Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Gabbalone, Michele.
Gabbelone, Gaspare.
Gabbrielli, Giovanni Battista
Gabella, Giovanni Battista
Gabellone [Caballone, Cabellone, Gabbelone], Gaspare
Gabellone, Michele.
Gabichvadze, Revaz
Gabignet, Pierre.
Gabler, Joseph
Gabon (Fr. République Gabonaise).
Gabriel, Charles H(utchinson) [Homer, Charlotte G.]
Gabriel, Peter
Gabriel, (Mary Ann) Virginia
Gabriel de Santa Maria.
Gabriel de Texerana.
Gabrieli, Andrea
Gabrieli, Giovanni
Gabrieli Consort and Players.
Gabrielli, Adriana.
Gabrielli [Gabrieli], Caterina [La Cochetta]
Gabrielli, Domenico [‘Minghino dal violoncello’]
Gabrielli, Francesca.
Gabrielli, Count Nicolò [Nicola]
Gabrilovich [Gabrilowitsch], Ossip (Salomonovich)
Gábry, György
Gabucci, Giulio Cesare.
Gabunia, Nodar
Gaburo, Kenneth (Louis)
Gabussi [Gabucci, Gabusi, Gabutio, Gabutius, Gabuzzi], Giulio Cesare
Gabussi, Vincenzo
Gace Brule
Gaci, Pjetër
Gade, Niels W(ilhelm)
Gadenstätter, Clemens
Gadifer d'Avion.
Gadsby, Henry (Robert)
Gadski, Johanna
Gadulka.
Gadzhibekov, Sultan.
Gadzhibekov, Uzeir (Abdul Huseyn).
Gadzhiyev, Akhmet (Dzhevdet Ismail).
Gaelle, Meingosus [Johannes]
Gaetani, Jan de.
Gaetano [Majer, Kajetan]
Gaffarello.
Gaffi [Caffi], Tommaso Bernardo
Gaffurius [Gafurius], Franchinus [Lanfranchinus] [Gafori, Franchino]
Gafori, Franchino.
Gagaku.
Gage, Irwin
Gagliano.
Gagliano, Carlo
Gagliano, Giovanni Battista [Giovanbattista] da
Gagliano, Marco da
Gagliarda [gagiarda]
Gagnebin, Henri
Gagneux, Renaud
Gagnon, (Frédéric) Ernest (Amédée)
Gai
Gaiani [Gajani], Giovanni Battista
Gaiarda
Gaidifer [Gadifer] d'Avion
Gaier, Johann Christoph.
Gaiettane, Fabrice Marin.
Gaiffre, Georges-Adam.
Gail [née Garre], (Edmée) Sophie
Gailhard, André
Gailhard, Pierre [Pedro]
Gaillard, Marius-François
Gaillard, Paul-André
Gaillarde
Gaisser, Hugo [Hughes; Ugo Athanasio; Josef Anton]
Gaita (i).
Gaita (ii).
Gaither, William J.
Gaito, Constantino
Gaius, Jo.
Gajani, Giovanni Battista.
Gajo
Gakkel', Leonid Yevgen'yevich
Gál [Gal], Hans
Galakhov, Oleg Borisovich
Galambos, Benjámin.
Galamian, Ivan (Alexander)
Galán, Cristóbal
Galant
Galanterie
Galão, Joaquim Cordeiro
Galás, Diamanda (Dimitria Angeliki Elena)
Galaxy Music Corporation.
Galbán, Ventura.
Galeazzi, Francesco
Galeffi, Carlo
Galeno [Galleno], Giovanni Battista
Galeotti, Stefano
Galerati, Caterina
Galerón.
Galfridus de Anglia
Galilei, Michelagnolo [Michelangelo]
Galilei, Vincenzo [Vincentio, Vincenzio]
Galimberti [Galinberti, Gallimberto], Ferdinando
Galin, Pierre
Galindo Dimas, Blas
Galïnin, German Germanovich
Galinne [Gal'in], Rachel [Gluchowicz, Rachel S.]
Galin-Paris-Chevé method.
Galiot, Johannes
Galitzin, Nikolay Borisovich.
Galitzin, Yury Nikolayevich.
Galizona
Galkin, Elliot W(ashington)
Gall, Jan Karol
Gall, Yvonne
Gallarati, Paolo
Gallarda
Gallay, Jacques François
Gallego
Gallego, Antonio
Gallenberg, (Wenzel) Robert, Graf von
Galleno, Giovanni Battista.
Gallerano, Leandro
Gallery music.
Gallet, François [Galletius, Franciscus]
Gallet, Luciano
Galley, Johann Michael
Galli, Amintore
Galli [Gallus], Antonius [Antoine]
Galli, Caterina
Galli, Domenico
Galli, Filippo
Galli [Gallo, Gallus], Giuseppe [Gioseffo, Josephus]
Gallia, Maria
Galliard
Galliard, John Ernest [Johann Ernst]
Galliard Ltd.
Galliari.
Galli-Bibiena [Bibiena, Bibbiena].
Gallican chant.
Gallichon [Ger.].
Gallico, Claudio (Benedetto)
Galliculus [Alectorius, Hähnel], Johannes
Galli-Curci [née Galli], Amelita
Gallicus [Carthusiensis, Legiensis, Mantuanus], Johannes
Galliera, Alceo
Gallignani, Giuseppe
Galli-Marié [née Marié de l’Isle, Marié], Célestine(-Laurence)
Gallimberto, Ferdinando.
Gallini, Giovanni Andrea Battista [John]
Gallinius [Kurek], Marcin
Gallishon
Gallo, Domenico
Gallo, F(ranco) Alberto
Gallo, Fortune [Fortunato] T.
Gallo, Giovanni Pietro
Gallo, Giuseppe [Gioseffo, Josephus].
Gallo, Pietro Antonio [Pietrantonio]
Gallo, R.
Gallo, Vincenzo
Gallois, Patrick
Gallois-Montbrun, Raymond
Gallon, Jean
Gallon, Noël
Gallot.
Gallus, Antonius.
Gallus, Giuseppe [Gioseffo, Josephus].
Gallus, Jacobus.
Gallus, Joannes [Lecocq, Jean]
Gallus, Udalricus.
Gallus-Mederitsch, Johann.
Galop
Galoubet.
Galpin, Francis William
Galpin Society.
Galuppi, Baldassare
Galusin, Vladimir
Galván [Galbán], Ventura
Gálvez [Cálvez], Gabriel
Galway, James
Gamba (i).
Gamba (ii).
Gamba, Piero [Pierino]
Gambang [gambang kayu].
Gambarini, Elisabetta de
Gambe
Gamberini, Michelangelo
Gambia, Republic of The.
Gambier Islands.
Gamble, John
Gamble and Huff.
Gamboa, Pero de
Gambus.
Gamelan.
Gamma
Gamma ut.
Gamme
Gamut.
Ganassi, Giacomo
Ganassi dal Fontego, Sylvestro di
Ganche, Edouard
Gand (i).
Gand (ii)
Gandini, Gerardo
Gando.
Gandolfi, Michael
Ganer, Christopher
Ganga.
Gangar [rull].
Gangsa (i).
Gangsa (ii).
Gangsta [gangster] rap.
Gann, Kyle
Ganne, (Gustave) Louis
Gänsbacher, Johann (Baptist Peter Joseph)
Gantez, Annibal
Ganz.
Ganz, Rudolf [Rudolph]
Ganze-Note
Gänzl, Kurt (Friedrich) [Gallas, Brian Roy]
Ganzschluss
Ganzton
Gapped scale.
Gaqi, Thoma
Garage.
Garant, (Albert Antonio) Serge
Garat, (Dominique) Pierre (Jean)
Garaudé, Alexis(-Adélaide-Gabriel) de
Garau Femenia, Francisco.
Garay, Luis de
Garay, Narciso
Garbarek, Jan
Garbi, Giovanni Francesco
Gärbig, Johann Anton.
Garbin, Edoardo
Garbousova, Raya
García.
García (Arancibia), Fernando
Garcia, José Maurício Nunes
García, Juan Francisco [‘Don Pancho’]
García, Maria-Felicia.
García, Pauline.
García Abril, Antón
García de Basurto, Juan
García Demestres, Albert
García de Salazar, Juan
García de Zéspedes [Céspedes], Juan
García Fajer, Francisco Javier [Garzia, Francesco Saverio; ‘Lo Spagnoletto’]
García Gutiérrez, Antonio
García Leoz, Jesús.
García Lorca, Federico
García Mansilla, Eduardo
García Matos, Manuel
García Morillo, Roberto
García Pacheco, Fabián
García Robles, José
Garcin [Salomon], Jules Auguste
Gardano [Gardane].
Garde, Pierre de.
Gardel.
Gardel, Carlos [Gardes, Charles Romuald]
Gardelli, Lamberto
Garden, Edward J(ames) C(larke)
Garden, Mary
Gardi, Francesco
Gardiner, Henry Balfour
Gardiner, Sir John Eliot
Gardiner, William
Gardner, Johann von
Gardner, John (Linton)
Gardner, Kay
Gárdonyi, Zoltán
Gar-dpon, Pa-sangs Don-grub
Garducci, Tommaso.
Gareth, Benedetto [‘Il Chariteo’]
Gargallo, Luis Vicente
Gargano, Giovanni Battista
Gargari, Teofilo
Gargiulo [Gargiulio], Terenzio
Garimberti, Ferdinando
Garinus [? Guayrinet]
Garip (Provençal).
Garland.
Garland, Judy [Gumm, Frances Ethel]
Garland, Peter (Adams)
Garlandia, Johannes de.
Garmonica [garmoshka]
Garner, Erroll (Louis)
Garnesey [?John]
Garnier [Grenier, Guarnier]
Garnier, François.
Garnier [l'aîné], François-Joseph
Garnier, Gabriel
Garnier, Louis.
Garrana, (Muhammed) Rifaat
Garre, Edmée Sophie.
Garrelts [Garrels], Rudolph [Redolph]
Garreta (Arboix), Juli [Julio]
Garrett, George (Mursell)
Garrett, Lesley
Garrick, David
Garrido (Vargas), Pablo
Garrido-Lecca (Seminario), Celso
Garrigues, Malvina.
Garrison, Lucy McKim
Garrison [Siemonn], Mabel
Garro, Francisco
Garsi, Ascanio.
Garsi, Donino.
Garsi [Garsi da Parma], Santino [Santino detto Valdès]
Garth, John
Gartner.
Garugli [Garulli], Bernardo [Garullus, Bernardinus]
Garullus, Bernardinus.
Garūta, Lūcija
Garzia, Francesco Saverio.
Gas [Gaz], José
Gascon, Adam-Nicolas
Gascongne [Gascogne, Gascongus, Gascone, Gasconia, Guascogna], Mathieu [?
Johannes]
Gasdia, Cecilia
Gaslini, Giorgio
Gaspar de Padua [Gaspare de Albertis, Gaspare bergomensis].
Gaspardini, Gasparo
Gaspari, Gaetano
Gasparian, Djivan
Gasparini.
Gasparini, Domenico Maria Angiolo.
Gasparini, Quirino
Gasparo da Salò [Bertolotti]
Gaspar van Weerbeke.
Gasperini, Guido
Gassenhauer
Gásser Laguna, Luís
Gasser, Ulrich
Gassmann, Florian Leopold
Gassner, Ferdinand Simon
Gast, Peter [Köselitz, Johann Heinrich]
Gastatz [Gastharts], Mathias.
Gastoldi, Giovanni Giacomo
Gaston Fébus, 3rd Count of Foix and 11th of Béarn
Gastorius [Bauchspiess], Severus
Gastoué, Amédée(-Henri-Gustave-Noël)
Gastritz [Gastritzsch, Gastharts, Gastatz], Mathias
Gat
Gatayes.
Gates, Bernard
Gattermeyer, Heinrich
Gatti, Daniele
Gatti [Pesci], Gabriella
Gatti, Guido M(aggiorino)
Gatti, Luigi (Maria Baldassare)
Gatti, Theobaldo [Teobaldo] di [Théobalde]
Gatti-Aldrovandi, Clelia
Gatti-Casazza, Giulio
Gatto, Simone [Simon]
Gatzmann, Wolfgang.
Gaubert, Philippe
Gauci, Miriam
Gaucquier, Alard du.
Gaudeamus Foundation.
Gaudentius
Gaudibert, Eric
Gaudio, Cavalier Antonio dal [del]
Gauk, Aleksandr Vasil'yevich
Gaul, Alfred (Robert)
Gaultier [Gautier, Gaulthier], Denis
Gaultier [Gautier, Gaulthier], Ennemond
Gaultier, Jacques.
Gaultier, Pierre.
Gaultier de Marseille.
Gauntlett, Henry John
Gaussin, Allain
Gauterius de Castello Rainardi [Gauthier of Château-renard (Bouches-du-Rhône)].
Gautier, Denis.
Gautier, Ennemond.
Gautier, (Jean-François-)Eugène
Gautier, François.
Gautier [Gaultier], Jacques [Gwaltier, James]
Gautier, Judith
Gautier [Gaultier], Pierre (i)
Gautier, Pierre (ii) [Gaultier de Marseille]
Gautier, Théophile
Gautier de Châtillon.
Gautier de Coincy
Gautier de Dargies
Gautier de Lille.
Gautier d'Espinal [Epinal]
Gauzargues, Charles
Gavaldá, José
Gavaldá, Miguel Querol.
Gavaux, Pierre.
Gavazzeni, Gianandrea
Gaveau.
Gaveaux [Gavaux, Gaveau], Pierre
Gaviniés [Gaviniès, Gaviniez, Gavigniès, Gavignès, Gabignet and other variations],
Pierre
Gavioli.
Gavotte
Gavoty, Bernard
Gavrilin, Valery Aleksandrovich
Gavrilov, Andrey
Gawriloff, (Siegfried Jordan) Saschko
Gawroński [Rola-Gawroński], Wojciech
Gay.
Gay, Jesús Bal y.
Gay, John
Gay [née Pichot Gironés], María
Gay, Noel [Armitage, Reginald Moxon]
Gay and lesbian music.
Gaye [Gay], Marvin
Gayer [Gaier, Geyer], Johann Christoph (Karl)
Gayer, Johann (Andreas) Joseph Georg (Jakob)
Gaytán y Arteaga, Manuel González.
Gaz, José.
Gazarossian, Koharik Alis [Łazarosyan, Goharik Alis]
Gazkue y Murga, Francisco.
Gaztambide (y Garbayo), Joaquín (Romualdo)
Gazzaniga, Giuseppe
Gazzaniga, Marietta
Gazzelloni, Severino
Gdańsk
Ge, Gangru
Geary, Thomas Augustine [Timothy]
Gebauer (i).
Gebauer (ii).
Gebauer, Franz Xaver
Gebauer, Johan Christian
Gebel.
Gebel [Göbel], Franz Xaver
Gebethner & Wolff.
Gebhard, Heinrich
Gebrauchsmusik
Gebrüder Späth.
Gebunden (i)
Gebunden (ii)
Gebundener Stil
Geck, Martin
Gedackt
Gédalge, André
Gedda [Ustinoff], Nicolai (Harry Gustaf)
Geddes, John Maxwell
Gedike [Goedicke], Aleksandr Fyodorovich
Gedoppelter Accent
Geehl, Henry (Ernest)
Geeres, John
Geerhart.
Geerhart [Geerheart], Jan.
Geering, Arnold
Geertsom, Jan van
Gefors, Hans (Gustaf)
Gegenbewegung
Gegenfuge
Gehlhaar, Rolf (Rainer)
Gehot, Joseph
Gehrmans.
Geib.
Geige
Geigen
Geigenharz
Geigenwerk.
Geijer, Erik Gustaf
Gein, van den.
Geiringer, Karl (Johannes)
Geisenhof [Geisenhofer], Johann [Hans]
Geiser, Walther
Geisler, Paul
Geissenhof, Franz [Franciscus]
Geissler, Benedict
Geissler, Fritz
Geisslerlieder
Geist, Christian
Geistliches Konzert
Gelber, Bruno Leonardo
Gelbrun, Artur
Gelineau, Joseph
Gelinek [Gelineck, Jelínek], Josef
Gellert, Christian Fürchtegott
Gelmetti, Gianluigi
Geltzmann [Gelzmann], Wolfgang.
GEMA.
Gemblaco, Johannes Franchois de.
Gemell.
Geminiani, Francesco (Saverio) [Xaviero]
Gemmel.
Gemshorn
Gena, Peter
Gencebay, Orhan
Gencer [Ceyrekgil], (Ayshe) Leyla
Gendang.
Gender (i).
Gender (ii).
Gendre, Jean le.
Gendron, Maurice
Genée, (Franz Friedrich) Richard
Generalbass
Generali, Pietro
Generalpause
Genesis.
Genest, Charles-Claude
Genet, Elzéar.
Geneva
Gengenbach, Nikolaus
Genin, Vladimir Mikhailovich
Genis
Genis corno
Genishta, Iosif Iosifovich
Genlis [née Ducrest de Saint-Aubin], Stéphanie-Félicité, Countess of
Gennrich, Friedrich
Genoa
Genouillère
Genovés (y Lapetra), Tomás
Genre.
Gens, Véronique
Gent
Gentian [Gentien, Gentiam]
Gentile, Ada
Gentile, Ortensio
Gentili, Giorgio
Gentilucci, Armando
Gentlemen's Concerts.
Genuino, Francesco
Genus
Genzmer, Harald
Geoffroy, Jean-Baptiste
Geoffroy, Jean-Nicolas
Geoffroy-Dechaume, Antoine
George, Michael
George, Stefan (Anton)
Georgescu, Corneliu Dan
Georgescu, George
Georgia.
Georgiades, Thrasybulos G(eorgios)
Georgia Tom.
Georgiceus [Georgiceo, Georgievich, Georgijević, Grgičević, Jurjević], Athanasius
Georgius a Brugis
Georg Rudolph, Duke of Liegnitz [now Legnica], Brieg [now Brzeg] and Goldberg
Geraert, Jan.
Gerald de Barri.
Geraldo [Bright, Gerald W.]
Gerald of Wales.
Gérard, Henri-Philippe
Gerard [Geraert, Girard, Gerardus, Geerhart, Ghirardo], Jan
Gérard, Yves(-René-Jean)
Gerarde [Gerard, Gerardus, Gerrarde], Derrick [Dethick, Dyricke, Theodoricus]
Gerardis, Giovanni Battista Pinellus de.
Gerardo.
Gerardus.
Gerardus, Jan.
Gerber, Christian
Gerber, Ernst Ludwig
Gerber, Heinrich Nikolaus
Gerber, Rudolf
Gerbert, Martin, Freiherr von Hornau
Gerbert d'Aurillac [Silvester II]
Gerbič, Fran
Gerbich [Gerbig], Johann Anton.
Gerdes, Federico
Geremia, Giuseppe
Gergalov, Aleksandr
Gergely, Jean
Gergiyev, Valery (Abissalovich)
Gerhard.
Gerhard, Anselm
Gerhard, Livia.
Gerhard, Roberto [Gerhard Ottenwaelder, Robert]
Gerhardt, Elena
Gerhardt, Paul [Paulus]
Gericke, Wilhelm
Gerig.
Gerigk, Herbert
Gerl [Görl].
Gerlach [Gerlacz, Gerlatz].
Gerlach, Carl Gotthelf
Gerlandus.
Gerlatz.
Gerle, Conrad
Gerle, Georg
Gerle, Hans
Gerle, Melchior.
Gerlin, Ruggero
Germain.
German, Sir Edward [Jones, German Edward]
German Dance
German flute.
Germani, Fernando
Germania Musical Society.
Germanos of New Patras [Germanos Neōn Patrōn]
German Reed, Thomas.
German sixth chord.
German String Trio.
Germany, Federal Republic of
Gern, August Friedrich Hermann
Gernsheim, Friedrich
Gero [Ghero, Giero], Jhan [Ihan, Jehan, Jan, Giovan]
Gérold, (Jean) Théodore
Gerrish-Jones, Abbie
Gerschefski, Edwin
Gersem, Géry.
Gershwin, George [Gershvin, Jacob]
Gershwin, Ira [Gershvin, Israel]
Gerson, George
Gerson, Jean Charlier de [Doctor Christianissimus]
Gersonides [Levi ben Gershom (Gershon, Gerson); Leo Hebraeus; Magister Leon de
Bagnols; RaLBaG]
Gerson-Kiwi, (Esther) Edith
Gerstenberg, Heinrich Wilhelm von
Gerstenberg, Johann Daniel
Gerstenberg, Walter
Gerstenbüttel, Joachim
Gerster, Etelka
Gerster, Ottmar
Gertler, André [Endre]
Gertsman, Yevgeny Vladimirovich.
Gervais, Charles-Hubert
Gervais, Laurent [de Rouen]
Gervais, Pierre-Noël
Gervaise, Claude
Gervase Elwes Memorial Fund.
Gervasius de Anglia.
Gervasoni, Carlo
Gervasoni, Stefano
Gervays [Gervasius de Anglia]
Gervés du Bus.
Ges
Gesangvoll
Geschwind
Geschwindmarsch
Gese, Bartholomäus.
Geselliges Lied.
Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde.
Gesellschaft für Musikalische Aufführungs- und Mechanische Vervielfältigungsrechte
[GEMA].
Gesellschaft für Musikforschung
Gesellschaftslied
Geses
Gesius [Gese, Göse, Göss], Bartholomäus [Barthel]
Gesner, Conrad [Gessner, Konrad]
Gesolreut.
Gestalt.
Gestewitz, Friedrich Christoph
Gestopft
Gestossen
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
Geteilt
Getragen
Gétreau, Florence
Getty, Gordon (Peter)
Getz, Stan(ley)
Getzelev, Boris Semyonovich
Getzen Co.
Getzmann [Geltzmann, Gelzmann, Gatzmann], Wolfgang
Geuck, Valentin
Gevaert, François-Auguste
Gevanche, Adam de.
Gevicenus [Gevicensis], Andreas Chrysoponos.
Gewandhaus Orchestra.
Gewgaw.
Geyer, Johann Christoph.
Geyer, Stefi
Geysen, Frans
Ghana, Republic of [formerly Gold Coast].
Ghantā [ghant, ghantī, ghantikā, ghanto].
Gharānā
Ghata [ghatam, gharā].
Ghazal.
Ghazālī, Abū Hāmid Muhammad al-
Ghazālī, Majd al-Dīn Ahmad al-
Ghazarian [Kazarian], Yury Shaheni
Ghedini, Giorgio Federico
Gheerkin.
Gheerkin [Gheerken, Gheraert] de Hondt
Gheine, van den.
Gheluwe, Leo van.
Ghent
Ghent, Emmanuel (Robert)
Gheorghiu, Angela
Gheraert de Hondt.
Gherardello da Firenze [Magister Ser Ghirardellus de Florentia; Niccolò di Francesco]
Gherardeschi, Filippo Maria
Gherardeschi, Giuseppe
Gherardi, Biagio
Gherardi, Giovanni.
Gherardi, Giovanni Battista Pinello di.
Gherardini, Arcangelo
Gherl, Johann Caspar [Kaspar].
Ghero, Jhan.
Ghersem [Gersem], Géry (de)
Gheyn, van den.
Ghezzi, Ippolito
Ghezzo, Dinu D.
Ghiaurov, Nicolai
Ghidjak [ghichak, gidzhak, gijak, g'ijjak].
Ghibel [Ghibelli, Ghibellini], Eliseo
Ghiglia, Oscar
Ghignone, Giovanni Pietro.
Ghinste, Peter van der
Ghinzer, Giovanni.
Ghirardellus de Florentia.
Ghirardi, Giovanni Battista Pinello di.
Ghirardo.
Ghirardo, Jan.
Ghircoiaşiu, Romeo (Mircea)
Ghironda
Ghiseghem, Hayne van.
Ghiselin [Verbonnet], Johannes
Ghiselin Danckerts.
Ghisi, Federico
Ghislanzoni, Antonio
Ghitalla, Armando
Ghivizzani [Guivizzani], Alessandro
Ghizeghem, Hayne van.
Ghizzolo.
Ghizzolo, Giovanni
Ghoneim, Mauna
Ghosh, Nikhil Jyoti
Ghosh, Pannalal
Ghro, Johann.
Giaccio, Orazio [Horatio]
Giaches da [Giacchetto de] Mantua.
Giacobbe, Juan Francisco
Giacobbi, Girolamo
Giacobetti, Pietro Amico
Giacomelli [Jacomelli], Geminiano
Giacometti, Bortolomeo (Antonio)
Giacometti, Giovanni Battista.
Giacomini, Bernardo
Giacomini, Giuseppe
Giacomo, Salvatore di.
Giacomo da Chieti.
Giacopone da Todi [Giacopone de’ Benedetti].
Giacosa, Giuseppe
Giai [Giaii, Giaij, Giay], Francesco Saverio
Giai [Giaj], Giovanni Antonio.
Giaiotti, Bonaldo
Giamberti, Giuseppe [Gioseppe]
Gianacconi, Giuseppe.
Gianella, Louis [Ludovico, Luigi]
Gianelli, Francesco
Gianelli, Pietro
Gianneo, Luis
Giannettini [Gianettini, Zanettini, Zannettini], Antonio
Giannetto.
Giannini, Dusolina
Giannini, Vittorio
Gianotti [Giannotti], Giacomo
Gianotti, Pietro [Giannotti, Pierre]
Giansetti, Giovanni Battista
Gian Toscan
Gianturco [née Dooley], Carolyn M(argaret)
Giaranzana.
Giardini [Degiardino], Felice (de)
Giay, Francesco Saverio.
Giay [Giai, Giaj], Giovanni Antonio
Giazotto, Remo
Gibbes, Richard.
Gibbons, (Richard) Carroll [‘Gibby’]
Gibbons, Christopher
Gibbons, Edward.
Gibbons, Ellis.
Gibbons, Orlando
Gibbs, Alan (Trevor)
Gibbs, Cecil Armstrong
Gibbs, Joseph
Gibbs [Gibbes], Richard
Gibelius [Gibel], Otto
Gibelli, Lorenzo [Gibellone]
Gibert, Paul-César
Gibson.
Gibson, Sir Alexander (Drummond)
Gibson, Jon (Charles)
Gidayu.
Gideon, Miriam
Gidino da Sommacampagna
Gieburowski, Wacław
Giegling, Franz
Gielen, Michael (Andreas)
Giero, Jhan.
Gieseking, Walter
Gievenci, Adam de.
Gifford, Helen (Margaret)
Giga
Gigault, Nicolas
Gigler, Andre [Andreas]
Gigli.
Gigli, Beniamino
Gigli, Giovanni Battista [‘Il Tedeschino’]
Giglio, Tommaso
Gigout, Eugène
Gigue (i)
Gigue (ii)
Gil, Gilberto [Moreira, Gilberto Passos Gil]
Gilardi, Gilardo
Gilardoni, Domenico
Gilbert, Anthony
Gilbert, Geoffrey (Winzer)
Gilbert, Henry F(ranklin Belknap)
Gilbert, Jean [Winterfeld, Max]
Gilbert, Kenneth (Albert)
Gilbert, Olive
Gilbert Islands [now Republic of Kiribati].
Gilberto, João (do Prado Pereira de Oliveira)
Gilboa, Jacob
Gilchrist, Anne Geddes
Gilchrist, William Wallace
Gilels, Emil (Grigor'yevich)
Giles, Alice (Rosemary)
Giles [Gyles], Nathaniel
Gilfert, Charles H., jr
Gilfry, Rodney
Gil García, Bonifacio
Giliardi, Arnolfo [Ser Arnolfo da Francia; Arnolfo d’Arnolfo]
Gille, Jacob Edvard
Gillebert, Gloria Caroline.
Gillebert [Guillebert] de Berneville
Gilles, Jean
Gilles le Vinier.
Gillespie, Dizzy [John Birks]
Gillet, Georges(-Vital-Victor)
Gillett & Johnston.
Gillier, Jean-Claude
Gillis, Don
Gilly, Dinh
Gilman, Benjamin Ives
Gilman, Lawrence
Gilmore, Patrick S(arsfield)
Gilse, Jan (Pieter Hendrik) van
Gilson, Paul
Gimel.
Giménez [Jiménez] (y Bellido), Jerónimo
Giménez, Raúl (Alberto)
Gimpel, Bronislav
Gimpel, Jakob
Ginastera, Alberto (Evaristo)
Gindron, François
Giner y Vidal, Salvador
Ginés Pérez, Juan.
Gingold, Josef
Ginguené [Guinguené], Pierre-Louis
Gintzler, Simon
Ginzburg, Grigory (Romanovich)
Ginzburg, Lev Solomonovich
Ginzburg, Semyon L'vovich
Giocoso
Gioia [Gioja], Gaetano
Giordani, Carmine
Giordani [Giordano], Giuseppe (Tommaso Giovanni) [Giordaniello]
Giordani, Tommaso
Giordano, Umberto (Menotti Maria)
Giorgetti, Ferdinando
Giorgi, Geltrude.
Giorgi, Giovanni
Giorgi-Belloc, Teresa.
Giornovichi, Giovanni [Jarnović, Jarnovicki, Jarnowick; Ivan] Mane
Giorza, Paolo
Gioseffo da Lucca.
Giovan Maria da Crema.
Giovannelli [Giovanelli], Ruggiero
Giovanni Ambrosio.
Giovanni da Cascia [Jovannes de Cascia, Johannes de Florentia, Maestro Giovanni da
Firenze]
Giovanni da Foligno.
Giovanni da Prato [Giovanni Gherardi]
Giovanni degli Organi.
Giovanni Gherardi.
Giovanni Leonardo dell’Arpa.
Giovanni [Joan, Giovan] Maria da Crema
Giovanni Mazzuoli.
Giovannini [de Giovannini; first name unknown]
Giovannini, Simone
Giovannino da Roma [Giovannino del Violoncello].
Giovannino del Violone.
Giovenardi, Bartolomeo [Bartolomé].
Gippius, Yevgeny Vladimirovich
Gipps, Ruth (Dorothy Louisa) [Wid(dy) Gipps]
Giraldoni, Eugenio
Giraldoni, Leone
Giraldus Cambrensis [Gerald de Barri, Gerald of Wales]
Giramo [Girolamo], Pietro Antonio
Girard.
Girard, Jan.
Girard, Narcisse
Girardeau, Isabella
Girardi, Alexander
Giraud, François-Joseph
Giraud, Marthe.
Giraud, Suzanne
Giraut [Girautz, Guiraut] de Bornelh [de Borneill]
Girdlestone, Cuthbert M(orton)
Girelli (Aquilar) [Aguilar, Anguilar], Antonia Maria
Girelli, Santino
Giribaldi, Tomás
Girò [Tessieri], Anna (Maddalena)
Giró [Jiró], Manuel
Girolamo, Pietro Antonio.
Girolamo da Udine.
Giroust, François
Girowetz, Adalbert.
Gis
Gisis
Gismondi [Resse; Hempson], Celeste
Gismonti, Egberto
Gistelinck, Elias
Gistou [Gistow], Nicolas
Gitarre
Giteck, Janice
Gitlis, Ivry
Gittern [gyterne]
Giucci, Carlos
Giudice, Cesare del.
Giudici & Strada.
Giuliani, Francesco [‘Il Cerato’]
Giuliani, Giovanni Francesco
Giuliani, Mauro (Giuseppe Sergio Pantaleo)
Giuliano Bonaugurio da Tivoli.
Giulini, Carlo Maria
Giulini, Johann Andreas Joseph
Giulio Romano.
Giunta [Giunti; Zonta; Junta; Juncta; de’ Giunti Modesti].
Giuranna, (Elena) Barbara
Giuranna, Bruno
Giuseppino.
Giustini, Lodovico (Maria)
Giustiniana [justiniana, vinitiana, viniziana]
Giustiniani [Giustinian], Leonardo
Giustiniani, Vincenzo
Giusto
Givenci, Adam de.
Giyenko, Boris Fyodorovich
Gizzi, Domenico
Gizziello.
Gjevang, Anne
Gjoka, Martin
Gjoni, Simon
Glachant, Antoine-Charles
Glackemeyer, Frederick [Johann Friedrich Conrad; Frédéric]
Gladkovsky, Arseny Pavlovich
Gladney, John
Gladwin, Thomas
Gladys Knight and the Pips.
Glaeser, Franz.
Glagolitic Mass, Glagolitic chant.
Glahn, Henrik
Glam rock.
Glandien, Lutz
Glanert, Detlev
Glanner, Caspar
Glantz, (Yehuda) Leib
Glanville-Hicks, Peggy
Glarean, Heinrich [Glareanus, Henricus; Loriti]
Glasenapp, Carl Friedrich
Gläser [Glaeser], Franz (Joseph)
Glaser, Werner Wolf
Glasgow.
Glasgow, Robert (Ellison)
Glass, Louis (Christian August)
Glass, Paul (Eugène)
Glass, Philip
Glasschord [glass chord, glassichord].
Glasser, Stanley
Glass harmonica.
Glaucus [Glaukos] of Rhegium
Glaus, Daniel
Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich
Gleason, Frederick G(rant)
Gleason, Harold
Glebov, Igor'.
Glebov, Yevgeny Aleksandrovich
Glee.
Gleichschwebende Temperatur
Gleim, Johann Wilhelm Ludwig
Glein, Erasmus de
Gleisman, Carl Erik
Gleissner, Franz
Glen.
Glennie, Evelyn
Gletle, Johann Melchior
Glick, Srul Irving
Glière [Glier], Reyngol'd Moritsevich [Glière, Reinhold]
Gligo, Nikša
Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich
Gliński [Hercenstein], Mateusz [Matteo]
Glissade
Glissando
Globokar, Vinko
Glock, Sir William
Glocke
Glockenspiel (i)
Glockenspiel (ii).
Glockenspiel, militär
Glodeanu, Liviu
Glogauer Liederbuch
Glonti, Felix
Gloria in excelsis Deo.
Glosa
Glösch, Carl Wilhelm
Glossolalia.
Gloucester.
Glover, Jane (Alison)
Glover, John William
Glover, Sarah Anna
Glover, William Howard
Głowiński, Jan
Gluchowicz, Rachel S.
Gluck, Alma [Fiersohn, Reba]
Gluck, Christoph Willibald, Ritter von
Glushchenko, Georgy Semyonovich
Glykys, Gregorios
Glykys, Joannes
Glyn, Margaret H(enrietta)
Glyndebourne.
Gnattali, Radamés
Gnecchi, Vittorio
Gnecco, Francesco
Gnesin, Mikhail Fabianovich
Gniezno.
Gnocchi, Pietro
Gobatti, Stefano
Gobbi, Tito
Gobbo della regina, Il.
Göbel, Franz Xaver.
Gobelinus Person.
Gobert, Thomas
Gobetti, Francesco
Gobin de Reims [Gobin de Reins]
Goble, Robert (John)
Goblet drum.
Goccini, Giacomo.
Gocciolo, Giovanni Battista.
Godár, Vladimír
Godard [Godart, Goddart]
Godard, Benjamin (Louis Paul)
Godard de Beauchamps, Pierre-François.
Godbid, William
Goddard, Arabella
Goddart.
Godeau, Antoine
Godebrye, Jacob
Godecharle [Godecharles, Godschalck], Eugène (-Charles-Jean)
Godecharle [Godecharles, Godschalck], Lambert-François
Godefroid, (Dieudonné Joseph Guillaume) Félix
Godefroy, François
Godescalcus Lintpurgensis.
Godfrey.
Godfroy [Godefroy, Godefroid].
Godimel, Claude.
Godowsky, Leopold [Leonid]
Godric
Godschalck, Eugène.
Godschalck, Lambert-François.
Godymel, Claude.
Goeb, Roger (John)
Goebbels, Heiner
Goebel, Reinhard
Goehr.
Goepfert [Goeppfert, Goepffer, Goepffem, Gaiffre, Köpfer, Keipfer etc.], Georges-Adam
Goermans [Germain].
Goerne, Matthias
Goes, Damian.
Goesen [Goessen], Maistre.
Goethals, Lucien
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
Goetschius, Percy
Goetz, Hermann (Gustav)
Goetze & Gwynn.
Goeyvaerts, Karel (August)
Goff, Thomas (Robert Charles)
Goffriller [Gofriller], Matteo
Gogava, Antonius Hermannus
Goge.
Gogol', Nikolay Vasil'yevich
Gogorza, Emilio [Edoardo] de
Göhler, (Karl) Georg
Göhringer, Francilla.
Goicoechea Errasti, Vicente
Góis, Damião de [Goes, Damian; Goes, Damianus a]
Gołąbek, Jakub
Golabovski, Sotir
Golani, Rivka
Gold, Arthur
Gold, Ernest
Goldar, Robert.
Goldberg [Gollberg, Goltberg, etc.], Johann Gottlieb [Théophile]
Goldberg, Joseph (Pasquale)
Goldberg, Reiner
Goldberg, Szymon
Goldberg, Théophile.
Golden number [golden section].
Goldenthal, Elliot
Goldenweiser [Gol'denveyzer], Aleksandr (Borisovich)
Golder [Goldar], Robert
Goldie
Golding, John.
Goldman, Edwin Franko
Goldman, Richard Franko
Goldmann, Friedrich
Goldmann, Max.
Goldmark, Karl [Carl; Károly]
Goldmark, Rubin
Goldoni, Carlo [Fegejo, Polisseno]
Goldovsky, Boris
Goldsbrough, Arnold (Wainwright)
Goldsbrough Orchestra.
Goldschmidt, Adalbert von
Goldschmidt, Berthold
Goldschmidt, Georg.
Goldschmidt, Harry
Goldschmidt, Otto (Moritz David)
Goldsmith, Jerry [Jerrald]
Goldstein, Malcolm
Goldstein [Gold'shteyn], Mikhail [Mykhailo] Ėmmanuilovich
Goldwin [Golding], John
Goléa, Antoine
Goleminov, Marin (Petrov)
Golestan, Stan
Goliards
Golin, Guilielmo [Colin, Guilielmus]
Golinelli, Stefano
Golisciani, Enrico
Golïshev, Yefim [Jef]
Golitsïn [Galitzin], Prince Nikolay Borisovich
Golitsïn [Galitzin], Prince Yury Nikolayevich
Gollberg, Johann Gottlieb [Théophile].
Göllner [née Martinez], Marie-Louise
Göllner, Theodor
Golodnova, N.
Golovanov, Nikolay Semyonovich
Golovin, Andrey Ivanovich
Golpeado
Golschmann, Vladimir
Goltberg, John Gottlieb [Théophile].
Goltermann, Georg (Eduard)
Goltermann, (Johann August) Julius
Goltfuss [Goltfus, Goldtfues, Goudvoet, Gellfuss], Hans
Goltz, Christel
Golubev, Yevgeny Kirillovich
Gombart.
Gomberg, Harold
Gombert, Nicolas
Gombosi, Otto (Johannes) [Ottó János]
Gomes, André da Silva
Gomes, (Antônio) Carlos
Gomes, João (i)
Gomes (de Araújo), João (ii)
Gomes (de Herrera), Manoel de S Bento
Gomes, Pietro.
Gomes Correia, Fernão.
Gomes da Rocha, Francisco.
Gomes de Araújo, João.
Gomez, Jill
Gómez (García), (Domingo) Julio
Gómez (y Muntané), Maricarmen [Maria del Carmen]
Gomez, Pietro.
Gómez, Tomás
Gómez Camargo, Miguel
Gomez Carrillo, Manuel
Gómez de Herrera, Martín
Gómez de la Cruz, Diego
Gómez de Navas, Juan
Gómez-Vignes, Mario
Gomidas.
Gomis (y Colomer), José Melchor [Melchior]
Gomółka, Mikołaj
Gonçález, José Bernal.
Gonella, Nat(haniel Charles)
Gonelli [Gonella], Giuseppe
Gonet, Valérien
Gong
Gong-chime.
Gong drum.
Gonima, Manuel
Gönnenwein, Wolfgang
Gontier de Soignies
Gontsov, Yury (Petrovich)
Gonzaga.
Gonzaga, (Francisca Edwiges Neves) Chiquinha
Gonzaga, Francesco
Gonzaga, Guglielmo
Gonzalez.
González, Hilario
González, Jaime
González (García de) Acilu, Agustín
González Barrón, Ramón
González Gamarra, Francisco
González Gaytán y Artiaga, (Juan) Manuel
Gonzalo, Gisela Hernández.
Goodall, Sir Reginald
Goode, Daniel
Goode, Richard
Goodgroome, John
Goodison, Benjamin
Goodman [Guttmann], Alfred (Alexander) [Alfred Grant]
Goodman, Benny [Benjamin] (David)
Goodman, Roy
Goodrich, William Marcellus
Goodson, Katharine
Goodson, Richard (i)
Goodson, Richard (ii)
Goodwin, Ron
Goossens.
Goovaerts, Alphonse (Jean Marie André)
Gopak.
Gora.
Gorączkiewicz, Wincenty
Görbig [Gärbig, Gerbich, Gerbig], Johann Anton (Thaddeus)
Gorchakova, Galina
Gorczycki [Gorczyca], Grzegorz Gerwazy
Gordigiani, Giovanni Battista
Gordon, Alexander
Gordon, Dexter (Keith)
Gordon, Captain James (Carel Gerhard)
Gordon, Michael
Gordon, Peter
Gordon Woodhouse [née Gwynne], Violet (Kate)
Gordy, Berry
Górecki, Henryk Mikołaj
Goretti, Antonio
Görger St Jörgen, Anna Maria von.
Gor'kiy.
Görl.
Gorli, Sandro
Gorlier, Simon
Görner, Hans-Georg
Görner, Johann Gottlieb
Görner, Johann Valentin
Gorodnitzki, Sascha
Gorr, Rita [Geirnaert, Marguerite]
Górski, Władysław
Gorsky, Aleksandr Alexievich
Gorton, William
Gorzanis, Giacomo [Jacomo (de)]
Gosa [Gose], Maistre.
Goscalch
Göse, Bartholomäus.
Gosier, tour de
Goslenus
Gosler [Goszler, Gossler, Goslerus, Gossler de Zeger, Gosslar], Thomas
Goslich, Siegfried
Gospel
Gospel hymnody.
Gospel music.
Göss, Bartholomäus.
Goss, Sir John
Goss-Custard, (Walter) Henry
Goss-Custard, Reginald
Gosse [Goesen, Goessen, Gosa, Gose, Gossen], Maistre
Gossec, François-Joseph
Gossen, Maistre.
Gossett, Philip
Gossler [Gossler de Zeger, Gosslar], Thomas.
Gosswin [Jusswein, Jussonius, Cossuino, Gossvino, Josquinus], Antonius [Anthoine]
Gostena, Giovanni Battista della.
Gostling, John
Gostling, William
Gostuški, Dragutin
Goszler, Thomas.
Göteborg [Gothenburg].
Gotfrid [Götvrit, Gottfried] von Strassburg [Strasburg]
Gotha.
Gothenburg.
Gothic Voices.
Gothóni, Ralf (Georg Nils)
Gotkovsky, Nell
Gotovac, Jakov
Gotschovius [Gottschovius], Nicolaus [Nikolaus]
Gottfried von Strassburg.
Gotthard, Johann Peter.
Götting, Valentin
Göttingen.
Gottlieb, (Maria) Anna [Nanette]
Gottorf [Gottorp].
Gottron, Adam (Bernhard)
Gottschalk, Louis Moreau
Gottschalk of Aachen [Gottschalk von Limburg, Godescalcus Lintpurgensis]
Gottsched, Johann Christoph
Gottuvādyam.
Gottwald, Clytus
Göttweig.
Götz, Franz
Götz, Johann [Joes] Michael
Goudimel [Godimel, Godimell, Godymel, Jodimel, Jodymel, Jodrymel, Jodimey etc.],
Claude
Gougeon, Denis
Gough, Hugh (Percival Henry)
Gough, John
Goulart, Simon
Gould, Glenn (Herbert)
Gould, Morton
Gould, Nathaniel Duren
Goulding & Co.
Goumas, (Jean-)Pierre(-Gabriel)
Gounod, Charles-François
Goupillet [Coupillet, Goupillier], Nicolas
Gourd.
Gourd bow.
Goussenov, Farkhang.
Goût du chant
Gouvy, Louis Théodore
Gouy, Jacques de
Gow.
Gow, Dorothy
Goward [Keeley], Mary Anne
Goyeneche, Roberto [El Polaco]
Gozenpud, Abram Akimovich
Gozzini [Goccini, Coccini], Giacomo
GP.
Graaf, Christian Ernst.
Grabbe, Johann
Graben-Hoffmann [Hoffmann], Gustav (Heinrich)
Grabner, Hermann
Grabowski, Ambroży
Grabowski, Stanisław
Grabu [Grabeu, Grabue, Grabut, Grebus], Luis [Louis, Lewis]
Graça, Fernando Lopes
Grace.
Grace, Harvey
Grace notes.
Gracieusement [gracieux]
Gracis, Ettore
Gradale
Grädener, Carl (Georg Peter)
Grädener, Hermann (Theodor Otto)
Gradenigo, Paolo
Gradenthaler [Gradenthaller, Kradenthaler, Kradenthaller], Hieronymus
Gradenwitz, Peter (Emanuel)
Gradstein, Alfred
Gradual (i) [Responsorium graduale].
Gradual (ii) [grail]
Graener, Paul
Graetz [Grätz, Graz], Joseph
Graetzer, Guillermo [Wilhelm]
Graf.
Graf, Conrad
Graf, Hans
Graf, Herbert
Graf, Max
Graf, Peter-Lukas
Graf, Walter
Gräfe, Johann Friedrich
Graff, Charlotte Böheim.
Graff, Johann.
Graffman, Gary
Gräfinger, Wolfgang.
Grafton, Richard
Grafulla, Claudio S.
Gragnani, Antonio
Graham, Colin
Graham, Martha
Graham, Peter [Št'astný-Pokorný, Jaroslav]
Graham, Shirley (Lola).
Graham, Susan
Grahn, Lucile [Lucille]
Grahn, Ulf (Åke Wilhelm)
Grail.
Grain, Jean du.
Grainer, Ron(ald)
Grainger, (George) Percy (Aldridge)
Gram, Hans
Gram, Peder
Gramatges, Harold
Gramex.
Gramm, Donald
Grammateus, Henricus [Schreyber, Heinrich]
Granada.
Granados (y Campiña), Enrique [Enríc]
Granata, Giovanni Battista
Gran cassa
Grancini [Grancino], Michel’Angelo
Grancino, Giovanni
Grancino, Michel’Angelo.
Gran lira.
Grand bugle
Grand choeur
Grand Funk Railroad.
Grandi, Alessandro (i)
Grandi, Alessandro (ii)
Grandi, Margherita [Garde, Marguerite]
Grandi, Ottavio Maria
Grandis, Vincenzo de.
Grandjany, Marcel (Georges Lucien)
Grand jeu
Grandmaster Flash [Saddler, Joseph]
Grand opéra.
Grand pianoforte
Grandval [née de Reiset], Marie (Félicie Clémence), Vicomtesse de [Blangy, Caroline;
Reiset, Maria Felicita de; Reiset de Tesier, Maria; Valgrand, Clémence]
Grandval, Nicolas Racot de
Graneti, Johannes
Granforte, Apollo
Grange, Philip (Roy)
Grani, Alvise [Granis, Aloysius de]
Granichstaedten [Granichstädten], Bruno
Granier [Garnier, Grenier], François
Granier [Garnier, Grenier], Louis
Granis, Aloysius de.
Granjon, Robert
Grano, John Baptist
Granom, Lewis Christian Austin
Granouilhet [Grenouillet], Jean de, Sieur de Sablières
Grant, Degens & Bradbeer.
Gran tamburo
Grantham, Donald
Granz, Norman
Grapheus, Hieronymus.
Graphische Tonerzeugung
Grappelli [Grappelly], Stephane [Steph]
Gräsbeck, Gottfrid (Gustaf Unosson)
Grasberger, Franz
Graschinsky, Ernest Louis.
Grasset, Jean-Jacques
Grassi, Cecilia
Grassineau, James
Grassini, Francesco Maria
Grassini, Josephina [Giuseppina] (Maria Camilla)
Grateful Dead, the.
Gratiani, Bonifatio
Gratiano, Tomaso.
Gratieusement [gratioso].
Gratiosus de Padua.
Grätz
Grätz, Joseph.
Grätzer, Carlos
Grau, Alberto
Graubiņš, Jēkabs
Graubner, Johann Christian Gottlieb.
Graumann, Dorothea von.
Graumann, Mathilde.
Graun.
Graupner, Christoph
Graupner [Graubner], (Johann Christian) Gottlieb
Graus (i Ribas), Josep Oriol
Grave
Gravecembalo
Graves, Samuel
Gravicembalo [gravecembalo]
Gravissima
Grāvītis, Olgerts
Gray, Cecil
Gray, H.W.
Gray, Jonathan
Gray, Thomas
Gray & Davison.
Gray’s Inn.
Grayson, Kathryn [Hedrick, Zelma Kathryn]
Graz.
Graz, Joseph.
Graziani.
Graziani, Bonifazio.
Graziani, Carlo
Graziani [Gratiano], Tomaso
Grazioli, Alessandro
Grazioli, Giovanni Battista (Ignazio)
Grazioso
Grazioso da Padova [Gratiosus de Padua]
Great Antiphons.
Great octave.
Greatorex, Henry Wellington
Greatorex, Thomas
Great organ.
Great Responsory.
Greaves, Thomas
Greban, Arnoul
Grebe (Vicuña), María Ester
Greber, Jakob
Grebus, Luis.
Grechaninov, Aleksandr Tikhonovich
Greco, Gaetano
Greece.
Greef, Arthur de.
Green(e), Al
Green [Greene], James
Green, Philip
Green, Ray (Burns)
Green, Samuel
Greenberg, Noah
Greene, James.
Greene, Maurice
Greene, (Harry) Plunket
Greene, Ry(chard)
Greenfield, Edward (Henry)
Greenhouse, Bernard
Greenland.
Greenwich, Ellie
Greer, Frank Terry
Greeting, Thomas
Greff alias Bakfark, Valentin.
Grefinger [Gräfinger], Wolfgang
Greggs, William
Greghesca
Gregoir, Edouard (Georges Jacques)
Gregoir, Jacques (Mathieu Joseph)
Gregoire
Gregor, Bohumil
Gregor, Čestmír
Gregor, Christian Friedrich
Gregora, František
Gregori, Annibale
Gregori, Giovanni Lorenzo
Gregorian chant.
Gregorios the Protopsaltes [‘the Levite’]
Gregorowicz [Gregorowitsch, Grigorovich], Karol [Charles]
Gregory, Thomas
Gregory, William (i)
Gregory, William (ii)
Gregory of Tours
Gregory the Great [Gregory I]
Gregson, Edward
Greig, Gavin
Greindl, Josef
Greiss, Yusef
Greiter [Greitter, Greuter, Greyter, Gritter, Gryter], Matthias [Matthaeus, Mathis, Mateus]
Grela [Grela Herrera], Dante G(erardo)
Grell, (August) Eduard
Grelots
Grenerin, Henry
Grenet, François Lupien
Grenier.
Grenier, François.
Grenier, Louis.
Grenon, Nicolas
Grenouillet, Jean, de.
Grenser.
Grequillon, Thomas.
Grešák, Jozef
Gresemund, Dietrich
Gresham Chair of Music.
Gresnick [Gresnich, Gressenich], Antoine-Frédéric
Gresse, Jan Barent
Grétry, André-Ernest-Modeste
Grétry, Lucile [Angélique-Dorothée-Louise]
Gretsch.
Grevillius, Nils
Grey, Madeleine [Grunberg, Madeleine Nathalie]
Grgičević, Athanasius.
Gribenski, Jean
Grieg, Edvard (Hagerup)
Grieg [Hagerup], Nina
Griepenkerl, Friedrich (Conrad)
Griepenkerl, Wolfgang Robert
Griesbach, John Henry
Griesbach, Karl-Rudi
Griesinger, Georg August
Grieviler, Jehan de.
Griff
Griffbrett
Griffes, Charles T(omlinson)
Griffin, George Eugene
Griffin, Thomas
Griffini, Giacomo
Griffis, Elliot
Griffith, R(obert) D.
Griffith, Robert
Griffiths, Paul (Anthony)
Griffiths, Robert
Griffoni, Matteo
Grignani, Lodovico
Grigny, Nicolas de
Grigorian, Gegam
Grigoriu, Teodor [Theodor]
Grigor'yeva, Galina Vladimirovna
Grigsby [née Pinsky], Beverly
Grijp, Louis Peter
Grille, Sieur de la.
Griller String Quartet.
Grillet, Laurent
Grillo, Giovanni Battista
Grillparzer, Franz
Grimace [Grymace, Grimache, Magister Grimache]
Grimaldi, Nicolo.
Grimani.
Grimani, Maria Margherita
Grimaud, Hélène
Grimm, Friedrich Melchior, Baron von
Grimm, Heinrich
Grimm, Karl
Grimm, (Karl Konstantin) Ludwig [Louis]
Grimm & Wirsung.
Grinberg, (Rachel-)Mariya (Izrailevna)
Grinberg, Oleksandr
Grinblat, Romual'd Samuilovich
Grinder organ.
Grinke, Frederick
Grīnups, Artūrs
Griot.
Grisar, Albert
Grischkat, Hans (Adolf Karl Willy)
Grisey, Gérard
Grisi, Carlotta [Caronne Adele Josephine Marie]
Grisi, Giuditta
Grisi, Giulia
Grisogono [Chrisogonus; Grisogono-Bartolačić], Federik [Federicus]
Grist, Reri
Gritton, Susan
Grković, Branko
Gro, Johann.
Grobe, Charles
Grobe, Donald (Roth)
Grobstimme.
Grocheio [Grocheo], Johannes de
Groe, Johann.
Groenemann, Johann Albert Heinrich.
Grofé, Ferde [Ferdinand] (Rudolf von)
Groh [Ghro, Gro, Groe, Grohe etc.], Johann
Gronamann, Sybilla.
Gronau, Daniel Magnus
Grøndahl, Agathe (Ursula).
Groneman, Albertus [Groenemann, Johann Albert Heinrich]
Grønland [Grönland], Peter
Groop, Monica
Grooverider [Bingham, Roger]
Groppetto [groppo].
Groppo
Groppo, Antonio
Grosheim, Georg Christoph
Gross, Eric
Gross, Robert (Arthur)
Gross Cither
Grosse caisse
Grosseteste, Robert [Lincolniensis]
Grosse Trommel
Grossi, Andrea
Grossi, Carlo
Grossi, Giovanni Antonio
Grossi, Giovanni Francesco.
Grossi, Pietro
Grossi da Viadana, Lodovico.
Grossin [Grossim], Estienne
Grosskopf, Erhard
Grossman, Ludwik
Grossman, Vera.
Grossmann, Gustav Friedrich Wilhelm
Grossmith, George (i)
Grossmith, George (ii)
Grossvater-Tanz
Gross Zittern
Grosz, Wilhelm [Will; Williams, Hugh; Milos, André]
Grothe, Franz (Johannes August)
Grotrian-Steinweg.
Grottaferrata.
Grotte, Nicolas de la.
Ground.
Ground harp
Group.
Groupe de Recherches Musicales.
Group style.
Grousil [Groussy], Nicolas [Nicole].
Grout, Donald J(ay)
Grouzy [Grousil, Groussy], Nicolas [Nicole]
Grove, Sir George
Grové, Stefans
Groven, Eivind
Groves, Sir Charles (Barnard)
Grovlez, Gabriel (Marie)
Grua.
Gruber, Erasmus
Gruber, Franz Xaver
Gruber [Grueber], Georg Wilhelm
Gruber, Gernot
Gruber, H(einz) K(arl) [Nali]
Gruber, Roman Il'ich
Gruberová, Edita
Grudzień, Jacek
Grueber, Georg Wilhelm.
Gruenberg, Erich
Gruenberg, Louis [Edwards, George]
Grumiaux, Baron Arthur
Grümmer, Elisabeth
Grümmer, Paul
Grünbaum, Therese [née Müller]
Grundgestalt
Grundheber, Franz
Grundtvig, Svend (Hersleb)
Grunebaum, Hermann
Grunenwald, Jean-Jacques
Gruner, Nathanael Gottfried
Grünewald [Grunewald], Gottfried
Grunge.
Gruppetto
Gruppo
Gruppo Universitario per la Nuova Musica.
Grützmacher, Friedrich (Wilhelm Ludwig)
Gruuthuse Manuscript.
G sol re ut.
Guaccero, Domenico
Guáchara [churuca, guacharaca].
Guadagni, Gaetano
Guadagnini.
Guadagno, Anton
Guadalcanal.
Guaitoli, Francesco Maria
Guajira.
Gualandi, Antonio [Campioli]
Gualandi, Margherita [La Campioli]
Gualterus ab Insula.
Gualtieri, Alessandro
Gualtieri, Antonio
Guam.
Guami.
Guan.
Guan Pinghu [given name, Ping; style, Ji'an]
Guaracha.
Guardasoni, Domenico
Guarducci [Garducci], Tommaso
Guarello, Alejandro
Guarini, (Giovanni) Battista
Guarneri.
Guarneri String Quartet.
Guarnier.
Guarnieri, Adriano
Guarnieri, Antonio
Guarnieri, (Mozart) Camargo
Guasco, Carlo
Guascogna, Mathieu [?Johannes].
Guastavino, Carlos (Vicente)
Guatemala,
Guayrinet.
Guazzi, Eleuterio
Gubanshī, Muhammad al-
Gubaydulina, Sofiya Asgatovna
Gubert [Hubert], Nikolay Al'bertovich
Gubitosi, Emilia
Gudehus, Heinrich
Gudewill, Kurt
Gudmundsen-Holmgreen, Pelle
Gueden, Hilde
Guédon de Presles, Mlle
Guédon [Guesdon] de Presles, Honoré-Claude [Prêles, Honoré-Claude de]
Guédron [Guesdron], Pierre
Gueinz, Christian
Guelfi, Antonio
Guénin, Marie-Alexandre
Guerau [Garau Femenia], Francisco
Guerini, Francesco
Guéroult, Guillaume
Guerra, Juan Luís
Guerra-Peixe, César
Guerre des Bouffons.
Guerrero, Antonio
Guerrero, Francisco (i)
Guerrero (Marín), Francisco (ii)
Guerrero (y Torres), Jacinto
Guerrero, Joseph
Guerrero, Pedro
Guerrero Díaz, Félix
Guerrieri, Agostino
Guerrini, Guido
Guersan, Louis
Guesdron, Pierre.
Guest, George (i)
Guest, George (Howell) (ii)
Guest [Miles], Jane Mary [Jenny]
Guetfreund, Peter [Bonamico, Pietro]
Guevara, Pedro de Loyola
Guevara Ochoa, (Julio) Armando
Guézec, Jean-Pierre
Gugel', Aleksandr (Oleksandr)
Gugl, Matthäus
Guglielmi.
Guglielmini, Pietro Carlo.
Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro [Giovanni Ambrosio]
Guglielmo Roffredi
Guhr, Karl (Wilhelm Ferdinand)
Gui, Vittorio
Guibert Kaukesel [Chaucesel; Hubert Chaucesel]
Guicciardi, Francesco
Guichard, François, Abbé
Guichard, Henry, Sieur d’Hérapine
Guichard, Léon
Guichard, Louis-Joseph
Guida
Guide.
Guidetti, Giovanni Domenico
Guidi, Giovanni Gualberto
Guidiccioni Lucchesini [Lucchesina], Laura
Guido
Guido, Giovanni Antonio [‘Antonio’]
Guido Augensis.
Guido Cariloci.
Guido de Caroli-loco.
Guido frater
Guidon
Guido of Arezzo [Aretinus]
Guido of Cherlieu [Guido Cariloci, Guy de Cherlieu]
Guido of Eu [Guido Augensis, Guy d’Eu]
Gui d'Ussel [Uisel, Uissel]
Guiglielmo di Santo Spirito.
Guignard, Silvain André [Guignard Kyokusai]
Guignon, Jean-Pierre [Ghignone, Giovanni Pietro]
Guilain, Jean Adam [Freinsberg, Jean Adam Guillaume]
Guilbault-Thérien Inc.
Guilbert, Yvette
Guildhall School of Music and Drama [GSMD].
Guild of Jesus.
Guilds.
Guilielmus de Francia [Frate Guiglielmo di Santo Spirito]
Guilielmus Monachus
Guillard, Nicolas François
Guillaume IX, Duke of Aquitaine and 7th Count of Poitiers
Guillaume d'Amiens, paigneur
Guillaume de Dijon [Guillaume de Fécamp; Guillaume de Volpiano]
Guillaume de Machaut.
Guillaume le Grain.
Guillaume le Vinier.
Guillaume Veau
Guillebert de Berneville.
Guillelmus Monachus.
Guillemain, Louis-Gabriel
Guillemant, Benoit
Guillet, Charles [Karel]
Guilliaud, Maximilian
Guillon [De Guillon]
Guillot, Estienne.
Guillou, Jean
Guilmant, (Félix) Alexandre
Guimard, Marie-Madeleine
Guimbard
Guinea.
Guinea-Bissau (Port. Republica da Guiné-Bissau).
Guinjoan (Gispert), Joan
Guinovart (i Rubiella), Carles
Guion, Jean.
Guiot de Dijon
Guiot de Provins
Guiraud, Ernest
Guiraut de Bornelh.
Guiraut d'Espanha [Espaigna] de Toloza [Tholoza]
Guiraut Riquier.
Güiro.
Guisterne
Guitar
Guitare allemande [cistre]
Guitare angloise
Guitare-harpe.
Guitarra (i)
Guitarra (ii)
Guitarra morisca
Guitar zither
Guiterne [guiterre] (i)
Guiterne [guiterre] (ii)
Guittar.
Guivizzani, Alessandro.
Guizzardo, Cristoforo
Gulak-Artemovsky, Semyon Stepanovich
Gulbenkian Foundation
Gulbranson, Ellen
Gulda, Friedrich
Guleghina, Maria
Gülke, Peter
Guller, Youra
Gulli, Franco
Gullin, Lars (Gunnar Victor)
Gumbert [Gumpert], Friedrich Adolf
Gumm, Albert.
Gumm, Harold.
Gümpel, Karl-Werner
Gumpelzhaimer [Gumpeltzhaimer], Adam
Gumpert, Friedrich Adolf.
Gumprecht, Johann
Gundissalinus, Domenicus [Gundisalvi, Domingo; Gonzalez, Dominique]
Gundry, Inglis
Gung’l [Gungl], Josef [Joseph]
Gunn, Barnabas
Gunn, John
Gunning, Christopher
Gunsbourg, Raoul
Guns N' Roses.
Günther, Robert
Günther [née Rösse], Ursula
Guo Wenjing
Guo Zhiyuan [Kuo Chih-yuan]
Gura, Eugen
Gura, Hermann
Güran, Nazife
Gurecký [Guretzky, Kuretzky], Josef Antonín
Gurecký [Guretzky, Kuretzky], Václav Matyáš
Guridi (Bidaola), Jesús
Gurilyov, Aleksandr L'vovich
Gurilyov, Lev Stepanovich
Gurlitt, Manfred
Gurlitt, Wilibald
Gurney, Edmund
Gurney, Ivor (Bertie)
Gurov, Leonid Simonovich
Gurtu, Trilok
Gurvin, Olav
Guschlbauer, Theodor
Guseynova, Zivar Makhmudovna
Gushee, Lawrence (Arthur)
Gusle.
Gusli
Gusnaschi [Gusnasco], Lorenzo.
Gussago, Cesario
Gustaf, Prince
Gustafsson, Kaj-Erik
Gustavus III, King of Sweden
G ut.
Gut, Serge
Gutheil [Gutkheyl'].
Gutheil-Schoder, Marie
Guthrie, Woody [Woodrow] (Wilson)
Gutiérrez, Horacio
Gutiérrez de Padilla, Juan.
Gutiérrez (y) Espinosa, Felipe
Gutiérrez Heras, Joaquín
Gutiérrez Sáenz, Benjamín
Gutman, Natalya
Gutmann, Albert J.
Gutturalis.
Guy, Barry (John)
Guy, Buddy [George]
Guy, Helen.
Guy, Nicholas
Guyana.
Guy de Cherlieu.
Guy de Saint-Denis
Guyer, Percy.
Guymont
Guyon [Guion], Jean
Guyonnet, Jacques
Guyot (de Châtelet) [Castileti], Jean
Guy-Ropartz, Joseph.
Guzikow, Michał Józef
Guzmán (Frías), Federico
Guzmán, Jorge de
Guzmán, Luis de
Gwaltier, James.
Gwan Pok.
Gwyneddigion Society.
Gwynneth, John
Gye, Frederick
Gyffard Partbooks
Gyger, Elliott
Gyles, Nathaniel.
Gymel [gimel, gemell, gemmel etc.].
‘Gypsy’ [Roma-Sinti-Traveller] music.
Gypsy scale [Hungarian mode, Hungarian scale].
Gyrowetz [Gyrowez, Girowetz], Adalbert [Jírovec, Vojtěch Matyáš]
Gyselynck, Franklin
Gysi, Fritz
Gyterne.
Gyuzelev [Ghiuselev], Nikola
G.
See Pitch nomenclature.
Gabbalone, Michele.
See Caballone, Michele.
Gabbelone, Gaspare.
See Gabellone, Gaspare.
Gabellone, Michele.
See Caballone, Michele.
Gabichvadze, Revaz
(b Tbilisi, 11 June 1913; d Moscow, 9 June 1999). Georgian composer. He
studied composition with Braginovsky, Shcherbachov and Tuskia at the
Tbilisi State Conservatory (1928–35), stayed there for postgraduate studies
with Arapov and Ryazanov (1935–8), and taught there from 1938 until
1981. He directed the first light orchestra in Georgia (1941–3) and was
executive secretary of the Georgian Composers’ Union (1948–52). From
1982 to 1987 he was artistic director of the All-Union House of Composers
in Moscow. A continuity runs through his output, albeit through different
stages and phased transitions. Early works – the first two quartets and the
concertos for violin and cello – contain stylistic and technical features that
were summed up in his first transitional piece, the Symphony for strings,
piano and timpani (1964), and then further developed to achieve their
maximum expressiveness in compositions of the 1970s and 80s: the last
three symphonies (the Chamber Symphony no.4 and the eighth and ninth
symphonies) and the ballet Medea. His themes show a polar opposition
between lyrical monologue – clearly apparent in his songs of the 1940s,
50s and 60s, as well as in the meditative sections of his instrumental works
– and tragic outburst, of which the latter is embodied with particular force in
the late works mentioned above and in the ballet Hamlet. The symphonic
principle of synthesis, acting on vivid and dramatic ideas, is important in all
his music, the stage works (especially the ballets) as much as the
symphonies; in the first three chamber symphonies, symphonic
development is combined with an interplay of various musical images, or
‘masks’. His distinctive language embraces rhythms and intonational
patterns from Georgian folk music, which he quoted directly only at the
beginning of his career, alongside 12-note chromaticism and the local use
of aleatory devices, texture music and tape (as in the ‘Rostock’ Symphony,
Hamlet and Medea).
WORKS
(selective list)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Bėlza: ‘Na puti k obnovleniyu sovremennoy tematikoy’ [On the way to
mastery of contemporary thematicism], SovM (1951), no.9, pp.33–8
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Kartuli simfoniya gazapkhulidan gazapkhulamde’ [The
Georgian symphony from one ‘spring’ to another], Sabchota
khelovneba (1965), no.5, p.33
S. Savenko: ‘Tri monologa R. Gabichvadze’, SovM (1970), no.5, pp.55–6
D. Romadinova: ‘Bït' ili ne bït': Gamletu v balete’ [To be or not to be
Hamlet ballet], SovM (1972), no.8, pp.31–7
M. Aranovsky: Simfonicheskiye iskaniya: problema Zhanra simfonii v
sovetskoy muzïke 1960–75 godov [Symphonic quests: the genre
problem of the symphony in Soviet music of the period 1960–75]
(Leningrad, 1979), 88–193
V. Likht: Revaz Gabich vadze (Moscow, 1988)
KETEVAN BOLASHVILI
Gabignet, Pierre.
See Gaviniés, Pierre.
Gabler, Joseph
(b Ochsenhausen, Upper Swabia, 6 July 1700; d Bregenz, 8 Nov 1771).
German organ builder. The son of a carpenter, he first worked with his
father at the joinery workshop of Ochsenhausen Abbey. From 1719 he
worked in Mainz for the court carpenter and joiner Anton Ziegenhorn (d
1720) and his son, carrying on the business himself after the latter’s death
in 1726. In 1729 he married the widow of Ziegenhorn the younger. Gabler
lived in Ochsenhausen from 1729 to 1733, then again in Mainz until 1737,
subsequently in Weingarten (until 1750) and various other places, and from
1769 until his death in Bregenz. He probably studied organ building in
Mainz, where at that time the organ builders J.J. Dahm, Johann Onimus
and J.A.I. Will were active.
Gabler’s organs include those for Ochsenhausen Abbey (1729–33; four
manuals, 49 stops; rebuilt 1751–5 with three manuals and a detached
console), Weingarten Abbey (1737–50; four manuals, 63 stops), Zwiefalten
Abbey (1753–5; chancel organ), the pilgrimage church of Maria Steinbach
(1755–9), the Martinskirche, Memmingen (1759–60; rebuilding), the
Karmeliterkirche and Dreifaltigkeitskirche, Ravensburg (1763–6;
rebuildings), the Lateinische Schule, Memmingen (1768; positive), and St
Gallus, Bregenz (1769–71).
Like Gottfried Silbermann, Gabler used to characterize the sound of the
manuals and the pedal, as in the following examples (taken from the
Weingarten organ, 1745): ‘pompos’ (Hauptpedal), ‘scharpf’ (Brustpedal),
‘penetrant’ (Hauptwerk), ‘douce’ (Secund Manual and Brustpositiv), and
‘lieblich’ (Echopositiv). His specifications show a predilection for mixtures
with a lot of ranks, including Sesquialtera and Cornet (both repeating),
strings and Piffaros (not undulating) with several ranks, a preference for 8'
stops, and hardly any mutations. He used only a few reeds, having some
difficulties with the scaling of them. In addition to effect stops such as the
Timpan (Pauke), Rossignol, Cuculus (Kuckuck) and Cymbala, he built
Carillon stops, the pedal Carillon in Weingarten (32 bells) serving as the
highest enhancement of the full organ. In Weingarten he used ivory for
keys and stop-knobs, and even for pipes. Turned wooden pipes are also
found. Gabler cultivated the detached console. The imaginative case at
Weingarten is perhaps the most impressive ever built. A full stop-list of the
organ at Weingarten Abbey is given in Organ, §V, 12, Table 26.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (W. Supper)
F. Bärnwick: ‘Neues über Joseph Gabler: den Erbauer der grossen Orgel
im Münster zu Weingarten, Württ.’, Cäcilienvereinsorgan/Musica
Sacra, lxiv/lxiii (1933), 106–10
R. Weber: Die Orgeln von Joseph Gabler und Johannes Nepomuk
Holzhey (Kassel, 1933)
J. Wörsching: ‘Joseph Gabler’, KJb, xxix (1934), 54–71
W. Supper and H. Meyer: Barockorgeln in Oberschwaben (Kassel, 1941)
A. Gottron: ‘Joseph Gabler in Mainz’, Der Barock, seine Orgeln und seine
Musik in Oberschwaben: Ochsenhausen 1951, 82–3
U. Siegele: ‘Die Disposition der Gabler-Orgel zu Ochsenhausen’, Musik
und Kirche, xxvi (1956), 8–18
H. Nadler: Orgelbau in Vorarlberg und Liechtenstein, ii (Hohenems, 1985)
F. Jakob: Die grosse Orgel der Basilika zu Weingarten: Geschichte und
Restaurierung der Gabler-Orgel (Männedorf, 1986)
HANS KLOTZ/ALFRED REICHLING
Gabon (Fr. République
Gabonaise).
Country in West Africa. With an area of 267,667 km 2, it is a relatively
homogeneous cultural unit, despite the great ethnic and linguistic diversity
of its population of 1·23 million (2000 estimate). The last waves of Central
African migration converged on the Atlantic front of the equatorial forest.
With the exception of the ‘pygmies’, all the present-day peoples of Gabon
thus originated in regions outside the equatorial forest that they now
inhabit.
1. Main musical traditions.
2. External influences.
3. Musicians and instruments.
PIERRE SALLÉE
Gabon
1. Main musical traditions.
(i) Pygmy and Kele music.
The music of the ‘pygmies’ has features in common with that of other
hunter-food-gatherer peoples in Africa. These include the use of a
pentatonic tonal system incorporating tetratonic forms; the use of
alternately ascending and descending intervals of 5ths, 6ths, 4ths and 7ths
in songs that combine a yodelling technique with polyphonic imitation;
musical development based on a series of distinct melodic and rhythmic
cycles, in a kind of canon particularly suited to the resonances of the forest
canopy; and a constant use of polyrhythm within ternary structures. The
‘pygmies’ of northern Gabon conclude each polyphonic sequence with a
sustained solo note that turns into a glissando, imperceptible at first. This is
amplified by the maximum vocal resonance, and accompanied by a
specific gesture that consists of folding back the lobe of the ear by passing
the opposite arm over the top of the head.
The Kele were settled in Gabon before the final waves of Bantu migration.
They are now dispersed throughout the country where they live in
symbiosis with other groups so that the original features of their music are
difficult to identify. The first explorers, however, noted their use of an eight-
string harp with a brick-shaped box resonator and an extension carved in
the shape of a 7. As far as is known, this instrument is unique to Gabon
where it is widespread.
(ii) The music of the Tsogho, Miene and related peoples.
The Miene-speaking peoples settled on the lakes and on the northern
coast in about the 13th century; but the Kande, the Pindji, the Evya and the
Tsogho went down the southern tributaries of the Ogooué and settled in the
central mountain massif. A civilization that is now typical of the Gabon
forest because of its cultural dominance developed among the Tsogho. It is
notable for its various initiatory societies, the most famous being the male
brotherhood of the Bwete, which give secret instruction through liturgical
ceremonies based on music and dance. These comprise a succession of
processional choirs, harp music that has a specific initiatory meaning and
that accompanies the lyrical improvisations of a principal cantor, the
recitation of the myths of origin accompanied by a musical bow, and
dances with masks that are staged with skilful lighting. Almost the total
inventory of musical instruments in their functional and symbolic hierarchy
is presented in these ceremonies. The liturgical orchestra is based on the
ngombi, an eight-string harp, and the bake, a wooden percussion beam,
which rests on two supports and is struck by two players. This ensemble is
supplemented by a mouth-resonated musical bow (fig.1); ensembles of
vertical drums including the ndungu (with laced skin) and the mosumba
(with nailed skin), which accompany the masked dances; the soke, a ritual
rattle (formed from two vegetable shells filled with dried seeds and
attached to a handle) used by the principal officiant who recites the myths;
and various rattles made of vegetable matter and metal, as well as groups
of pellet-bells and jingles. The sound of the ghebomba, a signal horn,
marks the beginning and the end of the ceremonies.
The music of the Miene-speaking Mpongwe, Rungu, Nkomi and Galoa
shows certain similarities to that of the Tsogho. It is characterized by a
sophistication of the melodic line, especially in women’s singing, which
although based on a hexatonic scale has a strong D-mode flavour. The
singers also use long vocalizations of beautiful liquidity which result from
the sonorities of the Miene language, especially its open vowels. A further
characteristic is the fullness of the choral ensembles (ex.1), which use
harmonies based on the notes of the two overlapping common chords with
minor or neutral 3rds, tuned to the harp. Harp playing among both the
Miene and the Tsogho is sometimes reminiscent of Iberian improvisation on
instruments of the guitar type, and this might imply an early Portuguese
influence. The tuning of an Nkomi harp is given in ex.2.
Gabon
2. External influences.
(i) From the south.
Another wave of settlement, this time from the south and south-east, took
place as a result of the territorial expansion of the former kingdoms of
Kongo and Loango. Their influence was felt well before the 16th century as
far as Cape Lopez. The migration from the south introduced two types of
pluriarc, each with five strings. The tsambi of the Lumbu, the Vili and the
Shira of the plains and lagoons of the south-west is small and carefully
made and is also found in Loango and in Bas-Zaïre. The other (shown in
fig.2) is large and more crudely made and is called ngwomi by the Teke, or
Tegue, of the eastern plateau. The term ngwomi is a linguistic
transformation of ngombi, the name by which the peoples of the interior of
Oabon know the eight-string harp. The Teke of the Congo generally call
this instrument lukombe, and it may have originated in the region of the
River Kwango and Kasai.
The sanza is a lamellophone used for intimate and meditative secular
music. It is known in Gabon and the Congo region as sandza, sandji and
esandji and is widespread in the south and south-east of the country. The
Gabonese instrument, which has metal keys, corresponds generally with
the River Congo type. Some instruments are, however, built on two small
boards and are similar to instruments found in the River Kwango and Kasai
region. To achieve the greatest possible complexity of timbres, the subtle
plucked sounds of the pluriarcs and the sanza are systematically prolonged
by a continuous buzzing, obtained on the pluriarcs by the addition of metal
plates with rattling rings round their edges, and on the sanza by trade
beads threaded on its keys.
Teke music is particularly original: ensembles of two or three sanza with a
common tuning are used; polyphonic structures based on different vocal
timbres occur in great successive waves in response to a soloist’s call-
phrase, sometimes sung falsetto. The vocal sound quality, reminiscent of
yodelling although produced quite differently, can on occasion induce
possession, the possession dances of women’s societies being controlled
by a soothsayer. The natural singing voice is remarkably soft despite its
high register, a combination that sometimes leads to the expressive
strangling of particularly high notes, especially characteristic of the Punu.
(ii) From the north.
The last of the great migrations produced the present settlements in the
north. In the early 19th century, at the time of the first major colonial
explorations, the Fang (Faŋ) tribes began to lead a massive exodus of
peoples from central Cameroon and from the Ubangi region towards the
banks of the Ogooué and the estuary of the Gabon. They were called the
Pangwe by the bank-dwellers, and also occupied Equatorial Guinea (Rio
Muni) and south Cameroon. They appeared to have something in common
with the Zande and introduced instruments of an Ubangl type, such as
large wooden lamellophones (which Laurenty termed the pahouin type
after the Pangwe peoples) called nkola or tamatama, found also in
Cameroon; and xylophones, which were previously unknown in Gabon.
The xylophones are of two types: the medzang m’biang (fig.3), a log
xylophone whose keys rest on two banana trunks, is reserved for the
Melane ancestor cult, and is used in pairs with 15 and 8 keys on each
instrument; the second type is portative, its keys being suspended over a
frame of light wood beneath which several gourd resonators are fitted.
Each of these resonators has a small hole which is covered with a fine
membrane to form a mirliton. The keys are struck with two rubber-padded
sticks. The portative xylophones are used in groups of five to accompany
girls’ dances. Each instrument has its own name and range and the
instruments are ordered from the highest to the lowest according to the
number of keys (9, 9, 8, 6, 2). Xylophone music is like an iridescent carillon
of timbres, pitches and note-lengths, based on a major hexatonic scale
with no seventh degree. The keys are arranged in the order of the scale in
such a way that the alternate or simultaneous use of the sticks produces
intervals of 3rds and 4ths.
The Fang are particularly distinguished by their oral epic tradition, which is
largely concerned with superhuman struggles. Bards accompany
themselves on the Mvet, a harp-zither with notched bridge (fig.4), while
reciting vehement prose, which is ordered in regular metrical periods
against a rigorous isochronous background supplied by pairs of concussion
sticks. Each episode in the narrative ends with a raucously sung melodic
‘flight’ in which intervals of diminished 5ths are curiously interposed; the
recitation can last for a whole night.
The harp-zither is also used by the Kota and by the Teke, who combine it
with one of their ubiquitous jingles. The Fang formerly used an eight-string
harp in their funeral ceremonies, now used exclusively by the syncretic
cults in the capital. The resonators of some of these harps are given
magnificently carved anthropomorphous extensions in the style of
ancestral statues and suggest a relationship with those of the Ngbaka of
the Central African Republic.
The music of the Fang is sober and remarkably disciplined; it can also be
rough and virile, characterized by grandiose accents. The great group
dances are sustained by the steady rhythm of two mbejn, vertical drums
with slightly conical bodies, and they are controlled by the signals of the
nkul, a large slit-drum. The drummer on the nkul uses different pitches and
rhythms to indicate the dance movements and to determine the musical
periods which start and end in perfect ensemble. The great choral
ensembles produce imposing homophony based on sequences of 4ths and
3rds which appear episodically. They are responsorial in structure with,
however, one peculiarity: the choral response is in each case established
by a long-held unison note which is either the final note of each solo
melodic phrase or a degree higher than the final note.
Part of the Kota tradition is associated with the Mungala, mythical protector
of fecundity and redresser of ills who presides at the initiation of young
boys into manhood. The wearing of masks induces all sorts of sounds,
including strange voices which are distorted by a high falsetto, cavernous
rumblings, raucous growls from the throat produced after drinking an
irritant, and by the use of a mouth or nose mirliton. In addition, dull sounds
that seem to come from the earth are obtained by beating a plank resting
over a pit. It is dangerous to speak to the Mungala without the magic
protection of the kendo (an iron bell with bent handle and clapper), which
an ‘interpreter’ continuously shakes. The songs relating to twinhood or
circumcision are dedicated to the Mungala. The elementary antiphonal
structure of these songs is also found in the fable-songs belonging to the
domestic oral tradition of stories and games. The Kota, the Ndzabi and the
Fang sing guessing games that are based on such oppositions as heaven
and earth, bush and village, male and female, and the animal and human
worlds. The player is offered a series of choices, and the answers are
guided by the particular inflections, negative or positive, of the instrumental
ostinato of a musical bow.
Gabon
3. Musicians and instruments.
Strictly speaking, there is no musical professionalism in Gabon since
musical specialization is not the prerogative of any one social caste. Music
is common to all and artists engage in the same daily occupations as other
members of a village. The talent of an individual is, however, always
potentially linked with sorcery and must be approved by a special initiation,
where it is assigned a role in the initiatory hierarchy that prevails over every
other form of social hierarchy in the traditional organization of the tribe.
After a ‘revelation’ or ‘vision’, an individual might follow the career of a
harpist; the suppleness of the fingers is reputedly increased after incisions
have been made at the base of the thumb and on the wrist.
Among the Fang, however, the mvet player is semi-professional and is
invited by families to play and sing on evenings that have been arranged
for important occasions. Some mvet players are much sought after and
travel long distances in response to these invitations; they are generally
paid in money and in kind. The initiation of a mvet player is carried out
under the sponsorship of a master and takes the form of physical, moral
and intellectual tests, including personal sacrifices, the drinking of burning
syrups, the eating of the heads of birds captured by a lure and finally the
rapid and faultless recitation of complex and lengthy genealogies.
The musical bow is generally considered the primeval instrument and the
ancestor of other chordophones. Its stretched string symbolizes the
mediation between heaven and earth, and the sounds of its vibrations
connect to the ‘word’ of the first ancestor. String instruments are
considered to be of common descent. Thus the harmonics given out by the
single string of the musical bow give birth to the eight strings of the harp,
and the feminine body of the harp in turn gives birth to sounds and
multiplies their vibrations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
R. Avelot: ‘La musique chez les Pahouins, les Ba-kalai, les Eshira, les
Ivéïa et les Bavili’, L’anthropologie, xvi (1905), 287
J. Tiersot: ‘La musique chez les nègres d’Afrique’, EMDC, I/v (1922), 3197
M.-F. Grébert: ‘L’art musical chez les Fang du Gabon’, Archives suisses
d’anthropologie générale, v (1928), 75
recordings
Musiques du Gabon, coll. M. Vuylsteke, Ocora OCR 41 (1968)
Music from an Equatorial Microcosm: Fang Bwiti Music from Gabon
Republic, Africa, with Mbiri Selections, coll. J.W. Fernandez, Folkways
FE 4214 (1973)
Gabon: musiques des Mitsogho et des Batéké, coll. P. Sallée, Ocora OCR
84 (c1975)
Musique des Pygmées du Gabon et des Bochimans du Botswana, CBS
80212 (1976) [incl. notes by P. Salleé]
Gabon: musique des Pygmées Bibayak, rec. 1966–73, Ocora 558504
(c1977); reissued on CD with addl ‘Chantres de l’épopée’, Ocora
C559053 (1989) [incl. notes by P. Salleé in Fr. and Eng.]
Gabon: chantres du quotidien, chantres de l’épopée’, Ocara 558515 (1977)
[incl. notes by P. Salleé in Fr. and Eng.]
Gabon: les musiciens de la forêt, coll. H. Poitevin and C. Oneto, Ocora
558569 (1981)
Gabriel, Peter
(b Cobham, Surrey, 13 Feb 1950). English rock singer and songwriter. He
was the lead singer with Genesis until 1975 when he left the band to
pursue a solo career. Four eponymously named albums released between
1977 and 1982 marked a gradual stylistic shift from the somewhat
pretentious progressive rock of Genesis to a more considered style, heavily
dependent on slow-moving synthesizer washes (frequently alternating just
two or four modally inclined harmonies) and cymbal-less intricate drum
patterns, programmed since the third album on a Fairlight computer. Far
from writing formulaic songs of interpersonal relationships, Gabriel's
approach is always more sophisticated, and frequently troubling, which
might derive from his deep interest in Jung. Many songs focus on the need
for personal contact (I Have the Touch), and warn of the perils of surrender
to it (Here Comes the Flood). His next two albums, Peter Gabriel (1980)
and Peter Gabriel (Security) (1982), continued this development. While So
(1986) includes some soul-influenced bass lines, on Us (1992) the use of
instruments and the influence of styles from different cultures (especially
North and West African) is particularly notable. These can be traced to a
maturing political conviction evident in the third album's Biko which
protested against the death of the South African student leader. This led to
the formation of WOMAD (an important organization for the promotion of
‘world music’) in 1982, subsequent recordings with such African stars as
Youssou N'Dour and Geoffrey Oryema, and concerts and tours in aid of
and outspoken support for such organizations as Greenpeace and
Amnesty International and those involved with alternative technologies and
anti-apartheid matters. In 1992 he set up Real World Records from his
studio near Bath, promoting a wide range of musicians from across the
world. Gabriel's ability to set up convincing atmospheres for his challenging
songs has also been harnessed to film music, most notably in Parker's
Birdy (1985) and Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ (1989).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Gallo: Peter Gabriel (London, 1986)
U. Fiori: ‘Listening to Peter Gabriel's “I Have the Touch”’, Popular Music, vi
(1987), 37–43
S. Bright: Peter Gabriel: an Authorized Biography (London, 1988)
P. Sutcliffe: ‘Organised Chaos’, Q, no.32 (1989), 70–82
J. Black: ‘World Party’, Q, no.62 (1991), 22–5
R. Sandall: ‘Gawp Factor Ten’, Q, no.82 (1993), 32–5
M. St Michael: Peter Gabriel in his Own Words (London, 1994)
ALLAN F. MOORE
Operettas: Widows Bewitched (H. Aidé), 1865 (1866); Who’s the Heir (G.E. March),
c1870 (1873); Grass Widows (March), 1873 (1875); Graziella (J.J. Lonsdale)
(1875); The Love Tests (V. Amscotts); The Shepherd of Cournouailles (T.G. Lacy);
c7 others
Cants.: Evangeline (H.W. Longfellow) (1873); Dreamland (A. Matthison) (1875)
Songs: c300, incl. The Blind Boy (C. Cibber) (1836); Recitative and Aria: Ciel, che
veggio! (1852) rev. as On the Threshold (A. Mullen) (1870); The Skipper and his
Boy (H. Aidé) (c1860); The Forsaken (H. Aidé) (1861); Orpheus (W. Shakespeare)
(1862); At the Window (R. Browning) (1864); Change Upon Change (E.B.
Browning) (1868); When Sparrows Build (J. Ingelow) (before 1870); Après tant de
jours (A.C. Swinburne) (1873)
Pf: c30, incl. La previdenza (1852); La reine des aulnes (1853); La gondola (1855);
Long Ago (1861); Dream of the East (1876)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D.B. Scott: The Singing Bourgeois: Songs of the Victorian Drawing Room
and Parlour (Milton Keynes and Philadelphia, 1989), 69–73
S. Fuller: The Pandora Guide to Women Composers: Britain and the
United States, 1629–Present (London, 1994), 130–31
SOPHIE FULLER
Gabriel de Texerana.
Spanish singer, probably identifiable with Gabriel Mena.
Gabrieli, Andrea
(b Venice, ?1532/3; d Venice, 30 Aug 1585). Italian composer and organist,
uncle of Giovanni Gabrieli. He brought an international stature to the
school of native Venetian composers after a period when Netherlandish
composers had dominated. Although he was not as profound a composer
as Giovanni, his music displays an exceptional versatility; he was one of
the most important figures of his generation and exerted considerable
influence on both later Venetian and south German composers.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAVID BRYANT
Gabrieli, Andrea
1. Life.
In the register which records Andrea Gabrieli’s death on 30 August 1585,
the composer is described as ‘about 52 years of age’; it is thus most likely
that he was born in 1532 or 1533. Since he is frequently referred to as
‘Andrea da Cannaregio’ in contemporary documents, it would appear that
his place of birth was the Venetian sestiere of that name. There is some
documentary evidence to link his family to the parish of S Geremia: his
sister Paola is known to have married a linen-weaver of the parish, and
Andrea himself was organist at the church of S Geremia from before June
1555 until at least July 1557. Andrea’s father, Domenico, died before 1567.
These facts constitute all that is known of the composer’s background and
early life.
There is indirect evidence that while in his teens or early twenties, Gabrieli
was in Verona and was associated in some way with Vincenzo Ruffo
(maestro di cappella at the cathedral from about 1550). His first published
madrigal, Piangete occhi miei, appeared in a Ruffo print of 1554. Moreover,
Gabrieli’s setting of Petrarch’s sestina Giovane donna sott’un verde lauro,
first published in an anthology of 1568, appears to have been intended for
the Accademia Filarmonica of Verona.
In 1557 Gabrieli was one of ten unsuccessful applicants for the post of
organist at S Marco, Venice, left vacant by the death of Girolamo
Parabosco (the winner was Claudio Merulo). Not many years later,
however, an important new opportunity arose in the form of a contact with
Orlande de Lassus. A document of October 1562, drawn up by a quarter-
master employed by the Bishop of Bamberg, lists Gabrieli and Lassus
among the retinue of Albrecht V, duke of Bavaria, during a journey from
Prague to Frankfurt to attend the coronation of the emperor Maximilian II. It
is possible that the two musicians became acquainted in Venice during one
of Lassus’s frequent trips to Italy to recruit personnel for the Bavarian court
chapel. It is also plausible that Gabrieli returned with Lassus on the latter’s
subsequent journey south at the end of 1562. Whatever the case, there
can be little doubt that Lassus provided Gabrieli with a major source of
musical and artistic inspiration. Gabrieli’s acquaintance with members of
the rich and powerful Fugger family of Augsburg may also date from his
period abroad.
With the exception of the reference of October 1562, Gabrieli’s movements
and activities between 1557 and the mid-1560s, when he was appointed to
a permanent position at S Marco, are mostly unknown. There is evidence
to suggest that he obtained temporary employment at S Marco during
September and October 1564, although the documents in question are
18th-century commentaries on originals that can no longer be traced. The
decision by the governing body of the ducal chapel, dated 3 November
1566, to grant Gabrieli a reimbursement of 15 ducats ‘for the considerable
travelling expenses sustained in coming to S Marco’ might suggest that the
composer remained north of the Alps until summoned to Venice a year or
two later. A third possibility is intimated by one interpretation of the madrigal
Per monti e poggi, published in the Primo libro di madrigali a cinque voci of
1566. Here, a shepherd and his flock from a land watered by the rivers
Secchia and Scultenna (i.e. in the vicinity of Modena) are invited to settle in
a country fed by the Ticino, Lambro and Po (a clear allusion to Milanese
territory). It is not impossible that the shepherd/pastor in question is
Cardinal Carlo Borromeo, abbot in commenda of the abbey of Nonantola
(itself situated near a point where the Secchia and Scultenna almost
converge), whose solemn entry into Milan (which city was to become his
permanent residence) occurred on 23 September 1565. If this is so,
Gabrieli was probably residing and working in or near the Lombard capital.
Further circumstantial evidence in support of this hypothesis is provided by
the admittedly late indications in Paolo Morigia’s La nobiltà di Milano of
1595: Gabrieli, it is claimed, had a high regard for a Salve regina by the
Milanese nobleman Lucio Castelnovato, a piece presumably composed
before 1569 (in which year it was apparently submitted to the attention of
the pope).
In a deliberation of 12 July 1566 the procurators of S Marco granted
Claudio Merulo the sum of 10 ducats (a little more than a month’s salary)
for services performed between the end of November 1565, after Annibale
Padovano had failed to return to his post following a period of leave, and
Gabrieli’s arrival in Venice: this suggests that Gabrieli took up his
appointment as permanent organist of S Marco at the beginning of 1566.
His arrival marks an important step in assuring stability in the musical
establishment of the Ducal chapel, threatened after the death of Willaert,
the short-lived tenure of Cipriano de Rore as maestro di cappella and the
subsequent disappearance of Padovano. Zarlino, recently appointed as
maestro di cappella, retained his post until his death in 1590; Merulo, the
‘other’ organist at the basilica from 1557, remained in his position until
1584; many talented singers and, above all, instrumentalists (the Dalla
Casa brothers in 1568; the cornettist Giovanni Bassano in 1576) were
added to the payroll in this period. Gabrieli himself remained in his post
until his death in August 1585, despite an attempt involving Lassus to
recruit him for the service of Duke Wilhelm V of Bavaria in 1574.
Few details are known of Gabrieli’s personal and professional life. At about
the time of his appointment as organist of S Marco, he appears to have
taken on some economic responsibility for the family of his sister Paola: in
a legal document of March 1567 he agrees to act as the financial guarantor
for Giacomo, elder brother of Giovanni Di Fais (later Gabrieli), who was
about to enter a monastery. Documents submitted for tax estimates in 1566
suggest that Gabrieli was then renting two separate living-quarters: one for
himself and the other for Paola and her family. The inference is that he had
become de facto head of the Di Fais household. In 1578 he received a
one-off payment of 20 ducats from his employers at S Marco, apparently
on account of economic difficulties caused by his (i.e. his sister’s)
numerous family.
Gabrieli, Andrea
2. Works.
Gabrieli published music in all the principal forms and styles current in late
16th-century Venice: masses, motets, madrigals, giustiniane, mascherate
and theatre music (including the choruses for Sophocles’ Oedipus tyrannus
in Orsatto Giustiniani’s Italian translation, staged in March 1585 for the
inauguration of the theatre designed by Andrea Palladio for the Accademia
Olimpica, Vicenza: these choruses represent the only surviving example of
music written specifically for Renaissance performances of tragic theatre).
The posthumous Concerti (1587) include sacred and secular compositions
for the most important ceremonies of the Venetian church and state. The
text of the motet Benedictus Dominus Deus contains an explicit reference
to an important military victory, presumably that at Lepanto in 1571. The
first performance of O crux splendidior probably took place during the
ceremony for the foundation of Palladio’s church of the Redentore, erected
by the Venetian state as thanksgiving for the passing of the plague
epidemic of 1575–7. A series of mass sections in five to 16 parts (one to
four choirs) was perhaps written on the occasion of the visit of five
Japanese princes in June 1585 (though the composer’s death notice in late
August of that year notes that his fatal illness had begun some five months
before). Hor che nel suo bel seno and Ecco Vinegia bella commemorate
the arrival of Henri III of France in 1574. The madrigal Felici d’Adria, printed
in the Secondo libro di madrigali for five, six and eight voices (1570), was
written for a visit Archduke Charles of Austria made to Venice in 1565 or
1569.
Gabrieli’s large-scale polychoral works correspond in style less to the
double-choir psalm-settings published by Willaert in 1550 than to the
compositions written by Lassus for the Munich court chapel. It is indeed
possible that the Venetian composer’s stay north of the Alps was intended
as a means of familiarizing him with the ceremonial music in vogue in the
great northern courts; his earliest known large-scale motets, the eight-part
Lucida ceu fulgida and 12-part Deus misereatur nostri, appeared in a print
largely comprised of motets in honour of various members of the Habsburg
family. In comparison with these pieces, his later polychoral compositions
tend to exhibit a more clear-cut separation between the various groups of
performers, and there is a growing preference for contrapuntal simplicity,
chordal textures and homophonic blocks of sound (though modified,
presumably, through improvised embellishment); imitation, when present, is
as likely to occur between entire groups of voices as single parts. This is
perhaps a result of the clear-cut spatial separation of groups of performers
in S Marco. The widening of overall range in the supposedly later works
(where at times the outer parts reach C and a''') is a clear indication of
instrumental participation; in some works, the marking of one choir as
‘cappella’ indicates that this is the only fully vocal group. Further
characteristics of the later works are an increased propensity for the use of
V–I harmonic relationships and a growing awareness of the structural
possibilities of musical climax through the use of gradually shortening note
values and acceleration of the rate of exchange between choirs.
In his madrigals Gabrieli quickly abandoned the Petrarch sonnet in favour
of the poetic madrigal. Several texts were set only by him, suggesting that
he had direct contact with the poets concerned or that he was required by
patrons to set specific texts. As in the motets, there is increasing use of
homophonic textures (contrasting with passages in imitative counterpoint)
and the verbal underlay becomes more syllabic; variety is increasingly
obtained through repetition of phrases in different combinations of voices
and at different pitches. Gabrieli’s debt to Lassus is particularly evident in
his greghesche and giustiniane (antecedents, in turn, of the madrigal
comedies of Orazio Vecchi and Banchieri); the obvious models are
Lassus’s pieces of 1555.
In his keyboard music Gabrieli adopted the standard forms of toccata,
ricercar, canzona and intonazione. The intonazioni are preludes, written in
a quasi-improvisatory style, with chords held in one hand against which the
other hand provides decorative figuration. Some toccatas are similar in
style, though longer; others are marked by the addition of an imitative,
fugal section which, in some cases, comes to dominate the composition as
a whole. Venice was clearly an important centre for the development of the
form; many composers were active in the city at some time, and six were
organists at S Marco. Gabrieli’s ricercars are consistently contrapuntal, with
a lengthy development of the main theme set against a succession of
counter-themes to which it is often closely related. The canzonas are
mostly transcriptions of French chansons, with little adaptation of the
original except for ornamentation, above all at cadences.
Gabrieli’s popularity as a composer is attested by the numerous reprints of
his collections, as well as by the frequent occurrence of his compositions in
anthologies. His vocal works continued to be published and recopied in
manuscripts in Italy and, until well into the 17th century, in German-
speaking regions and the Low Countries, both in their original form and in
arrangements for lute or keyboard. As late as about 1640, in Germany or
for a German patron, his four-part motets and madrigals and his three
organ masses (probably published in the lost fourth book of Gabrieli’s
organ works) were copied in keyboard tablature in Italy. Evidence of
Gabrieli’s popularity outside Venice, and north of the Alps in particular, is
provided by the dedications of his publications. Of the non-Venetian
dedicatees, a clear majority are northerners and all are titled heads of
state, high-ranking church dignitaries (including Pope Gregory XIII) or
leading bankers. By contrast, the Venetians include no high-ranking
patricians, patriarchs or, in general, men of particular wealth, power or
influence: the actor, merchant and musician Antonio Molino, the second-
rank official Girolamo Molino and Domenico Paruta, abbot of the Venetian
monastery of S Gregorio. The family of Giovanni Saracini (dedicatee of the
Primo libro de madrigali a sei voci of 1574), from Bologna, owned a
banking firm in Venice. As for Gabrieli’s activities and influence as a
teacher, Lodovico Zacconi, in his Prattica di musica of 1592, referred to his
many pupils and stated that he himself had studied with Andrea. Other
pupils were Hans Leo Hassler and Gregor Aichinger (further evidence for
Gabrieli’s popularity in northern Europe), and, naturally, Giovanni Gabrieli.
In 1585 the Venetian musician Marco Facoli made provision in his will for
his son’s keyboard and general musical studies with Gabrieli, a
confirmation of the latter’s pre-eminence as a teacher in Venice.
Gabrieli, Andrea
WORKS
Andrea Gabrieli: Edizione nazionale delle opere, ed. D. Arnold and D. Byrant (Milan,
1988–) [AG i–xvii] [vol.i incl. complete list of projected vols.]Editions: Musica divina, i/1–
2, ii/2–3 ed. C. Proske (Regensburg, 1853–76) [P]Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli: La
musica strumentale in San Marco I, II, ed. G. Benvenuti, IMi, i–ii (1931–2) [B i–ii]Die
sieben Busspsalmen, ed. B. Grusnick (Kassel and Basle, 1936) [G]Ricercari für Orgel I,
II, ed. P. Pidoux (Kassel, 1936, 2/1952) [PR]Intonationen für Orgel, ed. P. Pidoux
(Kassel, 1941, 2/1967) [PI]Canzonen und ricercari ariosi für Orgel, ed. P. Pidoux
(Kassel, 1943–52, 2/1961) [PC]Canzoni alla francese, ed. P. Pidoux (Kassel and Basle,
1953) [PF]Andrea Gabrieli: Complete Madrigals, ed. A.T. Merritt, RRMR (1981–4) [M i–
xii]
sacred vocal
madrigals
theatre
instrumental
sacred vocal
Sacrae cantiones, liber primus, 5vv, insts (1565, 3/1584 with basso pro organo)
[1565]
Primus liber missarum, 6vv (1572) [1572]
Ecclesiasticarum cantionum omnibus sanctorum solemnitatibus deservientium liber
primus, 4vv (1576) [1576]
Psalmi Davidici, qui poenitentiales nuncupantur, 6vv, insts (1583) [1583]
Concerti di Andrea, e di Gio: Gabrieli … continenti musica di chiesa, madrigali, &
altro … libro primo 6–8, 10, 12, 16vv, insts (1587 16, basso per organo in D-As Tonk.
Schl. 200a) [158716]
Works in 15686, 158714, 15882, 15905, 159311, 15983, 159919, 16031, 160720, 16102,
16103, 161010, 16168, 161724
Angeli archangeli, 4vv, 1576; P i/2, 399; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Angelus ad pastores, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Angelus ad pastores, 7vv, 158716, AG xi; contrafactum as Die Engel sprach, ed. in
H. Schütz: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, v (Kassel, 1955), no.27
Angelus Domini descendit, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Ave regina coelorum, 8vv, 158716, AG xi
Ave sanctissima Maria, 5vv, 1565
Beata es Maria, 5vv, 1565
Beati immaculati, 8vv, 158716, AG xi
Beati quorum remisse sunt, 6vv, 1583; ed. in AMI, ii (1897/R1968), 123; G, no.2
Beatus vir qui inventus est, 4vv, 1576, I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Beatus vir qui non abiit, 6vv, 158716, AG xi
Beatus vir qui suffert, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 457; Tn (kbd version)
Benedicam Dominum in omni tempore, 12vv, 1587 16, AG xi; 16031 (8vv), 161724 (org
version), CH-Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version)
Benedictus Dominus Deus, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; 161724 (org version); PL-Wn mus.
ms. 326 (kbd version)
Bonum est confiteri Domino, 5vv, 1565
Bonum est et suave [= Sonno diletto e caro], 6vv, 1607 20
Cantate Deo, exultate, justi [= Hor ch’à noi torna], 6vv, 1610 2
Cantate Domino canticum novum, 5vv, 1565, 1596 19 (kbd version); B i, 1
Caro mea vere est cibus, 4vv, 1576, P i/2 207; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Christe rex [= Sonno diletto e caro], 6vv, 1610 3
Confitebor tibi, Domine, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 abridged
Congratulamini mihi omnes, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; D-Bsb mus.ms. 40158 (kbd
version), Rp C.119 (different kbd version), PL-Wn mus. ms. 326 (kbd version
entitled ‘Confitemini Domino’)
Cur te lusit amor [= Con che lusingh’amor], 6vv, 1610 2
Deo nostro perennis [= Dolcissimo ben mio], 6vv, 1587 14
De profundis clamavi, 6vv, 1583; P ii/3, 17
Deus, Deus meus, respice in me, 10vv, 158716, AG xi
Deus, in nomine tuo, 8vv, 158716
Deus misereatur nostri, 12vv, 15686, AG xi; 1587 (modified and abridged) 1617 24
(org version), GA, 71
Deus noster refugium at virtus, 5vv, 1565
Deus qui beatum Marcum, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Deus qui beatum Marcum, 8vv, 158716, AG xi
Diligam te, Domine, 4vv, 1576, 159311 (lute version), I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Domine, Deus meus, in te speravi 7vv, 158716, AG xi; 161724 (org version); CH-Bu
F.ix.43 (kbd version)
Domine, dominus noster, 5vv, 1565
Domine exaudi orationem (Ps 101), 6vv, 1583; G, no.5
Domine exaudi orationem (Ps 142), 6vv, 1583; G, no.7
Domine, ne in furore (Ps 6), 6vv, 1583; G, no.1
Domine, ne in furore (Ps 37), 6vv, 1583; G, no.3
Domine quid multiplicati sunt, 5vv, 1565
Ecclesiam tuam, Domine, 4vv, 1576, I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Ego flos campi [= Se vuoi ch’io muoia], 6vv, 1610 2
Ego rogabo Patrem, 4vv, 1576, 159311 (lute version), Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Egredimini et videte, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; CH-Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version), PL-Wn
mus.ms.326 (different kbd version)
Emendemus in melius, 6vv, 158716, AG xi
Eructavit cor meum, 6vv, 158716, AG xii; D-Rp C.119 (kbd version)
Exaudi Deus orationem meam, 5vv, 1565 (2p. Cor meum conturbatum est, ed. in
AMI, ii, 1897/R1968, 111); Mbs mus.mss. 1640, 1641 (kbd version)
Expurgate vetus fermentum, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; CH-Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version), D-Mbs
mus.ms.91 (kbd score), Rp C.119 (kbd version)
Exultate iusti in Domino, 10vv, 158716, 16031 (version for 8vv), As Ton. Schl. 39 (kbd
score), 161724 (org version), CH-Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version)
Exurgat Deus, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; 161724 (org version), Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version), PL-
Wn mus.ms.326 (different kbd version)
Filiae Hierusalem, 4vv, 1576; P i/2, 475; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Fuit homo missus a Deo, 4vv, 1576, Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Heu mihi, Domine, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 (modified and abridged)
Hic licet, multi sint [= Non ti sarò signor], 6vv 1610 2
Hi sunt qui cum mulieribus, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Hodie Christus natus est, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Hodie completi sunt dies Pentecostes, 4vv, 1576, 1599 19 (lute version); Tn Giordano
4 (kbd version)
Hodie Simon Petrus, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
I am nondicam vos servos, 5vv, 15983
In civitate Dei [= Clori a Damon dicea], 6vv, 1610 10
Iniquos odio habui, 6vv, 158716, AG xi
In tribulatione Dominum [= Dolcissimo ben mio], 6vv, 1610 2
Isti sunt triumphatores, 6vv, 158716, AG xi
Jesu dulcissime [= Aminta mio gentil], 5vv, 1616 8
Jubilate Deo omnis terra, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; 161724 (org version)
Judica me Deus, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Laetare Jerusalem, 5vv, 1565
Laudate Dominum in sanctis eius, 10vv, 158716, AG xi; 161724 (org version)
Laudate Dominum omnes gentes, 5vv, 1565
Levavi oculos meos in montes, 5vv, 1565
Levita Laurentius, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 342; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Libera me, Domine, de viis inferni, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 (transposed)
Lucia sponsa Christi [= La bella pargoletta], 6vv, 1610 3
Lucida ceu fulgida, 8vv, 15686
Magnificat, 12vv, 158716, GA, 48; F-Pn Rés.Vma.851 (kbd score)
Magnum haereditatis, 4vv, 1576; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Maria Magdalenae, et altera Maria, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 146; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd
version)
Maria Magdalenae, et altera Maria, 4vv [= La bella pargoletta], 6vv, 1610 10
Maria Magdalenae, Maria lacobi, et Salome, 7vv, 1587 16, AG xi; D-Mbs mus. ms. 91
(kbd score) Rp C.119 (kbd version)
Maria stabat ad monumentum, 6vv, 158716, AG xi; Rp c.119 (kbd version)
Miserere mei, Deus, 6vv, 1583, G, no.4
Mulier quae erat, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 339; I-Tn Giordiano 4 (kbd version)
Nativitas tua, Dei genetrix virgo, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Ne confide in forma generosa [= Non ti sdegnar], 6vv, 1607 20
O crux fidelis, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
O crux splendidior, 8vv, 158716, AG xii; CH-Bu F..43 (kbd version)
O fili Dei, succurre miseris [= Sancta Maria, succurre miseris], 6vv, 1590 5, 161724
(org version), Bu F.ix.51 (kbd version)
O gloriosa Domina [= O gloriose Domine], 6vv, 1587 16, Bu F.ix.43 (kbd version)
O gloriose Domine, 6vv, 15905, 161724 (org version)
O lux beata trinitas, 5vv, 1565; D-Mbs ms. 1641 (kbd version)
O quam metuendus, 4vv, 1576; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Oravit sanctus Andreas, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
O rex gloriae, Domine virtutem, 5vv, 1565
O rex gloriae, qui triumphator hodie, 5vv, 1588 2; D-Rp C.119 (kbd version)
O sacrum convivium, 5vv, 1565; ed. in AMI, ii (1897/R1968), 117
O salutaris hostia, 8vv, 158716, AG xi
O spes miserarium [= O dolci parolette], 6vv, 1610 3
Patefactae sunt ianvae caeli, 4vv, 1576; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Pater peccavi in caelum, 5vv, 1565
Pullae saltanti, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Quare fremuerunt gentes, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 (2p. abridged)
Quem vidistis pastores, 8vv, 158716, AG xi; D-Rp C.119 (kbd version)
Sacerdos et Pontifex, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 481; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Sancta et immaculata, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Sancta et immaculata, 5vv, 1565
Sancta Maria succurre miseris [= O fili Dei, succurre miseris], 6vv, 1587 16, AG xi
Sic Deus dilexit mundum, 5vv, 1565; D-Rp C.119 (kbd version)
Spiritus meus attenuabitur, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 (transposed)
Surge formosa mea, propera sponsa mea [= Dolcissimo ben mio], 6vv, 1610 10
Surge formosa mia amica [= Caro dolce ben mio], 5vv, 1616 8
Te Deum patrem, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 193; I-Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Tollite jugum meum, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 450, Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Unicuique suam viro puellam [= Se vuoi ch’io moia], 6vv 1587 14
Usquequo Domine, 7vv, 158716, AG xi
Veni, dilecta mea [= Sonno diletto e caro], 6vv, 1610 10
Veni, O Jesu mi [= Vieni Flora gentil], 6vv, 1610 2
Veni sponsa Christi, 4vv, 1576, P i/2, 513; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Verba mea auribus percipe, 5vv, 1565
Videntes stellam, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Viri sancti, 4vv, 1576; Tn Giordano 4 (kbd version)
Voce mea ad Dominum clamavi, 5vv, 1565, 3/1584 (modified and abridged)
Gabrieli, Andrea: Works
madrigals
Il primo libro di madrigali, 5vv (1566) [1566]
Il secondo libro di madrigali, 5, 6, 8vv (1570, 3/1588 with slightly different contents)
[1570, 3/1588]
Greghesche et Iustiniane … libro primo, 3vv (1571) [1571]
Il primo libro de madrigali, 6vv (1574) [1574]
Libro primo di madrigali, 3vv (1575) [1575]
Il secondo libro de madrigali, 6vv (1580) [1580]
Concerti … continenti musica di chiesa, madrigali, & altro … libro secondo, 6–8, 10,
12vv, insts (158716) [158716]
Il terzo libro de madrigali, 5vv (158914) [158914]
Madrigali e ricercari, 4vv (1589) [1589]
Works in 155429, 15622, 15626, 156416, 156813, 156816, 156819, 157015, 157017,
157515, 15765, 15777, 15792, 15793, 15825, 158312, 158413, 158519, 15861, 15867,
158610, 158611, 158612, 158912, 159011, 159215, 159311, 159419, 16005a, 160111
Gabrieli, Giovanni
(b ?Venice, c1554–7; d Venice, Aug 1612). Italian composer and organist,
nephew of Andrea Gabrieli. Together with Willaert, Andrea Gabrieli and
Merulo, he was one of the leading representatives of 16th- and early 17th-
century Venetian music.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAVID BRYANT
Gabrieli, Giovanni
1. Life.
Giovanni was one of five sons and daughters of Piero di Fais ‘called
Gabrieli’, a native of Carnia who resided for some time in the parish of S
Geremia, Venice. Little is known of his early years. It is possible that he
was brought up by Andrea, to whom, in the dedication to Concerti …
continenti musica di chiesa, madrigali, & altro (RISM 158716), he described
himself as ‘little less than a son’; precise information regarding the
relationship between uncle and nephew is, however, scant. Like Andrea,
Giovanni spent a period of study and apprenticeship under Orlande de
Lassus at the court of Duke Albrecht V in Munich. One of his first published
madrigals, Quand’io ero giovinetto, appeared in Il secondo libro de
madrigali a cinque voci de floridi virtuosi (RISM 157511), a collection of
works by composers in Albrecht's service. Gabrieli remained in Munich for
some years, and in 1578 the court records show him to be in receipt of
both salary and livery. He probably left this employment either in the
following year or shortly after, as part of the exodus of musicians after the
death of Duke Albrecht in 1579. He was in Venice in 1584, acting as
temporary organist at S Marco on the vacation of that post by Claudio
Merulo. His appointment was made permanent when he was successful in
the competition held on 1 January 1585, and he retained the post until his
death: for some months during 1585 the two Gabrielis – uncle and nephew
– served together as organists of the ducal chapel.
After Andrea Gabrieli’s death in 1585, Giovanni edited a large number of
his uncle's works for publication: in particular, the Concerti (1587), a
collection of large-scale sacred, secular and instrumental pieces (see
illustration), and the Terzo libro de madrigali a cinque voci (1589). To both
of these volumes he added several of his own compositions. A number of
his organ intonazioniand ricercares were published in Andrea’s Intonationi
d’organo … libro primo (1593) and Ricercari … libro secondo (1595), both
of which were probably edited by Giovanni together with other volumes of
his uncle’s keyboard compositions. A further sign of the close affinity
between uncle and nephew is the fact that, after 1585, Giovanni took over
Andrea’s role as the principal composer of ceremonial music for S Marco.
In the same year he composed music for at least one of the pastoral plays
given in the ducal palace several times annually.
In 1585 Gabrieli was elected to succeed Vincenzo Bellavere as organist to
the Scuola Grande di S Rocco, with a salary of 24 ducats. He took up his
duties on 13 February of that year and held the post for the rest of his life.
He was required to be present in the confraternity on so regular a basis as
might seem quite incompatible with his service at S Marco, and he
undoubtedly sent substitutes on many occasions. Besides playing for the
confraternity’s monthly Mass, held on the first Sunday of each month, he
was required to be present for Mass and/or Vespers on no fewer than 24
major feast days, as well as for Sunday Vespers (except during Advent and
Lent) and Friday Compline. Particularly sumptuous was the music
performed annually on the confraternity’s name day, which occurred on 16
August. Besides the regular organist and singers of the scuola, the list of
payments to musicians in 1603 mentions the following participants in the
ceremonies: Giovanni Bassano, his company of players and an extra four
instrumentalists; three violinists; one violone; four lutenists; a company of
singers from Padua; eight other singers from Padua; a bass singer from S
Marco and ‘other special singers’. Gabrieli was given an extra payment for
having procured ‘7 organs at 21 lire each’.
The first comprehensive collection of Gabrieli’s works was the Sacrae
symphoniae (1597); the contents undoubtedly reflect, in particular, his
duties at S Marco, but it is not unlikely that several of the pieces were
written for and first performed at the confraternity of S Rocco or in the
various parish and monastic churches of Venice, where Gabrieli frequently
participated in music-making on major feast days. Many of the works in the
1597 volume were quickly reprinted north of the Alps, notably in two
volumes of Sacrae symphoniae printed by Kauffmann of Nuremberg in
1598 (RISM 15982; the collection was edited by Caspar Hassler). Gabrieli’s
fame in German-speaking lands is also reflected in the fact that he was
engaged to teach pupils sent to Venice by several northern princes:
Alessandro Tadei was sent from Graz for two and a half years beginning in
March 1604 and, on his return, was appointed as organist to Archduke
Ferdinand; in 1599, Morgens Pedersøn, Hans Nielsen, the organist
Melchior Borchgrevinck, two choirboys and two other singers were sent to
Venice for a year at the expense of the king of Denmark; a further group
from Denmark in 1602–4 included Nielsen and Hans Brachrogge;
Pedersøn was back in Venice from 1605 to 1609; Johannes Grabbe was
sent from Westphalia from 1607 to 1610; and Schütz was sent from the
Saxon court from 1609 until shortly after Gabrieli’s death in 1612; Christoph
Clemsee was probably in Venice during the last years of Gabrieli’s life.
There were Venetian pupils as well. Francesco Stivori dedicated a
collection of instrumental music to ‘the most magnificent, my dear master,
signor Giovanni Gabrieli’ (Ricercari, capricci et canzoni, libro terzo, 1599),
and an unnamed ‘pupil of sig. Gio. Gabrieli’ was elected as organist of the
Dominican convent of SS Giovanni e Paolo on 26 July 1602. A further pupil
was the Augustinian friar Taddeo dal Guasto, a member of the Venetian
convent of S Stefano, and organist there from 1605. In recording their
decision to elect Taddeo, the friars recalled Gabrieli’s positive judgement of
his student’s abilities and referred to the close relationship existing
between composer and monastery. Taddeo dal Guasto, himself a member
of the S Marco ensemble, was the executor of Giovanni’s will and editor of
the posthumously published Canzoni et sonate of 1615.
Few details are known of Gabrieli’s family circle and financial situation. His
father almost certainly died before 1572; this, over and above all musical
considerations, would explain the almost filial relationship between uncle
and nephew. On 9 September 1587, a notarial document drawn up ‘in the
house of the undermentioned brothers’ describes an arrangement by which
Giovanni, his brothers Domenico and Matteo, and his sister Marina agree
to supplement with 100 ducats each the dowry of their sister Angela who,
according to another notarial document of January 1586, was about to
enter the Venetian convent of S Giovanni Laterano. These references
might explain the decision of the procuratori of S Marco on 30 December
1586 to pay the musician the uncommonly large sum of a year’s salary in
advance, in part out of ‘respect for his needs’. Both notarial documents
specify that the composer was now living in the parish of S Vidal; he was,
indeed, buried in the convent church of S Stefano, in the same parish. In a
letter of 1604, the composer refers to his ‘numerous family’: it is unclear
whether his dependents are his own children or those of his sister or
sisters-in-law. An entry in the Venetian necrology under 12 August 1612
records the composer's death, apparently from a kidney stone, and gives
his age as 58 (indications of age in these documents are, however,
notoriously unreliable).
Gabrieli, Giovanni
2. Works.
Unlike his teachers and most of his colleagues, who are known to have
composed in a wide variety of genres, Giovanni is known almost entirely
through his vocal and instrumental music for the church: large-scale motets
and other settings for ensembles of voices and instruments, large- and
smaller-scale music for instrumental ensembles, and compositions for
organ. The light secular forms such as the villanella and canzonetta are all
but absent from his output. All Gabrieli’s surviving madrigals were
composed in the 16th century and are published in anthologies dominated
by the works of other composers. The occasional character of several of
his madrigals is apparent from their texts. The eight-part O che felice
giorno is an expanded version of the text in the rappresentazione given
before the Doge Pasquale Cicogna on St Stephen's day 1585 (the
madrigal was later reworked as Hodie Christus natus est, a motet for
Christmas Vespers). Udite, chiari e generosi figli, which contains an explicit
reference to the ‘fair and noble sons of happy Hadria’, was probably
intended for insertion in another pastoral play. Other madrigals celebrate
distinguished personages: Sacro tempio d’honorforms part of a cycle of
twelve sonnets composed in honour of the Venetian noblewoman Bianca
Capello on the occasion of her marriage to Francesco de’ Medici, Grand
Duke of Tuscany; Sacri di Giove augei honours Jacob Fugger, dedicatee of
the Concerti (RISM 158716, where the madrigal was published); Quando
Laura, ch’or tant’illustr’e bea forms part of an anthology dedicated to the
soprano Laura Peverara for her wedding to count Annibale Turco in
February 1583; the six-part Scherza Amarilli e Clori is Gabrieli’s
contribution to the marriage celebrations of Georg Gruber of Nuremberg
and Helen Joanna Kolmann in 1600.
Many of Gabrieli’s motets are liturgically appropriate to the major occasions
in the Venetian church and State calendar. On these occasions, ceremonial
required the doge to be present in S Marco or in one or other of the city’s
churches for the celebration of mass and/or vespers. Thus Deus, qui
beatum Marcum was probably intended for performance on the feast of St
Mark or during the investiture ceremony for a doge or some other high-
ranking Venetian state official (for which the text is also prescribed). Other
texts in honour of St Mark are Iubilemus singuli and Virtute magna
operatus est. Several motets are for the Ascension Day festivities, which
combined the liturgical celebrations of Mass and Vespers with the
ceremony of the Wedding of Venice to the Sea, an allegorical ceremony
which symbolized Venetian domination over the Adriatic. Textual analysis of
In ecclesiis and Dulcis Iesu patris imago suggests that their origins lie in
the annual ceremonies held on the third Sunday in July, when the doge and
other high-ranking officials were required to attend Mass in the church of
the Redentore, in thanksgiving for the passing of the plague epidemic of
1575–7. Several motet texts are drawn from Christmas Vespers, celebrated
at the Benedictine church of S Giorgio Maggiore in the presence of major
state dignitaries. There are also large-scale motets for Easter, Pentecost,
Holy Trinity, Corpus Christi and the feasts of the Blessed Virgin. Other texts
are generically celebrative in nature and are appropriate for use on a wide
variety of liturgical occasions. It is tempting to speculate that at least some
of these pieces were written for use on the major festivities in the various
parish and monastic churches, of which there were some 150 in Venice.
The presence of large musical ensembles was normal on such occasions.
Gabrieli’s earliest music shows his indebtedness to Lassus and, above all,
to his uncle Andrea. Five large-scale motets and five madrigals were
included in Andrea’s Concerti (158716). As in Andrea’s late works, the
writing is basically chordal, and word-setting is syllabic. Occasional
expressive chromaticism arises from harmonic rather than melodic
considerations, lively rhythms often produce cross-accents and
syncopations, harmonies are simple and counterpoint frequently all but
non-existent. Imitation between choirs occurs in the form of repetition of
materials and, especially towards climaxes, the use of strettos. In the
double-choir works the contrasting groups take the form of a coro
superiore and a coro grave. The bass line frequently descends to low C
and clearly requires instrumental participation, though the use of voices to
perform these parts is not to be ruled out (the parts in question are, indeed,
supplied with text). Like Andrea’s, too, the lowest part of the upper choir is
frequently not a real bass in the tuttis. Gabrieli’s interest in texture and
sonority is always apparent. The overall feeling of the music is one of
power: an appropriate musical symbol for the state church of Venice.
Most of the music written before 1597 uses cori spezzati. The Sacrae
symphoniae of 1597 show Gabrieli moving towards a style in which
thematic material is developed dynamically in dialogue form, as opposed to
being stated in one choir and answered almost exactly in the other (at
most, with transposition), as is more typical of Andrea. The harmonic idiom
is still simple and essentially diatonic, with many cadential passages
caused by frequent interchanges between the choirs. In general, however,
Gabrieli now tends to make greater use of dissonance and employ a wider
range of tonal centres. Textures are, if anything, further simplified. The
melodic element is of greater importance than in the Concerti. Naturally, in
the three- and four-choir works, harmony tends to be simpler than in
double-choir pieces. These large-scale works, however, exploit colour
contrasts more than ever before.
In general, the function of Gabrieli’s large-scale motets as musical adjuncts
to what seems in no small degree to have been a series of quite unrelated,
special occasions celebrated not only in S Marco but also, probably, in
other churches in Venice, determines a variety of styles and manners of
performance. The considerable range in the number of voices – from six to
16 in the Sacrae symphoniae of 1597, from seven to 19 in the Symphoniae
sacrae of 1615 – is itself indicative of a certain heterogeneity of intention.
So are some apparent ‘inconsistencies’ of orchestration as described in
contemporary archival documents: mass or vespers may be celebrated
‘solemnly by the capella’, ‘with singers and organ’ or ‘with all manner of
instruments’. As a rule, however, the greatest occasional events and
liturgical commemorations (above all, Christmas, Easter, Ascension,
Pentecost, Holy Trinity, St Mark) required the participation both of the
salaried instrumentalists of the Basilica (three such players were engaged
permanently in 1568, a fourth in 1576) and of extra musicians specially
hired for the ceremony in question. Archival evidence (presented in
Quaranta) suggests that Gabrieli’s employment of mixed vocal and
instrumental ensembles in his festive church music represents a mere
continuation of what, in Venice, were normal performance practices
inherited from previous centuries.
Payment records for the years 1586–7 mention up to 12 supplementary
instrumentalists: mostly cornetts and trombones, but also up to two violins.
By the early 17th century, the use of strings increased but winds still
dominated: a payment to extra musicians brought in for Christmas Day
1603, for example, lists four cornetts, five trombones, one bassoon, two
violins and one violone. A list of singers drawn up in the mid 1590s by the
maestro di cappella Baldassare Donato names 13 resident adults: two
sopranos (castratos), four contraltos (male), three tenors and four basses.
Obviously, in the same way as the instrumentalists, extra singers could be
hired on an occasional basis. Little information is available on the
participation of boy singers. However, beside the 24 adult singers
mentioned in a list of 1562 are the names of five boys who were required to
participate daily in the performance of polyphonic music; of 14 extra
singers hired for first Vespers in festo ascensionis Domini, 1604, three
were ‘putti soprani’.
In a resolution drawn up by the governing body of the basilica on 2 April
1607, some five years before Gabrieli’s death, not only is it strongly implied
that the singers, organists and other instrumentalists were regularly
present during the greatest religious solemnities, but also that one
unfortunate consequence of their division into spatially separated groups
could prove of no little embarassment to their employers. In the document
the procuratori, having emphasized how important it is ‘to perform music in
the organ lofts at such times as the Most Serene Prince and the Most
Serene Signoria come to church’, underlined the necessity of placing one
of the best musicians in each loft ‘to beat the time as it is regulated by the
maestro’. For this purpose, Giovanni Bassano (together, presumably, with
at least some of the instrumentalists, since he was capo dei concerti) was
assigned to Gabrieli’s loft and one of the singers to the other; the maestro
di cappella generally stood with a group of singers in a hexagonal pulpit
positioned in the nave of the church to the right of the iconostasis. This
would explain why the term ‘cappella’ is applied, in no fewer than 16 of his
extant works (as, indeed, in Andrea’s large-scale mass movements of the
Concerti), to a single, usually four-part choir, whose part-ranges lie
comfortably within the medium range and which is generally harmonically
self-sufficient (necessarily so, since it is distant from the other groups of
performers). In turn, the use of ‘cappella’ to describe a group of ripieno
singers suggests that some or all of the parts with text underlay in the other
choirs were performed by vocal soloists, not only in those parts which bear
the specific designation ‘Voce’ (which occurs in 22 of Gabrieli’s
compositions, all for cori spezzati) but also, by inference, in the other
works. Some large-scale works, it would appear, did not involve the ripieno
singers. The 11-part Surrexit Christus (1615), for example, contains
specifications for two cornetts, two violins, four trombones and three solo
voices. The specifications which accompany the printed parts of the ten-
part Iubilate Deo omnis terra (1615) show that instruments could be used
both to double voice parts and to replace them: three parts are labelled
‘cornett and voice si placet’, ‘trombone and voice si placet’ and ‘bassoon
and voice si placet’ respectively. A surviving copy of the second
Symphoniae sacrae (in PL-Wu) includes early 17th-century German
annotations to Attendite popule meus – in which all eight parts have text
underlay and each of the upper four parts is assigned to a vocal soloist
using the printed label ‘Voce’ – prescribing the use of stringed instruments
for the lower four parts. The same commentator describes choir I of the 15-
part Salvator noster as the ‘violin choir’, though, in the composition as
printed, text underlay occurs in all parts of the work and instruments are
not specified (one vocal soloist is mentioned in connection with choirs I and
III, and two in connection with choir II). How much this practice of
instrumentation corresponds to Venetian usage is open to doubt: archival
documentation suggests that mixed consorts were more common in
Venice, as opposed to the homogeneous timbres frequently described in
German-speaking regions. Though Praetorius’s indications for instrumental
participation are also valuable for these pieces, these too must be used
with some caution since they also reflect German taste and are of a later
date than the music to which they refer: in line with the annotations in the
Symphoniae sacrae II, Praetorius describes how certain choirs were
performed by homogeneous groups of instruments, such as violins, flutes
or cornetts for the upper choirs, trombones or bassoons for those of lower
tessitura (in these choirs, he adds, at least one part must be sung to
ensure textual completeness). The increased number of indications for
specific instruments in the Symphoniae sacrae of 1615 is perhaps due to
an all-too-literal approach to what, in Gabrieli’s original performing
materials, may well have been mere annotations regarding individual
performances: in general, usage appears to have been highly flexible. Yet,
in several of the late works, the parts marked for instruments are treated
quite differently from the vocal parts. Likewise, solo voices are clearly
differentiated from the ripieno choir by florid writing and greater concertante
play between parts. The use of the basso continuo allows solo voices to be
accompanied by the organ as well as instrumental groups. Other
instruments are specified in basso seguente parts (D-Kl mus. 51a and 62f;
though these two manuscripts were compiled in Germany and are thus not
necessarily representative of Venetian practice): the three such parts in the
18-part Hic est filius Dei are marked ‘basso continuo’ (probably organ),
‘violone’ and ‘lute’ respectively, while the 19-part Alti potentis Domini has a
‘basso grande’ for lute.
Gabrieli’s music for instrumental ensemble consists of canzonas and
sonatas. Like the motets, these were probably designed for use in S Marco
during mass and vespers on the most important liturgical commemorations
and greatest occasional events; they certainly exploit the exceptionally
large resources available in the church and the virtuosity of several
players, in particular Girolamo Dalla Casa and Giovanni Bassano. As in
some of Gabrieli’s late motets, the ornamentation applied to the melodic
lines is similar to that set out in the treatises of these two virtuoso cornett
players. One is tempted to see, in the frequent contrast between a few
highly embellished lines and the plainer main body of instruments, a
deliberate exploitation of their presence in the instrumental band of the
basilica.
The appointment of Monteverdi as maestro di cappella at S Marco in 1613
meant that Gabrieli’s impact on Venetian composers during the first half of
the 17th century was comparatively small. G.B. Grillo, his successor as
organist of the S Rocco confraternity and himself appointed to S Marco in
1619, was one of the few to follow his ideas, writing not only a Sonata pian
e forte but also concertante motets in a similar style to some of those
published in the Symphoniae sacrae of 1615. Like Andrea, Giovanni was
most influential north of the Alps. His many German pupils have already
been mentioned. His organ music was included in several tablatures using
German notation, such as Bernhard Schmid’s Tablatur Buch (RISM 160729)
and Johann Woltz’s Nova musices organicae tabulatura (RISM 161724).
Much of his church music was printed by German publishers and the
popularity of polychoral music in northern Europe can be traced largely to
his model. Schütz’s Psalmen Davids of 1619 show direct links with
Gabrieli’s motet style, not only in the general layout of instruments and
voices but also in details of cadential progressions and formal design.
Smaller-scale German church music also owed much to works such as the
chromatically expressive Timor et tremor; music by Schein and others
displays a similar attitude to word-painting and uses a similar melodic and
harmonic style rather than exploiting the potential of the basso continuo.
Schütz’s Cantiones sacrae (1625) were particularly indebted in this way,
and Gabrieli’s music was one of the most influential Italian models in
Germany before Monteverdi. It was probably this strong German interest
which led to the rediscovery of his music in the early 19th century by
Winterfeld, whose transcriptions of most of Gabrieli’s sacred music and
some pieces for instrumental ensemble are still extant (in D-Bsb).
Gabrieli, Giovanni
WORKS
numbers refer to the Thematic Catalogue
Editions: Giovanni Gabrieli: Opera omnia, ed. D. Arnold and R. Charteris, CMM, xii
(1956–) [A i–xi]Giovanni Gabrieli: Composizioni per organo, ed. S. Dalla Libera (Milan,
1957–9/R) [L i–iii]Catalogue: Giovanni Gabrieli (ca. 1555–1612): A Thematic Catalogue
of his Music with a Guide to the Source Materials and Translations of his Vocal Texts,
ed. R. Charteris (New York, 1996)
sacred vocal
Concerti … continenti musica di chiesa,
madrigali, & altro … libro primo, 6–8, 10,
12, 16vv, insts (158716) [1587]
Sacrae symphoniae, 6–8, 10, 12, 14–16vv,
insts (1597) [1597]
Symphoniae sacrae … liber secundus, 7–8,
10–17, 19vv, insts (1615) [1615]
Works in 15904, 16002, 16123, 161218,
16132, 16152, 161724
43–5 Kyrie, 12vv, 1597; A ii
71–3 Kyrie, 12vv, 1615; A iv
46 Gloria, 12vv, 1597; A ii
47 Sanctus-Benedictus, 12vv, 1597; A ii
74 Sanctus-Benedictus, 12vv, 1615; A iv
144 Alti potentis Domini, 19vv, D-Kl (inc.); A
ix
5 Angelus ad pastores ait, 12vv, 1587,
Rp (org), PL-PE (org); A i
23 Angelus Domini descendit, 8vv, 1597,
A-LIm (lute), SK-Le (org); A i
60 Attendite popule meus, 8vv, 1615,
161724 (org); A iii
122 Audi Domine hymnum, 7vv, 16123, PL-
Wn (org); A vii
145 Audite caeli quae loquor, 12vv, D-Kl
(inc.); A ix
123 Audite principes, 16vv, 16152; A vii
146 Audite principes, 16vv, Kl (inc.; much
material shared with C123); A ix
8 Beata es, virgo Maria, 6vv, 1597, SK-
Le (org); A i
18 Beati immaculati in via, 8vv, 1597,
161724 (org), D-Bsb (org), PL-Wn (org);
Ai
21 Beati omnes, qui timent Dominum, 8vv,
1597, 161724 (org), D-Bsb (org), Mbs
(kbd), GB-Ob (lute), PL-PE(org), Wn
(org), SK-Le (org); A i
33 Benedicam Dominum in omni tempore,
10vv, 1597, 161724 (org), PL-PE (org);
A ii
62 Benedictus es Dominus, 8vv, 1615; A iii
11 Benedixisti Domine, 7vv, 1597, D-Tl
(kbd), SK-Le (org); A i
84 Buccinate in neomenia tuba, 19vv,
1615, 161724 (org), PL-GD (org, 4 pts);
Av
6 Cantate Domino, 6vv, 1597, 161218
(lute), 161724 (org), D-Bsb (org), Rtt
(org, inc.), GB-Ob (lute), I-Tn (kbd); A i
61 Cantate Domino, 8vv, 1615; A iii
76 Confitebor tibi, Domine, 13vv, 1615; A
iv
154 Confitebor tibi, Domine, 13vv, 16152
(much material shared with C76),
161724 (org); A iv
54 Congratulamini mihi, 6vv, 1615, Tn
(kbd); A iii
4 Deus, Deus meus, ad te, 10vv, 1587,
161724 (org), CH-Bu (org), D-Esl (kbd);
Ai
124 Deus, Deus meus, respice in me, 12vv,
16152; A vii
59 Deus, in nomine tuo, 8vv, 1615; A iii
125 Deus, in nomine tuo, 8vv, Kl; A vii
36 Deus, qui beatum Marcum, 10vv, 1597,
SK-Le (org); A ii
126 Diligam te, Domine, 7vv, 16002, D-Mbs
(kbd, inc.); A vii
26 Diligam te, Domine, 8vv, 1597, PL-Wn
(org); A ii
127 Domine, Deus meus, ne, quaeso, 6vv,
16152, I-Tn (kbd); A vii, L iii, 15
22 Domine, Dominus noster, 8vv, 1597,
161724 (org), PL-Wn (org); A i
15 Domine exaudi orationem meam, 8vv,
1597, Wn (org), SK-Le (org); A i
34 Domine exaudi orationem meam, 10vv,
1597, 161724 (org), D-Bsb (org), Esl
(kbd), SK-Le (org); A ii
128 Dulcis Iesu patris imago, 20vv, D-Kl; A
vii
2 Ego dixi; Domine miserere mei, 7vv,
1587, I-Tn (kbd); A i
129 Ego rogabo Patrem, 6vv, 15904, A-LIm
(lute); A vii
147 Ego rogabo Patrem, 6vv, D-Rp (inc.;
much material shared with C129); A ix
29 Ego sum qui sum, 8vv, 1597, PL-Wn
(org), SK-Le (org); A ii
12 Exaudi Deus orationem meam, 7vv,
1597, 161724 (org); A i
67 Exaudi Deus orationem meam, 12vv,
1615, 161724 (org); A iv
7 Exaudi Domine iustitiam meam, 6vv,
1597, 161724 (org), I-Tn (kbd); A i
82 Exaudi me, Domine, 16vv, 1615; A v
27 Exultate iusti in Domino, 8vv, 1597,
161724 (org), D-Bsb (org), PL-PE (org),
Wn (org), SK-Le (org); A ii
53 Exultavit cor meum in Domino, 6vv,
1615, I-Tn (kbd); A iii
130 Exultet iam angelica turba, 14vv, 16152;
A vii
131 Exultet iam angelica turba, 17vv, D-Kl;
A vii
138 Gloria Patri, 8vv, Bsb; A viii
132 Hic est filius Dei, 18vv, Kl; A viii
28 Hoc tegitur sacro, 8vv, 1597, Rtt (org),
SK-Le (org); A ii
133 Hodie Christus a mortuis, 12vv, D-Kl; A
viii
40 Hodie Christus natus est, 10vv, 1597,
PL-GD (partial org score), SK-Le (org);
A ii
134 Hodie completi sunt dies Pentecostes,
7vv, 16002, A-LIm, D-Bsb (org), SK-Le
(org); A viii
148 Hodie completi sunt dies Pentecostes,
7vv, D-Esl(inc.; much material shared
with C134)
57 Hodie completi sunt dies Pentecostes,
8vv, 1615; A iii
20 Iam non dicam vos servos, 8vv, 1597,
PL-Wn (org), SK-Le (org); A i
1 Inclina Domine aurem tuam, 6vv, 1587;
Ai
78 In ecclesiis, 14vv, 1615; A v
30 In te Domine speravi, 8vv, 1597, SK-Le
(org); A ii
16 Iubilate Deo omnis terra, 8vv, 1597,
161724 (org), A-LIm (lute), I-Tn (kbd),
PL-Wn (org); A i
136 Iubilate Deo omnis terra, 8vv, 16132; A
viii
135 Iubilate Deo omnis terra, 8vv, D-Bsb; A
viii
65 Iubilate Deo omnis terra, 10vv, 1615; A
iii
51 Iubilate Deo omnis terra [= Iubilate
omnes], 15vv, 1597, SK-Le (org); A ii
31 Iubilemus singuli, 8vv, 1597, PL-PE
(org); A ii
38 Iudica me, Domine, 10vv, 1597, SK-Le
(org); A ii
149 Laetentur omnes qui sperant in te
Domine, 14vv, D-Lr (inc.); A ix
19 Laudate nomen Domini, 8vv, 1597, SK-
Le (org); A i
63 Litaniae BVM, 8vv, 1615; A iii
32 Magnificat, 8vv, 1597, PL-Wn (org),
SK-Le (org); A ii
48 Magnificat, 12vv, 1597, Le (org); A ii
75 Magnificat, 12vv, 1615; A iv
79 Magnificat, 14vv [= Laudabo Deum
Dominum], 1615; A v
83 Magnificat, 17vv, 1615; A v
150 Magnificat, 20 or 28vv, A-Wn (inc.); A ix
151 Magnificat, 33vv, Wn (inc.); A ix
35 Maria virgo, 10vv, 1597, PL-PE (org),
SK-Le (org); A ii
137 Miserere mei Deus, 4vv, D-Bsb; A viii
9 Miserere mei Deus, 6vv, 1597, PL-Wn
(org), SK-Le (org); A i
17 Misericordias Domini, 8vv, 1597, 161724
(org), PL-Wn(org); A i
69 Misericordia tua, Domine, 12vv, 1615; A
iv
50 Nunc dimittis, 14vv, 1597, SK-Le (org);
A ii
14 O Domine Iesu Christe, 8vv, 1597,
161724 (org), D-Esl (kbd), I-Tn (kbd),
PL-Wn (org), SK-Le (org); A i
68 O gloriosa virgo, 12vv, 1615, D-Kl (as
O gloriose Iesu); A iv
139 O Iesu Christe, 6vv, 16152, 161724
(org), I-Tn (kbd, entitled O doctor
optime); A viii, L iii, 11; [model for
Schütz, Iesu dulcissime]
24 O Iesu mi dulcissime, 8vv, 1597, D-Bsb
(org), PL-Wn (org), SK-Le (org); A i
56 O Iesu mi dulcissime, 8vv, 1615; A iii
140 O Iesu mi dulcissime, 8vv, D-Bsb; A viii
3 O magnum mysterium, 8vv, 1587; A i
52 Omnes gentes plaudite manibus [=
Matri sanctae plaudite filii], 16vv, 1597,
161724 (org), D-Bsb (org); A ii
81 O quam gloriosa hodie beata Maria
processit, 16vv, 1615; A v
10 O quam suavis, 7vv, 1597, 161724
(org), GB-Ob (lute); A i
58 O quam suavis, 8vv, 1615; A iii
41 Plaudite, psallite, iubilate Deo omnis
terra [= Virgini iubilemus], 12vv, 1597,
161724 (org), PL-PE (org); A ii
77 Quem vidistis, pastores, 14vv, 1615; A
v
39 Quis es iste qui venit, 10vv, 1597, D-
Bsb (org), SK-Le (org); A ii
49 Regina coeli laetare, 12vv, 1597, Le
(org); A ii
80 Salvator noster hodie dilectissimi natus
est, 15vv, 1615; A v
55 and 153 Sancta et immaculata virginitas, 7vv,
1615 (copy in PL-Wu with addl pt in MS
by Staden), I-Tn (kbd); A iii, ix
25 Sancta et immaculata virginitas, 8vv,
1597, PL-PE (org), SK-Le (org); A i
13 Sancta Maria succurre miseris, 7vv,
1597, 16002 (with opening words ‘O fili
Dei succurre miseris’), 161724 (org),
SK-Le (org); A i
66 Surrexit Christus, 11vv, 1615; A iii
141 Surrexit Christus, 12 or 16vv, D-Kl; A
viii
37 Surrexit pastor bonus, 10vv, 1597, SK-
Le (org); A ii
70 Suscipe clementissime Deus, 12vv,
1615; A iv
142 Timor et tremor, 6vv, 16152; A viii
143 Timor et tremor, 6vv, D-Bsb (related to
C142); A viii
42 Virtute magna operatus est, 12vv,
1597, SK-Le (org); A ii
64 Vox Domini super aquas Iordanis, 10vv,
1615; A iii
secular vocal
Concerti … continenti musica di chiesa, madrigali, &
altro … libro secondo, 6–8, 10, 12, 16vv, insts (1587 16)
[1587]
Works in 157511, 157515, 158311, 15861, 158611, 15876,
158914, 159011, 159123, 159211, 15955, 16005a, 160118,
160729
118 A Dio, dolce mia vita, 10vv,
1587; A vi
88 Ahi, senza te, pretiosa
Margherita, 4vv, 15955; A vi
85 Alma cortes’e bella [= My
soul is deeply wounded],
3vv, 15876; A vi
120 Amor, dove mi guidi, 12vv,
159011; A vi
180 Amor s’è in lei con
honestate aggiunto (F.
Petrarch) (2p. of A.
Gabrieli, In nobil sangue),
6vv, 1587; A vi
117 Chiar’angioletta
semb’agl’occhi miei, 8vv,
159011, A-LIm (lute); A vi
99 Da quei begl’occhi ove
s’accese il foco, 5vv,
158914; A vi
89 Deh, di me non ti caglia,
amico vero, 4vv, 15955; A vi
100 Dimmi, dimmi ben mio, 5vv,
158914; A vi
112 Dolce nemica mia, 7vv,
1587, LIm (lute); A vi
105 Dolci, care parole, 5vv,
158914; A vi
93 Donna leggiadra e bella,
5vv, 158311; A vi
115 Dormiva dolcemente la mia
Clori, 8vv, 159011, LIm
(lute); A vi
116 Fuggi pur se sai, 8vv,
159011; A vi
90 Labra amorose e care [=
How long shall fading
pleasure], 4vv, 15955,
160729 (org); A vi
113 Lieto godea sedendo [=
Auxilium promisit Deus; Ein
Kindlein fein; Fröhlich zu
sein; Heilig ist Gott; Quam
pulchra es amica mea],
8vv, 1587, 16005a (lute),
160118 (lute), LIm (lute), D-
WINtj (org, inc.); A vi
114 O che felice giorno [=
Hodie Christus natus est],
8vv, 159011, A-LIm (lute); A
vi
94 O ricco mio thesoro [= Nos
autem gloriari oportet], 5vv,
158311; A vi
152 Però di prego, 3vv, D-Dl
(text lacking); A ix
91–2 Quand’io ero giovinetto,
5vv, 157511; A vi
106–07 Quando Laura, ch’or
tant’illustr’e bea, 5vv, I-
VEaf; A vi
102 Queste felici herbette, 5vv,
158914; A vi
119 Sacri di Giove augei, sacre
fenici [= Sancti Ignatii socii
Iesu festam], 12vv, 1587; A
vi
95–6 Sacro tempio d’honor (G.B.
Zuccarini), 5vv, 158611; A vi
103–04 S’al discoprir de l’honorata
fronte, 5vv, 158914; A vi
111 Scherza Amarilli e Clori [=
Alleluia quando iam
emersit], 6vv, Honori et
amori Georgii Gruberi
(Nuremberg, 1600); A vi
110 Se cantano gl’augelli (O.
Guargante) [= Blandina
maine Schöne and Dass
Musica die schöne], 6vv,
159211; A vi
97–8 Signor, le tue man sante,
5vv, 15861; A vi
109 S’io t’ho ferito, non t’ho
però morto, 6vv, 159123; A
vi
121 Udite, chiari e generosi figli,
15vv, D-Kl; A vi
101 Vagh’amorosi e fortunati
allori, 5vv, 158914; A vi
86–7 Voi ch’ascoltate in rime
spars’il suono (Petrarch),
4vv, 157515; A vi
contrafacta
C1 Alleluia quando iam emersit [= Scherza Amarilli e Clori], 6vv, 1615 2, I-Tn (kbd);
A ix, L iii, 20
C2 Auxilium promisit Deus [= Lieto godea sedendo], 8vv, D-Esl; A ix
C3 Blandina meine Schöne [= Se cantano gli augelli], 6vv, 1612 13; A ix
C4 Dass Musica die schöne [= Se cantano gli augelli], 6vv, 1619 16; A ix
C5 Ein Kindlein fein [= Lieto godea sedendo], 8vv, D-Rp; A ix
C6 Fröhlich zu sein [= Lieto godea sedendo], 8vv, 1624 16; A ix
C7 Heilig ist Gott [= Lieto godea sedendo], 8vv, Bsb; A ix
C8 Hodie Christus natus est [= O che felice giorno], 8vv, 1615 2; A ix
C9 How long shall fading pleasure [= Labra amorose e care], 4vv, GB-Och; A ix
C17 Iubilate omnes [= Iubilate Deo omnis terra], 15vv, 1597 (MS addn to pr. ptbks
in D-Rp); facs. in A ix
C10 Laudabo Deum Dominum [= Magnificat C79], 14vv, Kl; A ix
C18 Matri sanctae plaudite filii [= Omnes gentes plaudite manibus], 16vv, 1597
(MS addn to pr. ptbks in Rp); facs. in A ix
C11 My soul is deeply wounded [= Alma cortes’e bella], 3vv, GB-Och; A ix
C12 Nos autem gloriari oportet [= O ricco mio thesoro], 5vv, 1604 11, PL-PE (org); A
ix
C13 Quam pulchra es amica mea [= Lieto godea sedendo], 8vv, 1599 5; A ix
C14 Sancta Maria virgo [= Amor dove mi guidi], 12vv, 1590 11 (MS addn to pr. ptbks
in B-Br); A ix
C15 Sancti Ignatii socii Iesu festam [= Sacri di Giove augei], 1587 (MS addn to pr.
ptbks in D-Rp); A ix
C16 Virgini iubilemus [= Plaudite, psallite, iubilate Deo omnis terra], 12vv, 1597
(MS addn to pr. ptbks in Rp); facs. in A ix
instrumental ensemble
171–85 Sacrae symphoniae, 6–8, 10, 12, 14–16vv, insts (1597), A x: Canzon
primi toni, 8vv; Canzon primi toni, 10vv; Canzon quarti toni, 15vv; Canzon
septimi toni, 8vv (inc. org version in D-Mbs); Canzon septimi toni, 8vv;
Canzon septimi et octavi toni, 12vv; Canzon noni toni, 12vv; Canzon noni
toni, 8vv (org version in A-LIm); Canzon duodecimi toni, 8vv; Canzon
duodecimi toni, 10vv; Canzon duodecimi toni, 10vv; Canzon duodecimi
toni, 10vv; Canzon in echo duodecimi toni, 10vv; Canzon in echo
duodecimi toni, 10vv (alternative version to C180: ‘variata di concerto,
con l’organo insieme’); Sonata octavi toni, 12vv; Sonata pian e forte, 8vv
195–214 Canzoni et sonate, 3, 5–8, 10, 12, 14–15, 22 insts, bc (org) (1615), A xi:
Canzon I, 5vv; Canzon II, 6vv (kbd version in A-Wm); Canzon III, 6vv
(kbd version in Wm); Canzon IV, 6vv (kbd version in Wm); Canzon V, 7vv;
Canzon VI, 7vv; Canzon VII, 7vv; Canzon VIII, 8vv; Canzon IX [= C190
below]; Canzon X, 8vv; Canzon XI, 8vv; Canzon XII, 8vv; Sonata XIII,
8vv; Canzon XIV, 10vv; Canzon XV, 10vv; Canzon XVI, 12vv; Canzon
XVII, 12vv; Sonata XVIII, 14vv; Sonata XIX, 15vv; Sonata XX, 22vv;
Sonata XXI ‘con tre violini’, 4 or 5vv
186 Canzon I ‘La Spiritata’, 4vv, 160824, 160118 (lute), 160933 (kbd), 161724
(org), 162217 (kbd version by G. Diruta), D-Esl (kbd), I-Tn (kbd), PL-PE
(org); A x
187 Canzon II, 4vv, 160824, I-Tn (kbd); A x
188 Canzon III, 4vv, 160824, A-Wm (kbd ); A x
189 Canzon IV, 4vv, 160824, Wm (kbd); A x
190 Canzon XXVII ‘Fa sol la re’, 8vv, 160824, repr. 1615 as Canzon IX; A ix, x
191 Canzon XXVIII ‘Sol sol la sol fa mi’, 8vv, 1608 24; A x
192 Canzon in echo, 12vv, D-Kl; A x
193 Canzon, 12vv, Kl; A x
194 Canzon, 4vv, I-VEcap, 159919 (lute), A-Wm (kbd); A x
keyboard
240–50 Intonationi d’organo … libro primo (159310) (wrongly attrib. A. Gabrieli
in 160729), A xii: Del primo tono; Del secondo tono; Del terzo et quarto
tono; Del quinto tono; Del sesto tono; Del settimo tono; Dell’ottavo
tono; Del nono tono; Del decimo tono; Dell’undecimo tono;
Duodecimo tono
215 Ricercar ottavo tono, 159513, I-Tn (org); A xii
216 Ricercar decimo tono, 159513 D-Bsb (org), I-Tn (org); A xii
217, 219–22 5 ricercars (org), I-Tn; A xii
218 Ricercar, PL-Kj (attrib. Erbach in D-Bsb); A xii
223 Canzon, PL-Kj; A xii
224 Ricercar, Kj (attrib. Erbach in D-Bsb and Mbs); A xii
225 Canzon, PL-Kj (designated ‘Ricercar’ in D-Mbs); A xii
226 Ricercar noni toni, D-Bsb; A xii
227 Fantasia quarti toni, Bsb; A xii
228–9 2 fugues, I-Tn (org); A xii
230 Canzon, Tn, attrib. ‘Gabrieli’ (org); A xii
231 Canzon, Tn (org); A xii
232 Canzon francese, Tn (org) (attrib. both Gabrieli and Hassler); A xii
233 Canzon, Tn (org) (attrib. Erbach in D-Bsb); A xii
234 Canzon, I-Tn (org) (attrib. Erbach in D-Bsb and Mbs); A xii
235 Canzon, F-Pn (attrib. Erbach in D-Bsb; Merulo in I-Tn); A xii
236 Toccata del secondo tono, 15939; A xii
237–8 2 toccatas, I-Tn (org); A xii
239 Toccata primi toni, Tn (org) (attrib. Merulo elswhere in MS); A xii
Gabrieli, Giovanni
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A. Pirro: ‘La musique des Italiens d’après les remarques triennales de
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in San Marco, IMi, ii (1932)
A. Einstein: ‘Italienische Musik und italienische Musiker am Kaiserhof und
an den erzherzoglichen Höfen in Innsbruck und Graz’, SMw, xxi
(1934), 3–52
G.S. Bedbrook: ‘The Genius of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MR, viii (1947), 91–101
G.S. Bedbrook: Keyboard Music from the Middle Ages to the Beginnings
of the Baroque (London, 1949/R)
H. Federhofer: ‘Alessandro Tadei, a Pupil of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MD, vi
(1952), 115–31
D. Arnold: ‘Giovanni Croce and the Concertato Style’, MQ, xxxix (1953),
37–48
J.A. Flower: Giovanni Gabrieli’s Sacrae Symphoniae (1597) (diss., U. of
Michigan, 1957)
D. Arnold: ‘Ceremonial Music in Venice at the Time of the Gabrielis’,
PRMA, lxxxii (1955–6), 47–59
A.E.F. Dickinson: ‘A Forgotten Collection: a Survey of the Weckmann
Books’, MR, xvii (1956), 97–109
W. Yeomans: ‘The Canzoni (1615) of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MMR, lxxxvi
(1956), 97–103
D. Arnold: ‘Brass Instruments in Italian Church Music of the Sixteenth and
Early Seventeenth Centuries’, Brass Quarterly, i (1957–8), 81–92
G.W. Woodworth: ‘Texture Versus Mass in the Music of Giovanni Gabrieli’,
Essays on Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison
(Cambridge, MA, 1957), 129–38
C. Engelbrecht: Die Kasseler Hofkapelle im 17. Jahrhundert (Kassel,
1958)
D. Arnold: ‘Con ogni sorte di stromenti: Some Practical Suggestions’,
Brass Quarterly, ii (1958–9), 99–109
D. Arnold: ‘Music at the Scuola di San Rocco’, ML, xl (1959), 229–41
D. Arnold: ‘The Significance of “Cori Spezzati”’, ML, xl (1959), 4–14
D. Arnold: ‘Towards a Biography of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MD, xv (1961),
199–207
E.F. Kenton: ‘The Late Style of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MQ, xlviii (1962), 427–
43
F. Hudson: ‘Giovanni Gabrieli’s Motet a 15, “In Ecclesiis”, from the
Symphoniae Sacrae’, MR, xxiv (1963), 130–33
S. Kunze: Die Instrumentalmusik Giovanni Gabrielis (Tutzing, 1963)
S. Kunze: ‘Die Entstehung des Concertoprinzips im Spätwerk Giovanni
Gabrielis’, AMw, xxi (1964–5), 81–110
D. Arnold: ‘Music at a Venetian Confraternity in the Renaissance’, AcM,
xxxvii (1965), 62–72
A.E.F. Dickinson: ‘The Lübbenau Keyboard Books: a Further Note on
Faceless Features’, MR, xxvii (1966), 270–86
E. Kenton: Life and Works of Giovanni Gabrieli, MSD, xvi (1967)
W. Breig: ‘Die Lübbenauer Tabulaturen Lynar A1 und A2’, AMw, xxv
(1968), 96–117, 223–36
D. Kämper: Studien zur instrumentalen Ensemblemusik des 16.
Jahrhunderts in Italien, AnMc, no.10 (1970)
D. Arnold: ‘Gli allievi di Giovanni Gabrieli’, NRMI, v (1971), 943–72
D. Arnold: ‘Schütz’s “Venetian” Psalms’, MT, cxiii (1972), 1071–3
S. Schmalzreidt: Heinrich Schütz und andere zeitgenössische Musiker in
der Lehre Giovanni Gabrielis (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1972)
D. Arnold: Giovanni Gabrieli (London, 1974)
W. Breig: ‘Heinrich Schütz' Parodiemotette “Iesu dulcissime”’, Convivium
musicorum: Festschrift Wolfgang Boetticher, ed. H. Hüschen and D.-R.
Moser (Berlin, 1974), 13–24
W. Müller-Blattau: Tonsatz und Klanggestaltung bei Giovanni Gabrieli
(Kassel, 1975)
D. Arnold: ‘Con ogni sorte di stromenti’, EMc, iv (1976), 167–71
D. Arnold: Giovanni Gabrieli and the Music of the Venetian High
Renaissance (London, 1979)
D. Bryant: ‘The “Cori Spezzati” of St Mark’s: Myth and Reality’, EMH, i
(1981), 165–86
T. Bridges: ‘Giovanni Gabrieli’s Father’, Notes, xxxvii (1981), 712 only
D.D. Bryant: Liturgy, Ceremonial and Sacred Music in Venice at the Time
of the Counter-Reformation (diss., U. of London, 1981)
J.H. Moore: Vespers at St Mark’s: Music of Alessandro Grandi, Giovanni
Rovetta and Francesco Cavalli (Ann Arbor, 1981)
S. Hedges: Georg Gruber’s ‘Reliquiae sacrorum concentuum’ (1615): an
Edition with Historical Commentary (diss., U. of Chicago, 1983)
M. Morell: ‘New Evidence for the Biographies of Andrea and Giovanni
Gabrieli’, EMH, iii (1983), 101–22
W. Braun: ‘Giovanni Gabrieli und Württemberg’, AnMc, no.22 (1984), 3–9
R. Charteris: ‘New Sources of the Works of Giovanni Gabrieli’, MD, xl
(1986), 135–76
R. Charteris: ‘Newly Discovered Works by Giovanni Gabrieli’, ML, lxviii
(1987), 343–63
R. Charteris: ‘Another Keyboard Canzona by Giovanni Gabrieli?’, EMc, xv
(1987), 480–86
R. Charteris: ‘Giovanni Gabrieli’s Three Settings of “O Jesu mi
dulcissime”, etc.’, ML, lxix (1988), 317–18
A.F. Carver: Cori spezzati (Cambridge, 1988)
R. Charteris and G. Haberkamp: ‘Regensburg, Bischöfliche
Zentralbibliothek Butsch 205–210: a Little-Known Source of the Music
of Giovanni Gabrieli and His Contemporaries’, MD, xliii (1989), 195–
249
R. Charteris: ‘The Performance of Giovanni Gabrieli’s Vocal Works:
Indications in the Early Sources’, ML, lxxi (1990), 336–51
R. Charteris: ‘Two Little-Known Manuscripts in Augsburg with Works by
Giovanni Gabrieli and His Contemporaries’, RMARC, no.23 (1990),
125–36
R. Charteris: ‘The Performance of Giovanni Gabrieli’s Vocal Works’, ML,
lxxii (1991), 170–71
R. Charteris: ‘Newly Discovered Manuscript Parts and Annotations in a
Copy of Giovanni Gabrieli’s Symphoniae sacrae (1615)’, EMc, xxiii
(1995), 487–96
R. Charteris: Giovanni Gabrieli (ca. 1555–1612): a Thematic Catalogue of
his Music with a Guide to the Source Materials and Translations of his
Vocal Texts (New York, 1996)
V.J. Panetta: ‘“Organ Motets” by Giovanni Gabrieli’, Studi musicali, xxvi
(1997), 55–72
E. Quaranta: Oltre San Marco: Organizzazione e prassi della musica nelle
chiese di Venezia nel Rinascimento (Florence, 1998)
Gabrielli, Adriana.
See Ferrarese, Adriana.
Gabrielli, Francesca.
See Ferrarese, Adriana.
Gábry, György
(b Istanbul, 23 April 1927). Hungarian musicologist. At the Liszt Academy of
Music, Budapest, he studied composition with Ferenc Szabó (1947–51)
and musicology (1952–7). From 1957 he worked in the music collection of
the Hungarian National Museum, and in 1974 he was appointed a research
fellow at the Music History Museum of the musicology institute of the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences. From 1979 until his retirement in 1987 he
worked in the music collection of the Ethnographic Museum, Budapest. In
his research Gábry has concentrated on the history of instruments,
particularly those of the Baroque period, with special emphasis on
Hungarian instruments. His chief interest in his museum work has been the
surviving evidence of Liszt’s activity in Hungary.
WRITINGS
‘Brandenburgi Katalin virginálja’, Folia archaeologica, xi (1959), 179–85
[with Ger. summary]
‘Marie Antoinette aranyhárfája’ [The golden harp of Marie Antoinette], Folia
archaeologica, xiii (1961), 269–76 [with Fr. summary]
‘Das Meisterbuch der Pester Instrumentenmacher-Innung’, SMH, ii (1962),
331–44
‘II. József gyermekkori csembalója’ [The childhood harpsichord of Joseph
II], Arrabona, vi (1964), 143–8 [summaries in Fr., Ger.]
‘Das Klavier Beethovens und Liszts’, SMH, viii (1966), 379–90
‘Das Reiseklavichord W.A. Mozarts’, SMH, x (1968), 153–62
‘Neuere Liszt-Dokumente’, SMH, x (1968), 339–52
Régi hangszerek [Old musical instruments] (Budapest, 1969; Eng. trans.,
1969, 2/1976)
‘Symphonia Ungarorum’, SMH, xii (1970), 291–7
‘Le “tárogató”, ancien chalumeau hongrois’, SMH, xiii (1971), 61–72
‘The Evolution of the Hungarian National Museum Music Collection’, SMH,
xiv (1972), 430–38
‘Adalékok Balassi Bálint énekelt verseinek dallamaihoz’ [The melodies of
Balassi’s poems], Filológiai közlöny, xix/1–2 (1973), 71–86
‘Liszt Ferenc zongorái’ [Liszt’s pianos], Folia historica, ii (1973), 123–34
[with Ger. summary]
‘Franz Liszt-Reliquien im Nationalmuseum Budapest’, SMH, xvii (1975),
407–23
‘A virgina’, Magyar zene, xviii (1977), 406–18
‘Paraszti életrajzok a Pátria népzenei hanglemezek tükrében II’ [Rustic life
as reflected in Patria folk music recording II], Magyar zene, xxiii
(1982), 295–308
‘Liszt Ferenc és C.F. Weitzmann’, Magyar zene, xxiv (1983), 305–11
EDITIONS
J.G. Albrechtsberger: Partita in F, Musica rinata, xvii (Budapest, 1970);
Due Partite, Musica rinata, xix (Budapest, 1971)
VERA LAMPERT
Gabunia, Nodar
(b Tbilisi, 9 July 1933). Georgian composer, pianist and teacher. He
studied at the Tbilisi Conservatory and then at the Moscow Conservatory
with Goldenweiser for piano and Khachaturian for composition. In 1962 he
returned to the Tbilisi Conservatory to teach the piano, and in 1984 he was
appointed rector of that institution as well as president of the Georgian
Composers’ Union. Recognition as both pianist and composer came to him
early, at a time when he belonged to a group of Georgian composers
moving towards Stravinsky, Prokofiev and, most of all, Bartók. Gabunia's
Igav-araki (‘Fable’, 1964) is one of the most successful syntheses of these
Eastern European compositional models with a clear Georgian musical
identity. The piece is a kind of madrigal comedy in the modern form of a
concert satire. Many aspects of it were new to Georgian music –
polyrhythm and polymetre, the sharp dissonance of polytonal chords, the
variation of short motifs, the freshness and richness of timbre – and yet
these features were organically connected to the modal and polyphonic
particularities of west Georgian folk music. Bartók was the guiding spirit, as
throughout Gabunia’s creative life. Another continuity lies in his adherence
to chamber and chamber-orchestral music, allowing a deepening and
emotional intensification of style which is realized with particular fullness in
his Second Quartet, one of his best known works. For the piano he writes
as a virtuoso, using modernist devices – clusters, mechanical rhythms, new
modes of playing – alongside lyrical episodes that suggest a feeling for
nature and an elegiac-pensive mood. His later compositions are simpler
and more diatonic.
WORKS
(selective list)
WRITINGS
‘Akhalgazrda kompositorebis shemokmedeba’ [The works of young
composers], Sabchota khelovneba (1976), no.6, pp.13–17
‘Kartvel kompozitorta shemokmedebiti Angarishi’ [Creative report of
Georgian composers], Sabchota khelovneba (1978), no.7, pp.23–7
‘Ra aris Bartokis sidiade’ [What is Bartók’s greatness], Sabchota
khelovneba (1981), no.7, pp.48–53
‘Khalkhuri traditsia da novatoroba’ [Folk tradition and innovation],
Literaturuli sakartvelo (1984), no.48, pp.12–13
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Znakom'tes': molodost'!’ [Get to know each other: the
youth], SovM (1963), no.8, pp.17–18
D. Grigoriyev: ‘Oktyabr' v VDK’ [The October in VDK], SovM (1969), no.1,
pp.84–90
G. Gegechkori: ‘Nodar Gabunia’, Sabchota khelovneba (1973), no.12,
pp.54–8
M. Byalik: ‘U kompozitorov Gruzii’ [With the Georgian composers],
Muzïkal'naya zhizn’ (1974), no.6, pp.4–5
I. Nest'yev and Ya. Solodukho: ‘Grunzinskaya muzïka segodnya’
[Georgian music today], SovM (1977), no.8, pp.29–35
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Kartvel kompozitorta shemokmedebiti Angarishi’ [Creative
report of Georgian composers], Sabchota khelovneba (1977), no.8,
pp.28–40
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Musikos shemokmedta aghzvdis shesakheb’ [On the
education of creative musicians], Sabchota khelovneba (1977), no.9,
pp.49–62
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Gzebi da perspektivebi: tanamedrove kartuli musikis
ganvitarebis zogierti sakitkhi’ [Ways and perspectives: some problems
in the development of contemporary Georgian music], Sabchota
khelovneba (1978), no.10, pp.56–69
N. Zeifas: ‘Vecher gruzinskikh kvartetov’ [An evening of Georgian
quartets], SovM (1986), no.3, pp.55–7
LEAH DOLIDZE
MS in US-NYp
WRITINGS
‘Petrassi’s Fifth Concerto for Orchestra’, MQ, xlii (1956), 530–33
Concerning Commonness and Other Conceptual Dysfunctions (La Jolla,
CA, 1980)
ed.: Allos, ‘Other’ Language: 41 Writers of 41 ‘Writings’ (La Jolla, CA,
1980)
Collaboration Two: David Dunn and Kenneth Gaburo Discuss Publishing
as Ecosystem (Ramona, CA, 1983)
‘How I Spent My Summer’, Dancewriting, i/2 (1984), 10–11
‘In Search of Partch’s BEWITCHED: Concerning Physicality’, Percussive
Notes, xxiii/3 (1985), 54–84
‘Reflections on Pietro Grossi’s Paganini al Computer: the Deterioration of
an Ideal, Ideally Deteriorized’, Computer Music Journal, ix/1 (1985),
39–44
‘LA’, PNM, xxv (1987), 496–510
Some Work: an Autobiography in the Form of a Collage (n.p., 1987)
[Lingua Press pubn]
ed. S. Smith and T. DeLio: ‘Rethink’, Words and Spaces (Lanham, MD,
1989), 73–102
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker20thC
EwenD
VintonD
R. Erickson: Sound Structure in Music (Berkeley, 1975)
R. Kostelanetz: ‘Making Music of the Sound of Words’, New York Times
(24 May 1977)
W. Brooks and others: ‘Gaburo’, PNM, xviii (1979–80), 7–255 [series of
articles incl. material by Gaburo]
R. Kostelanetz: Dictionary of the Avant-Gardes (Chicago, 1993)
W. Burt and others: ‘A Kenneth Gaburo Memorial’, PNM, xxxiii (1995), 6–
190 [incl. interviews and correspondence with Gaburo]
JEROME ROSEN (text), KEITH MOORE (work-list, bibliography)
Gabussi, Vincenzo
(b Bologna, 1800; d London, 12 Sept 1846). Italian composer and teacher,
elder brother of the singer Rita Gabussi De Bassini. He studied
counterpoint with Stanislao Mattei at the Liceo Musicale in Bologna and
became a teacher of singing and the piano. He made his successful début
as an opera composer with I furbi al cimento (Modena, 1825). In the same
year he went to London, where he lived for many years, highly regarded as
a teacher chiefly of amateurs of the best society. His second opera, Ernani
(Paris, 1834), was subjected to typically spiteful criticism by Bellini, whose I
puritani followed it on the stage of the Théâtre Italien. But Ernani proved a
fiasco, receiving only three performances, and was no threat to Bellini who
thereafter sarcastically referred to its composer as ‘the great Gabussi’. Also
unsuccessful was Clemenza di Valois (Venice, 1841), which most excited
its audiences through having caused its composer’s friend Rossini to make
his first visit to Venice for 17 years. Gabussi’s true sphere was that of vocal
salon music, in which his output includes canzoncine and romanze for one
and two voices. While amateurish in construction and mediocre in musical
and dramatic content, his works reveal him to have been a facile and
modish melodist, and this quality ensured the contemporary success of the
large number of romanzas, ariettas and, particularly, duets which he
published mostly in London and Milan.
WORKS
I furbi al cimento (melodramma comico, 2), Modena, Comunale, 12 Feb 1825
Ernani (dramma serio, 3, G. Rossi, after V. Hugo), Paris, Italien, 25 Nov 1834;
excerpts, pf acc. (Paris, n.d.)
Clemenza di Valois (melodramma, 3, Rossi, after E. Scribe: Gustave III), Venice,
Fenice, 20 Feb 1841; I-Mr*, Vt, vs (Milan, 1841)
Vocal: over 30 songs, 100 duets; trios; qts
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
G. Radiciotti: Gioacchino Rossini, ii (Tivoli, 1928), 233
L. Cambi: Vincenzo Bellini: epistolario (Milan, 1943), 482
F. D’Amico: ‘Il Ballo in maschera prima di Verdi’, Verdi: Bollettino
dell’Istituto di studi verdiani, i (1960), 1251–328
M. Engelhardt: Verdi und andere: ‘Un giorno di regno’, ‘Ernani’, ‘Attila’, ‘Il
corsaro’ in Mehrfachvertonungen (Parma, 1992)
GIOVANNI CARLI BALLOLA
Gace Brule
(b c1160; d after 1213). French trouvère. Gace’s shield was banded in red
and silver (burelé de gueules et d’argent de huit pièces; see illustration),
and his name is merely a description of this blazonry, altered through the
transposition of two letters. The name can be traced in two documents of
1212 and 1213: the first indicates that he owned land in Groslière
(département Eure-et-Loire, arrondissement Dreux) and that he had
dealings with the Knights Templar; the second records a gift from the future
Louis VIII. Apart from these facts, all other biographical information about
Gace rests on clues provided within his poetry. It is reasonably certain that
he was born in Champagne, and his home may have been Nanteuil-les-
Meaux (département Seine-et-Marne, arrondissement Meaux). He appears
to have spent some time at the court of Count Geoffrey II of Brittany, son of
King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. The Count of Brittany is mentioned
in Li plusour ont d’amours chanté, and a Count Geoffrey is the dedicatee of
A la doucour and Sans atente de gueredon; the identity of the two is
probable, but not beyond question. The count was intensely interested in
literature, and was the patron of Guiot de Provins and of the troubadours
Bertran de Born, Gaucelm Faidit and Guiraut de Calanson. Gace, par droit
me respondés, one of the earliest jeux-partis in Old French, involves the
Count of Brittany and Gace, and may be by them jointly.
Gace apparently also spent time at the court of Marie de France, Countess
of Brie and Champagne, and half-sister of Geoffrey II. She was active in
literary circles, having been the patroness of Richart de Berbezill, Gautier
d’Arras, Chrétien de Troyes and Conon de Béthune. Gace was also familiar
with others in the highest ranks of the nobility, including the counts of Blois
and Bar (presumably Louis and Thibaut I, respectively) and Guillaume V de
Garlande, known under the sobriquet ‘Noblet’. It would appear that Gace
was on fairly close terms with a number of the earliest generation of
trouvères, including Blondel de Nesle, Conon de Béthune, Gautier de
Dargies, Gilles de Vies Maisons, Pierre de Molins, Bouchart de Marly,
Amauri de Craon, and perhaps even Hugues de Berzé and the Chastelain
de Couci. Several of these took part in the crusades of the time, and there
are hints in Les consirers de mon päis, Tres grant amours and Bien cuidai
toute ma vie that Gace may have taken part in either the Third or Fourth
Crusade, possibly in both.
Gace Brule was not only the most prolific of the earliest trouvères, but also
one of the best known. En cel tens, Quant flours et glais and Bien cuidai
were quoted by Jean Renart in the Roman de la rose ou de Guillaume de
Dole, the first of the romans to incorporate such quotations. Cil qui
d’amour, Ne me sont pas, Pour verdure and Bien cuidai were inserted into
the closely contemporaneous Roman de la violette by Gerbert de
Montreuil, the two tales having been written probably between 1220 and
1230. Cil qui d’amour me conseille and Li plusour appear in the Méliacin
ou la Conte du cheval de fust, while Au renouveau de la doucour d’esté
and Pour verdure ne pour pree are included, misattributed, in the Roman
du castelain de Couci et de la dame de Fayel. Yet another work, Ire
d’amour, was cited by Dante in De vulgari eloquentia, but with an
erroneous attribution to Thibaut IV of Champagne. Brief quotations of
works by Gace or allusions to him appear in chansons by Gontier de
Soignies (R.433), Gautier de Dargies (R.708), Gilles de Vies Maisons
(R.1252) and Guillaume Le Vinier (R.691 and 1859). A number of poems
by Gace provided the models for later imitations; De bone amour et de loial
amie in particular served as model for four other trouvère songs and for
one by a German Minnesinger as well. Latin contrafacta include works by
Philippe de Grève and Adam de la Bassée.
The great popularity enjoyed by Gace derives more from the fact that he
satisfied admirably the conventions of his time than from particular
originality of situation, imagery, or structure. The poet followed faithfully,
and seldom strayed from, the paths laid by earlier troubadours. Among the
many chansons attributed to Gace, only three, L’autrier estoie, Quant bone
dame and Quant voi l’aube, do not begin with the rhyme scheme ABAB. Of
the remainder, ten continue this pairing of rhymes still further; the rest are
built in the standard pattern of two equal pedes and contrasting cauda. The
continuation of the paired rhyme scheme in Quant voi la flor botoner is
deceptive in that the musical structure would seem to indicate that the work
was conceived in terms of pedes of four lines each. Most poems consist of
either five or six strophes. Usually there are seven or eight verses per
strophe, although there may be as many as 11 and as few as six. The
largest single group of works is composed of isometric, decasyllabic
strophes, while others intermingle decasyllables with shorter verses.
Isometric heptasyllabic and octosyllabic verses are also fairly frequent. In
the few more complex poems, Gace employed three or four different line
lengths.
There is a corresponding lack of variety in the larger aspects of the musical
structures. Among the original settings of the works certainly or very
probably by Gace there is only one, Bien ait amours, that is not in bar form;
it follows instead the scheme ABCDEFA'B'. On the other hand, the
treatment of the cauda itself is more flexible: about two dozen melodies
use new material throughout the concluding section, while the remainder
display repetition patterns of different kinds. More than half of the original
settings have finals on d, and there is a heavy preponderance of authentic
modes. A curiosity worthy of some note is the appearance of f in three
chansons having a final on d, Au renouveau, Desconfortés, plain de dolor
and Ne puis faillir; c is notated in Quant l’erbe muert, while e appears in
De bone amour. A few chansons use common motifs, such as the leap
from d to a that appears at the opening of several phrases. The rhythmic
construction of the melodies is quite variable: in F-Pn fr.846 (Chansonnier
Cangé), Chanter me plaist, De bone amour, Tant m’a mené, and large
portions of Ne me sont pas achoison de chanter are notated in 3rd mode;
in the same source Sorpris d’amors and large parts of Quant define, Quant
noif and Quant voi la flor are notated in 2nd mode. Normally, however,
there are few indications of regular rhythmic patterns in the music, although
there is a perceptible tendency to increase rhythmic activity towards the
end of the phrase, a trait common in the works of many other trouvère
composers.
Sources, MS
WORKS
Abbreviations: (R) etc. indicates a MS (using Schwan sigla: see Sources, ms) containing a
late setting of a poem; where the siglum is italicized the poem occurs only in that MS.
(nm) no music
A la doucour de la bele saison, R.1893 (V)
A malaise est qui sert en esperance, R.225
Au renouveau de la doucour d’esté, R.437 [model for: Anon., ‘Chancon ferai puis
que Dieus m’a doné’, R.425]
Bel m’est quant je voi repairier, R.1304 (nm)
Biaus m’est estés, quant retentist la breuille, R.1006 (M)
Bien ait Amours qui m’enseigne, R.562(=115) (nm)
Bien ait l’amour dont l’en cuide avoir joie, R.1724 (V)
Chancon de plain et de soupir, R.1463 (R)
Chanter m’estuet ireement, R.687 (V)
Chanter me plaist qui de joie est nouris, R.1572 (V)
Cil qui aime de bone volenté, R.479
Cil qui d’amour me conseille, R.565(=567) [model for: Anon., ‘Buer fu nes qui
s’apareille’, R.563], NOHM, ii, 230 (R,V)
Cil qui tous les maus essaie, R.111 (V)
Compaignon, je sai tel chose, R.1939
Contre le froit tens d’iver qui fraint pluie, R.1193a(=867) (nm)
Dame, merci, se j’ain trop hautement, R.686 (M, R)
De bien amer grant joie atent, R.643 (V)
De bone amour et de loial amie, R.1102 [model for: Anon., ‘Souvent me vient au
cuer la remembrance’, R.247; Thibaut IV, ‘De bone amour et de loial amie/Vaurai
chanter’, R.1102a; Anon., ‘Loer m’estuet la roine Marie’, R.1178 (nm); Anon.,
‘Chanter m’estuet de la vierge Marie’, R.1181a (different melody); Rudolf von Fenis-
Neuenburg, ‘Minne gebuitet mir daz ich singe’]
De la joie que desir tant, R.361
Desconfortés, plain de dolor et d’ire, R.1498 (V)
Desconfortés, plain d’ire et de pesance, R.233 [model for: Oede de la Couroierie,
‘Trop ai longuement’, R.210, and ‘Deconfortes com cil qui est sans joie’, R.1740]
Des or me vuel esjoir, R.1407(=1408) (nm)
Douce dame, gres et graces vous rent, R.719 [contrafactum: Philippe de Grève,
‘Pater sancte dictus Lotharius’] (V)
En cel tens que voi frimer, R.857(=2027)
En chantant m’estuet complaindre, R.126 (V)
En dous tens et en bone heure, R.1011 (V)
En tous tens ma dame ai chiere, R.1324 (nm)
Foille ne flour ne rousee ne mente, R.750 (M)
Gace, par droit me respondés, R.948 (nm) (respondent to the Count of Brittany;
work of possible joint authorship)
Grant pechié fait qui de chanter me prie, R.1199(=1751) (V)
Ire d’amour qui en mon cuer repaire, R.171 (V)
Iriés et destrois et pensis, R.1590
Je ne m’en puis si loing foir, R.1414 (V)
Je n’oi piec’a nul talent de chanter, R.801
L’autrier estoie en un vergier, R.1321
Les consirers de mon pais, R.1578 (M)
Les oiselés de mon pais, R.1579
Li plusour ont d’amours chanté, R.413 (R)
Ma volentés me requiert et semont, R.1923 (nm)
Merci, Amours, qu’iert il de mon martire, R.1502
Ne me sont pas achoison de chanter, R.787
Ne puis faillir a bone chançon faire, R.160 (V)
N’est pas a soi qui aime coraument, R.653 (V)
Oiés pour quoi plaing et soupir, R.1465 (V)
Pensis d’amours vueil retraire, R.187 (M,V, a)
Pour verdure ne pour pree, R.549
Quant bone dame et fine amour me prie, R.1198 (V)
Quant define fueille et flour, R.1977 (R,V)
Quant flours et glais et verdure s’esloigne, R.1779(=2119) [model for: Anon., ‘Quant
glace et nois et froidure s’esloigne’, R.1778]
Quant je voi la noif remise, R.1638 (M,V)
Quant je voi l’erbe reprendre, R.633 (V)
Quant l’erbe muert, voi la fueille cheoir, R.1795 (R,V)
Quant li tens reverdoie, R.1757 (M)
Quant noif et gel et froidure, R.2099 (M,V)
Quant voi la flor botoner, R.772 (V)
Quant voi le tens bel et cler, R.838
Qui sert de fausse proiere, R.1332 (V)
Sans atente de gueredon, R.1867 (V)
Sorpris d’amors et plains d’ire, R.1501 (V)
Tant de soulas come j’ai pour chanter, R.826(=788) (V)
Tant m’a mené force de signorage, R.42 (V)
Tres grant amours me traveille et confont, R.1915 (nm)
doubtful works
A grant tort me fait languir, R.1422
A la doucour d’esté qui reverdoie, R.1754 (V)
Amours qui a son oes m’a pris, R.1591 (nm)
Bien cuidai toute ma vie, R.1232
Dieus saut ma dame et doint honour et joie, R.1735
Fine amours et bone esperance, R.221 [model for: Anon., ‘Fine amours et bone
esperance/Me fait’, R.222; Anon., ‘L’autrier par une matinee’, R.530a(=528); Anon.,
‘Douce, dame, vierge Marie’, R.1179] (R)
Ire d’amours, anuis, et mescheance, R.230 (nm)
Ja de chanter en ma vie, R.1229
J’ai oublié paine et travaus, R.389 (V)
Las, pour quoi m’entremis d’amer, R.762
Li biaus estés se resclaire, R.183
Moins ai joie je ne seuil, R.998 (V)
Mout ai esté longuement esbahis, R.1536 (V)
Or ne puis je celer, R.773 (nm)
Par quel forfait ne par quele ochoison, R.1876a(=1872=1884) (R)
Pour faire l’autrui volenté, R.477 (nm)
Pour mal tens ne pour gelee, R.522 (nm)
Quant fine amour me prie que je chant, R.306 (V)
Quant je voi le dous tens venir, R.1486
Quant voi l’aube du jour venir, R.1481 (nm)
Quant voi paroir la fueille en la ramee, R.550 [model for Adam de la Bassée, ‘O
quam fallax est mundi gloria’] (V)
Quant voi reverdir l’arbroie, R.1690
Trop m’est souvent fine amours anemie, R.1106 (nm)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Gennrich: ‘Sieben Melodien zu mittelhochdeutschen Minneliedern’,
ZMw, vii (1924), 65–98
T. Gérold: La musique au Moyen Age (Paris, 1932/R)
T. Gérold: Histoire de la musique des origines à la fin du XIVe siècle
(Paris, 1936/R)
F. Gennrich: ‘ Zwei altfranzösische Lais’, Studi medievali, new ser., xv
(1942), 1–68
H. Petersen Dyggve: Gace Brulé: trouvère champenois: édition des
chansons et étude historique (Helsinki, 1951)
R. Dragonetti: La technique poétque des trouvères dans la chanson
courtoise: contribution à l’étude de la rhétorique médiévale (Bruges,
1960/R)
H. van der Werf: The Chansons of the Troubadours and Trouvères: a
Study of the Melodies and their Relation to the Poems (Utrecht, 1972)
A.F. Carrara: ‘Il linguaggio poetico di Gace Brulé e la tradizione lirica
occitania’, Spicilegio moderno, no.11 (1978), 90–120
I.R. Parker: ‘A propos de la tradition manuscrite des chansons de
trouvères’, RdM, lxiv (1978), 181–202
D.J. Mayer-Martin: Melodic Materials in Trouvère Music: a Comparative
Analysis of the Chansons of Châtelain de Coucy, Gace Brulé, Thibaut
de Champagne, and Gillebert de Berneville (diss, U. of Cincinnati,
1981)
D.J. Mayer-Martin: ‘The Chansons of Gace Brulé: a Stylistic Study of the
Melodies’, Literary and Historical Perspectives of the Middle Ages, ed.
P. Cummins and others (Morgantown, WV, 1982), 93–103
S.N. Rosenberg and S. Danon, eds.: The Lyrics and Melodies of Gace
Brulé (New York, 1985) [music ed. H. van der Werf]
H. Tischler: ‘Trouvère Songs: the Evolution of their Poetic and Musical
Styles’,MQ, lxxii (1986), 329–40
H. Tischler: ‘Mode, Modulation, and Transposition in Medieval Songs’, JM,
xiii (1995), 277–83
Gaci, Pjetër
(b Shkodra, 27 March 1931; d Tirana, 27 March 1995). Albanian composer
and violinist. Jakova enabled him to study the violin at the Jordan Misja Art
Lyceum, Tirana (1948–52). He then studied at the Moscow Conservatory
(1952–6) with Yampol'sky and others. On his return to Albania he led the
orchestra at the Tirana Opera and taught the violin at the Jordan Misja Art
Lyceum (1958–67). After serving as artistic director of the Tirana Circus,
the ‘Estrada’ Revue Theatre and the Puppet Theatre, he moved in 1970 to
Shkodra, where he received a full salary from the state in order to devote
himself full-time to composition as a ‘free professional composer’.
Although he was one of the first Albanian composers to study in Moscow,
Gaci did not remain in the forefront of musical life. Though he is known
principally for his patriotic canatatas and songs, such as Për ty atdheu (‘For
Thee, O Fatherland’, 1961) and Gryka e Kaçanikut (‘The Passage of
Kaçaniku’, ?1980), his concert works, such as the Violin Concerto (1959),
with its remote echoes of Dvořák and Khachaturian, and the spontaneous
one-movement Concertino (1979), demonstrate an inexhaustible melodic
inventiveness, enriched by his knowledge of Shkodran folksong. His
operas, meanwhile, especially the masterly Toka jöne (‘Our Land’),
demonstrate a keen sense of drama and stage timing, and of the qualities
of the Albanian language.
WORKS
(selective list)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Kalemi: Arritjet e artit tonë muzikor: vepra dhe krijues të musikës
shqiptare [Achievements of our musical art: creations and creators of
Albanian music] (Tirana, 1982), 144–7
A. Paparisto and others: Historia e muzikës Shqiptare [A history of
Albanian music] (Tirana, 1983)
P. Shtjefni: Shpirti yt këndon gjithmonë: Kujtime për Pjetër Gacin [His spirit
always sings: recollections of Pjetër Gaci] (Shkodra, 1996)
GEORGE LEOTSAKOS
Edition:Niels W. Gade: Works/Werke, ed. Foundation for the Publication of the Works of
Niels W. Gade (Copenhagen and Kassel, 1995–) [GW]
MSS in DK-Kk
stage
Agnete og Havmanden (incid music, H.C. Andersen), op.3, 1838–42
Faedrelandets muser [The Muses of our Fatherland] (ballet), 1840
Napoli (ballet, A. Bournonville), 1841–2 [Act 2 only]
Mariotta (Spl, C. Borgaard, after E. Scribe), 1848–9
Et folkesagn [A Folk Tale] (ballet, 3, Bournonville), 1853–4, arr. for pf 4 hands
(Copenhagen, 1896) [Act 2 by J.P.E. Hartmann]
choral
op.
11 Six Songs, 4 male vv, 1845 (Leipzig, 1846)
12 Comala (after Ossian) (cant.), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1846 (Leipzig, 1885)
13 Five Songs, 4vv, 1846 (Leipzig, 1846)
16 Reiterleben (C. Schultes), 6 songs, 4 male vv, 1848 (Leipzig, 1848)
30 Elverskud [Elf-King’s Daughter] (C.F. Molbech, C. Andersen and G. Siesbye),
solo vv, chorus, orch, 1851–4 (Leipzig, 1865)
23 Frühlings-Fantasie (E. Lobedanz), solo vv, orch, pf, 1852 (Leipzig, 1853)
26 Five Songs, 4 male vv, 1853 (Leipzig, 1853)
— Mindekantate over Fru Anna Nielsen [Cant. in Memory of Fru Anna Nielsen],
1856
— Baldurs drøm [Baldur’s Dream] (cant.), 1856–7 (Copenhagen, 1897)
33 Five Songs, 4 male vv, 1858 (Leipzig, 1858)
35 Frühlings-Botschaft (E. Geibel) (cant.), chorus, orch, 1858 (Leipzig, 1858)
— Mindekantate over Overhofmarschal Chamberlain Levetzau [Cant. in Memory
of Count Chamberlain Levetzau], 1859
— Mindekantate over skuespiller Nielsen [Cant. in Memory of the Actor Nielsen],
1860
40 Die heilige Nacht (cant., after A. von Platen), A, chorus, orch, 1861 (Leipzig,
1862)
38 Five Songs, 4 male vv, 1862 (Leipzig, 1862)
46 Ved solnedgang [At Sunset] (cant., A. Munch), chorus, orch, 1865 (Leipzig,
1865)
50 Korsfarerne [The Crusader] (cant., C. Andersen), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1865–6
(Leipzig, 1866–)
54 Gefion (cant., Oehlenschläger), Bar, chorus, orch, 1869
48 Kalanus (cant., C. Andersen), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1869 (Leipzig, 1871)
— Ved Danmarksstøtten [At the Danish Monument] (F. Paludan-Müller), 4vv, pf,
1869 (Copenhagen, 1869)
51 Aartidsbilleder [Pictures of the Seasons], solo vv, female chorus, pf 4 hands,
1871 (Leipzig, 1876)
— Festmusik ved den nordiske industriudstillings aabningsfest 1872 [Festival
Music for the Northern Industrial Exhibition, 1872] (Copenhagen, 1873)
52 Den bjergtagne [The Mountain Thrall] (cant., G. Hauch, after trad. Norse
ballad), solo vv, male chorus, orch, 1873
49 Zion (cant., Gade and Carl Andersen), Bar, chorus, orch, 1874 (Leipzig, 1877)
— Festmusik i anledning af Universitetets 400 aars jubelfest juni 1879 [Festival
Music for the 400th Anniversary of the University of Copenhagen, 1879]
(Copenhagen, 1879)
60 Psyke (cant., C. Andersen), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1881–2 (Leipzig, 1882)
— Festmusik ved det nordiske kunstnermøde [Festival Music for the Northern
Artists’ Congress], 1883
64 Der Strom (cant., after J.W. von Goethe: Mahomet), solo vv, chorus, orch, pf,
1889 (Leipzig, 1893)
orchestral
1 Efterklange af Ossian [Echoes of Ossian], ov., 1840 (Leipzig, 1854), GW I/9
5 Symphony no.1 ‘Paa Sjølunds fagre sletter’, 1842 (Leipzig, 1844)
10 Symphony no.2, E, 1843 (Leipzig, 1844), GW I/2
7 I højlandene [In the Highlands], ov., 1844 (Leipzig, 1844), GW I/9
14 Overture no.3, C, 1846 (Leipzig, 1847), GW I/9
15 Symphony no.3, a, 1847 (Leipzig, 1848), GW I/3
20 Symphony no.4, B , 1849–50 (Leipzig, 1851), GW I/4
— Nordische Sennfahrt [A Mountain Trip in the North], ov., 1850 (Copenhagen,
1887)
25 Symphony no.5, d, 1852 (Leipzig, 1853)
32 Symphony no.6, g, 1857 (Leipzig, 1858)
37 Hamlet, ov., 1861 (Leipzig, 1862)
39 Michel Angelo, ov., 1861 (Leipzig, 1861)
— Sørgemarsch ved Kong Frederik d. 7. Død [Funeral March for Frederik VII],
1863
45 Symphony no.7, F, 1864 (Leipzig, 1865)
47 Symphony no.8, b, 1869–71 (Leipzig, 1872), GW I/8
53 Novelletter, F, str orch, 1874 (Leipzig, 1876)
— Capriccio, a, vn, orch, pf score (Berlin, 1878)
55 En sommerdag paa landet [A Summer’s Day in the Country], 5 pieces, 1879
(Leipzig, 1880)
56 Violin Concerto, d, 1880 (Leipzig, 1881)
58 Novelletter, E, 1883, rev. 1886 (Leipzig, 1890)
61 Holbergiana, suite, 1884 (Leipzig, 1884)
— Ulysses-marsch: forspil til Holberg’s Ulysses von Ithaca, 1884
chamber
— Scherzo, c , pf qt, 1836, GW II/3
— String Quartet, a, 1836 [1 movt], GW II/2
— String Quintet, f, 2 vn, va, 2 vc, 1837 [1 movt], GW II/1
— Piano Trio, B , 1839, inc., GW II/3
— String Quartet, F, 1840, inc., GW II/2
6 Sonata no.1, A, vn, pf, 1842 (Leipzig, 1843)
8 String Quintet, e, 2 vn, 2 va, vc, 1845 (Leipzig, 1846–7), GW II/1
17 Octet, F, 4 vn, 2 va, 2 vc, 1848–9 (Leipzig, 1849), GW II/1
21 Sonata no.2, d, vn, pf, 1849 (Leipzig, 1850)
— String Quartet, f, 1851, GW II/2
29 Novelletter, pf trio, 1853 (Cologne, 1854), GW II/3
42 Piano Trio, F, 1862–3 (Leipzig, 1864), GW II/3
44 String Sextet, E , 2 vn, 2 va, 2 vc, 1863–4 (Leipzig, 1865), GW II/1
43 Fantasiestücke, cl, pf, 1864 (Leipzig, 1865)
— String Quartet, e, 1877, rev. 1889, GW II/2
59 Sonata no.3, B , vn, pf, 1885 (Leipzig, 1887)
62 Folkedanse, vn, pf, 1886 (Leipzig, 1887)
63 String Quartet, D, 1887–9 (Leipzig, 1890), GW II/2
keyboard
28 Piano Sonata, e, 1840, rev. 1854 (Copenhagen, 1854)
2b Foraarstoner [Spring Flowers], 3 pieces, pf, 1840–41 (Copenhagen, 1842)
4 Nordiske tonebilleder, pf 4 hands, 1842 (Copenhagen, 1843)
18 Tre karakterstykker, pf 4 hands, 1848 (Copenhagen, 1848)
19 Akvareller, pf, 1850 (Copenhagen, 1850)
22 Drei Tonstücke, org, 1851 (Leipzig, 1852/3)
— Albumsblade, pf (Copenhagen, 1852)
27 Arabeske, pf, 1854 (Copenhagen, 1854)
31 Folkedanse, pf, 1855 (Copenhagen, 1855)
— Fra skizzebogen, pf, 1857 (Copenhagen, 1886)
34 Idyller, pf, 1857 (Copenhagen, 1857)
36 Børnenes Jul [Children’s Christmas], pf, 1859 (Copenhagen, 1859)
41 Fantasistykker, pf, 1861 (Copenhagen, 1861)
— Festpraeludium, org, tpt, trbn, 1873 (Copenhagen, 1892)
2a Rebus, 3 pieces, pf (Copenhagen, 1875)
57 Nye akvareller, pf, 1881 (Copenhagen, 1881)
solo songs
for 1v, pf, unless otherwise stated
— Fem melodier til faedrelandshistoriske digte (A.P. Berggreen) (Copenhagen,
1840)
— Seks danske sange, 1841 (Copenhagen, 1841)
9 Neun Lieder im Volkston, 2 S, pf, 1845 (Leipzig, 1845)
— Tre digte (C. Winter), 1842 (Copenhagen, 1846)
21b Tre digte (C. Hauch), 1849 (Copenhagen, 1850)
— Tre digte (H.C. Andersen), 1850 (Copenhagen, 1851)
24 Bilder des Orients (after Stieglitz), 5 songs, 1852 (Copenhagen, 1853)
— Tre danske sange, 1852 (Copenhagen, 1854)
— Holger Danske’s sange (B.S. Ingemann), 1863 (Copenhagen, 1863)
Gade, Niels W.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Thrane: Danske komponister (Copenhagen, 1875)
R. Henriques: Niels W. Gade (Copenhagen, 1891)
D. Gade: Niels W. Gade: optegnelser og breve (Copenhagen, 1892; Ger.
trans., 1894, 2/1912) [incl. chronological list of works]
C. Kjerulf: Niels W. Gade (Copenhagen, 1917)
A. Nielsen: ‘Fortegnelse over Niels W. Gades vaerker’, Aarbog for musik
1924, 60–80 [incl. systematized list of works]; corrections in K. Atlung:
‘Niels W. Gades vaerker’, DMt, xii (1937), 149, 177, 214
W. Behrend: Minder om Niels W. Gade (Copenhagen, 1930)
N.M. Jensen: Den danske romance 1800–1850 og dens musikalske
forudsaetninger (Copenhagen, 1964) [with Ger. summary]
S. Berg: ‘Litteratur omkring Niels W. Gade 1843–1950’, DMt, xlii (1967),
16–18 [incl. complete bibliography to 1950]
J.W. Gade: Omkring Niels W. Gade: breve fra fader og søn (Copenhagen,
1967)
K.A. Bruun: Dansk musiks historie fra Holberg-tiden til Carl Nielsen
(Copenhagen, 1969), ii, 82–136
B. Marschner: Den danske symfonis historie 1830–1890 (diss., U. of
Århus, 1969)
F. Mathiassen: ‘“Unsre Kunst heisst Poesie”: om Niels W. Gades Ossian-
ouverture’, STMf, liii (1971), 67–77 [with Ger. summary]
L. Brix: ‘Niels W. Gade als Klavierkomponist’, Mf, xxvi (1973), 22–36
N. Schiørring: ‘Niels W. Gade’, Musikkens historie i Danmark, ii
(Copenhagen, 1978), 287–322
F. Krummacher: ‘Gattung und Werk: zu Streichquartetten von Gade und
Berwald’, Gattung und Werk in der Musikgeschichte
Norddeutschlands und Skandinaviens: Kiel 1980, 154–75
F. Krummacher: ‘Niels W. Gade und die skandinavische Musik der
Romantik’, Christiana Albertina, new ser., no.16 (1982), 19–37
S. Oechsle: ‘Niels W. Gade und die “tote Zeit” der Symphonie’, DAM, xiv
(1983), 81–96
D. Fog: N.W. Gade-katalog: en fortegnelse over Niels W. Gades trykte
kompositioner (Copenhagen, 1986)
S. Oechsle: ‘Gefeiert, geachtet, vergessen: zum 100. Todestag Niels W.
Gades’, DAM, xix (1988–91), 171–84
F. Mathiassen: ‘Niels W. Gade og troldtøjet’, Festskrift Søren Sørensen,
ed. F.E. Hansen (Copenhagen, 1990), 71–88
N.M. Jensen: ‘Niels W. Gade og den nationale tone: dansk
nationalromantik i musikalsk belysning’, Dansk identitetshistorie, ii:
Folkets Danmark 1848–1940, ed. O. Feldbaek (Copenhagen, 1992),
188–336
S. Oechsle: Symphonik nach Beethoven: Studien zu Schubert,
Schumann, Mendelssohn und Gade (Kassel, 1992)
B. Pelker: Die deutsche Konzertouvertüre (1825–1865): Werkkatalog und
Rezeptionsdokumente (Frankfurt, 1993)
A.H. Harwell: ‘Unsre Kunst heisst Poesie’: Niels W. Gade’s Early
Compositions and their Programmatic Origins (diss., Duke U., 1996)
F. Mathiassen: ‘Niels W. Gade og hans Eftermaele’, Caecilia 1998 [Århus]
(forthcoming)
Gadenstätter, Clemens
(b Zell am See, 26 July 1966). Austrian composer and conductor. He
studied composition with Erich Urbanner and the flute with Wolfgang
Schulz in Vienna (1984–92), where he also founded the Ensemble Neue
Musik (1990) and performed as a member of Klangforum Wien (1990–92).
He subsequently undertook postgraduate studies with Lachenmann in
Stuttgart (1992–5). He won the Forum junger Komponisten competition
organized by WDR in 1992, and has lectured at the Darmstadt Ferienkurse
für Neue Musik.
Gadenstätter's music can be considered a further development of
Lachenmann's ‘instrumental theatre’: in accordance with Gadenstätter's
notion of ‘analytical composition’, his scores are characterized by a
constant variety of finely differentiated sounds, which, though rich in
contrast, are nonetheless related below the surface. He has enjoyed fruitful
collaboration with artists working in other media, among them the video
artist Joseph Santarromana (from 1992), the choreographer Rose Breuss
(from 1994) and the poet Lisa Spalt.
WORKS
Inst, vocal: Trio 1990, str, 1990; Trio 90–91, vn, b cl, pf, 1990–91; Musik für
Orchesterensembles, 5 orch groups, 1990–94; Musik für Soloflöte, 1991; Musik für
Soli und Ensemble, fl, t sax, ens (2vv, 2 cl, 2 vc, 2 gui, 2 perc), 1991–2; Duo
(Studie I), vn, vc, 1992; … für zwei Klaviere (Studie II), 2 pf, 1992, rev. 1993–4;
Sextet und die fortsetzung: meine abmagerung – glasgewölbe, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf,
perc, 1993; schniTt, 15 insts, 1993–5; friktion, str trio, 1995; variationen und alte
themen, tbn, gui, vc, db, 1996; ballade L, 1v, pf, 1997
With tape: Versprachlichung: dreaming of land an arm's length away – die arie des
vogelnestaushebers. installation L (video installation, J. Santarromana), 8 insts,
tape, 1993, rev. [without video] as Versprachlichung: Musik für acht Instrumente
und Tonband, 1994
WRITINGS
Contribution to Ton (1993–4), wint., 8ff
‘Struktur einer kompositorischen Utopie: Versuch, sich analytisch selbst
zu erfassen’, Ton (1994–5), wint., 21
‘Nicht nur Reizempfindung im Ohr’, ÖMZ, li (1996), 632–40
‘Komponieren’, Lexicon zeitgenössischer Musik aus Österreich:
Komponisten und Komponistinnen des 20. Jahrhunderts, ed. B.
Günther (Vienna, 1997), 454
‘3 Skizzen zum Verhältnis zwischen Musik und Sprache’, Wien Modern
Almanach (Vienna, 1997), 55
with L. Spalt: ‘Umschläge und Kippen: zu ballade L’, Ton, no.2 (1997), 42
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Goertz: ‘Clemens Gadenstätter’, Beiträge '94: Österreichische
Komponisten unserer Zeit (Kassel, 1994), 53 only
WOLFGANG GRATZER
Gadifer d'Avion.
See Gaidifer d'Avion.
Gadski, Johanna
(b Anklam, Prussia, 15 June 1872; d Berlin, 22 Feb 1932). German
soprano. She studied in Stettin, and made an early début (1889) at the
Kroll Opera, Berlin, singing there and elsewhere in Germany for the next
five years. In 1895 she began a successful three-year association with the
Damrosch Opera Company in the USA, and from 1899 to 1901 was active
at Covent Garden and at Bayreuth, where she sang Eva (1899). Between
1900 and 1917, however, her main centre was the Metropolitan, with
whose company (after a previous appearance as Elisabeth in Tannhäuser
on tour in Philadelphia) she made her house début on 6 January 1900 as
Senta; she became one of its most valuable Brünnhildes and Isoldes,
excelling also in many Verdi roles such as Aida, Leonora (Il trovatore) and
Amelia. After the USA’s declaration of war on Germany, her reputation
suffered during the war hysteria of that time. From 1929 until her death (in
a car accident) she was active and successful in a Wagnerian touring
company in the USA organized at first by Sol Hurok and then by herself.
She sang even the heaviest Wagner roles with unfailing beauty of voice
and purity of style, and showed the same qualities in her Italian parts. Her
powers are well documented in the large number of records which she
made between 1903 and 1917, notably in her Wagner excerpts and in
scenes from Aida and Il trovatore with Caruso, Homer and Amato.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Migliorini and N. Ridley: ‘Johanna Gadski’, Record Collector, xi (1957),
196–231 [with discography], 257–85; xii (1958–60), 36
DESMOND SHAWE–TAYLOR
Gadulka.
Fiddle of Bulgaria; also known as ganilka, kopanka, gjola, tsigulka, kemene
in western Bulgaria, and sometimes, erroneously, gusla. It resembles the
Greek lira and the Yugoslav lirica. Its oval or pearshaped soundbox is
carved from one piece of wood, usually mulberry, manna-ash (Fraxinus
ornus) or sycamore. Its short, broad neck ends in a circular, triangular or
clover-leaf shaped flat peg-disc or head. The soundboard, made of spruce,
is glued to the soundbox and has two round or oval soundholes called ochi
(‘eyes’). The strings are generally made of sheep- or cat-gut, although
some late 20th-century instruments have metal strings; they are attached
to a bone tailpiece and, at the upper end, are wound directly round wooden
pegs. They pass over a thin wooden bridge and soundpost, which emerges
through one of the soundholes.
The traditional gadulka has three strings; in Thrace there are instruments
with one or more metal sympathetic strings. The Thracian tuning is the
most popular: a'–e'–a'. Other tunings are the Dobrudzhan tuning (a'–a–e')
and the Gabrovo or Balkan tuning (a'–e'–d'). The range on the Thracian
tuning is the widest: a to e'', extended to a'' with harmonics. The strings are
played with a bow made of cornel, dogwood or willow and strung with
horsehair, rubbed with rosin before playing. The first (highest) string is
played by sideways pressure of the fingernail, the other strings with
pressure from the fingertips. The gadulka is held vertically, with the lower
end tucked in the player’s belt when standing, or held on his hip when
seated.
The Thracian gadulka is the largest instrument, and has the fullest tone-
quality. Dobrudzhan instruments such as the kopanka are smaller. The
kemene of western Bulgaria has a shallow soundbox and a
correspondingly thinner sound; it is always played with a drone note.
Regional variants in pre-socialist Bulgaria included the shallow-bodied
Shop kemene and the flat-bodied kasnak found in Trakiya and the Shop
area.
The gadulka is used as a solo instrument to accompany songs and
dances, in different rituals and in small instrumental groups. The
Dobrudzhan gadulka, with the accordion and a gaida (bagpipe) or kaval
(flute) forms a typical Dobrudzhan troika (trio).
VERGILIJ ATANASSOV
Gadzhibekov, Sultan.
See Hajibeyov, Sultan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Lindner: Weingarten, Fünf Professbücher süddeutscher Benediktiner-
Abteien, ii (Kempten, 1909), 88, 127, 137
E.K. Blümml, ed.: Die Liederhandschrift des Weingartner Benediktiners P
Meingosus Gaelle aus dem Jahre 1777 (Vienna, 1912)
R. Lach: Sebastian Sailers ‘Schöpfung’ in der Musik: ein Beitrag zur
Geschichte des deutschen Singspiels um die Mitte und in der zweiten
Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts (Vienna, 1916)
L. Wilss: Zur Geschichte der Musik an den oberschwäbischen Klöstern im
18. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1925)
T. Hochradner: ‘Musik zu den Feierlichkeiten für den neugewählten
Erzbischof Hieronymus Graf Colloredo (1772)’, De editione musices:
Festschrift Gerhard Croll (Laaber, 1992), ed. W. Gratzer and A.
Lindmayr, 285–92
EBERHARD STIEFEL
Nie każdy śpi ten, co chrapi (Nie zawsze śpi ten, co chrapi) [Not All Sleep who
Snore] (vaudeville, L. Pierożyński), 1779, lib (Kraków, 1790)
Żółta szlafmyca, albo Koleda na Nowy Rok [The Yellow Nightcap, or A Carol for the
New Year] (op, 3, F. Zabłocki, after P. Barré and A. de Piis: Les étrennes de
Mercure), 1 May 1783, lib (Warsaw, 1783), inc. MS (private collection), extracts, pf,
PL-Wn; frags. in J. Prosnak, Kultura muzyczna Warszawy XVIII wieku [Music in
Warsaw in the 18th Century] (Kraków, 1955)
Lucassin et Nicolette (La fête d’amour, ou Lucas et Colinette) (op, M.-J.-B. and C.-
S. Favart), 7 Feb 1786
Les amours de Cherubin (op), 10 Feb 1786
Żołnierz, z przypadku czarnoksieżnik, czyli Uczta diabelska [The Soldier-Accidental
Conjuror, or The Devilish Banquet] (vaudeville, 2, Pierożyński, after L. Anseaume),
11 March 1787, polonaise, Wn
Diabla wrzawa, czyli Dwoista przemiana [The Devil’s Uproar, or Double
Transformation] (op, 3, J. Balldouin, after M.-J. Sedaine), 18 Nov 1787 [incl. Furia,
orch int]
Scytowie przez Minerwę zgromieni [The Scythians Crushed by Minerva] (ballet)
choreog. F. Le Doux, 2 Aug 1787
Zabaira turecka [Divertissement turc] (ballet), choreog. D. Curz, 1787
Les amours de Bastien et Bastienne (int, M.-J.-B. Favart), 6 Sept 1788
Music in: Natura mistrzynią [Nature is the Mistress] (op, 1, Pierożyński), 1786
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[J. Elsner]: ‘Die Oper der Polen’, AMZ (1812), no.20, pp.323–4
Z. Raszewski: ‘Teatr Narodowy w latach 1779–1789’ [The National Theatre
1779–1789], Pamiętnik teatralny, xv/1–4 (1966), 107–26
Z. Raszewski: ‘Gaetano’, Ruch muzyczny, xv/17 (1971), 8–10
A. Nowak-Romanowicz: ‘Gaetano’, Encyklopedia muzyczna PWM, ed. E.
Dziębowska, iii (Kraków, 1987)
A. Żórawska-Witkowska: Muzyka na dworze i w teatrze Stanisława
Augusta [Music at the court and theatre of Stanisław August] (Warsaw,
1995)
BARBARA CHMARA-ŻACZKIEWICZ
Gaffarello.
See Caffarelli.
Editions: Franchinus Gafurius: Collected Musical Works, ed. L. Finscher, CMM, x (1955–
60) [F i–ii]F. Gaffurio: Messe I–III, ed. A. Bortone, AMMM, i–iii (1958–60) [G i–iii]F.
Gaffurio: Magnificat, ed. F. Fano, AMMM, iv (1959) [G iv]F. Gaffurio: Mottetti, ed. L.
Migliavacca, AMMM, v (1959) [G v]Anonimi: Messe, ed. F. Fano, AMMM, vi (1966)
[A]Liber capelle ecclesie maioris: Quarto codice di Gaffurio, AMMM, xvi (1968) [facs. of
Librone 4 (olim 2266), which was badly damaged by fire in 1906; attrib. taken from
earlier inventories: see Sartori, 1953, and Ward, 1986] [Lib.4]Milan, Archivio della
Veneranda Fabbrica del Duomo, sezione musicale, Renaissance Music in Facsimile,
xiia–c [=librone 1–3, I-Md olim 2269, 2268, 2267] (New York, 1987) [Lib.1–3]
masses
Missa ‘Ave maris stella’, Lib.4, f.1v
Missa brevis eiusdem toni (lacking Ky, Ag), Lib.2, f.110v, G iii (see Leverett, 1994,
163–4)
Missa brevis et expedita (lacking Ky, Ag), Lib.2, f.69v, A (see Leverett, 1994, 163–4)
Missa brevis octavi toni (lacking Ky, Ag), Lib.2, G iii
Missa de carneval, Lib.3, F i; G i
Missa ‘De tous biens pleine’, Lib.2, F ii; G ii (on Hayne van Ghizeghem's chanson)
Missa ‘Imperatrix gloriosa’, Lib.4, f.14v
Missa ‘La bassadanza’, Lib.4, f.28v
Missa ‘Montana’ (lacking Ky, Ag), Lib.3, G i
Missa ‘O clara luce’, Lib.2, F ii; G iii
Missa ‘Omnipotens genitor’, Lib.2, F ii; G ii
Missa primi toni brevis (lacking Ag), Lib.2, F ii; G ii
Missa quarti toni Sancte Caterine, Lib.2, F ii; G iii (with motets in place of Introit and
Deo gratias)
Missa sexti toni irregularis, Lib.2 and 3, F i; F ii; G i; G ii
Missa trombetta (lacking Ky, Ag), Lib.2, G ii
Missa (lacking Ky, Ag), 3vv, Lib.3, G i
Missa, Lib.2, F ii; G iii
Missa, Lib.4, f.41v
motetti missales
Salve mater salvatoris (2 p. Salve verbi sacra parens; 3 p. Salve decus virginum; 4
p. O convallis humilis; 5 p. Tu thronus es Salomonis; 6 p. Salve mater pietatis; 7 p.
Vox eclipsim nesciens; 8 p. Imperatrix gloriosa; 9 p. Florem ergo genuisti; 10 p. Res
miranda), Lib.1, G v
magnificat settings
3 Magnificat, 3vv, 8 Magnificat, 4vv, Lib.1, 3, G iv
motets and hymns
Accepta Christi munera, 5vv, Lib.2, G v; Ambrosi doctor venerande, Lib.4, f.68v;
Assumpta est Maria, Lib.4, f.26v (Ingressa); Audi benigne conditor, 5vv, Lib.1 and 4,
G v; Ave mundi spes, Maria, Lib.1, G v; Beata progenies, 3vv, Lib.1, G v; Castra
celi, Lib.1, G v; Caeli quondam roraverit, Lib.4, f.13v; Christe cunctorum dominator,
Lib.4, f.48v; Christe redemptor … ex Patre, I-MC 871, ed. I. Pope and M.
Kanazawa, The Musical Manuscript Montecassino 871 (Oxford, 1978); Descendi in
hortum, Lib.1, G v
Gaude mater luminis, Lib.1, G v; Gaude virgo gloriosa, Lib.1, G v; Gloriose virginis
Mariae, 3vv, Lib.1, G v; Gloriose virginis Mariae, 4vv, Lib.4, f.47v (belongs with
mass on f.41v); Hac in die (introit to Missa Sancte Caterine), Lib.2 and 3, F ii; G iii;
Hoc gaudium, Lib.1, G v; Hostis Herodes impie, I-MC 871, ed. I. Pope and M.
Kanazawa, The Musical Manuscript Montecassino 871 (Oxford, 1978); Imperatrix
gloriosa, Lib.4, f.12v; Imperatrix reginarum, Lib.1, G v; Joseph conturbatus est,
Lib.1, G v
Magnum nomen domini, 5vv, Lib.1 and 4, G v; Nativitas tua, Lib.4, f.40v (Ingressa);
O beate Sebastiane, Lib.1, G v; O crux benedicta, Lib.4, f.10v; O Jesu dulcissime,
5vv, Lib.4, f.98v; Omnipotens eterne Deus, Lib.1, G v; O res laeta, Lib.1, G v; Ortus
conclusus, Lib.1, G v; O sacrum convivium, 4vv, Lib.1, G v; O sacrum convivium,
5vv, Lib.2 and 4, G v; Pontifex urbis populi, Lib.4, f.38v; Prodiit puer, Lib.1, G v;
Promissa mundo gaudia, Lib.1 and 2, G v; Quando venit ergo, Lib.1, G v; Regina
caeli, Lib.1, G v
Salve decus genitoris, Lib.1, G v (addressed to Ludovico Sforza); Salve mater
Salvatoris, Lib.1, G v; Salve mater Salvatoris, Lib.1, G v; Salve verbi sacra parens,
Lib.4, f.23v; Simeon justus, Lib.4, f.1 (Ingressa); Solemnitas laudabilis, Lib.4, f.82v;
Sponsa Dei electa, Lib.1, G v; Stabat mater, Lib.1 and 3, G v; Sub tuam
protectionem, 3vv, Lib.1, G v; Tota pulchra es, Lib.1, G v; Verbum sapientiae, Lib.1,
G v; Vidi speciosam, Lib.4, f.27v (Offertorio); Virgo constans (Loco Deo gratias in
Missa Sancte Caterine), Lib.2 and 3, F ii; G iii; Virgo Dei digna, Lib.1, G v; Virgo
prudentissima, Lib.1, G v
secular works
all in I-PAc 1158
lost works
Facciam festa e giullaria (lauda for Christmas, formerly in Lib.4)
Mass for the Purification of the Virgin (formerly in Lib.4)
Missa ‘Illustris princeps’ (mentioned in Apologia)
Missa ‘Le souvenir’ (mentioned in Apologia)
Missa ‘L'homme armé’ (mentioned in Apologia and letter 83 of Blackburn, Lowinsky
and Miller)
Nunc eat et veteres (to Tinctoris; mentioned in Tractatus practicabilium
proportionum)
unnamed composition using proportions (mentioned in letters 52, 84, 85 of
Blackburn, Lowinsky and Miller)
Gaffurius, Franchinus
WRITINGS
printed
Theoricum opus musice discipline (Naples, 1480; ded. Cardinal Giovanni
Arcimboldo)
Theorica musicae (Milan, 1492/R; ded. Ludovico Sforza); Eng. trans. by
W.K. Kreyszig (New Haven, CT, 1993)
Tractato vulgare del canto figurato (Milan, 1492) [pubd under the name of a
pupil, Francesco Caza; condensed It. trans. of Practica musice, book
2]; Ger. trans. by J. Wolf (Berlin, 1922)
Practica musice (Milan, 1496/R; ded. Ludovico Sforza); Eng. trans., MSD,
xx (1969); ed. and trans. I. Young (Madison, WI, 1969)
Angelicum ac divinum opus musice (Milan, 1508/R; ded. Simone Crotti) [It.,
mostly based on Practica musice]
De harmonia musicorum instrumentorum opus (Milan, 1518/R; ded. Jean
Grolier; earlier versions in MS: 1500 ded. Bonifacio Simonetta; rev.
1514); Eng. trans. in MSD, xxxiii (1977); 5 earlier MS copies
Apologia … adversus Joannem Spatarium et complices musicos
bononienses (Turin, 1520)
Epistula prima in solutiones obiectorum Io. Vaginarii Bononien. (Milan,
1521)
Epistula secunda apologetica (Milan, 1521)
manuscript
Extractus parvus musicae, c1474, I-PAc 1158 (ded. Filippo Tresseni), ed.
F.A. Gallo (Bologna, 1969)
Tractatus brevis cantus plani, c1474, PAc 1158 (ded. Paolo de' Greci)
Flos musice, c1475–6 (ded. Ludovico Gonzaga III, Marquis of Mantua), lost
Musice institutionis collocutiones, c1475–6 (ded. Carlo Pallavicino, Bishop
of Lodi), lost
Theorie musice tractatus, c1479, GB-Lbl Hirsch IV.1441 (early version of
Theoricum opus; ded. Antonio de Guevara, Count of Potenza)
Musices practicabilis libellum, 1480, US-CA Houghton Mus 142 (ded.
Guido Antonio Arcimboldo; became book 2 of Practica musice)
Tractatus practicabilium proportionum, c1482, I-Bc A69 (ded. Corradolo
Stanga; became book 4 of Practica musice)
Micrologus vulgaris cantus plani, c1482, Bc A90 (ded. Paolo de' Greci)
Liber primus musices practicabilis, 1487, BGc Σ.4.37 (became book 1 of
Practica musice)
Glossemata quaedam super nonnullas partes theoricae Johannis de Muris,
1499, Ma H.165 inf.
letters
to Ludovico Sforza, 22 April 1495, requesting a benefice (ed. Caretta,
Cremascoli and Salamina, 99)
to Marco Sanudo, 14 Dec 1496, accompanying a copy of the Practica (ed.
Caretta, Cremascoli and Salamina, 95)
to Giovanni Antonio Flaminio, 24 March 1517, criticizing Pietro Aaron's
Libri tres de institutione harmonica (ed. in Bergquist, appx B, with
Flaminio's answer)
to the deputies of the Incoronata in Lodi, 22 Aug 1520, recommending a
cleric (ed. in Caretta, Cremascoli and Salamina, 127–8)
to the deputies of the Incoronata in Lodi, 4 Oct 1520, thanking them for
hiring the cleric (ed. in Caretta, Cremascoli and Salamina, 128)
Gaffurius, Franchinus
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Praetorius: Die Mensuraltheorie des Franchinus Gafurius und der
folgenden Zeit bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1905/R)
K. Jeppesen: ‘Die 3 Gafurius-Kodices der Fabbrica del Duomo, Milano’,
AcM, iii (1931), 14–28
O. Kinkeldey: ‘Franchino Gafori and Marsilio Ficino’, Harvard Library
Bulletin, i (1947), 379–82
A. Caretta, L. Cremascoli and L. Salamina: Franchino Gaffurio (Lodi,
1951)
K.T. Steinitz: ‘Two Books from the Environment of Leonardo da Vinci in the
Elmer Belt Library of Vinciana: Gafurio and Plutarch’, Libri, ii (1952),
1–14
C. Sartori: ‘Franchino Gaffurio a Milano: Nuove notizie biografiche e
documenti inediti sulla sua attività di maestro di Cappella e sulla sua
riforma della Cappella del Duomo’, Universitas Europae, i (1952–3),
nos.4–5, 8–9, 11–12
P. Bondioli: ‘Per la biografia di Franchino Gaffuri da Lodi’, CHM, i (1953),
19–24
C. Sartori: ‘Il quarto codice di Gaffurio non è del tutto scomparso’, CHM, i
(1953), 25–44
F. Fano: ‘Note su Franchino Gaffurio’, RMI, lv (1953), 225–50
C. Sartori: ‘La musica nel duomo dalle origini a Franchino Gaffurio’, Storia
di Milano, ix (Milan, 1961), 723–48
F.A. Gallo: ‘Le traduzioni dal Greco per Franchino Gaffurio’, AcM, xxxv
(1963), 172–4
T.L. Noblitt: The Motetti Missales of the Late Fifteenth Century (diss., U. of
Texas, 1963)
E.P. Bergquist: The Theoretical Writings of Pietro Aaron (diss., Columbia
U., 1964)
F.A. Gallo: ‘Citazioni da un tratto di Dufay’, CHM, iv (1966), 149–52
C.A. Miller: ‘Gaffurius's Practica Musicae: Origin and Contents’, MD, xxii
(1968), 105–28
T.L. Noblitt: ‘The Ambrosian Motetti missales Repertory’, MD, xxii (1968),
77–103
K. Jeppesen: La frottola, ii: Zur Bibliographie der handschriftlichen
musikalischen Überlieferung des weltlichen italienischen Lieds um
1500 (Copenhagen, 1969)
F. Fano: ‘Vita e attività del musico teorico e pratico Franchino Gaffurio da
Lodi’, Arte Lombarda, xv (1970), 49–62
C.A. Miller: ‘Early Gaffuriana: New Answers to Old Questions’, MQ, lvi
(1970), 367–88
C.A. Miller: ‘Francesco Zambeccari and a Musical Friend’, RN, xxv (1972),
426–31
J. Haar: ‘The Frontispiece of Gafori's Practica Musicae (1496)’,
Renaissance Quarterly, xxvii (1974), 7–22
F.A. Gallo: ‘La musica nel commento a Vitruvio di Cesare Cesariano
(Como, 1521) e di Giovanni Battista Caporali (Perugia, 1536)’, Arte e
musica in Umbria tra Cinquecento e Seicento: Gubbio and Gualdo
Tadino 1979, 89–92
F. Degrada: ‘Musica e musicisti nell'età di Ludovico il Moro’, Milano nell’età
di Ludovico il Moro: Milan 1983 (Milan, 1983), ii, 409–15
C.V. Palisca: Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought (New
Haven, CT, 1985), esp. 191–232
L.H. Ward: ‘The Motetti Missales Repertory Reconsidered’, JAMS, xxxix
(1986), 491–523
M. Kanazawa: ‘Franchino Gafori and Polyphonic Hymns’, Tradition and its
Future in Music: Osaka 1990, 95–101
B.J. Blackburn, E.E. Lowinsky and C.A. Miller, eds.: A Correspondence
of Renaissance Musicians (Oxford, 1991)
A.M. Busse Berger: Mensuration and Proportion Signs: Origins and
Evolution (Oxford, 1993)
A.P. Leverett: ‘An Early Missa brevis in Trent Codex 91’, Music in the
German Renaissance: Sources, Styles and Contexts, ed. J. Kmetz
(Cambridge, 1994), 152–73
Gafori, Franchino.
See Gaffurius, Franchinus.
Gagaku.
Court music of Japan. See Japan, §V.
Gage, Irwin
(b Cleveland, 4 Sept 1939). American pianist. He studied at the University
of Michigan with Eugene Bossart, at Yale University, and later with Erik
Werba, Hilde Langer-Rühl, Helene Berg, Kurt Schmidek and Klaus Vokurka
in Vienna, where he settled. A passionate interest in poetry led him to work
primarily as an accompanist to singers, among them Christa Ludwig,
Arleen Augér, Brigitte Fassbaender, Gundula Janowitz, Jessye Norman,
Lucia Popp, Elly Ameling, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Hermann Prey, Peter
Schreier and Tom Krause. He has performed at numerous European music
festivals, including Edinburgh, Spoleto, Montreux and Salzburg, has
appeared in concerts throughout Europe and the Americas and has
contributed to many distinguished recordings, notably a large collection of
Schubert lieder with Janowitz. In 1970 Gage planned and accompanied an
entire series of lieder recitals at the Vienna Konzerthaus. He teaches at the
Zürich Conservatory and regularly gives masterclasses at other institutions.
Gage’s subtle understanding of song texts is reflected in his
accompaniments. A specialist in the standard lieder repertory, he has also
done research in more obscure areas of the German and Austrian song
literature.
RICHARD LESUEUR
Gagliano.
Italian family of violin makers. They worked in Naples from about 1700 to
the middle of the 19th century. They were an industrious family and
produced a large number of violins, many cellos and a few violas. With the
exception of Alessandro Gagliano, they usually worked on the Stradivari
model. All of the 18th-century Gaglianos could produce a masterpiece if
circumstances required it, but as the 19th century approached the demand
seems to have been increasingly for hastily made, inexpensive
instruments. Except for Alessandro, they all used a similar varnish, harder
than that of more classical makers; the most attractive has a distinctive
golden orange colour, but there are many that appear stained, with almost
a grey-green tinge to the orange. Tonally they all have what is known as
the ‘Italian’ quality, but tend towards brightness, occasionally almost
harshness. They are very good all-round instruments, and well liked by all
types of players. No work has been published giving the correct dates of
each member of the family, and the dates given by most authorities do not
always tally with those on the original labels.
Alessandro Gagliano (fl c1700–c1735) was the first maker in the Gagliano
family and the first known Neapolitan maker: it is not known where he
learnt his craft. His work differs in almost all respects from that of his
descendants, but most of all in the varnish he used. This was of a soft, oily
nature, similar to the very best, glowing and transparent and of the deepest
red colour. He was only an average workman, but his instruments have
great character and are in no sense copies of the work of his great
predecessors or contemporaries. He made violins of at least three different
sizes, one of them small and another rather too large, with a long string
length. The soundholes have an exaggerated swing which can
nevertheless be quite charming, but the scrolls are often pinched in design
and crudely carved, sometimes with a little extra ornament to the pegbox.
His cellos are especially good, but rare.
Nicola Gagliano (i) (fl c1740–c1780) was a son of Alessandro Gagliano.
The majority of his instruments were made between 1750 and 1770,
though he is thought to have had a longer working life. They are all much
influenced by Stradivari's work, and, with those of his brother Gennaro, are
the most sought after of the Gaglianos. The quality of his work is
consistently high, but a few of his violins are rather high-built and broad in
measurement. Some of the violins with his original label show the
collaboration of his son Giuseppe.
Gennaro [Januarius] Gagliano (fl c1740–c1780) was also a son of
Alessandro Gagliano. He is often considered the best maker of his family.
Gennaro was a more sensitive craftsman, and his overall concept of violin
making was not far behind that of the great Cremonese makers. Although
he was most influenced by Stradivari, he often made Amati copies, with
strong-grained pine in the front, brown varnish and facsimile Amati label.
Both Gennaro and Nicola (i) made very good cellos on the best Stradivari
model, but they also introduced the very narrow design used by most later
Neapolitans (see illustration).
Ferdinando Gagliano (fl c1770–c1795) was a son of Nicola Gagliano (i),
but is more likely to have been a pupil of his uncle, Gennaro Gagliano. His
instruments vary in the quality of their finish, but their outlines have the
pleasing flow of typical Gennaro models, with slightly stiffer, more open
soundholes. The varnish can be very good looking, but is less striking than
that on his father's or uncle's instruments.
Ferdinando Gagliano’s three brothers collaborated in their work to a certain
extent. Giuseppe [Joseph] Gagliano (fl c1770–c1800) was certainly a pupil
of his father and his early work suggests he was an excellent maker. His
work declined over the years, however, and instruments made in
partnership with his brother Antonio are not as good as those he made
alone. Antonio Gagliano (i) (fl c1780–c1800) was inferior to his brother
Giuseppe in his workmanship. Instruments bearing his signature inside
often have labels showing them to have been made in partnership with
Giuseppe.
Giovanni [Joannes] Gagliano (fl c1785–after 1815) began working with
Giuseppe and Antonio, but by about 1800 was working by himself. His
work, while reflecting that of his uncle Gennaro and his brother Ferdinando,
has strong individual features in the slant of the soundholes and the deep
cut of the pegbox fluting. He had three sons: Nicola Gagliano (ii) (fl c1800–
c1825) produced work in the Gagliano tradition, though some workmanship
is completely undistinguished and his instruments are now rarely found;
Raffaele (d 1857) and Antonio Gagliano (ii) (d 1860) were responsible for
many violins and cellos, usually with their backs left unpurfled, but although
the varnish technique remained unchanged the workmanship declined in
quality.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LütgendorffGL
VannesE
J. Roda: Bows for Musical Instruments of the Violin Family (Chicago, 1959)
CHARLES BEARE
Gagliano, Carlo
(fl late 18th century). Italian violin maker who worked in Belluno. There is
no evidence to connect him with the Gagliano family who worked in
Naples.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FortuneISS
SolertiMBD
M. Fabbri and E. Settesoldi: ‘Aggiunte e rettifiche alle biografie di Marco e
Giovanni Battista da Gagliano: il luogo e le date di nascita e di morte
dei due fratelli musicisti’, Chigiana, xxi, new ser. i (1964), 131–42
F. Hammond: ‘Musicians at the Medici Court in the Mid-Seventeenth
Century’, AnMc, no.14 (1974), 151–69, esp. 159
J.W. Hill: ‘Oratory Music in Florence, i: Recitar cantando, 1583–1655’,
AcM, li (1979), 108–36
J. Hill: ‘Florentine Intermedi sacri e morali, 1549–1622’, IMSCR XIII:
Strasbourg 1982, ii, 265–301, esp. 271–2, 286–92
T. Carter: ‘Music-Printing in Late Sixteenth- and Early Seventeenth-
Century Florence: Giorgio Marescotti, Cristofano Marescotti and
Zanobi Pignoni’, EMH, ix (1990), 27–72, esp. 55–7
W. Kirkendale: The Court Musicians in Florence during the Principate of
the Medici (Florence, 1993), 370–76
EDMOND STRAINCHAMPS
Gagliano, Marco da
(b Florence, 1 May 1582; d Florence, 25 Feb 1643). Italian composer, elder
brother of Giovanni Battista da Gagliano. As maestro di cappella for nearly
35 years of the Medici court and of Florence Cathedral (S Maria del Fiore),
he was one of the most important Italian musicians of the period. His Dafne
(1608) is a milestone in the early history of opera, and his secular
madrigals and monodies and many sacred works in various genres, though
now little known, were much acclaimed in the first half of the 17th century.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EDMOND STRAINCHAMPS
Gagliano, Marco da
1. Life.
Gagliano was born to Zanobi and Camilla da Gagliano, who lived in
Florence, and he may never have seen the village of Gagliano in the
Mugello valley, north-east of Florence, from which the family apparently
took its name long before his birth. The assertion in some modern histories
that he had no surname and references to him as Marco Zanobi are
erroneous. He studied music with Luca Bati, and in 1602 he became Bati’s
assistant at S Lorenzo, Florence. Though his salary of 2 scudi a month was
indeed small, he remained in the position for nearly six years. His duties
were primarily to instruct the clerics at S Lorenzo in singing, but from 1605
he was given the additional responsibility of preparing the music for Holy
Week each year. His general education, and perhaps to some extent his
training in music also, was entrusted to the Compagnia dell’Arcangelo
Raffaello (sometimes referred to as the Compagnia della Natività or the
Compagnia della Scala), in which he was enrolled at the age of six and a
half. This lay religious confraternity, one of the oldest and most important in
Florence, had a mixture of boys from both the middle and upper classes.
Music played an important part in the company’s activities, and its records
show that from early youth Gagliano was much involved in both its public
and private musical performances. In December 1607 he was elected
maestro di cappella of the company at an annual salary of 40 scudi, but for
political reasons his election was set aside within nine days in favour of
another, and the office was not restored to him until July 1609. Many of the
Florentines most important to Gagliano’s subsequent career (among whom
Cosimo de’ Medici, Ottavio Rinuccini, Jacopo Peri, Giovanni del Turco and
Giovanni de’ Bardi stand out) were his brothers and associates in the
Compagnia dell’Arcangelo Raffaello. He also received theological training
and took holy orders.
A number of letters written by Gagliano to the Gonzagas of Mantua, mostly
to Prince (later Cardinal) Ferdinando (29 of them are printed in Vogel, 550ff
and 25 are in Strainchamps, ‘The Unknown Letters’), show that he was in
contact with the Gonzagas from at least July 1607 (fig.1). He supplied them
with music he had composed to texts either written or chosen by them, as
well as music by other Florentine composers that he considered worthy of
their attention. Late in 1607 he went to Mantua, where his setting of Ottavio
Rinuccini’s newly reworked pastoral drama Dafne (the original version had
been set by Peri and Corsi) was presented during Carnival 1608. The
opera was a great success, and Gagliano remained in Mantua until early
June to help with preparations for the series of theatrical-musical works
that the court produced in celebration of the marriage of the hereditary
prince, Francesco Gonzaga, to Margherita of Savoy. He wrote the music
for a ballo, Il sacrificio d’Ifigenia (to words by Alessandro Striggio (ii)), and
the third intermedio (text by Chiabrera) for Guarini’s play L’Idropica. In mid-
June he returned to Florence and resumed his modest duties. On 17
October 1608 Bati died, and in November Gagliano succeeded him as
maestro di cappella of the cathedral; by July 1609 he was given the title of
maestro di cappella at the Medici court as well. His position was enhanced
on 26 January 1610, when he was made canon of S Lorenzo under the
designation SS Cosimo e Damiano, and on 2 January 1615 he was further
elevated in the ecclesiastical hierarchy when he became apostolic
prothonotary there, thus achieving clerical as well as musical distinction.
In June 1607 Gagliano’s reputation among his fellow musicians in Florence
was such that he was able to found an academy devoted to music, the
Accademia degli Elevati. Its membership comprised ‘the city’s finest
composers, instrumentalists and singers’, as Gagliano described it, but it
also included literati. Those known to have belonged are Jacopo Peri,
Giovanni and Lorenzo del Turco, Giovanni de’ Bardi, Alfonso Fontanelli,
Piero Strozzi, Rinuccini, Antonio Francesco Benci, Piero Benedetti and
Giovanni Cavaccio; according to Gagliano’s assertion, Bati, Caccini,
Lorenzo Allegri, Severo Bonini and Santi Orlandi must also have been
members, as probably were some of the outstanding singers and
instrumentalists then resident in Florence. The academy’s patron was
Cardinal Ferdinando Gonzaga, its secretary Giovanni del Turco. Composer
candidates were admitted to the academy only after two madrigals written
to assigned texts had been approved by the official censor and
subsequently by the full membership. The academy met weekly for the
purpose of examining and performing musical works, and members were
required to be present and to perform by turns or to pay a fine. Once a
year, on the feast of S Cecilia, the academy’s protectress, it was obligatory
for the members to gather together so that all might join in singing a mass.
Historically, the Elevati belong to the tradition of musical gatherings in
Florence extending from Bardi’s Camerata through the groups sponsored
by Jacopo Corsi and Cosimo Cini to those of Cosimo del Sera and
Alessandro Covoni. Gagliano’s group was unique, however, in being a
formal academy with rules of procedure modelled on those of such well-
known Florentine groups as the Accademia Fiorentina and the Accademia
della Crusca. Unlike its worthy models, however, the Accademia degli
Elevati may have been short-lived; in the autumn of 1609 a faction of the
academy rebelled with the intention of destroying it, and though they seem
not to have succeeded, the academy was certainly weakened and its
demise hastened. Gagliano referred to it in only two publications, Dafne
and his fifth book of madrigals (both 1608), giving his academic name,
‘L’Affannato’ (‘The Breathless One’), on the title-pages of both. Although
Gagliano himself made no further reference to the Elevati, it was still
mentioned on the title-pages of works by Benedetti in 1611 and 1613 and
by Cavaccio in 1611, 1620 and 1626.
From the time of his appointment to the Medici court in 1609 until his
death, Gagliano prepared, directed and composed much of the great
variety of music – including ballets, intermedi, operas, oratorios, masses,
motets, madrigals – with which the court so lavishly represented and
entertained themselves and their guests, principally in their various palaces
and in S Lorenzo and the cathedral, S Maria del Fiore (see Opera, fig.32).
At the cathedral he was also in charge of overseeing the music used in
services there week in and week out. Glimpses of him in his day-to-day
duties at the court may be caught in the accounts of Cesare Tinghi, the
Medici court diarist (excerpts in SolertiMBD), who reported his singing and
playing (he performed on the theorbo and keyboard instruments) in various
intimate and private entertainments he prepared for the several grand
dukes and duchesses he served. A letter of 1621 in the Gonzaga Archives
at Mantua states that he had been commanded to Innsbruck to serve the
emperor, and Daugnan reported that Polish records show that he was in
Warsaw at some time during the period 1624–32. But no corroborating
evidence has been found to show that he was ever away from Florence
and the Medici during the long period over which he served them. A letter
written by his younger brother Giovanni Battista (in I-Fd) indicates that
Gagliano suffered ill-health during his last 19 years and was unable, to
some degree, to perform his duties as maestro. In personality he was
apparently a gentle and agreeable man; his contemporary Lorenzo Parigi
described him as ‘a musician as amiable as he was learned’, and his
portrait bust, which still stands in the chapter room of the canons of S
Lorenzo (fig.2) shows a thoughtful and gentle countenance. According to
the canons of S Lorenzo he was ‘famed for the honesty of his character
and the superiority of his knowledge’.
Gagliano, Marco da
2. Works.
Gagliano’s best-known work is his setting of Rinuccini’s Dafne. It was much
admired by his contemporaries and notably praised by Jacopo Peri, who, in
a letter to Cardinal Ferdinando Gonzaga, declared the setting to be better
than any other (meaning his own and Corsi’s) and specified that Gagliano’s
manner of writing vocal music came much closer to the speaking voice
than that of any other distinguished composer. In a long and important
preface to the published score (printed in Solerti, 1903, pp.78ff), Gagliano
acknowledged that Dafne had had an extraordinary effect on those who
heard it at Mantua but modestly credited its success less to his music than
to the uniting of ‘every noble delight’ (story, poetry, musical composition,
exquisite singing, combining of voices and instruments, dance, gesture,
costumes and scenic design) that distinguished the new genre. His remark
that ‘the true delight of song stems from the intelligibility of the words’
governed many of his practical directions for performances of Dafne and
works similar to it: ornaments (gruppi, trilli, passaggi and esclamazioni)
should be used only where the story requires them, otherwise entirely
omitted; the instrumentalists accompanying the singers must be seated
where they can see the singers’ faces and can best hear them, so that they
can keep together; and the instruments must be careful not to double the
singers’ melody and must never embellish the accompaniment. Gagliano
further called upon the orchestra to provide a sinfonia before the raising of
the curtain. His interest embraced the entire production and not merely the
musical aspects of it; the preface continues with directions for many details
of stage business, which throw some light on what productions of Dafne
and other early operas must have been like. At the close of the preface, he
credited three of the arias, ‘Chi da lacci d’Amor vive disciolta’, ‘Pur giacque
estinto al fine’ and ‘Un guardo, un guardo appena’, to a learned
academician and patron. This was undoubtedly Cardinal Ferdinando
Gonzaga, the patron of Gagliano’s academy. In style, Dafne is much less
austere than similar works by his fellow Florentines. Like Monteverdi’s
Orfeo, it incorporates traditional genres and manners and so has a number
of ensemble pieces – duets, trios, madrigalian choruses – and a variety of
airs interspersed with passages in stile recitativo. La Flora (to a text by
Andrea Salvadori), Gagliano’s only other surviving opera, is stylistically
close to Dafne.
Gagliano’s madrigals, all but one a cappella and nearly all for five voices,
were, with a single later exception, published between 1602 and 1617.
They are important, highly personal examples from the last years of the
genre. Gagliano was typically Florentine in his choice of poets and poems
of quality; Marino, Guarini and Chiabrera were his favourites, followed
closely by Rinuccini, Sannazaro, Della Casa, G.B. Strozzi, Petrarch and a
group of lesser-known poets. In texture, his madrigals show a marked
preference for homophony. Where polyphony does appear it is often for
only three or four voices of the full ensemble, though rich, five-part
polyphonic writing is not unknown. Most of the polyphonic passages
involve imitation, but of a rather unusual kind. Often a point of imitation is
notable for its use of a motif so brief that each voice successively entering
has in common with the others only its first few intervals, continuing freely
thereafter (as, for example, in Come il ferir sia poco from the third book and
O com’in van credei from the sixth). Imitation is also frequently made with
declamatory motifs which, by virtue of their brevity, must be used again and
again to extend the texture, typically in sequential manner (as, for example,
in Ecco l’alba, ecco il giorno from the fourth book and Fuggi tua speme,
fuggi from the fifth). Melodically, Gagliano’s preference was for brief,
concise phrases to which the text is syllabically set. Melismas are reserved
for the illustration of the text (though, in general, word-painting is of little
interest to him), except for several elaborately ornamented later madrigals
that were clearly intended for some of the virtuoso singers so much in
evidence in Florence in the early 17th century (e.g. Chi sete voi che
saettate a morte from the sixth book). In a typical Gagliano madrigal,
syllabic treatment of text and extensive use of homophonic texture project
the poetry with remarkable clarity; this, of course, agrees with his above-
quoted statement in the Dafne preface stressing the importance of the
intelligibility of the words. His madrigals are harmonically unadventurous,
with only a mild use of chromaticism. Dissonances are usually carefully
prepared and resolved, though elsewhere there is occasionally some
rather awkward part-writing. Rhythm is greatly varied; it runs the gamut
from long sustained values to very short ones, the latter often in passages
of rapid parlando-like settings of textual phrases in which the ideal is
certainly to capture the flow and accent of spoken language. In general, the
earlier madrigals are somewhat broader and more expansive in their
musical flow than those from his last books. Here the directness and
compression of the music is almost telegrammatic in its effect; the most
vivid way of illustrating this is to compare the setting of Filli, mentre ti bacio
from the first book (ex.1a) with the reworked version of the same madrigal
in the sixth (ex.1b). The speed with which Gagliano moves through a text in
these late pieces is on occasion somewhat contradicted, however, by the
repetition or reworking of a portion of music and text to produce a formal
design of large-scale ABB or ABB'. The compression and density of
construction in his later madrigals is lightened by the frequent full stops
with simultaneous rests in all the parts that separate and define discrete
sections of musical-textual matter.
