide Musin. From 1887 to
1890 he was a protégé of Saint-Saëns in Paris, supporting himself by
playing in fashionable salons both there and in London. On his return to the
USA in 1890 he joined the staff of the New York College of Music, and later
held teaching posts in Philadelphia and Chicago. During the 1890s he
formulated his theories regarding the application of relaxed weight and
economy of motion in piano playing; he also started to make concert
arrangements of other composers' works, including the first of his studies
on the études of Chopin.
Godowsky's appearance at the Beethoven Hall, Berlin, on 6 December
1900 established his reputation not only as a consummate virtuoso, but
also as one of the most remarkable composers then writing for the piano.
He took up residence in Berlin, from where, until 1909, he embarked on
annual European tours. From 1909 until 1914 he was director of the
Klaviermeisterschule of the Akademie der Tonkunst in Vienna, in
succession to Sauer and Busoni, returning to the USA for concert tours
between 1912 and 1914, as well as making his first gramophone
recordings. Godowsky remained in America until 1922, when he embarked
on an extended tour of East Asia, including a visit to Java which was to
provide the inspiration for the Java Suite (Phonoramas) written on his
return to the USA; during this tour he also undertook a major series of
Bach transcriptions. The years 1926–30 saw the publication of numerous
other transcriptions, including the 12 Schubert songs, and original
compositions, as well as a return to the European concert stage. In 1928
he began a series of recordings in London, including major works by
Beethoven, Schumann, Grieg and Chopin. In 1930, however, while
recording Chopin's E major Scherzo, Godowsky suffered a stroke which
left him partially paralysed; his remaining years were overshadowed by
material anxieties, exacerbated by personal tragedy.
Although informed listeners detected a degree of reserve in his public
performances, in private his colleagues would marvel not only at his
legendary technical command, but also at a dramatic power and depth of
poetic feeling encountered neither in concert nor on his surviving
recordings, except, perhaps, for his reading of the Grieg Ballade. As a
composer, Godowsky was essentially a traditionalist: his harmonic
language derives from Brahms, Chopin and Liszt, while the epic
dimensions of his five-movement E minor Sonata and the sumptuous
quasi-orchestral textures of the symphonic metamorphoses owe more to
 Wagner and Richard Strauss. Although Godowsky felt that his most mature
compositions were the Suite for the left hand and the Passacaglia (on the
opening eight bars of Schubert's ‘Unfinished’ Symphony), it was through
his intricately polyphonic transcriptions, especially the 53 Studies on the
études of Chopin, that he became most widely known as a composer.
Like Busoni, who observed that, besides himself, Godowsky was the only
composer to have added anything of significance to keyboard writing since
Liszt, Godowsky was essentially an auto-didact who had developed his
methods by empirical means – his principles of weight release as distinct
from purely muscular momentum were further propagated through the
teachings of his former student, Heinrich Neuhaus. The fin de siècle
chromaticisms and dense contrapuntal textures of Godowsky's music
found little favour with the postwar generation; however, during the 1970s a
revival of interest in the Romantic performance tradition brought about a re-
evaluation of his achievements, and the subsequent reappearance of a
number of his major works in print, on record and in concert further attests
to his rehabilitation as one of the seminal figures of 20th-century pianism.
WORKS
(selective list)

for piano solo unless otherwise stated

piano
Moto perpetuo, Grande valse romantique, Valse-scherzo, Märchen, Polonaise
(1888–9); 3 concert studies, op.11 (1899; no.2 unpubd); Sarabande, Menuet,
Courante, op.12 (1899); Toccata, G , op.13 (1899) [rev. of Moto perpetuo (1889)];
piano pieces, opp.14, 15, 16 (1899); Sonata, e (1911); Walzermasken, 24
Tonfantasien im Dreivierteltakt für Klavier (1912); 46 miniatures, pf 4 hands (1918);
Triakontameron, 30 moods and scenes in triple measure (1920); Java Suite (1925);
4 poems (1927–32); Passacaglia (1928); Prelude and Fugue, pf LH (1930); Waltz
poems, pf LH (1930); Méditation, Etude macabre, Impromptu, Intermezzo, Elegy,
Capriccio, pf LH (1930–31) [also versions for two hands]
transcriptions, paraphrases and arrangements
Renaissance, transcrs of works by Rameau and others (1906–9); Tango (Albéniz),
D (1921); Triana (Albéniz) (1938); 3 sonatas for solo vn (J.S. Bach), g, b, a; 3 suites
for solo vc (J.S. Bach), d, C, c (1924); Adagietto from L'Arlésienne (Bizet) (1927);
Arrangement de Concert du rondo, op.16 (Chopin) (1899); Paraphrase de Concert,
Valse, op.18 (Chopin) (1899); 53 studies on the Chopin études (1894–1914); 5
concert arrangements of Chopin waltzes (1921–7); Canzonetta from Violin
Concerto Romantique (Godard) (1927); Etude (Henselt), F op.2 no.6 (1899, rev.
1931); Le cygne (Saint-Saëns) (1927); Ballet music from Rosamunde (Schubert)
(1923); Moment musical, op.94 no.3 (Schubert) (1927); 12 Songs (Schubert)
(1927); 3 Symphonische Metamorphosen Johann Strauss'scher Themen (1912);
Symphonic Metamorphosis of the Schatz-Walzer themes from J. Strauss's Der
Zigeunerbaron, pf LH (1941); Ständchen, op.17 no.2 (R. Strauss) (1922);
Perpetuum mobile (Weber) (1903); Momento capriccioso, op.12 (Weber) (1904);
Aufforderung zum Tanz (Weber), 2 pf (1905, rev. 1922)
Principal publishers: C. Fischer, Schirmer, Schlesinger

BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Aronson: A Key to the Miniatures of Leopold Godowsky (New York,
1935)
K.S. Sorabji: ‘Leopold Godowsky as Creative Transcriber’, Mi contra fa
(London, 1947), 62–70
L.S. Saxe: ‘The Published Music of Leopold Godowsky’, Notes, xiv (1956–
7), 165–74 [with complete list of works]
J. Nicholas: Godowsky, the Pianists' Pianist (Hexham, 1989)
C. Hopkins: Leopold Godowsky (forthcoming)
CHARLES HOPKINS

Godric
(b Hanapol [?Walpole], Norfolk, c1069; d Finchale, nr Durham, 21 May
1170). English saint and hermit. He reputedly composed some of the
earliest metrical rhymed English songs to have survived with their music. A
full account of his life is given by Archer. As a young man he travelled
widely. About 1115 he moved to a solitary hermitage at Finchale on the
Wear, near Durham, and for some 60 years lived a life of incredible
asceticism, during which time he was favoured with a number of visions. In
these he heard the Virgin Mary, St Mary Magdalen, St Peter, St Nicholas of
Bari and his own deceased sister Burchwine singing various songs that
they taught him, and which he sang to his future biographers. In two early
manuscripts of the Libellus of Reginald of Durham and a digest of it –
though not in the earliest – three of the songs appear with musical notation
(there are many other copies, including translations into Latin, without
music). The melodies are written as monophonies in square and rhomboid
notes: Sainte Marie virgine moder alone (without its second verse) appears
in the 12th-century GB-Lbl Harl.322; it is copied complete, with the other
two surviving songs, in an early 13th-century hand in GB-Lbl Roy.5.F.VII.
Since Godric was ‘omnino ignarus musicae’ (‘entirely ignorant of music’),
these copies must represent a more learned musician's interpretation of
what he sang, possibly at several removes from and some time later than
his original performances. The music for Kyrieleyson: Crist and Sainte
Marie does not quite correspond with the literary accounts of the vision,
where the verse precedes the Kyrie; Sainte Marie, as noted, seems to
have gained a second stanza over the years. Welcume Symond (described
in Stevenson, 306) is lost and was never copied out in full. Sainte
Nicholaes, Godes drudh was presumably sung during the vision of St
Nicholas described by Reginald of Durham (see Stevenson, 202; the
melody resembles that of Sainte Marie). In melody and metre the songs
appear to imitate the style of certain Latin hymns, such as those of St
Anselm (d 1109). The litany-like invocations of the Angels in Crist and
Sainte Marie resemble parts of the Sarum Kyrie ‘Deus sempiterne’, though
it is hard to agree with Reese that the melody of the verse is an elaboration
of the plainsong phrases that frame it. (All three songs with music are ed. in
Trend and in Dobson and Harrison.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DNB (T.A. Archer)
ReeseMMA
J. Stevenson, ed.: Reginald of Durham: Libellus de vita et miraculis S.
Godrici, Surtees Society, xx (Durham, 1847)
S. Baring-Gould: The Lives of the Saints (London, 1872–89, rev. 2/1897–
8), 322ff
J. Zupitza: ‘Cantus Beati Godrici’, Englische Studien, xi (1888), 401–32
[standard critical edn]
G.E.B. Saintsbury: History of English Prosody from the Twelfth Century to
the Present Day, i (London, 1906, 2/1923/R) [incl. facs. of Crist and
Sainte Marie]
J.W. Rankin: ‘The Hymns of St Godric’, Publications of the Modern
Language Association of America, xxxviii (1923), 699–711
J.B. Trend: ‘The First English Songs’, ML, ix (1928), 111–28 [free-rhythm
transcr. with glossary]
E.J. Dobson and F.Ll. Harrison, eds.: Medieval English Songs (London,
1979)
BRIAN TROWELL

Godschalck, Eugène.
See Godecharle, Eugène.

Godschalck, Lambert-François.
See Godecharle, Lambert-François.

Godymel, Claude.
See Goudimel, Claude.

Goeb, Roger (John)

(b Cherokee, IA, 9 Oct 1914; d New York, 3 Jan 1997). American
composer. After studying agriculture at the University of Wisconsin (BS
1936) he turned his attention to composition. He spent two years playing in
jazz bands, then studied with Boulanger in Paris at the Ecole Normale de
Musique (1938–9). On his return to the USA he became a pupil of Luening
and then did graduate work at New York University, the Cleveland Institute
(MM 1942), where he was a pupil of Elwell, and the State University of
Iowa (PhD 1945). He taught at Bard College, the Juilliard School, Stanford
University and Adelphi College, and received two successive Guggenheim
fellowships (1950–52). In 1952 he established the Composers Facsimile
Edition (known as the American Composers Edition from 1972) for the
ACA, of which he became executive secretary (1956–62); he was involved
with CRI during its formative years. Goeb was awarded commissions by
the Louisville Orchestra, the Creative Concerts Guild and the University of
Iowa. His music shows a craftsmanlike concern for the clearest possible
projection of line and for formal design; a sense of economy is always
 evident. Buoyant off-beat rhythms and carefully balanced mixtures of
timbres are characteristic. Goeb composed directly for instruments, rather
than merely orchestrating, and even familiar pitch combinations (e.g.
varieties of triads) sound fresh and novel in his music.
WORKS
6 syms: 1941 [withdrawn], 1945, 1950, 1955, 1981, 1987
5 concertants: no.1, fl, ob/eng hn/cl, str/pf, 1948; no.2, bn/vc, str/str qt, 1950; no.3,
va, wind orch/wind ens/pf, 1951; no.4, cl, (str, pf, perc)/(str qt)/(pf), 1951; no.5, orch
Other orch: Prairie Songs, small orch, 1947; Romanza, str, 1948; Concertino no.1,
1949; American Dances, nos.1–5, 1952; Vn Conc., 1953; Pf Conc., 1954; Fantasy,
pf, str, 1955; Sinfonia no.1, 1957; Encomium, band, 1958; Concertino no.2, 1959;
Iowa Conc., chbr orch, 1959; Sinfonia no.2, 1962; Caprice, 1982; Divertissement,
str, 1982; Memorial, 1982; Fantasia, 1983; Essay, 1984; Gambol, 1984; Black on
White, cl, str/str qt, 1985; other works
5–10 insts: Brass Septet, 1949; Ww Qnt no.1, 1949; 3 Processionals, org, 2 tpt, 3
trbn, 1951; Pf Qnt, 1955; Ww Qnt no.2, 1955; Declarations, fl, ob, bn, hn, vc, 1961;
Vc Qnt, vc, str qt, 1979; Brass Qnt, 1980; Octet, cl, bn, hn, 2 vn, va, vc, db, 1980;
Ww Qnt no.3, 1980; Ww Qnt no.4, 1982; Fl Qnt, 1983; Hurry, fl, ob, cl, hn, tpt, vib,
va, vc, db, 1985; Brass Qnt no.2, 1987; Winds Playing, 4 ww, 6 brass, 1988
1–4 insts: Str Qt no.1, 1943 [withdrawn]; Str Trio, 1944; Fantasy, pf, 1948; Str Qt
no.2, 1948; Fuga contraria, pf, 1950; Divertimento, vc, pf, 1951; Str Qt no.3, 1954;
Sonata, vn, pf, 1957; Running Colors, str qt, 1961; Ob Qt, 1961; Str Qt no.4, 1980;
Imagery, va, 1984; Kinematic Trio, va, vc, pf, 1985; Nuances, cl, va, 1986; Urbane
Duets, va, vc, 1988; Solar Pairing, Baroque fl, hpd, 1989
Vocal: Phrases from Blake, SSATB, 1950; Etudes, SATB, brass, 1981; 2 Vocalise,
S, chbr orch, 1987

Principal publisher: ACA

ELAINE BARKIN/R

Goebbels, Heiner
(b Neustadt an der Weinstrasse, 17 April 1952). German composer. He
spent his childhood in Landau in der Pfalz and in 1972 moved to Frankfurt,
where he completed a degree in sociology in 1975. In 1976 he co-founded
the Sogenannten Linksradikalen Blasorchesters, which existed until 1981,
and the experimental Duo Heiner Goebbels/Alfred Harth, in which he
performed until 1988. From 1978 to 1980 he was the musical director of
the Frankfurt Schauspiel, and in 1982 he founded the experimental rock
group Cassiber.
Goebbels's compositions reflect his interests in theatre, noise, jazz, rock
and critical views of the concert hall. His works have been much influenced
by film, montage being a favourite technique; in Surrogate Cities, for
example, a recording of Jewish chant is superimposed on the symphony
orchestra. The ballet Red Run, which includes sections of improvised
material and choreography for the musicians, was the first of several
compositions on which Goebbels collaborated with the Ensemble Modern.
He has also directed his own theatre and radio plays, frequently setting
 texts by Heiner Müller. He won the Prix Italia for the third time in 1996 for
his radio play Roman Dogs.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Verkommes Ufer (radio play, H. Müller), 1984; Die Befreiung des
Prometheus (radio play, Müller), 1985; Tränen des Vaterlands (ballet), 1986–7; Red
Run (ballet, choreog. A. Müller), fl, b cl, tpt, trbn, tuba, perc, pf + sampler, elec gui,
vn, vc, db + elec b, 1988–91, Frankfurt, 3 April 1988; Befreiung (concert scene,
after R. Goetz), nar, ens, 1989; Newtons Casino (music theatre, Goebbels and M.
Simon, after H. Schliemann, Homer, H. Berlioz and others), 1990, Frankfurt, 16 Dec
1990; Black on White (Schwarz auf Weiss) (music theatre, E.A. Poe, J. Webster,
T.S. Eliot and M. Blanchot), 1996, Frankfurt, 14 March 1996; Roman Dogs (Der
Horatier) (radio play, T. Livius, P. Corneille, W. Faulkner and Müller), 1996
Other: La jalousie, nar, ens, 1991; Herakles 2, 5 brass, perc, sampler, 1992;
Surrogate Cities, 8 movts, orch, 1993–4 [movts can be perf. independently];
Industry and Idleness, chbr orch, 1996; Nichts Weiter, orch, 1996

Principal publisher: Ricordi

RACHEL BECKLES WILLSON

Goebel, Reinhard
(b Siegen, Westphalia, 31 July 1952). German violinist and conductor. He
studied the violin with Franz-Josef Maier, Saschko Gawriloff and Marie
Leonhardt. In 1973 he founded the instrumental ensemble Musica Antiqua
Köln, with which he has appeared both as soloist and director. As a result
of injury to his right hand he abandoned his career as a solo violinist,
although, having taught himself to bow with the left hand, he is able to play
with his ensemble. With Musica Antiqua Köln Goebel has toured
extensively, making his UK début at the Queen Elizabeth Hall, London, in
1978. The group has recorded prolifically and has made valuable
contributions to the revival of German music of the late 17th and early 18th
centuries. Goebel’s attention to stylistic detail together with a rigorous
technical discipline have given his ensemble a distinctive character. His
preference for brisk tempos, particularly evident in his performances and
recording of Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos, has given rise to controversy.
His other recordings with Musica Antiqua Köln include concertos and
orchestral suites by Bach and Telemann, vocal music of the Bach family
and by Dresden court composers, notably Heinichen.
NICHOLAS ANDERSON

Goehr.
British family of musicians.
(1) Walter Goehr [Walter, George]
(2) (Peter) Alexander Goehr
(3) Lydia Goehr
ARTHUR JACOBS (1), NICHOLAS WILLIAMS (2), NAOMI CUMMING (3)
Goehr
(1) Walter Goehr [Walter, George]
(b Berlin, 28 May 1903; d Sheffield, 4 Dec 1960). Conductor and composer
of German birth. In Britain he was known professionally as George Walter
until 1948. Of those musicians of Jewish origin who went to Britain as
refugees from Nazi Germany, Goehr was one of the most prominent in
encouraging younger British composers and in promoting the acceptance
of Schoenberg, Eisler and other composers from his own rooted tradition.
He was for some time a pupil of Schoenberg at the Prussian Academy of
Arts in Berlin. In London he was musical director for the Columbia
Graphophone Company, 1933–9, conductor of the Morley College concerts
from 1943 until his death, and conductor of the BBC Theatre Orchestra,
1945–8. He conducted in London the first performances of Britten’s
Serenade (with Peter Pears and Dennis Brain) in 1943, Tippett’s A Child of
our Time (1944) and Seiber’s Ulysses (1949). Before leaving Germany he
had been a conductor for Berlin Radio (1925–31). He composed a
symphony, a radio opera Malpopita, incidental music for theatre and films
and much chamber music. A Monteverdi enthusiast before the vogue for
that composer, he edited Poppea and the Vespers of 1610.
Goehr
(2) (Peter) Alexander Goehr
(b Berlin, 10 August 1932). Composer of German birth, son of (1) Walter
Goehr. His music, conceived in terms of the received genres, often
engages dialectically with his theoretical concerns, and he has made a
significant contribution to a clearer understanding of the role of the
composer in modern society.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Goehr, (2): Alexander Goehr
1. Life.
Goehr's family moved to Britain from Germany when he was a few months
old. His early upbringing – his father was the conductor Walter Goehr, his
mother Laelia a classically trained pianist – proved a formative influence.
Tippett, Seiber and others were frequent visitors to the home, and with
Walter a leading figure at Morley College and a pioneering conductor of
Monteverdi and Messiaen, the Goehr household was a focus for much that
was exciting in postwar British music. Influenced, no doubt, by its
challenging atmosphere, Goehr abandoned a scholarship to read classics
at Oxford and chose instead to study music with Richard Hall at the Royal
Manchester College of Music. There, with fellow students Birtwistle,
Maxwell Davies and John Ogdon, he founded the New Music Manchester
Group. He spent the academic year 1955–6 in Paris, attending Messiaen's
masterclass at the Conservatoire while studying counterpoint privately with
Yvonne Loriod. Meanwhile, in 1954, his Piano Sonata had been performed
at the Darmstadt summer course, followed two years later by his Fantasia
for orchestra.
Goehr worked in London as a copyist and translator until 1960, when he
joined the BBC as a programme producer of orchestral concerts. Rapidly
acquiring notice as a leading figure in progressive musical circles,
especially with the première of the cantata The Deluge in 1959, he won
both fame and notoriety for a sequence of ambitious symphonic and choral
works. With Birtwistle and Maxwell Davies he organized the Wardour
Castle Summer Schools of Music in 1964 and 1965. In 1967 he became
musical director of the Music Theatre Ensemble. His first opera, Arden
muss sterben, was produced in Hamburg in 1967. He spent the summer of
the following year in Tokyo on a Churchill Scholarship. For the academic
year 1968–9 he was composer-in-residence at the New England
Conservatoire, Boston, and for the following year, assistant professor of
music at Yale. Goehr's return to Britain as visiting lecturer at Southampton
University (1970–71) signalled his new-found role in British academic life.
His appointment as West Riding Professor at Leeds University (1971–6)
consolidated this new commitment, which was crowned with his period as
professor of music at Cambridge University (1976–99), where he instituted
important changes to the tripos. To an already distinguished roster of
composition students that included Anthony Gilbert, Robin Holloway, Peter
Paul Nash, Bayan Northcott and Roger Smalley, he added many leading
names from a younger generation including George Benjamin, Julian
Anderson and Thomas Adès.
Goehr's music has never lacked an international context, and it has been
performed by some of the world's leading performers, including the
conductors Boulez, Dohnányi, Dorati, Haitink, Knussen, Ozawa and Rattle,
and solo executants Barenboim, Du Pré, Karine Georgian, Ogdon,
Parikian, Peter Serkin, Ricci and Tabea Zimmermann. Goehr was invited to
China in 1976 to advise on curriculum reform at the Shanghai
Conservatory of Music. In a long association with the Tanglewood Music
Center, Boston, he was guest composer in 1987, and composer-in-
residence in 1993. A noted broadcaster, his landmark four-part radio series
‘Modern Music and Society’ subsequently formed part of his selected
writings Finding the Key (1998); he was also the BBC Reith Lecturer
(1987). Goehr is an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts
and Letters, and in 1973 was the first recipient of the University of
Southampton's honorary doctorate in music.
Goehr, (2): Alexander Goehr
2. Works.
Despite being a comparatively late starter musically, when Goehr finally
decided to become a composer he swiftly and with impressive self-
confidence established the coordinates of his subsequent creative
direction. Although not always encouraging towards his son's compositional
efforts, Walter Goehr was nonetheless an important catalyst in his artistic
development, whether in his role as a former member of Schoenberg's
Berlin class or as a conductor who pioneered the Monteverdi revival, gave
several Tippett premières and, perhaps most importantly, directed the first
British performance of Messiaen's Turangalîla-symphonie in 1953. Also
influential in defining the young Goehr's range of interests was Richard
Hall, whose enthusiasms ranged from ragas to Krenek via modality and the
theories of Joseph Schillinger. The experience of Darmstadt and
encounters with Boulez in 1955–6 were further significant inspirations, with
Goehr responding warmly to the spirit of adventurous demarcation of
untried limits. The confrontation of modernism with more conservative
expectations of music-making encountered in the débâcle of his Leeds
Festival cantata Sutter's Gold (1959–60), spurred on his dialectical frame
of mind to conceive of a synthesis of modernism with the no less valid
lessons of tradition.
Goehr's works of the late 1950s and early 60s, including the Suite, op.11,
the orchestral Hecuba's Lament (1959–61) and the Violin Concerto (1961–
2), certainly displayed a most unmodernistic facility for exploiting the
possibilities of the standard genres in a progressive context. Furthermore,
in the Two Choruses (1962), written in memory of Eisler, and the Little
Symphony (1963), a musical memorial to his father, Goehr evolved a highly
personal working method that mixed combinatorial serialism with modality
and ‘bloc sonore’ techniques. This made possible a flexible and open-
minded approach to a diversity of harmonic and contrapuntal methods from
a broadly based structural perspective. Exploring a variety of models
ranging from sonata and variation form to miniatures, Goehr's music
proceeded to propound over the next 15 years the rich possibilities of his
system, while encompassing the major symphonic and operatic genres in a
commanding way. Thus, while the magisterial Symphony in One Movement
(1969) suggested many moods within its continuous half-hour span,
Pastorals (1965) explored a world of dark tragedy that was offset by the
sparkling jeux d'esprit of Metamorphosis/Dance (1973–4), the product of
sophisticated modelling techniques derived from formal proportions
originating in late Beethoven. The remarkable temporal control already
exhibited in the two-movement Piano Trio (1966) dispelled any doubts that
such flexibility of approach could be achieved by the ‘generative grammar’
of Goehr's serial modality. As for the musical parodies and distortions
revealed in his first opera, Arden muss sterben, a Brechtian morality, and
the ritual atmospheres of the subsequent music theatre Triptych (1968–70),
these showed the fusion of Goehr's uniquely musical instincts with a no
less innate dramatic talent.
The appearance in 1976 of the explicitly modal, white-note setting of Psalm
iv immediately following the assured serial modality of the String Quartet
no.3 perplexed many who admired the unity of style achieved in Goehr's
works of the preceding 17 years, and whose ears had grown accustomed
to the prevailing post-Schoenbergian nuances of his music up to then.
Subsequently, however, the rapidly changing outlook of the avant garde
over the last three decades of the 20th century has not only vindicated
Goehr's boldness in moving away from the artist's injunction to perpetual
innovation through quasi-scientific experiment, but also showed the
consistency of the move within the context of his own thinking and in
particular his predilection for artistic synthesis. The critics’ chief complaint
was that an avant-garde composer should revert to the writing of fugues,
not only in the Fugue on the Notes of the Fourth Psalm (1976), but also in
Babylon the Great is Fallen (1979) for chorus and orchestra, and in the
major work of the period, Goehr's second opera Behold the Sun (1981–4).
But with hindsight, the radical and significant feature of these works lay in
the composer's rediscovery (in part through an appraisal of the writings of
C.P.E. Bach) of a means of composing that renewed the figured bass as
the way to assert harmonic and formal control throughout a movement;
and, indeed, extended the range of the combinatorial mode of thinking that
had proved of central significance since his early works.
That the result need in no way revert to existing notions of neo-classical or
period style was shown in the contrasting sounds of the Romanza on the
Notes of the Fourth Psalm (1977) and the Kafka-inspired song cycle Das
Gesetz der Quadrille (1979). Moreover, Goehr, with typical verve,
proceeded to show the flexible application of his new technique to a variety
of compositional situations evoking different kinds of tonalities and
engagements with past music in a series of ambitious scores composed
over the next decade. Sinfonia (1979) recalls sonata-variation and chorale;
Deux Etudes (1980–81) involves the orchestral composing-out both of
musical models of his own devising and extra-musical concepts; the
Sonata for cello and piano (1984) ranges highly disparate types of material
within a unifying background; … a musical offering (J.S.B. 1985) …, written
for the Bach tricentenary celebrations, sees the interaction of past and
present; and the Symphony with Chaconne (1985–6) and Eve Dreams in
Paradise (1987–8) explore in music notions of confinement and finality, and
eroticism respectively.
Such powerful evocations of mood and feeling are not uncommon in
Goehr's work, even if his conviction that the real subject-matter of music is
to be found in its own processes, material and history makes him a rare
example of a contemporary composer standing on the absolute side of that
aesthetic dichotomy whose reverse is the programmatical. Tone painting
and external scenarios, albeit emblematic rather than naturalistic,
nonetheless apply in his work: in the stylized birdsong, for example, of the
cantata Sing, Ariel (1989–90), and the expressive language of
Metamorphosis/Dance. With a range of sometimes trenchant, sometimes
plangent chord types and rhythmical gestures, no doubt instinctively
selected, that have remained constant over many changes of technical
emphasis, they form elements of a sensuous surface of his music that for
over four decades has remained the distinctive utterance of this composer.
That voice spoke at no time more directly than in Goehr's works of the
1990s, the product of a richly fertile late middle period where the powerful
urgency of early pieces such as the Little Symphony was reconceived
within a broad and humanely rational regard for the currency of ideas.
Typically in works of this period, he combines the embrace of inspiration
from painting or literature with the solving of musical problems. The
orchestral Collosus or Panic (1991–2), after Goya, concerns the dramatic
relationship between movements of strongly contrasting durations, while
Schlussgesang (1996), for viola and orchestra, involves the application of
disparate proportions to form in a way suggested by the Kafka notebooks.
In the quintet Five Objects Darkly (1996) the title comes from the painter
Giorgio Morandi, but the objects themselves are various arrangements of a
 fragment of music by Musorgsky. Characteristically, too, in works of this
decade, Goehr continued to bring new thoughts to topics of enduring
fascination for him: variation form, for example, in Idées fixes (1997), and
modes of musical continuity in Uninterrupted Movement (1995) for massed
cellos. It was in larger scores of the period, however, that the composer
fulfilled himself in many ways. While the oratorio The Death of Moses
(1991–2) aligned the spirit of Monteverdi with Goehr's Schoenbergian
inheritance, referring also to his own controversial earlier choral works,
Arianna (1994–5), a ‘lost opera by Claudio Monteverdi composed again by
Alexander Goehr’, displayed both his abiding fascination with the Italian
composer and his interest in Baroque theatre and figured bass. In Kantan
and Damask Drum (1997–8), the nō theatre that had proved influential in
the creation of the Triptych was again invoked in the context of Goehr's
fourth opera, though typically not as direct re-creation, but as contemporary
theatre combining new and old in a way that is unique to this composer.
Goehr, (2): Alexander Goehr
WORKS
dramatic
Op.
– La belle dame sans merci (ballet, 1, after Janequin and Le Jeune), large/small
orch, 1958
21 Arden muss sterben (op, 2, E. Fried, after 16th-century anon: Arden of
Faversham), 1966; Hamburg, Staatsoper, 5 March 1967
25 Naboth's Vineyard (dramatic madrigal, after Bible: 1 Kings xxi), Mez, T, B, fl +
pic + a fl, cl + b cl, b trbn, pf duet, vn, db, 1968; London, Cripplegate Theatre,
16 July1968 [pt 1 of Triptych]
30 Shadowplay (music theatre, K. Cavander, after Plato: Republic, bk 7), T, spkr, a
fl, a sax, hn, vc, pf, 1970; London, City Temple Theatre, 8 July 1970 [pt 2 of
Triptych]
31 Sonata about Jerusalem (cant., R. Freier, Goehr, after Obadiah the Proselyte:
Autobiography, Samuel de Yahya ben al Maghribi: Chronicle), S, B, spkr,
female chorus, 9 insts, 1970; Tel-Aviv, Jan 1971 [pt 3 of Triptych]
– Bauern, Bomben und Bonzen (film score, dir. E. Monk, after H. Fallada), chbr
orch, 1973
44 Behold the Sun (Die Wiedertäufer) (op, 3, J. McGrath, Goehr), 1981–4;
Duisburg, 19 April 1985
58 Arianna (op, O. Rinuccini), after lost op by Monteverdi, 1994–5; London, CG, 15
Sept 1995
67 Kantan and Damask Drum (Japanese op, Goehr, after Zeami and Sarugai
Koto), 1997–8; Dortmund, 19 Sept 1999
orchestral
4 Fantasia, 1954, rev. 1959
12 Hecuba's Lament, 1959–61
13 Violin Concerto, 1961–2
15 Little Symphony, small orch, 1963
16 Little Music, str, 1963
19 Pastorals, 1965
21a Three Pieces from ‘Arden Must Die’, wind, hp, perc, 1967
24 Romanza, vc, orch, 1968
26 Konzertstück, pf, small orch, 1969
29 Symphony in One Movement, 1969, rev. 1981
33 Piano Concerto, 1972
36 Metamorphosis/Dance, 1973–4
38b Fugue on the Notes of the Fourth Psalm, str, 1976
38c Romanza on the Notes of the Fourth Psalm, 2 solo vn, 2 solo va, str, 1977
42 Sinfonia, chbr orch, 1979
43 Deux études, 1980–81
48 Symphony with Chaconne, 1985–6
– Still Lands, 3 pieces, small orch, 1988–90
55 Colossos or Panic, sym. fragment after Goya, 1991–2
57 Cambridge Hocket, 4 hn, orch, 1993
61 Schlussgesang, 6 pieces, va, orch, 1996
vocal
1 Songs of Babel (Byron), 1951, unpubd
7 The Deluge (cant., after L. da Vinci), S, C, fl, hn, tpt, hp, vn, va, vc, db, 1957–8
9 Four Songs from the Japanese (after L. Hearn), Mez, pf/orch, 1959
10 Sutter's Gold (cant., after S.M. Eisenstein), B, chorus, orch, 1959–60
– A Little Cantata of Proverbs (W. Blake), chorus, pf, 1962
14 Two Choruses (J. Milton, W. Shakespeare), chorus, 1962
– In Theresienstadt, Mez, pf, 1962–4
– Virtutes (cycle of 9 songs and melodrama, G. Humphreys, after Bible: Paul),
spkr, chorus, 2 cl ad lib, vc ad lib, 2 pf, org, perc, timp, 1963
17 Five Poems and an Epigram of William Blake, chorus, tpt, 1964
22 Warngedichte (Fried), 8 songs, Mez, pf, 1966–7
38a Psalm iv, S, A, female chorus, va, org, 1976
40 Babylon the Great is Fallen, chorus, orch, 1979
41 Das Gesetz der Quadrille (after F. Kafka), Bar, pf, 1979
44a Behold the Sun, concert aria, high S, solo vib, 12 insts, 1981
47 Two Imitations of Baudelaire (R. Lowell), chorus, 1985
49 Eve Dreams in Paradise (Milton), Mez, T, orch, 1987–88
– Carol for St Steven, chorus, 1989
51 Sing, Ariel (text arr. F. Kermode), solo Mez, 2 S, t sax + b cl, tpt, vn + va, db,
pf, 1989–90
53 The Death of Moses (orat, J. Hollander), S, C/A, T, Bar, B, chorus, children's
chorus/female chorus, 13 insts, 1991–2
54 The Mouse Metamorphosed into a Maid (M. Moore), S unacc., 1991
56 I said I will take Heed (Ps xxxix), double chorus, 2 ob, 2 basset hn, 2 bn, dbn,
2 trbn, 1992–3
chamber and solo instrumental
2 Piano Sonata, 1951–2
3 Fantasias, A-cl, pf, 1954
5 String Quartet no.1, 1956–7, rev. 1988
6 Capriccio, pf, 1957
8 Variations, fl, pf, 1959
11 Suite, fl, cl, hn, hp, vn + va, vc, 1961
18 Three Pieces, pf, 1964
20 Piano Trio, 1966
23 String Quartet no.2, 1967
27 Nonomiya, pf, 1969
28 Paraphrase on the Dramatic Madrigal ‘Il combattimento di
Tancredi e Clorinda’ by Monteverdi, cl, 1969
32 Concerto for Eleven, fl, cl, cl + b cl, 2 tpt, tuba, perc, 2 vn,
va, db, 1970
34 Chaconne, 18 wind, 1974
34a Chaconne, org, 1979 [version of op.34]
35 Lyric Pieces, wind qnt, tpt, trbn, db, 1974
37 String Quartet no.3, 1975–6
39 Prelude and Fugue, 3 cl, 1978
45 Sonata, vc, pf, 1984
46 … a musical offering (J.S.B. 1985) …, fl, cl, cl + b cl, hn, C-
tpt, trbn, perc, pf, 3 vn, 2 va, db, 1985
50 … in real time, pf, 1988–92
52 String Quartet no.4 ‘In memoriam John Ogdon’, 1990
– Variations on Bach's Sarabande from the English Suite in E
minor, 2 cl, 2 a sax, 2 bn, 2 tpt, trbn, timp, 1990
59 Uninterrupted Movement, solo vc, 4 vc, vcs, 1995
62 Five Objects Darkly, b cl, hn, vn, va, pf, 1996
63 Idées fixes, wind qnt, tpt, trbn, perc, pf, str qt, 1997
64 Sur terre en l'air, va, 1998
65 In memoriam Olivier Messiaen, fl, cl, ob, hn, tpt, mar, hp, pf,
str qt, db, 1998
66 Duos, vn, 2 va, 1998

Principal publisher: Schott

Goehr, (2): Alexander Goehr

WRITINGS
‘The Theoretical Writings of Arnold Schoenberg’, PRMA, c (1973–4), 85–96
Musical Ideas and Ideas about Music (London, 1978)
ed. D. Puffett: Finding the Key: Selected Writings (London, 1998)
Goehr, (2): Alexander Goehr
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Wood: ‘The Music of Alexander Goehr’, MT, ciii (1962), 312–14
B. Northcott: ‘Goehr the Progressive’, Music and Musicians, xviii/2 (1969–
70), 36–8, 78 only
G. Protheroe: ‘Alexander Goehr’, British Music Now, ed. L. Foreman
(London, 1975), 41–52
B. Northcott, ed.: The Music of Alexander Goehr: Interviews and Articles
(London, 1980)
B. Schiffer: ‘Die Folgen der Kulturrevolution: Interview mit Alexander
Goehr über seine Lehrtätigkeit in China’, NZM, Jg.142 (1981), 155–7
P. Griffiths: ‘Alexander Goehr’, New Sounds, New Personalities: British
Composers of the 1980s in Conversation (London, 1985), 13–21
N. Williams: ‘Behold the Sun: the Politics of Musical Production’, Music
and the Politics of Culture, ed. C. Norris (London, 1989), 150–71
D. Puffett, ed.: MAn, xi/2–3 (1992) [Festschrift issue; incl. D. Puffett: ‘… An
Analytical Offering (A.G. 1992) … on Goehr's Homage to Bach’, 177–
200; N. Boynton: ‘Alexander Goehr: a Checklist of his Writings and
Broadcast Talks’, 201–8]
A. Ford: ‘Alexander Goehr’, Composer to Composer: Conversations about
Contemporary Music (London, 1993), 127–36
Goehr
(3) Lydia Goehr
(b London, 10 Jan 1960). Philosopher, daughter of (2) Alexander Goehr.
After her first degree in philosophy at the Universities of Exeter and
Manchester (1982), she took the PhD at Cambridge with a dissertation,
The Work of Music (1987). She subsequently held academic posts at the
University of Nevada at Reno (1986–7), Boston University (1987–9),
Harvard University (1989–90) and Wesleyan University (1989–97) before
being appointed professor of philosophy at Columbia University (1995).
Her book The Imaginary Museum of Musical Works (1992), adapted from
her dissertation, engages in a radical way with discussions by analytic
philosophers about the question of the ontology of a musical work. An
ontological question asks what it is for any entity to have existence, or to
‘be’; applied to music, it takes the form of asking what it is for a piece of
music to be defined as a ‘work’ or to have a singular ‘identity’. (Is the work
a material thing? Does it consist in the score? Is it an ideal in the mind of
the composer? Is it a compendium of possible performances?) This
question was opened up most notably by the philosopher Roman Ingarden,
who approached it from a phenomenological point of view (1928), but
Goehr’s concern is mainly to refute its treatment in the English-speaking
analytic tradition. This school of thought typically dissolves philosophical
questions through the linguistic analysis of the basic terms in which they
are couched, and so encourages an approach to the question of a work’s
identity through an analysis of how the term ‘work’ could be used in
‘ordinary language’. Goehr shows that because this approach is insensitive
to historical developments in performance and composition, it fails to give
an account of musical traditions which have, to varying degrees, embraced
the improvisatory, or made limited use of notated forms, without being
concerned about fixing the notion of a ‘work’. Only an historically attuned
philosophy can, she argues, do justice to the range of ways in which ‘work
concept’ may be used. Since her first book she has written many articles
on problems of censorship, autonomy and politics as they pertain to 19th-
and 20th-century developments in the philosophy of music, and most
recently a book on the music, politics and philosophy of Richard Wagner
(The Quest for Voice, 1998).
WRITINGS
‘Being True to the Work’, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, xlvii
(1988–9), 55–67
‘The Power of the Podium’, Yale Review, lxxix (1990), 365–81
The Imaginary Museum of Musical Works: an Essay in the Philosophy of
Music (Oxford, 1992)
‘Writing Music History’, History and Theory, xxxi/2 (1992), 182–99
‘Music has no Meaning to Speak of: on the Politics of Musical
Interpretation’, The Interpretation of Music: Philosophical Essays, ed.
M. Krausz (Oxford, 1993), 177–90
‘Political Music and the Politics of Music’, Journal of Aesthetics and Art
Criticism, lii (1994–5), 99–112
‘The Perfect Performance of Music and the Perfect Musical Performance’,
New Formations, no.27 (1995–6), 1–22
‘Schopenhauer and the Musicians: an Inquiry into the Sounds of Silence
and the Limits of Philosophizing about Music’, Schopenhauer,
Philosophy and the Arts, ed. D. Jacquette (Cambridge, 1996), 200–
228
‘Die Meistersinger: Wagner’s Exemplary Lesson’, Nexus [Tilburg], no.19
(1997), 113–152
The Quest for Voice: Music, Politics, and the Limits of Philosophy (Oxford
and Berkeley, 1998)
‘Music and Musicians in Exile: the Romantic Legacy of a Double Life’,
Driven into Paradise: the Musical Migration from Nazi Germany to the
United States, ed. R. Brinkmann and C. Wolff (Berkeley, 1999)

Goepfert [Goeppfert, Goepffer,

Goepffem, Gaiffre, Köpfer, Keipfer
etc.], Georges-Adam
(b Saxony, c1727; d ?Paris, c1809). German harpist, active in France. He
was the first harpist to perform successfully on the pedal harp in Paris
when he played at the residence of Le Riche de La Pouplinière in 1749
(the pedal harp had been introduced in Vienna in 1728). He also performed
at the Concert Spirituel in 1749 and later that year introduced the pedal
harp at the Tuileries. On this occasion Le Mercure referred to him as
‘Goepffem’. Goepfert can be credited with founding the French school of
the pedal harp; his best-known pupils were Beaumarchais and Mme
Stéphanie-Félicité de Genlis. Beaumarchais later taught the French
princesses to play the harp and Mme de Genlis wrote a harp method in
which she referred to her teacher as ‘Gaiffre’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetC
F. Vernillat: ‘La littérature de la harpe en France au XVIIIe siècle’, RMFC,
ix (1969), 162–85
H.J. Zingel: Die Entwicklung des Harfenspiels (Leipzig, 1969)
H. Charnassé and F. Vernillat: Les instruments à cordes pincées (Paris,
1970), 19–20, 42
ALICE LAWSON ABER-COUNT

Goermans [Germain].
French family of instrument makers, dealers and musicians. Jean (i) (b
Geldern, the Netherlands, 1703; d Paris, 18 Feb 1777) was working as a
master harpsichord builder in the rue Saint-Denis, Paris, by 1730. He
subsequently lived and worked in the rue de la Verrerie (1745–51) followed
by the rue des Fossés-Saint-Germain-des-Près. Though he called himself
‘Germain’, he signed his harpsichords ‘Joannes Goermans’. Of his seven
children, the eldest, Jeanne-Thérèse, was a concert harpist and a friend of
La Pouplinière; another daughter, Marie-Thérèse-Victoire, married his
foreman, Jean Liborius Hermès, in 1773. After 1770 the workshop was
transferred to the Cul-de-Sac Rouen. At about that time Jean (i) began to
suffer from paralysis and in 1773 he retired, whereupon Hermès took over
the workshop. His increasing disability, his wife's madness, and the
consequent threat to the children's inheritance caused them to petition
(unsuccessfully) to have their parents declared incompetent in 1774. Jean
(i) died an extremely wealthy man, leaving property worth 195,000 livres.
After his death the firm went on to produce pianos as well as harpsichords.
Jean (ii) (b Paris, 1735; d Paris, c1795), eldest son of Jean (i), was a
renowned harpsichord teacher and dealer in harpsichords and harps. He
acted on behalf of a Flemish builder to sell ‘genuine Ruckers à méchanique
et ravalement’, with knee levers for changing stops. In 1778 he advertised
a ‘harpsichord by Ruckers of a new type producing [the effect of] the Flute,
Oboe and Vox humana. All by a Fleming newly arrived in Paris’. His
younger brother Jacques [Jacob] (b Paris, c1740; d 8 April 1789) built
harpsichords and pianos. He early established a separate workshop in the
same house as his father, and was equally successful. He signed a 1765
harpsichord ‘Jacobus Goermans fils’ although he did not become a master
until 1766. He subsequently signed his instruments ‘Jacobus Goermans’
(1767 and 1771), ‘Jacques Goermans’ (1774) and ‘Jacques Germain’
(1785). He acquired his wealth by turning to piano making in response to
the growing trend which preferred the piano to the harpsichord. The
inventory taken at his death included 16 pianos (9 by himself) and ten
harpsichords (three by himself; three others were old instruments, intended
for ‘taking to pieces’, probably to create new ‘Ruckers’ harpsichords). There
were also 11 unfinished instruments (seven pianos, four harpsichords).
After Jacques’ death, Hermès assumed direction of the business, as he
had done that of Jean (i), and the firms continued to produce pianos and
harps until Hermès's death in 1813.
Goermans harpsichords were finely made in the standard French style, but
not usually innovative. In 1782 Jacques presented to the Royal Academy of
Sciences a harpsichord with 21 keys to the octave after a tuning system
suggested by Jean-Benjamin de La Borde. He rivalled Taskin in the
production and popularization of grand pianos.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BoalchM
P.-J. Roussier: Mémoire sur le nouveau clavecin chromatique de M. de
Laborde (Paris, 1782/R)
S. Germann: ‘“Mrs. Crawley's Couchet” Reconsidered’, EMc, vii (1979),
475–81 [reattributes a controversial harpsichord to Goermans]
SHERIDAN GERMANN

Goerne, Matthias
(b Karl-Marx-Stadt [now Chemnitz], 31 March 1967). German baritone. A
pupil of Hans Beyer, he later studied with Elisabeth Schwarzkopf and
Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, winning international prizes such as the Hugo
Wolf Competition of 1990. In that year he sang in the St Matthew Passion
under Masur with a distinction that brought him to the notice of other
leading conductors in Germany. He launched an operatic career in 1992,
singing the title role of Henze's Der Prince von Homburg at Cologne. In the
following years he sang regularly with the Dresden Staatsoper and in 1997
made his début at Salzburg as Papageno, the role which also introduced
him to the Metropolitan Opera. Nevertheless, it is as a concert artist, and
particularly a lieder recitalist, that he has gained his most conspicuous
successes. In Britain he gave a highly acclaimed recital at the Wigmore
Hall in 1994, and at the 1998 Edinburgh Festival he gave a performance of
Winterreise, with Brendel, which was widely considered one of the finest in
memory. He has met with similar triumphs in New York and made an
especially strong impression with his advocacy of Eisler's Hollywood
Songbook. Goerne's platform manner induces a sense of deep absorption,
fully borne out in the quality of his singing. The voice is rich and well
rounded rather than penetrative, although capable of taking on a harder
edge in the expression of anger or irony. He has made a number of
admired recordings, including Bach cantatas, Winterreise, Dichterliebe,
Schumann's Heine and Eichendorff Liederkreise and Kerner songs op.35,
and a notable contribution to the Hyperion Schubert Song Edition.
J.B. STEANE

Goes, Damian.
See Góis, Damião de.

Goesen [Goessen], Maistre.

See Gosse, Maistre.

Goethals, Lucien
(b Ghent, 26 June 1931). Belgian composer. After spending his youth in
Argentina, he returned to Belgium in 1947 to study organ, counterpoint and
fugue at the Ghent Conservatory until 1956; later he studied orchestration
with Norbert Rosseau, and serial technique and electronic composition with
Gottfried Michael Koenig and De Meester. Since its foundation in 1962 he
has been working at the IPEM in Ghent, composing electronic music and
mixed-media works. He was its artistic director from 1970 to 1987. The
same year he was co-founder of the group Spectra. From 1971 to 1991 he
taught analysis at the Ghent Conservatory. He has won several awards for
composition, including the East Flanders Prize (1960) and the Concours
International des Musiques Electroacoustiques in Bourges (1975). Since
1960 he has been writing in a post-serialist style, superimposing
contrapuntal layers each with its own tempo. The mixed-media works
extend this technique. From 1970 he has combined tonal moments,
quotations and style allusions in his works, which have become more
expressive and are usually melancholy. The dialectic contrast of
atmospheres is constant in his work. His youth in South America has led to
a preference for South American and Spanish texts. Goethals has also
written articles about modern music, especially in the periodical Yang.
WORKS
(selective list)
Stage: Hé! (H. Sabbe), mime, 10 insts, tapes, slide projector, 1971 [collab. K.
Goeyvaerts and H. Sabbe]
Orch: Diálogos, wind qnt, perc, 2 str qnt, str, 4-track tape, 1963; Sinfonía en gris
mayor, 2 orch, perc, 2 tapes, 1966; Conc. for orch, 1972; Conc., b cl, cb cl, orch,
1983; Concierto de la luz aj las tinublas, org, orch, 1989
Mixed media: Vensters (J. Van der Hoeven), mobile for 2 speakers, vc, pf, perc, 4
film projectors, 4 tapes, 1967
Ens and solo inst.: Endomorfie I, vn, pf, tape, 1964; Endomorfie II, 8 wind, 1964;
Cellotape, vc with contact mic, pf, tape, 1965; Mouvement, str qt, 1967; Llanto por
Salvador Allende, trbn, 1973; 3 paisajes sonores, fl, ob, hn, trbn, vn, db, hpd, 1973;
Diferencias, 10 wind, 1974; Musica con cantus firmus triste, fl, str trio, 1978; Str qt
no.2, 1992; music for org, pf
Vocal: Lecina (6 songs, J. Van der Hoeven), Mez, fl, vn, vc, 1966; Cáscaras (C.
Rodriguez), cant., Mez, 5 insts, 1969; Pampa (R. Güiraldes), Mez, fl, cl, vn, va, vc,
pf, perc, 1979
Elec: Study I, II, III, 1962; Contrapuntos, 1-12 tapes, 1967; Melioribus, 1973;
Polyfonium, 1975; Pluriversum, 1977; Polyfonium II, 1980
Film scores

Principal recording companies: Alpha, LMV (Luister van de Muziek in Vlaanderen),

Vox Temporis

Principal publishers: CeBeDeM, Documenta Musicae Novae

BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Sabbe: ‘Lucien Goethals: le constructivisme bifonctionnel’, Jaarboek
IPEM (1967), 35–59
H. Sabbe: ‘Komponist Lucien Goethals’, Yang, no.56 (1974), 153ff
F. Geysen: ‘Het orgeloeuvre van Lucien Goethals’, Orgelkunst, ix/2 (1986),
29–37
Y. Knockaert: ‘Lucien Goethals: Diferencias: een titel is een componist’,
Tijdschrift van de Nieuwe Muziekgroep, no.18 (1988), 7–15
Y. Knockaert: ‘Lucien Goethals: een andere componist’, Ons Erfdeel, xxxvi
(1993), 693–7
YVES KNOCKAERT

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von

(b Frankfurt, 28 Aug 1749; d Weimar, 22 March 1832). German poet,
dramatist and novelist. One of the most important literary and cultural
figures of his age, he was recognized during his lifetime for his
accomplishments of almost universal breadth. However, it is his literary
works that have most consistently sustained his reputation, and that also
serve to demonstrate most clearly his many-faceted relationship to music.
Goethe studied law in Leipzig and Strasbourg, but after returning to
Frankfurt in 1771 he worked as a newspaper critic. In 1771 he moved to
Weimar as a court official and privy councillor.
In 1791, after making two visits to Italy (1786–8, 1790), he became
Intendant of the Weimar court theatre, and he held this post until 1817. His
literary works were set to music, chiefly as operas and lieder, from the
1770s onwards; his views on music, which emanate from observations in
novels, letters and other writings, contribute valuably to the social and
cultural history of music and its reception.
Goethe was passionate about musical experience, and he was in contact
with practising musicians fairly regularly for most of his life. His close
friendship with the Berlin composer C.F. Zelter produced, in addition to a
quantity of lieder, a voluminous correspondence which included frequent
discussion of musical topics. Zelter introduced his extraordinarily gifted
student, Felix Mendelssohn, to the Goethe household in Weimar in 1821,
and the young prodigy stayed there again several times during the 1820s.
On these visits he played Goethe's new Streicher piano to him almost daily,
and occasionally performed before an invited audience (see illustration),
covering a keyboard repertory from Bach through Mozart and Beethoven to
recent compositions of his own and giving score-readings of orchestral
works by Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Weber. Other famous
performers whom Goethe heard in Weimar included Hummel (who was
appointed court Kapellmeister in 1819), Henriette Sontag, Clara Wieck,
and, not least, Paganini, whose violin playing, accompanied by Hummel,
Goethe compared to a ‘fiery, cloudy pillar’. He also heard such artists as
the soprano Angelica Catalani (at Carlsbad, 1818) and the pianist Maria
Szymanowska (in Weimar and elsewhere, 1822–3), and he was deeply
moved by performances of Anna Milder-Hauptmann (Beethoven's first
Leonore), whom he heard in the 1820s. Goethe's comments on music thus
command interest, beyond the insight they offer into his inner world, as
valuable eye-witness reports.
In 1810 Bettina Brentano wrote to Goethe enthusiastically about her
meeting with Beethoven in Vienna. Encouraged by her, on 12 April 1811
Beethoven himself wrote to Goethe about the incidental music that he had
composed the previous year to Goethe's play Egmont (completed 1787).
The two finally met in Teplitz in summer 1812. Goethe described
Beethoven's playing as amazing and added that he was both more
energetic and more inward than any other artist he had ever met; he
exuded talent in an astonishing way, but was also strikingly brusque and
laconic in his speech and unruly in his behaviour and social demeanour.
These points of contact did not, however, develop into the relationship that
Beethoven, for his part, seems to have desired. One reason was perhaps
that, with increasing age, Goethe apparently became more inclined
towards a temperamental ideal of balance, as opposed to extreme states
of emotional arousal or ‘inspiration’. While he could indeed be profoundly
affected by a performance, he generally avoided overpowering effects. This
attitude may also have been a factor in his failure to respond to the
Schubert settings of his poems that were sent to him, with a covering letter,
in 1825; he was by then old and ill, and so perhaps likely to be unreceptive
to such strong characterization. Not only was he extremely protective of the
rhythm and colour of the words of his texts, but he tended to resist any
tendency towards dramatic amplification or emotional over-intensification. It
was therefore perhaps inevitable that the opportunity for Goethe and
Schubert to engage with each other would be lost. It is striking, however,
that when in 1830 Goethe heard Erlkönig sung by Wilhelmine Schröder-
Devrient, he was deeply touched. Although he observed that the music
expressed the rhythm of the galloping horse almost too noisily, and that it
generated a feeling of apprehension and dread that was almost too strong,
he said to the singer: ‘A thousand thanks for this wonderful artistic
achievement … When I first heard this composition it said nothing to me,
but performed in this way the whole thing becomes an almost tangibly
visible picture’.
Goethe's musical taste was also founded on a veneration for both Mozart
and J.S. Bach. In the case of Mozart (whom he heard perform only once,
as early as 1763 in Frankfurt) it was above all the mature operas that
interested him, but he also regarded the composer, along with Raphael and
Shakespeare, as a pre-eminent example of an artist endowed with a
‘higher perception’ which informed not only his creative output but also, to
an extent, his very existence. Goethe's interest in Bach was much less
typical of his time, even though Bach had been in Weimar almost within
living memory. He sought out a local musician, J.H.F. Schütz (1779–1828),
to play Bach's preludes and fugues and chorale preludes to him, and he
took a vicarious interest, through Zelter, in Mendelssohn's revival of the St
Matthew Passion in Berlin in March 1829.
Despite his musical enthusiasms, Goethe was not a fully literate musician
himself, although he could (mechanically at least) play the piano and had
once dabbled in playing the cello. He described what was probably his own
situation in a character in Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre: ‘Though he did not
himself have any special talent or aptitude for music and did not play any
instrument, he was fully aware of music's great value, and often sought out
this greatest of pleasures that can be compared to no other for enjoyment’.
His perceptions usually needed to be conceptualized and verbally
articulated as a way of making them real to himself as much as to others: ‘I
know music more through reflection than through direct appreciation, thus
only in a rather generalized way. … And so it is that I … transform this
unmediated enjoyment into ideas and words. I am aware that one third of
life is thereby inaccessible to me’. He insisted nevertheless that he was a
‘good listener’ (‘Guthörender’), although he lacked an expert ear (letters to
Zelter, 19 June 1805 and 2 May 1820).
Goethe's passion for music of all kinds, but particularly his interest in
promoting the cause of German poetry, found an important outlet in his
early espousal of volkstümlich, ‘folk-style’, or verse and the associated
tradition of performance as lieder. (This was acknowledged in the
dedication to him by Achim von Arnim and Clemens Brentano of the
collection Des Knaben Wunderhorn, 1805–8). His first publication of any
kind was the Neue Lieder in Melodien (Leipzing, 1770), a volume of
pastoral poems in musical settings by B.T. Breitkopf, and through his
contact with Herder in Strasbourg he developed his deeper interest in
volkstümlichkeit. The poem ‘Heidenröslein’ exemplifies the overlap and
confusion that existed between authentic folk verse and imitations. It first
appeared in print as if it were a folksong text, ‘quoted from memory’ in
Herder's Von deutscher Art und Kunst (1773), but possibly existed in
another version before Goethe revised it for a collection of 1789 (see
Sternfeld, 1954, pp.120–21). Schubert's setting (d257) appeared in 1815.
Goethe continued to prefer the older, more restrained lieder of such
composers as Zelter, J.F. Reichardt and J.A.P. Schulz to those in newer
styles; as indicated above, he had little appreciation of the greater musical
power of Schubert. His views on song are most extensively detailed in the
correspondence with Zelter, whom he came to know in the later 1790s.
Having received a volume of Zelter's songs, including settings of his poems
(Zwölf Lieder am Clavier zu singen, 1796), Goethe wrote to A.W. von
Schlegel on 18 June 1798, expressing his desire to know Zelter:
The link between two such arts [poetry and music] is so
crucial, and I already have so much in mind in relation to
both, that it can be properly brought out and developed only
through contact with a man of this sort. The basis and
originality of his [approach to] composition, so far as I can
judge, is never simply a musical invention, but a radical re-
creation or imitation of the poetic intentions.
Goethe saw lyric poetry as in some sense incomplete without music, just
as written text sought its fulfilment in sound. As he said in 1794: ‘Certainly,
black-and-white [i.e. written or printed words] should really be banned: epic
verse should be declaimed, lyric verse sung and danced, and dramatic
verse delivered by actors speaking in characters’. For him the purpose of
the music of the lied was that it should fuse with the poem and transport it
into a different medium and thus into a different perceptual dimension,
while remaining closely anchored – and ultimately subservient – to the
rhythmic and expressive contour of the original verse. The feeling
contained in the text could ‘be transmuted or rather dissolved into the free,
untrammelled element of sensory experience’ (letter to Zelter, 21
December 1809).
But changing musical taste quickly overtook Goethe's own preferences.
The enduring fascination of his poems for song composers throughout the
19th century and into the 20th as far as Busoni, Schoeck and beyond
resulted in a long line of compositions of extraordinary stylistic diversity.
Arguably, Goethe's verse acted as a catalyst to the lied just as the poetry of
Petrarch did to the 16th-century madrigal: the world of feeling and
imagination unlocked by his poetry was explored and musically developed
in many different directions.
Goethe's poetry was also set chorally. He was an enthusiastic advocate of
recreational singing, especially for male voices, and this tradition is
reflected not only in settings by Goethe's contemporaries and preferred
composers but also in works such as Schubert's Gesang der Geister über
den Wassern (d538) of 1817; this was followed in 1821 by a richer, more
elaborate setting of the same text (d714b) more in the manner of a
Romantic secular or philosophical hymn (and arguably more in tune with
the conception of Goethe's poem). Schubert's later version has
instrumental accompaniment and there are signal examples of settings of
Goethe's poetry for a larger, mixed chorus with orchestra, some of them
epic in scale or monumental in effect, others overtly dramatic in conception
(e.g. Berlioz's La damnation de Faust, based on Gérard de Nerval's
translation, Mendelssohn's Die erste Walpurgisnacht, Liszt's Faust-
Symphonie, Schumann's Szenen aus Goethes Faust and Requiem für
Mignon, Brahms's Rinaldo, Alto Rhapsody and Gesang der Parzen,
Mahler's Symphony no.8). Several of these works testify to the great
importance for musicians of two of Goethe's literary works in particular: the
novel Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre and the verse drama Faust. The former
contains the characters of Mignon and the Harper, whose songs,
embedded within the narrative, were set many times over the years, while
the latter relates the well-known story of Faust, Gretchen (Marguerite) and
Mephistopheles in Part I, followed in Part II by Goethe's grand allegorical
drama of universal history and final redemption.
Goethe's engagement with the lied was matched by his enduring
involvement with opera. In Frankfurt he experienced opéra-comique and
Singspiel and he wrote his own examples in the mid-1770s. This activity
continued in Weimar, where the court, which was interested in both drama
and music, developed a strong tradition of amateur aristocratic as well as
professional productions. Goethe's theatrical interests thus found a
receptive environment, and he received stimulus and support from
Duchess Anna Amalia, who was a musician and composer in her own right.
In 1776 Goethe invited the singer-actress Corona Schröter to come to
Weimar: she was a major source of inspiration until the 1780s, acting
opposite Goethe and taking roles in his Singspiele besides composing
music for one herself (Die Fischerin, 1782; she also composed lieder to his
poems). Opera buffa was also staged in Weimar, but by a mediocre Italian
troupe. Goethe's understanding of Italian opera was extended and
deepened during his first Italian journey, when he attended productions in
Venice, Rome and elsewhere. While in Italy he completely revised his two
Frankfurt Singspiele, recasting the prose dialogue as versified recitative
and clarifying the plots and characterization in order to bring them closer to
his new-found operatic ideal.
As Intendant of the Weimar Court Theatre, Goethe was active at all levels
of preparation and production. He placed Mozart's mature operas in the
centre of the repertory, amid a wide range of works by both Italian and
German composers. In 1824, after he had relinquished his post, he saw
stagings of Weber's Der Freischütz (the success of which in Berlin was
reported to him by Zelter) and Euryanthe (the scenario of which he
criticized); he was visited by Weber in July 1825.
With hindsight, it can be seen that Goethe's contribution to opera, for all its
local importance, was historically less decisive and less productive than his
contribution to the lied. And this was so despite his repeated efforts, his
wide experience and his extensive knowledge of opera: he found suitable
composers for few if any of his librettos, and several in any case remained
as sketches or fragments. His greatest legacy to music drama was
undoubtedly Faust, which as far as he was aware was not set operatically
during his lifetime. This, he accepted with resignation and a profound
realization: ‘it is impossible [that it should now find an effective musical
setting]: the horrific, sublime and demonic moments it necessarily has to
embrace from time to time go against the taste of the times. The music
ought to have been in the manner of Don Giovanni; Mozart should have
composed Faust’ (conversation with Eckermann, 12 February 1829). The
Polish aristocrat A.H. Radziwiłł composed stage music for Faust which
pleased the poet (and later Chopin): it was frequently used during the 19th
century. Perhaps because Goethe's drama is so grandiose and is so widely
known (at least in the German-speaking world), some later operatic
treatments – Busoni's Doktor Faust, for example – went out of their way to
use different sources of the legend or to emphasize different facets of the
action. But such is the power and universality of Goethe's conception that
some aspect or another of this great drama has exerted a formative
influence over most subsequent versions of this story.
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PHILIP WELLER
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
WRITINGS
Editions: Goethes Gedanken uber Musik: eine Sammlung aus seinen
Werken, Briefen, Gesprächen und Tagebüchern, ed. H. Walwei-
Wiegelmann (Frankfurt, 1985)
Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter in den Jahren 1799 bis 1832, ed.
H.-G. Ottenberg and E. Zehm (Munich, 1991–)
librettos
Erwin und Elmire, 1st version (Schauspiel mit Gesang), J. André, 1775
(G.J. Vogler, 1781); Lila (Liederspiel), K.S. von Seckendorff, 1777 (J.F.
Reichardt, comp. 1791, ?unperf.); Claudine von Villa Bella, 1st version
(Schauspiel mit Gesang), André, 1778, unperf. (I. Von Beecke, 1780);
Das Jahrmarktsfest zu Plundersweilern (Schönbartspiel), Anna Amalia,
1778; Proserpina (monodrama), Seckendorff, 1778 (F.C.A. Eberwein,
1814); Jery and Bätely, 1st version (Spl), Seckendorff, 1780; Die
Fischerin (Spl), C.E.W. Schröter, 1782
Scherz, List und Rache (Spl), P.C. Kayser, comp. 1785–6, inc. (P. Winter,
1790; E.T.A. Hoffmann, 1801; M. Bruch, 1858; E. Wellesz, 1928; F.
Leinert, 1961); Claudine von Villa Bella, 2nd version (Spl), Reichardt,
1789 (J.C. Kienlen, 1810; F. Schubert, begun 1815, inc., 1913; F.
Gläser, 1826); Jery und Bätely, 2nd version (Spl), Winter, 1790
(Reichardt, 1801; G.B. Bierey, 1803; C. Kreutzer, 1810; A. Adam,
1834, as Le chalet; H. Zopff, comp. c1870, unperf.; I. Starck, 1873; E.
Dressel, 1932); Erwin und Elmire, 2nd version (Spl), Reichardt, 1793;
Die Zauberflöte zweiter Teil, inc.
novels, dramas and ballads set as operas
Die Laune des Verliebten (Schäferspiel, 1767), R. Wagner, comp. 1830,
inc., Dressel, 1949; Die Mitschuldigen (drama, 1769), H. Riethmüller,
1957; Satyros (dramatic satire, 1770), W. von Baussnern, 1922; P.
Bořkovec, 1942, as Satyr; Götz von Berlichingen (drama, 1773), K.
Goldmark, 1902; Clavigo (Trauerspiel, 1774), M. Ettinger, 1926; Die
Leiden des jungen Werthers (novel, 1774), R. Kreutzer, 1792, as
Charlotte et Werther, J. Massenet, 1892, as Werther; Faust, 1st
version (drama, 1775), I. Walter, 1787, as Doktor Faust; Stella
(Schauspiel, 1776), P.-D. Deshayes, 1791–2, as Zélia and La suite de
Zélia, W. Bloch, 1951; Nausikaa (Trauerspiel, 1787), H. Reutter, 1967;
Egmont (tragedy, 1788), G. Salvayre, 1886; Märchen (from
Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten, 1795), G. Klebe, 1969, as
Das Märchen von der schönen Lilie; Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre
(novel, 1795–6), A. Thomas, 1866, as Mignon; Die Braut von Korinth
(ballad, 1797), E. Chabrier, 1897, as Briséïs; Der Gott und die
 Bajadere (ballad, 1797), Ö. Farkas, 1876, as Bajadér; Der
Zauberlehrling (ballad, 1797), J. Döbber, 1907
Faust, 2nd version, pt I (verse drama, 1808): C.E. Horn, H.R. Bishop and
T.S. Cooke, 1825, as Faustus; L. Bertin, 1831, as Fausto; H. Berlioz,
1846, as La damnation de Faust; M. Lutz, 1855, as Faust and
Marguerite; C.-F. Gounod, 1859; A. Boito, 1868, as Mefistofele; Hervé,
1869, as Le petit Faust; H. Zöllner, 1887; C. Kistler, 1905, as Faust 1.
Teil; A. Brüggemann, 1910, as Margherita; F. Busoni, 1925, as Doktor
Faust; N.V. Bentzon, 1964, as Faust III
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FriedländerDL
GroveO (T. Bauman)
J.W. von Goethe: Aus meinem Leben: Dichtung und Wahrheit (Tübingen,
1811–22; repr. Berlin, 1970–4, ed. S. Scheibe; Eng. trans, 1824)
M. Friedlaender, ed.: Gedichte von Goethe in Kompositionen seiner
Zeitgenossen (Weimar, 1869–1916) [historical study]
C. Mendelssohn Bartholdy: Goethe und Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy
(Leipzig, 1871; Eng. trans. with addns by M.E. von Glehn, 1872,
2/1874/R)
W. Bode: Die Tonkunst in Goethes Leben (Berlin, 1912)
M. Friedlaender: ‘Goethe und die Musik’, Jb der Goethe-Gesellschaft, iii
(1916), 277–340
H. Abert: Goethe und die Musik (Stuttgart, 1922)
H. John: Goethe und die Musik (Langensalza, 1928)
R. Rolland: Goethe et Beethoven (Paris, 1930; Eng. trans., 1931)
A. Orel: Goethe als Operndirektor (Bregenz, 1949)
W. Schuh: Goethe-Vertonungen: ein Verzeichnis (Zürich, 1952); enlarged
edn in Johann Wolfgang Goethe: Gedenkausgabe der Werke, ed. E.
Beutler, ii (Zürich, 1953), 663–760
M. Unger: Ein Faustopernplan Beethovens und Goethes (Regensburg,
1952)
F.W. Sternfeld: Goethe and Music: a List of Parodies and Goethe's
Relationship to Music (NewYork, 1954/R) [incl. further bibliography])
J. Müller-Blattau: Goethe und die Meister der Musik (Stuttgart, 1969)
F.W. Sternfeld: ‘Goethe and Beethoven’, GfMKB: Bonn 1970, 587–90
W. Tappolet: Begegnungen mit der Musik in Goethes Leben und Werk
(Berne, 1975)
P. Boerner: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1832/1982 (Bonn, 1981; Eng.
trans., 1981)
T. Bauman: North German Opera in the Age of Goethe (Cambridge, 1985)
B. Witte and others, eds.: Goethe-Handbuch (Stuttgart, 1996–8) [incl.
further bibliography]
J.R. Williams: The Life of Goethe: a Critical Biography (Oxford, 1998)

Goetschius, Percy
(b Paterson, NJ, 30 Aug 1853; d Manchester, NH, 29 Oct 1943). American
teacher of composition and music educationist. He trained as an engineer
and then studied theory and composition with Faisst, instrumentation with
Doppler and the piano with Lebert and Pruckner in Stuttgart (1873).
Between 1876 and 1890 he taught there, wrote concert and opera reviews,
published his first book (intended for his English-speaking pupils), and
attained the rank of professor of music. On his return to the USA he taught
at Syracuse University (where he received an honorary doctorate) and at
the New England Conservatory (1892–6), which he left to work as a private
teacher and church organist. In 1905 he became head of theory and
composition at the newly formed Institute of Musical Art in New York, and in
1925 he retired to Manchester, where he continued to write and publish.
In his teaching of music theory Goetschius ignored 16th-century music and
strict counterpoint and elevated the compositional practice of the 18th and
19th centuries to a position of theoretical dogma. Nevertheless, his 20th-
century pupils, among them Howard Hanson and Henry Cowell, found him
tolerant of experimentation. A highly competent pianist and a fluent
contrapuntist, he composed a symphony and several smaller orchestral
works, a sonata, five concert fugues, various smaller piano pieces and
studies and six choral anthems. He edited the complete piano works of
Mendelssohn (Stuttgart, 1889), Handel's Messiah (Boston, 1909), Bach's
Das wohltemperirte Clavier (Boston, 1922), and an Analytic Symphony
Series of piano arrangements of symphonic works. He also wrote many
articles.
WRITINGS
The Material Used in Musical Composition (Stuttgart, 1882, 14/1913/R)
The Theory and Practice of Tone-Relations (Boston, 1892, 24/1931/R)
Models of the Principal Musical Forms (Boston, 1894)
Students' Note-Book and Syllabus … in Musical History (Boston, 1894)
The Homophonic Forms of Musical Composition (New York, 1898/R,
14/1926)
Exercises in Melody-Writing (New York, 1900, rev. 9/1923)
Counterpoint Applied in the Invention, Fugue, Canon and other Polyphonic
Forms (New York, 1902/R, 5/1915)
Lessons in Music Form (Boston, 1904/R)
Exercises in Elementary Counterpoint (New York, 1910)
with T. Tapper: Essentials in Music History (New York, 1914)
The Larger Forms of Musical Composition (New York, 1915/R, 3/1915)
Masters of the Symphony (Boston, 1929)
The Structure of Music (Philadelphia, 1934/R)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Shepherd: ‘“Papa” Goetschius in Retrospect’, MQ, xxx (1944), 307–18
F. Davis: ‘The American Way, or How Not to Teach Music’, Caecilia [New
York], lxxxvi (1959), 7–11 [criticism of Goetschius's method]
RAMONA H. MATTHEWS

Goetz, Hermann (Gustav)

(b Königsberg [now Kaliningrad], 7 Dec 1840; d Hottingen, nr Zürich, 3 Dec
1876). German composer. The son of a brewer, he showed an interest in
music from the age of 12, when he wrote his first composition, an
unpublished piano sonata for four hands. In 1857 he studied piano and
harmony with Louis Köhler, and in 1860 changed from mathematics and
Hebrew studies at Königsberg University to music at the Stern
Conservatoire in Berlin. There he studied composition and counterpoint
with Hugo Ulrich, conducting and score-reading with Julius Stern and the
piano with Bülow. In 1863 he went to Winterthur as church organist, hoping
not only to achieve musical success but also that the Swiss air would slow
the progress of tuberculosis contracted in childhood. He also began a
teaching practice, performed as a concert pianist and started composing in
earnest. His first published works, a piano trio and three easy pieces for
violin and piano date from this period.
Despite severe depression brought on by his ever-present illness, Goetz
was able to produce joyful and optimistic works such as the Frühlings-
Ouvertüre, which he wrote in early 1864 but never heard performed. In
1865 Goetz met Brahms, who was visiting a mutual friend in Winterthur. It
was not the easiest of friendships; their personalities could not have been
more different. The year 1867 was probably the happiest and most fruitful
in Goetz’s short life: he became engaged to the young Winterthur artist
Laura Wirth, resumed contact with Bülow and met Raff, who in turn
recommended him to the music publishers Breitkopf and Härtel. This
momentary peak in his troubled life also saw the composition of his Piano
Concerto in B op.18 and the Piano Quartet op.6. The concerto’s style
shows the influence of Chopin, whose music Goetz often included in his
recitals. The Piano Quartet (1867) is perhaps his finest chamber work, and
is dedicated to Brahms, with whose three piano quartets it stands
comparison.
By 1867 Goetz had also written lieder, choral works and a symphony, of
which only a fragment remains. His first stage work, a piano-accompanied
Singspiel entitled Die heiligen drei Königen, first performed on Twelfth
Night 1866, remains unpublished. His librettist for this, and for his two other
stage works, was J.V. Widmann. For his second opera they chose
Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew after rejecting Widmann’s suggestion
of Parzifal, and it was first performed in 1874 at Mannheim. It is a natural
successor in the field of German compic opera to Nicolai’s Die lustigen
Weiber von Windsor and Cornelius’s Der Barbier von Bagdad, and its
success proclaimed Goetz’s name from Vienna to London and New York,
as one who had turned away from Wagner’s concept of opera and drama
and remained loyal to the classicism of Mozart. Goetz’s Symphony in F
(1873) has a Beethovenian character, and recalls in particular the Pastoral
Symphony. In 1875 Goetz began work on his second mature opera,
Francesca von Rimini, but it was a race against time. He completed only
the first two acts before he died four days short of his 36th birthday, and it
was left to his amanuensis Ernst Frank to flesh out the sketches of the
overture and the last act. It was first performed in Mannheim in September
1877.
By the turn of the century Goetz’s music was rarely heard. Of the 24
published works the chamber music is the most deserving of revival. The
especially fine Piano Quintet, written in 1874 for the unusual combination
of piano, violin, viola, cello and double bass, contains a quotation from
Goethe: ‘Though Man cannot speak of his Fate, a God gave me the power
to say how I suffer’. It is the mature work of a man who, though resigned to
death, still has much to say and the technique with which to say it. Goetz
 was overshadowed by the major figures of his day, but his music reveals
an extraordinary melodic gift, formal mastery and an expert command of
his craft as well as a distinctive style. His Second Symphony and Der
Widerspenstigen Zähmung elicited lavish praise from George Bernard
Shaw, writing in The World (22 November 1893; reprinted in Music in
London):
You have to go to Mozart’s finest quartets and quintets on the
one hand, and to Die Meistersinger on the other, for work of
the quality we find, not here and there, but continuously, in
the Symphony and in the opera, two masterpieces which
place him securely above all other German composers of the
last hundred years, save only Mozart and Beethoven, Weber
and Wagner.
That his works have not achieved a place in the repertory despite such
praise is to be regretted.
WORKS
printed works published in Leipzig unless otherwise stated

opp.14–22 were edited by E. Frank

stage
Die heiligen drei Königen (Neujahrspiel, J.V. Widmann), pf acc., 1865, Winterthur, 6
Jan 1866, D-Mbs
Der Widerspenstigen Zähmung (comic op, 4, Widmann, collab. Goetz, after W.
Shakespeare), 1868–72, Mannheim, 11 Oct 1874 (1875)
Francesca von Rimini (op, 3, Goetz, after Widmann’s sketch), 1875–6, Mannheim,
30 Sept 1877 (1878), completed by E. Frank
choral with orchestra
op.
— Schön-Rohtraut (E. Mörike), 1861, CH-Zz, sketch
— Schneewittchen (T. Storm), 1865, Zz, inc.
10 Nenie (F. von Schiller), 1874 (1874)
11 Es liegt so abendstill der See (cant., W. Müller von Königswinter), T, male vv,
orch, 1865 (Berlin, 1876)
14 Psalm cxxxvii, S, chorus, orch, 1864 (1878)
choral unaccompanied
— 3 choruses (Schiller, R. Weber, R.E. Prutz), male vv, ? before 1860, CH-Zz
— 5 choruses (J. Eichendorff, J.W. von Goethe, F. Rückert), mixed vv, ? before
1862, Zz
— Salve regina, SABar, c1867, Zz
20 Vier Gesänge (Prutz, Storm, J.G. Seidl, J. Wolff), 4 male vv, nos. 1–3, 1862–3,
no.4, 1876 (1879)
21 Sieben Lieder (Mörike, M. von Schenkendorf, T. Fontane, H. von Chezy,
Novalis, L. Uhl, E. Pohl), SATB, 1862–3 (1880)
lieder
— 4 Lieder (H. Heine and others), c1857–61, CH-Zz
— Juli (Storm), 1869, ed. in Kreuzhage, p.74
3 Drei Lieder (Eichendorff, N. Lenau, L. Uhland), 1861 (Berlin, 1861)
4 Rispetti: 6 italienische Volksgesänge (trans. P. Heyse), 1866 (1868)
5 Drei Kinderlieder in schweizer Mundart (M. Usteri), 1869 (1870)
12 Sechs Lieder (R. Pohl, Storm, H. Kletke, Wolff, Mörike, A. Trager), S/T, c1868–
76 (1876)
19 Sechs Lieder (E. Scherenberg, L. Liber, A. Träger, Goethe), 1862–3 (1879)
orchestral
— Piano Concerto, E , 1861, CH-Zz [in 1 movt]
— Symphony, e, 1865–7, destroyed; frag. 1st movt, pf 4 hands, D-Mbs
9 Symphony, F, 1873 (1875)
15 Frühlings-Ouvertüre, 1864 (1875)
18 Piano Concerto B , 1867 (1880)
22 Violin Concerto G, 1868 (1880) [in 1 movt]
chamber
— 2 fugues, str qt, 1860–62, CH-Zz
— Presto, str qt, 1860–62, Zz
— Ballade, pf, vn, vc, c1861, Zz, inc.
— String Quartet, B , 1865, Zz; ed. W. Labhart-Kieser (Winterthur, 1977)
1 Piano Trio, g, 1863 (1867)
2 Drei leichte Stücke, vn, pf, 1863 (1868)
6 Piano Quartet, E, 1867 (1870)
16 Qnt, c, pf, vn, va, vc, db, 1874 (1878)
piano
for 2 hands unless otherwise stated

— Sonata, D, 4 hands, c1857, CH-Zz

— Alwinen-Polka, c1860, Zz
— Fantasie, d, 1860, Zz
— Scherzo, F, c1862, Zz
— Waldmärchen, 1863, MS, 1916, in E. Kreuzhage’s private collection
7 Lose Blätter, 9 pieces, 1869 (1870)
8 Two sonatinas, 1869 (1872)
13 Genrebilder, 6 pieces, 1875–6 (1876)
17 Sonata, g, 4 hands, 1865 (1878)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Frank: ‘Hermann Götz’, Musikalisches Wochenblatt, vii (1876), 228–399
passim
J.V. Widmann: ‘Nekrolog: Hermann Goetz’, NZM, lxxiii (1877), 41–2
A. Steiner: ‘Hermann Goetz’, Neujahrsblatt der Allgemeinen
Musikgesellschaft in Zürich, xcv (1907), 3–39 [whole issue]
E. Kreuzhage: Hermann Goetz: sein Leben und seine Werke (Leipzig,
1916)
G.R. Kruse: Hermann Goetz (Leipzig, 1920)
E. Radecke: ‘Die Berliner Erstaufführung der “Widerspenstigen” von
Hermann Goetz’, Jb der literarischen Vereinigung Winterthur 1928,
11–33
G.B. Shaw: Music in London 1890–94 (London, 1932)
R. Münster: ‘Die erste Symphonie e-moll von Hermann Goetz’, Mf, xxii
(1969), 162–75
G. Puchelt: ‘Hermann Goetz (1840–1876)’, SMz, cxvi (1976), 438–45
CHRISTOPHER FIFIELD

Goetze & Gwynn.

English firm of organ builders. It was established in 1980 by Dominic
Gwynn (b Ealing, 18 Aug 1953), Martin Goetze (b Luton, 14 Sept 1951)
and Edward Bennett (b Coln St Aldwyns, Glos., 18 Aug 1948) with the aim
of rediscovering the pre-Victorian (classical) tradition of English organ
building. Their instruments reflect the findings of archival and fieldwork
research, and address the requirements of soloists and ensembles
dedicated to historically informed performances of early music. They have
also contributed to the conservation of Britain’s organ heritage with reports
and pre-restoration surveys of significant instruments and contributions to
organographical conferences and literature (writings by Gwynn are listed
below). Restorations undertaken by the firm have included a number of
chamber and barrel organs. Among the reconstructions are the Handel
organ at St Lawrence, Little Stanmore, London (1994), the 1743 Thomas
Griffin organ at St Helen Bishopsgate, London (1985) and the
Snetzler/Grey & Davison organ of 1774/1864 displayed at the National
Museum of Wales, St Fagans, Cardiff (1996). Goetze & Gwynn’s first new
instruments were continuo organs for early music ensembles modelled
after late 17th-century chamber organs attributed to Father Smith. Their
new church organs reflect the early 18th-century organs of Richard Bridge
and include instruments at the English Church in The Hague (1987) and St
John the Baptist, Marldon, Devon (1990). For further information see D.
Grassin: ‘Profile: Dominic Gwynn’, ISO News, ii (1991), 11–14.
WRITINGS
‘Organ Pitch in Seventeenth-Century England’, JBIOS, ix (1985), 65–78
‘Voicing Developments in the 18th-Century English Organ’, The
Organbuilder, iv (1986), 24–8
‘Reviving the Classical Organ-Building Tradition in Britain’, JBIOS, xii
(1988), 13–19
‘Building a Classical English Organ’, JBIOS, xiii (1989), 99–106
‘The Development of Bellows Systems in British Organs c990–1790’,
JBIOS, xiv (1990), 35–47
‘St John the Baptist, Marldon, Devon, England’, Organ Yearbook, xxii
(1991), 151–9
‘The Handel Organ at Little Stanmore’, Choir and Organ, ii (1995), 30–32
‘“Wondrous Machine”: the Organ that Purcell Knew’, Organist’s Review,
lxxxi (1995), 197–204, 263–5
CHRISTOPHER KENT

Goeyvaerts, Karel (August)

(b Antwerp, 8 June 1923; d Antwerp, 3 Feb 1993). Belgian composer. After
studies in composition at the Antwerp Conservatory (1943–7), he attended
the Paris Conservatoire (1947–50), where he studied analysis with
Messiaen, composition with Milhaud and the ondes martenot with Maurice
Martenot and was awarded the Lili Boulanger Prize (1949) and the
Halphen Prize (1950). The central movements of his Nr. 1, the Sonata for
Two Pianos, composed during the winter of 1950–51, are among the
earliest examples of multiple or integral serialism. The analysis and
performance of these movements by Goeyvaerts and Stockhausen in
Adorno’s composition seminar at the 1951 Darmstadt summer course were
of major importance for those younger composers eager to develop serial
thinking. The influence of the Sonata and subsequent works of Goeyvaerts
is evident in Stockhausen’s early serial compositions; it is documented
furthermore in an extensive correspondence (1951–6) from which, apart
from a few exceptions, only Stockhausen’s letters survive. In 1952,
Goeyvaerts wrote the first score for electronic realization, his Compositie
no.4 ‘with dead tones’. Unlike that score, which was realized at the IPEM
studio in Ghent in 1982 only, his Compositie no.5 (‘with pure tones’), and
Compositie no.7 ‘with converging and diverging levels’) were produced (in
1953 and 1955) at the electronic music studio of the Nordwestdeutscher
Rundfunk in Cologne. After working as an officer for the Belgian airline
Sabena (1957–70), Goeyvaerts resumed his musical career as a producer
for Belgian radio, first at the IPEM studio (1970–74), then as the new music
producer in Brussels (1975–88). In 1985 he was elected president of the
UNESCO International Rostrum of Composers. He was appointed
professor of new music at the Katholieke Universiteit in Leuven in 1992.
Goeyvaerts’s development of serialism was rooted in Messiaen and
Webern. From the former, he learnt the precompositional organization of
the musical parameters, a principle for which he found a historical
precedent in certain isorhythmic procedures of the Ars Nova. From the
latter, he learnt to consider the series not as a theme but as a definition of
structural qualities. His use of fixed octave positions, his first attempts to
serialize duration, dynamics and timbre, and his preoccupation with
symmetrical orderings can also be traced back to Webern. Analysis
confirms Goeyvaerts’ Violin Concerto no.2 and his Nr. 1 as transitional
works in which the strictest serial organization is aimed at but not achieved
throughout. In the former, the pursuit of structural purity ultimately conflicts
with the exigencies of concerto form, whereas in the latter, the harmonic
stability, the gestural character and the loosely inversional relationship
between the first and fourth movements contrast sharply with the rigid
serial organization of the central movements. Only with his Opus 2 voor 13
instrumenten was Goeyvaerts able to create a work in which everything,
from the overall form down to the tiniest detail, is governed by one and the
same serial principle. Consequently, it is this work rather than the Sonata
for Two Pianos that should be considered as the first thoroughgoing
example of multiple serialism, along with the contemporaneous works of
Babbitt and Boulez. Goeyvaerts’s serial compositions, both those written
for instrumental ensemble (Opus 2, Opus 3, and Compositie no.6) and
those for tape (Composities no.4, no.5 and no.7), show an unprecedented
degree of abstraction. In comparison with the dramatic and poetic qualities
of Stockhausen’s or Boulez’s serial output, Goeyvaerts’s works from his
Opus 2 to the Compositie no.7 stake out an aesthetic position all of their
own.
From the mid-1950s onwards it gradually became clear that multiple
serialism was not going to produce the high degree of musical organization
to which composers like Goeyvaerts aimed, especially not from the
listener’s point of view. Unlike certain fellow composers, who integrated
various degrees of indeterminacy into the serial system, Goeyvaerts
seemed to abandon serial technique altogether. A few traditional scores
notwithstanding, Goeyvaerts’s output from 1960 to 1975 can be
characterized broadly as experimental music. Different possibilities were
systematically explored: improvisation on the basis of pitch ‘reservoirs’
(Zomerspelen for three orchestral groups), works exploiting phonetic
materials (Goathemala), the use of variable forces (Parcours), the
exploration of varying degrees of integration between live instruments and
pre-recorded tape (Stuk voor piano), verbal scores (Vanuit de kern),
graphic scores (Actief-reactief), instrumental theatre (Catch à quatre) and
works involving choice on the part of performers (Piano quartet) or
audiences (Al naar gelang). To be sure, all of this is in keeping with the
emancipatory quality characteristic of so much music of the sixties and
early seventies. Yet on closer examination, these pieces manifest the same
structural principles which had obsessed him since the early fifties: cyclic
processes, inversional symmetry and a high degree of abstraction and
mathematical planning underly the seemingly uncontrolled vitality and
randomness on the surface of his scores from this period. From 1975
onwards, he sought the same aesthetic goal by means of a personal
interpretation of minimalism, which he described as ‘evolving repetitive
technique’. A rhythmic cell within a fixed time-span is repeated and a new
element added with every repetition. Once the cell is complete, it starts
gradually to disintegrate. This principle becomes genuinely exciting when
Goeyvaerts puts several processes in motion simultaneously, as in his
impressive cycle of five Litanies (1979–82).
Goeyvaerts spent the last ten years of his life working on the opera project
Aquarius. Since he had not received a commission for the opera, he
devised most of his compositions from 1983 onwards both as independent
works (orchestral, chamber or choral) and as potential scenes within the
opera. Aquarius exemplifies the utopian sociological programme of much
new music, in its depiction of the gradual emergence of an egalitarian
society in which everybody has a place according to his or her capacities.
The texts are mainly phonetic and non-semantic, and singers (eight
sopranos and eight baritones) are always employed as a group.
Goeyvaerts’s correspondence reveals that the composer had an abstract,
non-figurative staging in mind. The compositional language could be
described as one of new tonality, but fundamental aspects of serialism
nonetheless remain in operation, notably the coincidence of macro- and
microstructure (the work’s unique form follows from the choice of pitch
materials) and the interchangeability of the horizontal and vertical
dimensions. Goeyvaerts’s frequent and abrupt changes of musical idiom
(from serial via experimental to repetitive and finally new tonal techniques)
can therefore be said to hide a remarkably homogeneous underlying
programme, which pervades almost his entire output.
WORKS
stage
Aquarius (staged cant, 2 parts, Goeyvaerts), 8 S, chbr orch, tape, 1989, Rotterdam,
Stadsschouwburg Theatre, 5 April 1990; final version as Aquarius (op, 2,
Goeyvaerts), 8 S, 8 Bar, orch, 1991–2, Antwerp, de Singel, 16 Dec 1993
vocal
† incorporated into stage work ‘Aquarius’
Choral: Improperia: cantate voor Goede Vrijdag, A, double chorus, fl, ob + eng hn,
cl + b cl, va, vc, perc, 1959; Mis ter nagedachtenis van Z. Heiligheid Paus Johannes
XXIII, chorus, 2 ob, eng hn, 2 bn, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1968; …Bélise dans un jardin,
chorus, cl, b cl, bn, vn, va, vc, 1971–2; Mon doux pilote s’endort aussi (G. de
Chirico), chorus, 1976; †Aanloop en Kreet, chorus, orch, 1987, rev. orch, 1991; †…
want de Tijd is nabij, male chorus, str, 1989
Solo vocal: Geishaliedjes, S, fl, 2 cl, 1943–4; Hitte, Bar, pf, 1945; La Tour Eiffel, v,
pf, 1947; Muziek voor viool, altstem en piano (W. Shakespeare), C, vn, pf, 1948; La
flûte de jade, S, pf, 1949; Elegische Muziek (R.M. Rilke), A, orch, 1950;
Goathemala, Mez, fl, 1966; De schampere pianist (G. Gils), v, pf, 1975; La vie
quotidienne des Aztèques, spkr, perc, 1979; Claus-ule (H. Claus), spkr, fl, ob, cl, bn,
tpt, trbn, db, 1979; Gesang der Geister über den Wassern (J.W. von Goethe), Bar,
pf, 1981; Litany IV, S, fl, cl, pf, vn, vc, 1981; Dunne Bomen, Mez, 2 male mime
artists, 1985; †De Stemmen van de Waterman, S, fl, cl, pf/hp, vn, vc, 1985; Escale
à Bahia (B. Cendrars), S, fl, vc, 1986; Ode (F. Pessoa), Ct, Bar, fl, b cl, 1988; Drie
liederen (G. Gils), Mez, fl, cl, vn, va, vc, 1989
instrumental
† incorporated into stage work ‘Aquarius’
Orch: Vn Conc. no.1, 1948; Tre lieder per sonare a venti-sei, 26 insts, 1948–9; Vn
Conc. no.2, 1950–51; Diafonie, 1956–7; Zomerspelen, 3 orch, 1960–61, 3rd movt
rev. 1969; De Passie, 1962; Cataclysme, 1963; Al naar gelang, 5 orch groups,
1970–71; Litany III, 1980; †L’Ere du Verseau, 1983; suite, orch, 1991 [consists of
L’Ere du Verseau, 1983, De Zang van Aquarius, 1991, Opbouw, 1991, Aanloop en
kreet, 1991]; †Zum Wassermann, chbr orch, 1984; †De Heilige Stad, chbr orch,
1986; †Aanloop en kreet, 1991 [version of choral work, 1987]; Alba per alban, chbr
orch, inc., 1992–3
7–15 insts: Opus 2 voor 13 instrumenten, pic, 2 ob, 2 b cl, pf, 2 vn, 2 va, 2 vc, db,
1951; Opus 3 met gestreken en geslagen tonen, metal bars, 2 perc, pf, vn, va, vc,
1952; Compositie no.6 met 180 klankvoorwerpen, pic, ob, cl, b cl, hn, tpt, xyl, cel,
pf, hp, gui, vn, va, vc, db, 1954; Hé, audio-visual manipulation, fl, ob, 2 cl, bn, hn,
trbn, hpd, va, vc, 3 tape recorders, mime, projection, 1971, collab. H. Sabbe and L.
Goethals; Pour que les fruits mûrissent cet’été, 14 Renaissance insts, 1975, rev.
chbr ens, 1988;… Erst das Gesicht,… dann die Hände… und zuletzt erst das Haar,
ob, cl, bn, tpt, trbn, 2 vn, va, vc, db, 1978; † De Zang van Aquarius, 8 b cl, 1984;
Avontuur, 3 ob, 2 bn, 2 tpt, tuba, pf, 1985; Das Haar, ob, cl, bn, tpt, trbn, 2 vn, va,
vc, db, 1990
2–6 insts: Trio, cl, vn, vc, 1946; Str Qt, 1947, lost; Sonata, vn, pf, 1949–50; Nr 1
(Sonata for 2 Pf), 1950–51; Stuk voor drie, fl, vn, pf, 1960; Parcours, 2–6 vn, 1967;
Actief-reactief, 2 ob, 2 tpt, pf, 1968; Catch à quatre, 4 players, any insts, 1969;
Vanuit de Kern, 2 players, any insts/sound objects, 1969; Pf Qt, vn, va, vc, pf, tape,
1972; Une nuit à Monte-Carlo, at least 5 insts of different pitch, 1974; Ach
Golgatha!, perc, hp, org, 1975; En rêvant d’un carillon, 2 kbd, requisites, 1976;
Honneurs funèbres à la tête musicale d’Orphée, 6 ondes martenot, 1978; Litany II,
3 perc, 1980; After-Shave, a fl, vn, hpd, 1981; Instant OXO, 3 perc, 1982; Litany V,
(hpd, tape)/(3–4 hpd), 1982; Aemstel Quartet, fl, vn, vc, hp, 1985; Veertien heilige
kwinten met aureool, tcheng, perc, 1986; †De Zeven Zegels, str qt, 1986; Chivas
Regal, hpd, perc, 1988; Ambachtelijk Weefsel, shakuhachi, 2 koto, 1989; Voor
Harrie, Harry en René, fl, b cl, pf, 1990; Voor strijkkwartet, str qt, 1992
Solo inst: Impromptu, pf, 1944; Vijf korte stukken, pf, 1945; Prelude and fugue, pf,
1947; Stuk voor piano en tape, 1964; Landscape for Anette Sachs, clvd, 1973; Pour
tcheng, tcheng, 1974; You’ll never be alone anymore, b cl, tape, 1975; Litany I, pf,
1979; †Aquarius-Tango, pf, 1984; †Pas à Pas, pf, 1985
electronic
Compositie no.4 met dode tonen, 1952; Compositie no.5 met zuivere tonen, 1953;
Compositie no.7 met convergerende en divergerende niveau’s, 1955; Nachklänge
aus dem Theater I–II, 1972; Op acht paarden wedden, 1973; Muziek voor een
koninklijk vuurwerk, 1985

MSS in New Music Research Centre Karel Goeyvaerts, B-LVu

Principal publisher: CeBeDeM

WRITINGS
‘Das elektronische Klangmaterial’, Die Reihe, i (1955), 14–16; Eng. trans.
in Die Reihe, i (1958), 35–7
‘Was aus Wörtern wird’, Melos, xxxix (1972), 159–62
‘Auf der Suche nach dem Ritus des Menschen’, MusikTexte, no.6 (1984),
19–24
‘Damals und heute Vortrag und Gespräch bei den Darmstädter
Ferienkursen 1988’, MusikTexte, no.26 (1988), 16–18
Karel Goeyvaerts: een zelfportret (Ghent, 1988)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KdG (H. Sabbe)
R. Toop: ‘Messiaen/Goeyvaerts, Fano/Stockhausen, Boulez’, PNM, xiii
(1974–5), 141–69
H. Sabbe: Het muzikale serialisme als techniek en als denkmethode
(Ghent, 1977)
H. Sabbe: Karlheinz Stockhausen … wie die Zeit verging;…neue
Erkenntnismöglichkeiten der seriellen Entwicklung, Musik-Konzepte,
no.19 (1981) [incl. extracts from Stockhausen-Goeyvaerts
correspondence]
H. Sabbe: ‘Vom Serialismus zum Minimalismus: der Werdegang eines
Manierismus. Der Fall Goeyvaerts, ‘Minimalist avant la lettre’,
Neuland, iii (1983–2), 203–8
H. Sabbe: ‘Kreuz und Kreis: eine hieratische Schreibweise. Zur Musik von
Karel Goeyvaerts’, MusikTexte, no.6 (1984), 17–19
R. Urmetzer: ‘Abschied von der Kopfmusik: Karel Goeyvaerts auf dem
Weg zu einer postmodernen Musik’, NZM, cxlv/12 (1984), 17–21
M. Zenck: ‘Karel Goeyvaerts und Guillaume de Machaut: zum
mittelalterlichen Konstruktivismus in der seriellen Musik der fünfziger
Jahre’, Mf, xliii (1990), 336–51
M. Delaere: ‘Namen werden hier zu Menschen. Zur Frühgeschichte der
Darmstädter Ferienkurse: zwei Briefe von Karel Goeyvaerts’,
MusikTexte, no.54 (1994), 29–30
RBM, xlviii (1994) [Goeyvaerts memorial volume]
M. Deleare: ‘Karel Goeyvaerts: a Belgian Pioneer of Serial, Electronic and
Minimal Music’, Tempo, no.195 (1995), 4–11
M. Delaere: ‘Auf der Suche nach serieller Stimmigkeit: Goeyvaerts’
Komposition Nr.2’, Die Entstehung der seriellen Musik: Berlin 1996
M. Deleare and D. Verstraete: ‘Het fonds Karel Goeyvaerts in de
Universiteitsbibliotheek KULeuven: inleiding en catalogus’, Musica
Antiqua, xiii (1996), 28–32
M. Delaere, Y. Knockaert and H. Sabbe: Nieuwe Muziek in Vlaanderen
(Bruges, 1998)
M. Delaere, J. Lysens and C. Wouters: ‘Goeyvaerts’ “Litany V” for
Harpsichord and Tape or for Several Harpsichords’, CMR, forthcoming
MARK DELAERE

Goff, Thomas (Robert Charles)

(b London, 16 July 1898; d London, 13 March 1975). English maker of
clavichords, harpsichords and lutes. He was educated at Eton and studied
the piano with Irene Scharrer. After service in World War I he read history
at Christ Church, Oxford, and was called to the bar. Early in 1932 he
received a clavichord as a gift and was so deeply impressed that he
determined to build such instruments. In 1933 he formed a partnership with
J.C. Cobby, a master cabinet maker, and they established their workshop
in Goff’s house. The handsome veneering and inlay work of many of their
instruments, and the finely chased brass hinges, were the result of this
collaboration. A number of instruments with painted cases, including a few
decorated by well-known artists such as Rex Whistler, were also produced.
Goff adopted the clavichord design developed by Herbert Lambert, an able
craftsman and photographer of Bath, who died soon afterwards and so
never joined the partnership. Lambert’s model was derived from 18th-
century clavichords, but had lighter stringing, a slightly heavier soundboard
and a somewhat higher bridge with correspondingly increased down-draft.
Goff made four types of clavichord during his career as a builder, but all
were based on the Lambert model in their essentials. The smallest, a
single-strung instrument (unlike the others, which were classically bichord),
was designed to achieve maximum portability and Goff took one with him
during his service overseas in World War II.
In 1937 the first Goff harpsichord (in all only 14 were made) appeared, also
based on a Lambert model. It was a modern instrument in construction,
heavily cased with a metal frame and 4' hitch-pin plate, a 16' stop,
registration pedals with half-hitches, and an elaborate and complex jack
mechanism. His striving for the maximum variety of timbres and contrast of
tonal colour led Goff to use both quill and leather plectra.
In the postwar years he resumed production and played a significant part in
bringing about an increased acceptance of the harpsichord in British
performances of early music. He also made a small number of lutes and
two regals during this period. Although Goff’s models lost their position of
central importance in later years, as harpsichords modelled more closely
on antique instruments came into increasing favour, his small but exquisite
output was always admired for the refinement of its craftsmanship.
 HOWARD SCHOTT

Goffriller [Gofriller], Matteo

(b Brixen [now Bressanone], 10 Feb 1659; d Venice, 23 Feb 1742). Italian
string instrument maker. He went to Venice in 1685, and is presumed to
have learnt his craft there from Martin Kaiser. In the following year he
married one of Kaiser's daughters and by 1690 had taken charge of the
business. From then until about 1710 he was without a serious competitor
in Venice, and made many instruments for a wide range of clients, hence
the considerable variety in the patterns and quality of his work. He appears
to have been less active after about 1720.
Goffriller was the first important maker of the Venetian school and is best
known for his cellos, built on several patterns, but mostly large-size
instruments based on those of the Amati family. The larger cellos have
almost all been reduced in size to conform with the smaller dimensions in
fashion after the middle of the 18th century, and their effectiveness from
that time depends on how well this was carried out. Casals used a Goffriller
from about 1910 onwards; Janos Starker owns another fine example
known as the ‘Star’ (1706). Many others are in professional use,
particularly in chamber music.
Goffriller's violins are also very fine, and his few violas have dimensions
ideally suited to modern performance. His instruments seldom carry their
maker's label, and many passed unrecognized until recent times. His cellos
were often attributed to Carlo Bergonzi, and instruments continually appear
under more illustrious names.
One of his sons, Francesco Goffriller (b Venice, 4 Nov 1692; d Udine,
c1740 or after), followed his father's profession, though with less energy.
Some of his instruments are excellent. He went to Udine in 1714 and his
labels show that he was active there until at least 1737.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Toffolo: Antichi strumenti veneziani 1500–1800: quattro secoli di liuteria
e cembalaria (Venice, 1987)
Les violons: lutherie venitienne, peintures et dessins, Hôtel de Ville, Paris,
21 March – 7 May 1995 (Paris, 1995) [exhibition catalogue]
CHARLES BEARE

Gogava, Antonius Hermannus

(b Grave, Brabant, 1529; d Madrid, 1569). Physician and translator of
Greek treatises. After studying classical languages and mathematics in
Leiden, he went to the University of Padua, where he received the
doctorate in medicine. He practised medicine in Venice for a while before
winning the patronage of Vespasiano Gonzaga, Duke of Sabbioneta, to
whom he dedicated his book of translations of Greek music treatises.
While still in Leiden Gogava translated the last two books of Ptolemy's
Tetrabiblios, which were published with the first two books in the version by
Joachimus Camerarius (Lieden, 1541). Unaware that Nicola Leoniceno
had already completed a translation of Ptolemy's Harmonics in 1499,
Gogava translated it into Latin from a manuscript in the Biblioteca di S
Marco. He was about to publish it when Gioseffo Zarlino asked him to
prepare a translation of the Harmonics of Aristoxenus, which he also did
from a single source. Later he compared his translation of Ptolemy with
some copies in the Vatican, and, with the addition of the Aristotelian
fragment De audibilibus and part of Porphyry's De praedicabilibus, the set
was published by Vincenzio Valgrisio in 1562 under the title: Aristoxeni
Mvsici antiqviss. Harmonicorvm elementorvm libri iii. Cl.Ptolemaei
Harmonicorum, seu de Musica lib. iii. Aristotelis de obiecto Auditus
fragmentum ex Porphyrij comentarijs.
Gogava's is the only known translation of Aristoxenus before those of
Joannes Meursius (Leiden, 1616) and Marcus Meibom (Amsterdam, 1652).
Though faulty in the rendering of technical terms and interpretation of
musical systems, it exercised a liberating influence on those seeking an
alternative to the Pythagorean tuning. The translation of Ptolemy,
carelessly done, especially in the diagrams and tables, is much inferior to
that of Leoniceno and was superseded by that of John Wallis (Oxford,
1682). Nevertheless, had Gogava's book been read more widely, it would
have disabused musicians of false notions about Greek music and music
theory spread by Gaffurius and Glarean. Vincenzo Galilei and Giovanni
Maria Artusi were profoundly influenced by the Aristoxenus translation, and
Zarlino made copious use of it in his Sopplimenti musicali (1588). Ercole
Bottrigari undertook to correct Gogava's translations of Aristoxenus and
Ptolemy in his copy (now in I-Bc), and even added to Gogava's heading
above the Ptolemy translation ‘and now, after supreme study, intense
labour and wakeful nights, the innumerable faults that infest and almost
completely disfigure it are expurgated and [the books] restored to their
proper form by Hercules Buttrigarius’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BNB (V. Jacques)
GaspariC
A.J. van den Aa: Biographisch woordenboek der Nederlanden (Haarlem,
1862)
C.V. Palisca: Humanism in Italian Renaissance Muscial Thought (New
Haven, 1985), 133–60
C.V. Palisca: ‘Aristoxenus Redeemed in the Renaissance’, Studies in the
History of Italian Music and Music Theory (Oxford, 1994), 189–99
CLAUDE V. PALISCA

Goge.
The most common name for the single-string fiddle of the savanna area of
West Africa. The term goge (or goje) is used by the Hausa and Yoruba
peoples of Nigeria and by the Songhai, Djerma, Mauri and Hausa of Niger,
while the Mamprusi-Dagomba peoples of northern Ghana use gonje and
the Yoruba-speaking Nago of Benin godie. The instrument consists of a
half-calabash resonator on to which is nailed a monitor-lizard skin. This
soundtable has a circular hole on one side. The wooden neck, inserted
through the resonator parallel to the soundtable, protrudes a few
centimetres at the lower end so that the horsehair string can be looped
round it. After passing across a V- or Y-shaped wooden bridge, the string is
fastened to the neck at the upper end with a leather strap. The bow is
usually a curved piece of iron with a horsehair string. In performance the
instrument is placed in the player’s lap so that its body rests against his
waist in an almost horizontal position, and the soundtable is tilted so that
his right hand, holding the bow perpendicular to the string, moves up and
down, while the left hand, holding the neck, stops the string on one side
(for illustration see Songhai music).
Elsewhere the corresponding instrument varies in name and construction.
In Senegal and the Gambia the Wolof riti or duriti, Tukulor gnagnour and
Fula nyaanyooru have a hemispherical wooden resonator, made from the
silk-cotton tree, with one or two holes in the back but none in the lizard-skin
soundtable. The diarka of Timbuktu uses snakeskin. The Ahaggar Tuareg
imzad or amzad may use goatskin which is laced round the soundbox,
while the Tuareg of Air fix the skin with acacia spines. The kiiki of the Teda
of northern Chad has a resonator which may be of wood, a half-calabash,
or an enamel bowl; the wooden neck terminates inside it, the string being
tied to the base through a hole in the soundboard. The duduga of the Bisa
of Burkina Faso has a gourd resonator, while the Songhai-Djerma goge
has a long metal jingle with small iron rings round the edges inserted into
the handle. Instruments vary in size, those of the Tuareg being the largest
with a resonator diameter of 20 to 50 cm, the Songhai of 24 to 28 cm and
the Wolof and Tukulor 18 cm.
Tuareg performance is unique in that the players are predominantly
women, whose ability is highly respected and whose playing is regarded as
a mark of elegance, especially in their accompaniment of men’s love
songs. Among the Fula of the Gambia, the Fulani elsewhere and the
Hausa communities of Niger and Nigeria, the instrument is associated with
professionals who combine displays of technical virtuosity with praise
singing. Among the Songhai and Mauri of Niger, at Timbuktu in Mali and
among the non-Islamic groups of northern Nigeria, the goge is used with
two calabash percussion vessels in spirit possession cults, the best known
of which is bori. Contemporary developments among the Hausa of Nigeria
include the use of electronic amplification for virtuoso performance. The
goge is undoubtedly related to the single-string fiddles of the Arab world,
such as the Rabāb of the Middle Eastern Bedouin. The Ethiopian masēnqo
and the Malagasy heravoa are also clearly related instruments.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources

P.G. Harris: ‘Notes on Drums and Musical Instruments Seen in Sokoto

Province, Nigeria’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, lxii
(1932), 105–25

H.G. Farmer: ‘Early References to Music in Western Sūdān’, Journal of the

Royal Asiatic Society (1939), 569–79
H. Lhoté: Les Touareg du Hoggar (Paris, 1955)

M. Bovis and M. Gast: Touareg Ahaggar (Paris, 1959)

Music of Kanem, BM30 L2309 (1963) [incl. notes by M. Brandily]

V. Pâques: L’arbre cosmique dans la pensée populaire et dans la vie

quotidienne du nord-ouest africain (Paris, 1964)

K. Krieger: ‘Musikinstrumente der Hausa’, Baessler-Archiv, new ser., xvi

(1968), 373–430

D.W. Ames and A.V. King: Glossary of Hausa Music and its Social
Contexts (Evanston, IL, 1971)

B. Surugue: Contribution à l’étude de la musique sacrée zarma-songhay

(Niamey, 1972)

M. Brandily: Instruments de musique et musiciens instrumentalistes chez

les Teda du Tibesti (Tchad) (Tervuren, 1974)

Alhaji Garba Leo and his Goge Music, Folkways FW8860 (1976) [incl.
notes by R.F. Grass]

Musiques du plateau, Nigéria, Ocora OCR82 (1984)

K.A. GOURLAY/ROGER BLENCH

Gogol', Nikolay Vasil'yevich

(b Sorochintsï, Poltava province, 19/31 March 1809; d Moscow, 21 Feb/4
March 1852). Russian novelist and dramatist. Born into an impoverished
gentry family in the Ukraine, where he spent his childhood and youth, he
received a rather meagre education. He went to St Petersburg in 1828 and
began to make his name with the stories in Evenings on a Farm near
Dikanka (1831–2); his introduction to Zhukovsky and Pushkin also
broadened his outlook. All his early stories, including Taras Bul'ba (1835),
have Ukrainian settings, but with Nevskiy prospekt (1835) and The Diary of
a Madman (1835) he began to write about St Petersburg. His satirical
comedy The Inspector-General (1836) was not only a landmark in the
history of the theatre, but also in the history of Russian social attitudes. The
short story The Overcoat (1842) and his masterpiece, the picaresque novel
Dead Souls (1842), were interpreted by many of Gogol'’s contemporaries
as social criticism, although his own intention was probably moral rather
than social satire. The Marriage (1842) is a pure comedy. His greatest
works have been translated into most European languages, and his plays
are often performed outside Russia.
Regarded as the creator of the Russian novel, Gogol' also occasionally
wrote about music, and was one of the first systematically to collect
Ukrainian folksongs. Many Russian composers, on whom his influence,
direct or indirect, was considerable, later adopted and adapted many of his
literary innovations, especially the use of Russian subjects, and of subjects
 previously considered unsuitable for artistic treatment; the use of fantasy,
the grotesque and the supernatural; satire and off-beat humour, realism
and nationalism. He foresaw the need for national music before composers
did; his famous call ‘Give us something Russian!’ was answered by Glinka,
whom he knew personally.
WORKS SET TO MUSIC
short stories unless otherwise stated

Sorochinskaya yarmarka [Sorochintsï Fair] (1831–2): op by Musorgsky, 1880;

operetta by Ryabov, Khar'kiv, 1936; ballet by A. Peysin, Leningrad, 1940; ballet by
V.V. Gomolyaka, Donetsk, 1956; operetta by Alexandrov; op by Dnovsky; op by B.K.
Yanovsky, lost
Vecher nakanune Ivana Kupala [St John’s Eve] (1831–2): sym. fantasia by
Musorgsky, 1860–67; ov. by Yu. Arnold
Mayskaya noch', ili Utoplennitsa [May Night, or The Drowned Woman] (1831–2): op
by P.P. Sokal'sky, 1876; op by Lysenko, 1883; op by Rimsky-Korsakov, 1877–9;
operetta by A. Ryabov, Khar'kiv, 1937; film score by D. Klebanov, 1940; ballet piece
by N. Chaykin, Kiev, 1947; film score by Pototsky, 1952
Noch' pered rozhdestvom [Christmas Eve] (1831–2): Kuznets Vakula, op by
Tchaikovsky, 1874; op by N.F. Solov'yov, 1875; operetta by A. Peysin, Leningrad,
1929; op by Rimsky-Korsakov, 1894–5; op sketch by Serov; ballet by Asaf'yev,
Leningrad, 1938; op by K. Gertman; op by Afanasyev; op by Shtsurovsky
Strashnaya mest' [Terrible Revenge] (1831–2): op by N.R. Kochetov
Ivan Fyodorovich Shpon'ka i yego tetushka [Shpon'ka and his Aunt] (1831–2): song
by Yu. M. Yatzebich, 1953
Portret [The Portrait] (1833–4): op by H. Rosenberg, Stockholm, 1956
Nos [The Nose] (1833–5): op by Shostakovich, 1927–8; op by V. Kaufman, 1952–3
Viy (1833–5): op by Ya. L. Goryelov, 1897; op by K. Moor, Prague, 1903; operetta
by Staritsky; operetta by Verikovsky, 1946; Vječnaja pamjat, op by A. Dobronic,
Zagreb, 1947; pf piece by M. Karminsky, 1948; fairy operetta by Kropivnitsky; op by
B.K. Yanovsky, lost
Zhenit'ba [The Marriage] (comedy, 1833–41): op by Musorgsky, 1868; op by
Grechaninov, 1946, Paris, 1950; television op by Martinů, New York, 1953; musical
comedy by Jiránek
Zapiski sumasshedshego [Diary of a Madman] (1835): op by H. Searle, 1958;
mono-op by Yu. Butsko, 1968
Taras Bul'ba (1835): op by P.P. Sokal'sky, 1878, rev. 1905; op by Kühner, St
Petersburg, 1880; op by S.A. Trailin, St Petersburg, 1880s; op by Lysenko, 1890; op
by Berutti, Turin, 1895; op by M.S. Rousseau, Paris, 1919; ballet by Solov'yov-
Sedoy, 1940, rev. 1955; ballet by Glière, 1951–2; also ops by Afanasyev,
Kashperov, K.P. Vil'boa; sym. poem by Glinka, unfinished, 1852; orch rhapsody by
Janáček, 1915–18; Dumka, str qt by E. Slavinsky
Revizor [The Inspector-General] (comedy, 1836): Arifin Khilesi, op by T.G.
Chukhajian, Constantinople, 1872; operetta by K. Weis, Prague, 1907; op by D.N.
Shvedov, 1934; op by Zador, 1935; op by Zanella, Trieste, 1940; film score by
Timofeyev, 1952; op by Egk, 1957; incid music by M. Gnesin, 1929; film score by
Shebalin
Shinel' [The Overcoat] (1842): op by Marttinen, Helsinki, 1965
Myortvïye dushi [Dead Souls] (novel, 1842): pf suite by N. Silvanski; Ob
utrachennoy yunosti [On Lost Youth], T, chorus, by G.V. Sviridov, also setting for 5
unacc. choruses, 1961; cant. by Volkonsky, 1952; pf suite by V.A. Uspensky, 1962
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (R. Taruskin)
‘Muzïkal'nïye proizvedeniya na temï iz Gogolya’, Gogolovsky sbornik,
1852–1902, ed. M. Speransky (Kiev, 1902)
A. Gozenpud: ‘Gogol' v muzïke’, Literaturnoye nasledstvo, lviii (1952),
no.58, pp.893–924
B.V. Asaf'yev: ‘Gogol' i muzïka’, Izbrannïye trudï, iv, ed. T.N. Livanova and
V.A. Vasina-Grossman (Moscow, 1955), 154
G.A. Tyumeneva: Gogol' i muzïka (Moscow, 1966)
S. Karlinsky: The Sexual Labyrinth of Nikolay Gogol (Cambridge, MA,
1976)
P. Taylor: Gugolian Interludes: Gogol’s Story ‘Christmas Eve’ as the
Subject of the Operas by Tchaikovsky and Rimsky-Korsakov (London,
1984)
APRIL FITZLYON

Gogorza, Emilio [Edoardo] de

(b Brooklyn, NY, 29 May 1874; d New York, 10 May 1949). American
baritone of Spanish descent. He spent his youth in Spain and France and
in England, where he sang as a boy soprano. He returned to New York and
studied with Cleito Moderati and Emilio Agramonte. He made his début as
assistant to Sembrich in 1897. Because he was extremely short-sighted he
never sang in opera, but he soon found a place as a leading recitalist and
festival soloist, often appearing jointly in recitals with Emma Eames, whom
he married in 1911. From about 1898 he was very active in various
recording studios, using a variety of pseudonyms (Carlos Francisco, M.
Fernand, Herbert Goddard etc.); eventually under his own name he
became one of the most successful and prolific Victor Red Seal artists.
Because of his own success and his association with many of the leading
singers of his day, he became artistic director for Victor and supervised
many recording sessions. In 1925 he joined the faculty of the Curtis
Institute. His voice was a vibrant and virile baritone of wide range and
ample power, as can be heard on recordings with Eames reissued on CD.
He was master of many styles, especially admired in music of the French
and Spanish schools, but he had a gift of lending distinction to simple
home songs and popular selections. He contributed some memoirs to
Opera News (Nov 1937).
PHILIP LIESON MILLER

Göhler, (Karl) Georg

(b Zwickau, 29 June 1874; d Lübeck, 4 March 1954). German conductor
and composer. He received a PhD at Leipzig (1896) with a dissertation on
Freundt and in 1897 succeeded his former teacher Kretzschmar as
conductor of the Leipzig Riedel'scher Verein. Following service in Altenburg
and Karlsruhe he resumed his former position and also conducted
orchestral concerts of the Musikalische Gesellschaft. In 1913–15 he
conducted in Hamburg and in 1915 succeeded Furtwängler as conductor
of the Verein der Musikfreunde in Lübeck. He conducted opera in Altenburg
 (1922–7) and concurrently directed the orchestra in Halle. Göhler retired
from active musical life during the 1930s to devote himself to composition
and writings on music. As a conductor he championed the symphonies of
Mahler and Bruckner. He also directed performances of Verdi operas little
known at the time and made German translations of Macbeth, Luisa Miller
and La forza del destino. Foremost among Göhler’s own compositions are
his lieder, over 200 of which were published. In these and in his
instrumental works he reveals himself firmly committed to the Classical-
Romantic tradition, an attitude he reinforced in the criticism he published in
Kunstwart and Zukunft.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Heldenklage, 1918; Pf Conc., 1925; 2 vn concs.: e, 1925–6, a, 1930;

Passacaglia über ein Thema von Händel, 1935; 5 syms.; Vc Conc.
Chbr: 2 str qts: a, 1928, f, 1936; Variations, 2 pf; 24 Bagatellen, pf; Mozart-
Variationen, pf trio, 1938; 2 vn sonatinas, 1939; Quartetto enimmatico, pf qt, 1940;
Str Trio, 1942; Variations, 2 pf; 24 Bagatellen, pf
Vocal: Prinz Nachtwächter, opera, Altenburg, 1922; 2 solo cants., over 200 lieder,
male choruses, motets
Principal publishers: Kistner & Siegel, Klemm

BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Hennings: Musikgeschichte Lübecks, i (Kassel, 1951)
P. Bülow: ‘Georg Göhler zum Gedächtnis’, ZfM, cxv (1954), 213–14
E. Nick: ‘Georg Göhler’, Musica, viii (1954), 208 only
E. Möller: ‘Fünf unveröffentliche Briefe von Max Reger an Georg Göhler’,
BMw, xxiv (1982), 276–82
E. Möller: ‘Ein unveröffentliche Briefwechsel zwischen Alban Berg und
Georg Göhler’, BMw, xxxi (1988), 279–82
GEORGE W. LOOMIS

Göhringer, Francilla.
German contralto. See Pixis family.