In 1623 Gagliano’s last book of madrigals was attacked by Mutio Effrem in
his Censure … sopra il sesto libro de madrigali di M. Marco da Gagliano.
The diatribe had first circulated privately and was published only on
Gagliano’s complaining (in an open letter printed in 1622 in his Sacrarum
cantionum … liber secundus) that he should like to see it so as to defend
himself. In his vicious attack on the madrigals Effrem pointed out errors in
part-writing and dissonance treatment, incorrect cadences, breaking of the
modes and the misuse of chromaticism, and accused Gagliano of
confusing the madrigal with the canzonetta. From the standpoint of a
conservative these accusations were, for the most part, just, but from that
of a modernist they were entirely inappropriate and misguided. As far as is
known, Gagliano never responded, probably because, all things
considered, he felt no defence was necessary. The remainder of his extant
secular music is found in his Musiche of 1615, one of the most notable
such volumes of the period. The chamber monodies, duets and trios, some
to sacred texts, include Valli profonde, one of the finest Italian monodies.
This volume also includes the music of the Ballo di donne turche (text by
Alessandro Ginori), danced at court during carnival, on 26 February 1615.
Much of Gagliano’s sacred music remains in manuscript. The masses,
motets, hymns, antiphons, responsories, Magnificat settings and other
surviving works are nearly all a cappella for four to six voices, though there
are a few double-chorus works as well. It is clear that they belong to all
phases of his career. The series of sacred works that he chose to publish
began with the (now incomplete) Officium defunctorum (1607/8), which
contains 12 liturgical pieces to Latin texts and four spiritual madrigals to
Italian texts. His next volume of sacred music (1614) contains 15 motets
and a mass, all for six voices. The continuo part of his Sacrarum
cantionum … liber secundus for one to six voices appeared in 1622, the
vocal partbooks in 1623. The use of continuo throughout this book and its
florid vocal writing suggest that it was made up of works written for the
private devotions of the Medici. Tinghi’s diary often reports occasions when
performances of sacred music by the virtuoso singers of the court were
presented in the private apartments of the Palazzo Pitti. Gagliano’s last
publication, Responsoria maioris hebdomadae (1630/31), responsories for
Thursday, Friday and Saturday of Holy Week, are homophonic,
harmonically simple four-part settings of the familiar texts and are fittingly
reserved and sombre in tone. They were perhaps the most cherished of all
Gagliano’s music in the years following his death. They survive in at least a
dozen manuscript copies in Florence, some with added instrumental parts,
showing adaptations for later taste, and according to Picchianti were
performed every year in S Lorenzo until well into the 19th century.
Gagliano, Marco da
WORKS
music lost unless otherwise stated
stage
La Dafne (op, prol., 6 scenes, O. Rinuccini, after Ovid), Mantua, Feb 1608, collab.
F. Gonzaga (Florence, 1608); ed. J. Erber (London, 1978)
Intermedio III (G. Chiabrera) to G.B. Guarini: L'Idropica, Mantua, 2 June 1608
Il trionfo d'onore (ballo, A. Striggio (ii)), Mantua, 3 June 1608
Il sacrificio d'Ifigenia (ballo, A. Striggio (ii)), Mantua, 5 June 1608
Mascherate di ninfe di Senna (intermedi, Rinuccini), collab. Peri and others,
Florence, 16 Feb 1611; Gagliano's music lost except Su l'affricane arene [see
madrigals, monodies]
Scherzi e balli di giovanette montanine (G. Ginori), 1614
Ballo di donne turche (A. Ginori), Florence, 26 Feb 1615 [see madrigals, monodies]
La liberazione di Tirreno ed Arnea (veglia, A. Salvadori), ? collab. Peri, Florence, 6
Feb 1617
La fiera (intermedi, M. Buonarroti), Florence, Palazzo Pitti, 11 Feb 1619, collab. F.
Caccini
Lo sposalizio di Medoro et Angelica (op, Salvadori, after L. Ariosto), Florence,
Palazzo Pitti, 25 Sept 1619, collab. J. Peri; rev. as Il Medoro, 1623
Le fonti d'Ardenna (ballo, Salvadori), Florence, 3 and 8 Feb 1623
La regina Sant'Orsola (sacred drama, Salvadori), Florence, Uffizi, 6 Oct 1624
La storia di Judit (sacred drama, Salvadori), Florence, 22 Sept 1626
La Flora (op, prol., 5, Salvadori), Florence, Palazzo Pitti, 14 Oct 1628 (Florence,
1628) [role of Chloris by Peri]
madrigals, monodies
all published in Venice
Ahi dolorosa vita (G. Villifranchi), 5vv, 1605, ed. in Butchart (1982); Alma mia, dove
te’n vai (O. Rinuccini), 2vv, 1615, ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora (Copenhagen, 1949), iii,
84; Al mio novo martire, 5vv, 1602; Al tramontar del sole (G. Murtola), 5vv, 1604;
Altri di beltà, 7vv, 1608; Arsi un tempo (G. Marino), 5vv, 1602; Assetato d’Amor, 5vv,
1604; Ballo di donne turche (A. Ginori), 1615 [see also stage]; Bel pastor, dal cui bel
guardo (Rinuccini), 1v, P. Benedetti: Musiche (Florence, 1611); Benche l’ombre, e
gl’orrori, 5vv, 1605/6; Ben quel puro candore (Marino), 5vv, 1606/7
Cantai un tempo (P. Bembo), 2vv, 1615; Care lagrime mie (L. Celiano), 5vv, 1605/6,
ed. in Butchart (1982); Care pupille amate, 5vv, 1608; Che non mi date aita, 5vv,
1617; Chi nudrisce tua speme, cor mio (G. Chiabrera), 2vv, 1615; Chi sete voi che
saettate a morte, 5vv, 1617, ed. in Butchart (1982); Cingetemi d’intorno (G.B.
Guarini), 5vv, 1604; Come il ferir sia poco (Marino), 5vv, 1605/6; Come potrò mai
fare, cor mio, 5vv, 1602; Come si m’accendete (?T. Tasso), 3vv, 1615; Con la
candida man tu cogli (A. Striggio (ii)), 5vv, 1605/6; Deh rivolgete il guardo, 5vv,
1604, ed. in Strainchamps (1991); Dico a le Muse (Chiabrera), 5vv, 1602; Die mie
tante sventure, 5vv, 1604; Di marmo siete voi (Marino), 5vv, 1602, ed. A. Einstein,
The Golden Age of the Madrigal (New York, 1942), 85
Ecco l’alba, ecco il giorno, 5vv, 1606/7; Ecco maggio seren (G. Strozzi (ii)), 5vv,
1604; Ecco solinga delle selve amica, 1v, 1613 11; ed. H. Riemann, Handbuch der
Musikgeschichte, ii/2 (Leipzig, 1912, 3/1921); Ergasto mio, perché solingo e tacito
(J. Sannazaro), 5vv, 1604; Evoè Padre Lièo (Chiabrera), 5vv, 1617, ed. in AMI, iv
(n.d.), 23; Fanciulletta ritrosetta che d’amor, 2vv, 1615, ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora
(Copenhagen, 1949), iii, 82; Felicissimo fiore a cui fu dato, 5vv, 1608; Filli, mentre ti
bacio (A. Ongaro), 5vv, 1602, ed. in Strainchamps (1984); Filli, mentre ti bacio
(Ongaro), 5vv, 1617, ed. in Strainchamps (1984); Fuggi lo spirto, 5vv, 1604; Fuggi
tua speme, fuggi, 5vv, 1608; Fuss’io pur degno (G.B. Strozzi (ii)), 5vv, 1608, ed. in
Butchart (1982); Hor che lunge da voi (Chiabrera), 5vv, 1606/7; Hor ch’io t’ho dato ’l
core, 5vv, 1608
Infelici occhi miei, 5vv, 1604; In qual parte del ciel (Petrarch), 5vv, 1604; In un
limpido rio, 2vv, 1615, ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora (Copenhagen, 1949), iii, 80; Io pur
sospiro, e piango, 5vv, 1605/6; Io vidi in terra angelici costumi (Petrarch), 1v, 1615;
I’ vo piangendo i miei passati tempi (Petrarch), 6vv, 1606/7; La bella pargoletta
(Tasso), 5vv, 1617; L’ardente tua facella, 5vv, 1602, ed. in Butchart (1982); Luci
vezzose e belle, 5vv, 1606/7; Lumi, miei cari lumi (Guarini), 5vv, 1606/7; Mentre
ch’a l’aureo crine (Marino), 5vv, 1605/6; Mentre mia stella mira (Tasso), 5vv, 1605/6;
Mie speranze lusinghiere (M. Buonarroti), 1v, 1615, ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora
(Copenhagen, 1949), ii, 12; Mira, Fillide mia, come tenace (Ongaro), 2vv, 1615;
Mori, mi dici, e mentre con quel guardo (Marino), 5vv, 1608
Nasce questo, 5vv, 162910; Occhi miei che ridete, 5vv, 1617; Occhi, no ’l vorrei dire,
5vv, 1617; Occhi un tempo mia vita (Guarini), 5vv, 1606/7; O chiome erranti
(Marino), 5vv, 1606/7, ed. in Butchart (1982); O com’in van credei, 5vv, 1617; O
dolce anima mia (Guarini), 5vv, 161416; O dolce anima mia (Guarini), 5vv, 1617;
Ohimè che tutta piaga, 5vv, 1604; Ohimè tu piangi, o Filli, 5vv, 1617; O misera
Dorinda ov’hai tu poste (Guarini), 5vv, 1602, ed. Einstein, op. cit., iii, 267; O morte
agli altri fosca a me serena, 5vv, 1604; O sonno ò della queta humida ombrosa (G.
della Casa), 5vv, 1602, ed. Einstein, op. cit., iii, 275; Ove se lieti è bel drappel
d’amati, 10vv, 1606/7; Ovunque irato Marte in terra scende, 1v, 1615
Perfidissimo volto (Guarini), 5vv, 1606/7; Quel vivo sol ardente, 6vv, 1606/7; Queste
lucenti stelle, 5vv, 1604; Quest’è pur il mio core (Guarini), 3vv, 1615; Qui rise, o Tirsi
(Marino), 5vv, 1608; Ridete pur, ridete (Murtola), 5vv, 1605/6; Scherza Madonna e
dice (A. Cebà), 5vv, 1602; Sdegno la fiamma estinse (O. Tavaletta), 5vv, 1605/6;
Seccassi giunta a sera, 5vv, 1608; Se con vive fiammelle (V. Pitti), 5vv, 1602; Se del
mio lagrimare (Celiano), 5vv, 1605/6; Se già ritrosa mi fuggisti, 5vv, 1608; Se più
meco mirar non è speranza (Chiabrera), 5vv, 1617; Sospir fugace e leve
(Rinuccini), 5vv, 1608; Spera infelice, spera, 5vv, 1608; Su l’affricane arene
(Rinuccini), 8vv, 1617 [see also stage], ed. in AMI, iv (n.d.), 27; Su la sponda del
Tebro humida (Marino), 5vv, 1608
Tanto è dolce il martire, 5vv, 1617, ed. in Butchart (1982); Trà sospiri e querele, 5vv,
1602; Troppo ben può questo tiranno Amore (Guarini), 5vv, 1606/7; Tu se’ pur aspro
a chi t’adora Silvio (Guarini), 5vv, 1602, ed. in Butchart (1982); Tutt’eri foco Amore
(Guarini), 5vv, 1606/7; Un sguardo, un sguardo non troppo pietate (Chiabrera), 5vv,
1602; Vaga su spina ascosa (Chiabrera), 5vv, 1605/6; Vaghi rai, mercede, aita, 5vv
(Rinuccini), 1605/6; Vago amoroso Dio (G.B. Strozzi (ii)), 5vv, 1608; Valli profonde
al sol nemiche (L. Tansillo), 1v, 1615, ed. K. Jeppesen, La flora (Copenhagen,
1949), i, 14; Vattene o felic’alma, 5vv, 1608; Vivo mio sol tu giri (Marino), 5vv, 1604;
Voi sete bella, ma fugace e presta (Tasso), 5vv, 1605/6; Volle mostrar ch’un giro
(Murtola), 5vv, 1617
sacred vocal
published in Venice unless otherwise stated
Latin
Adoramus te, Christe, 6vv, 1614; Amicus meus osculi me tradidit signo, 4vv, 1630;
Animam meam dilectam tradidi, 4vv, 1630; Astiterunt reges terrae, 4vv, 1630; Ave
Maria gratia plena, 6vv, 1614; Ave maris stella, 3vv, 1622; Beatam me dicent omnes
generationes, 3vv, 1622; Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel, 4vv, 1630; Benedictus
Dominus Deus, 8vv, 1607; Caligaverunt oculi mei, 4vv, 1630; Cantabant sancti
canticum novum, 1v, 1622; Christus factus est pro nobis, 4vv, 1630; Clamemus cum
Gabriele, 6vv, 1614; Credo quod Redemptor meus vivit, 4vv, 1607; Crucem tuam
adoramus, 1v, 1622; Domine quando veneris iudicare, 4vv, 1607; Domine
secundum actum meum, 4vv, 1607; Duo seraphim clamabant, 6vv, 1614
Ecce quam bonum, 6vv, 1614; Ecce quomodo moritur iustus, 4vv, 1630; Ecce
vidimus eum non habentem, 4vv, 1630: Eram quasi agnus innocens, 4vv, 1630;
Estimatus sum cum descendentibus, 4vv, 1630; Exultate iusti, 6vv, 1622; Faustinus
et Jovita, 6vv, 1614; Hei mihi Domine quia peccavi nimis, 4vv, 1607; Hierusalem
surge et exuete vestibus, 4vv, 1630; Hodie Christus natus est, 6vv, 1614; Hodie
Maria virgo, 1v, 1622; In monte Oliveti oravit ad Patrem, 4vv, 1630; Jesum tradidit
impius, 4vv, 1630; Jesu nostra redemptio, 1v, 1622; Judus mercator pessimus, 4vv,
1630
Lauda Sion, 8vv, G.B. da Gagliano: Il secondo libro de motetti, 6, 8vv (Venice,
1643); Libera me, Domine, de vivis inferni, 4vv, 1607; Magnificat anima mea (i), 2vv,
1622; Magnificat anima mea (ii), 4vv, 1622; Magnificat anima mea (iii), 4vv, 1622;
Memento mei, Deus, quia ventus, 4vv, 1607; Miserere mei, Deus, secundum
magnam, 4vv, 1630; Miserere mei, Deus, secundum magnam, 8vv, 1607; Missa,
6vv, 1614; Ne recordaris peccata mea, 4vv, 1607; Ne timeas Maria invenisti, 6vv,
1614; O admirabile commercium, 6vv, 1622; O beata Trinitas, 1v, 1622; Omnes
amici mei dereliquerunt, 4vv, 1630; O quam magnus est, 6vv, 1622; O quam
pulchra es, 6vv, 1622; O vos omnes qui transitis, 4vv, 1630; O vos omnes qui
transitis, 6vv, 1614
Peccantem me quotidie, 4vv, 1607; Plange quasi virgo plebs meo, 4vv, 1630;
Popule meus, quid feci tibi, 6vv, 1614; Princeps gloriosissime Michael Archangele,
2vv, 1622; Puer qui natus est nobis, 6vv, 1614; Quae est ista quae ascendit, 2vv,
1622; Quem vidistis, pastores, 6vv, 1622; Qui Lazarum resuscitasti, 4vv, 1607; Quo
raperis, o Pater, 6vv, 1614; Recessit pastor noster fons aquae vivae, 4vv, 1630;
Regina coeli laetare, 1v, 1622; Regina coeli laetare, 6vv, 1614; Requiem aeternam
dona eis Domine, 8vv, 1607
Seniores populi consilium fecerunt, 4vv, 1630; Sepulto Domino signatum est, 4vv,
1630; Sicut cedrus exaltata sum, 6vv, 1614; Sicut ovis ad occisionem ductus est,
4vv, 1630; Tanquem ad latronem existis, 4vv, 1630; Tenebrae factae sunt, 4vv,
1630; Tradiderunt me in manus impiorum, 4vv, 1630; Tristis est anima mea, 4vv,
1630; Una hora non potuistis vigilare, 4vv, 1630; Unus ex discipulis meis, 4vv, 1630;
Urbs Hierusalem beata, 3vv, 1622; Velum templi scissum est, 4vv, 1630; Veni
Creator Spiritus, 4vv, 1622; Veni Sancte Spiritus, 6vv, 1614; Venite gentes, 6vv,
1622; Vere languores nostros, 2vv, 1622; Vinea mea electa ego te plantavi, 4vv,
1630
Over 50 works, incl. masses, 4–8vv; requiem settings; Sunday Compline;
responsories for Matins; Office of the Dead; settings of TeD, Mag and Miserere;
motets, 3–8vv; pss; hymns: principal source I-Fd, other sources D-MÜs, I-Bc, Fa,
Fsl, PAc, Pla, PS, VEaf
Benedictus, Bc; ed. in AMI, iv (n.d.), 21
Italian
A che più vaneggiar, 4vv, 1607; Anima, oimè, che pensi?, 4vv, 1607; Bontà del ciel
eterna, 1v, 1615; O meraviglie belle, 2vv, 1615; O miei giorni fugaci (?Rinuccini),
4vv, 1607; O vita nostra al fin polvere et ombra, 2vv, 1615; Pastor, levate su, chi vi
ritarda il pie, 1v, 1615, ed. P. Aldrich, Rhythm in 17th-Century Italian Monody (New
York, 1966), 168
Qui fra mille trofei, 4vv, 1607
Vergine bella che di sol (Petrarch), 3vv, 1615
Vergine chiara e stabile eterno (Petrarch), 2vv, 1615
Gagliano, Marco da
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BertolottiM
EinsteinIM
SolertiMBD
M. da Gagliano: Letters (I-MAc and Fl); 29 pr. in Vogel, 550ff; 27 printed in
Strainchamps, ‘The Unknown Letters’ 101ff
D. Moreni: Continuazione delle memorie istoriche dell’Ambrosiana imperial
basilica di S Lorenzo, ii (Florence, 1817), 3, 54, 163
L. Picchianti: ‘Cenni biografici di Marco da Gagliano e di alcuni altri valenti
compositori di musica’, GMM, iii (1844), 2–3
E. Vogel: ‘Marco da Gagliano: zur Geschichte des Florentiner Musiklebens
von 1570–1650’, VMw, v (1889), 396–442, 509–68
A. Solerti: Le origini del melodramma (Turin, 1903/R), 76ff, 138
A. Solerti: Gli albori del melodramma, i (Milan, 1904/R), 73ff
F.F. de Daugnan: Gli italiani in Polonia del IX secolo al XVII, ii (Crema,
1907), 295–6, 303–4
F. Ghisi: ‘An Early Seventeenth Century MS with Unpublished Italian
Monodic Music by Peri, Giulio Romano and Marco da Gagliano’, AcM,
xx (1948), 46–60
F. Ghisi: ‘Ballet Entertainments in Pitti Palace, Florence, 1608–1625’, MQ,
xxxv (1949), 421–36
F. Ghisi: ‘La musique religieuse de Marco da Gagliano a Santa Maria del
Fiore, Florence’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949, 125–8
N. Fortune: ‘Italian Secular Monody from 1600 to 1635: an Introductory
Survey’, MQ, xxxix (1953), 171–95, esp. 184
M. Fabbri and E.Settesoldi: ‘Aggiunte e rettifiche alle biografie di Marco e
Giovanni Battista da Gagliano: il luogo e le date di nascita e di morte
dei due fratelli musicisti’, Chigiana, xxi, new ser., i (1964), 131–42
A.M. Nagler: Theatre Festivals of the Medici, 1539–1637 (New Haven, CT,
1964/R)
F. Ghisi: ‘Le musiche per “Il ballo di donne turche” di Marco da Gagliano’,
RIM, i (1966), 20–31
A.T. Cortellazzo: ‘Il melodramma di Marco da Gagliano’, Claudio
Monteverdi e il suo tempo: Venice, Mantua and Cremona 1968, 583–
98
E. Strainchamps: ‘A Brief Report on the Madrigal Style of Marco da
Gagliano’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972, 675–9
E. Strainchamps: ‘New Light on the Accademia degli Elevati of Florence’,
MQ, lxii (1976), 507–35
E. Strainchamps: ‘Marco da Gagliano and the Compagnia dell’Arcangelo
Raffaello in Florence: an Unknown Episode in the Composer’s Life’,
Essays Presented to Myron P. Gilmore, ed. S. Bertelli and G.
Ramakus, ii (Florence, 1978), 473–87
D.S. Butchart: The Madrigal in Florence, 1560–1630 (diss., U. of Oxford,
1979)
J.W. Hill: ‘Oratory Music in Florence, i: Recitar cantando, 1583–1655’,
AcM, li (1979), 108–36, 246–67
J. Erber: ‘Marco da Gagliano's Sacrae cantiones II of 1622’, The Consort,
no.35 (1979), 342–7
E.S. Buracchio: ‘Nuovi documenti su Marco da Gagliano e Girolamo
Frescobaldi’, Annali della facoltà di lettere e filosofia dell' Università di
Siena, iii (1982), 81–90
D.S. Butchart: I madrigali di Marco da Gagliano (Florence, 1982)
F. D'Accone: ‘Marco da Gagliano and the Florentine Tradition for Holy
Week Music’, IMSCR XIII: Strasbourg 1982, ii, 323–63
T. Carter: ‘A Florentine Wedding of 1608’, AcM, lv (1983), 89–107
E. Strainchamps: ‘Marco da Gagliano, Filli, mentre ti bacio, and the End of
the Madrigal in Florence’, Essays in Honor of Paul Henry Lang, ed. E.
Strainchamps and M.R. Maniates (New York, 1984), 311–25
R. Savage: ‘Prologue: Daphne Transformed’, EMc, xvii (1989), 485–93
E. Strainchamps: ‘Music in a Florentine Confraternity: the Memorial
Madrigals for Jacopo Corsi in the Company of the Archangel Raphael’,
Crossing the Boundaries: Christian Piety and the Arts in Italian
Medieval and Renaissance Confraternities, ed. K. Eisenbichler
(Kalamazoo, MI, 1991), 161–78
E. Strainchamps: ‘Theory as Polemic: Mutio Effrem's Censure … sopra il
sesto libro de madrigali di Marco da Gagliano’, Music Theory and the
Exploration of the Past, ed. C. Hatch and D.W. Bernstein (Chicago,
1993), 189–216
E. Strainchamps: ‘Marco da Gagliano in 1608: Choices, Decisions, and
Consequences’, Journal of Seventeenth-Century Music, vi (2000),
http:www.sscm.harvard.edu/jscm/v6nol.html
E. Strainchamps: ‘The Unknown Letters of Marco da Gagliano’, Music in
the Theatre, Church and Villa: Essays in Honor of Robert Lamar
Weaver and Norma Wright Weaver, ed. S Parisi, E. Harriss and C.M.
Bower (Warren, MI, 2000), 89–111
Gagliarda [gagiarda]
(It.).
See Galliard.
Gagnebin, Henri
(b Liège, 13 March 1886; d Geneva, 2 June 1977). Swiss composer,
teacher and organist. He received his musical education in Lausanne,
Berlin, Geneva (where he studied with Otto Barblan, Oscar Schulz and
Joseph Lauber) and Paris, taking lessons from d’Indy at the Schola
Cantorum; he also studied the piano with Blanche Selva. During this period
he worked as a Protestant church organist in Paris, Lausanne and Geneva.
He finally settled in Switzerland in 1916, teaching music history and the
organ at the conservatories of Lausanne, Neuchâtel and Geneva. In 1925
he was appointed director of the Geneva Conservatoire, a post he held
until 1957, and in 1938 he founded the Geneva International Competition
for Musical Performance, which gained a worldwide reputation and over
which Gagnebin continued to preside until 1959. As a result of this activity
he was made president of the Federation of International Competitions,
and sat on the juries of many contests; he also became known as an
organist, lecturer and musicologist. Among the awards made to him were
the Prize of the City of Geneva (1961), an honorary doctorate of Geneva
University and an honorary fellowship of the Royal Academy of Music,
London.
His output is large and covers all genres except opera. Strongly influenced
at first by Franck and d’Indy, his music evolved beyond them to incorporate
some of the new developments of his contemporaries, notably Stravinsky.
Gagnebin avoided external effect and constructed his music with care; the
most characteristic features of his work are a deep faith expressed through
the use of Protestant psalmody, and a kindly, colourful humour.
WORKS
(selective list)
Choral: St François d’Assise, orat, 1933; Les vanités du monde, orat, 1938;
Abraham sacrifiant, 1939; Jedermann, cant., 1942; Chant pour le Jour des morts et
la Toussaint, orat, 1943; Psaume 100, chorus, org, 1947; Psaume 109, chorus,
org/orch, 1948; Les mystères de la foi, orat, 1958; Psaume 104, solo vv, chorus,
orch, 1962; Messe latine sur de vieux noëls, chorus, org, 1966; Messe de concert,
chorus, org, 1973
Orch: 3 syms., 1911, 1921, 1955; Les vierges folles, sym. poem, 1913; Pf Conc.,
1931; Suite, 1936; Andante and Allegro, cl, small orch, 1939; 3 tableaux
symphoniques, after F. Hodler, 1942; Nocturne, small orch, 1944; Printemps (Le
jeune homme admiré par les femmes), 1948; 2 Suites sur des psaumes huguenots,
1950, 1966; Fantaisie, pf, orch, 1960
Vocal: Le bonheur, S/T, pf/small orch, 1926; La maison du matin, S/T, pf/orch, 1926;
3 mélodies (T. Derème), S/T, pf, 1929; Pour l’arbre de Noël de nos petits enfants,
1v, pf, 1930; 3 chansons spirituelles, 1v, org, 1937; L’homme et la mer, A/Bar,
pf/small orch, 1937; 2 poèmes (E. Verhaeren: Heures claires), S/T, pf, 1942;
Chansons pour courir le monde, S/T, pf/orch, 1945; L’instrument de musique, 2 solo
vv, wind qnt, pf, 1950
3 str qts, other chbr pieces, pf works, many org works
WRITINGS
Fritz Bach: sa vie, son oeuvre (Neuchâtel and Paris, 1935)
‘Onze compositeurs romands’, 40 Schweizer Komponisten der
Gegenwart/40 compositeurs suisses contemporains (Amriswil, 1956;
Eng. trans., 1956)
Musique, mon beau souci (Neuchâtel, 1969)
Orgue, musette et bourdon (Neuchâtel, 1975)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. van Amerongen: ‘Henri Gagnebin’, Mens en melodie, xi (1956), 353–55
S. Baud-Bovy: ‘Henri Gagnebin’, 40 Schweizer Komponisten der
Gegenwart/40 compositeurs suisses contemporains (Amriswil, 1956;
Eng. trans., 1956)
P. Mieg: ‘Henri Gagnebin’, Volume commemoratif de l’Association des
musiciens suisses dans le second quart de siècle de son existence
(Zürich, 1960), 253–4
A. Châtelain: ‘Albert Jeannert et Henri Gagnebin’, Revue musicale de
Suisse romande, xix/2 (1966), 10–11, esp. 11
C. Desclouds: ‘Henri Gagnebin’, Six compositeurs jurassiens (Porrentruy,
1966), 25–38
Henri Gagnebin, organiste, compositeur: chronologie de sa vie et
catalogue de ses oeuvres (Geneva, 1986)
PIERRE MEYLAN
Gagneux, Renaud
(b Paris, 15 May 1947). French composer. He attended the Ecole Normale
de Musique de Paris, where he studied piano with Cortot (1961–2) and
composition with Dutilleux (1966); he also studied composition with
Stockhausen at the Cologne Musikhochschule (1966). He pursued his
studies at the Paris Conservatoire (with Messiaen, 1967–72), where he
won a first prize in composition in 1972. In that year he joined Pierre
Schaeffer's musical research group at ORTF. In addition to a large output
of sacred choral, orchestral and other instrumental works, he has also
written several film scores. He has won a number of prizes including the
Prix Georges Enesco (1983), the SACD Prix des nouveaux talents (1989),
the Prix de l'Institut de France (1989, 1998), the Prix des Compositeurs
(1990) and the SACEM Grand Prix (1993).
WORKS
stage
Orphée (op, 5, 11 tableaux), op.11, 1983–5, Strasbourg 1989
Orch: Ricercare I, op.1bis, 1989; Devant le sommeil bleu…, op.4, 1979; Conc.,
op.6, db, orch, 1981; Conc., op.9, tuba, pf, orch, 1982–3; L'ombre du souvenir,
op.10, 1983; Les échos de la mémoire, op.13, 1985; Ricercare II, op.17bis, 1987;
Qamar, op.20, str orch/str qnt, 1988; Conc., op.21, trbn, orch, 1990; La chasse des
carillons crie dans les gorges II, op.22bis, tuba, hn, orch, 1990; Triptyque, op.24, vc,
orch, 1989–90; Anabole, op.25, 1990; 3 movts, op.31, 1992; Prélude, op.39, str
1993; Conc., op.47, fl, hp, orch, 1996; Vn Conc., op.50, 1997; Signal de brume,
op.50bis, 1997; Va Conc., op.51, 1997–8
Ens: Commune di Venezia, op.7, 1981–2; Haec Anima…, 12 or 24 db, 1992
Chbr: Trio, vn, vc, pf, 1975, rev. 1995; Sonata, op.9bis, tuba, pf, 1983; Str Qt no.1,
op.15, 1986; Str Qt no.2, op.16, 1986; Clock-Work, op.19, 2 pf, 1987; La chasse
des carillons crie dans les gorges I, op.22, tuba, hn, 1988; Qamar, op.20, str qnt/str
orch, 1988; Str Qt no.3, op.23, 1989; Et le monde ne connaît rien d'eux que leur
voix, op.29, wind octet, 1991; Alliage, op.34, brass qnt, 1992; Les douze tribus
d'Israël, op.35, str sextet, 1992; Opus 41, cl, bn, 1994; Trio, op.45, vc/db, pf, vn
instrumental
Solo: Sonatine no.1, op.1, pf, 1966, rev. 1979; Sonatine no.2, op.17, pf, 1987;
Lazawardi, op.26, fl, 1990; Veni Creator Spiritus, op.32, org, 1992; Narandi,
op.38a, hp, 1993; Melarancia, op.38b, hp, 1994; Mass, op.42, org, 1994
vocal
Mass, op.3, S, chorus, ob, cl, hn, org, perc, 1975, rev. 1995 as op.43; Requiem,
op.5, 2 S, chorus, orch, 1975–81; Quatre mots pour Juliette (V. Hugo), op.12, S, pf,
1985; Magnificat, op.14, S, Mez, chorus, orch, 1986; TeD, op.18, S, Mez, chorus,
orch, 1987; Les Sept dernières paroles du Christ, op.27, 16 solo vv, org, 1990;
Stabat Mater, op.28, chorus, 2 hp, 2 pf, perc, 1991; Golgotha, op.30, chorus, orch,
1992; Ave verum corpus, op.33, chorus, 1992; Angelus domini, op.37, children's
chorus, male chorus, hp, org, perc, 1992–3; Nunc dimittis, op.44, Bar, chorus, hn,
hp, org, 2 perc, 1994
JEAN-NOËL VON DER WEID
Gai
(Fr.: ‘merry’, ‘cheerful’).
A tempo mark. Rousseau (1768) equated it with allegro, the fourth of his
five main degrees of movement in music; and the frequency of its use from
the earliest years of the 18th century suggests that his equation, for once,
was a happy one. Couperin used it (with the spelling gay), as did Rameau;
and they and their contemporaries made much use of the adverbial form
gaiment, also spelt gayment, gaiement and gayement, as tempo and mood
designations. The early history of gai as a purely musical instruction is a
little difficult to trace because the word appears in musical contexts
throughout the 17th century as the title of a dance, the branle gai; but its
absence from Brossard's Dictionaire of 1703 suggests that François
Couperin's use of it is one of the earliest. Occasionally Italian composers
used the adjective gajo or gaio, particularly as a qualification to allegro.
DAVID FALLOWS
HOWARD BROFSKY
Gaiarda
(It.).
See Galliard.
Edition: Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler,
CMM, cvii (1997)
Gaiffre, Georges-Adam.
See Goepfert, Georges-Adam.
Les deux jaloux (C.R. Dufresny and J.B.C. Vial), 27 March 1813
Mademoiselle de Launay à la Bastille (C. de Lesser, R. Villiers and Mme Villiers), 16
Dec 1813
Angéla, ou L'atelier de Jean Cousin (C. Montcloux d'Epinay), F-Pn, collab. A.
Boieldieu; 11 June 1814
La méprise (De Lesser), 20 Sept 1814
La sérénade (S. Gay, after J.-F. Regnard), 16 Sept 1818
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Choron-FayolleD
SchillingE
SchmidlD
Y. Gérard: ‘Luigi Boccherini and Madame Sophie Gail’, The Consort, xxiv
(1967), 294–309
PHILIP ROBINSON (with SARAH HIBBERD)
Gailhard, André
(b Paris, 29 June 1885; d Paris, 3 July 1966). French composer, son
ofPierre Gailhard. A pupil of Massenet, Leroux, Vidal and Lenepveu at the
Paris Conservatoire (1905–8), he won the Prix de Rome in 1908 for his
cantata La sirène. Skilfully written early settings of late Romantic and
symbolist poets can be likened to the early songs of Debussy. In the 1930s
he composed miniature piano pieces, very simple in style, often working a
straightforward idea on a single page As a result of his travels and interest
in ethnomusicology, a strong penchant for the oriental pervades much of
his music and in this respect he collaborated frequently with the writer
Maurice Magre. La bataille is set in Japan and many of his instrumental
pieces are based on oriental modes. He was most successful as a
dramatic composer. Set in Homeric times in Sicily, La fille du soleil was one
of the large-scale spectacles commissioned for the open-air arena at
Béziers. Centred on a village in the Pyrenees, Le sortilège is an opera of
considerable charm, somewhat indebted to Massenet, based on folklore.
WORKS
Stage: Amaryllis (conte mythologique, 1), 1906; L’Aragonaise (mimodrame), before
1909; La fille du soleil (incid music, 3, M. Magre), Béziers, Arènes, 29 Aug 1909; Le
sortilège (conte des fées, 3, M. Magre), 1913, Paris, PO, 29 Jan 1913; La bataille
(incid music, 3, C. Farrière), 1931; Arlequin (comédie féerique, 3 ‘et deux rêves’, M.
Magre), 1934
Film scores: La bataille; Derrière la façade; Variétés; Les petites alliées
Vocal: La sirène (cant., Eugène Adenis, G. Deveaux), vv, insts, 1908; Les heures
tendres, 6 mélodies (P. Verlaine and others), 1v, pf, 1911; Le veau d’or (orat), 1914;
6 mélodies (Sully-Prudhomme, V. Hugo, A. Samain and others), 1v, pf, 1921; L’île
magique, rumba chantée (?? Haël, ?? Deguil), 1v, pf, 1939; 6 chants exotiques (M.
Magre), 1v, pf, 1955
Orch: Suite orientale, 1951
Chbr: Str Qt, 1913; La chanson de l’echelle, vn, pf, 1935; Le berger, eng hn, pf,
1936
Pf: American dance, 1935; La marche des Maxim’s, 1935; La caravane, 1936;
Chanson de Mahoumet, 1936; Le chant des femmes, 1936; Les cortèges, 1936;
Danses, 1936; Derviches, 1936; Le désert, 1936; L’eau, 1936; Les femmes, 1936;
La halte, 1936; Le marché, 1936; La montagne, 1936; Le muezzin, 1936; La nouba,
1936; La nuit dans les jardins de la villa Medicis,1936; Paysage, 1936; Le tobal,
1936; Façde, 1939; Le fox de Gaby, 1939; Lamento, 1939; La valse anglaise, 1939
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. de Curzon: ‘Le sortilège’, Le théâtre, no.341 (1913), 4–8
G. Soulié de Morant: Théâtre et musique modernes en Chine avec une
étude technique de la musique chinoise et transcriptions pour piano
d’André Gailhard (Paris, 1926)
R. LANGHAM SMITH
Gaillard, Marius-François
(b Paris, 13 Oct 1900; d Evecquemont, 23 July 1973). French composer,
pianist and conductor. He began his career as a pianist, receiving a
premier prix at the Paris Conservatoire in 1916 and gaining recognition for
his recital performances, of Debussy especially. He also conducted his own
orchestra, which, in the Gaillard concerts he founded, performed both
classical and contemporary French repertory. In 1921 he was
commissioned to write music for the silent film El Dorado directed by
Marcel l’Herbier. Debussian in idiom, this 100-minute score for symphony
orchestra is considered a landmark in European film music. Between 1933
and 1959 Gaillard wrote scores for 40 films, including feature films by
L’Herbier and Cavalcanti, and documentaries.
The interaction of classical form and non-European musical influence is a
recurring feature of Gaillard’s large output of concert works. La passion
noire, a cantata for triple chorus and large orchestra (including ondes
martenot) inspired by Bach’s Passions and African music, enjoyed a
succès de scandale at its 1932 Paris première. Of Gaillard’s four
symphonies, the first is marked by its polytonality, whereas the third
(‘Europe’, 1937) in Machabey’s words ‘truly foreshadowed the tragic events
to come’. Of his later works the ironic 12-note piano sonata of 1959 was
much praised. Gaillard gave up music in 1961, only to take up composing
again two years before his death. In recent years, the work of this
cosmopolitan individualist has gradually been rediscovered.
WORKS
(selective list)
Stage: Le vitrail (comic op, 1, after R. Fauchois), 1920; Les caprices de Marianne
(incid music, after A. de Musset), 1924; La danse pendant le festin (drame lyrique,
1, after G. Guesnier), c1924; Yamba-O (tragédie burlesque, after A. Carpentier);
Lilliane (drame lyrique, after P.F. Quilici), 1928; Détresse (ballet), 1932; 13 (ballet),
1933; La France d’outre-mer (ballet), 1943; Adjugé ou les folles enchère (ballet);
Mille et quatre (incid music), 1956
Film scores: El Dorado (silent film, dir. M. L’Herbier), 1921; Les hommes nouveaux
(dir. L'Herbier), 1936; Histoire de rire (dir. L'Herbier), 1941; They Made Me a
Fugitive (dir. A. Cavalcanti), 1947; Les rendez-vous du diable (dir. H. Tazieff), 1958;
Magie moderne, 1959; also TV scores
Syms.: no.1, G, 1927; no.2 ‘A mon père’, 1937; no.3 ‘Europe’, 5 movts, 1937; no.4.
‘Symphonie lyrique’, 1972–3
Other orch: Epigraphe pour Claude Debussy, 1922; Guyanes, wind orch, perc, v ad
lib, 1925; Steppes d’Israël, suite, 1926; Images d’Epinal, conc., pf, wind, 1929;
Ordre français, suite, 1930; Invocation Maori, ondes martenot, small orch, 1931;
Mallorquina, conc., hn, orch, 1931; Concerto breve, pf, orch, 1934; 5 Moudras, fl,
hp, str, 1934; 5 Suites, 1942 [from film Sortilèges exotiques]; Toute l’Afrique danse,
1946; Concerto classique, vc, orch, 1950; Concerto leggero, vn, orch, 1954;
Tombeau romantique, conc., pf, orch, 1954; Rythmes, march suite, wind band,
1955; Concerto agreste, va, orch, 1957; Conc., hp, orch, 1960; Conc., fl, hp, 1973
[orchd A. Ameller]
Choral: La passion noire (Carpentier), solo vv, triple chorus, large orch, 1929;
Hommage de la Bretagne à Paris, T, chorus, orch, 1937; L’appel du stade, unacc.
chorus, 1942
Solo vocal (1v, pf, unless otherwise stated): A Clymène (P. Verlaine), 1v, orch, 1917;
Un grand sommeil noir (Verlaine), 1v, orch, 1918; 3 mélodies (A. Samain), 1918; 3
chants russes (Gaillard), 1v, orch, 1920; 4 mélodies chinoises (F. Toussaint), 1v,
pf/orch, 1921; 3 poèmes de Stéphane Mallarmé, 1v, orch, 1921; Chevaux de coeur
(G. Leblanc), 1922; Saisons (Leblanc), 1926; 4 exotiques (M. Parvillers), 1927; Blue
(d’Alejo), 1v, str orch, 1929; Poème des Antilles (Carpentier), 1929; 4 Songs (C.
Town), 1929; Souvenir éteint (E. Silva), 1929; Marchand d’chansons (F. Divoire),
1934; Valse, 1935; Cancion de loro (F. de Miomandre), 1v, pf/orch, 1938; Vers l’île
mystérieuse, song cycle (B. de Montlaur), 1941; Le bonheur, c’est nous (R.
Desnos), 1941; Berceuse (Gaillard), 1950; Au bord de la Seine (J. Vertex), 1953;
Les p’tits ch’vaux de bois (S. Gantillon), 1957; Ballade des jardins de Paris (A.
Chaumel), 1958
Chbr and solo inst: Menuet, hpd, 1922; 3 pièces chinoises, hp, 1923; Para Alejo,
trio, vn, vc, perc, 1929; Sonata, vn, pf, 1929; Week-End, vn, pf, 1929; Danse
amazone polynésienne, pf, perc, 1930; Cadenza, vc, 1931; Noite sobre o Tejo, sax,
pf, 1934; Str Trio, vn, va, vc, 1935; Sylvestre, fl, pf, 1950; Sonate baroque, vc, pf,
1951; Minutes du monde, suite, vc, pf, c1952; Terres chaudes, suite, vc, pf, 1956;
Partita, vc, 1958
Pf: Valse, 1914; Hommage à César Franck, 1918; Suite anglaise, 1930; Badineries,
1931; Doulces nostalgies, 1935; Ballade; Le nègre de Venise, 1940; 4 ballades du
Luberon, 1949; Sonate, 1959; many short pieces
MSS in F-Pn
Principal publishers: Choudens, Salabert, Heugel, Eschig, Costallat, Philippo,
Continental, Lemoine, Baron
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (A. Machabey)
A. Machabey: Portraits de trente compositeurs français (Paris, 1950)
M. L’Herbier: La tête qui tourne (Paris, 1979)
T. van Houten: El Dorado (’s-Hertogenbosch, 1983)
C. Piccardi: ‘Agli abori della musica cinematografica: “Frate Sole” di Luigi
Mancinelli’, Musica/Realtà, no.16 (1985), 41–74
THEODORE VAN HOUTEN
Gaillard, Paul-André
(b Veytaux-Chillon, Montreux, 26 April 1922; d Pully, 28 April 1992). Swiss
musicologist, conductor and composer. After his schooling at Montreux,
Lausanne and Winterthur, where he learnt the violin and viola with Ernst
Wolters, he studied literature and theology at Lausanne and took a course
in conducting at Geneva with Baud-Bovy and Franz von Hösslin. He
studied the violin at the Zürich Conservatory with Willem de Boer (diploma
1946) and musicology, church history and philosophy at the university. His
principal teachers were Hindemith, Willy Burkhard, Willi Schuh and Antoine
Cherbuliez. In 1947 he obtained the doctorat ès lettres from Zürich
University with a dissertation on the Huguenot Psalter. He taught music
history in Lausanne at the Conservatory and the Université Populaire
(1956–87) and at the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale (1973–9). Throughout
his life he was active as a choral and orchestral conductor. At the Bayreuth
Festival he directed the Wagner Seminar (1951–69) and the Chor des
Festspieltreffens (1957–69). He was also music director of the choir of the
Geneva Grand Théâtre (1969–87) and guest conductor of several
orchestras in Switzerland and abroad. From 1965 to 1974 he was French
editor of Revue musical suisse (SMz). A specialist in the Renaissance,
Wagner and the oratorio, Gaillard was also well known as a composer of
choral music. He received the Richard Wagner Medal for his compositions
in 1963.
WRITINGS
Die Formen der Troubadours-Melodien (Zurich, 1945)
Loys Bourgeoys: sa vie, son oeuvre comme pédagogue et compositeur
(diss., U. of Zürich, 1947; Lausanne, 1948)
‘Petite étude comparée du “note contre note” de Loys Bourgeois (1547) et
du psautier de Jaqui (Goudimel 1565)’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949, 115–17
Zeitgenössische Schweizer Musik (Bayreuth, 1950)
‘Essai sur le rapport des sources mélodiques des Pseaulmes Cinquantes
de Iean Louis (Anvers, 1555) et des “Souterliedekens” (Anvers, 1540)’,
IMSCR V: Utrecht 1952, 193–8
‘Adolphe Appia et l’évolution de la mise en scène wagnérienne à Bayreuth’,
SMz, xcv (1955), 9–10
‘Zum Werkverzeichnis Claude Goudimels’, JbLH, i (1955), 123–5
‘Die Bedeutung der XXIV Psalmen von L. Bourgeois’, Hymnologie, iv
(1958–9), 114–17
‘Le lyrisme pianistique de Chopin et ses antécédents directs’, ‘Jugements
portés sur Chopin par Mickiewicz, d’après le Journal de Caroline
Olivier’, The Works of Frederick Chopin: Warsaw 1960, 297–9, 659–61
‘Il coro nell’opera di Wagner’, RaM, xxxi (1961), 215–19
‘Moments profanes et religieux dans l’oeuvre de Francis Poulenc’, SMz, cv
(1965), 79–82
‘Qu’est-ce que la “Chanson”?’, SMz, cvi (1966), 213–18, 297–303, 361–5
‘Conscience musicale et conscience chrétienne’, SMz, cviii (1968), 22–6
‘Les compositeurs suisses et l’opéra’, SMz, cxiv (1974), 219–25, 280–86
L’anneau de Nibelung de Richard Wagner (Paris, 1977)
L’as de pique et le sept de coeur, ou l’opéra à l’envers (Paris, 1990)
EDITIONS
Loys Bourgeois: Le droict chemin de musique (Genf, 1550), DM, 1st ser., vi
(Kassel, 1954) [facs. with preface]
Loys Bourgeois: Vingt-quatre psaumes à 4 voix, SMd, iii (1960)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SML
E. Chérix: Paul-André Gaillard (Nyon, 1953)
J.-L. Matthey: ‘P.-A. Gaillard’, Revue musicale de Suisse romande, xlv
(1992), 102–5
J.-L. Matthey and M. Rey-Lanini: Paul-André Gaillard (1922–1992):
inventaire du fonds avec catalogue des oeuvres (Lausanne, 1995)
ETIENNE DARBELLAY/DOROTHEA BAUMANN
Gaillarde
(Fr.).
See Galliard.
Gaita (ii).
See under Organ stop (Gaitas).
Gaither, William J.
(b Alexandria, IN, 28 March 1936). American composer and performer of
gospel hymns.
Gaito, Constantino
(b Buenos Aires, 3 Aug 1878; d Buenos Aires, 14 Dec 1945). Argentine
composer, conductor and pianist. Born into a musical family, he showed
precocious signs of ability and was awarded a grant from the Argentine
government to study abroad. He attended the Naples Conservatory, where
he studied the piano with Francesco Simonetti and composition with
Platania. He travelled throughout Europe, meeting Verdi, Mascagni and
Massenet. In 1900 Gaito returned to Buenos Aires, where he co-founded
the Conservatorio Bonaerense and taught at the National Conservatory of
Music. He remained active as a pianist and conducted opera seasons at
the Teatro Argentino at La Plata. He also directed performances of his own
compositions at the Teatro Colón.
Gaito is considered one of Argentina’s foremost opera composers; he is
also known for his ballets, symphonic poems, incidental music and
chamber works. His early compositions reveal Italian influences, which
were a logical product of his background and training. His later works
incorporate material of a distinctly Argentine character presented within the
framework of Italian musical aesthetics. La flor del Irupé (performed in
1929) is regarded as the first national ballet of significance. His string
quartets are believed to be the first in Argentina to rely on indigenous
material. His popular opera, La sangre de las guitarras (performed in
1932), is based on the life of a gaucho payador (folk singer), who struggles
to uphold the ideals of liberty during the Argentine civil war period.
WORKS
(selective list)
Ops (perf. in Buenos Aires, Teatro Colón): Caio Petronio (op, 3, H. Romanelli),
1911–14, 2 Sept 1919; Fior di neve (drama lírico, 1, J. Colelli), 1919, 3 Aug 1922;
Ollantay (drama lírico, 3, V. Mercante, after Quechua legend), 1926, 23 July 1926;
Lázaro (drama lírico, 1, Mercante), 1927, 19 Nov 1929; La sangre de las guitarras
(drama lírico, 3, V.G. Retta and C.M. Viale, after H. Blomberg), 1931, 17 Aug 1932
Ballets (perf. in Buenos Aires, Teatro Colón): La flor del Irupé (Mercante, after
Guaraní legend), 17 July 1929; La ciudad de las puertas de oro (E. Carreras, after
A. Capdevila), 11 July 1947
Incid music (Sophocles, trans. L. Longhi di Braccaglia): Edipo Rey, Buenos Aires,
1926; Antígona, Buenos Aires 1930
Orch: El ombú, sym. poem, op.31, 1924; Visión, sym. poem, op.38, 1928
Choral: Perseo (U. Sacerdoti), vocal-sym. poem, op.11, 1902; San Francisco
Solano (orat, G. Talamón), SATB, vn, orch, 1936
Chbr: Str Qt no.1, op.23, 1916; Pf Trio, op.25, 1917; Str Qt no.2 ‘Incaico’, op.33,
1924
Pf pieces, songs, choral arrs., educational works
Gaius, Jo.
(fl c1450). Composer. Two compositions can be attributed to him: Dyana
lux serena in I-TRmp 90, and a Magnificat in I-TRmp 88. The former has
only the incipit of the text (in each of its three voices). The first four verses
of the Magnificat, including the opening words, are set using three, four,
two and three voices, respectively. The eighth Magnificat tone is
ornamented in the top voice. (Both works are ed. in DTÖ, xiv–xv, Jg.vii,
1900/R; Dyana lux is also ed. M. Gozzi: Il manoscritto Trento, Museo
provinciale d'arte, cod.1377 (Tr 90), Cremona, 1992, ii, 214)
TOM R. WARD
Gajo
(It.).
See Gai.
Stage:Belosnezhka i sem' gnomov [Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs] (ballet), 1969;
Samaya krasivaya [The Most Beautiful Girl] (children's fairy tale, V. Stepanov), 1983;
Solov'inaya pesnya [The Nightingale's Song] (radio op, 1, M. Sadovsky),
1986Choral:Dvadtsat' shest' [Twenty Six] (cant. poem, N. Aseyev, A. Mikoyan), Mez,
nar, chorus, org, orch, 1970, rev. 1976; Istoricheskiye pesni [Historical Songs] (orat,
A.S. Pushkin), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1970; Pesnya o nashey zemle [A Song about Our
Land] (cant., A. Layko, V. Tatarinov), children's chorus, orch of folk insts, 1975; Golos,
obrashcheniye k A.A. Akhmatovoy [The Voice, an Address to Akhmatova], S, male
chorus, vn, org, cel, 1992Chbr and solo inst:Polyphonic Trio, str trio, 1967; Str Qt, 1972;
Sonata, vc, 1973; Severnïy triptikh [Northern Triptych], hp, 1984; Monologi
[Monologues], sonata, vc, org, 1987; Otvet [Reply], org, 1993
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N. Ziv: ‘Oleg Galakhov’ Kompozitorï Moskvï, iii (Moscow, 1988)
A. Grigor'yeva: ‘Oleg Galakhov: festival', nashe obshcheye delo’ [The
festival is our common cause], MAk (1996), no.2
ALLA VLADIMIROVNA GRIGOR'YEVA
Galambos, Benjámin.
See Egressy, Béni.
Galán, Cristóbal
(b c1625; d Madrid, 24 Sept 1684). Spanish composer. In 1651 he was
rejected as maestro de capilla in Sigüenza because he was married. In
1653 he was listed first as a singer and organist, then as maestro de
capilla at Cagliari, Sardinia. He left Cagliari in 1656, and although invited to
return there in 1661, he never did. He was maestro de capilla of the church
choir at Morella, and of the choir of Teruel Cathedral before 22 October
1659, when he is first heard of in Madrid. In 1664 he was maestro of a
group of musicians at the Buen Retiro, where he must have participated in
dramatic productions. From 22 August 1664 to 22 July 1667 he was
director of the choir at Segovia Cathedral; some time after that he became
director of music at the convent of the Descalzas Reales, Madrid. In 1675
the queen regent made known that she wished him to become director of
music of the royal chapel, but the appointment was opposed by the
abbess, the Patriarch of the Indies, and court musicians, who suggested
that his talents were more suited to the convent choirs. On the death of J.
Pérez Roldán in 1680, however, he at last received the appointment.
Galán wrote music in most of the vocal forms current in Spain in his day.
He probably composed the music for a number of secular musical plays
performed at court, such as Lides de amor y desdén and El labyrinto de
Creta, with texts by J.B. Diamante, as well as for autos sacramentales by
Calderón; most of this music is lost. He wrote a large number of villancicos
and other songs, both secular and devotional, for one to 13 voices, some
with continuo. Several of the works for large numbers of voices are for two
or three antiphonal choirs with separate continuo parts, and in a few works
soloists alternate with choirs. Galán also wrote masses and motets and
other sacred music. His popularity is attested by the wide distribution of
17th-century manuscripts of his music throughout Spain and the Americas
and by many references to him in contemporary documents. In the early
18th century Francisco Valls (in his Mapa armónico práctico) still found his
music a worthy, correct and tasteful model for composers of small-scale
works in the Spanish manner.
WORKS
Edition: Cristóbal Galán: Obras completas, ed. J.H. Baron and D.L. Heiple,
Gesamtausgaben, xii (1982–)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StevensonRB
H. Anglès and J. Subirá: Catálogo musical de la Biblioteca nacional de
Madrid, i (Barcelona, 1946), 28–9, 195–6
H. Anglès: ‘El archivo musical de la catedral de Valladolid’, AnM, iii (1948),
59–108
J. Subirá: ‘Necrologías musicales madrileñas (años 1611–1808)’, AnM, xiii
(1958), 201–23, esp. 208
N.D. Shergold and J.E. Varey: Los autos sacramentales en Madrid
(Madrid, 1961)
J. López-Calo: ‘Corresponsales de Miguel de Irízar’, AnM, xviii (1963),
197–222 [documents 7, 8, 15, 17, 37, 63]
M. Agulló y Cobo: ‘Documentos para las biografías de músicos de los
siglos XVI y XVII’, AnM, xxiv (1969), 205–25
J.E. Varey, N.D. Shergold and J. Sage, eds.: J. Vélez de Guevara: Los
celos hacen estrellas (London, 1970)
D. Preciado: ‘Antonio Brocarte, organista en la Catedral de Segovia:
primer períod, 1655–1661’, TSM, lvii (1974), 74–82
L.K. Stein: Songs of Mortals, Dialogues of the Gods, Music and Theatre in
Seventeenth-Century Spain (Oxford, 1993)
G.N. Spanu: ‘Cristóbal Galán maestro della Capella Civica di Cagliari
(1653–1656)’, AnM, l (1995), 46–59
JOHN H. BARON, JACK SAGE
Galant
(Fr.; It. galante).
A term widely used during the 18th century to denote music with lightly
accompanied, periodic melodies, and the appropriate manner of
performing the same. ‘Being galant, in general’, wrote Voltaire, ‘means
seeking to please’. The old French meaning of the general term with its
emphasis on valour had by the 1630s given way to a newer emphasis on
social or amatory grace: titles like Campra’s L’Europe galante (1697),
Rameau’s Les Indes galantes (1735), Guillemain’s Sonates en quatuors,
ou Conversations galantes et amusantes (1743) and Graun’s Le feste
galanti (1748) are to be understood in that latter sense. Watteau’s epochal
paintings of fêtes galantes contributed further to the vogue of the term.
Applied to letters, the term took on a meaning close to ‘French courtly
manner’, as in a treatise by C.F. Hunold (Menantes), Die allerneuste
Manier höflich und galant zu schreiben (1702), a manual for self-instruction
that Herder later denounced as lacking virility.
A musical parallel is at hand in Mattheson’s first publication, Das neu-
eröffnete Orchestre, oder Universelle und gründliche Anleitung wie ein
Galant Homme einen vollkommenen Begriff von der Hoheit und Würde der
edlen Music erlangen (1713); on the title-page roman typeface is used in
place of Gothic, significantly, to emphasize the numerous non-German
expressions. As an imported phenomenon, the galant style in Germany
borrowed much vocabulary from its countries of origin and generated a
more extensive theoretical literature. Mattheson’s ‘galant homme’ must be
taken to include both sexes; as his dedication of this work to a noble lady
indicates, much of the galant literature, like much galant music, was
intended to instruct and entertain female amateurs. Mattheson used the
substantive ‘galanterie’ in this and subsequent treatises with a variety of
meanings. Pieces called ‘galanteries’ were numerous in the suites of 17th-
century French harpsichord composers; the term was used to designate
the lighter, mainly homophonic dances, such as the minuet (J.S. Bach
followed this practice). As early as 1640 ‘galanteria’ was used to describe
the playing and the late style of Frescobaldi. Mattheson preferred that
‘Galanterien’ be played on the clavichord rather than the harpsichord
because its dynamic nuances approximated more closely to vocal style, a
feeling that was to become widespread with partisans of a specific north
German dialect of the international galant idiom, ‘Empfindsamkeit’. In
keeping with the emphasis on a singing style, Mattheson also used the
term in reference to vocal pieces, saying that a French air had ‘ein etwas
negligente Galanterie’ while an Italian aria had this in addition to more
musical content, or ‘ein harmonieusere Galanterie’; as a singer at the
Hamburg Opera under Keiser he was well acquainted with both types.
Good music, in his view, required melody, harmony and ‘galanterie’, the
last being equated with the theatrical style, as opposed to the strict or
church style, and not subject to rules (except those of ‘le bon goût’).
Other writers bear out this fundamental distinction. Scheibe opined in Der
critische Musikus (1737–40) that the galant way of writing had its origins in
the Italian theatre style. Throughout the Versuch über die wahre Art das
Clavier zu spielen (1753) C.P.E. Bach distinguished between the learned
and galant styles. Marpurg in his Abhandlung von der Fuge (1753)
contrasted fugal texture with the freedom of galant writing. Quantz was
more preoccupied than any of his contemporaries with defining the new
style, both in his Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen
(1752) and in his autobiography (1754; first printed in Marpurg’s Historisch-
kritische Beyträge, 1755). In the latter he described Fux’s Costanza e
fortezza, which he had heard at Prague in 1723, as magnificent, but more
in a sacred than theatrical style; he contrasted it with the galant melodic
style, described as being ornamented with many small figures and
passages, which he admitted were less appropriate to a vast space than
an intimate one, with fewer instruments. The following year, in Rome, he
heard Domenico Scarlatti perform and described him as a galant player in
the manner of the time. Having been introduced to the elder Scarlatti by
Hasse, he observed that the master played the harpsichord in a learned
manner but with less finesse than his son. At Paris in 1726–7, Quantz
encountered Blavet, whom he praised most highly among the numerous
composer-performers of the French flute school, the sonatas of which
would seem to qualify on musical grounds as quintessentially galant,
although Quantz did not so describe them. His emphasis upon the manner
of tone production led Quantz in the Versuch to define galant singing: it
consisted of dynamic shadings, joining the chest voice to the falsetto
smoothly, and in skilful ornamentation. Mattheson, Scheibe and other
writers occasionally used the term ‘Galanterie’ to refer to embellishments
themselves – either improvised or incorporated into the notation. Italian
flattery, Quantz said, was effected by slurred notes and by diminishing and
strengthening the tone (a description of the messa di voce). With this he
contrasted the noisy chest attacks and lack of legato in the old manner of
German choral singing. Here the essential musical quality of what the
period meant by galant emerges particularly clearly. Its ideal was the Italian
bel canto, which reached its highest pinnacle, according to Quantz, in the
first third of the century, when the most famous castratos were in their
prime (Farinelli and Carestini were singled out for praise). Flexibility in
dynamic nuance went with rhythmic flexibility, or tempo rubato, in the
modern Italian style. Schäfke showed that Quantz formulated the galant
aesthetic of clarity, pleasingness and naturalness in music on the basis of
several earlier theorists, including Mattheson, and that these ideals, typical
of the Enlightenment in general, went back to the rationalist philosophy of
Descartes (‘clare et distincte percipere’).
Instrumental pieces specifically called ‘galant’ or ‘galanteria’ proliferated in
the chamber and solo literature during the third quarter of the century,
which may be considered the highpoint of the galant style in instrumental
music. Newman judged that qualitative peaks were reached in the
keyboard sonatas of Galuppi (who was fond of writing minuets in 3/8 time
with the thinnest of textures), Soler and J.C. Bach, and in the chamber
music of G.B. Sammartini. The ‘menuet galant’ represented the epitome of
the style. Rousseau wrote in his Dictionnaire (1768): ‘le caractère du
menuet est une élégante et noble simplicité’ (cf C.P.E. Bach’s chief goal in
keyboard playing: ‘edle Einfalt des Gesangs’). In Sulzer’s Allgemeine
Theorie der schönen Künste (1771–4) the minuet’s affect is said to be
‘noble and of charming decency, yet united with simplicity’; ‘more than any
other dance [the minuet] is appropriate for societies of persons
distinguished by their refined way of life’.
Defenders of the old contrapuntal virtues were heard from more and more
as the 18th century reached its last third, with the onset of an anti-galant
reaction. Parallels may be observed with the turn against the Rococo style
in art and the rise of Sturm und Drang in literature. Adlung complained that
‘murky’ basses and ‘Galanterien’ were being heard even in church. In the
article on melody in Sulzer’s encyclopedia (written with advice from
Kirnberger), ‘pleasant, so-called galanterie pieces’ and their ‘very small
phrases, or segments’ are said to be appropriate for light, flattering
passions, but out of place in serious or sacred compositions, where their
effect is more dainty than beautiful. Under the rubric ‘Musik’ Sulzer noted
that ‘the melodic language of the passions has gained immensely’ from the
introduction of ‘the so-called galant, or freer and lighter manner of writing’,
even while claiming that the abuses of this style were leading to music’s
complete degeneracy. Other complaints about the galant manner were
even more specifically moral. As Seidel has shown, the term ‘galant’,
having connoted ease and gracefulness of manner to the early 18th
century, later came to stand for an empty, artificial and mainly aristocratic
manner of comporting or expressing oneself, and the opposite of bourgeois
naturalness of feeling.
Freedom of dissonance treatment (e.g. by voice-exchange), defended by
Heinichen in connection with the theatrical style, was further rationalized by
Marpurg and Türk as a specifically galant trait. In the Fundamentum des
General-Basses printed by Siegmeyer at Berlin and attributed
(posthumously) to Mozart, a certain cadential progression is described as
‘modern (gallant)’: II6–I6-4–V–I. It is illustrated in duple time and then in
triple, the latter approximating to the cadence to the minuet in Don
Giovanni (which first introduces the dance, after hearing the beginning of
which Leporello says ‘che maschere galanti!’). Opposite this is illustrated a
cadence, called ‘contrapunctisch’, that consists of a I–V–I progression with
prepared 4–3 suspensions over the first two chords (see Heartz and Mann,
1969, p.17). Cudworth (1949), unaware of this instance, arrived at isolating
the ‘cadence galante’ par excellence as IV (or II6)–I6-4–V–I in minuet
rhythm; he hypothesized its origins in some Italian opera house early in the
century. Its antecedents may in fact be discerned in, most of all, the
operatic arias of Leonardo Vinci (1690–1730), who was widely recognized
as an innovator: his light textures, simple harmony, periodic melody and
formula-based cadences typify the early galant. His immediate followers in
this light and gracious manner were Hasse and Pergolesi, who used more
decoration, particularly triplet figures and inverted dotted rhythms. Burney
wrote that Vinci was the first to break away from the older style, ‘by
simplifying and polishing melody, and calling the attention of the audience
chiefly to the voice-part, by disentangling it from fugue, complication and
laboured contrivance’. Before Vinci, elements of the galant style can be
found in the bel canto melodies of Alessandro Scarlatti; Veracini’s
unpublished violin sonatas of 1716, already markedly freer than Corelli’s
classic examples; and in dance music, particularly light ‘galanteries’ like the
minuet with their simple textures, periodic structures and short melodic
motifs.
The galant idiom freed composers from the contrapuntal fetters of the
church style, to some degree even in the context of church music; its
simplicities and miniaturistic nature imposed new fetters, which in turn were
thrown off with the reintegration of more contrapuntal means in the
obbligato homophony that matured in the last three decades of the century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (W. Seidel)
NewmanSCE
E. Bücken: ‘Der galante Stil: eine Skizze seiner Entwicklung’, ZMw, vi
(1923–4), 418–30
R. Schäfke: ‘Quantz als Aesthetiker: eine Einführung in die Musikästhetik
des galanten Stils’, AMw, vi (1924), 213–42
C. Cudworth: ‘Cadence galante: the Story of a Cliché’, MMR, lxxix (1949),
176–8
P. Nettl: ‘The Life of Herr Johann Joachim Quantz, as Sketched by
himself’, Forgotten Musicians (New York, 1951), 280–319
C. Cudworth: ‘Baroque, Rococo, Galant, Classic’, MMR, lxxxiii (1953),
172–5
L. Ratner: ‘Eighteenth-Century Theories of Musical Period Structure’, MQ,
xlii (1956), 439–54
D.D. Boyden: ‘Dynamics in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Music’,
Essays on Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison
(Cambridge, MA, 1957), 185–93
L. Hoffmann-Erbrecht: ‘Der “Galante Stil” in der Musik des 18.
Jahrhunderts: zur Problematik des Begriffs’, SMw, xxv (1962), 252–60
G. Kaiser: Von der Aufklärung bis zum Sturm und Drang (Gütersloh, 1966,
rev. 3/1979 as Aufklärung, Empfindsamkeit, Sturm und Drang)
D. Heartz: ‘Opera and the Periodization of Eighteenth-Century Music’,
IMSCR X: Ljubljana 1967, 160–68
D. Heartz and A. Mann, eds.: Thomas Attwoods Theorie- und
Kompositionsstudien bei Mozart, W.A. Mozart: Neue Ausgabe
sämtlicher Werke, x/30/1, Kritischer Bericht (Kassel, 1969)
H. Serwer: Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg (1718–1795): Music Critic in a
Galant Age (diss., Yale U., 1969)
J. Rushton: ‘The Theory and Practice of Piccinnisme’, PRMA, xcviii
(1971–2), 31–46 [on the melodic period]
D.A. Sheldon: ‘The Galant Style Revisited and Re-evaluated’, AcM, xlvii
(1975), 240–69
R. Marshall: ‘Bach the Progressive: Observations on his Later Works’, MQ,
xlii (1976), 313–57
J.W. Hill: ‘The Anti-Galant Attitude of F.M. Veracini’, Studies in Musicology
in Honor of Otto E. Albrecht, ed. J.W. Hill (Kassel and Cliftian, NJ,
1980), 158–96
H. Eppstein: ‘Johann Sebastian Bach und der galante Stil’, Studien zur
deutsch-französischen Musikgeschichte im 18. Jahrhundert:
Saarbrücken 1981, 209–18 [with Fr. summary]
D.A. Sheldon: ‘Exchange, Anticipation, and Ellipsis: Analytical Definitions
of the Galant Style’, Music East and West: Essays in Honor of Walter
Kaufmann, ed. T. Noblitt (New York, 1981), 225–41
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Galanter Stil und freier Satz’, Die Musik des 18.
Jahrhunderts (Laaber, 1985), 24–32
B.R. Hanning: ‘Conversation and Musical Style in the Late Eighteenth-
Century Parisian Salon’, Eighteenth-Century Studies, xxii (1989), 512–
28
M. Havlová: ‘Galanterie und Lebenspraxis’, Stil in der Musik (Brno, 1992),
86–90
M. Perez Gutierrez: ‘Algunas reflexiones sobre el nuevo estilo artistico de
mediados del siglo XVIII en la musica de tecla de la peninsula iberica
en relacion con Europa’, Livro de homenagem a Macario Santiago
Kastner, ed. M.F. Cidrais-Rodrigues, M. Morais and R.V. Nery (Lisbon,
1992), 265–83
C.A. Le Bar: Musical Culture and the Origins of the Enlightenment in
Hamburg (diss., U. of Washington, 1993)
DANIEL HEARTZ/BRUCE ALAN BROWN
Galanterie
(Ger.).
In the early 18th century, a German term for an up-to-date work or piece,
as ‘theatralische Sachen auch andere Galanterien’ (Mattheson: Das neu-
eröffnete Orchestre, p.119), especially a keyboard work, such as Bach’s
Clavier Übung, bestehend in Präludien, Allemanden, Couranten,
Sarabanden, Giguen, Menuetten, und anderen Galanterien. The term has
been read here as ‘other light pieces such as minuets, i.e. gavottes,
bourrées etc’, from which the definition of Galanterien has been inferred as
the light pieces that come between the saraband and gigue in suites,
whereas in reality the word seems to be used as a modish, slightly
deprecatory reference to all the pieces in the collection. Galanterie could
also refer to an expressive nuance, especially melodic figuration and
ornamentation. The term acquired pejorative, outdated connotations as the
galant manner went out of fashion later in the century. For further
information see D.A. Sheldon: ‘The Galant Style Revisted and Re-
evaluated’, AcM, xlvii (1975), 240–69.
Medea tarantula, 1v, 1977; Les yeux sans sang, 1v, elecs, 1978; Looks Could Kill
(audio-verité psychodrama), 3vv (1979); The Litanies of Satan (C. Baudelaire), 1v,
tape, live elecs, 1981; Tragouthia apo to aima exoun fonos (Galás), multi-voiced
backing tape, 1981; Wild Women with Steak Knives, 1v, live elecs, 1981–3;
Panoptikon (Galás, after J.H. Abbot: The Belly of the Beast), 1v, tape, live elecs,
1982–3 [after J. Bentham design for maximum security prison]; The Divine
Punishment (Bible, Galás), 1v, pf, Hammond org, tape, elecs, 1984–6; Plague
Mass (Galás, Bible, T. Corbière), 1v, pf, elec kbds, perc, elec perc, tapes, elecs,
1984–; Saint of the Pit (Baudelaire, G. Nerval, T. Corbière), 1v, Hammond org,
synths, chains, perc, 1985–6; You Must be Certain of the Devil (Galás, and
others), 1v, pf, Hammond org, synths, kbd bass, gui, sampled str, perc, 1987–8;
Masque of the Red Death, 1989; Vena cava (Galás, P.-D. Galás), 1v, tape, elecs,
1992; Insekta (el-ac monodrama, Galás, Bible, Sanctus), 1v, org, elecs, 1993;
Schrei X (Galás, Bible: Job, T. Aquinas), 1v, elecs, 1994–5; Schrei 27 (Galás), 1v,
elecs, 1994; Malediction and Prayer (P.P. Pasolini, Baudelaire, M.H. Mixco and
others), 1v, pf, 1996; Nekropolis, 1v, 1998–9; videos, film and TV scores
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Galás: ‘Intravenal Song’, PNM, xx (1981–2), 59–67
R. Gehr: ‘Mourning in America: Diamanda Galás’, Artforum, xxvii/9 (1989),
116–18
A. Juno and V. Vale: Angry Women (San Francisco, 1991), 6–22
T. Avena, ed.: Life Sentences: Writers, Artists and Aids (San Francisco,
1994) [incl. interview and M. Flanagan essay]
D. Galás: The Shit of God (New York, 1996)
R.A. Pope and S.J. Leonardi: ‘Divas and Disease, Mourning and
Militancy: Diamanda Galás's Operatic Plague Mass’, The Work of
Opera: Genre, Nationhood and Sexual Difference (New York, 1997),
315–33
D. Schwarz: Listening Subjects: Music, Psychoanalysis, Culture (Durham,
NC, 1997), 133–63
J. MICHELE EDWARDS
Galeazzi, Francesco
(b Turin, 1758; d Rome, Jan 1819). Italian theorist, violinist and composer.
He was trained in Turin, a leading centre of violin playing in the 18th
century; later he moved to Rome where (according to Fétis) he was active
as a violin teacher, a composer of instrumental music, and musical director
of the Teatro Valle for 15 years. Galeazzi published his six duets op.1
(1781) in Ascoli Piceno, where he married and spent his later years. The
two volumes of Galeazzi's treatise, Elementi teorico-pratici di musica, were
published in Rome in 1791 and 1796, the second volume dedicated to his
patron in Ascoli, Tommaso Balucanti. The title-page of the second edition of
vol.i (Ascoli, 1817; dedicated to another patron, Giovanni Vitale) identifies
Galeazzi as a teacher of the violin and mathematics; his many scientific
interests are well documented. Few of Galeazzi's compositions are extant;
besides two sonatas, six duets and 12 trios, opp.11 and 15, a violin solo,
fragments of two violin concertos and the introduction to op.15 no.4 appear
as examples in his treatise. A setting of the Seven Last Words, dated 1812,
has also recently been found.
Galeazzi's Elementi is the most comprehensive 18th-century Italian
treatise, and one of the most important sources for an understanding of the
Classical style in general as well as late Classical trends. The treatise is
divided into four main parts, two in each volume. Part I is ‘An Elementary
Grammar [of Music]’, Part II ‘An Essay on the Art of Playing the Violin’. This
section, which forms a substantial violin treatise, includes chapters on
intonation, equality of sound, bowing, multiple stops, harmonics,
ornaments, diminution, improvisation and other topics, as well as chapters
on the duties of the orchestral player and director, the proportion of
instruments in orchestras of various sizes, and the seating of orchestras in
the church, chamber and theatre (Galeazzi included the seating plan of the
Turin orchestra – and Rousseau’s plan of the Dresden orchestra). Part III,
‘Theory of the Principles of Ancient and Modern Music’, constitutes a brief
history of music, with emphasis on theory. Part IV, ‘Of the Elements of
Counterpoint’, is a treatise on composition, with two main subdivisions. In
the first, ‘Harmony’, Galeazzi discussed harmony and counterpoint
(including species counterpoint, canon and fugue); in the second, ‘Melody’,
he remarked on such diverse topics as rhythm, how to stimulate the
imagination for composing, sonata form, periodic structure, modulation, the
‘conduct’ of compositions in vocal, instrumental and mixed (vocal-
instrumental) styles, instrumentation and orchestration. The supplement to
vol.i (found in vol.ii) describes a metronome invented by the author.
Galeazzi's description of sonata form is the earliest known thematic
description, and contains many profound observations on Classical
structure. Like other Classical theorists, Galeazzi described the form as a
large two-part design. He identified the ‘members’ (thematic functions) of
Part I as: 1. Introduction; 2. Principal Motive; 3. Second Motive; 4.
Departure to the most closely related key; 5. Characteristic Passage or
Intermediate Passage; 6. Cadential Period; and 7. Coda. Part II contains:
1. Motive; 2. Modulation; 3. Reprise (of the Principal Motive); 4. Repetition
of the Characteristic Passage; 5. Repetition of the Cadential Period; and 6.
Repetition of the Coda. Each function is discussed in detail and a 64-bar
melody is appended to illustrate the form. The essential functions of the
first part are nos.2, 4 and 6; the flexible, often altered recapitulation may
also begin with no.4 of the second part; no.7 may be replaced by a coda in
the modern sense, that recalls earlier material. He also gave ‘the earliest
clear prescription for a second, contrasting theme in a sonata[-form]
movement’ (Stevens, 301).
Galeazzi identified the elements of fugue in a similar manner. The treatise
is also rich in information on tempo, the expressive associations of keys,
definitions of the major musical forms and examples of the ars
combinatoria. The chapter on modulation shows how more distant
modulations can be made through tonic major–minor exchange, irregular
resolutions of dissonant chords and enharmonic resolutions. In the second
edition of vol.i, Galeazzi added four elaborate tables of bowings (which he
also published separately with the title Arte dell' arco), short études in the
second to seventh positions, and two examples (one more elaborate than
the other) of diminutions of a Corelli slow movement. Recent research has
also focussed on Galeazzi's remarks on phrase and period structure.
Galeazzi's treatise has copious musical examples. His pedagogical aims
are reflected in his attempts at simplification, his schematic arrangements
of material and useful summaries. The entire treatise is systematically
organized into Articles, Rules, Demonstrations, Explanations, and so on.
Galeazzi was familiar with the work of French theorists, especially Rameau
and Rousseau, but was also influenced by Quantz (probably in French
translation). Choron and Fayolle praised the treatise, and Fétis observed
that it was ‘a very good book that did not have the success it deserved’.
A letter from Galeazzi, written in Ascoli on 17 October 1816, is in the
Masseangeli collection (I-Baf).
WORKS
Strofe per le tre ore di agonia di N.S.G.C., 2T, B, 2 va, bn, b, 1812, I-Fn*
6 duetti, vn or vn/vc, op.1 (Ascoli, 1781), I-Fc; 8 duets, vn, D-MÜs; 6 trios, 2 vn, va,
op.11, I-Mc; 6 trios, vn, va, vc, op.15, Rc; 2 sonatas, vn, b, D-MÜs
WRITINGS
Elementi teorico-pratici di musica con un saggio sopra l'arte di suonare il
violino analizzata, ed a dimostrabili principi ridotta, i (Rome, 1791,
enlarged 2/1817), annotated Eng. trans. and study, A. Franscarelli
(DMA diss., U. of Rochester, 1968); ii (Rome, 1796), annotated Eng.
trans. and commentary of pt 4, section 2, G.W. Harwood (M.A. thesis,
Brigham Young U., 1980)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Choron-FayolleD
EitnerQ
FétisB
GerberNL
G.C. Carboni: Memoria intorno i letterati e gli artisti della città di Ascoli nel
Piceno (Ascoli, 1830)
[C. Galeazzi]: I Galeazzi (Recanati, 1941)
B. Churgin: ‘Francesco Galeazzi's Description (1796) of Sonata Form’,
JAMS, xxi (1968), 181–99; rev. trans. in W.J. Allanbrook, ed. Strunk's
Source Reading in Music History, v: the Late Eighteenth Century (NY,
1998), 85–92
L.G. Ratner: ‘Ars Combinatoria: Chance and Choice in Eighteenth-Century
Music’, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl
Geiringer, ed. H.C.R. Landon and R.E. Chapman (New York and
London, 1970), 343–63
N. Zaslow: ‘Mozart's Tempo Conventions’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972,
720–33
M. Sutter: ‘Francesco Galeazzi on the Duties of the Leader or
Concertmaster’, The Consort, no.32 (1976), 185–92
J.E. Smiles: ‘Directions for Improvised Ornamentation in Italian Method
Books of the Late Eighteenth Century’, JAMS, xxxi (1978), 495–509
R. di Benedetto: ‘Lineamenti di una teoria della melodia nella trattatistica
italiana fra il 1790 e il 1830’, Die stylistiche Entwicklung der
italienischen Musik zwischen 1770 und 1830: Rome 1978 [AnMc,
no.21 (1982)], 421–43
N. Schoffman: ‘Vocal Sonata Forms in Mozart’, CMc, no.28 (1979), 19–29
R. Steblin: A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early
Nineteenth Centuries (Ann Arbor, 1983/R)
J.R. Stevens: ‘Georg Joseph Vogler and the “Second Theme” in Sonata
Form’, JM, ii (1983), 278–304
S. Schmalzriedt: ‘Charakter und Drama: zur historischen Analyse von
Haydnschen und Beethovenschen Sonatensätzen’, AMw, xlii (1985),
37–66 [incl. Ger. trans. of Galeazzi's description of sonata form]
V. Bernardoni: ‘La teoria della melodia vocale nella trattatistica italiana
(1790–1870)’, AcM, lxii (1990), 29–61
F. Bruni and F. Refrigeri: ‘Musiche per le tre ore di agonia di N.S.G.C.:
nuove fonti per lo studio della funzione del Venerdí santo in Italia’,
NRMI, xxviii (1994), 483–506
R. Meucci: ‘Le opinioni di Francesco Galeazzi (1791) sulla costruzione del
violino, con notizie sui liutai della Famiglia Galeazzi’, Liuteria, musica
e cultura, no.15 (1995), 9–19
BATHIA CHURGIN
Galeffi, Carlo
(b Malamocco, Venice, 4 June 1882; d Rome, 22 Sept 1961). Italian
baritone. After studies with Giovanni Di Como, Enrico Sbriscia and Teofilo
De Angelis, he made his début at the Teatro Quirino, Rome, in 1903 in
Lucia di Lammermoor. His first great successes were in Palermo (1908)
and at the S Carlo, Naples, in Aida and Rigoletto (1909) and during 1910
and 1911 he appeared in Lisbon, Buenos Aires, Boston and at the
Metropolitan. His first appearance at La Scala was in 1912 in Don Carlos,
and he sang there for 18 seasons (the last time in 1940). He was also
engaged at Chicago (1919–21) and returned to Buenos Aires, where he
stayed until 1952. Galeffi had a full, smooth voice with an extensive range;
it was remarkable for its affecting warmth. His passionate phrasing and
dramatically eloquent enunciation made him a first-rate Rigoletto and a fine
Verdi interpreter generally (Nabucco, La traviata, Un ballo in maschera, Il
trovatore, Don Carlos). His other important roles included Tonio and
Rossini’s Figaro. He took part in the first performances of Mascagni’s
Isabeau (1911) and Parisina (1913), Montemezzi’s L’amore di tre re (1913)
and Boito’s Nerone (1924).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (E. Gara); GV (R. Celletti; R. Vegeto)
G. Lauri-Volpi: ‘Carlo Galeffi (1884–1961): a Tribute’, Opera, xii (1961),
802–3
A. Marchetti: Carlo Galeffi: una vita per il canto (Rome, 1973) [with
discography]
R. Celletti: Carlo Galeffi e La Scala (Milan, 1977) [with discography]
RODOLFO CELLETTI/VALERIA PREGLIASCO GUALERZI
Galeotti, Stefano
(b Velletri or Livorno, c1723; d Italy, c1790). Italian composer and cellist.
He spent most of his career in Holland, though Fétis states that for health
reasons he eventually returned to Italy. The multiplicity of publications of
his works from England and France suggests that he also spent some time
in those countries. His violoncello sonatas were especially popular as
teaching material: John Gunn recommended their use in 1789 and reprints
were included in the violoncello methods of J.-B. Bréval (a sonata in D
minor) and of the Paris Conservatoire (three sonatas). Most of the sonatas
are in three movements, concluding with a minuet. Composed in the galant
style, Galeotti's writing is melodious and fluently ornamental. The works
make greater demands on facility of bowing than on fingering techniques,
and feature intricate string-crossing patterns and staccato bowings. Bréval
included thumb-postion fingerings and indicated that Galeotti also used
bowing undulations and natural harmonics as special effects.
Galeotti was no relation to Salvatore Galeotti (or Galleotti), an Italian
violinist probably active in London in the 1760s, with whom he has
sometimes been confused; some title-pages ascribe works simply to ‘Sigr
Galeotti’.
WORKS
Sonatas for vc, bc: 2 as op.1 (London, n.d.); 6 as op.1 (Paris, 1760; London, n.d.); 6
Solos, op.3 (London, c1770); 6 as op.4 (Paris, 1785)
Sonatas for 2 vn, bc: 6 as op.2 (Paris, n.d.; London, n.d.); 6 as op.2 (Amsterdam,
n.d.); 6 as op.3 (Paris, n.d.; Amsterdam, 1790); 6 as op.4 (London, n.d.;
Amsterdam, n.d.); 2 (London, n.d.)
Other works: 6 Sonatas, 2 vc, bc (London, n.d.); 20 Italian Minuets, 2 vn, bc
(London, n.d.); Divertimento, 2 vn, bc, A-Wgm
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
GerberNL
RiemannL12
J. Gunn: The Theory and Practice of Fingering the Violoncello (London,
1789)
P. Baillot and others: Méthode de violoncelle (Paris, 1804/R)
J.-B. Bréval: Traité du violoncelle, op.42 (Paris, 1804)
E. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)
O. Edwards: ‘On the Cello’s Rise in Popularity in England, with Particular
Reference to a Sonata by Stefano Galeotti’, Flerstemmige innspill
1999: artikkelsamling, ed. E. Nesheim (Oslo, 1999), 31–70
VALERIE WALDEN
Galerati, Caterina
(b Venice; fl 1701–21). Italian soprano. She sang in Florence in 1701–2,
Venice in 1703, Naples in 1704–7 and 1710–11 (15 operas, including
Porpora’s Flavio Anicio Olibrio and Alessandro Scarlatti’s La fede
riconosciuta), Vienna in 1709, Genoa in 1712 and Milan in 1718. In 1714–
15 she appeared frequently in London, mostly in pasticcios and revivals,
playing Goffredo in Handel’s Rinaldo and possibly replacing Anastasia
Robinson as Oriana in his Amadigi di Gaula. She was a member of the first
Royal Academy for two seasons from 1720, singing in Porta’s Numitore,
Handel’s Radamisto (first as Tigrane, then as Fraarte), Giovanni
Bononcini’s Astarto, the composite Muzio Scevola and two pasticcios. Her
salary was £250 for the short spring season and £400 from November to
June 1721. She specialized in male roles; the 12 parts she is known to
have sung in London did not include a single woman. Her compass as
Tigrane was e' to a''.
WINTON DEAN
Galerón.
A song genre central to the celebration of the velorios de cruz of
Venezuela. Texts include traditional improvised décimas (octosyllabic verse
form usually arranged in ten-line verses) of historical, amorous and
religious content and are accompanied by guitar, cuatro (small four-string
guitar) and maracas. Both the singing style and use of bandolín (mandolin)
interludes demonstrate the Arab influences on the music of southern Spain.
In its more informal, secular setting the galerón is danced in couples or in
threes (two women and a man, in which case it is called the tres) and
features handkerchief-waving and zapateo (foot-stamping) by the man.
WILLIAM GRADANTE
Galfridus de Anglia
(fl c1444). English composer. His two two-voice songs, Io zemo, suspiro
and Che farò io (both in P-Pm 714 only) set the first and 12th stanzas of a
17-stanza poem by the Ferrarese poet Girolamo Nigrisoli, lamenting the
departure from Ferrara of Isotta d'Este, apparently at her first marriage in
May 1444. Their musical style resembles that of some English songs in
GB-Ob Ashmole 191.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N. Pirrotta: ‘Two Anglo-Italian Pieces in the Manuscript Porto 714’,
Speculum musicae artis: Festgabe für Heinrich Husmann, ed. H.
Becker and R. Gerlach (Munich, 1970), 253–61
D. Fallows, ed.: Galfridus and Robertus de Anglia: Four Italian Songs
(Newton Abbot, 1977) [complete edn, incl. Nigrisoli's poem]
DAVID FALLOWS
Galilei, Michelagnolo
[Michelangelo]
(b Florence, 18 Dec 1575; d Florence, 3 Jan 1631). Italian lutenist and
composer, son of Vincenzo Galilei. His father destined him for a musical
career at an early age. The young Michelagnolo wrote the dedicatory
epistle of Vincenzo's Contrapunti a due voci (1584). He went to Poland,
probably in the service of the Radziwiłł family in 1593 and remained until
1606, having applied unsuccessfully in 1599 for a post at Archduke
Ferdinando de’ Medici’s court in Florence. In 1607 he was appointed to the
Hofkapelle of Duke Maximilian I in Munich, where he spent the rest of his
life. His last years were clouded by his disastrous relationship with his
brother Galileo as well as by the misconduct of his eldest son Vincenzo (b
1608), a talented lutenist. Of his eight children, Alberto Cesare (b 1617)
and Cosimo (b 1621) also followed their father’s example.
Galilei’s music, sought after even before his departure for Poland, was first
published in the anthologies of Fuhrmann, Mertel, Besard and Mylius; its
circulation seems to have been limited to Southern German countries.
Almost all his compositions appear in his first and only book for ten-course
lute, engraved in French tablature. Galliards, correntes and voltas,
generally provided with varied repeats, are grouped by modes into 10
‘suites’ each preceded by a toccata; two passamezzos with saltarellos
complete the collection. Galilei’s works, in which tradition is wedded to
modernity (especially of dissonance treatment), express their author’s
elegance of invention, cosmopolitanism of style and eminently poetic
nature.
WORKS
all for lute
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Trautmann: ‘Die Familie Galilei in München’, Jb für Münchener
Geschichte, iii (1889), 553–4
A. Favaro, ed.: Le opere di Galileo Galilei (Florence, 1929–39), x–xix
A. Einstein: ‘Vincenzo Galilei and the Instructive Duo’, ML, xviii (1937),
360–68
D.A. Smith: Introduction to facs. of M. Galilei: Il primo libro d’intavolatura di
liuto (Munich, 1981)
C. Chauvel: Introduction to facs. of M. Galilei: Il primo libro d’intavolatura di
liuto (Geneva, 1988) [incl. list of sources]
CLAUDE CHAUVEL
Il primo libro della prattica del contrapunto intorno all'uso delle consonanze,
1588–91 [3 drafts]; ed. in Rempp, 1980, pp.7–76
Discorso intorno a diversi pareri che hebbero le tre sette piu famose degli
antichi musici; ed. and Eng. trans., in Palisca, 1989, pp.164–79
Discorso particolare intorno all'unisono; ed. and Eng. trans., ibid., 198–207
Discorso particolare intorno alla diversità delle forme del diapason; ed. and
Eng. trans., ibid., 180–97
Galilei, Vincenzo
WORKS
Intavolature de lauto, madrigali e ricercate, libro primo (Rome, 1563 23); 17 ed. in
IMi, iv (1934)
Il primo libro de madrigali, 4, 5vv (Venice, 1574), inc.
Contrapunti, 2vv (Florence, 1584); ed. in SCMA, viii (1945)
Il secondo libro de madrigali, 4, 5vv (Venice, 1587); ed. in IMi, iv (1934)
Libro d'intavolatura di liuto, nel quale si contengono i passemezzi, le romanesche, i
saltarelli, et le gagliarde et altre cose ariose composte in diversi tempi, 1584, I-Fn;
facs. (Florence, 1992), 11 ed. O. Chilesotti, Congresso internazionale di scienze
storiche: Roma 1903, 135–8; some ed. in IMi iv (1934); 16 galliards ed. M. Fritzen,
Vincenzo Galilei, Libro d'Intavolatura (Munich, 1982)
Romanescas, passamezzos, arrs. of madrigals and partsongs, 1v, lute, in copy of
Fronimo (1568 edn.), Fn; some ed. in Palisca, 1969
Airs, romanescas, galliards, passamezzos, lute, in copy of Fronimo(1568 edn.), Fr;
some ed. in Palisca, 1969
Galilei, Vincenzo
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EinsteinIM
A. Bertolotti: ‘Artisti in relazione coi Gonzaga’, Atti e memorie delle RR.
Deputazioni di storia patria per le provincie modenesi e parmensi, 3rd
ser., iii (1885), 195–7; pubd separately (Bologna, 1969/R)
Edizione nazionale delle opere di Galileo Galilei, x (Florence, 1900); xix
(Florence, 1907)
O. Chilesotti: ‘Il primo libro di liuto di Vincenzo Galilei’, RMI, xv (1908),
753–8
A. Favaro: ‘Ascendenti e collaterali di Galileo Galilei’, Archivio storico
italiano, 5th ser., xlvii (1911), 346–78
O. Chilesotti: ‘Di Nicola Vicentino e dei generi greci secondo Vincentio
Galilei’, RMI, xix (1912), 546–65
F. Fano: ‘Alcuni chiarimenti su Vincenzo Galilei’, RaM, x (1937), 85–92
A. Einstein: ‘Vincenzo Galilei and the Instructive Duo’, ML, xviii (1937),
360–68
J.M. Barbour: Tuning and Temperament: a Historical Survey (East
Lansing, MI, 1951/R, 2/1953)
C.V. Palisca: The Beginnings of Baroque Music: its Roots in Sixteenth
Century Theory and Polemics (diss., Harvard U., 1954)
N. Pirrotta: ‘Temperaments and Tendencies in the Florentine Camerata’,
MQ, xl (1954), 169–89
C.V. Palisca: ‘Vincenzo Galilei's Counterpoint Treatise: a Code for the
Seconda pratica’, JAMS, ix (1956), 81–96
A. Procissi: La collezione galileiana della Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze, i
(Rome, 1959)
C.V. Palisca: Girolamo Mei (1519–1594): Letters on Ancient and Modern
Music to Vincenzo Galilei and Giovanni Bardi: a Study with Annotated
Texts, MSD, iii (1960, 2/1977)
C.V. Palisca: ‘Vincenzo Galilei and Some Links between “Pseudo-monody”
and Monody’, MQ, xlvi (1960), 344–60
C.V. Palisca: ‘Scientific Empiricism in Musical Thought’, Seventeenth
Century Science and the Arts, ed. H.H. Rhys (Princeton, 1961), 91–
137
C.V. Palisca: ‘Vincenzo Galilei's Arrangements for Voice and Lute’, Essays
in Musicology in Honor of Dragan Plamenac, ed. G. Reese and R.H.
Snow (Pittsburgh, 1969/R), 207–32
S. Drake: ‘Renaissance Music and Experimental Science’, Journal of the
History of Ideas, xxxi (1970), 483–500
S. Drake: ‘Vincenzio Galilei and Galileo’, Galileo Studies (Ann Arbor,
1970), 43–62
D. Kämper: Studien zur instrumentalen Ensemblemusik des 16.
Jahrhunderts in Italien, AnMc, no.10 (1970)
C.V. Palisca: ‘The “Camerata fiorentina”: a Reappraisal’, Studi musicali, i
(1972), 203–36
R.H. Herman: ‘Dialogo della musica antica et moderna’ of Vincenzo
Galilei: Translation and Commentary (diss., U. of North Texas, 1973)
D.P. Walker: ‘Some Aspects of the Musical Theory of Vincenzo Galilei and
Galileo Galilei’, PRMA, c (1973–4), 33–47; repr. in Walker, Studies in
Musical Science in the Late Renaissance (London, 1978), 14–26
D.P. Walker: Studies in Musical Science in the Late Renaissance (London,
1978)
K. Berger: Theories of Chromatic and Enharmonic Music in Late Sixteenth
Century Italy (Ann Arbor, 1979)
F. Rempp: ‘Der Musiktheoretiker Vincenzo Galilei und das Ende des
‘klassischen’ Kontrapunkts’, JbSIM (1979), 19–34
P. Possiedi: ‘Il manoscritto Galileiano “6” della Nazionale di Firenze’, Il
Fronimo, viii, no.30 (1980), 5–13; viii, no.31 (1980), 5–19
F. Rempp: Die Kontrapunkttraktate Vincenzo Galileis (Cologne, 1980)
C.V. Palisca: ‘The Science of Sound and Musical Practice’, Science and
the Arts in the Renaissance, ed. J.W. Shirley and F.D. Hoeniger
(Washington DC, 1985), 59–73
Z. Szweykowski: ‘Krytyka kontrapunktu w Dialogo della musica antica, et
della moderna Vincenza Galilei’, Muzyka, xxx/3–4 (1985), 3–16; appx,
1–43 [summary in Eng.]
C. Orsini: Vincenzo Galilei: Catalogo tematico ragionato delle sue opere
musicali con particolare riferimento agli esemplari conservati nelle
biblioteche italiane (diss., U. of Pisa, 1986)
Vincenzo Galilei: Santa Maria a Monte 1987
D. Harrán: ‘Sulla genesi della famosa disputa fra Gioseffo Zarlino e
Vincenzo Galilei: Un nuovo profilo’, NRMI, xxi (1987), 467–75
C. Orsini: ‘Vincenzo Galilei’, Il Fronimo, xvi, no.62 (1988), 7–28
M.T. Annoni: ‘Ulteriori osservazioni sul manoscritto Galileiano “6” della
Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze’, Il Fronimo, xvii, no.69 (1989), 22–32
C.V. Palisca: The Florentine Camerata: Documentary Studies and
Translations (New Haven, CT, 1989)
P. Sanvito: ‘Le sperimentazioni nelle scienze quadriviali in alcuni epistolari
zarliniani inediti’, Studi musicali, xix (1990), 305–18
L. Gasser: Vincenzo Galilei's Manuscript ‘Libro d'Intavolatura di liuto
(1584)’: an Introductory Study (diss., Stanford U., 1991)
H.M. Brown: ‘Vincenzo Galilei in Rome: his First Book of Lute Music
(1563) and its Cultural Context’, Music and Science in the Age of
Galileo, ed. V. Coelho (Dordrecht, 1992), 153–84
S. Drake: ‘Music and Philosophy in Early Modern Science’, ibid., 3–16
C.V. Palisca: ‘Was Galileo's Father an Experimental Scientist?’, ibid., 143–
51
P. Canguilhem: ‘Tel père, tel fils? Les opinions esthétiques de la famille
Galilei’, IRASM, xxiii (1992), 27–42
P. Barbieri: ‘L'accordatura strumentale in Toscana: proposte e contrasti da
Vincenzo Galilei a Cristofori (c. 1580–1730)’, Musicologia humana:
Studies in Honor of Warren and Ursula Kirkendale, ed. S.
Gmeinwieser, D. Hiley and J. Riedlbauer (Florence, 1994), 209–32
Galimberti [Galinberti,
Gallimberto], Ferdinando
(fl c1730–50). Italian composer. Gerber described him as a symphonic
composer and ‘distinguished violinist’ active in Milan about 1740. Between
1740 and 1742 he taught the violin to the Swiss composer Meyer von
Schauensee. Ten symphonies copied by ‘Meyer’ are in the library of
Engelberg Abbey. Numerous sacred works by Galimberti survive, reflecting
his activity as a church composer, and those in Einsiedeln, acquired in
1751, include a Miserere and Dies irae dated 1744. Other sacred works
exist elsewhere, mostly in Engelberg. Galimberti was one of the earliest
symphonists; most of his 15 possibly authentic symphonies probably date
from the 1730s or even earlier. They call for a string orchestra a 3 or a 4,
sometimes with two horns, and contain three movements, usually with a
non-minuet finale. Five symphonies ascribed to Galimberti in the Fonds
Blancheton (F-Pc) have few Baroque traits. Their thoroughly homophonic
texture is enlivened by violins in dialogue, a Milanese hallmark. Fast
movements, often in 2/4, use sonata form, with strong thematic contrasts in
some cases, long developments and full or partial recapitulations (of
cadential material) which further vary the thematic ideas. Slow movements
are binary and lyrical. The Einsiedeln Miserere (1744) has 14 movements
and is scored for a large orchestra, chorus and solo vocal quartet. The
musical vocabulary, consistent use of sonata form, and symphonic-
dramatic emphasis resemble the sacred works of G.B. Sammartini.
WORKS
Ov. no.2 in 6 ouverture a piu stromenti composte da varri autori, op.4 (Paris,
c1753–5), ?by Giorgio Giulini
6 syms., incl. op.3/101 also attrib. Brioschi, F-Pc Fonds Blancheton, CH-EN, CZ-
Pnm, D-SWl; 17 syms., at least 4 doubtful and 2 inc., CH-Bu, EN, Zz, CZ-Pnm, D-
KA, F-AG, Pc, S-L, Skma, Uu, US-Wc
Conc., vn, orch, I-CMbc, S-Skma; Conc., 2 vn, orch, US-Wc; Conc., solo unknown,
CH-Zz, inc.; March, 2 hn, 2 tpt, str, E; Trios, 2 vn, b, GB-Gu (inc.), S-H, HÄ, Skma,
VX; Qt, S-L
Ky, 2 Gl, 1 in E , Benedictus, Agnus Dei, 2 Mag, 1 dated 1758, Miserere, 1744,
Miserere, Dies irae, 1744, 7 ps settings, 1 motetto pieno, 1 Off: all CH-E
13 sacred works, mostly mass sections (incl. Gl in E same as E), 1 Mag, 1765, all
EN; Ky-Gl, E-SC; Tantum ergo, CH-SAf; Salve regina, c1760, D-DO
Lost works (all cited in 18th- and 19th-century catalogues unless otherwise stated):
Sym., formerly CH-E; 2 syms., formerly D-DS; Trio, 2 vn, b, formerly D-DS; Ky, 2 Gl,
Miserere same as CH-E, 1744, cant., all formerly at Karlsruhe
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookB
Choron-FayolleD
EitnerQ
GerberL
P. Keller: ‘Mittheilungen’, MMg, vi (1874), 46–8
L. de La Laurencie: Inventaire critique du Fonds Blancheton, i (Paris,
1930)
B.S. Brook: Thematic Catalogues in Music: an Annotated Bibliography
(Hillsdale, NY, 1972, rev. 2/1997 by R. Viannoŝ)
N. Jenkins and B. Churgin: Thematic Catalogue of the Works of Giovanni
Battista Sammartini: Orchestral and Vocal Music (Cambridge, MA,
1976)
J. LaRue: A Catalogue of 18th-Century Symphonies, i: Thematic Identifier
(Bloomington, IN, 1988)
M. Brusa and A. Rossi: Sammartini e il suo tempo: fonti manoscritte e
stampate della musica a Milano nel Settecento, Fonti musicali italiane,
i (1996), suppl.
BATHIA CHURGIN
Galin, Pierre
(b Samatan, 1786; d Bordeaux, 31 Aug 1821). French teacher of
mathematics. He was originator of a method of teaching sight-singing. He
received his education at the Lycée in Bordeaux and the Ecole
Polytechnique. Appointed a teacher, first at his former school and then at
the Bordeaux School for the Deaf and Dumb, he worked to perfect the
teaching of science and mathematics. He also turned his attention to music
teaching, convinced that the difficulty of learning to read music was due to
existing methods of teaching the subject. Having analysed the theory of
music scientifically, Galin began to teach a group of children; after a year’s
experiment he published an account of his method (not a textbook) in
Exposition d’une nouvelle méthode pour l’enseignement de la musique
(1818; part Eng. trans., 1983, as Rationale), based on the figure-notation
first proposed by Rousseau in 1742. The book was remarkable for its
clearsighted analysis of the music teacher’s problems. The success of his
first pupils next encouraged Galin to establish himself as a teacher of
music in Paris in 1819. He taught classes of children and trained a number
of young teachers to employ his method. Subsequently, although several of
his pupils attempted to continue Galin’s work, only Aimé Paris was
ultimately successful. He was joined by his sister Nanine, and her husband
Emile Chevé, and the trio elaborated Galin’s basic method into a full course
of training complete with textbooks and published exercises. Under the
composite title of the Galin-Paris-Chevé method, the resulting system
enjoyed wide use in many countries and has survived in some areas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
J.-J. Rousseau: Projet concernant de nouveaux signes pour la musique …
1742 (Geneva, 1781; Eng. trans., ed. B. Rainbow, 1982)
P. de Geslin: ‘A Note upon the Method of Writing Music Proposed by
Rousseau’, preface to Oeuvres complètes de J.J. Rousseau, ed. V.D.
Musset Pathay, xi (Paris, 1824)
BERNARR RAINBOW
Orch: Arroyos, perf. 1942; Pf Conc. no.1, perf. 1942; Sones de Mariachi [Sones
Mariachi] (1953); Sinfonia breve, str (1956); Sym. no.2 (1959); Fl Conc., 1960; Pf
Conc. no.2, 1961; Sym. no.3, perf. 1961; Vn Conc., 1962; Homenaje a Rubén Dario
(1971)
Choral: La suave patria (cant., R. López Velarde), 1946; Letanía erótica para la paz
(cant., G. Álvarez), 1965; 2 other patriotic cants., unacc. pieces, folksong arrs.,
school songs
Inst: 5 preludios, pf (1946); Sonata, vn, pf (1950); Sonata, vc, pf, perf. 1953; 7
piezas, pf (1955); Suite, vn, pf (1961); Pf Qnt, perf. 1961; Str Qt (1972)
Songs: 2 canciones (A. del Río, R.M. Campos) (1947); 3 canciones (del Rio) (1947)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Chávez: ‘Blas Galindo’, Nuestra música, i/1 (1946), 7–13
F. Agea: ‘Blas Galindo’, Mexico en el arte 1948 (1948), Nov, 83–90
Compositores de América/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan American
Union, xi (Washington DC, 1965), 35–41
R.P. Conant: The Vocal Music of Blas Galindo: a Study of the Choral and
Solo Vocal Works of a Twentieth-Century Mexican Composer (diss., U.
of Texas at Austin, 1977)
Hacer música: Blas Galindo, compositor (Guadalajara, Mexico, 1994) [incl.
catalogue of works]
ROBERT STEVENSON
Stage: Ukroshchonnïy ukrotitel' [The Tamer Tamed] (incid music, Fletcher), 1944; Farizet
(op, 1), 1949; Salamanskaya peshchera [The Cave at Salamanca] (incid music,
Cervantes), also pf suiteInst: 6 Sonatas, pf, 1936, nos.4–6, rev. 1963; P'yesï [Pieces],
pf, 1939; Pf Sonata, 1945; Pf Conc. no.1, 1946; Str Qt no.1, 1947; Pf Trio, 1948; Suite,
str orch, 1949; Ėpicheskaya poėma na narodnïye temï [An Epic Poem on Folk
Themes], orch, 1950, reorchd 1963; Str Qt no.2, 1956; Aria, vn, pf, 1963; Conc. grosso,
pf, 1964; Pf Conc. no.2, 1965; Scherzo, vn, str orch, 1966Choral: Devushka i Smert'
[The Maiden and Death] (orat, M. Gorky), 1950, rev. 1963
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Shteynpress: ‘Ėpicheskaya poėma’, SovM (1951), no.8, pp.19–22
M. Sabinina: ‘O tvorchestve G. Galïnina’ [On Galïnin's work], SovM (1955),
no.2, pp.9–16
Ye. Mnatsakanova: German Galïnin (Moscow, 1965)
Obituary, SovM (1966), no.10, p.159 only
V. Tsendrovsky and others, eds.: German Galïnin: sbornik statey
[Galïnin: a collection of articles] (Moscow, 1979)
GALINA GRIGOR'YEVA
Orch: Islossning, 2 pf, perc, 1984; Cycles, 1986; Conc., 2 pf, orch, 1988; Trio, cl, va,
pf, 1989; Sym. no.1, 1996; Sym. no.2, 1998
Vocal: Uneginotai Nenagen [And We Shall Sing my Song of Praise] (Isaiah xxxviii),
16-pt mixed chorus, 1993
RONIT SETER
Galin-Paris-Chevé method.
A French system of teaching sight-singing. It was based on the figure-
notation proposed by Rousseau in 1742 but with later modifications
introduced by Pierre Galin, Aimé Paris and his sister Nanine, and her
husband Emile Chevé. The central feature of the method is a notation of
numerals from 1 to 7, with 1 representing the major tonic. Allowing a
compass of three octaves for vocal music, the lower and upper octaves
respectively are marked by the insertion of dots below or above the
numerals (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7). Key is shown by a
simple statement at the beginning of a piece, for example ‘F = 1: ton fa’.
Accidental sharps are marked with an oblique stroke through the numeral
from left to right, flats by a stroke in the opposite direction; rests are shown
as zeros (ex.1). Where several numerals share a bar or part of a bar, they
share its value equally. Smaller note values are shown by the use of
horizontal lines, somewhat similar to the tails of grouped quavers or
semiquavers, placed above notes that share beats or parts of beats.
Longer notes have their continuation indicated by large dots, which share
the value of the bar in the same way as the notes themselves. Pupils
employ the sol-fa syllables do, ré, mi, fa, sol, la and si when singing
exercises, not the numbers themselves. Accuracy of intonation is
encouraged by the use of points d’appui (preparatory notes to be thought
of, not sung) before attacking more demanding intervals; these are
indicated by smaller numerals (e.g. 1 3 5 15 65 43 21 7).
All these devices were first made widely known in Méthode élémentaire de
musique vocale (1844), published jointly by Chevé and his wife. In spite of
considerable opposition from professional musicians in France, the method
gained wide popularity there during the second half of the 19th century,
largely through the vigorous propaganda of Emile Chevé. It was employed
in many schools, teacher-training colleges and in the Ecole Polytechnique,
as well as in the army and navy by 1875. By that time it had also been
adopted in Switzerland, the Netherlands and Russia. Also introduced at
that time into a few English private schools by Andrade, the method had its
formal introduction to the professional musician in Britain when George
Bullen read a paper on the subject to the members of the Musical
Association in 1878.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.W. Bullen: ‘The Galin-Paris-Chevé Method of Teaching Considered as a
Basis of Musical Education’, PMA, iv (1877–8), 68–93
M. Chevais: ‘L’enseignement musical à l’école’, EMDC, II/vi (1931), 3631–
83
BERNARR RAINBOW
Galiot, Johannes
(fl 1380–95). French composer. He left only two or three compositions,
which show the style of the Ars Subtilior at its height: a three-voice ballade
Le sault perilleux, a work of considerable rhythmic complexity with a
remarkable notational technique and a Latin–Greek canon, appears in the
Chantilly Manuscript (F-CH 564) at the beginning of a fascicle (perhaps the
beginning of the old corpus of works) on a page that has often been
reproduced for its marginal illustrations (e.g. MGG1, ii, pl.34; MD, xxxviii,
1984, p.112); Vaillant used it in Paris to explain the proportion 9:8 to his
students. En attendant d’amer, a three-voice rondeau with strict
isorhythmic structure, has an exceptionally syncopated melodic style. The
anonymous rondeau refrain Se vos ne voles, following on the same page,
may also be his work.
The Chantilly manuscript wrongly ascribes two further works to Galiot. Both
also begin En attendant, but both are ascribed to other composers
elsewhere (in I-MOe α.M.5.24). One of them, En attendant esperance, is
quite clearly by Jaquemin de Senleches on stylistic grounds; the other, En
atendant souffrir m’estuet, a ballade mentioning the arms of Bernabò
Visconti, must be by Philippus de Caserta, since Ciconia quoted the
opening of the song in his Sus un’ fontayne, a virelai which also contains
two further direct quotations from Philippus. It seems likely, though, that
Galiot also had dealings with the Viscontis (StrohmR; this seems more
likely than Strohm's suggestion that ‘Jean Galiot’ may be a French
misspelling of ‘Gian Galeazzo’, i.e. Visconti). (All his works are ed. in
PMFC, xviii–xix, 1981–2.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (G. Reaney)
MGG2 (‘Chantilly’, U. Günther)
StrohmR
G. Thibault: ‘Emblèmes et devises des Visconti dans les oeuvres
musicales du Trecento’, L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento: Convegno II:
Certaldo and Florence 1969 [L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iii
(Certaldo, 1970)], 131–60
U. Günther: ‘Zitate in französischen Liedsätzen der Ars Nova und Ars
Subtilior’, MD, xxvi (1972), 53–68 esp. 64
U. Günther: ‘Unusual Phenomena in the Transmission of Late Fourteenth-
Century Polyphonic Music’, MD, xxxviii (1984), 87–118
URSULA GÜNTHER
Galizona
(Ger.).
See Mandora.
Gall, Yvonne
(b Paris, 6 March 1885; d Paris, 21 Aug 1972). French soprano. She
studied at the Paris Conservatoire and in 1908 was engaged by Messager
at the Opéra as Woglinde in the first production there of Götterdämmerung.
Keeping the French lyric roles such as Marguerite, Manon and Thaïs at the
centre of her career, she developed a powerful voice and added more
dramatic parts such as Elsa and, in 1923, Isolde to her repertory. At Monte
Carlo she sang in the premières of operas by Raoul Gunsbourg, the
impresario of the house: Le vieil aigle (1909), Le cantique des cantiques
(1922) and Lysistrata (1923). Abroad, she appeared with success in
Buenos Aires and in Chicago, where she sang in the first American
performance of L’heure espagnole. Tosca was the part in which she
appeared at La Scala and in her only performances at Covent Garden
(1924); Ernest Newman remarked that she presented ‘three capable
Toscas, a different one in each act’. One of her last appearances was as
Phoebe in Rameau's Castor et Pollux at the Maggio Musicale, Florence, in
1936. Her bright, very French soprano is heard in many recordings, notably
in one of the first complete operas on record, Gounod's Roméo et Juliette
(1912).
J.B. STEANE
Gallarati, Paolo
(b Turin, 18 June 1949). Italian musicologist. He graduated in music history
at Turin University (1973). He was lecturer in music history at Turin (1977–
9) and in 1980 was appointed associate professor in the history of opera.
His musical interests include opera in the 18th and 19th centuries; in his
publications he examines Gluck and operatic reform, the aesthetics of
18th-century opera, Mozart’s dramatic craftsmanship and some stylistic
aspects of Weber and Rossini.
WRITINGS
‘Metastasio e Gluck: per una collocazione storica della “Riforma”’,
Chigiana, new ser., ix–x (1972–3), 299–308
Gluck e Mozart (Turin, 1975)
‘Dramma e “ludus” dall'“Italiana” al “Barbiere”’, Il melodramma italiano
dell’Ottocento: studi e ricerche per Massimo Mila, ed. G. Pestelli
(Turin, 1977), 237–80
‘L’estetica musicale di Ranieri de’ Calzabigi: “La Lulliade”’, NRMI, xiii
(1979), 531–63
‘L’estetica musicale di Ranieri de’ Calzabigi: il caso Metastasio’, NRMI, xiv
(1980), 497–538
‘Zeno e Mestastasio tra melodramma e tragedia’, Metastasio e il
melodramma: Cagliari 1982, 89–103
Musica e maschera: il libretto italiano del Settecento (Turin, 1984)
‘La produzione critica di Massimo Mila fra le due guerre’, Ghedini e l’attività
musicale a Torino tra le due guerre: Turin 1986, 212–23
‘La poetica di Giacomo Durazzo e la “Lettre sur le méchanisme de l’opéra
italien”’, Musica/Realtà, ix/26 (1988), 53–73
‘Rifacimento e parodia nei libretti viennesi di Lorenzo Da Ponte’, Atti del
convegno Lorenzo Da Ponte, librettista di Mozart: New York 1988,
237–43
‘Music and Mask in Lorenzo Da Ponte’s Mozartian Librettos’, COJ, i (1989),
224–47
La forza della parole: Mozart drammaturgo (Turin, 1993)
‘Grammatica dell’esotismo nell’ “Oberon” di Weber’, Opera & Libretto, ii
(1993), 175–98
‘“Le Rossiniane” di Carpani’, La recezione di Rossini ieri e oggi: Rome
1993, 69–80
Lezioni sul “Don Giovanni” di Mozart (Turin, 1994)
‘I libretto non mozartiani di Lorenzo Da Ponte (1784–1789)’, Sigma, xix/2
(1994), 31–59
‘Une dramaturgie dans les fers: les idées de Goldoni sur le drame en
musique’, Musiques goldoniennes: hommage à Jacques Joly (Paris,
1995), 15–22
TERESA M. GIALDRONI
Gallarda
(Sp.: ‘elegant’, ‘dashing’).
The Spanish equivalent of Galliard, a lively triple-metre dance popular in
16th- and 17th-century Europe. A galliard choreography under the Spanish
name appeared in Antonius de Arena's treatise Ad suos compagnones
studiantes … bassas dansas (?1519), and the characteristic rhythms of the
dance formed the basis of several sets of diferencias or variations by
Cabezón in the mid-16th century. Apparently the Spanish term also
referred to a duple-metre dance, for a number of variations on duple
gallardas were composed by Juan Cabanilles (ex.1); each retains the bass
line of an eight- or ten-bar dance strain as an ostinato unifying the set. A
17th-century choreography for the gallarda describes a highly ornamented
version of the 16th-century dance with shakes of the feet preceding some
steps and vigorous leaping and twisting of the body, but it seems unrelated
to the duple-metre form of the dance used by Cabanilles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Anglès: Introduction to Johannis Cabanilles: Opera omnia, ii
(Barcelona, 1933)
J. Subirá: ‘Libro de danzar, de don Baltasar de Rojes, Pantoja, compuesto
por el maestro Juan Antonio Jaque (s.XVII)’, AnM, v (1950), 193–8
Hn, pf/orch: Fantaisie, op.4 (before 1828); Solo no.1, op.5 (c1824); Rondeau
pastoral, hn, orch, op.6 (c1824); Romance favorite de M. Romagnesi (Depuis
longtemps j’aimais Adèle) et air varié, hn, pf/?hp, op.8 (before 1828); Conc no.1, F,
hn, orch, op.18, 1818 (1830); Souvenirs d’Otello de Rossini, hn, pf (c1831); Conc
no.2, op.28 (n.d.); Fantaisie brillante sur un motif de Norma de Bellini, op.40 (n.d.);
Solo no.10, op.45 (1842); Souvenirs et regrets, hn, pf, op.56 (1844); 3 caprices on:
Panseron’s Le cor, Mercadente’s Le zephir, Donizetti’s Te dire adieu, hn, pf, op.60
(n.d.)
Unacc. hn: 12 duos concertants, 2 hn, op.1 (before 1828); 12 duos concertants, 2
hn, op.2 (before 1828); 12 nocturnes brillants et faciles, 2 hn, op.3 (before 1828); 12
duos, 2 hn, op.10 (c1829); 30 études, hn, op.13; 3 grands trios, 3 hn, op.24; 40
préludes mésurés et non mésurés, hn, op.27 (c1839); [20] Mélodies gracieuses de
Adam, Bellini, Rossini, Weber, hn, op.33 (n.d.); 12 grands études brillantes, hn,
op.43 (1839); 22 fantaisies mélodiques, hn, op.58 (1850–51)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
MGG1 (R. Cotte) [incl. list of works]
C.F. Whistling: Handbuch der musikalischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1817–
27/R, 2/1828–39/R)
C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation (Paris,
1900)
B. Coar: A Critical Study of the Nineteenth-Century Virtuosi in France (De
Kalb, IL, 1952)
R. Morley-Pegge: The French Horn (London, 1960, 2/1973)
R. Gregory: The Horn (New York, 1961, 2/1969)
JEFFREY L. SNEDEKER
Gallego
(Sp.: ‘native of Galicia’).
A term used to denote the music, song and dance of Galicia, and the
Galician bagpipe, hurdy-gurdy and jew’s harp. It is used chiefly for a 16th-
to 18th-century variant of the Villancico with Galician dialect in its text and,
characteristically, drones in its bass line. It is possible that the bagpipe,
hurdy-gurdy or jew’s harp was used in its performance; the first two are
known to have been played in Mexico City Cathedral in the 17th century,
along with the trumpet marine. The examples by Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla,
the Mexican maestro de capilla at Puebla Cathedral, are probably the best
known, one of them even having reached a Spanish archive; numerous
examples by other composers exist, mostly anonymous.
E. THOMAS STANFORD
Gallego, Antonio
(b Zamora, 21 April 1942). Spanish musicologist and music administrator.
He studied law at the University of Salamanca, art history at the
Complutense University in Madrid, and music at the conservatories in
Salamanca and Valladolid. He worked for Organería Española and at the
Real Academia de S Fernando, where he began his research into the
history of recording in Spain, a subject on which he is a recognized
specialist. He taught music history (1978–82) and musicology (1982–97) at
the Madrid Conservatory; however, after a decade of participation in
debates on the reform of Spanish musical education, including taking part
in polemics in the press, he left teaching, disillusioned by the state of music
teaching in Spain.
As director of cultural services for the Juan March Foundation (from 1980),
he set up the Centre for the Documentation of Contemporary Spanish
Music (now the Library of Contemporary Spanish Music). He was the
founder of the Spanish Musicological Society and the first manager of
Revista de musicología. He has taken part in a number of publishing and
recording projects and has been constant in his efforts to promote music in
the press, on radio and through concerts, as well as editing didactic works.
A collector of scores and music books, he has published a large number of
facsimiles.
A brilliant scholar of Spanish music since 1750, Gallego has, thanks to his
broad humanist and legal training, been able to tackle hitherto untouched
fields, such as music legislation, professionalism and music editing. He is a
leading specialist on the life and works of Falla, on whom he has published
several books and many articles which have updated the traditional
interpretation of the composer.
WRITINGS
‘Una polémica musical dieciochesca (Colegiata de Toro, 1795)’, Academia:
boletín de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, xxxii
(1971), 49–76
with F. Sopeña: La música en el Museo del Prado (Madrid, 1972)
‘El Greco y la música’, Bellas artes, no.26 (1973), 12–15
‘Eslava y la cuestión de la ópera nacional’, Bellas artes, no.47 (1975), 11–
14
‘Datos sobre la música en la Colegiata de Calatayud (siglos XVIII y XIX)’,
TSM, lxi (1978), 45–52
‘Eslava y la Ópera’, Monografía de Hilarión Eslava (Pamplona, 1978), 177–
97
‘Un siglo de música en Valdemoro’, RdMc, i (1978), 243–53
Historia del grabado en España (Madrid, 1979, 2/1990)
ed.: J. Herrera: Instrucción de Apuntadores [1643], RdMc, ii (1979), 357–
86
ed.: ‘Epistolario Falla–Rodrigo’, Homenaje a Joaquín Rodrigo (Madrid,
1981)
‘Les instruments de musique dans l’art et la littérature’, Instruments de
musique espagnols du XVIe au XIXe siècle (Brussels, 1985), 21–30
Catálogo de obras de Manuel de Falla (Madrid, 1987)
‘La Clementina de Boccherini’, ‘El género chico artístico (primera
aproximación)’, ‘Dulcinea en el prado (verde y florido)’, RdMc, x
(1987), 633–9, 661–5, 685–99
‘Los inéditos de Manuel de Falla (notas para el catálogo completo de su
obra musical’, Manuel de Falla tra la Spagna e l’Europa: Venice 1987,
87–106
‘Manuel de Falla: música per “El gran teatro del mundo” di Calderón’,
Pedro Calderón de la Barca – Manuel de Falla, ed. P. Pinamonti
(Venice, 1988), 195–217
La música en tiempos de Carlos III: ensayo sobre el pensamiento musical
ilustrado (Madrid, 1988)
‘Felipe Pedrell y Manuel de Falla: crónica de una amistad’, CADUP-
estudios 1989, 181–217
‘Eugenio Gómez y sus Melodías para piano: datos para el estudio del
romanticismo musical en España’, De musica hispana et allis:
miscelánea en honor al Prof. Dr. José López-Calo, ed. E. Casares and
C. Villanueva (Santiago de Compostela, 1990), ii, 119–59
‘Isaac Albéniz y el editor Zozaya’, Notas de música: boletín de la
Fundación Isaac Albéniz, ii–iii (1990), 6–21
Manuel de Falla y El amor brujo (Madrid, 1990)
‘Triana: un ballet de Antonia Mercé Argentina’, Antonia Mercé ‘La
Argentina’, 1890–1990: homenaje en su centenario (Madrid, 1990),
153–9
‘Nuevas obras de Falla en América: el canto a la Estrella, de Los Pirineos
de Pedrell’, Inter-American Music Review, xi/2 (1990–91), 85–101
‘Aspectos sociológicos de la música en la España del siglo XIX’, RdMc, xix
(1991), 13–31
Historia de la música, ii (Madrid, 1997)
editions
M. de Falla: Cantares de nochebuena (Madrid, 1991); Mazurca para piano
(Madrid, 1991)
with J. Torres: L. Boccherini: Clementina (Madrid, 1992)
XOÁN M. CARREIRA
Gallerano, Leandro
(b Brescia, end of 16th century; d Padua, 1631). Italian composer and
monk in the Observant order. Information on his early life comes solely
from the title-pages of his published works. He was organist of the convent
of S Francesco, Bergamo, in 1615 and in 1620 he held an equivalent post
at S Francesco, Brescia. On 17 October 1623 he was appointed maestro
di cappella of the basilica of S Antonio, Padua, replacing Giovanni
Ghizzolo, and he remained there until his death. He was a member of the
Accademia degli Occulti in Brescia, adopting the pseudonym ‘Accademico
Involato’, which first appears on the title-pages of his works in 1624. His
output consists entirely of church music, the majority of it settings for the
Mass and offices, mostly for four or more voices with organ; the Curioso
misto di vaghezze musicali (1628), formerly in the Biblioteka
Uniwersytecka, Wrocław, and now lost, was a collection of 14 Latin motets
for solo voice and basso continuo. His masses use both a moderately
contrapuntal style and the new concertato style with organ. The 1615
collection includes a Requiem. The motets of the Ecclesiastica armonia are
more up to date in both texture and style, representing the composer's first
contribution to the stile concertato. Of the 21 pieces which make up the
collection, three use obbligato instruments: Nolite me considerare, for
soprano and basso continuo with two violins, has pleasant, idiomatic string
writing, while Gaudeat ecclesia and Sono tubae tympano (with texts from
the antiphons of the Office of Julian of Spira for the feast of St Anthony,
patron saint of the basilica of Padua) call for two voices (soprano and bass
and two sopranos respectively), two violins, supported by a trombone, and
basso continuo. The ‘grand’ stile concertato is well represented by the
Messa e salmi of 1629, a composite collection intended for the most part
for the Vespers of the Comune Sanctorum (male cursus) with music both in
the Venetian style of cori spezzati and in a mixed concertato style, and with
occasional use of obbligato instruments, particularly two violins and
chitarrone. The work begins with a valuable ‘dichiarazione’ on how to
perform the mass and psalms.
WORKS
all published in Venice
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 suppl. (A. Gerbelotto)
Indice di tutte le opere di musica che si trovano nella Stampa della Pigna di
Alessandro Vincenti (Venice, 1619–49); repr. in MMg, xiv–xv (1882–3),
suppl.; ed. in MischiatiI
P. Guerrini: ‘Per la storia della musica a Brescia: frammenti e documenti’,
NA, xi (1934), 1–28
A. Sartori: Documenti per la storia della musica al Santo e nel Veneto
(Vicenza, 1977)
O. Mischiati: Bibliografia delle opere dei musicisti bresciani pubblicate a
stampa dal 1497 al 1740 (Brescia, 1982)
C. Andreoletti and S. Giordani: ‘Attività e figure musicali nella Chiesa di S
Francesco d'Assisi in Brescia’, Musica e devozioni nella Chiesa di S
Francesco d'Assisi a Brescia, ed. C. Andreoletti and others (Brescia,
1983), 21–54
J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford,
1984)
A. Morelli: ‘Il Seicento’, Storia della musica al Santo di Padova, ed. S.
Durante and P. Petrobelli (Vicenza, 1990), 93–106
R. Tibaldi: ‘“Al Glorioso S. Antonio de Padoa”: due mottetti di Leandro
Gallerano per la Solennità del 13 giugno’, Il Santo: Rivista Antoniana
di Storia Dottrina Arte, xxxii (1992), 209–33
G. Tisi: Le messe-parodia a quattro e cinque voci di Leandro Gallerano
(diss., U. of Pavia, 1996)
JEROME ROCHE/RODOBALDO TIBALDI
Gallery music.
A late 19th-century term for the sacred music performed in rural English
churches and chapels during the 18th and early 19th centuries. It is so
called because the singers and instrumentalists often occupied the gallery,
usually at the west end. The unsatisfactory state of congregational singing
by the late 17th century, particularly in provincial parish churches, resulted
in the formation of amateur, initially male, choirs. Unfortunately, their
increasing skill and desire for more elaborate music silenced the very
congregations they were supposed to encourage.
Country churches usually lacked organs, but singers needed support in
order to maintain pitch in complex music. From the mid-18th century
singers began to be accompanied, at first by a bass instrument and later by
a small band. The most common instruments used were bassoons, cellos,
clarinets, flutes and violins, but the size and instrumentation of bands
varied according to availability. At first the instruments merely doubled the
voices, often playing the upper parts an octave higher. Later, short
symphonies were added, sometimes with designated instrumentation,
especially in more sophisticated music such as that by Joseph Key.
The repertory consisted primarily of metrical psalms and anthems; fuging-
tunes were particularly popular in the mid-18th century (see Fuging-tune).
Itinerant singing teachers, such as Michael Beesly and William Tans'ur,
sold their own collections of psalmody, borrowing freely from each other.
However the prohibitive cost of printed books meant that many country
musicians made their own manuscript compilations. Most gallery
composers were amateurs, and while some, such as John Chetham, may
have been conventionally trained, others, such as William Knapp, probably
learnt their skills from fellow psalmodists. Lack of formal technique resulted
in an idiosyncratic, occasionally archaic style. The early repertory in
particular was still based on the Renaissance concept of linear
composition, with a tendency for open 5ths and false relations. Although
this music may break theoretical rules, using unexpected dissonances and
consecutive 5ths and octaves, it can show great originality, with inventive
word-painting and strong melodic lines. Another characteristic is the
dominance of the tenor voice. The number of parts varied, but throughout
the 18th century the tenor carried the tune, often doubled an octave higher
by treble voices.
Gallery music was regarded as a financially and artistically viable genre by
professional composers, including John Alcock (elder and younger), Capel
Bond, William Hayes the elder and Samuel Webbe the elder, who
produced psalmody books ‘for the use of country choirs’. Its demise was
caused partly by the increased urbanisation of the Industrial Revolution,
and partly by demands for a more polite and formal style of worship,
culminating in the Oxford Movement and the eventual introduction of
Hymns Ancient and Modern (1861). Some ‘improved’ tunes still exist in
modern hymn books, and, despite the growing use of harmoniums and
organs, a few bands survived until the end of the 19th century.
A parallel development occurred in the music of nonconformist churches,
where organs were generally excluded and bands tended to be introduced
later and to remain in use longer than in Anglican churches. Northern
Methodist composers, such as James Leach of Rochdale and later John
Fawcett of Bolton, developed characterstic florid repeating tunes with
contrasting dynamic passages sung by treble voices in thirds, and
produced orchestrated set-pieces for Sunday school and church
anniversaries. The Methodists, in particular, regarded full congregational
involvement as a vital element of worship, and often fitted their hymns to
secular operatic and popular melodies.
English gallery music has links with American psalmody and with the
present Sheffield carolling tradition. However it was generally forgotten and
condemned, except in a few nostalgic publications, and, more recently, in
Nicholas Temperley's definitive work. A West Gallery Music Association,
concerned with the revival of this music, was formed in England in 1990.
See also Psalmody (ii); for illustration see Psalms, metrical, fig.5.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.S. Curwen: Studies in Worship Music (London, 1880–85, 3/1901)
F.W. Galpin: ‘The Village Church Band’, Musical News, v (1893), 31–2,
56–8
C.W. Pearce: ‘English Sacred Folk Song of the West Gallery Period
(c.1695–1820)’, PMA, xlviii (1921), 1–27
K.H. MacDermott: Sussex Church Music in the Past (Chichester, 1922)
D. MacArthur: ‘Old Village Church Music’, MT, lxiv (1923), 264–6
N. Boston: ‘Music of the 18th-Century Village Church’, Archaeological
Journal, xcix (1943), 53–66
K.H. MacDermott: The Old Church Gallery Minstrels (London, 1948)
N. Temperley: The Music of the English Parish Church (Cambridge, 1979)
V. Gammon: ‘“Babylonian Performances”: the Rise and Suppression of
Popular Church Music, 1660–1870’, Popular Culture and Class
Conflict, 1590–1914, ed. E. and S. Yeo (Brighton, 1981), 62–88
D. Hunter: ‘English Country Psalmodists and their Publications’, JRMA,
cxv (1990), 220–39
H. Keyte and A. Parrott, eds.: The New Oxford Book of Christmas Carols
(Oxford, 1992), appx 3
S. Weston: The Instrumentation and Music of the Church Choir-Band in
Eastern England, with Particular Reference to Northamptonshire,
during the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (diss., U. of
Leicester, 1995)
R. Woods: Good Singing Still: a Handbook on West Gallery Music (Telford,
1995)
Gallery music website (West Gallery Music Association; S. Glover)
〈www.sgpublishing.co.uk/gm/gm.html〉 [sources for gallery music
history and church band history and music]
SALLY DRAGE
Gallet, Luciano
(b Rio de Janeiro, 28 June 1893; d Rio de Janeiro, 29 Oct 1931). Brazilian
composer and ethnomusicologist. He attended the Instituto Nacional de
Música, where he took a gold medal at the conclusion of his piano studies
(1916) and where his principal teachers were Oswald (piano) and França
(harmony). But the men who had most influence on him were the
composer Glauco Velásquez and later the writer Mário de Andrade. In Rio
during World War I he came into contact with Milhaud, who introduced him
to the newest works of Schoenberg and Stravinsky, though Gallet’s first
compositions (1918) have a Romantic and Impressionist character. During
the 1920s he taught the piano at the Instituto, where he occasionally
conducted the orchestra and chorus; he directed the Instituto in 1930–31.
In addition he founded the Sociedade Pró-Arte (1924), edited Weco (1928)
and was founder-director of the Associação Brasileira de Música (1930).
Together with Andrade, Gallet pioneered the study of Brazilian folk music.
He was particularly concerned with the definition of folk and popular music,
and with devising means of using its characteristics in compositions. His
first efforts were harmonizations, the Canções populares brasileiras.
Among his nationalist piano pieces, perhaps the most successful is Nhô
chico; the series of Exercícios brasileiros is based on the most typical
melodic and rhythmic traits of folk music. Andrade edited his Estudos &
folclore (Rio de Janeiro, 1934).
WORKS
(selective list)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KdG (G. Paraskevaídis)
M. de Andrade: ‘Luciano Gallet e sua obra’, Weco, i (1929), 3
P.C. de Amorim Chagas: Luciano Gallet via Mário de Andrade (Rio de
Janeiro, 1979)
V. Mariz: História da música no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1981, 4/1994)
GERARD BÉHAGUE
Galli, Amintore
(b Perticara, Rimini, 12 Oct 1845; d Rimini, 8 Dec 1919). Italian critic,
teacher and composer. He studied with Croff and Mazzucato at the Milan
Conservatory, 1862–7, joining Garibaldi during the 1866 war against
Austria, along with his fellow-students Marco Praga, Faccio and Boito. In
Carnival 1865 his Cesare al Rubicone, a gran scena ed aria for baritone,
chorus and orchestra, was successfully performed in Rimini, and on
graduating he won the composition prize for his secular oratorio
Espiazione (1867) to his own text after Moore’s Lalla Rookh. He then
conducted the band in Amelia, Umbria, and was director of the music
school in Finale Emilia, 1871–3 (several early works are extant in I-FEM,
including a quartet, three symphonies, sacred music and the oratorio Cristo
al Golgota, 1871).
Galli returned to Milan as music critic of Il secolo, published by Sonzogno.
He took charge of Sonzogno’s music publishing, arranging vocal scores,
translating French librettos and replacing spoken dialogue with recitative.
He was responsible for a series of cheap editions and sat on the jury of
Sonzogno’s opera competitions (which led to Cavalleria rusticana among
other works). He also taught at the Milan Conservatory (1878–1903) and
wrote didactic works. His Estetica della musica (1900) is written along lines
of Kantian idealism, also evident in his historical writings. Of his many
pedagogical works of music theory, the Trattato di contrappunto e fuga
(1877) was long used at the Milan Conservatory. He edited several
periodicals, including Il teatro illustrato (1881–92) and Musica popolare
(1882–5). He retired from Sonzogno in 1904 and in 1914 returned to
Rimini.
He had two operas performed, Il corno d’oro (Turin, Balbo, 30 August
1876) and David (Milan, Lirico, 12 November 1904), which is in five acts
and to his own libretto; both were published by Sonzogno. Three others
remained unperformed: Follia tragica, Roma and Il risorgimento (the last
two to his own librettos). He also composed sacred, chamber, orchestral
and band works (several songs are in I-Mc). His papers are collected in the
Biblioteca Civica Gambalunga, Rimini.
WRITINGS
Arte fonetica (Milan, 1870)
La musica e i musicisti dal secolo X sino ai nostri giorni (Milan, 1871,
2/1892/R)
Trattato di contrappunto e fuga (Milan, 1877)
Alberto Mazzucato: cenni commemorativi (Milan, 1879)
Elementi di armonia (Milan, 1879)
La musica dei greci, degli arabi e degli indiani (Milan, 1879)
Storia ed estetica della musica (Milan, 1881)
Saggio storico-teoretico sulla notazione musicale (Milan, 1886)
‘Otello’ di G. Verdi: cenni analitici (Milan, 1887)
Il canto di sala e di teatro (Milan, 1889)
Manuale del capomusica: trattato di strumentazione per banda (Milan,
1889)
Il polifonista al pianoforte (Milan, 1889)
Piccolo lessico del musicista (Milan, 1891, 2/1902)
Strumenti e strumentazione (Milan, 1897)
Etnografia musicale (Milan, 1898)
Estetica della musica, ossia Del bello nella musica sacra, teatrale e da
concerto (Turin, 1900/R)
Umberto Giordano (Milan, 1915)
Antonio Bazzini (Milan, n.d.)
Del canto liturgico cristiano (Milan, n.d.)
Corso di musica sacra: l’omofonia della chiesa latina e la sua
armonizzazione (Milan, n.d.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM
ES (C.Sartori)
SchmidlDS
G. Zangheri: ‘Carteggio Galli-Giordano’, L’opera, iii (1967), 43–7
T. Onofri: Amintore Galli (Rimini, 1985)
L. Inzaghi, S. Martinotti and G. Zangheri: Amintore Galli musicista e
musicologo (Milan, 1988)
L. Inzaghi: ‘Nuovi documenti su Amintore Galli’, NRMI, xxviii (1994), 71–86
M. Morini, N. Ostali and P. Ostali jr: Casa musicale Sonzogno (Milan,
1995)
L. Putignano: ‘Primi appunti sul Piccolo lessico del musicista di Amintore
Galli’, Fra le note: studi di lessicologia musicale (Fiesole, 1996), 105–
29
MARCO BEGHELLI
Filiae Jerusalem and Videns Dominus, attrib. Galli in Wn 18828, are by Vaet
Humble et leal and Au glay bergieronette, attrib. Galli by Vander Straeten (i, 118),
are by Joannes Gallus
Lute pieces in 16035 and Wn 18827 incorrectly attrib. Galli in EitnerQ
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (C. van den Borren)
VanderStraetenMPB
D. van de Casteele and E. Vander Straeten: Maîtres de chant et
organistes de Saint-Donatien et Saint-Sauveur à Bruges (Bruges,
1870)
A. Sandberger: Beiträge zur Geschichte der bayerischen Hofkapelle unter
Orlando di Lasso (Leipzig, 1894–5/R)
A.C. de Schrevel: Histoire du séminaire de Bruges, i (Bruges, 1895)
H. Federhofer: ‘Etats de la chapelle musicale de Charles-Quint (1528) et
de Maximilien (1554)’, RBM, iv (1950), 176–83
D. Cooper: Antonius Galli and his Three Parody Masses (diss., U. of
Kansas, 1972)
MILTON STEINHARDT
Galli, Caterina
(b ?Cremona, c1723; d Chelsea, 23 Dec 1804). Italian mezzo-soprano.
After singing in Bergamo in 1742, she was engaged for the 1742–3 Italian
opera season in London, appearing at the King’s Theatre in Brivio’s
Mandane, Galuppi’s Enrico and Sirbace and Porpora’s Temistocle (she
took male parts in all four operas). In 1745 she was in a pasticcio,
L’incostanza delusa, at the New Haymarket Theatre, but she made her
name in Handel’s Covent Garden oratorio seasons from 1747 to 1754. She
appeared first in revivals of the Occasional Oratorio and Joseph. On 1
April, 1747 she sang the Israelite Man and Second Israelite Woman at the
première of Judas Maccabaeus and made such a hit in the air ‘’Tis liberty
alone’ that, according to Burney, ‘she was not only encored in it every
night, but became an important personage, among singers, for a
considerable time afterwards’. Handel composed parts for her in Joshua
(Othniel, 1748), Alexander Balus (title role, 1748), Susanna (Joacim,
1749), Solomon (title role, 1749), Theodora (Irene, 1750), Jephtha (Storgè,
1752) and probably The Choice of Hercules (Virtue, 1751). She appeared
in many revivals, of these works and others, including Messiah, Samson
and Hercules from 1749, Saul in 1750 and probably 1754, Belshazzar,
Esther and Alexander’s Feast in 1751, and probably Deborah in 1754. As
in opera, most of her parts were male. She received four and a half
guineas for singing in the Foundling Hospital Messiah on 15 May 1754.
Galli’s success in Judas Maccabaeus caused Lord Middlesex to re-engage
her for the King’s Theatre in 1747–8, when she appeared in the Handel
pasticcios Lucio Vero and Rossane (Alessandro), in which she played
Alexander the Great. She sang in Acis and Galatea for Miss Oldmixon’s
benefit in 1749 (Hickford’s) and her own in 1754 (New Haymarket), in
Alexander’s Feast for Pasqualino’s at the same theatre in 1754, and
appeared frequently in Musicians Fund charity concerts from 1743. In 1753
she took part in a charity performance of Arne’s Alfred at the King’s. She
also taught singing. One of her pupils in 1753 was the ten-year-old Lady
Caroline Russell, daughter of the Duke of Bedford, who drew a caricature
of Galli on the back of her bill – the only likeness that survives.
Galli left England about 1754 and for 15 years pursued an active career in
north Italy, singing in a dozen cities, and also in Naples (four operas,
including two by Hasse, in 1758–9) and Prague (two operas in 1761). In
1773 she was back in England, where she seems to have remained until
her death. She sang in Messiah at the New Haymarket in 1773, for three
seasons at the Bach-Abel concerts, and in many benefits. In November
1773 she took a male role in Sacchini’s Lucio Vero at the King’s, where she
continued until 1776 in serious and comic operas. She appeared in
oratorios at Oxford in 1773 and Winchester in 1775. On 30 May 1777 (her
final benefit) she sang with the 16-year-old Samuel Harrison, later a
famous tenor, who was probably her pupil. After retiring she took a job as
companion to the actress Martha Ray; Galli was present when Miss Ray
was shot dead by an infatuated clergyman at Covent Garden on 7 April
1779. Economic pressure forced her to reappear in oratorios at Covent
Garden as late as 1797. In her last years, according to her obituary in the
Gentleman’s Magazine, she ‘subsisted entirely on the bounty of her friends,
and an annual benefaction from the Royal Society of Musicians’. The same
notice calls her ‘the last of Mr Handel’s scholars’; if she was not a regular
pupil, she was largely trained by him. She had a compass of a to f '' with
an occasional g''. A song by Galli, ‘When first I saw thee graceful move’,
was published about 1750 and often reprinted.
WINTON DEAN
Galli, Domenico
(b Parma, 16 Oct 1649; d ?Parma,1697). Italian composer, cellist,
instrument maker, sculptor and painter. All that is known of his life is that he
worked at the Este court at Modena. His only known music is
Trattenimento musicale sopra il violoncello a’ solo (Modena, 1691), a set of
12 sonatas for solo cello (like his contemporaries at the Este court, G.B.
Vitali and Giuseppe Colombi, he was himself a cellist). Precedents for his
sonatas can be found in various works for solo cello by Colombi. Others by
the two Bolognese composers G.B. Degli Antoni and Domenico Gabrielli
probably influenced him still more: Degli Antoni’s set of 12 Ricercate
appeared in 1687, and Gabrielli published a similar set of seven Ricercary
in January 1689, shortly after spending a year at the Este court. The
appearance of Galli’s sonatas in 1691 seems more than just coincidental:
they could well have been inspired by his close contact with Gabrielli. Their
style is remarkably close to that of Gabrielli’s Ricercary, though Galli’s
handling of tonality, which is often modally ambiguous, is very individual.
The upward range of his sonatas is lower than in those of the other two
composers (e', compared with Degli Antoni’s c'' and Gabrielli’s b'), but the
downward range extends to B'; this tuning, also used by Colombi, is that
given by Mersenne (Harmonie universelle, 1636–7), but it was generally
discarded by the end of the 17th century. His ability as an artist can be
seen in the chiaroscuro vignettes at the beginning of each sonata, in a
work of art in S Giacomo, Parma, and in a list of notaries and historians in
the Archivio Notarile, Parma. Galli’s reputation as an instrument maker
rests primarily on a violin and a cello (probably commissioned by
Francesco II, Duke of Modena, and dating from 1687 and 1691
respectively) notable for their elaborate and intricate carving. The
Domenico Galli, ‘professore di musica’, cited by Francesco Valesio in a
chronicle of 26 February 1703, is most probably another musician. This
Galli lived in Rome between the end of the 17th century and the beginning
of the 18th, and was active for a time at the court of Christina of Sweden.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)
G. Scano and G.Graglia, eds.: Diario di Roma di Francesco Valesio
(Milan, 1977–81), ii, 538
C. Gallico: Le capitali della musica: Parma (Cinisello Balsamo, 1985)
A. Chiarelli: I codici di musica della Raccolta Estense (Florence, 1987),
227
M. Lucchi: ‘ Strumenti musicali estensi’, Alessandro Stradella e Modena:
Modena 1983, 75–86
NONA PYRON (with ANGELA LEPORE)
Galli, Filippo
(b Rome, 1783; d Paris, 3 June 1853). Italian bass. He made his début in
1801 at Naples as a tenor. On the advice of Paisiello and of Luigi Marchesi,
he became a bass, making his second début in Rossini’s La cambiale di
matrimonio at Padua in 1811. The next year he sang Tarabotto in L’inganno
felice at the Teatro S Moisè, Venice, the first of eight Rossini premières in
which he took part, and made his début at La Scala as Polidoro in
Generali’s La vedova stravagante. During the next 13 years he appeared in
over 60 different operas at La Scala, including 26 first performances. In one
season (1814) he appeared in three operas by Paer and sang Guglielmo
(Così fan tutte), the title role of Don Giovanni, Dandini in the first
performance of Pavesi’s Agatina and Selim at the première of Il turco in
Italia.
Elsewhere, Galli sang Mustafà at the première of L’italiana in Algeri at the
Teatro S Benedetto, Venice (1813), and created the title role of Maometto II
at the S Carlo, Naples (1820); he made his Paris début in 1821 at the
Théâtre Italien in La gazza ladra. His last Rossini creation was Assur in
Semiramide at La Fenice (1823). He appeared in London at the King’s
Theatre between 1827 and 1833, and at the Teatro Carcano, Milan, he
sang Henry VIII at the first performance of Anna Bolena (1830). He
continued to sing, in Mexico and Spain, for another decade, returning to La
Scala in 1840 to take the title role in Donizetti’s Marino Faliero. He was a
chorus master in Madrid and Lisbon, and then taught at the Paris
Conservatoire for some years.
The wide range of Galli’s magnificent voice and its extreme flexibility are
fully demonstrated by the roles that Rossini wrote for him, while his power
as an actor can be imagined from Donizetti’s Henry VIII.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Stendhal: Vie de Rossini (Paris, 1824, 2/1854); ed. H. Prunières (Paris,
1922, 2/1929; Eng. trans., ed. R.N. Coe, 1956, 2/1970)
G. Radiciotti: Gioacchino Rossini: vita documentata, opera ed influenza
su l’arte (Tivoli, 1927–9)
F. de Filippis and R. Arnese: Cronache del Teatro di S Carlo 1737–1960
(Naples, 1961–3)
H. Weinstock: Donizetti and the World of Opera in Italy, Paris and Vienna
in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1963/R)
C. Gatti: Il Teatro alla Scala nella storia e nell’arte, 1778–1963 (Milan,
1964)
H. Weinstock: Rossini: a Biography (New York, 1968)
ELIZABETH FORBES
Gallia, Maria
(fl 1703–34). Italian soprano. She arrived in London in 1703, perhaps with
Margherita de L’Epine, and became a pupil of Haym, making her first stage
appearance in her husband Giuseppe Fedeli’s The Temple of Love at the
Queen’s Theatre (1706). She sang in Clayton’s Arsinoe and Rosamond
(1707), both at Drury Lane, and the pasticcio Love’s Triumph at the
Queen’s Theatre (1708). Between 1704 and 1710 she had several benefit
concerts at York Buildings, generally with her husband. She returned to
London as a singing teacher in 1722 and was still alive in 1734. Burney
identified Gallia with the ‘Sorella della Sig. Margarita’ [de L’Epine] who
created Clizia in Handel’s Teseo (1713). The part requires modest skill and
a compass of d' to g''.
WINTON DEAN
Galliard
(from It. gagliardo: ‘vigorous’, ‘robust’; It. gagliarda, gagiarda, gaiarda; Fr.
gaillarde; Sp. gallarda).
A lively, triple-metre court dance of the 16th and early 17th centuries, often
associated with the Pavan.
Choreographically the galliard was a variety of the cinque pas, a step-
pattern of five movements taken to six minims. Arbeau (Orchésographie,
1588) explained at some length the many possible variations of the
galliard; the basic pattern consisted of four grues (the dancer hops on to
the ball of one foot while moving the other forward in the air ‘as if to kick
someone’), a saut majeur (‘big jump’, often ornamented with beats in mid-
air), and a posture (the dancer rests with one foot in front of the other).
Ex.1 shows Arbeau’s intabulation of the cinque pas pattern to a galliard
tune called Antoinette. Slightly different combinations of kicking and small,
jumping steps were required for galliards with longer phrases, but each
pattern always ended with the saut majeur, which according to Arbeau
often coincided with a rest in the music, and a posture. The steps for the
galliard were essentially similar to those of the saltarello and tourdion,
except, as Arbeau said, ‘that in the execution of them they are done higher
and more vigorously’; the extra height of hops and leaps in the galliard
implies that the music cannot be played at all fast.
Like the pavan, the galliard probably originated in northern Italy. D'Accone
(1997, pp.652–4, 662) reports references to the gagliarda being taught in a
dancing school in Siena about 1493–1503, and to a dancing-master who
was engaged in 1505 to teach ‘calatas and gagliardas as well as
morescas'. (Sach's claim that Boiardo mentioned the galliard in his epic
orlando innamorato is incorrect). The earliest surviving examples of music
for the dance are to be found in publications issued by the Parisian printer
Attaingnant: Dixhuit basses dances for lute (1529/30), Six gaillardes et six
pavanes … a quatre parties (1529/30), and Quatorze gaillardes neuf
pavennes for keyboard (1531), the last including a few thematically related
pavan–galliard pairs (one in ex.2). Thus the galliard as a musical form first
appeared as one of the possible after-dances of the pavan (others were
the saltarello, tourdion, Hupfauff and Proportz; see Nachtanz). Morley, in A
Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall Musicke (1597), described in
some detail the method of deriving a galliard from its pavan:
After every pavan we usually set a galliard (that is, a kind of
music made out of the other), causing it go by a measure
which the learned call ‘trochaicam rationem’, consisting of a
long and short stroke successively … the first being in time of
a semibreve and the latter of a minim. This is a lighter and
more stirring kind of dancing than the pavan, consisting of the
same number of strains; and look how many fours of
semibreves you put in the strain of your pavan, so many
times six minims must you put in the strain of your galliard.
16th-century galliards are almost invariably in triple metre, usually in three
strains of regular phrase structure (8, 12 or 16 bars), and, like
contemporary pavans, in a simple, homophonic style with the tune in the
upper part.
Like the pavan, the galliard survived as a musical form well into the 17th
century. Examples appear in consort suites by several German composers
of the early part of the century; contemporary with these are a number of
German polyphonic songs having the rhythmic character of the galliard
(and sometimes also the title). Galliards feature in Frescobaldi’s Il secondo
libro di toccate, canzone (1627) and Johann Vierdanck’s Erster Theil
newer Pavanen, Gagliarden, Balletten und Correnten (1637), and later in
the suites of Locke’s second Broken Consort (composed c1661–5) and
G.B. Vitali’s Balletti, correnti alla francese, gagliarde … a 4 stromenti
(1679). A few galliards appear in the work of the harpsichordists Louis
Couperin, Chambonnières and D'Anglebert. By this late stage the galliard
had become a quite slow piece; Thomas Mace (Musick’s Monument, 1676)
said that galliards ‘are perform’d in a Slow, and Large Triple-Time; and
(commonly) Grave, and Sober’.
A few 20th-century composers have re-created the galliard, either as a
companion to a pavan (e.g. Howells, Vaughan Williams and Britten: see
Pavan) or as an independent piece (the ‘Gailliarde’ for two female dancers
in Stravinsky's Agon, 1957).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrownI
T. Arbeau: Orchésographie (Langres, 1588/R, 2/1589/R; Eng. trans., 1948,
2/1967)
C. Sachs: Eine Weltgeschichte des Tanzes (Berlin, 1933; Eng. trans.,
1937/R)
L.H. Moe: Dance Music in Printed Italian Lute Tablatures from 1507 to
1611 (diss., Harvard U., 1956)
B. Delli: Pavane und Galliarde: zur Geschichte der Instrumentalmusik im
16. und 17. Jahrhundert (diss., Free U. of Berlin, 1957)
D. Heartz, ed.: Preludes, Chansons and Dances for Lute Published by
Pierre Attaingnant, Paris (1529–1530) (Neuilly-sur-Seine, 1964)
D. Heartz, ed.: Keyboard Dances from the Earlier Sixteenth Century,
CEKM, viii (1965)
W.A. Edwards: The Sources of Elizabethan Consort Music (diss., U. of
Cambridge, 1974)
C.M. Cunningham: ‘Ensemble Dances in Early Sixteenth-Century Italy:
Relationships with villotte and Franco-Flemish danceries’, MD, xxxiv
(1980), 159–203
D. Ledbetter: Harpsichord and Lute Music in 17th-Century France
(London, 1987)
D.M. McMullen: ‘German Tanzlieder at the Turn of the Seventeenth
Century: the Texted Galliard’, Music and German Literature: their
Relationship since the Middle Ages, ed. J.M. McGlathery (Columbia,
SC, 1992), 34–50
A. Silbiger, ed.: Keyboard Music Before 1700 (New York, 1995)
B. Sparti: ‘Introduction’, in L. Compasso: Ballo della gagliarda [Florence,
1560] (Freiburg, 1995) [facs.]
F.A. D'Accone: The Civic Muse: Music and Musicians in Siena during the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Chicago, 1997)
ALAN BROWN
operas
full-length, all-sung
Calypso and Telemachus (J. Hughes, after F. Fénelon), Queen's, 17 May 1712,
pubd full score lacks recits and final chorus
Circe (C. Davenant), LLF, 11 April 1719, 3 songs pubd, rest lost
The Happy Captive (L. Theobald), Little Theatre, Haymarket, 16 April 1741, full
score F-Pc*; Capoccio and Dorinna (int, after P. Metastasio: L'impresario delle
Canarie), music lost
Oreste e Pilade, unfinished, lost, mentioned by Hawkins
masques
one-act, all-sung
Pan and Syrinx (Theobald), LLF, 14 Jan 1718, full score, incl. music added for 1726
revival, GB-Lbl
Decius and Paulina (Theobald), LLF, 22 March 1718, insert for revival of E. Settle's
play The Lady's Triumph, 1 song pubd, rest lost
The Nuptial Masque, or The Triumphs of Cupid and Hymen, Covent Garden, 16
March 1734, lost
Oedipus (N. Lee and J. Dryden), Covent Garden, 2 March 1736, Lam, pts Lcm
Masque of the Deities, doubtful, by H. Carey
pantomimes
Jupiter and Europa (?Theobald), LLF, 23 March 1723, 1 song by Galliard pubd, also
some by other composers; rev. as The Royal Chace, or Merlin's Cave, Covent
Garden, 23 Jan 1736, 1 song pubd
The Necromancer, or Harlequin Dr Faustus (Theobald), LLF, 20 Dec 1723, 6 songs
pubd anon., some Comic Tunes pubd with Harlequin Sorcerer (1752)
Harlequin Sorcerer, with The Loves of Pluto and Proserpine (Theobald), LLF, 21
Jan 1725, Comic Tunes pubd with new music by Arne (1752)
Apollo and Daphne, or The Burgomaster Trick'd (Theobald), LLF, 14 Jan 1726, 7
songs pubd, partial score DRc
The Rape of Proserpine, with The Birth of Harlequin (Theobald), LLF, 13 Feb 1727,
ov. and 14 songs pubd in score, some Comic Tunes pubd with those in Perseus,
score with recits and chorus Lgc (copies, Lbl, Lcm)
Perseus and Andromeda, or The Spaniard Outwitted (Theobald), LLF, 29 Jan 1730,
Comic Tunes pubd, 1 song in Musical Miscellany, vi (1731)
Merlin, or The Devil of Stonehenge (Theobald), Drury Lane, 12 Dec 1734, DRc
miscellaneous vocal
3 anthems, GB-Ob: I will magnify the Lord, O Lord God of Hosts, I am well pleased
TeD and Jub, ? to celebrate Peace of Utrecht, 1713, lost, mentioned by Hawkins
6 English Cantatas after the Italian Manner (1716)
4 choruses in Julius Caesar (tragedy, J. Sheffied, Duke of Buckingham), 1723, Lbl,
US-Bp
The Hymn of Adam and Eve (J. Milton: Paradise Lost vv.153–208), 2vv, str (1728)
Love and Folly (serenata), 1739, lib GB-Lbl, music lost
Chi fra lacci (cant.), S, orch, Lcm
5 songs pubd separately (London, ?1730–?1735): As the mole's silent stream; Jolly
mortals, fill your glasses (E. Ward); Kind god of sleep; The advice; The fond
shepherdess
3 cants. (Hughes); lost, mentioned by Hawkins
instrumental
6 Sonatas, rec, bc, op.1 (1710)
6 Sonatas, bn/vc, bc (1733)
6 Sonatas, vc, bc (1746), pubd with sonatas by Caporale
Lost: 2 ob concs.; ob sonata; sonata, ob, 2 bn, 1704; conc. grosso, 24 bn, vc
WRITINGS
Observations on the Florid Song (London, 1742, 2/1743/R) [trans. of P.F.
Tosi: Opinioni de' cantori antichi e moderni, Bologna, 1723/R]
A Critical Discourse upon Operas in England (London, n.d.), ? by
Galliard, ? collab. J. Hughes
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDA
BurneyH
FiskeETM
GroveO (‘Calypso and Telemachus’; J. Merrill Knapp)
HawkinsH
WaltherML (‘Gaillard’)
J. Hughes: Preface, Calypso and Telemachus (London, 1712)
S. Johnson: ‘John Hughes’, The Lives of the English Poets, i (London,
1779); ed. G.B. Hill (Oxford, 1905/R)
C. Dibdin: A Complete History of the Stage, v (London, 1800/R), 59
G. Linnemann: Celler Musikgeschichte bis zum Beginn des 19.
Jahrhunderts (Celle, 1935), 61–2, 161
J.M. Knapp: ‘A Forgotten Chapter in English Eighteenth-Century Opera’,
ML, xlii (1961), 4–16
S. Lincoln: ‘J.E. Galliard and A Critical Discourse’, MQ, liii (1967), 347–64
E. Noack: Musikgeschichte Darmstadt vom Mittelalter bis zur Goethezeit
(Mainz, 1967), 166
M. Boyd: ‘English Secular Cantatas in the Eighteenth Century’, MR, xxx
(1969), 91 only
C. Chapman: ‘A 1727 Pantomime: The Rape of Proserpine’, MT, cxxii
(1981), 807–11
D.L. Watt: ‘Pan and Syrinx’: an Opera in One Act by J.E. Galliard, Libretto
by L. Theobald (thesis, U. of London, 1981)
H.D. Johnstone and R. Fiske, eds.: The Blackwell History of Music in
Britain, iv: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1990), esp. 128–32
W. Weber: The Rise of Musical Classics in Eighteenth-Century England: a
Study in Canon, Ritual and Ideology (Oxford, 1992), 57–9
M. Burden: ‘The Independent Masque 1700–1800: a Catalogue’, RMARC,
no.28 (1995), 83–4, 88, 90, 98
C. Timms: ‘Music and Musicians in the Letters of Giuseppe Riva to
Agostino Steffani (1720–27)’, ML, lxxix (1998), 43–4
R.G. King: ‘The First Abduction Opera: John Ernest Galliard's The Happy
Captive (1741)’, MQ (forthcoming)
ROGER FISKE/RICHARD G. KING
Galliard Ltd.
English firm of music publishers formed in 1962 as a wholly owned
subsidiary of Galaxy Music Corporation.
Galliari.
Italian family of stage designers. Its principal members were the brothers
Bernardino (b Andorno, nr. Biella, 3 Nov 1707; d Andorno, 31 March 1794),
Fabrizio (b Andorno, 28 5ept 1709; d Treviglio, June 1790) and Giovanni
Antonio (b Andorno, 26 March 1714; d Milan, 1783). After early tuition from
their father, the decorative painter Giovanni Galliari (b Andorno, 1672; d
Andorno, 1722), and further study in Turin and Milan, they worked in
northern Italy (and in Innsbruck in 1738) as painters of frescoes and other
decoration until, probably towards the end of the 1730s, they became
assistants to the theatrical painters Innocente Bellavita, Giovan Domenico
Barbieri and Giovanni Battista Medici, When Barbieri died in 1742, Fabrizio
and Medici became chief designers at the Regio Ducal Teatro in Milan, and
on Medici’s retirement a year later, Fabrizio was joined by Bernardino and
Giovanni Antonio. From then on the stage designs for the Milan opera
houses (Regio Ducal, 1742–76; Itinerale, 1776–8; La Scala after 1778)
rested almost exclusively in the hands of the Galliari brothers. Giovanni
Antonio settled in Milan, but Fabrizio and Bernardino were also chief stage
designers at the Teatro Regio in Turin in 1748 and from 1753 on worked
regularly for the Teatro Carignano there and in a number of Italian and
foreign opera houses, including Vienna, Berlin and Paris. They retired in
the mid-1780s.
The brothers worked together but divided their responsibilities according to
their talents. Fabrizio was a creative artist who usually produced the ideas
and plans for the sets and carried out the architectural designs.
Bernardino, the most talented painter among them, produced equally
artistic and mature designs, and ideas for curtains, but was mainly
concerned with their realization in paint; his work included excellent figures
and landscapes. Giovanni Antonio was exclusively an executant. Their
work at the Turin and, to a lesser extent, the Milan court theatres was still
essentially under the influence of the opera seria tradition. The formalized
architectural painting of the Bibiena school, passed down from Barbieri and
Medici, is to be found in numerous of their early productions of that genre
and even remained efficacious when the Galliaris began to develop a style
influenced by and in accord with the ‘reform’ movement of Jommelli,
Traetta and above all Gluck, whose Alceste they mounted at Vienna in
1767. Here they aimed to overcome the traditional courtly rationalist
formalism through sets based on pictorial composition and the recreation of
nature, and through intensified use of landscape and genre motifs and
references (albeit superficial) to historical locations and the milieu of the
action, like the ‘Chinese’ sets for Vincenzo Ciampi’s Arsinoe (1758, Turin).
Their aim was to represent truth and humanity in opera and in the conflicts
it depicts by using the language of middle-class customs and emotions,
though in elevated, idealized form. Further scope for this style was
provided by opera buffa, for which the Galliaris designed exclusively at the
Teatro Carignano in Turin and which accounted for well over half their
designs for the Milan court theatre. Their stage realism followed operatic
structure not simply by reproducing an everyday middle-class environment
but by selection and picturesque arrangement.
When the older generation retired in the 1780s Fabrizio’s sons and pupils
Giovannino (b 1746; d Treviglio, 1818) and Giuseppino (b Andorno, 1742;
d Milan, 1817) continued their work at the Teatro Regio and Teatro
Carignano in Turin. Giuseppino, who closely followed his father’s style, also
worked as a designer in Geneva (1778) and Marseilles (1787) and
apparently retired about 1792. Giovannino turned to academic classicism,
worked with his uncle Bernardino for Frederick the Great in 1772 and was
still active in Turin in 1798. Bartolomeo Verona (b Andorno, 1744; d Berlin,
1813), a son of the brothers’ sister Elisabetta, worked for them from about
1762 to 1772 and went with Bernardino and Giovannino to Berlin, where he
remained as an influential royal theatrical painter until his death, Gaspare
(b ?Milan, 1761; d Milan, 1823), son of Giovanni Antonio, started his career
with the family firm but in 1785 went as stage designer to Parma and
elsewhere, including Vienna (1788–94), Venice and Milan. He developed
his own style of pictorial classicism with romantic features. Fabrizio Sevesi
(b Milan, ?1773; d Turin, 9 Aug 1837), son of Fabrizio’s daughter Ludovica,
was the last important designer of the family; he was trained by Giovannino
and Giuseppino and succeeded them at the Carignano from 1798 and at
the Regio from 1800.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (M. Viale)
Numero XXIV invenzioni teatrali di Gaspare Galliari (Milan, 1803/R1970
with introduction by D. Addis)
Serie di decorazioni teatrali inventate dal Capitano Gaspare Galliari e da
suoi zii Bernardino e Fabrizio (Milan, 1821)
R. Amerio: ‘Il pittore Bartolomeo Verona’, Bollettino della società
piemontese di archeologia e belle arti, new ser., xii–xiii (1958–9), 173–
8
R. Bossaglia: I fratelli Galliari pittori (Milan, 1962)
M. Viale-Ferrero: La scenografia del ’700 e i fratelli Galliari (Turin, 1963)
[incl. catalogue of stage designs]
A. Griseri: ‘I fratelli Galliari’, Burlington Magazine, cviii (1966), 528–31
[review of Bossaglia 1962 and Viale Ferrero 1963]
M. Viale-Ferrero: ‘Disegni inediti di Fabrizio Galliari per L’Europa
riconosciuta, opera inaugurale del Teatro alla Scala di Milano’,
Antichità viva, x/4 (Florence, 1971), 37
M. Vilae Ferrero: Storia del Teatro regio di Torino, ed. A. Basso, iii: La
scenografia dalle origini al 1936 (Turin, 1980)
S. Angrisani: I Galliari: primi scenografi della Scala (Florence, 1983)
[exhibition catalogue]
M. Viale Ferrero: Scenografi scaligeri tra Settecento e Ottocento (Milan),
1988)
MANFRED BOETZKES
Gallican chant.
The composite of traditions of monophonic liturgical music used in the
churches of Gaul before the imposition of ‘Roman’ chant by the Carolingian
kings Pippin (reigned 751–68) and Charlemagne (768–814). Although the
music of the Gallican rite was almost completely suppressed before the
appearance of notation in the 9th century, remnants of this tradition, though
heterogeneous in style, are thought to survive in the Gregorian repertory
and elsewhere. The term ‘Gallican’ is also occasionally used in the sense
‘non-Roman’, so that ‘Gallican chant’ may mean, in older literature
especially, the repertories of the Iberian Peninsula, the Celtic areas and
northern Italy (including Milan), as well as of Gaul itself.
1. Introduction.
2. Sources.
3. Problems of identification.
4. Liturgical evidence.
5. Style of the texts.
6. Musical style.
7. The Mass.
8. The Office.
9. Special rites.
10. Psalmody.
11. Hymnody.
12. Antiphons and responsories.
13. ‘Preces’.
A.doc - S00754A.doc - S01023A.doc - S01034B.doc - S02678C.doc -
S05266E.doc - S09148G.doc - S11726Litany, §3(iii)M.doc - S19269Old Roman
chantP.doc - S40099P.doc - S22384T.doc - S28104Neo-Gallican chant
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MICHEL HUGLO (with JANE BELLINGHAM and MARCEL ZIJLSTRA)
Gallican chant
1. Introduction.
The 5th century was a period of considerable importance in the history of
medieval Gaul and in particular for the Gallican Church. The end of this
century saw the establishment of Frankish rule in Gaul by Clovis (d 511),
first of the Merovingian kings, who converted to Christianity in 496. The
Franks eventually extended their kingdom to a territory covering, roughly,
modern France, Switzerland, the Low Countries, and Germany west of the
Rhine, an area (commonly known as Francia) that later formed the core of
the Carolingian empire. The early Merovingian kings inherited the
ecclesiastical traditions and liturgical forms of the Gallo-Roman population,
which was mostly centred in what is now southern France and which, by
the mid-5th century, was solidly Catholic. From this population comes the
earliest evidence of the Gallican liturgy.
The first indication of a liturgy in Gaul distinct from the liturgies of other
Western Churches occurs in a letter, dated 416, by Pope Innocent I to
Bishop Decentius of Gubbio (PL, xx, 551–2), in which the pope called for
the Churches of Italy, Gaul, Spain and North Africa to celebrate the liturgy
in accordance with the rite of Rome. From the 5th century also come
several references to the composition of liturgical texts by Gaulish clerics,
such as Claudianus Mamertus, Bishop of Vienne (d c475), and his nephew
Sidonius Apollinaris (d c480), and Musaeus of Marseilles (d c460), who is
known to have compiled a lectionary for the liturgical year, a sacramentary
and a responsorial with series of chants and psalms (‘psalmorumque serie
et cantatione’); this last text is the earliest known reference to a chant book
in the Western Church (Gennadius of Marseilles, PL, lviii, 1104). None of
their liturgical works, however, survives. Several other literary sources
written between the 5th century and the first half of the 9th bear witness to
the unique character of the Gallican rite and its music. Augustine of
Canterbury, for example, in a letter to Gregory the Great (Bede, Historia
ecclesiastica, i.27), remarked on the differences between the worship in the
churches of ‘Gallia’ and those of Rome. Walahfrid Strabo, writing in about
829 (i.e. after the introduction of ‘Roman’ chant into Francia), said that
‘many people claim that they can distinguish between Roman and other
chants by both words and melody’ (‘plerisque et verbis et sono a ceteris
cantibus discernere posse fatentur’, De exordiis, chap.22).
Evidence for the nature and content of the Gallican liturgy survives in a
number of liturgical books, primarily sacramentaries and lectionaries, and
in several other contemporary literary sources; there are no extant Gallican
chant books. When compared with sources concerning, for example, the
Roman and Ambrosian (Milanese) Churches, such texts clearly confirm
that the liturgical usage and literary style of the Gallican rite was markedly
distinct. However, they also reveal that considerable variation existed within
the Gallican Church itself, for individual ecclesiastical provinces and even
individual dioceses had their own local forms of worship. For example, the
Use of Auxerre, as reflected in the collection of masses published by Mone
(1850), differed in its choice of formularies, though scarcely in the form or
order of the chants, from that of Autun in the Missale gothicum. Thus,
unlike the Roman, Mozarabic and Ambrosian liturgies, the Gallican was not
homogeneous, although it shared a group of particular practices in the
celebration of the Mass, Divine Office and other special rites (on the
character of the Gallican liturgy see Hen, 1996).
This lack of homogeneity, which is also apparent in the Celtic Church (see
Celtic chant), may be explained by the absence of any central
ecclesiastical authority in Merovingian Gaul and of any need or desire for
uniformity in the rite (beyond the fundamental elements of worship) before
the liturgical and ecclesiastical reforms instituted by the Carolingians in the
latter half of the 8th century. The individuality of Gallican liturgical traditions
may partly account for the evident willingness of the Church to adopt
elements from other rites. For example, in the Bobbio Missal, probably from
Burgundy or north Italy, there are Spanish influences, especially in the
litany-like preces for Holy Saturday; the Roman Church itself influenced the
Gallican rite, particularly in the literary style of the prayers (see Vogel,
1960) and to some extent in the structure of the liturgy; chants were
borrowed from Milan at Lyons and in south-east Gaul (Provence), and vice
versa. Similarly, the many exchanges between the Celtic and continental
liturgies left traces in both Francia and Rome. In the 7th and 8th centuries
Celtic missionaries went to the Continent taking with them liturgical books,
some of which were left there (e.g. the antiphoner F-Pn n.a.lat.1628; see
Morin, 1905), in Germany (e.g. the fragments in CH-SGs 1395, or the
Echternach manuscript, F-Pn lat.9488) and in north Italy (the Bangor
Antiphonary at Bobbio).
Even the Eastern Churches exerted an influence; indeed, the Gallican
liturgy is characterized by chants and practices of eastern Mediterranean
origin, among them the diaconal litany, the exclamation ‘Sancta sanctis’
(‘Ta hagia tois hagiois’), the Trisagion and the Cheroubikon (see Quasten,
1943). At the time of St Caesarius (d 542) chants were sung at Arles in
both Greek and Latin. Some Gaulish churches, such as the basilica at
Arles, incorporated an altar of the prothesis (proskomidē), that is, an altar
for the ‘setting forth’ (preparation) of the oblation, as in the Eastern
Churches; during the offertory there was a solemn procession from this
altar to the high altar while the choir sang the Cheroubikon or another
chant of Eastern origin (see Mâle, 1950). These non-Western influences
were more marked at Arles at the time of St Caesarius, and at Marseilles,
than at Autun.
The celebration of the Gallican rite and its music came to an end in Francia
with the wide-ranging Carolingian ecclesiastical reforms, which demanded
the adoption of the Roman liturgy and its chant throughout the Frankish
Church. The Admonitio generalis issued by Charlemagne in 789 ordered
that all the clergy should ‘learn the Roman chant thoroughly … in
conformity with what King Pippin strove to bring to pass when he abolished
the Gallican chant for the sake of unanimity with the Apostolic See’. The
only known evidence of opposition to such reforms may be found in the
strongly pro-Roman Ordo romanus XVI (Andrieu’s numbering) and an
anonymous 8th-century work (Ratio de cursus) tracing the origin of the
Gallican Divine Office and its ‘modulatio’ (ed. Hallinger, 1963, i, 77–91).
During the late 8th century and the early 9th the cantors and clergy of the
Gallican Church had to learn not only new liturgical texts but new ways of
chanting them. This process is recorded in the writings of some
contemporaries, notably Walahfrid Strabo and Hilduin, abbot of St Denis,
who observed in a letter (c835) that the abbey owned several Mass books
containing the ordo of the Gallican rite, and that these would need to be
recast to conform to the Roman tradition (MGH, Epistolae karolini aevi, iii,
Berlin, 1899, p.330). Aurelian of Réôme (fl 840s) also commented on the
difference in the way older cantors sang particular chants compared with
their younger contemporaries (see below, §7).
Considerable evidence exists to suggest that the reform of the chant
melodies was in many ways imperfect, and that the ‘Roman’ chant
performed by the Franks differed consistently from that sung in Rome itself
(see Old Roman chant, and Plainchant, §2(ii)). This Frankish version of the
Roman repertory is generally known as ‘Gregorian’ and is that preserved in
the notated manuscripts copied north of the Alps. By the end of the 9th
century the Gregorian tradition was fully established throughout the
Frankish lands and little obvious trace of its Gallican predecessor
remained; when Charles the Bald wanted to hear Gallican chant he had to
send to Toledo in Spain for singers who could perform it (see Levy, 1984,
p.50). Yet it is clear that some elements of Gallican music were preserved
during the centuries after the Carolingian reform. The Roman Office
chants, in particular, on their introduction into the liturgico-musical centres
of the Frankish realm, were adapted in some way to the Frankish style of
singing (Zijlstra, 1997, pp.31–67), and other vestiges of what may be
Gallican practice are generally thought to survive in melodic features such
as the preference for two reciting notes in psalmody, the importance of
melismatic chants and the use of certain expressive effects. The difficulties
involved in trying to identify musical characteristics with certainty, however,
has occupied chant scholars for over a century (some of the problems are
mentioned in §3 below). The following account discusses the major
sources of the Gallican rite and its chant, and surveys the corpus of
melodies that may be of Gallican origin according to their liturgical use.
Gallican chant
2. Sources.
Contemporary literature, stemming from Gaulish ecclesiastical authors,
includes the works of Gregory of Tours (d 594), most notably his Decem
libri historiarum, which contains many liturgical references, relating
particularly to the church of Tours; biographies of Merovingian saints;
monastic Rules, which derive principally from southern Gaul; collections of
conciliar decrees; poetry, sometimes later pressed into use as hymns; and
the Expositio antiquae liturgiae gallicanae, a commentary on the Gallican
Mass in the form of two letters, which were previously attributed to St
Germanus (d 576), Bishop of Paris. Preserved in a 9th-century manuscript
from the Tours area (F-AUT 184), the Expositio is thought to have been
written, possibly in Burgundy, in the early 8th century (although some
scholars consider it to be a much later, Carolingian work; see Hen, 1995,
pp.47–9); it offers valuable evidence of the Gallican liturgy, even though the
author’s interest centres mainly on the symbolism of the liturgy.
The eight surviving Gallican liturgical books, mostly dating from the late 7th
century or the 8th but containing texts that are much older, are either
collections of prayers for the celebrant (sacramentaries and missals) or
lectionaries, and their contents reflect the local uses of particular churches
or areas; chants are not cited. The sources are as follows: Expositio
antiquae liturgiae gallicanae (F-AUT 184, 9th century, from Autun; possibly
based on an earlier Merovingian text); Missale gothicum (I-Rvat
Reg.lat.317, early 8th century, Burgundy, written for a church in ?Autun;
based on an earlier text c690–c710); Missale gallicanum vetus (I-Rvat
Pal.lat.439, first half of the 8th century, from ?Luxeuil or ?Chelles;
recension of a missal from the late 6th century or early 7th); the Bobbio
Missal (F–Pn lat.13246, 8th century, probably from Septimania; formerly
thought to be from north Italy; copy of an earlier 6th-century text); Missale
francorum (I-Rvat Reg.lat.257, early 8th century, from Poitiers or the Seine
valley; based on texts of the 6th and 7th centuries); Missale vetus
gelasianum (I-Rvat lat.316, ff.3–245 and F-Pn lat.7193, ff.41–56, copied
c750 at Chelles; the text is a Gallicanized version of a 7th-century Roman
sacramentary and reflects Frankish traditions of the Paris/Meaux area);
‘Mone masses’ (D-KA Aug.253, 22 palimpsest folios, copied ?760–80, from
?Reichenau; based on a text probably dating from 630–40 and composed
for a Burgundian church). A fragmentary antiphoner in Irish script, F-Pn
n.a.lat.1628, ff.1–4 (see Morin, 1905), may be relevant, but it cannot be
dated precisely and its script and decoration suggest that it was Celtic
rather than Gallican (see Salmon, 1944–53, i, p.lxxxvii).
Remnants of the Gallican chant tradition must be sought mainly in the
Frankish liturgical books containing the Roman repertory. Some of the
chants were eventually adopted in the new liturgy, though not with their
original titles; they often seem to have been used for Frankish ceremonies
for which there was no Roman equivalent. A parallel may be drawn with the
survival of local styles in the diocese of Benevento after the imposition of
Gregorian chant there (see Beneventan chant). These Gallican elements
are not found in the earliest manuscripts after the Carolingian reform,
which are copies of the Roman archetype imposed by Pippin and
Charlemagne without additions or modifications. Few chants thought to be
Gallican occur in the earlier graduals, whether without notation (e.g. Codex
Blandiniensis, B-Br lat.10127–44) or with neumes (e.g. F-CHRm 47, LA
239, CH-SGs 359). But Gallican chants appear more frequently from the
11th century, particularly in manuscripts from St Denis or south-west
France (on the survival of Gallican chants at St Denis, see Robertson,
1985, and 1991, pp.261–71). They were added here and there as
alternative chants for festivals, or in the less official sections of liturgical
books, for example, as processional chants, which at this time were
separated from the gradual into a book of their own (the processional).
Gallican chants may also appear in tropers, processionals, and some
saint’s offices, and were sometimes used in liturgical dramas (W. Elders:
‘Gregorianisches in liturgischen Dramen der Hs. Orléans 201’, AcM, xxxvi,
1964, pp.169–77). They are also found occasionally in the liturgical books
of other Western Churches – Ambrosian, Celtic and Mozarabic – and these
are useful in drawing comparisons (see §3).
Gallican chant
3. Problems of identification.
The central difficulty facing scholars of Gallican chant is the lack of notated
sources. Because no notated Gallican chant book survives (it is unlikely
that any were written), evidence must be sought in the noted manuscripts
of other repertories – principally the Gregorian, but also the Mozarabic and
Ambrosian. This in turn leads to the question of how Gallican chants, or
Gallican elements within a chant, may be identified as distinct from the
chant tradition into which they have been adopted. Contemporary literature
mentioning particular features of Gallican music is sometimes of help in
indicating the character of the melodies, but such evidence is almost
always lacking in concrete details and hence open to considerable
interpretation. The most important means of identification remains the
comparison of melodies in notated sources, even though these sources
date from a century or more after the Gallican rite was suppressed. It must
also be remembered that the identification of a chant text as Gallican does
not necessarily mean that the music that accompanies it in notated sources
is also of the same origin.
Two separate comparisons are necessary in attempting to identify chants
from the early Gallican repertory. First, the earliest Gregorian manuscripts
of Mass and Office chants must be examined in order to distinguish the
‘Roman’ repertory imposed in Carolingian times from other chants in the
manuscripts. However, a number of these other chants are ‘Romano-
Frankish’ rather than Gallican, that is, they are part of the ‘Roman’
repertory composed in the Frankish empire during the 9th century though
somewhat different in style from the original Roman repertory.
Consequently, comparison is then required between these remaining
chants and chants with the same texts in Mozarabic, Ambrosian and Celtic
manuscripts. When concordances occur, the area of origin of the chants
must be determined. For this, three main criteria are employed (individually
or in combination): the evidence of liturgical books and other literary
evidence, the literary style of the texts, and the musical style.
The results of such comparative procedures have nevertheless proved
generally inconclusive (see, for example, Levy’s 1984 analysis of a group
of offertory chants) and hardly permit the construction of a complete
inventory of Gallican chants. The original functions of chants that have
often been recognized as Gallican frequently resist identification: in the
manuscripts they are never given their ancient liturgical titles – sonus,
confractorium etc. Moreover, the Gallican Mass and Office must have
required a larger repertory of chants than the Roman. The long, ornate
antiphons may perhaps have been sung at Mass, or the ‘responsories’
such as Collegerunt (actually an antiphon with verse) may have been used
as offertory chants, but firm evidence is lacking.
During the latter decades of the 20th century, a number of other
approaches were adopted by scholars. Jean Claire of Solesmes used a
method of tonal rather than stylistic analysis to identify the origins of the
Gregorian repertory, and concluded that melodies of the Gallican rite may
be distinguished from the Roman by their use of a particular ‘modality’.
According to his theory, three fundamental ‘modes archaïques’ (Do, Ré, Mi)
underlie all Western chants; Gallican Office melodies are characterized by
the ‘Ré’ modality, whereas Roman chants are based only on ‘Do’ and ‘Mi’
(see Claire, 1975). The theory has been expanded to include the Mass
repertory, not only by Claire himself but also by Philippe Bernard and
Olivier Cullin, who have focussed attention on sections of the Roman Mass
Proper containing exceptionally large numbers of melodies in the ‘Ré’
mode (e.g. Advent); such chants, they argue, must have been adopted by
Rome from the Gallican liturgy at an early date (i.e. the 6th century). Cullin
(1993) suggested that only melodies in the 2nd (‘Ré’) mode are of Gallican
origin, whereas Bernard (1990–92) claimed that the entire Roman Advent
Proper was borrowed from the Gallican liturgy. However, these theories
have not found universal acceptance. In particular, there is no evidence to
support the assumption that the Gallican rite ever possessed a chant
Proper, and the reliability of the Old Roman manuscripts (dating from the
11th–13th centuries) as sources for the chant melodies of 8th- and 9th-
century Rome has been questioned. Furthermore, in the absence of
notated sources earlier than the 9th century, it is highly unlikely that the
music attached to a particular feast in later medieval manuscripts bears
much resemblance to the melody sung when that feast was first
established in the liturgy.
A different approach was adopted by James McKinnon, who examined the
contemporary literary sources concerning the contexts and manner in
which Gallican chant was performed before the Carolingian reforms. His
argument is based on a distinction (originally articulated by Claire, 1962,
pp.231–5) between ‘lector’ chant and ‘schola’ chant. The former is
characteristic of the early Christian period and is essentially a soloist’s art
whereby a solo singer – often called ‘lector’ in early documents – sings in
alternation with the congregation; this type of chant is almost entirely
improvised and the repertory is not fixed. ‘Schola’ chant, as the name
suggests, is the product of a specialist choir and is characterized by a high
degree of organization, in particular through the maintenance of a fixed
repertory (i.e. a musical Proper); such chant seems to have developed in
Rome from about the mid-7th century with the formation of the Schola
Cantorum and is also considered to be typical of the Mozarabic and
Ambrosian repertories. In a survey of the literary sources concerning the
Gallican Church, McKinnon concluded that the conditions did not exist in
Francia before the Carolingian era for the creation of a ‘schola’ repertory;
all the evidence suggests that the chants were performed by soloists, that
there was no sense of a Proper for either the texts or the music, and that
there was no choir or group of singers that could provide the stability
necessary for the creation or preservation of a fixed musical repertory. For
this reason, he argued, it is implausible that a large number of melodies in
the Gregorian repertory could have originally been Gallican (McKinnon,
1995). In other words, one of the most important defining characteristics of
the Gallican tradition – its improvised nature – was lost with the imposition
by the Carolingians of the largely fixed melodies of the Roman Church;
hence even chants within the Gregorian repertory that are generally
recognized as being ‘Gallican’ cannot be considered as examples of the
genuine pre-Carolingian tradition.
The various theories behind the methods of identifying Gallican chants are
closely bound up with the theories concerning the history of Gregorian
chant, its relation to the other medieval monophonic traditions, and the
differing effects of oral and written means of transmission on a repertory; all
of these are the subject of heated debate (see, for example, Hucke, 1980;
and Levy, 1987). The history of particular chants and their transmission
remains unclear, although with the help of liturgical and historical sources
convincing results have been found (see McKinnon, 1992). However, to
what extent Gallican chants were retained as part of the Gregorian
repertory is still a matter of conjecture.
Gallican chant
4. Liturgical evidence.
Chant incipits in Gallican sacramentaries and lectionaries very occasionally
correspond with those of chants in noted Gregorian graduals and
antiphoners, but such correspondences are sometimes coincidental. A
responsory Probasti mentioned in the Missale gothicum (ed. Bannister,
1917–19, no.398, p.112) and a responsory Exaltent eum cited in the
lectionary of Wolfenbüttel (see A. Dold, ed.: Das Sakramentar im
Schabcodex M 12, Beuron, 1952, p.14) may not be the Gregorian graduals
Probasti and Exaltent; and the responsorium Domine audivi for Good
Friday in the Missale gallicanum vetus (ed. Mohlberg, 1929, p.27) is either
an interpolated Gregorian chant or a different Gallican chant resembling
either the tract Domine audivi or the Ambrosian psalmellus with the same
incipit (see Suñol, 1935, p.290).
A similar difficulty arises with the antiphon Sanctus Deus archangelorum,
cited in the second letter of the Expositio antiquae liturgiae gallicanae as a
substitute for the Benedictus during Lent (ed. Ratcliff, 1971, no.4, p.18).
Gastoué (1939) claimed that this was the antiphon Sanctus Deus qui
sedes super cherubim (see also B. Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1306), but his
identification seems impossible, not only because the incipit is different but
also because the chant is found almost exclusively in Italian manuscripts.
By contrast, certain Gallican elements may be identified in Aquitanian
manuscripts with concordances elsewhere. These include the preces for
Holy Saturday, in the Bobbio Missal, whose refrain (presa) appears in
Aquitanian manuscripts. Three other Gallican preces in Aquitanian
manuscripts (Miserere Pater juste, Miserere Domine supplicantibus and
Rogamus te Rex seculorum) have textual concordances in Spanish
sources (see Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’, 1955, p.361). The antiphon
Introeunte te, a Latin translation of a troparion originally from Jerusalem,
occurs in Aquitanian processionals and Spanish manuscripts; it was cited
in a gradual from Pistoia as ‘antiphonas gallicanas’. There are similar
concordances of the Benedicite (see L. Brou: ‘Les benedictiones, ou
Cantique des Trois Enfants dans l’ancienne messe espagnole’, Hispania
sacra, i, 1948, pp.21–33), the Trisagion (see Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1303–5)
and the antiphon Viri sancti. The Viri sancti is not Gallican, however: a
comparison of the texts in the Aquitanian and Spanish versions (see Brou
and Vives, 1953, p.186) with the scriptural text (2 Esdras viii.52–5 in the
Apocrypha) shows that the Spanish text preceded the Aquitanian.
Some Gallican chants may be identified with the help of evidence from
Celtic manuscripts. The Bangor Antiphonary, which was copied at the end
of the 7th century and is strongly associated with Bobbio, includes a
communion antiphon of Eastern origin, Corpus Domini accepimus (see
Baumstark, 3/1953, p.105). This chant occurs as a transitorium at Milan
(Suñol, 1935, p.320) and as a confractorium in some north Italian graduals,
but the latter include a clause ‘adjutor et defensor …’, which suggests that
the chant was not originally Ambrosian (see Huglo, ‘Antifone antiche’,
1955); it probably had its Western origin in the Gallican rite.
The same Celtic manuscript at Bobbio includes the hymn Mediae noctis
tempus est, whose melody was identified by Stäblein (1956, p.448, melody
761; see also MGG1, iv, 1323). The melodies of other Celtic confractoria
(e.g. in the Stowe Missal) and other hymns may not have survived,
although the Maundy antiphon Si ego lavi with the verse ‘Exemplum’ in the
Stowe Missal also appears, with the same verse, in certain Aquitanian
manuscripts. Usually, however, the verses of antiphons, unnecessary in the
Gregorian rite, were simply suppressed or transferred to other contexts by
medieval scribes. (See Celtic chant.)
Some Gallican chants occur as Ambrosian chants with Gregorian
concordances, such as the antiphon Maria et Martha (Hesbert, 1935/R,
no.214), which has the same text as an Ambrosian transitorium (Suñol,
1935, p.226), and the antiphon Insignes praeconiis (Stäblein, MGG1, iv,
1311, cf 1309). The latter was used for the feast of St Denis but had
originally been composed for St Maurice; it is still used for St Maurice in the
Ambrosian antiphoner (Suñol, 1935, p.536). Another such chant is the
preces Dicamus omnes (Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1313). The antiphon Venite
populi, of Gallican origin, is found in some 30 Gregorian manuscripts and in
a palimpsest from the 7th or 8th century; it sometimes carries the rubric ‘In
fractione’ and occurs as a transitorium at Milan (see Huglo and others,
1956, p.124).
The Palm Sunday processional antiphon Cum audisset, probably of
Gallican origin, contains in its text a clause ‘Quantus est iste cui throni et
dominationes occurrunt?’, which is found in two other chants, one the
Spanish Curbati sunt (Brou and Vives, 1953, p.151) and the other the
Ambrosian Curvati sunt (Suñol, 1935, p.246). This borrowing of fragments
of text from various sources, or ‘centonization’, is common in Gallican
liturgical formulae. Similarly, a Gallican origin may be assumed for the
antiphons Post passionem Domini and O crux benedicta quae sola, which
have concordances in the Ambrosian antiphoner (Suñol, 1935, pp.218,
274; cf G.M. Suñol, ed.: Liber vesperalis juxta ritum sanctae ecclesiae
mediolanensis, Rome, 1939, p.356).
The Ambrosian alleluias offer evidence relevant to the Gallican alleluias. In
the Ambrosian rite, as in the Gregorian, the alleluias are followed by
verses, but the initial alleluias are not always repeated as they would be in
the Gregorian rite. Instead, longer alleluias – melodiae primae – are sung,
resembling the initial alleluias only in their incipits; and these were formerly
followed by even longer melodiae secundae (not in modern editions of
Ambrosian chant). There were thus three alleluias in increasing order of
length, all with the same incipits but otherwise similar only in tonality
(Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1316; cf MGG1, i, 337). One of these melismatic
melodies was styled ‘alleluia francigena’ at Milan (Stäblein, MGG1, i, 339);
and melodiae longissimae, analogous to the Milanese melodiae, began to
appear in the late 8th century in Francia under the name sequentia
(Hesbert, 1935/R, no.199a, MS B; see also Sequence (i)). In northern
France and at St Gallen they were sung in about 830 (ed. Hughes,
1934/R); and at Cluny these long wordless melismas were sung as late as
the 11th century: an 11th-century gradual terms them melodiae annuales
(F-Pn lat.1087, f.108) and the melismas gallicana neuma (Udalric:
Consuetudines cluniacenses: PL, cxlix, 666).
The melismatic melodies edited by Bannister and Hughes (see Hughes,
1934/R) probably represent a part of the Gallican repertory, though with
some modifications to bring them into conformity with Gregorian chant. The
Gallican alleluias were probably sung in a threefold form at Mass as well as
in the alleluiaticus of the Office (‘habet ipsa alleluia prima et secunda et
tertia’; see Ratcliff, 1971, p.13, no.20).
The melodiae of the alleluias are also relevant to a consideration of the
Christmas responsory Descendit de caelis, which has a long melisma at
‘fabricae mundi’ (noted by Amalarius of Metz in about 830 in his Liber de
ordine antiphonarii; ed. J.M. Hanssens, Vatican City, 1950, pp.55–6) and
another melisma in the verse at ‘tamquam’ identical to the melisma, or
neuma triplex, of the responsory In medio ecclesiae (also mentioned by
Amalarius, ibid., 54). The structure of these melismas resembles that of the
melodiae of Ambrosian responsories.
A chant of Gallican origin with a Mozarabic parallel is the offertory of St
Stephen, Elegerunt apostoli, in the León Antiphoner. This chant gradually
superseded the offertory In virtute in the Gregorian tradition (see Hesbert,
1935/R, no.12). Its earliest known occurrence is in a manuscript from St
Denis (ibid., no.148bis, MS ‘S’), and it is found even today in the Graduale
romanum (p.634). It is possible that other offertories whose texts are
similar or identical to Mozarabic sacrificia (the Mozarabic equivalent of the
offertory) may also have retained some Gallican musical features (see
Levy, 1984).
Liturgical and textual evidence proves that two of the chants of Holy
Saturday are Gallican: the Exultet and the hymn Inventor rutili. These
should have disappeared when the Roman rite was introduced into Francia
but were retained, probably because the Roman Easter Vigil seemed too
austere to the Franks. There are difficulties, however, in reconstructing any
‘original’ Gallican melody of the Exultet from the various recitatives that
survive (see G. Benoit-Castelli: ‘Le Praeconium paschale’, Ephemerides
liturgicae, lxvii, 1953, pp.309–34). In Gallican sacramentaries the Exultet
ends with a collect (prayer); this is followed by a second, styled post
hymnum cerei (‘after the hymn of the [Paschal] candle’). The hymn in
question is in fact Inventor rutili, whose text was composed by Prudentius;
it was probably a part of the daily Gallican Office of Lucernarium and
survives in many Gaulish and German manuscripts as a part of the solemn
Lucernarium for the Easter Vigil (ed. G.M. Dreves, AH, l, 1907, p.30;
melody in Stäblein, 1956, no.1001; see also Combe, 1952, p.128).
Further liturgical comparisons may be made with those Ordines romani that
include Gallican material; with the exception of Ordo I, all the Ordines are
of Frankish composition and, for the most part, present a mixture of Roman
and Frankish elements. The 8th-century Ordo XV (Andrieu’s numbering),
for example, specifies for the Requiem Mass the introit Donet nobis
requiem (see Andrieu, 1931–61, iii, 127). This introit, which appears in
many Aquitanian manuscripts, including that of Albi (F-Pn lat.776), is
probably Gallican (melody ed. C. Gay, ‘Formulaires anciens pour la Messe
des défunts’, EG, ii, 1957, pp.83–129, esp. 91, 128).
Gallican chant
5. Style of the texts.
A distinct vocabulary and style characterizes the texts of the Gallican
liturgy. The style of the Roman collects and prefaces is rigorously precise in
theological formulation and concise in vocabulary: prayer is always
addressed to the Father through the Son, and petitions are concisely
expressed. By contrast, Gallican prayers develop various aspects of a
theme, with an accumulation of rhetorical figures such as repetitions,
redundancies, antitheses and metaphors; and the rich and colourful
vocabulary contrasts strongly with that of the Roman liturgy (see Manz,
1941). Gallican prayers are introduced with an admonition (praefatio)
announcing the theme; these occur at Rome only before the solemn
prayers of the Good Friday liturgy. Prayers in the Gallican rite were
frequently addressed to the Son and Holy Spirit.
Some conventional rhetorical phrases are characteristically Gallican: the
gospels in the Gallican lectionaries generally begin ‘In diebus illis’ or
‘Diebus illis’, rather than ‘In illo tempore’, the Roman formula. For this
reason the antiphon In diebus illis mulier may be taken to be Gallican; it is
prescribed for St Mary Magdalene (22 July) in some late antiphoners (see
Hesbert, 1965, ii, nos.102, 146, 4), but more frequently for Maundy
Thursday (see Hesbert, 1963, i, nos.72c, 147, and in some Aquitanian
manuscripts), and it was probably originally part of the Holy Week liturgy in
Gaul.
Another such conventional formula is ‘Dominus Jesus’, in the Milanese and
Gallican lectionaries (see Salmon, 1944–53, p.lxxxviii). Chants including
this phrase may have a Gallican origin, for example, the antiphon Cena
facta est sciens Dominus Jesus found in Aquitanian manuscripts. The
antiphon for the Dedication of a Church, Pax eterna, also begins with a
characteristically Gallican phrase (see Manz, 1941, no.700).
In biblical texts there are characteristic divergences from the Vulgate
version, for example, in the alleluia with the verse ‘Multifarie’, which is not
identical to its Gregorian counterpart and whose reading is reproduced
precisely in the lectionary of Luxeuil (ed. Salmon, 1944–53, p.9). Some of
the Maundy (mandatum) chants follow the ancient Latin biblical text used in
Gaul (ed. A. Dold, Das Sakramentar im Schabcodex M 12, Beuron, 1952,
p.25); the 11th-century scribe who copied the antiphon Cena facta into the
Albi manuscript (F-Pn lat.776, f.62) wrote ‘Venit ergo’ under the influence of
the Vulgate version, but a contemporary hand restored the Gallican
reading, ‘autem’.
Textual analysis of the Aquitanian chant manuscripts, especially F-Pn
lat.776 from Albi, would probably reveal further chants of Gallican origin.
(On the Gallican Psalter, see §8 below.)
Gallican chant
6. Musical style.
Walahfrid Strabo spoke of the distinctive style, in both text and sound, of
Gallican chants (see quotation in §1 above); and the chants identifiable
according to textual criteria exhibit certain musical peculiarities, in
intonation formulae, in melismas and cadences and in the use of distinctive
neumes. However, these criteria cannot be used in isolation to identify
Gallican chants; after the imposition of the Gregorian repertory in Francia,
chant composition continued for a time along traditional lines. Thus a
distinction between the older Gallican repertory and chants composed
shortly after the Carolingian reform cannot be made on purely musical
grounds.
At a second intonation, following an intermediate cadence, the pattern
shown in ex.1 is possibly a Gallican characteristic; another characteristic
may be the use of sequential patterns for a descent (ex.2).
Gallican chant
7. The Mass.
The structure of the Gallican Mass and the nature of its chants can to some
extent be reconstructed from information in a variety of sources, especially
the first of the two letters of the Expositio antiquae liturgiae gallicanae(ed.
Ratcliff, 1971). The items from the Mass are listed below in their liturgical
order.
(i) Antiphona ad praelegendum.
This chant preceded the lections; it is found (with the same name and
function) in the Spanish liturgy. Like its Roman counterpart, the introit, but
unlike the equivalent Ambrosian ingressa, it included psalm verses: the
verses ad repetendum in some ancient Gregorian graduals from north
France may be of Gallican origin.
(ii) Call for silence.
A recitative for this type of diaconal admonition occurs in a processional
from St Peter at Cologne (D-KNa G A 89b (anc.W.105), f.7v; cf RISM,
B/XIV/1, 217; see ex.5). According to the Expositio, this enabled the
congregation better to hear the word of God (‘ut tacens populus melius
audiat verbum Dei’; ed. Ratcliff, 1971, p.3, no.2). The call for silence was
followed by the greeting ‘Dominus sit semper vobiscum’ and the answer ‘Et
cum spiritu tuo’, and the collect.
(iii) Aius (Trisagion).
The term ‘aius’ is a corruption of ‘hagios’ (Gk.: ‘holy’): the letter ‘g’ was
dropped, as occurred also in the tonal formula noeais, for noeagis. The
chant was intoned by the priest and continued by the choir in Greek and
Latin (‘dicens latinum cum greco’); it was followed by the Kyrie eleison,
which was probably not sung, but recited by three boys in unison (‘uno
ore’) as at Milan. The Trisagion was mistakenly written as ‘Trecanum’ in F-
AUT 184 (see Bernard, ‘La “Liturgie de la victoire”’, 1996).
(iv) Benedictus (Prophetia).
This, the Canticle of Zechariah (Luke i.68–79), was probably intoned by the
priest (Gregory of Tours, Decem libri historiarium, viii, 7: MGH, Scriptores
rerum merovingiarum, i, 1951/R, 330). The Benedictus was replaced during
Lent by the antiphon Sanctus Deus archangelorum (see Ratcliff, 1971,
p.18, no.4). It was followed by a collect (collectio post prophetiam).
(v) Hymnus trium puerorum (Benedictiones, Benedicite).
The synaxis proper began with three readings; the position of this canticle
is not clear from the Expositio (Ratcliff, 1971, p.5, no.6), but it probably
separated the first two readings, the lectio prophetica (from the Old
Testament) and the lectio ex apostolo (drawn not only from the epistles but
also from Acts, Revelation and even the martyrology, according to the
festival).
(vi) Responsorium.
This chant was probably ornate and was sung by boys (‘a parvulis canitur’);
in the latter feature it recalls the responsories cum infantibus of the
Ambrosian rite. It replaced an ancient psalmus responsorius, sung by a
deacon, with the congregation singing a brief responsorium after each
verse (Gregory of Tours, op.cit., 328, cf 694).
(vii) Antiphona ante evangelium.
This antiphon was sung during the procession of the deacon to the ambo
from which the Gospel was read, and was followed by the chanting of the
Gospel by the deacon. The Ambrosian rite provides antiphons of this type
for Christmas, Epiphany and Easter, but at no other time; there is, however,
a complete series of Ambrosian antiphons to follow the Gospel (post
evangelium).
(viii) Sanctus post evangelium.
During the return of the Gospel procession from the ambo, the Sanctus
was sung by the clerics in Latin. Although a passage in the early 7th-
century vita of St Gaugericus, Bishop of Cambrai, suggests that Greek was
used (‘aius, aius, aius per trinum numerum imposuit’: ed. in Analecta
bollandiana, vii, 1888, p.393), the reference here may be to the earlier
Trisagion (see §7(iii) above) or to the Sanctus after the Preface (see §7(xii)
below). This chant was followed by the reading of a patristic homily.
(ix) Preces.
Numerous Gallican preces survive in Aquitanian manuscripts. They take
the form of a litany in which a deacon chants numerous supplications for
the spiritual and temporal needs of the people, and each is followed by a
short congregational response, ‘Domine miserere’, ‘Kyrie eleison’, ‘Dona
nobis veniam’ etc. (see §13 below).
(x) Dismissal of the catechumens.
A melody for this item, chanted by the deacon, survives in D-KNa G A 89b
(see ex.6). Ordo XV, a Gallicanized Roman ceremonial written in Francia in
the 8th century, has a text varying slightly from this.
(xi) Sonus.
This ornate chant (‘dulci melodia’) was sung during the solemn Procession
of the Oblations from the altar of the prothesis (proskomidē) to the high
altar. The Expositio expounded its symbolism at length (ed. Ratcliff, 1971,
p.10, no.17). The sonus was equated with the Roman offertory by the
Capitulare ecclesiastici ordinis (‘offerenda quod Franci dicunt sonum’; see
Andrieu, 1931–61, iii, 123) It concluded with a triple alleluia, except during
Lent.
(xii) Sanctus.
After the immolatio missae (contestatio), corresponding to the Preface in
the Roman Mass, which was chanted by the priest, the Sanctus followed. It
was adopted even though it interrupts to some extent the continuity of the
Consecration Prayer, and even though a Sanctus occurred earlier in the
Gallican Mass; and it was followed by a transitional prayer, beginning ‘Vere
sanctus’.
(xiii) Fraction antiphon.
In Francia the Fraction occurred before rather than after the Lord’s Prayer
(see Ratcliff, 1971, p.15, no.24b), and an antiphon was sung by the clerics.
In Spain and at Milan this was termed the confractorium. There are
frequent concordances between Ambrosian confractoria and Roman
communions. On the other hand, Ambrosian transitoria, which are
equivalent in liturgical function to the Roman communions, are often drawn
rather from oriental or Gallican Fraction chants.
(xiv) Pater noster.
In Gaul, North Africa and Spain, this was sung by the whole congregation.
(xv) Episcopal benediction.
A solemn benediction was pronounced by the bishop; the formula was
shortened if the celebrant was simply a priest (see Ratcliff, 1971, p.15,
no.26). After the Council of Agde (506) the faithful were not permitted to
leave the church before this benediction. It was preceded by a preliminary
admonition from the deacon, ‘Humiliate vos ad benedictionem’ (melody,
from a Soissons manuscript, in Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1318; melody in ex.7,
from a Cluniac manuscript from St Martin-des-Champs, F-Pn lat.17716,
f.14, in Hesbert, 1956, p.217). The verses of the benediction were then
chanted by the bishop, with the response ‘Amen’ from the congregation
(melody in Hesbert, 1956, p.216–17). This practice survived in many
churches until a late date.
Gallican chant
8. The Office.
Evidence relating to the Gallican Divine Office is much more scarce than
that for the Mass. Practice varied from church to church, for example, in the
ordering of the Psalter and in the number and choice of antiphons and
responsories; until the reforms of the early 9th century, monastic
communitites generally composed their own regula and cursus. Most of the
surviving evidence concerns the Offices celebrated at Tours, the
monasteries of south-east France, including Lérins, and St Maurice at
Agaune in the Burgundian Kingdom, where the monks were committed to
singing the Office uninterruptedly, according to the practice known as laus
perennis (see Gindele, 1959). In addition, several regulae incorporating a
cursus survive from the monasteries established in Burgundy by the Irish
monk Columbanus from 590, who exerted a considerable influence on
monasticism in Gaul. Columbanus’s own Regula was particularly ascetic
and his followers often combined it with the Regula Benedicti. In the early
9th century, however, religious communities were required to follow either
the Regula Benedicti or the secular ‘Roman’ cursus.
In broad outline the Divine Office of the Frankish and German cathedrals
resembled that of other regions. There was a night Office, divided into
various nocturns, with a hymn, psalms and lessons. According to Amalarius
of Metz, writing in the first half of the 9th century, the Pater noster was sung
at the end of each nocturn. The psalms, and after the Council of Narbonne
in 589 (canon 2) also the sections of longer psalms, concluded with the
Lesser Doxology, Gloria Patri, to which the phrase ‘Sicut erat’ was added at
the Second Council of Vaison (529); churches near Spain adopted the
distinctive Spanish doxology, ‘Gloria et honor Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto
in secula seculorum’ (see Ward, 1935, p.73). Some of the lessons for the
night Office are indicated in the Lectionary of Luxeuil (see Salmon, 1944–
53, ix, 57). The Te Deum, a hymn of Gallican origin, was sung at the night
Office on Sundays and festivals (see Kähler, 1958).
The dawn Office included psalms and biblical canticles. From the 6th
century, the Benedicite and the alleluiaticum (i.e. Psalms cxlviii–cl) were
recited at this Office on Sundays (Gregory of Tours, De vitis patrum, vii:
MGH, Scriptores rerum merovingiarum, i, 1951/R, 685). The Gloria in
excelsis (Greater Doxology) was sung at Lauds in Gaul and Spain, and at
Milan; it was not a part of the Mass.
The day Hours (Prime, Terce, Sext and None) included one hymn each and
psalms. Lucernarium (at the ‘lighting of lamps’, i.e. at sunset) included a
greater responsory, as in the Ambrosian and Spanish rites, and a metrical
hymn when these were admitted. In cathedrals, Lucernarium ended with an
episcopal benediction. The sequence of Offices concluded with Vespers
and Compline (Duodecima).
The chants of the Gallican Offices thus resemble those of other regions:
they comprise psalms, antiphons with verses, lessons, greater
responsories and (in most churches) hymns.
Local liturgical variants appear in a number of areas. The ancient Gallican
psalters (e.g. the Psalterium corbeiense, the Psalterium sangermanense
and the psalters of Reichenau; see Capelle, 1925) differ in text from the
Italic versions (see liturgical Psalter), and their list of Lauds canticles is
different from that of Rome (see Schneider, 1949, p.483). Similarly, the
Tours antiphoner differs from that of Marseilles (see Leclercq, 1924,
col.588), and that of Toulouse differs from those of Autun and Paris.
Metrical hymns were composed in Italy and Gaul from the late 4th century.
Although in the Carolingian era some churches, such as those of Lyons
and Vienne, are known to have excluded hymnody (as Walahfrid Strabo
commented: ‘in some churches metrical hymns [hymni metrici] are not
sung’) on the grounds that the texts were non-biblical, in general hymn
singing seems to have been a popular aspect of the Gallican liturgy, and
various influences may be noted. In south-east France the hymnal of Milan
exerted an influence: Bishop Faustus of Riez (fl 5th century) noted that the
hymn Veni Redemptor gentium was sung almost throughout Gaul (Epistola
ad graecum diac; ed. A. Engelbrecht, Fausti Reiensis Praeter sermones
pseudo-eusebianos opera, Vienna, 1891, p.203); and St Caesarius of Arles
(d 543) in his Regula ad virgines (ed. G. Morin, S. Caesarii Arelatensi
episcopi Regula sanctarum virginum, Cologne, 1932, p.23) prescribed the
hymn Christe qui lux es et dies for Compline; as a means of retaining the
attention of the laity, Caesarius also introduced hymns into the celebration
of Mass. The Irish hymnal exerted an influence in an area limited mainly to
Francia north of the Loire and Germany (see preface to AH, lii, Leipzig,
1909); and there was Spanish influence in south-west Gaul (see Wagner,
1928). For the repertory of known Gallican hymns see §11 below.
Gallican chant
9. Special rites.
The Gallican rite had a richer repertory of special rites than the Roman. A
solemn translation of relics, accompanied by chants, was prescribed at the
Dedication of a Church. At baptisms the feet of the neophytes were
washed while chants from the Maundy Thursday liturgy were sung: this
ceremony was distinctly non-Roman (see Schäfer, 1956). At Extreme
Unction the priest chanted antiphons while administering the rites, a
practice also common to Spain.
Processions were instituted by Claudianus Mamertus, Bishop of Vienne (d
c475), on Rogation days (the three days before Ascension Day). These
were adopted in the Ambrosian and Spanish rites, but not until a later date
at Rome because a similar processional litany was instituted there on 25
April. Gallican processions were long and must have required more chants
(antiphons and litanies) than the Roman processions; some of these
Gallican chants survived well into the Middle Ages. (See Processional.)
Gallican chant
10. Psalmody.
In Gaul, as throughout Western Christendom, the psalms were originally
sung responsorially: a lector, or a psalmist belonging (according to the
canons of the late 5th-century Statuta ecclesiae antiqua of southern Gaul)
to the lesser clergy, would recite the psalm, and the congregation would
sing a short refrain (responsorium) to a very simple melody after each
verse or pair of verses. The responsorium might be drawn from the psalm
itself, or other brief responses such as ‘alleluia’ might be used.
Responsoria of this type, indicated by an initial ‘R’ in gold, occur in the
Gallican Psalterium sangermanense (F-Pn lat.11947); an alleluia written in
gold should be considered a responsorium: for Psalm xliv the
responsorium was ‘Adferentur regi virgines postea’; for Psalm l ‘Asperges
me hyssopo et mundabor’; for Psalm lvi ‘Paratum cor meum Deus’; and for
Psalm cix ‘Juravit Dominus nec penitebit eum’. (For a list of responsoria,
see Huglo, 1982.)
Responsorial psalmody of this type was replaced in Francia by antiphonal
psalmody, but hardly any psalmody different from the Gregorian survives. It
is not known whether a melodic variation occurred at the mediation,
midway through each verse, or whether this mediation was reduced to a
simple pause on the reciting note, as in Ambrosian or Mozarabic psalmody,
because the surviving evidence may have been ‘corrected’ according to
Gregorian procedure. (In the 16th century the mediation was adopted in
this way in the Ambrosian rite in direct imitation of Roman practice.)
Psalm tones that seem to be of Gallican origin are shown in ex.8. The first
two occur in the Commemoratio brevis (GerbertS, i, 213–14; Bailey, 1979),
an anonymous treatise of Benedictine origin composed in the late 9th
century in the area between the Seine and Rhine. Besides the usual eight
Gregorian psalm tones, two special tones are given for antiphonal
psalmody. One is the tonus peregrinus (‘wandering tone’), so named in the
12th century because it included two reciting notes and was foreign to the
Gregorian system of eight tones (in which only one reciting note is found in
each tone). This tone was mentioned by Aurelian of Réôme (fl 840s) in his
Musica disciplina: ‘quemadmodum ab antiquis, ita a modernis modo
canuntur’ (‘as it was by the old, it should be sung by the moderns’; ed.
Gushee, 1975, p.110). The third tone in ex.8 is the melody of the Gallican
Te Deum, which is in essence a simple psalm tone with two reciting notes.
Ex.9 shows a further psalm tone with two reciting notes, from the 1736
Ventimiglia breviary, where it is described as ‘from the ancient use … of the
church of Paris’ and probably represents a corrupt version of a Gallican
psalm tone.
Ex.10 shows two somewhat more complex psalm tones, with an antiphonal
alleluia. The alleluia is sung once after the first verse, twice after the
second group of verses and three times after the last group. The reciting
note varies from group to group. This type of psalmody survived in
manuscripts from Rouen and in some Anglo-Norman manuscripts. A psalm
tone corresponding to the Gallican alleluiaticum, that is, Psalms cxlviii–cl
(ex.11), is found in pre-13th-century Gregorian antiphoners as part of the
alleluiatic Office for Septuagesima (see Oury, 1965, p.98).
Gallican chant
11. Hymnody.
Three Gallican prose hymns are known: the Te Deum, the Gloria in
excelsis and the hymn for the night Office, Magna et mirabilia opera
tua(Revelation xv.3), mentioned by St Caesarius of Arles and surviving in
the Gallican hymnal of a psalter (I-Rvat Reg.lat.11).
The melody of the Te Deum consists of two sections. The first, ending at
‘sanguine redemisti’, is a Gallican psalm tone with two reciting notes (see
§7 above and ex.8). The melody of the section ‘Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus’
is the same as that used in the Ambrosian Mass. The second main section
consists of a series of psalm verses (capitella) that originally formed part of
the Gloria in excelsis, the hymn of Matins; the manuscript tradition poses
difficult problems of interpretation (see Frost, 1933, p.250). The
construction of the melody changes at the beginning of the second section
(‘Aeterna fac’): no general conclusions can be drawn regarding this part of
the melody.
Textual variants suggest that the Gallican melody of the Gloria in excelsis
was Gloria XV of the Vatican edition of the gradual. Its features include a
syllabic melody, a defective scale and a very archaic structure; the
intonation is identical to that of the Te Deum (ex.12). The antiquity of this
melody is suggested by the text: characteristically Gallican variants
(‘hymnum dicimus tibi’, ‘propter gloriam tuam magnam’ etc.) are found in
manuscripts, both noted and with neumes, containing this melody. Some
Western manuscripts include a Greek version of the Gloria, and this may
have belonged to the Gallican repertory (see Huglo, 1950, p.35).
The texts of the Gallican metrical hymns survive in two substantially
identical versions: the Psautier de la reine (I-Rvat Reg.lat.11) from northern
France between Paris, Corbie and Soissons, and the Murbach hymnal
(GB-Ob Junius 25). The former is supported by evidence from a Corbie
hymnal (F-Pn lat.14088) and the latter corresponds with the hymnal of
Rheinau (CH-Zz Rh.34), which is incomplete. Almost all the hymns in these
manuscripts are metrical.
The following list of Gallican hymns can be reconstructed on the basis of
these manuscripts. The hymns are remarkably ancient: those borrowed
from Milan predate the addition of the so-called Maximianus series to that
liturgy in the mid-7th century (see Huglo and others, 1956, p.85). Moreover,
this list contains no hymns by Prudentius (348–after 405), Paulinus of Nola
(353/4–431) or Sedulius (mid-5th century), although many of the Office
hymns are cited in the monastic Rules of Caesarius of Arles (470–543) and
his brother Aurelian (d 551; see Raugel, 1958; and Anglès, 1967, p.73).
The Psautier de la reine contains only three hymns by St Ambrose for the
Proper of the Time: Intende qui regis for Christmas, Illuminans altissimus
for Epiphany, and Haec est dies verus Dei for Easter; this archaically brief
series is framed by six hymns for Lauds, one for each weekday, and by a
series of hymns for the other Offices.
The non-Ambrosian hymn melodies demand separate study from the
Ambrosian, which must have been the same as those used in Milan
(thematic table in Huglo and others, 1956, pp.99–100) except for Veni
Redemptor gentium and Intende qui regis, whose melodies were altered in
Francia. Among the other hymns, the melody of Mediae noctis tempus est,
which appears in noted hymnals, probably has a Gallican origin (see
Stäblein, 1956, p.448, melody 761). (See also Hymn, §II, 1.)
Gallican chant
12. Antiphons and responsories.
In the Gregorian repertory only one type of simple antiphon is generally
used with the singing of psalms. The Gallican tradition, however, like the
Ambrosian and Mozarabic, had antiphons with verses that were chanted
during the Offices and at other occasions such as the Washing of the Feet
on Maundy Thursday; the Offices of St Denis and St Remigius, which
originated before the introduction of Roman chant into Francia, include
antiphons of this type. Indeed, antiphons with verses may be found in three
of the Gregorian Offices: those of 25 January (the Conversion of St Paul),
30 June (Commemoration of St Paul) and 10 August (St Lawrence). The
reason for this anomaly is unknown.
Gallican antiphons with verses include the Maundy antiphons, such as Si
ego lavi with the verse ‘Exemplum’ (see §4 above), and Popule meus with
two verses, ‘Quia eduxi’ and ‘Quid ultra’. Popule meus contains a
celebrated Gallican intonation on ‘aut in quo’, which appears from the late
9th century in French antiphoners and which has an Ambrosian parallel
(see PalMus, 1st ser., vi, 1900/R, 304). Another example is the antiphon
Collegerunt with the verse ‘Unus autem’, which may represent a Gallican
sonus; it is found as an offertory in some Gregorian manuscripts, such as
those of Paris.
The Gallican antiphonae ante evangelium were sung, as at Milan, without
psalm verses. Examples include Salvator omnium, Hodie illuxit (Stäblein,
MGG1, iv, 1311) and probably also Insignes praeconiis (ibid., 1309, 1311).
The Fraction and Communion antiphons also lacked psalm verses: they
include Venite populi (see §4 above), Emitte angelum (ed. P. Cagin: Te
Deum ou illatio?, Solesmes, 1900, pp.217, 495) and Memor sit (Stäblein,
MGG1, iv, 1315).
The shorter Gallican Office antiphons are not identifiable, although the
three antiphons whose texts begin with ‘Alleluia’ may be Gallican: Alleluia,
Lapis revolutus est, Alleluia, Noli flere Maria and Alleluia, Quem quaeris
mulier(see J. Claire: ‘L’évolution modale dans les répertoires liturgiques
occidentaux’, Revue grégorienne, xli, 1963, p.61). These are similar to the
alleluiatic antiphons in the Celtic manuscript fragments F-Pn n.a.lat.1628
(see Morin, 1905, p.344); they are not in the Roman Easter Office, which is
well known from Amalarius of Metz and the Ordines romani.
The Greco-Latin chants of the Western Church include the Cheroubikon,
which was chanted at St Denis until the 13th century and which survives in
the West only in manuscripts with neumes (see M. Huglo: ‘Les chants de la
Missa greca de Saint-Denis’, Essays Presented to Egon Wellesz, ed. J.
Westrup, Oxford, 1966, pp.74–83, esp. 79; see also C.M. Atkinson: ‘On the
Origin and Transmission of the Missa graeca’, AMw, xxxix, 1982, 113–45).
In the West its origin is Gallican. Some manuscripts contain a Greek
Sanctus, and this too probably entered the West through the Gallican
liturgy (see Levy, 1958–63, pp.7–67).
None of the greater responsories of the Gallican Offices is at present
known to survive, except for Descendit de coelis (cited in §4 above). It is
possible that one or two may survive in the pre-Gregorian Offices of St
Denis, St Remigius and St Germanus of Auxerre, for Hilduinus in his letter
to Louis the Pious noted that the Office of St Denis included Gallican
chants and had to be recast to conform with the Gregorian repertory (see
§1 above).
Gallican chant
13. ‘Preces’.
This category consists of the most substantially intact surviving group of
chants thought to be of Gallican origin. Preces were assigned to the Minor
Litanies in Gregorian books (see Processional) and may have been sung
mostly in Lent. Nearly 40 preces occur in Gregorian manuscripts, not all of
them of Gallican origin.
The preces consist of an alternation of verses, sung by a deacon, and a
brief response (responsorium or presa in Aquitaine and Spain) sung at first
by the congregation. The verses, stating the intention of the prayer, were
sometimes arranged as abecedaria in alphabetical order of incipit. The
melodies of the refrains often included complex melismas and are
preceded in 11th-century noted manuscripts by the rubric ‘Schola’, which
indicates that at this period the responsorium was sung exclusively by
experienced singers, not by the congregation.
The preces had no single common origin. Some, in Aquitanian graduals,
derived their texts from the Spanish liturgy (see Huglo, ‘Les preces
hispaniques’, 1955, p.361). Others derive from the Deprecatio Gelasii,
which was excluded from the Roman liturgy at an early date but retained in
Gaul. Yet others contain verses that correspond with parts of the two
Ambrosian Lenten litanies (see Capelle, 1934, p.130; and P. de Clerck,
1977).
The following list presents the preces of Gallican origin in Gallican and
Gregorian manuscripts (in the former instance without melodies), but it
does not include 9th-century litanies composed at St Gallen in the style of
earlier Gallican preces. Those indicated with a question mark, however,
may have been composed after the suppression of the Gallican chant,
rather than being of genuine Gallican origin.
Gallican chant
WORKS
?Ab inimicis nostris: Sarum processional of 1517, f.cviii
A Patre missus: Bobbio Missal (ed. Lowe, Wilmart and Wilson, 1917–24, p.66), for
Holy Saturday; the second stanza begins ‘Vide Domine’
?Audi nos Christe Jesu: in processionals from St Jiří, Prague – CZ-Pu VI.G.3b,
VI.G.5, VI.G.10a–b, VII.G.16, XII.E.15a, XIII.H.3c; Huglo, RISM, b/xiv/1, 120–30
Clamemus omnes una voce: Domine miserere: abecedaria (see PL, cxxxviii, 1085)
in MSS with Lorraine and Rhenish notation – F-AS 230 (907) (ed. L. Brou, The
Monastic Ordinale of St. Vedast’s Abbey, Arras, London, 1957, p.68); AUT S.12,
f.91; CA 78(79), f.39v (11th or 12th century); CA 77, f.69; CA 80, f.17; CA 131, f.43v
Deus miserere, Deus miserere, O Jesu bone (for the dead): in a Mozarabic book,
E-Mah 56, f.27, and in an Albi MS in Aquitanian notation, F-Pn lat.776, f.138 (see C.
Rojo and G. Prado: El canto mozárabe, Barcelona, 1929, p.74)
Dicamus omnes [Deprecatio Gelasii]: widely diffused, with three versions of the text
(see de Clerck, 1977, ii, 215); melodies in Suñol (1935), 116–17; J. Pothier, ed.:
Variae preces de mysteriis et festis(Solesmes, 1888), 266; A. Gastoué, Tribune de
St Gervais, ix (1903), 46; Gastoué (1939), 14; Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1313
Domine Deus omnipotens patrum nostrorum [see below, Kyrie eleison Domine]
Domine miserere: a responsorium of the preces Dicamus omnes; see
Processionale cenomanense, f.xxxvii; Sarum processional of 1517, f.cviiv
Exaudi Deus voces nostras: in MSS with Lorraine notation – F-AUT S.12, f.96; Pn
lat.8898, f.137 (ed. in Rituale seu mandatum insignis ecclesiae suessionensis,
Soissons, 1856); VN 130, f.45v; melody in Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1313
Insidiati sunt mihi: Bobbio Missal (ed. Lowe, Wilmart and Wilson, 1917–24, p.66;
see Missale mixtum: PL, lxxxv, 372; D. de Bruyne, Revue bénédictine, xxx, 1913,
p.431; Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’, 1955, p.363)
Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison: Domine miserere, Christe miserere: in MSS with
Messine notation, from Cambrai, Verdun etc.; melody in Gastoué (1939), 15
Kyrie eleison: Domine Deus omnipotens patrum nostrorum: in many MSS from
north France in Lorraine notation and in MSS from south-west France with
diastematic notation; melody in J. Pothier, Revue du chant grégorien, ix (1901),
113–20; Gastoué (1939), 16; Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1313
Kyrie … qui passus est [see below, Qui passurus]
Kyrie … qui precioso [see below, Qui pretioso]
Miserere Domine supplicantibus: in MSS with diastematic notation from south-west
France; text and melody ed. Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’ (1955), 372
Miserere, miserere, miserere Domine populo tuo quem redemisti: in a MS from
south-west France (see Gastoué, 1939, p.19)
Miserere, miserere, miserere illi Deus, Christe redemptor (for the dead) [see next]
Miserere, miserere, miserere illi Deus, tu Jesu Christe (for the dead): this and the
preceding occur in MSS from Albi, F-Pn lat.776, ff.138v–139, and Moissac, Pn
lat.1809, f.386v; melodies in C. Rojo and G. Prado: El canto mozárabe (Barcelona,
1929), 75; Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1312
Miserere Pater juste et omnibus indulgentiam dona: in MSS from south-west
France; ed. Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’ (1955), 370; Stäblein, MGG1, iv, 1312
Peccavimus Domine, peccavimus, parce peccatis nostris: variant incipit of Dicamus
omnes in Irish MSS – Stowe Missal (ed. G.F. Warner, London, 1906–15, p.30) and
CH-SGs 1395 (8th/9th century); and in MSS of Corbie and St Denis – F-AM 18,
f.141v; CH-Zz Car C.161, f.179 (9th century; see M. Coens, Etudes bollandiennes,
1963, p.314); Mont-Renaud Antiphoner (PalMus, 1st ser., xvi, 1955/R)
Qui passurus (Litany of Tenebrae): in many French (Dominican) MSS up to the 13th
century, at the close of Tenebrae on Maundy Thursday; melody in J. Pothier, Revue
du chant grégorien, xi (1902–3); PalMus, 1st ser., xv, 1937/R, f.277v
Qui pretioso sanguine (verse from the Litany of Tenebrae): Sarum processional of
1517, f.cvv (see W. H. Frere, ed.: The Use of Sarum, ii, Cambridge, 1901/R, 171)
Rogamus te Rex seculorum: abecedaria in MSS from south-west France; ed.
Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’, 1955, p.374–5 (see also B. Stäblein, MGG1, iv,
1313)
Vide Domine humilitatem meam … miserere pater juste: Bobbio Missal (ed. Lowe,
Wilmart and Wilson, 1917–24, p.67; see also Huglo, ‘Les preces hispaniques’,
1955, p.364)
See also Ambrosian chant; Antiphon; Antiphoner; Beneventan chant; Celtic chant; Exultet; Gregorian
chant; Litany, §3(iii); Mozarabic chant; Old roman chant; Plainchant; Processional; and Tonary. For
‘Gallican’ chant of the 17th century and later see Neo-gallican chant.
Gallican chant
BIBLIOGRAPHY
sources (excluding lectionaries)
Expositio antiquae liturgiae gallicanae
E. Martène and U. Durand, eds.: Thesaurus novus anecdotorum, v (Paris,
1717), 85ff
P. Batiffol: ‘L’Expositio liturgiae gallicanae attribué à Saint Germain de
Paris’, Etudes de liturgie et d’archéologie chrétienne (Paris, 1919),
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A. Wilmart: ‘Germain de Paris (lettres attribuées à Saint)’, Dictionnaire
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G.M. Tommasi, ed.: Codices sacramentorum nongentis annis vetustiores
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J. Mabillon, ed.: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Rome, 1685), 188–300
H.M. Bannister, ed.: Missale gothicum: a Gallican Sacramentary (London,
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L.C. Mohlberg, ed.: Missale gothicum (Vat.Reg.lat.317) (Rome, 1961)
[transcr. and indexes]
Missale gallicanum
G.M. Tommasi, ed.: Codices sacramentorum nongentis annis vetustiores
(Rome, 1680), 433–92
J. Mabillon, ed.: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Rome, 1685), 329–78
L.C. Mohlberg, L. Eizenhöfer and P. Siffrin, eds.: Missale gallicanum
vetus (Rome, 1958) [incl. edns of the Mone Masses and other frags.]
Bobbio Missal
J. Mabillon, ed.: Museum italicum seu collectio veterum scriptorum ex
bibliothecis italicis eruta, i/2 (Paris, 1687), 278–397
E.A. Lowe, A. Wilmart and H.A. Wilson, eds.: The Bobbio Missal: a
Gallican Mass-Book (London, 1917–24)
Missale francorum
G.M. Tommasi, ed.: Codices sacramentorum nongentis annis vetustiores
(Rome, 1680), 348–431
J. Mabillon, ed.: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Rome, 1685), 301ff
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Supplement at Paris’, Journal of Theological Studies, xxvii (1925–6),
357–73
L.C. Mohlberg, L. Eizenhöfer and P. Siffrin, eds.: Liber sacramentorum
romanae ecclesiae ordinis anni circuli (Sacramentarium Gelasianum)
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Mone masses
F.J. Mone, ed.: Lateinische und griechische Messen aus dem zweiten bis
sechsten Jahrhundert (Frankfurt, 1850)
G.M. Dreves, ed.: Liturgische Reimofficien, AH, xlva (1904), 81
L.C. Mohlberg, L. Eizenhöfer and P. Siffrin, eds.: Missale gallicanum
vetus (Rome, 1958), 74ff
Collected texts, including miscellaneous fragments
PL, lxxii, 99–448
J. Mabillon, ed.: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Rome, 1685)
J.M. Neale and G.H. Forbes, eds.: The Ancient Liturgies of the Gallican
Church (Burntisland, 1855–7)
L.C. Mohlberg, L. Eizenhöfer and P. Siffrin, eds.: Missale gallicanum
vetus (Rome, 1958)
lectionaries, psalters, hymnals etc.
J. Mabillon, ed.: De liturgia gallicana libri tres (Rome, 1685), 106–73
[lectionary of Luxeuil, F-Pn lat.9427, late 7th – early 8th centuries,
from ?Luxeuil, Burgundy; the text is one of the purest Gallican
sources]
E. Sievers, ed.: Die Murbacher Hymnen (Halle, 1874) [hymnal of
Murbach,GB-Ob Junius 25(5137), late 8th century, from Murbach or
Reichenau]
G. Morin: ‘Le lectionnaire de l’église de Paris’, Revue bénédictine, x
(1893), 438
G. Morin: ‘Notices d’ancienne littérature chrétienne, 6: les notes liturgiques
du manuscrit Vat.Regin.Lat.9’, Revue bénédictine, xv (1898), 104
E. Chatelain: ‘Fragments palimpsestes d’un lectionnaire mérovingien’,
Revue d’histoire et de littérature religieuses, v (1900), 193
G. Morin: ‘Fragments inédits et jusqu’à présent uniques d’antiphonaire
gallican’, Revue bénédictine, xxii (1905), 329–56
G. Morin: ‘Un lectionnaire mérovingien avec fragments du texte occidental
des Actes’, Revue bénédictine, xxv (1908), 161–6
G. Morin: ‘Un recueil gallican inédit de Benedictiones episcopales en
usage à Freising aux VIIe–IXe siècles’, Revue bénédictine, xxix
(1912), 168–94
D. de Bruyne: ‘Les notes liturgiques du manuscrit 134 de la cathédrale de
Trèves’, Revue bénédictine, xxxiii (1921), 46–52
A. Wilmart: ‘Un lectionnaire d’Aniane’, Revue Mabillon, xiii (1923), 16–194
A. Dold, ed.: Das älteste Liturgiebuch der lateinischen Kirche: ein
altgallikanisches Lektionar des 5.–6. Jahrhunderts aus dem
Wolfenbütteler Palimpsest Weissenburgensis 76 (Beuron, 1936)
[lectionary of Wolfenbüttel, D-W Weissenburg 76, early 6th century,
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C. Vogel: Archives de l’église d’Alsace, new ser., ix (1958), 1–42 [hymnal
of Murbach, GB–Ob Junius 25(5137)]
facsimiles, editions (other rites)
R.-J. Hesbert, ed.: Antiphonale missarum sextuplex (Brussels, 1935/R)
G.M. Suñol, ed.: Antiphonale missarum juxta ritum sanctae ecclesiae
mediolanensis (Rome, 1935)
L. Brou and J. Vives, eds.: Antifonario visigótico mozárabe de la Catedral
de León (Madrid and Barcelona, 1953)
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studies
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MGG2 (‘Gallikanischer Gesang’; M. Huglo and O. Cullin)
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(Burntisland, 1855–67/R)
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1867; Fr. trans., 1869)
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littérature religieuses, v (1900), 31–47
G. Mercati: ‘Sull’origine della liturgia gallicana’, Antiche reliquie liturgiche
ambrosiane e romane (Rome, 1902), 72–5
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temps carolingiens (Paris, 1904) [orig. pubd in Revue du chant
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gallican’, Revue bénédictine, xxii (1905), 329–56 [F-Pn n.a.lat.1628,
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A. Wilmart: ‘L’âge et l’ordre des messes de Mone’, Revue bénédictine,
xxviii (1911), 377–90
L. Duchesne: Origines du culte chrétien: étude sur la liturgie latine avant
Charlemagne (Paris, 5/1920; Eng. trans., 1927/R)
H. Lietzmann: Ordo missae romanus et gallicanus (Bonn, 1923)
H. Leclercq: ‘Gallicane (liturgie)’, Dictionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne et
de liturgie, ed. F. Cabrol and H. Leclercq, vi/1 (Paris, 1924), 473–596
A. Wilmart: ‘Germain de Paris (lettres attribuées à Saint)’, ibid., 1049–1102
B. Capelle: ‘Deux psautiers gaulois dans le Cod. Aug. CCLIII’, Revue
bénédictine, xxxvii (1925), 215–23
F.J. Dölger: Sol salutis: Gebet and Gesang im christlichen Altertum mit
besonderer Rücksicht auf die Ortung im Gebet and Liturgie (Münster,
1925/R)
J.B. Thibaut: L’ancienne liturgie gallicane: son origine et sa formation en
Provence aux Ve et VIe siècles sous l’influence de Cassien et de
Saint Césaire d’Arles (Paris, 1929)
F. Cabrol: ‘Les origines de la liturgie gallicane’, Revue d’histoire
ecclésiastique, xxv (1930), 951–62
G. Nickl: Der Anteil des Volkes an der Messliturgie im Frankenreiche von
Chlodwig bis Karl den Grossen (Innsbruck, 1930)
M. Andrieu, ed.: Les Ordines romani du haut Moyen-Age (Leuven, 1931–
61)
M. Frost: ‘Notes on the Te Deum: the Final Verses’, Journal of Theological
Studies xxxiv (1933), 250–56
T. Klauser: ‘Die liturgischen Austauschbeziehungen zwischen der
römischen und der fränkisch-deutschen Kirche vom 8. bis zum 11.
Jahrhundert’, Historisches Jb der Görresgesellschaft, liii (1933), 169–
89
B. Capelle: ‘Le kyrie de la messe et le pape Gélase’, Revue bénédictine,
xlvi (1934), 126–44
A. Hughes, ed.: Anglo-French Sequelae, Edited from the Papers of the
Late Dr. Henry Marriott Bannister (London, 1934/R)
A. Ward: ‘Gloria Patri: Text and Interpretation’, Journal of Theological
Studies, xxxvi (1935), 73–4
H. Schneider: Die altlateinischen biblischen Cantica (Beuron, 1938)
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G. Manz: Ausdruckformen der lateinischen Liturgiesprache (Beuron, 1941)
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55–73
M. Righetti: Manuale di storia liturgica, i (Milan, 1945, 3/1964), 142ff
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xlvi (1945), 160–78; xlvii (1946), 11–29
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les sources manuscrites’, Ephemerides liturgicae, lxi (1947), 309–34
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römischen Messe (Vienna, 1948, 5/1962; Eng. trans., 1951–5/R as
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xxix (1950), 30–40
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chrétiennes (Paris, 1950)
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M. Huglo: ‘Source hagiopolite d’une antienne hispanique’, Hispania sacra,
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B. Stäblein, ed.: Hymnen, I, MMMA, i (1956)
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1957)
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Revue bénédictine, lxix (1959), 32–48
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Revue grégorienne, xl (1962), 196–211, 229–48
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nos.1917ff [inventory of Gallican missals and sacramentaries]
G. Oury: ‘Les messes de St Martin’, EG, v (1962), 73–97
G. Cugnier: ‘Anciens usages et coutumes liturgiques de l’abbaye de
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J. Szövérffy: Die Annalen der lateinischen Hymnendichtung, i
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C. Heitz: ‘La mystique gallicane et la liturgie de Centula’, Recherches sur
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Forschungen zur westeuropäischen Geschichte, xxiii/1 (1996), 95–8
Y. Hen: ‘Unity in Diversity: the Liturgy of Frankish Gaul before the
Carolingians’, Unity and Diversity in the Church, ed. R.N. Swanson
(Oxford, 1996), 19–30
A.M.J. Zijlstra: Zangers en schrijvers: de overlevering van het gregoriaans
van ca. 700 tot ca. 1150 [Singers and authors: the Gregorian tradition
from c700 to c1150] (Utrecht, 1997)
C.M. Atkinson: ‘L’évolution modale: une perspective du parapteron’, EG,
xxvi (1998), 95–109
Gallichon [Ger.].
See Calichon. See also Mandora.
Georg Rhau: Musikdrucke aus den Jahren 1538 bis 1545 in praktischer
Neuausgabe, iv, ed. H.J. Moser (Kassel, 1960) [M]; v, ed. P. Bunjes (Kassel, 1970)
[B]; viii, ed. R.L. Parker (Kassel, 1988) [P]
Passio Domino nostri Jesu Christi, 4vv, 15381
Easter mass ‘Christ ist erstanden’ (int, Ky, Gl, all, prosa de Resurrectione,
Evangelium in die Paschae, San, Bs, Ag, comm), 4vv, 1539 14; ed. in Cw, xliv (1936);
P
Aliud officium Paschale (int, Ky, Gl, prosa de Resurrectione, San), 4vv, 1539 14, P
Proprium mass for Christmas (Kyrie summum: Kyrie ‘Fons bonitatis’, Puer natus est
nobis), 4vv, 15455
Magnificat quarti toni, 4vv, M
Magnificat quinti toni, 4vv; ed. in Cw, lxxxv (1961)
Magnificat septimi toni, 4vv, B
Motets, 4vv: Ave vivens, hostie, P; Cavete a scribis, D-Rp B211–15; Christus
resurgens, P; Duo homines ascenderunt, Rp B211–15; Immunem semper, Z 73; In
cathedra Moysi, Rp B211–15; In natali, 15752; Non ex operibus [= Apparuit
benignitas in Rp A.R.940–41], 15752; Venite post me, Rp B211–15
Psalm: Quare fremuerunt gentes, 4vv, 15371, 15386
doubtful works
Motets, 4vv, D-Dl Mus.Grimma 31: Enlive psallant; Joseph, lieber Joseph, mein
WRITINGS
Isagoge de compositione cantus (Leipzig, 1520; 2/1538 as Libellus de
compositione cantus, 6/1553); trans. A.A. Moorefield as The
Introduction to Song Composition (Ottawa, 1992)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Wustmann: Musikgeschichte Leipzigs, i: Bis zur Mitte des 17.
Jahrhunderts (Leipzig and Berlin, 1909/R)
W. Schulze: Die mehrstimmige Messe im frühprotestantischen
Gottesdienst (Wolfenbüttel, 1940)
W. Lipphardt: Die Geschichte der mehrstimmigen Proprium Missae
(Heidelberg, 1950)
P. Mohr: Die Handschrift B 211–215 der Proske-Bibliothek zu Regensburg
(Kassel, 1955)
N.C. Carpenter: Music in the Medieval and Renaissance Universities
(Norman, OK, 1958)
V.H. Mattfeld: Georg Rhaw's Publications for Vespers (Brooklyn, NY, 1966)
A.A. Moorefield: An Introduction to Johannes Galliculus (Brooklyn, NY,
1969)
G.G. Allaire: ‘Les sensibles haussés dans la musique polyphonic avant
1600’, Canadian Association of University Schools of
Music/Association canadienne des écoles universitaires de musique
journal, ix/1 (1979), 48–73
L. Youens: Preface to Messzyklen der frühprotestantischen Kirche in
Leipzig (Tutzing, 1984)
C.V. Palisca: ‘Die Jahrzehnte um 1600 in Italien’, Italienische Musiktheorie
im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert: Antikenrezeption und Satzlehre, ed. F.
Zaminer (Darmstadt, 1989), 221–306
C.V. Palisca: ‘Boethius in the Renaissance’, Music Theory and its
Sources: Antiquity and the Middle Ages, ed. A. Barbera (Notre Dame,
IN, 1990), 259–80
VICTOR H. MATTFELD
Galliera, Alceo
(b Milan, 3 May 1910). Italian conductor and composer. He studied first
with his father Arnaldo Galliera (1871–1934), a composer and teacher of
organ composition at the Parma Conservatory, and then at the Milan
Conservatory, where he graduated in the piano, the organ and
composition; in 1932 he obtained a lectureship there in the organ and
organ composition. He made his conducting début at Rome in 1941 with
the orchestra of the Accademia di S Cecilia. After a period in Switzerland
during World War II he resumed his career in 1945 with a concert at the
Lucerne Festival. He subsequently pursued his career mainly in other
countries, with tours in Europe, Israel, North and South America, South
Africa and Australia. From 1957 to 1960 he was resident conductor at the
Teatro Carlo Felice, Genoa, and from 1964 to 1972 was artistic director
and resident conductor of the Strasbourg municipal orchestra. He made
several recordings with the Philharmonia Orchestra including Il barbiere di
Siviglia with Callas, and was a noted accompanist in concertos. His own
works include the ballet Le vergini savie e le vergini folli (1942), Poema
dell’Ala for orchestra and a Scherzo tarantella for orchestra.
CLAUDIO CASINI
Gallignani, Giuseppe
(b Faenza, 9 Jan 1851; d Milan, 14 Dec 1923). Italian composer, conductor
and teacher. He studied at the Milan Conservatory from 1867 to 1871 and
then travelled in Europe for ten years, studying and conducting. From 1884
until his death he was maestro di cappella at Milan Cathedral and from
1886 to 1894 editor of the periodical Musica sacra, which strongly
supported the return to Palestrina style in church music, exemplified by
Gallignani in his own works. In 1888 he published in Italia an article on
Otello that brought him the friendship of Verdi, who in 1891 proposed him
as Faccio’s successor as director of the Parma Conservatory. In 1897 he
moved to the same post at the Milan Conservatory. In both he initiated
valuable reforms and improvements, but his outspoken and tactless
manner provoked much opposition. Verdi supported him strongly, but he
was finally removed as director after an official inquiry. Embittered, he
committed suicide a few months later. His wife was a well-known dramatic
soprano, Chiara Bernau (1852–1901).
As a composer Gallignani was best known for his church music (more than
150 manuscripts of which, including nine masses, are in the Milan
Cathedral archives). Only a few pieces were published. He also composed
six operas, notably Atala (1876), Nestorio (1888) and the chauvinistic In
alto! (1921); but he was not very successful in this genre, Nestorio
receiving only three performances at La Scala. In 1903 he conducted his
lyric poem Quare? for chorus and orchestra at two special concerts there.
WORKS
(selective list)
operas
Il sindaco cavaliere (ob, 3), Milan, Casa Attendolo Bolognini, 1870
Il grillo del focolare (op semiseria, 3, Gallignani, after C. Dickens: The Cricket on
the Hearth), Genoa, Sala Sivori, 27 Jan 1873
Atala (os, 3, E. Praga), Milan, Carcano, 30 March 1876
Nestorio (os, 3, F. Fulgonio and Gallignani), Milan, Scala, 31 March 1888
Lucia di Settefonti (C. Ricci), 1897, unperf.
In alto! (os, 4 episodes, Gallignani), Trieste, Politeama Rossetti, 8 Nov 1921
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (C. Sartori)
M.C. Caputo: ‘Giuseppe Gallignani e il conservatorio di Parma’, GMM, l
(1895), 571–3
M. Anzoletti: ‘Giuseppe Gallignani’, Musica d’oggi, vi (1924), 9–10
A. De Gani: I maestri cantori e la cappella musicale del duomo di Milano,
1395–1930 (Milan, 1930)
F. Mompellio: Il R. Conservatorio di musica ‘G. Verdi’ di Milano (Florence,
1941)
G. de Florentiis and G.N. Vessia: Sei secoli di musica nel duomo di
Milano (Milan, 1986)
DENNIS LIBBY/MARCO BEGHELLI
Gallimberto, Ferdinando.
See Galimberti, Ferdinando.
Gallishon
(Ger.).
See Mandora.
Gallo, Domenico
(fl mid-18th century). Italian composer and violinist. According to Fétis he
was born in Venice about 1730, wrote much music for the church and was
known for his violin sonatas and symphonies. Eitner mentioned an oratorio
for two voices dedicated in honour of Giuseppe Calasanzio, founder of the
Scuole Pie in Venice; the libretto was published there in 1750. Gallo
published two sets of six sonatas, one for two violins and continuo in
Venice, and another for two flutes and continuo in London; the latter set
probably dates from about 1755. An overture by him was published in a
miscellaneous set of Sei ouverture a piu stromenti op.6 (Paris, 1758) and
his name appears in A Collection of Marches & Airs (Edinburgh, 1761).
There is a manuscript collection of 36 trio sonatas by him in the Marquis of
Exeter's collection at Burghley House, Stamford, and examples of his
church music can be found in the conservatories of Naples and Bologna.
Gallo is notable chiefly for his connection with one of the many Pergolesi
‘forgeries’. In 1780 Robert Bremner published a set of 12 trio sonatas
attributed to Pergolesi (Pergolesi: Opera omnia, v, Rome, 1940, pp.1–116);
their title-page claims that the ‘manuscripts of these sonatas were procured
by a curious Gentleman of Fortune during his travels through Italy’. But
even in the 18th century, doubt was cast on the Pergolesian authorship of
these trio sonatas by such critics as Burney and Hawkins, and it has since
been discovered that some of them are attributed to Gallo in several
contemporary manuscript sources (at Burghley House, US-BEm and I-
Pca), and the rest are probably his as well. Some of them were used, as
Pergolesi's, by Stravinsky in Pulcinella. As Walker said (Grove5), ‘they are
not markedly Pergolesian in style’ but are rather the work of a competent
Italian composer writing in the galant idiom of the 1750s and 60s. Owing to
the mistaken attribution to Pergolesi, they have been quoted in various
modern works on form as early examples of sonata form, but this early
dating depends on the date (1736) of their supposed composer's death.
A 17th-century Domenico Gallo, from Parma, was cited by Eitner as the
author of a Trattenimento musical sopra il violoncello (I-MOe). Hucke
suggested that some of the sacred music (in A-Wgm, D-Bsb, DS) ascribed
by Eitner to this 17th-century Gallo might be by the 18th-century composer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookB
EitnerQ
FétisB
Grove5 (F. Walker)
SainsburyD
C.L. Cudworth: ‘Notes on the Instrumental Works attributed to Pergolesi’,
ML, xxx (1949), 321–8
F. Walker: ‘Two Centuries of Pergolesi Forgeries and Misattributions’, ML,
xxx (1949), 297–320
H. Hucke: ‘Die musikalischen Vorlagen zu Igor Strawinskys “Pulcinella”’,
Helmuth Osthoff zu seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. W. Stauder, U.
Aarburg and P. Cahn (Tutzing, 1969), 241–50
C. Johansson: ‘From Pergolesi to Gallo by the Numericode System’,
STMf, lvii/2 (1975), 67–8
B.S. Brook: ‘Stravinsky's Pulcinella: the “Pergolesi” Sources’, Musiques,
signes, images: liber amicorum François Lesure, ed. J.-M. Fauquet
(Geneva, 1988), 41–66
CHARLES L. CUDWORTH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FlorimoN
D. Martuscelli, ed.: ‘Gallo, Ignazio’, Elogii dei maestri di cappella, cantori e
cantanti più celebri, Biografi degli uomini illustri del regno di Napoli
(Naples, 1819)
K. Nef: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte der Passion in Italien’, ZMw, xvii (1935),
208–41
U. Prota Giurleo: ‘Gallo, Pietro Antonio’, Larousse de la musique (Paris,
1957)
H.-B. Dietz: ‘Zur Frage der musikalischen Leitung des Conservatorio di
Santa Maria di Loreto in Neapel im 18. Jahrhundert’, Mf, xxv (1972),
419–29
HANNS-BERTOLD DIETZ
Gallo, R.
(fl 1420–30). Composer. He is named as the composer of the rondeau Je
ne vis pas which is extant only in GB–Ob Can.misc.213 (ed. in CMM, xi/2,
1959, p.25). The work was originally for two voices, but it appears in this
source with a triplum ascribed to Francus de Insula.
TOM R. WARD
Gallo, Vincenzo
(b Alcara Li Fusi, Sicily, before 1561; d Palermo, Dec 1624). Italian
composer. He was a priest and a Franciscan friar. He gave his earnings as
a professional musician towards the enlargement and decoration of his
monastery, established at Palermo in 1588; a capital of a column in the
cloister, now destroyed, was inscribed ‘Musica Galli’. He was already
maestro di cappella at Palermo Cathedral in 1604 when, on 27 October, he
was appointed director of the royal Palatine chapel. He held both
appointments until his death. In 1591 and in 1598 he was in Caltagirone,
where he conducted his own cappella for the feast of the town’s patron, St
James. In 1622 he superintended the music for the Trionfi sacri di S
Ignazio Loiola e S Francesco Xaverio in Messina to celebrate the
canonization of the two saints.
Gallo’s only extant printed volume, Salmi del Re David, consists of
impressive concertato works in the style of Giovanni Gabrieli, in which
densely woven contrapuntal imitation of short motifs alternates with full
homophony. His only surviving madrigal, Non si levava ancor l’alba novella
(RISM 15988), is of particular interest. The text, by Tasso, had been set by
Monteverdi as the opening madrigal of his second book (1590). Gallo, the
only other composer known to have set it, used fewer than half the poem’s
28 lines, apparently ignoring its universal and teleological implications. By
concentrating instead on the lovers’ conversation and intensifying the
themes derived from Monteverdi’s version, he achieved in the music a
most impressive erotic effect.
WORKS
Libro primo de’ madrigali, 5vv (Palermo, 1589), lost, see Bianconi
Messa prima cantata a due cori, 8vv, messa seconda in tre cori, 12vv (Rome,
1596), lost, see Bianconi
Salmi del Re David che ordinariamente canta Santa Chiesa nei vesperi, libro primo,
8vv (2 choirs), bc (org) (Palermo, 1607), ed. in MRS, xvii (1996)
Madrigal, 5vv, 15988, ed. in MRS, xii (1993); 2 madrigals in Infidi lumi (Palermo,
1603), lost, see Bianconi
Motet, 4vv, bc, 16271, ed. in MRS, xvii (1996)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Cagliola: Almae Siciliensis provinciae ordinis minorum conventualium S.
Francisci manifestationes novissimae (Venice, 1644), 104; ed. F.
Rotolo (Palermo, 1985), 104
A. Mongitore: Bibliotheca Sicula, ii (Palermo, 1714/R), 284
G.B. Caruso, ed.: Rime degli accademici accesi di Palermo (Palermo,
1726), ii, 177ff
O. Tiby: ‘The Polyphonic School in Sicily of the 16th–17th Century’, MD, v
(1951), 203–11
O. Tiby: ‘La musica nella Real Cappella Palatina di Palermo’, AnM, vii
(1952), 177–92, esp. 189
O. Tiby: I polifonisti siciliani del XVI e XVII secolo (Palermo, 1969), 88–9
L. Bianconi: ‘Sussidi bibliografici per i musicisti siciliani del Cinque e
Seicento’, RIM, vii (1972), 3–38
P.E. Carapezza: ‘Non si levava ancor l’alba novella’, Sette variazioni, a
Luigi Rognoni: musiche e studi dei discepoli palermitani, ed. A. Titone
and P.E. Carapezza (Palermo, 1985), 47–77 [incl. edn of 2 madrigals]
G. Collisani: ‘Occasioni di musica nella Palermo barocca’, Musica ed
attività musicali in Sicilia nei secoli XVII e XVIII, ed. G. Collisani and D.
Ficola (Palermo, 1988), 37–74, esp. 53
N. Maccavino: ‘Musica a Caltagirone nel tardo rinascimento: 1569–1619’,
Musica sacra in Sicilia tra Rinascimento e Barocco: Caltagirone 1985,
91–110, esp. 98–9
P.E. Carapezza: ‘Il Cardinale del Monte tra il Caravaggio e Le risa a
vicenda’: introduction to Le risa a vicenda, MRS, xii (1993), pp.ix–xxxix
PAOLO EMILIO CARAPEZZA, GIUSEPPE COLLISANI
Gallois, Patrick
(b Linselles, nr Lille, 17 April 1956). French flautist. He studied with Jean-
Pierre Rampal and Maxence Larrieu at the Paris Conservatoire, winning a
premier prix at the age of 19. He was immediately appointed principal flute
in the Orchestre de Lille, and from 1977 to 1984 was principal in the
Orchestre Nationale de France. Since then he has pursued an international
career as a soloist. In 1990 he founded his own chamber orchestra, the
Académie de Paris, and the following year signed an exclusive solo
recording contract with Deutsche Grammophon. His many recordings since
then have ranged widely through the repertory to broaden the profile of the
flute as a solo instrument. Gallois' playing is flamboyant and highly
personal in interpretation. His style owes much to his mentor Jean-Pierre
Rampal and to his belief in music as ‘passion’. He is the dedicatee of works
by Takemitsu, Sallinen, Landowski and Tanguy.
EDWARD BLAKEMAN
Gallois-Montbrun, Raymond
(b Saigon, 15 Aug 1918; d Paris, 13 Aug 1994). French composer,
administrator and violinist. He studied with the Gallons (theory), Touche
(violin) and Büsser (composition) at the Paris Conservatoire, where in 1944
he won the Prix de Rome with Louise de la miséricorde. His stay at the
Villa Medici was cut short by the fighting in Italy, and he embarked on a
career as a violinist, notably in a partnership with the pianist Pierre Sancan.
During these years he toured throughout Europe, Africa and Japan. He
then took an appointment as director of the Versailles Conservatoire
(1957–62), moving from there to a similar position at the Paris
Conservatoire, where he remained until 1983, and instigated notable
reforms, chiefly the establishment of a course to help performers prepare
for their careers (the ‘cycle de perfectionnement’). He was elected to the
Académie des Beaux-Arts in 1983, in succession to Paul Paray. Towards
the end of his life, he took up composition again, notably with a work for the
Long-Thibaud competition. He was working on a symphonic poem for violin
and orchestra at the time of his death.
WORKS
(selective list)
Gallon, Jean
(b Paris, 25 June 1878; d Paris, 23 June 1959). French composer and
teacher, brother of Noël Gallon. He entered the Paris Conservatoire at the
age of ten and studied under Lavignac (harmony), Diémer (piano) and
Lenepveu (composition). Appointments followed as maître de chapelle at
St Merri (1894) and St Philippe-du-Roule (1903), and as choirmaster at the
Paris Opéra (1909–14). His chief importance, however, was as a harmony
teacher at the Conservatoire (1919–49), where his pupils included Duruflé,
Dutilleux and Messiaen; he was the first to include consideration of the
developments of Fauré, Debussy and Ravel in the courses there. Gallon's
compositions are few, but of high quality and elegant craftsmanship; the
sacred pieces are particularly fine.
WORKS
(selective list)
Ballet: Hansli le bossu (H. Cain, E. Adenis), collab. N. Gallon; Paris, Opéra, 1914
Sacred: Mass, 4vv, orch, org (1898); 6 antiennes, str orch, org, 1899
Songs: La lune blanche luit dans les bois (P. Verlaine), 1897; Nuits de juin (V. Hugo)
(1899); Sur le silence, Réponse, Les musiciens (F. Toussaint) (1939)
ALAIN LOUVIER
Gallon, Noël
(b Paris, 11 Sept 1891; d Paris, 26 Dec 1966). French composer and
teacher, brother ofJean Gallon. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire with
Philipp and Risler (piano), Lavignac (harmony), Caussade (counterpoint
and fugue) and Lenepveu (composition), becoming a pupil and friend of
Rabaud. In 1910 he won the Prix de Rome. He returned to the
Conservatoire as a teacher of solfège in 1920, and in 1926 he took over a
class in counterpoint and fugue. As renowned a teacher as his brother, he
had more success as a composer, principally of dramatic and orchestral
works. His compositions are marked by elegance and clarity, and by a
discreet impressionism that veils his contrapuntal skill.
WORKS
(selective list)
ALAIN LOUVIER
Gallot.
French family of lutenists. They were active in the 17th century. Jacques
and Pierre, who were also composers, were considered by their
contemporaries to be among the most accomplished players of their time.
(1) Alexandre Gallot
(2) Jacques Gallot
(3) Pierre Gallot
(4) Henry François de Gallot, Sieur de Franlieu
MONIQUE ROLLIN
Gallot
(1) Alexandre Gallot
(b 1625–30; d 1684). Lutenist and composer. He was known as ‘vieux
Gallot d'Angers’ and he was maître de luth in that town about 1663. Four
pieces are attributed to him in René Milleran's manuscript lutebook (F-Pn
Rés.823) which was compiled in about 1690.
Gallot
(2) Jacques Gallot
(d Paris, c1690). Lutenist and composer, brother of (1) Alexandre Gallot.
He was known as ‘vieux Gallot de Paris’. He was a pupil of Ennemond
Gaultier. His Pièces de luth composées sur differens modes (Paris, n.d.)
includes a brief method for the lute. The inclusion of minuets and the
arrangement of pieces by keys and forms anticipate the later suite. In
addition to this collection most of the pieces in an untitled lute manuscript
(D-LEm II614) are signed ‘vieux Gallot’. These two sources comprise
almost all his identified music, but a few other pieces by him are among
those signed simply ‘Gallot’ found in other manuscripts (in F-Pn, B, GB-Ob,
HAdolmetsch, A-GÖ, KR, Wn, CZ-Pu and S-K). His compositions include
several musical portraits – La Fontange and La Montespan among others –
and tombeaux – among them those in memory of Turenne, Condé and
Madame – inspired by members of the court. Visée in turn composed a
tombeau in memory of Gallot.
Gallot
(3) Pierre Gallot
(b c1660; d Paris, after 1716). Lutenist and composer, son of (1) Alexandre
Gallot. He was known as ‘Gallot le jeune’ and is reputed to have been a
remarkable performer. He also taught the lute and guitar to wealthy
foreigners. The incomplete tablature of ‘Gallot à Paris’ (CZ-Pu KK83)
contains one lute piece by him, and others appear in manuscripts (at F-Pn,
B, PL-Lw, US-NY and A-GÖ). His Tombeau de la Princesse de Monaco is
in a manuscript in Vienna (A-Wn 17706).
Gallot
(4) Henry François de Gallot, Sieur de Franlieu
(d after 1684). Guitarist and lutenist. His relationship to the other Gallots is
uncertain. He was known as ‘Gallot d'Irlande’. In Nantes between 1664 and
1684 he compiled a manuscript (GB-Ob M.Sch.C94) entitled Pièces de
guittarre de differends autheurs, containing music by ‘Gallot le vieux’,
‘Gallot d’Angleterre’ (possibly his son, who may have served Charles II),
‘Gallot le jeune’ and ‘Gallot le cadet’, as well as Francisque, Dufaut,
Corbetta and other composers. An Antoine Gallot (d Vilnius, 1647), also a
lutenist and composer, is not thought to be related to the other members of
the Gallot family. He was employed at the Polish court, where he served
King Władisław IV, and a vocal canon by hiim servives in Marco Scacchi’s
Cribrum musicum (Venice, 1643).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. de La Laurencie: Les luthistes (Paris, 1928)
A. Tessier: ‘Quelques sources de l’école française de luth du XVIIe siècle’,
IMSCR I: Liège 1930, 217–24
M. Rollin: ‘Le “tombeau” chez les luthistes Denis Gautier, Jacques Gallot,
Charles Mouton’, XVIIe siècle, nos.21–2 (1954), 463–79
M. Rollin: ‘La suite pour luth dans l'oeuvre de Charles Mouton’, ReM,
no.226 (1955), 76–88
H. Radke: ‘Bemerkungen zur Lautenisten-Familie Gallot’, Mf, xiii (1960),
51–5
D. Gill: ‘The de Gallot Guitar Books’, EMc, vi (1978), 79–87
R.T. Pinnell: ‘The Theorboed Guitar: its Repertoire in the Guitar Books of
Granata and Gallot’, EMc, vii (1979), 323–9
C. Massip: ‘Recherches biographiques’, Preface to Oeuvres de Gallot
(Paris, 1987), xv–xxiii
M. Rollin: ‘La musique pour le luth des Gallot’, Preface to Oeuvres de
Gallot (Paris, 1987), xxix–xliii
Gallus, Antonius.
See Galli, Antonius.
Gallus, Jacobus.
See Handl, Jacobus.
Edition: Chansons Published by Tielman Susato, ed. K. Forney, SCC, xxx (1994) [F]
motets
all attributed Gallus
Angelus Domini descendit, 4vv, 15385; Domine da nobis auxilium, 4vv, 15427; Ecce
plenus, 4vv, 15468; Exaltare tui Domine, 5vv, 15549; Laudemus omnes, 4vv, 15475;
Musica Dei donum optimi, 5vv, 15549; Quousque Domine, 5vv, 155314; Suscipe
verbum virgo Maria, 5vv, 15558; Valde honorandus est, 5vv, 15466
chansons
Au glay berg icronette, 4vv, 155423 (attrib. Gallus); Belle vostre amie est venu, 4vv,
155423 (Lecocq); Douleur et pleurs, 4vv, 154412 (Lecocq); Deuil et ennuy, 5vv,
154514, F 73 (Lecocq); En espoir vis, 4vv, 154410 (Lecocq); Hélas amours du vient,
4vv, 154412 (Lecocq); Humble et leal vers madame, 4vv, 1554 22 (Gallus); Je ne
désire, 4vv, 154410 (Gallus)
Las me fault il tant, 4vv, 154410 (Lecocq); Le bergier et la bergiere, 5vv, 1543 15
(Gallus); Nostre vicaire ung jour, 4vv, 154410, F 79 (Lecocq); Or suis je bien au pire,
6vv, 155014 (Gallus/Lecocq); Par faulte d’argent, 5vv, 1544 13 (Gallus); Pour la dame,
5vv, 155013 (Gallus); Pour une seulle, 4vv, 154412 (Gallus); Puis que fortune, 4vv,
154410 (Lecocq)
Sans avoir aultre, 5vv, 154315 (Gallus); Si aulcunement désirez, 4vv, 154411
(Lecocq); Sy des haulx cieulx, 5vv, 154514, F 85 (Lecocq); Si par souffrir, 5vv, 154514
(Lecocq); Si tu voulois accorder, 4vv, 154410 (Lecocq); Si variable oncques, 4vv,
154410 (Lecocq)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KöchelKHM
L. Guicciardini: Descrittione … di tutti i Paesi Bassi (Antwerp, 1565/R),
28–9; Eng. trans. (London, 1593/R)
F.X. Haberl: ‘Die römische “Schola cantorum” und die päpstlichen
Kapellsänger bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts’, VMw, iii (1887),
187–296, esp. 258; repr. in Blausteine für Musikgeschichte, iii (Leipzig,
1888/R)
A. Smijers: ‘Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-Kapelle von 1543–1619’, SMw, vii
(1920), 102–42, esp. 128; pubd separately (Vienna, 1922)
R. Casadio: ‘La cappella musicale della cattedrale di Ravenna nel secolo
XVI’, NA, xvi (1939), 136–85, 226–37, 258–73, esp. 138
U. Meissner: Der Antwerpener Notendrucker Tylman Susato (Berlin, 1967)
GEORGE NUGENT
Gallus, Udalricus.
See Han, Ulrich.
Gallus-Mederitsch, Johann.
See Mederitsch, Johann.
Galop
(Fr.; Ger. Galopp).
A quick, lively dance in 2/4 time. Together with the waltz, quadrille and
polka it was one of the most popular ballroom dances of the 19th century. It
derived its name from the galloping movement of horses and was possibly
the simplest dance ever introduced into the ballroom. The partners held
each other rather as in the waltz but both facing the line of dance and
proceeding rapidly with springing steps down the room. The dance
originated in Germany, was popular in Vienna in the 1820s and spread to
France and England in 1829. In France it was for a time introduced into the
finale of the Quadrille and also developed into the Cancan. In England it
remained popular for half a century or so, but in Vienna it was ousted from
popular favour by the quadrille in 1840 and later superseded by the ‘quick
polka’.
The physical demands of dancing a galop meant that the music lasted no
more than two or three minutes. The music was played at approximately
126 bars per minute, contained a trio (sometimes two) and was often
provided with a short introduction and coda. Schubert left two galops: his
d735 no.1 (c1822) and Grazer Galopp d925 (1827). Later, galops were an
important part of the output of composers such as Lanner, Johann Strauss
(i), Josef Labitzky and Philippe Musard. The titles often suggested the
dance’s speed and excitement, and acoustical effects such as pistol shots
were sometimes included. Many galops were based on popular songs or
operatic themes. The Posthorn Galop of Hermann Koenig, introduced at
Jullien’s concerts in 1844, is the only piece of English origin in the major
dance forms of the 19th century to have remained familiar. In Copenhagen
H.C. Lumbye specialized in galops, such as the Champagne Galop (1845)
and the Copenhagen Steam Railway Galop (1847). Popular ‘quick polkas’
include Unter Donner und Blitz (‘Thunder and Lightning’, 1868) by Johann
Strauss (ii).
The lively nature of the galop made it suitable for a rousing finish to a ball,
and when introduced into ballets it was likewise found appropriate as a
finale. Lumbye composed several galops for the ballets of Bournonville,
beginning with Napoli (1842). In opera, galops are to be found in Auber’s
Gustave III (1833) and Balfe’s The Bohemian Girl (1843), while in operetta
the dance was parodied in Offenbach’s Orphée aux enfers (1858).
Examples of the galop as an instrumental showpiece are provided by
Liszt’s Grand galop chromatique (1838) and his Galop de bal (c1840).
Later examples are to be found in Bizet’s Jeux d’enfants (1871) and in the
light music of 20th-century Russian composers such as Prokofiev
(Cinderella, 1945), Khachaturian (Masquerade, 1939), Kabalevsky (The
Comedians, 1940) and Shostakovich (The Limpid Brook, 1934). The galop
rhythm has also been used to provide a rousing finale to orchestral
showpieces, as in Rossini’s Guillaume Tell overture (1829, using a passo
doppio composed in Vienna in 1822), Sullivan’s Overture di ballo (1870)
and the Dance of the Hours in Ponchielli’s La Gioconda (1876).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Schönherr and K. Reinöhl: Johann Strauss Vater (Vienna, 1954)
P.J.S. Richardson: The Social Dances of the Nineteenth Century in
England (London, 1960)
G. Giordano: ‘Il Galop, un “frenetico tumulto”’, Chorégraphie, i/1 (1993),
84–94
ANDREW LAMB
Galoubet.
A three-holed pipe of the Pipe and tabor ensemble (it is classified as an
Aerophone). It is of Provençal origin, and the name probably derives from
an Old Provençal verb, galaubar, meaning ‘to play magnificently’. It was
used to accompany dancing throughout the Middle Ages. Elsewhere it was
known as a flute à trois trous or flûtet, but the term ‘galoubet’ (and its
colloquial variant jombarde) came into more general use during the 18th
century. The galoubet was made of wood, usually boxwood, and was about
30 cm long with two front holes and a rear thumb-hole. It had a very narrow
cylindrical bore, and was pitched in D. The player held it in one hand, while
the other hand played a drone instrument such as the Tambourin de Béarn,
or a snared drum. Praetorius describes the instrument (which he calls a
‘Schwegel’), and in the 18th century its sound was imitated in sailors'
scenes in French opera. Pieces for galoubet by Chateauminois (Oeuvres
… pour le galoubet, contenant instructions, mélanges, airs, Paris, n.d.) and
Lavallière (Six sonates en duo pour le tambourin avec un violon seul,
Paris, n.d.) survive in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and examples of
the instrument survive in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, and the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Jacquot: Dictionnaire pratique et raisonné des instruments de musique
anciens et modernes (Paris, 1886)
D.P. Charlton: Orchestration and Orchestral Practice in Paris, 1789 to
1810 (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1973)
W. Bosmans: Eenhandsfluit en trom in de Lage Landen/The Pipe and
Tabor in the Low Countries (Peer, 1991)
MARY CYR
Galpin, Francis William
(b Dorchester, 25 Dec 1858; d Richmond, Surrey, 30 Dec 1945). English
collector of musical instruments and scholar. He was educated at King's
School, Sherborne, where James Robert Sterndale Bennett, son of the
composer, encouraged his aptitude for music. From 1877 he studied
classics at Trinity College, Cambridge (BA 1882, MA 1885), where he
played the clarinet under Stanford in the orchestra of the Cambridge
University Musical Society. Ordained in 1883, he was curate of Redenhall
with Harleston, Norfolk, for four years, then curate at St Giles-in-the-Fields
(1887–91), vicar of Hatfield Broad Oak (formerly Hatfield Regis, 1891–
1915), vicar of Witham (1915–21) and rector of Faulkbourn (1921–33). In
1917 he was made a canon of Chelmsford Cathedral. From his university
years onwards, Galpin made an outstanding collection of musical
instruments, which he made freely available for public exhibitions and
lectures and described and illustrated in his book Old English Instruments
of Music (1910). By 1900 his international reputation as a collector of and
authority on musical instruments was established. He arranged an
important exhibition at the Crystal Palace (1900) and arranged and
described the Crosby Brown Collection for the Metropolitan Museum of
New York (1902) and the collection of the Musikhistoriska Museet,
Stockholm (1903). He was granted the honorary freedom of the Worshipful
Company of Musicians in 1905. In 1914 the majority of his collection,
comprising between 500 and 600 specimens, was transferred to the
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. In 1938 he was elected president of the
Musical Association. He contributed some 60 articles on instruments to the
third and fourth editions of Grove's Dictionary and many of the plates in
these editions illustrate instruments from his collection. His other areas of
interest were archaeology and botany. The Galpin Society was formed the
year following his death to continue his work.
WRITINGS
International Loan Exhibition, Crystal Palace (London, 1900) [exhibition
catalogue]
Descriptive Catalogue of the European Musical Instruments in the
Metropolitan Museum of New York (New York, 1902)
‘The Whistles and Reed Instruments of the American Indians of the North-
West Coast’, PMA, xxix (1902–3), 115–38
‘Notes on a Roman Hydraulus’, The Reliquary and Illustrated
Archaeologist, new ser., x (1904), 152–64
‘Notes on the Old Church Bands and Village Choirs of the last Century’,
Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club,
xxvi (1905), 172–81; pubd separately (Dorchester, 1905); rev. in The
Antiquary, xlii (1906), 101–6
‘The Sackbut: its Evolution and History, Illustrated by an Instrument of the
Sixteenth Century’, PMA, xxxiii (1906–7), 1–25
‘The Water Organ of the Ancients and the Organ of Today’, English Music
1604–1904 (London, 1906/R), 355–80
Old English Instruments of Music: their History and Character (London,
1910/R, rev. 4/1965/R by T. Dart)
‘The Origin of the Clarsech or Irish Harp’, MT, liii (1912), 82–92
‘An Old English Positive Organ’, Musical Antiquary, iv (1912–13), 20–30
ed.: J. Stainer: Music of the Bible (London, 2/1914/R)
‘Musical Instruments’, The Dictionary of English Furniture, from the Middle
Ages to the Late Georgian Period, ed. P. Macquoid, iii (London, 1927),
2–15
‘The Evolution of the Piano’, MMR, lix (1929), 291–2
‘The Sumerian Harp of Ur’, ML, x (1929), 108–23
‘The Generous Viol’, MMR, lx (1930), 327–30
‘The Viola Pomposa’, ML, xii (1931), 354–64
‘Frederick the Great's English Harpsichords’, MMR, lxiii (1933), 97–9
‘Old Instruments of Music Portrayed in the Ecclesiastical Art of Essex’,
Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society, new ser., xx (1933)
A Textbook of European Musical Instruments: their Origin, History and
Character (London, 1937, 3/1956/R)
The Music of the Sumerians and their Immediate Successors, the
Babylonians & Assyrians (Cambridge, 1937/R)
‘The Music of Electricity’, PMA, lxiv (1937–8), 71–83
‘The Romance of the Phagotum’, PMA, lxvii (1940–41), 57–72
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Lynd: A Popular Account of Ancient Musical Instruments and their
Development as illustrated by Typical Examples in the Galpin
Collection, at Hatfield, Broad Oak, Essex (London, 1897)
‘Dotted Crotchet’: ‘The Rev. F.W. Galpin's Musical Instruments’, MT, xlvii
(1906), 521–9
F.G. Rendall: ‘F.W.G. 1858–1945’, GSJ, i (1948), 3–8 [incl. selective list of
writings]
S. Godman: ‘Francis William Galpin: Music Maker’, GSJ, xii (1959), 8–16
O. Anderson: ‘Francis Galpin and the Triangular Harps’, GSJ, xix (1966),
57–60
B. Galpin: ‘Canon Galpin's Check Lists’, GSJ, xxv (1972), 4–21
ROSEMARY WILLIAMSON
Galpin Society.
A society founded in Britain in 1946 to commemorate and continue the
work of Francis W. Galpin on early musical instruments. Among its
founding members were Anthony Baines, Philip Bate, Robert Donington,
Eric Halfpenny, Edgar Hunt and Lyndesay Langwill; the first president was
Sir Jack Westrup. It set out to further the study of the history, construction,
development and use of musical instruments, and to preserve and make
available material about instruments of the past. The society, though not
directly concerned with performance, has asserted a considerable
influence on performing styles, on the study of early techniques and on the
revival of interest in period instruments. It has organized exhibitions of
British musical instruments, and in 1959 held a joint congress with the
International Association of Music Libraries in Cambridge. In 1999 the
society had about 1000 members. It has published The Galpin Society
Journal annually since 1948 and a Bulletin three times a year.
Galuppi, Baldassare
(b Burano, nr Venice, 18 Oct 1706; dVenice, 3 Jan 1785). Italian composer.
He was a central figure in the development of the dramma giocoso and one
of the most important mid-18th-century opera seria composers. Known
widely as ‘Il Buranello’, from his birthplace, he was routinely listed in
Venetian documents and early manuscripts as ‘Baldissera’.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DALE E. MONSON
Galuppi, Baldassare
1. Life.
Galuppi’s father, a barber, played the violin in small orchestras, which
provided entr’acte music for theatres of spoken comedy, and was probably
the boy’s first music teacher. In his 16th year Baldassare composed Gli
amici rivali for Chioggia (also performed in Vicenza as La fede
nell’incostanza, probably by the same troupe), but Caffi reported this as a
fiasco, a ‘scandal’. The boy went for advice to Marcello, who severely
scolded him for attempting something so grand on so little experience and
swore him to three years’ hard labour, studying under Antonio Lotti (first
organist at S Marco), refraining from operatic composition altogether and
focussing instead on counterpoint and the organ. Evidence for all this is
circumstantial, however; other evidence suggests that Galuppi’s studies
with Lotti had begun earlier.
If the young composer made this promise, he did not keep it, for two years
later he was playing the cembalo in opera houses and writing substitute
arias for revivals and pasticcios. By the age of 20 he had established a
reputation as a cembalist in Venice and Florence, and was soon engaged
in the S Angelo (where Vivaldi reigned), the S Samuele and the S Giovanni
Grisostomo theatres, performing and supplying arias. He collaborated with
his friend and fellow Lotti pupil, Giovanni Battista Pescetti, writing alternate
acts of Gl’odi delusi del sangue in 1728 (set earlier by Lotti) and Dorinda in
1729. This modest success led to further commissions, and by 1738 his
operas were appearing outside Venice; at the same time his nickname, ‘Il
Buranello’, is first encountered. Tobia il giovane, an oratorio written for
Macerata in 1734, was perhaps his earliest attempt in the genre.
Alessandro nell’Indie was given its première in Mantua at about the same
time that Issipile graced the stage in Turin (December 1737); the composer
was probably present only in Mantua. In 1738 he was in the service of the
patrician Michele Bernardo in Venice. Galuppi’s music for the festival of S
Maria Magdalena in July 1740 at the Ospedale dei Mendicanti led to a
permanent appointment there on 4 August. His duties ranged from
teaching and conducting to composing liturgical music and oratorios.
Before 1740 and 1741 Galuppi’s Venetian career remained diverse, but
unexceptional. Neapolitan composers were favoured at Venice’s most
important theatres, and of the native sons only Vivaldi enjoyed any
particular favour. In 1740 and 1741, the year of Vivaldi’s death, two serious
operas by Galuppi appeared: Oronte at the prestigious S Giovanni
Grisostomo and Berenice at the S Angelo. Galuppi petitioned for nine
months’ leave and accepted an invitation to travel to London. Permission
from the Mendicanti was reluctantly granted, and Galuppi arrived in London
in October 1741 and supervised 11 opera productions over the next year
and a half, including four original works. Some reported his tenure as less
than admirable – Walpole claimed that the ‘music displeases everybody’
and Handel, in a letter of 29 December 1741, ridiculed the one serious
opera he heard – but in general Galuppi’s trip was successful and he was
well received. His music was often reprinted for the English public, and two
more Galuppi works appeared there soon after he had left. Back in Venice
by May 1743, he took up his old professions of cembalist and arranger; not
much had changed, and his contract with the Mendicanti was extended for
three more years. The spread of comic opera from Naples and Rome had
just found its way to Venice, however, and Galuppi began adapting these to
northern taste, beginning in 1744 with three Roman works by Latilla and
Rinaldo di Capua. His own comic opera in Carnival 1745, La forza d’amore,
was not particularly successful.
Galuppi’s fame began to spread and his fees to climb (as attested by
documents from Milan, Madrid, Padua and elsewhere). In 1747 (and
probably again in 1748) Galuppi was in Milan for L’olimpiade; Vologeso
received its première in Rome in 1748, and Venice was increasingly
enthusiastic. Circumstantial evidence suggests that Galuppi continued to
arrange comic operas throughout these years. In May 1748 he was elected
vicemaestro of the cappella ducale of S Marco. His work for the basilica
and the ospedali was to lead to an enormous collection of sacred works,
but for the near future his focus was on opera. By August he was in Vienna,
where Demetrio and Artaserse were enormously successful, despite
Metastasio’s criticism that Galuppi’s music did not serve the text well;
Demetrio, performed 19 times over a short period, broke all box-office
records. Galuppi left Vienna before the Artaserse première and was in
Milan for the first performances of Semiramide riconosciuta, the second
carnival opera of 1749.
The year 1749 marks the beginning of Galuppi’s long-term collaboration
with the librettist Carlo Goldoni. Over the next eight years a rapid sequence
of drammi giocosi appeared, beginning with Arcadia in Brenta (14 May
1749) and extending through four more works before a year had passed.
These operas surged over Europe with unprecedented ease, and by the
middle of the next decade Galuppi was the most popular opera composer
anywhere. His professional obligations forced his resignation from the
Mendicanti in 1751. His opere serie continued to command high praise. He
wrote his first setting of Demofoonte for Madrid in December 1749, to mark
the engagement of Maria Antonietta Ferdinanda of Spain to Vittorio
Amedeo, heir to the throne of Piedmont, and then supplied the wedding
festival music itself, La vittoria di Imeneo, for Turin the following June (it
was performed more than 20 times). A new Artaserse opened the Teatro
Nuovo in Padua in 1751. By April 1762 Galuppi was unanimously
appointed maestro di coro of S Marco, the most important musical position
in Venice, and in July he was elected maestro di coro at the Ospedale degli
Incurabili.
In the meantime Galuppi continued to travel, fulfilling commissions for
various (mostly serious) operas. Early in 1764 the Venetian ambassador to
Vienna conveyed the wishes of the Russian minister to acquire Galuppi’s
services; the Russian court knew his work and had already staged seven
of his operas. In June 1764 the Venetian senate granted the composer
leave to go (with the stipulation that he continue to supply a Christmas
mass and other Vespers compositions for the basilica), and, after securing
the welfare of his family and resigning from the Incurabili, Galuppi travelled
to St Petersburg, visiting C.P.E. Bach (in Berlin) and Casanova along the
way and arriving on 22 September 1765. For Catherine the Great’s court
he produced new works (Ifigenia in Tauride, possibly a comic work, now
lost, and two cantatas), revived Didone abbandonata (in Carnival 1766, an
enormous success) and Il re pastore, and arranged other operas, as well
as providing religious and occasional music. His 15 a cappella works on
Russian texts for the Orthodox liturgy proved to be a watershed. Their
Italian, light contrapuntal style joined with native melodic idioms was
continued by Traetta and Sarti and maintained by, among others, D.S.
Bortnyans'ky, his pupil in Venice and possibly earlier in St Petersburg.
Galuppi travelled with the court to Moscow, where comic works were
performed (no comic operas were allowed on the St Petersburg stage
before 1779). He returned to Venice with many honours and gifts, took up
his position at S Marco in late 1768 after visiting Hasse in Vienna, and was
reappointed at the Incurabili. In summer 1769 Il re pastore was presented
in Venice to honour the future monarch, Joseph II.
After this, Galuppi dedicated himself mainly to sacred music, although his
operas continued to be performed. Burney reports that the composer was
busy all year, playing the organ for Venetian churches and presiding over S
Marco. La serva per amore, performed in October 1773, was his last
operatic work. In May 1782 he conducted performances to honour the
pope in Venice (including the sacred cantata Il ritorno di Tobia, with 60
musicians from the four Venetian conservatories) and received a visit from
the future Tsar Paul of Russia. By 1784 his health declined, but he
continued to compose, completing the Christmas mass for S Marco a few
weeks before his death on 3 January 1785, after a two-month illness. He
was buried in the church of S Vitale (exact location unknown), and a month
later was honoured by a lavish requiem mass in S Stefano led by Bertoni,
his deputy in S Marco. His wealth was not as extensive as once thought,
but his will left inheritances to three sons and the bulk of a sizable estate to
his wife, whom he names with tender praise. Seven other children (all
daughters) are not mentioned.
Burney offered the most extensive account of Galuppi’s personality and
appearance from a visit in 1770: ‘His character and conversation are
natural, intelligent, and agreeable. He is in figure little and thin but has very
much the look of a gentleman’. Galuppi’s lifelong dedication to his large
family was well known, as Burney reported: ‘He has the appearance of a
regular family man, and is esteemed at Venice as much for his private
character as for his public talents’. To Burney he was witty and charming,
referring to his study as the room ‘where he dirtied paper’. Burney named
him the most inspired of all Venetian composers, superior to Piccinni and
Sacchini and second only to Jommelli, and said that late in life Galuppi had
lost none of the fire of his former years. Hasse, writing to Metastasio,
referred to him as a ‘most excellent composer’ and in a poem Goldoni
praised him with the epigram ‘What music! What style! What masterworks!’.
Galuppi’s son Antonio (d c1780) wrote the librettos for two of his father’s
most successful operas, L’amante di tutte (1760) and Li tre amanti ridicoli
(1761), and was probably involved also in arranging other comic works for
S Moisè. His poetry and sense of comedy were in the tradition of Goldoni,
though less inspired and articulate, more inclined to slapstick, buffoonery
and caricature.
Galuppi, Baldassare
2. Works.
Galuppi was an extraordinarily popular composer of both serious and
comic operas and a prolific composer of sacred and keyboard music. His
facile, elegant and flexible melodic style, joined to Goldoni’s witty and
sometimes poignant poetry, created the central watershed for the
dispersion of drammi giocosi throughout Europe after 1749; works such as
Il filosofo di campagna have few peers in that regard. Yet his serious
operas were no less important; their performances exceeded his comic
operas in number.
Galuppi’s stage music embodies the principal Italian tradition of charming
and beautiful melody, clear and lucid accompaniment, and virtuoso or
emotive display; as he described it to Burney, good music contained
‘vaghezza, chiarezza e buona modulazione’. In the comic works vocal
phrases tend to be short, usually of two or four bars, and balanced in
relation to each other, with subtle variations in lengths and emphasis to
avoid rhythmic monotony. Within the melodic line rhythms are strong and
lively, frequently contributing much wit to a comic passage. Galuppi always
paid close attention to both the sense and the clarity of the text,
emphasizing its emotional or humorous content. His musical ideas were
fresh, inventive and sometimes surprising, adding a new dimension to a
character or situation.
The principal opera seria music throughout Galuppi’s career was the da
capo aria in five parts, a form already well established in the 1720s. The
typical variations of his day – AABAA, AA'BAA' and ABCAB – are all
present, as are such other later 18th-century innovations as metre and
tempo changes for the B text, abbreviated internal ritornellos, ‘dal segno’
returns to the first or second solo and the expansion of cadential or
embellishment sections into larger formal entities. His later operas tend to
be more innovative in this regard. Other aria forms often merely shorten
the da capo design by eliminating ritornellos and textual repetition. In comic
operas the full da capo was reserved for serious roles and comic arias
were of simpler design, even including popular song. In the 1750s Galuppi
increasingly relied on binary designs; after 1755 the simple AA and
rounded binary, ABA', were most common, modulating from tonic to
dominant and back. The text was often merely repeated, sometimes with
shifts of tempo or metre, or both.
While many comic operas of the 1730s and 40s featured small ensembles,
credit for the creation of the ensemble finale (or chain finale) is jointly
shared by Galuppi and Goldoni. From their first effort of this type (Arcadia
in Brenta, 1749) musical form, tonality and melody were made the servant
of the drama. Goldoni’s comic, act-ending text mosaics were matched by
Galuppi with short musical sections, either open or closed, in contrasting
keys, tempos and metres, through-composed to match the rapid shifts of
plot and to reflect the insistent, kaleidoscopic emotions. These were usually
organized around a central key; related key areas, new textures and
melodies created strong contrast. This model for ensemble finales was
widely imitated, by Haydn and Mozart among others.
Galuppi’s treatment of the orchestra was praised by Burney and others; the
ensemble’s interplay with the voice, its sharing of structural motifs, themes
and figuration, and its clarity of texture in accompaniment are principal
hallmarks. Galuppi, like many other important 18th-century composers,
was an exacting orchestral taskmaster and took steps during his
administration at S Marco to improve the orchestral and choral personnel.
The orchestra there was said to lead Italy in its skill, and (according to
Stählin) in St Petersburg Galuppi disciplined the orchestra ‘in good
Venetian’ and brought new precision to the ensemble.
Galuppi was extremely sensitive to the abilities of his singers, just as
Goldoni was to those of his actors. In his comic works Galuppi enjoyed the
long cooperation of Francesco Carrattoli, Francesco Baglioni and other
Baglionis (particularly Clementina, Francesco’s daughter, who sang in at
least 16 Galuppi productions, both comic and serious). The serious male
roles in comic opera were for high voice, but conceived for women in
trouser roles. Galuppi also composed for the finest opera seria singers,
including Caffarelli, Manzuoli, Gioacchino Conti, Caterina Gabrieli,
Guadagni and Amorevoli, and here too he followed the 18th-century
practice of ‘tailoring’ arias like a suit of clothes. His compositions for
Tenducci during that singer’s second Italian career attest to this. That a
revival of Didone abbandonata for Naples in 1770 was refused by the
singers (Insanguine rewrote it) probably attests more to Galuppi’s
sympathy for the original voices than to any outdated musical style, as is
sometimes asserted.
There are about 130 known keyboard sonatas by Galuppi, and other
compositions may yet be uncatalogued. The majority are in undated
manuscripts, so his role in shaping the genre in the 1730s and 40s is
obscure. None of the sonatas was published before 1756, and he wrote
such works even late in life (Passa tempo al cembalo is dated 1785), yet
the graceful, ornamented style of many works seems to have more in
common with keyboard styles of a period before 1750. The European
vogue for Italian keyboard sonatas (almost all opera composers wrote
them) among an amateur audience rested in their undemanding technical
requirements and ingratiating style. Galuppi’s own virtuosity as a keyboard
player is not the focus. There is much idiomatic keyboard writing, with
broken chords, scales, motifs shared between hands and the like. About
half of the sonatas are in a single movement, while others follow the two-
or three-movement arrangement of Alberti or the fast–slow–fast
organization of the opera sinfonia and concerto. Binary movements
predominate and most sonatas are in major keys. The texture is generally
thin and homophonic, with a singing soprano line, clear and regular
phrasing and characteristic gestures and motifs reminiscent of aria types,
particularly in slow ornamental movements. At times the writing is
rhapsodic and developmental. The figuration mimics a variety of styles,
from string genres to the French overture and German preludes.
Galuppi’s sacred compositions span his creative career and have not been
systematically inventoried or studied. Because of his long association with
the Mendicanti, the Incurabili, S Marco and other religious institutions, his
liturgical music and oratorios (or azioni sacre) are plentiful – though at the
peak of his career (the late 1740s to the early 1760s) they took a
subservient role to works for the stage. There are probably at least 200
liturgical works, including masses, motets, antiphons and psalms. In his
petition to the Mendicanti to go to London in 1741 he mentioned the works
written over the past year: 16 motets, four Salves, two antiphons and six
psalms as well as nine others to be left behind and performed in his
absence. This is probably typical of the demands of his regular
employment. The liturgical music varies from conservative works using the
stile antico (favoured at S Marco) to the more operatic, stile moderno works
for the Venetian conservatories; the four Magnificat settings range from the
anachronistic, chant-based counterpoint of that in C major (I-Gl) to the
more galant G major setting (D-Bps, Dl). The Salve regina written for the
Mendicanti soprano Buonafede in 1746 reveals his early allegiance to the
rising galant idiom of Neapolitan comic opera, an arrangement of
movements similar to the sinfonia and his typical care in writing for specific
voices. Liturgical music is for all vocal combinations, including mixed choir
of four to six voices and multiple choirs, as well as works for women’s
voices alone (for the ospedali) and more operatic solo works. It is usually
accompanied by an orchestra, primarily of strings, although a cappella
works are also found (including complete masses). Burney reported that at
S Marco he heard a mass for six choirs and six orchestras composed and
conducted by Galuppi. His liturgical music is less chromatic and varied than
that of Hasse and Jommelli, and favours homophony over polyphony,
although fugal writing is found. In Russia he wrote Orthodox church music
for Catherine the Great and continued to send a Christmas Eve mass each
year to S Marco. After his return, his duties at the Incurabili (writing psalms,
motets, and a yearly Vespers or oratorio) and S Marco (including a mass
for Christmas completed only weeks before his death) occupied most of his
time.
Musical sources for the oratorios are few. Burney’s description of them is
superficial, stating that they were similar to operas but used the chorus
more heavily, with a more sacred style in some pieces. It appears that
many of the oratorios for the Incurabili were for two choirs and in Latin.
Adamo (in Italian) is largely in opera seria style, with da capo (da parte)
arias, ornamental coloratura and only a superficial chorus. By all accounts,
Galuppi’s oratorios for the Incurabili during the 1760s and 70s rose to a
high level, in part from the keen rivalry in this genre with Bertoni at the
Mendicanti. Tres pueri hebraei in captivitate Babylonis (1774) was among
his most admired oratorios, with an active dramatic structure and eight
soloists; Caffi reported that it was repeated at least 100 times.
Galuppi, Baldassare
WORKS
music lost unless otherwise stated
operas
LKH London, King’s Theatre in the Haymarket
MRD Milan, Regio Ducal Teatro
VA Venice, Teatro S Angelo
VM Venice, Teatro S Moisè
VC Venice, Teatro S Cassiano
VS Venice, Teatro S Samuele
La fede nell’incostanza, ossia Gli amici rivali (favola pastorale, 3, G. Neri), Chioggia,
Boegan; Vicenza, delle Grazie, 1722, 1 aria B-Bc
Gl’odi delusi dal sangue [Acts 1 and 3] (os, 3, A.M. Lucchini), VA, 4 Feb 1728 [Act 2
by G.B. Pescetti]
Dorinda (pastorale, 3, anon. rev. D. Lalli), VS, 9 June 1729, collab. Pescetti
L’odio placato (os, 3, F. Silvani), VS, ?27 Dec 1729, 1 duet I-Bas
Argenide (os, 3, A. Giusti), VA, 15 Jan 1733
L’ambizione depressa (os, 3, G. Papis), VA, Ascension 1733
La ninfa Apollo (favola pastorale, 3, F. de Lemene with addns by G. Boldini), VS, 30
May 1734
Tamiri (os, 3, B. Vitturi), VA, 17 Nov 1734
Elisa regina di Tiro (os, 3, A. Zeno and P. Pariati), VA, 27 Jan 1736
Ergilda (os, 3, Vitturi), VA, 12 Nov 1736, B-Bc
L’Alvilda (os, 3, Lalli, after Zeno: L’amor generoso), VS, 29 May 1737, 1 aria I-Gl
Issipile [1st version] (os, 3, P. Metastasio), Turin, Regio, 26 Dec 1737
Alessandro nell’Indie [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Mantua, Nuovo Arciducale, ?
Jan 1738, US-Wc (for later setting, revival or pasticcio; copy of lost MS, D-Dl)
Adriano in Siria [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Turin, Regio, ?Jan 1740, B-Bc
(with addns from later productions)
Gustavo I, re di Svezia (os, 3, C. Goldoni), VS, 25 May 1740, D-Dl
Didone abbandonata [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Modena, Molzo, 26 Dec
1740, B-Bc (convoluted MS from different periods), P-La (1752, Madrid), RUS-
SPtob, US-Wc (?1751)
Oronte re de’ sciti (os, 3, Goldoni), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 26 Dec 1740
Berenice (os, 3, Vitturi), VA, 27 Jan 1741
Penelope (os, 3, P.A. Rolli), LKH, 12 Dec 1741, Favourite Songs (London, 1741)
Scipione in Cartagine (os, 3, F. Vanneschi), LKH, 2 March 1742, RUS-Mcm,
Favourite Songs (London, c1742)
Enrico (os, 3, Vanneschi), LKH, 1 Jan 1743, B-Br, Favourite Songs (London, 1743)
Sirbace (os, 3, C.N. Stampa), LKH, 5 April 1743, Favourite Songs (London, 1743)
Arsace (os, 3, A. Salvi), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 16 Nov 1743
Ricimero [1st version] (os, 3, Silvani), MRD, 26 Dec 1744
La forza d’amore (dg, 3, Panicelli), VC, 30 Jan 1745
Ciro riconosciuto [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), MRD, 26 Dec 1745
Il trionfo della continenza (pastorale, 3), LKH, 28 Jan 1746, 1 aria I-Fc, Favourite
Songs (London, 1746)
Scipione nelle Spagne (os, 3, A. Piovene), VA, Nov 1746, F-Pn (2 acts), RUS-Mcm
Evergete (os, 3, Silvani and Lalli), Rome, Capranica, 2 Jan 1747, Act 1 P-La
L’Arminio (os, 3, Salvi), VC, 26 Nov 1747, arias I-MOe, Nc,PLcon, PS, Vc and Vnm
(1747, Rome)
L’olimpiade (os, 3, Metastasio), MRD, 26 Dec 1747, D-Dl, I-Mc (facs. in IOB, xli,
1978), Act 1 Tf (1758)
Vologeso (os, 3, Zeno), Rome, Argentina, 13 or 14 Feb 1748, D-Bsb (‘Berenice di
Galuppi, 1742’)
Demetrio [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Vienna, Burg, 16/27 Oct 1748, A-Wn, F-
Pc (2 copies)
Clotilde (os, 3, F. Passarini), VC, Nov 1748 (? with addns)
Semiramide riconosciuta (os, 3, Metastasio), MRD, 25 Jan 1749, Pc
Artaserse [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Vienna, Burg, 27 Jan 1749, A-Wn, D-
Bsb*, F-Pc, ov. I-Rc (1756, Venice),TLp (1757, Lucca)
L’Arcadia in Brenta (dg, 3, Goldoni), VA, 14 May 1749, B-Bc,I-MOe
Demofoonte [1st version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Madrid, Buen Retiro, 18 Dec 1749,
Nc
Alcimena principessa dell’Isole Fortunate, ossia L’amore fortunato ne’ suoi disprezzi
(os, 3, P. Chiari, after Molière: La princesse d’Elide), VC, 26 Dec 1749
Arcifanfano re dei matti (dg, 3, Goldoni), VM, 27 Dec 1749 (? with addns), ov. MAav
(1759, Venice), arias Tf
Il mondo della luna (dg, 3, Goldoni), VM, 29 Jan 1750, D-Dl, W,F-Pc, I-Gl, US-Wc,
Favourite Songs (London, 1760)
Il paese della Cuccagna (dg, 3, Goldoni), VM, 7 May 1750
Il mondo alla roversa, ossia Le donne che comandano (dg, 3, Goldoni), VC, 14 Nov
1750, A-Wgm, B-Bc (1752, Venice), D-Dl, DS,F-Pc (1755, Dresden), GB-Lbl, Lcm,
I-MOe, MAav, TLp, Vlevi, US-Wc
Issipile [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Bologna, 1750, D-Dl, P-La (1755, Parma),
US-Wc
Antigona (os, 3, G. Roccaforte), Rome, Dame, 9 Jan 1751, B-Br, D-Wa (1754,
Brunswick), GB-Lbl (as Antigono); as Antigona in Tebe, Naples, 1755, B-Br
Dario (os, 3, G. Baldanza), Turin, Regio Ducal, carn. 1751, arias I-Rsc
Lucio Papirio (os, 3, Zeno), Reggio nell’Emilia, Pubblico, fair 1751
Artaserse [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Padua, Nuovo, 11 June 1751, 1 aria
MAav
Il conte Caramella (dg, 3, Goldoni), Venice, aut. 1751, A-Wn, D-W,Wa, I-Gl, Mr
Le virtuose ridicole (dg, 3, Goldoni, after Molière: Les précieuses ridicules), VS,
carn. 1752, D-W
La calamità de’ cuori (dg, 3, Goldoni), VS, 26 Dec 1752, A-Wn,?D-Bsb, W, F-Pc,
Acts 1 and 2 GB-Lbl, US-Wc
I bagni d’Abano (dg, 3, Goldoni), VS, 10 Feb 1753, Act 2 D-W and MGmi; collab. F.
Bertoni (?pasticcio)
Sofonisba [1st version] (os, 3, Roccaforte), Rome, Dame, c24 Feb 1753
L’eroe cinese (os, 3, Metastasio), Naples, S Carlo, 10 July 1753, P-La, PL-Wn
Ricimero re dei goti [2nd version] (os, 3), Naples, S Carlo, 4 Nov 1753, F-Pc, I-Nc,
Favourite Songs (London, 1755)
Alessandro nelle Indie [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Naples, S Carlo, 20 Jan
1754, P-La
Siroe (os, 3, Metastasio), Rome, Argentina, 10 Feb 1754, B-Bc, GB-Lbl, Ob, P-La
Il filosofo di campagna (dg, 3, Goldoni), VS, 26 Oct 1754, A-Wn, D-Bsb, Dl, SWl, W
(as La serva accorta), F-Pc, GB-Cfm, Lbl, I-Fc, Mr, Rdp, Sac,Vnm, P-La, US-Bp,
Wc, Favourite Songs (London, 1761); rev. Rome, 1757, as La serva astuta
Il povero superbo (dg, 3, Goldoni, after La gastarda), VS, Feb 1755; rev. Brescia,
1755, as La serva astuta
Alessandro nelle Indie [3rd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), VS, Ascension 1755, D-
Mbs (incl. changes for Munich, 12 Oct 1755)
Attalo (os, 3, ?Silvani or ? A. Papi), Padua, Nuovo, 11 June 1755, LEmi (Parma), F-
Pn
Le nozze (dg, 3, Goldoni), Bologna, Formagliari, 14 Sept 1755, A-Wn, D-W, ?I-Fc,
P-La, US-Wc; as Le nozze di Dorina, Perugia, 1759, I-Gl; (int) Rome, 1760; as O
casamente de Lesbina, Lisbon, 1766; rev. Reggio nell’Emilia, 1770 (as Le nozze di
Dorina), P-La, US-Wc
La diavolessa [L’avventuriera; Li vaghi accidenti fra amore e gelosia] (dg, 3,
Goldoni), VS, Nov 1755, A-Wn (facs. in IOB, xliv, 1978), D-Bsb, W, Wa, GB-Lbl, I-
MOe, RUS-Mcm, US-Wc; rev. Leipzig and Prague, 1756
Idomeneo (os), Rome, Argentina, 7 Jan 1756, P-La
La cantarina (farsetta, 3, Goldoni), Rome, Capranica, 26 Feb 1756
Ezio (os, 3, Metastasio), MRD, 22 Jan 1757, La
Sesostri (os, 3, Pariati), Venice, S Benedetto, 26 Nov 1757, D-LEmi, P-La (1759,
Venice), S-Skma (1760)
Ipermestra (os, 3, Metastasio), MRD, 14 Jan 1758, P-La (3 copies, incl. 1761, Pisa)
Adriano in Siria [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Livorno, spr. 1758,La (3 copies,
incl. 1759, Naples: facs. in DMV, xxiv, 1983), D-Dl and P-La (1760, S Luca); B-Bc,
S-Skma
Demofoonte [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Padua, 1758, B-Bc (arias autograph),
D-Dl, I-MOe (attrib. Caldara), P-La; rev. Venice, S Benedetto, 1759, La
Ciro riconosciuto [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Rome, carn. 1759, F-Pc,P-La
Melite riconosciuto (os, 3, Roccaforte), Rome, Dame, 13 Jan 1759, La (2 copies)
La ritornata di Londra (int, Goldoni), Rome, Valle, c19 Feb 1759
La clemenza di Tito (os, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Salvatore, carn. 1760, F-Pc, I-
CMbc, P-La (2 copies)
Solimano (os, 3, G.A. Migliavacca), Padua, Nuovo, 11 June 1760, La (2 copies)
L’amante di tutte (dg, 3, A. Galuppi), VM, 15 Nov 1760, A-Wn, B-Bc, D-Dl (1770,
Dresden), W (Act 2), F-Pc, I-Gl, Mr, MOe, Vc, P-La, US-Wc
Li tre amanti ridicoli (dg, 3, A. Galuppi), VM, 18 Jan 1761, A-Wn,D-W, Wa (1762,
Venice), F-Pn, I-MOe, US-Wc
Demetrio [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Padua, June 1761, P-La
Il caffè di campagna (dg, 3, Chiari), VM, 18 Nov 1761, La
Antigono (os, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Benedetto, carn. 1762, La
Il marchese villano (dg, 3, Chiari), VM, 2 Feb 1762, A-Wn, B-Bc,I-Nc, P-La; rev. as
La lavandara, Turin, 1770; as La lavandara astuta, Mantua, 1771; as Il matrimonio
per inganno, Venice, S Giacomo di Corfù
L’orfana onorata (int), Rome, Valle, carn. 1762, 1 aria I-TLp
Il re pastore (os, 3, Metastasio), Parma, Ducal, spr. 1762, 1 aria Gl (1779,
Genoa); ?rev. St Petersburg, Sept 1766; ?rev. Venice, S Benedetto, 10 July 1769
Viriate (os, 3, Metastasio: Siface), Venice, S Salvatore, 19 May 1762, P-La
Il Muzio Scevola (os, 3, C. Lanfranchi Rossi), Padua, Nuovo, June 1762, arias I-Fc
and Nc, ov. Vc, Act 2 P-La
L’uomo femmina (dg, 3), VM, aut. 1762, La
Il puntiglio amoroso (dg, 3, [? C. or G.] Gozzi), VM, 26 Dec 1762, A-Wn, US-Wc
Arianna e Teseo [1st version] (os, 3, Pariati), Padua, Nuovo, 12 June 1763, P-La (3
copies)
Il re alla caccia (dg, 3, Goldoni), VS, aut. 1763, F-Pc, I-Nc,Vc, P-La, US-Wc
Sofonisba [2nd version] (os, 3, M. Verazi), Turin, Regio, carn. 1764, I-Tf, P-La (3
copies), US-Wc
Cajo Mario (os, 3, Roccaforte), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 31 May 1764, P-La
La partenza e il ritorno de’ marinari (dg), VM, 26 Dec 1764, ?D-Bsb, Dl, I-Vc
Didone abbandonata [2nd version] (os, 3, Metastasio), Naples, 1764, Nc, P-La
(1765, Venice)
La cameriera spiritosa (dg, 3, Goldoni), MRD, 4 Oct 1766, rev. Prague, ?1768–9, as
Il cavaliere della Piuma
Ifigenia in Tauride (os, 3, M. Coltellini), St Petersburg, court, 21 April/2 May 1768,
RUS-SPtob, US-Wc
Arianna e Teseo [2nd version] (os, 3, Pariati), Venice, carn. 1769, P-La (2 copies)
Amor lunatico (dg, 3, Chiari), VM, Jan 1770
L’inimico delle donne (dg, 3, G. Bertati), VS, aut. 1771, B-Bc, P-La (facs. in DMV,
xxi, 1986)
Gl’intrighi amorosi (dg, 3, G. Petrosellini), VS, Jan 1772, B-Bc
Motezuma (os, 3, V.A. Cigna-Santi), Venice, S Benedetto, 27 May 1772, Bc, D-Dl
(lost; copy in US-Wc), P-La
La serva per amore (dg, 3, F. Livigni), VS, Oct 1773, Act 1 B-Bc and F-Pn*
principal sources (including some autographs): A-Z; CH-BM, E, Saf, Zz; CZ-KU, LIT, Pnm;
D-HR, MÜs, Rtt, WEY; F-Pn, GB-Lbl; I-Bc, BGc, CHf, Gl, Mc, Rc, Rrostirolla, Vlevi; PL-
KRZ; SK-BRnm; US-NYp, PO, R, SFsc
instrumental
[6] Sonate per cembalo, op.1 (London, 1756, 2/1760 with extra movt in no.1)
[6] Sonate per cembalo, op.2 (London, 1759)
A Favourite Overture, hpd (London, n.d.)
3 sonatas, kbd, in Raccolta musicale (Nuremberg, 1756, 1757, 1765); 11 movts in
XX sonate per cembalo da varri autori (Paris, 1758–60); other works pubd singly,
mainly in Paris and London
Sinfonie a 4, I-MOe, Vmc
Sinfonias, ovs., D-Bsb, SWl; I-Gl, MOe, Nc, Vmc; S-Skma, Uu; ?USSR-KA
Concs., D-Bsb, Dl, SWl, I-MOe, S-Uu
Trios, A-Wgm, S-Uu
c130 sonatas, toccatas, divertimentos, lessons etc., hpd, A-Wgm; B-Bc, Lc; D-Bsb,
Dl, DS; F-Pa, Pn; GB-Cfm, Lbl; I-Bsf, Fc, Gl*,Nc, Rsc, Vc, Vlevi, Vmc, Vsm
Galuppi, Baldassare
BIBLIOGRAPHY
general
BurneyFI
MooserA
F. Piovano: ‘Baldassare Galuppi: note bio-bibliografiche’, RMI, xiii (1906),
676–726; xiv (1907), 333–65; xv (1908), 233–74
B. Galuppi, detto ‘Il Buranello’ (1706–1785): note e documenti raccolti in
occasione della settimana celebrativa (20–26 settembre 1948),
Chigiana, v (1948)
A. Della Corte: Baldassare Galuppi: profilo critico (Siena, 1948)
D. Arnold: ‘Orphans and Ladies: the Venetian Conservatories (1680–
1790)’, PRMA, lxxxix (1962–3), 31–47
S.H. Hansell: ‘Sacred Music at the Incurabili in Venice at the Times of J.A.
Hasse’, JAMS, xxiii (1970), 282–301, 505–21
C. Valder-Knechtges: ‘Musiker am Ospedale degl’Incurabili in Venedig,
1765–1768’, Mf, xxxiv (1981), 50–56
R. Wiesend: Studien zur opera seria von Baldassare Galuppi:
Werksituation und Überlieferung – Form und Satztechnik
Inhaltsdarstellung, mit einer Biographie und einem Quellenverzeichnis
der Opern (Tutzing, 1984)
Galuppiana: Venice 1985
operas
GroveO(D.E. Monson) [with further bibliography]
A. Wotquenne: ‘Baldassare Galuppi (1706–1785): étude bibliographique
sur ses oeuvres dramatiques’, RMI, vi (1899), 561–79; pubd
separately with addns (Brussels, 1902)
E.J. Dent: ‘Ensembles and Finales in 18th-Century Italian Opera’, SIMG, xi
(1909–10), 543–69; xii (1910–11), 112–38
A. della Corte: L’opera comica italiana nel ’700 (Bari, 1923), i, 141–72; ii,
216–46
W. Bollert: Die Buffoopern Baldassare Galuppis (diss., U. of Berlin, 1935)
W. Bollert: ‘Tre opere di Galuppi, Haydn e Paisiello sul Mondo della luna di
Goldoni’, Musica d’oggi, xxi (1939), 265–70
Venezia e il melodramma nel Settecento: Venice 1973–5, i [incl. D. Heartz:
‘Hasse, Galuppi and Metastasio’, 309–39]; ii [incl. D. Heartz: ‘Vis
comica: Goldoni, Galuppi and L’Arcadia in Brenta’, 33–73; M.F.
Robinson: ‘Three Versions of Goldoni's Il filosofo di campagna’, 75–85]
D. Heartz: ‘The Creation of the Buffo Finale in Italian Opera’, PRMA, civ
(1977–8), 67–78
D. Heartz: ‘Goldoni, Don Giovanni and the dramma giocoso’, MT, cxx
(1979), 993–8
R. Wiesend: ‘Il giovane Galuppi e l’opera: materiali per gli anni 1722–41’,
NRMI, xvii (1983), 383–97
C. Vitali: ‘Difficili esordi di Galuppi operista: una fonte precoce’, Il diletto
della scena e dell’armonia: teatro e musica nella Venezia dal ’500 al
’700: Adria 1986–8, 267–76
R. Wiesend: ‘Die Identifizierung eines unbekannten Galuppi-Librettos, oder
Von Schwierigkeiten der Opernforschung’, Georg Friedrich Händel: ein
Lebensinhalt: Gedenkschrift für Bernd Baselt (1934–1993), ed. K.
Hortschansky and K. Muskata (Kassel, 1995), 505–16
other works
CaffiS
NewmanSCE
ScheringGO
F. Torrefranca: ‘Per un catalogo tematico delle sonate per cembalo di B.
Galuppi’, RMI, xvi (1909), 872–81
C. van den Borren: ‘Contribution au catalogue thématique des sonates de
Galuppi’, RMI, xxx (1923), 365–70
F. Raabe: Galuppi als Instrumentalkomponist (Frankfurt an der Oder, 1929)
A.L. Chiuminatto: The Liturgical Works of Baldassare Galuppi (diss.,
Northwestern U., 1959)
E.E. Pullman: A Catalog of the Keyboard Sonatas of Baldassare Galuppi
(1706–1785) (diss., American U., Washington DC, 1972)
D. and E. Arnold: The Oratorio in Venice (London, 1986)
D. Arnold: ‘A Salve for Signora Buonafede’, JRMA, cliii (1988), 168–71
G. Di Mauro: A Stylistic Analysis of Selected Keyboard Sonatas by
Baldassare Galuppi (1706–1785) (diss., U. of Miami, 1989)
P. Cahalan: ‘The Magnificats of Baldassare Galuppi’, The Choral Journal,
xxxiii (Dec 1992), 21–6
D. Molino: ‘Sei sonate inedite di Baldassare Galuppi’, Studi musicali, xxiii
(1994), 299–312
Galusin, Vladimir
(b Rubtsovsk, 1957). Russian tenor. A graduate of the Novosibirsk
Conservatory, he began his career at Novosibirsk Opera in 1981. In 1990
he joined the Kirov Opera, where his roles at home and on tour have
ranged from Grigory (Boris Godunov), Mikhail (The Maid of Pskov),
Grishka Kuter'ma (The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh) and Hermann
(The Queen of Spades) to Aleksey (The Gambler) and Sergey (Lady
Macbeth of the Mtsensk District); many of these are recorded. From the
mid-1990s he also appeared with opera companies and festivals around
the world, notably at Bregenz (Kitezh, 1995), Amsterdam (Luisa Miller),
Florence (Turandot), New York (Boris Godunov) and Buenos Aires
(Yevgeny Onegin), all in 1997, Vienna (Don Carlos, 1998), and Verona
(Aida), Macerata (Otello) and Paris (Queen of Spades) in 1999; he
returned to Madrid in 2000 for Don Alvaro in La forza del destino. Other
roles include Puccini's Des Grieux and Pinkerton. Galusin's virile, ringing
tone is more italianate than Russian, but his vivid, almost expressionistic
acting makes him an exciting interpreter of both repertories.
JOHN ALLISON
Galway, James
(b Belfast, 8 Dec 1939). Northern Ireland flautist. He studied at the RCM on
a scholarship (1956–9) under John Francis and at the GSM (1959–60)
under Geoffrey Gilbert. Another scholarship enabled him to study at the
Paris Conservatoire (1960–61) under Gaston Crunelle and Jean-Pierre
Rampal, and privately with Marcel Moyse. He spent the next 15 years as
an orchestral player, with Sadler’s Wells Opera (1961–6), Covent Garden
Opera (1965), and with the LSO (1966–7), RPO (1967–9) and Berlin PO
(1969–75). Because of his interest and outstanding ability in chamber and
solo work he decided to follow a career as a soloist, and has subsquently
toured throughout the world.
Galway’s repertory includes Mozart’s concertos (which he has recorded),
other Classical and pre-Classical concertos and much chamber music. He
is equally sympathetic to contemporary music; works composed for him
include Henri Lazarof’s Concerto and Cadence 5, Musgrave’s Orpheus,
Hanning Schroeder’s Variations for flute and orchestra, and concertos by
Jindřich Feld, David Heath, Lowell Liebermann and Lorin Maazel. He has
made a large number of recordings, including Classical and Romantic
works for the flute, arrangements and 20th-century works. Galway has also
cultivated a popular image, both by performing and recording many items
from popular song repertory and by appearing at high-profile political
events in London, Berlin and Davos. On his A.K. Cooper 14-carat gold flute
he produces a tone that can range from light and silvery to full and rich,
with unforced vibrato, and a brilliant but effortless and gentle articulation.
He has published An Autobiography (London, 1978), Flute (London, 1982)
and, with W. Mann, James Galway’s Music in Time (London, 1982). He
was made an OBE in 1977.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Cooper: The Flute (London, 1980/R)
NIALL O’LOUGHLIN
Gamba (i).
See Viol and Viola da gamba.
Gamba (ii).
See under Organ stop (Geigen, Viola da gamba).
Gambarini, Elisabetta de
(b London, 7 Sept 1731; d London, 9 Feb 1765). Soprano and composer of
Italian descent. She was a daughter of Charles Gambarini, counsellor to
the Landgrave of Hessen-Kassel. She took the second soprano part at the
first performance of Handel’s Occasional Oratorio in 1746, and in the
Covent Garden revival a year later assumed most of Duparc’s role as well.
She created the Israelite Woman in Judas Maccabaeus in 1747, and
probably sang Asenath in Joseph and his Brethren the same year. Her
name appears in the performing scores of Samson and Messiah, but it is
not certain when she sang in these works. Her voice seems to have been a
mezzo with a regular compass of d' to g'', extended occasionally down to b
and up to a''. About 1748–50 she published some harpsichord pieces and
songs in Italian and English, including a setting of ‘Honour, riches,
marriage-blessing’ from The Tempest. Her op.2 has a frontispiece portrait
engraved by Nathaniel Hone in 1748; it gives the date of her birth as
above, but this may understate her age. She had a benefit at the Great
Room, Dean Street, on 15 April 1761, when an ode of her composition was
performed together with a cantata by the aged Geminiani; he may have
been her teacher. In May 1764, as Mrs Chazal, she is said to have given a
concert at which she appeared as organist and composer. According to
Gerber’s Lexikon she was also a painter.
WORKS
6 Sets of Lessons, hpd (London, 1748)
Lessons for the Harpsichord, Intermix’d with Italian and English Songs, op.2
(London, 1748)
XII English & Italian Songs, fl, bc, op.3 (London, ?1750)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Mathiesen: ‘Elisabetta de Gambarini: the Vocal Option’, Continuo: the
Magazine of Old Music, xvi/2 (1992), 2–5
WINTON DEAN
Gambe
(Ger.).
See Viol.
Gamberini, Michelangelo
(b Cagli; fl 1655). Italian composer. He was maestro di cappella of S
Venanzo, Fabriano, in 1655, when he published in Venice his Motetti
concertati … libro primo, for two to four voices and continuo.
In some areas, the simbing, a spike harp larger than the Mandinka
simbingo and held sideways, is played to accompany groups of men
singing.
The Bugaar or Bukarabo is a celebratory dance in which both men and
women dance, stamping or jumping in a pattern resembling the Lenjengo
dance, but with arms outstretched. A single drummer plays three tall single-
skin drums called bugaar tuned to different pitches. The men sing and the
women clap, at first together and then in interlocking patterns when the
dancing starts (ex.4). The Futamp, a circumcision festival, is held every
15–20 years and is an occasion for other songs and dances and for the
appearance of the kumpo masked dancer. The kumpo also appears
frequently today on other occasions. It has no face but looks instead like a
haystack with a long pole sticking out the top. As the dancer moves about,
he occasionally plants the tip of the pole in the ground, and, with his feet
still on the ground, he whirls around the pole's axis in an impressive flurry
of grass streamers. A set of Mandinka kutiro drums, several iron bells on
which interlocking rhythms are played, and elit, a pair of long end-blown
whistles, accompany this dance.
For further bibliography see Senegal; Guinea; Mali; Balo; and Kora.
Gambia
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
C.A. Moloney: ‘On the Melodies of the Volof, Mandingo, Ewe, Yoruba and
Hausa People of West Africa’, Journal of the Manchester
Geographical Society, v (1889), 277–98
D.P. Gamble: The Wolof of Senegambia (London, 1957)
L.-V. Thomas: ‘Les Diola’, Mémoires de l'Institut français d'Afrique noire, lv
(1958–9), 1–821
G. Rouget: ‘Sur les xylophones equiheptaphonique des Malinké’, RdM, lv
(1969), 47–77
R.C. Knight: Mandinka Jaliya: Professional Music of the Gambia (diss.,
UCLA, 1973)
R.C. Knight: ‘Mandinka Drumming’, African Arts, vii/4 (1974), 24–35
S. Darbo: A Griot's Self-Portrait: the Origins and Role of the Griot in
Mandinka Society as seen from Stories told by Gambian Griots
(Banjul, 1976)
J.T. Irvine and J.D. Sapir: ‘Musical Style and Social Change among the
Kujamaat Diola’, EthM, xx (1976), 67–86
I. Leymarie: The Role and Function of the Griots among the Wolof of
Senegal (diss., Columbia U., 1978)
M.T. Coolen: Xalamkats: The Xalam Tradition of the Senegambia (diss., U.
of Washington, 1979)
M. Schaffer and C. Cooper: Mandinko: the Ethnography of a West African
Holy Land (Prospect Heights, IL, 1980)
L. Duran: ‘A Preliminary Study of the Wolof Xalam, with a List of
Recordings at the BIRS’, Recorded Sound, no.79 (1981), 29–50
L. Duran: ‘Theme and Variation in Kora Music: a Preliminary Study of “Tutu
Jara” as Performed by Amadu Bansang Jobate’, Music and Tradition:
Essays on Asian and Other Musics Presented to Laurence Picken
(Cambridge, 1981), 181–96
R. Knight: ‘Music in Africa: the Manding Contexts’, Performance Practice:
Ethnomusicological Perspectives (Westport, CT, 1984), 53–90
R. Knight: ‘The Style of Mandinka Music: a Study in Extracting Theory
from Practice’, Selected Reports, v (1984), 3–66
S. Jatta: ‘Born Musicians: Traditional Music from The Gambia’,
Repercussions: a Celebration of African-American Music (London,
1985), 14–29
G. Innes and B. Sidibe, eds. and trans.: Hunters and Crocodiles:
Narratives of a Hunter's Bard: Recorded in Mandinka during a
Performance by Bakari Kamara (Sandgate, Kent, 1990)
R. Knight: ‘Music out of Africa: Mande Jaliya in Paris’, World of Music,
xxxiii/1 (1991), 52–69
E. Charry: Musical Thought, History, and Practice among the Mande of
West Africa (diss., Princeton U., 1993)
P.A. Ebron: Negotiating the Meaning of Africa: Mandinka Praisesingers in
Transnational Contexts (diss., U. of Massachusetts, 1993)
F.M. Suso and others: Jali Kunda: Griots of West Africa and Beyond
(Roslyn, NY, 1996) [incl. disc Ellipsis Arts CD3510]
recordings
Music of the Diola-Fogny of Casamance, Senegal, Folkways F–E4323
(1965)
The Griots, Folkways FE 4178 (1975)
African Flutes [Fula and Serrehule], Folkways F–4230 (1978)
Mamadou Ly: Mandinka Drum Master, Village Pulse VP 1001 (1992)
Sabar Wolof: Dance Drumming of Senegal; Village Pulse VP 1003 (1992)
Gambier Islands.
See Polynesia, §II, 3(iv).
Gamble, John
(bap. ?London, ? 29 Sept 1610; bur. London, 30 Nov 1687). English
cornett player, violinist, copyist and composer. He was perhaps the ‘John
Gambell’ baptized at the London church of St Olave Hart Street on 29
September 1610. According to Anthony Wood, he was apprenticed to
Ambrose Beeland, though he is not listed among the seven apprentices
Beeland registered with the Draper's Company between 1620 and 1640.
Wood wrote that he ‘became a musician belonging to a playhouse in
London’, and in 1641 he was paid for providing the Middle Temple with
music, apparently as a member of a group of instrumentalists from the
Blackfriars Theatre. Wood thought him and Thomas Pratt ‘two eminent
musitians of London’ when they played in Oxford in July 1658. Gamble
published two books of Ayres and Dialogues (London, 1656, 2/1657;
1659), which got him ‘a great name among the musitians of Oxon’
according to Wood, and apparently prepared a third (GB-Lbl Add.32339,
facs. in Jorgens, 1986, with many of the voice parts in Lbl Harl.6947) for
publication. There is an engraved portrait of him in the 1656 book.
Gamble became a royal wind musician at the Restoration, and Wood wrote
that he was ‘one of the cornets in the King's Chapel’, though he also
worked at court as a violinist, notably in the rosters of string players
attending the Chapel Royal in the 1670s and in the masque Calisto (1675).
In 1662 he wrote music for John Tatham's Lord Mayor's water pageant
Aqua Triumphalis, and became a member of the Waits of London in 1665.
He lost everything in the Fire of London the next year, and seems to have
been beset by financial problems in his later years. He made his will on 30
November 1680 ‘crazed and infirme of body’, though he did not die until
1687; he was buried at St Bride's, Fleet Street, on 30 November.
Gamble was a prolific song composer, though he had little imagination or
technique, and his declamatory settings in particular are close to being
harmonically illiterate. However, his commonplace-book dated 1659 (US-
NYp Drexel 4257, facs. in Jorgens, 1987) is an anthology of more than 300
songs by his contemporaries, and it is for this that he deserves to be
remembered. He also copied music by Locke, Coleman and Lanier into the
Jacobean court wind manuscript GB-Cfm Mu.734, adding a tenor part of an
otherwise unknown suite of his own. Bass parts of five dances by him
survive (Ob Mus.Sch.D.220).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AshbeeR, i, ii, v, viii
BDA
BDECM
SpinkES
C.W. Hughes: ‘John Gamble's Commonplace Book’, ML, xxvi (1945), 215–
29
V.H. Duckles: ‘The Gamble Manuscript as a Source of Continuo Song in
England’, JAMS, i/2 (1948), 23–40
V.H. Duckles: John Gamble's Commonplace Book: a Critical Edition of
New York Public Library MS Drexel 4257 (diss., U. of California,
Berkeley, 1953)
J.D. Shute: Anthony à Wood and his Manuscript Wood D 19(4) at the
Bodleian (diss., International Institute of Advanced Studies, Clayton,
MO, 1979)
D. Lasocki: Professional Recorder Players in England 1540–1740 (diss.,
U. of Iowa, 1983), ii, 756, 773
E.B. Jorgens: Introduction to British Library Manuscripts, Part IV: Add. MS
11608, Add. MS 32339, ES, iv (1986) [facs.]
E.B. Jorgens: Introduction to New York Public Library Manuscripts, Part II:
Drexel MS 4257, ES, x (1987) [facs.]
J. Elliott jr: ‘Invisible Evidence, Finding Musicians in the Archives of the
Inns of Court, 1446–1642’, RMARC, no.26 (1993), 45–57
J.K. Wood: ‘“A Flowing Harmony”: Music on the Thames in Restoration
London’, EMc, xxiii (1995), 553–81
L. Hulse: ‘“Musick & Poetry, Mixed”: Thomas Jordan's Manuscript
Collection’, EMc, xxiv (1996), 7–24
IAN SPINK/PETER HOLMAN
Expressway to your Heart, 1967; Together, 1967; I can't stop dancing, 1968;
Cowboys to Girls, 1968; (Love is like a) Baseball Game, 1968; Never Give You Up,
1968 [collab. J. Butler]; Hey, Western Union Man, 1968 [collab. Butler]; Only the
strong survive, 1968; Get me back on time, engine number 9, 1970; If you don't
know me by now, 1972; Me and Mrs Jones, 1972 [collab. C. Gilbert]; Love Train,
1972; T.S.O.P., 1973
For the Love of Money, 1973 [collab. Jackson]; When will I see you again, 1973;
Give the people what they want, 1975; You'll never find another love like mine,
1976; Don't leave me this way, 1976; I don't love you anymore, 1977; Close the
door, 1978; Turn off the lights, 1979
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T. Cummings: The Sound of Philadelphia (London, 1975)
N. George: The Death of Rhythm and Blues (New York, 1988)
ROB BOWMAN
Gamboa, Pero de
(d Vila Nova de Famalicão, nr Braga, 17 March 1638). Portuguese
composer. He was mestre de capela of Braga Cathedral from at least 1585
to at least 1587, and probably until 1591. He was also, from July 1584,
abbot of S Paio, Arcos, and from 1591 was resident priest at S Salvador,
Bente. On 26 April 1635 he endowed anniversary masses at Braga
Cathedral for his former patron, Archbishop João Afonso de Menezes.
Works by Gamboa, all for four voices, are preserved in P-Pm 40 and 76–9:
in the latter a setting of the Te Deum and nine motets (of which the brief
Hodie Maria virgo might have been intended for liturgical performance as
an antiphon), and in the former an introit setting (with cantus firmus in the
lowest part) and two motets; a setting of Jesu redemptor in this source
bears a later attribution to Gamboa, and a communion setting, Beata
viscera, which follows the introit just mentioned, might also be his work.
Although conventional enough in their reliance on imitative counterpoint,
Gamboa's motets are often imaginative in their expressive harmony and in
other respects, such as the dense textures and low scoring of O crux ave.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. de Santo Thomas: Benedictina lusitana, ii (Coimbra, 1651), 42
J.A. Ferreira: Fastos episcopaes da igreja primacial de Braga, iii (Braga,
1932), 69
G. Sampaio: Subsídios para a história dos músicos portugueses (Braga,
1934), 3–6
A. Carneiro: A música em Braga (Braga, 1959), 177–8
R. Stevenson: Preface to Antologia de polifónia portuguesa, 1490–1680,
PM, ser.A, xxxvii (1982), p.xxxvi
J.P. d'Alvarenga: ‘A música litúrgica na sé de Braga, no século XVI:
observações sobre o conhecimento actual’, Encontro nacional de
musicologia V: Lisbon 1988 [Boletim da Associação portuguesa de
educação musical, no.58 (1988)], 38–47
OWEN REES
Gambus.
Long- or short-necked wooden lute, probably of Middle Eastern origin,
found in Muslim areas of Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi and other parts of
Indonesia, and in Malaysia. Its pear-shaped body has a decorated
soundhole and tapers to form the neck, ending in a receding pegbox.
Handmade gambus vary considerably in shape and size. They usually
have four or six pairs of strings and sometimes another single string. The
instrument is plucked with a feather quill (see illustration), horn plectrum or
the fingernails. It is used for solo instrumental music, to accompany a
singer, and in a large or small orkes gambus (gambus orchestra) which
may include gambus, violin, gendang (double-headed drum), rebana
(frame drum), tambourine, harmonium, a set of marwas drums, maracas
and female singers, who perform religious and love songs at weddings and
other ceremonies. It resembles the Middle Eastern 'ūd; see Qanbūs.
In northern coastal Java the gambus is featured in the gambusan
ensemble, and in Malaysia it is the leading melody instrument
accompanying the folk theatre boria and the singing of ghazal (poetry).
MARGARET J. KARTOMI
Gamelan.
A generic term used for various types of Indonesian orchestra. These vary
in size, function, musical style and instrumentation, but generally include
tuned single bronze gongs, gong-chimes, single- and multi-octave
metallophones, drums, flutes, bowed and plucked chordophones, a
xylophone, small cymbals and singers. See also Indonesia, §§II, 1(iii); III, 4;
IV, 2; and V, 1(ii)(e); Mode, §V, 3; and Suriname, §5.
I. South-east Asia
II. Outside South-east Asia
MARGARET J. KARTOMI/R (I), MARIA MENDONÇA (II)
Gamelan
I. South-east Asia
The present article deals with gamelan as ensembles; for information on
individual instruments see separate entries. Discussion of context, musical
structure and performing practice can be found in the respective country
entries.
1. History.
2. Social functions.
3. Distribution.
4. Tuning systems.
5. Instrumentation.
6. Related ensembles in South-east Asia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
1. History.
An accurate history of gamelan awaits an adequate accumulation of
sources. Bronze kettledrums of the Dongson culture of the 3rd and 2nd
centuries bce found in Sumatra, Java, Bali and other parts of South-east
Asia suggest that a high level of workmanship in metal had been reached
by that period and that bronze and other metal instruments in the region
are very old. However, there is no evidence of a direct line of development
between the Bronze drum and the bronze instruments of gamelan and
related orchestras. Perishable instruments made of wood, leather and
bamboo have also presumably existed in South-east Asia since ancient
times, but there is no direct evidence of this.
Kunst (1927, 2/1968) accumulated a number of archaeological,
iconographical and literary sources proving the existence of prototypes of
most Javanese and Balinese gamelan instruments in the latter part of the
1st millennium ce or the early part of the 2nd. For example, xylophones,
bamboo flutes and double-headed drums are depicted in reliefs on the 9th-
century Borobudur temple in central Java. Other important sources include
the Kediri-period carvings in Java (1043–1222), reliefs on the 14th-century
Candi Panataran and a number of Old Javanese literary texts. The
Rāmāyana, probably dating from the the 1st or the early 2nd millennium
ce, uses the word ‘gong’ and other musical terms.
The sources suggest that a distinction has long been made between loud-
sounding and soft-sounding gamelan. The former consisted of drums,
gongs, oboes and the like and were used for outdoor occasions such as
processions and trance ceremonies, as they still are today. The latter
included soft metallophones, xylophones and the flute and were reserved
largely for indoor occasions. Kunst (1934) postulated that loud and soft
ensembles were combined into large gamelan in Java from about the 16th
century. Speculations by him and other scholars about some historical
implications of archaic Javanese gamelan await the discovery of
convincing data, as do theories about which of the two major tuning
systems, pélog (‘seven-note’) and sléndro (‘five-note’) came first.
Resemblances between gamelan and similar ensembles in West Java,
Central Java, East Java, Bali and other parts of the region may be
explained by a common Central and East Javanese origin, as has been
suggested, but they are more likely to have resulted from constant contact
over the centuries between the changing centres of power in the southern
part of South-east Asia. Some Balinese orchestras appear to be a direct
continuation of 15th-century Hindu-Javanese orchestras brought to Bali by
refugees from the Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century. Some
Sundanese gamelan in West Java are also direct descendants of
orchestras moved there from Central Java after the fall of the Hindu-
Sundanese kingdom of Pajajaran in 1579.
The combination in Java of two gamelan, one tuned in sléndro and the
other in pélog (see §4), seems to have become widespread during the
second half of the 19th century with the development of some forms of
musical theatre, mostly in the courts. However, separate sléndro and pélog
orchestras are still found. For example, although incorporation of the pélog
gamelan into Central Javanese shadow puppet performance (wayang kulit)
is increasingly common, more traditional forms of wayang kulit usually
feature the sléndro gamelan alone, following a centuries-old practice.
Some ensembles exist that predate the development of sléndro and pélog
and contain some obsolete instruments and instrumental combinations.
Archaic ceremonial gamelan housed in the Central Javanese courts
include the gamelan carabalèn (tuned to a four- or six-note pélog scale) in
which there are two gong-chimes (bonang klènang and bonang
gambyong), one or two large horizontally-suspended gongs (kenong and
penontong), drums (kendhang gendhing and kendhang ketipung) and a
gong ageng. Another archaic ensemble is the gamelan kodhok ngorèk
(‘croaking frog’), tuned to a three-note scale and generally comprising two
bonang, a byong (bell tree), kenong japan (horizontally-suspended gong),
rojèh (cymbals), kendhang gendhing, kendhang ketipung and gong ageng.
In Yogyakarta, the ensemble is enlarged with saron-type instruments, and
in Surakarta, with the gendèr (14-keyed metallophone). The ensemble
known as gamelan monggang (fig.1), like the carabalèn and kodhok
ngorèk, is thought to have originated in the Majapahit period (late 15th to
early 16th centuries). It is tuned to a three-note pélog scale and consists of
four bonang-type gong-chimes each with three notes, kenong japan, a pair
of penontong, kendhang gendhing, kendhang ketipung, two gong ageng
and a pair of rojèh. The instrumentation of the 16th-century gamelan sekati
(sekaten), tuned to a seven-note pélog scale, is similar to that of the
regular ‘loud’ gamelan (gongs, metal-keyed instruments, drums and gong-
chimes) but the instruments are much larger in size. The ensemble
comprises several types of saron, two gong ageng with only one double-
row bonang (played by two players), a pair of kempyang and a bedhug;
there are no kendhang or kempul.
Archaic Balinese gamelan include the gamelan caruk, consisting of two
saron and a caruk (bamboo xylophone); the gamelan gambang, comprising
four gambang, played with an unusual technique (see Gambang), and two
pairs of saron, each pair played by one person; the gamelan luang, where
bronze and bamboo instruments are combined so that each luang has a
unique instrumentation; and the gamelan salunding, featuring only iron-
keyed metallophones and primarily associated with the Bali Aga peoples
who trace their culture back to pre-Hindu times. These ensembles are used
mainly for specific ritual contexts, and with salunding, for example, are so
sacred that people are not permitted to see the instruments except on
ceremonial occasions.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
2. Social functions.
Gamelan and related ensembles have traditionally been used to
accompany religious rites and dances which have survived from pre-
Muslim times (before about the 15th century ce). The instruments are
shown respect; no-one may walk over them and special offerings of
incense are made before an ensemble is played. In Java a gamelan is
often given a revered name of its own. The gamelan's main function is still
to accompany ceremonial or religious rituals, held chiefly in the temples in
Bali and in village or court environments in Java and elsewhere. Gamelan
are played in rain-inducing ceremonies in Central Javanese ricefields, in
processional dance genres such as réyog in East Java, and for erotic
dances such as that of the singer-dancer in tayuban in Java. They are also
played to welcome guests at weddings and other ceremonies, although
cheaper recorded music has often been substituted in recent times.
Gamelan in Bali are used primarily to accompany dance and dance-drama
on religious and (in recent times) secular occasions. In Central Java and
Sunda they are likewise used to accompany dance and dance-dramas and
also to accompany shadow (Central Java) or three-dimensional (West
Java) puppet theatre and to provide music for contemplative listening
(Central Java, klenèngan), sometimes at concerts or similar gatherings.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
3. Distribution.
Thousands of gamelan in Java and Bali are owned by puppeteers and
other private individuals, communal organizations, government offices,
radio and television stations, theatres, museums and palaces. Kunst (1934,
3/1973) showed that gamelan were widely distributed throughout the
villages and towns of Java in the 1930s; no similar survey has been
published since then. Some gamelan were destroyed during World War II
and the war for Indonesian independence, which ended in 1949; some
have been broken up since then and sold, instrument by instrument, by
impoverished owners; and some have been exported overseas. However,
gamelan instruments are still being made in West and Central Java, Bali
and elsewhere.
The export of gamelan has grown in recent years (see §II), however export
of antique gamelan is forbidden by law. Composers in many South-east
Asian countries have increasingly incorporated musical ideas derived from
gamelan into their works.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
4. Tuning systems.
There are no ‘correct’ standard tunings for gamelan, and no two gamelan
are tuned exactly alike. However, most modern gamelan are tuned in either
an anhemitonic five-note system or a hemitonic seven-note system. The
former is called sléndro in Central and East Java, saléndro in West Java,
and saih gender wayang in Bali; the latter is called pélog in Central, West
and East Java, and saih pitu (‘row of seven’) in Bali. In addition, Balinese
gamelan are characterised by paired tuning, where the individual
instruments of a pair are carefully tuned slightly apart from one another,
creating a ‘beating’ effect which is part of the characteristic shimmering
timbre of most ensembles.
Rarely are all seven notes of the pélog-type scale used in a piece, but
rather five-note modal scales derived from the seven available. In Central
Java both hemitonic and anhemitonic systems are divided into three main
pathet (modes). The sléndro modes (nem, sanga and manyura) all use the
same five basic tones of the tuning system, but in pélog, one mode
(barang) uses a different subset of tones (2 3 5 6 7) from the other two
(nem and lima, using tones 1 2 3 5 6). Thus, while gamelan tuned in
sléndro usually include only one of each type or size of instrument, those
tuned in pélog must have two of each of the instruments that are tuned to a
five-note scale, but only one of each type or size tuned to the seven-note
scale. Pélog gamelan have therefore two gendèr barung (low-pitched
metallophones), two gendèr panerus (high-pitched metallophones) and two
celempung (zithers) in order to accommodate the two modal tunings; as it
is possible to quickly swap the keys concerned on gambang (xylophone),
two instruments are not always necessary (for a detailed discussion of
pathet, see Mode, §V, 4(ii)).
Complete Central Javanese gamelan (gamelan seprangkat) consist of two
sets of instruments, one tuned in sléndro and one in pélog, with a few
instruments doubling for both. Instruments tuned in pélog are usually
placed at right angles to those tuned in sléndro, so that players can move
easily and quickly from one to the other.
Gamelan in sléndro-type tunings only are traditioanlly used to accompany
wayang kulit purwa (‘ancient’ shadow puppet plays) in Central Java and
wayang golék purwa (‘ancient’ three-dimensional puppet plays) and
sandiwara (plays with music) in West Java. The Balinese wayang kulit is
also accompanied by instruments tuned in the saih gender wayang (the
scale of the quartet of gender for wayang theatre. Most East Javanese
traditional pieces, including those for the gamelan asli Jawa Timur, the
wayang kulit and the ludruk theatre, are played on sléndro orchestras, as
are the angklung and gandrung pieces of the Osinger people in East Java.
Saih angklung, an anhemitonic four-note version of the gender wayang
scale, is used for the gamelan angklung in Bali (in some areas, principally
North Bali, a fifth tone has been added to the ensemble). Some gamelan
arja in Bali are tuned in anhemitonic four- or five-note scales which
resemble those of the gender quartet.
In Java, gamelan in pélog tunings only are found in some rural parts of the
central and eastern regions, for example the prajuritan ensemble of the
mountainous Kopeng area. Pieces played in the almost extinct wayang
gedog (drama enacting stories of the hero Panji) are almost always in
pélog. Most archaic gamelan, including the three-note gamelan monggang,
the four- or six-note gamelan carabalen and the seven-note gamelan
sekati, are considered to be forms of pélog. In West Java seven-note pélog
tunings are found only in gamelan pélog, but the gamelan degung and the
goong rénténg use two different types of five-note pélog tunings.
Of the many different types of Balinese gamelan, the most commonly found
tuning is the five-note selisir (of unequally-spaced tones and therefore
bearing resemblance to pélog tunings), used for such orchestras as the
gamelan gong gede, gamelan gong kebyar and gamelan palegongan, and
for some pieces of the gamelan arja. The selisir scale is derived from the
gamelan gambuh tuning, but omits the auxiliary pitches (for detailed
discussion of Balinese gamelan tunings, see Indonesia §II, 1(ii)–(iii)).
The tunings of the numerous related ensembles in other parts of South-
east Asia are extremely varied. Various pentatonic and heptatonic scales
are used, together with three- and four-note scales and others with varying
intervallic structures. In Sumatra heptatonic scales are the norm in many
coastal areas, and pentatonic, four-note, three-note and other scales, are
often typical of inland areas. As in Java and Bali, the concept of absolute
pitch is not relevant, and in some areas the same type of ensemble may
vary in tuning from village to village. A complete picture awaits detailed
research in all the relevant regions.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
5. Instrumentation.
(i) Central Java.
(ii) West Java.
(iii) East Java.
(iv) Bali.
(v) Malaysia.
(vi) South and East Kalimantan.
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(i) Central Java.
A ‘complete’ gamelan, called gamelan seprangkat (or gamelan sléndro-
pélog; fig.3), comprises two sets of instruments, one tuned in the sléndro
system and the other in the pélog system (see §4). Each is complete in
itself and has a total range of seven octaves (about 40 to 2200 cycles per
second). Normally the two tuning systems have one note in common:
tumbuk (‘to collide’).
A complete gamelan includes three sizes of saron (one-octave slab
metallophone), of which there are usually several of the middle size (saron
barung) and one or two of the largest size (saron demung), two or three
sizes of bonang (double-row gong-chimes), a gambang (20-key trough
xylophone), two sizes of gendèr (two-and-a-half-octave metallophone with
thin keys suspended over resonating tubes) and the deeper-toned
slenthem or gendèr panembung (similar in construction to the gendèr but
with a range of one octave only). Horizontally-suspended gongs include a
set of kenong (large gongs), a kethuk (low-pitched single gong) and the
kempyang (high-pitched small gong). All instruments or instrument sets
exist in both scales: in the case of the gambang and the gendèr there are
three each (see§4).
The complete gamelan includes also three sizes of vertically suspended
gongs, the kempul being the highest-pitched; there may be as many as 12
of these, tuned in pélog and sléndro. There are several gong suwukan (or
gong siyem, an octave lower than the kempul) and one or two gong ageng
(large single gongs). The string instruments are the rebab (two-string spike
fiddle) and the celempung (zither), which can be replaced by the smaller
siter (zither). The only wind instrument is the suling (bamboo flute). There
are three sizes of kendhang (double-headed laced drum) and a bedhug
(double-headed barrel-shaped drum). Some additional instruments, either
obsolete or rarely used, are the kemanak (a pair of banana-shaped bronze
handbells), the slento (a saron demung with a boss on each key) and a
gambang gangsa (bronze gambang). A female vocalist (pesindhèn) and
choral group (gérongan) are an integral part of the soft-style ensemble.
The complete gamelan in Central Java belongs in court, urban and village
contexts; there are additional small village ensembles which are sometimes
referred to locally as gamelan. One such rural ensemble in the Banyumas
area is the èbèg ensemble, consisting of selomprèt (oboe), saron wesi
(‘iron saron’), gongs and drums; it is used to accompany hobby-horse
trance dancing which in other areas is also called jaranan, kuda képang,
kuda lumping or jathilan. The jaranan ensemble of Central and East Java is
similarly constituted. Another gamelan-like ensemble of the Banyumas
area is the Calung, consisting of tuned bamboo idiophones plus drum; the
melody instruments are bamboo xylophones and a blown bamboo tube
serves as a gong. Also made up mainly of bamboo instruments is the small
gamelan bumbung (‘bamboo gamelan’) in the rural areas in and around
Kediri and also in Surakarta and Yogyakarta; it usually consists of stick-
beaten bamboo zithers, a bamboo xylophone and a kendhang.
A small ensemble of small bossed gongs and drums (prajuritan)
accompanies the prajuritan folk drama in eastern parts of Central Java and
in East Java; this relates the story of the mythical battle fought between the
Majapahit and Blambangan kingdoms in the 15th century. Also from
Central and East Java was the gamelan kethoprak which accompanied
performances of the kethoprak dance-drama. It originated in the 1920s in
Surakarta and consisted of wooden instruments: three slit-drums, a lesung
(log-drum) and a suling. The instrumentation was later radically altered,
gongs and drums replacing the wooden percussion, and the drama is now
accompanied in the theatre by a common gamelan.
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(ii) West Java.
In Sundanese-speaking areas of West Java the main orchestras are the
gamelan degung, the gamelan rénténg, the gamelan saléndro and
gamelan pélog. Gamelan degung was formerly associated with courts and
gamelan rénténg with villages. The gamelan saléndro is used for a variety
of contexts including wayang golék (puppet theatre), sandiwara (plays with
music) and dance, and the gamelan pélog for dance and wayang cepak
rod puppet theatre originating from Cirebon and based on local stories. The
instrumentarium of each orchestra varies, but a gamelan degung may
consist of a bonang, a panerus or cémprés (three-octave keyed
metallophones), one or two single-octave saron, a jengglong (set of bossed
gongs, either vertically suspended or lying on crossed cords in a frame), a
goong (large gong), a set of kendang (double-headed drums) and a suling
degung (small bamboo flute).
The sacred goong rénténg is used for harvest purification rituals,
communal gatherings and, in some areas, to accompany kuda lumping
(hobby-horse trance dancing). In Lebukwangi the ensemble comprises a
U-shaped rénténg (gong-chime), a rebab, a suling, a saron (multi-octave
eleven-keyed metallophone), kecrék (idiophone of hanging metal plates),
jengglong, and one or two goong. In Klayan, Cirebon, a hobby-horse
trance ensemble comprises an L-shaped rénténg, a selomprèt, kecrék, a
kenong, two kethuk, three kebluk (horizontal bossed gongs in a frame), a
pair of goong and a kendang and ketipung (large and small drums).
While the flute and oboe play the main melodic role in the degung and
rénténg orchestras respectively, the rebab (spike fiddle) and pasindén
(female vocalist) are prominent in the gamelan saléndro and gamelan
pélog, together with the gambang. A standard gamelan saléndro in addition
includes two saron, a bonang, a kempul, a goong and three kendang,
metallophones peking and panerus, and the two gong-chimes rincik and
jengglong. Kenong and kethuk may also be added.
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(iii) East Java.
The halus (‘refined’) gamelan centring on the cities of Surabaya and
Majakerta in the eastern part of East Java is called gamelan asli Jawa
Timur (or gamelan Surabaya). Although its instrumentarium is similar to a
large Central Javanese gamelan, its musical style, performing practice,
repertory and pathet (modal) system are different. In the extreme eastern
part of East Java, among the Osinger people of Banyuwangi Regency, two
styles of sléndro-tuned angklung ensemble are found. The new-style
ensemble has one or two pairs of angklung (bamboo xylophone),
slenthem, saron barung, saron panerus (all made of iron), one kendang,
one suling or double-reed aerophone and one gong . The Osinger people
also play the gandrung ensemble, which uses a sléndro tuning. It
comprises two biola (violins), kendang, a kempul, two kethuk, a kloncing
(small triangle) and a small gong. It takes its name from the female dancer-
singer it accompanies, and is used at important all-night functions such as
wedding receptions.
In the Ponorogo area of East Java the réyog ensemble (fig.4) accompanies
the processional dance of the same name. The ensemble may consist of
selomprèt (oboe), two angklung (of the rattle variety), a kendhang and
ketipung (large and small double-headed drums) and various gongs. The
saronèn (or tètèt) is the most widespread type of kasar (‘coarse’) ensemble
in the eastern part of East Java and the offshore island of Madura (where it
is called gamelan kerapan sapi because it accompanies the bull races
known as kerapan sapi). The saronèn (wooden oboe) is the principal, or
only, melodic instrument; the others vary considerably, but may include
large and small kethuk and kendhang.
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(iv) Bali.
Balinese theatrical gamelan include the gamelan gambuh, notable for its
use of suling gambuh (long flutes) and rebab rather than melodic
percussion instruments; it includes also a pair of kendang, several gongs, a
pair of rincik and a pair of kangsi (cymbals), a rack of bells and the
gumanak (a struck copper or iron cylinder). The seven-tone gambuh tuning
system (from which many modes are derived) is believed to be the
foundation for many other Balinese gamelan tuning systems. Another
theatrical ensemble is the gamelan arja, using four- and five-note scales of
both hemitonic and anhemitonic varieties, and consisting of three suling,
two guntang (tube zithers), kelenang (small gong), a pair of kendang and a
pair of rincik (cymbals).
There exist in Bali various large ensembles more commonly referred to as
gong. The stately gamelan gong (or gamelan gong gede; fig.5) may consist
of jegogan, jublag and panyacah (metallophones), trompong pangarep and
trompong barangan (gong-chimes), kendang wadon and kendang lanang
(double-headed ‘female’ and ‘male’ drums), bende (suspended gong), two
gong ageng (wadon and lanang, suspended gongs), kempur (smaller
suspended gongs) and ceng-ceng (cymbals). Once a court ensemble of
about 40 instruments, it is now a village ensemble of some 25 instruments.
About half of these are single-octave gangsa (gender- and saron-type
metallophones) which play the nuclear melody in unison and octaves. The
expanded melody is played on one or two trompong, and a four-kettle
reyong is used for simple figuration. The modern development of the
gamelan gong, the virtuoso gamelan gong kebyar, is the most vigorously
creative musical medium among contemporary Balinese musicians; it uses
the gamelan gong repertory as well as its own continuously expanding one.
Many instruments are derived from the gong gede, but are all on a much
smaller scale. In addition there are some significant alterations: these
include the addition of the reyong, a 12–kettle gong chime played by four
people and the expansion of the range of the gangsa to two octaves (ten
keys). In North Bali a harder, more brilliant tone is preferred, and saron are
used as metallophones in the kebyar ensemble, suitably adapted to
accommodate bamboo resonators.
The gamelan semar pagulingan (‘gamelan of the god of love’) is a delicate-
sounding seven-tone gamelan on which some six-tone and five-tone
modes are played, including five-tone selisir instrumentarium resembles
that of the gamelan gong but low-pitched saron or large cymbals; as a
court gamelan it became rare, but has been revived as part of the recent
interest in seven-tone tunings. Even more delicate in timbre is the gamelan
palegongan, used to accompany the legong dance and other dances and
dramas. It replaces the trompong with two pairs of 13-key gender and
includes a pair of smaller drums. The slendro-tuned gamelan pajogedan
replaces the metallophones with instruments with split-bamboo keys over
bamboo tube resonators and the gong with two bronze slabs of slightly
different pitch, struck simultaneously; Suling are also featured. It is known
colloquially as joged bumbung.
The gamelan bebonangan (known also as balaganjur or kalaganjur) is a
processional ensemble consisting of a pair of gongs a pair of ceng-ceng
kopyak and a pair of kendang plus other portable instruments extracted
from the larger staionary ensemble of the village (usually a gamelan gong
kebyar). Particulary featured are reyong kettles (sometimes referred to in
Bali by their Javanese name, bonang), each held by one player and played
in an intricate interlocking style. The gamelan gegenggongan, used for
dance and musical performance, consists of genggong (bamboo jew's
harps), suling, kendang, guntang and ceng-ceng. The gamelan angklung is
a small Balinese ensemble used for temple festivals, processions and
cremations. Tuned in four-tone equidistant saih angklung, it features single-
octave metallophones, gongs, reyong, kendang and ceng-ceng; the
bamboo slide-rattles (angklung) which gave the ensemble its name are no
longer included.
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(v) Malaysia.
Joget gamelan (also known as gamelan Terengganu or gamelan Pahang),
has its origins in Central Javanese gamelan. It was first known in the mid-
18th century Malay court in Riau-Lingga (Indonesia), where the dance and
music genre flourished for around 150 years. When the last Sultan of Riau-
Lingga abdicated in 1912 it ceased to be performed there, but had reached
the fief territory of Pahang in the early 19th century, where it was heard by
Frank H. Swettenham in 1875. When the Sultan of Pahang died in 1914
the practice of gamelan also died out in Pahang. His daughter, however,
borrowed the Pahang gamelan and brought it to the palace of her husband,
the Sultan of Terengganu, where it continued to develop as entertainment
for royalty in various court celebrations and ceremonies. Performance
ceased in 1942, following the Japanese invasion and death of the Sultan,
but in the 1960s it was revived and sponsored by the Terengganu
government. It is now considered a national art, performed on state
occasions. Though the genre is danced by women, joget gamelan is played
by men. The ensemble comprises gong agung, gong suwukan, five
kenong, kerumong (gong-chime), saron barung and peking
(metallophones), gambang (xylophone) and gendang (double-headed
drum).
Gamelan, §I, 5: South-east Asia: Instrumentation
(vi) South and East Kalimantan.
The gamelan culture and related ensembles of South and East Kalimantan
are almost totally unknown outside those two provinces. Gamelan and
wayang kulit (leather shadow puppet) sets were transplanted (probably in
the 17th century) into the Banjarese community near the coast of South
Kalimantan. They are said to have been gifts from the Sultan of Demak (in
north-east coastal Java) to the first Sultan of Banjar (near Banjarmasin,
South Kalimantan) after he converted from Hinduism to Islam. Although the
last Sultan of Banjar lost power to the Dutch in 1860, his descendants kept
the performance of the repertory alive until Indonesia's independence in
1945, after which knowledge of the performance practice and repertory
declined sharply. These formerly Sultan-owned ensembles of large
Javanese-style bronze instruments are now preserved and sometimes
played in state museums in Banjar Baru (near Banjarmasin) and
Tenggerong (near Samarinda, East Kalimantan) as well as in the National
Museum in Jakarta. The set in Samarinda comprises 35 instruments tuned
in selindero (Jav.: sléndro, but with four modes) and a smaller number
tuned in pelok (Jav.: pélog).
Related ensembles or offshoots of the court gamelan are still alive,
however. They accompany shadow puppetry (wayang kulit Banjar) and
hobby-horse dance (kuda gipang) performances as well as providing
interludes or postludes in modern mamanda theatre shows among the
Banjarese in West and East Kalimantan. A modern gamelan Banjar used to
accompany wayang kulit (tuned in selindero only) comprises between 8
and 13 musicians playing a babun (large, two-headed drum), gongs
(agung ganal and agung kecil), two seven-key saron, a dawo (double-row,
ten-piece bossed-keyed gong-chime), with an optional angkelong or
kurung-kurung (shaken bamboo idiophone), five kanong (bossed keys), a
katrak (wooden hammer). Metal instruments are usually made of iron. In
South Kalimantan the gamelan also often includes a rebab, suling,
gambang and gendir (Jav.: gendèr).
A gamelan kuda gipang comprises two or three saron, a pair of cup
cymbals (kangsi), a pair of suspended gongs (kampul) and a babun
(drum).
A partly gamelan-like Malay orchestra called orkes panting, used to
accompany local mamanda theatre shows, usually comprises one or two
violins (biul), a pair of gongs (gaduk), a pair of small two-headed drums
(ketipung), a pair of lutes (panting) and a singer. Other gamelan
instruments such as the babun may also be added.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
6. Related ensembles in South-east Asia.
Gamelan are related in their instruments and musical qualities to other
ensembles throughout the southern part of South-east Asia. Whether this is
due to diffusion from one or from several sources it is not possible to say,
although the high level of metal workmanship in Java since ancient times
suggests that this island may have been a main source of diffusion of metal
instruments. Most ensembles in the area broadly consist of double-headed
drums and gongs (or their substitutes), to which gong-chimes, wind and
string instruments are often added. Gongs may be vertically-or horizontally-
suspended; wind instruments are normally oboes or flutes; and strings are
either bowed, as in the case of the rebab and biola, or plucked, as in the
case of the kacapi and celempung. Less common instruments include
xylophones, keyed metallophones and percussion bars. Solo or choral
singing may also be a feature of some ensembles.
Ensembles comprising only drums and gongs include gendang bergung in
Riau and the genrang dan gong in the Buginese area of Sulawesi.
Orchestras consisting essentially of drums, gongs and gong-chimes
include the kulintang in the southern Philippines, the gendang in Pakpak
Dairi (Sumatra), the keromong and kelintang in Jambi, the kelittang
(keromong or tabuhan) in Lampung, the keromongan in south Sumatra and
the keromong duabelas in Bengkulu. Drum, gong and wind or string
ensembles are exemplified by the gendang gung in Serdang, the nobat in
Riau and West Malaysia (with cymbals in the latter case) and the
genderang of the Pakpak (Dairi) to which cymbals and two types of
percussion plates are added.
Ensembles combining drums, gongs, gong-chimes and wind are
exemplified by the Mandailing gondang and gordang ensembles, the
Serdang type of alat-alat makyong ensemble (to which bamboo clappers
are added), the gendang gung in Langkat and the kelintang in Bengkulu (to
which a string instrument is added). The talempong in West Sumatra
minimally comprises drums and gong-chimes, but a wind instrument or
gong may be added in some areas.
In bamboo or wooden ensembles which do not possess drums or metal
gongs, other instruments often have similar functions; for example, in the
kolintang ensemble of Minahasa the nine xylophones play drum-like, gong-
like and melodyic roles. Drums play an important role in most South-east
Asian ensembles, but in exceptional cases they are omitted altogether, as
in the kulintang lunik in Lampung. Gongs or gong substitutes also play an
important role, except in the talempong as it occurs in most areas of West
Sumatra, where gongs are traditionally reserved for special royal and
theatrical occasions.
Gamelan, §I: South-east Asia
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grove6 (‘Indonesia’, M. Hood and others)
T.S. Raffles: The History of Java (London, 1817)
Gending-gending saking kraton ngajogjakarta [Javanese treatise on the art
of music] (MS, Kraton Yogyakarta Library, Java, 1888) [xerox of
microfilm copy at UCLA Ethnomusicology Archive]
R.S. Soerawidjaja: Gandroeng lan gamboeh [Gandrung and gambuh]
(Batavia, 1907)
Djakoeb and Wignjaroemeska: Over de gamelan (Batavia, 1913)
Buku piwulang nabuh gamelan [Instructions on gamelan playing]
(Surakarta, 1924)
S. Hardasukarta: Titiasri (Surakarta, 1925)
J. Kunst: Hindoe-Javaansche muziekinstrumenten, speciaal die van Oost
Java (Weltevreden, 1927; Eng. trans., 1963, enlarged 1968 as Hindu-
Javanese Musical Instruments).
J. Kunst: De toonkunst van Java (The Hague, 1934; Eng. trans., rev.
2/1949, as Music in Java, enlarged 3/1973 by E.L. Heins)
C. McPhee: ‘The Five-tone Gamelan Music of Bali’, MQ, xxxv (1949), 250–
81
M. Hood: ‘Sléndro and pélog Redefined’, Selected Reports, i/1 (1966), 28–
C. McPhee: Music in Bali (New Haven and London, 1966/R)
R. Ornstein: Gamelan Gong Kebjar: the Development of a Balinese
Musical Tradition (diss., UCLA, 1971)
M. Hood: ‘The Five-tone Gamelan Angklung of North Bali’, EthM, xv
(1971), 71–80
M.J. Kartomi: ‘Music and Trance in Central Java’, EthM, xvii (1973), 163–
208
M. Harrell: The Music of the Gamelan Degung of West Java (diss., UCLA,
1974)
M.J. Kartomi: ‘Performance, Music and Meaning of Reyog Ponorogo’,
Ind,onesia, xxii (1976) 85–130
E. Schlager: Rituelle Siebenton-Musik auf Bali (Berne, 1976)
E. Heins: Goöng renteng: Aspects of Orchestral Music in a Sundanese
Village (diss., U. of Amsterdam, 1977)
M.F. D'Cruz: Joget Gamelan, a Study of its Contemporary Practice (thesis,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, 1979)
I M. Bandem: Ensiklopedi Gambelan Bali [Encyclopedia of Balinese
gamelan] (Denpasar, 1983)
M.J. Kartomi: On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments
(Chicago, 1990)
N. Sorrell: A Guide to the Gamelan (London, 1990, 2/2000)
R.A. Sutton: Traditions of Gamelan Music in Java: Musical Pluralism and
Regional Identity (Cambridge, 1991)
M. Tenzer: Balinese Music (Berkeley, 1991)
M.J. Kartomi: ‘The Gamelan Digul’, Canang, no.1 (1992), 1–8
A.N. Weintraub: ‘Theory in Institutional Pedagogy and “Theory in Practice”
for Sundanese Gamelan Music’, EthM, xxxvii (1993), 29–40
Sumarsam: Gamelan: Cultural Interaction and Musical Development in
Central Java (Chicago, 1995)
Music of Indonesia 14: Lombok, Kalimantan, Banyumas – Little-Known
Forms of Gamelan and Wayang, rec. P.Yampolsky, Smithsonian
Folkways SF CD 40441 (1997)
Gamelan
Gamma
(It.).
See Scale.
Gamma ut.
The note G in the Hexachord system.
Gamme
(Fr.).
See Scale.
Gamut.
(1) The note G; a contraction of gamma ut, which is the full Solmization
name for gamma, the lowest note of the medieval system of letter notation
that dates back to the Dialogus de musica (c1000; ed. in GerbertS, i, 251–
64) formerly attributed to Odo of Cluny. Throughout the later Middle Ages
the lowest note with a Roman letter name was A (A re), a 10th below
middle C: this was logical not only because it was considered the
equivalent of proslambanomenos, the lowest note of the Greek Greater
Perfect System which had served up until the time of the Dialogus for
virtually all note nomenclature, but also in that it was the lowest note used
within the Gregorian chant repertory (bearing in mind Apel’s observation,
p.248, that the mere 11 examples with notes below A he found in the entire
repertory are probably ‘of a later date’, and are in any case not confirmed
by all sources). Whether the new extra note below A, apparently first
mentioned by the author of the Dialogus, was added to account for new
expanded chants, or whether, as seems possible, it was necessary to
explain the lowest A and B within a hexachordal or tetrachordal system, is
not at all clear. But from that time on nearly all descriptions of the scale or
of the monochord began with the lowest note called gamma, gamma ut or
gamma graecum. This also found its way into the vernacular: Tobler and
Lommatzsch listed Gautier de Coincy’s use of ‘gamaüt’; English uses may
be found in the Oxford English Dictionary and in Kurath and Kuhn.
(2) The hexachordal system or, more broadly, any system. Early uses in
English seem to have taken the form ‘gamme’: at the end of the 14th
century John Gower wrote ‘Nou hihe notes and nou lowe,/As be the
gamme a man mei knowe,/Which techeth the prolacion/Of note and the
condicion’; and shortly afterwards Leonel Power began his work on
discant: ‘This tretis is contrived upon the gamme for them that will be
syngers or makers or techers’. From similar references listed in Kurath and
Kuhn it seems that ‘gamme’ meant ‘hexachordal system’. French uses of
the word in that sense are plentiful and go back to Le roman de Thèbes
(mid-12th century). More recently the French word gamme, like the Italian
gamma, has been the normal word for a musical scale. From the end of the
15th century the word ‘gamut’, which is apparently peculiar to English, has
meant ‘hexachordal system’, ‘scale’ or ‘system’. See also Hexachord.
(3) Range. Strictly, the gamut in this sense comprised those notes shown
on the Guidonian hand (see Solmization, figs.1 and 2). More loosely, and
more often, it has been used figuratively. References in the Oxford English
Dictionary date back to the early 17th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Gamut, or Scale of Music (Hartford, CT, 1816)
H. Kurath and S.M. Kuhn, eds.: Middle English Dictionary (Ann Arbor and
London, 1952–)
W. Apel: Gregorian Chant (Bloomington, IN, 1958, 3/1966)
A. Tobler and E. Lommatzsch: ‘Game’, ‘Gamaüt’, Altfranzösisches
Wörterbuch, iv (Wiesbaden, 1960)
R.L. Crocker: ‘Hermann’s Major Sixth’, JAMS, xxv (1972), 19–37
DAVID FALLOWS
Ganassi, Giacomo
(b Treviso; fl 1625–37). Italian composer. He became a Franciscan friar
and was maestro di cappella of S Francesco, Belluno, north of Venice,
from 1625 to 1634. He was exclusively a composer for the church and was
more interested in producing music for Mass and Vespers, sometimes for
large forces, than in following the current fashion for small concertato
motets. Whereas the psalms of 1625 are for double choir throughout, only
two of the four masses of 1634 are definitely conceived for this medium:
the others follow a recently established practice by which the second choir
is an optional ripieno and the first choir, consisting of soloists, sings
throughout. However, the effect of the music is considerably altered by the
presence of the second choir, since the soloists often continue their
counterpoint in tuttis while the ripieno has chordal writing, resulting in a
decorated homophonic texture instead of a purely contrapuntal one.
WORKS
Vespertina psalmodia … 8–9vv, liber I (Venice, 1625)
Ecclesiastici missarum … 5, 9–10vv (Venice, 1634)
Vespertina psalmodia … cantica 2 B.M.V. (Venice, 1637)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.M. Brown: Embellishing Sixteenth-Century Music (London, 1976)
J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford,
1984)
JEROME ROCHE
Ganche, Edouard
(b Baulon, Ille-et-Vilaine, 13 Oct 1880; d Lyons, 31 May 1945). French
scholar. A doctor by profession, he wrote books on medicine, but is best
remembered for his writings on Chopin. These show his conviction that
Chopin owed most of his development to his Polish origin and upbringing
and that the influence of French culture on his music was negligible. This
opinion ran counter to those held by all other French scholars, but greatly
endeared him to the Poles. In 1911 he founded in Paris the Société
Frédéric Chopin and became its first president. During the next 25 years he
travelled extensively in Poland and France, lecturing on the works of
Chopin. The culmination of Ganche’s work was his three-volume The
Oxford Original Edition of Frédéric Chopin. It was based chiefly on Jane
Stirling’s printed copies of Chopin’s works, annotated by the composer for
her use, with the first volume containing a facsimile of the thematic
catalogue written for her by Chopin.
WRITINGS
La vie de F. Chopin dans son oeuvre: sa liaison avec George Sand (Paris,
1909)
Frédéric Chopin: sa vie et ses oeuvres, 1810–1849 (Paris, 1913/R)
La Pologne et Frédéric Chopin (Paris, 1917)
Dans le souvenir de Frédéric Chopin (Paris, 1925/R)
Voyages avec Frédéric Chopin (Paris, 1934)
Souffrances de Frédéric Chopin: essai de médecine et de psychologie
(Paris, 1935/R)
EDITIONS
with R. Pugno: F. Chopin: Les quatorze valses (Paris, 1913)
The Oxford Original Edition of Frédéric Chopin (London, 1928–32)
Trois manuscrits de Chopin (Paris, 1932)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B.E. Sydow: Bibliografia F.F. Chopina (Warsaw, 1949, suppl. 1954) [incl.
complete list of writings by and on Ganche]
J.-M. Nectoux: ‘Edouard Ganche: historien de Chopin’: preface to Frédéric
Chopin: Oeuvres pour piano: fac-similé de l’exemplaire de Jane W.
Stirling avec annotations et corrections de l’auteur (ancienne collection
Edouard Ganche) (Paris, 1982), pp.vii–xv
J.-M. Nectoux and J.-J. Eigeldinger: ‘Edouard Ganche et sa collection
Chopin’, Revue de la Bibliothèque Nationale, no.7 (1983), 10–26
MAURICE J.E. BROWN/JEAN GRIBENSKI
Gand (i).
French family of violin makers. Charles-François Gand (b Versailles, 5 Aug
1787; d Paris, 10 May 1845), known as Gand père, was the elder son of
Charles-Michel Gand (bMirecourt, 11 Oct 1748; d Versailles, 25 Aug 1820),
a little-known violin maker who moved to Versailles about 1780. From 1802
to 1806 he was apprenticed to Nicolas Lupot. In 1807 he returned to his
father’s workshop but in 1811 he went back to Paris to work at Lupot’s
shop. In the same year he married Cornélie Squimbre, whom Lupot
considered an adopted daughter. In 1819 he purchased the shop of a
dealer and restorer named Jean Gabriel Koliker at 24 rue Croix-des-Petits-
Champs, the same street as Lupot. He continued to work for Lupot,
however, and succeeded him in his business on his death in 1824, and
also in his official duties as violin maker to the royal chapel and the Paris
Conservatoire. Among his regular customers were some of the best
violinists of the time. He was a hard worker, a skilful craftsman and had a
good business sense. His instruments are rare but excellent in every way,
though in due course he was overshadowed by the rising fame of J.-B.
Vuillaume. Gand père was certainly Lupot’s finest pupil. His brother
Guillaume-Charles-Louis Gand (b Versailles, 22 July 1792; d Versailles, 29
May 1858) also worked for Lupot, then for Charles-François, but returned
permanently to Versailles, succeeding his father there in 1820. He was an
excellent craftsman, whose work closely resembles that of Lupot.
Gand père had two sons, Charles-Adolphe Gand (b Paris, 11 Dec 1812; d
Paris, 24 Jan 1866) and Charles-Nicolas-Eugène Gand (b Paris, 5 June
1825; d Boulogne, nr Paris, 5 Feb 1892). Charles-Adolphe inherited his
father’s shop in 1845. Although an excellent workman he made few
instruments, being mostly occupied with the running of the business. He
was in charge of the maintenance of the instruments of the Opéra-
Comique and the Paris Conservatoire. Charles-Nicolas-Eugène learnt his
trade in the family shop, and in 1855 became his brother’s partner, the firm
becoming known as Gand Frères. In the same year their instruments won a
first-class medal in the Exposition des Produits de l’Industrie in Paris. On
Charles-Adolphe’s death, the house was merged with that of Bernardel and
became Gand & Bernardel Frères, with Gand as senior partner. He was
considered a person of integrity and a renowned expert, and the firm was
held in high repute.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
VannesE
D. Laurie: The Reminiscences of a Fiddle Dealer (London, 1924)
W. Henley: Universal Dictionary of Violin and Bow Makers (Brighton, 1959)
CHARLES BEARE/SYLVETTE MILLIOT
Gand (ii)
(Fr.).
See Ghent.
Gandini, Gerardo
(b Buenos Aires, 16 Oct 1936). Argentine composer, pianist and conductor.
He began his studies in Buenos Aires with Pía Sebastiani and Roberto
Caamaño (piano) and with Ginastera (composition). After completing his
piano training with Loriod, in 1964 he moved to the USA on a Ford
Foundation scholarship, and there he took part in the Young Artists’ Project
under the auspices of the Institute of International Education. Two years
later an Italian Government scholarship took him to Rome to study with
Petrassi at the Accademia di S Cecilia. In Buenos Aires he established,
under his own direction, the Grupo de Experimentación Musical, which
gives first performances of avant-garde music. In 1970 he was appointed
to teach at the American Opera Center of the Juilliard School. He
organized concerts of contemporary music and, as Director of the
Experimental Centre for Opera and Ballet (CEOB) sponsored by the Teatro
Colón, he promoted, commissioned and performed a series of chamber
operas by Argentine composers. Among them is his own La Casa sin
sosiego (1992) on a libretto by Griselda Gambaro. He is also one of the
founding members of Agrupación Música Viva, an experimental new music
group which included Hilda Dianda, Armando Krieger, Alcides Lanza and
Antonio Tauriello. The prizes he has won included one from the city of
Buenos Aires (1960, for the Piano Concertino). He has also received
important commissions, and his works have been heard at festivals in
Europe and the Americas. Particularly noteworthy are three pieces heard at
Washington festivals: the Variaciones orquestales, Contrastes, and the
Fantasía impromptu for piano and orchestra. The first of these, written in
1962, is a very free treatment of a 12-note series. Contrastes creates a
series of contrasts in texture, dynamic, timbre, tempo and density between
a chamber orchestra and two piano soloists. At the Washington première in
1968 the pianists were Gandini and Krieger, and a third Argentine
musician, Tauriello, conducted. Gandini also played in the first performance
of the Fantasía impromptu (Washington, 1971), in which an imaginary
portrait of Chopin is drawn in a sequence of superimpositions and
fragmentations, beginning and ending with a re-creation of the B flat minor
Mazurka. Some of his recent more mature works show a tendency toward
Impressionism and are surrounded by a profound poetic aura. Paisaje
imaginario (1988) for piano and orchestra was commissioned by the BBC
Welsh SO.
WORKS
(selective list)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Arizaga: Enciclopedia de la música argentina (Buenos Aires, 1971)
G. Béhague: Music in Latin America: an Introduction (New Jersey, 1979)
M. Ficher, M. Furman Schleifer, J.M. Furman: Latin American Classical
Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and London,
1995)
SUSANA SALGADO
Gando.
French family of type founders. Nicolas Gando (b Geneva, early 18th
century; d Paris, 1767), having first established himself in Geneva, moved
in 1736 to Paris, where he took over the foundry of his uncle Jean Louis
Gando. Nicolas issued a specimen of his types in 1745, and another in
1758 to show the resources of Claude Lamesle’s foundry, which he bought
that year. His son Pierre François (b Geneva, 1733; d Paris, 1800) was a
partner in the foundry and succeeded him.
The Gandos owe their place in history less to the qualities of their type than
to their polemical exchanges with Pierre-Simon Fournier on the question of
typographical music printing. In his Traité historique, which is both a
general account of developments in music printing and a bitter attack on
the exclusive privilege enjoyed by the Ballard family, Fournier accused the
Gandos, in terms very damaging to their reputation, of passing off as their
own in 1764, music characters which he had published in 1756. The
Gandos replied in support of Ballard and the printing establishment,
highlighting errors in Fournier’s historical account and accusing him of
plagiarizing the methods devised for typographical music printing by
Breitkopf (1754–5). They also described their own system. They cast clefs,
bar-lines, minims, crotchets, detached quavers (and sub-divisions of the
quaver) in one piece as complete characters, without fragments of staff
attached. Beams to join the stems of tied quavers and the like were also
cast as single pieces in various lengths so that the only junction required
was between the stem of the note (a crotchet with its stem reduced if
necessary) and the small connecting strokes cast on the beam at standard
intervals. The staves were made up of continuous pieces of metal.
It was necessary to pass the sheet through the press twice for a complete
impression: once to print the notes, clefs, key signatures, rests, bar-lines
etc., and once to print the staves, words and other ancillary material. Under
normal printing conditions it was difficult to align the notes and staves
exactly, because of the fine adjustments that had to be made in the relative
position of type material in the two separate formes. After damping, inking
and being passed through the press to take an impression of the first forme
there was a danger that the paper might lose its integrity while it was
waiting to be put through the press with the second forme. The Gandos
claimed the invention of a press which avoided this: the two formes were
worked in rapid succession and the paper was not moved from its original
printing position between impressions. These two factors ensured that the
size of the sheet did not vary.
In their Observations the Gandos offered a four-page setting of Psalm cl by
the Abbé Roussier as a specimen of their types printed on their special
press. Of much greater interest, they also showed specimens of six early
music types from the stock-in-trade of the Ballard concern (see illustration).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P.-S. Fournier: Essai d’un nouveau caractère de fonte pour l’impression
de la musique (Paris, 1756/R)
P.-S. Fournier: Traité historique et critique sur l’origine et les progrès des
caractères de fonte pour l’impression de la musique, avec des
épreuves de nouveaux caractères de musique (Berne, 1765/R, 1972
with the following two items)
N. and F. Gando: Observations sur le Traité historique et critique de
Monsieur Fournier le jeune sur l’origine et les progrès des caractères
de fonte pour l’impression de la musique (Paris, 1766/R, 1972 with the
preceding and following items)
P.-S. Fournier: ‘Réponse à un mémoire publié en 1766 par MM. Gando, au
sujet des caractères de fonte pour la musique’, Manuel typographique,
ii (Paris, 1768), 289–306; repr. with the two preceeding items (Geneva,
1972)
M. Audin: Les livrets typographiques des fonderies françaises créées
avant 1800 (Paris, 1933, 2/1964)
H. EDMUND POOLE
Gandolfi, Michael
(b Melrose, MA, 5 July 1956). American composer. At the age of eight he
began to play the guitar, teaching himself to improvise in rock and jazz
styles. Formal study in composition began in his early teens, and he went
on to study with McKinley and Martino at the New England Conservatory
and with Knussen at Tanglewood (1986). He worked with Davidovsky and
Finney at the Composer's Conference and was an instructor at Harvard
University before, in 1997, joining the composition faculty of the New
England Conservatory. In 1998 he also began to teach part of the
composition course at Tanglewood along with Osvaldo Golijov. Gandolfi's
music is concerned with processes of transformation and becoming,
exemplified by his earliest orchestral work, Transfigurations (1987),
commissioned by Tanglewood. In Points of Departure (1988) such
processes are applied with originality to musical gesture, explicitly
recognizing the different implications a gesture may contain in a chain of
radically contrasting transformations across separate movements. Working
out relationships of shared material between movements or separate
sections, as opposed to within a single movement, has become
increasingly prevalent in his work.
WORKS
Stage and vocal: Budget cuts (music threatre), vn + va, pf + cl/melodica, perc +
hn/melodica, cond + pf + vn + cornet/a melodica, 1996; Pinocchio's Adventures in
Funland (D. Bonstrom), nar, fl, cl, vn, vc, perc, pf, 1998–9; The Blessed Virgin's
Expostulation (N. Tate), S, pf, 1998
Orch: Transfigurations, 1987; Points of Departure, 1988; Pf Conc., 1988–9;
Transient Episodes, 1995; Freshman Theory, 1999
Chbr: Fantasia, 2 pf, perc, 1977; Qt in 2 Mvts, fl, ob, cl, bn, 1979; Str Trio, 1980;
Concertino, fl, cl, b cl, vn, va, vc, pf, 1985; Personae, fl, ob, cl, hn, vn, va, vc, db, pf,
1986; La treccia, fl, va, vc, 1990; Line of Approach, fl, hp, perc, 1992; Caution to the
Wind (Fl Conc. no. 2), fl, str qt, db, hp, perc, 1993; Pf Trio, 1994; Design School, fl,
ob, cl, bn, vn, va, vc, db, pf, 1994–5; Grooved surfaces, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, perc, 1995;
Cable Ready, vc, pf, perc, 1996; Geppetto's Workshop, fl, pf, 1997
Solo inst: 2 Studies of the Sun, pf, 1981; Fanfare, ob, 1982; 4 Miniatures, fl, 1982; Il
ventaglio di Josephine, 1983; Harlequin Sketches, gui, 1991; Pf Etudes, 1997–9; Pf
Preludes, 1997–9
Elecs: Nocturnes for Dual DACs, 1981; Of Memories Lost, 1989; In-Coming/Out-
Going, 1997
STEVEN LEDBETTER
Ganer, Christopher
(fl 1774–1809). German piano maker, active in England. He came to
England from Leipzig, settling at 47 Broad Street, London, in 1774 and
staying there until the end of 1809 (he also took on the neighbouring
premises at no.48 in 1782). Letters of denization were granted to Ganer on
11 February 1792. He started getting in arrears with his rates from 1805
onwards, possibly an indication of financial difficulties.
Ganer mainly made square pianos. His earliest surviving square piano is
marked ‘Christopher Ganer Londini fecit 1775’, and has a compass of
nearly five octaves, from G' to f'''. This Latin inscription appears again on a
1778 square piano: until the mid-1780s he used either Latin or English
inscriptions. Later models, such as the one at the Russell Cotes Museum in
Bournemouth, have a striking Battersea enamel plaque bearing the
inscription in capitals.
In outward appearance Ganer’s square pianos vary; some are more
attractively inlaid than others. The earlier ones tend to be plain with a
simple trestle stand whereas later models are Sheraton in style, with brass
medallions covering the bolts in the tapered legs of the trestle. Musically,
however, the instruments vary little: a compass of five octaves or slightly
less, single action with overdampers, and two or three handstops raising
the dampers and engaging a buff stop. The piano maker John Broadwood
hired out Ganer’s pianos. A descriptive catalogue of extant Ganer
instruments is given in M.N. Clinkscale: Makers of the Piano, 1700–1820
(Oxford, 1993).
MARGARET CRANMER
Ganga.
(1) The most common name for the double-headed cylindrical snare drum
used in the music of a number of West and North African cultures, including
parts of Niger, Benin, Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, Upper Volta, Libya, Algeria
and Tunisia. The musical prominence of this kind of drum is largely a result
of its use with the kakaki trumpet and the algaita oboe in Hausa ceremonial
music, together with the spread of Hausa political influence from the
beginning of the 19th century.
The term ‘ganga’ is applied generically by the Hausa to a number of
double-headed cylindrical snare drums, the most common, in ascending
order of size, being the kurya, a traditional infantry drum about 17 cm long
and with a diameter of about 21 cm; the gangar algaita, used with the
algaita, about 33 cm long and about 24 cm in diameter; the gangar fada or
royal ganga (see illustration), used with the kakaki, about 45 cm long and
with a diameter of about 33 cm; and the gangar noma, beaten for farmers,
about 65 cm long and about 45 cm in diameter. Except for the gangar
noma, which is occasionally laid on the ground, all these drums are
suspended from the left shoulder and lie in a near-horizontal position under
the performer's left arm. The drum has a wooden body with two goatskin
heads lapped over leather hoops and laced together with leather thongs. A
piece of cloth is sewn round the body under the lacing, the colour of the
cloth indicating the emir to whom the instrument belongs.
The snared skin on the gangar algaita, gangar fada and gangar noma is to
the front while on the kurya it is to the rear. Apart from the gangar noma,
which is normally beaten with two sticks, the drums are beaten with a
curved stick with a flattened head, held in the right hand, and with the
fingers of the left hand. Two techniques, or series of strokes, are used in
beating the drum; in hannun gaba the left hand beats the front skin and in
hannun baya or taushi the rear. Free or open strokes produced with the flat
of the stick-head on the centre of the front skin are the lowest in pitch.
Notes of medium, high and extra-high pitch are produced from muted or
closed stick strokes: medium notes are made with the flat of the stick-head
on the centre of the front skin; high with the edge of the stick-head on the
centre of the front skin; and extra-high with the flat or the edge of the stick-
head on the centre of the front skin together with pressure from the fingers
of the left hand on the top edge of the rear skin. A rising pitch is produced
by a free stroke with the flat of the stick-head on the centre of the front skin
followed by pressure with the knuckle of the left-hand thumb on the centre
of the rear skin.
Performance on the Hausa ganga is based primarily on the high and low
speech-tones of an unverbalized text and secondarily on its long and short
syllabic quantities. Such a text, in praise of the patron of a performance, is
called a take. The use of strokes of low, medium, high and extra-high pitch
to realize the low and high tones of the take also allows the musician, if he
so wishes, to superimpose certain intonational features on its tonal
patterns. A straightforward take is shown in Kakaki, ex.1.
A drum of the name ‘ganga’ is used by many other peoples such as the
Nupe, Gunga, Dakakari, Duka, Chawai, Jukun, Tigong, Yeskwa, Bolewa,
Tangale, Burum, Ngizim, Tera, Bura, Bata, Zaberma and Kanuri in Nigeria,
and in Niger by the Songhay, Djerma and Beri-beri, in Chad by the Salamat
Arabs, the Mului, Kanembu and Barma peoples, and in southern Libya by
the people of Fiwet, Ghat and Traghan. Other peoples using closely related
terms for the instrument are: the nomadic Fulani (gunguru), in Nigeria the
Janji, Kurama and Piti (oganga), Ankwe (kangak), Gurka (gungak), Kerikeri
(gonga), Margi (akangga), Mumuye, Kam and Pero (ganggang), in Benin
the Dendi (gangan) and the Taneka (gangangu), in Chad the Zaghawa
(ganggang) and in Upper Volta the Mossi (gangado); in Libya in the Fezzan
region and in Algeria in Batna the drum is known as gaga.
Usage varies according to the degree of social stratification: in highly
stratified societies the ganga forms part of an ensemble of court musicians,
usually with long trumpets or oboes; in others it is used mainly to
accompany song and dance. In Nigeria court usage is exemplified among
the Kanuri, where the ganga kura (big drum) is beaten only for the Shehu
of Borno, and among the Nupe at Bida (where it is known locally as
enyabo), Abuja, Bauchi and Wase. Elsewhere in Nigeria usage is more
varied; the Gunga use two or three professional ganga players to
accompany teams of wrestlers, the Burum play a large ganga in drumming
for farmers, and the Bura have incorporated the ganga into their xylophone
ensemble to accompany dancing, a practice common throughout the
northern states, where drums of the ganga type but with local names are
used: for example, dang and Mbangak.
In Benin the Taneka gangangu is played with side-blown horns and
clapperless bell for masked dancing, and the Dendi gangan with hourglass
drums in praise singing for a village chief. In Niger the Songhai ganga and
the Djerma ganga at Dosso are similarly used for praise singing, and the
Djerma, like the Beri-beri, use the drum with the algaita. In Upper Volta the
Mossi gangado is used as part of a drum ensemble at the court of
Tenkodogo to accompany praise singing and declamation of the history of
the rulers.
In Chad the drum is played by professional musicians and is found
particularly in the Kanem region. It has a wooden cylindrical body, 60 to 65
cm high and 30 to 35 cm in diameter, cowhide heads and leather lacing in
a Y pattern. The upper head, which has two snares, is struck with a hooked
stick with a flattened end; this provides the ‘masculine’ voice. The lower
head is struck with the hands and has no snare but in its centre it has a
baked disc made from brains, butter and charcoal; its sound is deeper and
is the ‘female’ voice. Sometimes the ganga is used alone to convey signals
but in a musical context it is always played with another drum, the trembel,
and very often with the algaita. This ensemble also forms part of the
orchestras of the sultans of the Kotoko.
The Zaghawa ganggang accompanies dancing during rites for a chief and
is also used for special rites in case of drought. The Salamat Arabs and
Barma are reported to use their ganga with other drums and end-blown
flutes respectively to accompany dancing or to encourage canoeists, and
the Kanembu and Mului with other drums and either long gachi trumpets or
algaita oboes, or both, in the performance of praises and greetings for
chiefs.
In Libya in central Fezzan the ganga drums are identical with those in
Chad, except that sometimes the body is metal, and in performance
instead of using the trembel two ganga drums are paired, one being
considered ‘male’ and the other ‘female’. As in Chad these instruments are
reserved for professional musicians who, in Fezzan, are usually of slave
origin and from regions south of the Sahara. In the large oases in the
extreme west of Libya (Ghat, Ghadames) the ganga has a comparatively
flat body, 10 to 12 cm in height and 30 cm in diameter, although all other
features are the same as in Chad. Playing is exclusively by professional
musicians who in these oases are generally blacksmiths.
(2) Single-headed drum of the Sara people of southern Chad. It has a
wooden body and its head is attached by wooden sticks driven into the
body of the drum. The instrument is played upright and the head is struck
with the hands.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ames-KingGHM
J.F.J. Fitzpatrick: ‘Some Notes on the Kwolla District and its Tribes’,
Journal of the African Society, x (1910–11), 16, 213
C.K. Meek: Tribal Studies in Northern Nigeria (London, 1931/R)
P.G. Harris: ‘Notes on Drums and Musical Instruments Seen in Sokoto
Province, Nigeria’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, lxii
(1932), 105–25
H.E. Hause: ‘Terms for Musical Instruments in the Sudanic Languages: a
Lexicographical Inquiry’, Journal of the American Oriental Society
(1948), suppl.7
M.F. Smith: Baba of Karo: a Woman of the Muslim Hausa (London, 1954)
M.-J. Tubiana: Survivances préislamiques en pays Zaghawa (Paris, 1964)
M. Brandily: ‘Music of Chad (Kanem)’, BM30 L2309 (1967) [disc notes]
K. Krieger: ‘Musikinstrumente der Hausa’, Baessler-Archiv, new ser., xvi
(1968), 373–430
M. Huet: The Dance, Art and Ritual of Africa (London, 1978)
P. Newman and E.H.Davidson: ‘Music from the Villages of North-eastern
Nigeria’, AHM 4532 [disc notes]
ANTHONY KING/MONIQUE BRANDILY, K.A. GOURLAY
Gangar [rull].
A Norwegian folkdance in duple time. It may be notated in 2/4 or 6/8 time
and is similar to the Halling, by which name it is known in some districts. It
is danced in couples. The gangar is known both in Hardanger fiddle
districts and in areas where the violin is used as a folk instrument. The term
rull is used in parts of the Hardanger fiddle areas of western Norway.
NILS GRINDE
Gangsa (i).
Flat bronze or brass gong of the Kalingga, Ibaloi, Karao, Tinggian and
Bontoc peoples of the northern Philippines. Among the Ifugao they are
called gangha, which refers to both the individual gong and an ensemble of
three gongs, and among the Isneg, hansa. Gangsa have a diameter of
approximately 30 cm and their perpendicular rims are about 5 cm high.
They produce diffused sounds with or without a focussed pitch. The ways
in which they are played increase their timbral variety; they may be played
with the hands (slapping, tapping or sliding) and with a beater (hitting the
upper or under side of the gong). Various resonating effects are achieved
by suspending gongs freely from the left hand, swinging them in the air,
resting them partly or fully on the ground, or laying them on the lap (see
Philippines, fig.2; damping effects are produced with the wrist or forearm,
or with pressure from the beater.
Gangsa are played in a variety of ceremonies: gong music is necessary for
dancing, for honouring people of the community, for celebrations and for
providing the proper ambience for ritual proceedings. Gongs are
considered to be objects of great value and status: during ceremonies, to
play the gangsa is an honour, for only prominent members of the
community are invited to start the performance. Gangsa music itself is
particularly popular among the Kalingga, and on occasions when gangsa
playing is not permitted, its music is often played on other instruments.
JOSÉ MACEDA
Gangsa (ii).
A term used for metallophones in various Balinese ensembles (see
Gamelan, §I, 4(iv) and Indonesia, §II, 1(ii)(d)). They are of two types: with
bronze slabs resting on rattan, cork or rubber which in turn rests on a
wooden trough resonator (e.g. gangsa jongkok); and with bevel-edged
keys suspended by cord above tuned bamboo tubes arranged in a wooden
frame (e.g. gangsa gantung or gender; see illustration). Both types are
beaten with a wooden or horn hammer in the right hand (which is padded
in the case of the lowest-pitched gangsa gantung, i.e. jegogan) or with a
hammer in each hand in the case of the gender wayang ensemble. Each
key is damped as the next key is struck. Gangsa are tuned in pairs, one
pitched slightly higher than the other so that when the two instruments are
struck simultaneously an acoustic beat is produced.
MARGARET J. KARTOMI
Gann, Kyle
(b Dallas, 21 Nov 1955). American musicologist, composer and critic. He
attended Oberlin Conservatory (BMus 1977) and Northwestern University
(MMus 1981, DMus 1983), where he studied composition with Peter Gena,
Morton Feldman and Ben Johnston. An early fascination with the music of
Ives developed his interest in polyrhythmic music and led to study of the
music of the Hopi, Zuni and Pueblo Indians, which in turn informed the
rhythmic language of his own compositions (notably in Snake Dances,
1991–5). Further exploration of tempo structures came from his association
with Nancarrow, about whom he wrote the first book (1995). Gann
composed several canons extending Nancarrow’s techniques. His interest
in polytempos, Amerindian music and just intonation (his electronic works
employ scales of up to 37 pitches per octave) came together in his
electronic opera, Custer and Sitting Bull (1995–8).
In 1986, after writing for several Chicago papers, Gann became
contemporary music critic for the Village Voice. As a musicologist and critic,
he has championed an indigenous American classical tradition from Ives
and Cowell to Partch, Cage and others. After teaching at Columbia
University and Brooklyn College, Gann joined the faculty of Bard College
(1997).
WORKS
Op: Custer and Sitting Bull, 1v, elecs (G.A. Custer, Sitting Bull), 1995–8
Orch: The Disappearance of All Holy Things from this Once So Promising World,
1998
Vocal-inst: Satie, S, vn, fl, hp, perc (E. Satie), 1975; Song of Acceptance, 3 female
vv, fl, hn, trbn, tuba, cel, 2 vn, vc (Lao-Tzu, W. Whitman, Bible: Ecclesiastes), 1980;
Oil Man, 1 male spkr, fl, cl, pf, drums (M. Gann), 1981; various songs
Chbr: Siren, 5 fl, 1978; Long Night, 3 pf, 1980–81; Mountain Spirit, 2 fl, 2 drums,
synth, 1982–3; Baptism, 2 fl, 2 drums, glock, synth, 1983; Cherokee Songs, S, perc,
1983; Hesapa ki Lakhota ki Thawapi [The Black Hills Belong to the Sioux], fl,
tpt/sax, synth/accdn, drum, 1984, rev. 1989; I’itoi Variations, 2 pf, 1985; Cyclic
Aphorisms, vn, pf, 1988; Chicago Spiral, fl, cl, s sax/3 fl, drums, vn, va, vc, synth,
1990–91; Snake Dance no.1, perc qt, 1991; Alice in Wonderland, incid music, fl, cl,
elecs, 1991–2; Astrological Studies, fl, ob, a sax, bn, synth, tom-toms, cymbals, vib,
va, db, 1994; So Many Little Dyings (K. Patchen), 1 pre-recorded v, elecs, 1994;
Snake Dance no.2, perc qt, 1995; Arcana XVI, 3 synths, 1998
Solo inst: Desert Flowers, fl, 1979; The Mercy of the Storm, pf, 1981; Dakota Moon,
cl, 1982; The Question Answer’d, pf, 1983; Windows to Infinity, pf, 1987; Sweeney
Out West (4 Vacation Mishaps), pf, 1987–9; Laredo, snare drum, 1988; Paris
Intermezzo, toy pf, 1989; Desert Sonata, pf, 1994–5
El-ac: The Convent at Tepoztlan (pf, cptr tape)/2 pf, 1989 [after C. Nancarrow:
Canon 23:24]; Superparticular Woman (Tuning Study no.1), elecs, 1992; Ghost
Town, elecs, 1994; Homage to Cowell (Tuning Study no.2), elecs, 1994; Fractured
Paradise (Tuning Study no.3), elecs, 1995; Despotic Waltz (Mechanical Pf Study
no.1), mechanical pf (Disklavier), 1997; How Miraculous Things Happen (Tuning
Study no.4), elecs, 1997; The Waiting (Mechanical Pf Study no.2), mechanical pf
(Disklavier), 1997
WRITINGS
‘The Percussion Music of John J. Becker’, Percussive Notes, xxii/3 (1983–
4), 26–41
‘La Monte Young’s The Well-Tuned Piano’, PNM, xxxi (1993), 134–62
‘Downtown Beats for the 1990s’, CMR, x (1994), 33–49
The Music of Conlon Nancarrow (Cambridge, 1995)
‘The Outer Edge of Consonance: Snapshots from the Evolution of La
Monte Young’s Tuning Installations’, Sound and Light: La Monte
Young, Marian Zazeela, ed. W. Duckworth and R. Fleming (Lewisburg,
PA, 1996), 152–90
American Music in the Twentieth Century (New York and London, 1997)
‘Subversive Prophet: Henry Cowell as Theorist and Critic’, The Whole
World of Music: a Henry Cowell Symposium, ed. D. Nicholls
(Amsterdam, 1997), 171–222
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Rockwell: ‘A Critic Makes Music’, New York Times (17 Dec 1989)
DON C. GILLESPIE
sacred choral
for 4 voices, organ, orchestra, unless otherwise stated
secular vocal
Des Dichters Geburtsfest (Liederspiel, F. Treitschke), 1810; Die Kreuzfahrer
(incidental music, Kotzebue), 1811
c10 cants., chorus, orch; 3 cants., male chorus, pf/gui; 3 serenades, chorus, orch
3 terzetti, 2 S, T, op.1 (Berlin, 1809)
1v, pf/gui: 6 Lieder op.3 (Leipzig, 1809); Der sterbende Patriot (C. Schubart), c1809;
Abendfantasie (L. Brachmann) (Bonn, c1810); An mein Clavier, 1809; Die
Erwartung (Schiller), op.7 (Bonn, c1810); Wiedersehn (J. Kosegarten), op.4
(Leipzig, ?1810); Nachtgesang (Kosegarten) (Leipzig, c1814); Abendlied (C.
Tiedge) (Innsbruck, 1817); 4 deutsche Lieder (Berlin, c1819)
instrumental
Orch: Sinfonie, D, 1807, ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. B, vi (New York,
1984); Concertino, cl solo, 1819; Tiroler Schützen-Freuden, with pipes, drums etc,
1824; marches, other military music
Chbr: Sonata, F, vn, vc, pf (Bureau d'Arts, 1803); Sonata, g, m, pf; Serenade, fl, vn,
va, gui, op.12 (Bonn, 1810); Serenade, cl, vn, vc, gui, op.24 (Augsburg, 1818);
Introduktion und Variationen, cl, hn, pf; pf trios; sonatas, vn, gui; sonatas, fl/vn, pf;
other works for fl/vn, gui; vc, pf etc.
Pf 4 hands: divertimentos, sonatinas, marches (most unpubd)
Pf solo: numerous variation sets (most on opera themes), marches, ländler
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Gänsbacher: Denkwürdigkeiten aus meinem Leben (MS, A-Imf); ed. W.
Senn (Thaur, 1986)
K.M. Gross: ‘ Johann Gänsbacher’, Allgemeine Wiener Musik-Zeitung, iv
(1844), 108–10, 112–13, 116, 119–22, 124
A. Schmidt: Denksteine: Biographien (Vienna, 1848), 111–61
C. Fischnaler: Johann Gänsbacher (Innsbruck, 1878)
J.G. Ritter von Woerz: Johann Gänsbacher (Innsbruck, 1894)
G. Kaiser, ed.: Sämtliche Schriften von Carl Maria von Weber (Berlin,
1908)
S. Loewy: ‘Johann Gänsbacher’, Österreichische Rundschau, xxii (1910),
447
H.H. Hausner and H. Öttl: ‘Johann Gänsbacher (8. Mai 1778, Sterzing –
13. Juli 1844, Wien): Datum aus seinem Leben und Schaffen’, MISM,
xxi/3–4 (1973), 44–53
M. Schneider: Studien zu den Messenkompositionen Johann Baptist
Gänsbachers (1778–1844) (diss., U. of Innsbruck, 1976)
J. Veit: Der junge Carl Maria von Weber: Studien zum Einfluss Franz
Danzis und Abbé Georg Joseph Voglers (Mainz, 1990)
M. Gabbrielli and F. Chiocchetti: La vödla muta: una compozitione
minore di J.B. Gänsbacher (Firenze, 1994)
O. Huck and J. Veits, eds.: Die Schriften des Harmonischen Vereins
(Mainz, 1998)
WALTER SENN/JOACHIM VEIT
Gantez, Annibal
(b Marseilles, c1600; d Auxerre, 1668). French ecclesiastic, composer and
writer on music. An alphabetical list of places where Gantez served as
maître de chapelle or maître des enfants shows the geographical diversity
of his professional life (dates of known appointments are shown in
brackets): Aigues-Mortes, Aix-en-Provence (15 April 1636–22 June 1638),
Annecy, Arles (5 July 1638–31 March 1640), Aurillac, Auxerre (1643,
awarded a partial prebend; there again on 1 November 1661), Avignon,
Carpentras, Grenoble (29 March 1628–Easter 1629; there again 28 June–
9 October 1656), La Châtre, Le Havre, Marseilles, Montauban, Nancy (in
1665 as maître de chapelle to Duke Charles IV of Lorraine), Nevers (on 26
January 1657), Paris (at St Innocent, St Jacques de l'Hôpital, St Paul),
Rouen (on 21 June 1629), Toulon and Valence.
Although Gantez wrote a small amount of music, including two masses
(both printed by Ballard about 1642), a Te Deum (1661, lost) and
collections of court airs and chansons à boire, he is best known as a
trenchant observer of the musical scene. His L'entretien des musiciens
(Auxerre, 1643; ed. E. Thoinan, Paris 1878/R) is lively (‘a musician is not
esteemed if he is not a good drinker’), its social comment pointed (‘it is
shameful that in France there are only one or two printers … whereas
Spain, Italy and Flanders have almost as many printers as there are
towns’) and its value judgments direct and forceful (‘the one whom I find [in
Paris] the most “agréable” in his music is Veillot … and the one whom I
recognize as the most serious in his is Péchon …’). L'entretien includes
references to Aux-Cousteaux, Bertaut, Antoine Boësset, Bournonville,
Bouzignac, Cosset, Du Caurroy, Du Cousu, Formé, Frémart, Gobert, De
Gouy, Hotman, Intermet, Lambert, Etienne Moulinié, Mersenne, Métru,
Péchon, Veillot, Vincent and Zarlino.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AnthonyFB
H. Lavoix: ‘Une vie d'artiste au commencement du XVIIe siècle, Annibal
Gantez’, Revue de France, iii (1873), 27–43
H. Villetard: ‘Annibal Gantez, maître de chapelle d'Auxerre au XVIIe
siècle’, La Tribune de Saint-Gervais, v (1899), 310–16
J. Westrup: ‘Annibal Gantez: a Merry Musician’, MT, lxxi (1929), 937–9
F. Raugel: ‘Une maîtrise célèbre au grand siècle: la maîtrise de la
cathédrale d'Aix-en-Provence’, Bulletin de la Société d'étude du XVIIe
siècle, xxi–xxii (1954), 422–32
JAMES R. ANTHONY
Ganz.
German family of musicians.
(1) Adolf Ganz
(2) Moritz Ganz
(3) Wilhelm Ganz
M.C. CARR/ROBERT PASCALL
Ganz
(1) Adolf Ganz
(b Wiesbaden, 14 Oct 1795; d London, 11 Nov 1869). Violinist, conductor
and composer. He studied harmony with Hollbusch. From 1821 to 1845 he
was music director at the Stadttheater in Mainz (1819). He was made
Kapellmeister to the Grand Duke of Hessen-Darmstadt in 1825 and ducal
Hofkapellmeister in 1835. On 9 July 1840 he conducted the first British
performance of Gluck’s Iphigénie en Tauride at the Prince’s Theatre,
London. In 1846–7 he worked as a conductor in Nuremberg. In 1851 he
settled in London, where for a time he was chorus master under Balfe at
Her Majesty’s Theatre. He composed overtures, marches, songs, male-
voice choruses and a melodrama. His elder son Eduard (b Mainz, 29 April
1827; d Berlin, 26 Nov 1869) studied the piano with Moscheles and
Thalberg in London, settled in Berlin and founded a music school there in
1862.
Ganz
(2) Moritz Ganz
(b Mainz, 13 Sept 1802; d Berlin, 22 Jan 1868). Cellist and composer,
brother of (1) Adolf Ganz. He was the leading cellist in the Mainz
Hofkapelle under his elder brother, then succeeded B.H. Romberg as
leading cellist in the royal orchestra in Berlin in 1827. He visited Paris and
London in 1833, then returned to London four years later to play at the
Philharmonic Concerts (1 May 1837) with his younger brother Leopold (b
Mainz, 28 Nov 1806; d Berlin, 15 June 1869), a violinist who frequently
joined him in concerts and with whom he composed a number of virtuoso
duets. He was the principal cellist at the Beethoven Festival in Bonn in
1845 and was noted for his full, mellow tone and brilliant execution.
Ganz
(3) Wilhelm Ganz
(b Mainz, 6 Nov 1833; d London, 12 Sept 1914). Organist, violinist and
conductor, son of (1) Adolf Ganz. He was the most celebrated member of
the family. He studied the piano and conducting with his father and Karl
Anschütz, and made his first trip to England in 1848. He and his father
went back to Mainz after the London season but they returned in 1851 to
settle permanently in London. In 1856 Ganz was an accompanist on Jenny
Lind’s tour of England and Scotland, and for some years thereafter he
accompanied many of the leading singers in London. He was also the
organist at the German Lutheran church in the Strand.
Ganz joined Henry Wylde’s New Philharmonic Society as second violinist
in 1852. In 1874 he became joint conductor of the society (with Wylde) and
in 1879, on Wylde’s resignation, continued the concerts alone, first under
the former name and after 1880 as ‘Mr Ganz’s Orchestral Concerts’. During
his three seasons as conductor, Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique and
Liszt’s Dante Symphony were performed in their entirety for the first time in
London, and a number of eminent artists, including Annette Essipov,
Sophie Menter, Saint-Saëns and Pachmann, appeared as soloists. For
many years Ganz was a professor of singing at the GSM, where a jubilee
concert was given in his honour in 1898. His memoirs, Memories of a
Musician, were published in London in 1913.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Wagner: Die Musikerfamilie Ganz aus Weissenau: ein Beitrag zur
Musikgeschichte der Juden am Mittelrhein (Mainz, 1974)
Ganze-Note
(Ger.).
See Semibreve (whole note); Ganze-Taktnote is also used. See also Note
values.
Ganzschluss
(Ger.).
See Authentic cadence.
Ganzton
(Ger.).
See Tone (i).
Gapped scale.
A Scale that contains at least one interval greater than a whole tone, for
example the Pentatonic scale.
Gaqi, Thoma
(b Korça, 21 Aug 1948). Albanian composer. He studied the violin and
theory in Korça with Kono and later in Tirana at the Jordan Misja Art
Lyceum. He then studied with Zadeja (composition) and Ibrahimi
(counterpoint and orchestration) at the Tirana Conservatory (1966–72),
where he was appointed professor of harmony in 1972. After a period as
artistic director of the Tirana Theatre of Opera and Ballet (1979–83), he
returned to the Conservatory as professor of harmony and composition,
becoming head of the composition department in 1988. In 1992 he moved
to Korça to become director of the Tefta Tashko Koço music school. He
returned to the Tirana Conservatory to teach composition in 1996. Like
many Albanian composers after the fall of socialism, he almost stopped
composing between 1991 and 1994.
Gaqi's orchestral works are among the most popular composed in Albania
during the country's period of cultural isolation after 1973. They include
Shqipëria në feste (1977), where thematic development gives way to the
folk-like repetition of melodic formulas, and the Double Concerto (1979),
which again uses folksong themes, while giving both solo instruments
ample opportunity for virtuoso display. The second of his three symphonic
dances has been compared to Ravel's Boléro in the way that obsessive
repetitions of a single theme, with ever denser orchestration, culminate in a
dramatic climax.
WORKS
(selective list)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Kalemi: Arritjet e artit tonë muzikor: Vepra dhe krijues të musikës
shqiptare [Achievements of our musical Art: creations and creators of
Albanian music] (Tirana, 1982), 180–85
Historia e muzikës Shqiptare [A history of Albanian music] (Tirana, 1984–5)
GEORGE LEOTSAKOS
Garage.
A form of 20th-century club dance music. As ‘garage’ rock, the term had
earlier been used to denote movement primarily outside the commercial
rock mainstream, predominantly in the USA and beginning in the 1960s,
and with a philosophy somewhat akin to later Indie music. It originated at
the Paradise Garage nightclub in New York City, from where the genre
takes its name. Like house music, it was derived from and shares many of
disco’s characteristics, with simple, rigid 4/4 rhythm tracks and pulsating
basslines (often influenced by dub reggae). However, while disco used
large orchestras to add texture to the music, garage is nearly all electronic.
It is slower than house, with 115-20 beats per minute as opposed to 122-6,
and, in contrast to the more rhythmic arrangements found in more generic
house music, is smoother, more melodic and frequently contains a female
soul vocal. Early garage records included D-Train’s You’re the One for Me
and the Peech Boys’ Don’t Make Me Wait (both 1981). By the late 1990s, it
found a new popularity in the UK as ‘speed garage’, sometimes
inappropriately called ‘underground garage’, which increased the tempo to
that of house, and became the dominating club sound for several years.
WILL FULFORD-JONES
WRITINGS
‘Non, Monsieur Vallerand’, L’autorité (20 Feb 1954)
‘Dire une musique d’ici’, Cahier pour un paysage à inventer, i (1959), 53–6
‘Un esprit de genèse’, Liberté [Montreal], i (1959), 284–6
‘Chronique musicale’, Cahiers d’essai, iii (1961), 4–5
‘Phrases I’, Parti pris, v/7 (1968), 47–8
‘Notes sur Anerca’, Musiques du Kébèk, ed. R. Duguay (Montreal, 1971),
55 only
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Trente-quatre biographies de compositeurs canadiens/Thirty-four
Biographies of Canadian Composers (Montreal, 1964) [pubn of the
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]
R. Duguay: ‘Serge Garant: le structuralisme ouvert’, Musiques du Kébèk
(Montreal, 1971), 47–54
M.T. Lefebvre: Nouvelle approche du matériau sonore dans les oeuvres
postsérielles: analyse du Quintette de Serge Garant (diss., U. of
Montreal, 1981)
Canadian University Music Review, vii (1986) [Garant issue]
M.T. Lefebvre: Serge Garant et la révolution musicale au Québec
(Montreal, 1986)
G. Dansereau: ‘Serge Garant: au-delà de la structure’, Sonances, viii
(1988–9), 35–40
J.-J. Nattiez: ‘Serge Garant: une voix exigeante qui nous vient du Québec',
Entretemps, vi/Feb (1988), 152–3
J. Boivin, ed.: ‘Serge Garant’, Circuit, vii/2 (1996) [whole issue]
MARIE-THÉRÈSE LEFEBVRE
Garaudé, Alexis(-Adélaide-Gabriel)
de
(b Nancy, 21 March 1779; d Paris, 23 March 1852). French composer and
singing teacher. He studied composition with Cambini and Reicha and
singing with Garat and Crescentini in Paris. In 1808 he took up a post at
the imperial chapel of the Tuileries, where he remained during the
Restoration until 1830. In 1816 he was appointed singing teacher at the
Paris Conservatoire, a post he held until his retirement in 1841. As a
composer, he is known mainly for his songs, about one third of which were
published in the Journal d’Euterpe from 1813 to 1827; he also wrote a few
pieces of piano and chamber music and an unperformed opera, La lyre
enchantée.
One of the most famous French singing teachers, Garaudé published a
large number of didactic works, including solfèges, vocalization exercises
and singing tutors. He also published some of his ideas on singing in the
Revue musicale, and contributed to the music journal Les tablettes de
Polymnie, which he edited from 1810 to 1811. Extending the usual debate
between French and Italian schools of singing, he suggested combining
their respective advantages in his Méthode de chant (1809). One of the
most important composers of French song in the early 19th century,
Garaudé wished that, in his vocal works, ‘the accompaniments were richer
in harmony than was customary in this genre of composition’.
His most famous pupil, Clotilde Colombelle, who sang under the name of
Mlle Coreldi, enjoyed a brief and brilliant career on stage in Milan and
Naples. She bore him a son, Alexis-Albert-Gauthier de Garaudé (1821–54)
who was also a composer and who distinguished himself chiefly by his
piano reductions of orchestral scores.
WORKS
printed works published in Paris
instrumental
Ov., ?orch, 1842; Scène, vn, orch (n.d.)
3 qnts, 2 vn, va, 2 vc, op.16 (1810); 3 duos concertants, fl, vn, op.33 (c1830); 6
sonatas, hp, vn ad lib (n.d.); other chbr works
Pf solo: mélanges, sonates faciles, other works
vocal
La lyre enchantée, opera, unperf., vs (n.d.)
Cantique (J. Pain), 1v, chorus ad lib, op.10 (c1810); Messe solennelle, 3vv, op.43
(c1835)
c200 romances, 1–3vv, pf [68 pubd in Journal d’Euterpe, 1813–27; pubd
collections: opp.3, 5, 8, 12, 18 (c1800–c1810); others pubd separately]
didactic
Méthode de chant, op.25 (1809, rev. 2/1811 as op.40, 3/1854); Méthode de chant,
low v, op.53 (1854); Nouvelle méthode de chant, female v, op.66 (1854)
52 exercises, op.40 (c1835, rev. 2/1846 as op.52 with pf acc.)
Solfège des enfants, op.27 (c1810, rev. 70/1903); 60 solfèges progressifs, pf/hp
acc., op.41 (n.d.)
12 grandes leçons de vocalisation; 25 vocalises de Crescentini, op.11 (c1810); 24
vocalises, op.42 (n.d.); Méthode de vocalisation, 2vv, op.65 (1854)
Other méthodes, pf, vn, va, dictation, piano tuning
2 letters to F.J. Fétis, pubd in Revue musicale, xi (1831), 116, 131
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation:
documents historiques et administratifs (Paris, 1900)
H. Gougelot: Catalogue des romances françaises parues sous la
Révolution et l’Empire (Melun, 1937–43)
H. Gougelot: La romance française sous la Révolution et l’Empire: étude
historique et critique (Melun, 1938)
JEAN MONGRÉDIEN/GUY GOSSELIN
Garay, Luis de
(b Villa de Veteta, province of Cuenca, 6 Nov 1613; d Granada, 1673).
Spanish composer. He was choirmaster of the cathedrals at Guadix,
Toledo (1644) and Granada (1645). He also competed for the post of
choirmaster of Málaga Cathedral in 1642 but was beaten by Pérez Roldán.
When, however, it was offered to him in 1655 and 1666, he chose to
remain in his post at Granada. He composed many sacred works, which
survive in manuscripts in the libraries of Málaga Cathedral and Zaragoza
Cathedral.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Rubio Piqueras: Música y músicos toledanos (Toledo, 1923)
A. Llordén: ‘Notas históricas de los maestros de capilla en la Catedral de
Málaga (1641–1799)’, AnM, xx (1965), 105–60, esp. 115, 131
GUY BOURLIGUEUX
Garay, Narciso
(b Panama, 12 June 1876; d Panama, 27 March 1953). Panamanian
ethnomusicologist and composer. He received his musical training at the
Instituto Nacional, Cartagena, at the Brussels Conservatory, and in Paris
with Marsick and at the Schola Cantorum; he was a pupil of Fauré in 1902–
3. On his return to Panama he directed the new Escuela Nacional de
Música from 1904 to 1918. During these years he made several collecting
trips among indigenous tribes, the results of which were published in
Tradiciones y cantares de Panama (Panama and Brussels, 1930). This
study, written in diary format, recounts his visits and includes numerous
musical transcriptions (mostly taken by ear), linguistic discussions and
photographs of instruments. Garay also wrote shorter essays on
Panamanian folklore. He later became active in the diplomatic service and
was at one time Minister of Foreign Affairs.
WORKS
(selective list)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Aretz: ‘Colecciones de cilindros y trabajos de musicología comparada
realizados en Latinoamérica durante los primeros treinta años del
siglo xx’, Revista venezolana de folklore, 2nd ser., no.4 (1972), 49–65
I. Aretz: Síntesis de la etnomúsica en América Latina (Caracas, 1983)
I. Aretz: Historia de la etnomusicología en América Latina (Caracas, 1991)
JOHN M. SCHECHTER
Garbarek, Jan
(b Mysen, 4 March 1947). Norwegian jazz soprano and tenor saxophonist.
He was influenced at an early age by the music of John Coltrane and in
1965 came to the attention of Krzysztof Komeda and George Russell; the
following year he appeared at festivals in Warsaw, where he made his first
recording, and Prague. Later he performed and recorded with the sextet
and big band of Russell, with whom he also studied music. In the late
1960s he formed a quartet with Terje Rypdal that often performed with
Russell, and from 1973 he led a trio. He toured Europe and the USA as a
member of Keith Jarrett’s quartet in 1977, then formed a group with
Eberhard Weber, the guitarist David Torn and the drummer Michael Di
Pasqua that performed in Warsaw in 1982 and later toured Europe, the
USA, Japan and Norway. In 1994, after nearly reaching the top of the
classical charts with his recording Officium (1993, ECM), on which, with the
Hilliard Ensemble, he interpreted works by Morales, Perotinus, Du Fay and
La Rue, Garbarek made a tour of the USA. He has composed most of the
music that he has recorded, and he has also written works for the theatre,
television and films. Among post-Coltrane saxophonists he has an
important approach, combining elements of free jazz, jazz-rock, folk music
and the music of the European avant garde.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Hultin: ‘Jan Garbarek: a Remarkable Jazz Personality’, Jazz Forum
[international edn], no.40 (1976), 51–3
S. Lake: ‘Jan Garbarek: Saga of Fire and Ice’, Down Beat, xliv/19 (1977),
16–17, 46 [incl. discography]
M. Tucker: ‘Jan Garbarek: beyond the Nordic Ethos’, Jazz Journal
International, xxx/10 (1977), 6, 8, 19 [incl. discography]
P. Brodowski and J. Szprot: ‘Jan Garbarek: Mysterious Wayfarer’, Jazz
Forum [international edn], no.86 (1984), 38–44 [incl. discography]
M. Bourne: ‘Jan Garbarek’s Scandinavian Design’, Down Beat, liii/7
(1986), 26–8 [incl. discography]
RANDI HULTIN
Garbin, Edoardo
(b Pauda, 12 March 1865; d Brescia, 12 April 1943). Italian tenor. His
teachers in Milan were Alberto Selva and Vittorio Orefice. In 1891 he made
his début at Vicenza in La forza del destino, appearing at La Scala two
years later as Fenton in the world première of Falstaff. He subsequently
married his Nannetta, Adelina Stehle, with whom he then appeared for
many years, principally in the Puccini operas. His other important première
was that of Leoncavallo's Zazà in 1900, also at La Scala, where he
remained until 1918. His European successes were not repeated in
London where he met with a critical press in 1908. His records show a
voice that often bewilders the ear, sometimes ringing, sometimes white in
tone, and mixing some rather forced singing with passages of considerable
delicacy. (GV, R. Celletti and R. Vegeto)
J.B. STEANE
Garbousova, Raya
(b Tbilisi, 25 Sept 1906; d de Kalb, IL, 28 Jan 1997). American cellist of
Russian (Georgian) birth. She studied at the Tbilisi Conservatory (1914–
23), and made her début in Moscow in 1923. Later she was coached by
Casals and Alexanian; she was also greatly influenced by the playing of
Emanuel Feuermann. Leaving Russia in 1925, she made her Berlin début
in 1926 and appeared in Paris (1927) and London (1928). She was heard
in New York in 1935 and settled in the USA in 1939, and appeared as
soloist with most major orchestras in Europe and America. She also played
with the Vermeer Quartet and with Rostropovitch. Among the works written
for her are the Cello Concertos by Samuel Barber (1946) and Vittorio Rieti
(1956), and the Rapsodia notturna by Karol Rathaus (1950). She also
introduced works by Creston, Hindemith, Lopatnikoff, Martinů and
Prokofiev, most of which she edited for publication. In addition to her
concerts and recordings she gave masterclasses at Aspen, Colorado, at
the Cleveland Institute of Music, and at Indiana University. She was
professor of the cello at the Hartt School of Music, 1970–79, and professor
of the cello at Northern Illinois University, 1979–91. Her playing was
distinguished by charm, outgoing temperament, beautiful tone and elegant
technique, which won her wide acclaim among the cellists of her day. She
played a cello by Guadagnini of 1743, formerly owned by Nikolay Graudan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CampbellGC
M. Campbell: ‘Raya Garbousova’, The Strad, c (1989), 762–8
M. Campbell: Obituary, The Independent, 1 Feb 1997
BORIS SCHWARZ/MARGARET CAMPBELL
García.
Family of Spanish, later French and English, musicians. For over a century
they made an impact on the history of opera and of singing in their various
countries of residence. The original family name of García was always
spelt in the manner of the country of residence.
(1) Manuel (del Pópulo Vicente Rodríguez) García (i)
(2) Manuel (Patricio Rodríguez) Garcia (ii)
(3) Gustave Garcia
JAMES RADOMSKI (1), APRIL FITZLYON/JAMES RADOMSKI (2 and 3)
García
(1) Manuel (del Pópulo Vicente Rodríguez) García (i)
(b Seville, 21 Jan 1775; d Paris, 10 June 1832). Composer, tenor, director
and singing teacher. He was baptized Manuel del Pópulo Vicente
Rodríguez in the church of S María Magdalena on 23 January 1775, the
son of a shoemaker, Gerónimo Rodríguez Torrentera (1743–1817), and
Mariana Aguilar (1747–1821). The name ‘del Pópulo’ comes from the
Augustinian convent (S María del Pópulo) near the family’s home. García
seems to have lived a stable family life with his parents, maternal
grandmother and sisters Maria and Rita until he was at least 14, when his
name disappears from the parish censuses of S María Magdalena. After
musical studies in Seville with Antonio Ripa and Juan Almarcha, García
made his début in Cádiz, where he married the singer Manuela Morales in
1797. The next year the couple joined Francisco Ramos’s company in
Madrid. García’s début with the company, in a tonadilla, took place on 16
May 1798 in the Teatro de los Caños del Peral. The premières of his own
tonadillas, El majo y la maja and La declaración, followed in December
1798 and July 1799. After a fight with the military guard at the Teatro del
Príncipe, for which he was briefly imprisoned early in October 1799, García
left Madrid. In 1800–01 he was in Málaga, where he achieved considerable
success as a composer and singer. In a letter to the Marquis of Astorga
dated 29 November 1800 he expressed an interest in returning to Madrid
to promote the cause of Spanish opera. The king’s permission was
solicited by Astorga in March 1801. García returned to Madrid as first tenor
and sang the role of the Count in the Madrid première of Mozart’s Le nozze
di Figaroon 20 May 1802. From this time until 1807 he dedicated himself to
a rigorous schedule of singing, directing and composing. Among García’s
operettas, Quien porfía mucho alcanza and El criado fingido became
extremely popular. The latter continued to be performed up to 1832; Julien
Tiersot argued that it was the famous polo from this work, ‘Cuerpo bueno,
alma divina’, which inspired the entr’acte to the final act of Bizet’s Carmen.
While in Madrid, García also sang in oratorios and concerts at the Caños
del Peral and composed and directed incidental music for plays. Of note
are the choruses with orchestra he composed for performances of Racine’s
Athalieand Esther during Lent 1804. On 28 April 1805 he sang in his
monologue opera El poeta calculista for the first time. It was a tremendous
success: the aria ‘Yo que soy contrabandista’ gained enduring popularity
throughout Europe, and both of his daughters later interpolated it in the
lesson scene of Il barbiere di Siviglia. In 1836 Liszt composed a Rondeau
fantastique based on the aria, which in turn inspired a dramatic work, Le
contrebandier, by George Sand.
In 1806 García was named supernumerary composer of the Teatro del
Príncipe in Madrid. Political problems in the administration, however, led to
his decision to seek his fortune outside Spain. His last operetta composed
there, Los ripios de maestro Adán, was given its première on 18 January
1807. At the beginning of April he departed from Madrid, leaving behind his
wife and two daughters, and after passing through Valladolid, Burgos,
Vitoria, Bayonne and Bordeaux, he settled in Paris with the singer
Joaquina Briones, who became his second wife. He made his début at the
Théâtre de l’Odéon in Paer’s Griselda on 11 February 1808. The following
year, on 15 March, he presented El poeta calculista to the Parisian public
with great success.
In 1811 García travelled to Italy; he sang at Turin before making his début
at the Teatro S Carlo in Naples on 6 January 1812 in Marcos Portugal’s
Oro non compra amore. At this time he began formal vocal training (for the
first time in his life) with the tenor, Giovanni Ansani. García’s Il califfo di
Bagdad and Tella e Dallaton, o sia La donzella di Raab were performed in
Naples in 1813 and 1814 respectively, and it was there in 1815 that he
created the role of Norfolk in Rossini’s Elisabetta, regina d’Inghilterra. In
1816 in Rome he sang Almaviva in the première of Il barbiere di Siviglia
under its original title Almaviva, ossia L’inutile precauzione.
Towards the end of 1816 García and his wife returned to Paris to sing at
the Théâtre Italien. Paolino in Il matrimonio segretowas the role of García’s
rentrée on 16 October. Il califfo di Bagdad had its Paris première on 22
May 1817 at the Théâtre Italien. It was performed regularly until García and
his wife left the company after a contretemps with the director, Mme
Catalani, purportedly resulting from García’s receiving more applause than
she in a single performance of Portugal’s La morte di Semiramide on 20
September 1817. He turned to the Opéra-Comique, where his first French
opera, Le prince d’occasion, was performed on 13 December 1817. In
1818 he travelled to London, appearing at the King’s Theatre with great
success in Otello and Il barbiere di Siviglia.
Now in his vocal prime, García returned to Paris the next year and became
a sensation in roles such as Almaviva, Otello and Don Giovanni (see
illustration). At the same time he composed prolifically and his operas were
given at the Opéra-Comique, the Théâtre Italien and the Gymnase-
Dramatique, as well as the Académie Royale. Most notable was La mort du
Tasse (Opéra, 7 February 1821). While finding fault with the libretto, critics
praised the music, in particular the duet ‘O moment plein d’attraits!’.
Towards the end of 1822 García founded a musical society in Paris, the
Cercle de la rue Richelieu, for which he was censured by the opera
management. Offended, in March 1823 he left Paris for a final season in
London. In 1824 he opened a singing academy in Dover Street and
published his Exercises and Method for Singing. The following October he
embarked for New York with his wife and children, Manuel, Maria (later
Maria Malibran) and Pauline (Pauline Viardot). There he directed the first
performances of opera in Italian in the USA. As well as Rossini’s operas
(Otello, Barbiere, Cenerentola, Tancredi, Il turco in Italia) and his own
(L’amante astuto, La figlia dell’aria), García, at the urging of Lorenzo da
Ponte, presented Mozart’s Don Giovanni. From New York he went in 1827
to Mexico City where he was received with great enthusiasm. After a
debate on language which raged for months in the Mexican press, García
obligingly translated Rossini’s and his own operas into Spanish. El amante
astuto was chosen for the anniversary celebration on 5 October 1828 of
the nation’s constitution of 1824.
García had planned to remain in Mexico, but political events (following
upon the decree of expulsion of all Spaniards in December 1827) forced
him to leave. In December 1828, en route from Mexico City to Veracruz,
García (in a convoy of 500 Spaniards) was robbed of all his New World
earnings by the escort that had been provided by the Mexican government.
He sailed for France on 22 January and made his reappearance as
Almaviva on 24 September 1829. Despite the warm reception from the
public, critics noted that his voice was but a shadow of what it had been.
García was not even able to finish his final performance of Don Giovanni
on 23 December 1829. Undaunted, he dedicated himself fully to teaching,
for which he was extraordinarily gifted. Among his most successful
students, apart from his children, were the tenor Adolphe Nourrit, the
Countess (María de las Mercedes Santa Cruz y Montsalvo) Merlin,
Henriette Méric-Lalande and Josefa Ruiz-García (his daughter by his first
wife). Never ceasing to compose, in 1830 García published a delightful
collection of Spanish songs dedicated to his ‘aficionados’. He continued to
perform, and his tremendous energy ‘in spite of his white hair’ was noted in
the Revue musicale of March 1831. His last appearance, in August 1831,
was in a buffo role in a student performance of Count Beramendi’s Le
vendemie di Xeres. His death certificate shows that he died on 10 June the
following year (not 2 or 9 June, as stated by Fétis and Richard
respectively). He was buried in Père Lachaise cemetery. In his funeral
oration Fétis honoured García above all as a composer, remarking that his
best works remained unpublished. Among his numerous compositions, of
greatest interest are those in a Spanish style where he successfully fused
Andalusian and bel canto elements. An important collection of his songs
has been published (C. Alonso, ed.: Manuel García: Canciones y caprichos
líricos, Madrid, 1994).
Throughout García’s career critics commented above all on the remarkable
flexibility of his voice. He was also praised for his musicianship, skilful
acting and gift of invention. This last led to reproofs for his tendency
towards crowd-pleasing ornamentation. His voice was, according to Fétis,
a deep tenor, enabling him to take the title role of Don Giovanni which,
according to Fétis, he sang with a ‘Herculean force’. His expert delivery of
recitative, as well as the Andalusian fire of his stage presence, made him
ideally suited to dramatic roles such as Otello and Don Giovanni. García’s
dynamic perfectionism left its impact on three continents and his legacy, in
the hands of his children, was carried into the 20th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
GroveO (J. Radomski) [incl. work-list]
P. Richard: ‘Notes biographiques sur Manuel García’, Revue musicale, xii
(1832), 171–4
E. de Olavarría y Ferrari: Reseña histórica del teatro en México, 1535–
1911, i (Mexico City, 1895)
E. Cotarelo y Mori: Estudios sobre la historia del arte escénico en
España, iii: Isidoro Maiquez y el teatro de su tiempo (Madrid, 1902)
J. Tiersot: ‘Bizet and Spanish Music’, MQ, xiii (1927), 566–81
J. Subirá: La tonadilla escénica, iii (Madrid, 1930)
J. Subirá: ‘El operetista Manuel García’, Revista de la Biblioteca, Archivo y
Museo Ayuntamiento de Madrid, xii (1935), 179–96
N. Solar-Quintes: ‘Manuel García, íntimo: un capítulo para su biografía’,
AnM, ii (1947), 98–104
M. Nelson: The First Italian Opera Season in New York City: 1825–1826
(diss., U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1976)
C. de Reparaz: Maria Malibran, 1808–1836: estudio biográfico (Madrid,
1976)
A. Fitzlyon: Maria Malibran: Diva of the Romantic Age (London, 1987)
J. Radomski: The Life and Works of Manuel del Pópulo Vicente García
(diss., U. of California, Los Angeles, 1992)
J. Radomski: Manuel García (1775–1832): chronicle of the Life of a ‘bel
canto’ Tenor at the Dawn of Romanticism (Oxford, 2000)
García
(2) Manuel (Patricio Rodríguez) Garcia (ii)
(b Madrid, 17 March 1805; d London, 1 July 1906). Baritone and singing
teacher, son of (1) Manuel García. He studied singing with his father and
harmony with Zingarelli at Naples in 1814; later he continued with his father
in Paris, where he also studied harmony with Fétis. He sang in his father’s
New York season in 1825 but decided not to pursue an operatic career
after an unsuccessful Paris début as Figaro on 7 October 1828. He did,
however, continue to sing in amateur performances with his father’s
students. After a few months of military service in Algiers in 1830 he carried
out administrative work in military hospitals in France, where he studied the
physiological aspects of the voice. His Mémoire sur la voix humaine,
presented to the Académie des Sciences (Paris, 1841), was the foundation
of all subsequent investigations into the voice, and his invention of the
laryngoscope (1855) brought him world fame. His Traité complet de l’art du
chant (1840–47) remained a standard work for many years. He was a
professor at the Paris Conservatoire (1847–50), and at the RAM, London
(1848–95); he spent the latter half of his life in England. His school of
singing, a perfection of his father’s methods, produced remarkable results.
His pupils included Jenny Lind, Hans Hermann Nissen, Erminia Frezzolini,
Julius Stockhausen, Mathilde Marchesi, Charles Bataille and Charles
Santley. His first wife was Eugénie Mayer (b Paris, 1815; d Paris, 12 Aug
1880), an operatic soprano (active 1836–58) and singing teacher.
WRITINGS
Traité complet de l’art du chant (Paris, 1840–47/R)
‘Mémoire sur la voix humaine’, Comptes-rendus des séances de
l’Académie des sciences (12 April 1841)
‘Observations on the Human Voice’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, vii (1854–5), 399–410
Observations physiologiques sur la voix humaine (Paris, 1861)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.G. Tapia: Manuel García, su influencia en la laringología y en a arte del
canto (Madrid, 1905)
M. Sterling Mackinlay: Garcia the Centenarian and his Times (Edinburgh,
1908)
J. Subirá: ‘Dos grandes músicos “desmadrileñizados”: Manuel García
(padre e hijo)’, Anales del Instituto de estudios madrileños, iii (1968),
229–38
García
(3) Gustave Garcia
(b Milan, 1 Feb 1837; d Paris, 15 June 1925). Baritone and singing
teacher, son of (2) Manuel Garcia. He studied with his father, and followed
a theatrical career in England and Italy from 1862 to 1880. He settled in
London in 1874 and for some years had an operatic school in Berners
Street; he also taught at the RAM (1880–90), the RCM (1883–1925) and
the GSM (1883–1910), and published three pedagogical works: The
Actors’ Art (London, 1882), The Singing Teacher’s Notebook (London,
1910) and A Guide to Solo Singing (London, 1914). He married the Italian
soprano L. Martorelli; their son (Angelo) Albert(o) Garcia (b London, 5 Jan
1875; d London, 10 Aug 1946), a baritone, was a pupil of his great-aunt,
Pauline Viardot. He sang in England, France and Germany, and taught at
the RCM and GSM, London. He married the soprano Florence Storm
Taylor.
sacred
19 masses, 102–20, most for SATB, orch, several with org, 12 dated 1801–26; 3
Laudamus te, 157–9, 1–2 S, orch, 1 dated 1821; Qui sedes, 162, only orch pts
extant, 1808; Qui sedes – Quoniam, 163, 2 T, orch, 1818; Quoniam, pts extant for
B, 2 cl, hn; 9 Credo, 121–9, most for SATB, 6 with orch, 3 with org, 2 dated 1808,
1820
Grads: Dies sanctificatus, 130, SATB, orch, 1793; Oculi omnium, 131, SATB, orch,
1793; Tecum principium, 132, SATB, orch, 1793; Dilexisti justitiam, 133, SATB,
orch, 1794; Alleluia, alleluia, 134, SATB, insts, 1795; Alleluia specie tua, 135, SATB,
insts, 1795; Constitues eos principes, 136, SATB, orch, 1795; Virgo Dei genitrix,
137, SATB, orch, 1795; Benedicite Dominum omnes, 138, SATB, orch, 1798;
Discite filiae Sion, 139, SATB, orch, 1798; Alleluia, angelus Domini, 140, SATB,
orch, 1799; Alleluia ascendit Deus, 141, SATB, orch, 1799; Benedictus es Domine,
142, SATB, orch, 1799
Justus cum ceciderit, 143, SATB, orch, 1799; Ad Dominum cum tribularer, 144,
SATB, orch, 1800; Jacta cocitatum tuum, 145, SATB, orch, 1800; Omnes de Saba
venient, 146, SATB, orch, 1800; Alleluia, emitte spiritum tuum, 147, SATB; Dilexisti
justitiam, 148, SATB, orch; Dolorosa et lacrimabilis, 149, SATB, orch; Ego sum
panis vitae, 150, SATB, orch; Emitte spiritum tuum, 151, SATB, insts; Gradual para
o Espíritu Santo, 152, orch pts extant; Hodie nobis coelorum rex, 153, ATB, insts
extant; Os justi meditabitur, 154, SATB, orch; Probasti Domine cor meum, 155,
SATB, orch; Veni Sancte Spiritus, 156, SATB, insts
Seqs: Lauda Sion, 165, SATB, orch, 1809; 3 Stabat mater: 166, ATB, orch, 1809,
167, SATB, orch, 168, SATB, orch; Veni Sancte Spiritus, 169, SATB
Offs: Stetit angelus juxta aram, 160, SATB, org, 1798; Confirma hoc Deus, 161,
SATB
Funeral music: 4 Requiem, 182, 184–5, 190, SATB, insts, 3 dated 1799, 1809,
1816; 2 Libera me, 181, 188, SATB, orch, 1 dated 1799; 2 Ofício de defuntos, 183,
186, SATB, orch, 1799, 1816; Ofício fúnebre, 191, 2 choirs SATB, 2 org;
Responsórios fúnebres, 192, SATB, orch; Regem cui omnia vivunt, invitatory, 187,
SATB, vc pt extant; Memento Dei Deus, 189, SATB, orch
Music for Holy Week: Aleluia Confitemini Domino, 197, SATB, insts, 1799; Aleluia
(para a Missa de Sábado de Aleluia), 201, SATB, orch; Bajulans, 202, SATB, org; 3
Christus factus est, 193, SATB, org, ?1798, 203–4, SATB, orch; Crux fidelis, 205,
SATB; Dextera Domini, 206, SATB, insts; Domine Jesu, 207, SATB, insts; Domine
Jesu (para a Procissão dos Passos), 208, SATB, b; Domini tu mihi lavas pedes,
198, SATB, ?1799; 2 Haec dies, 200–10, SATB, orch; Heu, Domine, 211, SAT;
Jesu, Jesu clamans, 212, SATB, orch; Judas mercator, 199, SSATBB, 1809; Ky, Cr
for Palm Sunday, 213, SATB
Matinas da quarta feira de Trevas, 214, SATB, orch; Matinas da Ressurreição, 200,
SATB, orch, ?1809; 3 Miserere, 194–5, SATB, insts, both 1798, 215, SATB, org;
Motetos para a Procissão dos Passos, 216, SATB, orch; 2 Ofício of Palm Sunday,
217, SATB, orch, 218, SATB, vc, db; 3 Paixão, 219, SATB, 220, SATB, vc, db, 221,
SATB, orch; Popule meus, 222, SATB, insts; Posuerunt (antifona para Benedictus),
196, SATB, org, 1798; Sepulto Domino, 223, SATB; Surrexit Dominus, 224, SATB;
Vexilla regis, 225, SATB
Matins: 2, de Natal, 170, SATB, vc, org, 1799, 170 bis, orch pts extant, 1799–1801;
2, de S Pedro, 171, SATB, org, 1809, 173, SSAATB, bn, org, 1815; de Assunc’ão,
172, SATB, orch, 1813; da Conceição, 174, SATB, orch; de N Sra do Carmo, 175,
SATB, orch; de Cecilia, 176, SATB, orch
Vespers: das dores da N Sra, 177, SATB, orch, 1794; de N Sra, 178, SATB, insts,
1797; do Espírito Santo, 179, SATB, orch, 1820; dos Apóstolos, 180, SATB, insts
Ants: Ave regina caelorum, 6, SATB, org; 3 Ecce Sacerdos, 3, SATB, orch, 1798, 5,
SSAATTBB, insts, 1810, 7, T, b (inc.); 2 Flos carmeli, 8, SATB, without no., SATB,
orch [pt. of 72]; In honorem, 4, SATB, orch, 1807; O sacrum convivium, 9, SATB,
orch; 2 Regina caeli laetare, 10–11, SATB, org; Sub tuum praesidium, 2, SATB,
orch, 1795; Tota pulchra es, 1, SATB, orch, 1783
Hymns (SATB, org, unless otherwise stated): Aeterna Christi munera, 18; A solis
ortus cardine, 19; 2 Ave maris stella, 20–21, 1 with orch; Beata nobis gaudia, 22;
Beate pastor Petre, 23; Crudelis Herodes, 24; Decora lux aeternitatis, 25; Deus
tuorum militum, 26; Domare cordis, 27; Exultet orbis gaudiis, 28; Invicto martyr, 29,
unacc.; Iste confessor, 30; Jam Christus astra ascenderat, 31; Jam sol recedit, 32;
Jesu redemptor omnium, 33; O gloriosa Virginum, 34; O sola magnarum urbium,
35; 2 Pange lingua, 36–7, 1 unacc.; Placare Christe, 38; Quem terra pontus sidera,
39; Quid Lusitanos deserens, 40; Salutis humanae sator, 41; Te Joseph celebrent,
42; Ut queant laxis, 43; 2 Veni Creator Spiritus, 44–5, 1 with insts
Lits: da Novena da N Sra da Conceição, 46, 1798; de N Sra do Carmo, 47, SATB,
orch, 1811; da Novena de N Sra do Carmo, 48, SATB, orch, 1818; da Novena do
Sacramento, 49, SATB, orch, 1822; do Coração de Jesus, 50, SATB, org, 1824; da
Novena de S Joaquim, 51, SATB; da Novena de S Tereza, 51a
Novenas: da Conceição de N Sra, 64, SATB, orch, 1798; de S Bárbara, 65, SATB,
org, 1810; do Apóstolo Pedro, 66, SATB, orch, 1814; 2 de N Sra do Carmo, 67,
SATB, orch, 1818, 72, b pt extant; do Sacramento, 68, SATB, orch, 1822; 2, da
Conceição, 69–70, SATB, orch; de N Sra Mãe dos Homens, 71, SATB, orch; de S
Joaquim, 73, SATB; de S Tereza, 73a, inst pts extant; Setenário para N Sra das
Dores, 74, SATB, insts; Trezena de S Francisco de Paula, 75, SATB, orch, 1817
Motets: Te Christe solum novimus, 52, S, orch, 1800; Ascendens Christus, 53, S, A,
org, 1809; Felix namque, 54, T, T, B, org, 1809; Praecursor Domini, 55, SATB, orch,
1810; Tamquam auram, 56, SATB, orch, 1812; Isti sunt qui viventes, 57, SATB,
orch, 1818; Media nocte, 58, S, orch, 1818; Creator alme siderum, 59, S, insts; Ego
sum panis vitae, 60, SATB, orch; Immutemur habitu, 61, SATB, org; Inter
vestibulum, 62, SATB, org; Moteto para S João Batista, 63, orch pts extant
Canticles, psalms etc: 2 Bendito e Louvado seja, 12–13, SATB, orch, 1814, 1815;
Cantico benedictus, 14, SATB, org, ?1798; Cantico de Zacarias, 15, SATB; 2 Mag,
16–17, SATB, insts, 1797, 1810; 3 Laudate Dominum: 76, SATB, orch, 1813, 78,
SATB, orch, 1821, 80, vn pt extant; 2 Laudate pueri, 77, 79, SATB, orch, 1813,
1821; 11 Tantum ergo, 81–90, vv, insts, 2 unacc., 4 dated 1798–1822; 7 Te Deum,
91–7, vv, insts, 4 dated ?1799–1811
secular
Vocal: Beijo a mão que me condena, 226, S, pf (1837); Côro para o entremês, 227,
SSATB, orch, 1808; O triunfo da América, 228, S, SATB, orch, 1809; Ulissea
(drama heróico), 229, SSATB, orch, 1809
Inst: Sinfonía fúnebre, 230, orch, 1790; Zemira, ov., 231, orch, 1803; Ov., 232, D,
orch; Sinfonía tempestade, 233, orch; Str Qt, 234, ?1801; Pf Piece, 235, E
Didactic: Compêndio de música, 236, 1821
Garcia, José Maurício Nunes
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. de Araújo Pôrto Alegre: ‘Apontamentos sôbre a vida e a obra do Pe:
José Mauricio Nunes Garcia’, Revista do Instituto histórico e
geográfico do Brazil, xix (1856), 354
M. de Araújo Pôrto-Alegre: ‘Marcos e José Mauricio: catalogo de suas
composições musicaes’, Revista trimensal do Instituto histórico,
geográfico e ethnographico do Brazil, xxii (1859), 487–503 [followed
by ‘Copia fiel do original en mão do Sr. Dr. J.M. Nues Garcia’, 504–6]
M. de Andrade: ‘A modinha de José Mauricio’, Ilustração musical, i/3
(1930), 160
L.H.C. de Azevedo: ‘O espírito religioso na obra de José Mauricio’,
Ilustração musical, i/3 (1930), 75
L.H.C. de Azevedo: ‘Obras do padre José Mauricio Nunes Garcia
existentes na biblioteca do Instituto nacional de musica’, Ilustração
musical, i/3 (1930), 81
A. d’Escragnolle Taunay: Dois artistas máximos: José Mauricio e Carlos
Gomes (São Paulo, 1930)
A. d’Escragnolle Taunay: Uma grande glória brasileira José Mauricio
Nunes Garcia (São Paulo, 1930)
M. de Andrade: Música, doce música (São Paulo, 1934/R)
L.H. Corrêa de Azevedo: ‘Um velho compositor brasileiro: José Maurício’,
Boletín latino-americano de música, i (1935), 133–50
R. Tavares de Lima: Vida e época de José Maurício (São Paulo, 1941)
F.C. Lange: ‘Estudios brasileños (Mauricinas) I: manuscritos de la
Biblioteca nacional de Rio de Janeiro’, Revista de estudios musicales,
i/3 (1949–50), 99–194
L.H.C. de Azevedo: 150 anos de música no Brasil (1800–1950) (Rio de
Janeiro, 1956)
F.C. Lange: ‘Sombre las difíciles huellas de la música antigua del Brasil: la
“Missa abreviada” (1823) del Padre José Maurício Nunes Garcia’,
YIAMR, i (1965), 15–40
A. de Andrade: Francisco Manuel da Silva e seu tempo (Rio de Janeiro,
1967)
L.H.C. de Azevedo: A música na côrte portuguêsa do Rio de Janeiro
(1808–1821) (Paris, 1969)
C. Person de Mattos: Catálogo temático das obras do Padre José
Maurício Nunes Garcia (Rio de Janeiro, 1970)
B. Kiefer: História da música brasileira dos primórdios ao início do século
XX (Porto Alegre, 1976)
G. Béhague: Music in Latin America: an Introduction (Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, 1979)
V. Mariz: História da Música no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1981, 4/1994)
C. Person de Mattos: José Maurício Nunes Garcia: biografia (Rio de
Janeiro, 1997)
Dramatic: El triunfo de Matilde (children’s zar, R.E. Jiménez), 1917; Una gira a la
otra banda (creole zar, B. Juliao), 1922; Goyito-Goyo (creole zar, J.C. Martínez),
1923
Orch: Sym. no.1 ‘Quisqueya’, 1935; Scherzo and Trío, 1940; Advenimiento, ov.,
1941; Scherzo clásico, 1941; Sym. no.2 ‘Ligera’, 1941; Vals-scherzo, 1942; Sym.
no.3 ‘Poemática’, 1944; Simastral, sym. fantasy, 1947; Fantasía concertante, pf,
orch, 1949; Tríade sinfónica (Sym. no.4), 1953; Scherzo criollo; Introduction y
rondo; 4 piezas (Sym. no.5), 1954
Band: Homenaje a la Bandera, ov., 1930; Tramonto-melody; Alborado-rondo; 2
danzas; Danza-merengue; Vals; Sinfonietta, 1941
Chbr: Minuet, Duet, vn, pf, 1917–20; Str Qt no.1, 1922–30; Str Qt no.2, early 1930s;
3 piezas breves, vn, pf, 1967
Pf: 14 caprices, 1933–40; Suite de impresiones (Santo Domingo, 1948); Tríade
no.1, 2 pf; Tríade no.2; Rapsodia dominicana, 1945–50; Suite; Sonatina, 1966;
Tríade no.3, 1970
Vocal: 4 school songs, 1917–30; Ecos del Cibao, 1918; 12 songs, 1924–45; La
bandera, epic song (L.A. Gómez), 1931; merengues (García), 1935
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.M. Coopersmith: Music and Musicians of the Dominican Republic
(Washington DC, 1949), 28–9
B. Jorge: La música dominicana: siglos XIX–XX (Santo Domingo, 1982)
A. Incháustegui: Por amor el arte: notas sobre música, compositores e
intérpretes dominicanos (Santo Domingo, 1995), 13–17
MARTHA ELLEN DAVIS
García, Maria-Felicia.
See Malibran, Maria.
García, Pauline.
See Viardot, Pauline.
Stage: Don Juan (ballet, A. Mañas), 1965; Un millón de rosas (musical comedy, J.
Solelo), solo vv, chorus, pic, eng hn, sax, perc, gui, pf, otr, 1971; Danzas y tronío
(ballet), 1984; Doña Francisquita (ballet), 1985 [orch. version of zarzuela by A.
Vives]; Divinas palabras (op., F. Nieva), 1991, Madrid, Real, 18 Oct 1997; Pórtico
de España y América (cant. andaluza, ballet), 1992
Vocal with orch: 3 canciones españolas (F. García Lorca), S, ens, 1962; Cantico
delle creature (St Francis of Assisi), S, Mez, Bar, B, mixed chorus, orch, 1964; 12
canciones (R. Alberti), solo vv, orch, 1969; Cántico de ‘La Pietá’ (A. Gala), S,
chorus, vc, org, str, 1977; Alegrías (cant.-divertimento, M. Romero), boy spkr, mez,
boys’ chorus, orch, 1979; Salmo de la alegría para el siglo XXI (R. Alberti), S, str
orch, 1988
Unacc. chorus: Hold the Vision in our Hearts (H. Keller), 1987; Cantar de soledades
(A. Machado), 1989
Orch: Conc, str, 1962; Pf Conc., 1966; Cadenzias, vn, orch, 1972; Piezas áureas,
suite, 1974; Homenaje a Sor, gui, orch, 1978; Concierto aguedino, gui, orch, 1978;
Evocaciones, gui suite, 1981; Celibidachiana, conc. for orch, 1982; Canciones y
danzas para Dulcinea, 1985; Concierto mudéjar, gui, str, 1985
Incid. music: Divinas palabras (R.M. del Valle Inclán), 1961; Calígula (A. Camus,
version by J.E. Escué Porta), 1963; Luces de Bohemia (del Valle Inclán), 1971; La
Celestina (F. de Rojas; version by C.J. Cela), 1977; La mocedades del Cid (F.
García Lorca), 1990
Film music: La fiel infantería (dir. P. Lazaga), 1959; No busques los tres pies, 1968;
Los pájaros de Baden Baden (dir. M. Camus), 1975; El crimen de Cuenca (dir. P.
Miró), 1979; Gary Cooper que está en los cielos (dir. Miró), 1980; La Colmena (dir.
Camus), 1982; Monsignor Quixote (dir. R. Bennet), 1984; La rusa (dir. Camus),
1986
Chbr music; songs, 1v, pf; music for pf
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Cabañas Alamán: Antón García Abril: sonidos en libertad (Madrid,
1994)
E. Trujillo: ‘Antón García Abril, a la cabeza del éxito’, Ritmo [Madrid] (Jan
1994), 14–16
A. Charles Soler: ‘Libre tonalidad: Antón García Abril, análisis de
“Cadencias” y “Homenaje a Mompou”’, Nassarre, xi/1–2 (1995), 53–97
Divinas palabras, Madrid, Teatro Real, October 1997 [programme book]
MARTA CURESES
2 dúos, hn, 1979; Pensamientos antes de la muerte, fl, perc, 1980; Escenas tristes,
pf, 1981–2; 7 canciones de soledad, vc, pf, 1982; Imatges amb dona, fl, pf, 1985;
Lunas y peces, inst ens, 1988; Slap, chorus, 1988
ANGEL MEDINA
Sp. orats: 1761; Plausible triunfo del valeroso infante Santo Dominguito de Val,
1763; Zaragoza laureada, 1766; 1768, private collection, Zaragoza; El valor
acrisolado en la fragua del Amor, 1780, Hemeroteca, Zaragoza; 1787
sacred
principal sources: E-BUa, E, GRc, H, J, SA, V, VAc, Zac
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grove O (X.M. Carreira)
F. Latassa: Biblioteca nueva de los escritores aragoneses, vi (Zaragoza,
1802), 65–7
E. Forbes, ed.: Thayer's Life of Beethoven (Princeton, NJ, 1964, 2/1967)
J.J. Carreras: La música en las catedrales en el siglo XVIII: F.J. García
(1730–1809) (Zaragoza, 1983)
M. Sánchez Siscart: El oratorio barroco en Aragón y su contexto
hispánico (diss., U. of Saragossa, 1992)
R. Fraile: ‘F.J. García Fajer: hacia una biografía crítica’, Berceo, cxxxvi
(1999)
JUAN JOSÉ CARRERAS (text, bibliography), RAÚL FRAILE (work-list)
Dramatic: Usher (mime drama, after E.A. Poe), 1940–41; Harrild (ballet, after H.
Jacques), 1941; Moriana (cant. coreográfica, after Sp. romance), 1957–8, Colón,
1958; Tungasuka (incid music, B.C. Feijoo), 1963; film scores
Choral: Marín (cant.), T, chorus, orch, 1948–50; El tamarit (chbr cant., F. García
Lorca), 1953
Orch: Berseker, 1933; 3 pinturas de Paul Klee, 1944; 3 syms., 1946–8, 1954–5,
1961; Variaciones olímpicas, 1958; 3 pinturas de Piet Mondrian, 1960; Ciclo sobre
Dante Alighieri, 1970; Dionysos, 1971
Chbr: Qt, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1935–7; Las pinturas negras de Goya, fl, cl, bn, pf, vn, vc,
1939; Str Qt no.1, 1950–51; Divertimento sobre tema de Paul Klee, wind qnt, 1967,
orchd 1970
Pf: 5 sonatas, 12 other works
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Compositores de América/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan American
Union, viii (Washington DC, 1962)
R. Arizaga: Enciclopedia de la música argentina (Buenos Aires, 1971)
G. Béhague: Music in Latin America: an Introduction (New Jersey, 1979)
M. Ficher, M.Furman Schleifer and J.M. Furman: Latin American
Classical Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and
London, 1996)
SUSANA SALGADO
theatrical
Julio César (op, 3), Barcelona, 1880
Garraf (op, 4), Barcelona, 1917
Operettas: El ángel de Puigcerdá; Las coronas; El Olimpo de Narbona; Charles IV
vocal
Requiem, chorus, orch; Santa Isabel de Hungría, 16vv, orch, org; Mag; 2 Salve; Ave
Maria Himno a la primavera; La bandera catalana; Cantic del llorer; Catalonia;
songs for voice and pf
instrumental
Epitalami, orch, org; Retorn, orch; Montserrat, vl, vc, vla, hp; works for pf, org
ANTONIO IGLESIAS
Gardano [Gardane].
Italian family of music printers. They were active in Venice.
(1) Antonio [Antoine] Gardano
(2) Alessandro Gardane
(3) Angelo Gardano
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grove6 (T.W. Bridges)
MGG1 (C. Sartori)
MischiatiI [incl. facs.]
SartoriD
N. Franco: Le pistole vulgari (Venice, 1539)
H. Brown: The Venetian Printing Press (London, 1891/R), 108
G. Thibault: ‘Deux catalogues de libraires musicaux: Vincenti et Gardane
(Venise, 1591)’, RdM, x (1929), 177–83; xi (1930), 7–18
R. Giazotto: Harmonici concenti in aere veneto (Rome, 1954)
C. Sartori: ‘Una dinastia di editori musicali’, La bibliofilia, lviii (1956), 176–
208
F. Lesure: ‘Les chansons à trois voix de Clément Janequin’, RdM, xliv
(1959), 193–8
S.F. Pogue: Jacques Moderne, Lyons Music Printer of the Sixteenth
Century (Geneva, 1969)
M.S. Lewis: Antonio Gardane and his Publications of Sacred Music, 1538–
55 (diss., Brandeis U., 1979)
A. Johnson: ‘The 1548 Editions of Cipriano de Rore’s Third Book of
Madrigals’, Studies in Musicology in Honor of Otto E. Albrecht, ed.
J.W. Hill (Kassel, 1980), 110–24
M.S. Lewis: ‘Antonio Gardane’s Early Connections with the Willaert Circle’,
Music in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Patronage, Sources and
Texts, ed. I. Fenlon (Cambridge, 1981), 209–26
R.J. Agee: The Privilege and Venetian Music Printing in the Sixteenth
Century (diss., Princeton U., 1982)
T.W. Bridges: The Publishing of Arcadelt’s First Book of Madrigals (diss.,
Harvard U.,1982)
D.G. Cardamone: ‘Madrigali a tre et arie napolitane: a Typographical and
Repertorial Study’, JAMS, xxxv (1982), 436–81
S.F. Pogue: ‘A Sixteenth-Century Editor at Work: Gardane and Moderne’,
JM, i (1982), 217–38
J. Bernstein: ‘The Burning Salamander: Assigning a Printer to Some
Sixteenth-Century Music Prints’, Notes, xlii (1985–6), 483–500
M.S. Lewis: ‘Rore’s Setting of Petrarch’s “Vergine Bella”: a History of its
Composition and Early Transmission’, JM, iv (1985–6), 365–409
S. Boorman: ‘Some Non-Conflicting Attributions, and some Newly
Anonymous Compositions, from the Early Sixteenth Century’, EMH, vi
(1986), 109–57
M.S. Lewis: Antonio Gardano, Venetian Music Printer 1538–1569: a
Descriptive Bibliography and Historical Study (New York, 1988–97),
[incl. catalogue of music editions]
R.J. Agee and J.A. Owens: ‘La stampa della Musica nova di Willaert’,
RIM, xxiv (1989), 219–305
V. Vita Spagnuolo: ‘Gli atti notarili dell’ Archivio di Stato di Roma: saggio di
spoglio sistematico: l'anno 1590’, La musica a Roma attraverso le fonti
d'archivio: Rome 1992, 19–66
P. Barbieri: ‘Musica, tipografi e librai a Roma: tecnologie di stampa e
integrazioni biografiche, 1583–1833’, Recercare, vii (1995), 47–85
M. Feldman: City Culture and the Madrigal at Venice (Berkeley, 1995)
I. Fenlon: The Panizzi Lectures 1994: Music, Print and Culture in Early
Sixteenth-Century Italy (London, 1995)
M.S. Lewis: ‘Twins, Cousins, and Heirs: Relationships among Editions of
Music Printed in Sixteenth-Century Venice’, Critica Musica: Essays in
Honor of Paul Brainard, ed. J. Knowles (Amsterdam, 1996), 193–224
R.J. Agee: The Gardano Music Printing Firms, 1569–1611 (Rochester, NY,
1998)
J. Bernstein: Music Printing in Renaissance Venice: the Scotto Press,
1539–1572 (New York, 1998)
MARY S. LEWIS (1), RICHARD J. AGEE (2, 3)
Gardano
(1) Antonio [Antoine] Gardano
(b southern France, 1509; d Venice, 28 Oct 1569). Printer and publisher.
Called ‘musico francese’ in Venetian documents, he was probably from the
region around Gardanne in southern France, an area that included the
diocese of Fréjus, episcopal see of Gardano’s first patron, Bishop Leone
Orsini. Gardano’s printer’s mark, a lion and a bear facing each other, was
inspired by the leone and orso of his patron’s name. Until 1555 he used the
French spelling ‘Gardane’ in his imprints; afterwards he and his sons
adopted the Italian form. Gardano probably moved to Venice in the late
1530s, becoming a member of the city’s intellectual and artistic circles, and
may have conducted a music school before opening his printing house and
bookshop on the calle de la Scimia in 1538. He was a friend of Pietro
Aretino’s secretary, Nicolò Franco, and published his letters and a dialogue
before Franco fell into Aretino’s bad graces and left the city. These were
the only non-musical works Gardano printed.
Of his nearly 450 music books, more than half are devoted to madrigals.
But since many of these were new editions of previous publications, the
actual size of the repertory is much smaller than it might at first appear.
Motets make up the next largest category, with about 70 editions and far
fewer reprints than in the secular output. Gardano published about 40
books of canzone villanesche and villottas, 28 editions of lute and
keyboard music, 26 of French chansons and still fewer of masses,
Magnificat settings, psalms and other sacred genres. Four composers –
Arcadelt, Willaert, Rore and Lassus – figure especially prominently in
Gardano’s list; editions devoted chiefly to their works make up a quarter of
his total output. Others whose works appear often in his publications are
Ruffo, Nasco, Morales, Verdelot, Costanzo Festa, Jacquet of Mantua,
Janequin, Wert and Gombert, in descending order of frequency.
Many of Gardano’s music books were specially commissioned by
composers for a patron who underwrote the publication costs, or who had
previously given the composer financial support. In other cases,
composers apparently hoped to gain future favour from a dedicatee. Most
such composers were minor ones or at the early stages of their careers,
but there are a few exceptions. Corteccia’s madrigal collections all contain
dedications to Cosimo de’ Medici, and Jacquet de Berchem dedicated his
madrigal book of 1546 to his patron. In both cases, the composers
expressed in their prefaces the need to present correctly edited and
attributed versions of their music.
Gardano sometimes signed dedications himself. These suggest that either
the dedicatee had made a financial contribution towards the publication, or
Gardano was indebted to him in some way; most of these books were
devoted to the music of a single composer. At the outset of his career,
Gardano wrote dedications even in Arcadelt’s madrigal books and in motet
books containing music of known popularity. But once his financial position
was more secure, such prefaces were used mainly for editions of music by
lesser-known composers, those whose commercial appeal Gardano might
have doubted. By contrast, editions without obvious signs of private
patronage are those that were deemed commercially viable on the basis of
their composers’ fame or contents’ popularity. Examples include most of
the publications devoted to the music of Verdelot, Willaert and Rore, and
the note nere madrigal books of the mid-1540s.
Competition for repertory, especially in the early years of Gardano’s career,
is suggested by his celebrated quarrel with the Ferrarese printer Buglhat.
The dispute is reflected in Buglhat’s use of satirical title-page woodcuts for
his Mottetti della scimia, of a monkey (representing Gardano’s address on
the calle della Scimia) eating fruit (Gardano’s Mottetti del frutto) and, in a
later frutto volume, Gardano’s use of a woodcut showing his lion and bear
attacking Buglhat’s monkey. Gardano’s relationship with Girolamo Scotto
was much more complex. Comparisons of readings indicate that the two
sometimes cooperated in publication or copied from each other directly
(apparently with no culpability), but that at other times they had separate
sources of supply for the same groups of pieces and thus competed for the
same new repertory and market.
While Gardano clearly received some of the music he printed directly from
composers themselves, many of his repertory sources remain obscure. His
primary suppliers were undoubtedly his friends in Willaert’s circle. A series
of poems by Hieronimo Fenaruolo, published in 1546, depicts Gardano
receiving the homage of such musicians as Rore, Cambio, Parabosco and
Festa, and of the poets Gaspara Stampa and Domenico Venier. But many
musicians, including Rore, were unconvinced of the benefits of publication,
and Gardano was often hard-pressed to obtain works from the most
famous and commercially attractive composers in Italy.
Together Gardano and Scotto created a virtual monopoly in music printing
in Italy. Through their connections with leading composers and popular
repertories, their use of the sophisticated Venetian distribution networks
and their introduction on a large scale of the cheaper, more efficient single-
impression printing method, they extended the processes of musical
commerce begun in France a few years earlier by Attaingnant and
Moderne. Their production of large editions at low cost made polyphonic
music available to a far wider public than ever before, and introduced the
element of financial gain for publishers and composers alert enough to
seize the opportunity. Gardano’s estate inventories and tax documents
show that he became comfortably wealthy from his business, owning land,
houses and many valuables.
Gardano took out a patent for a new printing method, probably one that
allowed more efficient, and hence cheaper, setting of material common to
the several partbooks of an edition. Most of his editions were skilfully
printed in oblong quarto, with simple but elegant decorative initials. Later in
his career Gardano adopted a smaller, oblong octavo format for editions of
villottas, introduced a large upright quarto for deluxe editions such as
Willaert’s Musica nova (1559; see Willaert, Adrian, fig.2 ), and even printed
a few folio choirbooks, starting with an edition of Morales, Magnificat
omnitonum in 1562 (see illustration).
Gardano was also a composer, and published his own chanson
arrangements. Moderne published two masses in 1532 and 1546. His
seven motets appeared in his own publications and in those of Moderne,
Montanus and Neuber, and Du Chemin, while his 69 chansons appeared
in, besides his own editions, those of Moderne, Attaingnant, and Le Roy
and Ballard. A French psalm of his appeared in Fezandat’s Premier livre de
psalmes et cantiques of 1552. In his motets, Gardano tended towards the
style of pervading imitation and disguised cadences that associated with
Willaert and Gombert, and this dominates his early motet publications.
Although he lived for half of his life in Italy, he apparently set no Italian
texts.
WORKS
Missa ‘Si bona suscepimus’, 4vv, 15326; 3 sections 2vv repr. in 154319
Missa ‘Vivre ne puis’, 4vv, in Harmonidos ariston tricolon ogdoameron (Lyons,
1546)
7 motets, 2, 4, 5vv, 15384, 15393, 153910, 153913, 15446, 15472, 154916, 15547
French psalm, 4vv, 15523
69 chansons, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8vv, 153818, 153921, 154314, 15447-8, 154614, 15478, 15479,
154711-12, 154921-22, 155320, 155322, c155524, Livre de meslanges (Paris, 1560)
Gardano
(2) Alessandro Gardane
(b Venice, before 1540; d ? Rome or Venice, ? 1591 or 1603). Printer, son
of (1) Antonio Gardano. After his father’s death in 1569, he published over
100 musical editions in Venice together with his brother Angelo. He
withdrew his assets from the family business in 1575, and until 1581 issued
over a dozen musical and non-musical editions in Venice under the spelling
‘Gardane’, often employing a printer’s mark of two lions in place of the lion
and bear associated with his father and brother. Sometime between 1581
and 1583 he moved to Rome, where he continued his printing activity until
1591, frequently in collaboration with other printers and booksellers
including Domenico Basa, Ascanio, Bernardino and Girolamo Donangeli
and Jacomo Tornieri. In Rome he printed more non-musical than musical
editions, although he issued sacred works by some of the most important
composers of the late Renaissance, among them G.F. Anerio, Guerrero,
Marenzio, Palestrina and Victoria. He also published a series of laude
spirituali edited by Francisco Soto de Langa for the Congregazione
dell’Oratorio. Alessandro’s output is clearly dwarfed by that of his brother
Angelo. After the division of family assets in 1575, Alessandro published
only about 50 musical editions and rather more non-musical books, while
Angelo issued about 850 musical publications. Barbieri cites the baptism of
Alessandro's illegitimate child in Rome in 1583 and Alessandro's death in
1591. Indeed, after 1591 Alessandro's firm appears to have ceased
publication altogether, although Barbieri's claim that he died in that year is
contradicted by archival documents recording payments from Alessandro
to the Scuolo Grande di San Teodoro, Venice, in 1593 and 1594; these too
suggest that he died in 1603.
Gardano
(3) Angelo Gardano
(b Venice, c1540; d Venice, 6 or 7 Aug 1611). Printer, son of (1) Antonio
Gardano. He and his brother Alessandro ran their deceased father’s
business as ‘Li figliuoli di Antonio Gardano’ from 1569 until 1575, when
Alessandro claimed his inheritance and withdrew from the firm. Angelo,
although in partnership with his young siblings Mattio and Lucieta,
continued the firm under his own name, retaining the lion and bear printer’s
mark inherited from his father. Lucieta took her dowry in 1582, but Mattio
evidently stayed on as a silent partner, since his widow began legal action
that forced Angelo to publish under the rubric ‘Angelo Gardano et fratelli’
after 1605. He printed music in a variety of formats, including chant books
in folio and the first surviving score publications with more than two staves,
Tutti i madrigali di Cipriano di Rore a quattro voci, spartiti et accommodati
per sonar d’ogni sorte d’instrumento perfetto (1577/R) and Musica de
diversi autori … alcune canzoni francese, partite in caselle (RISM 157711).
In all Angelo published almost 1000 editions (if those produced with his
brother Alessandro are included), over twice the number produced by his
prolific father. He and his immediate successor published music by most of
the well-known composers of the period, including Arcadelt, Asola, d’India,
Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, Vincenzo Galilei, Gastoldi, Gesualdo,
Lassus, Luzzaschi, Marenzio, Merula, Merulo, Monte, Monteverdi, Morales,
Palestrina, Rore, Schütz, Striggio, Vecchi, Victoria, Wert and Willaert, as
well as many composers with only local reputations. After Angelo’s death in
1611, the firm passed to his daughter Diamante and her husband,
Bartolomeo Magni, though he, and later his son Francesco, often signed
their book with the illustrious name of Gardano.
Gardel.
French family of dancers and ballet-masters.
(1) Claude Gardel
(2) Maximilien Léopold Philippe Joseph Gardel
(3) Pierre Gabriel Gardel
FRIDERICA DERRA DE MORODA
Gardel
(1) Claude Gardel
(d Paris, 1774). In 1741 he became ballet-master in Mannheim, where he
was partly responsible for the choreography in Meride which opened the
opera house on 17 January 1742. He later held appointments in Stuttgart,
Metz (where he married the actress Jeanne Darthenay) and from 1755 at
the Nancy court of Stanislas Leczinksi; in 1760 he went to Paris, where he
became court choreographer. He had two sons (see below) and a
daughter, Marie Française Lucie (b 1755), who had a brief career as a
dancer.
Gardel
(2) Maximilien Léopold Philippe Joseph Gardel
(b Mannheim, 18 Dec 1741; d Paris, 11 March 1787). Son of (1) Claude
Gardel. He entered the Paris Opéra about 1755, and soon became a
leading dancer along with such celebrities as Gaetano Vestris. Vestris, for
unknown reasons, did not appear in Rameau’s Castor et Pollux on 21
January 1772, and Gardel was called on to take his place. He agreed to do
so only if allowed to dance without a mask and with his own blonde hair
instead of Vestris’s customary black wig. His appearance caused a
sensation and in time led to the abolition of masks and wigs for male
dancers.
In 1773 Gardel and his colleague Jean Bercher, called Dauberval, were
appointed assistant ballet-masters to Vestris. On Vestris’s retirement in
1776 the two assistants expected to take his place, as was the usual
practice at the Opéra; but Marie Antoinette had Noverre, formerly her
dance teacher in Vienna, nominated to this position. Gardel and Dauberval
started a campaign against Noverre, and by November 1779 had
succeeded in making him agree to relinquish his position, for a pension of
3000 livres from the Opéra and an additional 500 livres as academician.
Early in 1781 Noverre left and his place was taken by Gardel and
Dauberval; but the latter, too, soon departed.
During his tenure as ballet-master Gardel danced leading parts in nearly all
the ballets and divertissements, and was responsible for the choreography
of a large number of ballets and operas. Among his famous ballets were La
chercheuse d’esprit (1 March 1778), Ninette à la cour (18 August 1778),
Mirza (3 November 1779), La rosière (29 July 1783 or 1784), Le déserteur
(10 October 1784) and Le premier navigateur (26 July 1785). His death
was caused by a toe injury. Gardel was also an excellent musician; he
played several instruments and arranged or composed music for his
ballets.
Gardel
(3) Pierre Gabriel Gardel
(b Nancy, 4 Feb 1758; d Paris, 18 Oct 1840). Son of (1) Claude Gardel. In
1771 he entered the Opéra, where his elder brother was largely
responsible for his training. He quickly became one of the best pupils of the
Ecole de Danse, and soon after his début in 1774 reached the ranks of the
leading dancers. In 1783 he became his brother’s assistant. In 1786 the
brothers produced the ballet Les sauvages, for which they also wrote the
music. On his brother’s death in 1787 Pierre was appointed ballet-master,
a post he held for over 40 years with many successes both as dancer and
as choreographer. Two of his best-known ballets were produced in 1790,
Télémaque anns l’île de Calypso and Psyché; the latter remained in the
repertory until 1829, reaching over 1150 performances. During the
Revolution Gardel choreographed Le jugement de Paris (6 March 1793)
and such patriotic displays as Le triomphe de la république (1793) and La
rosière républicaine ou La fête de la raison (1794). In 1795 he married the
brilliant dancer Marie-Elisabeth-Anne Boubert (1770–1803), better known
as Mlle Miller. Possessing great personality and creative powers – even
Noverre praised her – she danced leading parts in many of her husband’s
ballets.
Soon after his marriage Gardel ceased to appear as a dancer. His later
ballets included La dansomanie (14 June 1800), Le retour de Zephire (3
March 1801 or 1802), Daphnis et Pandrose (14 January 1803) and Paul et
Virginie (24 June 1806). He was responsible for the dances in
L’inauguration du temple de la victoire (intermède, 2 January 1807), in Le
triomphe de Trajan (tragédie lyrique, 23 October 1807) and produced his
ballets Alexandre chez Apelles (20 December 1808), La fête de Mars (26
December 1809), Vertumne et Pomone (24 January 1810), Persée et
Andromède (8 June 1810) and L’enfant prodigue (28 April 1812). In spite of
the engagement of Milon as second ballet-master, the dances of most
productions were still by Gardel. He was assisted by Milon in the ballet
L’heureux retour (25 July 1815). His last ballets appear to be Proserpine
(18 February 1818) and La servante justifiée (30 September 1818), but he
continued to choreograph the dances for many operas, his last being
Macbeth (29 June 1827) with music by Chelard. He retired in 1829. Gardel
was also a famous teacher; for many years he was the director of the Ecole
de Danse and numerous ballet celebrities, such as Carlo Blasis, were his
pupils. He was an able musician and excellent violinist, appearing in
concerts and sometimes playing in his ballets. His ideas on ballet remained
conservative; he advocated maintaining the three styles of the classic
dance in his day, that of the danseur noble (his own style), the demi-
caractère, and the grotesque or comic. He fought a losing battle against
the Romantic ballet, in which these distinctions were lost and which in his
eyes meant the loss of the beauty of the classics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (M. Briquet) [with lists of ballets]
Spectacles de Paris, ou Calendrier historique et chronologique des
théâtres, xxxvi (1787)
J.-E. Despréaux: Mes passe-temps: chansons suivies de L’art de la danse
(Paris, 1806)
J.G. Noverre: Lettres sur les arts imitateurs (Paris, 1807)
Mémorial dramatique, ou Almanach théâtral pour l’an 1808 (Paris, 1808)
Annuaire dramatique, ou Etrennnes théâtrales, xiii (1817)
A. Baron: Lettres et entretiens sur la danse (Paris, 1824)
Castil-Blaze: La danse et les ballets depuis Bacchus jusqu’à
Mademoiselle Taglioni (Paris, 1832)
A. Saint-Léon: Portraits et biographies des plus célèbres maîtres de
ballets et chorégraphes, anciens et nouveaux, de l’école française et
italienne (Paris, 1852)
Castil-Blaze: L’Académie impériale de musique … de 1645 à 1855 (Paris,
1855)
T. de Lajarte: Bibliothèque musicale du Théâtre de l’Opéra (Paris, 1878/R)
E. Campardon: L’Académie royale de musique au XVIIIe siècle
(Paris,1884/R)
M.-F. Christout: ‘Danse et révolution: historique et thématique’, Corps
écrit, no.28 (1988), 55–62
Gardel, Carlos [Gardes, Charles
Romuald]
(b ?Toulouse, Dec 1890; d Medellín, 24 June 1935). Argentine composer
and tango singer. Although Gardel's origins have been widely debated, he
was probably born in Toulouse in 1890; in 1893 he and his mother
emigrated to Buenos Aires. Together with the Uruguayan singer José
Razzano, he formed a duo in 1911, which lasted until 1925. About 1917
Gardel performed and recorded Samuel Castriota's popular tango tune
Lita, under the title Mi noche triste (to words by Pascual Contursi). By the
early 1920s he was firmly established as Argentina's leading tango singer,
and several successful European tours followed. He was killed in a plane
crash in 1935.
Gardel's chief contribution was to popularize the sung tango, although both
his career and songs were criticized by some as lacking a critical, political
thrust. In addition to recording almost 900 songs, he appeared in several
classic films; his best-known compositions include El día que me quieras,
Mi Buenos Aires querido, Por una cabeza, Volver, Silencio and Cuesta
abajo. Gardel's impact was profound: a product of the arrabal (districts)
who came to symbolize the fulfilment of the dreams of the Argentine
porteño (from the port, i.e. Buenos Aires), he remains a crucial figure, ‘the
tango made flesh’ as described by the singer Libertad Lamarque.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Laguarda Visillac: Carlos Gardel: Símbolo de la patria rioplatense
(Montevideo, 1935)
C. Castillo: Buenos Aires, tiempo Gardel (Buenos Aires, 1966)
D. Cantón: ‘El mundo de los tangos de Gardel’, Revista latinoamericana
de sociología, iv/3 (1968), 341–62
T. Tucci: Gardel en Nueva York (New York, 1969)
B. Matamoro: Carlos Gardel (Buenos Aires, 1971)
D.W. Foster: ‘“Narrative Rights” in the Argentine Tango’, Symposium, xxxvii
(1983–4), 261–71
E. Eichelbaum: Carlos Gardel: l'âge d'or du tango (Paris, 1984)
J. Andreu, F. Cerdan and A.-M. Duffau, eds.: Le Tango: Hommage a
Carlos Gardel: Toulouse 1984 [incl. partial discography and
filmography]
S. Collier: The Life, Music and Times of Carlos Gardel (Pittsburgh, 1986)
O. del Greco: Carlos Gardel y los autores de sus canciones (Buenos
Aires, 1990)
P. Hamlet and E. Visconti: Carlos Gardel y la prensa mundial: crónicos,
comentarios y reportajes de su época (Buenos Aires, 1990)
J.L. Grunewald: Carlos Gardel: lunfardo e tango (Rio de Janeiro, 1994)
E. Alvarez: Carlos Gardel: biografía autorizada (Buenos Aires, 1995)
CLIFF EISEN
Gardelli, Lamberto
(b Venice, 8 Nov 1915; d Munich, 17 July 1998). Swedish conductor and
composer of Italian birth. He studied at the Liceo Musicale Rossini in
Pesaro, and later in Rome. He worked as an assistant to Tullio Serafin in
Rome and in 1944 made his début at the Teatro Reale dell’Opera, Rome,
in La traviata. From 1946 until 1955 he was resident conductor with the
Swedish Royal Opera in Stockholm, where he was chiefly responsible for
Italian and modern Scandinavian repertory. He appeared frequently at the
Berlin Staatsoper and in Helsinki, and became music director, from 1961,
of the Hungarian State Opera, where he was still conducting into the
1990s. His American début was at Carnegie Hall in 1964 in Bellini’s I
Capuleti e i Montecchi, which led to his first appearance at the Metropolitan
Opera in 1966 conducting Andrea Chénier. In England Gardelli first
conducted at Glyndebourne in 1964 (Verdi’s Macbeth), returning in 1968
with Anna Bolena; his début at Covent Garden (1969) was with Verdi’s
Otello. His long list of recorded operas is particularly noteworthy for
Macbeth, I Lombardi, Nabucco and an outstanding La forza del destino, for
the first complete recording of Rossini’s Guillaume Tell(1972), including a
rediscovered aria for Jemmy, and for the first recordings, made in
Budapest, of Respighi’s La fiamma (1985), Belfagor and Maria egiziaca
(both 1990). One of the finest Verdi conductors from Italy of his generation,
Gardelli showed a strong command of both structure and expression; he
has also successfully championed lesser works of the verismo school. His
compositions include symphonic works, songs and five operas, of which
only one, L’impresario delle Americhe (1959), has been performed. (A.
Blyth: Obituary, Opera, xl (1998), 1164–5)
ALAN BLYTH
Garden, Mary
(b Aberdeen, 20 Feb 1874; d Inverurie, Scotland, 3 Jan 1967). American
soprano of Scottish birth. Taken to the USA in 1883, she studied singing in
Chicago with Sarah Robinson-Duff, supported financially by wealthy
patrons David and Florence Mayer. In 1896 the Mayers financed her
further studies in Paris, chiefly with Trabadelo and Lucien Fugère. When
her patrons withdrew their support in 1899, Garden was coached by the
American soprano Sybyl Sanderson, through whom she met Albert Carré,
director of the Opéra-Comique, and Massenet. After much preparation she
was engaged for the Opéra-Comique, making an acclaimed unscheduled
début as Charpentier's Louise on 10 April 1900 when, after the first act,
Marthe Rioton succumbed to illness. Other leading roles soon followed:
she created Marie in Lucien Lambert's La Marseillaise and Diane in
Pierné's La fille de Tabarin. She was coached by Sanderson for Thaïs at
Aix-les-Bains, then sang Manon and Messager's Madame Chrysanthème
at Monte Carlo (conducted by the composer). Her success was sealed
when Debussy chose her (against the wishes of Maeterlinck) to sing
Mélisande in the première of Pelléas et Mélisande (1902). At Covent
Garden, where she appeared in the 1902 and 1903 seasons, she sang
Manon, Juliet and Gounod's Marguerite, but London did not please her and
she was never to return to the house. Meanwhile, at the Opéra-Comique
she sang in Massenet's Grisélidis (1902), then created the title role in
Leroux's La reine Fiammette (1903). She carried off superbly the coloratura
writing in the role of Violetta (1903), triumphed in Saint-Säens's Hélène in
1905 and the same year created Massenet's Chérubin, a role specially
written for her, at Monte Carlo.
By now Garden was recognized as a supreme singing-actress, with
uncommonly vivid powers of characterization (her dramatic style influenced
by both Sarah Bernhardt and Coquelin Ainé) and a rare subtlety of colour
and phrasing. Two years after creating Chrysis in Erlanger's Aphrodite
(1906) she left the Opéra-Comique for the Opéra, where she sang Ophelia
in Thomas' Hamlet and, in 1909, the title part in Henry Février's Monna
Vanna. Enticed by Oscar Hammerstein for his battle against the
Metropolitan, Garden astonished America with her impersonation of a
young boy in Massenet's Le jongleur de Notre Dame (1908). As Salome
the following year, her lascivious kissing of the severed head of the Baptist
outraged the guardians of morality even more than her Dance of the Seven
Veils (which she executed chastely in a body-stocking). By now a
household name in America, in 1910 she began a long association with the
Chicago Grand Opera, where she was admired in such roles as Fanny in
Massenet's Sapho, the Prince in Cendrillon, Carmen, Tosca and Dulcinée
in Don Quichotte. After two disastrous forays into film with Goldwyn
(including a silent version of Thaïs), other powerful stage interpretations
followed, including the title roles in Massenet's Cléopâtre and Février's
Gismonda (both 1919), Fiora in Montemezzi's L'amore dei tre re (1920),
Charlotte in Werther (1924), Katiusha in Alfano's Risurrezione (1925, in
French) and the heroine of Honegger's Judith (1927), the last two both
American premières.
Garden was a controversial director of the Chicago Opera Association in
the 1921–2 season (uniquely, for a director, continuing to sing leading
roles), and was responsible for innovative works, including the première of
Prokofiev's The Love for Three Oranges (1921). After retiring from the
opera stage in 1934, she worked as a talent scout for MGM and gave
lecture-recitals and talks, mainly on Debussy. She was decorated by the
French and Serbian governments during World War I and made a
Chevalier of the Légion d'Honneur in 1921. For much of her life she openly
encouraged young singers and even secretly paid for them to receive
training. She herself died in penury, almost forgotten.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GV (C. Williams, incl. discography)
E.C. Moore: Forty Years of Opera in Chicago (New York, 1930/R)
O. Thompson: ‘Mary Garden’, The American Singer (New York, 1937),
265–77
M. Garden and L. Biancolli: Mary Garden's Story (New York, 1951/R)
G. Whelan: ‘The Recorded Art of Mary Garden’, Gramophone, xxix (1951–
2), 367–72 [with discography]
H. Cuénod: ‘Remembrances of an Enchantress’, High Fidelity, xiv/7
(1964), 36–8
E.C. Wagenknecht: Seven Daughters of the Theater (Norman, OK,
1964/R), 161–79
R.L. Davis: Opera in Chicago (New York, 1966)
H. Pleasants: ‘Mary Garden’, The Great Singers (New York, 1966), 308–
13
R.D. Fletcher: ‘“Our Own” Mary Garden’, Chicago History, ii/1 (1972), 34–
46
D. Shawe-Taylor: ‘Mary Garden (1874–1967)’, Opera, xxxv (1984), 1079–
84
M.T.R.B. Turnbull: Mary Garden (Aldershot, 1996) [ incl. discography]
MICHAEL T. R. B. TURNBULL
Gardi, Francesco
(b ?1760–65; d c1810). Italian composer. He directed and composed for
the women’s choir and orchestra of the Venetian Ospedale dei Poveri
Derelitti from about 1787 until 1791, when it closed. In 1797, and perhaps
earlier, he was maestro di cappella of a sister institution, the Ospedale dei
Mendicanti. In a Venetian libretto of 1799, he is described as Accad.
Filarmonico. For nearly 20 years his settings of comic texts (especially
Giuseppe Foppa’s one-act farces) were extremely popular in Venice. His
several collaborations with the eccentric Count Alessandro Pepoli, who
briefly maintained theatres in Venice and Padua and who served Gardi as
librettist, impresario and printer, suggest his readiness to participate in
movements of experimentation and reform. His last recorded work for
Venice was a cantata in honour of Napoleon’s brother-in-law, Joachim
Murat, King of Naples, on 20 August 1809. In 1811 and 1813 the ducal
theatre at Parma performed La pianella perduta, a revival of Gardi’s most
popular farce, La pianella persa.
WORKS
VA Venice, Teatro S Angelo
VB Venice, Teatro S Benedetto
VM Venice, Teatro S Moisè
VP Venice, Count Pepoli, private theatre
dg dramma giocoso f – farsa
ob opera buffa os – opera seria
operas
Enea nel Lazio (os, 2, V.A. Cigna-Santi), Modena, Rangoni, carn. 1786, I-Tn
Don Giovanni, o Il nuovo convitato di pietra (dramma tragicomico, 2, after G.
Bertati), Venice, S Samuele, 5 Feb 1787, Bc, Mr*
La fata capricciosa (dg, 2, Bertati), VM, carn. 1789
Gernando e Rosimonda (dramma eroico, 2), Treviso, Astori, aut. 1789
Teodolinda (os, 2, D. Boggio), VB, May 1790
Apollo esule, ossia L’amore alla prova (favola, A. Pepoli), VP, 1793
La bella Lauretta (dg, 2, Bertati), VM, Jan 1795, F-Pc, I-Fc (2 copies), ov. Gl, Mr,
RUS-SPtob
Tancredi (tragedia per musica, 3, Pepoli, after Voltaire), VP, 26 April 1795
Amor l’astuzia insegna (dg, 2, Bertati), VM, 18 Feb 1797, aria, ?duet I-CHf; rev. as
La capricciosa supposta (f, 1, Bertati), Venice, S Luca, 1 Sept 1801
La pianella persa, o sia La veglia de contadini (f, 1, G. Foppa), VM, 15 Jan 1798, F-
Pc, I-Fc, PAc (2 copies), RUS-SPtob, D-Zl (excerpts), I-BGc (excerpts)
Il finto stregone (f, 1, Foppa), VM, 30 Nov 1798, RUS-SPtob
La principessa filosofa (f, 1, Foppa), VM, carn. 1799
La semplice, ovvero La virtù premiata (dramma eroicomico, 1, Foppa), VM, carn.