Goicoechea Errasti, Vicente

(b Ibarra de Aramayona, Alava, 5 April 1854; d Valladolid, 8 April 1916).
Spanish composer. He was first a law student, meanwhile studying music
with Felipe Gorriti. He then studied in Valladolid to become a priest. In 1890
he won the competition for the position of maestro de capilla at Valladolid
Cathedral, where he remained until his death. He was made a canon there
on 4 March 1915.
Goicoechea's artistic life can be divided into two parts. Compositions
antedating Pius X's Motu proprio on sacred music (1903) exhibit the
general characteristics of Spanish sacred music of the period, with lavish
use of the orchestra and brilliant solo passages. But after Motu proprio,
which prescribed a greater religious purity in sacred music, adducing as
models Gregorian chant and 16th-century polyphony, he threw himself with
great fervour into studying them, radically altering the style of his
subsequent compositions. At the same time he deepened his knowledge of
the great composers of the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly of Wagner,
whom he greatly admired. The result was a purified contrapuntal technique,
a rich but sober harmony, extreme economy in the use of vocal effects and
a total absence of the orchestra (he limited himself to organ
accompaniment), the whole imbued with a mystic religious fervour that was
the fruit of his religious meditations and of his profoundly devout and
mystical spirit, comparable to that of Victoria. Precisely because his
compositions are the fruit of long and deep meditation, they are relatively
small in number, and of notable artistic quality. Almost all of them have
been published in the periodical Música sacro-hispana or in other editions.
The most noteworthy are his Christus-Miserere, Lamentations, motets and
various masses, including a requiem, finished shortly before his death and
first performed at his funeral. The autograph manuscripts of many of his
works are in the archives of Valladolid Cathedral.
The influence of Goicoechea on all Spanish composers of sacred music in
the 20th century has been considerable, not only through his works, which
have served as models, but also because he organized the first national
congress of sacred music, held in Valladolid in 1907, which set in motion
the reform of sacred music in Spain. He also inspired with his ideals the
young Nemesio Otaño, who became from that time the most energetic
proponent of this reform.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Música sacro-hispana, ix (1916), 145–76 [series of articles]
P. Aizpurúa: ‘Vicente Giocoechea Errasti: centenario de la magisterio
musical en la catedral de Valladolid’, RdMc, xv (1992), 281–302 [with
list of works]
JOSÉ LÓPEZ-CALO

Góis, Damião de [Goes, Damian;

Goes, Damianus a]
(b Alenquer, Feb 1502; d Alenquer, 30 Jan 1574). Portuguese humanist,
chronicler, diplomat and composer. He was a page at the court of Manuel I.
His travels took him to most of the countries of Europe, from England to
Italy and as far east as Russia, and he was on familiar terms with many
noted personages of the time, including Erasmus. He lived for several
years in Antwerp and Leuven, where he married. He produced a
considerable body of writings in Latin and Portuguese. Glarean, with whom
he became acquainted while staying with Erasmus, praised him as a
composer and included his three-voice motet Ne laeteris inimica mea in the
Dodecachordon. Another motet, Surge, propera amica mea for five voices,
was printed at Augsburg in the Cantiones septem, sex et quinque vocum
(RISM 15453). The only other surviving composition that may be by Góis is
In die tribulationis, included in Libro secondo de li motetti a tre voce,
printed in Venice (RISM 154914) and later in Nuremberg by Berg & Neuber
in the second volume of their Tricinia (RISM 15602). However, since it is
attributed in both sources merely to ‘Damianus’, it cannot definitely be
ascribed to Góis. Other works by him were in the library of João IV.
According to João Franco Barreto and Diego Barbosa Machado, Góis also
wrote a treatise on music theory (see Nery).
Góis’s surviving music (all ed. in PM, ser.A. xxxvii, 1982) displays a certain
skill in polyphonic composition. Although music was one of his favourite
pursuits he had many other interests in the arts, letters, politics and
finance. He was denounced to the Inquisition in 1545 for having consorted
with heretic leaders in his youth, for singing and playing strange music in
his house on the Sabbath (florid music, masses and motets) and for other
indiscretions; he was subsequently tried and condemned to imprisonment
in 1571 and confined to the monastery of Batalha in 1572.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JoãoIL
H. Glarean: Dodecachordon (Basle, 1547/R; Eng. trans., MSD, vi, 1965),
9, 31, 253–4, 270, 331–2
M. de Sampayo Ribeiro: Damião de Goes na Livraria real da música
(Lisbon, 1935)
A.F.G. Bell: ‘Damião de Goes, a Portuguese Humanist’, Hispanic Review,
ix (1941), 243–51
A.T. Luper: ‘Portuguese Polyphony in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth
Centuries’, JAMS, iii (1950), 93–112
E.F. Hirsch: Damião de Gois: the Life and Thought of a Portuguese
Humanist, 1502–1574 (The Hague, 1967)
R. Stevenson: Preface to Antologia de polifónia portuguesa, 1490–1680,
PM, ser.A, xxxvii (1982), pp.xxxi–xxxii
R.V. Nery, ed.: A música no ciclo da ‘Biblioteca lusitana’ (Lisbon, 1984),
103–26
ALBERT T. LUPER/R

Gołąbek, Jakub
(b Silesia, c1739; d Kraków, 30 March 1789). Polish composer and singer.
He was active in Kraków from at least 1766 (in which year he was married),
first in the chapel choir of St Mary’s, later (c1774) as singer and composer
for the Wawel Cathedral choir. From 1781 to 1787 he also worked as a
teacher at the Kraków singing school run by the priest Wacław
Sierakowski, and took part in concerts of oratorios and cantatas organized
by Sierakowski, modelled on those of the Concert Spirituel, Paris.
Gołąbek’s music is significant in the formation of a Polish Classical style,
as is evident in the forms he used (two-subject expositions, short
development and recapitulation), thematic structure, treatment of the bass
part (clearly following the tradition of the basso continuo), and the use of
galant elements in slow movements (for example in his Parthia). There are
four extant, unaccompanied masses, conforming to the type ‘missa sine
credo’, mostly composed in a homophonic style but containing some
polyphony. Gołąbek’s instrumental music is characterized by a non-
schematic approach to composition combined with a degree of melodic
 ingenuity. His sacred works, as well as his symphonic works, were well
known in his day and were highly regarded, not just in the Kraków region.
WORKS
vocal
5 masses, 4vv, orch, lost
4 masses, 4vv, Wawel Cathedral Archives, Kraków
Vespers, lost
Veni Sancte Spiritus, D, T, 4vv, insts, org, PL-Kj; several other motets, lost
3 cants. (W. Sierakowski) to St Jacek, blessed Bronisława, St Jan Kanty, 4 solo vv,
chorus, orch, texts pubd in Kantata w muzyce (Kraków, 1777–96), music lost; cant.
to St Stanisław (Sierakowski), 1773, lost
instrumental
Syms.: D, c1773, PL-MO, ed. in ZHMP, iii (1963), ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840,
ser. F, vii (New York, 1982); D, Pu, ed. in ZHMP, iii (1963); C, CZp, ed. in ZHMP, iii
(1963); B , D, SZ
Parthia, C, 2 cl, 2 hn, bn, 1770, SA, ed. in ZHMP, iv (1962)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SMP
B. Muchenberg: Preface to J. Gołąbek: Symphonie, ZHMP, iii (1963)
J. Węcowski: ‘Z dziejów XVIII-wiecznej kapeli w Szalowej’ [The history of
the 18th-century chapel in Szalowa], Z dziejów muzyki polskiej [From
the history of Polish music], vii (1964), 55–63
G. Abraham: ‘Some Eighteenth-Century Polish Symphonies’, Studies in
Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer, ed. H.C.R.
Landon and R.E. Chapman (New York and London, 1970), 13–22,
esp. 13–14, 16–19
A. Nowak-Romanowicz: ‘Gołąbek Jakub’, Encyklopedia muzyczna PWM,
ed. E. Dziębowska, iii (Kraków, 1987)
A. Nowak-Romanowicz: Klasycyzm 1750–1830 [Classicism 1750–1830]
(Warsaw, 1995)
ALINA NOWAK-ROMANOWICZ/BARBARA CHMARA-ŻACZKIEWICZ

Golabovski, Sotir
(b Struga, 30 Oct 1937). Macedonian musicologist and composer. He
studied music privately with Vlastimir Nikolovski in Skopje, and later took
composition at the Ljubljana Academy of Music, at the same time studying
philosophy and sociology at the philosophy faculty of the University of
Skopje. He took the MA in composition with Lucijan Škerjanc in 1964. He
worked as a radio producer in Skopje (1964) and taught theoretical studies
at the Pedagogical Academy there (1966–85). He participated in the
Darmstadt summer courses (1970, 1972), and studied composition in
Munich with Günter Bialas, in Cologne with Stockhausen, and in Berlin with
Frank Beyer (1973–4). He took the doctorate with Vladimir Mošin at the
University of Skopje (1985) with a dissertation on music manuscripts from
Ohrid and the oldest known Slavic-language triodion. In 1985 he became
professor of musicology in the University’s music faculty. He received the
11 Oktombri award in 1996 and the Kliment Ohridski award in 1997.
Golabovski’s musicological interest is focussed on the history of
Macedonian music, particularly music of the Eastern Orthodox church.
Many of his compositions are also inspired by Macedonian church music;
they include a ballet, Introspekcija (‘Introspection’, 1960), a symphony
(1963), symphonic poems, and a cantata, Slovensko eho (‘Slavic Echo’,
1965).
WRITINGS
‘Metričkite formi vo makedonskiot muzički folklor’ [Metric forms in
Macedonian musical folklore], Yugoslav Folklore Association:
Congress XIII: Dojran 1966, 419–25
‘Nekoi zabeleški za melodiskata ornamentika vo makedonskiot muzički
melos’, Makedonski folklor, ii/3–4 (1969), 293–8
‘Muzikata i revolucija’ [Music and revolution], ‘Od muzičkoto minato na
Struga’ [From the music heritage of Struga], ‘Arhaični ostatoci vo
segašnata crkveno-muzička praktika vo Struškiot kraj’ [Archaic
remnants in contemporary church music practice in the Struga region],
Makedonska muzika, i (1977), 17–21, 43–53, 55–8
‘O tvorchestve Vlastimira Nikolovskogo’ [The works of Vlastimir Nikolovski],
SovM (1977), no.12, pp.100–03
‘Nekoi tonalni vrski pomeđu muzičkiot folklor i crkovnoto peenje vo
Makedonija’ [Some tonal characteristics of musical folklore and church
chant in Macedonia], Makedonski folklor, xi/21–22 (1978), 285–300
‘Periodizacija na makedonskata duhovna muzika’ [Periodization of
Macedonian sacred music], Vesnik na MPC, xxi/5 (1979), 174–81
‘Osvrt na muzičkite tekstovi vo Bolonjskiot psaltir’ [A survey of the musical
items in the Bologna Psalter], ‘Život i deloto na Jovan Harmosin-
Ohridski’ [The life and works of Jovan Harmosin-Ohridski],
Makedonska muzika, ii (1979), 27–30, 31–7
‘Periodizacijata na makedonskata duhovna muzika kako možnost za
sagleduvanje na celokupnata muzička aktivnost vo minatoto na
Makedonija’ [Periodization in Macedonian sacred music as a
requirement for a total overview of the musical activities in Macedonian
heritage], Makedonski folklor, xii/23 (1979), 179–91
‘Gospodi vozzvah Dionisa Poposkog’ [Gospodi vozzvah by Dionis
Poposki], ‘Tonalni osnovi na makedonskata duhovna muzika od
periodot IX–XV vek’ [Tonal characteristics of Macedonian sacred
music from the 9th century to the 15th], Makedonska muzika, iii
(1981), 23–9, 31–6
‘Jovan Kukuzel’, Makedonska muzika, v (1983), 37–43; enlarged in
Zbornik na Bogoslovskiot Fakultet sv. Kliment Ohridski, iii (1997), 89–
107
Tradicionalna i eksperimentalna makedonska muzika [Traditional and
experimental Macedonian music] (Skopje, 1984)
Muzičkite rakopisi od ohridskata zbirka i najstarite sočuvani makedonski
triodi na slovenski jezik [Music manuscripts from the Ohrid Collection
and the oldest known Slavic-language Macedonian triodion] (diss., U.
of Skopje, 1985)
‘Russko-makedonskie muzykal'nye svjazi’ [The musical connections
between Russia and Macedonia], Makedonski folklor, xxvi/52 (1993),
63–70
Makedonsko crkveno peenje: osmoglasnik/Macedonian Chant: Oktoëchos
(Skopje, 1993–5)
Makedonsko crkveno peenje: zlatoustova liturgija – Makedonski
tradicionalen crkoven napev/Macedonian Chant: Liturgy of St. John
Chrysostom – Macedonian Traditional Church Chant (Skopje, 1997)
Istorija na makedonskata muzika [A history of Macedonian church music]
(Skopje, 1999)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Karakaš: Muzičkite tvorci vo Makedonija [Composers of Macedonia]
(Skopje, 1970), 107–9
D. Ortakov: Muzičkata umetnost vo Makedonija [Music in Macedonia]
(Skopje, 1982)
T. Prošev: Sovremena makedonska muzika [Macedonian contemporary
music] (Pula, 1986)
M. Kolovski: Sojuz na kompozitorite na Makedonija (Skopje, 1993), 94–6
ZDRAVKO BLAŽEKOVIĆ

Golani, Rivka
(b Tel-Aviv, 22 March 1946). Israeli viola player. She learnt the violin with
her mother, then at the Israel Academy of Music and finally with Oedoen
Partos at Tel-Aviv University, also studying art and mathematics. Having
switched to the viola, she played in the Tel-Aviv Chamber Orchestra in
1968 and in the Israel PO from 1969 to 1974, gradually building up a solo
career as a 20th-century specialist. In 1974 she moved to Toronto,
becoming a major force in Canadian contemporary music; and from the
1990s she has been based alternately in Toronto and London. Golani has a
charismatic stage presence and the ability to hold an audience's attention
even with the most complex new music. In addition to playing and
recording the mainstream viola repertory, such as the Bach suites, Bloch's
Suite hébraïque, Joachim's Variations, the viola concertos of Martinů, Serly,
Bartók, Bax and Rubbra, Benjamin's Fantasy and the Tertis version of the
Elgar Cello Concerto, she has given the premières of more than 200
works, including 33 concertos. A number have been recorded. Music
associated with her includes Trema by Heinz Holliger, Chaconne by
Michael Colgrass and pieces by Brian Cherney, Milton Barnes, André
Prévost, David Jaeger, Otto Joachim, Peter Paul Koprowski, Steve Tittle,
Marjan Mozetich, Jim Hiscott, Diana McIntosh, Chris Paul Harman, Jean
Papineau-Couture and Ann Southam. As a painter and graphic artist,
Golani has held exhibitions in several countries. She plays a large
asymmetrical instrument by Otto Erdesz, made in 1977, with the right
shoulder cut away to facilitate the left hand's access to the strings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T. Potter: disc notes, The Recorded Viola, iv, Pearl GEMS 0039
TULLY POTTER

Gold, Arthur
 (b Toronto, 6 Feb 1917; d New York, 3 Jan 1990). Canadian pianist. He
formed a duo team with Robert Fizdale in 1944.

Gold, Ernest
(b Vienna, 13 July 1921; d Santa Monica, CA, 17 March 1999). American
composer of Austrian birth. He studied the piano with his grandfather and
the violin with his father, later enrolling in the Vienna Music Academy. He
emigrated with his family to the USA in 1938, where he studied harmony
and orchestration with Otto Cesana and conducting with Leon Barzin at the
National Orchestra Association, New York. Earning a living as an
accompanist and song writer, his early hit Practice makes Perfect (1940)
was followed by Accidentally on Purpose and They Started Something.
After settling in Hollywood in 1945 to work as an arranger, conductor and
composer in the film industry, he studied with Antheil (1946–8) and
conducted the Santa Barbara Civic Opera (1958–60). In 1964 he founded
the Senior Citizens Orchestra, Los Angeles. He was the first film composer
to have his name engraved on Hollywood's ‘Walk of Fame’.
WORKS
(selective list)

Film scores: The Girl of the Limberlost, 1945; The Falcon's Alibi, 1946; G.I. War
Brides, 1946; Smooth as Silk, 1946; Exposed, 1947; Jennifer, 1953; The Defiant
Ones, 1958; On the Beach, 1959; The Young Philadelphians, 1959; Exodus, 1960;
Inherit the Wind, 1960; A Fever in the Blood, 1961; Judgement at Nuremberg, 1961;
The Last Sunset, 1961; A Child is Waiting, 1962; Pressure Point, 1962; It’s a Mad,
Mad, Mad, Mad World, 1963; Ship of Fools, 1965; The Secret of Santa Vittoria,
1969; The Wild McCullochs, 1975; Cross of Iron, 1977;
Stage: Song of the Bells (pageant), 1956; Too Warm for Furs (musical, E. Penney),
c1956; Maria (pageant), 1957; I’m Solomon (musical, A. Croswell), New York, 1968
Orch: Pan American Sym., 1941; Pf Conc., 1943; Ballad, 1944; Sym. Preludes,
1944; Allegorical Ov., 1947; Sym. no.2, 1947; Audubon Ov., c1949; Band in Hand
(B. Smith), nar, vv, band, 1966; Boston Pops March, 1966; other band works
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt, c1948; Trio, vn, bn, pf, c1950 [rev. as Sym., bn, pf, str,
c1952]; Sonatina, fl, pf, c1952; Pf Sonata, 1954; 3 Miniatures, pf (1968); 15 other pf
works
Many songs and choral works, incl. Songs of Love and Parting, c1963

Principal publishers: Chappell, Crystal, Marks, Piedmont, Simrock, Society for the Publication of
American Music

BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Stadler and P.Weibel: The Cultural Exodus from Austria (Vienna and
New York, 1995)
T. Thomas: Film Score (Munich, 1995)
THOMAS L. GAYDA

Goldar, Robert.
See Golder, Robert.

Goldberg [Gollberg, Goltberg,

etc.], Johann Gottlieb [Théophile]
(b Danzig [now Gdańsk], bap. 14 March 1727; d Dresden, bur. 15 April
1756). German keyboard virtuoso and composer. Very little documentary
evidence about Goldberg's life has survived, and virtually all the early
reports contain some demonstrable errors. He is widely reported to have
become a pupil of J.S. Bach after the Russian ambassador to the court of
Saxony, Hermann Karl von Keyserlingk (Count from 1741), recognized the
boy's talent in Danzig, perhaps in 1737. Goldberg was also claimed as a
pupil by W.F. Bach, who was in Dresden throughout Keyserlingk's first
period of office in that city (1734–45). No other report confirms this
tutelage, and the extent of Goldberg's study with either Bach and the order
in which he studied with them remain subjects for speculation.
Forkel's famous story of the commissioning of J.S. Bach's Goldberg
Variations (published c1741 as Clavier-Übung, iv) by Keyserlingk to be
played by Goldberg contains several errors of fact and must be doubted. (It
has frequently been questioned because of Goldberg's extreme youth: the
lack of a dedication in the print is evidence against the commission, though
even without a commission Bach could have given Keyserlingk a copy of
the print and received a gift in return, perhaps in late 1741, when he is
known to have visited the Keyserlingk home in Dresden.) It is clear,
however, from early accounts that the technical difficulty of the variations
would have been well matched by Goldberg's amazing performing skills.
The fact that Keyserlingk's only son was studying in Leipzig from 1741 until
at least 1743 may have provided the vehicle for Goldberg's visits to Leipzig
– visits that are suggested by the nature, style and diplomatic condition of
Goldberg's church cantatas, as well as by Forkel's doubtful story.
Goldberg seems not to have accompanied Count Keyserlingk from
Dresden to Potsdam in 1745 and is next traceable about 1749–51
(according to Dadder) at a concert at which Keyserlingk (back in Dresden
from 1749), Electress Maria Antonia Walpurgis of Saxony and W.F. Bach
(presumably visiting from Halle) were also present, according to W.F.
Bach's letter to the electress in 1767. In 1751 Goldberg joined the private
musical establishment of Count Heinrich von Brühl, which had been
weakened by the departure of both Georg Gebel (ii) and Gottlob Harrer in
1750. He remained in Brühl's service until his early death, of consumption.
The earliest reports are unanimous in praising Goldberg's keyboard
playing, especially his facility in sight-reading at the keyboard. But his
compositional skills provoked a small controversy: Forkel suggested in his
Bach biography (1802) that Goldberg was ‘a very skilful keyboard player,
but with no particular talent for composition’, and J.F. Reichardt reprinted
this opinion in his 1805 autobiography, adding: ‘apparently H[err] F[orkel]
knows nothing, or only the least significant, of Goldberg's very rare
keyboard works’. The statement attributed to Reichardt (Dürr, p.58; Dadder
and Dürr), that Goldberg possessed primarily technical talent, was not
really a musical genius and had no special talent for composition, is not in
 Reichardt's autobiography but only in the very imaginative ‘excerpt’ from it
by H.M. Schletterer (J.F. Reichardt, 1865/R, p.69). Reichardt was himself in
an excellent position to assess Goldberg’s compositions, as he owned
‘several’ of Goldberg's keyboard concertos and had heard Goldberg's sister
play some of her brother's works. The likelihood that J.S. Bach encouraged
Goldberg to write church cantatas for Leipzig speaks well for his
compositional talent, as does the confusion – going back at least to the
Breitkopf catalogues of 1761 and 1762 – over the attribution of the C major
Trio Sonata bwv1037.
Goldberg's extant compositions show a musical style varying with genre
and hypothetical chronology, from a style very close to J.S. Bach's (the
cantatas, most of the trio sonatas) to one far more galant and accessible to
the Dresden audience (the polonaises, Trio Sonata in G minor) and,
perhaps finally, to an ambitious modern style calculated for Count Brühl's
orchestra and possibly influenced by the style of C.P.E. Bach (the
concertos). It is not surprising that in approaching the works of this young
and facile man it is difficult to find his ‘real’ musical style, although a love for
syncopation, for wide-ranging melodies and especially for chromaticism
runs through his works.
WORKS
for thematic catalogue, see Dürr

vocal
Durch die herzliche Barmherzigkeit (cant.), ?Leipzig, feast of St John, 24 June
c1741–5, 5vv, 2 ob, 2 vn, 2 va, bc, D-Bsb*; ed. in EDM, 1st ser., xxxv (1957)
Hilf, Herr (cant., Ps xii), ?Leipzig, c1741–5, 4vv, 2 vn, va, bc, Bsb; ed. in EDM, 1st
ser., xxxv (1957)
instrumental
2 hpd concs. (E , d), D-Bsb; ed. E. Dadder (Celle, 1945); for further information see
Dürr
4 sonatas (B , a, g, C), 2 vn, bc, Bsb; no.4 in C also attrib. J.S. Bach as bwv1037,
see Dürr; nos.3–4 also arr. for vn, obbl hpd, Bsb; no.2 ed. in NM, clxxxv (1956),
no.3 ed. in NM, cxcviii (1958)
Sonata, c, 2 vn, va, bc, Bsb; ed. F.W. Lothar (Wolfenbüttel and Copenhagen, 1932)
2 sonatas (e/G, f), fl, vn, bc, listed in Breitkopf catalogue, lost
Prelude, C, kbd, Bsb
Prelude and fugue, f, kbd, Bsb; ed. in Le trésor des pianistes, xi (Paris, 1867)
Sonata, D, kbd, Bsb, formerly Bhm
24 polonaises, kbd, in all keys, formerly Bhm; no.1, C, listed in Breitkopf catalogue;
nos.?4, c , ?6, d, ?18, g , ed. in Lehrmeister und Schüler Joh. Seb. Bachs, ii
(Zürich, 1935)
Chorale-preludes, formerly Königsberg [now Kaliningrad], cited in EitnerQ, lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookB
MGG1(E. Dadder and A. Dürr)
Verzeichniss musikalischer Werke … welche in richtigen Abschriften bey
Joh. Gottlieb Immanuel Breitkopf … zu bekommen sind (Leipzig, 1761,
2/1764)
J.F. Reichardt: ‘Autobiographie’, Berlinische musikalische Zeitung, i
(1805/R), 351–4
E. Dadder: ‘Johann Gottlieb Goldberg’, BJb 1923, 57–71 [with detailed
reference to early sources]
H. Miesner: ‘Graf v. Keyserlingk und Minister v. Happe, zwei Gönner der
Familie Bach’, BJb 1934, 101–15
H.T. David and A.Mendel, eds.: The Bach Reader (New York, 1945, rev.
2/1966 with suppl.)
A. Dürr: ‘Johann Gottlieb Goldberg und die Triosonate bwv1037’, BJb
1953, 51–80
H.-J. Schulze, ed.: Dokumente zum Nachwirken Johann Sebastian Bachs
1750–1800, Bach-Dokumente, iii (Kassel, 1972)
Johann Gottlieb Goldberg (1727–1756): Persepektiven der Rezeption:
Gdansk 1997
NORMAN RUBIN

Goldberg, Joseph (Pasquale)

(b Vienna, 1 Jan 1825; d Vienna, 20 Dec 1890). Austrian violinist, singer,
composer and teacher. He began his career as a violinist, as a pupil of
Mayseder, and at the age of 12 performed his own Violin Concerto in E
minor, dedicated to Spohr, at the Vienna Redoutensaal. After a period
touring in Italy he went to Paris, where Rubini and Meyerbeer urged him to
become a singer. In 1843, after study with Rubini and Bordogni, he made a
successful début at Padua in Donizetti’s La regina di Golconda, appearing
later in Verona and Genoa. In 1847 he went to London to appear with
Jullien, and from 1850 to 1861 he made several provincial concert tours in
England with Grisi, Alboni, Mario and others. He then settled in London,
where he taught for many years at the RAM, retiring a few months before
his death. Goldberg was commissioned by the Italian government in 1871
to report on the Italian conservatories and to propose reforms in methods
of instruction. His proposals were approved by Lauro Rossi, principal of the
Naples Conservatory, and were put in force throughout Italy. (Obituary, MT,
xxxii, 1891, pp.27–8)
GEORGE GROVE/ DAVID CHARLTON

Goldberg, Reiner
(b Crostau, nr Bautzen, 17 Oct 1939). German tenor. He studied in
Dresden, making his début in 1966 at the Landestheater as Luigi (Il
tabarro). In 1973 he joined the Staatsopern of Dresden and Berlin and took
part in the première of Ernst Meyer's Reiter der Nacht in Berlin, where in
1976 he sang Huon in a performance of Oberon to mark the 150th
anniversary of Weber's death. In 1982 he sang Walther at Covent Garden,
Erik at the Salzburg Easter Festival and Florestan at the Salzburg Summer
Festival. He sang Tannhäuser at La Scala (1984) and Walther, Siegfried
(Götterdämmerung) and Erik at Bayreuth (1987–92). His repertory also
included Parsifal, which he sang on the soundtrack of Syberberg's film of
the opera, Max, Bacchus, Faust, Hermann (The Queen of Spades), Sergey
(Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District), the Drum Major (Wozzeck) and the
title role of Dessau's Verurteilung des Lukullus. In 1991 Goldberg sang
young Siegfried in concert at Amsterdam, and both Siegfrieds at Covent
Garden, where he returned for Florestan (1993), the role of his
Metropolitan début in 1992. He had an incisive, well-focussed voice with a
notably powerful upper register, as can be heard on several recordings,
including Florestan and Siegmund (under Haitink), Siegfried in both
Siegfried and Götterdämmerung (with Levine), the Drum Major, and
Emperor Pao in Zemlinsky's Der Kreidekreis.
ELIZABETH FORBES

Goldberg, Szymon
(b Włocławek, 1 June 1909; d Toyama, Japan, 19 July 1993). American
violinist and conductor of Polish birth. He studied with Mihałowicz in
Warsaw, then moved to Berlin in 1917, where his principal teacher was
Carl Flesch. In 1921 he made his début in Warsaw, and after an
appearance with the Berlin PO in 1924 (when he played concertos by
Bach, Joachim and Paganini in one evening) and a recital tour through
Germany, he was appointed leader of the Dresden PO in 1925.
Furtwängler then chose him to be leader of the Berlin PO, a post he held
from 1929 to 1934; during that time he formed a string trio with Hindemith
and Feuermann. From 1934 he toured Europe and East Asia as soloist and
as sonata partner with Lili Kraus, and he made his New York début in 1938.
Taken prisoner by the Japanese in Java in 1942, he spent two and a half
years in captivity. In 1946 he resumed his career and played in Australia,
South Africa and the Americas. For 15 summers (1951–65) he was a
faculty member of the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado, where he formed
the Festival Quartet with Victor Babin (piano), William Primrose (viola) and
Nikolay Graudan (cello), which achieved wide recognition in concerts and
on records. In 1955 Goldberg became permanent conductor and musical
director of the newly founded Netherlands Chamber Orchestra, and toured
with it to Britain, the USA and other countries. He appeared as guest
conductor with the BBC SO, the LSO and the orchestras of Boston,
Chicago and Cleveland. In 1953 he became an American citizen, but from
1969 lived in London. A masterly violinist whose tone was warm and pure,
with a sense of style and musical taste that excluded virtuoso frills, his
interpretations stressed refinement, intimacy and a noble intensity. With the
Netherlands Chamber Orchestra he appeared as soloist and conductor in
classical concertos, and he was also a sensitive performer of Bartók, Berg
and Hindemith. His recordings include a distinguished set of the
Brandenburg Concertos and, with Radu Lupu, 16 Mozart sonatas. He
played a Guarneri del Gesù violin of 1734 known as the ‘Baron Vitta’. He
was an officer of the Order of Oranje Nassau and an honorary member of
the RAM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SchwarzGM
B. Gavoty: Szymon Goldberg (Geneva, 1961) [with discography]
J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin, 1889–1971 (Toronto, 1974)
M. Campbell: Obituary, The Independent (23 July 1993); Obituary, The
Strad, civ (1993), 858
J.M. Molkhou: Discography, The Strad, civ (1993), 994
BORIS SCHWARZ

Goldberg, Théophile.
See Goldberg, Johann Gottlieb.

Golden number [golden section].

The unequal division of a line such that the ratio of the smaller part to the
larger is the same as that of the larger to the original whole. This ratio is
approximately 1:1·618, and in mathematics is described as the ‘division in
extreme and mean ratio’. The term ‘golden number’ is used today in the
context of a natural phenomenon or a man-made object; it has often been
held to produce harmonious proportions in, for example, architecture, fine
art and sculpture, and there have been attempts to detect it in musical
forms. Some 20th-century composers have used it consciously (see
Numbers and music).
Roger Herz-Fischler has shown that the terms ‘golden section’ and ‘golden
cut’ are relatively modern. ‘Goldene Schnitt’ (golden section/cut) was first
used in 1835 by the mathematician Martin Ohm in the second edition of a
text book, the first edition having described the ration with the usual term
‘stetige Proportion’ (continuous proportion). ‘Golden number’ has been a
well-known and commonly used term since it was coined in 432bce by
Meton the Athenian. The 19-year Lunar Cycle discovered by Meton (later
known as the Metonic cycle) was originally written in golden numbers,
hence the name. The Golden Numbers have been in constant use for
centuries as the means by which to calculate the Ecclesiastical Paschal full
moon, and thence Easter Sunday. It was only after the 1850s and the work
of Zeising that the term ‘golden number’ became synonymous with ‘golden
section’. The non-existence of the terms ‘golden section’ and ‘golden
number’ (in the new sense) before 1830 should sound a note of warning to
musicians and artists.
The ‘division in extreme and mean ratio’, on the other hand, is an ancient
geometric ration, first described by Euclid. Herz-Fischler shows that very
little attention was given to the ratio by the Greeks and argues that it is
false to assume they advocated its use in architecture. He claims that the
spread of golden numberism was aided by an error made in 1799 by
Montucla and Lalande in the second edition of their Histoire des
mathématiques in which they state that Pacioli (Divina proportione, 1509)
advocated the use of the ratio in determining the proportions of works of art
and architecture. This was false: Pacioli in fact recommended the use of
simple ratios. The work of A. Zeising (1854) and F. Röber (1855) in
Germany established the practice of ‘golden numberism’, and although it
seems to have been limited to Germany, it gained international popularity
after about 1910. Although some 20th-century composers have made
deliberate use of the ratio, the term should be used cautiously in the
context of music from before 1835. Historical evidence shows indisputably
that composers would not have the term. The discovery of a 1:1·618 ratio
in a work created before then may suggest that the composer consciously
 used the golden number, but it seems more likely to be, at best, an
affirmation of Zeising’s theory, and at worst a fanciful imposition.

For bibliography see Numbers and music.

RUTH TATLOW

Goldenthal, Elliot
(b Brooklyn, NY, 2 May 1954). American composer. He learnt the piano as
a child and in his teens also played the trumpet and piano, and sang in a
touring blues band. In the 1970s he studied at the Manhattan School of
Music with John Corigliano and later informally with Copland. His first
important works were for classical chamber ensembles. The largest and
best-known of his concert works is Vietnam Oratorio, first performed in April
1995 to mark the 20th anniversary of the end of the Vietnam War, and
whose texts are in Vietnamese, Latin and English, including recent poems
by Yusef Komunyaka. Its style is decidedly modern, and the eclectic vocal
and instrumental writing includes a prominent solo cello part written for Yo-
Yo Ma.
Since the late 1980s Goldenthal has also composed stage and film scores.
Of particular interest are his collaborations with the theatre director Julie
Taymor, his longtime personal companion; these include popular
productions of plays by Gozzi for the American Repertory Theater in
Cambridge, Massachusetts, and a critically acclaimed revival of the
oratorio-like Juan Darien (Lincoln Center, 1996). The film scores,
technically polished and subtle, embrace a remarkable range of past and
present idioms, including Wagnerian passage-work, atonality, minimalism,
dynamic counterpoint, synthesized timbres and modal choral writing. They
include several inflated Hollywood blockbusters in the science fiction,
action, and horror genres (Alien3, two Batman sequels, Demolition Man,
Heat and Sphere), whose scores often outshine the films they have been
written for. In working with the idiosyncratic Neil Jordan, Goldenthal found
an independent director with a creativity and originality to match his own.
Their association began with Interview with the Vampire (1994), and
continued through scores for Michael Collins (1996) and The Butcher Boy
(1997) which are as diverse, unsettling and fascinating as the films
themselves.
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: The Transposed Heads (musical, after T. Mann), New York, 1987; Juan
Darien, a Carnival Mass (after L. Quiroga and Requiem Mass), New York, 1988,
rev. 1996; Othello (ballet, 1997); Grendel (op, Beowulf and J. Gardner); Liberty's
Taken (musical)
Incid music to plays: A Midsummer Night's Dream, 1994; The Taming of the Shrew,
1994; The Tempest, 1994; Titus Andronicus, 1994; The Green Bird, 1996; The
King's Stag, 1996; The Serpent Women, 1996
Film scores (dirs. in parentheses): Drugstore Cowboy (G. Van Sant), 1989; Pet
Sematary (M. Lambert); Grand Isle (Lambert), 1991 [TV]; Alien 3 (D. Fincher, 1992);
Fool's Fire (J. Taymor), 1992; Demolition Man (M. Brambilla, 1993); Golden Gate (J.
Madden), 1993; Cobb (R. Shelton), 1994; Interview with the Vampire (N. Jordan),
1994; Roswell (J. Kagan), 1994 [TV]; Batman Forever (J. Schumacher), 1995; Heat
(M. Mann), 1995; Michael Collins (Jordan), 1996; A Time to Kill (Schumacher),
1996: Batman & Robin (Schumacher), 1997; The Butcher Boy (Jordan), 1997;
Sphere (B. Levinson), 1998; In Dreams (Jordan), 1999; Titus (J. Taymor), 2000
Sym. and choral: Shadow Play Scherzo (1988) [for L. Bernstein's 70th birthday];
Fire Water Paper: A Vietnam Orat, S, Bar, solo vc, children's vv, vv (1995), Conc. for
Tpt and Pf (?1996)
Chbr: Jabberwocky (L. Carroll), B-Bar, 4 ww (1981); Brass Qt No.2 (1983); Pastime
Variations, chbr orch (1988) [commemorating the 75th anniversary of Ebbets Field,
Brooklyn]; Brass Qt No.1; Los Heraldos Negros (C. Vallejo), song cycle; Sonata for
Str Bass

Publishers: Warner Bros.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Adams: ‘Elliot Goldenthal: Interview with the Composer’, Film Score
Monthly, no.61 (1995), 12–15
R. Brown: ‘Film Musings’, Fanfare, xviii (1994–5), no.4, pp.403–4; no.5,
pp.372–3
D. Adams: ‘Obligatory Batman Dept.: Elliot Goldenthal’, Film Score
Monthly, ii/5 (1997), 13–15 [interview]
R. Hershon: ‘Film Composers in the Sonic Wars’, Cinéaste, xxii/4 (1997),
10–13
MARTIN MARKS

Goldenweiser [Gol'denveyzer],
Aleksandr (Borisovich)
(b Chişinău, 26 Feb/10 March 1875; d Moscow, 26 Nov 1961). Russian
pianist, teacher, writer and composer. At the Moscow Conservatory he
studied the piano with Siloti, then Pabst, graduating in 1895, and
composition with Arensky, Ippolitov-Ivanov and Taneyev, graduating in
1897. His close contact with Rachmaninoff, Skryabin and Medtner
exercised a strong influence on his formation as a pianist. He made his
début in 1896 performing duets with Rachmaninoff, Taneyev and Gedicke.
His playing, noted for its style, precise technique and fidelity to the text,
was academic in the best sense of the word. In 1901 the ‘skryabinists’
circle was formed by Mariya Nemenova-Lunts, Konstantin Saradzhev,
Vladimir Derzhanovsky, Goldenweiser and others; he also played an active
role in the Society for the Friends of the Skryabin Museum formed in
Moscow in 1922. On close terms with Lev Tolstoy, he stayed at his house
and played the piano there.
Goldenweiser was professor at the Moscow Philharmonic School (1904–6)
and then at the Moscow Conservatory from 1906 to 1961 (he was rector
 there 1922–4 and 1939–42); in 1932 he founded the Central Music School.
After the revolution he played an important part in the development of a
contemporary system of music training in the USSR. He aimed at the all-
round musical development of his pupils, who included Sulamita
Aronovsky, Bashkirov, Lazar' Berman, Dmitry Blagoy, Feynberg, Ginzburg,
Kabalevsky, I. Kljačko, Nikolayeva, Dmitry Paperno and Leonid Roysman.
In 1931 his pupil Liya Levinson became his permanent assistant. His
principles of performance and study are reflected in the articles he wrote
and in his compositions for the piano. A Doctor of Arts, he was made a
People’s Artist of the USSR in 1946; in 1955 his flat was opened as a
museum.
WORKS
Stage: (all premières are concert performances): Pir vo vremya chumï [The Feast in
the Time of the Plague] (1, after A.S. Pushkin), op.21, 1942, Moscow, Central
House of Composers, 1 June 1945; Pevtsï [The Singers] (1, Yu. Stremin, after I.S.
Turgenev), op.22, 1942–4, Moscow, House of Actors, 19 Jan 1945; Veshniye vodï
[Spring Waters] (4, Stremin, after Turgenev), op.26, 1945–50, Moscow, House of
Actors, 4 March 1955
Cant.: Svet Oktyabrya [The Light of October], 1948
Orch and Chbr: Ov. (after Dante), orch, 1895–7; Str Qt, 1896, rev. 1940; 2 russkiye
syuitï [2 Russian Suites], orch, 1946; Trio pamyati S.V. Rakhmaninova [Trio to the
Memory of Rachmaninoff], pf trio, 1953; Poėma, vn, pf, 1962
Pf: Kontrapunkticheskiye ėskizï [Contrapuntal Sketches], 2 bks, 1932; 14
revolyutsionnïkh pesen [14 Revolutionary Songs], 1932; Polifonicheskaya sonatina
[Polyphonic Sonatina], 1954; Sonata-fantaziya, 1959; many others
WRITINGS
Vblizi L.N. Tolstogo: zapiski za 15 let [Near to Tolstoy: notes on 15 years]
(Moscow, 1922–3, 2/1959)
‘Ob osnovnïkh zadachakh muzïkal'nogo vospitaniya’ [On the main tasks of
a musical upbringing], SovM (1934), no.10
‘Iz moikh vospominaniy’ [From my recollections], S.I. Taneyev: materialï i
dokumentï, i (Moscow, 1952)
‘L.N. Tolstoy i muzïka’ [Tolstoy and music], Lev Tolstoy i muzïka:
vospominaniya, ed. N.Gusev and A. Gol'denveyzer (Moscow, 1953),
16–41
Iz lichnïkh vospominaniy o S.V. Rakhmaninove [From my personal
recollections of Rachmaninoff], i (Moscow, 1957)
O muzïkal'nom ispolnitel'stve: iz zametok starogo ispolnitelya-pianista [On
musical performance: from the notes of an old performing pianist]
(Moscow, 1958)
‘Ob ispolnitel'stve, o redaktirovanii’ [On performing, on editing], Voprosï
fortepiannogo ispolnitel'skogo iskusstva, i (Moscow, 1965)
Sovetï mastera [The advice of a master], SovM (1965), no.5, pp.95–102
32 sonatï Betkhovena [The 32 sonatas of Beethoven] (Moscow, 1966)
A.B. Gol'denveyzer: dnevnik (1889–1904) [Gol'denveyzer: diary (1889–
1904)], ed. Ye.I. Gol'denveyzer and L.I. Lipkin, i (Moscow, 1995); ii
(Moscow, 1997)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Levinson: ‘Gol'denveyzer – pedagog’ [Goldenweiser as a teacher],
SovM (1950), no.3, pp.50–53
A. Nikolayev: ‘Ispolnitel'skiye i pedagogicheskiye printsipï A.B.
Gol'denveyzera’ [Goldenweiser’s principles of teaching and
performing], Mastera sovetskoy pianisticheskoy shkolï, ed. A.A.
Nikolayev and others (Moscow, 1954, 2/1961), 115–66
D. Blagoy, ed.: A.B. Gol'denveyzer: stat'i, materialï, vospominaniya
[Articles, materials, reminiscences] (Moscow, 1969)
G.B. Bernandt and I.M. Yampol'sky: Kto pisal o muzïke [Writers on
music], i (Moscow, 1971) [incl. list of writings]
D. Blagoy and Ye. Gol'denveyzer, eds.: V klasse A.B. Gol'denveyzera [In
Goldenweiser’s class] (Moscow, 1986)
I.M. YAMPOL'SKY/INNA BARSOVA

Golder [Goldar], Robert

(b ?c1510; d after 28 Nov 1563). English organist and (perhaps) composer.
According to the parish registers of St Lawrence Jewry he married
Elizabeth Newton on 20 October 1538. In 1541 he taught four ‘childer
angells’ for one of the pageants produced for the Midsummer Watch
organized by the Drapers' Guild of London. He was a conduct at St
Lawrence Jewry in 1547 and at St Mary-at-Hill in 1550. He may have been
the ‘Robt Gowldyn’ allocated livery and named Gentleman of the Chapel at
the coronation of Queen Mary in 1553. From c1560 to 1563 he was ‘one of
the players of thorgans within the quenes Majesties free chapell within her
castell of Wyndesore’. His will (PCC 2 Crymes), dated 28 November 1563,
lists properties in London and Eton. He was survived by his wife and two
daughters. An In Nomine is ascribed to ‘Mr. Golder’ in John Baldwin's
Commonplace-Book (GB-Lbl R.M.24.d.2; ed. in MB, xlv, 1979–88, no.134).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDECM
AshbeeR
E.H. Fellowes: Organists and Masters of the Choristers of St. George’s
Chapel in Windsor Castle (London and Windsor, 1939)
H. Baillie: ‘Some Biographical Notes on English Church Musicians, Chiefly
Working in London (1485–1569)’, RMARC, ii (1962), 18–57
JOHN M. WARD/ANDREW ASHBEE

Goldie
(b Walsall, 1965/6). English DJ and club dance musician. He was a graffiti
artist in the 1980s and early 90s, then turned to music after repeated visits
to the Rage club in London and an introduction to the hardcore and
breakbeat culture that eventually developed into jungle and drum ’n’ bass.
He released several highly regarded singles, including Terminator and
Angel (both 1993), as well as several remix projects under both his own
name and his Metalheadz pseudonym. In 1994 he made the influential
album Timeless, a sprawling album of breakbeats which brought drum ’n’
bass to wide attention. Through his Metalheadz record label and its
accompanying collective of DJs, including Fabio, Grooverider and Doc
Scott, Goldie kept drum ’n’ bass prominent for several years through the
Metalheadz club nights in London. With his 1998 double album Saturnz
Return, which included orchestral arrangements and a contribution from
Oasis’s Noel Gallagher, he attempted to take drum ’n’ bass beyond its
electronic roots, but with limited success.
WILL FULFORD-JONES

Golding, John.
See Goldwin, John.

Goldman, Edwin Franko

(b Louisville, KY, 1 Jan 1878; d New York, 21 Feb 1956). American
bandmaster and composer. At the age of eight he was taken to New York
and enrolled in the National Conservatory. Although a composition pupil of
Dvořák, who was then director of the conservatory, Goldman’s first study
was the cornet. From 1899 to 1909 he was solo cornetist with the
Metropolitan Opera orchestra. In 1911 he formed his own band, which had
a continuous history of performance under his name from 1918 until 1979.
He championed new and unjustly forgotten band music and gave the
American première (1947) of Berlioz’s Symphonie funèbre et triomphale,
among other works. An enthusiastic teacher, he also wrote over 100
marches, including On the Mall and Kentucky March, and was a founder of
the American Bandmasters Association. His band, noted for its musical
proficiency and wide-ranging repertory, set a high standard for ensembles
of this sort. He was succeeded as its conductor by his son Richard Franko
Goldman. He wrote Foundation to Cornet or Trumpet Playing (New York,
1914), Band Betterment (New York, 1934) and The Goldman Band System
(New York, 1935); his unpublished autobiography, Facing the Music, is in
the library of the University of Maryland, College Park, and the manuscripts
and scores used by the Goldman Band are in the library of the University of
Iowa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K.R. Jolly: Edwin Franko Goldman and the Goldman Band (diss., New
York U., 1971)
M.D Welch: ‘The Goldman Band Library’, Journal of Band Research, xix/2
(1983–4), 26–30
J.K. McAnally: ‘Edwin Franko Goldman, Richard Franko Goldman and the
Goldman Band Professionals and Educators’, Bulletin of Historical
Research in Music Education, xvii/1 (1995), 19–58
GEORGE GELLES/MICHAEL MECKNA

Goldman, Richard Franko

(b New York, 7 Dec 1910; d Baltimore, 19 Jan 1980). American
bandmaster, composer and writer. He graduated from Columbia University
(1930) and studied music privately with Pietro Florida, Nadia Boulanger,
Wallingford Riegger, Ralph Leopold and Clarence Adler. In 1937 he
became the associate conductor (under his father, Edwin Franko Goldman)
of the Goldman Band; after his father’s death in 1956 he succeeded him as
conductor. During Goldman’s career with the band he commissioned and
performed works from among the foremost American composers and
restored many historic band works from the 18th and 19th centuries to the
active band repertory. At the conclusion of the 1979 season he disbanded
the ensemble and retired its name; it was reconstituted as the Guggenheim
Concerts Band in 1980 and renamed the Goldman Memorial Band in 1984.
Goldman was on the faculty of the Juilliard School from 1947 to 1960; he
served as chair of the department of literature and materials of music from
1952 and was responsible for designing its curriculum, which he described
in The Juilliard Report on Teaching the Literature and Materials of Music
(New York, 1953). In 1968 Goldman was appointed director of the Peabody
Conservatory and in 1969 he became president of the Peabody Institute of
the City of Baltimore; he held both positions until his retirement in 1977. He
contributed many articles to Notes, the Juilliard Review, The Etude and
other periodicals.
His critical writing on contemporary music in the Musical Quarterly, of
which he was the principal New York critic from 1948 to 1968, was
particularly influential, especially in its early recognition of such composers
as Cowell, Elliott Carter and Riegger. As a composer Goldman wrote vocal
and chamber music, one orchestral work, The Lee Rigg, and band works
including marches and A Curtain-Raiser and Country Dance. He also made
several arrangements and editions for band. Many of his works were
published by Mercury Music. Goldman’s numerous honours include the
Juilliard Music Foundation award (1955) and the Alice M. Ditson Award
(1961).
WRITINGS
The Band’s Music (New York, 1938)
Landmarks of Early American Music (New York, 1943/R)
The Concert Band (New York, 1946)
The Juilliard Report on Teaching the Literature and Materials of Music
(New York, 1953) [pubd anonymously]
The Wind Band: its Literature and Technique (Boston, 1961/R)
Harmony in Western Music (New York, 1965)
‘Richard Franko Goldman Gives his Views on the Band Situation’,
International Musician, lxi/12 (1963), 18–19
Richard Franko Goldman: Selected Essays and Reviews, 1948–1968, ed.
D. Klotzman (Brooklyn, NY, 1980)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P.G. Stock: Richard Franko Goldman and the Goldman Band (thesis, U. of
Oregon, 1982)
N.K. Lester: Richard Franko Goldman: his Life and Works (diss., Peabody
Conservatory, 1984)
DOROTHY KLOTZMAN

Goldmann, Friedrich
(b Siegmar-Schönau, Chemnitz, 27 April 1941). German composer and
conductor. He was a member of the Dresdner Kreuzchor from 1951 to
 1959. In 1959 he attended the Darmstadt summer courses for new music,
where he studied with Stockhausen. He continued his studies at the
Dresden Musikhochschule (1959–62) and at the Akademie der Künste,
Berlin (1962–4), with Wagner-Régeny among others. He also studied
musicology at Humboldt University (1964–8). From 1968 he worked as a
freelance composer and conductor in Berlin. He was appointed professor
of composition at the Hochschule der Künste, Berlin, in 1991. Between
1990 and 1997 he served as president of the German section of the ISCM.
His honours include memberships in the Akademie der Künste, Berlin (from
1978), the Akademie der Künste, West Berlin (from 1990), and the
Sächsische Akademie der Künste, Dresden (from 1995).
The premières of Essay II (1968) and the First Symphony (1973) at the
beginning of the 1970s introduced Goldmann as one of the most
provocative and brilliant of young German composers. Together with
Dittrich, Friedrich Schenker and others, he emerged as one of a new
generation of East German composers who opposed the conservative and
apologetic aesthetics of socialist realism, and who stood for an advanced
modernism. A member of the circle around Paul Dessau, his aesthetic
standards were influenced not only by the Second Viennese School and
Boulez, but also by Adorno and French structuralist philosophers such as
Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze. Although he has occasionally written
scores for film and the theatre, the main emphasis of his creative work has
been instrumental music. Taking serialism as his starting point, he has
developed a unique style that playfully appropriates the antinomies of mass
and individual, structure and sound, cliché and innovation.
WORKS
Stage: R. Hot bzw. die Hitze (Opernfantasie, T. Körner, after R.M.J. Lenz), 1974
Orch: Essay I, 1963; Essay II, 1968; Ödipus Tyrann (H. Müller), chorus, orch, 1968–
9; Essay III, 1971; Musik, chbr orch, 1973; Sym. no.1, 1973; Sym. no.2, 1976;
Conc., trbn, 3 inst ens, 1977; Vn Conc., 1977; Ob Conc., 1979; Pf Conc., 1979; In
memoriam Paul Dessau, 15 str, 1980, collab. R. Bredemeyer, F. Schenker;
Inclination temporum, 1981; Ensemblekonzert I, 16 insts (1982); Exkursion, 1984,
collab. H. Sagittario; Ensemblekonzert II, 16 insts (1986); Sym. no.3, 1986;
Spannungen eingegrenzt, 1988; Sym. no.4, 1988; Sonata a quattro, 12 insts, 4
perc, 1989; Klangszenen I, 1990; Klangszenen II, 1992
Chbr and solo inst: Trio, fl, perc, pf, 1967; Sonata, wind qnt, pf, 1971; So und so,
eng hn, trbn, pf, 1972; 4 Klavierstücke, pf, 1973; Cellomusik, vc, 1974; Str Qt, 1975;
Zusammenstellung, wind qnt (1976); Pf Trio, 1978; Sing Lessing, Bar, wind qnt, pf,
1978; Sonata, ob, pf, 1980; Vorherrschend gegensätzlich, 8 insts (1980); 7
Bagatelles, fl, cl, va, vc, pf, perc, 1983; So fern, so nah, fl, cl, hn, tpt, va, vc, 1983;
Trio, ob, vc, pf, 1985; Qnt, ob, cl, hn, bn, pf, 1986; Trio, va, vc, db, 1986; Sonata, pf
(1987); Solo zu zweit, 2 ob, 1988; zerbrechlich - schwebend, ob, eng hn, trbn, perc,
pf, va, vc, db, 1990; Fast erstarrte Unruhe I, 8 insts, 1991; Wind Qnt (1991); Fast
erstarrte Unruhe II, 9 insts, 1992; querstrebige Verbindungen, 13 insts, 1992; Fast
erstarrte Unruhe III, 12 insts, 1995; Ketten, fl, 1997; Str Qt no.2, 1997; Trio, ob, vc,
pf, 1998; wechselnde Zentren, conc., fl, cl, db, perc, 1998
Arr.: F. Schubert: 6 Heine Lieder, Bar, orch, 1997
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Schneider: Momentaufnahme (Leipzig, 1979)
F. Schneider: ‘Das Ensemble ist Zentral: Friedrich Goldmann, ein Porträt’,
NZM, Jg.147, no.6 (1986), 22–7
H. Neef: Der Beitrag der Komponisten Friedrich Goldmann, Friedrich
Schenker, Paul-Heinz Dittrich und Thomas Heyn zur ästhetischen
Diskussion der Gattung Oper in der DDR seit 1977 (diss., Martin
Luther U., 1989)
F. Goldmann: ‘Klischees und Komponieren: komponierte Klischees’,
Klischee und Wirklichkeit, ed. O. Kolleritsch (Vienna, 1994), 23ff
GERHARD MÜLLER

Goldmann, Max.
See Reinhardt, Max.

Goldmark, Karl [Carl; Károly]

(b Keszthely, 18 May 1830; d Vienna, 2 Jan 1915). Austro-Hungarian
composer.
1. Life.
The son (and one of 20 children) of a Jewish migrant from Western Galicia,
his family moved to Deutschkreutz (now in Austria), near Ödenburg
(Sopron, now Hungary), in 1834. His father was notary and cantor of the
Jewish community there. Goldmark later claimed to be self-taught as a
composer and to have learnt to read and write only since the age of 12
(this may refer to German or Hungarian but not the Hebrew literary
tradition); however, his first local musical instruction was in 1841. He went
to Ödenburg music school in 1842, and in 1844 joined his elder brother
Josef in Vienna where he began violin studies. In 1847 he enrolled at the
Vienna Conservatory where he studied with Joseph Böhm and Gottfried
Preyer. During the revolution of 1848 he returned to Deutschkreutz where
he was involved in the Hungarian uprisings. He played the violin in the
theatres of Ödenburg and Buda; in 1851 he returned to Vienna where he
took similar posts at the orchestras of the Josefstadt Theatre and the
Carltheatre. This was ill-paid employment, but it allowed him to become
acquainted with theatrical routine. In 1858 he arranged the first concert of
his own works, the critical response of which was mixed. That same year
he moved to Pest where he studied composition from the books of Marx,
Richter and Sechter. He returned to Vienna in 1860, where his String
Quartet op.8, which was first produced by the Hellmesberger Quartet, was
well received. He taught the piano, conducted the male-voice choir of the
Eintracht choral Society, and also wrote music reviews for the
Österreichische constitutionelle Zeitung, where he championed the cause
of Wagner as early as 1862. He composed a number of chamber and
orchestral works that gradually established his reputation, including the
Sakuntala overture (1865). During this period Goldmark formed friendships
with Brüll, Rubinstein and Brahms, and was made an honorary member of
the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in 1866. With Herbeck, Dessoff,
Hellmesberger, Schönaich and Standharter he called for the founding of
the Akademischer Wagnerverein in Vienna in 1872.
Goldmark’s most famous, personal and successful work, the opera Die
Königin von Saba, was inspired by his piano pupil, the Hofoper singer
Caroline Bettelheim. In 1865 Salomon Mosenthal provided him with a
suitable libretto, and in 1869 Goldmark received a grant of 800 Gulden
from the Hungarian govenment, which enabled him to complete the opera
in November 1871. In 1873, when it seemed to be rejected by the Vienna
Hofoperntheater, Goldmark wrote a touching letter to Eduard Hanslick in its
defence. He was persuaded to include part of Act 1, the arrival of the
Queen of Sheba, in a Viennese charity concert on 11 January 1874 in
which Liszt and Brahms also took part. Despite further intrigues, the
première finally took place on 10 March 1875. It was a great success, and
performances in many European operatic centres followed, as well as in
New York (1885) and Buenos Aires (1901). Until the 1930s the opera had
its most continuous performance tradition at Budapest.
In 1876 Goldmark completed his most popular orchestral work, the
programme symphony ‘Ländliche Hochzeit’, op.26. From 1870 until his
death he divided his time between Gmunden (Upper Austria), where he
spent the summer months, and Vienna. In 1871 and 1873 he visited
Switzerland and in 1880–81 he was in Italy, where Die Königin von Saba
was often performed. In spite of opposition from Eduard Hanslick or Ludwig
Speidel, Goldmark, who formed a close acquaintance with Brahms,
became a respected figure of Viennese musical life (which is illustrated by
Mahler’s attempts to secure Goldmark’s support for his application to the
Hofoperntheater in 1897). In 1896 he was awarded the Ritterkreuz of the
Order of St Leopold; his 70th and 80th birthdays were marked by
performances of his operas at the Hofoperntheater; in 1910 Budapest
University awarded him an honorary doctorate; and in 1913 and 1914
respectively he received honorary membership of the New York Society of
the Friends of Music and of the Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome.
2. Works.
Goldmark’s fame, mainly limited to Vienna and Budapest during his
lifetime, was derived from his first opera, and his importance lies chiefly in
his operatic works. He never belonged to a stylistic school, and in spite of
his favour for Wagner he did not take part in the controversy between the
‘progressive’ and ‘conservative’ musical parties. His musical language is
determined by a multiplicity of influences from Mendelssohn to
Impressionism, incorporating Hungarian folk culture and his childhood
memories of the synagogue.
The subject matter of Die Königin von Saba is similar to Bizet’s Djamileh,
Delibes’ Lakmé, Saint-Saëns’s Samson et Dalila and other works of
oriental colour. Stylistically the opera shows an impressive mixture: the
representative scope of musical and scenic luxury is indebted to
Meyerbeerian grand opera, whereas the strongly chromatic harmony and
the continuous declamatory melodic style, which is only temporarily
interrupted by closed forms, point to Wagner. With its opulent and exotic
sonority Die Königin von Saba seems to have hit the nerve of its time. It
was taken as the musical counterpoint to the orientalistic paintings of Hans
Makart and the monumental Viennese fin-de-siècle buildings in the
 Ringstrasse. In this way Goldmark ranks as the true musical representative
of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in the last third of the 19th century.
His next opera, Merlin (1886), to a libretto by Mahler’s mentor Siegfried
Lipiner, was also a great success. After this Goldmark composed the fairy
tale opera Das Heimchen am Herd (after Dickens’s The Cricket on the
Hearth); it owes a debt to Humperdinck’s Hänsel und Gretel and looks back
to the comic operas of Lortzing. Its music employs a deliberate simplicity
(one of the choruses even quotes the beginning of a German folksong). His
next opera, Die Kriegsgefangene (1899), probably prompted by Bungert’s
Odysseus’ Heimkehr (1896), deals with an episode from the Trojan War.
(Goldmark had already explored the world of ancient Greece in three
concert overtures: Penthesilea op.31, Der gefesselte Prometheus op.38
and Sappho op.44.) The première, conducted by Mahler, was only
moderately successful, as were Goldmark’s last two operas: Götz von
Berlichingen (after Goethe, 1902) and the fairy tale opera Ein
Wintermärchen (after Shakespeare, 1908).
In his other compositions, namely his piano and chamber works, Goldmark
shows himself the heir of Schumann and Mendelssohn and partly of Spohr
(as in his Violin Concerto op.28). In his orchestral works (for example
Penthesilea op.31, Ländliche Hochzeit op.26 and Zrinyi op.47) he used the
language of Liszt and Wagner as well as formal and programmatical
elements of the New German school. His last works (piano pieces op.52
and the Piano Quintet op.54) incorporate Impressionistic elements. Many
of his songs are fine lyrical mood pictures.
WORKS
operas
Die Königin von Saba (4, S.H. Mosenthal, after I Kings 10), op.27, Vienna, Hof, 10
March 1875, vs (Bremen, 1876)
Merlin (3, S. Lipiner), Vienna, Hof, 19 Nov 1886 (Leipzig, 1886), rev. Frankfurt, 1904
Das Heimchen am Herd (3, A.M. Willner, after C. Dickens: The Cricket on the
Hearth), Vienna, Hof, 21 March 1896 (Vienna, 1896)
Die Kriegsgefangene (Briseïs) (2, A. Formey [E. Schlicht]), Vienna, Hof, 17 Jan
1899, vs (Leipzig, n.d.)
Götz von Berlichingen (5, J.W. von Willner, after Goethe), Budapest, Royal
Hungarian Opera, 16 Dec 1902, vs (Leipzig, 1902); rev. Frankfurt, 1903
Ein Wintermärchen (3, Willner, after W. Shakespeare: The Winter’s Tale), Vienna,
Hof, 2 Jan 1908, vs (Vienna, 1907)
orchestral
Ovs.: Ov., c1854; Sakuntala, op.13, 1865 (Budapest, 1866 or 1870); Penthesilea,
op.31 (Mainz, 1879); Im Frühling, op.36, 1889 (Mainz, 1889); Der gefesselte
Prometheus, op.38, 1889 (Leipzig, 1890); Sappho, op.44, 1893 (Berlin, 1894); In
Italien, op.49 (Mainz, 1904); Aus Jugendtagen, op.53 (Leipzig, 1913)
Others: 3 syms.: C, 1858–60, scherzo pubd (Vienna, n.d.), no.1, Ländliche
Hochzeit, op.26 (Mainz, 1877), no.2, E , op.35, 1887 (Mainz, 1889); 2 scherzos: e,
op.19, 1863 or 1865 (Leipzig, 1870), A, op.45 (Leipzig, 1894); Zrínyi, sym. poem,
op.47 (Budapest, 1903), rev. (Budapest, 1907); Vn Conc., a, op.28 (Bremen, 1877),
? Vn Conc. no.2
choral
Ps, solo v, male vv, orch, c1854; Regenlied (K. Groth), SATB, op.10 (Leipzig, 1870);
2 mixed choruses, op.14 (Vienna, n.d.); Frühlingsnetz (Eichendorff), SATB, 4 hn, pf,
op.15 (Leipzig, n.d.); Meerestille und glückliche Fahrt (Goethe), SATB, 4 hn, op.16
(Leipzig, n.d.); Der Schäfer, Ständchen, SATB, op.17 (Leipzig, n.d.);
Frühlingshymne (Geyer), A, SATB, orch, op.23, 1874 (Mainz, 1875); Im Fuschertal
(6 songs), SATB, op.24, 1867 (Leipzig, 1876); Psalm cxiii, SATB, orch, op.40, 1895
(Berlin, 1897); Der Holsteiner in dem Hamm, Nicht rasten und nicht rosten, SATB,
op.41 (Berlin, n.d.); Ich bin jüngst verwichen, SATB, pf, op.42, no.2, 1895 (Berlin,
n.d.)
chamber
Pf Trio; Pf Qt; Str Qnt: all before 1858; 2 pf trios: B , op.4, 1858–9 (Leipzig, 1865),
e, op.33 (Bremen, 1880); 2 Pf Qnts, B , op.30, op.54 (Leipzig, 1916); Str Qt, B ,
op.8, 1860 (Vienna, 1870); 1 str qnt, a, op.9, 1862 (Vienna, 1870); 2 suites, vn, pf:
D, op.11 (Mainz, 1869), E , op.43 (Berlin, 1893); Vn Sonata, D, op.25, 1874 (Mainz,
1875); Vc Sonata, F, op.39, 1892 (Mainz, 1893); Ballade, G, vn, pf (Vienna, 1913);
Romanze, A, vn, pf (Vienna, 1913)
piano
Sturm und Drang, 9 charakteristische Stücke, op.5, 1858–9 (Leipzig, 1865); 2
Novelletten, Praeludium und Fuge, op.29 (Mainz, ?1879); Magyar Ábránd (in
Magyar zeneköltők kiállítási albuma, Budapest, 1885); Georginen (6 pieces), op.52
(Vienna, 1913)
4 hands: 3 Stücke, op.12 (Budapest, n.d.); Ungarische Tänze, op.22 (Mainz, 1876)
songs
12 Gesänge (K. Groth and others), op.18 (Leipzig, 1868); Beschwörung, op.20
(Vienna, n.d.); 4 Lieder, op.21 (Vienna, n.d.); 7 Lieder aus dem ‘Wilden Jäger’ (J.
Wolff), op.32 (Mainz, 1879); 4 Lieder, op.34 (Mainz, ?1880); 8 Lieder, op.37
(Leipzig, 1888 or 1889); Wer sich die Musik erkiest (M. Luther), 4 solo vv, pf, op.42
(Berlin, n.d.); 6 Lieder, op.46, 1858, 1888–9 (Vienna, 1913)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (A. Clayton)
PEM (S. Döhring, H.-J. Bauer)
E. Hanslick: Die moderne Oper (Berlin, 1875–1900/R)
E. Hanslick: Concerte, Componisten und Virtuosen der letzten fünfzehn
Jahre, 1870–1885 (Berlin, 1886, 4/1896/R)
O. Keller: Carl Goldmark (Leipzig, 1901)
W. Altmann: ‘Goldmarks Kammermusik’, Die Musik, xiv/2 (1914–15), 209–
21, 255–66
J. Korngold: Deutsches Opernschaffen der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1921),
224–37
K. Goldmark: Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben, ed. F. Scherber (Vienna,
1922, 2/1929; Eng. trans., 1927)
H. Schwarz: Ignaz Brüll und sein Freundeskreis (Vienna, 1922)
L. Koch: Karl Goldmark (Budapest, 1930)
M. Káldor and P. Várnai: Goldmark Károly élete és müvészete [Karl
Goldmark: life and music] (Budapest, 1956)
M. Parkai-Eckhardt: ‘Einflüsse der ungarischen Musik bei Goldmark’,
Brahms Congress: Vienna 1983, 427–83
 I. Kecskeméti: ‘Liszt und Goldmark im Austellungsalbum ungarischer
Tondichter, 1885’, Bruckner und die Musik der Romantik: Linz 1987,
83–93
G.J. Winkler: ‘Carl Goldmark und die Moderne’, Festschrift W. Marggraf
(Weimar, 1999)
WILHELM PFANNKUCH/GERHARD J. WINKLER

Goldmark, Rubin
(b New York, 15 Aug 1872; d New York, 6 March 1936). American
composer and teacher, nephew of Karl Goldmark. He studied with Alfred
von Livonius at City College, CUNY (1887–9),with Anton Door and Johann
Nepomuk Fuchs at the Vienna Conservatory (1889–91), and with Joseffy
and Dvořák at the National Conservatory, New York (1891–3). He later
taught at the National Conservatory (1893–4), Colorado College (1894–
1900), the New York College of Music (1900–24), and was head of the
composition department at the Juilliard School of Music (1924–36).
Copland and Gershwin numbered among his many distinguished students.
A founder and life-long spokesperson for The Bohemians, the Musicians
Foundation, the Society for the Publication of American Music and the
Beethoven Association, he was dedicated to improving the financial status
of professional musicians in America.
As a composition teacher Goldmark was not stylistically prescriptive, but
espoused traditional techniques and classical ideals. His own compositions
are rigorously chromatic. The Piano Quartet in A, op.9, won the 1909
Paderewski Prize for chamber music. A popular lecturer, his views reflected
the prevailing thoughts of the post-Romantic generation. At an occasion
organized by The Bohemians to honour Paderewski (1914), Goldmark
speculated that:
every form of cacophony, of unmitigated ugliness has …
begun to flourish and seems to enrol some men of real
eminence and attainment under its banner. Thus one
hesitates and sometimes wonders whether our ideas of music
already belong to the past and whether we are on the
threshold of a new era.
No published works appeared after 1926. Reasons cited include poor
health, heavy teaching and other duties.
WORKS
(selective list)

Hiawatha, 1900; Sampson, tone poem, orch, 1913; Requiem (A. Lincoln:
Gettysburg Address), orch, 1916; A Negro Rhapsody, tone poem, orch, 1922; The
Call of the Plains, orch 1924; Pf Trio, op.1, Pf Qt, A, op.9; concert works for pf, vn
and vc; song cycle; songs

WRITINGS
‘Advice on Composition from Rubin Goldmark’, Musical America, xx/2
(1914), 6 only
Foreword to A.M. Richardson: The Mediaeval Modes: their Melody and
Harmony for the Use of the Modern Composer (New York, 1933/R)
Unpublished Speeches and Letters (MS, US-NYp)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.W. Kramer: ‘Rubin Goldmark: an Appreciation’, Musical America, lvi/6
(1936), 8 only
A. Copland: ‘Rubin Goldmark: a Tribute’, Juilliard Review, iii/3 (1956), 15–
16
D.J. Tomatz: Rubin Goldmark, Postromantic: Trial Balances in American
Music (diss., Catholic U. of America, 1966)
DAVID TOMATZ

Goldoni, Carlo [Fegejo, Polisseno]

(b Venice, 25 Feb 1707; d Paris, 6/7 Feb 1793). Italian playwright and
librettist. His best comedies, distinguished by a seemingly effortless
dramatic technique and an acute observation of character and manners,
place him in the front rank of Italy’s dramatic authors. In a career that
began slowly but at its peak made uncommon demands on his creative
energies (in 1750–51 he promised, and delivered, 16 new comedies),
Goldoni also found time to write some 80 librettos, most of them comic,
although he also wrote opere serie, cantatas and oratorios.
1. Life.
2. Works.
LIBRETTOS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PIERO WEISS
Goldoni, Carlo
1. Life.
Goldoni’s early years were full of false starts. He evinced a literary bent
while still at school but wrote poetry of no special distinction. He studied
law at Padua and was admitted to the bar in Venice in 1732. Meanwhile he
had written some comic intermezzos (1729/30, 1732) and a dramma per
musica, which he himself destroyed (1733). Finding his legal profession
unprofitable, he attached himself to a commedia dell’arte troupe in 1734,
furnishing them with spoken tragicomedies and sung intermezzos, the
latter set to music by mostly unknown composers and performed between
the acts of the spoken plays. It is highly unlikely that Vivaldi set to music
Aristide, as some believe; this, one of two operatic parodies by Goldoni,
was simply another intermezzo, sung inexpertly by the comedians
themselves (see Weiss, 1984). At the same time he was hired to assist
Domenico Lalli, the poet-in-residence at the chief opera house in Venice, S
Giovanni Grisostomo; this involved helping to stage opere serie and
adapting or rewriting their librettos. The experience thus gained in two very
different branches of theatre was to stand him in good stead in later years;
meanwhile, he appears to have aspired to the dignity of tragic poet à la
Metastasio, for the years 1736 to 1741 saw the modestly successful
production of five (if not all six) of his serious operas at the S Giovanni
Grisostomo.
Financial difficulties put an abrupt end to this early phase of Goldoni’s
career; in 1743 he left Venice, eventually settling in Tuscany to practise
law. When he returned to Venice, in 1748, he was under contract to
another commedia dell’arte troupe. Abandoning traditional scenarios in
favour of wholly written-out comedies, Goldoni at the age of 40 embarked
at last on the career that gained him his place in Italian literature. At the
same time, he launched upon the long series of opera buffa librettos,
working at first with Ciampi but soon (from 1749) with Galuppi, in a
collaboration that over the next seven years produced some of the
century’s most successful comic operas (see illustration). Other composers
who availed themselves of his librettos in Venice included Cocchi,
Giuseppe Scarlatti, Bertoni and Fischietti. Goldoni worked fast; a comic
opera libretto took him four days, as he testified in a letter of 24 July 1762
from Bologna (having just finished La bella verità, set by Piccinni – a
libretto of peculiar interest, since it deals with the production of an opera
buffa, making fun of its singers and conventions). Goldoni was then on his
way to Paris, where he arrived that August. There he settled permanently,
never to return to Italy; his productivity as both playwright and librettist
continued for a while but then abated. His last great success was a
comedy written in French, Le bourru bienfaisant, performed at the
Comédie-Française in 1771; but his last stage work, like his first, was a
libretto (Il talismano, 1778).
Goldoni, Carlo
2. Works.
In his various autobiographical writings, Goldoni studiously belittled his
librettos; indeed, once he had become famous he invariably signed them
with his Arcadian sobriquet, Polisseno Fegejo, as if to distinguish them
from the works on which he wished to rest his reputation. To him they were
a lucrative sideline. Yet he permitted, and most probably supervised, at
least the first collection of his comic librettos, in four volumes, published by
Tevernin (Venice, 1753), and very probably approved the ten-volume set
(Venice, 1794–5) published by Zatta shortly after his death. At least three
other collected editions appeared during his lifetime, not to mention
numerous unauthorized versions of single works; of these Goldoni took the
trouble to warn readers of his Mémoires (Paris, 1787): ‘Nota. Les Opéras-
Comiques de M. Goldoni ont parcouru plusieurs endroits de l’Italie [he
might more correctly have said ‘de l’Europe’]. L’on y a fait par-tout des
changemens au gré des Acteurs et des Compositeurs de musique. Les
Imprimeurs les ont pris où ils ont pu les trouver, et il y en a très-peu qui
ressemblent aux Originaux.’ It was the fate of comic operas, even more
than of opere serie, to be turned into virtually unrecognizable pasticcios
very soon after their first run. If not proud of his librettos, therefore, Goldoni
at least was wary lest the numberless corrupt versions circulating be
imputed to him; for, being a successful man of the theatre, he was much
scrutinized and attacked by literary critics.
Goldoni in fact was no Zeno or Metastasio: his librettos do not stand up as
literature. Yet they worked remarkably well in the theatre and were
 repeatedly set to new music (though not as often as those of his two
illustrious predecessors). Indeed, it was through his librettos that Goldoni’s
work first reached St Petersburg and Moscow, Warsaw, Prague, Brussels,
London, Madrid and Barcelona; and Haydn and Mozart were among the
many foreign composers who set them to new music.
Goldoni’s flair for the living stage prevented any of his productions (whether
for the spoken theatre or for the opera house) from ever smacking of
literature; they were meant to be seen rather than read. The same genius
that produced vignettes of everyday life in the spoken plays provided
talented composers with the most variegated materials, drawn mostly from
fantasy and rich in spectacle and twists of plot, for the realization of the
very different requirements of the opera buffa. An opening ensemble
(eventually to be termed ‘introduzione’), providing a colourful tableau and
some inkling of the action to follow, plentiful ensembles sprinkled
throughout the rest of the three-act work, a duet between the two principals
just before the concluding scene of Act 3: these are some of the hallmarks
of the typical Goldoni opera buffa libretto. His principal contribution,
however, and one recognized as such by his contemporaries (see Gozzi,
427), was the lengthy, action-studded finale, designed for continuous
musical setting, that invariably concluded each of the first two acts. It is
here that composers learnt to deal musically with one element in opera
(action or incident) that had traditionally been beyond their purview, having
been relegated until then to recitative.
Before extensive comparative studies have been made of the librettos of
less eminent contemporary authors, it is not possible to state categorically
that every single aspect of this new, mid-18th-century opera buffa type
originated with Goldoni. There is no doubt, however, as to the sheer
quantity and immense popularity of his librettos. His Il filosofo di campagna,
set by Galuppi in 1754, and La buona figliuola, in the 1760 resetting by
Piccinni, were possibly the most influential, certainly the most successful
operas of the period. His, it is safe to say, was a pivotal role in the history of
the genre; at the very least he helped to give opera buffa the shape in
which, in the mid-18th century, it gained the ascendancy on the stages of
Italy and Europe.
Renewed interest in Goldoni’s works on the part of composers in the early
20th century led to operatic settings of some of his plays by, among others,
G.F. Malipiero and Wolf-Ferrari.
Goldoni, Carlo
LIBRETTOS

Editions: Opere complete, ed. G. Ortolani and others (Venice, 1907–71)Tutte le opere, ed.
G. Ortolani (Milan, 1935–56)

intermezzos
Il buon vecchio, comp. unknown, Feltre, 1729/30
La cantatrice, comp. unknown, Feltre, 1729/30 (?Apolloni, 1734, as La pelarina)
I sdegni amorosi tra Bettina putta de campielo e Buleghin barcariol venezian, comp.
unknown, Milan, ?1733 (Coppola, 1825, as Il gondoliere di Venezia)
La pupilla, Maccari, 1734 (comp. unknown, Florence, 1737; comp. unknown,
Bologna, 1756; comp. unknown, Rovigo, 1764; Gialdini, 1896; Mancini, 1908)
La birba, comp. unknown, Venice, 1735 (comp. unknown, Milan, 1743)
L’ippocondriaco, comp. unknown, Venice, 1735
Il filosofo, comp. unknown, Venice, 1735 (comp. unknown, Milan, 1743; comp.
unknown, Bologna, 1744)
Aristide, Lotavio Vandini [= Antonio Vivaldi; but see Weiss, 1984], 1735
Monsieur Petiton, comp. unknown, Venice, 1736
La bottega da caffè, comp. unknown, Venice, 1736 (comp. unknown, Milan, 1743;
comp. unknown, Venice, 1744)
L’amante cabala, comp. unknown, Venice, 1736 (comp. unknown, Venice, 1744)
Lugrezia romana in Costantinopoli, Maccari, 1737 (Trento, 1800)
Il finto pazzo (after T. Mariani: La contadina astuta), Pergolesi, Chiarini and ?Latilla,
1741
Il quartiere fortunato, ?Maggiore, ?1744 (S. Cristiani, 1802)
La favola de’ tre gobbi, Ciampi, 1749 (Fabrizi, 1783, as I tre gobbi rivali)
Il matrimonio discorde (farsetta), R. Lorenzini, 1756
La cantarina (farsetta), Galuppi, 1756
La vendemmia, Sacchini, 1760
serious operas
Amalasunta (1732–3): destroyed by Goldoni
Griselda (after A. Zeno), Vivaldi, 1735
La generosità politica (after D. Lalli: Pisistrato), Marchi, 1736
Gustavo I re di Svezia, Galuppi, 1740
Oronte re de’ sciti, Galuppi, 1741 (Scalabrini, 1742)
Statira, Chiarini, 1741 (Maggiore and others, 1751; Scolari, 1756)
Tigrane (after F. Silvani: La virtù trionfante dell’amore e dell’odio), G. Arena, 1741
(Gluck, 1743; Dal Barba, 1744; Lampugnani, 1747; comp. unknown, Venice,
1756; Tozzi, 1762)
Germondo, Traetta, 1776
comic operas
La fondazion di Venezia, Maccari, 1736
La contessina, Maccari, 1743 (Lampugnani, 1759; Gherardeschi, 1766; comp.
unknown, Gorizia, 1766; Gassmann, 1770; Astarita, 1772; Bernardini, 1773; G.
Rust, 1774, as Il conte Baccellone; Kürzinger, 1775; Piccinni, 1775; ? Cimarosa,
1778
La scuola moderna o sia la maestra di buon gusto (after A. Palomba: La maestra),
Cocchi, Fiorini, V. Ciampi and others, 1748
Bertoldo, Bertoldino e Cacasenno, Ciampi, 1749
L’Arcadia in Brenta, Galuppi, 1749 (G. Meneghetti, 1757; Cordeiro, 1764; comp.
unknown, Cologne, 1771; C. Bosi, 1780)
Il negligente, Ciampi, 1749
Il finto principe, pasticcio, 1749 (? Paisiello, 1768)
Arcifanfano re dei matti, pasticcio, Galuppi and others, 1749 (E. Duni, 1760, as
L’isle des foux; Tozzi ?1766–7; Scolari, 1768; Dittersdorf, 1776)
Il mondo della luna, Galuppi, 1750 (Avondano, 1765; Paisiello, 1774, as Il credulo
deluso; Astarita, 1775; Haydn, 1777; Paisiello, 1783; Neri Bondi, 1790; Portugal,
1791, as O lunático iludido [O mundo da lua])
Il paese della cuccagna, Galuppi, 1750 (? Mango, 1760; Tozzi, 1771; Astarita, 1777,
as L’isola di Bengodi)
Il mondo alla roversa o sia Le donne che comandano, Galuppi, 1750 (? Paisiello,
1764)
La mascherata, Cocchi, 1751
Le donne vendicate, Cocchi, 1751
Il conte Caramella, Galuppi, 1751
Le pescatrici, Bertoni, 1751 (R. Gioanetti, 1754; Haydn, 1770; Gassmann, 1771)
Le virtuose ridicole, Galuppi, 1752 (Geronimo Cordella, 1756; Paisiello, 1765;
Ottani, 1769)
I portentosi effetti della madre natura, G. Scarlatti, 1752 (Piccinni, 1761, as Le
vicende della sorte)
La calamita de’ cuori, Galuppi, 1752 (Salieri, 1774; ?Cimarosa, ?1792)
I bagni d’Abano, pasticcio, Galuppi and F. Bertoni, 1753 (? Paisiello, 1765)
De gustibus non est disputandum, G. Scarlatti, 1754
Il filosofo di campagna, Galuppi, 1754
Li matti per amore (after Federico: Amor vuol sofferenza), Cocchi, 1754
Il povero superbo (after Goldoni: La gastalda), Galuppi, 1755
Lo speziale, V. Pallavicini and D. Fischietti, 1755 (Haydn, 1768)
Le nozze, Galuppi, 1755 (Cocchi, 1762, as Le nozze di Dorina; Sarti, 1782, as Fra
due litiganti il terzo gode)
La cascina, Scolari, 1755 (Brusa, 1758; Brusa and Scolari, 1761, as La quesera)
La diavolessa, Galuppi, 1755 (Bárta, 1772)
La ritornata di Londra, Fischietti, 1756 (Galuppi, 1759, as int)
La buona figliuola, Duni, 1756 (Piccinni, 1760; S. Perillo, 1760)
Il festino, Ferradini, 1757
Il viaggiatore ridicolo, Mazzoni, 1757 (Perillo, 1761; Gassmann, 1766; Scolari,
1770; P. Caramanica, 1771)
L’isola disabitata, G. Scarlatti, 1757
Il mercato di Malmantile, ? G. Scarlatti, 1757 (Fischietti, 1757; Bárta, 1784;
Zingarelli, 1792, as Il mercato di Monfregoso)
La conversazione, Scolari, 1758
Il signor dottore, Fischietti, 1758
Buovo d’Antona, Traetta, 1758
Li uccellatori, Gassmann, 1759 (P.A. Guglielmi, 1762, as I cacciatori; Marinelli,
1785)
Il conte Chicchera, Lampugnani, 1759
Filosofia ed amore, Gassmann, 1760 (Gassmann, 1771, as Il filosofo innamorato)
La fiera di Sinigaglia, Fischietti, 1760
Amor contadino, Lampugnani, 1760
L’amore artigiano, Latilla, 1760–61 (Gherardeschi, 1763; Gassmann, 1767;
Schuster, 1776; Accorimboni, 1778; ? Neefe, 1779, as Die Liebe unter den
Handwerksleuten [see Wirth, 1962, p.162])
Amore in caricatura, Ciampi, 1761 (G. Notte, 1763)
La donna di governo, ?pasticcio, Rome, 1761 (Fischietti, 1763; ? Galuppi, 1764)
La buona figliuola maritata, Piccinni, 1761 (Scolari, 1762)
La bella verità, Piccinni, 1762
Il re alla caccia, Galuppi, 1763 (Alessandri, 1769; Ponzo, ?1775)
La finta semplice, S. Perillo, 1764 (Mozart, 1769)
La notte critica, Boroni, 1766 (Piccinni, 1767, Gassmann, 1768; Gherardeschi,
1769; Fortunati, 1771; Lasser, 1790, as Die unruhige Nacht)
La cameriera spiritosa, Galuppi, 1766 (Gherardeschi, 1767, as L’astuzia felice)
Vittorina, Piccinni, 1777
Il talismano, Salieri and Rust, 1779 (Salieri, 1788)
Unperf.: I volponi
Doubtful: Le nozze in campagna, Sciroli, 1768
other works
Orats: Magdalenae conversio, G. Seratelli, 1739; L’unzione del reale profeta
Davidde, Boroni, 1760
Cants.: La ninfa saggia, G. d’Alessandro, 1739–40; Gli amanti felici, d’Alessandro,
1739–40; Le quattro stagioni, d’Alessandro, 1739–40; L’oracolo del Vaticano,
Galuppi, 1758
Serenatas: Il coro delle Muse, d’Alessandro, 1740; La pace consolata, Maggiore,
1744; L’amor della patria, G. Scarlatti, 1752
Goldoni, Carlo
WRITINGS
Mémoires (Paris, 1787) [repr. with the autobiographical prefaces to the
Pasquali edn of his works (Venice, 1760–61) in Tutte le opere, i]
Epistolario, Tutte le opere, xiv
Goldoni, Carlo
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BurneyH
LoewenbergA
G. Gozzi, ed.: La gazzetta veneta, 1760–61; ed. A. Zardo (Florence,
1915/R)
V. Alfieri: Vita di Vittorio Alfieri scritta da esso (London, 1807; Eng. trans.,
1810, 2/1961)
A.G. Spinelli: Bibliografia goldoniana (Milan, 1884)
A. Wotquenne: Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der Stücke in Versen aus den
dramatischen Werken von Zeno, Metastasio und Goldoni (Leipzig,
1905)
A. Della Torre: Saggio di una bibliografia delle opere intorno a Carlo
Goldoni, 1793–1907 (Florence, 1908)
H.C. Chatfield-Taylor: Goldoni: a Biography (New York, 1913)
O.G.T. Sonneck: Miscellaneous Studies in the History of Music (New York,
1921/R)
W.C. Holmes: ‘Pamela Transformed’, MQ, xxxviii (1952), 581–94 [on La
buona figliuola]
Studi goldoniani:Venice 1957, ed. V. Branca and N. Mangini (Venice, 1960)
N. Mangini: Bibliografia goldoniana 1908–1957 (Venice, 1961) [with
sequels in Studi goldoniani, 1968–]
G. Ortolani: La riforma del teatro nel Settecento e altri scritti (Venice,
1962)
H. Wirth: ‘Carlo Goldoni und die deutsche Oper’, Hans Albrecht in
memoriam, ed. W. Brennecke and H. Haase (Kassel, 1962), 160–67
N. Mangini: La fortuna di Carlo Goldoni e altri saggi goldoniani (Florence,
1965)
P. Weiss: Carlo Goldoni, Librettist: the Early Years (diss., Columbia U.,
1970)
P. Weiss: ‘Goldoni poeta d’opere serie per musica’, Studi goldoniani, iii
(1973), 7–40
R. Strohm: Die italienische Oper im 18. Jahrhundert (Wilhelmshaven,
1979)
M. Kaindlstorffer: Die Drammi Giocosi Carlo Goldonis: ein Beitrag zur
Librettistik des 18. Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Vienna, 1981)
F. Fido: Da Venezia all’Europa: prospettive sull’ultimo Goldoni (Rome,
1984)
P. Weiss: ‘Venetian Commedia dell’Arte “Operas” in the Age of Vivaldi’,
MQ, lxx (1984), 195–217
F. Fido: ‘Riforma e “contrariforma” del teatro: i libretti per musica di Goldoni
fra il 1748 e il 1753’, Studi goldoniana, vii (1985), 60–72
N. Mangini: ‘I teatri veneziani al tempo della collaborazione di Galuppi con
Goldoni’, Galuppiana: Venice 1985, 133–42
L. Cosi: ‘Due oratori goldoniani’, NRMI, xx (1986), 515–38
M. Metzeltin: ‘Appunti sulla poetica dei drammi giocosi goldoniani’, Oper
als Text: romanistische Beiträge zur Libretto-Forschung, ed. A. Gier
(Heidelberg, 1986), 55–64
A.L. Bellina: Introduction to A. Palomba and G. Cocchi: La maestra, DMV,
xix (1987), pp.vii–lxiv
T.A. Emery: ‘Goldoni’s Pamela from Play to Libretto’, Italica, lxiv (1987),
572–82 [on La buona figliuola]
D.N. Marinelli: Carlo Goldoni as Experimental Librettist: the drammi
giocosi of 1750 (diss., Rutgers U., 1988)
D. Heartz: ‘The Poet as Stage Designer: Metastasio, Goldoni and Da
Ponte’, Mozart’s Operas, ed. T. Bauman (Berkeley, 1990), 89–105
T. Emery: Goldoni as Librettist: Theatrical Reform and the drammi giocosi
per musica (New York, 1991)
N. Messima, ed.: Carlo Goldoni: vita, opere, attualità (Rome, 1993)
Musica e poesia: celebrazioni in onore di Carlo Goldoni: Narni 1993
U. Ronfani, ed.: Goldoni vivo: 1793–1993 Bicentenario Goldoniano
(Rome, 1994)
Carlo Goldoni: Venice 1994, ed. C. Alberti and G. Pizzamiglio (Venice,
1995)
D. Pietropaolo, ed.: Goldoni and the Musical Theatre (New York, 1995)

Goldovsky, Boris
(b Moscow, 7 July 1908). Russian-American conductor and producer. The
son of the violinist Lea Luboschutz, he studied the piano with his uncle,
Pierre Luboschutz, and attended the Moscow Conservatory. He later
studied in Berlin, and attended Dohnányi’s masterclasses in Budapest. In
1930 he moved to the USA and studied conducting with Reiner at the
Curtis Institute of Music. At first antipathetic to opera, Goldovsky became
an ardent convert during his early years in America and was subsequently
an enthusiastic and effective proselytizer, in a variety of capacities: as head
of the opera department at the New England Conservatory of Music,
Boston (1942–64), and the opera workshop at the Berkshire Music Center
at Tanglewood (1946–62); as founder of the New England Opera Theater
in 1946; and as director of the Goldovsky Opera Theater, which toured
nationwide until 1984. At Tanglewood he presented the American
premières of Peter Grimes, Idomeneo and Albert Herring, and in 1955, with
his Boston company, he gave the North American première (albeit heavily
cut) of Berlioz’s Les Troyens. For more than 40 years he was a regular
intermission commentator for the Metropolitan Opera’s Saturday afternoon
broadcasts. His books include Accents on Opera (New York, 1953),
Bringing Opera to Life (New York, 1968) and My Road to Opera (Boston,
1979).
PETER G. DAVIS

Goldsbrough, Arnold (Wainwright)

(b Gomersal, 26 Oct 1892; d Tenbury Wells, 14 Dec 1964). English
keyboard player, conductor and teacher. He received his early musical
training from Charles Stott of Bradford. After some years as assistant and
sub-organist of Manchester Cathedral he moved to London where he held
appointments as organist of St Anne’s, Soho (1920–23), assistant organist
of Westminster Abbey (1920–27), director of music at Morley College
(1924–9), and organist of St Martin-in-the-Fields (1924–35). Meanwhile
from 1920 to 1922 he studied composition, conducting and the double bass
at the RCM, whose staff he joined in 1923.
Goldsbrough worked for many years as an accompanist, festival
adjudicator and conductor; he became better known after World War II
when he founded a small orchestra bearing his name (later the English
Chamber Orchestra) and specialized as a conductor, harpsichordist and
continuo player in music by Purcell, Bach and Handel. A broadcast
performance of Acis and Galatea in 1947 was a pioneering and seminal
essay using appropriate small resources and ornamentation. Thereafter
until his death he searched continuously for a musical application of the
evidence derived from contemporary sources in respect of tempo,
articulation, phrasing and ornamentation. He contributed to volumes xxvii
and xxx of the Purcell Society Edition.
WATKINS SHAW

Goldsbrough Orchestra.
Orchestra formed in London in 1948 and renamed the English Chamber
Orchestra in 1960; see London, §VII, 3.

Goldschmidt, Adalbert von

(b Vienna, 5 May 1848; d Hacking, nr Vienna, 21 Dec 1906). Austrian
composer. He gave up a career in banking to write music and poetry; his
parents arranged composition lessons for him with Friedrich Adolf Wolf, for
whom he wrote some songs, a quartet and a mass (the solo part in the
Gloria was first sung by Paula Kung, whom Goldschmidt later married). His
first major success was the Berlin performance of his oratorio Die sieben
Todsünden (1876), which was also successfully performed in other
German cities and under Lamoureux in Paris; but although the public
received it well in Vienna, Hanslick condemned it, calling it an ugly,
exaggerated, unoriginal imitation of Wagner, in which the composer had
committed ‘a hundred thousand deadly sins’. Inspired by a watercolour by
J. von Führich, Goldschmidt began work on an opera Helianthus, for which
he wrote his own libretto and which was first performed in Leipzig in 1884.
His most important work was the opera-oratorio trilogy Gaea (1877–1892,
first concert performance, Berlin 1893). He also wrote a symphonic poem,
several songs, chamber and piano works and a comic opera Die fromme
Helene (1897). Both Gaea and Die sieben Todsünden show the influence
of Wagner's music drama, though this is less apparent in his song settings.
Goldschmidt's salon was an important centre of Viennese musical life; Liszt
once played there.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ScheringGO
E. Hanslick: Concerte, Componisten und Virtuosen der letzten fünfzehn
Jahre, 1870–1885 (Berlin, 1886, 4/1896/R)
R. Hamerling: Stationen meiner Lebenspilgerschaft (Hamburg, 1889)
A. von Hanstein, ed.: Musiker- und Dichterbriefe von Paul Kuczynski
(Berlin, 1900)
E. Friedegg, ed.: Briefe an einen Komponisten: musikalische
Korrespondenz an Adalbert von Goldschmidt (Berlin, 1909)
F. Klose: Meine Lehrjahre bei Bruckner (Regensburg, 1927)
M. Saffle: ‘Adalbert von Goldschmidt: a Forgotten Lisztophile’, Journal of
the American Liszt Society, no.21 (1987), 31–41
GAYNOR G. JONES

Goldschmidt, Berthold
(b Hamburg, 18 Jan 1903; d London, 17 Oct 1996). British conductor and
composer of German origin. After attending school in Hamburg, he studied
philosophy and art history at the University of Hamburg and the Friedrich
Wilhelm University in Berlin (1922–4) as well as composition with Franz
Schreker and conducting with Rudolf Krasselt and Julius Prüwer at the
Berlin State Academy of Music (1922–5). After a short time spent in
Dessau as a répétiteur (1924–5), he served as Erich Kleiber’s assistant
during the rehearsals and première of Berg’s Wozzeck in 1925. Also in
1925 he won the Mendelssohn State Prize with his Passacaglia op.4 for
orchestra. The premières in 1926 of the Passacaglia (in Berlin under
Kleiber) the subsequently lost Overture op.3 (at the Tonkünstler festival in
Chemnitz), and the First String Quartet op.8 (in Berlin), brought the young
composer and conductor to more general notice. Over the next few years,
Germany and other European countries heard further performances of his
music, such as the Piano Sonata op.10, a radical piece in its linear motoric
style, given at the ISCM Festival in Geneva in April 1929. The piece played
most frequently at this time was the short, witty overture ‘Komödie der
Irrungen’ (first performed in Oldenburg in 1928 under its former title,
Ouvertüre zu einer komischen Oper). Goldschmidt worked at the
Darmstadt Opera as musical adviser to the intendant, Carl Ebert, and as a
conductor (1927–9). After a summer season as guest conductor of the
Leningrad PO, he went to Berlin in the autumn of 1931, to work at the
Städtische Oper and in radio. The première of his opera Der gewaltige
Hahnrei at the Mannheim Nationaltheater in 1932 gave promise of an
advance in his career, but the performances announced for the 1932–3
season in Berlin were cancelled, following the Nazi takeover of power.
Goldschmidt was barred from all official activity from then on; he trained
Jewish musicians for the Palestine Orchestra (later the Israel PO), and was
permitted to appear as composer, pianist and conductor only in concerts in
aid of the Jewish artists’ charity, Jüdische Künstlerhilfe.
In 1935 Goldschmidt emigrated to London, where he married the German
singer Elisabeth Karen Bothe in 1936, and became a British citizen in
1947. After some years of hardship he became musical director of the
German section of the BBC’s European Service (1944–7). He conducted
Glyndebourne Opera’s performance of Verdi’s Macbeth at the first
Edinburgh International Festival (1947); thereafter he worked with the
leading British orchestras. His music for the dance drama Chronica (1938)
was performed by the Ballets Jooss in Great Britain, North and South
America, and Scandinavia. His second opera, Beatrice Cenci, was one of
four prizewinners in the Arts Council’s Festival of Britain competition for an
English-language opera (1951), but, apart from a BBC performance of
excerpts in 1953, it remained unheard until a concert performance in
London in 1988. During his first two decades in England, Goldschmidt also
wrote instrumental and vocal works and incidental music for plays on BBC
radio. After Mediterranean Songs (1957–8), however, he ceased to
compose for almost a quarter of a century; his music struck few chords in
England, and its freely tonal orientation attracted virtually no attention amid
the turbulent artistic developments in postwar Germany. Goldschmidt now
dedicated himself as a conductor to Mahler in particular; he advised Deryck
Cooke on the completion of the Tenth Symphony, and conducted the first
concert performance of Cooke’s version in London in 1964 as well as some
later performances in Germany.
It was only from 1984 onwards that Goldschmidt’s music again found an
audience outside Great Britain, at first in Austria and the USA. He had
started to compose again shortly before this, and produced a large amount
of work, mostly chamber music, between 1982 and 1996. His rediscovery
in Germany, dating from the Berlin Festival in 1987, culminated in a series
of concerts in 1993–4 and performances of his two operas in Berlin and
Magdeburg. France, Spain and Switzerland (Der gewaltige Hahnrei, Berne,
1995) also showed a growing interest in his work. Live concerts and
broadcast performances were eventually followed by the issue of 15
recordings between 1990 and 1997 featuring his music exclusively or
partially.
Some of the music Goldschmidt wrote in Germany was lost, some he threw
away, together with certain of his compositions of the 1940s. This was the
fate above all of work that had inclined towards Neue Sachlichkeit (‘New
Objectivity’), Gebrauchsmusik or a tendentious simplicity. The fact that the
younger Goldschmidt’s music was closer to that of Hindemith and Weill –
and also Shostakovich and Prokofiev – than to Bartók or Schoenberg and
his circle is less a matter of influences than of affinities typical of the period.
Although it underwent discernible changes, Goldschmidt’s output reveals
certain unmistakable constants. Already in some of the early works, strict
compositional foundations are overlaid by freer structures which establish
their own centres of gravity. This is true of both the Passacaglia op.4 for
large orchestra, written around 1925 and lost until 1994, and the highly
expressive ‘Folia’ ‘Elegy’ from the String Quartet no.2 (completed 1936), in
which a three-note ostinato recurs 71 times. The marked preference of
Goldschmidt and some of his contemporaries for ostinato, passacaglia and
chaconne frameworks was well described by the term Neue Gebundenheit
(‘New Strict Style’), coined at the time by Besseler. In the Ciaccona
sinfonica (finished in 1936) and the late String Quartet no.4 (1992) alike the
procedure draws close to ‘serial’ treatment of the basic musical material,
though it remains undogmatic and freely tonal.
In his first opera Der gewaltige Hahnrei (after Fernand Crommelynck’s
tragic farce) the young composer achieved an astonishing balance
between Expressionist or psychologically subtle treatment on the one hand
and typological reductionism and Verfremdung on the other. The shifts in
stylistic levels are dramatically motivated, and leitmotifs guarantee the
interrelatedness of the drama and the music. Luscious late-Romantic
cantilenas seem to be as ironically inflected as the allusions to
contemporary dance music (for instance the Tango-Aria in Act 3); colour
effects are qualified by means of linear-contrapuntal, dissonantly
sharpened outlines. Behind the foreground subject-matter of marital
jealousy lies the theme – ominously prophetic for the early 1930s – of
fateful acquiescence in a system gone mad. This ‘musical tragicomedy’ is
head-and-shoulders above the Zeitoper of the period, and can be seen in
retrospect to occupy an important position among the wealth of German-
language operas written around 1930. By way of contrast Beatrice Cenci,
written in England, is somewhat more belcanto in manner, and displays in
its Italian Renaissance subject and somewhat retrospective musical styles
parallels to the historical novel (a genre quite as capable as Zeitoper of
expressing criticism of contemporary society). It illustrates both the
problems and the opportunities Goldschmidt experienced in composing
under changed cultural conditions.
Like Chronica, which has the character of a suite and uses material from
the ballet of the same title (1938, lost) and other early and late pieces, the
three solo concertos composed or reworked between 1951 and 1955
combine melodic-contrapuntal thought and rhythmic-balletic impulse in a
manner characteristic of Goldschmidt. Chamber-music intimacy is linked to
concertante extroversion in a way that gives the formally unconventional
Cello Concerto an effect of the greatest immediacy. The rupture in
Goldschmidt’s life is mirrored in his vocal music by the very fact of the
change from setting one language to another. Letzte Kapitel (1930–31) is
based on two satirical poems by Erich Kästner and combines experimental
features (such as the setting for speaker, singing and speaking chorus,
percussion ensemble and piano) with sarcastic allusions to popular idioms.
In addition, Mediterranean Songs, the setting of English-language poems
for tenor and orchestra (1957–8: the last work completed before the near
25-year hiatus), and the pair of late, French-language settings Les petits
adieux (1994) and Deux nocturnes (1995–6), which are even more
concentrated in structure and atmosphere, are notably substantial works.
Goldschmidt’s late compositions focus on the very problem of temporal
disjunction, of being out of step with the times, that characterizes his work
and his career as a whole – dismissed by conservative critics in his youth,
driven out of Nazi Germany, forgotten by the postwar avant garde,
interrupted in his work for over two decades. The Clarinet Quartet refers
back to some of his earlier themes and preoccupations and at the same
time plays with different, historically out-of-season idioms. Later works,
 such as the Third and Fourth String Quartets and the string trio
Retrospectrum, are characterized by the tension between their large-scale,
one-movement, arch forms and the abundance of episodes that take place
within them, as well as the tension between their open formal structures
and high thematic concentration. There is also a considerable divergence
of stylistic levels in these pieces: in the String Trio the introduction of a
dance theme creates a deliberate stylistic rupture. Thus Goldschmidt’s late
works offer an unmistakable and aesthetically illuminating reflection of the
process of expulsion and re-integration in history.
WORKS
(selective list)

excludes most lost works

Ops: Der gewaltige Hahnrei (3, after F. Crommelynck: Le cocu magnifique), op.14,
1929–30, Mannheim, National, 1932; Beatrice Cenci (3, M. Esslin, after P.B.
Shelley), 1949–50, extracts broadcast BBC, 1953, concert perf., London, 1988,
staged Magdeburg, Jerichower Platz, 10 Sept 1994
Ballet: Chronica (choreog. K. Jooss), 2 pf, 1938, Cambridge, 1949, lost
Incid. music: Die Herde sucht (F. Neumeyer), 1931, partially lost; Doctor Faustus
(C. Marlowe), BBC, 1948; The Dream Play (A. Strindberg), BBC, 1948; The Cenci
(P.B. Shelley), BBC, 1948; Dear Brutus (J.M. Barrie), BBC, 1948; Noble Little
Soldier’s Wife, Bar, xyl, BBC, 1948 [for W. Borchert: The Man Outside]; Nicodemus
he was Black, BBC, 1948/9 [for Martens and Obey: Scamps in Paradise];
Investigations of a Dog (F. Kafka), BBC, 1969
Vocal-inst: Letzte Kapitel (orig.: 2 Betrachtungen) (E. Kästner), op.15, spkr, chbr
chorus, pf, perc, 1930–31; Das Makkabäerspiel (J. Prinz), speaking chorus, 2 pf,
c1933, speaking parts lost; Nebelweben; Ein Rosenzweig (C. Morgenstern),
medium v, pf, 1933; Pss cxx and cxxiv, high v, str, 1935; Der Verflossene (A. Eckert-
Rotholz), v, pf, 1942; Time (P.B. Shelley), v, pf, 1943 [orchd and incl. in Beatrice
Cenci]; Beatrice’s Song (Shelley), v, pf, 1948–9 [orchd and incl. in Beatrice Cenci];
Clouds (R. Brooke), v, pf, 1950, arr. Bar/C, orch, 1986; The Old Ships (J.E Flecker),
T, pf, 1952, orchd as no.5 of Mediterranean Songs, arr. Bar/C, orch, 1986; [6]
Mediterranean Songs (Byron, Shelley and others), T/high v, orch, 1957–8; Belsatzar
(H. Heine), mixed vv, 1985; Les petits adieux, 4 songs, Bar, orch, 1994; 2
nocturnes, S, orch, 1995–6
Orch: Chronica, c1924–86 [Prologue (= Intrada + Marche Militaire) + 6 orch pieces
from the ballet Chronica + Capriccio]; Ov. ‘Komödie der Irrungen’ (orig.: Ov. zu einer
komischen Oper) (W. Shakespeare), op.6, 1925; Passacaglia, op.4, c1925 Partita,
op.9, c1927; Suite from ‘Der gewaltige Hahnrei, op.14a, 1929–33; Grotesker March
(Marche militaire), op.20, 1932 [part of orch suite Chronica], arr. military band, 1938;
Ciaccona sinfonica, c1934–6; Greek Suite, 1940–41; Sinfonietta, 1945–6, partially
lost; Vn Conc., 1951–5; Vc Conc., 1953; Cl Conc., 1953–4; Intrada, wind band/orch,
1985–6 [part of orch suite Chronica]; Rondeau (Rue du rocher), vn, orch/pf, 1994–5
Chbr: Str Qt, op.8, 1925–6; Str Qt no.2, a, ?1933–6; Qt, cl, vn, va, vc, 1982–3; Pf
Trio, 1985; Str Qt no.3, 1988–9; Berceuse, vn, va, 1990 [based on a theme from Pf
Trio, 1985]; Str Trio ‘Retrospectrum’, 1991; Fantasy, ob, vc, hp, 1991; Capriccio, vn,
1991–2; Str Qt no.4, 1992; ‘from B (flat) to D’ … (10 x 5) x 2, vn, vc, 1993; Duo
(Dialogue with Cordelia), cl, vc, 1993; Encore (Méditation), vn, pf, 1993; Rondeau
(Rue du rocher), vn, pf/orch, 1994–5
Pf: Scherzo, 1922, rev. 1958; Sonata, op.10, 1926; Capriccio, op.11, 1927; Little
Legend, 1928, rev. 1957; Variationen über eine palästinensische Hirtenweise,
op.32, 1934; From the Ballet, 1938, rev. 1957

Boosey and Hawkes, Schott

BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Gutman: ‘Der Komponist Berthold Goldschmidt’, Nationaltheater
Mannheim: Bühnen-Blätter (1931–2), no.11, pp.121–5
F. Berend: ‘Komponistenporträt: Berthold Goldschmidt’, Musica, no.1
(1953), 33–4
D. Schulte-Bunert: Die deutsche Klaviersonate des zwanzigsten
Jahrhunderts (Regensburg, 1963)
K. Laux: Nachklang: Rückschau auf sechs Jahrzehnte kulturellen Wirkens
(Berlin, 1977)
D. Matthews: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt: a Biographical Sketch’, Tempo,
no.144 (1983), 2–6
D. Matthews: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt: the Chamber and Instrumental
Music’, Tempo, no.145 (1983), 20–25
C. Matthews: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt: Orchestral Music’, Tempo, no.148
(1984), 12–16
K. Csipak: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt im Exil: der Komponist im Gespräch über
Musiker-Exil und Musikleben’, Verdrängte Musik: Berliner
Komponisten im Exil, ed. H. Traber and E. Weingarten (Berlin, 1987),
43–77
C.-H. Bachmann: ‘Zerstörte Begabung – ein Fall unter vielen: Kapitel im
Leben des Komponisten und Dirigenten Berthold Goldschmidt’, Neue
Musikzeitung, xxxvii/4 (1988), 47
P. Banks: ‘The Case of “Beatrice Cenci”’, Opera, xxxix (1988), 426–32
C. Shaw: ‘First Performances: “Beatrice Cenci”’, Tempo, no.165 (1988),
42–4
H. Koelbl: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt’, Jüdische Portraits (Frankfurt am Main,
1989), 78–80, 285
M. Struck: ‘Evidence from a Fragmented Musical History: Notes on
Berthold Goldschmidt’s Chamber Music’, Tempo, no.174 (1990), 2–10
Geschlossene Vorstellung: der Jüdische Kulturbund in Deutschland 1933–
1941 (Berlin, 1992) [pubn of Akademie der Künste, Berlin]
B. Goldschmidt: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt: im Gespräch mit Juan Allende-
Blin’, Musiktradition im Exil: zurück aus dem Vergessen, ed. J.
Allende-Blin (Cologne, 1993), 175–201 [interview]
C.-H. Bachmann: ‘Komponierte Erinnerungen in die Zukunft: ein
Geburtstagsblatt für Berthold Goldschmidt, “Zeuge des Jahrhunderts”’,
Neue Musikzeitung, xlii/1 (1993), 39 only
S. Hilger and W. Jacobs, eds.: Berthold Goldschmidt (Bonn, 1993,
2/1996)
J. Raab: ‘Internierung – Bombardierung – Rekrutierung: Musiker-Exil in
Grossbritannien’, Musik im Exil: Folgen des Nazismus für die
internationale Musikkultur, ed. H.W. Heister and others (Frankfurt,
1993), 279–96
E. Levi: ‘Deutsche Musik und Musiker im englischen Exil 1933–1945’,
Musik in der Emigration 1933–1945: Verfolgung – Vertreibung –
Rückwirkung, ed. H. Weber (Stuttgart and Weimar, 1994), 192–212
P. Petersen and others, eds.: Berthold Goldschmidt – Komponist und
Dirigent: ein Musiker-Leben zwischen Hamburg, Berlin und London
(Hamburg, 1994)
M. Struck: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt zum 90. Geburtstag’, Jahrbuch des
Schleswig-Holsteinischens Landesmuseums Schloss Gottorf’, new
ser., iv (Neumünster, 1994), 19–24
B. Busch: ‘“Verbitterung ist selbstzerstörerisch”: Berthold Goldschmidt –
Komponist, Dirigent, Zeitzeuge’, Zündende Lieder – verbrannte Musik:
Folgen des Nationalfaschismus für Hamburger Musiker und
Musikerinnen, ed. P. Petersen and others (Hamburg, 2/1995), 123–36
MICHAEL STRUCK

Goldschmidt, Georg.
See Fabricius, Georg.