1799
Il contravveleno (f, 1, Foppa, after C. Gozzi), VB, 7 Nov 1799
La donna ve la fà (f, 1, Foppa), VM, May 1800, D-Hs, F-Pc, I-Fc, Gl, Mr, Pl, RUS-
SPtob
Il medico a suo dispetto, ossia La muta per amore (f, 1, Foppa), VA, 15 July 1800,
F-Pc, I-Mr, OS (2 copies), Pl
L’incantesimo senza magia (f, 1, Foppa), SM, 9 Dec 1800, F-Pc, I-Mr
La bottega del caffè (f, 2, Foppa, after C. Goldoni), VM, 20 April 1801, Mr
Diritto e rovescio, ovvero Una della solite trasformazioni nel mondo (f, 2, Foppa),
VB, 13 May 1801
Il convitato di pietra (f, 2, Foppa), VB, 27 Jan 1802
Guerra con tutti, ovvero Danari e ripieghi (f, 2, Foppa), VB, 12 Aug 1803
La casa da vendere (f, 2, G. Piazza, after A. Duval), VA, 4 Jan 1804
Un buco nella porta (f, 1, Foppa), VB, 16 May 1804, Mr
Sempre la vince amore (f, 1, G.D. Camagna), VM, spr. 1805, Pl
La forza d’amore (f, 1), Treviso, Dolfin, 1 May 1805 [according to Stieger]
Nardone e Nannetta (ob, 2, G. Caravita), Lisbon, S Carlos, 7 April 1806
Doubtful: L’americana (ob), Treviso, Dolfin, sum. 1788, Mr; La fata astuta (dg),
Padua, Obizzi, carn. 1795 [? same as La fata capricciosa]
other works
Occasional: Angelica e Medoro (cantata, G. Sertor), VB, 16 Jan 1784; Venezia
felicitata (azione, Foppa), VM, carn. 1798; Riverente gratulazione per le glorie di
Francesco II (cantata, Foppa), VA, 1799; Partenope e Sebeto (cantata, G.
Nascimbeni), Venice, casa G. Bernardini, for the name day of Joachim Murat, 20
Aug 1809, I-Nc
Orats: Seba (2), 1787; Rebecca electa Isacci in sponsam (1), Pentecost 1787;
Salomon accipit a Deo sapientiam (2), Assumption 1788; Abrahami sacrificium (2),
Assumption 1789; Moyses ab aqua extractus (2), Assumption 1791, US-Eu
(excerpts), all perf. Venice, Poveri Derelitti; Abrahami sacrificium (2), Venice,
Mendicanti, Holy Week 1796 [different text from 1789 work]
Sacred, I-Vnm, Fondo S Maria Formosa: 2 Laudamus te, A, C; Miserere, 3vv, B , ?
also RVE; Tantum ergo, 3vv, E ; Adoramus, 3vv, E ; Sonata dopo il Sanctus, E
Miscellaneous arias: B-Bc; GB-Lbl; I-BGc, CHf, PS, Vc, Vnm
Sinfonias: D, HR-Zha (Treviso, aut. 1790), I-Bc; C, HR-Zha
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CaffiS
EitnerQ; FétisB; SartoriL; StiegerO
G. Bustico: ‘Alessandro Pepoli’, Nuovo archivio veneto, new ser., xxv
(1913), 199–229
B. Brunelli: I teatri di Padova dalle origini alla fine del secolo XIX (Padua,
1921), 346–9, 359–60
A. Della Corte: L’opera comica italiana nel ’700, ii (Bari, 1923), 214
G.G. Bernardi: ‘Un teatro privato di musica a Venezia’, Gazzetta di
Venezia (20 March 1930)
M.A. Zorzi: ‘Saggio di bibliografia sugli oratorii sacri eseguiti a Venezia’,
Accademie e biblioteche d’Italia, iv (1930–31), 226–46, 394–403, 529–
43; v (1931–2), 79–96, 493–508; vi (1932–3), 256–99; vii (1933–4),
316–41
S. Kunze: Don Giovanni vor Mozart: die Tradition der Don-Giovanni-Opern
im italienischen Buffa-Theater des 18. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1972),
83–7
S. Kunze: ‘Alcune farse di Giuseppe Foppa musicate da Francesco Gardi’,
I vicini di Mozart: Venice 1987, 479–88
SVEN HANSELL/REBECCA GREEN
The Banks of Calm Bendemeer (T. Moore), 1893, unpubd; How sweet I roamed
from field to field (W. Blake), 1895, unpubd; Ah, sweet those eyes that used to be so
tender, 1895, unpubd; D’un vanneur du blé aux vents (du Bellay), 1896, unpubd;
Lightly we met in the Morn, ?1897, unpubd; [3] Songs, 1897: Fear no more the heat
o’ the sun (W. Shakespeare), rev. as Fidele (1908); Dirge (Rough wind that moanest
loud) (P.B. Shelley), unpubd; Music, when soft voices die (Shelley), pubd as no.1 of
2 Lyrics (1908)
Full Fathom Five (Shakespeare), 1908, unpubd; Dream-Tryst (F. Thompson), Bar,
orch, 1902, unperf., unpubd, 2nd version Bar, orch, 1909, unperf., unpubd; The
Stranger’s Song (T. Hardy) (1903); 2 Love Songs from the ‘Song of Solomon’,
c1905, unperf., lost; When the lad for longing sighs (A.E. Housman), Bar, orch, perf.
1906, lost; The Recruit (Housman) (1906), orchd, perf. 1906, lost, reorchd D.O.
Norris 1977, unpubd; The Golden Vanity (folksong), B-Bar (1908), orchd, lost; When
I was one and twenty (Housman), pubd as no.2 of 2 Lyrics (1908); Roadways
(Masefield) (1908), orchd, Stacey, unpubd; The Wanderer’s Evensong (Goethe,
trans. Carpenter), 1908, unpubd; Winter (When icicles hang by the wall)
(Shakespeare) (1912); On Chelsea Embankment (E. L. Darton), 1915, rev. 1938,
unpubd; Rybbesdale (old Eng., adapted C. Bax) (1922); The Quiet Garden (F.
Prewett) (1923)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘H. Balfour Gardiner’, MT, liii (1912), 501–3
C. Scott: ‘The Late Balfour Gardiner and our Student Days’, Music
Teacher, xxix (1950), 396, 427
T. Armstrong: ‘The Frankfort Group’, PRMA, lxxxv (1958–9), 1–16
G. Bush: ‘When I was Young and Twenty’, Performing Right, lviii (1967),
14–15
S. Lloyd: ‘Balfour Gardiner 1877–1950’, Music and Musicians, xxvi (1977),
22–5
S. Lloyd: H. Balfour Gardiner (Cambridge, 1984)
STEPHEN LLOYD
Gardiner, William
(b Leicester, 15 March 1769; d Leicester, 16 Nov 1853). English hosiery
manufacturer, writer on music, minor composer and editor. Procuring a
copy of Beethoven’s E String Trio op.3 in Bonn, he played the viola in a
Leicester performance in 1794, three years before its London publication.
He was thus regarded as the introducer of Beethoven’s music to England
and was asked, at the unveiling of Beethoven’s statue in Bonn (1848), to
sign the inauguration parchment beneath the names of Victoria and Albert.
He was a member of the semichorus at Victoria’s coronation (1838) and
trained a 100-voice chorus for the important 1827 Leicester Musical
Festival; some of his songs, glees and duets appeared under ‘W.G.,
Leicester’, with one psalm tune, published as by Paxton. He provided
linking music for Judah, an oratorio freely based on Beethoven, Haydn and
Mozart (the slow movement of Beethoven’s Seventh Symphony quickening
into the March of the Philistines). Gardiner wrote to Beethoven offering 100
guineas for an overture to Judah, but his letter miscarried, as had some
stockings, woven with themes, addressed to Haydn some years previously.
Sacred Melodies, ‘barbarous compilations’ according to the Dictionary of
National Biography, contain extracts from religious works adapted to
English words. Gardiner’s observations on contemporary musical, literary
and artistic life appear in Music and Friends, and The Music of Nature
contains lucid discussions of the vocal practices of many leading singers. A
portrait of him attributed to Artaud is in the Leicester Museum Collection.
WORKS
Sacred Melodies, i–vi (London, 1812–38), arr. from works by Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven and others; The Psalms and Hymns (London, 1814), arr. from Sacred
Melodies; Judah, orat (London, 1821), incl. arr. of works by Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven; The Universal Prayer (London, 1840), Pope’s words set to music by
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven; Anthems, glees, songs, GB-Lcm
WRITINGS
The Music of Nature (London, 1832, 3/1849)
Music and Friends, or Pleasant Recollections of a Dilettante (London,
1838–53)
Sights in Italy, with some account of the Present State of Music … in that
Country (London, 1847)
7 musical papers read before Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society,
1839–51; abstracts in transactions of the society, of which Gardiner
was a founder-member
Annotations to C. Berry’s translation of H. Beyle’s [Stendhal’s] version of
Carpani’s biography of Haydn (London, 1817); annotations to R.
Brewin’s translation of Schlichtegroll’s biography of Mozart (London,
1817)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Wilshere: William Gardiner of Leicester, 1770–1853 (Leicester, 1970)
G. Syer: ‘Beethoven and William Gardiner’, MT, cxxviii (1987), 256–8
JONATHAN WILSHERE/R
Ops: The Moon and Sixpence (3, P. Terry, after W.S. Maugham), op.32, 1954–7,
London, Sadler’s Wells, 24 May 1957; The Visitors (chbr op, 3, J.O. Greenwood),
op.111, 1971–2, Aldeburgh, Jubilee Hall, 7 June 1972; Bel and the Dragon
(children’s op, 1, T. Kraemer), op.120, 1973, London, St James Norlands, 15 Dec
1973; Tobermory (1, G. Ewart, after Saki), op.137, 1976, London, RAM, 26 Oct
1977
Orch: Sym. no.1, d, op.2, 1946–7; Variations on a Waltz of Carl Nielsen, op.13,
1952; Pf Conc. no.1, op.34, 1956–7; Conc., op.53, tpt, str, 1962; Midsummer Ale,
ov., op.73, 1965; Sym. no.2, E , op.166, 1985; Sym. no.3, e, op.189, Conc., op.193,
ob, str, 1990; Conc., op.220, fl, str, 1994–5
Choral-orch: Cantiones sacrae (trad.), op.12, S, chorus, orch, 1951–2; The Ballad
of the White Horse (G.K. Chesterton), op.40, Bar, chorus, orch, 1958–9; Herrick
Cant., op.49, T, chorus, orch, 1960–61; The Noble Heart (Greenwood, after
Shakespeare and others), op.59, S, B, chorus, orch, 1963–4; Cant. for Christmas
(trad.), op.82, chorus, small orch, 1966; Mass, D, op.159, C, chorus, orch, 1982;
Cant. for St Cecilia, op.195, S, T, chorus, orch, 1991; A Burns Sequence, op.213,
chorus, orch, 1993
Other vocal: A Latter Day Athenian Speaks (C.H.O. Scaife), op.51, SATB, 1961; The
Shout (Fox), op.67, SATB, 1964; Mass, C, op.70, 1965; Tomorrow Shall be my
Dancing Day (trad.), op.75/2, chorus, pf, 1965
Cant. for Easter, op.105, chorus, org, perc, 1970; 4 Carols, op.109/1, chorus, org,
perc, 1970; The Entertainment of the Senses (W.H. Auden, Kallman), op.121, 5 solo
vv, 6 insts, 1974; 7 Songs to Poems by Stevie Smith, op.126, SATB, wind qnt, 1976;
Open Air Suite (folk poems), op.132, chorus, brass band, 1976; Stabat mater,
op.210, S, chorus, org, timp, 1993
Chbr and solo inst: Occasional Suite, op.95, recs, cls, hpd, perc, 1968; Chbr Conc.,
op.102, org, 10 players, 1969; Sonata secolare, op.117, org, brass qnt, 1973;
Sonata da chiesa, op.136, 2 tpt, org, 1976; Eng. Dance Suite, op.139, concert
band, 1977; Str Qt no.2, op.148, 1978; Sax Qt, op.168, 1986; Sonata, C, op.172,
ob, 1986; Str Qt no.3, D, op.176, 1987; Fantasy and Fugue on a Prelude of
Bruckner, op.185, org, 1988; Sonata, op.204, org, 1992; Prelude and Fugue,
op.209, pf, 1993; Sextet, op.223, pf, wind, 1995
WRITINGS
‘The Chamber Music’, Robert Schumann: the Man and his Music, ed. A.
Walker (London, 1972), 200–240
‘A Chronicle of Cantatas’, Twenty British Composers: the Feeney Trust
Commissions, ed. P. Dickinson (London, 1975), 54–7
ed., with S. Harris: A cappella (Oxford, 1992)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CC1 (H. Milne)
N. Goodwin: ‘John Gardner’s Opera “The Moon and Sixpence”’, MT, xcviii
(1957), 250–51
L. Halsey: ‘John Gardner’s Choral Music’, MT, cviii (1967), 28–32
R.B. Jones: John Gardner: an Examination of his Life and Selected Choral
Compositions (diss., U. of Miami, 1991)
ANDREW BURN
Gardner, Kay
(b Freeport, NY, 8 Feb 1941). American composer and performer. In
addition to formal study at the University of Michigan (1958–61) and SUNY
at Stony Brook (MM 1974), she studied with Samuel Baron (flute) and
Antonia Brico (conducting, 1977, 1978) as well as Balinese flute and
gamelan in Bali during 1988. A pioneer of women’s music who declared her
lesbianism in 1971, she has been an active composer-performer of
women’s music since 1973, appearing regularly at National Women’s
Music Festival and Michigan Women’s Music Festival; in 1978–9 she co-
founded and conducted the New England Women’s SO. Her exploration of
healing music has gained recognition through her presentations to medical
schools and health workers, as well as her work to develop the use of
music as a substitute for surgical anaesthesia. Combining eastern and
western philosophy, physics, medicine and empirical evidence, her book
Sounding the Inner Landscape: Music as Medicine (Stonington, ME,
1990/R) summarizes this work. Melody is the foundation for all her
compositions, which often use modal scales as heard in Rainforest (1977)
and North Coast Nights (1989). Her albums Garden of Ecstasy (1989) and
One Spirit (1993) show the influence of world music and feature Gardner
playing a variety of flutes.
WORKS
Stage: Ladies Voices: a Short Opera (G. Stein), 1981, Albuquerque, perf. 1981;
Lucina’s Light, 1995, rev. as Lucina’s Light: a Yuletide Cantata/Pageant, 1996; Mira
(dance score), St Louis, Gash-Voigt, 16–18 May 1997
Orch: Prayer to Aphrodite, a fl, str orch, 1974; Rainforest, chbr orch, 1977; The
Rising Sun, chbr orch, 1985 [arr. of chbr work]; Quiet Harbor, 1992
Chbr and solo inst: Lunamuse, fl, gui, vc, perc, vocal drone (tape loop or audience),
1974–5; Atlantis Rising, fl + a fl + prep pf, vn + va + wind chimes, vc + wind chimes,
prep pf, tape, 1978; A Rainbow Path (fls, ww, perc, hp, str/pf, 1984; Traveling, a fl,
va, gui, perc, tamboura, 1986; Viriditas, fl + a fl + b fl, ob + eng hn, bn + dbn, va, vc,
perc, timp, hp, 1988; North Coast Nights, str qt, 1989; Mariachi, mar, 1991; Mother
of Creation, bamboo fl + tingshaw + chime egg, pakhāwaj, 1993; Gift of Dance, fl,
pf, 1996
Vocal: 3 Mother Songs, Mez, gui, 1977; When we Made the Music, SSAA, pf/(eng
hn, str qt), 1977; Sea Chantress, 1v, fl, dulcimer, 1978; Anthem for an Aquarian Age,
chorus, 1988; Ouroboros: Seasons of Life – Women’s Passages (orat, C. Hutchins,
I. Suzanne), 6 female vv, SAA, orch, 1993; Fragments (Hsin Ping), S, pf, 1995; The
Scar of Odysseus, chorus, b drum, 1996; From Walden (H.D. Thoreau), dancers,
chorus, ww, vc, kbd, perc, 1997
Video and film scores
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson2
G. Kimball: ‘Female Composition: Interview with Kay Gardner’, Women’s
Culture: the Women’ Renaissance of the 70s, ed. G. Kimball
(Metuchen, NJ, 1981), 163–76
J.W. LePage: Women Composers, Conductors, and Musicians of the
Twentieth Century, ii (Metuchen, NJ, 1983), 92–117
Kay Gardner: Composer, videotape, dir. J. Balthar (1986) [Gardner
performing and talking about her life and works]
K. Gardner: ‘Inner Space: Music As Medicine’, Ms, xxii/1 (1991–2), 74–5
K. Gardner: ‘Composing or Choosing Music for Patient Use During
Surgery’, Current Research in Arts Medicine; a Compendium of the
MedArt International 1992 World Congress on Arts and Medicine, ed.
Fadi J. Bejjani (Pennington, NJ, 1993), 441–4
J. MICHELE EDWARDS
Gárdonyi, Zoltán
(b Budapest, 25 April 1906; d Herford, 27 June 1986). Hungarian
musicologist and composer. He studied composition with Kodály at the
Budapest Liszt Academy of Music, musicology with Blume, Hornbostel,
Schering, Schünemann and Wolf at Berlin University (as a scholar of the
Collegium Hungaricum) and composition with Hindemith at the Berlin
Staatliche Hochschule für Musik, where he graduated in 1930. He took the
doctorate at Berlin University in 1931 with a dissertation on Liszt.
Subsequently he taught music at the teacher-training college in Sopron
and conducted the music society there (1931–41). In 1941 he was
appointed professor at the Liszt Academy of Music, where he remained
until his retirement in 1967, teaching musicology and giving special lecture
courses on Liszt and Bach. He was also chairman of the department of
Protestant church music there from 1946 until 1949, when it was abolished.
In 1972 he resettled permanently in West Germany. Gárdonyi made a
significant contribution to research on Liszt, the European Baroque and
musical analysis. He planned the Neue Liszt-Ausgabe, and with István
Szelényi edited the first four volumes (1970–73). He was a member of the
committee for musicology of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. He
composed prolifically in a wide variety of forms; his works include a large
number of choral works, among which is an oratorio A tékozló fiú (‘The
Prodigal Son’, 1971), various orchestral works, for example, a Clarinet
Concerto (1942), a Concertino for Violin and Orchestra (1959) and a
Sinfonic Suite (1980), as well as various chamber and instrumental works,
including three string quartets and pieces for the organ. Many of these
works are recorded on two CDs made in 1986 to celebrate his 80th
birthday, and following his decease, nearly 70 of his works have been
published posthumously in Germany, Hungary and the USA.
WRITINGS
Die Ungarischen Stileigentümlichkeiten in den musikalischen Werken
Franz Liszts (diss., U. of Berlin 1931; Berlin, 1931)
‘Liszt kiadatlan magyar zongorakompoziciói’ [Liszt’s unpublished Hungarian
compositions for piano], A zene, xiii (1931–2), 132–8
Liszt Ferenc első magyar zenedarabjai [Liszt’s first Hungarian pieces]
(Sopron, 1935)
Liszt Ferenc magyar stílusa/Le style hongrois de François Liszt [Liszt’s
Hungarian style] (Budapest, 1936)
A zenei formák világa [The world of musical forms] (Budapest, 1949)
‘Népzenénk és a zenei forma elemei’ [Our folk music and the elements of
musical forms], ZT, i (1953), 405–12
‘Distancia-elvű jelenségek Liszt zenéjében’ [Distance-principle phenomena
in Liszt’s music], ZT, iii (1955), 91–100
‘J. Haydn oratórium formálása’ [Haydn’s oratorio forms], ZT, viii (1960), 95–
106 [with Ger. summary]
‘Nationale Thematik in der Musik Franz Liszts bis zum Jahre 1848’, Liszt-
Bartók: Budapest 1961, 77–87
‘Zur Fugentechnik J.S. Bachs’, SMH, iii (1962), 117–26
Elemző formatan [Analytical morphology] (Budapest, 1963/R)
‘Bartók és magyar elődei’ [Bartók and his Hungarian predecessors],
Muzsika, viii/9 (1965), 10–14
‘Egy jelentős Liszt-Monográfiáról’ [On an important Liszt monograph (J.
Milstein: Liszt)], Magyar zene, vi (1965), 258–65
‘Kodály Zoltán írásai tükrében’ [Kodály in his writings], Magyar zene, vii
(1966), 279–82
J.S. Bach ellenpont-művészetének alapjai [The contrapuntal art of Bach]
(Budapest, 1967)
‘Neue Tonleiter und Sequenztypen in Liszts Frühwerken’, SMH, xi (1969),
169–99
J.S. Bach kánon és fúga szerkesztő művészete [Bach’s fugue and canon
composition] (Budapest, 1972)
‘Palestrina szakrális zenéje Kodály tanításában’ [Palestrina’s sacred music
in the teaching of Kodály], Vigilia, vii (Budapest, 1972), 457–60
‘Neue Ordnungsprinzipien der Tonhöhon in Liszts Frühwerken’, Franz
Liszt: Beiträge von ungarischen Autoren, ed. K. Hamburger (Budapest,
1978), 226–73
‘The Organ Music of Liszt’, New Hungarian Quarterly, no.100 (1985), 243–
52
‘Zu einigen Kanons von J.S. Bach’, SMH, xxviii (1986), 321–4
EDITIONS
with I. Szelényi: Franz Liszt: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, I/i/1:
Etüden I (Budapest and Kassel, 1970); I/i/2: Etüden II (Budapest and
Kassel, 1971); I/i/3: Ungarische Rhapsodien I (Budapest and Kassel,
1972); I/i/4: Ungarische Rhapsodien II (Budapest and Kassel, 1973)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Contemporary Hungarian Composers (Budapest, 1974) [incl. list of works
up to 1972]
D. Karasszon: Zoltán Gárdonyi 1906–1986 (Budapest, 1999) [incl. full list
of works]
IMRE SULYOK/ZSOLT GÁRDONYI
Garducci, Tommaso.
See Guarducci, Tommaso.
Gargari, Teofilo
(b Gallese c1570; d Rome, July 1648). Italian composer, singer and
organist. In 1588 he was an alto in the choir of S Lucia del Gonfalone,
Rome. From 1592 until 1597 he served at S Luigi dei Francesi. After a
failed attempt to enter the Cappella Pontificia in October 1599, he was
accepted in May 1601, perhaps on the recommendation of Cardinal
Montalto, in whose church of S Lorenzo in Damaso he had been organist
in March of that year. He twice served as maestro di cappella of the papal
choir (1620 and 1622). The repertory-specific 1616 Diario Sistino lists his
music on a number of occasions, particularly at the more up-to-date Vespri
Segreti. A set of Vespers music for the feast of Saint Peter and Saint Paul
(five double-choir psalms and a hymn) was copied in 1628 (I-Rvat
C.S.102); three Magnificat settings, a Miserere and three motets, all for
double choir, also survive (Rvat C.S.31, 91, 100; C.G.XIII 25). All are good
examples of the Roman polychoral style, combining contrapuntal skill with
attention to the words. His only surviving concertato motet (RISM 1616 1),
while demanding virtuoso singers, relies too heavily on ornamental
formulas. Gargari is not known to have composed any secular music.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.W. Frey: ‘Die Gesänge der sixtinischen Kapelle an den Sonntagen und
hohen Kirchenfesten des Jahres 1616’, Mélange Eugène Tisserant, vi
(Vatican City, 1964), 395–467
J. Lionnet: ‘Un musicista del viterbese a Roma e uno romano nel
viterbese: Teofilo Gargari e Francesco Foggia’, Musica e musicisti nel
Lazio, ed. R. Lefevre and A. Morelli (Rome, 1986), 269–91
N. O’Regan: Sacred Polychoral Music in Rome, 1575–1621 (diss., U. of
Oxford, 1988), 223, 329
NOEL O’REGAN
VIRGILIO BERNARDONI
Garimberti, Ferdinando
(b Mamiano di Traversetolo, 6 Jan 1894; d Madrid, 26 March 1982). Italian
violin maker. He studied with Romeo, then Riccardo Antoniazzi; he then
worked for Giuseppe Pedrazzini and Leandro Bisiach, and later set up
independently in Milan. Between 1927 and 1949 his instruments won
important awards at the exhibitions held at Rome and Cremona. He taught
at the International School of Cremona from 1963 to 1966. During his long
career his models and style remained almost unvaried. His work is
meticulous, very precise and clean, always extremely careful and very
elegant. He was discriminating in his choice of wood and he clearly
preferred to fashion the backs out of one piece. He applied the varnish with
great skill; this varies in consistency and colour depending on the period.
The most usual colour is a beautiful red-orange which sometimes becomes
lighter towards the centre but is sometimes a darker red. He also did much
repair work and was considered an expert in old Italian violins. He often
marked his instruments with a signed label and a brand on the inside.
ERIC BLOT
Garinus [? Guayrinet]
(fl late 14th century). French composer. The isorhythmic rondeau Loyauté
me tient en espoir is ascribed to him in F-CH 564. He may well have been
the man mentioned in the two musician motets Musicalis scientia/Scientie
laudabili and Apollinis eclipsatur/Zodiacum signis/In omnem terram; in the
first piece he is called Garinus de Soissons. (However, Hoppin and Clercx
put forward another candidate, Garinus de Arceys, who became chaplain
to the pope in 1370 and Bishop of Chartres in 1371, but is not known to
have been a musician.) His rondeau (ed. W. Apel: French Secular
Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, Amsterdam, 1970, p.62; also in
CMM, liii/1, 1970, no.31, and PMFC, xix, 1982, no.2), which is an example
of the lengthy syncopations used in the late 14th century, is divided into two
halves identical in rhythm.
It has been suggested (see Stäblein-Harder) that he was also the
composer of the Credo transmitted in I-IV 115, ff.46v–47 (ed. in CMM, xxix,
1962, no.40), whose tenor bears the designation ‘Tenor Guayrinet’. The
two lower voices of this three-voice work are isorhythmic; the opening of its
upper voice, plainly a chant paraphrase, is rhythmically similar to that of the
even more fragmentary Credo in F-Sm 222, no.78 (see RISM B/iv/3), which
is, however, written an octave lower and in only two voices.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R.H. Hoppin and S. Clercx: ‘Notes biographiques sur quelques musiciens
français du XIVe siècle’, L'Ars Nova: Wégimont II 1955, 63–92
H. Stäblein-Harder: Fourteenth-Century Mass Music in France, MSD, vii
(1962)
U. Günther: ‘Polymetric Rondeaux from Machaut to Dufay: some Style-
Analytical Observations’, Studies in Musical Sources and Style:
Essays in Honor of Jan LaRue, ed. E.K. Wolf and E.H. Roesner
(Madison, WI, 1990), 75–108, esp. 91, 93
GILBERT REANEY/R
Garip (Provençal).
A term used primarily for instrumental versions of the lai form, though also
implying dance music. See Lai, §1(vi).
Garland.
American firm of publishers. It was established in New York by Gavin
Borden in 1969 as a book reprinting concern. The firm expanded its list by
1975 to include original titles, especially reference works on a range of
topics including music. Since then it has established several specialized
series such as the Composer Resource Manuals (begun 1981), Music
Research and Information Guides (1984) and Perspectives in Music
Criticism and Theory (1995). Shortly after 1975 Garland issued its first
scores, the series Italian Opera 1640–1770 (97 vols., begun 1977), Early
Romantic Opera (72 vols., 1978) and The Symphony 1720–1840 (60 vols.,
begun 1979). Since 1983 Garland has produced more than two dozen
multi-volume anthologies of scores and source materials in facsimile
(notably of J.C. Bach, Handel, Hummel, Mendelssohn, Mozart, Spohr, the
Italian cantata and oratorio, Renaissance music, 18th-century continuo
sonata and French cantata; and, from the 19th century, London and
Parisian piano music, French song and American musical theatre), as well
as new editions devoted to the 16th-century chanson and motet, the Italian
madrigal and Italian instrumental music.
CALVIN ELLIKER
Garland, Judy [Gumm, Frances
Ethel]
(b Grand Rapids, MN, 10 June 1922; d London, 22 June 1969). American
popular singer and actress. With her elder sisters, Virginia and Suzy, she
became one of the Gumm sisters, making her vaudeville début at the age
of three. Her father was a cinema and theatre owner-manager who
eventually settled in California. At first she took the stage name Frances
Garland, but after a period studying at a theatre school in Los Angeles, she
became Judy Garland, billed as ‘the little girl with the great big voice’. She
appeared in her first film in 1929 (The Meglin Kiddlie Revue), and in 1934
after a meeting with the composer Harry Akst she auditioned for Louis B.
Mayer at MGM and was put under contract. She made several successful
films including Broadway Melody of 1938, in which she sang ‘You made me
love you’, before gaining stardom in The Wizard of Oz (1939), for which
she was awarded an Academy Award as best juvenile performer. The film’s
song ‘Over the Rainbow’, by Harold Arlen, with lyrics by E.Y. Harburg,
became her signature tune. She married the composer and arranger David
Rose in 1941.
Throughout the 1940s she gradually moved into ‘adult’ roles, with special
success in Meet Me in St Louis (1944; songs by Ralph Blane and Hugh
Martin, including ‘The Trolley Song’ and ‘The Boy Next Door’) and The
Pirate (1948; by Cole Porter, including ‘Love of My Life’ and ‘Be a Clown’).
Both these films were directed by her second husband, Vincente Minnelli.
Garland’s singing style harked back to the traditions of vaudeville and in
several of her films – For Me and My Gal (1942), Easter Parade (1948) and
In the Good Old Summertime (1949) – she sang songs of the 1900s and
1920s with a mixture of sentiment and raucous energy that would mark her
later performances.
Psychiatric problems exacerbated by drug-addiction led to the termination
of her contract with MGM in 1950. The following year she parted from
Minnelli and began a new career as a solo performer. Her appearances at
the London Palladium and the Palace Theater, New York, were received by
the public with almost hysterical applause. In 1954 she returned to the
screen to give what is widely acknowledged as her best performance, in A
Star is Born (songs by Arlen and Ira Gershwin, including ‘The Man that Got
Away’). The rest of her life found her problems dogging her career, which
nevertheless achieved its zenith on stage in 1961 with her concert at
Carnegie Hall. ‘She used the mike as though it were a trumpet’, wrote the
columnist Hedda Hopper, and this fierce element in her later performances,
each one seeming to be another stage in her self-destruction, marred her
very considerable abilities as a singer.
Towards the end of her life she sometimes appeared in performances with
her daughter liza Minnelli, and made two final musical films, with songs by
Arlen and Harburg: I Could Go On Singing (1963) and Gay Purr-ee (1962),
the latter being an animated cartoon in which only her voice was heard.
Lorna, her daughter by her third husband, Sid Luft, also became a singing
actress. Garland’s fame increased in the years following her death, partly
because of the following she inspired among gay men.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N.J. Zierold: The Child Stars (London, 1965)
J. Morella and E.Z. Epstein: Judy: the Films and Career of Judy Garland
(London, 1969)
E.T. James, J.W. James and P.S. Boyer, eds.: Notable American Women
(Cambridge, MA, 1971)
M. Tormé: The Other Side of the Rainbow (New York, 1971)
H. Pleasants: The Great American Popular Singers (New York, 1974)
A. Edwards: Judy Garland (New York, 1975)
E.R. Coleman: The Complete Judy Garland (New York, 1990) [incl.
bibliography and filmography]
D. Shipman: Judy Garland: the Secret Life of an American Legend (New
York, 1993)
PATRICK O’CONNOR
WRITINGS
Americas: Essays on American Music and Culture, 1973–1980 (Santa Fe,
1982)
In Search of Silvestre Revueltas: Essays 1978–1990 (Sante Fe, 1991)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T. Johnson: ‘A Magazine of Surprises’, Village Voice (30 Aug 1973)
C. Amirkhanian: ‘Peter Garland and Colleagues: a New Virtuosity’, High
Fidelity/Musical America/MA, xxviii/6 (1978), 28–9
C.J. Oja: ‘The Soundings of New Music’, Newsletter [Institute for Studies in
American Music], xiii/1 (1983), 8–9
K. Gann: ‘Honesty Before Weirdness’, Village Voice (5 March 1991)
INGRAM D. MARSHALL
Garmonica [garmoshka]
(Russ.).
A type of accordion. See Accordion, §2(iii).
Garnesey [?John]
(b ? c1415; d ? Wells, 1459). English church musician and composer. He is
probably to be identified with the John Garnesey who served as a vicar
choral of Wells Cathedral from 1443 to 1458 and (most unusually) was
promoted to a residentiary canonry there just a year prior to his death in
1459. His sole surviving work is a setting of Laudes Deo, a troped lesson
sung in the Sarum Use during the Mass ‘at Cock-crow’ on Christmas Day;
the work is preserved in GB-Cmc Pepys 1236. In the Sarum missal the
performance of this lesson is deputed to two clerici, and Garnesey supplied
two-part polyphony. It is a suave and resourceful if somewhat extended
exercise in manipulation of the imperfect consonances of the 3rd and 6th.
Freedom is preferred to rigour in compositional approach; reference to the
chant is perfunctory and soon abandoned.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HarrisonMMB
S.R. Charles, ed.: The Music of the Pepys MS 1236, CMM, xl (1967), xvii,
119
R. Bowers: Choral Institutions within the English Church: their Constitution
and Development 1340–1500 (diss., U. of East Anglia, 1975), 5055
only
ROGER BOWERS
Garnier, François.
See Granier, François.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
GerberNL
PierreH
R. Cotte: La musique maçonnique et ses musiciens (Braine-le-Comte,
1975, 2/1987)
R.J.V. Cotte: Les Musiciens Franc-Maçons à la cour de Versailles et à
Paris sous l'ancien régime (doctorat d'Etat, diss., 1982, F-Pn)
ROGER J.V. COTTE
Garnier, Gabriel
(d Paris, c1730). French organist. He held posts first at St Louis-des-
Invalides, Paris, from 1684, and then at the Chapelle Royale at Versaille
from 1702, where the other organists were Nivers, Buterne and François
Couperin. In 1719 he was appointed organist of St Roch in Paris.
Titon du Tillet said Garnier was ‘among our most skilful organists’, and
François Couperin clearly paid him tribute in one of his finest harpsichord
pieces, La Garnier, from the second ordre of his first book of Pieces de
clavecin (1713). Pierre-Louis d’Aquin said that Garnier played Couperin’s
harpsichord music better than the composer himself. None of Garnier’s
music survives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Titon du Tillet: Le Parnasse françois (Paris, 1732/R)
P.-L. d’Aquin: Lettres sur les hommes célèbres … sous le règne de Louis
XV, i (Paris, 1752, 2/1753/R as Siècle littéraire de Louis XV), 112
EDWARD HIGGINBOTTOM
Garnier, Louis.
See Granier, Louis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L'avi munné, xii (Sant Feliu de Guíxols, 1925) [Garreta issue]
L. Millet: ‘Juli Garreta i la nostra musica’, Revista musical catalana, xxii
(1925), 225–9
M. Vinyas: ‘Juli Garreta, l'home i l'artista’, ibid., 229–36
H. Collet: L'essor de la musique espagnole au XXe siècle (Paris, 1929)
A. Miro Bachs: Cien músicos célebres españoles (Barcelona, 1942)
H. Besseler: ‘Katalanische Cobla und Alta Tanzkapelle’, IMSCR IV: Basle
1949, 59–68
M. Vinyas: Juli Garreta, l'home i l'artista (Sant Feliu de Guíxols, 1955)
A. Fernández Cid: La música español en el siglo XX (Madrid, 1973)
T. Marco: Historia de la música española: siglo XX (Madrid, 1983; Eng.
trans., 1993)
M. Pérez: Diccionario de la música (Madrid, 1985)
ANTONIO RUIZ-PIPÓ
Garrett, Lesley
(b Doncaster, 10 April 1955). English soprano. She studied at the RAM
from 1977 to 1979 and while there made her mark as a spirited Lazuli in
Chabrier’s L’étoile (1979); the same year she won the Kathleen Ferrier
Prize, and entered the National Opera Studio. After appearances in small
roles at Batignano, she made her official stage début as Dorinda (Handel’s
Orlando) in 1980 at the Wexford Festival, singing Mozart’s Zaide there the
following year. In 1981 she sang Carolina (Il matrimonio segreto) at the
Buxton Festival and in 1982 Susanna at Opera North. After singing
Despina for Glyndebourne Touring Opera, she joined the ENO in 1984
where, among other roles, she has sung Bella (The Midsummer Marriage,
1985), Atalanta (Serse, 1985), Zerlina (1985), Yum-Yum (1986),
Offenbach’s Eurydice (1988), Oscar (Un ballo in maschera, 1989),
Susanna (1990), Adèle (1991), Rose (Street Scene, 1992), Dalinda
(Ariodante, 1993), the title role in The Cunning Little Vixen (1995) and
Rosina (1998), in all of which she sang and acted with a natural command
of the stage. With her outgoing personality and powers of communication,
thanks not least to her perfect diction, she has been an enthusiastic
proselytizer of opera on television, notably in her own programmes ‘Viva la
Diva’ and ‘Lesley Garrett – Tonight’, and on her mixed recitals on CD. In all
this, however, she has never compromised her musicianship, excellent
technique or keen sense of style.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Milnes: ‘Lesley Garrett’, Opera, xlvii (1996), 499–506
ALAN BLYTH
Garrick, David
(b Hereford, 19 Feb 1717; d London, 20 Jan 1779). English actor, manager
and playwright. He was the greatest Shakespearean actor of the mid-18th
century and an influential manager of Drury Lane from 1747 to his
retirement in 1776. He was also knowledgeable about ballet and opera. In
1749 he married the dancer Eva Maria Veigel, who had come to London in
March 1746. Garrick visited Paris and established contact with such figures
as Noverre, the pyrotechnist Morel Torré, the violinist-composer F.H.
Barthélemon (who provided music for Garrick’s burletta Orpheus) and J.P.
de Loutherbourg, who revolutionized stage design at Drury Lane in the
1770s. Garrick’s relatively ‘naturalistic’ acting style – he broke with the
pompous declamatory styles in fashion since Dryden’s day – made him an
important influence on such theatrical and operatic reformers as Algarotti,
Diderot and Noverre. He is said to have taught his acting style to
Guadagni, who was to be Gluck’s Orpheus (1762).
Early in his long reign at Drury Lane he staged Boyce’s all-sung afterpiece
The Chaplet (1749), Arne’s Don Saverio, an innovatory opera set in the
present (1750), and Burney’s burletta Robin Hood (1750). He extended the
boundaries of pantomime in both music and ballet in a series of important
ventures with Henry Woodward, the best-known of which is Queen Mab
(1750). His importation of Noverre’s Les fêtes chinoises (1755) was
wrecked by anti-French riots. Garrick staged J.C. Smith’s operas, notably
The Fairies (1755). The success of Arne’s Artaxerxes at Covent Garden in
1762 threw Garrick operatically on the defensive. He struggled for some
years to find a counter-attraction to the popular series of comic operas at
the rival theatre, beginning with Love in a Village (1762). With Charles
Dibdin and The Padlock (1768) he finally found his man. Their relations
were frequently strained, however, and Dibdin’s view of Garrick in his
autobiography The Professional Life of Mr Dibdin (1803) is caustic.
Garrick had a major influence on the development of English opera in the
late 18th century. He was both eclectic and innovatory. His 1770 revival of
Dryden and Purcell’s King Arthur (revised by Arne) is a major landmark in
the rediscovery of Purcell. He produced all-sung mainpieces and
afterpieces, burlettas, ballad operas, pastiches and sophisticated
pantomime-ballets. The near-domination of musical works at Drury Lane
and Covent Garden in the last quarter of the 18th century simply extends
an artistic policy inaugurated by Garrick and developed by John Beard in
the 1750s and 60s.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDA
FiskeETM
LS
K.A. Burnim: David Garrick, Director (Pittsburgh, 1961)
D.M. Little and G.M. Kahrl, eds.: The Letters of David Garrick (London,
1963)
D. Heartz: ‘From Garrick to Gluck: the Reform of Theatre and Opera in the
Mid-Eighteenth Century’, PRMA, xciv (1967–8), 111–27
G.W. Stone jr and G.M. Kahrl: David Garrick: a Critical Biography
(Carbondale, IL, 1979)
H.W. Pedicord and F.L. Bergmann, eds.: The Plays of David Garrick
(Carbondale, IL, 1980–82)
P.T. Dircks: David Garrick (Boston, 1985)
M. Burden: Garrick, Arne, and the Masque of Alfred: a Case Study on
National, Theatrical, and Musical Politics (Lewiston, NY, 1994)
ROBERT D. HUME
Stage: Cowboys (ballet), 1926; Adán y Eva (ballet), 1952; La sugestión (chbr op, C.
Rivas Cherif), 1959; El guerrillero (ballet), 1963
Choral: Los pequeños proletarios (C. Pardo), solo v, chorus, pf, 1933
Solo vocal: Poéte (V. Huidobro), Bar, pf, 1926; Poema veinte (P. Neruda), S, pf,
1930; Canto a Anabalón (Pardo), 1v, pf, 1932; Recabarren (M. Miriff), 1v, pf, 1932; 3
songs (E. Bie), T, pf, 1949; Romance de los gitanos (C. Miró), 1v, pf, 1952;
Romance de la niña muerta (J. Pérez Fernández), 1v, pf, 1952; Pace nel mondo (A.
Puccio Stagno), 1v, pf, 1965; 20 canciones de arte (various), Bar, pf, 1978; Abedul
(P. Garrido), 1v, pf, 1980; Primavera del ayer (Garrido), 1v, pf, 1980
Orch: Fantasía militar, 1932; Ballet mecánico, 1934; Fantasía submarina, pf, orch,
1934; Rapsodia chilena, 1937; Pf Conc., 1950; Concertino, fl, str, 1959
Chbr: Antigua melodía chilena, str qt, 1930; Jazz Window, a sax, pf, 1930; Apunte
afto-cubano, fl, va, vc, 1931; Sonatina negra, vn, pf, 1939; Concertino, fl, str qt,
1950; 13 & 13, str qt, 1951; Recordando a Gabriela, vn, pf, 1957; Preludios a la
cruz del sur, vn, pf, 1964; Nocturno chileno, vn, pf, 1972
Pf: Elegía a Lenin, 1932; Piano Rag, 1944; 3 preludios antillanos, 1952; Los
ideales, 1979; Microrretratos, 1979
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Neftalí: ‘El musico vanguardista chileno: Pablo Garrido Vargas’, Boletín
musical, vi/Nov (1930), 12–13
L.A. Sánchez: ‘Pablo Garrido (o la aventura)’, Zig-Zag [Santiago] (5 March
1955)
M. Silva Solis: ‘Pablo Garrido Vargas (1905–1982)’, RMC, no.158 (1982),
126–7
J.P. Gonzalez: ‘Cronologia epistolar de Pablo Garrido’, RMC, no.160
(1983), 4–46
FERNANDO GARCÍA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Claro and J. Urrutia: Historia de la música en Chile (Santiago, 1973)
F. García: ‘Intihuantana y Antaras de Garrido Lecca’, El comercio (3 Dec
1975)
E. Pinilla: ‘Informe sobre la música en el Perú’, Historia del Perú, ed. J.
Mejía Baca (Lima, 1980), ix, 569–85
E. Pinilla: ‘La música en el siglo XX’, La música en el Perú (Lima, 1985),
174–6
R. Torres: ‘La creación musical en Chile’, Enciclopedia temática de Chile,
xxi (Santiago, 1988)
ENRIQUE ITURRIAGA
Garrigues, Malvina.
German soprano, wife of Ludwig Schnorr von Carolsfeld.
Garro, Francisco
(b Alfaro; d Lisbon, before 27 March 1623). Spanish composer. After
working in Logrono he was appointed maestro de capilla at Valladolid in
March 1580 but soon relinquished the post: his appointment as maestro de
capilla of Sigüenza Cathedral of the same year was approved on 17
October. In 1587 he applied unsuccessfully for the equivalent post at
Zaragoza. Garro was paid as mestre of the royal chapel in Lisbon from 27
September 1592, a post which he retained until his death.
Two publications containing Garro’s works appeared in 1609, both
dedicated to Philip III of Spain, and one comprising polychoral works. No
complete set of the partbooks containing polychoral works has survived,
although the existence of three partial sets (in GB-Lbl, P-Cug and Braga,
Arquivo da Universidade do Minho) means that only one part is missing
from each work. Garro published both paraphrase and parody masses;
among the former, the Missa ‘Saeculorum’ primi toni is built upon the first
termination for the first psalm tone, while a subtle and imaginative parody
technique is seen in the Missa ‘Maria Magdalena’ (based upon Guerrero’s
motet). Rhythmically animated and syncopated writing is prominent in the
polychoral works.
WORKS
Missae quatuor, defunctorum lectiones: Missa ‘Cantate Domino’, 8vv, bc; Missa
‘Domine in virtute tua’, 12vv, bc; Missa ‘Fili quid fecisti nobis sic’, 8vv, bc; Missa
pro defunctis, 8vv; Alleluia, ego vos elegi/Assumpta est Maria, 8vv; Alleluia, tanto
tempore, 8vv; Alleluia, vidimus stellam, 8vv, Parce mihi Domine, 8vv; Responde
mihi, 8vv; Spiritus meus, 8vv: (Lisbon, 1609), inc.
Opera aliquot: Missa ‘Saeculorum’ primi toni, 5vv; Missa ‘O quam pulchra es’, 4vv;
Missa ‘Tu es qui venturus es’, 4vv; Missa Maria Magdalena, 6vv; Asperges me,
5vv; In principio erat verbum, 5vv; Parce mihi, Domine, 5vv; O magnum
mysterium, 6vv; Vidi aquam, 6vv: (Lisbon, 1609) [copy formerly in Ivo Cruz’s
private collection, Lisbon, now in P-Ln]
lost works
listed in JoãoIL
Beatus vir, 8vv; Dixit Dominus, 8vv; Laudate Dominum omnes gentes, 8vv;
responsories for Christmas and Epiphany
Villancicos: Alma dormida despierta, 3vv/6vv; Aqui para entre los dos, 4vv/6vv;
Ayudad a cantar, 4vv/8vv; Despertad señores, 3vv/6vv; Entre las doce y la una,
4vv/6vv; Este manjar me sustente, 3vv/5vv; Haganse alegrias, 1v/8vv; Llegad
conmigo, 1v/5vv; No quiero no, sino pan del Cielo, 3vv/5vv; Vente conmigo Miguel,
3vv/5vv
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F.M. de Sousa Viterbo: ‘Mestres da capella real desde o dominio filippino
(inclusivé) até D. José I’, Archivo historico portuguez, v (1907), 426–
31, 452–61, esp. 426–8
M. Joaquim: Vinte livros de música polifónica do Paço Ducal de Vila
Viçosa (Lisbon, 1953), 155–9
A. de Federico Fernández: ‘Inventario de expedientes sobre legitimidad y
pureza de sangre para obtener beneficios en la Santa Iglesia Catedral
basílica de Sigüenza’, Hispania sacra, xx (1967), 439–83, esp. 448
J.A. Alegria: História da capela e colégio dos Santos Reis de Vila Viçosa
(Lisbon, 1983), 157–8, 179–80, 193
A. Latino: ‘Os músicos da Capela Real de Lisboa c1600’, Revista
portuguesa de musicologia, iii (1993), 5–41, esp. 27
OWEN REES
Garsi, Ascanio.
Italian composer, son of Santino Garsi.
Garsi, Donino.
Italian composer, son or grandson of Santino Garsi.
Garth, John
(b ?Durham, c1722; d ?London, c1810). English composer. He lived in Co.
Durham and is known to have been organist at Sedgefield and to have
played an active part in local musical life. He was a friend of Charles
Avison, whom he assisted with his publication of 50 of Benedetto
Marcello’s psalm paraphrases (i–viii, London, 1757).
As a composer, Garth’s main area of activity was the accompanied
keyboard sonata: not the common form for keyboard with violin but a type
used almost exclusively by composers in north-east England (Avison,
Ebdon and Hawdon as well as Garth) where a trio sonata ensemble of two
violins, cello and harpsichord is required, with the strings either doubling
the harpsichord, providing harmonic support or resting. Garth was no doubt
following Avison’s example in using this unusual genre. The presence of
crescendo marks suggests that he had the piano in mind. The first of
Garth’s five sets, op.2, achieved particular popularity; at least six editions
are known between 1768 and 1790, when the first sonata appeared
separately in an anthology. It was referred to by William Gardiner (Music
and Friends, London, 1838) as affecting him powerfully and arousing his
interest in music. The sonatas are in two movements, usually an Allegro
followed by a minuet, gavotte or rondo. Garth’s fluent technique served well
for what are mainly light, unpretentious pieces, of which only occasional
ones have real substance. In the second set the chief interest lies in the
melodically attractive dance movements, though no.6 in G minor has a
vigour and contrapuntal elaboration rare in Garth’s music. The later sets
are lighter to the point of triviality. His cello concertos (a form rare in
England at the time; Garth’s are the earliest published there) show some
apt and fluent melodic writing.
WORKS
all published in London
op.
Gartner.
Bohemian family of organ builders. Johann Anton (b Tachov, 5 July 1707; d
11 July 1771) was an important local organ builder of his day. His work
included the organ in the Premonstratensian Monastery at Teplá (1755–60;
three manuals and 34 stops), which still survives, and the organ for St
Vitus’s Cathedral, Prague (1762–5; three manuals, 40 stops), of which the
case survives. His great-grandson Josef the younger (b Tachov, 30 Aug
1796; d Prague, 30 May 1863) became well known for his restoration of
large Baroque organs: surviving examples include St Mary (1825) and St
Nicholas Kleinseite (1835), Prague. Several of his own organs also survive.
As organ builders the Gartner family belong, broadly speaking, to the
school of Abraham Stark. In 1825 Josef the younger made a special study
of Silbermann organs in Saxony: his essay, Kurze Belehrung über die
innere Einrichtung der Orgeln, was published in 1832 (2/1845) and
appeared in 1834 in a Czech translation. From 1830 onwards he taught at
the organ school in Prague.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (R. Quoika)
V. Němec: Pražksé varhany (Prague, 1944)
R. Quoika: Die altösterreichische Orgel der späten Gotik, der Renaissance
und des Barock (Kassel, 1953)
L. Tomší: ‘Umělecké řemeslo rodiny Gartnerů (Das Kunsthandwerk der
Familie Gartner)’, Výroční zpráva Okresního archivu Domažlice, v
(1981), 67–96
HANS KLOTZ/JIRÍ SEHNAL
Garullus, Bernardinus.
See Garugli, Bernardo.
Garūta, Lūcija
(b Rīga, 14 May 1902; d Riga, 15 Feb 1977). Latvian composer and
pianist. She attended the Latvian Conservatory, where she graduated from
Vītols’s composition class in 1924 and Ludmila Gomane-Dombrovska’s
piano class in 1925. In Paris she continued her piano studies with Cortot
(1926) and her composition studies with Dukas (1928). Both as a soloist
and an accompanist, she played in numerous concerts in Latvia and
abroad. From 1940 she taught music theory and composition at Latvian
State Conservatory, eventually becoming professor (1973). As a composer
Garūta concentrated on programme music conceived in the manner of
post-Romanticism and of Skryabin.
WORKS
(selective list)
Op: Sidrabotais putns [Silvery Bird] (Garūta), 1938, revised 1960, unperf.
Orch: Meditation, 1934; Manā dzimtenē [In My Motherland], variations, 1936; Pf
Conc., 1951; Zelta zirgs [The Golden Steed], sym. poem, 1959
Choral: Dievs, Tava zeme deg! [God, Your Earth is on Fire!] (cant., A. Eglītis), T, Bar,
SATB, org, 1944; Pavasara vējos [Spring Winds] (cant., V. Plūdonis), SATB, orch,
1957; Viņš lido [He Flies] (cant., Garūta), S, SATB, orch, 1961; Dzīvā kvēle [A Living
Ardour] (orat, Reinis), Mezz, T, SATB, orch, 1966; c75 choral works
Chbr and solo inst: Pf Variations, 1921; Pf Sonata, 1924; Sonata, vn, pf, 1927; Pf
Variations, 1933; Pf Variations, 1951
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Stumbre: Zvaigznes un zeme: Lūcija Garūta dzīves un daiļrades gaitā
[Stars and earth: Garūta’s life and work] (Rīga, 1969)
L. Apkalns: ‘Lūcija Garūta’, Latvju mūzika, ix (1977), 820–9
ARNOLDS KLOTIŅŠ
Garzia, Francesco Saverio.
See García Fajer, Francisco Javier.
Gascon, Adam-Nicolas
(b Liège, bap. 14 March 1623; d Liège, shortly before 10 July 1668).
Flemish composer. On 1 February 1644 he was appointed maître de chant
of the collegiate church of Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk, Maastricht. He
resigned on 6 September 1658 and from 1659 to 1668 was maître de
chant of the collegiate church of St Paul, Liège, where he also held a minor
ecclesiastical position. As a composer he is known only by one sonata for
four instruments and continuo (GB-Ob), which appears alongside several
similar works by Lambert Pietkin and J.H. Schmelzer. In his sonata, as in
the others, slow and fast movements alternate; it includes interesting use
of syncopation and echo effects. (J. Quitin: ‘Tasmore, sonate à quatre
d'Adam Gascon (Liège, 1623–1668)’, Bulletin de la Société liégeoise de
musicologie, no.6 (1973), 1–5)
JOSÉ QUITIN
Gascongne [Gascogne,
Gascongus, Gascone, Gasconia,
Guascogna], Mathieu [?Johannes]
(fl 1517–18). French composer. A supplication of 17 December 1518
identifies him as a priest of the diocese of Meaux, as chaplain of Ste Marie-
Magdalène in Tours Cathedral and as a singer in the king's chapel. He
appears near the top of a list of singers in the royal chapel dated 1517–18.
These documents would seem to indicate that his motets Christus vincit,
Christus regnat and Deus regnorum were composed for the coronation of
François I in 1515; two others, Caro mea vere est cibus and Cantemus et
laetemur, refer directly or indirectly to that king. Gascongne may also have
been responsible for the revision of Mouton's motet Non nobis Domine. In
Attaingnant's print (RISM 15353; the only source to attribute the work to
Gascongne) the motet's text has been extensively revised to honour
François I. According to Brobeck (1991, p.467) Gascongne may have been
associated with the royal court as early as 1500: his motet Bone Jesu
dulcissime sets a prayer for an unnamed monarch, probably Louis XII.
Attaingnant, holder of a royal patent for printing music, attributed 13 sacred
works to Gascongne in his anthologies of 1534–5 (though not all are now
thought to be by him) and also included his Missa super ‘Nigra sum’ in the
sumptuous Liber primus tres missas continet (1532). Willaert, in a
statement quoted by Zarlino (Dimostrationi harmoniche, 1571/R), named
Gascongne along with Josquin, Ockeghem and his own teacher, Mouton,
as the ‘buoni antichi’, and took Gascongne's motet Osculetur me as the
model for an early parody mass. Jean Daniel, in his noël Ung gracieulx
oiselet (c1525), paired Gascongne with Mouton: ‘Gascoigne y fut bien
nommé, Et Mouton fort renommé’.
Six of Gascongne's eight known masses appear in two Cambrai
manuscripts written in about 1527–8. This, and the existence of a
document identifying him as a magister and priest in the diocese of
Cambrai (BrenetM, pp.68–9), led Lesure and others to group him with
Crispin van Stappen, Louis van Pullaer and Johannes Lupi as a member of
a Cambrai school functioning in the first half of the 16th century, but the
lack of archival evidence connecting Gascongne with Cambrai
considerably weakens the argument. Further, two of these masses, Missa
‘Pourquoy non’ and Missa ‘Myn hert’, are found in earlier sources. The
distribution of his music reinforces the association with the French court.
Three masses are found in Vatican manuscripts connected with Pope Leo
X (d 1521), another was published by Antico in 1521 alongside works by
Mouton and de Silva, and the ten pieces in GB-Cmc Pepys 1760 are next
to a large collection of music by Antoine de Févin, known to have been in
the service of Louis XII.
Gascongne's reputation as a chanson composer rests mainly on his works
for three voices. The Pepys manuscript contains a group of six three-voice
chansons, all of which are based on a popular monophonic tune in the
tenor. Celle qui m'a demandé, with its simple structure, running melismas,
stereotyped cadential formulae and popular cantus firmus, is a typical
Parisian chanson rustique. Lawrence Bernstein cited Gascongne and
Févin as the original proponents of this genre, ranking Févin ahead of
Gascongne in his ability to work more flexibly within the conventions of the
technique. He noted that several of Gascongne's chansons, surviving only
in Le Roy & Ballard's anthologies of 1578, exhibit the same forward-looking
traits found in the best of those that appeared earliest.
WORKS
Edition: Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, ed. A.
Smijers and A.T. Merritt (Paris and Monaco, 1934–63) [S]
masses
Missa ‘Es hat ein Sin’, 4vv, B-Br IV 922 (Bs only, in Josquin's Missa ‘Pange lingua’),
D-Mbs F, E-MO, F-CA, I-Rvat; ed. in MMB, ix (1963) (opening quotes from
Ockeghem's Missa ‘Mi-mi’)
Missa ‘L'aultre jour per my ces champs’, 4vv, I-Rvat C.S.26, CFm MA 53
Missa ‘Myn herte herft altyt verlanghen’, 4vv, B-Br IV 922, D-Mbs F, 7, Ju 2, F-CA 4,
125–8, S-Uu ViH 76c; ed. in MMN (in preparation) (on La Rue's song; attrib.
Johannes Gascong, Johannes Gascoeing, in D-Mbs 7, Ju 2)
Missa ‘Mon mari ma diffamee’, 4vv, F-CA 4, I-Rvat C.S.26; ed. in MMN (in
preparation) (on Josquin's chanson)
Missa ‘Pourquoy non’, 4vv, F-CA 3, I-Rvat C.S.17, P.L.1982, NL-SH 75; ed. in MMN
(in preparation) (on La Rue's motet)
Missa supra ‘Benedictus’, 4vv, 15212 (on Févin's motet)
Missa super ‘Nigra sum’, 4vv, 15321, D-ROu 40, E-Tc Res.23, F-CA 4, NL-SH 75;
ed. in MMN (in preparation) (on own motet)
Missa ‘Ut fa’ (= Missa ‘Pourquoy non’)
Missa ‘Vos qui in turribus’, 4vv, F-CA 3
magnificat settings, motets
for 4 voices unless otherwise stated; selected sources given, all attributed to Gascongne
(complete list in Brobeck, 1991)
chansons
for 3 voices unless otherwise stated
Bouvons ma commere, 155322; Celle qui m'a demandé, GB-Cmc, ed. H.M. Brown,
Theatrical Chansons of the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge,
MA, 1963); D'amour je suis desheritée, 1578 15; Dessus l'herbe vert’ à l'escart,
157816; En ce joly temps gratieux, Cmc Pepys 1760; En contemplant la beauté de
m'amye, 157816; Et d'où venez vous madame Lucette, 4vv, 1535 9; Il fait bon dormir
en lit, 157815
J'ay dormy la matinée, 157815; Je my sçauroys chanter ne rire, 4vv, 15292, ed. in
MMRF, v (1897); Je voys, je viens, mon cueur s'en volle, Cmc, ed. H.M. Brown,
Theatrical Chansons (Cambridge, MA, 1963); Mon povre cueur, héllas, 4vv, 1529 2,
ed. in MMRF, v (1897); Pastourelle Dieu te doint joye, Cmc Pepys 1760; Pour
avoir faict au gré de mon amy, Cmc Pepys 1760; Robin, Robin viendras-tu à la
veille, 157815; Si j'eusse Marion, 4vv, Cmc Pepys 1760
Gasdia, Cecilia
(b Verona, 14 Aug 1960). Italian soprano. After winning the RAI Maria
Callas competition in 1981, she sang Giulietta (I Capuleti e i Montecchi) in
Florence. The following year she took over at short notice the title role of
Anna Bolena at La Scala, and sang Amina (La sonnambula) at S Carlo.
She has appeared throughout Europe and the USA, making her
Metropolitan début in 1986 as Gounod's Juliet. Her repertory includes
Verdi's Violetta, Gilda, Hélène (Jérusalem) and Desdemona; Puccini's
Lauretta, Mimì, Musetta and Liù, as well as Alice (Salieri's Falstaff), Nedda,
Teresa (Benvenuto Cellini) and Salome (Hérodiade). A specialist in bel
canto, Gasdia excels particularly in such roles as Rossini's Zelmira,
Armida, Hermione and Corinna (Il viaggio a Reims), all of which she has
recorded, and Bellini's Beatrice di Tenda. She has a well-schooled voice,
with a brilliant coloratura technique, and phrases stylishly.
ELIZABETH FORBES
Gaslini, Giorgio
(b Milan, 22 Oct 1929). Italian composer, pianist and conductor. Having
studied the piano from a young age, he began to appear at the age of 13
as a conductor and orchestral pianist specializing in light music, and in jazz
groups. After the war, while establishing himself as a jazz musician, he
completed his studies of the piano, composition and conducting at the
Milan Conservatory (with, among others, Renzo Bossi, Antonino Votto and
Giulini) and at the Accademia Musicale Chigiana, Siena (with Paul Van
Kempen). Active for many years as a conductor of various musical groups
and as a composer, his growing interest in jazz led him during the second
half of the 1950s to attempt to combine jazz and classical music
composition.
A key work was the octet Tempo e relazione (1957) – a piece in five
movements based on two 12-note series – and from that point on Gaslini
became recognized as a major figure of the Italian and wider jazz avant
garde. His music continued to be characterized by a determination to
integrate different idioms, including free jazz, serialism, pop and
electronics. Alongside this ‘multi-lingual’ approach, set apart from the
American Third Stream, he made manifest a political commitment to
working-class and student left-wing movements after 1968. Gaslini’s most
important works include the suite Nuovi sentimenti, with Don Cherry, Gato
Barbieri and Steve Lacy, and the jazz opera Colloquio con Malcolm X. He
has frequently collaborated with Max Roach, Antony Braxton and, latterly,
the Italian Instabile Orchestra. Gaslini has written a number of film scores,
including that to Antonioni’s La notte, and incidental music. He has also
been important as a teacher, giving the first jazz courses in Italian
conservatories, starting in Rome (1972), followed by Milan (1978). His
musical ideas are summarized in Musica totale (Milan, 1975) which
anticipates some of the most recent trends in overcoming ideological
barriers between musical styles.
WORKS
(selective list)
Stage: Jab (jazz pocket op), Sanremo, 1965; Una specialità delle Cantine Verità
(pocket op), Milan, 1967; Un quarto di vita (opera da strada, 2, Gaslini), Parma,
1968; Drakòn ballet, Palermo, 1969; Colloquio con Malcolm X (azione musicale, E.
Capriolo), Genoa, 1970; Contagio, ballet, Milan, 1971; Mister O (jazz melodrama, V.
Franchini), Verona, 1996; Carmen Graffiti, ballet, Milan, 1997
Orch: Serenata, double chbr orch, 1953; Canto della città inquieta da ‘Totale’, orch,
tape, 1965; Totale II, 1967; Sinfonia per un nuovo giorno, 1970
Jazz ens: Tempo e relazione, 1957; Oltre, 1963; Dall’alba all’alba, 1964; Nuovi
sentimenti, 1966; La stagione incantata, 1968; Grido, 1968; Jazz Mikrokosmos,
1968; Africa!, 1969; Jazz Makrokosmos, 1969; Message I–II, 1973; Fabbrica
occupata, 1973; Murales I–IV, 1976; Free Actions, 1977; Graffiti, 1977; Indian Suite,
1983; Schumann Reflections, 1984; Monodrama, 1984; Multipli, 1988; Ayler’s
Wings, 1991; Pierrot solaire, 1991; Lampi, 1994; Skies of Europe, 1995; Jelly’s
Back in Town, 1996
Vocal: Responsorio, solo vv, orch, 1951; Salmo XXIII, Bar, pf, 1951; La notte, 1v,
insts, 1952; Cronache seriali, 1v, insts, 1954; Logarithmos no.2, 1v, insts, 1956;
Mag, S, 3 insts, 1963; Donna (cant.), spkr, female chorus, insts, 1963; Totale I, S, T,
large orch, jazz ens, tape, 1966; La cena di Joe Trimalchio, solo vv, chorus, orch,
1972; 12 ballate (various texts), 1v, pf, 1974; Le ali ai piedi, S, spkr, chorus, orch,
1982; Battiti, chbr chorus, vn, 1994; Il brutto anatroccolo (after H.C. Andersen),
female v, spkr, orch, 1997; Storie di Sto (after S. Tofano), S, spkr, small chorus,
insts, 1997
Other inst: Logarithmos no.1, fl, perc, 1955; Logarithmos no.3, insts, 1957; Piccola
musica per archi, 1958; Chorus, fl, 1966; Segnali, ob, 1967; Myanmar Suite, 4 hp,
1993; Open Music, 2 pf, 1993; Chants-Songs, fl, pf, 1995
Gaspardini, Gasparo
(d ?Verona, c1714). Italian composer. His Sonate op.1 (Bologna, 1683), for
two violins, cello and organ continuo, place him as maestro di cappella at
Verona Cathedral, where he remained until 1714. The Sonate, while
favouring a four-movement plan, indicate that the alternation of slow and
fast tempos of the Corellian sonata was by no means generally accepted,
several concluding with extensive slow movements. Estienne Roger
published an op.2 set with the same instrumentation (Amsterdam, c1701).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Lesure: ‘La datation des premières éditions d’Estienne Roger’, GfMKB:
Bamberg 1953, 273–9
F. Lesure: Bibliographie des éditions musicales publiées par Estienne
Roger et Michel-Charles le Cène (Amsterdam 1696–1743) (Paris,
1969)
PETER ALLSOP
Gaspari, Gaetano
(b Bologna, 15 March 1807; d Bologna, 31 March 1881). Italian
musicologist, bibliographer and composer. From 1820 to 1827 he studied
with Benedetto Donelli at the Liceo Musicale in Bologna, where he won first
prizes in piano and counterpoint, and from 1824 to 1827 he was organist at
S Martino, Bologna. From 1828 to 1836 he was conductor of the municipal
orchestra and maestro di cappella of the Collegiata at Pieve di Cento. In
1836 he became maestro di cappella at Imola Cathedral. From there he
was recalled to Bologna in 1839 by his teacher, who was in poor health, to
replace him at the Liceo Musicale and in the direction of the cappella of S
Petronio. But because of special circumstances connected with the
reorganization of the Liceo – of which Rossini was then effectively in
control – and because of local opposition, he was unjustly deprived of the
succession and at first had to be content with the position of chorus master
at the Teatro Comunale. He then competed for and obtained the post of
solfeggio teacher at the Liceo and finally in 1856 won the office of librarian
and professor of music history in that institution, where he had for some
time been director in all but name. In 1857 he became maestro di cappella
at S Petronio. He was also a member of the Accademia Filarmonica of
Bologna.
Gaspari was admired as a composer of liturgical music and wrote many
scholarly works on the history of music in Bologna, most of which appeared
in the journals of the historical societies of Bologna and Modena between
1869 and 1880. He is most famous for his work in classifying the material
in the superb music library that he helped to form at the Liceo and which he
indexed in a handwritten Zibaldone musicale which formed the basis of the
Catalogo della Biblioteca del Liceo musicale di Bologna, i–iv (Bologna,
1890–1905/ R), v, ed. U. Sesini (Bologna, 1943/R). His collected writings
are published in Musica e musicisti a Bologna (Bologna, 1969).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Parisini: Elogio funebre del cav. prof. Gaetano Gaspari (Bologna, 1882);
repr. in BMB, section 3, xxxix (1970), 387–406
C. Sartori: Il Regio Conservatorio di musica ‘G.B. Martini’ di Bologna
(Florence, 1942), 72, 110
O. Mischiati: ‘L'organo della basilica di San Martino di Bologna capolavoro
di Giovanni Cipri’, L’organo, i (1960), 213–56
M. Tarrini: ‘Pier Costantino Remondini e le “tornate musicali” della Sezione
di Archeologia della Società ligure di storia patria (1875–76)’, Musica a
Genova tra Medio Evo e età moderna, ed. G. Buzelli (Genoa, 1992),
169–245
O. Mischiati: ‘La cappella musicale della Collegiata e gli organi delle
chiese: appunti per una storia’, Storia di Cento, ii (Cento, 1994), 827–
74
P. Bassi and C. Ariagno: Luigi Felice Rossi (Turin, 1994), 51–2
FABIO FANO/R
Gasparian, Djivan
(b Solak, Armenia, 12 Oct 1928). Armenian duduk player. He began to
teach himself to play the duduk (cylindrical double-reed instrument) at the
age of eight. He performed as a soloist with the State Ensemble of Song
and Dance of Armenia under the direction of T'at'ul Altunyan. In 1957 he
won prizes in the International Performers’ Competition at the 6th World
Festival of Youth and Students and the All-Union Competition for
Performers of Folk Instruments held in Moscow; he began touring in the
same year, subsequently performing in festivals and concerts throughout
Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia and North and South America, including the
Third Asian Music Rotrum of the International Music Council in 1973,
organised by UNESCO where he won first prize among the best musicians
of Asia and Africa. His virtuoso technique earned him the nickname ‘The
Magician of the duduk’. He also played the zurna, the shvi, the blul and the
clarinet.
In 1975 he played the duduk and the zurna with the Armenian PO in a
recording of Avet Terterian’s third symphony. He has also performed with
the LSO, Los Angeles PO and Zürich Tonhalle Orchestra. He was named
People’s Artist of Armenia in 1978 and began to teach the duduk at the
Yerevan Komitas State Conservatory in 1982; he graduated from the
Conservatory in 1985 and continued to teach there until 1993. He
collaborated with the Kronos Quartet on the CD Night Prayers (Elektra
Nonesuch 9 79346–2, 1994), and other musicians with whom he has
worked include Lionel Ritchie, Graeme Revell, Peter Gabriel and Michael
Brook. He contributed to the soundtracks of several films including The
Crow, The Russian House and Dead Man Walking. Several of his
recordings feature the duduk in genres not previously associated with the
instrument, including jazz.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
‘Discografiya armyanskoy monodicheskoy muzïki, 1916–89’ [Discography
of Armenian monodic music], Tradïtsionnïy fol'klor i sovremennïye
narodnïye khorï i ansambli [Traditional folklore and contemporary folk
choirs and ensembles], ed. V.A. Lapin (Leningrad, 1989), 175–246
I Will Not Be Sad in This World, Opal 9 25885–2 (1989)
Vision II (Spirit of Rumi), Angel Records (1997)
Black Rock, Real World (1998)
ALINA PAHLEVANIAN
Gasparini.
Italian family of musicians.
(1) Francesco Gasparini
(2) Paolo Lorenzo Gasparini
(3) Michelangelo [Michiel Angelo] Gasparini
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DENNIS LIBBY/ANGELA LEPORE (1: text) ANGELA LEPORE (1: work-
list, bibliography, 2, 3)
Gasparini
(1) Francesco Gasparini
(b Camaiore, nr Lucca, 19 March 1661; d Rome, 22 March 1727).
Composer and teacher. In 1682 he was active as organist at Madonna dei
Monti in Rome, where he probably studied with Corelli and Pasquini. He
was admitted to the Accademia Filarmonica, Bologna, as a singer on 27
June 1684, and as a composer on 17 May 1685. According to Hawkins, he
and his brother (3) Michelangelo Gasparini were living as pupils in
Legrenzi’s house in Venice in 1686, but in 1687 Francesco was taking part
in accademie in the Roman palace of Cardinal Benedetto Pamphili, both as
a violinist and as a composer of arias and cantatas to texts by Pamphili
himself. In 1689 he became a member of the Congregazione di S Cecilia
and also played in a revival for Pamphili of Lulier’s S Beatrice d’Este. At
this time he probably also met Alessandro Scarlatti, and the two were later
to demonstrate a mutual respect: Scarlatti sent his son Domenico to Venice
in 1705, where he had lessons from Gasparini, and the two exchanged
cantatas in 1712. Gasparini’s first known operas were Roderico and
Olimpia vendicata, both produced in 1686 at Livorno. In 1695 he published
a set of cantatas. He must by this time have achieved some reputation, as
on 5 June 1701 he was appointed to the important post of maestro di coro
at the Ospedale della Pietà, Venice, in which city he met Vivaldi, Legrenzi,
Pollarolo and Lotti. Gasparini was very successful in this post, which
involved directing all the conservatory’s musical activities. He expanded the
staff (he engaged Vivaldi as violin master) and by 1707 the conservatory
ranked as one of the best in Italy. With the move to Venice, Gasparini’s
career as an opera composer also began in earnest; often he wrote three
or four new works in a year, most of them first performed in Venice.
On 23 April 1713 Gasparini was given six months’ leave from the Pietà. He
never returned but settled again in Rome (operas produced at Florence in
Carnival and autumn 1715 may indicate an extended stay there). In July
1716 he succeeded Caldara as maestro di cappella to Prince Ruspoli, for
whom he worked until 1718, living in an apartment in the Piazza di S
Lorenzo in Lucina. In 1719 he transferred to a house owned by the
Borghese family, and he is described in librettos of the period as a virtuoso
‘del principe Borghese’. In 1718 he was admitted to the Arcadian Academy,
with the name Ericreo. In 1719 a marriage contract was signed between
his daughter and Metastasio (one of whose sonnets is addressed to
Gasparini), but for unknown reasons the engagement was soon broken off.
Gasparini’s production of new operas continued fairly steadily at Rome and
other cities until 1720. After that only a few new ones appeared, the last in
1724. In February 1725 he was named maestro di cappella at S Giovanni
in Laterano, but he did not take up the post until June 1786; his assistant
was Girolamo Chiti.
Gasparini at his best was a composer of the first rank. Burney’s description
of his cantatas – which are some of the most important of his time – as
‘graceful, elegant, natural, and often pathetic’ can be extended to much of
his other music. These qualities rested on a profound technical skill, most
obvious in the easy and frequent use of complicated canonic devices in his
church music but also apparent from the mastery of free counterpoint in his
other works (such as the set of brilliantly written chamber duets, in GB-Lbl).
The arias in Gasparini’s earlier operas are typical of the period in using a
variety of formal types, but mostly within a da capo format; some arias in
the later operas, however, show homophonic textures and melodic and
rhythmic traits that make them forerunners of the work of the next
generation. His recitatives were praised by Padre Martini; Haas saw him as
a model for Handel in his dramatic treatment of accompanied ones. His
sacred music includes works both in the strict style and in the modern
concerted style with independent instrumental parts. Some of the solo
sacred motets are virtually indistinguishable from his secular ones in form
(except for the concluding alleluia) and expressive character; but that was
typical of the time.
Gasparini was highly regarded as a teacher. Besides Domenico Scarlatti
his pupils included Quantz, Platti and Benedetto Marcello, who sent him his
Estro poetico-armonico for his criticism. L’armonico pratico is a practical
manual of figured bass accompaniment for beginners with some musical
knowledge. It was used throughout the 18th century, going into numerous
editions, the last in 1802, and remains an important source of information
about continuo realization at that time. Other theoretical essays by him
survive in manuscript.
Because of confusion with Gasparo Visconti, called ‘Gasparini’, it was long
thought that Francesco Gasparini had visited London in the first decade of
the 18th century; two of his operas were performed there in 1711 and 1712.
Chamber music published by Quirino Gasparini in the middle of the century
has also been wrongly attributed to him.
WORKS
Gasparini: (1) Francesco Gasparini
WORKS
music lost unless otherwise stated
operas
chamber cantatas
liturgical
instrumental
theoretical works
operas
drammi per musica in three acts unless otherwise stated: dates are of first performance
unless specified as dedication dates
chamber cantatas
for S and continuo unless otherwise stated
operas
drammi per musica unless otherwise stated
other works
S Vittoria (orat), D-Bsb
Cants., arias Bsb, Dl, ROu, W, I-Bc
Gasparini
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BurneyH
EitnerQ
FellererP
GerberL
HawkinsH
SartoriL
SchmidlD
SchmidlDS
L. Nerici: Storia della musica in Lucca (Lucca, 1879/R)
R. Haas: Musik des Barocks (Potsdam, 1928)
F.T. Arnold: The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass (London,
1931/R)
G. Marotti: ‘Quasi un incognito: il camaiorese Francesco Gasparini’,
Cenobio, xv (1966), 109–11
G. Rose: ‘A Fresh Clue from Gasparini on Embellished Figured-Bass
Accompaniment’, MT, cvii (1996), 28–9
A. Bonaccorsi: ‘Francesco Gasparini‘, Maestri di Lucca (Florence, 1967),
38
R.L. Pogemiller: Selected Works of Francesco Gasparini: Missa à quatro
voci à capella’ and ‘Messa concertata à più voci con istrumenti’ (diss.,
U. of Missouri, Kansas City, 1967)
A. Cavalli: ‘Le cantate opera prima di Francesco Gasparini’, Chigiana, xxv
(1968), 53–68
H.J. Marx: ‘Die Musik am Hofe Pietro Kardinal Ottobonis unter Arcangelo
Corelli’, AnMc, no.5 (1968), 104–77
M. Ruhnke: ‘Francesco Gasparinis Kanonmesse und der Palestrinastil’,
Musicae scientiae collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum
siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Cologne, 1973), 494
R. Strohm: Italienische Opernarien des frühen Settecento (1720–1730),
AnMc, no.16 (1976)
Francesco Gasparini: Camaiore 1978 [Quaderni della RaM, vi (1981)]
R. Strohm: ‘Ein Opernautograph von Francesco Gasparini?’, HJbMw, iii
(1978), 205–23; Eng. trans. in Essays on Handel and Italian Opera
(Cambridge, 1985), 106–21
R.L. and N. Weaver: A Chronology of Music in the Florentine Theater:
1590–1750 (Detroit, 1978)
R. Strohm: Die italienische Oper im 18. Jahrhundert (Wilhelmshaven,
1979)
C.E. Troy: The Comic Intermezzo: a Study in the History of Eighteenth-
Century Italian Opera (Ann Arbor, 1979)
F. Piperno: ‘Francesco Gasparini: le sue abitazioni romane, i suoi allievi
coabitanti (1717–1727)’, Esercizi: arte, musica, spettacolo, iv (1981),
104–15
A. Iesuè: ‘Francesco Gasparini nella capella musicale di S Giovanni in
Laterano’, NRMI, xvi (1982), 609–14
M. Ruhnke: ‘Scena buffa und Intermezzo bei Francesco Gasparini’,
Festschrift Heinz Becker, ed. J. Schläder and R. Quandt (Laaber,
1982), 58–66
R. Strohm: ‘Manoscritti di opere rappresentate a Venezia, 1701–1740’,
Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, iii (1982), 45–51
O. Mischiati: ‘Una statistica della musica a Roma nel 1694’, NA, new ser., i
(1983), 209–27
M. Ruhnke: ‘Zum Rezitativ der Opera seria vor Hasse’, Johann Adolf
Hasse und die Musik seiner Zeit: Siena 1983 [AnMc, no.25 (1987)],
159–86
G. Rostirolla: ‘Domenico Scarlatti e la Congregazione di S Cecilia’,
Händel e gli Scarlatti a Roma: Rome 1985, 191–250, esp. 205, 208,
228–9, 239
E. Simi Bonini: ‘L’attività degli Scarlatti nella Basilica Liberiana’, ibid, 153–
74
D. and E. Arnold: The Oratorio in Venice (London, 1986)
G. Staffieri: Colligite fragmenta: la vita musicale romana negli ‘Avvisi
Marescotti’ (1683–1707) (Lucca, 1991), 47
Gasparini, Quirino
(b Gandino, nr Bergamo, 1721; d Turin, 30 Sept 1778). Italian composer.
An abbé, he studied composition first with G.A. Fioroni, maestro di
cappella of Milan Cathedral, then with Martini (41 letters to Martini are in I-
Bc). According to a document in the capitular archives in Turin, he lived in
Brescia, Venice (as a maestro di cappella) and Bologna, where in 1751 he
became a member of the Accademia Filarmonica (test piece in I-Baf). His
opera Artaserse was performed in Milan in 1756. From 1758 he was music
master to Count D’Aziano of Vercelli, travelling in his retinue to Rome and
Naples. In 1759–60 he unsuccessfully sought the post of maestro di
cappella at S Maria Maggiore in Bergamo. In 1760 he was named maestro
di cappella of Turin Cathedral, where he worked until his death, devoting
himself mainly to the religious life of the city (the Liber diarius of the
Carmelites refers in several places to Gasparini’s contributions and in
particular reports that the feast of the Madonna del Carmine in 1764 was
celebrated ‘with grand music at High Mass and at Vespers by the famous
Abbé Gasparini, an excellent Venetian maestro di cappella’).
In 1767 Gasparini presented in Turin his opera Mitridate (to the libretto later
set by Mozart in Milan). A letter, dated 2 January 1771, from Leopold
Mozart to Martini relates that Mozart’s singers (among them the famous
Antonia Bernasconi) first wanted to use some arias and the duet ‘Se viver
non degg’io’ from Gasparini’s setting; in fact an aria of his (‘Vado incontro’,
Act 3) was in the event sung by Guglielmo d'Ettore, as Mithridates, and is
included in the standard Mozart text. Later that month the two Mozarts met
Gasparini in Turin; references in Leopold’s travel notes from 1771 and in
two letters from 1778 prove that the relationship was a good one. Further
proof of how much Gasparini was esteemed as a composer is the motet
Adoramus te (k327/Anh.A10), which was believed to have been written by
W.A. Mozart until 1922, when Hermann Spies discovered it to be a work of
Gasparini (in 1962 Wolfgang Plath proved that the copy had been made by
Leopold, not by Wolfgang, as had been thought). The same manuscript
contains the motet Plangam dolorem meum, also by Gasparini, whose
skilful treatment of the voices and full choral sound may have influenced
Mozart’s early religious music. Gasparini himself wrote texts for many of his
sacred works (especially the motets), paraphrasing the scriptures. Only a
few instrumental works survive, including two sets of trios published in
Paris and London. An unpublished concerto for harpsichord or organ tends
toward the galant style, but has an intensely pathetic slow movement in F
minor.
WORKS
Artaserse (op, P. Metastasio), Milan, Regio Ducal, 26 Dec 1756
Mitridate re di Ponto (op, V.A. Cigna-Santi), Turin, Regio, 31 Jan 1767; F-Pn; I-Tf
[lost, P-La]
Sacred: Stabat mater, 2 S, vns, b (?The Hague, c1770); Adoramus te, ed. M.
Mataranglo (Chicago, 1993); many unpubd, I-Td, incl. 11 masses, 3 Requiem,
Passio secundum Marcum, 15 ants, 9 Litanie alla vergine, 5 Miserere, 4 Laudate
pueri, 3 Lauda Sion, 3 Mag; others: A-Sd, D-Bsb, I-Ac, BGc, Gl, MOe, Vnm
Inst: 6 trio academici, 2 vn, vc, op.1 (Paris, c1755); 6 Trii, 2 vn, vc (London, c1760);
Vn Conc., D-DS; Conc., hpd/org, str orch, I-Gl; org sonatas, Bc, Nc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Raugel: ‘Quirino Gasparini’, RdM, xii (1931), 9–12
A. Geddo: Bergamo e la musica (Bergamo, 1958)
L.F. Tagliavini: ‘Quirino Gasparini and Mozart’, New Looks at Italian
Opera: Essays in Honor of Donald J. Grout, ed. W.W. Austin (Ithaca,
NY, 1968), 151–71 [incl. J.S. Mayr’s biography of Gasparini]
M.-T. Bouquet: Musique et musiciens à Turin de 1648 à 1775 (Turin, 1968,
and Paris, 1969)
GIORGIO PESTELLI
Gasperini, Guido
(b Florence, 7 June 1865; d Naples, 20 Feb 1942). Italian musicologist and
composer. He studied the cello with Jefte Sbolci and composition with
Guido Tacchinardi in Florence. Developing an interest in early music, he
gave several public lectures in Florence (1890–1903), which he repeated
elsewhere in Italy and which he published as Storia della musica. He held
posts as professor of music history and librarian at the Parma
Conservatory (1902–24) and librarian of the Naples Conservatory (1924–
35). While at Parma he formed and directed a schola cantorum. He also
founded the Associazione dei Musicologi Italiani (Ferrara, 1908), which in
1909 became part of the IMS but was disbanded after his death.
After two studies on the notation of 16th-century vocal and instrumental
music, Gasperini published his Storia della semiografia musicale (1905); he
was the only Italian working in this field at the time and one of few scholars
who had attempted a history of notation. In 1911 he began to edit one of
the most important bibliographical tools for the study of Italian music, a
catalogue of all the music in public and private libraries in the country,
which, working against Italian individualism, required the collaboration of
musicologists and librarians. By 1938 Gasperini had produced catalogues
for 15 cities; the series was discontinued by his death. His compositions
include a ballet and some chamber and vocal music from the years 1890–
95.
WRITINGS
Storia della musica (Florence, 1899)
Dell'arte di interpretare la scrittura della musica strumentale del
Cinquecento (Florence, 1902)
Dell'arte di interpretare la scrittura della musica vocale del Cinquecento
(Florence, 1902)
Storia della semiografia musicale (Milan, 1905/R1984 in BMB, section 2,
lix)
Gerolamo Frescobaldi (Ferrara, 1908)
ed.: Catalogo generale delle opere musicali teoriche e pratiche di autori
vissuti sino ai primi decenni del secolo XIX, esistenti nelle biblioteche
e negli archivi pubblici e privati d'Italia [in Assisi, Bologna, Ferrara,
Florence, Genoa, Modena, Naples, Parma, Pisa, Pistoia, Reggio
nell'Emilia, Turin, Venice, Verona, Vicenza] (Parma, 1911–38)
‘L'art musical italien au XIV siècle’, ‘La musique italienne au XV siècle’,
EMDC, I/ii (1913), 611–19, 620–36
I caratteri peculiari del melodramma italiano (Parma, 1913)
Il R. Conservatorio di musica in Parma (Parma, 1913)
‘Musicisti celebri alla corte dei Farnese: Claudio Merulo da Correggio e
Orazio Bassani da Cento’, Aurea Parma, iv (1920), 261–6
Cenno necrologico in memoria di Luciano Mistrali (Parma, 1923)
Le sonanti fucine dell'arte (Parma, 1923)
‘Sulle collezioni musicali esistenti presso le pubbliche biblioteche e i Loro
rapporti con gli studi internazionali di musicologica’, Congresso
mondiale delle biblioteche e di bibliografia I: Rome and Venice 1929,
iv, 241–4
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Barblan: ‘Ricordo di Guido Gasperini’, Chigiana, new ser., ii (1965), 75–
84
CAROLYN GIANTURCO
Gassenhauer
(from Ger. Gasse: ‘alley’ and hauen: ‘to hew or beat’, ‘to walk’).
A German street song or urban folksong. The term ‘Gassenhauer’ occurs in
a musical context as early as 1517 (Aventin: ‘Gassenhawer that are played
on the lute’) and in a title in 1535 (Christian Egenolff's Gassenhawerlin).
Hans Sachs mentioned the Gassenhauer along with other types of song
(psalms, songs of love and war etc.) in the preface to a conspectus of his
poems in 1567 (Summa all meiner Gedicht vom MDXIII. Jar an bis in 1567
Jar), implying that by that date it was a recognized category. Indeed, the
word had been defined by J. Maaler in Die teütsch Spraach (Zürich, 1561)
as ‘a low song sung in the street, a street song’. Before the term ‘Volkslied’
became widely known (it was coined by Herder in 1773), Gassenhauer
was often used in a broad sense to refer to popular or folk melodies,
although 17th- and 18th-century usage normally indicates that the writer
considered the term synonymous with nocturnal street serenades (cf the
16th-century Kassaten, Gassatim or Gassatum, from which are probably
derived Gassatio and Cassatio: ‘cassation’; Praetorius mentioned
Gassaten in Syntagma musicum, iii, 1618). Gassenhauer is now generally
but not invariably used in a pejorative sense for a song popular among city-
dwellers, a usage clearly attested in J.C. Adelung's late 18th-century
German dictionaries, and in T. Heinsius's Volkthümliches Wörterbuch (ii,
Hanover, 1819, 288), where it is defined as ‘a usually low [schlechtes] or
very well-known song sung on the streets by the populace [Pöbel]’. The
term is probably most familiar from Beckmesser's intended criticism of
Sachs in Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, Act 1 (‘Gassenhauer dichtet er
meist’).
There were several attempts in Germany in the 20th century to describe
and define the relationship between Gassenhauer, Volkslied and Schlager
(‘hit’), and although no general agreement was reached, the most fruitful
attempts were those that sought to integrate considerations of purpose,
and sociological and historical significance, with purely philological
considerations. The Schlager (a term first used in 1881) is normally
ephemeral; the Gassenhauer, too, usually has a rather short life, although
some examples share the longevity of the Volkslied. Sociological
considerations provide the firmest basis for a distinction between the street
song and the folksong. The former is by its nature urban, the latter rural; by
extension, the former is artificially promulgated, the latter naive and
traditional. The social connotations of the three song types permit only
certain transfers of repertory: a Volkslied can become a Gassenhauer
(frequently after a process of adaptation and regularization) but a
Gassenhauer cannot become a Volkslied. A Gassenhauer can, however,
become a Schlager, while a Volkslied cannot, except at the price of loss of
integrity.
Early German operas from Hamburg show many examples of the
closeness of the aria or song to the Gassenhauer, particularly in the frankly
popular style of many of the melodies in comic scenes. Keiser's preface to
his Almira arias (1706) complains of ‘students of theatrical composition
who take pleasure in the invention of a Gassenhauer by village fiddlers,
their colleagues’, a reference apparently aimed at Handel. Many songs by
Postel, Keiser and others found their way into the streets via broadsheets
and songsheets. The songs that Bach combined in the final quodlibet of his
Goldberg Variations were Gassenhauer, and Sperontes' immensely
popular collection of songs, the four-volume Singende Muse an der Pleisse
(Leipzig, 1736–45), contains a whole series of popular melodies, including
dances, songs and instrumental numbers.
Several songs from the Singspiele of Hiller and his contemporaries likewise
took on the broad familiarity of the street song, as had songs from the
Viennese popular theatre of the time of Kurz-Bernardon and Philipp Hafner.
There are many later examples of songs becoming Gassenhauer from the
scores of Wenzel Müller, Kauer and other minor masters of the Singspiel,
continuing at least until the time of Flotow, Lortzing and Suppé. The
popular style and moralizing tone of some of these examples bring them
close to the Bänkelgesang (fairground singers' ballads and moral tales in
music).
The Bridesmaids' Chorus from Der Freischütz, which Weber headed
‘Volkslied’ in the score because it is based on a popular dance, is an
example of an operatic number that rapidly became a Gassenhauer – as
readers of Heine's Briefe aus Berlin (1822) will recall. Examples of coarser
urban songs from the first quarter of the 19th century that achieved great
popularity are O du lieber Augustin and Ein Schüsserl und ein Reinerl in
Vienna; in the previous century Malbruk s'en va t'en guerre enjoyed
widespread fame. Apart from being quoted or used as the basis for sets of
variations by many composers (e.g. Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven and
Hummel), these Gassenhauer were frequently provided with new and
sometimes absurdly unsuitable texts. The range of the street song is
extremely wide, from melodies of distinction to banal and sentimental
ditties in their music, and from simple, direct storytelling via satire to
bathos, prurience or obscenity in their texts. Many Gassenhauer have a
catchy refrain (in this respect they are close to the couplet); the
Bänkelgesang may also have such a refrain, but its text is meant to be
taken seriously, for it carries a moral message of actual relevance, while in
the Gassenhauer story or moral is incidental, if present at all.
In the course of the 19th century industrialization and the growth of urban
communities exaggerated the distinction between Volkslied and
Gassenhauer. The latter continued to derive from the more popular
melodies of serious composers, especially songs from Singspiele and
operettas, as well as from marches and dances. Although both text and
melody were occasionally taken over into Gassenhauer, the more usual
practice was to equip the chosen melody with new words, usually either
sentimental or crassly inappropriate. These fresh and often witty parodies
are well represented in Lukas Richter's invaluable study of the Berlin
Gassenhauer. Even the 20th-century use of mechanical methods of
disseminating music, such as radio, gramophone and cheap sheet music,
did not prevent the continuation of local Gassenhauer traditions – the
Viennese Gassenhauer tended to be quite different from those of Berlin,
Munich or Cologne. Perhaps the clearest distinction between the street
song and the popular hit song is that the former is local and frequently
nostalgic (referring to ‘die gute alte Zeit’), while the latter prides itself on
what may at times be a spurious modernity.
Although some research has been done into the street songs of particular
cities, there is no full-scale study of the subject. In all the main centres,
however, there are clear links between the Gassenhauer and opera or
Singspiel songs, dances and marches; from the 1850s onwards the
operettas of Offenbach were a particularly favourite source of street songs.
The most tuneful melodies of the latest hit were equipped with racy texts
that usually had no connection at all with their original situation. Although
the long history of the Gassenhauer is probably of more interest to the
sociologist than to the music historian, the best examples have a vitality,
directness of expression and even memorability that compel attention.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KretzschmarG
MGG1 (K. Gudewill)
A. Reissmann: Das deutsche Lied in seiner historischen Entwicklung
(Kassel, 1861)
J. and W. Grimm: Deutsches Wörterbuch, iv/i/1 (Leipzig, 1878/R), 1449–
50
F.M. Böhme, ed.: Volksthümliche Lieder der Deutschen im 18. und 19.
Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1895/R)
A. Kopp: ‘Der Gassenhauer auf Marlborough’, Euphorion, vi (1899), 276–
89
W. Tappert: ‘Gassenhauer’, Bühne und Welt, vi (1904), 802
A. Penkert: Das Gassenlied (Leipzig, 1911)
H. Naumann: ‘Gassenhauer’, Reallexikon der deutschen
Literaturgeschichte, ed. P. Merker and W. Stammler (Berlin, 1925–31,
rev. 2/1955–88 by W. Kohlschmidt and W. Mohr)
J. von Pulikowski: Geschichte des Begriffes Volkslied im musikalischen
Schrifttum (Heidelberg, 1933/R)
W. Wiora: Das echte Volkslied (Heidelberg, 1950)
P. Mies: Das kölnische Volks- und Karnevalslied (Cologne, 1951, 2/1964)
E. Janda and F. Nötzoldt: Die Moritat vom Bänkelsang, oder Das Lied der
Strasse (Munich, 1959)
W.V. Ruttkowski: Das literarische Chanson in Deutschland (Berne, 1966)
L. Richter: Der Berliner Gassenhauer: Darstellung, Dokumente,
Sammlung (Leipzig, 1969)
G. Salvetti: ‘Musiche nelle contrade: annotazioni sul Gassenhauer in area
viennese’, Danubio: una civiltà musicale, ii: Austria, ed. C. De
Incontrera and B. Schneider (Trieste, c1992), 261–78
PETER BRANSCOMBE
WRITINGS
‘Aproximación a Santiago de Murcia y la guitarra barroca’, Ritmo, no.524
(1983), 14–18
La música contemporánea a través de la obra de J.M. Mestres Quadreny
(Oviedo, 1983)
‘Andrés Segovia’, Revista musical catalana, xxxv (1987), 5–7
Luis Milán: on Sixteenth-Century Performance Practice (Bloomington, IN,
1996)
‘Algunos elementos para la evaluación de un lenguaje musical’,
Miscelánea en homenaje a Oriol Martorell, ed. X. Aviñoa (Barcelona,
forthcoming)
El círculo Manuel de Falla de Barcelona (Paris, forthcoming)
FRANCESC TAVERNA-BECH
Gasser, Ulrich
(b Frauenfeld, 19 April 1950). Swiss composer and flautist. He studied the
flute at the Winterthur Conservatory, continued his studies with André
Jaunet at the Zürich Conservatory, and was taught composition by Klaus
Huber at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik, Freiburg. Besides his
activities as a composer he teaches at the Kreuzlingen teacher training
college. He is a member of the Zürich Composers’ Secretariat and since
1994 has been chairman of Schweizer Musik Edition. His name soon
became known through his participation in large festivals (including
Donaueschingen, Kassel, Venice and the Darmstadt summer courses) and
his awards for composition in several competitions (including the first prize
of the Stuttgart Bach Academy in 1985).
Gasser’s compositions are consistently marked by extra-musical features,
which are not motivated by a programmatic function but aim to extend the
tonal language. Many of his pieces have been inspired by literary texts and
by works of visual art; the ‘sounding stones’ of the Swiss sculptor Arthur
Schneiter have featured in his work several times since the end of the
1980s. Almost half his works are on spiritual subjects, with the Passion of
Christ occupying a central position, while liturgical works are more
marginal. From his early works onwards Gasser has employed strict
systems of composition, and since the 1980s he has applied them to
consonant intervals, so that his later works often convey effects of tonal
colour. He was awarded the Thurgau cultural prize in 1991 for his oratorio
Der vierte König, from the story of the same name by Edzard Schaper.
WORKS
(selective list)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
U. Mahler: ‘Ulrich Gasser: 12 Bicinien (1982) für 2 Altblockflöten
(Querflöten)’, Üben und Musizieren, iii (1986)
R. Brotbeck: ‘Ausstein: Versuch einer Laudation für Ulrich Gasser’,
Dissonanz, no.32 (1992), 13–16
J.-P. Amann: ‘Ulrich Gasser’, Musique pour une fin de siècle: vingt
entretiens avec des compositeurs suisses (Yverdon, 1994), 40–45
R. Brotbeck: ‘Ausstein: Versuch über/zu Ulrich Gasser’, Musik und Kirche,
lxvi (1996), 23–7
PATRICK MÜLLER
Edition: Florian Leopold Gassmann: Kirchenwerke, ed. F. Kosch, DTÖ, lxxxiii, Jg. xlv
(1938/R) [K]
operas
Merope (os, 3, A. Zeno), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1757, music lost except ov. and 1
aria, I-MAav, S-Skma, US-Wc; ov. ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. B, x (New
York, 1981)
Issipile (os, 3, P. Metastasio), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1758, A-Wn; ov. ed. H.C.R.
Landon, Diletto musicale, no.28 (1966)
Gli uccellatori (dg, 3, C. Goldoni), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1759, Wn, I-Fc, P-La
Filosofia ed amore (dg, 3, Goldoni), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1760, A-Wn, I-Fc
Catone in Utica (os, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Samuele, 29 April 1761, music lost
except 1 aria, D-Dl
Ezio (os, 3, Metastasio), Florence, Pergola, 1761; rev. Rome, Dame, carn. 1770, A-
Wn
Un pazzo ne fa cento (dg, 3), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1762, A-Wn, DK-Kk
L'olimpiade (os, 3, Metastasio), Vienna, Kärntnertor, 18 Oct 1764, A-Wn, I-Nc, US-
Wc
Il trionfo d’amore (azione teatrale, 1, Metastasio), Vienna, Schönbrunn, 25 Jan
1765, D-Bsb, A-Wn
Achille in Sciro (os, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, spr. 1766, Wn,
P-La, US-Wc
Il viaggiatore ridicolo (dg, 3, Goldoni), Vienna, Kärntnertor, 25 May 1766, A-Wn, CZ-
K, D-Bsb, W, DK-Kk, F-Pn, I-Nc
L’amore artigiano [Die Liebe unter den Handwerksleuten] (ob, 3, Goldoni), Vienna,
Burg, 26 April 1767, A-Wn, CZ-K, D-Bsb, Rtt, DK-Kk, H-Bn, I-Fc, Nc, P-La
Amore e Psiche (os, 3, M. Coltellini), Vienna, Burg, 5 Oct 1767, A-Wgm, Wn (facs.
in IOB lxxxvii, 1983), I-Nc
La notte critica [Die unruhige Nacht] (ob, 3, Goldoni), Vienna, Burg, 5 Jan 1768, A-
Wgm*, Wn
L’opera seria (commedia per musica, 3, R. de Calzabigi/Metastasio), Vienna, Burg,
1769, Wn (facs. in IOB, lxxxix, 1982), P-La
La contessina [Die junge Gräfin] (dg, 3, Coltellini, after Goldoni), Mährisch-
Neustadt, 3 Sept 1770, Wn, B-Bc, CZ-K, D-SWl, F-Pn, I-Fc, MOe, Nc, P-La; ed. in
DTÖ, xlii–xliv, Jg.xxi/1 (1914/R)
Il filosofo inamorato (dg, 3, Coltellini, after Goldoni: Filosofia ed amore), Vienna,
Burg, 1771, A-Wn
Le pescatrici (dg, 3, Goldoni), Vienna, Burg, 1771, Wn
Don Quischott von Mancia [Act 3] (commedia, 3, G.B. Lorenzi), Vienna, Burg, 1771
[Acts 1 and 2 by Paisiello]
I rovinati (commedia, 3, G.G. Boccherini), Vienna, Burg, 23 June 1772, Wn, I-Fc
(inc.)
La casa di campagna (dg, 3, Boccherini), Vienna, Burg, 13 Feb 1773, A-Wn
Contribs. to: B. Galuppi: Il villano geloso; N. Piccinni: Le finte gemelle; P. Anfossi:
Lo sposo di tre e marito di nessuna; A. Sacchini: L'isola d'amore
other vocal
thematic catalogue of sacred music in Kosch, 1924
instrumental
thematic catalogue in Hill, 1976 [H]
Orch: 33 syms., 1 ed. K. Geiringer (Vienna, 1933), 1 ed. L. Somfai, Musica rinata,
xviii (1970), 6 ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. B, x (New York, 1981); 27 op
ovs.; fl conc.; 6 orch minuets arr. from str qts; 3 sets of ballet music, 1 inc.; 12 other
works known only from incipits; 24 syms., 1765–9 (h21–6, 41–6, 61–6, 81–6), CZ-
Bm (autographs), copies in A-Wn, CZ-Bm, Pnm
Chbr: 10 wind qnts; 8 str qnts (h501–6 pubd as op.2, 1772); 37 str qts (h431–6
pubd as op.1, 441–2, 435, 444–6 as op.2, 451–6 pubd 1804), 1 ed. K. Šolc
(Prague, 1957), 1 ed. in MVH, xlv (1980), 3 ed. in RRMCE, xvi (1983); 26 fugues,
str qt; 9 qts, fl/ob, str (h481–6 pubd as op.1, 1769), 3 ed. MVH, xxvii (1971), 1 ed.
H. Töttcher (Hamburg, 1962) and F. Schroeder (Berlin, 1967), 2 ed. in RRMCE, xvi
(1983); 37 str trios, 1 ed. E. Schenk, Hausmusik, no.161, 1954 (= Diletto musicale,
no.454, 1969), 2 ed. in HM, ccxlvii (1988), 3 ed. in RRMCE, xvi (1983); 12 fugues,
str trio; 7 trios, fl, str, 6 ed. H. Albrecht, Organum, xlv, xlviii, li, liii, lv, lviii (1950–57), 1
ed. F. Nagel, Hausmusik, no.156 (1977); wind trio ed. K. Janetzky (Adliswil, 1982);
7 str duos; 16 arrs. for qnt; 5 other works; principal MS sources: A-Sca, Wgm, Wn,
CZ-Pnm, D-Bsb, Mbs, H-Bn, I-Mc, MOe, Vnm, S-Skma, US-Wc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BurneyGN
ES (W. Bollert)
GerberL
GroveO (J. Kosman)
I. von Born: Effigies virorum eruditorum atque artificum Bohemiae et
Moraviae (Prague, 1773–5)
F.M. Pelzel: Abbildungen böhmischer und mährischer Gelehrten und
Künstler (Prague, 1773–7)
J. Sonnleithner: ‘Biographische Skizze über Florian Leopold Gassmann’,
Wiener Theateralmanach für das Jahr 1795, 31–56
G. Donath: ‘Florian Leopold Gassmann als Opernkomponist’, SMw, ii
(1914), 34–211
F. Kosch: Florian Leopold Gassmann als Kirchenkomponist (diss., U. of
Vienna, 1924)
E. Leuchter: Die Kammermusik Florian Leopold Gassmanns (diss., U. of
Vienna, 1926)
F. Kosch: ‘Florian Leopold Gassmann als Kirchenkomponist’, SMw, xiv
(1927), 213–40
K. Vetterl: ‘Bohumír Rieger a jeho doba’ [Bohumír Rieger and his times],
Časopis matice moravské, liii (1929), 46–86, 435–500
J. Pohanka: ‘Bohemika v zámecké hudební sbírce z Náměště n. Osl.’,
ČMm, xlviii (1963), 235–60
G.R. Hill: The Concert Symphonies of Florian Leopold Gassmann (1729–
1774) (diss., New York U., 1975)
G.R. Hill: A Thematic Catalog of the Instrumental Music of Florian Leopold
Gassmann (Hackensack, NJ, 1976)
R. Strohm: ‘Gassmann: La contessina’, Die italienische Oper im 18.
Jahrhundert (Wilhelmshaven, 1979), 278–90
B.C. MacIntyre: The Viennese Concerted Mass of the Early Classic
Period: History, Analysis and Thematic Catalogue (diss., CUNY, 1984)
D.C. Bradley: Judith, Maria Theresa, and Metastasio: a Cultural Study
Based on Two Oratorios (diss., Florida State U., 1985)
M.J. Suderman: Florian Leopold Gassmann's Requiem: a Critical Edition
and Conductor's Analysis (DMA diss., U. of Iowa, 1990)
A. Sommer-Mathis: Tu felix Austria nube: Hochzeitsfeste der Habsburger
im 18. Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1994)
D. Heartz: Haydn, Mozart and the Viennese School, 1740–1780 (New
York, 1995)
GEORGE R. HILL (with JOSHUA KOSMAN)
sacred vocal
Sacre lodi a diversi santi con una canzona al … S Francesco, 5vv (1587)
Psalmi ad vesperas in totius anni solemnitatibus, 4vv (1588 7)
Completorium ad usum S Romanae Ecclesiae perfectum sacraeque; illae laudes,
quibus divinum terminatur officium, 4vv (1589)
Sacra omnium solemnitatum vespertina psalmodia, cum beatae virginis cantico,
alternis versiculis concinenda, 6vv (1593)
Completorium perfectum ad usum Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae sacraeque illae
laudes, quibus divinum terminatur officium … liber secundus, 4vv (1597)
Magnificat per omnes tonos, videlicet primus, & secundus chorus, 4vv (1597)
Integra omnium solemnitatum vespertina psalmodia, cum cantico beatae virginis,
5vv (2/1600)
Messe … libro primo, 5, 8vv (1600)
Tutti li salmi che nelle solennita dell'anno al vespro si cantano, con duoi cantici della
Beata Vergine uno del settimo tuono, & uno del secondo tuono, che risponde in
eco, 8vv (2 choirs) (1601); Magnificat ed. in AMI, ii (1897/R)
Missarum … liber primus, 4vv (1602)
Vespertina omnium solemnitatum psalmodia … liber secundus, 5vv (1602)
Messe et motetti … libro primo, 8vv, org, op.30 (1607)
Salmi intieri che nelle solennita dell'anno al vespro si cantano, con il cantico della
Beata Virgine … libro secondo, 6vv, bc (org) (1607)
Officium defunctorum integrum, 4vv (1607)
Salmi per tutti li vespri de l'anno, commodi, & facili per introdure i figliuoli a cantare
in compagnia, 2vv (1609)
Salmi per tutto l'anno, 5vv, bc (ad lib) (Bologna, 1673) [repr. of vol. now lost]
Psalm, 5vv; 2 litanies, 8vv, bc; 3 motets; 12 other works: 1592 3, 160813, 16141,
16196
Missa die Jovis, 5vv; Passione secondo S Giovanni, 6vv; falsobordone: I-MAc, Mc
secular vocal
Canzoni … libro primo, 5vv (1581)
Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (1588)
Il secondo libro de madrigali, … con un dialogo, & una mascherata, 5, 7, 10vv
(1589)
Balletti, 5vv, con li suoi versi per cantare, sonare, & ballare; con una mascherata de
cacciatori, 6vv, & un concerto de pastori, 8vv (1591); ed. in Le pupitre, x (Paris,
1968); ed. H.C. Schmidt (New York, 1970)
Il primo libro de madrigali, con una danza de pastori, 6, 8vv (1592); 2 ed. in AMI, ii
(1897/R)
Canzonette, con un baletto nel fine, 3vv (1592, repr. 1595 as Canzonette … libro
primo)
Balletti, con la intavolatura del liuto, per cantare, sonare, & ballare, 3vv (1594)
Canzonette … libro secondo, 3vv (1595, repr. 1615 17 incl. works by A. Savioli); ed.
G. Vecchi (Bologna, 1959)
Il terzo libro de madrigali, 5, 6, 8vv (1598)
Il quarto libro de madrigali, 5, 9vv (1602); 1 ed. in NewcombMF
Concenti musicali con le sue sinfonie, commodi per concertare con ogni sorte di
stromenti, 8vv (160421)
Italian texted works, 158811, 158818, 158819, 159011, 159211, 159214, 15986, 16048,
160512, 16066, G. de Wert: Il duodecimo libro de madrigali (1608)
instrumental
Il primo libro della musica, 2vv (Milan, 1598 13)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BertolottiM
EinsteinIM
FenlonMM
KermanEM
NewcombMF
F. Picinelli: Ateneo dei letterati milanese (Milan, 1670), 302
P. Canal: Della musica in Mantova (Venice, 1881), 36–7
R. Schwartz: ‘Hans Leo Hassler unter dem Einfluss der italiänischen
Madrigalisten’, VMw, ix (1893), 1–61
K. Jeppesen: ‘The Recently Discovered Mantova Masses of Palestrina: a
Provisional Communication’, AcM, xxii (1950), 36–47
D. Arnold: ‘Gastoldi and the English Ballett’, MMR, lxxxvi (1956), 44–52
P.M. Tagmann: Archivalische Studien zur Musikpflege am Dom von
Mantua (1500–1627) (Berne, 1967)
K. Jeppesen: ‘Monteverdi, Kappelmeister an S. Barbara?’, Claudio
Monteverdi e il suo tempo, Venice, Mantua and Cremona 1968, 313–
22
P.M. Tagmann: ‘La cappella dei maestri cantori della basilica palatina di
Santa Barbara a Mantova (1565–1630)’, Civiltà mantovana, iv (1970),
376–400
D. Crawford: ‘The Francesco Sforza Manuscript at Casale Monferrato’,
JAMS, xxiv (1971), 457–62
R.A. Rasch: ‘The Balletti of Giovanni Giacomo Gastoldi and the Musical
History of the Netherlands’, TVNM, xxiv/2 (1974), 112–45
O. Beretta: ‘Documenti inediti su Giovanni Giacomo Gastoldi scoperti negli
archivi mantovani’, RIMS, xiv (1993), 270–77
O. Beretta: ‘Giovanni Giacomo Gastoldi: Profilo biografico’, RIMS, xvi
(1995), 121–41
I. Fenlon: ‘Guarini, de' Sommi and the Pre-History of Italian Danced
Spectacle’, Leone de' Sommi and the Performing Arts, ed. A. Belkin
(Tel-Aviv, 1997), 49–65
IAIN FENLON (text, bibliography), DENIS ARNOLD/R (work-list)
Gaston Fébus, 3rd Count of Foix
and 11th of Béarn
(b 1331; d 1391). French patron. A relatively large number of pieces were
addressed to him by 14th-century composers. In addition, he is credited
with the composition of a Pyrenean folksong, but this ascription is purely
traditional. He was a ruthless fighter and politician with wide interests: his
passion for hunting caused him to write a book on the subject, and
Froissart went to his court to read to him during the winter months. It is
significant, however, that the ballades, rondeaux and virelais interpolated in
Froissart’s Méliador were what pleased the count most. In the second half
of the 14th century these poems, especially in musical settings,
represented the latest fashion. This is doubtless why four of the pieces
addressed to Gaston are ballades. Two have his motto, ‘Febus avant’, in
the refrain. Others (like Phiton, Phiton) hint more indirectly at his domain or
enemies. All four appear in a manuscript (F-CH 564) related to the Avignon
composers and those who visited the small states on both sides of the
Pyrenees.
In addition, three motets were addressed to Gaston: two of them, from the
Ivrea manuscript (I-IV), probably date from the 1360s. The third, Inter
densas deserti/Imbribus irriguis/Admirabile est nomen tuum, however, is
unusually complex and hardly likely to have been written before 1380: it is
virtually a set of variations on the short tenor, which is repeated seven
times, each time with a new rhythm.
Instruments were popular with Gaston: King John I of Aragon had to beg
him to return some of his minstrels who were, naturally enough, players of
the principal dance instruments such as the shawm and bagpipe. Gaston
also, according to Froissart, enjoyed unusual entremets (mimed
entertainments which included music).
WORKS ADDRESSED TO GASTON
motets
Altissonis aptatibus/In principes/Tenor tonans, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, v (1968)
Febus mundo oriens/Lanista vipereus/Cornibus equivocis, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, v
(1968)
Inter densas deserti/Imbribus irriguis/Admirabile est nomen tuum, 4vv, H, ed. in
CMM, xxxix (1965) [with solus tenor facilitating performance by 3 voices]
ballades
Magister Franciscus: Phiton, Phiton, beste tres venimeuse, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, xviii–
xix (1981–2), W. Apel, French Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, i
(Amsterdam, 1970)
Jo. Cunelier: Se Galaas, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, xviii–xix (1981–2), W. Apel, French
Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, i (Amsterdam, 1970)
Trebor: Se July Cesar, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, xviii–xix (1981–2), W. Apel, French
Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, i (Amsterdam, 1970)
Anon: Le mont Aon de Trace, 3vv, ed. in PMFC, xviii–xix (1981–2), W. Apel, French
Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, ii (Amsterdam, 1971)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StrohmR
G. Reaney: ‘The Manuscript Chantilly, Musée Condé 1047’, MD, viii
(1954), 59–113
P. Tucoo-Chala: Gaston Fébus et le vicomté de Béarn (Bordeaux, 1960)
U. Günther: ‘Eine Ballade auf Mathieu de Foix’, MD, xix (1965), 69–81
U. Günther: ‘Problems of Dating in Ars Nova and Ars Subtilior’, La musica
al tempo di Boccaccio e i suoi rapporti con la letteratura: Siena and
Certaldo 1975 [L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iv (Certaldo, 1978)],
289–301
GILBERT REANEY
Gastoué, Amédée(-Henri-Gustave-
Noël)
(b Paris, 19 March 1873; d Clamart, Seine, 1 June 1943). French
musicologist. He studied the piano with Adolphe Deslandres, the organ
with Alexandre Guilmant (at the Paris Conservatoire and then the Schola
Cantorum), harmony with Albert Lavignac and composition with Albéric
Magnard. Joseph Pothier and Charles Bordes awakened his interest in
ecclesiastical chant, and in 1896 he became editor of the Revue du chant
grégorien (until 1905). The Schola Cantorum’s own journal, the Tribune de
St Gervais, published articles by Gastoué from 1897 (he was its secretary
for over 20 years), and in 1898 he began lecturing at the Schola Cantorum
on chant. He was appointed precentor of the sister foundation of the
Schola Cantorum in Avignon in 1899, and was able to carry out research in
libraries of that area; when recalled to Paris by d’Indy he extended the
scope of his lectures and publications to include later medieval music. In
1911 he became a lecturer at the Institut Catholique and succeeded
Pothier as professor at the Petit Collège Stanislas, a post he held until the
year of his death. He also taught at the Lycée Montaigne (1904–14) and
the Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales, where Romain Rolland was
director. From 1934 to 1937 he was president of the Société Française de
Musicologie.
Gastoué’s work on chant was early recognized to be of major importance,
and in 1905 Pope Pius X appointed him consultant to the commission
under Pothier for the new Vatican edition of liturgical books; he was made a
Knight of the Order of St Gregory in 1908. His book Les origines du chant
romain (1907) was awarded the prize of the Académie des Inscriptions et
Belles Lettres; other awards included the Institut Catholique’s Bernier Prize
(1935) and the Légion d’Honneur (1938).
Gastoué wrote numerous manuals of practical instruction on chant and did
important work on the relationship between Gregorian and older chant
repertories. He was one of the first musicologists to stress the oriental
rather than Hellenistic origins of Gregorian chant, making important
observations, for example, on the Syrian riš-qolo and the development of
hymnody, the chant of Gnostic sects, the Jewish origin of the tonus
peregrinus, recitation cadence formulae, and the relationship between
Gregorian, Ambrosian and synagogal traditional in the verses of graduals.
Although some of his work on Byzantine music, particularly as regards
transcription, has been superseded, his documentary studies were of first
importance. Besides his editions of plainsong, Gastoué made modern
editions of a wide range of medieval, Renaissance and Baroque music. He
was also a prolific composer, particularly of sacred choral music. Of his
large-scale works, an opera Jeanne d’Arc and an oratorio Les mystères du
Rosaire (on his own text) were published.
WRITINGS
‘Les anciens chants liturgiques des églises d'Apt et d'Avignon’, Revue du
chant grégorien, x (1902), 152–60, 166–70
Cours théorique et pratique du plain-chant romain grégorien (Paris, 1904,
2/1917)
Histoire du chant liturgique à Paris, i: Des origines à la fin des temps
carolingiens (Paris, 1904)
‘La musique à Avignon et dans le Comtat du XIVe au XVIIIe siècle’, RMI, xi
(1904), 265–41; xii (1905), 555–78, 768–77; repr. in La vie musicale
dans les provinces françaises, iv (Geneva, 1980), 179–237
Introduction à la paléographie musicale byzantine: catalogue des
manuscrits de musique byzantine de la Bibliothèque nationale de
Paris et des bibliothèques publiques de France (Paris, 1907)
Les origines du chant romain: l’antiphonaire grégorien (Paris, 1907/R)
Nouvelle méthode pratique de chant grégorien (Paris, 1909)
Traite d’harmonisation du chant grégorien sur un plan nouveau (Lyon,
1910)
L’art grégorien (Lyons, 1911, 3/1920/R)
La musique d’église (Lyons, 1911)
Variations sur la musique d’église (Paris, 1912)
‘La musique byzantine et le chant des Eglises d’Orient’, ‘La musique
occidentale [au Moyen Age]’, EMDC, I/i (1913), 541–56, 556–81
Le graduel et l’antiphonaire romains: histoire et description (Lyons, 1913/R)
‘Three Centuries of French Mediaeval Music’, MQ, iii (1917), 173–88
L’orgue en France, de l’antiquité au début de la période classique (Paris,
1921)
Les primitifs de la musique française (Paris, 1922)
Le cantique populaire en France (Lyons, 1924)
‘Chant juif et chant grégorien’, Revue du chant grégorien, xxxiv (1930),
157–63; xxxv (1931), 9–13, 52–4, 70–74, 113–17, 129–33
‘Le motet’, EMDC, II/v (1930), 3015–45
Solfège vocal grégorien (Paris, 1932)
‘Notes sur les manuscrits et sur quelques oeuvres de M.-A. Charpentier’,
Mélanges de musicologie offerts à M. Lionel de La Laurencie (Paris,
1933), 153–64
ed., with others: La musique française du Moyen-Age à la Révolution,
Galerie Mazarine, Bibliothèque Nationale, 1933 (Paris, 1934)
[exhibition catalogue]
with L. de La Laurencie: Catalogue des livres de musique (manuscrits et
imprimés) de la Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal à Paris, PSFM, 2nd ser., vii
(Paris, 1936)
L’Eglise et la musique (Paris, 1936)
Le chant gallican (Grenoble, 1939) [orig. pubd in Revue du chant
grégorien, xli–xliii (1937–9)]
EDITIONS
François Couperin: Oeuvres complètes, ix: Musique de chambre III (Paris,
1933, rev. 2/1987 by K. Gilbert and D. Moroney); x: Musique de
chambre IV (Paris, 1933, rev. 2/1992 by K. Gilbert and D. Moroney)
Le manuscrit de musique du trésor d’Apt (XIVe–XVe siècle), PSFM, 1st
ser., x (1936)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (M. Briquet)
R. Bernard: ‘Amédée Gastoué’, Information musicale (11 June 1948)
N. Dufourcq: ‘Souvenirs sur Amédée Gastoué’, Musique et liturgie, no.37
(1954), 8–10; no.38 (1954), 8–10
DAVID HILEY/JEAN GRIBENSKI
Gat
(Hin.: ‘a [manner of] going’). A term used in North Indian art music.
(1) A composition for sitār, sarod or other melody instrument in a particular
rāg and tāl. Two common gat types for sitār, the Masītkhānī and
Razākhānī, are distinguished by their rhythmic plucking-patterns (see India,
§III, 6(i), and exx.4 and 5).
(2) A type of composition for the drum tablā, often characterized by unusual
rhythmic devices (see India, §III, 6(iii)).
(3) A type of dance composition (see India, §IX).
RICHARD WIDDESS
Gatayes.
French family of musicians.
(1) Guillaume-Pierre-Antoine Gatayes
(2) Joseph-Léon Gatayes
(3) Félix Gatayes
ALICE LAWSON ABER-COUNT
Gatayes
(1) Guillaume-Pierre-Antoine Gatayes
(b Paris, 20 Dec 1774; d Paris, Oct 1846). Guitarist, singer, harpist and
composer. The son of the Prince de Conti and the Marquise de Silly, he
was placed in a seminary, where he took the name of Abbé Vénicourt. In
1788 he escaped to pursue a career as a guitarist and composer, calling
himself Gatayes. He began to compose romances, some of which (‘Mon
délire’, ‘Le pauvre aveugle’) became extremely popular. In 1790 he
published a Méthode de cistre and, having in the meantime learnt the harp,
Une méthode de harpe facile à conçevoir in 1795; a Nouvelle méthode de
guitarre ou lyre followed in 1802. Besides his romances, many of which
remained unpublished, he wrote over 100 instrumental works, mostly for
the guitar, harp and piano.
Gatayes
(2) Joseph-Léon Gatayes
(b Paris, 26 Dec 1805; d Paris, 1 Feb 1877). Harpist, composer and music
critic, son of (1) Guillaume-Pierre-Antoine Gatayes. He studied the harp
with his father and Cousineau, and later with Labarre at the conservatoire,
and became harpist at the Théâtre de l'Odéon. A virtuoso and teacher of
the Erard double-action harp, he wrote music for his own performance,
much of which was considered too difficult for publication. Later a
friendship with Alphonse Karr drew him away from the harp into journalism
and he wrote for Chronique musicale, Le corsaire, Gazette musicale,
Journal de Paris and Le ménestrel. His interest in horsemanship produced
some articles in Journal des haras.
Gatayes
(3) Félix Gatayes
(b Paris, 1809; d ? after 1860). Pianist, composer and conductor, son of (1)
Guillaume-Pierre-Antoine Gatayes. Apart from some lessons from Liszt he
was self-taught as a pianist. Unsuccessful as a performer, he nevertheless
gained popularity in Paris with his symphonies and overtures, and in 1842
was commissioned to write a ballet. He left Paris for Ireland before it was
finished and thereafter led a wandering life for 20 years, conducting and
composing in England, America and Australia. Eventually, unable to
assemble orchestras to perform his works, he turned to composing for
military band; his pieces include Marche héroïque and Les moissonneurs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (D. Mégevand) [with list of G.-P.-A. Gatayes' works]
M.G. Scimeca: L'arpa nella storia (Bari, 1938), 142–3
A.N. Schirinzi: L'arpa (Milan, 1961), 93
Gates, Bernard
(b The Hague, 23 April 1686; d North Aston, Oxon, 15 Nov 1773). English
bass, teacher and composer. His father, also named Bernard, came to
England in 1688 and became Page of the Back Stairs to William III. He was
a chorister at the Chapel Royal from 1697 to 1705, and thus one of Blow’s
latest pupils. He was appointed a Gentleman of the Chapel in 1708, and
received a second place there in 1734. In 1727 he succeeded Croft as
Master of the Children and as Tuner of the Regals and Organs. In 1711 he
became in addition a lay vicar of Westminster Abbey, and from 1740 he
was also Master of the Choristers there. For a brief period in 1714 he was
also a lay clerk at St George’s Chapel, Windsor. He retired from active
duties in 1757, though nominally remaining a member of the Chapel Royal
and Westminster Abbey choirs. He spent his later years at North Aston,
near Oxford, where a memorial tablet to him was erected by his pupil T.S.
Dupuis. He was buried at Westminster Abbey.
A number of leading musicians received their early training from him in the
Chapel Royal, and he was thus a link between the late 17th century and
members of a generation surviving into the 19th century, for example
Samuel Arnold. Hawkins (General History, 1776) commented on his
excessive use of the shake, and noted also that in his teaching he restored
the method of solmization by hexachords instead of the debased English
method using four syllables only.
Gates is named as a bass soloist on Handel’s autographs of the Ode on
the Birthday of Queen Anne and the Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate (1713).
He was concerned with three staged productions of Handel’s Esther at the
Crown and Anchor Tavern in the Strand in February and March 1732, in
which boys from the Chapel Royal and Westminster Abbey took part.
Burney (Account of the Musical Performances in Westminster Abbey,
1785), writing on the authority of John Randall (who as a boy had taken the
part of Esther in 1732), noted that the performances at the Crown and
Anchor had been preceded by a private one – possibly a full rehearsal – at
Gates’s own house (the date as given by Burney, 1731, is ‘old style’). His
last contribution as a soloist for Handel was in the Dettingen Te Deum in
1743, but he seems to have provided chorus (and sometimes solo) trebles
for Handel’s oratorio performances regularly until his retirement. Gates was
a founder-member of the Academy of Vocal Music and the Society of
Musicians: his withdrawal from the academy in 1734, taking his choristers
with him, seems to have been a significant gesture in the musical politics of
the period, and encouraged the academy’s move towards ‘Ancient’ music.
His surviving compositions comprise a Morning Service in F and six
anthems (GB-Ge, Lbl (Chapel Royal Partbooks; partly autograph), WRch;
most anthems are incomplete in the surviving sources): the anthems
include substantial solo movements for his choristers. There is a portrait of
Gates in the Oxford Music School Collection; another portrait, depicting him
at a slightly younger age, was offered for sale at Sothebys in 1990.
WATKINS SHAW/DONALD BURROWS
Gattermeyer, Heinrich
(b Sierning, nr Steyr, 9 July 1923). Austrian composer. After military
service, he attended the Vienna Hochschule für Musik (1945–50), where
his teachers included Bruno Seidlhofer (piano), Ferdinand Grossman
(conducting) and Alfred Uhl (composition), and the University of Vienna,
where he studied German language and literature. After completing his
studies, he worked as a choral conductor (1949–73), and taught in
secondary schools (1946–69) and at the Hochschule für Musik (1964–90),
where he was appointed professor of composition in 1977. He has also
served as chair of the Austrian society of authors, composers and music
publishers (AKM, 1984–90), chair of the Austrian Composers' Association
(from 1992) and chair of the Music Association of the Stephansdom (from
1996). As a composer, he does not view tonality and atonality as opposites,
understanding pitch organization to determine how a composition is
expressed but not the content of the composition. Rhythm is a central
feature of his works. He prefers a freely-organised tonality, but also works
with tone rows rather in the manner of Haver. In the Bruckner-Epitaph, for
instance, a synthesis between these techniques is sought. Immediacy is
important to him, and is achieved through a sound-world which ranges
from echoes of folksong and traditional dances through chorale-like writing
to strict forms and aleatory procedures; all of these are combined in the
stage work Kirbisch. His many distinctions include the Austrian Cross of
Honour for Science and Art (1964), the Gold Medal of the city of Vienna
(1988) and the prize of Lower Austria (1993).
WORKS
(selective list)
Dramatic: 38 shadow plays and TV tales (TV scores), 1965–75; Kirbisch (szenische
Ballade, A. Wildgans), 1984–7, Linz, 13 May 1987; other TV and incid music
Orch: Concertino, pf, orch, 1962; Concerto grosso no.1, str, 1970; Skolion, small
orch, 1970–71; Concertino, gui, str, 1972; Intention no.1, 1973; 7 Interludien, 1973
[from Der Turmbau zu Babel]; Symphonische Antithesen, 2 str orch, 1974–90;
Concerto grosso no.2, 1976, rev. 1986; 5 Szenen, str, 1978; Symphonische
Tanzstücke, 1980; Kirbisch-Suite, 1984–7; Symphonische Reminiszenzen, 1989;
Traum und Tod, sym. poem, 1991 [after S. George]; Tripelkonzert, vn, vc, pf, str,
1991; Vn Conc., 1995; Bruckner-Epitaph, 1996
Vocal: Weihnachtsoratorium, S, A, T, B, SATB, orch, 1951; Asinus rex
(Gattermeyer), solo vv, SATB, fl, cl, 2 tpt, str, perc, 1955; Missa Bernardi, TB, str,
1959; Der Turmbau zu Babel (orat), Bar, SATB, orch, 1960, rev. 1964, 1976, 1983;
Te Deum, solo vv, SATB, orch, 1963; Lieder unserer Heimat, TB, 1965; Morgenlied
(Gattermeyer), SATB, orch, 1970; Provokationen (orat, Gattermeyer), spkr, Bar, TB,
str, perc, 1971; Trakl-Fragmente, SATB, pf, 1974; De profundis (orat, Gattermeyer),
spkr, Mez, SATB, orch, 1975; Gesänge Hiobs (orat, Gattermeyer), SATB, fl, cl, pf,
1980; Missa Sancta Barbara, SATB, fl, cl, bn, 2 hn, 2 tpt, 3 trbn, perc, 1981; Die
chinesische Nachtigall (H.C. Andersen), spkr, pf, 1993; Ignatius-Messe, S, T, B,
SATB, hn, 2 tpt, trbn, tuba, str, 1993; many songs, 1v, pf; works for male chorus
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt no.1, 1953; Ww Trio, 1962; Wind Qt, 1965; Duo, 2 gui,
1969; Geistliche Suite, brass, 1970; Str Qt no.2, 1970; 6 Grotesken, va, pf, 1971;
Suite, chbr ens, 1971; Concertino da camera, (ob, gui, pf)/(gui, str)/(gui, ww, str),
1972; Divertimento, cl, va, pf, 1973; Kassation no.1, fl, va, gui, 1973; Serenade, str,
1978; Kammermusik, 3 tpt/hn, 2 trbn/tuba, 1979; Partie im Dialog, fl, gui, 1980; Str
Qt no.3, 1981; Phantastischer Dialog, 3 tpt, 3 trbn, org, 3 perc, 1984; Perioden-
Quartett, fl, vn, va, db, 1986; Englische Brass-Suite, brass qnt, 1989;
Metamorphosen, cl, hn, 2 vn, vc, pf, 1993
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LZMÖ [incl. further bibliography]
H. Lauermann: ‘Heinrich Gattermeyer: Porträt’, Chor aktuell, iii (1980), 15
only
F. Zamazal: ‘Heinrich Gattermeyer: ein Oberösterreicher in Wien’,
Oberösterreichischer Kulturbericht, xli/11 (1987), 8–9
LOTHAR KNESSL
Gatti, Daniele
(b Milan, 6 Nov 1961). Italian conductor. He studied at the Milan
Conservatory and began his career conducting Verdi's Giovanna d'Arco in
Milan in 1982, after which he appeared with opera companies throughout
Italy until his début at La Scala with Rossini's L'occasione fa il ladro (1988).
In 1989 he was in charge of Bianca e Falliero at the Rossini Festival in
Pesaro. He made his US début at Chicago conducting Madama Butterfly in
1991. The following year he first appeared at Covent Garden, with I
puritani, returning there for Turandot in 1994, after which he was made
principal guest conductor. In 1995 he directed the first modern performance
of Verdi's I due Foscari at Covent Garden. His Metropolitan début was in
1994, with Madama Butterfly. Orchestras he has conducted include the
Vienna PO, New York PO, Cleveland Orchestra, Boston SO, Chicago SO
and the Accademia di S Cecilia, Rome. Gatti was appointed music director
of the RPO in 1995. His tastes range wide, from Haydn to Respighi and
beyond, and he has a penchant for Italian opera of all periods. He is an
instinctive rather than a didactic interpreter, emphasizing naturalness of
expression and freedom of phrase, but with a tendency to the brilliant and
assertive at the expense of a long view of the work in hand, all qualities
found in his recordings of, among others, Mahler, Prokofiev and Respighi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Seckerson: ‘When in Rome’, Gramophone, lxxv/July (1997), 14–16
[interview]
ALAN BLYTH
Arias in: A-Wgm, Sca, D-Dl, I-Gl, MAav, Mc, OS; 1 pubd (London, n.d.)
oratorios
La madre dei Maccabei, Mantua, Scientifico, 2 April 1775; rev. Mantua, Scientifico,
27 Feb 1793; I-OS*, copies Pca, Gl, aria, duet, trio MAav, aria Mc
Il martiro dei SS. Nazario e Celso, Brescia, for completion of church of S Nazarius
and S Celsus, 1780; score, pts, Pca*
Il voto di Jefte, 1794, collab. V. Benatti, L. Caruso; OS*
Abel’s Tod (after Metastasio), Salzburg, 23 July 1806, possibly perf. in It., Mantua,
1788; OS*, copies A-Wn, I-Gl
Il trionfo di Gedeone, Fc
other works
Ballets: Germanico in Germania (I. Gambuzzi), Milan, Interinale, 27 Dec 1777; Il
ratto delle Sabine (S. Gallet), Mantua, April 1780; La grotta di Merlino, Salzburg,
1808
Cants. and occasional works: Virgilio e Manto, Mantua, Scientifico, 3 Dec 1769; Il
certame, Mantua, Scientifico, 1771; Cantata (G.B. Bugnanza), Mantua, Scientifico,
for the wedding of Archduke Ferdinand, June or early July 1775; Cantata in lode del
Principe Arcivescovo di Olmütz, Mantua, Scientifico, 8 March 1778, I-OS*; L’isola
disabitata (cant., Metastasio), Salzburg, 19 Jan 1783; Per il gloriosissimo
anniversario del … ingresso … in Salisburgo di … l’Arciduca Ferdinando (cant.),
Salzburg, c1804, A-Sca; Cantata per le nozze dell’imperatore Francesco I con
Luigia d’Este, 1808, I-OS*; Ino (Ger. text), 1v, pf, Salzburg, 1812; Cantata per il
giorno dell’Epifania, Fc*; Ah! se a me fosse concesso (cant.), S, orch, Mantua,
MAav; Christus verurtheilet, 4vv, ?Salzburg, OS*; German cant. for Hyeronimus
Coloredo, OS*; Il sacrificio ad amore (cant.), OS*; arias in CH-E, D-Dl, HR, WRtl,
HR-Zha, I-MAav, Mc, Tf
Sacred: 11 masses: 5 in A-KR, 3 in D-HR, 1 in D-KZa, 1 in OB, 1 in I-OS* (based on
Haydn’s Creation); 1 Requiem, A-KR; ?4 requiem settings, KR; Ave Maria, 4vv, orch
(Florence, n.d.); Ave maris stella, 4vv, HR-Zha, I-PEd, PEsl; Beatus vir, A-KR; Ecce
sacerdos magnus, KR; Laudate Dominum, KR; lit, HR-Zha; 2 lits, A-KR; Mane
nobiscum Domine, Imf; Meditabor in mandatis, KR; O Jesu mi dulcissime, MS, KR,
HR-Zha; O Maria alma, A-KR; O quam suavis est, HR-Zha*, A-KR; O salutaris
hostia, CH-E; Offertorium de SS Sacramento, A-FK; Pange lingua, CH-E; Quis
Deus magnus, A-KR; Stabat mater, HR-Zha, A-KR; Stupendum, KR; TeD, ed. C.E.
Ruzicka (Fort Lauderdale, FL, 1989), Veritas mea, HR-Zha (?2 copies); other works
in A-Sd, Wgm, Wn, CH-E, GB-Lbl, I-Bc, Fc, Li, OS, Pca
Inst: Concs., hpd, bn, vn, I-OS*; Conc., hpd, orch, HR-Zha; 2 sinfonie, D-DS;
Ouverture, D, I-Mc; Concertone, vn, va, vc, b, 2 ob, 2 hn, orch, MAav; Serenata, 2
vn, ob, 2 hn, bn, str, Salzburg, 1792, OS*; Adagio, ob, orch, OS*; March, fl, str, HR-
Zha; 2 Septuor concertante, ob, str, OS*; Sextet, OS; Qnt, ob, str, OS; Qt, ob, str,
OS*; Qt, ob, vn, va, bc, dated 1806, A-Sca; Trio, cl, va, vc, I-OS*; Trio, 2 fl, b, HR-
Zha; Divertimenti, 2 fl, b; vn, vc, b; vn, eng hn, hpd, I-OS*; Adagio, org [voce
umana], vc, OS; VI sonate, vn, va, A-Sca*; Sonate, vn, va; fl, va; hp, vc, I-OS*;
Sonata terza, fl/vn, vc, hpd, OS*
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LipowskyB
EitnerQ
SchmidlDS
WurzbachL
AMZ, vii (1804–5), 626
J. Peregrinus: Geschichte der salzburgischen Dom-Sängerknaben
(Salzburg, 1889), 94
G.G. Bernardi: La musica nella Reale Accademia Virgiliana di Mantova
(Mantua, 1923), esp. 23–31
W. Hitzig, ed.: Katalog des Archivs von Breitkopf & Härtel, ii (Leipzig,
1926), 10
C. Schneider: Geschichte der Musik in Salzburg (Salzburg, 1935/R), 142,
165
O.E. Deutsch and B. Paumgartner, eds.: Leopold Mozarts Briefe an
seine Tochter (Salzburg, 1936), 60, 110, 328, 350, 421–2
E. Schenk: ‘Mozart in Mantua’, SMw, xxii (1955), 1–29, esp. 15–21
G. Barblan and A. Della Corte, eds.: Mozart in Italia (Milan, 1956), 58–60
A. Kellner: Musikgeschichte des Stiftes Kremsmünster (Kassel, 1956),
552, 599
M. Gemacher: Luigi Gatti: sein Leben und seine Oratorien (diss., U. of
Vienna, 1959)
W.A. Bauer and O.E. Deutsch, eds.: Mozart: Briefe und Aufzeichnungen
(Kassel, 1962–75), i, 305; ii, 373; iii, 221, 237, 252, 254, 309, 409,
559, 626; iv, 405–6, 408, 420, 424ff, 432, 434, 438
W. Senn: ‘Der Catalogus musicalis des Salzburger Doms (1788)’, MJb
1971–2, 182–96
C. Sartori: ‘Nascita, letargo e risveglio della biblioteca Greggiati’, FAM, xxiv
(1977), 126–38
N. Schwindt-Gross: ‘Zwei bisher unbekannte Salzburger “L'isola
disabitata”-Vertonungen’, MISM, xxxvii/1–4 (1989), 161–76
M. Schimek: Musikpolitik in der Salzburger Aufklärung: Musik, Musikpolitik
und deren Rezeption am Hof des Salzburger Fürsterzbischofs
Hieronymus Graf Colloredo (Frankfurt, 1995)
SVEN HANSELL/T. HERMAN KEAHEY
Gatti, Theobaldo [Teobaldo] di
[Théobalde]
(b ?Florence, c1650; d Paris, 1727). French composer, bass viol player
and teacher of Italian birth. According to Titon du Tillet it was the impact on
him of some of Lully’s music that he heard in Florence that prompted him to
move to Paris. He did so about 1675, was granted letters of naturalization
by Louis XIV and was generally known in France simply as ‘Théobalde’. He
made his name in Paris as a teacher of the viol, and he played the bass
viol in the orchestra of the Académie Royale de Musique. He seems to
have enjoyed the protection of the Dowager Princess Conti (an excellent
musician who was taught by François Couperin and d’Anglebert). He
published a Recueil d’airs italiens (Paris, 1696), a set of ten solo songs and
two duets that helped to create a demand for Italian music in France. Two
stage works by him are also known: Coronis, a heroic pastoral to a libretto
by Chappuzeau de Beaugé that was given in Paris in 1691 (manuscripts in
F-Pn, Po and GB-Cfm where it is incorrectly attributed to Lully), and Scylla,
a tragédie lyrique, with a libretto by Duché de Vancy (performed and
published in Paris in 1701). The style of these works has much in common
with that of Lully, but its more individual and lyrical elements are closer to
that of Campra: indeed Scylla to some extent foreshadows the latter’s
Tancrède (1702).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AnthonyFB
E. Titon du Tillet: Le Parnasse françois (Paris, 1732/R)
M. Barthélémy: ‘Theobaldo di Gatti et la tragédie en musique Scylla’,
RMFC, ix (1969), 56–66
MAURICE BARTHÉLÉMY
Gatti-Aldrovandi, Clelia
(b Mantua, 30 May 1901; d Rome, 12 March 1989). Italian harpist. Her
early musical training was at the Liceo Musicale Giuseppe Verdi in Turin.
She made her professional début in Vienna and Berlin in 1921, receiving
artistic advice from Busoni. She encouraged many important composers to
write for solo harp. Casella, Hindemith and Tommasini dedicated sonatas
to her and among works with orchestra she inspired concertos by Mortari,
Pizzetti, Rota, Vlad and Zafred, and a Concertino for harp and six
instruments by Castelnuovo-Tedesco. She was married to the critic and
writer Guido Gatti.
ANN GRIFFITHS
Gatti-Casazza, Giulio
(b Udine, 3 Feb 1869; d Ferrara, 2 Sept 1940). Italian impresario. He
succeeded his father as head of the board of directors of the Teatro
Comunale in Ferrara, 1893, and was later director of La Scala, Milan
(1898–1908). In conjunction with the young Toscanini, he revitalized La
Scala during his tenure; with Toscanini, he was engaged by the
Metropolitan Opera, New York, in 1908. Until 1910 he shared directorial
control with Andreas Dippel and from 1910 to 1935 was sole general
manager, the longest tenure in the history of the Metropolitan. The years
until Toscanini’s resignation (1915) are generally considered the finest in
the history of the house.
Gatti-Casazza brought a thorough-going professionalism to the
Metropolitan, in terms of singers, staging and design, managing an
incredibly large repertory of between 40 and 50 operas in the short season.
Under his aegis, the performance of opera in the original language became
normal. He introduced, though with little success, American operas and
ballets. From Caruso to Flagstad (who appeared first in his final season),
Gatti-Casazza’s roster included major singers and the Metropolitan
became the principal showcase for the designer Josef Urban.
As time wore on, however, a sameness of vision became ever more
evident, and the Depression years exposed the financial and artistic
shakiness of Gatti-Casazza’s cumbersome repertory policies. From 1935
he lived in retirement in Italy. He was married first (1910–28) to the soprano
Frances Alda and from 1930 to the ballerina Rosina Galli. His Memories of
the Opera (New York, 1941; trans. and ed. H. Taubman) cover the years to
1933.
PATRICK J. SMITH
Gatzmann, Wolfgang.
See Getzmann, Wolfgang.
Gaubert, Philippe
(b Cahors, Lot, 5 July 1879; d Paris, 8 July 1941). French flautist,
conductor and composer. The most celebrated student of Paul Taffanel, he
won a premier prix for flute at the Paris Conservatoire in 1894. He also
studied composition and won second prize in the Prix de Rome in 1905. He
joined the orchestras of the Paris Opéra and Société des Concerts du
Conservatoire in 1897 and was renowned as a soloist. Encouraged by
Taffanel he also pursued a parallel career as a conductor from 1904 when
he became assistant at the Société des Concerts. In 1919, after active
service in World War I, he was appointed principal conductor of the Société
des Concerts and professor of flute at the Conservatoire. The following
year he also became principal conductor at the Opéra, and in 1931 artistic
director. Gaubert was a prolific composer, not only of flute music, but also
of operas, ballets, orchestral works and songs. In style his music is
somewhere between Fauré and Dukas – colourful in harmonic language,
with elegant melodic lines and brilliant, rhapsodic passagework. The supple
and expressive artistry of his playing can be heard on a series of
recordings for the French Gramophone Company in 1919. He collaborated
with Taffanel on a Méthode complète for flute (Paris, 1923).
EDWARD BLAKEMAN
Gauci, Miriam
(b Malta, 3 April 1957). Maltese soprano. She studied in Malta and Milan,
winning international prizes at La Scala, Treviso and Bologna, where she
made her début in Poulenc’s La voix humaine in 1984. Her well-managed
voice, of moderate volume and fine quality, fitted her well for the lyric Italian
repertory and she was soon in demand throughout Europe and the USA. At
Santa Fe in 1987 she made her US début as Butterfly, the role with which
she has become most closely associated. Later that year she appeared as
Mimì in La bohème with Domingo on the opening night of the season at
Los Angeles. In 1992 her recording of Madama Butterfly and a solo recital
aroused wide interest and speculation that here might be a successor to
Mirella Freni. Her career has continued successfully, and though her stage
presence was sometimes felt to lack colour she can be deeply touching in
roles such as Verdi’s Desdemona and Puccini’s Sister Angelica. In 1997
she appeared at the Vienna Staatsoper singing both Margherita and Elena
in Boito’s Mefistofele and was re-engaged for performances of Don Carlos,
Pagliacci and Verdi’s Requiem under Muti.
J.B. STEANE
Gaudeamus Foundation.
Dutch organization. It was founded in 1945 by Walter A.F. Maas, a Jewish
émigré from Mainz, at Bilthoven in the Netherlands. It is based in the Huize
Gaudeamus, a villa built in the shape of a grand piano by the composer
Julius Röntgen (i), and its aim is the promotion of new music, particularly
that of Dutch composers. From 1947 it held an annual music week of Dutch
compositions and national and international weeks were held alternately
until 1959, when they became fully international. From 1960 the foundation
organized concerts of Dutch music abroad, including tours by the
Gaudeamus Quartet, and in 1963 the International Gaudeamus
Competition for Interpreters of Contemporary Music was inaugurated. More
recently the foundation has held a biannual International Composers'
Workshop, a workshop for young musicians from France, Germany and the
Netherlands, and a number of festivals. The monthly bulletin Gaudeamus
informatie was published from 1965 and the bi-monthly Gaudeamus
Information for international readers from 1967. In 1970 the foundation
joined the Dutch section of the ISCM.
Gaudentius
(fl 3rd–4th century ce). Writer on music. He was the author of a Harmonic
Introduction (Harmonikē eisagōgē), an eclectic mixture of Aristoxenian and
Pythagorean theory, together with a treatment of notation. The statesman
and writer Cassiodorus knew his treatise in a Latin translation credited to
Mutianus (otherwise unknown). He cites Gaudentius both at the very
beginning of the section on music (Institutiones, ii.5) and at the end, where
he singles him out for special praise: ‘if you read him over again with close
attention, he will open to you the courts of this science’ (quem si sollicita
intentione relegatis huius scientiae vobis atria patefaciet). Cassiodorus
clearly made significant use of Gaudentius's treatise in his own treatment
of consonances.
The treatise is transmitted in 31 manuscripts, the earliest of which is I-Rvat
gr.2338 (RISM, B/XI, 234), dating from the late 12th century or early 13th.
Its eclecticism is unusual: it begins as if Gaudentius were an Aristoxenian,
moves abruptly in the middle section to the story of Pythagoras's discovery
of harmonic phenomena, returns to a discussion of the various species of
consonant intervals and concludes with a section devoted to a description
of ancient Greek musical notation. This last section breaks off in the middle
of the Hypoaeolian tonos, but it is probable that the treatise originally
included all 15 tonoi of the ‘younger theorists’ in each genus. As the
treatises survive today, only the tables of Alypius – an author also
mentioned by Cassiodorus – provide a more complete representation of
ancient Greek notation. The consistency of the notational symbols as they
appear in surviving pieces of Greek music and in the treatises of Alypius,
Aristides Quintilianus, Bacchius and Gaudentius attests the importance of
musical notation in antiquity.
The treatments of various topics in Gaudentius's treatise parallel for the
most part treatments found in other treatises, but there are a few unique or
unusual features. His definition of paraphonic notes (§8) is distinct from the
definitions of Bacchius and Theon of Smyrna; and he recognizes (§19) the
possibility of 12 different species of the octave through the various
combinations of the individual species of the 4th and the 5th, although he
concludes that only the traditional seven species of the octave are ‘melodic
and consonant’ (emmelē kai sumphona). Gaudentius regards the 11th as a
consonance (§§9–10); while this is not unprecedented, it is unusual in a
treatise showing some adherence to the Pythagorean tradition. Finally, his
incisive explanation (§20) of the purpose of musical notation and the
reason why there cannot be just a single sign for each note-name (e.g.
proslambanomenos, hypatē hypatōn etc.) is not found in any other treatise.
Gaudentius must have been known throughout the Middle Ages only as a
shadow in the references of Cassiodorus. In the 16th century, however, the
treatise was known to Giovanni Del Lago, Gioseffo Zarlino (Istitutioni
harmoniche, iii.5), Girolamo Mei, Francisco de Salinas (De musica, ii.9)
and others. Meibom included the treatise in his collection of 1652, after
which it became generally known.
WRITINGS
StrunkSR2, i, 66–85 [Harmonic Introduction]
M. Meibom, ed. and trans.: ‘Gaudentii philosophi: Harmonica introductio’,
Antiquae musicae auctores septem (Amsterdam, 1652/R), i
[separately paginated; with parallel Lat. trans.]
K. von Jan, ed.: ‘Gaudenti philosophi harmonica introductio’, Musici
scriptores graeci (Leipzig, 1895/R), 317–56
C.E. Ruelle, trans.: Alypius et Gaudence … Bacchius l'Ancien (Paris,
1895)
L. Zanoncelli, ed. and trans.: ‘Gaudenzio, Introduzione all'armonica’, La
manualistica musicale greca (Milan, 1990), 305–69 [incl. commentary]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Ein vergessenes Problem der antiken Konsonanztheorie’,
Festschrift für Walter Wiora, ed. L. Finscher and C.-H. Mahling
(Kassel, 1967), 164–9
A. Barbera: The Persistence of Pythagorean Mathematics in Ancient
Musical Thought (diss., U. of North Carolina, 1980)
A. Barbera: ‘The Consonant Eleventh and the Expansion of the Musical
Tetraktys’, JMT, xxviii (1984), 191–224
A. Barbera: ‘Octave Species’, JM, iii (1984), 229–41
T.J. Mathiesen: Ancient Greek Music Theory: a Catalogue Raisonné of
Manuscripts, RISM B/XI (1988)
T.J. Mathiesen: Apollo's Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity
and the Middle Ages (Lincoln, NE, 1999), 498–509
THOMAS J. MATHIESEN
Gaudibert, Eric
(b Vevey, 21 Dec 1936). Swiss composer and pianist. After training at the
Lausanne Conservatoire (where he studied the piano with Denise Bidal
and composition with Hans Haug) he continued his studies at the Paris
Ecole Normale de Musique (Alfred Cortot, Jules Gentil and Jeanne
Blancard, piano; Nadia Boulanger and Henri Dutilleux, composition). From
1972 to 1975 he directed the musical activities of the Maison de la Culture
in Orléans. Since returning to Switzerland in 1975 he has worked as a
freelance composer, and has also taught the piano, analysis and
composition at the Geneva Conservatoire and analysis at the Neuchâtel
Conservatoire.
The various influences marking his early works also give a close idea of the
style of his mature and independent compositions: he has adopted sound
patterns with strong tonal colour from Dutilleux, physicality of sound from
Bartók, modal (and polymodal) thinking from Messiaen, and rigorous
development of his material from Stockhausen. The open character of his
tonal language enables him to integrate different techniques, and passages
in conventional, experimental and aleatory notation quite often occur in
close proximity. Between 1969 and 1976 he also wrote some electro-
acoustic works at the Geneva Centre de Recherches Sonores of Suisse
Romande radio. Since the 1980s a restriction of tonal material has been
evident in his compositions. His use of quotations (from composers
including Stravinsky, Schumann and Machaut) and his critical re-reading of
familiar genres and forms shows his interest in the historical dimension of
music. In 1989 and 1995 he received prizes from the Association Suisse
des Musiciens and the city of Geneva for his work as a composer.
WORKS
Vocal: Ecritures, opéra parlé, 1v, tape, 1973; Chacun son singe, chbr op, S, Bar,
inst ens, tape, 1979; Le regardeur infini, 6 scenes, chorus, nar, perc, hpd, 1991;
Bruit d’ailes, chorus, 1992; Concerto lirico, S, vc, perc
Orch: Divertimento, chbr orch, 1978; Gemmes, 1980; L’écharpe d’Iris, 1984;
Océans, fl, chbr orch, 1988; Ob Conc., 1991; Vc Conc., 1993; Jardins d’est, 1994;
Concertino, cl, str, 1994; Conc. grosso, str, 1998
Chbr: Entre se taire et dire, str qt, 1971; Solstice, pf, tape, 1971; Syzygy, fl, prep pf,
1971; Contrechamp, fl, ob, vc, hpd, 1979; Astrance, wind qnt, 1980; Un jardin pour
Orphée, hn, str, 1985; Orées, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1986; Feuillages, 3 perc, 1988;
Songes/songs, vn, pf, 1988; Songes, bruissements, vn, vc, pf; 3 tableaux, 2 pf,
1993; Canzone, fl, vc, 1998
Works for solo inst
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Barras, J. Demierre and A. Zimmerlin: ‘Les oeuvres récentes d’Eric
Gaudibert’, Dissonanz, no.12 (1987), 4–9
J.-L. Matthey: Eric Gaudibert: catalogue des oeuvres (Lausanne, 1993)
E. Gaudibert: ‘Essai sur les différentes catégories du silence musical’, Les
cahiers du CIREM, nos.32–4 (1994), 113–20; repr. Dissonanz, no.45
(1995), 15–17
PATRICK MÜLLER
BIBLIOGRAPHY
O. Fleischer: ‘Denis Gaultier’, VMw, ii (1886), 1–180
E.W. Häfner: Die Lautenstücke des Denis Gaultier (Endingen, 1939)
M. Rollin and F.P. Goy, eds.: Oeuvres de Denis Gautier (Paris, 1996)
MONIQUE ROLLIN
Edition: Oeuvres du Vieux Gautier, ed. A. Souris and M. Rollin, CM and Corpus des
luthistes français, unnumbered vol. (Paris, 1966, 2/1980) [G]
Gaultier, Jacques.
See Gautier, Jacques.
Gaultier, Pierre.
See Gautier, Pierre (i).
Gaultier de Marseille.
See Gautier, Pierre (ii).
Gaussin, Allain
(b St Sever, Calvados, 6 Nov 1943). French composer. He abandoned his
scientific studies at the age of 20 to devote himself to studying music at the
Paris Conservatoire (1966–76), where he won a first prize for composition
(in Messiaen’s class). He also studied electro-acoustic music with Pierre
Schaeffer (1973–5). Between 1981 and 1992 Gaussin taught composition
and orchestration at the Schola Cantorum in Paris. He has been professor
of composition and orchestration in the Paris municipal conservatories
since 1991. He won the SACEM prize in 1983 and 1989, and the Grand
Prix du Disque for Irisation-rituel, Camaïeux and Arcane in 1995. He held
bursaries from the Académie de France in Rome between 1977 and 1979,
from the DAAD in Berlin in 1985, and from the Villa Kujoyama in Kyoto in
1994.
Gaussin also writes poetry, and sees his composition as an essential part
of a vast poetic project going beyond craftsmanship, using sound as a
material. His music makes its mark through its particularly energetic
concept of sound (Colosseo, Eclipse, Irisation-rituel), its distinctive melodic
sense (Ogive) and its use of striking gestures to clarify structure (Chakra,
Arcane, Mosaïque céleste). An independent spirit, Gaussin is not aligned
with post-serialism, spectral music or the use of technology in his music,
but affirms his individuality in a free synthesis of various techniques.
WORKS
(selective list)
Ogive, (12 str, hpd)/(12 str), 1977, arr. fl, hpd, 1977, arr fl, pf, 1987; Colosseo, 6
perc. 1978; Eclipse, 2 pf, 16 insts, 1979; Irisation-rituel (Gaussin), opt., spkr, S, fl,
orch, 1980; Eau-forte, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1982; Camaïeux, 3 synth, elec gui, tape
1983; Chakra, str qt, 1984; Arcane, pf, 1988; Années-lumière, orch, 1992–3;
Mosaïque céleste, 11 insts, 1997
Gautier, Denis.
See Gaultier, Denis.
Gautier, Ennemond.
See Gaultier, Ennemond.
Gautier, (Jean-François-)Eugène
(bVaugirard, Paris, 27 Feb 1822; d Paris, 1 April 1878). French composer,
teacher and critic. At the Paris Conservatoire he studied the violin with
Habeneck and composition with Halévy, winning the Second Prix de Rome
in 1842. He played first violin at the Opéra (1838) and the Société des
Concerts du Conservatoire (1846), and became assistant conductor at the
Opéra-National (1847–8). His association with opera continued at the
Théâtre Italien, where from about 1849 to 1852, and again from 1863 to
1864, he was chef des choeurs. The Opéra-National, later the Théâtre
Lyrique, presented most of Gautier’s early operas. His most popular work
there, the opéra comique Flore et Zéphire (1852), had 126 performances
as a curtain-raiser. Though some critics found the harmony complicated
and the orchestration too rich, Berlioz praised the score’s freshness and
skilful orchestration, and the elegant and lively style of the melodies.
Gautier’s greatest success came with another light one-act opera, Le
mariage extravagant (1857, revived in 1871), presented 175 times by the
Opéra-Comique. Its score includes an overture whose orchestral style
comes close to that of Auber. The most remarked-upon piece, given an
encore at the première, consists of light, catchy couplets for the madman
Darmancé, a comic bass. Gautier was appointed professor of harmony at
the Conservatoire in 1864, and largely gave up composing for the theatre,
although in 1866 he provided translations of Don Giovanni and Der
Freischütz for the Théâtre Lyrique; in 1872 he became professor of music
history. As a music critic he occasionally wrote articles for Le ménestrel, the
Grand journal and Le constitutionnel, and from 1874 he wrote regularly for
the Journal officiel. He also wrote a book: Un musicien en vacances (Paris,
1873). At his death his writing was described as ‘a bit virulent’ as well as
‘not always kindly nor very scrupulous in questions of scholarship’; he was,
however, generally regarded as a skilful composer of second rank who
continued Auber’s tradition. At their best his opéras comiques show
sparkling orchestration, clean phrasing and good taste.
WORKS
first performed in Paris unless otherwise stated
stage
Le club des arts (?oc), ov. only, Conservatoire, Nov 1843, F-Pc*
L’anneau de Mariette (oc, 1, L. Jourdain, after Laurencin [P.-D.-A. Chapelle] and E.
Cormon [P.-E. Piestre]), Versailles, 12 June 1845; as L’anneau de la marquise,
Paris, Spectacles-Concerts, 20 Dec 1848, Pc* (inc.)
Léona, ou Le parisien en corse, 1847 (?oc), unorchd, Pc*
Les barricades de 1848 (opéra patriotique, 1, E.-L.-A. Brisebarre and Saint-Yves [E.
Déaddé]), Opéra-National, 6 March 1848, collab. A. Pilati
Le marin de la garde (oc, 1, Saint-Yves), Beaumarchais, 21 June 1849, Pc*, vs
(n.d.)
Murdock le bandit (oc, 1, A. de Leuven and an unknown librettist), Opéra-National,
23 Oct 1851, vs (1852)
Flore et Zéphire (oc, 1, de Leuven and C. Deslys), Lyrique, 2 Oct 1852, Pc*, vs
(1853)
Choisy-le-roi (oc, 1, de Leuven and M. Carré), Lyrique, 14 Oct 1852
Le lutin de la vallée (légende, 2, Carré, J.E. Alboize de Pujol and A. Saint-Léon [C.-
V-.A. Michel]), Lyrique, 22 Jan 1853, Po (? partly autograph)
Le danseur du roi (opéra-ballet, 2, Carré, Alboize and Saint-Léon), Lyrique, 22 Oct
1853, ? collab. Saint-Léon
Schahabaham II (opéra bouffon, 1, de Leuven and Carré), Lyrique, 31 Oct 1854,
Pc, vs (?1855)
Le mariage extravagant (oc, 1, Cormon, after M.-A.-M. Désaugiers and J.-J.-C.
Mourier), OC (Favart), 20 June 1857, Pc*, vs (1857)
La bacchante (oc, 2, de Leuven and A. de Beauplan [A. Dumas père]), OC (Favart),
4 Nov 1858, Pc*
Le docteur Mirobolan (oc, 1, Cormon and H. Trianon, after N. de Hauteroche:
Crispin médecin), OC (Favart), 28 Aug 1860, Pc*, vs (1861)
Jocrisse (oc, 1, Cormon and Trianon), OC (Favart), 10 Jan 1862, Pc*, vs (1862)
Le trésor de Pierrot (oc, 2, Cormon and Trianon), OC (Favart), 5 Nov 1864, Pc*
La clé d’or (comédie lyrique, 3, O. Feuillet and L. Gallet), National Lyrique, 14 Sept
1877, Pc*, vs (1877)
Bulfarargue (opéra), ?inc., unperf., Pc*
La pagode (oc), unperf., Pc
Romance in La poularde de Caux (opérette, 1, de Leuven and V. Prilleux), Palais
Royal, 17 May 1861, vs (1861), collab. L. Clapisson and others
choral
Sacred: Ave Maria, S, A, T, B, org, 1855, F-Pc*; La mort de Jésus (orat); O salutaris,
T, SATB, org, Pc*; Les sept paroles de Christ, T, SATB, orch, ?1855, Pc*
Prix de Rome cants.: La reine Flore (de Pastoret), 1842, Pc*, ballade, vs (Paris,
1842); Le chevalier enchanté (de Pastoret), 1843, Pc*; Imogine (Vieillard), 1845,
Pc*; Vélasquez (Doucet), 1846, Pc*
Other secular: Hymne à Bacchus, SATB, orch, Pc*; Fantaisie sur des vieux airs
français, S, SATB, pf, 1855, Pc*; Cantate pour le 15 août (E. Pacini), 1861; Le
bouquet de fête (?cant.), inc., unperf., Pc*
other works
Songs: Le postillon du roi (St Preux) (Paris, 1844); Les larmes, F-Pc*; Villanelle and
other songs, mentioned in the press
Fugues, misc. drafts for voice and pf, and for orch, Pc*, Pn*
Allegro pour orchestre, lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
FétisBS
MGG1 (E. Haraszti)
F. Clément and P. Larousse: Dictionnaire lyrique (Paris, 1867–81); ed. A.
Pougin as Dictionnaire des opéras (2/1897, 3/1905)
Obituaries: Art musical, xvii (1878), 111; RGMP, xlv (1878), 111
L. Gallet: Notes d’un librettiste (Paris, 1891)
A. Soubies and C. Malherbe: Histoire de l’Opéra-Comique (Paris, 1892)
C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation:
documents historiques et administratifs (Paris, 1900)
T.J. Walsh: Second Empire Opera (London, 1981)
LESLEY A. WRIGHT
Gautier, François.
See Franz, Paul.
Gautier, Judith
(b Paris, 25 Aug 1845; d St-Enogat, Britanny, 26 Dec 1917). French author
and writer on music. She was the daughter of Théophile Gautier and
Ernesta Grisi, a cousin of the dancer Carlotta Grisi and sister of Giulia and
Giuditta Grisi. Already an ardent partisan of Wagner at 16 (during the
interval at the first performance of Tannhäuser in Paris she had rebuked
Berlioz for his obvious delight in Wagner’s humiliation), she married his
leading French spokesman Catulle Mendès in 1866. They visited Wagner
at Triebschen in 1869, and separated in 1874. Two years later she went to
Bayreuth, where she began a liaison with Wagner; its importance to him
during the composition of Parsifal is reflected both in his letters to her and
in the opera itself. In 1893 she established a marionette theatre in Paris, at
which she produced Parsifal in her own French translation.
WRITINGS
Richard Wagner et son oeuvre poétique depuis Rienzi jusqu’à Parsifal
(Paris, 1882; Eng. trans., 1883)
Les musiques bizarres à l’Exposition de 1900 (Paris, 1900)
Le collier des jours [memoirs], i–iii (Paris, 1902–9/R; Eng. trans. of iii, 1910
as Wagner at Home)
Le roman d’un grand chanteur [Mario di Candia] (Paris, 1912)
Articles on Wagner in several journals, incl. ‘Richard Wagner chez lui’, Le
rappel (3 Aug 1869)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Schuh: ‘Die Freundschaft Richard Wagners mit Judith Gautier’, Die
Briefe Richard Wagners an Judith Gautier, ed. W. Schuh (Zürich and
Leipzig, 1936)
M.D. Camacho: Judith Gautier, sa vie et son oeuvre (Paris, 1939) [with list
of writings]
L. Guichard, ed.: Richard et Cosima Wagner: Lettres à Judith Gautier
(Paris, 1964)
E. Brody: ‘La famille Mendès: a Literary Link between Wagner and
Debussy’, MR, xxxiii (1972), 177–89
I. Cazeaux: ‘La part de la musique dans la vie et l'oeuvre de Judith
Gautier’, Théophile Gautier et la musique: Montpellier 1986, 107–13
R. Sabor: ‘Judith Gautier’, Wagner, xi (1990), 119–34
BRUCE CARR
Gautier, Théophile
(b Tarbes, 30 Aug 1811; d Paris, 23 Oct 1872). French poet, novelist and
theatre critic. In musical circles, Gautier is best known as the poet of Les
nuits d’été, the creator of several mid-century ballets, and a critic of dance
and opera. He made his début as theatre critic of La presse in July 1837,
sharing the post with Gérard de Nerval until June 1838 (hence the
combined signature ‘G.G.’); he remained with La presse until the end of
March 1855, thereafter working almost exclusively for government papers:
the Moniteur universel (later Journal officiel du soir) until 1871, and finally
the Gazette de Paris. From 1855 to 1864 the presence of Pier Angelo
Fiorentino (A. de Rovray) as music and theatre critic for the Moniteur
universel prevented Gautier from writing on those subjects. From 1850 to
1855, Ernest Reyer gave technical help in the preparation of music
reviews.
Though Gautier lacked formal musical training, his writings in all genres are
suffused with musical references, and his music criticism is valuable for its
incisiveness and its sensitivity to socio-cultural context. Unable to describe
music in technical terms, he had a gift for interdisciplinary simile, often
employing anachronism to make his point. His ballet criticism was biassed,
his music criticism more open-minded. Gautier’s taste was eclectic,
embracing various Asian musics (which he experienced at first hand),
Mozart, and contemporary Western composers on both sides of critical
divides. He prized originality and, like many of his contemporaries,
spontaneity of musical expression. For him, Meyerbeer’s Les Huguenots
was an uncomfortable mixture of calculation and expressive writing; by
contrast, Bellini’s Norma, for all its composer’s limitations in harmony and
orchestration, inspired admiration. Gautier remained equivocal about
Meyerbeer’s compositional talent, but collaborated with him on the
prologue to Struensée (1846). In 1838 he defended Benvenuto Cellini on
the grounds that Berlioz was upholding an extreme position during a time
of cultural and political compromise. Despite becoming increasingly
Wagnerian, Gautier remained supportive of Berlioz throughout the
composer’s lifetime, writing a generous obituary for the Journal officiel.
Gautier first heard Wagner’s music in 1850, and soon counted himself a
Wagnerian. His Wagnerism was counterbalanced by a longstanding
appreciation of Verdi as the head of a new Italian school of opera, but
became dominant in the 1860s. In 1857 Gautier was invited with other
French critics to Tannhäuser at Wiesbaden: disconcerted by the opera’s
traditionalism in relation to what he knew of Wagner’s (later) theories, he
likened it to a modern painter’s imitation of Van Eyck. By 1869 his view of
early Wagner had changed, and his study of Rienzi (to coincide with the
French première) claimed the composer as a genius and hero. Gautier’s
attitude towards Wagner was undoubtedly influenced by his daughter
Judith and her husband Catulle Mendès, both of whom were prominent
Wagnerians.
Contact with Félicien David and Ernest Reyer allowed Gautier to find
musical expression for his love for the East. He admired David’s Le désert
of 1844, collaborating with him the following year on a sequence of three
Arab-inspired songs. His most fruitful collaborations with Reyer were the
symphonie orientale Le sélam (1850), inspired by Gérard de Nerval, and
the ballet-pantomime Sacountalâ (1858). Gautier’s travel diaries illustrate
his anthropological sensitivity to exotic musics. In the final version (1865) of
his diary of a trip to Algiers in 1845, he was dismissive of second-hand
academic evaluations of Eastern repertories as ‘barbaric’, finding instead in
Bedouin music a sinuous complexity which he compared to the white
threading in Venetian glass.
Within his literary output, music appears as the central subject (the
nouvelle entitled Le nid de rossignols); as a dramatic episode (the dialogue
concerning Wagner’s merits in Spirite); or as an allusive reference (the
abstract poem Symphonie en blanc majeur from Emaux et camées, which
presents a set of variations on the word ‘white’, ending 18 virtuoso stanzas
with a surprise modulation to the word ‘pink’). A follower of Hoffmann in his
contes and nouvelles fantastiques, Gautier was an important contributor to
the establishment of a Romantic vision of music in France.
WORKS
(selective list)
all canevas chorégraphiques, first performed at Paris Opéra unless otherwise stated
WRITINGS
with J. Janin and P. Chasles: Les beautés de l’opéra (Paris, 1845)
Histoire de l’art dramatique en France depuis vingt-cinq ans (Paris, 1858–
9/R)
Souvenirs de théâtre, d’art et de critique (Paris, 1883)
La musique (Paris, 1911)
C.W. Beaumont, ed.: The Romantic Ballet as Seen by Théophile Gautier,
being his Notices of all the Principal Performances for Ballet Given at
Paris during the Years 1837–1848 (London, 1932)
I. Guest, ed.: Gautier on Dance (London and Princeton, NJ, 1986)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Reyer: Notes de musique (Paris, 1875)
E. Bergerat: Théophile Gautier: entretiens, souvenirs et correspondance
(Paris, 1879)
J. Torchet: ‘Théophile Gautier, critique musical’, Guide musical, i (1904),
723–32, 747–56, 767–74
F. Noske: La mélodie française de Berlioz à Duparc (Amsterdam, 1954;
Eng. trans., rev. R. Benton and F. Noske, 1970/R), 69ff
J. Richardson: Théophile Gautier: his Life and Times (London, 1958) [incl.
full list of writings]
E. Binney: Les ballets de Théophile Gautier (Paris, 1965)
M. Spencer: ‘Théophile Gautier, Music Critic’, ML, xlix (1968), 4–17
J.-M. Bailbé: Le roman et la musique en France sous la monarchie de
juillet (Paris, 1969)
A. Gann: Théophile Gautier and Music (diss., U. of Toronto, 1979)
P. Edwards: ‘L’Opéra en 1847: un article de Gautier et Nerval’, Bulletin de
la Société Théophile Gautier, v (1983), 53–62
A. Gann: ‘La musique élément structurant dans les récits fantastiques de
Gautier’, ibid., vi (1984), 73–82
P. Laubriet, ed.: ‘Théophile Gautier et la musique’, ibid., viii (1986)
[collection of 18 articles]
A. Gann: ‘Les orients musicaux de Théophile Gautier’, ibid., xii (1990),
135–49
KATHARINE ELLIS
Gautier de Châtillon.
See Walter of châtillon.
Gautier de Coincy
(b Coincy-l’Abbaye, 1177 or 1178; d Soissons, 25 Sept 1236). French
trouvère. He was the author of the Miracles de Nostre-Dame and of a
number of religious chansons, some of which he seems to have set to
music. His date of birth is known from the Chronicum S. Medardi
Suessonensis: ‘In the year 1193 Gautier de Coincy became a monk, and
was 15 or 16 years old at the time’. In August 1214 he became prior of the
monastery at Vic-sur-Aisne, about 16 km west of Soissons. He returned to
St Médard in Soissons as abbot on 19 June 1233, where he remained until
his death. The extensive learning revealed in his work and his obvious
familiarity with contemporary secular song has led some writers to
speculate that he spent time at the University of Paris before 1214, but this
cannot be supported by documentary evidence.
The Miracles de Nostre-Dame is a massive verse narrative, some 30,000
lines in length, recounting the numerous miracles associated with the
Virgin. Gautier explained that he found these stories in a Latin manuscript.
No such source now survives, however, thus making it impossible to trace
the origins of all the material contained in the work. It was written in two
large sections, the first between 1214 and about 1222, the second between
1222 and 1233. Gautier identified himself in the work as ‘Li prior de Vi’ (Vic-
sur-Aisne), indicating that his literary activities were probably confined to
the years between 1214 and 1233. The popularity and importance of
Miracles is attested by the fact that it survives in over 80 sources (22 with
music) and inspired numerous imitations.
Perhaps following the example of the contemporary Roman de la rose,
Gautier incorporated a number of songs with music into his narrative.
These are set in two larger groups and one smaller one at various places
in the text and are, in the majority of cases, new poems in praise of the
Virgin set to pre-existent melodies from a variety of sources. The
manuscripts in which Miracles is extant also include a number of similar
songs (some without music) that are not part of the cycle but which
nevertheless may be Gautier’s work. Gautier left no doubt about his
intention of including songs within the narrative. In the text preceding the
first group he said: ‘We should sing of the Virgin both day and night as the
angels do. All those who sing sweetly enchant the devil and lull him to
sleep. Now listen as I sing’.
Gautier is important to the music historian largely for two reasons. First, his
work represents the earliest substantial collection of sacred and, above all,
Marian songs in the vernacular – songs that were widely imitated in France
and elsewhere throughout the later Middle Ages (e.g. Pour conforter). This
is in sharp contrast to the almost exclusively secular repertory of the
worldly trouvères who were his contemporaries or near-contemporaries.
Second, the large number of contrafacta that use contemporary trouvère
melodies would seem to indicate that Gautier made a conscious effort to
put secular melodies to sacred or at least devotional use – he ‘sang
sweetly’ to ‘enchant the devil and lull him to sleep’. This concern finds a
parallel in the Latin verses of Gautier’s contemporary, Philip the Chancellor,
who likewise set most of his poems to melodies of secular origin.
Eight of Gautier’s poems are set to trouvère melodies, the largest number
being contrafacta of songs by Blondel de Nesle (Amours dont sui, Je pour
iver, Qui que face); a further five draw on various other musical sources:
two are based on the same conductus by Perotinus (De sainte Leocade,
Entendez tuit), two on anonymous monophonic conductus (Ma viele,
Talens m’est pris), one on a motet (Hui matin) and one on a sequence (Hui
enfantés). Three songs that use borrowed melodies survive in one or more
sources in two-part polyphonic form (Amours dont sui, De sainte Leocade,
Entendez tuit), including a unique two-part setting of Perotinus’s Beata
viscera. Gautier was, however, no mere musical parodist: a number of the
songs that are certainly by him are set to melodies elsewhere unknown;
most notable, perhaps, is the very beautiful strophic lai Roine celestre.
WORKS
Edition: Les chansons à la vierge de Gautier de Coinci, ed. J. Chailley, PSFM, xv (Paris,
1959) [complete edn except for doubtful works]
nm no music
Amours dont sui espris (De chanter), 1/2vv, R.1546 [contrafactum of: Blondel de
Nesle, ‘Amours dont sui espris (m’efforce)’, R.1545] (melody also used for three
conductus: ‘Procruans odium’, 2vv – duplum = R.1546; ‘Purgator crimium’, 3vv;
‘Suspirat spiritus’, 1v)
Amours qui set bien enchanter, R.851 [contrafactum of: ‘Sour cest rivage’] (two
melodies)
De sainte Leocade, 1/2vv, R.12 [contrafactum of: Perotinus, ‘Beata viscera’]; ed. in
Gennrich (1948), 230
D’un amour coie et serie, R.1212 [contrafactum of: Gilles de Maisons, ‘Je chant,
c’est mout mauvais signes’, R.1356]
Entendez tuit ensemble, et li clerc et li lai, 1/2vv, R.83 [contrafactum of: Perotinus,
‘Beata viscera’]; ed. in Gennrich (1948), 230, Gennrich (1960), 28 (three melodies)
Esforcier m’estuet ma vois, R.1836
Hui enfantés, R.9246 [contrafactum: sequence, ‘Letabundus’]
Hui matin a l’ajournee, R.491a [contrafactum of: ‘Hier matin a l’enjournee’, motet
764]
Je pour iver, pour noif ne pour gelee, R.520 [modelled on: Blondel de Nesle, ‘Li plus
se plaint d’Amours mai je n’os dire’, R.1495]
Las, las, las, las, par grant delit, R.1644
Ma viele, R.617a [contrafactum: monophonic conductus, ‘O Maria, o felix puerpera’]
Mere Dieu, vierge senee, R.556 (two melodies)
Pour conforter mon cuer et mon courage, R.20 [textual contrafactum of Guilhem de
Cabestanh, ‘Mout m’alegra douza vos’, PC 213.7; model for: Alfonso el Sabio,
‘Como Deus é comprida Trinidade’]
Pour la pucele en chantant me deport, R.1930 [modelled on: Pierre de Molins or
Gace Brulé, ‘Chanter me fet ce dont je crien morir’, R.1429; anon., ‘Destroiz
d’amours et pensis sans deport’, R.1932] (two melodies)
Pour mon chief reconforter, R.885 [contrafactum of: Walter of Châtillons ‘Sol sub
nube latuit’; Thibaut de Blason, ‘Chanter et renvoisier seuil’, R.1001] (R.885 and
‘Sol sub nube latuit’ share a refrain which is missing in R.1001)
Puis que voi la flour novele, R.600 [contrafactum of: Gautier de Dargies or Gontier
de Soignies, ‘Au tens gent que reverdoie’, R.1753]
Quant ces floretes florir voi, R.1677 [contrafactum of: Vielart de Corbie, ‘De chanter
me semont Amours’, R.2030]
Qui que face rotruenge novele, R.603 [contrafactum of: Blondel de Nesle, ‘Bien doit
chanter cui fine Amours adrece’, R.482] (three melodies)
Roine celestre, R.956; ed. in MGG1
Sour cest rivage, a ceste crois, R.1831 [contrafactum of: ‘Armours qui set’] (on the
rediscovery of the relics of St Leocadia in 1219)
Talens m’est pris orendroit, R.1845 [contrafactum: monophonic conductus, ‘Ave
virgo sapiens’]
doubtful works
A ce que je vuel comencier, R.1272 (nm)
Bele douce creature, R.2090
Chanter m’estuet, car nel doi contredire, R.1491 (nm)
Chanter m’estuet de la Vierge Marie, R.1181a
Chanter voel, or men souvient, R.1246a
Chanter voel par grant amour, R.1957a
De la mieus vaillant, R.364 (nm)
De la vierge qui ot joie, R.1739b
Douce dame, sainte flour, R.1984a
Flours ne glais [contrafactum of: ‘Le Lai Markiol’], R.192, ed. in Gennrich (1942), 4
Mere au Sauveour, R.2012
Mere de pitié, R.1094a (lai)
Ne flours ne glais, R.192a (lai)
Nete glorieuse, R.1020
Puis que de chanter me tient, R.1247a
Quant je suis plus en perilleuse vie, R.1236 [contrafactum of: Blondel de Nesle,
‘Quant je plus sui en paor de ma vie’, R.1227]
Tant ai servi le monde longuement, R.709a [contrafactum of: Thibaut IV, ‘Tant ai
amours servies longuement’, R.711]
Vers Dieu mes fais disirrans sui forment, R.677 (nm)
Virge glorieuse [ = Nete glorieuse], R.1020 [contrafactum of: Philip the Chancellor,
‘Ave virgo virginum’]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (F. Gennrich)
Abbé Poquet, ed.: Les Miracles de la Sainte Vierge traduits et mis en vers
par Gautier de Coincy (Paris, 1857) [edn of complete text]
P. Meyer: ‘Types de quelques chansons de Gautier de Coinci’, Romania,
xvii (1888), 429–37
F. Gennrich: ‘Die beiden neuesten Bibliographien altfranzösicher und
provenzalischer Lieder’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xli
(1921), 289–346, esp. 314
A. Långfors: ‘Mélanges de poésie lyrique française, II–III: Gautier de
Coinci’, Romania, liii (1927), 474–538; lvi (1930), 33–79 [edn of song
texts]
A.P. Ducrot-Ganderye: Études sur les Miracles Nostre-Dame de Gautier
de Coinci (Helsinki, 1932), 5
H. Spanke: ‘Zu den lyrischen Einlagen in den Versmirakeln Gautiers de
Coinci’, Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, xxxiv (1933), 154
A. Långfors: Miracles de Gautier de Coinci: extraits du manuscrit de
l’Ermitage (Helsinki, 1937), 337 [with facs.]
E. Lommatsch: ‘Anatole France et Gautier de Coinci’, Zeitschrift für
romanische Philologie, lviii (1938), 202
F. Gennrich: ‘Zwei altfranzösische Lais’, Studi medievali, new ser., xv
(1942), 1–68, esp. 4
F. Gennrich: ‘Perotins Beata viscera Marie virginis und die “Modaltheorie”’,
Mf, i (1948), 230 [incl. edns of De sainte Leocade, Entendez tuit]
F. Gennrich: Troubadours, Trouvères, Minne- und Meistergesang, Mw, ii
(1951; Eng. trans., 1960), 28 [incl. edn of Entendez tuit]
J.H. Marshall: ‘Gautier de Coinci imitateur de Guilhem de Cabestanh’,
Romania, xcviii (1977), 245–9
H.-H.S. Räkel: Die musikalische Erscheinungsform der Trouvèrepoesie
(Berne, 1977), 107, 375
L. Rossi and A. Ziino: ‘Mout m’alegra douza vos per boscaje’, Cultura
Neolatina, xxxix (1979), 69–80 [incl. analysis of Pour conforter]
S.N. Rosenberg and H. Tischler: ‘Chanter m’estuet’: Songs of the
Trouvères (Bloomington, IN, 1981)
U. Malizia: ‘Guatier de Coinci: la volontà di rinnovare la musica lirica ne
“les Miracles de Nostre Dame”’, La lengua y la literatura en tiempos de
Alfonso X [Murcia 1984], ed. F. Carmona and F.J. Flores (Murcia,
1985), 319–32
U. Malizia: ‘Intorno al lessico tecnico-musicale ne “les Miracles de Nostre
Dame” di Gautier de Coincy’, Congrès international de linguistique et
de philologie romanes XVIII [Trier 1986], ed. D. Kremer (Tübingen,
1989–92), vi, 405–17
ROBERT FALCK
Gautier de Dargies
(b c1165; d after 1236).French trouvère. His forebears had participated in
the First Crusade in 1099, and he himself took part in the Third Crusade
(1189). His name appears as witness or principal in documents of 1195,
1201, 1206 and 1236. These mention also a wife named Agnes and three
brothers, Rainaut, Drogo and Villardus. Gautier's father, Sagalo de
Dargies, was either a younger son or a descendant of a younger son. Thus
the trouvère's arms, shown in miniatures in the Manuscrit du Roi (F-Pn
fr.844) and the Chansonnier d'Arras (F-AS 657: see illustration), display
martlets of gules rather than of sable, the latter colouring being indicative of
the main branch of the family. The hamlet of Dargies is in the département
of Oise, Beauvais arrondissement.
The chansons Ainc mais ne fis chançon and Desque ci ai tous jours chanté
are dedicated to Gace Brule, mentioned also in Or chant novel. A vous,
messire Gautier is a tenso addressed to Gautier de Dargies by a certain
Richart, while Amis Richart is one addressed to Richart de Fournival by a
certain Gautier; presumably the same pair of participants is involved in
both. It is possible that Gautier was also acquainted with other trouvères
active in the third crusade, including the Chastelain de Couci, Conon de
Béthune, and Hugues de Berzé.
In addition to the customary chansons courtoises and the two tensos,
Gautier de Dargies wrote three descorts (De celi me plaing, J'ai par
maintes fois and La douce pensee), the earliest known works of this genre.
His themes and imagery derive for the most part from the fashionable stock
of his time, but these materials are handled very skilfully. Greater originality
is evident in the treatment of poetic form; several works depart from the
average by virtue either of asymmetrical design (Chançon ferai, Desque ci
ai, Maintes fois) or of greater than normal length of strophe (Autres que je
ne suel fas, Bien me cuidai, En icel tens and Hé Dieus).
Individuality of form is present also in the melodies. While bar form remains
the norm, Hé Dieus has pedes of three phrases each, and Bien me cuidai
uses pedes of four phrases each. Four melodies are non-repetitive (Ainc
mais ne fis chançon, Chançon ferai, Desque ci ai and La gent dient), and
Haute chose repeats later phrases rather than the customary opening
ones. Highly unusual are the late settings of Chançon ferai and Maintes
fois in the Chansonnier d'Arras; in these, the phrase lengths (defined by
repetition patterns) often differ in length from the poetic phrases, creating a
complex interplay. A similar technique, carried out more subtly, is present in
the main setting of Maintes fois. The descorts, containing 47, 63 and 85
verses, are normally analysed as falling into six, seven and nine strophes
respectively, no two being structurally identical in the same poem. Most
musical phrases are grouped in twos, each group being stated two, three
or four times. There are also groups of three phrases as well as twofold
and threefold statements of single phrases. A few strophes conclude with
one or two phrases not part of a larger repetition.
Gautier's melodies move vigorously. None is restricted to less than an
octave, and examples covering a 10th, 11th or 12th are common. The late
setting of Se j'ai esté in the Manuscrit du Roi spans an extraordinary two
octaves and a 2nd, a range made possible by an early use of the G clef on
the lowest line of a four-line staff. (If octave transposition for this clef were
used in order to keep the melody within a smaller span, leaps which are
highly uncharacteristic of the style would result at the two points of
transition; the range of an octave and a 7th in the Noailles reading of De
celi me plaing seems, however, to result from transpositions which
represent a late – and perhaps unintended – revision of the original.) Modal
organization is frequently individual also, and often varies from one reading
to another. In several works there is important use of notes below the final.
In the reading of Bien me cuidai in the Manuscrit du Roi, for example, the
final is a 7th above the lowest note. In general, Gautier favoured modes
with a major 3rd above the final. In most melodies the final is a tonal centre
of importance; some, however, reach an unexpected final while others
display little sense of tonal gravitation.
The late setting of Chançon ferai in the Manuscrit du Roi is given in fully
mensural notation and is cast in the 2nd rhythmic mode. The applicability of
this information to the florid original setting is, however, doubtful. The
ligatures used in the main setting of Autres que je ne suel fas are disposed
in patterns that invite the use of the 2nd mode, but there is little other
evidence of such regularity. On the contrary, the irregular and often highly
ornate settings appear quite inappropriate to the use of modal rhythm. The
individuality of form, combined with breadth of motion and richness of
rhythmic design, show Gautier's melodies to be among the more forceful
creations of their kind.
Sources, MS
WORKS
[K] etc. indicates a MS (using Schwan sigla: see Sources, ms); italics indicate uncertain
identification
THEODORE KARP
Gautier de Lille.
See Walter of châtillon.
Edition: Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete and Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler,
CMM, cvii (1997)
Aïmans fins et verais, R.199 [model for: Jaque de Cambrai, ‘O dame qui Deu
portais’, R.197a; Lambert Ferri, ‘Aïmans fins et verais’, R.198]
Amours et bone volenté, R.954
Desconfortés et de joie parti, R.1073
Ja pour longue demouree, R.504 (nm)
Ne puet laissier fins cuers c'adès se plaigne, R.119
Outrecuidiers et ma fole pensee, R.542
Partis de doulour, R.1971 (nm)
Puis qu'en moi a recouvré seignourie, R.1208
Quant je voi l'erbe menue, R.2067, ed. in Gennrich
Quant voi iver et froidure aparoir, R.1784
Se j'ai lonc tens amours servi, R.1082 (nm)
Se par force de merci, R.1059 [music = Thibaut de Blaison, ‘Amours, que porra
devenir’, R.1402, amplified by repetition of last 2 lines]
Tout autresi com l'äimans deçoit, R.1840
Tout esforciés avrai chanté souvent, R.728
possibly by Gautier
A droit se plaint et a droit se gamente, R.749
Comencement de douce saison bele, R.590 [model for: Anon., ‘Chanter mestuet de
la sainte pucele’, R.610]; ed. in Gérold
Par son dous comandement, R.649
doubtful works
Amours, a cuis tous jours serai, R.104 [text only]
En toute gent ne truis tant de savoir, R.1816 (nm)
Jherusalem, grant damage me fais, R.191 (nm)
Quant je voi par la contree, R.501 (nm)
Quant je voi fenir iver et la froidure, R.1988 (nm)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
U. Lindelöf and A.Wallensköld: ‘Les chansons de Gautier d'Epinal’,
Mémoires de la Société néophilologique de Helsinki, iii (1902), 205–
319
F. Gennrich: Grundriss einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes als
Grundlage einer musikalische Formenlehre des Liedes (Halle, 1932/R)
H. Petersen Dyggve: ‘Personnages historiques figurant dans la poésie
lyrique française des XIIe et XIIle siècles, ii: Gautier d'Epinal’,
Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, xxxvi (1935), 19–29
T. Gérold: Histoire de la musique des origines à la fin du XIVe siècle
(Paris, 1936/R)
R. Dragonetti: La technique poétique des trouvères dans la chanson
courtoise: contribution à l'étude de la rhétorique mediévale (Bruges,
1960/R)
THEODORE KARP
Gauzargues, Charles
(b Tarascon, c1725; d Paris, 1799). French theorist and composer. He
trained as a choirboy in Tarascon; after being ordained as a priest he
became maître de chapelle at Nîmes and later at Montpellier. According to
Laborde he went to Paris in 1756 to submit his compositions to Rameau.
He acted as sous-maître of the royal chapel from 1758 to 1775, when he
retired to Saint-Germain. He seems to have returned to Paris for the last
years of his life. He is credited with having written 40 motets, though only
two are extant: In te Domine speravi (F-AIXm) and Cantate Domine
(published in the Traité de composition).
He published two treatises. The Traité d’harmonie (Paris, n.d., ?2/1798)
adheres to Rameau's theory of the fundamental bass, and a clear and
methodical presentation of chordal nomenclature is emphasized. He uses
Rameau's original terminology for dissonance treatment, cadence types
and supposition chords, yet incorporates concepts from post-Ramist
theorists such as d'Alembert and Roussier. Most notably, he makes a
distinction between an invertible 7th chord on the second scale degree and
a fundamental 6-5 chord on the subdominant, and he discusses
augmented 6th chords in modulatory passages involving dominant chords.
In the Traité de composition (Paris, 1797) he provides musical examples to
show how theoretical rules of chordal harmony apply to actual practice. He
concludes the work with a discussion of fugue and includes his own five-
voice composition as a model.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
GerberL
GerberNL
La BordeE
R. Machard: ‘Les musiciens en France au temps de Jean-Philippe
Rameau’, RMFC, xi (1971), 5-177, esp. 134ff
B. Lespinard: ‘La Chapelle royale sous le règne de Louis XV’, RMFC, xxiii
(1985), 131–75
M. Benoit: Dictionnaire de la musique en France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe
siècles (Paris, 1992), 315
CYNTHIA M. GESSELE
Gavaldá, José
(b Vinaroz, nr Tortosa, 2 Oct 1818; d Madrid, 21 April 1890). Spanish
bandmaster. At the age of nine he was chosen to be a choirboy at Tortosa
Cathedral. After five years’ study with the maestro de capilla, Juan Antonio
Nin (1804–67), he was named organist of the church of S Blas in that city.
Drafted into the army during the Carlist wars, he was stationed at Morella
and at 22 held the rank of músico mayor in the Guardia Real. At 25 he was
sent to Galicia and at 31 became director of music at the Colegio Militar in
Toledo. In 1856 he moved to Madrid, where he started the periodical for
army bandmasters El eco de Marte. In 1867 he sold this highly successful
magazine and the copyright of all his military band compositions to the firm
of Romero Andía. His other compositions include two symphonies, a six-
voice mass with military band accompaniment, written for the Toledo
Colegio de Infantería, and a five-voice orchestral Salve regina. (LaborD)
ROBERT STEVENSON
Gavaux, Pierre.
See Gaveaux, Pierre.
Gavazzeni, Gianandrea
(b Bergamo, 27 July 1909; d Bergamo, 5 Feb 1996). Italian conductor,
composer and writer. He studied at the Accademia di S Cecilia, Rome, and
with Pizzetti at the Milan Conservatory. His conducting début was in 1940,
after his own opera Paolo e Virginia had been well received in 1935, but in
1949 he abruptly gave up composition and refused to allow further
performances of his works. From 1948 he was associated with La Scala,
Milan, where he was artistic director (1965–8) and continued to conduct
into the 1990s. He was a perceptive exponent of the verismo school, both
in performance and in print, and his edition of Mascagni’s Le maschere
was staged at the Florence Maggio Musicale in 1955 and several times
revived elsewhere. His British début was at the 1957 Edinburgh Festival in
Il turco in Italia with the company from the Piccola Scala, and the same
year he conducted La bohème at the Chicago Lyric Opera. He conducted
the Bol'shoy Opera at Moscow in 1964 and appeared at the Glyndebourne
Festival in 1965 (Anna Bolena) and at the Metropolitan in 1976 (Il
trovatore). He recorded several operas by Rossini, Verdi, Mascagni and
Puccini, wrote music criticism for Il corriere della sera, and published
studies of Bellini, Donizetti, Mascagni, Pizzetti, Musorgsky and Janáček, as
well as guides to the operas of Mozart and Wagner.
LEONARDO PINZAUTI, NOËL GOODWIN
Gaveau.
French firm of piano and harpsichord makers. Joseph Gaveau (b
Romorantin, 1824; d Paris, 1893) founded the firm in 1847, working with
his employees in a small shop at the rue des Vinaigriers in Paris; the
workshop and the offices were later transferred to the rue Servan. The firm
established an excellent reputation for its small upright pianos, and by the
1880s the business was producing about 1000 pianos a year, achieving a
degree of success due to commercial acumen rather than intrinsic quality.
Joseph was succeeded by his son Etienne Gaveau (b Paris, 7 Oct 1872; d
Paris, 26 May 1943), who organized the construction of a larger new
factory at Fontenay-sous-Bois and, following the example of other well-
known piano makers, in 1907 opened a new concert hall, the Salle
Gaveau, in the rue la Boëtie, Paris. This street also housed the offices of
the firm from 1908. Arnold Dolmetsch joined the firm in 1911, and under his
direction it produced spinets and small unfretted clavichords along
historical principles; this continued after his departure in 1914. The firm
undoubtedly hoped to capture part of the new market for plucked keyboard
instruments and clavichords from its great rivals, Pleyel. Etienne’s sons
Marcel and André Gaveau succeeded their father in running the firm. In
December 1959 Gaveau joined Erard to form Gaveau-Erard S.A. In 1971
the production of Gaveau pianos was taken over by the German firm
Schimmel, but since 1994 the instruments have been made by the French
manufacturer Rameau.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Chenaud: Les facteurs de pianos et leurs recherches (Paris, 1970)
C. Ehrlich: The Piano: a History (London, 1976, 2/1990)
O. Barli: La facture française du piano de 1849 à nos jours (Paris, 1983)
MARGARET CRANMER
L’amour filial, ou Les deux Suisses (opéra, 1, C.A. Demoustier), 7 March 1792, later
as L’amour filial, ou La jambe de bois
Le paria, ou La chaumière indienne (opéra, 2, Demoustier), 8 Oct 1792
Les deux ermites (opéra, 1, B. Planterre), 17 April 1793
La partie carrée (opéra-bouffe, 1, L. Hennequin), 26 June 1793, unpubd
La famille indigente (fait historique, 1, Planterre), 24 Mar 1794
Sophronime, ou La reconnaissance (opéra, 1, Demoustier), 13 Feb 1795
Delmon et Nadine (2, E.-J.-B. Delrieu), 11 June 1795
Le petit matelot, ou Le mariage impromptu (opéra, 1, C.-A.-G. Pigault-Lebrun), 28
Dec
Lise et Colin, ou La surveillance inutile (opéra, 2, E. Hus), 4 Aug 1796
La gasconnade (1, Leroi), 10 Oct 1796
Tout par hasard (1, Monnet), 22 Oct 1796
Céliane (opéra, 1, J.M. Souriguière de Saint Marc), 31 Dec 1796
Le mannequin vivant, ou Le mari de bois (1, R.C.G. de Pixérécourt), 1796, unperf.
Le traité nul (com., 1, B.J. Marsollier des Vivetières), 23 June 1797
Sophie et Moncars, ou L’intrigue portugaise (op. vaudeville, 3, J.-H. Guy), 30 Sept
1797
Léonore, ou L’amour conjugal (fait historique, 2, J.-M. Bouilly), 19 Feb 1798
Le diable couleur de rose, ou Le bonhomme misère (opéra bouffon, 1, G. Lévrier-
Champrion), Arts, 23 Oct 1798
Les noms supposés (com., 2, J.-B. Pujoulx), 11 Dec 1798, rev. as Les deux jockeys,
17 Jan 1799
Le locataire (OC, 1, C.-A. Sewrin), 26 July 1800
Le trompeur trompé (OC, 1, B. Valville), 2 Aug 1800
Ovinska, ou Les exilés de Sibérie (3, Bidon de Villemontez), 20 Dec 1800
Le retour inattendu (1, Valville), 29 March 1802
Un quart d’heure de silence (OC, 1, P. Guillet), 9 June 1804
Le bouffe et le tailleur (1, P. Villiers and A Gouffé), Paris, Montansier, 21 June 1804
Avis aux femmes, ou Le mari colère (com., 1, Pixérécourt), 27 Oct 1804
Le mariage inattendu (1), Paris, Montansier, 1804
Trop tôt (1), Montansier 1804
Le diable en vacances, ou La suite du diable couleur de rose (opéra-féerie, 1, M.-A.
Désaugiers and J.-S.-F. Bosquier-Gavaudan), Montansier, 16 Feb 1805
L’Amour à Cythère (2, ballet-pantomime), Opéra, 29 Oct 1805, F-Po
Monsieur Deschalumeaux, ou La soirée de Carnaval (opéra bouffe, 3, Creuzé de
Lesseur), 17 Feb 1806
L’échelle de soie (OC, 1, F.-A.-E. de Planard), 22 Aug 1808
La rose blanche et la rose rouge (drame lyrique, 3, Pixérécourt), 20 March 1809
L’enfant prodigue (opéra, 3, Riboutté and Souriguière), 23 Nov 1811
Pygmalion (scène lyrique, J.-J. Rousseau), 1816, ?unperf.
Une nuit au bois, ou Le muet de circonstance (1), 10 Feb 1818
1 air in L.-C.-A. Chardiny: L’histoire universelle, 1790; numerous other excerpts,
arrs. pubd
other works
Vocal: 6 romances imitées de Athala (Paris, n.d.); Recueil de canzonettes italiennes
(Paris, 1800); other romances; L’apothéose de J.-J. Rousseau; Hymne de l’Etre
suprême (Paris, 1792); La réveil du peuple (Paris, 1795); other Revolutionary works
Insts: 7 ouvertures, orch (Paris, n.d.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
HopkinsonD
C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution (Paris, 1904/R)
J.-G. Prod’homme: ‘Léonore ou L’amour conjugal de Bouilly et Gaveaux’,
SIMG, vii (1905–6), 636–9
A. Sandberger: ‘Beiträge zur Beethoven-Forschung’, AMw, ii (1920), 394–
410
M. Pincherle, ed.: Musiciens peints par eux-mêmes (Paris, 1939)
W. Dean: ‘French Opera’, NOHM, viii (1982), 26–117
R. Cadenbach: ‘Die “Léonore” des Pierre Gaveaux: ein Modell für
Beethovens “Fidelio”?’, Collegium musicologicum: Festschrift Emil
Platen, ed. M. Gutiérrez-Denhoff (Bonn, 1985, 2/1986), 100–21
D. Charlton: ‘On Redefinitions of “Rescue Opera”’, Music and the French
Revolution: Cardiff 1989, 169–88
W. Wolf: ‘De la Léonore de Pierre Gaveaux à celle de Fidelio’, 1789–1989:
musique, histoire, démocratie (Paris, 1992), 107–14
M. McClennan: Battling Over the Lyric Muse (diss., U. of North Carolina,
1994)
E. Kennedy and others: Theatre, Opera and Audiences in Revolutionary
Paris (Westport, CT, 1996)
L. Mason: Singing the French Revolution (Ithaca, NY, 1996)
K. Kutsch and T. Riemans: Grosses Sängerlexicon (Bern, 3/1997–2000)
PAULETTE LETAILLEUR
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetC
BrookSF
FétisB
GerberNL
La BordeE
La Laurencie
EF [incl. detailed description of pubd works]
MGG1 (E. Borrel)
MoserGV
NewmanSCE
PierreH
C. Pipelet [Princesse du Salm]: Eloge historique de Pierre Gaviniés
(Paris, 1802)
F. Fayolle: Notices sur Corelli, Tartini, Gaviniés, Pugnani et Viotti (Paris,
1810)
T. de Wyzewa and G. Saint-Foix: Wolfgang Amédée Mozart: sa vie
musicale et son oeuvre (Paris, 1912–46)
L. de La Laurencie: ‘Gaviniès et son temps’, ReM, iii/3–5 (1921–2), 135–
48
H. Bordes: ‘Pierre Gaviniès, violiniste bordelais (1728–1800)’, Actes de
l’Académie nationale des sciences, belles-lettres, et artes de
Bordeaux, xxii/4 (1967), 53
K.M. Stolba: A History of the Violin Etude to about 1800 (Hays, Kansas,
1968–9)
A.F. Ginter: The Sonatas of Pierre Gaviniés (diss., Ohio State U., 1976)
JEFFREY COOPER/ANTHONY GINTER
Gavioli.
Italian family of mechanical instrument makers, later active in France.
Giacomo Gavioli (b Cavezzo, nr Modena, 16 Feb 1786; d Paris, 1875)
began as a maker of horse-drawn cabriolets. In 1818 he went to Modena to
work for the county watch repairer. In 1828 he advertised as a
‘manufacturer and retailer of carillons and organs’. He became Modena’s
leading watch and clock-maker; his clock for the Palazzo Comunale is still
in use there.
His son Lodovico [Louis] Gavioli (i) (b Cavezzo, 5 Aug 1807; d Paris, 1875)
began to show his mechanical genius in his early innovations in clock
design. During the 1830s he began making mechanical or self-playing
instruments, including a harp-playing android David (1838). He also made
a mechanical orchestra called the Panarmonico. He undertook repairs to
small mechanical instruments (barrel pianos and organs) for street
musicians, and eventually mastered their manufacture. At the 1845
Triennial Exhibition in Modena he was awarded a prize for a street organ of
his own design, as a result of which he decided to manufacture the
armonico a mano as his main source of income. He also built a barrel
recital organ for Queen Isabella II of Spain. In 1854 he moved to Paris and
set up as a maker of mechanical orchestras, taking over the old Pleyel
piano and harp factory in Faubourg Saint-Antoine. The Italian king allowed
Gavioli to use the Austro-Estense coat of arms on his factory. The following
year he received a gold medal at the Paris Exposition for a mechanical
flute-playing android; he also took out an English patent for the Clavi-
accord, a portable reed organ. Lodovico and his sons Anselmo [Anselme]
(1828–1902) and Claudio [Claude] (1831–1905) began making street
pianos, and later made fairground and dance organs. The firm’s reputation,
however, was based on the building of the Stratarmonica, the first true
street organ; this was a large barrel organ on wheels with moving figures in
its prospect.
Anselmo took over the management of the firm in 1863, but suffered a
setback when his factory was destroyed during the Franco-Prussian War in
1870. With financial backing from Prosper Yver and Leonce Julaguier, in
1871 he reorganized the company under the name of Gavioli & Cie. In
1876 Anselmo patented an improvement in pipe construction called the
frein harmonique, or harmonic bridge. This consisted of a piece of metal
positioned in front of the mouth of a narrow-scaled pipe to stabilize the
wind curtain at the languid, allowing the pipe to be blown at high pressure
without overblowing, an innovation soon used by makers of church and
concert-hall organs as well. Until almost the end of the 19th century all
street organs had been operated by pinned barrels (see Barrel organ). In
1892, using the principle of the Jacquard loom, Anselmo invented the
‘keyframe and music book’ system, in which a long series of hinged
perforated cards (the ‘book’) is fed through the keyframe mechanism for
playing. The advantages of the system were the compactness of the music
programme, the simplicity of the method of preparing ‘the book’ (the holes
were punched out on a treadle-operated machine) and, above all, that the
music played could be much longer and more complex. This invention,
together with Anselmo’s two-pressure system, patented in 1891 (low
pressure for the pipes, high pressure for the action), heralded the
beginning of a new era for street and fairground organs. Anselmo’s son and
successor Lodovico (ii) (1850–1923) excelled in arranging music, and this
period in the company’s history marked the high point in its musical
superiority over other fairground organ makers. The firm produced some of
the finest mechanical instruments of the age: around the turn of the century
Claudio invented a book-playing ‘mechanical band’ called the Coelophone
Orchestre but it seems to have had limited production, and none is now
known to exist.
The Gavioli firm did not benefit as it should have done from these and
other inventions. Financial problems plagued Lodovico (ii) and shortly after
his father’s death his foreman Charles Marenghi left, with others trained by
Gavioli, to start a rival business. Despite this setback, the firm went on to
develop what many consider its masterpiece, the large 110-key
Gavioliphone, which, after six years of design work, was put on the market
in 1906 and seems to have been particularly popular in England. The
centre of book-organ building was shifting from Paris to Belgium, where
thriving builders such as Mortier and Hooghuys were capitalizing on a new
interest in organs for dance halls. Gavioli tried to counter this, opening a
branch factory in Waldkirch where a small number of ‘German Gavioli’
organs were made to suit the different demands of a German market. The
firm might have held its lead in the industry, had it not tried to produce an
even more ambitious 112-note keyless instrument (using paper rolls) with
an experimental action and wind system. Patented in 1907, this new
instrument was beset with mechanical problems, and purchasers sued
Gavioli for damages under the terms of their guarantee. This, along with
the fact that Mortier was infringing Gavioli’s patents, is probably what
prompted the sale of the business to Limonaire Frères in 1910.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.C. Spinelli: I due Gavioli (Modena, 1901)
R. de Waard: Van speeldoos tot pierement (New York, 1964; Eng. trans.,
1967)
E.V. Cockayne: The Fairground Organ (London, 1970)
A.W.J.G. Ord-Hume: Barrel Organ (London, 1978)
H. Rambach and O. Wernet: Waldkircher Orgelbauer (Waldkirch, 1984)
ARTHUR W.J.G. ORD-HUME, BARBARA OWEN
Gavotte
(Fr.; Old Eng. gavot; It. gavotta).
A French folkdance still performed in Brittany in the mid-20th century; also
a French court dance and instrumental form popular from the late 16th
century to the late 18th. The courtly gavotte was a lively duple-metre
successor to the 16th-century branle; it often had a pastoral affect in the
18th century, and frequently appeared as a movement of a suite, usually
after the sarabande.
‘Gavotte’ is a generic term covering many types of folkdance from the area
of Basse-Bretagne in France, but it is used also in Provence and the
Basque areas. J.-M. Guilcher’s study of the gavotte in Brittany (1963)
revealed great variety in modern practice, especially in the type of steps
used, floor patterns and formations and musical accompaniment. Gavottes
in some areas are accompanied by singing, with a soloist alternating either
with a group or with another soloist; in other areas gavottes are
accompanied by instruments such as the violin, drum, bagpipe or a kind of
shawm. Various metres are used, including 4/4, 2/4, 9/8 and 5/8. Gavottes
written in the 20th century are thought to derive from 19th-century practices
and thus are probably not related to the court dances that gained popularity
in the late 16th century.
The earliest description of the gavotte as a court dance appeared in
Arbeau’s Orchésographie (1588). Apparently the gavotte was a set of
branle doubles or variations. Arbeau described it as a relatively new form of
the branle, consisting of the same sideways motion by a line or circle of
dancers. Unlike the branle, in which sideways motion was achieved by the
dancer’s continually bringing the feet together, the gavotte required
crossing of the feet twice in each step pattern, and each step was followed
by a hop. Various pantomimic motions, such as the choice of a leader for
the next dance, usually formed part of a gavotte performance. The gavotte
was mentioned as a popular court dance related to the branle by other
writers as well, including Michael Praetorius (Terpsichore, 1612), F. de
Lauze (Apologie de la danse, 1623), Mersenne (Harmonie universelle,
1636), and even by Pierre Rameau as late as 1725 (Le maître à danser).
No further information as to steps and movements was given by any of
these writers: Lauze wrote that ‘the steps and actions are so common that
it will be useless to write of it’; Rameau described the gavotte as a regular
part of the ceremonial of formal court balls, but as he failed to describe the
steps it is not certain how much the dance may have changed by his time.
Ex.1 shows how the steps mentioned by Arbeau might fit with one of the
gavottes included in Praetorius’s Terpsichore. Like the example, most 17th-
century gavottes were in duple metre and consisted of repeated four- and
eight-bar phrases, and most were uncomplicated by counterpoint,
syncopation or attempts at musical relationships between successive
strains. Apparently a wide variety of rhythmic figures was possible within
the duple metre, one of the most common being frequent use of dotted
crotchet–quaver figures at the beginnings of bars. Occasionally, as in a
collection of ballets performed at the Vienna court in the 1660s and 1670s
(see DTÖ, lvi, 1921/R), phrases had an odd number of bars. A ballet by
J.H. Schmelzer in that collection includes five consecutive gavottes, each
titled as though it represented the national gavotte of a different country
(e.g. ‘gavotte tedesca’, ‘gavotte anglica’ etc.); the national titles probably
referred to costumes worn during the dances for which the music was
written, rather than to any particular national traits in the music. Ex.2 shows
two of the opening strains of these national gavottes. Other sources for the
17th-century gavotte include the Kassel Manuscript (Ecorcheville), a
collection of 17th-century dances now in Uppsala (S-Uu Imhs.409), and
G.M. Bononcini’s op.1 (Venice, 1666).
Another type of dance called gavotte, whose relationship to the branle-
gavotte is unclear, was one of the French court dances introduced during
the reign of Louis XIV, probably in the 1660s or earlier. At least 17 actual
choreographies are extant in the Beauchamp-Feuillet notation, all dating
from after 1700 (see Little and Marsh). Most are social dances, although
two (Little and Marsh, nos.4220 and 4520) are for theatrical performance.
Ex.3 (Little and Marsh, no.4880) shows the opening phrase of a typical
social gavotte, a couple dance (rather than a circle or line dance) popular
in aristocratic circles in the early 18th century. The dance phrases, like
those of the branle-gavotte, are generally four bars long as seen here, with
a rhythmic point of arrival at the beginning of the fourth bar. The phrase of
music that accompanies it, which begins one minim beat earlier than the
dance phrase, is eight minims long, divided into two groups of four, with
rhythmic point of arrival strongest on the fourth and eighth beats. In
practice dance and music form counter-rhythms, and the tension is
released only at the common point of arrival at the beginning of the fourth
bar. A characteristic step pattern of the couple gavotte was the
contretemps de gavotte followed by an assemblé, which may be
abbreviated as ‘hop–step–step–jump’; the second half of ex.3 shows how it
fitted the music (the landing on both feet in the jump occurs on the first
beat of the fourth bar). Gavotte step-units were widely used in the
contredanse.
Gavottes were popular in ballets and other theatrical works. Lully set 37
titled gavottes in his stage works, beginning as early as 1655 in the Ballet
des plaisirs. Later French ballet composers, including Campra, Destouches
and Rameau, continued this practice, Rameau in particular using it more
than any other dance in his stage works (e.g. in the prologue to Hippolyte
et Aricie, 1733, in Act 2 of Les Indes galantes, 1735, and in the prologue
and Act 4 of Castor et Pollux, 1737). Other productions including danced
gavottes were Handel’s Amadigi (1715) and Il pastor fido (2nd version,
1734), Grétry’s Céphale et Procris (1773) and Mozart’s Idomeneo (1781).
Like most Baroque dances, the gavotte was used as both an instrumental
and a vocal air as well as for dancing. The stylized gavotte, like the dance,
had a time signature of 2 or C, a moderate tempo, phrases built in four-bar
units and a performing style often characterized by quavers executed as
notes inégales. Mattheson claimed that the gavotte expressed ‘triumphant
joy’, but most others thought the affect to be one of moderate gaiety –
pleasant, tender, avoiding extremes of emotional expression. It was often
considered a pastoral dance, an association emphasized in J.S. Bach’s
settings of gavottes in the first two English suites for keyboard, both of
which have a drone bass that may be intended to imitate the sound of a
musette (ex.4; note also the drone in Schmelzer’s Gavotta bavarica,
ex.2b). The tempo varied according to the character of the piece and the
amount of ornamentation. J.-J. Rousseau (1768) wrote that the gavotte,
while usually a ‘gay’ dance, could also be slow and tender. Unlike the more
serious Baroque dances such as the allemande and courante the gavotte
never lost its relative simplicity of texture and clear phrasing. Gavottes
were most often written in binary form, or as a set of variations, or as a
rondeau (see Rondo). Occasionally two gavottes occurred consecutively in
a suite, the first then repeated da capo.
Gavottes and gavotte rhythms abound in French vocal music, not only in
brunettes and other songs but also in secular and sacred ensemble music.
As early as 1668 Bacilly spoke of ‘enchanting’ French songs that were
gavottes, including suggestions for their performance (Remarques
curieuses sur l’art de bien chanter, i, chap.11). Sung gavottes may be
found in the works of L’Affilard (Principes, 5/1705) and in cantatas by André
Campra and Montéclair.
In the first half of the 18th century the gavotte was one of the most popular
instrumental forms derived from a dance, frequently forming part of
keyboard and instrumental suites, where it usually appeared after the more
serious movements (allemande, courante, sarabande), along with other
popular dances like the minuet and the bourrée. Gavottes for keyboard
were composed by D’Anglebert, Blow, Purcell, J.C.F. Fischer, Johann
Krieger, Lebègue, Gaspard Le Roux and François Couperin. Gavottes
were also used in music written for small ensemble (e.g. solo and trio
sonatas), such as G.B. Vitali’s Sonate da camera op.14 (1692), Marin
Marais’ Pièces de violes (1711; gavotte ‘La petite’) and Couperin’s Les
nations (1726). Instrumental gavottes appeared in both French and Italian
styles. The Italian style, characterized by a fast tempo, contrapuntal texture
and virtuoso performance techniques without the use of notes inégales,
was popular in violin music. Examples abound in the works of Corelli, and
include pieces entitled ‘Gavotta’ which begin on the bar, not before it (op.4
no.5), and pieces entitled ‘Tempo di gavotta’ (op.2 no.8). Several gavottes
by Bach also illustrate this style (e.g. the orchestral suites bwv1066 and
1069, most of the gavottes for solo string instruments and the ‘Tempo di
gavotta’ in the sixth keyboard partita bwv830), as do the famous
‘Harmonious Blacksmith’ variations by Handel (keyboard suite no.5, 1720),
although they are not so titled. A gavotte aria, ‘Sehet in Zufriedenheit’,
closes Bach’s wedding cantata Weichet nur, betrübte Schatten,
accompanied by strings and the pastoral oboe, and a choral gavotte, ‘Love
and Hymen, hand in hand’, forms part of a wedding scene in Handel’s
Hercules.
The title ‘gavotte’ has appeared in more recent compositions, including
Johann Strauss’s ‘Gavotte der Königin’ from Das Spitzentuch (1880);
Richard Strauss’s Suite for 13 wind instruments op.4 (1884); Saint-Saëns’s
Gavotte for piano solo op.23 (1872), Orchestral Suite op.49 (1877) and
Suite op.90 (1892); Prokofiev’s Classical Symphony op.25 (1916–17); and
Schoenberg’s Suite for piano op.25 (1925). While all these share the duple
metre of the old dance, none seems to have more than a vague neo-
classical association with older music, nor exhibits any of the rhythms
characteristic of the Baroque gavotte.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (C. Marcel-Dubois)
J. Ecorcheville: Vingt suites d’orchestre du XVIIe siècle français 1640–
1670 (Paris, 1906/R)
J.-M. Guilcher: La tradition populaire de danse en Basse-Bretagne (Paris,
1963)
J.-M. Guilcher: La contredanse (Paris, 1969)
W. Hilton: Dance of Court and Theater (Princeton, NJ, 1981/R)
M. Little and N. Jenne: Dance and the Music of J.S. Bach (Bloomington,
IN, 1991), 47–61
M. Little and C. Marsh: La danse noble: an Inventory of Dances and
Sources (Williamstown, MA, 1992)
F. Lancelot: La belle dance: catalogue raisonné (Paris, 1996)
MEREDITH ELLIS LITTLE
Gavoty, Bernard
(b Paris, 2 April 1908; d Paris, 24 Oct 1981). French critic, writer on music
and organist. He studied the organ and harmony at the Paris Conservatoire
(1934–7) under Marcel Dupré and Georges Caussade, and took a degree
in literature at the Sorbonne. He was in charge of the Jeunesses Musicales
de France and in 1942 was appointed resident organist at St Louis-des-
Invalides in Paris, the great organ of which he inaugurated after its
reconstruction in 1957. He was music critic for the Figaro under the
pseudonym of Clarendon from 1945 until his death. He was also a radio
and television producer at the ORTF from 1948.
Many of Gavoty’s works are enthusiastic biographies of organists (Vierne,
Jehan Alain) and other famous musicians whom he knew personally; he
was author of Les Grands Interprètes, a popular series of biographies of
contemporary musicians illustrated by the photographer Roger Hauert
(Geneva, 1953–62; Ger. trans., 1953–62). He was also known for his
critical attitude to the experiments of the avant garde. His writings are
characterized by polished language and a style that is lively and vivacious
with a frequent use of paradox.
WRITINGS
Louis Vierne: la vie et l’oeuvre (Paris, 1943/R)
Jehan Alain, musicien français (1911–1940) (Paris, 1945/R)
Les Français sont-ils musiciens? (Paris, 1950)
Deux capitales romantiques: Vienne–Paris (Paris, 1954)
Beethoven (Paris, 1955)
ed.: Les souvenirs de Georges Enesco (Paris, 1955)
with Daniel-Lesur: Pour ou contre la musique moderne? (Paris, 1957)
La musique adoucit les moeurs? (Paris, 1959)
with E. Vuillermoz: Chopin amoureux (Geneva, 1960)
Dix grands musiciens (Paris, 1962)
Vingt grands interprètes (Paris, 1966)
Parler … parler! (Paris, 1972)
Frédéric Chopin (Paris, 1974)
Les grands mystères de la musique (Paris, 1975)
Reynaldo Hahn: le musicien de la Belle Epoque (Paris, 1976)
Alfred Cortot (Paris, 1977)
Anicroches (Paris, 1979)
Liszt, i: Le virtuose, 1811–48 (Paris, 1980)
Chroniques de Clarendon, 1945–1981, ed. J. Lonchampt (Paris, 1990)
CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Volkov: ‘ Novoye, no nevïdumannoye: Valeriy Gavrilin’ [New, but not
concocted: Valery Gavrilin], Molodïye kompozitorï Leningrada [Young
composers of Leningrad] (Leningrad, 1971), 70–83
A. Belonenko: ‘ Russkiy golos: Valeriy Gavrilin’ [A Russian voice: Valery
Gavrilin], Kniga i iskusstvo v SSSR [The book and art in the USSR],
iii/38 ( 1983), 56–7
O. Belova: ‘ Valeriy Gavrilin’, Kompozitorï Rossiyskoy Federatsii [The
composers of the Russian Federation], iii (1984), 3–38
R. Petrushanskaya: ‘Vernost' sebe, vernost' prizvaniyu: V. Gavrilin’ [Being
faithful to oneself, being faithful to one’s calling], Sovetskiye
kompozitorï – laureatï premii Leninskogo komsomola [Soviet
composers and laureates of the Lenin komsomol prize] (Moscow,
1989), 163–83
A. Zolotov: ‘ Gavrilinskiye perezvonï’ [Gavrilin’s ‘Chimes’], … Listopad, ili v
minutï muzïki [… Leaf-fall, or in moments of music], ed. A. Zolotov
(Moscow, 1989), 187–99
R.L. Nikolayevich: O dukhovnom renessanse v russkoy muzïke 1960–
80kh godov [The Spiritual Renaissance of Russian Music during the
1960s–80s] (St Petersburg, 1998)
ALEKSANDR SERGEYEVICH BELONENKO
Gavrilov, Andrey
(b Moscow, 21 Sept 1955). Russian pianist. His early studies with his
mother, a great believer in ‘emotional richness’ were countered by later
work with Tat'yana Kestner (a student of Goldenweiser), whom he
described as ‘very German’. He completed his studies with Lev Naumov
who, he claims, curbed his ‘ungovernable temperament’. His international
career was launched when he won the 1974 Tchaikovsky Competition, and
memorable débuts followed in Salzburg, France, Finland and, in 1976, the
USA and England, where his performances of Prokofiev’s First Concerto
and Ravel’s Concerto for the left hand at the Royal Festival Hall caused a
sensation. Appearances with the Berlin PO were followed in 1979 by a tour
of Japan. In the same year his career was effectively terminated when, on
returning to the USSR, he was accused of anti-Soviet bias and of open
criticism of the musical-political establishment. It was not until 1984, after
severe privation, that Gavrilov was able to resume his international
appearances. However, these were increasingly dogged by controversy.
References to undue aggression and an overbearing keyboard manner
became frequent, although his recordings of the complete Bach concertos,
the Goldberg Variations and the French suites can be as reflective as they
are virtuosic. His formidable brio and articulacy in works such as
Balakirev’s Islamey, the complete Chopin études, Ravel’s Gaspard de la
nuit and Rachmaninoff’s Third Concerto have justifiably won him many
awards. Gavrilov’s finest performances are both intensely personal and of
true Russian Romantic vintage.
BRYCE MORRISON
Gay, John
(b Barnstaple, c30 June 1685, bap. 16 Sept 1685; d London, 4 Dec 1732).
English playwright and poet. As a member of the Scriblerus Club he was a
close friend, collaborator and long-time correspondent of Alexander Pope
and Jonathan Swift. His importance to the history of opera lies in his
invention of the ballad opera, a form that took the London theatre by storm
and permanently affected its artistic development. The Beggar’s Opera had
its première at Lincoln’s Inn Fields on 29 January 1728 and was performed
62 times during the season – a figure without precedent in the history of
the London theatre. Evidence of its success is the appearance of a pirate
production at the Little Theatre, Haymarket, as early as June 1728,
something that had never happened before in London. The extraordinary
success of Gay’s opera proved the existence of a large, almost untapped
theatre public in London and triggered a boom in new theatres and
experimental drama in the following decade.
The Beggar’s Opera has often been taken as a harsh attack on both Italian
opera and Sir Robert Walpole, but neither seems to be true. Gay had
provided the libretto for Handel’s Acis and Galatea (1718) and, while he
mocks the Faustina–Cuzzoni rivalry in Polly and Lucy, he does so without
real animus. The Royal Academy of Music was in financial trouble of its
own making, and there is no evidence that the success of The Beggar’s
Opera played any significant part in its collapse. The satire on Walpole in
Macheath and Peachum is more clever than devastating. Gay’s sequel,
Polly, is by far the more damaging attack on Walpole. It was suppressed
before the planned performances in December 1728. In Polly he turned
Macheath into a West Indian pirate, and the work concludes with his richly
deserved execution. Polly is rather lifeless, and Gay probably benefited
from its suppression. He rushed a huge edition into print (10,500 copies)
and reaped a handsome profit. It was eventually performed in 1779.
Modern critics have been inclined to see the suppression of Polly as
vengeance for The Beggar’s Opera. Gay responded wittily in The
Rehearsal at Goatham (unperformed), a farce about an innocent puppet
show misinterpreted as personal satire by an audience of country
bumpkins.
Gay’s last venture into ballad opera, Achilles (Covent Garden, 10 February
1733), was a posthumous success but has found few subsequent
admirers. Achilles in petticoats has possibilities, but the piece is short on
action and only intermittently funny. Gay must be viewed as a clever, minor
writer with one stupendous and virtually inexplicable success to his credit.
How he got the idea for The Beggar’s Opera no-one has ever been able
satisfactorily to explain: it is one of the most genuinely original works in the
history of the theatre, and it is still revived regularly with great success.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FiskeETM
GroveO (‘The Beggar’s Opera’; R.D. Hume)
W.E. Schultz: Gay’s ‘Beggar’s Opera’: its Content, History and Influence
(New Haven, CT, 1923)
W.H. Irving: John Gay: Favorite of the Wits (Durham, NC, 1940)
B.H. Bronson: ‘The Beggar’s Opera’: Studies in the Comic (Berkeley,
1941), 197–231
S.M. Armens: John Gay, Social Critic (New York, 1954)
B.A. Goldgar: Walpole and the Wits (Lincoln, NE, 1976)
H. Erskine-Hill: ‘The Significance of Gay’s Drama’, English Drama: Forms
and Development, ed. M. Axton and R. Williams (Cambridge, 1977),
142–63
J. Fuller, ed.: John Gay: Dramatic Works (Oxford, 1983)
R.D. Hume: ‘“The World is all Alike”: Satire in The Beggar’s Opera’, The
Rakish Stage: Studies in English Drama, 1660–1800 (Carbondale, IL,
1983), 245–69
R.D. Hume: ‘The London Theatre from The Beggar’s Opera to the
Licensing Act’, ibid., 270–311
P. Lewis: ‘“An Irregular Dog”: Gay’s Alternative Theatre’, Yearbook of
English Studies, xviii (1988), 231–46
C. Winton: John Gay and the London Theatre (Lexington, KY, 1993)
ROBERT D. HUME
Musical comedies: Hold my Hand, 1931; That’s a Pretty Thing, 1933, rev. as La-Di-
Da-Di-Da, 1943; Jack o'Diamonds, 1935, rev. as Susie, 1942; Love Laughs–!, 1935;
Me and My Girl, 1937 [incl. The Lambeth Walk; film, 1939 as The Lambeth Walk];
Wild Oats, 1938; Present Arms, 1940; The Love Racket, 1943; Meet Me Victoria,
1944; Ring Time, 1944; Sweetheart Mine, 1946; Bob’s Your Uncle, 1948
Contribs. to revues, incl. The Charlot Show of 1926, 1926; Clowns in Clover, 1927;
Folly to be Wise, 1931 [incl. The King’s Horses]; Stop Press, 1935; Lights Up, 1940
[incl. Let the people sing, Only a Glass of Champagne, You’ve done something to
my heart]; Gangway, 1942
Individual songs, incl. The sun has got his hat on, 1932; Round the Marble Arch,
1932; I took my harp to a party, 1933; Leaning on a Lamp-Post, 1937; Love makes
the world go round, 1938; [as Stanley Hill] I’ll pray for you, 1939; The moon
remembered but you forgot, 1939; Run, rabbit, run, 1939; Hey, Little Hen, 1941; My
Thanks to You, 1950
Songs for films, incl. Tondeleyo (White Cargo, 1929); There’s something about a
soldier (Soldiers of the King, 1933); Who’s been polishing the sun? (The Camels
are Coming, 1934); The fleet’s in port again (Okay for Sound, 1937); All Over the
Place (Sailors Three, 1940)
Works for orch and military band
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GänzlBMT; GänzlEMT
E. Rogers and M. Hennessey: Tin Pan Alley (London, 1964), 88–90
JOHN SNELSON
Requiem, c, ed. in EDM, 2nd ser., Sudetenland, Böhmen und Mähren, iv (1943);
Requiem, F; Dies irae, Tuba mirum, Lachrymosa, g; 2 TeD, C, both for 2 choirs
Regina coeli, A, ed. in EDM, 2nd ser., Sudetenland, Böhmen und Mähren, iv (1943);
Laudes de dominica, A; Eja fideles, off, A; Omnes gentes plaudite, recit, b, aria, G,
from off; Deus meus, ad te de luce vigilo, ps, G
Lamentatione del giovedi sera, F; Ecce Dominus veniet, advent aria, C; Caeli
sydera rorate, aria and chorus, c; Gloria in excelsis, versetto, C
Missa solemnis, CZ-Bm; Pleno choro jubilemus, motet, C: both of doubtful
authenticity
Other works cited in 18th-century inventories, incl. Cistercian monastery, Osek,
1706, and Crusaders' monastery, Prague, 1737–8: lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ČSHS
DlabacžKL
R. Quoika: ‘Zur Geschichte der Musikkapelle des St. Veitsdomes in Prag’,
KJb, xlv (1961), 102–23
T. Volek: ‘Pražská Loreta jako hudební instituce’ [The Prague Loreto as a
musical institution], Domus lauretana pragensis, i–ii (Prague, 1973),
12–15
V. Koronthály: Hudební sbírka Kryštofa Gayera [Gayer's music collections]
(diss., Prague U., 1977)
M. Kostílková: ‘Nástin dějin svatovítskêho hidebního kůro’ [Historical
survey of St Vitus's choir], ibid., 14–33
J. Štefan: Preface to Ecclesia metropolitana pragensis: catalogus
collectionis operum artis musicae, i (Prague, 1983), 5–13
O. Bentheim and M.Stegermann: ‘Vivaldi und Böhmen: wenige Fakten,
viele Fragen’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, ix (1988), 75–89
MILAN POŠTOLKA
Gaz, José.
See Gas, José.
Pf Suite, 1934; Prélude et fugue, 1v, str qt, perf. 1938; Arkayc crag [The Flickering
Lantern] (after D. Varuzhan), 1v, orch, 1939; 3 chansons populaires arméniennes,
1v, pf, 1940; Cantiques, vn, pf, perf. 1945; Les arméniennes, pf, 1947; Sonate, pf,
1956; 24 études, pf, 1958; Mi mor patmut'yun [The Story of a Mother] (ballet, after
H.C. Andersen), 1960; Pf Conc. no.1, perf. 1960; Mouvement perpétuel, vn, pf,
1961; Pf Conc. no.2, 1964; 11 préludes, pf, 1967; 30 songs, choral works, folksong
arrs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Y. Hagopian: ‘Goharik Łazarosyani mštadalar yišatakin’ [To the everlasting
memory of Koharik Gazarossian], Haratch (1, 3 Nov 1972)
Y. Koptagel: ‘Ölümününün 30uncu Yilında koharik Gazarosyan’ [About
Gazarossian on the thirtieth anniversary of her death], Orkestra
[Istanbul], no.297 (1998)
S. Arzruni: ‘A Fusion of the Musical Traditions of France and Armenia’,
Armenian Mirror-Spectator (16 Jan 1999)
SAHAN ARZRUNI
La mensajera (2, L. Olona), Español, 24 Dec 1849; A última hora (1, J. Olona),
Basilios, 29 May 1850; Las señas del archiduque (2, C. Suarez Bravo), Basilios, 8
June 1850; Escenas en Chamberí (1, J. Olona), Variedades, 19 Nov 1850, collab.
R.J.M. Hernando, C.D. Oudrid and F.A. Barbieri; La picaresca (2, E. Doncel y
Asquerina), Circo, 29 March 1851, collab. Barbieri; Al amánecer (1, M. Pina), Circo,
29 May 1851; Tribulaciones (2, T.R. Rubí), Circo, 14 Sept 1851
Por seguir a una mujer (4, L. Olona), Circo, 24 Dec 1851, collab. Hernando,
Barbieri, Oudrid and J. Inzenga; El sueño de una noche de verano (3, P. Escosura),
Circo, 21 Feb 1852; El estreno de un artista (1, D.V. de la Vega), Circo, 5 June
1852, vs (Madrid, ?1857); El secreto de la reina (3, L. Olona), Circo, 13 Oct 1852,
collab. Hernando and Inzenga, vs (Madrid, 1852); El valle de Andorra (3, L. Olona,
after J.H. Vernoy de Saint-Georges), Circo, 5 Nov 1852, vs (Madrid, ?1855); La
cotorra (1, L. Olona), Circo, 26 April 1853
Don Simplicio Bobadilla (3, M. and V. Tamayo y Baus), Circo, 7 May 1853, collab.
Barbieri, Gaztambide and Hernando; La cisterna encantada (3, Vega), Circo, 17
Nov 1853; El hijo de familia (3, L. Olona), Circo, 24 Dec 1853, collab. Oudrid; Un
día de reinado (3, J. García Gutierrez and L. Olona), Circo, 15 Feb 1854, collab.
Barbieri, Gaztambide and Oudrid; Catalina (3, L. Olona, after E. Scribe: L’étoile du
nord), Circo, 23 Oct 1854, vs (Madrid, ?1860); Estebanillo (3, Vega), Circo, 5 Oct
1855, collab. Oudrid; Los comuneros (3, A. Lopez de Ayala), Circo, 14 Nov 1855
El sargento Federico (4, L. Olona), Circo, 22 Dec 1855, collab. Barbieri; El amor y
el almuerzo (1, L. Olona), Circo, 23 March 1856, vs (Madrid, ?1865); Entre dos
aguas (3, A. Hurtado), Circo, 4 April 1856, collab. Barbieri; El lancero (1, D.F.
Camprodón), Zarzuela, 31 Jan 1857, vs (Madrid, ?1860); Los magyares (4, L.
Olona), Zarzuela, 12 April 1857, vs (Madrid, ?1870); Amar sin conocer (3, L. Olona),
Zarzuela, 24 April 1858, collab. Barbieri; Casado y soltero (1, L. Olona), Zarzuela, 8
June 1858, vs (Madrid, ?1870)
Un pleito (1, Camprodón), Zarzuela, 22 June 1858, vs (Madrid, ?1865); El
juramento (3, L. Olona), Zarzuela, 20 Dec 1858, vs (Madrid, ?1870); La hija del
pueblo (2, E. Alvarez), 22 Dec 1859; El diablo las carga (3, Camprodón), Zarzuela,
21 Jan 1860; Una vieja (1, Camprodón), Zarzuela, 11 Dec 1860, vs (Madrid, ?
1865); Anarquía conyugal (1, J. Picón), Zarzuela, 17 April 1861; Una niña (1,
Camprodón), Zarzuela, 24 April 1861; La edad en la boca (1, N. Serra), Zarzuela,
11 May 1861; Una historia en un mesón (1, Serra), Zarzuela, 5 June 1861
Del palacio a la taberna (3, Camprodón), Zarzuela, 20 Dec 1861; En las astas del
toro (1, C. Frontaura), Zarzuela, 30 Aug 1862, vs (Madrid, ?1860); Las hijas de Eva
(3, L.M. de Larra), Zarzuela, 8 Oct 1862; Matilde y Malek-Adel (3, Frontaura),
Zarzuela, 7 March 1863, collab. Oudrid; La conquista de Madrid (3, L. Olona),
Zarzuela, 23 Dec 1863; Antes del baile, en el baile y después del baile (1, Palacio,
Alvarez), Zarzuela, 3 June 1864; Los caballeros de la tortuga (3, E. Blasco),
Zarzuela, 23 Dec 1867; La varita de virtudes (magia, 3, Larra), Zarzuela, 7 March
1868
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Peña y Goñi: La opera española y la música dramatica en España en
el siglo XIX (Madrid, 1881); abridged E. Rincón as España desde la
opéra a la zarzuela (1967), 377, 533ff
‘Gaztambide y Garbayo (Joaquín)’, Enciclopedia universal ilustrada
europeo-americana (Barcelona, 1907–30)
E. Cotarelo y Mori: Historia de la zarzuela, o sea el drama lirico (Madrid,
1934)
A. Fernández-Cid: Cien años de teatro musical en España (1875–1975)
(Madrid, 1975)
R. Alier and others: El libro de la zarzuela (Barcelona, 1982, 2/1986 as
Diccionario de la zarzuela)
R.J. Vázquez: The Quest for National Opera in Spain and the Reinvention
of the Zarzuela (1808–1849) (diss., Cornell U., 1992)
TOMÁS MARCO/R
Gazzaniga, Giuseppe
(b Verona, 5 Oct 1743; d Crema, 1 Feb 1818). Italian composer. His father
intended him for the priesthood, but he studied music secretly and after his
father’s death devoted himself to it entirely. In 1760 he went to Venice to
study with Porpora, who encouraged Gazzaniga to accompany him to
Naples. There Porpora obtained a free place for his young pupil at the
Conservatorio di S Onofrio in Capuana for six years. During this time
Gazzaniga studied composition and counterpoint with his patron. In 1767
he became a composition pupil of Piccinni, with whom he studied for three
years; a year later he made his début with his comic intermezzo Il barone
di Trocchia in Naples. In 1770 he returned to Venice; there he made friends
with Sacchini, whose generous advice was of great benefit to him in his
compositions. In the 1770s Gazzaniga wrote operas for various Italian
theatres. In 1780 he was again in Naples, where he directed the revival of
Jommelli’s Armida abbandonata at the Teatro S Carlo and in the following
year revived his own Antigono. His Il finto cieco, on a libretto by Da Ponte,
was performed at the Burgtheater, Vienna, in 1786 and brought Gazzaniga
commissions from Italy, Germany and England; but Da Ponte in his
memoirs had little to say in his favour.
Gazzaniga achieved widespread acclaim with his one-act Don Giovanni, o
sia Il convitato di pietra to a libretto by Bertati (1787, Venice), later also
known as Don Giovanni Tenorio. The work was performed not only in Italy,
but also in Paris (1792), Lisbon (1792) and London (1794); Kunze has
recorded no fewer than 32 editions of the libretto up to 1821. Though
Bertati’s text was decisive in Da Ponte’s own Don Giovanni for Mozart, it is
unclear whether Mozart had studied Gazzaniga’s score; his letters say
nothing of Gazzaniga’s opera, and no Viennese performance of the work is
known, though he may have encountered Gazzaniga’s music through his
Ottavio, Antonio Baglioni, who had been Gazzaniga’s Giovanni in Venice.
Four years after the Venice première Gazzaniga accepted an appointment
as maestro di cappella at Crema Cathedral, and subsequently composed
few dramatic works. Little is known of the composer’s final years, though
letters and documents mention responsibilities beyond the cathedral and
allude to economic hardship. Stefano Pavesi, who was his pupil from 1802,
succeeded Gazzaniga as maestro di cappella following the latter’s death
from colic in 1818.
Gazzaniga belongs to the last generation of Italian buffa composers whose
most brilliant representatives, Paisiello and Cimarosa, provide a link with
the comic opera of Rossini. His music typifies the late 18th-century opera
buffa style. It is less rich in harmony and texture than Paisiello’s, but
nevertheless closer to the combination of conciseness and judiciously
applied sentiment of Paisiello than to the extravagant comic prolixity of
Cimarosa. Gazzaniga’s style tends to be concise and relatively thin in
texture, emphasizing the forward motion of the music as well as the
declamation of the text. He seems to have been less tied to symmetrical
groups of two and four bars than some of his contemporaries, and
interesting rhythmic or melodic details often make up for rather basic
harmonies and lean textures. One of the more striking aspects of
Gazzaniga’s music for his opere buffe is its expressive clarity; there is
never any doubt about the emotional content or the type of character
singing. Though sometimes predictable he often avoided dullness with witty
details that enhance the dramatic situation. Gazzaniga was not well
educated, but a letter to Simon Mayr shows that he took an interest in older
masters as well as in contemporary music, and that he possessed a
substantial library.
WORKS
operas
Il barone di Trocchia (int, 2, F. Cerlone), Naples, Nuovo, carn. 1768
La locanda (dg, 3, G. Bertati), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1771, D-Dl, Rtt, DK-Kk, F-Pn,
H-Bn, I-MOe, Pl, Tf, US-Bp, Wc
Calandrano (dg, 3, Bertati), Venice, S Samuele, 1771, A-Wn, D-Dl, F-Pn; rev. G.
Rust, as L’avaro deluso, Bologna, Formagliari, 1773
Ezio (os, 3, P. Metastasio), Venice, S Benedetto, Feb 1772, P-La
La tomba di Merlino (dg, 3, Bertati), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1772
L’isola di Alcina (dg, 3, Bertati, after L. Ariosto: Orlando furioso), Venice, S Moisè,
1772, A-Wn, D-Dl, DS, F-Pn, H-Bn, I-Fc, Tf, DK-Kk, S-Skma
Zon-Zon (L’inimico delle donne) (dg, 3, Bertati), Milan, Regio Ducal, aut. 1773, F-
Pn, I-Rmassimo
Armida (os, 3, after T. Tasso: Gerusalemme liberata), Rome, Argentina, 1773, arias
Mc, Nc, Rc
Il matrimonio per inganno (ob), Pavia, 1773
Il ciarlatano in fiera (dg, 3, P. Chiari), Venice, S Moisè, 1774
Perseo ed Andromeda (os, 3, V.A. Cigna-Santi), Florence, Pergola, 15 Sept 1775; ?
as Andromeda, Prague, 1781 (private perf.), Brunswick, 1783
L’isola di Calipso (os, G. Pindemonte), Verona, Filarmonica, 1775
Il re di Mamalucchi (dg), Prague, 1775; as Il Mamalucco, Pesaro, Sole, 1776
Gli errori di Telemaco (os, C.L. Rossi), Pisa, Prini, 1776
Il regno dei pazzi, Ferrara, 27 Dec 1777 (private perf. at Count Pinamonte
Boncossa’s); as Il re dei pazzi (int), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, aut. 1778
La bizzaria degli umori (dg, 2), Bologna, Zagnoni, 1777, B-Bc, F-Pn, I-Bc
Il marchese di Verde Antico (int, 2), Rome, Capranica, Jan 1778; collab. F. Piticchio
[early version of La vendemmia], I-Rdp (sinfonia only), US-SFsc
La vendemmia (opera giocosa, 2, Bertati), Florence, Pergola, 12 May 1778, A-Wn,
D-Dl, Wa, F-Pn, H-Bn, I-Fc, US-LOu; rev. G. Petrosellini, as La dama incognita (int),
Vienna, Burg, 11 Feb 1784
La finta folletto (int, 2), Rome, Capranica, 29 Dec 1778
Il disertore (Il disertor francese) (dg, 2, F. Casorri, after L.S. Mercier), Florence,
Pergola, 5 April 1779, D-Wa, I-Bc
Antigono (os, 3, Metastasio), Rome, Argentina, 1779, Nc
Il ritorno di Ulisse a Penelope (melodramma, 2, G.A. Moniglia), Rome, Argentina,
1779
La viaggiatrice (dg, 2, F.S. Zini), Naples, Fondo, 1780
Antigona (os, G. Roccaforte), Naples, S Carlo, 1781, Nc (inc.)
La stravagante (commedia, 2, Zini), Naples, Fondo, 1781
Amor per oro (dg, 3, C. Arcomeno), Venice, S Samuele, 1782, US-Wc
La creduta infedele (commedia, 3, Cerlone), Naples, Fiorentini, 1783
L’intrigo delle mogli (commedia, 2, G. Palomba), Naples, Fondo, 1783
La dama contadina (int, 2), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1784
Il serraglio di Osmano (dg, 2, Bertati), Venice, S Moisè, 27 Dec 1784, D-DO, Wa, F-
Pc, I-Fc, Tf (Act 2 only); as La fedeltà di Rosana, Perugia, Pavone, carn. 1786; as Il
palazzo di Osmano, Lisbon, 1795
Tullo Ostilio (os, 3, F. Ballani), Rome, Argentina, 1784, Tf
La moglie (donna) capricciosa (dg, 2, F. Livigni), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1785, A-Wn,
D-Dl, Wa, F-Pn, H-Bn, HR-OMf (Act 2 Finale only), I-Fc, Gl; lib. rev. Giotti (int),
Florence, 1791
Il finto cieco (dramma buffo, 2, L. Da Ponte, after M.-A. Legrand: L’aveugle
clairvoyant), Vienna, Burg, 20 Feb 1786, F-Pn, I-Fc, US-Bp
Circe (os, 3, D. Perelli), Venice, S Benedetto, 20 May 1786, ?D-Bsb, P-La
La contessa di Novaluna (dg, 2, Bertati), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1786
Le donne fanatiche (dg, 2, Bertati), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1786
Don Giovanni (Tenorio), o sia Il convitato di pietra (dg, 1, Bertati), Venice, S Moisè,
5 Feb 1787 as pt 2 of G. Valentini and others: Il capriccio drammatico; A-Wgm, F-
Pn, GB-Lbl, I-Bc, Mc, OS, US-Wc; ed. S. Kunze (Kassel and Basle, 1974)
La Didone (os), Vicenza, Nuovo, sum. 1787
La cameriera di spirito (dg, 2, G. Fiorio), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1787
L’amore costante (La costanza in amor rende felice) (commedia, 4, Bertati), Venice,
S Moisè, 1787, F-Pn
Erifile, Venice, S Samuele, aut. 1789, I-Mc (scena and duet ony)
Gli Argonaliti in Colco (os, 3, S.A. Sografi), Venice, S Samuele, carn. 1790, D-Mbs,
GB-Lbl, US-Wc
Idomeneo (os, 3, G. Sertor), Padua, Nuovo, 12 June 1790, D-Mh, US-Wc
La disfatta dei Mori (os, 3, G. Boggio), Turin, Regio, 1791, P-La
La dama soldato (dg, 2, C. Mazzolà), Venice, S Moisè, 1792, I-Tf (Act 1 only)
La pastorella nobile (dg), Fortezza di Palma, aut. 1793
La donna astuta (dg, 2), Venice, S Moisè, 1793 [?rev. version]
Il divorzio senza matrimonio, ossia La donna che non parla (dg, 2, Sertor), Modena,
Rangoni, 5 Feb 1794
Fedeltà e amore alla pruova (dramma eroicomico, 1, G. Foppa), Venice, S Moisè,
1798, A-Wn, F-Pn
Il marito migliore (dg, 2, T. Menucci di Goro [A. Anelli]), Milan, Scala, 3 Sept 1801;
as I due gemelli, Bologna, Comunale, 1807
Martino Carbonaro, o sia Gli sposi fuggitivi (farsa, 1, Foppa), Venice, S Moisè, 1801
Arias in L’ape musicale (commedia, Da Ponte), Vienna, 27 Feb 1789
Scena and aria in L. Brusasco: Il Manescalco, I-Tf
Doubtful: La Pallacorda (int), Rome, 1770; Le orfane svizzere (dg, Chiari), Novara,
1774; La fedeltà d’amore, 1776; Il marchese carbonaro (ob), Vienna, 1777; Le
gelosie villane (ob, T. Grandi), Novara, 1778; Achille in Sciro (os, Metastasio),
Palermo, 1780; L’amante per bisogno (dg, C.G. Lanfranchi Rossi), Venice, 1781;
L’Orvietano (ob), Rome, 1781; Demofoonte (os, Metastasio), Palermo, 1782; La
vivandiera (ob), Berlin, 1786; L’italiana in Londra (ob, G. Petrosellini), Piacenza,
1789; Giasone e Medea (os, G. Palazzi), Venice, 1790; La schiava della China (ob),
Ancona, 1790; I due sposi ridicoli (ob), Rome, 1793; Gl’amori in villa (ob), Piacenza,
1793
other vocal
Orats: I profeti al Calvario, 4vv, orch, 1781, I-CHf, Nc, Pca; Susanna, 6vv, orch,
1787, Mc; Humanae fragilitatis exemplum, Venice, 1792, lib only; San Mauro abate,
4vv, insts, 1793, Bc; Sansone, 5vv, orch, Bc
Liturgical: Messa breve concertata, C, 4vv, 1791, I-CRE, Mc; Messa per li defonti, E
, 3vv, orch, 1792, D-MÜs, I-CRE; Miserere, f, 4vv, orch, 1794, Mc; Messa in
pastorale, 3vv, org, US-R*, Missa pro defunctis, 4vv, insts, D-Mbs; Mag, D, 4vv,
orch, I-CHf, Mc; Mag, B , 4vv, orch, CRE; TeD, 4vv, insts, D-Dl, TeD, C, 4vv, org,
orch, MÜs, I-Mc, Sd; Requiem, Tantum ergo, 4vv, insts, I-Bc, CRE, Mc; Ky breve,
Gl, Cr, 3vv, insts, Bc; Tantum ergo, S, vns, Bc; Stabat Mater, c, 4vv, orch, D-MÜs, I-
BGc, CRE; Stabat Mater, d, CRE; other works in A-Sl, CH-E, D-Hs, MÜs, I-Baf,
CRE, Mc, Sd
Other sacred: Cant. … per la promozione alla sacra porpora dell’ … Cardinale
Mariolini (G. Manfredini) (Bologna, 1777); Cant., Fano, 1777, lib only; Salmi, cantici
ed inni cristiani (L. Tadini), 1–3vv, kbd, (Milan, 1817), collab. S. Pavesi; other works
in I-BGc, CHf, CRE, Fa, Mc, S-Smf
Single arias, duets etc. in A-Sl; CH-E, Gc, N, Zz; CZ-BER; D-Bsb, Dl, F, GÖs, HR,
Hs, LEm, RH, Rtt, ZI; DK-Kk, Sa; GB-Lbl; HR-Dsmb, Sk, Zha; I-AN, BGc, BGi, CHf,
MAav, Mc, Rc, Tf; RUS-Mk, S-L, Skma, Smf, St; US-BEm, Eu, R, SFsc, Wc
instrumental
Sinfonias and ovs.: D, 1771, CH-Zz, HR-Dsmb (inc.); D, 1772, I-BGc; C, D-Dl; C,
US-BEm; D, I-Rdp; S-Skma; E , I-CHc (inc.)
3 piano concertos, A-Wgm
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM (T. Chini); FlorimoN; SartoriL
F. Crysander: ‘Die Oper “Don Giovanni” von Gazzaniga und von Mozart’,
VMw, iv (1888), 351–435
L. Schiedermair: ‘Briefe Teresa Belloc’s, Giuseppe Foppa’s und Giuseppe
Gazzaniga’s an Simon Mayr’, SIMG, viii (1906–7), 615–29
E.J. Dent: Mozart’s Operas: a Critical Study (London, 1913, 2/1947/R)
H. Abert: W.A. Mozart (Leipzig, 1919–21, 3/1955–6)
S. di Giacomo: Il Conservatorio di Sant’Onofrio a Capuana e quello di
S.M. della Pietà dei Turchini (Palermo, 1924)
A. Capri: ‘“Don Giovanni” e “Fidelio”’, RMI, xlvii (1943), 188–211
L. Conrad: Mozarts Dramaturgie der Oper (Würzburg, 1943)
A.E. Singer: A Bibliography of the Don Juan Theme: Versions and
Criticism (Morgantown, WV, 1954, suppls. 1–3 in West Virginia
University Philological Papers, nos.10–12, 1956–9; enlarged 3/1993
as The Don Juan Theme: an Annotated Bibliography of Versions,
Analogues, Uses and Adaptations)
A. Damerini: ‘Giuseppe Gazzaniga e Giovanni Simone Mayr’, Immagini
esotiche nella musica italiana, Chigiana, xiv (1957), 57–62
G. Macchia: ‘Di alcuni precedenti del “Don Giovanni” di Mozart e Da
Ponte’, Studi in onore di Pietro Silva (Florence, 1957), 169–94
C. Bitter: Wandlungen in den Inszenierungsreformen des ‘Don Giovanni’
von 1787 bis 1928: zur Problematik des musikalischen Theaters in
Deutschland (Regensburg, 1961)
G. Macchia: Vita, avventure e morte di Don Giovanni (Bari, 1966, enlarged
1991)
S. Kunze: Don Giovanni vor Mozart: die Tradition der Don-Giovanni-Opern
im italienischen Buffa-Theater des 18. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1972)
D. Heartz: ‘Goldoni, Don Giovanni and the dramma giocoso’, MT, cxx
(1979), 993–8
S. Sadie: ‘Some Operas of 1787’, MT, cxxii (1981), 474–7
J. Rousset: ‘Don Juan dans l’opéra avant Mozart’, L’opéra au XVIIIe
siècle: Aix-en-Provence 1982
W.J. Allanbrook: ‘Mozart’s Happy Endings: a New Look at the
“Convention” of the “lieto fine”’, MJb 1984–5, 1–5
H. Geyer-Kiefl: Die Heroisch-komische Oper, ca. 1770–1820 (Tutzing,
1987)
A. Meier: ‘Mythus und Gattungs gesetz: Don Juan und Faust in
Prokrustesbett des Librettos’, Europäische Mythen der Neuzeit: Faust
und Don Juan: Salzburg 1992, 113–28
F. Arpini: ‘La produzione sacra di Giuseppe Gazzaniga nella Biblioteca
Comunale di Crema’, Gli affetti convenienti all’idee: studi sulla musica
vocale italiana, ed. M. Carcai Vela, R. Cafiero and a. Romagnoli
(Naples, 1993), 529–45
RUDOLPH ANGERMÜLLER, MARY HUNTER/CARYL L. CLARK
Gazzaniga, Marietta
(b Voghera, nr Milan, 1824; d Milan, 2 Jan 1884). Italian soprano. After her
début at Voghera in 1840 as Jane Seymour in Anna Bolena and Romeo in
I Capuleti e i Montecchi she sang in Italian cities, notably in Verdi roles.
She created the title role in Luisa Miller (1849, Naples) and Lina in Stiffelio
(1850, Trieste). Verdi claimed in 1852 that he had disliked her in both; he
was irritated just then at the failure of Rigoletto in Bergamo, which was
blamed on her performance as Gilda. She went on nonetheless with such
lyric coloratura parts as well as with heroic ones (Norma and Paolina in
Poliuto at Bologna in 1852). She undertook several North and Central
American tours, during the first of which (1857–8) her husband, Count
Malaspina, died of smallpox on the voyage to Havana. In New York in
1866–7 an admiring critic reported ‘greater purity and less vehement
forcing of tone’. She went on singing in the Americas each year until 1870;
by then she had exchanged her old part of Leonora in Il trovatore for the
lower-lying part of Azucena.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.C.D. Odell: Annals of the New York Stage (New York, 1927–49)
M. Conati: La bottega della musica: Verdi e la Fenice (Milan, 1983)
JOHN ROSSELLI
Gazzelloni, Severino
(b Roccasecca, Frosinone, 5 Jan 1919; d Camino, 21 Nov 1992). Italian
flautist. He studied at the Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome, gaining his
diploma in 1942 and making his début there in 1945. He quickly became a
teacher at the conservatory in Pesaro and first flautist of the Rome RAI SO.
With a catholic musical taste, he showed great affection for Baroque music,
particularly Bach's sonatas and Vivaldi's Concertos op.10, which he
recorded and which he played with a beautiful full tone, impeccable
phrasing and astonishing articulation. He was even more renowned for his
performances of avant-garde works, many of which were composed for
him. Notable among these are Interpolation by Haubenstock-Ramati, Hi-
kyò by Kazuo Fukushima, Serenata no.2 by Maderna, and Quanti by Hans
Ulrich Lehmann. These works formed part of his recorded repertory, which
also included superb performances in Le marteau sans maître by Boulez,
Berio's Serenata I and Nono's Y su sangre ya viene cantando. Because of
his great virtuosity in this music and obvious sympathy with its style, he
enlightened composers in the possibilities of the new developments in flute
techniques with which some leading composers had been experimenting.
Gazzelloni, one of the outstanding players of his generation, also gave
international masterclasses throughout Europe.
WRITINGS
Gazzelloni su Severino Gazzelloni (Rome, 1977)
with others: Facciamo musica con Severino Gazzelloni (Bologna, 1977)
with E. Granzotto: Il flauto d'oro (Turin, 1984) [autobiography]
NIALL O’LOUGHLIN
Gdańsk
(Ger. Danzig).
City in Poland on the Baltic coast. First mentioned in 997 as ‘urbs
Gyddanyzc’, it was originally a Slavonic settlement, and in the 12th century
became the seat of Pomeranian princes subordinated to the Polish crown.
In 1308 the town was captured by the Teutonic Knights, and between 1454
and 1793 it was subject to the Polish kings. It was part of Prussia until
1807, a free city dependent on France until 1814, and then part of
Germany. A free city once more after 1920, it was annexed by Germany in
1939 and finally returned to Poland after 1945.
1. To 1600.
Gregorian chant was sung in many churches and monasteries during the
Middle Ages, particularly by the Cistercians at Oliwa (1186), at St Mary’s
and St Catherine’s in the city itself, and in the Dominican church of St
Nicholas (1227). Sacred music was also cultivated in schools, and in the
14th century lay clerks contributed to ecclesiastical music; in the 15th
century organists and Kantors were appointed. The church of St Mary was
built between 1343 and 1502, and became the centre of the city’s music.
Blasius Lehmann of Budziszyn installed a new organ (1509–11),
transferring the previous instrument to another part of the building. In 1522
another organ was installed at the high altar and in 1524 Lehmann built yet
another instrument (the fifth in the church) over the chapel of St Rajnold. A
further organ was built in 1585 by Antonius Friese; this fine 60-rank
instrument survived several modifications until it was destroyed in World
War II. There were also organs in the churches of St Catherine and St
Nicholas by the middle of the 15th century, and at other churches by the
end of the 16th. In the first half of the 16th century the Reformation
reached Gdańsk; several churches remained Catholic, while both Catholic
and Protestant services were held in St Mary’s until 1572 when it became
wholly Protestant. Church music was instrumentally accompanied in St
Mary’s as early as the mid-16th century, and the Kantor was also a teacher
at the attached choir school.
The earliest records of the city’s musicians’ guild date from the late 14th
century. The guild’s apprenticeship lasted seven years, and members
enjoyed many privileges; however, itinerant minstrels were permitted to
perform in the town for a maximum of two weeks, and were even invited to
play at the Dwór Artusa (Ger. Artushof). The municipal trumpeters formed
an independent guild; they played from the towers of St Mary’s, St
Catherine’s and St Peter’s. In the second half of the 16th century the town
council formed a city band (Kapelle), combining its four permanent
instrumentalists (employed since the early 15th century) with the singers
and instrumentalists of St Mary’s. The city Kapelle was conducted by the
organist of St Mary’s, who became the most influential figure in the city’s
musical life. Outstanding Kapellmeister in the 16th century who were also
composers were the Netherlanders Franziscus de Rivulo (1560–66) and
Johannes Wanning (1569–99); Piotr Druziński, organist at the church of St
Barbara from 1586 to 1603, was also a fine composer. In 1593 a balcony
with a positive organ was constructed at the Dwór Artusa for the Kapelle,
which performed there alternately with guild members.
2. 17th and 18th centuries.
Musical life remained concentrated at St Mary’s, whose many outstanding
musicians and composers were also members of the city Kapelle, taking
part in performances at the Dwór Artusa; the same man was customarily
Kapellmeister of both church and city. Nikolaus Zangius (1599–1602) and
Andrzej Hakenberger (1608–27), both used the Venetian polychoral style in
their compositions. Gregor Schnitzkius, employed by St Mary’s School, had
a great interest in didactic music, as is shown by his Musices praecepta
(1619). Paul Siefert, born in Gdańsk, won a scholarship from the city
council to study with Sweelinck in Amsterdam; after short stays in
Königsberg and Warsaw he returned to Gdańsk, and became organist of St
Mary’s from 1623 until his death in 1666. The great antagonist of Siefert
was Kaspar Förster the elder, Kapellmeister (1627–52) and bookseller. He
engaged in a famous theoretical debate with Siefert and the Polish court
maestro di cappella Marco Scacchi, a debate which started with the
criticism of Siefert’s first volume of psalms (Gdańsk, 1640), published by
Scacchi in his Cribrum musicum (Venice, 1643). His son Kaspar Förster
the younger was a pupil of Carissimi in Rome, singer at the Polish court,
maestro di cappella at the Danish court and composer of sonatas, church
concertos and dramatic dialogues in the new style. He was Kapellmeister
of St Mary’s only from 1655 to 1657, but under him music in the city
reached a peak. Afterwards the Kapelle declined, despite the numerous
petitions to the council of Förster’s successor Balthasar Erben (1658–86),
a pupil of Froberger. Johann Valentin Meder was his successor as
Kapellmeister (1687–99) and Henry Doebelius, grandson of Siefert, was
organist from 1673 to 1693.
In the 17th century most Gdańsk churches had musical establishments
which attempted to compete with those of the city and St Mary’s. At St
John’s the post of organist was held from 1643 to 1666 by Ewaldt Hintz,
also a pupil of Froberger, and St Catherine’s had several outstanding
Kantors, including Christoph Werner (1646–50) and Crato Bütner,
composers of music in the seconda pratica. Thomas Strutz, organist at
Holy Trinity (1642–68) and St Mary’s (1668–78), composed sonatas,
sacred songs and chorale cantatas, as well as passions and oratorios of
which only the texts (in German) survive. Vocal music with organ only was
cultivated at the Catholic church of St Bartholomew. Testimony to an
interest in music in the new Italian style is offered by manuscripts copied by
Gdańsk musicians and containing a lot of fine Italian and German works,
and also by the compositions of Gdańsk composers or Polish court
musicians. Most such collections, which belonged to the churches of St
John, St Catherine (copies prepared by Bütner) and St Bartholomew, were
lost during World War II.
Chamber music was also cultivated in the 17th century. The most
prominent musicians were related to the city Kapelle and included the
English viol player Valentine Flood (1634–6), the Italian violinist Carlo
Farina (1636–7), the lutenists Esias Reusner and Paweł Roszkowicz, and
the composer and guildmaster Martin Gremboszewski (1626–55). The first
opera was staged in 1646, when the city Kapelle assisted the Warsaw
court ensemble in Le nozze d’Amore e di Psiche for the arrival of Louise
Maria Gonzaga, the second wife of the Polish king Władysław IV Vasa. The
libretto was by Virgilio Puccitelli, and the music was prepared at the Polish
court, probably by Scacchi, possibly with contributions by other royal
musicians. In 1695 J.V. Meder performed his Nero, the first German opera
heard in Gdańsk; the city council was not keen to support him, however,
and forbade the performance of his Die wiederverehligte Coelia (1698),
which he was forced to take to the nearby town of Schottland.
In the 18th century the standards of Gdańsk church music declined, and
with worsening economic conditions the city ceased to be an attractive
place of work. The organ gradually became the only instrument used in
churches. The city Kapelle and the Kapelle of St Mary’s were led by
Maximilian Dietrich and Johann Balthasar Freisslich (1699–1731 and
1731–64 respectively), Friedrich Christian Möhrheim (1764–1780), Georg
Simon Löhlein (1780–1782) and Beniamin Gotthold Siewert (1782–1811),
after whose death the post was combined with that of organist at St Mary’s
under the title Musikdirektor. In 1818 the city Kapelle ceased to exist.
During this period the other church ensembles were dissolved, firstly that of
Holy Trinity (1750) and subsequently those of St Catherine (1788), St
Bartholomew (1796) and St John (1826). Yet several fine organs were
installed during the 18th century; notable composers for the instrument
were Daniel Magnus Gronau (at St Mary’s 1712–17) and Tobias Volckmar
(St Catherine’s 1717–30). The musicians’ guild ceased its activities during
the 18th century; church and civic music was increasingly replaced by
public concerts, initiated in 1740 by the organist Jean Du Grain and
centred on the city Kapelle. These concerts often featured travelling
virtuosos, including Farinelli (1765) and Georg Joseph Vogler (1782 and
1789).
3. From 1800.
A large number of both secular and ecclesiastical music societies were
formed during the 19th century. Oratorios were performed by the
Singakademie (founded by T.F. Kniewel in 1818), which was particularly
outstanding under F.W. Markull, organist of St Mary’s from 1836 to 1858,
and Georg Schumann (1890–96). Other choral societies included the
Freunde der Singkunst and the Gesangverein zu Danzig (both 1817).
Polish choirs were also formed later in the century, including the Jedność
society (1884) and the Lutnia choir (1896). The Danziger Theater was built
in 1801, and operas, operettas and, less frequently, symphony concerts
were given there. Richard Genée was the son of a bass at the theatre, and
held the post of Theaterkapellmeister, as did Felix Weingartner from 1885
to 1887. From 1879 Carl Fuchs was an important figure in the city’s
musical life; he was active as pianist, conductor, organist, writer and critic.
Music schools were established early in the 19th century by C.A. Reichel
and C.F. Ilgner, and in 1899 a conservatory was founded by Ludwig
Heidingsfeld, becoming the Westpreussisches und Riemann-
Konservatorium in 1906.
During the insecure interwar period four German music schools and a
single Polish academy of music (1929) were active. Many Polish choirs
were founded, particularly as a result of the Polish choral festivals held
after 1921. Concerts were sponsored by the Polish Society of Music
(1925); orchestras included those of the Polish Society of Music (1925–33)
and the Polish Catholic Youth Association (1933–9). Music was also taught
at all levels in schools. The theatre continued to be run by Germans, and
was rebuilt in 1935–6; the theatre orchestra also gave symphony concerts
as the Danziger Landesorchester. From 1929 operas were also performed
in the open air at the resort of Sopot, including Wagner’s Ring in 1939.
Although Gdańsk was badly damaged during World War II, concert life and
music education revived relatively rapidly after 1945. Polish Radio began
broadcasts in that year, and offered support to young musicians, amateur
groups and choral societies; organ music was broadcast from Oliwa. The
Baltic PO was founded in 1945 under exceptionally unfavourable
conditions and was run by the Gdańsk Music Society until 1949, when it
was nationalized. However, in the same year an opera studio was founded;
this had an adverse effect on the orchestra, reducing the number of its
performances to two, and later one, monthly. The situation improved in
1961–2 when attempts to broaden its repertory were made; the orchestra’s
activities expanded to include chamber concerts and solo recitals, school
concerts, jazz and, from 1964, festivals of young musicians. The first
postwar opera performance was of Moniuszko’s Halka (1949),
experimentally prepared by Iwo Gall. The first performance by the
Philharmonic Opera Studio took place in 1950; at first Romantic works
prevailed, but under the directorship of Kazimierz Wiłkomirski (1952–5)
Classical and contemporary works were introduced. A particularly
outstanding aspect of Gdańsk’s musical life has been its ballet (managed
by Janina Jarzynówna), which performed its first complete programme in
1952. In 1961 the opera, under Jerzy Katlewicz, resumed the practice of
open-air performances at Sopot.
Ensembles active in the city include the Baltic PO (1975) and Baltic State
Opera, the Capella Gedanensis and the Schola Cantorum Gedanensis
(1978). The Gdańsk Institute of Music was founded in 1945; it was followed
by the State High School of Music (1947), renamed the Stanisław
Moniuszko Academy of Music, as well as secondary and elementary
schools of music. There are periodic music festivals, meetings and
competitions, such as the International Festival of Organ Music at Oliwa
Cathedral, the Gdańsk Meetings of Young Composers (1987), the
Meetings of Guitarists International (1985), the Baltic Opera Meetings
(1984) and the International J.P. Sweelinck Organ Competition.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Glummert: Briefwechsel über Danziger Musik und Musiker (Berlin,
1785)
[J.G. Hingelberg]: Über Danziger Musik und Musiker (Elbing, 1785)
G. Döring: Zur Geschichte der Musik in Preussen (Elbing, 1852–5)
O. Günther: Katalog der Handschriften der Danziger Stadtbibliothek, iv:
Die Musikalischen Kirchenbibliotheken von St. Katharinen und St.
Johannis in Danzig (Danzig, 1911)
J.M. Müller-Blattau: Geschichte der Musik in Ost- und Westpreussen von
der Ordenszeit bis zur Gegenwart (Königsberg, 1931, 2/1968)
H. Rausching: Geschichte der Musik und Musikpflege in Danzig (Danzig,
1931)
W. Kmicic-Mieleszyński: Polska kultura muzyczna w Wolnym Mieście
Gdańsku (1920–1939) [Polish musical culture in the free city of
Gdańsk, 1920–39] (Gdańsk, 1965)
B.M. Jankowski and M. Misiorny: Muzyka i życie muzyczne na ziemiach
zachodnich i północnych 1945–65 [Music and musical life in the west
and north regions, 1945–65] (Poznań, 1968)
F. Kessler, ed.: Danziger Kirchenmusik: Vokalwerke des 16. bis 18.
Jahrhunderts (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1973)
K.-G. Hartmann: ‘Musikgeschichtliches aus der ehemaligen Danziger
Stadtbibliothek’, Mf, xxvii (1974), 387–412
J. Janca: ‘Abriss der Geschichte des Orgelbaus in den Kirchen Danzigs
bis 1800’, Herder-Forschungsrat Symposium: Eichstätt 1984, 17–73
D. Popinigis and D. Szlagowska: Musicalia gedanensia: rekopisy
muzyczne z XVI i XVII wieku w zbiorach Biblioteki Gdanskiej Polskiej
Akademii Nauk Katalos [The 16th and 17th century musical
manuscripts in the Gdańsk Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences
Catalogue] (Gdańsk, 1990)
J. Janca: Zarys historii muzyki w klasztorze oliwskim [An outline of the
history of music in the Oliwa monastery] (Gdańsk, 1991)
B. Przybyszewska-Jarminska: Kasper Förster junior Tekst: muzyka w
dialogach biblijnych [Kaspar Förster the younger: text and music in
biblical dialogues] (Warsaw, 1997)
PAWEŁ PODEJKO, BARBARA PRZYBYSZEWSKA-JARMINSKA
Ge, Gangru
(b Shanghai, 8 July 1954). Chinese-American composer and violinist. He
received degrees in violin performance (1978) and composition (1981)
from the Shanghai Conservatory, where he later taught composition (1981–
3). After emigrating to the USA, he completed the DMA in composition
(1991) at Columbia University. His principal teachers included Chen Gang,
Alexander Goehr, Chou Wen-chung and Mario Davidovsky. Among his
honours are commissions and awards from Lincoln Center and ASCAP; his
works have been performed by the New York, Tokyo and Hong Kong
Philharmonic Orchestras, the BBC SO and the American Composers
Orchestra.
Ge has been called the first Chinese avant-garde composer. Yi feng
(1982), his controversial work for unaccompanied cello, employed
unorthodox methods of sound production and notation at a time when
China was largely unfamiliar with 20th-century Western music. The cello
strings, tuned in 4ths an octave below normal pitch, are bowed and
plucked in unconventional ways and the body of the instrument is struck to
produce timbres simulating Chinese percussive instruments. Rhythmic and
polyphonic complexity contribute to the difficulty of the work. In Gu yue
(‘Ancient Music’, 1986), a piano evokes the sounds of traditional Chinese
instruments, the four sections of the work referring successively to the
gong, qin, pipa and drum. The piano concerto Wu (1991) explores a wide
range of non-traditional piano techniques, while blending piano and
orchestral timbres in a panaroma of tone colours. Ge has explained that
‘while in Western music, composers are deeply concerned with the
relationships between pitches, in Chinese music what is important is the
particular pitch and its microtonal and timbral character’. Chinese
Rhapsody (1993), which uses major and minor modes, fugue and melodic
fragments, is more familiar to the Western ear, although its sliding string
figures and accelerated rhythms allude to Chinese influence.
WORKS
(selective list)
Dramatic: A Great Wall (film score), synth, pf, perc, 1986; Today with Dragon (dance
score), fl, cl, tpt, trbn, perc, vn, db, 1986; Who Killed Vincent Chin? (film score),
synth, 1987; Color Schemes (TV score), pf, 1988; Resonance (dance score), fl, vc,
Tibetan cymbals, 1988; Tang Dynasty (TV score), zheng, perc, 1990; Lost Angeles
(dance score), vn, va, vc, 1996
Inst: Vn Conc., 1976; 12 Preludes, pf, 1979; Moment of Time, pf, 1981; Chbr Sym.,
orch, 1982; Yi feng, vc, 1982; Capriccio, fl, pf, 1984; Fu (Str Qt no.1), 1984; Db Qt,
1985; Gu yue (Ancient Music), pf, 1986; Dao (Str Qt no.2), 1987; Ingrain, fl, cl, db,
pf, 1987; Gu zheng, conc., koto, orch, 1988; Hao, fl, pf, 1988; Taipei, orch, 1988; Si,
vn, cl, pf, 1989; Yun, fl, ob, cl, pf, vn, vc, perc, 1990; Str Qt no.3, 1991; Wu, pf, orch,
1991; Chinese Rhapsody, orch, 1993; Str Qt no.4, 1997; Sym. no.1, orch, 1997
Vocal: Trio, S, fl, cl, 1981; Ji (sym. requiem), mixed chorus, orch, 1989; Xiang zhan,
S, 1989
WEIHUA ZHANG
Gebauer (i).
French family of musicians, apparently of German or Swiss origin.
(1) Michel Joseph Gebauer
(2) François René Gebauer
(3) Pierre Paul Gebauer
(4) Etienne Jean François Gebauer
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Choron-FayolleD
FétisB
Almanach général de tous les spectacles (1791)
J.F. Reichardt: Vertraute Briefe aus Paris geschrieben (Hamburg, 1804)
C. Pierre, ed.: Musique des fêtes et cérémonies de la Révolution française
(Paris, 1899) [incl. compositions by M.J. and F.R. Gebauer]
C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation (Paris,
1900)
H.G. Farmer: Military Music (London, 1950)
T. Fleischman: Napoléon et la musique (Brussels, 1965), 258
D. Swanzy: The Wind Ensemble and its Music during the French
Revolution (diss., Michigan State U., 1966)
D. Dondeyne and F. Robert: Nouveau traité d’orchestration à l’usage des
harmonies, fanfares et musiques militaires (Paris, 1969) [incl.
compositions by M.J. and F.R. Gebauer]
B. François-Sappey: ‘Le personnel de la musique royale de l’avènement
de Louis XVI à la chute de la monarchie (1774–1792)’, RMFC, xxvi
(1988–90), 155–60
DAVID CHARLTON/HERVÉ AUDÉON
Gebauer (i)
(1) Michel Joseph Gebauer
(b La Fère, Aisne, 1763; d Dec 1812). Oboist, bandmaster and composer.
The son of a military musician, Christian (Jean Chrétien) Gebauer, he
entered the royal wind group of the Swiss Guard at Versailles as an oboist
in 1777 or 1779 and remained with it until 1781. (His father was a horn
player in the group from at least 1767 to 1786). Between 1788 and 1792 he
was a viola player in the royal chapel at Versailles, but his career as a
string player was ended by a finger injury. He became a musician of the
National Guard in 1791, and played in the orchestra of the Théâtre
Français from that year, and probably in that of the Salle Louvois in 1793.
From 1794 he was oboist at the Théâtre des Amis de la Patrie. He was a
professor at the Paris Conservatoire from its foundation in 1795 until 1800,
when economics dictated reductions in the teaching staff. He then became
director of music of the Consular (later Imperial) Guard, and composed for
his band many marches and pas redoublés, which were recognized as
models of their kind. Reichardt reported in 1802–3: ‘This excellent band …
during the march past, continued to play varied music, some pieces slow
and mournful, against which the cavalry trumpets made a bizarre contrast’.
Gebauer, who was also an oboist in Napoleon’s private chamber
ensemble, participated in the French campaigns of 1805, 1806, 1809 and
1812, and as a result of the first three he is said to have imported into
France some German improvements to the mechanism of wind instruments
and to the organization of bands. He died in the retreat from Moscow. His
other compositions include 12 violin duos op.10 (Paris, c1790), clarinet and
violin duos op.12 (Paris, c1796), six string quartets, two quartets for flute,
clarinet, horn and bassoon, and three quartets for clarinet and strings.
Presumably he (rather than his brother) was the composer of the opéra
comique Aimée, ou la fausse apparence (Pépin, Théatre Montansier, 20
May 1790)
Gebauer (i)
(2) François René Gebauer
(b Versailles, 15 March 1773; d Paris, 28 July 1845). Bassoonist and
composer, brother of (1) Michel Joseph Gebauer. He studied with his elder
brother and Devienne. Before the Revolution (from 1788) he was a
member of the band of the Swiss Guard at Versailles, and in 1790 entered
the band of the National Guard. He was bassoonist in the Théâtre Français
in 1791–2, possibly played in the orchestra of the Salle Louvois in 1793
and was listed in the orchestra of the Théâtre des Amis de la Patrie in
1794. By 1799 or 1800 he had joined the orchestra of the Opéra, where he
remained until 1826. He also played in the imperial chapel orchestra,
retaining his place under the Bourbon restoration until the chapel’s closure
in the upheavals of 1830. His playing was particularly noted for its beauty
of tone. He was professor of bassoon at the Conservatoire from 1795 until
about 1802, and again from 1824 to 1838. According to Pierre (1900) he
was made an honorary professor in 1816. His compositions include 13
bassoon concertos, eight symphonies concertantes, wind quintets, quartets
for two clarinets, horn and bassoon op.10 (Paris, 1795), for flute, clarinet,
horn and bassoon op.20 (Paris, c1799), trios for clarinet, bassoon and horn
(Paris, c1799, c1804), trios for clarinet or oboe, flute and bassoon opp.29
and 32 (Milan, c1806), six clarinet duos opp.20 (sic) and 21 (Paris, 1794–
5), duos for clarinet and bassoon op.8 (Paris, c1796), and three duos for
clarinet or oboe and bassoon op.22 (Paris, c1819), as well as many solos
and arrangements for wind instruments, especially the bassoon. He also
published a bassoon method (c1820).
Gebauer (i)
(3) Pierre Paul Gebauer
(b Versailles, ?1775; d Paris). Horn player, brother of (1) Michel Joseph
Gebauer. The parish registers of Versailles mention the baptism of Pierre
Philippe Gebauer (b Versailles, 1 Jan 1770), brother of Michel Joseph; this
may be a reference to Pierre Paul. He was employed for a time at the
Théâtre du Vaudeville in Paris, and also played at the Théâtre Français in
1800–01. His playing was noted for its accuracy. Although he died young
he published a set of 20 horn duets.
Gebauer (i)
(4) Etienne Jean François Gebauer
(b Versailles, 7 March 1776; d Paris, 1823). Flautist and composer, brother
of (1) Michel Joseph Gebauer. He studied with his eldest brother and
Hugot. He was attached to the consular Guard and entered the orchestra
of the Opéra-Comique in 1801 as second flute. He was first flute from 1813
until his retirement at the end of 1822. He made numerous skilful
arrangements of operatic excerpts for instrumental duet, as well as
composing more than 100 pieces for solo flute. His son, Michel Joseph
Gebauer (fl early 19th century), was a noted viola player who published six
duos for violin and viola and a viola method (Paris, 1820).
Gebauer (ii).
Romanian firm of music publishers. It was founded as a music shop and
publishing firm in Bucharest in 1859 by Alexis Gebauer (1815–89), a pupil
of Liszt and Sechter, who published mostly Romanian folklore collections,
transcriptions and opera librettos. After 1880 the firm was run by his son
Constantin Gebauer (b Bucharest, 18 Oct 1846; d Bucharest, 9 March
1920) and subsequently by N.I. Eliad, Jean Feder and Georg Degen.
Under Constantin Gebauer, an enthusiastic supporter of Romanian musical
life, it developed considerably, publishing exquisite editions of the standard
repertory as well as the central repertory of Romanian music; Gebauer was
awarded the Silver Medal at the 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle. After
1886 he became chief editor of the musical magazine Doina. In 1899 he
transferred the shop, which dealt in instruments and scores, to Jean Feder,
licensing him to print new Romanian music in 1905. For almost half a
century Feder (1869–1941), himself an editor, supported Romanian art and
folk music by his publishing activity, also issuing Romanian teaching
manuals and international music literature. He published the Revista
muzicală şi teatrală (1904–8) and the Revista instrumentelor muzicale şi a
maşinilor vorbitoare (‘Musical instruments and mechanical reproduction
review’, 1905–8). Feder paid particular attention to classical and
contemporary Romanian chamber music, publishing works by Constantin
Dimitrescu, Emil Monţia, G.A. Dinicu and others. The firm ceased activity in
1945.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amadeus: ‘Correspondenz (A. Gebauer)’, Siebenbürger Wochenblatt
(1839), no.27, p.221
Amadeus: ‘Un bucureştean pe zi’ [A Bucharester by day], Adevărul (1898),
no.3340, p.2
C. Brăiloiu: Societatea Compozitorilor Români [Society of Romanian
composers] (Bucharest, 1930)
L. Predescu: ‘Gebauer, Alexis’, Enciclopedia Cugetarea (Bucharest, 1940),
346
VIOREL COSMA
Gebel.
German family of organists and composers.
(1) Georg Gebel (i)
(2) Georg Gebel (ii)
(3) Georg Siegmund [Sigmund, Sigismund] Gebel
GEORGE J. BUELOW
Gebel
(1) Georg Gebel (i)
(b Breslau [now Wrocław], 1685; d Breslau, c1750). His autobiography in
Mattheson records most of the known facts about his life. His father (also
Georg Gebel), a musketeer in Breslau, apprenticed his son as a tailor at
the age of 14. However, at 18 Gebel turned to music as a career, beginning
lessons with Franz Tiburtius Winckler, a Viennese organist employed at
both the cathedral and the Heilige Kreuz church in Breslau. In 1709 he
became organist at the parish church in Brieg (now Brzeg) while continuing
his musical studies with the Kapellmeister at Gotha, G.H. Stöltzel, who
(Gebel said) gave him valuable instruction in Kuhnau's compositional
practice and Johann Theile's rules of counterpoint. In 1713 Gebel returned
to Breslau as organist of St Christoph, and a year later also became
musical director. He credited himself with a large number of compositions,
sacred and secular. Few of his works survive and it is difficult to separate
his works from those of his son (2) Georg Gebel (ii). Gebel mentioned in
his autobiography that he had constructed a clavichord tuned in quarter
tones, an intriguing experiment for his time.
WORKS
Komm mit Jesu, Seel und Sinn (Passion oratorio), chorus, 2 fl, 2 ob, 2 hn, bn, str, b
viol, theorbo, vc, bc, D-Bsb
Sacred cants., all Bsb: Aber der Herr warf unser aller Sünde auf ihn, chorus; Ach
dass ich Wasser genug hätte, B, bc; Jesus Christus hat uns geliebet, SATB; Wir
gingen alle in der Irre wie die Schafe, SATB, 4 trbn, 2 ob, 2 vn, va, vc, bc; Wir
gingen alle in der Irre wie die Schafe, SATB, 3 trbn
Der Herr ist mein Licht, motet, SATB, LÜh
1 mass and a ps setting, both for double chorus; 48 chorale variations with
interspersed arias; 60 sacred cants.; 24 ps with insts; Passion orat in 7 parts; 24
chorale variations, org/hpd; Grosser musicalischer Schneckenzirkel, kbd; 48 kbd
concs., most with wind acc.; 24 large-scale kbd concs.; 24 preludes and fugues,
kbd; numerous canons, partitas, chaconnes, arias with variations, all for kbd;
numerous secular cants.: cited in Gebel's autobiography (see MatthesonGEP), all
lost
Gebel
(2) Georg Gebel (ii)
(b Brieg [now Brzeg], 25 Oct 1709; d Rudolstadt, 24 Sept 1753). Eldest son
of (1) Georg Gebel (i) and Anna Barbara (née Opitzin). According to his
father, the younger Georg Gebel was a precocious child, learning the
harpsichord at the age of three and playing in the homes of Breslau nobility
by the age of six. At 11 he went to Oels (now Oleśnica) to play for the
aristocracy. While continuing his music studies with his father, he entered
the Maria Magdalena Gymnasium, learning French and Italian among other
subjects. He began to compose music, including wedding cantatas, and
was taught improvisation by the cathedral organist, J.H. Krause. At the age
of 16, his father reported, he composed a number of serenades and a
German opera. In 1729 he was appointed organist at St Maria Magdalena,
wrote music for Catholic monasteries, and directed performances of a
visiting Italian opera company. While retaining his position in Breslau he
also became Kapellmeister at the court of Oels. At 26 he moved to Warsaw
as court composer and harpsichordist to Count Brühl, first minister to the
Saxon court. At his employer's request he learnt to play the pantaleon from
the inventor of the instrument, Pantaleon Hebenstreit, a popular figure at
the Dresden court. After 12 years in the service of Count Brühl at Dresden,
Gebel became leader and, in 1750, Kapellmeister at the Rudolstadt court.
WORKS
Partita (G), kbd (Rudolstadt, n.d.)
Jauchzet ihr Himmel (Christmas orat), S, A, T, B, 4vv, 2 tpt, fl, bn, vn, va, bc, D-SWl
5 sinfonias (G, G, G, D, D), 2 hn, 2 ob/tpt, 2 vn, va, vc; 4 sonatas (D, b, F, F), 2 vn/fl,
bc: all SWl
2 sonatas (G, F), 2 fl/vn, bc, ‘Georg Gebel’, Bsb
6 sinfonias, cited in the Breitkopf catalogues; sinfonia, 2 vn, va, b, formerly DS: all
lost
At least 12 ops incl. Serpillo und Melissa, Dresden, c1750, and ops to libs by J.G.
Kloss, all perf. in Rudolstadt: Oedipus, 1751; Medea, 1752; Tarquinius Superbus,
1752; Sophonisbe, 1753; Marcus Antonius, 1753: all lost
4 cant. cycles; 2 Passions; more than 100 inst works, incl. sinfonias; ovs.; partitas;
kbd, vn, fl, lute, and 6 viol concs.; fl and pantaleon sonatas; trios and duos; kbd
works: all lost, see MatthesonGEP, Marpurg, Hiller and BrookB
Gebel
(3) Georg Siegmund [Sigmund, Sigismund] Gebel
(b Breslau [now Wrocław], c1715; d Breslau, 1775). Second son of (1)
Georg Gebel (i). He became second organist at St Elisabeth in Breslau in
1736. In 1744 he became second organist at St Maria Magdalena, in 1748
organist at the Dreifaltigkeitskirche, and in 1749 first organist at St
Elisabeth, where he remained until 1762. He composed church cantatas
and organ pieces, none of them known to survive.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookB
MatthesonGEP
F.W. Marpurg: Historisch-kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik, i
(Berlin, 1754/R), 250
J.A. Hiller: Lebensbeschreibungen berühmter Musikgelehrten und
Tonkünstler (Leipzig, 1784/R), 66
Gebhard, Heinrich
(b Sobernheim, 25 July 1878; d North Arlington, NJ, 5 May 1963).
American pianist and composer of German birth. He studied the piano with
Leschetizky and composition with Heuberger in Vienna (1896–9). After
making his début with the Boston SO in 1899, he appeared 35 times with
that orchestra in the years 1901–33; he also performed with other leading
American orchestras, giving the first performance in the USA of Strauss’s
Burleske and the premières of Frederick Shepherd Converse’s Night and
Day, Loeffler’s A Pagan Poem and his own Fantasy, a work in two
extended movements, with the New York PO (12 November 1925). He was
a noted interpreter of Impressionist music. Among his pupils was Bernstein,
who wrote an introduction for Gebhard’s The Art of Pedaling (New York,
1963).
WORKS
(selective list)
Orch: Fantasy, pf, orch, 1925; Divertissement, pf, chbr orch, 1932; Across the Hills,
tone poem, 1940
Songs: You Walked into the Garden, 1920; 15 Songs from ‘Looking Out of Jimmie’
(H.H. Flanders), 1929
Pf: Waltzes, 2 pf, 1920; Harlequin’s Serenade, Mazurka lente, Slumber Song,
Meadow Brooklets, 1921; Giant of the Mountains, 1942
MSS in US-NYp
Gebrauchsmusik
(Ger.: ‘music for use’, ‘utility music’).
A term adopted in Germany in the early 1920s, first in musicological circles
and then in music criticism. Within a decade it had become a slogan with
international currency, causing some of those who had initially contributed
to its prominence either to distance themselves from it or to abandon it
altogether.
The term arose from attempts to challenge, or at least to relativize, its
conceptual antonym – musical autonomy. Invariably its use implies, if not
actually involves, an opposite term as part of a dualistic system of thought.
One of the first writers to employ Gebrauchsmusik systematically as one
half of a binarism was the musicologist Paul Nettl. In his study of 17th-
century dance music he distinguished between Gebrauchsmusik and
Vortragsmusik (1921–2, p.258). By the former term Nettl referred to ‘dance
pieces that were really danced to’, by the latter to ‘music without any
secondary purpose’. With historical developments in mind, Nettl observed
an ‘increasing stylization’ that attended dance music’s emancipation in the
cyclical suite of mixed dance forms, a stylization that involved a ‘certain
removal from popular primordiality [volkstümliche Ursprünglichkeit]’. Around
the same time Leo Kestenberg, music adviser to the Prussian Ministry of
Science, Culture and Education, used Gebrauchsmusik to describe
‘occasional music’ as distinguished from ‘concert music’. In making this
distinction, Nettl and Kestenberg openly expressed a value judgment soon
to be widely shared by musicologists, critics and composers alike.
Gebrauchsmusik, Kestenberg wrote, ‘is artistically as important as, and
nowadays materially more promising than, concert music’ (1921, p.108).
Like other Germans, he was no doubt influenced by parallel developments
in France, especially the group of composers known as Les Six.
But it was Heinrich Besseler, in whose work the descriptive and the
normative nicely combine, who produced the philosophically most
sophisticated account of Gebrauchsmusik at the time. An early-music
specialist, he had studied philosophy with Martin Heidegger. Beyond a
scholarly, historical attempt at understanding earlier musical cultures on
their own terms, Besseler also raised general phenomenological questions
of the kind posed by Heidegger. In his dissertation on the German suite in
the 17th century, Besseler noted that ‘the aesthetic access [Zugangsweise]
to this music is not through listening but through participation, whether
through playing, dancing or singing along; in general, through use [das
Gebrauchen] (Beiträge zur Stilgeschichte der deutschen Suite im 17.
Jahrhundert, diss., U. of Freiburg, 1923, p.14). Besseler pursued this basic
perspective further in his Habilitationsschrift, this time focussing on 13th-
and 14th-century motets. This music, he stressed, was not ‘created for
“aesthetic enjoyment”’; nor did it ‘concern the “listener” in the usual sense,
but rather only believers in prayer and observation’ (1925, p.144). In a
much-quoted lecture, delivered as part of his dissertation defence, he
addressed ‘basic questions of musical listening’, both from a historical,
diachronic perspective and from a systematic one. Acknowledging his debt
to Heidegger, he translated his philosophy teacher’s fundamental
distinction between ‘thing’ (Ding) and ‘equipment’ (Zeug) into specifically
musical concepts: ‘autonomous music’ (eigenständige Musik) and ‘utility
music’ (Gebrauchsmusik). The first type he associated with concert music,
a relatively recent phenomenon, but one which ‘for generations has
counted as the highest and, as it were, solely legitimate form of performing
and listening to music’. With the second type, aesthetic contemplation is
secondary or even irrelevant. Invoking Heideggerian terminology, one
could say that its mode of existence belongs to the sphere of ‘readiness-to-
hand’ (Zuhandenheit), as opposed to ‘presentness-at-hand’
(Vorhandenheit). Besseler defined such music as ‘umgangsmässig’,
something analogous to the vernacular in language (Umgangssprache) in
the sense of being inseparable from everyday life rather than autonomous.
Active participation or involvement is key. The gist of Besseler’s theory is
encapsulated in this central passage from his lecture (1925, pp.45–6):
For the individual, Gebrauchsmusik constitutes something of
equal rank to his other activities, something with which he has
dealings in the way he has dealings with things of everyday
use, without first having to overcome any distance, that is,
without having to adopt an aesthetic attitude. With this in
mind we might define the basic characteristic of
Gebrauchsmusik as something with which we are directly
involved [umgangsmässig]. All other art … in some way
stands in contrast to Being as self-sufficient, as autonomous
[eigenständig].
In later writings Besseler replaced his original binarism with
Darbietungsmusik(‘presentation music’) versus Umgangsmusik (literally
‘ambient music’, a term which has unfortunately become synonymous with
background music).
Besseler’s interest in Gebrauchsmusik did not stop with his scholarly work
as a music historian; it spilled over into the opinions he held about
contemporary trends in composition. Epistemology, aesthetics and cultural
politics overlapped. Besseler found himself supporting current efforts to
create ‘umgangmässige Musik’, above all in the work of the German Youth
Movement, but also in the cultivation of Gebrauchsmusik by composers
such as Hindemith, Fortner and Pepping.
Besseler ended the first chapter of his magisterial handbook Die Musik des
Mittelalters und der Renaissance with an account of the effects of
historicism on the present, seeing in the call for ‘community music’
(Gemeinschaftsmusik) the protest of a younger generation against the
artistic stance of traditional musical life, against large symphony orchestras
and the professional specialization of virtuosos. ‘One avoided patriarchal
tradition’, he wrote in a confessional tone, ‘in order to learn from earlier
ancestors’ (1931, p.21).
Although Hindemith was not responsible for coining the term
Gebrauchsmusik, as is often asserted, he could maintain in 1930, without
too much exaggeration, that he had ‘almost completely turned away from
concert music in recent years and written, almost without exception, music
with pedagogical or social tendencies: for amateurs, for children, for radio,
mechanical instruments, etc.’ (Briefe, ed. D. Rexroth, Frankfurt, 1982,
p.147). One of the principal genres developed to reflect these tendencies
was the Lehrstück. The piece entitled Lehrstück, a collaboration between
Hindemith and Brecht that established the genre, compromised the
composer’s autonomy to the extent that the nature of the performing forces
was left open. It was thus less a work designed for concert presentation
than one which served the learning process of those actively involved. The
audience, too, was expected to participate by singing along in the choral
sections. Although a secular piece which ironically defamiliarized sacred
traditions, it was intended to function in a manner analogous to a sacred
cantata in the 18th century.
Recognizing in 1929 that ‘the idea of Gebrauchsmusik has now established
itself in all those camps of modern music that it can reach’, Hindemith’s
contemporary and rival Weill asserted the need for music to be ‘useful for
society at large’. To this end he and Hindemith collaborated with Brecht on
the experimental piece Der Lindberghflug, first performed together with
Lehrstück at the festival of new music in Baden-Baden in 1929. The
question of quality, Weill said, was a separate matter, one that determined
whether what he was doing could be considered art. ‘To have this attitude
expressed by a representative of “serious music”’, he went on, ‘would have
been unthinkable a few years ago’ (‘Die Oper–wohin?’, p.68)
The call for socially useful music did not go unchallenged, formulated as it
often was in explicitly political terms and as an implicit critique of the
Expressionist isolation commonly associated at the time with the Second
Viennese School. Schoenberg himself was especially defensive, often
construing the reforms proposed by the younger generation of composers
as personal attacks (1976).
One demands New Music for all! Gebrauchsmusik! But it
transpires that no use can be found for it. … And what use?
For want of a use, many of the business-like
Gebrauchsmusiker have become ideal artists. More ideal
than those outmoded ones, who may at least hope for
success after they die, whereas the involuntary idealists have
composed for particular use and have no hope or desire for
the future.
No less vitriolic and certainly more extensive were the involved polemics
directed against the supporters of Gebrauchsmusik by Schoenberg’s
apologist Theodor W. Adorno. With his characteristic ear for the news of
the day, Adorno eagerly took up the term, albeit in a derogatory sense, as
early as 1924, and he continued to write critically about Gebrauchsmusik
for the rest of his life. He began by dismissing the latest music of Hindemith
and Stravinsky as ‘fiktive Gebrauchsmusik’ (1924), music with only
apparent utility and little expressive value of the kind he associated with
‘absolute music’. By 1932, in his sociological tract ‘Zur gesellschaftlichen
Lage der Musik’, Adorno was using Gebrauchsmusik to describe one of
four types of contemporary music, the others being ‘modern music’
(Schoenberg), ‘objectivism’ (Stravinsky) and ‘surrealism’ (Weill). He
associated Gebrauchsmusik above all with Hindemith, whose music he
criticized for identifying itself with a fictitious collective. The only use-value
of music in capitalist society, he argued, was that of a commodity (in the
Marxist sense). Any attempt to restore pre-capitalist immediacy he
dismissed as ideology in the sense of ‘false consciousness’. As he
concluded in Einleitung in die Musiksoziologie of 1962, ‘Gebrauchsmusik,
is tailor-made for the administered world’.
The idea of Gebrauchsmusik, as the work of musicologists such as
Besseler illustrates, derives first and foremost from methodological
reflection; it does not so much capture the essence of music as reflect a
perspective of the scholar or listener. As such, it identifies a philosophical
viewpoint, in this case one indebted to phenomenology. The same piece of
music can be viewed both in terms of its use-value and in terms of its
autonomous features. These two perspectives are not necessarily mutually
exclusive. Understood in this way, autonomy must be seen less as an
idealistic construct that precludes consideration of social utility than as itself
a complex of artistic practices embracing the social, the aesthetic and the
theoretical. These three areas overlap. Social autonomy encompasses
various aspects of music sociology: the composer’s employment status or
sources of patronage, the context of musical presentation and the nature of
music’s social function. Aesthetic autonomy also touches on questions of
presentation, on how musical objects are approached, as well as on the
status of music as a discrete work, on the kind of criticism and
interpretation it attracts, and on matters of musical form. The dimension of
theory encompasses questions of formal taxonomy and other structural
factors. Historically, it is possible to observe a process of increasing
‘autonomization’: composers become their own bosses, freed from direct
service to institutions and patrons; their musical works are conceived less
for specific social occasions, more as discrete works, independent of
immediate social function; and the identity of their works, in formal and
structural terms, increasingly resists their being subsumed under generic
norms. Autonomy and the postulate of originality are closely linked.
One need not subscribe to Adorno’s negative dialectics, which posits social
relevance in artistic isolation, in order to appreciate one principal point of
his critique: namely, that proponents of Gebrauchsmusik could not – or
rather would not – relinquish certain facets of their autonomy as
composers. They remained modern professional composers, with all the
aims and aspirations implied by the ultimately irreversible division of labour.
The choice, then, was not a simple one between ‘autonomy’ and ‘utility’,
concepts which insofar as they denote types of music exist merely as
abstract constructs. Even ‘autonomous’ music has its uses. Rather, the call
for Gebrauchsmusik functioned historically as a corrective to extreme
manifestations of autonomy. Composers in the 1920s were rejecting not
the hard-won autonomies of Beethoven so much as the extreme isolation
of the Schoenberg school.
In different circumstances, on the East Coast of the USA in the early 1950s
rather than in 1920s Berlin, Hindemith spoke of his earlier music as though
the attendant politics and struggles had never existed. In the preface to his
Norton lectures, delivered at Harvard University in 1950, he appeared to
take credit for coining the term Gebrauchsmusik; at the same time he tried
to distance himself from it (1952, p.viii). History has proved him more
successful in the former venture than the latter.
A quarter of a century ago, in a discussion with German
choral conductors, I pointed out the danger of an esoteric
isolationism in music by using the term Gebrauchsmusik.
Apart from the ugliness of the word – in German as hideous
as its English equivalents workaday music, music for use,
utility music, and similar verbal beauties – nobody found
anything remarkable in it, since quite obviously music for
which no use can be found, that is to say, useless music, is
not entitled to public consideration anyway and consequently
the Gebrauch is taken for granted. … [When] I first came to
this country, I felt like the sorcerer’s apprentice who had
become the victim of his own conjurations: the slogan
Gebrauchsmusik hit me wherever I went, it had grown to be
as abundant, useless, and disturbing as thousands of
dandelions in a lawn. Apparently it met perfectly the common
desire for a verbal label which classifies objects, persons, and
problems, thus exempting anyone from opinions based on
knowledge. Up to this day it has been impossible to kill the
silly term and the unscrupulous classification that goes with it.
In the period following World War II, not only was the term regarded as
‘silly’, if not ‘useless’, but in an age that sought autonomy at all costs, even
at the expense of ‘public consideration’, Gebrauchsmusik acquired a
pejorative connotation. Thus Stockhausen dismissed his modernist
colleague Zimmerman as a ‘Gebrauchsmusiker’ because he used pre-
existing materials rather than generating totally new and original ones.
Lack of absolute autonomy became synonymous with a lack of artistic
value. The earlier generation in the inter-war years had thought otherwise;
it was for them that the term had had its positive, historically significant
meaning.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
STEPHEN HINTON
Gebrauchsmusik
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Kestenberg: Musikerziehung und Musikpflege (Leipzig, 1921)
P. Nettl: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte der Tanzmusik im 17. Jahrhundert’, ZMw,
iv (1921–2), 257–65
T.W. Adorno: ‘Gebrauchsmusik’ (1924), Gesammelte Schriften, ed. R.
Tiedemann, xix (Frankfurt, 1984), 445–7
H. Besseler: ‘Grundfragen des musikalischen Hörens’, JbMP 1925, 35–52;
repr. in Aufsätze zur Musikästhetik und Musikgeschichte, ed. P. Gülke
(Leipzig, 1978), 29–53
K. Weill: ‘Verschiebungen in der musikalischen Produktion’, Berliner
Tageblatt (1 Oct 1927); repr. in Kurt Weill: Musik und Theater:
Gesammelte Schriften, ed. S. Hinton and J. Scheber (Berlin, 1990),
45–8
K. Weill: ‘Die Oper – wohin?’ (31 Oct 1929); repr. in Kurt Weill: Musik und
Theater: Gesammelte Schriften, ed. S. Hinton and J. Scheber (Berlin,
1990), 68–71
H. Besseler: Die Musik des Mittelalters und der Renaissance (Potsdam,
1931)
T.W. Adorno: ‘Zur gesellschaftlichen Lage der Musik’, Zeitschrift für
Sozialforschung, i (1932), 103–24, 356–78
P. Hindemith: ‘Betrachtungen zur heutigen Musik’ (1940), Aufsätze,
Vorträge, Reden, ed. G. Schubert (Zürich, 1994), 131–76
A. Schoenberg: ‘New Music, Outmoded Music’, Style and Idea, ed. D.
Newlin (New York, 1950, enlarged 2/1975 by L. Stein), 113–24
P. Hindemith: A Composer’s World (Cambridge, MA, 1952)
H. Besseler: Das mujsikalische Hören der Neuzeit (Berlin, 1959); repr. in
Aufsätze zur Musikästhetik und Musikgeschichte, ed. P. Gülke
(Leipzig, 1978), 104–73
T.W. Adorno: ‘Ad vocem Hindemith’, Impromptus (Frankfurt, 1968,
3/1970), 51–87
S. Hinton: ‘Gebrauchsmusik’ (1988), HMT; repr. in Terminologie der Musik
im 20. Jahrhundert, ed. H.H. Eggebrecht, i (Wiesbaden, 1995), 164–
74
S. Hinton: The Idea of Gebrauchsmusik (New York, 1989)
Gebrüder Späth.
See Freiburger Orgelbau.
Gebunden (i)
(Ger.: ‘fretted’).
In a Clavichord said to be fretted (gebunden) each string can be struck by
more than one tangent. Thus each string produces several different
pitches, depending on its point of contact with the tangent. See also Fret.
Gebunden (ii)
(Ger.).
See Legato.
Gebundener Stil
(Ger.).
A term used to describe 17th- and early 18th-century compositions written
in a strict contrapuntal style, such as fugues, ricercares and chorale-
preludes.
Geck, Martin
(b Witten, Ruhr, 19 March 1936). German musicologist. From 1955 he
studied musicology, philosophy and Protestant theology at the universities
of Münster and Kiel and the Free University of Berlin, where his teachers
included Dräger, Friedrich Blume and Wiora. He took the doctorate at Kiel
in 1962 with a dissertation on the vocal music of Buxtehude and the early
Pietists. After a period as consultant to Kiel University on Schleswig-
Holstein customs (1961–2), he became an editor of the Wagner collected
edition in Munich (1966–70). Since then he has been adviser in music
education to the publishing house of Ernst Klett in Stuttgart, for whom he
edits the Curriculum Musik. In 1975 he completed his Habilitation in
Dortmund and the following year became professor of musicology at the
city's university. He has worked on German music history of the 16th–19th
centuries, with particular reference to Buxtehude, Bach, Beethoven,
Mendelssohn and Wagner. In his work he seeks to replace traditional
methodologies used in historiology with a more modern, critical approach.
In 1996 he was made director of the Dortmunder Bach-Symposium.
WRITINGS
Die Vokalmusik Dietrich Buxtehudes und der frühe Pietismus (diss., U. of
Kiel, 1962; Kassel, 1965)
Die Wiederentdeckung der Matthäuspassion im 19. Jahrhundert
(Regensburg, 1967)
Nicolaus Bruhns: Leben und Werk (Cologne, 1968)
Die Bildnisse Richard Wagners (Munich, 1970)
‘Max Bruchs Oratorium “Gustav Adolf”: ein Denkmal des Kultur-
Protestantismus’, AMw, xxviii (1970), 138–49
ed., with E. Voss: Dokumente zur Entstehung und ersten Aufführung des
Bühnenweihfestspiels Parsifal, Richard Wagner: Sämtliche Werke, xxx
(Mainz, 1970)
Deutsche Oratorien 1800 bis 1840: Verzeichnis der Quellen und
Aufführungen (Wilhelmshaven, 1971)
Musiktherapie als Problem der Gesellschaft (Stuttgart, 1973; Swed. trans.,
1977, Dan. trans., 1978)
with R. Frisius and G. Küntzel: Sequenzen: Unterrichtswerk in Musik,
Schülerbuch und Lehrerband (Stuttgart, 1976)
‘Das Neue in der Musik um 1600 als Spiegel gesellschaftlichen Wandels’,
Beiträge zur historischen Sozialkunde, lxxxiv (1984), 48–58
E. Voss and J. Deathridge: Thematisches Verzeichnis der Werke Richard
Wagners (Mainz, 1985)
P. Schleuning: “Geschrieben auf Bonaparte”: Beethovens “Eroica”:
Revolution, Reaktion, Rezeption (Reinbek, 1989)
J.S. Bachs Johannespassion (Munich, 1991)
Johann Sebastian Bach (Reinbek, 1993; Jap. trans., 1995, Vietnamese
trans., 1996)
Von Beethoven bis Mahler: die Musik des deutschen Idealimus (Stuttgart,
1993/R)
‘V. Symphonie in C-Moll, op.67’, Die 9 Symphonien Beethovens, ed. R.
Ulm (Kassel, 1994)
‘Architektonische, psychologische oder rhetorische Form? Franz Liszts
Klaviersonate h-moll’, Festschrift Klaus Hortschansky, ed. A. Beer and
L. Lutteken (Tutzing, 1995), 425–33
‘Humor und Melancholie als kategoriale Bestimmungen der “absoluten”
Musik’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte: eine Festschrift für Ludwig
Finscher, ed. A. Laubenthal and K. Kusan-Windweh (Kassel, 1995),
309–16
Ludwig van Beethoven (Reinbek, 1996)
‘Zur Philosphie von Beethovens Grosser Fuge’, Festschrift Walter Wiora
zum 90. Geburtstag, ed. C.-H. Mahling and R. Seiberts (Tutzing,
1997), 123–32
Die Geburtsstunde des ‘Mythos Bach’: Mendelssohns Weiderentdeckung
der Matthäuspassion (Wiesbaden, 1998)
‘Denn alles findet bei Bach statt’: Erforschtes und Erfahrenes (Stuttgart,
1999)
J.S. Bach: das Leben, das Werk (Reinbek, 2000)
‘Via Beethoven & Schönberg: Adorno's Bach-Verständnis’, Adorno und die
Musik (Frankfurt, forthcoming)
EDITIONS
with F. Stein: Nicolaus Bruhns: Orgelwerke (Frankfurt, 1968)
with O. Drechsler: C. Bernhard: Geistliche Harmonien, EDM, 1st ser., lxv
(1972)
with E. Voss: R. Wagner: Parsifal I, Sämtliche Werke, xiv/1 (Mainz, 1972)
HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT/MATTHIAS BRZOSKA
Gedackt
(Ger.).
See under Organ stop.
Gédalge, André
(b Paris, 27 Dec 1856; d Chessy, 5 Feb 1926). French composer and
teacher. He began a career as a bookseller and entered the Paris
Conservatoire when he was 28. There he studied composition with
Guiraud, won the second Prix de Rome (1885) and remained as an
assistant to Guiraud and Massenet. He published a monumental Traité de
la fugue (Paris, 1901; Eng. trans., 1964), which remains unsurpassed, and
in 1905 he was appointed professor of counterpoint and fugue at the
Conservatoire. An excellent and highly respected teacher, he taught many
of the leading French composers from Schmitt and Ravel to Milhaud and
Honegger. His appointment in 1906 as inspector of provincial
conservatories brought him into contact with musical education at a lower
level, and these experiences produced his L’enseignement de la musique
par l’éducation méthodique de l’oreille (Paris, 1920). In his music he
followed the tradition of Saint-Saëns and Lalo, remaining uninfluenced by
the developments of impressionism; his attitude to these is well expressed
in the inscription to his Third Symphony (1910): ‘sans littérature ni
peinture’. His works show, as might be expected, a comprehensive
command of counterpoint, but he was also a masterly orchestrator.
WORKS
(selective list)
Stage: Pris au piège (opéra bouffe, 1, M. Carré, after La Fontaine), Paris, Opéra-
Comique, 1890; Le petit savoyard (pantomime, 4, Carré), Paris, 1891; Hélène
(drame lyrique, 2 scenes), 1893; La farce du cadi (3, Rémond, Loiseau), 1897;
Phoebé (ballet, 1, G. Berr), Paris, 1900
Orch: Sym. no.1, D, 1893; Pf Conc., op.16 (1899); Sym. no.2, c, 1902, reorchd
1912; Sym. no.3, F, 1910; Sym. no.4, A, inc.
Chbr: Str Qt, B, 1892; 2 vn sonatas, G, op.12 (1897), a, op.19 (1900)
Pf: 4 préludes et fugues, op.2; 4 pièces, op.18, 4 hands; 3 études de concert, op.23
(1903)
Songs: 5 mélodies, op.13; 6 mélodies, op.15 (1898); Dans la forêt, op.22 (M.
Bouchoz) (1902); 7 chansons (R. Burns) (1909); 20 chansons pour les enfants (H.
Renaudin) (1924); Vaux de vire (15th century) (n.d.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
André Gédalge (Paris, 1926) [collection of obituaries]
C. Koechlin: ‘André Gédalge’, ReM, vii/5 (1926), 242–54
M. Ravel, F. Schmitt, A. Honegger and D. Milhaud: ‘Hommages à André
Gédalge’, ReM, vii/5 (1926), 255–9
G. Faure: Silhouettes du Conservatoire: Charles-Marie Widor, André
Gédalge, Max d’Ollone (Paris, 1986)
ALAIN LOUVIER
Ops: Virineya (5, Gedike), op.25, 1913–15; U perevoza [By the Ferry] (5, Gedike),
op.44, 1933; Zhakeriya (5, Gedike), op.55; Makbet [Macbeth] (5, after W.
Shakespeare), op.76, 1944
Orch: Dramaticheskaya uvertyura, op.7; Pf Conc., op.11, 1900; Sym. no.1, op.15,
1902–3; Sym. no.2, op.16, 1905; Na voyne [At War], 6 improvisations, op.26; Sym.
no.3, op.30, 1922; Org Conc., op.35, 1927; Zarnitsï [Summer Lightning], sym.
poem, op.39; Hn Conc., op.40, 1929; Tpt Conc., op.41, 1930; Uvertyura 1941,
op.68, 1941; 25 let Oktyabrya [25 Years of October], ov., op.72; Vn Conc., op.91,
1951
Chbr: Sonatas, op.10, vn, pf, 1899; Pf Trio, op.14, 1902; Pf Qnt, op.21, 1908
Other: vocal and choral music, pf and org pieces, arrs. of music by Bach for org, pf
and various ens
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (G. Grigor'yeva)
B. Levik: ‘Tvorchestvo A.F. Gedike’ [The works of Gedike], SovM (1933),
no.4, pp.39–43
B. Levik: Aleksandr Gedike (Moscow, 1947)
L. Royzman: ‘Krupnïy sovetskiy muzïkant’ [An important Soviet musician],
SovM (1952), no.4, pp.108–9
Obituaries, Sovetskaya kul'tura (11 July 1957); SovM (1957), no.9, p.160
A.F. Gedike: Sbornik statey i vospominaniy [Collected articles and
reminiscences] (Moscow, 1960)
GALINA GRIGOR'YEVA
Gedoppelter Accent
(Ger.).
A type of ornament. See Ornaments, §8.
PHILIP L. SCOWCROFT
Geeres, John
(d Durham, bur. 4 March 1642). English composer and singer. He was
appointed a lay clerk at King's College, Cambridge, in 1623, the same year
in which he took the Cambridge MusB degree. He appears to have held
this position until 1626, although he is mentioned in the college ‘Mundum’
books as late as 1628. In that year he moved to Durham Cathedral, where
he became a lay clerk. He held this position until his death. Three
undistinguished anthems by him are contained in various 17th-century
Durham Cathedral manuscripts (now in GB-DRc and Lbl). One is an eight-
part verse setting of the collect for St John the Evangelist's Day found also
in autograph copies in Cambridge (Cp). An anonymous five-part setting of
the Compline antiphon In manus tuas for ‘3 Tribles’ (Cp) is in Geeres's
hand and is likely to have been composed by him, possibly for his degree.
He may have been related to Gabriel Geeres, who was a lay clerk at Christ
Church, Oxford, in 1670.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Morehen: The Sources of English Cathedral Music, c.1617–c.1644
(diss., U. of Cambridge, 1969), 160–67
R.T. Daniel and P. Le Huray: The Sources of English Church Music,
1549–1660, EECM, suppl.i (1972)
JOHN MOREHEN
Geerhart.
Composer, possibly identifiable with Derrick Gerarde.
Geering, Arnold
(b Basle, 14 May 1902; d Vevey, 16 Dec 1982). Swiss musicologist. He
studied musicology under Nef, Handschin and Merian at Basle University
and received the teaching diploma in singing from the Basle Conservatory
in 1925. He took the doctorate with a dissertation on Swiss vocal music
during the Reformation and also studied singing with Alfredo Cairati in
Zürich, after which he sang professionally. He took a teaching position at
the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis (1944–50) and in 1947 he completed his
Habilitation at Basle University with a study of medieval German
polyphony. In 1950 he succeeded Kurth to the chair of musicology at Berne
University. He served as secretary to the IMS (1948–51) and director of the
Schweizerisches Volksliedarchiv (1949–63). He was made professor
emeritus in 1972.
Geering was noted for his studies of the music history and folk music of
Switzerland. His dissertation was both a broad survey of the performance
of vocal music in 16th-century Switzerland and a detailed study of the three
most important Swiss musicians of the period – Bartholomäus Franck,
Johannes Wannenmacher and Cosmas Alder. His Habilitationsschrift was a
significant contribution to the literature of medieval music history, giving for
the first time a detailed description of polyphony in the German-speaking
countries and correcting the prevailing judgment of it as conservative; at
the same time it gave a comprehensive overview of the location of sources.
He earned recognition largely through his work on Senfl and his editions for
the Gesamtausgabe; Geering was also known for his Calvin studies.
WRITINGS
Die Vokalmusik in der Schweiz zur Zeit der Reformation (diss., U. of Basle,
1931; Aarau, 1933)
‘Homer Herpol und Manfred Barbarini Lupus’, Festschrift Karl Nef (Zürich
and Leipzig, 1933), 48–71
‘Textierung und Besetzung in Ludwig Senfls Liedern’, AMf, iv (1939), 1–11
Die Organa und mehrstimmigen Conductus in den Handschriften des
deutschen Sprachgebietes vom 13. bis 16. Jahrhundert
(Habilitationsschrift, U. of Basle, 1947; Berne, 1952)
‘Die Nibelungenmelodie in der Trierer Marienklage’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949,
118–20
‘Vom speziellen Beitrag der Schweiz zur allgemeinen Musikforschung’, Mf,
iii (1950), 97–106
‘Calvin und die Musik’, Calvin-Studien 1959, ed. J. Moltmann (Neukirchen,
1960), 16–25
‘Eine tütsche Musica des figurirten Gesangs 1491’, Festschrift Karl Gustav
Fellerer zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Regensburg,
1962), 178–81
‘Senfl, Ludwig’, MGG1
‘Von den Berner Stadtpfeifern’, Schweizer Beiträge zur Musikwissenschaft,
i (1972), 105–8
‘Georg Friedrich Händels französische Kantate’, Musicae scientiae
collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum siebzigsten
Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Cologne, 1973), 126–40
EDITIONS
ed., with W. Altwegg: Ludwig Senfl: Sämtliche Werke, ii, v–vii: Deutsche
Lieder zu vier bis sechs Stimmen (Wolfenbüttel, 1938–61/partial R)
[vols. ii and iv = EDM, 1st ser., vols. x and xv]; vii: Instrumental-
Carmina … Lieder in Bearbeitungen (Wolfenbüttel, 1960)
with H. Trümpy: Das Liederbuch des Johannes Heer von Glarus, SMd, v
(1967)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Ravizza, ed.: Festschrift Arnold Geering zum 70. Geburtstag (Berne,
1972) [incl. complete list of writings]
VICTOR RAVIZZA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
GoovaertsH
MGG1 (A. Smijers)
Vander StraetenMPB, ii
SUSAN BAIN
Ops: Ur hav av rök [From Sea of Smoke] (G. Ekelöf), 1972; Poeten och
glasmästaren [The Poet and the Glazier] (chbr op, L. Forssell and C. Baudelaire),
1979; Me moriré en Paris (music theatre, Vallejo), 1979; Christina (2, Gefors and
Forssell), 1983–6; Parken [The Park] (3, Gefors, after B. Strauss: Der Park), 1986–
91; Vargen kommer [The Wolf is Coming] (3, Klein-Perski and Gefors), 1994–6;
Clara (2, J.-C. Carrière), 1997–8
Other vocal: 4 visor [4 Ballads], 1v, pf, 1969, rev. 1972; Sånger om förtröstan
[Songs about Confidence] (G. Tunström), 1v, gui, 1972; Sånger om glädje [Songs
about Joy] (P. Lagerkvist), (1v, pf)/(1v, cl/a fl, vc, pf), 1973, rev. 1993; Reveille
(Ekelöf), Mez, vc, pf, elec org, perc, 1974–5; En gång skall du vara en av dem som
levat för längesen [Once you will be one of them who lived a long time ago]
(Lagerkvist), S, fl, cl, vn, vc, gui, 1977; Sjöbergsånger, 1v, pf/gui, 1978; Profvet [The
Text] (W. von Braun), S, wind qnt, 1979; Kära jord och andra sånger [Dear Earth
and Other Songs] (E. Diktonius, G. Björling, E. Södergran), 1v, pf, 1981, rev. 1984;
L’invitation au voyage (Baudelaire), S, vn, gui, 1981; Flickan och den gamle [The
Girl and the Old Man] (Alexandre), S, Bar, fl, cl, vn, vc, gui, pf, perc, 1982–3;
Whales weep not (D.H. Lawrence), SATB, 1987; Total okay (Strauss), S, vn,
org/synth, 1992; Paradisfragment (P. Damiani), SATB, 1993
Orch: Tidlossning [Timebreak], mar, 14 wind, 1975; Vandring i skogen [Wandering in
the Forest], small orch, 1978; Musik: no.1 ‘Slits’, 1981, no.2 ‘Christina-scener’
(Forssell), 3vv, orch, 1986, no.3 ‘Twine’, 1988, no.4 ‘Die Erscheinung im Park’,
1990, no.5 ‘Det himmelska biet med gyllene gadd’ [The Celestial Bee with the
Golden Sting], sinfonietta, conc. for 5 perc, 1993, no.6 ‘Lydias sånger’ (H.
Söderberg, H. Heine, J.P. Jacobsen and others), Mez, orch, 1995–6; Snurra [Top],
wind ens, 1994
Chbr and solo inst: Aprahishtita, vc, pf, tape, 1970–72; Through Mirrors of Harmony,
pf, 1973; La boîte chinoise, gui, 1975; Krigets eko (Sonido de la guerra) [The Echo
of War], perc, 1975; Tjurens död (Muerto del toro) [The Death of the Bull], vc, 1983;
One, Two, pf, 1983; Möte med Per i parken [Meeting with Per in the Park], str qt,
1992; Ett jagande efter vind [A Hunting for the Wind], org, 1994
El-ac: Galjonsfiguren [The Figure Head], tape music for dance, 1982–3; Skapelsen
2 [The Creations 2] (E. Beckman), text-sound composition, 1985, rev. 1987
WRITINGS
‘Att komma till tals med Adorno’, Nutida musik, xxxi/6 (1987–8), 3–13 [in
conversation with O. Billgren and H. Engdahl]
‘Reflektioner kring verklig närvaro’, Artes, xix/4 (1993), 68–78
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Fabian: ‘Hans Gefors: ein Gespräch mit dem Komponisten der Oper
Christina’, OW, xxvii/12 (1986), 12–14
G. Petersén: ‘Jag hade sån lust att skriva stor opera’, Operan (1987), no.2,
pp.20–31
C. Lundberg: ‘Hellre förhäxa än forska’, Nutida musik, xxxiv/1 (1991), 4–9
S. Levin: ‘Vargen kommer’, Nutida musik, xl/2–3 (1996), 72–81
ROLF HAGLUND
Gegenbewegung
(Ger.).
Contrary motion. See Part-writing.
Gegenfuge
(Ger.).
See Counter-fugue. See also Inversion.
Gehlhaar, Rolf (Rainer)
(b Breslau [now Wrocław, Poland], 30 Dec 1943). American composer. The
son of a German rocket scientist, he emigrated to the USA in 1953, took
American citizenship in 1958, and studied philosophy at Yale University
(BA 1965) and music at University of California, Berkeley (1965–7). He
then moved to Cologne to become Karlheinz Stockhausen’s assistant and
a member of his ensemble (1967–70). He was a co-founder (in 1969) of
the Feedback Studio Verlag, Cologne, a performance centre and later
publishing company (1971) devoted to new music. He has lectured at the
Ferienkurse für Internationale Neue Musik, Darmstadt (1974, 1976), and at
Dartington College of Arts, England (1976–7), and was a founding member
of the Electro-Acoustic Music Association of Great Britain (1979). He has
also carried out research at IRCAM, which culminated in the first digital
reproductions of ‘three-dimensional’ sounds (1981). He has received
several European awards. Gehlhaar’s mature works (such as Tokamak)
reveal an increasing interest in ‘structural polyphony’. He has worked
equally in acoustic and electro-acoustic music, and since 1979 has used a
computer to determine all compositional elements. He employs a wide
harmonic spectrum including conventional tonality, microtones, and ‘noise’.
Since 1985 he has concentrated on the development and implementation
of an interactive computer-controlled music environment called
Sound=Space, originally developed as a permanent installation for the
National Museum of Science, La Villette, in Paris. This large installation
has become a major focus for many different aspects of his work: a
resource for the design and development of algorithms for real-time
computer-aided composition, as a new instrument for performance of his
own live electronic compositions, as a musical environment for dancers
and as a musical play/therapy environment for special needs groups. He
has established two Sound=Space centres, one in Edinburgh and the other
at Musicworks London (Brixton) where workshops in music and movement
for special needs groups are carried out on a regular basis.
WORKS
Orch and vocal: Phase, orch, 1972; Prototypen, 4 orch groups, 1973; Liebeslied (D.
Mellor), A, orch, 1974; Resonanzen, 8 orch groups, 1976; Isotrope (Gehlhaar),
mixed chorus, 1977; Lamina, trbn, orch, 1977; Tokamak, pf, orch, 1982
Chbr and solo inst: Cello Solo, vc, 1966; Klavierstück 1–1, 1967; Beckenstück, 6
amp cymbals, 1969; Klavierstück 2–2, 2 pf, 1970; Wege, 2 amp str, amp pf, 1971;
Musi-Ken, str qt, 1972; Spektra, 4 tpt, 4 trbn, 1971; Solipse, vc, tape delay, 1974;
Rondell, trbn, tape delay, 1975; Camera oscura, brass qnt, 1978; Linear A, mar,
1978; Polymorph, b cl, tape delay, 1978; Strangeness, Charm and Colour, pf, 3
brass, 1978; Pixels, 8 wind, 1981; Naïri, amp vn/va, 1983; Infra, 10 amp insts, 1985;
Origo, 5 amp insts, 1987; Suite for Pf, 1990; Chronik, 2 pf, 2 perc + elecs, 1991;
Grand Unified Theory of Everything, fl, b cl, pf, 1992; Angaghoutiun, pf qt, 1994;
Amor, fl, 1994; Quantum Leap, pf, 1994; 8 others incl. 2 pf pieces
El-ac: 5 German Dances, 4-track tape, 1975; Particles, chamber ens, elec, 1978;
Sub Rosa, 4-track tape, 1980; Worldline, 4 solo vv, elec, 1980; Pas à pas … Music
for Ears in Motion, 4 insts, elec, 1981; Sound=Space, 1985 [interactive musical
environment], Eichung-Singularity, 3 insts in a Sound=Space, 1987; Head Pieces, 2
heads in a Sound=Space, 1988 [written to be performable by 2 quadruplegics];
Diagonal Flying, pf, elecs, 1989; Strange Attractor, computer controlled pf, 1991;
Cusps, Swallowtails and Butterflies, amp perc, tape, 1 perf. in a Sound=Space,
1992
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Ritzel: ‘Musik für ein Haus’, Darmstädter Beiträge zur Neuen Musik, ed.
E. Thomas (Mainz, 1968)
C.-H. Bachmann: ‘Die gespielte Mitbestimmung: Komponierte “Orchester-
Werkstätten”’, SMz, cxviii (1978), 20–6
B. Schiffer: ‘Rolf Gehlhaar: Strangeness, Charm and Colour’, SMz, cxviii
(1978), 379–80
D. Bosseur and J.-Y. Bosseur: Revolutions musicales (Paris, 1979)
R. Gehlhaar: ‘Sound=Space: an Interactive Musical Environment’, CMR, vi
(1992), 59–72
STEPHEN MONTAGUE
Gehot, Joseph
(b Brussels, 8 April 1756; d USA, after 1795). Flemish violinist, composer
and teacher, active in England and the USA. At the age of 11 he was
presented to Prince Charles of Lorraine, then staying in Brussels. He was
entrusted to the care of Pierre van Maldere, whose early death did not,
however, interrupt his apprenticeship; he continued to be supported by
Charles of Lorraine until 1780. Gehot seems to have had the job of helping
to organize the soirées held at Mariemont, the governor's hunting lodge.
According to Fétis, he soon began doing concert tours in Germany and
France. The only evidence of his success is the interest taken by
publishers in his early works, some of which were printed by more than one
publisher. His early tours in England in 1780 were also successful. Gehot
seems to have benefited from the protection of the Duke of Pembroke, to
whom he dedicated the London edition of his early works. As his reputation
grew his works were published in Berlin, as well as London, and his
theoretical and practical treatises on the violin, harmony, counterpoint and
figured bass were also published.
Gehot played at the Professional Concert and taught the violin at the
Opera House, Hanover Square. In the summer of 1792, together with
James Hewitt, B. Bergman, William Young and Phillips, Gehot decided to
leave London for the United States. The arrival of these musicians caused
a great stir in New York, and Gehot scored a veritable triumph at an
opening concert on 21 September 1792 with his Overture in twelve
movements, expressive of a voyage from England to America (now lost),
evoking his ocean crossing. With some associates, Gehot launched into a
series of concerts but they proved a commercial failure. Taken on by
Alexander Reinagle and Thomas Wignell, Gehot left for Philadelphia. There
he became a first violinist at the New Theatre from its opening in 1793.
After that there is no trace of him and he died, according to John Parker, ‘in
obscurity and indigent circumstances’.
WORKS
vocal
Stage (all perf. London): 2 songs in Shield: The Cobbler of Castlebury (op), CG, 1779; The
Maid's Last Shift, or Any Rather than Fail (burletta), Royal Circus, 1787; The Enraged
Musician, Royal Grove, 1789; The Marriage by Stratagem, or The Musical Amateur,
Royal Grove, 1789; The Royal Naval Review at Plymouth, Royal Grove, 1789; She
Would Be a Soldier, Royal Grove, 1789Other vocal: The Reconsaliation (1v, pf)/fl/vn, in
Young's Vocal and Instrumental Musical Miscellany, i (Philadelphia, 1793)
instrumental
all printed works published in London
6 str qts, op.1 (1777); 6 Trios, vn, va, vc, op.2 (?1780); 6 Easy Duettos, vn, vc, op.3
(?1780); 24 Military Pieces, 2 cl, 2 hn, bn, op.4 (?1780); 6 Trios, 2 vn, vc, op.5
(1781); 6 Duettos, 2 vn, op.6 (n.d.); 6 str qts, op.7 (?1788); 6 Duetts, vn, vc, op.9 (?
1790); 6 Duetts, vn, tenor (?1790); 5 str qts, D-Mbs; Aria, with 30 variations, in A
Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Music (1784); others, lost, incl. Ov. in 12
movts., vn concs.
theoretical works
A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Music together with Scales of Every
Musical Instrument (London, 1784) [incl. aria with 30 variations, vn, bc]
The Art of Bowing the Violin (London, c1790)
Complete Instructions for Every Musical Instrument (London, c1790)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
J.R. Parker: ‘Musical Reminiscences: Gehot’, The Euterpeiad, ii (1821–2),
178
O.G.T. Sonneck: Early Concert-Life in America (1731–1800) (Leipzig,
1907/R)
M. Stockhem: ‘Joseph Gehot (1756–1820): un musicien et virtuose
bruxellois à l'époque de Mozart’, Bulletin de la société liégeoise de
musicologie, no.81 (1993), 11–18
PHILIPPE VENDRIX
Gehrmans.
Swedish firm of music publishers. Carl Gehrman founded the firm in
Stockholm in 1893; in 1930 it was sold to Einar Rosenborg, who made it a
joint-stock company with himself as main owner and managing director,
and in 1950 Inge and Einar Rosenborg’s Foundation for Swedish Music
took over ownership. Lennart Bagger-Sjöbäck was managing director from
1953 to 1975, when he was succeeded by Kettil Skarby. At first the firm
concentrated on popular music, although the standard repertory and
Swedish art music were also published. Under Rosenborg’s leadership the
firm’s activities expanded and a comprehensive catalogue of orchestral
music was initiated. With the acquisition of Hirsch’s Förlag (founded in
1837) in 1943 the art music catalogue was enlarged; it now includes four
series of choral music for various voice combinations, chamber and
instrumental music. The firm continues to publish popular music, and since
the 1950s educational music (e.g. tutors for the recorder, piano, violin,
trumpet, clarinet, flute and various ensembles, as well as booklets for
compulsory school music education) has been stressed. The main focus of
publication during the 1980s and 90s has been on church music, both
choral and organ works. Orchestral works, chamber music and solo pieces
by composers such as Wilhelm Stenhammar, Hugo Alfvén, Lars-Erik
Larsson and Daniel Börtz reflect different epochs of Swedish music
published by Gehrmans.
KETTIL SKARBY
Geib.
German family of organ builders, piano makers, instrument dealers and
music publishers. One branch of the family worked first in England and
later in the USA. Johann Georg Geib (i) (b Staudernheim an der Nahe, 9
Sept 1739; d Frankenthal, 16 April 1818) established his own business
around 1760 in St Johann, near Saarbrücken. In 1790 the business was
transferred to Frankenthal, and from about 1786 his son Johann Georg (ii)
worked in partnership with him. Geib’s work was typical of the Middle Rhine
school of organ building. Of the 16 instruments that can be attributed to
him only six survive: the best-preserved is in the Protestant parish church
in Lambrecht.
Johann Georg Geib (ii) (b Saarbrücken, 14 June 1772; d Frankenthal, 5
March 1849) ran the family business after his father’s death, first on his
own and then jointly with Josef Littig. Only about nine of his organs can be
traced; his work did not attain the same quality as his father’s, and the firm
ceased after his death.
Ludwig [Louis] Geib (b Piestorf, 7 Nov 1759; d Schiltigheim, nr Strasbourg,
26 Feb 1827), the nephew of Johann Georg Geib (i), worked in Montbéliard
in France and in Alsace. He is believed to have built about eight organs, as
well as some restorations.
John [Johann] Geib (b Staudernheim, 27 Feb 1744; d Newark, NJ, 30 Oct
1818), the brother of Johann Georg Geib (i), migrated to London, where he
claimed to be the first to make ‘organized pianos’. His factory finished eight
to ten pianos every week, and in all he made about 5400 pianos, as well as
church and chamber organs. He is known to have made pianos for the
dealers Longman and Broderip. A Geib case (housing a modern organ)
survives at St Mary’s, Stafford. In 1786 he patented a double action (patent
no. 1571) for the square piano (which in a modified form eventually
superseded the single action in England and is sometimes described as
the grasshopper action), with a buff stop along the treble to facilitate tuning
(see Pianoforte, §1, 4, esp. fig.11). His 1792 patent (no. 1866) enabled
players to combine two keyboard instruments by means of two-manual
mechanism. On 11 February 1792 he received British denizenship.
On 24 July 1797 Geib sailed with his wife and seven children to New York.
In the Argus: Greenleaf’s New Daily Advertiser for 27 December 1798 he
advertised an organ built for the German Lutheran Church in New York. In
this work he had been joined by his twin sons, John (1780–1821) and
Adam (1780–1849). By 1800 the firm was known as John Geib & Co., and
Geib became a leading figure in American organ building of this period. His
instruments could be found in New York, Providence, Rhode Island, Salem,
Massachusetts, Bethlehem, Pennsylvannia, and Baltimore. In the American
Spectator for 19 March 1800 the firm advertised their organ for Christ
Church, New York, and listed their instruments:
Church Organs, to any value above a thousand dols.;
Chamber Organs, also; Church and Chamber Organs, to play
with barrels and fingers, which will be very convenient and
can be used by persons who have no knowledge of music;
Organized Piano Fortes; Grand and Patent small Piano
Fortes; Common Action ditto [i.e. single action]; Pedal Harps,
etc.
From c1804 until c1814 the firm was known as John Geib & Son (this
probably refers to the elder of the twins, John Geib jr) and from 1814 their
activities included music publishing. The elder John Geib seems to have
retired by 1816, and there is no evidence of organ-building activity after this
time. Adam Geib joined his twin in the business: they had a piano
warehouse at 23 Maiden Lane, New York, where Adam also taught. In
1818, the year of their father’s death, a third brother, William (1793–1860),
joined the firm, which then became J.A. & W. Geib. Square pianos with this
inscription survive, as do instruments marked A. & W. Geib, presumably
dating from 1821, when John died. In 1828 William left the business to
study medicine, and Adam managed it alone until the following year, when
he formed a partnership with his son-in-law Daniel Walker. By this time the
firm’s activities were devoted largely to publishing, in which they shared
engraved plates with the Ditson firm in Boston. In 1843 Walker left the
company, and in 1844 Adam’s son, William, joined it. Adam retired in 1847.
Between 1849 and 1858 the firm’s affairs were increasingly supervised by
S.T. Gordon, of Hartford, but William Geib remained with the firm and is
listed as a piano and music dealer in New York directories until 1872.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ClinkscaleMP
Dichter-ShapiroSM
A.C. Gildersleeve: John Geib and his Seven Children (Far Rockaway, NY,
1945)
J.E. Mangler: ‘Some Letters from Mr. John Geib of New York’, The
Tracker, ii/2 (1957–8), 2ff
R. Wolfe: Secular Music in America, 1801–1825: a Bibliography (New York,
1964)
P. Meyer-Siat: ‘Louis Geib, facteur d’orgues’, Pays d’Alsace, lxv (1969),
17–21
O. Ochse: The History of the Organ in the United States (Bloomington, IN,
and London, 1975)
B.H. Bonkhoff: ‘Die Orgelbauerfamile Geib und ihr Werk’, Der Turmhahn,
i/2 (1977)
200 Jahre Geib-Orgel Lambrecht: Festschrift zur feierlichen
Wiederindienststellung der restaurierten historischen Geib-Orgel
(Lambrecht, 1977) [incl. articles by G. Kaleschke and H. Klotz]
J. Ogasapian: Organ Building in New York City 1700–1900 (Braintree, MA,
1977)
J. Ogasapian: ‘New Data on John Geib’, The Tracker, xxiii/4 (1979), 12–14
MARGARET CRANMER, BARBARA OWEN, W. THOMAS MARROCCO,
MARK JACOBS, G. KALESCHKE
Geige
(Ger.). Violin or ‘fiddle’.
In the Middle Ages the term Geige, used without qualification, might refer to
any bowed string instrument. By about 1500, and perhaps a decade or two
before, the term came to be associated with newly emerging types of
instruments. By the mid-16th century a distinction was made between the
grosse Geigen (viole da gamba, that is, the viol family), and the kleine
Geigen (viole da braccio, the violin family). In 1619, Praetorius used
Geigen to mean members of the violin family (he used Violen to mean
viols); he distinguished the violin as the treble member of the violin family
by the term Discant-Geig (‘treble violin’) – or, more exactly, by rechte
Discant-Geig (‘treble violin proper’). The latter term established the
meaning precisely in a terminology where Discant-Geig might refer not only
to the violin proper but also, used loosely, to a small ‘violin’ (kleine Discant-
Geig), tuned a 4th higher than the normal violin; it might even be used for a
still smaller ‘violin’ with three strings (rather than four), tuned g'-d''-a'' – that
is, an octave higher than the lower three strings of the regular violin.
According to Praetorius, the term Fiddel was used as the equivalent of
Geige among the ‘common people’.
DAVID D. BOYDEN
Geigen
(Ger.).
See under Organ stop.
Geigenharz
(Ger.).
See Rosin.
Geigenwerk.
Name (Geigenwerck) given by Hans Haiden to an instrument of his own
invention, probably the most successful and certainly the most influential of
all bowed keyboard instruments. Haiden produced a working example of
his instrument by 1575 and an improved version in 1599, for which he
received an imperial privilege in 1601. He described this version in a
pamphlet, Musicale instrumentum reformatum (Nuremberg, n.d., and 1610;
Lat. trans. 1605). His account in the latter was quoted in full by Praetorius
(1618), who also provided the only surviving picture of the instrument,
which resembled a rather bulky harpsichord (see illustration). At various
times Haiden used gut or wire strings, with parchment-covered wire strings
in the bass. The bowing action was provided by five parchment-covered
wheels against which the individual strings (one for each note) could be
drawn by the action of the keyboard. These wheels were turned by means
of a treadle. Haiden claimed that the instrument was capable of producing
all shades of loudness, of sustaining notes indefinitely, and of producing
vibrato. The principle of a string instrument bowed with a rosined wheel
and played with a keyboard is used in the hurdy-gurdy, known throughout
Europe since the 12th century. Diaries of Leonardo da Vinci show that he
also applied his ingenuity to producing various devices employing bowed
strings. Vincenzo Bolcione in Florence produced an instrument in 1608
which played a ‘consort of viols’ (Davari, 40); this was probably also a
Geigenwerk. An instrument made in Spain in the first half of the 17th
century, and apparently based on Haiden’s writings, is in the Instrument
Museum of the Brussels Conservatory. As late as the second decade of the
18th century, there was a Geigenwerk in the Medici Collection in Florence,
made by David Haiden, Hans’s son, and another at Dresden was examined
by J.G. Schröter. (see Haidenfamily, (2) and (4).) Several other inventors
also modelled bowed keyboard instruments on Haiden’s Geigenwerk (see
Sostenente piano, §1).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PraetoriusSM, ii, 67–72
PraetoriusTI, pl.iii
G. Kinsky: ‘Hans Haiden: der Erfinder der Nürnbergischen Geigenwerks’,
ZMw, vi (1923–4), 193–214
F.J. de Hen: ‘The Truchado Instrument: a Geigenwerk?’, Keyboard
Instruments, ed. E.M. Ripin (Edinburgh, 1971, 2/1977), 17–26
S. Davari: ‘Notizie di fabbricatori d’organi e d’altri instrumenti’, Atti e
Memorie [Accademia Virgiliana di Mantova] new ser., xliii (1975), 29–
47
S. Marcuse: A Survey of Musical Instruments (London, 1975), 308ff
E. Winternitz: Leonardo as a Musician (New Haven, CT, 1982)
C.W. Simons: The History of Mechanically Bowed Keyboard Instruments
With a Description of Extant Examples (diss., U. of Iowa, 1996)
Geiser, Walther
(b Zofingen, canton of Aargau, 16 May 1897; d Oberwil, nr Basle, 6 March
1993). Swiss composer, teacher and string player. He studied the violin
with Fritz Hirt and composition with Hermann Suter at the Basle
Conservatory. After brief periods of study with Arrigo Serato in Bologna and
Bram Eldering in Cologne, Geiser entered Busoni’s masterclass in
composition at the Akademie der Künste in Berlin (1922–3). In 1924 Geiser
was appointed to teach at the Basle Conservatory, where he initially taught
violin and ensemble playing and later composition and conducting until his
retirement in 1963. For several years he played viola with the Basle String
Orchestra and String Quartet and from 1955 to 1972 he was conductor of
the Basle Bach Choir. Geiser was also active as a committee member of
the Schweizerischer Tonkünstlerverein and as president of the Basle
branch of the ISCM. In 1962 he was awarded the composer’s prize of the
Schweizerischer Tonkünstlerverein.
Geiser’s music shows his indebtedness to both the literature and the poetry
of the German Romantic tradition and to the classicist teachings of his
mentor Busoni. Although influenced early on by the music of the late
Romantics (especially Mahler), he quickly took Busoni’s lessons to heart,
developing a passion for the music of Bach and Mozart which remained
undiminished throughout his life. He consequently turned in his own
compositions to traditional forms, Baroque elements such as fugue,
transparent chamber music textures, simplicity of means and tonal
harmony with modal inflections. His chamber works, in particular, develop a
classicist Heiterkeit that demonstrates Geiser’s allegiance to modernist
developments in composition between the two world wars. His entire
output, however, is marked by the composer’s profound ethical stance,
sense of responsibility as an artist and belief in classical values.
WORKS
(selective list)
orchestral
Concertino, op.2, fl, small orch, 1921, unpubd; Ouvertüre zu einem Lustspiel, op.5,
1922; Nocturne, op.12, 1927; Vn Conc., op.16, 1930; Divertimento, op.20, chbr
orch, 1933; Concertino, op.22, hn, chbr orch, 1934; Präambulum, op.25, 1938;
Konzertstück, op.30, org, chbr orch, 1941; Fantasie no.1, op.31, pf, str, timp, 1942;
Fantasie no.2, op.34, 1945; Vorspiel zu einer antiken Tragödie, op.35, 1947;
Fantasie no.3, op.39, str, 1949; Sym. no.1, op.44, 1953; Festliches Vorspiel, op.47,
1955; Conc. da camera, op.50, 2 vn, hpd, str, 1957; Intrada, op.52, brass, timp, str,
1959; Pf Conc., op.53, 1959; Fantasie no.4, op.57, fl, str, 1963; Sym. no.2, op.60,
1967
vocal
Das Hohe Lied Salomonis, op.7a, A, T, chbr orch, 1924, unpubd; Nachtgesang
(J.W. von Goethe), op.9, B, orch, 1925, unpubd; Symbolum (Goethe), op.14, male
chorus, chbr orch, 1929; Adventslied (Thauler), op.18, chorus, str, hp, 1931; Stabat
mater (J. de Benedetti), op.23, B, chorus, orch, org, ?1936; Chorphantasie (A.
Gryphius), op.24, male chorus, orch, org, 1938; ‘Siehe, es kommt die Zeit’ (cant.,
Bible), op.32, B, chorus, org, 1943; Der Einsiedler (J. Eichendorff), op.37/2, T, org,
1948; Inclyta Basilea (T. Meyer), op.40, solo vv, chorus, children’s chorus, orch,
1951; Hymnus (Bible), op.43, chorus, orch, org ad lib, 1953; TeD, op.54, 4 solo vv,
chorus, orch, org, 1960; choruses, songs
instrumental
Str Qt no.1, op.3, 1921, unpubd; Str Qt no.2, op.6, 1923; Str Trio, op.8, 1924;
Sonatine, op.33b, fl, 1944; Suite, op.41, pf, 1952; Metamorphosen, op.62, va/vn,
1979; inst sonatas, sonatinas, pieces for pf, org
MSS in CH-Bps
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (E. Mohl)
SML
P. Mieg: ‘Walther Geiser’, 40 Schweizer Komponisten der Gegenwart
(Amriswil,1956)
E. Mohr: ‘Das Werk Walther Geisers’, SMz, xcvii (1957), 174–7
‘Walther Geiser’, Schweizer Komponisten unserer Zeit (Zürich, 1993), 89–
90
T. Levitz: Teaching New Classicality: Ferruccio Busoni’s Master Class in
Composition (Berne, 1996)
K. Lessing: ‘Hommage à Walther Geiser: ein persönlisches
Erinnerungsblatt anlässlich seines 100. Geburtstag am 16. Mai 1997’,
Mitteilungen der Paul Sacher Stiftung, x (1997), 43–6
TAMARA LEVITZ
Geisler, Paul
(b Stolp [now Słupsk], Pomerania, 10 Aug 1856; d Posen [now Poznań], 3
April 1919). German conductor and composer. He studied with his
grandfather, conductor at Marienburg (now Malbork), and for a time with
Konstantin Decker. He was répétiteur at Leipzig (1881–2), then joined
Angelo Neumann’s travelling Wagner company (1882–3), before becoming
Kapellmeister in Bremen under Anton Seidl (1883–5). He later also worked
in Leipzig and Berlin, finally moving to Posen, where he founded a
conservatory and conducted symphony and choral concerts. He was made
royal Kapellmeister in 1902. Once popular and respected as representative
of the New German School, Geisler’s music was overshadowed by that of
the leading members of the movement and after his death soon fell into
neglect. His works include seven operas, Ingeborg (1884, Bremen), Die
Ritter von Marienburg (1891, Hamburg), Hertha (1891, Hamburg), Palm
(1893, Lübeck), Wir siegen (1898, Berlin), Prinzessin Ilse (1898, Posen)
and Warum? (1899, Berlin), and a ‘dramatic episode with music’,
Wikingertod. He also wrote symphonies, symphonic poems (Der
Rattenfänger von Hameln, performed with success at Magdeburg in 1880,
Till Eulenspiegel, Heinrich von Ofterdingen), cantatas (Golgatha, Sansara),
songs, and piano music (including Réminiscences de l’opéra
‘Tannhäuser’). (A. Huch: ‘Paul Geisler’, NZM, Jg.83 (1916), 276–7)
EDWIN EVANS/JOHN WARRACK
Geissler, Benedict
(fl 1741–59). German composer. Nothing is known of his life except that he
was an Augustinian monk, possibly at the monastery of Trieffenstein, to
whose abbot his offertories of 1743 are dedicated.
Geissler’s surviving publications show him to have been one of the more
versatile composers publishing church music in the 1740s and 50s. By
1740 the simple, tuneful church style suitable for ordinary choirs, which had
been popularized by composers such as Rathgeber, was beginning to
develop in two directions. Some composers were writing more elaborate
music for better equipped town churches, while others were simplifying the
style even further for less well equipped village choirs. Geissler was one of
the few who managed to use both styles reasonably successfully.
His masses of op.2 are large-scale pieces, typical of the way the former
style was developing. The alternation of solo and tutti voices in the same
movement, which had been characteristic of the Bavarian church style, had
disappeared. The Gloria and Credo are subdivided into several
movements, some of which are long and difficult arias, often with elaborate
written-out organ accompaniments; much of the choral writing is
contrapuntal. The offertory motets which Geissler published in 1743 show a
command of both styles. Some are recitatives and arias, with merely a
short concluding alla breve tutti, but in others the choral writing is more
interesting and the solos are shorter and simpler. He was at his best,
however, when being most straightforward, in the masses of op.5. These
are ‘rural’ pieces for very small choirs, in which only the soprano, alto, first
violin and organ are essential, the other parts being optional. The long
sections are through-composed, there are no elaborate solos, and Geissler
displays a melodic gift not shown in his more ambitious works.
WORKS
all published in Augsburg
ELIZABETH ROCHE
Geissler, Fritz
(b Wurzen, Saxony, 16 Sept 1921; d Bad Saarow, 11 Jan 1984). German
composer. After playing in dance bands as a young man, he studied at
Musikhochschulen in Leipzig (1948–50) and Berlin-Charlottenburg (1951–
3). During 1950–51 he played the viola in the Gotha State SO. He went on
to teach at Leipzig University, the Musikhochschule Carl Maria von Weber,
Dresden (1969–75) and the Leipzig Musikhochschule (from 1974). His
numerous awards included the National Prize of the DDR (1970) and
membership in the DDR Akademie der Künste (1972).
The most complex and important works in Geissler’s substantial output are
his symphonies, particularly the third (1965–6) and fifth (1968–9). In these
the metamorphosis of a single, central theme effects a dramatic
developmental process, in which it is combined with moments of lively,
ironic, lyrical and virtuoso music. Elsewhere he made use of dodecaphony,
tone clusters, Klangflächen and noise. His advocation of such
compositional materials during the 1960s and 70s led many in the DDR to
consider him a member of the avant garde. His return to tonality in the
Ninth Symphony (1979) provoked astonishment and controversy. One of
his most successful works is the chamber opera Der zerbrochene Krug
(1968–9).
WORKS
(selective list)
stage
Pigment (ballet), 1960, orch suite, 1960; Ein Sommernachtstraum (ballet, after W.
Shakespeare), 1964–5; Der zerbrochene Krug (komische Oper, after H. von
Kleist), 1968–9; Der verrückte Jourdin (op, after M.A. Bulgakow), 1971; Der
Schatten (op, after J. Schwarz), 1973–4; Die Stadtpfeifer (Spieloper), 1976–8;
Das Chagrinleder (op, after H. de Balzac), 1977–8; incid music
instrumental
Syms.: Chbr Sym. no.1, 1954; no.1, 1960–61, rev. as Sinfonische Suite, 1964–5;
no.2, 1962–4; no.3, 1965–6; no.4, str, 1967; no.5, 1968–9; Chbr Sym. no.2, 1970;
no.6 ‘Konzertante Sinfonie’, wind qnt, str, 1971; no.7, 1972; no.8 ‘Chorsinfonie’ (J.R.
Becher), 1973–4; no.9, 1974–8; no.10, 1978; no.11, A, orch, 1982
Other orch: Conc., cl, chbr orch, 1954; Italienische Lustspielouvertüre, 1956 [after
Rossini]; November 1918, 3 sym. movts, 1958; Chbr Conc., fl, str, hpd, 1966;
Essay, 1967; Pf Conc., 1969–70; 2 sinfonische Szenen, 1970; Conc. for Orch, 1972
Chbr and solo: Str Qt no.1, 1952; Ode an eine Nachtigall, wind qnt, str qt, 1966;
Sonata, pf, 1968; Sonata, va, pf, 1969; Pf Trio, 1970; Sonata no.2, pf, 1971; Wind
Qnt, 1971; Nonet, wind qnt, vn, va, vc, db, 1972; Str Qt no.2, 1972; Sonata, vn, pf,
1975; Cl Qnt ‘Frühlingsquintett’, 1976
vocal
Choral: Gesang vom Menschen (orat, Kuba), S, Bar, mixed chorus, orch, 1968;
Schöpfer Mensch (orat, G. Deicke), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1970–71; Die Flamme
von Mansfeld (orat, Deicke), A, Bar, chorus, orch, 1978
Other vocal: Odi et amo (G.V. Catullus), Bar, pf, 1971–2; Saarower Lieder (J.R.
Becher, Preissler), Mez, str trio, 1982
Principal publishers: Breitkopf & Härtel, Peters, Deutscher Verlag, Verlag Neue Musik, Friedrich
Hofmeister
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Schneider: ‘Werkeinführungen zur 5. Sinfonie und dem Klavierkonzert
von Fritz Geissler’, Momentaufnahme: Notate zu Musik und Musikern
der DDR (Leipzig, 1979)
E. Kneipel: Fritz Geissler: Ziele, Wege (Berlin, 1987)
FRANK GEISSLER
Geisslerlieder
(Ger.: ‘flagellant songs’).
The name given to a group of sacred songs sung by the flagellants (It.
flagellanti, disciplinati) of the 13th and 14th centuries during their
pilgrimages and acts of penance.
Geisslerlieder are in the vernacular and belong equally to the tradition of
the Italian laude of the late Middle Ages, and to that of the German pilgrim's
song, the one-line invocation and multi-line hymn to a saint. Whereas most
of the rest of the popular sacred songs of the Middle Ages are lost because
those capable of writing them down did not consider them worth saving for
posterity, some at least of the songs of the German flagellants were
preserved because the spectacular events connected with them led
several contemporary chroniclers to record them. These events arose in
Italy in the middle of the 13th century from the desperate situation in the
political, social and moral spheres. Faced with the absence of any power to
deal with public suffering or the permanent warfare in town and country
(e.g. between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines), hermits and travelling
preachers called the world to contemplation and to atonement through
penance, so that the individual might be the source of improvement. The
movement started in Umbria in 1258; with ‘pax et misericordia’ as their
watchword, organizations of lay brothers (for example, the Disciplinati di
Gesù Cristo in Perugia) were formed to perform communal public acts of
penance lasting 33 ½ days in memory of Christ's suffering for the sake of
the world, and to spread the movement by making pilgrimages which
excited the attention of the masses. At the beginning ‘nobiles et
mercatores’ as well as ‘rustici’ took part, but as the movement spread
further (as far as Poland in 1261) it was increasingly the lower social
classes that were involved, although no unified sects were formed, nor was
there any overt agitation for social revolution. The personal act of penance,
religious in motivation and defined in terms of the Last Judgment, remained
at the heart of the manifestations. Every act was subject to a strict ritual
and performed in penitential garments, under vows of silence and directed
by a ‘magister’, ‘minister’ or ‘meister’. In Italy ‘laudes divinas et incondita
carmina’ (Bologna, 1260) and ‘hymnos in latina vel vulgari lingua’ were
sung during these acts, but instrumental music and ‘amatorie cantilene’
were forbidden. The flagellants adopted some of the singing practices of
the Laudesi fraternities and enriched the liturgy peculiar to those groups
with more sophisticated sacred songs. One of these laude, Chi volo de
mondo desprezzare, has survived with its melody from the 13th century;
otherwise the musical settings of these ‘canti’ or ‘buozlieder’ from the first
eruption of that lay mass movement are lost.
It was the second wave in 1349, spreading over wide areas of Europe like
a natural catastrophe in its effect on the entire population, that shocked the
priests into noting down the flagellants' penitential songs, linked with
events caused by plague and other sufferings, as documents worthy of
recording. An immense outbreak, aggravated by the fear that the Last
Judgment was imminent, spread on this occasion across the Low
Countries as far as Britain and Scandinavia. Large and small processions
of penitents formed, chose leaders, confessed their sins and, while singing,
with due ritual ‘beat themselves most energetically’ (Bohemia, 1349). ‘Cum
canto devoto dulcique melodia’ they went from place to place with their
message, the singing of the Leisen being led by two or three singers (see
Leise).
The Leisen can be divided into two groups, the songs sung while the
flagellants were in procession or on pilgrimage, and those sung during the
penances. Some were notated in neumes in the Chronicon Hugonis
sacerdotis de Rutelinga (1349; RF-SPsc O XIV, 6), a work in hexameters
rediscovered in 1880. Hugo Spechtshart of Reutlingen was a Swabian
priest and teacher, an exceptionally skilled musician and an acutely
observant spectator of the processions. His claim to a place in the history
of folksong collecting in Germany is that as a conscientious chronicler he
was the first to take pains to notate exactly what he heard. He was also the
first to notate the variants from strophe to strophe usual in living folksong,
so that his record of what was actually sung in the 14th century has a
unique documentary value. As he watched the processions, led by banners
and crosses, Hugo heard the cantica Nu ist diu betfart so here (ex.1),
Maria muoter reiniu meit and Maria unser vrouwe. These are old pilgrims'
songs, known over a wide area; they survived in the folksong of some
Catholic regions until the 17th century. They are characterized by
invocations to the Virgin and remembrances of Christ’s sufferings, which
are linked together by internal and final refrains to form stanzas, like a
song.
Such formulae – invocations and recurrent rhyme patterns – are among the
traditional components of European folksong that emerge from
comparative melodic study of processional and dance-songs, and of songs
connected with particular customs collected over a wide area. Like the old
pilgrims' songs these too were in general metrically extendable, as the lead
singers were allowed latitude to introduce variations within a well-known
framework; the recurring refrains sung by the crowd were confined to
simple formulae, which seem to have been the nuclei from which longer
epic invocations and strophic songs of petition developed in the Middle
Ages.
During the flagellation rituals performed in circles outside churches, songs
made up on the journeys of flagellation (‘in den geiselnfarten’) were also
sung. The principal song is believed to have been the eight-part ‘cancio’ Nu
tret her zů der büssen welle, in which the singing was led by the best
singers. During the singing the flagellants walked round and round, flung
themselves on the ground, knelt down with raised hands and bemoaned
the evil of the world. Parts of this ritual survived in the popular memory
after the flagellant processions of 1349 had ceased, and became the object
of mockery. In Switzerland in 1350, for instance, people are supposed to
have danced to a song of which the original words were:
Der unserr bůzze welle pflegen,
Der sol gelten und wider geben.
Er biht und lass die sunde varn,
So wil sich got ubr in erbarn.
(‘Let him who wants to join our penance pay and give again, let him
confess and renounce sin, then God will have mercy on him’), substituting
the following text:
Der unser Buss well pflegen
Der soll Ross und Rinder nehmen,
Gäns und feiste Swin!
Damit so gelten wir den Win.
(‘Let him who wants to join our penance take horse and cattle, geese and
fat swine! That's how we shall pay for the wine’). In the Middle Ages the
fear of death is often juxtaposed with the lighthearted joy of existence in
this manner.
The Geisslerlieder are medieval religious folksongs, of which the texts
express the particularly urgent needs of the flagellants within a strophic
framework characteristic of the genre as a whole, while the melodies are
typical of songs of pilgrimage and petition, which probably formed part of
the general repertory of religious songs in the 14th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2(J. Janota)
E.G. Förstemann: Die christlichen Geisslergesellschaften (Halle, 1828)
K. Lechner: ‘Die grosse Geisselfahrt des Jahres 1349’, Historisches Jb
der Görresgesellschaft, v (1884), 437–62
P. Runge, ed.: Die Lieder und Melodien der Geissler des Jahres 1349
nach der Aufzeichnung Hugo's von Reutlingen (Leipzig, 1900/R)
A. Hübner: Die deutschen Geisslerlieder (Berlin, 1931)
J. Müller-Blattau: ‘Die deutschen Geisslerlieder’, ZMw, xvii (1935), 6–18
W. Salmen: ‘Gesang der Geissler in Westfalen’, Westfalenspiegel, xi
(1956), 5
W. Wiora: ‘The Origins of German Spiritual Folk Song’, EthM, viii (1964),
1–13
N. Ruwet: ‘Méthodes d'analyse en musicologie’, RBM, xx (1966), 65–90;
Eng. trans. in MAn, vi (1987), 3–36
C. Petzsch: ‘Nachrichten aus Städtechroniken (Fortsetzung) and
Weiteres’, Historische Volksmusikforschung: Seggau 1977, 119–36
F. Graus: Pest, Geissler, Judenmorde das 14. Jahrhundert als Krisenzeit
(Göttingen, 1987)
W. Salmen: Tanz und Tanzer im Mittelalter und in der Renaissance
(Hildesheim, 1999)
WALTER SALMEN
Geist, Christian
(b Güstrow, ?1650; d Copenhagen, 27 Sept 1711). German composer and
organist, active in Scandinavia. He probably received his early musical
education from his father, Joachim Geist, Kantor at the cathedral school in
Güstrow. In 1665–66 and 1668–69 he was salaried as Kapellknabe at the
court of Duke Gustav Adolph of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, which means that
he can hardly have been born c1640 as has previously been assumed.
From later spring 1669 he first worked temporarily as a bass singer at the
Danish court in Copenhagen and then, in June 1670, took a permanent
position in Stockholm as a musician at the Swedish court under Gustaf
Düben (i). He remained there until June 1679, when he was appointed
organist at the German church in Göteborg. Unhappy with the conditions
there he moved to Copenhagen in November 1684. There he succeeded
J.M. Radeck as organist at the Helligaandskirke and at the Trinitatis Kirke,
securing both positions by marrying Radeck’s widow Magdalena Sibylla on
1 May 1685. He retained the first of these posts until his death but gave up
the second after a few years. From 1689 he was also organist of the
Holmens Kirke in succession to Johann Lorentz. He died of the plague
along with his third wife and his children.
Virtually all of Geist’s surviving works with Latin texts were composed
during his years in Stockholm. Most are sacred works intended for court
services, but there are some larger works written for royal ceremonies (e.g.
Quis hostis in coelis and Domine in virtute, for the king’s accession to the
throne in 1672). Geist’s Latin works, in the autographs consistently
designated motetto, are clearly related to contemporary Italian concerted
motets. Most of them are in distinct sections, alternating in scoring and
texture, including vocal solos in arioso or aria style. Geist’s expressive
harmonic and melodic style and simple, flowing counterpoint is typically
Italian, whereas the occasionally extravagant violin and viol parts bear
witness to his German heritage. Geist’s Latin pieces are closely related to
the music of the Dresden Italians Peranda and Vincenzo Albrici, as well as
to the vocal works of Kaspar Förster and Buxtehude. Six of the seven
works with German texts stem from Geist’s time in Göteborg. In contrast to
the Latin works, they belong to typically German Protestant genres, with
three chorale settings, three elaborate sacred arias and one concerto with
aria (Die mit Tränen säen).
WORKS
all in S-Uu unless otherwise stated
Edition: C. Geist: 15 Ausgewählte Kirchenkonzerte, ed. B. Lundgren, EDM, 1st ser., xlviii
(1960) [L]
sacred vocal
Adiuro vos, o filiae Jerusalem, SSSB, 2 vn, bc; Alleluia, absorpta est mors, SSB, 2
vn, bc, L; Alleluia, de funere ad vitam, A, vn, bc, L; Alleluia, surrexit pastor bonus,
SSTTB, 2 vn, bc; Alleluia, virgo Deum genuit, SSB, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Altitudo, quid hic
jaces, SSB, 2 vn, bc, L; Beati omnes qui timent, B, 2 vn, bc, L
Die mit Tränen säen, SSATB, 3 viols, bc, L; Dieses ist der Tag der Wonne, SAB, 2
vn, bc; Dixit Dominus, SATB, 2 vn, bc, L; Domine in virtute tua laetabitur Rex,
SSATB, 2 tpt, 2 vn, 2 va, b viol, bc; Domine ne secundum, SATB, 2 vn, vle, bc, L;
Domine, qui das salutem regibus (i), SSATB, 2 vn, va, b viol, bc; Domine, qui das
salutem regibus (ii), SSTTB, 2 tpt, 2 vn, 2 va, vle, bc; Domine, qui das salutem
regibus (iii), SSATB, 2 vn, va, vle, bc
Emendemus in melius, SATB, 2 vn, bc; Es war aber an der Stäte, Mez/T/B, 2 viols,
bc, L; Exaudi Deus orationem meam, SSATB, 2 tpt, 3 vn, vle, bc; Festiva laeta,
SSB, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Haec est dies quam fecit Dominus, SSB, 2 vn, theorbo, bc; In
te Domine speravi (i), SSB, 2 vn, b viol, bc; In te Domine speravi (ii), SATB, 2 vn, b
viol, bc; Invocavit me, SSTB, 2 vn, b viol, theorbo, vle, bc; Jesu delitium vultus,
SATB, 2 vn, bc, D-F, S-Uu
Laetemur in Christo redemptore, S/T, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Laudate pueri Dominum, SSB,
2 vn, bc; Laudet Deum mea gloria, SSB, 2 vn, b viol, bc, ed. B. Lundgren
(Stockholm, 1953); Media vita in morte sumus, SSB, 2 vn, va, vle, bc; O admirabile
commersium, SB, 2 vn, bc; O coeli sapientia, SSB, bc; O immensa bonitas, SSB, 2
vn, b viol, bc; O Jesu amantissime, SST, 2 vn, bc; O Jesu dulcis dilectio, SST, 2 vn,
b viol, bc; O iucunda dies, SSB, 2 vn, theorbo, bc; O piissime Jesu, SATB, 2 vn, b
viol, bc; Orietur sicut sol salvator mundi, SB, 2 vn, bc, L
Pastores dicie, STTB, 2 vn, bc, L; Quam pulchra es, SB, 2 vn, bc, L; Qui habitat in
adiutorio, SATB, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Quis hostis in coelis, SSATB, 2 tpt, 2 vn, 2 va, bc;
Resonet in laudibus, SSB, 2 vn, bc, ed. B. Grunswick (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1977);
Resurrexi et adhuc tecum sum, S, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Skapa i mig Gud ett rent hjärta,
SSB, 2 vn, b viol, bc, L; Schöpfe Hoffnung, meine Seele, SSATB, 2 vn, bc, L; Se
huru gott och lustigt är det, B, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Selig, ja selig, wer willig erträget,
SSTB, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Se univit Deus coeno, SSB, 2 vn, bc; Surrexit pastor bonus,
SB, 2 vn, bc
Tristis anima, SATB, 2 vn, bc, D-Bsb; Vater unser, S, 2 vn, bc, L; Veni salus
pauperum, SS, 2 vn, bc; Veni Sancte Spiritus, et emitte, SS, 2 vn, b viol, bc; Veni
Sancte Spiritus, reple, SSB, 2 vn, bc; Verbum caro factum est, SS, 2 vn, b viol (ad
lib), bc, ed. J. Foss (Copenhagen, 1948); Vide pater mi (i), SST, 2 vn, bc, D-Bsb, S-
Uu; Vide pater mi (ii), S, 2 vn, bc [version of the former]; Wie schön leuchtet der
Morgenstern, S, 2 vn, bc, L
secular vocal
Io, musae, nova sol rutilat, SSAB, 2 vn, 2 va, b viol, bc
Zitto hoggi Faune, SSTB, 2 vn, bc
organ
Allenaste Gud i himmelrik; Lovad vare du, Jesu Krist; O Jesu Krist, som mandom
tog: all doubtful, ed. B. Lundgren, Tre koralförspel (Stockholm, 1943)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MatthesonGEP
A. Pirro: Dietrich Buxtehude (Paris, 1913/R), 107ff
T. Norlind: Från tyska kyrkans glansdagar [From the Golden Age of the
German Church], iii (Stockholm, 1945), 144ff
B. Lundgren: ‘Helligåndsorganisten Christian Geist’, Dansk kirkesangs
årsskrift 1958–9
B. Lundgren: Introduction to C. Geist: Kirchenkonzerte, EDM, xlviii (1960)
M. Geck: Review of EDM, xlviii, Mf, xvi (1963), 305–6
B. Grusnick: ‘Die Dübensammlung: ein Versuch ihrer chronologischen
Ordnung’, STMf, xlvi (1964), 27–83; xlviii (1966), 63–186
F. Krummacher: Die Choralbearbeitung in der protestantischen
Figuralmusik zwischen Praetorius und Bach (Kassel, 1978), 149ff
K. Krummacher: ‘Die geistliche Aria in Norddeutschland und
Skandinavien: ein gattungsgeschichtlicher Versuch’, Weltliches und
geistliches Lied der Barock, ed. D. Lohmeier (Amsterdam, 1979), 229–
64
G. Webber: North German Church Music in the Age of Buxtehude (Oxford,
1996)
L. Berglund: The Vocal Music of Christian Geist (diss., U. of Uppsala,
forthcoming)
KERALA J. SNYDER/LARS BERGLUND
Geistliches Konzert
(Ger.: ‘sacred concerto’).
A term used principally in 17th-century Germany for a sacred vocal work,
usually in several sections, setting a biblical text.
Gelbrun, Artur
(b Warsaw, 11 July 1913; d Tel-Aviv, 23 Dec 1985). Israeli composer and
conductor of Polish origin. He graduated with honours in the violin (1935)
and conducting (1936) at the Warsaw State Conservatory. Conducting
studies continued at the Accademia S Cecilia (with Molinari) and the
Accademia Musicale Chigiana, Siena (with Casella); later in Switzerland he
studied conducting with Scherchen and composition with Burkhard.
Gelbrun played the violin and the viola with the Warsaw PO (1935–7), for
Radio Lausanne (1941–4) and with the Zürich Tonhalle Orchestra (1944–
8). After emigrating to Israel in 1949 he devoted his time to conducting and
composition. He was permanent guest conductor with the Israel RSO
(1949–53), chief conductor of the Israel Youth Orchestra (1950–56) and
chief conductor of the Inter-Kibbutz SO (1950–55); he was then made
professor of composition and conducting at the Academy of Music of the
University of Tel-Aviv.
Gelbrun’s early output is essentially post-Romantic in style; of his
instrumental pieces, his Violin Sonatina (1944) was influenced by
Honegger, and the String Trio (1945) by Ravel, while his vocal music
contains settings of, among others, Eluard and García Lorca. His Lieder
der Mädchen (1945), to poetry by Rilke, was given its première in 1947 by
the soprano Hilde Richlik and the Vienna SO with Gelbrun conducting.
From 1957 on, he adopted, at times, the use of 12-note technique, for
example in the Five Caprices (1958), Four Preludes (1959), Three Prayers
(1959), and in the development sections of Symphony no.2 (1961). He also
employed aleatory techniques in the Concerto-Fantasia (1963), and
unmetred structures in the oratorio The Scroll of Fire (1964) and Symphony
no.3 (1973). Of his some 50 Israeli works, 11 are vocal pieces which set
biblical texts or Hebrew poetry and are nationalist in sentiment. Other
source materials include a Mixolydian ancient hymn in the Woodwind
Quintet (1971), a Yemenite folk theme in the Concertino for chamber
orchestra (1974) and canticles from Lamentations in the Adagio for string
orchestra (1974). Among the awards made to him was the Israeli
Broadcasting Prize (1973).
WORKS
(selective list)
Ballet: Miadoux, 1967–8; Prologue pour Decameron, 1968; King Solomon and the
Hopooes, 1976; Hedva, 1951
Orch: Suite, 1947; Preludio, passacaglia e fuga, 1954; Variations, pf, orch, 1955;
Prologue symphonique, 1956; Sym., 1957–8, 5 Caprices, 1958; Sym., 1961; Vc
Conc., 1962; 4 Pieces, str, 1963; Concerto-Fantasia, fl, hp, str orch, 1963; Piccolo
divertimento, str, 1963; Sym. no.3: Jubilee, 1973; Adagio, str, 1974; 6 Bagatelles,
str, 1974; Concertino, chbr orch, 1974; Hommage à Rodin, 1979–81; Conc., ob, str
orch, 1985
Vocal: Lieder der Mädchen (R.M. Rilke), v, orch, 1945; 10 esquisses (Chin. poems),
nar, fl, hp, 1946; Une longue réflexion amoureuse (P. Eluard), T, pf, 1947; Halleluja
(Bible: Psalm 117), SATB, 1951; 2 Night Songs (L. Goldberg), Mez, pf, 1951;
Lament for the Victims of the Warsaw Ghetto (Y. Katzenelson), B, SATB, orch,
1954; 3 Prayers, v, pf, 1959; Songs of the Jordan River (Goldberg), S, orch, 1959;
The Scroll of Fire (orat, ps 13), S, A, T, B, SATB, orch, 1964; Salmo e alleluyah, S,
chbr orch, 1968; Holocaust and Revival (cant. Biblical and Liturgical texts, M.
Jatzrun, I.M. Lask and others), nar, SATB, orch, 1977–8; 3 Songs on My Wife’s
Poems, v, pf, 1983; Blessed Is … (H. Szenes, Psalms 86:16 [Askrei]), S, str qt,
1985
Chbr: Sonatina, 2 vn, 1944; Str Trio, 1945; Str Qt, 1969; Ww Qnt, 1971; Brass Trio,
hn, tpt, trbn, 1972; Introduction and Rhapsody, hp, 1973; Pf Trio, vn/cl, vc, pf, 1977,
rev. 1985; Aria e 3 frammenti, ob/fl, hp, 1982–3; Easy Variations, 2 rec, 1983;
Picture of Faith, 2 pf, 1983; Septet, fl, cl, hp, str qt, 1984
Solo inst: 6 Encores, pf, 1943–52; Sonatina, pf, 1945; Sonatina, vn, 1957; 4
Preludes, pf, 1959; 5 Pieces, vc, 1962; 5 Messages, pf, 1965; Miniatures, bn, 1969;
Partita, cl, 1969; Intrada and Passacaglia, org, 1982; Variations faciles, pf, 1982
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Y. Cohen: Neimej smiroth Israel [The Heirs of the Psalmist: Israel’s New
Music] (Tel-Aviv, 1990)
A. Tischler: A Descriptive Bibliography of Art Music by Israeli Composers
(Warren, MI, 1988)
YOHANAN BOEHM/NATHAN MISHORI
Gelineau, Joseph
(b Champs-sur-Layon, Maine et Loire, 31 Oct 1920). French Jesuit
liturgical scholar and composer. He studied music at the Ecole César
Franck in Paris and theology at Lyon-Fourvière. A member of the Society of
Jesus since 1941, he was ordained in 1951 and has been active in
liturgical development, both before and after the Second Vatican Council,
producing a number of influential books and articles and a stream of
liturgical compositions. In Paris he worked with the Centre de Pastorale
Liturgique and was professor in liturgical and pastoral music at the Institut
Catholique. He co-founded the international church music research group
Universa Laus.
At the time of the Second Vatican Council (1962–5) there existed within the
Roman Catholic Church two musical camps, one concerned with the
‘pastoral’ aspect of liturgical music and the participation of the people, the
other focussed on the ‘sacred’ dimension of traditional chant and
polyphony and the idea of ‘music-as-art’. Gelineau’s writings from this
period influenced the pastoral group. From his knowledge of liturgical
history and a comparative study of non-Western rites, he argued for a
radical review of the place of music in the reformed Catholic liturgy. In
Chant et musique dans le culte chrétien (1962) he reappropriated the idea
of liturgical ‘art’ music for the purposes of the pastoral camp by speaking of
‘functional art’, suggesting that the value of liturgical music be judged
according to the capacity of such music to fulfil a ritual function. This
function, he contended, should determine musical form: for example, when
the priest represents God to the people and they respond, the result is
dialogue. Thus, if everyone is to participate, only simple, monodic songs,
with clear, rational meaning, can be considered strictly liturgical: ‘art for
art’s sake’, the esoteric (including wordless ‘jubilus’, with its sometimes
unchristian, even ‘magical’ resonances) and styles with ‘profane’
associations are inappropriate within a liturgical context.
Gelineau concluded that the song forms traditionally regarded by the
Church as ideally suited to the liturgy had in fact become adulterated over
the centuries and that it was necessary to ‘restore’ their original function as
popular chants. He wished, for example, to reintroduce the people’s
response in the graduals of the Mass. Restricted by the ornate style of
Gregorian melodies, however, he developed his own form of responsorial
psalmody for the French language that recaptures the poetic structure and
imagery of the original Hebrew. This system, with its melodically simple
tones designed to express the asymmetrical three- or four-line text
structure, has come to be known as ‘Gelineau psalmody’; widely adapted
for use in other languages (in English as The Psalms: a New Translation,
London, 1963), it has also been much imitated. In present-day celebrations
of the Mass the traditional graduals are usually replaced by a responsorial
psalm.
Although the ‘pastoral’ argument was not accepted in toto by the Second
Vatican Council, its main principles were overwhelmingly adopted in
practice. In Gelineau’s later writings, therefore, especially Demain la
liturgie: essai sur l’évolution des assemblées chrétiennes (1975), a different
emphasis is evident. He argued that since the Church’s traditional song
had been swept away after the Council, new forms must be created, but he
recognized that the nature of those forms could be determined only when
the Christian Assembly itself had stabilized after a period of flux. From this
it may appear that Gelineau was no longer seeking to ‘restore’ song forms
that had been ‘altered’ in the Middle Ages. However, in ‘Liturgical Music:
France and Beyond’ (1985) he was to question the use of ‘everyday’ music
in worship, and the tendency of each culture to ‘homogenize’ the rich
variety of song forms, which resulted, for example, in a preponderance of
responsorial singing in Africa and the use of strophic forms in Europe. He
has also expressed regret for such trends as the preference for hymns
rather than a restoration of the singing of scriptural and liturgical texts, and
the modern division between singing and speaking (see Demain la liturgie)
that has led to the abandonment of the cantillation of scripture readings
and prayers (a matter to which he had earlier devoted considerable
attention; see especially Chant et musique dans le culte chrétien).
Gelineau’s historical theories have found general acceptance among
pastoral theologians, but the response of music historians has been mixed.
Hucke (1980), following Gelineau, has emphasized the discontinuity of
form between early eucharistic psalmody and ‘Gregorian’ graduals. Jeffery
(1992), on the other hand, has rejected the premise that a division exists
between ‘sacred’ and ‘pastoral’ music: he regards as anachronistic
Gelineau’s application of the label ‘artistic’ to ‘Gregorian’ chant (and draws
attention to the links between the chant and ‘folk’ song); he questions
whether responsorial psalmody was in fact the norm in the early Church,
whether early singing was necessarily simpler in style than later singing,
and whether each chant genre (e.g. introit) was of congregational origin; he
is thus sceptical of the view that later chant necessarily represents a radical
break from earlier chant.
As a composer, Gelineau is particularly known for his output of psalms and
hymns, including Psaumes (1953–5, from the Jerusalem Bible) for unison
voices and chorus, the well-known Vingt-quatre psaumes et un cantique
(1953) and Cinquante-trois psaumes et quatre cantiques (1954), Psaumes
à quatre voix mixtes I et II (1958), Refrains psalmiques (1963), Dix hymnes
du matin et du soir (1968) and Huit cantiques du Nouveau Testament
(1970). He has also written a setting for soloists and four-part choir of the
Cantique des cantiques (1995), a number of masses, including the Latin
Messe responsoriale (1953) for choir and congregation and the Festival
Mass (1974), a liturgy of the Dead, Qu’ils reposent (1984–7), for four-part
choir and orchestra (1984–7), as well as music in French Mass and Office
books (Missel noté, 1988; Le chant des Heures, 1977–97).
WRITINGS
Chant et musique dans le culte chrétien (Paris, 1962; Eng. trans., 1964, as
Voices and Instruments in Christian Worship)
‘Deuxième Concile du Vatican: la constitution sur la liturgie: commentaire
complet, vi: La musique sacrée’, La Maison-Dieu, lxxvii (1964), 193–
210
‘Programme musical d’une pastorale liturgique’, ‘Les chants
processionaux: recherches sur leur structure liturgique’, Musique
sacrée et langues modernes: deux colloques internationaux: Cresuz
and Wolfsburg 1963 (Paris, 1964), 17–38, 105–18
‘The Rôle of Sacred Music’, The Church and the Liturgy, ed. J. Wagner
(Glen Rock, NJ, 1965), 59–65
Psalmodier en français: méthode complète de psalmodie (Paris, 1969)
Dans vos assemblées: sens et pratique de la célébration liturgique (Paris,
1971)
Demain la liturgie: essai sur l’évolution des assemblées chrétiennes (Paris,
1975)
‘Music and Singing in the Liturgy’, The Study of Liturgy, ed. C. Jones and
others (Oxford, 1978, 2/1992), 440–64
‘Liturgical Music: France and Beyond’, Pastoral Music, ix/4 (1985), 23–9
‘When Dealing with Symbols, Nothing is Ever Automatic’, Pastoral Music,
x/4 (1986), 37–41
‘Cries of Supplication, Cries of Joy’, Pastoral Music, xiv/1 (1989), 40–43
‘The Path of Music’, Music and the Experience of God, ed. M. Collins, D.
Power and M. Burnim (Edinburgh, 1989)
‘Cantillation: Prayer is More Important than Song’, Pastoral Music, xv/3
(1991), 38–41
‘Les divers lieux de la célébration’, La Maison-Dieu, cxlii/4 (1992), 35–43
‘For Clergy and Musicians: Text Revision: the Missal of Paul VI: Valuable,
Durable, Questionable’, Pastoral Music, xvii/1 (1992), 14–17
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Hucke: ‘Le problème de la musique religieuse’, La Maison-Dieu, cviii/4
(1974), 7–20
H. Hucke: ‘Towards a New Historical View of Gregorian Chant’, JAMS,
xxxiii (1980), 437–67
P. Jeffery: ‘Chant East and West: toward a Renewal of the Tradition’,
Music and the Experience of God, ed. M. Collins, D. Power and M.
Burnim (Edinburgh, 1989), 20–29
P. Jeffery: Re-Envisioning Past Musical Cultures: Ethnomusicology in the
Study of Gregorian Chant (Chicago and London, 1992), 78–84, 113–
14
PETER WILTON
variations
solo piano; thematic catalogue of 120 sets of variations in Proier
[10] on Là ci darem la mano (Mozart: Don Giovanni) (1791); [6] on Seid uns zum
zweitenmal willkommen; [8] on Wie stark ist nicht dein Zauberton, [6] on Ein
Mädchen oder Weibchen (Mozart: Die Zauberflöte (1792–3); [6] on Nel cor più non
mi sento (Paisiello: La molinara) (1796); Andante avec variations (1799); [6] on
march (Mozart: Die Zauberflöte) (Offenbach, 1805)
[6] on Ein Mädel und ein Glasel Wein (Müller: Die Schwestern von Prag) (c1810);
[4] on Ah, perdona (Mozart: La clemenza di Tito) (1810); [8] on pas de deux (Haibel:
Le nozze disturbate) (1811); on 2nd movt (Beethoven: Sym. no.7) (1816); on waltz,
[6] on hunters’ chorus (Weber: Der Freischütz) (1822); [1] on Diabelli’s waltz (1824)
other works
Orch: 2 hpd concs., CZ-KRa
Over 30 chbr works, incl.: Sonata, hpd/pf (1795); Sonatina, leicht und angenehm,
pf, no.2 (1795); Trio, hpd/pf, vn, vc, op.10 (1798), ed. in MVH, vi (1962); Sonate
facile, hpd/pf, vn, op.11 (1798); Grand trio, hpd/pf, vn, vc, op.21 (1802); Sonata, pf,
vn, vc (1805); Sonata, pf, fl/vn (1810); Rondo, pf (c1810); Rondo, avec la pédale
nommée la musique turque, pf, no.3 (1812); Rondo, czakan, pf (c1813–14); Rondo
ou Polonoise favorite, pf (c1813–14); Concertante variations, pf, fl/vn (1815); over
30 dances, hpd/pf/(vn, bass); marches, pf; variations, fl solo
Over 40 pf arrs. of works by Beethoven, Giuliani, Hänsel, Haydn, Mayseder, Mozart,
Romberg, Viotti etc.
Vocal (1v, pf): Hymne guter Bürger (1799); In questa tomba oscura, arietta (1808); Il
passeggio (canzonetta), La partenza, in XXXIV canzonette o romanzi (?c1808–15);
1 song in 6 deutsche Gedichte (1815); other songs in collections
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ČSHS
DlabačzKL
GerberNL
MGG1 (K.M. Komma and F. Vernillat)
J.F. von Schöfeld, ed.: Jb der Tonkunst von Wien und Prag (Vienna,
1796/R), 18, 82, 117
J. Čeleda: ‘Mozartovec J. Jelínek’ [The Mozartian Josef Gelinek],
Bertramka, ii/2 (1950), 5
P. Nettl: Forgotten Musicians (New York, 1951/R), 272ff
C. Czerny: Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben (MS, 1842, A-Wgm); Eng.
trans., MQ, xlii (1956), 302–17; ed. W. Kolneder (Strasbourg 1968)
G. Proier: Abbé J. Gelinek als Variationenkomponist (diss., U. of Vienna,
1962) [incl. thematic catalogue of variations]
F. Eibner: ‘Die authentische Klavierfassung von Haydns Variationen über
“Gott erhalte”’, Haydn Yearbook 1970, 281–306
MILAN POŠTOLKA
Gelmetti, Gianluigi
(b Rome, 11 Sept 1945). Italian conductor. His first studies were at the
Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome, from which he received a diploma in
conducting in 1965. Gelmetti also worked with Franco Ferrara (1962–7)
and Celibidache, and with Hans Swarowsky in Vienna. In 1980 he was
appointed music director at Milan's Orchestra dei Pomeriggi Musicale, and
from this period his national reputation developed. It led to his appointment
(1982–4) as music director for RAI in Rome, and as music director at the
Rome Opera (1984–5). Gelmetti took up the post of principal guest
conductor at the Stuttgart RSO in 1987, and was its principal conductor
from 1989 to 1995. In 1990 he also assumed the conductorship of the
Monte Carlo PO, and held the post for two seasons. Since 1992 he has
appeared as a guest conductor at La Scala, La Fenice and other leading
European houses, at numerous festivals and with the Berlin PO, Munich
PO and Dresden PO, among other orchestras. Gelmetti has developed a
reputation as an accomplished Rossinian, as recordings of Il barbiere di
Siviglia and La gazza ladra confirm, and in recent years has been closely
associated with Siena's Accademia Musicale Chigiana.
CHARLES BARBER
GEMA.
Gesellschaft für Musikalische Aufführungs- und Mechanische
Vervielfältigungsrechte. See Copyright(§VI, under Germany).
Gemblaco, Johannes Franchois
de.
See Franchois de Gemblaco, Johannes.
Gemell.
See Gymel.
sonatas
op.
— [6] Concerti grossi … della prima parte dell'op.5 d'Arcangelo Corelli (D, B , C, F,
g, A), 2 vn, va, vc; 2 vn, bc (1726) [arrs. of Corelli's op.5 nos. 1–6]
— [6] Concerti grossi … della seconda parte del op.5 d'Arcangelo Corelli (d, e, A,
F, E, d), 2 vn, va, vc; 2 vn, bc (1729) [arrs. of Corelli's op.5 nos. 7–12]
2 [6] Concerti grossi (c, c, d, D, d, A), 2 vn, va, vc; 2 vn, bc (1732; rev. edn in
score, c1755); ed. H.J. Moser, Musik-Kränzlein (Leipzig, n.d.)
3 [6] Concerti grossi (D, g, e, d, B , e), 2vn, va, vc; 2 vn, bc (1732; rev. edn in
score, c1755); ed. R. Hernried (Zürich, 1935)
— [6] Concerti grossi … del op.3. d'Arcangelo Corelli (F, B , b, f, a, G), 2 vn, va,
vc; 2vn, bc (1735); ed. M. Lütolf (Laaber, 1987) [arrs. of Corelli's op.3 nos. 1, 3,
4, 9, 10, and op.1 no.9]
— [6] Concerti grossi … dalle sonate … dell'op.4 (D, B, e, a, A, c), 2 vn, va, vc; 2
vn, bc (1743) [arrs. of Geminiani's op.4 nos.1, 11, 2, 5, 7, 9]
7 [6] Concerti grossi (D, d, C, d, c, B ), 2 fl, bn, 2 vn, va, vc; 2 vn, va, bc (1746)
— The Inchanted Forrest, 2 fl, 2 hn, tpt, 2 vn, 2 va, vc; 2 vn, bc (c1756); ed. E.
Careri (Lucca, 1996); as La selva incantata, GB-Lcm*
— Two Concertos (D, G), 2 vn, va, vc, bc (c1761)
miscellaneous
— Pièces de clavecin tirées
des differens ouvrages de
Mr F. Geminiani adaptées
par luy même, hpd
(1743/R) [mostly arrs. from
opp.1, 4]
— The Harmonical Miscellany,
i (1758) [periodical
containing 14 pieces ‘in the
Tone Minor’, 4 insts, basso
ostinato]; ii (1758)
[containing 16 pieces ‘in
the Tone Major’, 4 insts,
basso ostinato]
— The Second Collection of
Pieces … Taken from
Different Works of F.
Geminiani, and adapted by
himself, hpd (1762/R) [arrs.
from opp.1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and
treatises for vn and gui]
Corelli's op.5 no.9, vn, bc, ‘grac'd’ by Geminiani, in
HawkinsH, 904–7
Nella stagione appunto, cant., S, bc, I-Bc
Several minuets, with and without variations [probably
incl. the ‘favorite’ minuet from op.2 no.1] pubd singly;
numerous pieces pubd in 18th-century anthologies
[complete list in Careri, 1993]
treatises
op.
Gemmel.
See Gymel.
Gemshorn
(Ger., from Gemse: ‘chamois’).
A medieval folk ocarina made originally from the horn of the chamois,
though later from that of any convenient animal (it is classified as an
Aerophone: Duct flute). Gemshorns were depicted by Virdung (1511) and
Dürer (in a prayer book for Maximilian I, 1515) but seem not to appear
thereafter, save in texts deriving from Virdung. From about 1450, organ
builders imitated its characteristic ocarina-like quality with the short, wide-
scale stop which bears its name; Schlick regarded it as the third most
important rank of any organ (see Organ stop).
The gemshorn is blown from the wider end of the horn, which is blocked
with a plug of wood or other material, leaving a duct to lead the air to the
mouth; the point of the horn is left intact. Virdung shows three finger-holes
and a thumb-hole which, if correctly sized, would allow a range of about an
octave; as with any other ocarina the pitch produced depends on the total
area of the open holes. Thus holes of different diameter can be used in
different combinations. The only known surviving gemshorn, in the
Musikinstrumenten-Museum des Staatlichen Instituts für Musikforschung,
Berlin, has six finger-holes and no thumb-hole (see illustration).
The gemshorn has been revived by the early music movement, initially by
Horace Fitzpatrick, and is now available in a family of sizes, from descant
to bass, usually of cowhorn, and with a fingering which, for the
convenience of players, has been brought close to that of the tin whistle,
though the range is still limited to about an octave. The attractive tone
quality and ease of fingering has given it a spurious popularity, far greater
than it seems to have had in the 15th and 16th centuries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Schlick: Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten (Speyer, 1511/R); ed.
E. Flade (Mainz, 1932); Eng. trans. in Bibliotheca organologica, cxiii
(Buren, 1980)
S. Virdung: Musica getutscht (Basel, 1511/R; Eng. trans., 1993)
C. Sachs: ‘Das Gemshorn’, ZMw, i (1918–19), 153–6
H. Fitzpatrick: ‘The Gemshorn: a Reconstruction’, PRMA, xcix (1972–3),
1–14
JEREMY MONTAGU
Gena, Peter
(b Buffalo, NY, 27 April 1947). American composer and pianist. He studied
composition with Feldman and Lejaren Hiller at SUNY, Buffalo (BA 1969,
MA 1972, PhD 1976). His activities as a composer, teacher, performer and
concert organizer have centred on Chicago since 1976; he has taught at
Northwestern University (1976–83, 1992–6) and in 1982 joined the staff at
the school of the Art Institute of Chicago. His position as a composer at a
visual arts school speaks of his long-held interest in cross-disciplinary
studies. His compositions reflect also his study of literature and biological
phenomena. As a concert organizer he was the motivating force behind the
celebrated 1982 New Music America Festival in Chicago. Gena worked
with John Cage and has written several monographs on the composer.
Gena’s own music tends more towards the repetitive, minimalist style of his
contemporaries, as in Beethoven in SoHo (1980), a quasi-satirical piece in
which two pianists overlap and dovetail fragments from a Beethoven
sonata. Although much of Gena’s music is composed using computers or
digital synthesizers, it is marked by melodic and lyrical concerns. In later
works, and in collaboration with a geneticist, he has developed musical
interpretations of DNA sequences; For Yvar Mikhashoff (1995), in
particular, is based on digitally synthesized DNA sequences of the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus. As a pianist Gena has performed the works of
Cage, Cardew, Julius Eastman and Don Pullen.
WORKS
Scenes from Paterson, nar, pf, tape, 1969; Homage to G.K. Zipf, 8 insts, elecs,
1971; Aleutian Lullabies, chorus, org, 1972; EGERYA, cptr, 1972; Schoenberg in
Italy, S, nar, pf, hpd, 1973; Modular Fantasies, 8 insts, 1974; Modular Fantasies II,
orch, tape, 1974–5; Unchained Melodies, pf, cptr, 1974, rev. 1981; Logos I, elecs,
1975; Stabiles, after Calder, pf, 1977; Valse, pf, 1977; Stabiles, first Clone, 10 insts,
cptr, 1978; Skylab, 3 pf, perc, vn, 2 fl, 1979; S-13, S-14, fl + pic, fl, 2 cl, elec db, 2
hp, pf, 1979; Beethoven in SoHo, 2 pf, elec db, 1980; 100 Fingers, 3 pf, amp cel, 20
hands, 1980; Before Venice, pf, 1982, rev. cptr, 1984; McKinley, vn, pf, perc, 1983;
Mother Jones, S, pf, 1985; John Henry, pf, 1986; For Morton Feldman, pf, 1988;
Elegy for Morton Feldman, pf, 1989; Hoketus, cptr, 1989; Interlude for 2 People,
cptr, 1990; Markoff in: Milwaukee, cptr, 1991; Markoff in: Brazil, cptr, 1992; Markoff
in: Darmstadt, cptr, 1992; Joe Hill Fantasy, Bar, didjeridu, wind insts, Brazilian
rainstick, pf, cptr, 1992–3; Beta Globin, cptr, 1994; Botulism, cptr, 1994; Botulism,
cptr, 1995; For Yvar Mikhashoff, cptr, 1995; Red Blood Cells, cptr, 1995–6; Liver
Proteins, cptr, 1996; Collagen and Bass Clarinet, b cl, cptr, 1997
INGRAM D. MARSHALL
Gencebay, Orhan
(b Samsun, Aug 1944). Turkish popular musician. Gencebay is widely
credited as the inventor of arabesk, a popular genre which has dominated
the Turkish recording industry since the mid-1970s and which has been
widely condemned by the Turkish nationalist intelligentsia (see Turkey, §V,
3). As a child, he received an early training in the religious repertory and
Western art music from his family circle. He studied the reformed rural
music genre at local music societies, played guitar in a rock band while at
lycée and learnt the popular dance band hits of the day as a saxophonist
during military service at an officers' club in Istanbul. In 1967 he was
recruited to the Istanbul radio station but resigned a year later to continue
his work in the popular market as a singer and film star, in 1973 managing
his own recording company, Kervan. His early work, characterized by his
first Columbia recording of 1968, Bir teselli ver (‘Console Me’), was an
eclectic mix of Western rock, Turkish art and folk music and Egyptian
popular dance styles, initially much inspired by his mentor, Ahmet Sezgin.
The lyrics of the songs are typical of the arabesk repertory as a whole,
dealing with the fated love of the virtuous poor man. While his songs follow
the broad outlines of urban art music şarkı form (see Turkey, §IV, 4),
Gencebay composes at the bağlama (the rural long-necked plucked lute)
and combines modal structures in ways which are incompatible with art
music theory, but demonstrate considerable wit and sophistication. (M.
Özbek, Popüler kültür ve Orhan Gencebay arabeski, Istanbul, 1991,
2/1994)
MARTIN STOKES
Gendang.
(1) A generic Indonesian and Malaysian term for any double-headed laced
drum, cylindrical or conical. Other cognate terms are gandang (in the
Dayak areas of Kalimantan and in west and north coastal Sumatra), gimar
(among the Tanjung Benua people of east Kalimantan), gondang, gordang,
gonrang and genderang (Batak languages), geundrang (Acehnese),
ganrang (Makassarese and Buginese) and gandar (Flores).
(2) Term used in Sumatra and Malaysia for various instrumental pieces in
which the gendang (1) is prominent and hence for the ensembles that play
them.
Gender (i).
The cultural, social and/or historical interpretation of the biological and
physiological category of sex. Nearly every experience of music, including
its creation, performance and perception, may incorporate assumptions
about gender; and music itself can produce ideologies of gender.
Uncovering the workings of gender in even the most ‘absolute’ musical
contexts has thus emerged as a basic task of the critical exploration of
music.
Gender, like sex, is often taken to be a category ruled by and reducible to a
simple binary division, the ‘man’ and ‘woman’ of sex translating into the
‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ of gender. But recent thinking, supported by the
systems of gender used in different times and cultures, has called this
foundational dimorphism into question. This suggests, to critics of
ideological aspects of contemporary systems of gender, historical and
cross-cultural models that undermine the perceived constraints on identity
implicit in modern categories of masculine and feminine.
Scholars have also challenged the chain of reasoning that might lead to the
supposition that biological categories of sex ‘translate’ into cultural
categories of gender. This goes beyond the commonsensical observation
that men and women may in equal measure embrace ‘feminine’ and
‘masculine’ habits. Critics increasingly doubt that the meanings of gender
derive from any kind of core premises, claiming instead that gender
signifies in culture by means of ‘performative’ (Judith Butler) or
‘representational’ (Teresa de Lauretis) practices that produce gendered
identities by means of their persistent repetition. This does not render it any
less real or concrete than if the term were grounded in an essential, fixed
definition; instead, a performative or representational model draws
attention to gender as a learnt phenomenon. This model begins to account
for why concepts of gender alter over time and take on different shapes in
diverse cultural contexts.
Gender is a relational phenomenon. For any historical moment, the terms
within a system of gender are measured against one another in various,
sometimes contradictory ways, allowing the analysis of both individual and
larger cultural patterns of validation, marginalization and rejection. Certain
trends recur, in particular the repeated devaluation, across a wide range of
time and societies, of cultural productions and utterances understood to be
‘feminine’. Although this has normally led to the devaluation of the work of
women, it would be an oversimplification to collapse ‘feminine’ into the
category of ‘woman’, for men too have had their expressions labelled
‘feminine’. Indeed, from as far back as the time of Plato and Aristotle, the
entire category of ‘music’, gauged against such domains as science and
the military, has commonly been viewed as a feminine realm of human
activity. Critics, particularly feminist critics, have studied the hierarchical
implications of gender, not only to expose accounts of exclusion on a
gendered basis but also to discover where individuals have escaped the
control of the dominant, usually patriarchal tradition.
Exploring concerns related to gender permits fresh critical perspectives on
music, ones that complement traditional formal, source-critical, historical
and biographical approaches, even as they may partake of and even
reinforce these traditional modes of enquiry. Early investigation into the
effects of gender in music resulted mostly from the efforts of feminist
scholars engaged in the study of the lives and works of marginalized
women composers from past eras. Uncovering forgotten biographical
narratives and compelling compositions have led critics to reflect on the
societal constraints that originally obscured these particular composers and
their works. From such reflections followed inquiries into the gendered
nature of musical education, the various obstacles, including parental,
institutional and financial, that until well into the 20th century have hindered
the access of women to the kinds of educational resources routinely
granted men and into the roles of gender in both the constitution of core
musical repertories and in the conceptions of musical talent and creativity.
What has more substantively transformed thinking about music are studies
in which the sounds themselves – considered both from the perspectives of
the composer who creates them and the listener or performer who
interprets them – have come under scrutiny from the standpoint of gender.
Most such inquiries broach the topic of gender through some kind of
semantic content attached to or construed in the musical work. The words
of texted works provide the most obvious source because they may
introduce ideas about gender that the critic or historian may ‘read back’ into
the music. Not surprisingly, then, most critical enquiry into gender in music
focusses on texted repertories, especially opera and song from the 17th
century to the present, with a smaller but important corpus of work on
earlier texted repertories. A signal achievement of gender criticism in music
is the demonstration that the music of such works as Schumann's
Frauenliebe und -leben or Bizet's Carmen, both as crafted by their
composers and sung and played by their performers, contributes with
complexity and force to the signification of gender in culture writ large.
For instrumental music, the search for semantic content can be more
difficult. Many critics turn to passages where commentators have invoked
gendered language of some kind, and then extrapolate these gendered
terms on to an analysis of the formal and technical structure of particular
works. For example, several theorists, from the 19th century onwards, have
described the relationship between first and second subject material in
sonata forms in terms that invoke gender (A.B. Marx and Vincent d'Indy
portrayed a contrast of ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ thematic character;
Schoenberg construed the tonic key of the first theme as a ‘patriarchal
ruler’). Judging such formulations to reflect generally upon beliefs held
during the eras from which they emerged, critics have used them to inform
otherwise traditional formal analyses that then reveal dialectics of gender
at work in particular symphonic movement by such composers as
Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms and Tchaikovsky. When such approaches
take care to ground the extrapolation of gender on to the formal constructs
in solid networks of historical context, they can shed significant light on the
way that ‘pure’ sound can become gendered. The danger remains,
however, that filtering gender through the formalistic vocabularies of
modern musical analysis could perpetuate anachronistic interpretations for
eras in which concerns with form remained secondary to other kinds of
musical engagement.
Recognizing this risk, some critics prefer to seek gendered meanings in
instrumental music by plumbing musical categories that in the past held a
broader currency in society at large. Important insights have followed from
investigating such notions as ‘character’ (the later Enlightenment notion
that music could encompass human characteristics) and genre (when
properly construed as a communicative rather than classificatory
phenomenon), musical categories defined by a convergence of musical
and social thought. The study of genre, a notion with broad chronological
relevance, can be particularly profitable to students of gender. Evidence of
its value has begun to emerge from research on instrumental music from
the first half of the 19th century. Learning, for example, that the audience
for the nocturne was understood to be primarily female may help explain
the kinds of decision composers made when writing such works: when
Chopin chose to include sharply contrasting, agitated middle sections in
some of his nocturnes, he may have wished to distance the genre from the
exclusively feminine sphere. It may also help account for listeners'
reactions when hearing nocturnes: its construal as ‘feminine’ contributed to
the aesthetic devaluation of the genre in the 19th century. Similar kinds of
evidence help identify a range of possible associations with gender in this
period. Hence the battle piece has been upheld as an epitome of
‘masculine’ music, the symphony as an amalgamation of feminine and
masculine, and ‘fairy music’ as an evocation of gender ambiguity.
The idea that discourse about music might contain clues about gendered
meanings also resonates for present-day musical cultures. Celebrations of
and conflicts about gender permeate all manner of musics, from the
popular (Madonna) to the symphonic (the reluctance of some orchestras to
admit women members); scholarship on these contemporary composers,
performers and institutions tends to follow the parameters outlined above
for music and musicians of the past. Investigations that interrogate the
gendered natures of some of the scholarly disciplines devoted to music
offer a somewhat different view of contemporary engagements with gender
and music. The study of music theory, for example, has been criticized for
the ‘masculine’ orientation of its scholarly discourse, the tendency to prefer
a scientific tone of objectivity over one that explores the passionately
experiential nature of music. Conversely, and with a less confrontational
goal, ethnomusicologists have been likened to feminine midwives, figures
who bring traditions and beliefs from the periphery of awareness to the
centre of attention. While both kinds of study derive to some extent from
the demographics of the respective professions (more men than women
are music theorists, more women than men are ethnomusicologists), both
properly separate the purported gendering of discourse from the sexes of
actual writers. In effect, such investigations return to a basic set of
concerns: how music and discourse on music signify gender, even when
the ostensible subject may cloak its relationship to the topic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
general
T. de Lauretis: Technologies of Gender (Bloomington, IN, 1987)
J.W. Scott: ‘Gender: a Useful Category of Historical Analysis’, Gender and
the Politics of History (New York, 1988), 28–50
C. Battersby: Gender and Genius: Towards a Feminist Aesthetics
(Bloomington, IN, 1989)
D. Fuss: Essentially Speaking: Feminism, Nature, and Difference (New
York and London, 1989)
J. Butler: Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New
York and London, 1990)
R. Trumbach: ‘London's Sapphists: from Three Sexes to Four Genders in
the Making of Modern Culture’, Body Guards: the Cultural Politics of
Gender Ambiguity, ed. J. Epstein and K. Straub (New York and
London, 1991), 112–41
D. Summers: ‘Form and Gender’, New Literary History, xxiv (1993), 243–
71
M. Jehlen: ‘Gender’, Critical Terms for Literary Study, ed. F. Lentricchia
and T. Mclaughlin (Chicago and London, 1995), 263–73
E. Carter: ‘Gender’, A Dictionary of Cultural and Critical Theory, ed. M.
Payne (Oxford, 1996), 217–18
music
E. Rieger: Frau, Musik und Männerherrschaft (Frankfurt, 1981)
N.B. Reich: Clara Schumann: the Artist and the Woman (Ithaca, NY, 1985)
C.E. Robertson: ‘Power and Gender in the Musical Experiences of
Women’, Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. E.
Koskoff (New York, 1987), 225–45
L. Kramer: ‘Liszt, Goethe, and the Discourse of Gender’, Music as Cultural
Practice, 1800–1900 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1990), 102–34
P. Higgins: ‘Parisian Nobles, a Scottish Princess, and the Woman's Voice
in Late Medieval Song’, EMH, x (1991), 145–200
F. Hoffmann: Instrument und Körper: die musizierende Frau in der
bürgerlichen Kultur (Frankfurt, 1991)
S. McClary: Feminine Endings: Music, Gender and Sexuality (Minneapolis,
1991)
S. McClary: Georges Bizet: ‘Carmen’ (Cambridge, 1992)
R.A. Solie: ‘Whose Life? the Gendered Self in Schumann's Frauenliebe
Songs’, Music and Text: Critical Inquiries, ed. S.P. Scher (Cambridge,
1992), 219–40
L.P. Austern: ‘“Alluring the Auditorie to Effeminacie”: Music and the Idea of
the Feminine in Early Modern England’, ML, lxxiv (1993), 343–54
M. Citron: Gender and the Musical Canon (Cambridge, 1993)
S.G. Cusick: ‘Gendering Modern Music: Thoughts on the Monteverdi–
Artusi Controversy’, JAMS, xlvi (1993), 1–25
K. Marshall, ed.: Rediscovering the Muses: Women's Musical Traditions
(Boston, 1993)
F.E. Maus: ‘Masculine Discourse in Music Theory’, PNM, xxxi/2 (1993),
264–93
R.A. Solie, ed.: Musicology and Difference: Gender and Sexuality in Music
Scholarship (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1993) [incl. C.E. Robertson:
‘The Ethnomusicologist as Midwife’, 107–24]
P. Brett: ‘Musicality, Essentialism, and the Closet’, Queering the Pitch: the
New Gay and Lesbian Musicology, ed. P. Brett, E. Wood and G.C.
Thomas (New York and London, 1994), 9–26
S.C. Cook and J.S. Tsou, eds.: Cecilia Reclaimed: Feminist Perspectives
on Gender and Music (Urbana, IL, 1994)
S.G. Cusick: ‘Gender and the Cultural Work of a Classical Music
Performance’, Repercussions, iii (1994), 77–110
L.C. Dunn and N.A. Jones, eds.: Embodied Voices: Representing Female
Vocality in Western Culture (Cambridge, 1994)
M.A. Guck: ‘A Woman's (Theoretical) Work’, PNM, xxxii/1 (1994), 28–43
J. Hepokoski: ‘Masculine-Feminine’, MT, cxxxv (1994), 494–9
S. McClary: ‘Of Patriarchs … and Matriarchs, too’, MT, cxxxv (1994), 364–
9
T. McGeary: ‘Gendering Opera: Italian Opera as the Feminine Other in
Britain, 1700–42’, JMR, xiv (1994), 17–34
C.E. Blackmer and P.J. Smith, eds.: En Travesti: Women, Gender,
Subversion, Opera (New York, 1995)
M. Head: ‘“Like Beauty Spots on the Face of a Man”: Gender in 18th-
Century North-German Discourse on Genre’, JM, xiii (1995), 143–67
L. Kramer: ‘The Lied as Cultural Practice: Tutelage, Gender, and Desire in
Mendelssohn's Goethe Songs’, Classical Music and Postmodern
Knowledge (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1995), 143–73
E. Rieger: ‘“Gender Studies” und Musikwissenschaft – ein
Forschungsbericht’, Mf, xlviii (1995), 235–50
J. Kallberg: ‘The Harmony of the Tea Table: Gender and Ideology in the
Piano Nocturne’, Chopin at the Boundaries: Sex, History, and Musical
Genre (Cambridge, MA, 1996), 30–61
R.P. Locke and C. Barr, eds.: Cultivating Music in America: Women
Patrons and Activists since 1860 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1997)
I. Monson: ‘Music and the Anthropology of Gender and Cultural Identity’,
Women and Music: a Journal of Gender and Culture, i (1997), 24–32
L.P. Austern: ‘Nature, Culture, Myth, and the Musician in Early Modern
England’, JAMS, li (1998), 1–47
S.G. Cusick: ‘Gender, Musicology and Feminism’, Rethinking Music, ed. N.
Cook and M. Everist (Oxford, 1999), 471–98
JEFFREY KALLBERG
Gender (ii).
Multi-octave Metallophone of Java and Bali. In the Central Javanese
gamelan it usually has 12 to 14 bevel-edged keys suspended over
individual tube resonators and is played with two padded disc-shaped
mallets, using an elaborate damping technique. In a complete gamelan
there are three gendèr barung (lower-pitched gendèr, approximately 105
cm long) and three gendèr panerus (higher-pitched, approximately 90 cm
long), one of each type for the slèndro tuning and two of each type for the
pélog tuning (one for the pélog sub-scale bem, featuring pitches 12356,
and the other for barang, featuring pitches 72356). (For further information
on Central Javanese performing practice, see Indonesia, §III and Mode,
§V, 4(ii)).
Balinese gender are metallophones with bevel-edged, bronze keys
suspended over tuned, bamboo resonators and played with two disc-
headed mallets. The damping technique required is technically demanding
since the sound must be stopped by the same hands that are striking the
keys. Tuned to pentatonic slendro, a pair or quartet of ten-key gender
wayang (the second pair tuned one octave higher and doubling the lower
pair) accompany wayang kulit (shadow puppet theatre) and ceremonies for
tooth-filing and cremation. Compositions are mostly contrapuntal and
intricate, with stratified textures and rapid tempos typical of larger
ensembles. Balinese musicians consider this to be one of the most difficult
instruments to master. In slow pieces both hands play in parallel octaves or
empat (the interval spanning four keys, approximately a 5th) with delicate
grace notes and rubato. This latter technique is typical of gender in the
larger gamelan palegongan, where a pair or quartet of 13-key gender
rambat, tuned to a pentatonic pelog-derived tuning, play a leading melodic
role.
In a more general sense, gender denotes a metallophone family of the
same construction common to many ensembles (e.g. gamelan semar
pagulingan, gong kebyar). These instruments vary in size and register from
the large jegogan through jublag, penyacah, ugal, and gangsa pemade to
the highest gangsa kantilan, with a single or double-octave range. They are
struck with a single mallet (panggul) held in the right hand and damped
with the left-hand thumb and forefinger. All gender exist in pairs (see
Indonesia, §II, 1(ii)(c)).
MARGARET J. KARTOMI/LISA GOLD
Gendron, Maurice
(b Nice, 26 Dec 1920; d Grez-sur-Loing, Seine-et-Marne, 20 Aug 1990).
French cellist and conductor. He entered the Nice Conservatoire when he
was 12, and went to Paris five years later, where he studied with Gérard
Hekking at the Conservatoire and was awarded a premier prix. His
international career began in the postwar period with a London visit in
1945, when he gave the first performance in western Europe of Prokofiev’s
Cello Concerto op.58 with the LPO, and two recitals with Britten as the
pianist.
Gendron later appeared on several occasions with Britten at the Aldeburgh
Festival, and with Menuhin at the Bath Festival; together with Yehudi and
Hephzibah Menuhin he formed a distinguished trio that toured widely. He
taught at the Menuhin School in England and in 1954 initiated a
masterclass at the Hochschule für Musik in Saarbrücken. From 1970 to
1987 he was a professor at the Paris Conservatoire. Gendron also
developed a secondary career as a conductor, working particularly with the
Saar Chamber Orchestra and the Bournemouth Sinfonietta. He continued
to enjoy wide renown as a cellist, both as a soloist of elegant style whose
playing was full of life and resonance, and as a responsive partner in
chamber ensembles. In 1975 his career was interrupted by a car accident,
but he successfully resumed playing in 1984. He played a Stradivari cello,
and his outstanding recordings include the Bach suites, concertos by
Haydn and Boccherini (directed by Casals) and 20th-century French music.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Wilson: ‘Cellist as Conductor’, Records and Recording, xiv/4 (1970–71),
33
N. Goodwin: Obituary, The Independent (22 Aug 1990)
NOËL GOODWIN
all stage works, in order of first performance; for more detailed list and for list of librettos
see GroveO
Polyphem [Ein Abenteuer auf Martinique] (komische Oper), 1856; Der Geiger aus
Tirol (komische Oper), 1857; Der Liebesring (romantische Oper), 1860; Ein
Trauerspiel (Operette), 1860; Ein Narrentraum (Karnevalsposse), 1861; Der
Musikfeind (Operette), 1862; Der Generalprobe (Operette), 1862; Die Herren von
der Livree (Posse),1862; Die Talismänner (Karnevalsposse), 1863; Rosita
(romantische komische Oper), 1864; Der Zopfabschneider (Operette), 1866; Der
schwarze Prinz (komische Oper), 1866; Am Runenstein (romantische Oper), 1868,
collab. F.A.F. Flotow; Schwefeles, der Höllenagent (Operette), 1869; Der
Hexensabbath (Int), 1870; Cleopatra [Drei Jahrtausende] (Burleske), 1875;
Luftschlösser (Posse), 1876; Fliegende Blätter (Quodlibet), 1876
Der Seekadett (komische Operette), 1876; Nanon, die Wirtin vom goldenen Lamm
(Operette), 1877; Im Wunderlande der Pyramiden (Singspiel), 1877; Die letzten
Mohikaner (Operette), 1878; Nisida (komische Operette), 1880; Rosina (Operette),
1881; Eine gemachte Frau (Posse), 1885; Die Zwillinge (Operette), 1885, collab. L.
Roth; Die Piraten (Operette), 1886
Die Dreizehn (Operette), 1887; Signora Vendetta (Vaudeville-Operette), 1892;
Rotkäppchen (Vaudeville-Posse), 1892; Die Mädchen-Schule (Vaudeville-Posse),
1892; Die wachsame Schildwache (Zwischenspiel), 1893; Freund Felix (Operette),
1893
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LoewenbergA
MGG1 (F. Hadamowsky) [incl. full list of writings]
R. Holzer: Die Wiener Vorstadtbühnen: Alexander Girardi und das Theater
an der Wien (Vienna, 1951), 409ff
A. Bauer: 150 Jahre Theater an der Wien (Vienna, 1952)
B. Hiltner-Henneberg: Richard Genée: Eine Bibliographie (Berne, 1998)
ALFRED LOEWENBERG/ANDREW LAMB
Generalbass
(Ger.: ‘thoroughbass’ or
Continuo). The term itself was taken by Niedt (Musicalische Handleitung, i,
Hamburg, 1700) to reflect the fact that the continuo bass line contains all or
nearly all the other parts generaliter or insgemein (‘in common’). Earlier, in
1611, C. Vincentius had called a bass part he added to Schadaeus’s
Promptuarium musicum the basin vulgo generalem dictam. But generalis is
not German and cannot be a translation of ‘continuo’; rather it was one of
the optional names for figured or unfigured bass parts, like basso
principale (Orfeo Vecchi, Missarum liber secundus, 1598 and In septem
Regii Prophetae psalmos, 1601), basso generale (Fattorini, 1600; Billi,
1601), sectione gravium partium ad organistarum usum (Zucchini, 1602),
basso continuo (Viadana, 1602) and basso continuato (Girolamo Calestani,
1603). That Viadana’s so-called continuo bass part was, unlike the others,
independent of the vocal bass may or may not be significant in this respect.
Praetorius (Syntagma musicum, iii, Wolfenbüttel, 2/1619) headed his
chapter on this subject ‘De basso generali seu continuo’, and he may have
meant to give the two as optional alternative names; later German theorists
such as Johann Staden (Kurz und einfältig Bericht, Nuremberg, 1626),
Heinrich Albert (prefaces to Arien, i–ii, Königsberg, 1638–40) and Wolfgang
Ebner (1653) either followed Praetorius in using both terms or kept only
bassis generalis, in which they were followed by all later writers. The term
Generalbass became a kind of synecdoche for the science of harmony in
general; to learn Generalbass (or, as in France after Rameau, the basse
fondamentale) meant to learn the science of tonal harmony, made more
direct and clear by figured harmony than by the old German keyboard
tablatures. Many writers from 1650 to 1850 scarcely mentioned the art of
figured bass accompaniment in their treatises on Generalbass.
A further instructive use was as the basis for keyboard improvisation, either
in the form of Partimento (as in Mattheson's Exemplarische Organisten-
Probe, Hamburg, 1719) or as a harmonic framework on which to build a
free improvisation (as in Niedt's Musicalische Handleitung, ii, Hamburg,
1706 and C.P.E. Bach's Versuch, ii, Berlin, 1762). Conversely, a
composition could be reduced to its underlying harmonic structure in the
form of a Fundamental bass, as demonstrated by Rameau (1722 onwards)
and J.A.P. Schulz (1773). Instructive and analytical uses of Generalbass
continued throughout the 19th century, as reflected by the large number of
Generalbass and thoroughbass tutors published in Germany and England.
Many composers also continued to use it as a form of shorthand notation in
the process of composition. It gained new impetus in the theory of analysis
through the influence that C.P.E. Bach's discussion of improvisation and
the Generalbassregeln attributed to J.S. Bach had on the development of
Heinrich Schenker's system. More recently it has lent itself again to
instructive use in educational computer programs. For further analytical
uses of figures see Notation, §III, 4(viii).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.S. Bach: Vorschriften und Grundsätze zum vierstimmigen Spielen des
General-Bass oder Accompagnement (Leipzig, 1738); ed. and trans.
P.L. Poulin (Oxford, 1994)
P. Benary: Die deutsche Kompositionslehre des 18. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig,
1961)
W. Heimann: Der Generalbass-Satz und seine Rolle in Bachs Choral-Satz
(Munich, 1973)
D.W. Beach: ‘The Origins of Harmonic Analysis’, JMT, xviii (1974), 274–
306
W. Schenkmann: ‘Mattheson's “Forty-eight” and their Commentaries’, MR,
xlii (1981), 9–21
A. Mann: ‘Bach and Handel as Teachers of Thoroughbass’, Bach, Handel,
Scarlatti, ed. P. Williams (Cambridge, 1985), 245–57
R.W. Wason: Viennese Harmonic Theory from Albrechtsberger to
Schenker and Schoenberg (Ann Arbor, 1985/R)
I. Bent and W. Drabkin: Analysis (London, 1987)
T. Christensen: ‘The Règle de l'octave in Thorough-Bass Theory and
Practice’, AcM, lxiv (1992), 91–117
J. Lester: Compositional Theory in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge,
MA, 1992)
S.M. Schwanauer: ‘A Learning Machine for Tonal Composition’, Machine
Models of Music, ed. S.M. Schwanauer and D.A. Levitt (Cambridge,
MA, 1993), 511–32
PETER WILLIAMS/DAVID LEDBETTER
Generali, Pietro
(b Masserano, nr Vercelli, 23 Oct 1773; d Novara, 3 Nov 1832). Italian
composer. His surname was Mercandetti until his father changed it when,
bankrupt, the family moved to Rome. There Generali studied counterpoint
with Giovanni Masi, interrupted by four months spent at the Conservatorio
di S Pietro a Majella at Naples. He graduated from the Congregazione di S
Cecilia in Rome and began his career as a composer of sacred music,
producing his first opera only in 1800 (Gli amanti ridicoli). His first great
success was Pamela nubile, composed for Venice in 1804 and repeated in
Vienna in 1805. This was followed by other comic operas and farces which
were widely performed in Italy and abroad (Le lagrime d’una vedova,
Adelina, La Cecchina, La vedova delirante, Chi non risica non rosica, La
contessa di Colle Erboso). He did not attempt opere serie until 1812 with
Attila, but thereafter produced a considerable number; one of the most
successful was I baccanali di Roma (1816), which was in demand for many
years. In spring 1817, when his popularity began to be obscured by
Rossini’s successes, he went to Barcelona as director of the opera
company at the Teatro de la S Cruz. He held the position for about three
years, often travelling in Italy and abroad, and contributed one original work
(Gusmano de Valhor, 1817) and some revivals. From late 1820 to 1823 he
was in Naples, composing several operas and teaching; Luigi Ricci was
among his pupils.
With the Naples period his activity as an opera composer came virtually to
an end. In 1823 he became music director of the Teatro Carolino in
Palermo. In spring 1825 he was replaced by Donizetti; he returned to his
post the following season, but in 1826 he was charged with being maestro
venerabile of a masonic lodge and expelled from the kingdom. In poor
health and disappointed by the cold reception of his works, he returned to
the north of Italy and in 1827 became maestro di cappella at Novara
Cathedral, a position he held until his death. In his last years he had a few
opere serie performed, without much success.
Generali composed at least 55 operas as well as sacred works and
cantatas. Contemporaries had conflicting opinions of his work. His early
comic operas sounded ‘moderne’ and even ‘stravaganti’ in their vigorous
and brilliant orchestration and a certain unusual harmonic richness. But at
the end of his career, like many composers of the same generation, he
appeared a pale imitator of Rossini. In 1828 Tommaso Locatelli wrote of
Francesca da Rimini: ‘There prevails a certain carelessness, a certain
triviality of style, as if the maestro had been working almost per otium’
(Gazzetta di Venezia). In fact, in spite of their fine melodic qualities and
effective delineation of character, his works sometimes lack substance and
structural coherence and do not always escape a certain stylistic
standardization, partly the result of completing many operas during
rehearsals. His use of dramatic orchestral effects (including the crescendo)
anticipates Rossini, but the attribution to Generali of the invention of the
orchestral crescendo, as stated on his commemorative tablet in Novara
and repeated by Pacini in his memoirs, would seem to be an exaggeration.
WORKS
c55 operas, 1800–33, incl. Pamela nubile (farsa, 1, G. Rossi, after C. Goldoni),
Venice, S Benedetto, 12 April 1804, as La virtù premiata dall’amore, Vienna, Burg,
20 July 1805; Le lagrime d’una vedova (farsa, 1, G.M. Foppa, after C. Federici),
Venice, S Moisè, 26 Dec 1808; Adelina [Luigina; Luisina] (farsa, 1, Rossi, after S.
Gessner), Venice, S Moisè, 15/16 Sept 1810; La Cecchina suonatrice di ghironda
(farsa, 1, Rossi), Venice, S Moisè, 26 Dec 1810; La vedova delirante (ob, 2, J.
Ferretti), Rome, Valle, Jan 1811, as Bernardino, Barcelona, S Cruz, late 1815; Attila
(os, Rossi), Bologna, Comunale, sum. 1812; Bajazet (os, 2), Turin, Imperiale, 26
Dec 1813; La contessa di Colle Erboso, ossia Un pazzo ne fa cento [La contessa di
Colle Ombroso; Tutti matti; La finta contessa] (dg, 2, Foppa), Genoa, S Agostino,
Dec 1814; I baccanali di Roma [I baccanti; Le baccanti di Roma] (os, 2, Rossi),
Venice, La Fenice, 14 Jan 1816, vs (Bonn and Cologne, ?1818), rev. as Die
Bacchanten, Vienna, An der Wien, 12 June 1820, as I baccanali aboliti, Milan, Re,
sum. 1832; Gusmano de Valhor (os, ?Peracchi, after Voltaire: Alzire), Barcelona, S
Cruz, 1 Dec 1817; Chiara di Rosemberg (op eroicomica, 2, A.L. Tottola), Napes,
Nuovo, Dec 1820; Elena e Olfredo [Alfredo], Naples, S Carlo, 9 Aug 1821; Jefte [Il
voto di Jefte] (azione tragico-sacra, 2, ?Foppa, ? after F. Gnecco), Florence,
Pergola, 11 March 1827; Francesca da Rimini (os, P. Pola, after Dante: Commedia),
Venice, Fenice, 26 Dec 1828, excerpts (Milan, 1831)
Other works: cants., incl. Roma liberata, 1801, Lo scudo d’Astrea, 1828; La caduta
di Gerico (orat), Palermo, 1824; many sacred works, incl. masses, Requiem, Mag,
lit, offs, seqs; didactic works, incl. solfeggi
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (C. Sartori)
FlorimoN
GroveO (A. Lanza) [incl. fuller list of operas]
‘Nachrichten: Mayland’, AMZ, xix (1817), 473–4
L. Schiedermair: ‘Eine Autobiographie Pietro Generalis’, Festschrift …
Rochus Freiherrn von Liliencron (Leipzig, 1910/R), 250–53
G. Bustico: ‘Saverio Mercadante a Novara’, RMI, xxviii (1921), 361–96
[incl. list of Generali’s church music composed at Novara]
J. Subirá: La ópera en los teatros de Barcelona: estudio histórico
cronológico desde el siglo XVIII al XX, i (Barcelona, 1946/R), 72ff
O. Tiby: Il Real Teatro Carolino e l’Ottocento musicale palermitano
(Florence, 1957)
J. Freeman: ‘Pietro Generali in Sicily’, MR, xxxiv (1973), 231–40
A. Galazzo, ed.: Contributi alla bibliografia di Pietro Generali (Biella, 1981)
[incl. chronology of performance]
M. Conati: ‘L'amante statua, ovvero La magìa di un flauto (a proposito di
due opere di Farinelli e di Generali)’, Napoli e il teatro musicale in
Europa tra Sette e Ottocento: studi in onore di Friedrich Lippmann, ed.
B.M. Antolini and W. Witzenmann (Florence, 1993), 383–405
ANDREA LANZA
Generalpause
(Ger.).
A rest for the whole orchestra, usually unexpected and sometimes marked
with the letters ‘GP’.
Genesis.
English progressive rock band. It was formed when its members were at
Charterhouse School, Surrey. Its first recording was in 1967, but the first
‘mature’ offering was Trespass, released in 1970, after Phil Collins (drums)
had joined Peter Gabriel (vocals), Tony Banks (b 1950; keyboards) and
Mike Rutherford (b 1950; bass guitar); Steve Hackett (b 1950; guitar) was
recruited soon after. Their early style was marked by extended structures
frequently shunning verse-refrain patterns, with a heavy reliance on
keyboards (particularly the mellotron) and some extended tonal harmonic
patterns. They were criticized for dispensing with blues scales and rhythms
in favour of showy instrumental virtuosity. Their subject matter was typically
progressive, with a general avoidance of love songs and with tales redolent
of science fiction (Return of the Giant Hogweed, Watcher of the Skies),
surrealism (Supper's Ready and much of the album Selling England by the
Pound) and allegory (the concept album The Lamb Lies Down on
Broadway). Their initial stage presence was marked by Gabriel's
outrageous costumes, illustrative of the songs. After five studio albums in
this style, Gabriel went solo (1975), Hackett followed, and the remaining
trio began the move towards middle-of-the-road, soul-influenced stadium
rock, and far greater commercial success. Bestselling albums included
Duke (1980), Abacab (1981), Genesis (1983), Invisible Touch (1986) and
We Can Dance (1991). These later works retained some stylistic
fingerprints, particularly in the realm of harmony, but lyrics have become
straightforward, textures thicker and rhythmically anticipatory bass and
drum-kit lines the norm. Banks, Collins and Rutherford have all maintained
separate recording careers since 1979, with Collins making several film
appearances.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Gallo: Genesis: the Evolution of a Rock Band (London, 1978)
G. Parkyn: Genesis: Turn it on Again (London, 1984)
A. Gallo: Genesis: I Know What I Like (London, 1987)
D. Hepworth: ‘Up the Hill Backwards’, Q, no.11 (1987), 76–82
D. Bowler and B. Dray: Genesis: a Biography (London, 1992)
ALLAN F. MOORE
Genest, Charles-Claude
(b Paris, 17 Oct 1639; d Paris, 20 Nov 1719). French poet and playwright.
He was squire to the Duke of Nevers and tutor to Mlle de Blois, and was
accepted into the Académie Française in 1698. He became abbot of St
Vilmer Abbey. The regent awarded him a pension of 2000 livres. His
Divertissements de Sceaux (Paris, 1712) is a primary source for the
divertissements composed and performed for the Duchess of Maine prior
to her famous ‘Grandes nuits de Sceaux’ (1714–15). These fêtes, ‘pure
amusement, unrehearsed … a type of impromptu entertainment’, were
performed in Châtenay, near Sceaux, at the château of Nicolas de
Malézieu. Jean-Baptiste Matho composed three ‘petits opéras’ (music lost)
for these divertissements. Genest's book provided the texts for all the vocal
music and describes the theatre, a tent of ‘prodigious size’ seating 300
spectators.
JAMES R. ANTHONY
Genet, Elzéar.
See Carpentras.
Geneva
(Fr. Genève; Ger. Genf).
Swiss city. In the Middle Ages, after the Roman occupation, the practice of
church music there differed slightly from that of Rome, possibly through the
influence of the abbey of Solesmes. Calvin organized church music during
the Reformation (from 1536): psalm singing took the place of the Mass and
he had editions made of psalters such as the one by Clément Marot, which
was continued by Théodore de Bèze and set to music by two French
refugees, Guillaume Franc and Loys Bourgeois. Calvin railed against
musical amusements, including dancing, which had hitherto been a
favourite pastime, a sort of round-dance called a virolt being performed in
the squares on summer evenings and nights. He had all the organs
demolished or sold. The bands of fifes and trumpets disappeared and
satirical and frivolous songs were condemned.
A musical renaissance began in the 18th century. In 1738 the theatre was
established; in 1756 the organ in the cathedral of St Pierre was
reconstructed and Gaspard Fritz, a violinist and composer born in Geneva,
of a Hanover family, enlivened local music. He took part in concerts
organized by Thomas Pitt, brother of the English statesman, and played
before Voltaire. During this period famous musicians visited Geneva; for
example, Mozart went there in 1766, and at about the same time Grétry
wrote his opera Isabelle et Gertrude there. Rousseau wrote a Lettre sur les
spectacles complaining about abuses in the theatre, which he wanted
replaced by collective festivals. There was a considerable expansion of the
arts in the 19th century: in 1826 there were 20 music teachers in Geneva;
the Société de Chant Sacré was founded in 1827; in 1835 the
Conservatoire de Musique was established and in its first winter had the
attraction of a free course given by Liszt; an increasing number of concerts
was promoted by the Société Musicale de Genève, founded in 1823 by the
violinist Christian Haensel. Charles Samuel Bovy-Lysberg, François-
Gabriel Gras and Hugo von Senger, instigators of several winegrowers’
festivals in Vevey, Otto Barblan and Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, inventor of
eurhythmics, also contributed to the increase of music in Geneva.
Spurred by the inauguration of a purpose-built concert hall and the
founding of the city’s first permanent orchestra, musical activity developed
rapidly in the 20th century, matching Geneva’s growth and importance as a
seat of international organizations. The 1700-seat Victoria Hall, presented
to the city in 1894 by a British patron of the arts, Daniel Barton, has an
ornate shoebox design and fine acoustics. Most of the world’s great
orchestras, conductors and soloists have played there, and it has been the
home of the internationally renowned music competition, the Concours
International d'Exécution Musicale CIEM-Genève, since 1939, when the
19-year-old Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli won first prize. It has also been
extensively used for recordings. The hall was devastated by fire in 1984,
but such was the affection in which it was held by the Geneva public that it
was restored to the original design.
Ernest Ansermet founded the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande in 1918
and remained music director for 50 years. During that period he was the
city’s presiding musical spirit, introducing much new music, attracting high-
calibre soloists and developing the orchestra’s international reputation
through tours and recordings. He excelled in his interpretations of Debussy,
Ravel and Stravinsky, and championed the music of Frank Martin.
Ansermet’s successors were Paul Kletzki (1967–70), Wolfgang Sawallisch
(1970–80), Horst Stein (1980–85), Armin Jordan (1985–97) and Fabio Luisi
(from 1997). The orchestra divides its time between concerts (with
occasional visits to other French-speaking Swiss towns), opera and studio
work for Swiss Radio. Despite Ansermet’s pioneering efforts, the Geneva
public is conservative in its musical taste.
The opera season has steadily grown in stature. Performances are given in
the Grand Théâtre, which opened in 1879 and was severely damaged by
fire in 1951, not reopening until 1962. Ansermet conducted there regularly
from 1915, and many neglected and unfamiliar works were performed
while Herbert Graf was director in the late 1960s. Under Hugues Gall,
director from 1980 to 1995, the theatre won international acclaim for its
imaginative casting and balanced repertory. Rolf Liebermann’s fifth opera,
La forêt, had its première there in 1987.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SML
G. Becker: La musique en Suisse depuis les temps les plus reculés
jusqu’à la fin du 18ème siècle (Geneva, 1923)
C. Tappolet: ‘Fragments d’une histoire de la musique à Genève’, SMz, xciii
(1953), 15–17, 263–5, 456–9; xciv (1954), 139–42, 414–16; xcv
(1955), 190–91, 477–80; xcviii (1958), 296–8
R.A. Mooser: Deux violonistes genevois: Gaspard Fritz (1716–1783),
Christian Haensel (1766–1850) (Geneva, 1968)
R. de Candolle: Histoire du Théâtre de Genève (Geneva, 1978)
J.-J. Roth: Grand théâtre de Genève: opéras, moments d’exception (Paris,
1987)
PIERRE MEYLAN/ANDREW CLARK
Gengenbach, Nikolaus
(b Colditz, Saxony, c1590; d Zeitz, 4 Sept 1636). German music theorist
and teacher. From 1609 he attended the Thomasschule, Leipzig, under
Sethus Calvisius. About 1613 he became Kantor at Rochlitz, near his
birthplace, and in 1618 at Zeitz. He is known by a school textbook, Musica
nova, Newe Singekunst, so wol nach der alten Solmisation, als newen
Bobisation und Bebisation (Leipzig, 1626/R). It begins with traditional
elementary rules, but as early as the first theoretical part, solmization is
contrasted with the new seven-step systems of bocedization (described by
Calvisius) and bebization (after Hitzler), through which the difficulties of
mutation could be avoided. The treatment of organ tabulation is also
unusual for a school textbook. As the second, practical part Gengenbach
published a self-contained collection of practice examples graded from the
simple to the difficult. In the third part, which became a pattern for
numerous appendixes in later school treatises, he explained Greek, Latin
and Italian musical terms; he relied here on the third volume of Michael
Praetorius's Syntagma musicum (2/1619) for ideas about the stile nuovo.
He could justifiably call his book Musica nova because he no longer
directed his students to Lassus but to Schütz, Schein and Viadana. Musica
nova is a complete, gradated primer for music instruction which shows
Gengenbach to be, along with Calvisius, Hitzler and others, one of the
more progressive educators of the early 17th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Preussner: ‘Die Methodik im Schulgesang der evangelischen
Lateinschulen des 17. Jahrhunderts’, AMw, vi (1924), 407–49
A. Werner: Städtische und fürstliche Musikpflege in Zeitz, bis zum Anfang
des 19. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1922)
E. Preussner: ‘Solmisationsmethoden im Schulunterricht des 16. und 17.
Jahrhunderts’, Festschrift Fritz Stein zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. H.
Hoffmann and F. Rühlmann (Brunswick, 1939), 112–28
A. Scott: Nikolaus Gengebach's Musica nova, Newe Singekunst: a
Commentary, Critical Edition, and Translation (Ottawa, 1996)
MARTIN RUHNKE/DALE ALLEN SCOTT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Na voprosï anketï otvechayet molodoy kompozitor Vladimir Genin’ [The
young composer Vladimir Genin replies to a questionnaire], SovM
(1988), no.6, pp.6–8
M. Arkad'ev: ‘Razmïshleniya o molodom kompozitore’ [Reflections about a
young composer], SovM (1989), no.12, pp.38–42
Yu. Paisov: ‘Voskresheniye ideala: pesnopeniya svyatïm v sovremennoy
muzïke Rossii’ [The resurrection of an ideal: chants to the saints in
contemporary music of Russia], Mak, no.4 (1993), 152–4
YURY IVANOVICH PAISOV
Genis
(It.).
See Tenor horn.
Genis corno
(It.).
See Mellophone.
Gennrich, Friedrich
(b Colmar, 27 March 1883; d Langen, nr Frankfurt, 22 Sept 1967). German
musicologist and philologist. He studied Romance philology with Gröber
and Bédier and musicology with Ludwig in Strasbourg and Paris (1903–
10), and took the doctorate at Strasbourg in 1908 with a critical edition of
Le romans de la dame à la lycorne et du beau chevalier; he subsequently
held university posts at Strasbourg (1910–19) and Frankfurt (from 1921).
After completing the Habilitation in 1927 he taught at Frankfurt University
until 1964, occupying a titular chair from 1934. His extensive library and
scholarly papers were destroyed during the war, but he continued to work,
instituting two privately published series, the Musikwissenschaftliche
Studien-Bibliothek (1946–65) and the Summa Musicae Medii Aevi (1957–
67). These constitute some 40 volumes in all; he edited and wrote them
entirely by himself, showing remarkable tenacity and energy in his 70s and
80s. From 1938 he also edited the series of monographs Literarhistorisch-
musikwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (Würzburg), and contributed over
70 articles to the first edition of Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart.
Gennrich’s lifelong interest was in the secular poetry and monophonic
music of France and Germany in the Middle Ages. His greatness lay in the
equally high level of his skills as palaeographer, philologist and
musicologist. His bibliographical work on manuscript sources, his
classification of poetic and melodic forms, and the extension of rhythmic
modal theory in his transcriptions are particularly important; in all these the
influence of Ludwig is evident, most clearly in the first, which is much in the
tradition of Ludwig’s monumental Repertorium (1910). Gennrich’s
Rondeaux, Virelais und Balladen (1921–63), his Bibliographie der ältesten
französischen und lateinischen Motetten (SMM, ii, 1957) and his Der
musikalische Nachlass der Troubadours (SMM, iii–iv, xv, 1958–65) are
representative of his work in this field. His bibliographical scholarship rests
on two fundamental and highly influential principles: his belief in the unity of
words and music in medieval song, and his ‘repertory theory’ which
accounts for the many variants of these songs by maintaining that the great
manuscript chansonniers which now survive were a late codification of an
oral tradition and reflect directly the repertories of medieval musicians.
His Grundriss einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes (1932) was
the culmination of his early work on structure and form and a serious
attempt to apply concrete scientific principles to the phenomenon of
melody. In it he classified songs as litany-type, rondel-type, sequence-type
and hymn-type, positing strong influence of sacred on secular music. His
work on rhythm represents the most uncompromising continuation of
Ludwig’s, Beck’s and Aubry’s early rhythmic modal theories applied to
secular song. He adhered exclusively to triple metre, but developed a
highly sophisticated system of rhythmic ‘progressions’ to reflect the inner
metre of the poem from line to line. This system, which involved three
levels of rhythm – ‘Distinktion (D-Rhythmik)’, ‘Einheiten (E–Rhythmik)’ and
‘Tongruppen (G-Rhythmik)’ – is set out in his edition Übertragungsmaterial
zur Rhythmik der Ars Antiqua (1954), his two books (1951, 1953–6)
exemplify its final form.
WRITINGS
MSB
Musikwissenschaftliche Studien-Bibliothek (Nieder-Modau, 1946–8;
Darmstadt, 1953–65)
Les romans de la dame à la lycorne et du beau chevalier: eine
literarhistorische und sprachliche Untersuchung (diss., U. of
Strasbourg, 1908)
Musikwissenschaft und romanische Philologie (Halle, 1918)
‘Die Musik als Hilfswissenschaft der romanischen Philologie’, Zeitschrift für
romanische Philologie, xxxix (1919), 330–61
‘Die beiden neuesten Bibliographien altfranzösischer und
altprovenzalischer Lieder’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xli
(1921), 289–346
‘Das Frankfurter Fragment einer altfranzösischen Liederhandschrift’,
Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xlii (1922), 726–40
‘Zu den Liedern des Conon de Béthune’, Zeitschrift für romanische
Philologie, xlii (1922), 231–41
‘Zur Rhythmik des altprovenzalischen und altfranzösischen Liedverses’,
Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur, xlvi (1922–3), 205–
26
Der musikalische Vortrag der altfranzösischen chansons de geste (Halle,
1923)
‘Sieben Melodien zu mittelhochdeutschen Minneliedern’, ZMw, vii (1924–
5), 65–98
‘Die altfranzösische Liederhandschrift London, British Museum, Egerton
274’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xlv (1925), 402–44
Die altfranzösische Rotrouenge (Halle, 1925)
‘Der Chansonnier d’Arras’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xlvi (1926),
325–35
‘Der deutsche Minnesang in seinem Verhältnis zur Troubadour- und
Trouvère-Kunst’, Zeitschrift für deutsche Bildung, ii (1926), 536–66
‘Trouvèrelieder und Motettenrepertoire’, ZMw, ix (1926–7), 8–39; 65–85
‘Zur Musikinstrumentenkunde der Machaut-Zeit’, ZMw, ix (1926–7), 513–
17
‘Glossen zu Johannes Brahms’ “Sonett” op.14 Nr.4: Ach, könnt’ ich, könnte
vergessen sie, zum 3. April 1927’, ZMw, x (1927–8), 129–39
‘Internationale mittelalterliche Melodien’, ZMw, xi (1928–9), 259–96, 321–
48
‘Zur Ursprungsfrage des Minnesangs’, DVLG, vii (1929), 187–228
‘Lateinische Kontrafakta altfranzösischer Lieder’, Zeitschrift für romanische
Philologie, l (1930), 187–207
‘Das Formproblem des Minnesangs’, DVLG, ix (1931), 285–349
Grundriss einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes (Halle, 1932/R)
‘Grundsätzliches zu den Troubadour- und Trouvère-weisen’, Zeitschrift für
romanische Philologie, lvii (1937), 31–56
ed.: Literarhistorisch-musikwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (Würzburg,
1938)
‘Der Sprung ins Mittelalter: zur Musik der altfranzösischen und
altprovenzalischen Lieder’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, lix
(1939), 207–40
Die Strassburger Schule für Musikwissenschaft (Würzburg, 1940)
‘Melodien Walthers von der Vogelweide’, ZDADL, lxxx (1942) 24–48
‘Zwei altfranzösische Lais’, Studi medievali, new ser., xv (1942), 1–68
‘Zu den Melodien Wizlavs von Rügen’, ZDADL, lxxx (1943), 86–102
‘Refrain-Tropen in der Musik des Mittelalters’, Studi medievali, new ser., xvi
(1943–50), 242–54
Abriss der frankonischen Mensuralnotation nebst übertragungsmaterial,
MSB, i–ii (1946, 2/1956)
‘Bemerkungen zu Spankes System des lateinisch-romanischen
Strophenkunst’, ‘Der Gesangswettstreit im “Parfait du Paon”’,
Romanische Forschungen, lviii–lix (1944–7), 114–26, 208–32
Abriss der Mensuralnotation des XIV. und der ersten Hälfte des XV.
Jahrhunderts, MSB, iii–iv (1948, 2/1965)
‘Liedkontrafakturen in mhd. und ahd. Zeit’, ZDADL, lxxxii (1948), 105–41;
repr. in Der deutsche Minnesang, ed. H. Fromm (Darmstadt, 1961),
330–77
‘Perotins Beata viscera Mariae virginis und die “Modaltheorie”’, Mf, i (1948),
225–41
‘Deutsche Rondeaux’, Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache
und Literatur, lxxii (1950), 130–41
‘Die Melodie zu Walthers von der Vogelweide Spruch: Philippe, künec
hêre’, Studi medievali, new ser., xvii (1951), 71–85
‘Simon d’Authie, ein pikardischer Sänger’, Zeitschrift für romanische
Philologie, lxvii (1951), 49–104
Troubadours, Trouvères, Minne- und Meistergesang, Mw, ii (1951; Eng.
trans., 1960)
Aus der Formenwelt des Mittelalters … Beispiele zum Bestimmen
musikalischer Formen, MSB, viii (1953, 2/1962)
‘Mittelalterliche Lieder mit textloser Melodie’, AMw, ix (1952), 120–36
Altfranzösische Lieder (Tübingen, 1953–6)
‘Grundsätzliches zur Rhythmik der mittelalterlichen Monodie’, Mf, vii
(1954), 150–76
‘Vier deutsche Lieder des 14. und 15. Jahrhunderts’, AMw, xi (1954), 269–
79
‘Zur Liedkunst Walthers von der Vogelweide’, ZDADL, lxxxv (1954), 203–9
‘Ist der mittelalterliche Liedvers arhythmisch?’, Cultura neolatina, xv (1955),
109–31
‘Refrain-Studien’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, lxxi (1955), 365–90
‘Die Repertoire-Theorie’, Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur,
lxvi (1956), 81–108
‘Die Deutungen der Rhythmik der Kalenda-maya-Melodie’, Romanica:
Festschrift für Gerhard Rohlfs, ed. H. Lausberg and H. Weinrich (Halle,
1958), 181–92
‘Wer ist der Initiator der “Modaltheorie”? Suum cuique’, Miscelánea en
homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona, 1958–61), 315–30
‘Streifzüge durch die erweiterte Modaltheorie’, AMw, xviii (1961), 126–40
‘Zur Ausgabe der Lieder des Gautier de Coinci von J. Chailley’,
Romanische Forschungen, lxxiii (1961), 308–26
‘Die Laudes sancte crucis der Hs. Darmstadt, Hessische Landesbibliothek
2777’, Organicae voces: Festschrift Joseph Smits van Waesberghe
(Amsterdam, 1963), 45–58
Studien über die Geschichte der mehrstimmigen Musik im Mittelalter,
SMM, xvi (1966)
EDITIONS
MSB
Musikwissenschaftliche Studien-Bibliothek (Nieder-Modau, 1946–8;
Darmstadt, 1953–65)
Rondeaux, Virelais und Balladen aus dem Ende des XII., dem XIII., und
dem ersten drittel des XIV. Jahrhunderts, i (Dresden, 1921); ii
(Göttingen, 1927); iii as Das altfranzösische Rondeau und Virelai im
12. und 13. Jahrhundert, SMM, x (1963)
Die Sankt Viktor-Clausulae und ihre Motetten, MSB, v–vi (1953, 2/1963)
Melodien altdeutscher Lieder: 47 Melodien in handschriftlicher Fassung,
MSB, ix (1954)
Mittelhochdeutsche Liedkunst: 24 Melodien zu mittelhochdeutschen
Liedern, MSB, x (1954)
Übertragungsmaterial zur Rhythmik der Ars Antiqua: 101 ausgewählte
Beispiele aus dem Bereich der mittelalterlichen Monodie, MSB, viii
(1954)
Pérotin: Das Organum ‘Alleluia nativitas gloriose virginis Marie’, und seine
Sippe, MSB, xii (1955)
Lateinische Liedkontrafaktur: eine Auswahl lateinischer Conductus mit
ihrem volkssprachigen Vorbildern, MSB, xi (1956)
Musica sine littera: Notenzeichen und Rhythmik der Gruppennotation,
MSB, xiii–xiv (1956)
Franco of Cologne: Ars cantus mensurabilis, MSB xv–xvi (1957) [repr. of
CS, i, 17–36 and diplomatic transcrs. of J-Ma and F-SDI MSS]
Bibliographie der ältesten französischen und lateinischen Motetten, SMM, ii
(1957)
Exempla altfranzösischer Lyrik: 40 altfranzösische Lieder, MSB, xvii (1958)
Der musikalische Nachlass der Troubadours, SMM, iii–iv, xv (1958–65)
Lo gai saber: 50 ausgewählte Troubadour-Lieder, MSB, xviii–xix (1959)
F. Ludwig: Repertorium organorum, SMM vii–viii (1961–2)
Adam de la Halle: Le jeu de Robin et de Marion [et] Li rondel Adam, MSB,
xx (1962)
Neidhart-Lieder: kritische Ausgabe der Neidhart von Reuental
zugeschriebenen Melodien, SMM, ix (1962)
Aus der Frühzeit der Motette: der erste Zyklus von Clausulae der Hs W1
und ihre Motetten, MSB, xxii–xxiii (1963)
Die autochthone Melodie: Übungsmaterial zur musikalischen Textkritik,
MSB, xxi (1963)
Bibliographisches Verzeichnis der französischen Refrains des 12. und 13.
Jahrhunderts, SMM, xiv (1964)
Jehannot de L’Escurel: balades, rondeaux et diz entez sur refroiz de
rondeaux, SMM, xiii (1964)
Die Kontrafaktur im Liedschaffen des Mittelalters, SMM, xii (1965)
Cantilenae piae: 31 altfranzösische geistliche Lieder der Hs. Paris, Bibl.
Nat. nouv. acq. fr. 1050, MSB, xxiv (1966)
Florilegium motetorium: ein Querschnitt durch das Motettenschaffen des
13. Jahrhunderts, SMM, xvii (1966)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Kippenberg: Der Rhythmus im Minnesang: eine Kritik der literar-und
musikhistorischen Forschung (Munich, 1962), 138–45
W. Bittinger: ‘Friedrich Gennrich in memoriam’, Mf, xxi (1968), 417–21
J.G. Schubert: ‘Friedrich Gennrich zum Gedenken’, AcM, xl (1968), 199–
201
IAN D. BENT/R
Genoa
(It. Genova).
Italian city, capital of Liguria. The earliest recorded musical activity in
Genoa dates from the Middle Ages, with documented references to
troubadours (Bonifacio Calvo, Lanfranco Cigala), devotional songs
(cantegore) and liturgical music. Early evidence for the cultivation of music
includes the 12th-century neumatic codex in S Maria delle Vigne, the
presence of organs, and the legacy of Bertolino Fieschi (1313), which
ensured that singing was taught to clerics and boys in the cathedral of S
Lorenzo. The Adorno family brought Franchinus Gaffurius to the city
(1478), and Paolo Campofregoso (1494) established a choir in the
cathedral where polyphony was taught.
More documents survive from the 16th and 17th centuries. A cappella of
wind players was established in the Palazzo Ducale in 1540; in the 17th
century this was augmented by singers and string instruments. Musicians
who worked there include Ferdinando Pagano (1590–92), Francesco
Guami (1594), Marco Corrado (1594–1625), Simone Molinaro (1625–36),
Giovanni Paolo Costa (1636–8), his brother Giovanni Maria Costa (1640–
56) and Giovanni Stefano Scotto (1659–74). The directors of the choir of
the cathedral (founded by Lorenzo Fieschi) were Vincenzo Ruffo (1544),
Andrea Festa (1552–9), Antonio Dueto (1576–84), Giovanni Battista Dalla
Gostena (1584–9), his nephew Molinaro (1601–17), Carlo Abbate (1640–
61) and Agostino Guerrieri. Organists at the two organs (built by Giovanni
Battista Facchetti, 1554, and Giuseppe Vitani, 1604) were the Parma-born
Orazio Briolano and the Genoese Lelio Rossi (de Rubeis), assisted by his
nephew Michelangelo, Giovanni Battista Strata and Scotto. Music was
important in the various churches, convents and monasteries: Francesco
Antonio Costa worked in S Francesco di Castelletto, while Francesco
Righi, Pietro Simone Agostini, Giovanni Maria Pagliardi and Matteo Bisso
directed the choir (founded 1609) of the Jesuit church, S Ambrogio;
Giovanni Battista Rossi and Giovanni Battista Bianchi belonged to the
Somasci and Augustinian orders respectively, and in the monasteries of S
Leonardo and S Bartolomeo the outstanding figures were Anfione
Ferrabosco's daughters Elena and Laura. Willem Hermans from Flanders
built organs for the churches of S Ambrogio, S Maria Assunta in Carignano
and S Maria Maddalena. Printed editions for the Dottrina Christiana and
the Piarists testify to the singing of laude in the city.
The Genoese publishing trade in the 16th and 17th centuries rivalled that
of Venice and Rome; the leading printers included Girolamo Bartoli,
Giuseppe Pavoni and the Calenzani family. Molinaro edited Gesualdo's
Partitura delli sei libri de madrigali a cinque voci, published by Pavoni in
1613, and opened a music-printing business in Loano, whose management
he entrusted to Francesco Castello.
The Genoese nobility fostered the cultivation of secular music: the Doria
family maintained a choir directed by Ruffo (1545–6); Andrea Bianchi
worked for the Cybo family (1611); a group of aristocrats brought Giulio
Caccini to Genoa in 1595, while Francesco Rasi was a guest of the
Grimaldis (1607) and Francesca Caccini of the Brignole Sale family (1617).
Genoese citizens heard many musical events: at the port, in the streets
and during processions, particularly of the confraternities (the casacce) and
the city authorities. Performances were given by the academies,
particularly the Accademia degli Addormentati (1587), to which Angelo
Grillo (Livio Celiano), Gabriello Chiabrera and Ansaldo Cebà all belonged.
The lutenists Marco Corrado, Dalla Gostena and Molinaro were active in
Genoa. Many eminent composers, singers and instrumentalists born or
educated in Genoa worked elsewhere, including Johannes and Antonius
de Janua in the 14th and 15th centuries and, in the 16th and 17th
centuries, Giovanni Battista Pinello di Ghirardi, Bernardino Borlasca,
Michelangelo Rossi, Claudio Cocchi, Giovanni Battista Fossato, Giovanni
Filippo Cavalliere, Giovanni Francesco Tagliavacca and Pietro Reggio.
Around 1640, when public theatres were beginning to develop in Venice,
the Teatro del Falcone opened, presenting operas by Righi, Giovanni Maria
Costa, Carlo Ambrogio Lonati and Alessandro Stradella. In 1677 the
theatre, originally owned by the Adorno family, was acquired by a group of
noblemen who opened its doors to a more popular audience. In 1680 it
was taken over by the Durazzo family, who ran the theatre until it was
acquired by the Savoia family in 1824. In the meantime, more theatres
opened: S Agostino in 1702, the Teatro delle Vigne (c1730), and theatres in
the summer retreats of Albaro, Sampierdarena, Sestri Ponente and Voltri.
Featured composers were Pasquale Anfossi, Cimarosa, Isola, Luigi and
Giocondo Degola. The opening of the Oratorio di S Filippo Neri (for which
Boccherini wrote Giuseppe riconosciuto) encouraged the performance of
oratorios and vocal and instrumental music, by composers such as
Domenico Balduino, Antonio Maria Tasso, Nicolò Uccelli, Luigi Cerro and
Giacomo Costa.
In the 18th century a school of violin playing developed in Genoa; among
its leading exponents were Martino Bitti and Giovanni Antonio Guido.
Paganini began his career as composer and performer in the city at the
end of the 18th century, but in later years appeared in Genoa only
sporadically. After Paganini, the violinists Camillo Sivori, Nicola and
Domenico De Giovanni, Agostino Dellepiane and Giovanni Battista
Pedevilla all gained an international reputation.
Opera in Genoa received a new impetus in 1828, when the Teatro Carlo
Felice (see illustration) opened with Bellini's Bianca e Fernando. The
theatre hosted other important premières by composers including Donizetti
(Alina, regina di Golconda, 1828), Mascagni (Le maschere, 1901) and
Malipiero (Giulio Cesare, 1936); the Italian première of Strauss's Arabella
was given at the Carlo Felice in 1936. The theatre was destroyed by
bombing in September 1943; it reopened with Il trovatore in October 1991.
Orchestral and chamber concerts are given by a number of organizations,
notably the Giovine Orchestra Genovese, founded in 1912.
In 1829 Antonio Costa founded the Scuola Gratuita di Canto for the training
of opera singers; after various transformations it became the present
Conservatorio di Musica N. Paganini. The library holds autograph scores
by Galuppi and valuable letters, documents and papers of Paganini.
Musicological associations in Genoa include the Instituto di Studi
Paganiniani (founded in 1972 and run by the city since 1990), and the
Associazione Ligure per la Ricerca delle Fonti Musicali (1990). The Premio
Paganini international violin competition has been held regularly since
1954, and the Festival Internazionale del Balletto di Nervi was inaugurated
in 1955.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (A.F. Ivaldi)
L.T. Belgrano: ‘Delle feste e dei giuochi dei genovesi’, Archivio storico
italiano, xiii (1871), 39–71, 191–221; xiv (1871), 64–118; xv (1872),
417–77; xviii (1873), 112–37
R. Bresciano: Catalogo delle opere musicali della R. Biblioteca
universitaria (Parma, 1929)
R. Giazotto: La musica a Genova nella vita pubblica e privata dal XIII al
XVIII secolo (Genoa, 1951)
S. Pintacuda: Catalogo del fondo antico della Biblioteca del Conservatorio
musicale ‘Paganini’ di Genova (Milan, 1966)
C.M. Rietmann: Il violino e Genova (Genoa, 1975)
E. Frassoni: Due secoli di lirica a Genova (Genoa, 1980)
A.F. Ivaldi: ‘Gli Adorno e l'“hostaria”-teatro del Falcone di Genova (1600–
1680)’, RIM, xv (1980), 87–152
S. Pintacuda: Il Conservatorio di musica ‘Nicolò Paganini’ di Genova:
storia e documenti dalle origini ai giorni nostri (Genoa, 1980)
I.M. Botto, ed.: Il Teatro Carlo Felice di Genova: storia e progetti, Genoa,
22 Feb – 15 April 1985 (Genoa, 1986) [exhibition catalogue]
M. Mannucci: Genova a concerto: 75 anni della Giovine Orchestra
Genovese (Genoa, 1987)
C. Bongiovanni: Il fondo musicale dell'Archivio capitolare del duomo di
Genova (Genoa, 1990)
R. Iovino, I. Mattion and G. Tanasini: I palcoscenici della lirica: dal
Falcone al Carlo Felice (Genoa, 1990)
M.R. Moretti: Musica e costume a Genova tra Cinquecento e Seicento
(Genoa, 1990/R)
A. Cantù and G. Tanasini: La lanterna magica: Ottocento strumentale
nella vita pubblica e privata della Superba (Genoa, 1991)
Musica a Genova tra Medio Evo e Età Moderna: Genoa 1989
D. Calcagno, G.E. Cortese and G. Tanasini: La scuola musicale
genovese tra XVI e XVII secolo: musica e musicisti d'ambiente
culturale ligure (Genoa, 1992)
R. Iovino and I. Aliprandi: I palcoscenici della lirica: dall'impresariato
all'ente lirico: il nuovo Carlo Felice (Genoa, 1992)
M. Balma: Genova Novecento: concerti e associazioni musicali (1900–
1993) (Genoa, 1993)
R. Iovino and others: I palcoscenici della lirica: cronologia dal Falcone al
nuovo Carlo Felice (1645–1992) (Genoa, 1993)
MARIA ROSA MORETTI
Genouillère
(Fr.).
See Knee-lever.
Genre.
A class, type or category, sanctioned by convention. Since conventional
definitions derive (inductively) from concrete particulars, such as musical
works or musical practices, and are therefore subject to change, a genre is
probably closer to an ‘ideal type’ (in Max Weber's sense) than to a Platonic
‘ideal form’.
Genres are based on the principle of repetition. They codify past
repetitions, and they invite future repetitions. These are two very different
functions, highlighting respectively qualities of artworks and qualities of
experience, and they have promoted two complementary approaches to
the study of genre. The first is properly a branch of poetics, and its students
have ranged from Aristotle to present-day exponents of an analytical
aesthetic. The second concerns rather the nature of aesthetic experience,
and is best understood as an orientating factor in communication. This
perspective has been favoured by many recent scholars of literature and
music, and reflects a more general tendency to problematize the relation
between artworks and their reception.
1. Typologies.
Since Aristotle, a central concern of Western poetics has been with the
classification of works of art. The principal role of classification is arguably
pragmatic – to make knowledge both manageable and persuasive – but its
effect can be to shape, and even to condition, our understanding of the
world. In this sense the underlying tendency of genre is not just to
organize, but also to close or finalize, our experience. This implies a
closed, homogeneous concept of the artwork, where it is assumed to be
determinate and to represent a conceptual unity. Only then is it readily
classifiable.
In literary studies, and in studies of operatic and other vocal music from the
Western tradition, typologies have been conditioned in large part by the
philological orientation of scholarly inquiry, at least until relatively recently.
This has privileged classical genres such as tragedy, comedy, epic and
lyric, with the novel a more recent addition. A classical emphasis has
likewise shaped ethnological classifications, foregrounding genre titles
such as ballad, legend, proverb and lyric folksong, all of which have been
used extensively as a focus for the collection and classification of folk
poetry and folk music. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries some of
these genre titles began to infiltrate art music, where they joined functional
titles such as those associated with courtly, rural or (increasingly) ‘national’
dances. Since these genres, like key characteristics and affective figures,
were part of a larger complex of representations with a basis in rhetorical
concepts, they had an explicit communicative function. This function was
rather less apparent (though it was by no means excluded) when the genre
title referred to a work of so-called ‘absolute music’. Titles such as sonata,
symphony and quartet did, after all, mark a quest for autonomy within
instrumental art music.
The repetition units that define a musical genre can be identified on several
levels. In the broadest understanding of the concept, they may extend into
the social domain, so that a genre will be dependent for its definition on
context, function and community validation and not simply on formal and
technical regulation. Thus the repetitions would be located in social,
behavioural and even ideological domains as well as in musical materials.
The lyric piano piece of the early 19th century might be considered an
undivided genre in these terms, and so might contemporary rock music. A
narrower understanding of genre, and a more common usage, separates
musical works from the conditions of their production and reception, and
identifies genre as a means of ordering, stabilizing and validating the
musical materials themselves (the lyric piano piece has its own constituent
genres, as does contemporary rock). This was largely the understanding of
Gattung promoted by Guido Adler in his influential scheme for
Musikwissenschaft. Yet even here repetition units would normally reach
beyond ‘the notes themselves’, embracing instrumentarium and
performance-site, as well as less tangible qualities such as ‘tone’ and
‘character’. Formal archetypes and stylistic schemata may well be
constitutive of a genre, but they are not in any sense equivalent to it.
Indeed a genre, working for stability, control and finality of meaning, might
be said to oppose the idiomatic diversity and evolutionary tendencies
characteristic of both form and style.
The classification of genres – essentially a systematic activity – begs larger
historical questions. How are genres created, and why? Within literary
criticism, several evolutionary models have been proposed (see Bovet and
Brunetière). Of these, one of the most persuasive was the theory
developed by Russian Formalist critics such as Shklovsky, Tïnyanov and
Tomashevsky. Here the governing principle is one of ‘struggle and
succession’ (Shklovsky), a process, internal to the art, in which the
dominant or canonized line comes into conflict with co-existing minor lines
and is eventually overthrown by these minor lines, now duly canonized.
New genres emerge, then, as accumulating minor devices acquire a focus
(a dominant), and challenge the major line. An alternative view, and one
applied more directly to music, emerges from Adorno's Aesthetic Theory.
Here the dialectic is not between major and minor lines, but between
Universal and Particular, where deviations from a schema in turn generate
new schemata. Moreover, the deviations are seen as indispensable to the
function and value of the schema in the first place. ‘Universals such as
genres … are true to the extent that they are subject to a countervailing
dynamic’.
Unlike the Russian Formalists (or for that matter New Critical students of
genre such as Northrop Frye), Adorno located artistic genres within a larger
social dialectic, and for that reason his analysis is historically contingent.
Thus he could refer to ‘nominalism and the demise of artistic genres’ in the
19th century. Similar arguments were presented by Irving Babbitt and
Croce, and they were made specific to music by Carl Dahlhaus, who
claimed that from the early 19th century onwards musical genres rapidly
lost substance. The suggestion here is that the performance- and genre-
orientated musical culture of the 18th and early 19th centuries was
increasingly undermined by a swerve towards the musical work. This work-
centred perspective (the product of a more general intellectual shift from
doctrinal to rational knowledge) was ultimately formalized in the discipline
of music analysis, which tended to minimize the power of genre in its
discourses. Musical works, in other words, were less concerned to
exemplify genres than to make their own statement. It is notable, then, that
genre definitions and classification systems have played a subsidiary role
in discussions of 20th-century art music, though ‘the quest for norms’ (Ki
Mantle Hood) continues to inform the work of folklorists and ethnologists
such as Alan Dundes and Dan Ben-Amos.
2. Genre and social practice.
From the mid-1960s a very different approach to the study of genre
developed, due in large part to a shift in critical perspective from the nature
of artworks to the nature of aesthetic experience. That shift was
accompanied by a parallel shift in the understanding of genre from the
classification of historically sedimented categories towards a more fluid,
flexible concept concerned above all with function, with the rhetoric or
‘discourse’ of genre within artistic communication and reception. The
simplest semiology recognizes the ‘sign’ as bipartite, with both parts
essential to its meaning. Thus a genre title is integral to an artwork and
partly conditions our response to its stylistic and formal content, but it does
not create a genre. Nor will a taxonomy of shared characteristics of itself
define a genre. It is the interaction of title and content that creates generic
meaning. Clearly, within this interaction, the content may subvert the
expectations created by the title, though it can do so only where a sufficient
correspondence of title and content has been established in the first place.
In this sense, as Heather Dubrow has noted (in her chapter ‘The Function
of Genre’), a genre behaves rather like a contract beween author and
reader, a contract that may be purposely broken. Genre, in short, is viewed
as one of the most powerful codes linking author and reader.
While this approach was developed above all in literary studies, it very
soon found applications in ethnology and in art music. A seminal
ethnological study was William Hanks's ‘Discourse Genres in a Theory of
Practice’, where a genre is viewed as a pairing of (socially and historically
produced) conventions and expectations. This highlights the
‘communicative properties’ of genre. Genres, according to Hanks, ‘consist
of orienting frameworks, interpretive procedures, and sets of expectations’,
and as such they may be manipulated for a wide variety of communicative
ends. This more flexible, open-ended conception of genre has also been
developed in recent writing by musicologists. One signal of a renewed
interest in the subject was a group of papers on genre at the Annual
Meeting of the American Musicological Society in 1986, given by Leo
Treitler, Anthony Newcomb, Laurence Dreyfus and Jeffrey Kallberg.
Kallberg in particular went on to develop the notion of genre as contractual
in two influential papers: ‘Understanding Genre: a Reinterpretation of the
Early Piano Nocturne’, and ‘The Rhetoric of Genre: Chopin's Nocturne in G
minor’. By revealing that Chopin subverted genre titles in ways that created
specific historical meanings, he demonstrated that the communicative
properties of genre depend not only on a consensual code that enables
meaning to be created, but also on the ‘reconstruction of contexts’ in a
historiographical sense.
An attractive aspect of this understanding of the concept has been its
capacity to accommodate the mixing or blending of genres, a device that
might well confuse the classifier, but which greatly strengthens the
communicative and programmatic potential of genre. Since genres
possess certain recognizable identifying traits (genre markers), they can be
counterpointed within an artwork to generate a ‘play’ of meanings which
may, in some later style systems, extend into irony or parody, or even point
beyond the work into the sphere of referential meaning. Thus in the 18th
century a sequence of generic ‘topics’ (Leonard Ratner), closely tied to
conventional affective meanings, might well have registered more forcefully
with contemporary listeners than any sense of the work as a unified
structure. The work, in other words, would have been heard in sequential
terms – less a structure than a succession. In the 19th century there was a
greater degree of cross-fertilization, as emotionally loaded, popular genres
increasingly penetrated the world of the symphony, the sonata, the quartet.
In such cases an ironic mode may be introduced. The work is not itself a
march, a waltz or a barcarolle but rather refers to a march, a waltz or a
barcarolle. The popular genre is part of the content of the work rather than
the category exemplified by the work.
By the end of the 19th century this counterpoint of genres could be a
powerful agent of expression, strongly suggestive of reference. Robert
Samuels has suggested (in his chapter ‘Genre and Presupposition in the
Mahlerian Scherzo’) that the play of three generic types in the Scherzo of
the Sixth Symphony (march, ländler, folkdance) succeeds in ‘teasing out’ a
referential meaning which is neatly embodied in the topos of the Dance of
Death, itself a resonant allegorical motif in Western culture. The strength of
genre for Samuels's purpose is its double existence as a musical category
and a social construct, inviting a journey through musical intertextuality to
the world beyond the notes. What the analysis demonstrates is that the
‘demise of artistic genres’ is real only to the extent that an auteur-based
model of history is allowed to dominate, and with it a one-sided
understanding of genre as a generalized typology of shared materials. The
recognition that a social element can participate in both the definition and
the function of genre releases its energy and confirms its continuing value
for our culture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Brunetière: L’évolution des genres dans l'histoire de la littérature (Paris,
1890, 6/1914)
B. Croce: Estetica come scienza dell'espressione e linguistica generale
(Bari, 1902, 4/1912; Eng. trans., 1909, 2/1922/R)
I. Babbitt: The New Laokoon: an Essay on the Confusion of the Arts
(Boston, 1910)
E. Bovet: Lyrisme, épopée, drame (Paris, 1911)
P. Kohler: ‘Contribution à une philosophie des genres’, Helicon, i (1938),
233–44; ii (1939), 135–42
N. Frye: Anatomy of Criticism (Princeton, NJ, 1957)
V. Propp: Morphology of the Folktale (Bloomington, IN, 1958, 2/1968/R;
Russ. orig., Leningrad, 1928)
G. Adorno and R. Tiedemann, eds.: T.W. Adorno: Ästhetische Theorie
(Frankfurt, 1970, 2/1972; Eng. trans., 1984)
P. Hernadi: Beyond Genre (Ithaca, NY, 1972)
A. Dundes: Analytical Essays in Folklore (The Hague, 1975)
D. Ben-Amos, ed.: Folklore Genres (Austin, 1976)
T. Todorov: ‘The Origins of Genres’, New Literary History, viii (1976), 159–
70
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Die neue Musik und das Problem der musikalischen
Gattungen’, Schönberg und andere (Mainz, 1978), 72–82; Eng. trans.
in Schoenberg and the New Music (Cambridge, 1987), 32–44
L.M. O'Toole and A. Shukman, eds.: Formalism: History, Comparison,
Genre (Oxford, 1978)
H. Dubrow: Genre (London, 1982)
F. Fabbri: ‘A Theory of Musical Genres: Two Applications’, Popular Music
Perspectives, ed. P. Tagg and D. Horn (Göteborg and Exeter, 1982),
52–81
W. Hanks: ‘Discourse Genres in a Theory of Practice’, American
Ethnologist, xiv (1987), 666–92
J. Kallberg: ‘Understanding Genre: a Reinterpretation of the Early Piano
Nocturne’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, 775–9
J. Kallberg: ‘The Rhetoric of Genre: Chopin's Nocturne in G minor’, 19CM,
xi (1987–8), 238–61
J. Samson: ‘Chopin and Genre’, MAn, viii (1989), 213–32
R. Pascall: ‘Genre and the Finale of Brahms's Fourth Symphony’, MAn, viii
(1989), 233–46
C. Goodwin and A. Duranti, eds.: Rethinking Context (Cambridge, 1992)
R. Samuels: Mahler's Sixth Symphony: a Study in Semiotics (Cambridge,
1995)
JIM SAMSON
Gens, Véronique
(b Orléans, 19 April 1966). French soprano. Having won prizes in her
native city, and in early music at the Paris Conservatoire, Gens made her
début with Les Arts Florissants in 1986. Under William Christie's guidance
she quickly became a proficient and appealing interpreter of, among
others, Purcell, Lully and Rameau, including appearances at the Aix-en-
Provence Festival in The Fairy-Queen (1989) and Castor et Pollux (1991),
both recorded. She sang in Lully's Phaëton at the reopening of the Lyons
Opera in 1993, followed at the same theatre with Countess Almaviva
(1994). The same season she took part in a production, jointly staged by
the Théâtre du Châtelet and Covent Garden, of Purcell's King Arthur. She
has since added Idamante, Donna Elvira and Lully's Galatea to her stage
repertory. In addition to Christie, Gens has worked with such conductors as
Minkowski, Malgoire, Herreweghe, Jacobs and Rousset in the Baroque
repertory, and in 1998 recorded an admired Fiordiligi in Jacobs's set of
Così fan tutte. With Herreweghe, in concert and on disc, she has
undertaken Mary in L'enfance du Christ. She is also a sympathetic,
involving interpreter of French mélodies as can be heard on a disc of
Fauré, Debussy and Poulenc. Her flexible, finely tuned voice, deployed
with an innate sense of style, is used with eloquence and a strong sense of
dramatic purpose.
ALAN BLYTH
Gent
(Flem.).
See Ghent.
Celle qui a fascheux mari, 15438, ed. in Call, ii; C’est trop pensé, 154512; C’est ung
grand cas, Onziesme livre contenant xxviii chansons nouvelles, 4vv (Paris, 1541);
De ce brandon, 15437-8, ed. in Call, ii; De faire bien et servir loyaulement, 1543 8;
Dieu qui conduictz, 154924 (intabulation in 156227); Dieu te garde bergiere, 15524;
Du fons de ma pensée, 15449
J’ay supporté son honneur, 15478; Je sens mon heur, 154512; Je seuffre passion,
154920; Je suis Robert, 154920, ed. in Call, ii; La loy d’honneur, ed. PÄMw, xxiii
(1899); La peine dure, 154920, ed. in Call, ii; Le temps peult bien, 1548 4; O foible
esprit, 154922, ed. in Dobbins (arr. insts in C. Gervaise: Quart livre de danceries,
Paris, 1550; intabulation in 155232); O temps qui est vaincueur, 154920
Si de mon mal, 15484; Si quelque fois devant vous, 154512, ed. in Call, ii
(intabulation in 155435); Toutes les fois que je pense au tourment, 1547 11; Une dame
par ung matin, 154012 (attrib. Belin in 153814), ed. in Call, ii; Vous qui voulez, 155914;
Voyez le tort, 155914
L’eccho, intabulation (of Dieu qui conduictz) in 1554 34
Doubtful: Qui souhaittez avoir tout le plaisir, attrib. Sandrin in 1549 20, attrib. Gentian
in 155631 (intabulation), 155914, 158623 (intabulation); Voyez le tort, attrib. Sandrin in
153810, attrib. Sandrin in 155914
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Dobbins: ‘Joachim Du Bellay et la musique de son temps’, Du Bellay:
Angers 1989, ed. G. Cesbron (Angers, 1990), 587–605
J.M. Call: A Chansonnier from Lyons: the Manuscript Vienna,
Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Mus.Hs.18811 (diss., U. of Illinois,
1992)
SAMUEL F. POGUE/FRANK DOBBINS
Gentile, Ada
(b Avezzano, 26 July 1947). Italian composer. She took diplomas in piano
playing (1972) and composition (1974) and then took Petrassi's
postgraduate composition course at the Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome
(1975–6). She made her name in various international competitions
(Gaudeamus 1982, ISCM, Budapest 1986 and Essen 1995), and was
honoured ‘for cultural services’ by the Polish Ministry of Culture in 1988. In
parallel with her compositional activities she has been adviser of the
Venezia Biennale Festival (1993–7) and artistic director of various musical
institutions: Nuovi Spazi Musicali, Rome (since 1979), the Goffredo
Petrassi Chamber Orchestra, Rome (1986–8) and the opera house in
Ascoli Piceno (1996–9). She was appointed to teach at the Rome
Conservatory in 1978. Her music displays an experimental attitude towards
timbre and sounds are often presented at the limit of perceptibility. The
cornerstone of her expressive idiom is an ethereal soundworld in which the
tiniest gestures emerge elegantly from silence while the musical texture is
continually fragmented and recomposed. Her work is notable for structural
unity and a stylistic security. In her chamber and orchestral pieces, she
aims to create a counterpoint of diffused sounds which work against each
other in extremely rapid rhythms to produce a kaleidoscopic, continually
changing web of sound.
WORKS
(selective list)
SUSANNA PASTICCI
Gentile, Ortensio
(fl 1616). Italian composer. He is known only by his Il primo libro de
madrigali a cinque voci (Venice, 1616), which he dedicated to the Duke of
Mantua. It includes one madrigal with continuo (‘in modo di sinfonia’) and a
setting over the romanesca. The first madrigal in the book abounds in
syncopation and textural contrasts but includes some unusual harmonic
effects suggesting that Gentile found five-part writing difficult.
COLIN TIMMS
Gentili, Giorgio
(b Venice, ?1669; d ?Venice, after 1730). Italian composer and violinist.
Appointed as a violinist to the ducal chapel of S Marco on 10 July 1689, he
acquired the duty of playing solos for the Elevation in 1693. He remained in
the same post until at least 1731, in which year he was one of the
signatories to the document attesting Lotti's authorship of the disputed
madrigal In una siepe ombrosa, styling himself first violinist in the ducal
chapel. The few written references to Gentili in the intervening years
confirm his continuing attachment to S Marco, though from about 1702 to
about 1717 he also held the post of maestro di istromenti at the Ospedale
dei Mendicanti.
Gentili left six collections of printed instrumental music comprising 72
works. Externally similar (and perhaps not coincidentally so) to works in the
same genres by his fellow citizen and contemporary Tomaso Albinoni, they
reveal a competent but not very individual creative personality, although the
violin technique required is rather more demanding than that in Albinoni's
works of the same period. The trio sonatas of Gentili's op.1 (1701)
command interest through their absorption of display elements associated
with the solo sonata and concerto genres and the presence of ‘solo’ and
‘tutti’ cues in three slow movements, which suggests performance with
doubled instruments. Both features are exploited more fully in the two sets
of concertos, opp.5 and 6, the ‘concerti’ of op.2 being chamber sonatas.
(MoserGV; ScheringGIK)
WORKS
all published in Venice
1 conc. in a transcr. for org attrib. to J.G. Walther pubd in DDT, xxvi–xxvii (1906),
303
MICHAEL TALBOT
Gentilucci, Armando
(b Lecce, 8 Oct 1939; d Milan, 12 Nov 1989). Italian composer and writer
on music. He studied composition at the Milan Conservatory with Donatoni
and Bettinelli, and received the diploma in 1963. Gentilucci also took
diplomas in the piano (1961) and choral music and direction (1962) and
courses in conducting with Votto there. He taught at the conservatories in
Bolzano and Milan from 1964 to 1969, when he became director of the
Instituto Musicale in Reggio nell’Emilia, a post which he held until 1989.
During the 1970s he was one of the organizers of Musica/Realtà, and one
of the founders of the journal of the same name which he also edited.
His musical and critical output of the 1960s is characterized by the search
for a musical idiom beyond both Adorno’s idea of the Stravinsky–
Schoenberg conflict, and aleatory procedures, maintaining a strain of
contemporary music which has its roots in composers such as Bartók,
Varèse, Ives and Dallapiccola. From his earliest works Gentilucci’s concern
is with sound, understood as a synthesis of timbre, harmony and melody;
out of this he derived a compositional process which evolves from moment
to moment. He was critical of the ‘aesthetics of negativism and informality’
in music, with a point of reference for his own development lying in the
work and ideas of Nono. Following Nono’s example, at the beginning of the
1970s he linked his pieces to political and social themes (e.g. Canti di
Majakovskij, Cile). An important aspect of this phase, which came to an
end with Che voi pensiate in 1975, was an enriched conception of sound,
including electronic manipulation (as in Come qualcosa palpita nel fondo)
and Ives-like quotations in the famous Studi per un Dies irae. The large
amount of music produced from 1976 to 1978 is a witness to a final
maturity, with a wide variety of source material taken as a point of
departure. His approach could embrace echoes from the past (contrapuntal
techniques, quotations, quasi-tonal centres) as much as avant-garde
procedures and sounds, while retaining a coherent style far from the spirit
of collage. The first significant work of this last period was Il tempo sullo
sfondo for orchestra of 1978, the year he wrote his long essay Oltre
l’avanguardia: un invito al molteplice, which during the 1980s became a
reference point of musical theory for the new generation of Italian
composers. Central too in these years were his opera Moby Dick (1986–8),
his passionate, lyrical works for women’s voices and his many pieces for
solo instruments.
WORKS
(selective list)
Stage: Che voi pensiate (azione musicale), tape, Bologna, Comunale, 25 June
1975; Moby Dick (azione musicale), 1986–8, unperf.
Orch: Conc., pf, str, perc, 1962; Fantasia [no.1], fl, str, pf, perc, 1963; 3 movimenti
sinfonici, 1963; Ov., 1963; Figure, 32 insts, 1966; Sequenze, chbr orch, 1967–8;
Fantasia no.2, fl, str, perc, 1968; Phonomimesis, chbr orch, 1969; Studi per un Dies
irae, 1971–2; Coinvolgimento, 2 vn, va, small orch, 1974; In divenire, vn, orch,
1975–6; Scontri, vn, chbr orch, 1976; Il tempo sullo sfondo, 1978; Voci dal silenzio,
1981; Ritorno di un canto dimenticato, ob, small orch, 1983; Azzurri abissi, cl, orch,
1986; Frammenti sinfonici da Moby Dick, 1988
Str ens: Diario, 1965; Rifrazioni, 1969; Mensurale, 1977
Vocal: Canti da Estravagario di Neruda, Bar, ob qt, 1965; Strofe di Ungaretti, 6 solo
vv, 1967; Siamo prossimi al risveglio (anon., Novalis), Bar, pf, perc, db, 1968; Canti
di Majakovskij, spkr, S, 23 insts, 1970; Lied senza parole, S, pf, 1977; Le secrete
vie, chorus, orch, 1981; Ramo di foglia verde, 2 solo vv, orch, 1982; Canto notturno,
S, orch, 1983; Il chiarore dell’Utopia, S, orch, 1985; Sparì la luna, S, gui, 1985; 2
arie cameristiche e coro da Moby Dick, S, chorus, insts, 1988; Nell’ombra della tua
notte, chorus, 1988; Frammenti poetici di Marina Cvetaeva, S, insts, 1989; Oltre il
mare aperto, S, Renaissance insts, 1989; Rien de plus, S, insts, 1989
5–11 insts: Conc., 5 insts, 1966; Contrasti, 7 insts, 1966; Diacronie, vn, 9 insts,
1970; Diario II, wind qnt, 1971; Cile, wind qnt, 1973; Trama, 2 wind qnt, 1977;
Haleine, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, tuba, 1980; Nei quieti silenzi, wind qnt, trbn, str qt, db, 1983;
Un mutevole intreccio, 2 wind qnt, 1983; Specchi della memoria, fl, pic + a fl, cl, b
cl, hn, pf, 1984; Una trasfigurata rievocazione cubana, fl, cl, hn, vn, va, pf, cel, 1988
2–4 insts: Elegie, pf trio, 1966; Momenti, str qt, 1966; Epitaffio per C. Pavese, cl, vn,
vc, 1967; Diagramma, cl, vn, pf, 1970; Crescendo, pf trio, 1971; Come qualcosa
palpita nel fondo, vn, tape, 1973, rev. 1980; … e ho alzato gli occhi … , 2 vn, va,
1973; Tensioni, va, pf, 1976; Molteplice, vn, va, vc, tape, 1977; Gesti e risonanze,
cl, perc, 1980; Intervalli del tempo, str qt, 1981; Un traccia sommessamente, vn, pf,
1981; Le clessidre di Dürer, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1985; Selva di pensieri sonanti, cl, pf,
1988
Solo inst: Iter, pf, 1969; Dal suono al suono, pf, 1977; Oh, voce che mi sfuggi, fl,
1981; Polifonie per Andrea Centazzo, perc, 1981; Memoria di un Gondellied, pf,
1982; Al telaio del tempo, cl, 1983; Frammenti di un diario d'autunno, pf, 1983; In
Lebenfluten, ob, 1983; Dal fondo di uno specchio, inst, 1984; Metafore del tempo,
pf, 1984; Dove non sono confini, vc, 1985; Fibre di una tela all'orizzonte, db, 1985;
In acque solitaire, fl, 1986; Metamorfosi su un alleluja, bn, 1986; Le trame di un
labirinto, sax, 1986; Lo scrigno dei suoni, pf, 1989
WRITINGS
‘Il futurismo e lo sperimentalismo musicale d’oggi’, Convegno musicale, i
(1964), 275–303
with L. Pestalozza: ‘Verdi’, I protagonisti della storia universale, x (Milan,
1966, 2/1972), 365
‘La tecnica corale di Luigi Nono’, RIM, ii (1967), 111–29
‘L’alea oggi’, Discoteca, 77 (1968), 24–5
‘Giacomo Manzoni’, NRMI, ii (1968), 1147–61
Guida all’ascolto della musica contemporanea (Milan, 1969)
‘Šostakovič anno 1925’, NRMI, iv (1970), 445–62
‘“L’action ne doit pas être une réaction mais une creation’’: appunti su una
recente opera di Luigi Nono’, Quaderni della RaM, no.5 (1972), 67–74
Introduzione alla musica elettronica (Milan, 1972)
‘Vittorio Fellegara: una presenza’, NRMI, viii (1974), 579–91
Oltre l’avanguardia: un invito al molteplice (Fiesole, 1979, 2/1980/R)
‘Gestualità drammatica nel teatro musicale italiano del dopoguerra’,
Musica/Realtà, i (1980), 81–93
‘György Ligeti’, Ligeti, ed. E. Restagno (Turin, 1985), 58–64
‘La figura musicale e la terza dimensione’, Quaderni della Civica Scuola di
Musica, xiii (1986), 83–5
‘La musica contemporanea a cavallo tra due decenni: 1970/80’,
Musica/Realtà, vii (1986), 59–74
‘Attorno a Moby Dick: appunti sulla composizione di un’opera di teatro
musicale’, il verri, 8th ser., nos.5–6 (1987), 34–45
‘Gli anni sessanta’, Nono, ed. E. Restagno (Turin, 1987), 157–68
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.W. Heister: ‘Kantabilität und Klangkonstruktion: ein Werkporträt des
italienischen Komponisten Armando Gentilucci’, Musiktexte, (1985), xii,
7–10
Various authors: ‘Su Armando Gentilucci’, Musica/Realtà, xi (1990), 29–54
H.W. Heister: ‘Scrigno dei suoni e Chiarore dell’utopia: aspetti dell’opera di
Armando Gentilucci’, Musica/Realtà, xi (1990), 117–32
GIORDANO FERRARI
Gentlemen's Concerts.
A concert series given in Manchester from 1770. See Manchester, §2.
Genuino, Francesco
(b ?Naples, c1580–85; d ?Naples, before 1633). Italian composer. A
member of a prominent family in Naples, he may have been identical with,
or related to, the abbot Francesco Genoino, imprisoned in 1620 with other
relatives of Giulio Genoino, who led an uprising against Cardinal Borgia,
the Viceroy of Naples. Girolamo Genuino’s book of anagrams of names,
Metamorphoses nominum (Naples, 1633), contains one for Francesco
Genuino in the past tense, praising his musical ability. The first and fourth
of Genuino’s five books of five-voice madrigals are lost. The remaining
books show that the style of his madrigals changed little over his career.
They are serious works, with only a few chordal phrases in triple metre and
no fast declamation on repeated notes. Their textures, more than those of
any other Neapolitan madrigals of the period, avoid the lightness of the
canzonetta. Almost two thirds of the phrases are points of imitation, whose
rhythmically nervous motifs are often crowded together, when not doubled
in 3rds or 10ths. Neither these motifs nor the chordal phrases are as
melodically cogent as those of Fontanelli, Gesualdo or Nenna. Genuino’s
second book (1605), to texts by Guarini and Tasso among others, shows
less contrapuntal mastery than the later books; there are several parallel
octaves and duplicated contrapuntal lines. Altri goda al tuo canto is partly
modelled on Fontanelli’s setting of the same text of 1595. There is only a
little chromaticism of the type Gesualdo used. The third book (1612) has
none of the earlier contrapuntal crudities. It is the most imitative of the
three extant books and includes less repetition than do other Neapolitan
madrigal books of the time. Poets represented include Marino and
Rinuccini along with Guarini.
There are more durezze e ligature than in the earlier book. The madrigals
in the fifth book, to texts by Guarini, Marino and Murtola, are shorter than
other Neapolitan madrigals but more complex than most. Incessant
rhythmic activity, in which all the lower voices take part, makes the points of
imitation quite involved. Dissonances are handled freely, and there are
some striking deceptive cadences, original durezze e ligature and novel
entry effects.
WORKS
Libro secondo di [22] madrigali, 5vv (Naples, 1605)
[21] Madrigali, libro terzo, 5vv (Naples, 1612), inc.
[22] Madrigali, libro quinto, 5vv (Naples, 1614); 1 ed. in G. Watkins: Gesualdo: The
Man and His Music (London, 1973, 2/1991)
4 madrigals, 5vv, 161514, 162213
KEITH A. LARSON
Genus
(Lat., pl. genera; Gk. genos, pl. genē: ‘kind’).
A term in the tradition of ancient Greek music theory defining various
dispositions of (1) the two movable notes within the tetrachord and (2)
patterns of rhythm. The term is also used in its common logical sense to
define other distinct groupings that appear from time to time in the
theoretical tradition.