Goldschmidt, Harry
(b Basle, 17 June 1910; d Dresden, 19 Oct 1986). Swiss musicologist,
active in East Germany. In Basle he studied music with Weingartner at the
conservatory, and at the university he took musicology with Nef and
Handschin, ethnology and philosophy; he also studied with Scherchen at
Königsberg, and in Paris and Berlin. Later he was music critic of the Basle
Nationalzeitung (1933–9) and Vorwärts (1945–9), and organized workers’
concerts and directed a workers’ choir. On moving to Berlin he became
head of the music section of Berlin radio (1949–50) before being appointed
lecturer in music history at the East Berlin Hochschule für Musik (1950–55).
From 1955 to 1956 he lectured in China on European music, and on his
return to Berlin he worked mainly as a freelance musicologist until his
appointment as director of the Central Institute of Musicology (1960–65).
Goldschmidt wrote mainly on the music of Beethoven and Schubert (he
was granted a doctorate by the Berlin Humboldt University in 1958 for his
Schubert biography). He was one of the leading and most prolific German
exponents of Marxist theories of music and contributed largely to the
development of the Marxist methodology regarding research and analysis
of music history. In addition to his biographical work on Beethoven and
Schubert, Goldschmidt was known for applying the methodologies of
linguistics to create new systems of musical analysis.
WRITINGS
‘Das Vermächtnis von Johannes Brahms’, MG, iii (1953), 162–7
with G. Knepler and E.H. Meyer: Musikgeschichte im Überblick (Berlin,
1956, rev. 3/1981/R by F. Brenn)
‘Über das neue chinesiche Musikschaffen und seine Perspektiven’, MG, vi
(1956), 409–13, 449–53
‘Edvard Grieg’, MG, vii (1957), 526–53
Franz Schubert: ein Lebensbild (diss., Humboldt U. of Berlin, 1958; Berlin,
1954, 6/1976)
‘Zur Methodologie der musikalischen Analyse’, BMw, iii/4 (1961), 3–30
‘Über die Einheit der vokalen und instrumentalen Sphäre in der klassischen
Musik’, DJbM, xi (1966), 35–49
‘Beethovens Anweisungen zum Spiel der Cramer-Etüden’, ‘Der späte
Beethoven: Versuch einer Standortbestimmung’, Beethoven
Congress: Berlin 1970, 545–58; 41–58
Um die Sache der Musik (Leipzig, 1970, enlarged 2/1976) [collected
essays]
‘Vers und Strophe in Beethovens Instrumentalmusik’, Beethoven
Symposium: Vienna 1970, 97–120
‘Zitat oder Parodie (bei Beethoven)?’, BMw, xii (1970), 171–98
‘Un lieto brindisi: cantata campestre’, BeJb 1971–2, 157–205
‘Welches war die ursprungliche Reihenfolge in Schuberts Heineliedern?’,
DJbM, xvii (1972), 52–62
‘Die Cavatina des Figaro: eine semantische Analyse’, BMw, xv (1973),
185–207
‘Musikverstehen als Postulat’, Musik und Verstehen, ed. P. Faltin and H.-P.
Reinecke (Cologne, 1973), 67–86
Beethoven-Studien: i: Die Erscheinung Beethoven (Leipzig, 1974/R); ii: Um
die Unsterbliche Geliebte: eine Bestandaufnahme (Leipzig, 1977/R)
Beethoven: Werkeinführungen (Leipzig, 1975)
‘Beethoven in neuen Brunsvik-Briefen’, BeJb 1973–7, 97–146
ed.: Beethoven Kongress: Berlin 1977 [incl. ‘Kunstwerk und Biographie’,
437–50]
‘Eine weitere E-Dur-Sinfonie? Zur Kontroverse um die “Gmunden-Gastein”
-Sinfonie’, Schubert Congress: Vienna 1978, 79–112
‘Franz Schubert: der erste Satz der grossen C-dur Sinfonie: eine
prosodische Analyse’, BMw, xxi (1979), 235–97
ed.: Zu Beethoven, i: Aufsätze und Annotationen (Berlin 1979) [incl.
‘Aspekte gegenwärtiger Beethoven-Forschung: Biographie’, 167–242];
ii: Aufsätze und Dokumente (Berlin, 1988) [incl. ‘Auf diese Art mit A
geht alles zu Grunde: eine umstrittene Tagebuchstelle in neuem Licht’,
8–30]
ed., with G. Knepler and K. Niemann: Komponisten, auf Werk und Leben
befragt: Weimar 1981
ed., with G. Knepler: Musikästhetik ind der Diskussion (Leipzig, 1981)
[incl. ‘“Cantando – sonando”: einige Ansätze zu einer systematischen
Musikästhetik’, 125–43]
‘Den Gesang fortsetzend: eine Mahler-Studie’, Wegzeichen: Studien zur
Musikwissenschaft, ed. J. Mainka and P. Wicke (Berlin, 1985), 194–
261
‘Das prosodisch-rhetorische Regulativ bei J.S. Bach’, BMw, xxvii (1985),
48–71
‘Die Wolfsschlucht – eine schwarze Messe?’, BMw, xxx (1988), 8–27
Das Wort in instrumentaler Musik: die Ritornelle in Schuberts Winterreise
(Hamburg, 1996)

Goldschmidt, Otto (Moritz David)

(b Hamburg, 21 Aug 1829; d London, 24 Feb 1907). German pianist,
conductor and composer. He first studied the piano and harmony with F.W.
Grund and Jakob Schmitt in Hamburg, then became one of the first
students at the newly founded Leipzig Conservatory (1843) under
Mendelssohn, von Bülow, Plaidy and Hauptmann. After playing and
teaching in Hamburg (1846–8), he went to Paris to study under Chopin.
Although this ambition was never realized, he attended Chopin’s last Paris
concert. He moved to London, appeared at a benefit concert for the
Brompton Hospital given by Jenny Lind on 31 July 1848 at Her Majesty’s
Theatre, and later accompanied Lind in Hamburg and America (1851–2).
He married her on 5 February 1852 in Boston; they lived in Dresden
(1852–5) and performed in major European cities before settling in
England in 1858. He became organist of two churches in the Wimbledon
area; his interest in church music resulted in a collaboration with Sterndale
Bennett (1862–4) on The Chorale Book for England. He conducted music
festivals in Düsseldorf (1863) and Hamburg (1866). From 1863 he taught
the piano at the RAM, becoming vice-principal in 1866; he also contributed
to the organization of music at Rugby School (1864–9). In 1875 he founded
the London Bach Choir, which he conducted for ten years.
Goldschmidt played an important role in the musical life of his time. Under
his direction the Bach Choir, a group that consisted of 22 amateurs at its
inception, grew in size and, with Jenny Lind in the choir, gave the first
complete performance in England of Bach’s B minor Mass (St James’s
Hall, 26 April 1876). He also revived works such as Handel’s Ode for St
Cecilia’s Day. Jenny Lind staunchly defended him against critics who called
him a dull pianist and was incensed when he was referred to as ‘the Prince
Consort of Song’; when English newspapers repeated libellous statements
in the American press that he was squandering her fortune, she won a
court action against them. Goldschmidt’s best-known composition, the
oratorio Ruth (1867), was written for his wife and makes effective use of
her famous f '''. His other works include songs, chamber music, a piano
concerto and the cantata for women's voices Music (1898).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DNB (E. Waeltner)
H.S. Holland and W.S. Rockstro: Memoir of Madame Jenny Lind-
Goldschmidt: her Early Art-Life and Dramatic Career, 1820–1851
(London, 1891/R)
Obituaries, MT, xlviii (1907), 246–7; The Times (26 Feb 1907)
J.M.C. Maude: The Life of Jenny Lind (London, 1926/R)
J. Bulman: Jenny Lind (London, 1956)
GAYNOR G. JONES/CHRISTOPHER FIFIELD

Goldsmith, Jerry [Jerrald]

(b Los Angeles, 10 Feb 1929). American composer and conductor. In the
1940s he studied the piano with Jakob Gimpel and theory and composition
with Castelnuovo-Tedesco; he also attended Los Angeles City College, as
well as Rózsa's classes at the University of Southern California. In the
1950s he worked primarily for CBS, composing and conducting music first
for radio, then for television. His television credits include numerous scores
for such live dramatic programmes as ‘Climax!’ and ‘Playhouse 90’, as well
as for episodes of long-running series such as ‘Gunsmoke’ and ‘The
Twilight Zone’. Although he continued to write for television with some
frequency during the 1960s and 70s, since 1962 he has mostly scored
feature films. Over four decades he has completed scores for more than
160 films, and has collaborated repeatedly with directors including
 Schaffner, Ridley Scott, Dante, Verhoeven and Schepisi. He has long
worked closely with two outstanding orchestrators, Arthur Morton and
Alexander Courage.
Goldsmith's dramatic imagination is fertile and eclectic: A Patch of Blue
(1965) is scored in chamber-music fashion, with a prominent solo
harmonica and a touching waltz theme for the piano; Planet of the Apes
(1968) is scored for a large orchestra augmented by unusual instruments
(including ram's horn and mixing bowls) and features serial techniques; in
addition to an ensemble that includes four pianos and four harps,
Chinatown (1974) uses solo trumpet and strings, its main theme being a
moody, nostalgic jazz tune. Goldsmith has always displayed a strong
commitment to modernist and avant-garde styles, particularly for horror,
fantasy or science fiction films, genres for which he has become well
known. He has used aleatory techniques (Mephisto Waltz, 1971), and has
borrowed stylistically from such leading composers as Stravinsky and Orff
(The Omen, 1976), Bartók (Freud, 1962, and Coma, 1978), and Berg at his
most expressionistic (Poltergeist, 1982). While avoiding purely electronic
scores, Goldsmith often blends synthesized timbres into symphonic or
chamber textures (Darter). Several scores contain more traditional
melodies, richly harmonized and developed, notably those for Star Trek,
the Motion Picture (1979) and its sequels and First Knight (1995). His
stylistic range also covers a wide variety of pop and jazz styles such as
disco (Gremlins, 1984) and big-band jazz (L.A. Confidential, 1997).
Adulated by soundtrack collectors, recordings of Goldsmith's scores are
abundant and highly prized. During the 1990s he has produced and
conducted new recordings of major film scores by Alex North, including the
latter's rejected score for 2001.
WORKS
(selective list)

film scores
director in parentheses

Studs Lonigan (I. Lerner), 1960; Lonely Are the Brave (D. Miller), 1962; Freud (J.
Huston), 1962; Seven Days in May (J. Frankenheimer, 1963; Lilies of the Field (R.
Nelson), 1963; Rio Conchos (G. Douglas), 1964; The Satan Bug (J. Sturges), 1964;
A Patch of Blue (G. Green), 1965; Von Ryan's Express (M. Robson), 1965; The
Blue Max (J. Guillermin), 1966; The Sand Pebbles (R. Wise), 1966; In Like Flint
(Douglas), 1967; Sebastian (D. Greene), 1967; Planet of the Apes (F. Schaffner),
1968; The Detective (Douglas), 1968; Justine (G. Cukor), 1969; The Ballad of Cable
Hogue (S. Peckinpah), 1970; Patton (Schaffner), 1970; The Mephisto Waltz (P.
Wendkos), 1971; The Wild Rovers (B. Edwards), 1971; The Other (R. Mulligan),
1972; Papillon (Schaffner), 1973; Chinatown (R. Polanski), 1974; The Wind and the
Lion (J. Milius), 1975; Logan's Run (M. Anderson), 1976; The Omen (R. Donner),
1976; Twilight's Last Gleaming (R. Aldrich), 1977; Islands in the Stream (Schaffner),
1977; Coma (M. Crichton), 1978; Capricorn One (P. Hyams), 1978; Alien (R. Scott),
1979; The Great Train Robbery (Crichton), 1979; Star Trek, the Motion Picture
(Wise), 1979
Outland (Hyams), 1981; Poltergeist (T. Hooper), 1982; First Blood (T. Kotcheff),
1982; Twilight Zone, the Movie (J. Landis and others), 1983; Psycho II (R. Franklin),
1983; Under Fire (R. Spottiswoode), 1983; Gremlins (J. Dante), 1984; Rambo, First
Blood Part II (G.P. Cosmatos), 1985; Legend (Scott), 1985 [European version];
Hoosiers (D. Anspaugh), 1986; Innerspace (Dante), 1987; Lionheart (Schaffner),
1987; Star Trek V, the Final Frontier (W. Shatner), 1989; Total Recall (P.
Verhoeven), 1990; Gremlins 2, the New Batch (Dante), 1990; The Russia House (F.
Schepisi), 1990; Love Field (J. Kaplan), 1991; Medicine Man (J. McTiernan), 1992;
Basic Instinct (Verhoeven), 1992; Rudy (Anspaugh), 1993; I.Q. (Schepisi), 1994;
Angie (M. Coolidge), 1994; First Knight (J. Zucker), 1995; City Hall (H. Becker),
1995; The Ghost and the Darkness (S. Hopkins), 1996; Star Trek, First Contact (J.
Frakes), 1996; L.A. Confidential (C. Hanson), 1997; The Edge (L. Tamahori), 1997;
Mulan (B. Cook, T. Bancroft), 1998; Star Trek: Insurrection (Frakes), 1998; The
Mummy (S. Sommers), 1999; The Haunting (J. De Bont), 1999

television
Series themes and episodes (dates are for complete series): Studio One, 1948–8;
Hallmark Hall of Fame, 1951–8; General Electric Theater, 1953–62; Climax!, 1954–
8; Gunsmoke, 1955–75; Playhouse 90, 1956–60; Wagon Train, 1957–65; Have Gun
Will Travel, 1957–66; The Twilight Zone, 1959–64; Thriller, 1960–62; Dr. Kildare,
1961–6 [theme]; The Man from U.N.C.L.E., 1964–8 [theme]; The Waltons, 1972–81
[theme]; Barnaby Jones, 1973–80 [theme]; Star Trek: Voyager, 1995– [theme]
Mini-series and television films: The Red Pony, 1973; A Tree Grows in Brooklyn,
1974; QB VII, 1974; Babe, 1975; Contract on Cherry Street, 1977; Masada, 1981
other works
Christus Apollo (R. Bradbury), cant., nar, C, chorus, orch 1969; Othello, ballet,
1971; Music for Orch, 1972
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Bernstein: ‘A Conversation with Jerry Goldsmith’, Film Music Notebook
(Los Angeles), iii/2 (1977), 18–31
T. Thomas: ‘Jerry Goldsmith’, Film Score: the View from the Podium
(South Brunswick, NJ, and New York, 1979, 2/1991 as Film Score: the
Art and Craft of Movie Music), 285–97
‘The Composer: Jerry Goldsmith’, Filmmakers on Filmmaking: the
American Film Institute Seminars on Motion Pictures and Television,
ed. J. McBride (Los Angeles, 1983), 133–46
T. Darter: ‘Jerry Goldsmith’, Keyboard, xi (1985), no.2, pp.19–20, 22–6;
no.4, pp.44ff
R. Bohn and others: ‘A Filmography/Discography of Jerry Goldsmith:
Updated’, Soundtrack!, xii/47 (1993), 22–42
S.M. Fry: ‘Jerry Goldsmith: a Selective Annotated Bibliography’, The Cue
Sheet, x/3–4 (1993–4), 28–39
‘A Tribute to Jerry Goldsmith’, Soundtrack!, xviii/69 (1999), 22–51
MARTIN MARKS

Goldstein, Malcolm
(b Brooklyn, NY, 27 March 1936). American composer, violinist and writer
on music. He studied at Columbia College (BA 1956) and Columbia
University (MA 1960), where his teachers included Luening (composition)
and Antonio Miranda (violin). He has held positions at the Columbia-
Princeton Electronic Music Center (1959–60), Columbia College (1961–5),
 the New School for Social Research, New York (1963–5, 1967–9), the New
England Conservatory (1965–7), Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania
(1969–71), Goddard College, Plainfield, Vermont (1972–4), Dartmouth
College, Hanover, New Hampshire (1976–8) and Bowdoin College,
Brunswick, Maine (1978–82). Goldstein has been active as a director of
ensembles: in the 1960s he co-founded with Philip Corner and James
Tenney and co-directed the important concert series Tone Roads,
presenting many rarely performed works by Ives, Ruggles, Cage, Varèse
and others when he was also a participant in the Judson Dance Theater,
New York; he directed the New Music Ensemble at Dartmouth College; and
in the 1990s he directed the Hessischer Rundfunk Ensemble für Neue
Musik in Frankfurt. In 1976 he was commissioned by the Charles Ives
Society to prepare a critical edition of Ives’s Symphony no.2.
In the early 1970s Goldstein left New York and moved to rural Vermont.
During this period he began a series of improvisational violin pieces
performed under the title Soundings, for which he is perhaps best known;
technically audacious, these pieces possess an introspective intensity that
can be overwhelming, and have been acclaimed as having ‘reinvented
violin playing’. As a violinist and improviser, he has extended instrumental
and vocal techniques and thereby created a wider range of possible
sounds and textures, reflected in his string ensemble work upon the string,
within the bow … breathing. Goldstein, all of whose compositions after the
mid-1960s have involved structured improvisational elements, describes
the improvising musician as ‘one centered in the process of discovery …
realised in the gesture of enactment/sounding’. His scores combine
calligraphy, comments and instructions, and notated music, and are
visually among the most beautiful and evocative in the contemporary
repertory. Increasingly, he has drawn on the sounds of nature that surround
him in Vermont, as reflected in such titles as The Seasons: Vermont and
frog pond at dusk. In the 1980s and 90s he created works including the
radio/acoustic art Ishi/timechangingspaces and ‘as it were, another’ in the
Studio Akustische Kunst at Westdeutscher Rundfunk in Cologne. Goldstein
has toured throughout North America and Europe as a violinist, and has
held improvisation workshops, participated in festivals and collaborated
extensively with artists, dancers and poets, as well as musicians.
WORKS
(selective list)

† unspecified
Orch: a breaking of vessels, becoming song, conc., fl, orch, 1981; Cascades of the
Brook: Bachwasserfall, vn, chbr orch, 1984
Ens: Majority – 1964, str trio, pf, 1964; frog pond at dusk, † inst ens, 1970; upon the
string, within the bow … breathing, str, 1972; Yosha’s Morning Song Extended, †
inst ens, 1974; Hues of the Golden Ascending, fl ens, 1979; The Seasons: Vermont,
† inst ens, tape, 1980–82; Of Sky Bright Mushrooms Bursting in My Head, vn, wind
trio, pf, perc, 1983; Soweto Stomp, † chbr ens, 1985; ‘… that hung like fire on
heaven’, chbr ens, cptr, 1985; through the deserts of time, str qt, 1990; an
enactment of absence, vn, pf, 1995; ‘as it were’, vn db, perc, 1996; Regarding the
Tower of Babel, spkr, † inst ens, 1997; Divisions of Ground, 3 str/ww insts, pf, 2
perc, 1998
Solo inst: Jade Mountain Soundings, solo str inst, 1983; Sounding the Fragility of
Line, vn, 1988; Ishi/‘man waxati’ Soundings, vn, 1988; gentle rain preceding
mushrooms, vn + v, 1992
Vocal: Illuminations from Fantastic Gardens, vocal ens, 1964; Ov. to Fantastic
Gardens, vocal ens, pf, 1964, rev. for chorus, † inst ens, 1976; death: act of fact of
dying, vocal ens, 1967; Yosha’s Morning Song, v, 1973; qernerâq: our breath as
bones, v, † inst ens, 1986; … out of changes: Keeping Still/Mountain, v, † inst ens,
1994
Mixed media: State of the Nation, sound environment, tape loops, 1967; Marin’s
Song, Illuminated, sound/theatre ritual, vn, v, metal objects, slides, tape, 1979–81;
The Life Cycles of Stones, visual/aural installation, vn + v, tape, 1987; Violin Solos
the (Whole) World Plays, visual/aural installation, vn, 1992; Aparicion con vida (text
by M. Agosin), theatre piece, vn + v, 1993; a convergence of distances, theatre
piece, music and dance ens, 1994
Radio/acoustic art works: The Edges of Sound Within, 1985;
Ishi/timechangingspaces, 1988; Topography of a Sound Mind, 1991; between (two)
spaces, 1993; Versuch einer Gründlichen Violinschule, 1996; ‘as it were, another’,
1998

Recorded interviews in US-NHoh

Principal publisher: Soundings

WRITINGS
From Wheelock Mountain: Music and Writings by Malcolm Goldstein
(Toronto, 1977)
‘The Politics of Improvisation’, PNM, xxi (1982–3), 79–91
Sounding the Full Circle: Concerning Music Improvisation and Other
Related Matters (Sheffield, VT, 1988)
recordings
Soundings for Solo Violin, MG Records, MG1, 1980
The Seasons: Vermont, Folkways, FX6242, 1983; re-issued by
Experimental Intermedia CD, XI 120, 1998
Vision Soundings, MG Records, MG2, 1985
Sounding the New Violin, Nonsequitur/What Next, WN0005, 1991
Goldstein plays Goldstein, Da Capo Records, DC2, 1994
Monsun, True Muze, TUMUCD9801, 1998
John Cage (music for vn and perc), Wergo 6636–2, 1999
Chants Cachés, Ambiances magnétiques, AM066, 1999
Malcolm Goldstein live at Fire in the Valley, Eremite, MTE 016, 1999
PETER GARLAND/R

Goldstein [Gold'shteyn], Mikhail

[Mykhailo] Ėmmanuilovich
(b Odessa, 8 Nov 1917; d Hamburg, 7 Aug 1989). Ukrainian composer,
musicologist and teacher. He began studying the violin with Stolyarsky, the
teacher of Milstein and Oistrakh, and aged 13 entered the Moscow
 Conservatory where he studied the violin with Yampol'sky, conducting with
Saradzhev and composition with Myaskovsky, graduating in 1936. Although
a prolific composer, he is best known as the perpetrator of a hoax: he was
the ‘discoverer’ of a Symphony no.21 in G minor, written ‘for the dedication
of the Odessa Theatre, 1809’ by an actual historical figure, N.D.
Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky (1768–1846), a landowner who is known to have
presented his serf orchestra at the Odessa Theatre in 1810. But Goldstein
had actually written the work as a response to a critic who had claimed that
Goldstein, having composed a piece on Ukrainian themes, could not
‘understand’ Ukrainian music because he was Jewish. So, as an elaborate
and elegant riposte against racism, the work was faked (Dunayevsky
supposedly provided a theme for the finale), deposited in the archives of
the Odessa Conservatory and duly ‘discovered’ by Goldstein in 1948.
Ukrainian and Russian musicologists were so anxious to demonstrate that
they could at last prove that symphonies had been composed in the
Russian Empire in the early 19th century that they did not question the
work's authenticity; it was performed in 1949, published in 1951, recorded
by Mravinsky and was made the subject of at least two dissertations. When
Goldstein admitted the hoax, the embarrassed parties kept the matter
away from public discourse for a long time. Even then, Goldstein's claim
was not universally believed and Taranov judged the symphony to be the
work of neither Goldstein nor Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky. To this day, the
controversy over the extent to which it actually was a fabrication has not
been resolved satisfactorily. Goldstein emigrated to East Germany in 1964,
and from there moved to Israel (1967) before settling in Hamburg (1969)
where he joined the staff of the Hochschule für Musik. He also taught at the
Menuhin School in England and at the Musashino Academia Musicae in
Tokyo. He wrote many articles on Russian, Ukrainian and German
composers and for a time was on the editorial staff of Riemann's Musik
Lexicon. Most of his works, a number of which are pedagogical, are cast in
the neo-classical or neo-romantic mode widespread in the Soviet Union
during the mid-20th century. He also published music and articles under
the pseudonym Mykhajlo Mykhajlowsky; a book of memoirs, Zapiski
muzïkanta (‘Diary of a musician’), was published in Frankfurt.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Sym. [no.1], 1934; Sym. [no.2], folk insts, str, 1936; Vn Conc. [no.1], 1936; Vn
Conc. [no.2], 1939; Pf Conc., 1940; Sym. [no.3], 1944; Sym. [no.4], 1952; Nicolò
Paganini, sym. poem, 1963; Ukrainian Rhapsody, 1965; Kinderszenen, 1966;
Hamburger Konzert, chbr orch, 1975
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt [no.1], 1932; Pf Trio, 1933; Sonata [no.1], vn, pf, 1935;
Sonata [no.2], vn, pf, 1940; Str Qt [no.2], 1940; Sonata [no.3], vn, pf, 1950;
Ukrainian Suite, vn, pf, 1952; Sonata [no.4], vn, pf, 1975; Str Qt [no.3], 1975;
Sonatina, fl, 1977; Duo, vn, db, 1979; Sonatina, fl, 1980; Sonatina, vn, 1980;
Sonatina, db, 1981; 20 Little Preludes, va, 1982; Qnt, 1982; Sonatina, ob, 1982;
Sonatina, trbn, 1982; Suite, tpt, org, 1986–7; Minstrel's Rondo [after S. Prokofiev]
Completion: A.P. Borodin: Vc Sonata, b (1982)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker 7
 D. M. Greene: Greene’s Biographical Encyclopedia of Composers (Garden
City, NY, 1985)
VIRKO BALEY

Goldwin [Golding], John

(bap. Windsor, 1 Dec 1667; d Windsor, 7 Nov 1719). English organist and
composer. He was a chorister of St George's Chapel, Windsor, from 1675
to 1684, and in 1685 he became assistant to William Child as organist and
to Matthew Green, Master of the Choristers, receiving ‘half a clerk's pay,
provided he assist the organist upon all necessary occasions and diligently
instruct the choristers in the art of singing’. In 1694 he was granted a
reversion of both posts, to which he duly succeeded in 1697 (as organist,
at £44 a year) and 1704 (as Master, at £23 14s. a year). In the chapter
records of St George's Chapel he is referred to as ‘Golding’ (likewise in his
baptismal record at Windsor Parish Church), but he usually signed himself
Goldwin, as did his contemporaries when copying his music.
All his surviving compositions are for the church, and comprise a Service in
F (printed in Samuel Arnold's Cathedral Music, 1790) and at least 37
anthems (principally GB-Och 94, in the hand of his Windsor colleague
William Isaack). The service is a rather routine piece, but some of the full
anthems, among them Hear me, O God and O Lord God of hosts, are
imaginative and comparable with Purcell's in the same vein. The verse
anthems are more numerous and mainly celebratory in nature, hence
somewhat prone to cliché, but competently written; there are striking
moments in such works as Unto thee have I cried, Ponder my words, O
Lord and O Lord my God. He is fond of treble solos and duets, and growing
sectionalization with contrast of movement, tempo and key between verses
is a feature, leading to the establishment of the ‘cantata anthem’ in a work
like O be joyful in the Lord. Various anthems were included by Boyce,
Arnold and Page in their collections of cathedral music, but their choice
was governed by considerations of 18th-century taste and ease of
performance.
WORKS
services
Service in F (TeD, Jub, San, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 4vv, EIRE-Dcc (inc.), GB-Cfm, Cu,
DRc (inc.), Lbl, Lsp(inc.), Och, WRch (inc.), WRec (tone higher), Y
anthems
All the kings of the earth, verse, GB-WRec (inc.)
Ascribe unto the Lord, verse, Lbl, Och, Y (inc.)
Behold I bring you glad tidings, verse, Och
Behold my servant whom I uphold (O. Sapientia), full, Lsp (inc.), Ob, WRch (inc.),
WRec (inc.)
Blessed are all they that fear the Lord, WRec (inc.)
Blessed be the Lord God of Israel, verse, Ob, Och (inc.), WRch (inc.), WRec (inc.)
Bow down thine ear, full, Och
Come ye children, verse, WRch (inc.), WRec (inc.)
Do well, O Lord, full, WRch (inc.), WRec (inc.)
Give the king thy judgements, verse, Och
Hear me, O God in the multitude, full with verses, 6vv, DRc, Lbl, Ob, Och, WO
(inc.), WRch (inc.)
Holy, Holy, Holy, WRec (inc.)
I am well pleased, verse, Cfm, Ob (inc.), Och, WRch(inc.), WRec (inc.)
I have set God alway before me, full, 5vv, EIRE-Dcc (inc.), Dpc(inc.), GB-Cfm, Cjc
(inc.), Ckc, Ctc (inc.), Cu, CA (inc.), DRc (inc.), GL (inc.), Lbl, Lcm, Lsp (inc.), LF
(inc.), LI (inc.), WB (inc.), WO(inc.), WRch (inc.), WRec (inc.)
I will dwell in thy tabernacle, verse, Cpc, Och, WRch (inc.)
I will give thanks, verse, Och
I will magnify thee, O Lord, verse, Cu, Och, WRch (inc.)
I will sing unto the Lord as long, full, Cfm, Cu, GL (inc.), H (inc.), Lbl, LF (inc.), LI
(inc.), Ob, WO (inc.), WRec (inc.)
Lead me, O Lord, WRec (inc.)
Libera me Deus, Och
Lord thou hast been our refuge, verse, Och
O be joyful in God all ye lands, Ckc, Ctc (inc.), Cu, Lbl, WRec (inc.), Y (inc.)
O give thanks, verse, Och
O Lord God of hosts, hear, verse, EIRE-Dcc (inc.), GB-Cfm, DRc (inc.), Lbl, Och,
WRch (inc.)
O Lord God of hosts, who is like, full, 6vv, Lbl, Lcm, Lsp(inc.), Ob, Och, WO (inc.),
WRch (inc.)
O Lord how glorious, in Divine Harmony, ii (London, 1717)
O Lord my God great are thy wond'rous works, verse, Lbl, Ob, Och, WRch (inc.)
O Lord rebuke me not, Ckc (inc.)
O love the Lord, Lbl, WRch (inc.), WRec (inc.)
O praise God in his holiness, verse, EIRE-Dpc (inc.), GB-Cjc (inc.), Ckc, Ctc (inc.),
Cu, DRc (inc.), GL(inc.), H (inc.), Lbl, LF (inc.), LI (inc.), Ob(inc.), WO (inc.), WRch
(inc.), WRec (inc.), Y(inc.)
O praise the Lord, verse, Och, WRch (inc.), WRec (inc.)
O praise the Lord all ye heathen, full, WRch (inc.), Wrec (inc.)
O praise the Lord, for it is a good thing, verse, Och
Ponder my words, verse, Cfm, Lbl (inc.), Ob, Och, WRch (inc.)
Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem, WRec (inc.)
Praise the Lord, O my soul, verse, Och
Praise the Lord ye servants, verse, Ob (inc.), Och, WRch (inc.)
The Lord is king, verse, WRch (inc.), Y (inc.)
Thy way, O God, is holy, verse, Cu, Lbl, Mp, Och, WRch (inc.)
Unto thee have I cried, verse, Och
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E.H. Fellowes: Organists and Masters of the Choristers of St George’s
Chapel in Windsor Castle (London and Windsor, 1939, 2/1979 with
addenda by M.F. Bond)
N. Wridgway: The Choristers of St George's Chapel (Windsor, 1980), 47–9
A.M. Jones: The Anthems of John Golding … 1697–1719 (thesis, U. of
London, 1985)
H.W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists of the Chapel Royal and the
Cathedrals of England and Wales from c.1538 (Oxford, 1991), 346
I. Spink: Restoration Cathedral Music 1660–1714 (Oxford, 1995), 379–86
IAN SPINK
Goléa, Antoine
(b Vienna, 30 Aug 1906; d Paris, 12 Oct 1980). French writer on music and
music critic of Romanian origin. At the Bucharest Conservatory he studied
the violin with Cecilia Nitzulescu-Lupu (1920–28) and harmony and
counterpoint with Alfonso Castaldi (1924–5), and had master classes in
technique and interpretation with Enescu (1927–8). From 1928 he attended
the Sorbonne, where he took a degree in German (1931) and attended
Masson’s course in music history (1929). From 1947 he worked with ORTF,
being responsible for a variety of music programmes such as those on
Debussy (1969), festivals of contemporary music (1970) and Enescu
(1972), and taking part in the weekly broadcast record review ‘La tribune
des critiques de disques’. In 1958 he was appointed music critic of
Carrefour and he contributed widely to newspapers and music journals.
Although he wrote books on Debussy and Richard Strauss, Goléa’s main
interest was in contemporary music and current musical events.
WRITINGS
Pelléas et Mélisande: analyse poétique et musicale (Paris, 1952)
‘L'attitude des jeunes compositeurs devant la musique contemporaine’,
Revue internationale de musique, no.13 (1952), 221–3
‘Serge Prokofieff’, Musique russe, ii, ed. P. Souvtchinsky (Paris, 1953),
249–67
L'avènement de la musique classique: de Bach à Mozart (Paris, 1955)
Esthétique de la musique contemporaine (Paris, 1954/R)
Georges Auric (Paris, 1958)
Rencontres avec Pierre Boulez (Paris, 1958/R)
La musique dans la société européenne depuis le moyen âge jusqu’à nos
jours (Paris, 1960)
L'aventure de la musique au XXe siècle (Paris, 1961)
Rencontres avec Olivier Messiaen (Paris, 1961/R)
‘Folklore et musique sérielle’, Panorama de l’art musical contemporain, ed.
C. Samuel (Paris, 1962), 99–106
Vingt ans de musique contemporaine (Paris, 1962/R)
André-François Marescotti (Paris, 1963)
Claude Debussy: l’homme et son oeuvre (Paris, 1965)
Richard Strauss (Paris, 1965)
Entretiens avec Wieland Wagner (Paris, 1967)
Histoire du ballet (Lausanne, 1967)
Marcel Landowski: l’homme et son oeuvre (Paris, 1969)
Je suis un violoniste raté (Paris, 1973, 2/1981)
La musique: de la nuit des temps aux aurores nouvelles (Paris, 1977)
CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER/JEAN GRIBENSKI

Goleminov, Marin (Petrov)

(b Kyustendil, 28 Sept/11 Oct 1908). Bulgarian composer and conductor. In
1931 he graduated from the Sofia State Music Academy, and in 1934 from
the Schola Cantorum, Paris, where he studied with d’Indy, Lioncourt
(composition), Labey (conducting) and Le Flem (theory). After working for
four years in Sofia as a music teacher, quartet violinist and conductor of the
 chamber orchestra of Sofia Radio, Goleminov left for Munich to study with
Ehrenberg and Joseph Haas at the Akademie der Tonkunst. After returning
to Sofia in 1939 he was appointed to the staff of the State Academy,
becoming professor in 1947 and later serving as rector (1954–6). From
1965 to 1967 he was director of the Sofia National Opera. He was awarded
the Herder Prize in 1976.
Goleminov belongs to the second generation of Bulgarian composers and
as such is a founder of a national musical expression. His style was
created from interpreting Bulgarian folk music and the stage works of
Stravinsky and Ravel, while earlier works in addition draw on Bulgarian
archaism. Representative of his first creative period are the symphonic
poem Iz Yugozapadna Bulgariya (‘Through Southwestern Bulgaria’) (1939),
the Third String Quartet (1942–4) and the Symphonic Variations on a
Theme by Dobri Khristov (1942). A fourth work, the dance drama
Nestinarka (‘The Fire Dancer’, 1938–40), is based on his symphonic poem
Rilskite kambani (‘The Rila Bells’, 1930). Staged in 1992 by Maria Dimova
(a former student of the German choreographer Mary Wigman), it gives for
an epic interpretation of everyday life.
After the mid-1940s Goleminov increased his activities as a conductor,
musicologist and teacher of composition. New to his music is the
development of folksong, particularly in the popular Narodni vityazi
(‘National Heroes’) and Khaydushko Libe (‘Haidouk Love’); the adoption of
heroic themes, as in the opera Ivaylo; and a vocal style that features
expansive melody. The turning-point in his career was the Concerto for
String Quartet and Strings (1963), which marks the beginnings of more
sophisticated harmony and a highly accomplished orchestral style.
WORKS
(selective list)

stage
Nestinarka [The Fire Dancer] (dance drama, Kh. Tsankov), 1938–40; Ivaylo (op, M.
Petkanova, after I. Vazov), 1954–8; Zlatnata Ptitsa [The Golden Bird] (musical tale,
G. Temelkov, after I. Radoyev), 1960–61; Zografat Zakhari [The Icon-Painter
Zakhari] (op, P. Spasov), 1972; Dashteryata na Kaloyana [Kaloyan’s Daughter]
(ballet, V. Konsulova and P. Lukanov), 1973; Trakiyski idoli [Thracian Idols] (op, S.
Dichev), 1980–81
vocal
Choral: Lud gidiya, chorus, 1935; 5 Koledni pesni [Christmas songs], Mez, female
chorus, chbr orch, 1938; Otets Paisiy [Father Paisiy] (cant., N. Valchev), solo vv,
chorus, orch, 1966; Titanat [The Titan] (orat, B. Bozhilov), 1972; Balada za
Aprilskoto vastaniye [A Ballad for the April Uprising] (V. Khanchev), Mez, B, chorus,
orch, 1976; Vaskreseniye na zhivite [Resurrection of the Living] (cant., B.
Dimitrova), Mez, chorus, orch, 1992
Solo vocal–orch: Irodiada (dramatic scene, after S. Mallarmé), S, Mez, orch, 1933;
Balkan, A, chbr orch, 1937; Gaydar [Bagpipe Player], A, chbr orch, 1937; Selska
pesen [A Country Song] (A. Raztsvetnikov), B, orch, 1943; 3 miniatyuri (V. Parum),
S, chbr orch, 1965; Simponichni impresii po kartini na Maystora [Sym. Impressions
of Maystora’s Pictures] (G. Strumski), S, orch, 1982; Yanuari ye [It’s January] (D.
Metodiev), 1v, orch, 1984; other folksong suites
Songs (1v, pf), incl. Narodni vityazi [National Heroes], 1944; Khaydushko libe
[Haidouk Love], 1949
instrumental
Syms.: no.1 ‘Varhu detski temi’ [On Children’s Themes], 1963; no.2, 1967; no.3 ‘Na
mira v sveta’ [Peace in the World], 1970; no.4 ‘Shopofoniya’, 1978
Other orch: Rilskite kambani [The Rila Bells], sym. poem, 1930; Nosht [Night], sym.
poem, 1933 Goryanki, ov., 1938–9; Iz Yugozapadna Bulgariya [Through
Southwestern Bulgaria], sym. poem, Sym. Variations on a Theme by Dobri Khristov,
1942; Prelude, Aria and Toccata, pf, orch, 1947–54; Vc Conc. no.1, 1950; Poema
za partizanite, 1959; Conc., str qt, str, 1963; Vn Conc., 1969; Pf Conc., 1975; Conc.
for Str, 1980; Ob Conc., 1984; Vc Conc. no.2, 1985–7; V pamet na Dobrin Petkov
[In Memory of Dobrin Petkov], sym. poem, 1994
Str Qts [9]: 1933; no.1, 1934; no.2, 1938; no.3 ‘Starobalgarski’ [Old Bulgarian],
1942–4; Microquartet, 1967; no.5, 1969; no.6, 1975; no.7, 1976–7; no.8, 1982
Other: Sonata, vn, pf, 1931; Sonata, vc, pf, 1932; Brass Qnt no.1, 1935; Brass Qnt
no.2, 1946; Trio, ob, cl, bn, 1964; Sonata, vn, 1969; Brass Qnt no.2, 1978;
Tubofoniya, tuba, brass qnt, 1987; Kraynosti [Extremes], fl, bn, 1992
WRITINGS
Kam izvora na balgarskoto zvukotvorchestvo [On the sources of Bulgarian
composition] (Sofia, 1937)
Instrumentoznaniye [Instrumentation] (Sofia, 1947)
Problemi na orkestratsiyata [Problems of orchestration] (Sofia, 1953,
3/1967)
Zad kulisite na tvorcheskiya protses [Behind the scenes of the creative
process] (Sofia, 1971)
Dnevnitsi [Diaries] (Stara Zagora, 1996)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Tapkov: ‘Strunnite kvarteti na M. Goleminov’ [Goleminov’s string
quartets], Balgarska muzika, vi/4 (1955), 4–7
B. Starshenov and P. Stoyanov: ‘Marin Goleminov’, Balgarska muzika,
xvii (1966)
B. Arnaudova: Marin Goleminov (Sofia, 1968)
K. Ganev: ‘Iz klavirnoto tvorchestvo na M. Goleminov’ [Goleminov’s piano
works], Balgarska muzika, xix/7 (1968), 20–31
S. Lazarov: ‘Dve glavi iz tvorchestvoto na M. Goleminov’ [The two parts of
Goleminov’s works], Balgarska muzika, xix/7 (1968), 13–19
S. Lazarov: Marin Goleminov (Sofia, 1971)
V. Krastev: ‘Marin Goleminov’, Profili (Sofia, 1976)
R. Apostolova: Marin Goleminov (Sofia, 1988)
I. Khlebarov: ‘Tematizmat i printsipite na negovoto razvitiye v muzikata na
baleta “Nestinarka” ot Marin Goleminov ili variantnostta i yedinstvo v
muzikata i vav vremeto’ [Themes and principles in the musical
development of The Fire Dancer by Goleminov, or the variation and
unity of music and time], Muzikalni Khorizonti no.9 (1988), 31–9
IVAN HLEBAROV

Golestan, Stan
 (b Vaslui, 26 May/7 June 1875; d Paris, 21 April 1956). Romanian
composer and critic. He studied composition at the Schola Cantorum, Paris
(1895–1903), with d'Indy, Dukas and Roussel. An enthusiastic music critic,
he wrote for numerous Romanian and French publications, among them Le
Figaro, in which he had a column for more than 20 years; he founded the
review L'album musical (1905) and was secretary general of the
International Confederation of Dramatic and Musical Criticism. In his
writings he was a firm supporter of new Romanian music, campaigning in
favour of a creative return to folk music, and he gave lectures throughout
Europe. Golestan tried to follow his theories in his own works, using folk
melodies with harmonies derived directly from them in order to express
national sentiments. After 1920 he tended to use instead folk-like themes of
his own invention, but he was influenced more by the 19th-century printed
collections of gypsy music than by authentic Romanian folksong.
Essentially a lyrical composer, Golestan summarized his standpoint in his
preface to the Doïnes et chansons of 1922: ‘I wanted to achieve a musical
recollection of the raw, melancholy, pastoral atmosphere that vibrates in
our open skies’. Golestan was awarded the Enescu Prize (1915) and the
Légion d'Honneur (1928).
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: La Dembovitza, 1902; Lăutarul [The Fiddler], 1902; Cobzarul [The Kobza-
Player], 1902; Sym., g, 1910; Première rhapsodie roumaine, 1920; Concerto
roumain, vn, orch, 1933; Uvertură simfonica, ?1936; Concertul carpatic, pf, orch,
1940
Chbr and solo inst: Sonata, E , vn, pf, 1908; Serenadă mică [Little Serenade], ens,
1909; Poèmes et paysages, op.18, pf, 1922; Str Qt no.1, A , 1927; Arioso et Allegro
de concert, va, pf, 1932; Sonatine, fl, pf, 1932; Str Qt no.2, ?1936
Songs: Le muguet, 1905; Calme lunaire, 1907; Intimité, 1907; 10 chansons
populaires roumaines, 1908; Poème bleu, 1910; Doïnes et chansons, 1922

Principal publishers: Album musical, Compagnie française, Gallet, Labbé Olivet, Salabert, Société
d'éditions artistiques, Universal

BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Nădejde: ‘Stan Golestan şi cîntecul popular ca izvor de inspiraţie în
muzică’ [Golestan and folksong as a source of musical inspiration],
Studii şi cercetări de istoria artei, iii–iv (1956–7), 307–9
J. Weinberg: Momente şi figuri dïu trecutul muzicii românesti (Bucharest,
1967)
V. Cosma: Muzicieni români: lexicon (Bucharest, 1970), 225–7
VIOREL COSMA

Goliards
(Lat. goliardi).
A common but possibly misleading term now associated with wandering
scholars and ecclesiastics (vagantes) who formed a large, disparate group
of Latin poets and composers active in France, Germany, England and
north Italy from the late 10th century to the mid-13th. Though often frankly
secular, many of the songs ascribed to goliards contain religious or moral
themes; others are personal, indulging in flattery, complaints and
mendicant requests; debate, satire, polemic and admonition are common,
as are songs of spring, love, drinking, feasting, gambling and
miscellaneous drolleries. Most of the poems were certainly meant to be
sung, but music is now lacking; a majority are written in ‘goliardic stanzas’
(Vagantenstrophen) of rhyming 13-syllable lines (seven plus six syllables),
as illustrated by this extract from the Archipoeta's Confessio:
Meum est propositum in taberna mori,
ut sit vinum proximum morientis ori.
Yet despite the content of their lyrics, known goliards were not worthless
vagabonds: their poetry was written for an educated audience, they were
learned, and some were esteemed teachers, while others enjoyed courtly
patronage. Much of their self-confessed boorishness is consequently
rhetorical embellishment rather than biographical fact. The origin of the
word ‘goliard’ has been associated with both the Latin word ‘gula’
(‘gluttony’) and the biblical ‘Golias’ (Goliath) as expressions of reproach, a
derivation that stems from Giraldus Cambrensis, who in his Speculum
ecclesiae used the term to refer to a tactless Latin poet. However, although
the word ‘goliardus’ surfaces occasionally in medieval documents, Giraldus
does not specifically equate his Golias with this term.

See also Archipoeta; Early Latin secular song; Hugh Primas of Orléans;
Serlo of Wilton.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
T. Wright: Latin Poems Commonly Attributed to Walter Mapes (London,
1841)
T. Wright: Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets and Epigrammists of the Twelfth
Century (London, 1872)
J.M. Manly: ‘Familia goliae’, Modern Philology, v (1907–8), 201–9
J.J.A.A. Frantzen: ‘Zur Vagantendichtung’, Neophilologus, v (1920), 58–79
J.W. Thompson: ‘The Origin of the Word Goliardi’, Studies in Philology, xx
(1921), 83–98
H. Brinkmann: Geschichte der lateinischen Liebesdichtung im Mittelalter
(Halle, 1925)
J.H. Hanford: ‘The Progenitors of Golias’, Speculum, i (1926), 38–58
H. Waddell: The Wandering Scholars (London, 1927, 7/1934/R)
B.I. Jarcho: ‘Die Vorläufer des Golias’, Speculum, iii (1928), 523–79
K. Strecker: Die Apokalypse des Golias (Rome, 1928)
B. Bischoff: ‘Vagantenlieder aus der Vaticana’, Zeitschrift für romanische
Philologie, l (1930), 76–100
A. Machabey: ‘Etude de quelques chansons goliardiques’, Romania, lxxxiii
(1962), 323–47
A. Machabey: ‘Remarques sur les mélodies goliardiques’, Cahiers de
civilisation médiévale, vii (1964), 257–78
E.G. Fichtner: ‘The Etymology of Goliard’, Neophilologus, li (1967), 230–
37
A.G. Rigg: ‘Golias and other Pseudonyms’, Studi medievali, xviii (1977),
65–109
J. Hamacher: ‘Die Vagantenbeichte und ihre Quellen’, Mittellateinisches
Jb, xviii (1983), 160–67
P.G. Walsh: ‘Golias and Goliardic Poetry’, Medium aevum, lii (1983), 1–9
C.J. McDonough: The Oxford Poems of Hugh Primas and the Arundel
Lyrics (Toronto, 1984)
H. Hüschen: ‘Vaganten- und Scholarenlieder aus der Frühzeit der
Universität’, Schnittpunkt Mensch Musik… Walter Gieseler zum 65.
Geburtstag, ed. R. Klinkhammer (Regensburg, 1985), 46–53
B. Gillingham, ed.: Secular Medieval Latin Song, i: An Anthology, ii: A
Critical Study (Ottawa, 1993–5)

For further bibliography see Early Latin secular song.

GORDON A. ANDERSON/THOMAS B. PAYNE

Golin, Guilielmo [Colin,

Guilielmus]
(fl 1540). French composer. His only known composition, a ricercare in
Musica nova (RISM 154022; ed. in MRM, i, 1964), appears in Musicque de
joye (155024/R) attributed to Colin. The six chansons ascribed to ‘Colin’ and
published by Attaingnant between 1538 and 1549 are probably by Pierre
Colin; nor should he be confused with Germaine Colin, poet and musician
in Angers, c1539. Not only is Golin's ricercare the longest in Musica nova
but also it contains the largest number of points of imitation. Its technique
also differs somewhat from the other ricercares: the third and fourth points,
for example, appear as versions of earlier points and the piece closes with
a reprise in all parts of previous material. (H.C. Slim: The Keyboard
Ricercar and Fantasia in Italy, ca. 1500–1550, with Reference to Parallel
Forms in European Lute Music of the Same Period, diss., Harvard U.,
1961)
H. COLIN SLIM

Golinelli, Stefano
(b Bologna, 26 Oct 1818; d Bologna, 3 July 1891). Italian composer and
pianist. He studied the piano and counterpoint in Bologna with B. Donelli,
and also had brief instruction in composition with Vaccai. In 1842
Ferdinand Hiller was passing through Bologna and advised Golinelli to take
up a concert career; he considered him to be the best Italian pianist of his
day and also praised him as a composer. Schumann himself was
interested in Golinelli’s music and commended his 12 studi in the 1844
 Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. Golinelli subsequently made brilliantly
successful concert tours of Italy, performing in Naples, Florence, Milan,
Genoa and Palermo; he also toured France, Germany and England, where
he performed with Piatti and Sivori at the London Musical Union in 1851.
He acquired a reputation throughout Europe both as a performer and as a
composer, reaching his peak during the years 1845 to 1855; some
acclaimed him ‘the Italian Bach’. In 1840 Rossini nominated him professor
of piano at the Liceo Musicale in Bologna, a post that he held until his
retirement in 1870, after which he devoted himself entirely to composition.
One of the leading exponents of the 19th-century Italian piano school,
Golinelli wrote more than 200 piano pieces. They are elegant and
melodically inventive, particularly when cast in a short, even miniature,
form. Their graceful lines and fresh harmonies contribute to their lyrical,
Romantic character not immune from elegiac sentimentality and recalling
some of Chopin’s more overworked devices. The longer works show a
closer and at times overwhelming similarity to German models; in other
works the rapid, manneristic sketch predominates. In the whole of his
output a didactic aim is often apparent, with a pseudo-Classical, rather
solid pianistic style that recalls Clementi and Beethoven. Golinelli was one
of the first to repudiate the vacuous tricks of virtuosity particularly prevalent
at the time in fantasias and variations on opera themes; his main
achievements were to forge musical links between northern European and
Italian cultural spheres, and to restore to Italian music a certain classicism
and sense of tradition.
WORKS
all for piano solo

5 sonatas, opp.30, 53, 54, 70, 140; 7 toccatas, opp.16, 38, 48, 130, 145, 186, 232;
3 bks of preludes, opp.23, 69, 177; studies, incl. 12 studi, op.15; Scherzo;
Barcarola; tarantellas, nocturnes, fantasias, fantasiettas, marches, mazurkas, waltz,
melodies, character-pieces etc.
78 works pubd in L’arte antica e moderna, ed. G. Ricordi (Milan, n.d.), xvii–xx

BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM (F. Bussi) [incl. fuller list of works]
FétisB
FlorimoN
RicordiE
SchmidlD
E. Pirani: ‘Stefano Golinelli’, GMM, xlix (1894), 452–4
L.A. Villanis: L’arte del pianoforte in Italia da Clementi a Sgambati (Turin,
1907)
A. Brugnoli: La musica pianistica italiana dalle origini al 1900 (Turin, 1932)
A. Toni: Vittorio Maria Vanzo (Milan, 1946)
S. Martinotti: ‘Poetiche e presenze nel pianismo italiano dell’Ottocento’,
Quaderni della RaM, no.3 (1965), 181–94
P. Rattalino: ‘La musica pianistica italiana tra il 1900 e il 1950’, Rassegna
musicale Curci, xx (Milan, 1967)
S. Martinotti: Ottocento strumentale italiano (Bologna, 1972)
FRANCESCO BUSSI
Golisciani, Enrico
(b Naples, 25 Dec 1848; d Naples, 6 Feb 1919). Italian librettist and poet.
He was a prolific author: he wrote over 80 librettos between 1871 and the
year of his death. His early style was influenced by the melodramatic
nature of the works of Hugo and Sardou. Ponchielli's last opera, Marion
Delorme (1885, Milan), was a setting of Golisciani's libretto, based on the
novel by Hugo. After the success of Cavalleria rusticana (1890) he was one
of the first Neapolitans to exploit the possibilities of verismo, notably in P.A.
Tasca's setting of A Santa Lucia (1892). In the 1890s he also began to
introduce local colour, regional characteristics and social realism. His best-
known librettos were written for Wolf-Ferrari: Il segreto di Susanna (1909,
Munich), I gioielli della Madonna (with C. Zangarini, 1911, Berlin) and
L’amore medico (1913, Dresden). For a fuller list of librettos see GroveO.
BARBARA REYNOLDS

Golïshev, Yefim [Jef]

(b Kherson, Ukraine, 8/20 Sept 1897; d Paris, 25 Sept 1970). Russian
composer and painter. A pupil of Leopold Auer, he had a career as a child
prodigy violinist, touring as soloist with the Odessa SO in 1905. He studied
painting with his father, a friend of Kandinsky, and with Sokolov and
Pfeferkorn at the Odessa Academy. In 1909 he went to Berlin to prepare for
the Abitur and to study at the Stern Conservatory, where he won the Reger
Prize. He had support from Busoni in his compositional experiments,
including two operas (1915–16, one of them Cyrano de Bergerac),
chamber music and vocal works. The symphonic poem Das eisige Lied,
featuring elements of ‘happening’, was performed in part under Georg
Weller in 1920.
As a painter Golïshev was a founder-member with Hausmann and
Huelsenbeck of the November Group of Berlin dadaists in 1918–19. He
was a signatory to the Dadaist Manifesto of 1919 and he created works of
‘anti-art’ – such as a self-portrait made from cigar packets, matches and
bread – and geometrical graphics. At dadaist exhibitions he presented his
Antisymphonie and Keuchmaneuver, for which he invented new
instruments and equipped musicians with kitchen utensils. At the same
time he studied chemistry and acoustics. In 1929 he was technical adviser
on sound for Tobis-Klangfilm, and he came into contact with Eisenstein and
Pudovkin, for whose Igdenbu the Great Hunter he composed the music.
Fleeing from Nazi persecution in 1933, he left behind his pictures and
compositions, which were confiscated and lost. He went first to Portugal,
then to Barcelona, where he worked as a chemist until 1938, when the civil
war drove him to France. There he spent the war in prison and in hiding.
From 1956 to 1966 he was in São Paulo, where he took Brazilian
nationality and began his creative work again, aided by Walter Zanini; he
also influenced the Música Nova group of young Brazilian composers. His
last years were spent as a painter in Paris.
Among his compositions only the five-movement String Trio – purportedly
written in 1914 although only published in Berlin in 1925 – has survived. It
is printed in an original form of notation and the music involves various 12-
tone complexes; (Zwölftondauer-Komplexe). Golïshev can be seen as the
precursor of later modifications of dodecaphonic technique: the second
movement employs palindromic and mirrored rows of intervals (rather than
pitches), whereas the 12 non-recurring rhythmic values which accompany
a row of pitches prefigure post-war Messiaen. Uniquely, there are only five
dynamic markings in the whole work – one for each movement. Among the
works which have not survived are a String quartet (1914) and a
symphonic poem Ledyanaya pesn' (‘Song of Ice’).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDRSC
A. Beene: ‘Werkstattbesuch bei Jefim Golyscheff’, Der Cicerone, ii (1919)
P. Quéméneur: ‘Un dadaiste qui rêve encore’, Candide (Paris, 16–22 Jan
1967), no.299
M. Lozano: ‘ Die brasilianische Gruppe “Música Nova”’, Melos, xxxv
(1968), 141
E. Jaguer: ‘Jef Golyscheff, or Asmodee’s Fan’, Golyscheff Galleria
Schwarz, 5–30 May 1970 (Milan, 1970) [exhibition catalogue]
W. Zanini: Jef Golyscheff (São Paulo, 1971)
D. Gojowy: ‘ Jefim Golyscheff, der unbekannte Vorläufer’, Melos/NZM, iii
(1975), 188
D. Gojowy: Neue sowjetische Musik der 20er Jahre (Laaber, 1980)
Yu. Kudryashov: ‘Portret kompozitora i khudozhnika Yefima Golïsheva’ [A
portrait of the composer and artist Yefim Golïshev], Evolyutsionnïye
protsessï muzïkal'nogo mïshleniya (Leningrad, 1986), 119–40
P.D. Roberts: Modernism in Russian Piano Music: Skriabin, Prokofiev and
their Russian Contemporaries (Bloomington, IN, 1993)
DETLEF GOJOWY/ANDREY YUR'EVICH KOLESNIKOV

Golitsïn [Galitzin], Prince Nikolay

Borisovich
(b 8/19 Dec 1794; d Bogorodskoye, Kursk govt., 22 Oct/3 Nov 1866).
Russian music patron and cellist, father of yury nikolayevich Golitsïn. He
served in the army (1810–32), fought in the 1812 war and was wounded at
the Battle of Borodino. In his youth he spent some time in Vienna, acquiring
there a sound knowledge of the Viennese Classics, and becoming an
ardent admirer and collector of Beethoven’s music. He carried on a fruitful
correspondence with Beethoven, starting in 1822 when he wrote to ask if
he would compose ‘one, two or three new quartets’ for him. Beethoven
accepted the commission, and produced (eventually) the quartets op.127,
op.132 and op.130, all of which are dedicated to Golitsïn, as is the overture
Die Weihe des Hauses. In 1823 Golitsïn was elected an honorary member
of the St Petersburg Philharmonic Society, and it was on his initiative that
the society gave the first performance of Beethoven’s Missa solemnis at St
Petersburg on 26 March/7 April 1824.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L.S. Ginzburg: Istoriya violonchel'nogo iskusstva [The history of the art of
cello playing], ii (Moscow, 1957) [incl. ‘Nikolay Borisovich Golitsïn’,
223–77]
E. Anderson, ed.: The Letters of Beethoven, iii (London, 1961/R)
E. Forbes, ed.: Thayer’s Life of Beethoven, ii (Princeton, NJ, 1964,
2/1967)
GEOFFREY NORRIS

Golitsïn [Galitzin], Prince Yury

Nikolayevich
(b St Petersburg, 30 Nov/11 Dec 1823; d St Petersburg, 2/14 Sept 1872).
Russian conductor, composer and writer, son of nikolay borisovich Golitsïn.
He studied with Lomakin and in Dresden and Leipzig. In 1842 he founded
a choir of serfs (which performed folksongs and contemporary Russian
works) and he also maintained an orchestra, with which he gave concerts
in the major cities of Russia and western Europe. A soldier by profession,
he resigned his commission after the Crimean War to devote himself to
music. In 1858 he was found in possession of a copy of Herzen's magazine
Kolokol (‘The Bell’), arousing the suspicion of the authorities; he was
placed under close police surveillance, but escaped to England, where he
organized concerts by Russian musicians. Herzen paid tribute to this
valuable work on behalf of Russian music in an essay published in Kolokol
(27 July 1860). After the emancipation of the serfs, an event which Golitsïn
celebrated by writing the orchestral fantasy Osvobozhdeniye (‘Liberation’),
in 1861, he returned to Russia in 1862, re-established his choir and
resumed his musical activities. He composed two orchestral fantasies, two
masses, choral works, songs and numerous instrumental pieces (including
Val's Gertsena (‘Herzen’s Waltz’), 1860, for piano). He translated the
libretto of A Life for the Tsar into English, and his memoirs, Proshedsheye i
nastoyashcheye (‘Past and Present’) were published in St Petersburg in
1870.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ME
A.I. Herzen: Bïloye i dumï [1852–68], ed. I.S. Novich and S. Ya. Shtraykh
(Leningrad, 1946); Eng. trans., abridged, as My Past and Thoughts
(New York, 1973)
B. Shteynpress: ‘Khorovoy dirizhyor Golitsïn’ [Golitsïn the choral
conductor], SovM (1949), no.2, pp.82–5
A. Serov: Izbrannïye stat'i [Selected articles], ed. G.N. Khubov, i (Moscow,
1950)
D. Lokshin: Zamechatel'nïye russkiye khorï ikh dirizhorï [Distinguished
Russian choirs and their conductors] (Moscow, 1963)
V. Il'in: Ocherki istorii khorovoy kul'turï vtoroy polovinï XVII–nachala XX
veka [Essays on the history of choral culture from the second half of
the 17th century to the early 20th] (Moscow, 1987), 96–100
Yu. Nagibin: ‘Knyaz' Yurka Golitsïn’ [Prince Yurka Golitsïn], Sil'neye vsekh
inïkh veleniy (Moscow, 1987) [novella]
JENNIFER SPENCER
Gollberg, Johann Gottlieb
[Théophile].
See Goldberg, Johann Gottlieb.

Göllner [née Martinez], Marie-

Louise
(b Fort Collins, CO, 27 June 1932). American musicologist. She received
the BA in 1953 from Vassar College, where she studied under George
Dickinson. At the University of Munich she worked with Thrasybulos
Georgiades, Hans Sedlmayr and Bernhard Bischoff, taking the PhD there
in 1962 and the DrPhil in 1975. After working in the Bayerische
Staatsbibliothek (1965–7), she joined the staff of UCLA, where she became
professor in 1978. Göllner's special interest is the music and theory of
14th-century France and Italy and the music of the later Renaissance. Her
writings constitute some of the more extensive investigations of the music
of the Ars Nova, particularly her book on the early Trecento, which
examines the musical genres of the period, their styles and sources, and
the theoretical writings, primarily the Pomerium of Marchetto da Padova.
WRITINGS
Die Musik des frühen Trecento (diss., U. of Munich, 1962; Tutzing, 1963)
‘Marchettus of Padua and Chromaticism’, L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento:
Convegno II: Certaldo and Florence 1969 [L'Ars Nova italiana del
Trecento, iii (Certaldo, 1970)], 187–202
‘Ars Nova’, Geschichte der katholischen Kirchenmusik, ed. K.G. Fellerer, i
(Kassel, 1972), 381–97
Rules for Cataloging Music Manuscripts (Frankfurt, 1975)
Joseph Haydn: Sinfonie Nr.94 (Paukenschlag) (Munich, 1979)
with others: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek: Katalog der Musikhandschriften
(Munich, 1979–89)
Eine neue Quelle zur italienischen Orgelmusik des Cinquecento (Tutzing,
1982)
‘On the Process of Lute Intabulation in the Sixteenth Century’, Ars
iocundissima: Festschrift für Kurt Dorfmüller, ed. H. Leuchtmann and
R. Münster (Tutzing, 1984), 83–96
‘The Transmission of French Motets in German and Italian Manuscripts of
the 14th Century’, MD, xl (1986), 63–77; also in Le polifonie primitive
in Friuli e in Europa: Cividale del Friuli 1980, 163–75
‘Concerto Form in the 18th Century’, Willem de Fesch: Alkmaar 1987, 103–
22
‘Musical and Poetic Structure in the Refrain Forms of Machaut’,
Liedstudien: Wolfgang Osthoff zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. M. Just and R.
Wiesend (Tutzing, 1989), 61–76
‘“Composition” in the Late Middle Ages and its Reflection in Modern
Editorial Methods’, Tradition and its Future in Music: Osaka 1990, 87–
94
‘Poetic and Musical Rhythm in the 18th Century’, AnM, xlv (1990), 5–16
‘“Praeter rerum seriem”: its History and Sources’, Von Isaac bis Bach …
Festschrift Martin Just, ed. F. Heidlberger, W. Osthoff and R. Wiesend
(Kassel, 1991), 41–51
‘The Concept of Form in the Early 18th Century Symphony’, Mozart
Studien, ed. M.H. Schmid, i (Tutzing, 1992), 111–23
‘The Third Rhythmic Mode in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries’,
IMSCR XV: Madrid 1992 [RdMc, xvi (1993)], 2395–409
‘Un rés d'Alemaigne’, Festschrift für Horst Leuchtmann, ed. S. Hörner and
B. Schmid (Tutzing, 1993), 147–60
‘Lassos Motetten nach Hymnentexten und ihre Parodiemessen von Ivo de
Vento und Andrea Gabrieli’, Orlando di Lasso: Munich 1994, 87–100
‘Interrelationships between Text and Music in the Refrain Forms of
Machaut’, Songs of the Dove and the Nightingale: Sacred and Secular
Music c.900–c.1600, ed. G.M. Hair and R.E. Smith (Sydney, 1995),
105–23
‘Settings of the Song of Songs in the Late Middle Ages’, Altes im Neuen:
Festschrift Theodor Göllner, ed. B. Edelmann and M.H. Schmid
(Tutzing, 1995), 63–78
‘Mode and Change of Mode in the 13th Century’, Festschrift Andrew
McCredie, ed. G. Strahle and D. Swale (forthcoming)
EDITIONS
O. de Lassus: Sämtliche Werke, new ser., xviii: Das Hymnarium aus dem
Jahre 1580–1585 (1980)
PAULA MORGAN

Göllner, Theodor
(b Bielefeld, 25 Nov 1929). German musicologist. He studied musicology,
philosophy and medieval Latin at the University of Heidelberg, where he
worked with Georgiades and received the PhD in 1957. He began teaching
at the University of Munich in 1958, where he completed the Habilitation in
1967 with a study of polyphonic lesson settings. In the same year he was a
visiting professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara; he joined
the faculty there in 1968 and was named professor of music in 1971. In
1973, he was appointed to the chair of musicology at the University of
Munich. He became editor of the series Münchner Veröffentlichungen zur
Musikgeschichte in 1977 and of the Münchner Editionen zur
Musikgeschichte in 1979. He was appointed chairman of the music
commission of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften in 1982 and
member of the European Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1991.
Göllner’s interests centre on medieval music; he has studied early vocal
and instrumental polyphony (including the origins of keyboard music),
notation and oral musical traditions. His writings on scripture settings have
included investigations on psalmody, masses and the relation of both
monophonic and polyphonic Gospel settings to liturgical drama from the
medieval era up to Viennese Classicism.
WRITINGS
Formen früher Mehrstimmigkeit in deutschen Handschriften des späten
Mittelalters (diss., U. of Heidelberg, 1957; Tutzing, 1961)
‘Eine mehrstimmige tropierte Weihnachtslektion in Polen’, AcM, xxxvii
(1965), 165–78
Die mehrstimmigen liturgischen Lesungen (Habilitationsschrift, U. of
Munich, 1967; Tutzing, 1969)
‘Eine Spielanweisung für Tasteninstrumente aus dem 15. Jahrhundert’,
Essays in Musicology: a Birthday Offering for Willi Apel, ed. H. Tischler
(Bloomington, IN, 1968), 69–81
‘Zur Sprachvertonung in Händels Chören’, DVLG, xlii (1968), 481–92
‘J.S. Bach and the Tradition of Keyboard Transcriptions’, Studies in
Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer, ed. H.C.R.
Landon and R.E. Chapman (New York and London, 1970), 253–60
‘Die Trecento-Notation und der Tactus in den ältesten deutschen
Orgelquellen’, L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento: Convegno II: Certaldo
and Florence 1969 [L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iii (Certaldo,
1970)], 176–85
‘Two Polyphonic Passions from California’s Mission Period’, YIAMR, vi
(1970), 67–76
‘Frühe Mehrstimmigkeit in Choralnotation’, Musikalische Edition im Wandel
des historischen Bewusstseins, ed. T.G. Georgiades (Kassel, 1971),
113–33
‘The Three-Part Gospel Reading and the Medieval Magi Play’, JAMS, xxiv
(1971), 51–62
‘Unknown Passion Tones in Sixteenth-Century Hispanic Sources’, JAMS,
xxviii (1975), 46–71
ed.: Notenschrift und Aufführung: Munich 1977
‘Händel und die Wiener Klassiker’, Deutsch-englische Musikbeziehungen:
Nuremberg 1980, 98–111
‘Das Kyrie conctipotens zwischen Organum und Komposition’, Musik in
Bayern, no.22 (1981), 37–57
‘Falsobordone und Generalbass-Rezitativ bei Heinrich Schütz’, Heinrich
Schütz in seiner Zeit, ed. W. Blankenberg (Darmstadt, 1985), 249–66
‘Die sieben Worte am Kreuz’ bei Schütz und Haydn (Munich, 1986)
‘Das Bibelwort in der Musik von Schütz, Bach und Händel’, Rationalität und
Sentiment: die Zeitalter Johann Sebasatian Bachs und Georg
Friedrich Händels, ed. V. Schubert (St Ottilien, 1987), 119–53
‘Et incarnatus est in Beethovens Missa solemnis’, AnM, xliii (1988), 189–99
‘Da Jesus an dem Kreuze stund: zur Versvertonung bei Heinrich Schütz’,
Liedstudien: Wolfgang Osthoff zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. M. Just and R.
Wiesend (Tutzing, 1989), 153–70
‘Kyrie Fons bonitatis – Kyrie Gott Vater in Ewigkeit’, Von Isaac bis Bach:
Festschrift Martin Just, ed. F. Heidlberger, W. Osthoff and R. Wiesend
(Kassel, 1991), 334–48
‘“Wiesengrund”: Schönbergs Kritik an Thomas Manns Arietta-Textierungen
in Beethovens Op.111’, Festschrift für Horst Leuchtmann, ed. S.
Hörner and B. Schmid (Tutzing, 1993), 161–78
‘Meeresstille: Goethes Gedicht in der Musik seiner Zeit’, Musicologia
humana: Studies in Honor of Warren and Ursula Kirkendale, ed. S.
Gmeinwieser, D. Hiley and J. Riedlbauer (Florence, 1994), 537–56
‘Et incarnatus est’ in Bachs h-Moll-Messe und Beethovens Missa Solemnis
(Munich, 1996) [lecture delivered 1994]
‘Guido Adler, Rudolf von Ficker und Thrasybulos Georgiades’, Anuario
Musical, ii (1996), 5–10
‘Sprache und Spiele: Vokales und Instrumentales in der Musik’, Artes
liberales: Karlheinz Schlager zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. M. Dobberstein
(Tutzing, 1998), 151–70
‘Lassos Lektionskompositionen und ihre neu entdecken Vorlagen im Ott-
Druck von 1538’, Compositionwissenschaft: Festschrift Reinhold und
Roswitha Schlötterer zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. B. Edelmann und
Sabine Kurth (Augsburg, 1999), 69–84
‘“Pausa”, Abschiedsvorlesung an der Universität München’, Anuario
Musical, liii (1998), 3–14
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Edelmann and M.H. Schmid, eds.: Altes im Neuen: Festschrift
Theodor Göllner (Tutzing, 1995) [incl. list of writings, 427–32]
PAULA MORGAN

Golodnova, N.
See Zeyfas, Natal'ya Mikhaylovna.

Golovanov, Nikolay Semyonovich

(b Moscow, 9/21 Jan 1891; d Moscow, 28 Aug 1958). Russian conductor,
pianist and composer. He qualified as precentor and singing teacher at the
Moscow Synodal School, where his teachers were V.S. Orlov and A.D.
Kastal'sky and made his début as a conductor there in 1909. After
composition studies under Vasilenko at the Moscow Conservatory to 1914,
and additional studies with Ippolitov-Ivanov, he conducted concerts by the
Bol'shoy Theatre Orchestra in 1915 and the same year became assistant
chorus master at the theatre. He was chief conductor there from 1919 to
1928 and from 1948 to 1953, and chief conductor and artistic director of
the Moscow PO from 1926 to 1929, when he was appointed chief
conductor of the Moscow Broadcasting Centre; he was also head of opera
there. In 1937 he became chief conductor and artistic director of the USSR
All-Union RSO, and in 1938 musical director of the Stanislavsky Opera
Theatre. Works of a Russian national epic type most successfully reflected
his characteristics as a conductor, including the vocal quality of his
phrasing, the dynamism and dramatic tension of his interpretations, and
the close integration of dramatic and symphonic elements in the theatre. A
champion of Russian music past and present, he was the first to perform
Myaskovsky’s symphonies nos.5, 6 and 22. He was professor of the opera
and orchestra classes at the Moscow Conservatory (1925–9, 1943–4). An
outstanding concert pianist and a sensitive accompanist, he often
appeared with his wife, the soprano Antonina Nezhdanova. He composed
an opera Princess Yurata, a symphony, two symphonic poems, and From
Verhaeren, orchestral suites, an overture on Russian themes, Salome, a
piano sonata, about 200 romances, and many folksong arrangements.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘K 75-letiyu N.S. Golovanov’ [For Golovanov’s 75th anniversary], SovM
(1966), no.2
 Ye. Grosheva, ed.: N.S. Golovanov: Literaturnoye naslediye, perepiska,
vospominaniya sovremennikov [N.S. Golovanov: literary heritage,
correspondence, recollections by contempories] (Moscow, 1982)
G. Pribegina: Nikolay Semnovich Golovanov (Moscow, 1990)
I.M. YAMPOL'SKY/R

Golovin, Andrey Ivanovich

(b Moscow, 11 Aug 1950). Russian composer. He graduated from the
Moscow Conservatory in 1975, having studied composition with E. Golubev
and orchestration with Yu. Fortunatov. Since 1975 he has taught
composition at the Gnesin music school, and in 1989 was appointed senior
lecturer in the department of composition and orchestration of the Gnesin
Russian Academy of Music. He is a member of the Union of Composers.
Golovin works in a variety of genres such as opera, symphony and cantata,
in addition to writing for ensembles, children, theatre and film. Among the
most important principles affecting Golovin’s creative work is his
relationship with classical tradition, reflected in his aspiration towards
clarity, purity and consistency in his own style. His links with Russian
sources are also significant: with the old Russian rospev (in the Violin
Concerto Poėma for violin and orchestra, Svete tikhiy [Peaceful World] for
chorus and the music for Poymi yazïk proshlogo [Understand the
Language of the Past], a documentary film on Russian icon-painting); with
the tradition of elegiac poetry (in the Fourth Symphony with solo cello, the
cantata Prostïye pesni and the Elegy for solo cello); and with the language
of Rachmaninoff (in the Second Chamber Symphony and the first and
fourth symphonies).
Golovin is inclined to classical forms and thematic lucidity. His traditional
language is combined with an absolutely individual approach to the
problems of drama and form; this engenders unconventional artistic
solutions, whether in large-scale symphonic conceptions or chamber
works. Golovin has won many prizes for his compositions and since 1994
has appeared as a conductor.
WORKS
Op: Pervaya lyubov' [First Love] (2, A. Maksimov, after I. Turgenev), 1996
Orch: Sym. no.1, va, vc, orch, 1976; Poėma, vn, orch, 1978; Sym. no.2, va, pf, orch,
1981; Sym. no.3, 1986; Sym. no.4, vc, orch, 1992
Vocal: ‘Iz Sobraniya miriad list'yev’ [From a Gathering of Miriad Leaves] (chbr cant.,
medieval Jap. poets) Mez, fl, vib, vc, 1973; Prostïye pesni [Simple Words] (cant., N.
Rubtsov), Mez, chbr orch, 1988; Svete tikhiy [Peaceful World], chorus, 1991; Na
kholmakh Gruzii [On the Hills of Georgia] (A.S. Pushkin), chorus, 1992; Sumerki
[Twilight] (Ye. Baratïnsky], Mez, pf, 1995
Chbr and solo inst: Pf Sonata, 1970; 2 p'yesï [2 Pieces], pf, 1971; Duet, vn, pf,
1972; Duet, va, vc, 1973; Muzïka dlya strunnogo kvarteta [Music for Str Qt], 1973;
Kadentsiya i ostinato, timps, bells, tam-tam, pf, 1974; Sonata, ob, hpd, 1975, rev.
1980; Prelyudiya, vib, 1976; 2 lyogkiye p'yesï [2 Easy Pieces], pf, 1977; Ėlegiya, vc,
1979; Sonata breve, va, pf, 1979; Sonata, vc, 1980, 2 p'yesï, fl, pf, 1981; Skazaniye
[Tale], pf, 1981; Str Qt, 1982; Poėma-noktyurn, va, pf, 1983; 3 p'yesï, hn, pf, 1983;
Sonatina, pf, 1983; Dalekoye [Far Away], pf, 1990; 2 pesni bez slov [2 Songs
without Words], ens, 1993; Vesennyaya pesn' [Spring Song], trbn, pf, 1993
Film scores, incid music
WRITINGS
‘O muzïke Yuriya Butsko’ [The music of Butsko], SovM (1982), no.8, pp.33–
4
with A. Grigor'yeva: ‘O muzïke Borisa Chaykovskogo’, SovM (1985),
no.10, pp.8–24
‘Kompromiss v tvorchestve nevozmozhen’, [Compromise in creativity is
impossible], SovM (1991), no.7, pp.2–7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Zhdanova: ‘Nachalo yarkoye, perspektivnoye’, [The beginning is bright
and promising], SovM (1980), no.3, pp.51–5
S. Barsky: ‘Andrey Golovin’, Muzika v SSSR (1984), nos.11–12
I. Stepanova: ‘Ispïtaniye uspekhom’ [The experience of success], SovM
(1988), no.11, pp.6–8
G. Zhdanova: ‘Perestupiv porog zrelosti’ [The threshold of maturity has
been crossed], SovM (1988), no.11, pp.9–10
ALLA VLADIMIROVNA GRIGOR'YEVA

Golpeado
(Sp.).
See Rasgueado.

Golschmann, Vladimir
(b Paris, 16 Dec 1893; d New York, 1 March 1972). American conductor of
French birth and Russian descent, brother of Boris Golschmann. His early
studies were in the violin and piano, and at the Schola Cantorum in Paris
he also took courses in harmony, counterpoint and composition. He began
his career as an orchestral violinist, but conducting was already his goal,
and in 1919 he launched a series of ‘Golschmann Concerts’ devoted
largely to avant-garde music of the time and particularly to works by Les
Six. In the next four years Golschmann also conducted for Diaghilev’s
Ballets Russes and at the Popular Concerts in Brussels; as musical
director of the Bériza Theatre he gave the premières of chamber operas by
Ibert, Milhaud, Florent Schmitt and others. His American début in 1923 as
conductor of Les Ballets Suédois of Rolf de Maré was followed in 1924 by
concert engagements with the New York Symphony Society. After several
more years in Europe, including a spell as conductor of the Scottish
Orchestra (1928–30), a guest appearance in 1931 with the St Louis SO led
to Golschmann’s appointment that autumn as the orchestra’s permanent
conductor. He stayed for 25 years, moving permanently to the USA in 1934
and becoming an American citizen in 1947. Throughout this time he
continued to champion new and unfamiliar works, bringing to his
performances the advantages of an excellent technique, a strongly
romantic temperament, and a breadth of taste that made him as convincing
in Russian ballet and Beethoven concertos as in the music of his old
Parisian favourites. Golschmann continued to appear frequently in St Louis
after 1956 as conductor emeritus, and in 1957 he was visiting professor at
the city’s George Washington University, of which he was also made an
honorary doctor. He served as musical director of the Tulsa SO (1958–61)
and from 1964 to 1970 in a similar capacity with the Denver SO.
BERNARD JACOBSON

Goltberg, John Gottlieb

[Théophile].
See Goldberg, Johann Gottlieb.

Goltermann, Georg (Eduard)

(b Hanover, 19 Aug 1824; d Frankfurt, 29 Dec 1898). German cellist,
conductor and composer. The son of an organist, he first studied the cello
with A.C. Prell, one of Romberg’s last pupils. At the age of 23 Goltermann
moved to Munich to study the cello with Joseph Menter and composition
with Ignaz Lachner. In 1850 he began touring as a virtuoso cellist, at the
same time gaining recognition as a composer; his Symphony in A and First
Cello Concerto date from this period. His appointment in 1852 as music
director in Würzburg effectively ended his short career as a touring cellist.
The following year he accepted the post of assistant music director in
Frankfurt, and in 1874 he became principal music director there.
Goltermann’s own playing was marked by an energetic and highly
emotional delivery, and stood him in high regard among cellists. His other
compositions include orchestral overtures, songs, three sets of organ
preludes and many chamber pieces, among them the Romance and
Serenade op.119 for four cellos. Despite the success in his day of many of
his works, it is Goltermann’s compositions for cello that are chiefly
remembered; his eight concertos so effectively demonstrate the lyrical and
virtuoso potential of the instrument that they continue to be in use as study
pieces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (K. Stephenson) [with list of works]
J.W. von Wasielewski: Das Violoncell und seine Geschichte (Leipzig,
1889, 3/1925/R; Eng. trans., 1894/R)
E.S.J. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)
MARC MOSKOVITZ

Goltermann, (Johann August)

Julius
(b Hamburg, 15 July 1825; d Stuttgart, 4 April 1876). German cellist. He
studied with Romberg and, subsequently, in Dresden with Franz Kummer,
under whom he emerged as one of the most eminent virtuosos of his day.
He became principal cellist at the Hamburg Stadttheater, and in 1850 was
appointed professor of cello at the Prague Conservatory, where he
developed an important class of students which included Popper and
Ebert. In 1862 he became solo cellist of the Stuttgart Hofkapelle, but spinal
problems left him incapacitated and he was forced to retire on a pension in
1870. He was not related to Georg Goltermann, though both cellists
maintained a cordial relationship. Goltermann’s compositions, which reflect
the penchant of the time for operatic transcription and foreign styles,
include the Grande Fantasie op.1 on Donizetti’s Lucia di Lammermoor,
Souvenirs de Bellini (1849) and Caprice über slawische Melodien op.9.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (K. Stephenson)
J.W. von Wasielewski: Das Violoncell und seine Geschichte (Leipzig,
1889, 3/1925/R; Eng. trans., 1894/R)
E.S.J. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)
MARC MOSKOVITZ

Goltfuss [Goltfus, Goldtfues,

Goudvoet, Gellfuss], Hans
(b Cologne, 1595/6; d Antwerp, 17 Nov 1658)). Flemish organ builder. He
was the leading apprentice of Florentius (Floris) Hocque jr (d 1623/3), and
lived in Antwerp until 1642, when he moved to Haacht, where he remained
for the rest of his life. He completed Hocque’s organ at St. Jans Cathedraal
in ’s-Hertogenbosch, but his work was considered so poor that the church
asked the Hagerbeer firm to finish it instead; Goltfuss in turn blamed his
late teacher. He built many organs in the southern Netherlands (including
parts of modern Belgium). His largest work was the three-manual, 43-stop
organ for St Laurenskerk, Rotterdam (1642–4), which blended Dutch,
Flemish and German elements. This organ, like that of Tongerlo Abbey
(1642), had a five-stop bass-function pedal, a novelty in an area where the
bass function still tended to belong to the main manual.
Although Goltfuss was the first builder to introduce German organ-building
techniques and styles into the greater Brabant region, little of his work
remains. The extant organ of the Reformed church of Sassenheim (1657,
originally in the Gasthuiskerk of Delft) shows how Goltfuss synthesized
German and Flemish styles. After his death his widow married his
apprentice, Jan Dekens, who continued the firm with the help of his
brother-in-law and Goltfuss's son and eventual successor, Peter Goltfuss.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Peeters and M.A. Vente: De Orgelkunst in de Nederlanden van de 16de
tot de 18de eeuw (Antwerp, 1971)
G. Spiessens: ‘Orgelmaker Hans Goltfus in Antwerpen’, Musica antiqua, xi
(1994), 164–8
J. van Biezen: Het Nederlandse orgel in de Renaissance en de Barok, in
het bijzonder de school van Jan van Covelens (Utrecht, 1995)
ADRI DE GROOT
Goltz, Christel
(b Dortmund, 8 July 1912). German soprano. She studied with Ornelli-Leeb
in Munich and before she was 20 was singing in operetta at the Deutsches
Theater. In 1935 she sang Agathe in Der Freischütz at Fürth. After a
season at Plauen, where she added Santuzza, Eva and Octavian to her
repertory, in 1936 she was engaged at Dresden; she remained a member
of the company until 1950, creating Juliet in Sutermeister’s Romeo und
Julia and singing Orff’s Antigone. In 1947 Goltz sang in Berlin at both the
Staatsoper and the Städtische Oper; she then began to appear in Vienna
and Munich, as Electra, Salome, Alcestis, the Countess (Capriccio),
Leonore and Tosca. In 1951 she made her Covent Garden début as
Salome and the following year sang Marie in Wozzeck, a role she also
sang at Salzburg, Vienna and Buenos Aires. At Salzburg she created the
title role in Liebermann’s Penelope in 1954; later that year she made her
Metropolitan début as Salome. During the 1957–8 season she sang her
first Isolde; at that time her repertory included nearly 120 operas. Goltz had
a clear, brilliant voice, three octaves in range, and her acting was intense.
She recorded Salome (under Keilberth and Krauss) and the Dyer’s Wife
(under Böhm).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Natan: ‘Goltz, Christel’, Primadonna: Lob der Stimmen (Basle, 1962)
[with discography]
H. Rosenthal: Great Singers of Today (London, 1966)
HAROLD ROSENTHAL/R

Golubev, Yevgeny Kirillovich

(b Moscow, 3/16 Feb 1910; d Moscow, 25 Dec 1988). Russian composer,
pianist and teacher. He graduated from the Moscow Conservatory (1936)
having studied composition with Myaskovsky, with whom he remained as a
postgraduate. His name is listed on a marble plaque as one of the most
talented students of the Conservatory. In his early years, besides
composing, Golubev was a choral conductor, pianist and on the editorial
board of Muzgiz, the state music publishers. From 1944 to the end of his
life he taught composition and polyphony at Moscow Conservatory,
becoming a professor in 1947. Among his students were Eshpay, Golovin,
Kholminov, Todor Popov and Schnittke.
Golubev's connections with the musical traditions of both Russia and
Western Europe determined the aesthetic values of his music. Skill in
polyphony, taste and professionalism were important qualities to this
composer, for whom classical logic was essential to his musical thinking. In
his large-scale forms the composer aimed, by means of architectural
proportions and other Beethovenian symphonic principles, to give the
maximum prominence to his ideas, incorporating bold strokes, dynamic
development of the musical material and dramatic integrity (5th, and 7th
symphonies and the piano concertos). His chamber works are
characterized by mastery of the technical and expressive possibilities of
particular instruments, virtuoso working of the most complex textures, often
 enriched with polyphonic motifs, and a subtly original harmonic language.
His knowledge of folklore – Russian, Ukrainian, and of the peoples of the
far north – is evident in the oratorio Vozvrashcheniye solntsa (‘The Return
of the Sun’), the Ukrainskaya rapsodiya and in his arrangements of
Russian folksongs.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Odissey [Odyssey] (ballet, 3, K. Batashov, after Homer), 1965; film and
theatre music
7 syms.: no.1, 1934, rev. 1950; no.2, 1938, rev. 1973; no.3, 1942, rev. 1974; no.4,
1947; no.5, 1960; no.6, 1966; no.7 ‘Heroic’, 1972
Concs.: Pf Conc. no.1, 1944; Pf Conc. no.2, 1948; Pf Conc. no.3, 1954; Vc Conc.,
1956; Va Conc., 1962; Vn Conc., 1970
Other orch: Lesnaya pesn' [Forest Song], 2 suites, 1946 [from incid music]; Ov.,
1952; Sym. Poem, 1957; Choreographic Sym. ‘Vozvrashcheniye Odisseya’ [The
Return of the Odyssey], 1974; Ukrainskaya rapsodiya, 1982
Choral: Oktyabr'skaya kantata [October Cant.] (N. Aseyev), chorus, orch, 1931;
Vozvrashcheniye solntsa [The Return of the Sun] (orat, 7 pts, trad.), solo vv, chorus,
orch, 1935, rev. 1980; Smert' poėta [Death of a Poet] (Yu. Lermontov), 1936, arr. as
sym. poem, Bar, orch, 1957; Kuznets [The Blacksmith] (Verkharn), 1937; Moskva,
Moskva, … lyublyu tebya, kak sïn [Moscow, Moscow, I Love you as a Son]
(Lermontov), 1938; 3 russkiye pesni [3 Russian Songs] (trad.), 1943; Geroi
bessmertnï [Immortal Heroes] (orat, 5 parts), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1945;
Grazhdanskoye muzhestvo [The Citizen's Courage] (K. Rïleyev), 1949; Na mogilu
neizvestnogo soldata [At the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier], 1949; Dukhovnïye
khorï [Sacred Choruses] (Orthodox texts), 1986
Solo vocal: Rekviyem [Requiem] (Aseyev), Bar, 1931; 3 stikhotvoreniya [3 Poems]
(A.S. Pushkin), Mez, T, pf, 1933–44; 7 pesen khanteyskikh detey [7 Khanty
Children's Songs] (after Ya. Rodionov), 1v, pf, 1936; Ballada o Volge (N.
Berendgof), B, pf, 1948; 3 stikhotvoreniya (S. Gorodetsky), B/Bar, pf, 1973; 5
stikhotvoreniya (F. Tyutchev), 1v, pf, 1985; 2 stikhotvoreniya (Lermontov), 1v, pf,
1988
Chbr and solo inst: Poėma, vn, 1930; Pf Qnt, 1938; Sonata, tpt, pf, 1951; Sonata,
vn, 1952; Qnt, hp, str qt, 1953; Vecher na Moskve-reke [An Evening on the Moscow
River], hp, 1953; Concert Aria, 1961 [3 versions: 1, vc; 2, vc, hp; 3, vc, pf]; 3 p'yesï
[3 Pieces], vc, 1961; Qt, 2 hp, 2 fl, 1963; Klassicheskoye skertso [Classical
Scherzo], sonata, bn, pf, 1969; Sonata, vc, pf, 1972; Ėpitafii nad grobiyu F.M.
Dostoyevskogo [Epitaphs for the Grave of Dostoyevsky], va, 1982; Posledniye
shagi ternistogo puti [The Final Steps of the Thorny Path], triptych, pf, org, 1985;
Nocturnes, hp, 1988; 24 str qts: 1949–86
Pf: Poėma, 1929; Ballade, 1930; Fugue, 1930; Ukrainskaya rapsodiya, 1936, orchd
1982; 5 p'yes pamyati Lermontova [5 Pieces in Memoriam Lermontov], 1938;
Detskiy al'bom [Children's Album], 1946; V staroy Ruze [In Old Ruza], 5 pieces,
1949; 3 p'yesï [3 Pieces], 1971; Sonata-Toccata, 1977; Fortepiannïye otkliki [Piano
Echoes], 1983; 9 Sonatas, 1930–77

Principal publishers: Muzgiz, Sovetskiy Kompozitor

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Yu.N. Tyulin: ‘Put' k simfonicheskomu masterstvu’ [The way to symphonic
mastery], SovM (1978), no.9, pp.13–18
ALLA VLADIMIROVNA GRIGOR'YEVA

Gombart.
German firm of music publishers. It was founded in Augsburg in 1795 and
in its first few years produced early editions of important works by Haydn
and Mozart. These include a very early edition of Haydn’s symphony
no.100 (1799), his symphonies nos.99 and 101 and one of the earliest
editions of his Gott erhalte den Kaiser; and for Mozart, first editions of the
Quintet for piano and wind k452 (1800) and the divertimentos k247 and
k287 (1799). In 1825 Gombart produced its only Beethoven first edition,
the song An die Geliebte woo 140. Most of the firm’s output consisted of
songs by such composers as Gyrowetz and Rieff, and piano music,
especially operatic arrangements. It ceased trading about 1844. (G.
Haberkamp: Die Erstdrucke der Werke von Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,
Tutzing, 1986)
NIGEL SIMEONE

Gomberg, Harold
(b Malden, MA, 30 Nov 1916; d Capri, 7 Sept 1985). American oboist. He
spent his formative years as an instrumentalist at the Curtis Institute,
Philadelphia, which he entered at the age of 11 as a pupil of Marcel
Tabuteau. He became solo oboist of the National SO (Washington, DC) in
1934, moved to the Toronto SO in 1938, and to the St Louis SO the
following year. In 1943 he was appointed solo oboist of the New York PO,
where he remained until his retirement in 1977. He returned in 1980 to play
in the world première of Barber's Canzonetta, which was written for him.
From 1948 to 1977 he was a member of the faculty of the Juilliard School
of Music. Gromberg also appeared internationally as a soloist and was
renowned for his singing tone and masterful technique. His brother Ralph
Gomberg (b Boston, 18 June 1921) was principal oboist of the Boston SO
from 1949 to 1987.
GEORGE GELLES

Gombert, Nicolas
(b c1495; d c1560). South Netherlandish composer.
1. Life.
2. Style.
3. Sacred music.
4. Secular music.
5. Conclusion.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GEORGE NUGENT/ERIC JAS
Gombert, Nicolas
1. Life.
He was probably born in southern Flanders, perhaps in the village of La
Gorgue, where the name Gombert was long established. According to the
theorist Hermann Finck, he was a pupil of Josquin; if so, he may have
come under Josquin’s guidance during the latter’s last years in Condé.
Certainly Gombert composed a déploration on the death of Josquin,
printed in 1545 with similar tributes by Appenzeller and Vinders. Gombert
was a singer in Emperor Charles V’s court chapel from 1526, and maître
des enfants from 1529; he travelled with the chapel from Flanders to Spain,
Italy, Austria and Germany. Some references incorrectly call him imperial
maître de chapelle or music director, titles then actually held by the now
nearly forgotten composer Adrien Thibault (called Pickart) and later by
Thomas Crecquillon. Gombert was a cleric, perhaps a priest, and was
awarded ecclesiastical benefices at Courtrai, Béthune, Lens and Metz.
Late references consistently identify him as a canon of Tournai Cathedral
(he had been appointed to the post by 1534); so he evidently lived at
Tournai for a time, and he may have spent his last years in retirement
there.
By 1540 Gombert’s name had left the imperial chapel lists and was
succeeded by Cornelius Canis’s. According to the physician Jerome
Cardan, Gombert violated a boy in the emperor’s service and was
sentenced to the galleys for a period in exile on the high seas. In exile,
Cardan added, he composed those ‘swan songs’ which won him both the
emperor’s pardon and a benefice that allowed him to end his days in
peace. The ‘swan songs’ may be the late Magnificat settings copied in
1552 (in E-Mn 2433). How long he survived after his return is not certain.
The only evidence is a letter of tribute (now in the Pierpont Morgan Library,
New York) sent with a motet in 1547 by Gombert from Tournai to Charles’s
gran capitano Ferrante Gonzaga (see illustration). In 1556 Finck spoke of
Gombert as still living, but both Cardan (1561) and the diplomat
Guicciardini (Descrittione, 1565) indicated that he was already dead.
Although Gombert’s official title was maître des enfants, he also served
unofficially for at least a decade as court composer, and a number of works
commemorate events in the emperor’s life: for example, the motets Dicite
in magni for Philip II’s birth in 1527, Felix Austriae domus for the coronation
of Ferdinand I as King of the Romans in 1531, and Qui colis Ausoniam for
the treaty of 1533 between the pope, the emperor and several Italian
rulers. The Missa ‘Sur tous regretz’, labelled ‘for the coronation’ in one
source, may have been sung for Charles’s coronation in Bologna in 1530.
There is even an arrangement for two lutes of a chanson, Plus oultre, that
alluded to Charles’s heraldic motto ‘Plus ultra’.
Gombert, Nicolas
2. Style.
Finck, in his Practica musica (1556), said of Gombert:
Yet in our own time there are innovators, among whom
Nicolas Gombert, pupil of Josquin of fond memory, shows all
musicians the path, nay more, the exact way to refinement
 and the requisite imitative style. He composes music
altogether different from what went before. For he avoids
pauses, and his work is rich with full harmonies and imitative
counterpoint.
Gombert’s phrases frequently overlap, and his dense-textured style allows
each voice only short rests at the ends of phrases; Finck was probably
referring to Josquin’s familiar technique of alternating pairs of voices and
thus giving extended rests to the inactive pair. Gombert’s name is now
practically synonymous with pervading imitation, which he used more
consistently than anyone else of his own or any earlier generation. Each
phrase of text is set to its own motif and subsequently taken up in quick
succession by the voices in turn. As a result the voices tend to be equally
important, although the bass serves a harmonic function at cadences and
the top line is sometimes slightly more florid than the others.
After his early works Gombert seldom used chordal passages, and then
only for emphasis or reverence. For variety he used constantly shifting
combinations of normally four, seldom fewer than three, out of five voices.
Characteristically he favoured the lower voice ranges and combinations of
five or six rather than four voices; the dark, rich sounds, sombre at times,
are reminiscent of Ockeghem, whose Missa ‘Mi-mi’ he quoted at the
beginning of his Missa ‘Je suis desheritée’. Rhythms are basically simple
and plastic, skilfully animated by syncopation and cross-accent. Duple
metre predominates, with infrequent passages in triple. Gombert’s melodic
style, although individual, owes much to plainsong tradition. The phrases
are normally syllabic, tapering off with a short melisma; the lines are
formed from small intervals, often in units of irregular contour, yet artfully
balanced, and the motifs are skilfully varied to avoid exact repetition.
Unlike Josquin, Gombert used irregular numbers of voice entries and
avoided clearcut phrase divisions. Imitation is often free, but real answers
are more common than tonal ones. His harmonic organization, like that of
his contemporaries, often strains the traditional modal framework, and his
works abound with problems of musica ficta. Gombert’s treatment of
dissonance, while less suave than that of Morales, Willaert or Jacquet, has
been unduly stressed by some scholars. Irregularities such as consecutive
2nds and 7ths may occur because of linear considerations, but generally
he adhered to contemporary practice in carefully preparing and resolving
dissonance.
Gombert, Nicolas
3. Sacred music.
Nine of Gombert’s ten known masses survive in complete form. All but two
elaborate existing motets or chansons, the exceptions being the Missa
Tempore paschali (based on the plainsong Ordinary) and the Missa ‘Da
pacem’ (presumably also based on plainsong; there is no known
polyphonic model). In two masses, based on his own motets Beati omnes
and Media vita, Gombert reduced the scoring of the model by one voice.
The eight-voice Credo, too, is musically related to one of Gombert’s own
works, Je prens congié, but other models are drawn from older
contemporaries or the previous generation. Gombert generally treated the
borrowed material with great freedom, and no two masses follow exactly
the same procedure. Typically, however, his parody masses are
systematically related to their models, in that the mass movements begin
and end with corresponding parts of the model, reworking material in the
original order (the Missa ‘Sancta Maria’ is irregular in this respect). Unlike
some Parisian composers he seldom duplicated the entire voice complex,
usually changing the voice entries for his own purpose. In two masses (on
Sur tous regretz and Je suis desheritée) the entire borrowed melody is
presented clearly in the top voice of the final Agnus. In the Missa ‘Je suis
desheritée’, uncharacteristic of Gombert in several respects, the superius
of the model is literally quoted with doubled note-values in the first two
sections of the Credo. In general the masses follow similar patterns in their
vocal scoring: normally Kyrie and Gloria are full throughout, and the Credo
and Sanctus have reduced scoring for sub-sections. The two- and three-
voice ‘Pleni’ sections often have solo-style florid lines. The Agnus is usually
set twice, with an increase in the number of voices for the second setting:
in the Missa Tempore paschali, probably inspired by Brumel’s Missa ‘Et
ecce terrae motus’, it is expanded to 12 voices.
The chronology of the masses is uncertain, but on stylistic grounds several
are clearly early works. Sequence and ostinato, uncommon in Gombert’s
mature work, are prominent in the masses on Quam pulchra es and
Tempore paschali (though in the Agnus of the latter this is partly the result
of the number of voices involved); and the Missa ‘Da pacem’, exceptional
for its use of triple metre, is close to Josquin in its use of paired imitation
and occasional homophonic passages. The Missa ‘Sur tous regretz’ may,
as has been said, have been written in 1530, and the Missa ‘Quam pulchra
es’ may have been composed for Pope Clement VII; the antiphon Ecce
sacerdos magnus is joined to the final Agnus as a remarkable cantus
firmus in which each phrase of the chant is directly repeated in halved note
values.
The motets are Gombert’s most representative works: over 160 are
attributed to him. The texts are more often taken from scripture than from
the liturgy, many being freely arranged selections of passages from
psalms. Marian compositions account for more than a quarter of the
motets; few appear to be secular texts of the type written for special
occasions. The musical form is conditioned by the character of the text, so
that motets based on responsories nearly always observe the ABCB
pattern of the liturgical model in text and music. Many other motets are also
divided into two broad sections, each marked by a well-defined close, and
a reprise form may also occur independently of a responsory text, for
example, by closing both parts with the same alleluia setting. Final
cadences often have short plagal extensions, with pedal notes normally
occurring only at these places, often in the top voice. In setting the text
Gombert was not always scrupulous about declamation: musical
considerations always came first. Each phrase has its own musical motif
which is worked through the texture. These melodies have great
expressive value in the purely musical sense, and in mature works the
declamation is generally careful.
Ostinato, canon, cantus firmus and double texts, common in the motets of
the preceding generation, are extremely rare, but Gombert’s two best-
known works use some of these techniques. Musae Jovis, his tribute to
Josquin, uses Circumdederunt me gemitus mortis, a chant Josquin himself
had used in Nymphes, nappés, as a cantus firmus repeated in
progressively reduced values. The four-voice Salve regina, sub-titled
‘Diversi diversa orant’, incorporates seven Marian antiphons, each of the
lower voices freely paraphrasing two plainsong antiphons in succession
while the superius unfolds the Salve. Both works reflect the Renaissance
interest in symbolism, whether mystical number or meaningful text
combination. Gombert was not above occasional solmization puns (as on
the words ‘ut’ and ‘sol’ in O gloriosa Dei genitrix).
The eight Magnificat settings, one in each church mode, rank among
Gombert’s finest achievements. They are alternatim settings of even-
numbered verses, cycles of short polyphonic motets alternating with and
freely based on the given plainsong Magnificat tone. Cadence notes
correspond to the finals of the plainsong formula rather than to the final of
the mode. Gombert provided two Magnificat settings (3rd or 8th tone, 6th or
1st tone) with optional final extensions to permit endings in either of two
tones. The scoring is basically for four voices, with one or more voices
added, as in the masses, at the close. The Magnificat in the 3rd or 8th tone
opens with three voices, gradually increasing to eight for the last verse.
Gombert left a number of multi-voice works including an eight-voice Credo,
the 12-voice Agnus from the Missa Tempore paschali, and 10- and 12-
voice settings of the Regina caeli. These are not antiphonal in the manner
of the north Italian coro spezzato style; Gombert did not divide forces
consistently but constantly changed the combinations of voice groups.
Because of the technical demands of multi-voice writing, these works
contain more direct repetition, sequence and ostinato than his other music.
Gombert, Nicolas
4. Secular music.
The striking consistency of Gombert’s style is evident when one turns from
the sacred music to the more than 70 extant chansons, which are typical of
this generation of Netherlandish composers: dense in texture, strongly
imitative rather than chordal, sometimes melismatic in line, and often
conceived on a broad scale, they are like the contemporary Netherlandish
motet only more animated. Less often the chansons approach the type
developed by such Parisian masters as Sermisy; they are lyrical, chiefly
chordal but with some light imitation, mostly syllabic settings, and with well-
marked rhythms and clear formal articulation. Gombert’s chansons in this
lighter vein, closer in style to Janequin or Sermisy, include Amours vous
me faictes and Quant je suis. The distinctive approaches of Sermisy and
Gombert can be studied by comparing their settings of Gris et tanne. C’est
à grand tort and En aultre avoir are typical of the more motet-like
Netherlandish style which Gombert used more freely. As in the sacred
works, he preferred thematic variation to exact repetition, and even the
repeat of a final phrase normally receives at least slight variation. Like the
motets, too, the chansons contain little word-painting, but Gombert left two
notable examples of the programme chanson after the manner of
Janequin. Or escoutez describes the chase of a hare, and Resveillez vous
has passages imitating birdcalls. In the latter Gombert’s penchant for
intensification comes to the fore: he adapted Janequin’s famous chanson,
reducing the number of voices from four to three and the structure from five
sections to four; moreover, his version easily surpasses Janequin’s in
harmonic interest and skill in variation. A few other songs also rework well-
known models. Mille regretz, incorporating the melody of Josquin’s
chanson, is more dense, less varied than Josquin’s, and En l’ombre, also
derived from Josquin, is worked out in triple canon. This is extraordinary for
Gombert, who was perhaps acknowledging here the device favoured in so
many of Josquin’s chansons.
Few of the authors of the chanson texts are known. Molinet and Marot are
represented, but Gombert usually turned to older verse, often of a folkish
type. Unhappy love is the dominant theme, caught in farewells,
separations, infidelities and the like. The single examples of madrigal and
canción that survive are little more than mementos of his travels to Italy
and Spain.
Gombert was for a time thought to be the ‘Nicolas’ represented by
chansons in Parisian publications between 1547 and 1572, but that
composer is almost certainly Nicolas de la Grotte. Guillaume Nicolas has
also been suggested.
Gombert, Nicolas
5. Conclusion.
Contemporaries ranked Gombert among the great. From 1529 until long
after his death, his works figured prominently in the output of the major
European printers, and the Venetian publishers Scotto and Gardane
brought out collected editions of his motets between 1539 and 1552,
paralleling their projects with Willaert and Jacquet of Mantua. Finck
admired his style highly, Ganassi (1542) judged him a ‘divine’ talent, and
Juan Bermudo (1555) referred to him as ‘the profound musician’. His works
show the extreme use of the imitative principle in his time. His style was so
consistent and intense that it influenced many contemporaries, among
them Morales, Jacquet of Mantua and the younger Payen and Vaet.
Lassus composed three masses on Gombert chansons, and other
composers who chose Gombert models for their own works include
Clemens non Papa, Morales, Jacquet de Berchem, Porta, Colin, Rogier
and Monteverdi, the last with a notable exercise in old-style parody, the
Missa ‘In illo tempore’. The instrumental literature emerging in his time also
drew substantially on Gombert’s works, sacred and secular, for
transcription and elaboration in a new medium. In spite of Gombert’s strong
influence, however, the next generation of composers moved towards a
less concentrated style, though one based closely on the principles he had
followed. In particular, the principle of pervading imitation found new life in
such instrumental forms as the ricercare, and led eventually to the fugue of
a later era.
Gombert, Nicolas
WORKS

Edition: N. Gombert: Opera omnia, ed. J. Schmidt-Görg, CMM, vi/1–11(1951–75) [S i–xi]

masses and magnificat settings

 motets

chansons

other secular works

instrumental

doubtful works

misattributed works

Gombert, Nicolas: Works

masses and magnificat settings

Missa ‘Beati omnes’, 4vv, S i, 56 (on his own motet)
Missa ‘Da pacem’, 4vv, S i, 1 (on plainsong)
Missa ‘Dulcis amica’, 4vv, Missarum musicalium quatuor vocum liber III (Paris,
1556)
Missa ‘Je suis desheritée’, 4vv, S i, 81 (on chanson by Lupus or Cadéac)
Missa ‘Media vita’, 5vv, S ii, 1 (on his own motet)
Missa ‘Philomena praevia’, 5vv, S ii, 57 (on Richafort’s motet)
Missa ‘Quam pulchra es’, 6vv, S iii, 1 (on Bauldeweyn’s motet)
Missa ‘Sancta Maria succurre’, 4vv, S i, 30 (on Verdelot’s motet)
Missa ‘Sur tous regretz’, 5vv, S ii, 31 (on Richafort’s chanson)
Missa Tempore paschali, 6vv, S iii, 53 (on plainsong)
Credo, 8vv, S iii, 103
8 Magnificat (1st–8th tones), 4vv, S iv
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
motets
Musica quatuor vocum (vulgo motecta nuncupatur) … liber primus (Venice, 1539)
[S v]
Musica … (vulgo motecta quinque vocum nuncupata) … liber primus (Venice, 1539)
[S vii]
Motectorum … liber secundus, quatuor vocum (Venice, 1541) [S vi]
Motectorum quinque vocum … liber secundus (Venice, 1541) [S viii]