There were three basic genera of the tetrachord: diatonic, chromatic and
enharmonic; the diatonic and chromatic genera could also exhibit various
‘shades’ (chroai) or ‘species’ (eidē). In the treatise of Aristoxenus, it is clear
that these shades are merely abstractions of the possibility for nearly
infinite variation in the pitch of the two movable notes, as long as they
remained within a certain region and retained a proportionate relationship
to each other and to the two outer notes of the tetrachord. Nevertheless, in
the later theoretical tradition the six shades assume the status of specific
subcategories of the genera (for a chart of the six shades see Greece, §I,
6(iii)(c)). In patterns of rhythm Aristides Quintilianus defined three genera:
equal, sesquialteran and duple; but he conceded that some add a fourth,
sesquitertian. Dactylic or anapestic rhythms are equal; paeonic,
sesquialteran; and iambic and trochaic, duple. (See also Greece, §I, 7(ii).)
THOMAS J. MATHIESEN
Genzmer, Harald
(b Blumenthal, nr Bremen, 9 Feb 1909). German composer. He studied
theory with Hermann Stephani in Marburg (1925–8) and composition with
Paul Hindemith at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik, where his teachers also
included Rudolph Schmidt (piano), Alfred Richter (clarinet), Curt Sachs and
Georg Schünemann (musicology). After completing his studies, he worked
as chorus répétiteur and vocal coach at the Breslau Opera (1934–7). From
1938 to 1940 he was on the staff at the Volkmusikschule, Berlin-Neukölln.
He later served as professor of composition and acting director at the
Musikhochschule, Freiburg (1946–57) and chair of composition at the
Hochschule für Musik, Munich (1957–74).
Unlike many of his contemporaries, Genzmer was not interested in
composing abstract music; instead, he consistently placed the human
being at the centre of his compositional activity. Erich Valentin aptly
described Genzmer as a ‘humanist among musicians’, a title originally
given to Paul Hoffhaimer. An interest in amateur music-making, particularly
music involving young people, has been an enduring aspect of his huge
output (over 300 works). Combining Hindemith's craftsmanship with the
emotive aural sensuality of Richard Strauss, the expressive character of his
works is as important to his style as harmonic, melodic and rhythmic
elements. His technique of motivic development places him among the
Classical symphonic composers. In spite of its technical and aesthetic
demands, his music is accessible and remains intelligible to a wide range
of audiences.
WORKS
(selective list)
Ballets: Kokua (W.M. Schede), Freiburg, 1952; Der Zauberspiegel (H. Stadlmair),
1965
Orch: Trautonium Conc. no.1, 1939; Concertino no.1, fl/vn, pf, str, 1946; Pf Conc.,
1948; Vc Conc. 1950; Trautonium Conc. no.2, 1952; Fl Conc., 1954; Sym. no.1,
1957; Sym. no.2, 1958; Conc. da camera, vn, chbr orch, 1959; Concertino, pf, str,
1963; Vc Conc. no.2, vc, wind, 1969; Musik für Orchester nach einem Fragment
von Friedrich Hölderlin (1977–8); Conc., org, str, 1980; Conc., vc, db, str, 1985;
Sym. no.3, 1986; Sym. no.4, 1990
Vocal: Mass, E, S, A, Bar, vv, orch, 1953; Südamerikanische Gesänge (V.G. Kemp,
N. Guillen, L. Lugones, M.G. Najera), 4–9vv, 1957; Irische Harfe (anon., Macleod,
Young, J. Joyce), 4–8 mixed vv, 1965; Kantate 1981 (Eng. Baroque poetry), S,
mixed chorus, orch, 1981; Petrarca-Chöre (Petrarch), SATB, 1973–4; many works
for vv, orch; lieder; solo cants.
Chbr: Pf Trio no.1, F, 1944; Septet, fl, cl, hn, str trio, hp, 1944; Trio, fl, va, hp, 1947;
Str Qt no.1, 1949; Pf Trio no.2, 1954; Str Qt no.2, 1954; Wind Qnt, 1957; Nonet, ob,
cl, bn, hn, str qt, db, 1962; Kammermusik, cl, pf trio, 1964; Sextet, 2 cl, 2 bn, 2 hn,
1966; Qt, vn, va, vc, db, 1967; Musik, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1968; Wind Qnt, 1970; Partit á
tre, tpt, trbn, org, 1986; many sonatas for solo inst and pf; works for dulcimer/glass
hp
Kbd: Pf Sonata no.1, 1938; Tripartita, F, org, 1945; Pf Sonata no.2, 1950; Org
Sonata no.1, 1953; Org Sonata no.2, 1956; Org Sonata no.3, 1963;
Adventskonzert, org, 1966; Die Tageszeiten, org, 1968; Pf Sonata no.3, 1981; Pf
Sonata no.4, 1982; Pfinstkonzert, org, 1983; Pf Sonata no.5, n.d.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Interpreten über Harald Genzmer (Frankfurt, 1969)
F. Herz: ‘Die Orgelwerke von Harald Genzmer’, Ars organi, xxix/2 (1981),
97–101
E. Valentin and others: Harald Genzmer (Tutzing, 1983)
H. Müllich: ‘Zum Wort-Ton-Verhältnis in Harald Genzmers Chorschaffen’,
Musik in Bayern, xxviii (1984), 27–44
JÖRG RIEDLBAUER
Geoffroy, Jean-Baptiste
(b diocese of Clermont, 1601; d Paris, 30 Oct 1675). French composer. He
entered the Jesuit order as a novice in 1621, studied grammar, the
humanities, rhetoric and philosophy at Paris, and from 1660 until his death
directed the music at the convent of his order in Paris (see A. de Backer
and others: Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus, ed. C. Sommervogel,
iii, Brussels, 1892). Three volumes of sacred music by him are known to
have been published in Paris: Musicalia varia ad usum ecclesiae (1650,
lost); Musica sacra ad vesperas aliasque in ecclesia preces for one, two
and four voices with organ (1659); and a companion volume to the latter,
Musica sacra ad varias ecclesiae preces … pars altera (1661), for four
voices. It is noteworthy that he allowed the works in these last two books to
be sung either by a solo voice (accompanied or unaccompanied) or by a
group of solo voices contrasted with a full chorus (see D. Launay: La
Musique religieuse en France du Concile de Trente à 1804, Paris, 1993,
p.322). There are a few other sacred works in manuscript.
Geoffroy, Jean-Nicolas
(d Perpignan, 11 March 1694). French composer, organist and writer. He
was the author of the largest collection of harpsichord music of 17th-
century France. The only reliable information about him is given on the title-
page of his harpsichord book and in a few archival documents at
Perpignan. There are a number of references to ‘Geoffroy’ or to ‘Nicolas
Geoffroy’ in Parisian documents between 1658 and 1713, suggesting that
at least two musicians of this name were active there, but it is impossible to
know how many more there were or how they were related. Jean-Nicolas
was organist of St Nicolas du Chardonnet in Paris, probably until 1690. In
that year his name first appears in documents at Perpignan and he was
there accused by the cathedral organist, Villeneuve, of having usurped his
functions and perhaps his salary. Geoffroy may have been engaged for his
technical knowledge, since Jean de Joyeuse, builder of the new organ, had
failed despite his best efforts to instruct Villeneuve in the maintenance of
the organ, especially the Parisian-style reed stops. At any rate, on 8 April
1691, ‘Jean-Nicolas, dit Jofré’ took over Villeneuve's post by mutual
consent and was formally installed as organist of the cathedral on 15
August 1692. At his death, Villeneuve returned, and the organ no doubt fell
into disrepair.
The only music clearly ascribed to Jean-Nicolas is a manuscript copy, Livre
des pieces de clavessin de tous les tons naturels et transposéz (F-Pn Rés.
475; ed. J. Frisch, Bourg-la-Reine, n.d./R), made after his death and once
owned by the choir school at Rouen, of no fewer than 213 pieces ‘drawn
from his works’, of which 42 exist in a second, transposed version. Most
are grouped into 16 harpsichord suites (including four transpositions), but
there are also a few pieces for viols, dialogues for viols and harpsichord,
and organ pieces.
Although most of his pieces are typical of the period and resemble those of
Lebègue as much as anyone's, their style and particularly their harmony
reveal Geoffroy as an extraordinarily inventive and even experimental
composer. However, he had little ability to control his ideas and many of his
startling dissonances and chromatic inflections have an arbitrary effect
instead of intensifying the expression of the music. He was fond of mixing
the major and minor scales and was prodigal with the resulting false
relations; the part-writing is often harmonically out of phase, producing
anticipations, retards and clashing 2nds; his textures sometimes generate
complete 7th and 9th chords in such a way as to make them sound like
chords in their own right. When by chance or by extra care his experiments
succeed, the effect is arresting, expressive and forward looking. Another
volume that belonged to the choir school at Rouen (F-Pn Rés 476) has
often been misattributed to Geoffroy but there is no musical connection.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Roche: ‘Un livre de clavecin français de la fin du XVIIe siècle’, RMFC,
vii (1967), 39–73
B. Gustafson: French Harpsichord Music of the 17th Century (Ann Arbor,
1979)
B. De Boer: The Harpsichord Music of Jean Nicolas Geoffroy (diss.,
Northwestern U., 1983)
DAVID FULLER (with BRUCE GUSTAFSON)
Geoffroy-Dechaume, Antoine
(b Paris, 7 Oct 1905). French musicologist, organist and harpsichordist. He
studied the organ with Eugène Gigout and composition with Georges
Caussade at the Paris Conservatoire (1923–31). He was organist at Notre-
Dame de Pontoise (1922–37), professor at the Collège de Normandie
(1937–9) and harpsichordist with such societies as Ars Musica before
becoming a professor at the Schola Cantorum in Paris (1962–4) as well as
professor of interpretation and harpsichord at the university and
conservatory in Poitiers (1967). In 1968 he was a visiting fellow at
University College, Cambridge, and was awarded the Cambridge MA.
Geoffroy-Dechaume’s interest in early music and its interpretation was
stimulated by Arnold Dolmetsch, a family friend from the time of his
residence in Fontenay-sous-Bois (1912) and one who continued to
influence his musical development through personal and scholarly contact.
Geoffroy-Dechaume’s studies relate in particular to Rameau and Couperin
as well as to more general questions of performing techniques (notably for
the organ and harpsichord), transcription, realization and interpretation. He
has applied the results of his research – with a rigour which sometimes
arouses controversy – to the preparation of many concerts of early music
given by the BBC, the ORTF, the Orchestre de l’Opéra, and the Orchestre
National de Paris (1947–52), by the Société de Musique d’Autrefois (from
1955), and at the Aix-en-Provence (1955), Bath (1965) and English Bach
festivals (Oxford, 1965 and 1968).
WRITINGS
‘Réalisation’, FasquelleE
Les ‘secrets’ de la musique ancienne: recherches sur l'interprétation XVIe-
XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles (Paris, 1964/R)
‘Connaissance de Rameau’, ReM, no.260 (1965), 37–45
‘De l’interprétation de la musique ancienne’, Musique de tous les temps,
no.38 (1965) [whole issue]
‘Racine et la musique’, Cahiers raciniens, xxii (1967), 43–55
‘Du problème actuel de l’appogiature ancienne’, L’interprétation de la
musique française aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles: Paris 1969, 87–105
‘Techniques d’exécution de la musique ancienne de clavier’, Connaissance
de l’orgue, no.5 (1973), 2–7; repr. as ‘De quelques secrets de la
musique ancienne’, Carnet musical, xi (1974), 11–19
Introduction to J.J. Quantz: Essai, méthode de flûte traversière (Paris,
1975/R) [facs. of 1752 edn]
Langage du clavecin (Tours, 1986)
‘Rythme, inégalité et ornamentation dans la musique de Bach’, Analyse
musicale, no.7 (1987), 11–15
‘L'accompagnement sur basse dans le continuo: un véritable art
d'improviser’, Analyse musicale, no.14 (1989), 19–29
Editions of works by Rameau, Rebel and D. Scarlatti
CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER
George, Michael
(b Thetford, 10 Aug 1950). English bass-baritone. A chorister at King's
College, Cambridge, he later studied at the RCM with Gordon Clinton,
making his début in 1972 at The Maltings, Snape, in Handel's Saul. He has
sung regularly with the Academy of Ancient Music, English Baroque
Soloists, the Sixteen, the King's Consort and other groups in concerts
throughout the world. His repertory, much of which he has recorded,
stretches from medieval music to Stravinsky and Pärt (whose Miserere he
sang at the 1990 Proms), and includes Bach's B minor Mass and the
Passions, most of Handel's oratorios and Haydn's Creation. He has also
performed and recorded many of the odes, anthems and stage works of
Purcell. George's operatic recordings include Monteverdi's Orfeo and
Handel's Ottone. An intensely musical singer with a firm, agile voice, he
has deep understanding of the varied stylistic demands of composers in
different periods.
ELIZABETH FORBES
vocal
5 liduri, S, orch, 1960; A Mioritic Model (ballad-op, 1, Georgescu, after trad. text),
1973, Cluj-Napoca, Română, 1 Oct 1975; choral works
Schiţe pentru o frescă [Sketches for a Fresco], chorus, orch: 1 Colinde [Carols]
(cant.), 1972; 2 Imnuri [Hymns], 1978; 3 Et vidi caelum novum (cant.), 1996
orchestral
Motive Maramureşene [Motifs from the Maramureş], 1962; Partita, 1968
Jocuri [Plays]: 1 Plays, 1962; 2 Bihor Landscape, 1964; 3 Festive Plays, 1965; 4
Collages, 1966; 5 Refrains, 1967; 6 Pianissimo, 1972; 7 Long Songs, 1973; 8
Variants of a Dance, 1974; 9 Dance Echoes, 1982; 10 Manifold Plays, 1982
Models: 1 Yellow Black, 1967; 2 Continuo, 1968; 3 Zig-Zag, 1969; 4 Rubato, 1970
Homage to Ţuculescu: Sym. no.1 ‘Armonii simple’, 1982, Sym. no.2 ‘Orizontale’,
1980, Sym. no.3 ‘Privirile culorilor’ [The Looks of the Colours], 1985
works with tape
8 compoziţii statice, pf, tape, 1968; Studii atemporale, 12 pieces and projects,
1980–92; Semne [Signs], 12 insts, tape, 1987
Omagiu lui Piet Mondrian, str qt, tape: 1 Composition in a Square with Red, Yellow
and Blue, 1980; 2 Composition with Tones of Pure Colour on a White Background,
1982; 3 Composition in Grey and Black, 1984; 4 Composition in Black and White,
1985; 5 Composition with Straight Lines, 1986; 6 Composition with Triangles and
Squares, 1992; 7 Composition with Discontinuous Lines, 1994
other works
Invenţiuni, pf, 1957; Sonata, pf, 1958; Trio-Divertisment, fl, cl, bn, 1958; Sonata, 2
vn, 1960; Preludii contemplative, org: 1 Ascendo, 1991; 2 Spatium, 1991; 3 Orbis I–
II, 1995; film scores
WRITINGS
Melodii de joc din Oltenia [Dance tunes from Oltenia] (Bucharest, 1968)
Repertoriul pastoral: semnale de bucium, tipologie muzicala si corpus de
melodii [The pastoral repertory: bucium signals, a musical typology
and collection of melodies] (Bucharest, 1987)
Improvisation in der traditionellen rumänischen Tanzmusik (Eisenach,
1995)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KdG (R. Stan)
V. Cosma: Muzicieni români (Bucharest, 1970)
C. Cazaban: ‘Corneliu Dan Georgescu: Jocuri festive’ [Georgescu: Festive
Plays], Muzica, xxii/5 (1972), 7–8
C. Tautu: ‘Continuo de Corneliu Dan Georgescu’, Muzica, xxii/9 (1972), 8–
9
D. Scurtulescu: ‘Corneliu Dan Georgescu: portrait’, Muzica, xxxii/11
(1982), 35–49 [in Fr.]
G. Tartler: Melopoetica (Bucharest, 1984)
OCTAVIAN COSMA
Georgescu, George
(b Sulina, 12 Sept 1887; d Bucharest, 1 Sept 1964). Romanian conductor
and cellist. He began violin lessons at the age of five, but turned to the
cello (under Constantin Dimitrescu) at the Bucharest Conservatory,
continuing under Hugo Becker at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik (1910–
14), where he also studied composition and conducting. His first success
was as a cellist and member of the Marteau Quartet, 1911–16, but a
physical handicap forced him to abandon the cello and, on the advice of
Richard Strauss, he sought a career as a conductor, taking further
coaching from Nikisch in Leipzig. After a successful début with the Berlin
PO in 1918, he returned to Romania and founded the Bucharest PO (1920;
now the Enescu PO), of which he remained chief conductor until his death.
In addition he was musical director and conductor of the Romanian Opera
at various periods between 1922 and 1940, and a professor at the
Bucharest Conservatory, 1950–53. He raised the Bucharest PO to
international standard, performing with such musicians as Cortot,
Rubinstein, Casals, Richter and Menuhin, and toured with the orchestra in
the USSR and Europe, making his British début at the Royal Festival Hall
in 1963. He was admired for his eloquence and style across a wide
repertory, especially in Strauss and Enescu. As a guest conductor
Georgescu toured throughout Europe and in the USA. He was made a
member of the Légion d’Honneur in 1929, received the Romanian State
Prize in 1949 and 1957, and was made a People’s Artist of the Romanian
People’s Republic in 1954.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Voiculescu: George Georgescu (Bucharest, 1957)
T.G. Georgescu: George Georgescu (Bucharest, 1971)
E. Pricope: Dirijori si orchestre (Bucharest, 1971)
V. Cosma: Interpreţi din România: lexicon (Bucharest, 1996)
VIOREL COSMA
Georgia.
Country in Transcaucasia. An independent kingdom for over 2000 years, it
adopted Christianity in the 4th century ce while under Byzantine influence.
It was invaded by the Mongols in 1234 and thereafter became subject to
incursions by Arabs, Turks and Persians. It was annexed by Russia in the
19th century. After a brief period of independence (1918–20), it was
renamed the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1921. With the collapse
of the Soviet Union it declared itself an independent republic in April 1991.
I. Art music
II. Orthodox church music
III. Traditional music
LEAH DOLIDZE (I), CHRISTIAN HANNICK/DALI DOLIDZE (II), GRIGOL
CHKHIKVADZE/JOSEPH JORDANIA (III)
Georgia
I. Art music
The development of Georgian art music followed a course characteristic of
many Eastern European schools of composition during the end of the 19th
century and the first half of the 20th century. A few decades saw a rapid
advance from the first experiments in composition and an amateur musical
culture to a thoroughly professional approach to composition in the context
of increased musical activity in the concert hall and opera house. The
evolution of Georgian music from the 1960s to the 90s had much in
common with that of Western music in the late 20th century.
The incorporation of Georgia into the Russian Empire in 1801 created
permanent links with European musical culture. In the second half of the
19th century, alongside the continuing oral medieval Orthodox tradition,
conditions gradually emerged for a new art music in the European tradition.
From 1851 Tbilisi, which had become the musical centre not only of
Georgia but of the whole of Transcaucasia, staged productions of operas
by Donizetti, Rossini, Bellini and Verdi, adding works by Russian
composers from the 1880s onwards. During this period music-making
reached beyond the aristocratic salons to other levels of society. A new
musical culture sprang up in Tbilisi, a city at the crossroads of Europe and
Asia, unique in its mingling of many different national styles. Melodies
borrowed from Italian opera and Russian romances and mediated through
Georgian traditional music took on exotic colouring from the eastern
cultures represented in the city’s population. This complex folk amalgam
later became a potent source for Georgian art music.
Georgian composers forged an independent style through a synthesis of
Western music with national elements. Until the 1960s the latter consisted
primarily of traditional music of various kinds. The period from the 1890s to
the early 1930s was dominated by the first generation of composers,
founders of the new era of professional music in Georgia: prominent
among these were Meliton Balanchivadze, Dimitri Arakishvili, Viktor Dolidze
and Niko Sulkhanishvili, with the figure of Zakharia Paliashvili occupying a
special place.
These composers devoted themselves in particular to vocal music,
especially opera, which developed along 19th-century Romantic lines. In
1897 an excerpt from Balanchivadze’s opera Tamar tsbieri (‘Perfidious
Tamar’) was performed in St Petersburg (the opera was retitled Darejan
tsbieri in 1937). In 1919, an important year for Georgian music, the first
Georgian operas were performed at the Tbilisi Opera Theatre: Arakishvili’s
lyrical Tkmuleba Shota Rustavelze (‘The Legend of Shota Rustaveli’),
Paliashvili’s monumental operatic saga Abesalom da Eteri (‘Abesalom and
Etery’) and Dolidze’s comic opera Keto da Kote (‘Keto and Kote’). Between
these years Sulkhanishvili also composed choral music and Arakishvili and
Balanchivadze songs. The first period of Georgian opera culminated in the
1920s with productions of operas by Paliashvili, Arakishvili, Dolidze and
others. Among these Paliashvili’s Daisi (‘Twilight’) ranks with Abesalom da
Eteri as one of the peaks of Georgian opera. Paliashvili’s operas draw on
an international musical language, and their style established the general
Western orientation of 20th-century Georgian composers.
In the decades after the establishment of Georgian national opera the
symphony became the leading genre in Georgian music. Instrumental art
music was developed by the second generation of Georgian composers, in
parallel with a rapid growth in opportunities for performance. A symphony
orchestra and a string quartet were formed early in the Soviet era (1924),
but the first essays in instrumental music in Georgia, especially in the
symphony, were modest. The leading representatives of the second
generation of composers were Shalva Mshvelidze, who composed his
symphonic poem Zviadauri in 1940, and Andria Balanchivadze, whose First
Symphony (1944) represents a milestone in the history of the Georgian
symphony. In their combination of Classical-Romantic symphonic principles
with national traditions, Georgia’s second-generation composers showed
an affinity with 19th-century Russian composers, above all The Five.
During the war years (1941–5) Georgian symphonies became
predominantly heroic and epic in tone, a trend that predominated up to the
end of the 1950s. In the immediate postwar years a third generation of
Georgian composers emerged, continuing in the direction taken by
Mshvelidze and Balanchivadze. The aesthetic and technical principles of
the Georgian national school held sway in their work in the major genres:
symphony, concerto, symphonic poem, chamber music, ballet, opera and
oratorio. The shared ideals among composers of the second and third
generations makes it natural to view Georgian music composed between
the 1930s and the 50s as forming a single stylistic period.
Between the 1930s and the 50s socialist realism dominated every aspect
of art in the Soviet Union. Art music was systematically ‘democratized’, and
composers were required to create music that was national in form and
socialist in content. The hero of this new art was the Soviet people, and
personal feelings were replaced by those of ‘the people’ as a whole. This
principle was profoundly inculcated into all aspects of Georgian music.
Most works composed during the period 1930 to 1960 had national and
popular foundations, manifested primarily through the extensive use of
traditional music. Composers either quoted folktunes directly or composed
melodies in the style of folksongs and folkdances. At the same time,
Georgian composers drew increasingly on the Romantic symphonic
tradition, using its schemes and structural principles with some freedom
and variety.
The most notable Georgian compositions from the 1930s, 40s and 50s
include Mshvelidze’s symphonic poems Zviadauri and Mindiya, Andria
Balanchivadze’s first and second symphonies and Third Piano concerto,
Alexi Machavariani’s Violin Concerto and ballet Otello, Otar Taktakishvili’s
First Piano Concerto and opera Mindia, David Toradze’s ballet Gorda and
opera Chrdiloetis patardzali (‘Bride of the North’), the symphonic piece
Sachidao by Revaz Lagidze, A. Chimakadze’s cantata Kartlis guli (‘The
heart of Kartli’) and Sulkhan Tsintsadze’s miniatures for quartet and Fourth
String Quartet. However, with these few exceptions, the music composed
in Georgia during this period has merely local significance.
The 1960s and 70s saw an intensive upsurge in all genres as Georgian art
music engaged fully with 20th-century ideas. This development arose
directly from the cultural liberalization following the 21st Party Congress of
1959. Increased contacts with other cultures enabled musicians to take
part in international festivals of contemporary music. The freer social
climate and access to contemporary European music provided a stimulus
to Georgian composers. The history of Georgian music during these years
shows the speed with which Georgian composers assimilated the major
innovations of 20th-century music. New ideas were especially striking in
the work of younger composers, Bidzina Kvernadze, Giya Kancheli, Nodar
Mamisashvili, Natela Svanidze, Sulkhan Nasidze and Nodar Gabunia, and
later Felix Glonti, Vazha Azarashvili, Mikhail Shugliashvili, Teimuraz
Bakuradze, Ioseb Bardanashvili and Tengiz Shavlokhashvili. All these
composers wrote primarily in instrumental genres, and their works display a
new emotional and intellectual complexity, eschewing the neo-Romanticism
characteristic of the preceding decades.
The high level of performers graduating from the Tbilisskaya
Gosudarstvennaya Konservatoriya (Tbilisi State Conservatory), founded in
1918, significantly contributed to Georgia’s musical development. There
were several orchestras active in Tbilisi at this time, the foremost of which
was the Georgian State SO. A number of Georgian singers,
instrumentalists and conductors gained worldwide reputations. Choral
music, which had the richest of traditions in Georgia, developed greatly.
From the beginning of the 1960s Georgian composers began to separate
into three distinct groupings. The first of these, associated with the work of
the composers of the second and third generations, remained within the
traditions of the Georgian Romantic school. One of the achievements of
this period was the creation of a national style of declamation in both vocal
and instrumental music, rooted in the stresses and cadences of folk music.
Works that exemplify this development are the oratorios Rustavelis
nakvalevze (‘In the steps of Rustaveli’) and Nikoloz Baratashvili and the
cantata Guruli simgerebi) (‘Gurian Songs’), by Otar Taktakishvili, works for
unaccompanied chorus by Ioseb Kechakmadze, the oratorio Pirosmani by
Svanidze, the opera Iko mervesa tselsa (‘And in the Eighth Year …’) by
Kvernadze, and the fifth, sixth and seventh string quartets by Tsintsadze.
Another grouping was represented by the fourth generation of Georgian
composers, the so-called ‘Shestidesyatniki’ (‘1960s group’), whose work
displayed an assimilation of new influences, most significantly the music of
Bartók and Stravinsky. Best known among the works of the
‘Shestidesyatniki’ are Gabunia’s Igav-araki (‘Fable’), Kancheli’s first and
second symphonies, Nasidze’s first and second string quartets and
Chamber Symphony, Tsintsadze’s fifth, sixth and seventh string quartets,
and Kvernadze’s Koreograpiuli novelebi (‘Choreographic Novellas’) and his
ballet Berikaoba. Works by composers of the older generation, including
Revaz Gabichvadze’s Rostock Symphony, Toradze’s Second Symphony
Kebatakeba Nikortsmindas (‘In Praise of Nikortsminda’) and
Machavariani’s Second Symphony, also showed major stylistic advances.
The 1970s saw a spate of symphonic works by the two major figures,
Kancheli and Nasidze. With his Third Symphony, Kancheli began to receive
general recognition as one of the foremost representatives of Georgian
music, while Nasidze won deserved success with a triad of symphonies
(nos.5, 6 and 7) and his Double Concerto. Other notable symphonic works
were Glonti’s Sixth Symphony (Vita nova) and Azarashvili’s Cello Concerto.
Georgian composers devoted less attention to experimental music,
although new musical thinking and the influence of the postwar Western
avant garde found a partial reflection in the third grouping of composers
who emerged in the 1960s and 70s: Bakuradze, Shugliashvili,
Bardanashvili and others, to whom may be added Svanidze and
Mamisashvili of the older generation. These composers made adventurous
use of a variety of techniques – total serialism, aleatorism, collage,
minimalism and electronics. For a long time the experimentalism of these
composers baffled listeners, limiting their audience to a small number of
intellectuals.
At the end of the 1970s a synthesis began to emerge between various
compositional styles and techniques in Georgian music, a process that
continues to this day. Indicative of this is the use of the polystylistic method,
in allusion, quotation and collage. Baroque and Classical stylistic features
have been absorbed organically into the Georgian national style. This has
produced many different, sometimes highly original, kinds of stylistic fusion,
in the work, for example, of Kancheli, Nasidze, Kvernadze, Mamisashvili,
Bakuradze and Bardanashvili, and also of one of the leading figures of the
youngest generation, Z. Nadareishvili. In Kancheli’s symphonies and
chamber music the sense of memory, free association, temporal stasis and
effects of time arrested or tightly compressed are akin to developments in
contemporary cinema and theatre.
Between the 1960s and the 80s opera was considerably less significant
than instrumental music. Two representative operas of this period are
Kvernadze’s Iko mervesa tselsa and Kancheli’s Da ars musika (‘Music for
the Living’). Among operas by composers working in a traditional idiom,
Lagidze’s Lela, with its wealth of expressive melody, has proved the most
popular.
Georgian composers have also been productive in the fields of ballet
(beginning with Andria Balanchivadze’s Mzechabuki of 1936), operetta,
musicals, film and theatre music and popular music. The works of
Azarashvili, V. Kakhidze and others reveal an interesting combination of
serious and lighter styles.
In the 1990s chamber music became increasingly important, reflecting the
broader cultural climate. Several composers of chamber music adopted
elements of minimalism. Outstanding works of these years include
Kancheli’s cycle Sitsoskle shobis gareshe (‘Life without Christmas’),
Nasidze’s Fifth String Quartet and Piano Trio Antiphonie, and Bakuradze’s
Ori tsigni kvintetisatvis (‘Two Books for a Quintet’).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Tsulukidze, ed.: Gruzinskaya muzïkal'naya kul'tura [Georgian musical
culture] (Moscow, 1957)
A. Tsulukidze: ‘Zametki o gruzinskoy muzïke’ [Notes on Georgian music],
SovM (1958), no.4, pp.20–27
V. Gorodinsky: ‘Ėtyudï o gruzinskoy muzïke’ [Studies on Georgian music],
Izbrannïye stat'i (Moscow, 1963), 110–23
G. Orjonikidze: ‘Znakom'tes': molodost'!’ [Get to know each other: the
young people!], SovM (1963), no.8, pp.14–21
L. Raaben: ‘Kamerno-instrumental'naya muzïka Gruzii’ [Chamber-
orchestral music of Georgia], Sovetskaya kamerno-instrumental'naya
muzïka (Leningrad, 1963), 234–57
E. Bokshanina: ‘Muzïkal'naya kul'tura Gruzii’ [Georgian musical culture],
Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR (Moscow, 1969), 85–136
V. Donadze: ‘Gruzinskaya muzïka’, Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR, i:
1917–1932 (Moscow, 1970), 307–20
V. Donadze: ‘Gruzinskaya muzïka’, Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR, ii:
1932–1941 (Moscow, 1971), 364–80
A. Mshvelidze: Ocherki po istorii muzïkal'nogo obrazovaniya v Gruzii
[Sketches on the history of musical education in Georgia] (Moscow,
1971)
A. Tsulukidze: Kartuli sabchota musika [Georgian Soviet music] (Tbilisi,
1971)
V. Donadze: ‘Gruzinskaya muzïka’, Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR, iii:
1941–1945 (Moscow, 1972), 380–402
S.L. Ginzburg: ‘Gruzinskaya klassicheskaya opera’ [Georgian classical
opera], Iz istorii muzïkal'nïkh svyazey narodov SSSR (Leningrad,
1972), 6–17
G. Toradze and A. Tsulukidze: ‘Gruzinskaya muzïka’, Istoriya muzïki
narodov SSSR, iv: 1946–1956 (Moscow, 1973), 558–86
G. Toradze: Kompozitorï Gruzii [Composers of Georgia] (Tbilisi, 1973)
G. Toradze: ‘Sovremennaya gruzinskaya muzïka’ [Contemporary Georgian
music], Tvorchestvo, i (Moscow, 1973), 186–204
A. Balanchivadze: ‘Kartuli musika khuti tslis mandzilze’ [A five-year period
of Georgian music], Sabchota khelovneba (1974), no.1, pp.20–34
G. Toradze: ‘Gruzinskaya SSR’, Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR, v
(Moscow, 1974), 150–90
V. Donadze: Ocherki po istorii gruzinskoy sovetskoy muzïki [Essays on the
history of Soviet Georgian music], i: 1921–1945 (Tbilisi, 1975)
I. Nest'yev and Ya. Solodukho: ‘Gruzinskaya muzïka segodnya’
[Georgian music today], SovM (1977), no.8, pp.29–35
G. Orjonikidze: Tanamedrove kartuli musika estetikisa da sotsiologiis
shukze [Contemporary Georgian music in the light of aesthetics and
sociology] (Tbilisi, 1985)
I. Urushadze and M. Borada, eds.: Voprosï stilya i dramaturgii gruzinskoy
muzïki: Sbornik trudov TGK im. V. Saradzhishvili [Questions of style
and dramatization in Georgian music: a selection of work from the V.
Saradzhishvili State Conservatory of Tbilisi] (Tbilisi, 1985)
V. Donadze: Kartuli musikis istoria [A history of Georgian music], i (Tbilisi,
1990)
Georgia
5. Notation.
In the 10th century the Georgian Church adopted Byzantine ekphonetic
notation for the liturgical recitation of the Bible. Manuscripts of the 11th,
12th and 13th centuries contain tables of ekphonetic signs. The
‘Synodikon’ for the Sunday of Orthodoxy is an important example of a text
marked throughout with such signs. A system of notation was also
developed for hymns (fig.1): the neumes, which are written above and
below the text, indicate melodic formulae rather than fixed tones, as in
Byzantine chant of the same period. The occasional use of two or three
signs above a single syllable may prove that polyphony was in use as early
as the time of Mikayel Modrekili (10th century). With the decline of
monasticism, Georgian hymn notation gradually fell into disuse (as was the
case in the Armenian and Byzantine systems). (Ingoroqva’s interpretation
of this notation is now considered unsatisfactory.)
A new system of 24 signs or chreli, indicating the intonation formulae of the
chants, was introduced in the 17th and 18th centuries, but it is not known
how this system relates to the earlier one. The term chreli is also used in
the sense of Papadikē. In the 19th century Ioane Bagrationi introduced yet
another notational system, although it never became popular. It is based on
the first eight letters of the old Georgian alphabet (a, b, g, d, e, v, z, ey) and
uses supplementary dots and other signs; each letter signifies a fixed pitch
and the melodic rise and fall is indicated by means of dots above or
beneath the letter. Other systems of notation, whose purpose was to
remind the cantor of the melodic outline and the intonation formulae of the
chants, are found in Georgian manuscripts of the second half of the 18th
century and the 19th century.
The transmission of Georgian liturgical music throughout its history
depended more on oral tradition than on written notation. When, however,
during the 19th century, Old Church Slavonic replaced Georgian as the
language of the liturgy, the oral tradition of chanting began to decline. A
committee for chant restoration was therefore founded in 1860 to
transcribe the entire liturgical repertory into staff notation. The chant
collections, organized according to the oktōēchos system, consist of music
for three voices: the principal melody is assigned to the first voice, with the
supporting voices conforming to Georgian theoretical principles. Active
attempts have been made during the post-Soviet period to restore the
authentic Georgian repertory; the scholarly and practical endeavours of M.
Erqvanidze together with his male choir Anchiskhati (founded 1989) have
been particularly notable in this respect.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
editions
E. Metreveli, ed.: Dzlispirni da gmrtismshoblisani: ori dzveli redaktsia X–XI
ss. khelnacerebis mikhedvit’ [Heirmoi and theotokia: two old redactions
according to 10th- and 11th-century MSS] (Tbilisi, 1971)
M. Erqvanidze, ed.: Kartuli galoba: mtsukhri, tsiskari, tsirva: Gelatisa da
Martvilis skola [Georgian chants: Vespers, Matins, Divine Liturgy:
Gelati and Martvili schools] (Tbilisi, 1995)
M. Erqvanidze, ed.: Kartuli galoba: 12 sauplo da udzrav dgesastsaulta
sagaloblebi [Georgian chants: for saint’ days and fixed feasts] (Tbilisi,
2000)
studies
MGG2 (‘Orthodoxe Kirchenmusik’, §IX; C. Hannick)
J.B. Thibaut: ‘Notnïye znaki v gruzinskikh rukopisyakh’ [Musical signs in
Georgian MSS], Khristianskiy vostok, iii (1914), 207–12
M. Tarchnišvili: Geschichte der kirchlichen georgischen Literatur (Rome,
1955)
M. Tarchnišvili: ‘Die geistliche Dichtung Georgiens und ihr Verhältnis zur
Byzantinischen’, Oriens christianus, xli (1957), 76–96
G.I. Imedašvili: ‘Poésie et langage des cantiques géorgiens de la période
classique’, Bedi kartlisa, xiii–xiv (1962), 47–55
P. Ingoroqva: ‘La musique géorgienne’, Bedi kartlisa, xiii–xiv (1962), 56–
60
W.A. Gwacharija: ‘Mehrstimmigkeit in altgrusinischen Handschriften?’,
BMw, ix (1967), 284–304
H. Leeb: Die Gesänge im Gemeingottesdienst von Jerusalem (vom 5. bis
8. Jh.) (Vienna, 1970)
E. Tsereteli: ‘Le chant traditionnel de Géorgie, son passé, son présent’,
Bedi kartlisa, xxxii (1974), 138–46
B. Outtier and H. Métrévéli: ‘Contribution à l’histoire de l’hirmologion:
anciens hirmologia géorgiens’, Le muséon, lxxxviii (1975), 331–59
G. Kiknadze: ‘Ramdenime dzlispiris tsarmomavlobisatvis’ [On the origins
of a few heirmoi], Matsne enisa da literaturis seria (1976), no.1, pp.71–
9
E. Métrévéli: ‘Les manuscrits liturgiques géorgiens des IX.–X. siècles et
leur importance pour l’étude de l’hymnographie byzantine’, Bedi
kartlisa, xxxvi (1978), 43–8
E. Métrévéli and B. Outtier: ‘La compréhension des termes
hymnographiques paraptoni et mosartavi’, Bedi kartlisa, xxxvii (1979),
68–75
E. Métrévéli, Č. Tchankieva and L. Khevsuriani: ‘Le plus ancien
tropologion géorgien’, Bedi kartlisa, xxxix (1981), 54–62
V. Gvacharia: ‘Drevnegruzinskiye muzyïkal'nïye znaki X–XIII vv.’ [Old
Georgian musical signs of the 10th–13th centuries], Musica antiqua
VI: Bydgoszcz 1982, 765–75
L. Dzhgamaia: ‘Meore galobis sakitkhi X saukunis kartuli himnograpiul
kanonshi’ [The 2nd ōdē of the 10th-century Georgian hymnographic
kanōn], Mravaltavi, x (1983), 114–21
L. Heiser: Die georgische orthodoxe Kirche und ihr Glaubenzeugnis (Trier,
1989)
S. Ziegler: ‘Kirchengesang in Georgien: zwischen nationaler
Eigenständigkeit und russischer Bevormundung’, Music und Religion:
Bamberg 1990, 71–90; rev. version in Georgica, xvi (1993), 64–76
P. Jeffery: ‘The Sunday Office of Seventh-Century Jerusalem in the
Georgian Chantbook (Iadgari): a Preliminary Report’, Studia liturgica,
xxi (1991), 52–75
D. Sugliasvili: ‘Kartuli galobis bunebisatvis’ [On the nature of Georgian
chanting], Khelovneba, nos.9–10 (1991), 108–12
Tbilisis Sakh. Konservatoriis sametsniero shromebis krebuli [The collection
of scientific works of Tbilisi State Conservatory] (Tbilisi, 1991) [S.
Aslanishvili: ‘Dzveli kartuli sanoto nishnebis sakitkhisatvis: sanoto
nishnebis sistema dzvel kartul khelnatserebshi (X–XII s.s.)’ (The
problem of Old Georgian musical signs: the system of neumes in Old
Georgian MSS of the 10th–13th centuries), 22–61; M. Ositashvili:
‘“Chrelebis” shestsavlis zoghierti sakitkhisatvis’ (Some problems in
studying chrelis), 93–111; D. Sugliasvili: ‘Kartuli galobis stota
ertianobis shesakheb’ (The unity of the branches of Georgian chant),
122–71; M. Erqvanidze: ‘Kartuli musikis tskhoba ’ (The structure of
Georgian music), 172–93]
D. Sugliasvili: ‘Kartuli galoba: samgaloblo skolis traditsiis shesakheb’ [The
Georgian art of chanting: choir-school traditions], Kristianoba da kartuli
kultura: Tbilisi 1997 [Christianity and Georgian culture] (Tbilisi, 1997),
96–106
D. Dolidze: ‘Ekfoneticheskaya notatsiya v gruzinskikh rukopisyakh’
[Ekphonetic notation in Georgian manuscripts], Akhali paradigmebi
[The new paradigms], i (1998), 92–8
M. Erqvanidze: La polyphonie géorgienne et ces aspects historiques
(Paris, 1998)
sound recordings
Sen gigalobt, Patriarchal choir of Sioni Cathedral, Tbilisi, cond. N.
Kiknadze, Melodiya C30 29107 000 (1989) [incl. commentary by E.
Garakanidze]
‘Aġdgomasa shensa’ [Thy resurrection], Anchiskhati Choir, Tbilisskaja
studija gramzapisi (1991) [Easter carols]
Sashobao sagaloblebi [Christmas carols], Anchiskhati Choir, Tbilisskaja
studija gramzapisi (1992)
Georgian Sacred Music from the Middle Ages, Anchiskhati Choir,
DDP5ANCD (1998) [Canada]
Georgia
The Khevsur are gifted poets for whom singing, which is used only for
declaiming verse, is of secondary importance. They often sing different
texts to the same tune. The number of genres is limited, the main types
being work, ritual and heroic song. Women’s genres are even more
restricted, comprising songs of family and everyday life and ritual songs but
they are more developed in intonation than men’s songs. Lullabies are
usually in 6/8 metre and consist of frequent repetition or variation of a basic
melodic formula. Ritual laments occupy an important place in the traditional
music of the Khevsur. They are performed in a quiet narrative style
reminiscent of sing-song speech; the metre depends on the text and
phrases end with a descending line. They may also be performed as a
‘lament with singing voice’, khmit tirili, with a professional female mourner,
motirali, alternating with a unison chorus.
The Tush live close to the Khevsur. They are shepherds who spend much
of the year in the northern Caucasus or in Azerbaijan and consequently
some of their performance styles show influences from those areas. For
example, the dala (lament for the dead) which is performed alternately by
soloist and unison chorus parallels the song styles of the peoples of the
northern Caucasus. Certain Tush melodies also have rhythmic structures,
such as 3 + 5 and 5 + 3, not generally used in Georgian traditional music.
Themes of the solo songs are ritual, historical, heroic, lyrical or pastoral
and some are accompanied by the panduri (three-string lute) or the
accordion (mostly played by women), which is now well established among
the mountain people of eastern Georgia. Songs of different genres have
similar melodic characteristics and songs that differ in form and content are
sometimes sung to the same tune, as in Khevsur folksong. Descending
melodic lines and the variation of a basic melodic phrase are also typical of
Tush songs, although the melodies and rhythms are more complex than
those of Khevsur songs. Two-part Tush songs have simple structures,
consisting basically of a solo voice performing the melody and a drone
sung by a group. Such songs are usually in the A mode and the drone is
usually on the tonic and seventh degree (A–G–A); cadences are
approached from below. The salamuri (flute) is played commonly by
shepherds.
The Pshav, neighbours of the Khevsur and the Tush, also perform two-part
songs. Specific characteristics of these are the use of two-part drone
polyphony that changes its pitch in the range of a major 2nd, the
alternation of two soloists against a drone bass sung by a chorus, and use
of the Frigian mode with a major 6th customarily known as the Pshav scale
(ex.3). Together with the Khevsur, the Pshav are the most skilful creators of
oral poetry in Georgia. The texts are in couplets and often take the form of
a poetic contest, kapiaoba, during which the two performers improvise. The
panduri is popular.
The Khev and Mtiul share many characteristics in both music and everyday
life. Both have been affected economically and culturally by the mountain
road, built more than 200 years ago, that traverses their regions and
connects the trans-Caucasus with Russia. Mokhev and Mtiul folksongs are
melodically richer and more varied than those found in other mountainous
regions of eastern Georgia. Mokhev songs are mostly in two or three parts;
solo songs are performed exclusively to the accompaniment of the panduri.
Unlike the Khevsur and Pshav songs and short two- or three-bar phrases,
in Mokhev songs the melody is developed throughout the stanza. The song
types of the Mokhev include work, ritual and everyday songs, love songs,
historical and heroic songs and dance-songs. Dance-songs are usually
performed in two parts in which two soloists alternate or one soloist is
accompanied by a bass part which has its own independent melodic and
rhythmic structure (an exceptional practice in Georgian folk polyphony).
Mtiul polyphony appears primarily in three-part songs which are similar,
stylistically, formally and textually, to Kartlian three-part songs. The Mtiul,
moreover, have adopted solo songs from the Kartlian repertory. In Mtiul
song the tune is often embellished with grace notes; one or two notes only
(or one note with an ornament) correspond to a syllable – a rare feature in
the songs of the other mountain peoples. Ritual songs are highly regarded
by the Mtiul, particularly the widely known Jvaris tsinasa (‘Before the
cross’); this is performed at weddings, in round-dances with the traditional
text (and with a different text) before the start of agricultural work.
Kartlian-Kakhetian groups have developed a great variety of folksong
styles, forms and genres. Unaccompanied solo songs include women’s
lullabies and men’s agricultural work songs. Orovela is the general name
for ploughing, threshing and winnowing songs which are all related in
name, musical structure and textual content to the horovel of Armenia (see
Armenia, §I, 1(i)). They also have parallels (in terms of intonation and
terminology) with songs from Azerbaijan and Central Asia. The texts
describe the hard conditions of the people, their lack of rights and their
dependence on master-landowners. The close relationship of the Armenian
and Georgian agricultural songs suggests their age – dating back to the
time when the states shared a common agrarian culture. The melody of
each stanza of orovela songs generally begins in a high register, then
quickly descends and ends in a half- or a full cadence. Recitative
alternates with richly ornamented melody and the rhythm is free. ‘Urmuli’
orob (‘bull carters’) songs comprise a further popular genre similar to
orovela. Two-part songs that accompany work (mostly reaping and
winnowing, and more rarely threshing) are known as hopuna, herio or heri
ega, depending on which of these exclamations is used in the song. Such
songs are strictly rhythmic, melodies are simple and texts often appear to
be improvised. They may be humorous or amatory, but most describe the
work. The lower part performs either a drone or an ostinato figure.
Three-part songs may be subdivided according to function and musical
characteristics. Ritual, round dance and work songs form a separate group
from ‘table’ songs (Kakheti is the most ancient and important centre of
viticulture in Georgia). They are distinguished musically by their energetic
character, clean-cut metre and rhythms, and frequent use of a recitative
drone and ostinato figures in the bass (ex.4). ‘Table’ songs are more
festive: they develop slowly on a pedal drone without clear-cut metre and
rhythm, and melismas are frequently used in the melodic lines (ex.5). The
musical conventions of ‘table’ songs from eastern Georgia, which have
colourful modulations, are similar to orovela and urmuli songs. Among
musical instruments, the panduri and salamuri are popular.
The Meskh are one of the oldest Georgian groups; Meskheti was the
economic and cultural centre of Georgia during the 11th and 12th centuries
and from the 16th to 19th centuries it was under Turkish rule. Although
polyphony was still practised there in the early years of the 20th century, it
has since been lost. It is, then, the only region in Georgia without this
tradition. Meskh songs are similar to Kartlian songs. The tulum, a type of
bagpipe from Turkey, is played.
More research is needed on Georgian groups who live beyond the
country’s borders, such as the Ingilo in Azerbaijan, and the Shavsh and
Lazi in Turkey. Shavsh singing traditions are similar to those of the
Acharian.
Georgia, §III, 1: Traditional music: Regional and ethnic traditions
(ii) Western Georgia.
The traditional musics of western Georgia fall into two categories: that of
groups in the high mountains of Svaneti and Racha, and that of groups in
the plains of Imereti, Guria, Samegrelo and Achara.
Racha is situated between Alpine Svanetia and the plain-like terrain of
Imeretia, and is divided into lower, upper and mountainous regions. The
Rachians in the lower region show musical similarities with neighbouring
Imeretians and those in the mountainous region with neighbouring Svans.
Rachian musical style shows the closest links with the traditions of eastern
Georgia: the restricted use of melismas, elements of the diatonic scale
system of fourths, and sometimes a pedal drone. These links are
particularly evident in ‘table’ songs. Ritual songs, performed antiphonally by
two choruses, and round-dances are important. As among other western
Georgian groups no two-part choral or unaccompanied solo songs are
performed by the Rachin (with the exception of unaccompanied lullabies
performed by women). Choral songs are exclusively three-part. Solo songs
are sung to the accompaniment of gudastviri (bagpipes; fig.2): these are
recitative-like songs with free rhythm. Gudastviri are played by professional
musicians called mestvire who enjoy great popularity. Their numbers are
gradually decreasing, even though younger people are now learning to
play this instrument. The repertory of the mestvire is varied. They compose
songs in couplet form about historical figures, national heroes and people
enslaved by feudal lords; as well as topical and humorous songs, timed to
coincide with a specific festival or feast, which demonstrate their wit,
resourcefulness and special talent for improvisation. They also have an
important function as social commentators. The chianuri (two-string bowed
lute; see fig.5 below) is used to accompany singing.
The Svans are frequently snowbound and are cut off from the town for
more than six months of the year; even in summer they are reluctant to
leave the mountains and go down into the valley. Urban musical culture
has not penetrated Svanetia and its traditional songs have been preserved.
Svan vocal and instrumental music is striking for its disciplined harmonic
and tonal structure; melodies are confined in a tight framework. Svan
traditional music includes many ritual songs, which also reflect historical
events and the struggle with feudal lords.
Three-part songs are the basis of Svan choral singing. The second voice,
which starts most of the songs, is usually the leader, followed by the
highest voice and a bass. The bass is more mobile than in the songs of the
eastern Georgian groups. Although it provides the harmonic basis, both
rhythmically and melodically it is more flexible, and its compass sometimes
reaches a 5th. Within these limits it moves not only stepwise but also in
3rds, leaping even a 4th or a 5th, usually downwards. The frequent
occurrence of 2nds in the two top voices and the parallel movement of all
three voices in basic triads are peculiar to Svan folksongs. The outer
voices occasionally leap a 7th or an even greater interval. Although the
songs are usually short they often vary in metre (as in ex.6), which may
change for a few beats, while within the beat syncopation – very
characteristic of Svan songs – is frequent. Svan songs have a narrow
compass (a 3rd or 4th); all are short and strophic and most are in duple
metre. Dance-songs begin in slow tempo and then, accompanied by hand-
clapping, grow faster. Round dance-songs are performed standing in two
and three circles. Solo songs are rare. They are performed by men or
women accompanied by the chuniri (a three-string bowed lute) or the
changi (a six-string harp; fig.3a).
The people of Imereti, a large central region, have strong links with the
musical traditions of their western neighbours in Samegrelo and especially
Guria. Ritual songs and round dances have survived to a limited extent;
lyrical and travelling songs are frequently found (ex.7). The Imeretian
repertory, like the Gurian, includes historical, work and drinking-songs and
songs of everyday life. Most Imeretin songs have three parts and are lively
and bold. They are mainly composed in couplet form, with the exception of
songs for field work such as khelkhvavi or naduri. The naduri, still to be
heard during work in the village of Dutskhuni, Van region, begins in a slow
tempo with exchanges between the second voices and the basses. As the
tempo quickens a third voice enters. The melodic line is broad at the
opening of the song, then its melodic phrases are gradually reduced to one
bar. The single-bar motif is repeated many times until the song is
enthusiastically brought to an end by two groups of workers who compete
in turn in their calls for intensifying the work. The song ends with a coda,
which is slower, performed by the entire group to mark the completion of
the work.
Cradle songs are the only solo Imeretian songs to have been recorded.
European songs, Russian church and soldiers’ songs and the popular
romance are widespread in Imereti as a result of the social relations with
other states which were gradually established in Georgia after its
unification with Russia. The influx of peasants into the town and the
introduction of urban elements into the village strengthened the cultural
exchange between town and country. The nature of musical culture
changed, and folksongs with new themes and new musical structures
entered the tradition. These tunes drew their material mainly from opera
and the Russian popular romance, which in the second half of the 19th
century were being cultivated in Georgian towns. Kutaisi, the central town
of Imereti and western Georgia, was a focal point for dissemination of this
Western-influenced music. As a result the complicated polyphonic-
harmonic structure of Imeretian songs was simplified, parallel 3rds were
introduced into the two top parts, and the creation of songs with a
European tonic-dominant harmony was facilitated, particularly in a large
number of feasting and toasting songs for chorus (ex.8). The guitar, which
in some instances replaced the Georgian national instrument, the chonguri
(four-string lute), also played a significant part in this process. Widespread
too is the Russian seven-string guitar with a different tuning: D–G–c–g–b–
d.
Achara was populated from the 11th century by the Megrelian and Laz
‘tribes’ and then by the Gurians. In the 7th century it came under Georgian
rule; from 1627 it was ruled by Turkey, which held it until 1878 when it was
annexed by Russia. During this sequence of events the Acharian
embraced Islam and absorbed both Georgian musical culture and some
Turkish influence. This can also be observed in Acharian folk music.
Although Turkish influence is hardly detectable in the vocal style, several
Muslim instruments were appropriated and ‘table’ songs – a common
feature of other regions of Georgia – were lost. Acharian choral music has
adopted all the elements of Georgian and some of Gurian (the Georgian
group in the plains adjacent to the Acharians) folk polyphony. These three-
and four-part polyphonic songs are constructed on the same principles as
Gurian songs, but in a simpler form; the top register, krimanchuli, is not as
rich as in Guria; the second voice has a primarily recitative style and the
bass maintains its individual role. The most well-developed genre is the
naduri (‘work song’; ex.14). The mountainous Achara region is the only part
of western Georgia where two-part singing is widespread. Distinguishing
features are the recitative style of the top voice and the melodically active
bass (ex.15). This recitative quality is also peculiar to Acharian solo songs
and songs accompanied on the chiboni or chimoni (a type of bagpipe).
Acharian traditional music includes a rich variety of dances and dance
music. Dances are accompanied by singing or by the chiboni, sometimes
accompanied by the doli (drum). An ancient war-dance, khoroni (or
khorumi), is performed in 5/8 time.
Georgiades, Thrasybulos
G(eorgios)
(b Athens, 4 Jan 1907; d Munich, 15 March 1977). German musicologist of
Greek origin. He studied engineering at the Athens Technical High School
(1923–8) and attended the Athens Conservatory (1921–6), where his
principal subject was the piano. He then studied musicology with Rudolf
von Ficker at Munich University (1930–35); he was much influenced there
by the classical archaeologist Ernst Buschor, the Byzantine specialist Franz
Dölger and the philosopher Kurt Huber; he also pursued practical training
with Carl Orff. He took the doctorate at Munich in 1935 and the next year
was appointed professor of form and analysis at the Athens Conservatory,
subsequently (1939–41) becoming director. In 1936 he married the
harpsichordist Anna-Barbara Speckner. At this time he was principally
engaged in folksong research and Byzantine liturgical music. From 1939 to
1941 he also served on the board of Radio Athens. He completed his
Habilitation in musicology at Munich in 1947 with a dissertation on Greek
rhythm and joined the faculty at Heidelberg University (1948), becoming
director of the musicology department in 1949 and professor in 1955. In
1956 he was appointed to a professorship at Munich University, retiring in
1972. In 1974 he was elected to the German Order Pour le Mérite.
Georgiades was editor of the Münchner Veröffentlichungen zur
Musikgeschichte (Tutzing, 1959–) and of Musikalische Edition im Wandel
des historischen Bewusstseins (Kassel, 1971).
Georgiades was renowned among colleagues for the originality and depth
of thought apparent in both his teaching and his writings. Often highly
critical of established musicological methods, he was influenced by the
mousikē of antiquity, which he viewed as the union through rhythm of
music, verse and dance. In later music he was particularly fascinated by
the relationship between music and language on the one hand and on the
other between music as live performance and as written document. This
led to a search for historical unity, concentrated around two poles: early
polyphony and the beginnings of notation in the Carolingian period, and the
works of the mature Viennese Classics. In the former he questioned the
traditional methods of modern edition and in the latter those of form and
analysis, insisting on an approach that combines historical insight with
attention to detail. In some ways Georgiades anticipated the concerns
which led in the 1990s to new approaches to criticism. The music itself,
however, the ‘here and now’, always remained the focus of his attention.
With his keen insight into music and its history, and his dual German and
Greek heritage, Georgiades had a wide influence by no means confined to
the many who studied directly under him.
WRITINGS
Englische Diskanttraktate aus der ersten Hälfte des 15. Jahrhunderts
(diss., U. of Munich, 1935; Munich, 1937)
‘Bemerkungen zur Erforschung der byzantinischen Kirchenmusik’,
Byzantinische Zeitschrift, xxxix (1939), 67–88
Der griechische Rhythmus: Musik, Reigen, Vers und Sprache
(Habilitationsschrift, U. of Munich, 1947; Hamburg, 1949/R; Eng.
trans., 1956/R)
‘Volkslied als Bekenntnis’, Kurt Huber zum Gedächtnis: Bildnis eines
Menschen, Denkers und Forschers, ed. C. Huber (Regensburg, 1947),
98–111
Review of T.W. Adorno: Philosophie der neuen Musik (1949), Deutsche
Beiträge, v (1950), 381–4
‘Aus der Musiksprache des Mozart-Theaters’, MJb 1950, 76–98
‘Zur Musiksprache der Wiener Klassiker’, MJb 1951, 50–59
Musik und Sprache: das Werden der abendländischen Musik dargestellt an
der Vertonung der Messe (Berlin, 1954, 2/1974/R; Eng. trans., 1982;
Gk. trans., 1994)
‘“Das Wirtshaus” von Schubert und das Kyrie aus dem Gregorianischen
Requiem’, Gegenwart im Geiste: Festschrift für Richard Benz, ed. W.
Bulst and A. von Schneider (Hamburg, 1954), 126–35
Musik und Rhythmus bei den Griechen: zum Ursprung der
abendländischen Musik (Hamburg, 1958)
Sakral und Profan in der Musik (Munich, 1960)
Musik und Schrift (Munich, 1962, 2/1964)
Das musikalische Theater (Munich, 1965)
Schubert: Musik und Lyrik (Göttingen, 1967)
ed.: Musikalische Edition im Wandel des historischen Bewusstseins
(Kassel, 1971)
Kleine Schriften (Tutzing, 1977) [reprs. of selected essays]
Nennen und Erklingen: die Zeit als Logos, ed. I. Bengen (Göttingen, 1985)
[incl. preface by H.G. Gadamer]
‘Lyric as Musical Structure: Schubert’s Wanderers Nachtlied (“Über allen
Gipfeln” D.768)’, Schubert: Critical and Analytical Studies, ed. W.
Frisch (Lincoln, NE, 1986), 84–103
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Obituaries: W. Clemen, Jb der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
1978, 200–05; T. Göllner, Mf, xxx (1977), 273–6; W. Osthoff, Musik in
Bayern, xiv (1977), 5–17
D. Dorner: Musik als Repräsentationsgeschehen: ein musik-
philosophischer Rekurs auf Thr. Georgiades (Frankfurt, 1998)
HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT/MARIE LOUISE GÖLLNER
Georgia Tom.
See Dorsey, thomas a.
Georgiceus [Georgiceo,
Georgievich, Georgijević,
Grgičević, Jurjević], Athanasius
(b Split, c1590; d c1640). Croatian diplomat, author and composer. He was
educated at Split, Ljubljana and at the Jesuit University in Graz. Between
1611 and 1613 he was secretary to the Bishop of Bamberg. His knowledge
of several Slavonic languages secured him an important position at the
court of Archduke Ferdinand II, who sent him on diplomatic missions to
Poland and Bosnia. During the 1630s he lived in Graz, Vienna, Rijeka and
Zagreb, where he was in 1637.
He never took holy orders, but much of his activity was closely connected
with the affairs of the Jesuits and the Franciscans. In 1629 he published his
Croatian translation of Thomas à Kempis’s De imitatione Christi and
followed it with two moralistic treatises of his own. As a musician he is
known for his [12] Pisni za naypoglavitiye, naysvetye i nayveselye dni
svega godischia sloxene: i kako se u organe s’yednim glasom mogu spivati
(Songs for the most important, most holy and most joyous feasts of the
whole year, which can be sung with the organ and one voice; Vienna,
1635; 6 ed. in Spomenici hrvatske glazbene prošlosti (Monuments of
Croatian music), i, ii; Zagreb, 1971), the oldest Croatian songbook with
preserved music. The songs are simple and strophic, with melodies often
reminiscent of hymn tunes, consisting of repeated motifs and sequential
patterns. Georgiceus himself wrote the čakavian-ikavian texts in his native
(Dalmatian) dialect. The songs have no great artistic aspirations, but were
an attempt to simplify the idiom of sacred monody that he must have
known in his youth in Graz, in order to make it acceptable to the large body
of worshippers in Croatian churches. The view has been advanced that he
borrowed some of the melodies, but their origin cannot be established with
certainty.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (H. Federhofer)
J. Mantuani: ‘Hrvatska crkvena pjesmarica iz god. 1635’ [A Croatian
songbook of 1635], Sveta Cecilija, ix (1915)
L. Županović:Centuries of Croatian Music (Zagreb, 1984), 83–6
E. Stipčević: Hrvatska glazbena kultura 17. stoljeća [17th-century Croatian
musical culture] (Split, 1992), 93ff, 146–7
J. Mihojević: Bogorodica u hrvatskom pjesništvu od 13. stoljeća do kraja
19. stoljeća [The Madonna in Croatian poetry from the 13th century to
the end of the 19th] (Zagreb, 1994), 368–75
E. Stipčević: ‘Habent sua fata libelli: “Pisni” (1635) [by] Atanazija Jurjevića’,
Arti musices, xxvi (1995), 65–72 [with Eng. summary]
BOJAN BUJIĆ/STANISLAV TUKSAR
Georgius a Brugis
(d Bruges, 1438). Composer. He is probably identifiable with the south
Netherlandish musician Georgius Martini, a singer at Treviso Cathedral
(1427–31) and in the chapel of Pope Eugenius IV (1431–2), who was also
a priest of the diocese of Tournai and who in 1431 became a canon of the
church of St Donatian, Bruges. His sole surviving composition, a fine Credo
setting in I-TRmp 87 (ed. in DTÖ, lxi, Jg.xxxi, 1924/R, 30), is reminiscent of
Ciconia in such features as its disposition of voices, its roving melodic style
and its use of brief snatches of imitation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StrohmM
M. Schuler: ‘Zur Geschichte der Kapelle Papst Eugens IV.’, AcM, xl
(1968), 220–27
PETER WRIGHT
Geraert, Jan.
See Gerard, Jan.
Gerald de Barri.
See Giraldus Cambrensis.
Gerald of Wales.
See Giraldus Cambrensis.
Gérard, Henri-Philippe
(b Liège, 9 Nov 1760; d Versailles, 11 Sept 1848). Flemish composer and
teacher of singing. He began his musical studies as a choirboy at Liège
Cathedral and was then sent to Rome; there he studied singing and
composition under Grégoire Ballabene, who was in charge of the music at
S Pietro and was composer of a celebrated 48-part mass. In about 1788
Gérard, who was also a talented violinist and pianist, went to Paris to
devote himself to teaching. With the help of Grétry he joined the staff of the
Conservatoire in 1802 and in January 1819 was appointed professor of
singing, a post he held until he retired to Versailles early in 1828. His
compositions are of little importance but his writings are of much historical
interest for the teaching of singing.
WORKS
all published in Paris, n.d.
Musique religieuse écrite dans le style dit à la Palestrina, several works, 2–4vv, inst
acc.
Romances et petits airs, several collections, pf/hp acc.
Canons en français et en italien, 2 collections
Couplets chantés par les élèves du Musée d’émulation
Le chant de la concorde
Les moulins de Fervacques: fugue imitative suivie d’une pastorale, pf
WRITINGS
Méthode de chant (Paris, 1816–c1825)
Considérations sur la musique en général et particulièrement sur tout ce
qui a rapport à la vocale, avec des observations sur les différents
genres de musique, et sur la possibilité d’une prosodie partielle dans
la langue française entremêlées et suivies de quelques réflexions ou
observations morales (Paris, 1819)
Traité methodique d’harmonie … mise à la portée des commençants
(Paris, 1833)
JOHN LADE
Gérard, Yves(-René-Jean)
(b Châlons-sur-Marne, 6 Jan 1932). French musicologist. He studied
philosophy at Nancy University (1949–55) and the piano at Nancy
Conservatory (1950–52). He then went to Paris, where he studied under
Chailley at the Sorbonne (1955–6) and at the Conservatoire (1953–60)
under Dufourcq (music history and musicology) and Roland-Manuel
(aesthetics), taking premiers prix in all three subjects. From 1965 to 1975
he was a researcher at the CNRS. In 1975 he succeeded Dufourcq as
professor of music history and musicology at the Paris Conservatoire, a
post which he held until his retirement in 1997. He was president of the
Société française de musicologie (1980–83) and the French representative
on the IMS Council (1982–92).
Gérard specializes in Boccherini, chamber music of Italy, Spain, Austria
and France during the second half of the 18th century, Saint-Saëns and
French music of the 19th and early 20th centuries. His most important
work, however, is devoted to Berlioz: he co-edited the fourth volume of
Berlioz’s Correspondance générale and La critique musicale, 1823–1863, a
collection of Berlioz’s writings.
WRITINGS
ed.: ‘Lettres de Henri Duparc à Ernest Chausson’, RdM, xxxviii (1956),
125–46
‘Notes sur la fabrication de la viole de gambe et la manière d’en jouer
d’après une correspondance inédite de Jean-Baptiste Forqueray au
Prince Frédéric-Guillaume de Prusse’, RMFC, ii (1961–2), 165–72
with N. Alvarez Solar-Quintes: ‘La bibliothèque musicale d’un amateur
éclairé de Madrid: la Duchesse-Comtesse de Benavente, Duchesse
d’Osuna (1752–1834)’, RMFC, iii (1963), 179–88
‘Luigi Boccherini and Madame Sophie Gail’, The Consort, xxiv (1967),
294–309
Thematic, Bibliographical and Critical Catalogue of the Works of Luigi
Boccherini (London, 1969)
‘Luigi Boccherini’, Einzeldrucke vor 1800, RISM, A/I/i (1971), 322–49
ed., with P. Citron and H. Macdonald: Hector Berlioz: Correspondance
générale, iv (Paris, 1983)
‘Saint-Saëns et l'Opéra de Monte-Carlo’, L'Opéra de Monte-Carlo au
temps du prince Albert Ier de Monaco, ed. J.M. Nectoux (Paris, 1990),
29–36
ed. C. Saint-Saëns: Regards sur mes contemporains (Arles, 1990)
‘L’art pour la beauté: Samson et Dalila de Saint-Saëns’, La musique
française, de Berlioz à Debussy (Paris, 1991), 25–32
‘L'oeuvre de Saint-Saëns: éclats et ombres de la célébrité’, 150 ans de
musique française: Lyons 1991, 97–103
ed., with A. Bongrain and M.-H. Coudroy-Saghai: Le Conservatoire de
Paris, 1795–1995: des Menus-Plaisirs à la Cité de la musique (Paris,
1996)
ed., with H.R. Cohen: Hector Berlioz: La critique musicale, 1823–1863
(Paris, 1996–)
‘Le Rossignol: le paradoxe des codes détournés’, Stravinsky-Schoenberg
(Paris, 1997), 52–8
EDITIONS
Luigi Boccherini: Sei quintetti con chitarra (Paris, 1974)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Blay and R. Legrand, eds.: Sillages musicologiques: hommages à
Yves Gérard (Paris, 1997)
M.-C. Mussat, J. Mongrédien and J.-M. Nectoux, eds.: Echos de France
et d’Italie: liber amicorum Yves Gérard (Paris, 1997)
CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER/JEAN GRIBENSKI
In GB-Lbl Roy.App.17–22, 23–5, 26–30, 31–5, 49–54, 57, unless otherwise stated.
Gerardo.
Name of two 16th-century musicians who may be identifiable with Derrick
Gerarde.
Gerardus.
Composer, possibly identifiable with Derrick Gerarde.
Gerardus, Jan.
See Gerard, Jan.
Gerber, Christian
(b Gornitz, nr Borna, 1660; d Lockwitz, nr Dresden, 25 May 1731). German
clergyman and writer. He studied theology at the universities of Leipzig and
Wittenberg, receiving a master's degree from the latter in 1684. In 1685 he
became a minister at Rothschönberg and in 1690 at Lockwitz. He wrote the
chorale text Wohl dem, der Gott zum Freunde hat, but his more significant
connection with music developed out of one of his several theological
works, Unerkandte Sünden der Welt, nach Gottes heil. Wort, und Anleitung
vornehmer Lehrer unserer Kirche, der sichern Welt zu ihrer Bekehrung vor
Augen gestellt (Dresden, 1690, 5/1703). In chapter 81, ‘Von dem
Missbrauch der Kirchen-Music’, he denounced, as a true Pietist, the use of
music in the Protestant church, citing the scriptures and the words of
Luther to prove that the church music of his time was sacrilegious. His
overzealous criticisms and his frequently faulty citations from the Bible and
Luther engendered an effective and interesting counter-attack in defence of
church music by Georg Motz, who in his Die vertheidigte Kirchen-Music
(1703) provided colourful and instructive arguments in favour of it, using as
proof not only the Bible and Luther's works but also relevant passages from
many music theorists of the 16th to 18th centuries. Motz continued his
arguments in a second work, Abgenötigte Fortsetzung der vertheidigten
Kirchen-Music (1708), and Gerber responded in turn in the preface to his
Unerkannte Wohlthaten Gottes (Dresden, 1711). Gerber's well-known
denunciation of theatrical Passion music performed in some ‘large town’,
which appeared posthumously in his Historie der Kirchen-Ceremonien in
Sachsen (Dresden, 1732), has sometimes been understood as an
indictment of Bach's Passion services at Leipzig, but there is nothing to
show that these were what Gerber had in mind.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Stiller: Johann Sebastian Bach und das Leipziger gottesdienstliche
Leben seiner Zeit (Berlin, 1970; Eng. trans., 1984)
W. Reich: ‘Periphere Beiträge zur Bachforschung’, BMw, xiv (1972), 241–2
A. Beer: ‘“Gesunde Luft” und Mangel an “Leichen” in Leipzig: eine verbale
Entgleisung Bachs?’, Mf, xlvi (1993), 285–6
GEORGE J. BUELOW
Gerber, Rudolf
(b Flehingen, Baden, 15 April 1899; d Göttingen, 6 May 1957). German
musicologist. He began his musical studies at the Karlsruhe Conservatory,
where he concentrated on the violin. Between 1918 and 1922 he studied
under Hermann Abert at the universities of Halle and Leipzig, and took the
doctorate at Leipzig in 1922 with a dissertation on Hasse's operatic arias.
In 1923 he followed Abert to Berlin as assistant lecturer and at the same
time pursued his violin studies. In 1928 he submitted his Habilitationsschrift
at the University of Giessen, where he directed the department of
musicology, and was appointed reader in 1937. He also taught at the
University of Frankfurt (1933–5) and – while still professor at Giessen –
gave lectures on the history of church music at the Frankfurt
Musikhochschule (1938–43). Upon Hitler's rise to power, Gerber outlined
the tasks of musicology in the Third Reich (1935) and went on to work on
several projects for the Rosenberg Bureau, including the inventory and
seizure of library materials in occupied France. From 1943 he was full
professor at Göttingen University. He was elected to membership in the
Göttingen Akademie der Wissenschaften in 1952.
Gerber's publications reveal a wide variety of interests, including exploring
the nature of German art music, aspects of race and genealogy, and
German folk music. His dissertation was the first extended study of Hasse's
Metastasian operas and is consequently of fundamental importance. He
returned to opera in his work on Gluck, which resulted in a completely new
picture of the composer and a projected complete works. In addition, he
made substantial contributions to research into Brahms's music and that of
Schütz and his contemporaries. In his last years his principal interest lay in
the polyphonic hymn of the 15th century. Gerber's work was characterized
by thoroughness of scholarship and penetrating treatment of material; his
writings represent important advances in the areas in which he worked.
WRITINGS
Die Arie in den Opern Johann Adolf Hasses (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1922;
Leipzig, 1925/R, as Der Operntypus Johann Adolf Hasses und seine
textlichen Grundlagen)
‘Harmonische Probleme in Mozarts Streichquartetten’, Mozart-Jb 1924,
55–77
‘Wort und Ton in den “Cantiones sacrae” von Heinrich Schütz’,
Gedenkschrift für Hermann Abert, ed. F. Blume (Halle, 1928/R), 57–71
Das Passionsrezitativ bei Heinrich Schütz und seine stilgeschichtlichen
Grundlagen (Habilitationsschrift, U. of Giessen, 1928; Gütersloh,
1929/R)
‘Formprobleme im Brahmsschen Lied’, JbMP 1931, 23–42
‘Über Geist und Wesen von Bachs h-moll-Messe’, BJb 1932, 119–41
‘Die Aufgaben der Musikwissenschaft im Dritten Reich’, ZfM, Jg.102
(1935), 497–501
‘Zu Luthers Liedweisen’, Festschrift Max Schneider zum 60. Geburtstag,
ed. H.J. Zingel (Halle and Eisleben, 1935), 26–39
‘Carl Maria von Weber und der deutsche Geist’, Völkische Musikerziehung,
ii (1936), 603–11
‘Haydn und Mozart: über die “Bewertung” unserer Klassiker’, Die Musik,
xxix (1936–7), 542–8, 620–25
Johannes Brahms (Potsdam, 1938)
‘Die Musik der Ostmark’, Zeitschrift für deutsche Geisteswissenschaft, ii
(1939), 55–78
Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck (Potsdam, 1941, 2/1950)
‘Neue Beiträge zur Gluck'schen Familiengeschichte’, AMf, vi (1941), 129–
50
‘Die deutsche Wesensform bei Händel und Gluck’, Deutsche Musikkultur,
vi (1941–2), 107–17
‘Brahms und das Volkslied’, Die Sammlung, iii (1947–8), 652–62
‘Über Formstrukturen in Bachs Motetten’, Mf, iii (1950), 177–89
Bachs Brandenburgische Konzerte: eine Einführung in ihre formale und
geistige Wesensart (Kassel, 1951, 2/1965)
‘Apel, Nikolaus’, ‘Arie’, ‘Brahms, Johannes’, ‘Deutschland: E. Klassik und
Romantik’, ‘Hymnus: C. der Mehrstimmige’, MGG1
EDITIONS
Michael Praetorius: Gesamtausgabe der musikalischen Werke, i, ii: Musae
Sioniae 1605–10 (Wolfenbüttel and Berlin, 1928–9); x: Musarum
Sioniarum motectae et psalmi latini 1607 (Wolfenbüttel and Berlin,
1931); xii: Hymnodia Sionia 1611 (Wolfenbüttel and Berlin, 1935)
Georg Rhaw: Sacrorum hymnorum, liber primus I, i: Proprium de tempore;
ii: Proprium et commune, EDM, 1st ser., xxi, xxv (1942–3)
Christoph Willibald von Gluck: Echo et Narcisse, Paride ed Elena, Alceste,
Sämtliche Werke, i/4, 7, 10 (Kassel, 1953–7)
Der Mensuralkodex des Nikolaus Apel, EDM, 1st ser., xxxii–xxxiii (1956–
60) [vol.iii completed by L. Finscher and W. Dömling, 1975]
Johann Adolph Hasse: Arminio, EDM, 1st ser., xxvii–xxviii (1957–66)
Heinrich Schütz: Symphoniae sacrae I, Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke,
xiii (Kassel, 1957)
Spanisches Hymnar um 1500, Cw, lx (1957)
Johann Sebastian Bach: Werke für Violine, Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher
Werke, vi/1 (Kassel, 1958)
Johann Jeep: Studentengärtlein 1614, EDM, 1st ser., xxix (1958)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.A. Abert: ‘Rudolf Gerber in Memoriam’, AcM, xxix (1957), 51–3
W. Boetticher: ‘Rudolf Gerber zum Gedächtnis’, Mf, x (1957), 384–7
L. Finscher: ‘Rudolf Gerber’, Musica, xi (1957), 582–3
G. Croll, ed.: Zur Geschichte des mehrstimmigen Hymnus: gesammelte
Aufsätze (Kassel, 1965) [incl. complete list of writings]
S. Döhring: ‘Das Hasse-Bild Rudolf Gerbers: zur Geschichte der
deutschen Seria-Rezeption’, AnMc, xxv (1987), 67–77
F. Lippmann: ‘Hasses Arienstil und seine Interpretation durch Rudolf
Gerber’, AnMc, xxv (1987), 17–65
ANNA AMALIE ABERT/PAMELA M. POTTER
Gerbert, Martin, Freiherr von
Hornau
(b Horb am Neckar, 11 or 12 Aug 1720; d St Blasien, 13 May 1793).
German music historian, theologian, abbot and composer. He received
training with the Jesuits and entered the Benedictine monastery at St
Blasien. After ordination in 1744 he served as instructor in theology and
philosophy and as librarian of the chapter. From 1754 to 1764 he published
a series of didactic theological works and travelled extensively in France,
Italy, Switzerland and Germany. On these journeys he met leading scholars
and surveyed the contents of libraries for medieval sources of theology,
liturgy and music history. In 1762 he issued a prospectus for a history of
sacred music, soliciting information from archivists about the contents and
location of medieval music manuscripts.
On 15 October 1764 he was named Prince-Abbot of St Blasien, becoming
both a spiritual leader and a princely subject of the imperial court at Vienna.
In July 1768 a fire destroyed his monastery, church and library including
most of his manuscript collection. Fortunately the first volume of his De
cantu et musica sacra had already been printed and copies of the materials
for the second volume had been sent to Padre Martini in Bologna, with
whom Gerbert had intended to collaborate. The complete work was finally
published in 1774, and was followed in 1784 by his three-volume
Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum, an edition of the texts
of more than 40 medieval music treatises. In the years after the fire, with
the help of Maria Theresa, he rebuilt the monastery, founded schools and
hospitals and defended his ecclesiastical estates from political confiscation.
Gerbert’s work places him among the founders of modern historical
musicology with Burney, Hawkins and Forkel. Though the texts as
rendered in his Scriptores are faulty by modern standards, they are one of
the most important collections of original documents in medieval music and
music theory. Only with extensive scholarly study after 1945 have
substantial improvements been made on Gerbert’s editions. De cantu et
musica sacra also anticipates modern music scholarship, dealing
chronologically with music for the Mass, Office, psalms, hymns and
national traditions in chant. Coussemaker’s Scriptorum (1864–76)
supplements this collection.
Gerbert’s compositions include an offertory published in Remigius Klesatl’s
XXIV offertoria solennia (Augsburg, 1747), and an eight-part Missa in
coena Domini published at the end of the second volume of De cantu et
musica sacra.
WRITINGS
Iter alemannicum, accedit italicum et gallicum: sequuntur glossaria
theotisca ex codicibus manuscriptis a saeculo ix usque xiii (St Blasien,
1765, 2/1773; Ger. trans., 1767)
De cantu et musica sacra a prima ecclesiae aetate usque ad praesens
tempus (St Blasien, 1774/R)
Vetus liturgia alemannica disquisitionibus praeviis, notis, et
observationibus illustrata (St Blasien, 1776/R)
Monumenta veteris liturgiae alemanniae (St Blasien, 1777–9)
Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum (St Blasien, 1784/R,
3/1931)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C.F. Nicolai: Beschreibung einer Reise durch Deutschland und die
Schweiz im Jahr 1781 (Berlin and Stettin, 1783–95)
A.H.F. von Schlichtegroll: Nekrolog auf das Jahr 1793, ii (Gotha, 1795),
1; repr. in Musiker-Nekrologe, ed. R. Schaal (Kassel, 1954), 65
G. Pfeilschifter, ed.: Korrespondenz des Fürstabtes Martin II. Gerbert von
St Blasien (Karlsruhe, 1931–4)
C. Grossmann: ‘Fürstabt Martin Gerbert als Musikhistoriker’, KJb, xxvii
(1932), 123–34
E. Hegar: Die Anfänge der neueren Musikgeschichtsschreibung um 1770
bei Gerbert, Burney und Hawkins (Strasbourg, 1932)
J. Bayer: Die Stellung Martin Gerberts in der Geschichte der
Liturgieforschung und der liturgischen Bewegung (diss., U. of Freiburg,
1943)
G. Pfeilschifter, A. Allgeier and W. Müller, eds.: Briefe und Akten des
Fürstabts Martin II. Gerbert von St Blasien, 1764–1793 (Karlsruhe,
1957)
M. Huglo: ‘La musicologie au XVIIIe siècle: Giambattista Martini et Martin
Gerbert’, RdM, lix (1973), 106–18
G.A. Anderson: ‘Martin Gerbert (1720–1793): an Eighteenth-Century
Historian’s View of Church Music’, Musicology, vi (1980), 2–22
F. Haberl: ‘Martin Gerbert von St. Blasien und seine Beziehungen zu
Padre Giambattista Martini von Bologna’, Singende Kirche, xxxii
(1985) 101–4
M. Bernhard: Clavis Gerberti: eine Revision von Martin Gerberts
Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum (St. Blasien
1784), i (Munich, 1989)
HOWARD SERWER
Gerbič, Fran
(b Cerknica, 5 Oct 1840; d Ljubljana, 29 March 1917). Slovenian composer
and singer. He was taught music by C. Mašek in Ljubljana, and from 1865
to 1867 he attended the Prague Conservatory, studying singing with F.A.
Vogl and composition with Josef Krejčí. As an operatic tenor he sang in
Prague (1867–9), Agram (now Zagreb, 1869–78), Ulm (1880–81) and
Lemberg (now L'viv, 1881–2). Ill-health forced him to give up his operatic
career and from 1882 to 1886 he taught singing at the Lemberg
Conservatory. In 1886 he went to Ljubljana, and was active there until his
death, having connections with various institutions as choral director,
conductor and teacher; he was also director of the music school of the
Glasbena Matica society. His most important compositions are the piano
mazurkas, the orchestral Jugoslovanska balada (1910) and Lovska
simfonija (‘Hunting Symphony’), and some of his solo songs. He also wrote
two operas, Kres (not performed) and Nabor (performed in Ljubljana,
1925), two cantatas, works for unaccompanied male choir, lieder, some
church music (three masses, hymns), orchestral music (including two
symphonies) and piano works. He was a very versatile musician,
successfully active as singer and teacher, as publisher (of a collection of
hymns, Lira Sionska, Prague, 1866), and as the director of the periodical
Glasbena zora. In 1892 he established the first professional opera
ensemble in Slovenia. At the same time he made an important contribution
to the organization of the music school in Ljubljana and to the general
development of Slovenian music at the end of the 19th century. He also
published a singing method (1912).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Mantuani: ‘Fran Gerbič’, Dom in svet, xxx (1917), 186–8
D. Cvetko: Histoire de la musique slovène (Maribor, 1967), 265–7
J. Sivec: ‘Neuprizorjena Gerbičeva opera “Kres”’, MZ, xi (1975), 54–73
DRAGOTIN CVETKO/ZORAN KRSTULOVIĆ
JOHN M. SCHECHTER
Geremia, Giuseppe
(b Catania, 19 Nov 1732; d Catania, Jan 1814). Italian composer. He
studied in Naples at the Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto, where he was
a pupil of Francesco Durante, and later taught Giuseppe Sigismondo. Two
oratorios (1758 and 1760) and a harpsichord sonata (1769, ed. R.
Musumeci; Palermo, 1999) have survived from his Neapolitan period.
Together with Logroscino and Insanguine he composed the music for the
comic opera L'innamorato balordo (1763, Naples), of which only the libretto
has survived. In 1773, after declining posts in Rome, and at the courts of
Turin, St Petersburg and Spain, he became maestro di cappella in Catania
at both the cathedral and the Benedictine abbey of S Nicolò l'Arena; he left
the cathedral post to his pupil Giacinto Castorina in 1800 but retained the
abbey position at least until 1807 if not until his death. Together with V.T.
Bellini, Vincenzo Bellini's grandfather, he was the leading figure in musical
life in Catania in his day; both men enjoyed a high reputation as teachers,
producing a number of skilled musicians, but never collaborated on any
compositions.
Geremia's surviving works include about 100 sacred compositions held in
manuscript mostly in Catania, with other sources in London, Dresden,
Vienna, Naples and Noto (Siracusa). Among these are the dialogo teatrale
La città d'Abella liberata of 1780 (only the first part of the three-part festa
teatrale version of 1783 survives), 12 other oratorios including Mosé
trionfante (1800) and Il ritorno di Noemi (1802), two secular and two sacred
cantatas and 23 masses (two of which differ only in sections of the music
and in instrumentation) including a Missa pro defunctis (1809) and Messa
breve in F of 1810.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Policastro: Catania nel Settecento (Turin, 1950), 353–79
Registri dei pagamenti (MS, July 1773 and March 1807, I-CATa)
M. D'Arrigo: I manoscritti musicali di Giuseppe Geremia (Catania, 1954),
178–95
F. Pastura: Secoli di musica catanese (Catania, 1968), 102–11
R. Pagano, ed.: Elenco cronologico aggiornato dei drammi rappresentati o
pubblicati a Catania dal 1700 al 1800 (MS, 1968, I-CATus) [19pp]
ROSALBA MUSUMECI
Gergalov, Aleksandr
(b 5 July 1955). Russian baritone. A principal with the Kirov Opera, he
made his début with the company as Rossini's Figaro in 1982, the year he
graduated from the Leningrad Conservatory. He was a prizewinner at
Geneva (1985) and in the Chaliapin All-Russian Vocalists Contest (1989).
His important roles include Onegin, Di Luna and the Marquis of Posa. He
was much admired as Andrey Bolkonsky in War and Peace at the
Mariinsky Theatre in 1991, televised in Europe and recorded on disc and
video. Other parts recorded with the Kirov include Yeletsky (Queen of
Spades), the Venetian (Sadko), Prince Ivan (Kashchey the Immortal) and
Ferdinand (Prokofiev's Betrothal in a Monastery). His focussed voice is
distinctive for its dark, eloquent tone.
JOHN ALLISON
Gergely, Jean
(b Budapest, 23 May 1911; d Paris, 9 Sept 1996). French
ethnomusicologist of Hungarian birth. In Budapest he studied composition
with Siklós at the academy (1929–35), and linguistics with Sauvageot,
Hungarian and Finno-Ugrian linguistics with Gombocz and
ethnomusicology with Kodály at the university (1930–33). In Paris he
attended musicology lectures by Pirro and Masson at the Sorbonne (1938–
41), and by Le Guennant and Potiron at the Institut Grégorien (1939–43).
He was first a music teacher (Mohács, 1935–6) and then a music critic
(Budapest, 1936–8); in Paris (1938) he was initially choirmaster of the
Hungarian Catholic Mission (until 1947), and then worked at, and became
interim director of, the Institut Hongrois (until 1959). From 1949 he taught
Hungarian language and civilization at the Institut National des Langues et
Civilisations Orientales. For six years he also worked with Schaeffner at the
Musée de l’Homme (1959–65). Although Gergely wrote a number of
studies in linguistics (he gained the doctorate from the Sorbonne in 1968
with a dissertation on the Hungarian language), he devoted himself
primarily to musicology. His two main fields of interest were
ethnomusicology in Central Europe and Hungarian music, notably Kodály
and Bartók. Gergely became one of the leading authorities on Bartók,
publishing a significant monograph devoted to him in 1980 (originally
submitted as his doctoral dissertation in 1975) and compiling a volume of
his documents in 1984.
WRITINGS
Zoltán Kodály: músico húngaro e mestre universal (Lisbon, 1954)
‘Les choeurs a cappella de Béla Bartók’, ReM, no.224 (1953–4), 127–69
with J. Vigué: La musique hongroise (Paris, 1959, 2/1976)
‘L'état actuel des études finno-ougriennes en France’, Revue de l’Ecole
nationale des langues orientales, ii (1965), 125–43
‘Zoltán Kodály et la conscience musicale de son pays’, Etudes finno-
ougriennes, ii (1965), 13–33
Introduction à la connaissance du folklore musical (Lausanne, 1967)
‘Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967)’, Etudes finno-ougriennes, iv (1967), 7–11
‘Gábor Mátray folkloriste’, Etudes finno-ougriennes, viii (1971), 93–106
Béla Bartók, compositeur hongrois (diss., U. of Strasbourg II, 1975; Paris,
1980)
‘A propos du jodel’, Etudes finno-ougriennes, xiv (1977), 157–68
‘L'ethnomusicologie dans les pays d'Europe centre-orientale’, Etudes
finno-ougriennes, xvi (1980–81), 73–91
‘Le “Chant Kossuth” et son contexte sociologique’, RdM, lxviii (1982), 136–
52
ed.: Béla Bartók vivant: souvenirs, études et témoignages (Paris, 1984)
‘Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967) et l'opinion française’, Institut national des
langues orientales (1984), 29–36
‘Béla Bartók vivant (postface à une publication récente)’, Etudes finno-
ougriennes, xxi (1985), 133–40
‘Liszt et l'Ecole hongroise de Paris’, Franz Liszt: Paris 1986 [ReM,
nos.405–7 (1987)], 75–86
CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER/JEAN GRIBENSKI
Gerhard.
German family of organ builders. They were active in the 18th and 19th
centuries. Justinus Ehrenfried Gerhard (b 1710 or 1711; d Lindig bei Kahla,
16 Jan 1786) probably learnt the art of organ building from the craftsman
Tröbs in Weimar. About 1739 he founded a works at Lindig, in which town
he married in 1741. He was a great craftsman, whose art is equal to that of
Gottfried Silbermann. His instruments are solidly built, with beautiful
Baroque façades, good dispositions and fine tone quality. The organ at
Ziegenhain (1764; one manual and pedal, nine speaking stops and pedal
coupler) is outstanding for its exceptionally powerful, clear sound and
excellent voicing.
Christian August Gerhard (b Lindig, 1 Sept 1745; d Lindig, 15 Dec 1817),
son of Justinus Ehrenfried, continued the business in Lindig. A grandson,
Johann Christian Adam Gerhard (b Lindig, 17 Aug 1780; d Dorndorf an der
Saale, 6 May 1837), opened a branch at Dorndorf.
Johann Ernst Gottfried Gerhard (b Lindig, 21 April 1786; d Merseburg, 23
Oct 1823), another grandson, was an organ builder in Merseburg; his firm
survives today under the name of Kühn.
An organ builder with the name Gerhard worked in Boppard in the 19th
century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.L. Back: Chronik der Stadt und des Amtes Eisenberg (Eisenberg, 1843)
J. and E. Löbe: Geschichte der Kirchen und Schulen des Herzogthums
Sachsen-Altenburg (Altenburg, 1886–91)
F. Oehme: Handbuch über ältere, neuere und neueste Orgelwerke im
Königreiche Sachsen (Dresden, 1889–97/R1978, with suppl. and
index by W. Hackel and U. Dähnert), ii, 242–3
WALTER HÜTTEL
Gerhard, Anselm
(b Heidelberg, 30 March 1958). German musicologist. After studying
musicology with Finscher (Frankfurt, 1977–9) and Dahlhaus (Berlin, 1979–
82), he took the doctorate at the Technical University of Berlin in 1985 with
a study on the urbanization of 19th-century opera in Paris. He completed
his Habilitationsschrift on the instrumental music of Muzio Clementi (1991)
and was awarded a Heisenberg scholarship from the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft. He was appointed assistant lecturer at the
University of Münster (1992–4) and professor at the University of Berne
(1994–), and is founding president of the Swiss national office of RISM
(1996–). As a noted authority on opera history and music aesthetics of the
18th and 19th century, he combines the history of aesthetics and
institutions with aspects of sociology in his work. His dissertation has done
much to stimulate research on the grand opéra of Paris.
WRITINGS
‘“Sortire dalle vie comuni”: wie Rossini einem Akademiker den Guillaume
Tell verdarb’, Oper als Text: romantistische Beiträge zur
Librettoforschung, ed. A. Gier (Heidelberg, 1986), 185–219
ed.: E. de Jouy: ‘Essai sur l'opéra français’, Bollettino del Centro
rossiniano di studi (1987), 61–91
‘Die französische “Grand Opéra” in der Forschung seit 1945’, AcM, lix
(1987), 220–70
‘Nicht Gift, sondern Kontrapunkt: Mozarts Requiem und sein Ende’, NZM
Jg.150/9 (1989), 6–12
‘Rollenhierarchie und dramaturgische Hierarchien in der italienischen Oper
des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Opernheld und Opernheldin im 18.
Jahrhundert: Münster 1989, 35–55
‘Ballade und Drama: Frédéric Chopins Ballade opus 38 und die
französische Oper um 1830’, AMw, xlviii (1991), 110–25
Die Verstädterung der Oper: Rossini, Meyerbeer, Verdi und die
Ausprägung modernen Musiktheaters in der Parisien ‘Grand Opera’
(diss., Technical U. of Berlin, 1985; Stuttgart, 1982 as Die
Verstädterung der Oper: Paris und das Musiktheater des 19.
Jahrhunderts)
‘Muzio Clementi, il “padre del pianoforte”, e il ruolo di Londra nella
formazione della “musica assoluta”’, Chigiana, xliii, new ser. xxiii
(1993), 311–26
‘“Man hat noch kein System von der Theorie der Musik”: die Bedeutung
von Johann George Sulzers “Allgemeiner Theorie der Schönen
Künste” für die Musikästhetik des ausgehenden 18. Jahrhunderts’,
Schweizer im Berlin des 18. Jahrhunderts: Berlin 1994, ed. M. Fontius
and H. Holzhey (Berlin, 1996), 341–53
‘Republikanische Zustände: der tragico fine in den Dramen Metastasios’,
Zwischen Opera buffa und Melodramma: italienische Oper im 18. und
19. Jahrhundert, ed. J. Maehder and J. Stenzl (Frankfurt, 1994), 27–
65
‘Stilübung oder Karikatur? Mozarts Klaviersuite KV 399 und die Negation
des “klassischen Stils”’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte: eine Festschrift
fur Ludwig Finscher, ed. A. Laubenthal and K. Kusan-Windweh
(Kassel, 1995), 393–404
‘Leonhard Euler, die Französische Gemeinde zu Berlin und die ästhetische
Grundlegung der “absoluten Musik”’, Schweizer Jb für
Musikwissenschaft, new ser., xiv (1996), (forthcoming)
‘Jan Ladislav Dusseks “Le Retour à Paris”: eine Klaviersonate zwischen
“Aufklärung” und “Romantik”’, AMw, liii (1996), 207–21
London und der Klassizismus in der Musik: die Ausprägung einer
autonomen Instrumentalmusik in der britischen Musikästhetik des 18.
Jahrhunderts und in Muzio Clementis Klavierwerk (Habilitationsschrift,
U. of Münster 1991; Stuttgart, 1998)
MATTHIAS BRZOSKA
Gerhard, Livia.
See Frege, Livia.
Gerhard, Roberto
WRITINGS
‘L'obra de Felip Pedrell’, Revista musical catalana, xix (1922), 231–2
Dictado musical (Barcelona, 1928) [trans. of H. Riemann: Handbuch der
Musik-Diktats: (Systematische Gehörsbildung), Berlin, 7/1923]
Compendio de armonia (Barcelona, ?1928) [trans. of H. Scholz:
Harmonielehre, Leipzig and Berlin, 1920]
Composición musical (Barcelona, 1929) [trans. of H. Riemann:
Katechismus der Kompositionslehre, Leipzig, 1889]
Musica bizantina (Barcelona, 1930) [trans. of E. Wellesz: Byzantinische
Musik, Breslau, 1927]
Articles in Mirador (1930–36); some repr. in J. Homs: Robert Gerhard i la
seva obra (Barcelona, 1991)
La melodía (Barcelona, 1931/R) [trans. of E. Toch: Melodieletire, Berlin,
1923]
La orquesta moderna (Barcelona, 1932) [trans. of F. Volbach: Das
moderne Orchester, Leipzig, 1919–21]
El arte de dirigir (Barcelona, 1933, 2/1988) [trans. of H. Scherchen:
Lehrbuch des Dirigierens, Leipzig, 1929]
Historia de la musica (Barcelona, 1934) [trans. of J. Wolf: Geschichte der
Musik, Leipzig, 1925–9]
‘Música i poesia’, Quaderns de poesia, i/2 (1935), 18; repr. in J. Homs:
Robert Gerhard i la seva obra (Barcelona, 1991)
‘English Musical Life: a Symposium’, Tempo, no.11 (1945), 2–3; repr. as
‘England, Spring 1945’, Tempo, no.100 (1972), 4–8
‘On Music in Ballet’, Ballet, xi (1951), no.3, pp.19–24; no.4, pp.29–35
‘Tonality in 12-Tone Music’, The Score, no.6 (1952), 23–5
‘Reply to George Perle’, The Score, no.9 (1954), 59–60
‘Pau Casals, símbolo de la nacionalidad catalana’, Libro blanco de
cataluna (Buenos Aires, 1956)
‘The Contemporary Musical Situation’, The Score, no.16 (1956), 7–18
‘Developments in 12-Tone Technique’, The Score, no.17 (1956), 61–72
‘Twelve-Note Technique in Stravinsky’, The Score, no.20 (1957), 38–43
‘Apropos Mr Stadlen’, The Score, no.23 (1958), 50–57
‘Don Quixote’, The Decca Book of Ballet, ed. D. Drew (London, 1958),
153–6
‘Concrete and Electronic Music Composition’, Hinrichsen Music Yearbook
(1959), 30
Is New Music Growing Old?, University of Michigan Official Publication,
lxii/18 (Ann Arbor, 1960)
‘Some Lectures by Webern’, The Score, no.28 (1961), 25–8
‘Thoughts on Art and Anarchy’, The Listener (23 March 1961)
‘Reluctant Revolutionary’, Sunday Telegraph (Dec 1961); repr. in The
London Sinfonietta: Schoenberg/Gerhard Series (London, 1973), 43
‘Musa y música, hoy’, Shell (1962), 64; repr. in J. Homs: Robert Gerhard i
la seva obra (Barcelona, 1991), 225–38
‘Composer's Forum: The Plague’, Musical Events, xxi/4 (1964), 6–8
‘Schoenberg Reminiscences’, PNM, xiii (1974–5), 57–65
‘Apunts’, Cultura [Barcelona], no.29 (1991); no.42 (1993) [extracts from
journals]
M. Bowen, ed.: Gerhard on Music: Selected Writings (London, 2000)
Unpubd BBC radio talks: The Heritage of Spain, 1952; Twelve-Note
Composition Explained, 1955; Sound and Symbol, 1957; Introduction
to Symphony no.2, 1958; Introduction to ‘Lament on the Death of a
Bullfighter’, 1960; Irrelevant Art, 1961; Primitive Folk Music, 1963;
Sound Observed, 2 parts, 1965
Gerhard, Roberto
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Trabal: ‘Una conversa amb Robert Gerhard’, Mirador, no.47 (1929), 5
L. Millet: ‘A en Robert Gerhard’, Revista musical catalana, xxvii (1930),
110–13
R. Llates: ‘La tècnica de Robert Gerhard’, Mirador, no.126 (1931), 5
R. Llates: ‘Els compositors independents’, Mirador, no.127 (1931), 5
R. Llates: ‘Un català mundial: Robert Gerhard’, Mirador, no.229 (1933), 5
J. Pahissa: ‘La música de Robert Gerhard’, Mirador, no.231 (1933), 5
B. Selva: ‘Evocacions d'art VI: a Robert Gerhard, músiques modernes,
músiques antigues … música!’, Revista musical catalana, xxxiii (1936),
225–34
E. Sackville-West: ‘The Music of Roberto Gerhard’, The Arts, no.2 (1947),
19–27
D. Drew: ‘Gerhard's Wind Quintet and the Dilemma of Spanish Music’,
New Orpheus Review, i/1 (1952), 4–5
The Score, no.17 (1956) [Gerhard number incl. articles by D. Drew, J.
Gardner, N. Del Mar, D. Mitchell, L. Picken, R. Vlad]
C. Mason: ‘Roberto Gerhard's First Symphony’, MT, ciii (1962), 99–100
C. Mason: ‘Chamber Music in Britain since 1929’, Cobbett's Cyclopedic
Survey of Chamber Music, ed. C. Mason, iii (London, 2/1963/R), 82–
122
C.M. Mason: ‘Roberto Gerhard’, Music in Britain (London, 1965)
A. Whittall: ‘England, Italy and Spain’, MO, lxxxix (1965–6), 663–8
H. Keller: ‘Roberto Gerhard's Two Ears’, The Listener (24 July 1969)
J. Buller: ‘Roberto Gerhard: Leo’, Tempo, no.91 (1969–70), 27–9
N. Kay: ‘Late Harvest’, Music and Musicians, xviii/7 (1969–70), 44 only, 71
only
D. Drew: ‘Roberto Gerhard’, MT, cxi (1970), 307–8
J. Homs: ‘Record de Robert Gerhard’, Serra d'Or, no.125 (1970), 69–71
A. Orga: ‘Roberto Gerhard; 1896–1970’, Music and Musicians, xix/2
(1970–71), 36–46, 62–3
C. Ballantine: ‘The Symphony in the 20th Century’, MR, xxxii (1971), 219–
32
C. MacDonald: ‘Sense and Sound: Gerhard's Fourth Symphony’, Tempo,
no.100 (1972), 25–9
K. Potter: The Life and Works of Roberto Gerhard (diss., U. of
Birmingham, 1972)
K. Potter: ‘Gerhard's Metamorphoses’, Music and Musicians, xxi/9 (1972–
3), 8–10
The London Sinfonietta: Schoenberg/Gerhard Series (London, 1973) [with
essays by D. Drew, A. Orga, K. Potter, S. Smith, list of works, MS facs.
of ‘The Akond of Swat’]
Tempo, no.139 (1981) [Gerhard issue; incl. articles by P.P. Nash, G.
Walker, D. Drew, C. MacDonald, S. Bradshaw, L. Anderson, H. Davies,
M. Donat]
B. Casablancas i Domingo: ‘Recepció a Catalunya de l'Escola de Viena i
la seva influència sobre els compositors catalans’, Recerca
musicològica, iv (1984), 243–80
E. Martínez Miura: ‘Roberto Gerhard, creador de la vanguardia musical
española’, Ritmo, no.542 (1984), 95–6
C. MacDonald: ‘Rugged Individual’, The Listener (2 Aug 1985)
Revista musical catalana, new ser., no.23 (1986) [Gerhard issue; incl.
articles by P. Artís, J. Casanovas, A. Lewin-Richter]
J. Homs: ‘Robert Gerhard, primer introductor de la música de Schönberg a
Catalunya’, L'Avenc, no.119 (1988), 38–41
R. Paine: Hispanic Traditions in Twentieth-Century Catalan Music (New
York, 1989)
D. Drew: ‘Gerhard's Duenna and Sheridan's’, Opera, xlii (1991), 1393–8;
xliii (1992), 40–47
J. Homs: Robert Gerhard i la seva obra (Barcelona, 1991) [incl.
bibliography]
A. Ros Marbà: ‘La Dueña, una obsessió de Robert Gerhard’, Cultura
[Barcelona], no.25 (1991)
Scherzo, no.61 (1992) [Gerhard issue; incl. articles by J. Alfaya, S.
Bradshaw, E. Colomer, D. Drew, S. Martín Bermudez, V. Pablo Pérez,
E. Rincón]
M. Albet: ‘Robert Gerhard, de nou’, Revista de Catalunya, 2nd ser., no.59
(1992), 75–89
J. White: ‘National Traditions in the Music of Roberto Gerhard’, Tempo,
no.184 (1993), 2–13
D. Drew: ‘Notes on Gerhard's Pandora’, ibid., 14–16
D. Sproston: ‘Thematicism in Gerhard's Concerto for Orchestra’, ibid., 18–
22
Faig ARTS, no.36 (1996) [Gerhard issue; incl. articles by M. Albet, J.
Noguero, L. Calderer, D. Padros, J. Vilar, O. Pérez]
J. Busqué i Barceló, ed.: Centenari Robert Gerhard (1896–1996)
(Barcelona,1996)
J. White: ‘Catalan Folk Sources in Soirées de Barcelone’, Tempo, no.198
(1996), 11–21
C. MacDonald: ‘Soirées de Barcelone: Towards a Performing Version’,
ibid., 22–6
I. Cholij: ‘Gerhard, Electronic Music and King Lear’, ibid., 28–32
J. White: ‘Symphony of Hope: Gerhard's Secret Programme’, MT, cxxxix
(1998), 19–28
Gerhardt, Elena
(b Leipzig, 11 Nov 1883; d London, 11 Jan 1961). German soprano and
mezzo-soprano, active in England. She studied at the Leipzig
Conservatory (1900–04), whose director, Nikisch, having heard her sing as
a student, took the unprecedented step of accompanying her himself at her
first public recital on her 20th birthday. At that time she made several
pioneering records of lieder with Nikisch, with whom she was romatically
involved. After a few stage appearances at the Leipzig Opera in 1905–6
(as Mignon and Charlotte), she devoted herself wholly to concert work, and
soon became a notable interpreter of German song. She sang for the first
time in England in 1906, and in the USA in 1912. After World War I she
soon resumed her international career, but continued to live in Leipzig. In
1932 she married Fritz Kohl, the director of the Leipzig radio, who was
arrested in the following year under the Nazi regime. Although he was
eventually acquitted, he and his wife left Germany in 1934 and settled in
England, where Gerhardt had always been very popular. Her fame
increased during World War II when she took part in several of the National
Gallery Concerts organized by Myra Hess. She continued to sing for some
years after the war, both in public and for the BBC, but devoted herself
increasingly to teaching.
Gerhardt’s voice deepened to mezzo-soprano during her maturity, and
became an ideal instrument for the lieder repertory, enabling her to sing
many nominally masculine songs without any sense of strain or incongruity.
For instance, her numerous performances of Winterreise had a memorably
exalted and tragic character. Her recitals and records contributed notably to
the then growing fame of Hugo Wolf. In her best vocal period, the
sensuous beauty of her floating tones in Brahms’s Feldeinsamkeit or in the
da lontano final verse of Schubert’s Der Lindenbaum could hold an
audience enthralled. In later years minor technical faults intruded, but
seemed unimportant beside her penetrating interpretations, her mastery of
light and shade, her humour, rhythmic energy and wide variety of tone-
colour. Although her style was very much of its period (especially in her
liberal use of portamento), she made every song she sang a part of her
own warm and rich personality.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Gerhardt: Recital (London, 1953/R) [with appx: ‘Elena Gerhardt and the
Gramophone’, and discography by D. Shawe-Taylor]
W. Radford: ‘Elena Gerhardt’, Recorded Sound, no.40 (1970), 671–7
J.B. Steane: The Grand Tradition (London, 1974/R), 225–8
DESMOND SHAWE-TAYLOR/ALAN BLYTH
Gericke, Wilhelm
(b Schwanberg, Styria, 18 April 1845; d Vienna, 27 Oct 1925). Austrian
conductor and composer. He studied at the Vienna Conservatory under
F.O. Dessoff (1862–5) before conducting operas in small towns and
subsequently becoming conductor of the municipal theatre in Linz. In 1874
he was appointed assistant conductor of the Vienna Hofoper, where he
conducted the first performance of Goldmark’s Die Königin von Saba
(1875) and the first Vienna performance of Wagner’s Tannhäuser (Paris
version). From 1880 he conducted the concerts of the Gesellschaft der
Musikfreunde (formerly conducted by Brahms, 1872–5) and also directed
the Singverein. After hearing Gericke conduct Aida in autumn 1883 Henry
Lee Higginson invited him to become conductor of the Boston SO
beginning in 1884; he held this post for five years before returning to
Vienna in 1889 because of poor health. He again conducted the
Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde (1890–95), then moved to Dresden for a
year before resuming residence in Vienna. He returned to Boston in 1898
for a second term as conductor of the Symphony Concerts, but went back
to Vienna in 1906 as a freelance conductor and composer.
Gericke’s compositions, which include chamber music, two piano sonatas,
an operetta Schön Hannchen (1865), a Requiem, choruses (including
Chorus of Homage) and songs, are largely forgotten. As a conductor in
Vienna, Gericke was known for his performances of French, Italian and
Wagnerian opera. But his most important contribution was as conductor of
the Boston Symphony Concerts. It was Gericke who, in Higginson’s words,
‘made the orchestra’ by enforcing strict discipline at rehearsals,
discouraging the former casual attitude of players and replacing 20
members in his first season with young Europeans (including a new leader,
Franz Kneisel). Through his energy and expertise he raised the performing
standards; he always advocated precision and abhorred excesses. He
extended the season through the establishment of the summer Popular
Concerts, which provided the musicians with longer contracts. His
programmes were considered heavy at first; but if in 1887 and 1888
Brahms, Bruckner and Richard Strauss were unpopular, by Gericke’s
second term they had become staple fare and new works were introduced,
including Debussy’s L’après-midi d’un faune in 1904, as well as
compositions by American composers such as George Chadwick, Amy
Beach and Arthur Foote. He also gave the American première of César
Franck's Symphony. His concert tours, especially the New York début in
1887, helped to spread the orchestra’s reputation. Boston's Symphony Hall
was constructed during Gericke's tenure and became the orchestra's
permanent home.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAB (F. Martens)
M.A. De W. Howe: The Boston Symphony Orchestra (Boston, 1914;
enlarged 1931/R with J.N. Burk as The Boston Symphony Orchestra,
1881–1931)
B. Perry: Life and Letters of Henry Lee Higginson (Boston, 1921)
Obituary, New York Times (30 Oct 1925)
J.N. Burke: ‘Wilhelm Gericke: a Centennial Retrospect’, MQ, xxxi (1945),
163–87
P. Hart: Orpheus in the New World: the Symphony Orchestra as an
American Cultural Institution (New York, 1973)
GAYNOR G. JONES/CHRISTOPHER FIFIELD
Gerig.
German firm of music publishers. Its founder Hans Gerig (b Freiburg, 16
July 1910; d Cologne, 15 March 1978) took the doctorate in 1935 and
represented the German authors’ association at the Bureau International
de l’Edition Mécanique in Paris, where he was also manager of Editions
Continental. In 1946 he founded the Bühnen- und Musikverlag Hans Gerig
in Cologne. The Gerig group gradually expanded to 36 separate publishing
houses, including Sidemton, Mondial, Rialto, Excelsior and Volk, covering a
wide range of music publishing activities. Increasing internationalization led
to an emphasis on dance and entertainment music, of which the Gerig
group is one of the leading German publishers; chamber music and stage
works are also published. An educational branch was started in 1955 with
the publication of the Neue Reihe, a series of over 100 titles comprising
works for choir and orchestra and chamber music. In 1956 Die Garbe, a
school music publication in several volumes, was taken over from the
Tonger publishing house. Tutors and orchestral studies have been
published for a variety of instruments. From 1964 the side of the business
dealing with serious music was reorganized and a new emphasis given to
contemporary music; anthologies of contemporary piano music from
various countries (including Brazil, Greece, Israel and several in eastern
Europe) have been published, as well as the series Pro Musica Nova
(studies for playing avant-garde music). Gerig also publishes the series
Instrumentalmusik des 16.–18. Jahrhunderts (Urtext editions) and series of
books on music. The Gerig group represents Eaton Music (London), B.
Liechti & Cie (Geneva) and Curci (Milan).
RUDOLF LÜCK
Gerigk, Herbert
(b Mannheim, 2 March 1905). German musicologist. He studied
musicology with Müller-Blattau in Königsberg and received the doctorate in
1928 with a dissertation on the history of music in Elbing. Thereafter he
served as a music adviser for the Rheinisch-Westfälische Zeitung, director
of the regional chamber of culture in Dresden and head of an
entertainment division of radio programming. In 1935 he joined Nazi
ideologue, Alfred Rosenberg, serving as head of Rosenberg’s music
division and personnel archive and editor of Die Musik once it came under
Rosenberg’s control. Gerigk also oversaw the ideological evaluations of
musicological literature, approval of engagements in Nazi ‘Strength through
Joy’ subscription programmes, and the plundering of musical treasures in
territories invaded by German troops. Under Rosenberg’s sponsorship he
edited a series of music biographies (Unsterbliche Tonkunst, 1936–44), a
series on musicians’ writings and letters (Klassiker der Tonkunst in ihren
Schriften und Briefen, 1937–45), and an unfinished music encyclopaedia,
and co-authored a directory of Jews in music, co-sponsored by the Nazi
institute for Jewish research; he also contributed regularly on music and
politics to Die Musik, Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte, and Musik im
Kriege from 1933 to 1945. After the war, Gerigk was music reviewer for the
Ruhrnachrichten in Dortmund.
WRITINGS
Musikgeschichte der Stadt Elbingen (diss., U. Königsberg, 1928; pubd in
Elbinger Jahrbuch, viii, 1929, 1–104)
Giuseppe Verdi (Potsdam, 1932/R)
ed.: Meister der Musik und ihre Werke (Berlin, 1936)
with T. Stengel: Lexikon der Juden in der Musik (Berlin, 1940)
Puccini (Berlin, c1942)
Fachwörterbuch der Musik (Munchberg, 1954/R/1983 as Wörterbuch der
Musik; Dutch trans., 1980)
ed.: G. Schünemann: Geschichte der Klaviermusik (Hamburg, 1956)
Neue Liebe zu alten Schriften: vom Autogrammjäger zum
Autographensammler (Stuttgart, 1974)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Rothfeder: A Study of Alfred Rosenberg’s Organization for National
Socialist Ideology (diss., U. Michigan, 1963)
W. de Vries: Sonderstab Musik: Music Confiscations by the Einsatzstab
Reichleiter Rosenberg under the Nazi Occupation of Western Europe
(Amsterdam, 1996)
P.M. Potter: Most German of the Arts: Musicology and Society from the
Weimar Republic to the End of Hitler’s Reich (New Haven, CT, 1998)
PAMELA M. POTTER
Gerl [Görl].
Austrian family of singers and composers.
(1) Franz Xaver Gerl
(2) Barbara Gerl [née Reisinger]
(3) (Judas) Thaddäus Gerl
PETER BRANSCOMBE
Gerl
(1) Franz Xaver Gerl
(b Andorf, Upper Austria, 30 Nov 1764; dMannheim, 9 March 1827). Bass
and composer. The son of a village schoolmaster and organist, Gerl by
1777 was an alto chorister at Salzburg, where he must have been a pupil
of Leopold Mozart. He was at the Salzburg Gymnasium from 1778 until
1782 and he then went on to study logic and physics at the university. In
the autumn of 1785 he went to Erlangen as a bass, joining the theatrical
company of Ludwig Schmidt, who had been at Salzburg earlier that year. In
the autumn of 1786 he joined G.F.W. Grossmann's company, performing in
the Rhineland, and specialized in ‘comic roles in comedies and Singspiele’.
By 1787 he was a member of Schikaneder's company at Regensburg,
making his début in Sarti’s Wenn zwei sich streiten (Fra i due litiganti) and
appearing as Osmin in Die Entführung. From the summer of 1789 Gerl was
a member of Schikaneder's company at the Freihaus-Theater auf der
Wieden, Vienna. On 2 September 1789 he married the soprano Barbara
Reisinger (see (2) below). His name first appears as one of the composers
of Der dumme Gärtner aus dem Gebirge (Die zween Anton), Schikaneder's
first new production at his new theatre, on 12 July 1789; it is unlikely that
this was Gerl's first theatre score, since Schikaneder would hardly have
entrusted such an important task to someone without experience. Der
dumme Gärtner proved so successful that it had no fewer than five
sequels; Gerl certainly performed in two of these, though it is uncertain
whether he and Schack wrote the scores for all of them. Between 1789 and
1793 Gerl wrote music for several more plays and Singspiele, and even
after he left the company one or two further scores by him were heard
there.
Gerl played a wide variety of parts in plays and operas (including Don
Giovanni and Figaro in German) during his Vienna years, though he is
most often associated with the role of Sarastro in Die Zauberflöte, which he
created on 30 September 1791 and continued to sing at least until
November 1792 (the 83rd performance, announced by Schikaneder as the
100th). The Gerls appear to have left the Freihaus-Theater in 1793; they
were at Brünn (Brno) from 1794 until 1801, and from the beginning of 1802
Gerl was a member (with good salary and reasonable pension
arrangements) of the Mannheim Nationaltheater. Apart from operatic roles
he also appeared frequently in plays (including at least five Schiller parts).
After his wife's death in 1806 he continued to appear at the Mannheim
theatre until his retirement in 1826; on 12 April that year he remarried. His
second wife was Magdalena Dengler (née Reisinger – his first wife's elder
sister), the widow of Georg Dengler, director of the Mainz theatre.
Although the paucity of the surviving material and the difficulty of identifying
Gerl's contribution to joint scores make it impossible to evaluate him as a
composer, the works he wrote were popular in their day. His career as a
singer is better documented. When Schröder, the greatest actor-manager
of his age, went to Vienna in 1791 he was told not to miss hearing Schack
and Gerl at Schikaneder's theatre. At the end of May he heard Wranitzky's
Oberon, in which both were singing. Schröder thought Gerl's singing of the
Oracle ‘very good’; and Mozart's high regard for his qualities is evident in
the aria ‘Per questa bella mano’ (k612), written for Gerl in March 1791, and
above all in Sarastro's music. It was on the song ‘Ein Weib ist das
herrlichste Ding’ from the first Anton sequel (music by Schack and/or Gerl)
that Mozart wrote the piano variations k613. Mozart's friendly relationship
with Gerl is attested by the fact that Gerl was one of the three singers who
is said, on the last afternoon of Mozart's life, to have joined the dying
composer in an impromptu sing-through of the Requiem (the others were
Schack and Mozart's brother-in-law Franz Hofer).
WORKS
Singspiele, performed Vienna, Freihaus, unless otherwise stated
Der dumme Gärtner aus dem Gebirge, oder Die zween Anton (2, E. Schikaneder),
12 July 1789, vs (Bonn, n.d.), collab. B. Schack, [1st ‘Anton’ Spl]
Jakob und Nannerl, oder Der angenehme Traum (Oper, 3, Schikaneder), 25 July
1789; also attrib. Pecháček, Schack
Die verdeckten Sachen (2, Schikaneder), 26 Sept 1789, vs I-Fc, songs A-Wgm,
collab. J.G. Lickl and Schack, [2nd ‘Anton’ Spl]
Was macht der Anton im Winter? (2, Schikaneder), 6 Jan 1790, vs I-Fc, songs A-
Wgm, collab. Schack and others [3rd ‘Anton’ Spl]
Don Quixotte und Sancho Pansa (3, K.L. Gieseke), 17 April 1790
Der Frühling, oder Der Anton ist noch nicht tot (2, Schikaneder), 18 June 1790,
songs Wgm, collab/ Schack and others [4th ‘Anton’ Spl]
Der Stein der Weisen, oder Die Zauberinsel (heroische-komische Oper, 2,
Schikaneder), 11 Sept 1790, D-Bsb, vs I-Fc, collab. Mozart and Schack
Die Wiener Zeitung (3, Gieseke), collab. Schack, 12 Jan 1791
Anton bei Hofe, oder Das Namensfest (2, Schikaneder), 4 June 1791, collab.
Schack and others [5th ‘Anton’ Spl]
Das Schlaraffenland (2, Gieseke), collab. Schack, 23 June 1792
Der Renegat, oder Anton in der Türkei (2, Schikaneder), 15 Sept 1792, collab.
Schack and others [6th ‘Anton’ Spl]
Der wohltätige Derwisch, oder Die Schellenkappe (3, Schikaneder), collab.
Henneberg, ?W. Müller and Schack, 10 Sept 1793; as Die Zaubertrommel, D-MH
Graf Balbarone (3, Franzky), Brünn; as Die Maskerade, oder Liebe macht alle
Stände gleich, 9 Dec 1797
Dirge, for [Die Spanier in Peru, oder] Rollas Tod (A. von Kotzebue), Brünn, 1796
Gerl
3 cants. for bicentenary of the Augsburg Confession, 1730 (texts pubd): Auf, ihr
gottergebnen Seelen; Jauchzet ihr Himmel, frohlocke du Erde; Lasset uns den
Herrn loben
Other cants.: Der Fortgang unsrer Osterfreuden, 1729 (text pubd); Easter cant.,
listed in Breitkopf catalogue, 1836; Friede sei mit euch, D-Dl; Jubelkantate, listed in
Breitkopf catalogue, 1836
Org: Fugue, g, doubtful, US-Wc; Chorale, Ich dank dir schon durch deinen Sohn,
extract in F.W. Marpurg: Abhandlung von der Fuge, i (Berlin, 1753/R)
Orch: Sinfonia, F, 2 ob, 2 hn, str, listed in Breitkopf catalogue, 1766, suppl.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Schering: Johann Sebastian Bach und das Musikleben Leipzigs im 18.
Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1941), 67ff
W. Neumann: ‘Das “Bachische Collegium Musicum”’, BJb 1960, 5–27
H.-J. Schulze: “‘Das Stück in Goldpapier”: Ermittlungen zu einigen Bach-
Abschriften des frühen 18. Jahrhunderts’, BJb 1978, 19–42
A. Glöckner: ‘Handschriftliche Musikalien aus den Nachlässen von Carl
Gotthelf Gerlach und Gottlob Harrer in den Verlagsangeboten des
Hauses Breitkopf 1761–1769’, BJb 1984, 107–16
A. Glöckner: Die Musikpflege an der Leipziger Neukirche zur Zeit Johann
Sebastian Bachs, Beiträge zur Bach-Forschung, viii (Leipzig, 1990),
88–138
ANDREAS GLÖCKNER
Gerlandus.
12th-century theorist. Gerbert identified Gerlandus with the 12th-century
canon regular and scholastic of St Paul’s, Besançon, noted for his writings,
including a work on the liberal arts. His very brief tract on the mathematics
of organ pipes and bells, in A-Wn Cpv 2503 (GerbertS, ii, 277f; RISM,
B/III/1, 35, 44), resembles in its wording many tracts from contemporary
manuscripts. Beginning Item de fistulis Gerlandus. Si fistule equalis…, and
ending Eodem modo per acutam invenies, it first describes the length of
pipes needed to produce the diatonic scale, including B . The final section
considers more precise adjustments of length depending on the diameter.
Bells, and their relative weights, are described in the middle section. See
also M. Gerbert: De cantu et musica sacra a prima ecclesiae aetate usque
ad praesens tempus, St Blasien, 1774/R, i, 285.)
ANDREW HUGHES
Gerlatz.
See Gerlach.
Gerle, Conrad
(d Nuremberg, 4 Dec 1521). German lute maker. He was active at
Nuremberg in 1465 and became well known for his instruments in France
as well as in Germany. In 1469 Charles the Bold of Burgundy bought three
of his lutes for players at his court. Gerle lived at one time in the Kotgasse
in Nuremberg, and moved from there to the Breitengasse in 1516. He was
buried in the Rochuskapelle, Nuremberg, leaving a widow and several
young children, one of whom was probably the instrumentalist and lute
maker Hans Gerle.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LütgendorffGL
VannesE
C.G. von Murr: ‘Versuch einer nürnbergischen Handwerksgeschichte vom
dreyzehnten Jahrhundert bis zur Mitte des sechszehnten’, Journal zur
Kunstgeschichte und zur allgemeinen Litteratur, v (1777), 114
LYNDA SAYCE
Gerle, Georg
(d Innsbruck, c1589). German instrument maker. According to Vannes he
came from Immenthal (near St Gall), and in 1548 was made a citizen of
Füssen. In 1569 he was employed as organ blower and instrument maker
by the Archduke Ferdinand at Innsbruck, and since reference was made in
1572 to his long service it may be supposed that he was previously in the
same employ at Prague. An ivory lute by Gerle, made about 1580, is in the
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. It is probably the only surviving six-
course lute in apparently original condition and bears the label, ‘Georg
Gerle, Fürstlicher Durchleuchtig-/kait Chalkandt zu Ynnsprugg’. A ‘cembalo
del Gherla’ is mentioned in the 1598 catalogue of the Este collection at
Modena.
Three of Gerle’s sons are known. Melchior succeeded to his father’s post
at Innsbruck in 1589; after 1596, when the Archduke Ferdinand died and
the court was dissolved, he remained at Innsbruck where he had married in
1591 and had a son, Anton, in 1605. Another of Georg Gerle’s sons, also
called Georg, became organ blower to the Innsbruck court in 1583; at the
beginning of the 17th century he was living at Füssen and in 1615 at
Immenstadt. A third son, Jacob, his father’s pupil and assistant, is known to
have been active at Graz in 1585.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LütgendorffGL
VannesE
F. Waldner: ‘Verzeichnis der Organisten, Sänger und Instrumentisten am
Hofe zu Innsbruck unter Erzherzog Ferdinand 1567–1596’, MMg, xxxvi
(1904), 163–73
F. Waldner: Nachrichten über tirolische Lauten- und Geigenbauer
(Innsbruck, 1911), 51–2
LYNDA SAYCE
Gerle, Hans
(b Nuremberg, c1500; d Nuremberg, 1570). German instrumentalist, lute
maker and compiler and arranger of several volumes of instrumental
music. He was probably the son of Conrad Gerle (d 1521), a well-known
lute maker in Nuremberg. He may be presumed to have spent his life in his
native city. He may have been related to Georg Gerle who worked as an
instrument maker in Innsbruck during the second half of the 16th century.
Hieronymus Formschneider of Nuremberg published three volumes of
music by Hans Gerle: Musica teusch, auf die Instrument der grossen unnd
kleinen Geygen, auch Lautten (1532), Tabulatur auff die Laudten (1533)
and Eyn newes sehr künstlichs Lautenbuch (1552). On the title-page of the
last volume the author called himself ‘Hans Gerle den Eltern’ (the elder),
implying the existence of a younger relative with the same forename.
The first volume, Musica teusch, includes introductory essays on playing
‘Grossgeigen’ (violas da gamba), ‘Kleingeigen’ (rebecs or violins) and lutes,
and on musical notation. The collection contains music for solo lute and for
ensembles of Gross- and Kleingeigen. Most of the compositions are
intabulations of lieder and psalm settings by German composers – Stoltzer,
Senfl, Hofhaimer, Johann Walter (i), Heinrich Isaac and so on – but there
are as well two preludes (‘Priambeln’) for solo lute, reprinted from Hans
Judenkünig’s lutebook of 1523.
Gerle’s second volume, Tabulatur auff die Laudten, is restricted to music
for solo lute: preludes and intabulations of chorales, popular and courtly
lieder, chansons and motets. Quite unusually, Gerle included works by
older composers such as Hayne van Ghizeghem, Josquin des Prez, Isaac
and Obrecht, as well as music by his own contemporaries, Claudin de
Sermisy, Willaert, Jean Mouton and Senfl. His third volume, Eyn newes
sehr künstlichs Lautenbuch, likewise for solo lute, is entirely devoted to
fantasias and dances taken from earlier lutebooks and transcribed from
Italian into German tablature. In so doing Gerle made the works of the
following lutenists available to German musicians: Giovanni Maria da
Crema, Domenico Bianchini, Simon Gintzler, Antonio Rotta, Francesco
Canova da Milano, Pietro Paolo Borrono and Alberto da Ripa.
Gerle’s volumes with their preponderance of intabulations and their brief
introductory remarks on performing techniques are a valuable source of
information about standard practices of the time and the general level of
achievement expected of a professional performer, even though the books
themselves are not of great artistic significance. His tuning and fretting
instructions have received considerable attention from modern scholars
and performers. Some of his music for lute also appears in 16th-century
manuscrsipt sources (in D-Bsb, Mbs, F-Pn, NL-Au, PL-WRu, S-Sk).
WORKS
Musica teusch, auf die Instrument der grossen unnd kleinen Geygen, auch Lautten
(Nuremberg, 1532, rev., enlarged 3/1546/R1977 as Musica un Tablatur); 7 pieces
for lute ed. H. Mönkemeyer, Die Tabulatur, ii (Hofhaim am Taunus, 1965); 5 pieces
for 4 viols ed. in Early Music Series, xiv (London, 1974)
Tabulatur auff die Laudten (Nuremberg, 1533); preludes ed. in PSFM, v/1 (1975)
Eyn newes sehr künstlichs Lautenbuch (Nuremberg, 1552)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrownI
J.K.S. Kiefhaber: ‘Bibliographische Nachrichten von Hans Gerle dem
Älteren, berühmten Lautenisten zu Nürnberg im 16. Jahrhundert’,
AMZ, xviii (1816), 309–15, 325–9
W. Tappert: ‘Die Lautenbücher des Hans Gerle’, MMg, xviii (1886), 101–11
J. Pierce: Hans Gerle: Sixteenth-Century Lutenist and Pedagogue (diss.,
U. of North Carolina, 1973) [see also JLSA, vi (1973), 17–29]
R. Chiesa: ‘Storia della letteratura del liuto e della chittarra – il
cinquecento. XVIII–XXI: Hans Gerle’, ‘Fronimo’, v (1977), no.18,
pp.15–18; no.19, pp.24–7; no.20, pp.15–17, no.21, pp.16–18; vi
(1978), no.22, pp.18–20
E. Dombois: ‘Die Temperament für Laute bei Hans Gerle (1532)’, Forum
musicologicum: Basler studien zur Interpretation der alten Musik, ii
(1980), 60–71; Eng. trans. in LSJ, xxii (1982), 3–13, 89 only
C. Meyer: ‘Observations pour une analyse des tempéraments des
instruments à cordes pincées: le luth de Hans Gerle (1532)’, RdM, lxxi
(1985), 119–41
HOWARD MAYER BROWN/LYNDA SAYCE
Gerle, Melchior.
German instrument maker, son of Georg Gerle.
Gerlin, Ruggero
(b Venice, 1 May 1899; d Paris, 17 June 1983). Italian harpsichordist. After
a classical education he gained the master diploma in piano playing at the
Milan Conservatory. In 1920 he began to study the harpsichord with
Landowska in Paris, and he continued working with her until 1940, often as
her partner in concerts of music for two keyboard instruments. He then
returned to Italy, becoming harpsichord professor at the S Pietro a Majella
Conservatory in Naples (1941), and inaugurating annual summer
masterclasses at the Accademia Musicale Chigiana in Siena (1947). Gerlin
toured throughout Europe as a soloist and chamber musician, and made
many recordings. He also edited works by Grazioli, Alessandro Scarlatti
and Benedetto Marcello in I Classici Musicali Italiani.
HOWARD SCHOTT
Germain.
See Goermans.
All pubd in London in year of composition or first performance, unless otherwise stated
operettas
pubd in vs only; many songs, duets, ensembles, dances and selections pubd separately
The Two Poets (2, W.H. Scott), RAM, July 1886; revised as The Rival Poets, St
George’s Hall, 1901 (1901)
The Emerald Isle or The Caves of Carrig-Cleena (2, B. Hood), Savoy, 27 April 1901;
completion by German of work begun by A. Sullivan; concert arr. (c1910)
Merrie England (2, Hood), Savoy, 2 April 1902; concert version (1908)
A Princess of Kensington (2, Hood), Savoy, 22 Jan 1903; concert selection (1909)
Tom Jones (3, R. Courtneidge, A.M. Thompson, C.H. Taylor after H. Fielding),
Manchester, Prince’s, 30 March 1907; concert version (1913)
Fallen Fairies or The Wicked World (2, W.S. Gilbert), Savoy, 15 Dec 1909 [vs also
pubd under temporay title of Moon Fairies]
incidental music
for orch unless otherwise stated; where published, in part only
orchestral
The Guitar, str, St James’s Hall, 27 June 1883 (?1887)
Bolero, vn, orch, St James’s Hall, 4 July 1884 (vn, pf, RAM, 26 Oct 1883) (c1885),
untraced
Sym. no.1, e, St James’s Hall, 16 July 1887, rev. Crystal Palace, 13 Dec 1890; arr.
pf duet (1904)
Marche solennelle, d, St James’s Hall, 15 Jan 1891, orch unpubd, lost, arr military
band (D. Wight) (?1937)
On German Airs, ov., 1891, unpubd, lost
Gipsy Suite, Crystal Palace, 20 Feb 1892 (1894)
Sym. no.2, a, (‘Norwich’), Norwich Festival, 4 Oct 1893 (1931); arr. pf duet (1894)
Symphonic Suite, d, (‘Leeds’), Leeds Festival, 3 Oct 1895; 2nd mvt. rev. c1915
In Commemoration – English Fantasia, Philharmonic Society, 17 June 1897; rev.
1902 as Rhapsody on March Themes, later as March Rhapsody on Original
Themes (1902–4; rev. 1912)
Hamlet, sym. poem, Birmingham Festival, 5 Oct 1897 (1898–9); rev. 1934
The Seasons, sym. suite, Norwich Festival, 5 Oct 1899 (1900); rev. 1914
Welsh Rhapsody, Cardiff Festival, 21 Sept 1904 (1905)
Coronation March and Hymn, Westminster Abbey, 22 June 1911; based on
incidental music to Henry VIII [see incidental music
Theme and Six Diversions, Royal Philharmonic Society, Queen’s Hall, 26 March
1919
The Willow Song, tone picture, RAM, 19 July 1922
chamber
Nocturne, vn, pf, RAM, 21 Oct 1882, unpubd; Album Leaf, pf, vn, c1882, unpubd
[previously titled Souvenir]; Chanson d’Amour, vn, pf, RAM, 26 Oct 1883, unpubd;
The Sprite’s Dance, vn, pf, Nov 1883, unpubd; Cradle Song, vn, pf, 1883, unpubd
[previous titled Barcarolle, Serenade]; Trio, D, vn, vc, pf, c1883, unpubd; Encore
Piece, vn, pf, Dec 1884, unpubd; [Untitled], vn, pf, ?1884, unpubd [companion to
Encore Piece]
Suite, fl, pf (1889), arr. vn, pf (1898); Salterello, fl/pic, pf (1889); Moto Perpetuo, vn,
pf (1890); Romance no.1, fl, pf (1890), arr. cl, pf (?1892); Romance no.2, fl, pf
(1890), untraced; Salterelle, vn, pf (1890); Scotch Sketch, 2 vn, pf (1890), orch arr.,
collab. H Gheel and German (1935); Andante and Tarantella, cl, pf (1891);
Pastorale and Bourée, ob, pf (1891), arr. fl, pf (?1892), vn, pf (?1892), cl, pf (?
1895); Bachanalian Dance, Berceuse, vn, pf (1893) [arr. (un-noted) from The
Tempter, see incidental music]; Serenade, wind, 1892, unpubd, lost; Andante and
Rondo, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn, pf, c1893, unpubd, lost
Intermezzo, fl, pf (1894), arr. vn, pf (?1914); Souvenir, vn, pf (1896); 3 Sketches, vc,
pf (1896): Valsette, Souvenir, Bolero, arr. vn, pf (1897), orch. arr., collab. A. Wood
and German, as Cloverley Suite (1934); Song Without Words, cl, pf (1898), arr. vn,
pf (1898); Old English Melody, Early one morning, arr. fl, pf (1901)
Arrs. of his operatic, orchestral and incid music for various insts, especially vn, pf
piano and organ
for pf solo unless otherwise indicated
songs
for 1v, pf, unless otherwise stated
A Serenade (W.H. Pollock), 1v, pf, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn (?1890) [text reset in Lady mine
(1913)]
3 Spring Songs (H. Boulton) (1898): All the world awakes today, The Dew upon the
Lily, My song is of the sturdy North
4 Lyrics (Boulton) (1900): Sea Lullaby, Birds on wing, Fair flowers, In Summer Time
The Just So Song Book (R. Kipling) (1903): When the cabin portholes, The camel’s
hump, arr. S, A, pf (1926), SATB pf (1927), This uninhabited island, I keep six
honest serving-men, I am the most wise Baviaan, Kangaroo and Dingo, Merrow
Down, Of all the tribe of Tegumai, The Riddle, The First Friend, There was never a
Queen like Balkis, Rolling Down to Rio, arr. TTBB, pf (1916), SATB, pf (1925), SA,
pf (1925)
6 Lyrics (Boulton) (1903): Wake up my nestling, White Snowdrops, Over the
Heather, A Wild Rose, Meadows Green, From Wave to Wave
2 Lyrics (H.H. Spencer) (1904): A Fancy, Heigh-Ho!
3 Baritone Songs (1905): Come to the woods (S. Waddington), My Lady (F.E.
Weatherly), Glorious Devon (Boulton)
3 Songs of Childhood (M. Lawrence) (1914): Wondering, The Chinese Mandarin,
Bye-Low Land
Other songs (1881–5): Twilight, 1881, unpubd; Ode to the Woodlark (R. Burns),
c1884, unpubd; A Midsummer Ghost, unpubd, lost; Molly Malony, unpubd, lost;
Nevermore, unpubd; A Summer Idyll, unpubd, lost; Three Heavens, unpubd, lost; 3
leider, unpubd, lost
(1886–1900): Fine Feathers (J.E. Carpenter), (?1886); Fancy Free (A. Chapman),
(?1887); Little Sweethearts (R.S. Hichens), (?1888); His Lady (Hichens), (?1889);
Story of a Monk (c1889) untraced; A Wayside Story (c1889) untraced; The Banks of
the Bann (S. Lennox), (?1890), rev. as The Land of the Past (1904); Little Boy Blue
(Weatherly), (?1891); Little Lovers (Hichens), (1891); Ever Waiting (G.H.
Newcombe), (1893); In a Northern Land (Weatherly), (1893); In the Merry Maytime
(M. Blackett), (1894); Springtime (?R. Jones), c1894 unpubd; Who’ll buy my
lavender? (C. Battersby), (1896), arr. lv, orch, unpubd; Love, the pedlar (Battersby),
(1899); Sweet Rose (Bingham), (1899); Woo me not (Battersby), (1899); Early one
morning (trad. old English), (1900); Roses in June (Bingham), (1900)
(1901–25): Daffodils A-Blowing (Battersby), (1901); Love’s Awakening (B. Hood),
c1901, unpubd; Restless river (Bingham), (1901); Cupid at the ferry (Battersby),
(1904); The Land of the Past (Bingham), (1904) [rev. of The Banks of the Bann (?
1890)]; When Maidens go A-Maying (Boulton), (1906); This England of ours
(Boulton), (1907); The Drummer-Boy (Boulton), (1908); Little girl in red (A. Wilkins),
(1908); Love’s Barcarolle (Hood), (1908); To Katherine Unkind (Hood), (1908);
Memories (Boulton), (1909); Bird of Blue (Chrystabel), (1910); Love in all Seasons
(Hood), (1910); Moorish Lullaby (M. Byron), (1910); Big Steamers (Kipling), (1911);
An Old English Valentine (M. Farrah), (1911); What ‘Dane-Geld’ Means (Kipling),
(1911); When we grow old (Spencer), (1911); Alistair (S. Grant), (1912); Court
Favour (Hood), (1912)
Lady mine (Pollock), (1913) [see also: A Serenade (?1890)]; To Phyllis (?1914); The
Arrow That Went Wrong, parody (?E. German), 1916, unpubd; Be well assured
(Kipling), (1916); Countryman’s Chorus (H. Taylor), (1916); All Friends round the
Wrekin (W.H. Scott), (1917); Charming Chloe (Burns), (1917); Have you news of my
boy Jack? (Kipling), also with SSC (1917), orch. acc., unpubd; The Irish Guards
(Kipling), (1918), also arr. quick-step, pf duet, mil. band, 1918, unpubd; Sails, ?
c1920–25, unpubd; The Lordling’s Daughter (anon. Elizabethan), (1925)
Songs for plays: Lady Hilda’s Song (W.S. Gilbert: Broken Hearts), Savoy, 4 June
1888, 1v, orch, arr. 1v, pf; It was a lover and his lass, S, C, orch, arr. S, C, pf (1897),
1v, pf (1919) [see incidental music: As You Like It]; 3 Songs: Evadne’s Song, O
Love that knew the morning, Cupid, Fickle Cupid, 1v, orch, arr. 1v, pf (1905) [see
incidental music: The Conqueror]
Also separately pub. songs, duets and ensembles from operettas
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Edward German: a Biographical Sketch’, MT, xlv (1904), 20–24
‘Edward German: an Appreciation’, Whitchurch Herald (24 Feb 1912)
G. Lowe: ‘The Piano Works of Edward German’, The Musical Standard (5
June 1915), 433–5
W.H. Scott: Edward German: an Intimate Biography (London, 1932)
G.B. Shaw: Music in London 1890–94 (London, 1932/R), i, 104–5; iii, 119–
120
T.F. Dunhill: ‘Edward German 1862–1936’, MT, lxxvii (1936), 1073–7
T.C. Duggan and E.C. Parsons: Sir Edward German (Whitchurch, 1938)
R. Elkin: ‘Edward German: 1862–1936’, The Music Masters, ed. A.L.
Bacharach, iii (London, 1952), 161–9
E. Coates: Suite in Four Movements (London, 1953), 147–8, 208
E. Irving: Cue for Music (London, 1959), 47–51
G. Hughes: Composers of Operetta (London, 1962), 209–12
A. Hyman: Sullivan and his Satellites (London, 1978), 151–68
R. Traubner: Operetta: a Theatrical History (London, 1984), 192–5
J. Brown: ‘Edward German’, British Music Society Journal, vii (1985), 11–
16
D. Guyver: ‘Edward Elgar and Edward German’, Elgar Society Journal, iv/2
(1985), 15–18; iv/3 (1985), 10–17
B. Rees: A Musical Peacemaker: the Life and Work of Sir Edward German
(Bourne End, 1986)
K. Ganzl: The British Musical Theatre, i: 1865–1914 (London, 1986)
L. Briggs, ed.: A Shropshire Christmas (Stroud, 1993) 58–62
German Dance
(Ger. Deutsche, Deutscher Tanz, Teutsche; Fr. allemande; It. tedesco).
A term used generically during the late 18th and early 19th centuries for
couple-dances in triple metre; it was eventually replaced in general usage
by the names of the two most common types, the Ländler (in which couples
turned with arms interlaced) and the Waltz (in which they took swift turns
while in a close embrace). It is difficult to say just when the term ‘German
Dance’ was first used, or when the French word Allemande began to refer
to the relatively new couple-dance rather than to the Renaissance-Baroque
processional dance that so often appeared in Baroque suites. French
dancing-masters were apparently familiar with the German couple-dance
early in the 18th century, for they included some ländler-like movements in
the Contredanse (see Feuillet’s Recueil de dances, 1705), although these
were modified to suit French taste (omitting, for example, the seemingly
vulgar and inelegant embrace). After about 1760, however, the
independent German Dance became popular; it was included in published
dance manuals, such as Guillaume’s L’almanach dansant (1771; see
illustration), and it was mentioned in plays in both France and England. The
new, socially accepted German Dance of the late 18th century consisted of
a series of ländler-like passes, ending with a tentative (not too close)
embrace. Tunes were at first in 2/4 or 3/8, the former being particularly
characteristic of the ländler type of German Dance. Guillaume described a
duple-metre German Dance that resembled the waltz, danced with a
springing movement, and a triple-metre version, sometimes called the
boiteuse (‘limping’), that consisted of a ‘step and hop’. The author failed to
show exactly how the steps fit with accompanying music but the
movements he described fall most happily on the first and third beats of a
bar, as shown in ex.1.
The musical style of the German Dance is quite simple: usually each dance
consists of two repeated phrases eight bars long (occasionally the first
phrase is to be repeated da capo, as in Beethoven’s Allemande für Clavier
woo81). Virtually all are written in major keys, with some tendency,
especially in the dances of Schubert, to suggest the relative minor at the
beginning of the second phrase; most are in 3/8 or 3/4, and most have a
slow harmonic rhythm, usually one harmony per bar. A number of
stereotyped rhythmic motifs seem to have been characteristic of the
German Dance, as shown in ex.2, as were ‘oom-pah-pah’ and block-chord
accompaniment patterns and simple folklike melodies.
German flute.
An older name for the transverse flute, used to distinguish it from the
Recorder, also called ‘English flute’. See Flute, §II.
Germani, Fernando
(b Rome, 5 April 1906; d Rome, 10 June 1998). Italian organist. At the age
of eight he entered the Rome Conservatory as a pupil of Bossi and then
Bajardi (piano), Dobici (theory) and Respighi (composition). His only organ
teacher was Raffaele Manari. In 1921 he became organist of the Augusteo
Orchestra and began a career as a virtuoso organist, and at the age of 21
played for the first time in the USA. He was appointed professor at the
Accademia Musicale Chigiana in 1932 and at the Rome Conservatory in
1934, and became head of the organ department of the Curtis Institute,
Philadelphia, in 1936 for two years. From 1932 he was, except during the
war years, a frequent visitor to England, and like Vierne formed a
productive relationship with Henry Willis (iii). Germani’s technique and
prodigious musical memory soon established him at the forefront of touring
organ recitalists, and drew distinguished pupils from all over the world. In
1945, at S Ignazio in Rome, he gave the first performance in Italy of Bach’s
complete organ works, for many years repeating them there or at the
Basilica of S Maria in Aracoeli. In 1949 he published in book form (Guida
illustrativa alle composizioni per organo di J.S. Bach) the notes written for
this series. For 11 years from 1948 he was first organist at S Pietro, Rome.
In the postwar years Germani extended his already considerable repertory
to encompass much Reger, including the large-scale compositions, and
also occasionally performed the complete works of Franck. He started
recording in the 1930s, and after the war recorded prolifically, playing much
early repertory as well as Bach, Franck and Reger; a number of his
recordings have been reissued on CD. He published a Toccata for organ
(1937) and an influential organ method in four volumes (1939–52), and
also produced an important edition of Frescobaldi’s Fiori musicali and
Toccate; a Concerto in C minor was lost after Germani lent the manuscript
to a stranger. Germani received many honours during his lifetime, including
the Special Cultural Prize of the Italian State in 1997. His papers are held
by the Fernando Germani Society in Reykjavík.
FELIX APRAHAMIAN/PAUL HALE
I. Art music
1. To 1648.
2. 1648–1700.
3. 1700–1806.
4. 1806–1918.
5. Since 1918.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Germany, §I: Art music.
1. To 1648.
Exactly when German history began has been a matter of debate ever
since Goethe and Schiller felt obliged to ask the question ‘Germany? But
where is it?’. Some modern historians start with the anointing of the first
Carolingian king, Pippin the Short, in 751; or the re-foundation of the
‘Roman’ Empire in the West by his son Charlemagne (768–814) when he
was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III in 800. Other
scholars have suggested the division of the Carolingian Empire in 843 by
the Treaty of Verdun, or 911, the year that Conrad I, Duke of Franconia,
was elected as the first king of the East Franks; and still others look to the
coronation of Otto I, king of the East Franks, in 936, or to his imperial
coronation in Rome in 962 as the country’s birthdate. It is clear, however,
that by the end of the 10th century the four East Frankish peoples – the
Franks, Swabians, Bavarians and Saxons – formed what was known as the
land of the Germans (terra teutonica). From the 11th century such terms as
regnum Alamannae, regnum Germaniae, Teutonicae or Romanorum were
encountered frequently enough in contemporary historical accounts to
conclude that a German land did exist. However, any account of German
history must commence with Charlemagne, whose reign marked the
beginnings of what was later to become known as the First Reich; by 800
Charlemagne’s empire included much of present-day Germany and
Austria, Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg,
as well as a narrow strip of northern Spain and most of northern Italy.
During the reign of Pippin the Short (751–68) attempts were made to
introduce the Roman liturgy and its chant into the Frankish Church, a policy
that was continued with particular vigour by Charlemagne and his
successor, Louis the Pious (814–40). Through the efforts of several leading
churchmen the various native Gallican traditions were gradually replaced
and a single rite and chant repertory established throughout the Empire.
Although this repertory was intended to be identical to that sung in the
Church of Rome, it is clear from contemporary accounts that by 840 the
‘Roman’ music taught in the Carolingian Empire had significantly diverged
from its origin. This Frankish version of the Roman repertory is known as
Gregorian chant (see Plainchant, §II). During the late 8th century and the
9th a systematic method of classifying liturgical melodies was developed in
Francia based on the eight psalm tones and a means of recording the
music evolved in the form of neumatic notation. Many of the earliest
surviving sources of notation originate from monastic houses in the
Germanic areas of the Empire; the oldest known example (D-Mbs clm
9543) is thought to have been written at the monastery of St Emmeram,
Regensburg, by the scribe Engyldeo between 817 and 834. Other
ecclesiastical centres in the German-speaking lands that are known to
have been important in the cultivation of liturgical chant are Aachen (where
Charlemagne established his court), Augsburg, Cologne, Einsiedeln,
Reichenau and St Gallen. German monasteries also played a significant
role in the expansion of the Gregorian repertory and in the development of
new plainchant forms (see Trope (i) and Sequence (i)). As early as the 9th
century the practice of appending or interpolating long, untexted melismas
into pre-existing chants, which seems to have originated in centres in
present-day France, made its way to the German-speaking lands in East
Francia, especially St Gallen. Here, in the hands of the monk Notker
Balbulus (c840–912), the sequence repertory was refined. By assigning a
syllable of text to each tone of a melisma, Notker produced sequentiae
cum prosae that were fully syllabic, a style that continued to flourish in
Germany and elsewhere throughout the Middle Ages.
German monastic houses also contributed significantly to the development
of music theory and pedagogy. The earliest known treatises dealing with
polyphony and containing examples of parallel organum are the Musica
enchiriadis and the Scolica enchiriadis, both dating from the late 9th
century. Although it is now reasonably clear that these sources originate
from a northern part of West Francia (i.e. northern France and the
Netherlands), and not from a southern part of East Francia (i.e. German-
speaking Switzerland), there is no question that they were produced in the
wake of the intense cultural and musical activities fostered earlier under
Charlemagne’s reign. Many important works on medieval music theory,
however, were composed by writers from the Germanic areas of the
Empire; they include the treatise and tonary of the Benedictine monk
Regino of Prüm (c842–915). Written in about 900, this tonary is one of the
largest that is still extant. Other theorists of the 10th and 11th centuries,
many of whom lived in the Rhineland, were Hucbald, abbot of St Amand
(c850–930), Berno, abbot of Reichenau (d 1048), Hermannus Contractus,
also of Reichenau (1012–54) and Wilhelm of Hirsau, a monk of St
Emmeram (d 1091), who, like his contemporaries, wrote on the species of
intervals and their relationship to octave scales and the eight church
modes. Although these theorists all wrote in Latin, several works dating
from this period were written in German. The earliest treatises on music in
German have been attributed to the monk of St Gallen, Notker Labeo
(c950–1022). Among Labeo’s five essays in Old High German, his treatise
on the measurement of organ pipes is especially noteworthy in that it
represents one of the first in a long line of works on this subject written by
German speakers.
Aside from the many medieval German writings on plainchant, mode, the
monochord and organ building, one of the most important theoretical
discussions of polyphony and of mensural notation can be attributed to the
German-speaker Franco of Cologne (fl mid to late-13th century), who,
while working in Paris, established a system of musical notation in his Ars
cantus mensurabilis that formed the foundation upon which mensural
notation emerged. Franconian notation, however, had little influence on the
musical scene of medieval Germany. Only one of the eight extant copies of
Franco’s treatise is of German origin (F-SDI 42, ff.43–53v), and this one is
late, dating from the 14th century. Indeed, there is little evidence of
Franco’s writings having any influence in Germany or, for that matter, that
Germans had any interest in composing polyphony until the second half of
the 14th century. The Engelberg Codex 314, written predominantly by the
monks Walter Mirer and Bartholomaeus Fridower between about 1360 and
1400, contains examples of polyphony, as does the Mondsee-Weiner
Liederhandschrift (A-Wn 2856), which dates from around 1460 but contains
polyphonic songs written at least a half a century earlier by the Monk of
Salzburg (fl late 14th century). However, these examples of German
polyphonic writing were isolated and, compared to their French
counterparts, primitive. That polyphony was slow to develop in Germany
could be attributed to the fact that Germany, unlike France, was slow to
develop as a unified nation. By the 13th century France had a centre of
commerce and of culture, wherein the so-called Parisian organum of Notre
Dame and the motets of the Ars Antiqua flourished. Germany, on the other
hand, had at this time no commercial or cultural centre, nor a musical
genre that it could call its own. It is true that the earliest vernacular hymns
developed from Gregorian chant (e.g. Christ ist erstanden and Nun bitten
wir den heiligen Geist), as well as some important liturgical dramas with
music (e.g. Hildegard of Bingen’s Ordo virtutum), are of German origin. Yet
when one compares these musical accomplishments with those produced
in France at this time, they are neither progressive nor particularly original.
Ironically, under the Ottonian (919–1024), Salian (1024–1125) and
Hohenstaufen (1138–1254) dynasties, it was Germany, not France, that
was the pre-eminent power in Europe in the Middle Ages. But the German
empire was inherently weak, because it was too large to be effectively
ruled. Rivalry between the Welf and the Hohenstaufen dynasties further
abraded the empire and, from the beginning of the 13th century when
France grew predominant in Europe, Germany became a power vacuum
controlled by territorial princes, several of whom looked to France for their
cultural inspiration. However, despite the political chaos of the
Hohenstaufen period, the population of Germany grew from an estimated
eight million in 1200 to around 14 million in 1300, and the number of towns
increased tenfold. Indeed, it was at this time that German cities like
Augsburg, Cologne and Nuremberg began to develop, and a prosperous
merchant class began to emerge. Within the walls of these urban centres
civic bands were formed, a class of professional singers developed, dance
halls were built and penitential processions of flagellants heard who, in the
wake of the Black Death of 1349, sang Geisslerlieder for their salvation. A
number of German universities that are still renowned centres of
scholarship were also founded at this time. They included not only Prague
(1348), but also the universities of Vienna (1365), Heidelberg (1386) and
Leipzig (1409). Here music was taught in the context of the Quadrivium to
a new class of professional bureaucrats, lawyers and secular scholars,
including Johannes Klein, whose extant books document the musical
interests and abilities of this 15th-century Leipzig professor.
As universities began to replace monasteries as centres of learning in the
14th century, we also see castles and secular courts replacing
ecclesiastical communities as centres of culture. Growing out of this courtly
life, German medieval literature reached its peak in the narrative epic
poems of Tristan, Parzivâl and the Nibelungenlied as well as in the lyrical
love poetry of the Minnesinger. These German poet-musicians of noble
birth produced a monophonic song repertory that unquestionably
represents the primary manifestation of German music during the high
Middle Ages, though they were inspired by French troubadours. Yet the
Minnesang differs considerably from its French counterpart. While both the
French and German texts are amorous or idyllic, the German texts tend to
be more narrative and devotional, with many in praise of the Virgin. The
German melodies are demonstrably more modal and, given their narrative
style, often take on extensive proportions which, in turn, make the rhythms
of the trouvères difficult to apply. The French refrain forms are replaced in
the German repertory by both the Leich, derived from the French lai, and
the bar form, derived from the French ballade, the latter of which, with its
Stollen (section a) and Abgesang (section b), became the dominant form
for the Meistersinger and Tenorlied composers of the 15th and 16th
centuries. Among the more prominent Minnesinger were Walther von der
Vogelweide (c1170–c1230), Neidhart von Reuental (c1180 – after 1237)
and Heinrich von Meissen (d1318), whose many poems in praise of courtly
women and of the Virgin earned him the nickname ‘Frauenlob’ (‘Praiser of
women’). Manuscript transmission of the poetry dates from the 13th
century, the primary source being the Manesse Codex (D-HEu), whose
illuminations demonstrate that the Minnesang was accompanied by
instruments. Manuscript transmission of the music, however, dates from
the 14th and 15th centuries, with the sources preserved in Jena (D-Ju
El.f.101, Jenaer Liederhandschrift), Munich (Mbs Cgm 4997, Colmar
Liederhandschrift) and Vienna (A-Wn 2701, Frauenlob Codex or Wiener
Leichhandschrift) being the chief witnesses. Since polyphony was slow to
develop within the German-speaking realm, it is not surprising that a
monophonic song repertory continued to flourish in Germany far longer
than elsewhere in Europe. By the beginning of the 15th century Hugo von
Montfort (1357–1423) was still writing monophonic songs in the Minnesang
tradition. By the end of the century, a middle-class version of this noble art
emerged in the hands of the Meistersinger. These conservative
songwriters, whose activities could be heard especially in the civic singing
schools of Augsburg and Nuremberg, organized themselves into Guilds. Its
most famous practitioner was the Nuremberg craftsman Hans Sachs
(1494–1576; fig.2).
As the Minnesang tradition died out and the Meistergesang tradition began
to take root in the first half of the 15th century, we see for the first time
German musicians like the Monk of Salzburg taking an active interest in
polyphonic composition, as evidenced by the contents of the Mondsee-
Wiener Liederhandschrift (A-Wn 2856) and by the earlier Strasbourg
manuscript (F-Sm C.22) copied around 1410, but destroyed by fire in 1870.
Indeed, it seems to be no coincidence that around the same time German
speakers began composing polyphony, foreign composers who wrote
polyphony began appearing in large numbers at German courts and
chapels. In the 1440s, for example, we find Johannes Brassart and
Johannes de Sarto on the payroll of the Habsburg Emperor Friedrich III,
the father of the famous Weisskönig Maximilian I. These two Netherlandish
composers are important because they represent the first in a long line of
foreign musicians who served Habsburg rulers of the Holy Roman Empire.
It is also at this time that we begin to see large amounts of Burgundian and
English music, both sacred and secular, appearing in German sources. The
Aosta manuscript, the St Emmeram Codex, the Trent Codices and the
Buxheim Organ Book, as well as the songbooks of Schedel, Glogau and
Lochamer demonstrate that Germans had good musical taste. These
sources also show that German-speakers were not yet able to compose
music of their own that was of the quality of the music they were collecting.
The German songs preserved in the Liederhandschriften contain all the
distinctive signs of the emerging German Tenorlied, with its bar form and
Hofweise sung by the tenor voice. Yet a song like the anonymous In feurs
hitz from the Glogauer Liederbuch clearly lacks the refined handling of
melody, rhythm and texture brought later to the genre by the South
Netherlandish composer Henricus Isaac and his Swiss-born student
Ludwig Senfl. Together, these composers transformed the Tenorlied from
its woodcut-like texture into a sophisticated hybrid combining German and
Franco-Flemish techniques. As Franco-Flemish and Burgundian songs
began to appear in 15th-century German sources, we also see the
Tyrolean knight Oswald von Wolkenstein creating German translations and
contrafacta of this foreign song repertory, a tradition that continued in
German-speaking lands well into the 17th century. At the same time, and
with the same repertory, we also see Conrad Paumann transcribing the
music of Du Fay and his contemporaries into German organ tablature, and
later see Hans Judenkünig transcribing the next generation of foreign
music into tablature for the lute. The interest in having foreign songs sung
in German or performed on instruments that were plucked, blown, touched
or bowed softly was related to the needs of a burgeoning merchant class,
whose influence on German music history would prove decisive from the
beginning of the 16th century onwards.
By the late Middle Ages, a macroeconomic change was clearly underway in
central Europe. It entailed a steady shift from ecclesiastical goods to
worldly goods, from a feudal system to a mercantile system, from an
agrarian economy to a sophisticated urban society that promoted
international trade and fostered investment in emerging technologies. In
short, it signified the beginning of the capitalist world. This macroeconomic
shift had a profound effect on the business of making, performing and
transmitting music in early modern Germany. However, it must be
emphasized that, with little more than 1% of the population musically
literate, it was a business that at best could be categorized as
microeconomic.
Between 1450 and 1550 musical culture in the German-speaking lands
entered a new phase. During this period the region cultivated a polyphonic
soundscape that could be classified for the first time as not only truly
‘Germanic’ but also musically sophisticated. By the middle of the 15th
century, for example, the region witnessed the birth of its first important
‘school’ of polyphonic composers, represented by Adam von Fulda,
Heinrich Finck and Paul Hofhaimer. Together, these three played a
significant role in establishing the German Tenorlied as a viable genre,
which finally secured Germany a respectable place among the musical
nations of Europe. They also adapted the Franco-Flemish style of
composition to secular and sacred music alike, and in so doing brought this
‘new art’ to the German courts, universities and cities where they were
employed. At the court of Frederick the Wise of Saxony and at the newly
founded University of Wittenberg (1502), Adam von Fulda took the lead. At
the court of Duke Ulrich of Württemberg, it was Heinrich Finck. Finally, and
perhaps most importantly, it was the internationally renowned keyboard
virtuoso Paul Hofhaimer, working together with the Flemish master
Henricus Isaac, who raised the level of music making to new heights in
Germany at the court of Maximilian I. In the hands of Hofhaimer’s many
students, including Hans Buchner, Dionisio Memo and Wolfgang Grefinger,
Hofhaimer’s legacy and Germany's position as a land endowed with some
of the best instrumentalists began to emerge. Aside from Hofhaimer and
his school of ‘Paulomines’, Arnolt Schlick, Sebastian Virdung and Hans
Neusidler set new standards in instrumental music. German
instrumentalists like the Schubingers and German-made instruments
produced by the Neuschel family were in demand outside Germany in
much the same way that Franco-Flemish composers of vocal music were
sought after in Germany and throughout Europe.
German speakers were also integral to the development of music printing
as a viable commercial industry. In addition to the immense impact they
had on the printing of chant from woodblock during the second half of the
15th century, they played an important role in the development of printing
mensural music from type in the first half of the 16th century. Very soon
after the Venetian printer Petrucci released his alphabet series of
polyphonic songs between 1501 and 1503, the Augsburg printer Erhard
Oeglin issued polyphonic settings of Horace's odes (1507) and the Basle
printer Georg Mewes published four masses of Jacob Obrecht (c1510).
Likewise, as volumes of frottolas and strambotti rolled off Italian presses
during the second decade of the century, the publishing houses of Oeglin,
Schoeffer and Arnt von Aich were also releasing large and important
collections of German Tenorlieder. There were not only for courtly
consumption but also for the educated nouveaux riches of German society,
among whom were such dynastic houses of ‘corporate’ finance as the
Fuggers, Welsers and Herwarts of Augsburg. By the third and fourth
decades, when such printers as Attaingnant and Gardano were busy
marketing the new style of chanson and madrigal by Sermisy and Arcadelt,
the Nuremberg publishing houses of Petreius, Berg and Neuber, and
Formschneider were busy printing the new style of German Tenorlied by
Ludwig Senfl and his contemporaries, together with other music by a wide
range of composers. In the case of the Nuremberg printer Johann Petreius,
this included, in addition to the Tenorlied, chansons, madrigals, psalms,
masses, motets, hymns, sequences, antiphones, odes, instrumental
dances and intabulations, as well as numerous excerpts from these and
other genres printed as examples in theoretical discussions.
The diversity of music printed by Petreius is matched by the diversity of the
composers. Of the 172 represented, only 60 were German-speaking. While
their reputations ran the gamut from important figures of the imperial court
orbit (e.g. Hofhaimer and Senfl) to Kleinmeister attached to local parish
churches (e.g. Rupert Unterholtzer), the remaining 112 international
composers were mostly seasoned professionals whose talents were
appreciated throughout Europe's emerging international economy. They
hailed from France, Italy and the Low Countries and included such
celebrated figures as Ockeghem, Obrecht, Josquin, Sermisy, Arcadelt,
Verdelot, Gombert and Willaert. Indeed, if one compares the output of
German music printers with that of contemporary French, Italian and
Flemish printers, three aspects emerge which generally set German music
printers apart. They published a repertory that was far more international in
scope; they printed the works of composers whose careers spanned
collectively nearly a century of Western music history; and they issued
more pedagogical volumes intended to teach the art of singing to students
at local Latin schools or, indeed, to anyone who could read Latin. Nikolaus
Listenius’s Musica, Georg Rhau’s Enchiridion and Sebald Heyden’s De
arte canendi were the first in a long line of practical music texts which
appeared in the wake of the German Reformation.
Few people, and even fewer events, had such an impact on Germany as
Martin Luther and his Reformation. Aside from causing religious, political
and socio-economic upheaval, it was of musical significance in that the role
of music was redefined both in terms of the Lutheran service and the
Christian way of life in general. Unlike the Swiss reformers Zwingli and
Calvin, who either banished music altogether or restricted its use in their
reformed services, Luther saw music and theology as inextricably woven
together. In keeping with his principle of congregational participation, his
main vehicle for the delivery of the Word of God was the Protestant hymn,
which was to be sung in the vernacular to simple, tuneful melodies. For his
texts Luther resorted chiefly to Roman Catholic hymns, which he (or his
collaborators) translated into German. These included Nun Komm der
Heiden Heiland, a reworking of the Veni Redemptor gentium, and Komm
Heiliger Geist, a translation of Veni sancte spiritus. Aside from capitalizing
on a well-known Latin repertory, Luther relied heavily on the German folk
tradition. Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ and Nun bitten wir den Heiligen
Geist were either altered or considerably extended by Luther, whilst the
famous 11th-century hymn Christ ist erstanden was completely rewritten to
form Christ lag in Todesbanden. Luther also created newly composed
hymns such as Nun freut euch, lieben Christen g’mein and Ein’ feste Burg
ist unser Gott (see Lutheran church music). By 1523 broadsheets
containing German hymns complete with melodies were printed in
Wittenberg. In 1524 the ‘Achtliederbuch’, a collection of 40 monophonic
hymns, over half of which were written by Luther himself, was issued in
Nuremberg. This important publication was soon followed by numerous
others which appeared not only in Nuremberg and Wittenberg, but also in
Leipzig, Strasbourg, Worms and Erfurt. Although the Protestant chorale
was conceived as a monophonic tune, it was quickly reworked into
polyphonic settings by Johann Walter (i) who, working closely with Luther
and the Wittenberg printer Georg Rhau, published the first polyphonic
collection of Luther’s hymn repertory (Geystliches gesangk Buchleyn,
1524).
Walter’s partbooks, as well as others issued later by Rhau, were clearly
intended for choral use in school and in church. Yet the complex
polyphonic textures one finds in these collections would certainly have
alienated most of Luther’s musically illiterate congregation. Indeed, it was
not until 1586, when Lucas Osiander published his Fünffzig geistliche
Lieder und Psalmen, that Luther’s dream of congregational singing began
to be fully realized. Here Osiander took the melody and placed it in the
descant voice and then adopted a simple homophonic style in the
accompanying lower parts to support it. Osiander’s more user-friendly
‘cantional’ style was embraced by Sethus Calvisius (Harmonia cantionum
ecclesiasticarum, 1597), Hans Leo Hassler (Kirchengesäng: Psalmen und
geistliche Lieder, 1608) and Samuel Scheidt (Tabulatur-Buch hundert
geistlicher Lieder und Psalmen, 1650) and later reached its zenith in the
chorale harmonizations of Bach (see Chorale).
There is no question that Luther played an important role in shaping the
curricula of musical education in the modern age and in establishing
congregational singing in church. Yet his reformed music still remained
heavily dependent on the traditional style of polyphony cultivated by
Roman Catholic composers. For example, much of the so-called
‘Protestant’ music of Martin Agricola, Sixt Dietrich and Balthasar Resinarius
is not remarkably different from music written by such Catholic composers
as Arnold von Bruck, Lupus Hellinck, Ludwig Senfl and Thomas Stoltzer.
Indeed, soon after the Peace of Augsburg was signed in 1555 (a treaty that
granted equal rights to Lutherans and Roman Catholics alike), one begins
to detect a reaction against congregational singing among some Protestant
German strongholds. Latin again asserted itself. More complex polyphony
began to be written by such composers as Jobst vom Brandt, Gallus
Dressler and Matthaeus Le Maistre, who in 1554 succeeded Johann Walter
as Kapellmeister to the Elector of Saxony in Dresden.
In fact, throughout the second half of the 16th century the lines of
demarcation between Protestant and Catholic music often become blurred,
as Protestant composers wrote music in Latin, and Catholic composers set
Protestant German texts. This duplicity is perhaps best illustrated by the
career of the Protestant organist Hassler who, while employed by the
Catholic banker Octavian Fugger, wrote in all sacred genres, Protestant as
well as Catholic, in German as well as in Latin. Indeed, Hassler’s collected
works, when taken together with those of the Bavarian court composer
Lassus, demonstrate how 16th-century musicians were able to adapt to
‘free market forces’ by diversifying their portfolio of musical assets.
From the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 to the outbreak of the Thirty Years
War in 1618, Germany enjoyed a period of relative peace. At the same
time, it witnessed the beginning of an economic decline compounded by
rampant inflation. As the European economy shifted westward to the
Atlantic states of Spain, France, England and the Low Countries, in search
of such precious commodities as gold, silver and sugar from the New
World, Germany was no longer at the centre of European commerce.
Consequently, the thriving economies of many German towns in the late
Middle Ages and in the first half of the 16th century gradually dried up.
Germany as a whole entered a long period of economic recession that
continued well into the 19th century.
Although Germany’s musical culture continued to flourish, its main
practitioners were no longer composers like Senfl, writing in a style
demonstrably German. Rather they were foreigners or native Germans
who, like the Minnesinger before them, drew heavily on foreign influence.
From the Netherlands came Lassus, who settled in Munich; Le Maistre,
who moved to Dresden; Phillipe de Monte, who resided in Prague; and Jan
Pieterszoon Sweelinck who, while never leaving the Low Countries, had an
immense impact on several generations of German organists. From
England came John Dowland, William Brade and Thomas Simpson, each
of whom resided at German courts.
The most important influence, however, came from Italy, first with
instrumental music and then the introduction of the madrigal and villanella.
From the mid-1560s to the end of the century, expatriates and native
Germans alike published collections of German songs which were so
heavily influenced by the style of the villanella and madrigal that, but for the
language of their texts, they were virtually indistinguishable from their
Italian originals. The popularity of this new Italian style, which ultimately
resulted in the collapse of the German Tenorlied, is evidenced not only by
the makers of this music but also by its consumers. As early as 1566, the
catalogue of Raimund Fugger’s music library in Augsburg recorded about
70 prints of Italian madrigals and villanellas. By 1586, when virtually the
whole musical establishment of the Munich court hailed from Italy, Johann
Heinrich Herwart, another Augsburg patrician and merchant, had 200
printed volumes of this Italian secular song repertory in his collection.
These madrigalian songs were enjoyed not only at the courts and private
homes of Germany’s élite, but also by its middle-class citizens. This is
evident from the activities of the Musicalische Krentzleins-Gesellschaft of
Nuremberg founded in 1568; from the collection of Italian music amassed
by the Danzig merchant and bibliophile Georg Knoff; and from the German
keyboard music belonging to the lawyer Christoph Leibfried, who
singlehandedly created hundreds of intabulations of this Italian vocal
repertory for his own enjoyment while living in Würzburg, Tübingen and
Basle between 1585 and 1600.
Apart from the madrigal and villanella craze, German enthusiasm for
foreign music, especially Italian, is evident in the reception of monody, of
the concertato principle and stile rappresentativo, and of instrumental
music. ‘The result of this assimilation of foreign influences’, as Christoph
Wolff noted, ‘was a plurality of styles in German Baroque music not found
in any other European country.’ That such Italian innovations as monody,
figured bass and concertato were adopted in Germany more quickly than
anywhere else and continued unabated well into the 17th century can be
attributed to the strong trade routes that developed between the two
countries, and especially between the cities of Venice and Nuremberg, the
so-called ‘German Venice’. By 1620 the new style of Italian music could not
only be heard throughout most of Germany, but read in theory as well. In
the monumental treatise Syntagma musicum (1614–19), Michael
Praetorius analysed the implications of the new style in remarkable detail.
What one read in his treatise could be heard in his Musae Sioniae (1605–
11), a veritable encyclopedia of chorale arrangements ranging from simple
harmonizations to sensational polychoral settings in the Venetian style.
However, the most important German practitioner of the Italian style was
the Venetian-trained composer Heinrich Schütz, one of Giovanni Gabrieli’s
favourite students. In his first great work of German church music, the
Psalmen Davids (1619), Schütz adopted the polyphonic concertato style of
Gabrieli in compositions for two, three and four choruses with instruments.
In his Kleine geistliche Concerte (1636–9) he demonstrated his ability to
handle modern monody. In the Geistliche Chor-Music (1648), a
retrospective collection of polyphony, Schütz succeeded in doing the
apparently impossible by combining stile antico with stile moderno. And in
the three instalments of his Symphoniae sacrae (1629, 1647 and 1650), he
proved that each one of these different styles and approaches to
composition could co-exist. That German music soared to unprecedented
heights in the works of Schütz could also be attributed in part to the delight
that he derived from setting German speech rhythm within the musical-
rhetorical context of the musica poetica. The relationship between text and
music found in his vocal works represents as perfect a union of words and
music in the German language as was ever achieved.
The first half of the 17th century also witnessed important developments in
the history of German keyboard music, especially as the already highly
developed German organ came to assume a leading position within the
church. At this time, three regional schools of organ playing emerged: a
southern school conditioned by the Italian influence of Gabrieli and Merulo;
a northern school influenced by the unique English-Dutch style of
Sweelinck; and a central school around Samuel Scheidt, Sweelinck’s
student in Halle.
It was with Scheidt that the central style of German organ music came into
its own. In his epoch-making Tabulatura nova (1624), Scheidt abandoned
traditional German organ tablature and the colourist style of Leipzig’s Elias
Nikolaus Ammerbach (Ein new künstlich Tabulaturbuch, 1575), and in its
place adopted a fresh new approach to composition which he transcribed
into Italian keyboard partitura. Within this modern notational framework
employing a separate staff for each voice, Scheidt composed variations on
chorales, secular songs and dances, produced chorale fantasies and wrote
elaborate fugues. His music marked the beginning of a new age in German
organ composition that was to continue up to the death of Bach. In
harpsichord music, German keyboard composers also looked to Italy and
France for examples on which to base their works, as is evident in the
music of Johann Jacob Froberger, who combined the bold harmonic
language of his teacher Frescobaldi with the delicate agréments of French
dance music.
The musical accomplishments of such dominating figures of the early
German Baroque as Schütz, Scheidt and Schein are unquestionable. Yet
to appreciate their achievements fully and to place them within a context,
account must be taken of the Thirty Years War (1618–48) through which
they lived. Schütz wrote only vocal music. Yet in the case of this vocal
music, as in that of Scheidt and Schein, sacred music far outnumbers
secular works. This to some extent underscores the differences between
German and Italian musical life and the circumstances that produced these
differences. As Italy staged spectacles of music, dance and drama in a
peaceful political climate, Germany was devastated by three decades of
war. The courts were often impoverished and had to improvise. Citizens
were almost always afraid for their lives. Consequently, it seems to be no
coincidence that German composers, like Schütz, frequently sought refuge
in the south. When they returned, they felt more compelled to write music
of religious observation and solace than to write opera. Ironically, Dafne
(1627), the only opera composed by Schütz, is now lost.
Germany, §I: Art music.
2. 1648–1700.
The Thirty Years War was the greatest political, economic and cultural
watershed in the German territories before World War II. Pomerania,
Mecklenburg, Thuringia and parts of Saxony, the Palatinate and
Württemberg lost about half their population; Brandenburg, Hesse,
Franconia and Swabia lost a third, while the Catholic south-east and
Protestant north-west remained largely spared. However, the speedy
recovery of most urban areas after the war, assisted by very swift
demographic growth in the second half of the 17th century, created
favourable conditions for the rapid regeneration of cultural life in towns,
cities and courts. A large number of cultural centres emerged within a wide
variety of political structures which remained fundamentally stable until
1803. Some of these centres were free imperial cities or trading centres
such as Hamburg, Lübeck, Frankfurt, Leipzig and Nuremberg, others were
small principalities under ecclesiastical or secular rule, others again were
territorial states. The variety of the cultural structures themselves and the
rivalry between them encouraged mobility, stylistic diversity and a
receptiveness to outside influences. These factors are all evident in
German music of the time, with its eclecticism and readiness to adopt
foreign styles, forms and techniques, a process which was to lead to J.J.
Quantz’s famous discussion of the ‘mixed’ or ‘German’ style in his Versuch
einer Anweisung die Flöte traversière zu spielen (1752); according to
Quantz, this ‘German’ style derived from a combination of the best
elements of the music of other nations.
The wide variety of German musical culture in the 17th and 18th centuries,
which had no counterpart in other countries, was further increased by two
specific phenomena: the schism between the mainly Protestant north and
the mainly Catholic south, and the co-existence until well into the 18th
century of the most up-to-date music from outside Germany (especially
Italy) with the continuing traditions of the 16th century. In short, the varied
development of music in Germany during the 17th and 18th centuries
arose from religious, political and economic conditions: differences
between Catholic and Protestant regions on the one hand, and between
rural, urban and court musical cultures on the other.
We have very little direct information about the music of the lower classes,
although a certain amount can be inferred from literature, the visual arts
and (in the 19th century) folksong collections. We can be sure, however,
that there was much singing, music-making and dancing in towns and
villages during the 17th and 18th centuries, both in daily life and on festive
occasions. Many performances were also given by itinerant musicians,
often war veterans, who played the dulcimer, bagpipes and fiddle. The
novels of Grimmelshausen, in particular Simplicissimus (1669), present a
vivid picture of such musicians. There was some blurring of the distinctions
between traditional music, expecially folksong, and melodies composed by
professional musicians, particularly for hymns in which the whole
community could join. Akin to the simple hymns were numerous sacred
songs in which poets deplored the troubles of the times and expressed
their hopes for modest happiness on earth and bliss in the life to come. The
17th century was a century of song in Germany; some 10,000 sacred
poems were written and about 3000 of them set to music. Notable Catholic
poets included Friedrich von Spee and Angelus Silesius; their Protestant
equivalents were Johann Rist and Paul Gerhardt. Silesius collaborated with
the musician Georg Joseph, who was in the service of the Prince-Bishop of
Breslau and wrote melodies for most of Silesius’s poems. The poems of
Rist and Gerhardt were sung to both new and traditional hymn tunes, and
sometimes had more elaborate settings with basso continuo. The most
important composers of such songs included Johannes Crüger, S.T.
Staden, Andreas Hammerschmidt, Johann Schop (i), Thomas Selle and
Heinrich Scheidemann.
The extraordinary flowering of sacred song in the 17th century reflected the
need of many people, particularly in the towns, for spiritual consolation,
while the dissemination of more musically demanding songs attested to the
new culture of middle-class music-making, combining the tradition of the
strophic song with such Italian innovations as the basso continuo. The
same is true of secular song, which also flourished in the second half of the
century; its principal exponents included Heinrich Albert and Johann
Sebastiani of Königsberg, the court Kantor J.P. Krieger of Weissenfels and
the organist Andreas Hammerschmidt of Zittau.
Hymn-singing was not the only link between the musical cultures of town
and country in the 17th century. Lay choirs were formed to sing sacred
music on the model of the urban Kantorei (and encouraged by the
progressive spread of literacy), and lay musicians made up instrumental
ensembles to play at festivals and ceremonies for a fee. Resentment of
these lay musicians by professional town musicians led to a number of
decrees towards the end of the century stating that only performers of
sacred music might ‘serve’ within a parish.
In urban musical culture the traditions and organizations of the 16th
century persisted independently of all stylistic change, especially in
Protestant areas. (17th-century urban musical life was richer and more
varied in Lutheran than in Catholic regions, and the role of music was
naturally even smaller in Reformed Church areas.) The town musicians,
who regarded themselves as a kind of guild, played for ceremonial
occasions such as festivals and civic receptions and signalled the hours
from church towers. They also performed in church and at private
ceremonies. Their ‘official’ instruments were cornetts and trombones, with
some string instruments, although initially these were not highly regarded.
Oboes were added at the end of the century. Sacred music was provided
by the Kantor and the organist, and the Kantor would very often teach at
local schools. At the bottom of the musical hierarchy in Protestant towns
was the choir of Kurrende, schoolboys who walked the streets singing for
alms, a custom not abolished until the middle of the 18th century.
The development of urban musical life organized in this way depended
directly on the economic power of the town or city concerned. It found its
clearest expression in the creation of collegia musica, which incorporated
the scholarly and humanistic ideals of the Italian academies and frequently
concerned themselves with language and poetry as well as music. The first
collegia musica had been founded in the 16th century, particularly in
Nuremberg, the leading commercial metropolis of its time. After (and in
some cases during) the Thirty Years War they were concentrated in trading
cities that had been spared in the hostilities (Nuremberg, Elbing,
Königsberg) or had made a swift recovery (Sagan, Görlitz, Memmingen,
Leipzig). Königsberg was a special case because of the literary and
musical talents in the circle around Simon Dach and Heinrich Albert. The
musical societies of Frankfurt and Hamburg were notable for their swift
acceptance of the latest music from Italy. They were financed by merchant
patricians, and in Hamburg the musical society was a joint stock company.
Nuremberg was almost the only place where the 16th-century tradition of
music printing continued, although on a small scale. Music was generally
transmitted in manuscript form, in marked contrast to the situation in Italy;
and musicians, working in near-isolation, tended to produce music for
specific local conditions. These circumstances hardly favoured stylistic
uniformity, as did the different conditions prevailing in the 18th and
especially the 19th centuries. On the other hand, the small scale and the
diversity of these musical ‘urban landscapes’ meant that a composer had
considerable scope to develop his individuality.
The reception accorded to foreign music, particularly from Italy, differed
from genre to genre and from region to region, as did the nature of its
adaptation to native German forms. Adaptation was most successful where
older German traditions could be fused with the new, for instance in motets
in the style of Palestrina and in the sacred madrigal, sung predominantly in
Latin in the Catholic south and in German in the Protestant north
(examples include Schütz’s Geistliche Chor-Music of 1648 and works by
Hammerschmidt, W.C. Briegel and others). Out of these genres grew the
polychoral motet designed for special occasions, a tradition leading from
Sebastian Knüpfer and Johann Schelle through Johann Michael and
Johann Christoph Bach to its culmination in the examples of J.S. Bach. The
transformation of Italian traditions into the chorale concerto and choral
cantata of northern and central Germany derived entirely from the role of
sacred song in Protestant divine service, a development that had begun
with Praetorius and was continued by Schein, Scheidt, Knüpfer and
Buxtehude right through to J.S. Bach; the extension of the form by adding
free textual commentary between the chorale verses shows that the sacred
song had a central position in the Protestant church.
At the same time the cantata not based on a chorale was developing, with
texts in German or Latin in the work of such composers as J.C. Kerll in
Munich and Christoph Bernhard in Dresden and Hamburg (both of them
pupils of Carissimi), the Dresden Kapellmeister Vincenzo Albrici and M.G.
Peranda, and Matthias Weckmann, David Pohle, Dieterich Buxtehude and
F.W. Zachow, the teacher of Handel. The cultivation of sacred concertos
and symphoniae sacrae (a term first used by Schütz) for small forces
originally reflected the needs of musical ensembles in and directly after the
war (as in Schütz’s works of 1629, 1647 and 1650), just as the
development of large-scale works, chiefly in the Carissimi tradition and
including historiae (the Christmas and Easter stories) and Passions, is
symptomatic of the recovery of some of the large Protestant courts, such
as Dresden, and the relative prosperity of cities such as Breslau that had
been little affected by the war. The composition of historiae seems to have
been concentrated in central Germany (Schütz in Dresden) and eastern
Germany (Tobias Zeutschner and others in Breslau). The Passion, a
specifically Protestant genre and far more ambitious musically than the
unassuming Catholic Passion music of the period, was widespread
throughout central and northern Germany in the 17th and early 18th
centuries. The genre included works by Schütz, Selle, Sebastiani, Johann
Theile and J.V. Meder, reaching its culmination in the Passions of J.S.
Bach. In the early 18th century the Passion oratorio developed in the
progressive musical atmosphere of Hamburg. Keiser set the Passion
poems of C.F. Hunold in 1704 and of B.H. Brockes in 1712; further settings
of the Brockes text were composed by Telemann in 1716, Handel in 1716–
17, Mattheson in 1718, G.H. Stölzel in 1720 and J.F. Fasch in 1723.
Oratorios on subjects other than the Passion scarcely spread beyond the
imperial court in Vienna; Das jüngste Gericht (c1680), attributed to
Buxtehude, was a special case and had no perceptible influence. Sacred
opera seems to have provided a substitute, but today its merits can be
assessed only from the librettos of C.C. Dedekind and from accounts of
performances.
Although it is difficult to draw strict distinctions between the history of
musical composition in towns or cities and at court, some genres were
clearly associated with the development of court culture. Those German
courts that had emerged relatively unscathed from the Thirty Years War,
like the electoral court of the Palatinate at Heidelberg, took advantage of a
new start to look towards the French court of Louis XIV, which had become
a paradigm for all Europe. However, the influence of French court music
proved limited, probably because Italian influence on court music in
Germany had become too deeply ingrained since the last third of the 16th
century, and perhaps, too, because Italy, with its many small states and
cities, provided an inexhaustible supply of musicians who were willing to
travel, while the centralized court culture of France attracted all talents to
Versailles. The few German courts that followed the French musical model
included Celle and, at various times, Hanover, Schwerin, the court of the
Palatinate at its alternative residence of Düsseldorf, and the court of the
Margrave of Baden in Schlackenwerth and later in Rastatt. The types of
music cultivated at a particular court were largely dictated by the taste and
the economic circumstances of the ruler himself.
Hardly any musical genres were exclusively confined to courts in 17th-
century Germany. An exception was the Italian chamber duet, whose
principal exponent was Steffani. Concertante canzonets and concertante
madrigals were written and performed at court, but the Kantor of the
Thomaskirche, Sebastian Knüpfer, also composed such works; the
chamber cantata was not cultivated in Germany until the end of the 17th
century, and then by urban composers such as Keiser in Hamburg (1698
and 1717).
The situation is particularly complex in opera, ballet and Singballett, where
French and Italian influences coincided with various attempts to create a
German-language opera. These genres were chiefly performed at courts,
in line with the widespread taste for French court culture, in which ballet,
opéra-ballet and opera played a prominent part. Stylistically, however, only
the ballet obviously imitated French models. Municipal opera on the
Venetian model developed only in a few large commercial cities; those with
opera houses of their own were Hamburg (from 1678 to 1738), Nuremberg
(from 1668) and Leipzig (from 1693). In 1690 Duke Anton Ulrich of
Brunswick tried to make opera both a highly subsidized form of court
theatre and an economic enterprise in the form of a joint stock company
(as in Hamburg), but without lasting success. Indeed, success eventually
eluded Hamburg too. In the second half of the 17th century many halls
were fitted out as theatres in the princely castles, Komödienhäuser were
built for both spoken and music drama, and magnificent opera houses
were constructed at the great courts (Munich, 1654, Dresden, 1667,
Stuttgart, 1674, and Hanover, 1689).
The spread of the Singballett in Germany preceded that of opera, and as in
opera (with his Dafne, 1627, Torgau), Schütz created the prototype:
Orpheo und Euridice (1638, Dresden). The original programme indicates
the work’s stylistic syncretism, typical of opera in 17th-century Germany: it
was ‘written in German verse … composed in the Italian manner …
performed in ten ballet dances’ (i.e. probably with French choreography).
The Dresden court had given the lead and was followed – in each case
with occasional works written for specific events at court – by Wolfenbüttel
in 1646, Gotha in 1649, Gottorf in 1650, Altenburg in 1652, Celle in 1653
and Stuttgart and Brunswick in 1660.
Operatic style was shaped by the individual tastes of the princes who paid
for opera, by the taste of the middle-class public in the cities and by the
Kapellmeister themselves, who probably wielded greater influence here
than in other genres of court music. This, combined with the large number
of opera houses and competition between courts and cities which often
entailed enticing famous Kapellmeister from one appointment to another,
resulted in a plurality of styles. The style of J.S. Kusser, who had studied
with Lully in France, left its mark on the repertory successively in Ansbach,
Brunswick, Hamburg and Stuttgart; and at courts with a French-orientated
musical culture, composers were encouraged to introduce French
elements into their operatic style (as Steffani did in his works for Hanover
and Düsseldorf). However, the repertory at most courts was predominantly
Italian. The mixed forms produced for commercial reasons in Leipzig and
Hamburg contained arias in the Italian style sung in Italian interspersed
with recitatives in German.
In the last third of the 17th century efforts were made to develop an
independent type of German opera sung in German. Musically, it was
based on the Italian model, but it also included French elements. The first
German operas were isolated works such as Schütz’s Dafne and S.T.
Staden’s Seelewig (1644, Nuremberg). In most places the German and
Italian and/or French repertories existed side by side; in many (for
instance, in Darmstadt early in the 18th century) there were performances
of German and Italian operas and French plays. In addition there were
translations of French and Italian librettos, and Italian operas were
performed in German translation (the six three-act works by Steffani,
performed in Hamburg in 1695–9). The main centres of attempts to
develop German opera were Altenburg (until 1738), Ansbach (from 1665),
Bayreuth (1662–1726), Brunswick (1690–1730), Dresden (from 1671),
Darmstadt (from 1673), Durlach (from 1712), Gotha (1681–1744),
Hamburg (1678–1738), Leipzig (from 1693), Meiningen (1702–7),
Nuremberg (from 1679 to c1685), Neuburg an der Donau (from 1678),
Weissenfels (from 1680), Wolfenbüttel (from 1655) and Zeitz (from 1711).
The final flowering of this type of German opera was in Rudolstadt in
1729–54. Elsewhere it was superseded around 1740 by the international
system of Italian opera.
The development of instrumental music after the Thirty Years War was
characterized by the gradual reduction of the variety of forms and
ensembles of the 16th and early 17th centuries, and by the influence of
Netherlandish, French and Italian models, from which independent forms
and genres emerged towards the end of the century. Instrumental music
was performed at court (solos and ensembles), in church (organ music)
and to a lesser extent in towns and cities (ceremonial music, especially for
wind instruments, and domestic chamber music). Lute music on the French
model was primarily a courtly genre, although it was also written for
domestic performance (Esaias Reusner (ii) in Brieg and Berlin; S.L. Weiss
in Dresden). Italian influence dominated ensemble music. It was produced
in large quantities, some of it for courts, some for the urban middle class
(for instance, for the collegia musica and student musical societies). There
was no strict line of demarcation between the sonata and the suite based
on French dances in the work of such composers as Johann Rosenmüller
and J.R. Ahle. The trio sonata did not become fashionable until the 18th
century, in the wake of general European enthusiasm for Corelli; in the late
17th century, however, a number of trio sonatas were written by Reincken,
Krieger, P.H. Erlebach and Buxtehude.
Not surprisingly, French influence was most pronounced in the ensemble or
suite for several instrumentalists or solo performer, and in dance collections
for ensembles, primarily intended for court performance but also written for
the urban middle class. Keyboard music, also on the French model, saw
the development of the keyboard suite and of an idiomatic harpsichord
style (J.J. Froberger, Matthias Weckmann and Fischer). Gottlieb Muffat,
with his ensemble suites and concerti grossi synthesizing the models of
Lully and Corelli, stands alone, an epoch-making figure comparable to
Buxtehude in the north. Muffat’s work marks the beginning of the great
period when French and Italian music merged to create the characteristics
of a ‘German’ mixed style, as defined by Quantz (see above), which
reached a peak in Telemann and J.S. Bach.
In the 17th century organ building and organ composition developed
particularly in northern Germany, an area little affected by the Thirty Years
War. The prime influence here was the work of Sweelinck, with whom
Scheidt, Jacob Praetorius (ii) and Heinrich Scheidemann studied in
Amsterdam. Organ composers of the next generation included Reincken
and Matthias Weckmann. 17th-century German organ music reached its
peak in the works of Buxtehude and Johann Pachelbel, with their wealth of
forms and techniques, their independent and virtuoso treatment of the
pedal, and their exploitation of the uniquely wide range of stops in the
organs of north German organ builders such as Gottfried Frizsche,
Friedrich Stellwagen, Jonas Weigel and, in particular, the internationally
renowned Arp Schnitker.
Germany, §I: Art music.
3. 1700–1806.
The musical history of the German-speaking territories in the 18th century
– leaving aside Austria and Switzerland, which followed paths of their own
in line with local conditions – can be best understood by examining a
number of significant aspects. Courtly musical culture centred on a few
large courts, generally absolutist and influenced by the Enlightenment,
while the many smaller courts were historically less important. Urban
middle-class musical culture developed above all in the wealthy cities; new
forms of communication evolved, and there were rapid developments in
music written for domestic performance. Protestant church music declined
after the middle of the century (which by chance coincided with the death
of Bach), while Catholic church music continued to flourish.
These developments went hand in hand with what Quantz saw as the
stylistic synthesis achieved in the first half of the century and the
emergence of new forms and genres in the second half. The courts
concentrated on Italian opera seria, which became the established norm in
the first half of the century, while the German Singspiel developed after
1750. Instrumental music came to the fore with the genres of the concerto,
symphony and sonata, composed on Italian models but with ever-
increasing independence. Above all, there was a general stylistic change
after the 1720s, when German music became a productive rather than a
merely receptive force for the first time in its history. This development was
fostered by the fact that outstanding individual artists could make their
influence more widely felt through new, improved forms of communication
(music journalism, music publishing and concert tours). Such musicians
included Telemann, Johann Stamitz and C.P.E. Bach. In terms of musical
history J.S. Bach, for 27 years Kantor at the Leipzig Thomaskirche, seems
to stand alone, and his work influenced no major composer before Mozart
and Beethoven. The vigour of German musical culture and the outstanding
achievements of individual composers should not, however, disguise the
fact that late 18th-century developments that would have a far-reaching
effect on the future of music took place on the periphery of the German-
speaking lands. Indeed, Viennese Classicism should be regarded as
neither a German, nor even an Austrian, but as a purely Viennese
phenomenon.
Most of the courts that were musically active in the 17th century continued
to cultivate music, depending on their finances and the taste of the prince.
New courts emerged with important musical establishments, notably the
court of the princes of Thurn and Taxis in Regensburg and the court of
Oettingen-Wallerstein. However, they were all outshone by the three royal
residences at Dresden, Berlin and Mannheim. From the 1720s Dresden
became a major centre for new Italian instrumental music (especially that
of Vivaldi) and its assimilation by such composers as Bach and J.G.
Pisendel. With the opening of Daniel Pöppelmann’s opera house in 1719
until 1763, opera seria and the music of the court church flourished in
Dresden, especially in the Hasse-Bordoni era (1731–63). Even after this
date Italian opera and italianate church music remained important and
exerted an influence far beyond Dresden itself. The Italian court opera of
Dresden survived as an institution until 1832. In the late 18th century the
music of the Dresden court church developed an established repertory
which included earlier works such as those of Hasse. Elector Friedrich
August was a practising musician himself, and the Dresden court was one
of the first places where the new Viennese repertory of Haydn and Mozart
found an appreciative audience.
Matters were quite different in Berlin, which had very quickly become a
great metropolis, its population growing from about 20,000 in 1688 to
172,000 around 1800. Court and civic culture were closely linked in the city,
and music flourished at court, principally under Frederick the Great (1740–
86) and to a lesser extent under Friedrich Wilhelm II (1786–97). Frederick
the Great, himself a talented and prolific composer and librettist, promoted
both opera seria and modern Italian instrumental music; his
encouragement of opera was also politically motivated, since he sought to
outshine the absolutist magnificence of the Dresden court opera. For
similar reasons, the king took a close and detailed interest in the
productions staged at the opera house built by his court architect G.W. von
Knobelsdorff and opened in 1742. The court musicians of Berlin included a
number of major talents, although none of Hasse’s significance and
international reputation: C.H. Graun, J.F. Agricola and J.F. Reichardt in
opera, Quantz, Franz and Georg Benda and J.G. Graun in instrumental
music. Besides Reichardt, the leading musician to write for Friedrich
Wilhelm II was Boccherini, who became his court composer.
The situation in Mannheim was different again. The city was unique in that
musical activity was overwhelmingly centred on the court and depended
entirely on a single ruler, Elector Carl Theodor of the Palatinate, who had
little in common with Frederick the Great save a liking for playing the flute.
Mannheim had been almost entirely destroyed in the Thirty Years War, and
after a brief period of recovery was then devastated in the War of the
Palatine Succession in 1689. The court of the Palatinate did not move back
to the city until 1720. In 1742 the opera house built in the castle by
Alessandro Galli-Bibiena was inaugurated, ushering in a period when
opera and instrumental music flourished at court. There were more major
virtuosos and composers working for the Hofkapelle than for any other
musical ensemble in Europe, with Carlo Grua and Ignaz Holzbauer at the
opera, and works commissioned from J.C. Bach, Jommelli, Traetta and
Giuseppe de Majo. The members of the orchestra, besides Holzbauer from
Vienna, included Johann Stamitz from Bohemia and his pupil Christian
Cannabich, who was a brilliant orchestral trainer, C.J. Toeschi, F.X. Richter
from Bohemia, Anton Fils from Bavaria, Ignaz Beck, Ignaz Fränzl, and
Anton and Carl Stamitz. Other names that deserve mention are those of
Franz Danzi and Peter Winter, who both studied composition with the Abbé
Vogler. The fame of the Hofkapelle was spread by musical visitors to
Mannheim, not least Charles Burney. The fact that its composers drew on
varied European traditions probably contributed to the creation of a new
style in Mannheim which made full use of the opportunities offered by a
virtuoso orchestra. Mannheim musicians made a crucial contribution to the
development of the symphony, in particular; and the treatment of the
orchestra in Mannheim influenced many composers, including Mozart and
Weber. The performances given from 1754 onwards by Mannheim virtuoso
instrumentalists in Paris caused a sensation; subsequently the Mannheim
School had a decisive influence on concert life there, notably with the new
genre of the symphonie concertante which Carl Stamitz introduced to the
French capital. This was the first time the influence of German music had
extended beyond the German-speaking countries. Finally, there was a
significant movement towards German opera in Mannheim, connected with
the founding of an Academy of Sciences, and of the Nationaltheater in
1779, in emulation of similar efforts in Vienna. The great period of
Mannheim court music came to an end early in 1778, when Carl Theodor
succeeded as ruler of Bavaria and moved his court to Munich.
In terms of musical history, the three major German cities of the 18th
century were Hamburg and Leipzig, with their commercial prosperity, and
Berlin, a royal residence, an administrative seat and a middle-class
metropolis. Hamburg, as a trading seaport, was much influenced by
London; Leipzig was an international trade fair centre; and Berlin profited
from the enlightened climate of the court and its role as the capital of a
rapidly expanding power. Forms of public music-making tried and tested in
London were further developed in Hamburg: civic ceremonies were
repeated for a paying public, public concerts featured appearances by
touring virtuosos, charity concerts were given, journalism flourished in
Mattheson’s and Scheibe’s musical periodicals, and works were published
by subscription. Musical enthusiasm was widespread among a relatively
large class of wealthy patricians and merchants, and was at the root of the
shift away from scholarly works of musical theory written for professionals,
towards well-informed musical writings for the galant homme. Two of the
greatest German composers of their day, Telemann and C.P.E. Bach, also
lived and worked in Hamburg for several decades.
Leipzig came to rival Hamburg in musical importance in the second half of
the century. In the first half of the century musical life in Leipzig was
dominated by vocal and instrumental church music, in particular the music
of J.S. Bach and by student and middle-class collegia musica. In line with
the spirit of the Enlightenment, L.C. Mizler von Kolof tried to establish
music (including musical history) as a department of study at the university,
and founded the Neu eröffnete musikalische Bibliothek (1736), the journal
of the Societät der Musicalischen Wissenschaften, in direct competition
with Mattheson in Hamburg. The importance of church music declined after
the death of Bach, but in 1743 a group of merchants founded a public
concert organization to supersede the collegia musica. This organization in
turn was replaced by the concerts of J.A. Hiller in 1778, and these were
followed in 1781 by concerts organized by the city and given in the newly
reconstructed Gewandhaus. At the end of the century Leipzig had 14
concert societies and was unequalled for its flourishing concert life.
The internationalism of Leipzig was particularly evident in the development
of opera in the city. After the closure of the German opera in 1720,
travelling theatrical companies such as those of Mingotti, Locatelli and
Nicolini gave guest performances of the Italian repertory during the Leipzig
fairs. An adaptation of the English ballad opera The Devil to Pay was
performed in 1743 in Berlin and 1750 in Leipzig; the local poet C.F. Weisse
then retranslated the work which, with new music by J.C. Standfuss,
became the prototype of a new vernacular genre: the Singspiel. Leipzig
was the major centre of Singspiel up to the foundation of the Stadttheater
in 1817 and was visited by the theatrical troupes of Koch, Bondini and
Seconda, as well as Domenico Guardasoni’s company, which brought the
Italian repertory to the city between 1782 and 1794. But the most important
development of all was in music publishing. A city famous for its trade fairs
was the ideal location, and the leading figure in this field was J.G.I.
Breitkopf, with his new system of printing notation (1755) and his music
trade which collected and sold works from all over Europe. The firm
became Breitkopf & Härtel in 1795, and in 1798 founded the influential
Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung. In 1800 the rival firm of Hoffmeister &
Kühnel was founded, publishing as Bureau de musique simultaneously in
Leipzig and Vienna. The scene was set for Leipzig to become Europe’s
most important centre of music publishing.
After the accession of Frederick the Great in 1740 and the flowering of
musical culture in Berlin, there was a fruitful interrelationship, sometimes
with a competitive edge, between court and civic musical life. The music of
the court remained strongly orientated towards Italy and Italian opera.
Private and public concerts of sacred and secular music were held from the
1720s, organized by court and cathedral musicians, and the influence of
the Sing-Akademie, founded in 1791, extended far beyond Berlin itself.
From about 1750 men of letters (K.W. Ramler, C.G. Krause), theorists
(F.W. Marpurg) and composers developed the ideal of the simple, sensitive
quasi-folksong with keyboard accompaniment, a genre further developed
by the group of composers known as the Berlin Lieder School. The
combination of theory and practice and a rationalistic character typified the
vigorous musical journalism of Marpurg, Krause, Quantz and C.P.E. Bach,
which culminated in J.G. Sulzer’s encyclopedic Allgemeine Theorie der
schönen Künste (1771–4). Notable musical figures in Berlin were Princess
Anna Amalia, Frederick the Great’s youngest sister, and J.P. Kirnberger,
who became her Hofkapellmeister in 1758. A fervent champion of the
contrapuntal tradition against the galant style, he collected an extensive
music library for the princess, including autograph manuscripts by J.S.
Bach and works by Handel and Palestrina. Musical attitudes, and musical
journalism, in Berlin were markedly conservative in any case, and these
tendencies were further reinforced by Kirnberger and his circle. While the
conservative attitudes that prevailed in Berlin were regarded (not least by
Haydn in his autobiographical sketch of 1776) as inimical to the
development of the new language of instrumental music that reached its
peak in Viennese Classicism, the music-making that reflected those
attitudes helped to create a historically based public concert repertory,
exemplified in the programmes of the Sing-Akademie that culminated in the
rediscovery of the St Matthew Passion in 1829.
After the 1720s there was an increasing distinction between styles in line
with the functions of different musical genres. The new style developed
most obviously in the galant keyboard piece and the undemanding song for
social and private entertainment, especially in middle-class circles. More
demanding chamber music for private or public performance by
accomplished amateurs and professionals either imitated widely accepted
models or combined Italian and French styles and genres, as in
Telemann’s Musique de table (1733). Similarly, the French suite and the
Italian concerto were sometimes kept strictly separate (in works by Bach,
Telemann and many others), or sometimes combined into hybrid forms, as,
again, in many works by Telemann. The trio sonata, a ‘learned’ genre par
excellence, and the quartet sonata deriving from it, both of them north
German specialities, remained the ‘touchstone of a true contrapuntalist’
(Quantz) even when their contrapuntal idiom was infused by galant
elements.
Sacred vocal music and organ music also adhered to the Baroque
tradition, but became less important in Protestant areas in the second half
of the 18th century; Bach’s cantatas and organ works were anachronisms
even in their own time, although the type of cantata pioneered by the poet
and theologian Erdmann Neumeister was a relatively modern form. The
tradition of ceremonial Catholic church music for Mass and Vespers
survived unbroken into the 19th century, following the Habsburg and Italian
examples. In Protestant Germany, music for divine service was replaced by
edifying devotional music influenced by Rationalism and the aesthetic of
Empfindsamkeit; the prototype for such works was Graun’s Der Tod Jesu,
and later examples include the oratorios of Telemann and C.P.E. Bach.
Handel’s oratorios, revived in Hamburg in the 1770s and subsequently
elsewhere, were also regarded as sacred music to edify the Christian not
as the member of a community but as an individual.
In instrumental music two genres dominated the second half of the century:
the symphony and, to a lesser extent, chamber music with keyboard
obbligato. The string quartet played a surprisingly small part, although the
quartets of Haydn, in particular, were performed to enthusiastic audiences
everywhere. As in Italy, the symphony initially grew out of the opera
sinfonia; but the genre soon became independent as symphonies were
written specifically for chamber or concert performance. Italian influence
quickly dwindled as the symphonies of Austrian composers, especially
Haydn, became increasingly popular. Until the end of the century the
symphony in Germany (unlike in France and England) was primarily a court
phenomenon, although many symphonies were played in the growing
number of concerts for the urban middle classes. The most important
symphonists, all of them court musicians, included C.P.E. Bach, J.G. Graun
and Franz Benda in Potsdam, J.M. Molter in Durlach, Antonio Rosetti in
Oettingen-Wallerstein and Schwerin, Christian Cannabich in Mannheim
and Munich and Georg Benda in Gotha. Of these the outstanding figure
was undoubtedly C.P.E. Bach, although his style, original to the point of
eccentricity and highly rhetorical, does not fit into any general pattern of
development. The ‘Hamburg Bach’ was also idiosyncratic in his chamber
and keyboard music, which far surpassed anything produced by his
contemporaries.
In a country as enamoured of theory as Germany, it was inevitable that the
body of instrumental music composed after the stylistic changes around
1720 should be defined within a theoretical system. Elements of traditional
rhetoric were used at first, relating an apparently autonomous form back to
the rhetorical arts (Mattheson, Joseph Riepel and H.C. Koch). The
rhetorical theory of form was abandoned in the early 19th century in favour
of ideas from English musical aesthetics and formal theory going back to
Shaftesbury (as formulated by Charles Avison, Adam Smith and A.F.C.
Kollmann). These ideas, deriving from theories of architecture and the
visual arts, were concerned with the analytical understanding of
instrumental forms of music, and were developed by C.G. Krause (Von der
musikalischen Poesie, 1752), Moses Mendelssohn (Über die
Empfindungen, 1755), Leonhard Euler (Lettres à une princesse
d’Allemagne, 1768), in various writings by J.C. Forkel, and above all by
C.F. Michaelis (Über den Geist der Tonkunst, 1795; Zweyter Versuch …,
1800; Über die wichtigsten Erfordernisse und Bedingungen der Tonkunst,
1805). In the writings of E.T.A. Hoffmann these theoretical ideas were
combined with the Romantic aesthetic of feeling.
Germany, §I: Art music.
4. 1806–1918.
The official end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 was a less significant
date in musical history than the Edict of the Deputation of the German
Estates of 1803. The dissolution of many small courts and the closure of
most monasteries, with their wealth of musical culture, set in train a
process of cultural standardization that continued until the founding of the
German Reich in 1871. Culturally, Austria became further and further
removed from Germany, although Austrian, or rather Viennese, influence
on German music (as opposed to the other arts) increased enormously,
through Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert, and later Brahms,
Bruckner, Mahler and Strauss. These developments were fostered by
industrialization, the accumulation of wealth in the big cities, the German
Customs Union of 1834 and greatly improved communications. The
musical landscape changed rapidly in the first half of the 19th century,
although the Napoleonic Wars and the failed revolution of 1848–9 had
remarkably little influence on the structures of musical life. The second half
of the century was an era of consolidation, and the end of World War I in
1918 brought no essential change to musical institutions and public
musical life.
Important social developments included the spread of musical culture
among the urban middle classes, the increasing numbers of cities where
music played an important role, and the standardization of musical culture,
together with its separation from mass culture. As music at the princely
courts diminished, music-making in the cities became increasingly
dominant. After the Wars of Liberation in the second decade of the century,
political conflicts between court and bourgeois society could still manifest
themselves through opera, as in the confrontation between Spontini and
Weber at the première of Der Freischütz in Berlin in 1821. Kaiser Wilhelm
II’s attempts to mould the opera and theatre of Berlin to suit his own tastes
were strongly criticized by the public and particularly the press, a force to
be reckoned with by 1900. The musical interests of rulers now held sway at
only a few, usually minor, courts such as Weimar, which became a musical
centre principally through Liszt and his circle and retained that status until
the abdication of the grand dukes in 1918, and Meiningen, particularly
under Duke Georg II (ruled 1866–1914), who made the Hofkapelle a model
institution with an up-to-date repertory and retained the court theatre for the
performance of classical German drama.
Court opera aside, musical life in the major German cities during the 19th
century was much as it is today. Opera, ballet and drama, and later
operetta, were performed in municipal theatres that were usually
subsidized by the civic authorities. The repertory was international and the
large music publishing houses (particularly Schott in Mainz) published
translations of foreign-language works, both Italian and French (opéra
comique and the grand operas of Meyerbeer). German opera did not
feature significantly until the time of Wagner, when there was an increase
of national feeling in music generally, especially after 1860. Opera featured
far more prominently in musical life than in the 18th century because it now
reached large sections of the population, and its significance was reflected
in the building of many municipal opera houses and some magnificent
court opera houses (notably in Dresden). This development reached its
peak in the economic boom after the founding of the Reich in 1871.
Rivalling opera in popularity were the public concerts given by the
orchestras of opera houses, by independent orchestras, by local or touring
ensembles (especially string quartets), by visiting virtuosos and sometimes
by touring ensembles such as the Meiningen Hofkapelle. Concerts were
often performed in handsome buildings containing a large concert hall and
a more intimate hall for chamber music (as in the new Leipzig
Gewandhaus, opened in 1884).
Growing prosperity also brought a rise in domestic music-making, which
stimulated the composition of lieder, piano music and chamber music
(fig.11). Domestic music-making also encouraged the industrial
manufacture of pianos on the American model, and piano factories were
opened by Bechstein in 1860, Blüthner in 1864, Grotrian in 1865 and
Steinway in 1880. The rapidly growing popularity of the piano, however,
meant that the needs of amateur pianists (and singers) had to be met with
the mass production of technically and aesthetically undemanding music.
In reaction to this, attempts were made towards the end of the century to
introduce reforms, through a higher standard of private music-teaching,
through popular music libraries intended to supersede the purely
commercial lending institutions, through educational writings and through
public campaigns against ‘cheap trashy music’. Public music libraries to
which anyone could have free access were founded in many cities after
1894. Conservatories, organized privately or by the civic authorities, had
been providing professional musical training since the founding of the
Academisches Musikinstitut in Würzburg in 1804. Until 1871 there were
only a few foundations in the major musical centres (in Berlin in 1822 and
1833, in Leipzig in 1843, in Munich in 1846, Cologne in 1850 and Dresden
and Stuttgart in 1856). After 1871, however, there was a boom in the
creation of conservatories, as there was in the building of theatres. By far
the most influential conservatory was in Leipzig, which, under the
directorship of Mendelssohn and his successors, attracted composition
pupils from all over Europe, particularly Scandinavia and Russia, and from
the United States. In general, the high standards of institutionalized
musical education did as much as the great composers, conductors and
interpreters to ensure the worldwide reputation of 19th-century German
music.
The musical and intellectual climate of 19th-century Germany was also
shaped by the growth of music publishing, music journalism, music theory
and aesthetics, and the acceptance of musicology as an academic
discipline. German music publishing firms dominated large sections of the
market in Europe and the USA; they played an important role in the
dissemination of mass-produced music and the spread of musical
education through the cheap editions published from 1864 by Litolff, Peters
and Breitkopf & Härtel, and the miniature scores published by Payne and
later Eulenburg. One far-sighted music publisher, Oskar von Hase, was
also active in promoting musical copyright. The major musical periodicals,
mostly belonging to the large publishing firms, greatly influenced public
opinion and taste, often employing a partisan approach deplored by many
composers, including Brahms and Bruckner.
The 19th century, a period of progress and belief in science, saw the
construction of the last comprehensive systems of music theory, from A.B.
Marx to Hugo Riemann and Heinrich Schenker. Musical aesthetics and the
philosophy of history were shaped by philosophical aesthetics. Franz
Brendel, who made Schumann’s Neue Zeitschrift für Musik the mouthpiece
of modern German music, was influenced by Hegel; Wagner and Nietzsche
by Schopenhauer; the hermeneutics of Hermann Kretzschmar and Arnold
Schering by Dilthey. Musicology also developed independent concepts of
the aesthetics of autonomy (Eduard Hanslick, 1854) and the aesthetics of
heteronomy (Friedrich von Hausegger, A.W. Ambros and Otakar
Hostinský). The profound changes of attitude to composition that occurred
in the years before World War I were accompanied by the pioneering
writings of Busoni and A.O. Halm. All these developments were of great
significance to the German-speaking countries, in particular Germany itself,
ever ready to indulge in speculation and theory. However, they had little
effect elsewhere in Europe or in the USA. The growth of musicology,
deriving from a historical view of the repertory, had been prepared by the
first major works of musical history (Kiesewetter and Ambros) and
biography (Otto Jahn, Friedrich Chrysander, J.G. Gervinus and Philipp
Spitta), and by memorial publications and scholarly critical complete
editions of Bach, Handel, Palestrina, Mozart, Schubert, Beethoven, Schütz
and Lassus.
The establishment of musicology in universities began with the
appointment of musical directors who could lecture on the history of music
as well as carrying out their more practical musical duties; they included
J.N. Forkel in Göttingen and D.G. Türk in Halle, both appointed to their
posts in 1779. The first professorship was the appointment of Carl
Breidenstein to Bonn in 1826; Berlin followed suit in 1830 with A.B. Marx,
Munich in 1865 with K.F.L. Nohl, Leipzig in 1872 with Oscar Paul and
Strasbourg in 1875 with Gustav Jacobsthal. The first full university
lectureships were awarded in Vienna in 1856 (Eduard Hanslick) and in
Heidelberg in 1860 (Nohl). However, the subject was not fully recognized
until professorial chairs and institutes were founded: in Vienna in 1898
(Guido Adler), in Bonn in 1915 (Ludwig Schiedermair) and in Halle in 1918
(Hermann Abert). German musicology attracted foreign students for many
decades, and was a model for the development of the subject in other
European countries and the USA. Only with the Nazis did Germany lose its
pre-eminence in the field of musicology.
During the 19th century traditional folksong continued to decline, though
this decline was partly counteracted by the efforts to renew folksong in the
wake of Herder’s writings (see §II, 4 below). In urban areas folksong was
replaced by such genres as the street ballad, which saw its heyday in the
19th century, stimulated by the production and distribution of broadsheets.
Offshoots of the street ballad were the political song and the worker’s song,
the latter reaching a peak under the Weimar Republic. The male-voice
choir movement was also political in origin, and it was in a spirit of
patriotism that Zelter founded the Berlin Liedertafel. The new democratic
impetus was especially strong in student choral societies; Metternich
described the male-voice choir as the ‘plague from Germany’, and had it
suppressed in Austria. After the failure of the 1848–9 revolution, the
middle-class male-voice choir adapted more and more to the prevailing
circumstances and became a merely social institution.
The rapid standardization of an increasingly commercialized middle-class
musical culture after the 1830s encouraged the dissociation of the more
challenging genres of art music from any functional purpose, placing them
in a realm of quasi-autonomous art, as postulated by the aesthetics of
Romanticism. Such functional genres as church music became less
important, despite such attempts at historically inspired reform as
Cecilianism in the Catholic church and its Protestant counterpart in Prussia.
The standardization of musical culture also brought with it the increasing
importance of generic norms and the growing influence of the works of the
acknowledged masters. Schumann’s Piano Quintet had its counterpart in
the Piano Quintet of Brahms, and together they inspired an explosion in the
genre during the second half of the century, including the Piano Quintet of
César Franck, written partly in protest against the hegemony of German
music.
That hegemony, against which opposition had been developing in
neighbouring countries since around the middle of the century, was
dominated by instrumental music. German operas hardly travelled abroad
at all during the first part of the century; the success of Der Freischütz in
Paris was an exception. The situation changed only with the European
influence of Wagner, whose early works are a perfect example of the way
German operatic composers adapted foreign models: Die Feen can be
viewed as a German Romantic opera and Das Liebesverbot as an opéra
comique (Wagner himself thought it an Italian melodramma), while Rienzi
draws on the models of French and Italian grand opera. Der Freischütz
itself owes much to opéra comique and attained the status of a national
opera for political reasons as much as for its Romantic forest setting.
However, it was through its stylistic syncretism that Romantic opera
became a specifically German genre in the works of Weber, Spohr,
Marschner, Lindpaintner and other composers, with an offshoot in the
Spielopern of Lortzing and Flotow, a form of comic opera derived partly
from German Singspiel and from opéra comique. Romantic opera
remained a central part of the repertory even when few new Romantic
operas were being composed.
If the works of Wagner’s middle period, for all their originality, remained
within the genre of German Romantic opera, his works after Das Rheingold
changed the course of the history not only of opera but of music in general.
The Wagner phenomenon, however, extended far beyond music. It was
European in nature and encompassed the arts, intellectual thought and
even politics. In operatic history, the indirect effects of Wagnerian music
drama were greater than any direct imitation. The symphonic leitmotif
technique could be transferred to very different genres, including the fairy-
tale operas of Humperdinck and Siegfried Wagner, the verismo operas of
Max von Schillings and Eugen d’Albert, and the fantastic operas of Franz
Schreker. The intellectual ambitions of Wagner’s librettos from the Ring
onwards encouraged both the emergence of ‘literary opera’, culminating in
Richard Strauss’s Salome (1905) and Elektra (1909), and the tendency to
use opera as a means of examining issues such as the role of the artist in
society, beginning with Die Meistersinger (1868) and continued in Pfitzner’s
Palestrina (1917) and Strauss’s Ariadne auf Naxos (second version, 1916).
On the other hand, the works of Wagner’s direct successors were usually
epigonal and in the long term unsuccessful, as in such monumental works
as August Bungert’s Homerische Welt (of which only the tetralogy Die
Odyssee (1896–1903) was completed), and in operas where ambitious
débutant composers declared their adherence to Wagnerism, such as
Strauss’s Guntram (1894) and Pfitzner’s Der arme Heinrich (1895).
Wagner’s influence was naturally easier to escape in comic opera, for
instance in Cornelius’s Der Barbier von Bagdad (1858) and Goetz’s Der
Widerspenstigen Zähmung (1874). It was no coincidence that Hugo von
Hofmannsthal and Strauss began their stylistic change of direction with a
comedy, Der Rosenkavalier (1911), although they returned to a Wagnerian
type of mythology in Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919). The material expense
of staging the large-scale works of Wagner’s successors had risen
constantly, sustained on a wave of optimism engendered by the apparently
stable political and social order of the Reich and the economic boom that
had continued unbroken since about 1890. A radical change began before
World War I, when German variants of the international movement towards
classicism renounced such extravagance; examples were Busoni’s Die
Brautwahl (1912), Arlecchino and Turandot (both 1917), and the opere
buffe of Wolf-Ferrari, which had their first success on German stages.
In the first half of the century, especially, the decline of church music went
hand in hand with the growing popularity of the non-ecclesiastical sacred
oratorio, whose finest examples were Mendelssohn’s St Paul (1836) and
Elijah (1846). Oratorio was promoted by the choral societies popular at the
time, and by festivals such as the Niederrheinisches Musikfest which, in
addition to new works, also encouraged the performance of Handel’s
oratorios, continuing the process of reclaiming Handel as a ‘German’
composer that had begun in the 18th century. The most important
composers of sacred oratorio in the first half of the century, after
Mendelssohn, were Spohr, Friedrich Schneider, Bernhard Klein and Carl
Loewe. Secular oratorios were much rarer, but included Schumann’s Das
Paradies und die Peri (1841–3) and Der Rose Pilgerfahrt (1851). The
second half of the century saw a marked decline in the composition of
oratorio and such smaller related forms as the choral cantata and choral
ballad; the only works of lasting influence were Liszt’s Heilige Elisabeth
(1857–62) and Christus (1862–7).
The decline in native German comic opera in the later 19th century,
together with the emergence of a mass audience seeking lavishly staged
musical entertainment, led to the growing popularity of Parisian and,
especially, Viennese operetta, and in the final years of the century to the
creation of an independent Berlin operetta, incorporating elements of farce,
burlesque and even cabaret. The works of the first generation of Berlin
operetta composers, who included Paul Lincke, Victor Hollaender, Rudolf
Nelson, Walter Kollo, Jean Gilbert and Leon Jessel, remained popular even
during the Weimar Republic.
The 19th century was the century of the symphony in Germany par
excellence, and German symphonic influence extended throughout Europe
and to the USA. Romantic musical aesthetics (J.H. Wackenroder, Ludwig
Tieck) made the symphony the paradigm of ‘pure’ instrumental music;
E.T.A. Hoffmann, a fervent admirer of Beethoven, postulated on the one
hand the autonomy of instrumental music, and on the other the
‘transcendental language’ of the symphony. This divergence in the
aesthetics of the symphony lasted into the 20th century; it is reflected in
concepts of the symphony as an instrumental choir (H.C. Koch); as an
‘opera of instruments’ (Hoffmann) or an instrumental drama; in Wagner’s
pronouncement that the symphony ended with Beethoven’s Ninth; in
discussion of the symphony, from Wagner to Paul Bekker and T.W. Adorno,
as ‘a public discourse to mankind’; and not least in attempts in the second
half of the century to reformulate the symphony by incorporating
programmatic elements and verbal texts.
The 19th-century symphony grew from the examples of Haydn, Mozart and
Beethoven, with the influence of Haydn swiftly declining, the influence of
Beethoven shifting from the practical to the aesthetic sphere (except in a
few undistinguished imitators), and that of Mozart becoming scarcely
perceptible except in the works of Spohr; at the same time, however,
Mozart’s late symphonies and the symphonies of Beethoven formed the
core of an established concert repertory. The German contemporaries of
Beethoven, such as Friedrich Witt and J.F.X. Sterkel, modelled themselves
on Haydn; Beethoven’s direct influence is to be found in the symphonies of
Ferdinand Ries and Friedrich Schneider, and the C major Symphony of
Wagner (1832). Most composers of symphonies, however, sought to avoid
confronting the mighty example of Beethoven, declining a pathetic or
heroic tone in favour of a lighter, Biedermeier style, as in the works of
Nicolai, J.W. Kalliwoda, C.G. Müller and A.F. Hesse. Other composers,
such as Spohr and Lachner, composed symphonies based on a poetic
idea, often expanded into an explicit programme. The development of the
‘poetic’ symphony culminated in the works of Schumann and Mendelssohn.
Mendelssohn’s Reformation Symphony (1832) commemorated the
Augsburg Confession in programmatic terms, while his Lobgesang (1840)
created in effect a new genre, the symphonic cantata.
Drawing on the examples of Beethoven and Berlioz, Mendelssohn also
introduced the concert overture into Germany. It was immediately
recognized as a potentially fruitful genre, somewhere between the overture
and the symphony, and was cultivated by many composers. The
symphonic poems of Liszt (12 works, 1848–57), based on great works of
literature, took programme music a stage further and were immensely
influential, not only in Germany but also in France, the Czech lands and
Russia. Most programmatic symphonies followed Liszt’s aesthetic lead in
his symphonic poems and Faust and Dante symphonies, but did not adopt
his technical and formal innovations; works such as Anton Rubinstein’s
Second Symphony, Ocean (1857), J.J. Abert’s Columbus (1865), Carl
Reinecke’s Second Symphony, Hakon Jarl (1875), and, in particular, the 11
symphonies by Joachim Raff (1859–76) expressed their programmes in
relatively traditional forms. The claim that a unique form was being
developed from programme music, using the most advanced techniques,
was fulfilled in the symphonic poems of Strauss who, like Liszt, eventually
returned to the concept of the symphony in the Symphonia domestica
(1902–3) and Eine Alpensinfonie (1911–15).
Carl Dahlhaus coined the term ‘second age of the symphony’ to denote the
age of Brahms and Bruckner, beginning with Brahms’s First Symphony
(1855–76) and Bruckner’s Third Symphony (1873–7); but contemporary
listeners would have been just as likely to speak of the age of Bruch (three
works, 1867–82) or Felix Draesecke (five works, 1868–1912). On the other
hand, it was already clear to some perceptive critics that Brahms’s First
Symphony was something fundamentally new: a direct confrontation with
Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony from which Brahms developed a new
symphonic style in his second, third and fourth symphonies (1877, 1883
and 1884–5). His younger contemporaries, influenced by the later works
rather than the First Symphony, included Heinrich von Herzogenberg, the
young Richard Strauss (his Symphony in F minor of 1884), Wilhelm Berger,
Felix Woyrsch and Waldemar von Baussnern. The symphonies of Bruckner
had very little influence on other composers, an exception in Germany
being the three symphonies of Richard Wetz (the first written in 1914–17).
The paradigm ‘from darkness to light’, developed from Beethoven’s Fifth
Symphony, determined most of the ‘great’ symphonies of the 19th and
early 20th centuries. It was adopted by most symphonic composers in the
tradition of Liszt and Wagner, who included Hugo Kaun, Siegmund von
Hausegger, Paul Graener, Paul Juon, Max Trapp, Ernest Bloch and Heinz
Tiessen. A change in approach came with the radical subjectivity of the so-
called Weltanschauungs-Symphonie, where the distinctions between
symphony and cantata are blurred (in Mahler’s Viennese works and in
Germany in J.L. Nicodé’s Gloria! (1900–04). A reaction to the gargantuan
scale and forces of Nicodé’s work and Mahler’s Eighth Symphony
produced works such as the sinfoniettas of Reger (1904–5), Korngold
(1912) and Hindemith (1916) and the chamber symphonies of Schoenberg
(1906) and Schreker (1917).
Compared with the symphony, chamber music played a relatively small role
in the 19th century. Many works for various ensembles were produced for
domestic music-making, together with a small group of more demanding
works, notably the chamber music of Schumann and Mendelssohn, for
performance in the concert hall. As with the Viennese Classical composers,
the string quartet was the pre-eminent chamber genre in the first part of the
19th century, giving rise to professional quartets such as that led by Karl
Möser in Berlin (from 1813). However, as chamber music moved into the
concert hall, the string quartet lost its pre-eminence to chamber works with
piano.
Brahms dominated chamber music in the second half of the century to
such an extent that chamber music became synonymous with
conservatism in music. The works of Brahms and his followers exerted a
profound influence throughout Europe; and it was in reaction to this
influence that Franck and his circle founded a new French school of
instrumental music.
As the importance of the string quartet declined, so did that of the piano
sonata, which after the sonatas of Beethoven was regarded as an
essentially German genre. The few major 19th-century sonatas, including
those by Schumann, Brahms, Liszt and Julius Reubke, are clearly related
to Beethoven’s late sonatas in their intellectual demands, if not their
keyboard techniques. Piano music was dominated quantitatively by
virtuoso concert music and light salon pieces, and qualitatively by the
poetic piano pieces of Schumann, Mendelssohn and Brahms. Outside
Germany, Schumann’s works exerted the strongest influence; in the 20th
century the late piano works of Brahms were to prove influential through
their use of techniques which Schoenberg and his school regarded as
avant-garde. Conversely, no area of German music in the 19th century was
as open to external influence, above all that of Chopin.
Diametrically opposite was the situation with the lied, so clearly identified
as a German genre that the word ‘lied’ itself was adopted in English and
French for this type of German art song. The unique flowering of the genre
and the impossibility in principle of transferring it to other national cultures
are explained by the way in which German Classical and Romantic lyric
poetry came together with a later, poetically sensitive group of composers
anxious to make music more lyrical, and by the cultural prominence of
Classical and Romantic poetry in the minds of the educated middle
classes. In the background, particularly with Brahms, stood the great
example of Schubert; Beethoven had inspired the idea of the song cycle
itself (An die ferne Geliebte, 1815–16). The dependence of the genre on
poetry found its clearest expression in the many new settings of the same
major lyrics. Its generic development followed the emergence of the lieder
recital as a concert form and the lieder singer as a specialist interpreter (for
instance Julius Stockhausen).
The linking of the genre to the Classical and Romantic canon of great
poetry, however, was at first restricted; in Reichardt and Zelter the
connection is evident, especially in setting Goethe, but it is considerably
less in Zumsteeg, Loewe, Marschner, Mendelssohn and his sister Fanny
Hensel. A consciously literary approach to lied composition began with
Schumann, who was also the greatest master of the song cycle after
Schubert, and, to a lesser degree, with Robert Franz and Cornelius. As the
genre developed, two distinct types of lieder composers emerged: on the
one hand those who set great poems by great poets and accepted the
principle of textual primacy (Pfitzner and, supremely, Wolf), on the other
hand composers such as Brahms, Strauss and Reger who avoided great
poetry (notably Goethe) and laid the prime emphasis on broad-spanned
melody. It is arguable that lieder represent the finest and most
characteristic achievement of 19th-century German music.
Germany, §I: Art music.
5. Since 1918.
The defeat of Germany in 1918 plunged the country into a crisis that
brought far-reaching changes to political, social and cultural life. There was
a general feeling that, as Karl Mannheim put it, ‘all ideas were discredited,
all utopias subverted’. In music the Expressionism of the Schoenberg
school, in particular, rapidly lost its influence, although major Expressionist
works such as Schoenberg’s one-act opera Erwartung, his Die glückliche
Hand and Berg’s opera Wozzeck had not yet been performed. The
revolutionary sense of liberation from tradition that had accompanied
Expressionism in the years around 1910, leading to the disintegration of
tonality, yielded after 1918 to feelings of perplexity and disillusionment,
which in turn led to a partial renaissance of traditional compositional
techniques.
After 1924, when political stability was established under the Weimar
Republic, musical life split into various mutually hostile tendencies. Older
composers like Richard Strauss and Hans Pfitzner sought an aesthetic
revival in a return to Romantic and pre-Romantic ideals, or in the evocation
of a traditional, specifically German culture (as in Pfitzner’s cantata Von
deutscher Seele), a tendency that was to develop increasingly aggressive
nationalist features. On the other hand Schoenberg, who had been
teaching at the Preussische Akademie der Künste in Berlin since 1925, had
codified certain technical aspects of Expressionist music (total
chromaticism, atonality and the emancipation of dissonance) in developing
dodecaphony as a principle which he believed would ensure the
supremacy of German music for the next 100 years.
Younger composers who emerged in Germany after 1921, notably Paul
Hindemith, Philipp Jarnach, Ernst Krenek, Kurt Weill and Hanns Eisler,
developed a fundamentally new concept of how music was to be
composed under the radically changed social conditions of the time. The
term Neue Sachlichkeit (‘new objectivity’) was borrowed from the visual
arts of the period to describe their stance. In the words of Hindemith: ‘A
composer today should write only if he knows for what purpose he is
writing; the days of composing for oneself alone may be gone for ever’.
These young composers supported the new democratic order of society –
although by no means uncritically – and sought to make themselves
‘useful’ in their profession. They developed a functional concept of music,
often defined by the term Gebrauchsmusik (‘music for use’), and wrote for
well-defined purposes: for the new media of cinema and radio, for
amateurs, for children, politically committed music for the working class,
and music for such traditional institutions as the opera house and the
concert hall. They chose their technical and stylistic methods according to
functionalist criteria, extending (sometimes even within a single work) from
Expressionism to the neo-Baroque (Hindemith’s song cycle Das
Marienleben), from street ballads to cabaret chansons and jazz (Weill’s
Dreigroschenoper), from parody to light music (‘Zeitopern’ by Krenek,
Hindemith and Weill). They preferred to use small, soloistic ensembles and
harsh, stark sonorities (Hindemith in his series of Kammermusiken). The
Jugendmusikbewegung was also influential in the musical culture of the
time. Its adherents sought to create a new genre that was neither serious
art music nor light music, had a particular sympathy for early music and folk
music, and emphasized the importance of amateur musical performance.
The movement recruited an increasing number of young composers.
With its new political and social stability and the flourishing diversity of its
musical life, Germany quickly emerged from its isolated position of the
immediate postwar years. Works by such composers as Bartók, Stravinsky,
Prokofiev, Milhaud and Honegger received important premières in
Germany. Due to Leo Kestenberg’s progressive musical policy, Berlin
gained a reputation as one of the major musical centres of the time.
Between 1927 and 1932 Schoenberg, Schreker, Zemlinsky, Furtwängler,
Erich Kleiber, Klemperer, Bruno Walter, Artur Schnabel, Hindemith, Weill
and Eisler were all in the city. Yet thanks to the federal structure of the
Reich, many other centres, notably Dresden, Leipzig, Hamburg, Cologne,
Frankfurt and Munich, had a flourishing and progressive musical life. There
was great international acclaim for the festival of chamber music
(Kammermusikaufführungen zur Förderung Zeitgenössischer Tonkunst)
held first in Donaueschingen (1921–6) and then in Baden-Baden (1927–9);
the content of the festivals was largely determined by Hindemith, and their
programmes centred on the study and performance of specific musical
genres. Schoenberg, Bartók, Stravinsky and Webern performed their own
works at the festivals, while composers such as Berg, Hauer, Toch,
Schulhoff, Hindemith, Martinů, Milhaud, Weill, Eisler, Antheil and Krenek
first attracted international attention here.
The splintering of musical developments led to irreconcilable controversies,
which Schoenberg even protrayed in one of his works (Drei Satiren op.28).
Traditionalists attacked the late Expressionism of the Schoenberg school
and the Neue Sachlichkeit movement as the betrayal of a specifically
German tradition; the Expressionists condemned the traditionalists and the
adherents of Neue Sachlichkeit as conformists whose compositional
techniques were anachronistic; the practitioners of Neue Sachlichkeit
accused the traditionalists and Expressionists of aesthetic conservatism,
criticizing them for failing to sense the needs of the time; and the
Jugendmusikbewegung could hear nothing but ‘decadent’ sounds ‘alien to
the people’ in all recently composed music. Thus the opposing musical
tendencies of the 1920s inadvertently developed the arguments that the
National Socialists would deploy after 1933 in attacking all the music of this
period.
The Wall Street crash of October 1929 plunged the pluralistic and
cosmopolitan musical life of Germany into a crisis that led to a significantly
changed intellectual climate and paved the way for many of the musical
developments of the 1930s. The composers of the Neue Sachlichkeit
movement, in particular, feeling less and less in sympathy with a time of
radical political change, reacted by excluding anything contemporary from
their music. In 1930 Hindemith could still write: ‘In recent years I have
almost entirely turned away from concert music, writing instead music for
educational or social purposes: for amateurs, for children, for the radio, for
mechanical instruments, etc. I believe this kind of composition is more
important than writing for concert performance, since the latter is little but a
technical exercise for the musicians and does hardly anything for the
further development of music’. But in 1931 he wrote: ‘It seems as if the tide
is gradually turning towards serious music on a large scale again’. The
reversion to serious, large-scale music after 1930–31 quickly made itself
felt, as composers turned to traditional genres such as the symphony
(Weill’s Second Symphony) and the oratorio (Hindemith’s Das
Unaufhörliche).
While the totalitarian Nazi regime established in January 1933 appeared
from the outside to have a strict, hermetically sealed hierarchy, chaos
prevailed among the party authorities, with rival institutions obstructing
each other and proclaiming allegiance to Hitler alone. The system did in
fact offer a certain latitude, but it was hardly ever exploited. Instead, a
climate of suspicion, denunciation and intrigue prevailed. All Nazi musical
policies had a common aim: the suppression and exclusion of Jews from
public musical life and the banning of those composers who had been
influential during the Weimar Republic. The exclusion of Jews from
Germany’s musical life was smoothly accomplished, with minimal
resistance, by the setting up of a Reichsmusikkammer to which all
musicians were obliged to belong, and which decreed who was allowed to
practise a musical profession in Germany. Innumerable Jewish musicians
were forced to emigrate, and those unable to escape abroad could practise
only within the Kulturbund Deutscher Juden, which became the
Reichsverband Jüdischer Kulturbünde in 1935, coming to a violent end in
1941 with the so-called ‘final solution’. Those musicians who were not
Jewish but were identified with the Weimar Republic usually had a chance
of ‘probation’, which with few exceptions they took; among leading figures
only Fritz Busch, Erich Kleiber and Hindemith preferred to emigrate. The
depths of this state-sanctioned process of humiliation and denunciation
were reached in 1938 with the Düsseldorf exhibition of Entartete Musik
(‘degenerate music’). Some of the major works of the time were banned in
Germany, among them Berg’s Lulu and Hindemith’s Mathis der Maler,
which had their premières in Zürich in 1937 and 1938 respectively.
Those composers who did not participate in the obligatory composition of
marches, choruses and songs and cantatas propounding Nazi ideology,
were either forced into isolation, like Heinrich Kaminsky, Berg and Webern,
or withdrew into a kind of internal exile, like Karl Amadeus Hartmann. The
Church offered some scope and many composers, including J.N. David,
Günter Raphael, Ernst Pepping, Hugo Distler and Kurt Thomas, turned
almost exclusively to sacred music. No composer emerged whose works
epitomized the spirit of Nazi Germany; and those composers who did
achieve recognition were strongly influenced by music that was now taboo:
Wolfgang Fortner and Ottmar Gerster were of the school of Hindemith;
Rudolf Wagner-Régeny was influenced by both Weill and Hindemith;
Werner Egk wrote works that synthesized Bavarian folk music with rhythms
and bitonal harmonies deriving from Stravinsky; and Blacher’s music also
betrayed his admiration of Stravinsky. Only one composer achieved lasting
international fame at this period: Carl Orff with his Carmina burana, to
medieval texts on which even the Nazis could hardly claim an ideological
monopoly. While older composers such as Strauss and Pfitzner merely
continued to write in the same style as before, most of these younger
composers embraced Neue Sachlichkeit, making it both more accessible
and more monumental in style.
After the defeat and collapse of Germany in 1945 and the division of the
country into two German states – the democratic, western Federal
Republic of Germany (BRD) and the communist German Democratic
Republic (DDR) – musical life in West Germany revived with astonishing
speed in parallel with the economic recovery. In Strauss and Pfitzner, who
both died in 1949, Germany still had two living composers whose musical
styles had been formed before the turn of the century, and they both wrote
significant late works after 1945. In an urgent need to make up for lost
time, there were numerous performances of the works composed from the
1920s onwards by Stravinsky and, especially, Hindemith, who had been
driven into exile. After about 1948 the music composed around 1910
(described by Theodor W. Adorno as the first great ‘heroic age’ of new
music) was rediscovered, and the 12-tone works of Schoenberg and, even
more so, Webern, attracted particular attention. Serial music developed not
least through the theoretical ideas propounded by Messiaen and Boulez in
France.
The development of serial music around 1950 also highlights a
fundamental change in aesthetic thinking, which was largely the work of
Adorno. It was proposed that analytical thought about music is more
influential than the experience of hearing it, that judgments of musical
value are bound up with a work’s innovatory aspects, and that a work is
more valuable as a record of a particular development or trend than as an
entity in itself. Serial music, the mainstream music of West Germany in the
1950s, developed as a narrative of compositional problems in which works
derived their techniques from each other. This development was
encouraged by many institutions, music festivals and organizations
devoted to new music, with public assistance and, in particular, with the
support of the radio stations. Notable among them were the Darmstadt
Ferienkurse für Neue Musik (from 1946), the revived Donaueschingen
Festival (from 1950), the concert series of the broadcasting stations in
Cologne (Musik der Zeit), Hamburg (Das Neue Werk), Bremen (Pro Musica
Nova) and the Musica Viva series in Munich. As an expression of the re-
establishment of freedom, new music became almost institutionalized in
West Germany, which consequently attracted many foreign musicians,
including Mauricio Kagel, Boulez and Ligeti.
Musical trends, however, diverged once more. While serial composers
such as Karlheinz Stockhausen soon became increasingly significant,
composers such as Hartmann, Bernd Alois Zimmermann and Wilhelm
Killmayer, who approached the serial mainstream only cautiously or not at
all, were condemned as ‘outsiders’. Hans Werner Henze even left West
Germany and settled in Italy in 1953. Furthermore, none of the famous
composers who had emigrated from Nazi Germany returned to live
permanently in the German Federal Republic, and only since the 1990s
has there been a revival of their music in the reunified Germany (as with
the works of Berthold Goldschmidt).
East Germany remained entirely untouched by the musical developments
of West Germany. After a period of severe repression under the imposition
of ‘socialist realism’, which ended with Stalin’s death in 1953, influential
positions were filled by composers such as Ottmar Gerster, Rudolf
Wagner-Régeny, Max Butting and Fidelio F. Finke, who had begun their
careers in the 1920s and had won recognition in Nazi Germany. In addition,
composers such as Hanns Eisler, Paul Dessau and E.H. Meyer returned to
the DDR from exile. The functionalist musical concepts of the 1920s, in
particular, were developed and given a new ideological slant in East
Germany. In this way music in West and East Germany developed in
antithetical directions: in the Federal Republic it was predominantly
hermetic, radical and avant-garde, an emblem of social freedom and
progress, while in the German Democratic Republic composers who felt a
responsibility to society developed and adapted their ‘bourgeois’ musical
inheritance.
During the 1960s musical developments in the German Democratic
Republic more closely approached those of the Federal Republic. The
building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 by the East German regime led to
internal political stability and introduced a period of cultural liberalization,
enabling the composers of the Democratic Republic to study Western
avant-garde techniques that had been condemned as decadent. The
younger generation of composers, including Paul-Heinz Dittrich, Siegfried
Matthus and Georg Katzer, may also have been aware of the risk of
stagnation by comparison with other, more liberal Eastern bloc countries,
particularly Poland. But what seemed to these composers a third way, a
compromise between reactionary conservatism and the extravagant,
socially ‘irrelevant’ avant garde, attracted little attention in West Germany.
Instead, developments in the German Democratic Republic seemed to
West Germans like a hesitant approach to methods of composition that had
already been superseded in the Federal Republic, where serial music had
entered a post-serial phase in the 1960s.
John Cage exerted a decisive influence when he came to Darmstadt in
1958; his concept of aleatory music led serial composers to relax their strict
procedures. With melodic, rhythmic and harmonic processes restored, their
works acquired recognizable form again. At the beginning of the 1950s,
serial technique had been seen as a means of emancipation from tradition,
the conquest of sound worlds never before experienced; at the beginning
of the 1960s, conversely, traditional musical dimensions were restored in
order to break with the demands of number and series in serial music. In
West Germany itself, forms of politically committed music emerged in the
mid-60s, with composers such as Henze, Helmut Lachenmann, Mathias
Spahlinger and Nicolaus A. Huber employing various stylistic methods in
the cause of political and social engagement. While Henze, for instance,
intensified and radicalized his methods of composition, using avant-garde
techniques, Huber simplified his style, adopting elements of light music.
It was not until the mid-1970s that serial and post-serial musical thinking in
West Germany was superseded by a younger generation of composers,
forming a relatively homogeneous group and holding comparable aesthetic
ideas; their compositions attracted wide attention and the support of the
media. Among these composers were Manfred Trojahn, Detlev Müller-
Siemens, Wolfgang von Schweinitz, Ulrich Stranz, Hans-Jürgen von Bose
and, in particular, Wolfgang Rihm, the outstanding talent of his generation.