Adonai Domine Jesu Christe, 5vv, S vii, 55; Ad te levavi, 4vv, S x, 26 (also attrib.
Richafort); Ad te levavi, 5vv, S viii, 73; Angelus Domini ad pastores, 4vv, S x, 1 (also
attrib. Verdelot); Anima mea liquefacta est, 5vv, S vii, 149; Anima nostra sicut
passer, 5vv, S vii, 42; Aspice Domine in testamentum, 5vv, 1538 4; Aspice Domine
quia facta est, 4vv, S v, 86 (also attrib. Festa); Audi filia et vide, 5vv, S vii, 117
Ave Maria, 5vv, S vii, 144; Ave mater matris Dei, 5vv, S vii, 184; Ave regina
caelorum, 4vv, S v, 30; Ave regina caelorum, 5vv, S viii, 36; Averte oculos meos,
4vv, S vi, 13; Ave salus mundi, 6vv, S ix, 86; Ave sanctissima Maria [= Ave
sanctissime Jesu, Christe fili Dei], 4vv, S v, 77; Ave sanctissima Maria, 5vv, S vii,
77; Ave sanctissime Jesu Christe [= Ave sanctissima Maria], 4vv, 1538 3; Beata
mater et innupta virgo, 4vv, S vi, 58; Beati omnes qui timent Dominum, 5vv, S vii,
176; Beatus vir qui non abiit, 6vv, S ix, 104; Benedicta es caelorum regina, 6vv, S ix,
183
Caeciliam cantate pii [= Juravit Dominus], 5vv, S viii, 26; Cantemus virgini canticum
novum, 5vv, S viii, 103; Christe fili Dei [= Ave sanctissima Maria], 4vv, 1555 13;
Conceptio tua Dei genitrix, 5vv, S viii, 59; Confitebimur tibi Deus, 5vv, S viii, 64;
Constitues eos, 6vv, attrib. ‘Comprecht’ in DK-Kk 1872, ed. in Dania sonaus, v
(1986), 91; Cur quisquam corradat opes, 4vv, S vi, 104 (also attrib. Mahu, Haugh);
Da pacem Domine, 5vv, S viii, 143; Descendi in hortum meum, 6vv, S ix, 19; Dicite
in magni, 4vv, S v, 15; Dignare me laudare te, 4vv, S v, 93
Domine Deus omnipotens pater, 5vv, S vii, 84; Domine non secundum peccata
nostra, 4vv, S vi, 6; Domine pater et Deus, 4vv, S v, 1; Domine quis habitabit, 5vv, S
x, 139; Domine si tu es jube, 4vv, S v, 101; Dulcis amica Dei, 4vv, S x, 5; Duo rogavi
te Domine, 4vv, S v, 43; Duo rogavi te Domine, 6vv, S ix, 58; Ecce nunc tempus
acceptabile, 4vv, S v, 22; Ecce quam bonum, 4vv, D-Kl IV.24
Ego flos campi, 5vv, S vii, 165; Ego sum qui sum, 6vv, S ix, 24; Egregie martyr
Sebastiane, 5vv, S x, 67; Emendemus in melius, 4vv, I-TVd 7; Emendemus in
melius, 5vv, S vii, 61; Ergo ne vitae quod superest meae, 4vv, S vi, 25; Fac tibi
mortales, 4vv, S vi, 1; Felix Austriae domus, 5vv, S x, 79; Fidelium Deus omnium
conditor, 4vv, S v, 97; Fuit homo missus a Deo, 4vv, S v, 81
Gabriel nuntiavit Mariae, 5vv, S x, 91 (also attrib. Phinot); Gaude mater ecclesia,
4vv, S x, 15; Gaudeamus omnes et laetemur, 5vv, S vii, 93; Haec dies quam fecit
Dominus, 5vv, S vii, 21; Hic est discipulus, 5vv, S x, 97; Hodie beata virgo Maria,
5vv, S vii, 132; Hodie nata est virgo Maria, 5vv, S viii, 85; Hodie nobis caelorum
Rex, 5vv, S viii, 41; Homo erat in Jerusalem, 4vv, S x, 9; Hortus conclusus es Dei
genitrix, 5vv, S viii, 49
In illo tempore … Hic est panis, 5vv, S x, 84; In illo tempore intravit Jesus, 5vv, S x,
131; In illo tempore loquente Jesu, 6vv, S ix, 13; In illo tempore pastores, 4vv, D-Mu
Art.401; In illo tempore … Sed cum facis, 6vv, S ix, 155 (also attrib. De Latre); In
patientia vestra, 4vv, S x, 39; In te Domine speravi … Educes me, 6vv, S ix, 136;
Inter natos mulierum, 4vv, S v, 70; In tua patientia [= Veni dilecta mea], 5vv, I-TVd
29, lost; Inviolata, integra et casta, 5vv, S vii, 47
Jubilate Deo omnis terra, 4vv, S x, 61; Judica me Deus, 5vv, S vii, 1; Juravit
Dominus [= Caeciliam cantate pii], 5vv, TVd 29, lost; Laus Deo, pax vivis, 5vv, S vii,
36; Levavi oculos meos, 4vv, S v, 47 (also attrib. Richafort); Media vita in morte
sumus, 6vv, S ix, 52; Miserere nostri Deus omnium, 4vv, S vi, 18; Miserere pie Jesu,
4vv, S v, 4; Musae Jovis, 6vv, S ix, 119; Ne reminiscaris Domine, 5vv, S viii, 91
O adorandum sacramentum, 5vv, S viii, 16; O beata Maria, 5vv, S vii, 110; O crux
splendidior, 6vv, S ix, 45; Oculi omnium in te sperant, 6vv, S ix, 65; O domina
mundi, 4vv, S vi, 71; O Domine Jesu Christe, 6vv, S ix, 92; O felix Anna, 5vv, S viii,
96; O flos campi, 5vv, S vii, 27; O gloriosa Dei genitrix, 4vv, S v, 25; O gloriosa
domina, 4vv, S v, 63; O Jesu Christe [= Qui ne l’aymeroit], 8vv, 1568 7; O Jesu
Christe succurre [= Sancta Maria succurre], 6vv, 1538 3; O magnum mysterium, 5vv,
S viii, 121; Omnis pulchritudo Domini, 6vv, S ix, 176; O rex gloriae, 6vv, S ix, 34
Patefactae sunt januae caeli, 5vv, S viii, 53; Pater noster, 5vv, S vii, 139; Peccata
mea sicut sagittae, 6vv, S ix, 127; Philippe qui videt me, 5vv, D-Rp A.R.876; Quae
est ista, 4vv, S v, 59; Quam pulchra es, 4vv, S v, 73; Quem dicunt homines, 6vv, S
ix, 166; Qui colis Ausoniam, 6vv, S ix, 146; Qui seminant in lachrymis, 4vv, S x, 34;
Quidquid appositum est, 4vv, S vi, 108
Regina caeli, 10vv, I-VEaf 218; Regina caeli, 12vv, S x, 156; Reminiscere
miserationum tuarum, 4vv, S vi, 31; Respice Domine, 5vv, S x, 104; Saluto te,
sancta virgo Maria, 4vv, S v, 53; Salvator mundi salva nos, 6vv, S ix, 1; Salve
regina, 4vv, S vi, 48; Salve regina/Ave regina/Inviolata, integra et casta es/Alma
Redemptoris mater (Diversi diversa orant), 4vv, S vi, 92; Salvum me fac Domine,
4vv, S v, 36
Sancta et immaculata, 5vv, S x, 116; Sancta Maria mater Dei, 4vv, S vi, 56; Sancta
Maria succurre [= O Jesu Christe succurre], 6vv, S ix, 80; Sancte Alphonse, 4vv, S
vi, 44; Sancte Johannes apostole, 4vv, S x, 31; Si bona suscepimus, 6vv, S ix, 71;
Si ignoras te o pulchra, 4vv, S vi, 97; Sit Trinitati sempiterna gloria, 5vv, S viii, 128;
Speciosa facta es, 4vv, S x, 57; Stabat autem Petrus, 5vv, S x, 148
Super flumina Babylonis, 4vv, S v, 66; Surge Petre, 4vv, S vi, 87; Surge Petre, 5vv,
S viii, 107 (also attrib. Mouton, Verdelot); Suscipe verbum virgo Maria, 5vv, S x, 73;
Sustinuimus pacem [= Je prens congié], 8vv, VEaf ccxviii; Tota pulchra es, 5vv, S
vii, 89; Tota pulchra es, 6vv, D-Rp B 223; Tribulatio cordis mei, 5vv, S x, 113;
Tribulatio et angustia, 5vv, S vii, 13 (after Verdelot); Tu Deus noster, 5vv, S vii, 155;
Tulerunt Dominum [= Je prens congié], 8vv, 1552 35 (also attrib. Josquin)
Vae, vae Babylon, 4vv, S vi, 77; Veni dilecta mea [= In tua patientia], 5vv, S viii, 132;
Venite ad me omnes, 5vv, S viii, 80; Venite filii audite me, 4vv, S v, 10; Vias tuas
Domine, 5vv, S vii, 125; Virgo sancta Catherina, 4vv, S x, 7; Vita dulcedo, 4vv, S vi,
117 (text from Salve regina)
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
chansons
A bien grand tort, 4vv, S xi, 43; Alleluia my fault chanter, 4vv, S xi, 15; Amoureulx
suis d’une plaisante brunette, 5vv, D-Mbs Mus.1508; Amours vous me faictes, 4vv,
S xi, 25; Amys souffrez, 5vv, S xi, 158; A quoy tient-il, 4vv, S xi, 20; A traveil suis,
6vv, S xi, 171; Au joly bois, 6vv, S xi, 192; Aultre que vous, 4vv, S xi, 32; Ayme qui
vouldra, 5vv, S xi, 121
Celluy a qui mon cueur, 4vv, S xi, 34; Celluy qui est long, 3vv, S xi, 11; C’est à
grand tort, 4vv, S xi, 73; Changons propos, 6vv, S xi, 198; Crainte et espoir, 4vv,
15528; D’en prendre deux, 4vv, 155710; D’estre amoureux, 4vv, 15529; Dieu me fault
il, 5vv, S xi, 153 (also attrib. Crecquillon)
En attendant l’espoir, 6vv, S xi, 180; En aultre avoir, 4vv, S xi, 28; En douleur et
tristesse, 6vv, S xi, 188; En espoir d’avoir mieulx, 4vv, S xi, 22; En l’ombre d’ung
buissonet, 6vv, S xi, 164; Gris et tanne, 4vv, S xi, 18; Hors envieulx, 4vv, S xi, 36
Jamais je n’euz tant, 4vv, S xi, 26 (also attrib. Crecquillon); J’ay congé prins, 4vv, S
xi, 29; J’ay eu congé, 4vv, S xi, 58; J’aymeray qui m’aymera, 4vv, Chansons
musicales a quatre parties (Paris, 1533: Attaingnant); Je ne scay pas, 5vv, S xi,
132; Je prens congié [= Sustinuimus pacem, Tulerunt Dominum], 8vv, S xi, 230
(also attrib. Josquin as Lugebat David Absalon, with addition of 2p. based on an 8-
voice setting of J’ay mis mon cueur, possibly also by Gombert); Je suis trop
jeunette, 5vv, S xi, 136; Jouyssance vous donneray, 6vv, S xi, 220; Joyeulx vergier,
4vv, S xi, 56
La chasse du lièvre: see Or escoutez gentils veneurs; Le bergier et la bergiere, 5vv,
S xi, 115; Le chant des oyseaux: see Resveillez vous cueurs endormis; Mille
regretz, 6vv, S xi, 160; Mon coeur elist, 4vv, S xi, 47; Mon pensement ne gist, 4vv, S
xi, 100; Mon petit cueur, 6vv, S xi, 207; Mon seul, 7vv, NL-Uu 3.L.16 (no text); Mort
et fortune, 4vv, S xi, 41; Nesse pas chose dure, 5vv, S xi, 127; O doulx regretz, 4vv,
S xi, 97; O malheureuse journee, 5vv, S xi, 148; Or escoutez gentils veneurs (La
chasse du lièvre), 4vv, S xi, 76; Or suis-je prins, 4vv, S xi, 69
Paine et travéil, 6vv, S xi, 212; Par ung regard, 3vv, S xi, 13; Pleust a dieu, 3vv, S xi,
12; Pleust a dieu, 6vv, S xi, 167; Plus de Venus, 4vv, 1552 9; Plus en sera garde,
4vv, S xi, 102; Pour parvenir bon pied, 4vv, S xi, 49 (also attrib. Crecquillon); Puis
qu’ainsi est, 4vv, S xi, 60; Puis qu’ainsi est, 4vv, S xi, 63 (related to preceding)
Quant je suis au prez de mamye, 5vv, S xi, 129; Qui ne l’aymeroit [= O Jesu
Christe], 8vv, S xi, 241; Qui porra dire ou croire, 6vv, S xi, 216; Raison le veult, 4vv,
S xi, 94; Raison le veult, 6vv, S xi, 203; Raison me dict, 4vv, 1552 8; Raison requirt
amour, 6vv, S xi, 184; Regret ennuy traveil, 5vv, S xi, 142 (also attrib. Crecquillon);
Resveillez vous cueurs endormis (Le chant des oyseaux), 3vv, S xi, 1
Secourez moy madame, 4vv, S xi, 53; Se dire je losoye, 5vv, S xi, 112 (also attrib.
Crecquillon); Si je ne my plains, 4vv, F-CA, ed. R. van Maldeghem, Trésor musical:
musique religieuse, année xiv (Brussels, 1878), 19; Si le partir m’est dueil, 4vv, S xi,
66; Si le secours, 4vv, S xi, 51; Si mon traveil, 6vv, S xi, 224; Souffrir me convient,
5vv, S xi, 124; Tant bien party, 3vv, 15699; Tant de travail, 4vv, S xi, 45; Tousiours
souffrir, 5vv, S xi, 139; Tous les regretz, 6vv, S xi, 175; Triste départ m’avoit, 5vv, S
xi, 118 (also attrib. Van Wilder); Trop endurer, 5vv, S xi, 145; Tu pers ton temps, 4vv,
S xi, 31; Ung jour viendra, 5vv, S xi, 109; Vous estes trop jeune, 4vv, S xi, 38
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
other secular works
Dezilde al cavallero, canción, 5vv, S xi, 250
S’io veggio sotto l’un e l’altro ciglio, madrigal, 6vv, S xi, 245
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
instrumental
Includes transcriptions and paraphrases of Gombert’s vocal works not extant in
original form.
Works in 153822, 154621, 154623, 154624, 154626, 154627, 154632, 154633, 154723,
154725, 155229, 155230, 155235, 155432, 155435, L. Venegas de Henestrosa, Libro de
cifra nueva (Alcalá de Henares, 1557), 156226, 156422, 156522, 156824, 157412,
157824, 158324, 158831, 158917, 159127, 159222; D-Mbs 267, 271, 1511c, 2987; GB-
Lbl Add.29247, Add.31390, Add.31992; P-Cug 48; S-Uu 87
Edns in Mw, xxii (1962; Eng. trans., 1964) [1 chanson]; MME, ii (1944) [1
Fabordon]; MME, iii (1945) [2 chansons]; MME, xxii (1965) [2 motets]; Valentini
Bakfark Opera omnia, ed. H. István and B. Dániel (Budapest, 1976–9) [4 motets];
The Collected Works of Antonio de Cabezón, ed. C. Jacobs, v (Henryville, PA,
1986) [2 chansons]; Francesco da Milano: Opere complete per liuto, ed. R. Chiesa,
ii (Milan, 1971) [1 chanson]; Miguel de Fuenllana: Orphénica Lyra (Seville 1554),
ed. C. Jacobs (Oxford, 1978) [10 motets]; Oeuvres d’Albert de Rippe, iii: Chansons
(deuxième partie), ed. J.-M. Vaccaro (Paris, 1975) [1 chanson]; G. Spiessens,
Leven en werk van de Antwerpse luitcomponist Emanuel Adriaenssen (ca. 1554–
1604), ii: Musikale bloemlezing (Brussels, 1974) [1 chanson]
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
doubtful works
Adversum me sussrabant, 4vv, S vi, 27 (attrib. Caussin in 1539 11)
Alleluia Spiritus Domini, 5vv, S vii, 101 (attrib. Hesdin in 1539 7)
Cant[ant]ibus organicis, 4vv, S x, 50 (attrib. Gombert in 1554 8, Naich in 153911); ed.
in CMM, xciv (1983), 187
Deus ultionum Dominus, 4vv, S x, 20 (attrib. Gombert in 1539 9, Conseil in 15499)
Hodie Christus natus est, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in 1554 10, Ruffo in 15644)
Hodie in Jordane, 6vv (attrib. Gombert in 1549 3, Maistre Jhan in 155512)
Inclina Domine aurem tuam, 5vv, S viii, 8 (attrib. Berchem in 1552 2)
Laqueus contritus est, 4vv, S x, 42 (attrib. Gombert in 1554 11, Clemens non Papa in
Liber quartus cantionum sacrarum, Antwerp, 1559), also ed. in CMM, iv/19 (1972),
64
Lauda Syon [= Je ne me puis tenir d’aimer], 5vv, 1554 32; ed. C. Jacobs, Miguel de
Fuenllana: Orphénica Lyra (Seville 1554)(Oxford, 1978), 309
Maria Magdalene et altera Maria, 5vv, S vii, 71 (attrib. Manchicourt in 1539 5)
Peto Domine ut de vinculo, 5vv, S viii, 115 (attrib. Caussin in 1542 5), ed. in SCM,
xxiii (1989), 239
Respice in me Deus [= Je ne me puis tenir d’aimer], 5vv, 1546 34; ed. in MME, vii
(1949), 74
Veni electa mea, 5vv, S viii, 137 (attrib. Gombert 1539 8, Jachet in I-Bc Q27/i)
Force sera sy de bref, 4vv, S xi, 104 (attrib. Gombert in F-CA 125–8, Crecquillon in
154411)
J’ay mis mon cueur, 8vv (survives only in contrafacta, but identified by melody in
T1; mostly anon. but as 2p. of Lugebat David attrib. Josquin; see Je prens congié);
ed. as 2p. of Lugebat by J. Milsom (London, 1979)
Je ne me puis tenir d’aimer [= Lauda Syon, Respice in me], 5vv (attrib. Josquin in
Trente sixiesme livre contenant xxx chansons, Paris, 1550, but intabulated
contrafacta attrib. Gombert in 154634, 155432; another contrafactum, Date siceram,
attrib. Sermisy in 155820); ed. A. Smijers, Werken van Josquin des Près: Wereldlijke
werken, i: 8 (Amsterdam, 1925), no.31
Plaisir n’ay plus mais vis, 5vv, S xi, 107 (attrib. Gombert/Crecquillon in 1543 15)
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
misattributed works
Missa ‘Fors seulement’, 5vv, S ii, 89 (attrib. Gombert in D-ROu 49, Vinders in NL-
SH 74)
Missa ‘Si bona suscepimus’, 6vv (attrib. Gombert in I-TVd 1 (lost), Morales in
Missarum liber primus, Rome, 1544); ed. in MME, xi (1952), 274
Ave Maria, 6vv, source unknown (attrib. Gombert by Van Maldeghem); ed. R. Van
Maldeghem, Trésor musical: musique religieuse, année xvi (1880), 49
Beati omnes, 4vv (attrib. Gombert in D-Bga XX.HA StUB Königsberg 7 (formerly B
of Königsberg, Universitätsbibliothek, MS 1740), Hellinck in 1532 10)
Convertimini ad me, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in 1556 8, Ruffo in Il primo libro de motetti
a cinque voci, Milan, 1542)
Cursu festa redit, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in Motectorum quinque vocum … liber
secundus, Venice, 1541; Lupus in 15453)
Dulce lignum, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in Motectorum quinque vocum … liber secundus,
Venice, 1541; 2p. of Willaert’s O crux splenididior in Musica quinque vocum … liber
primus, Venice, 1539); ed. in CMM, iii/3 (1950), 66
Expurgate vetus fermentum, 5vv, S viii, 1 (attrib. Gombert in Motectorum quinque
vocum … liber secundus, Venice, 1541; Berchem in 15522, Lupi in 15558); ed. in
CMM, lxxxiv/2 (1986), 48
Felix namque es, 5vv, S x, 124 (attrib. Lupi/Gombert in 1539 5, Lupi in Chori sacre
Virginis Marie, Paris, 1542); ed. in CMM, lxxxiv/1 (1980), 51
Gaude virgo Catherina, 4vv (attrib. Mouton/Gombert in 1534 9, Mouton in 15291)
Inclina Domine, 8vv (attrib. Sermisy/Gombert in I-VEaf 218, Sermisy in 15641); ed.
in CMM, lii/2 (1972), 39
In illo tempore … Domine ostende, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in 1539 5, Jacquet in Primo
libro di motetti de Iachet a cinque voci, Venice, 1540)
Inviolata integra et casta, 8vv (attrib. Gombert/Mouton in I-VEaf 218, Verdelot in
15641)
Isti sunt viri, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in 15522, Lupi in Chori sacre Virginis Marie, Paris,
1542; Gransyre in 15563); ed. in CMM, lxxxiv/1 (1980), 111
Quid gloriaris, 4vv (attrib. Gombert/Crecquillon in 1553 4, Crecquillon in 15475); ed.
in CMM, lxiii/12 (1997), 93
Regina celi, 4vv, S x, 47 (anon. in 15499/9a, erroneously attrib. Gombert by Schmidt-
Görg); probably by Festa, ed. in CMM, xxv/3 (1977), 56
Sancta et immaculata, 4vv (attrib. Gombert in I-Rvat C.G.XII.4, Hesdin in 15346),
ed. A.T. Merritt, Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant, iv (1960), 182
Sancta Maria, 4vv (attrib. Gombert in 155820, Verdelot in 15344)
Sancte Gregori [= Sancti per fidem (2p. of Isti sunt viri)], 5vv, I-TVd 29 (lost)
Spem in alium, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in 15568, Morales in 15425, Ruffo in Il primo
libro de motetti a cinque voci, Milan, 1542); ed. in MME, xxxiv (1971), 79
Tu es Petrus, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in I-TVd 29 (lost), Morales in 15413,
Morales/Danckerts in 15453, Moreau in 15544); ed. in MME, xiii (1953), 149
Vidi civitatem, 6vv (attrib. Gombert in GB-Ob Tenbury 1464, Van Wilder in Lbl
Add.31390); ed. in MMR, iv/1 (1991), 75
Virgo prudentissima, 4vv, S v, 33 (attrib. Gombert in 1541 4, Payen in 15482)
Je n’en puis plus, 4vv (anon. in F-CA 125–8, attrib. Gombert by Van Maldeghem);
ed. R. Van Maldeghem, Trésor musical: musique profane, année xiv (1878), 27
Je suis trop jeunette, 3vv, S xi, 9 (attrib. Gombert in 1569 11, Janequin in 154113,
Gascongne in Trente et une chansons, Paris, 1535)
La rousée du moys de may [= Larose, Le rose], 6vv (attrib. Gombert in G. dalla
Casa: Il vero modo di diminuir, Venice, 1584; Willaert in G. Bassano: Motetti,
madrigali et canzoni francese … diminuiti, 1591); ed. R. Erig, Italian Diminutions:
the Pieces with More than One Diminution from 1553 to 1638 (Zürich, 1979), 113
Le content est riche, 4vv (attrib. Gombert in 1560 6, Sermisy in 15312); ed. in CMM,
lii/4 (1974), 5
Vostre beaulte plaisante, 4vv, S xi, 71 (attrib. Gombert/Hellinck in 1544 20, Hellinck in
Chansons musicales a quatre parties, Paris, 1533)
Der Herr ist mein Hirt, 5vv [contrafactum] (attrib. Verdelot/Gombert in lost MS
Breslau, Stadtbibliothek, Mus.10)
Gombert, Nicolas
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StevensonSCM
K.P. Bernet Kempers: Jacobus Clemens non Papa und seine Motetten
(Augsburg, 1928)
D. von Bartha: ‘Probleme der Chansongeschichte im 16. Jahrhundert:
Nicolas Gombert – Benedictus Appenzeller’, ZMw, xiii (1930–31), 507–
30
H. Eppstein: Nicolas Gombert als Motettenkomponist (Würzburg, 1935)
J. Schmidt-Görg: Nicolas Gombert, Kapellmeister Karls V: Leben und
Werk (Bonn, 1938/R) [the work-list includes a number of entries
Schmidt-Görg later recognized as mistaken and omitted from his CMM
edn]
J. Maier: Studien zur Geschichte der Marienantiphon ‘Salve regina’
(Regensburg,1939)
M. van Crevel: Adrianus Petit Coclico (The Hague, 1940)
E.E. Stein: The Polyphonic Mass in France and the Netherlands, c.1525 to
c.1560 (diss., U. of Rochester, 1941)
E.E. Lowinsky: Secret Chromatic Art in the Netherlands Motet (New York,
1946/R)
C. van den Borren: ‘Quelques réflexions à propos du style imitatif
syntaxique’, RBM, i (1946–7), 14–20
H. Federhofer: ‘Etats de la chapelle musicale de Charles-Quint (1528) et
de Maximilien (1554)’, RBM, iv (1950), 176–83
M. Steinhardt: Jacobus Vaet and his Motets (East Lansing, MI, 1951)
E.E. Lowinsky: Review of CMM, vi/1, MQ, xxxviii (1952), 630–40
N. Bridgman: ‘Les échanges musicaux entre l’Espagne et les Pays-Bas au
temps de Philippe le Beau et de Charles-Quint’, La Renaissance dans
les provinces du nord: Arras 1954, 51–61
H.C. Wolff: Die Musik der alten Niederländer (Leipzig, 1956)
K.P. Bernet Kempers: ‘Die Messe “En espoir” des Jacobus Clemens non
Papa’, Festschrift Joseph Schmidt-Görg zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. D.
Weise (Bonn, 1957), 10–20
A. Johnson: Review of CMM, vi/4, JAMS, xii (1959), 83–6
R. Maniates: ‘The Sacred Music of Nicolas Gombert’, Canadian Music
Journal, vi/2 (1961–2), 25–38
C.S. Smith: ‘Table Blessings Set to Music’, The Commonwealth of Music,
in Honor of Curt Sachs, ed. G. Reese and R. Brandel (New York,
1965), 236–82
I. Horsley: ‘Fugue and Mode in 16th-Century Vocal Polyphony’, Aspects of
Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave
Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York, 1966/R), 406–22
N. Böker-Heil: ‘Zu einem frühvenezianischen Motettenrepertoire’, Helmuth
Osthoff zu seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. W. Stauder, U. Aarburg
and P. Cahn (Tutzing, 1969), 59–88
A. Dunning: Die Staatsmotette 1480–1555 (Utrecht, 1970)
O. Wessely: ‘Hofkapellmitglieder und andere Musiker in den Preces-
Registern Ferdinands I’, Speculum musicae artis: Festgabe für
Heinrich Husmann, ed. H. Becker and R. Gerlach (Munich, 1970),
313–24
C.A. Miller: ‘Jerome Cardan on Gombert, Phinot, and Carpentras’, MQ, lviii
(1972), 412–19
C.A. Miller, ed. and trans.: The Writings of Jerome Cardan on Music,
MSD, xxxii (1973)
C. Santarelli: ‘Quattro messe sul tenor “Fors seulement”’, NRMI, xiv
(1980), 333–49
H.E. Rubio: Der Manierismus in der Vokalpolyphonie des 16. Jahrhunderts
(Tutzing, 1982)
J. Roche: ‘Gombert's Motet Aspice Domine’, Chormusik und Analyse, ed.
H. Poos (Mainz, 1983), 77–85
D.R. Mosser: The Identification and Use of the Ave Maria Cantus Firmus
in Sixteenth-Century Motets (diss., U. of Oklahoma, 1984)
F. Dobbins: ‘Lassus – Borrower or Lender: the Chansons’, RbM, xxxix–xl
(1985–6), 101–57
M. Just: ‘Josquins Chanson Nymphes, nappées als Bearbeitung des
Invitatoriums Circumdederunt me und als Grundlage für Kontrafaktur,
Zitat und Nachahmung’, Mf, xliii (1990), 305–35
E. Jas: ‘Nicolas Gombert's Missa Fors seulement: a Conflicting Attribution’,
RbM, xlvi (1992), 163–77
F. Brunet: Les deux chansons descriptives de Nicolas Gombert (thesis, U.
of Paris IV, 1993)
L. Lockwood: ‘Monteverdi and Gombert: the Missa In illo tempore of
1610’, De musica et cantu: Studien zur Geschichte der Kirchenmusik
und der Oper: Helmut Hucke zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. P. Cahn and A.-
K. Heimer (Hildesheim, 1993), 457–69
P. Urquhart: ‘Cross-Relations by Franco-Flemish Composers after
Josquin’, TVNM, xliii (1993), 3–41
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(Leiden, 1994)
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Masses of Gombert, Clemens, and Grecquillon (diss., U. of Chicago,
1994)
A.J. Lewis: Un certo che di grandezza: Nicolas Gombert’s First Book of
Four-Part Motets (1539) (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1994)
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(Tutzing, 1995)
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Musikgeschichte: eine Festschrift für Ludwig Finscher, ed. A.
Laubenthal and K. Kusau-Windweh (Kassel, 1995), 163–73
O. Rees: ‘Mille regretz as Model: Possible Allusions to “The Emperor's
Song” in the Chanson Repertory’, JRMA, cxx (1995), 44–76
F. Reynaud: La polyphonie tolédane et son milieu, des premiers
témoignages aux environs de 1600 (Paris and Turnhout, 1996), 303,
313, 322, 338
A. Newcomb: ‘Unnotated Accidentals in the Music of the Post-Josquin
Generation: Mainly on the Example of Gombert's First Book of Motets
for Four Voices’, Music in Renaissance Cities and Courts: Studies in
Honor of Lewis Lockwood, ed. J.A. Owens and A.M. Cummings
(Warren, MI, 1997), 215–25

Gombosi, Otto (Johannes) [Ottó

János]
(b Budapest, 23 Oct 1902; d Natick, MA, 17 Feb 1955). American
musicologist of Hungarian birth. He studied the piano with Kovács and
composition with Weiner and Siklós at Budapest. In 1921 he moved to
Berlin to study musicology at the university under Johannes Wolf, Sachs
and Hornbostel, with history of art as a subsidiary subject. After receiving
the doctorate in 1925 Gombosi returned to Budapest, where he was active
as editor and journalist. After a further stay in Berlin (1929–33) and in
Rome (1935) and Basle (1936) he settled in the USA (1939), where he
taught at various institutions, notably the University of Washington at
Seattle (1940–46), Chicago (1949–51) and Harvard (1951–5). His
dissertation on Obrecht was published in 1925.
Gombosi held a prominent position among his musicological
contemporaries during the next 30 years. In his dissertation he applied
style criticism to Obrecht (whose complete works were then being edited by
his teacher Wolf) throwing new light on the music of the so-called
Netherlandish school. Gombosi further illuminated the characteristics of
this school by transcribing for the first time the works of many of Obrecht’s
contemporaries, made available in the musical appendix to the volume.
Lute music of the Renaissance became another major research topic,
resulting in a monograph on Bakfark (1935) and an edition of the Capirola
Lutebook (1955). Gombosi’s periodical articles give an even better
indication of the wide sweep of his interests as well as the acumen he
brought to problems of musical structure, of editorial technique and of
stylistic assessment. Whether he dealt with the authenticity of the melody
for Pindar’s ‘Pythian Ode’ or the ubiquity of a bass formula from Thomas
Morley to the modern blues, Gombosi invariably blazed a new trail and
stimulated discussion and controversy. Perhaps his greatest contribution to
scholarship was his concern with musical structure. It was the overall plan
of organization that fascinated him, and the most telling way of barring
music and clarifying the texture of polyphony in order to penetrate to this
plan. His method of metrical analysis is perhaps most readily accessible in
his edition of the Capirola Lutebook, a pilot work in the field. His radical and
provocative ideas continue to have influence in the analysis of early music.
WRITINGS
Jacob Obrecht: eine stilkritische Studie (diss., U. of Berlin, 1925; Leipzig,
1925/R)
‘Hofhaimeriana’, ZMw, xv (1932–3), 127–38
Bakfark Bálint élete és müvei (1507–1576)/Der Lautenist Valentin Bakfark:
Leben und Werke (1507–1576) (Budapest, 1935, rev. 2/1967 by Z.
Falry in Ger. only)
‘Der Hoftanz’, AcM, vii (1935), 50–61
‘Zur Frühgeschichte der Folia’, AcM, viii (1936), 119–29; Eng. version in
PAMS 1940, 88–95
Tonarten und Stimmungen der antiken Musik (Copenhagen, 1939/R)
‘The Melody of Pindar’s “Golden Lyre”’, MQ, xxvi (1940), 381–92
‘Studien zur Tonartenlehre des frühen Mittelalters’, AcM, x (1938), 149–74;
xi (1939), 28–39, 128–35; xii (1940), 21–52
‘About Dance and Dance Music in the Late Middle Ages’, MQ, xxvii (1941),
289–305
‘Stephen Foster and “Gregory Walker”’, MQ, xxx (1944), 133–46
‘Béla Bartók (1881–1945)’, MQ, xxxii (1946), 1–11
‘Some Musical Aspects of the English Court Masque’, JAMS, i/3 (1948), 3–
19
‘Gothic Form: a Marginal Note’, MD, iv (1950), 43–9
‘Machaut’s Messe Notre-Dame’, MQ, xxxvi (1950), 204–24
‘A la recherche de la forme dans la musique de la Renaissance: Francesco
da Milano’, La musique instrumentale de la Renaissance: Paris, 1954,
165–75
‘Music in Hungary’, in ReeseMR, 714–27
EDITIONS
with H. Albrecht: Thomas Stoltzer: Sämtliche lateinische Hymnen und
Psalmen, DDT, lxv (Leipzig, 1931, 2/1959)
The Capirola Lute Book, Société de musique d’autrefois, i (Paris, 1955/R)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Albrecht: ‘Otto Gombosi’, Mf, ix (1956), 57–61
J. Ward: ‘Otto John Gombosi (1902–1955)’, AcM, xxviii (1956), 57–9
C.E. Steinzor: ‘Otto Johannes Gombosi’, American Musicologists, c.1890–
1945: a Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook to the Formative Period (New
York, 1989)
F.W. STERNFELD

Gomes, André da Silva

(b Lisbon, Dec 1752; d São Paulo, 17 June 1844). Brazilian composer of
Portuguese descent. He received his early training in Lisbon. At 21 he
moved to São Paulo with Frei Manoel da Ressurreição, the new bishop of
São Paulo Cathedral who requested him to organize its music. He was
then (1774) appointed mestre de capela of the cathedral, a post he
occupied until 1822; during this period he came to dominate the city’s
musical life. Besides his musical duties at the cathedral he wrote music for
local brotherhoods (Ordem Terceira do Carmo, Holy Sacrament) and for
the municipal authorities on such special occasions as Corpus Christi and
St Sebastian’s Day. He also worked in the musical corps of the Infantry
Regiment of São Paulo, and from 1803 taught Latin. Some 87 of his works
survive in the archive of the Metropolitan Curia and the São Paulo
Conservatory library. Further works are in smaller towns in the state of São
Paulo; these include 18 masses, 38 psalms, 14 offertories, motets, Te
deums, hymns and other liturgical works. Gomes also wrote a 150-page
treatise on counterpoint, Arte Explicada do Contraponto, which was
discovered in São Paulo in the 1980s. Although his creative period
apparently extended from 1784 to 1823, most of his works reveal late
Baroque stylistic practices, including the occasional use of basso continuo.
His mass (Kyrie and Gloria) for double chorus and orchestra (undated)
shows well-balanced antiphonal writing and a general harmonic richness.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. de Oliveira: André da Silva Gomes (1752–1844) (São Paulo, 1954)
R. Duprat: ‘Música na Matriz e Sé de São Paulo colonial’, Yearbook for
Inter-American Musical Research, xi (1975), 8–68
G. Béhague: Music in Latin America: and Introduction (Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, 1979)
V. Mariz: História da música no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1981, 4/1994)
R. Duprat: Garimpo musical (São Paulo, 1985)
GERARD BÉHAGUE

Gomes, (Antônio) Carlos

(b Campinas, 11 July 1836; d Belém, 16 Sept 1896). Brazilian composer.
He was the son of a provincial bandmaster, from whom he learnt the
rudiments of music and to play several instruments. He began composing
at an early age and at 18 wrote a mass that was performed in a local
church by the Gomes family ensemble. In 1859 he went on a concert tour
with his brother Sant’Ana Gomes and had considerable success with his
Hino acadêmico in São Paulo. He then left for Rio de Janeiro against his
father’s will and entered the Imperial Conservatory of Music, where he
studied composition under Joaquim Giannini.
The conservatory experience reinforced his predilection for opera, and he
soon became acquainted with the works of Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and
Verdi, whose music exerted a profound influence on him throughout his
career. In 1860 two of his cantatas attracted great attention. The Spaniard
José Amat, then the musical director of the Ópera Lírica Nacional, gave
him a copy of the libretto of A noite do castelo by Antônio José Fernandes
dos Reis, which Gomes set to music and produced on 4 September 1861
at the Teatro Lírico Fluminense of Rio de Janeiro. The success of this and
of his next opera Joana de Flandres (1863) prompted his nomination for a
government scholarship to study in Italy, and in 1864 he began his studies
with Lauro Rossi, director of the Milan Conservatory. Most of the rest of his
life was spent in Italy and his compositional ideals became thoroughly
italianized.
Gomes’s fame in Italy began with two musical comedies, Se sa minga
(1867) and Nella luna (1868), which give clear evidence of his ability to
write in a popular bel canto style. But it was the triumphal success of Il
Guarany at La Scala on 19 March 1870 that brought him international
fame. The opera was produced at Rio de Janeiro on the emperor’s birthday
(2 December 1870) as well as in almost all European capitals in the next
few years. Verdi heard it in Ferrara in 1872 and referred to it in a letter as
the work of a ‘truly musical genius’. But Gomes’s next opera Fosca, on a
good libretto by Ghislanzoni, produced on 16 February 1873 at La Scala,
was a failure, because the composer had become involved in a quarrel
between the defenders of Italian bel canto and the Wagnerian reformers
with whom he was included as a foreigner. A new version of Fosca,
however, had considerable success in 1878 when it was again staged at
La Scala. There followed Salvator Rosa (Genoa, 1874), on a libretto by
Ghislanzoni, written according to the prevailing taste of Italian opera-goers,
and Maria Tudor (Milan, 1879).
Gomes accepted an invitation to visit Recife and Bahia in 1880, and during
this sojourn his friend the Viscount of Taunay suggested the subject for his
next opera, Lo schiavo. He was indeed looking for another Brazilian
subject, having treated the Guarany Indians. At that time the abolition of
slavery was well under way in Brazil, and Taunay himself wrote the drama
whose main characters were to be black slaves. In spite of the librettist
Paravicini’s alterations (in order to satisfy the conventions of Italian opera,
Indians were substituted for the slaves, and the action was transposed
from the 18th to the 16th century), the première (Rio de Janeiro, 27
September 1889) was a success.
His last opera, Condor (Milan, 1891), revealed Gomes’s orientation
towards verismo. In 1892, on Columbus Day (12 October), his last major
work, the oratorio Colombo, was presented in Rio. By then the new
republican government had been established and Gomes lost his previous
official support. He accepted an appointment to direct the local
conservatory at Belém in 1896, but died a few months later.
Gomes’s works reveal a high dramatic sense and his melodic invention a
rich lyricism. Within the established patterns of Italian opera of the later
19th century he achieved an uncontested mastery. While some of his
works (A noite do castelo, Salvator Rosa) reflect direct influences from
post-Rossinian Italian opera, they also attest to his own ability. The triumph
of Il Guarany, which remains his most important work, was due to its
effective melodies, its dramatic construction, and not least its libretto. The
opera is based on the celebrated novel of the same title by the Brazilian
Indianist writer José de Alencar. The picturesque subject, with its Indian
heroes and its Romantic stylization of indigenous dances, undoubtedly
made the work the more appealing for European audiences of the time;
within the limits of its style, however, Il Guarany exhibits some imaginative
traits. The final version of the overture, written in 1871, has become a
second national anthem in Brazil. The first theme, with an epic character in
the context of the whole opera (ex.1), functions as a true leitmotif and
presents a typically Romantic idealization of ‘indigenous’ music. The
natural flow of arias and duets, the timing and sequence of scenes as well
as the striking contrasts in the staging reveal Gomes’s technical
competence in the genre. Concurrently he followed the necessary
conventions of the time: the orchestration, although quite effective, remains
standard, and the opera does not omit stereotyped cabalettas or ‘religious’
and ‘ballad’ passages.

Fosca, the most italianate of Gomes’s operas, is considered by Mário de

Andrade his best musical achievement. This work includes a number of
leitmotifs somewhat elaborated in the Wagnerian fashion, but its melodic
nature and its overall structure emanate from the Italian archetype. Lo
schiavo is the most gratifying of the later operas as it reveals technically
more mature writing, especially more inventive harmonic progressions,
orchestral colouring and structural balance. Both Il Guarany and Lo
schiavo deal with Brazilian subjects, however transfigured they may appear
in the Romantic spectacle. These subjects maintain a symbolic value of
social significance, in the form of national and racial ideas or of social
vindication. Thus the libretto subject matter appears nonconformist for the
1870s and 1880s (although Verdi had dealt implicitly with similar subjects
earlier).
While Gomes endeavoured on several occasions to instil a Brazilian feeling
in his works, his native orientation has often been overstated. Andrade
himself felt that a native feeling pervaded the early works ‘in some aspects,
such as certain rhythmic traits, a certain abruptness of awkward melodic
writing, and certain coincidences with our popular melody’. But he also
observed that nationalistic concern was in Gomes’s time considered
incompatible with the operatic repertory. Besides the reminiscences of
modinhas in some arias of A noite do castelo and Joana de Flandres,
some of the exotic passages of Il Guarany and Lo schiavo present
rhythmic traits that became characteristic of urban popular dance music of
 the late 19th century, but were hardly indigenous. For example, the well-
known Dance of the Tamoios from Lo schiavo presents a melodic motif
(ex.2) whose rhythmic figuration has a clear popular flavour and whose
accompaniment recalls habanera syncopation. Occasionally, Gomes
introduced some reminiscence of Luso-Brazilian folk polyphony, mostly in
parallel 3rds and 6ths, to authenticate his ‘indigenous’ passages, although
this type of polyphony is restricted to the folk music of the caipira (the
hinterland of the state of São Paulo).

Gomes wrote several modinhas of the salon type heavily influenced by

Italian popular song, such as As bahianas and Suspiros d’alma. He left, in
addition, some eight pieces for piano, including brilliant waltzes, and a
collection Fogli d’album, all cultivating the genteel tradition of salon music.
Gomes’s works have generated much renewed interest in the 1980s and
90s, with many manuscripts revised for newer, more accurate editions of
the operas, and some of the composer’s correspondence published. In
1996, on the centenary of Gomes’s death, Il Guarany was successfully
produced at the Kennedy Center in Washington by Plácido Domingo, who
sang the role of Peri.
WORKS
most MSS at Centro de Ciencias, Letras e Artes de Campinas, Brazil, and at the Escola
Nacional de Música, Rio de Janeiro

operas
A noite do castelo (os, 3, A.J. Fernandes dos Reis), Rio de Janeiro, Lírico
Fluminense, 4 Sept 1861, vs (Rio de Janeiro, 1861)
Joana de Flandres (os, 4, S. de Mendonça), Rio de Janeiro, Lírico Fluminense, 15
Sept 1863, vs (Rio de Janeiro, c1864)
Se sa minga (musical comedy, A. Scalvini), Milan, 1867, selections, vs (Milan,
c1867)
Nella luna (musical comedy, Scalvini), Milan, 1868
Il Guarany (opera-ballo, 4, Scalvini and C. d’Ormeville, after J. de Alencar), Milan,
La Scala, 19 March 1870, vs (Milan, 1870)
Telégrafo eléctrico (operetta, França), Rio de Janeiro, 1871
Os mosqueteiros do rei, 1871, inc.
Fosca (os, 4, A. Ghislanzoni, after L. Capranica: La festa della Marie), Milan, La
Scala, 16 Feb 1873, vs (Milan, 1873), rev. La Scala, 1878, vs (Milan, c1878)
Salvator Rosa (os, 4, Ghislanzoni), Genoa, Carlo Felice, 21 March 1874, vs
(Milan, ?1874)
Maria Tudor (os, 4, E. Praga, after V. Hugo), Milan, La Scala, 27 March 1879, vs
(Milan, ?1879)
Lo schiavo (os, 4, R. Paravicini, after Viscount de Taunay), Rio de Janeiro, Lírico,
27 Sept 1889, vs (Milan, c1889)
Condor [Odaléa] (os, 3, M. Canti), Milan, La Scala, 21 Feb 1891, vs (Milan, 1891)
other works
Colombo, orat, 4 acts, Rio de Janeiro, 12 Oct 1892, vs (Milan, ?1892)
Il saluto del Brasile, Philadelphia, 19 July 1876
Mass, 1854, ?lost
2 cants., Rio de Janeiro, 1860: [untitled]; A última hora do Calvário
Hino acadêmico, São Paulo, 1859 (Rio de Janeiro, 1859)
Marcha da indústria, orch, Rio de Janeiro, 1860
Modinhas, most unpubd, all ?c1850–60, incl: Alta noite, Anália ingrata, As bahianas,
Bela ninfa de minh’alma, Conselhos, Foi meu amor um sonho, Mamãe disse, Quem
sabe? (Rio de Janeiro, 1859), Suspiros d’alma (Rio de Janeiro, 1859)
Songs, most unpubd, all ?c1860–70, incl.; Addio, Ave Maria, Canta ancor, Chiaro di
luna, Corsa d’amore, Divorzio, Eternamente, Giulietta mia, L’arcolaio, La regata, La
sigaretta, Lontana, Mon bonheur, Noturno, Piccola mendicante, Povera bambola,
Preghiera del l’orfanato, Realtá, Romanza, Rondinella
Fantasia sobre A alta noite, pf, c1859
[3] Fogli d’album, pf: Storiella marinaresca, Spagnoletta, Da ridere
Other pf pieces, incl.: Anemia, preludietto; Avante, brilhante galope (Rio de Janeiro,
1860); Grande valsa de bravura; March nupcial; Moreninha, valsa brilhante (Rio de
Janeiro, 1860); Mormorio, improviso
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.P. Vieira: Carlos Gomes: sua arte e sua obra (São Paulo, 1934, 2/1936)
Revista brasileira de música, iii/3–4 (1936) [Gomes centenary issue]
L.H.C. de Azevedo: Relação das óperas de autores brasileiros (Rio de
Janeiro, 1938)
M. de Andrade: Carlos Gomes (Rio de Janeiro, 1939)
G. da Rocha Rinaldi: Carlos Gomes (São Paulo, 1955)
S. Ruberti: Carlos Gomes (Rio de Janeiro, 1955)
S. Ruberti: ‘O Guarani’ e ‘Colombo’ de Carlos Gomes: estudo histórico e
crítico; análise musical (Rio de Janeiro, 1972)
G.N. Vetro, ed.: Antonio Carlos Gomes: carteggi italiani (Milan, 1976)
J. Bernardes: Do sonho à conquista (São Paulo, c1978)
V. Mariz: História da música no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1981, 4/1994)
J. Penalva: Carlos Gomes, o compositor (Campinas, 1986)
V. Salles, ed.: Antonio Carlos Gomes: uma obra em foco (Rio de Janeiro,
1987)
T.G. Kaufman: ‘Antonio Carlos Gomes’, Verdi and his Major
Contemporaries (New York, 1990), 47–60
S. Nepomuceno: Carlos Gomes, uma discografia (Campinas, 1992)
G.N. Vetro, ed.: Correspondências italianas: Antonio Carlos Gomez, ii
(Brasília, 1998)
GERARD BÉHAGUE

Gomes, João (i)

(b Veiros, c1570; d Vila Viçosa, 3 Nov 1643). Portuguese composer.
According to Barbosa Machado he was a pupil of António Ferro at
Portalegre and died in 1653 at Vila Viçosa, where he was treasurer of the
ducal chapel. However, the parish register from Vila Viçosa (P-EVp, Livro
dos óbitos da Matriz, xi) documents the death on 3 November 1643 of ‘P.
João Gomes tizoreyro da capella, está enterrado em São Paulo’. In the
Mercês de D. Teodósio II (MS, P-VV) Gomes is described as ‘chaplain and
singer’ at the ducal court, receiving payments between 28 August 1594 and
5 February 1616. One of these, for 3000 reis in 1609, was for chançonetas
for the previous Christmas, and an entry dated 8 October 1618 refers to his
annual salary of 66,000 reis. He may have acted as mestre de capela after
the departure of Pinheiro (before 1608) and before Roberto Tornar took up
the post in 1616. He is unlikely to have been the ‘cantor contralto’ who
served at the royal chapel in Lisbon from 1595 to 1609 (see Latino), though
he may possibly have been the ‘portugués contrabajo’ who deputized for
the absent ‘bajón’ at the nearby Spanish city of Badajoz at Christmas 1598
(see Kastner). A setting of Lumen ad revelationem (P-VV, dated 1610)
shows him to have been at least a competent contrapuntist.
Gomes moved to Évora Cathedral, where he rose to the position of
treasurer. On the title-page of a manuscript volume of chants edited by him
(in P-EVp) he is described as having been at Vila Viçosa, where the chants
had been sung. A Libera me and several villancicos also survive in Évora,
though it is uncertain whether these are by him or by another João Gomes
listed as second organist at Évora Cathedral in 1651. A six-part motet
ascribed to João Gomes, Subvenite sancti Dei (now lost), was in the library
of João IV.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Barbosa Machado: Bibliotheca lusitana (Lisbon, 1741–59)
M.S. Kastner: ‘La música en la catedral de Badajoz (años 1520–1603)’,
AnM, xii (1957), 123–46
J.A. Alegria: Historía da Escola de música da sé de Évora (Lisbon, 1973)
R.V. Nery: A música no ciclo da ‘Biblioteca lusitana’ (Lisbon, 1984)
A. Latino: ‘Os músicos da capela real de Lisboa c.1600’, Revista
portuguesa de musicologia, iii (1993)
J.A. Alegria: O Colégio dos moços do coro da sé de Évora (Lisbon, 1997)
MICHAEL RYAN

Gomes (de Araújo), João (ii)

(b Pindamonhangaba, 23 Oct 1868; d São Paulo, 19 July 1963). Brazilian
composer, son of João Gomes de Araújo. After preparatory studies in his
home town and at the Collegio Morton in São Paulo, in 1884 he
accompanied his father to Milan, where he studied with Dominiceti
(composition) and Giuseppe Mascardi (piano). In 1893 he became music
professor at the São Paulo Escola Modelo do Carmo, subsequently
teaching in other nearby schools. Of his three staged operas, the first two
were given in São Paulo: Foscarina at the Teatro Sant’Ana (1906) and La
boscaiuola at the Teatro Municipal (1910). Foscarina concerns a Spanish
nobleman’s daughter who unwittingly falls in love with her half-brother. The
third, Dom Casmurro, was first heard at the Teatro Municipal, Rio de
Janeiro (1922). In 1927 Gomes was a founder of the Instituto Musical at
São Paulo and later became its director. At his death he left (in addition to
 much sacred music) the scores of three unproduced operas: Iugomar
(1911), Severo Torelli (1914) and Anna Garibaldi (1918).
WORKS
Ops: Foscarina (1, J. Queroz Filho), São Paulo, Sant’Ana, 22 Sept 1906; La
boscaiuola (2, F. Fontana, after Viscount de Taunay: Inocência), São Paulo,
Municipal, 1910; Iugomar, 1911 (3, Fontana), unperf.; Severo Torelli, 1914 (3, H. da
Silva), unperf.; Anna Garibaldi, 1918 (1, A. Piccarolo), unperf.; Dom Casmurro (3,
Piccarolo, after M. de Assis), Rio de Janeiro, Municipal, 12 Oct 1922
4 Masses: Nossa Senhora Aparecida, Santo Antonio, São Paulo, Teresinha de
Jesus
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Marcondes: Pindamonhangaba (São Paulo, 1907), 129
L.H. Corrêa de Azevedo: Relação das óperas de autores brasileiros (Rio
de Janeiro, 1938), 70–72
Enciclopédia da música brasileira (São Paulo, 1977), i, 319
ROBERT STEVENSON

Gomes (de Herrera), Manoel de S

Bento
(fl 1719–43). Portuguese organ builder and organist, possibly of Spanish
origin. His biography is obscure, but documents relating to his restoration
of the organ in the church of S Cruz, Coimbra (1719–24), and the
construction of a new organ for Viseu Cathedral (1721–2) assert that he
came from Valladolid, Spain. Gomes resolved problems which arose during
the work at S Cruz by examining the organ at Seville Cathedral. He did not
ask payment for the work at S Cruz and in 1727 he was part of a liturgical
jury at Viseu convened to select a new organist for its cathedral. His use of
the title prefix D is indicative of membership of a confraternity or third order,
and consequently that he was perhaps a successful businessman.
Other work by Gomes includes the organ in the chapel of S Miguel,
University of Coimbra (1732–3), and, almost certainly, the organ in the
church of the Cistercian nuns at Arouca (1739–43). The attribution to
Gomes of two large positives for the convent of S Clara-a-Nova, Coimbra,
is less certain. The organ in the church of the Regular Canons of S
Salvador, Moreira da Maia, near Oporto, whose motherhouse was S Cruz,
Coimbra, also shows some stylistic similarities with his work.
Although none of Gomes’s instruments remain in their original state, they
appear to have been typical of the early Portuguese Baroque, consisting of
two or three departments (Principal, with eco or realejo or both) playable
from a single keyboard divided into bass (C–c' with a short lower octave)
and treble (c '–c''') sections, with a short lower octave and a compass of 45
notes. Gomes normally included stops particular to either bass or treble
section but also used inteiros, stops which extended to the full compass of
the keyboard. He used machine stops (‘shifting movements’, or reduções)
to assist in the manipulation of tone colours (reeds and mixtures) and
departments. The tonal scheme was based on the Flautado, (somewhat
similar but less strong in tone than the English Diapason) with a good
complement of mixtures and reeds, most of the latter mounted horizontally.
His realejo departments were enclosed in a chest with a lifting cover
located above the main internal pipework, a rudimentary expressive effect
operated by a sliding pedal. This accoutrement might have been inspired
by a prototype at Valladolid Cathedral. The highly decorated case designs
were not the responsibility of the organ builder.
The Benedictine estados refer to another organ builder named Manoel de
São Bento (b Fermedo, near Arouca; d Paço de Sousa, 15 March 1753).
His obituary credits him (without proof or references) with the construction
of many famous northern organs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Valença: A arte organística em Portugal (Braga, 1990)
W.D. Jordan: ‘Manoel de S. Bento Gomes de Herrera and the Portuguese
Organ’, Organ Yearbook, xxii (1992), 5-67
W.D. Jordan: ‘Manoel de S. Bento Gomes, magister aenigmaticus: Notes
about an Eighteenth-Century Organbuilder from Valladolid, his Work
and his Importance to Organography’, IMSCR XV: Madrid 1992
[RdMc, xvi (1993)], 3278–92
W.D. JORDAN

Gomes, Pietro.
See Comes, pietro.

Gomes Correia, Fernão.

See Correia, Fernão Gomes.

Gomes da Rocha, Francisco.

See Rocha, Francisco Gomes da.

Gomes de Araújo, João.

See Araújo, João Gomes de.

Gomez, Jill
(b New Amsterdam, British Guiana, 21 Sept 1942). British soprano. She
studied in London, making her début with Glyndebourne Touring Opera in
1968 as Adina. At Glyndebourne (1969–84) she was affecting as
Mélisande, Callisto, Anne Trulove and Helena (A Midsummer Night’s
Dream). She made a memorable impression when she created Flora in
Tippett’s The Knot Garden at Covent Garden (1970). Her subsequent roles
there included Titania and Lauretta. For Scottish Opera she sang Elizabeth
Zimmer (Elegy for Young Lovers), Anne Trulove, Fiordiligi, Countess
Almaviva, Pamina and Leïla (Les pêcheurs de perles). With the English
Opera Group she again made her mark in a new role, the Countess in
Musgrave’s The Voice of Ariadne (1974), and also sang a subtle
Governess (The Turn of the Screw). At Wexford she sang Thaïs (1974) and
Rosaura in La vedova scaltra (1983). For Kent Opera (1977–88) she sang
Tatyana, Violetta, Amyntas (Il rè pastore) and Donna Anna. She sang
Helena at Sadler’s Wells in 1990 and also recorded the role. Her other
roles also included Handel’s Cleopatra, Cinna (Lucio Silla) and Teresa
(Benvenuto Cellini). A gifted singing-actress, Gomez is heard at her most
vivid in recordings of stage works by Falla and of Spanish songs.
ALAN BLYTH

Gómez (García), (Domingo) Julio

(b Madrid, 20 Dec 1886; d Madrid, 22 Dec 1973). Spanish composer,
librarian, critic and musicologist. He studied with his father and Antonio
Santamaría, and from 1899 at the Madrid Conservatory with Andrés
Monge, Manuel Fernández Grajal, Pedro Fontanilla, Felipe Pedrell and
Emilio Serrano. Gómez won first prizes in harmony (1902), piano (1904)
and composition (1908). He also studied history at Madrid University,
earning a first degree (1907) and a doctorate (1918). After working as an
arranger at the Teatro Real (1908–11) he was director of the Toledo
Archaeological Museum (1911–13), head of the music section of the
National Library (1913–15) and librarian of the Madrid Conservatory
(1915–56). Among the subjects he taught was composition, which he
taught to the group of composers known as the Generation of ’51.
Backed by Bretón and Bartolomé Pérez Casas at the beginning of his
composing career, Gómez composed more than 100 works, some of which
won national awards. His music wavers between neo-Romanticism
(Balada, Egloga, Concierto lírico), popular nationalism or Hispanicism
(Cromos españoles, Marcha española), and traditionalism (El pelele,
Tonadilla del Prado), and makes occasionally references to folklore
(Cuarteto plateresco, Cuartetino) or history (Un miragre vos direi).
Following the great success of the Suite in A (1915) he was categorized by
the critics as a ‘popular nationalist’. His innate vocation for the theatre was
not fully developed, although his collaboration with Cipriano Rivas Cherif
was fruitful. His lyrical talent is reflected in a number of song sheets,
among which Coplas de amores, Seis poemas líricos de Juana de
Ibarbourou and Apolo stand out.
Gómez conducted historical research on Manuel Canales (1911), Blas de
Laserna (1912) and Caballero (1928). He was music critic of various
Madrid newspapers, including La jornada and El liberal, between 1918 and
1936, and editor of the magazine Harmonía, which published band music
(1916–59). Of a humanistic and liberal disposition, he took part in the
renaissance of Spanish music, resisting the French and German influences
that marked other members of the Generation of Masters (a group of
composers including Campo, Guridi and Esplá). In the aftermath of the
Spanish Civil War he was accused of being left-wing. He upheld a living
nationalism, rooted in Spanish tradition, which he felt should not repudiate
the masters of zarzuela. As a critic he opposed the theories of Felipe
Pedrell and debated frequently with Adolfo Salazar.
 WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: La gloria del inventor (zarzuela, 1, E. Gil Sarasate and E. Jardiel

Agustín), 1909, perf. 1909; Himno al amor (oc, 2, S. Delgado), 1917, collab. E.
Alonso Valdrés, perf. 1917; El pelele (tonadilla escénica, C. Rivas Cherif), S, orch,
1924; La deseada (zarzuela, 2, L. Fernández Ardavín and C. Palencia Tubau),
1926, collab. F. Alonso and E. Alonso, perf. 1927; Los dengues (chbr op, 1, Rivas
Cherif), 1927, perf. 1927; El pilar de la victoria (op, 2, M. Machado), 1942, perf.
1944
Orch: Intermezzo, 1908, rev. 1949; Suite, A, 1915; Balada, 1918–20; Preludio y
romanza, vn, orch, 1924–5; Cromos españoles, 1927; Egloga, 1929; Marcha
española, 1929; Canción árabe, 1934; Romanza, hn, orch, 1936; Maese Pérez el
organista, sym. poem after G.A. Bécquer, 1940; Gacela de Almotamid, cuadro
sinfónico, 1941; Concierto lírico, pf, orch, perf. 1942; Un miragre vos direi (sym.
fantasy on themes from the Cantigas of Alfonso X), 1944
Vocal: 3 melodías, S/T, pf (H. Heine, R. de Campoamor, J. Zorrilla y Campoamor),
1907–9; Coplas de amores (Machado), S, pf, 1914; Esperanza (J.R. Jiménez),
medium v, pf, 1915; 3 canciones (V. Medina, S. Alvarez Quintero, J. Alvarez
Quintero, caliph Radhi Billah), S/T, pf, 1920–23; Remembranza (F. Rodríguez
Marín), S/T, orch, 1923; La malvaseda (Medina), S, orch, 1930; 14 poemas líricos,
1934, inc. 6 poemas líricos, S, pf (J. de Ibarbourou); 4 canciones (L. de Vega),
1935; A ejemplo de los árboles desnudos (E. Ruiz de la Serna), S, orch, 1935;
Huerto matutino (L. Tegui), medium v, pf, 1942; Lento nostálgico (M. del Palacio),
Bar, pf, 1942; Cantares de España (Machado), S, unis. S, pf, 1944; Apolo (Teatro
pictório, Machado), S, orch, 1950; Tecelana (M. Cuña Novás), medium v, pf, 1962
Chbr and solo inst: Cuarteto plateresco, str qt, 1940–41; Cuartetino sobre una
danza popular montañesa, str qt, 1941; Preludio y scherzo, wind qnt, 1956; Prelude
and Scherzo, wind qnt, 1956; Str Qt no.3, 1960; other works for salon orch; vn, pf;
vc, pf; pf
Works for unacc. chorus, chorus and orchestra, band

MSS in E-Msa

Principal publishers: UME, Faustino Fuentes, Ildefonso Alier, Harmonía, Editora

Nacional, RCA Española

WRITINGS
El concurso nacional de música: Madrid, 1928 (Madrid, 1928)
En el centenario de Mozart (Madrid, 1956)
Escritos de Julio Gómez, ed. A. Iglesias (Madrid, 1986)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Collet: L’essor de la musique espagnole au XXe siècle (Paris, 1929),
145–7
J. Espinós Orlando: Julio Gómez: compositor, musicólogo y universitario
(Madrid, 1975)
C. Gómez Amat: ‘Julio Gómez’, Cuadernos de música y teatro, i (1987),
45–62
B. Martínez del Fresno: ‘Nacionalismo e internacionalismo en la música
española de la primera mitad del siglo XX’, IMSR XV: Madrid, 1992
[RdMc (1993)], 640–57
B. Martínez del Fresno: Julio Gómez: una época de la música española
(Madrid, 1999)
BEATRIZ MARTÍNEZ DEL FRESNO

Gómez (y Muntané), Maricarmen

[Maria del Carmen]
(b Barcelona, 20 July 1949). Spanish musicologist. After studying and
teaching the piano at the Conservatorio Superior de Música del Liceo in
Barcelona, she studied musicology at the University of Barcelona (PhD
1979) and at Göttingen under Ursula Günther (1981–3). She joined the
faculty at the Universidad Autónoma of Barcelona in 1985, and has been a
visiting professor at Princeton (1989–90), the Universidad Autónoma of
Madrid (1991–8) and the University of North Texas (1996). She has also
served on the directorium of the IMS (1987–97).
Gómez's work has focussed mainly on Iberian music of the 14th and 16th
centuries, with relevant studies of French Ars Nova music. Her doctoral
thesis was particularly distinguished for its presentation of new archival
materials, followed by later work on early Aragonese singers,
instrumentalists and composers. She also has a strong interest in editing
and editorial problems, seen not only in her reconsideration of the Mass of
Barcelona, the Llibre Vermell and the consueta of Elche, but also in her
reconstruction of a fragmentary French chansonnier in Montserrat as well
as editions of the music of the Flechas and of Bartolomé Cárceres.
WRITINGS
‘El Ars Antiqua en Cataluña’, RdMc, ii (1979), 197–255
La música en la casa real catalano-aragonesa durante los años 1336–
1432 (diss., U. of Barcelona, 1979; Barcelona, 1979)
Conèixer catalunya: la música medieval (Barcelona, 1980, 3/1997)
‘El Manuscrito 823 de Montserrat (Biblioteca del Monasterio)’, MD, xxxvi
(1982), 39–93
‘Musique et musiciens dans les chapelles de la maison royale d'Aragon
(1336–1413)’, MD, xxxviii (1984), 67–86
‘Un libro de poemas de fray Matheo Flecha (ca. 1530–1604)’, RdMc, viii
(1985), 343–70
‘Une version à cinq voix du motet Apollinis edipsatur/Zodiacum signis dans
le manuscrit E-Bcen 853’, MD, xxxix (1985), 5–44
‘Quelques remarques sur le répertoire sacré de l'Ars Nova provenant de
l'ancien royaume d'Aragon’, AcM, lvii (1985), 166–79
‘Autour du répertoire du XIVe siècle du manuscrit M1361 de la Bibliothèque
nationale de Madrid’, Aspects de la musique liturgique au Moyen Age:
Royaumont 1986, 1987 and 1988, 245–60
‘Precisiones en torno a la vida y obra de Matheo Flecha el joven’, RdMc, ix
(1986), 41–56
‘Les musiciens du roi de Portugal: une mention de Jacquemart le Cuvelier’,
RdM, lxxiii (1987), 99–106
‘La musique à la maison royale de Navarre à la fin du Moyen-Age et le
chantre Johan Robert’, MD, xli (1987), 109–51
‘Tradition and Modernity in the Mystery Play of Elche’, IMSCR XIV:
Bologna 1987, 717–22
‘Quelques remarques sur le répertoire polyphonique antérieur à l'Ars Nova
provenant de l'ancien royaume d'Aragon’, Cahiers de civilisation
médiévale, xxxi/2 (1988), 101–10
El libre vermell de Montserrat: cantos y danzas (Sant Cugat del Vallés,
1990)
‘Minstrel Schools in the Late Middle Ages’, EMc, xvii (1990), 212–16
‘Prehistoria de la enseñanza musical en las universidades españolas’, De
musica hispana et aliis: miscelánea en honor al Prof. Dr. José López-
Calo, ed. E. Casares and C. Villanueva (Santiago de Compostela,
1990), 77–89
‘Zur Einordnung der anonymen Motette O dira nacio/Mens in nequicia [F-
Pn 23190, 4]’, Schweizer Jb für Musikwissenschaft, new ser., x (1990),
33–42
‘Secular Catalan and Occitan Music at the end of the Middle Ages: Looking
for a Lost Repertory’, Studi musicali, xxi (1992), 3–19
‘Some Precursors of the Spanish Lute School’, EMc, xx (1992), 583–93
‘Enricus Foxer, alias Enrique de Paris († 1487/8)’, Nassarre, ix/2 (1993),
139–46
‘Some Remarks of the Monophonic Song Déu vos salve, verge imperial in
the Mystery Play of Elche’, The Early Drama, Art and Music Review,
xvi (1993), 23–41
‘Ay, ay, ay, ay!/Qué fuertes penas: planctus por la muerte de Don Alfonso,
príncipe de Portugal (†1491)’, Revista portuguesa de musicología, iv–
v (1994–5), 7–15
‘The Ensalada and the Origins of the Lyric Theater in Spain’, Comparative
Drama, xxviii (1994), 367–93
‘Una versión a 5 voces del villancico Señores, el qu'es nascido del
Cancionero de Uppsala’, Nassarre, xi (1995), 157–71
El canto de la Sibila I. Castilla y León II: cataluña y baleares (Madrid,
1996–7)
‘La música laica en el reino de Castilla en tiempos del Condestable Don
Miguel Lucas de Iranzo (1458–1473)’, RdMc, xix (1996), 25–45
EDITIONS
Món i misteri de la Festa d'Elx: consueta de 1709 (Valencia, 1986) [with
J.F. Massip]
Matheo Flecha, ca.1530–1604: la feria y las cañas: ensaladas (Madrid,
1987)
El manuscrito M971 de la biblioteca de Catalunya: Misa de Barcelona
(Barcelona, 1989)
French Sacred Music, PMFC, xxiii (1989–91) [with G. Cattin and F.
Facchin]
Matheo Flecha, ca.1481–1553: la Viuda: ensalada (Barcelona, 1992)
Polifonía de la corona de Aragón s.XIV-XV: manuscrito 2 de la biblioteca
del Orfeó Català y Manuscrito 109 del archivo diocesano de Solsona
(Zaragoza, 1993)
Bartomeu Cárceres: Opera omnia (Barcelona, 1995)
DAVID FALLOWS
Gomez, Pietro.
See Comes, pietro.

Gómez, Tomás
(b Coca, nr Segovia; d Barcelona, 1688). Spanish monk and theorist.
Information concerning his life and work apparently stems from the 17th-
century Spanish bibliographer Nicolás Antonio, who described him as a
learned Cistercian monk of the order of S Bernardo who held several posts
in his order and wrote a Reformación del canto llano (Madrid, 1649) based
on the seven-note solmization method developed by the blind monk Pedro
de Ureña. This attribution was taken up by Gerber, Fétis, Saldoni and other
lexicographers; none claimed to have seen the work, however, nor is there
any record of such a title or authorship today. Yet the book may be extant
after all, undiscovered through Antonio's faulty description: a likely
candidate is an anonymous publication Arte de canto llano, órgano, y cifra,
iunto con el de cantar sin mutanças (E-Mn). The imprint, Madrid, 1649, is
that given by Antonio; the author is described as a monk of the order of S
Bernardo, and chapter 2 explains Ureña's system in detail, proposing ni as
the seventh solmization syllable, making mutation unnecessary. Later
chapters of the book discuss mensural notation, the Spanish organ
tablature and keyboard fingering.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SubiráHME
N. Antonio: Biblioteca hispana nova sive hispanorum scriptorum, ii
(Madrid, 2/1788/R)
H. Anglès and J. Subirá: Catálogo musical de la Biblioteca nacional de
Madrid, ii (Barcelona, 1949), 235
F.J. León Tello: La teoría española de la música en los siglos XVII y XVIII
(Madrid, 1974)
ALMONTE HOWELL

Gómez Camargo, Miguel

(b Avila, bap. 6 Oct 1618; d Valladolid, 12 April 1690). Spanish composer.
He first was a choirboy at Avila Cathedral and from March 1630 at Segovia
Cathedral, where he studied composition under the maestro de capilla J.
de León. In August 1638 he was appointed, without contest or examination,
maestro de capilla at the collegiate church of Medina del Campo; there he
remained until 1648, when on 12 September he was appointed to a similar
post at Burgo de Osma Cathedral, again without examination, the post
having been offered to him by the chapter. He was at León Cathedral from
1651 to 1654, and from then until his death at Valladolid Cathedral, in each
case as maestro de capilla. His numerous works are all at Valladolid
Cathedral; they include masses, psalms, hymns and villancicos, many of
them in autograph copies (the hymn Defensor alme Hispaniae is in H.
Eslava, ed.: Lira sacro hispana, Madrid, 1869, ii, 185).
Gómez Camargo is important, first as a prolific and inspired composer – he
was one of the most distinguished composers of the Spanish high Baroque
– and also for his rich collection of letters dating from 1644–90, many of
them containing interesting details about musical topics of that time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Querol Gavaldá: ‘Corresponsales de Miguel Gómez Camargo’, AnM,
xiv (1959), 165–77
M. Querol Gavaldá: ‘Nuevos datos para la biografía de Miguel Gómez
Camargo’, Miscelánea en homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés
(Barcelona, 1958–61), 707–16
L. Siemens-Hernández: ‘Datos sobre el nacimiento y muerte de Miguel
Gómez Camargo (1618–1690)’, AnM, xxvi (1971), 113–17
C. Caballero: ‘Miguel Gómez Camargo: Correspondencia’, AnM, xlv
(1990), 67–102
C. Caballero Fernández-Rufete: ‘Aportación documental al estudio de
Miguel Gómez Camargo’, Revista portuguesa de musicologia, i
(1991), 109-27
JOSÉ LÓPEZ–CALO

Gomez Carrillo, Manuel

(b Santiago del Estero, 8 March 1883; d Buenos Aires, 18 March 1968).
Argentine composer and ethnomusicologist. He studied at the Salta
Seminary and the Colegio de los Lourdistas, Catamarca, at the Thibaud-
Piazzini Conservatory, Buenos Aires, and finally with Alfredo Grandi in
Santiago del Estero and José Rodoreda (harmony and composition) in
Buenos Aires. In 1916 he was commissioned by the University of Tucumán
to collect folk music in north Argentina; two volumes of his harmonizations
were published as Danzas y cantos regionales del norte argentino (Buenos
Aires, 1920). He gave many lectures on this subject, and he was director of
music at the Rosario Profesorado Nacional de Arte and inspector of music
in the province of Santiago del Estero, as well as holding various teaching
posts. His principal orchestral works are the Rapsodia santiagueña (1922),
first performed in Paris, Danza de la huaca, the Symphonic Suite, and the
ballets La Telesita and La Salamanca. In about 1950 Gomez Carrillo and
his three sons Manuel, Julio and Jorge formed an international vocal
quartet, sometimes expanded to include his wife the pianist Inés Landeta,
and their daughters Inés, a pianist, and Carmen, a choral conductor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Arizaga: Enciclopedia de la música argentina (Buenos Aires, 1971)
M. Ficher, M. Furman Schleifer and J.M. Furman: Latin American
Classical Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and
London, 1996)
SUSANA SALGADO

Gómez de Herrera, Martín

(fl 1569–1600). Spanish singer and liturgist. He studied with Bartolomé de
Quevedo, maestro de capilla of Toledo Cathedral, and was admitted there
as a treble singer in 1569. According to the Barbieri papers (E-Mn 14031,
no.126 and 14032, no.101) he left in 1587 to become a singer in the royal
chapel of Philip II, but returned to Toledo in 1600 as royal chaplain. His
unpublished Advertencias sobre la canturía eclesiástica (c1580), hitherto
known only in a 19th-century copy in E-Mn, actually exists in a fair copy
signed by the author, along with a different and possibly earlier version (in
E-Tc). It is representative of Spanish resistance to attempts to revise
Catholic plainchant according to current tastes and was written to reinforce
the brief of 1570 that Philip II obtained from Pope Pius V permitting the
continued use in Spain of the traditional chants as practised at Toledo
Cathedral. Quoting numerous writers, both ancient and modern, Gómez
traced the history of chant from biblical times, cited past efforts by church
authorities to prevent its alteration and analysed various classes of chant in
respect of rhythm, accent, melisma and modality, the elements most
subject to tampering.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Collet: Le mysticisme musical espagnol au XVIe siècle (Paris, 1913/R)
F. Rubio Piqueras: Música y músicos toledanos (Toledo, 1923)
H. Anglès and J. Subirá: Catálogo musical de la Biblioteca nacional de
Madrid, i (Barcelona, 1946)
J. Subirá: Historia de la música española e hispanoamericana (Barcelona,
1953)
F.J. León Tello: Estudios de historia de la teoría musical (Madrid, 1962,
2/1991)
ALMONTE HOWELL

Gómez de la Cruz, Diego

(b ?León, c1550; d Madrid, 16 May 1618). Spanish composer and
instrumentalist. Like his father and two brothers he was an instrumentalist
of the Spanish royal household, but he is the only one who seems also to
have been a composer. In May 1602 he joined a group of violón players in
the service of Philip III when the court was established in Valladolid, and on
30 October 1604 he was named as a ministril (wind-player) to perform in
the royal chapel ‘and other places’. In 1616 he was mentioned, together
with the ‘master of the Italian violón players’ Stefano Limido, as customarily
playing in the royal chapel. The principal function of the violones, however,
was to accompany the dances and secular festivities of the court. As
ministril Gómez de la Cruz was named as one of those who played treble
parts, and there is evidence that he played the treble chirimía (shawm) and
cornett. In 1617 he was given leave to seek a cure for his poor sight; on 15
May 1618 he stated in his will that he was blind.
Gómez de la Cruz’s three surviving tonos are romances for three voices,
one of them (En el valle del Egido, ed. Etzion) with a text by Luis de
Góngora. Stylistically typical of the contents of cancioneros from the first
third of the 17th century, they are characterized by frequent passing notes
and appoggiaturas and by alternating homophonic and imitative passages.
A six-part villancico by Gómez de la Cruz was lost in 1755 when the music
library of João IV of Portugal was destroyed by an earthquake.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Subirá: ‘Necrologías musicales madrileñas (años 1611–1808)’, AnM, xii
(1958), 201–23, esp. 207
E. Casares, ed.: Francisco Asenjo Barbieri: Biografías y documentos
sobre música y músicos españoles, Legado Barbieri, i (Madrid, 1986),
234
L. Robledo: Juan Blas de Castro (ca. 1561–1631): vida y obra musical
(Zaragoza, 1989), 45
J. Etzion: The Cancionero de la Sablonara (London, 1996) [incl. edns of 2
works]
LUIS ROBLEDO

Gómez de Navas, Juan

(b c1630; d Madrid, before 12 March 1695). Spanish singer and composer.
He has often been confused with his more famous son Juan Francisco de
Navas (sometimes called Juan Francisco Gómez de Navas), composer
and harpist at the Spanish royal chapel. Another son, Ignacio, also served
at the royal chapel, and Juan’s father had been head gardener in the royal
household. Juan Gómez de Navas entered the royal chapel on 5 October
1656 as a tenor, but according to a 1688 report he had a poor voice; he
was, however, made temporary maestro de capilla on the death of
Cristóbal Galán in September 1684, and continued in the post until a new
maestro, Diego Verdugo, was appointed in July 1691. Gómez de Navas
was then retired on account of ‘his age and the many services rendered’.
His works, including many Latin pieces and Spanish villancicos now lost,
were composed mainly during his seven years as maestro de capilla. Most
extant compositions attributed simply to ‘Navas’ belong almost certainly to
his son Juan Francisco, but a mass for eight voices and instruments (E-
SC), attributed to ‘Maestro Navas’ is most probably by the father.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N.A. Solar-Quintes: ‘Panorama musical desde Felipe III a Carlos II:
nuevos documentos sobre ministriles, organistas y reales capillas
flamenca y española de música’, AnM, xii (1957), 167–200, esp. 193
M. Agulló y Cobo: ‘Documentos para las biografías de músicos de los
siglos XVI y XVII’, AnM, xxv (1970), 105–24, esp. 113
E. Casares, ed.: Francisco Asenjo Barbieri: Documentos sobre música
española y epistolario, Legado Barbieri, ii (Madrid, 1988), 103
LUIS ROBLEDO

Gómez-Vignes, Mario
(b Santiago, 13 March 1934). Chilean composer, conductor and writer on
music. His musical training began in 1945, and from 1950 to 1954 he
studied at the conservatory of the University of Chile, to which he was
admitted on the recommendation of Domingo Santa Cruz. Since 1960 he
has lived in Colombia, where he has worked as a composer, conductor,
critic and musicologist. He taught harmony, music history, theory and
conducting at the conservatory of the University of Antioquia in Medellín
(1963–73 and 1975–81). Since 1981 he has taught at the music
department of the Universidad del Valle (department head, 1995–6); and
from 1981 to 1985 he was director of the Conservatorio de Bellas Artes in
Cali. Since 1986 he has also taught at the music department of the
University of Cauca in Popayán.
His carefully constructed and richly orchestrated Opus quinientos (1992)
was commissioned by the Colombian Institute of Culture for the
quincentenary of Columbus's voyage to America, and it was recorded on
CD. He is a prolific critic and writer, and his two-volume Imagen y obra de
Antonio María Valencia (Cali, 1991) received an honourable mention for
the Robert Stevenson Prize in Washington in 1993, after which he was
promoted to a senior professor (Universidad del Valle). As a critic, he has
written for El mercurio and El país.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Pequeña suite, str, 1959; Sketch, fl, hp, cel, vn, str, 1961; Conc. grosso, vn, va, vc,
str, 1965; Metamorfosis sinfónica de un intervalo de segunda, orch, perc, 1968;
Sinfonía, 1969–70; 4 bocetos de Meghnon, 2 str orch, 1974; Danzas concertantes,
1979; Conc., hp, gui, str, 1991–2; Opus quinientos (Ensayo), 1992Chbr: Berceuse, vn,
pf, 1960; Str Qt, 1963; Divertimento, wind qnt, 1963; Sonata, vn, pf, 1964; Str Trio,
1965; Sonatina, cl, pf, 1966; Ricercar, wind qnt, 1967; 4 microelegías, Mez, fl, cl, pf,
glock, 1969; Divertimento en suite, pf, 2 monophonic insts, 1971–3; Canción de cuna
neurótica, tr rec, fl, of, 1974; Pasillo, pf duet, 1978; Pasillo, tiple, bandola, gui, 1982Solo
inst (all pf solo unless otherwise stated): Sonata no.1, 1951; Sonata no.3, 1953;
Intermezzo, 1959; Suite, 1959; Berceuse, 1960; 10 piezas para niños, 1960; Balada,
1961; Fantasía y fuga, 1963; Impromptu ‘dans le style de Fauré’, 1964; Pasillo, 1964;
Toccata, 1964; 3 preludios, gui, 1965; Ricercare ‘Omaggio al cinquecento’, hpd, 1965;
Preludio y danza, vc, 1972; Seis por uno en seis, gui, 1977; Paráfrasis, 1982 [on a
theme by Morales Pino]Vocal: A la orilla del camino (H. Spuler-Hottinger), 1v, pf, 1951;
Canción simple (Kalidasa), S/T, pf, 1960; 3 viñetas (J. de Ibarbourou, H. Heine, Agnus
Dei), S, SSAA, triangle, pf, 1960; Cant. no.1, TTBB, 3 hn, 3 tpt, 3 trbn, tuba, perc, pf,
1965; Cant. no.2, TTBB, fl, cl, bn, cel, perc, 1968; Cant. breve ‘Episodio y elegía’ (Cant.
no.3) (P. Neruda), T, 2 nar, SATB, 1970; Ave María ‘por tonos’, SATB, 1972; 2 antiguous
romances anónimos de mi sierra, S/T, SATB, 1972; Madrigal ‘En estilo más bien
antiguo’ (L. de Greiff), SATB, 1973; Trenodia de cautiverio (Cant. no.4) (A. Frank, S.
Quasimodo, J. Vasquez Arias, O. Wilde), SATB, orch, 1975; Himno del cauca (G.
Wilches), 1v, pf, 1989; Las notes del silencio (R. Becerra), Mez, pf, 1995Incid music: La
excepción y la regla (B. Brecht), 1969; El proceso de Lucullus (Brecht), 1968–9; La
lucha por el centavo menos, La pandereta (Brecht), 1977; Carne de tu carne (film
score), 1983El-ac: Collage ’30, 1970; Clausulae I-III, SATB, actor, ob, recs, a crumhorn,
t viol, b viol, perc, hpd, lute, psaltery, tape, 1975

BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.I. Perdomo Escobar: Historia de la música en Colombia (Bogotá,
5/1980), 207
SUSANA FRIEDMANN

Gomidas.
 See Komitas.

Gomis (y Colomer), José Melchor

[Melchior]
(b Onteniente, Valencia, 6 Jan 1791; d Paris, 4 Aug 1836). Spanish
composer. At the age of seven he was a choirboy in Valencia and at 15
became choirmaster. During the Napoleonic wars he was music director in
an artillery regiment (1812). About 1817 a ‘melodrama unipersonal’ for one
voice and orchestra was performed in Valencia; this was probably
Sensibilidad y prudencia, o La aldeana, which Loreto García introduced in
Madrid on 21 June 1821. During the early 1820s, when liberal forces in
Spain fought to depose the recently returned Ferdinand VII and establish a
democratic constitution, Gomis joined the rebel army under General Riego
and composed the music for patriotic songs, including, probably, an
arrangement of the popular Himno de Riego named after the rebellious
general; he was obliged to flee to France in 1823 when Ferdinand VII
reassumed absolute power. In Paris he knew Manuel García and was
befriended by Rossini. In 1826 he moved to London, where he composed
and taught singing; during this period his two cantatas, L’inverno and La
primavera were performed by the Philharmonic Society and his airs,
boleros and romances were published. Also published was his Méthode de
solfège et de chant (Paris, 1826). He returned to Paris just before the 1830
July Revolution, and he composed songs and choruses that contributed to
the success of Martínez de la Rosa’s drama Aben Humeya at the Théâtre
de la Porte-St-Martin (19 July 1830).
Between 1831 and 1836 Gomis wrote the music for four operas performed
at the Opéra-Comique: Le diable à Seville, about General Riego’s 1820
army rebellion; Le revenant, based on ‘Wandering Willie’s Tale’ in Scott’s
Redgauntlet, and much praised for the ‘Chanson du sabbat’; Le portefaix,
his most successful opera; and Rock le barbu, acclaimed for the purity of
its melodies. In 1833 he completed La révolte du sérail for the Opéra, but it
was not performed. At his death, from tuberculosis of the larynx, he left
unfinished La damnée and his plans for Le comte Julien (a tale of the
Moorish invasion of Spain), Lénore, Le favori and Botany Bay. He had
begun work on Le comte Julien to a text supplied by Scribe, who used the
subject again in 1851 for Thalberg’s Florinda. Louis-Philippe made him a
Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur, and Berlioz wrote his obituary.
WORKS
stage
Aben Humeya (incid music, M. de la Rosa), Paris, Porte-St-Martin, 19 July 1830
Le diable à Seville (oc, 1, A. Hurtado and H.-A. Cavé), Paris, OC (Ventadour), 29
Jan 1831 (Paris, 1831), F-Pc*
Le revenant (oc, 2, A. de Calvimont, after W. Scott: Redgauntlet), Paris, OC
(Bourse), 31 Dec 1833 (Paris, 1833)
La révolte du sérail, 1833 (oc, ?2, Gomis), unperf.
Le portefaix (Gaspare, ou Le portefaix de Grenade) (oc, 3, E. Scribe), Paris, OC
(Bourse), 16 June 1835 (Paris, 1835)
Rock le barbu (oc, 1, P. Duport and Pittaud de Forges), Paris, OC (Bourse), 13 May
1836
Other inc. or projected works: La damnée, Pc*, Le comte Julien (Scribe), Lénore, Le
favori, Botany Bay
other works
Sensibilidad y prudencia, o La aldeana (melodrama unipersonal), 1v, orch, ?1817,
Madrid, 21 June 1821
L’inverno (cant., Marquis of Azeglio), 4vv, orch, London, April 1827
La primavera (cant., Azeglio), 4vv, orch, London, April 1827
Hymns, songs
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Berlioz: ‘Gomis’, RGMP (7 Aug 1836)
J. Esperanza y Solá: ‘Gomis’, Almanaque de la ilustración, xv (1888), 77–
86
R. Mitjana y Gordón: ‘La musique en Espagne’, EMDC, I/iv (1920), 1913–
2351, esp. 2301 [incl. song ex.]
J. Subirá and A. Cherbuliez: Musikgeschichte von Spanien, Portugal,
Lateinamerika (Zürich, 1957), 126, 134, 143
J. Dowling: José Melchor Gomis (Madrid, 1973)
R. Gisbert: ‘Louis Viardot et le compositeur espagnol José Melchor Gomis:
une amitié de jeunesse’, Cahiers Ivan Tourgéniev, Pauline Viardot et
Maria Malibran, xii (1988), 99–106
JOHN DOWLING

Gomółka, Mikołaj
(b ?Sandomierz, south-east Poland, c1535; d ?Jazłowiec, nr Buczacz,
western Ukraine, in or after 1591, possibly 5 March 1609). Polish
composer, musician and lawyer. In 1545 he was admitted as a boy with no
specific function at the court of King Sigismund August (who resided chiefly
at Kraków and Vilnius), and from 1549 he studied music there under the
German-born musician Hans Klaus. He was employed as a wind player at
court from 1555 to 1563, but by 1561 he was no longer present at the
court. From 1566 to 1578 he lived at Sandomierz, where on several
occasions he was elected town councillor and in 1572–3 was chairman of
the municipal law court. He later earned his living as a professional
musician at Kraków in the service of leading citizens, including Bishop Piotr
Myszkowski (probably from 1580 and certainly about 1587) and Chancellor
Jan Zamoyski (in 1590–91). He may later have been employed by another
nobleman, Hieronim Jazłowiecki, at Jazłowiec, although the evidence for
this – a somewhat ambiguous memorial tablet to a musician called
Gomolca – has been variously interpreted and may refer to his son.
Gomółka's only surviving music is Melodie na Psałterz polski (Kraków,
1580/R; ed. Krakow, 1983, Wrocław, 1990). It consists of four-part settings
of Jan Kochanowski's Polish translation of the Psalter published in 1579
and was probably inspired by Bishop Myszkowski, to whom it is dedicated.
It is in choirbook format in a kind of score (the parts being printed above
one another across two pages), and the quality of the printing is high. The
sequence of 150 psalms follows the Hebrew (or Protestant) order, not the
Catholic. The Melodies are not strophic songs. Only the first verse of each
psalm is set. Gomółka's concern to observe the particular demands of each
text and to match its mood closely in the music, especially by means of
word-painting, textual declamation and often bold harmonic experiments,
which makes the musical repetition difficult in subsequent verses. The
Melodies comprise different types including cantus-firmus settings in the
soprano or tenor voices, dance-like songs that are possibly contrafacta of
the instrumental repertory at the Polish royal court and song paraphrases.
Prefaced with a eulogistic epigram by the leader of the Polish dissidents,
Andrzej Trzecieski, and including a paraphrase of the Lutheran hymn ‘Ein
feste Burg’, the Psalter was primarily intended for domestic use by
Christians of all denominations. It is one of the most interesting volumes of
Polish Renaissance music and the first musical publication to include
extensive setting of the Polish language. Gomółka is also known to have
composed masses and two other pieces, one an elegy on the death of
Kochanowski, but they are lost.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Reiss: ‘Nikolaus Gomółka und seine Psalmen-Melodien’, ZIMG, xiii
(1911–12), 249–51
M. Perz: ‘Die Vor- und Frühgeschichte der Partitur in Polen’, Festschrift der
Akademie für Musik und darstellende Kunst in Graz (Graz, 1963),
129–38
M. Perz: Mikołaj Gomółka: monografia (Warsaw, 1969, 2/1981)
M. Perz: ‘Czterysta lat Gomółkowych “Melodii” 1580–1980, czyli O
początkach polskiej deklamacji muzycznij’ [400 years of Gomółka's
Melodies, 1580–1980, or The origins of Polish musical recitation],
Muzyka, xxv/3 (1980), 3–22
M. Perz: Melodie na Psałterz polski Mikołaja Gomółki: interpretacje i
komentarze [Melodies on the Polish Psalter by Mikołaj Gomółka:
interpretations and commentaries] (Kraków, 1988)
M. Perz: ‘Sztuka sekretnej chromatyki w “Melodiach” Mikołaja Gomółki’
[The secret chromatic art in Mikołaj Gomółka's Psalter], Muzyka,
xxxiii/4 (1988), 3–28
K. Morawska: Renesans: historia muzyki polskiej [The Renaissance: the
history of Polish music], ii (Warsaw, 1994), 249–53
MIROSŁAW PERZ

Gonçález, José Bernal.

See Bernal Gonçález, ?José.

Gonella, Nat(haniel Charles)

(b London, 7 March 1908; d Gosport, 3 Aug 1998). English jazz trumpeter,
singer and bandleader. He performed and recorded with the dance bands
of Billy Cotton (1929–33), Roy Fox (1931–2), Ray Noble (1931, 1933–4)
and Lew Stone (1932–5); Georgia on my mind (1932), recorded with Fox,
is a good example of his playing and singing and became extremely
popular. From 1932 he worked as a leader in a style heavily influenced by
that of Louis Armstrong; his band, the Georgians (1934–9), included his
brother Bruts Gonella (b 1911), who was also a trumpeter. During a visit to
New York in 1939 Gonella recorded with John Kirby and performed at the
Hickory House. After returning to London he led the New Georgians from
1940 to 1942, but worked less frequently in the late 1940s and early 50s. In
1958 he formed the New Georgia Jazz Band, and in the 1960s and 70s
continued to perform and record in the Netherlands and England. By the
early 1980s he had ceased to play but still sang as a guest with various
bands and at international festivals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N. Gonella: Modern Style Trumpet Playing (London, 1935)
B. Gladwell: ‘The Return of Nat Gonella’, JJ, xiii/3 (1960), 13
R. Brown: ‘Two Hat Nat is Back’, Memory Lane, no.53 (1981), 10
R. Brown and C. Brown: Georgia on my Mind: the Nat Gonella Story
(Horndean, Hants., 1985)
R. Brown: The Gonella Discography (Gosport, 1987)

Gonelli [Gonella], Giuseppe

(b Cremona, 24 Oct 1685; d Cremona, 11 Feb, 1745). Italian composer,
organist and teacher. He studied music with T.B. Gaffi and after his
ordination as a priest he was appointed organist of Cremona Cathedral on
14 December 1708. He later became maestro di cappella there and held
the post until 27 April 1727. In 1712 he travelled to Lodi for the celebration
of the feast of St Teresa, and to Piacenza for the canonization of St Andrea
Avellino. On 30 May 1737 he directed some of his own music in the Chiesa
delle Grazie, Lodi, and on 29 November 1740 music by him was performed
in Cremona Cathedral for the funerary service of Emperor Karl VI. At the
beginning of the same year Padre Martini had undertaken to obtain for
Gonelli the post of maestro di cappella at Loreto, but Gonelli refused the
post. In 1743, together with Leo, Porpora, Jommelli and Martini, he was
one of the judges for the post of maestro di cappella of Milan Cathedral.
Between 1735 and 1744 Gonelli was in correspondence with Padre
Martini; the two exchanged observations and judgments on their own and
others’ compositions. Indeed, Gonelli’s reputation as a contrapuntist was
such that Giuseppe Paolucci, in his Arte pratica di contrappunto, ii (Venice,
1766), referred to him as the ‘once celebrated master of Cremona’ and
included the score of his Dona eis requiem as an example of double fugue
together with a lengthy analysis.
Gonelli’s music, all in manuscript, is exclusively sacred and includes
masses, psalms, antiphons, motets, spiritual cantatas and some pieces for
organ. His choral works, mostly accompanied by strings and organ
continuo, occasionally use trumpets and horns as well (a letter of his
reveals that solemn music at Cremona Cathedral was always accompanied
by instruments). In his choral writing traditional counterpoint and
homorhythmic sections, which use a more modern harmonic language,
alternate. The string writing is influenced in places by the trio sonata, and
his solo writing is melodic and decorative. His organ works show a marked
influence of the galant style in their relatively short phrases and graceful
melodies. He has sometimes been confused with his brother, G. B. Gonelli
(1670–?1751), an organist at Cremona Cathedral.
 WORKS
in I-Mc, unless otherwise stated

Sacred: Requiem mass, 2 choirs, bc; 10 Ky-Gl, 4vv, orch, bc; Ky-Gl, 4vv, str, orch, I-
Ac; Ky-Gl, 3vv, str, bc; Ky, 4vv, str, bc; Ky, 5vv, orch, bc; Ky, 4vv, str, bc, Ac (inc.); 9
Gl, 4vv, str, bc; Cr, 4vv, str, org, BGc; Dona eis requiem, 4vv, str, org, Ac; Dies irae,
4vv, str, bc; Dies irae, 4vv, vv, orch, bc (inc.); Dies irae, 4vv, orch, bc, Bc, MOe, PAc;
Miserere, 4vv, orch, bc; 2 Miserere, 4vv, str, bc, MOe; 9 Mag, 4vv, orch, bc; 7 serie
di litanie, 4vv, orch, bc; lit, 3vv, org, D-BB; 15 pss, 4vv, orch, bc; 13 pss, 2vv, str, bc;
4 TeD, 4vv, orch, bc; TeD, 4vv, str, bc, I-BGc; Salve regina, S, str, bc; Salve regina,
2vv, str, bc; Salve regina, 4vv, orch, org, CZ-LIT; Psalmi de vesperae, 4vv, str, bc;
Aure placide, A, str, org, I-Ac; Ave maris stella, S, str, bc; Casta columba, S, str, bc,
Sd; Confitebor, 3vv, str, bc; Dilexi, 4vv, bc; Dixit Dominus, 4vv, str, bc, Bc; In terra in
mare, 2vv, str, bc, BRc; Laetatus sum, 4vv, orch, bc, Bc, Bsf; Lamentazioni, T, str,
org, Gl; Laudate pueri, 2 S, vv, str, bc; Laudate pueri, S, vv, str, bc; Laudate pueri, A,
vv, str, bc, Bc; De profundis, 4vv, str, bc, Bc; Nisi Dominus, S, org; Nisi Dominus, S,
orch, bc; Parce mihi domine, S, str, bc; Regina caeli, 2vv, org, S-Smf; Regina caeli,
A, org, Smf; 4 Tantum ergo, 2vv, str, bc; Tantum ergo, 2 S, vv, orch, bc; Tantum
ergo, A, str, bc, I-Bc; Tantum ergo, 2vv, str, bc, BRc; Invitatorio, 5vv, orch, bc; 2
invitatori, 4vv, orch, bc; Compieta, 4vv, str, bc; 2 inni per la festa di S Francesco di
Paola, 2vv, str, bc; 2 motetti, S, org, BRc; Cantata per l’Epifania, S, org; 4 cants., S,
org, Rsc; 3 fughes, vv, str, org, Bc

Org, all B-Bc: 9 elevations; 6 sonatas, Andante, Aria

In MS anthologies: 3 canti sacri, 3vv; 2 pss, 2vv, bc
Doubtful: Mass, 4vv, orch, org, D-EB

BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
FrotscherG
GerberNL
SchmidlD
A. Schoebelen: Padre Martini's Collection of Letters in the Civico Museo
Bibliografico Musicale in Bologna: an Annotated Index (New york,
1979)
M. Gabbrielli: ‘Giuseppe Gonelli (1685–1745), profil biografico’, Rivista
internazionale di musica sacra, xvii (1996), 301–9
G. Sommi Picenardi: Dizionario biografico dei musicisti e fabbricanti di
strumenti musicali cremonesi (Cremona, 1997)
M. Gabbrielli: ‘Nota su Giuseppe Gonelli’, Rivista internazionale di musica
sacra, xix (1998)
MILTON SUTTER/MICHELANGELO GABBRIELLI

Gonet, Valérien
(b Arras, late 16th century; d after 1617). French composer. The wording of
the dedication (in F-CAc) of his works to the chapter of Cambrai Cathedral
suggests that he was educated at the cathedral choir school. A manuscript
fantasia of 1613 describes him as phonascus, and a payment note of 1618
indicates that he was maître de chant at the cathedral. His works (in CAc)
comprise a collection of undated Magnificat settings in four to six parts in
the eight tones and the four-part fantasia, probably for viols, which
resembles similar secular works by Le Jeune, Du Caurroy and Charles
Guillet. The Magnificat settings were probably written for didactic purposes
and exploit the contrapuntal and canonic techniques offered by various
combinations of voices. The musical notation is supplemented by
numerous instructions, including letters giving structural information for
each motet, figures indicating the number of voices to each part, and
instructions for the solution of puzzle canons. The presentation of a number
of possible variants for each verse supports the view that these works were
used as exercises for choral teaching. Although most of the Magnificat
verses are signed Valérien Gonet, the name Dubuisson is found on some
of the parts. At the end of the manuscript is the secundus chorus of an
eight-voice Inviolata integra setting by Jean Solon (d after 1655).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
MGG1 (D. Launay)
C.-E.-H. de Coussemaker: Notice sur les collections musicales de la
bibliothèque de Cambrai (Paris, 1843/R)
J. Houdoy: Histoire artistique de la cathédrale de Cambrai ancienne église
métropolitaine Notre-Dame: comptes, inventaires et documents inédits
(Lille, 1880/R)
A. Pirro: ‘L’art des organistes’, EMDC, II/ii (1926), 1181–374
D. Launay: ‘Les motets à double choeur en France dans la première
moitié du XVIIe siècle’, RdM, xxxix–xl (1957), 173–95
DENISE LAUNAY/THEODORA PSYCHOYOU

Gong
(Fr., Ger. and It.).
1. Introduction.
A percussion instrument of either definite or indefinite pitch, in the form of a
circular metal plaque. The vibration is strongest near the vertex and
weakest near the rim (the opposite is the case with a bell). Gongs, which
are classified by Hornbostel and Sachs as idiophone percussion vessels
(see Idiophone), are made in various sizes and shapes, being either flat, or
with the edge turned over (sometimes called ‘kettle gong’ or ‘metal drum’),
or with a turned-down rim and central boss, like the gongs of Java and
Myanmar (see fig.1). The gong’s primary importance is in south-east Asia
but three types are used in the Western orchestra. In the majority of cases
gongs are cast and hammered, the formula of the metal (an alloy) varying
from 70% to 80% copper and 30% to 20% tin, or a compound of copper
and tin with the addition of lead, iron or zinc. In some special gongs a small
portion of silver is added.
The instrument seen most frequently in the Western orchestra is the large
flat gong with a shallow lip and of indefinite pitch. Instruments of this type
were originally imported only from China and are universally known by the
original name ‘tam-tam’. (It should be noted that composers frequently
prescribe a gong when obviously a tam-tam is intended, the terms ‘gong’
and ‘tam-tam’ being synonymous in Western music.) Though the Chinese
continue to produce fine orchestral tam-tams, there is now a marked
employment of tam-tams and bossed gongs made in Europe by such firms
as M. Paiste of Nottwil and Schacht-Audorf, and the Italian firm of Ufip
(Unione-Fabbricanti Italiana Piatti Musicali e Tam-Tams).
In most Western orchestras a tam-tam of between 90 and 100 cm in
diameter is used, suspended in a frame. Tam-tams as large as 150 cm are
available, but they are impractical for general use and are only employed
for special effect. Unlike the bossed gongs and those with a deep rim,
which are invariably struck in the centre (from where the tone issues), the
orchestral tam-tam may also be struck off centre (see fig.2). With rare
exceptions a heavy beater with felt or wool covering is employed, the
tremolo being produced in most cases by rapid strokes with a single
beater, the sustaining quality of the instrument ‘filling in the gaps’.

For illustrations see Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines.

2. History.
The origin of the gong is uncertain although the name ‘gong’ originated in
Java (see also Bronze drum).
Gongs may have existed in the biblical era: St Paul’s ‘sounding brass or
tinkling cymbal’ in the King James Bible is translated in the New English
Bible (1 Corinthians xiii.1) ‘sounding gong or clanging cymbal’. The
Romans used gongs and metal discs (discus), which were suspended from
a central hole and used as signal instruments. Four bronze discs devised
by Hipposos had the same diameters, but differed in thickness, and
consequently produced notes of different pitch. A Roman gong discovered
during mining operations in Wiltshire is thought to be from the 1st or 2nd
century.
3. China.
In China, the categorical term luo is used to identify gongs, preceded by a
prefix to specify type, size or regional variant. Gongs were mentioned in
Chinese literature from the early 9th century onwards by onomatopoeic
names such as shaluo and zheng (zhengluo). The encyclopedia Tongdian
(801 ce) reports that gongs were introduced into China from Central Asia
(Xiyu) and in use by the early 6th century. Recently, however, an earlier
gong (of unknown name) was found in a Han dynasty (206 bce – ce 220)
tomb in Guangxi province. This instrument is about 32 cm in diameter with
a large flat central striking area (c22 cm) and a narrow shoulder through
which three suspension rings are attached. The relationship between these
gongs and ‘bronze drums’ (Chinese: tonggu) is not known. ‘Bronze drums’
are indeed gong types of south-east Asian minority peoples, dating (in
China at least) from about the 6th century bce, or possibly earlier (see
Bronze drum).
Chinese gongs in use today are of several basic types. Small basin-shaped
gongs, with flat faces and narrow shoulders turned back at 90 degrees or
less are either suspended in individual frames (tied with cords through
holes in their shoulders or through rims extending out from these) or are
hand held and struck with small unpadded beaters. Basin-shaped gongs
known by names such as zheng, tongzheng and tongluo were cited and
pictured in the treatise Yueshu (c1100). The related Japanese shoko
(Chinese: zhenggu) used in gagaku appears to be a survival from this
period. In north China, basin-shaped gongs known as dangdang (c15 cm in
diameter, mounted in small ‘L’-shaped frames) were pictured in 16th-
century imperial processions and are still employed in the villages of Hebei
province. A more important instrument of this same type is the Yunluo
(‘cloud gong’), a set of ten or more diatonically-tuned small gongs
suspended together in a portable frame. Southern variants known as
jiaoluo (‘call gong’, c9 cm in diameter and hand held by a cord) and
xiangzhan (‘resonating cup’, c6 cm in diameter, which rests in a basket) are
employed in the chamber music of southern Fujian province and Taiwan.
Large knobbed gongs with raised central knob (or boss) and broad turned-
back shoulders (c25–45 cm in diameter) are suspended by two cords in
standing frames (similar to Javanese kempul), hung from poles (when used
in funeral processions) or hand held and struck with padded beaters. Most
commonly found in south-central China (especially among minority
peoples) and in coastal south-eastern China and Taiwan (among
Chaozhou people in particular), knobbed gongs bear local onomatopoeic
names such as gongluo, mangluo and others. Possibly related to or
derived from the ancient ‘bronze drum’, knobbed gongs have been pictured
in Chinese art from the 16th century onwards.
Changing-pitch gongs (where the pitch changes after striking) are used in
Beijing opera and in other northern and eastern opera genres. These have
convex surfaces and a flattened central area for striking, with narrow
shoulders. The daluo (‘large gong’, c30 cm in diameter) is hand held by a
cord and struck with a padded beater; its pitch descends. The xiaoluo
(‘small gong’ of c22 cm in diameter) is held by the fingertips (under the
shoulder of the instrument) and struck with an unpadded beater; its pitch
ascends. Gongs of this type were in use in Kunqu opera by about the 16th
or 17th centuries. Other regional names for similar gongs include suluo,
jingluo and shouluo.
The large gongs used in southern opera genres are basin-shaped or dish-
shaped, with shoulders of varying widths. Variants include the Chaozhou
shenbo (literally ‘deep slope’, c60–80 cm in diameter) and smaller douluo
(‘container gong’), both with flat striking surfaces, wide shoulders and
suspended in standing frames. Related to the douluo is an instrument
known in 18th-century sources as jin (‘metal’), a military gong suspended
by cords from a handle and struck with a padded beater (akin to the
Korean ching). Another southern gong type is the Cantonese wenluo (‘civil
gong’, also known as daluo, chaoluo etc.), which is a very large gong that
comes in differing sizes, with slightly convex surface and narrow shoulders,
suspended in a standing frame (similar to the Western tam-tam).
4. Western art music.
The earliest use of the gong in Western orchestral music is attributed to
Gossec in his Funeral Music for Mirabeau (1791; see fig.3). Subsequent
composers include: Steibelt (Romeo and Juliet, 1793); Le Sueur (Ossian
ou Les bardes, 1804); Spontini (La vestale, 1807); Bellini (Norma, 1831);
and Meyerbeer (Robert le diable, 1831). Outstanding examples of the use
of the large gong (tam-tam) include the solemn stroke in Tchaikovsky’s
Sixth Symphony and the impressive stroke to signify the death of Gerontius
(The Dream of Gerontius, Elgar). In The Planets (Mars) Holst prescribed a
tremolo throughout 39 bars concluding with a fff stroke. Solemn strokes on
a descending series of tam-tams are used with great effect in Messiaen’s
Et exspecto resurrectionem mortuorum (1964). Two tam-tams (acuto,
basso) are required in Stravinsky’s Introitus (1965), a player to each. For
The Rite of Spring (‘The Sacrifice’) Stravinsky requested a rapid glissando,
to be played on the surface of the tam-tam with a triangle beater. Strauss
wrote for a tremolo on four tam-tams (auf dem Theater) in Die Frau ohne
Schatten (1919). Puccini scored for a series of 11 tuned gongs (tam-tam
giappa) in Madama Butterfly, and a series of Chinese gongs in Turandot.
Cage's First Construction (in Metal) (1939) includes 12 graduated button
gongs, four gongs resting on pads, a water gong and a tam-tam;
Birtwistle's Triumph of Time (1971–2) requires nine tam-tams. Chromatic
gongs are now readily available, for example Thai gongs with a compass of
four octaves (C–c'''). Paiste produces a series of tuned gongs covering a
compass of four and a half octaves (C–f'''). One drawback with this type of
gong is that in manufacture they are hammered into the correct pitch, and
continued fortissimo playing is likely to affect the intonation. Indonesian and
Balinese gongs are also used. The Italian firm Ufip manufactures cast
gongs, which cannot be knocked out of pitch.
Among the more unusual treatments of the orchestral tam-tam are the
following: being kept in vibration by friction on the edge (The Pleasure
Dome of Kubla Khan (1917), Griffes); vibrated with a bow (Dimensions of
Time and Silence (1960), Penderecki); laid horizontally, without resonance
(El retablo de Maese Pedro (1922), Falla). In Double Music (1941) by John
Cage and Lou Harrison, a water gong is specified, to be lowered and
raised in a tub of water after striking. (A vibrating gong flattens in pitch
when lowered into water, as does a bell.) In Boulez's Rituel: in memoriam
Bruno Maderna (1974–5) one percussionist has seven graduated gongs
(1–7) and another seven graduated tam-tams (7–1); these two players
significantly control the pace of the work. A genuine Chinese tam-tam was
used to record the superimposed strokes heard on the J. Arthur Rank film
trademark. The Chinese opera gong, usually about 25 cm in diameter,
produces a very different type of sound: a sharp, high ‘splash’ of sound
with a rapid glissando (which may be upward or downward depending on
the gong).
The gong and the tam-tam are notated on a space in the staff or on a
single line. Tuned gongs are notated in either the treble or the bass clef.

See also Gong-chime.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BladesPI; MGG1 (J. Kunst)
E. Jacobson and J.H. van Hasselt: De Gong-Fabricatie te Semerang
(Leiden, 1907)
A.C. Moule: ‘A List of the Musical and Other Sound-Producing Instruments
of the Chinese’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, North China
Branch, xxxix (1908), 1–160; repr. separately (Buren, 1989)
H. Simbriger: ‘Gong und Gongspiele’, Internationales Archiv für
Ethnographie, xxxvi (1939), 1–172
K. Hayashi: Dongya yueqi kao (Study of East Asian musical instruments]
(Beijing, 1962/R)
J. Montagu: ‘What is a Gong?’, Man, lxv (1965), 18–21
D. Charlton: ‘New Sounds for Old: Tam-tam, Tuba Curva, Buccin’,
Soundings, iii (1973), 39–47
F. Harrison, ed.: Time, Place and Music: an Anthology of
Ethnomusicological Observation c.1550 to c.1800 (Amsterdam, 1973),
86
D. Charlton: Orchestration and Orchestral Practice in Paris, 1789 to 1810
(diss., U. of Cambridge, 1974)
T.D. Rossing: ‘Nonlinear Effects in Percussion Instruments’, Percussive
Notes, xix/3 (1982), 68–72
T.D. Rossing and R. Peterson: ‘Vibrations of Plates, Gongs, and
Cymbals’, ibid., 31–41
Yuan Bingchang and Mao Jizeng, eds.: Zhongguo shaoshu minzu yueqi
zhi [Dictionary of musical instruments of the Chinese minorities]
(Beijing, 1986)
P.-J. Croset: ‘The Making of Bronze Musical Instruments in Indonesia’,
Percussive Notes, xxv/3 (1987), 43–60
Han Kuo-Huang: ‘The Construction and use of the Knobbed Gong in
Taiwan’, Balungan, (1988), 11–14
S.C. DeVale: ‘Gong Forging in Bogor, West Java: the Process through its
Soundscape’, Pacific Review of Ethnomusicology, v (1989), 89–125
K.A. Legge and N.H. Fletcher: ‘Nonlinearity, Chaos, and the Sound of
Shallow Gongs’, JASA, lxxxvi (1989), 2439–43
Liu Dongsheng, ed.: Zhongguo yueqi tujian [Pictorial guide to Chinese
instruments] (Ji'nan 1992) [YYS pubn]
J. Maceda: ‘Aspects of Research on Gongs and Gong-Related Instruments
in Asia’, Theme and Variations: Writings on Music in Honor of Rulan
Chao Pian, ed. B. Yung and J.S.C. Lam (Cambridge, MA, 1994), 278–
89
JAMES BLADES/JAMES HOLLAND (1, 4), JAMES BLADES/R (2), ALAN
R. THRASHER (3)

Gong-chime.
Generic term for a set of small high-pitched bossed gongs placed upright,
usually in a row in pitch order stepwise, on or in a wooden frame, and
played by one to four musicians (each usually with two sticks (see Table 1).
Such instruments are common in many South-east Asian ensembles. Their
playing styles are almost invariably characterized by high rhythmic and
melodic density requiring much skill. Gong-chimes either have a prominent
soloistic role in the ensemble with virtuoso melodic embellishments
(generally the smaller, high-pitched gong-chimes), or they provide rhythm
and colour, sometimes having a colotomic role, as with lower-pitched gong-
chimes. In Javanese and Balinese gamelan all these playing styles are
used.
Sets of hand-held tuned gongs played with high rhythmic density (usually
in interlocking style) may also be included in the term ‘gong-chime’. Such
are the old type of Balinese reyong, the Philippine gangsa, and the gong
ensembles of some of the Vietnamese minorities of the mountainous
interior.
ERNST HEINS/R

Gong drum.
A bass drum with one head. See Drum, §II, 1.

Gonima, Manuel
(b c 1712; d Gerona, 26/7 Feb 1792). Spanish composer. During his youth
he lived in Barcelona, where he studied composition with Pablo Llina. In
1733 he applied unsuccessfully for the post of maestro de capilla at Vich
Cathedral but in 1735 he was made maestro de capilla at Gerona
Cathedral, a post he held until his death. In 1774 he handed over the most
demanding parts of his work to Francisco Juncá, but he continued
composing, attending divine service at the cathedral and carrying out other
duties. He was held in high esteem. His works include all the genres of
religious music in Latin as well as various villancicos in Spanish (E-Bc, G).
For his time Gonima was a particularly balanced and sober composer; his
style is characterized by skilful fugal and contrapuntal writing and effective
instrumentation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LaborD
F. Civil Castellví: ‘La capilla de música de la catedral de Gerona (siglo
XVIII)’, Anales del Instituto de estudios gerundenses, xix (1968–9),
131–88
JOSÉ LÓPEZ-CALO

Gönnenwein, Wolfgang
(b Schwäbisch Hall, 29 Jan 1933). German conductor and educationist. He
studied music in Stuttgart and read philosophy at Heidelberg and Tübingen
universities. In 1959 he became director of the South German Madrigal
Choir at Stuttgart (originally the Bruckner Choir founded by Johann
Nepomuk David), with which he developed an increasingly wide reputation
on successive tours to other European countries, including appearances at
English Bach Festival concerts in Oxford and London from 1964. He was
also director of the Cologne Bach Choir (1969–73), and he tours frequently
as a guest conductor, his repertory extending from Palestrina and Schütz
to such composers as Dallapiccola, Hindemith and Stravinsky.
Gönnenwein was appointed to the chair of choirmastership at the
Musikhochschule, Stuttgart, in 1968. He became principal of the Staatliche
Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst at Stuttgart in 1973, and
over the years his organization of music education in the region has been
much praised. In 1972 he became artistic director of the Ludwigsburg
Festival, where he made a successful début as an opera conductor in Die
Zauberflöte. Gönnenwein's conducting is distinguished by clarity and
directness, as can be heard in his recordings of the St Matthew Passion
and St John Passion, Haydn's The Creation and The Seasons and masses
by Mozart and Bruckner. From 1985 to 1992 he was Generalintendant of
the Stuttgart Staatsoper, and in 1996 he became artistic director of the
newly inaugurated Pfingstfestspiele (Whitsun Festival) in Baden-Baden.
WOLFRAM SCHWINGER/MARTIN ELSTE

Gontier de Soignies
(fl before 1220). French trouvère. He was presumably born in Soignies,
north of Mons in the province of Hainaut. His poetic style suggests that he
probably belonged to the first generation of trouvères. Two strophes of his
Lors que florist la bruiere (R.1322a) were quoted by Jean Renart in the
Roman de la rose ou de Guillaume de Dole (vv.5215ff), written in the
1220s; several of the interpolations in this roman appear to date from
around the turn of the century. Je n’en puis mon cuer blasmer quant il
soupire (R.1505a) requests the patronage of a count of Burgundy, possibly
Othon I (1190–1200). Lonc tens ai esté, attributed also to Aubin de Sezane,
quotes from a work by Gace Brulé.
Gontier was perhaps the most important creator not only of the rotrouenge
(the term occurs within five of his poems), but also of the so-called
Reihenstrophe, comprising three or more pairs of lines ending in ab
rhymes with optional close. Both forms constitute part of the earliest
stratum of northern French lyric poetry. Nevertheless, Gontier remained
outside the mainstream of the tradition. Many of his works survive in a
single manuscript (the Chansonnier de Noailles, F-Pn fr.12615, is the main
source), 14 occur without music, and only three survive in six or more
manuscripts. Only one, of contested authorship, provided the model for a
later imitation.
His poetic style is simple, in some respects archaic, and not free of
obscurity, but he nevertheless remains one of the most original of the
trouvères. Some scholars have found similarities between his treatment of
courtly love and that of Petrarch. His verse shows a decided preference for
shorter lines, primarily heptasyllables and octosyllables, although verses of
between three and six syllables are not rare. On the other hand, two
poems without music are among the small handful within the trouvère
repertory that are composed either primarily or entirely of endecasyllables.
There are only one or two rhymes in the main body of the strophe except
for Quant j'oi el breuil which has five (and a sixth for the refrain). Refrains
occur in all but four of the poems.
Similar poetic forms may give rise to a variety of musical forms. One
extreme is represented by Douce amours qui m'atalente which consists of
eight pairs of heptasyllabic lines, rhymed ab, and a two-line refrain. This is
set to a melody with two main elements, each stated eight times in
alternation, in original or varied form; phrases six and 17 provide the only
relief within a form akin to that which presumably governed the chanson de
geste. On the other hand, Renvoisiés sui quant voi verdir, which has four
 pairs of octosyllabic lines and a four-line refrain, is organized into three
musical sections, which in the reading of the Chansonnier Cangé (F-Pn
fr.846) follow the pattern ABCD, AB'CD, EFC'D'. Quant li tens, which
consists of four pairs of heptasyllabic lines and a two-line refrain, is non-
repetitive (although the tenth phrase of the reading in the Chansonnier de
l'Arsenal, F-Pa 5198, may be classed as a variant of the eighth). However,
with the exception of this work and A la douçor, Chanter m'estuet and L'an
que li dous chans retentist, which employ immediate repetition of the first
phrase, all melodies exhibit some sort of bar form.
In general, the melodies are simple and attractive – they are primarily
syllabic except for the more florid Chanter m'estuet – and convey a strong
sense of tonal centre. Authentic modes predominate, and nearly half of the
melodies employ g as the final. None of the melodies survives in mensural
notation. Occasionally the disposition of ligatures might perhaps suggest
the suitability of the 2nd mode; the clearest examples are in Quant li tens
and Lonc tens ai esté.
WORKS

Edition: Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete and Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler,
CMM, cvii (1997)

A la douçor des oiseaus, R.480 = 1041, ed. in Spanke

Au tens gent qui reverdoie, R.1753 [model for: Gautier de Coincy, ‘Puis que voi la
flor novelè’, R.600]
Chanter m'estuet de recomens, R.636, ed. in Gennrich (1925)
Doleureusement comence, R.622
Douce amours qui m'atalente, R.745
El mois d'esté que li tens rassoage, R.34
L'an que li dous chans retentist, R.1650
Li tens nouviaus et la douçours, R.2031
Merci, Amour, or ai mestier, R.1289
Quant j'oi el breuil, R.992
Quant j'oi tentir et bas et haut, R.396 = 395, ed. in Spanke
Quant li tens tourne a verdure, R.2115, ed. in Spanke
Se li oisel baissent lor chans, R.265a = 309
Tant ai mon chant entrelaissié, R.1089

works of uncertain authorship

Lonc tens ai esté, R.433 = 1741, ed. in Gennrich (1932)
Renvoisiés sui quant voi verdir les chans, R.265
Uns maus k'ainc mès ne senti, R.1079
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (F. Gennrich)
A. Scheler: Trouvères belges: nouvelle série (Leuven, 1879/R 1977 as
Trouvères belges du XIIe au XIVe siècle: première série et nouvelle
série)
F. Gennrich: Die altfranzösische Rotrouenge (Halle, 1925)
H. Spanke: Eine altfranzösische Liedersammlung (Halle, 1925)
F. Gennrich: Grundriss einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes
(Halle, 1932/R)
 L. Formisano, ed.: Gontier de Soignies: Il canzoniere (Milan, 1980)

For further bibliography see Troubadours, trouvères.

THEODORE KARP

Gontsov, Yury (Petrovich)

(b Naumovo, Ryazan province, 3 March 1946). Russian composer and
teacher. He studied the bayan at the Gnesin State Institute in Moscow
(1968–73) and composition with A.B. Luppov at the Kazan' Conservatory
(1977–81); the first concert devoted to his works took place in Astrakhan'
on 20 March 1978. Besides the bayan he has written for other folk
instruments, both Russian and Kalmyk, taking them out of their traditional
musical environments into a multifaceted avant-garde world, one where the
basic style often springs from poetry. He has also been active in promoting
the music of his contemporaries and of young composers, especially
through his 20th-century concert series and festival Astrakhan Evenings of
Contemporary Chamber Music. Since 1975 he has taught the bayan,
pedagogy and orchestration at the Astrakhan' State Conservatory.
WORKS
(selective list)

instrumental
Orch: Pf Conc. no.1, op.25, 1980; Pf Conc. no.2, op.39, 1986; Dzhangar-Variations,
op.42, Kalmyk folk orch, 1987; Sym. ‘Strasti po Andreyu’ [Passions According to
Andrey], op.43, ww, perc, org, 1987; Liki oseni [The Faces of Autumn], poetical
associations, chbr orch, op.52, 1991
Chbr: Suite in an Old Style, op.14, vn, pf, 1977; Sonata, op.15, pf, 1978; Trio, op.20,
fl, va, pf, 1978; Str Qt, op.40, 1986; Muzïka sutok [The Music of a Day and a Night],
op.38a, folk qnt, 1994; Triptych ‘Skazaniya Bumbulvï’ [Bumbulva's Tales], after the
Kalmyk epic poem: Dzhangar, op.48a, qt, 1994; Otkroveniya [Revelations], op.59,
tpt, pf, 1995; Mea culpa, op.60, brass qnt, 1995; Saul i Pavel, op.63, cl, b cl, 1997;
Sonata v shesti videniyakh [Sonata in six visions], op.64, fl (1997)
Bayan: Sonata, op.5, 1974; Sonata, op.26, 1980; Sonata, op.35, 1983; 24 preludes
and fugues, op.47, 1989
Incid music for theatre
vocal
Astrakhanskiye stranitsï [Astrakhan' Pages] (Astrakhan' folk texts), op.17a, Mez,
orch, 1978; Poyashchiy luk [The Singing Bow] (African texts), op.31, S, fl, perc, pf,
db, 1981; Russkiye pesni A. Kol'tsova [The Russian songs of A. Kol'tsov], op.34,
chorus, 1983; Glubinï lunnoy nochi [The Depths of a Moonlit Night] (V. Kaltïnya),
op.44, S, org, 1988; 2 nemetskiye akvareli ‘v belom bezmolvii’ [2 German Water
colours in the White Silence], op.51, Mez, Bar, pf, 1990; Doroga [The Road] (Ya.
Polonsky), op.53, B, cl, alto domra, vc, pf, 1992; A Sojourn of the Spirit (J. Brown),
sym.- cant., op.55, S, Mez, T, B, chbr orch, 1994; Sledi vnutr [Footrints turned
inwards], op.67, B, pf (1998)
Principal publisher: Sovetskiy kompozitor

WRITINGS
‘Vo imya chego?’ [In the name of what?], MAk (1996), no.1, pp.74–9
LUDMILA PAVLOVNA KAZANTZEVA

Gonzaga.
Italian family of music patrons. They ruled Mantua and the Mantuan
territories between 1328 and 1707 as captains and marquises and from
1530 as dukes, a title bestowed on them by the Holy Roman Emperor. After
the death of Vincenzo II in 1627, the direct line became extinct and the
succession eventually passed to the Gonzagas of Nevers. From 1536 the
Gonzagas also ruled the marquisate of Casale Monferrato, and other
branches of the family ruled over Bozzolo, Sabbioneta, Novellara,
Castiglione, Guastalla and Luzzara.
The period of the captains and the first marquises was marked by
important performing and didactic activities, particularly in the school
founded by Vittorino da Feltre under the patronage of Gianfrancesco
Gonzaga (d 1444), which Gaffurius attended in his youth. The arrival at
Mantua in 1490 of Isabella d'Este (1474–1539) as wife of Francesco II (d
1519) marks the beginning of one of the most brilliant periods at the
Gonzaga court. While the Franco-Flemish school continued to find favour,
the popular native frottola also flourished there, and many of the leading
frottolists, including Bartolomeo Tromboncino and Marchetto Cara, either
lived at the Gonzaga court or maintained relations with it. In 1510
Francesco II established a permanent court chapel, after which the
Gonzaga musicians served both the court and the principal churches of the
city. Federico II (d 1540) was particularly active in promoting musical
performances, but his brother Cardinal Ercole, who ruled from 1540,
exerted a more lasting influence and founded an ecclesiastical chapel
which rivalled the court establishment.
The palatine basilica of S Barbara was founded by Guglielmo Gonzaga (d
1587), a skilled administrator and competent composer, and completed
shortly after his accession. During his reign and that of his son Vincenzo I,
several distinguished composers were successively associated with the
Mantuan court, including Alessandro Striggio (i), Gastoldi, Wert and
Benedetto Pallavicino. Monteverdi is first recorded at the court as an
instrumentalist between 1589 and 1590. Vincenzo I (d 1612) regarded
music as a necessary ornament of court life, and the development of
theatrical productions and the expansion of the musical establishment that
took place during his rule can be attributed to his idealized concept –
celebratory, ceremonial, spectacular – of the role of a prince. Musical
productions included Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607), Arianna (1608) and Il
ballo delle ingrate (1608), Marco da Gagliano's Dafne (1608) and two plays
by Guarini, Il pastor fido and L'idropica, which included elaborate intermedi
with music. The music for L'idropica was provided by Monteverdi, his
brother Giulio Cesare, Salamone Rossi, Gastoldi, Gagliano and Paolo Birt.
After Vincenzo's death the duchy experienced a severe financial crisis,
which caused a decline in musical activities despite the strong musical
interests of Ferdinando Gonzaga (d 1626). He succeeded to the duchy in
1612 and was an amateur composer who had close contacts with the early
17th-century Florentine school. Theatrical works with music attracted the
considerable favour and attention of the Nevers branch of the Gonzaga
family (Carlo II (d 1665) was a singer), who succeeded after the sack of
Mantua by the imperial army in 1630. The last Gonzaga duke, Ferdinando
Carlo, employed Caldara as maestro di cappella between 1701 and 1707.
Between 1665 and 1707 he granted many licences for the patronage of
virtuosos, actors and ballerinas. The family archives and those of the court
are at Mantua (in I-MAa), and most of the surviving printed and manuscript
music from the S Barbara collection is at Milan (in I-Mc).

See also Gonzaga, Francesco.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BertolottiM
FenlonMM
P. Canal: ‘Della musica in Mantova’, Memorie del R. Istituto veneto di
scienze, lettere ed arti, xxi (1881), 655–774
A. Luzio: L'archivio Gonzaga di Mantova (Mantua, 1920)
S. Brinton: The Gonzaga, Lords of Mantua (London, 1927)
Mostra iconografica gonzaghesca: catalogo (Mantua, 1937)
M. Bellonci: I segreti dei Gonzaga (Milan, 1947; part Eng. trans., 1956, as
A Prince of Mantua: the Life and Times of Vincenzo Gonzaga)
J. Lauts: Isabella d'Este (Hamburg, 1952)
G. Coniglio and others, eds.: Mantova: la storia (Mantua, 1958–63)
C. Gallico: Un libro di poesia per musica dell'epoca di Isabella d'Este
(Mantua, 1961)
G. Coniglio: I Gonzaga (Milan, 1967)
P.M. Tagmann: ‘La cappella dei maestri cantori della basilica palatina di
Santa Barbara a Mantova (1565–1630): nuovo materiale scoperto
negli archivi mantovani’, Civiltà mantovana, iv (1970), 376–400
C. Gallico: ‘Josquin nell'archivio Gonzaga’, RIM, vi (1971), 205–10
M. Fabbri: ‘La cappella musicale dei Gonzaga a Mantova’, NRMI, viii
(1974), 371–7
E. Zanetti: ‘Ancora sul catalogo dell'archivio musicale dei Gonzaga’, NRMI,
viii (1974), 377–81
I. Fenlon: ‘Music and Spectacle at the Gonzaga Court, c.1580–1600’,
PRMA, ciii (1976–7), 90–105
C. Gallico: ‘Corte e beni musicali a Mantova, duca Guglielmo Gonzaga’,
IMSCR XIII: Strasbourg 1982, ii, 253
R. Sherr: ‘Mecenatismo musicale a Mantova: le nozze di Vincenzo
Gonzaga e Margherita Farnese’, RIM, xix (1984), 3–20
C. Mozzarelli: Mantova e i Gonzaga (Turin, 1987)
P. Besutti: La corte musicale di Ferdinando Carlo Gonzaga ultimo duca di
Mantova (Mantua, 1989)
S.H. Parisi: Ducal Patronage of Music in Manua, 1587–1627: an Archival
Study (diss., U. of Illinois, 1989)
CLAUDIO GALLICO

Gonzaga, (Francisca Edwiges

Neves) Chiquinha
(b Rio de Janeiro, 17 Oct 1847; d Rio de Janeiro, 28 Feb 1935). Brazilian
composer, pianist and conductor. She studied the piano in Rio de Janeiro
with José de Sousa Lobo and the Portuguese pianist Napoleão dos
Santos. However, her wealthy husband Jacinto Ribeiro do Amaral, whom
she married in 1863, disapproved of her musical career and at the age of
20 she separated from him. She married again – her second husband was
João Batista de Carvalho – and once more separated, in 1876; she found
work as a piano teacher to help support her children. Her first success as a
composer came with the publication in 1877 of the polka Atraente. She
wrote music for several operettas; the first, A corte na roça (to a libretto by
Francisco Sodré), was first performed at the Teatro Príncipe Imperial on 17
January 1885, gained her the name ‘the feminine Offenbach’. In 1885 she
directed the theatre orchestra and the band of the military police, becoming
the first woman to conduct an orchestra in Brazil. She was an enthusiastic
supporter of the Brazilian movements for the end of slavery (1888) and the
proclamation of the Republic (1889).
Gonzaga composed 77 stage works (1885–1933) to subjects dealing
mostly with local, everyday events, and she collaborated with the most
famous Brazilian playwrights of the time. The popularity of these works is
evidenced by the three-act operetta Forrobodó (1912), which received
1500 performances. Her tango O Gaúcho, written for the play Zizinha
maxixe (1895) and based on the folkdance corta-jaca, became one of her
most famous pieces at the turn of the century. She travelled extensively
between 1901 and 1910, performing in Spain, France, Italy, England and
especially Portugal, where her operettas enjoyed unprecedented
popularity. Her march Ô abre-alas (1899) became the prototype of the
‘carnival march’, a popular genre in the 1920s.
Over 300 of her works in dance and song forms were published, including
waltzes, polkas, tangos, mazurkas, quadrilles, gavottes, habaneras,
barcarolles, serenatas, maxixes, lundus, fados, modinhas, marchas and
choros.

For discussion of her nationalizing of European dance forms see Brazil,

§III, 1.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 M. Lira: Chiquinha Gonzaga: grande compositora brasileira (Rio de
Janeiro, 1939)
L.H. Corrêa de Azevedo: 150 anos de música no Brasil, 1800–1950 (Rio
de Janeiro, 1956), 145–51
G. Béhague: Popular Musical Currents in the Art Music of the Early
Nationalistic Period in Brazil, circa 1870–1920 (diss., Tulane U., LA,
1966), 133–6
Enciclopédia da música brasileira (São Paulo, 1977), i, 322–7 [incl. list of
works], 448; ii, 745
V. Mariz: A canção brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 3/1977), 195–9
E. Diniz: Chiquinha Gonzaga: uma história de vida (Rio de Janeiro, 1984)
[incl. list of works]
A. Vasconcelos: Raízes da música brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1991), 263–
89 [incl. list of works]
CRISTINA MAGALDI

Gonzaga, Francesco
(b Mantua, bap. 8 Nov 1590; d Mantua,1 Aug 1628). Italian composer. He
belonged to a cadet branch of the ruling house of Mantua and spent his
whole life in that city. He devoted all his adult years to the ducal church of S
Barbara, where he was first appointed as clerk in April 1608. He served as
a substitute sub-deacon from December 1608 to May 1610 and as a
substitute deacon from December 1610 to August 1612. He was chaplain
from September 1612 until, in August 1617, he was given a benefice,
which he held until July 1623. During this time he was one of four
beneficed priests responsible for chanting the Offices and the intonations
during services. From the following month until his death he was a minor
canon. In addition he was maestro di canto fermo from February 1624 to
March 1626. He wrote a certain amount of music for S Barbara, some of
which is lost. The surviving works comprise psalms for various hours of the
Office, a Magnificat, a Salve regina and litanies, all for four voices, and the
five-part Missa ‘Non vos relinquam’. Some of these works are dated 1625,
a few are definitely early works (his first compositions date from 1611), and
several others seem to belong to his later years. His only known secular
printed collection is dedicated to Carlo Mandrutio, Cardinal and Prince of
Trent. This volume comprises 18 canzonettas for three voices and five solo
songs, two of which are settings of the same sacred text. The solo songs
(which are printed in the basso continuo partbook) are principally in three
triple-metre sections with a brief instrumental ending and represent a
transitional stage between the simple strophic aria and the more complex
cantata.
WORKS
MSS in I-Mc Fondo S Barbara unless otherwise stated

Il primo libro delle canzonette … con … arie, 1, 3vv, chit/other inst (Venice, 1619)

Psalmi ad horas … cum Salve regina ac Letaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis, 4vv; 3
psalmi ad nonam, 4vv; 3 psalmi ad sextam, 4vv; 3 psalmi ad nonam, 4vv
Salmi, Magnificat, 4vv (illuminated codex, ded. Gastoldi)
Missa ‘Non vos relinquam’, 5vv, I-UD (illuminated S Barbara codex, 1622)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FenlonMM
FortuneISS
P.M. Tagmann: ‘La cappella dei maestri cantori della basilica palatina di
Santa Barbara a Mantova (1565–1630)’, Civiltà mantovana, iv (1970),
376–400, esp. 383
F. Campogalliani: ‘Francesco Gonzaga: un sacerdote nella storia musicale
della chiesa palatina di Santa Barbara’, Civiltà mantovana, viii (1974),
277–92
S. Parisi: Ducal Patronage of Music in Mantua, 1587–1627: an Archival
Study (diss., U. of Illinois, 1989), 448–9
NIGEL FORTUNE (with SUSAN PARISI)

Gonzaga, Guglielmo
(b Mantua, 24 April 1538; d Goito, nr Mantua, 14 Aug 1587). Italian
composer and patron of music. Shortly before he succeeded his uncle,
Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga, as Duke of Mantua in 1556, he founded the
palatine basilica of S Barbara, which was completed in 1565 with an
impressive organ designed by Girolamo Cavazzoni and constructed by the
Brescian builder Graziadio Antegnati (i). Throughout his reign he
maintained a strong interest in the music of the new chapel, then directed
by Wert and Gastoldi, as well as in court music. He secured from Pope
Gregory XIII a concession, dated 10 November 1583, for S Barbara's
specially constituted college of canons to practise an independent liturgy,
and he was personally involved in attempts to attract Marenzio and
Annibale Zoilo to Mantua. Although he failed in this, mainly because of
Vatican political machinations, his relationship with Palestrina seems to
have been close; Palestrina composed a series of masses on chants from
the S Barbara liturgy, which reflect the alternatim method of performance
practised there, and his motets Gaude Barbara beata and Beata Barbara
were also presumably composed for the ducal chapel. Palestrina and
Guglielmo corresponded from 1568 until the duke's death, discussing
Guglielmo's own compositions and the chants that he sent to Palestrina,
who later proposed to publish them in the revised version of the
antiphonary and gradual. Guglielmo also appears to have been on good
terms with Wert. His earliest published composition, Padre ch'el ciel (a
different setting from that in RISM 158313), appeared in Wert's fourth book
of five-voice madrigals (1567); but there is no evidence to support Carol
MacClintock's contention (CMM, xxiv/4, 1965) that further works by him
were published in Wert’s madrigal books.
The anonymous Madrigali a cinque voci (158313) can be identified as
Guglielmo's since the opening setting, Padre ch'el ciel, was used as a
parody model by Lodovico Agostini in Le lagrime del peccatore a sei voci
(Venice, 1586), where he revealed the composer of the original. Quotations
from Guglielmo's madrigals can also be found among the numerous
musical and textual references in Girolamo Belli's I furti (Venice, 1584). The
Sacrae cantiones (15831), which also appeared anonymously, is probably
his work, since the copies which came from the S Barbara library (now in I-
Mc SB8) are inscribed ‘Mottetti di S[ua]. A[ltezza]. a 5’ (‘Motets by His
 Highness for five voices’) in a contemporary hand. Moreover, this is
probably the publication of which Guglielmo sent a copy to Palestrina in
August 1584 and to which Pallavicino referred admiringly in the dedication
of his Primo libro de madrigali a sei voci (Venice, 1587). The appearance of
these two anonymous volumes published in the same year by Gardane
raises the possibility that the anonymous Villotte mantovane (Venice,
1583), also published by Gardane, is Guglielmo's work as well. A series of
letters (now in I-MAa) refers to the lost Magnificat settings printed by
Gardane (1586); two manuscripts from the Fondo S Barbara (9 and 13,
now in I-Mc) containing anonymous Magnificat settings may include the
contents of the lost volumes (the Sacrae cantiones are duplicated in this
way).
Guglielmo's activities as a composer place him with a small group of
contemporary or near-contemporary aristocrats – among them Alessandro
Striggio (i), Gesualdo, Del Turco and Fontanelli – whose open
compositional activities symbolize a significant alteration in the attitudes of
North Italian court society towards composers. It is worth noting, however,
that Duke Guglielmo, whose social status was much higher than these
others, preferred to publish his music anonymously. It was no doubt for his
practical attempts as well as for his generous patronage that composers
flattered him, dedicated works to him and corresponded with him on
musical matters; among the many who did so apart from Palestrina and
Wert are Vincenzo Galilei, Francisco Guerrero, Alessandro Striggio and
Giovanni Maria Nanino. It is clear from his correspondence with Palestrina
that Guglielmo sent to him for criticism a motet and a madrigal in 1570, a
mass in 1574 and further ‘canti’ in 1585 and 1587. Even with such
distinguished advice, Guglielmo's attempt to become an admired composer
incognito does not seem to have generated widespread enthusiasm, and in
1586, on account of the small sales of one of the earlier publications,
Gardane respectfully refused to publish a Magnificat that the duke had
recently composed. Moreover, Guglielmo's severely conservative musical
tastes and austere conception of the role of music in the affairs of a well-
regulated post-Reformation Catholic state imposed serious constraints on
the artistic freedom of Mantuan composers during the last decade of his
rule.
WORKS
all anonymous unless otherwise stated

Sacrae cantiones in festis duplicibus maioribus ecclesiae Sanctae Barbarae, 5vv

(Venice, 15831); ed. in SCMot, xxviii (1990)
Madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 158313); ed. in SCMad, xiv (1995)
Villotte mantovane, 4vv (Venice, 1583), inc.; possibly incl. pieces by Gonzaga
[VogelB (1892) 15837]
Madrigal, 5vv, in Giaches de Wert: Il quarto libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1567);
ed. in CMM, xxiv/4 (1965)

3 masses, 5vv, I-Mc (attrib. Gonzaga in catalogue); Te Deum, CMac, MAad, Mc, UD
(all copies attrib. Gonzaga); motet, 5vv, Mc
Magnificat settings, 5vv, (1586) (attrib. Gonzaga), [?= Mc SB9, 13]

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BertolottiM
EinsteinIM
FenlonMM
P. Canal: Della musica in Mantova (Venice, 1881/R)
F.X. Haberl: ‘Das Archiv der Gonzaga’, KJb, i (1886), 31–45
K. Jeppesen: ‘Über einen Brief Palestrinas’, Festschrift Peter Wagner zum
60. Geburtstag, ed. K. Weinmann (Leipzig, 1926/R), 100–07
G. Cesari: ‘L'archivio musicale di S. Barbara in Mantova ed una messa di
Guglielmo Gonzaga’, Theodor Kroyer: Festschrift, ed. H. Zenck, H.
Schultz and W. Gerstenberg (Regensburg, 1933), 118–29
O. Strunk: ‘Guglielmo Gonzaga and Palestrina's Missa Dominicalis’, MQ,
xxxiii (1947), 228–39; repr. in Essays on Music in the Western World
(New York, 1974), 94–107
K. Jeppesen: ‘Pierluigi da Palestrina, Herzog Guglielmo Gonzaga und die
neugefundenen Mantovaner-Messen Palestrinas’, AcM, xxv (1953),
132–79
C. Gallico: ‘Guglielmo Gonzaga signore della musica’, NRMI, xi (1977),
321–34
R. Sherr: ‘The Publications of Guglielmo Gonzaga’, JAMS, xxxi (1978),
118–25
R. Sherr: ‘Mecenatismo musicale a Mantova: le nozze di Vincenzo
Gonzaga e Margherita Farnese’, RIM, xix (1984), 3–20
P. Besutti: ‘Catalogo tematico delle monodie liturgiche della Basilica
Palatina di S. Barbara in Mantova: I canti dell'Ordinario’, Le fonti
musicali in Italia, studi e ricerche, ii (1988), 53–66
D. Butchart: ‘The Letters of Alessandro Striggio: an Edition with
Translation and Commentary’, RMARC, xxiii (1990), 1–78
I. Fenlon: ‘Patronage, Music and Liturgy in Renaissance Mantua’,
Plainsong in the Age of Polyphony, ed. T. Kelly (Cambridge, 1992),
209–35
I. Fenlon, ed.: Giaches Wert: Letters and Documents (Paris, 1999)
IAIN FENLON

Gonzalez.
French firm of organ builders. The founder, Victor [Victorino] Gonzalez (b
Hacinas, Burgos, 2 Dec 1877; d Paris, 3 June 1956), trained with Cavaillé-
Coll (1894–9) and worked for Gutschenritter, Limonaire and Masure before
going into partnership with Victor Ephrème at Malakoff, near Paris, in 1921;
from 1929 he and his son Fernand (1904–40) worked together as
Etablissements Gonzalez in Châtillon. The influential support of Norbert
Dufourcq and the organist André Marchal gradually led to the creation of
the neo-classical or eclectic organ, seeking to fuse elements of the French
classical organ with the then dominant late-Romantic style. Rudolf von
Beckerath, who worked in the shop until 1936, introduced German
influences. Georges Danion, who married Victor’s granddaughter, headed
the firm after 1956, incorporating workshops in Rambervillers from 1963
and later Lodève, and transferring the headquarters to Brunoy in 1965.
From the 1980s the company’s operations diminished, and by the end of
the 20th century only the Lodève shop remained active.
The Gonzalez firm has used many types of action, including a wire-and-
pulley system for mechanical action or Barker levers for coupling
mechanisms. Having favoured moderate wind pressures, over the decades
the tonal design came to emphasize mixture choruses and mutations.
Significant three- and four-manual Gonzalez instruments include St
Eustache, Paris (1932; rebuilt 1967), Reims Cathedral (1938), the chapel
at Versailles (1938; reconstitution of pre-Revolution tonal design), Soissons
Cathedral (1956; widely considered the firm’s pivotal masterpiece), the
Oratoire du Louvre, Paris (1962), Chartres Cathedral (1971) and Beauvais
Cathedral (1979). Many mid-century French organists ordered house
organs from Gonzalez. The firm has also done extensive, occasionally
controversial work on historical organs (some examples are the Prytanée
Militaire, La Flèche, Auch Cathedral, and St Nicolas-des-Champs, St
Vincent-de-Paul, Ste Marie Madeleine and St Gervais-St Protais in Paris).
As a creative pioneer, Victor Gonzalez was largely responsible for bridging
the stylistic gap between the staid emulation of Cavaillé-Coll and the
historicism of late 20th-century organ designs. Opinions vary as to the
appropriateness of paths taken after his death, but he is without doubt the
emblematic figure of French organ building of the mid-20th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Bingham: ‘Victor Gonzalez: Master Builder’, Organ Institute Quarterly,
vi/2 (1956), 17–31
‘Hommage à Victor Gonzalez’, L’orgue, no.81 (1956), 97–148 [various
authors]
‘Les monuments historiques au service des orgues de France’, Les
monuments historiques de la France, viii/2–3 (1962) [whole issue]
F. Sabatier: ‘Victor Gonzalez et son activité à Paris’, Orgues en l’Ile-de-
France (Paris, 1996), 87–94
KURT LUEDERS

González, Hilario
(b Havana, 24 Jan 1920; d Havana, 3 Oct 1999). Cuban composer,
musicologist, pianist and teacher. He studied music in Cienfuegos then
Havana, where he attended classes by Jascha Fishermann (piano) and
Ardévol (composition). He was a member of the Grupo de Renovacion
Musical founded by Ardévol at the Municipal Conservatory, and – together
with Orbón – wrote the manifesto Presencia cubana en la musica universal
(Havana, 1945). In the 1940s he was a notable music, film and theatre
critic. He lived in Caracas (1947–60), were he taught the piano, directed
the Coral de Venezuela, was musical adviser to the Teatro Ateneo of
Caracas (1950–58) and provided incidental music for plays. On his return
to Cuba he taught the piano and worked in the media. He was a
musicologist at the National Museum of Music from its foundation in 1971,
and researched the works of Salas y Castro and Caturla.
His most important compositions are the song cycles and piano works. Dos
danzas afrocubanas (1938) and Tres preludios en conga (1938), both for
piano, link him closely to Roldán and Caturla, in whose work nationalism
was a clear presence. Works influenced by neo-classicism include the
Paqueña suite (1941) and Sonata in A (1942), both for piano, and the
 Concertino in D (1944). (E. Martín: Panorama histórico de la música en
Cuba, Havana, 1971)
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Antes del Alba (ballet, A. Alonso), 1945; incid. music

Orch: Dos danzas (op, 2), 1943; Suite de Romeo y Julieta, 1945; Danzón, pf, chbr
orch, 1945; Sinfoniá no.1, 1946; Conc., E , pf, orch, 1946
Chbr: Concertino, D, ob, bn, va, pf, 1944; Sonata, D, vn, pf, 1957; Str Qt, C, 1959;
Cañaveral, chbr ens, 1963–4; Funeral de Montezuma, wind ens, tape, 1986;
Tríptico, chbr ens, tape, 1988
Solo pf: Dos danzas afrocubanas, 1938; Tres preludios en conga, 1938; Paqueña
suite, 1941; Sonata, A, op.8, 1942; Jugando al son, 1964
Vocal: Canciones de júbilo y fuga (Ballagas), 1939; Miniaturas, 1v, pf, 1940;
Primera suite de canciones (Ballagas), 1v, chbr ens, 1940; Segunda suite de
canciones cubanas (Florit and Cucalambé), 1v, pf, 1945; Llanto por Ignacio
Sánchez Mejias (Lorca), cant., 4 solo vv, vv, orch, perc, ondes martenot, 1956;
Canciones por esta libertad (Varios), 1v, pf, 1962–4; Corona fúnebre a la memoria
de Ernesto Che Guevara, S, orch, 1967; Los zapaticos de rosa (Martí), cant., 6 solo
vv, vv, 1979; Canción para las noches (A. Suárez), 1980; Canción para los días
(Suárez), 1980; Entre casados de honor (M. de Cervantes), 1v, gui, 1980

Principal publisher: Editora Musical de Cuba

VICTORIA ELI RODRÍGUEZ

González, Jaime
(b Quillota, 7 March 1956). Chilean composer. He studied with Cirilo Vila,
Juan Amenábar, Miguel Letelier and Juan Lemann (1974–81) and obtained
the licentiate in composition from the arts faculty of the University of Chile
(1981). From 1977 he taught music in Chilean schools at elementary and
intermediate levels and from 1982 at the University of Playa Ancha and the
University of Talca. He has been an associate professor at the Universidad
Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación since 1987.
González's works have been performed in various places in South America
and Europe, and also in Lebanon and Israel. His motet Jesucristo sálvanos
earned him third prize in the 1978 Chilean National Choir Federation and
Beethoven Association Competition. In 1986 he won the third prize of the
Overture Composition Competition of the University of Chile with his
Obertura de concerto for orchestra.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Manzino, ed.: Compositores de Americanos/Composers of the
Americas, xx (Washington DC, 1993), 54–62
LEONARDO MANZINO
 González (García de) Acilu,
Agustín
(b Alsasua, 12 Feb 1929). Spanish composer. He began his training in
Alsasua with Luis Taberna, and continued in Madrid with Julio Gómez,
Calés Otero and Padre Enrique Massó. He later completed his studies in
Paris, Rome, Venice and Darmstadt. He taught harmony at the Madrid
Conservatory (1978–94) and composition at the Pablo Sarasate
Conservatory in Pamplona (1984–7), and was a visiting professor at the
University of Oviedo. He won the Samuel Ros Prize (1962) and the
National Music Prize (1971, 1998).
In the field of linguistic research applied to the language of music, his work
is without precedent in Spanish music. However, if his phonetic research
has given rise to vocal scores of undisputed significance, this in no way
lessens the importance of his purely instrumental works, whether chamber
or orchestral. His works are strongly Expressionist, and each of them
represents a broadening of techniques and media in relation to the
preceding one.
WORKS

Principal publishers: Alpuerto, Arte Tripharia, EMEC

dramatic and vocal

Dramatic: Música y palabras (incid music, S. Beckett), 1966; Izena ur izana [II]
(ballet), 1979 [see choral]
Choral: Simbiosis (R. Bellés), 3 male vv, 1 female v, chbr ens, 1969; Oratorio
panlingüístico (A. Zatarain), S, A, T, Bar, B, orch, 1970; Interfonismos (González
Acilu, Hafiz), S, Bar, chorus, orch, tape, 1971; Hymne an Lesbierinnen (G. Rhüm),
1v, 1972, arr. female chorus/children’s chorus, 1986; Cantata semiofónica (J.M.
Satrústegui), S, Bar, chorus, wordless chorus, orch, 1972–5; Arrano beltza (A.
Artze), 4 solo vv, chorus, 1975–6; Izena ur izana [I–II] (S. Muniategui, I. Mugika),
chorus, 1979; Libro de los Proverbios Cap.VIII (Bible: Proverbs), solo vv, chbr
chorus/chorus, 1983; Pater noster ‘A Luis Morondo in memoriam’ (Padre Nuesto),
chorus, 1983; Oi Lur, Hain Hur (X. Amuriza), 2 choruses, orch, 1988–9; Matritum
urbs antiqua (R. Irigoyen), chorus, orch, 1993–4; Joyce Poems, S, orch, 1998
Solo vocal (1v, pf unless otherwise stated): Dilatación fonética (P. Teilhard de
Chardin), 1v, 2 va, 2 vc, 1967; Aschermittwoch (H.M. Enzensberger), 1v, chbr ens,
1968; Omaggio a P.P. Pasolini (P.P. Pasolini: La religione del mio tempo), 1v, cl,
1976; Bienaventuranzas (A. Koestler), 1992; Poemario Saro-Espinosiano, 1998
Other vocal: Seriegrafonía, S, Bar, fl, hn, vc, 1971; G.G.G. in memoriam (G.
Gombau), 1v, str trio, 1972
instrumental
Orch: Conc., str, 1964; Interacciones, 1968, rev. 1978; Entropías, 1972–3; Vc
Conc., 1982; Triple concierto, vn, vc, pf, orch, 1987–8; Sym. no.1, 1990;
Variaciones ónticas, 1991; Conc., 2 vn, orch, 1996–7
Chbr: Sucesiones superpuestas (Str Qt no.1), 1962; Contracturas, chbr ens, 1966;
Sexteto, 2 vn, 2 va, 2 vc, 1990;
Solo inst: Presencias, pf, 1967; Partita óntica, pf, 1987; Pieza breve, pf, 1991
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Pliego: Catálogo de obras de Agustín González Acilu (Madrid, 1992)
M. Cureses: Arrano Beltza, Izena ur izana, EMEC (1996) [disc notes]
M. Cureses: El compositor Agustín González Acilu: la estética de la
tensión (Madrid, 1995) [incl. work-list]
M. Cureses: ‘González Acilu: la significación de un compositor navarro en
el panorama de la música española contemporánea’, Historia general
de Navarra III: Navarra 1998
MARTA CURESES

González Barrón, Ramón

(b Villanueva del Campo, 12 Aug 1897; d Villanueva del Campo, 30 July
1987). Spanish composer and choirmaster. He studied at the seminary in
León and at the Universidad Eclesiástica of Santiago, obtaining a degree in
theology in 1923. At the same time he studied solfège and the piano with
Coggiola and harmony and counterpoint with Uriarte; in Madrid he studied
composition with Emilio Vega. He took successive appointments as
choirmaster at the cathedrals of Mondoñedo (1921), Astorga (1926) and
Madrid (1946).
Although González Barrón’s music never received much attention, his
numerous writings, lectures and concerts had a great influence. In all his
activities he fought for the purity and dignity of religious music, particularly
in the diocese of Madrid. He founded in 1959 the Agrupación Coral Nuestra
Señora de la Almudena, with which he gave many concerts, performing a
repertory of consistently high quality. In addition, he was consultant to
various diocesan and national commissions on the liturgy and sacred
music, was one of the principal organizers of the fifth Congreso Nacional
de Música Sagrada in Madrid (1954), and contributed many articles to
leading Spanish music journals and to Psalterium (Rome). His
compositions include four Latin masses, three Spanish masses, psalms,
motets and sacred and secular songs. Most are unpublished (some
manuscripts are in the Madrid Cathedral archives), but a few have been
printed by the Ediciones Catedral of Madrid Cathedral and the Unión
Musical Española.
JOSÉ LÓPEZ-CALO

González Gamarra, Francisco

(b Cuzco, 1890; d Lima, 1972). Peruvian composer and painter. He
belonged to the group of early 20th-century Cuzco musicians known as
‘the four greats of Cuzco’: self-taught, they primarily wrote piano music,
which displayed simple harmonies and elementary structures. Though
González Gamarra started out by composing short pieces in Classical and
Romantic styles, he went on to explore traditional indigenous melodies
which he extended, developed and powerfully harmonized. His increasingly
refined language took on Impressionist and polytonal traces, while his work
 as a painter may be seen to have left its effect in the light and airy
sonorities of such works as Noche de luna en el Cuzco and the Suite for
orchestra. The latter won him the Premio Nacional de Música ‘Dunker-
Lavalle’.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Suite
Pf: Ensayos musicales (Lima, 1935): Willk a-mayu, Kosko napayacuykin, Sajsa-
uma-pukara, Machu pijchu, Chuki-Ilautu; Homenaje a Garcilazo Inca (Lima, 1941);
Nocturno ‘Adios a Lima’ (Lima, 1944); Paisajes musicales ‘Noche de luna en el
Cuzco’; Chaychampi; No te puedo olvidar; Vicuña
Songs: 2 canciones (Lima, 1944): Amor del alma sol (J. Hernández), Scent of
Roses

BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Pinilla: ‘Informe sobre la música en el Perú’, Historia del Perú, ix, ed. J.
Mejía Baca (Lima, 1980), 363–677
E. Pinilla: ‘La música en el siglo XX’, La música en el Perú (Lima, 1985),
125–213
ENRIQUE ITURRIAGA

González Gaytán y Artiaga, (Juan)

Manuel
(b Córdoba, c1710; d Córdoba, 1785). Spanish composer. He was a
choirboy in Córdoba Cathedral during Agustín Contreras's term as maestro
de capilla (1706–51); in 1748 and possibly earlier he was in Italy. He was
appointed maestro de capilla of Segovia Cathedral on 12 June 1741 and
after a decade there he took up the same post at Córdoba Cathedral on 22
December 1751, retiring in 1780.
His Latin works (in choirbooks at E-C) include an Ave maris stella for five
voices (viii, 1774), a Good Friday turba for four voices (x, 1763), and an
anthology of his motets, Marian antiphons and hymns (xiv, 1755). Lima
Archivo Arzobispal contains 21 vernacular works dated 1756–63. These
orchestrally accompanied villancicos, cantadas, pastorelas and a tonadilla
sparkle with as much gaiety as the best contemporary Neapolitan opera
buffa. The six-voice cantada Venga el Barbaro Othomano (1763) is
particularly notable for its Turkish music. His plaintive setting of the
Reconquest ballad Los comendadores por mi mal for solo voice and
keyboard (1759), published in 1856, shows his mastery of a contrasting
vein of sentiment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StevensonRB
M. Soriano Fuertes: Historia de la música española, ii (Madrid, 1856),
102ff, suppl., 17ff; iv (1859), 175
J. López-Calo: ‘El archivo de música de la Catedral de Santiago de
Compostela’, Compostellanum, iii (1958), 289–333
J. López-Calo: Catálogo musical del Archivio de la Santa Iglesia Catedral
de Santiago (Cuenca, 1972), 71–2, 340ff
J. López-Calo: ‘El archivo de música de la Capilla Real de Granada’, AnM,
xxvii (1972), 209–10 [incl. 16 villancicos, 1764–78]
A. von Gavel, ed.: Investigaciones musicales de los archivos coloniales
en el Perú (Lima, 1974), 117ff
M. C. Guillén Bermejo and others, eds.: Catálogo de villancios y
oratorios en la Biblioteca Nacional, siglos XVIII–XIX (Madrid, 1990)
47–54
J. López-Calo: Documentario musical de la Catedral de Segovia, i: Actas
capitulares (Santiago de Compostela, 1990), 231
ROBERT STEVENSON

Gonzalo, Gisela Hernández.

See Hernández, Gisela.

Goodall, Sir Reginald

(b Lincoln, 13 July 1901; d Bridge, nr Canterbury, 5 May 1990). English
conductor. Goodall was a chorister at Lincoln Cathedral when in 1914 his
family emigrated to North America. After leaving school at 15, he combined
work in a bank with study at the Hamilton Conservatory of Music, Ontario,
and at 21 was appointed organist at Toronto's Anglican cathedral. In 1925
he returned to Britain to study at the RCM, where his teachers included
Arthur Benjamin, Malcolm Sargent and Constant Lambert.
From 1929 Goodall achieved considerable success as organist and
choirmaster at St Alban's, Holborn, where he introduced to London choral
works by Bruckner, Stravinsky and Szymanowski. However, after leaving St
Alban's in 1936, he found it hard to secure professional conducting
engagements and the beginning of World War II found him unemployed.
Always politically naïve, he supported the campaign for peace at any price
propounded by the British fascist leader, Oswald Mosley, which did nothing
to improve his prospects of work. However, in December 1939 he became
conductor of the Bournemouth-based Wessex Philharmonic Orchestra,
with which he gave more than 300 concerts. In 1944, following six months
as an army storeman, he joined Sadler's Wells Opera and on 7 June 1945
conducted the triumphant première of Britten's Peter Grimes.
In 1946 Goodall shared with Ansermet the first performances of Britten's
The Rape of Lucretia at Glyndebourne. In the same year he joined the
newly formed Covent Garden Opera as an assistant conductor, but was
entrusted with works to which he thought himself particularly ill-suited –
Manon, Il trovatore, La traviata and Aida. However, in 1951 Covent Garden
sent him as its representative to the first postwar Bayreuth Festival, where
Hans Knappertsbusch's conducting was to exert a strong influence on him.
In 1954 Goodall conducted Die Walküre to critical acclaim on tour for
Covent Garden. It seemed that his career might take a turn for the better,
but his refusal to make compromises, particularly over rehearsal time,
exasperated the management; although he conducted revivals of Die
Meistersinger, Wozzeck, Turandot, Boris Godunov and Walton's Troilus
and Cressida, he spent most of his time working as a répétiteur, to the
great benefit of those singers fortunate enough to study the Wagner
repertory with him. With Solti's arrival at Covent Garden as musical director
in 1961, Goodall's conducting career went into eclipse.
By 1967 he assumed his career was virtually over and moved to Kent. No
sooner had he done so than Sadler's Wells Opera invited him to conduct a
new production of Die Meistersinger (1968). Such was its success that it
was followed by complete cycles of Der Ring des Nibelungen, built up
between 1970 and 1973, and the first to be given in English for some
years. Goodall's tempos tended to be slow, but few denied the intensity
and epic grandeur of these Ring performances, which were recorded by
EMI. His Indian summer continued with productions of Tristan und Isolde
(WNO and ENO) and, in 1986, Parsifal (ENO). He was knighted in 1985.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Arratoon: ‘Talking of Tristan with Reginald Goodall’, Wagner [London], ii
(1981), 66–73
A. Cornall and J. Kehoe: ‘Goodall on Tristan’, Opera, xxxii (1981), 992–8
J. Lucas: Reggie: the Life of Reginald Goodall (London, 1993)
R. Newton: ‘The Reluctant Genius’, Wagner News [London] (Dec 1993),
4–14
JOHN LUCAS

Goode, Daniel
(b New York, 24 Jan 1936). American composer and clarinettist. He
graduated from Oberlin College in 1957 and then studied at Columbia
University (MA 1962) with Cowell, Luening and others, and at the
University of San Diego, where his teachers included Gaburo and Oliveros.
From 1971 to 1998 he taught at Livingston College of Rutgers, the State
University of New Jersey, where he founded the Livingston College
Electronic Music Studio, later assimilated into the Mason Gross School of
the Arts. His lengthy but successful efforts to secure tenure at Rutgers
furthered the academic recognition of experimental music. He has toured
internationally as both a composer and performer, and has published
articles in Ear Magazine (New York) and Musicworks.
Goode is best known for his activities in New York’s ‘downtown’ avant
garde. He has been instrumental in founding, performing in and
contributing repertory to three collaborative ensembles based in New York:
Sounds out of Silent Spaces, a music-ritual group (with Philip Corner,
William Hellermann, Tom Johnson and others; 1972–9); Gamelan Son of
Lion, performing repertory for gamelan (with Corner, Barbara Benary and
others; 1976–) and the Downtown Ensemble, performing graphic and
conceptual as well as conventional scores (with Hellermann and others;
1983–). His series of intimate solo works, Clarinet Songs (1979–93), which
he has performed himself, are marked by deep emotion and a meditative
virtuosity. At the other extreme of expression is the spirited Eine Kleine
Gamelan Music (1980), a precisely structured improvisatory piece for
gamelan with additional instruments of any type or tuning. Circular
 Thoughts (1974), originally for solo clarinet, is a minimalist process piece.
Several other works involve transcriptions of birdsong, sometimes
combined with folk tunes from Nova Scotia or Eastern Europe.
WORKS
(selective list)

Circular Thoughts, cl, 1974 [arr. pf, 1976; gamelan, 1977; arr. orch by T. Johnson,
1980]; Phrases of the Hermit Thrush, cl, 1974, arr. cl, str orch, 1980; Cl Songs,
1979–93; Hear the Sound of Random Numbers, gamelan, 1979; The Thrush from
Upper Dunakyn, b rec, 1979; Eine Kleine Gamelan Music, 1980; 40 Random
Numbered Clangs, gamelan, 1980; Wind Sym., 1980; Fiddle Studies, 1981; Cape
Breton Conc., 6 vn, pf, band, 1982; Walk-Up Passacaglia, cl, sax, pf, chbr orch,
1983; Tunnel Funnel, sym. process piece, 15 insts, 1988; Triocek, pf trio, 1991;
Diet Polka, accdn, 1992; Nod-Drama, mixed insts, 1993; Juicy Cant., spkr, cptr,
1995; Re: Sound (choreog. J. Oberfelder), dancer, gamelan, hubcaps, 1999

BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Goode: ‘Phrases about the Hermit Thrush’, Musicworks, no.50 (1991),
12–19
A. Rovner: ‘Let the Goode Times Roll’, 20th Century Music, vi/11 (1999),
10–15 [interview]
BARBARA BENARY (with GREGORY SANDOW)

Goode, Richard
(b New York, 1 June 1943). American pianist. He studied with Nadia
Reisenberg at Mannes College, then with Rudolf Serkin at the Curtis
Institute, and made his début in the New York Young Concert Artists series
in 1962. He won first prize in the Clara Haskil Competition in 1973. While
his career soon became well established in the USA, recognition in Europe
took longer; it was only in the late 1980s that he began to perform regularly
in the UK and elsewhere. His career has expanded gradually to include
tours to South America, Australia and East Asia as well as Europe. He is a
pianist of great intelligence and humanity, which qualities have helped his
recordings of the complete Beethoven sonatas, solo works by Schubert,
Schumann and Brahms and concertos by Mozart to achieve wide
international acclaim. As a chamber music player, he worked with
Jacqueline du Pré (1965–6), has recorded recital discs with the clarinettist
Richard Stolzman and the soprano Dawn Upshaw, and has contributed
notably to the Marlboro Festival, the Festival of Two Worlds at Spoleto,
Alexander Schneider's Bach series in New York, the concerts of the Boston
Symphony Chamber Players and tours with the Orpheus Chamber
Orchestra. He was a founder member of the Chamber Music Society of
Lincoln Center. In December 1969 he gave the first performance, with
Charles Treger, of Carlos Chavez's Variations for violin and piano. A Ford
Foundation award enabled him to commission and give the première of
Robert Helps's Piano Concerto no.2; George Perle wrote Ballade for him
(1981, first performance February 1982). In 1980 he was awarded the
Avery Fisher Prize.
MICHAEL STEINBERG/R
Goodgroome, John
(b ? c1620; d London, 27 June 1704). English countertenor and composer.
He may have been the chorister ‘Goodgroome’ who was at St George’s
Chapel, Windsor, in 1633, and had left by 1638. John Playford listed him
among ‘many excellent and able Masters … For the Voyce or Viole’ in his
Musicall Banquet (1651). He was one of the Gentlemen of the Chapel
Royal at the coronation of King Charles II in 1661 and served until the time
of his death. He succeeded to the place of Henry Purcell senior in the
King’s Private Musick in 1664, and his name occurs in the records up to
1684. Samuel Pepys employed him as a singing teacher for his wife from
1666, but without complete satisfaction (Pepys’s own singing teacher was
Theodore Goodgroome). Some songs by Goodgroome are in Select
[Musicall] Ayres and Dialogues (1659–69). A setting of Will Chloris cast her
sun-bright eye, which achieved considerable popularity, may be by either
him or Simon Ives. A few songs by him are in Lambeth Palace, London,
and two are printed in a modern edition (MB, xxxiii, 1971).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDECM
SpinkES
IAN SPINK

Goodison, Benjamin
(b London, 1736; d ?London, after 1789). English musician. He was
educated at Westminster School and Trinity Hall, Cambridge. In January
1771 he was admitted to Lincoln's Inn. Little is known of his life, but he is
important as having attempted to publish, between 1788 and 1790, the first
complete edition of Purcell (see A.H. King: ‘Benjamin Goodison's Compete
Edition of Purcell’, MMR, lxxxi, 1951, pp.81–9). Details of his elaborate plan
are known from the five editions of his prospectus preserved in the Royal
Music Library (GB-Lbl). Though Goodison was able to issue less than a
dozen works, and his venture failed through lack of support, it forms a
milestone in the progress of British appreciation of the range of Purcell's
genius. It also ranks, at least by intention, with Arnold’s contemporary
edition of Handel as the earliest of all the collected editions issued in any
country.
ALEC HYATT KING

Goodman [Guttmann], Alfred

(Alexander) [Alfred Grant]
(b Berlin, 1 March 1920). American composer and musicologist of German
birth. He received his first music lessons from his father, the music critic
Oskar Guttmann. He entered the Stern Conservatory in Berlin in 1938 but
was forced to leave after six months because of his Jewish background. In
1939 he emigrated to London and in 1940 to New York, where he arranged
 music for dance bands and for the popular theatre. During the period
1947–52 he studied composition with Luening and Cowell and musicology
with Hertzmann at Columbia University. After receiving the MA he worked
as an assistant to his teacher Rudolph Thomas at the same university, and
as a lecturer at the Henry Street Settlement; he was also music critic for
the newspaper Aufbau. Upon taking American citizenship he changed his
name to Goodman. In 1960 he moved to Munich, and began working for
Bavarian radio as a composer, broadcaster and (from 1971) music adviser.
In 1972 he received the PhD as a pupil of Carl Dahlhaus at the Technical
University of Berlin. He founded a concert series devoted to American
contemporary music, which received the State Award of Recognition in
1992. In 1994 he was guest of honour at the Villa Massimo in Rome.
A skilled arranger, Goodman also composes music in various genres. His
work, influenced by Weill, Bartók, Stravinsky and jazz, aims to synthesize
different musical cultures. His Psalm xii won the Ernest Bloch Prize in
1949.
WORKS
(selective list)

Comics for Carter (musical for children, H. Koller), 1949; The Audition (op, 1, E.
Arluck), 1954, Ger. version (H. Frohman) as Der Schauspieler, 1968; Der Läufer
(op, 2, M. Alva after S. Lenz)
Ps xii, Bar, female chorus, org (1949); 5 Songs from the Bronx, S, ww ens, hpd,
1954; Grant us Peace (Union Prayer Book), chorus, pf, 1958; 7 Essays on Poems
by Dylan Thomas, A, T, gui, 1961; 3 Gesänge nach Gedichten von Johannes
Bobrowski, SATB, 1969; 3 Ornamente, 1v, fl, pf, 1971; 3 Gesänge, 1v, 8 insts
(1975); 3 Motivationen, vocal ens, vib, gui, db, 1987; Der Lügner, (cant. after C.F.
Gellert), 1v, vn, gui, hpd/pf/synth, perc, 1992
Sinfonietta, a, orch (1952); Uptown-Downtown, orch (1954); Str Qt no.2, 1959;
Sonata, vn, pf (1960); Mayfair Ouvertüre, orch, 1961; 3 Meditations on Israel, pf,
1966; Little Suite, fl, ob, cl (1968); 3 Essays, hpd, str orch (1972); Pro memoria,
orch, 1974; Across the Board, brass ens, 1978; Bemerkungen zu Acht Gongs, perc,
1992; Orchestrology (Universe of Freedom in 5 Chapters), 1993–4; Reflections:
Manhattan Survey (1997)
Incid music for theatre, cinema and television
Arr. of S. Samaras: Olympic Hymn, 1972

WRITINGS
Musik im Blut: Amerikanische Rhythmen erobern die Welt (Munich, 1968)
Musik von A–Z (Munich, 1971)
Die amerikanischen Schüler Franz Liszts (Wilhelmshaven, 1972)
Sachwörterbuch der Musik (Munich, 1976)
Wörterbuch der Musik (Munich, 1982)
‘Angewandte und funktionelle Musik im Exil: Musiktheater – Film – leichte
Musik’, Die Wiener Schule und das Hakenkreuz: das Schicksal der
Moderne im gesellschaftpolitischen Kontext des 20. Jahrhunderts, ed.
O. Kolleritsch (Vienna, 1990), 165–78
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K.-R. Brachtel, H.-M. Palm, R. Schmiedel and others: Alfred Goodman,
Komponisten in Bayern, xxviii (Tutzing, 1993)
 ALFONS OTT/INGE KOVÁCS

Goodman, Benny [Benjamin]

(David)
(b Chicago, 30 May 1909; d New York, 13 June 1986). American
clarinettist, composer and bandleader.
1. Early career.
Goodman received rudimentary musical training from 1919 at Chicago’s
Kehelah Jacob Synagogue and more importantly, two years of instruction
from the classically trained clarinettist Franz Schoepp. He made his
professional début in 1921. During his formative years he absorbed the
music of the New Orleans musicians; he was particularly influenced by
Leon Ruppolo, the clarinettist with the New Orleans Rhythm Kings. In
summer 1923 he met Bix Beiderbecke whose influence may be heard in
Goodman’s on-the-beat attacks, careful choice of notes and across-the-bar
phrasing on A Jazz Holiday (1928, Voc.) and Blue (1928, Bruns.) –
especially on the latter, where Goodman played solos on both alto and
baritone saxophone. In August 1925 Goodman left for Los Angeles to join
Ben Pollack. Pollack’s band returned to Chicago in January 1926 and early
in 1928 went to New York, which subsequently became Goodman’s base.
Goodman stayed with Pollack until September 1929, then worked
freelance for radio and in recording studios for Red Nichols and Paul
Whiteman, and on Broadway in George Gershwin’s Strike up the Band and
Girl Crazy (both under Nichols in 1930–31) and Richard Whiting’s Free for
all (1931). His important associations with John Hammond and Teddy
Wilson began during this period.
In spring 1934 Goodman organized his first big band and started recording
for Columbia. Benny Carter’s composition and arrangement of Take my
word (1934), requiring four saxophones (Goodman played tenor) to play
four-note chords in parallel motion in the style of improvised solos, set the
standard for the treatment of saxophone sections during the swing period.
In 1934 Goodman began employing Fletcher Henderson to write for him;
Henderson’s arrangements of traditional jazz instrumental numbers, for
example Jelly Roll Morton’s King Porter Stomp, and such popular songs as
Sometimes I’m Happy (both 1935, Vic.), established the band’s musical
character. Goodman’s impeccable musicianship and discipline set a high
standard for his sidemen, from whom he demanded accurate intonation,
matched vibrato, uniform phrasing and a careful balancing of parts –
performance standards rare in the bands of that time.
In July 1935 with sidemen Wilson and Gene Krupa they recorded four
classic sides of jazz chamber music as the Benny Goodman Trio.
Goodman’s solo on After you’ve gone (1935, Vic.;ex.1) is an example of his
mature style: his flawless playing utilizes almost the complete range of the
instrument, and his disciplined explorations of the harmony (bars 13–14,
20) and fondness for the blue 3rd (bars 9, 17, 19 – enharmonically B )
reveal the technical mastery and controlled expression that formed the
essence of his art.
During the summer Goodman’s band embarked on its first tour, culminating
in the now historic performance on 21 August at the Palomar Ballroom, Los
Angeles, which was broadcast nationwide to great critical and popular
acclaim, and is often cited as the beginning of the swing era. Later that
year, while appearing at the Congress Hotel, Chicago, Goodman began a
series of important early jazz concerts in the USA; for the last of these he
brought in Wilson from New York. In August 1936 the Benny Goodman Trio
became a quartet with the addition of Lionel Hampton; the group made its
first recording, Moonglow, on 21 August (Vic.).
In 1936–9 Goodman’s band reached the peak of its success, beginning
with a series of CBS broadcasts (‘The Camel Caravan’) that continued for
more than three years. It made its first films (The Big Broadcast of 1937
and Hollywood Hotel) and in March 1937 embarked on a three-week
engagement at the Paramount Theater, New York. The success of these
performances, attended by a large, predominantly teenage audience, and
the resultant publicity clearly demonstrated that Goodman was the ‘King of
Swing’ and a popular idol. In January 1938 he brought a new level of
recognition to jazz with a concert in Carnegie Hall, presenting Harry James,
Ziggy Elman, Jess Stacy, Hampton, Krupa and Wilson from his own
entourage as well as guest soloists from the bands of Duke Ellington and
Count Basie.
In the same period Goodman became the first famous jazz musician to
achieve success performing the classical repertory. His early training with
Schoepp had prepared him for this dual career by laying the foundation for
a ‘legitimate’ clarinet technique, which he continued to improve in later
study with Reginald Kell. In 1935 he performed Mozart’s Clarinet Quintet
before an invited audience in the home of John Hammond, and three years
later recorded the work with the Budapest String Quartet; he appeared in
his first public recital at Town Hall, New York, in November 1938. That year
he commissioned the work Contrasts from Bartók, and gave its première at
Carnegie Hall in January 1939. He later commissioned clarinet concertos
 from Copland (1947) and Hindemith (1947). Goodman appeared with all
the leading American orchestras, performing and recording works by
Bernstein, Debussy, Morton Gould, Milhaud, Nielsen, Poulenc, Stravinsky
and Weber.
2. Later years.
Among Goodman’s new soloists in 1939 it was the guitarist Charlie
Christian, with his long melodic lines influenced by Lester Young, who
contributed most to the band, but in July 1940 illness forced Goodman to
disband his ensemble. He re-formed it in October, from which time the
compositions and arrangements of Eddie Sauter established the group’s
musical character.
In 1947 Goodman assembled his last and most controversial travelling
band (his later groups were recruited for specific engagements) to play and
record arrangements in the new bop style for Capitol Records. Although he
had been critical of bop, he genuinely admired the playing of the tenor
saxophonist Wardell Gray and the trumpeters Fats Navarro and Doug
Mettome, whom he featured in the band and in his new sextet. However,
few of the harmonic or rhythmic novelties of bop penetrated Goodman’s
style and he retained his classic manner, as can be heard on Stealin’
Apples (1948). In October 1949 Goodman disbanded the group on
completion of his recording contract with Capitol.
In the 1950s Goodman continued to record and tour occasionally with ad
hoc small groups and big bands, visiting Europe twice (1950 and 1958)
and, under the auspices of the US Department of State, East Asia (1956–
7). The original Benny Goodman Trio was reunited for a benefit recording
for Fletcher Henderson (1951) and a television appearance on NBC
(1953), and also appeared in a film based on Goodman’s life, The Benny
Goodman Story (1956). In the 1960s Goodman expanded his role as jazz
ambassador with tours of South America (1961), the USSR (1962) and
Japan (1964). During the 1960s and 1970s he toured about half of each
year, dividing his time between appearances with small groups and
increasingly frequent commitments to performing classical works. He was
one of the five recipients of the fifth annual Kennedy Center Honors awards
(1982).
As a jazz clarinettist Goodman had no peer; his flawless solo
improvisations set standards of excellence for jazz performance. He
founded and directed the most important musical organization of the swing
era and helped to open a new epoch in American popular music. He was
the first white bandleader to adopt and popularize an uncompromising jazz
style. He was also among the first to feature black jazz players, an action
that might have compromised his own career at a time when racial
integration was not a popular concept. Goodman’s concerts brought a new
audience and a new level of recognition to jazz.
WORKS
jazz charts
Shirt Tail Stomp, 1928; Georgia Jubilee, 1934, collab. A. Scutt; House Hop, 1936,
collab. J. Mundy; Swingtime at the Rockies, 1936, collab. Mundy; If Dreams Come
True, 1937, collab. I. Mills and E. Sampson; Life goes to a party, 1937, collab. H.
James; Dizzy Spells, 1938, collab. L. Hampton and T. Wilson; Opus 1/2, 1938,
collab. Hampton, D. Tough and Wilson; Smoke House, 1938, collab. F. Norman;
Flying Home, 1939, collab. Hampton and E. DeLange
Gone with ‘what’ wind, 1939, collab. C. Basie; Opus Local 802, 1939; Opus 3/4,
collab. Hampton; Pick-a-rib, 1939; Seven Come Eleven, 1939, collab. C. Christian;
Soft Winds, 1939; Air Mail Special, 1940, collab. Christian; Benny’s Bugle, 1940,
collab. Basie; Breakfast Feud, 1940; Six Appeal, 1940; Wholly Cats, 1940; Fiesta in
Blue, 1941; Pound Ridge, 1941; Solo Flight, 1941, collab. Christian and Mundy;
Rachael’s Dream, 1944
Slipped Disc, 1944; Lucky, 1945, collab. J. Palmer and Sampson; Rattle and Roll,
1945, collab. Basie and B. Clayton; Benjie’s Bubble, 1946, collab. J. Bushkin; Swing
Angel, 1946, collab. Clayton; Tattletale, 1947, collab. T. Todd; Bannister Slide, 1948
songs
Riffin’ at the Scotch, 1933; Stompin’ at the Savoy (A. Razaf), 1934, collab. Sampson
and C. Webb; Don’t be that way (M. Parish), 1938, collab. Sampson; Once More,
1940; Let the doorknob hitcha, 1941
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Goodman and I.Kolodin: The Kingdom of Swing (New York, 1939)
B. Goodman: ‘ That Old Gang of Mine’, Eddie Condon’s Treasury of Jazz,
ed. E. Condon and R. Gehman (New York, 1956/R), 258–74
D.R. Connor: BG off the Record: a Bio-discography of Benny Goodman
(Fairless Hills, PA, 1958, enlarged 4/1988 as Benny Goodman: Listen
to his Legacy)
B. Green: ‘Benny Goodman’, The Reluctant Art: Five Studies in the Growth
of Jazz (London, 1962), 51–90
A. McCarthy: Big Band Jazz (New York, 1974), 226ff
[B. Goodman]: Benny, King of Swing: a Pictorial Biography Based on
Benny Goodman’s Personal Archives (London, 1979)
F. Kappler and G.Simon: Disc notes, Giants of Jazz: Benny Goodman TL
J05 (1979)
M. McPartland: ‘Benny Goodman: from the Inside – the Sideman’s View’,
All in Good Time (New York, 1987), 91–104
A. Rollini: Thirty Years with the Big Bands (London, 1987)
B. Crowther: Benny Goodman (London, 1988)
G. Klussmeier: Benny Goodman und Deutschland (Frankfurt, 1989)
J.L. Collier: Benny Goodman and the Swing Era (New York, 1991)
R. Firestone: Swing, Swing, Swing: the Life and Times of Benny
Goodman (New York, 1993)

Oral history material in S-Sva; collection of scores, recordings and other

materials in US-NH

RICHARD WANG

Goodman, Roy
(b Guildford, 26 Jan 1951). English violinist and conductor. As a chorister
at King’s College, Cambridge, he achieved fame as treble soloist in a
recording of Allegri’s Miserere. After studying the violin and the organ at the
RCM, he held teaching posts in two schools and subsequently became
director of the early music department at the RAM. He founded the
Brandenburg Consort (later Brandenburg Orchestra) in 1975 and (with
Peter Holman) the Parley of Instruments in 1979. He has since directed the
Hanover Band (as principal conductor, 1986–94) and the European Union
Baroque Orchestra (from 1988), and became principal conductor of the
Umeå Sinfonietta, Sweden, in 1996. Goodman has made over 100
recordings, ranging from Monteverdi, Bach and Handel through Classical
and Romantic symphonies (including many by Haydn and complete
Beethoven and Schubert cycles) to Holst's The Planets. His performances,
if sometimes a little hard-driven, are characterized by vivid colours and
great rhythmic vitality. He has conducted several world premières
(including Glass's Concerto for Saxophone Quartet), and also operas,
notably in Britain, Belgium and Sweden. Lundquist's Symphony no.9 is
dedicated to Goodman.
GEORGE PRATT

Goodrich, William Marcellus

(b Templeton, MA, 21 July 1777; d East Cambridge, MA, 15 Sept 1833).
American organ builder. He is regarded as the founder of the organ
building craft in Boston. A member of a gifted family that included two artist
sisters, a doctor, and a brother, Ebenezer (1782–1841), who distinguished
himself as a music teacher and builder of church and chamber organs,
Goodrich was largely self-taught. His musical and mechanical talents were
evident at an early age, and in c1800 he went to Boston, working with a
pewterer and an instrument maker, and also studying the various English-
made organs in the city. In 1804 he entered into an agreement with
Benjamin Crehore to make combination piano-organs. That year he built
his first instrument, a chamber organ, and shortly after his first church
organ, for the Holy Cross Catholic Church, Boston (1805–6). From then on
his skill and reputation grew, and by the time of his death his work was
found in many major Boston churches and, due to a connection with the
Mackays, a Boston merchant family (see Mackay), in certain Southern
cities as well. He made instruments for the New South Church (1817) and
St Paul's Church (1827) in Boston and the Independent Presbyterian
Church, Savannah, Georgia (1821). Goodrich had an original and inquiring
mind, and his work displayed much variety of concept. Influenced by Bédos
de Celles' L'art du facteur d'orgues (1766–78) and his own imagination, he
was among the first to begin developing an indigenous American style
which broke away from English models. He is credited with several
mechanical innovations, including the now common concussion bellows or
‘winker’. Nearly all the major Boston builders of the mid-19th century,
including Thomas Appleton, the Hook brothers (see Hook & Hastings) and
the Stevens brothers (see Stevens, George), were trained in his workshop.

See also Panharmonicon.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAB (F.A. Coburn)
‘Biographical Memoir of William M. Goodrich, Organ-Builder’, New-England
Magazine, vi (1834), 25–44
B. Owen: ‘The Goodriches and Thomas Appleton’, The Tracker, iv/1
(1959), 2–6
O. Ochse: The History of the Organ in the United States (Bloomington, IN,
1975)
B. Owen: The Organ in New England (Raleigh, NC, 1979)
BARBARA OWEN

Goodson, Katharine
(b Watford, 18 June 1872; d London, 14 April 1958). English pianist. She
entered the RAM at the age of 12 and from 1886 to 1892 studied there with
Oscar Beringer. On Paderewski's advice she then went to Leschetizky in
Vienna, where she remained for four years. Goodson made her London
début in 1897 at a Saturday Popular Concert, and subsequently played
throughout Europe. Her American début with the Boston SO in 1907 was
outstandingly successful and she made a total of seven tours of the USA.
Following several years of retirement, she reappeared before the public in
1946 with her artistry intact and also broadcast on television. Goodson was
married to the composer Arthur Hinton (b Beckenham, Kent, 20 Nov 1869;
d Rottingdean, Sussex, 11 Aug 1941), whose works, among them a piano
concerto, she frequently programmed. One of the most acclaimed female
pianists of her day, Goodson was renowned both for the power and the
refinement of her playing. Her programmes featured such large-scale
works as Schubert's ‘Wanderer’ Fantasy, the B minor Sonata of Chopin,
the F minor Sonata of Brahms, and MacDowell's Sonata tragica. Sadly,
though, she left no commercial recordings. (C. Curzon: Obituary, The
Times, 25 April 1958)
JAMES METHUEN-CAMPBELL

Goodson, Richard (i)

(b c1655; d Great Tew, Oxon., 13 Jan 1718). English organist, composer
and music copyist. His father was Richard Goodson, butler of New Inn Hall
and innkeeper of the Fleur-de-Lys, Oxford. Goodson sang in the choir at
Christ Church, Oxford, from 1667 to early 1681. On 19 July 1682 he
succeeded Edward Lowe as Heather Professor of Music at the university
and by 1683 had been appointed organist of New College, resigning in
1692 to become organist of Christ Church. His will, made in 1714 (GB-
Lpro), suggests that he was then in poor health: according to Hearne he
relinquished his duties to his son Richard Goodson (ii) some time before
his death.
Goodson published three songs in Musica Oxoniensis (RISM 16983), one,
with flute obbligato, written on a three-bar chromatic ground bass. His act
songs and other occasional works are broadly modelled on the Restoration
court ode but approach neither the scale nor the sophistication of
 contemporary odes by London composers, and, apart from the Morning
Service in C, none of his music became widely known outside Oxford. His
activity as a copyist nevertheless suggests that he was a capable and
energetic successor to Lowe: manuscripts in his hand include a score of
Blow’s Venus and Adonis (GB-Och Mus 37), music by Coprario (Och Mus
620) and instrumental movements by Lully (Ob Mus. Sch. E.443–6 and
570). Ob Mus. Sch.C.204*(R), a parchment roll listing the Music School
collection in 1682, also appears to be in Goodson’s handwriting.
WORKS
sacred
Morning Service, C (TeD, Jub), S, S, A, A, T, B/SSAATB, org, EIRE-Dcc; GB-Cfm,
Ckc, DRc, EL, EXc, GL, Lcm, Lsp, LF, LI, Mp, Ob, Och*, PB, WO, Y
Evening Service, F (CanD, DeM), S, S, T, B/SATB, org, Och*
Blessed is he whose unrighteousness is forgiven, anthem, S, A, T, B/SATB, org,
Och*
I am the resurrection, anthem, SATB, Lcm
I am well pleased, anthem, B/SATB, org, Och*
Rejoice in the Lord ye righteous, anthem, S, A, T, B/SATB, str, bc, Och*
We have heard with our ears, anthem, SATB, Y
Chant, D, SATB, Och
secular vocal
Act songs and odes, solo and chorus, str, bc: Io triumphe non iterum rates, GB-
Lcm, Och 1142A*; Jam resurget, Lcm, Och*; Janus did ever (‘after the victory at
Blenheim’), Lcm, Ob, Och*; O cura divum, Lcm, Ob, Och*; O qui potenti, Lcm, Ob,
Och*; Ormond’s Glory (with tpt), Lcm, Och*; Quis efficace carmine, Lcm, Ob*, Och*;
Sacra musarum, Lcm, Ob, Och*
Partsongs: Not unto us, S, S, B, bc, Och*; Sit nemo morosus, catch, 4vv, Lbl
Solo songs, 16983: From shining courts; I come to the waters, Lbl (kbd arr.); Let me,
ye Satyrs, S, fl, bc
instrumental
Overture, F (to Estwick’s Io triumphe accende plausibus), GB-Lcm, Och*
Overture and 5 airs, B , a 4, Ob*, Och*
5 airs, G, a 4, Ob Mus. Sch.E.443–6, F.570
5 airs, B , a 3 (act music, 8 July 1681), Ob*
doubtful works
all sources in Goodson’s hand

3 anthems, GB-Och 1173: I will magnify thee, S, S/SATB, org; My God, my God
look upon me, S, T, B/SATB, org; The heavens declare, S, A, T, B/SATB, org
4 songs: All things are hushed, S, A, B, bc, Och 1154 (another setting, Bu 5002); A
shepherd charmed, 1v, Och 1154; Hi jinko brisco, 1v, Och 1215; With eager haste
(inc.), ? act song, S/SSB, ob, bc, Och 1142A

BIBLIOGRAPHY
C.E. Doble and others, eds.: Remarks and Collections of Thomas Hearne
(Oxford, 1885–1921), vi, 130
A. Clark, ed.: The Life and Times of Anthony Wood (Oxford, 1891–5)
H.E. Salter, ed.: Surveys and Tokens (Oxford, 1923), 186, 221
W.K. Ford: ‘The Oxford Music School in the Late 17th Century’, JAMS, xvii
(1964), 198–203
M. Crum: ‘Early Lists of the Oxford Music School Collection’, ML, xlviii
(1967), 23–34
M. Crum: ‘An Oxford Music Club 1690–1719’, Bodleian Library Record, ix
(1973–8), 83–99
N. Zaslaw: ‘An English “Orpheus and Euridice” of 1697’, MT, cxviii (1977),
805–08
H.W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists of the Chapel Royal and the
Cathedrals of England and Wales from c.1538 (Oxford, 1991)
T.A. Trowles: The Musical Ode in Britain c.1670–1800 (diss., U. of Oxford,
1992)
R. Herrisone: The Theory and Practice of Composition in the English
Restoration Period (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1996)
P. Holman: ‘Original Sets of Parts for Restoration Concerted Music at
Oxford’, Performing the Music of Henry Purcell, ed. M. Burden (Oxford,
1996), 9–19, 265–71
ROBERT THOMPSON

Goodson, Richard (ii)

(bap. Oxford, 24 May 1688; bur. Oxford, 7 Jan 1741). English organist and
music copyist, son of richard Goodson (i). He was baptized at the church of
St Cross. He succeeded his father as professor of music at Oxford and as
organist of Christ Church. Goodson was listed as choirboy at Christ Church
from 1699 to 1707 and as singing-man from 1712 to 1718; Thomas Ford
(GB-Ob Mus.e.17) stated that he was appointed organist of Newbury on 24
August 1709. He matriculated on 3 March 1714 and graduated BMus on 1
March 1717. A number of manuscripts in Christ Church and the Bodleian
Library, Oxford, contain music copied by him, but he does not appear to
have been a composer, unless two anonymous works in his hand – an act
song, Festo quid potius die (Ob Mus. Sch.C.143, Och Mus 37, 1142B), and
an incomplete Ode for St Cecilia's Day, Ye vocall choir (Och Mus 1153) –
are his. Goodson compiled lists of the Oxford Music School holdings (now
Lbl Add.30493 and 33965), based mainly on an incomplete duplicate of the
1682 catalogue, and had many of his father's manuscripts bound into the
volumes in which they survive at Christ Church. The music library he
bequeathed to the college is detailed in a manuscript by John Malchair
(Lcm 2125).

For bibliography see Goodson, Richard (i).

ROBERT THOMPSON

Goodwin, Ron
(b Plymouth, 17 Feb 1925). English arranger, composer and conductor.
Originally a trumpeter, then a music copyist, his main musical career took
off in the 1950s with radio shows and recordings accompanying singers,
 culminating in a series of distinctive LPs with his own concert orchestra.
Goodwin's musical accompaniments for the Parlophone LPs by Peter
Sellers greatly contributed to their success. He also showed a talent for
composing; early successes included Jet Journey, Skiffling Strings
(renamed Swinging Sweethearts for the USA), and Lingering Lovers. In
later years he wrote several major works, notably his suites Drake 400
(1980) and New Zealand (1983), the latter reflecting his love of the country
to which he regularly returns for concert tours. A prolific film composer, he
is widely known for his score for 633 Squadron, closely followed by Those
Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines, the ‘Miss Marple’ series starring
Margaret Rutherford and Where Eagles Dare among over 40 feature films.
His score for The Trap has become inextricably linked with the London
Marathon. Goodwin has received several Ivor Novello Awards, including
the Entertainment Music award in 1971, and a Lifetime Achievement Award
in 1993. In his later career he has remained much in demand for orchestral
‘pops’ concerts in Britain and overseas.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: Jet Journey, 1952; Tropical Mirage, 1953; The Headless Horsemen, 1956;
Red Cloak, 1957; Skiffling Strings (Swinging Sweethearts), 1957; Out of this World,
suite, 1958; Drake 400, suite, 1980; New Zealand, suite, 1983; Lingering Lovers
Films: Whirlpool, 1958; The Trials of Oscar Wilde, 1960; The Village of the Damned,
1960; Murder She Said, 1961; Village of Daughters, 1961; Kill or Cure, 1962;
Lancelot and Guinevere, 1963; Murder at the Gallop, 1963; 633 Squadron, 1963; Of
Human Bondage, 1964; The Alphabet Murders, 1965; Those Magnificent Men in
their Flying Machines, 1965; Operation Crossbow, 1965; The Trap, 1966; Where
Eagles Dare, 1969; Monte Carlo or Bust, 1969; The Selfish Giant, 1971; Frenzy,
1972; The Little Mermaid, 1973; The Happy Prince, 1974; Beauty and the Beast,
1976; Escape from the Dark, 1976; Candleshoe, 1977; Force Ten from Navarone,
1978

DAVID ADES

Goossens.
English family of musicians of Belgian origin.
(1) Eugène Goossens (i)
(2) Eugène Goossens (ii)
(3) Sir (Aynsley) Eugene Goossens
(4) Marie (Henriette) Goossens
(5) Leon Goossens
(6) Sidonie Goossens
STEPHEN BANFIELD (1, 2), CAROLE ROSEN (3), ANN GRIFFITHS (4,
6), JOHN WARRACK/JANET K. PAGE, (5)
Goossens
(1) Eugène Goossens (i)
(b Bruges, 25 Feb 1845; dLiverpool, 30 Dec 1906). Conductor. He studied
the violin from the age of nine, first at the Bruges Conservatory and then at
the Brussels Conservatory, where he also studied composition. In 1873 he
went to London and began conducting operetta. He joined the Carl Rosa
Opera Company as its second conductor in 1883, and became principal
conductor in 1889 on the death of Rosa. In 1892 he gave an early English
performance of Tannhäuser at Liverpool. The following year he retired from
the company, settled in Liverpool and, failing to establish a permanent
orchestra there, founded in 1894 the fine Goossens Male Voice Choir,
which flourished until his death, concentrating on the Belgian repertory.
Goossens
(2) Eugène Goossens (ii)
(b Bordeaux, 28 Jan 1867; d London, 31 July 1958). Violinist and
conductor, son of (1) Eugène Goossens (i). He was educated in Bruges,
and at the Brussels Conservatory (1883–6). He went to England shortly
after Carl Rosa’s death, working in the opera company as violinist,
répétiteur and assistant conductor under his father, but this activity was
interrupted by a year’s study at the RAM (1891–2). Later he conducted
several travelling English opera companies, but returned to the Carl Rosa
as principal conductor in 1899, keeping the post until 1915, with
considerable success. He also conducted part of Beecham’s His Majesty’s
Theatre opera season in 1917, and joined the British National Opera
Company as conductor in 1926.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E.G.J. Gregoir: Les artistes-musiciens belges au XVIIIme et au XIXme
siècle, iii (Brussels, 1890)
E. Goossens (iii): Overture and Beginners (London, 1951/R)
C. Rosen: The Goossens: a Musical Century (London, 1993)
Goossens
(3) Sir (Aynsley) Eugene Goossens
(b London, 26 May 1893; d Hillingdon, Middx, 13 June 1962). Conductor
and composer, son of (2) Eugène Goossens (ii) and contralto Annie Cook.
He started his musical education at the age of ten, spending a year at the
Bruges Conservatory. After his return to England he gained a Liverpool
Scholarship to the RCM (1907), where his professors included Rivarde for
violin and Stanford for composition. His contemporaries Arthur Benjamin,
Arthur Bliss and Herbert Howells became his lifelong friends. He made his
conducting début (April 1912) at an RCM public concert with his first
composition, Variations on a Chinese Theme, a work he subsequently
conducted at a Promenade Concert, after joining the first violins of Sir
Henry Wood's Queen's Hall Orchestra. He was a founder member, as
second violin, of the Philharmonic String Quartet, for whom he wrote many
of his early chamber works.
Rejected for military service because of a congenital heart defect, in 1916
Goossens was asked by Beecham to take on at the last minute two new
English operas at the Shaftesbury Theatre: Stanford's The Critic and Ethel
Smyth's The Boatswain's Mate. With his ability to assimilate complex
scores quickly, he rapidly gained a reputation for deputizing in unfamiliar or
difficult works at the shortest notice.
 In 1921 Goossens formed his own orchestra for a series of contemporary
concerts, launched with an epoch-making first concert performance in
London of The Rite of Spring. He subsequently introduced to London
works by Honegger, Milhaud, Poulenc and Schoenberg. The autumn
season found him conducting the Carl Rosa Opera at Covent Garden on
alternate nights with Diaghilev's Ballets Russes at the Alhambra Theatre.
He conducted the opening performances of Nigel Playfair's The Beggar's
Opera at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith (1920), and Delius's Hassan
(1923). Forced into bankruptcy by his championship of the avant garde, he
went to the USA at the invitation of the ‘Kodak King’, George Eastman, to
conduct his newly founded Rochester PO (1923). By the end of the decade
Goossens was established as a brilliant and dynamic figure on the podium
of America's greatest orchestras and in 1931 was appointed musical
director of the Cincinnati SO and May Festival.
He returned every year to England for conducting engagements, including
his two operas for Covent Garden with librettos by Arnold Bennett: Judith
and Don Juan de Mañara; but persistent ill-health prevented his mature
career fulfilling its initial promise. In 1946 he turned down the musical
directorship of the newly formed Covent Garden Royal Opera and Ballet
Company since the post would be subservient to that of the general
administrator. He preferred the challenge of chief conductor of the Sydney
SO and director of the NSW Conservatorium, where he remained from
1947 to 1956. He raised the orchestra to international repute, discovered
the soprano Joan Sutherland and was the first to suggest the building of
the Sydney Opera House on Bennelong Point. In 1955 he was knighted for
his services to Australian music. The following year he resigned his posts
and returned to London.
Goossens's success as a conductor, and especially his role in bringing
modern and difficult works before a wide public, proved detrimental to his
own later career as a composer. His early chamber works influenced by
Debussy and Ravel were highly regarded; Delius praised his Phantasy
Quartet as ‘the best thing I have seen coming from an English pen’. His
songs show an ear finely tuned to the nuances of word-setting and a flair
for inventive piano accompaniments. Goossens was an accomplished
pianist, and in his Three Nature Poems he exploited the full range of
pianistic virtuosity of his friend Benno Moiseiwitsch. His album of short
sketches, Kaleidoscope, has maintained its popularity since publication in
1918. His orchestral Sinfonietta, a clever but accessible work, was a
favourite of Toscanini's; the two violin sonatas, the Second String Quartet
and the Concertino are also eminently rewarding. Goossens's most
successful orchestral work is the Oboe Concerto written in 1927 as a
showpiece for his brother Leon. His later orchestral compositions, although
masterly in their use of instrumental colour, tend to lack an individual voice.
WORKS
stage
Philip II, op.22 (incid music, Verhaeren), London, Court, 1918; prelude (1921)
L'école en crinoline, op.29, ballet, 1921
East of Suez, op.33 (incid music, W.S. Maugham), London, His Majesty's, 1922; pf
suite (1922)
The Constant Nymph, op.43 (incid music, M. Kennedy), London, New, 1926; song:
When thou art dead (1926)
Judith, op.46 (op, 1, A. Bennett), CG, 1929
Autumn Crocus (incid music, C.L. Anthony), London, Lyric, 1931
Don Juan de Mañara, op.54 (op, 4, Bennett), CG, 1937; arr. Romance, op.57, vn,
pf, 1937
orchestral
Variations on a Chinese Theme, op.1, 1912, withdrawn; Miniature Fantasy, op.2, str,
1911; Perseus, op.3, sym. poem, 1914, withdrawn; The Eternal Rhythm, op.5, sym.
poem, ?1913, withdrawn; Ossian, op.11, sym. prelude, 1915, withdrawn; By the
Tarn, op.15 no.1 [arr. str qt work], str, cl ad lib (1919); Tam o'Shanter, op.17,
scherzo, after R. Burns, 1919; Suite, G, op.24 [arr. Bach: French Suites nos.3 and
5], perf. 1917; Sinfonietta, op.34, 1922; Lyric Poem, op.35, vn, orch, 1921;
Variations on Cadet Rousselle, op.40 (1924) [orch of vocal work]
3 Greek Dances, op.44, small orch, 1927; Ob Conc., op.45, 1927; Concertino,
op.47, double str orch/str octet, 1928; 2 Fanfares, op.48, 1921, 1930; Nature
Poems, op.52, 1930; 3 Pictures, op.55, fl, str, perc, 1935; Sym. no.1, op.58, 1940;
Pastorale 1942, op.59 [arr. slow movt of Str Qt no.2], 1942; Phantasy Conc., op.60,
pf, orch, 1942; Cowboy Fantasy, op.61; Sym. no.2, op.62, 1942–4; Variations on a
Theme by Eugene Goossens, 1946, finale to collab. work; Phantasy Conc., op.63,
vn, orch, 1948; Concert Piece, op.65, ob/eng hn, 2 hp, orch, 1958; Dance Prelude,
ov.
Orchestrations of pf works
chamber
Octet, op.3, fl, cl, hn, hp, str, 1911, withdrawn; Old Chinese Folksong, op.4, vn/vc,
pf, 1912; Serenade, op.4a, fl, pf, 1912, withdrawn; 4 Sketches, op.5, fl, vn, pf, 1913,
withdrawn; Suite, op.6, fl/vn, vn, hp/pf, 1914; 5 Impressions of a Holiday, op.7, fl/vn,
vc, pf, 1914; Phantasy Qt, op.12, str qt, 1915; Rhapsody, op.13, vc, pf, 1916; Str Qt
no.1, C, op.14, 1915; 2 Sketches, op.15, str qt, 1916; Spanish Nocturne, op.17, vc,
pf, 1917; Sonata no.1, op.21, vn, pf, 1918; Qnt in 1 Movt, op.23, pf, str, 1918
Fantasy, op.36, fl, ob, 2 cl, 2 bn, 2 hn, tpt, 1924; Phantasy Sextet, op.37, 3 vn, va, 2
vc, 1922–3; 2 Ballades, op.38, hp, 1924; Pastoral and Harlequinade, op.41, fl/vn,
ob/vn, pf, 1924; Concertino, op.47, str octet/double str orch, 1928; Sonata no.2,
op.50, vn, pf, 1930; Str Qt no.2, op.59, 1940; Islamite Dance, ob, pf (1962); Scherzo
fantasque, fl, pf (1962); Vieille chanson à boire, bn, pf (1962); Forlane and Toccata,
clvd
vocal
Choral: Silence, op.31 (W. de la Mare), chorus, orch (1922); The Apocalypse, op.64
(orat, Goossens, F. Moore, after Revelation), solo vv, 2 choruses, orch, 1953
Songs for 1v, pf: 2 Songs, op.9 (A. de Musset), 1914; 2 proses lyriques, op.16 (E.
Evans), 1916; Persian Idylls, op.17b (Evans), 1916; 3 Songs, op.19 (G. Jean-
Aubry), 1917; The Curse, op.22b (H.R. Barbor) (1919); 2 Scots Folksongs, op.22c,
1918; Variations on Cadet Rousselle, 1918, collab. Bax, Bridge, Ireland; 3 Songs,
op.26 (T. Wyatt, J. Fletcher, R. Barnefield), 1920–21, arr. 1v, str qt (1922); 2 Songs,
op.32 (W. Blake), 1922, withdrawn; 2 Songs, op.49 (J. Joyce, trad.), 1930–31;
Chamber Music, op.51 (Joyce), 1929; 4 Songs, op.53 (B.F. Holmes), 1931; British
Children's Prayer (M.F. McCarthy) (1942)
Melodrama: The Cowl, op.22a (H.R. Barbor), spkr, pf, 1918, withdrawn
piano
Concert Study, op.10, 1915; Kaleidoscope, op.18, 12 pieces, 1917–18, nos.1–4, 6,
8, 10, 12 orchd (1949); 4 Conceits, op.20, 1917, orchd (1921); 3 Nature Poems,
op.25, 1919, nos.2–3 orchd; 2 Studies, op.27, 1926, withdrawn; Hommage à
Debussy, op.28, 1920; Rhythmic Dance, op.30, 2 pf, 1920, arr. orch/band (1928); 2
Studies, op.39, 1923; Ships, op.42, 3 preludes, 1924; 2 Pieces, op.56, 1936;
Capriccio [after Kaleidoscope no.3], 1960
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Eugène Goossens (London and Geneva, 1921)
G. Jean-Aubry: La musique et les nations (Paris and London, 1922), 187–
225
R. Hull: ‘Eugene Goossens’, ML, xii (1931), 345–53
E. Goossens (iii): Overture and Beginners (London, 1951/R)
W.A. Orchard: Music in Australia (Melbourne, 1952)
R. Hull: ‘Eugene Goossens: a Revaluation’, The Chesterian, xxviii (1953–
4), 69–72, 103–16
C. Rosen: The Goossens: a Musical Century (London, 1993)
Goossens
(4) Marie (Henriette) Goossens
(b London, 11 Aug 1894; d Dorking, 18 Dec 1991). Harpist, daughter of (2)
Eugène Goossens (ii). She made her orchestral début at the Philharmonic
Hall, Liverpool, in 1910, and after studying there with Edith Mason she
studied at the RCM with Miriam Timothy. She was principal harpist of the
Covent Garden Orchestra from 1921 to 1930 and of the LPO from its
foundation in 1932 until 1939. From 1940 to 1959 she was principal harpist
with the LSO. She taught at the RCM from 1954 to 1967 and was made an
FRCM in 1981. In later years she devoted herself to freelance orchestral
playing and recording, finally retiring in 1981. She was appointed OBE in
1983. Her autobiography, Life on a Harp String, was published in London in
1987. For further information see W.M. Govea: Nineteenth- and Twentieth-
Century Harpists: a Bio-Critical Sourcebook (Westport, CT, 1995), 97–103.
Goossens
(5) Leon Goossens
(b Liverpool, 12 June 1897; d London, 12 Feb 1988). Oboist, son of (2)
Eugène Goossens (ii). After preliminary study of the piano, he began
learning the oboe with Charles Reynolds when he was eight, and at the
age of ten made some professional appearances. He then studied with
William Malsch at the RCM (1911–14) and became principal oboe of the
Queen’s Hall Orchestra at the age of 17. After war service, during which he
was wounded, he returned to the Queen’s Hall Orchestra, transferring to
Covent Garden in 1924, where he sometimes took charge of orchestral
rehearsals when Beecham was late in arriving. That year he became
professor of the oboe at the RCM (until 1939) and the RAM (until 1935). He
also played in the Royal Philharmonic Society’s orchestra and, on its
foundation in 1932, the LPO. He had meanwhile undertaken many solo
engagements, and been acclaimed on both sides of the Atlantic as the
finest oboist of his day. Recognition of his exceptional gifts encouraged
almost every notable English composer to write for him: these included
Bax, Bliss, Britten, Elgar (one uncompleted movement of an unfinished
suite, orchestrated by Gordon Jacob in 1967), Vaughan Williams and many
others. In 1950 he was made a CBE. A serious car accident in June 1962
severely damaged his teeth and lips, but with great courage and
persistence he developed a new technique, and by 1966 had resumed his
career with virtually undiminished powers. In his later years he gave
lecture-recitals and masterclasses; he continued to perform into his 80s.
Goossens’s principal contribution to the oboe was to refine and sweeten its
tone and to reveal thereby a new flexibility and expressiveness; controlled
by a brilliant technique and at the service of a persuasive and individual
artistry, this gave the oboe a new standing as a solo instrument. His sound,
to which vibrato is integral, was emulated by his students, and he is
regarded as the founder of an English school of oboe playing. Though his
orchestral playing was masterly, he made his greatest mark as a solo artist,
where his personal style and charm of phrase could be most fully
appreciated. His approach to the oboe is exemplified by his book Oboe
(London, 1977), written in collaboration with Edwin Roxburgh. He played
throughout his career on a Lorée thumb-plate system oboe made in 1907.
Unusually for a professional oboist, most of whom make their own reeds,
he relied for much of his career on reeds made by a professional maker,
Thomas Brierley of Liverpool.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Wynne: Music in the Wind (London, 1967)
C. Rosen: The Goossens: a Musical Century (London, 1993) [incl.
discography]
Goossens
(6) Sidonie Goossens
(b Liscard, Cheshire, 19 Oct 1899). Harpist, daughter of (2) Eugène
Goossens (ii). After studying at the RCM she made her orchestral début at
a Promenade concert conducted by Sir Henry Wood in June 1921, playing
second harp to her sister, Marie. 70 years later, on 14 September 1991,
this occasion was commemorated at the last night of the Proms, when she
accompanied the soprano Gwyneth Jones in Spohr's setting of The Last
Rose of Summer. Her previous appearances at the Proms had included
Tailleferre's Concertino (1937), Alwyn's Lyra Angelica (1954) and
Henkemans's Concerto (1958). In 1924 she was the first harpist to
broadcast a harp solo and, in 1936, the first to appear on television. A
founder-member of the BBC SO in 1930, she finally retired in 1981. She
was professor of harp at the GSM from 1960 to 1990, and was appointed
MBE in 1974 and OBE in 1980. Her 100th birthday was celebrated in
concerts at the Wigmore Hall and the Royal Festival Hall. (D. Perrett:
‘Sidonie Goossens: a Biography’, World Harp Congress Review, vii/2,
2000)

Goovaerts, Alphonse (Jean Marie

André)
(b Antwerp, 25 May 1847; d Brussels, 25 Dec 1922). Belgian musicologist
and composer. His grandfather was a poet and his father, an enthusiastic
amateur musician, gave him his first musical instruction. After studying
 humanities at the Jesuits’ College in Antwerp, he was forced to take a post
in a business concern to help his family out of financial difficulties. On the
advice of Peter Benoit and Léon de Burbure, he devoted all his spare time
to music and became secretary to the jury of the Flemish school of music in
Antwerp. In 1866 he was appointed librarian of the Antwerp Town Library
and archivist at the Royal Archives in Brussels. He subsequently took a
post in the archives of the province of Brabant and later of Antwerp, where
he was also inspector. He was appointed general keeper of the Royal
Archives in 1898, a post he held until he was pensioned in 1904.
As a composer Goovaerts wrote almost exclusively for the voice, and for
the most part sacred music; but it is as a musicologist and as one of the
first methodical bibliographers that he is particularly known. At the age of
22 he wrote a valuable study on the Antwerp music publisher Phalèse. His
principal work, Histoire et bibliographie de la typographie musicale dans
les anciens Pays-Bas (1880), won him a prize from the Belgian Royal
Academy; this valuable work covers 1415 individual publications but does
not indicate where the cited editions are to be found. Goovaerts also wrote
important articles on Benedictus Ducis, Pierre de La Rue and Hayne van
Ghizeghem for the Biographie nationale, a biographical sketch of Burbure
and articles on the oratorios of Benoit. He was a member of the St
Gregorius Vereniging in Antwerp, an association founded by the Belgian
bishops in 1881 for the reform of church music; he was opposed to the
performance of secular music in church and in this connection wrote a
book entitled La musique d’église: considérations sur son état actuel
(1876). He also established a choir at the cathedral at Antwerp which he
trained in the performance of early sacred music.
WORKS
(selective list)

Mass, 4vv, org, 1867, B-Ac; Messe solennelle, 4vv, orch, org, 1869
O Jesu sapientia aeterna, motet, 4vv, 1869; O salutaris hostia, B, 4vv, org, 1868;
other sacred works
Arrs. of works by Palestrina, Lassus and others

WRITINGS
with F. Willems: Driestemmige liederen voor de schooljeugd, naar de
Verzameling van Johannes Wepf (Antwerp, 1868–74)
Notice biographique et bibliographique sur Pierre Phalèse (Brussels, 1869)
La musique d’église: considérations sur son état actuel et histoire abrégée
de toutes les écoles de l’Europe (Antwerp, 1876) [pubd in Flemish as
De kerkmuziek (Antwerp, 1876)]
Histoire et bibliographie de la typographie musicale dans les anciens Pays-
Bas (Antwerp and Brussels, 1880/R)
De muziekdrukkers Phalesius en Bellerus te Leuven en te Antwerpen
1546–1674 (Antwerp, 1882)
Lettres sur le Congrès d’Arezzo, par l’abbé M.J.A. Lans (Paris, 1883)
[trans. of collected letters]
Liederen en andere Gedichten gemaakt ter gelegenheid van het
Landjuweel van Antwerpen in 1561 (Antwerp, 1892)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (A. Van der Linden) [with complete list of writings]
E.G.J. Gregoir: Les artistes-musiciens belges au XVIIIme et au XIXme
siècle (Brussels, 1885–90)
ANNE-MARIE RIESSAUW

Gopak.
See Hopak.

Gora.
A string-wind instrument found only in southern Africa. The name gora is a
simplification of the original Korana word !gora, in which the initial
consonant is a voiced palatal ‘click’. Other spellings by various authors
include gorah, gorra, goura, gowra, kora, t’goerra, t’gorrah and gom-gom.
The gora was formerly played mainly by the Khoikhoi (or Hottentots),
although Khoisan (Bushmen) and, later, Bantu peoples also adopted it (see
Khoikhoi music). The instrument resembles a simple mouth-resonated
musical bow, but is sounded by blowing on a piece of quill attached to the
string (see illustration). This gives it a distinctive tone quality, somewhat like
that from a free reed, as in the harmonica or the concertina.
The gora was noted first by Dapper in 1668 and thereafter by many other
observers; descriptions by Lichtenstein and Burchell are particularly
notable. Balfour wrote the first serious historical study, and Kirby (1931)
later presented a comprehensive survey. Basing his argument on L.F.
Maingard’s hypothesis that the Khoikhoi had acquired the hunting bow from
the Bushmen early in the 17th century, Kirby (1934) postulated that the
gora (and also two simple types of musical bow used by the Khoikhoi)
originated shortly after this as an adaptation of the hunting bow. Balfour
(pp.170ff), seeking explanations for the sounding mechanism of the gora,
noted an analogous means of sound production in the bullroarer, which is
widely used in southern Africa as a toy. He also cited the existence in north
India of miniature aeolian bows strung with a flattened quill and attached to
kites. Hornbostel (p.296) mentioned forms of lamina, sounded by blowing,
among the Shambala in East Africa. Although no connection with the gora
had yet been traced, he urged that items such as the gora should not be
ascribed to caprice or accident, in the hope that they might ‘any day be
withdrawn from their “splendid isolation” by means of some unexpected
discovery, and will then supply the most important evidence for Culture-
history’.
Apparently the gora is no longer played among remaining Khoikhoi-
speaking groups, who are mainly found in Namibia (South-west Africa),
Botswana and southern Angola. It still survives, however, in almost
identical form but under different names among several Bantu-speaking
peoples who apparently adopted it in the 19th century. It is always played
by boys or young men and is strongly associated with cattle herding. The
Sotho of Lesotho use it the most extensively and call it the lesiba (see
Lesotho, figs.1–2). The use of the instrument has mostly died out
elsewhere, but earlier names given to it among other neighbouring peoples
were ugwala or unkwindi (Zulu), ugwali or igwali (Xhosa), makwindi
(Swazi), kwadi (Tswana) and ugwala (Venda).
The instrument consists of a slightly curved solid stick or hollow river reed,
about 95 to 100 cm long and 1·5 cm in average diameter. The string is
made from sinew. One end of the string is secured to a strip of quill from a
bird’s feather, such as a vulture’s or a bustard’s. The quill is split and
flattened, and the broad end trimmed into a leaf shape (fig.1b). The string
passes through a tiny hole pierced in the quill and is fastened by splicing or
knotting. The quill is secured to the shaft by a narrow strip of hide, which
also serves as a nut or bridge, raising the quill and string clear of the shaft;
but in later specimens and in the Sotho lesiba, attachment is by means of a
split peg. The other end of the string is bound to the shaft near its extremity
in such a way that it may be tuned by tightening or slackening before
performance. The use of a tuning-peg, presumably copied from the violin or
the ramkie, was occasionally noted by observers around Cape Town from
1796.
In playing the gora or the lesiba, the quill is placed between slightly parted,
though widely stretched, lips. The fingers keep the stave from touching the
face, leaving the quill and string free to vibrate. Both inhalation and
exhalation are used in agitating the quill, and considerable breath force is
necessary. Mouth resonance is employed for the selective amplification of
one or other of the upper partials of the harmonic series, as on the mouth
bow and jew’s harp. The use of harmonic partials 4 to 14 has been noted,
although 11 and 13 are seldom heard; the range of partials from 5 to 9 is
perhaps the most common, and the tuning of the almost inaudible
fundamental, shown as C in ex.1, may vary from F to B ' among different
Sotho players. In such cases, the entire series is transposed accordingly. In
addition to the instrumental sound, players often add laryngeal grunts
during exhalation; sometimes these are given definite pitch, to add a touch
of polyphony to the performance, but some players avoid them altogether.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
O. Dapper: Naukeurige beschrijvinge der Afrikaensche gewesten
(Amsterdam, 1668; Eng. trans., 1670; Ger. trans. 1670/R)
M.H.K. Lichtenstein: Travels in Southern Africa in the Years 1803, 1804,
1805 and 1806 (London, 1812–15/R)
W.J. Burchell: Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, i (London, 1822/R)
H. Balfour: ‘The Goura, a Stringed–Wind Musical Instrument of the
Bushmen and Hottentots’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute, xxxii (1902), 156–76
P.R. Kirby: ‘The Gora and its Bantu Successors: a Study in South African
Native Music’, Bantu Studies, v (1931), 89–109
E.M. von Hornbostel: ‘The Ethnology of African Sound-Instruments’,
Africa, vi (1933), 129–57, 277–311
P.R. Kirby: The Musical Instruments of the Native Races of South Africa
(London, 1934, 2/1965)
P.R. Kirby: ‘A Further Note on the Gora and its Bantu Successors’, Bantu
Studies, ix (1935), 53–61
DAVID K. RYCROFT

Gorączkiewicz, Wincenty
(b Kraków, 1789; d Kraków, 4 Nov 1858). Polish organist, conductor,
teacher and composer. He was a son of Dominik Gorączkiewicz (1747–
1803), organist of Wawel Cathedral in Kraków from 1788, and brother of
Dominik Gorączkiewicz (1780–1813), cathedral organist from 1803 to
1808. He studied with his father, and then in Dresden and Vienna. From
1808 until his death Gorączkiewicz held the posts of organist and musical
director of Wawel Cathedral. He also played the double bass in, and for a
time conducted, the orchestra of the theatre of the governor of the Brzeg
district, J. Kluszewski. In 1818 he became musical director of the Society of
Friends of Music in Kraków, and he also held a senior post in the Boarding
School of Music, where he taught the organ from 1820. From 1841
Gorączkiewicz was responsible for the organ and choral singing classes in
the music school of the Technical Institute. From 1838 he also taught in
Franciszek Mirecki’s operatic singing school. He later appeared as a
conductor, while as an organist he was considered to be one of the
greatest players of the day, an eminent improviser, and the equal of Simon
Sechter of Vienna and A.F. Hesse of Breslau. He gave concerts in
Dresden, Vienna and Olmütz, where he played a newly constructed organ
in the cathedral. He encouraged the performance of the vocal music of
Haydn and Mozart, and contributed towards the restoration of ancient
church music. In 1866 a plaque was set in the wall of Wawel Cathedral in
his memory. Besides making arrangements of songs, choral and piano
music, Gorączkiewicz composed some sacred works, including Cantica
choralia ecclesia Romano-Catholica (1848), and a comic intermezzo
Rendez-vous fryzjera (‘The Barber’s Rendez-Vous’), performed in Warsaw
on 27 June 1816 (manuscript in PL-Kk). He also translated into Polish
Gottfried Weber’s Versuch einer geordneten Theorie der Tonsetzkunst,
which remained in manuscript in Wawel Cathedral, Kraków.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PSB (J. Reiss)
SMP
K. Kurpiński: ‘Wiadomości o kompozytorach polskich’ [Information about
Polish composers], Tygodnik polski i zagraniczny, xxxvi (1819)
L.T. Błaszczyk: Dyrygenci polscy í obcy w Polsce działający w XIX i XX
wieku [Polish and foreign conductors working in Poland in the 19th
and 20th centuries] (Kraków, 1964) D. Wawrzykowska-Wierciochowa
and A. Podsiad : Boze coś Polske (Warsaw, 1999)
I. Poniatowska: ‘Gorączkiewicz’, Encyclopedia muzyczna PWM, ed. E.
Dziębowska, iii (Kraków, 1987)
D. Wawrzykowska-Wierciochowa and A. Podsíad: Boże coś Polskę
(Warsaw, 1999)
IRENA PONIATOWSKA
 Görbig [Gärbig, Gerbich, Gerbig],
Johann Anton (Thaddeus)
(b ?1684; d Prague-Strahov, 2 March 1737). Bohemian organist,
choirmaster and composer. His age is given as 53 in the obituary register,
but his name is not listed in the corresponding baptismal registers of Brüx
(now Most) which was given as his place of birth by Dlabač.
Görbig was an unpaid assistant organist at the metropolitan cathedral of St
Vitus in Prague from about 1703; on 24 July 1717 he became cellist and in
1727 he succeeded Tobias Ernest Liehre (1644–1727) as organist. After
the death of J.C. Gayer he was appointed capellae magister, on 27
November 1734, and he held this post until his death; he was also organist
at Strahov from about 1723. Besides his musical activities he was assessor
to the subsidiary law court at Pohořelec (Prague). Gayer's son Vojtěch
succeeded Görbig in 1727 as cellist of the metropolitan cathedral.
Görbig's artistic orientation can be seen from the selection of composers
represented in his library (now in CZ-Pp), for example Caldara, Lotti and
Heinichen. Only a few of his own compositions survive and as they bear his
surname alone, their attribution is uncertain because of the existence of an
otherwise unknown composer Georg Görbig, whose works are listed in an
Osek monastery inventory of 1720. The masses are in a slightly archaic
stile misto, showing a remarkable absorption of the late Baroque concerto
style into their contrapuntal texture. His vocal idiom is almost completely
instrumental. In these respects his style is similar to that of his Prague
contemporary, Gunther Jacob (1685–1734).
WORKS
Missa Iustitiae, F, CZ-Pnm
Missa Sancti Wolffgangi, C, ME; score, 1920, Pnm
Missa ‘Delectare in Domino’, Pp
Lit, D-Dkh
Mass, 5 offs and hymn, listed in Osek monastery inventory of 1706; 4 masses and
lit, listed in Prague, monastery of the Order of Crusaders inventory, 1737–8: all lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DlabacžKL
E. Trolda: ‘Kostelní archiv mělnický’ [Church archives at Melník], HR, ix
(1915–16), 75–81, 127–33
A. Podlaha: Catalogus collectionis operum artis musicae quae in
bibliotheca capituli metropolitani pragensis asservantur (Prague,
1926), pp.iv, xvii–xviii, xxff, 16
R. Quoika: Die Musik der Deutschen in Böhmen und Mähren (Berlin,
1956)
J. Fukač: Křižovnický hudební inventář [Music inventory of the Knights of
the Cross] (Brno, 1959)
J. Štefan: Preface to Ecclesia metropolitana pragensis: catalogus
collectionis operum artis musicae, iv/1 (Prague, 1983), 5–13
M. Kostílková: ‘Nástin dějin svatovítského hudebního kůru’ [Historical
survey of St Vitus choir], ibid., 14–33
 MILAN POŠTOLKA

Gorchakova, Galina
(b Novosibirsk, 1 March 1962). Russian soprano. After studies at the
Novosibirsk Conservatory, she joined the Opera House in Sverdlovsk (now
Yekaterinburg) in 1988, her early roles including Tatyana, Santuzza, Cio-
Cio-San, Liù, Tamara (Rubinstein's Demon) and Katerina (Lady Macbeth of
the Mtsensk District). Winning auditions in St Petersburg, she moved on to
the Kirov Opera in 1991, and with that company was quickly recognized as
an artist of rare individuality. Her international career began with an
appearance as Renata in Prokofiev's Fiery Angel at the 1991 Proms in
London, and she made her Covent Garden and Metropolitan Opera débuts
the following year in the same role, taking it to La Scala in 1994. She
returned to Covent Garden in 1993 as Tatyana, which, together with
Tchaikovsky's Lisa, became a calling card around the world. Other
Tchaikovsky roles include Maria (Mazepa) and Iolanta, and in concert
Natal'ya (The Oprichnik) and Kuma (The Enchantress). With the Kirov she
has also sung Gorislava (Ruslan and Lyudmila), Yaroslavna (Prince Igor),
Princess Olga (The Maid of Pskov), Volokhova (Sadko), Fevroniya
(Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh) and Clara (Betrothal in a
Monastery), many of which have been recorded on disc and video. Tosca
introduced her to Houston in 1996, and in 1998 in Rotterdam she added
Manon Lescaut to her repertory. Her Verdi roles have included Leonora
(including the original version of La forza del destino) and Elisabeth de
Valois. She made her Australian début in recital at the 1999 Sydney
Festival, and has a large repertory of Russian song. Although her gleaming
voice can lack flexibility, it has thrilling amplitude throughout its
considerable range.
JOHN ALLISON

Gorczycki [Gorczyca], Grzegorz

Gerwazy
(b Rozbark, nr Bytom, Silesia, c1665–7; d Kraków, 30 April 1734). Polish
composer. He studied philosophy at Prague University from about 1678 to
1683, and then theology at Vienna University until 1689. At the beginning of
1690 at the latest, he moved to Kraków, where he was ordained in spring
1692. Soon afterwards he was appointed professor at the Congregatio
Missionis at Chełmno, Pomerania; one of his duties there was to direct the
music in the chapel. In 1694 he returned to Kraków and became a curate
and from 1696 the penitentiary of Wawel Cathedral. He was composing by
this time, since one of his works, Tota pulchra es, Maria, is dated 1694. In
1698 he was made director of music at Wawel Cathedral, a position that he
retained until his death. From 1702 he was also a senior member of the
chapel of the Angelists at the cathedral. In 1705 he became canon of the
collegiate church of Skalbmierz and from about 1720 parish priest of one of
the Kraków churches. He conducted the Wawel chapel at the coronation of
the Elector August III of Saxony at Kraków on 17 January 1734, and died
shortly afterwards. He was long remembered, particularly in Kraków:
 several of his works were published during the 19th century, three of them
as early as 1839.
Gorczycki is a notable figure in Polish music of the late Baroque period. He
was mainly a composer of liturgical music to Latin texts, but he also seems
to have tried his hand at purely instrumental works. He was once thought
of primarily as a gifted exponent of the old a cappella style, but the
discovery during the second half of the 20th century of several works by
him for voices and instruments – besides the already known Illuxit sol
iustitia – shows that he used not only traditional vocal polyphony but also
the more up-to-date concerted techniques of the Neapolitan school. His
large-scale vocal and instrumental motets involve dialogues between two
or more instruments (principally violins but also on occasion viola, oboes
and trumpets) and four or five vocal parts, which include short solo sections
contrasting with tuttis. These works are in a clear, schematic major-minor
tonality and display a melodic style that has its roots in Italian music.
Instrumental music appears to have been important to Gorczycki; the little
that is known about his contribution to it derives from a polonaise of
doubtful authenticity and a note about a lost overture. He is not now
thought (as he once was) to have written any operas.
WORKS

Edition: Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki: Opera omnia, ii, ed. K. Mrowiec, MMP, ser.A
(1995–) [M]

Catalogue: A. Wardęcka-Gościńska: ‘Katalog tematyczny’ [Thematic catalogue], Grzegorz

Gerwazy Gorczycki: Studia, i, ed. Z.M. Szweykowski (1986) [W-G]

sacred vocal and instrumental

Completorium, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 tpt, org, W-G 6; M ii
Completorium (ii), W-G 7, mentioned in Kraków inventory (see Chybiński, 1928; ? =
W-G 6)
Conductus funebris, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 tpt, va, va bassa, db/trbn, org, W-G 8; M ii
Crudelis Herodes, 4vv, 2 vn, org, W-G 9; M ii
Deus tuorum militum (i), 4vv, 2 vn, org, W-G 10; M ii
Deus tuorum militum (ii), Innocentes pro Christo intontes, 4vv, 2 vn, org, W-G 11a–
b; M ii
Gratuletur ecclesia, 4vv, 2 vn, org, W-G 13; M ii
Illuxit sol iustitia, 5vv, 2 vn, va bassa, bc, W-G 16; M ii
In virtute tua, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 tpt, org, W-G 17; M ii
Jesu corona virginum, 4vv, 2 vn, org, W-G 14; M ii
Justus ut palma florebit, 4vv, 2 vn, org, W-G 20; M ii
Laetatus sum, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 tpt, org, W-G 22; M ii
Litaniae de providentia divina, 5vv, 2 ob, 2 tpt, 2 vn, va bassa, org, W-G 23; M ii
Litaniae de SS Sacramento, ex A; lost, mentioned in Wieluń inventory (see Buba
and Szweykowscy)
Os iusti meditabitur, 4vv, 2 vn, org, W-G 30; M ii
Tristes erant apostoli, 4vv, 2 vn, org, W-G 42; M ii
sacred vocal
all for 4 voices, some with organ, bc
Missa De Conceptione B.V.M. (Propers only), inc., W-G 25 (incl. Salve sancta
parens, Benedictus et venerabilis, Beata es Virgo Maria, Beata viscera, Gaude
Maria Virgo, Alleluja. Ave Maria), PL-Kk; ed. H. Feicht, Muzyka staropolska
(Kraków, 1966)
Missa paschalis, W-G 26; ed. in WDMP, vii (1930, 3/1967)
Missa ‘Rorate coeli’ (i) (with int, ‘Rorate’; without Cr), W-G 27; ed. in WDMP, lxv
(1967)
Missa ‘Rorate coeli’ (ii) (Propers only), W-G 28 (incl. Rorate coeli, Tollite portas,
Alleluja. Ave Maria, Alleluja. Post partum, Ave Maria, Ave regina caelorum); ed. in
WDMP, lxxvii (1986)
Alleluja. Ave Maria, W-G 1, ed. in WDMP, lxxviii (1986); Alleluja. Prophetae Sancti,
W-G 2, Kk (inc.); Ave Hierarchia, W-G 3, ed. in WDMP, lxxviii (1986); Ave maris
stella, W-G 4, ed. in WDMP, lxxviii (1986); Ave virgo speciosa, W-G 5, ed. in WDMP,
lxxviii (1986); Dignare me, W-G 12, Kk; Iste confessor Domini, W-G 18, Kk; Jesu
redemptor omnium (i), W-G 15, Kk(inc.), Pu; Jesu redemptor omnium (ii), W-G 77,
Kk; Jesu redemptor omnium (iii), W-G 78, Kk; Judica me Deus, W-G 19, ed. in
Muzyka w dawnym Krakowie (Kraków, 1964); Laetare Jerusalem, W-G 21, Kk(inc.);
O rex gloriae Domine, W-G 29, Kk; O sola magnarum urbium, W-G 31, ed. in
Muzyka Kościelna (Kraków, n.d.); Regina coeli laetare, W-G 33, Kk; Sancte Deus,
sancte fortis, W-G 37, Kk(inc.); Sepulto Domino, W-G 38, ed. in Cantica selecta
musicae sacrae in Polonia (Poznań, 1928); Sub tuum praesidium, W-G 39, ed. in
WDMP, lxxviii (1986); Te Joseph celebrant, W-G 40, Pu; Tota pulchra es, Maria, W-
G 41, ed. in WDMP, lxxviii (1986); Vidi aquam, CZ

instrumental
Ouverture ex D; lost, mentioned in Wieluń inventory (see Buba and Szweykowscy)
Polonez balowy, vn (doubtful); ed. in Prosnak (1962)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
SMP
A. Chybiński: ‘Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki’, Muzyka kościelna, iii/1–10,
12 (1928), Muzyka polska, i (1934), 196–200
H. Feicht: ‘Do biografii G.G. Gorczyckiego’, PRM, ii (1936), 98–9
J. Prosnak: ‘Utwory klawesynowe polskiego Oświecenia’ [Compositions
for the harpsichord during the Polish Enlightenment], Muzyka, vii/2
(1962), 69–93
J. Buba, A. and Z.M. Szweykowscy: ‘Kultura muzyczna pijarów polskich
w XVII i XVIII wieku’ [The music culture of the Polish Piarists in the
17th and 18th centuries], Muzyka, x (1965), no.2, pp.15–32; no.3,
pp.20–32
J. Węcowski: ‘Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki w świetle najnowszych odkryć
i badań’ [Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki in the light of the most recent
discoveries and research], Studia Hieronymo Feicht septuagenario
dedicata, ed. Z. Lissa (Kraków, 1967), 227–34
M. Kaczorowska-Guńkiewicz: ‘Do biografii Grzegorza Gerwazego
Gorczyckiego’, Muzyka, xviii/4 (1973), 83–6
K. Mrowiec: ‘Nowo odnalezione najwieksze dzieło Grzegorza Gerwazego
Gorczyckiego’ [The newly discovered greatest work of Gorczycki],
Muzyka, xx/2 (1975), 108–12
W. Schenk: ‘Przyczynek do biografii Grzegorza Gerwazego Gorczyckiego’
[A contribution to the biography of Gorczycki], Muzyka, xxiii/2 (1978),
73–5
M. Kaczorowska-Guńkiewicz: ‘Technika polifoniczna w “Completorium”
Gorczyckiego’ [Polyphonic technique in Gorczycki's
‘Completorium’],Muzyka, xxvii/1–2 (1982), 43–54
D. Idaszak: ‘Litania G.G. Gorczyckiego: nowe źródło do polskiego koncertu
wokalno-instrumentalnego z okresu baroku’ [The Litaniae of
Gorczycki; a new source for the Polish vocal and instrumental
concerto in the Baroque period], Dzieło muzyczne [The musical work],
ed. I. Poniatowska and others (Kraków, 1984), 277–81
Z.M. Szweykowski, ed.: Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki: Studia, i (Kraków,
1986) [incl. thematic catalogue by A. Wardęcka-Gościńska]
Z.M. Szweykowski, ed.: Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki: Studia, ii (Kraków,
1990)
T. Maciejewski: ‘Nieznana kopia utworu G.G. Gorczyckiego’ [An unknown
copy of a work by Gorczycki], Muzyka, xxxvii/2 (1992), 91–2
MIROSŁAW PERZ

Gordigiani, Giovanni Battista

(b Modena, July 1795; d Prague, 2 March 1871). Italian baritone, composer
and teacher. The eldest son of the baritone Antonio Gordigiani, he studied
for six years at the conservatory in Milan. In 1817 he sang at the Teatro
della Pergola, Florence, and the following year in Pisa, but soon gave up
the stage to become a concert singer. After a period in Regensburg as a
teacher, he went to Prague in 1822 and stayed there for the rest of his life,
teaching singing at the conservatory. Among his pupils was the soprano
Teresa Stolz. He composed several operas, of which three were produced
in Prague: Pygmalione, 1845; Consuelo, 1846 (in which the 20-year-old
Marietta Alboni sang the part of Anziletto) and Loscrivano pubblico, 1850.
He also wrote church music, marches and songs.
His brother Luigi (b Modena, 21 June 1806; d Florence, 1 May 1860) sang
in the boys' choir of the Pitti Chapel in Florence and studied the piano and
composition. For a time he was employed by Count Demidoff to produce
music for entertainments. His compositions include ten operas, eight of
which were performed, a ballet, an oratorio, three cantatas, many piano
pieces and over 300 songs, many based on Tuscan folk melodies and
published in collections including In riva all'Arno and Mosaico Etrusco. His
vocal chamber music earned him the nickname ‘the Italian Schubert’.
ELIZABETH FORBES

Gordon, Alexander
(b Aberdeen, c1692; d South Carolina, 1754/5). Scottish tenor, author and
antiquary. He graduated at Aberdeen University, lived for a time by
teaching languages and music, and then left for the Continent, spending
some years in Italy, where presumably he was trained as a singer. He sang
in C.A. Monza’s La principessa fedele at Messina in 1716 and Orlandini’s
Lucio Papirio and Leo’s Sofonisba at Naples in 1717–18. He returned to
Britain in 1719 and sang at four concerts at the Lincoln’s Inn Fields Theatre
that winter. He was a member of the Royal Academy (at the King’s
Theatre) during its first season (spring 1720), singing in Porta’s Numitore,
Handel’s Radamisto (Tiridate) and Roseingrave’s arrangement of
Domenico Scarlatti’s Narciso. He had a benefit at York Buildings on 6
February 1721 and another at the Little Haymarket Theatre on 26 January
1722. He was back at the King’s Theatre in 1723 for the first performances
of Ariosti’s Coriolano and Handel’s Flavio (Ugone). Handel planned to give
him a part in Giulio Cesare, but in August that year Gordon abandoned his
singing career and began research on the Roman antiquities of Scotland
and northern England. His literary works include the fruits of this, under the
title Itinerarium Septentrionale, lives of Pope Alexander VI and his son
Cesare Borgia, a translation of Scipione Maffei’s De gli anfiteatri, essays on
Egyptian mummies and hieroglyphics, and a comedy, Lupone or The
Inquisitor, produced unsuccessfully in London in 1731. He was secretary to
the Society of Antiquaries (1736–41) and other learned bodies, but in 1741
left for South Carolina as secretary to the governor. He became a
substantial landowner there, and died between August 1754 (when he
made his will) and July 1755.
Gordon must have possessed a competent technique to sing the two parts
Handel composed for him, which require agile coloratura and a compass
from d to a'. On one occasion he is said to have taken exception to
Handel’s accompaniment and threatened to jump on the harpsichord; this
drew the reply: ‘Let me know when you will do that and I will advertise it; for
I am sure more people will come to see you jump than to hear you sing’.
Gordon apparently brought back from Naples a manuscript score of
Alessandro Scarlatti’s Tigrane, now in the Barber Institute at Birmingham,
in which the opera is attributed to Scarlatti ‘con l’ajuto del Sigr Alessandro
Gordoni Inglese’. Gordon may have been present when the opera was
produced in 1715, but he probably acted merely as copyist. He was also a
painter, who illustrated some of his own books and left a self-portrait.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DNB (G. Goodwin)
SartoriL
C. Morey: ‘Alexander Gordon, Scholar and Singer’, ML, xlvi (1965), 332–5
W. Dean and J.M. Knapp: Handel’s Operas 1704–1726 (Oxford, 1987,
2/1995)
WINTON DEAN

Gordon, Dexter (Keith)

(b Los Angeles, 27 Feb 1923; d Philadelphia, 25 April 1990). American jazz
tenor saxophonist. He began to play the clarinet at the age of 13 and
studied music with Lloyd Reese, during which time he played in a rehearsal
band with other pupils of Reese, including Charles Mingus and Buddy
Collette. After a long engagement with Lionel Hampton’s touring band
(1940–43) he made his first solo recordings, as the leader of a quintet
session with Nat ‘King’ Cole as a sideman. In 1944 he worked for a few
weeks with the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra, then briefly with Louis
Armstrong and with Billy Eckstine’s orchestra. His recordings with Eckstine
(for example, Blowin’ the Blues Away, 1944, Deluxe), Dizzy Gillespie, Fats
Navarro and others soon made him a leading figure in the bop movement.
Working alternately on the East and West coasts, he appeared with Tadd
Dameron in New York early in 1949, and joined his fellow tenor
saxophonist Wardell Gray for a popular and sensational series of
‘saxophone duels’ between 1947 and 1952 (notably The Chase, 1947,
Dial). Difficulties associated with drug addiction curtailed his activities
during the 1950s, but these problems had been resolved by 1960 when he
served as composer, musician and actor in the West Coast production of
Jack Gelber’s play The Connection. Thereafter he toured and recorded
principally as a leader, moving back to New York early in 1962.
In September 1962 Gordon performed in London and then made a tour of
the Continent that was so successful he remained in Europe for the next 15
years, making infrequent trips to the USA. Based in Copenhagen, he
appeared at all the major jazz festivals, taught and recorded prolifically; he
also toured Japan in autumn 1975. Encouraged by a visit to New York in
1976, however, he returned permanently to the USA the following year. As
the star of the film Round Midnight (1986), Gordon was the subject of
renewed interest in the late 1980s; he received a nomination for an
Academy Award for his role.
Gordon’s main influence was Lester Young, but he also displayed an
extrovert intensity reminiscent of Herschel Evans and Illinois Jacquet. His
rich, vibrant sound, harmonic awareness, behind-the-beat phrasing and
predilection for humorous quotations combined to create a highly individual
style. Gordon’s music strongly affected the two leading tenor saxophonists
of the succeeding generation, Sonny Rollins and John Coltrane. Gordon
was later influenced in turn by Coltrane, and even, following Coltrane’s
example, adopted the soprano saxophone during the late 1970s. A volume
of transcriptions of his performances has been published.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Gitler: ‘Dexter Gordon: the Time for Recognition’, Down Beat, xxviii/29
(1961), 16–17
L. Tomkins: ‘The Dexter Gordon Story’, Crescendo, i/4 (1962–3), 4–5
[interview]
R. Baggenaes: ‘Dexter Gordon: Interview’, Coda, x/7 (1972), 2–5
C. Berg: ‘Dexter Gordon: Making his Great Leap Forward’, Down Beat,
xliv/3 (1977), 12–3, 38, 42–3
L. Tomkins: ‘Dexter Gordon’, Crescendo International, xv (1977), no.8,
pp.6–7; no.9, pp.14–15 [interview]
L. Niehaus: Dexter Gordon Jazz Saxophone Solos: Transcriptions from
the Original Recordings (Hollywood, CA, 1979)
B. Rusch: ‘Dexter Gordon: Interview’, Cadence, vii/11 (1981), 5–8
T. Sjøgren: Long Tall Dexter: the Discography of Dexter Gordon
(Copenhagen, 1986)
S. Britt: Long Tall Dexter: a Critical Musical Biography of Dexter Gordon
(London, 1989)

Oral history material in US-NEij

 LEWIS PORTER

Gordon, Captain James (Carel

Gerhard)
(b Cape of Good Hope, 22 May 1791; d Lausanne, 1838). Scottish and
Cape Dutch amateur flute maker and player. He carried out improvements
to the flute, firstly in Paris, and in 1831 in London in association with Rudall
& Rose and Cornelius Ward. He is remembered for the ‘Boehm–Gordon
controversy’, a libel campaign against Theobald Boehm initiated for his
own commercial ends by Victor Coche in 1838, in which Boehm was falsely
accused of stealing the idea of the ring-key (brille) from Gordon (it had in
fact been patented in 1808 by Friedrich Nolan). Boehm and Gordon had
worked together in Munich in 1833–4, a result of which was Gordon's 13-
hole Flûte diatonique of 1834. There had been no misunderstanding
between them; the campaign against Boehm, which was perpetuated by
John Clinton, Cornelius Ward and Richard Shepard Rockstro, seems to
have originated in jealousy. The accusations were refuted by Schafhäutl
and Christopher Welch, but Gordon’s apparent failure led to severe mental
illness and eventually to suicide.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Waterhouse-LangwillI
L. Böhm: Festschrift anlasslich des 200 Geburtstags Th. Böhm (Munich,
1994)

For further bibliography see Boehm, Theobald.