It was a feature of this group that they turned away from certain aesthetic
and technical assumptions about composition that had gone unchallenged
since the early 1950s. Their techniques were eclectic and included
traditional harmonic and tonal procedures. They rejected all forms of
experimentation such as aleatory music, improvisation, graphic notation,
Geräuschmusik and electronic music. In contrast to Adorno’s ideas of linear
and teleological musical progress, a pluralism of techniques and
procedures now prevailed. Rihm devised the term ‘inclusive composition’
for this new musical paradigm, which is open to all technical methods
governed by the necessity of musical expression and is the opposite of
‘exclusive composition’, which excludes, rejects and withdraws into itself.
The attitude towards the musical tradition also changed. Webern’s music,
the epitome of ‘exclusive composition’, became less influential, while the
music of the turn of the century, particularly that of Mahler, increasingly
served as a point of reference. Those composers who had become
‘outsiders’ since the 1950s were now reassessed, among them the oldest,
Günter Bialas, who was also an influential teacher of composition, Henze,
Killmayer and B.A. Zimmermann, with his notion of time as Kugelgestalt
(‘globe structure’) in which all historical styles are present.
Against the background of these developments in the Federal Republic,
differences in musical styles between West and East Germany became
ever more insignificant. Young East German composers such as Friedrich
Goldmann, Friedrich Schenker and Udo Zimmermann were part of the
same developments as their West German contemporaries; and Tilo
Medek, exiled from the Democratic Republic in 1977 on political grounds,
continued to work in the Federal Republic without making any stylistic
adaptations. The reunification of Germany in 1989 set the seal on a
process that had already been completed in the mid-1970s.
Expectations fostered by the new ‘inclusive’ paradigm of the mid-70s,
however, remained largely unfulfilled: pluralism in musical composition
acquired arbitrary features wherever there was a lack of solid technical
ability. Reference to the styles and techniques of the turn of the 20th
century provoked unfavourable comparisons: the aim of composers to
express themselves in a musical language as comprehensible as possible
had been better achieved by music of the past in more authentic forms. In
the late 1990s a new radical approach to composition was beginning to
emerge in Germany, albeit without any immediately identifiable overall
tendencies. Habermaas has termed the aesthetic uncertainties facing
composers as the ‘neue Unversichtlichkeit’ (‘the new inability to ensure’).
Modern disavowal of musical traditions and fragmentation of styles forces
every composition to justify its existence independently, unmediated by
commentary on its aesthetics or techniques.
Germany, §I: Art music.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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c: history
Catholisch Gesangbuechlein (Munich, 1613); ed. O. Holzapfel
(Amsterdam, 1979)
R.F. von Liliencron: Die historischen Volkslieder der Deutschen vom 13.
bis 16. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1865–9)
L. Erk and F.M. Böhme: Deutscher Liederhort (Leipzig, 1893–4)
H. Breuer, ed.: Der Zupfgeigenhansl (Leipzig, 1908, many later edns.)
H.W. Schwab: Die Anfänge des weltlichen Berufsmusikertums in der
mittelalterlichen Stadt: Studie zu einer Berufs- und Sozialgeschichte
des Stadtmusikantums (Kassel, 1982)
W. Harms, ed.: Deutsche illustrierte Flugblätter des 16. und 17.
Jahrhunderts (Tübingen, 1985)
I. Gansberg: Volksliedsammlungen und historischer Kontext: Kontinuität
über zwei Jahrhunderte? (Frankfurt, 1986)
G. Objartel: ‘Studentenlied und Kunstlied im ausgehenden 18.
Jahrhundert: die Liederhandschrift Friedrich August Koehlers (1791)’,
Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxxiii (1988), 19–45 [with Eng. summary]
P.V. Bohlman: ‘The Land Where Two Streams Flow’: Music in the
German-Jewish Community of Israel (Urbana, IL, 1989)
M. Moritz: ‘Zur Rezeption volkskultureller Traditionen in der DDR: der
Veruch einer vorläufigan Bilanz’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxxvi
(1991), 13–17
d: 20th century
M. Friedländer, ed.: Volksliederbuch für gemischten Chor (Leipzig,
1915/R)
G. Schünemann: Das Lied der deutschen Kolonisten in Russland (Munich,
1923)
Landschaftliche Volkslieder, ed. Deutsches Volksliedarchiv (Breslau and
elsewhere, 1924–62)
L. Pinck and A. Merkelbach-Pinck, eds.: Verklingende Weisen:
Lothringer Volkslieder (Metz and Kassel, 1926–62)
W. Steinitz: Deutsche Volkslieder demokratischen Charakters aus sechs
Jahrhunderten (Berlin, 1954–62, 2/1972/R)
D. Stockmann: Der Volksgesang in der Altmark: von der Mitte des 19. bis
zur Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1962)
R.W. Brednich, Z. Kumer and W. Suppan, eds.: Gottscheer Volkslieder
(Mainz, 1969–84)
H. Bausinger: ‘Schlager und Volkslied’, Handbuch des Volksliedes, i: Die
Gattungen des Volksliedes, ed. R.W. Brednich, L. Röhrich and W.
Suppan (Munich, 1973), 679–90
I. Weber-Kellermann, ed.: Zur Interethnik: Donauschwaben, Siebenbürger
Sachsen und ihre Nachbarn (Frankfurt, 1978)
Das Lagerliederbuch: Lieder gesungen, gesammelt und geschrieben im
Konzentrationslager Sachsenhausen bei Berlin, 1942 (Dortmund,
1980/R)
M. Holzach: Das vergessene Volk: ein Jahr bei den deutschen Hutterern
in Kanada (Hamburg, 1980)
H. and T. Frankl, eds.: Jiddische Lieder: Texte und Noten mit Begleit-
Akkorden (Frankfurt, 1981)
H. Buhmann and H. Haeseler: Das kleine dicke Liederbuch: Lieder und
Tänze bis in unsere Zeit (Schlüchtern, 1983/R)
M.P. Baumann, ed.: Musik der Türken in Deutschland (Kassel, 1985)
P.V. Bohlman: ‘Deutsch-amerikanische Musik in Wisconsin: Überleben im
“Melting Pot”’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxx (1985), 99–116
K. Scheierling: Geistliche Lieder der Deutschen aus Südosteuropa
(Kludenbach, 1987)
E. Kiehl: Die Volksmusik im Harz und im Harzvorland (Leipzig and
Clausthal-Zellerfeld, 1987–92)
B. Bachmann-Geiser and E. Bachmann: Amische: die Lebensweise der
Amischen in Berne, Indiana (Berne, 1988)
G. Knopp and E. Kuhn: Das Lied der Deutschen: Schicksal einer Hymne
(Berlin, 1988)
K. Adamek, ed.: Rüzgargülü – Windrose: Deutsch-türkisches Liederbuch,
almanca-türkçe Sarkılar (Bonn-Bad Godesberg, 1989)
R.M. Brandl, M. Bröcker and A. Erier, eds.: Lüneburg und Umgebung
(Göttingen, 1989)
H. Kurzke: Hymnen und Lieder der Deutschen (Mainz, 1990)
L. Röhrich: ‘“…und das ist Badens Glück”: Heimatlieder und
Regionalhymnen im deutschen Südwesten: auf der Suche nach
Identität’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxxv (1990), 13–32
A. Schenk: Deutsche in Siebenbürgen: ihre Geschichte und Kultur
(Munich, 1992)
T. Freitag: ‘Alles singt, oder, Das Ende von Lied? Liederbe und Singekultur
der ehemaligen DDR’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxxviii (1993), 50–63
O. Holzapfel: Das deutsche Gespenst: wie Dänen die Deutschen und sich
selbst sehen (Kiel, 1993)
C. Wagner: Das Akkordeon: eine wilde Karriere (Berlin, 1993)
P.V. Bohlman: ‘Music, Modernity, and the Foreign in the New Germany’,
Modernism/Modernity, i/1 (1994), 121–52
R. Pietsch: ‘Zu den Begriffen “Ethnic Music” und “Ethnic Mainstream”’,
Vergleichend-systematische Musikwissenschaft: Beiträge zu Methode
und Problematik der systematischen, ethnologischen und historischen
Musikwissenschaft, Franz Födermayr zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. E.T.
Hilscher and T. Antonicek (Tutzing, 1994), 451–74
P.V. Bohlman: ‘Musik als Widerstand: Jüdische Musik in Deutschland
1933–1940’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xl (1995), 49–74
E. Funk-Hennigs: ‘Skinheadmusik, Oi-Musik, Nazi-Rock?’, ibid., 84–100
R. Djurić: Märchen und Lieder europäischer Sinti und Roma (Frankfurt,
1997)
E. Renner: Und wir waren auch Naturmenschen’: Der autobiographische
Bericht des Sinti-Musikers und Geigenbauers Adolf Boko Winterstein
und andere persönliche Dokumente von und über Sinti und Roma
(Frankfurt, 1997)
D. Schwarz: ‘Oi: Music, Politics and Violence’, Listening Subjects: Music,
Psychoanalysis, Culture (Durham, NC, 1997), 100–32
K. Teutsch, ed.: Siebenbürgen und das Banat: Zentren deutschen
Musiklebens im Südosten Europas (Sankt Augustin, 1997)
P.M. Potter: Most German of the Arts: Musicology and Society from the
Weimar Republic to the End of Hitler's Reich (New Haven, CT, 1998)
P.V. Bohlman and O. Holzapfel, eds.: The Land without Nightingales:
Music in the Making of German-America (Madison, WI, 2000)
P.V. Bohlman: ‘Landscape/Region/Nation/Reich: German Folk Song in the
Nexus of National Identity’, Music and German Nationalism, ed. C.
Applegate and P.M. Potter (Chicago, forthcoming)
Gernsheim, Friedrich
(b Worms, 17 July 1839; d Berlin, 11 Sept 1916). German composer,
conductor and pianist. After piano lessons from his mother, he studied the
piano and theory with Louis Liebe before moving to Mainz (1848–9) to
study with Ernst Pauer. In 1849 he moved to Frankfurt for further
instruction; at the age of ten he appeared as pianist and violinist in a
programme that also included a performance of an overture of his at the
Frankfurt Stadttheater (4 May 1850). After a successful concert tour that
took him to Karlsruhe (1850–51), he studied for two years at the Leipzig
Conservatory with Moscheles (piano), Hauptmann (theory) and Ferdinand
David (violin). He then spent several years in Paris (1855–61), where he
studied the piano with Marmontel and met Lalo, Saint-Saëns, Rossini,
Heller, Rubinstein and Liszt. On his return to Germany, he conducted two
choirs and an orchestra in Saarbrücken before taking a post at the Cologne
Conservatory (1865). He was active as a conductor in Cologne until 1874,
when he moved to Rotterdam to direct the Maatschappij tot Bevordering
van Toonkunst. Though he declined an invitation to conduct the Stern
Choral Society in Berlin in 1880, he accepted a second offer and a
teaching post at the Stern Conservatory in 1890, taught there until 1897
and conducted the choir until 1904. He also gave a masterclass in
composition at the Akademie der Künste and continued to perform as
pianist and conductor; the town of Dortmund celebrated his 75th birthday
with a festival in his honour.
As a young conductor Gernsheim favoured the works of Brahms; later, at
Berlin, he included the music of Bruch, Humperdinck (who was his pupil at
Cologne) and Verdi in his programmes. A conservative composer, he was
strongly influenced by Brahms’s harmony and orchestration. He wrote
neither operas nor oratorios and seems to have been at his best in
chamber music (e.g. the String Quartet in E minor and the Piano Quintet in
B minor; the latter occupies a central place in his output). His main venture
as a composer of programme music was the Symphony no.3 in C minor,
subtitled ‘Mirjam’ (1888). In his composition, Gernsheim aimed above all for
unity, believing that each bar should be both essential and inevitable in its
place in the conception of the whole. His music shows technical mastery
and a command of form, although only some of the last works, such as the
symphonic poem Zu einem Drama (1910) and the String Quartet no.5
(1911), show greater innovation.
WORKS
Published unless stated otherwise; principal collection of MSS and papers in IL-J
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Altmann: ‘Friedrich Gernsheim’, Die Musik, viii/4 (1908–9), 98–104
L. Schmidt, ed.: Johannes Brahms: Briefwechsel, vii (Berlin, 1910)
C. Fuchs: ‘Zu einem Drama’, NZM, Jg.79 (1912), 283–6
Obituaries, AMz, xliii (1916), 506; NZM, Jg.83 (1916), 295–6
W. Altmann: Handbuch für Streichquartettspieler (Berlin, 1928–31,
2/1972–4), ii, 37–40; iii, 155–6; iv, 166–7
K. Holl: Friedrich Gernsheim: Leben, Erscheinung und Werk (Leipzig,
1928) [with list of works]
W. Altmann: ‘Friedrich Gernsheim’, Cobbett’s Cyclopedic Survey of
Chamber Music (London, 1929–30, rev. 2/1963/R by C. Mason), 457–
8
W. Kahl: ‘Gernsheim, Friedrich’, Rheinische Musiker, iii, ed. K.G. Fellerer
(Cologne, 1964)
A. Meier: ‘Die Kammermusik Friedrich Gernsheims’, Symbolae historie
musicae: Hellmut Federhofer zum 60 Geburtstag (Mainz, 1971), 263–
71
A.L. Ringer: ‘Friedrich Gernsheim (1839–1916) and the Lost Generation’,
Musica judaica, iii/1 (1980–81), 1–12
GAYNOR G. JONES
The madrigals attrib. Gero in I-Fn Magl.XIX.130 are not by him but by Ruffo,
Arcadelt, Du Pont and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (L. Tagliavini)
P. Wagner: ‘Das madrigal und Palestrina’, VMw, viii (1892), 423–98 [incl. 3
madrigals by Gero]
R. Giazotto: Harmonici concenti in aere veneto (Rome, 1954)
J. Haar: ‘A Gift of Madrigals to Cosimo I: the MS Florence, Biblioteca
Nazionale Centrale, Magliabecchi XIX 130’, RIM, i (1966), 167–89
JAMES HAAR
Gerrish-Jones, Abbie
(b Vallejo, CA, 10 Sept 1863; d Seattle, 5 Feb 1929). American composer,
librettist and music critic. Her paternal grandfather was a bandmaster; her
father, Samuel Howard Gerrish, a flautist; and her mother, Sarah Jones
Rogers, a singer. Abbie Gerrish began serious music study at the age of
seven, was composing for voice and piano at 12 and became a church
organist at 14. Her first published works appeared when she was 18. Her
teachers included Humphrey J. Stewart and Wallace Sabine. She married
a naval officer, A. Widmore Jones.
Active chiefly as a composer of operas, Gerrish-Jones wrote eight (five to
her own librettos): Priscilla, Abon Hassan, The Milkmaid's Fair, The Snow
Queen (G.W. Hoffmann), The Andalusians (Percy Friars), Two Roses,
Sakura-San (Hoffmann) and Aztec Princess. Only four published songs are
extant. She also wrote five song cycles, 100 songs, piano works and
teaching pieces. In 1906 she won a prize for her Prelude for piano in a
competition sponsored by Josef Hofmann. She was a music critic for
Pacific Town Talk and Pacific Coast Musical Review, and the West Coast
representative for Musical Courier.
CAROL NEULS-BATES
Gerschefski, Edwin
(b Meriden, CT, 19 June 1909; d Chattanooga, TN, 18 Dec 1992).
American composer, pianist and teacher. He studied composition at Yale
University (1926–31), winning the Frances E. Osborne Kellogg Prize in
fugue and the first Charles Ditson Fellowship for study abroad. This took
him to the Tobias Matthay Pianoforte School in London (1931–3), where he
received the Jeffrey Reynolds Scholarship and became the first American
to receive a diploma. He continued piano studies with Schnabel in Como
(1935) and composition studies with Schillinger in New York (1936–8). He
spent the summers of 1936 and 1937 at the Yaddo Foundation. In 1940 he
began teaching at Converse College, Spartanburg, South Carolina, where
he was dean of the music school (1945–59) and director of an annual
music festival. He was also head of the music departments at the
universities of New Mexico (1959–60) and Georgia (1960–80). His awards
include a Carnegie grant for composition (1947) and the gold medal of the
Arnold Bax Society (1963). He was a featured composer on the American
Music Festival series of radio station WNYC, New York, during the years
1969–73.
Gerschefski’s early compositions, such as the Piano Preludes and the
Classic Symphony, both from 1931, have a conservative, academic flavour.
A decisive turning-point came with his studies with Schillinger, whose
system he employed in the Second Sonatine, the ‘Schillinger’ Nocturne and
some later works. Several of his choral works are word-for-word settings of
newspaper articles or material from other informal sources, for example
Letter from BMI (1981). In general his music is marked by strong rhythmic
propulsion, a clear lyrical strain and frequent ostinato passages.
WORKS
Orch: Classic Sym., op.4, 1931, 1 movt arr. pf as Concert Minuet; Pf Conc., op.5,
1931; Vn Conc., op.35, 1951–2; Celebration, op.51, vn, orch, 1964; other works
Chbr: Workout, op.10, 2 vn, 2 va, 1933; Pf Qnt, op.16, 1935; Septet, op.26, 2 tpt, 2
hn, 2 trbn, tuba, 1938; Variations ‘America’, opp.44–5, wind, 1962; Rhapsody,
op.46, vn, vc, pf, 1963; The Alexander Suite, op.66, 2 vc, 1971; Poem, op.75 no.1,
vc, pf, 1973; numerous other works
Solo inst: Preludes, op.6, pf, 1931, nos.2–4, 6 arr. orch as Saugatuck Suite, no.5
arr. orch as Prelude, no.6 arr. band as Guadalcanal Fantasy; The Portrait of an
Artist, op.13, pf, 1934; Pf Sonata no.1, op.22, 1936; Sonatine no.2, op.20 no.2, pf,
1936; ‘Schillinger’ Nocturne, op.31 no.3, pf, 1942; 100 Variations, op.38, vn, 1952;
Suite, op.49, trbn, 1963; 7 Pieces, op.47, pf, 1963; Pf Sonata no.2, op.61, 1968; 6
Pieces, op.67, pf, 1971; numerous other works
Vocal: Half Moon Mountain (cant., Time article), op.33, Bar, female chorus, orch,
1947–8; The Lord’s Controversy with his People (cant., W. Barton), op.34 no.1, 1v,
female chorus, small orch/pf, 1949, arr. 1v, male chorus, small orch, also arr. S, pf,
perc, opt. hp, pt 3 also arr. vc as Black-Haired Woman; Psalm c (cant.), op.53, S,
Bar, SATB, perc, pf, 1965; Border Raid (Time article), op.57 no.1, SATB, pf, 1966;
Letter from BMI, op.83, SATB, small orch, 1981; 14 solo songs, other choral pieces
Other: incid music for 2 plays; 9 film scores, 1937–74; band arrs.; teaching pieces
for pf, other insts
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.A. Linen: ‘Letter from the Publisher’, Time (17 May 1948)
D. McRae: ‘Edwin Gerschefski’, American Composers Alliance Bulletin, x/1
(1961), 1–7
A.J. Vaglio: The Compositional Significance of Joseph Schillinger’s
System of Musical Composition as Reflected in the Works of Edwin
Gerschefski (diss., U. of Rochester, 1977)
S.C. Yerlow: Edwin Gerschefski’s Preludes, op.6, nos.1–6, and Three
Dances, op.11, nos.1–3 (DMA diss., U. of Rochester, 1980)
DAVID E. CAMPBELL/MICHAEL MECKNA
Gersem, Géry.
See Ghersem, Géry.
Only published songs listed for stage and film scores; for fuller details see W. Rimler: A
Gershwin Companion: a Critical Inventory and Discography, 1916–1984 (Ann Arbor, 1991)
and E. Jablonski: Gershwin: a Biography (New York, 1987). Songs marked with an
asterisk were completed by Kay Swift from Gershwin’s tune notebooks with lyrics provided
by Ira Gershwin. Unless otherwise stated lyrics for all songs are by Ira Gershwin. Most of
Gershwin’s music for the theatre was not orchestrated by the composer although he may
have scored some works from the mid-1920s on. Most extant MSS are in DLC.
stage works
orchestral
other works
stage works
(all first performed in New York unless otherwise stated)
There’s more to the kiss than the sound (I. Caesar) rev. of
There’s more
to the kiss
than the x-x-
x, 1919 [orig.
listed under
Songs for
Shows by
other
composers]
Remarks :
music mainly by O. Motzan and S. Romberg; Making of a girl, collab. Romberg
Remarks :
music mainly by E.R. Goetz
The Real American Folk Song (Francis [pseud. I. Gershwin]) Ladies First Broadhurst
(musical comedy, Theatre, 24 Oct
H.B. Smith) 1918
Remarks :
music mainly by A.B. Sloane
Remarks :
music mainly by L. Monckton and H. Talbot
Remarks :
music mainly by R. Winterberg; Some Wonderful Sort of Someone, rev. for this
show
Remarks :
later used in London production of Lady, be Good!, 1926
Remarks :
music by many composers
Swanee (Caesar) ibid.
We’re pals (Caesar) Dere Mabel Academy of Music,
(musical comedy, Baltimore, 2 Feb
E. Streeter) 1920
Remarks :
music by many composers
Oo, how I love you to be loved by you (Paley) Ed Wynn’s Carnival New Amsterdam
(revue, E. Wynn) Theatre, 5 April
1920
Remarks :
music mainly by E. Wynn
Waiting for the Sun to Come Out (Francis [pseud. I. The Sweetheart Knickerbocker
Gershwin]) Shop (musical Theatre, 31 Aug
comedy, Caldwell) 1920
Remarks :
music mainly by H. Felix
Remarks :
music by many composers
Remarks :
music mainly by Wynn
Remarks :
music mainly by W. Daly and P. Lannin
Remarks :
music by many composers
The Yankee Doodle Blues (Caesar, DeSylva) Spice of 1922 Winter Garden
(revue, J. Lait) Theatre, 6 July
1922
Remarks :
music mainly by J.F. Hanley
That American Boy of Mine (Caesar) The Dancing Girl Winter Garden
(musical comedy, Theatre, 24 Jan
Atteridge, Caesar) 1923
Remarks :
music mainly by Romberg
I won’t say I will but I won’t say I won’t (DeSylva, Francis Little Miss Lyceum Theatre,
[pseud. I. Gershwin]) Bluebeard (play 28 Aug 1923
with music, A.
Hopwood)
Remarks :
music by many composers
Remarks :
music by many composers
Remarks :
music by many composers
Remarks :
music by many composers
The Sunshine Trail, silent film 1923, Thomas H. music as acc. for
Ince film, perf. by pf/ens
The Sunshine Trail (Francis [pseud. I. Gershwin])
Delicious 3 Dec 1931, Fox screenplay by
Bolton and S.
Levien
Blah, blah, blah
Delishious
Katinkitschka
Somebody from Somewhere
Shall we Dance 7 May 1937, RKO screenplay by A.
Radio Scott and E.
Pagano
(I’ve got) Beginner’s Luck
Let’s call the whole thing off
Shall we dance?
Slap that bass
They all laughed
They can’t take that away from me
A Damsel in Distress 19 Nov 1937, RKO screenplay by S.K.
Radio Lauren, E. Pagano,
and Wodehouse
A Foggy Day
I can’t be bothered now
The Jolly Tar and the Milk Maid solo song; also
choral arr. by
Gershwin
Nice work if you can get it
Sing of Spring choral arr. by
Gershwin
Stiff Upper Lip
Things are looking up
The Goldwyn Follies, revue 23 Feb 1938, screenplay by B.
Goldwyn-United Hecht; Gershwin
Artists died during filming,
Vernon Duke
completed
Gershwin’s songs
and supplied others
I love to rhyme
I was doing all right
Love is here to stay
Love walked in
The Shocking Miss Pilgrim 1946, 20th screenplay by G.
Century-Fox Seaton
*Aren’t you kind of glad we did?
*The Back Bay Polka
*Changing my Tune
*For You, for Me, for Evermore
*One, two, three
Kiss me, stupid 1964, United Artists screenplay by B.
Wilder and I.A.L.
Diamond
*All the Livelong Day (and the Long, Long Night)
*I’m a poached egg
*Sophia
1916: When you want ’em, you can’t get ’em, when you’ve got ’em, you don’t want
’em (M. Roth)
1919: The Love of a Wife (A.J. Jackson, B.G. DeSylva); O Land of Mine, America
(M.E. Rourke)
1920: Yan-Kee (Caesar)
1921: Dixie Rose (Caesar, DeSylva); In the Heart of a Geisha (F. Fisher); Swanee
Rose (Caesar, DeSylva) [tune same as that of Dixie Rose]; Tomale (I’m hot for you)
(DeSylva)
1925: Harlem River Chanty [orig. for 4vv chorus, composed for Tip-toes, but not
used]; It’s a great little world! [orig. composed for Tip-toes, but not used]; Murderous
Monty (and Light-Fingered Jane) (D. Carter) [composed for London production of
Tell Me More, 1925]
1926: I’d rather charleston (Carter) [composed for London production of Lady, be
Good!, 1926]
1928: Beautiful gypsy [orig. composed for Rosalie, but not used; tune same as that
of Wait a bit, Susie, 1924]; Rosalie [orig. composed for Rosalie, but not used]
1929: Feeling Sentimental [orig. composed for Show Girl, but not used]; In the
Mandarin’s Orchid Garden
1931: Mischa, Yascha, Toscha, Sascha [orig. composed for Delicious, but not used]
1932: You’ve got what gets me [composed for film version of Girl Crazy, RKO 1932]
1933: Till Then
1936: King of Swing (A. Stillman); Strike up the band for U.C.L.A. [tune same as
Strike up the band, 1927, 1930]
1937: Hi-Ho! [orig. composed for Shall we Dance, but not used]
1938: Just Another Rhumba [orig. composed for The Goldwyn Follies, but not
used]; *Dawn of a New Day
orchestral
Rhapsody in Blue, pf, jazz band, 1924, orchd Grofé, rev. orch for full orch by Grofé,
1926 [Gershwin’s orig. 2-pf score unpubd; solo pf and 2-pf pubd versions not
Gershwin’s arrs.]
Concerto in F, pf, orch, 1925 [orig. pubd as 2-pf score; pubd orch version rev. F.
Campbell-Watson]
An American in Paris, tone poem, 1928 [Gershwin’s orig. 2-pf score unpubd; pubd
orch version arr. F. Campbell-Watson, pubd 2-pf version rev. G. Stone; solo pf
version arr. W. Daly]
Second Rhapsody for Piano and Orchestra, 1931 [orig. MS unpubd, pubd rev.
version by R. McBride, orig. composed as Manhattan Rhapsody for Delicious]
Cuban Overture, orig. entitled Rumba, 1932
‘I got Rhythm’ Variations, pf, orch, 1934 [orig. MS unpubd, pubd rev. version by
W.C. Schoenfeld]
Catfish Row: Suite from Porgy and Bess, 1935–6, unpubd
Gershwin, George: Works
other works
Chbr: Lullaby, str qt, c1919–20; Short Story, vn, pf, c1923–5 [orig. Novelettes, pf,
c1919, 1923, arr. S. Dushkin for vn, pf, 1925]
Pf: Rialto Ripples, c1916, collab. W. Donaldson; Three-Quarter Blues (Irish Waltz),
early 1920s; [3] Preludes, c1923–6; Impromptu in 2 Keys, c1924; Swiss Miss, 1926
[orig. song in Lady, Be Good!, 1924]; Merry Andrew, by 1928 [orig. dance piece in
Rosalie, 1928]; George Gershwin’s Song-Book, 18 arrs. of refrains from Gershwin’s
songs, 1932; 2 Waltzes, C, by 1933 [orig. as 2-pf piece in Pardon my English, 1933,
arr. pf solo by I. Gershwin, S. Chaplin]; Promenade, by 1937 [orig. as interlude,
Walking the Dog, in Shall we Dance, 2 pf, chbr orch, 1937, transcr. pf solo by H.
Borne]; additional works edited and pubd by A. Zizzo incl.: 3 Preludes, pf [from
MSS]; Suite, pf [from Blue Monday]; various MSS frags.
Gershwin, George: Works
index to published songs
(dates refer to year of first performance)
Across the Sea, 1922; A Foggy Day, 1937; All the Livelong Day (and the Long, Long
Night), 1964; A Red Headed Woman, 1935; Aren’t you kind of glad we did?, 1946;
Argentina, 1922; At Half Past Seven, 1923; A Typical Self-Made American, 1930; A
woman is a sometime thing, 1935; The Babbitt and the Bromide, 1927; Baby!, 1925;
The Back Bay Polka, 1946; Barbary Coast, 1930; Beau Brummel, 1924; Beautiful
Gypsy, 1928; Because, Because, 1931; Beneath the Eastern Moon, 1923; Berkeley
Square and Kew, 1924; Bess you is my woman, 1935; The Best of Everything,
1919; Bidin’ my Time, 1930; Blah, Blah, Blah, 1931
Blue, Blue, Blue, 1933; Boy wanted, 1921, 1924; Boy! What love has done to me!,
1930; Bride and Groom, 1926; Broncho Busters, 1930; But Not for Me, 1930;
Buzzard Song, 1935; By and By, 1922; By Strauss, 1936; Can we do anything?,
1924; Changing my Tune, 1946; Cinderelatives, 1922; Clap yo’ hands, 1926; Clara,
Clara, 1935; Come to the moon, 1919; Cossack Love Song (Don’t forget me), 1925;
Could you use me?, 1930; Crab Man, 1935; Dance Alone with You, 1927; Dancing
Shoes, 1921; Dawn of a New Day, 1938; Dear Little Girl (I hope you’ve missed me),
1926; Delishious, 1931; Ding Dong, 1930
Dixie Rose, 1921; Do-Do-Do, 1926; Do it again!, 1922; Don't ask, 1926; Do what
you do!, 1929; Drifting Along with the Tide, 1921; Embraceable You, 1930; Ev’ry
body knows I love somebody, 1928; Fascinating Rhythm, 1924; Feeling I’m Falling,
1928; Feeling Sentimental, 1929; Fidgety feet, 1926; Fletcher’s American Choc’late
Choral Society, 1930; For you, for me, for evermore, 1946; Four Little Sirens, 1924;
From Now On, 1919; Funny Face, 1927; Garçon, s’il vous plaît, 1931; Goldfarb!
That's I'm, 1930; Gone, Gone, Gone, 1935; Good mornin’, sistuh!, 1935; Good-
night, my dear, 1923; Got a rainbow, 1928; The Half of it, Dearie, Blues, 1924;
Hangin’ Around with You, 1930
Hang on to me, 1924; Harlem River Chanty, 1925; Harlem Serenade, 1929; Heaven
on Earth, 1926; He knows milk, 1930; Hello, good morning, 1931; He loves and she
loves, 1927; Here come de honey man, 1935; Here’s a kiss for Cinderella, 1931;
Hey! Hey! Let ’er go!, 1924; High Hat, 1927; Hi-ho!, 1937; How about a boy like
me?, 1930; How long has this been going on?, 1927, 1928; I ain’ got no shame,
1935; I can’t be bothered now, 1937; Idle Dreams, 1920; I don’t think I’ll fall in love
today, 1928; I’d rather charleston, 1926; If I Become the President, 1930; I found a
four leaf clover, 1922; I got plenty o’ nuttin’, 1935; I got rhythm, 1930
I’ll build a stairway to paradise, 1922; The Illegitimate Daughter, 1931; I loves you,
Porgy, 1935; I love to rhyme, 1938; I love you, 1921; I’m about to be a mother,
1931; I make hay while the moon shines, 1924; I’m a poached egg, 1964; I mean to
say, 1930; I must be home by twelve o’clock, 1929; I need a garden, 1924; Innocent
Ingenue Baby, 1922; Innocent Lonesome Blue Baby, 1923; In the Heart of a
Geisha, 1921; In the Mandarin’s Orchid Garden, 1929; In the Rain, 1923; In the
Rattle of the Battle, 1930; In the swim, 1923; Isn’t it a pity?, 1933; Isn’t it wonderful,
1924; It ain’t necessarily so, 1935; It is the fourteenth of July, 1924; It’s a great little
world!, 1925
It take a long pull to get there, 1935; I’ve got a crush on you, 1928, 1930; I’ve got
beginner’s luck, 1937; I’ve got to be there, 1933; I want to be a war bride, 1930; I
was doing all right, 1938; I was so young (you were so beautiful), 1919; I was the
most beautiful blossom, 1931; I won’t say I will but I won’t say I won’t, 1923; Jasbo
Brown Blues, 1935; The Jijibo, 1924; Jilted, 1931; The Jolly Tar and the Milk Maid,
1937; Just Another Rhumba, 1938; Just to Know You are Mine, 1921; Katinkitschka,
1931; Kickin’ the Clouds Away, 1925
King of swing, 1936; Kongo Kate, 1924; K-ra-zy for You, 1928; Land of the Gay
Caballero, 1930; Leavin’ for the Promise’ Lan’, 1935; Leaving Town While we May,
1924; Let ’em eat cake, 1933; Let’s be lonesome together, 1923; Let’s call the
whole thing off, 1937; Let’s kiss and make up, 1927; The Life of a Rose, 1923;
Limehouse Nights, 1919; Little Jazz Bird, 1924; Liza (All the clouds’ll roll away),
1929; Lo-La-Lo, 1923; The Lonesome Cowboy, 1930; Looking for a Boy, 1925;
Lorelei, 1933; Love is here to stay, 1938; Love is sweeping the country, 1931; The
love of a wife, 1919; Love walked in, 1938
Luckiest man in the world, 1933; Lu Lu, 1920; Mademoiselle in New Rochelle,
1930; Mah-Jongg, 1924; Making of a Girl, 1916; The Man I love, 1924, 1927;
Maybe, 1926; Midnight Bells, 1925; Military Dancing Drill, 1927; Mine, 1933;
Mischa, Yascha, Toscha, Sascha, 1931; Moonlight in Versailles, 1923; The
Mophams, 1924; Murderous Monty (and Light-Fingered Jane), 1925; My Cousin in
Milwaukee, 1933; My Fair Lady, 1925; My Lady, 1920; My Log-Cabin Home, 1921;
My man’s gone now, 1935
My One and Only, 1927; Nashville Nightingale, 1923; Naughty Baby, 1924; Never
was there a girl so fair, 1931; Nice Baby! (Come to papa!), 1925; Nice work if you
can get it, 1937; Nightie-Night, 1925; Night time in Araby, 1924; Nobody but You,
1919; No One Else but that Girl of Mine, 1921; Official Resume, 1930; Of thee I
sing, 1931; Oh, Bess, oh where’s my Bess, 1935; Oh, de Lawd shake de heavens,
1935; Oh, dere’s somebody knockin’ at de do’, 1935; Oh, Doctor Jesus, 1935; Oh
Gee! Oh Joy!, 1928; Oh, Hev’nly Father, 1935; Oh, I can’t sit down, 1935
Oh, Kay!, 1926; Oh, lady, be good!, 1924; Oh Lawd, I’m on my way, 1935; Oh Little
Stars, 1935; Oh! Nina, 1923; Oh, so Nice, 1928; Oh, What she Hangs Out, 1922; O
Land of Mine, America, 1919; On and On and On, 1933; One, Two, Three, 1946; On
My Mind the Whole Night Long, 1920; On the Beach at How’ve-you-been, 1923;
Oo, how I love to be loved by you, 1920; Overflow, 1935; Pepita, 1924; Poppyland,
1919; Posterity is just around the corner, 1931; The Real American Folk Song,
1918; Rosalie, 1928; Rose of Madrid, 1924; Roses of France, 1924
Sam and Delilah, 1930; Say so!, 1928; Scandal Walk, 1920; The Senator from
Minnesota, 1931; Seventeen and Twenty-One, 1927; Shall we dance?, 1937; She’s
just a baby, 1921; Show me the town, 1926; The Signal, 1925; The Simple Life,
1921; Site of Spring, 1937; Slap that bass, 1937; Snowflakes, 1920; So am I, 1924;
So are you!, 1929; Somebody from Somewhere, 1931; Somebody loves me, 1924;
Some Far-Away Someone, 1924; Some girls can bake a pie, 1931; Somehow it
seldom comes true, 1919; Someone, 1922; Someone believes in you, 1924;
Someone to watch over me, 1926
Some rain must fall, 1921; Something about love, 1919, 1926; Some wonderful sort
of someone, 1918, rev. 1919; Song of the Flame, 1925; The Songs of Long Ago,
1920; Soon, 1930; Sophia, 1964; South Sea Isles, 1921; So what?, 1933; Spanish
love, 1920; Stiff Upper Lip, 1937; Strawberry Woman, 1935; Strike up the band,
1927, 1930; Strike up the band for U.C.L.A., 1936; Strut lady with me, 1923;
Summertime, 1935; Sunday in London town, 1923; The Sunshine Trail, 1923;
Swanee, 1919
Swanee Rose, 1921; Sweet and Low-Down, 1925; Sweetheart (I’m so glad that I
met you), 1923; ’S wonderful, 1927; Tee-oodle-um-bum-bo, 1919; Tell me more!,
1925; That American Boy of Mine, 1923; That Certain Feeling, 1925; That Lost
Barber Shop Chord, 1926; That New-Fangled Mother of Mine, 1924; There is
nothing too good for you, 1923; There’s a boat dat’s leavin’ soon for New York,
1935; There’s more to the kiss than the x-x-x, 1919; These Charming People, 1925;
They all laughed, 1937
They can’t take that away from me, 1937; They pass by singin’, 1935; Things are
looking up, 1937; This is the life for a man, 1924; Three cheers for the Union!, 1930;
Three Times a Day, 1925; Throw her in high!, 1923; Till I Meet Someone like You,
1924; Till Then, 1933; Tomale (I’m hot for you), 1921; Tra-la-la, 1922; Treat me
rough, 1930; Trumpeter blow your golden horn, 1931; Tum on and tiss me, 1920;
Tune in (to Station J. O. Y.), 1924; Under a One-Man Top, 1924; Union Square,
1933; The Unofficial Spokesman, 1930; Virginia, 1924; Vodka, 1925; Wait a bit,
Susie, 1924; Waiting for the Sun to Come Out, 1920
Walking Home with Angeline, 1922; We’re pals, 1920; What are we here for?, 1928;
What you want wid Bess?, 1935; When do we dance?, 1925; When it’s Cactus
Time in Arizona, 1930; When Toby is Out of Town, 1924; When you want ’em, you
can’t get ’em, when you’ve got ’em, you don’t want ’em, 1916; Where East meets
West, 1921; Where is she?, 1923; Where is the man of my dreams, 1922; Where’s
the boy? Here’s the girl!, 1928; Where you go I go, 1933; Who cares?, 1931; Who is
the lucky girl to be?, 1931; Why do I love you?, 1925; Wintergreen for President,
1931; The Woman's Touch, 1926; The world is mine, 1927
Yan-Kee, 1920; The Yankee Doodle Blues, 1922; Yankee Doodle Rhythm, 1927,
1928; Year after Year, 1924; You and I, 1923; You are you, 1925; You-Oo just You,
1918; You’ve got what gets me, 1932
Gershwin, George
BIBLIOGRAPHY
catalogues and bibliographies
A Catalogue of the Exhibition Gershwin: George the Music: Ira the Words
(New York, 1968)
C.M. Schwartz: George Gershwin: a Selective Bibliography and
Discography, Bibliographies in American Music, no.1 (Detroit, 1974)
W. Rimler: A Gershwin Companion: a Critical Inventory and Discography,
1916–1984 (Ann Arbor, 1991)
N. Carnovale: George Gershwin: a Bio-Bibliography (Westport, CT, 2000)
life and works
GroveA (R. Crawford, W. Schneider) [incl. further bibliography]
I. Goldberg: George Gershwin: a Study in American Music (New York,
1931, rev. and enlarged 2/1958)
M. Armitage, ed.: George Gershwin (New York, 1938; repr. 1995 with a
new introduction by E. Jablonski)
V. Duke: ‘Gershwin, Shillinger and Dukelsky’, MQ, xxxiii (1947), 102–15
D. Ewen: A Journey to Greatness (New York, 1956; rev. and enlarged
2/1970/R as George Gershwin: his Journey to Greatness)
M. Armitage: George Gershwin: Man and Legend (New York, 1958/R)
E. Jablonski and L.D. Stewart: The Gershwin Years (Garden City, NY,
1958, rev. 2/1973)
C.M. Schwartz: Gershwin: his Life and Music (Indianapolis, IN, 1973) [incl.
catalogue of works and bibliography]
E. Jablonski: ‘Gershwin at 80: Observations, Discographical and
Otherwise, on the 80th Anniversary of the Birth of George Gershwin,
American Composer’, American Record Guide, xli (1977–8), no.11,
pp.6–12, 58 only; no.12, pp.8–12, 57–9
D. Jeambar: George Gershwin (Paris, 1982)
E. Jablonski: Gershwin: a Biography, Illustrated (New York, 1987)
E. Jablonski: Gershwin Remembered (Portland, OR, 1992)
D. Rosenberg: Fascinating Rhythm: the Collaboration of George and Ira
Gershwin (New York, 1991)
J. Peyser: The Memory of All That (New York, 1993)
musical studies
G. Gershwin: ‘The Relation of Jazz to American Music’, American
Composers on American Music, ed. H. Cowell (Palo Alto, CA, 1933/R)
Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions [Library of Congress], iv (1946–
7), 65–6; xi (1953–4), 15–26; xii (1954–5), 47 only; xiv (1956–7), 13
only; xvi (1958–9), 17 only; xvii (1959–60), 23–4; xviii (1960–61), 23
only; xix (1961–2), 22–3; xx (1962–3), 34–5, 60–61; Quarterly Journal
of the Library of Congress, xxi (1963–4), 23–4, 45 only; xxiii (1965–6),
41, 44–5; xxv (1967–8), 53–5, 75, 78 only; xxvi (1968–9), 22, 37 only;
xxvii (1969–70), 53, 77 only; xxviii (1970–71), 46, 67–8; xxix (1971–2),
49, 61, 64, 75 only; xxx (1972–3), 50 only; xxxi (1973–4), 32, 50, 57,
62–3 [reports on acquisitions by E.N. Waters and others]
F.C. Campbell: ‘Some Manuscripts of George Gershwin’, Manuscripts, vi
(1953–4), 66–75
F.C. Campbell: ‘The Musical Scores of George Gershwin’, Quarterly
Journal of Current Acquisitions [Library of Congress], xi (1953–4),
127–39
L. Bernstein: ‘Why Don't You Run Upstairs and Write a Nice Gershwin
Tune’, Atlantic Monthly, cxcv/4 (1955), 39–42; repr. in The Joy of
Music (New York, 1959), 52–64
H. Keller: ‘Rhythm: Gershwin and Stravinsky’, Score and I.M.A. Magazine,
no.20 (1957), 19–31
H. Levine: ‘Gershwin, Handy and the Blues’, Clavier, ix/7 (1970), 10–20
R. Crawford: ‘It ain't Necessarily Soul: Gershwin's Porgy and Bess as
Symbol’, Yearbook for Inter-American Musical Research, viii (1972),
17–38
A. Wilder: ‘George Gershwin (1898–1937)’, American Popular Song (New
York, 1972), 121–62
R. Crawford: ‘Gershwin's Reputation: a Note on Porgy and Bess’, MQ, lxv
(1979), 257–64
W.D. Shirley: ‘Reconciliation on Catfish Row: Bess, Serena and the Short
Score of Porgy and Bess’, Quarterly Journal of the Library of
Congress, xxxviii (1980–81), 144–65
L. Starr: ‘Toward a Reevaluation of Gershwin's Porgy and Bess’, American
Music, ii/2 (1984), 25–37
S.E. Gilbert: ‘Gershwin's Art of Counterpoint’, MQ, lxx (1984), 423–56
W.D. Shirley: ‘Scoring the Concerto in F: George Gershwin's First
Orchestration’, American Music, iii (1985), 277–98
R. Wyatt: ‘The Seven Jazz Preludes of George Gershwin’, American
Music, vii (1989), 68–85
H. Alpert: The Life and Times of Porgy and Bess (New York, 1990)
C. Hamm: ‘A Blues for the Ages’, A Celebration of American Music, ed. R.
Crawford, R.A. Lott and C.J. Oja (Ann Arbor, 1990), 346–55
R. Crawford: ‘George Gershwin's “I Got Rhythm” (1930)’, America's
Musical Landscape (Berkeley, CA, 1993), 213–36
P. Nauert: ‘Theory and Practice in Porgy and Bess: the Gershwin-
Schillinger Connection’, MQ, lxxviii (1994), 9–33
C.J. Oja: ‘Gershwin and American Modernists of the 1920s’, MQ, lxxviii
(1994), 646–68
A. Forte: ‘Ballads of George Gershwin’, The American Popular Ballad of
the Golden Era: 1924–1950 (Princeton, NJ, 1995), 147–76
S.E. Gilbert: The Music of Gershwin (New Haven, CT, 1995)
C. Hamm: ‘Towards a New Reading of Gershwin’, Putting Popular Music in
its Place (Cambridge and New York, 1995), 306–24
G. Block: ‘Porgy and Bess: Broadway Opera’, Enchanted Evenings: the
Broadway Musical from Show Boat to Sondheim (New York and
Oxford, 1997), 60–84, 328–9
D. Schiff: Gershwin: Rhapsody in Blue (New York, 1997)
R. Crawford: ‘Rethinking the Rhapsody’, ISAM News Letter, xxviii/1
(1998), 1–2, 15
W.J. Schneider, ed.: The Gershwin Style: New Looks at the Music of
George Gershwin (New York, 1999)
stage
Dates are those of the first New York performance
Two Little Girls in Blue (P. Lannin, V. Youmans), 3 May 1921 [incl. Oh, Me! Oh, My!]
Lady, Be Good!, 1 Dec 1924 [incl. Fascinating Rhythm, Oh lady, be good!, So am I;
film, 1941]
Tell Me More, 13 April 1925 [incl. Kickin’ the Clouds Away]
Tip-toes, 28 Dec 1925 [incl. Sweet and Low-Down, Looking for a Boy, That Certain
Feeling]
Oh, Kay!, 8 Nov 1926 [incl. Someone to watch over me, Do-Do-Do, Clap yo’ Hands,
Maybe]
Funny Face, 22 Nov 1927 [incl. S’wonderful, High Hat, Funny Face, He loves and
she loves, The Babbitt and the Bromide]
Rosalie, 10 Jan 1928 [incl. How long has this been going on?]
Treasure Girl, 8 Nov 1928 [incl. I’ve got a crush on you, Feeling I’m falling]
Strike Up the Band, 14 Jan 1930 [incl. Strike up the band; film, 1940]
Girl Crazy, 14 Oct 1930 [incl. I got rhythm, Embraceable You, Bidin’ my Time, But
Not for Me; films, 1932, 1943, 1965 as ‘When the Boys Meet the Girls’]
Of Thee I Sing, 26 Dec 1931 [incl. Love is sweeping the country, Of thee I sing,
Who cares?)
Pardon My English, 20 Jan 1933 [incl. Lorelei, Isn’t it a pity?]
Let ’em Eat Cake, 21 Oct 1933 [incl. Mine]
Porgy and Bess, 10 Oct 1935 [incl. Bess, you is my woman, I got plenty o’ nuttin’, It
ain’t necessarily so, I loves you, Porgy; film, 1959]
Ziegfeld Follies of 1936 (V. Duke), 30 Jan 1936 [incl. I can’t get started]
Lady in the Dark (K. Weill), 23 Jan 1941 [incl. My Ship, The Saga of Jennie,
Tchaikowsky; film, 1944]
The Firebrand of Florence (Weill), 22 March 1945 [incl. Sing me not a ballad]
Park Avenue (A. Schwartz), 4 Nov 1946 [incl. Don’t be a woman if you can]
My One and Only, 1 May 1983 [incl. S’wonderful, Strike up the band, He loves and
she loves, My One and Only]
Crazy for You, 19 Feb 1992 [incl. I got rhythm, What causes that?, Slap that bass]
films
Delicious, 1931
Shall We Dance, 1937 [incl. Slap that bass, They can’t take that away from me,
Let’s call the whole thing off, They all laughed, (I’ve got) Beginner’s luck]
A Damsel in Distress, 1937 [incl. Nice Work if you can get it, I can’t be bothered
now, A Foggy Day, Things are looking up]
The Goldwyn Follies, 1938 [incl. Love walked in, Love is here to stay]
Rhapsody in Blue, 1945 [incl. I’ll build a stairway to paradise, The man I love]
Cover Girl (J. Kern), 1944 [incl. Put me to the test, Long Ago and Far Away, Sure
Thing]
The Shocking Miss Pilgrim, 1946 [incl. The Back Bay Polka]
The Barkleys of Broadway (H. Warren), 1949 [incl. My One and Only Highland
Fling, Shoes with Wings On]
An American in Paris, 1951 [incl. Love is here to stay, I don’t think I’ll fall in love
today, I got rhythm]
Give a Girl a Break (B. Lane), 1953 [incl. Applause, Applause]
A Star is Born (H. Arlen), 1954 [incl. The Man that Got Away, Here’s what I’m here
for]
Funny Face, 1957 [incl. How long has this been going on?, Funny Face]
Porgy and Bess, 1959 [incl. Dere’s a boat dat’s leavin’ soon for New York]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Gershwin, Ira’, CBY 1956
E. Jablonski and L.D. Stewart: The Gershwin Years (Garden City, NY,
1958, 2/1973)
R. Kimball and A. Simon: The Gershwins (New York, 1973)
E. Jablonski: Gershwin (Garden City, NY, 1987)
D. Rosenberg: Fascinating Rhythm: the Collaboration of George and Ira
Gershwin (New York, 1991)
R. Kimball: The Complete Lyrics of Ira Gershwin (New York, 1993)
P. Furia: Ira Gershwin: The Art of the Lyricist (New York, 1996)
GERALD BORDMAN/THOMAS S. HISCHAK
Gerson, George
(b Copenhagen, 10 Oct 1790; d Copenhagen, 16 Feb 1825). Danish
composer and violinist. As a child he was taught the violin, and in 1805 he
was sent for a commercial education to Hamburg. There he learnt to play
the piano, and he soon became an active member of private musical
circles, for which he composed songs and chamber music. Of his 219
compositions, 60 were composed during his years in Hamburg, some (e.g.
the string quartets nos.2–4, 1808) under the supervision of the violinist
Andreas Romberg. On his return to Copenhagen in 1812 he was employed
by the merchant Joseph Hambro, who made him his partner in 1816. Both
as a violinist and as an organizer Gerson played a leading role in the
musical life of Copenhagen, which was then largely based on private clubs
and societies.
Only a few of Gerson’s many piano pieces and songs have been printed
(notably 6 songs published in Copenhagen, 1842); their musical style
shows the influence of his models, Haydn, Romberg and especially Mozart.
His best songs reveal an original melodic gift and a refined sense of
declamation, and though his instrumental works, including a symphony
(1813–17) and a violin concerto (1821), are more impressive for his
assured handling of form and texture than for musical invention, they are
important as they illustrate an interesting chapter of Danish music history.
His collected works in five autograph volumes and an autograph thematic
catalogue are in the Royal Library, Copenhagen. (N.M. Jensen: Den
danske romance 1800–1850 og dens musikalske forudsaetninger
(Copenhagen, 1964) [with Ger. summary])
TORBEN SCHOUSBOE
Gerstenberg, Walter
(b Hildesheim, 26 Dec 1904; d Tübingen, 26 Oct 1988). German
musicologist. He studied musicology from 1924 at Berlin University and
from 1926 at Leipzig University (especially with Kroyer and Zenck); in 1929
he took the doctorate at Leipzig with a dissertation on Scarlatti’s keyboard
works. From 1929 to 1932 he was assistant lecturer at the musicological
institute and research assistant at the instrument museum of Leipzig
University. From 1932 to 1938 he was assistant lecturer at the
musicological institute of Cologne University, where in 1935 he completed
the Habilitation with a historical study of Protestant church music. He was
then professor of musicology at Rostock University (1941–8), the Free
University, Berlin (1948–52), Tübingen University (1952–8), Heidelberg
University (1958) and from 1959 until his retirement in 1970 again at
Tübingen University. In 1974 he was made honorary professor of
musicology at Salzburg University.
Gerstenberg’s research centred on music history from the 16th century to
the beginning of the 19th, particularly Bach, Mozart and Schubert. He
wrote a series of studies on music performance and was editor of Senfl’s
motets for the complete edition of that composer’s works. He succeeded
Zenck as director of the complete edition of the works of Willaert, to which
he contributed four volumes. He was editor of the Tübinger Bach-Studien
and co-editor of the Archiv für Musikwissenschaft. His main importance for
German musicology lay in the field of organization. He played an important
role in founding the new collected editions of Bach, Mozart and Schubert;
he was also president of the Internationale Schubert-Gesellschaft.
WRITINGS
Die Klavierkompositionen Domenico Scarlattis (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1929;
Regensburg, 1933/R)
ed. with H. Schultz and H. Zenck: Theodor Kroyer: Festschrift
(Regensburg, 1933) [incl. ‘Eine Neumenhandschrift in der
Dombibliothek zu Köln (Codex 215)’, 8–16]
Beiträge zur Problemgeschichte der evangelischen Kirchenmusik
(Habilitationsschrift, U. of Cologne, 1935)
‘Motetten- und Liedstil bei Ludwig Senfl’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949, 121–4
Zur Erkenntnis der Bachschen Musik (Berlin, 1951)
Die Zeitmasse und ihre Ordnungen in Bachs Musik (Einbeck, 1952; repr. in
Johann Sebastian Bach, ed. W. Blankenburg (Darmstadt, 1970), 129–
49)
‘Die Krise der Barockmusik’, AMw, x (1953), 81–94
ed. H. Zenck: Numerus und affectus: Studien zur Musikgeschichte
(Kassel, 1959)
ed.: Musikerhandschriften von Palestrina bis Beethoven (Zürich, 1960)
‘Senfliana’, Festschrift Helmuth Osthoff, ed. L. Hoffmann-Erbrecht and H.
Hucke (Tutzing, 1961), 39–46
‘Ein Dictionnaire Momignys und seine Lehre vom musikalischen Vortrag’,
Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H.
Hüschen (Regensburg, 1962/R), 182–5
ed. with J. LaRue and W. Rehm: Festschrift Otto Erich Deutsch (Kassel,
1963) [incl. ‘Schubertiade: Anmerkungen zu einigen Liedern’, 232–9]
Über Mozarts Klangwelt (Tübingen, 1966)
‘Tonart und Zyklus in Bachs Musik: Anmerkungen zu Suite, Konzert und
Kantate’, Bach-Interpretationen, ed. M. Geck (Göttingen, 1969), 119–
25
‘Um den Begriff einer Venezianischen Schule’, Renaissance-muziek 1400–
1600: donum natalicium René Bernard Lenaerts, ed. J. Robijns and
others (Leuven, 1969), 131–42
‘Betrachtungen über Mozarts “Idomeneo”’, Festschrift Georg von Dadelsen,
ed. T. Kohlhase and V. Scherliess (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1978), 148–
54
EDITIONS
Adrian Willaert: Opera omnia, CMM, iii/5, 7–8, 13 (1957–72)
Ludwig Senfl: Sämtliche Werke, iii, viii–xi (Wolfenbüttel, 1962–74) [vol.i
orig. pubd as EDM, 1st ser., xiii (1939)]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. von Dadelsen and A. Holschneider, eds.: Festschrift Walter
Gerstenberg (Wolfenbüttel, 1964) [incl. biographical information, 5]
G. von Dadelsen: ‘Walter Gerstenberg (1904–1988)’, Mf, xlii (1989), 1–2
HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT/WOLFGANG HORN
Gerstenbüttel, Joachim
(b Wismar, 27 June 1647; d Hamburg, 10 April 1721). German composer
and instrumentalist. He attended school in Wismar and studied theology at
the universities of Rostock (1662–7) and Wittenberg (1667–72). He had
learnt music as a boy, but applied himself to it more seriously when he
suffered an attack of melancholia hypochondriaca in 1669. Since he never
enjoyed good health, he broke off his theological studies in spite of his
success in them and settled in Hamburg in 1672 as a music teacher and
domestic tutor. He played keyboard instruments and the violin and became
a ‘good bassist’ (Walther ML). In 1674 he was appointed Christoph
Bernhard’s successor as Kantor at the Johanneum Lateinschule and
director musices of the city’s main churches, but he did not take up his post
until 10 February 1675 because of a complaint of unconstitutionality.
Meanwhile, the Convictorium founded by Thomas Selle had been
dissolved, and Gerstenbüttel attempted to reorganize and strengthen the
church music and the Kantorei, but with only limited success because of
strong competition from opera and oratorio. Gerstenbüttel laboured for
years on a translation of the Cantica sacra (1588) of Franz Eler. Since
(unlike his successor Telemann) he regarded his position as being
exclusively dedicated to the praise of God, he rejected opera out of hand –
an attitude consistent with the position of some Orthodox theologians and
Pietistic pastors.
The structure of Gerstenbüttel’s cantatas was also designed to put music to
the service of God. He employed various types of text and musical settings,
but not solo cantatas or exclusively free texts. His works are not strongly
expressive, but the declamation is suited to the meaning of the text, which
is presented rather than interpreted. However, his compositions do contain
some complex contrapuntal movements (Wo soll ich fliehen hin) and
expressive constructions (Ich schreie zu dem Herrn). An exception to
Gerstenbüttel’s usual preference for string instruments is Lobet den Herrn,
ihr seine Engel, for which he indicates the use of wind instruments (see
Webber, 113). In respect of their technical requirements, as well as their
structures, Gerstenbüttel’s compositions differ considerably from the
sacred works of organists, opera composers and Kapellmeisters trained in
Italian music. They reflect not only the influence of central German
traditions in north Germany, but his own endeavours to write church music
that would serve the liturgy and make the text easily comprehensible.
WORKS
all extant works in D-Bsb Bokemeyer Collection, dated before 1695
Ach Herr lass deine lieben Engelein, SAB, 2 clarino, timp, 2vn, bn, bc (anon., see
Krummacher, 1965, p.170); Ach Herr wie ist meiner Feinde, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn,
bc, 1686; Da die Zeit erfüllet war, SAB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Dazu ist erschienen der Sohn
Gottes, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Der Gerechte wird grünen, SATB, 2 vn, bn, bc;
Der Herr ist mein Hirte, SSB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Der Herr sprach zu meinem Herren,
SSATTB, 2 vn, 3 va, bn, bc; Die Güte des Herrn ists, ATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Erhalt
uns Herr bey deinem Wort, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Gelobet sey der Herr täglich,
SAT, 2 vn, bc; Gelobet sey Gott, SATB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Habe deine Lust an den Herrn,
SATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Herr erhöre mein Gebeth, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Heut
triumphieret Gottes Sohn, STB, 2 clarino, timp, bc (anon., see Krummacher, 1965,
p.170)
Ich bin ein verwirret und verlohren Schaff, dialogue, SATB, 2 vn, violetta, bn, bc; Ich
schreie zu dem Herrn, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; In dich hab ich gehoffet, SSATB,
2 vn, 2 va, bc; Jauchzet Gott alle Land, T, 2 vn, 2 va, bc; Lieber Herre Gott weck
uns auff, SATB, 2 vn, bc; Lobe den Herrn meine Seele, SB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Lobet den
Herrn, ihr seine Engel, SATB, 2 clarino/ob, 2 ob/violetta, bn, bc; O Vater aller
Frommen, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bc; O welch eine Tieffe des Reichthums SSATB, 2
vn, 2 va, bn, bc
Samlet euch Schätze, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Treuffelt ihr Himmel von oben,
SSATB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Waschet, reiniget euch, SSTB, 2 vn, bn, bc; Wenn wir in
höchsten Nöthen sein, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bc; Wer sich rächet, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va,
bn, bc; Wo der Herr nicht das Hauss bauet, SAB, 2 vn, bc; Wo Gott der Herr nicht
bey uns hält, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Wo soll ich fliehen hin, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va,
bn, bc; Wohl dem der in Gottes Furcht steht, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc; Zweierley
bitt ich von dir, SSATB, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc
Lost: Ach Herr straff mich, 1v, 4 va, bc, see Greve; Benedictus esto Jehova, 1713,
see Kremer, 1995, p.249; Das von Gott dem Allerhöchsten durch vieler Jahre
Prüfung mannigfaltig bewährete und hoch begnadete Exempel, 1711, D-HVl (text
only); Jubilate Jehovae omnes, 1713, see Kremer, 1995, p.249; 40 other cants.,
formerly Lm, see Seiffert
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (F. Stein)
WaltherML
M. Seiffert: ‘Die Chorbibliothek der St. Michaelisschule in Lüneburg zu
Seb. Bach’s Zeit’, SIMG, ix (1907–8), 593–621
F. Krummacher: Die Überlieferung der Choralbearbeitungen in der frühen
evangelischen Kantate: Untersuchungen zum Handschriftenrepertoire
evangelischer Figuralmusik im späten 17. und beginnenden 18.
Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1965)
F. Krummacher: Die Choralbearbeitung in der protestantischen
Figuralmusik zwischen Praetorius und Bach (Kassel, 1978)
M. Roske: Sozialgeschichte des privaten Musiklehrers vom 17. zum 19.
Jahrhundert (Mainz, 1985)
W. Greve: Braunschweiger Stadtmusikanten: Geschichte eines
Berufsstandes 1227–1828 (Brunswick, 1991), 270
J. Kremer: Das norddeutsche Kantorat im 18. Jahrhundert:
Untersuchungen am Beispiel Hamburgs (Kassel, 1995)
G. Webber: North German Church Music in the Age of Buxtehude (Oxford,
1996)
J. Kremer: Joachim Gerstenbüttel (1647–1721) im Spannungsfeld von
Oper und Kirche: ein Beitrag zur Musikgeschichte Hamburgs
(Hamburg, 1997)
JOACHIM KREMER
Gerster, Etelka
(b Kassa [now Košice, Slovakia], 25 June 1855; d Pontecchio di Bologna,
20 Aug 1920). Hungarian soprano. She studied with Mathilde Marchesi in
Vienna, and made her début in 1876 as Gilda (Rigoletto) at La Fenice,
Venice, where she also sang Ophelia (Hamlet). She made her London
début at Her Majesty’s Theatre in 1877 as Amina (La sonnambula) and
also sang Lucia, Elvira (I puritani), Gilda and the Queen of Night. The
following year she made her New York début as Amina at the Academy of
Music, where she appeared in the first American performance of Balfe’s Il
talismano (1878) and also sang Elsa (1881). Her rivalry with Patti was
aggravated when they sang together on tour in Les Huguenots (Gerster as
Marguerite de Valois, Patti as Valentine). Although she had a voice of great
brilliance and flexibility, as well as complete security of technique, Gerster
was unable to match the elder diva in personality or experience. In 1890
she gave one performance of Amina at Covent Garden, then retired. From
1896 to 1917 she taught singing in Berlin.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.H. Mapleson: The Mapleson Memoirs (London, 1888); ed. H. Rosenthal
(London, 1966)
M. Marchesi: Marchesi and Music (London, 1897/R)
ELIZABETH FORBES
Gerster, Ottmar
(b Braunfels, Hesse, 29 June 1897; d Borsdorf, nr Leipzig, 31 Aug 1969).
German composer. After studying the violin with Adolf Rebner and
composition with Sekles at the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt (1918–20),
he worked as a performer, playing viola with the Frankfurt SO and in the
Lenzewski Quartet. In 1926 he won the Schott composition prize for his
Divertimento for violin and viola. The following year he was appointed to
teach violin, viola, harmony and counterpoint at the Folkwang-Schule in
Essen, where he remained for 20 years. Gerster’s early association with
workers’ choirs and his commitment to the German socialist movement
during the 1920s and early 30s did not seem to hinder his success as an
operatic composer during the Third Reich. His opera, Madame Liselotte,
heard in Essen only eight months after Hitler came to power, attracted
favourable reviews on account of its quasi-nationalist plot. Enoch Arden,
first performed three years later (1936), proved even more successful and
was given over 500 times in Germany between 1936 and 1944. The
directness of musical language in this and his next opera Die Hexe von
Passau (1941) was harnessed after 1945 to make Gerster one of the
leading figures in the musical life of the DDR. From 1947 to 1951 he taught
harmony, counterpoint and composition at the Weimar Musikhochschule, of
which he was also the director from 1948. In 1951 he became a professor
of composition at Leipzig Musikhochschule, a position he held until 1962.
He was actively involved in arts policies in the DDR and also played a part
in the restructuring of higher education. He was a founding member of both
the Akademie der Künste (1950) and the Verband Deutscher Komponisten
(1951), an organization of which he was chairman until 1960. His desire to
write accessible music is clearly demonstrated in his works of the 1950s
and 60s, such as Eisenhüttenkombinat Ost (1951), the Second Symphony
(1953) and the Symphonic Variations (1963). His awards include the
Düsseldorf Schumann Prize (1941), the Leipzig Arts Prize (1965) and the
National Prize of the DDR (1951, 1967).
WORKS
(selective list)
stage
Ops: Frau Potiphar (Der Rock des Joseph) (M. Goldschmidt), 1927; Madame
Liselotte (F. Clemens, P. Ginthum), Essen, 1933; Enoch Arden (K.M. von Levetzow,
after A. Tennyson), Düsseldorf, 1936; Die Hexe von Passau (R. Billinger),
Düsseldorf, 1941; Das verzauberte Ich (P. Koch, after F. Raimund), Wuppertal,
1949; Der fröhliche Sünder (O. Gerster, after L. Solowjow, V. Witkowitsch), Weimar,
1963
Ballet: Der ewige Kreis (Clemens), 1934, Duisburg, 1938
instrumental
Orch: Sinfonietta, 1929; Pf Conc., chbr orch, 1931, rev. for large orch, 1955; Kleine
Sinfonie, 1934; Ernste Musik, 1938; Oberhessische Bauerntänze, 1938; Vn Conc.,
1939; Festliche Toccata, 1942; Vc Conc., 1946; Festouvertüre, 1948; Sym. no.2
‘Thüringische’, 1953; Dresdner Suite, 1956; Hn Conc., 1959; Sym. Variations ‘Wir
lieben das Leben’, 1963; Sym. no.3 ‘Leipziger’ (H. Rusch), SATB, orch, 1965, rev.
orch, 1966
Chbr: Str Qt no.1, 1921; Sonata no.1, va, pf, 1922; Str Sextet, 1922; Divertimento,
vn, va, 1925; Heitere Musik, 5 wind insts, 1928; 6 kleine Stücke, vn, va, 1929;
Sonata, vn, pf, 1951; Str Qt no.2, 1954; Sonata no.2, va, pf, 1955; Suite en
miniature, vn, pf, 1967; Sonatine, ob, pf, 1969
Pf: Phantasie, 1922; Sonatine, 1923; Divertimento, 1928; Spiel um Quart und Quint,
1941; Introduktion und Perpetuum, 1945; 5 Klavierstücke, 1947; 8 Klavierskizzen,
1948; Rhythmen, 1968
vocal
Der geheimnisvolle Trompeter (W. Whitman), S, T, B, SATB, orch, 1928; Das Lied
vom Arbeitsmann (A. Auerbach), S, T, B, SATB, orch, 1929; Rote Revue (H.
Hellfried), solo vv, spkr, SATB, orch, 1930; Wir! (H. de Man), spkrs, speaking
chorus, chorus, 1932; An die Sonne (L. Andersen), S, male vv, boys’ vv, orch, 1937;
Hanseatenfahrt (A. Höpner), S, Bar, spkr, male vv, orch, 1941; Eisenhüttenkombinat
Ost (H. Marchwitza), S, T, B, SATB, children's vv, orch, 1951; Hüter des Lebens (H.
Zinner), A, SATB, chbr orch, 1952; Ballade vom Manne Karl Marx und der
Veränderung der Welt (W. Victor), B, spkr, SATB, orch, 1958; Vorwärts! (A. Müller),
Bar, spkr, SATB, chbr orch, 1959; numerous songs and choral works
Principal publishers: Friedrich Hofmeister, Peters, B. Schott's Söhne
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (E. Levi); KdG (V. Grützner)
E. Rebling: ‘Zwei neue Friedenskantaten’, MG, ii (1952), 210–12
K. Laux: Ottmar Gerster, Leben und Werk (Leipzig, 1961)
O. Goldhammer: Professor Ottmar Gerster (Berlin, 1963)
S. Stampor: Ottmar Gerster: Der fröhliche Sünder (Leipzig, 1964)
H. Bitterlich: ‘Ottmar Gerster’, Musiker in unserer Zeit: Mitglieder der
Sektion Musik der Akademie der Künste der DDR, ed. D. Brennecke,
H. Gerlach and M. Hansen (Leipzig, 1979), 48–56, 358–360
R. Wehner: ‘Kolloquium – Ottmar Gerster 90.’, MG, xxxvi (1987), 498 only
R. Malth: Ottmar Gerster: Leben und Werk (Leipzig, 1988)
VERA GRÜTZNER (with ERIK LEVI)
Gervais, Charles-Hubert
(b Paris, 19 Feb 1671; d Paris, 15 Jan 1744). French composer. The son of
Jeanne Mercier and Hubert Gervais, who was garçon de la chambre to the
Duke of Orléans (brother of Louis XIV), he grew up in the Palais Royal,
where he probably studied music with the duke's musicians. He may also
have been a page in the choir school of his parish of St Eustache. From
1697 he was ordinaire de la musique to Philippe de Bourbon, Duke of
Chartres (who became Duke of Orléans in 1701 and Regent of France in
1715), and succeeded Sieur de Sablières in the position of maître de
musique de la chambre in 1700. He was subsequently made intendant
(perhaps in 1701) and then surintendant (perhaps in 1722). In this capacity
he taught music to the Duke of Chartres, who had a great love of Italian
music, and helped him to compose two operas, Penthée (c1703) and Suite
d'Armide, ou Jérusalem délivrée (c1704). On 18 October 1701 Gervais
married Françoise du Vivier (d1732), who bore him three children. He
succeeded his father as garçon de la chambre on 24 April 1702 and
retained that appointment until his death (he seems to have lost his post as
surintendant when the regent died). Gervais had his first public successes
with his opera Hypermnestre (1716) and his ballet Les amours de Protée
(1720). In January 1723, at the regent's request, Michel-Richard de
Lalande officially relinquished three of his four three-month terms of duty as
sous-maître of the Chapelle Royale. The three posts were then
redistributed, on a non-competitive basis, to André Campra, Nicolas
Bernier and Gervais. In 1726 Lalande's position fell vacant on his death,
and his duties were shared between the remaining sous-maîtres. When
Bernier died in 1734 Campra and Gervais carried out this work on their
own until 1738, when Henri Madin and Antoine Blanchard were appointed
to help them. Several of Gervais's motets were enthusiastically received at
the Concert Spirituel between 1736 and 1738, and five continued to be
sung at Versailles until 1792.
Gervais's style, which is sometimes conservative, reflects the quest of the
musicians of the Palais Royal for a goûts réunis. Méduse, his first tragédie
en musique, failed to achieve the success expected because of a cabal
against its librettist, Claude Boyer. The music, which owes much to the
example of Lully, already shows a real feeling for instrumentation which
was to flower in Hypermnestre, the best opera of the Regency period.
Hypermnestre and Les amours de Protée also contain passages written in
concertante style which anticipate Rameau. The six cantatas published in
1712 are in the same italianate vein. The grands motets follow established
models; the clarity of their style is reminiscent of Lalande, their melodic and
harmonic freshness of Campra and their contrapuntal density of Bernier.
Some movements also call Carissimi and Corelli to mind. The récits
oscillate between the declamatory French style and Italian concertante
writing; the choruses usually begin with imitation, but frequently continue in
homophonic style, with the exception of some fugues, as in one of the
Lauda Jerusalem settings; the orchestral texture is often in five parts. While
Gervais does not always manage to avoid grandiloquence (notably in his
use of many dissonances), his motets are among the best written for the
Chapelle.
WORKS
operas
Méduse (tragédie en musique, prol., 5, C. Boyer), Paris, Opéra, 19 May 1697, F-Pn,
Pa, Po
Penthée (tragédie en musique, prol., 5, C.A. de la Fare), Paris, Palais Royal, c1703,
Pa*, collab. Philippe de Bourbon
Suite d'Armide, ou Jerusalem délivrée (tragédie en musique, prol., 5, Baron de
Longepierre), Fontainebleau, c1704, F-Pa*, collab. Philippe de Bourbon
Hypermnestre (tragédie en musique, prol., 5, J. de La Font), Paris, Opéra, 3 Nov
1716 (Paris, 1716) [Act 5 rev. S.-J. Pellegrin 1717]
other works
[6] Cantates françoises avec et sans simphonie, livre premier: Tircis, Aréthuse,
Célimène, L'Amour vengé, Le triomphe de Bacchus, Télémaque (Paris, 1712);
L'Amour vengé, ed. J. Arger (Paris, 1910)
Les amours de Protée (opéra-ballet, prol., 3, La Font), Paris, Opéra, 16 May 1720
(Paris, 1720)
Pomone, cant. (Paris, 1720) [added to Les amours de Protée]
Airs contributed to Ballard's Recueil d'airs sérieux et à boire (Paris, 1695 3, 16962,
16992, 1710, 1711, 1712, 1716, 1717, 1720), Les parodies nouvelles (Paris, 1731),
Nouveau recueil de chansons choisies (The Hague, 1731), Nouvelles poésies
spirituelle et morales (Paris, 1752), Mercure de France (Sept 1745), and Le Tribut
(Paris, n.d.)
Suite de [15] noëls (1733), fls, obs, vns, bns, bc, F-Pn*
42 grands motets, Pc*, Pn*; 7 petits motets, Pn*; 1 ed. in RRMBE, lxxxiv (1998)
Cantate Domino qui mirabilia, lost; 2 divertissements, 1698, 1722, lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Titon du Tillet: Le Parnasse françois, suppl.ii (Paris, 1755), 19
Etat actuel de la Musique du Roi et des trois spectacles de Paris (Paris,
1773), 6, 14–15
J.-B. de La Borde: Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne (Paris,
1780/R), 425
D. Tunley: The Eighteenth-Century French Cantata (London, 1974,
2/1997)
R. Fajon: L'Opéra à Paris du Roi Soleil à Louis le Bien-Aimée (Geneva,
1984), 280–88, 353–5
J.-P. Montagnier: The Church Music of Charles-Hubert Gervais (1674–
1744), ‘sous-maître de musique’ at the Chapelle Royale (diss., Duke
U., 1994)
J.-P. Montagnier: Un mécène-musicien: Philippe d'Orléans, Régent
(1674–1723) (Paris, 1996)
J.-P. Montagnier: ‘Claude Boyer, librettiste: remarques sur Méduse
(1697)’, Revue d'histoire du théâtre, cxci (1996), 303–20
JEAN-PAUL MONTAGNIER
theoretical works
Méthode pour l'accompagnement du clavecin qui peut servir d'introduction à la
composition et apprendre à bien chiffrer les basses (Paris, 1733/R1974 in
BMB, section 2, cxlii)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Bachelier: Recueil de cantatas (The Hague, 1728)
M. Antoine: Henry Desmarest (1661–1741): biographie critique (Paris,
1965)
D. Tunley: The Eighteenth-Century French Cantata (London, 1974,
2/1997)
G.E. Vollen: The French Cantata: a Survey and Thematic Catalog (Ann
Arbor, 1982)
JEAN-PAUL MONTAGNIER
Gervais, Pierre-Noël
(b Mannheim, c1746; d ? Bordeaux, c1805). French violinist and
composer. The son of a French musician in the service of the Elector of
Mannheim, and the brother of a dancer (the future Mme Pérignon), he
studied with Ignaz Fränzl and Franz Beck. He went to Paris, where he
played some 20 times at the Concert Spirituel between 1 April 1784 and 25
December 1786, notably performing symphonies concertantes by Davaux
and concertos by Fränzl and Viotti. He also played at the Société
Académique des Enfants d'Apollon and the Wauxhall d'hiver concerts in
1784. His talents were much admired: in April 1784 the Mercure de France
praised his ‘superb sound, fine manner, great accuracy and precision’.
Gervais settled in Bordeaux in 1791 as first violin at the Grand Théâtre.
According to Fétis, he returned to Paris in 1801, and he seems to have
ended his days in Bordeaux.
His three-movement violin concertos (all published in Paris, c1798–1800)
call for considerable virtuosity, and have the melodic qualities peculiar to
the French school; their idiomatic writing employs all the instrument's
resources and exploits the principal technical demands of the period (with
varied bowing, high positions, passages on the fourth string, double
stopping, etc.). Gaviniés set them for his students to study.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetC
BrookSF
Choron-FayolleD
FétisB
GerberL
GerberNL
La LaurencieEF
PierreH
A. Chastel: ‘Etude sur la vie musicale à Paris à travers la presse pendant
le règne de Louis XVI’, RMFC, xvi (1976), 37–70
MICHELLE GARNIER-BUTEL
Gervaise, Claude
(fl Paris, 1540–60). French editor, composer and arranger. He was
employed as an editor by Pierre Attaingnant in Paris, where he was known
as a ‘musicien compositeur’. The title-pages of books 3, 4 and 5 of
Attaingnant’s Danceries state that the music was ‘looked over’ or ‘looked
over and corrected’ by Claude Gervaise, sçavant musicien’. After
Attaingnant’s death Gervaise continued to give editorial assistance to Marie
Lescallopier Attaingnant, who maintained the printing establishment,
bringing out volumes of music sporadically until 1558. His circle of friends
is known to have included at least one other Parisian musician, Julien Le
Maître, court oboist and violinist.
Gervaise is remembered principally for his instrumental music. In addition
to editing three books of Danceries, he composed the music of the sixth
volume. It contains numerous ensemble dances, almost all of them four-
part, and closely resembles the other volumes of the series. The dance
forms employed are the pavane and gaillarde, as well as various types of
branle: courant, gay and simple.
The books of ensemble dances edited by Gervaise include other dance
types, among them the allemande and such local varieties of the branle as
those of Poitiers and Burgundy. They also contain dances modelled on
polyphonic chansons by well-known composers, such as Certon, Gentian,
Janequin and Moulu. Perhaps Gervaise also served as the arranger of the
chanson dances, for his work as an arranger of vocal polyphony is amply
evident. He is known, moreover, to have intabulated ten chansons for viol
in his now lost tutor (published before 1548); this book, the first printed
example of viol tablature in France, is known only from a citation of the
1554 edition in the manuscript catalogue of the Brossard collection (F-Pn
Rés.Vm821).
Gervaise’s oeuvre also includes 49 polyphonic chansons. Of these, 20 are
for four voices and appear in various anthologies of Attaingnant, Veuve
Attaingnant and Du Chemin printed between 1541 and 1553. They are
freely composed and reflect the tendency of chanson composers in the
1540s to select poems of significant length (generally huitains) and set
them to music that is both concise and directional. The 26 chansons for
three voices (printed in Attaingnant’s last music book) are arrangements of
earlier four-part chansons. Invariably, the model’s superius is taken over
intact as one of the two upper voices in a tightly knit three-voice texture.
WORKS
chansons
Quart livre contenant xxvi. chansons musicales, 3vv (Paris, 1550); 1 ed. in
Bernstein (1969) 3 ed. M. Grace, Claude Gervaise: Three Chansons (Colorado
Springs, 1962); 1 ed. F. Dobbins, The Oxford Book of French Chansons (Oxford,
1987); 3 ed. M. Grace, Claude Gervaise: Three Chansons (Colorado Springs,
1962); 1 ed. F. Dobbins, The Oxford Book of French Chansons (Oxford, 1987)
20 chansons, 4vv, in 15415–6; 154510–11; 154923; 154924; 154927; 15507; 15509;
155010; 155011; 15519; 15524–5; 155320; one of these in I-Bc Q26; 1 ed. in Bernstein
(1965); 1 ed. in Bernstein (1969); 1 ed. A. Seay, Pierre Attaingnant: Dixseptiesme
livre (1545) (Colarado Springs, 1979); 2 ed. A. Seay, Pierre Attaingnant: Trente
troysiesme livre (1549) (Colorado Springs, 1982)
3 chansons, 6vv, in Whalley, Stonyhurst College, MS B.VI.23, tenor part only
(Fenlon, 1984)
instrumental
Premier livre de violle contenant dix chansons (Paris, c1547, 2/1554), lost
ed.: Quart livre de danceries, a 4 (Paris, 1550/R), ed. B. Thomas (London, 1975)
ed.: Cinquiesme livre de danceries, a 4 (Paris, 1550/R), ed. B. Thomas (London,
1973)
Sixième livre de danceries, a 4 (Paris, 1555/R), ed. B. Thomas (London, 1972)
ed.: Troisième livre de danceries, a 4, 5 (Paris, 1556 [1557]/R), ed. B. Thomas
(London, 1972)
Numerous works ed. in MMRF, xxiii (1908/R); for additional modern edns of instrumental music, see
BrownI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L.F. Bernstein: ‘Claude Gervaise as Chanson Composer’, JAMS, xviii
(1965), 359–81
L.F. Bernstein: ‘The Cantus-Firmus Chansons of Tylman Susato’, JAMS,
xxii (1969), 197–240
C.M. Cunningham: Estienne Du Tertre, scavant musicien, Jean d’Estrée,
joueur de hautbois du Roy, and the Mid-Sixteenth Century Franco-
Flemish Chanson and Ensemble Dance (diss., Bryn Mawr College,
1969)
D. Heartz: Pierre Attaingnant, Royal Printer of Music (Berkeley, 1969)
C.M. Cunningham: ‘Estienne Du Tertre and the Mid-Sixteenth Century
Parisian Chanson’, MD, xxv (1971), 127–70
J.L. Staley: Claude Gervaise and the ‘Troisiesme livre’ (1557 3), ‘Quart livre’
(15505), ‘Cinquiesme livre’ (15506), and ‘Sixième livre’ (15555) of
Danceries Published by Pierre Attaingnant (diss., Catholic U. of
America, 1977)
I. Fenlon: ‘An Imperial Repertory for Charles V’, Studi musicali, xiii (1984),
21–40
LAWRENCE F. BERNSTEIN
Gervasius de Anglia.
See Gervays.
Gervasoni, Carlo
(b Milan, 4 Nov 1762; d Borgotaro, nr Parma, 4 June 1819). Italian theorist,
music historian, teacher and organist. Although he had studied music as a
child (playing such instruments as the harpsichord, psaltery, archlute, violin
and organ), he prepared for a career as an engineer. These studies ended
in 1781 with the death of his father. After the failure of his commercial
business in 1789 he became maestro di cappella at the Chiesa Matrice in
Borgotaro, where he remained until his death. In this post he composed
vocal and instrumental sacred music, directed the amateur orchestra,
organized music for the salons of noble families (who provided him with
pupils), was active as a teacher and gave public performances on the
organ. Among his more successful students were Pietro Giovanni Parolini,
from Pontremoli, and Francesco Canetti, formerly maestro di cappella at
Brescia Cathedral. The high regard in which he was held in contemporary
musical circles can be taken from his correspondence or from reports of his
travels in northern Italy. There is no doubt that it is largely due to him that
the town of Borgotaro saw the construction of a powerful and original organ
(described in detail in La scuola della musica, pp.270–74) in the Chiesa
Matrice di S Antonino. Constructed in 1795, it reflects Italian organ building
of the day, but is also the product of Gervasoni’s own interest in developing
technology and tone-colour.
Gervasoni’s most significant publication is La scuola della musica
(Piacenza, 1800), a basic instructional manual containing much informative
material on theory and performing practice. This book, together with its
accompanying volume of music examples, Esempj della Scuola della
musica (Piacenza, 1801) attracted the attention of many Italian and foreign
musicians. Choron took the first two parts, which deal with the theory and
practice of music, and made them the basis of the first part of his Manuel
complet de musique vocale et instrumentale (Paris, 1836–9). Gervasoni
himself published a work which publicized La scuola della musica by
reprinting some of the correspondence he had had with Italian musicians
and theorists about it, Carteggio musicale di Carlo Gervasoni … in cui
dimostra l’utilità della Scuola della musica e si sciolgono alcuni dubbi alla
medesima Scuola relativa (Parma, 1804, 2/1804): the final letter contains a
lengthy, autobiographical note. Gervasoni’s other major publication, the
Nuova teoria di musica (Parma, 1812), provides an interesting picture of
the musical scene in Italy during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, as
well as a useful biographical dictionary of musicians, mostly Italian, of the
same period, including less well-known figures and women musicians
(especially singers). His Dissertazione on the state of music in Italy,
inserted as a preface, gained him entrance to the competition for
membership of the Società Italiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti in 1810.
These works were used in several Italian music schools during the early
19th century, including the Liceo Musicale in Bologna, and are of interest
today because of their inclusion of one of the first theoretical descriptions
of sonata form and important aspects of organ performing practice of the
day, particularly with reference to instruments with several keyboards. His
surviving compositions include some organ sonatas (in I-Gl) and a Te
Deum (in I-Baf).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Sutter: ‘Aspetti della prassi organistica in Italia nel Settecento e nel
primo Ottocento’, L’organo, xi (1973), 139–55
[M. Bernadi and R. Broglia]: Carlo Gervasoni, maestro di cappella a
Borgotaro (1718–1819) (Borgotaro, 1977)
O. Mischiati: ‘Regesto dell'Archivio Serassi di Bergamo’, L’organo, xxix
(1995), 19–23
F. Giudotti: ‘Musica d'organo in Italia nel tardo Settecento e primo
Ottocento: aspetti stilistici e idiomatici’, Studi musicali, xxvi (1997),
223–61
A. Beccarelli: Carlo Gervasoni e Borgotaro (?Borgotaro, after 1977)
S. Roncroffi: ‘Carlo Gervasoni (1762–1819): compositore e trattatista
borgotarese’, La montagna tosco-ligure-emiliana e le vie di commercio
e pellegrinaggio: Borgotaro 1998
MILTON SUTTER/PATRIZIA RADICCHI
Gervasoni, Stefano
(b Bergamo, 26 July 1962). Italian composer. He studied composition with
Lombardi, Castiglioni and Corghi at the Milan Conservatory. He also
attended Ligeti's courses at the International Bartók Seminar in
Szombathely, Hungary (1990) and studied computer music at IRCAM
(1992–3). Other composers who have influenced Gervasoni include
Ferneyhough, Eötvös, Lachenmann and Nono, from whom he developed
his ideas on the infinite possibilities of listening implicit in a single sound
and silence. Gervasoni has commented upon the importance of observing
daily objects with a ‘suspended and diverging glance, lowering your voice
so as to activate perception, looking through things and from different
viewpoints in order to discover the inherent complexity in apparent
simplicity’ (Gervasoni, 1992). His work consists not of development, but of
repetition transformed by formal and timbral elaboration. Thus, for
example, the two thematic cells in Descdesesasf (1995), derived from a
motif from Schumann's third Fantasiestück, are repeated with variations of
colour and combination, in order to obtain multiplicity and constant mobility
from a single element. The same process is used in Lilolela (1994) and the
Viola Concerto (1994–5); and, in an anti-utopian, postmodern fashion,
applied to subjects which would ordinarily be considered insignificant, such
as a tale of a toad which falls from a platform (Concertino per voce e
fischietti 1989–93, Dialogo del fischio nell'orecchio e di un rospo, 1989–90)
or the plant and animal descriptions in Ponge's Parti pris des choses,
which are the basis for Animato (1992). In his use of the poetry of
Ungaretti, Beckett and Rilke, Gervasoni has also applied his technique of
varied combination to textual fragements, thus representing the manifold
meanings contained therein. In another work involving text, L'ingenuo
(1992–4), electro-acoustic sounds and procedures are used to explore the
invisible and imperceptible. Gervasoni has received numerous awards,
including the Petrassi Prize (1987–9) and the Mozart Prize (1991).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. De Lisa: ‘La macchina del sentire o i travestimenti dell'inquietudine’,
Sonus, viii/3 (1991), 37–44 [interview]
S. Gervasoni: ‘…Considérer l'évident comme énigmatique’, Saison
musical Centre Pompidou (Paris, 1992) [programme book]
S. Gervasoni: ‘Babel felix’, Les cahiers de l'IRCAM: recherche et musique,
no.4 (1993), 120–21
L. Feneyrou: ‘Innocence et mémoire’, Festival d'Automne (Paris, 1996)
[programme book]
WORKS
Orch and large ens: In Eile Zögernd III, orch, 1987; Sensibile, orch, 1989; Concertino, db,
ens, 1989–90; Adagio für Glasorchester, orch, 1990–92; Su un arco di bianco
(Sinfonietta), vn, fl, ens, 1991; Lilolela (Vagabonderia severa), 23 insts, 1994; Va Conc.,
15 insts, 1994–5; Parola, 16 insts, 1996; Atemseile (Hommage à Schumann-Celan),
obbl str trio, 3 echo trios, fl, wind qnt, perc, pf, str qnt, 1997; Far niente, db, 17 insts,
1998Vocal: Quattro voci (V. Sereni, M. Luzi, E. Sanguinetti, G. Caproni), S, fl, cl, pf,
1988; Un recitativo (F. Fortini), S, 9 insts, 1988; Dialogo del fischio nell'orecchio e di un
rospo (T. Scialoja), lv, fl, ens, tape, 1989–90; Concertino per voce e fischietti (Scialoja),
1v, 10 insts, 1989–93; Least Bee (E. Dickinson), 1v, chbr ens, 1991–2; L'ingenuo
(Scialoja), S, tuba, live elecs, 1992–4; 2 poesie francesi d'Ungaretti, 1v, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf,
1994; 2 poesie francesi di Beckett, 1v, b fl, va, perc, 1995; 2 poesie francesi di Rilke, 1v,
fl, cl, str qt, perc, pf, 1995–6Chbr and solo inst: Trittico grave, 1988–94: 1 Tornasole, va,
2 Vigilia, vc, 3 Terzo paesaggio senza peso, db; An (Quasi una serenata con la
complicità di Schubert), a fl, cl, str trio, 1989; Equale, cl qt, 1989; Due voci, fl, vn, 1991;
Macchina del baccano sentito, perc ens, 1991; Animato, fl, cl, bn, hn, vn, va, vc, pf,
1992; Dal belvedere di non ritorno, ens, 1993; Bleu jusq'au blanc, 6 perc, 1995;
Descdesesasf (Trio rito), str trio, 1995
MARINELLA RAMAZZOTTI
MARGARET BENT
Gervés du Bus.
French notary and writer, author of the Roman de Fauvel.
Ges
(Ger.).
Gesangvoll
(Ger.).
See Cantabile.
Geschwind
(Ger.: ‘quick’).
A word normally used as the German equivalent of the Italian allegro
(though presto would perhaps be a more accurate translation), as in the
designation mässig geschwind, which means the same as allegro
moderato. It also appears in the adverbial form geschwinde.
DAVID FALLOWS
Geschwindmarsch
(Ger.).
Quick march. See March, §1.
Gese, Bartholomäus.
See Gesius, Bartholomäus.
Geselliges Lied.
See Gesellschaftslied.
Gesellschaftslied
(Ger.).
A term for a German polyphonic song that evolved in the 15th to 17th
centuries and was derived from the courtly Minnelied. Often in four parts,
Gesellschaftslieder were intended for the educated classes, are
distinguishable by their texts from the Hofweise (court song) and the
Volkslied (folksong), and typically are love songs. Gesellschaftslieder are
based on a pre-existing melody, usually in the tenor or the discantus, but
occasionally in one of the middle voices. A characteristic of 16th-century
Gesellschaftslieder is the melodic quality of all the voices. There is a
frequent use of imitation, revealing the influence of the French chanson,
although some songs are set in a seemingly chordal manner. The under-
third (‘Landini’) cadence appears quite often and sections are generally of
uneven length. The songs are usually in bar form, though some are
through-composed. Examples, dating from the early to mid-15th century,
can be found in the Lochamer, Schedel and Glogau songbooks. Among
important composers of the genre in the early 16th century, Ludwig Senfl
was the most prolific. Publisher-arrangers of 16th-century
Gesellschaftslieder include Georg Forster and Hans Ott. The term is
occasionally applied to choral songs of the 18th to 20th centuries or as a
synonym for ‘geselliges Lied’ (‘sociable song’), which refers to the 19th-
century custom of guests performing music at social gatherings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ReeseMR
L. Denecke: ‘Ein Gesellschaftslied des 15. Jahrhunderts aus einer
Handschrift der Dombibliothek zu Fritzlar’, Jb für Volksliedforschung,
xxi (1976), 157–9
J. Klima, ed.: Die Lautenhandschrift des Prämonstratenserstiftes Strachov
(Prag): ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des deutschen Gesellschaftsliedes im
18. Jahrhundert, Themenverzeichnis (Vienna, 1976)
W. Kaden: ‘The Early Music Culture of Miners’, BMw, xxxi (1989), 59–62
M.M. Stoljar: ‘Speculum ludi: the Aesthetics of Performance in Song’,
Music and German Literature: their Relationship since the Middle
Ages (Columbia, SC, 1992), 119–31
L. Finscher: ‘Lied und Madrigal, 1580–1600’, Music in the German
Renaissance: Sources, Styles, and Contexts, ed. J. Kmetz
(Cambridge, 1994), 182–92
M. Staehelin: ‘The Constitution of the Fifteenth-Century Tenor Lied:
Drafting the History of a Musical Genre’, ibid., 174–81
J. Steinheuer: ‘Zum Wandel des italienisches Einflusses auf das deutsche
Gesellschaftslied und vor allem das Quodlibet in der ersten Hälfte des
17. Jahrhunderts’, Relazioni musicali tra Italia e Germania nell'età
barocca: Loveno di Menaggio 1995, 137–70
ANGELA MIGLIORINI
Geses
(Ger.).
Edition: Antiqua Chorbuch, ed. H. Mönkemeyer, i–ii (Mainz, 1951–2) [incl. 7 pieces from
1601 and 1605 publications]
Historia vom Leiden und Sterben … Jesu Christi, wie sie uns der Evangelista
Johannes … beschrieben, 2–5vv (Wittenberg, 1588); ed. in Handbuch der
deutschen evangelischen Kirchenmusik, i/3–4 (Göttingen, 1974)
Hymni, 5vv, de praecipuis festis anniversariis (Wittenberg, 1595)
Novae melodiae harmonicis, 5vv (1596)
Hymni scholastici … per 12 modos musicos … 4vv … et … precationes, 3vv, una
cum cantionibus gregorianis (1597); 2/1609 as Melodiae scholasticae sub horarum
intervallis decantandae, cum cantionibus gregorianis; 4/1621 as Vierstimmiges
Handbüchlein … der Altväter Ambrosii, Augustini … Lobgesänge, nebenst den
deutschen Kirchenliedern)
Der Lobgesang Mariae (Meine Seel erhebt den Herren), Herr Gott dich loben wir
und andere geistliche Lieder, 5vv, sampt einem neuen Jahrgesang, 8vv (1598)
Psalmodia choralis continens antiphonas cum intonationibus, psalmos, responsoria,
hymnos, introitus et caeteras cantiones missae … in fine lamentationibus … quae
Vesperis in hebdomade palmarum canuntur, 1v (1600)
Geistliche deutsche Lieder D. Martini Lutheri: und anderer frommen Christen … 4–
5vv, nach gewöhnlicher Choralmelodien (1601; 2/1605 as Ein ander neu Opus
geistlicher Lieder … in 2 Theile, 4, 5vv, schlecht Contrapunctsweise nach
bekandten gewöhnlichen KirchMelodien; 3/1607 as Geistliche deutsche Lieder …
gebessert und mit etlichen Gesängen vermehrt. Dazu … ein neuer langwährender
Kalender [in 3 parts]); 6 ed. in WinterfeldEK
Enchiridium etlicher deutschen und lateinischen Gesengen, 4vv (1603)
Christliche Hauss und Tisch Musica. Darin … Gesänge … durch den Catechismum
D. Martini Lutheri, auff alle Tag, 4vv, zum theil nach bekandter Choralmelodien
(Wittenberg, 1605)
Synopsis musicae practicae variis exemplis illustrata … in usum scholasticae
iuventutis Francofurtensis cis Viadrum conscripta (1606)
Canticum BMV sive Magnificat per quintum et sextum tonum, insertis cantionibus
aliquot natalitijs, Resonet in laudibus, in dulci jubilo, 6vv (1607), lost
Concentus ecclesiasticus, 4vv, darinnen alle geistlichen deutschen Lieder D. Martini
Lutheri und vieler anderen frommen Christen mit den gewöhnlichen Kirchen
Hymnis, Sequentien und anderen lateinischen Gesängen: Item Introitus, Kyrie,
Sanctus, Psalmen und Magnificat, 4vv (1607), lost
Synopsis musicae practicae variis exemplis illustrata … in usum scholasticae
iuventutis Francofurtensis cis Viadrum conscripta (1606)
10 tröstliche schöne Psalmen des königliches Propheten Davids, … Luca Osiander,
4vv (?1610), lost
Cantiones sacrae chorales: Introitus, ut vocantur, Kyrie, sequentia et plures aliae de
praecipuis diebus festis aniversariis, 4–6vv (1610)
Missae ad imitationem cantionum Orlandi, et aliorum, 5vv (1611) [also pubd with
Cantiones sacrae chorales as: Opus plane novum cantionum ecclesiasticarum in 2
partes divisum. Prior continet missas ad imitationem cantionum Orlandi, Marentii et
aliorum … 5–8 et plurium vocum: posterior continens introitus, Kyrie, sequenti, etc,
4–6vv … quibus praemissa est historia Passionis Domini nostri Jesu Christi ex
Evangelista Matthaeo, 6vv (1613)]
Motetae selectissimae latinae germanicae (1615), lost; cited in Draudius (1625)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (A. Adrio)
WinterfeldEK [appx incl. edn of 6 songs from 1601 pubd]
R. Schwarze: ‘Die Gesius'schen Gesangbücher’, Mitteilungen des
Historisch-statistischen Vereins zu Frankfurt/Oder (Frankfurt an der
Oder, 1873)
O. Kade: Die ältere Passionskomposition bis zum Jahre 1631 (Gütersloh,
1893/R)
F.W. Schönherr: Bartholomäus Gesius Munchbergensis (diss., U. of
Leipzig, 1920)
P. Blumenthal: Der Kantor Bartholomäus Gesius zu Frankfurt/Oder
(Frankfurt an der Oder, 1926)
N. Hampel: Deutschsprachige protestantische Kirchenmusik Schlesiens
bis zum Einbruch der Monodie (diss., U. of Breslau, 1937), 47
H. Grimm: Meister der Renaissancemusik an der Viadrina (Frankfurt an
der Oder, 1942)
H. Borlisch: ‘Bartholomäus Gesius’, Musik und Kirche, xxii (1952), 19–24
M. Geck: ‘J.S. Bach's Weihnachts-Magnificat und sein
Traditionszusammenhang’, Musik und Kirche, xxxi (1961), 257–66
B. Gissel: Untersuchungen zur mehrstimmigen protestantischen
Hymnenkomposition in Deutschland um 1600 (Kassel, 1983)
S. Gissel: ‘Zur Modusbestimmung deutscher Autoren in der Zeit von 1550
bis 1650’, Mf, xxxix (1986), 201–17
M. Hůlková: L'ubický spevník [The hymnbook of L'ubica], Musicalogica
slovaca, xii (1998), 11–134
WALTER BLANKENBURG/CLYTUS GOTTWALD
Gesolreut.
The pitches g and g' in the Hexachord system.
Gestalt.
See Psychology of music, §I, 2. See also Analysis, §II, 4.
Gestopft
(Ger.: ‘stopped’).
A term applied to hand-stopping on a horn. It affects the pitch and the tone
quality of the instrument. See Horn, §3(ii).
Gestossen
(Ger.).
See Abstossen.
Gesualdo’s artistic ‘models’ are not confined to Luzzaschi and Nenna. His
formation probably took place through an interchange of experiences with
the musicians frequenting Fabrizio Gesualdo’s house about 1585, and the
early madrigals are not unlike those dedicated to Michele and Scipione
Gesualdo by Marien. But Carlo Gesualdo’s first published composition was
a motet in the Liber secundus motectorum by Felis (RISM 15852), so he
was presumably a disciple of the latter, and also of Macque, who included
three of Gesualdo’s ricercares in his Ricercate et canzone francesi,
dedicated on 1 October 1586 to Gesualdo himself. Felis’s membership of
Fabrizio Gesualdo’s academy is conjectural; Macque’s is verified.
Moreover, Gesualdo adopted a number of devices typical of Macque’s later
madrigals, such as the deliberately archaic use of the falsobordone for the
three upper voices (cf Macque, Tu segui, o bella Clori and Gesualdo, ex.2
and 4); chromatic tetrachords (Macque, Io piango and Gesualdo, ex.1); a
falling sequence of chromatic semitones (cf Macque, Poi che’l cammin, and
Gesualdo, Or, che in gioia credea, and see Doni, ii, 73); relationes non
harmonicae (Macque, La mia doglia, and Gesualdo, Resta di darmi noia,
penultimate bar); and sudden rests and emphatic repetitions, or
unexpected changes of rhythm. More generally, a madrigal such as
Macque’s cheerful Cantan gli augelli (RISM 160916) shows that harmonic
progressions by 3rds, far from representing any kind of ‘triadic atonality’,
are rather a neutral extension of modality as commonly practised by
Neapolitan musicians, and not only by Gesualdo. But while Macque freely
scattered such devices through his works, Gesualdo used similar methods
and irregularities continuously, sometimes simultaneously and inevitably
ostentatiously.
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
3. Secular works.
The ostentatious display of cleverness, irregularity and complexity that
particularly distinguishes Gesualdo’s last three books of madrigals
develops from the essential rules of the madrigal form without breaking
them. The basic principle that every verbal image is matched by a separate
musical formulation remains valid, and the madrigal is a series of clearly
differentiated, even disparate musical sections. The significance of the
musical images is provided by conventional melodic, rhythmic, contrapuntal
and other figures, musical unity is guaranteed by the mode (and thus by a
conventional sequence of cadences) and by an unchanging distribution of
voices, and formal unity is obtained solely by poetic conceit, which binds
together verbal-musical images. Musical correspondences are found within
a madrigal only when justified by the repetition of words or poetic lines, as
in Donna, se m’ancidete, or by the obvious conceptual relationship in a
strophic form, as in the odicina Luci serene e chiare. Gesualdo frequently
repeated for emphatic purposes a single musical-verbal phrase or a
complete final section, and these repetitions are often not literal but more
complex. It is symptomatic of Gesualdo’s respect for the individuality of the
word that he hardly ever superimposed two verbal phrases and thus two
different musical motifs, a method commonly used by Wert and by
Monteverdi in his early works. But from his earliest works he used double
imitation, two subjects for each phrase announced together and then
interchanged; as this usually happens with rhythmically identical motifs,
they coincide with the more homophonic passages and are thus perceived
as chords and inversions rather than as imitiative episodes. Such
ambiguity is probably intentional; in the last books melodic interchange is
used primarily to ensure that the most dissonant and chromatic passages
are contrapuntally orthodox.
Gesualdo usually avoided pastoral and narrative poetry, preferring
madrigals that offer greater scope to musical imagination. His texts abound
in metaphors of the ‘mali d’amore’ that substitute concrete symbols such as
‘fire’, ‘death’ and ‘ardour’ for the abstraction of ‘love’, use expressive strings
of adjectives such as ‘obscure, interrupted, sweet, tormented’, and employ
opposites and oxymorons (e.g. ‘O dolorosa gioia’). One of his few sacred
madrigals is the embodiment of this last usage:
Pietà, Signor, pietade,
io peccator mi pento
e della gioia mia mi fo tormento …
The persistent recurrence of antithetical images such as ‘death’ and ‘life’,
‘joy’ and ‘sorrow’ in Gesualdo’s madrigals has often been wrongly
interpreted as the product of the composer’s neurotic obsession with
confession, but in fact some texts which are perhaps personally truly
relevant can be found, significantly, only among the posthumous six-voice
madrigals. In reality such images are simply rhetorical correlatives of the
enormous differentiation of his musical representation, the three chief
means of which are dissonance, chromaticism and rhythm.
Although Gesualdo’s use of individual dissonance can usually be set
against the accepted practices of late 16th-century counterpoint, his music
also readily adopts pre-Palestrinian contrapuntal methods, adapting them
to serve as expressive agents (see Dahlhaus, 1967 and 1974). The
consecutive or simultaneous accumulation of dissonances, each
individually correct, has the effect of blurring the intervallic relationships
that justify them. Thus one line may be correctly dissonant in respect of a
second, which is itself dissonant in respect of a third
(ex.2..\Frames/F922848.html), and at the cadence this practice is often
combined with one or more pedal points. The melodic counterpart is an
angularity and elasticity of thematic materials, and a wide range of
intervals.
Chromatic alteration of the harmonic interval is an expressive ornament of
the melody and does not alter the nominal contrapuntal value of the
interval, and so although augmented 5ths and diminished 4ths have a
dissonant effect, they are treated as consonances
(ex.2..\Frames/F922848.html, ‘tormenti’). This heterogeneity of melodic and
contrapuntal terms of reference is fundamental to Gesualdo’s use of
chromaticism. Burney considered the beginning of Moro, lasso ‘extremely
shocking and disgusting’ because it moves ‘from one chord to another in
which there is no relation, real or imaginary’, but in the chordal succession
of C major to A minor in first inversion, the interval c–e' is common to both
chords, independent of the alteration; the same is true of the first two
chords of ex.2..\Frames/F922848.html, also criticized by Burney. Chromatic
alteration can involve the whole extent of a chord, or of several consecutive
chords. In ex.2..\Frames/F922848.html the syllables ‘-tà poi che t’assen-’ can
be interpreted as altered by a semitone from the imaginary ‘normal’ chordal
sequence g–E –D –G –D 6–G (= F ), this last chord being one of many
examples of enharmonics, explicit or implicit, in Gesualdo’s music.
Transposition, as well as chromatic alteration of the entire chord, can also
be found: in ex.3 below the cadence on ‘morte’ can be interpreted as
ideally transposed up a tone; the effect, extended to all the voices, is the
same as the transitory chromatic ‘eclipses’ in Avella’s theory (Regole di
musica, Rome, 1657), or the ‘metabolism’ of the three genera, as
documented by Kircher (Musurgia universalis, Rome, 1650/R). Similar
explanations, legitimized also by the analyses and remarks of such
contemporaries as Doni, rationalize Gesualdo’s pervasive chromaticism but
do not solve its deliberate ambivalence; while the dissociation of intervallic
and chromatic structures is firmly based on the validity of contrapuntal
rules, it also allows, as a legitimate collateral effect, ‘vertical’ apperceptions.
While his predecessors and contemporaries used chromaticism only
occasionally and briefly, Gesualdo used it extensively and as a normal
device, thereby increasing the representational powers of the madrigal.
Thus Beltà, poi che t’assenti can be subdivided into six sections, each
quite different in character and structure.
Beltà, poi che t’assenti/come ne porti il cor:
homophony–chromaticism–consonance
porta i tormenti: imitation–chromaticism–(consonance)
che tormentato cor può ben sentire: pseudo-polyphony
(falsobordone)–diatonicism-(consonance)
la doglia del morire: imitation–(diatonicism)–dissonance
e un’alma senza core: homophony–diatonicism–consonance
non può sentir dolore: imitation–diatonicism–
chromaticism–dissonance
Although Gesualdo did not usually alter the modal framework of a
madrigal, he often weakened the cohesion and viscosity of the 16th-
century tactus. The scattering of dissonances on its every beat conceals its
profile. The rhythm of Gesualdo’s madrigals is subject to excessive
variation, which leads not only to further individualization but also to
musical fragmentation of each line or half-line. His frequent use of the
emphatic pause is a part of this practice. The slow contortions of chromatic
or dissonant episodes alternate abruptly with fast declamations in quavers,
or with interwoven diatonic melismas in quavers or semiquavers. The
individual episodes of Deh, coprite (ex.3) are based on rhythmically unified
declamation ranging from the quaver to the semibreve, and the latter is
also subdivided on the word ‘vita’ into melismatic semiquavers. The sixth
book of madrigals contains several quite delirious examples of melismas
figuring ‘joy’ (one is quoted by Kircher as ‘Paradigma affectus gaudiosi’),
and metrical polarity allied to the chromatic–diatonic polarity is a constant
characteristic. In such cases, to delegate a formal function to the poetic
conceit, binding the various verbal-musical images by antiphrasis or by
analogy, no longer represents madrigalian normality, but rather an extreme
and challenging extension of the stylus phantasticus.
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
4. Sacred works.
The musical characteristics of Gesualdo’s sacred works are, in diluted
form, those of his madrigals, with the exception of the rhythmic scheme
and of the graphic appearance; while the madrigals are always written with
the C mensuration sign, the motets and responses are in C (ex.4). In the
Sacrarum cantionum contrapuntally through-composed motets are the
norm, sometimes with canonic artifice and cantus firmus (Da pacem,
Domine and Assumpta est Maria: their missing parts and those of Illumina
nos misericordiarum were imaginatively fabricated by Stravinsky in 1957–
9). Some of the motets make discreet but manifest expressive use of
harmony and dissonance; the five-voice setting of O vos omnes almost
literally anticipates the more complex and grief-ridden six-voice version in
the Responsoria (1611). The latter are treated, in disturbing contravention
of all rules of post-Tridentine liturgical practice, in a free style enriched with
the molles flexiones of the madrigals. In ex.4 there is a concentration of
dissonance, chromaticism and melodic extravagance, especially in the
sextus part, which is nearly as affecting as the elaboration of the erotic
madrigals; despite the textual clarity of the setting, it contravenes the
liturgical decree that ordains a complete renunciation of all ornament
during Holy Week. Throughout the Responsoria Gesualdo used the
emotive style that his contemporaries reserved for rare single motets
(Wert’s Vox in Rama or Lassus’s Timor et tremor) and for their sacred
madrigals. It must be admitted that like the madrigals, the Responsoria
were meant for private performance at Gesualdo’s castle, and, moreover,
were intended for one listener, the composer himself. His paradoxical
identification with the religious theme is also evident in the 1603 motets,
settings of antiphonal, responsorial or para-liturgical texts, which dwell on
contrition, self-deprecation and a sinner’s supplications to the Virgin Mary
and to St Francis. Following a practice that is again characteristic of the
madrigal, Gesualdo borrowed no fewer than 14 of the motet texts from
Scipione Stella’s motet publication at Ferrara in 1595.
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
5. Posthumous reputation.
The extremism and individuality of Gesualdo’s music, confirmed by the
arbitrariness of his sacred works, are provocations, just as his personal
notoriety must have been, and in these circumstances it is impossible to
make a calm judgment on his output. Interpretation of his music is
compromised, more than that of any other 16th-century composer’s work,
by a change of harmonic perspective that has brought about a mistaken
overemphasis on his chromatic style. Stravinsky, whether consciously or
not, exploited just this misunderstanding when he orchestrated the
madrigal Beltà, poi che t’assenti (in Monumentum pro Gesualdo, 1960). In
the opening phrase, played by the strings, the horns are given only the
chromatic chords, corresponding to the syllables ‘-tà, -ti, -me, por-, cor’,
and thus by accentuating the implicitly vertical nature of modern
chromaticism, Stravinsky obliterated the contrapuntal relationship which
justified those chords in the original madrigal. Stravinsky’s poetics of the
arbitrary, a quasi-elective affinity, alienates Gesualdo’s music without
seeming to change it. Critical evaluation of it can properly be practised only
in the light of the contradictory reactions provoked by its conscious
exceptionality.
The historical influence of Gesualdo’s madrigal style was slight, and the
chromaticism in the works of other Neapolitan composers is more the basis
than the consequence of his own use of it. His influence on G.B. Bartoli
and d’India (in monody too) seems clearer, lying in the ostentatious
dissociation of the musical images. The only serious attempt at an imitation
of Gesualdo’s style was made by Cifra, who set 18 of Gesualdo’s texts to
music in his Madrigali concertati libro quinto (Venice, 1621), imitating his
melodic and rhythmic excesses; but this was more a scholastic exorcism
than a stylistic adherence to the ‘affetto pietoso e compassionevole’
admired by Pietro della Valle (Della musica dell’età nostra, 1640). By that
time Gesualdo’s music, no longer fashionable in avant-garde circles, was
reduced to a paradigm of ‘exquisite counterpoint, with difficult but pleasing
fugues in each part’, sometimes ‘harsh and rugged’, to use Vincenzo
Giustiniani’s words.
Simone Molinaro made the major contribution towards the use of
Gesualdo’s music as an instructional model for free counterpoint by
republishing the five-voice madrigals in score at Genoa (1613). Banchieri
quoted Gesualdo as an example in Moderna pratica, and Domenico
Mazzocchi also praised him; G.B. Martini, in his contrapuntal wisdom,
appraised the figurae and licences of two of his madrigals. Burney
measured their harmonic audacity with reference to tonal harmony, without
keeping in mind that they result from the extension rather than the negation
of modality. Through the incommensurability of such terms of reference his
verdict against Gesualdo is that of arrogant dilettantism: he ‘seldom
succeeded to the satisfaction of posterity’. Even in the 20th century some
scholars still appeal against Burney’s verdict, taking it as implicitly valid,
and try to decipher Gesualdo by means of a functional harmonic system
(Keiner), by Hindemith’s theory of root progression (Marshall) or by a
presumptive ‘triadic atonality’ (Lowinsky), which, paradoxically, is now
meant to be much more understandable than it could have been in 1600,
and assigns Gesualdo to an imaginary, heroic history of visionary prophets.
Stravinsky’s irreverent and arbitrary approach came nearer to the now
fossilized Gesualdian reality. The problematic nature of Gesualdo’s music
lies in its complex relationship of dialectic mediation with the tradition of
counterpoint (Dahlhaus, 1974), and cannot easily be accounted for by the
stylistic category ‘mannerism’ (Finscher and Watkins), which by analogy is
perhaps legitimate for the madrigal in general, but is at the same time too
generic and sweeping to grasp the essential extraordinariness of Gesualdo
and of his artifice-laden style. His exhibitionist and at the same time
secretive individualism is socially and historically conditioned by his
melancholy evasion of history and society (Pirrotta, 1961).
Gesualdo, Carlo, Prince of Venosa, Count of Conza
WORKS
Edition: Carlo Gesualdo: Sämtliche Werke, ed. W. Weismann and G.E. Watkins
(Hamburg, 1957–67) [W]
sacred vocal
Sacrarum cantionum liber primus, 5vv (Naples, 1603) [1603a]
Sacrarum cantionum liber primus, 6, 7vv (Naples, 1603), inc. [1603b]
Responsoria et alia ad Officium Hebdomadae Sanctae spectantia, 6vv (Gesualdo,
1611) [1611]
Works in 15852, Salmi delle compiete de diversi musici napolitani, 4vv, ed. M.
Magnetta (Naples, 1620)
Geteilt
(Ger.; abbreviated ‘get.’).
See Divisi.
Getragen
(Ger.: ‘solemn’, ‘ceremonious’).
A mark of tempo (and mood) found either by itself or as a qualification to
some other tempo marks: langsam getragen (‘slow and solemn’).
Gétreau, Florence
(b Boulogne-Billancourt, nr Paris, 16 May 1951). French musicologist. After
studying literature and the history of art at the University of Aix Marseille I
(1969–72), she was appointed assistant curator of the instrumental
museum of the Paris Conservatoire in 1973, becoming curator in 1979.
She was head of projects for the Paris Musée de la Musique (1986–92),
and later curator there (1993–4), and in 1994 was appointed both curator
of the Musée national des arts et traditions populaires and also head of its
music department. Concurrently she was a researcher at the CNRS, where
from 1992 to 1996 she was head of the research group on her two main
fields of study, organology and musical iconography. In 1993 she began
teaching these subjects at the Paris Conservatoire and in 1996 became
responsible for them at the CNRS Institut de Recherche sur le Patrimoine
Musical en France. Within the field of organology Gétreau specializes in
the history of French instrument making in the 17th and 18th centuries, the
history of collections of musical instruments in France and the history and
ethics of the restoration of musical instruments. In musical iconography her
work is centred on the painters Watteau and Veronese, and on the French
harpsichord and French bow. In addition to her publications she has
organized several exhibitions and is editor of the journal Musique-images-
instruments, which she founded in 1995.
WRITINGS
ed. with others: Musiques anciennes: instruments et partitions acceptés à
l’Etat en paiement de droits de succession, Bibliothèque nationale,
Paris 6 Nov – 7 Dec 1980 (Paris, 1980) [exhibition catalogue]
‘La restauration des instruments de musique’, Courrier du CNRS, no.38
(1980), 28–37
Restauration des instruments de musique (Fribourg, 1981)
‘Watteau et la musique: réalité et interprétation’, Antoine Watteau (1684–
1721): le peintre, son temps et sa légende: Paris 1984, 235–46
‘Contribution à l’histoire de la conservation en France’, Per una carta
europea del restauro: conservazione, restauro e riuso degli strumenti
musicali antichi: Venice 1985, 255–67
ed.: La facture instrumentale européenne: suprématies nationales et
enrichissement mutuel, Musée instrumental du Conservatoire National
Supérieur de Musique, Paris, 6 Nov 1985 – 1 March 1986 (Paris,
1985) [exhibition catalogue]
‘Watteau et sa génération: contribution à la chronologie et à l’identification
de deux instruments pastoraux’, Imago musicae, iv (1987), 299–314
ed.: Instrumentistes et luthiers parisiens: XVIIe-XIXe siècles, Paris, Marie
du Ve arrondissement, 4 Feb – 28 March 1988 (Paris, 1988)
[exhibition catalogue]
‘La Commission temporaire des Arts section de musique: naissance et
diffusion d’un modèle de Musée Instrumental’, L’image de la révolution
française: Paris 1989, ed. M. Vovelle (Oxford, 1989), iii, 2107–14
‘Le museum, section de musique: une utopie révolutionnaire et sa
descendance’, Orphée Phrygien: les musiques de la Révolution, ed.
J.-R. Julien and J.-C. Klein (Paris, 1989), 217–31
‘Restaurer l’instrument de musique: l’objet sonore et le document sont-ils
conciliables?’, Geschichte der Restaurierung in Europa/Histoire de la
restauration en Europe: Interlaken 1989, 145–53
Le Musée instrumental du Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique
de Paris: histoire et développement des collections (diss., U. of Paris
IV, 1991; Paris, 1996, as Aux origines du Musée de la musique: les
collections instrumentales du Conservatoire de Paris 1793–1993)
‘La musique’, ‘Les Noces de Cana’ de Véronèse: une oeuvre et sa
restauration, Musée du Louvre, Paris, 16 Nov 1992 – 29 March 1993
(Paris, 1992), 239–55 [exhibition catalogue]
with J. Dugot and others: ‘La recherche en organologie: les instruments
de musique occidentaux, 1960–1992’, RdM, lxxix (1993), 12–74
‘Collectionneurs d’instruments anciens et ensembles de musique ancienne
en France (1850–1950)’, HJbMw, xii (1994), 73–82
‘Orphée et les instruments de musique dans l’Occident moderne’, Les
métamorphoses d’Orphée, ed. C. Camboulivès and M. Lavallée,
Musée des Beaux-Arts, Tourcoing, 19 Nov 1994–30 Jan 1995
(Tourcoing, 1995), 95–103 [exhibition catalogue]
ed.: Musiciens des rues de Paris, Musée national des arts et traditions
populaires, 18 Nov 1997 – 27 April 1998 (Paris, 1997) [exhibition
catalogue]
with D. Herlin: ‘Portraits de clavecins et de clavecinistes français’,
Musique-images-instruments, no.2 (1997), 88–114
JEAN GRIBENSKI
Getty, Gordon (Peter)
(b Los Angeles, 20 Dec 1933). American composer. An heir to the Getty oil
fortune, he studied the piano as a child and, after terms of duty in the army
and the family businesses, enrolled at the San Francisco Conservatory of
Music (1961–2), where he studied theory with Sol Joseph. He holds
honorary doctorates from the University of Maryland, Pepperdine
University, the University of California at San Francisco, the San Francisco
Conservatory of Music and the Mannes College of Music. Through the
Gordon and Ann Getty Foundation he has been a generous supporter of
the performing arts in the San Francisco region and elsewhere. Getty’s
music, much of it vocal, is written in a smoothly tonal idiom, with careful
attention to the demands of a poetic text. His most frequently performed
work is The White Election (1981), a cycle of 32 Emily Dickinson settings
that has been performed by and recorded by Kaaren Erickson. His Plump
Jack (1987) is an operatic treatment of Shakespeare’s Falstaff to an
original libretto.
WORKS
(selective list)
Homework Suite, pf, 1954; The White Election (song cycle, E. Dickinson), S, pf,
1981; 3 Diatonic Waltzes, pf, 1985–6; Plump Jack (op, 2, Getty, after W.
Shakespeare), 1987; 3 Waltzes, pf, orch, 1988, arr. orch, 1991; Victorian Scenes
(A. Tennyson, A.E. Housman), chorus, pf/orch, 1989; Annabel Lee (E.A. Poe),
chorus, pf/orch, 1990; Waltzes from Fall of the House of Usher, pf, 1992–5; All
Through the Night (folksong), chorus, pf, 1998; Joan and the Bells, S, B, chorus,
pf/orch, 1998
JOSHUA KOSMAN
Getz, Stan(ley)
(b Philadelphia, 2 Feb 1927; d Malibu, CA, 6 June 1991). American jazz
tenor saxophonist and bandleader. At the age of 12 he started on the
harmonica and within a year switched to the string bass and then to the
alto saxophone. He also played the bassoon in his high school orchestra.
He was playing professionally at the age of 15 in New York and a year later
made his first recording, having left school to tour as a sideman with Jack
Teagarden. He joined several important big bands, including those of Stan
Kenton (1944–5) Jimmy Dorsey (1945) and Benny Goodman (1945–6,
1947); while with Kenton he became addicted to heroin. In 1947 he joined
Woody Herman’s Second Herd, where with his fellow saxophonists Zoot
Sims, Serge Chaloff and Ray Steward (soon replaced by Al Cohn) he
formed the famous reed section known as the Four Brothers. In 1948
Getz’s improvisation on Ralph Burns’s Early Autumn (Cap.) established
him instantly as a major soloist. After leaving Herman in 1949 Getz began
to lead his own small groups and immediately started to dominate jazz
popularity polls for his instrument, as he did for many years. From the
1950s he made a succession of outstanding recordings for Norman
Granz’s labels, despite his career being interrupted by difficulties
associated with his addiction to drugs. He went to Europe with Granz’s
Jazz at the Philharmonic in 1958 and remained there working freelance,
until 1960.
After returning to the USA in 1961 he recorded the album Focus(Verve),
which included outstanding arrangements by Eddie Sauter, providing one
of the first convincing amalgamations of jazz and European art music. In
the following year with Charlie Byrd, Getz initiated a fusion of cool jazz and
Brazilian bossa nova which captured the public’s fancy and brought Getz
much popular acclaim. Getz became cynical in the face of widespread,
tasteless appropriations of bossa nova, even though he had proved himself
to be the consummate improviser in this style in his solos on Desafinado
from the album Jazz Samba (1962, Verve) and The Girl from Ipanema (on
Getz/Gilberto, 1963, Verve). Getz continued to lead small groups in which
he helped to launch the careers of Gary Burton, Steve Swallow and Chick
Corea, but he found himself out of touch with the free-jazz and jazz-rock
movements and spent the years 1969 to 1971 in semi-retirement in
Europe. He resumed performing in the USA in 1972 and thereafter led
small groups with many important young musicians, moving into the realm
of synthesized jazz in the late 1970s, but in 1981 he rejected that path and
returned to his traditional approach, based in bop and swing. From 1985 to
1988 he worked regularly in the San Francisco Bay area and served as the
artist-in-residence at Stanford University. Although suffering from cancer,
he continued to play as well as ever, most notably in a duo recorded live at
the Jazzhus Montmartre in Copenhagen with the pianist Kenny Barron
(1991, Verve).
Getz was one of the supremely melodious improvisers in modern jazz. His
style was deeply rooted in the swing period. Drawing his light, vibrato-less
tone and basic approach from Lester Young, he developed a highly
personal manner which, in its elegance and easy virtuosity, stood apart
from the aggressive bop style of the late 1940s and 50s. His justly
celebrated performance on Early Autumn (1948), with its characteristically
languorous melody and delayed rhythm, captured the imagination of many
young white jazz musicians of the time and helped to precipitate the ‘cool’
reaction to bop in the years that followed. Although ballad renditions of this
sort were the basis of Getz’s popularity, he was also among the few jazz
musicians who could remain lyrical even at very fast tempos, thanks to a
secure technical command of his instrument; performances such as Crazy
Chords (1949, New Jazz), a breakneck rendering of the blues in all 12
keys, set new standards of virtuosity for jazz improvisation on the tenor
saxophone.
For many years Getz lacked the near-universal critical acclaim accorded
his contemporaries John Coltrane and Sonny Rollins and his
predecessors, the great tenors of the swing era. Reservations about his
place in the jazz pantheon arose from Getz’s obvious and substantial early
borrowings from Young (and the broader implications of such appropriation
to questions of audience and racism in jazz), from a feeling that his delicate
style was perhaps too precious, lacking soul (that is to say, cold rather than
cool), and also from critical concerns about a repetitive, mechanical
approach heard in a number of fast-tempoed improvisations which he
made during his first decade of recordings. But gradually, perhaps more so
than that of any other jazz musician, the criticisms largely evaporated. One
reason for this was that his playing became more varied at fast tempos,
and heavier throughout; and he routinely modified his already beautiful,
inimitable, instantly recognizable tone by incorporating soulful,
individualized cries. Later, as the bop revival of the 1980s onwards
gathered steam, Getz’s approach came back in fashion; with most of the
giants of this instrument having died, and Rollins exploring fusion styles, it
was Getz (and Joe Henderson) who defined the lingua franca of jazz tenor
saxophone playing, notably in his recordings with Abbey Lincoln and
Barron. Finally, and perhaps most significantly, as the Brazilian component
of Latin jazz became integrated into all sorts of jazz styles, including the
very fusion and free-jazz movements from which he had distanced himself,
it became apparent that Getz had had a substantial impact upon the
development of jazz; his playing in this realm remains, with seeming
permanence, unsurpassed. A collection of transcriptions of Getz’s solos,
Stan Getz: Improvised Saxophone Solos, has been published by T.
Kynaston (Hialeah, FL, 1982).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. James: ‘Stan Getz’, Ten Modern Jazzmen: an Appraisal of the
Recorded Work of Ten Modern Jazzmen (London, 1960), 15–25
D. DeMicheal: ‘A Long Look at Stan Getz’, Down Beat, xxxiii (1966), no.10,
pp.17–20; no.11, pp.15–17
A. Astrup: The Stan Getz Discography (Texarkana, TX, 1978; enlarged
2/1984 as The Revised Stan Getz Discography; enlarged3/1991 as
The New Revised Stan Getz Discography)
R. Palmer: Stan Getz (London, 1988)
D.L. Maggin: Stan Getz: a Life in Jazz (New York, 1996)
J. BRADFORD ROBINSON/BARRY KERNFELD
WRITINGS
‘Faktorï formoobrazovaniya v krupnïkh instrumental'nïkh proizvedeniyakh
vtoroy polovinï XX veka’ [Factors in form and structure in major
instrumental works of the second half of the 20th century], Problemï
muzïki XX veka (Gor'kiy, 1977)
‘O dramaturgii krupnïkh instrumental'nïkh form vo vtoroy polovine XX veka’
[Dramatic structure in major instrumental forms in the second half of
the 20th century], Problemï dramaturgii v muzïke XX veka [Problems
in dramatic form in 20th-century music] (Moscow, 1984)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Krïlova: ‘Muzïka na “vïrost'”’ [Music for ‘growth’], SovM (1978), no.10, 9–
11
N. Bordyug: ‘Boris Getselev’, Kompozitorï Rossiskoy Federatsii, v
(Moscow, 1994)
S. Savenko: ‘O Borise Getseleve, muzïkante i cheloveke’ [Boris Getselev,
musician and man], MAk (1996), no.1, pp.106–12
SVETLANA SAVENKO
Getzen Co.
American firm of brass instrument manufacturers. It was first established in
Elkhorn, WI, as a band instrument repair shop in 1939 by T.J. (Anthony
James) Getzen (b Grand Rapids, MI, 25 Sept 1894; d Harvard, IL, 10
March 1968), who had formerly worked for York, Wurlitzer and Holton.
Manufacturing of student-quality cornets, trumpets, trombones and piston
bugles began in 1946. In June 1960 Getzen absorbed the Hoosier Band
Instrument Co. of Elkhart, IN. Under the presidency of Harold M. Knowlton
(October 1960 to December 1985) the firm gained world prominence,
importing Meinl-Weston tubas from 1967 and introducing the popular
‘Eterna’ model trumpet and E.L. DeFord flutes in 1972, in the latter year
also expanding their space by 75% through the purchase of a second
factory in Marango, IL. The trumpeter Carl (‘Doc’) Severinsen was vice-
president for research and development from 1969 to 1980. The firm went
bankrupt in 1991.
In the meantime, Getzen’s son (James) Robert had founded Allied Music
Corp. (AMC) in 1959 and Allied Music Supply Co. (AMSC) in 1967.
Robert’s sons Edward (Michael) (b Elkhorn, 17 June 1950) and Thomas
(Robert) (b Elkhorn, 10 June 1948) took over AMSC in 1974 and AMC in
1985. In 1988 they founded the Edwards Band Instrument Co. in Elkhorn,
and began to manufacture high-quality trombones and trumpets with
interchangeable parts. They rescued the ex-family firm from bankruptcy in
1991 and Getzen Company, Inc. became the parent company, with AMC
the repair division. In 1998 Getzen was making instruments with the
Getzen, Edwards and Canadian Brass trade names and manufacturing
component parts for Monette.
In 1965 Donald E(arl) Getzen (b Elkhorn, 15 May 1928), another son of T.J.
Getzen, founded DEG Music Products in Lake Geneva, WI, selling a full
line of band instruments. Until 1991 his instruments were made by AMC,
after that by Weril in Brazil.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Getzen’s Remarkable Rebirth: how Family Members Saved a Venerable
Brass Maker from Certain Liquidation’, Music Trades, cxliii/1 (1995–6),
121–7
EDWARD H. TARR
Geuck, Valentin
(b Kassel, 1570–72; d Kassel, 3 Nov 1596). German composer and writer
on music. He grew up at Kassel, attended the local school and sang
descant in the choir of the Martinskirche. He had private tuition to prepare
him for service as a musician at the court of Wilhelm IV, Landgrave of
Hesse, and by 1585 he was a treble in the Hofkapelle. There he was
strongly influenced by Georg Otto, who was Kapellmeister from 1586. In
1588 he became a tenor, and in 1592, on the accession of the 20-year-old
Landgrave Moritz, he was also appointed a court official: he first worked as
a clerk in the excise office, and then, in 1594, the landgrave made him his
valet. The landgrave, a highly educated man and a proficient musician,
held him in high esteem and not only encouraged him to compose but after
his untimely death completed some unfinished works and was instrumental
in getting some of his music printed. The texts of the Novum et insigne
opus are paraphrases in tetrastichs by Landgrave Moritz of the Gospels for
the Sundays and festivals of the church’s year. Some 60 motets by Geuck
survive and bear witness to his great promise. They are closely related in
style to those of Georg Otto: they are in a smooth, predominantly harmonic
idiom, with natural word-setting and expressive declamation. His Musica is
a school manual written according to the method of Petrus Ramus; he was
encouraged to write it by Landgrave Moritz, who partly edited it after his
death. It shows that he was familiar with all the most important writings of
the time on theory of music and that he possessed an intimate knowledge
of the latest music and instruments from Italy. Its second part, ‘De
harmonia’, which covers all aspects of polyphonic music – including text-
setting, tempo, dynamics and musical genres – is particularly well
conceived.
WORKS
Liber secundus: continens motetas dominicales, 6vv (Kassel, 1603 3)
Liber tertius: continens motetas dierum feriarum, 5vv (Kassel, 1603 4)
Tricinia, das ist dreystimmige weltliche Lieder, beydes zu singen und sonst auff
Instrumenten zu spielen, 3vv (Kassel, 1603); lost, see MGG1
Novum et insigne opus continens textus metricos sacros … liber primus motetarum
festalium, 5, 6, 8vv (Kassel, 16045); [? 2nd edn, see list inMGG1]; 3 ed. F. Blume,
Geistliche Musik am Hofe des Landgrafen Moritz von Hessen (Kassel, 1931)
Cantio in solennitatem nuptiarum illustrissimi principis ac domini Mauritij … et …
dominae Agnetis … Qualis est dilectus tuus, 6vv,D-MGs
theoretical works
Musica methodice conscripta et in ordinem brevem redacta, Kl [partly ed. Moritz,
Landgrave of Hesse] (Kassel, 1598)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (W. Brennecke)
E. Zulauf: Beiträge zur Geschichte der landgräflich-hessischen Hofkapelle
zu Cassel bis auf die Zeit Moritz des Gelehrten (Kassel,1902), 28, 31–
2, 43, 52
F. Blume: Introduction to Geistliche Musik am Hofe des Landgrafen Moritz
von Hessen (Kassel,1931); repr. in Zeitschrift des Vereins für
hessische Geschichte und Landeskunde, lxviii (1957), 131–40
E. Gutbier: ‘Die Familie Geuck in Niederhessen: ihr Name und ihre
Herkunft’,Hessische Familienkunde, iv (1958), 235–7
E. Gutbier: ‘Valentin Geuck und Landgraf Moritz von Hessen, die
Verfasser einer Musiklehre’, Hessisches Jb für Landesgeschichte, x
(1960), 212–28
C. Bernsdorff-Engelbrecht: ‘Musik zwischen den Generationen:
Gebrauchs- und Repräsentationsmusik am Hofe des Landgrafen
Moritz von Hessen’, Sagittarius, ii (1969), 29–35
C.L. Alwes jr: Georg Otto’s ‘Opus musicum novum’ (1604) and Valentin
Geuck’s ‘Novum et Insigne Opus’ (1604): a Musico-Liturgical Analysis
of Two Collections of Gospel Music from the Court of Hesse-Kassel
(DMA diss., U. of Illinois, 1982)
WILFRIED BRENNECKE
Gevaert, François-Auguste
(b Huysse, nr Oudenaarde, 31 July 1828; d Brussels, 24 Dec 1908).
Belgian musicologist, teacher and composer. He first studied music with
the organist J.-B. Christiaens, a relative, and gave early evidence of an
exceptional gift. At the age of 13 he entered the Ghent Conservatory to
study the piano with De Somere and harmony with Mengal. Two years later
he became a piano teacher himself; subsequently he was the organist at
the Jesuit college in Ghent. In 1847 his Flemish cantata België won first
prize in a competition organized by the Société des Beaux-Arts de Gand,
and in the same year his cantata Le roi Lear won him the Belgian Prix de
Rome. Because of his age he was permitted to postpone his foreign tour
for two years, during which time he composed the operas Hugues de
Zomerghem and La comédie à la ville. They were both published by the
Gevaert family, who ran a music printing shop first in Huysse and later in
Ghent. From 1849 to 1852 he travelled in France, Spain, Italy and
Germany. In Madrid he composed the orchestral Fantasia sobre motivos
españoles, a work which favourably impressed Queen Isabel II. He also
wrote a Rapport sur l’état de la musique en Espagne, published in the
bulletin of the Belgian Royal Academy in 1851; later he published a similar
report on the state of music in Italy.
After a brief return to Ghent, Gevaert established himself in Paris, where
his comic opera Georgette, ou Le moulin de Fontenoy was given with great
success at the Théâtre Lyrique on 27 November 1853. He followed this
with a series of operas over the next ten years, most of which were first
performed at the Opéra-Comique. In 1867 he was appointed music director
at the Opéra, a position he held until the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian
War. He then returned to Belgium and succeeded Fétis as director of the
Brussels Conservatory; under his energetic leadership, which covered a
37-year period, the conservatory grew to be one of the most important
centres of musical learning in the world. He initiated fundamental reforms
in teaching and organization, setting up new courses and expanding the
teaching staff to include outstanding musicians such as Ysaÿe, De Greef,
Tinel and Gilson.
Although not an important composer, Gevaert cultivated a number of
genres with success; he wrote chiefly operas and cantatas, but also sacred
music, secular songs and partsongs, and orchestral and organ music. His
pedagogical works, however, are of greater significance: the Nouveau
traité d’instrumentation (1885), a reworking of the 1863 Traité général
d’instrumentation, was translated into German (by Riemann), Russian (by
Tchaikovsky), English and Portuguese, and declared ‘a monument of
universal knowledge’. His Vade-mecum de l’organiste and Traité
d’harmonie théorique et pratique were also much praised.
Most of Gevaert’s historical writings deal with ancient and early medieval
music. His exhaustive Histoire et théorie de la musique de l’antiquité
regards the history of music as a part of cultural history. In Les origines du
chant liturgique de l’église latine and La mélopée antique he made a
thorough study of the Greek modes and reached the conclusion that it was
not Gregory but one of his predecessors who was responsible for
reorganizing the hymnology of the Roman Church; at the time this theory
was strongly disputed, especially by the Benedictine monks. He also
published numerous editions of early music, including a collection of
Chansons du XVe siècle (Paris, 1875/R) in collaboration with Gaston Paris.
Under Gevaert’s influence, music schools throughout Belgium underwent
significant reform and new schools were established. He was held in great
respect by his contemporaries, being composer to the King of Belgium, a
member of the Belgian Royal Academy, the Institut de France and the
Royal Academy in Berlin, and a holder of the Leopoldsorde and the Order
of the Queen of Spain. At the end of his long and fruitful life he was made a
baronet for composing the national anthem of the Belgian Congo.
WORKS
operas
first performed, and printed works published, in Paris unless otherwise stated
sacred choral
Jérusalem, ou Le départ des Croisés (Ghent, n.d.); Super flumina Babylonis,
chorus, orch (Ghent, 1847)
Te Deum, 1843, B-Bc; Requiem, male vv, orch (Ghent, 1853); Litanies du Très-
Saint Nom de Jésus (Ghent, 1864); Christmas Mass, 3 children’s/female vv, org
(Paris, Brussels, 1908); 9 motets; other shorter works
secular vocal
Cants.: Le départ (Ghent, 1846); België, 1847, B-Bc; Le roi Lear, 1847, Bc;
Evocation patriotique, 1856, Bc; De nationale verjaerdag, c1856 (Ghent, 1856); Le
retour de l’armée, 1859; Lyderic, premier forestier de Flandre (Ghent, 1859); Jacob
van Artevelde (Ghent, 1864)
Other choral works; Les cloches de Noël, 1v, orch, Bc; many songs, 1v, pf, incl.
Verzameling van [8] oude Vlaemsche liederen (Ghent, 1854)
instrumental
Orch: Fantasia sobre motivos españoles, 1851; Flandre au Lion, ov., 1848, B-Bc;
La feria andaluza, 1851, Bc
Chbr and pf: Quatuor, cl, hn, bn, pf, Collège Melle-Lez-Gand, Ghent; Grande
fantaisie, pf 4 hands/pf solo
WRITINGS
Méthode pour l’enseignement du plainchant (Ghent, 1856)
Traité général d’instrumentation (Ghent, 1863)
Vade-mecum de l’organiste (Ghent, 1871)
Histoire et théorie de la musique de l’antiquité (Ghent, 1875–81/R)
Nouveau traité d’instrumentation (Paris and Brussels, 1885)
25 leçons de solfège à changement de clefs (Paris and Brussels, 1887)
Cours méthodique d’orchestration (Paris and Brussels, 1890)
Les origines du chant liturgique de l’église latine (Ghent, 1890/R)
Abrégé du nouveau traité d’instrumentation (Paris and Brussels, 1892)
La mélopée antique dans le chant de l’église latine (Ghent, 1895–6/R)
with J.C. Vollgraff: Les problèmes musicaux d’Aristote (Ghent, 1903/R)
Traité d’harmonie théorique et pratique (Paris and Brussels, 1905–7)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Dufour: Le baron François-Auguste Gevaert (Brussels, 1909)
E. Closson: Gevaert (Brussels, 1929)
L. Dubois: ‘Notice sur François-Auguste Gevaert’, Annuaire de l’Académie
royale des sciences, les lettres et les beaux-arts de Belgique, xcvi
(Brussels, 1930), 97–147
C. van den Borren: Geschiedenis van de muziek in de Nederlanden
(Antwerp, 1951)
J. Subirá: ‘Epistolario de F.-A. Gevaert y J. de Monasterio’, AnM, xvi
(1961), 217–46
J. Hargot: François-Auguste Gevaert (diss., Catholic U., Leuven, 1987)
ANNE-MARIE RIESSAUW (work-list with JEAN HARGOT)
Gewgaw.
See Jew's harp.
Geyer, Stefi
(b Budapest, 23 June 1888; d Zürich, 11 Dec 1956). Swiss violinist of
Hungarian origin. A pupil of Hubay at the Budapest Academy, she travelled
in Europe and to the USA as a child prodigy. From 1911 to 1919 she lived
in Vienna; she then settled in Zürich, where in 1920 she married the
composer and pianist Walter Schulthess. She made numerous concert
tours and held a master class at the Zürich Conservatory from 1923 to
1953. In 1927 she played the solo violin part in the première of Berg’s
Chamber Concerto in Berlin. From 1941 she was leader and soloist of the
Collegium Musicum Zürich, conducted by Paul Sacher. In 1907 Bartók
conceived a passion for Stefi Geyer which she was unable to return. For
her he wrote the First Violin Concerto (1907–8) with ‘her’ motif, C –E–G –
B , but she never played it in public (the autograph copy, with Bartók’s
letters to her, are in the possession of Paul Sacher). The first movement
appeared as ‘The Ideal’ in the Two Portraits for Orchestra op.5. Further
works for Geyer were written by Othmar Schoeck, who was in love with her
(Violin Sonata op.16, 1908–9, and Violin Concerto op.21, 1911–12), by
Willy Burkhard (Second Violin Concerto op.69, 1943), and by Schulthess
(Concertino op.7, 1921).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Schuh and E. Refardt, eds.: Schweizer Musikbuch, ii (Zürich, 1939),
73 only
E. Mohr: Willy Burkhard: Leben und Werk (Zürich, 1957)
W. Schuh: ‘Stefi Geyer†’, SMz, xcvii (1957), 35–6
B. Szabolcsi, ed.: Béla Bartók: Weg und Werk, Schriften und Briefe (Bonn
and Budapest, 1957, 2/1972), 233–8
J. Demény, ed.: Béla Bartók: ausgewählte Briefe (Budapest, 1960), 62, 71
W. Fuchss: Béla Bartók und die Schweiz (Berne, 1973)
J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin (Toronto, 1974, 2/1994)
C. Walton: Othmar Schoeck (Zürich, 1994)
JÜRG STENZL
Geysen, Frans
(b Oostham, 29 July 1936). Belgian composer. He studied at the Lemmens
Institute in Mechelen and the Antwerp and Ghent conservatories. He was
appointed professor of harmony and analysis at the Lemmens Institute
(1962), moved to Leuven in 1968 and from 1975 taught at the Brussels
Conservatory. He won several composition prizes, including some for
carillon composition in Mechelen and Bruges.
He started composing in 1958 and studied serialism from 1962 to 1965.
From 1967 he reacted against the aperiodicity and discontinuity of
serialism, developing a technique of evolutionary repetition which was free
of the influence of American minimalism, maintained the constructivism of
serial thinking and referred to Netherlandish Renaissance polyphony. His
repetitive processes emphasize evolution and transformation, excluding
pure repetition. Geysen writes abstract music, in which construction of
sound is the only principle, sensory experience is possible and in which
emotion as expression or goal is excluded. He is interested in the plastic
arts, especially their abstract and minimalist tendencies. This has resulted
in many collaborations with artists such as Ado Hamelrijck, Luc Peire and
Piet Stockmans. Geysen has written several articles on modern music for
Adem, Arsis, Muziek & woord, Orgelkunst and Restant.
WORKS
(selective list)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Y. Knockaert: ‘Vlaamse componisten: de generatie 1930–’39’, Ons
erfdeel, xxxii (1989), 223–8
Y. Knockaert: ‘Nieuwe muziek in Vlaanderen, 1980–’90’, De Vlaamse gids,
lxxiv/4 (1990), 2–8
Y. Knockaert: ‘De grote canon van Frans Geysen’, Kunst en Cultuur, xxv/2
(1992), 26–7
YVES KNOCKAERT
Ghana
6. Performance.
Ghanaian music allows for both individual and collective performance in
specific contexts. Firstly, there are items that may be performed as solos,
including cradle songs and songs performed during domestic work;
ceremonial songs such as individual dirges or laments forming part of
funeral ceremonies; praise-songs; flute, xylophone, trumpet or horn solos;
ritual songs sung by a diviner or other individual in a ritual context; and
music performed in seclusion by a person establishing ritual contact with
the gods.
Secondly, music may be performed by an individual supported by one or
two people or by a small group which performs a subsidiary musical role,
for example music for the Frafra-Kusasi durunga or the Dagomba gonje
(both one-string fiddles) in which the fiddle player is accompanied by one
or two rattle players. Similarly, in the xylophone music of north-western
Ghana, the principal instrumentalist is supported by a second player, who
taps an accompanying rhythm on one of the keys of the instrument while
duplicating the main melody. There are solo songs with chorus
accompaniment, such as the Asante kurunku, and duets such as the
Kasena Le sena, in which one singer plays a leading role.
The third type of performance, an extension of the second, is by
instrumental ensembles cultivated at royal courts. They may consist of
three to nine drums, such as the kete, apirede and fontomfrom ensembles
of the Akan, or the lunsi hourglass drum ensemble of the Dagomba. Such
ensembles are also common in other contexts in northern Ghana, where
they provide the music for household and community ceremonies and
rituals, and also play for formation dances by small teams.
The fourth type of performance is choral. The chorus may be composed of
men or women, or it may be mixed and led by one or more soloists who
sing the call, while the rest sing the response. The response may simply
follow the solo, or the two parts may overlap, so that the soloist begins to
sing before the choral response ends. He may sing with the chorus in the
overlapping section, or he may use different material. Sometimes a pair of
soloists sing simultaneously, the second entering after the first; sometimes
they may sing the call sections alternately. A traditional chorus either sings
unaccompanied or is accompanied by hand-clapping or rhythms played on
an idiophone (ex.2) or by a drum or xylophone ensemble.
Ghana
7. Modern developments.
Until the latter part of the 19th century, when active British colonization of
Ghana (then known as the Gold Coast) began, many Ghanaian societies
were culturally homogeneous. In the 20th century two distinct types of
cultural expression became evident, one embodying the heritage of the
past and reflecting the life of traditional societies, the other arising from
Ghana’s contact with Western culture and technology. This duality is
reflected in the contrast between the well-established traditions of
indigenous music and the evolving inter-cultural musical traditions that
began to serve the new urban institutions such as the ballroom, the café,
the night club, the concert hall and the theatre, as well as educational
institutions and the church.
Musicians who practise this new music use both African and non-African
resources. While they sometimes use traditional African instruments, they
more commonly use Western instruments to play tunes that are basically
African in rhythm and melody. They may organize multi-part structures on
traditional lines or base them on models from Western music. Thus,
although traditional forms of polyphony in parallel 3rds can be found in their
music, the trend is towards the selective use of Western harmonic
techniques rather than the consolidation of traditional African practice.
The new Ghanaian music is developing in two particular areas. The first is
Highlife, a form of popular music that originated in the early 20th century
and is cultivated by a large number of touring bands based in the principal
cities. The second is the new Ghanaian art music, which owes its
development to the search for an African idiom to replace the Western
hymn and anthem and which is now identified both with the church and
with the concert hall and educational institutions. A new generation of
literate composers and performers has consequently appeared, and music
education is no longer an aspect of socialization in the community only but
is also part of the school curriculum.
The recognition and support of contemporary developments in music have
not minimized the historical and cultural importance of traditional music.
This has continued to occupy a dominant position not only in the musical
life of traditional societies but also, through the mass media and
educational programmes, at arts festivals and on certain national
occasions, as it is regarded as a medium for the expression of identity and
the new generation of musicians, inspired by the new cultural awareness,
are turning to it increasingly for material and ideas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
M. Manoukian: Akan and Ga-Adangme Peoples of the Gold Coast
(London, 1950)
M. Manoukian: Tribes of the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast
(London, 1951)
M. Manoukian: The Ewe-speaking People of Togoland and the Gold Coast
(London, 1952)
S. Cudjoe: ‘The Techniques of Ewe Drumming and the Social Importance
of Music in Africa’, Phylon, iii (1953), 280
J.R. Goody: The Social Organisation of the Lowiili (London, 1956)
A.M. Jones: Studies in African Music (London, 1959)
J.H.K. Nketia: African Music in Ghana (Evanston, 1963)
J.H.K. Nketia: Drumming in Akan Communities of Ghana (Edinburgh,
1963)
J.H.K. Nketia: Folk Songs of Ghana (Legon, 1963)
J.H.K. Nketia: The Music of Africa (New York 1974)
B. Aning: ‘Atumpan Drums: an Object of Historical and Anthropological
Study’, Essays for a Humanist: an Offering to Klaus Wachsmann (New
York, 1977), 58
J.M. Chernoff: African Rhythm and African Sensibility: Aesthetic and
Social Action in African Musical Idioms (Chicago, 1979)
D. Avorgbedor: ‘The Construction and Manipulation of Temporal
Structures in Yeve Cult Music: a Multi-dimensional Approach’, AfM, vi
(1987), 4–18
S. Arom: African Polyphony and Polyrhythm: Musical Structure and
Methodology (Cambridge, 1991)
A.A. Agordoh: Studies in African Music (Accra, 1994)
K. Agawu: African Rhythm: a Northern Ewe Perspective (Cambridge,
1995)
T. Wiggins: ‘Techniques of variation and concepts of musical
understanding in Northern Ghana’, British Journal of Ethnomusicology,
xii (1998), 117–142
recordings
Rhythms of life, songs of wisdom: Akan Music from Ghana, West Africa,
perf. various, coll. R. Vetter, Smithsonian Folkways SFCD40463
(1996)
Bewaare/They are Coming: Dagaare Songs and Dances from Nandom,
Ghana, perf. various, coll. T. Wiggins, PAN 2052CD (1996)
In the Time of My Fourth Great-grandfather: Western Sisaala Music from
Lambussie, Ghana, perf. various, coll. T. Wiggins, PAN 2065CD (1998)
Gharānā
(Hindi: ‘household, lineage’). In North Indian art-music, a community of
musicians, linked by ties of family and discipleship and identified by a
distinctive musical style (see India, §II, 3(iii). In general use the term may
be applied to a tightly-knit family (khāndān) of Muslim hereditary musicians,
together with their disciples (often Hindu); or to a larger network of
interrelated families, Muslim or Hindu, with a common place of origin; or
more casually, to any group of musicians tracing their tradition from a
common teacher or place of origin. To be recognized as an established and
significant gharānā the community must have a distinct vocal or
instrumental style (gāyakī, bāj), attributed to a respected founder and
maintained by at least two further generations after him. Many gharānā
cultivate a particular musical specialization: either one of the classical vocal
styles (dhrupad, khyāl, thumrī), or an instrument, melodic (sitār, sarod, bīn
etc.) or percussion (tablā, pakhāvaj). Other gharānā may combine a variety
of vocal and instrumental specializations. The musical repertory of a
gharānā often includes special techniques, compositions or rāg known only
to its members.
RICHARD WIDDESS
Ghazal.
Poetic form widely used in West, Central and South Asia and in other
Muslim cultures, particularly associated with Persian and Urdu, but applied
in other languages. It is composed of several independent couplets with a
unified rhyme scheme: aa, ba, ca, etc. See India, §IV, 2.
Stage: Adam i Eva (ballet, G. Khokhlov, after drawings by J. Eiffel), 1968; Rozovïy
gorod [The Pink Town] (TV jazz ballet, Ghazarian), 1972, TV broadcast, Moscow,
1972; Kak kot remeslu uchil [How the Tomcat Learnt a Trade] (children’s musical, G.
Chiginov and A. Grigoryan), 1981, Yerevan, K. Stanislavsky Theatre of Drama,
1981; Ėrnest Kheminguėy (op, 2, Chiginov, after E. Hemingway), 1984, Havana,
Grand Teatro de La Habana, 17 Oct 1987; Mir Pikasso [The World of Picasso]
(ballet, Ghazarian), 1997
Inst: Str Qt, 1965; Pf Sonata, 1967; Ww Qt, 1967; Sonata, vn, pf, 1972; Sonata, tpt,
pf, 1974; Lilit (sym. pictures, after A. Isahakyan), orch, 1975; Starik i more [The Old
Man and the Sea] (after Hemingway), orch, 1986; Sonata no.2, vn, pf, 1987
Vocal: Vstrechi [Encounters] (sym. poem, V. Myakovsky, V. Lugovskoy and V.
Karents), Bar, chorus, orch, 1969; 5 pesen [5 Songs] (Karents), 1973; 6 sonetov [6
Sonnets] (R. Gamzatov), 1974; Dobroye utro, rodina [Good Morning, My Homeland]
(Karents), 1975; Maski [Masks] (P. Sevak), 1980; incid music
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Campoamor: ‘Hemingway en escena, cantando a la vida’, Bohemia
[Havana], lxxix/42 (1987), 36–8
P. Garcia Albela: ‘Yury Kazaryan iz stranï muzïkantov i poėtov’ [Ghazarian
from the land of musicians and poets], Cuba International, no.4 (1988),
15–23
A. Bayeva: ‘Prazdnik opernogo iskusstva v Gavane’ [A festival of operatic
art in Havana], Latinskaya Amerika (1988), no.5, pp.66–71
G. Tigranov: Armyanskiy muzïkal'nïy teatr [The Armenian Music Theatre],
iv (Yerevan, 1988), 78–86
SVETLANA SARKISYAN
dramatic
Gringoire (op, G.M. Gatti, after T.F. de Banville), unperf.
L’intrusa (op, R. Giani), 1921, unpubd, unperf.
Maria d’Alessandria (op, 3, C. Meano), 1936, Bergamo, Novità, 9 Sept 1937
Re Hassan (op, 3, T. Pinelli), 1937–8, Venice, Fenice, 26 Jan 1939; rev., Naples, S
Carlo, 20 May 1961
La pulce d’oro (op, 1, Pinelli), 1939, Genoa, Carlo Felice, 15 Feb 1940
Le baccanti (op, Pinelli, after Euripides), 1941–4, Milan, Scala, 22 Feb 1948
Billy Budd (op, 1, Quasimodo, after H. Melville), 1949, Venice, Fenice, 8 Sept 1949
Lord Inferno (radio op, 1, F. Antonicelli, after M. Beerbohm: The Happy Hypocrite),
RAI, 22 Oct 1952; rev. for stage as L’ipocrita felice, Milan, Piccola Scala, 10 March
1956
Il girotondo (children’s ballet, 1, M. Pistoni), 1955, Venice, 1959
4 film scores, 1935–9; 4 incid scores, 1938–61
orchestral
Ouverture drammatica, 1922, unpubd; other early pieces, unpubd; Partita, 1926;
Conc. grosso, wind qnt, str, 1927; Pezzo concertante, 2 vn, va, orch, 1931;
Marinaresca e baccanale, 1933; Sym., 1935, unpubd; Intermezzo sinfonico (1939)
[from op Maria d’Alessandria]; Architetture, 1940; Invenzioni, vc, timp, cymbals, str,
1940–41; Pf Conc., 1946; Musica notturna, 1947; Conc., 2 pf, orch, 1947; Conc.
detto ‘Il belprato’, vn, str, 1947; Canzoni, 1947–8, rev. 1949; Conc. detto ‘L’alderina’,
fl, vn, timp, cel, str, 1950
Conc. detto ‘L’olmoneta’, 2 vc, orch, 1951; Musica da concerto, va, str, opt. va
d’amore, 1953; Concentus basiliensis, vn, chbr orch, 1954; Conc. for Orch, 1955–6;
Sonata da conc., fl, timp, perc, str, 1958; Fantasia, pf, str, 1958; Divertimento, vn,
orch, 1959–60; Studi per un affresco di battaglia, 1961, rev. 1964; Appunti per un
Credo, 1962; Contrappunti, str trio, orch, 1962; Musica concertante, vc, str, 1962;
Ouverture pour un concert, 1963; Symphonia, 1965, inc., reconstructed G. Salvetti
choral
With orch: Il pianto della Madonna (cant spirituale, Jacopone), Mez, Bar, vv, orch,
1921, unpubd; Ecco el re forte (cant.), solo vv, double chorus, orch, 1923, unpubd;
Litanie della Vergine, S, S chorus, orch, 1926; La Messa del Venerdì Santo, solo vv,
vv, orch, 1929; Antigone (cant sinfonica, G. Debenedetti), solo vv, vv, orch, 1933,
unpubd; Litanie gaudiose (O. Castellino), vv, ob, str, 1933, rev. 1935; Conc.
spirituale ‘de l’Incarnazione del Verbo Divino’ (Jacopone), 2 S and/or S chorus, chbr
orch, 1943; Conc. detto ‘Il rosero’, 2 S, Mez, female vv, hp, pf, str, 1950; Lectio
Jeremiae prophetae, S, vv, orch, 1960; Credo di Perugia, vv, orch, 1961–2
Other works: early partsongs, 1911, 1928–33, most unpubd; 3 sets of 3 responsorii,
4vv, 1930, part pubd; Mass, D, male vv, org, 1930, unpubd; Missa monodica in
honorem S Gregorii Magni, unison vv, opt. org/hmn, 1932; Antifona per Luisa, Tr, S
chorus, org/str, 1944; 5 canzoni, children’s vv, opt. acc., 1952; Fu primavera allora
(piccola cant, Virgil, trans. Quasimodo), solo vv, vv, pf, 1953
solo vocal
With orch: 2 lettere, 1v, str, 1930, unpubd; Cantico del sole (St Francis), 1v, str,
1932; Capitolo XII dell’Apocalisse, 1v, chbr orch, 1937–8, unpubd; Lectio libri
sapientiae (cant. spirituale), 1v, tpt, pf, str, 1938; Conc. dell’albatro (H. Melville),
spkr, pf trio, fl + pic, 2 trbn, timp, perc, str, 1945; Conc. funebre per Duccio
Galimberti (requiem mass, Bible: Ezekiel), T, B, 2 trbn, timp, str, 1948; Vocalizzo da
concerto, Bar/vc, orch/pf, 1957
With pf: 3 liriche di Tagore, 1919, unpubd; many other songs, 1915–26, unpubd; 4
canti su antichi testi napoletani, 1925; 4 strambotti di Giustiniani, 1925; 3 other
works, 1925–8; Canto d’amore (Jacopone), 1926, orchd 1932; Diletto e spavento
del mare (Gk., trans. G. Mazzoni), 1926; La quiete della notte (Gk., trans. Mazzoni),
1926; Di’Maria dolce (G. Dominici), 1926; 4 duetti su testi sacri, 2vv, 1930; 3 canti di
Shelley, 1934; 4 liriche del Boiardo, 1935; In gravi annelli, Il prato dorme (E.
Schiavi), 1941, unpubd; Vagammo per la foresta di pini (P.B. Shelley), 1956; 3
liriche (R. Bacchelli), 1963
Other works: Oggi è nato un bel bambino, 3 female vv, cel, 1933, unpubd
chamber and solo instrumental
4 or more insts: Wind Qnt, 1910, unpubd; Pf Qt, 1917, unpubd; Doppio quintetto,
wind qnt, hp, pf, str qt, db, 1921, unpubd; Str Qt, G, 1927, inc., unpubd; Str Qt no.1,
a, 1927; Conc. a 5, fl, ob, cl, bn, pf, 1930; Adagio e allegro da concerto, fl, cl, hn,
hp, str trio, 1936; Concentus, str qt, 1948; Str Qt no.2, 1959
2–3 insts: 2 intermezzi, pf trio, 1915; 2 sonatas, vn, pf, 1918, 1922, unpubd; Elegia,
vc, pf, 1923; Sonata-fantasia, vc, pf, 1924; several small pieces, vn, pf, 1930;
Concertato, fl, va, hp, 1941, unpubd; 7 ricercari, pf trio, 1943; Canoni, vn, vc, 1946;
Musiche per 3 strumenti, fl, vc, hp, 1963
1 inst: early pieces, pf, 1909–16, only 1 pubd; hmn pieces, 1913–14; Puerilia, pf,
1922; Sonata pastorale, pf, 1922, unpubd; Pastorale elegiaco, pf, 1926, orchd,
unpubd; Divertimento contrappuntistico, pf, 1940; Capriccio, pf, 1944; Ricercare, pf,
1944, unpubd; Studio da concerto, gui, 1959; 3 pezzi, fl, 1962
arrangements and editions
4 pezzi di Gerolamo Frescobaldi, orchd 1931
Corona di sacre canzoni, S, chorus ad lib, str, pf, 1945 [free arr. of various laudi
spirituali]
J.S. Bach: Musical Offering, orchd 1946
Edns of works by A. Gabrieli, G. Gabrieli, Monteverdi, Schütz, 1943–53
Gheerkin.
Composer, possibly identifiable with Derrick Gerarde.
masses
Missa ‘Ave mater Christi’, lost; formerly B-Br, attrib. Gheerkin de Hondt in FétisB
Missa ‘Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel’, 4vv, F-CA 125–8 (attrib. Gheerkin de
Hondt); Kyrie ed. in Coussemaker
Missa ‘Ceciliam cantate pii’, 5vv, NL-SH 74
Missa ‘In te Domine speravi’, 5vv, SH 74
Missa ‘Panis quem ego dabo’, 4vv, F-CA 125–8; ed. in EMN, ix (1975)
Missa ‘Vidi Jerusalem’, 4vv, CA 125–8
motets
Benedicite Dominus, 4vv, CA 125–8; Inclina Domine aurem tuam, 4vv, CA 125–8;
Jubilate Deo omnis terra, 4vv, CA 125–8; Vox dicentis clama, 4vv, CA 125–8
secular
all for 4 voices
A vous me rens, F-CA 125–8, 15358 (attrib. Willaert), M xv (as Si je l'amais); Contre
raison pour t'aymer, CA 125–8, M xv (as Le mois de mai); D'un profond cueur j'ay
crie, CA 125–8; Helas malheur prens tu contentement, CA 125–8, M xv (as Ton
amitié); Het was my wel te vooren gezeyt, 1551 18 (attrib. Geerhart), CA 125–8, M
xv, xxv, ed. in Coussemaker, ed. in UVNM, xxix (1908)
Je me repens de vous avoir ayme, CA 125–8; Langueur d'amour m'est sur venue,
CA 125–8, M xv (as Nature a pris sur nous); Mon petit cueur n'est point à moy, CA
125–8, M xv (as Mon pauvre coeur); Oncques ne sceux avoir, 1553 24
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
A. Smijers: ‘De Illustre Lieve Vrouwe Broederschap te 's-Hertogenbosch’,
TVNM, xvii/3 (1950), 195–230
M.A. Vente: ‘De Illustre Lieve Vrouwe Broederschap te 's-Hertogenbosch’,
TVNM, xix/1–2 (1960–61), 32–43
G.K. Diehl: The Partbooks of a Renaissance Merchant, Cambrai:
Bibliothèque municipale, MSS 125–128 (diss., U. of Pennsylvania,
1974)
H. van Nieuwkoop: Introduction to Gheerkin de Hondt: Missa Panis
quemego dabo, EMN, ix (1975)
GEORGE KARL DIEHL
Ghent
(Flem. Gent; Fr. Gand).
Belgian city. Originally a minor agricultural settlement at the conflux of the
Scheldt and Leie rivers, the town rose to prominence with the foundation,
in the early 7th century, of two major Benedictine abbeys: St Peter
(Pieterskerk) and St Baaf. With the formation of the county of Flanders, in
the 9th century, Ghent also became the primary residence of the Flemish
counts, with a castle (the later Gravensteen), household church (St
Pharaïldis, or St Veerle, later raised to collegiate status) and necropolis
(the abbey of St Peter). Ghent's earliest parish church was St John
(Janskerk, first mentioned in 964). By about 1100 the town's expansion had
necessitated the subdivision and formation of further parishes: St James
(Jacobskerk), St Nicholas (Niklaaskerk) and St Michael (Michielskerk). Two
centuries later, after a period of sustained economic growth, large-scale
building projects for all of these churches were well under way. Although
religious establishments were to proliferate during the later Middle Ages,
the two abbeys, collegiate church and four parish churches mentioned here
remained the dominant musical centres of Ghent during the period of its
greatest economic and political power, the 14th to 16th centuries.
Daily observance of the Benedictine liturgy in the abbeys of St Peter and St
Baaf must have constituted the earliest regular musical practice in Ghent.
At the beginning of the 13th century a chapter of canons (endowed by the
counts of Flanders) was established in St Pharaïldis. The canons may have
followed the use of Paris, since the counts were vassals of the French king.
In the richer parishes of Ghent, collective efforts were made to establish
trusts with which to sustain bodies of priests to sing the daily liturgy in the
nave (the so-called cotidianen). Annual cotidiane accounts for St James,
listing individual priests and their salaries, stretch back as far as 1379.
Although similar accounts for other parishes do not survive until the next
century, it may be assumed that most of them had established cotidianen
by the 14th century as well.
As a major town in a northern-French county, Ghent has always been
bilingual, and thus it need occasion no surprise to find a Mahieu de Gant
among the trouvères of the 13th century. The earliest city accounts, dating
from the middle of the 14th century, refer repeatedly to minstrels; their
repertory may have included songs in both French and Flemish. Evidence
of early polyphonic practice is provided by two sets of fragments from the
last decades of the 14th century (Rijksarchief 133 and 3360). They contain
Glorias in motet style as well as French courtly songs by Machaut, Pierre
de Molins and anonymous composers. If the fragments originate from
Ghent, as seems likely, they were probably written and used by musicians
at the court of Flanders – perhaps alternatively in the Gravensteen and St
Faraïlde. A choral foundation at this church, involving choirboys and parvi
cotidiani, had been established by the merchant and courtier Simone de
Mirabello about 1331.
Early polyphonic practice in the parish churches is difficult to document,
since cotidiane accounts record mainly the attendance of priest-singers,
but hardly ever specify their musical skills. However, St James is known to
have possessed a liber motetorum by 1387. (Up to the middle of the 15th
century the term motetum could cover individual mass movements as well
as secular motets; it is likely that this motet book contained only the former,
including such Glorias as survive in the Rijksarchief 133.) Moreover, in the
course of the 15th century one finds increasing numbers of cotidianisten in
this and other parishes who can be identified as singers of polyphony
elsewhere. It is safe to assume that in most churches, the choral forces
necessary for the regular performance of polyphony were fully in place by
at least the first decades of the 15th century. This in turn allowed these
resources to be employed for other purposes: liturgical celebrations in side
chapels (endowed by private individuals and confraternities), Salve or Lof
services in honour of the Virgin and other saints, and civic processions.
At St John, a private endowment from 1446 required the cotidianisten of
the church to sing a ‘mottet’ annually in the chapel of St Michael on the eve
of the saint's feast, ‘as one is already accustomed to do every year for St
Agatha’. A private foundation from 1460 called for an office to be celebrated
daily after mass ‘by seven priests, singing descant’. The single surviving
15th-century cotidiane account from St John, for the year 1484–5, identifies
two singers as ‘tenorists’, and rewards one of these for the copying of two
‘messen in discant’. One of the major musical benefactors in the church
was the Guild of Our Lady, which had already contracted the cotidianisten
and the choirboys of St Pharaïldis for weekly Marian Vespers and masses
by 1447–8, and established a daily polyphonic Salve in 1503.
Similar private initiatives are documented in other churches. At St Nicholas,
the confraternity of St Anne founded a weekly mass in polyphony in 1445;
the guild of the city carillonneurs founded three annual polyphonic masses
in 1479. A weekly polyphonic mass for the Holy Ghost was endowed at St
James in 1470. These examples suggest that Ghent had become a thriving
centre for the cultivation of vocal polyphony by the middle of the 15th
century. The relatively permanent nature of these foundations, and the
continuous addition of new endowments and augmentations, secured the
continuation of these musical practices into the next century and beyond,
until the French invasion of 1794 at the latest. Major Renaissance
composers known to have been active at Ghent or associated with the
town include Jacob Obrecht, Alexander Agricola, Pierre de la Rue,
Cornelius Canis, Jheronimus Vinders and Jacques Buus.
In the later Middle Ages Ghent was also a major centre of instrumental
music. The professionalization of instrumental trades can be witnessed in
the establishment of guilds of trumpeters (by 1451), carillonneurs (1473)
and players of soft instruments (by 1478). The services of the trumpeters
were frequently called on in liturgical celebrations, processions,
announcements and all manner of civic festivities. The carillonneurs rang
the church bells in the event of danger, and were almost always involved in
the more richly endowed liturgical services. The players of soft instruments
seem to have operated mainly in domestic environments, especially at
weddings.
After the 16th century, as Ghent rapidly lost its international prominence as
a musical centre, instrumental music played an increasingly dominant role
in its musical life. A collegium musicum was founded in 1649. Its members
organized private concerts in the homes of the wealthy bourgeoisie, with
programmes that were heavily orientated towards Italian musical taste.
Since the late Middle Ages there has also been a strong tradition of
instrument making at Ghent. Well-known families of organ builders and
bellfounders during the Baroque period, such as the Hemony and Van
Peteghem families, continued their trades over many generations,
receiving commissions from all over the southern Netherlands. Similar
dynasties can be identified among 18th-century instrumental performers
such as the Boutmy and Loeillet families.
The first opera at Ghent was staged in 1683. 15 years later the town
opened a new opera house with a performance of Lully's Thésée. By 1706
Ghent possessed a permanent opera company, the Académie Royale de
Musique. However, a public concert life in the modern sense did not exist
until very late in the 18th century, and the real breakthrough came only in
the first half of the 19th. The Grand Théâtre (from 1921 the Koninklijke
Opera), finished in 1840, featured operas by such local composers as
Antoine Bovery, Karel Miry and Martin-Joseph Mengal. Until the 1940s
most opera was given there in French; a Flemish theatre was opened in
1871. In 1981 the opera company joined with that of Antwerp to form
Opera voor Vlaanderen, now the Vlaamse Operastichting.
Mengal was the first director of the Koninklijk Conservatorium Gent,
founded in 1812. In the realms of concert life and education Ghent
continued its musical life with vigour through the 20th century. Among
noteworthy developments were the foundation in 1964 of the Instituut voor
Psychoacoustica en Electronische Muziek (IPEM) at the University of
Ghent, where Lucien Goethals achieved prominence as a composer of
electro-acoustic music. The department of musicology (until 1986 under the
direction of Jan L. Broeckx) has earned a distinguished reputation in
musical aesthetics and sociology.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (C. Pitt)
F. De Potter: Gent, van den oudsten tijd tot heden (Ghent, 1882)
P. Claeys: ‘Le grand théâtre de Gand: représentations et répertoire’,
Pages d'histoire locale, i (1885), 170–85
P. Bergmans: La vie musicale gantoise au 18e siècle (Brussels, 1897)
M. Sabbe: De muziek in Vlaanderen (Antwerp, 1928)
E. Closson and C. van den Borren: La musique en Belgique du Moyen
Age à nos jours (Brussels, 1950)
R. Wangermée: De Vlaamse muziek in de maatschappij van de 15e en
16e eeuw (Brussels, 1965)
G. Verriest: Het lyrisch toneel te Gent (Ghent, 1966)
K. Polk: ‘Wind Bands of Medieval Flemish Cities’, BWQ, i (1966–8), 93–
113
K. Polk: ‘Ensemble Instrumental Music in Flanders 1450–1550’, Journal of
Band Research, xi/2 (1975), 12–27
R. Strohm: ‘The Ars Nova Fragments of Gent’, TVNM, xxxiv (1984), 109–
31
M.J. Bloxam: A Survey of Late Medieval Service Books from the Low
Countries: Implications for Sacred Polyphony, 1460–1520 (diss., Yale
U., 1987)
M.J. Bloxam: ‘In Praise of Spurious Saints: the Missae Floruit egregiis by
Pipelare and La Rue’, JAMS, xliv (1991), 163–220
K. Polk: German Instrumental Music of the Late Middle Ages: Players,
Patrons and Performance Practice (Cambridge, 1992)
M. Lesaffre: ‘Muziekleven’, Gent: Apology van een rebelse stad, ed. J.
Decavele (Antwerp, 1994), 419–26
P. Trio and B. Haggh: ‘The Archives of Confraternities in Ghent and
Music’, Musicology and Archival Research, ed. B. Haggh (Brussels,
1994), 44–90
R.C. Wegman: Born for the Muses: the Life and Masses of Jacob Obrecht
(Oxford, 1994)
ROB C. WEGMAN
BRIAN FENNELLY
Gheorghiu, Angela
(b Adjud, 7 Sept 1965). Romanian soprano. She studied with Arta Florescu
at the Enescu Academy in Bucharest and made her professional début at
18 as Solveig in Peer Gynt and her opera début at the Cluj Opera as Mimì
in 1990, the year she won the Belvedere International Competition in
Vienna. She first appeared at Covent Garden as Zerlina in 1992 and the
same year sang an acclaimed Mimì there. Further Covent Garden
appearances have been as Nina in Massenet’s Chérubin, Liù, Micaëla and
Adina. However, her most admired appearance was as a vocally and
dramatically near-ideal Violetta in Richard Eyre’s staging of La traviata
(1994), conducted by Solti and preserved on CD and video, in which her
deeply eloquent singing is supported by her dark looks and a naturally
affecting interpretation (for a later revival see illustration). Gheorghiu first
sang at the Vienna Staatsoper in 1992 as Adina, returning as Mimì and
Nannetta, and made her Metropolitan début, as Mimì, in 1993. Her voice is
one of the most natural and individual of her generation, capable both of
notable flexibility and of expressing intense feeling. Among recordings that
catch the essence of her art are Magda in La rondine, Juliette in Gounod’s
opera and Charlotte in Werther, in all of which she is partnered by her
husband Roberto Alagna. On video, from the Lyons Opéra, a delightfully
insouciant Adina to Alagna’s Nemorino reveals her gifts in comedy. She is
also an accomplished recitalist, as revealed in a CD recital embracing
songs in many idioms and languages.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Blyth: ‘Angela Gheorghiu’, Opera, l/3 (1999), 254–60
ALAN BLYTH
Gheraert de Hondt.
See Gheerkin de Hondt.
Editions: The Music of Fourteenth-century Italy, ed. N. Pirrotta, CMM, viii/1 (1954) [incl. all
Gherardello’s works] [P]Der Squarcialupi-Codex: Pal.87 der Biblioteca Medicea
Laurenziana zu Florenz, ed. J. Wolf (Lippstadt, 1955) [W]Italian Secular Music, ed. W.T.
Marrocco, PMFC, vii (1971) [M]
sacred
Gloria, 2vv, P 53; Agnus Dei, 2vv, P 55; both also ed. in PMFC, xii (1976); Ave,
Credo, Osanna (lost; mentioned in sonnet by Simone Peruzzi)
secular
monophonic ballatas
Dè, poni amor a me (text inc.), P 77, W 61, M 87; Donna, l’altrui mirar, P 77, W 62,
M 88; I’ vivo amando sempre (text inc.), P 78, W 56, M 91; I’ vo’ bene (N.
Soldanieri) (lauda contrafactum: ‘Chi ama in verità’); P 79, W 57, M 92; Per non far
lieto, P 80, W 56, M 98
madrigals
all for 2 voices
Allo spirar dell’aire, P 56, W 53, M 75; Cacciand’un giorno, P 58, W 57, M 78; Con
levrieri e mastini, P 60, W 52, M 81, 84; Intrando ad abitar, P 62, W 61, M 89; La
bella e la vezzosa, P 63, W 51, M 93; L’aquila bella (Soldanieri), P 65, W 59, M 96;
Per prender cacciagion, P 67, W 60, M 99; Sì forte vola la pernice, P 68, W 49, M
101; Sotto verdi fraschetti, P 70, W 50, M 103, 106; Una colomba più, P 71, W 55,
M 117
caccias
Tosto che l’alba, 3vv, P 74, W 47, M 109, 113
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (N. Pirrotta)
N. Pirrotta: ‘Lirica monodica trecentesca’, RaM, ix (1936), 317–25; repr. in
Poesia e musica e altri saggi (Florence, 1994), 35–46
K. von Fischer: Studien zur italienischen Musik des Trecento und frühen
Quattrocento (Berne, 1956)
G. Reaney: ‘The Manuscript London, B.M., Add.29987 (Lo)’, MD, xii
(1958), 67–91, esp. 73
B.J. Layton: Italian Music for the Ordinary of the Mass 1300–1450 (diss.,
Harvard U., 1960), 91ff
G. Corsi, ed.: Poesie musicali del Trecento (Bologna, 1970), 61–72
F.A. D’Accone: ‘Music and Musicians at the Florentine Monastery of Santa
Trinità, 1360–1363’, Quadrivium, xii/1 (1971), 131–51
M.P. Long: ‘Landini's Musical Patrimony: a Reassessment of some
Compositional Conventions’, JAMS, xl (1987), 31–52
F. Brambilla Ageno, ed.: F. Sacchetti: Il libro delle rime (Florence and
Perth, 1990)
K. von Fischer: ‘Le biografie’, Il codice Squarcialupi, ed. F.A. Gallo
(Florence, 1992), i, 127–44, esp. 132–3
N. Pirrotta: ‘Le musiche’, ibid., 193–222, esp. 200–02
M. Gozzi: ‘La cosidetta Longanotation: nuove prospettive sulla notazione
italiana del Trecento’, MD, xlix (1995), 121–49, esp. 145
KURT VON FISCHER/GIANLUCA D’AGOSTINO
other works
Sacred: numerous masses, hymns, psalms, ants, canticles, lits, Lamentations,
principal sources: I-Bc, PIst, PS; also A-Wn, I-Baf, Fc, Fn, Gl, Li, MAC, Nc, PAc, PIp
Other vocal: fughe vocali, Bc
Inst: 3 sonate, hpd/pf (Florence, c1785); 4 sonate, org/hpd, Bc; sonata (‘pastorale’),
2 ob, str, bc, PIst; sonata (‘patetica’), vn, bn, str, bc, PIst; str qt, Bc; counterpoint
exercises, Bc, Ps
Pedagogical works: Elementi per sonare il cembalo, Bc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Obituary, Magasin encyclopédique (1809), no.1, 135–6
V. Capponi: Biografia pistoiese o Notizie della vita e delle opere dei
pistoiesi illustri (Pistoia, 1878)
G.C. Rospigliosi: Notizie dei maestri ed artisti di musica pistoiesi (Pistoia,
1878)
A. Chiappelli: Storia del teatro in Pistoia dalle origini alla fine del secolo
XVIII (Pistoia, 1913/R)
F. Baggiani: ‘Musicisti in Pisa’, Bollettino storico pisano, lii (1983), 117–62
S. Barandoni: Filippo Maria Gherardeschi: organista e maestro di cappella
della Chiesa conventuale dei Cavalieri di S Stefano (thesis, U. of Pisa,
1990)
HOWARD BROFSKY/STEFANO BARANDONI
Gherardeschi, Giuseppe
(b Pistoia, 3 Nov 1759; d Pistoia, 6 Aug 1815). Italian organist and
composer. He began his musical education with his father Domenico
(1733–1800), maestro di cappella of Pistoia Cathedral, and his uncle
Filippo Maria. He then completed his studies with Nicola Sala at the
Conservatorio di S Maria della Pietà dei Turchini in Naples. He returned to
Pistoia where he became organist at S Maria dell'Umiltà. In 1785 he
married Alessandra Leporatti who gave him seven children before her
death in 1794. In 1795 he married Francesca Maestripieri, who gave him a
daughter. In 1800, on his father's death, he was appointed maestro di
cappella of Pistoia Cathedral. All his organ pieces, written especially for the
cathedral organ, contain very specific registration instructions. He was
succeeded at the cathedral first by his son Luigi (1791–1871) and then by
his grandson Gherardo (1835–1905). They were also composers and much
of their sacred and instrumental music survives (mostly in I-PS).
WORKS
MSS in I-PS
vocal
Daliso e Delmita (op), 1782; Angelica e Medoro (cant.), 1783; L'apparenza inganna
(op), 1784, collab. Carlo Spuntoni, lost; L'ombra do Catilina (cant.), 1789;
L'impazienza (cant.), 1798; Il sacrificio di Jeft (orat), 1803; La speranza coronata
(cant.), 1804–9; choruses, arias, duettos
Sacred: 30 masses, 3 matins, 37 Lamentations, 90 motets, 5 TeD, other works
instrumental
6 sonate, hpd/pf, vn obbl (Florence, before 1800); 7 syms.; several concertoni; wind
qnt; 6 trios, 2 vn, vc, 1784; 2 sonatas, hpd; other works
Numerous works for org, ed. in: Musiche pistoiesi per organo, ii, MMI, 1st ser., vi
(1978, 2/1984); Antologia del Settecento organistico pistoiese (Brescia, 1983);
Musiche d'organo a Pistoia (Brescia, 1989); Letteraturo organistica toscana al XVII
al XIX secolo (Pistoia, 1999): all ed. U. Pineschi
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.C. Rospigliosi: Notizie dei maestri ed artisti di musica pistoiesi (Pistoia,
1878), 18–20
U. Pineschi: Introduction to Musiche pistoiesi per organo, i (Brescia,
2/1988), pp.ix–xvi
G. Bartelloni, A. Duma and U. Pineschi: Alla riscoperta di Giuseppe
Gherardeschi (Pistoia, 1995)
U. Pineschi: Giuseppe Gherardeschi di Pistoja: compositore, maestro di
cappella e organista (Pistoia, 1999)
UMBERTO PINESCHI
Gherardi, Biagio
(b Castelleone, nr Crema; fl 1635–50). Italian composer. He was maestro
di cappella at Cingoli, near Ancona, in 1635 and at Verona Cathedral in
1650; later he is known to have held a similar post at Ancona Cathedral.
His two publications of church music – Il primo libro de motetti concertati,
for two to five voices (Venice, 1635) and Compiete concerte, for three to six
voices (Venice, 1650) – are both in the progressive concertato style of the
day for a few voices and organ, and some pieces in the second, which
consists of music for Compline, include parts for two violins and violone.
Though not very competently written, these pieces display certain mid-
17th-century traits in church music: an increased proportion of a work is in
triple time (perhaps more than is in 4/4 time), with greater rhythmic variety
and a more flowing manner than previously; string parts are idiomatically
written, and typically instrumental figurations begin to be absorbed into the
vocal lines in 4/4 sections; a greater emphasis on vocal display is
paralleled by a decrease in syllabic word-setting; and musical devices (e.g.
chaconne techniques) overrule textual considerations. (J. Roche: North
Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi, Oxford, 1984)
JEROME ROCHE
Gherardi, Giovanni.
See Giovanni da Prato.
Gherardini, Arcangelo
(b Siena; fl 1585–7). Italian composer. According to the title-page of his
Primo libro de madrigali a cinque voci (Ferrara, 158524), he was a member
of the Servite order. That he may have been living in Ferrara at that time is
suggested not only by the fact that the book was printed there, but also that
it is dedicated to the composer Alfonso Fontanelli, who arrived in Ferrara in
the retinue of Cesare d’Este at about the same time. In addition to 15
pieces by Gherardini himself, this book also includes a spiritual madrigal by
Paola Massarenghi of Parma. Gherardini’s only other known publication is
the Motecta cum octo vocibus (Milan, 1587).
IAIN FENLON
Ghezzi, Ippolito
(b Siena, ?1650; d 1709 or later). Italian composer and theorist. The title-
pages of his publications identify him as a Sienese, an Augustinian monk
and a Bachelor of Sacred Theology. In 1699–1700 he was maestro di
cappella of Montepulciano Cathedral, and in 1707–9 he was in Siena. His
sacred Latin dialogues, or motets, in his publications of 1699 and 1708 are
mostly settings of non-dramatic texts. The four Italian works comprising his
Oratorii sacri, however, are dramatic dialogues on the Old Testament
stories of Abel, Adam, Abraham and David. They are late examples of the
type of brief sacred dialogue found in many earlier publications, such as
G.F. Anerio's Teatro armonico spirituale (Rome, 1619) and Cazzati's Diporti
spirituali (Bologna, 1668). The use of the term ‘oratorio’ for quite brief
works is exceptional, for it was normally used at this period for works
lasting about two hours or more. The treatise Il setticlave canoro, in 15
chapters, is devoted primarily to the system of ‘mutations’ used in solfeggio
during Ghezzi's time; it also deals with transposition.
WORKS
Op.
1 Sacri dialoghi o vero [12] mottetti, 2 S, bc (org) (Florence, 1699)
2 Salmi, S, B, bc (org), andanti e brevi in stile lombardo (Bologna, 1699)
3 [4] Oratorii sacri, 3vv, bc, cavati dalla scrittura sacra (Bologna, 1700)
4 Lamentationi per la Settimana Santa, 1v, bc (Bologna, 1707)
— Dialoghi sacri o vero motetti, 2 S, 2 vn, bc (org) (Bologna, 1708)
WRITINGS
6 Il setticlave canoro dove s'insegano [sic] gli elementi musicali et il modo
di dare il solfeggio a tutte le sette chiavi (Bologna, 1709)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GaspariC, i-iv
F. Noske: Saints and Sinners: the Latin Musical Dialogue in the
Seventeenth Century (Oxford, 1992)
HOWARD E. SMITHER/R
Ghezzo, Dinu D.
(b Constanţa, 2 July 1941). Romanian composer, active in the USA. He
studied conducting (1959–64) and composition with Stroe, Olah and Marbe
(1961–6) at the Bucharest Conservatory then taught at the Arts Lyceum in
Constanţa (1964–9) and lectured at the Bucharest Conservatory (1969–70)
before moving to the USA, where in 1971 he studied composition at UCLA
with Roy Harris, Paul Chihara, Murray Bradshaw and Nicolas Slonimsky
(PhD 1973). Ghezzo became professor at New York University in 1977 and
has held professorships at Queens College, CUNY (1974–6), Lehman
College (1984–90) and SUNY at Stony Brook (1991–2). He has promoted
contemporary music as a conductor and pianist of international renown; in
1980 he became director of the International New Music Consortium.
Drawn to new compositional techniques, Ghezzo has allied himself with
multimedia music. His scores are an amalgamation of elements ranging
from tonality, modality, jazz and folk music to electronic sounds, natural
harmonics, repetitive cycles and improvisation. These diverse elements are
combined to produce works of sincerity and powerful expression.
WORKS
(selective list)
Ghiaurov, Nicolai
(b Velingrad, 13 Sept 1929). Bulgarian bass. He was a pupil of Brambarov
at the Bulgarian State Conservatory and then continued his studies in
Leningrad and Moscow. He made his début at Sofia in 1955 as Don Basilio
in Il barbiere, winning the Concours International de Chant de Paris the
same year, and in 1958 made the first of many appearances in Italy at the
Teatro Comunale, Bologna, in Faust; from 1959 he also sang, to great
acclaim, at La Scala, where his roles included Boris and Philip II. He made
his début at Covent Garden in 1962 (as Padre Guardiano) and at the
Metropolitan in 1965 (as Méphistophélès), as well as touring Germany with
the Sofia Opera. He first appeared at the Vienna Staatsoper in 1957, as
Ramfis, singing regularly there from 1962; his roles included Ivan
Khovansky (1989). At the Opéra he sang Massenet’s Don Quichotte
(1974), and he appeared at the Salzburg Festival, notably as Boris in 1965
and Philip II in 1975. These were among his most notable roles; he also
sang Boris at the Metropolitan in 1990. He possessed a voice of unusually
rich and varied colour allied to an excellent vocal technique and
remarkable musicality. A vigorous and painstaking actor, as an interpreter
he tended to express the strong and violent emotions rather than the finer
and more intimate shades of meaning. He has left notable souvenirs of his
appreciable art on disc, among them his Philip II under Solti, Boris under
Karajan and his Don Quichotte. He is a sonorous bass soloist in Giulini's
recording of the Verdi Requiem and the video of the same work conducted
by Karajan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GV (R. Celletti; R. Vegeto)
A. Blyth: ‘Nicolai Ghiaurov’, Opera, xxviii (1977), 941–7
RODOLFO CELLETTI/ALAN BLYTH
Ghiglia, Oscar
(b Livorno, 13 Aug 1938). Italian guitarist. He studied at the Accademia di S
Cecilia in Rome, with Segovia at the Accademia Chigiana in Siena (1958–
63) and at Santiago de Compostela. In 1963 he won the International
Guitar Competition of the ORTF, Paris, gaining a scholarship for a year at
the Schola Cantorum there and studying musicology under Jacques
Chailley. Segovia chose him as his assistant at his 1964 summer school at
Berkeley, California. He made his débuts in New York and London in 1966
and in Paris in 1968. In 1969 he founded the guitar department of the
Aspen Music Festival, Colorado; he remained its chairman until 1986. In
1976 he began teaching at the Accademia Chigiana, and in 1983 became
professor at the Musikakademie in Basle. Ghiglia has performed as soloist
with many major orchestras, and with various chamber music groups
including the Juilliard and Cleveland quartets. His other collaborations
include recitals and recordings with Victoria de Los Angeles, Eliot Fisk, Jan
De Gaetani and Jean-Pierre Rampal. A refined and thoughtful player with a
formidable technique, he is also acknowledged as one of the most
distinguished teachers of his generation, and gives masterclasses
throughout the world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Bosman: ‘Oscar Ghiglia’, Guitar, iii/1 (1974–5), 26–7 [interview]
C. Otero: ‘Oscar Ghiglia’, Guitar International, xvii/12 (1988–9), 8–13
[interview]
M.J. Summerfield: The Classical Guitar: its Evolution and its Players since
1800 (Newcastle upon Tyne, 4/1996)
PETER SENSIER/GRAHAM WADE
Ghinzer, Giovanni.
See Chinzer, Giovanni.
Ghirardellus de Florentia.
See Gherardello da Firenze.
Ghirardo.
Composer, possibly identifiable with Derrick Gerarde.
Ghirardo, Jan.
See Gerard, Jan.
masses
Misse, 4vv (Venice, 1503) [1503]
Ad te suspiramus, 2vv; Anima mea liquefacta est, 3vv; Anima mea liquefacta est,
4vv; Ave domina, sancta Maria, 4vv; Favus distillans, 3vv (no text); Inviolata, integra
et casta, 4vv (uses T of Binchois' Comme femme)
Maria virgo semper laetare, 4vv; Miserere, Domine/In patientia, 3vv; O florens rosa,
3vv (no text); O gloriosa domina, 4vv; Regina caeli laetare, 4vv (uses T of Binchois'
Comme femme); Salve regina, 4vv; Tota scriptura, 3vv (contrafactum of Pleni sunt
caeli from Missa ‘Narayge’)
Da pacem, 3vv, attrib. Ghiselin in I-Fc Basevi 2439, is probably not by him on
stylistic grounds.
secular vocal
all edited in G iv
A vous madame, 3vv (no text); De tous biens playne, 3vv (no text); Fors seulement,
3vv (no text); Fors seulement, 4vv (no text); J'ayme bien mon amy, 3vv; Je lay
empris, 3vv (no text; contrafactum of Ky of Missa De les armes or vice versa); Je
loe amours, 3vv (no text); Je suis treffort, 3vv (no text); Las mi lares vous donc, 3vv
(no text); Le cueur la syuit, 3vv; Rendez le moy mon cueur, 3vv; Si jay requis, 3vv
(no text); Vostre a jamays, 3vv (no text)
Een frouwelic wesen, 3vv (no text); Ghy syt die wertste boven al, 4vv; Helas hic
moet my liden, 3vv (no text); Wet ghy wat mynder jonghen herten dert, 3vv (no text)
De che te pasci amore, 3vv (no text); Dulces exuviae, 4vv
instrumental
Carmen in sol, a 3, G iv; L'Alfonsina, a 3, G iv; La Spagna, a 4, G iv
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F.A. D’Accone: ‘The Singers of San Giovanni in Florence during the 15th
Century’, JAMS, xiv (1961), 307–58
C. Gottwald: Johannes Ghiselin-Johannes Verbonnet: stilkritische
Untersuchung zum Problem ihrer Identität (Wiesbaden, 1962)
M. Staehelin: ‘Quellenkundliche Beiträge zum Werk von Johannes
Ghiselin-Verbonnet’, AMw, xxiv (1967), 120–32
M.B. Winn: ‘Le cueur la suyt, Chanson on a Text for Marguerite d'Autriche:
Another Trace in the Life of Johannes Ghiselin-Verbonnet’, MD, xxxii
(1978), 69–72
H. Kümmerling: ‘Dona nobis pacem: die Offenbarung des neuen Himmels
und der neuen Erde in Agnus Dei-Vertonungen Josquins und Ghiselin-
Verbonnets’, Fusa [Hürth], no.11 (1983)
L. Lockwood: Music in Renaissance Ferrara (Oxford, 1984)
S. Boorman: ‘A Case of Work and Turn: Half-Sheet Imposition in the Early
Sixteenth Century’, The Library, viii (1986), 301–21
K. Hortschansky: ‘Eine Devisenkomposition für Karl den Kühnen’,
Festschrift Martin Ruhnke (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1986), 144–57
CLYTUS GOTTWALD
Ghiselin Danckerts.
See Danckerts, Ghiselin.
Ghisi, Federico
(b Shanghai, 25 Feb 1901; d Luserna San Giovanni, 18 July 1975). Italian
musicologist and composer. His father was a diplomat and he spent his
early years in China. In 1908 he moved to Milan and studied harmony and
counterpoint at the conservatory with Carlo Gatti, and the piano privately;
he also took a degree in chemistry at the University of Pavia (1923). After a
period abroad he returned to Turin, where he worked as a chemist and
studied with Ghedini to take the conservatory's diploma in composition. In
1932 he moved to Florence, where his interest in Renaissance music was
stimulated by discussions with Einstein; he began to study music history
with Torrefranca (libera docenza 1936) and became the first lecturer of the
new music history course at the university (1937–40). After the war he
taught at the Università per Stranieri, Perugia (1945–74), and (again as the
first lecturer in music history) at the University of Pisa (1963), retiring in
1970. As a lecturer at the Institut des Hautes Etudes, Brussels (1948), he
initiated a series of conferences, and he also lectured at Harvard, Yale and
the University of California, Berkeley. He was a council member of the IMS
(1947–52), the Herausgaber Kollegium (1956) and the Società Italiana di
Musicologia (1965–7), and in 1967 became an honorary member of the
Royal Musical Association, London.
Ghisi's fundamental study of the canti carnascialeschi (1937) was the first
in a series of pioneer works on the music of Renaissance Florence
covering both secular polyphony of the Trecento and monody of the early
Seicento. An important discovery in the latter area was of two excerpts of
Peri's Dafne (Alle fonti della monodia, 1940). His wide and thorough
knowledge of textual and musical sources led to other important
contributions, such as his identification of fragments of the Lucca
manuscript at Perugia (1942–6), which helped to determine Ciconia's
presence in Italy; he established that the unique Italian tendency towards
monody was already present in 14th- and 15th-century music, and
documented and demonstrated the passage from an Ars Nova style to a
more homophonic treatment in the second half of the Quattrocento. His
research interests included the lauda, Renaissance instruments and the
work of Carissimi, whose historic position was first clarified by Ghisi
through his archival investigations and musical analyses. He also studied
the folk music of the bilingual Valdesi people of the Piedmont Alps, heard
during summer vacations. Ghisi's own compositions (operas, ballets, and
chamber, choral and symphonic works) often grew out of his musicological
studies and have an affinity with Falla, Orff and Prokofiev.
WORKS
(selective list)
WRITINGS
‘Un terzo esemplare della “Musica practica” di Bartolomeo Ramis de Pareia
alla Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze’, NA, xii (1935), 223–7
I canti carnascialeschi nelle fonti musicali del XV e XVI secolo (Florence,
1937/R)
Feste musicali della Firenze medicea (1480–1589) (Florence, 1939/R)
Alle fonti della monodia: due nuovi brani della ‘Dafne’ e il ‘Fuggilotio
musicale’ di G. Caccini (Milan, 1940/R)
‘Bruchstücke einer neuen Musikhandschrift der italienischen Ars Nova’,
AMw, vii (1942), 17–39
‘Frammenti di un nuovo codice musicale dell'Ars Nova italiana e due saggi
inediti di cacce del secondo Quattrocento’, La rinascita, v (1942), 72–
103
‘Le musiche di Isaac per il “San Giovanni e Paolo” di Lorenzo il Magnifico’,
RaM, xvi (1943), 264–73
‘Italian Ars Nova Music: the Perugia and Pistoia Fragments of the Lucca
Musical Codex and other Unpublished Early Fifteenth Century
Sources’, JRBM, i (1946–7), 173–91 [incl. music transcrs.]
‘Canzoni profane italiane del secondo Quattrocento in un codice musicale
di Montecassino’, RBM, ii (1947–8), 8–20
‘An Early Seventeenth Century MS., with Unpublished Italian Monodic
Music by Peri, Giulio Romano and Marco da Gagliano’, AcM, xx
(1948), 46–60 [repr. in Studi e testi (1971)]
‘A Second Sienese Fragment of Italian Ars Nova’, MD, ii (1948), 173–7
‘Ballet Entertainments in Pitti Palace, Florence (1605–1630)’, MQ, xxxv
(1949), 421–36 [repr. in Studi e testi (1971)]
‘La musique religieuse de Marco da Gagliano à Santa Maria del Fiore,
Florence’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949, 125–8
‘The Oratorios of Giacomo Carissimi in Hamburg Staats-Bibliothek’,
GfMKB: Lüneburg 1950, 103–07 [repr. in Studi e testi (1971)]
‘Strambotti e laude nel travestimento spirituale della poesia musicale del
Quattrocento’, CHM, i (1953), 45–78
‘Un aspect inédit des intermèdes de 1589 à la cour médicéenne et le
développement de courses masquées et des ballets équestres devant
les premières décades du XVIIe siècle’, Les fêtes de la Renaissance
[I]: Royaumont 1955, 145–52
‘La persistance du sentiment monodique et l'évolution de la polyphonie
italienne du XVe au XVIe siècle’, L'Ars Nova: Wégimont II 1955, 217–
31
‘Rapporti armonici nella polifonia italiana del Trecento’, L'Ars Nova italiana
del Trecento I: Certaldo 1959, 32–9
‘Gli aspetti musicali della lauda fra il XIV e il XV secolo’, Natalicia
musicologica Knud Jeppesen septuagenario collegis oblata, ed. B.
Hjelmborg and S. Sørenson (Copenhagen, 1962), 51–7
‘Un canto narrativo popolare su Francesco I, re di Francia, nella tradizione
bilingue del Piemonte’, Festschrift Friedrich Blume, ed. A.A. Abert and
W. Pfannkuch (Kassel, 1963), 146–50
‘La tradition musicale des fêtes florentines et les origines de l'opéra’,
Musique des intermèdes de ‘La Pellegrina’, Les fêtes du mariage de
Ferdinand de Médicis et de Christine de Lorraine, Florence, 1589, ed.
D.P. Walker, i (Paris, 1963), pp.xi–xxii
‘Alcune canzoni a ballo del primo Cinquecento’, Festschrift Hans Engel, ed.
H. Heussner (Marburg, 1964), 125–33
‘Antiche canzoni popolari nella “Corona di sacre laudi” di Matteo Coferati
(1689)’, Liber amicorum Charles van den Borren (Antwerp, 1964), 69–
81
‘An Angel Concert in a Trecento Sienese Fresco’, Aspects of Medieval and
Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J.
LaRue and others (New York, 1966/R), 308–13
‘Contributo alla canzone popolare nelle valli valdesi del Piemonte’, CHM, iv
(1966), 153–63
‘Le musiche per “Il ballo di donne turche” di Marco da Gagliano’, RIM, i
(1966), 20–31
‘G. Carissimi e la bibliografia delle sue opere musicali’, LaMusicaE
‘Alcuni aspetti stilistici della musica sacra monteverdiana in Giacomo
Carissimi’, Claudio Monteverdi e il suo tempo: Venice, Mantua and
Cremona 1968, 305–12
‘Danza e strumenti musicali nella pittura senese del Trecento’, L'Ars Nova
italiana del trecento: Convegno II: Certaldo and Florence 1969 [L'Ars
Nova italiana del Trecento, iii (Certaldo, 1970)], 83–104
‘Di una lauda nel codice pavese Aldini’, Essays in Musicology in Honor of
Dragan Plamenac, ed. G. Reese and R.J. Snow (Pittsburgh, 1969),
61–4
Studi e testi di musica italiana dall'Ars Nova a Carissimi (Bologna, 1971)
[repr. earlier articles]
‘Folklore et professionalisme dans la musique de l'Europe centrale aux
XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles en relation aux chansons des vallées vaudoises
du Piémont’, Musica antiqua III: Bydgoszcz 1972, 683–98
‘“Il mondo festeggiante” balletto a cavallo in Boboli’, Scritti in onore di Luigi
Ronga (Milan and Naples, 1973), 233–40
EDITIONS
Canti artigiani carnascialeschi (Padua, 1939)
Le feste musicali della Firenze medicea (Florence, 1939/R)
with C. dall'Argine and R. Lupi: C. Carissimi: Historia di Job; Historia de
Ezechia, PIISM, Monumenti, iii, Oratori, i (1951)
FOLKSONG EDITIONS
with E. Tron: Anciennes chansons vaudoises (Torre Pellice, 1947)
with E. Tron: La canzone ‘Charles Albert et la liberté’ (Torre Pellice, 1948)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Memorie e contributi alla musica dal Medioevo all'età moderna offerti a
Federico Ghisi’, Quadrivium, xii/1–2 (1971) [70th birthday Festschrift;
incl. G. Vecchi: ‘Federico Ghisi: notizie biografiche e bibliografiche’,
17–23; C. Terni: ‘Federico Ghisi: il compositore’, 35–51; list of
publications, 24–33]
A. Basso: Obituary, RIM, xi (1976), 3–4
CAROLYN GIANTURCO
Ghislanzoni, Antonio
(b Lecco, 25 Nov 1824; d Caprino Bergamasco, 16 July 1893). Italian
writer and librettist. After Boito, he was the most important Italian librettist
between 1860 and 1890. He is usually credited with 85 librettos, but this
seems to be a considerable overestimate, the correct total being about half
that number. He was also a prolific journalist, responsible, on his own
count, for more than 2000 articles. Originally intended for the priesthood,
he was removed from the seminary at the age of 15 and studied medicine
at Pavia instead. In 1846, finding that he had a fine baritone voice, he
abandoned his studies and determined on a singing career, which he
followed for about eight years. This experience of the theatre served as the
raw material for his novel Gli artisti da teatro, published serially in the
Cosmorama pittorico in 1856, then issued as a book. He was fervently
patriotic, and in 1848 he founded two republican journals in Milan. He was
arrested by the French in Rome and after a brief period of detention in
Corsica he returned to the stage, incidentally singing Carlo in Verdi’s
Ernani in Paris in 1851. Three years later he arrived, ill, in Milan, and
established himself in literary circles, later editing the Gazzetta musicale di
Milano and the Rivista minima, and contributing to literary and artistic
journals. He later made his home in Lecco, for whose theatre he wrote five
librettos, but in 1890 retired to Caprino Bergamasco.
Although he began his career as a librettist in 1857, Ghislanzoni is best
known for his later work for Verdi. In 1869, the composer, whom he had
met 20 years earlier, asked him to help with the revision of La forza del
destino. The collaboration was successful, so that Ghislanzoni was the
obvious choice for Aida when a poet was needed to turn a prose text into
verse. In the event, Verdi always treated the writer with respect, and also
sought his help with the revision of Don Carlos in 1872. Ghislanzoni
provided a number of first-class librettos for other composers, such as I
promessi sposi (1869) for Petrella, Fosca (1873) and Salvator Rosa (1874)
for Gomes and Francesca da Rimini (1878) for Cagnoni, but his best was
probably I lituani (1874) for Ponchielli, a noble if rather monochrome work.
His sense of dramatic structure was conventional yet secure, and although
his work was strongly rooted in traditional forms, he used these with
imagination and versatility. His verse was always clear and correct, and he
had a gift for the neat and unhackneyed turn of phrase; his librettos are
mercifully free from ‘librettists’ doggerel’. He was in sum a reliable and
accomplished literary craftsman. It is easy to see why Verdi found him a
congenial collaborator but also clear why it was Boito and not Ghislanzoni
who stimulated the composer’s last two masterpieces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (J. Black) [incl. list of libs]
L. Miragoli: Il melodramma italiano nell’Ottocento (Rome, 1924)
M. Morim: ‘Antonio Ghislanzoni, librettista di Verdi’, Musica d'oggi, new
ser., iv (1961), 56–64, 98–103
P. Gossett: ‘Verdi, Ghislanzoni, and Aida: the Uses of Convention’, Critical
Inquiry, i (1974–5), 291–334
H. Busch: Verdi’s ‘Aida’: the History of an Opera in Letters and Documents
(Minneapolis, 1978)
J. Nicolaisen: Italian Opera in Transition, 1871–1893 (Ann Arbor, 1980)
J. Budden: The Operas of Verdi, iii: From ‘Don Carlos’ to ‘Falstaff’
(London, 1981)
JOHN BLACK
Ghitalla, Armando
(b Alfa, IL, 1 June 1925). American trumpeter. He studied with William
Vacchiano at the Juilliard School (1946–9). From 1949 to 1951 he played in
the Houston SO, and from 1951 to 1979 with the Boston SO, as first
trumpeter from 1965. He gave a memorable Town Hall concert in New York
in 1958 – the first full trumpet recital, including the first modern
performance of Hummel's concerto – and one in Carnegie Hall in 1960. He
has influenced a generation of American trumpet players, in part because
of his recordings as a soloist. Vacchiano has influenced him most as an
orchestral player, but his highly lyrical solo style is probably due to his solo
cornet playing in his youth. He has experimented extensively in
mouthpiece and instrument construction with the makers Tottle (Boston)
and Schilke (Chicago). He was professor of the trumpet at the University of
Michigan from 1979 to 1993, and in 1994 was appointed to Rice University,
Texas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Tunnel: ‘Armando Ghitalla: Master Trumpeter, Master Teacher, Master
Musician’, Journal of the International Trumpet Guild, xxi/4 (1997), 4–
16
EDWARD H. TARR
Ghivizzani [Guivizzani],
Alessandro
(b Lucca, c1572; d ?Parma, 1634–6). Italian composer. In his youth he
worked in Florence. In 1604 he became a member of the Compagnia
dell'Arcangelo Raffaello and was organist at S Pancrazio. In 1609 he
married Giulio Caccini's younger daughter Settimia and joined the payroll
of musicians at the Florentine court. Banished from Tuscany in 1611, he
returned to Lucca but left for the Mantuan court in 1613. In 1617 he
collaborated with Monteverdi, Salamone Rossi and Mutio Effrem by
providing a madrigal for the sacred play La Maddalena by G.B. Andreini,
staged at Mantua in honour of the marriage of Ferdinando Gonzaga and
Caterina de' Medici. The following year he was represented by three
motets in an anthology of Mantuan church music. On 19 October 1620 he
was appointed maestro di cappella to the seignory of Lucca. He was
granted leave of absence in 1622 to serve Cardinal Odoardo Farnese at
Parma, where he probably remained until his death.
His surviving compositions represent various musical styles. The piece in
Musiche … per la Maddalena (Venice, 16173), for three voices and
continuo, has a homophonic texture embellished only at a few cadences.
Of the three motets (RISM 16184), that for solo voice emphasizes recitation
on a single pitch over a slow-moving bass and includes some expressive
ornamentation; the other two, for two and three voices respectively,
generally follow the harmonic and imitative principles of the prima pratica,
though there are occasional virtuoso passages; the continuo is rarely
independent of the bass voice. There are four secular solo songs by
Ghivizzani (in I-Bc Q49), one of which ends with a section on a chaconne
bass. This song is one of five attributed to Ghivizzani in the Národní
Muzeum, Hudební Oddelení, Prague (II La 2, formerly in the Lobkowitz
library at Roudnice), but because of conflicting attributions between the two
manuscripts the total number of his surviving songs cannot be determined.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Nerici: Storia della musica in Lucca (Lucca, 1879/R)
P. Nettl: ‘Über ein handschriftliches Sammelwerk von Gesängen
italienischer Frühmonodie’, ZMw, ii (1919–20), 83–97
N. Pelicelli: ‘Musicisti in Parma nel secolo XVII’, NA, x (1933), 233–48,
esp. 238
N. Fortune: ‘A Florentine Manuscript and its Place in Italian Song’, AcM,
xxiii (1951), 124–36
J.W. Hill: ‘Oratory Music in Florence, i: Recitar cantando, 1583–1655’,
AcM, li (1979), 108–36
S. Parisi: Ducal Patronage of Music in Mantua, 1587–1627: an Archival
Study (diss., U. of Illinois, 1989)
W. Kirkendale: The Court Musicians in Florence during the Principate of
the Medici, Historiae musicae cultores biblioteca, lxi (Florence, 1993),
333–7
WILLIAM V. PORTER
Ghizzolo.
See Pasino, Stefano.
Ghizzolo, Giovanni
(b Brescia; d Novara, ?1625). Italian composer. He became a Franciscan
friar and lived in Novara in 1609 but had moved to Milan by 1610. From
1613 to 1615 he was maestro di cappella to Prince Siro of Correggio. He
was working at Ravenna Cathedral in 1618. He was appointed maestro di
cappella of S Antonio, Padua, on 6 October 1621 but arrived only in August
1622 and stayed 12 months before returning to Novara.
Ghizzolo wrote a good deal of church music and also a fair amount of
secular music. This includes ensemble madrigals and canzonets but
consists mainly of monodies: madrigals in a declamatory manner (one or
two marked ‘in stile recitativo’), more tuneful arias and strophic variations;
there are also a few duets and dialogues (some with parts for chorus). His
first book of Madrigali et arie (1609) contains an intriguing setting of the
Giuoco della cieca from Guarini's Il pastor fido, but on the whole his songs
are less successful and less in tune with the new currents of the day than
those of composers who were primarily monodists.
As a church composer Ghizzolo also stands on the boundary between
conservative and progressive. Only in his motets (published under the title
‘concerti’) did he adopt modern concertato textures for two or three voices;
the psalm and mass music is all for four or five voices or double choir. The
concerti of 1611 are described as being ‘all'uso moderno’ but are in an
imitative polyphonic style without florid writing. In his collection of 1613
Ghizzolo uses old-fashioned falsobordone laid out in a manner similar to
Anglican double chant, the two choirs alternating from verse to verse with
different halves of the chant. An interesting example of adaptability occurs
in the collection of 1619, which can be sung in five parts by using one choir
only or in nine by adding a second choir. Ghizzolo explained that this choir
could, if desired, be an instrumental group, that the quintus part could be
sung by a tenor if there was no second soprano and that nobody should be
surprised to hear consecutive 5ths or octaves between this voice and the
organ part. This is typical of the free-and-easy approach in some liturgical
music of the time.
WORKS
sacred
Integra omnium solemnitatum psalmodia vespertina, 8vv (Milan, 1609)
Concerti all'uso moderno, 4vv, libro secondo, op.7 (Milan, 1611)
Messe, concerti, Mag, falsi bordoni, 4vv, bc (org), op.8 (Milan, 1612)
Messe, motetti, Mag, canzoni francese falsi bordoni et Gloria Patri, 8vv, op.10
(Milan, 1613)
Il terzo libro delli concerti, 2–4vv, con le Letanie della B.V., 5vv, bc (org), op.12
(Milan, 1615)
Salmi intieri, 5vv, bc (org) ad lib, op.14 (Venice, 1618 6)
Messa, salmi, Lettanie della B.V., falsi bordoni et Gloria Patri concertati, 5, 9vv,
servendosi del secondo coro a beneplacito, bc (org), op.15 (Venice, 1619)
Salmi, messa e falsi bordoni concertati, 4vv, op.17 (Venice, 1620)
Il IVo libro de concerti, 2–4vv, con le Letanie della B.V., op.16 (Venice, 1622,
2/1640) [1st edn inc.]
Compieta, antifone et Letanie della Madonna, 5vv, op.20 (Venice, 1623)
Messe parte per capella e parte per concerto, 4–5vv, op.19 (Venice, ?/1625) [1st
edn lost]
2 motets, 2, 4vv, bc (org) in 16129; 2 motets, 3–4vv, in 161513; 2 motets, 2–3vv, bc,
in 16214; 4 motets, 1–2, 4vv, bc, some with str, in 1624 2; 1 motet, 1v, bc, in 16243; 4
motets, 4vv, bc (org), in 16262
secular
Madrigali, 5vv, libro primo (Venice, 1608)
Madrigali et arie per sonare e cantare nel chit/lute/hpd, 1–2vv, libro primo (Venice,
160921)
Canzonette et arie, 3vv, libro primo (Venice, 1609 20)
Il secondo libro de madrigali et arie, 1–2vv, chit, op.6 (Milan, 1610)
Il terzo libro delli madrigali, scherzi et arie, 1–2vv, chit, con uno epitalamio, op.9
(Milan, 1613/R1986 in ISS, iv)
Secondo libro di madrigali, 5–6vv, bc (hpd/other inst), op.11 (Venice, 1614)
Il IIIo libro de madrigali, 5vv, bc, op.18 (Venice, 1621), inc.
Madrigali et arie, libro quatro, lost, listed in Indice (1621)
Frutti d'Amore in vaghe e variate arie libro V o et op.21 (Venice, 1623)
1 madrigal, 2vv, bc, in 162411
1 madrigal, 4vv, in Trattenimenti da villa concertati del Banchieri (Venice, 1630)
MSS in D-Rp 506 (1 motet, 1v, 2 vn), W 19 (11 compositions, 1v, bc, 1 madrigal, 1v,
chorus)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FortuneISS
Indice di tutte le opere di musica che si trovano nella Stampa della Pigna di
Allesandro Vincenti (Venice, 1621, 1635, 1649, 1658, 1662); repr. in O.
Mischiati: Indici, cataloghi e avvisi degli editori e librai musicali italiani
dal 1591 al 1798 (Florence, 1984), 135–241
G. Tebaldini: L'archivio musicale della Cappella Antoniana in Padova
(Padua, 1895)
J.L.A. Roche: ‘Musica diversa di Compietà: Compline and its Music in
Seventeenth-Century Italy’, PRMA, cix (1982–3), 60–79
J.L.A. Roche: North Italian Chuch Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford,
1984)
D.A. Blazey: The Litany in Seventeenth-Century Italy (diss., U. of Durham,
1990)
S. Leopold: Al modo d'Orfeo: Dichtung und Musik im italienischen
Sologesang des frühen 17. Jahrhunderts, AnMc, no.29 (1995)
T. Carter: ‘New Songs for Old? Guarini and the Monody’, Guarini e la
musica, ed. A. Pompilio (Florence, forthcoming)
JEROME ROCHE/R
Ghoneim, Mauna
(b Cairo, 21 Aug 1955). Egyptian composer. From the age of eight she
studied the piano at the Cairo Conservatory. Later she joined the
composition class founded by Abdel-Rahim, studying composition and the
traditional Arab modal system. She graduated in composition (1977) and
piano (1978), both with distinction. From 1981 she took postgraduate
studies in composition from the Vienna Hochschule für Musik with Thomas
Christian David and Francis Burt, graduating with distinction in 1987 and
obtaining Magister Artium in 1988. She returned to Egypt in 1989 and to a
teaching post at the Cairo Conservatory. Many of her compositions have
been performed outside Egypt: in Vienna, Rome, Berlin, Bonn and Prague.
In 1991 she was awarded the prize for musical creativity by the Academy of
Arts, Cairo. A well-known composer of documentary film music, she won a
prize (1991) for her music for the documentary film An Evening’s Fishing
(1991).
Her compositions include many piano works and many using the flute,
besides vocal and orchestral works. Her style is distinguished by tender
melodic lines using the tetrachords and pentachords of Arab music in a
very personal way, accompanied by contemporary Western harmonies.
She uses irregular metres in accordance with the Arab rhythmic modes, for
example in El Mashrabia for strings (1987), the Elegy for orchestra (1990)
and the Suite for flute and harp (1993).
WORKS
Pf Sonata, 1983; 2 Pieces, ww, str, 1984; Pf Conc., 1984; 1984: Small Pieces, perc,
1984; Lied, S, pf, 1985; Str Trio, 1985; Str Qt, 1985; Pf Pieces, 2vv, pf, 1986; Suite,
fl, ob, str, 1986; Ww Qt, 1986; El Mashrabia, str, 1987; Baum der Nacht, lied, S, a fl,
perc, 1988; 2 Dances, pf, perc, 1988; 2 Portraits, str, 1988; Elegy, orch, 1990; Suite,
fl, pf, 1991; Baum der Nacht, suite, fl, 1991; 3 Pieces, 2 pf, 1993; Suite, fl, hp, 1993
Film scores, incl. saìd-ĕlassără, [An Evening’s Fishing], 1991
AWATEF ABDEL KERIM
Ghosh, Pannalal
(b Barisal District, East Bengal, 1911; d 20 April 1960). Indian bānsurī
player (see Vamśa) and composer. His father Akshaya Kumar played the
sitār and his younger brother Nikhil Ghosh was a distinguished tablā player
and musicologist. He was largely self-taught as a flautist, picking up
technique by observation and imitation of traditional players, although he
studied music with Khurshid Ahmad Khan and Girija Shankar Chakravorty.
He is known principally as a disciple of the multi-instrumentalist Ustad
Allauddin Khan, with whom he studied from 1947.
He worked in the film industry for many years in both Calcutta and Bombay
as a musician and composer (music director), and in 1938 toured Europe
for six months with the Saraikala Nrityamandali dance troupe. In 1947 he
was appointed music director at All India Radio, where he set up the
National Orchestra. As a soloist he is regarded as a pioneer who
reintroduced the flute to the concert stage in North Indian (Hindustani)
music, and he was responsible for developing several elements of modern
bānsurī technique. He is also credited with the introduction of the ‘tenor’
flute (approximately 80 cm long, with very wide hole-spacing), when
previously much smaller instruments had been prevalent, and he used
flutes of different sizes during a single performance. These innovations
have since been taken up and developed further by other musicians,
notably Pandit Hari Prasad Chaurasia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
L.N. Garg: Hamāre sangīt ratn [Our music jewels] (Hathras, 1957)
R. and J. Massey: The Music of India (London, 1976/R)
D. Neuman: The Life of Music in North India (Detroit, 1980/R)
A.D. Sharma: Musicians of India Past and Present (Calcutta, 1993)
recordings
Pannalal Ghosh, GCI EALP 1252 (n.d.) [rāgs Yaman and Shri]
The Magic Flute of Pannalal Ghosh, Odeon MOAE 5006 (1968) [rāgs
Marwa and Sarang]
Great Master, Great Music, perf. P. Ghosh, HMV EALP 1367 (1971) [rāgas
Pilu and Darbari, Bhairavi thumrī]
MARTIN CLAYTON
Ghro, Johann.
See Groh, Johann.
JOHN M. SCHECHTER
Giacobbi, Girolamo
(b Bologna, bap. 10 Aug 1567; d Bologna, 23 Dec 1628). Italian composer.
He was closely associated with the basilica of S Petronio, Bologna, where
he began his career as a choirboy in 1581, becoming a paid singer in
1584. He was an assistant (promagister) to the maestro di cappella from
1595 and was himself maestro from 18 August 1604 to 1628, when he
resigned because of a serious illness. From February to April 1618 he was
also maestro di cappella of the new Oratorio dei Filippini, Bologna, and
from 1625 to 1628 he directed the choir at S Giovanni in Monte. A close
friend of Banchieri, he was an active member of the Bolognese Accademia
dei Floridi, which Banchieri had founded in 1614. In 1625 it took the new
name of Accademia dei Filomusi and met in Giacobbi's house until it was
disbanded in 1630; on 13 June 1620 it was visited by Monteverdi.
Reference to Giacobbi's death is made in a letter from Banchieri to
Monteverdi.
Giacobbi was one of the first composers outside Florence to write in the
new monodic style. In 1605 he composed four intermedi for the pastoral
play Il Filarmindo by Count Ridolfo Campeggi. The intermedi were
published in 1608 as L'Aurora ingannata in the several editions of the
libretto, but the music was published under the title of Dramatodia. The
recitatives are in an intense, pathetic style reminiscent of Jacopo Peri's
Euridice, and they alternate with short ensembles and strophic,
homophonic choruses. In 1613 Giacobbi wrote the music for new
intermedi, called Proserpina rapita, for the same play. In his sacred music
he displayed both conservative and progressive features. The motets of
1601 are fluently composed in the late Renaissance idiom of Palestrina,
with a sensitive awareness of tonal balance and contrast in those for two
choirs. The concerted vesper psalms of 1609 are influenced by the more
recent innovations of the Venetians. Written in long continuous sections,
with organ continuo, they are expressive and dramatic in character, with
frequent changes of scoring and tone colour. In a preface Giacobbi gave
instructions and suggestions regarding the disposition of the choirs,
soloists and instrumentalists.
WORKS
stage
all music lost except for 1st item
sacred vocal
[22] Motecta multiplici vocum numero concinenda, 5–10vv (Venice, 1601)
Prima parte dei [7] salmi concertati, 8, 9, 18vv, bc (org) (Venice, 1609) [incl. 2
Magnificat]
Vespri per tutto l'anno, 4vv, some with bc (org) (Venice, 1615)
[4] Litanie e [8] motetti da concerto e da cappella, 8vv (Venice, 1618)
4 masses, 4vv, 1659: Missa ‘Cantate Domino’, Missa sine nomine, Missa ‘Veni
Creator Spiritus’, Missa ‘Veni Domine’: I-Bsp
Sanctissimae Deiparae canticum: 8 Magnificat, 4vv, 1628, Bsp
36 hymns, 4vv, Bsp
Messa, 4vv; Magnificat, 8vv; 2 Magnificat, 4vv; [5] Salmi della Beata Vergine, 8vv;
Invitatorio e Salmi da Morti, 8vv; Bof
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM (C. Vitali)
EitnerQ
MGG1 (G. Vecchi)
RicciTB
SartoriL
SchmidlD
A. Solerti: Gli albori del melodramma, i (Milan, 1904/R), 27 [incl. note on
Ruggero liberato]
L. Frati: ‘Per la storia della musica in Bologna nel secolo XVII’, RMI, xxxii
(1925), 544–65, esp. 552–5
G. Vecchi: Il melodramma a Bologna: l'aurora ingannata di G. Giacobbi
(1605–1608) (Bologna, 1963)
C. Vitali: ‘G.P. Colonna maestro di cappella dell'Oratorio filippino in
Bologna: contributi bio-bibliografici’, RIM, xiv (1979), 128–54
O. Gambassi: ‘Nuovi documenti su G. Giacobbi’, RIM, xviii (1983), 29–48
A.F. Carver: Cori Spezzati, i: The Development of Sacred Polychoral
Music to the Time of Schütz (Cambridge, 1987), 218, 257
O. Gambassi: La Cappella Musicale di S. Petronio: maestri, organisti,
cantori e strumentisti dal 1436 al 1920 (Florence, 1987), 5, 20–24, 89–
116
M. Vanscheeuwijck: De religieuze muziekproduktie in de San Petronio-
kerk te Bologna ten tijde van Giovanni Paolo Colonna (1674–1695)
(diss., U. of Ghent, 1995), 146–53
PETER SMITH/MARC VANSCHEEUWIJCK
Masses, mass movts: 3 masses (G, 3vv; A, 4vv; 4vv), I-RVE; Ky–Gl, 4vv, insts,
VEcap; Gl, 4vv, insts, VEcap; 2 Credo: 4vv, RVE, 4vv, org, VEcap
Requiem mass, 4vv, bc, VEcap; Messa di morti, 3vv, b, OS
Int, grad, off, 3vv, VEcap; 2 sequences: Veni Sancte Spiritus, 4vv, RVE, Victimae
paschali, 4vv, RVE
Mag, 4vv, org, RVE; Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel, 4vv, insts, VEcap; TeD, 4vv,
RVE
Responsories: 4 (3vv, insts; 2 for 4vv, insts; 5vv, insts), VEcap; Responsori del 1o
notturno, RVE; Responsori per i defunti, 4vv, bc, VEcap; Improperia, 3vv, VEcap;
Domine ad adjuvandum, 3vv, RVE
2 Salve regina, RVE; 9 Miserere, 1–3vv, insts, VEcap
Psalms: Lauda Jerusalem, 3vv, Lauda pueri, 3vv, RVE; Dixit Dominus, vv, orch,
Libera me, 4vv, insts, VEcap
Hymns: 2 Pange lingua (3vv, RVE; 4vv, insts, VEcap); 4 Tantum ergo (2 for 3vv, 1
for 4vv, RVE; 4vv, b, VEcap); 3 Vexilla (3vv; 3vv, insts, 1775; 4vv, insts), VEcap;
Vexilla regis, 4vv, str, VEcap
Lessons, 1v, b, VEcap; Lezione terza del venerdì santo, 1v, bc, VEc
Passio D.N.J.C., 1793, 3vv, b, VEcap; 3 Turba passionis (3vv, b; 3vv; 3vv, b, 1789),
VEcap; Turbe per venerdì santo, RVE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Sala: I musicisti veronesi (1500–1879) (Verona, 1879/R), 9
A. Spagnolo: Le scuole accolitali in Verona (Verona, 1904), 157ff
G. Turrini: Il patrimonio musicale della Biblioteca Capitolare di Verona del
secolo XV al XIX (Verona, 1952), 34–5
V. Donella: ‘Un deposito di musiche in S. Giorgio’, Vita Veronese, xxv
(Verona, 1972), 412
E. Paganuzzi and others: ‘La Musica Sacra nel settecento’, La musica a
Verona (Verona, 1976), 257–72, esp. 269–71, tav. ix
M. Dubiaga: The Life and Works of Daniel Pius Dal Barba (1715–1801)
(diss., U. of Colorado, 1977)
E. Negri: Il fondo musicale Malaspina nell'archivio di stato di Verona
(Rome, 1989), 96
MICHAEL DUBIAGA JR
Giacomini, Bernardo
(b Florence, 2 May 1532; d after 1562). Italian composer. He is called
‘gentilhuomo fiorentino’ on the title-page of his only known collection, Il
primo libro di madrigali a cinque voci (Venice, 1563). He may have been
one of the several Florentine amateurs of a certain social status who tried
their hand at composition during the period. He was a member of the
Knights of St Stephen. A reference to ‘il nostro Cav Giacomini’ in an
unpublished work by Giovanni de’ Bardi may indicate that he was also a
member of Bardi’s circle. The madrigal book is dedicated to Paolo
Giordano Orsini, Duke of Bracciano, who in 1558 married Isabella,
daughter of Duke Cosimo I de’ Medici of Florence. The madrigal Nobil
coppia gradita, which opens the volume, celebrates the union of these two
noble families and was perhaps written for performance at the wedding
festivities. The remaining works include settings of no fewer than nine
sonnets by Petrarch, each divided into the customary two sections. These
pieces, composed in a style typical of the time, are characterized by mild
chromaticism and a high regard for correct text setting. His five-voice
setting of Petrarch’s sonnet Zefiro torna appears in Gardano’s 1592 edition
of Spoglia amorosa. Two other works, the five-voice Ma folle io spargo and
the six-voice La bella mano, were intabulated by Vincenzo Galilei, who
published them in the 1584 edition of his Fronimo. Another madrigal, Claro
dolce ben mio, appears in a manuscript addition to the 1568 edition of this
work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
VogelB
B. Romena: Oroscopi diversi (MS, I-Fn), f.13
C.V. Palisca: ‘Vincenzo Galilei’s Arrangements for Voice and Lute’, Essays
in Musicology in Honor of Dragan Plamenac, ed. G. Reese and R.J.
Snow (Pittsburgh, 1969/R), 207–32, esp. 211
FRANK A. D’ACCONE
Giacomini, Giuseppe
(b Veggiano, nr Padua, 7 Sept 1940). Italian tenor. He studied at Padua
and Milan, making his début in 1967 at Vercelli as Pinkerton. Having sung
in Vienna and Berlin (1972), at La Scala (1974) and the Paris Opéra
(1975), he made his Metropolitan début in 1976 as Don Alvaro, returning
as Don Carlos, Macduff, Pinkerton, Canio and Manrico. He made an
impressive Covent Garden début in 1980 as Dick Johnson, returning in
other lyric and spinto roles: Turiddu (which he has recorded), Manrico,
Cavaradossi, Radames, Pollione and Calaf. Giacomini’s other parts range
from Edgardo and Don José through Puccini’s Des Grieux and Luigi (Il
tabarro), both of which he has recorded, to Lohengrin (in Italian) and
Verdi’s Otello, which he first sang in 1986 at San Diego and has repeated
in Vienna, Naples and Monte Carlo. His powerful, firmly focussed voice is
well suited to the heavier Italian repertory, while his dramatic involvement
has greatly increased over the years.
ELIZABETH FORBES
Giacomo da Chieti.
See Jacobus Theatinus.
Giacosa, Giuseppe
(b Colleretto Parella, Ivrea, 21 Oct 1847; d Colleretto Parella, 2 Sept 1906).
Italian playwright and librettist. After graduating in law at Turin University he
joined his father’s legal practice until the success of his one-act verse
comedy Una partita a scacchi (1873) induced him to take up a literary
career. He became a member of Boito’s circle, specializing at first in
stylized period drama. Then followed a number of prose plays in the
tradition of the French Théâtre Libre, of which Tristi amori (1887) and
Come le foglie (1900) still hold the stage as worthy examples of intimate
bourgeois tragedy. La comtesse de Chaillant (1891) was written in French
for Sarah Bernhardt. From 1888 to 1894 Giacosa held the chair of literature
and dramatic art at the Milan Conservatory. At the time of his death he was
editor of the literary periodical La lettura. His output also includes a number
of prose sketches associated with his native region and entitled Novelle e
paesi valdostani (1886) and an account of a visit to America in 1891.
Regarded at the turn of the century as Italy’s leading playwright, Giacosa is
remembered chiefly for his association with Puccini in double harness with
the librettist Luigi Illica. The partnership was organized by the publisher
Giulio Ricordi in 1893. After Puccini had turned down Giacosa’s offer of a
Russian subject, Ricordi set the two librettists to work on the text of La
bohème (1896); it would seem to have been Giacosa’s idea to base the
character of the heroine on a blend of Murger’s Mimì and Francine, so
ensuring a total contrast between the two female leads such as eluded
Leoncavallo in his treatment of the same subject. The collaboration
continued with Tosca (1900) and Madama Butterfly (1904) with equally
successful results. In each case Illica’s task was to plan the scenario and
draft the dialogue which Giacosa would then put into polished verse.
Although he found the work uncongenial and frequently protested against
Puccini's ideas he always ended by giving way to them; and his calm,
benign presence at their conferences (he was known affectionately as ‘the
Buddha’) did much to smooth their difficulties. In addition to his work for
Puccini Giacosa adapted Una partita a scacchi for a one-act opera by the
Piedmontese composer Pietro Abbà-Cornaglia (1892) and sketched out the
text for an oratorio, Cain, for Lorenzo Perosi. The plan to write a libretto for
Mascagni with Illica never came to fruition.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Rumor: Giusenpe Giacosa (Padua, 1940)
P. Nardi: Vita e tempo di Giuseppe Giacosa (Milan, 1949)
A. Barsotti: Giuseppe Giacosa (Florence, 1977)
JULIAN BUDDEN
Giaiotti, Bonaldo
(b Ziracco, nr Udine, 25 Dec 1932). Italian bass. He studied with Alfredo
Starno in Milan where he made his début at the Teatro Nuovo in 1957.
Within the next three years he established himself as one of the leading
Italian basses of his time, and was engaged in 1960 by the Metropolitan,
New York, remaining a valued member of the company for the next 25
years. The priestly roles in La forza del destino and Aida were his
speciality, though the part he sang most frequently in the house was that of
Timur in Turandot. At La Scala he was introduced as Rodolfo in La
sonnambula (1986), and at the Verona Festival of 1992 he appeared as
King Philip in Don Carlos. He also made a concert tour of South America in
1970. His sonorous, evenly produced voice served him well over a long
career, and can be heard in many recordings. Among these is Luisa Miller
(1975, with Maag), where Count Walter’s aria in Act 1 is a fine example of
his art.
J.B. STEANE
Gianacconi, Giuseppe.
See Jannacconi, Giuseppe.
3 fl concs.
Trios, fl, vn, b, opp.1–2; 3 fantaisies, fl, vn, 2 va, vc, op.6; 3 duos concertants, fl, hp,
op.24; 3 Quartetts, fl, vn, va, vc, op.32 (London, c1815); Solos, fl, b, opp.33–4, 43;
6 variations, fl, vn acc.; 3 sonates, fl, b/vn ad lib
3 nocturnes, 2 fl, bn, op.12; [3] Trios, 3 fl, opp.27, 36 (London, ?1810–?15);
Nocturnes, 2 fl, vc, opp.28–31; Quartetto, 4 fl, op.52 (London, c1815); Sonates, 2 fl,
pf; 4 collections of fl duos
Steibelt’s pf sonatas, op.45, arr. 2 fl; Elegant Extracts, fl, ed. Gianella (London and
Dublin, n.d.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
HoneggerD
MGG1 (‘Darondeau’, ‘Dumoncheau’; R. Cotte)
SchmidlD
R.J.V. Cotte: Les musiciens Franc-Maçons à la cour de Versailles et à
Paris sous l'ancien régime (doctorat d'Etat, diss., 1982, F-Pn)
ROGER COTTE
Gianelli, Francesco
(fl 1592). Italian composer. Although his only known work, Il primo libro de
madrigali a tre voci (Venice, 1592, inc.; Eitner incorrectly read the date as
1582), is dated from Ferrara on 15 January 1592 and dedicated to Cardinal
Alessandro d'Este, his name does not appear in the surviving salary rolls of
the Este cappella. (A copy of the Primo libro survives among the holdings
of the Ferrarese court chapel.) Many of the pieces, described in the
dedication as ‘questi miei primi terzetti’, suggest a rather uncomfortable
alliance between the canzonetta and the rhetoric of the serious madrigal.
(EitnerQ; NewcombMF)
IAIN FENLON
Gianelli, Pietro
(b Friuli, ?1770; d Venice, early 1830). Italian music lexicographer, teacher
and composer. He studied music in Padua with Jacopo Agnola and then
went to Venice, where he taught theory and composition. There, in 1801,
he published his Dizionario della musica sacra e profana, the first music
dictionary in Italian, which he described as modelled on the French works
by Brossard and Rousseau, and Grammatica ragionata della musica, an
introduction to the elements of music and musical instruments, which
included an annotated bibliography of writers on the theory and practice of
music from 1500 to the end of the 18th century. Second editions of both
works, the Dizionario revised and much enlarged, appeared in 1820. A
reprint of this edition of the Dizionario appeared in 1830 (called the third
edition on its title-page). Although much of the material in both editions of
the Dizionario is superficial and incorrect, a few of the entries are useful,
providing information not easily found elsewhere. In 1822, the year in
which he became dean of Torcello Cathedral, Gianelli also announced the
publication of a series, Biografia degli uomini illustri nella musica, but only
the first volume was published (Venice, 1822). An antiphon for three voices
(Alma Redemptoris) by Gianelli is in the Venice Conservatory library.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
‘Nachrichten: Literarische Notizen’, AMZ, xxxiii (1831), 174–6 [review of
3rd edn of the Dizionario]
M. Sutter: ‘Aspetti della prassi organistica in Italia nel Settecento e nel
primo Ottocento’, L’organo, xi (1973), 139–55
MILTON SUTTER/CARLIDA STEFFAN
Gianneo, Luis
(b Buenos Aires, 9 Jan 1897; d Buenos Aires, 15 Aug 1968). Argentine
composer, conductor and pianist. He received his earliest musical training
from his father, later studying with Ernesto Drangosch (piano), Luis
Romaniello (piano), Constantino Gaito (harmony) and Eduardo Fornarini
(composition). From 1923 to 1942 he lived in Tucumán, where he co-
directed the Instituto Musical and conducted the Asociación Sinfónica.
Beginning in 1943, he settled permanently in Buenos Aires, teaching at the
Conservatorio Provincial de Música (1949–65), the Universidad Nacional
de la Plata (1956–66) and the Universidad Católica Argentina (1964–8). He
served as Interventor (1955–8) and Director (1958–60) of the
Conservatorio Nacional de Música. In addition, Gianneo founded and
directed two youth orchestras, which maintained outstanding standards of
musical performance. He was a member of the Academia Nacional de
Bellas Artes, vice-president of the Sociedad Argentina de Educación, and
the recipient of a grant from the Comisión Nacional de Cultura.
Gianneo is acknowledged as a leading Latin American composer and one
of the first in Argentina to integrate folk idioms with contemporary musical
techniques. He composed 80 works covering all genres (except opera),
and he is especially known for his orchestral and chamber music.
Gianneo’s early compositions (1923–32) reveal a fascination with the
indigenous culture and landscape of northwestern Argentina. Later, he
embraced a neo-classical aesthetic (1933–60), and in his final works
(1960–68) adapted a dissonant harmonic language and the free use of
serialism. His popular symphonic poem, El tarco en flor (1930), pays tribute
to the exquisite blooming trees of Tucumán. His Concierto Aymará (1942),
based on pentatonic themes, won second prize in an international
competition sponsored by the Edwin A. Fleischer Collection. Gianneo’s
music has been recorded on historical and contemporary labels (including
Preludio, Pampa, Qualiton, Angel, Odeón, Dorian and RCA Camden), and
numerous taped copies of his works survive in national and municipal radio
archives of Buenos Aires.
WORKS
(selective list)
Ballet: Blanca Nieves (1, Gianneo and J. Ghidoni de Gianneo, after J. and W.
Grimm), 1939, Buenos Aires, Colón, 16 Aug 1963
Vocal-orch: Transfiguración (J. Zocchi), Bar, orch, 1944; Angor Dei (J. de
Ibarbourou), S, orch, 1962; Poema de la Saeta (F. García Lorca), 1v, orch, 1966
Orch: Turay-Turay, sym. poem, 1928; El tarco en flor, sym. poem, 1930; Obertura
para una comedia infantil, 1937; Sinfonietta ‘Homanaje a Haydn’, 1940; Pf Conc.,
1941; Concierto Aymará, vn, orch, 1942; Sinfonía de las Américas, 1945; Pericón,
1948; Variaciones sobre tema de tango, 1953; Obertura del sesquicentenario, perf.
1966
Chbr: 3 piezas criollas, str qt, 1923; 4 cantos incaicos, str qt, 1924; Pf Trio no.1,
1925; Sonata, vc, pf, 1934; Sonata, vn, pf, 1935; Cuarteto criollo no.1, str qt, 1936;
5 piezas, vn, pf, 1942; Pf Trio no.2, 1943; Cuarteto criollo no.2, str qt, 1944; Str Qt
no.3, 1952; Str Qt no.4, 1958
Songs: Pampeanas (R. Chirre Danós), 1924; 6 coplas (trad.): ser. 1, 1929, ser. 2,
1930
Pf: Sonata no.1, 1917; Preludios criollos, 1927; Bailecito, 1931; Suite, 1933;
Sonatina, 1938; 3 danzas argentinas, 1939; Música para niños, 1941; Sonata no.2,
1943; Sonata no.3, 1957
A cappella choral works, educational music
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Ginastera: ‘Eight from the Argentine’, MM, xxiii (1946), 226-72
L. Gianneo: ‘Posibilidades que ofrece el folklore como elemento de
orientación’, Buenos Aires musical, vii/104 (1952), 9 only
A. Terzián de Atchabahian: ‘Luis Gianneo: músico argentino’, Clave
(Montevideo), no.50 (1962), 23–4, 32
J. Pickenhayn: Luis Gianneo (Buenos Aires, 1980)
DEBORAH SCHWARTZ-KATES
25 cantatas, I-MOe
2 cantatas, duet, GB-Lbl
Cantatas, canzone, aria, D-Bsb, Kl, Mbs (according to EitnerQ)
Cantata, I-Fn (according to Luin, but not in library catalogue)
doubtful works
La schiava fortunata, Hamburg, 1693, mentioned by Mattheson as having music by
Giannettini and poetry by Cesti
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AllacciD
CaffiS
EitnerQ
FétisB
GaspariC
GerberL
GerberNL
LaMusicaD
MGG1(L.F. Tagliavini)
RicordiE
SchmidlD
SchmidlDS
SennMT
WaltherML
J. Mattheson: Der musicalische Patriot (Hamburg, 1728/R)
G. Tiraboschi: Biblioteca modenese (Modena, 1781–6)
A. Gandini: Cronistoria dei teatri di Modena dal 1539 al 1871 (Modena,
1873/R)
T. Wiel: I teatri musicali veneziani del settecento (Venice, 1897)
R. Haas: Die Musik des Barocks (Potsdam, 1928)
A. Mabellini: ‘Cristina regina di Svezia in Fano nel 1655’, Studia picena, v
(1929), 145
E.J. Luin: ‘Antonio Giannettini e la musica a Modena alla fine del secolo
XVII’, Atti e memorie della R. Deputazione di storia patria per le
provincie modenesi, 7th ser., vii (1931), 145–230
S.T. Worsthorne: Venetian Opera in the Seventeenth Century (Oxford,
1954/R)
R. Brockpähler: Handbuch zur Geschichte der Barockoper in Deutschland
(Emsdetten, 1964)
E. Selfridge: ‘Organists at the Church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo’, ML, l
(1969), 393–9
A. Chiarelli: I Codici di musica della raccolta estense: ricostruzione
dall'inventario settecentesco, Quaderni della RIM, xvi (1987)
V. Crowther: The Oratorio in Modena (Oxford, 1992)
R. Emans: ‘Giovanni Legrenzis Oper “Eteocle e Polinice” in der
Bearbeitung Antonio Giannettinis: ein Beitrag zur musikästhetischen
Entwicklung der Aria’, Seicento inesplorato: Lenno, nr Como 1989,
561–90
N. Dubowy: ‘Ernst August, Giannettini und die Serenata in Venedig
(1685/86)’, AnMc, no.30 (1998), 167–235
THOMAS WALKER/BETH L. GLIXON
Giannetto.
See Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da.
Giannini, Dusolina
(b Philadelphia, 19 Dec 1902; d Zürich, 29 June 1986). American soprano.
She studied first with her father, the Italian tenor Ferruccio Giannini, then
with Marcella Sembrich, and made her operatic début at Hamburg as Aida
in 1925. Subsequent engagements took her to Berlin, Vienna and Covent
Garden, as well as to Salzburg (1934–6), where she sang Donna Anna
under Walter and Alice Ford under Toscanini. In 1938 she created the part
of Hester Prynne in The Scarlet Letter, an opera by her brother, Vittorio
Giannini. Her career at the Metropolitan began with Aida in 1936 and lasted
until 1941, during which period she also played Donna Anna, Santuzza and
Tosca. After appearing in Chicago (1938–42) and San Francisco (1939–43)
she took part in the first season of New York City Opera (1943), as Tosca at
the opening, and then Carmen and Santuzza. She retired some 20 years
later and devoted herself to teaching. Giannini’s voice was a true dramatic
soprano, backed by strong temperament and impeccable musicianship, as
revealed by her recordings, notably her Aida. She was also a noted concert
singer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W.R. Moran: ‘Dusolina Giannini and her Recordings’, Record Collector, ix
(1954), 26–51 [with discography]
J.B. Steane: The Grand Tradition (London, 1974/R), 282–3
L. Rasponi: ‘Con principio: Dusolina Giannini’, ON, xliv/8 (1979–80), 8–13
MAX DE SCHAUENSEE/R
Giannini, Vittorio
(b Philadelphia, 19 Oct 1903; d New York, 28 Nov 1966). American
composer and teacher. Born to a highly musical family, he began learning
the violin at an early age and soon won a scholarship to attend the Milan
Conservatory (1913–17). He entered the Juilliard School in 1925, studying
violin with Hans Letz and composition with Rubin Goldmark. In 1932 he
won the first of three consecutive Prix de Rome. Major European premières
during the 1930s (Lucedia, The Scarlet Letter, Requiem) were critical and
popular triumphs. Returning to the USA, he joined the teaching staff at the
Juilliard School (1939), the Manhattan School (1941) and later the Curtis
Institute of Music (1956). In 1965 he became the first director of the North
Carolina School of the Arts, where he served until his death.