JAAP FRANK

Gordon, Michael
(b Miami, 20 July 1956). American composer and keyboard player. Raised
in Nicaragua, he returned to Miami Beach at the age of eight. He studied at
New York University (graduated 1980) and Yale University (MM 1982),
among others; his principal teachers included Edward Troupin and Martin
Bresnick. From 1979 to 1983 he played in the rock band Peter and the
Girlfriends, later forming a more ambitious ensemble, the Michael Gordon
Philharmonic (1983–96), to perform his concert music. In 1987 he co-
founded, with his wife Julia Wolfe, and David Lang, the Bang on a Can
Festival, New York, an event that became an important showcase for
postminimal and vernacular-based new music.
Gordon’s music starts from a minimalist ensemble concept, but extends
dramatically towards dissonance and rhythmic complexity. Many early
works revolve around rhythmic conflict, a characteristic illustrated by titles
such as Thou Shalt/Thou Shalt Not! (1983) and Four Kings Fight Five
(1988). In the earlier work, his first piece for the Michael Gordon
Philharmonic, the 9/8 rhythm of the strings and organ is angrily, yet
 routinely, interrupted by a conflicting pattern in the bass clarinet and
percussion. In the later composition, rhythmic layers are nested in two-
against-three and three-against-four groupings. Such complexities made
Gordon a central proponent of the Manhattan-based movement known as
Totalism, a style characterized by vernacular influences, postminimalist
harmonies and intricate rhythmic structures. Other characteristics of
Gordon’s style include abrupt changes in tempo and the use of classical
instruments to create a pulsing, irregular energy reminiscent of rock groups
such as Led Zeppelin.
In 1991 Gordon collaborated with video artist Elliot Caplan to create the
Van Gogh Video Opera, a multimedia work in which visual allusions to the
life and work of Vincent Van Gogh are accompanied by musical patterns
organized in complex rhythmic cycles. With Yo Shakespeare (1992),
Gordon began to reduce the pitch elements of his music to achieve a more
focussed concentration on rhythm. This process reached its apex in
Trance, a 50-minute intense continuum of competing rhythms that peaks in
a digitally recorded sample of Buddhist and Arabic chanting.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Van Gogh Video Opera (after V. Van Gogh letters), 1991, collab. E.
Caplan; Chaos (op, 25 scenes, M. Maguire), 1994–8; The Carbon Copy Building
(op, 1, B. Kutchor), 1999, collab D. Lang and J. Wolfe, Turin, Teatro Carignano,
Sept 1999
Large ens: Four Kings Fight Five, ob, cl + b cl, perc, synth, elec gui, vn, va, vc,
1988; Romeo, orch, 1992; Yo Shakespeare, 2 fl + pic + pan pipes, s + t sax, a + bar
sax, perc, 3 synth, elec gui, elec b gui, amp vn, amp vc, 1992; XVI, 16vv, 1993;
Trance, 2 fl + pic + pan pipes, 2 s sax, a sax, 4 tpt, 4 trbn, perc, 3 sampled accdn,
elec gui, elec b gui, amp vn, vc, tape, 1995; Love Bead, fl + pic, ob + eng hn, b cl,
dbn, brass, elec gui, elec b gui, amp vn, va, vc, sampler, 1997; Weather, str orch,
1997 [opt. multimedia video by Caplan]
Other: Thou Shalt/Thou Shalt Not!, cl + b cl, perc, elec org, elec gui, amp vn, amp
va, 1983; The Low Qt, (b cl, bar sax, trbn, db)/any 4 low insts, 1985; Strange Quiet,
cl + b cl, perc, synth, elec gui, amp vn, amp va, 1985; Acid Rain, fl, cl, synth, str qt,
db, 1986; Paint it Black, db, 1988; Industry, amp vc, elecs, 1992; Trance 4, cl, perc,
elec gui, vc, amp db, sampler, 1995; ACDC, fl, cl, vn, db, pf, 1996; Grand Dairy,
elecs, 1996; I Buried Paul, cl, elec gui, vc, amp db, perc, sampler, 1996; hate, 1v +
pf, 1997; XY, perc, 1997

Recorded interviews in US-NHoh

Principal publishers: Red Poppy, Chester

Principal recording companies: Argo, CRI, Sony Classical

KYLE GANN
 Gordon, Peter
(b New York, 20 June 1951). American composer and saxophonist. As a
youth he lived in Munich, where he studied the saxophone with Don
Menea, music theory with P.J. Korn and played in rock bands. Later he
studied music and telecommunications at the University of Southern
California (1969–70), composition at the University of California, San Diego
(BA 1973) and electronic music at Mills College (MA 1975); his principal
teachers were Kenneth Gaburo, Roger Reynolds, Pauline Oliveros, Robert
Ashley and Terry Riley. Gordon first gained attention for his work with the
Love of Life Orchestra, an art-rock performing group which he founded
(with David Van Tieghem) in 1977. Members included Rik Albani (trumpet),
Rebecca Armstrong (voice), Randy Gun (guitar) and ‘Blue’ Gene Tyranny
(piano), in addition to Gordon (clarinet, saxophone, synthesizer) and Van
Tieghem (percussion). The Love of Life Orchestra performed throughout
the USA, Canada and Europe and made several recordings. Gordon’s
compositions incorporate tape and electronic music, videotape and live
performance, and often address social and political issues, as in The Birth
of a Poet (1981), and The Return of the Native (1983–8). Other
compositions include Shoptalk, a collage of the voices of eight composers,
and Frozen Moments of Passion, for saxophone, fragments of speech and
pre-recorded tape. In 1985 he won an Obie award for the music for Otello,
a mixed-media work loosely based on Verdi’s opera and created in
collaboration with members of the Italian performance art group Falso
Movimento. As an arranger and record producer Gordon has worked most
notably with Ashley on Perfect Lives (Private Parts). He has played
saxophone and clarinet on recordings by Laurie Anderson, the Flying
Lizards, Dinosaur L and Soft Verdict. Gordon has also composed music for
plays, music theatre and leading dance companies. In 1981 he began
producing live video-music-theatre with video artists Kit Fitzgerald. A
documentary on their collaborative work, Painted Melodies, Spider’s
Garden, won the 1993 Grand Prize at the International Electronic Cinema
Festival in Montreux.
WORKS
(selective list)

Dramatic: Birth of the Poet (op, K. Acker), 1981, RO Theatre, Rotterdam, 1984;
Return of the Native (video op), 1983–8, collab. K. Fitzgerald, Brooklyn Academy of
Music/Next Wave 1988; Otello (mixed media), received Obie 1985, collab. Falso
Movimento; Joe versus the Volcano (film score, dir. J.P. Shanley, 1990; The Journey
from Petersburg to Moscow (film score, dir. V. Stephen); In the Soup (film score, dir.
A Rockwell), 1992 ; The Strange Life of Ivan Osokin (op, C. Congdon), 1994,
LaMama, New York, 1994; Party Time (op, P. Zimet), 1996, collab. Fitzgerald,
Public School 122, New York, 1996
Inst: Windfinger Song, 6 fl, pf, hpd, cel, 1972; Les Enfants Terrible, str trio, 1973;
Movt, chbr orch, 1976; Intervallic Expansion, 2 sax, gui, db, kbd, perc, 1976;
Extended Niceties, ens, 1978; Geneva Suite, rock ens, 1979; Dingle Music, chbr
suite, 1983; Secret Pastures (ballet suite, Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane & Co.), 1984; St.
Cecilia, 2 sax, gui, perc, 1985; Leningrad Xpress (dance suite), 1988; Pastis, gui,
1985/89; The Misadventures of President Limp, ens, 1989; Sorak San Mist, E cl, 5
haegum (Korean vn), 1990; De Dode, str qt, 1992; Gnarly, chbr orch, 1995
El-ac: Machomusic, 8 sax, elec, 1973; Frozen Moments of Passion, sax, v, rec.
tape, 1980; Shoptalk, 8 rec. vv
Compositions on disc: Deutsche Angst, collab. L. Weiner, Disques Crepuscule,
1982; Westmusik, collab. T. Fehlmann, Zick/Zack Records, 1983; The Yellow Box,
collab. D. Cunningham, Voiceprint, 1996

JOAN LA BARBARA

Gordon Woodhouse [née

Gwynne], Violet (Kate)
(b London, 23 April 1872; d London, 9 Jan 1948). English harpsichordist,
clavichordist and pianist. She was one of the pioneers in the English revival
of interest in earlier keyboard instruments. After showing signs of an
unusual musical ear and memory, she studied the piano with Oscar
Beringer but, influenced by Arnold Dolmetsch whom she met in 1910, she
turned to the harpsichord. A woman of wealth and social standing
(somewhat imperilled by her irregular private life), she did not lead a very
active public professional life, but made a considerable impression on the
intellectual and artistic circles of the day. Delius wrote his Dance for
Harpsichord for her. She was the first to make gramophone records of
harpsichord music (June and July 1920) and the first solo harpsichordist to
broadcast in England (March 1924). By this time she had also taken up the
clavichord with enthusiasm. Her catholic repertory included transcriptions,
in which she experimented with a technique of brushing the clavichord’s
strings with her fingertips. She was much admired for her graceful
phrasing, which was influenced by her appreciation of bel canto.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
O. Sitwell: Noble Essences (London, 1950), 245–63
J. Douglas-Home: Violet (London, 1996) [with discography by A. Vicat]
LIONEL SALTER

Gordy, Berry
(b Detroit, 28 Nov 1929). American songwriter and founder of Motown
Records. Born into a middle-class family, he initially wanted to be a boxer
and later opened a record shop specializing in jazz. When both these
career options failed, he began to write songs, quickly achieving success
between 1957 and 1959 by co-writing such hits as Reete Petite, To be
Loved and I'll be satisfied for Jackie Wilson, You've got what it takes for
Marv Johnson and Money for Barrett Strong.
At Smokey Robinson's suggestion, Gordy ventured into the record
business with Tamla Records in 1959. He began Motown in 1961, followed
by Gordy in 1962, Soul and VIP in 1964 and several lesser labels over the
ensuing ten years. Collectively these labels are commonly referred to as
Motown. Gordy promoted the label as the ‘Sound of Young America’, since
from the beginning he was interested in marketing his African-American
artists to both a black and white audience. To achieve this he identified
what the common elements were in black recordings that crossed over to
the pop charts. He personally trained all of Motown's early writers and
producers and, using essentially the same musicians for every recording,
he developed the Motown sound.
Gordy developed a long-range business plan at Motown, drawing from his
experience at the Lincoln-Mercury car factory in Detroit where he had
worked during the mid-1950s. The operation was run like a factory with a
top-down model. Its success was based on a cheap labour pool, a rigidly
compartmentalized work force, vertical integration and control of the
market-place. Motown's spectacular results were unprecedented among
black record labels and by the late 1960s Gordy's Jobete Music was the
most successful publishing company in the world.
In 1971 Gordy moved Motown's headquarters to Los Angeles with a view
to expanding into motion pictures. He continued to achieve a significant
degree of success but his company could no longer boast a characteristic
sound, and in 1988 he sold Motown to MCA records.He published his
autobiography as To be Loved: the Music, the Magic, the Memories of
Motown (New York, 1994).

For bibliography see Motown.

ROB BOWMAN

Górecki, Henryk Mikołaj

(b Czernica, nr Rybnik, 6 Dec 1933). Polish composer. He studied
composition with Szabelski at the Music Academy in Katowice (1955–60),
where he subsequently taught, becoming rector in 1975 until his
resignation in 1979 in politically-charged circumstances. His composition
pupils include Augustyn, Knapik, Krzanowski and his own son, Mikołaj.
While still a student, Górecki made a name for himself in Poland as a
leading member of the young, avant-garde generation of composers, with
premières at the early Warsaw Autumn festivals that culminated in the
succès de scandale of Scontri in 1960. Abroad, he received first prize at
the 1961 UNESCO Youth Biennale for the First Symphony and at the 1973
UNESCO Composers’ Rostrum for Do matki. He received his first foreign
commission for Refren (one of the most remarkable compositions of the
mid-1960s), which was followed by two West German radio commissions,
Canticum graduum and the Third Symphony (1976). Nevertheless, his
name and most of his music remained largely unknown outside Poland
until the mid- to late 1980s, when chamber works were commissioned by
the Lerchenborg Festival and by the Kronos Quartet. Fame arrived in the
1990s when the fourth commercial recording of the Third Symphony, by
Dawn Upshaw and the London Sinfonietta conducted by David Zinman,
became a worldwide phenomenon. Since its release in 1992, this recording
has sold over a million copies; many other performances and recordings
have followed in its wake. Its success was attributed in large part to
radioplay and the acumen of its distributors as well as to the freshness of
its appeal – notwithstanding the date of its composition (1976) – to non-
specialist listeners for whom its understated spirit of reflective mourning
touched a contemporary nerve.
Regardless of his stylistic evolution, Górecki has established a strong and
distinctive musical presence which is more widely appreciated than it was
before the media exposure of the 1990s. He revealed the extremes of his
musical temperament in the savaged neo-classicism of the Sonata for Two
Violins (1957), which contains potent dynamic and rhythmic contrasts as
well as displaying a taste for the grotesque that would resurface over 30
years later. As Poland opened up to Western influences, Górecki rapidly
assimilated serial techniques and aesthetics, although he held a sceptical
view of hermetic compositional systems. In the melting-pot of the late
1950s, he showed Webernian restraint in Epitafium (the first of many works
to be given a detailed spatial layout) and evoked a Boulezian soundworld
in Monologhi. And yet, while serialization of pitch, dynamics and durations
underpins much of Scontri, this exceptionally flamboyant score, like the
preceding First Symphony, is notable rather for its explosive mix of
pointillism and movement of massed sounds. Clusters collide with solo
lines, instrumental families hocket with one other, stasis gives way to
volcanic eruptions. Throughout, the music underlines an abiding Polish
dictum: that technique is subservient to expressive ends. It was also a
watershed in his personal development. In Genesis, the three-part
chamber music cycle which followed, Górecki addressed the issue of what
constituted the essence of his new musical language with brutal frankness,
especially in the stripped-down muscularity of Elementi, the first section.
Even so, he still felt the need to underpin this score with serially-derived
procedures, all but obliterated by deliberately intuitive handling of his
material and by the predominance of indeterminate pitch (the three
instruments – violin, viola and cello – are detuned for the last pages).
There were two separate but related outcomes from this ruthless self-
examination: a formal and technical clarity (Refren) and an absorption of
cultural icons from the past (Three Pieces in Old Style). Some features of
Refren such as strong dynamic and textural contrasts, and the use of
mirror patterns, are still drawn from previous works, but these elements are
marshalled into a parametrically unified framework: contrasts are limited to
the macrostructural level and palindromes define phrasing more clearly,
especially in the outer sections of the simple ternary design. In abandoning
serialism (although retaining some of its manipulative procedures), Górecki
developed newly-sustained pitch schemes; in Refren such a scheme is
based on whole-tone harmonies moving in parallel to an evolving melodic
line, which itself moves chant-like within an ambit of a minor third. Most
premonitory are the extremely slow tempo of the outer sections and the
developmental refrain substructure. The Three Pieces in Old Style are
significant insofar as they are unashamedly modal (at a time when
dissonance was the avant-garde norm) and provide the first of many
instances when Górecki appropriates pre-existing music: in this case, the
third movement retools a Polish Renaissance wedding song, at one point
layering eight-fold its tenor through the notes of the dorian mode. During
the late 1960s, Górecki concentrated on ‘putting the most stringently
restricted material to maximum use’, especially in Muzyka staropolska and
the Muzyczka series, a successor to the Genesis cycle. The former is his
most ascetic evocation of the past, with repetitive motifs in the brass
derived from a medieval organum interlocked with serially-layered
statements in the strings of the tenor from a Renaissance hymn, material
which was to resurface in a contrapuntal guise in the First String Quartet
almost twenty years later. The main significance of Muzyczka 4 lies in its
overall structure, where the fortissimo dynamic, long silent pauses and
rapid, chromatic motifs of the first movement are counterbalanced by a
comparatively calm second movement: this binary design informs several
subsequent pieces, notably the Second Symphony. Reflective codas, first
encountered in Canti strumentali, become a mainstay of many later works.
The years 1970–86 are dominated by vocal music, as if Górecki was
attempting to humanize the linguistic and technical explorations of the
1960s. The underrated Do matki uses its vocal forces sparingly and
consequently to heightened emotional effect – the chorus briefly interjects
on just two occasions, the solo soprano appears only in the coda – while
the harmonic language has a new diatonic element, being an elaboration of
a dominant thirteenth chord. The Second Symphony, written to celebrate
the 500th anniversary of the birth of the Polish astronomer Copernicus, is
appropriately his most monumental score. The thunderous cosmic vision of
the mostly orchestral first movement is answered by a second movement
whose proportions are considerably expanded in order to resolve the
earlier tensions. As part of his search for a harmonic resonance that
includes diatonic triads, towards the end Górecki makes use of 12-note bi-
modality: a dorian 15th-century choral antiphon is complemented by a
‘black-note’ pentatonic chord, in order to symbolize Copernicus's view of
heaven as containing all things of beauty. The second movement marks an
important stage in Górecki's conversion to a more consonant language
since the late 1960s, a process which was immediately clarified in several
choral pieces and the Third Symphony.
The ‘Symphony of Sorrowful Songs’, like the earlier Refren, holds a
prominent place in post-World War II music. Both are distillations of ideas
the radicality of which, at the time and since, has yet to be fully recognized.
The symphony has been dismissed by some, particularly in Western
Europe, as lacking in musical and intellectual substance, too reliant on
sentiment, both personal and religious. This is to misunderstand its roots in
Eastern European secular and sacred musical traditions: the symphony's
underlying ethos of reflection and transcendence and its candid
combination of emotional and technical directness may not always cross
cultural boundaries. The work's origins in the example of Szymanowski, in
Polish hymnody and folksong and in the traumas of the Silesian Uprisings
and World War II, and its iconic references to Beethoven and Chopin, have
given rise to an enormously powerful and unique tribute to the power of
prayer in the face of recurrent inhumanity. The Third Symphony is
fashioned within three slow movements lasting almost one hour and
concentrated on the strongly maternal figure of the solo soprano;
compositionally, each movement of the Third Symphony is a scion of his
earlier reflective codas, bereft of their original role as diffusers of conflict.
The first is characterized by a masterful yet simple canonic process which
filters the subject at different levels through a constant aeolian mode on E.
The second is memorable for its harmonic head-motif, while the third
isolates a two-chord alternation (just one example of Górecki's profound
attachment to the lullaby) from Chopin's Mazurka op.17 no.4 and elides it
harmonically, and symbolically, with the chordal climax from the
development section of the first movement from Beethoven's Third
Symphony.
Górecki's shift since Refren to a fully diatonic and modal language, in
which melody plays the supreme role and in which the repetitive element is
essentially rooted in folk and church music, combined with his frequent
incorporations of pre-existing music, represents his search for personal
authentification in both Polish and broader musical terms. In the last two
large-scale choral works of this period, Beatus vir and Miserere, Górecki
connects directly to the Roman Catholic traditions that are central to his
sense of heritage and also, by association, to the church's political role in
communist Poland. Beatus vir was commissioned by Cardinal Wojtyła in
1977 and conducted by Górecki in his presence when he returned to
Poland as Pope John-Paul II two years later. Writing and performing
Beatus vir was both a religious and political act, not least because the work
is a homage to the Polish patron saint, Bishop Stanislaus, who was a victim
of conflict between church and state in 1079. Miserere, begun as a protest
against government provocation of the Solidarity trade union in March
1981, was not performed until 1987 because of the imposition of martial
law in December 1981. Both works, in solemn and measured tones, utilize
Górecki's by now customary long-term tonal foundations (C minor – major
in Beatus vir, the aeolian mode in Miserere). During the remainder of the
1980s Górecki composed a substantial body of a cappella choral music,
most of it in gentle arrangements of folk and church songs and most of it
for personal reasons rather than for public consumption. It was a further
period of self-reassessment.
His subsequent return to instrumental genres had been heralded in 1980
by the Harpsichord Concerto, whose two short fast movements seemed the
antithesis of most of his musical output of the preceding decade.
Nevertheless, Górecki drew on the same inspirational sources, this time
couching them in vivacious and jocular terms, with the soloist given a
concertante role. Its binary structure (contrapuntal/harmonic, D aeolian/D
major) – a light-hearted descendant of the rough-hewn Muzyczka 4 – is
fleshed out by repetitive ideas which are the closest he comes to American
minimalist practices. More far-reaching changes came, however, with the
return to chamber music initiated by Lerchenmusik in 1984–6. This trio (like
the later Good Night) recalls the Third Symphony in its predominantly slow
three-movement format; the trio also exposes to a great extent the ways in
which Górecki approaches temporal structures. He remains unconcerned
with traditional procedures governed by harmonic momentum (Messiaen
makes an interesting comparison). Consequently, the music tends to move
in lengthy blocks of tonally static and motivically reiterative material in
which contemplation of the present is more absorbing than obviously goal-
directed ideas. These factors are evident in the slowly unfolding cello
meditation which opens the first movement, and in the insistent chordal
and rhythmic patterns which constitute the ensuing rondo design. The long-
term structure of Lerchenmusik, which lasts some 40 minutes, is controlled
by a staggered reduction of dynamic, harmonic–melodic and rhythmic
tensions towards the quiet resolution of the finale (which incorporates
cyclic recall). The shape of the entire work is further defined by giving
 prominence to a different instrument in each movement. The last
movement also reveals a new approach to pre-existing music: rather than
cite it verbatim and at pitch, Górecki unveils his disguised sources
gradually; in this case a vespers chant merges with the opening of
Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto. The two string quartets are
remarkable for their rejuvenated interest in thematic development and in a
broader expressive gamut, where rumbustious folk rhythms may dance
cheek-to-cheek with an anguished arioso or a softly stated reference to
music of the past. They arguably represent the first time since his youth
that Górecki has engaged directly with classical genres and methodologies
associated with the crucial model of Beethoven (the title of the second
quartet, Quasi una fantasia, is not without significance). Górecki's long-
breathed concentration on basic motifs has parallels in the music of other
composers, notably Schubert and Sibelius, but the stubbornness and
aggressive intensity of his music, as well as some aspects of his approach
to time, are more closely related to Beethoven.
Of 20th-century influences, Ives, Szymanowski and Messiaen come to
mind, for differing reasons. Górecki's shared delight with Ives in the
combination of the metaphysical and the everyday reappears in Concerto-
Cantata and Małe Requiem dla pewnej polki, which continue to draw upon
Polish folk idioms and at the same time develop the dance element into
one closer to circus music than to indigenous models. Górecki's music
remains as idiosyncratic as he is, its character instantly recognizable and
consistently challenging in its Slavic directness. His compositional
development shows that he has always been his own man, for whom fame
and fortune came late in life, accidentally and bemusingly.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ADRIAN THOMAS
Górecki, Henryk Mikołaj
WORKS
Orch: Pieśni o radości i rytmie [Songs of Joy and Rhythm], op.7, 2 pf, chamber
orch, 1956, rev. 1960; Sym. no.1 ‘1959’, op.14, perc, str, 1959; Scontri, op.17, orch,
1960; Trzy utwory w dawnym stylu [3 Pieces in Old Style], str, 1963; Choros I,
op.20, str, 1964; Refren [Refrain], op.21, orch, 1965; Wratislaviae gloria, fanfare,
brass, str, 1968; Muzyka staropolska [Old Polish Music], op.24, brass, str, 1969;
Canticum graduum, op.27, orch, 1969; Trzy tańce [3 Dances], orch, op.34, 1973;
Dwa hejnały [2 Bugle Calls], ww, brass, 1976; Conc., op.40, hpd/pf, str, 1980;
Conc.-Cant., op.65, fl/alto fl, orch; see also Choral/Solo vocal [Sym. no.2, 1972;
Sym. no.3, 1976]
Choral: Epitafium (J. Tuwim), op.12, chorus, picc, D tpt, 5 perc, va, 1958; Do matki
(Ad matrem), op.29, S, chorus, orch, 1971; Sym. no.2 ‘Kopernikowska’ [Copernican]
(Psalms, N. Copernicus), op.31, S, Bar, chorus, orch, 1972; Euntes ibant et flebant
(Psalms), op.32, chorus, 1972; Dwie piosenki [2 Little Songs] (Tuwim), op.33, 1972;
Amen, op.35, chorus, 1975; Beatus vir (Psalms), op.38, Bar, chorus, orch, 1979;
Szeroka woda [Broad Waters] (5 songs, trad), op.39, chorus, 1979; Miserere, op.44,
chorus, 1981, rev. 1987; Wieczór ciemny się uniża [Dark Evening is Falling] (5
songs, trad), op.45, chorus, 1981; Wisło moja, Wisło szara [My Vistula, Grey
Vistula] (trad), op.46, chorus, 1981; Trzy kołysanki [3 Lullabies] (trad), op.49,
chorus, 1984; Ach, mój wianku lewandowy [O, My Garland of Lavender] (7 songs,
trad), op.50, chorus, 1984; Idzie chmura, pada deszcz [Cloud Comes, Rain Falls] (5
songs, trad), op.51, chorus, 1984; Pieśni Maryjne [Marian Songs] (5, trad), op.54,
chorus, 1985; Pod Twoją obronę [Under Your Protection] (trad), op.56, chorus,
1985; Na Anioł Pański biją dzwony [The Bells Ring Out for the Angelus Domini]
(K.P. Tetmajer), op.57, chorus, 1986; Pieśni kościelne [Church songs] (21, trad),
chorus, 1986; Totus Tuus (M. Bogusławska), op.60, chorus, 1987; Przybądz Duchu
Swięty [Come Holy Spirit], op.61, chorus, 1988
Solo vocal: Dwie pieśni [2 Songs] (M. Konopnicka), v, pf, 1954–5; Trzy pieśni [3
songs] (J. Słowacki, Tuwim), op.3, medium v, pf, 1956; Nokturn (F. García Lorca),
op.42a, v, pf, 1956; Monologhi (Górecki), op.16, S, 2 hp, 3 perc, 1960; Genesis III:
Monodramma (Górecki), op.19/3, S, metal perc, 6 db, 1963; Dwie pieśni sakralne [2
Sacred Songs] (M. Skwarnicki), op.30, Bar, pf/orch, 1971; Sym. no.3 ‘Symfonia
pieśni żałosnych’ [Symphony of Sorrowful Songs] (H.W. Błażusiakówna, anon. 15th-
and 20th-century texts), op.36, S, orch, 1976; Malagueña (García Lorca), op.42b,
medium v, pf, 1980; Błogosławione pieśni malinowe [Blessed Raspberry Songs]
(C.K. Norwid), op.43, v, pf, 1980; Śpiewy do słów J. Słowackiego [Songs to Words
by Słowacki], op.48, v, pf, 1983; O domina nostra ‘Medytacje o Jasnogórskiej Pani
Naszej’ [Meditations on Our Lady of Jasna Góra] (Górecki), op.55, S, org, 1985;
Good Night (W. Shakespeare), op.63, S, alto fl, 3 t-tams, pf, 1990; U okienka, u
mojego [By My Little Window] (M. Konopnicka), v, pf, 1995; Trzy fragmenty [3
Fragments] (Stanisław Wyspiański), op.69, v, pf, 1996
Chbr: Toccata, op.2, 2 pf, 1955; Variations, op.4, vn, pf, 1956; Quartettino, op.5, 2 fl,
ob, vn, 1956; Pf Sonata, op.6, 1956; Sonatina w jednej części [Sonatina in one
movement], op.8, vn, pf, 1956; Sonata, op.10, 2 vn, 1957; Koncert na pięć
instrumentów i kwartet smyczkowy [Conc.], op.11, fl, cl, C tpt, xyl, mand, str qt,
1957; Pięć utworów [5 Pieces], op.13, 2 pf, 1959; Chorał w formie kanonu [Chorale
in the Form of a Canon], str qt, 1961; Genesis I: Elementi, op.19/1, str trio, 1962;
Genesis II: Canti strumentali, op.19/2, 15 perfs, 1962; Muzyczka I [Little Music I],
op.22, 2 tpt, gui, 1967; Muzyczka 2, op.23, 4 tpt, 4 trbn, 2 pf, 5 perc, 1967;
Muzyczka 3, op.25, 3 + va, 1967; Muzyczka 4, op.28, cl, trbn, vc, pf, 1970; Trzy
małe utworki (3 Little Pieces), op.37, vn, pf, 1977; Kolysanki i tańce [Lullabies and
Dances], op.47, vn, pf, 1982; Recitativa i ariosa ‘Lerchenmusik’ [Recitatives and
Ariosos ‘Music of the Larks’], op.53, cl, vc, pf, 1984–6; Dla ciebie, Anne-Lill [For
You, Anne-Lill], op.58, fl, pf, 1986; Aria ‘scena operowa’ [Operatic Scene], op.59,
tba, pf, t-tam, b drum, 1987; Str Qt no.1 ‘Już się zmierzcha’ [Already it is Dusk],
op.62, 1988; Str Qt no.2 ‘Quasi una fantasia’, op.64, 1991; Małe requiem dla
pewnej polki [Little Requiem for a Certain Polka], op.66, pf, 13 insts, 1993;
Valentine Piece, op.70, fl, small bell, 1996; Little Fantasia, op.73, vn, pf, 1997
Solo inst: Cztery preludia [4 Preludes], op.1, pf, 1955; Recitativo i mazurek, op.52a,
pf, 1956; Kołysanka [Lullaby], op.9, pf, 1956, rev. 1980; Z ptasiego gniazda [From
the Bird's Nest], op.9a, pf, 1956; Dwa utwory [2 Pieces], pf, op.52b, 1957; Trzy
miniatury dodekafoniczne [3 Dodecaphonic Miniatures], op.52c, pf, 1957; Trzy
diagramy [3 Diagrams], op.15, fl, 1959; Diagram IV, op.18, fl, 1961; Quasi walc,
op.52d, pf, 1961; Kantata, op.26, org, 1968; Mazurki [Mazurkas], op.41, pf, 1980;
Int, pf, 1990

Principal publishers: PWM, Boosey and Hawkes, Chester Music

Górecki, Henryk Mikołaj

BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Pociej: ‘Epitafium Henryka Góreckiego’, Ruch Muzyczny, iii/6 (1959),
10–13
L. Markiewicz: ‘O Zderzeniach, radości i … katastrofiźmie’ [On Scontri, joy
and … catastrophism], RM, iv/21 (1960), 10–11
L. Markiewicz: ‘Rozmowa z Henrykiem Góreckim’ [Conversation with
Henryk Górecki], RM, vi/17 (1962), 6–8; trans. A. Masłowiec, Context,
14 (Summer 97–98), 35–41
L. Markiewicz: ‘Elementy H. Góreckiego’, RM, ix/17 (1965), 9
B. Pociej: ‘Opis – analiza – interpretacja’ [Description – analysis –
interpretation; on Elementi and Canti strumentali], Res facta, 4
(Kraków, 1970), 151–65
B. Pociej: ‘Ad matrem Henryka Mikołaja Góreckiego’, RM, xvii/3 (1973), 3–
5
B. Pociej: ‘Kosmos, tradycja, brzmienie’ [Cosmos, tradition, sound; on
Symphony no.2], RM, xvii/15 (1973), 3–5
K. Droba: ‘Dwie pieśni sakralne’ [Two Sacred Songs], Zeszyt naukowe
zespołu analizy i interpretacji muzyki, 2 (Kraków, 1977), 185–97
K. Droba: ‘Droga do sensu tragicznego’ [The path to a sense of tragedy],
RM, xxii/15 (1978), 3–4
M. Gąsiorowska: ‘Symfonia pieśni żałosnych’ [Symphony of Sorrowful
Songs], RM, xxii/3 (1978), 3–5
K. Droba: ‘Słowo w muzyce Góreckiego’ [The word in Górecki's music],
RM, xxv/22 (1981), 3–4
K. Droba: ‘Wielkość Dziwność’ [Greatness-Strangeness; on Sym. no.3 and
Hpd Conc.], RM, xxv/10 (1981), 7–8
M. Gąsiorowska: ‘Czas zatrzymany Henryka Góreckiego’ [Henryk
Górecki's stopped time], RM, xxvii/25 (1983), 3–4
A. Thomas: ‘The music of Henryk Mikołaj Górecki: the first decade’,
Contact, 27 (1983), 10–20
T. Malecka: ‘O Koncercie klawesynowym Góreckiego’ [on Górecki's
Harpsichord Concerto], Mieczysławowi Tomaszewskim w 60-lecie
urodzin (Kraków, 1984), 108–13
A. Thomas: ‘A Pole apart: the music of Górecki since 1965’, Contact, 28
(1984), 20–31
K. Droba: ‘Od Refrenu do Beatus vir, czyli o redukcjioniźmie
konstruktywistycznym i ekspresjoniźmie muzyki Henryka Mikołaja
Góreckiego’ [From Refrain to Beatus vir, or Concerning constructivist
reductionism and expression in Górecki's music], Przemiany techniki
dźwiękowej, stylu i estetyki w polskiej muzyce lat 70 [Changes in
Sound Technique, Style and Aesthetic in Polish Music in the 70s], ed.
L. Polony (Kraków,1986), 85–97
B. Pociej: ‘Recitatywy i ariosa Henryka Mikołaja’ [Henryk Mikołaj's
Recitatives and ariosos], RM, xxx/3 (1986), 6–7
T. Marek and D. Drew: ‘Górecki in interview (1968) – and 20 years after’,
Tempo, 168 (March 1989), 25–9
W. Mellers: ‘Round and about Górecki's Symphony no.3’, Tempo, 168
(March 1989), 22–4
R. Augustyn: ‘Henryk Mikołaj Górecki jako pedagog’ [Górecki as a
teacher], Zeszyt naukowy (Akademia Muzyczna), 49 (Wrocław, 1990),
167–72
M. Homma: ‘Das Minimale und das Absolute: Die Musik Henryk Milkołaj
Góreckis von der Mitte der sechziger Jahre bis 1985’, MusikTexte –
Zeitschrift für neue Musik, 44 (1992), 40–59
I. Moody: ‘Górecki: the path to the Miserere’, MT, 133 (1992), 283–4
D. Dywańska: ‘I wszystko jest zawsze teraz – Archetyp-Symbol-Sacrum w
Beatus vir Henryka Mikołaja Góreckiego’ [And everything is always
now – Archetype-symbol-sacrum in Górecki's Beatus vir], Inspiracje w
muzyce XX wieku [Inspiration in 20th-century music] (Warsaw, 1993),
177–83
H.M. Górecki: ‘Powiem państwu szczerze … ’ [I shall tell you frankly … ],
ViVO, 1 (1994), 43–8
D. Maciejewicz: ‘Między jednością – różnorodnością – analizując
Muzyczka II Henryka Mikołaja Góreckiego’ [Between unity and
diversity: analysing Górecki's Muzyczka no.2],Muzyka, xxxix/4 (1994),
89–104
B. Jacobson: A Polish renaissance (London, 1996)
B. Pociej: ‘Henryka Mikołaja Góreckiego przestrzenie kameralizmu’ [Space
in Górecki's chamber music], Muzyka polska 1945–1995, ed. K.
Droba, T. Malecka and K. Szwajgier (Kraków, 1996), 249–56
L.B. Howard: ‘A reluctant requiem’: the History and Reception of Henryk
M. Górecki's Symphony no.3 in Britain and the United States (diss. U.
of Michigan, 1997)
A. Thomas: Górecki (Oxford, 1997) [Pol. trans., Kraków, 1998]
M.A. Harley: ‘Górecki and the paradigm of the “maternal”’, MQ, lxxxii/1
(Spring 1998), 82–130
M.A. Harley: ‘On life and music: a semi-serious conversation’, MQ, lxxxii/1
(Spring 1998), 68–81 [interview]
L.B. Howard: ‘Motherhood, Billboard, and the holocaust: perceptions and
receptions of Górecki's Symphony no.3’, MQ, lxxxii/1 (Spring 1998),
131–59
D. Mirka: ‘Góreckiego musica geometrica’, Dysonanse, 1 (1998), 20–30

Goretti, Antonio
(b ?Ferrara, c1570; d 25 Aug 1649). Italian musician and patron of music.
In 1600 Artusi described him as ‘a young virtuoso and as great a lover of
music as any man I have ever known’. In November 1598 a musical
gathering in Goretti's house in Ferrara heard madrigals by Monteverdi and
other modern composers, sparking off the Artusi-Monteverdi controversy.
Goretti also received dedications from G.B. Buonamente (1636), P.M.
Marsolo (1607), Luigi Mazzi (1596) and Filippo Nicoletti (one villanella
published in his collection of 1604). The celebrated lutenist Alessandro
Piccinini, in the introduction to his tablature of 1623, praised Goretti’s music
studio ‘where he keeps not only every sort of instrument both ancient and
modern … but also … all the music, old and new, sacred and secular,
which it is possible to find’; in 1647 Mersenne noted his viewing of the
collection two years before. On Goretti's death, his son Lorenzo sold the
collection to Archduke Sigismund of Austria (who had visited Ferrara in
1652), and therefore it is likely contained within an inventory of the
Innsbruck court prepared on the archduke's death in 1665 (see Waldner); it
was later dispersed.
Goretti knew the Ferrarese patron Enzo Bentivoglio and was engaged by
him to act as Monteverdi's assistant for the entertainments celebrating the
wedding of Duke Odoardo Farnese and Margherita de' Medici in Parma in
1628. Two of his madrigals appeared in printed collections (RISM 1591 9,
and Madrigali di Luzzasco Luzzaschi ei altri autori, Ferrara, 1611), and his
library contained 22 works by him for voices and instruments in honour of S
Cecilia which had been performed year by year in Ferrara. There is no
evidence to support Palisca's suggestion that Goretti was ‘L'Ottuso’, the
otherwise unknown academic who defended Monteverdi during the 1600s.
Goretti's brother Alfonso wrote Dell’eccellenze, e prerogative della musica
(Ferrara, 1612).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.M. Artusi: L'Artusi, overo Delle imperfettioni della moderna musica
(Venice, 1600–03/R); extract trans. O. Strunk: Source Readings in
Music History (New York, 1950/R), 393–404
A. Superbi: Apparato de gli huomini illustri della città di Ferrara (Ferrara,
1620) [entry on L. Agostini]
A. Piccinini: Intavolatura di liuto e di chitarrone libro primo (Bologna,
1623/R)
M. Mersenne: Novarum observationum physico-mathematicarum, iii (Paris,
1647), 165–6
A. Borsetti: Supplemento al compendio historico del Signor D.
Marc’Antonio Guarini (Ferrara,1670), 196–7
F. Waldner: ‘Zwei Inventarien aus dem XVI. und XVII. Jahrhundert über
hinterlassene Musikinstrumente und Musikalien am Innsbrucker Hofe’,
SMw, iv (1916), 128–47
S. Reiner: ‘Preparations in Parma, 1618, 1627–28’, MR, xxv (1964), 273–
301
A. Newcomb: The Madrigal at Ferrara 1579–1597 (Princeton, NJ, 1980)
C.V. Palisca: ‘The Artusi-Monteverdi Controversy’, The New Monteverdi
Companion, ed. D. Arnold and N. Fortune (London, 1985), 127–58
P. Fabbri: ‘Collezioni e strumenti musicali dall'Italia: due frammenti per la
biografia monteverdiana’, ‘In Teutschland noch gantz ohnbekandt’:
Monteverdi-Rezeption und frühes Musiktheater im deutschsprachigen
Raum, ed. M. Engelhardt (Frankfurt, 1996), 256–81
D. Fabris: Documenti sul patronato artistico dei Bentivoglio di Ferrara
nell'epoca di Monteverdi (1585–1645) (Lucca, 1998)
ANTHONY NEWCOMB/R

Görger St Jörgen, Anna Maria von.

See Orgéni, aglaja.

Gor'kiy.
See Nizhniy Novgorod.

Görl.
 See Gerl family.

Gorli, Sandro
(b Como, 19 June 1948). Italian composer and conductor. He took
diplomas in piano (1968) and composition (1971) at the Milan
Conservatory following which he studied composition with Donatoni at the
Accademia Chigiana, Siena, and conducting with Swarowsky at the
Hochschule, Vienna (1973). He also studied architecture at Milan
Polytechnic (1968–72) and worked at the Studio di Fonologia Musicale of
the RAI in Milan. In 1977 he founded the Divertimento Ensemble, a group
dedicated to contemporary music, of which he is director; since 1990 he
has been principal conductor of the Elision Ensemble of Melbourne. He
teaches composition at Milan Conservatory. In 1985 he won the Europe
Award for musical theatre with the opera Solo; his second opera, Le mal
de lune, was performed in 1994 in Colmar and Strasbourg. His orchestral
composition Me-Ti, commissioned by Maderna, won the SIMC award in
1975, and On a Delphic Reed gained the same prize five years later;
Super flumina, written in 1987 for the Babylon Festival (Babylonia, Iraq),
won the Città di Trieste Prize in 1989.
Under Donatoni’s influence, Gorli’s composing method first involved
automatic transformation of musical material, by means of a limited set of
‘rules’, in, for example, Konzert and Viveka. Subsequent works, such as
Flottaison blème, On a Delphic Reed and The Silent Stream, are more
independent of Donatoni, and underline a strong interest in an
Expressionist mode of communication. This openness of expression is
especially evident in the compositions written around 1982–3, including
Oltre il segno and the String Quartet. Since then, other elements have
come into play – tone colour, instrumental devices and rhythmic layering –
which, together with a variety of forms and genres, have enlivened Gorli’s
skilfully achieved balance of poetic good taste and technical severity.
WORKS
Ops: Solo (dramma itinerante, 7 scenes, G. Corti, after Strindberg), 1982–5; Le mal
de lune (chbr op), 1992–4
Orch: Viveka, 3 orch groups, 1971; Me-Ti, 1973; Flottaison blème, pf, orch, 1978;
The Silent Stream, vc, orch, 1980; Il bambino perduto, 1981; Super flumina, va, ob,
orch, 1987; Il magico pendio, 1990
Vocal: Chimera la luce, 6vv, pf, chorus, orch, 1976; L’ultimo ricordi di luce, female v,
pf, 1983; Requiem, SATB, 1989
Chbr: Derivazioni, str qt, 1970; Konzert Gollum, 13 insts, 1974; Serenata, 9 str, hpd
ad lib, 1975; Serenata no.2, 10 wind, 1976; On a Delphic Reed, ob, ens, 1979; Oltre
il segno, ens, 1982; Str Qt, 1983; Le due sorgenti, ens, 1984; Dopo l’alba, ob, ens,
1986; Rondò, va, pf, 1986, arr. vc, pf, 1988; Quintettino, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1986; Le
mutevoli forme, fl, perc, 1988; Le vie dei canti, va, ob, hp, 1989; La stanza segreta,
fl, cl, vn, va, vc, pf, 1990; Le vie dei canti no.2, va, ob, fl, hp, perc, 1990;
Passacaglia, perc, live elecs, 1991; L’albero della luna, ens, 1992; Ritratto, vc, ens,
1996; L’occhio riflesso, ens, 1996
Solo inst: Novellette, pf, 1984; Studi in forma di variazione, pf, 1987; Aulodia per
Bruno, ob, 1989; Ja Lily, pf, 1994; 6 cadenze, vn, 1995; Il mulino di Amleto, pf, 1997
Principal publishers: Ricordi, Suvini Zerboni

BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Cresti: Verso il 2000: Dizionario dei giovani compositori italiani (Naples,
1990), 56
D. Bertoldi and R. Cresti: Per una nuova storia della musica (Rome,
1994), 87
STEFANO A.E. LEONI

Gorlier, Simon
(fl Lyons, 1550–84). French music printer, bookseller, composer and
instrumentalist. In 1551 he prepared the third in a series of four books of
music for guitar printed in Paris by Robert Granjon and Michel Fezandat
(RISM 155122). In the dedication Gorlier wrote apologetically of the four-
course guitar and his reasons for composing for an inferior instrument,
saying that he wanted to show that it was as capable as larger instruments
of reproducing music in two or three parts. Besides being an ‘excellent
joueur’ on the guitar, as cited on the title-page, he evidently played the
spinet; in a pamphlet (now lost) concerning Loys Bourgeois’ Droict chemin
de musique (1550) Bourgeois called him ‘trougnon d’épinette’ (‘garbage of
the spinet’) and complained that he had not been educated in classical
languages and mathematics like the singer-composers in Lyons, Layolle
Roussel and Jambe de Fer.
Gorlier was granted a privilege for printing music on 17 February 1558, and
his name appears as a merchant bookseller in the Lyons archives until 7
June 1584. He published several books of music by himself and others in
Lyons between 1558 and 1562. Only two of these have survived, both
dating from 1560: La lyre chrestienne, with music by Antoine de Hauville,
and Premier livre de tablature de luth by Jean Paladin. The latter includes a
short instruction on lute intabulation by Gorlier. According to its colophon
Paladin’s tablature is a reissue of a printing by Jean Pullon de Trin (Lyons,
1553). A few other titles were attributed to Gorlier by the 16th-century
bibliographer Antoine du Verdier in 1585: music for flute in tablature, 1558;
for cittern in tablature, c1558; for spinet in tablature, 1560; for guitar in
tablature (possibly the Paris book), undated; and an undated book of
‘music for four or five parts, in five volumes, printed in Lyons’. Du Verdier
also cited Gorlier as the publisher of some ‘chansons et vaudevilles’ by
Alamanne de Layolle (1561) and of two books of tablature for lute by
‘Antoine-François Paladin, Milanois’ (1562). A catalogue compiled by the
publishers De Tournes in 1670 refers to the 1558 tablatures as ‘Chansons
récréatives pour la guitare & aultres instruments de musique’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (F. Lesure)
R. de Juvigny, ed.: Les bibliothèques françoises de La Croix du Maine et
de Du Verdier (Paris, 1772–3), iii, 42, 123, 132; v, 473
H. and J. Baudrier: Bibliographie lyonnaise (Lyons, 1895–1921/R), ii, 46–9
 D. Heartz: ‘Parisian Music Printing under Henry II: a propos of Four
Recently Discovered Guitar Books’, MQ, xlvi (1960), 448–67
L. Guillo: Les éditions musicales de la Renaissance lyonnaise (Paris,
1991)
F. Dobbins: Music in Renaissance Lyons (Oxford, 1992)
SAMUEL F. POGUE/FRANK DOBBINS

Görner, Hans-Georg
(b Berlin, 23 April 1908; d Berlin,11 Feb 1984). German composer. From
1925 he studied at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik with W. Fischer
(organ), L. Schrattenholz (composition) and S. Ochs (choral conducting);
later he studied musicology at Berlin University with A. Schering and G.
Schünemann. He worked as a music teacher, concert organist and church
musician in Berlin, and founded the German Radio Chamber Choir and the
Berlin Kantorei. In 1945 he became music director of the Landeskirche in
Mecklenburg and a seminar chairman at the Schwerin State Conservatory;
in 1953 he was appointed lecturer, and in 1954 professor of composition at
the Halle Musikhochschule. He became a lecturer at the Institute for Music
Education at the East Berlin Humboldt University in 1956, becoming a
professor in 1969. In his preference for Baroque forms he stands close to
Reger; his brilliant orchestration is used to dramatic, and sometimes
humorous, effect. In his music and his aesthetic outlook he adhered to the
political views of the Nazi era and, later on, of East Germany.
WORKS
(selective list)

Orch: 2 syms., 1950, 1951; 2 suites, 1951, 1953; Die fromme Helene, burlesque
after W. Busch, 1953; Ostinato risoluto, 1955; Variations on ‘Ei du feiner Reiter’,
1955; Peter Schlemihl, ballet suite, 1956; Suite im alten Stil, 1956; Ragtime-
Sinfonietta, 1958; Concs. for hpd, 1959, vn, 1960, wind qnt, 1961, vc, 1963, fl,
1966; La grandiosa, sym. poem after J.R. Becher, 1967; Wind Sym., 1968
Chbr and inst: Concertino, 2 sax, pf, 1957; Chbr Conc., wind qnt, pf, 1957;
Variations on an Original Theme, vn, pf, 1957; Duo, cl, bn, with db, 1961;
Improvisation, Ostinato, Double Fugue, org, 1948; Klavier-Album, 1962; Fantasia
and Double Fugue on B–A–C–H, org, 1972; Toccata rullante, org, 1980
Choral music incl. Grosse Messe, 1949; Wartburg-Kantate, 1955; 2 Choralmotetten,
1956; 2 akademische Festmotetten, 1966

Principal publisher: Peters (Leipzig)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Schinsky: ‘Drei Kompositionen von Hans Georg Görner: Analytische
Betrachtung’, MG, vii (1957), 455–9
W. Clemens: ‘Hans-Georg Görner’, Aus dem Leben und Schaffen unserer
Komponisten (Berlin, 1962), 75–8
ECKART SCHWINGER/LARS KLINGBERG

Görner, Johann Gottlieb

 (b Penig, Saxony, bap. 16 April 1697; d Leipzig, 15 Feb 1778). German
composer and organist. He came from an old Saxon family of musicians. In
1712 he went to the Thomasschule, Leipzig where he received tuition in
music from Johann Kuhnau. In 1713 he registered at Leipzig University
and in 1716, while still a student, he became organist at the Paulinerkirche
(the university church). In 1721 he was appointed organist at the
Nikolaikirche and at the end of that year moved to the Thomaskirche,
where (again as organist) he worked for J.S. Bach, and later for the
Thomaskantors J.G. Harrer and J.F. Doles. In April 1723, just a few weeks
before Bach took over as Thomaskantor, Görner was granted the title and
function of Director musices by Leipzig University. This led to a three-year
argument with the Thomaskantor, who regarded this position as being, by
precedent, his own. As a result of this difference of opinion, which involved
even the Elector of Saxony, Görner was confirmed as musical director of
the ‘new’ services and Bach as director of the ‘old’. The conflict between
Bach and his Thomaskirche organist was evidently confined to their
professional lives; their personal friendship seems to have remained intact.
In fact, Bach's widow, Anna Magdalena, asked Görner to be guardian to
her four young children in October 1750, which indicates that the two men
had remained friends. After Bach's death Görner applied unsuccessfully to
succeed him as Thomaskantor.
From 1723 to 1756 Görner directed the second ‘ordinary’ student collegium
musicum, founded by J.F. Fasch, performing many secular cantatas in
Leipzig coffee-houses. From 1764 to 1769 he was also active as musical
director of the so-called Gelehrtenkonzert (university concerts), in
competition with the Grosses Concert. Görner's achievements as a
composer have not yet been fully researched. The crushing appraisal by
J.A. Scheibe in his Critische Musikus (1737) is more a personal criticism of
the composer than an objective assessment of his musical worth.
WORKS
Sacred vocal: 2 masses (e, a), D-Bsb; Sanctus (D), Dlb; 22 cants., ?lost (formerly
Grimma, Fürstenschule); 7 cants. Dlb; 3 cants., MÜG
Instrumental: 2 concs. (F, a), kbd, Bsb; 2 sinfoniae (G, G), S-L (doubtful); sinfonia
(G), HÄ (doubtful)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.A. Scheibe: Der Critische Musikus (Hamburg, 1738–40, 2/1745/R), 60–
61
A. Werner: ‘Mitteilungen’, BJb 1906, 130–33, esp. 132
B.F. Richter: ‘Joh. Seb. Bach und die Universität zu Leipzig’, BJb 1925, 1–
10
A. Schering: J.S. Bach und das Musikleben Leipzigs im 18. Jahrhundert,
Musikgeschichte Leipzigs, iii (Leipzig, 1941/R)
W. Neumann: ‘Das “Bachische Collegium Musicum”’, BJb 1960, 5–27
W. Neumann and H.-J. Schulze, eds.: Bach-Dokumente, i, ii (Kassel,
1963–9)
ANDREAS GLÖCKNER

Görner, Johann Valentin

(b Penig, Saxony, 27 Feb 1702; d Hamburg, end of July 1762). German
composer. The brother of Johann Gottlieb Görner, he probably went to
school in Dresden and completed his studies in Leipzig (his name is listed
on the matriculation register of Leipzig University of 1722). After staying at
various German courts he settled in Hamburg. This may possibly have
been before 1729, for in that year two keyboard pieces by him (Passacaille
and Trouble-Fête) were included in G.P. Telemann’s Der getreue Music-
Meister (both pieces ed. D. Degen in HM, ix, 1949). From 1756 until his
death he was director of music at Hamburg Cathedral. In 1742 the first part
of his Sammlung neuer Oden und Lieder appeared in Hamburg, followed
by the second part in 1744 and the third in 1752: these contain 70
companionable songs with pleasing, singable melodies (each part had
several editions; the whole series is in DDT, lvii). The texts are by Friedrich
von Hagedorn. In the foreword to the third part Görner wrote that he
composed the pieces in the manner suggested by the titles and content,
with an eye to the whole rather than to the individual expression of each
ode: ‘The pleasing, the charming, the jesting, the trifling, the enamoured
and the merry have been my theme in these melodies’. Goethe probably
wrote his poems Erwache, Friederike (1771) and Hab' oft einen dumpfen
düstern Sinn (1774) to the melodies Der Morgen (‘Uns lockt die
Morgenröte’) and Der verliebte Bauer (‘Rühmt mir des Schulzens Tochter
nicht’). A serenade for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Das Vergnügen, was
performed in Hamburg in 1743, but caused a scandal on account of its text,
by Johann Arnold Ebert. In 1747 Mattheson pronounced that Görner was ‘a
thoroughly pleasing composer, skilful singer and player of the harpsichord’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
KretzschmarG
MatthesonGEP
MGG1 (A. Dürr)
M. Friedlaender: Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart,
1902/R), i/1, pp.xli–xlii, 4–5, 7, 97–103; ii, 16–33
W. Krabbe: Preface to Odes and Songs of G.P. Telemann and J.V. Görner,
DDT, lvii (1917)
[M. Seiffert]: Die Musik Hamburgs im Zeitalter Seb. Bachs: Ausstellung
anlässlich des neunten deutschen Bachfestes (Hamburg, 1921), 39–
43, 73
F.W. Sternfeld: Goethe and Music (New York, 1954/R), 26–7, 29–30
GÜNTER THOMAS

Gorodnitzki, Sascha
(b Kiev, 24 May 1904; d New York, 4 April 1986). American pianist and
teacher of Ukrainian birth. He came to the USA as a small child and was
brought up in New York. He studied the piano (with Edwin Hughes) and
composition (with Goetschius and Goldmark) at the Institute of Musical Art
(1919–23), and later was a pupil of Josef Lhévinne at the Juilliard School of
Music (1926–32). While still a student at the Juilliard he made his concert
début with the New York PO (1930) and gave his first recital, at Carnegie
Hall (1931), gaining early recognition as a virtuoso. Although he toured
extensively in the USA, Canada and Latin America in the 1930s and 40s,
championing the Romantic piano repertory, he devoted the greater part of
his career to teaching; through his summer masterclasses (1932–42) and
as professor (from 1948) at the Juilliard he contributed to the development
of several generations of distinguished pianists. He taught numerous
competition winners, helping launch the careers of artists such as
Emmanuel Ax and Garrick Ohlsson. In 1990 the University of California at
Los Angeles named the first prize of its piano competition after Gorodnitzki.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Kehler: The Piano in Concert, i (Metuchen, NJ, 1982), 477–9
D. Fredrickson: ‘Sascha Gorodnitzki: the Ultimate Teacher’, Clavier, xxii/3
(1983), 22–5
S. Gorodnitzki: ‘Sascha Gorodnitzki on Music’, Clavier, xxvii/10 (1988),
31–4
MINA F. MILLER

Gorr, Rita [Geirnaert, Marguerite]

(b Zelzaete, 18 Feb 1926). Belgian mezzo-soprano. She studied in Ghent,
then at the Brussels Conservatory. In 1949 she made her début in Antwerp
as Fricka in Die Walküre. Thereafter she sang at the Strasbourg Opera
until 1952, the year in which she made her Paris débuts (at the Opéra-
Comique as Charlotte and at the Opéra as Magdalene). Her large voice, of
rich, metallic timbre, ranging freely over two octaves, was joined to a
powerfully dramatic temperament. In Wagner (notably as Fricka and
Ortrud) and Verdi (Eboli, Azucena, Ulrica and Amneris) she gave grandly
exciting performances; a noble breadth of expression won her special
praise in the French repertory – Delilah, Iphigenia (Iphigénie en Tauride),
Margared (Le roi d’Ys), Massenet’s Herodias and Charlotte, Cherubini’s
Medea and Berlioz’s Dido. She first sang at Bayreuth in 1958, at La Scala
in 1960 and at the Metropolitan in 1962. She made her London début at
Covent Garden in 1959 and sang there until 1971. Later roles included
Madame de Croissy (Dialogues des Carmélites), which she sang at Seattle
and Lyons in 1990. Recordings of her Amneris, Ortrud, Margared and
Delilah give a sense of the excitement she created on stage.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Bourgeois: ‘Rita Gorr’, Opera, xii (1961), 637–40
HAROLD ROSENTHAL/ALAN BLYTH

Górski, Władysław
(b Warsaw, 7 June 1846; d Lausanne, 7 Feb 1915). Polish violinist,
composer and teacher. He studied the violin in Warsaw with Studziński and
Baranowski, and with Apolinary Kątski at the Institute of Music. He was
taught theory and composition by Freyer and Moniuszko, and later by Kiel
in Berlin. In 1871 he became a soloist in the orchestra of the Wielki Theatre
in Warsaw, and from 1876 he was a professor at the Warsaw Institute of
Music where he taught the violin, and from 1879 to 1885 directed the
 advanced violin class. Later he taught the violin in Lisbon, Paris, Montreux
and Lausanne; in Paris he also organized a chamber music interpretation
course (the so-called Leçons d’accompagnement) and played in the
Lamoureux Orchestra. Górski gave concerts in Poland, Germany, France,
the Netherlands and England (1902), achieving great success. He often
appeared with Stojowski, Nellie Melba and Paderewski – he took part in
Paderewski’s first Kraków concert in 1883.
Górski’s relatively small creative output includes several works for the violin
which are generally of a virtuoso character. He also wrote Praktyczna
szkoła na skrzypce (‘A practical violin tutor’, Warsaw, 1880–97) and other
‘practical tutors’ for violin, and a number of articles, reviews and reports of
musical life in Polish magazines, including the journal Słowo; he also
published some poetry.
WORKS
all for vn; lost unless otherwise stated

Suite, c, op.1 (Warsaw, 1882); 2 mazurkas, op.2 (Berlin, 1882); Berceuse et

intermezzo capriccioso, op.3 (Berlin, 1888); Prelude and fugue; Song without
words; Zingarella, c1879; Scherzo, c1883; Variations on a theme of Paganini
Studies, miniatures and cadenzas to the vn concertos of Beethoven and
Mendelssohn, and a sonata of Tartini

BIBLIOGRAPHY
PSB (W. Hordyński)
SMP
F. Hoesick: Dom rodzicielski [House of my fathers] (Kraków, 1935)
ZOFIA CHECHLIŃSKA

Gorsky, Aleksandr Alexievich

(b St Petersburg, 6/18 Aug 1871; d Moscow, 20 Oct 1924). Russian
choreographer. See Ballet, §3(iii).

Gorton, William
(bur. Eastcheap, London, 21 Oct 1711). English composer. Gorton may
have acted as deputy for George Bingham in the King's Musick; he signed
for Bingham's liveries from 1689 to 1695 and was sworn in his
(surrendered) place on 4 April 1696. From perhaps June 1702 to his death
Gorton was organist of St Clement Eastcheap. In his Choice Collection of
New Ayres he styled himself ‘One of His Majesty's Private Musick and
Organist of the Parrish Church at Greenwich’.
Gorton's music is nothing out of the ordinary, but is competently written. His
solos and duets comprise sonatas or dance movements, while his string
pieces are mostly grouped into varied suites. These include several
character pieces (maggott, hornpipe, Scottish tunes and two ‘Sybel’s) and
are similar to theatrical suites of the time. He also published A View of the
First Rudiments of Musick (London, 1704).
 WORKS
2 single songs, 1 catch, 3vv (London, c1700–05)
Song, S, 2 fl, bc; duet, S, B; catch, 3vv; catch, 4vv; 3 hymn settings: all GB-Lbl*
A Choice Collection of New Ayres, 12 for 2 b viols, 1 for solo b viol (London, 1701);
duets ed. D. Beecher and B. Gillingham, 12 Airs for 2 Bass Viols (Ottawa, 1979)
Ov. and 8 act tunes for The Humorous Lieutenant (J. Fletcher), str, Lcm
29 pieces, str, 24, a 4, 5, a 3, Lbl*, Lcm; 18 duets, 2 fl, Lbl*; 4 pieces, hpd, Lbl*
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AshbeeR, ii, v, viii
BDECM
DoddI
D. Dawe: Organists of the City of London 1666–1850 (Padstow, 1983)
ANDREW ASHBEE

Gorzanis, Giacomo [Jacomo (de)]

(b province of Puglia, c1520; d ?Trieste, between 1575 and 1579). Italian
composer and virtuoso lutenist. He was blind and may have been a
member of the nobility. Since his napolitane show a close stylistic affinity
with those of Felis, Nenna and Antiquis, it is possible that Gorzanis spent
his early career at the Spanish court at Bari. About 1557 he travelled to the
Austrian duchies of Carinthia and Carniola, settling in Trieste, where he
received citizenship before 1567. His works for lute are important
precursors of the Italian variation dance suite. A large amount of his music
consists of suites in two and three sections, containing dances (e.g.
passamezzo, paduana, galliard, balo todescho and saltarello), in which
individual movements are frequently treated to a number of increasingly
complex and virtuoso variations. One suite in the fourth book comprises a
passamezzo antico with 14 sections, followed by a paduana in four
sections and a saltarello in seven sections. Some of the dances draw on
French or Italian vocal polyphony for their opening thematic and harmonic
material, others use the popular Cara cosa and Chi passa refrains.
Gorzanis’s works require considerable virtuosity and anticipate the
generation of Simone Molinaro and Jean-Baptiste Besard. They often use
full six-note chords, and combine extended diminutions in the Italian style
with mordents of the German type; the player is frequently required to use
the instrument’s highest positions. A manuscript by Gorzanis, dated 1567,
contains a cycle of 24 passamezzo–saltarello pairs; the suites use the
antico and moderno formulae alternately and the cycle contains one suite
in each of the major and minor keys. Two of Gorzanis’s pieces appear in
the lutebook of Octavian Fugger (in A-Wn) and eight in Thomas Dallis’s
lutebook (in EIRE-Dtc).
WORKS
all printed works published in Venice

Intabolatura di liuto … libro primo (1561); 6 ed. in Chilesotti (1889, 1891)

Il secondo libro de intabulatura di liuto (1562); 6 ed. in Chilesotti (1891)
Il terzo libro de intabolatura di liuto (1564)
Il primo libro di napolitane ariose che si cantano et sonano in leuto (1570); 1 ed. in
Radole (1959)
Il secondo libro di napolitane, 3vv (1571)
Opera nova de lauto … libro quarto (c1575–8, 2/1579)

Libro de intabulatura di liuto nel qualle si contengano 24 passa mezi 12 per bemolle
et 12 per bequadro sopra 12 chiave … con alcune napollitanae, 1567, D-Mbs
Mus.ms.1511a; ed. B. Tonazzi (Milan, 1975)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrownI
O. Chilesotti: Sulla melodia popolare del Cinquecento (Milan, 1889/R)
O. Chilesotti, ed.: Lautenspieler des XVI. Jahrhunderts/Liutisti del
Cinquecento (Leipzig, 1891/R)
O. Chilesotti: ‘Jacomo Gorzanis, liutista del Cinquecento’, RMI, xxi (1914),
86–96
H. Halbig: ‘Eine handschriftliche Lautentabulatur des Giacomo Gorzanis’,
Theodor Kroyer: Festschrift, ed. H. Zenck, H. Schultz and W.
Gerstenberg (Regensburg, 1933), 102–17
L.H. Moe: Dance Music in Printed Italian Lute Tablatures from 1507 to
1611 (diss., Harvard U., 1956)
G. Radole: ‘Giacomo Gorzanis, “leutonista et cittadino della magnifica città
di Trieste”’, Musikwissenschaftlicher Kongress: Vienna 1956, 525–30
G. Radole: ‘Musicisti a Trieste sul finire del Cinquecento e nei primi del
Seicento’, Archeografo triestino, 4th ser., xxii (1959), 133–61, esp. 140
G. Reichert: ‘Giacomo Gorzanis Intabolatura di Lauto (1567) als Dur- und
Molltonarten-Zyklus’, Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum sechzigsten
Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Regensburg, 1962), 428–38
A. Zecca-Laterza: Giacomo Gorzanis, liutista del Cinquecento (diss., U. of
Cremona, 1963)
J.M. Ward: ‘The Lute Books of Trinity College, Dublin’, LSJ, ix (1967), 17–
40; addns, xii (1970), 43–4
B. Tonazzi: ‘Il cinquecentista Giacomo Gorzanis, liutista e cittadino di
Trieste’, Il ‘Fronimo’, no.3 (1973), 6–21
I. El-Mallah: Die Pass’e mezzi und Saltarelli aus der Münchner
Lautenhandschrift von Jacomo Gorzanis (Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
Mus.Mss.1511a) (Tutzing, 1979)
ARTHUR J. NESS/R

Gosa [Gose], Maistre.

See Gosse, Maistre.

Goscalch
(fl ?1385–95). French composer. He is known only by one ballade in the
Chantilly Manuscript (F-CH 564), the three-voice En nul estat (ed. in CMM,
liii/1, 1970; PMFC, xix, 1982). It recurs anonymously with slightly different
notation in the Reina manuscript (F-Pn n.a.fr.6771) as Car nul estat. Its
upper voice has a moralizing text dealing with deceit and trickery. Nors
Josephson was the first to solve most of the transcription problems of this
piece, certainly one of the most difficult and intricate works of the Ars
Subtilior, but Koehler arrived at a more convincing solution.
The idea that Goscalch could be an anagram for the composer Solage
must be rejected, for there are several possible identifications. Goscalch
might be identifiable with the author of a book on music comprising three
treatises which, according to the explicit in the 15th-century theory
manuscript I-CATc D 39, had been ‘compilati Parisius anno nativitatis
domini millesimo CCCO LXXXVO die xijO mensis januarii per eximium
doctorem Gostaltum francigenam’. But another copy of these texts in the
14th-century Berkeley Manuscript (US-BE 744) gives no name and a
different date: ‘MCCC Septuagesimo quinto die duodecima mensis
Ianuarii’. The information from Catania is therefore open to question.
As the Chantilly manuscript is the chief source for the secular works of the
papal singers Matheus de Sancto Johanne, Hasprois and Haucourt,
Goscalch may have been a member of the same chapel. A Petrus de
Godescalc can be traced in 1387 as ‘presbiter, servitor magistri capelle
pape’ and in 1394 as ‘presbiter, servitor capelle pape’. This would certainly
exclude his identity with the doctor Gostaltus from Paris. Even less
probable is the identity with either of the two German candidates proposed
by Hoppin and Clercx: Gotschalcus Wolenspeet (who died before 1374, too
early to have written the complex notation of En nul estat) and Wulgero
Goetschalc, clerk in Cologne in 1378.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R.H. Hoppin and S. Clercx: ‘Notes biographiques sur quelques musiciens
français du XIVe siècle’, L’Ars Nova: Wégimont II 1955, 63–92, esp. 78
F.A. Gallo: ‘La tradizione dei trattati musicali di Prosdocimo de
Beldemandis’, Quadrivium, vi (1964), 57–84, esp. 72
N. Wilkins: A Critical Edition of the French and Italian Texts and Music
Contained in the Codex Reina (diss., U. of Nottingham, 1964), ii, 248
R.L. Crocker: ‘A New Source for Medieval Music Theory’, AcM, xxxix
(1967), 161–71, esp. 163
O.B. Ellsworth: The Berkeley Manuscript (olim Phillipps 4450): a
Compendium of Fourteenth-Century Music Theory (diss., U. of
California, Berkeley, 1969), 214
W. Apel, ed.: French Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century,
CMM, liii/1 (1970), pp.xxi, xxxv, 63
N.S. Josephson: ‘Vier Beispiele der Ars Subtilior’, AMw, xxvii (1970), 41–
58, esp. 43, 51
J. Hirshberg: The Music of the Late Fourteenth Century (diss., U. of
Pennsylvania, 1971), 300
B. Schimmelpfennig: ‘Die päpstliche Kapelle in Avignon’, Quellen und
Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken, l (1971),
106
N.S. Josephson: ‘Die Konkordanzen zu “En nul estat” und “La harpe de
melodie”’, Mf, xxv (1972), 292–300, esp. 300
G. Greene, ed.: French Secular Music: Manuscript Chantilly, Musée
Condé 564, PMFC, xix (1982)
A. Tomasello: Music and Ritual at Papal Avignon 1309–1403 (Ann Arbor,
1983), 255
L. Koehler: Pythagoreisch-platonische Proportionen in Werken der Ars
Nova und Ars Subtilior (Kassel, 1990), i, 180–85; ii, 102–4
URSULA GÜNTHER
Göse, Bartholomäus.
See Gesius, Bartholomäus.

Gosier, tour de
(Fr.).
A type of turn. See Ornaments, §7.

Goslenus
(fl 1126–52). Cleric and composer. He was Bishop of Soissons and is
named as the author or composer of two pieces in the Codex Calixtinus (E-
SC; 12th century): the two-voice sequence Gratulantes celebremus festum
and the two-voice sections of Alleluia, Vocavit Ihesus Iacobum. As with
other attributions in the manuscript, such as that to Bishop Fulbert of
Chartres, this is disputed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. van der Werf: ‘The Composition Alleluja Vocavit Jesus in the Book
named “Jacobus”’, De musica hispana et aliis: miscelánea en honor al
Prof. Dr José López-Calo, ed. E. Casares and C. Villanueva (Santiago
de Compostela, 1990), 197–210
H. van der Werf, ed.: The Oldest Extant Part Music and the Origins of
Western Polyphony (Rochester, NY, 1993)
GILBERT REANEY

Gosler [Goszler, Gossler,

Goslerus, Gossler de Zeger,
Gosslar], Thomas
(b Flensburg; fl 1620–46). German composer. He left Germany in 1620
and settled five years later in Käsmark (now Kežmarok, Slovakia), where
he worked until 1646 as town clerk, school inspector and council member.
In 1635–45 he copied in German organ tablature two collections (CZ-L 3 A
and 4 A, olim 13 992 and 13 993) containing over 370 pieces of Protestant
church music by composers such as Schütz, Scheidt, Tobias Michael,
Hieronymus Praetorius, Schein, Handl and local composers Ján
Šimbracký, Michael Guendelius and Georg Wirsinger, as well as two works
of his own (both ed. in Petőczová-Matúšová, 1998–9, iii, pp.85–136).
These are Gosler’s only known compositions. Ist Gott für uns, wer mag
wider uns sein? is a double-choir motet alternating antiphonal and dialogue
sections with tutti passages; Du hast mir das Herz genommen alternates
two three-part choirs of contrasting voice types in a symmetrical ritornello
structure. They demonstrate a command of Venetian cori spezzati
technique and provide evidence of the links that existed between the Spiš
region and the main European centres of musical culture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Kraack: Die Flensburger Geburtsbriefe: Auswanderung aus Flensburg
1550–1750 (Flensburg, 1977)
J. Petőczová-Matúšová: ‘Tomáš Gosler, neznámy spišský skladatel’ 17.
storočia’ [Thomas Gosler, an unknown 17th-century composer of the
Spiš region], SH, xxi (1995), 228–62
O. Elschek, ed.: Dejiny slovenskej hudby [A history of Slovak music]
(Bratislava, 1996)
J. Petőczová-Matúšová: Polychorická hudba [Polychoral music] (Prešov,
1998–9)
JANKA PETŐCZOVÁ-MATÚŠOVÁ

Goslich, Siegfried
(b Stettin [now Szczecin], 7 Nov 1911; d Feldafing, 6 June 1990). German
conductor and musicologist. After spending his early years in Vienna, he
went to Berlin where he attended the university and the Musikhochschule,
studying conducting with Walther Gmeindl, stage direction with Carl
Hagemann and Richard Weichert, musicology with Schering, Schünemann,
Sachs and Moser and physics with Walter Nernst and Arthur Wehnelt; he
took the doctorate at the university in 1936 with a dissertation on the
history of German Romantic opera. During this time he served as
accompanist in the Lessing Museum Concerts, and in 1936 he became
orchestral adviser to the Verband für Volksmusik of the
Reichsmusikkammer and worked as a choir director. He was especially
active as music consultant in the adult education division (Deutsches
Volksbildungswerk) of the Nazi labour organization ‘Kraft durch Freude’. In
1945 he became head of the music department of Radio Weimar and
department head in the Weimar Musikhochschule and subsequently
(1948–58) held similar posts in Bremen. He was municipal director of
music for Remscheid and taught at the Cologne Musikhochschule (1958–
61) before being appointed head of the music department of Bavarian
Radio in Munich, where in 1964 he became professor of the broadcasting
department at the Munich Musikhochschule. As a conductor Goslich was
responsible for many first performances during the 1950s in the Bremen
RO Musica Viva concerts, and he toured numerous countries. He was also
an authority on the use and function of music in radio and television.
WRITINGS
‘Technische Musikwissenschaft’, Phonographische Zeitschrift, xxxiv (1933),
683ff
Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen romantischen Oper (diss., U. of
Berlin, 1936; Leipzig, 1937, enlarged 2/1975 as Die deutsche
romantische Oper)
‘Musikschulwerk’, Die Musik, xxxi (1938–9), 444–6
‘Volksmusik as Wertbegriff’, Deutsche Musikkultur, iii (1938–9), 283–91
‘Musikerziehung im Deutschen Volksbildungswerk’, Musik im Volk:
Grundfragen der Musikerziehung, ed. W. Stumme (Berlin, 1939), 122–
30; rev. in Musik im Volk: Gegenwartsfragen der deutschen Musik, ed.
W. Stumme (Berlin, 1944), 183–92
ed.: Musikalische Volksbildung (Hamburg, 1943)
‘Das Klangreich der elektronischen Musikinstrumente’, Das Musikleben, vi
(1953), 213–16
Funkprogramm und Musica Viva (Lippstadt, 1961)
‘Strawinsky und die Objektivität der Wiedergabe’, Vergleichende
Interpretationskunde: Darmstadt 1962, 41–8
Die Emanzipation der Klangelemente (Massstäbe zur Beurteilung
moderner Musik) (Bremen, 1967); repr. in Universitas, xxiv (1969),
615–28
Willy Spilling: Leben und Werk eines fränkischen Komponisten 1909–1965
(Tutzing, 1968)
‘Das Orchesterschaffen Johann Nepomuk Davids’, Ex Deo nascimur:
Festschrift … Johann Nepomuk David, ed. G. Sievers (Wiesbaden,
1970), 115–25
ed., with K. Blaukopf and W. Scheib: 50 Jahre Musik im Hörfunk (Vienna,
1973)
Das Dirigieren (Wilhelmshaven, 1975)
Further articles in Studium und Beruf, Der Musikerzieher, Das Musikleben,
Musica, Rundfunk und Musikerziehung
ALFRED GRANT GOODMAN/PAMELA M. POTTER

Gospel
(Gk. evangelion; Lat. evangelium etc.).
In Eastern and Western Christian liturgies, the final biblical lesson in the
Liturgy of the Word, or pre-eucharistic synaxis (see Mass, §1). It was
traditionally chanted by a deacon to a recitation tone that was normally
simple but occasionally subject to elaboration.
1. History.
2. The Latin liturgical books transmitting the Gospels.
3. The music.
MICHEL HUGLO, JAMES McKINNON
Gospel
1. History.
The first section of the Eucharist in all the ancient liturgies contains a series
of lessons concluding with one from the Gospels. The Gospel, because it
bore direct witness to the life and teaching of Christ, was accorded a place
of pre-eminence, underlined by an elaboration of ceremonies at the point
where it occurs: for example, the book containing the Gospel was carried in
solemn procession from the altar to the ambo from which it was read. Such
a procession, with lighted candles, was already attested by St Jerome (d
420). The procession came eventually to be accompanied by a chant: an
antiphona ante evangelium in the Gallican rite and at certain festivals in the
Ambrosian rite; an alleluia with verse, followed by a prosa or sequence in
the Roman rite; or a monophonic conductus. (Although the texts of the
chants are not always clearly related to those of the Gospels, the psalm
verses originally sung with the alleluias of Easter week were gradually
replaced by verses from the Gospels of the Easter cycle, though not
always those of the day.)
There were no readings from the Gospels in the earliest eucharistic
celebrations for the simple reason that the books were not written until near
the end of the 1st century. The earliest description of a pre-eucharistic
synaxis, however, that of Justin Martyr (d c165), refers to both Gospel and
Old Testament readings: ‘the memoirs of the Apostles and the writings of
the Prophets are read as long as time permits’ (First Apology, 67). It is not
known precisely when the Gospel achieved its fixed position as an
obligatory reading at the end of the pre-eucharistic series, but it clearly
occupies this place in a wealth of 4th-century patristic references, both
Eastern and Western.
At one time it was believed that in the early Church the Gospel was read
according to the system of lectio continua or scriptura currens, that is, the
resumption of the reading of a text from the point where it had been
discontinued at the previous service. Liturgical historians are now more
inclined to look upon such a practice as more appropriate to an
instructional gathering than to the Eucharist. Certainly the 4th-century
literature provides little evidence of lectio continua but rather creates the
impression that the choice of Gospel each day was at the discretion of the
presiding bishop.
With the passage of time certain readings became traditional for certain
dates, particularly the major festivals, a practice that developed along with
the growth of the liturgical year, although the lack of early sources makes
the process difficult to trace, especially at Rome. Finally, however, a series
of 42 homilies on the Gospel of the day preached by Gregory the Great
(590–604) establish the late 6th-century Roman Gospels for the 42
liturgical occasions in question. These Gospels can be compared with
those of the so-called π-type of Roman evangeliary from about 645 (see
Klauser); the Gospels of this book, the earliest complete Roman
evangeliary that can be reconstructed, are largely the same as the
standard medieval readings. The comparison shows that by Gregory’s
time, the Gospels for many of the important dates of the Temporale were
fixed but that most of those for ordinary Sundays and for sanctoral dates
were not.
Gospels were chosen, whenever possible, by the obvious expedient of
liturgical appropriateness; thus the Gospel for the night-time Mass of
Christmas is Luke ii.1–14, where the birth of Jesus is narrated, and the
Gospel for Quadragesima Sunday is Matthew iv.1–11, which tells of
Jesus’s 40-day fast in the desert. Other factors could enter in when there
was no clear choice available: the Roman stations (see Rome, §II, 1), for
example, determined the Gospel of some Lenten weekdays, and the
proximity of certain sanctoral dates had a similar effect on a few of the
post-Pentecostal Sundays.
Gospel
2. The Latin liturgical books transmitting the Gospels.
Three methods were employed to record the choice of Gospels in Latin
manuscripts (Roman and non-Roman alike): the use of marginal markings
in Gospel books or Bibles; the provision of lists of readings with their
incipits and explicits; the readings were given in full. These three methods
conform to a broad chronological continuum if not an absolute one; they
existed together for several centuries during the early Middle Ages.
The first method, that of marginal markings, was introduced at a time when
the selection of liturgical readings was still fluid and scriptural books
continued to be employed as liturgical books. The beginning of a reading
would be indicated by an ‘X’ or cross in the margin, while much less often
its ending would also be marked, for example, by the letter ‘F’.
Lists of readings were referred to as capitularia, that is, lists of capitula
(chapters). These came into common use as the annual cycle of Gospels
became both longer and more stable. A typical listing gave the festival, the
Roman station (see Rome, §II, 1), and the incipit and explicit of the
reading; for example, the indication for night-time Mass of Christmas might
read: In natale domini ad scam Mariam maiorem. Scd. Luc. Cap. III. ‘Exiit
edictum a Caesare Augusto’ usq. ‘Pax hominibus bonae voluntatis’. Luc.
Cap. III, the equivalent of the later Luke ii.1–14, is a reference to the so-
called Eusebian sections or canons, an ancient sectionalization of the
Gospels that was in use long before the medieval system of chapters and
verses. Capitularia were generally added at the end of a Gospel book or
Bible. The book might already have marginal indications, and in many
cases the later capitularia gave readings that differed from those indicated
by the marginal markings.
A book providing the complete readings was rare at first, something of a
luxury for the average church, but by the later Middle Ages it had become
the preferred type. It is generally referred to today as an evangeliary; when
combined with the book of Epistles (the epistolary), as was often the case
in later centuries, it is called a lectionary. In earlier centuries a book with
complete readings of either Gospels or Epistles was sometimes called a
comes (‘companion’).
Gospel
3. The music.
(i) Simple recitation tones.
The Roman gradual of 1907 prescribed two ways of chanting the Gospel: a
simple tone (with a variant) and another, ‘ancient’ tone. The simple tone
consists of an unvarying recitation on a monotone C with a single inflection
on the fifth syllable from the end (ex.1). Its optional variant permits further
inflections at cadences (at the end of a sentence) or half-cadences, and a
slightly more elaborate final cadence (ex.2). Ex.3 shows the structure of the
‘ancient’ tone. (On variants in Italian manuscripts, see MGG1, iii, 1619–20.)
(ii) The chant of the Christmas and Epiphany genealogies.
The genealogy of Christ was sung, either at Matins or at the end of Mass,
according to Matthew i.1–16 on Christmas night, and to Luke iv.23–8 at
Epiphany. The St Matthew genealogy contains three series of 14 names
(see Matthew i.17), in groups of three or four according to the different
traditional tones. Even in the oldest evangeliaries, some of the St Matthew
genealogies were notated with neumes, for example, in the 9th-century
Gospels of Noyon Cathedral, the 9th-century Gospels of Avesgaud, copied
at Tours (F-Pn lat.261, f.19v), the 9th-century Gospels of Corbie (Pn
lat.11958, f.14r; see fig.1) and the 10th-century Gospels of St Denis (Pn
n.a.lat.305).
Many manuscripts contain this genealogy notated diastematically (missals,
breviaries and evangeliaries; see the facsimiles cited by Bernard). Several
tones may be distinguished: one with F as final, four with D as final and 14
with E as final; the official version of the Vatican edition is one of the latter
group. (The final may vary at the end of the genealogy; for variants, see
MGG1, iii, 1623–5.) This genealogy was sometimes performed by three
readers, occasionally in polyphony (see (v) below).
The St Luke genealogy is arranged differently from the St Matthew:
Matthew traces Christ’s ancestors to Abraham, whereas Luke goes back to
the Creation, and in the reverse order. The names are often copied in
columns in the liturgical books, rather than in long lines, and are
sometimes provided with neumes: for example, B-Br 18723 (9th century,
from Xanten); F-LM 76 (10th century, from La Couture); Pn lat.270, f.70v
(9th century, from the school of Corbie); Pn lat.8849 (c830, from Salzburg;
lacking neumes); Pn lat.11956, f.110v (9th century, from Noyon); Psg 1190,
f.105 (see Bernard, i, pl.ix); GB-Lbl Add.9381 (9th or 10th century, from St
Petroc).
In the manuscripts with diastematic notation, eight distinct tones survive,
some with D and some with E as final (for examples, see MGG1, iii, 1625–
7).
(iii) The monophonic Passion.
The Passions, sung in Holy Week, were provided with so-called
significative letters during the late 8th century. These guided the (originally
single) reciter as to the nuances of performance: the rapidity (marked c,
‘celeriter’) of the narrative as against the majestic slowness (t, ‘tarde’,
‘trahere’) of the words of Christ. Other letters indicated various nuances. A
division occurred later between manuscripts from Germanic areas and
those from Romance-speaking countries, the former using the letter a
(‘alte’) for the words of the disciples and the Jews, and the latter s
(‘sursum’) for the same purpose (see Passion, §1). Later these letters were
interpreted to signify a division of the chant between three deacons.
From the 12th century the music appeared in diastematic notation. Its
traditional tone is known from two 12th-century manuscripts with alphabetic
notation – F-Pn lat.11958, ff.75–82 (from Corbie; see Passion, §1, fig.2)
and RS 259 (from Reims) – and approximately 30 other manuscripts with
notation on lines, the oldest of which date from the 12th century – F-CA 50
and 65, and DOU 93 and 95.
The Passion tone contains three different reciting notes: the narrative and
all indirect speech are sung on a central reciting note, the words of Christ a
5th lower, and other direct speech a 4th higher. The final sections of the
four Passions, recounting the burial of Jesus, were, however, normally
sung to the usual Gospel tone (‘sicut evangelium’, F-LNs 126, and D-TRs
27; ‘sub tono evangelii’, Sl Brev.144; ‘legitur sicut evangelium’, TRs 28).
For these sections, A-Z 407, dated 1584, provided the source for the
Vatican edition of the Passions.
Some of the words of Christ in the Passions are given elaborate melismatic
treatment, such as his last words, ‘Pater, in manus tuas’, which in the
Gospels of Glandèves (F-Pn lat.325, f.178) are decorated with neumes.
The words ‘Eli Eli lama sabachthani’ (Matthew xxvii.46) are often extended
in this way in the early manuscripts: D-Mbs Clm.3005 (11th-century
addition to a 9th-century manuscript); E-Mah 18 (11th or 12th century); F-
CO 443 (11th century); ME 452 (11th or 12th century); Pn lat.258, f.53v
(11th-century neumes in a 9th-century manuscript); Pn lat.326, f.45 (12th
century); Pn lat.9391, f.51v (10th or 11th century); I-Mt D.127 (11th
century); NON, ff.161, 171 (11th century); and VEcap CV(98), f.160v.
However, these melismas seldom appear in diastematic notation in 12th-
century manuscripts, for example, I-MC Q.318, p.278 and US-NYpm
M.379, f.94 (facs. in AnnM, vi, 1958–63, p.15, pl.iv). Some central Italian
manuscripts contain a long melisma on this word, for example I-Rv C.105,
f.152 and Rvat S Pietro E.II (see also the Dominican processional). (For
further details of the monophonic Passion, and for the polyphonic Passion,
see Passion.)
(iv) Other ornate Gospel tones.
In some 10th- and 11th-century manuscripts a number of other Gospels
were treated in a more ornate manner than usual: for example, the Gospel
for the Third Mass of Christmas (John i) in Pa 206, f.2v (from Metz), Pn
lat.263, f.89v (from Tours) and Pn lat.266 (Gospels of Lotharius), f.172v
(see fig.2); the Gospel for St Stephen’s Day (26 December, or ‘Feast of the
Deacons’) in Pa 612, ff.3–3v (from St Etienne de Metz), Pn lat.11960, f.65v
(from Toul); and the Gospels of St John’s Day (27 December) and the Holy
Innocents (28 December). These festivals of the Christmas cycle have
special Gospel tones in the Moosburg Gradual (D-Mu 2o 156, ff.227ff) and
a Bamberg lectionary (BAs lit.45, ff.2–3v).
The Easter Gospel was provided with elaborate neumes in F-Pn lat.260,
f.107 (the Aquitanian neumes were added at St Martial de Limoges to this
9th-century manuscript, originally from Tours), and in Pn lat.13251, f.32 (an
11th-century lectionary from St Germain-des-Prés). A special melody for
the Gospel of the feast of Dedication is given in diastematic notation in D-
FUl Aa.71 (reproduced in MGG1, iii, 1624). The manuscript F-Pn lat.9387
has Gospels in Greek for St Denis’s Day (9 October: f.157v), and for
Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Dedication festival, with notation in
imitation of Greek lectionary (ekphonetic) notation, besides the Latin
pericopes (see Huglo, p.80).
In 1296 the Council of Grado prohibited the use of ornate melodies for the
Gospels of these festivals and others such as the ‘Feast of Fools’ (1
January) and the Assumption (15 August) (see C.H. Héfélé and D.H.
Leclercq: Histoire des conciles, iv, Paris, 1911), retaining only the special
chant of the genealogies, and of the Gospel chanted for the first time by a
newly ordained deacon.
(v) Polyphonic Gospels.
Polyphony was occasionally applied to the Gospel – more particularly to
the genealogy and Passion – as to the Epistle, as a means of rendering it
more ornate and solemn. Thus in B-TO 17 the conclusion of the genealogy
(‘de qua natus est Jesus qui vocatur Christus’) was notated in the margin
for three voices, with a vocalise on the word ‘Christus’. In F-Pm 438 (facs.
in Bernard, ii, pls.xiii–xvi; Göllner, i, pp.107ff), the genealogy is divided
among three singers who each sing a verse and then the fourth verse in
polyphony; this arrangement also occurs in B-Br 3950 (14th century), with
the difference that the singers sing each fourth verse ‘pariter’, that is, in
unison. In the latter manuscript the three parts are notated in void notation,
and the final verse is sung in polyphony as in TO 17. The polyphonic
genealogy enjoyed great popularity in east Germany and Bohemia (lists of
manuscripts in MGG1, iii, 1628, and Göllner, i, pp.107ff).
In a similar fashion the reading of Isaiah at Christmas was sung in
polyphony, as, in German-speaking areas, were the standard introduction
to the Gospel and certain pericopes for important festivals such as the
Dedication and the Visitation of the BVM (2 July). (For the polyphonic
Passion tradition, see Passion, §§2–7.)
See also Epistle.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (‘Evangelium’; B. Stäblein, C. Mahrenholz)
MGG2 (M. Huglo, J. Stalmann)
S. Beissel: Entstehung der Perikopen des römischen Messbuches
(Freiburg, 1907)
K. Young: ‘Observations on the Origin of the Medieval Passion-Play’,
Publications of the Modern Language Association, xxv (1910), 309–54
G. Godu: ‘Evangiles’, Dictionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie,
ed. F. Cabrol and H. Leclercq, v/1 (Paris, 1922)
H. Leclercq: ‘Evangéliaires’, ibid., 775–845
R.-J. Hesbert: ‘La liturgie bénéventaine dans la tradition manuscrite’, Le
codex 10673 de la Bibliothèque vaticane, Pal Mus, xiv (1931–6/R),
60–465
W.H. Frere: Studies in Early Roman Liturgy, ii: The Roman Lectionary
(London, 1934)
T. Klauser: Das römische Capitulare Evangeliorum: Texte und
Untersuchungen zu seiner ältesten Geschichte, i: Typen (Münster,
1935, 2/1972)
A. Dold: Vom Sakramentar, Comes und Capitulare zum Voll-Missale
(Beuron, 1943)
J.A. Jungmann: Missarum sollemnia: eine genetische Erklärung der
römischen Messe (Vienna, 1948, 5/1962; Eng. trans., 1951–5/R as
The Mass of the Roman Rite)
G. Willis: St. Augustine’s Lectionary (London, 1962)
M. Bernard: Répertoire de manuscrits médiévaux contenant des notations
musicales, i: Bibliothèque Ste. Geneviève (Paris, 1965), pls.vii, ix, xx
M. Bernard: Répertoire de manuscrits médiévaux contenant des notations
musicales, ii: Bibliothèque Mazarine (Paris, 1966), pls.xi–xvi
M. Huglo: ‘Les chants de la Missa greca de Saint Denis’, Essays
Presented to Egon Wellesz, ed. J. Westrup (Oxford, 1966), 74–83
C. Vogel: Introduction aux sources de l’histoire du culte chrétien au Moyen
Age (Spoleto, 1966/R; Eng. trans., rev., 1986, as Medieval Liturgy: an
Introduction to the Sources)
T. Göllner: Die mehrstimmigen liturgischen Lesungen (Tutzing, 1969)
A.G. Martimort: ‘Origine et signification de l’alleluia de la messe romaine’,
Kyriakon: Festschrift Johannes Quasten, ed. P. Granfeld and J.A.
Jungmann, ii (Münster, 1970), 811–34
F. van de Paverd: Zur Geschichte der Messliturgie in Antiocheia und
Konstantinopel gegen Ende des vierten Jahrhunderts (Rome, 1970)
A. Zwinggi: ‘Die fortlaufende Schriftlesung im Gottesdienst bei
Augustinus’, Archiv für Liturgiewissenschaft, xii (1970), 85–129
A. Zwinggi: ‘Der Wortgottesdienst bei Augustinus’, Liturgisches JB, xx
(1970), 92–113, 129–40, 250–53
M. Bernard: Répertoire de manuscrits médiévaux contenant des notations
musicales, iii: Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal et petites bibliothèques (Paris,
1974), 234, pls.xxvi, xlvii
A. Chavasse: ‘L’evangéliaire romain de 645 – un recueil: sa composition,
façons et matériaux’, Revue bénédictine, xci (1982), 33–75
A. Hughes: Medieval Manuscripts for Mass and Office: a Guide to their
Organization and Terminology (Toronto, 1982)
A.G. Martimort: ‘A propos du nombre des lectures à la messe’, Revue des
sciences religieuses, lviii (1984), 42–51
A. Chavasse: ‘Après Grégoire le Grand: l’organisation des évangéliaires,
au VIIe et VIIIe siècle’, Rituels: mélanges offerts au Père Gy O.P., ed.
P. de Clerck and E. Palazzo (Paris, 1990), 125–30
J. McKinnon: ‘Antoine Chavasse and the Dating of Early Chant’, PMM, i
(1992), 123–47
A.G. Martimort: Les lectures liturgiques et leurs livres (Turnhout, 1992)
G.G. Willis: A History of Early Roman Liturgy (London, 1994)

Gospel hymnody.
See Gospel music, §I.

Gospel music.
A large body of American religious song with texts that reflect aspects of
the personal religious experience of Protestant evangelical groups, both
white and black. Such songs first appeared in religious revivals during the
1850s but they are more closely associated with the urban revivalism that
arose in the last third of the 19th century. Gospel music has gained a place
in the hymnals of most American Protestants and, through missionary
activity, has spread to churches on every continent. By the middle of the
20th century it had also become a distinct category of popular song,
independent of religious association, with its own supporting publishing and
recording firms, and performers appearing in concerts. Although earlier
uses of the terms ‘gospel hymn’ and ‘gospel song’ can be found, their use
in referring to this body of song can be traced to P.P. Bliss’s Gospel Songs
(1874) and Gospel Hymns and Sacred Songs (1875) by Bliss and Ira D.
Sankey. Other terms sometimes used include ‘gospel music’ and simply
‘gospel’.
I. White gospel music
II. Black gospel music
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HARRY ESKEW/JAMES C. DOWNEY (I), H.C. BOYER (II)
Gospel music

I. White gospel music

1. Gospel hymnody and American revivalism.
2. Gospel music and the popular commercial tradition.
3. Performance styles.
Gospel music, §I: White gospel music
1. Gospel hymnody and American revivalism.
(i) General.
Although gospel hymnody has developed stylistic diversity over the past
century and a half, it bears many traits typical of American popular song.
The texts of gospel hymns are generally subjective or hortatory, are often
addressed to one’s fellow man and centre upon a single theme which is
emphasized through repetitions of individual phrases and a refrain
following each stanza. The poems deal with such subjects as conversion,
atonement through Christ, the assurance of salvation and the joys of
heaven; their character ranges from the militant and didactic to the
meditative and devotional. The music is generally composed for a specific
text, and there are few instances of the exchange of tunes between
different texts. Similarities to certain forms of the camp-meeting spiritual
(see Spiritual, §I, 2) may be found, but more often the music of gospel
hymns is related to marches or to popular secular songs of the theatre or
parlour. The gospel hymn is strophic in form, and its music is characterized
by simple, major-key melodies with a correspondingly simple harmonic
vocabulary (occasionally coloured, in later examples of the genre, by
chromatic passing ‘barbershop’ harmony) and a slow rate of harmonic
change. Typical rhythmic traits include frequent repeated patterns, often
with dotted quaver and semiquaver figures – devices common in popular
secular song of the later 19th century. Most gospel hymns are published in
four-part settings; although they are predominantly homophonic, a certain
variety of texture is achieved in many of them through the use of ‘echo
voices’ (e.g. rhythmic imitation of the soprano and alto by the tenor and
bass). A late 19th-century gospel hymn illustrating most of these traits is
Come unto me, and rest (ex.1).

Gospel hymnody may be viewed as the culmination of various American

musical, social and religious developments of the earlier 19th century. It
was foreshadowed in such collections as Joshua Leavitt’s The Christian
Lyre (1831), a compilation containing spirituals, traditional hymn tunes and
texts, and newly composed religious poems set to popular melodies from
both Europe and the USA, in a mélange that is a compromise between the
exuberance of the camp-meeting spiritual and the more ‘respectable’ hymn
style of composers such as Lowell Mason and Thomas Hastings. They in
turn were influenced by the emerging popular hymn tradition: Mason’s
‘Harwell’ (1840, to the text ‘Hark, ten thousand harps and voices’), for
example, has I–IV–V harmonies, frequent dotted rhythms and a recurrent
refrain. Gospel hymnody also drew ideas from popular secular song, such
as that of the Civil War era. George F. Root, composer of popular Civil War
songs, also composed sacred music in the gospel hymn idiom: his Tramp,
tramp, tramp, the boys are marching in fact provided the music for Jesus
loves the little children, a Sunday school hymn still in use. Another
influence upon gospel hymnody was the rise of evangelistic singers. Philip
Phillips, perhaps the first such singer to receive international acclaim,
appeared in several thousand ‘services of sacred song’ from the late
1860s, including an extensive tour described in his Song Pilgrimage
Around and Throughout the World (1882). The appearance of gospel
hymnody was thus more the culmination of earlier developments than the
appearance of a new idiom.
(ii) The Sunday school era, 1840–75.
Up to the mid-1870s the mainstream of gospel hymnody flowed through
hymn collections for use in Sunday schools, which had developed as a
useful and popular means of teaching and spreading the gospel to
children. Although Mason had been the first to compile a collection of
hymns with music for Sunday schools (The Juvenile Psalmist, 1829), it was
his student William B. Bradbury who took the lead in composing hymns and
compiling collections for the rapidly growing Sunday school movement.
Bradbury’s settings of the texts ‘Jesus loves me’ (1802) and ‘He leadeth
me’ (1864) are basically in the same idiom as the hymns that in the 1870s
became known as gospel hymns. Among the most successful collections
after Bradbury’s were those of two Baptists, Robert Lowry and William
Howard Doane. Lowry is probably best known for his Shall we gather at
the river? (1865); Doane collaborated with Lowry in Sunday school
collections with such typical unecclesiastical titles as Pure Gold (1871) and
Brightest and Best (1875).
After the Civil War secular song styles impinged ever more strongly on the
hymns: the gospel songs of John R. Sweney are hardly distinguishable
musically from parlour songs of the mid-19th century, and such hymns as
William James Kirkpatrick’s Jesus saves (1882) are closely related to Civil
War marches. Lowry’s Where is my wandering boy tonight? (1877) was
sung in revival services, music halls and temperance meetings, and Are
you washed in the blood of the Lamb? (1878) by Elisha A. Hoffman later
became a marching song for the Salvation Army.
The leading poet of early gospel hymnody was Fanny Jane Crosby, who
began in the 1800s to build a corpus of several thousand gospel hymn
texts, including those of the popular hymns Jesus, keep me near the cross
(1869) and Blessed assurance (1873).
(iii) The Moody-Sankey era, 1875–1910.
The gospel hymn emerged as a major force in the religious music of the
USA during the revivals led by the evangelist Dwight L. Moody and his
musical associate Ira D. Sankey. Hymns previously used largely in Sunday
schools now became associated with urban revivalism and were known as
‘gospel hymns’.
Much of the evangelistic work of Moody and Sankey was related to the
Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA, the first American branch of
which was formed in Boston in 1851), an organisation which, together with
the Sunday school, encouraged the use of the popular hymns of Bradbury,
Lowry, Sweney and others. Following their meeting at a YMCA convention
at Indianapolis in 1870, Moody hired Sankey to direct the music of his
church in Chicago. When the opportunity came to hold evangelistic
meetings in Great Britain in 1872, Moody first sought the musical services
of Philip Phillips, who was already well known there. Phillips declined, and
Moody then invited Philip P. Bliss, a talented singer and leading composer
of gospel hymns. Only after Bliss’s refusal did Moody turn to the less
experienced Sankey, who by the end of the tour achieved international
fame. In the mass meetings of Moody and Sankey the gospel hymns were
often introduced by Sankey, who sang solos and accompanied himself at
the reed organ. Gospel hymnody functioned essentially as a simple and
unsophisticated means of communicating the evangelistic message, as
indicated by a slogan used to advertise their meetings: ‘Mr Moody will
preach the gospel and Mr Sankey will sing the gospel’.
The success of the Moody-Sankey meetings from 1873 in Great Britain and
the USA was described by McLoughlin (1959) and Pollock (1963);
musically, they established gospel hymnody as an accepted means of
evangelism and as the first authentic American music, apart from minstrel-
show songs, to gain popularity in Great Britain. In response to requests for
the songs used at their meetings, Sankey first published them in a 16-page
pamphlet with words only, Sacred Songs and Solos (1873), to be used
along with Phillips’s Hallowed Songs (1865). In 1874 Bliss compiled with
D.W. Whittle a songbook entitled Gospel Songs for use in evangelistic
meetings. After Sankey’s return to America in 1875, he and Bliss merged
their compilations in the publication of Gospel Hymns and Sacred Songs,
followed in 1876 by a second volume of Gospel Hymns. After Bliss’s death
in 1876 this series continued to volume vi (1891) and Gospel Hymns Nos.1
to 6 Complete (1894), the latter containing 739 hymns with music. Sankey
was assisted in the later editions by James McGranahan and G.C.
Stebbins. Sankey, more important as a compiler and popularizer of gospel
hymnody than as a composer, is best known for his tune for The ninety and
nine (1874).
Bliss produced words and music to some of the most popular gospel
hymns: Hold the fort, for I am coming (1870), Wonderful words of life
(1874) and The light of the world is Jesus (1875). Not limited to the gospel
hymn idiom, Bliss also composed in other religious styles, as in his music
to More holiness give me (1873) and ‘Man of Sorrows!’ What a name
(1875). Daniel Webster Whittle, an evangelist who had used at various
times the musical services of Bliss, McGranahan and Stebbins, wrote many
gospel hymn texts, such as There shall be showers of blessing (1883) and
I know whom I have believed (1883), both with music by McGranahan.
Stebbins and Daniel Brink Towner were also associated with Moody’s mass
evangelism. Stebbins’s Jesus is tenderly calling today (1883) and Have
thine own way, Lord (1907) are among his best-known hymns; more than
2000 songs are attributed to Towner, who exerted a strong influence on
gospel hymnody as head of the music department (from 1893) of the
Moody Bible Institute in Chicago.
(iv) The Sunday-Rodeheaver era, 1910–1930.
After the death of Moody in 1899 a number of American evangelists
achieved varying degrees of success in mass revivalism; these included
Samuel Porter Jones, Benjamin Fay Mills, John Wilbur Chapman, Reuben
Archer Torrey and William Ashley (‘Billy’) Sunday. Following the pattern
established by Moody, each evangelist had his own professional
musicians. Among the musicians associated with these evangelists,
Charles McCallom Alexander and Homer Rodeheaver made particularly
important contributions to the development of gospel hymnody.
Alexander introduced a new informality to revival services, leading the
singing with wide sweeping arm motions, using a piano rather than an
organ for accompaniment and lightening the atmosphere with jokes and
entertaining banter. He also represented a new commercialism among
gospel hymnodists, becoming a man of considerable means through the
income from his popular (and strictly copyright-protected) collections, which
included such well-known songs as His eye is on the sparrow (1905), One
Day (1910), and Ivory Palaces (1915), all still in use. Rodeheaver, active in
musical evangelism from 1904, achieved fame in his 20-year association
with the evangelist Billy Sunday, beginning in 1909. Rodeheaver’s
approach to music in evangelism was similar to Alexander’s; he sought to
make the musical service informal, congenial and enjoyable. Rodeheaver’s
song leadership was enhanced by his vocal and trombone solos. Although
many gospel hymns of Sankey’s era continued to be widely used by
Rodeheaver, the trend was towards lighter, optimistic, semi-sacred music,
as in the popular Brighten the corner where you are, with its ragtime
syncopation and bass arpeggios (ex.2). To those who criticized his use of
such a song, Rodeheaver replied:
It was never intended for a Sunday morning service, nor for a
devotional meeting – its purpose was to bridge that gap
between the popular song of the day and the great hymns
and gospel songs, and to give men a simple, easy lilting
melody which they could learn the first time they heard it, and
which they could whistle and sing wherever they might be.
In 1910 Rodeheaver began publishing gospel hymn collections,
establishing one of the largest gospel music publishers and his own
recording label, Rainbow Records. The Rodeheaver Company’s most
famous copyrighted gospel hymn is George Bernard’s The old rugged
cross (1913). Although he himself composed a few gospel hymns,
Rodeheaver was fortunate to obtain the services of several more talented
gospel hymnists, such as Charles H. Gabriel, Bentley DeForest Ackley and
Alfred H. Ackley.
(v) Modern urban revivalism.
In the period following World War I professional revivalism declined, and no
new evangelist emerged until Billy Graham achieved a wide following
beginning in the 1950s. Gospel music continued to flourish, however, with
new sponsors. A new gospel hymnody gained acceptance in the rural
American South as a distinct kind of popular country music (see §§2 and
3). Radio was the principal outlet for composers and continued to be
important even after televised religious programmes became widespread in
the 1970s. Differences between the sacred and secular forms vanished as
religious programmes became a part of home entertainment.
During this period the heartiest of the older gospel hymns were assimilated
into denominational hymnals, particularly those of Baptist, Presbyterian
and Methodist bodies, but also of smaller fundamentalist denominations
and nondenominational groups. H.H. Todd compiled The Cokesbury
Hymnal (1923) for Methodists. Robert H. Coleman published collections
containing gospel hymns that were used by most of the Baptist churches in
the South and Midwest; many of these were edited by B.B. McKinney, who
in 1935 became music editor for the Sunday school board of the Southern
Baptist Convention, and in 1940 compiled the Broadman Hymnal, which
sold over eight million copies. New denominations in the southern states,
formed during the surge of revivals during the Reconstruction period,
published their own hymnals, which contained both earlier gospel hymns
and new works, many written by composers whose training had been in
rural singing schools and conventions.
But the revivalist tradition of gospel hymnody was maintained chiefly by
fundamentalist institutions founded by the revivalists, such as Bible schools
and colleges, youth organizations, nondenominational church
congregations and summer church assemblies (such as those held at
Ocean Grove, New Jersey, a village founded by the Methodist camp-
meeting association in 1869). Many of these involved a number of
important hymnodists, and they spread new gospel hymnody through radio
programmes, phonograph recordings, and films. Wendell Phillips Loveless,
director of the Moody Bible Institute radio station in Chicago (WMBI) from
1926, introduced a number of new hymns and ‘gospel choruses’ modelled
on those of Alexander. His own works tend to be unison songs with lush
piano accompaniments; chromaticism and many seventh and ninth chords
typical of the contemporary popular song literature often appear, as in his
Altogether lovely (1951) (ex.3). Norman John Clayton wrote music for the
‘Word of Life’ programmes of the radio evangelist Jack Wyrtzen from 1942;
he also compiled over 30 collections of gospel songs, which, like those of
Loveless, bore little musical relationship to the hymns of the Moody-Sankey
era. Another radio evangelist, Charles E. Fuller of the ‘Old Fashioned
Revival Hour’, returned to the older gospel hymns sung by a trained choir.
John Willard Peterson, a graduate of the Moody Bible Institute, was the
most prolific composer of the period. He used a rich harmonic idiom for
settings in the melodic style of popular love lyrics of sentimental devotional
texts; he also developed a form of church cantata in the same style, and
while his works of this type have contributed little to the solo and hymn
literature they have become standard concert pieces in churches that use
gospel hymns as the principal congregational music.
Billy Graham (b 1918), assisted by the singers Cliff Barrows and George
Beverly Shea, was the only modern revivalist to gain national prominence
during the second half of the 20th century, but his meetings produced no
significant new gospel hymn literature. The congregational singing is
reminiscent of the Moody-Sankey revivals (from which in fact come most of
the hymns), although Shea often sang folk hymns such as How great thou
art and the spiritual He’s got the whole world in his hands.
Gospel music, §I: White gospel music
2. Gospel music and the popular commercial tradition.
Popular gospel music, written for distribution through agencies other than
denominational or evangelical bodies, may be used in religious services,
but its origin and principal use suggest an economic rather than a religious
motivation. Early in the 20th century urban gospel hymnody merged with
the tradition of Shape-note hymnody that had been widespread in the rural
American South since the mid-19th century. Through the Ruebush-Kieffer
publishing firm in Dayton, Virginia (later Dalton, Georgia), and the efforts of
A.J. Showalter, gospel songs were issued in shape-note editions and
circulated widely, in Georgia and Tennessee especially. This coincided with
a powerful revival movement among Southern fundamentalists, and in the
Pentecostal sects established at the time the new gospel hymnody found
ready acceptance.
James D. Vaughan, a Nazarene Church layman, began publishing gospel
songbooks in seven-shape notation in Lawrenceburg, Tennessee, in 1890.
He trained male quartets to give concerts of gospel songs, teach singing
schools and sell his publications, and he also made recordings for the
developing Southern market. In 1928 he established the first radio station
in Tennessee for the purpose of broadcasting his music.
The Stamps-Baxter firm of Dallas, following the pattern set by Vaughan,
became extremely successful and soon dominated gospel publishing in the
South. From 1926 they ran a school for singers, sponsored travelling
quartets, broadcast gospel music continuously on station KRLD in Dallas
and published hundreds of collections, so designed as to become rapidly
obsolete. Their editors solicited and purchased rights to thousands of new
gospel songs by hymnwriters from all over the South. In 1936 the Stamps
Quartet was the biggest success at the Texas State Fair. Their theme song,
Give the world a smile each day, is typical of the new southern gospel
style; it contains tag lines in accompanying voices, chromatic lower-
neighbour notes and passing notes, and, in the refrain, a walking bass lead
and hocket-like interjections (ex.4). The rhythmic vitality, uncomplicated
harmony, and simple texts of the Stamps-Baxter music, along with its easily
learned seven-shape notation, led to its becoming the most popular form of
music in the rural South. Piano accompaniment in a conservative ragtime
style was later added to the songs, blurring even further the distinction
between sacred and secular.
Gospel music was heard in revival meetings, but its popularity and
distribution were dependent on singing conventions and commercial
publishing houses. The ‘Fifth Sunday Singings’, afternoon concerts
sponsored by singing conventions in months that had five Sundays,
included performances by travelling quartets promoting their latest
collections, local quartets, ladies’ ensembles and large congregations. The
practice became the principal musical activity in rural communities,
gradually replacing the shape-note tradition. It was the independence of
the rural gospel singers from organized revivalism that allowed the music to
develop freely in the social milieu of the rural South and encouraged the
establishment of a support structure of publishers, performers and
promoters. This form of gospel music contributed most to the emergence of
a ‘pop gospel’ (sometimes called ‘bluegrass gospel’ or ‘hillbilly gospel’)
style within country music at the time of the early recordings of Southern
music (see §3).
Gospel music, §I: White gospel music
3. Performance styles.
The origins of white gospel performance styles are inextricably bound up
with the new type of fundamentalist revival that occurred within white
communities after the Civil War. Moody led the first big revival of this kind
during the Reconstruction period of the 1870s, impelled by the conviction
that social reform should be accompanied by moral and spiritual
regeneration. But Moody, and later white evangelists such as Sunday,
discouraged the emotional outbursts that had characterized pre-Civil War
revivals and replaced the ‘fire and damnation’ preaching of earlier
generations with compassion and sentimentality. The songs and hymns
used in their services were intended, in the words of Sankey, ‘to implant the
gospel in the hearts of the people’. The style of performance favoured by
Moody and Sankey was one that emphasized sweetly blended, ‘happy’
voices, rather than harshly passionate singing or extreme displays of
emotion. This style was continued by other evangelists and is still part of
the performance practice in many of their services. But new elements and
new combinations of elements were also added during the 20th century.
Rural gospel music was usually performed in the emotionless, deadpan
manner of the mountain folksinger, who employed a nasal, ‘white’ tone
without vibrato, and extensive sliding between pitches. It was thus an
adaptation of gospel song to the traditional Southern white vocal style,
which partly accounts for its wide acceptance, though its incorporation of
elements of black gospel music further broadened its appeal. Some white
gospel groups, such as Ernest Phipps’s Holiness Quartet, accompanied by
fiddle and guitars, were successful in combining 20th-century Kentucky
hillbilly style with pre-Civil War white spirituals, as in I want to go where
Jesus is (Vic. 20834, 1927). Other white gospel songs recorded in the
1920s and 30s were sung in the prevailing Appalachian folk style used for
plaintive or sentimental secular ballads.
During the 1930s the stylistic blend of sacred and secular was given further
impetus in the recordings of the Carter Family, who drew upon a wide
range of ballads, sentimental tunes, cowboy songs and mountain songs to
impart to their hymns and gospel songs the particular flavour of the Blue
Ridge country. Their music was usually for two or three voices (without a
bass part), sung to an accompaniment of guitar, fiddle and mandolin or
banjo. Songs such as Sweet heaven in my view (Decca 5318, 1936) and
You better let that liar alone (Decca 5518, 1937), sung with a nasal timbre,
had the same harmonies and rhythmic swing that typified their secular
counterparts. Hillbilly and later country singers generally included a number
of religious pieces in their performances, and most ‘cowboy’ singers also
recorded sacred songs. The stylistic blurring meant that textual content
was often the main point of differentiation between sacred and secular
songs, although a sweeter tone and often a more sentimental delivery (in
gestures and facial expressions) were considered appropriate to the
sacred songs. Mindful of their audiences’ possible disapproval of their
recording secular music, many gospel groups and individual singers
recorded their sacred and secular pieces under different names. Thus the
Delmore Brothers, who recorded secular songs to guitar-duet
accompaniment in the 1940s, also recorded, with Grandpa Jones and
Merle Travis as the Brown’s Ferry Four, such sacred songs as Will the
circle be unbroken? (King 530, 1945) and When the good Lord cares (King
662, 1946). In all their recordings the Delmores’ blues-style guitar playing
showed black influences, as did many of the songs they sang. Many other
country singers recorded sacred songs in a gospel style.
The rural gospel quartet tradition merged with that of the singing families in
the 1940s, and the ‘all-night singing’, a gospel concert patterned after the
‘Grand Ole Opry’ travelling show, became popular among Southern
audiences. In the early 1950s the Blackwood Brothers won Arthur
Godfrey’s television talent-scout competition, and the singers Elvis Presley
and Jerry Lee Lewis emerged with gospel quartet backup groups, thus
focussing national attention on the popular gospel tradition. The complete
secularization of the rural gospel sound is exemplified by such groups as
the Oak Ridge Boys, the Statler Brothers and the Gatlins.
As the more extreme forms of black gospel singing developed and black
gospel quartets became more widely known, many white groups attempted
to imitate them. They assimilated some of the rhythmic drive of the black
style, but little of its frenzied technique. White gospel performance has
mainly drawn on the close harmony of barbershop quartet singing, on
country guitar playing, on hillbilly intonation, on urban crooning techniques
and sometimes on the passionate style of black gospel.

For bibliography see end of §II.

Gospel music

II. Black gospel music

The appearance of black gospel music coincided with the beginnings of
ragtime, Blues and jazz, and with the rise of the Pentecostal churches at
the end of the 19th century.
1. History.
2. Performance.
Gospel music, §II: Black gospel music
1. History.
(i) Antecedents.
Hymnody in the black American churches derives from both black and
white sources. Among the black sources are the camp-meeting spirituals
extemporaneously composed by slaves during ‘after service’ or ‘brush
arbor’ meetings in the early 1800s, the mid-century ‘sorrow songs’ (e.g.
Steal away, Go down, Moses and Swing low, sweet chariot) and the bolder,
more affirmative ‘jubilee spirituals’ of the post-Emancipation period (such
as In that Great Gettin' Up Morning and Git on board, little chillun)
(seeSpiritual, §II). White sources include hymn texts ranging from those of
Isaac Watts to examples by Fanny Jane Crosby, as well as the diverse
anonymous texts of the folk-related shape-note hymnals; tunes were also
borrowed from many white sources but transformed by black American
styles of rhythm (syncopation and reaccentuation), pitch (flexible inflection
and blue notes), harmonization (quartal and quintal harmony) and
performance (e.g. call-and-response delivery).
The first, and for a long time the most important, hymnal published for use
by black congregations was A Collection of Spiritual Songs and Hymns
Selected from Various Authors (1801). The first edition contained 54 hymn
texts and the second (published the same year) 64, to be sung to popular
hymn tunes of the day. Besides hymns by such well-known poets as Watts,
Charles Wesley, John Newton and Augustus Toplady, there were a few by
Richard Allen and members of his congregation; some, including When I
can Read my Title Clear, Am I a soldier of the cross and There is a land of
pure delight, are still popular. Later editions of the hymnal show a change
of character. The third edition (1818) contained 314 hymns, as against only
15 in the first, and the more homely and folklike camp-meeting songs were
mostly eliminated. Spirituals were excluded from the fourth edition (1876)
but were reinstated in later ones (1892–1954). The influence of the
collection was widespread, especially among congregations of the African
Methodist Episcopal Church (which expanded rapidly during the 19th
century), but also among black congregations of other denominations.
Another early hymnal was Peter Spencer's African Union Hymn Book
(1822), but its use was limited almost exclusively to the congregation of the
church for which it had been published.
After the American Civil War efforts were made to improve the quality of
hymnody and its performance in many black American churches. These
efforts were often ambivalent. The influence of the Fisk Jubilee Singers
was strong: they sang black melodies, but in arrangements and with vocal
production heavily indebted to white models. Similarly, a number of
hymnals were published that contained spirituals and other black hymns
(now sometimes called ‘plantation melodies’) alongside revival and gospel
hymns by white composers, all in bland, homogeneous choral
arrangements. The most important was A Collection of Revival Hymns and
Plantation Melodies (1883) distributed widely in Kentucky, Ohio,
Tennessee, New York and the deep South, especially Louisiana and
Georgia. Of its 170 hymns, 150 are set to music; the authors of the texts
are cited but the composers are unidentified. Among characteristic
examples of camp-meeting and later black spirituals are Go down, Moses,
and Roll, Jordan, roll (with a later version of the tune in the pioneer
collection Slave Songs of the United States, published in 1867).
(ii) To 1930.
Late in the 19th century there began to emerge a new type of black sacred
music, the gospel hymn, in which sophisticated, spiritual-like texts,
incorporating simile and colourful imagery, were set to music in the white
hymn tradition represented by Lowell Mason and later composers, but
‘African-Americanized’, particularly in their use of syncopation. One of the
first hymnals to incorporate this music was The Harp of Zion (1893), which
was almost immediately adopted by the all-black National Baptist
Convention; it was at once republished unaltered as The National Harp of
Zion and B[aptist] Y[oung] P[eople's] U[nion] Hymnal and became widely
used by black Baptists over the next 25 years.
Gospel hymnody among black congregations increased considerably
under the influence of the powerful religious movement in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries that gave rise to various fundamentalist Pentecostal
‘holiness’ and ‘sanctified’ churches, especially after the meetings of the
Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles (1906–9). The composer most closely
identified with this movement was the Methodist minister Charles Albert
Tindley of Philadelphia. His gospel hymns addressed themselves to the
needs of poor, oppressed and often uneducated black Christians: We'll
understand it better by and by, published in Soul Echoes (1905), is typical,
with its verse-and-refrain construction (the closing phrase of each being
identical), its basically pentatonic melody and its simple harmonies (ex.5).
Other popular gospel hymns by Tindley include Leave it there (1910) and
Stand by me (1905). He is also well represented in Gospel Pearls (1921),
which includes gospel hymns by Thomas A. Dorsey, Lucie Campbell and
E.C. Deas, along with older white and black hymns and spirituals; the
collection was compiled for Baptist use but was soon adopted by black
congregations of other denominations.
(iii) After 1930.
In the 1930s and 40s, under the influence of Dorsey, Campbell, W. Herbert
Brewster and Roberta Martin, gospel songs and spirituals became an
integral part of congregational song in black churches (a parallel
development was the addition of a gospel group or choir to the traditional
‘senior choir’ in many churches). This trend continued during the postwar
period, and church hymnody submitted to the influence of the
‘contemporary’ style of gospel music, exemplified by the extremely
successful recording by Edwin Hawkins of a 19th-century white Baptist
hymn, Oh Happy Day (1969). Gospel music was officially recognized as
the principal new medium of black hymnody in The New National Baptist
Hymnal (1977), which included a large number of songs by such gospel
hymnodists as Tindley, James Cleveland and Andrae Crouch.
Contemporary gospel influences were also apparent in the works published
for congregational singing by the black Catholic priest Joseph Rivers,
including Bless the Lord (with Henry Papale and Mark Trotta, 1964) God is
love (with Papale, 1964), and My God is so high (with Edward Stanton
Cottle and Trotta, 1970).
In the early 1980s several hymnals were issued which continued to reflect
the previous decade's ecumenical attitudes towards a wide spectrum of
black religious music. The United Methodist Church's Songs of Zion (1981)
included hymns by such rising gospel composers as Margaret J. Douroux
and J. Jefferson Cleveland. As a supplement to its official hymnal, the
Episcopal Church published a concentrated but varied collection of
spirituals, choruses and gospel songs, Lift Every Voice and Sing (1981),
and in 1982 the Church of God in Christ, the largest of the black
Pentecostal denominations, issued Yes, Lord!, containing a rich selection
of black sacred songs. Later publications included the African Methodist
Episcopal Church's AMEC Bicentennial Hymnal (1984), Lead Me, Guide
Me: the African American Catholic Hymnal (1987), The Hymnal of the
Christian Methodist Episcopal Church (1987) and Lift Every Voice and Sing
II: an African American Hymnal (1993) of the Episcopal Church.
Gospel music, §II: Black gospel music
2. Performance.
(i) History.
(ii) Instruments and singing techniques.
(iii) Quartets, other solo ensembles and choirs.
Gospel music, §II, 2: Black gospel music: Performance
(i) History.
The basic performance style of 20th-century black gospel music originated
in Memphis in about 1907, when the founders of the Sanctified Pentecostal
Church of God in Christ, inspired by a revival they had attended in Los
Angeles, instituted their own services, characterized by speaking in
tongues (glossolalia), shouting, trances and visions, and suitably emotional
music, often improvised and sung in a highly charged style (see Singing in
tongues). Performances by skilled songleaders evoked from the
congregation bodily movement (swaying, head-shaking), rhythmic
responses (hand-clapping, foot-stamping) and occasional shouted
interpolations in the tradition of 19th-century ring-shouts and circle dances.
The songleaders were the ministers and preachers or singers with
authoritative voices developed out of the necessity to cut through the
vociferous responses of large congregations. Among the first to gain
renown were several blind singers, including Connie Rosemond, for whom
Lucie Campbell wrote Something Within Me for the National Baptist
Convention in Newark (1919); Blind Willie Johnson, known for his blues
guitar technique and powerful ‘church’ style of singing; Gary Davis; and
Blind Mamie Forehand, known for her ‘sanctified’ singing, accompanied by
her blind guitarist husband, A.C. Forehand (Honey in the Rock, recorded in
1927). The most famous of the blind singers was Arizona Dranes; her thin
but intense soprano influenced many later singers, and her piano style was
a model for that of the first gospel songs recorded by Dorsey (e.g. I shall
wear a crown, 1928).
By the mid-1920s gospel preachers were also making popular recordings,
among them J.C. Burnett's The Downfall of Nebuchadnezzar and Emmett
Dickinson's Sermon on Tight like that (1930). Other singers who became
known through recordings were Sallie Saunders (Shall our cheeks be
dried, 1926) and Bessie Johnson (1902–84), who remained active into the
1980s (Before this time another year, 1959).
During the 1930s black gospel singers, often appearing in concerts
independent of church affiliation but nevertheless called ‘revivals’, tended
to use the piano rather than the guitar as their principal accompanying
instrument, and to emphasize in their singing long melismas alternating
with short, staccato exclamations. The growth of gospel music during this
decade was reflected in the establishment of the Thomas A. Dorsey Gospel
Songs Music Publishing Company, the first publishing house dedicated to
black gospel music; the founding by Dorsey of the National Convention of
Gospel Choirs and Choruses (1932); the appearance of Clara Hudmon
with a small choir at Radio City Music Hall, New York, and at the Chicago
World's Fair in 1939; and the first gospel song to become a best-selling
record, Sister Rosetta Tharpe's Rock me (1938), a jazzy version of
Dorsey's Hide me in thy bosom. Other popular singers of the era were
Ernestine B. Washington (c1914–1983), Willie Mae Ford Smith and the
trumpet-playing preacher Elder Charles Beck; Mahalia Jackson,
considered by the 1950s to be the queen of gospel singers, first came to
public attention in the 1930s.
The recording of gospel music received fresh impetus in the 1940s. The
most important singer-composers were Theodore R. Frye (I am sending
my timber up to heaven, 1939), Roberta Martin (Try Jesus, 1943; God is
still on the throne, 1959), Kenneth Morris (Yes, God is real, 1944), W.
Herbert Brewster (Move on up a little higher, 1946; Surely, God is able,
1949), Robert Anderson (Prayer Changes Things, 1947), Herman James
Ford (This same Jesus, 1948) and Virginia Davis (I call him Jesus my rock,
1949). In most of their works a simple, infectious refrain contrasts with a
verse that is less exuberant but supported by richer harmonies. Among the
singing preachers of the period were Samuel Kelsey and Elder Lightfoot
Solomon Michaux; newly popular singers included Brother Joe May and
Madame Marie Knight. Their singing style was characterized by long,
repetitious melodies, with hand-clapping and foot-stamping; they moved
through their audiences shaking hands, embracing individuals and
shouting along with their respondents.
By the 1950s centres of gospel music performance had been established
in such cities as Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, New York and Birmingham,
Alabama. Concerts were no longer restricted to churches and schools but
took place in concert halls and stadiums and on television. Extravaganzas
(often called ‘anniversaries’), involving 15 to 20 artists or groups and
lasting four to six hours, were presented; even small towns boasted one or
more recognized gospel soloist, quartet or choir. The principal artists were
Edna Gallmon Cooke, Margaret Allison and the Angelic Gospel Singers,
and J. Robert Bradley; their repertory included songs (with sophisticated
melodies and harmony) by James Cleveland (Grace is sufficient, 1948),
Alex Bradford (Too Close to Heaven, 1953), Dorothy Love Coates (He's
right in time, 1953) and Doris Akers (Lead me, guide me, 1955).
Cleveland became known in the 1960s as the ‘crown prince’ of gospel
music. The decade also saw the emergence of Marion Williams (fig.2), one
of the first lyric sopranos of gospel music, Inez Andrews, known especially
for her high-pitched wailing, the singing preacher Shirley Caesar and the
gospel storyteller Dorothy Norwood. Cleveland and Norwood were
important songwriters, as were James Herndon and Andrae Crouch.
Musicals based on black gospel music and performers began to appear
(Black Nativity, 1960; Tambourines to Glory, 1963), and continued to be
produced in later decades (Don't bother me, I can't cope, 1970; Your arm's
too short to box with God, 1976; The Gospel at Colonus, 1983).
In the 1970s gospel music moved away from the sanctified-church style of
call-and-response, choral refrain and ‘spirit possession’ towards more
elaborate harmony, cultivated vocalism and timbres inspired by popular
music. The new style (termed ‘contemporary’ gospel) appealed to a wider
audience, although it lost some of its association with the origins of gospel
music in the black churches. Crouch was its leading exponent; others were
the brothers Edwin and Walter Hawkins, Beverly Glenn, Margaret J.
Douroux and Elbernita ‘Twinkie’ Clark.
The growth of gospel that began in the 1980s had its roots in the Edwin
Hawkins recording of Oh Happy Day in 1969. The number of singing
groups, recordings and venues for performances grew so rapidly that
gospel could no longer be classified as traditional or contemporary. In
addition to the older style still espoused by such groups as the Angelic
Gospel Singers and F.C. Barnes with Janice Brown (The Rough Side of the
Mountain, 1988), three newer styles now existed. ‘Sanctuary
contemporary’, combining rhythm and blues with gospel, was performed in
church services and concerts; ‘urban contemporary’, a mixture of jazz,
rhythm and blues, hip hop and gospel, was heard on soul radio stations or
seen in gospel television broadcasts; ‘devotional gospel’ was meditative
and less ecstatic than other types of gospel.
The choir with a soloist (representing a preacher and congregation)
became the preferred sound, and even soloists and small groups would
record with choirs to reproduce the volume of a church service. The
‘sermonette and song’, introduced by Willie Mae Ford Smith and perfected
by James Cleveland, became the favourite vehicle for song, and melodies
and harmonies grew more expansive in the style of popular songs and
‘soft’ soul. Rhythm, through layered pulses, adopted the classic jazz riffs of
Basie and Ellington, while the extended 7th and 9th chords of the bop era
replaced the diatonic chords of Dorsey and Roberta Martin (as in Timothy
Wright's Come, thou almighty King, 1994). The response to gospel singing
changed from soft weeping, fainting and speaking in tongues to that of a
rock concert, with applause in recognition of vocal pyrotechnics. And, as in
rock concerts, high-volume amplification now became a part of the
performance.
Whereas in the 1950s to the 70s gospel concerts were held only rarely in
such concert halls as Carnegie Hall or Alice Tully Hall, the 1980s gospel
music moved to such surroundings as Madison Square Garden, the
Hollywood Bowl and Symphony Hall, Boston, and an annual gospel
concert is held at the White House. Gospel music became a regular
occurrence on television and has also been featured on the soundtrack of
popular films including Do the Right Thing (1989), Ghost (1990) and
Mississippi Masala (1991). Recording companies such as Arista and
Warner Brothers have produced several gospel stars.
Gospel music, §II, 2: Black gospel music: Performance
(ii) Instruments and singing techniques.
The first instruments used to accompany gospel music in the early 20th-
century black churches were percussion, including bass and snare drums,
triangles, tambourines, and even washboards played with wire coat-
hangers; the tambourine was eventually the most commonly used. The
banjo was used until the 1920s, when it was replaced by the guitar. At the
same time the piano also came into use; the style of gospel pianists
combined the syncopations of ragtime with left-hand octaves derived from
the stride style of jazz piano playing and hymn-like chords in the right hand.
By the 1950s the electronic organ (nearly always a Hammond organ) had
been widely adopted instead of the piano. Other instruments to appear
occasionally in gospel music are the trombone, trumpet and saxophone.
Until the 1970s the typical vocal timbre was full-throated, even strained or
hoarse; many female singers were shrill in their upper registers. These
qualities were partly the result of singing at the extremes of the range and
attempting, without amplification, to project over an instrumental
accompaniment as well as the singing and shouting of a congregation or
audience. Since the 1970s and the rise of contemporary gospel the singing
has been characterized by a smoother, purer tone. Most singers begin
performances of a song in their middle range but, as the ‘spirit descends’,
seek the heightened emotional intensity of the extremes of their compass.
All use considerable vibrato, and frequently intensify song texts by inserting
extra words or phrases; thus ‘Lord, I'm tired’ may become ‘Lord, you know
I'm so tired!’. Comparable improvisatory elaborations are also made in
melody and rhythm.
Gospel songs are usually performed in a slow or moderate tempo,
although the type known as a ‘shout’ is sung very fast. Slow-tempo songs
are characterized by the soloist's long melismas, punctuated by a
background group or choir; moderate-tempo songs are delivered more
percussively, often in call-and-response fashion. A common feature of
traditional and contemporary gospel song performance is the vamp, over
which a solo singer improvises textual and musical variations while a
background group reiterates a single phrase. The vamp was introduced
into gospel music by Mahalia Jackson (e.g. in Move on up a little higher,
1947) and Clara Ward and the Ward Singers (Surely, God is able, 1949),
and is especially notable in Edwin Hawkins's Oh Happy Day (1969).
Gospel music, §II, 2: Black gospel music: Performance
(iii) Quartets, other solo ensembles and choirs.
(a) Quartets.
Vocal ensembles have played an important part in the gospel music
tradition. From the 1910s many black churches fostered male quartets (or
larger ensembles of soloists), which performed for a fee in various public
places, offering a wide repertory of black sacred music – spirituals, refrain
songs and gospel songs.
Stylistically the male quartets have passed through five periods. The ‘folk’
period (c1910–30) was marked by a refined style of close, unaccompanied
harmony based on that of earlier groups such as the Fisk Jubilee Singers
but coloured by blue notes and emotionally charged vocal mannerisms.
Notable exponents were the Excelsior Quartet (Walk in Jerusalem just like
John, 1922) and the Silver Leaf Quartette (I can tell the world, 1928).
During the ‘gospel’ or ‘jubilee’ period (c1930–45) quartets adopted the
vocal and physical mannerisms associated with holiness congregations,
and even some melodic and rhythmic devices borrowed from jazz. The
singers repeated refrains to heighten emotional response, exploited
imitative part-writing and sometimes mimicked instrumental sounds, such
as those of a jug or string bass. Among the first quartets to adopt this style
were the Norfolk Jubilee Singers (My God's gonna move this wicked race,
1927) and the Blue Jay Singers (Brother Jonah, 1932); the most famous,
however, was the Golden Gate Quartet, which sang in the close
barbershop harmony of earlier quartets but also incorporated gospel
techniques (Golden Gate Gospel Train, 1937).
The period from about 1945 to 1960 is considered the ‘sweet gospel’ era.
The style was characterized by a close-harmony background that provided
a rhythmic foil for a mellow tenor or light baritone lead singer; the songs
were based on the call-and-response technique. An instrumental
accompaniment of two guitars, and occasionally a piano, became
standard. There was an increase in physical action: the lead singer often
jumped from the stage into the audience, which was encouraged to join in
the performance by clapping in rhythm. Songs tended to be longer, and
some ‘quartets’ were expanded to six or seven members. The leading
groups were Rebert H. Harris and the Soul Stirrers (formed 1934), who
introduced falsetto singing into the quartet style (He's my rock, my sword,
my shield, 1946); Ira Tucker and the Dixie Hummingbirds (formed 1928),
with Tucker initiating a cascading tenor vocal delivery that was much
imitated (One Day, 1947); the Swan Silvertones, formed in 1938 (I've tried,
1947); and the Pilgrim Travelers, formed in 1945 (Mother bowed and
prayed for me, 1951).
The ‘hard gospel’ quartet period (1960–70) was perhaps rooted in the
‘anniversaries’ of the 1950s. Prominent performers then had included the
Five Blind Boys of Alabama, led by Clarence Fountain (formed 1939), and
the Five Blind Boys of Mississippi, led by Archie Brownlee (formed 1939).
Both groups were dominated by their leaders, and cultivated growls,
screams and thigh-slapping for rhythmic accentuation. Other groups
followed their lead towards a hard gospel style, the most popular being the
Sensational Nightingales, led by Julius ‘June’ Cheeks (formed 1945), and
the Swanee Quintet.
By about 1970 the hard gospel style seemed to have run its course, partly
owing to Brownlee's death in 1959 and Cheeks's decline. But there were
also the demands of a new multi-racial audience, which preferred a less
strident vocal style, closer to that of popular singers. The groups that
satisfied these preferences most successfully were the Mighty Clouds of
Joy (formed 1960), led by Joe Ligon (Everybody ought to praise his name,
1980), the Jackson Southernaires (Too Late, 1970) and the Williams
Brothers.
The only male group bearing a direct relationship to the unaccompanied
male groups of the 1920s to 50s to achieve popularity after 1980 was Take
6, comprising six students from Huntsville, Alabama. They sang traditional
gospel music in close parallel harmony reminiscent of such earlier jazz
groups as the Four Freshmen and the Hi-Los, and achieved huge
international acclaim for their first recording (1988); they remain the most
successful crossover black gospel group in history. Other male groups who
gained wide acceptance include the Winans, five brothers who adopted a
heavy rhythm and blues style and were among the first gospel groups to
include rap in their performance (It's Time, 1994). The five-member group
Commissioned was heavily influenced by the Winans; its leader, Fred
Hammond, left to organize his own singers, Radicals for Christ (RFC), who
moved closer towards rhythm and blues and hip hop (Glory to Glory to
Glory, 1995).
An important development in the unaccompanied quartet movement began
in South Africa during the 1970s. Inspired by the Golden Gate Quartet on
its several trips to the townships, the Church of Christ of South Africa
oversaw the formation of several male quartets. These groups have
retained the smooth singing style of the 1930s and 40s and confine their
repertory to hymns, including only a few black American gospel songs (e.g.
the Kings Ambassadors, Have a little talk with Jesus, 1964). While choirs
have not adopted black American gospel, groups of six and seven singers
have added synthesizers as accompaniment (Friends First, Call and
Response, 1993).
(b) Other solo ensembles.
Other solo ensembles (not exclusively male) made their appearance in the
late 1920s. One of the first such groups was the Pace Jubilee Singers,
formed in 1926 by Charles Pace; they adopted a style of delivery not unlike
that of the Fisk Jubilee Singers but with piano accompaniment, and
emotional outpourings from their leader, the contralto Hattie Parker. The
group was particularly successful with its recordings of songs by Tindley
(e.g. Stand by me, 1928). Further ensembles active in the 1920s were the
Tindley Gospel Singers (an all-male group also known as the Tindley
Seven) and the Johnson Gospel Singers.
The number of these groups, which appeared mainly in Baptist churches
and at the National Baptist Convention, gradually increased during the
1930s. Dorsey formed the Dorsey Trio in 1933 in order to perform his own
songs. The success of the Bertha Wise Singers inspired Roberta Martin to
form with Theodore R. Frye the Martin-Frye Quartet (1933, renamed the
Roberta Martin Singers in 1935); initially an all-male group (except for
Martin as accompanist), it was later joined for a short time by Sallie Martin
and by the mid-1940s was firmly established as a mixed ensemble.
Another well-known group was the all-female Ward Trio (Gertrude Ward
and her daughters, formed in 1934) which, with the addition of non-family
members in the early 1940s, became the Ward Singers led by Clara Ward
(see fig.2). The Ward Singers served as a model for the Sallie Martin
Singers and the Original Gospel Harmonettes (both formed 1940); after
Dorothy Love Coates joined the latter group in 1945, and especially after
she began to record with them in 1949, the Harmonettes became gospel
‘superstars’. Other important groups formed in the 1940s were the Davis
Sisters of Philadelphia, accompanied by the pianist Curtis Dublin (1945),
and the Brewster Ensemble of Memphis (1946).
The 1950s marked a new peak of group popularity. Among the many new
ensembles were the Specials (later the Singers) formed by the pianist-
composer Alex Bradford (1951); the Caravans, led by Albertina Walker and
accompanied by James Herndon (1952); and the Stars of Faith, led by
Marion Williams (1958). The Staple Singers, formed in 1948, came to
prominence during this period before turning to secular music in the 1960s.
Several family duos were established, including the Gay Sisters, with
Mildred Gay as pianist (God will take care of you, 1951), the Boyer
Brothers (Step by step, 1952), the Banks Brothers, with Jeff Banks as
pianist (I've got a witness, 1953) and the O'Neal Twins (I'd trade a lifetime,
1967).
In the 1960s the ‘contemporary’ gospel style influenced group singing, and
the new leading group was Edwin Hawkins and his Singers. The Jessy
Dixon Singers also performed the more harmonically adventurous new
songs, while the Barrett Sisters of Chicago maintained the traditional
gospel style but included arrangements of such light classics as Ethelbert
Nevin's The Rosary. Important new groups in the 1980s and 90s were
Bobby Jones and New Life, the Anointed Pace Sisters and the Richard
Smallwood Singers. Smallwood extended the sound world of gospel music
by employing characteristics of European Baroque and Classical music
(Textures, 1987).
(c) Choirs.
Choirs have been an important part of the gospel music tradition since
1931, when Dorsey and Frye formed a gospel choir at the Ebenezer
Baptist Church in Chicago. The following year Dorsey organized the
National Convention of Gospel Choirs and Choruses to encourage the
formation of such choirs. Under his influence Glenn Tom Settle reorganized
the choir of Gethsemane Baptist Church in Cleveland in 1937 as Wings
over Jordan, which became nationally known through radio broadcasts,
and the St Paul Baptist Church choir, directed by J. Earle Hines, became
the first gospel choir to have a hit recording (We sure do need him now and
God be with you, 1947).
Until the 1960s the repertory of gospel choirs emphasized works for four-
part mixed chorus, but the Angelic Choir of the First Baptist Church in
Nutley, New Jersey, led by James Cleveland, gave prominence to the solo
singer, the choir being relegated to an accompanimental role (It all belongs
to my Father, 1962). Cleveland made further changes, eliminating the
choral bass part, adding bass guitar and drums as accompanying
instruments, extending the use of the vamp technique, and perfecting the
‘sermonette and song’, in which choral passages alternated with chanted
recitation by the soloist. The most successful recording in the new style by
Cleveland and the Angelic Choir was Peace, be still (1963). The Southwest
Michigan State Choir, led by Mattie Moss Clark, was also influential in the
mid-1960s (Salvation is Free, 1965). In 1968 Clark, Cleveland and other
choir directors established the Gospel Music Workshop of America
(GMWA) to set (and raise) standards of gospel choir performance. It soon
became the largest organization in black church music, and by the end of
the 20th century it had a membership of 20,000 in 47 states.
The Voices of Hope, a 100-voice choir formed by Thurston Frazier in Los
Angeles in 1957, moved away from the so-called Cleveland style and
restored the emphasis on the more cultivated sound of a full choir (We've
come this far by faith, 1967). This change in style was carried even further
by Edwin Hawkins, who directed the second gospel music recording to
become a hit – an arrangement for the Northern California State Youth
Choir of Oh Happy Day (1969). Hawkins's style was characterized by
smooth vocal sonorities, instrumental accompaniments of orchestral
dimensions, melodies indistinguishable from those of soul music or even
jazz, unusual keys (e.g. D , G , E and B) and texts that were often secular.
Andrae Crouch, though seldom associated with black gospel choirs, was
also an influence on the ‘contemporary’ style of the mid-1970s. Cleveland
and his Southern California Community Choir also made some temporary
excursions into contemporary gospel style. The contemporary and
traditional styles were synthesized by the Walter Hawkins Love Center
Choir, led by Hawkins's former wife Tramaine with Hawkins at the piano
(Love Alive, 1975), and other groups such as Harold Smith and the
Majestics, Donald Vails and the Choraleers and the Charles Fold Singers.
In the late 1970s gospel choirs that adopted the style of Walter Hawkins
were established by Roman Catholic, Episcopal and United Methodist
congregations.
An important expansion began in the early 1970s with the establishment of
gospel choirs in such colleges and universities as Florida Agricultural and
Mechanical University, where a National Black College Gospel Choir
Festival was organized in 1972. Later, choirs were formed at other,
predominantly white institutions including Mount Holyoke College and
Harvard University. In 1980 a National Collegiate Gospel Choir Festival,
sponsored by the Black Caucus of the Music Educators National
Conference, was held in New York. By the 1990s the gospel choir had
become a fixture in higher education establishments throughout the USA.
The black gospel movement in England gained momentum during the
1980s. Inspired by the visits of Mahalia Jackson and the Ward Singers in
the 1950s and 60s, the Church of God in Christ and other Pentecostal
denominations began to establish choirs in the 1960s. Coached by Mattie
Moss Clark, James Cleveland, Jessy Dixon and other directors from the
USA, gospel choirs began to spring up throughout London and Liverpool.
Among the first were the New Jerusalem Choir and the Majestic Singers. In
the early 1990s popular gospel choirs were the London Community Gospel
Choir (Inspiration and Power, 1996) and the London Fellowship Choir. The
soloist Nicky Brown won the award for the best British gospel song in 1995
and the Wades, inspired by the Winans, are considered the most popular
male group (A Touch of Heaven, 1995).

See also Latin america, §III, 4; Shape-note hymnody; Soul music; and
United States of America, §II, 2.
Gospel music

BIBLIOGRAPHY
collections
R. Allen: A Collection of Spiritual Songs and Hymns Selected from Various
Authors by Richard Allen, African Minister (Philadelphia, 1801, 8/1954
asA.M.E. Hymnal)
L. Mason: The Juvenile Psalmist (Boston, 1829)
W.B. Bradbury: Bradbury's Golden Chain and Shower (New York, 1863)
P. Phillips: Hallowed Songs (Cincinnati, 1865)
W.F. Allen, C.P. Ware and L.M.K. Garrison: Slave Songs of the United
States (New York, 1867/R)
P. Phillips: American Sacred Songster (London, 1868)
R. Lowry and W.H. Doane: Pure Gold (New York, 1871)
I.D. Sankey: Sacred Songs and Solos (London, 1873) [texts only]
P.P. Bliss and D.W. Whittle: Gospel Songs (Cincinnati, 1874)
R. Lowry and W.H. Doane: Brightest and Best (New York, 1875)
P.P. Bliss and I.D. Sankey: Gospel Hymns and Sacred Songs (New York,
1875–6) [vol.ii titled Gospel Hymns]
T.C. O'Kane, C.C. M'Cabe and J.R. Sweney: Joy to the World (Cincinnati,
1878)
I.D. Sankey, J. McGranahan and G.C. Stebbins : Gospel Hymns, iii–vi
(New York, 1878–91)
R. Lowry and W.H. Doane: Gospel Hymn and Tune Book (Philadelphia,
1879)
M.W. Taylor: A Collection of Revival Hymns and Plantation Melodies
(Cincinnati, 1883)
D.B. Towner: Special Edition of Hymns New and Old (New York and
Chicago, 1887)
I.D. Sankey and G.C. Stebbins: Male Chorus no.1 (Chicago and New
York, 1888)
W.H. Sherwood: The Harp of Zion (Petersburg, VA, 1893)
H. Date and others: Pentecostal Hymns nos.1 and 2 Combined (Chicago,
1894)
I.D. Sankey, J. McGranahan and G.C. Stebbins: Gospel Hymns nos.1–6
Complete (New York, 1894/R)
W.D. Kirkland, J. Atkins and W.J. Kirkpatrick: The Young People's
Hymnal (Nashville, TN, 1897)
C.A. Tindley: Soul Echoes (Philadelphia, 1905)
H.A. Rodeheaver and C.H. Gabriel: Great Revival Hymns (Chicago and
Philadelphia, c1912)
C.M. Alexander: Alexander's Hymns no.3 (New York, 1915)
H.A. Rodeheaver and C.H. Gabriel: Awakening Songs (Chicago and
Philadelphia, c1918)
Gospel Pearls, ed. Sunday School Publishing Board (Nashville, TN, 1921)
E.S. Lorenz, I.B. Wilson and H. von Berge: New Gospel Quartets for
Men's Voices (Dayton, OH, New York and Chicago, 1923)
H.H. Todd: The Cokesbury Hymnal (Nashville, TN, 1923)
W.A. Townsend: The Baptist Standard Hymnal (Nashville, TN, 1924)
E. Boatner and W.A. Townsend: Spirituals Triumphant Old and New
(Nashville, TN, 1927)
I.H. Presley: Pentecostal Holiness Hymnal (Franklin Springs, GA, 1938)
B.B. McKinney: Broadman Hymnal (Nashville, TN, 1940)
H. Rodeheaver, G.W. Sanville and B.D. Ackley: Church Service Hymns
(Winona Lake, IN, 1948)
C.N. Nelson: Youth Sings (Mound, MN, 1951)
C. Barrows: Billy Graham Crusade Songs (Minneapolis, 1957)
J.W. Peterson: Crowning Glory Hymnal (Grand Rapids, MI, 1964)
A. Crouch and the Disciples: Keep on Singin' (Waco, TX, 1972)
B. Gaither and G.Gaither: Let’s Just Praise the Lord (Alexandria, IN, and
Nashville, TN, 1974)
R.L. Davis and others: The New National Baptist Hymnal (Nashville, TN,
1977)
J.J. Cleveland and V. Nix: Songs of Zion (Nashville, TN, 1981)
I.V. Jackson-Brown: Lift Every Voice and Sing (New York, 1981)
G. Ross and M.M.Clark: Yes, Lord! (Memphis, 1982)
white gospel music
General
L.F. Benson: ‘The Offset: the “Gospel Hymn”’, The English Hymn (London,
1915/R), 482–92
E.H. Pierce: ‘“Gospel Hymns” and their Tunes’, MQ, xxvi (1940), 355–64
B.L. Riddle: Gospel Song and Hymn Playing (Nashville, TN, 1950)
C.E. Gold: A Study of the Gospel Song (diss., U. of Southern
California,1953)
M.L. McKissick: A Study of the Function of Music in the Major Religious
Revivals in America since 1875 (diss., U of Southern California, 1957)
E.K. Emurian: Forty True Stories of Famous Gospel Songs (Natick, MA,
1959)
W.G. McLoughlin: Modern Revivalism (New York, 1959)
E. Peach: The Gospel Song: its Influences on Christian Hymnody (diss.,
Wayne State U., 1960)
L. Gentry: A History and Encyclopedia of Country, Western and Gospel
Music (Nashville, TN, 1961/R, enlarged 2/1969)
W.J. Reynolds: Hymns of our Faith (Nashville, TN, 1964)
‘The World of Religious Music’, Billboard, lxxvii (23 Oct 1965)
J.C. Downey: ‘Revivalism, the Gospel Song and Social Reform’, EthM, ix
(1965), 115–25
W.J. Reynolds: A Survey of Christian Hymnody (New York, 1965)
J.C. Downey: The Music of American Revivalism 1740–1800 (diss., Tulane
U., 1968)
D. Crawford: ‘Gospel Songs in Court: from Rural Music to Urban Industry
in the 1950s’, Journal of Popular Culture, xi (1977–8), 551–67
C. Wolfe: Tennessee Strings (Knoxville, TN, 1977)
S.S. Sizer: Gospel Hymns and Social Religion: the Rhetoric of Nineteenth-
Century Revivalism (Philadelphia, 1978)
R. Anderson and G. North: Gospel Music Encyclopedia (New York, 1979)
J.C. Downey: ‘Mississippi Music: that Gospel Sound’, Sense of Place:
Mississippi, ed. P.W. Prenshaw and J.O. McKee (Jackson, MS, 1979)
H. Eskew and H.T. McElrath: Sing with Understanding (Nashville, TN,
1980)
M.R. Wilhoit: A Guide to the Principal Authors and Composers of Gospel
Song in the Nineteenth Century (diss., Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary, 1982)
M. Burnim: ‘Gospel Music: Review of the Literature’, Music Educators
Journal, lxix/9 (1982–3), 58–61
V.A. Cross: The Development of Sunday School Hymnody in the United
States of America, 1816–1869 (diss., New Orleans Baptist Theological
Seminary, 1985)
Biographical
E.J. Goodspeed: The Wonderful Career of Moody and Sankey in Great
Britain and America (New York, 1876)
D.W. Whittle, ed.: Memoirs of Philip P. Bliss (New York, 1877)
P. Phillips: Song Pilgrimage Around and Throughout the World (New York,
1882)
G.F. Root: The Story of a Musical Life (Cincinnati, 1891/R)
F.J. Crosby: Memories of Eighty Years (Boston, 1906, 2/1908)
I.D. Sankey: My Life and the Story of the Gospel Hymns (Philadelphia,
1907/R)
J.H. Hall: Biography of Gospel Song and Hymn Writers (New York, 1914)
H.C. Alexander and J.K. Maclean: Charles M. Alexander (London, 1921)
G.C. Stebbins: Reminiscences and Gospel Hymn Stories (New York,
1924/R)
H.A. Rodeheaver: Twenty Years with Billy Sunday (Nashville, TN, 1936)
The Ira D. Sankey Centenary: Proceedings of the Centenary Celebration of
the Birth of Ira D. Sankey together with some Hitherto Unpublished
Sankey Correspondence (New Castle, PA, 1941)
C. Ludwig: Sankey Still Sings (Anderson, IN, 1947)
R.M. Stevenson: ‘Ira D. Sankey and the Growth of “Gospel Hymnody”’,
Patterns of Protestant Church Music (Durham, NC, 1953/R), 151–62
W.G. McLoughlin: Billy Sunday was his Real Name (Chicago, 1955)
W.G. McLoughlin: Billy Graham, Revivalist in a Secular Age (New York,
1960)
J.C. Pollock: Moody (New York, 1963)
J.R. Baxter and V. Polk: Gospel Song Writers Biography (Dallas, 1971)
G.W. Stansbury: The Music of the Billy Graham Crusades, 1947–1970
(diss., Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1971)
J.W. Peterson and R. Engquist: The Miracle Goes On (Grand Rapids, MI,
1976)
black gospel music
General
J.W. Work: ‘Changing Patterns in Negro Folk Song’, Journal of American
Folklore, lxii (1949), 136–44
G.R. Ricks: Some Aspects of the Religious Music of the United States
Negro: an Ethnomusicological Study with Special Emphasis on the
Gospel Tradition (diss., Northwestern U., 1960)
H.C. Boyer: The Gospel Song: a Historical and Analytical Study (thesis,
Eastman School, 1964)
J.O. Patterson, G.R. Ross and J.M. Atkins: History and Formative Years
of the Church of God in Christ (Memphis, 1969)
P. Williams-Jones: ‘Afro-American Gospel Music: a Brief Historical and
Analytical Survey, 1920–1970’, Development of Materials for a One
Year Course in African Music for General Undergraduate Student, ed.
V.E. Butcher (Washington DC, 1970), 199–239
V. Synan: The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement (Grand Rapids, MI, 1971)
J. Lovell: Black Song: the Forge and the Flame (New York, 1972)
H.C. Boyer: ‘An Overview: Gospel Music Comes of Age’, Black World,
xxiii/1 (1973–4), 42–8, 79–86
J.R. Washington: Black Sects and Cults: the Power Axis in an Ethnic
Ethic (New York, 1973)
R.M. Raichelson: Black Religious Folksong: a Study of Generic and Social
Change (diss., U. of Pennsylvania, 1975)
P. Williams-Jones: ‘Afro-American Gospel Music: a Crystallization of the
Black Aesthetic’, EthM, xix (1975), 373
I.V. Jackson-Brown: ‘Afro-American Sacred Song in the Nineteenth
Century: a Neglected Source’, BPM, iv (1976), 22
L. Levine: Black Culture and Black Consciousness (New York, 1977)
R. Anderson and G. North: Gospel Music Encyclopedia (New York, 1979)
I.V. Jackson: Afro-American Religious Music: a Bibliography and
Catalogue of Gospel Music (Westport, CT, 1979)
W.T. Walker: Somebody's Calling my Name (Valley Forge, PA, 1979)
A. Heilbut: ‘New Signs on the Gospel Highway’, The Nation, [New York]
ccxxx/18 (10 May 1980); repr. as ‘The Secularization of Black Gospel
Music’, Folk Music and Modern Sound, ed. W. Ferris and M.L. Hart
(Jackson, MS, 1982), 101–15
M.W. Harris: The Rise of Gospel Blues: the Music of Thomas Andrew
Dorsey in the Urban Church (New York, 1992)
B.J. Reagon: We'll Understand it Better By and By: Pioneering African
American Gospel Composers (Washington DC, 1992)
H.C. Boyer: How Sweet the Sound: the Golden Age of Gospel
(Montgomery, AL, 1995/R)
V. Broughton: Too Close to Heaven: the Illustrated History of Gospel
Music (London, 1996)
Performance
A.H. Fausett: Black Gods of the Metropolis (Philadelphia, 1944)
S.C. Drake and H. Cayton: ‘A Joyful Noise unto the Lord’, Black
Metropolis: a Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York, 1945,
3/1993), 622–7
W.H. Tallmadge: ‘Dr. Watts and Mahalia Jackson: the Development,
Decline and Survival of a Folk Style in America’, EthM, v (1961), 95–9
J. Godrich and R.M.W. Dixon: Blues and Gospel Records 1902–1942
(Hatch End, nr London, 1963, enlarged 3/1982 as Blues and Gospel
Records 1902–1943) [discography]
C.J. Hayes: ‘The Gospel Scene: the Post War Gospel Records’, Blues
Unlimited, nos.3–68 (1963–9)
E.F. Frazier: The Negro Church in America (New York, 1964)
P. Oliver: Spirituals and Gospel Songs (Milan, 1968)
W.H. Tallmadge: ‘The Responsorial and Antiphonal Practice in Gospel
Song’, EthM, xii (1968), 219–38
B.A. Rosenberg: The Art of the American Folk Preacher (New York, 1970)
T. Heilbut: The Gospel Sound: Good News and Bad Times (New York,
1971, 3/1985)
 E. Southern: ‘Musical Practices in Black Churches of Philadelphia and
New York, ca. 1800–1844’, JAMS, xxx (1977), 296–312
S. Barber: The Choral Style of the Wings over Jordan Choir (diss., U. of
Cincinnati, 1978)
K.L. Rubman: From ‘Jubilee’ to ‘Gospel’ in Black Male Quartet Singing
(thesis, U. of North Carolina, 1980)
I.V. Jackson-Brown: ‘Developments in Black Gospel Performance and
Scholarship’, Black Music Research Journal, x (1990), 36–42
D. Seroff: ‘On the Battlefield: Gospel Quartets in Jefferson County,
Alabama’, Repercussions: a Celebration of Afro-American Music, ed.
G. Haydon and D. Marks (London, 1985), 30–35

Göss, Bartholomäus.
See Gesius, Bartholomäus.

Goss, Sir John

(b Fareham, Hants., 27 Dec 1800; d London, 10 May 1880). English
organist, composer and teacher. He was the son of Joseph Goss, organist
of Fareham. In 1811 he became one of the children of the Chapel Royal
under John Stafford Smith, and on leaving the choir became a pupil of
Attwood. After a short period as a tenor in the chorus at Covent Garden, he
became organist of Stockwell Chapel in 1821; in 1824 he was appointed
organist of the new church of St Luke's, Chelsea, and in 1838 succeeded
Attwood as organist of St Paul's Cathedral. On the death of William Knyvett
in 1856 Goss was appointed one of the composers to the Chapel Royal.
He was knighted in 1872, having composed the Te Deum and an anthem
for the thanksgiving service on the recovery of the Prince of Wales. Shortly
afterward he resigned his duties at St Paul's, although he retained the title
until his death. He was created DMus at Cambridge in 1876.
Apart from The Serjeant's Wife (1827), which ran over 100 nights, and two
overtures, Goss composed only glees and sacred music. His glees enjoyed
long popularity for their grateful vocal writing. As a church composer his
reputation came later, through the grace and the careful word-setting of his
anthems, composed mostly after 1850. A modest man, he was admired as
an organist and sought after as a teacher; his pupils included Sullivan,
Cowen and Frederick Bridge. His music, Barrett wrote, ‘is always
melodious and beautifully written for the voices, and is remarkable for a
union of solidity and grace, with a certain unaffected native charm’.
WORKS
(selective list)

all printed works published in London

A Collection of [6] Glees and a Madrigal (1826), incl. Ossian's Hymn to the Sun,
There is beauty on the mountains, The Sycamore Shade
The Serjeant's Wife (musical drama, J. Banim), London, Lyceum, 24 July 1827,
sketches, GB-Lbl, selections (c1827)
2 overtures, f, E , Philharmonic Society, 1827
Requiem motet, e, 6vv (1827)
Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis, E, 1854 (1866)
2 Te Deum, 1857, 1872
45 anthems, listed in Edwards, incl. God so loved the world (1851); If we believe
(1852); Praise the Lord, O my soul, 1854; Almighty and merciful God (1859); The
Wilderness, 1862; Lift thine eyes, 1863; O Saviour of the World, 1869 (1877); The
Lord is my strength, 1872
6 Services, Burial Service, cited in Edwards

COLLECTIONS AND WRITINGS

Parochial Psalmody (London, 1826)
The Piano Forte Student's Catechism (London, 1830)
An Introduction to Harmony and Thorough-Bass (London, 1833, 4/1859)
The Monthly Sacred Minstrel (London, 1833–?5)
[257] Chants, Ancient and Modern (London, 1841)
with W. Mercer: The Church Psalter and Hymnbook (London, 1855)
The Organist's Companion (London, 1864)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DNB (J.A. Fuller Maitland)
J. Stainer: Obituary, MT, xxi (1880), 269–71
W.A. Barrett: English Church Composers (London, 1882/R), 173ff
D. Baptie: Sketches of the English Glee Composers (London, 1896)
F.G. Edwards: ‘Sir John Goss’, MT, xlii (1901), 225–31, 375–83 [incl. list of
anthems]
R. Renwick: ‘An Early Victorian Organist at Work, II: the Latter Years of
John Goss at St Paul's Cathedral 1860–1872’, The Organ, lxiv (1985),
146–65
W. Gants: Victorian Cathedral Music in Theory and Practice (Cambridge,
1986)
W.H. HUSK/BRUCE CARR

Goss-Custard, (Walter) Henry

(b St Leonards-on-Sea, 7 Feb 1871; d St Leonards-on-Sea, 6 July 1964).
English organist. Goss-Custard was a grand-nephew of John Goss (a
former organist of St Paul's Cathedral) and elder brother of Reginald Goss-
Custard. He took the Oxford BMus in 1895. At 15 he became organist of
Christ Church, Hastings, and in 1891 of Holy Trinity, Hastings, before
moving to posts in Lewisham (1902) and Ealing (1904). In 1917 Goss-
Custard was made the first organist of the new (unfinished) Anglican
cathedral in Liverpool, an inspired appointment which led to a creative
vision, forged with Henry Willis, of a design for the largest cathedral organ
in Britain, completed in 1925. Several magnificent recordings were made
on it by Goss-Custard in the 1920s, before the cathedral nave was opened.
PAUL HALE

Goss-Custard, Reginald
(b St Leonards-on-Sea, 29 March 1877; d Dorking, 13 June 1956). English
organist, brother of Henry Goss-Custard. He succeeded Edwin Lemare as
organist of St Margaret's, Westminster, in 1902 and for 11 years carried on
his tradition as a brilliant recitalist. In 1922 he was appointed to St
Michael's, Chester Square, but his reputation was that of a recitalist rather
than a church musician. He made many tours, notably in the USA (1916).
He composed organ music, made arrangements and published a book on
pedal technique.
STANLEY WEBB

Gosse [Goesen, Goessen, Gosa,

Gose, Gossen], Maistre
(fl 1520–65). ?Netherlandish composer. His identity is problematical partly
because the name, or variants of it, is extremely common. Various sources
ascribe the same compositions to both Maistre Gosse and Gosse Jonckers
(or Junckers), perhaps indicating that Gosse and Jonckers are one
composer, but we cannot be absolutely certain of this. The name Jonckers
suggests a Netherlandish origin, as is true of one Anthoine Joncker who
was born at Maastricht in about 1530 and who served Duke Erich of
Brunswick as an organist. Auda raised the possibility that Gosse Jonckers
and Anthoine Joncker are one person, but this is most unlikely, for Anthoine
was born in about 1530, while a number of Maistre Gosse’s works
appeared in print in the mid-1530s.
Vander Straeten attempted to identify him with the Fleming Jehan
Goossens (Hans Gosse), who served as a singer in the employ of the
Tyrolean Count Ferdinand, and who died in 1581. This singer is not the
same as the Jehan Gossins who was maistre des enfants de choeur in the
Habsburg royal chapels, most notably in Brussels (he is listed there from
1528), until his death in 1537 (G.G. Thompson, RBM, xxxii–xxxiii, 1978–9,
pp.51–70). According to Fétis, a Maistre Gosse is listed among the
musicians of the French royal court of Henry II from 1547 to 1549, which
may account for the large number of works attributed to Gosse in French
sources.
Gosse’s motets for three voices show distinct marks of French influence in
their simple counterpoint, short phrases, facile, songlike melodies, frequent
cadences and considerable use of parallel 3rds and 6ths. The motets for a
larger number of voices are more effective vehicles for the display of the
composer’s contrapuntal ingenuity. In these the imitation is pervasive, while
the structure derives from the successive points of imitation; voice-pairing
abounds, and the distance and interval of imitation are treated with
considerable variation. Gosse’s most widely disseminated motet (mainly in
German sources) is the four-voice Tria sunt munera preciosa, first printed
in 1538 by the Nuremberg firm of Johannes Petreius.
All of Gosse’s chansons for three voices were first printed in Attaingnant’s
Trente et une chansons musicales a troys of 1535, and all are based upon
well-known four-part models by Claudin de Sermisy. Generally, but not in
every case, Gosse adopted the uppermost part of his model intact as his
 own superius, occasionally also borrowing liberally from the lower voices of
the original. The four-voice chansons appear to have been freely
composed. While exhibiting the typically flexible texture of the Parisian
chanson (essentially chordal with light touches of imitation), they do not
reflect the harmonic variety and imagination that are characteristic of the
best examples of this genre. His most celebrated chanson (to judge by
frequency of concordances) is the four-voice Je fille quant Dieu m'y donné
de quoy.
WORKS

Editions: Trésor musical: Musique religieuse, ed. R. van Maldeghem (Brussels, 1865–
93/R) [M]Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, ed. A.
Smijers and A.T. Merritt (Paris and Monaco, 1934–63) [S]

motets
Beatus vir qui intelligit, 5vv, 15426; Dignare me laudare te, virgo sacrata, 3vv, 1534 9,
S vii, 192; Ecce Dominus veniet, 5vv, 15371 (anon., attrib. Gosse, PL-WRu 11 and
15395, and Josquin and Senfl); Haec est vita aeterna, 2vv, 1549 16 (arr. in Musica di
Eustachio Romano, liber primus, Rome, 1521, ed. in MRM, vi, 1975); Laudate
Dominum, omnes gentes, 4vv, 15351, S ix, 34; Misit me pater vivens, 4vv, 155310, M
xxi, 25; Non turbetur cor vestrum, 4vv, 153913, M xiii (also attrib. Billon and
Manchicourt); O vos omnes, 6vv, 155512; Sancta Maria, mater Dei, 3vv, 15349, S vii;
Tria sunt munera preciosa, 4vv, 15387; Tu es Petrus, 4vv, 153211, M ix
Doubtful: Angeli archangeli throni et dominationes, CZ-HK 23, attrib. ‘Mich:
Gossen’; Christus ist um unser Sünde willen, 5vv, H-Bn 22, attrib. Ioskin Iungkers
(see Albrecht) (?contrafactum of Latin-texted motet by Gosse)
chansons
P. Attaingnant: Trente et une chansons musicales a troys (Paris, 1535) [1535]

Amour me poing, 3vv, 1535 (attrib. Jacotin in 1542 18); Amour me voyant, 3vv, 1535
(attrib. Janequin in 154113); Blanc et clairet, 4vv, 15415-6 (anon., attrib. Gosse D-Mbs
1508); Content désir, 3vv, 1535; Je fille quant dieu m’y donné de quoy, 4vv, ed.
H.M. Brown, Theatrical Chansons of the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries
(Cambridge, MA, 1963); M’amour mon bien (attrib. Cadéac in contents), ed. in
SCC, xxiv (1992); Ou est le fruict, 4vv, 15438; Par ton regart, 3vv, 1535; Puisque
mon cueur, 4vv, 154612-13; Qui la vouldra souhaitte que je meure, 3vv, 1535; Si j’ay
eu du mal ou du bien, 3vv, 1535 (attrib. Janequin in 1543 13; attrib. Ysoré 154218),
ed. in RRMR, xxxvi (1982); Vivre ne puis, 3vv, 1535

The lost 11th book of Moderne’s Le parangon des chansons (Lyons, 1543)
contained music by Gosse, according to the Catalogue de la bibliothèque de F.J.
Fétis (Brussels, 1877/R), no.2309.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AudaM
BrownI
FétisB
Vander StraetenMPB, iii, vii
W. Brennecke: Die Handschrift A.R. 940/41 der Proske-Bibliothek zu
Regensburg (Kassel, 1953)
D. Heartz: ‘Au pres de vous: Claudin’s Chanson and the Commerce of
Publishers’ Arrangements’, JAMS, xxiv (1971), 193–225
H. Albrecht: ‘Zwei Quellen zur deutschen Musikgeschichte der
Reformationszeit’, Mf, i (1948), 242–85
LAWRENCE F. BERNSTEIN

Gossec, François-Joseph
(b Vergnies, 17 Jan 1734; d Passy, Paris, 16 Feb 1829). Flemish
composer, active in France. He played a central role in Parisian musical life
for more than 50 years.
1. Before 1789.
2. After 1789.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BARRY S. BROOK, DAVID CAMPBELL, MONICA H. COHN/MICHAEL
FEND
Gossec, François-Joseph
1. Before 1789.
He was born into a Walloon family whose name was variously spelt
Gaussé, Gossé, Gossée, Gossei, Gossey or Gossez. In early childhood he
displayed remarkable musical talent and reputedly possessed a beautiful
voice. From the age of six he sang at the collegiate church of Walcourt.
Shortly thereafter he was listed as a singer in the chapel of Ste Aldegonde
in Mauberge; while there he joined the chapel of St Pierre and received
instruction in the violin, harpsichord, harmony and composition from its
music director, Jean Vanderbelen. In 1742 he became a chorister at
Antwerp Cathedral, where he pursued further studies with André-Joseph
Blavier (1713–82).
In 1751 Gossec went to Paris and, through the influence of Rameau,
became a violinist and bass player in the private orchestra of A.-J.-J. Le
Riche de La Pouplinière, fermier général of Paris. In 1755 he succeeded
Johann Stamitz as director of the orchestra until La Pouplinière’s death in
1762. As a court musician Gossec composed and published his opp.1–6:
six sonatas for two violins and bass (c1753), six duos for flutes or violins
(c1754) and 24 symphonies in four sets (1756–c1762). His first
symphonies were in three movements and written for strings only; they
display a vague sense of form and their thematic invention is
undistinguished. Influenced (through Stamitz) by the Mannheim School,
Gossec added a minuet and trio to the form and also inserted separate
parts for wind instruments (see particularly opp.4 and 5). Other works from
this period include the Symphonie périodique in D (b87) which was one of
the first orchestral works in France to use clarinets (BrookSF). From
Stamitz Gossec also acquired a keen sense for dynamic marcations which,
together with his new instrumentation, appear as the most refined aspect of
his technique at the time.
On 11 October 1759 Gossec married Marie-Elizabeth Georges. Their only
child, Alexandre François-Joseph, was baptized on 29 December 1760
with La Pouplinière and his wife acting as godparents. In the same year,
apparently without any commission, he composed a Messe des morts, the
first of many religious works. It brought Gossec’s sense for spectacular
sound effects to the fore as he remembered in a note published by Fétis in
1829 regarding the ‘Tuba mirum’:
The audience was alarmed by the dreadful and sinister effect
of the three trombones together with four clarinets, four
trumpets, four horns and eight bassoons, hidden in the
distance and in a lofty part of the church, to announce the last
judgment, while the orchestra expressed terror with a muted
tremolo in all the strings.
From 1761 Gossec channelled his interest in vivid theatrical effect into the
writing of a substantial series of stage works, beginning with an intermezzo
for the private theatre of the Prince of Conti. In 1762 he was made director
of the private theatre of Louis-Joseph de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, at
Chantilly, for which his most successful works were the pasticcio Le
tonnelier (1765), and the opéras comiques Les pêcheurs(1766) and Toinon
et Toinette (1767). The innocent plots are set in a gracious and simple
style. While the ariettes of Le tonnelier are on a modest scale using song-
like melodies, the ariettes of Les pêcheurs and Toinon et Toinette are much
more operatic. In Les pêcheurs Gossec sacrificed the dramatic potential of
the plot to prevailing dance-like rhythms, although he achieved great
variety of instrumentation. The final ensembles avoid individual musical
characterization. In Toinon Gossec inserted storm music, with piccolos and
thunder effects, to link the two acts. These opéras comiques had varied
receptions at the Comédie-Italienne. Les pêcheurs was the most
successful, with more than 160 performances before 1790. Toinon was
also performed in Holland, Denmark, Sweden and Germany. Yet Le faux
lord (1765) and as Le double déguisement (1767) were total failures and
after the poor reception of his pastoral farce, Les agréments d’Hylas et
Silvie (1768), Gossec wrote no more opéras comiques. He may have felt
uncomfortable competing with the rising star, Grétry.
Meanwhile, he continued to write instrumental works. Compositions from
this period include six duets for violins (op.7, 1765), six trios for two violins
and bass with horns ad lib (op.9, 1766) and at least three sextets for
clarinets, bassoons and horns (1762–70). In addition to chamber music he
composed 12 symphonies for the princes of Condé and Conti (opp.6, 8 and
b87, 79 and 80). He took advantage of the growing influx of wind players
into Paris from Germany and Bohemia to develop a variety and richness in
orchestral sonority unparalleled in the works of other French composers.
For example, the middle movement of op.6 no.2 has an elaborate part for
the oboe, and the Allegro theme of the first movement of op.8 no.2 imitates
a fanfare. His formal designs display some experimentation: he usually
avoids repeat signs, changes the order of themes in recapitulating sections
or leaves such sections incomplete. In the orchestral trios op.9 a more
concise invention combined with some thematic development lead to a
greater coherence of the movements generally.
In 1769 Gossec founded the Concert des Amateurs, which soon gained
renown as one of Europe’s finest orchestras (unlike the Concert Spirituel it
had no chorus). This move was a breakthrough in Gossec’s career. While
the Concert was sponsored by the fermier général La Haye and the Baron
d’Ogny, it was also supported by public subscriptions. It commissioned new
works and introduced guest artists. During each of his four years as
director Gossec conducted about 12 performances of his own symphonies
written specially for this orchestra; among these was La chasse (b62), one
of his most popular works. His symphonies op.12 (1769) are, however, of
unequal quality. While the executional finesse of op.12 nos.2 and 3 is
disproportionate to their harmonic and thematic simplicity, Gossec’s
repeated use of specific harmonic progressions through remote keys in
op.12 no.5 serves to increase the work’s musical unity. At this time he also
composed 12 string quartets (opp.14 and 15, 1769–72) and during his final
year with the Concert, he became the first to conduct a Haydn symphony in
France.
In 1773 Gossec relinquished his post as head of the Concert des Amateurs
to the Chevalier de Saint-Georges and assumed, with Simon Leduc and
Pierre Gaviniès, the directorship of the Concert Spirituel. In the same year
his first tragédie lyrique, Sabinus, was staged at Versailles. Judging from
the untidy autograph of Sabinus, Gossec may have found his task
laborious. In its dramatic and musical layout (a mythological plot in five
acts, with accompanied recitatives, rather short arias, extensive choruses,
marches and divertissements) he clearly emulated Rameau’s tragédies
lyriques. The appearance of an allegorical figure, ‘Le génie de la Gaul’,
who encourages the hero Sabinus by predicting the creation of a French
empire, clearly foreshadows Gossec’s nationalistic interests after the
Revolution. Yet his inclination for small musical forms invariably prevented
any individual number from leaving a lasting impression on the audience.
Larger pieces, however, expose Gossec’s limited ability, with their often
triadic melodies, parallel part-writing, rhythmic uniformity and simple
harmony. According to Gossec himself, rehearsals for his work began more
than a year before the première. Additional clarinets, violins and basses
were specially engaged and for the first time trombones were introduced at
the Opéra. Although Sabinus was revised into a four-act version for the
première in February 1774, Gossec’s modest success was eclipsed after
Gluck’s Iphigénie en Aulide was first performed on 19 April 1774.
In the following years, Gossec, who became an ally of Gluck, composed
only pastorals and ballets, one of which, Les Scythes enchaînés (1779),
was written for incorporation into Gluck’s Iphigeńie en Tauride. Some of
these successful ballets were choreographed by Gardel. Gossec also
revised the third act of Gluck’s Alceste for its Paris performance in 1776.
After Gluck had left Paris, Gossec started afresh at the Opéra. Following a
fashion for resetting the tragédies lyriques of Lully and Quinault, Gossec
wrote Thésée in 1782. He borrowed from his forerunner by copying Aegle’s
aria, ‘Faites grace à mon âge’, and adding wind instruments. Gluck’s
tragédies lyriques also had a strong influence on Thésée. The musical
structure is much clearer, Gossec’s style is rhythmically and harmonically
more inventive, and his use of the full wind section in particular is much
more accomplished. Although Thésée is of a higher quality than Sabinus, it
received only 16 performances and his Rosine(1786) was a complete
failure.
On 22 May 1780 Gossec was appointed sous-directeur at the Opéra, with
Dauvergne as directeur. When Dauvergne retired in 1782 Gossec headed
the committee that supervised the operations of the Opéra from 1782 to
1784. In January 1784 he took on the directorship of the newly founded
Ecole Royale de Chant at the Opéra. From then until the outbreak of the
Revolution he wrote only six symphonies. His ballet Le pied de
boeuf(1787) enjoyed moderate success at the Opéra.
Gossec, François-Joseph
2. After 1789.
Together with Méhul and Catel, Gossec was at the forefront of musical
activities during the Revolutionary period. He resigned from his duties at
the Opéra in 1789 and directed the Corps de Musique de la Garde
Nationale with Bernard Sarette. He helped create a ‘civic music’ in which
songs, choruses, marches and wind symphonies, designed for outdoor
performance by massed forces, served as the voice of the new regime. On
the first anniversary of the fall of the Bastille, his Te Deum was performed
at the Fête de la Fédération by 1000 choristers and a large orchestra. In
1790 he also provided a Marche lugubre later used for the ceremonies in
which the remains of Voltaire and Rousseau were moved to the Pantheon.
Its highly chromatic style, unusual instrumentation (including serpent, tam-
tam, muted military drum and tuba curva) and expressively long rests
stirred contemporary listeners to ‘religious terror’ and ‘the silence of the
grave’.
L’offrande à la liberté (1792) dramatizes the battle between the French
Revolutionaries and their foreign enemies, and culminates in a powerful
setting of the Marseillaise; every verse of which has different
instrumentation. Gossec employs drastic musical means to create a
fanatical mood in a still reserved audience. L’offrande was performed at the
Opéra 143 times up to 1797 and still was being performed at a national
festival in 1848. It played an important role in turning the Marseillaise into
‘the most powerful musical symbol of its country and epoch’ (Bartlet, 1991).
Le triomphe de la République, ou Le camp de Grandpré (1793) glorifies the
victory of the Revolutionary troops in the battle at Valmy on 20 September
1792. This divertissement-lyrique consists of majestic, hymn-like choruses
written in a simple style with a homophonic texture, all of which secured Le
triomphe a wide audience. It is related to the genre of tragédie lyrique with
its full-scale orchestra, accompanied recitatives and final ballet with an
Entrée des nations, featuring a dance of ‘negroes’, a polonaise, an
anglaise and a ranz des vaches.
For his service to the new order, Gossec was given the title ‘Tyrtée
[Tyrtaeus] de la Révolution’. Other honours bestowed on him include
admission to the Académie des Beaux-Arts of the Institut de France on its
establishment in 1795 and election to the Swedish Academy of Music in
1799. He was named a Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur in 1804.
With the ascension of Napoleon and the Consulate in 1799 Gossec’s
career as a composer effectively ended: he wrote only two more significant
 works, a Symphonie à 17 parties (1809) featuring a minuet in the form of a
fugue, and the Dernière messe des vivants (1813). He devoted his
energies to teaching, having been named inspector of teaching (with
Cherubini, Le Sueur and Méhul) and professor of composition at the
Conservatoire on its creation in 1795. He wrote solfège and singing
methods (in collaboration with others), a Traité de l’harmonie and Les
principes de contrepoint for use in the classes of the Conservatoire. When
Louis XVIII dissolved the Conservatoire in 1816 Gossec lost his job. His
final years were spent in the Paris suburb of Passy.
Gossec was one of the most prolific composers in France during the 18th
century. His career reflects the changing social position of the Parisian
musician between the mid-18th century and the early 19th. He began as a
court composer writing symphonies and chamber music and moved on to
conducting independently and directing subscription concerts as well as
working for the Parisian public opera houses; he also published some of
his own works. He became the foremost musical representative of the
French Revolution, and might have secured his influence as an inspector
and professor of composition at the Conservatoire but for the political
turmoil in the wake of changing governments which finally ended his
career.
Gossec’s earliest instrumental works reflect Italian influences, while his
symphonic works after op.3 show an absorption of many German,
specifically Mannheim, conventions such as four-movement structure
(including a minuet), rocket themes and bithematicism (in sonata-form
movements). His success as an instrumental composer is demonstrated by
the frequent performances of his works and by their publication in foreign
cities. The ease with which he secured performances of his operatic works
at the Comédie-Italienne and the Opéra attests more to his influence on
the French musical scene than to his dramatic talents, however. His
operatic gifts were modest, his choice of librettos poor; only with his ballets
did he achieve popularity on the stage. As composer, ‘democratizer of art’,
organizer and administrator, he exerted a powerful influence on
contemporary French musical life.
Gossec, François-Joseph
WORKS
printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

Edition: François-Joseph Gossec: Eight Symphonic Works, The Symphony 1720–1840,

ed. B.S. Brook, ser. D, iii (New York, 1983) [S]

b Brook (1962) catalogue no.

m Macdonald (1968) source no.

stage
PCI Paris, Comédie-Italienne
PO Paris, Opéra
Le périgourdin (int, 1, A.N. Piédefer, Marquis de La Salle d’Offémont), Chantilly,
private theatre of the Prince of Conti, 7 June 1761
Le tonnelier (oc, 1, N.-M. Audinot and A.F. Quétant), PCI (Bourgogne), 16 March
1765, collab. Alexandre, Ciapalanti, Kohaut, Philidor, J. Schobert and J.C. Trial
Le faux lord (oc, 3, Parmentier), PCI (Bourgogne), 27 June 1765, incl. La chasse
(ballet with songs), excerpts (n.d.)
Les pêcheurs (oc, 1, La Salle d’Offémont), PCI (Bourgogne), 23 April 1766, rev. 7
June 1766, pubd as op.10 (n.d.)
Toinon et Toinette (oc, 2, J.A.J. Desboulmiers), PCI (Bourgogne), 20 June 1767,
pubd as op.11 (n.d.)
Le double déguisement (oc, 2, Houbron), PCI (Bourgogne), 28 Sept 1767, excerpts
(n.d.)
Les agréments d’Hylas et Silvie (pastorale, M.-R.-J. Rochon de Chabannes), Paris,
Comédie-Française, 10 Dec 1768, excerpts (n.d.)
Sabinus (tragédie lyrique, 5, M.-P.-G. de Chabanon), Versailles, 4 Dec 1773; rev.
(4), PO, 22 Feb 1774, F-Po and Pc (partly autograph), excerpts (n.d.)
Berthe (opéra, R.T.R. de Pleinchesne), Brussels, Monnaie, 18 Jan 1775; collab.
Philidor, I. Vitzthumb and ?H. Botson
Alexis et Daphné (pastorale, 1, Chabanon de Maugris), PO, 26 Sept 1775, Po*,
excerpts (n.d.)
Philémon et Baucis (pastorale, 1, Chabanon de Maugris), PO, 26 Sept 1775, Po*
La fête de village (int, 1, Desfontaines [F.G. Fouques]), PO, 26 May 1778, Po (2
copies, 1 inc. autograph), excerpts (n.d.)
Mirza (ballet, 3, M. Gardel), PO, 18 Nov 1779; rev. 1788, Po
La fête de Mirza (ballet-pantomime, 4, Gardel), PO, 17 Feb 1781, Po
Thésée (tragédie lyrique, 4, E. Morel de Chéfdeville, after P. Quinault), PO, 1 March
1782, B-Bc, F-Pc, airs, arr. pf (n.d.)
Electre (incid music, 5, G.D. de Roquefort), ?Versailles, 1782, Po
Nitrocris (opéra, 3, Morel de Chéfdeville), 1783, unperf., B-Bc, F-Po
Rosine, ou L’épouse abandonnée (opéra, 3, N. Gersin), PO, 14 July 1786, Po*,
excerpts (n.d.)
Le pied de boeuf (divertissement, 1, Gardel), PO, 17 June 1787, incl. music by
Rameau and Grétry
L’offrande à la liberté (scène religieuse, 1, A.S. Boy or J.-M. Girey-Dupré, C.J.
Rouget de Lisle and M.-J. de Chénier), PO (Porte-St-Martin), 30 Sept 1792, Pn
(1792)
Le triomphe de la République, ou le camp de Grandpré (divertissement-lyrique, 1,
Chénier), PO (Porte-St-Martin), 27 Jan 1793, Po* (1794)
Les sabots et le cerisier (opéra, M.-J. Sedaine and J. Cazotte), Paris, Jeunes-
Elèves, 13 Dec 1803

Others: Callisto (heroic ballet, 3), unperf., Po; La rosière (ballet, 2), for Gardel; Les
scythes enchaînés par les vainqueurs, divertissement, added to Gluck: Iphigénie en
Tauride, 1779; Gustave Vasa (lyric drama), inc., unperf., Po; Bouquet (dramatic
scene), S, B, chorus, orch, 1785, Po; Perrin et Perrette, opera ov., Po

Excerpts, arrs., pubd separately and in 18th-century anthologies

symphonies
B op.
13—18 3 Sei sinfonie a più stromenti (1756)
19—24 4 Sei sinfonie a più stromenti (c1758)
77— Symphony no.1 ‘da vari autori’ [La Chevardière, op.4] (1761)
78— Symphony no.1 ‘da vari autori’ [La Chevardière, op.5] D (1761)
25—30 5 Sei sinfonie a più stromenti (c1761–2); no.3 ed. in S
31—6 6 Six simphonies (c1762); no.2 ed. in S
87— Sinfonia périodique a più strumenti, D (1762)
79— Simphonie périodique a più stromenti, no.48 (1763)
80— Simphonie périodique a più stromenti, no.65 (c1764)
43—5 8 Trois grandes symphonies (1765); no.2 ed. in S
54—9 12 Six simphonies à grande orchestre (1769); also in The Periodical
Overture in 8 Parts, nos.34, 33, 35, 32, 46, 36 (London, 1771–5); no.5
ed. in S
62— Simphonie de chasse, c1773 (1776)
86— Symphonie, D, in Trois simphonies à 8 parties (1776)
83— Symphonie, F, in Trois symphonies (1777)
76— Symphonie périodique no.6 (c1778), lost
84—5— 2 in Trois symphonies à grand orchestre (1780), perf. ?1769–73
81— Symphonie, 2 vn, va b B (? between 1783 and 1785)
60—62c 13 Trois sinfonies à grande orchestre (between 1786 and 1792); no.3
pubd earlier as Simphonie de chasse
91— Simphonie à 17 parties, autograph 1809; ed. in S
95— Esquisse d’un morceau d’orchestre, F-Pc*
96— Esquisse symphonique, Pc*
97m— Esquisses de mouvements de symphonies, Pc, doubtful
99m— Trois mouvements de symphonies, inc., Pc, doubtful
other orchestral, wind band
B
88 Symphonie concertante, 2
solo vn (1775), lost; ed. in
S
89, 101 Symphonie concertante
[no.2], 2 solo vns, va/vc
obbl (1778)
90 Symphonie concertante du
ballet de Mirza (1784),
various arrs.; ed. in S
92 Sinfonia concertanta 2da, 2
solo vn, 2 ob obbl, Pc, inc.
93 Sinfonia concertanta, 2
solo vn, 2 solo va, B-Bc*
94m Sinfonia concertanta, f, F-
Pc, inc.

Allemandes I et II, str orch; Rondeau, fl, orch; Les

tricotets, dance, str orch; Vive Henri IV, dance, str orch;
Bostangis, ou Marche turque, air de dance for a ballet:
some MSS in Pc
Revolutionary works (all for wind band, MSS in F-Pc,
Pn): Marche lugubre, 1790; Marche religieuse, 1793;
Simphonie militaire, 1793–4; Marche, C, 1794; Marche
funèbre, E (1794), on death of Hoche; Marche
religieuse, E , 1794; Marche victorieuse, F, 1794;
Symphonie, C, c1794; Marche des marseillois, arr.
band
chamber
 no. op.
b1—6 1 Sei sonate, 2 vn, b (c1753)
b7—12 2 Six duos, 2 fl/vn (c1754)
b109— La bataille, 2 cl, 2 hn, 2 bn,
1762–70, Pc
m110–- La chasse de Chantilli,
1762–70, Pc
m111— La grande chasse de
Chantilly, 1762–70, Pc
m114— Pieces … pour S.A.S. Mgr.
le prince de Condé, 2 cl, 2
hn, 2 bn, 1762–70, Pc
m 113— Simphonie à 6, 1762–70,
Pc
m115— Andante larghetto, 1762–
70, Pc
b37—42 7 Sei duetti, 2 vn (1765)
b46—51 9 Six trios, 2 vn, b, hns ad lib
(1766); no.4 ed. in S
b64—9 14 Sei quartetti, fl/vn, vn, va, b
(1769)
m118t— Recueil de menuets, arr. 2
vn/other insts (1771)
b70—75 15 Six quatuors, 2 vn, va, b
(1772); also (Amsterdam,
c1772)
m116r— Andante, 2 cl, 2 hn, 2 bn, ?
c1764–76
b100— Concertanta, fl, ob, cl, hn,
bn, 1785, B-Bc
m126—31— 3 duettos in Six Favourite
Duetts, vn, vc (London,
1791)
m135m— Concertante à 10
instruments, perf. 1793, F-
Pc
m112— Canon en écrevisse ou
rétrograde, 2 vn, 2 vc/bn,
1811, Pc

Gavotte, D, fl, str qt, MS; Les moulins du Pont de

Pontoise, fugue, Pc; Charmante Gabrielle, pf MS
revolutionary – vocal
manuscripts in F-Pc, Pn, Po

TeD, 3 male vv, band, 1790; La fédération (C.F.X. Mercier de Compiègne), ?1790,
unperf.; Le chant du 14 juillet (M.-J. Chénier), 3 male vv, band, 1791; Invocation (?
Chénier), chorus, orch, 1791; Choeur patriotique exécuté à la translation de
Voltaire: ‘Peuple éveille-toi’ (Voltaire: verses from Samson), 3 male vv, band, 1791;
Hymne sur la translation du corps de Voltaire (Chénier), vv, wind insts, 1791 [2
settings]; Station au temple de Melpomène, for translation of Voltaire, vv, pf, cl ad
lib, ?1791; Choeur à la liberté (Chénier), 4vv, band, 1792
Ronde nationale: ‘L’innocence’ (Chénier), 4vv, band, 1792; Chant funèbre en
l’honneur de Simoneau (Roucher), 1792, lost; Offrande à la liberté: ‘Citoyens
suspendés’, recit, chorus, orch, 1792; Hymne à la liberté (Chénier), 4vv, band,
1792; Hymne pour l’inauguration des bustes (Avisse), 1792, lost; Le triomphe de la
loi (?Roucher), choeur patriotique, 3 male vv, band, 1792
Air des marseillais pour le camp de la féderation, arr. of the Marseillaise for chorus,
band, 1793; Hymne a l’égalité (Hymne à la nation): ‘Divinité tutélaire’ (Varon),
chorus, band, 1793; Hymne à la liberté (Hymne à la nature) (Varon), 4vv, band,
1793; Hymne à la statue de la liberté (Hymne à la liberté) (Varon) (3 male vv, band)/
(5vv, orch), 1793 [2 settings]; ‘Quel peuple immense’ (Varon), 4vv, band, 1793;
Hymne à la nature (Hymne à l’égalité): ‘Touchant réveli’ (Varon), 4vv, band, 1793
Chant patriotique: ‘Citoyens dont Rome’ (Coupigny), Bar/T, 1793; Hymne à la
liberté: ‘Descends ô liberté’ (Chénier), 1793, lost; Chanson patriotique sur le succès
de nos armes (Coupigny), solo v, b, 1794; Hymne à l’Etre suprême (T. Désorgues),
solo v, chorus, band, 1794; Hymne à l’Etre suprême (Désorgues), 4vv, band, 1794;
Hymne à l’Etre suprême (Chénier), 4vv, band, 1794; Hymne pour la fête de Bara et
Viala (Avisse), solo v, 1794
Hymne à la liberté: ‘O Deité de ma patrie’ (Caron), 3vv, 1794; Hymne à Jean-
Jacques Rousseau: ‘Toi qui d’Emilé (Chénier), solo v, chorus, insts, 1794; Hymnes
pour la fête de la réunion, 3vv, 1794; Hymnes destinés à être chantés par le corps
de musique des aveugles-travailleurs, 1794; Chant funèbre sur la mort de Ferraud:
‘Martyr de la liberté’ (Coupigny), solo v, 4 male vv, band, 1794; Ode sur l’enfance (P.
Crassous), solo v, b, 1794; Serment républicain: ‘Dieu puissant daigne’ (Chénier),
4vv, orch, 1795 [parody of curse scene from Gossec: Athalie]
Hymne à l’humanité: ‘O mère des vertus’ (Baour-Lormian), 4vv, band, 1795; Aux
mânes de la gironde, hymne élégiaque: ‘Parmi les funèbres’ (Coupigny), 3 solo vv,
4vv, band, 1795; Hymne guerrier (Chénier), dramatic scene, solo vv, chorus, band,
1796; Chant martial pour la fête de la victoire (La Chabeaussière), solo v, 4vv, band,
1796; Chant pour la fête de la vieilesse: ‘Déjà le génie’ (Désorgues), solo v, b, 1796;
Chant martial pour la fête de la victoire: ‘Si vous voulés’ (La Chabeaussière), solo v,
chorus, band, 1796
Le pardon des injures (Mercier), 1797, lost; Cantate funèbre pour la fête du 20
prairial an VII: ‘Attentat sans exemple’ (Boisjolin), solo v, b, 1799; La nouvelle au
camp de l’assassinat … ou Le cri de vengeance, scène lyrique, 1799; Hymne à la
liberté: ‘Auguste et consolante image’; Chant religieux sur la destruction de
l’athéisme (Mercier), lost; Hymne à la victoire: ‘Déesse d’un peuple’; Domine
salvam fac republicam, 3vv; Ronde patriotique: ‘Favoris de la gloire’; Hymne à la
liberté: ‘Vive à jamais’

other vocal
manuscripts in F-Pc, Pn, B-Bc, Br

Sacred: Missa pro defunctis, 1760, pubd as Messe des morts (1780); 1re suite de
noëls, orch, ?c1774; 2me suite de noëls, orch; Dernière messe des vivants, 4vv,
orch, 1813; Coeli enarrant, 3vv, orch; 2 marches religieuses pour la procession de
la Fête-Dieu; Dixit Dominus, chorus; Domine salvum fac imperatorem, 4vv, orch; O
salutaris hostia, motet, 3vv unacc. (n.d.); Impromptu, 3vv unacc.; Quatuor sur la
prose des morts; Messe; motets
Orats: La nativité (Chabanon de Maugris), Paris, Concert Spirituel, 1774, vs, ed. D.
Townsend (New York, 1966); L’arche d’alliance, Paris, Concert Spirituel, 1781, lost;
Regina coeli, doubtful
Secular: Le papillon léger, solo vv, chorus, orch; Hymne à l’amour, 3vv, unacc.
(n.d.); Chagrin d’amour, romance, 1v, b acc.; L’amour piqué par une abeille in 9
odes d’Anacréon acc. pf/hp (n.d.); Age de l’aimable innocence, ode sur l’enfance
(n.d.); airs

Gossec, François-Joseph

WRITINGS
with L. Cherubini and E.-N. Méhul: Méthode de chant du Conservatoire
de musique (Paris, ?1802–3)
with G. Agus, C.S. Catel and L. Cherubini: Principes élémentaires de
musique arrêtés par les membres du Conservatoire, suivis de solfèges
(Paris, 1799–1802, ?1801–2)
with N. Roze, Ozi and Rogat: Méthode de serpent (Paris, 1814)
‘Sur l’introduction des cors, des clarinettes et des trombones dans les
orchestres français’, Revue musicale, v (1829), 217–23
Traité de l’harmonie, F-Pc
Les principes de contrepoint (MS)
Gossec, François-Joseph
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookSF
LaurencieEF
P. Hédouin: Gossec: sa vie et ses ouvrages (Valenciennes, 1852)
E.G.J. Gregoir: Notice biographique sur François-Joseph Gossé dit
Gossec, compositeur de musique (Mons, 1878)
M. Brenet: ‘La Messe des morts de Gossec’, Journal musical (26 Aug
1899)
M. Brenet: ‘Rameau, Gossec et les clarinettes’, Guide musical, xlix (1903),
183, 203, 227
F. Hellouin: Gossec et la musique française à la fin du XVIIIe siècle (Paris,
1903)
C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution (Paris, 1904/R)
J. Tiersot: Les fêtes et les chants de la Révolution française (Paris, 1908)
G. Cucuel: Etudes sur un orchestre au XVIIIe siècle: l’instrumentation
chez les symphonistes de La Pouplinière, oeuvres musicales de
Gossec, Schencker et Gaspard Procksch (Paris, 1913)
J. Tiersot: ‘Autographes de Gossec de 1789 à 1793’, Bulletin de la
Société française de musicologie, v/10 (1921), 217–22
L. Dufrane: Gossec: sa vie, ses oeuvres (Paris, 1927)
C. van den Borren: ‘De quelques manuscrits autographes inédits de
Gossec’, Annuaire du Conservatoire royal de musique de Bruxelles, li
(1927–8), 124
F. Tonnard: ‘F.J. Gossec’, Vie wallonne, xiv (1934), 198
A. Gastoué: ‘Gossec et Gluck à’ l’Opéra de Paris’, RdM, xvi (1935), 87–99
T. Tonnard: François-Joseph Gossec, musicien hennuyer de la Révolution
française (Brussels, 1938); repr. in Revue française (1938), 127ff
J.-G. Prod’homme: François-Joseph Gossec (Paris, 1949)
R.J. Macdonald: François-Joseph Gossec and French Instrumental Music
in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century (diss., U. of Michigan,
1968)
W. Thibaut: F.-J. Gossec, chantre de la Révolution française (Gilly, 1970)
J.A. Rice: ‘Introduction, François-Joseph Gossec: Eight Symphonic
Works’, The Symphony 1720–1840, ed. B.S. Brook, ser. D, iii (New
York, 1983), pp.xiv–xxiv
J. Mongrédien: La musique en France, des Lumières au Romantisme: de
1789 à 1830 (Paris, 1986; Eng. trans., 1996)
R. Mortier and H. Hasquin, eds.: Fêtes et musiques Révolutionnaires:
Grétry et Gossec (Brussels, 1990)
E.C. Bartlet: ‘Gossec: L’offrande à la liberté et l’histoire de La Marseillaise’,
Le tambour et la harpe, ed. J.-R. Julien and J. Mongrédien (Paris,
1991), 123–46

Gossen, Maistre.
See Gosse, Maistre.

Gossett, Philip
(b New York, 27 Sept 1941). American musicologist. He graduated BA from
Amherst College in 1963. He then studied at Princeton University under
Strunk and Lockwood, taking the MFA in 1965 and the PhD in 1970. In
1968 he joined the faculty at the University of Chicago. He was on the
board of directors of the AMS, 1974–6, and is on the editorial boards of the
Rossini and Verdi critical editions.
Gossett's interests include 15th-century sacred music, the theoretical
writings of Rameau, and 19th-century Italian opera, particularly the works
of Rossini. His dissertation and subsequent articles on Rossini stress the
need to investigate manuscript sources of music and librettos; in them he
distinguishes authentic from unauthentic sources, points out those aspects
of a work which arise from specific performances or operatic conventions,
and identifies Rossini's borrowings and self-borrowings. He has written
many of the introductions for two facsimilie series, Italian Opera, 1810–
1840 and Early Romantic Opera and is general editor of Rossini's collected
works, for which he has prepared the volume Tancredi (1984).
WRITINGS
‘Techniques of Unification in Early Cyclic Masses and Mass Pairs’, JAMS,
xix (1966), 205–31
‘Le fonti autografe delle opere teatrali di Rossini’, NRMI, ii (1968), 936–60
‘Rossini in Naples: some Major Works Recovered’, MQ, liv (1968), 316–40
‘Gioachino Rossini and the Conventions of Composition’, AcM, xlii (1970),
48–58
The Operas of Rossini: Problems of Textual Criticism in Nineteenth-
Century Opera (diss., Princeton U., 1970)
ed. and trans.: J.P. Rameau Treatise on Harmony (New York, 1971)
‘Beethoven's Sixth Symphony: Sketches for the First Movement’, JAMS,
xxvii (1974), 248–84
‘The Mensural System and the Choralis Constantinus’, Studies in
Renaissance and Baroque Music in Honor of Arthur Mendeled. R.L.
Marshall (Kassel and Hackensack, NJ, 1974), 71–107
‘Verdi, Ghislanzoni, and Aida: the Uses of Convention’, Critical Inquiry, i
(1974–5), 291–334
‘Criteri per l'edizione critica di tutte le opere di Gioacchino Rossini’,
Bollettino del Centro Rossiniano di Studi, (1974), no.1, pp.1–61
‘Un nuovo duetto per Anna Bolena’, Studi Donizettiani I: Bergamo 1975,
247–310
The Tragic Finale of ‘Tancredi’/ Il finale tragico del Tancredi di Rossini
(Pesaro, 1977)
‘The Arias of Marzelline: Beethoven as a Composer of Opera’, BeJb
1978–81, 141–83
‘The Overtures of Rossini’, 19CM, iii (1979–80), 3–31
‘Rossini e i suoi Péchés de Vieillesse’, NRMI, xiv (1980), 7–26
Le sinfonie di Rossini (Pesaro, 1981)
‘Music at the Théâtre-Italien’, Music in Paris in the Eighteen-Thirties:
Northampton, MA, 1982, 327–64
‘The Composition of Ernani’, Analyzing Opera: Verdi and Wagner: Ithaca,
NY, 1984, 27–55
Anna Bolena and the Artistic Maturity of Gaetano Donizetti (Oxford, 1985)
‘History and Works that have No History: Reviving Rossini's Neopolitan
Operas’, Discliplining Music: Musicology and its Canons: Ithaca, NY,
1984 and New Orleans 1987, 95–115
‘Carl Dalhaus and the “Ideal Type”’, 19CM, xiii (1989–90), 49–56
‘Becoming a Citizen: the Chorus in Risorgimento Opera’, COJ, ii (1990),
41–64
‘Censorship and Self-Censorship: Problems in Editing the Operas of
Giuseppe Verdi’, Essays in Musicology: a Tribute to Alvin Johnson, ed.
L. Lockwood and E.H. Roeser (Philadelphia, 1990), 247–57
‘A New Romanza for Attila’, Studi verdani, ix (1993), 13–35
‘New Sources for Stiffelio: a Preliminary Report’, COJ, v (1993), 199–222
PAULA MORGAN

Gossler [Gossler de Zeger,

Gosslar], Thomas.
See Gosler, Thomas.

Gosswin [Jusswein, Jussonius,

Cossuino, Gossvino, Josquinus],
Antonius [Anthoine]
(b ?Liège, c1546; d Freising, Liège or Bonn, between 2 June 1597 and 28
Oct 1598). Flemish composer. His family name was common in the
southern Netherlands during this period, especially in the area around
Liège. A letter to the bass Bartholomaeus van den Feldt from the Elector of
Saxony confirms Gosswin's Netherlandish origin. Hirzel, from the date of
Gosswin's marriage (1566–7), suggested that he could have been born
between 1535 and 1546, but his career seems to point to a date nearer to
1546 than 1535. His association with Lassus must stem from the early
years, since in his publication Newe teutsche Lieder (Nuremberg, 1581) he
mentioned Lassus as ‘lieber praeceptor’. He could have entered the
Bavarian chapel as a choirboy; Lassus was there from 1556.
He is first mentioned in the court accounts as an alto in 1558. The account
books for the Bavarian chapel are unfortunately defective for the period
1560–67, but it is known that in 1562 an alto named Anthoine accompanied
Emperor Maximilian II and his chapel to Frankfurt. The Munich tax-rate
books show that in 1564 a certain ‘Anthonius Jusswein’ lived there, and
married a Maria Praum late in 1566 or early in 1567. In 1568 he held the
rights of a Munich citizen, and in 1569 was appointed a member of the
chapel of Prince Wilhelm of Bavaria, but finances at the Bavarian court
were such that he had to be released, and in 1570 was in the Munich
chapel. In 1571 he received financial assistance in order to visit his
fatherland. In 1574 he was again in Bavaria, and on 1 November of that
year was honoured by a letter from the emperor investing him with a coat-
of-arms. In the same year he dedicated two masses to the emperor, for
which he received 30 florins. He journeyed to Vienna to present these
masses personally, and remained there until early in 1575. In 1576, and
again in 1582, he received 30 florins, each time for one mass, and in 1594
he received 70 florins for unspecified services. On the strength of a letter of
recommendation of 17 July 1576, which Lassus had requested for him
from Prince Wilhelm, Gosswin went to the Imperial Diet at Regensburg.
Returning to Munich, he was appointed organist at the Peterskirche, and in
1577 was reimbursed for the maintenance of nine choirboys, for whom he
was responsible. Upon the death of Duke Albrecht (24 October 1579) the
size of the Bavarian establishment was reduced, and Gosswin was
dismissed. He soon became a member of the chapel of Prince Ernst, a son
of Albrecht, and a bishop in Freising. The appointment was for life, as
Lassus confirmed in a letter to Wilhelm (13 February 1580). Early in 1580
Gosswin moved to Freising with his wife. Shortly thereafter, however, Ernst
was named Bishop of Liège, and he made his solemn entry there on 30
January 1581; whether Gosswin followed him there or not is uncertain.
His first publication, the Newe teutsche Lieder, dedicated to Bishop Ernst,
dates from this year. The bishop was in Liège only a few years; since he
held a benefice in the diocese of Cologne, he moved to Bonn on 29
January 1584. Half of Gosswin's salary was being paid to his wife, who
was still in Freising at that time. On 14 July 1594 Gosswin again attended
the Diet of Regensburg, directing the musicians of the Prince-Bishop Ernst.
The account books of the Bavarian chapel for 1594 refer to his wife as a
widow. Yet in the Fugger journal of 10 June 1595 he is reported as still
alive (see Kroyer). In his general survey of the Liège chamber accounts,
Quitin stated that Gosswin was alive on 2 June 1597, and that his death
must have taken place between this date and 28 October 1598.
According to his contempories Gosswin was not only a distinguished
musician, whose masses were often sung in the Bavarian chapel, but was
also famed for his singing, in which he embellished the vocal line; he was
further known for his wide-ranging scholarship. His works reveal Lassus's
influence so profoundly that Hirzel characterized Gosswin as a ‘weiblicher
Lasso’. Almost all his masses are parodies of polyphonic works by Lassus.
It has also been argued that the Newe teutsche Lieder are only simplified
adaptations for three voices of Lassus's Newe teutsche Liedlein mit fünff
 Stimmen (1567). Osthoff, in a more balanced view, however, saw in them a
characteristic application of the parody procedure, one that left room for
‘much individuality’. The pieces for small forces give the impression that
Gosswin wrote pretty and agreeable music. The six-part motet Ad te levavi,
however, shows that he had the ability to write on a large scale using a
homorhythmic style and syllabic declamation.
WORKS
sacred
Cantiones, 4vv (Nuremberg, 1581); lost, see Hirzel
Cantiones sacrae, 5, 6vv (Nuremberg, 1583); lost, see Hirzel
Ad te levavi oculos meos, 6vv, 15832, D-Mbs (arr. org), Rp (arr. other insts)
Laetatus sum, 6vv, 15832, Mbs (arr. org), Rp (arr. other insts)
Missa a cappella, 4vv, formerly in Munich royal chapel, ?Mbs
Missa super ‘Cognovi Domine’, 4vv, Mbs
Missa ferialis, 5vv, Mbs
Missa super ‘Le mois de mai’, 4vv, Mbs
Missa super ‘Missus est angelus’, 5vv, As, Sl (inc.)
Missa super ‘Vrai Dieu, disait’, 4vv, As
1 mass, Dkh (according to Eitner and Hirzel)
In te Domine speravi, 3vv, Dlb
Iste est Johannes, 5vv, lost, cited in JoãoIL
secular
Newe teutsche Lieder … welche gantz lieblich zu singen, auch auff allerley
Instrumenten zu gebrauchen, 3vv (Nuremberg, 1581); ed. in Cw, lxxv
(1960)
Madrigali, 5vv (Nuremberg, 1615), lost, see Fétis
Eolo crudel come turbasti l'onde, 5vv, 156919
Qual meraviglia, 5vv, 156919
Non trovo cosa alcuna s'io non pago, 5vv, 1575 11
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AudaM
EitnerQ
FétisB
JoãoIL
J.J. Maier: Die musikalischen Handschriften der K. Hof- und
Staatsbibliothek in München (Munich, 1879)
K. Walter: ‘Archivalische Excerpte über die herzogliche Hof-Kapelle in
München’, KJb, vi (1891), 69–81; ix (1894), 59–68; x (1895), 76–87; xi
(1896), 17–26
A. Sandberger: Beiträge zur Geschichte der bayerischen Hofkapelle unter
Orlando di Lasso, iii (Leipzig, 1895/R)
B. Hirzel: Anton Gosswin, ca. 1540–1594: sein Leben und seine Werke
(Munich, 1909)
T. Kroyer: ‘Rezension der Festgabe zum 1200jähr. Jubiläum des Hl.
Korbinian’, ZMw, xi (1928–9), 246–51
H. Osthoff: Die Niederländer und das deutsche Lied, 1400–1640 (Berlin,
1938/R)
J. Quitin: ‘A propos de A. Goswin’, RBM, vi (1952), 285 only
A. Vincent: Les noms de famille de la Belgique (Brussels, 1952)
P. Rockl: ‘Das Musikleben am Hofe Wilhelms V. auf der Burg Trassnitz von
1568–1579’, Verhandlungen des historischen Vereins für
Niederbayern, xcix (1973), 88–127
LAVERN J. WAGNER

Gostena, Giovanni Battista della.

See Dalla gostena, giovanni battista.

Gostling, John
(b East Malling, Kent, 25 March 1650; d 17 July 1733). English cathedral
singer and music copyist. He was educated at King’s School, Rochester,
and St John’s College, Cambridge (sizar, 1668; BA, 1672–3). He was a
minor canon of Canterbury Cathedral, 1675–1733. In addition he was a
Gentleman of the Chapel Royal from 1679 and a minor canon of St Paul’s
Cathedral from 1683 to 1733. His post of sub-dean of St Paul’s (from
1689), sometimes mentioned separately, was attached to his minor
canonry there. Besides holding posts as clergyman-singer, he was vicar of
Littlebourne, Kent, from 1675 to 1733 and rector of Hope All Saints, near
New Romney, Kent, 1682–1709. He was a non-residentiary canon (with
prebend) of Lincoln Cathedral, 1689–1733. On 20 December 1689 he was
sworn a personal Chaplaine in Ordinary to William III. Both he and his son
William Gostling were involved in Canterbury’s first music club and concert
series. John Gostling was also a noted amateur viol player. Still active in
1724, by the time of the accession of George II (1727) Gostling was so
infirm that he was excused the journey from Canterbury to be re-sworn a
member of the Chapel Royal.
John Gostling was a notable deep bass singer for whom, according to
Hawkins, Purcell wrote They that go down to the sea in ships. He was a
favourite of Charles II, and the Gentleman’s Magazine (1777, p.210) stated
that the king presented him one day with a silver egg filled with guineas,
telling him ‘he had heard that eggs were good for the voice’. He was a
member of the Private Musick during the reigns of James II (who granted
him an annual pension of £40 in October 1685) and William and Mary, but
was not reappointed under Queen Anne. He occupied himself a good deal
with copying music, particularly cathedral music. He acquired and added to
the rough file copies left by Stephen Bing, who died in 1681; these
‘Gostling’ partbooks are now in York Minster and some later file copies of
his own are now GB-Ob Tenbury 797–803. Specimens of his fair-copy
choirbooks survive at Canterbury, St Paul’s Cathedral and as GB-Ob
Tenbury 1176–82. There is a full score in manuscript with which his name
is particularly associated (US-AUS; facs., Austin, 1977); a matching volume
is in the Newberry Library, Chicago. Ford (1984) has identified other
Gostling possessions by examining the sales catalogue of his son’s
collection. Where an autograph is lacking of any work by Purcell, Blow and
their contemporaries, a transcript by Gostling is clearly important; however,
there has been some disagreement about the quality of his texts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDECM
HawkinsH
G.E.P. Arkwright and H.E. Woolridge: Introduction to Henry Purcell:
Sacred Music, Part III, The Works of Henry Purcell, xvii (London,
1907)
F.B. Zimmerman: ‘Anthems of Purcell and Contemporaries in a Newly
Rediscovered “Gostling Manuscript”’, AcM, xli (1969), 55–70; rev. as
foreword to facs. of The Gostling Manuscript (Austin, 1977)
R. Ford: ‘Canterbury's Choral Manuscripts: Two Hundred and Fifty Years of
Handwritten Musical History’, Canterbury Cathedral Chronicle (1982),
43–7
R. Ford: ‘Osborn MS 515, A Guardbook of Restoration Instrumental Music’,
FAM, xxx (1983), 174–84
R. Ford: Minor Canons at Canterbury Cathedral: The Gostlings and their
Colleagues (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1984) [incl. list of works
written for Gostling’s extraordinary voice-range]
H.W. Shaw: A Study of the Bing-Gostling Part Books in the Library of York
Minster (Croydon, 1986)
I. Spink: Restoration Cathedral Music, 1660–1714 (Oxford, 1995)
WATKINS SHAW/ROBERT FORD

Gostling, William
(b Canterbury, bap. 30 Jan 1696; d Canterbury, 9 March 1777). English
cathedral singer and antiquarian, son of John Gostling. He was educated
at King’s School, Canterbury, and St John’s College, Cambridge (MA,
1719). He was a minor canon of Canterbury, 1727–77, and held livings in
Kent at Brook (1722–33), Littlebourne (1733–53) and Stone-in-Oxney
(1753–77). He and the Canterbury organist William Raylton were principal
organizers of the Canterbury Concerts, and in this connection he was
associated with William, 3rd Lord Cowper, with whom he corresponded.
Gostling had strong antiquarian interests, and his well-known A Walk in
and around the City of Canterbury, first issued in 1774, went through five
subsequent editions. He acquired, partly from his father, a fine collection of
manuscript and printed music consisting of some 1500 items; it includes a
first edition of Parthenia; the contratenor and tenor parts of John Day’s
Mornyng and Evenyng Prayer (1565); an album in the hand of William
Lawes (now GB-Lbl Add.31432); the compendious pre-Civil War organbook
of English cathedral music that is now GB-Ob Tenbury 791; the so-called
Gostling Manuscript (now in US-AUS; facs. (Austin and London, 1977))
and its companion (US-Cn); 1045–51 and GB-Lcm. From his collection he
helped William Boyce in the compilation of his Cathedral Music and John
Hawkins in his History. Items from his music library, which was sold in 1777
(only his non-music books were sold by the Canterbury musician and
bookseller William Flackton), may in some instances be identified by his
signature or engraved bookplate (see Ford).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.H. King: Some British Collectors of Music c.1600–1960 (Cambridge,
1963)
 R. Ford: Minor Canons at Canterbury Cathedral: the Gostlings and their
Colleagues (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1984)
I. Spink: Restoration Cathedral Music 1660–1714 (Oxford, 1995)
WATKINS SHAW/ROBERT FORD

Gostuški, Dragutin
(b Belgrade, 3 Jan 1923, d Belgrade, 21 Sept 1998). Serbian musicologist
and composer. He studied art history at Belgrade University, graduating in
1950, and composition with Milenko at the Belgrade Academy of Music,
graduating in 1951. In 1965 he took the doctorate at Belgrade University
with a dissertation on stylistic evolution. He joined the staff of the Belgrade
Academy of Music in 1952 and the Institute of Musicology in 1960 (director
1974–8). Parallel studies of music and fine arts influenced his interest in
comparative aesthetics; his work as a composer made him particularly
aware of the problem of time, and in the early 1960s he turned to an
investigation of physical and psychological time in music. He later widened
the scope of his investigations and made numerous interdisciplinary
studies of musicology, physics, experimental psychology, linguistics and
semiotics, becoming one of the most prominent Serbian theoreticians and
critics in his field. He has written for many journals in Yugoslavia and
elsewhere, incuding Zvuk, Savremenik, Revija, Borba and the Musical
Quarterly. He has composed orchestral, chamber, vocal and stage works in
a uniquely neo-classical style. Elements of humour are evident in works
such as the Symphonic Scherzo (1949) and the Scherzo in ‘Š’, and a lyric
temperament can be heard in the Serenade for violin and piano and the
Elegy in ‘O’. There is also a folk music influence, although there are no
direct quotations.
WORKS
Stage: Remi [Rummy] (ballet), 1955
Orch: Sym. Scherzo, 1949; Waltz, 1950; Beograd, sym. poem, 1951; Igra utroje
[The dance for three], 1953; Concerto accelerato, vn, orch, 1961
Chbr: Pf Trio, 1950; Nocturne, harp, 1952; Serenade, vn, pf; miniatures, vn, pf
Pf: 3 sonatinas, pf, 1951–2; Dve igre [2 dances], pf, 1954; Allegro furioso, pf
Vocal: Elegy in ‘O’, female chorus, 1973; Scherzo in ‘Š’, female chorus, 1973;
Polychronion; Zimska noć [Winter Night], song, 1946; Smiješno čudo [Funny
Miracle], song, folk poetry, 1947; folksong settings
WRITINGS
‘Mesto jugoslovenske muzike u razvoju svetske muzičke kulture’ [The
place of Yugoslav music in the development of world musical culture],
Zvuk, nos.39–40 (1960), 477–86
Kontrola muzičkog vremena: prilog proučavanju psihofizioloških uslova
muzičke percepcije [Managing musical time: a contribution to the study
of psycho-physiological conditions of musical perception] (Belgrade,
1961)
‘La musica nazionale e l'evoluzione dell'arte contemporanea’, Fenarete,
nos.5–6 (1965), 71–6
Umetnost u evoluciji stilova [Art in stylistic evolution] (diss., U. of Belgrade,
1965; Belgrade, 1968 as Vreme umetnosti [Time in art])
‘The Third Dimension of Poetic Expression, or Language and Harmony’,
MQ, lv (1969), 372–83
‘Muzičke nauke kao model interdisciplinarnog metoda istraživanja/Les
sciences musicales: modèle interdisciplinaire de recherche’, Srpska
muzika kroz vekove/La musique serbe à travers les siècles, ed. S.
Đurić-Klajn (Belgrade, 1973), 63–112
Umetnost u nedostatku dokaza: zbirka članaka [Art and lack of evidence:
collected articles] (Belgrade, 1977)
BOJAN BUJIĆ/TATJANA MARKOVIĆ

Goszler, Thomas.
See Gosler, thomas.

Göteborg [Gothenburg].
City in Sweden, the country’s second largest city. Its oldest churches are
the Gustafvi Kyrka (1633) and the Christine Kyrka, built for German and
Dutch merchants in 1649. These fostered the city’s earliest music, and in
the 17th century two musicians were also employed to perform twice a
week on the balcony of the town hall and at other municipal functions.
Although concerts were held as early as 1718, they did not become a
regular part of the city’s musical life until the 1750s. In the 1770s the
leading figures were Benedictus Schiller and Patrik Alströmer. The
orchestra was composed of a few professionals with amateurs from the
city’s bourgeoisie who could afford instruments and lessons. From 1781 to
1791 subscription concerts were promoted by a violinist, La Hay, who also
started an academy for amateur musicians. There was no permanent
concert hall at that time. The early 19th century saw the foundation of
various music societies such as the Musikaliska Öfningssällskap (1818)
and Orphei Vänner (1821). Göteborg was visited by several German opera
companies in the 1830s and interest in stage production increased; the
Nya Teater (new theatre), later to become the Stora Teater (grand theatre),
was opened in 1859. Opera, however, was later overtaken by operetta as
the most popular form of music for the stage. In 1994 a new opera house,
situated at the harbour, was inaugurated.
Under the direction of Joseph Czapek, who settled in Göteborg in 1847,
subscription concerts became regular events; unlike Stockholm, where the
stage enjoyed most favour, Göteborg preferred the concert hall. Smetana
arrived in Göteborg in 1856 and stayed for five years. His main occupation
was giving private piano lessons to various families, such as the Dicksons,
Valentins, Elliots, Röhs, Gumperts, Heymans and Magnus. To
commemorate his time in Göteborg the Czech state presented a Smetana
Museum to the city in 1961.
It was not until 1905 that Göteborg became an important musical centre
with the foundation of the Göteborgs Orkesterförening, financed by local
industry. In 1907 Wilhelm Stenhammar was appointed as the orchestra’s
conductor, and, subsequently with the help of Tor Aulin, he built up an
excellent orchestra. Stenhammar was a noted educationist as well as a
composer and was among the first to arrange school concerts; he was also
responsible for introducing Nielsen’s music to the Swedish public.
Symphony concerts have, since this time, played the most prominent role
in the city’s musical life. Other conductors of the Göteborg SO have
included Carl Nielsen, Ture Rangström, Tor Mann, Issay Dobrowen, Sixten
Eckberg, Dean Dixon, Sten Frykberg, Sergiu Comissiona, Sixten Ehrling
and Charles Dutoit. Under Neeme Järvi (conductor from 1984) the
orchestra won wide acclaim both on tours and through recordings (e.g.
Grieg’s Peer Gynt, the complete symphonies of Rimsky-Korsakov,
Prokofiev’s The Fiery Angel, Shostakovich’s Symphony no.14). The concert
hall (Göteborgs Konserthus), built in 1934 with a capacity of 1371, is
internationally known for its excellent acoustics.
The more notable amateur music societies are the Göteborgs
Ungdomsorkester (youth orchestra) and the Folkliga Musikskolans
Ungdomsorkester, run by the ABF, a national organization giving
elementary instrumental teaching. At the city’s university and institutions of
higher education there are the Akademiska Kapell, Blåsljud, and the
Allianceorkester. Levande Musik (living music), a society devoted to the
performance of modern chamber music, gives about seven concerts a
year. The most active choirs and choral societies are the Göteborgs
Konserthuskör (1962) and Lodolakör (1962). A conservatory, reorganized
as the Göteborgs Musikhögskola (school of music), was founded in 1954;
the city also has an experimental training college for school music
teachers. The university established a department of musicology in 1968.
In 1964 the Teater- och Operahögskola was established, and in 1992 it was
brought together with the Musikhögskola and the university musicology
department to form Artisten, a house in which the exchange among the
different branches of music has greatly stimulated the city’s musical life. All
three schools are now part of the university.
Jazz has contributed much to the city’s musical life since the 1940s when
various bands performed in the Liseberg amusement park, and the jazz
club Art Dur has been visited by leading American and European jazz
musicians since the 1960s.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (A. Wiklund)
‘Joseph Czapek’, Nordisk Musik-Tidende, vii/6 (June 1886), 81 [repr. from
Svensk Musiktidning]
J. Svanberg: Anteckningar om Stora Teatern i Göteborg (Göteborg, 1894)
W. Berg: Anteckningar om Göteborgs äldre teatrar (Göteborg, 1896–1900)
W. Berg: Bidrag till musikens historia i Göteborg 1754–1892 (Göteborg,
1914)
A. Fromell: Stora Teatern i Göteborg 1893–1929 (Göteborg, 1929)
J. Rabe: Göteborgs teater- och musikliv (Uppsala, 1948)
H. Edlén: ‘Musik i Göteborg’, Svenska musikperspektiv: minnesskrift vid
Kungl. Musikaliska Akademins 200-årsjubileum 1971, ed. G.
Hilleström (Stockholm, 1971), 429–69
K.-O. Edström: Göteborgs rika musikliv: en översikt mellan världskrigen
(Göteborg, 1986)
HAKAN BENGTSSON/ANDERS WIKLUND
Gotfrid [Götvrit, Gottfried] von
Strassburg [Strasburg]
(fl 1200–20). German poet. With Hartmann von Aue and Wolfram von
Eschenbach he was one of the most important representatives of the
Middle High German epic. His life’s work was Tristan (ed. F. Ranke, Berlin,
1930, rev. R. Krohn, 1980; Eng. trans., A.T. Hatto, 1960). It is an unfinished
courtly epic of 20,000 lines, based on a poem by Thomas of Brittany and
completed by later hands. The work is especially noteworthy for Gotfrid’s
informative remarks on music and its courtly practice. Three further poems
with manuscript ascriptions to Gotfrid are probably not by him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.-H. Steinhoff: Bibliographie zu Gottfried von Strassburg (Berlin, 1971–
86)
A. Wolf, ed.: Gottfried von Strassburg (Darmstadt, 1973)
H. Kuhn: ‘Gottfried von Strassburg’, Die deutsche Literatur des
Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, ed. K. Ruh and others (Berlin, 2/1977–)

For further bibliography see Minnesang.

BURKHARD KIPPENBERG/LORENZ WELKER

Gotha.
German town in Thuringia. First referred to as ‘Gotaha’ in a document
issued by Charlemagne in 775, it grew into a town in the 12th century
under Landgrave Ludwig II of Thuringia, and in 1247, with Thuringia itself,
came into the possession of the margraves of Meissen (of the Wettin
family). When the duchy of Saxe-Gotha under Duke Ernst I der Fromme
(1640–75) was formed, Gotha became the residence of the Ernestin family
(ruled until 1918) in the largest Thuringian principality. Their residential seat
was the new Schloss Friedenstein, built in 1643–54 and important in the
musical and theatrical history of the town from the mid-17th century
onwards. During the Middle Ages, Gotha had already grown to become a
musical town with minstrels, Stadtpfeifer, orchestral players, Kantors and
court and army trumpeters. The earliest musical members of the Bach
family (in the 16th century) lived in the surrounding villages of Wechmar,
Behringen and Grabsleben. The existence of monastic patronage and
boys’ choirs at an early date is demonstrated by extant parchment fascicles
of Gregorian chant, while organists and Kantors at the Augustinerkirche
and the Margarethenkirche supported an active musical life. The
Stiftskirche, built in 1292, had 40 choristers in 1540, and the Gothaer
Cantional (1545, in D-GOl) of Johann Walter (i) indicates that choral music
was then flourishing. The foundation of the Schlosskirche in 1646 further
stimulated choral music and the practice of school music. Its consecration
occasioned several days of musical performances, including elaborate
polychoral motets.
There is little to indicate a permanent musical establishment in the original
Grimmenstein ducal palace, completely destroyed in 1567 and replaced by
the Friedenstein residence. A few names have survived, including those of
Matz Degen (organist), Johann Ziseke (Stadtpfeifer), Caspar Bach
(apprentice and member of the guild of Stadtpfeifer), Abraham Weisshan
(lutenist at Grimmenstein and the court at Dresden) and the Nagel family of
musicians, closely connected with the Bachs. Among members of the Bach
family living in the area were Veit, Hans, Wenzel and Lips, all of whom
contributed to the musical life of the town and sent their children to the
Lateinschule. The regulations of the Gotha Gymnasium (1641 and 1674)
record that the choristers were divided into symphoniacis (men) and
eleemosynariis (boys), led by two Kantors; they also made public
appearances as instrumentalists, thereby displeasing their superiors.
Andreas Reyher, headmaster of the Gymnasium in the mid-17th century,
published a successful Gothaer Schulmethodus, which realized the
musical teaching ideals of Wolfgang Ratichis and J.A. Comenius, ‘namely
singing and playing on the violin, gemshorn [Tschirren], lute, percussion
[Siegerschlagen] and other musical instruments’.
A court orchestra consisting of five singers, two choirboys and 12
musicians is first mentioned in the court records of 1648. It was led by a
distinguished series of Kapellmeister, including W.C. Briegel (in Gotha from
1650 as Kantor and music master to the ducal family, and appointed
Kapellmeister in 1660), G.L. Agricola (a student at the Gymnasium in
1659–62 and Kapellmeister from 1670 to 1676), W.M. Mylius (1676 to late
1712 or early 1713), C.F. Witt (1713–17), Francesco Venturini (1718–19)
and G.H. Stölzel (1720–49). The Kantor and composer V.D. Marold, a
friend of Schültz and Johann Bach (Johann Sebastian’s great-grandfather),
organized music education and published Cantionale sacrum (1646–8), a
valuable and comprehensive anthology of choral works, mostly by
composers connected with Gotha. Other Gotha musicians associated with
the Bachs were the court organists Egidius Funck and Nikolaus Koerner
(c1600) and Johann Pachelbel, town organist from 1692 to 1694. Under
Duke Ernst der Fromme and his son Friedrich I (1675–91) allegorical
dialogues and festival plays were performed in the palace, and these
prepared the way for the peak of musical drama in the town under Konrad
Ekhof (co-director of the court theatre 1774–8) and A.W. Iffland (in Gotha
1777–9). Georg Benda (Kapellmeister, 1750–78) and his successor Anton
Schweitzer (1778–87) were among those who wrote works specially for the
theatre (founded in 1775). Benda’s melodrama Ariadne auf Naxos was
given in 1775, and the galant Singspiel flourished. The cosmopolitan nature
of late 18th-century Gotha is reflected in the activity there of Baron F.M.
von Grimm, the encyclopedist and friend of J.-J. Rousseau, and F.W.
Gotter (1740–97), Benda’s librettist.
The reign of Duke August I (1804–22) marked a new phase in the town’s
flourishing musical life. Outstanding musicians were engaged, including
Louis Spohr (court Kapellmeister 1805–12) and his wife Dorothea
Scheidler, a distinguished harpist. With the municipal Kantor J.G. Schade,
Spohr organized the first Gotha Music Festival in the Margarethenkirche in
1812, when Weber was among the soloists. Spohr’s successor A.J.
Romberg (Kapellmeister from 1815) founded the first Gotha Singverein in
1819, thus inaugurating public concert life. Ludwig Böhner, the prototype of
E.T.A. Hoffmann’s ‘Kreisler’, was born in Töttelstedt, near Gotha, and
maintained connections with the town, where he died in poverty in 1860.
This circle of enlightened artists and teachers included those at the
educational establishment in nearby Schnepfenthal, founded by the
philanthropist C.G. Salzmann (1774–1811) and run according to the ideas
of Pestalozzi; music was cultivated with the help of Gotha musicians,
particularly Spohr and Scheidler. Other notable musicians in the town at
that time were R.Z. Becker, publisher of the Mildheimisches Liederbuch
(1799), and J.H. Walch (1775–1855), court Kapellmeister and composer of
popular marches and dances. Weber was also a friend and frequent guest
of August I. Music continued to flourish under Duke Ernst I of Coburg-
Gotha (1826–44), who in 1837 initiated the building of a new Hoftheater,
inaugurated in 1840 with Meyerbeer’s Robert le diable. (A converted
ballroom in Schloss Friedenstein had served as the court theatre from
1682 until that date.) Ernst II (1844–93) was an enthusiastic patron of the
theatre and a composer himself; the first performance of his Santa Chiara
was conducted by Liszt in the Hoftheater (1854), and the work was also
performed elsewhere in Germany and in Paris. Ernst hired leading singers
for the theatre and was an early enthusiast for Wagner; Tannhäuser was
given at Gotha in 1854. Meanwhile public music-making developed in the
town: a male-voice Liedertafel was founded in 1837 and was united with
Romberg’s Singverein in 1875 to form the Wanderslebscher Gesangverein.
Another male-voice chorus, the Thüringisches Sängerbund, was
established in 1843. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, brother of the
music-loving Duke Ernst II, were among the guests at the third
Thüringisches Sängerfest, held in 1845 outside Schloss Friedenstein.
The musical life of Gotha, besides including theatrical productions and
choral singing, was also enriched in the second half of the 19th century by
the existence of orchestral societies which organized concerts. They
included the Musikverein, founded in 1868, and between 1881 and 1909
the Orchesterverein of the conservatory under A. Patzig. After 1919 the
Landestheater of Saxe-Gotha (which became the Landestheater of
Thuringia in 1920) continued the tradition of the court theatre until the
theatre building was destroyed by artillery fire in April 1945. The company
moved to Eisenach in 1950. In the 1920s musicians such as Leo Blech,
Siegfried Wagner, Schreker, Strauss and Abendroth conducted the
Landeskapelle, which saw a period of revival under the musical direction of
Heinz Bongartz (1930–33). The orchestra became known as the
Landessinfonieorchester Thüringen in 1951. Fritz Müller, music director
from 1951 to 1970, was succeeded by Gerhart Wiesenhütter (1970–74),
G.R. Bauer (1974–80), Lothar Seyfarth (1980–91) and Hermann Breuer
(from 1991). In 1998 the orchestra merged with the Suhl Philharmonie to
create the Thüringen-Philharmonie Gotha-Suhl. The rich choral tradition of
the town has also been maintained by choirs including the Bach Choir
(founded 1950) and the Municipal Concert Choir, founded in 1953 in
association with the orchestra. 1986 saw the founding of a music college
which has borne the name of Louis Spohr since 1989. The town’s library,
the Forschungs- und Landesbibliothek Gotha, contains important source
material for the musical history of Thuringia in its extensive music
collections.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (A. Fett and H. Roob)
N. Bruekner: Kirchen- und Schulstaat von Herzogthum Gotha (Gotha,
1753)
F.W. Marpurg: ‘Nachrichten von der Cammer- und Capellmusik zu Gotha’,
Historisch-kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik, i (Berlin, 1754–
5/R)
A. Voigt: 50 Jahre der Liedertafel zu Gotha 1837–1887 (Gotha, 1889)
A. Voigt: Geschichte des Thüringer Sängerbundes (Gotha, 1889)
M. Schneider: ‘Die Einweihung der Schlosskirche auf dem “Friedenstein”
zu Gotha im Jahre 1646’, SIMG, vii (1905–6), 308–13
H. Gaensler: Der Musikverein zu Gotha 1868–1918 (Gotha, 1918)
A. Aber: Die Pflege der Musik unter den Wettinern und wettinischen
Ernestinern (Bückeburg and Leipzig, 1921)
E. Rabich: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des deutschen Konzertwesens
(Gotha, 1921)
E.W. Böhme: Die frühdeutsche Oper in Thüringen (Stadtroda, 1931/R)
K. Schmidt: Gotha im heimatkundlichen Schrifttum (Gotha, 1939)
A. Fett: Musikgeschichte der Stadt Gotha von den Anfängen bis zum Tode
G.H. Stölzels (1749) (diss., U. of Freiburg, 1952)
W. Blankenburg: ‘Die Aufführungen von Passionen und Passionsmusiken
an der Schlosskirche auf dem Friedenstein zu Gotha zwischen 1699
und 1770’, Festschrift Friedrich Blume, ed. A.A. Abert and W.
Pfannkuch (Kassel, 1963), 50–59
H.A. Frenzel: Thüringer Schlosstheater … vom 16. bis 19. Jahrhundert
(Berlin, 1965)
H. Engel: Musik in Thüringen (Graz, 1966)
M. Pulst: Kompositionen der böhmischen Musikeremigration in der
Landesbibliothek Gotha (Gotha, 1967) [catalogue]
H. Münster: Festschrift zum vierzigjährigen Bestehen des
Landessinfonieorchesters Thüringen (Gotha, 1991)
R. Potyra: ‘Der Komponist Ernst II.: ein Überblick über seine Werke’,
Herzog Ernst II. von Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha 1818–1893 und
seine Zeit, ed. H. Bachmann and others (Coburg and Gotha, 1993),
207–23
W. Klante: ‘Die Konstellation von Musik und Aufklärung am Gothaer Hof’,
Mf, xlix (1996), 47–53
A. Werner: Generalkatalog der Musiker in Sachsen und Thüringen (MS, D-
WRiv) [incl. list of over 300 musicians active in Gotha]
G. KRAFT/DIETER HÄRTWIG

Gothenburg.
See Göteborg.

Gothic Voices.
British vocal ensemble. Formed in 1980 by Christopher Page, it specializes
in the performance of medieval and early Renaissance repertories, both
monophonic and polyphonic. Past members have included Margaret
Philpot, Emma Kirkby, Emily van Evera, Rogers Covey-Crump, Leigh
Nixon, John Mark Ainsley, Rufus Müller, Charles Daniels and Don Greig. In
1998 its core membership comprised Nixon, Stephen Charlesworth,
Catherine King, Steven Harrold and Julian Podger. Its recordings on the
Hyperion label incorporate much of Page's research into performing
practice, especially with regard to the roles of voices and instruments,
techniques of vocal production and text presentation. This has been
particularly influential in establishing all-vocal performance in early secular
repertories. The ensemble's performances are characterized by uncommon
sensitivity to matters of intonation and pronunciation. Its areas of special
interest have included secular monophony, conductus repertories, Ars
Nova (with special emphasis on Machaut), early 15th-century English
polyphony and 15th-century song.
FABRICE FITCH

Gothóni, Ralf (Georg Nils)

(b Rauma, 2 May 1946). Finnish pianist, conductor and composer. He
studied the piano with, among others, Tapani Valsta, Erwin László, Detlev
Kraus and Max Martin Stein. He has performed as a pianist throughout the
world and can be heard on more than 70 recordings. Most acclaimed as a
profound interpreter of Schubert, he has nevertheless a wide repertory that
extends to 20th-century music. In addition to his solo work he has
performed as an accompanist of lieder and as a chamber musician. As a
conductor his activities have included the artistic directorship of the
Finlandia Sinfonietta and being chief guest conductor of the Turku City
Orchestra (1995–9). From 1984 to 1987 he was artistic director of the
Savonlinna Opera Festival, and in 1996 he founded the Forbidden City
Music Festival in Beijing; he is also its director. He was chamber music
professor at the Hamburg Hochscule für Musik (1987–91) and
subsequently at the Sibelius Academy in Helsinki (1991–).
His slim output as a composer presents a melodious style of free tonality.
Among his more notable works are the chamber opera Ihmeellinen viesti
vieraalta tähdeltä (‘A Wonderful Message from a Strange Star’, 1984),
based on a text by Hesse, the Zen Buddhist cantata Härkä ja hänen
paimenensa (‘The Ox and its Herdsman’, 1992) and the television opera
Hund (libretto by Thomas Wulff, 1994), on the subject of the Russian mafia.
Of his other works his lively arrangements of Finnish folksongs are popular.
KIMMO KORHONEN

Gotkovsky, Nell
(b Athis-Mons, nr Paris, 26 Sept 1939). French violinist. She studied first
with her father and then with Max Rostal, Ivan Galamian and Joseph
Szigeti. She won a premier prix at the Paris Conservatoire and made her
début in London in 1962 with the BBC SO, receiving much acclaim for her
poise and technical command in works by Bach and Beethoven. She has
performed with most leading orchestras and appeared regularly at the
Holland, Lucerne and Zürich festivals, among others. As a recitalist she has
performed with William Glock, Christian Ivaldi and her brother, Ivar
Gotkovsky, with whom she has made recordings of Beethoven and Brahms
 sonatas. She has also made a speciality of the unaccompanied violin
literature, with distinguished recordings of Bach, Bartók, Migot, Mannino
and Prokofiev. Despite her wide-ranging sympathies it is the Classical
repertory to which her style of playing is most suited. She allies a strong,
pure tone to a sensitivity and delicacy that allows her to approach
concertos by Mozart and Haydn, for instance, with an appropriate blend of
clarity, precision and warmth. She plays a G.B. Guadagnini violin of 1770.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Angles: ‘Technical Mistress’, Music and Musicians, xii/2 (1963–4), 8–9
J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin, 1889–1971 (Toronto, 1974,
2/1994)
LESLIE EAST/R

Gotovac, Jakov
(b Split, 11 Oct 1895; d Zagreb, 16 Oct 1982). Croatian composer. After
studies in Split with Dobronić and Hatze, he attended Joseph Marx’s
composition classes at the Vienna Music Academy (1920). After a short
period in Šibenik, from 1923 to 1957 he was a conductor at the Zagreb
Opera and the director of several choirs. Gotovac wrote his most important
works in the period between the two world wars; he was one of the
representatives of the so-called national style, using characteristic
elements of folk music in his own idiom and focussing on themes from
peasant life. His first major achievements were the folk ritual Koleda (1925)
and the Simfonijsko kolo (‘Symphonic Reel’, 1926), a popular orchestral
work in which teeming rhythms converge on a powerful climax. In general
his music is homophonic and simple in harmonic structure. After the
romantic opera Morana, his most successful work is the comic opera Ero s
onoga svijeta (‘Ero the Joker’), a model of folk banter worked into a
structural whole within which he was able to express his own sense of
comedy. Ero was performed in more than 80 European theatres, and was
succeeded by other fine stage works.
WORKS
(selective list)

stage
Morana (romantic national op, 3, A. Muradbegović), 1928–30, Brno, 29 Nov 1930
Ero s onoga svijeta [Ero the Joker] (comic op, 3, M. Begović), 1933–5, Zagreb, 2
Nov 1935
Kamenik [The Quarry] (3, R. Nikolić, after M. Fotez), 1939–44, Zagreb, 17 Dec
1946
Mila Gojsalića (historical musical drama, 3, D. Anđelinović), 1948–52, Zagreb, 18
May 1952
Đerdan [The Necklace] (musical play, 5 ‘pictures’, Gotovac and C. Jakelić, after D.
Šimunović), 1954–5, Zagreb, 29 Nov 1955
Stanac (operatic scherzo, 1, M. Držić and V. Rabadan), Zagreb, 6 Dec 1959
Dalmaro (operatic legend, 1, R.L. Petelinova), 1958, Zagreb, 20 Dec 1964
Petar Svačić (op-orat, Z. Tomičić), 1969, finale rev. 1971
 other
Orch: Simfonijsko kolo [Sym. Reel], 1926; Pjesma i ples s Balkana [Song and
Dance from the Balkans], 1939; Orači [The Ploughers], 1937; Guslar [The Gusle
Player], 1940; Dinarka [Dinara Girl], 1945
Choral: 2 scherza, 1916; 2 pjesme čuda i smijeha [2 Songs of Laughter and
Wonder], 1924; Koleda, 1925; 3 momačka zbora [3 Choruses for Young Men],
1932; Pjesme vječnog jada [Songs of Eternal Sorrow], 1939; Pjesme zanosa
[Songs of Ecstasy], 1955
Solo vocal: Djevojka i mjesec [A Girl and the Moon], A, orch, 1917; 2 soneta, B,
orch, 1921; Rizvan-aga, Bar, orch, 1938; Pjesme čeznuća [Songs of Longing], 1v,
orch, 1939; songs for 1v, pf

Principal publishers: Društvo hrvatskih skladatelja, Universal

BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Kovačević: Hrvatski kompozitori i njihova djela [Croatian composers
and their works] (Zagreb, 1960)
I. Supičić: ‘Estetski pogledi u novijoj hrvatskoj muzici: pregled temeljnih
gledanja četrnaestorice kompozitora’ [Aesthetic approaches in
contemporary Croatian music: a survey of the basic views of 14
composers], Arti musices, i (1969), 23–61
J. Andreis: Music in Croatia (Zagreb, 1974, enlarged 2/1982 by I. Supičić),
288–97
J. Andreis: ‘Jakov Gotovac’, Iz hrvatske glazbe [From Croatian music]
(Zagreb, 1979), 119–66
Jakov Gotovac 1895–1982: spomenica [Jakov Gotovac 1895–1982:
memorial] (Zagreb, 1986) [pubn of the Croatian Academy of Arts and
Sciences; incl. bibliography and complete list of works]
KREŠIMIR KOVAČEVIĆ/KORALJKA KOS

Gotschovius [Gottschovius],
Nicolaus [Nikolaus]
(b Rostock, c1575; d ?Stargard, Pomerania, after 1624). German
composer and organist. He was the son of a schoolmaster, who moved
from Rostock to Stargard in 1589. He worked as an organist at Stargard
while still a schoolboy. In 1595 he matriculated at Rostock University but
apparently did not complete his studies. In 1598 he obtained posts at
Stargard as organist and public notary. At the end of 1604 he became
organist of the Marienkirche, the principal church of Rostock. Although it
was the Kantor, not the organist, who was responsible for providing
polyphonic music for services, Gotschovius nevertheless published
numerous sacred vocal pieces during his 15 years at Rostock. His
university training was another recommendation for his appointment as a
Kantor, but the Kantor of the Marienkirche, Johann Neukrantz, who had in
no way distinguished himself as a composer, was succeeded in 1618 not
by Gotschovius but by Daniel Friderici. A year later Gotschovius returned to
Stargard as the Marienkirche organist and civic secretary. He was invited
as a consultant on organ building to Wismar in 1608 and Köslin (now
 Koszalin) in 1620. His music acquired a great reputation in Rostock. He
was commissioned to write works for numerous weddings and other
celebrations, and the five parts of the Centuriae found favour not only with
the Kantors of Rostock but also with pastors and university professors.
While Gotschovius's four- and five-part works are strongly influenced by
the chorale motets of Johannes Eccard, his compositions in six and more
parts clearly show modern Venetian influences, with a preference for short
melodic phrases in homophonic texture. Even the six-part works use
double-choir techniques. In them, but even more in pieces for two or three
cori spezzati, Gotschovius showed a marked feeling for sonorous effects.
Also worthy of note is his way, in the wedding motet Dialogismus (1610), of
glossing a Latin hymn, set contrapuntally for the first choir, with a
homophonic German chorale for the second choir.
WORKS
published in Rostock unless otherwise stated

Decas musicalis prima sacrarum odarum, 4–10 and more vv (1603), lost, cited in
WaltherML
Centuriae sacrarum cantionum et motectarum, Decas prima [-quinta], 4–9 and more
vv (1608–11); 2 motets, 4vv, ed. in Handbuch der deutschen evangelischen
Kirchenmusik (Göttingen, 1932), i/2, 119; iii/2, 56; 1 motet, 8vv, ed. in Laue
Variarum cantionum … manipulus, 5–10 and more vv (1611); 2 motets, 6vv, 8vv, ed.
in Laue
Weynacht Gesang: Zu Ehren unserm lieben Emanueli und Heilande Jesu Christo,
5vv (1613)
Cunae pueruli Christi Salvatoris, 7vv (?Rostock, ?after 1613)
Quadriga harmoniarum sacrarum, 5vv (Stettin, 1620)
Gaudia gaudete, 8vv (?Stettin, ?after 1620)
Cum bono Deo (Stettin, 1624), lost, cited in Kittler

Wedding motets: Cantio sacra, 6vv (1609); Dialogismus latino-germanico-musicus,

10vv (1610); Harmonia musica (?Rostock, ?1610); Votum sponsale musicum, 12vv
(1610); Invitatio Christi ad nuptias, 5vv (1618); Zwo musicalische Lieder nach
Villanellen arth, 5vv (1618)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Kittler: ‘Die pommerschen Notendrucke bis Ende des 17.
Jahrhunderts’, Musik in Pommern, iv (1935), 175–202, esp. 195; v
(1936), 6–18
H.J. Daebaler: Musiker und Musikpflege in Rostock von der
Stadtgründung bis 1700 (diss., U. of Rostock, 1966)
R. Laue: Rostocker Kirchenmusik im 17. Jahrhundert (diss., U. of Rostock,
1974)
B. Köhler: Pommersche Musikkultur in der ersten Hälfte des 17.
Jahrhunderts (Sankt Augustin, 1997)
K. Heller, H. Möller and A. Waczkat, eds.: Musik in Mecklenburg
(Hildesheim, 1999)
MARTIN RUHNKE/ANDREAS WACZKAT
Gottfried von Strassburg.
See Gotfrid von Strassburg.

Gotthard, Johann Peter.

See Pazdírek family, (1).

Götting, Valentin
(b Witzenhausen; fl 1587–9). German Kantor. He is known principally for
the Compendium musicae modulativae, quale brevitate ordinis
commoditate et facilitate nunquam visum, observatum et in usum
puerorum jam primum ad musicam adhibendorum collectum (Erfurt, 1587),
a short treatise of the musica practica type that presents the most basic
elements of music. After some preliminary definitions, the material is
divided into two parts: the claves, dealing with the rules of solmization, and
the characteres, dealing with the mensural music (polyphony). In the first
part it is noteworthy that the soft and hard hexachords are regarded as
transpositions. The few illustrative examples are extremely simple, using
only ascending and descending scales for thematic material; at the end,
however, are somewhat more elaborate examples demonstrating the
intervals and scales. Götting's formulations appear to be his own
throughout. The treatise contains a long preface by Henning Dedekind,
together with Latin poems, one by Götting's brother Heinrich, another a set
of distichs dedicated to the theorist Beurhaus.
Götting edited a collection of polyphonic psalms of which no complete copy
survives: Psalmus CXII: melodia suavi octo vocum ornatus figuris
typographicis descriptus et gratulationis loco Dn. Ja. Steurlino dedic.
(Erfurt, 1589). He also contributed 12 pieces to Dedekind’s anthology of
tricinia (RISM 158830).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (M. Ruhnke)
G. Kraft: Die thüringische Musikkultur um 1600 (Würzburg, 1941), i
F.E. KIRBY

Göttingen.
City in Germany, in Lower Saxony. It is the seat of a famous university and
a principal centre in Germany for the performance of the works of Handel
and the study of those of J.S. Bach. In the Göttinger Kirchenordnung
(1531) the importance of music was stressed, but it was not until the end of
the 16th century that significant developments took place; this was a
consequence of the establishment of a Pädagogium in 1586. Otto Siegfried
Harnisch was outstanding among its Kantors. Several of his compositions,
including the Psalmodia nova simplex et harmonica (1621), were written for
use in Göttingen churches. In 1734 the University of Göttingen was
founded by George II, King of England and Elector of Hanover; it quickly
established itself as a notably progressive institution. In 1735 a collegium
musicum was founded on the Leipzig model, with Johann Friedrich
Schweinitz (1708–80), a pupil of Bach, as director; he began giving weekly
concerts in 1736, founding the city’s tradition of academic music-making. In
1769 J.N. Forkel, Bach’s first biographer, entered the university as a
student; after a year he became university organist and in 1771 he invited
W.F. Bach to give a recital in the university church. In February 1779
Forkel, an instructor in music from 1772, replaced the violinist Georg
Philipp Kress as director of the weekly academic concerts; he
superintended them until 1815. During this time he developed his
musicological interests, establishing a continuing tradition. The Bach
revival of the 19th century reached Göttingen late; the Bach-Chor, under
Woldemar Voigt, was founded in 1894. With the Gesangverein directed by
Otto Freiberg (1846–1926), the choir regularly performed Bach’s cantatas
and other important works. The Bach Institute, an editorial centre of the
Neue Bach-Ausgabe, was established in 1951. The history of musicology
in Göttingen begins with the work of Forkel, but a university chair was
founded only in 1920, for Friedrich Ludwig, under whom Göttingen became
a centre of medieval studies. The university’s Musikwissenschaftliches
Seminar is now the home of one of the largest instrument collections in
Germany.
Göttingen’s renowned Handel Festival was established by Oskar Hagen.
The performances of Rodelinda in the Stadttheater in 1920 were a
milestone in the revival of Handel’s operas and inspired many other
enthusiasts. The festival became an annual event, and its scope
broadened. In 1931 the Göttinger Händel-Gesellschaft was formed. After
World War II the Göttingen Handel Festival attracted increasing
international interest; its artistic directors have included John Eliot Gardiner
(1980–90) and Nicholas McGegan (from 1990). Other events held in the
city are an international Chopin competition and an organ festival. There
are various choirs in Göttingen, including a boys’ choir, and also several
orchestras.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (B. Wiechert) [incl. fuller bibliography]
M. Staehelin, ed.: Musikwissenschaft und Musikpflege an der Georg-
August-Universität Göttingen: Beiträge zu ihrer Geschichte (Göttingen,
1987)
B. Egdorf and M. Schäfer: Von der Stadtmusik im 19. Jahrhundert bis zur
Gründung des Göttinger Symphonie-Orchesters: ein Beitrag zur
kommunalen Musikgeschichte Göttingens (Göttingen, 1989)
M. Staehelin: ‘Siebzig Jahre Göttinger Händel-Festspiele: zu den
Anfängen der Göttinger Händel-Renaissance’, Göttinger Händel-
Beiträge, iv (1991), 23–40
PERCY M. YOUNG/BERND WIECHERT

Gottlieb, (Maria) Anna [Nanette]

(b Vienna, 29 April 1774; d Vienna, 4 Feb 1856). Austrian singer and
actress. She came from a theatrical family; both her parents were in the
German theatre company of the Nationaltheater, and, as one of four sisters
who all acted in the theatre as children, she first appeared in the
Burgtheater at the age of five. She was just 12 when she created the role
of Barbarina in Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro (1 May 1786); she also created
Pamina in Die Zauberflöte (30 September 1791). She had been engaged
by Schikaneder in 1789 for his Freihaus-Theater and stayed there three
years, singing mainly in Singspiel.
In 1792 she began her long and popular career in the Theater in der
Leopoldstadt. The repertory was principally Singspiel and, later, musical
parodies; thus Anna Gottlieb was not an opera singer in the accepted
sense. She had not only to sing and act but also to dance. In 1796 she
surprised the public by playing in a piano duet in Weigl's Idoli. Under
Hensler's direction (1803–17) she was the mainstay of the company and
appeared numerous times in Ferdinand Kauer's great success Das
Donauweibchen. In the 1790s she received favourable criticisms for her
acting and singing in works such as Gluck's Die Pilgrim von Mekka (La
rencontre imprévue). By 1808 the notices were lukewarm and from that
year until 1811 she was absent from the stage. She reappeared with
diminishing success, finally singing mainly secondary roles.
Gottlieb was praised in a review (Wiener Zeitung für Theater, Musik und
Poesie) of Die travestierte Palmyra (1813), a take-off of Salieri's Palmira,
by Perinet with music by Gebel:
If ever an artist in this theatre has the feeling and
predisposition for parody, it is she. Her acting and singing are
calculated to be precisely the opposite of the original
character. Thus are her pathos, carriage and behaviour
humorous throughout, and she parodies all the prima donnas
superbly and with especial felicity sings bravura arias and
difficult passages with an indistinctness exactly like the Italian
florid singing no-one ever understands anyway.
In Maria Stuttgartin (1815), a parody of Schiller's Maria Stuart, she did not
know her part; and in 1828 her contract was summarily terminated by
Steinkeller, the new director at the Leopoldstadt. She received no pension
and in the course of the next eight years she periodically petitioned the
emperor for a pension, explaining that her only means of livelihood was
working with her hands and that, with the approach of old age (she said at
58), this was no longer possible.
Describing the first Mozart Festival in Salzburg in 1842 Wilhelm Kuhe wrote
(My Musical Recollections, 1896): ‘there entered a very tall, thin and
eccentric-looking woman who at once exclaimed as though addressing an
audience, “I am the first Pamina” … she seemed to think that she had at
least an equal claim with Mozart to be an object of universal veneration’.
She was the last surviving singer in Vienna who had known Mozart, and
she died during the celebrations of his centenary in 1856.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. von Kemerzynski: Pamina: Mozarts letzte Liebe (Berlin, 1956)
U. Mauthe: Mozarts ‘Pamina’ Anna Gottlieb (Augsburg, 1986)
CHRISTOPHER RAEBURN/R
Gottorf [Gottorp].
Palace in Schleswig, north Germany. It was the seat of the dukes of
Holstein-Gottorf from the mid-16th century to the early 18th. For a brief
period it vied with Hamburg and Lübeck as a regional musical centre. The
Holstein-Gottorf line was founded by Duke Johann Adolf (ruled 1544–86);
from his time until the end of the 17th century there was a Hofkapelle at
Schloss Gottorf, although gifted musicians tended to leave for more
prominent neighbouring establishments. Johann Adolf installed an organ in
the castle chapel in 1567 and a three-manual one at Husum some ten
years later. A four-part mass was composed in 1574 for the city of Hamburg
by the Kapellmeister Johann Fröhlich. Under Fröhlich’s successors,
Bartholomäus von Osterwiek, Bonaventura Borchgrevinck and Johann
Harder, a small instrumental group co-existed with the chapel choir. The
coming of the English viol player and composer William Brade initiated a
period of rapid expansion. He was at Gottorf during the years 1614–17 and
1622–5; under his direction, music for strings was developed, and the kind
of music performed at Gottorf decisively influenced north German chamber
music. Nicolaus Bleyer, a pioneer in this genre, was a pupil of Brade at
Gottorf. Two other Englishmen, Francis Hedgman and Christopher
Gregory, were also employed there. The cornettist Johann Sommer was
there in 1591; after working at Lüneburg he returned to Gottorf in 1609 as
Kapellmeister.
During the Thirty Years War Gottorf was relatively undisturbed. Duke
Friedrich III (ruled 1616–59) was a cultured man whose wife, Marie
Elisabeth of Saxony, was a gifted musician and a pupil of Schütz. She took
a personal interest in musical life at the court; among noted musicians
there at this period were Gabriel Voigtländer and Franz Tunder. The duke
entertained Athanasius Kircher, whose Musurgia universalis he had
acquired. During the Swedish-Danish war of 1657–60 the court moved to
Tönning, returning to Gottorf in 1661. Augustin Pfleger became
Kapellmeister in 1665. He was succeeded in 1673 by Johann Theile, who
left for Hamburg with his employer Duke Christian Albrecht when Danish
troops invaded in 1675. The Duke returned in 1689 and a renewal of the
Kapelle was undertaken by George Österreich, the palace’s last
distinguished Kapellmeister (1687–94).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Andresen and W. Stephan: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Gottorfer Hof-
und Staatsverwaltung von 1544–1659 (Kiel, 1928)
M. Ruhnke: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der deutschen
Hofmusikkollegien im 16. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1963)
PERCY M. YOUNG

Gottron, Adam (Bernhard)

(b Mainz, 11 Oct 1889; d Mainz, 29 Oct 1971). German musicologist. He
studied history, German and art history at the universities of Freiburg and
Giessen (where he took the doctorate in 1911) and theology at the
universities of Freiburg and Innsbruck and the Mainz seminary (where he
was ordained in 1917); concurrently he directed several school and
university choirs and orchestras. He worked as a schoolteacher in
Darmstadt and Mainz, where he became responsible for the church choirs
in the diocese (1933–62).
Gottron was editor of the musical publications of the New Germany Youth
Movement and later founded and edited (1947–52) the journal Musik und
Altar; he also founded the Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Mittelrheinische
Musikgeschichte (1961), publishing many of his own articles in its
Mitteilungen. The University of Mainz awarded him an honorary chair
(1960–70) and doctorate (1969); he was given the freedom of the city in
1962. His main musical interests were settings of the liturgy and church
music in general, on which he published several major studies, and the
musical tradition and personalities of Mainz and the surrounding area.
WRITINGS
Jungvolker Begleitbuch (Mönchengladbach, 1927)
Singende Gemeinde (Mainz, 1935)
Liturgischer Kirchenchor (Mainz, 1936)
Kirchenmusik und Liturgie (Regensburg, 1937)
Tausend Jahre Musik in Mainz (Berlin, 1941, 2/1964)
Mozart und Mainz (Mainz, 1951)
‘Die Organisation der Kirchenmusik’, Internationaler Kongress für
katholische Kirchenmusik: Vienna 1954, 320–28
Der Dom zu Mainz (Munich, 1955)
‘Der religiöse Weg des Mainzer Dichterkomponisten Peter Cornelius’, Jb
für das Bistum Mainz, vii (1955–7), 154–71
‘Mozart und die musikgeschichtliche Situation in Mainz zu seiner Zeit’,
Musikwissenshcaftlicher Kongress: Vienna 1956, 230–37
‘Das deutsche Kirchenlied 1537 bis 1649 am Mittelrhein’, KJb, xlii (1958),
53–63
‘Was versteht Ivo Salzinger unter lullistischer Musik?’, Miscelánea en
homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona, 1958–61), 361–8
Mainzer Musikgeschichte von 1500 bis 1800 (Mainz, 1959)
‘Die Musikbibliothek des Frh. Karl Anton von Hoheneck zu Mainz (†1771)’,
Festgabe für Joseph Müller-Blattau zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. W.
Salmen (Saarbrücken, 1960, enlarged 2/1962), 89–96
Arnold Rucker, Orgelmacher von Seligenstadt (Mainz, 1962)
‘“Capella fuldensis” und die fuldaer Dommusik im 19. Jahrhundert’,
Musicae sacrae ministerium … Festgabe für Karl Gustav Fellerer zur
Vollendung seines 60. Lebensjahres, ed. J. Overath (Cologne, 1962),
139–45
‘Joseph Paris Feckler, Kurzmainzer Hofkapellmeister 1728–1735’, AMw,
xix–xx (1962–3), 186–93
‘Musik in sechs mittelrheinischen Männerklöstern im 18. Jahrhundert’,
SMw, xxv (1962), 214–30
‘Kirchenmusikalische und liturgische Reformen in Mainz am Ende des 18.
Jahrhunderts’, KJb, xlviii (1964), 135–42
‘Čeští hudebníci 18. století ve středním Porýní’ [The activity of Czech
musicians in the central Rhineland in the 18th century], Zprávy
Bertramky, no.52 (1967), 1–8
‘Ein Offertorium von Johann Zach im Trierer Domarchiv’, Festschrift für
Alois Thomas (Trier, 1967), 131–4
with A. Tyson and H. Unverricht: Die beiden Hoffstetter: zwei
Komponisten-Porträts mit Werkverzeichnissen (Mainz, 1968)
‘Gabriel Plautz, Dvorni Kapelnik v Mainzu’ [Gabriel Plautz, court
Kapellmeister in Mainz], MZ, iv (1968), 57–61 [with Eng. summary]
‘Poznámky k životopisu někdejšího kurfiřtského dvorního kapelníka v
Mohuči Jana Zacha’ [Notes on the biography of Jan Zach,
Kapellmeister to the Elector of Mainz], HV, vi (1969), 323–5
‘Böhmische Musiker des 18. Jahrhunderts am Mittelrhein’, Symbolae
historiae musicae: Hellmut Federhofer zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. F.W.
Riedel and H. Unverricht (Mainz, 1971), 131–6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Grether: ‘Verzeichnis des Schrifftums von Adam Gottron’, Mainzer
Zeitschrift, liv (1959), 84–9
H. Federhofer: ‘Adam Gottron 80 Jahre alt’, Mitteilungen der
Arbeitsgemeinschaft für mittelrheinische Musikgeschichte, no.19
(1969), 182–4 [no.20 (1970) incl. suppl. to list of writings]
W. Heist, ed.: Ein Leben im Schatten des Domes: zum Gedächtnis an
Adam Gottron (Mainz, 1973) [incl. articles by W. Heist, A.M. Keim, H.
Mathy, F.W. Riedel and Gottron's reminiscences]
RUTH SMITH

Gottschalk, Louis Moreau

(b New Orleans, 8 May 1829; d Tijuca, Brazil, 18 Dec 1869). American
composer and pianist. His considerable reputation as a composer of
virtuoso piano pieces did not long survive his death, but a renewed interest
in his life and works began in the 1930s and he is now generally
acknowledged as one of the most significant 19th-century American
musicians, and his music as a direct precursor of ragtime.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
IRVING LOWENS/S. FREDERICK STARR
Gottschalk, Louis Moreau
1. Life.
Moreau (as he was called in the family) was the first of eight children born
to Edward and Marie-Aimée (Bruslé) Gottschalk. His London-born,
German-Jewish father went to New Orleans in the early 1820s and
established himself there as a merchant; his mother was the daughter of a
prosperous Catholic baker of French ancestry who had fled from St
Domingue in Haiti to Louisiana following the slave rebellion in the 1790s.
The child showed an aptitude for music before his fourth birthday, and
when he was five his parents engaged François Letellier, organist and
choirmaster of St Louis Cathedral in New Orleans, to give him private
lessons. By 1836 he was skilled enough to substitute for his teacher at the
cathedral organ during Mass. Gottschalk's Father, against his wife's
wishes, sent his son to Paris for more intensive training, and on 1 May
1841 he sailed on the SS Taglione for France.
Gottschalk went first to Carl (later Sir Charles) Hallé and subsequently to
Camille Stamaty for piano lessons; he also studied composition with Pierre
Maleden. On 2 April 1845, shortly before his 16th birthday, he gave a highly
successful recital in the Salle Pleyel at which Chopin warmly saluted the
young man’s talent. Although his Polka de salon appeared in print perhaps
as early as 1847, the Gottschalk vogue did not begin until 1849, after
Bamboula and La savane had been heard in public for the first time.
Bamboula, with its bold syncopations, draws on West Indian songs that
Gottschalk had assimilated at home from his Bruslé grandmother and her
slave Sally, both from St Domingue; this was the first of many works in
which he transformed West Indian (Haitian and Cuban) contradanzas into
compositions that prefigured ragtime. Gottschalk’s greatest European
triumph came in January 1850 when he introduced Le bananier which, with
Bamboula, La savane, and Le mancenillier, forms the ‘Louisiana quartet’.
This exotic morceau made Gottschalk a household name throughout
Europe.
Gottschalk made his formal début as a professional pianist in the Salle
Pleyel on 17 April 1849, in a recital including a group of his ‘Creole’
compositions, then the rage of Paris. The critics were captivated by his
poignant melodies and syncopated rhythms, and compared his approach
to the piano with that of Chopin; as a composer he was hailed as the first
eloquent and authentic musical spokesman of the New World. During the
summer of 1850 he played in Switzerland with spectacular success. In
1851 he undertook an extended tour in Spain, where he quickly won the
enthusiastic approval of Isabella II. Under her patronage he became the
country’s music idol. The Spanish works that he composed at this time
went beyond Liszt in incorporating distinctive Spanish harmonies and
rhythms into formal compositions. After an extravagant 18 months there, he
returned briefly to France before attempting the conquest of his native land.
Gottschalk arrived in New York on 10 January 1853 and gave his first
concert there the following month, but success proved to be more difficult
to achieve in the USA than in France, Switzerland, or Spain. His father’s
death in October 1853 proved to be a turning-point in his career; up to then
he had been comparatively carefree, but thereafter he was forced to
increase the frequency of his concerts to earn enough money to support
his younger brothers and sisters and extravangant mother, all of whom
were now living in Paris. Gottschalk quickly mastered the latest American
musical tastes. His sentimental ballads (The Last Hope, 1854, The Dying
Poet, 1863) proved immensely popular and remained so for half a century.
He also contributed to the new ‘Western’ idiom with his genre pieces Le
banjo (1853, 1855) and Columbia (1859). He often made musical reference
to the songs of Stephen Foster and other popular composers, but
juxtaposed and transformed his quotations in unexpected ways; in patriotic
works such as Union he went so far as to introduce national airs
concurrently, creating a carefully ordered cacophony. For three years
Gottschalk toured the country, with a long interlude in Cuba (1854) and
occasional visits to Canada, but by the end of 1856 he had had enough.
He sailed from New York for Havana with the youthful Adelina Patti on 7
February 1857.
Gottschalk spent the next five years in Puerto Rico, Guadeloupe,
Martinique and Cuba. There he found the musical roots whose branches
he had touched in New Orleans, and found his vocation as a composer.
His tour with Patti completed, he settled in Guadeloupe and devoted
himself to transforming contradanzas in somewhat the same way that
Chopin had transformed the mazurka. He also worked on several operas
and wrote with increasing frequency for the American and French press,
much as Berlioz had done. This break from constant concert-giving was
possible because of the financial success of his last year in the USA. In
February 1860 he returned to Cuba to mount a major festival in which his
Symphonie romantique (‘La nuit des tropiques’) for symphony orchestra
and band was performed. He then undertook a season as conductor of
opera at the Teatro di Tacón in Havana, which did not turn out happily.
Another festival in March 1861 in Havana was less successful than the
first. The Civil War had meanwhile broken out and Gottschalk, an ardent
Unionist, found himself in pro-Secessionist Cuba. He was persuaded to
sign a profitable contract for a tour of the USA, and on 11 February 1862
he was in New York playing again for American audiences.
In four and a half months Gottschalk travelled 15,000 miles by rail and
gave 85 recitals, a brutal pace which he maintained for more than three
years. During this time he did more than any other American musician to
champion the Unionist cause, and also to obliterate the line between high
and popular art. In any single concert he would play his ‘classical’ pieces
as well as the accessible ballades and syncopated pieces. By the time he
arrived in California for a far-western tour in April 1865, he estimated that
he had given some 1100 American recitals and travelled some 95,000
miles. His visit came to an abrupt end in September 1865, when he was
falsely accused of compromising a student at the Oakland Female
Seminary. The affair was inflated into a scandal, and before the month was
over Gottschalk was on the steamship Colorado bound for South America
to escape the vigilantes. Ultimately his friends managed to clear his name,
but he never again returned to the USA.
The last four years of Gottschalk’s life were spent in a triumphant tour of
South America. His first recital after leaving the USA was in Panama on 7
October 1865. He moved to Lima in November, and although Peru was in
the midst of a bloody revolution, by mid-December he had performed
seven times in the capital city. In April 1866 he visited Chile, where he
remained for a full year; then he sailed from Valparaiso to Montevideo via
the Straits of Magellan, arriving in Uruguay in May 1867, and made his
Buenos Aires début in November. By February 1868 he had given 16
concerts in Montevideo alone. Throughout South America Gottschalk gave
strong encouragment to local talent, and in several countries he played an
important role in the development of Classical music. He also championed
public education and the republican form of government, and used his
music festivals as showcases for a pan-American model of civic life and
culture; in the process, he became the first pan-American cultural figure.
He finally arrived in Rio de Janeiro in May 1869 and began feverish
musical activities which included the organization of ‘monster concerts’
involving as many as 650 performers. Although plagued by malaria, he
managed to carry on until 25 November. On 8 December he was moved to
Tijuca, a suburb on higher ground, where he died, probably from an
overdose of quinine, whose side-effects were not clearly known before the
1880s. His remains were returned to the USA in August 1870, after they
had been disinterred from the cemetery of São João Baptista, and were
buried in Greenwood Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York.
Gottschalk, Louis Moreau
2. Works.
Gottschalk’s compositions fall naturally into six periods: 1844–51 in Paris,
1851–2 in Switzerland and Spain, 1853–6 in the USA, 1857–61 in the
Antilles, 1862–5 again in the USA, and 1865–9 in South America. The best
works of the Paris period are clearly those of the ‘Louisiana’ quartet, which
even today retain much of their freshness, vitality and charm. From
Switzerland there is little; from Spain date the Souvenirs d’Andalousie, La
jota aragonesa and Manchega, a remarkable evocation of the Spanish
guitar. From the first period in the USA the Tournament Galop, Le banjo,
and the notorious Last Hope stand out, the last being something of a
masterpiece within its sentimental genre. The most fruitful period of
Gottschalk’s life was the time he spent in the Antilles; from these years
come some of his finest piano compositions, such as Souvenir de Porto
Rico, Réponds-moi, Berceuse, Danza and Suis-moi!, as well as the
Symphonie romantique (‘La nuit des tropiques‘) and the brilliantly
syncopated one-act opera Esceñas campestres. A three-act opera (Amalia
Warden) and several partially completed operas from these years have
been lost. Gottschalk composed relatively little during his second visit to
the USA; the best-known work is The Dying Poet, a staple of the silent
cinema days. More deserving of survival are Ses yeux (four hands) and the
Cuban reminiscence La gallina (four hands). From the South American
years the most notable works are the Pasquinade (another antipation of
ragtime), the Grand scherzo, the Grande tarantelle for piano and orchestra,
the Variations de concert sur l’hymne portugais and the Symphony no.2 (‘A
Montevideo’).
Although Gottschalk was by no means an ‘advanced’ composer, even in
terms of his own day, his sensitivity to local colour enabled him to forecast,
with uncanny prescience, American musical developments that did not
actually take place until the end of the 19th century. Thus, startling pre-
echoes of Ives can be heard in Gottschalk’s frequent use of quotation as
both a musical and a psychological device, a typical instance of which may
be found in Le banjo where Roll, Jordan, Roll and Stephen Foster’s
Camptown Races are quoted with excellent effect. The syncopated
rhythms and jagged melodic lines of many pieces dating from Gottschalk’s
years in the Antilles (such as the Souvenir de Porto Rico, Danza and
Réponds-moi) boldly prophesy the coming of ragtime and jazz.
Much of the credit for Gottschalk’s restored reputation belongs to John
Kirkpatrick, Jeanne Behrend, and Eugene List, three pianists who militantly
championed his music. The most solid research has been accomplished by
Robert Offergeld, Francisco Curt Lange, Robert Stevenson, and John G.
Doyle, and their work has now been followed by a number of later studies.
 A partial edition of Gottschalk’s piano music has been published in
facsimile (1969); however, the pieces are reproduced from early (and not
necessarily the best) editions without showing variant readings or
indicating typographical errors, which are fairly numerous. Modern editions
by Behrend, Jackson, and List are more reliable. A good portion of
Gottschalk’s Nachlass, which was believed lost, surfaced in Philadelphia in
the home of a collateral descendant of the composer; it was acquired by
the New York Public Library in 1983 and added to the institution’s extensive
collection of Gottschalkiana in the Library and Museum of the Performing
Arts at Lincoln Center.
Gottschalk, Louis Moreau
WORKS

Complete catalogue, including a discussion of extant MSS and details of arrangements, in

Doyle (1983). In most cases only original versions are cited below. Most printed works
issued by several publishers; earliest dated edition preferred in this list.

D number in Doyle (1983 )

RO number in Offergeld (1970)
LNH Historic New Orleans Collection/Kemper and Leila Williams Foundation

Editions:Piano Music by Louis Moreau Gottschalk, ed. J. Behrend (Bryn Mawr, PA, 1956)
[B]The Piano Works of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, ed. V.B. Lawrence and R. Jackson
(New York, 1969) [contains almost all extant pubd pf works] [facs.]Gottschalk: a
Compendium of Piano Music, ed. E. List (New York, 1971) [Lc]Piano Music of Louis
Moreau Gottschalk, ed. R. Jackson (New York, 1973) [J]Louis Moreau Gottschalk: 10
Compositions for Pianoforte, ed. A. Rigai (New York, 1973) [R]Louis Moreau
Gottschalk: kreolische und karibische Klavierstücke, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1973)
[K]Album for Piano Solo (Melville, NY, 1976) [A]The Little Book of Louis Moreau
Gottschalk, ed. R. Jackson and N. Ratliff (New York, 1976) [JR]Gottschalk: Piano
Duets, i, ed. E. List (New York, 1982) [Li]Gottschalk: Piano Duets, ii, ed. E. List (New
York, 1983) [Lii]Complete Published Songs of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, ed. R. Jackson
(Newton Centre, MA, 1993)

operas

D RO

— 278 [untitled], 1856, lost

— 125 Isaura di Salerno (3),
1859, lost
— 52 Charles IX, 1859–60,
frags. US-NYp, see
also d87
3 4 Amalia Warden (3, A.
Lorenzana), 1860, lost
except Act 1 lib, NYp
47 77 Esceñas campestres
[cubanas] (Fête
champêtre cubaine;
Fête cubaine) (1, M.
Ramirez), 1860, NYp
 (New York, 1969);
Havana, Teatro di
Tacón, 17 Feb 1860
instrumental
— 197 Piano Concerto, f,
1853, lost
104 255 Symphonie romantique
‘La nuit des tropiques’
(‘Noche de los
tropicos’), orch, 1858–
9, US-NYp, ed. G.
Schuller (Newton
Centre, MA, 1998);
Havana, 17 Feb 1860
87 157 Marcha triunfal y final
de opera [Carlos IX],
orch, 1860, NYp (New
York, 1969); Havana,
17 Feb 1860
66 259 Grande tarantelle, pf,
orch, op.67, 1858–64
(Paris, c1874), NYp; ?
Philadelphia, 29 Oct
1864
91 154 Marche solennelle
(Gran marcha
solemne), orch, band,
1866–8, NYp, ed. D.
Hunsberger (New York,
1969); Montevideo,
Nov 1868; arr. pf solo,
seed64
99 257 Symphony no.2 ‘A
Montevideo’, orch,
1865–8, NYp (New
York, 1969);
Montevideo, Nov 1868
157a 289 Variations de concert
sur l’hymne portugais
du roi D. Louis ler, pf,
orch, op.91, 1869, NYp
(New York, 1969); Rio
de Janerio, 31 Oct
1869; orig. pf solo,
seed157
140 — Sonate, vn, harp,
n.d., ?spurious;
Birmingham, AL, 7 Feb
1963
Other marches and dances, orch/band, 1857–69, and chamber works,
1858–69, all lost, listed in Offergeld (1970)
piano
— 287 Valse de salon, 1842,
lost
123 207 Polka de salon, op.1,
1844–6 (Paris, ?1847)
143 243 Souvenir des
Ardennes (Les
Ardennes), mazurka
de salon, 1846 (New
York, 1860), US-NYp
13 20 Bamboula, danse de
nègres, op.2, ?1846–
8 (Paris, 1849), B, J,
K, R
— 222 [1re] Reflets du
passé, 1847, ?pubd
1857, lost
36 58–9 Colliers d’or, 2
mazurkas, op.6
nos.1–2, ?1847–9
(Paris, 1851)
— 164 Mazurka, a, 1847–9, ?
lost
109 187 Ossian, 2 ballades,
op.4 nos.1–2, ? 1847–
9 (Paris, 1850)
135 232 La savane, ballade
créole, op.3, ?1847–9
(Paris, 1849), J, K, Lc
14 21 Le bananier, chanson
nègre, op.5, ?1848
(Paris, ?1850), B, J,
K; arr. C. Czerny, pf 4
hands (Paris,
1855),d14a, Lii
98 173 La moissonneuse,
mazurka
caractéristique, op.8,
1848–9 (Paris, 1850)
49 80 L’étincelle (La scintilla;
The Spark), mazurka
sentimentale, op.20, ?
1848–53 (New York,
1854), NYp, R; arr. pf
4 hands, op.21
(Boston, ?1854),d49a,
Lii
32a 53 [Ov. to] La chasse du
jeune Henri [after
Méhul], 2 pf, 1849,
frag. NYp
52 32 Fatma [after A.
Thomas: Le caïd],
1849–50, lost
85 142 Le mancenillier (La
sérénade; West-
Indian Serenade), op.
l l, ?1849–50 (Paris,
1851), J, Lc
27 45 Le carnaval de
Venise, grand caprice
et variations, op.89,
1850 (Mainz, 1877)
39 63–4 Danse ossianique
(Danse des ombres),
op.12, ?1850 (Paris,
1851), formerly
NORsm, now in
private collection of
William L. Hawes
62 106 God Save the Queen
(America), morceau
de concert, op.41,
 1850 (New York,
1860), NYp
77 127 Jerusalem [after
Verdi: I lombardi],
grande fantaisie
triomphale, 2 pf,
op.84, 1850 (Paris,
1875)
95 167 La mélancolie, étude
caractéristique
d’après F.
Godefroid, ?1850
(Paris, 1852)
141 240 Le songe d’une nuit
d’été [after Thomas],
caprice élégant, op.9,
1850 (Paris, 1850)
153 264 Tournament Galop, ?
1850–51 (New York,
1854), J, R
40 65 Danse des sylphes
[after Godefroid],
caprice de concert, ?
1850–53, ed. N.R.
Espadero as op.86
(Mainz, 1877)
94 166 Mazurka rustique,
op.81, 1850–53
(Boston, 1873), NYp
160 297 Ov. de Guillaume Tell
[after Rossini], grand
morceau de concert,
pf 4 hands, 1850–54
(New York, 1864)
136 233 Scherzo-romantique,
op.73, 1851 (Boston,
1873), NORtu, NYp
148 242 Souvenirs
d’Andalousie, caprice
de concert sur la
caña, le fandango, et
le jeleo de Jerez,
op.22, 1851 (New
York, 1855), J
159 296 The Water Sprite (La
naïade), polka de
salon, op.27, 1851–3
(Philadelphia, 1853)
28 35, 274 Chanson du gitano, ?
1852, NYp, JR
122 — Polka caracteristica
sobre Le mancenillier,
?1852 (Madrid, ?
1852)
132 — Le réveil de l’aigle, ?
1852 [under pseud.
Paul Ernest], NYp
— 236 El sitio de Zaragoza,
sym., 10 pf, 1852,
parts lost, excerpts
arr. as La jota
aragonesa, seed79;
see alsod156
86 143 Manchega, étude de
concert, op.38, ?
1852–3 (New York,
1860), NORtu, NYp, J
116 — Pensée poétique
[no.1], nocturne,
op.18, ?1852–3
(Paris, ?1856)
96 170 Minuit à Séville,
caprice, op.30, 1852–
6 (New York, 1858),
NYp, J, Lc, R
156 269 Union, paraphrase de
concert on the
national airs Star
Spangled Banner,
Yankee Doodle, and
Hail Columbia [based
on El sitio de
Zaragoza, 1852],
op.48, 1852–62
(NewYork, 1863),
NYp, B, J
9 271 Ballade, A 1853
(New York, 1876),
NYp, JR
19 — Le bengali au réveil,
bluette en forme
d’étude, before 1853
(Paris, 1853), lost
58 98 Forest Glade Polka
(Les follets; Feu follet;
Le sentier dans la
forêt), polka brillante,
op.25, 1853
(Philadelphia, 1853),
NYp
73 — I’ll Pray for Thee
[transcr. of Donizetti:
Lucia di Lammermoor,
“Quando rapito in
estasi”], 1853
(Philadelphia, 1853)
76 — Italian Glories [after
Donizetti], ?1853
[under pseud. Oscar
Litti], NYp
79 130 La jota aragonesa [=
excerpts from El sitio
de Zaragoza, 1852],
caprice espagnol,
op.14, ?1853 (New
York, 1855), Wc, NYp,
J; arr. pf 4 hands
(Mainz, 1876),d79a, Li
129 223 1[2me] Reflets du
passé, rêverie,
op.28, ?1853 (New
York, 1857)
— 31 Bunker Hill (National
Glory; The Battle of
Bunker Hill) [rev.
 ofd156], fantaisie
triomphale, 10 pf,
1853–4, lost
90a 147–9 Marche funèbre,
op.61, 1853–4 (New
York, 1870), rev. as
op.64 (Paris, ?
1874),d90b, R; arr. pf
4 hands (Mainz,
1875),d90c, Lii
16 24 Second Banjo,
op.82, ?1853–4
(Boston, 1873)
30 49 Le chant du martyr,
grand caprice
religieux, ?1854
[under pseud. Seven
Octaves] (Boston,
1864), NYp
35 57 El cocoyé, grand
caprice cubain de
bravura, op.80, 1854
(Boston, 1873)
80 133 The Last Hope
(Dernière espérance;
Ultima esperanza),
méditation religieuse,
op.16, 1854 (New
York, 1854), NYp, B, J
15 22 Le banjo (Fantaisie
grotesque; An
American Sketch; Le
caprice américain),
esquisse americaine,
op.15, ?1854–5 (New
York, 1855), NYp, A,
B, J, K, Lc, R
— 221 Le zapateado cubano,
?1854–5, frag. NYp
31 51 Chant du soldat,
grand caprice de
concert, op.23, ?1855
(New York, 1857),
NYp
89 151 Marche de nuit, op.17,
1855 (New York,
1856); arr. pf 4 hands,
op.17 (Mainz,
1873),d89a, Li
117 194 Pensée poétique
[no.2] (L’extase),
op.61/62, ?1855 (Rio
de Janeiro, 1869),
formerly NORsm, now
in private collection of
William L. Hawes
125 214 Printemps d’amour,
mazurka, caprice de
concert, op.40, 1855
(New York, 1860),
NYp; arr. pf 4 hands
(Boston, ?1873), Li
128 220 Rayons d’azur
 (Shades of Evening),
polka de salon, op.77,
1855 (Boston, 1873)
139 239 Solitude, op.65, 1855
(New York, 1871),
NYp
142 241 Sospiro, valse
poétique, op.24, 1855
(New York, 1857), A
5 8 Apothéose, grande
marche solennelle,
op.29, ?1856 (New
York, 1858)
26 44 Caprice-polka, op.79,
1856 (Boston, 1873),
NYp
133 227 Ricordati (Yearning;
Romance), nocturne,
méditation, op.26, ?
1856 (New York,
1857), F-Pn
97 171 Miserere du Trovatore
[after Verdi],
paraphrase de
concert, op.52, 1856–
7 (New York, 1864)
110 183 [Ov. to] Oberon [after
Weber], pf 4 hands,
op.83, ?1857 (Boston,
1873)
147 250 Souvenir de Porto
Rico (Marche des
Gibaros; Recuerdos
de Puerto Rico),
op.31, 1857–8 (Mainz,
?1860), J, K, Lc, R
30 48 Chant de guerre,
op.78, 1857–9
(Boston, 1873), US-
NYp
41 66 Danza, op.33, 1857–9
(Paris, 1860), J, Lc
115 — Las patitas de mi
sobrina, danza, 1857–
61, NYp
161 277 Ynés (Inez), danza, E
, 1857–61, NYp, JR
138 — El silvido,
contradanza, ?1857–
62, NYp
61 103 La gitanella, caprice
caractéristique, op.35,
?1858 (Paris, 1861)
102 176 Murmures éoliens,
op.46, 1858–9 (New
York, 1862)
38 61 Columbia, caprice
américain, op.34,
1859 (New York,
1860)
50 91 Fairy Land (Dans les
nuages), schottische
 de concert, 1859
[under pseud. Seven
Octaves] (Boston,
1863), NYp
51 94 Fantôme de bonheur,
illusions perdues,
caprice, op.36, ?1859
(Paris, 1861)
54 95 La favorita [after
Donizetti], grande
fantaisie de concert,
op.68, 1859 (New
York, 1871)
70 118 Hurrah Galop, galop
de concert, pas
redoublé, caprice de
concert, 1859 [under
pseud. Seven
Octaves] (Boston,
1863), NYp
78 129 Jeunesse, mazurka
brillante, op.70, 1859
(New York, 1860)
82 135 Love and Chivalry
(Amour
chevaleresque;
Souvenir du bal),
caprice élégant en
forme de schottisch, ?
1859, [under pseud.
Seven Octaves]
(Boston, 1863)
105 184 Ojos criollos (Les
yeux créoles), danse
cubaine, caprice
brillant, contradanza,
pf 4 hands, op.37,
1859 (New York,
1860), NYp, Lii; arr. pf
solo (Havana, 1860),
NYp,d105a, J, K, Lc
114 190 Pastorella e cavalliere
(Bergère et cavalier;
The Young
Shepherdess and the
Knight; The Gay
Shepherdess and the
Knight), op.32, 1859
(New York, 1862), A;
arr. 1v, pf, see d114a
120 275 Polka, A , 1859, NYp,
JR
121 273 Polka, B , ?1859,
NYp, JR
124 210 Polonia, grande
caprice de concert,
op.35, 1859 (New
York, 1861); as op.43
(Mainz, 1862)
131 225 Réponds-moi (Dí que
sí), danse cubaine,
caprice brillant, pf 4
 hands, op.50, 1859
(Havana, 1861), Li
134 270 Romance, E , ?1859,
NYp, JR
144 245 Souvenir de Cuba,
mazurka, op.75, 1859
(Boston, 1873), NYp
145 246 Souvenir de la
Havane (Recuerdos
de la Habana), grand
caprice de concert,
op.39, 1859 (Havana,
1860), NYp, J, K
55 — El festival, danza, ?
1859–60 (Havana,
1860), lost
1 — Adios a la Habana, pf
4 hands, ?1859–61,
NYp
107 182 O ma charmante,
épargnez-moi (O, my
charmer, spare me),
caprice, op.44, ?
1859–61 (New York,
1862), J
60 100 La gallina (The Hen),
danse cubaine, pf 4
hands, op.53, 1859–
63 (New York, 1865),
Li; arr. C. Wachtmann,
pf solo (New York,
1869), J
7 — Ay! Lunarcitos!,
contradanza, 1860
(Havana, ?1862)
34 55 La chute des feuilles
(Mélodie de N.R.
Espadero de la
Havane), nocturne,
op.42, 1860 (New
York, 1860), NYp
146 247 Souvenir de Lima,
mazurka, op.74, 1860
(Boston, 1873), NYp
8 11 Ay pimpollo, no me
mates!,
contradanza, ?1860–6
l (Havana, 1861), lost
20 27 Berceuse (Cradle
Song), op.47, ?1861
(New York, 1862), B, J
157 253 Suis-moi! (Follow Me!
Vamos a la azotea),
contradanza, caprice,
op.45, ?1861
(Havana, 1861), NYp,
J
44 74 Drums and Cannon,
military polka, ?1861–
2 [under pseud. Oscar
Litti] (New York, 1863)
69 117 Home, Sweet Home
 (Charme du foyer)
[after H. Bishop],
caprice, op.51, ?1862
(New York, 1864)
53 — Valse de Faust [after
Gounod], ?1862–3
[under pseud. Oscar
Litti] (New York,
1863), NYp
119 196 Pensive, polka-
rédowa, op.68, ?
1862–3 [under pseud.
Seven Octaves]
(Boston, 1864)
— 12 Bailemos, Creole
dance, before 1863, ?
pubd, lost
37 60 La colombe (The
Dove), petite polka,
op.49, 1863
(NewYork, 1864), NYp
45 75 The Dying Poet (Le
poète mourant; El
poeta moribundo),
meditation, arpejos de
saudade, ?1863
[under pseud. Seven
Octaves] (Boston,
1864), J
113 189 Pasquinade, caprice,
op.59, ?1863 (New
York, 1870), NYp, A,
B, J, K, R
152 — Marche de
Tannhäuser [after
Wagner], multiple pf, ?
1863, NYp
18 62 Battle Cry of Freedom
(Le cri de délivrance)
[after G.F. Root],
caprice héroïque,
grand caprice de
concert, op.55, 1863–
4 (Chicago, 1865),
NORtu, NYp
84 141 The Maiden’s Blush
(Le sourire d’une
jeune fille), grande
valse de concert, ?
1863–4 [under pseud.
Seven Octaves]
(Boston, 1865)
108 186 Orfa, grande polka,
op.71, ?1863–4
[under pseud. Seven
Octaves] (Boston,
1864), NYp; arr. pf 4
hands (Mainz,
1876),d108a, Li
127 217 Radieuse, grande
valse de concert,
op.72, pf 4 hands, ?
1863–4 [under pseud.
 Seven Octaves]
(Boston, 1865), Li
155 — Unadilla Waltz, ?
1863–5 (Washington,
DC, n.d.)
23 30 La brise (The Breeze),
valse de concert, ?
1865 (New York,
1878)
137 — Ses yeux, polka de
concert, op.66, pf 4
hands [1st version],
1865 (New York,
1875), Lii; [2nd
version], 1865–9
(Mainz, ?1873); 2 pf,
lost, ro234; arr. A.
Napoleão, pf solo
(Mainz, ?1872),
d137a, ro235, J
88 — Marche, E , ?before
1866, NYp
92 158 Marguerite, grande
valse brillante, valse
sentimentale, op.76, ?
1866 (Boston, 1873)
17 25 Bataille, étude de
concert, op.63, ?
1867–8 (NewYork,
1870); as op.64
(Mainz, 1871)
43 73 Dernier amour, étude
de concert, op.62, ?
1867–9 (Paris, 1871);
as op.63 (Mainz,
1870)
57 — La flor que ella me
envia, ?1868 (Buenos
Aires, 1869)
100 174 Morte!! (She is Dead),
lamentation, op.60, ?
1868 (New York,
1869), J, R
154 265 Tremolo, grande
étude de concert,
op.58, ?1868 (Rio de
Janeiro, 1869), A
25 38 Caprice élégiaque,
op.56, ?1868–9
(Mainz, 1870)
158 295 Vision, étude, 1868–9
(Rio de Janeiro, ?
1870)
46 76 The Dying Swan,
romance poetique,
op.100, ?1869 (St.
Louis, 1870)
59 99 Forget me Not (Ne
m’oubliez pas),
mazurka caprice, ?
1869 (St. Louis, 1870)
63 108 Grande fantaisie
 triomphale sur
l’hymne national
brésilien, op.69, 1869
(Rio de Janeiro,
1869), NYp
64 155 Gran marcha solemne
(Marcha solemne;
Marche solennelle),
1869, arr. A. Napoleão
(Rio de Janeiro, ?
1870); orig. for orch,
band, see d91
65 114 Grand scherzo, op.57,
1869 (New York,
1870), NYp, J
68 116 Hercule, grande étude
de concert, op.88, ?
1869 (Mainz, 1877)
74 122 Impromptu, op.54,
1869 (New York,
1869)
83 140 Madeleine, étude, ?
1869 (Rio de Janeiro,
1870)
130 224 Regarde moi, idylle, ?
1869 (Rio de
Janeiro, ?1870)
157 290 Variations de concert
sur l’hymne portugais,
op.91, 1869, arr. A.
Napoleão (Rio de
Janeiro, 1869)
10 14 6me ballade, op.85, ?
1860s (Mainz, 1877),
NYp, J, R
11 15 7me ballade, op.87, ?
1860s (Mainz, 1877)
12 16 8me ballade, op.90, ?
1860s (Mainz, 1877),
NYp
56 — Fleur de lys, galop
brillante à 4 mains
[under pseud. Paul
Ernest], pf solo, NYp
75 — Innocence, grand
valse de concert
(Brussels, n.d.), lost [?
=d84]
93 276 Mazurk, NYp, JR
— 84 Etude, c , frag. NYp
— 165 Mazurka, A (?1850–
53), ?lost
— 298 [workbook], NYp
Other transcrs. incl. opera fantasies and paraphrases, some pf,
insts, 1850–69, all lost, listed in Offergeld (1970)
Other works, some ?identical to other pf works, some ?arrs. vocal
works, 1842–69, all lost, listed in Offergeld (1970)
vocal
1v, pf, unless otherwise stated

2 278 Alone (W.H. Morris), ?

 1855–6 (Philadelphia,
1902)
71 120, 192 Serenade (Idol of
Beauty; Viens o ma
belle; Ecoute o mon
adorée) (Sp., R.
Mendive; Eng., W.J.
Wetmore), 1861 (New
York, 1863), US-NYp
21 28 Berceuse (Slumber
on, Baby Dear), a
mother’s cradle song
(Eng., H.C. Watson;
It., J. Debrin), ?1862
(New York, 1863)
112 188 Le papillon (Fair
Butterfly) (Fr., L.M.
Gottschalk; Eng., L.C.
Elson), ?1862
(Boston, 1874)
101 175 The Mountaineer’s
Song (Il canto del
montanaro) (Eng.,
W.J. Wetmore), ?
1862–3 (New York,
1863)
103 177 My Only Love, Good
Bye! (Addio, mio solo
amor) (It., E.C.
Sebastiany), ?1862–3
(New York, 1863),
NYp
106 181 O Loving Heart, Trust
On! (Amor y fé) (Eng.,
H.C. Watson), 1863
(New York, 1864)
72 119 I don’t see it, Mamma!
(H.C. Watson), ?
1863–4 (New York,
1864)
149 252 Stay, my Charmer (R.
Burns), ?1863–4
(New York, 1864)
24 34 Canadian Boat Song
(T. Moore), ?1864
(Philadelphia, 1870)
114a 191 Pastorella e cavalliere
(The Shepherdess
and the Knight) (H.C.
Watson), ?1864 (New
York, 1865); orig. pf
solo, seed114
6 10 Ave Maria, ?1864
(Boston, 1873)
— 90 L’exile, ?pubd after
1869, lost
118 195, 219 Pensez à moi
(Rappelle-toi;
Romance) (J. Ruelle,
after A. de Musset), ?
1865–8 (Paris, 1879),
NYp
22 — Berceuse (O mon
 trésor, dors d’un
calme sommeil)
(Paris, n.d.), ?
spurious
42 — Day is Past and Over,
4vv, arr. L.O.
Emerson (Boston,
n.d.)
A few other works, 1848–57, all lost, listed in Offergeld (1970)

Principal publishers: Ditson (Boston), Escudier (Paris), Hall (New

York), Schott (Mainz, Germany)

Gottschalk, Louis Moreau

BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Arpin: Biographie de L.M. Gottschalk, pianiste américain (New York,
1853; Eng. trans., 1853)
H. D[idimus]: Biography of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, the American Pianist
and Composer (Philadelphia, 1853)
O. Hensel: Life and Letters of Louis Moreau Gottschalk (Boston, 1870)
L.R. Fors: Gottschalk (Havana, 1880)
L.M. Gottschalk: Notes of a Pianist, ed. C. Gottschalk Peterson
(Philadelphia,1881); ed. J. Behrend (New York, 1964/R)
[W.S.B.] M[athews]: ‘Gottschalk: a Successful American Composer’,
Music [Chicago], ii (1891–2), 117–32
E. Swayne: ‘Gottschalk: the First American Pianist’, Music [Chicago], xviii
(1900–01), 519–29
W.A. Fisher: ‘Louis Moreau Gottschalk, the First American Pianist and
Composer: a Life Sketch’, The Musician, xiii (1908), 437–8, 466 only
J.F. Cooke: Louis Moreau Gottschalk (Philadelphia, 1928)
J.T. Howard: ‘Louis Moreau Gottschalk, as Portrayed by himself’, MQ, xviii
(1932), 120–33
R.D. Darrell: ‘An Early Pan-American Exhumed’, Musical Mercury, i
(1934), 18–21
J. Kirkpatrick: Observations of Four Volumes and Supplement of the
Works of Louis Moreau Gottschalk in the New York Public Library (MS,
US-NYp, c1935)
C.E. Lindstrom: ‘The American Quality in the Music of Louis Moreau
Gottschalk’, MQ, xxxi (1945), 335–66
A.C. Minor: Piano Concerts in New York City, 1849–1865 (diss., U. of
Michigan, 1947)
I. Lowens: ‘The First Matinée Idol: Louis Moreau Gottschalk’, Musicology,
ii (1948–9), 23–34; repr. in Music and Musicians in Early America
(New York, 1964), 223–33
F.C. Lange: Vida y muerte de Louis Moreau Gottschalk en Rio de Janeiro,
1869 (Mendoza, 1951)
C.P. de Rezende: ‘O poeta do piano’, Investigações [São Paulo], iii (1951),
21–42
G. Chase: ‘The Exotic Periphery’, America’s Music, from the Pilgrims to
the Present (New York, 1955, 2/1966), 301–23
V. Loggins: Where the Word Ends: the Life of Louis Moreau Gottschalk
(Baton Rouge, LA, 1958)
J. Behrend: ‘The Peripatetic Gottschalk: America’s First Concert Pianist’,
Américas, xi (1959), 21–6
E.J. Pasarell: ‘El centenario de los conciertos de Adelina Patti y Luis
Moreau Gottschalk en Puerto Rico’, Revista del Instituto de cultura
Puertorriqueña, ii/2 (1959), 52–5
J.G. Doyle: The Piano Music of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, 1829–1869
(diss., New York U., 1960)
R. Offergeld: ‘Louis Moreau Gottschalk’, HiFi/Stereo Review, xxi/3 (1968),
53–67
R. Offergeld: ‘The Gottschalk Legend: Grand Fantasy for a Great Many
Pianos’,The Piano Works of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, ed. V.B.
Lawrence (New York, 1969)
R. Stevenson: ‘Gottschalk in Buenos Aires’, Inter-American Music Bulletin,
no.74 (1969), 1–7
R. Stevenson: ‘Gottschalk in Western South America’, ibid., 7–16
M. Márquez Sterling: ‘Gottschalk, Musical Humboldt’, Américas, xxii
(1970), 10–18
R. Offergeld: The Centennial Catalogue of the Published and Unpublished
Compositions of Louis Moreau Gottschalk (New York, 1970)
W.T.Marrocco: ‘Gottschalkiana: New Light of the Gottschalks and the
Bruslés’, Louisiana History, xii (1971), 59–66
K. Abraham: ‘Mr. Dwight’s Blind Spot: Louis Moreau Gottschalk’, Musart,
xxv/2 (1973), 47–50
R. Jackson: ‘Gottschalk of Louisiana’, preface to Piano Music of Louis
Moreau Gottschalk (New York, 1973)
W.T. Marrocco: ‘America’s First Nationalist Composer: Louis Moreau
Gottschalk (1829–1869)’, Scritti in onore di Luigi Ronga (Milan and
Naples, 1973), 293–313
L.A. Rubin: Gottschalk in Cuba (diss., Columbia U., 1974)
W.E. Korf: ‘Gottschalk’s One-Act Opera Scene, Escenas campestres’,
CMc, no.26 (1978), 62–73
J.G. Doyle: Louis Moreau Gottschalk 1829–1869: a Bibliographical Study
and Catalog of Works (Detroit, 1983)
W.E. Korf: The Orchestral Music of Louis Moreau Gottschalk (Henryville,
PA, 1983)
S. Berthier: Les voyages extraordinaires de Louis Moreau Gottschalk,
pianiste et aventurier (Lausanne, 1985)
R. Jackson: ‘A Gottschalk Collection Surveyed’, Notes, xlvi (1989–90),
352–75
C.W. Brockett: ‘Gottschalk in Madrid: a Tale of Ten Pianos’, MQ, lxxv
(1991), 279–315
C. Brocket: ‘Autobiographer versus Biographer: how Factual is
Gottschalk?’, Sonneck Society for American Music Bulletin, xix/3
(1993), 9–12
R. Hamel: Louis Moreau Gottschalk et son temps (1829–1869)
(Paris,1995)
S.F. Starr: Bamboula! The Life and Times of Louis Moreau Gottschalk
(New York, 1995)
Gottschalk of Aachen [Gottschalk
von Limburg, Godescalcus
Lintpurgensis]
(fl 1071–98). Priest and writer of sequences. He is perhaps best
remembered for his notarial work in the chancery of Emperor Henry IV,
whom he served from 1071 to 1084. During his service at the court he
drafted a series of epistles that defended the king's right of episcopal
investiture; these letters formed the core of a propaganda campaign waged
against Pope Gregory VII, who sought to curb lay participation in the
administration of the Church. Aspects of Gottschalk's political allegiance
can be detected in one of his compositions, the sequence Celi enarrant, on
the Division of the Apostles.
He was appointed provost of the church of St Servatins in Maastricht by
1087 and held the same post at the Church of Our Lady, Aachen, by 1098.
He retired to the abbey of Klingenmünster, where he composed an Office
(now lost) and two essays in honour of Irenaeus and Abundius, the patron
saints of the neighbouring monastery of Limburg-an-der-Hardt. An
oversight led Dreves to believe that Gottschalk was a monk there rather
than at Klingenmünster (see Erdmann and Gladiss). A 13th-century
necrology (D-AAst KK St. Marien 204) from the Church of Our Lady in
Aachen records the date of his death as 24 November, but the year is
unknown.
Since the monograph by Dreves in 1897 and the publication of the texts
(Analecta hymnica, i and liii), it has been customary to ascribe 23 or 24
extant sequences to Gottschalk. Such a large number of works would, by
itself, make him an important figure of the so-called transition period of the
sequence, but not all works are secure attributions. Five were claimed by
Gottschalk himself: Celi enarrant, Laus tibi, Christe (for St Mary
Magdalene), A solis ortu et occasu (on the Holy Cross), and the Marian
sequences Fecunde verbo and Exsulta exaltata. In addition, a manuscript
collection of his sequences still existed in Klingenmünster at the end of the
15th century; this has not survived, but the humanist Jacob Wimpheling's
description of the source, published in 1499, mentions three works not
claimed by the composer. 14 additions (all found in one 12th-century MS,
A-Wn 13314) were made by Dreves on the basis of similar concepts and
rhetorical technique, not of poetic form and metre, or melody. Two more
attributions come from Clemens Blume, to bring the total to 24 (full list in
Szövérffy). Dreves published seven melodies thought to be original; the
tunes of at least ten other sequences were borrowed either from
Gottschalk’s own works, for example, his Laus tibi, Christe for Mary
Magdalene, or from the earlier repertory, for example, the tune Eia turma.
In some cases the borrowed music creates important textual connections
between the associated chants, as demonstrated in the richly exegetical
relationship between his sequence Celi enarrant and its melodic source,
Alleluia, Non vos me.
In addition to his sequences, decrees and polemical letters, Gottschalk
also wrote six liturgical opuscula, or short essays, two of which have
important musical content. Addressing unnamed detractors who criticised
his sequences Fecunda verbo and Exsulta exaltata, Gottschalk mounted a
spirited defence of his compositions, in the course of which he gave a
glimpse of his compositional technique, the name of his teacher (‘master
Heinricus, who composed the respond Omnis lapis pretiosus’) and
provided explanations of his idiosyncratic theological views. Both of these
essays, along with his writings on St Irenaeus and St Abundius, are found
in an early 12th-century manuscript, A-Wn 917. The defence of Exsulta
exaltata in this source concludes with the controversial chant itself, notated
in neumes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.M. Dreves: Godescalcus Lintpurgensis: Gottschalk, Mönch von Limburg
an der Hardt, (Leipzig, 1897)
C. Erdmann and D. von Gladiss: ‘Gottschalk von Aachen im Dienste
Heinrichs IV.’, Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters, iii
(1939), 115–74
J. LeClercq: ‘Sermon sur la Divisio Apostolorum attribuable à Gottschalk
de Limbourg’, Sacris erudiri, vii (1955), 219–28
J. Szövérffy: Die Annalen der lateinischen Hymnendichtung, i
(Berlin,1964)
M. McGrade: ‘Gottschalk of Aachen, the Investiture Controversy, and
Music for the Feast of the Divisio apostolorum’, JAMS, xlix (1996),
351–408
LAWRENCE GUSHEE/MICHAEL McGRADE

Gottsched, Johann Christoph

(b Juditten, nr Königsberg [now Kaliningrad], 2 Feb 1700; d Leipzig, 12 Dec
1766). German dramatist, poet, literary critic and philosopher. He was a
leading figure in the literary reform movement of the German
Enlightenment before the mid-18th century. He received his early education
from his father, a Protestant minister. On 19 March 1714, before he was 15,
he entered Königsberg University to study theology and subsequently
philosophy, mathematics and the natural sciences. After earning a master's
degree in 1723 he fled his native land under threat of induction into the
Prussian army, moving to Leipzig. Two years later he began his university
career as a lecturer. In 1727 he headed the local Deutschübenden-
poetischen Gesellschaft, which he reorganized as a national society, the
Deutsche Gesellschaft. He hoped to model it on the Académie Française
and to create a decisive influence for the reform of German as a single
national language, but he did not succeed. At this time he founded two
weekly journals, Die vernünftigen Tadlerinnen (1725–6) and Der
Biedermann (1727–9), both important outlets for his maturing philosophy
based on reason and the imitation of nature, as well as for his efforts to
establish a reformed concept of the poetic arts. He was appointed
professor of poetry in 1730 and, in 1734, professor of logic and
metaphysics.
In 1730 Gottsched published his best-known literary work, Versuch einer
critischen Dichtkunst, which established his name in literary circles
throughout Europe. The first of his stage works, the tragedy Der sterbende
Cato, was performed in Leipzig in 1731. However, by 1727 he had become
adviser to the Leipzig theatre troupe of Johann and Caroline Neubers,
whom he guided in his reformed and essentially classical principles for a
German theatre. Most of the dramas presented by this group were written
by Gottsched or were his translations of French classical writers. Gottsched
was one of the first to urge the insertion of incidental music between the
acts of plays. J.A. Scheibe, for example, composed such music for
performances by the Neubers theatre of Corneille's Polyeucte and Racine's
Mithridate in 1738 (music lost). In 1735 Gottsched married Luise
Adelgunda Victoria Kulmus, well known in her own right as a writer,
translator, harpsichordist, lutenist and composer; she studied with J.L.
Krebs, a pupil of J.S. Bach. Gottsched's own relationship with Bach is
unknown. On three occasions he supplied Bach with texts for musical
settings: for the wedding of Christiana Sibylla Mencke (daughter of
Gottsched's mentor in Leipzig) to Peter Hohmann in 1725 a cantata, Auf!
süss entzückende Gewalt (music lost); the Trauer-Ode (bwv198) presented
in Leipzig on 17 October 1727 at the memorial ceremony for Christiane
Eberhardine, wife of the Elector of Saxony; and also the lost cantata,
Willkommen! Ihr herrschenden Götter der Erde (bwv Anh.13),
commissioned by university students in honour of the visit of the Saxon
King Augustus III as well as to observe the marriage of his daughter
Princess Amalia to Carlo IV of Sicily. Gottsched was elected three times to
the rectorship of the university, first in 1739. In 1749 he and his wife visited
Vienna, where they were warmly received at the court of Maria Theresa
and the attendant aristocratic society. His final years witnessed great
disappointments, partly because he failed to realize many of his goals and
partly as the result of a widely discussed philosophical disagreement with
the Swiss poets J.J. Bodmer and J.J. Breitlinger.
Gottsched was not a musician, and his numerous literary works concern
music only peripherally in his discussions of the poetic forms to the ode,
cantata and opera. Nevertheless, he was a major influence on the musical
thought of a number of German composers and theorists of the 18th
century. As a philosopher he was the spokesman for the final stages of
Rational philosophy based on the works of Leibniz and especially J.C.
Wolff. Wolff's philosophy was popularized in Gottsched's Erste Gründe der
gesammten Weltweisheit (Leipzig, 1733–4). Gottsched attracted wide
attention not only through his numerous published works, but also by the
loyalty of students attending his lectures on rhetoric, poetry and philosophy
at the university. Among those influenced in this way as students were
Scheibe, Mizler, J.A. Hiller and the philosopher A.G. Baumgarten.
Gottsched's goal was to reform the German language, literature and
theatre along national lines. He hoped to systematize a philosophical
concept of the arts based on imitating nature and the tasteful application of
the rhetorical arts. He criticized the unnatural and extreme language in
what he called the bombastic style of such writers as Lohenstein and
Hofmannswaldau. To a great extent his reform principles were as much
French as they were drawn from the works of Wolff, and he applied French
classical doctrine derived from such writers as Batteaux, whose Traité des
beaux arts (1746) he translated in 1751. In the Critische Dichtkunst, by
rules of reason and by example, Gottsched formulated a scientific, classical
method of creation for all of the poetic arts. The Baroque rationalism of
imitating emotional states, the Affections, received considerable emphasis
as a goal of these arts. Rhetorical doctrine was the mechanism by which
this goal was to be reached, and the centrality of the rules of rhetoric to
Gottsched's reforms was in one sense the final outcome of more than a
century of reawakened interest in rhetoric by German Baroque writers on
music as well as the literary arts. Gottsched's most controversial stand on
music concerns his absolute rejection of opera (see Birke, 1960), which he
described as ‘the most absurd work ever discovered by human
intelligence’, and condemned for several reasons: it was a new invention
without precedent in ancient poetic forms; its text did not follow the rules of
tragedy or comedy as given by Aristotle and others; it was unnatural, in
violation of the rules of imitation of nature; and its text and music, as well
as staging, were immoral and often indecent. Gottsched's anti-opera stand
derived much of its vitriol from French writers, and he drew support from La
Bruyère, Racine, Boileau and especially St Evremond. Yet the strength of
Gottsched's reputation and the forcefulness of his own rhetoric could not
be ignored. His criticisms of opera stimulated many discussions from
musicians. Mizler, for example, though a pupil and admirer, was compelled
to take issue with Gottsched when reprinting his article on opera in his own
Musicalische Bibliothek, where he also included the essays on the ode and
the cantata. The same applies to J.A. Scheibe, also Gottsched's pupil and
the musician most powerfully influenced by him. In his Critischer Musikus
(modelled in title as well as method on Gottsched's Critische Dichtkunst)
Scheibe rejected Gottsched's views on opera. Clearly, while Gottsched had
an intimate familiarity with opera texts (his own library included some 660
librettos), he had experienced very little opera in the theatre, and there is
no evidence that he appreciated the distinctions of style and expression
between French, Italian and German operas. However, much of his
criticism of operatic weakness of form and style was valid, and his
extremism, if not leading directly to the opera reforms of Gluck, certainly
raised the issues that made such reforms inevitable.
WRITINGS
Ausführliche Redekunst (Hanover, 1728)
Grundriss zu einer vernunfftmässigen Redekunst (Hanover, 1729)
Versuch einer critischen Dichtkunst für die Deutschen (Leipzig, 1730)
Bayträge zur critischen Historie der deutschen Sprache, Poesie und
Beredsamkeit (Leipzig, 1732–44)
Erste Gründe der gesammten Weltweisheit (Leipzig, 1733–4)
Deutsche Schaubühne nach den Regeln und Exempeln der Alten (Leipzig,
1740–45)
Grundlegung einer deutschen Sprachkunst (Leipzig, 1748)
Vorübungen der Beredsamkeit zum Gebrauch der Gymnasien und
grössern Schulen aufgesetzet (Leipzig, 1754)
Nöthiger Vorrath zur Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst
(Leipzig, 1757–65)
Handlexikon oder Kurzgefasstes Wörterbuch der schönen Wissenschaften
und freyen Künste (Leipzig, 1760)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 J.A. Scheibe: Der critische Musikus (Hamburg, 1738–40, 2/1745/R)
L.C. Mizler: Neu eröffnete musikalische Bibliothek (Leipzig, 1739–54/R)
T.W. Danzel: Gottsched und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1848/R)
E. Reichel: ‘Gottsched und Johann Adolph Scheibe’, SIMG, ii (1900–01),
654–68
E. Reichel, ed.: Gesammelte Schriften von Johann Christoph Gottsched
(Berlin, 1903–6)
E. Reichel: Gottsched (Berlin, 1908–12)
H. Goldschmidt: Die Musikästhetik des 18. Jahrhunderts (Zürich, 1915/R)
W. Serauky: Die musikalische Nachahmungsästhetik in Zeitraum von 1700
bis 1850 (Münster, 1929/R)
F. Wöhlke: Lorenz Christoph Mizler: ein Beitrag zur musikalischen
Gelehrtengeschichte des 18. Jahrhunderts (Würzburg, 1940)
J. Birke: ‘Gottsched's Opera Criticism and its Literary Sources’, AcM, xxxii
(1960), 194–200
J. Birke: Christian Wolffs Metaphysik und die zeitgenössische Literatur
und Musiktheorie: Gottsched, Scheibe, Mizler (Berlin, 1966)
A. Schneiderheinze: ‘Über Bachs Umgang mit Gottscheds Versen’,
Wissenschaftliche Konferenz, Internationales Bach-Fest III: Leipzig
1975, 91–8
G. Stiller: ‘Johann Sebastian Bach und Johann Christoph Gottsched: eine
beachtliche Gemeinsamkeit’, Musik und Kirche, xlvi (1976), 166–72
S. Kross: ‘Mattheson und Gottsched’, New Mattheson Studies, ed. G.J.
Buelow and H.J. Marx (Cambridge, 1983), 327–44
W. Rieck: ‘Zum Verhältnis von Musikkritik und Poetologie Gottscheds’,
Neue Aspekte zur Musikästhetik und Musikgeschichte im 18.
Jahrhundert: Potsdam 1983, 40–50
GEORGE J. BUELOW

Gottuvādyam.
See Vīnā, §6.

Gottwald, Clytus
(b Bad Salzbrunn [now Szczawno-Zdrój], Silesia, 20 Nov 1925). German
musicologist, choir director and composer. He studied singing with Hüsch,
choir directing with Kurt Thomas, and musicology at the universities of
Tübingen and Frankfurt, with sociology, Protestant theology and folklore as
subsidiary subjects. In 1961 he received the doctorate at Frankfurt under
Helmuth Osthoff with a dissertation proving through style criticism that
Ghiselin and Verbonnet were the same person; he has also edited the
complete works of that composer. He was Kantor at St Paul's in Stuttgart
(1958–70) and in 1960 he founded the Stuttgart Schola Cantorum, which
he led until it disbanded in 1990. He was adviser for new music for the
South German Radio in Stuttgart (1969–88). In 1972 Pierre Boulez
selected him to help in the planning of the Centre Beaubourg in Paris. His
musicological estate is held by the Paul Sacher Stiftung.
WORKS
7 Spruchmotetten (Silesius), chorus, 1956; Missa super ‘Anastaseos himera’,
chorus, org, 1957; Fragmente (G. Benn), chorus, 2 pf, 1958; De profundis, chorus,
tape, 1962; Über das, über ein verschwinden (Boulez), chorus, 1970 [on chord from
P. Boulez: Le visage nuptial]
Vocal arrs.: M. Ravel: Soupir; A. Berg: Die Nachtigall; G. Mahler: Ich bin der Welt
abhanden gekommen (F. Rückert); O. Messiaen: Louange à l'éternité de Jesus; C.
Debussy: Angelus

Principal publishers: Durand, Universal Edition

WRITINGS
‘Hallelujah’ und die Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns: ausgewählte
Schriften (Stuttgart, 1998) [H]
‘Johannes Ghiselin – Janne Verbonnet: some Traces of his Life’, MD, xv
1961), 105–11
Johannes Ghiselin – Johannes Verbonnet: stilkritische Untersuchungen
zum Problem ihrer Identität (diss., U. of Frankfurt, 1961; Wiesbaden,
1962)
Codices musici: die Handschriften der Württembergischen
Landesbibliothek Stuttgart, 1st ser., i (Wiesbaden, 1964); Die
Handschriften der ehemaligen Königlichen Hofbibliothek, 2nd ser., vi/1
(Wiesbaden, 1965)
Die Musikhandschriften der Universitätsbibliothek München (Wiesbaden,
1968)
‘Antoine Brumels Messe “Et ecce terrae motus”’, AMw, xxvi (1969), 236–47
‘Humanisten-Stammbücher als musikalische Quellen’, Helmuth Osthoff zu
seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. W. Stauder, U. Aarburg and P.
Calm (Tutzing, 1969), 89–103
‘Geistliche Chormusik: politische Tendenzen der geistlichen Musik, ii’,
Musik zwischen Engagement und Kunst: Graz 1971, 31–42
‘Politische Tendenzen der geistlichen Musik’, Über Musik und Politik, ed. R.
Stephan (Mainz, 1971), 39–47
‘Bausteine zu einer Theorie der neuen Vokalmusik’, Festschrift für einen
Verleger: Ludwig Strecker zum 90. Geburtstag, ed. C. Dahlhaus
(Mainz, 1973), 259–69
‘Der Ketzer der Wiener Schule: über die Frauenchöre von Theodor W.
Adorno’, Zeitschrift für Musiktheorie, iv/1 (1973), 39–48
Die Musikhandschriften der Staats- und Stadtbibliothek Augsburg
(Wiesbaden, 1974)
‘Fragments d’une analyse de Song Books (par John Cage)’, La musique
en projet, ed. B. Marger and S. Benmussa (Paris, 1975), 117–25
‘Leonard Bernsteins Messe oder die Konstruktion der Blasphemie’,
Melos/NZM, ii (1976), 299–308
‘Steve Reich: Signale zwischen Exotik und Industrie’, Avantgarde, Jazz,
Pop: Darmstadt 1977, 24–30
‘John Cage und Marcel Duchamp’, John Cage, i, Musik-Konzepte (1978,
2/1990), 132–46
Die Musikhandschriften der Universitätsbibliothek und anderer öffentlicher
Sammlungen in Freiburg im Breisgau und Umgebung (Wiesbaden,
1979)
‘Fragment über Messiaen’, Olivier Messiaen, Musik-Konzepte, no.28
(1982), 78–91
‘Lasso-Josquin-Dufay: zur Ästhetik des heroischen Zeitalters’, Josquin des
Prés, Musik-Konzepte, nos.26–7 (1982), 36–69
‘Auf den Flügeln des Gesanges: zu Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft
des Chorgesanges’, ÖMz, xxxix (1984), 130–39
‘Swesdoliki: die unbeantwortete Frage’, Igor Strawinsky, Musik-Konzepte,
nos.34–5 (1984), 65–79
‘Bach, Kagel und die Theologie des Atheismus’, Johann Sebastian Bach:
die Passionen, Musik-Konzepte, nos.50–51 (1986), 121–39
‘Brian Ferneyhough ou la métaphysique du positivisme’, Contrechamps,
no.8 (1988), 64–78
‘ … denn ihre Werke folgen ihnen nach: zur Ästhetik der Musik des
heroischen Zeitalters (II)’, Das musikalische Kunstwerk: … Festschrift
Carl Dahlhaus, ed. H. Danuser and others (Laaber, 1988), 317–32 [H]
Die Handschriften des Germanischen Nationalmuseums Nürnberg
(Wiesbaden, 1988)
‘Vom Schönen im Wahren’, Helmut Lachenmann, Musik-Konzepte,
nos.61–2 (1988), 3–11
‘Hallelujah und die Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns’, Kagel – 1991,
ed. W. Klüppelholz (Cologne, 1991), 155–67 [H]
Papiermarken der Landgrafenschaft Hessen-Kassel 1590–1660 (Kassel,
1991)
‘Von Heissenbüttel, dem Radio und neuen Musik’, Schrift, Ecriture,
Geschrieben, Gelesen: für Helmut Heissenbüttel zum siebzigsten
Geburtstag, ed. C. Weiss (Stuttgart, 1991), 100–08
‘Möglichkeiten geistlicher Musik’, Wüttembergische Blätter für
Kirchenmusik, lix (1992), 12–21 [H]
‘Mythos Bach’, Bach und die Moderne: Brunswick 1992, 9–19
‘Choral Music and the Avant-Garde’, Choral Music Perspectives: Dedicated
to Eric Ericson, ed. L. Reimars and B. Wallner (Stockholm, 1993),
119–35 [H]
Katalog der Musikalien in der Schermar-Bibliothek Ulm (Wiesbaden, 1993)
‘Palestrina: “L'homme armé”’, Palestrina zwischen Démontage und
Rettung, Musik-Konzepte, no.86 (1994), 43–59 [H]
‘Traum und Konstruktion’, ‘Laudatio auf Heinz Holliger’, Die Musik und ihr
Preis, ed. R. von Canal and G. Weiss (Regensburg, 1994), 108–16,
320–30 [H]
‘Lachenmann und die Stuttgarter Konkreten’, Semiosis, nos.77–8 (1995),
111–21 [H]
‘Musica crucis: zu Schnebels musikalischer Theologie’, Musik-Texte,
nos.57–8 (1995), 93–7 [H]
‘Boulez, Nono und die Idee der Perfektion’, Pierre Boulez, Musik-Konzepte,
nos.89–90 (1995), 132–53 [H]
Die Musikhandschriften der Gesamthochschul-Bibliothek Kassel,
Landesbibliothek und Murhardsche Bibliothek der Stadt Kassel
(Wiesbaden, 1997)
EDITIONS
John Ghiselin – Verbonnet: Opera omnia, CMM, xxiii (1961–8)
HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT

Göttweig.
Benedictine abbey near Krems, Lower Austria. It was founded in 1083 by
Bishop Altmann of Passau as a monastery for prebendaries. In 1094 it was
taken over by Benedictines from St Blasien in the Black Forest, and rapidly
became an important centre of religious and intellectual life. After a period
of decline during the Reformation, Göttweig flourished in the Baroque era,
particularly under the abbot Gottfried Bessel (1714–49), who, after a fire in
1718, instigated the rebuilding of the monastery in Baroque style. Despite
the misfortunes which befell the monastery during the Enlightenment and
the Napoleonic Wars, and the disruption caused by World War II, Göttweig
remained an important religious and cultural centre. It has a long musical
tradition; choral singing was fostered from the abbey’s foundation, and its
choir school dates from the Middle Ages. By the 15th century an organist
had been appointed, and polyphony was sung in the 16th century. An
inventory of 1612 lists works by many important Dutch, German and Italian
composers; in the mid-17th century the repertory became dominated by
Venetian music. Johann Stadlmayr dedicated the second part of his
Musica super cantum gregorianum (1626) to Georg Falb, abbot from 1612
to 1631. The latter was succeeded by David Gregor Corner (1631–48),
who had compiled the comprehensive Gross Catholisch Gesangbuch
(1625).
During the second half of the 17th century the abbey was influenced by the
imperial court in Vienna; Leopold I stayed at Göttweig in 1677, and his
court organists Poglietti and Kerll visited the abbey, teaching monks who
subsequently took charge of music there. The earliest known composer in
Göttweig is Johannes Baptista Gletle (1653–99), son of J.M. Gletle, who
was Kapellmeister of the Augsburg Cathedral. The most outstanding of
Göttweig’s composers was J.G. Zechner (1716–78), organist from 1736 to
1743, who, in addition to composing church music and instrumental works,
was responsible for ceremonial music in honour of abbots Bessel and
Odilo Piazol. Under his influence Göttweig became an important centre of
the Classical style.
In addition to their religious duties, the monks gave concerts in the
monastery, performing symphonies, divertimentos, oratorios and even
operas. In the 1760s the symphonies of Joseph and Michael Haydn were
played, and a pupil of the latter, Virgil Fleischmann (1783–1863), became
rector chori. Fleischmann’s successor, Heinrich Wondratsch, compiled a
thematic catalogue in 1830, containing the entire repertory performed since
the early 18th century; this includes numerous symphonies and other
works by Joseph Haydn.
In the 19th century, up to about 1880 when the scope of church music
became restricted by the puritanical Cecilian movement, music played an
important part in the church services. In addition, Beethoven’s symphonies
were performed by the monks, and the playing of string quartets was
especially cultivated. After World War II, Baroque and Classical music was
again regularly performed at Göttweig, and interest in the musical tradition
of the monastery revived.
Despite many wartime losses (including the autographs of four Haydn
symphonies), Göttweig’s music archive is one of the most important
collections in Austria. It consists largely of church and instrumental music of
the 18th and 19th centuries, both in manuscript and in print, in addition to a
part of the library of the Viennese collector Aloys Fuchs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (H.C.R. Landon)
P.A. Janitsch: Kurz abgefasste Geschichte des uralten Benedictiner-
Stiftes Göttweig (Vienna, 1820)
P.R. Johandl: ‘Die Orgel in der Stiftskirche zu Göttweig’, ZI, xxxii (1911–
12)
P.H. Siegl: Das Benediktinerstift Göttweig (Gottweig, 1914)
P.L. Koller: Die literarische Tätigkeit im Stift Göttweig 1603–1924 (St
Pölten, 1925)
P.L. Koller: Abtei Göttweig (Göttweig, 1952)
F.W. Riedel: ‘Musikpflege im Benediktinerstift Göttweig (Niederösterreich)
um 1600’, KJb, xlvi (1962), 83–97
F.W. Riedel: ‘Die Kirchenmusik im Benediktinerstift Göttweig’, Singende
Kirche, xiii (1966), 196–202
F.W. Riedel: ‘Die Libretto-Sammlung im Benediktinerstift Göttweig’, FAM,
xiii (1966), 105–11
F.W. Riedel, ed.: Der Göttweiger thematische Katalog von 1830 (Munich,
1979)
FRIEDRICH W. RIEDEL

Götz, Franz
(b Strašice, nr Rokycany, bap. 29 July 1755; d Kroměříž, bur. 17 Dec
1815). Bohemian composer and string virtuoso. He was trained as a
chorister at the shrine of Svatá Hora, Příbram, and studied in Prague at the
Jesuit seminary of St Václav, which he entered in 1768. It is thought that he
studied the violin with his elder brother Antonín (d 1804), an excellent
violinist. He graduated as Bachelor of Theology and prepared for his entry
into the Benedictine order, but suddenly changed his plans and accepted
the post of first violinist in the Brno theatre. In the 1770s he made a concert
tour of Silesia, and in Breslau became acquainted with Dittersdorf, who
engaged him (?1778) as first violinist for Bishop Schaffgotsch in Javorník
(Jauernig). When the orchestra was disbanded the recommendation of
Baron Kaschnitz gained him the post of Kapellmeister of the Brno theatre
for about two years. In April 1788 he became Kapellmeister to the
Archbishop of Olomouc, Cardinal Anton Theodor Colloredo-Waldsee
(1777–1811), with an annual salary of 550 florins. Apart from several
concert tours to Prague, he remained until his death at the archbishop’s
Kroměříž residence or in Olomouc, where his employer was one of the
main patrons of the local collegium musicum. In 1790 he attended the
coronation of Leopold II in Prague and aroused great interest as a violinist
and composer, gaining the notice of both Mozart and Salieri. The following
year, at the coronation of Franz II, he had much success as a viol player. In
1794 he applied unsuccessfully to become Kapellmeister at Olomouc
Cathedral. According to Dlabacž, Götz composed many sonatas, duets,
trios and concertos for the viol, which at the time was played ‘in various
places in Bohemia’. However, in Czech archives no music for viola da
gamba by Götz has been found, whereas many of his works for viola
 d’amore are known; it seems that Dlabacž may have been mistaken. Only
a negligible amount of his other instrumental music mentioned by Dlabacž
(sonatas, concertos, symphonies) has survived. Götz owned a valuable
music collection, valued at 150 florins at his death.
WORKS
MSS in CZ-KRa, unless otherwise stated

7 masses; cant., A-Wgm; 11 Latin arias, duets and choruses; aria, Se d’una alma
costante
Concerto, c, pf, A-Wgm; 6 duets, va d’amore; 5 nocturnes; 12 écossaises; 6
minuets and Musica à la turca, C

BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.J. Dlabacž: Allgemeines historisches Künstler Lexikon (Prague, 1815/R)
H. Mendel and A. Reissmann, eds.: Musikalisches Conversations-
Lexikon (Berlin, 1870–80, 3/1890–91/R)
C. d’Elvert: Geschichte der Musik in Mähren und Oesterreich-Schlesien
(Brno, 1873)
A. Breitenbacher: Hudební archiv kolegiátního kostela sv. Mořice v
Kroměříži [The musical archives of the collegiate church of St Maurice
in Kroměříž] (Kroměříž, 1928), 154 [includes catalogue of Götz’s vocal
compositions]
J. Sehnal: ‘Die Musikkapelle des Olmützer Erzbischofs Anton Theodor
Colloredo-Waldsee 1777–1811’, Haydn Yearbook 1978, 132–50, esp.
134–5
JIŘÍ SEHNAL

Götz, Johann [Joes] Michael

(bap. Mannheim, 7 Feb 1740; d Worms, 15 Feb 1810). German music
publisher. By his own account he founded a firm of music engravers in
Mannheim in 1768, but documentary evidence of his publications exists
only from 1773. He soon incorporated a music shop into his publishing
enterprise, buying new publications for it on his travels, especially in Paris;
the publisher’s catalogue he printed for the Frankfurt book fair includes
works by Gossec, Rigel, Hüllmandel and Boccherini. On 23 August 1776
Elector Carl Theodor granted his application for an exclusive patent for 20
years within the Palatinate, which was extended to include Bavaria in 1782.
In view of the rapid rise of Götz’s publishing business, Mozart’s comment
that he could not get his piano and violin sonatas printed in Mannheim (28
February 1778) is surprising. Eschstruth praised Götz’s prospectus
(Musicalische Bibliothek, i, 1784), and he was soon able to open branches
in Munich and Düsseldorf. His business began to suffer during the war
which began in 1794, and the firm moved to Worms in 1799. The extended
patent in the Palatinate was transferred in 1802 to his partner Joseph
Abelshauser, who directed the firm without success until 1819.
The main publications of the firm’s finest years (1776–94) were
Holzbauer’s Günther von Schwarzburg (score, 1777), Benda’s melodramas
Medea and Ariadne auf Naxos and symphonies by Cannabich and Fränzl.
The catalogue consisted predominantly of piano music, and included works
by the Mannheim composers L.A. Lebrun, Johann Toeschi, G.J. Vogler,
J.B. Wendling and Peter Winter. The firm also published Zumsteeg’s songs
to Schiller’s play Die Räuben (1782) and the first edition of Beethoven’s
Variations for piano on a march by Dressler (1782), the composer’s first
published work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookSF
DeutschMPN
F. Walter: ‘Der Musikverlag des Michael Götz in Mannheim’, Mannheimer
Geschichtsblätter, xvi (1915), 36
H. Schneider: Der Musikverleger Johann Michael Götz (1740–1810) und
seine kurfürstlich privilegirte Notenfabrique (Tutzing, 1989)
ROLAND WÜRTZ

Goudimel [Godimel, Godimell,

Godymel, Jodimel, Jodymel,
Jodrymel, Jodimey etc.], Claude
(b Besançon, 1514–20; d Lyons, 28–31 Aug 1572). French composer,
music publisher and editor. The suggestion that he was Palestrina's
teacher has long been discounted. He was studying at Paris University in
1549 when chansons by him first appeared in print. In 1551 he became a
proofreader with the publisher Nicolas Du Chemin, and from 1552 to 1555
he was Du Chemin's partner (although even by this later date he was still
described as ‘estudiant en l'Université de Paris’). He played an important
role as both composer and editor in the time he worked for Du Chemin.
The Moduli undecim festorum (RISM 15547; ed. in RRMR, lvi, 1983), for
instance, includes as part of its liminary materials a Latin poem by
Goudimel in which he counselled his readers to ‘buy this book with money,
you will see (believe me) no uncorrected work’. His music was well
represented in this book as well as in others he prepared for his employer.
Through Jean Brinon, to whom he dedicated his first book of psalms
(1551), he met Ronsard, and he later set several sonnets and odes from
Ronsard's Amours (he contributed one of the ‘model’ sonnets to the
famous musical Supplément, issued by Du Chemin in 1552, to Ronsard's
great cycle). His most fruitful years were from 1551 to 1558, when he
published most of his chansons, psalms, motets, odes and masses. From
1557 he lived at the Huguenot city of Metz, where he worked with the poet
and dramatist Louis des Masures on his first complete psalter (1564). He
must have left Metz by 1567. His correspondence with the humanist poet
Paul Schede, alias Melissus, dates from this period. He addressed his last
letter to him from Lyons on 23 August 1572. A week later he was a victim of
the St Bartholomew's Day massacres that between 28 and 31 August
decimated the Huguenot population of the city.
He continued his editorial work during the last years of his life. In 1572 the
Lyonnaise printer Jean II de Tournes brought out an edition of Arcadelt's
chansons (L'excellence des chansons musicales) with spiritual contrafacta
texts prepared by Goudimel (the book was reprinted in Geneva in 1586).
 Goudimel is noted principally for his psalms. They are of three types: a free
motet style, in which the Genevan melodies are generally used either as a
cantus firmus or as motifs in imitative paraphrase; strict cantus-firmus
settings in which only the first verse is set, the traditional melody appearing
throughout in one voice (usually the superius) while the other voices act as
imitative counterpoint to it; while in the third the Genevan melodies are
(usually) in the tenor part of note-against-note harmonizations. There are
67 psalm motet settings, in eight volumes published between 1551 and
1566. The first volume does not use the traditional Genevan settings; from
the third volume (1557) onwards the Genevan melodies are used to
varying degrees. There are complete settings of the Psalter in the note-
against-note and imitative styles, although the order in which they
appeared has been a matter of some confusion (see Pidoux, 1958). The
Psaumes of 1562 (of which the bassus partbook only survives) contains 82
settings of the note-against-note type. The 150 pseaumes de David (1564)
consists mostly of note-against-note settings, but melodies that were used
in more than one psalm are set more elaborately on their second
appearance and 28 of the settings are in this imitative style; some of the
latter settings are actually by Thomas Champion (Mithou). The volume was
reprinted in 1565 with a supplement containing the complete psalm texts.
The Pseaumes mises en rime françoise (1565) is a modified version of the
1564 publication: it not only adds peripheral texts common to many
editions of the Genevan Psalter, but there are also some musical
modifications, possibly made by Genevan musicians. The publication of
1580, containing works of the imitative type, is a reprint of a volume
published by Le Roy & Ballard in 1568 that re-used some of the
contrapuntal settings from 1564.
Goudimel's Latin works – five masses, three Magnificat settings and ten
motets – are extremely concise and concentrated; this is specially true of
the masses ‘Audi filia’ and ‘De mes ennuys’. Many of these works set texts
from the Catholic liturgy, and they share much with sacred music by French
contemporaries such as Certon and Maillard. Consistently imitative in their
textures and featuring clearly-profiled, triadic melodies, the musical style of
these works is also recalled in Goudimel's more motet-like settings of
French psalms. He also composed over six dozen secular songs and
chansons spirituelles, works of intrinsic interest to anyone concerned with
the history of French music of the mid-16th century: in these works,
procedurally distinct from the psalm settings, his output strikingly reveals
the continued interest of French composers in counterpoint and polyphonic
elaboration of borrowed material.
WORKS

Edition:Claude Goudimel: Oeuvres complètes, ed. P. Pidoux and others, Institute of

Medieval Music, Gesamtausgaben, iii (Brooklyn, 1967–83) [P]all except anthologies
published in Paris unless otherwise stated

psalms
Premier livre, contenant 8 pseaumes de David traduictz par Clément Marot … plus
les commandements de Dieu, 3–5vv (1551)
Premier livre de psalmes de David, avec les comandemens de Dieu …
nouvellement par luy mesme revu, corrigé, et augmenté du psalme, Quand Israel,
4, 5vv (1557); P i
Tiers livre contenant 8 pseaumes de David traduitz en rythme françoise … par
Clément Marot … (en forme de motetz), 4, 5vv (1557); P iii
Second livre de psalmes de David … nouvellement revu et corrigé par le dit auteur,
4–6vv (1559); P ii
Quart livre contenant 8 pseaumes … avec le cantique de Symeon … (en forme de
motetz), 4, 5vv (1560); P iv
Cinquiesme livre contenant 10 pseaumes (en forme de motets), 4, 5vv (1562); P v
Psaumes … ‘dont le subject se peu chanter en taille ou en dessus’, 4vv (1562)
Les 150 pseaumes de David nouvellement mis en musique, 4vv (1564, 2/1565); P
ix
Les pseaumes mis en rime françoise, par Clément Marot et Théodore de Bèze, mis
en musique, 4vv (Geneva, 1565) [rev. edn of Les 150 pseaumes (1564)]
Sixième livre de pseaumes de David, mis en musique en forme de motetz, 4vv
(1565); P vi
Septième livre de pseaumes de David, mis en musique en forme de motetz, 4vv
(1566); P vii
Huitième livre de pseaumes de David, mis en musique en forme de motetz, 4vv
(1566); P viii
Les 150 pseaumes de David, nouvellement mis en musique, 4vv (Geneva, 1580); P
x
7 psalms, 4, 6vv, 155514, 155516, 15976
masses
Missa ad imitationem cantionis ‘Il ne se treuve en amitié’, 4vv (1552); P xii
Missae tres … ad imitationem modulorum: ut sequens tabula indicabit: ‘Audi filia’ …
‘Tant plus ie metz’ … ‘De mes ennuys’, 4vv (1558); P xii

Missa ‘Le bien que j'ay’, 15582; P xii

other sacred vocal
[19] Chansons spirituelles de M.-A. de Muret, mises en musique, 4vv (1555), lost
3 Magnificat
10 motets, 3–5vv: 15511, 15533, 15547, 15578, 15652, 15653; 5 in P xi
chansons
Quinti Horatii Flacci poetae lyrici odae omnes quotquot carminum generibus
differunt ad rhythmos musicos redactae (1555), lost
Ode, in Opuscules poétiques de P. Enoc (Lyons, 1572); P xiii
69 chansons, 3, 4vv, 154925, 154926, 154927, 15507, 15509, 155010, 155011, 155012,
15519, 15524, 15526, 155320, 155420, 155421, 155615, 15579, 155712, 155715, 15592,
155910, 155912, 155913, 15615, 15624, 15722, 15739, 15741, 15772, 15773, 15837,
Corneille de Montfort: Instruction méthodique et fort facile pour apprendre la
musique pratique (Lyons, 1567); P xiii
BIBLIOGRAPHY
O. Douen: Clément Marot et le psautier huguenot (Paris, 1878–9/R)
M. Brenet: ‘Essai bio-bibliographique: Claude Goudimel’, Annales Franc-
Comtoises (1898), May–June, 5–43
F. Lesure: ‘Claude Goudimel, étudiant, correcteur et éditeur parisien’, MD,
ii (1948), 225–30
P.-A. Gaillard: ‘Bourgeois et Goudimel’, SMz, xc (1950), 96–100
 F. Lesure and G. Thibault: ‘Bibliographie des éditions musicales de
Nicolas Du Chemin (1549–1576)’, AnnM, i (1953), 269–373; iv (1956),
251–3; vi (1958–63), 403–6
P. Pidoux: ‘Notes sur quelques éditions des psaumes de Claude
Goudimel’, RdM, xlii (1958), 184–92
J.-M. Noailly: Claude Goudimel, Adrian Le Roy et les CL psaumes: Paris,
1562–1567 (diss., U. of St Etienne, 1988)
J.-P. Ouvrard: ‘Le sonnet ronsardien en musique: du Supplément de 1552
à 1580’, RdM, lxxiv (1988), 149–64
E. Weber: ‘Le style “nota contra notam” et ses incidences sur le choral
luthérien et sur le psautier huguenot’, JbLH, xxxii (1989), 73–93
L. Guillo: Les éditions musicales de la Renaissance lyonnaise (Paris,
1991)
M. Egan-Buffet: Les chansons de Claude Goudimel: analyses modales et
stylistiques (Ottawa, 1992) [incl. extensive work list for chansons]
F. Dobbins: Music in Renaissance Lyons (Oxford, 1992)
M. Egan-Buffet: ‘The French Chanson in the Second Half of the Sixteenth
Century: Claude Goudimel's Treatment of the Decasyllabic Line’,
Orlandus Lassus and his Time: Antwerp 1994 [Yearbook of the
Alamire Foundation, i (1995)], 315–26
PAUL-ANDRÉ GAILLARD/RICHARD FREEDMAN

Gougeon, Denis
(b Granby, PQ, 16 Nov 1951). Canadian composer. He studied musicology
and guitar (1971–5) at the Ecole Vincent-d’Indy in Montreal, and completed
BMus (1978) and MMus (1980) degrees in composition at the University of
Montreal, where his principal teachers were Andre Prévost and Serge
Garant. He taught for brief periods in the 1980s at the University of
Montreal and McGill University, but otherwise has earned a living from his
many commissions. In 1988 he was appointed to a one-year term as a
composer-in-residence with the Canadian Opera Company (which resulted
in the première of his opera An Expensive Embarrassment) and from 1989
to 1992 he served as the Montreal SO’s first composer-in-residence.
Gougeon has described himself as an intuitive composer, and has drawn
his inspiration from composers as diverse as Mozart and Messiaen. His
music is typically ebullient, energetic and virtuoso, but often has a
contrasting slower middle section that is poetic and reflective. Although
orientated towards atonality, his musical language is nevertheless
frequently consonant. Gougeon is a firm believer in the necessity of
communicating with a broad audience, and so writes in a directly appealing
manner, but with an intelligent, well-thought-out underlying structure.
(EMC2, J.-P. Vachon)
WORKS
(selective list)

Stage: Argile (music theatre), 1983, mime, inst ens, Vancouver, 24 April 1983; An
Expensive Embarrassment [Une certaine proposition] (chbr op, 1, T. J. Anderson,
after A. Chekhov: Predlozheniye [The proposal],) 1989, Toronto, 16 May 1989;
Emma B. (ballet), 1998, S, S, orch, Munich, 24 March 1999; incid music for plays
Vocal: Prophétie 2 (Gougeon, Bible: Revelation), S, perc, 1980; Voix intimes
(Gougeon), S, S, 4 cl, perc, 1981; Heureux qui, comme … (Gougeon), S, pic, eng
hn, bar sax, str qnt, db, perc, 1987; Chants du monde (folksong texts), S, S, vn, vc,
pf, 1993, rev. S, S, orch, 1996; Le diable et le champignon (M. Tremblay), nar, fl +
pic, cl + b cl, vn, va, vc, pf, perc, 1994
Orch: Conc. dello spirito, 1980; Dialogues, mar, orch, 1981; Le choral des anges,
pf, orch, 1984; Le jardin mystérieux, 1984; Eternité, S, orch, tape, 1985; Musique en
mémoire, S, S, orch, 1985; La fête sacrée, pic, 2 fl, a fl, str orch, 1987; Récit,
concert band, 1987; An Expensive Embarrassment Suite, 1989; Enfant de la terre
et du ciel étoilé, 1989; Jardin secret, eng hn, orch, 1989; A l’aventure, 1990; Fragile,
fixe, fugace, 1991; Un fleuve, une île, une ville, 1992; Primus tempus, 1993; Canto
del piccolo, pic, orch, 1996; Pf Conc., 1997; Concertino, gui, str orch, 1998
Chbr: Ludus, 4 perc, 1980; Chants de la nuit, 3 gui, hp, 1982; Et je danse, 2 perc,
1983; Plaisirs d’amour, pf, 1983; Rondeaujourd’hui, hpd, 1985; Lettre à un ami, fl +
pic, eng hn, vn, vc, pf, synth, perc, 1986; L’oiseau blessé, fl, 1987; Dix millions
d’anges, ondes martenot, str qnt, perc, 1988; Suite privée, fl + pic + a fl, vc, pf,
1988; 6 thèmes solaires (1990): Soleil, pf, Mercure, a sax, Venus (J.W. von
Goethe), v, pf, Terre, cl, pf, Mars, tpt, pf, Jupiter, hn, pf, Saturne, fl, Uranus, vn,
Neptune, va, pf, Pluton, vc; Fantaisie, fl, vib, 1991; 4 inventions, sax qt, 1993; Un
train pour l’enfer, 6 perc, inst ens, 1993; Une petite musique de nuit d’été, gui ens,
1994; Jeux de cordes, str qt, 1995; 3 mouvements, vn, pf, 1998

Principal publishers: Doberman-Yppan, Musigraphe

ROBIN ELLIOTT

Gough, Hugh (Percival Henry)

(b Heptonstall, Yorkshire, 31 Jan 1916; d New York, 14 April 1997). English
maker of clavichords, harpsichords, pianos and lutes. He was educated in
London at Westminster School and University College. Gough became
interested in early keyboard instruments in 1933, and after making his first
clavichord in 1935–6 he took clavichord lessons with Arnold Dolmetsch.
During this period he worked on instruments in Benton Fletcher’s
collection, the start of a lifelong interest in restoration. Recognizing the
tonal superiority of antique instruments, Gough also studied examples in
other private collections and museums. In 1939–40 he made a five-octave
clavichord suitable for the Classical repertoire, unlike the smaller
instruments then fashionable. While in service with the RAF in Egypt he
made a small instrument, perhaps the first modern fretted clavichord,
completed in 1944. After the war he returned to London where, working
alone or with one or two assistants, he made clavichords, harpsichords,
virginals, spinets and, in 1954, a reconstruction of a Cembal d’amour from
18th-century descriptions of this lost instrument. A few of his harpsichords
included the then nearly obligatory 16' stop and registration pedals, but
most were smaller instruments in common with the majority of historical
harpsichords. Although Gough made few copies of specific antique
instruments, he was a pioneer in the application of historical principles of
design and construction. He was also a leader in the revival of the early
piano, first through restoring antique specimens, and then by making new
instruments, beginning in 1952–3 with one in the style of J.A. Stein. He
was a mentor to many younger makers, including Frank Hubbard who
worked for him in 1948. Ten years later, discouraged about his prospects in
England, Gough went to America and for five months worked in Boston for
Hubbard and his partner William Dowd. He soon established a workshop in
New York, but for several years shuttled between there and London. By
1962 he had settled permanently in New York, where, while continuing to
build and restore keyboard instruments, he began to make lutes. During
the 1970s he was active in promoting concerts of early music and became
prominent as a dealer of antique instruments.
WRITINGS
‘The Classical Grand Pianoforte, 1700–1830’, PRMA, lxxvii (1950–51), 41–
50
‘Clavichord’, ‘Harpsichord: Terminology, History’, Grove5
‘Towards a Theory of the Design and Construction of Musical Instruments,
with Special Reference to Those of the Past’, Ruckers klavecimbels
en copieën: Antwerp 1977, 72–7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W.J. Zuckermann: The Modern Harpsichord (New York, 1969)
C.D. Harris: ‘Hugh Gough’, American Organist, xxii/1 (1987), 62–3
J. Koster and J. Barnes: ‘Hugh Gough’, GSJ, li (1998), 7–11
JOHN KOSTER

Gough, John
(d 1543). English music printer and publisher. He printed Myles
Coverdale’s Goostly Psalmes and Spirituall Songes. Long conjectured on
textual grounds to date from just before Gough’s death, this work has been
located in John Rastell’s will, suggesting a publication date of before 20
April 1536. It employs the same type originally used by Rastell, with whom
Gough had business connections; no other piece of music printing by
Gough has survived. He worked at the ‘Sign of the Mermaid’, Lombard
Street, London.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Humphries-SmithMP
A.H. King: ‘The Significance of John Rastell in Early Music Printing’, The
Library, 5th ser., xxvi (1971), 197–214
R.J. Roberts: ‘John Rastell's Inventory of 1538’, The Library, 6th ser., i
(1979), 34–42
MIRIAM MILLER

Goulart, Simon
(b Senlis, 20 Oct 1543; d Geneva, 3 Feb 1628). French music publisher.
He studied law in Paris but then devoted himself to the Reformation
movement. He left Paris for Geneva in 1566 and was ordained there on 20
October. He carried out his ministry first at Chancy and Cartigny, and then,
after serving in several French parishes, was appointed in 1571 to St
Gervais, Geneva. He succeeded De Bèze as head of the Church in
Geneva on the latter’s death in 1605. Between about 1576 and 1597 he
published works by Lassus, Arcadelt, Crecquillon, Gérard de Turnhout,
Jean de Castro, Noé Faignient, Goudimel, Séverin Cornet, Guillaume Boni,
Antoine de Bertrand and others, with modified, and in some cases new,
texts. The only composer whose works he published in their original form
was Jean Servin. All the known Genevan music printers of this time printed
his works (Jean Le Royer, Pierre de Saint-André, Jean II de Tournes) and
some of them were commissioned by foreign booksellers (Charles Pesnot
in Lyons or Jérôme Commelin in Heidelberg). The prefaces he wrote to his
publications (in 1597 under the pseudonym of ‘Louis Mongard’) throw light
on relations between theologians and musicians.
EDITIONS
O. de Lassus: Thrésor de musique d’Orlande de Lassus contenant ses
chansons, 4–6vv (Geneva, 15764)
O. de Lassus: Premier [–Second] livre du meslange des pseaumes et
cantiques, 3vv (Geneva, 15772-3)
J. Servin: Premier [–Second] livre de chansons nouvelles, 4–8vv (Lyons,
1578)
J. Servin: Meslanges de chansons nouvelles, 4vv (Lyons, 1578)
G. Boni: Sonets chrestiens … premier [–second] livre, 4vv (Geneva,
1578/9)
J. Servin: Psalmi Davidis a G. Buchanano versibus expressi, 4–8vv
(Lyons, 1579)
A. de Bertrand: Premier [–Second] livre de sonets chrestiens mis en
musique, 4vv (Lyons, 1580)
O. de Lassus: Theatrum musicum … liber primus [–secundus], 4–5vv
(Geneva, 15803-4)
O. de Lassus: Cinquante pseaumes de David, 5vv (Heidelberg and
Geneva, 15976)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L.-C. Jones: Simon Goulart (Geneva, 1917)
E. Droz: ‘Simon Goulart, éditeur de musique’, Bibliothèque d’humanisme
et Renaissance, xiv (1952), 265–76
C.S. Adams: ‘Simon Goulart (1543–1628), Editor of Music, Scholar and
Moralist’, Studies in Musicology in Honor of Otto E. Albrecht, ed. J.W.
Hill (Kassel, 1980), 125–41
P. Broisat-Richard: La musique à Genève au XVIe siècle (diss., U. of St
Etienne, 1981)
L. Guillo: Les éditions musicales de la Renaissance Lyonnaise (Paris,
1991), 98–103, 455–9
PAUL-ANDRÉ GAILLARD/LAURENT GUILLO

Gould, Glenn (Herbert)

(b Toronto, 25 Sept 1932; d Toronto, 4 Oct 1982). Canadian pianist, writer
and composer. He studied theory (1940–47), the organ (1942–9) and the
piano (1943–52, with Alberto Guerrero) at the Toronto (later Royal)
Conservatory of Music, earning his Associate Diploma by the age of 12. He
made his orchestral début in 1946 and his professional recital début in
1947, and was soon known across Canada through concerts, radio (from
1950), television (from 1952) and commercial recordings (from 1953). He
began composing in his youth, and favoured late Romantic and 12-note
idioms; his early works include piano pieces and a bassoon sonata. His
only major work is a long, one-movement string quartet, composed 1953–5
and later published and recorded.
In January 1955 Gould made his American début, with recitals in
Washington, DC, and New York. His unorthodox programme (Gibbons,
Sweelinck, Bach, late Beethoven, Berg, Webern), distinctive style and
platform mannerisms immediately marked him as an iconoclast. The day
after his New York début he signed a contract with Columbia Records, for
whom he recorded exclusively thereafter. His first recording, of Bach's
Goldberg Variations, was released in 1956 to critical and popular acclaim.
From 1955 to 1964 he gave concerts throughout North America, and made
three overseas tours (1957–9), playing in the USSR, Western Europe
(including London) and Israel.
In 1964 Gould retired from public performance, citing moral and musical
objections to the concert medium, and became a leading champion of the
electronic media. Throughout his career he produced radio and television
recitals and other programmes for the CBC, including a series of innovative
contrapuntal radio documentaries. He made a series of four films for
French television (Chemins de la musique, 1974) and a series of three
films for German and Canadian t