Giannini quickly absorbed the techniques, as well as the ethos, of late
Romanticism, and his early works reveal thorough mastery of a relaxed,
italianate vocal style, enriched by Wagnerian chromaticism. In the late
1940s he began to shed excessive sentimentality, moving towards a lighter,
neo-classical style. From this period came The Taming of the Shrew, his
most popular opera. During his last years he turned to a darker, more
intense Romanticism, marked by greater dissonance and tonal freedom.
Although mid-century arbiters of taste rejected Giannini’s conservative
style, his best works – The Medead, Antigone, Psalm cxxx and several of
the operas – are fine examples of the modern Romantic tradition. A number
of his songs hold an enduring place on recital programmes.
WORKS
Ops: Lucedia 3 (K. Flaster), 1934; Not all Prima Donnas are Ladies; Flora (radio op,
3), 1936; The Scarlet Letter (2, Flaster, after N. Hawthorne), 1938; Beauty and the
Beast (radio op, 1, R. Simon), 1938; Blennerhasset (radio op, 1, P. Roll and N.
Corwen), 1939; The Taming of the Shrew (3, Giannini and D. Fee, after W.
Shakespeare), 1950; Christus (tetralogy, Flaster), 1956, ?unperf.; The Harvest (3,
Flaster), 1961; Rehearsal Call (3, F. Swann and Simon), 1961; Servant of 2 Masters
(2, B. Stambler, after C. Goldoni), 1966; Edipus Rex (4, ?Giannini, after Sophocles),
inc.
Orch: Suite, 1931; Pf Conc., 1935; Sym. ‘In memoriam Theodore Roosevelt’, 1935;
Org Conc., 1937; Conc., 2 pf; Opera Ballet, 1939; Prelude, Chorale, and Fugue,
1939; Sym. ‘IBM’, 1939; Vn Conc., 1944; Tpt Conc., 1945; Conc. grosso, str, 1946;
Frescobaldiana, 1948; Sym. no.1 ‘Sinfonia’, 1950; Divertimento no.1, 1953; Prelude
and Fugue, str, 1955; Sym. no.2, 1955; Suite ‘Love’s Labour Lost’, chbr orch, 1958;
Sym. no.4, 1960; Divertimento no.2, 1961; Psalm cxxx, db/vc, orch, 1963;
Divertimento no.3, 1964; Sym. no.5, 1965
Sym. band: Preludium and Allegro, 1958; Sym. no.3, 1958; Fantasia, 1963;
Dedication Ov., 1964; Variations and Fugue, 1964
Vocal: Stabat mater, SATB, orch, 1922; Resurrection, SATB, pf; 2 Madrigals, SSAA,
1929; Madrigal, 4 solo vv, str qt, 1931; Primavera (cant.), 1933; Life’s Span, 1v, str;
Requiem, SATB, orch, 1937; Triptych, S, str, 1937; Lament for Adonis (cant.), 1940;
Mass, TTBB, org, 1943; Canticle of Christmas, Bar, SATB, orch, 1951; Canticle of
the Martyrs, SATB, orch, 1956; The Medead, S, orch, 1960; 3 Devotional Motets,
SATB, 1960; Antigone, S, orch, 1962; many songs, incl. Tell me oh blue sky, Heart
Cry, Longing, Be still my heart, I did not know, Far above the purple hills, I shall
think of you, There were two swans, Sing to my heart a song, Spring Night
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt, 1930; Pf Qnt, 1931; Pf Trio, 1931; Ww Qnt, 1933; Sonata
no.1, vn, pf, 1940; Sonata no.2, vn, pf, 1944; Sonata, vn, 1945; Variations on a
Cantus firmus, pf, 1947; other pf pieces and duets, 1 org work
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EwenD
R. Parris: ‘Vittorio Giannini and the Romantic Tradition’, Juilliard Review,
iv/2 (1956–7), 32–46
M.L. Mark: ‘The Band Music of Vittorio Giannini’, Music Educators Journal,
lv/8 (1968–9), 77–80
M.L. Mark: The Life and Works of Vittorio Giannini (1903–1966) (diss.,
Catholic U. of America, 1970)
A. Simpson and K.W. Flaster: ‘A Working Relationship: the Giannini-
Flaster Collaboration’, American Music, vi (1988), 375–408
J. Price: The Songs of Vittorio Giannini on Poems by Karl Flaster (diss.,
Florida State U., 1989)
WALTER G. SIMMONS
[12] Sonate, vn, bc, opp.1, 2, vn/fl, bc, op.5 (1728–before 1740)
[6] Sonate a 3, 2 vn, bc, opp.3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 13 (c1730–50); opp.10, 13, ?lost
[6] Sonate, 2 vn, opp.7, 11 (c1741–48)
[6] Nouveaux duo, 2 vn/tr viol, op.16 (c1753)
?Lost works: Les soirées de Limeil, vielles/musettes/vn/other insts, op.8 (c1744);
Sonates, 2 vc/viol, op.12 (c1750); Les petits concerts de Daphnis et Chloe,
sonates en trio, vielles/musettes/other insts, op.14 (c1751); Concertini à 4
parties, op.15 (c1752); Les amusements de Terpsicore, en 6 sonates en 3, op.17
(after c1753)
L'école des filles (cant.), solo v, vn acc., ?bc (n.d.), ?lost
Le guide du compositeur (1759, 2/1775)
Méthode abrégée d'accompagnement à la harpe et au clavecin (1764), lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetC
La LaurencieEF
T. Christensen: Rameau and Musical Thought in the Enlightenment
(Cambridge, 1993)
MICHELLE FILLION
Gian Toscan
(fl ?c1400). Italian composer, probably Florentine. One ballata by him
survives, Se’ tu di male in peggio (with the name ‘Caterina’ concealed in
the text as a so-called Senhal), for two voices. It is archaic in style and
altogether clumsily written. The piece stands at the end of the first of two
later fascicles in F-Pn it.568 (f.60v; ed. in CMM, viii/5, 1964, p.42, and in
PMFC, x, 1977, p.88). Both names are perhaps in an abbreviated form; he
may be identifiable with Giovanni Mazzuoli.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F.A. D’Accone: ‘Giovanni Mazzuoli: a Late Representative of the Italian
Ars Nova’, L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento: convegni di studio 1961–
1967, ed. F.A. Gallo (Certaldo, 1968), 23–38
KURT VON FISCHER
Giaranzana.
See Chiarentana.
stage
all first performed in London
Rosmira (os, 3, S. Stampiglia), King’s, 30 April 1757, lost
Enea e Lavinia (os, 3, G. Sertor), King’s, 5 May 1764; excerpts (London, 1764)
Il re pastore (os, 3, P. Metastasio), King’s, 7 March 1765, lost
Sappho (lyric drama), c1778, lost (if written); incid music to W. Mason, Elfrida,
Covent Garden, 23 Feb 1779, lost
Music in: Cleonice, 1763; Siroe, 1763; Didone, 1775; Astarto, 1776
instrumental
published in London unless otherwise stated; some reissued Paris with different opus
numbers
Vn, b: 6 sonate, op.1 (1751); 6 sonate, op.4 (Paris 1755–6); 12 sonates, op.6 (?
1755–6); 6 soli, op.7 (probably 1759); 12 sonate, [op.10] (1765); 6 Solos, op.16
(1772); 6 Solos, op.19 (1777); 6 Favourite Solos (1790); 1 in M
Duets: 6 for 2 vn, op.2 (1751); 6 for 2 vn, op.13 (1767), 1 ed. in K. Schultz-Hauser
(Mainz, 1965); 6 for vn, vc, op.14 (1769); 1 for vn, va, in M
Trios: 6 for gui, vn, b (probably 1760); 6 for vn, va, vc, op.17 (1773); 6 for (gui, vn,
pf)/(hp, vn, vc), op.18 (1775); 6 for vn, va, vc, op.20 (1778); 6 for vn, va, vc, op.26
(1784); 6 for 2 vn, b, op.28 (1789–90); 6 for 2 vn, pf/vc, op.30 (1790); 1 for vn, va,
vc, in M
Qts: 3 for hpd, vn, va, vc, 3 for hpd, 2 vn, vc, op.21 (1778–9); 6 for 2 vn, va, vc,
op.22 (1779–80); 2 for vn, 2 va, vc, 2 for 2 vn, va, vc, 2 for vn, ob, va, vc, op.23
(1782); 3 for vn, ob/fl, va, vc, 3 for 2 vn, va, vc, op.25 (1783); 6 for 2 vn, va, vc,
op.29 (1790); 1 in 6 Quartettos by Bach, Abel and Giardini (1776)
Other works: 6 sonate, hpd, vn/fl, op.3 (1751); 4 ovs. and qt for 2 vn, bn, b (1755); 6
quintetti, hpd, 2 vn, vc, b, op.11 (1767); 6 vn concs., op.15 (1771–2); Devonshire
Minuet, pf, vn (c1781); 2 Sonatas, pf/hpd, vn, op.31 (1790–91); 2 sonatas, hpd/pf,
vn, 1 for hpd/pf, vn, va/vc, in M
Pedagogical: Esercizii per il cembalo, Istruzioni per violoncello, Istruzioni ed
esercizii per il violino, all I-Mc
MSS: 3 qts, 9 trios, 12 duets, GB-Lbl; other works in D-Bsb, KA, Mbs, I-Gl, Mc
vocal
Ruth (orat), Lock Hospital Chapel, 15 April 1763 (pt 2 by Giardini, pts 1 and 3 by
Avison), 13 Feb 1765 (pts 2 and 3 by Giardini, pt 1 by Avison), 25 May 1768 (all by
Giardini), lost; addns to Hasse, I pellegrini, Drury Lane, 25 March 1757, lost
6 arie, 1v, orch, op.4 (1755); La libertà [13 songs], 1v, b (1758); 6 arie, 1v, orch
(1762); 6 duetti, 2vv, b (1762); In dimostrazione d’affetto [1 duet, 6 glees] (1765);
many single songs, glees, catches, hymns, MS, pubd separately, and in M
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDA
BurneyH
LS; MooserA; MoserGV; NewmanSCE
Rees's Cyclopaedia (London, 1819–20)
T. Busby: Concert Room and Orchestra Anecdotes of Music and
Musicians Ancient and Modern, i (London, 1825)
‘Memoir of Felice Giardini’, The Harmonicon, v (1827/R), 215–17
W.T. Parke: Musical Memoirs (London, 1830/R)
C.F. Pohl: Mozart und Haydn in London, i (Vienna, 1867/R)
W.C. Smith: The Italian Opera and Contemporary Ballet in London, 1789–
1820 (London, 1955)
A. Damerini: ‘I quartetti di Felice Giardini’, Musicisti piemontesi e liguri,
Chigiana, xvi (1959), 41–9
G. Salvetti: ‘Un maestro italiano del “quartetto”: Felice Giardini’, Chigiana,
xxiii, new ser. iii (1966), 109–33
R.R. Kidd: ‘The Emergence of Chamber Music with Obligato Keyboard in
England’, AcM, xliv (1972), 122–44
F.C. Petty: Italian Opera in London 1760–1800 (Ann Arbor, 1980)
S. McVeigh: ‘Felice Giardini: a Violinist in Late Eighteenth-Century
London’, ML, lxiv (1983), 162–72
S. McVeigh: ‘Music and Lock Hospital in the 18th Century’, MT, cxxix
(1988), 235–40
S. McVeigh: The Violinist in London’s Concert Life, 1750–1784: Felice
Giardini and his Contemporaries (New York, 1989)
C. Price, J. Milhous, R.D. Hume: The Impresario's Ten Commandments:
Continental Recruitment for Italian Opera in London 1763–64 (London,
1992)
C. Price, J. Milhous, R.D. Hume: Italian Opera in Late Eighteenth-Century
London, i (Oxford, 1995)
CHRISTOPHER HOGWOOD, SIMON McVEIGH
other works
2 serenatas (I. Provana), Malta, 1727, 1728; 2 sinfonias, a 7, a 9, S-Uu; 3 sinfonias,
vn conc., D-Dl; 2 cants., S, bc, GB-Lbl; Pastoralle, 2 fl, str, I-Td; arias, fl, Vqs
5 masses, 1 requiem, 1 Ky–Gl–Cr, 5 Ky–Gl, 5 Cr, 4 Dixit Dominus, 4 Beatus vir, 4
Laudate pueri, 2 Confitebor, 2 Mag, 3 Miserere, 7 Veni Sancte Spiritus, 2 Victimae
paschali laudes, 7 lits, 16 hymns, Antifone per la novena di natale, 3 Lamentations,
Duodecima profetia di Nabucodonosar, c36 motets: all I-Td
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
LaMusicaD
G. Roberti: La cappella regia di Torino, 1515–1870 (Turin, 1880)
G. Sacerdote: Teatro regio di Torino: cronologia … dal 1662 al 1890
(Turin, 1892)
L. Vallas: Un siècle de musique et de théâtre à Lyon, 1688–1789 (Lyons,
1932/R), 273
M.T. Bouquet: Turin et les musiciens de la Cour, 1619–1775: vie
quotidienne et production artistique (Paris, 1987)
GORDANA LAZAREVICH/MARIE-THÉRÈSE BOUQUET-BOYER
Giazotto, Remo
(b Rome, 4 Sept 1910; d Pisa, 26 Aug 1998). Italian musicologist and critic.
He took a degree in literature and philosophy at the University of Genoa
(1931–3) and studied the piano and composition at the Milan Conservatory
under Torrefranca, Pizzetti and G.C. Paribeni. He was music critic (from
1932) and editor (1945–9) of the Rivista musicale italiana and was
appointed co-editor of the Nuova rivista musicale italiana in 1967. He
taught music history at the University of Florence (1957–69) and in 1962
was nominated to the Accademia Nazionale di S Cecilia. In 1949 he
became director of chamber music programmes for RAI and in 1966 its
director of international programmes organized through the European
Broadcasting Union. He was also president of RAI’s auditioning committee
and editor of its series of biographies of composers. He wrote studies of
the music history of Genoa, and romanticized biographies of various
composers (Albinoni, Stradella, Viotti, Vivaldi); he also contributed to Italian
and foreign music dictionaries. His elaboration of a fragment supposedly
from one of Albinoni’s sonatas has become famous as ‘Albinoni’s Adagio’.
WRITINGS
Il melodramma a Genova nei secoli XVII e XVIII (Genoa, 1941)
Tomaso Albinoni, ‘musico di violino dilettante veneto’ (1671–1750) (Milan,
1945)
Busoni: la vita nell’opera (Milan, 1947)
La musica a Genova nella vita pubblica e privata dal XIII al XVIII secolo
(Genoa, 1952)
Poesia melodrammatica e pensiero critico nel Settecento (Milan, 1952)
‘Il Patricio di Hercole Bottrigari dimostrato praticamente da un anonimo
cinquecentesco’, CHM, i (1953), 97–112
Harmonici concenti in aere veneto (Rome, 1955)
La musica italiana a Londra negli anni di Purcell (Rome, 1955)
Annali mozartiani (Milan, 1956)
Giovan Battista Viotti (Milan, 1956)
Musurgia nova (Milan, 1959)
Vita di Alessandro Stradella (Milan, 1962)
Vivaldi (Milan, 1965)
‘La guerra dei palchi’, NRMI, i (1967), 245–86, 465–508; iii (1969), 906–33;
v (1971), 1034–52
‘Nel CCC anno della morte di Antonio Cesti: ventidue lettere ritrovate
nell’Archivio di Stato di Venezia’, NRMI, iii (1969), 496–512
‘Quattordici lettere inedite di Pietro Mascagni’, NRMI, iv (1970), 493–513
Quattro secoli di storia dell’Accademia nazionale di S. Cecilia, 2 vols.
(Rome, 1970)
Antonio Vivaldi (Turin, 1973)
‘Un ignoto trattato d'anonimo romano scritto tra il 1660 e il 1670’, Chigiana,
new ser., xix (1982), 437–46
Le due patrie di Giulio Caccini musico mediceo, 1551–1618: nuovi
contributi anagrafici e d’archivio sulla sua vita e la sua famiglia
(Florence, 1984)
‘Da congregazione ad accademia: momenti, aspetti, progetti e personaggi’,
Studi musicali, xiv (1985), 5–23
‘Maria Malibran: una donna con tre anime’, NRMI, xxi (1987), 411–20
Il grande viaggio di Pietro Della Valle il ‘Pellegrino’ (1612–1626) (Rome,
1988)
Le carte della Scala: storie di impresari e appaltatori teatrali, 1778–1860
(Pisa, 1991)
‘Un omaggio di Clementi a Mozart’, Mozart e i musicisti italiani del suo
tempo: Rome 1991, 129–36
‘Puccini nello sgomento ed altre testimonianze e confessioni inedite dei
suoi famigliari’, Musica senza aggettivi: studi per Fedele d’Amico, ed.
A. Ziino (Florence, 1991), 551–82
CAROLYN GIANTURCO/R
Gibbes, Richard.
See Gibbs, Richard.
stage
unless otherwise stated, music by Gibbons and dates those of the first London
performance; librettists shown as (lyricist; book author)
Sylvia (comedy with music, 3, J. Dryenforth after St.J. Ervine: Mary, Mary, Quite
Contrary), Vaudeville, 14 Dec 1927
Open Your Eyes (musical comedy, Dryenforth and C. Knox; F. Jackson), Edinburgh,
Empire, 26 Aug 1929 [addl. music by V. Duke]
Gaeities (Furber), 29 March 1945
Big Boy (musical comedy, 2, F. Emney and D. Furber; Emney, Furber and M.
Kester), Saville, 12 Sept 1945
Interpolated songs: 2 songs (Dreyenforth) in P. Braham: Up with the Lark, 1927
vocal
lyrics by James Dryenforth, unless otherwise stated; all published in London
Many songs, incl. I’m so jealous (1927); Misunderstood (1927); Possibly (1927);
Garden in the Rain (1928); I’ll be getting along (1929); Peace of Mind (1929); On
the Air (J. Campbell and R. Connelly), (1932); On the Other Side of Lovers’ Lane
(1932); I think of you (D. Furber), (1945); It was swell while it lasted (Furber), (1945)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GänzlBMT
A. McCarthy: The Dance Band Era (London, 1971)
B. Rust: The Dance Bands (London, 1972)
B. Rust: London Musical Shows on Record 1894–1954 (London, 1958,
enlarged 2/1977 by B. Rust and R. Bunnet as London Musical Shows
on Record, 1897–1976, rev. 3/1989 by R. Seeley and R. Burnett as
London Musical Shows on Record 1889–1989)
P. Gammond and R. Horricks, eds.: Big Bands (Cambridge, 1981)
ALYN SHIPTON
Gibbons, Christopher
(b Westminster, London, bap. 22 Aug 1615; d Westminster, 20 Oct 1676).
English composer and organist, second son (the eldest surviving) of
Orlando Gibbons. He served Charles I in ‘his youth’, presumably as a
chorister of the Chapel Royal. Wood noted that he ‘was bred up from a
Child to Music under his uncle Ellis Gibbons’, but this cannot be correct,
and it has generally been inferred that after his father's death he was taken
under the care of his uncle Edward Gibbons, succentor of Exeter
Cathedral. In January 1627 he was nominated through the Signet Office for
admission as a scholar of the Charterhouse; the Governors approved his
election on 21 June, though it is not certain that he was actually admitted.
In 1638 he succeeded Thomas Holmes as organist of Winchester
Cathedral, but in 1642 he saw the ‘faire organs in the Minster broken down’
by parliamentarian soldiers. He married Mary Kercher, daughter of a
Winchester prebendary, on 23 September 1646, and settled in London,
where in 1651 he was listed in Playford’s A Musicall Banquet (RISM 16516)
among teachers ‘for the Organ or Virginall’. According to Aubrey he was
also organist to Sir John Danvers, whose house in Chelsea contained ‘an
excellent organ of stoppes of cedar’. Lodewijck Huygens heard him play
there on 10 March 1652, and also in a consort at Davis Mell's house a
fortnight later. In July 1654 Evelyn, visiting Magdalen College, Oxford,
where the Robert Dallam organ in the chapel still stood, heard ‘Mr Gibbon
that famous Musitian, giving us a tast of his skill & Talent on that
Instrument’. It appears that his wife Mary was dead by 1655, and that on
22 April of that year he married a widow, Elizabeth Filbridge (née Ball); five
children were baptised at St Clement Danes between February 1656 and
June 1660. In 1656 he was one of six players in the ‘Instrumental Musick’
for Davenant’s The Siege of Rhodes given at Rutland House. Locke’s
score for the 1659 production of Shirley’s Cupid and Death includes vocal
and instrumental music by Gibbons; it is uncertain whether this had formed
part of the ‘musical compositions’ of the 1653 production given before the
Portuguese ambassador.
At the Restoration Gibbons received appointments as musician to Charles
II and as organist of the Chapel Royal and Westminster Abbey; he resigned
his place at Winchester. As a musician-in-ordinary he served in a dual
capacity, as virginalist ‘in the Presence’ (instructions were given in 1660 for
‘an organ to be made for him’), and as a member of the King’s Private
Musick, at yearly salaries of £46 and £40 respectively. He occupied this
place, and that of Chapel Royal organist, until his death. In 1660 he
became organist, and in 1664 Master of the Choristers, of Westminster
Abbey, posts he held until 1666. It was apparently from him that Froberger,
who was in London in 1662 at the time of Charles II’s marriage, obtained
employment as an organ-blower so that he might hear the music at the
English court; Mattheson recorded that during a banquet Froberger
overblew and received a drubbing from the organist, who apologized after
hearing him perform on the harpsichord. Between 1662 and 1665 he was
involved in a scandal over plans for a new organ at Worcester Cathedral,
and was accused of corruptly seeking to procure the contract for William
Hathaway. In 1663 he was nominated by the king for the degree of DMus
at Oxford University, and this was conferred in July 1664; his exercises for
the Act (performed, Wood related, ‘with very great honour to himself and
his faculty’) survive, and a portrait of him in doctoral robes was presented
to the Music School (see illustration). Wood described him as ‘a person
most excellent in his faculty, but a grand debauchee’: this seems to be
borne out by his autograph comment on an organ verse, ‘drunke from the
Cather[i]ne Wheele’ (GB-Och 1142A). Pepys wrote of his taking part in
music at the Earl of Sandwich's residence on several occasions, and on 3
August 1668 was promised ‘some things for two flagelettes’ from him. In
1665 the Gibbons family was living in Great Almonry, and in 1671 in New
Street, Westminster. Gibbons was buried on 24 October 1676 in
Westminster Abbey cloisters.
As a keyboard player, Gibbons was an outstanding figure in Restoration
music. As a composer, his style, though vigorous, is cruder and less
eloquent than Locke’s; North, who called him ‘a great master in the
ecclesiasticall stile, and also in consort musick’, characterized his work as
‘bold, solid, and strong, but desultory and not without a little of the
barbaresque’. The verse anthems belong to a transitional type, with organ
accompaniment but without ‘symphonies’, and usually employ two solo
trebles; considerable demands are sometimes made of these boy soloists.
How long wilt thou forget me seems to have been the most widely
performed of his anthems. Here, and also in his fantasia-suites for violins
and bass viol, Gibbons's practice was to write out imitative passages for
solo organ in full, but usually his organ parts are shown as a thoroughbass
line. The fantasia-suites are among the last examples of a genre
established by Coprario, while two four-part fantasias (probably written in
the 1660s for the Oxford Music School) are good examples of that ‘chief
and most excellent’ genre from a time when it was falling out of fashion.
Though only a few keyboard pieces survive, the double voluntaries in
particular are a valuable record of the ‘skill & Talent’ that Evelyn admired,
and anticipate the style of Gibbons's pupil Blow.
WORKS
Editions: M. Locke and C. Gibbons: Cupid and Death, ed. E.J. Dent, MB, ii (1951, rev.
2/1965 by B. Harris) [D]C. Gibbons: Keyboard Compositions, ed. C.G. Rayner, CEKM,
xviii (1967, rev. 2/1989 by J. Caldwell) [R]
Above the stars my Saviour dwells, 2 Tr/4vv, org, before 1664, GB-Och 92
(autograph org pt), Y
Ah, my soul, why so dismay'd?, devotional song, 2 Tr, B, org, Lbl, Och
God be merciful unto us, 2 Tr, B/4vv, org, Cfm, GL, Och, Y
Have pity upon me, inc., 2 Tr/4vv [org pt wanting], DRc, Lbl, Y
Help me, Lord, inc., 2 Tr, B/4vv [org pt wanting], Y
How long wilt thou forget me, 2 Tr/4vv, org, before 1664, 1674 2, Cfm, DRc, EL, Lbl,
Lkc, Lsp, LF, Ob, Och, WRch, Y, US-BEm
Lord, I am not high-minded, inc., Tr, 4vv [org pt wanting], GB-Y
Not unto us, O Lord (for Oxford Act), 1664, 2 Tr, T/8vv, bc, Ob
O praise the Lord, all ye heathen, 2 Tr/4vv, org, DRc, Och, Y
Sing unto the Lord, O ye saints, 2 Tr/4vv, org, 1674 2, Cfm, Ckc, Lbl, Ob, Och, WB,
Y
Teach me, O Lord, 2 Tr/4vv, org, 16742, Cfm, DRc, Lbl, Lkc, Lsp, Ob, Och, Y
The Lord said unto my lord, 3 Tr/5vv, org, Cfm, Lwa, Och, Y
Doubtful: Sing we merrily, Och, org score only, for Eng. adaptation of Palestrina’s
Exsultate Deo, 5vv, attrib. ‘Gibbons’, see TCM, iv, pp.340–1; The Lord is my
shepherd, 2 Tr/4vv, org, attrib. in Ob Tenbury 1176–82 to ‘Dr. Gibbons or Mr. Wise’,
probably by Wise
Lost: Evening Service with Verses, copied into Chapel Royal partbooks, 1677–80,
see AshbeeR, i, 193
Gibbons, Edward.
English choirmaster and composer, brother of Orlando Gibbons.
Gibbons, Ellis.
English composer, brother of Orlando Gibbons.
Gibbons, Orlando
(b Oxford, bap. 25 Dec 1583; d Canterbury, 5 June 1625). English
composer and keyboard player. He was a leading composer of vocal,
keyboard and ensemble music in early 17th-century England. Orlando was
the youngest son of William Gibbons (d 1595), a town wait in Cambridge
from 1567. William took a similar post in Oxford in 1580 and then moved
back to Cambridge around 1588. Orlando’s eldest brother, Edward (b
Cambridge, 1568; d Exeter, ?c1650), was master of the choristers at King’s
College, Cambridge (1592–8), and later lay vicar and (by dispensation)
succentor of Exeter Cathedral, being appointed ‘teacher of the choristers’
in 1608, a post he held until the Interregnum (1649).
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JOHN HARPER (text, bibliography), PETER LE HURAY/JOHN HARPER
(work-list)
Gibbons, Orlando
1. Life.
From February 1596 until May 1599 (regularly to Michaelmas 1598)
Orlando Gibbons is listed as a chorister at King’s College, Cambridge,
where his brother Edward was master of the choristers. He entered the
university in 1598, and was a sizar of King’s College. Payments ‘pro
musica … ’ in the college accounts, 1595–1602, made to ‘Gibbons’ may be
for the town waits. Gibbons witnessed his mother’s will in Cambridge in
March 1603. From 1603 until his death he was a musician in the Chapel
Royal. His name first appears in the Chapel Royal Cheque Book in a list of
41 signatories to an agreement, dated 19 May 1603, on conditions of
service under James I. According to a summary of appointments compiled
about 1627, he was formally sworn in as Gentleman of the Chapel Royal
on 21 March 1605, succeeding Arthur Cock (d Jan 1605) who, as organist
of Exeter Cathedral (1598–1602), knew Gibbons’s brother Edward.
Between 1603 and 1605 he may have served as Gentleman Extraordinary
(i.e. unsalaried substitute). His particular skill was as a keyboard player, but
not until 1615 is there a record in the Cheque Book naming him (with
Edmund Hooper) as one of the two organists of the Chapel Royal: at that
time the organists agreed to a schedule of duties drawn up and confirmed
by the Dean of the Chapel (James Montague, then Bishop of Bath and
Wells). According to the Cheque Book, Gibbons was senior organist of the
Chapel Royal in 1625, with Thomas Tomkins as junior organist.
In 1606 Gibbons married Elizabeth, daughter of John Patten, Yeoman of
the Vestry of the Chapel Royal; they lived in the Woolstaple (now Bridge
Street) in the parish of St Margaret’s, Westminster, where many court
musicians and servants resided. Their seven children were baptized at St
Margaret’s. In the dedication to Sir Christopher Hatton II, of The First Set of
Madrigals and Mottets (1612), Gibbons claimed to have composed the
works in Hatton’s house. This may have been his house near St
Bartholomew-the-Great in Faringdon, since Hatton did not move to a house
in Westminster (very close to Gibbons’s) until 1612. Hatton was a minor
figure of the gentry; his wife was sister to Sir Henry Fanshawe, patron of
music and an officer in the household of Henry, Prince of Wales.
Gibbons’s endeavours and compositions suggest that he hoped for
significant preferment at court. In 1611 he petitioned the Queen as ‘an
humble suitor’ for her help to gain a lease worth 40 marks (£26 14s 2d), a
matter referred to Lord Salisbury. He was by far the junior of the three
contributors to Parthenia (RISM 161314), the keyboard collection published
to celebrate the marriage of the king’s daughter, Princess Elizabeth, to
Frederick, Elector Palatine, in 1613; the prominence of the notes E and F
in The Queen’s command may be a musical reference to the names of the
bride and groom. The pavan and galliard ‘Lord Salisbury’, the wedding
anthem Blessed are all they (1613) for the Earl of Somerset, and anthems
associated (in GB-Och Mus 21) with senior clergy who held royal
chaplaincies (Godfrey Goodman, William Laud, and Anthony Maxey) imply
that he was well connected in court circles. In 1615 he was rewarded by
two grants totalling £150 from King James I ‘for and in consideration of the
good and faithful service heretofore done unto ourself by Orlando Gibbons
our organist, and divers other good causes and considerations us
thereunto moving’. He composed an anthem, Great King of Gods, and a
court song, Do not repine, fair sun, for the king’s visit to Scotland in 1617,
attended by the Chapel Royal.
The court musical establishment was affected by the death of Henry,
Prince of Wales in 1612, and the departure to Heidelberg of Princess
Elizabeth after her marriage in 1613. Gibbons may have been among the
Heidelberg entourage, as an attendant of the Earl of Arundel (Coprario and
the harpist, Daniel Callinder, attended the Duke of Lennox). From 1613
Gibbons was the most talented keyboard player and keyboard composer
available to the court. His two eminent predecessors, Byrd and Bull, had
marked him out as such by his inclusion in Parthenia; Byrd was long retired
to Essex, and Bull, who had worked in the households of both Prince
Henry and Princess Elizabeth, had fled abroad. The king’s eldest surviving
son, Charles, became Prince of Wales at the age of 16 in 1616, and
Gibbons is listed in the first payments of 1617 as one of 17 musicians who
formed the nucleus of the prince’s musical establishment. A number of
these had previously served in the slightly smaller musical establishment of
Prince Henry. Charles’s regular musicians also included Alfonso
Ferrabosco (ii), Thomas Ford, Robert Johnson, Thomas Lupo and Angelo
Notari: all were composers as well as performers, and all received an
annual salary of £40. Other musicians associated with the household
include John Coprario, whose work in Charles’s musical establishment
seems to have been particularly important: Holman (1993) argued
convincingly that what was to become the Caroline court orchestra was
formed in the prince’s household at this time, and that Coprario and
Gibbons collaborated in composing for the ensemble.
Gibbons added a third post associated with the court in September 1619.
The accounts of the king’s Treasurer of the Chamber record that he was to
attend in the royal privy chamber as virginalist at £46 per annum from
Michaelmas 1619. The dedication of the first printing of Gibbons’s
Fantasies of Three Parts to Edmund Wray, groom of the privy chamber,
may be significant: Wray was a protégé of George Villiers, favourite of
Prince Charles and a rising court star, but was disgraced and sent from
court in 1622. In 1623 Gibbons and Thomas Day, a fellow member of both
the Chapel Royal and the prince’s household, succeeded John Parsons at
Westminster Abbey. The duties of organist and master of the choristers
combined by Parsons were shared by Gibbons and Day. At this time almost
half of the singing men at Westminster Abbey were also Gentlemen of the
Chapel Royal, and the closeness of the abbey to the court may be
observed in its use for an official visit by the French ambassador and his
retinue in 1624:
At their entrance, the organ was touched by the best finger of
that age, Mr. Orlando Gibbons … and while a verse was
played, The Lord Keeper presented the ambassadors and the
rest of the noblest quality of their nation with [the] liturgy as it
spoke to them in their own language. The Lords
ambassadors and their great train took up all the stalls, where
they continued half an hour while the choirmen, vested in
their rich copes, with their choristers, sang three several
anthems, with most exquisite voices before them.
Gibbons took the degree of MusB at Cambridge in 1606. There is now
doubt as to whether he received the degree of DMus at Oxford in May
1622, when William Heyther and Nathaniel Giles received doctorates
(Harley). Both Anthony Wood and William Gostling assert that Gibbons’s O
clap your hands was used as Heyther’s doctoral exercise. At the funeral of
James I in March 1625 Gibbons was listed among the Chapel Royal as
senior organist in the Cheque Book and as privy organist in the Lord
Chamberlain’s accounts (representing a conflation of two posts); he was
also listed as organist of Westminster Abbey in the Lord Chamberlain’s
accounts. In May 1625 preparations were made to receive the new queen,
Henrietta Maria, whom Charles I had married by proxy in Paris at the
beginning of the month. On 31 May the court set out for Canterbury, with
the Chapel Royal in attendance. Gibbons was taken ill suddenly, and the
royal physicians were summoned: there was fear that he had the plague.
The doctors described precisely his coma and final seizure, attributed at
the post mortem to a brain haemorrhage. The attention attracted by his
death, in particular its formal observation, investigation and reporting,
perhaps suggests how close he may have been to the new king. Gibbons
died on Whitsunday, 5 June, at Canterbury. A plaque was subsequently
placed in Canterbury Cathedral, with a fine bust of the composer, but with
hasty wording, which omitted his age. He died intestate: after some 13
months letters of administration were granted on 13 July 1626 to his widow
by the dean and chapter of Westminster, but she was already dead (bur. 2
July 1626). A letter from the royal signet office (20 January 1627) directed
that their eldest son, Christopher, be granted a scholarship at
Charterhouse, confirmd by the govenors in June. A remark by Antony
Wood suggests that he may have moved to Exeter to be brought up by his
uncle, Edward.
Gibbons, Orlando
2. Works.
All four appointments that Gibbons held at his death were associated with
his skills as a keyboard player. As a composer his reputation has
traditionally rested on his church music, which circulated widely: there are
over 30 surviving 17th-century sources of the Short Service. By their
inclusion in printed collections (Barnard, 1641; Boyce, 1760–73) some
anthems have remained in the repertory of English cathedral choirs since
the Restoration. Late 19th- and early 20th-century publications have also
emphasized his church music: Ouseley’s anthology (1873), Tudor Church
Music, iv (1925), selections in the Tudor Church Music Octavo Series, and
the use of 11 of his ‘hymn’ tunes in The English Hymnal (1906). His
instrumental music has fared less well: although some items were edited
and printed, including Rimbault’s pioneering edition of the Fantasies in
Three Parts (1843), the collected keyboard music appeared only in 1962,
and the ensemble music in 1982.
Gibbons has been presented as a master of serious polyphonic music; his
full anthems have attracted particular praise. However, the seriousness
and contrapuntal dexterity of these works and the Madrigals and Mottets
are complemented by vitality in his verse anthems and wit in his consort
music. The sacred music in the full style includes music for four voices in
the largely syllabic, ‘short’ style (the anthem Almighty and everlasting God
and the First or Short Service), as well as more extended, polyphonic,
psalms and anthems for five and six voices (Hosanna to the son of David
and O Lord, in thy wrath). Gibbons’s attention to word-setting is apparent
even in the simpler works, as in the declamation of ‘stretch forth thy right
hand’ in Almighty and everlasting God. His instinctive contrapuntal facility is
evident in all the movements of the through-composed Short Service, but
especially in the canon of the Gloria patri in the Nunc dimittis. The setting
for eight voices of O clap your hands has motivic clarity, polyphonic
richness, textural interchange, and rhythmic energy more typical of an
Italian canzona or polychoral motet. The Second Service is an outstanding
example of an early 17th-century ‘verse’ service with accompaniment, and
his verse anthems are among the finest of the genre. They range from
simple alternation of solo voice and five-part chorus, as in Behold, thou
hast made my days, This is the record of John and the strophic The secret
sins, to the more complex scoring patterns of the majority, including See,
the Word is incarnate. Gibbons shows little interest in overt word-painting,
but the expressive declamation (the opening phrases of See, the Word is
incarnate), the rhythmic treatment of the choral writing (‘let us welcome
such a guest’ from the same work, and the second half of Glorious and
powerful God), and the short passages of vocal bravura in both of these
works, are hallmarks of a vitality and modernity sometimes suppressed in
ponderous 20th-century performances by cathedral-style choirs. Some of
the anthems are occasional works, and others are found only in sources of
non-liturgical provenance; some have only keyboard accompaniment,
others only ensemble parts, and others exist with both. They should not be
categorized too rigidly: a work performed with wind instruments in the
Chapel Royal may have been performed with organ in a provincial
cathedral, or with viols in a domestic setting.
No substantial sacred work by Gibbons was published in his lifetime.
However, he contributed to two published collections. William Leighton’s
Teares or Lamentacions of a Sorrowfull Soule (RISM 16147) includes two
fine small-scale pieces for four voices. Fifteen ‘songs’ (melody and bass)
appeared in George Wither’s Hymnes and Songs of the Church (London,
1623), a publication bound in with all editions of the metrical psalms; two of
the melodies were used more than once, and three were either adapted by
or attributed to Gibbons.
Most of Gibbons’s secular vocal music is found in the Madrigals and
Mottets (1612), completed before he was 30. Kerman (1961) remarked his
affinity with Byrd and the traditions of English partsong and consort song,
evident respectively in The silver swanne and Nay let me weepe, a work
perhaps written to mark the death of Prince Henry. The seriousness of the
whole collection may have been affected by the prince’s death as much as
the pervasive spirit of Jacobean melancholy typified by Walter Raleigh’s
What is our life. Even the pastoral settings are fluent essays in imitative
polyphony: like Byrd, Gibbons set secular texts with less emphasis on
mood and expression of textual detail than in his sacred music. He did not
favour strophic settings: Joshua Sylvester’s four-stanza I weigh not
fortune’s frown is set in four independent sections. Two secular vocal works
are found outside the 1612 publication. Do not repine, fair sun, written for
the king’s visit to Scotland in 1617, is in the consort-song tradition, though
on a larger scale. The Cryes of London is a witty combination of vendors’
common street cries sung by solo voices with the high polyphonic tradition
of the instrumental In Nomine played by viols.
The assumption that Gibbons wrote ensemble music exclusively for viols is
now untenable. The fantasias for ‘great dooble basse’ (MB, xlviii, nos.16–
25) and certain of the three-part printed fantasias (MB, xlviii, nos.11–15)
are particularly suited to violins; others suggest performance by wind
instruments (e.g. MB, xlviii, nos.37–8). There remains a substantial body of
music for two to six instruments which is apt for viol consort, including the
unusual two-part fantasias, the varied group of In Nomines, the rich-
textured six-part fantasias, and the finely wrought variations on Go from my
window with its duel of divisions between the bass viols. Gibbons often
writes more for the moment than the cumulative whole, with emphasis on
clear articulation of imitative motives, shaping of phrases, control of texture,
and rhythmic and periodic use of harmony. The fantasias for ‘great dooble
basse’ are deliberately sectional, include changes of metre, have style and
tempo indications, and quote from popular melodies and idioms; they were
perhaps written specifically for the burgeoning string band entertaining
Charles I during his years as Prince of Wales. John Woodington was
instructed to copy some of them posthumously in 1634, an indication of
their continuing popularity at court (GB-Och Mus 712–15). John Lilly and
Stephen Bing also copied other ensemble works into Christopher Hatton
III’s ‘great set’ of partbooks (Och) in the 1630s. The printed fantasias
(c1620) were reissued in Amsterdam in 1648; Henry Purcell used a
manuscript which contained some of his ensemble music (Lkc 3); other
works appear in sources used by viol consorts in Oxford in the later 17th
century, including those owned by Narcissus Marsh, later archbishop of
Dublin (IRL-Dm).
Gibbons’s corpus of keyboard music is not so extensive as that of Byrd and
Bull, but it ranks with them in quality. The keyboard fantasias range from
ten to over 100 breves. They are more flexible in their treatment of
polyphonic voices and more diverse in their use of figuration than those for
ensemble. Although four parts are introduced at the beginning, the
counterpoint is normally for three parts: voice-leading implies contrapuntal
richness, but reduced textures allow clarity and rapid passagework.
Gibbons used small rhythmic and melodic motives, sometimes in dense
counterpoint and framed within larger periods; his particular penchant for
end climax may be observed in the fantasia ‘for double organ’ (MB, xx,
no.7) and the one on A (MB, xx, no.12). Of the dances, only Lord
Salisbury’s pavan and galliard from Parthenia are paired. That pair and a
single pavan on A (MB, xx, no.17) are untypical: the other pavans and
galliards have written-out reprises. All the pavans and galliards are wrought
with polyphonic detail and keyboard bravura, and display a mannerism less
evident in the almans, corantos and masque dances. The latter provide the
only evidence of Gibbons’s possible association with Jacobean masque,
probably settings made after the event. Of the grounds and variations The
Italian ground and The Queen’s command are relatively short, and make
use of written-out reprises; The woods so wild and The hunt’s up (or
Peascod time) are more extended sets of variations in the tradition of Byrd
(who set both), Bull and Farnaby. Gibbons is less interested in the
obsessive application of figurative and rhythmic patterns (an English
characteristic dating back to Preston and Blitheman in the mid-16th
century), but there is ample evidence of virtuoso keyboard writing,
tempered by contrapuntal ingenuity and innate musical judgement.
Gibbons’s career was almost entirely Jacobean and he worked with a
progressive group of musicians who held particular favour with Charles I
before and after he came to the throne. Overemphasis of the serious and
polyphonic qualities of his music can obscure the modern features in
Gibbons’s music: the wit and vitality, the responsive, declamatory treatment
of text, even in a contrapuntal idiom, and the use of rhythmic figures and
periodic harmony. The absence of chromatic harmony and decoration is
notable, even in the melancholy texts of the Madrigals and Mottets;
chromatic alteration is part of the harmonic plan, as in the desending,
modulating sequence in the final strain of Lord Salisbury’s pavan. This is
no constraint on expressiveness, whether in the polyphonic intensity of O
Lord, in thy wrath, the dramatic declamation of Glorious and powerful God,
or the exuberance of O clap your hands.
Gibbons’s brother Edward is known by a polyphonic verse anthem (in GB-
Lbl), an incomplete vocal piece (in Och), and the Kyrie and Creed to
William Mundy’s Short Service. Another brother, Ellis (b Cambridge, 1573;
d ?London, May 1603), contributed one madrigal, or perhaps two, to The
Triumphes of Oriana (RISM 160116).
Gibbons, Orlando
WORKS
Editions: Orlando Gibbons [Services and Anthems], ed. P.C. Buck and others TCM, iv
(1925) [B]Orlando Gibbons: Keyboard Music, ed. G. Hendrie, MB, xx (1962) [H]Orlando
Gibbons: Verse Anthems, ed. D. Wulstan, EECM, iii (1964) [W]Orlando Gibbons: The
First Set of Madrigals and Mottets (1612), ed. E.H. Fellowes, rev. T. Dart, EM, v (1914,
2/1964) [F]Orlando Gibbons: Full Anthems, Hymns and Fragmentary Verse Anthems,
ed. D. Wulstan, EECM, xxi (1978) [FA]Orlando Gibbons: Consort Music, ed. J. Harper,
MB, xlviii (1982) [C]
services
Short [First] Service (Ven, TeD, Bs, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 4vv, 1641 5, GB-Cfm, Cp,
Cpc, Cu, DRc, GL, Lbl, Lcm, Ob, Och, Ojc, Omc, WB, WRch, Y; B 30
Second [Verse] Service Ob (TeD, Jub, Mag, Nunc), verse, 1–5vv, org, 16415, Cp,
Cpc, DRc, GL, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Ojc, US-NYc, GB-Och; B 68
First preces and psalm for Evensong on Whitsunday (Ps cxlv), verse, 1641 5, GB-
Cp, Cpc, DRc, GL, Lbl, Llp, Och, Ojc, Y
First preces and psalms for Evensong on Easter Day (Ps lvii.9, Ps cxviii.19), verse,
Cp, DRc, Y; B 3
Second preces and psalm (Ps cxlv.1), full, Cp, Cpc, Llp, Och, Ojc; B 20
Te Deum (Lat. adaptation of TeD from Short Service), 4vv, Cp
Te Deum (Lat.), inc., Cp
anthems
Almighty and everlasting God, 4vv, 16415, GB-DRc, GL, Lbl, Lcm, Lsp, Ob, Och,
Ojc, WRch, Y, US-BEM; FA 1, B 126
Almighty God, which hast given us, verse, inc., GB-Llp, Ob, Och, Ojc; FA 123, B
326
Almighty God, who by thy Son, verse, DRc, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Ojc, Y; W 1, B 130
Awake up my glory (part of the First preces and psalms for Evensong on Easter
Day; see Services)
Behold, I bring you glad tidings, verse, Cp, Cpc, Cu, DRc, Lbl, Lcm, Llp, Ob, Och,
WRch, Y; W 11, B 137
Behold, thou hast made my days, verse, 1641 5, Cfm, Ckc, Cp, Cpc, DRc, GL, Lbl,
Lcm, Ob, Och, Ojc, WB, Y; W 24, B 148
Blessed are all they that fear the Lord, verse (1613), DRc, Lbl, Lcm, Ob, Och, Ojc,
Y; W 38, B 159
Deliver us, O Lord, our God (2p. Blessed be the Lord God of Israel), 4vv, 1641 5, GL,
Lbl, Lcm, Lsp, Och, WRch, Y; FA 6, B 151
Glorious and powerful God, verse, Ckc, Cp, Cpc, Cu, DRc, GL, Lbl, Lcm, LF, Ob,
Och, Ojc, WB, WRch, Y, US-NYp; W 52, B 174
Grant, O Holy Trinity, verse, GB-DRc, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y; W 68, B 193
Great King of Gods [Lord of Lords], verse, Lbl, Ob, Och; W 76, B 198
Hosanna to the son of David, 6vv, 16415, Cfm, DRc, GL, Lbl, Lsp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y,
US-BEM; FA 13, B 209
I am the resurrection, 5vv, inc., GB-Lbl; FA 24, B 335
If ye be risen again with Christ, verse, Cp, DRc, Lbl, Lcm, LF, Llp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y,
US-NYp; W 89, B 215
I will magnify thee, O God my King (part of the Second preces and psalm; see
Services)
Lift up your heads, 6vv, 16415, GB-Cfm, DRc, GL, Lbl, Lsp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y, US-
BEM; FA 32, B 221
Lord, grant grace, we humbly beseech thee, verse, GB-Och; W 100, B 228
Lord, we beseech thee, pour thy grace, verse, inc., Och; FA 134, B 338
O all true faithful hearts, verse, Och; W 123 (as O thou the central orb; see below);
B 232
O clap your hands (2p. God is gone up), 8vv, Lbl, Y; FA 40, B 237
O glorious God, O Christ, verse, text only, in J. Clifford: The Divine Services and
Anthems (London, 1663), FA 193
O God, the King of Glory, verse, DRc, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y; W 111, B 250
O Lord, how do my woes increase, 4vv, 16147; B 258, ed. in EECM, xi (1970), 72
O Lord, I lift my heart to thee, 5vv, 16147, Lbl, Llp, Ob; B 259, ed. in EECM, xi
(1970), 115
O Lord, in thee is all my trust, 5vv, Och; FA 73, B 260
O Lord, in thy wrath rebuke me not [O Lord, rebuke me not], 6vv, Lbl, Lcm, Ob; FA
88, B 268
Open me the gates of righteousness (part of the First preces and psalms for
Evensong on Easter Day; see Services)
O thou the central orb (words by H.R. Bramley, adapted by F.A.G. Ouseley in 1893
to the music of O all true faithful hearts); W 123
Praise the Lord, O my soul, verse, inc., Ob Tenbury; FA 142, B 339
See, the Word is incarnate, verse, Lbl, Och; W 134, B 272
Sing unto the Lord, O ye saints, verse, DRc, Lbl, Mp, Ob, Och, WB, Y; W 156, B
283
So God loved the world, verse, inc., Lbl, Ob, FA 157, B 342
Teach us by his example, verse, text only, Lbl, Ob; FA 192
The eyes of all wait upon thee (part of the First preces and psalm for Evensong on
Whitsunday; see Services)
This is the day wherein the Lord hath wrought, verse, text only, Lbl, Ob; FA 193
This is the record of John, verse, Cp, DRc, Lbl, Lcm, Mp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y; W 179, B
298
Thou God of wisdom, verse, inc., Lbl, Ob; FA 166, B 344
Thou openest thy hand (part of the First preces and psalm for Evensong on
Whitsunday; see Services)
Unto thee O Lord, verse, inc., Lbl, Ob Tenbury; FA 175, B 345
We praise thee, O Father, verse, Cp, DRc, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Och, Ojc, Y; W 193, B 305
hymn tunes
17 tunes in G. Wither: The Hymnes and Songs of the Church (London, 1623); FA
106, B 318
madrigals
The First Set of Madrigals and Mottets, apt for Viols and Voyces, 5vv (London,
1612); F: Ah, deere hart; Daintie fine bird; Faire is the rose; Faire ladies that to love
captived are (2p. Mongst thousands good); How art thou thrald (2p. Farewell all
joyes); I waigh not fortunes frowne (2p. I tremble not at noyse of warre; 3p. I see
ambition never pleasde; 4p. I faine not friendship); Lais now old; Nay let me weepe
(2p. Nere let the sun; 3p. Yet if that age had frosted ore his head); Now each flowry
bank of May; O that the learned poets of this time; The silver swanne; Trust not too
much, faire youth; What is our life
1 madrigal, 5vv, 160116 (possibly by Ellis Gibbons; see Fellowes)
consort songs
Do not repine, fair sun, 3/5vv, 5 viols, GB-Lbl (texts only), US-NYp; ed. P. Brett
(London, 1961)
The Cryes [Crye] of London [God give you good morrow, my masters], 5vv, 5 viols,
GB-Ckc, Lbl, Lcm, Och, US-NYp; ed. in MB, xxii (1967), 114
ensemble music
all ed. in C
6 fantasias a 2, GB-Ckc
[9] Fantasies of three parts (London, c1620); see Dart and Pinto
7 fantasias a 3, for ‘great dooble basse’, IRL–Dm, F-Pc, GB-Lkc, Och, US-CLwr
(frag.) [incl. 3 possibly by Coprario; see Charteris and Holman]
2 fantasias a 4, for ‘great dooble basse’ GB-Och
9 fantasias a 6, Och; [incl. 1 possibly vocal in origin]
Galliard a 3, IRL-Dm
Go from my window, variations a 6, GB-Och
In Nomine a 4, Ob
3 In Nomines a 5, IRL-Dm, GB-Lbl, Ob, Och
Pavan a 5, inc., Lbl
Pavan and galliard a 6, IRL-Dm, GB-Ob, Och
keyboard
all ed. in H
Almans: The King’s jewel; 4 untitled
Corantos: French; 2 untitled
10 fantasias [1 for double organ]
Galliards: Lady Hatton; 5 untitled
Grounds: Italian; 1 untitled
Pavan and galliard Lord Salisbury
3 untitled pavans
4 preludes
French air
Lincoln’s Inn mask; Mask ‘The Fairest Nymph’; Mask ‘Welcome home’; Nann’s
mask (French alman); The Temple mask
The hunt’s up (Peascod time)
The Queen’s command
The woods so wild
Whoop, do me no harm, good man
works with conflicting attributions
anthems
Arise, O Lord God, verse, GB-DRc, LF, Lbl, Lcm, Ob Tenbury (by L. Woodson (i))
Behold, the hour cometh, verse, Cp, DRc, Lbl (by T. Tomkins)
God, which [who] as at this time, verse, Cp, Cpc, DRc, Lbl, Och, Ojc, Y, US-NYp
(by N. Giles)
Have mercy upon me, O God, verse, GB-DRc, Lbl, Llp, Ob, Ojc, SHR, Y (by W.
Byrd)
Have pity upon me, O God, verse, inc., DRc, Lbl, Y(by C. Gibbons)
O Lord, increase our [my] faith, 4vv, Lbl, US-NYp (by H. Loosemore; see Morehen,
1971)
Out of the deep, 6vv, GB-Ob, Och, Ojc, US-NYp (?by W. Byrd); FA 94
Sing we merrily, GB-Och (adaptation of Palestrina: Exultate Deo, by C. Gibbons)
The secret sins, verse, inc., DRc, Lbl, LF, Ob Tenbury, Ojc (probably by W. Mundy);
W 175
Why art thou so heavy, 4vv, Lbl, Ob Tenbury (by H. Loosemore)
keyboard
5 pieces, kbd, in H appx I (possibly by Gibbons); incipits of 9 others, in H appx II
(probably not by Gibbons)
Gibbons, Orlando
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AshbeeR
BDECM
DoddI
HawkinsH
KermanEM
LafontaineKM
Le HurayMR
MeyerECM
E.F. Rimbault: The Old Cheque-Book, or Book of Remembrance of the
Chapel Royal (London, 1872/R)
E.H. Fellowes: Orlando Gibbons: a Short Account of his Life and Work
(Oxford, 1925, 2/1951/R as Orlando Gibbons and his Family)
G.A. Thewlis: ‘Oxford and the Gibbons Family’, ML, xxi (1940), 31–3
J. Jacquot: ‘Lyrisme et sentiment tragique dans les madrigaux d’Orlando
Gibbons’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle: Paris 1953, 139–51
T. Dart: ‘The Printed Fantasies of Orlando Gibbons’, ML, xxxvii (1956),
342–9
G. Hendrie: ‘The Keyboard Music of Orlando Gibbons’, PRMA, lxxxix
(1962–3), 1–15
J. Morehen: ‘The Gibbons-Loosemore Mystery’, MT, cxii (1971), 959–60
[on O Lord, increase our faith]
J. Caldwell: English Keyboard Music before the Nineteenth Century
(Oxford, 1973)
F. Routh: Early English Organ Music (London, 1973)
P. Vining: ‘Orlando Gibbons: the Incomplete Verse Anthems’, ML, lv
(1974), 70–76
P. Vining: ‘Orlando Gibbons: the Portraits’, ML, lviii (1977), 415–29
N. Bergenfeld: The Keyboard Fantasy of the Elizabethan Renaissance
(diss., New York U., 1978)
J. Ward: ‘The Hunt’s Up’, PRMA, cvi (1979–80), 1–26
G. Dodd, ed.: The Viola da Gamba Society of Great Britain Thematic
Index of Music for Viols (London, 1980–92)
P. Brett: ‘English Music for the Scottish Progress of 1617’, Source
Materials in the Interpretation of Music: a Memorial Volume to
Thurston Dart, ed. I. Bent (London, 1981), 209–26
R. Charteris: ‘A Postscript to John Coprario: a Thematic Catalogue of his
Music with a Biographical Introduction (New York, 1977)’, Chelys, xi
(1982), 13–19
C. Monson: Voices and Viols in England, 1600–1650 (Ann Arbor, 1982)
G. Beechey: ‘Orlando Gibbons’s Song Tunes’, MO, cvi (1983), 197–9
J. Harper: ‘Orlando Gibbons: the Domestic Context of his Music and Christ
Church Mus. 21’, MT, cxxiv (1983), 767–70
J. Harper: ‘The Distribution of the Consort Music of Orlando Gibbons in
Seventeenth-Century Sources’, Chelys, xii (1983), 3–18
J.A. Irving: ‘Matthew Hutton and York Minster MSS M 3/1–4 (S)’, MR, xliv
(1983), 163–77
O. Neighbour: ‘Orlando Gibbons (1583–1625): the Consort Music’, EMc, xi
(1983), 351–7
P. Vining: ‘Gibbons and his Patrons’, MT, cxxiv (1983), 707–9
D. Wulstan: Tudor Music (London, 1985)
J.A. Irving: The Instrumental Music of Thomas Tomkins (New York, 1989)
F. Knights: ‘Magdalen College MS 347: an Index and Commentary’,
Journal of the British Institute of Organ Studies, xiv (1990), 4–9
J. Caldwell: The Oxford History of English Music, i (Oxford, 1991)
P. Phillips: English Sacred Music, 1549–1649 (Oxford, 1991)
W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists (Oxford, 1991)
R.S. Shay: Henry Purcell and ‘Ancient’ Music in Restoration England (diss.,
U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1991)
A. Ashbee: The Harmonious Musick of John Jenkins, i (Surbiton, 1992)
I. Spink: The Blackwell History of Music in Britain, iii (Oxford, 1992)
P. Holman: Four and Twenty Fiddlers: the Violin at the English Court,
1540–1690 (Oxford, 1993)
R. Bray, ed: The Blackwell History of Music in Britain, ii (Oxford, 1995)
J. Morehen, ed.: English Choral Practice, 1400–1650 (Cambridge, 1995)
D. Pinto: ‘Gibbons in the Bedchamber’, John Jenkins and his Time:
Studies in English Consort Music, ed. A. Ashbee and P. Holman
(Oxford, 1996)
J.P. Wainwright: Musical Patronage in Seventeenth-Century England:
Christopher, First Baron Hatton (1605–70) (Aldershot, 1997)
J. Harley: Orlando Gibbons and the Gibbons Family of Musicians
(Aldershot, 1999)
Dramatic: Verity Street (op, 2, Gibbs), 1981; incid music for radio
Vocal: 4 Short Motets, SATB, 1958; 5 Elizabethan Songs, Bar, pf, 1963; Sir Patrick
Spens, Bar, pf, 1979; Northern Landscape (J.G. Brown), SATB, 1983; Tenison
Psalms, Tr, SATB, org, perc, 1985; Congaudeat, S, SATB, str, org, 1994
Orch: Viendrà l'aube, str, 1984; Reflections on a Life, vn, orch, 1987; Festival
Concertino, chbr orch, 1989
Org: Sonata no.1, 1955; Viewpoints, 1963; Peacehaven Preludes, 1970; Sonata
no.2, 1970; Hologram, 1984; Dichotomy, duet, 1986; Jazzogram, 1986; Oxford May
Music, 1987; Celebration, 1989; 5 Hymn Preludes, 1989; Contrasts, duet, 1990;
Magic Flutes, 1990, arr. duet, 1991; Calgary Flourish, 1991; Trio, 1991; Prelude and
Allegro on a Holst Fragment, 1992; Washington Toccata, 1996; Isleworth Bells,
1998; Snow in Winter, 1999
Other inst: 3 Pieces, pf, 1960; Sonatina, vc, pf, 1964; Accumulations, fl + pic + a fl,
cl + a sax, vc, pf + cel, perc, 1982; Sonata da chiesa, tpt, org, 1986; A Coptic
Fantasy, pf, 1987; Wisconsin, str qt, 1987; Easter Sonata, 3 tpt, timp, org, 1988;
Scottish Scenes, 2 pf, 1988; 1789 Fragments, vn, org/pf, 1989; A Lament for Young
China, pf, 1989; Tartuffe Suite, vn, org/pf, 1989; Dawn Music, pf trio, 1990; Baroque
Suite, 2 vn, 1991; Marburg Suite, pic tpt, org, 1997; O aeterne Deus, tpt/pic tpt,
1998
MALCOLM BOYD
songs
for 1 voice, piano unless otherwise stated
op.
— Near and Far (A.R. Ropes), 1909
— The Knight’s Song (J.L. Crommelin-Brown), 1910
— An English Carol of the XIVth century, 1911
2 2 Songs: Night, When the Lamp of Night is Shattered (P.B. Shelley), c1912
3 Lullaby (W. Blake), ?1914
4 The Rainy Day (H. Longfellow), 1914
9 In the Highlands (R. L. Stevenson), ?1914, orig. op.11
— The Bee's Song (W. de la Mare), 1v, chorus, pf, 1917, arr. SSC, pf, 1937
12 Nod (de la Mare), 1918, The Scarecrow (de la Mare), T/B-Bar, orch, 1918
13 Philomela (The Nightingale) (P. Sidney), 1914
— Dream Song (de la Mare), 1917
14 2 Songs (de la Mare): Music Unheard (Sweet Sounds, Begone), 1918, The
Bells, 1918
15 [3 Songs] (de la Mare), S, str qt: The Little Green Orchard (1917), Five Eyes,
1917, A Song of Shadows, 1917; no.2 as duet (1921); no.3 arr. SSA, pf
(1921), orig. op.9
17 2 Songs (de la Mare): Bluebells, Bunches of Grapes, 1918
19 [2 Songs] (de la Mare): Love in the Almond Bough, The Mountains, 1918
20 Crossings (fairy play, de la Mare), 4 songs, 1919: Ann’s Cradle Song, Araby,
Beggar’s Song, Candlestick Maker’s Song
21 [2 Songs] (de la Mare): The Linnet, The Stranger, 1919
— As I Lay in the Early Sun (E. Shanks), 1920
— The Fields are Full (Shanks), 1920
— For Remembrance (Shanks), 1920
30 John Mouldy (de la Mare), 1920, Silver (de la Mare), 1920
— 2 Short Songs (R. Herrick), 1v, str qt, early 1920s: A Child’s Grace, A Child’s
Epitaph; 2 Pastorals, 1920s: In the Spring the Runnels Flow, Upon the Grass
(H. T. Wade-Gery); Lyonesse (T. Hardy), ?1921; The Mad Prince (de la Mare),
1921; Summer Night (M. Agrell), 1921; The Tiger-lily (D.P. Bouverie), 1921; To
One Who Passed Whistling (Agrell), ?1921; When I was one and twenty (A.E.
Housman), 1921; Covent Garden (E. Carfrae), ?1922;
44 2 Elizabethan Songs (S. Daniel), 1922: Love Is a Sickness, In Youth Is
Pleasure; The Exile (de la Mare), 1922; Gray and Gold (H. Taylor), ?1922:
The Miracle, The Wind In Your Hair, Requiescat, I Shall Remember, April’s
Hour, ?1922; Mistletoe (de la Mare), 1922, arr. 1v, str qt, 1933; The Sleeping
Beauty (de la Mare), 1922
— Lullaby (de la Mare), 1923
— The Little Salamander (de la Mare), 1923
— By a Bierside (This is a Sacred City) (J. Masefield), 1924; The Galliass (de la
Mare), ?1924; Slow, Horses, Slow (T. Westwood) ?1924 (1924)
— Take Heed, Young Heart (de la Mare), 1925; The Wanderer (de la Mare), ?
1925; Every Little Child (W.H. Draper), ?1926; Proud Maisie (Scott) ?1926
(1926); The Market (J. Stephens), 1926; The Birch Tree (G. Mase), 1926;
Jenny Jones (D. Rowley), ?1926 (1927); On Duncton Hill (G. Grant), ?1927;
Resting (Grant) ?1927 (1928); The Ballad of Semmerwater (W. Watson),
1930; Danger (Currie), ?1930; Impromptu (Currie), ?1930; Thee Will I Love
(R. Bridges), 1930; The Flooded Stream (M. Cropper), ?1931; The Orchard
Sings to the Child (Cropper), ?1931; Padraic the Fidiler (P. Gregory), with vn
ad lib, ?1931; Dream Song (de la Mare), 1932; February (Currie), 1932; In the
Woods in June (Currie), 1932; Juliet Anne (Currie), ?1932; Oh, Nightingale
upon my Tree (Currie) ?1932 (1932); The Ship of Rio (de la Mare), 1v, str trio,
1932; The Starlighters (A. Gibbs), 1932; Sussex Ways (Currie), ?1932
— Old Wine in New Bottles, 4 Restoration Songs, 1932: When Arthur First in
Court Began, Pious Celinda (W. Congreve), If Music be the Food of Love,
sing on, ’Tis Wine that Inspires
— 2 Songs (trad.), ?1932: Down in Yonder Meadow, Lily-bright and Shine-a
— 5 Children’s Songs from ‘Peacock Pie’ (de la Mare), ?1932: The Barber’s,
Miss T., Old Shellover, Hide and Seek, Then
— The Love Talker (E. Carbery), A, Mez, orch, 1933
— Love’s Prisoner (Blake), 1933, arr. SSA, pf; Titania (Currie), ?1934, orig. 2vv,
pf, ?1934
— Love’s Wisdom (Currie) ?1934 (1934); Tom o’ Bedlam, 1934; Sledburn Fair,
1934; Sailing Homeward (Chin., trans. Waley), 1934; Midnight (J. Lang), 1934
83/3 Fulfilment (Currie) ?1935 (1935)
— A Ballad-maker (P. Colum), 1935; Maritime Invocation (A.C. Boyd), ?1935;
Immortality (Currie), ?1935
88 Henry Brocken Song-Cycle (de la Mare), ?1936: Lorelei’s Song, Jane Eyre’s
Song, The Doctor’s Song
— To Anise (N. Downes, arr. Currie) ?1937 (1937); Why Do I Love? (Ephelia),
1937; The Witch (Currie), 1937, orchd D. Bowden
91 A Voice in the Dusk (J. Irvine): Spring, In the Faery Hills, The Wind Comes
Softly, Moon Magic, ?1937; 2 Songs (E. Rogers), 1938: Lye Still My Deare,
Fyer fyer; Rest in the Lord (E.B. Sargant), 1939; Grade A (Gibbs), 1939,
unpubd; A Greeting (Gibbs), 1942
— The Splendour Falls (A. Tennyson), 1943, arr. 1v, orch; Before Sleeping,
1944; The Hawthorn Tree (H. Maude), ?1944; Quiet Conscience (Charles I),
1944
102 Joan of Arc (Currie), ?1943 (1944): Revelation, Victory, Crowning, Defeat,
Mors janua vitae
— Old May Song (trad.), 1945, unpubd
111 Songs of the Mad Sea-captain (B. Martin), B-Bar, orch, 1946: Hidden
Treasure, Abel Wright, Toll the Bell, The Golden Ray
— The Cherry Tree (M. Rose), ?1947; Nightfall (H. Dawson), ?1947
116 2 Old English Lyrics: Chloris in the Snow (W. Strode), Amaryllis (trad), ?1949
(1949)
126 Willow Leaves (J. Irvine): To Yüan, The Dancing Girl, Meeting with Friends,
1949
— Hypochondriacus (C. Lamb), ?1949; The Old House (G.H. Kirkus), 1949; Lyric
Intermezzo (B. Jonson), 1v, orch, 1949; The Oxen (Hardy), 1951; The
Summer Palace (B. Ellis), 1952; Summer Time (Ellis), 1952
131 3 Lyrics (C. Rossetti), ?1952: The Lamb and the Dove, A Birthday, Gone were
but the Winter
— Philomel (R. Barnefield), ?1955; Prayer Before Sleep (L.E. Eeman), ?1955;
Elephantiaphus, ?1956, arr. unison vv, pf; Gipsies (H.H. Bashford), ?1956
(1956); Lament for Robin Hood (A. Munday), ?1956
— Nursery Rhymes for Nursery Singers: I Saw a Little Bird, Who’s Above?, The
Fox, I Love Little Pussy, I Love Sixpence, Lullaby, 1957
— Evening in Summer (J. Fletcher), 1959; Gone is my Love (E. Harrhy) ?1959;
Twice Sixteen; Velvet Shoes
choral
46 Before Dawn (de la Mare),
chorus, str, org/pf, 1922
53 Songs of Enchantment (de
la Mare), S, chorus, pf,
orch, 1925: Arabia,
Sleepyhead, The Prince of
Sleep
61 3 Festival Choruses,
SA/TB, pf, ?1927 (1927):
Beyond the Spanish Main
(A. Noyes), May in the
Greenwood (15th century),
The Emigrant (J. Masefield)
64 La belle dame sans merci
(J. Keats), chorus, orch,
1928
66 The Birth of Christ (cant.),
S, T, Bar, chorus, orch,
1929
72 The Highwayman (Noyes),
chorus, orch/small orch/str,
pf, drums, 1932
76 Songs of Childhood (de la
Mare), arr. SATB, pf, 1933
78 The Ballad of Gil Morrice
(arr. M. Currie), chorus,
orch, 1934
— Haunted phantasy for male
voice choir (Currie), 1934
81 Choruses from pageant
play St Elizabeth of
Hungary (A.J.G. Nicholson)
?1935 (1935)
88 Deborah and Barak (Currie,
after Bible: Judges), A, Bar,
chorus, orch, ?1936 (1936)
89 The Three Kings (nativity
play, 4, Currie), S, A, pf/org
(1937)
90 Odysseus (sym., Currie), S,
Bar, chorus, orch, 1937–8
Forest Idyll (Currie), SSA,
str, pf, 1939
— Mag and Nunc, SATB,
1939
100 Before Daybreak
(Bottomley), A, female vv,
qt, str, pf, 1941
107 Evening Service, C, SATB,
org, 1944
— The Passion According to
St Luke, chorus, org, 1945
The New Jerusalem (17th
century), SSA, pf, 1947
121 As Lucy Went A-walking
(de la Mare), SA, pf, 1948
123 Pastoral Suite, Bar, chorus,
orch, 1948–9: Clock-a-clay
(J. Clare), Molly Green o’
Maldon (L. Cranmer Byng),
Waken, Lords and Ladies
Gay (J. Strutt), Essex (A.S.
Cripps)
130 In a Dream’s Beguiling (de
la Mare), Mez/semi-chorus,
SSA, str, pf, ?1951: The
Night Swans, The Horn,
King David, Melmillo, The
Changeling, Off the Ground
— The Listeners (de la Mare),
TTBB, ?1951
133 A Saviour Born (B. Ellis),
Mez, SSA, str, pf, 1952
— Behold the Man (Ellis), solo
vv, chorus, orch/org, 1954
136 The High Adventure (Ellis),
chorus, orch, ?1955 (1955)
— The Turning Year (Ellis),
chorus, pf, ?1958 (1958)
c35 anthems, motets, carols and psalms; c100
partsongs, c25 unison songs with pf
dramatic
20 Crossings (incid music, W. de la Mare), 1919
26 The White Devil (incid music, Webster), 1920, unpubd
31 The Betrothal (faery play, M. Maeterlinck), London, Gaiety, 1921
33 The Oresteia (Aeschylus, trans. R.C. Trevelyan), Cambridge, 1920–21
— The Blue Peter (comic op, 1, A.P. Herbert), ?1923
51 Midsummer Madness (play with music, C. Bax), 1923–4, Lyric, June 1924
— April Fools (children’s play, V.M. Methley), 1925
56 The Sting of Love (comic op, 1, L. Gibbs), 1926
60 When one isn’t There (children's operetta, C.W. Emlyn), 1927
— Lorna Doone (film score, dir. B. Dean, after R.D. Blackmore), ?1933
83 Twelfth Night (incid music, W. Shakespeare), 1936
115 Twelfth Night (op, 3, M. Currie, after Shakespeare), 1946–7
— The Great Bell of Burley (children’s op, 3, N. Bush), 1950
— The Promised One (incid music, B. Ellis), 1951
— Mr Cornelius (TV operetta, A. Ellis), 1952–3
— The Gift (B. Ellis), nar, 2vv female chorus, miming troupe, str, pf, ?1957
orchestral
23 Crossings, suite for small orch, 1919, arr. of op.20
25 The Enchanted Wood, dance phantasy, pf, str, 1919
48 Ob. Conc., 1923
70 Sym. no.1, e, 1931–2
82 Fancy Dress, dance suite, ?1934
— Essex Suite, str qt, str, ?1937
84 A Spring Garland, suite, str, ?1937
103 Concertino, pf, str, 1942
104 Sym. no.3 ‘Westmorland’, B , orch, 1943–4, arr. 2 pf
112 Prelude, Andante and Finale, str, 1946
124 Miniature Dance Suite, pf, str, ?1949
— Barcarolle, 1952
— Folksongs from the British Isles, 15 pieces, ?1952
132 6 British Traditional Tunes (Ariel), small orch, ?1952
— Dale and Fell, suite, pf, str, 1953
— Mediterranean, slow valse, pf, orch, 1953
— A Simple Conc., pf, str, ?1954
— Music for Str, 1956
— Threnody for Walter de la Mare, str qt, str, 1956
— A Simple Suite, str, ?1957
— Shade and Shine, suite, str, 1958
— Suite for Str, 1958–9
— Suite, vn, small orch, 1959
— 4 Orch Dances, 1959
chamber and instrumental
Str qt; Str Qt, C, op.1, ?1912; Str Qt, G, op.7, 1916; Str Qt, a, op.8, 1917, unpubd;
Str Qt, E, op.18, 1918; Str Qt, F , op.22, 1919; Pastoral Qt, op.41, 1921–2;
Mistletoe, 1922; 3 Pieces, 1927; Dream Pedlary, ?1933; Peacock Pie, suite, str qt,
db ad lib/str, pf, ?1933; Str Qt, A, op.73, 1933; Miniature Qt, op.74, ?1933; Str Qt, C,
op.95, 1940; Str Qt, g, op.99, 1941; A Simple Str Qt, op.140, 1954, unpubd; Str Qt,
e, 1958, unpubd
Other str pieces: Sonata, F, vc, pf; Rhapsody, vn; Phantasy, op.5, vn, pf, 1915;
Country Magic, op.47, pf trio, 1922; 3 Pieces, vn, pf, 1923; The Yorkshire Dales, 3
impressions for pf trio, op.58, 1926; Lyric Sonata, op.63, vn, pf, 1928; Henry
Brocken Suite, str qt, pf, ?1936; The Three Graces, op.92, light suite, pf trio, ?1940
(1941); Pf Trio, D, op.97, 1940; Suite, op.101, vn, pf, 1942 (1943); 3 Pieces, op.121,
vc, pf, 1948; Sonata, E, op.132, vc, pf, 1951; She’s Like the Swallow, pf trio
Wind, acc: 2 Pieces, cl, pf, 1931; Little Suite, cl, str qt, 1941; Rhythm Roundabout,
tpt, pf, ?1942; A Breath of Nostalgia, tpt/cl, pf, ?1949; Silver Stream, Quiet Evening,
cl, pf, 1951; 3 Pieces, cl, pf, 1956; Suite, A, op.144, fl, pf/str, 1956
Pf: Valse, G, 1906; 3 Sketches, op.35, 1921; An Essex Rhapsody, op.36, 1921,
unpubd; Everyday Doings, op.39, suite, 1922; Five o’Clocks and Cuckoo Flowers,
op.49, 1923; In the High Alps, op.52, suite, ?1924; 4 Preludes, op.62, 1927;
Children’s Suite, 1928; Lakeland Pictures, 8 preludes, op.9, 1940; Dusk, waltz,
1946; Bridal March, pf duet, 1947; Dawn, slow waltz, 1952; 2 Pieces, ?1954 (1955)
Org: 6 Sketches, 1953; Lullay, thou Little Tiny Child, 1955; Minuet in Classical Style,
1955; Postlude, D, 1955
arrangements
4 Songs [after E. Miller], 1937: The Happy Pair (Pilkington), The Despairing
Shepherd (Scroope), I Prithee Send me Back my Heart (Suckling), To Althea, from
Prison (Lovelace)
3 Irish Airs (Moore), 1940: Let Erin Remember, I’d Mourn the Hopes, Avenging and
Bright
Canadian Folksong Cycle (trad.), ?1959: My Canadian Bride, She’s Like the
Swallow, The Morning Dew, I’se the B’y that Builds the Boat, The Stormy Scenes of
Winter, Bonovist Harbour
WRITINGS
The Festival Movement (London, 1946)
‘Setting de la Mare to Music’, Journal of the National Book League, no.301
(1956), 80–81
Common Time, 1958 [unpubd autobiography]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Brook: Composers' Gallery (London, 1946), 64–70
J. Frank: ‘An English Trio’, MO, lxxxii (1958–9), 793, 795 only
S. Banfield: Sensibility and English Song (Cambridge, 1985)
E.A. Rust: ‘Cecil Armstrong Gibbs: a Personal Memoir’, British Music, xi
(1989), 45–66
R. Hancock-Child: A Ballad-Maker: the Life and Songs of C. Armstrong
Gibbs (London, 1993)
STEPHEN BANFIELD/RO HANCOCK-CHILD
Gibbs, Joseph
(b Colchester, 12 Dec 1698; d Ipswich, 12 Dec 1788). English organist and
composer. He was the son of John Gibbs, a Colchester wait, and was
presumably trained by his father, though he may also have studied in
London. GB-Ckc 121, a volume of keyboard music and violin sonatas
apparently in his hand, contains music by Handel, Babell, Pepusch, Corelli
and a copy of Thomas Roseingrave's Eight Suits of Lessons (London,
1728). Gibbs seems to have lived in Colchester until he became organist of
Dedham in about 1744, and regularly promoted concerts in the area. He
was appointed organist of St Mary-le-Tower in Ipswich in 1748, and the
next year the churchwardens there ensured he moved from Dedham by
offering to raise his salary to £12 a year ‘if he comes to reside in the town’;
however, he continued to play a prominent role in the musical life of the
whole region.
He was a friend of Thomas Gainsborough, who painted his portrait (see
illustration), and they were both members of the Ipswich Musical Society; a
lost Gainsborough sketch of one of its meetings apparently featured him in
the audience, asleep. He was married and had at least six children.
According to his obituary in The Gentleman's Magazine, he was ‘eminently
distinguished, both as a composer and performer’, and ‘the mildness,
simplicity and integrity of his manners rendered him universally beloved
and respected’. He was given a civic funeral at St Mary-le-Tower on 18
December 1788. His effects, including music, instruments and two
Gainsborough paintings, were sold at Ipswich on 21 March and 27 June
1789.
Gibbs is best known for his Eight Solos for a Violin with a Thorough Bass
for the Harpsicord or Bass Violin (op.1; London, 1746/R), published for the
author with a subscription list that includes William Boyce and Maurice
Greene as well as many local musical figures. They are inventive,
accomplished and often technically demanding works in an idiom heavily
influenced by Geminiani and M.C. Festing. By contrast, his Six Quartettos
for Two Violins, a Tenor and Violoncello or Harpsichord (op.2; London,
1777) are often clumsy and apparently incompetent, though it is hard to
say whether the solecisms are the result of old age, careless proofreading
or a botched attempt to modernize some existing trio sonatas. He also
wrote five organ voluntaries (GB-Lbl Add.63797), which are surprisingly
varied in style and range from an archaic ‘Double Voluntary’ with Purcellian
trumpet imitations to elegant works in the two-movement idiom popularized
by John Stanley.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.H. Mann: Notebooks on East Anglian music and musicians (MSS, GB-
NWr)
S.J. Sadie: British Chamber Music, 1720–1790 (diss., U. of Cambridge,
1958)
S. Bezkorvany: ‘The 8 Violin Sonatas of Joseph Gibbs’, The Strad, lxxxix
(1978–9), 189, 191
J. Cooper: ‘Joseph Gibbs’, The Strad, lxxxix (1978–9), 185–7
J. Bensusan-Butt: Thomas Gainsborough in his Twenties: a
Memorandum Based on Contemporary Sources (Colchester, 1993)
E. Skinner: ‘Eight Solos for a Violin with a Thorough-Bass for the
Harpsicord or Bass Violin’ composed by Joseph Gibbs 1698–1788: an
Interpretative and Stylistic Study (thesis, U. of London, 1997)
PETER HOLMAN
Gibert, Paul-César
(b Versailles, 1717; d Paris, 1787). French singing teacher and composer.
While very young he was sent to Naples by his father, an officer of the
maison du roi. He probably took music lessons there with several
conservatory masters, and he eventually recruited Italian singers, the
popular Antoine Albanese among them, for the Chapelle Royale in Paris.
On his return to France about 1750, Gibert apparently lived as a teacher of
singing and composition, and also became known as a composer of
opéras comiques. Of these, La fortune au village (1760), Soliman second,
ou Les trois sultanes (1761) and Apelle et Campaspe (1763) are the most
notable. La fortune au village, performed when the Comédiens Italiens
returned to their (remodelled) theatre at the Hôtel de Bourgogne after a
summer’s absence, was Gibert’s first real comédie mêlée d’ariettes, in
which vaudeville timbres had been completely eliminated. It was received
favourably by the Mercure de France as the work of a ‘young musician [he
was already 43] of considerable promise and taste’. Soliman second was
at once a chef d’oeuvre of C.-S. Favart, a highpoint in the theatrical career
of Mme Favart, and an important and influential work in the development of
the 18th-century ‘Turkish’ opera, of which Mozart’s Die Entführung aus
dem Serail is the crowning representative. The lack of success of the
historical comédie héroïque, Apelle et Campaspe was probably occasioned
principally by the volatile personality of its librettist, A.A.H. Poinsinet.
Gibert’s music, though Grimm found it ‘detestable’, is of quite high quality.
After composing three motets, Diligam te, Confitebor tibi Domine and
Laetatus sum (1766–8), all successfully performed at the Concert Spirituel,
Gibert returned to stage works with a serious opera, Deucalion et Pyrrha
(1772); after its performance he reportedly received a gold medal valued at
300 livres. His commitment to teaching was particularly strong during the
last two decades of his life; his Solfèges, ou Leçons de musique, usually
dated 1783, had already appeared in print in late 1769. It was followed by
two lesser-known printed collections: Mélange musical: premier recueil
(Paris, 1775), and IIme recueil d’airs nouveaux (Paris, ?1783). The first of
these is by far the more substantial, containing everything from
occasionally awkward Italianate ariettes, often borrowed from his own
opéras comiques, to highly developed dramatic scenes in the manner of
Rameau or Gluck. Many pieces are parodied after solfège exercises from
the 1769 publication. Despite a pervasive Italian character, Gibert’s
frequent use of rondeau and romance forms, the parallel minor, and
diminished chords clearly allies him first to Rameau, and then more
particularly to Grétry. The strong influence of Gluck in the dramatic scenes
is not surprising, yet it reveals one of Gibert’s major weaknesses as a
composer, his tendency towards imitation rather than originality.
WORKS
unless otherwise stated, all stage works first performed in Paris at the Hôtel de Bourgogne
by the Comédiens Italiens
Soliman second, ou Les trois sultanes (cmda, 3, C.-S. Favart, after J.F. Marmontel),
9 April 1761 (Paris, n.d.)
La fausse Turque (oc, 1, P.-N. Brunet), Paris, Foire St Laurent, 3 July 1761
Apelle et Campaspe (oc, 2, A.A.H. Poinsinet), Paris, OC (Bourgogne), 21 April 1763
(Paris, n.d.)
Deucalion et Pyrrha (?opéra-ballet, 4, C.H. Watelet), Paris, Vauxhall de la Foire St
Germain, 29 April 1772, lost
Parodies: La Sybille [A. Dauvergne: Les fêtes d’Euterpe] (Harny de Guerville), 21
Oct 1758 (Paris, n.d.); Le carnaval d’été, ou Le bal aux boulevards [J.J.
Mondonville: Le carnaval du Parnasse] (1, A.J. Labbet de Morambert and A.J.
Sticotti), 11 Aug 1759; La fortune au village [P. de La Garde: Aeglé] (1, M.-J.-B.
Favart, C.-S. Favart and M. Bertrand), 8 Oct 1760 (Paris, 1761)
other works
Solfèges, ou Leçons de musique (Paris, 1769)
Mélange musical: premier recueil (Paris, 1775)
IIme recueil d’airs nouveaux (Paris, ?1783)
Traduction de Catulle, vv, orch/kbd/hp (Paris, 1775) (cited in MGG1)
3 motets, perf. Paris, Concert Spirituel, 1766, 1768
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Affiches, annonces et avis divers (1758–76)
Mercure de France (1759–87)
J.J.L. de Lalande: Voyage d’un François en Italie fait dans les années
1765 & 1766, vii (Paris, 1769), 193
C.-S. Favart: Mémoires et correspondance littéraires, dramatiques et
anecdotiques (Paris, 1808)
M. Tourneux, ed.: Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique par
Grimm, Diderot, Raynal, Meister, etc. (Paris, 1877–82)
M.-C. Skuncke: ‘Soliman II in French and Swedish Garb’, Gustave III and
the Swedish Stage: Opera, Theatre and other Foibles: Essays in
Honor of Hans Astrand, ed. B.H. van Boer (Lewiston, NY, 1993), 37–
48
KENT M. SMITH
Gibson.
American firm of fretted string instrument makers. It was founded by Orville
H. Gibson (b Chateaugay, NY, 1856; d Ogdensburg, NY, 21 Aug 1918) in
Kalamazoo, Michigan. He began making instruments in the 1880s, and the
Gibson name was established as a marque in 1894; mandolins dominated
Gibson’s output until the mid-1920s. In the 1880s he began to apply violin
construction techniques to the production of flat-back mandolins, and
Gibson’s scroll-body F-model and pear-shaped A-model mandolins
dominated their market until the 1920s. Before the turn of the century
Gibson was making arch-top guitars with oval soundholes, based on the
construction techniques he had been using for mandolins.
In 1902 a group of businessmen joined Gibson to form the Gibson
Mandolin-Guitar Manufacturing Co., Ltd, later renamed the Gibson
Mandolin-Guitar Mfg. Co. (1904), then the Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Co.
(1906). O.H. Gibson left in 1903; he received a regular royalty from the
company until 1908 and then a monthly income until his death. In 1917 the
company moved to new premises on Parsons Street, Kalamazoo, which it
occupied until 1984.
In the 1920s banjos became Gibson’s most important product; they were
later superseded by guitars. In 1923 Gibson introduced the L-5, the first f-
hole guitar, designed by Lloyd Loar, which was one of the earliest models
to have a neck strengthened with a truss rod – another Gibson innovation.
The years following World War I also saw the unveiling of a harp-guitar
(based on an invention by O.H. Gibson patented in 1908), several types of
banjos including those in the Mastertone series (1918–25; for illustration
see Banjo, fig.1a), and the F-5 (an f-hole mandolin, 1922). In an attempt to
compete with Martin Dreadnought guitars, Gibson entered the market for
flat-top instruments in 1934 with the Jumbo model; the Super Jumbo
(subsequently J-200) model appeared four years later. At the same time
Gibson introduced its first electric guitars, the Electric Hawaiian steel guitar
(1935) and the Spanish hollow-bodied ES-150 (1936).
The company became Gibson, Inc., in 1924 and in 1944 was taken over by
the Chicago Musical Instrument Co., which in 1969 was bought by Norlin
Industries. In 1952 Gibson introduced the solid-body Les Paul electric
guitar (for illustration see ..\Frames/F001851.htmlElectric guitar, fig.1), and
the factory changed progressively to electric guitar production. Throughout
the following decades Gibson introduced several more solid-bodied electric
guitars, including the Flying V (1958), Explorer (1958), and Firebird (1963)
models, all of which had unorthodox body shapes, as well as the semi-
hollow ES-335 (1958).
In 1957 Gibson acquired the Epiphone marque and in the 1970s moved
production of Epiphone guitars to Japan. A plant was opened in Elgin,
Illinois, in 1973 to produce pickups and strings (the firm had sold its own
brand of strings from 1907), and in June 1975 a large factory for the
production of guitars was opened in Nashville, principally because the
overcrowded Kalamazoo site was unable to meet the demand for electric
guitars. In the early 1980s it reduced its staff and in 1984 all manufacturing
was moved to Nashville. In 1986 the firm was sold to Henry Juskiewicz,
David Berryman and Gary Zebrowski.
Gibson’s instruments have traditionally been among the most elegant and
costly in their class, and the best examples are highly sought after by
musicians and collectors; the firm set standards for appearance and sonic
quality that influenced many instrument makers throughout the world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Bellson: The Gibson Story (Kalamazoo, MI, 1973)
T. Wheeler: American Guitars: an Illustrated History (New York, 1982,
3/1992)
T. Bacon and P. Day: The Gibson Les Paul Book (London, 1993)
W. Carter: Gibson Guitars: 100 Years of an American Icon (Los Angeles,
1994)
A. Duchossoir: Gibson Electrics: the Classic Years (Milwaukee, 1994)
S. Chinery and T. Bacon: The Chinery Collection: 150 Years of American
Guitars (London, 1996)
TONY BACON/R
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Heubach, ed.: Interfunktionen 10 (Cologne, 1972) [scores, drawings]
T. Johnson: ‘Getting Fogbound in Sound’, Village Voice (20 Dec 1973)
W. Sharp: ‘The Phil Glass Ensemble’, Avalanche, no.10 (1974)
SoHo: Downtown Manhattan, Akademie der Künste, 5 Sept–17 Oct 1976
(Berlin, 1976) [exhibition catalogue]
D. Reck, ed.: Music of the Whole Earth (New York, 1977, 2/1997)
R. Kostelanetz, ed.: Seventh Assembling (New York, 1977)
R.F. Crone: Numerals 1924–1977, Leo Castelli Gallery, 7 Jan–28 Jan 1978
(New York, 1978) [exhibition catalogue]
R. Palmer: ‘Sciences Inspires Soho Avant-Garde Composers’, New York
Times (31 July 1977)
R. Teitlebaum: ‘Less and Less’, Soho News (26 March 1980)
R. Johnson, ed.: Scores, an Anthology of New Music (New York, 1981)
[incl. commentary]
A. Pomarede: ‘Jon Gibson, paysage sonore’, Art présent, no.9 (1981), 51
R.E. Bandt: Models and Processes in Repetitive Music, 1960–1983 (diss.,
Monash U., 1983)
T. Johnson: The Voice of New Music New York City 1972–1982
(Eindhoven, 1989)
D. Suzuki: Minimal Music (diss., U. of Southern California, 1991)
E. Strickland: Minimalism: Origins (Bloomington, IN, 1993)
W. Duckworth: Talking Music (New York, 1995)
D. Goode, ed.: The Frog Peak Rock Music Book (Lebanon, NH, 1995)
B.G. Tyranny: All Music Guide (San Francisco, 3/1997)
R. Kostelanetz, ed.: Writings on Glass (New York, 1997)
EDWARD STRICKLAND
Gidayu.
See Takemoto Gidayū.
Gideon, Miriam
(b Greeley, CO, 23 Oct 1906; d New York, 18 June 1996). American
composer. Early in life, she studied the piano with Hans Barth, Felix Fox
and her uncle Henry Gideon, an organist and choral director. She later
received degrees from Boston University (BA 1926), Columbia University
(MA 1946) and the Jewish Theological Seminary (DSM 1970) and studied
composition privately with Saminsky (1931–4) and Sessions (1935–43).
She taught at Brooklyn College (1944–54) and City College, CUNY (1947–
55, 1971–6), the Jewish Theological Seminary (1955–91) and the
Manhattan School of Music (1967–91). Her honours included awards and
commissions from the Ernest Bloch Society, the Ford and Rockefeller
foundations and the Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge Foundation, among
others. In 1975 she was elected to the American Academy and Institute of
Arts and Letters.
Gideon did not rely on a preconceived compositional system but let each
work suggest its own style and form; her musical language can be
described as freely atonal. Its prevailing lyricism at times is contrasted by a
pointed and dramatic intensity: textures are ‘characterized by lightness, the
sudden exposure of individual notes, constantly shifting octave
relationships [and] a technique that imposes economy and the exclusion of
irrelevancies’ (Perle). Fascinated by the idea of setting a poem in more
than one language, she often used both the original language and a
translation within a single composition. In Steeds of Darkness (1986), for
example, a setting of an Italian poem by Felix Pick is followed by its English
‘recreation’, based on a poem by Eugene Mahon. In Gideon’s own words,
the setting of Mahon’s poem ‘extracts at white heat the fantasy of the
original poem’. Together, the settings exhibit a striking musical reflection on
death’s ‘relentless and despairing chase’.
WORKS
opera
Fortunato (3 scenes, Gideon, after S. and J. Quintero), S, Mez, T, Bar, orch/pf, 1958
vocal
Choral: Slow, Slow Fresh Fount (B. Jonson), SATB/TTBB, 1941; Sweet Western
Wind (R. Herrick), SATB, 1943; How Goodly are thy Tents (Ps lxxxiv), SSA/SATB,
org, pf, 1947; Adon olom [Master of the World] (Heb. liturgy), S, A, T, SATB, ob, tpt,
str orch, 1954; The Habitable Earth (Bible: Proverbs), S, A, T, B, SATB, ob, pf/org,
1965; Spiritual Madrigals (F. Ewen, S. von Trimperg, H. Heine), TTB, bn, va, vc,
1965; Sacred Service for Sabbath Morning (Heb. liturgy), cantor, S, A, T, B, SATB,
fl, ob, bn, tpt, org, va, vc, 1970; Shirat Miriam l’shabbat (Heb. liturgy), cantor, SATB,
org, 1974; Where Wild Carnations Blow – a Song to David, solo vv, SATB, inst ens,
1983
Song cycles: Sonnets from Shakespeare, 1v, pf/(tpt, str qt/str orch), 1949; 4
Epitaphs (R. Burns), 1v, pf, 1952; Songs of Voyage (J.P. Peabody, F. Wilkinson), 1v,
pf, 1961; The Condemned Playground (Horace, J. Milton, G. Spokes, S. Akiya, C.P.
Baudelaire, E. St Vincent Millay), S, T, fl, bn, str qt, 1963; Rhymes from the Hill (C.
Morgenstern), med v, cl, mar, vc, 1966; Songs of Youth and Madness (F. Hölderlin,
trans. M. Hamburger), high v, orch, 1977; Ayelet hashakhar [Morning Star] (C.N.
Bialik, M. Stekelis, L. Goldberg), med v, pf, 1980; Wing’d Hour (C. and D.G.
Rossetti, W. de la Mare), med v, pf/(fl, ob, vib, vn, vc), 1983; Creature to Creature
(N. Cardozo), med high v, fl, hp, 1985; Poet to Poet: an Ode to Ben Jonson (R.
Herrick, Byron, A.C. Swinburne), high v, pf, 1987; The Shooting Starres Attend Thee
(R. Herrick, T. Carew, S. Menashe), high v, fl, vn, vc, 1987; 8 other song cycles,
1952–81
Songs: The Hound of Heaven (F. Thompson), med v, ob, vn, va, vc, 1945; Little
Ivory Figures (A. Lowell), low/med v, gui, 1950; The Adorable Mouse (Gideon, after
J. de La Fontaine), low v, fl, cl, bn, hpd, timp, 1960 [arr. nar, pf/(fl, cl, 2hns, pf, timp,
str)]; Steeds of Darkness (F. Pick, E. Mahon), high v, fl, ob, vc, pf, perc, 1986;
Böhmischer Krystall (A. Giraud, trans. O.E. Hartleben), high v, fl, ob, cl, bn, vc, pf,
1988; Songs from the Greek for Pipes and Strings (ancient Gk. poets), Mez, ob, cl,
bn, pf, 1989; 24 songs, lv, pf, 1929–66
instrumental
Orch: Epigrams, suite, chbr orch, 1941, unpubd; Lyric Piece, str, 1941; Symphonica
brevis, 1953
Chbr: Lyric Piece, str qt, 1941 [arr. str orch]; Str Qt, 1946; Divertimento, ww qt,
1948; Fantasy on a Javanese Motive, vc, pf, 1948; Sonata, va, pf, 1948; Air, vn, pf,
1950; Biblical Masks (vn, pf)/org, 1960; Sonata, vc, pf, 1961; Suite, cl/vn, pf, 1972;
Fantasy on Irish Folk Motives, ob, bn, va, perc, 1975; Trio, cl, vc, pf, 1978; Eclogue,
fl, pf, 1988; Rondo appassionato, vc, pf, perc, 1990
Pf: 3-Cornered Pieces (Suite no.1), 1935 [arr. fl, cl, pf]; Sonatina ‘Hommage à ma
jeunesse’, 2 pf, 1935; Sketches (Suite no.2), 1937–40; Canzona, 1945; Suite no.3,
1951; Six Cuckoos in Quest of a Composer, suite, 1953; Of Shadows Numberless,
suite, 1966; Sonata, 1977
Recorded interviews in US-NHoh
Principal publishers: ACA, Mobart, Peters
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EwenD
VintonD
G. Perle: ‘The Music of Miriam Gideon’, American Composers Alliance
Bulletin, vii/4 (1958), 2–9
B.A. Peterson: ‘The Vocal Chamber Music of Miriam Gideon’, The Musical
Woman: an International Perspective, ii, ed. J. Lang Zaimont and
others (New York, 1991), 226
L. Ardito: ‘Miriam Gideon: a Memorial Tribute’, PNM, xxxiv (1996), 202–14
LINDA ARDITO
Gidino da Sommacampagna
(fl Verona, 14th century). Italian poet and theorist. He lived at the court of
the Scaligers at Verona under Mastino II, Bartolomeo and Antonio, and
dedicated to Antonio his Lo tractato et la arte de li rithimi volgari, written
between 1381 and 1384 (edited by G.B.C. Giuliari as Trattato dei ritmi
volgari, Bologna, 1870/R). This is a treatise on metrics, with examples, in
which Gidino described the main poetic forms of the 14th century: sonnets,
ballatas or canzoni, rotondelli, marighali, serventesi and moti confetti. The
text is derived from the treatise by Antonio da Tempo, but the examples are
Gidino's own. Music is mentioned in connection with the ballata and the
polyphonic madrigal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Paganuzzi: ‘Medioevo e Rinascimento’, La musica a Verona, ed. P.
Brugnoli (Verona, 1976), 1–216, esp. 33–7
F.A. Gallo: ‘Sulla fortuna di Antonio da Tempo: un quarto volgarizzamento’,
L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, v, ed. A. Ziino (Palermo, 1985), 149–
57
N. Pirrotta: ‘A Sommacampagna Codex of the Italian Ars Nova?’, Essays
in Medieval Music: in Honor of David G. Hughes, ed. G.M. Boone
(Cambridge, MA, 1995), 317–32
F. ALBERTO GALLO
Gieburowski, Wacław
(b Bydgoszcz, 6 Feb 1878; d Warsaw, 27 Sept 1943). Polish musicologist,
conductor and composer. Ordained priest in 1902, he studied music at
Regensburg with Haberl and Haller and musicology with Kinkeldey in
Breslau (Wrocław) and with Wolf and Kretzschmar in Berlin. He took the
doctorate at Breslau in 1913 with a dissertation on a 15th-century treatise.
From 1925 to 1939 he was an assistant professor at the University of
Poznań. He also taught at the Poznań Conservatory and at the theological
seminary. From 1916 he was conductor of the Poznań Cathedral Choir and
succeeded in making it one of the finest choirs in Poland between the
wars. His main interest was church music, both early and contemporary.
He was responsible for several editions and composed a number of church
works himself.
WRITINGS
Die ‘Musica Magistri Szydlovite’: ein polnischer Choraltraktat des XV.
Jahrhunderts und seine Stellung in der Choraltheorie des Mittelalters
(diss., U. of Breslau, 1913; Poznań, 1915)
Chorał gregorjański w Polsce od XV do XVII wieku, ze specjalnem
uwzględnieniem tradycji i reformy oraz chorału Piotrkowskiego [The
Gregorian chorale in Poland from the 15th century to the 17th, with
special reference to tradition and reform as well as to the Piotrkowski
chorale] (Poznań, 1922) [with Fr. summary]
EDITIONS
Cantica selecta musices sacrae in Polonia (Poznań, 1928–39)
Cantionale ecclesiasticum ad normam editionis Vaticanae ratione habita
ritualis pro Polonia approbati (Poznań, 1933)
Śpiewnik kościelny [Hymnbook] (Poznań, 1938)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Młodziejowski: ‘Ks. Dr Wacław Gieburowski’, RM, ii/20–21 (1946), 27
S. Duszyński: ‘Wspomnienie pośmiertne o ks. dr W. Gieburowskim’, Życie
muzyczne, nos.3–4 (1947), 1 only
ZYGMUNT M. SZWEYKOWSKI
Giegling, Franz
(b Buchs, nr Aarau, 27 Feb 1921). Swiss musicologist. He studied the
piano with Walter Frey and theory with Paul Müller at the Zürich
Conservatory, where he gained a theory teaching diploma in 1950. He
studied musicology with Kurth at Berne University and with Cherbuliez at
Zürich University, where he obtained the doctorate in 1950 with a
dissertation on the importance of Torelli in the history of the solo concerto.
He was music critic of the Neue Zürcher Zeitung (1947–53) and made
extensive studies in Italy of the Baroque concerto. In 1960 he qualified at
Basle as a sound engineer, and worked in this capacity at Radio Zürich
until 1967, when he became editor for music broadcasts including speech
at Radio Basle; he was also the artistic planning manager of the Basle
RSO, 1972–7. He became a member of the editorial board of the Gluck
collected edition in 1992.
Giegling had worked principally on the music of the Italian Baroque and
Mozart. In 1954 he became a contributor to the new Mozart collected
edition; he was co-editor of the revised sixth edition of the Köchel
catalogue, and in 1969 he joined the Zentralinstitut für Mozartforschung,
Salzburg. He edited a number of volumes for the Mozart collected edition
and many 18th-century north Italian instrumental works.
WRITINGS
Giuseppe Torelli: ein Beitrag zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des italienischen
Konzerts (diss., U. of Zürich, 1949; Kassel, 1949)
‘Giacomo Antonio Perti (1661–1756)’, Mf, viii (1955), 445–52
‘Geminiani’s Harpsichord Transcriptions’, ML, xl (1959), 350–52
Volkmar Andreae (Zürich, 1959)
ed., with A. Weinmann and G. Sievers: L. von Köchel: Chronologisch-
thematisches Verzeichnis sämtlicher Tonwerke Wolfgang Amadé
Mozarts (Wiesbaden, 6/1964)
‘Metastasios Oper “La Clemenza di Tito” in der Bearbeitung durch
Mazzola’, MJb 1968–70, 88–94
‘Die neue Mozart-Ausgabe: Wissenschaft und Praxis’, Alte Musik: Praxis
und Reflexion, ed. P. Reidemeister and V. Gutmann (Winterthur, 1983),
353–7
‘Mozart und Gessner: zum Besuch der Mozarts in Zürich 1766’, Schweizer
Jb für Musikwissenschaft, new ser., xii (1992), 99–109
EDITIONS
Francesco Antionio Bonporti: ‘La Pace’: Inventionen für Violine und Basso
Continuo, op.10, HM, xliv–xlv, lxxvii (1950–55)
Giuseppe Torelli: Sonate G-Dur für Violoncello und Basso Continuo, HM,
lxix (1955; repr. 1974)
Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni: Sonate g-moll für Streicher and Basso
Continuo, op.2, no.6, NM, clxxxix (1956); 7 ob. concertos from op.9
(London, 1972–6)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, I/4/iv:
Kantaten (Kassel, 1957); I/4/i: Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebots
(Kassel, 1958); II/5/xx: La clemenza di Tito (Kassel, 1970); V/14/iv:
Klarinetten Konzert (Kassel, 1977); V/14/iii: Konzerte für Flöte, Oboe,
Fagott (Kassel, 1981); V/14/vi: Konzert für Flöte und Harfe (Kassel,
1983); VII/17/i: Divertimenti für Bläser (Kassel, 1984); V/14/v:
Hornkonzerte (Kassel, 1987); X/28: Weke Zweifelkafter Echtheit:
Divertimenti für Bläser (Kassel, 1993)
Die Solosonate, Mw, xv (1959; Eng. trans., 1960)
Luigi Boccherini: 3 Quintets f. ob., str qnt, op.45, nos.4–6 (Hamburg, 1959)
Guiseppe Torelli: Concertino per camera, op.4; Lumi dolenti (1977)
C.A. Lonati: 12 Violinsonaten (Winterthur, 1981)
Christoph W. Gluck: La clemenza di Tito (Kassel, 1995)
JÜRG STENZL
Variationen, str qt, 1949; 4 Gedichte von Stefan George, chorus, 19 insts, 1955–8;
Variationen, 40 insts, 1959; Ein Tag tritt hervor (Neruda), Pentaphonie, obbl pf, vib,
mar, elec gui, hmn, ondes martenot, 5 qnts, 1960–63; die glocken sind auf falscher
spur (H. Arp), melodramas and interludes, female v, speaker, vc, gui, pf, perc,
hmn, tapes, 1967–9; Einige Schwierigkeiten bei der Überwindung der Angst, orch,
1976; Un vieux souvenir, str qt, 1983
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Eggert and H.-K. Jungheinrich: Durchbrüche: 10 Jahre Musiktheater
mit Michael Gielen (Weinheim, 1987)
J. Früchtl: ‘Avancierte Musik ist von den Menschen weit entfernt’, Geist
gegen den Zeitgeist: Erinnern an Adorno, ed. J. Fruchtl and M. Calloni
(Frankfurt, 1991), 136–49 [interview with Gielen]
M. Gielen and P. Fiebig: Beethoven im Gespräch: die neun Sinfonien
(Stuttgart, 1995)
P. Fiebig, ed.: Michael Gielen: Dirigent Komponist, Zeitgenosse (Stuttgart,
1997) [incl. discography]
WOLFRAM SCHWINGER/MARTIN ELSTE
Giero, Jhan.
See Gero, Jhan.
Gieseking, Walter
(b Lyons, 5 Nov 1895; d London, 26 Oct 1956). German pianist. The son of
a distinguished German doctor and entomologist, he spent much of his
childhood in southern France and Italy. He began to play the piano at the
age of four but received no consistent tuition until the age of 16 when he
worked with Karl Leimer at the Hanover Conservatory (1911–13). At the
age of 20 he played a virtually complete cycle of Beethoven’s sonatas in
Hanover. His Berlin début in 1920 was so successful that he stayed on in
the city to give seven further concerts in which his refined artistry in
Debussy and Ravel was already evident. An intensive international career
followed. Gieseking gave his first London recital in 1923, and the same
year he gave with Fritz Busch the first performance of Pfitzner’s Piano
Concerto. His American début (in Hindemith’s concerto) followed in 1926,
and his Paris début in 1928. But his career was blighted when he was
blacklisted as a Nazi sympathizer, a taint which provoked continuing
hostility in the USA and led him to confine his career for some time to
Europe, South America and Japan. After being cleared of cultural
collaboration with the Nazis, he returned triumphantly to the USA in 1955
(when he gave an all-Debussy programme in Carnegie Hall) and in 1957.
He later gave a series of masterclasses at the Musikhochschule in
Saarbrücken where he focussed on the problems of transcending
difficulties that are essentially mental rather than physical.
Blessed with a rare photographic and aural memory, Gieseking would often
memorize entire scores away from the keyboard before playing them in
concert. His repertory was immense (he gave a New York recital in 1930
entirely devoted to contemporary music), and he recorded all Mozart’s solo
piano music (1953), a complete Ravel cycle (1956) and virtually all the solo
works of Debussy (1951–4). His Mozart has been criticized for its over-
exquisite miniaturist approach; but his Debussy, in which his aural
sensitivity and pedal technique contributed to the subtlest gradations of
tone and colour, has not been excelled. A project to record the complete
Beethoven sonatas and much Schubert was left incomplete because of his
sudden death. Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninoff also featured in his
repertory, and his performance of the latter’s second and third concertos
revealed an impetuous virtuosity far removed from the luminous delicacy of
his Debussy. Gieseking’s Debussy recordings, reissued on CD, remain his
most enduring legacy.
WRITINGS
with K. Leimer: Modernes Klavierspiel nach Leimer – Gieseking (Mainz,
1931; repr. 1998 with the following; Eng. trans., 1932, repr. 1972 with
the following as Piano Technique)
with K. Leimer: Rhythmik, Dynamik und andere Probleme des Klavierspiels
nach Leimer – Gieseking (Mainz, 1938; repr. 1998 with the preceding;
Eng. trans., 1938, repr. 1972 with the preceding as Piano Technique)
So wurde ich Pianist (Wiesbaden, 1963, 4/1975) [with discography by I.
Hajmássy]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Gavoty and R. Hauert: Walter Gieseking (Geneva, 1955)
J. Chissell: ‘Walter Gieseking’, Gramophone Record Review, no.45
(1957), 703 [with discography by F.F. Clough and G.J. Cuming]
BRYCE MORRISON
Stage: Jo Being (1, P. Murphy), part perf. Melbourne, 4 June 1978; Regarding
Faustus (music-theatre, 1, Gifford, after C. Marlowe), 1983, Adelaide, 12 March
1988; Iphigenia in Exile (music theatre, 1, R. Meredith, after Euripides), 1985, part
perf. Melbourne, ABC FM Radio, 1 Oct 1990; Music for the Adonia (music-theatre),
1992; incid music to B. Brecht, W. Congreve, C. Fry, P. Shaffer, W. Shakespeare, T.
Stoppard, C. Tourneur
Orch: Phantasma, str, 1963; Chimaera, 1969; Imperium, 1969
Vocal: As Dew in Aprille, S, pf/hp/gui, 1955; The Wanderer, male spkr, fl, eng hn, va,
perc, 1963; Red Autumn in Valvins, Mez, pf, 1964; The Glass Castle, S, chorus 5vv,
1968; Bird Calls from an Old Land, 5 S, female chorus, 5vv, perc, 1971; Point of
Ignition (J. Aldridge), Mez, orch, 1997; The Western Front World War I, 40 vv choir,
inst ens, 1999
Chbr and solo inst: Fantasy, fl, pf, 1958; Pf Sonata, 1960; Catalysis, pf, 1964; Str
Qt, 1965; Waltz, The Spell, Cantillation, pf, 1966; Fable, hp, 1967; Canzone, 9 wind,
cel, 1968; Of Old Angkor, hn, mar, 1970; Company of Brass, 9 brass, 1972; Going
South, 2 tpt, hn, 2 trbn, 1988; Toccata attacco, pf, 1990; A Plaint of Lost Worlds, fl +
pic, cl, pf, 1994; As Foretold to Khayyar, pf, 1999
WRITINGS
ed. P. Grimshaw and L. Strahan: The Half Open Door (Sydney, 1982),
172–93 [autobiographical chapter]
‘Subliminal Co-ordinates – Drawing Threads’, New Music Articles, vii
(1989), 5–9 [autobiographical article]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Murdoch: ‘Regarding Faustus’, Arts National, iii/2 (1985), 70–71
Lord Harewood: ‘Festival Drama through Music’, Adelaide Festival
Review, xlviii/March (1988), 16–17
THÉRÈSE RADIC
Giga
(It.).
See Gigue (i).
Gigault, Nicolas
(b ?Paris, c1627; d Paris, 20 Aug 1707). French organist and composer.
According to documentation by Hardouin his parents were without
expectation of heirs as late as May 1626, so the earlier date of birth
deduced by Pirro cannot be correct. That the family lived in poverty is
indicated by a document of 1648 in which, following the death of their
father, Gigault and his brothers renounced their rights of succession to
avoid his debts. But the contract relating to the first of his two marriages, in
1662, shows him already prosperous and the owner of an extensive
collection of instruments, including an organ, several harpsichords, spinets
and clavichords and a number of string instruments (there is evidence that
he was also a string player who was sometimes engaged for important
Parisian orchestral performances). He held four positions as an organist in
Paris – at St Honoré (1646–52), St Nicolas-des-Champs (1652 until his
death), St Martin-des-Champs (from 1673) and the Hôpital du Saint Esprit
(from 1685) – and his repute is shown by a 1695 tax roll of keyboard
players in which his name is inscribed among those of the first rank, along
with such men as D’Anglebert and Couperin. He was twice involved in
lawsuits, the first time in a vain attempt to recover damages from one
Janson, the printer of his 1683 Livre de musique, the second in 1693 in
connection with the long legal process between the ménétriers and the
keyboard players of Paris. A document pertaining to the latter suit lists him
as a teacher of Lully; in 1706 he was one of a jury that awarded Rameau
the post of organist of the church of Ste Madeleine-en-la-Cité. Of his five
children three were connected with music, although not as composers.
Lacking a modern edition, Gigault’s 1683 volume has been little studied. It
contains 20 popular noëls with variations, the earliest example of this
genre, besides a few versets based on Christmas plainsongs. Most of the
noëls follow a somewhat mechanical scheme, progressing from two to
three to four voices, the latter treated ‘à 2 choeurs’. The better-known
second volume of 1685 contains 183 versets, mostly very brief, in a rather
loose arrangement. It begins with three groups of versets for the Ordinary
of the Mass followed by a series of pieces arranged according to the
church modes; interspersed with these are several settings of plainsong
hymns and a series of Te Deum versets. More than his contemporaries
Gigault remained faithful to the liturgy and to the spirit of Titelouze (whose
name he invoked in the preface) through frequent settings of plainsong
either as a cantus firmus in bass or tenor or in fugal elaboration, and also
through the use of optional cadence points by which the versets may be
abbreviated to the needs of the service. A majority of the free pieces are
termed ‘fugues’; nevertheless in these as well as in the preludes, récits and
dialogues one sees the secular spirit from dances and airs that permeates
the later years of the French Baroque organ school, a quality further
emphasized by Gigault’s continuous use of the ‘pointed’ style in which
virtually all series of quavers are notated in dotted rhythms. Although the
preludes contain occasional striking harmonic progressions, Gigault’s
music is frequently monotonous: in particular he lacks harmonic direction
and fails to develop his fugue subjects adequately.
WORKS
Edition: Nicolas Gigault: Livre de musique pour l’orgue, ed. A. Guilmant and A. Pirro,
Archives des maîtres de l’orgue, iv (Paris, 1902/R1972) [contains the music of the 1685
collection, and an allemande from the 1683 publication]
Livre de musique dédié à la Très Saincte Vierge … contenant les cantiques sacréz
qui se chantent en l’honneur de son Divin Enfantement. … Une pièce diatonique en
forme d’allemande marqué simple & avec les ports de voix,
org/hpd/lute/viols/vns/recs/other insts (Paris, 1683)
Livre de musique pour l’orgue … plus de 180 pièces … pour servir sur tous les jeux
à 1, 2, 3, et 4 claviers et pedalles en basse et en taille (Paris, 1685)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ApelG
FrotscherG
MGG1 (J. Bonfils)
A. Pirro: ‘Un organiste au XVIIe siècle: Nicolas Gigault’, RHCM, iii (1903),
302–7, 550–57
G. Servières: Documents inédits sur les organistes français des XVIIe et
XVIIIe siècles (Paris, 1924)
A. Pirro: ‘L’art des organistes’, EMDC, ll/ii (1926), 1181–374, esp. 1339
N. Dufourcq: La musique d’orgue française de Jehan Titelouze à Jehan
Alain (Paris, 1941, 2/1949)
P. Hardouin: ‘Quatre Parisiens d’origine: Nivers, Gigault, Jullien, Boyvin’,
RdM, xxxix–xl (1957), 73–8
W. Maul: ‘Some Observations on the French Organ School of the
Seventeenth Century’, American Organist, lii/3 (1969), 17–24, lii/4
(1969), 14–16
N. Dufourcq: Le livre de l'orgue français, iv: La musique (Paris, 1972)
B. François-Sappey: ‘Nicolas Gigault’, Guide de la musique d'orgue, ed.
G. Cantagrel (Paris, 1991)
ALMONTE HOWELL/FRANÇOIS SABATIER
Gigli.
See Lilius family.
Gigli, Beniamino
(b Recanati, 20 March 1890; d Rome, 30 Nov 1957). Italian tenor. In
Rome, after lessons from Agnese Bonucci, he won a scholarship to the
Liceo Musicale; his teachers were Cotogni and Rosati. In 1914 he won an
international competition at Parma, and on 14 October that year made a
successful début in La Gioconda at Rovigo. In 1915 his Faust in Boito’s
Mefistofele was highly appreciated at Bologna under Serafin and at Naples
under Mascagni. Spain was the scene of his first successes abroad, in
1917. The climax of his early career was his appearance in the memorial
performance of Mefistofele at La Scala on 19 November 1918. On 26
November 1920 he made a brilliant début (again in Mefistofele) at the
Metropolitan Opera, where he remained as principal tenor for 12
consecutive seasons, singing no fewer than 28 of his total of 60 roles.
In the lyrical and romantic repertory, Gigli was regarded as the legitimate
heir of Caruso (Martinelli excelled in the more dramatic and heroic parts).
The operas in which he was most often heard were La bohème, La
Gioconda, L’Africaine, Andrea Chénier (see illustration) and Mefistofele.
His Covent Garden début was in Andrea Chénier on 27 May 1930, with
subsequent appearances in 1931, 1938 and 1946. In 1932 he left the
Metropolitan, declining to accept a substantial reduction of the salary paid
him before the Depression. Thereafter he pursued his career more actively
in Italy, elsewhere in Europe, and in South America, returning to the
Metropolitan, for five performances only, in 1939. A favourite of Mussolini,
Gigli was at first under a cloud after the dictator’s fall, but returned to sing
in Tosca at the Rome Opera in March 1945, and in November 1946
reappeared at Covent Garden with the S Carlo company in La bohème,
with his daughter, Rina Gigli, as Mimì. He continued to appear in opera at
Naples and at Rome as late as 1953, and in concerts almost until his
death.
Smoothness, sweetness and fluency were the outstanding marks of Gigli’s
singing. His style was essentially popular, both in its virtues and its
limitations: natural, vital and spontaneous on the one hand, but always
liable to faults of taste – to a sentimental style of portamento, for instance,
or the breaking of the line by sobs, or ostentatious bids for stage applause
‘like a picturesque beggar appealing for alms’ (Ernest Newman). He
missed refinement in Mozart, and was unequal to the technical demands of
‘Il mio tesoro’; in Verdi he was more at home, although notably happier
when, as in the second scene of Un ballo in maschera or the last act of
Rigoletto, his grandees had adopted popular disguise; best of all in Puccini
and the melodramatic lyricism of Andrea Chénier and La Gioconda. His
mellifluous cantilena in such pieces as Nadir’s romance in Les pêcheurs
de perles was consummately beautiful. Gigli was something less than a
great artist; but as a singer pure and simple he was among the greatest.
His many recordings offer a complete portrait of his long career;
outstandingly successful are the arias from Mefistofele, Martha, L’elisir
d’amore, La Gioconda and Faust, duets with De Luca from La forza del
destino and Les pêcheurs de perles, and the complete recordings of
Andrea Chénier and La Bohème. Gigli was also a seductively charming
interpreter of Neapolitan and popular songs, and delighted 1930s cinema
audiences with his portrayals of ingenuous and lovestruck tenors.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Rosner: Beniamino Gigli (Vienna, 1929)
R. de Rensis: Il cantatore del popolo: Beniamino Gigli (Rome, 1933)
D. Silvestrini: Beniamino Gigli (Bologna, 1937)
A.-M. and G. Cronstrom: ‘Beniamino Gigli’, Record Collector, ix (1954–5),
199–269; xiii (1960–61), 184–8 [with discography]
B. Gigli: Memorie (Milan, 1957; Eng. trans., 1957/R) [with discography by
M. Ricaldone]
T. Peel and J. Holohan: ‘Beniamino Gigli Discography’, Record Collector,
xxxv (1990), 110–18
N. Douglas: Legendary Voices (London, 1994), 81–106
DESMOND SHAWE-TAYLOR/ALAN BLYTH
Giglio, Tommaso
(b Enna, Sicily; fl 1600–03). Italian composer. He was present at Palermo
in 1600 as a supporter of Raval in his musical dispute with Falcone; he
remained there until at least 1603 when Raval asked him to contribute a
composition to the collection Infidi lumi (Palermo, 1603), which is now lost.
His Secondo libro de madrigali a sei voci (Venice, 1601) exemplifies the
later phase of the seconda pratica. Only the bass part survives but six of
the pieces were reprinted (in RISM 160412, 161310; ed. in MRS, vi, 1991).
His madrigals are florid and inventive, with full sonorities and a charm that
hides any dissonances or false relations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Falcone: ‘Relatione del successo seguito in Palermo tra Achille Falcone
musico cosentino e Sebastian Ravalle musico spagnolo’, introduction
in Achille Falcone: Madrigali a cinque voci (Venice, 1603), 4, 8–9
A. Mongitore: Bibliotheca Sicula, ii (Palermo, 1714/R1871), 260
P.E. Carapezza: ‘Dialogo immaginario di Antonio Il Verso con il suo
discepolo Giuseppe Palazzotto e Tagliavia nel giorno del santo natale
dell’anno 1617 in Palermo’, Madrigali siciliani in antologie transalpine
(1583–1616), MRS, vi (1991), pp.ixl [xlix]–li
F. Piperno: ‘Polifonia italiana e mercati europei: i madrigalisti di Sicilia nelle
pubblicazioni antologiche d’Oltralpe’: introduction to Madrigali siciliani
in antologie transalpine (1583–1616), MRS, vi (1991), pp.ix–xxxv
PAOLO EMILIO CARAPEZZA/GIUSEPPE COLLISANI
Gigout, Eugène
(b Nancy, 23 March 1844; d Paris, 9 Dec 1925). French organist and
composer. He began his musical apprenticeship at Nancy Cathedral choir
school, then in 1857 went to the Ecole Niedermeyer where he was taught
by Saint-Saëns and Clément Loret. After marrying Caroline-Mathilde, the
director's daughter, he stayed at the Ecole Niedermeyer to teach plainsong,
counterpoint, fugue and the organ. He founded a school of organ and
improvisation in 1885. In 1863 he was appointed organist of St Augustin (a
post that he held until his death), but had to wait five years for Barker to
complete his instrument; it was built using an electro-pneumatic system
unfamiliar at the time, and had to be reconstructed by Cavaillé-Coll–Mutin
in 1899. Gigout succeeded Guilmant as professor of organ and
improvisation at the Paris Conservatoire in 1911. Among those he taught at
the Ecole Niedermeyer, at his own school (founded in 1885) and at the
Conservatoire, his nephew Léon Boëllmann, Fauré, Messager, Roussel
and André Marchal stand out.
According to accounts by his contemporaries, Gigout, like Guilmant, played
in a very clean style, which did not prevent him from performing the music
of Franck with great intensity. As an improviser he is reported to have been
eclectic, but was drawn particularly to classicism.
His organ music testifies to this ambivalence between a refined language
derived from Bach, or certain passages in a classical style, and symphonic
effects in the grand manner, sometimes making use of plainsong. Based on
an aesthetic close to that of Saint-Saëns, his output is dominated by his
organ works, completely overshadowing his piano pieces and mélodies.
The pieces for harmonium or organ without obbligato pedal, simple in
execution but useful to the church organist, and often making interesting
use of Gregorian style (100 pièces brèves dans Ia tonalité du plain-chant),
are quite distinct from the grand compositions with pedal, divided between
a series of major collections including the 6 pièces of 1881, the 10 pièces
of 1890 and the 3 pièces of 1896. Worthy of note among these are the
Grand choeur dialogué (1881) which alternates foundation stops and reeds
to memorable effect, the Toccata in B minor (1890) which can stand
alongside similar compositions by Boëllmann, Widor or Dubois, and the
Scherzo and Cantilène, also in the 1890 collection, which contain more
picturesque and decorative material. A different style is represented in the
Introduction et thème fugué (from the 1881 collection) or the Pièce
jubiliaire en forme de prélude et fugue (1918), which is entirely classical in
inspiration, or the charming Rhapsodie sur des Noëls (in the 1890
collection), which places folk music in a symphonic context, following the
example pioneered by Alexis Chauvet in 1867–9.
Gigout is also the composer of numerous sacred choral works, mélodies
and piano music of an unashamedly nationalist character including En
souvenir! (2 legends) and ‘Hymne à la France’
WORKS
(selective list)
Org: 3 pièces, 1872–6; 6 pièces, 1881; Pièces diverses en deux suites, 1885–6;
100 pièces brèves dans la tonalité du plain-chant, 1888; Suite de 3 morceaux,
c1889; 10 pièces, 1890; Pièces diverses, 1891; Album grégorien, 1895; 3 pièces,
1896; Prélude et fugue, E, 1897; Rhapsodie sur des airs catalans, 1897; Rhapsodie
sur des airs populaires du Canada, 1898; 2 pièces, 1900; Poèmes mystiques, 1903;
L'orgue d'église, 1904; 70 pièces dans les tons les plus usités, 1911; 12 pièces,
1913; Pièce jubilaire en forme de prélude et fugue, 1918; 100 pièces nouvelles,
1922; 10 pièces, 1923
Other kbd (solo pf, unless otherwise stated): Etude, impromptu et capriccio, 1880; 6
morceaux, pf 2/4 hands c1885; Andante symphonique, pf, hmn, 1887; Marche
funèbre, pf, hmn, 1887; Hymne à la France, 4 hands, 1892, also arr. wind orch; Au
guery!, 1894; Sonate, F, 1904; Suite enfantine, 1904; 3 improvisations
caractéristiques, 1913; En souvenir!, 2 legends, 1914–15, no.2 for pf 4 hands; Aux
Escaldes, 1925
Vocal: Chants du graduel et du vespéral romains, 4vv, c1880; Ave verum, SATB,
org, c1884; 3 mélodies (A. de Givrins, V. Hugo), Mez, pf, c1884; Tantum ergo, 4vv,
org, c1884; Cantique à la Vierge Marie (l'Abbé de Beauchamp), 1v, chorus ad lib,
org, 1886; Ave verum, S/T, org, 1888; Antienne pontificale, 4vv, org, c1892; Le
prêtre (Henry B.), 1v, hp, org, 1893; 2 motets, female vv, org, 1900; Tota pulchra,
1v, org, 1900; Alleluia de Pâques, 4vv, org, 1901; 2 cantiques, 1v, 3vv, org/pf, 1902;
Le Noël de Joséphine (R. Fraudet), 1v, pf, 1908; Barcarolle sablaise, 1921; Le
vallon (A. de Lamartine)
Other works: Méditation, vn, orch, 1890; transcrs. of works by Bach, Boëllmann,
Niedermeyer, Sacchini and Saint-Saëns
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Fauré: Hommage à Gigout (Paris, 1923)
N. Dufourcq: ‘Eugène Gigout’, Cahiers et mémoires de l'orgue, no.27
(1982) [entire issue]
F. Sabatier: ‘Eugène Gigout’, Guide de la musique d'orgue, ed. G.
Cantagrel (Paris, 1991), 403–404
FRANÇOIS SABATIER
Gigue (i)
(Fr.: ‘jig’; It. giga, gighe).
One of the most popular of Baroque instrumental dances and a standard
movement, along with the allemande, courante and sarabande, of the
suite. It apparently originated in the British Isles, where popular dances and
tunes called ‘jig’ have been known since the 15th century. Although 17th-
century gigues were notated in simple duple metre, most are in some kind
of compound metre (i.e. with a triple subdivision of the duple beats), and
most are in binary form. During the 17th century, distinct French and Italian
styles emerged. The French gigue was written in a moderate or fast tempo
(6/4, 3/8 or 6/8) with irregular phrases and an imitative, contrapuntal
texture in which the opening motif of the second strain was often an
inversion of the first strain’s opening. The Italian giga sounded much faster
than the French gigue but had a slower harmonic rhythm; it was usually in
12/8 time and marked ‘presto’, with balanced four-bar phrases and a
homophonic texture. From about 1690 gigues and gigas appeared that
were highly complex virtuoso solo pieces which used a wide variety of
compositional techniques, usually with joyful affect.
1. Etymology and origin.
The various words for the dance form known as the jig or gigue have rather
confused histories that in turn have led to confusion about the origins of the
musical form. In French, Italian and German, the word seems to be derived
from a medieval word for fiddle (as in Dante, Paradiso, xiv.110: ‘E come
giga ed arpa in tempratesa, Di molte corde, fan dolce tintinno’), a word also
used to refer to the musician who played such a fiddle (see Gigue (ii)). The
usage survives in modern German as Geige (violin), a survival that has
contributed most to past uncertainty about the gigue’s origin. It is now
believed that if the English word came from the Continent, it came not from
gigue or fiddle but rather from the verb ‘giguer’, to frolic, leap or gambol.
Although no choreographies have survived for the 16th-century jig,
contemporary literary references suggest that jigs were fast pantomimic
dances for one or more soloists with lively rhythms created by virtuoso
footwork, and that they were somewhat bawdy (Shakespeare, Much Ado
about Nothing, Act 2 scene i: ‘Wooing is hot and hasty like a Scottish
jigge’). Dean-Smith pointed out that the word ‘jig’ may have derived from
slang in a manner similar to the more recent evolution of the word ‘jazz’,
becoming a generic term encompassing many forms of non-aristocratic
music and dance. As with the first American meaning of the slang ‘jass’,
most 16th-century connotations of the English word ‘jig’ were vulgar.
2. Jigs in 17th-century England.
Sung and danced jigs were a prominent feature of the stage entertainment
called Jigg, an improvised, farcical, burlesque comedy for two to five
actors, developed in Elizabethan England and enthusiastically adopted in
Scandinavia and northern Germany. Cotgrave’s definition of ‘jig’ as
‘strambot’ (Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, 1611), a form of
Italian frottola poetry adapted by the French for satiric and insulting verse,
probably refers to the prevalence of such verse in theatrical jigg
performances. Little is known about either the music or the dances used in
jiggs; verses were sung to popular tunes, some of which remained well
known in instrumental versions (e.g. Walsingham, Goe from my window,
Watkins Ale, Spanish Pavan). It is possible that the style of the original
dance accompaniments is reflected to some extent in these pieces, and in
the jigs that appeared in English art music at the turn of the 17th century.
Jigs began to appear in English collections of instrumental music early in
the 17th century, as independent pieces in binary form, as themes for
variation sets, and occasionally as movements of longer works. Collections
such as Antony Holborne’s The Cittharn Schoole (1597), Thomas
Robinson’s Schoole of Musicke (1603), Thomas Ford’s Musicke of Sundrie
Kindes (1607) and the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book contain pieces explicitly
entitled ‘jig’ or ‘gigg’, as well as versions of some of the tunes thought to be
associated with theatrical jiggs. The actual jigs are all written in four-bar
phrases with a homophonic texture, some of them in simple duple metre
(i.e. C or ) and some in compound duple (i.e. 6/4, 6/2 etc). Apparently no
particular rhythmic or metrical pattern was yet implied by the English term
‘jig’, but rather a style that can no longer be understood fully. Interestingly
enough, all the tunes from theatrical jiggs contained in the Fitzwilliam
Virginal Book are in the compound duple metre that was to be
characteristic of both gigue and giga by the end of the 16th century.
The jig seems to have retained its association with light and potentially
vulgar things throughout the century, for as late as 1676 Thomas Mace
wrote ‘Toys or Jiggs, are Light-Squibbish Things, only fit for Fantastical and
Easie-Light-Headed People’ (Musick’s Monument, ii). Nonetheless, jigs
continued to appear in consort and ensemble music, and as incidental
music for plays. Matthew Locke’s jigs, typical of those appearing at the
middle of the century, tend to have homophonic textures with occasional
points of imitation at the opening, and to have clear four- or eight-bar
phrases. Only one of his jigs was written in compound duple metre, the rest
appearing either in C or (ex.1); several use the so-called Scotch snap as
the main rhythmic idea and all are in binary form. Purcell’s jigs, most of
them written as act tunes to such plays as The Married Beau (1694) and
The Gordian Knot Untied (1691), are all written in 6/8, and most have
imitative textures, one (the jig in The Gordian Knot) including a double
fugue as the second strain, perhaps reflecting trends on the Continent.
3. French gigue.
The French lutenist Jacques Gautier, who for 30 years worked as court
lutenist in London, is credited with having introduced some form of the jig
into his native country when he returned there in the early days of the
Commonwealth. Soon pieces called ‘gigue’ began to appear in French lute
and harpsichord collections. Like their English counterparts, these gigues
could apparently be written in either simple or compound metre, but other
elements of the original style, particularly the clarity of phrase and texture,
began to change under the influence of the distinctive style brisé of 17th-
century France. Phrase lengths became ambiguous and irregular, and
strong emphasis on motivic play lent the gigue a growing rhythmic and
textural complexity. The newly stylized French gigue was first included
regularly in suites by Nicolas-Antoine Lebègue, although it appeared in its
traditional place as the last movement in the suites of relatively few
composers. Ex.2 shows the typically complex opening of a gigue by
D’Anglebert.
It seems that for the French, as perhaps for the English, the gigue implied
a certain style as well as a specific dance, for, beginning in the works of
Ennemond and Denis Gaultier, several pieces appeared entitled
‘allemande giguée’ or ‘allemande en gigue’. Explanation of this curious
labelling comes from Perrine’s indication in his Pièces de luth en musique
(Paris, c1680) that two allemandes were to be played ‘en gigue’. Following
each is a transcription of the allemande ‘en gigue’ (in fact, the pieces are
re-labelled ‘gigue’) in which the even quavers of the original have been
altered to dotted quaver and semiquaver figures.
17 dances called ‘gigue’ appear in the stage works of Lully, including the
ballets Les gardes, Les saisons, Amadis, Persée and Roland. Like Purcell,
Lully preferred the compound duple kind of gigue; most make extensive
use of imitative counterpoint, cross-rhythms and long irregular phrases, as
well as a quaver–crotchet upbeat borrowed from another popular dance,
the Canary. At least 16 choreographies for the gigue survive from the early
18th century, by both French and British choreographers (see lists in Little
and Marsh, 1992). Steps to one of the simplest are shown in ex.3, set to a
gigue from Lully’s Roland, with the ‘canary’ upbeat and contrapuntal style
favoured by the French.
The earliest appearance of the term ‘gigue’ in Germany was as the title of a
variation in Wolfgang Ebner’s Aria 36 modis variata for lute (1648), but the
real popularity of the form seems to date from its introduction by Froberger
as the standard second movement of his keyboard suites, beginning in
1657. Froberger visited Paris in 1652, where he was influenced by such
composers as Denis Gaultier and Chambonnières, and his gigues show
fugato, style brisé and delicate nuances characteristic of French lutenists.
Esaias Reusner’s Delitiae testudinis (1667) for lute seems to have been
the first publication consistently to include the gigue as the last movement
of the suite, following the allemande, courante and sarabande, a position
that was to become commonplace. After Froberger, south German
composers such as Pachelbel tended to compose rather simple gigues,
relinquishing the fugato techniques brought from France, while composers
in central and northern Germany like J.C.F. Fischer, J.A. Reincken,
Buxtehude, Kuhnau, Mattheson and Georg Böhm preferred imitative
gigues modelled on those of Lully and French harpsichordists, often
unifying them by using an inversion of the opening motif as the main idea
of the second strain. German ensemble suites by such composers as
Dietrich Becker, J.C. Pezel, J.H. Schmelzer, Alessandro Poglietti, Biber and
Georg Muffat also incorporated the fugato French gigue as the usual last
movement.
4. Italian ‘giga’.
The Italian giga is a related instrumental air apparently derived from the
English jig. It is not certain how the form was introduced in Italy, but its first
known use was in G.B. Vitali’s op.4 (Balletti, correnti, gighe, allemande, e
sarabande, Bologna, 1668). No choreographies are available, so the dance
cannot be compared with its English and French counterparts. Unlike the
French gigue with its many unbalanced phrases, the beats in the giga are
arranged in balanced groups of four and eight (ex.4). Harmonic and
melodic sequences appear frequently, and the texture tends to be less
complicated and more homophonic than in the French form. Gighe are
particularly associated with violin music, with its characteristic chordal
figurations and large melodic leaps, and many gighe occur as last
movements in Italian solo and trio sonatas by composers such as Corelli,
Domenico Zipoli, G.M. Bononcini, Antonio Veracini, Geminiani, Tartini, F.M.
Veracini, G.B. Sammartini and pseudo-Pergolesi. The giga was adopted by
some French composers, notably J.M. Leclair and Mondonville, and by
such Germans as Reincken, Telemann, Handel and J.S. Bach.
Gigue (ii)
(Fr. gigue, gigle; It. and Sp. giga).
A term widely used in medieval Europe to denote a bowed instrument. It is
generally believed to have been the rebec because the name gigue
gradually went out of fashion as that of the rebec gained ground in the 14th
century and gigue was not normally synonymous with vièle or fidel
according to both fictional literature and historical accounts, which often
mention these instruments together. Johannes de Garlandia, in his early
13th-century Dictionarius, lists the giga and viella as being played in rich
Parisian households. It is also known that three German gigatores
performed at the Feast of Westminster in 1306, together with fiddlers,
crowders and many other minstrels (Bullock-Davies, 106–8), and in 1375
the ‘violam et gigam’ were played by two German musicians in the
presence of the Duke of Savoy (Bachmann, 150). There are many poetic
descriptions in different languages of the gigue and vièle being played
together in celebrations, particularly to accompany singing and dancing.
However, the early 14th-century German poem Der Busant, in its vivid
description of a ‘fedele’ having silk strings and decorations of gold,
precious stones and ivory, finally declares ‘Thus the gige was made’,
showing that, after all, the two words could sometimes mean the same
instrument (Page, 241).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Bachmann: Die Anfänge des Streichinstrumentenspiels (Leipzig, 1964,
Eng. trans., 1969, as The Origins of Bowing and the Development of
Bowed Instruments up to the Thirteenth Century)
C. Bullock-Davies: Menestrellorum multitudo: Minstrels at a Royal Feast
(Cardiff, 1978)
M.A. Downie: The Rebec: an Orthographic and Iconographic Study (diss.,
U. of West Virginia, Morgantown, 1981)
C. Page: Voices and Instruments of the Middle Ages: Instrumental Practice
and Songs in France, 1100–1300 (Berkeley, 1986)
M. Remnant: English Bowed Instruments from Anglo-Saxon to Tudor
Times (Oxford, 1986)
P. Bec: Vièles ou violes? Variations philologiques et musicales autour des
instruments à archet du Moyen Age: Xie–XVe siècle (Paris, 1992)
MARY REMNANT
Gilardi, Gilardo
(b San Fernando, 25 May 1889; d Buenos Aires, 16 Jan 1963). Argentine
composer and teacher. He studied with his father and then with Pablo
Berutti. An excellent teacher, he was professor of harmony, counterpoint,
composition and fugue at the Buenos Aires National Conservatory and at
the University of La Plata, whose fine arts school he directed. He was also
a founder of the Grupo Renovación, a member of the Cinematography
Academy and an adviser to the National Cultural Commission and to the
National SO. Although in his early works he used the pentatonic scale
within a nationalistic style, Gilardi’s mature works show a more universal
language, particularly such religious works as the Misa de Requiem and
Misa de Gloria and the Stabat mater (1952). His first opera, Ilse, o Amore
di un giorno (1919) is clearly influenced by Puccini, and his second, La
leyenda del urutaú, is set at the time of the conquistadors and relates an
indigenous legend about a bird with a nocturnal song. In this work Gilardi
uses pentatonic scales and other indigenous themes and dances. The
operas were first performed at the Teatro Colón in 1923 and 1929
respectively. He also composed a humorous symphonic piece for children,
El gaucho con botas nuevas (1936), first performed in the USA with José
Iturbi conducting.
WORKS
(selective list)
Stage: Ilse, o Amore di un giorno (op, 2), 1919, Buenos Aires, Colón, 13 July 1923;
La leyenda del urutaú (op, prol, 3, J. Oliva Nogueira), 1929, Buenos Aires, Colón,
25 Oct 1934; incid music
Choral: Misa de Requiem, S, A, T, chorus, org, orch, 1914–18; Misa de Gloria,
soloists, female chorus, org, orch, 1936; TeD, female chorus, orch, 1938; El
libertador (cant.), spkr, chorus, orch, 1948; Stabat mater, S, A, chorus, org, orch,
1952
Orch: Serie argentina, 1929; Piruca y yo, 1938; Obertura tritemática, 1952; Sinfonía
cíclica, 1961
Pieces for children’s chorus, songs, chbr music, pf suites and preludes, film scores
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (J.M.Veniard)
Compositores de América/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan-American
Union, xii (Washington DC, 1966)
J.O. Pickenhayn: Gilardo Gilardi (Buenos Aires, 1966)
M. Ficher, M. Furman Schleifer and J.M. Furman: Latin American
Classical Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and
London, 1996)
SUSANA SALGADO
Gilardoni, Domenico
(b Naples, 1798; d Naples, 1831). Italian librettist. Little is known about his
background. Dogged by bad luck and ill-health, he died young, having
written 20 librettos in five years; the whole of his short career was based in
Naples. His first published libretto was for Bellini (Bianca e Gernando,
1826), but much of his early work was for the Teatro Nuovo and typically
contained long stretches of prose and buffo roles in dialect; collaboration
with Donizetti, from L’esule di Roma onwards, took him to the royal
theatres, the S Carlo and the Fondo. When working with Donizetti he
achieved a high level not matched when writing for others, probably due to
the influence of the composer, who himself finished Fausta after the
librettist’s death. Although never officially described as a poet of the royal
theatres, Gilardoni was widely credited with raising standards there. His
most accomplished libretto was Il paria, set by Donizetti in 1829; his most
frequently performed was certainly Il ventaglio (Raimondi, 1831), which
demonstrates all too clearly the slack versification that often marred his
work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (John Black) [incl. list of libs]
E. Bursotti: Domenico Gilardoni, autore di dramma per musica (Naples,
c1883)
W. Ashbrook: Donizetti: le opere (Turin, 1987)
JOHN BLACK
Gilbert, Anthony
(b London, 26 July 1934). English composer. After training as a translator
he studied composition privately with Mátyás Seiber (1957–9) and at
Morley College, London (1959–63) with Alexander Goehr and Anthony
Milner. He worked as a music editor with Schott (1965–70) before
beginning a teaching career at Goldsmiths College, London (1968–73;
acting director of music 1971–3). He was appointed to the Royal Northern
College of Music in 1973, where he was head of composition until 1999.
Simon Holt, Priti Paintal and Luke Stoneham have been numbered among
his students.
Tough yet often humorous, Gilbert's music reflects the uncompromising
spirit of its creator. His dogged individualism is clear not only from his
determination, relatively late in life, to become a composer, but also from
his subsequent pursuit of artistic goals that answered personal challenges
rather than topical concerns of the avant-garde. Although he has written in
most of the major genres, his output resists conventional classifications of
either sensibility or technique. The common factor in his works is his fertile
imagination, which is charged both by his musical ideas and his thoughts
on the nature of performance.
In his Missa brevis (1964–5) and Nine or Ten Osannas (1967) Gilbert
developed fresh meanings for serial and combinatorial raw materials by
employing them with the formal concision of a miniaturist. In The Incredible
Flute Music (1968) he used simultaneously fast and slow music to create a
musical paradox. A new approach to familiar concepts is also characteristic
of the Piano Sonata no.2 for four hands (1966). These scores, as well as
the chamber-orchestral Sinfonia (1965), Regions for two orchestras (1966)
and the Symphony (1973, rev. 1985), demonstrate his keen sense of
instrumental scope and timbre. Ghost and Dream Dancing for orchestra
(1974, rev. 1981), Inscapes for speaker, soprano and small ensemble
(1975, rev. 1981), and Long White Moonlight for soprano and electric
double bass (1980), mark a further stage in his exploration of unusual
sonorities. The radio opera The Chakravaka-Bird (1977) and Towards
Asâvari for piano and chamber ensemble (1978) attest to his interest in
non-Western cultures.
Gilbert's works of the 1980s and 90s continue to stress both humour and
seriousness. A relaxed voice is heard in the musical ‘bestiaries’ for
chamber ensembles (the Quartet of Beasts, 1984; Beastly Jingles, 1984;
and Six of the Bestiary, 1985) and in a number of pieces for sopranino
recorder, such as Midwales Lightwhistle Automatic (1996). In contrast, the
orchestral song cycle Certain Lights Reflecting (1989), to poems by the
Tasmanian poet Sarah Day, and the Violin Concerto ‘On Beholding a
Rainbow’ (1998) continue the style of composition that first brought Gilbert
to prominence in the 1960s.
WORKS
(selective list)
Ops: The Scene Machine (1, G. Macbeth), 1970, Kassel, 4 April 1971; The
Chakravaka-bird (radio op, A.K. Ramanujan, Daniel H.H. Ingalls, Gilbert, after
Indian sources) 1977
Orch: Sinfonia, chbr orch, 1965; Regions, 2 orch, 1966; Sym., 1973, rev. 1985 [incl.
material from Regions]; Ghost and Dream Dancing, 1974, rev. 1981; Welkin, 1976;
Towards Asâvari, pf, chbr orch, 1978; Dream Carousels, wind, 1988; … into the
Gyre of a Madder Dance, wind, 1994; Vn Conc. ‘On Beholding a Rainbow’, 1998
Vocal: Missa brevis, SATB, 1964–5; Love Poems (F. Horovitz, Li Shangyin, G.
Barron), S, ens, 1970; Inscapes (G.M. Hopkins), spkr, S, 2 ww, perc, 1975, rev.
1981; Long White Moonlight (Asian texts), S, elec db, 1980; Beastly Jingles (C.G.
Leland, W. MacGonagll, anon.), S, ens, 1984; Certain Lights Reflecting (S. Day),
Mez, orch, 1989; Upstream River Rewa (V. Naidu, after Mahabharata, A.K.
Ramanuhan), nar, fl, vc, sitar, tabla, kbd, 1991; Handles to the Invisible (Day),
SATB, 1995
Chbr and solo inst: Sonata no.1, pf, 1962; Duo, vn, va, 1963; Sonata no.2, pf 4
hands, 1966; Brighton Piece, perc, ens, 1967; 9 or 10 Osannas, cl, hn, pf trio, 1967;
The Incredible Flute Music (Peal I), fl, pf, 1968; Treatment of Silence, vn, tape,
1969; Str Qt with Pf Pieces, 1972; Calls Around Chungmori, fl, cl, va, vc, perc,
1979; Crow Undersongs, va, 1981; Vasanta with Dancing, 1v ad lib, fl, ob, vn, va,
hp, perc, opt. dancer, 1981; 2 Moonfaring, vc, perc, 1983, rev. 1986; Qt of Beasts,
fl, ob, bn, pf, 1984; Six of the Bestiary, sax qt, 1985; Fanfarings, 6–8 brass, 1986;
Str Qt no.2, 1987; Str Qt no.3 ‘Super hoqueto David’, 1987; Ziggurat, b cl, mar,
1994; Stars, tr rec, pf, 1995; Midwales Lightwhistle Automatic, sopranino rec, pf,
1996
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.W. Hopkins: ‘Anthony Gilbert’, MT, cix (1968), 907–10; also music
suppl. ‘Shepherd Masque’ (Oct 1968)
R. Henderson: ‘Anthony Gilbert’, Music and Musicians, xx/7 (1971–2), 42–
9
S. Walsh: ‘“Time Off” and “The Scene Machine”’, MT, cxiii (1972), 137–9
[interview]
NICHOLAS WILLIAMS
dramatic
Cathleen ni Houlihan (incid suite of Irish melodies, W.B. Yeats), New York, 1903
Pot of Broth (incid song, Yeats), New York, 1903
Riders to the Sea (incid music, J.M. Synge), Boston, 1904; sym. prologue, rev. 1913
(1919), also for pf duet
The Twisting of the Rope (incid reel, D. Hyde), Boston, 1904
Uncle Remus (op, C. Johnston, after J.C. Harris), c1906, unfinished; source of
Comedy Ov., Tempo di rag, [5] Negro Dances, [3] American Dances
The Intimate Story of Indian Tribal Life (The Story of a Vanishing Race) (E.S.
Curtis), 21 small pieces for lectures, orch, 1911; source of [6] Indian Sketches, [5]
Indian Scenes
Fantasy in Delft (op, 1, T.P. Robinson), 1915–20
Pilgrim Tercentenary Pageant: First Episode, band, 1921; orch suite, 1921
orchestral
Gavotte, 1890s; 2 Episodes, op.2, c1895 (1897) [no.2 also for pf]; Summer-Day
Fantasie, op.4, c1899 [after H.D. Thoreau]; Americanesque, op.5, c1902–8
[pubd as Humoresque (1913)]; [3] American Dances, c1906 [arr. pf duet
(1919)]; Comedy Ov. on Negro Themes, c1906 (1912) [also for pf duet]; The
Dance in Place Congo, op.15, sym. poem, c1908, rev. 1916 (1922) [after G.W.
Cable; perf. as pantomime-ballet, New York, 1918]; Strife, 1910–25; [6] Indian
Sketches, 1911, rev. 1914 [also for pf duet]; Negro Rhapsody (Shout), 1912
(1915); To Thee, America (F. Manley), chorus, orch, 1914 [also for SATB, pf
(1914)]; The Island of the Fay, sym. poem, 1923 [after E.A. Poe; rev. of pf work
(1904)]; Dance, jazz band, 1924; Nocturne after Whitman, 1925–6; Sym. Piece,
1925; Suite, chbr orch, 1926–7
songs
In May (H. Heine), 1891; The Roses are a Regal Trop (T.B. Aldrich), 1893; A Group
of [8] Songs, op.1 (1894) [no.2 orchd]; The Curl (A. Rives), op.3/2, 1897 (n.d.),
orchd; The Lament of Deirdré (S. Ferguson), op.3/3, c1897 (1903); O were you my
love yon lilac fair (R. Burns) (1897); Perdita (J.T. Field) (1897); The Pirate Song
(R.L. Stevenson, A.C. Hyde) (1902) [orchd; arr. Bar, male chorus (1921)];
Salammbô's Invocation to Tänith (G. Flaubert), op.6 (1902), orchd; Zephyrus (H.W.
Longfellow) (1903); Croon of the Dew (G.T. Phelps), op.7/2 (1904); [4] Celtic
Studies (1905); Faery Song (W.B. Yeats) (1905); Tell me, where is fancy bred? (W.
Shakespeare) (1905); 2 South American Gypsy Songs (L.A. Smith), with vn ad lib
(1906); Orlamonde (M. Maeterlinck, trans. M.J. Serrano) (1907); Fish Wharf
Rhapsody (G.W. Beauchamp [F. Manley]) (1909); The Owl (A. Tennyson) (1910); A
Rouse for Roosevelt (G.L. Farwell) (1912); Give me the Splendid Silent Sun (W.
Whitman) (1914); Homesick (H. Weedon) (1919); Breath of Night (G.T. Phelps);
Loafing Souvenir (F. Manley); many others, incl. 16 under pseudonym of Frank
Belknap
Edn: One Hundred Folk Songs from Many Countries (Boston, 1910)
chamber and solo instrumental
Gavotte, str qt, early 1890s, rev.; Scherzino, pf trio, ?1890s; Quartette, a, 1st
movt, ?late 1890s; Waltz, str qt, ?late 1890s; Mazurka, Scherzo, pf (1902); 2
Verlaine Moods, op.8, pf (1903); Tempo di rag, fl, ob, B -cornet, pf, 2 vn, vc,
c1906–17 [also for pf]; [5] Indian Scenes, pf (1912); [5] Negro Dances, pf (1914);
Str Qt, 1920; A Rag Bag, 6 pieces, op.19, pf (1927)
WRITINGS
‘American Spirit’, Wa-Wan Press Monthly, vi (1907), 21–2
‘Indian Music’, New Music Review, xi (1912), 56–9
‘Personal Recollections of Edward MacDowell’, New Music Review, xi
(1912), 494–8
‘The American Composer’, MQ, i (1915), 169–80
‘Folk Music in Art Music; a Discussion and a Theory’, MQ, iii (1917), 577–
601
‘The Disease of Harmony’, New Music Review, xviii (1919), 269–72
‘A Chapter of Reminiscences’, New Music Review, xx (1921), 54–7, 91–4
‘Concerning Jazz’, New Music Review, xxi (1922), 438–41; repr. in Etude,
liii (1935), 74 only
‘Humor in Music’, MQ, xii (1926), 40–55
‘Notes on a Trip to Frankfurt in the Summer of 1927; with Some Thoughts
on Modern Music’, MQ, xvi (1930), 21–37
BIBLIOGRAPHY
O. Downes: ‘An American Composer’, MQ, iv (1918), 23–36
H.G. Sear: ‘Henry Franklin Belknap Gilbert’, MR, v (1944), 250–59
K.M.E. Longyear: Henry F. Gilbert: his Life and Works (diss., U. of
Rochester, 1968)
K.E. and R.M. Longyear: ‘Henry F. Gilbert’s Unfinished Uncle Remus
Opera’, Yearbook for Inter-American Musical Research, x (1974), 50–
57
A. Nesnow, ed.: Henry Gilbert Papers (New Haven, CT, 1983)
N.E. TAWA (text), KATHERINE LONGYEAR (work-list, bibliography)
Das Jungfernstift, 8 Feb 1901; Der Prinzregent, 12 Sept 1903; Jou-Jou, 23 Oct
1903; Onkel Casimir, 1 Nov 1908; Polnische Wirtschaft, 26 Dec 1909; Die keusche
Susanne, 26 Feb 1910; Die lieben Ottos, 30 April 1910; Die moderne Eva, 11 Nov
1911; Autoliebchen, 16 March 1912; So bummeln wir, 21 Nov 1912; Puppchen, 19
Dec 1912; Die elfte Muse, 23 Nov 1912 (rev. as Die Kinokönigin; Die Reise um die
Erde in vierzig Tagen, 13 Sept 1913; Die Tangoprinzessin, 4 Oct 1913; Fräulein
Trallala, 15 Nov 1913; Die Sünden des Lulatsch, 15 March 1914; Wenn der Frühling
kommt, 28 March 1914
Kam’rad Männe, 3 Oct 1914; Woran wir denken, 25 Dec 1914; Jung muss man
sein, 27 Aug 1915; Drei Paar Schuhe, 10 Sept 1915; Das Fräulein von Amt, 2 Sept
1915; Der tapfere Ulan, 20 Nov 1915; Arizonda, 1 Feb 1916
Blondinchen, 4 March 1916; Die Fahrt ins Glück, 2 Sept 1916; Das
Vagabundenmädel, 2 Dec 1916; Die Dose Sr. Majestät, 7 March 1917; Der verliebte
Herzog [Prinz], 1 Sept 1917; Der ersten Liebe goldene Zeit, 8 March 1918;
Eheurlaub, 1 Aug 1918; Zur wilden Hummel, 10 March 1919; Die Schönste von
allen, 22 March 1919; Die Frau im Hermelin, 23 Aug 1919; Der Geiger von Lugano,
26 Sept 1920; Onkel Muz, 2 April 1921; Die Braut des Lukullus, 26 Aug 1921;
Prinzessin Olala, 17 Sept 1921; Dorine und der Zufall, 15 Sept 1922; Katja die
Tänzerin, 5 Jan 1922; Die kleine Sünderin, 1 Oct 1922; Das Weib in Purpur, 21 Dec
1923
Die Geliebte seiner Hoheit, 24 Sept 1924; Der Gauklerkönig, 1924; Zwei um Eine,
1924; Uschi, 24 Jan 1925; Annemarie, 4 July 1925; Spiel um die Liebe, 18 Dec
1925; Der Lebenskünstler, 25 Dec 1925; In der Johannisnacht, 1 July 1926; Lene,
Lotte, Liese, Josefinens Tochter, 14 Jan 1926; Eine Nacht in Kairo, 22 Dec 1928;
The Red Robe, 25 Dec 1928; Hotel Stadt Lemberg, 1 July 1929; Die Männer der
Manon, 1929; Das Mädel am Steuer, 17 Sept 1930; Lovely Lady, 25 Feb 1932; Die
Dame mit dem Regenbogen, 25 Aug 1933
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GänzlEMT
B. Grun: Kulturgeschichte der Operette (Munich, 1961, 2/1967)
O. Schneidereit: Operette von Abraham bis Ziehrer (Berlin, 1966)
R. Traubner: Operetta: a Theatrical History (New York, 1983)
ANDREW LAMB
Gilbert, Olive
(b Carmarthen, c1880; d Hove, 19 Feb 1981). English contralto. She
trained with the Carl Rosa Opera Company, and sang at Covent Garden
and the Lyceum and Strand theatres. She was appropriately cast as a
singing teacher with an operatic background in two of Ivor Novello’s Drury
Lane musicals: as Madame Simonetti in Careless Rapture (1936), and as
Cäcilie Kurt in The Dancing Years (1939). She became a stalwart of
Novello’s unofficial repertory company with whom she spent the best part
of her career. With Muriel Barron she introduced one of Novello’s most
popular songs, the duet ‘We’ll gather lilacs’ in Perchance to Dream (1945),
a show which displayed both her powerful contralto voice and a gift for
comic acting. Her relationship with Novello also extended beyond the
stage, as his unofficial housekeeper in London. She later appeared as
Sister Margaretta in a long run of The Sound of Music (1961–7) and then in
the London production of Man of La Mancha (1968).
PAUL WEBB
Gilboa, Jacob
(b Košice, 2 May 1920). Israeli composer of Czech birth. At first educated
in Vienna, he emigrated to Israel in 1938 studying architecture at the Haifa
Technological Institute and music at the Jerusalem Music Academy and
Teachers Seminary, from which he graduated in 1947. His composition
teachers were Tal and Ben-Haim. Before 1957 Gilboa’s music was tonal,
showing the Middle Eastern influence typical of the Israeli ‘Mediterranean’
style. After attending the Cologne new music courses given by
Stockhausen and Pousseur in 1963, his work changed radically to include
clusters, quarter-tones, electronics and unconventional instrumental
combinations, generally deployed in miniature forms. Among many awards
he won the Israel Composers and Authors Association Prize on four
occasions and the Prime Minister's Award in 1983; he has also represented
Israel at the ISCM festival four times (1969, 1973, 1978, 1989). In 1973 he
contributed an untitled article, and one on the 1973 ISCM Festival in
Reykjavik, to the periodical Musical Prose (no.1, p.7; no.3–4, p.1); in 1983
he wrote on ‘Fashions and Styles’ in the yearbook New Music in Israel
(1981–3, pp.24–6).
WORKS
(selective list)
Inst: Crystals, fl, va, vc, pf, perc, 1967; Pastels, 2 prepared pf, 1970; Cedars, orch,
1971–2; Lament of Klonimos, orch, 1974; Microtoccata, pf, 1976; Kathros u-
Psanterin, orch, 1978; Kathros, vn, 1979; Reflections on 3 Chords of Alban Berg, pf,
1979; Gittit, chbr orch, hp/pf obbl, 1980; 7 Ornaments on a Theme by Paul Ben-
Haim, pf, orch, 1981; Sonata, vc, pf, 1983; Str Qt, 1984; 3 Lyric Pieces in
Mediterranean Style, chbr orch, 1984; Ce qu'a vu le vent d'est, pf, 1985; 3 Strange
Visions of Hieronymus Bosch, org, 1987; Blossoms in the Desert, fl, pf, 1993
Vocal: 12 Glass Windows of Chagall in Jerusalem, S, 5 female vv, ens, 1966; Dew,
children's chorus, hp, 1972; Irit Flowers, C, fl, vn, va, vc, perc, 1986; Steps of
Spring, children's/women's chorus, 1986; Lyric Triptychon, Mez, girls' chorus, synth,
chbr orch, 1992; 4 Gobelins for Franz Kafka, S, vn, va, vc, hp, pf, 1993
Works with tape: From the Dead Sea Scrolls, chorus, children's chorus, 2 org, orch,
tape, 1972; Bedu: Metamorphoses on a Bedouin Call, Bar, fl, vn, vc, pf, tape, 1975;
The Beth-Alpha Mosaic, Mez, chbr ens, tape, 1976; 3 Red Sea Impressions, vn, cl,
gui, hp, org, pf, tape, 1978; 3 Vocalises for Peter Breughel, Mez, chbr orch, tape,
1979; The Grey Colours of Käthe Kollwitz, Mez, chbr orch, synth, tape, 1990
MSS in IL-J, Tmi
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Y.W. Cohen: Werden und Entwicklung der Musik in Israel (Kassel, 1976)
[pt ii of rev. edn of M. Brod: Die Musik Israels], 64, 85, 88, 138–9
P. Gradenwitz: Music and Musicians in Israel (Tel-Aviv, 1978), 21–2, 123,
128
Z. Keren: Contemporary Israeli Music (Ramat Gan, 1980), 85–7
D. Golomb and B.-Z. Orgad: Guide for Listening to Israeli Compositions
(Tel-Aviv, 1984), 120–30
A. Tischler: A Descriptive Bibliography of Art Music by Israeli Composers
(Warren, MI, 1988), 110–13
O. Tourny: Jacob Gilboa: Compositeur israelien contemporain (Lyons,
1988)
URY EPPSTEIN
vocal
God is our Refuge and Strength (Psalm xlvi), S, 4vv, orch (New York, 1882)
8 Songs (Boston, 1885)
The Rose (J.R. Lowell), ballad, Mez, 4vv, orch, vs (New York, 1887)
Prayer and Praise, solo vv, 4vv, pf/org (New York, 1888)
The Legend of the Bended Bow (F. Hemans), cant., Mez, male vv, pf 4 hands (New
York, 1888)
330 Exercises for Sight Singing Classes (Philadelphia, 1891)
Uplifted Gates, 4vv, pf 4 hands (New York, 1894)
Songs for the Children (Philadelphia, 1897)
A Christmas Idyll, solo vv, 4vv, orch (Boston, 1898)
6 Scotch Songs (R. Burns) (Philadelphia, 1898)
The Syrens (Lowell), 4 female vv, fl, hn ad lib, vn, vc, pf (New York, 1904)
An Easter Idyll, solo vv, 4vv, orch, org, vs (New York, 1907)
2 Tennyson Songs (Boston, 1908)
The Lamb of God (orat, J. Montgomery), vv, orch/org (New York, 1909)
The Knight of Toggenberg (trans. from F. von Schiller), ballad, A, female vv, orch,
vocal score (Boston, 1911)
instrumental
Orch: Sym. no.1, C, 1891, US-PHf; Sym. no.2, D, inc., completed by W. Happich,
1933, PHf; Sym. poem, g, c1910, PHf; Suite, G, pf, orch, PHf
Chbr: Une petite suite, pf 4 hands (Boston, 1885); Nonet, g, fl, cl, hn, str, pf, 1910,
PHf; Quintet [no.1], c, pf, str, unpubd; Quintet no.2, F, pf, str, perf. 1914, PHf
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAB (F.H. Martens)
The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, x (New York, 1900/R),
350
Obituary, Philadelphia Public Ledger (21 Dec 1916), 17
F.A. Wister: Twenty-five Years of the Philadelphia Orchestra (Philadelphia,
1925), 12–13, 95, 235
M.F. Schleifer: William Wallace Gilchrist, 1846–1916: a Moving Force in
the Musical Life of Philadelphia (Metuchen, NJ, 1985)
MARTHA FURMAN SCHLEIFER
Edition: Nathaniel Giles: Anthems, ed. J.B. Clark, EECM, xxiii (1979) [A]
First Service (TeD, Jub, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 8/6vv, 1641 5
Second Service (TeD, Jub, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 6/6vv; Mag, Nunc only complete
Short Service, 2 parts in 1 (TeD, Jub, Ky, Cr), 2vv, inc.
3 full anthems (1 text only), 3–5vv, insts, A
16 verse anthems (6 inc.), 10 in A
2 sacred songs, A
6 motets (3 without text), 2, 3, 5vv
2 madrigals, 4, 5vv, GB-Lbl, Lcm
1 consort song, ed. in MB, xxii (1967)
1 acc. song, GB-Lbl
Blessed are all they that fear the Lord, attrib. in one source to Giles and Gibbons, is
by Gibbons; Lord in thy wrath, attrib. in some MSS to Giles, is probably by John
Amner; O Lord, in thee is all my trust, attrib. in some MSS to Giles and Tallis, is
probably by Tallis; O Lord, thou hast searched me out and known me, attrib. in one
source to Giles, is also attrib. to Adrian Batten; Thou God, that guid’st, attrib. in one
source to Giles and Byrd, was published in Barnard (1641 5) under Byrd’s name.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.H. Giles: Aegidiana, or Gleanings among Gileses at Home and Abroad
(London, 1910)
I. Atkins: The Early Occupants of the Office of Organist and Master of the
Choristers of the Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Virgin
Mary, Worcester (Worcester, 1918)
H.N. Hillebrand: The Child Actors: a Chapter in Elizabethan Stage History
(Urbana, IL, 1926)
E.H. Fellowes: Organists and Masters of the Choristers of St. George’s
Chapel in Windsor Castle (London and Windsor, 1939, 2/1979 with
addenda by M.F. Bond)
E.H. Fellowes: The Vicars or Minor Canons of His Majesty’s Free Chapel
of St. George in Windsor Castle (Windsor, 1945)
J. BUNKER CLARK
Gilfry, Rodney
(b Covina, CA, 11 March 1959). American baritone. He made his European
début in 1986 at Hamburg as Mozart's Figaro. After singing Demetrius (A
Midsummer Night's Dream) at Los Angeles in 1988, he returned in roles
that included the four villains (Les contes d'Hoffmann), Mozart's and
Rossini's Figaro, Orestes (Elektra), Ford, Papageno, Guglielmo, Don
Giovanni (of which he has made a vivid recording under Gardiner) and
Malatesta. In 1988 he also sang Petya in Liebermann's La forêt at
Schwetzingen and, in 1989, Lescaut (Manon) and Otho (L'incoronazione di
Poppea) at Geneva. From 1990 he has appeared regularly at Zürich,
where he has undertaken such roles as Mercutio (Roméo et Juliette),
Ernesto (Il pirata), Massenet's Herod, and Ford. Gilfry's other parts have
included the title role in the US première of Wolfgang Rihm's Oedipus at
Santa Fe (1991), Olivier (Capriccio) at Chicago (1994) and Valentin (Faust)
in San Francisco (1995). He made his Metropolitan début as Demetrius in
1996. His strong lyric baritone and fine stage presence make him an ideal
Billy Budd, a role he sang at Geneva (1994) and for his débuts at Covent
Garden (1995) and the Opéra Bastille (1996).
ELIZABETH FORBES
Le souvenir, 3vv, attrib. Arnulfus G, I-Rvat C.G.XIII.27, ed. in A. Atlas: The Cappella
Giulia Chansonnier (New York, 1975–6)
O invida fortuna, 3vv, Fn Magl.XIX.176, ed. in D'Accone, 1970
Piangeran gli occhi mey, 3vv, Fn Magl.XIX.176, ed. in D'Accone, 1970
Sena vetus, 4vv, Sas, ed. in Luciani and D'Accone, 1997
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S.A. Luciani: La musica a Siena (Siena, 1942), 33–43
A. Seay: ‘The Dialogus Johannis Ottobi Anglici in arte musica’, JAMS, viii
(1955), 86–99, esp. 92
H.M. Brown: Music in the French Secular Theater, 1400–1550
(Cambridge, MA, 1963), 134–5
F.A. D'Accone: ‘Some Neglected Composers in the Florentine Chapels’,
Viator, i (1970), 263–88, esp. 264–71
W.F. Prizer: ‘Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Rés. Vm.7 676 and Music in
Mantua’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, 235–9
F.A. D'Accone: The Civic Muse: Music and Musicians in Siena During the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Chicago, 1997)
FRANK A. D'ACCONE
Stage: 4 operas, Masken, 1845, Abraham, 1854, Lamech med svärdet, 1855, inc.,
Allt för kungen, 1872; incid music for Douglas, 1856
Other vocal: Guds lof, orat; 9 masses, incl. no.7, A (Stockholm, 1863); Requiem, c,
chorus, 3vv, orch, 1851; Te Deum, chorus, org, acc., 1864; Konung Davids 51.
psalm, solo vv, chorus, orch; Stabat mater, 1844; secular cants., incl. Höstjakten
[Autumn Hunt], male vv, orch, 1846, songs
Orch: 5 syms. incl. Midsommar Festen Symphonie, F, op.29, perf. 1850, Populär
Symphonie, G; Conc.-Ouverture, e; Ouverture, D, op.60
Other inst: 5 str qts, 4 pf trios, pf sextet, duos, vn, pf; pf works incl. 3 sonatas; org
works incl. 3 sonatas
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SBL (A. Lönn)
F.A. Dahlgren: Förteckning öfver svenska skådespel uppförda på
Stockholms theatrar 1737–1863 (Stockholm, 1866)
O. Morales and T. Norlind: Kungliga musikaliska akademien 1771–1921
(Stockholm, 1921)
C.-A. Moberg: Kyrkomusikens historia (Stockholm, 1932)
Å. Lellky: Musikaliska konstföreningen 1859–1959 (Stockholm, 1959)
ANDERS LÖNN
Edition:Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete and Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler,
CMM, cvii (1997)
Abbreviations: (V) etc. indicates a MS (using Schwan sigla: see Sources, ms) containing a
late setting of a poem; when the letter appears in italics, the original setting cannot be
identified with certainty.
Gilles, Jean
(b Tarascon, nr Avignon, 8 Jan 1668; d Toulouse, 5 Feb 1705). French
composer. The son of an illiterate labourer, Gilles enrolled on 6 May 1679
in the choir school of the Cathedral of St Sauveur at Aix-en-Provence. His
teacher was Guillaume Poitevin, who also taught a number of Provence’s
other most reputable composers, including Campra and Blanchard. In 1687
Gilles left the boys’ choir but continued in the service of the cathedral. On 5
November 1688, at Poitevin’s request, he shared the positions of sous-
maître and organist with another student, Jacques Cabassol. Poitevin
retired on 4 May 1693 and Gilles succeeded him as maître de musique.
But despite an increase in his salary and several remunerative privileges
his action in April 1695 in leaving without notice to become maître de
musique of Agde Cathedral indicates that he was dissatisfied with his lot at
Aix.
He soon attracted the attention of the Bishop of Rieux, who wanted him to
succeed Campra as maître de musique of the Cathedral of St Etienne at
Toulouse, although the position had recently been given to Michel Farinel.
Farinel, for unknown reasons, left Toulouse in November 1697, and on 18
December 1697 Gilles, who was in Toulouse at the time, was appointed to
direct the choir school.
In 1701 the Duke of Burgundy and the duc de Berry, grandsons of Louis
XIV, visited Toulouse with great ceremony. Four of Gilles’s motets,
including Diligam te, Domine, were performed with applause during the
celebrations. With the attention this event brought him, Gilles’s reputation
grew, and in July 1701 he was offered the directorship of the choir school
at Notre Dame des Doms, Avignon. Evidently he agreed to accept, and
Rameau was appointed to deputize until he arrived, but although Gilles
may have spent a short time at Avignon he never left his post at Toulouse.
He renewed his contract there for four years on 3 December 1701 and the
chapter records show that he was still there when he died (there is no
evidence to support suggestions that he died in Avignon).
In the 18th century Gilles’s Messe des morts became one of the most
famous works in all France. According to M.A. Laugier's Sentiment d’un
harmoniphile (Amsterdam, 1756), ‘Today there is seldom a funeral service
with music (meloyl) without a performance of Gilles’s mass’. It was
performed at services for Rameau in 1764 and for Louis XV ten years later.
It was praised by many critics, including Mattheson, who called it ‘one of
the most beautiful of musical works’.
With the motets of Lalande, Gilles’s Requiem and the motets Diligam te
and Beatus quem elegisti remained popular at the Concert Spirituel during
the first three-quarters of the 18th century. Diligam te remained in the
repertory of the royal chapel at Versailles until the fall of the monarchy in
1792.
Gilles’s motets are constructed on the same principles as Lalande’s, that is
in the form of the Versailles grand motet. Like Lalande’s, his orchestra is
relatively independent of the chorus. His harmony is less dissonant than
Lalande’s; he made less use of 7ths. His fast movements often suggest
dance rhythms, with frequent use of hemiola in those in triple time. His
motets show his early maturity, and his earliest surviving works
demonstrate exceptional expression and pathos, particularly the
Lamentations (probably dating from 1692), which constitute one of the few
choral settings for Holy Week by a French composer.
The choral writing in Gilles’s later works shows a convincing balance
between polyphony and homophonic declamation. His well crafted and
expressive fugal choruses usually contribute substantially to the overall
structure of his works. In the Messe des morts, for example, after a pattern
alternating polyphony with homophonic, dance-like textures, the fugal
‘Requiem aeternam’ crowns a polyphonic development that has been
unfolding throughout the work. In the Te Deum of 1697 two choral fugues
(‘Te per orbem’ and ‘Aeterna fac’) frame an arresting trio, ‘Tu devicto mortis’
for three basses-tailles, which forms the centre of a completely symmetrical
11-movement structure. A similar design is found in the seven-movement
Cantate Jordanis incolae.
The works identified as petis motets in two anthologies are known, or
presumed, to be from larger works by Gilles; Afferte Domine and
Cantemus Domine in the Recueil de mottets (F-Pc Rés.1899), however,
are from grands motets by Lalande. Gilles undoubtedly composed petis
motets, but none has survived in its original form.
WORKS
Messe en D, 5vv, bc, F-Pc
Messe des morts, B , 5vv, str, bc (Paris, 1764), with carillon added at the end of the
mass by Mr Corrette; ed. L. Boulay and J. Prim (Paris, 1958); ed. in RRMBE, xlv
(1984)
Grands motets, soloists, chorus (4 or 5vv), bc, most with str, some with wind
(fls/obs/hns): Beatus quem elegisti: Benedictus Dominus Deus meus; Cantate
Jordanis incolae; Diligam te, Domine, ed. in Hajdu, 1973; Dixit Dominus; Dixit
Dominus (‘très court’); Domine Deus meus; Laetatus sum; Laudate nomen Domine;
Paratum cor meum; Te Deum, 1697, ed. H.A. Durand (Paris, 1962); Trois
Lamentations ?1692, ed. M. Prada (Béziers, 1987); Velum templi scissum est;
AIXmc, C, Pc, Pn, US-Wc
Petits motets (taken from grands motets) in Recueil de mottets à une et deux voix,
Pc, Rés.1899, 7 ed. G. Morche, Le pupitre, 1v (1975): Beatus quem elegisti;
Cantate Jordanis; Cantus dent uberes; Diligam te, Domine; Domine salvum fac
regem; Dominus illuminatio; Salve virgo florens; Usquequo Domine
Petits motets (taken from grands motets) in Recits et duo de Msr De La Lande et de
quelques autres maitres, 1v, bc, MS dated 1765 in Pn, Vm 13123: Beatus quem
elegisti; Diligam te, Domine; Dominus Deus meus; Laudans invocabo; O res
mirabilis; Pinguescent specio; Qui tollis peccata mundi; Te decet
Laudate Dominum in sanctis ejus (doubtful), AlXmc
Lost, cited in Signorile: Messe en G; Salvum me fac
Others lost (listed by Bougerel) include the grands motets: Beatus vir qui timet
Dominum; Cantus dent uberes; Deus, judicium tuum regi (2 settings); Deus,
venerunt gentes; Jubilate Deo; Magnificat (3 settings); Quemadmodum desiderat
cervus; and the motets ‘sans symphonie’: Beatus vir qui non abiit; Benedicam
Dominum; Benedic, anima mea; Confitebor tibi; Cum invocarem; Custodi me,
Domine: Dominus illuminatio mea; Judica, Domine; Lauda, anima mea, Dominum;
Saepe expugnaverunt me
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrenetC
HawkinsH
J. Bougerel: Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de plusieurs hommes
illustres de Provence (Paris, 1752), 299ff
P.-L. d’Aquin: Lettres sur les hommes célèbres … sous le règne de Louis
XV (Paris, 1752)
T. Nisard [Abbé Normand]: Monographie de Jean Gilles (Paris, 1866)
E. Marbot: Gilles – Cabassol – Campra (Aix-en-Provence, 1903)
L. de La Laurencie: ‘Notes sur la jeunesse d’André Campra’, SIMG, x
(1908–9), 159–258
H.-A. Durand: ‘Sur une prétendue Messe des morts de Gilles et Campra’,
RdM, xlv (1960), 86–9
P. Verwijmeren: ‘Jean Gilles, een herontdekt componist’, Mens en
melodie, xix (1964), 82–5
J. Robert: ‘Maîtres de chapelle à Avignon, 1610–1715’, RdM, li (1965),
149–65, esp. 152
J.H. Hajdu: The Life and Works of Jean Gilles (1668–1705) (diss., U. of
Colorado, 1973)
J.H. Hajdu: ‘Jean Gilles (1668–1705): a Biography’, Musicology at the
University of Colorado, ed. W. Kearns (Boulder, CO, 1977), 80–94
J. Hajdu: Introduction to Jean Gilles: Messe des morts, RRMBE, xlvii
(1984), i–xx
M. Prada: Jean Gilles: l’homme et l’oeuvre (Béziers, 1986)
M. Signorile: Musique et société: le modèle d’Arles à l’époque de
l'absolutisme (Geneva and Paris, 1993), 247, 272
JOHN HAJDU HEYER
Gilles le Vinier.
See Le Vinier, Gilles.
Bebop (1945, Manor); Groovin’ High (1945, Guild); Hot House (1945, Guild); Salt
Peanuts (1945, Guild), collab. K. Clarke; A Night in Tunisia (1946, Vic.);
Anthropology (1946, Vic.), collab. C. Parker; Manteca (1947, Vic.), collab. G.
Fuller and C. Pozo; Woody ’n’ You (1947, Vic.); Birks Works (1951, Dee Gee);
Con Alma (from Duets with Sonny Rollins and Sonny Stitt; 1957, Verve)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Feather: Inside Be-Bop (New York, 1949/R1977 as Inside Jazz), 19–32
R.O. Boyer: ‘Bop: a Profile of Dizzy’, Eddie Condon’s Treasury of Jazz, ed.
E. Condon and R. Gehman (London, 1957), 223–38
M. James: Dizzy Gillespie (London, 1959); repr. in Kings of Jazz, ed. S.
Green (South Brunswick, NJ, 1978), 175–207
M. James: Ten Modern Jazzmen (London, 1960), 27–38
G. Hoefer: ‘The Glorious Dizzy Gillespie Orchestra’, Down Beat, xxxiii/8
(1966), 27–30, 47 only
J. Burns: ‘Dizzy Gillespie: the Early 1950s’, JJ, xxii (1969), no.1, p.2 only
J. Burns: ‘Early Birks’, JJ, xxiv/3 (1971), 18–23, 40 only
J. Burns: ‘Dizzy Gillespie: 1945–50’, JJ, xxv/1 (1972), 12–14
L. Feather: ‘Diz’, From Satchmo to Miles (New York, 1972/R), 147–70
R. Wang: ‘Jazz Circa 1945: a Confluence of Styles’, MQ, lix (1973), 531–
46
R.J. Gleason: Celebrating the Duke, and Louis, Bessie, Billie, Bird,
Carmen, Miles, Dizzy, and other Heroes (Boston, 1975)
S. Dance: The World of Earl Hines (New York, 1977) [interviews]
D. Gillespie and A. Fraser: To be, or not … to Bop: Memoirs(Garden City,
NY, 1979/R)
J. Evensmo: The Trumpets of Dizzy Gillespie, 1937–1943, Irving
Randolph, Joe Thomas (Oslo, c1982) [discography]
R. Horricks: Dizzy Gillespie and the Be-Bop Revolution (Tunbridge Wells,
1984) [incl. discography by T. Middleton]
P. Koster and C. Sellers: Dizzy Gillespie, i: 1937–1953 (Amsterdam,1985)
[discography]
J. Woelfer: Dizzy Gillespie: sein Leben, seine Musik, seine Schallplatten
(Waakirchen, nr Bad Tölz, 1987)
B. McRae: Dizzy Gillespie: His Life and Times (New York, 1988)
L. Clarke and F. Verdun: Dizzy atmosphere: conversations avec Dizzy
Gillespie (Arles, 1990)
G. Lees: Waiting for Dizzy (New York and Oxford, 1991)
W. Enstice and P. Rubin: Jazz Spoken Here: Conversations with Twenty-
Two Musicians (Baton Rouge, LA, 1992/R)
G. Giddins: ‘Dizzy Like a Fox’, Faces in the Crowd: Players and Writers
(New York, 1992), 176–87
L. Tanner, ed.: Dizzy: John Birks Gillespie in his 75th Year (San Francisco,
1994)
T. Owens: Bebop: the Music and its Players (New York, 1995)
S. DeVeaux: The Birth of Bebop: a Social and Musical History (Berkeley
and London, 1997)
A. Shipton: Groovin’ High: the Life of Dizzy Gillespie (New York, 1999)
THOMAS OWENS
Gillet, Georges(-Vital-Victor)
(b Louvier, 17 May 1854; d Paris, 9 Feb 1920). French oboist and teacher.
He studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Charles Colin, receiving his
premier prix in 1869. His orchestral positions included the Théâtre Italien
(1872–4), Concerts Colonne (1872–6), Société des Concerts du
Conservatoire (1876–99) and the Opéra-Comique (1878–95). From 1879
he also played for 15 years with the Société de Musique de Chambre pour
Instruments à Vent, with which he took part in many premières, including
Gounod's Petite symphonie and the Lefebvre Suites. In 1881 he became
the youngest-ever professor at the Paris Conservatoire, a position which
allowed him to exercise considerable influence on the development and
technique of his instrument until his retirement in 1919. He was responsible
for the establishment of the Triébert model A6 as the Système du
Conservatoire, and his Etudes pour l'enseignement supérieur du hautbois
have become a staple part of the oboist's practice routine. In 1904 he was
made a member of the Légion d'Honneur. The most famous for his
students were Louis Bas, Louis Bleuzet, Georges Longy, Marcel Tabuteau,
Alfred Bartel, Pierre Mathieu, and his nephew Fernand Gillet (1882–1980),
who was principal oboe in the Boston SO from 1925 to 1946 and taught at
the New England Conservatory in Boston, and in Montreal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Northrup: ‘Fernand Gillet’, The World's Oboists, v/2 (1975), 1–6
L. Storch: ‘Georges Gillet, Master Performer and Teacher’, Journal of the
International Double Reed Society, v (1977), 1–19
L. Storch: ‘The Georges Gillet Etudes: a Little-Known Early Edition’, The
Double Reed, viii/2 (1983), 134–8
T. Margelli: ‘The Paris Conservatoire Concours Oboe Solos: the Gillet
Years (1882–1919)’, Journal of the International Double Reed Society,
xxiv (1996), 41–55
GEOFFREY BURGESS
Gillier, Jean-Claude
(b Paris, 1667; d Paris, 30 May 1737). French composer. He entered the
choir school at Notre Dame in 1674 under the instruction of Jean Mignon.
He was in Amsterdam sometime around 1690, but had returned to Paris by
1692. In 1693 he was appointed basse de violon player in the orchestra of
the Comédie-Française, a post he held for 30 years. By 1694 he was
working for the playwright Regnard and until 1717, when he stopped
writing for the Comédie-Française, he collaborated with several authors,
notably F.-C. Dancourt with whom he worked on many productions, both for
the Comédie-Française and for aristocratic entertainments. Apparently the
plays of Regnard and Dancourt, with Gillier’s music, together with Molière’s
dramas, provided the aging Louis XIV with what little entertainment he
permitted himself. From 1713 onwards, Gillier was involved in the
productions of the Théâtres de la Foire, working extensively with Lesage
and other popular playwrights, including Fuzelier, D’Orneval and Favart; he
was concerned in some musical capacity with over 70 plays up to 1735. He
may have made several visits to England: his Collection of New Songs …
Sett to Musick by Mr. Gillier was published in London about 1698, he
provided two songs for William Burnaby’s The Ladies’ Visiting-day, given in
1701, took part in a concert in York Buildings in 1703, and wrote the music
for Farquhar’s The [Beaux] Stratagem in 1707; a later visit, between 1716
and 1727, is supported by the publication of a Recueil d’airs … serieux et à
boire … composé en Angleterre … en MDCCXXIII, and by a record of
payment from Lincoln’s Inn Fields to ‘Mr Gillier of the Musick for a Hand
Organ used in Proserpine’ during the 1726–7 season (probably The Rape
of Proserpine by Lewis Theobald). Despite Gillier’s large output, and his
long period in the public eye, his career is little documented and his death
went largely unremarked. But his collaborators Lesage and D’Orneval paid
enthusiastic tributes to his fame, talents and devotion in the 1722 edition of
Le Théâtre de la Foire, which included as an appendix the music to the
plays published.
The tone of Gillier’s work at both theatres seems to have been one of
cautious innovation. His first commission with Regnard, La sérénade,
involved simply the overhauling of once-used airs; but there was a public
demand for music with plays, and instrumental sections were increasingly
used. The addition of prologues to old plays gave opportunity for newly
composed music, as did the divertissements often added after the final
acts. The format of the plays written for the fairs was less amenable to new
music. The vaudeville, with new words set to a well-known tune, was the
staple fare, and it was the musician’s job to find a tune appropriate to the
new words, possibly to orchestrate it, and to direct its performance. Much
of the entertainment lay in the skill with which familiar tunes were adapted
to new situations: a double entendre could be implied by the choice of a
tune whose original first line (or timbre) would conflict with the new words.
Dialogue songs were effective in this respect. In La princesse de Carizme
(Lesage, 1718) Harlequin and the Prince converse, with alternating lines of
the same tune, outside an asylum, while three inmates interrupt, each with
his own timbre; the effect is of a jigsaw of familiar tunes, made incongruous
by juxtaposition.
One of Gillier’s main contributions was the introduction of an increasing
proportion of new music. As in the plays for the Comédie-Française, there
was opportunity for original composition in the divertissements, and in the
vaudeville finale. His tunes are folklike and easily singable. His
orchestration is mainly restricted to strings, though music for special
occasions or depicting an exotic situation may demand larger or more
varied forces. When Les musettes de Suresnes (possibly a revised version
of the Dancourt play Les vendanges de Suresnes, given at the Comédie-
Française in 1695) was given at Lyons in 1710 between 15 and 25
separate parts were required, while the parody of Télémaque given in 1715
required eight violins, one contrabass, flute, oboe, bassoon, two horns and
harpsichord. This was the most ambitious orchestration yet attempted at
the Théâtre de la Foire; Gillier’s normal restraint may be attributed more to
the restrictions imposed by the Opéra on other theatres than to any lack of
imagination.
Gillier had an elder brother Pierre (b Paris, 1665), sometimes known as
‘Gillier l’aîné’ while Jean-Claude was called ‘le jeune’; a pupil of Michel
Lambert, Pierre held a musical appointment in the royal household and by
1691 was established as a singing teacher. He published a collection Livre
d’airs de symphonies meslez de quelques fragmens d’opéra (1697), and
songs in Ballard collections between 1699 and 1713. A son of Jean-
Claude, known as ‘Gillier le fils’, was a bass player in the Comédie-
Française orchestra and collaborated with playwrights and the Opéra-
Comique in the 1720s and 30s; he may have contributed music to the
plays Le bouquet de roy and Les deux suivantes (both given at the Foire St
Laurent, 1730) and L’Europe et la Paix, and he wrote songs which were
published in the Mercure de France. A Gillier known as ‘the younger’ was
active in London about the middle of the century; this may be ‘le fils’, but
proof of any relationship to the other Gilliers is lacking. He was an
instrumental composer, publishing eight trio sonatas and a concerto
(London, 1755) and, as his opp.2 and 3, two sets of harpsichord lessons.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MARY HUNTER
Gillier, Jean-Claude
WORKS
performed in Paris and all printed works published there; all works for the Théâtres de la
Foire published in A.-R. Lesage and D’Orneval: Le Théâtre de la Foire (Paris, 1721–37)
unless otherwise stated. Vocal parts of music to plays by Dancourt published in Le
Théâtre de M. Dancourt (Paris, 1760).
com comédie
CF Comédie-Francaise
SG Foire St Germain
SL Foire St Laurent
B Recueil d’airs sérieux et à boire (Paris, 1698–1724)
R Airs de la Comédie française (Paris, 1704–13)
dramatic
La sérénade (J.F. Regnard), CF, 3 June 1694, airs in 3e Recueil d’airs des
comédies modernes (1706)
La foire des Bezons (F.-C. Dancourt), CF, 13 Aug 1695, airs (1696), vaudeville ‘Au
bon papa d’une fillette’, in Mercure de France (Oct 1735)
Les vendanges de Suresnes (Dancourt), CF, 15 Oct 1695, airs (1700)
Le bal (Regnard), CF, 14 June 1696
La Foire St Germain (Dancourt), CF, 19 Jan 1696, airs in Airs de la Comédie italien
(1696) and R (1704–5)
Le moulin de Javelle (Dancourt), CF, 7 July 1696, airs (1696)
Les eaux de Bourbon (Dancourt), CF, 4 Oct 1696, divertissement (1697)
Amphion (op, 3), 1696, F-Pn
Les vacances (Dancourt), CF, 31 Oct 1696
Le charivary (Dancourt), CF, 19 Sept 1697, airs (1697)
Le retour des officiers (Dancourt), CF, 19 Oct 1697, airs, divertissement, symphonie
(1698)
Les plaisirs de l’amour et de Bacchus (idylle), 1697, F-Pn
Les curieux de Compiègne (Dancourt), CF, 4 Oct 1698, airs and full score (1698)
Le mary retrouvé (Dancourt), CF, 29 Oct 1698, airs (1699) and in B (1698)
Les festes du cour (com, prol, 1, Dancourt), CF, 1699, rev. 5 Sept 1714, prol and
divertissements (n.d.), airs (1714)
La noce interrompue (C. Dufresny), CF, 1699, cited in MGG1
Le vert-galant (com, 1, Dancourt), CF, 1699, rev. 24 Oct 1714
L’hymenée royale (divertissement, S.-J. Pellegrin), ‘présenté à la Reyne des
Romains’, 1699 (1699)
La fête de village (com, 3, Dancourt), CF, 13 July 1700, prol and airs in B (1700),
rev. as Les Bourgeoises de qualité, CF, 25 Sept 1724
Les trois cousines (com, prol, 3, Dancourt), CF, 18 Oct 1700, prol in B (1700), airs
in R (1704–5)
Les trois gascons (com, 1, N. Boindin), CF, 4 June 1701, music also attrib. N.R. de
Grandval
Colin-Maillard (com, 1, Dancourt), CF, 28 Oct 1701, airs (n.d.), and in R (1704–5)
The Ladies’ Visiting-day (com, W. Burnaby), London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 1701;
only 2 songs by Gillier, ‘Chloe is divinely fair’, ‘For mighty love’s unerring dart’
(London, c1701)
Le bal d’Auteuil (com, prol, 3, Boindin), CF, 22 Aug 1702, music also attrib.
Grandval
L’opérateur Bary (com, prol, 1, Dancourt), CF, 11 Oct 1702, ?lib (1702), airs in B
(1702)
Le mari sans femme (com, 1, Montfleury), CF, 1702, airs in R (?1702)
L’inconnu (Dancourt), CF, 1703, divertissements (n.d.), airs, collab. M.A.
Charpentier, in B (1703)
Les amants magnifiques (Dancourt), CF, 1703, airs in R (1704–5)
Les aggréments de Psiché de village, CF, 1704, cited in MGG1
Les folies amoureuses (com, prol, 3, Regnard), CF, 15 Jan 1704, divertissements
and symphonies générales in R (1704–5)
Le port de mer (com, 1, Boindin), CF, 27 May 1704, music also attrib. Grandval, airs
and closing vaudeville in B (1704)
Le galant jardinier (com, 1, Dancourt), CF, 22 Oct 1704, airs in R (1704–5)
Le médecin de village (com, 1, ?Romanet), CF, 1704, divertissement (n.d.), airs in
R (1704–5)
Circé (tragédie à machines, ?Dancourt), CF, 1705 [revival]
L’impromptu de Livry (comédie-ballet, 1, Dancourt), Livry-le-Château, 12 Aug 1705,
airs (1705)
Le divertissement de Sceaux (comédie-ballet, Dancourt), Château de Sceaux, 3
Sept 1705
The [Beaux] Stratagem (G. Farquhar), London, Queen’s Theatre, 8 March 1707
(London, c1707)
Le diable boiteux (com, prol, 1, divertissement, Dancourt), pt.i (prol, 1), CF, 1 Oct
1707, pt.ii (prol, 2), CF, 20 Oct 1707, ?lib (1707), airs (1708), music also attrib.
Grandval
L’Amour diable (com, 1, M.-A. Legrand), CF, 30 June 1708, ?lib (1708)
La famille extravagante ou Les proverbes (com, 1, Legrand), CF, 20 Sept 1709,
music also attrib. Grandval, ?lib (1709), divertissement (n.d.)
L’amant masqué (com, 1, Dufresny), CF, 8 Aug 1709
La Foire St Laurent (com, 1, Legrand), CF, 20 Sept 1709, music also attrib.
Grandval
La joueuse (com, 5, divertissements, Dufresny), CF, 22 Oct 1709
Le naufrage, ou La pompe funèbre de Crispin (com, 1, Lafont), CF, 14 June 1710, ?
lib (1710)
L’Amour charlatan (Dancourt), CF, 1710, ?lib (1710), divertissements (1710)
Céphale et Procris (com, prol, 3, Dancourt), CF, 27 Oct 1711, divertissements (n.d.)
Sancho Pança gouverneur (com, 5, Dancourt), CF, 15 Nov 1712, ?lib (1713)
Arlequin, roi de Serendib (pièce, 3, A.-R. Lesage), SG, 3 Feb 1713
L’impromptu de Suresne (comédie-ballet, prol, 1, Dancourt), Suresnes, 21 May
1713, prol and divertissements (1718)
Arlequin Thétis (1, Lesage, parody of B.L. de Fontanelle: Thétis et Pelée), SL, 25
July 1713
Arlequin invisible chez le roi de Chine (pièce, 1, Lesage), SL, 30 July 1713
Arlequin Mahomet (pièce, 1, Lesage), SL, 25 Sept 1714
Le tombeau de Nostradamus (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 25 Sept 1714
La foire de Guibray (prologue en vaudevilles, Lesage), SL, 25 ?Sept 1714
Arlequin sultane favorite (oc, 3, J.-F. Letellier), SG, 3 Feb 1715
Arlequin défenseur d’Homère (oc, 1, L. Fuzelier), SL, 25 July 1715
Colombine Arlequin et Arlequin Colombine (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 25 July 1715
Les eaux de Merlin (oc, prol, 1, Lesage), SL, 25 July 1715
Le temple du destin (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 27 July 1715
La ceinture de Venus (oc, 2, Lesage), SG, 1715
Télémaque (1, Lesage, parody of Pellegrin: Télémaque), SG, 1715
Le temple de l’ennui (Lesage and Fuzelier), SG, 3 Feb 1716
L’école des amants (oc, 1, Lesage), SG, 3 Feb 1716
Le tableau du mariage (oc, 1, Lesage), SG, 3 Feb 1716
Arlequin traitant (oc, 3, D’Orneval), SG, 27 March 1716
Le triple mariage (com, 1, P.-N. Destouches), CF, 7 July 1716, airs, divertissement
(1716)
Le Pharaon (oc, 1, Fuzelier), SG, 20 Feb 1717
Le métempsicose des amours ou Les dieux comédiens (com, prol, 3, Dancourt),
CF, 17 Dec 1717, ?lib (1718); as La métempsicose, perf. for Prince de Conti, 1718
(1718)
Les animaux raisonnables (1, Fuzelier and M.-A. LeGrand), SG, 25/27 Feb 1718;
collab. J. Aubert
Le monde renversé (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 2 April 1718
La querelle des théâtres (Lesage), SL, July 1718
La princesse de Carizme (oc, 3, Lesage), SL, July 1718, music also attrib. Lacoste
Les amours de Nanterre (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 1718
Les funerailles de la foire (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 1718
Le jugement de Paris (Lesage, parody of Pellegrin: Le jugement de Paris), SL, 1718
L’île des Amazones (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 1720
La statue merveilleuse (oc, 3, Lesage), SL, 1720
La forêt de Dodone (oc, 1, Lesage, Fuzelier and D’Orneval), SG, 3 Feb 1721
Arlequin Endymion (pièce, 1, Fuzelier), SG, Feb 1721
Le rappel de la foire à la vie (oc, 1, Lesage, Fuzelier and D’Orneval), SL, 1 Sept
1721
Le régiment de la calotte (oc, 1, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 1 Sept 1721,
collab. Aubert
Pierrot Romulus ou Le ravisseur poli (oc, 1, Fuzelier), SG, 3 Feb 1722
Le remouleur d’amour (oc, 1, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SG, 3 Feb 1722
L’ombre du cocher poète (Fuzelier), 1722
Les dieux à la foire (Fuzelier), 1723
Les trois commères (A. Piron), 1723
Le mariage du caprice et de la folie (oc, 1, A. Piron), SL, 16 Aug 1724
L’enchanteur mirliton (Fuzelier), SL, 21 July 1725
Les enragés (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, 21 July 1725
Les noces de la folie ou Le temple de mémoire (oc, 1, Fuzelier), SL, 21 July 1725
Les pèlerins de la Mecque (oc, 3, Lesage), SL, 29 July 1726
Les comédiens corsaires (Fuzelier), SL, 20 Sept 1726
La gran’mère amoureuse (pièce, 3, Fuzelier, parody of P. Quinault: Atys), SG, 1726
L’amante retrouvée (oc, 1, F. de Largillière), SL, 6 Aug 1727 (1728)
Sancho Pança gouverneur ou La bagatelle (oc, prol, 2, Thierry), SL, 28 Aug 1727,
unpubd, F-Pn [?lib only]
Achmet et Almanzine (oc, 3, Lesage, Fuzelier and D’Orneval), SL, 30 June 1728
La Pénélope moderne (oc, 2, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 6 Sept 1728
Les amours de Protée (Fuzelier), 1728
La reine du Barostan (oc, 1, Lesage and D’Orneval), SG, ?8 Feb 1729
Les couplets en proces (Lesage and D’Orneval), SG, 18 Feb 1729; rev. as La
Basoche du Parnasse (oc, 1), SL, 6 Sept 1738
Argénie (oc, 3, C.-F. Pannard and F.-C.B. de Pontau), SG, 26 Feb 1729, unpubd
Le corsaire de Sale (oc, 1, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 20 Aug 1729
Les spectacles malades (Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 20 Aug 1729
L’impromptu du Pont-Neuf (oc, 1, Pannard, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 9 Sept
1729, 2 vaudevilles, ‘Au jardin de Versailles’, ‘Plein d’une ardeur extrême’, in
Mercure de France (Sept 1729)
La princesse de Chine (oc, 3, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 1729, music also attrib.
Lacoste, couplet ‘Ma foy! di diamantine’ in Mercure de France (June 1729)
Le malade par complaisance (oc, 3, Fuzelier, Pontau and Pannard), SG, 3 Feb
1730
L’Opéra-comique assiègé (oc, 1, Lesage and D’Orneval), SG, 26 March 1730
L’industrie (Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 27 June 1730
Les routes du monde (oc, 1, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 27 June 1730
Zémire et Almazore (oc, 1, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 27 June 1730
L’amour marin (oc, 1, Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 5 Sept 1730
L’espérance (oc, 1, Fuzelier), SL, 5 Sept 1730
L’indifférence (Fuzelier, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 5 Sept 1730
Roger de Sicile, surnommé le roi sans chagrin (oc, 3, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL,
28 July 1731
La nièce vengée ou Les petits comédiens (oc, prol, 1, Pannard and B.-C. Fagan),
SL, 27 Aug 1731 (St Laurent, 1750)
L’acte pantomime ou La comédie sans paroles (Pannard), SG, 13 Feb 1732
Les désespérées (Lesage), SL, 7 July 1732
Sophie et Sigismund (oc, 1, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 7 July 1732
La sauvagesse (oc, 1, Lesage and D’Orneval), SL, 7 July 1732
La reveil de l’Opéra-Comique (D. Carolet), SL, 18 Aug 1732
La lanterne magique ou Le Mississippi du diable (oc, 3, Carolet), SL, 19 Aug 1732
(St Laurent, 1732) [?lib only]
Le parterre merveilleux (Carolet), SL, 19 Aug 1732
Le rival de lui-même (oc, 1, Carolet), SL, 19 Aug 1732
La mère jalouse (oc, 1, Carolet), SL, 19 Sept 1732
L’allure (oc, 1, Carolet), SL, 27 Sept 1732 (1732)
La comédie sans hommes (Pannard), 1732
Les mariages du Canada (oc, 1, Lesage), SL, July 1734
La première représentation (Lesage), SL, July 1734
La répétition interrompue ou Le petit-maître malgré lui (oc, 1, C.-S. Favart, Pannard
and Fagan), SL, 6 Aug 1735, rev. SG, 14 March 1757, vaudeville ‘Mars et l’Amour
en tous lieux’, in Mercure de France (Aug 1735); music in Le Théâtre de Pannard
(Paris, 1763)
La foire de Bezons (ballet-pantomime, 1, Favart), SL, 11 Sept 1735
Le mari préféré (Lesage), 1736
L’art et la nature (Pontau), 1737
other vocal
A Collection of New Songs: with a Thorowbass to Each Song, 1v,
hpd/theorbo/lute/spinet (London, 1698)
Recueil d’airs françois, sérieux et à boire … composé en Angleterre (London, 1723)
Musick made for the Queens Theatre (?London, n.d.)
Songs pubd separately and in 18th-century anthologies
Benedictus, 4vv, insts, D-DS, cited in EitnerQ
Gillier, Jean-Claude
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (M. Briquet)
F. and C. Parfaict: Histoire du théâtre françois depuis son origine jusqu’à
present (Paris, 1734–49/R)
E. Campardon: Les spectacles de la Foire (Paris, 1877/R)
G. Cucuel: Les créateurs de l’opéra-comique français (Paris, 1914)
C.D. Brenner: A Bibliographical List of Plays in the French Language,
1700–89 (Berkeley, 1947, 2/1979)
C.R. Barnes: ‘Instruments and Instrumental Music at the “Théâtres de la
Foire” (1697–1762)’, RMFC, v (1965), 142–68
C.R. Barnes: ‘Vocal Music at the “Théâtres de la Foire” 1697–1762, I:
Vaudeville’, RMFC, viii (1968), 141–60
M. Benoit and N. Dufourcq: ‘Documents du Minutier central’, RMFC, ix
(1969), 216–38
M. Benoit: Versailles et les musiciens du roi, 1661–1733 (Paris, 1971)
Gillis, Don
(b Cameron, MO, 17 June 1912; d Columbia, SC, 10 Jan 1978). American
composer. He was trained in music at Texas Christian University (BA and
BM) and later studied at North Texas State University (MM 1943). After a
year as production director for NBC radio in Chicago, he was transferred in
1944 to New York, where he was a producer and also composed,
conducted and wrote radio scripts (for, among other programmes, the NBC
SO broadcasts under Toscanini). From 1958 to 1961 Gillis was vice-
president of the National Music Camp at Interlochen, Michigan. After
serving as chairman of the music department at Southern Methodist
University (1967–8) and chairman of fine arts and director of media
instruction at Dallas Baptist College (1968–72), he was appointed
composer-in-residence and director of the institute for media arts at the
University of South Carolina (1973–8).
Although he composed widely, if conservatively, in traditional genres, Gillis
often based his music on American subject matter and popular and
traditional musical source materials. But he was best known as a delver
into wit and whimsy: as early as 1937, in The Woolyworm and Thoughts
Provoked on Becoming a Prospective Papa, both for orchestra, he
revealed a jocular bent, which was turned almost full circle in the highly
successful ‘symphony for fun’, Symphony no.5½ (1947), one of the few
American works ever performed by Toscanini; it was also choreographed
for the Festival Ballet, London, under the direction of Dorati. A number of
his works for band have become staples in the repertory. He is the author
of The Unfinished Symphony Conductor (1967) and The Art of Media
Instruction (1973).
WORKS
Ops: The Park Avenue Kids (1), 1957; Pep Rally (2, Gillis), 1957; The Libretto (1),
1958; The Legend of Star Valley Junction, 1961–2; The Gift of the Magi (1, after O.
Henry), 1966; World Premiere, 1966–7; The Nazarene (liturgical drama, 1), 1967–8;
Behold the Man, 1973;
Other orch: The Panhandle, suite, 1937; The Woolyworm, 1937; Thoughts
Provoked on Becoming a Prospective Papa, suite, 1937; 10 syms., 1936–67;
Intermission – 10 Minutes, 1940; Prairie Poem, tone poem, 1943; The Alamo, tone
poem, 1944; A Short Ov. to an Unwritten Opera, 1944; To an Unknown Soldier, tone
poem, 1945; Rhapsody, hp, orch, 1946; Tulsa: a Sym. Portrait in Oil, 1950; Dude
Ranch, suite, 1967; 2 pf concs.
Band: Band Concert Suite, 1958; The Land of Wheat, 1959; Saga of a Pioneer,
1961
Str qts, 1936–47
Other chbr and solo inst: 3 suites, ww qnt, 1938, 1939, 1939; Sonatina, 4 tpt, 1943
Vocal: The Crucifixion, nar, soloists, chorus, orch, 1937; The Raven, nar, orch,
1937; This is Our America, Bar, orch, 1945; Ceremony of Allegiance, nar, band,
1964; Toscanini: a Portrait of a Century, nar, orch, 1967; The Secret History of the
Birth of a Nation, nar, chorus, orch, 1976
Ballets, other vocal, band, and inst works
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EwenD
GroveO
W.E. Fry: The Band Music of Don Gillis: an Annotated Catalog (DMA diss.,
U. of North Carolina, Greensboro, 1991)
H. WILEY HITCHCOCK/MICHAEL MECKNA
Gilly, Dinh
(b Algiers, 19 July 1877; d London, 19 May 1940). French baritone. After
studies in Toulouse and Rome he won a premier prix at the Paris
Conservatoire in 1902 and made his début on 14 December of that year as
Silvio in Pagliacci at the Opéra, where he remained until 1908. He sang in
Latin America, Spain, Germany and Monte Carlo. From 1909 to 1914 he
was a member of the Metropolitan Opera, with which he sang Sonora in
the world première of La fanciulla del West, Rigoletto, Count di Luna,
Amonasro, Lescaut (Manon), Albert (Werther) and other leading roles. In
1911 he made his Covent Garden début as Amonasro and also sang Jack
Rance (in the first London Fanciulla), Sharpless, Rigoletto and Athanaël in
Thaïs. He appeared in several later seasons and was last heard in 1924 as
Germont. He was admired as a highly musical and expressive singer, an
excellent linguist and a fine actor. He taught in London, where his pupils
included John Brownlee. Between 1908 and 1928 he made approximately
40 recordings displaying a rounded tone, a sophisticated style and a
dramatic presence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Harvey: ‘Dinh Gilly’, Record Collector, v (1950), 147–54 [with
discography by J. Dennis]
M. Scott: The Record of Singing, ii (London, 1979), 40–41
HAROLD BARNES/R
Gilman, Lawrence
(b Flushing, NY, 5 July 1878; d Franconia, NH, 8 Sept 1939). American
music critic. He was self-taught in music, and by 1907 was proficient
enough to prepare thematic guides to Richard Strauss’s Salome and
Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande. After serving as music critic (1901),
assistant editor (1903) and managing editor (1911) of Harper’s Weekly he
joined the staff of Harper’s Magazine (1913) and then became music,
drama and literary critic for the North American Review. In 1923 he was
appointed music critic for the New York Tribune (later Herald-Tribune), a
post he held until his death. From 1919 to 1939 he was programme
annotator for the New York National SO (after 1928 the Philharmonic SO)
and from 1921 to 1939 for the Philadelphia Orchestra; he was also radio
commentator for the broadcasts conducted by Toscanini (1933–5).
Gilman’s criticism was rooted in the tradition that holds that music is ideally
a vehicle for the expression of philosophical ideas: he was a champion of
Wagner, the impressionists (especially Debussy and Loeffler) and
MacDowell. Although he published no essays on the course of music after
1914 he remained a sympathetic and intelligent critic of later musical
developments. Devotees of opera considered him to be particularly gifted
in describing the individual styles of singers.
WRITINGS
Phases of Modern Music (New York, 1904/R)
Edward MacDowell (London, 1906, enlarged 2/1909/R, with introduction by
M.L. Morgan)
Debussy’s ‘Pelléas et Mélisande’ (New York, 1907)
Stories of Symphonic Music: a Guide to the Meaning of Important
Symphonies, Overtures and Tone-Poems from Beethoven to the
Present Day (New York, 1907/R)
Strauss’ ‘Salome’ (London and New York, 1907)
The Music of To-morrow and Other Studies (London, 1907/R)
Aspects of Modern Opera (New York, 1909/R)
Nature in Music and Other Studies in the Tone-Poetry of Today (New York,
1914/R)
‘Taste in Music’, MQ, iii (1917), 1–8
Foreword to C. Debussy: Monsieur Croche, the Dilettante Hater (Eng.
trans., 1927/R)
Wagner’s Operas (New York, 1937)
Toscanini and Great Music (New York, 1938)
ed. E. Cushing: Orchestral Music: an Armchair Guide (New York, 1951)
[collection of programme notes]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Engel: ‘Views and Reviews’, MQ, xxvi (1940), 113–21
B. Mueser: The Criticism of New Music in New York, 1919–1929 (diss.,
CUNY, 1975)
J. Horowitz: Understanding Toscanini (New York, 1987)
WAYNE D. SHIRLEY
Ops: Frau Helga von Stavern (Musikdrama, J. van Gilse), 1911–13; Thijl (dramatic
legend, 3, H. Lindt, after C. de Coster), 1938–40
Choral: Sulamith, S, T, B, chorus, orch, 1902; Eine Lebensmesse, S, A, T, B, 2
mixed choruses, 2 children’s choruses, orch, 1904; Der Kreis des Lebens (R.M.
Rilke), S, T, chorus, orch, 1929
Orch: Concert Ov., c, 1900; Sym. no.1, F, 1901; Sym. no.2, E , 1903, rev. 1928;
Sym. no.3 ‘Erhebung’, d, S, orch, 1907; Variaties over een St Nicolaasliedje, 1909,
arr. pf 4 hands, 1910; Sym. no.4, A, 1910–15; 3 Tanzskizzen, pf, chbr orch, 1926,
arr. 2 pf, 1926; Prologus brevis, 1928; Kleine wals, 1936; Treurmuziek bij den dood
van Uilenspiegel, 1940
Chbr: Nonet, ob, cl, bn, hn, 2 vn, va, vc, db, 1916; Str Qt, 1922; inc.; Trio, fl, vn, va,
1927
Solo vocal: 3 Gesänge (F. Nietzsche, M. Madeleine, D. Mollinger-Hooÿer), c, orch,
1905; 3 Gesänge (R. Tagore: Gitanjali), S, orch, 1915; 3 Gesänge (R. Tagore: Der
Gärtner), S, orch, 1921–3; 4 Gedichte (C.F. Meyer), low v, pf, 1927; other songs, 1v,
pf, mainly 1901–11 incl. settings of R. Dehmel, G. Keller, D. von Liliencron and M.
Maeterlinck
MSS in NL-DHgm
Gilson, Paul
(b Brussels, 15 June 1865; d Brussels, 3 April 1942). Belgian composer
and teacher. He was given his first lessons in music theory by the organist
of Ruisbroek, a village near Brussels, where he spent his youth, and he
studied elementary harmony with C. Duyck, the director of the Anderlecht
school of music. However Gilson was in the main self-taught; precociously
talented, he started to compose at the age of 16. His aesthetic outlook was
determined by two revelatory experiences before he was 21. In 1883 he
was present at the Théâtre Royal de la Monnaie for a performance of Der
Ring des Nibelungen by Angelo Neumann’s company, and three years later
the ‘Concerts Populaires’ in Brussels revealed to him the music of The
Five. He learnt his craft more through the study of scores than in Gevaert’s
composition course, which he followed at the Brussels Conservatory
(1887–9). In 1889 he was awarded the Prix de Rome for his cantata Sinaï,
a public performance of which aroused unwonted enthusiasm. The
prizewinner’s traditional journey took him to Bayreuth (1892), Paris (1893–
4) and Italy (1895). The first performance of his La mer, on 20 March 1892
in Brussels, was a great success, and Gilson was acclaimed as the most
representative Belgian composer of his time. This opinion was confirmed
by the success the work had abroad, except in Paris. Appointed professor
of harmony at the Conservatories of Brussels (1899) and Antwerp (1904),
he gave up these two positions when he became inspector of music
education (1909–30).
Gilson composed his most important works between 1890 and 1905. La
mer, a set of ‘symphonic sketches’ intended to illustrate a mediocre poem
by Eddy Levis, is his greatest work. This Impressionist piece, based on a
single theme, comprises four movements in sonata form. Gilson obeyed
the traditional rules of harmony but his orchestration was quite original.
Like Strauss he manipulated orchestral masses with shrewdness, exploited
differences of timbre to good effect and created an impression of grandeur
by means of rich polyphonic writing. The qualities to be found in La mer
reappeared in later compositions, although without providing any full
confirmation of Gilson’s putative talents. The oratorio Francesca da Rimini,
based on Dante, is a work of exemplary clarity in its construction, although
its language is markedly conventional. This work has the effect of a huge
fresco which astonishes but leaves one unmoved. Gilson’s only major work
with no literary basis was the Variations symphoniques, originally
composed for brass ensemble; this brilliant work gives proof of unusual
inventive verve. Seeking a success in the theatre, Gilson composed
Prinses Zonneschijn in the Wagnerian tradition. The score develops from
two contrasting leitmotifs, one of them ascending, symbolizing youth and
light, the other descending, evoking death and hate.
Whatever the qualities of these scores, none of them achieved the success
of La mer. Disillusioned and embittered, Gilson was further exasperated by
the way in which music was evolving. As a self-taught man who knew his
craft in depth, he could not countenance the deliberate rejection of the
rules which he had taken so much trouble to assimilate and on which he
had founded his aesthetic ideas. Although a Romantic in imagination, he
was fundamentally a Classical composer: he used only traditional forms
and his harmonic language became more and more reliant on familiar
chords. Since he was a poor melodist, he followed the example of the
Russian school in making use of folk music and investigating the
picturesque. Although his rhythmic writing was sometimes well conceived,
Gilson was above all a master of orchestration.
After 1905 he somewhat neglected composition. He gave up writing more
extended works, composed a lot for wind band or brass band, took up
chamber music and also wrote a great deal for the voice. In addition he
rewrote several of his scores. His most remarkable work of this period was
the Suite nocturne for piano. This work, whose source was Bertrand’s
Gaspard de la nuit, is notably adventurous in certain passages of
successive dissonant chords. Gilson also devoted increasingly more time
to teaching. Although he was not a conservatory teacher for long, he
played a central role in that he gave lessons throughout his life and wrote
important theoretical works. His monumental Traité d’harmonie
demonstrates his encyclopedic musical learning: to his theoretical
exposition he appended numerous examples by major composers from
J.S. Bach to Debussy, Ravel, Stravinsky and Schoenberg. He did his
utmost to understand the developments of his contemporaries and to
recognize that no rule is to be regarded as absolute. Despite his tolerance,
Gilson held conventional rhetoric and traditional syntax in respect.
This is even more noticeable in his work on orchestration, Le tutti
orchestral, in which the greater part of the examples are selected from the
works of Beethoven, Wagner and Richard Strauss. Gilson thought it
possible to enhance the effect of any music through orchestration – he
even arranged some of Debussy’s preludes. He considered that the
orchestra of the Romantics was best suited to this, as he thought that the
most mediocre music might be saved by means of grandiloquent artifices.
Among his many pupils, those who remained faithful to his ideas grouped
together in 1925 to form the ‘Synthétistes’. Their aims were defined
somewhat vaguely: ‘To mould into well-defined, well-balanced forms
everything that contemporary music has to offer: to synthesize’. The
Synthétistes were not united by a common aesthetic and the formation of
the group was due in large part to a need for publicity, since it was not easy
for young composers to get their works published and played. Among the
most important composers of the group were Bernier, Brenta, Poot and de
Bourguignon who joined the group later.
In 1925 the same Gilson pupils also founded the Revue musicale belge,
which continued in existence until 1939. Poot was its editor-in-chief and
Gilson its artistic director. Gilson was involved in music criticism throughout
his life and worked for numerous newspapers and journals. He also wrote
a number of booklets for Belgian radio and left a short autobiography of a
fairly anecdotal nature. In his writings one finds again that spirit of
tolerance which marks his theoretical works, and his analysis of The Rite of
Spring in the Revue musicale belge is a perfect illustration of this.
According to Gilson, ‘everything in this music is adventurous’, but he
emphasized the influence of Rimsky-Korsakov. He admitted that ‘there is
more than one concept of aesthetics’ and ‘that everyone is more or less
bound by certain traditions, those which are rooted in the impressions one
has received in one’s youth’, so that ‘today’s youth … is in a better position
than the men of yesterday and the day before to appreciate without bias
Stravinskian tendencies’. Undoubtedly Gilson felt himself to be in the latter
group. Gilson’s importance lies above all in his activities as a teacher. A
whole generation of Belgian composers profited from his vast musical
learning, although it went back only as far as J.S. Bach. Despite his evident
good intentions, he retained in his teaching the prejudices that resulted
from his view of fidelity to tradition.
WORKS
(selective list)
dramatic
Le démon (drame lyrique, 2, L. de Casembroot, after M.Y. Lermontov), 1890, Mons,
Bourse, 9 April 1893
La captive (ballet), 1896–1900
Prinses Zonneschijn (légende féerique, 4, P. de Mont, after C. Perrault), Antwerp,
Vlaamse, 10 Oct 1903; as La princesse Rayon de Soleil, Brussels, Monnaie, 9 Sept
1905
Gens de mer (Zeevolk) (drame lyrique, 2, G. Garnir, after V. Hugo), Antwerp,
Vlaamse, 15 Oct 1904; in French, Brussels, Monnaie, 16 Dec 1929
Rooversliefde (I briganti) (drame musical, 1, J.F. Elslanders), Antwerp, Vlaamse, 30
Jan 1910
Les deux bossus (ballet), 1910–21
Thamara (op, 3, L. du Catillon), inc.
Incid music for theatre and cinema
orchestral
Concertino, fl, orch, 1882–1920; Suite, 1885; 3 pieces, 1885–92; Alla mazurka,
1887; Fanfare inaugurale, 1887; Humoresques, 1889; Alla marcia, str, 1889–90;
Scherzo, 1889–1907; Eglogue et danse rustique, 1890; 3 mélodies populaires
flamandes, str, 1891–2; Fantaisie sur des mélodies populaires canadiennes, 1891;
Prélude et scherzo, str, 1891; Mélodies écossaises, str, 1891–2; Suites, 1891–
1941; La mer, 1892; Fantaisie-scherzo, ?1892; Fantasy, brass, 1894; Marche
festivale sur le Te Deum, 1894–7; L’oubli, tpt, orch, 1895–6
Fanfaluca, fl, orch, 1896; Fackelzug, brass, 1899; Méditation élégiaque, 1900; Ov.
dramatique, 1900; Elégie, str, c1900; Conc. no.1, a sax, orch, 1902; Conc. no.2, a
sax, orch, 1902; 3 petites pièces en pizzicato, str, 1903; Variations symphoniques,
brass, 1903; Romance-fantaisie, vn, orch, 1903; Ov. symphonique no.3, 1903–4;
Concertstuck, tpt, orch, 1905–6; Andante et scherzo, vc, orch, 1906; Rapsodie en
fantazijstuk, brass, 1906; Prélude-récitatif et romance-sérénade, hp, orch, 1906;
Scherzo fantastique, brass, 1906
Prélude symphonique: Le chant du coq, 1906; Prélude pour le drame ‘Henry VIII’ de
Shakespeare, 1906–16; Symphonie inaugurale, 1909–10; Suite à la manière
ancienne, str, 1913–14; 3 préludes, chbr orch, 1914; Cavatine, 1921; Epithalame,
1925; 5 paraphrases sur des chansons populaires flamandes, 1929; Cramignon
pentapodique, 1932; Préludes hébraïques, 1934; Sous le chêne de St Louis, 1934–
5; Caledonia, 1939; 4 pièces, brass, 1940; Air de timbales avec 6 variations, timp,
orch, 1940; Scherzando, pf, orch, 1941
c70 pieces for wind/brass band
chamber and solo instrumental
Qt sur des mélodies alsaciennes, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1885; Scherzino, 3 tpt, baritone,
1890; Suite, 7 fl, 1895; Suite, hp, 1901–37; Prelude, 4 bn, 1902; Str Qt no.1, 1907;
Petite suite no.2, vn, pf, 1907; Suite, 4 vc, 1910–35; 5 preludes, hn, pf, 1913–14;
Suite, vc, pf, 1914–16; Str Trio, 1915–17; Interlude, org, 1916; Str Qt no.2, 1918–
19; Préliminaires (vn, pf)/vn, 1922; 3 suites, 3 vn, vc, db, pf, 1924–6; Sonatina,
carillon, ?1925; 4 exercises, tpt, pf, 1930; Préludes romantiques, ob, pf, 1933–6;
Trio, ob, cl, bn, 1934
piano
3 sonatinas, 1886–1914; Prélude, mazurka et mélopée, 1888–9; Nocturne, 1889;
Suite nocturne, 1896–1901; Paysages, 1899–1901; Prélude, 1900–17; Petite suite
rustique, 1902; Prélude, sarabande et gavotte, 1908; Suite no.2, 1908; 3 pièces,
1908; Conte de Noël, 1911; Chant vespéral, 1911; 3 préludes, 1914; Par les routes
(Suite no.5), 1914–18; A la jeunesse, 1915; Polka, c1915; Prélude et improvisation,
1917; Cloches et clochettes de Noël, 1917; Ballabille, 1918; Variations, 1918;
Oppositions, 1921; Prelude, 1924
vocal
Au bois des elfes (cant.), 1887; Sinaï (cant.), 1889; Francesca da Rimini (orat),
1892; Et la lumière descend sur tous (cant.), 1896; Hymne à l’art (cant.), 1897;
Ludus pro patria (cant.), 1905; La voix de la forêt (cant.), 1934
c65 mélodies; 25 choral pieces
WRITINGS
Le tutti orchestral (Brussels, 1913)
Traité d’harmonie (Brussels, 1919)
Quintes, octaves, secondes et polytonie (Brussels, 1921)
‘Le sacre du printemps’, Revue musicale belge, i (1926), 1–4
Manuel de musique militaire (Antwerp, 1926)
Notes de musique et souvenirs (Brussels, 1942)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Revue musicale belge, xi (1935) [special Gilson number]
A. Corbet: ‘Paul Gilson: Flemish Composer’, ML, xxvii (1946), 71–3
C. van de Borren: Geschiedenis van de muziek in de Nederlanden, ii
(Antwerp, 1951), 250ff, 301ff, 337–8, 371–2
R. Wangermée: La musique belge contemporaine (Brussels, 1959)
G. Brenta: Paul Gilson (Brussels, 1965)
J. Quitin: ‘Douze lettres inédites de Guillaume Lekeu à Paul Gilson’,
Bulletin de la Société liégeoise de Musicologie, xix (1977), 1–7
HENRI VANHULST
Gimel.
See Gymel.
instrumental
Orch: Tempranica, fantasía (Barcelona, c1900); 2 syms.
Other works: 3 cadenzas, for Beethoven’s Vn Conc. (Madrid, n.d.); Cavatina, vn/vc,
pf (Madrid, n.d.); Polaca de concierto, pf, pubd
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Muñoz: Historia de la zarzuela española y del género chico (Madrid,
1946)
J. Deleito y Piñuela: Origen y apogeo del ‘género chico’ (Madrid, 1949)
GUY BOURLIGUEUX
Gimpel, Bronislav
(b Lemberg, 29 Jan 1911; d Los Angeles, 1 May 1979). American violinist.
He studied first with his father, Adolf Gimpel, then with Moritz Wolfstahl in
Lwów, Robert Pollack at the Vienna Conservatory (1922–6) and finally with
Flesch (1928–9). In 1926 he was invited to play Paganini’s famous
Guarneri and this was followed by command performances before the King
of Italy and Pope Pius XI. He was a prizewinner in the 1935 Wieniawski
Competition. He led orchestras in Königsberg (1929–31), Göteborg (1931–
6) and Los Angeles (1937–42); he also founded and conducted the
Hollywood Youth Orchestra. After serving in the US Army (1942–5), he
resumed his career in the USA and Europe. He was leader of the American
Artist Quartet, and a member of the New Friends of Music Piano Quartet
and the Mannes Piano Trio (1950–56). He toured Europe as a soloist from
1947 to the mid-1960s, held a masterclass in Karlsruhe (1959–61) and was
leader of the Warsaw Quintet (1962–7). From 1967 to 1973 he was
professor at the University of Connecticut and leader of the New England
String Quartet. His many recordings cover most of the solo and chamber
music repertories. Particularly impressive is his album of Bach’s solo
works.
Gimpel played with flair and effortless technique. His fiery temperament
matured and mellowed in later years. His vibrato was intense and his
interpretations authoritative. For a time he performed large-scale concertos
such as Beethoven’s or Mendelssohn’s without a conductor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SchwarzGM
J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin, 1889–1971 (Toronto, 1974)
BORIS SCHWARZ/MARGARET CAMPBELL
Gimpel, Jakob
(b Lemberg [now L'viv], 16 April 1906; d Los Angeles, 12 March 1989).
American pianist and teacher of Polish birth. Having graduated from the
Lwów (formerly Lemberg) Conservatory at the age of 15, he went to Vienna
and became a pupil of Steuermann, also taking private lessons in
composition from Berg. He made his Vienna début in 1923. Before World
War II Gimpel toured with the violinists Erica Morini and Nathan Milstein,
and also with his younger brother, Bronislav. He emigrated to the United
States in 1939, settling in Los Angeles. One of the first pianists to record for
the newly founded company Vox, he also made widely admired discs for
Columbia. In 1954 he resumed playing in Europe. Gimpel gave concerts
with the Palestine SO (later the Israel PO) from its inception and
maintained a busy career until the time of his death. He taught at the
California State University at Northridge from 1971 to 1986. Especially
effective in large-scale works, Gimpel never quite achieved the reputation
he deserved. A dynamic and authoritative player in Beethoven's ‘Emperor’
Concerto and Brahms's D minor Concerto, he was equally at home in less
familiar works by such composers as Reger and Szymanowski. He had a
thoroughly schooled and well-controlled virtuoso technique which, allied to
an ability to phrase with sophistication, ensured that his performances were
invariably distinguished.
JAMES METHUEN-CAMPBELL
Ginastera, Alberto
WRITINGS
(selective list)
‘How and why I wrote Bomarzo’,Central Opera Service Bulletin, ix/5 (1967),
10–13
Ginastera, Alberto
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grove6 (G. Chase)
G. Chase: ‘Alberto Ginastera: Argentine Composer’, MQ, xliii (1957), 439–
60
G. Chase: ‘Alberto Ginastera: Portrait of an Argentine Composer’, Tempo,
no.44 (1957), 11–16
D. Wallace: Alberto Ginastera: an Analysis of his Style and Techniques of
Composition (diss., Northwestern U., 1964)
P. Suárez Urtubey: ‘Ginastera's Don Rodrigo’, Tempo, no.74 (1965), 11–
18
J. Orrego-Salas: ‘Don Rodrigo de Ginastera’, Artes Hispánicas, i/1 (1967),
94–133
P. Suárez Urtubey: Alberto Ginastera (Buenos Aires, 1967)
P. Suárez Urtubey: ‘Ginastera's Bomarzo’, Tempo, no.84 (1968), 14–21
P. Suárez Urtubey: Alberto Ginastera en cinco movimientos (Buenos
Aires, 1972)
I. Lowens: ‘Ginastera's Beatrix Cenci’, Tempo, no.105 (1973), 48–53
M.A. Hanley: ‘The Solo Piano Music of Alberto Ginastera’, American Music
Teacher, xxiv/6 (1975), 17–20; xxv/1 (1975), 6–9
M. Kuss: ‘Type, Derivation and Use of Native Idioms in Ginastera's Don
Rodrigo (1964)’, LAMR, i (1980), 176–95
J.A. Alcaraz: Hablar de música: conversaciones con compositores del
continente americano (Mexico City, 1982), 153–61
F. Spangemacher, ed.: Alberto Ginastera (Bonn, 1984)
L. Tan: ‘An Interview with Alberto Ginastera’, American Music Teacher,
xxxiii/3 (1984), 6–8
LAMR, vi/1 (1985) [incl. articles by G. Chase, W.S. Pope, C.S. Smith, R.
Stevenson]
A. Nátola Ginastera andM. Kuss: introduction to Alberto Ginastera: a
Complete Catalogue (New York, 1986) [Boosey & Hawkes catalogue]
M. Kuss and L.Handschin: ‘Alberto Ginastera: Musikmanuskripte’,
Inventare der Paul Sacher Stiftung, viii (Winterthur, 1990)
M. Tabor: ‘Alberto Ginastera's Late Instrumental Style’, LAMR, xv (1994),
1–31
G. Scarabino: Alberto Ginastera: técnicas y estilo (1935–1954) (Buenos
Aires, 1996)
D. Schwartz-Kates: The ‘Gauchesco’ Tradition as a Source of National
Identity in Argentine Art Music (ca. 1890–1955) (diss., U. of Texas,
1997)
Gindron, François
(b c1491; d ?Lausanne, after 1560). Swiss composer and clergyman. He
spent his life at Lausanne. He is first mentioned in 1518 as the priest in
charge of the cathedral choir (he was a minor cleric and not a canon as
some writers have stated). In 1531 he was appointed a church councillor,
and he participated in the dispute of October 1536 between Roman
Catholic and Reformed theologians at the cathedral. On 16 February 1537
he renounced the Catholic faith in favour of Calvinism. From then on he
was comfortably off and took part in civic affairs. In 1552 he was given
permission by the Berne authorities, then in control of the region of Vaud,
to have a collection of psalms printed. According to the preface to his
Proverbes de Salomon, ensemble l’Ecclésiaste, mis en cantiques et rime
françoise selon la vérité hébraïque, par A.D. du Plessis (Lausanne, 1556;
music lost) he was pensioned off by Berne in 1556. A total of five pieces by
him appear in publications prepared in Geneva by Simon Du Bosc and
Guillaume Guéroult (RISM 155514 and 155515).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
O. Douen: Clément Marot et le psautier huguenot, i (Paris, 1878), 613, 665
P. Pidoux, ed.: Le psautier huguenot du XVIe sièle, ii (Basle, 1962)
L. Guillo: Les éditions musicales de la Renaissance lyonnaise (Paris,
1991)
PAUL-ANDRÉ GAILLARD
stage
¿Con quién caso a mi mujer? (zar, 3, Chocomeli), Valencia, Principal, 2 May 1883;
El rayo de sol (zar, 3, Nogués), Madrid, Jovellanos, 10 Nov 1875; Sagunto (comic
op, 3, Cebrián), Valencia, Principal, 20 Dec 1890; Los mendigos (zar, 3, Guillén),
Valencia, Principal, 1896; El soñador (comic op, 3, Danvila), Valencia, Principal, 10
April 1901; El fantasma (comic op, 3, Giner), Valencia, Principal, 13 April 1901;
Morel (comic op, 3, Chocomeli), Valencia, Principal, 18 April 1901
choral
Sacred: 18 masses, solo vv, unacc. or with chorus, org, orch; 11 requiem masses,
chorus unacc. or with orch; responsories for the dead; motets, hymns, settings of
pss, Miserere and Lamentations
Secular: 43 works, incl. La feria de Valencia, 1871; La festa del poble; La trilla,
1896; La tempestad, 1897; Al surcar el lago, 1875; Ecos del Turia
orchestral
Sym., on themes from Mercadante’s Le 7 parole di nostro signore, 1858; Sym. ‘Las
fases del campo’, 1864; Elegia a Rossini, 1878; 8 sym. poems, incl. Es chopà …
hasta la Moma, 1886; Una nit d’albàes, 1881; El festín de Baltasar, 1893
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Ruiz de Lihory: La música en Valencia: diccionario biográfico y crítico
(Valencia, 1903)
A. Fernández-Cid: Cien años de teatro musical en España (1875–1975)
(Madrid, 1975)
J. Climent: Historia de la música contemporánea valenciana (Valencia,
1978)
JOSÉ CLIMENT
Gingold, Josef
(b Brest Litovsk [now Brest], 28 Oct 1909; d Bloomington, IN, 11 Jan 1995).
American violinist and teacher of Belarusian birth. He moved to New York
in 1920 and studied with Vladimir Graffman (1922–7). After his New York
début in 1926, he went to Ysaÿe in Brussels (1927–30) and gave many
concerts in northern Europe. After his return he became a first violinist in
Toscanini's NBC SO (1937–43), leader of the Detroit Orchestra (1943–6)
and of the Cleveland Orchestra (with whom he often appeared as a soloist)
under Szell (1947–60). He belonged to the Primrose String Quartet (1939–
42) and the NBC String Quartet (1941–3).
Gingold taught at Western Reserve University (1950–60) and the
Meadowmount School of Music (1955–81). In 1960 he was appointed
professor of the violin at Indiana University, establishing a reputation as an
outstanding teacher (Laredo, Miriam Fried, Yaron, Silverstein, Hoelscher
and Joshua Bell were among his pupils). He gave annual masterclasses at
the Paris Conservatoire (1970–81), and was a guest teacher at the Toho
Music School, Tokyo. He held the Mischa Elman Chair at the Manhattan
School of Music (1980–81). He represented the USA on juries of such
international contests as the Queen Elisabeth in Brussels and the
Wieniawski in Poland, and helped to found the International Violin
Competition of Indianapolis, serving as honorary chairman and president
from its foundation in 1982 until 1994. He published useful teaching
material and made numerous recordings. Gingold was a distinguished
performer with a style of particular sweetness and elegance, and an
imposing technical mastery. He played the Martinelli Stradivari made in
1683.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SchwarzGM
M. Campbell: ‘Joseph Gingold’, The Strad, xciii (1983–4), 798–802
J. Gingold: ‘Golden Years’, The Strad, c (1989), 968–71
BORIS SCHWARZ/MARGARET CAMPBELL
Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Nicolas Piccinni (Paris, 1800); ed. M.
Garnier-Butel (forthcoming)
Histoire littéraire d'Italie, i–ix (Paris, 1811–19) [vols. x–xiv by F. Salfi, Paris,
1823–35; whole series rev. 2/1824–35 by P.C.F. Daunou]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Choron-FayolleD
FétisB
P.-C.-F. Daunou: ‘Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. Ginguené’,
Histoire littéraire d'Italie, i (Paris, 2/1824), pp.v–xxxii
C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution (Paris, 1904)
P. Hazard, ed.: Journal de Ginguené, 1807–1808 (Paris, 1910)
M.F. Robinson: ‘Opera buffa into opéra comique, 1771–90’, Music and the
French Revolution, ed. M. Boyd (Cambridge, 1992), 37–56
E. Guitton, ed.: : Ginguené (1748–1816): idéologue et médiateur (Rennes,
1995) [incl. M.-C. Mussat: ‘Ginguené musicologue: de la pratique à la
théorie’, 33–49; M. Garnier-Butel: ‘Ginguené et Jérôme-Joseph
Momigny face à la musique instrumentale du siècle des Lumières’,
51–78; B. Didier: ‘Ginguené et l'Encyclopédie méthodique (Musique)’,
79–88; J.-D. Candaux: ‘La bibliothèque de Ginguené’, 89–94; F.
Fanouillère: ‘Chronologie de Ginguené’, 253–7]
M. Garnier-Butel: ‘Récitatif et déclamation théâtrale dans les écrits de
Pierre-Louis Ginguené (1748–1816)’, Entre théâtre et musique:
récitatifs en Europe aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, ed. R. Legrand and L.
Quétin (Tours, 1999), 237–51
G. Severand and L. Chermat: ‘Retour sur ì ascendance de Pierre-Louis
Ginguené (1748–1816)’, Bulletin et mémoires de la Société
archéologique d'Ille-et-Vilaine, ciii (2000)
MICHELLE GARNIER-BUTEL
Gintzler, Simon
(fl 1547). German lutenist. He was court musician to Cristoforo Madruzzo
(1512–78), Cardinal and Prince-Bishop of Trent and administrator of the
diocese of Brixen. Gintzler’s dedication to Madruzzo of his Intabolatura de
lauto (Venice, 154722, 2/1589) suggests that he may have been in the
cardinal's service for some time. Gintzler was one of the few German
lutenists to use Italian tablature. He put great emphasis on legato playing
and carefully indicated that a note should be held by placing a small ‘x’
after its figure. In common with most Italian lutenists, he indicated use of
the right-hand forefinger by a dot beneath the figure. He composed six
ricercares and intabulated 19 motets, six madrigals and six chansons, by
Arcadelt, Jachet of Mantua, Jacquet de Berchem, Josquin, Lupus, Mouton,
Senfl, Verdelot, Willaert, Sandrin and Villiers (the six ricercares and one
motet ed. in DTÖ, xxxvii, Jg.xviii/2, 1911/R). The ricercares, called
Priambeln by Gerle (1552) and Fantasiae by Phalèse (1552), are primarily
in imitative counterpoint, with interspersed passage-work and sections of
homophony. The vocal transcriptions are full-voiced and moderately
embellished. He was clearly concerned to use all the techniques at his
disposal in order to create expressive works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrownI
MGG1 (W. Boetticher)
O. Chilesotti: ‘Chansons françaises du XVIe siècle en Italie: (transcrites
pour le luth)’, RHCM, ii (1902), 63–71, 202–5, esp. 68 [incl. edns of
intabulations of 2 chansons by Sandrin]
E. Engel: Die Instrumentalformen in der Lautenmusik des 16.
Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Berlin, 1915)
W. Boetticher: Studien zur solistischen Lautenpraxis des 16. und 17.
Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1943)
H.C. Slim: The Keyboard Ricercar and Fantasia in Italy ca.1500–1555
(diss., Harvard U., 1961) [incl. thematic index and concordances for
lutes, ricercares and fantasias]
HANS RADKE
Giocoso
(It.: ‘jocular’; adjective from gioco, a game).
A designation of mood often found qualifying some tempo mark as in
allegro giocoso. But it also appears alone as a tempo designation in its
own right.
Giordani, Carmine
(b Cerreto, c1685; d Naples, 1758). Italian composer. He was enrolled in
the Conservatorio della Pietà dei Turchini in Naples on 9 May 1701, as a
pupil of Gennaro Ursino and Nicola Fago. In 1712 he became deputy
organist of the royal chapel, a post he held for the rest of his life, and in the
same year wrote part of the music for La vittoria dell'amor coniugale, which
was performed at the Teatro S Bartolomeo. There is no evidence to
connect Carmine with Tommaso Giordani.
WORKS
La vittoria dell'amor coniugale (op), Naples, 1712, I-Nc
Cantata, S, bc, GB-Lbl; Pianger vidi (cant.), S, Lcm; Terrestre paradiso (cant.), S, I-
Mc; Nei giorni tuoi felice (duet, P. Metastasio: Olimpiade), S, A, 4 insts, Mc; other
arias, Nc
Credo, 5vv, insts, GB-Ob; Dormi benigne Jesu, motet, 4vv, vns, bc, org, I-Mc; Quem
vidistis pastores, motet, 4vv, chorus, str, bc, org, Mc; other motets, Nc
CHRISTOPHER HOGWOOD
L’Epponina (dm, 3, P. Giovannini and G. Sertor), Florence, Palla a Corda, aut. 1779
Il Demetrio (dm, 3, P. Metastasio), Modena, Corte, carn. 1780
Erifile (dm, 3, G. de Gamerra), Genoa, S Agostino, carn. 1780, D-Ds, I-PAc
La Nitteti (dm, 3, Metastasio), Livorno, S Sebastiano, carn. 1781, I-Pl, P-La
Gl’inganni scambievoli (int, 2), Rome, Valle, carn. 1781
La fiera di Brindisi (commedia per musica, 3, G. Palomba), Naples, Fondo, sum.
1781
Lo sposo di tre, e marito di nessuna (commedia per musica, 3, A. Palomba),
Naples, Fondo, sum. 1781; rev. of P. Anfossi and P.A. Guglielmi, 1763
Il convito (fa, 2, G. Palomba), Naples, Fondo, carn. 1782
La Principessa di Tingi (ballo eroico pantomimico, P. Franchi and G. Traffieri) and
La vendemmia, ossia La contadina impertinente (ballo comico, Franchi and
Traffieri), Naples, S Carlo, 30 May 1782, in G. Insanguine: Calipso
L’acomate (dm, 2), Pisa, Prini, 21 April 1783; rev. as Elpinice (dm, 3), Bologna,
Zagnoni, aut. 1783
Pizzarro nelle Indie, o sia La distruzione del Perù (dm, 3), Livorno, Armeni, aut.
1783
Osmane (dm, 3, Sertor), Venice, S Benedetto, carn. 1784, P-La (inc.)
Tito Manlio (dm, 3, G. Roccaforte or M. Noris), Genoa, S Agostino, carn. 1784
La vestale (dm, 3, ? L. Romanelli), Bologna, Zagnoni, carn. 1785, I-FERd* (qnt
only)
Ifigenia in Aulide (dm, 3, ? L. Serio), Rome, Argentina, carn. 1786
L’impegno, o sia Chi la fa l’aspetti (fa, 2), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1786
Alciade e Telesia (dm, 2, E. Manfredi), Bologna, Zagnoni, carn. 1787, FERd*
Fernando nel Messico (dm, 3, F. Tarducci), Rome, Argentina, carn. 1787, FERd*, B-
Bc
Li ripieghi fortunati (farsetta, 2), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1787
Il corrivo (commedia per musica, 2, G.M. Diodati), Naples, Nuovo, spr. 1787
Li tre fratelli ridicoli (fa, 2), Rome, Capranica, 1788, I-Bc
Cajo Ostilio (dm, 3, Manfredi), Faenza, Comunale, spr. 1788, Fc
Scipione (dm, 2, E. Giusti), Rovigo, aut. 1788
Ariarate (dm, 3, F. Moretti), Turin, Regio, carn. 1789, P-La
Cajo Mario (dm, 3, Roccaforte), Lodi, Nuovo, aut. 1789
La disfatta di Dario (dm, 3, N. Morbilli), Milan, Scala, carn. 1789, I-FERd*, F-Pn, I-
Nc
Aspasia (dm, 3, Sertor), Venice, S Benedetto, carn. 1790
Nicomede (dm, 3, Manfredi), Genoa, S Agostino, carn. 1790, FERd*
Medonte, re di Epiro (dm, 2, de Gamerra), Rome, Argentina, carn. 1791, FERd*
(Act 1 only)
Don Mirtillo contrastato (dg, 2), Venice, S Cassiano, aut. 1791, FERd* (Act 1 only)
Atalanta (dm, 3, C. Olivieri), Turin, Regio, carn. 1792, FERd*
Ines de Castro (dm, 3, C. Giotti), Venice, Fenice, carn. 1793, FERd*, Gc, Vnm
Doubtful: L’astuto in imbroglio (ob), Pisa, 1771, cited by Fétis; Il ritorno di Ulisse
(A.G. Moniglia), Mantua, Ducale, 26 Dec 1782
Arias, duets and trios in A-SL, Wgm; CH-BM, E, Gc, N; D-BFb, Dl, DO, HR, Hs,
MÜs, SWl, WRtl; DK-Kc, Kk; HR-Dsmb; I-Bc, BRc, BZtoggenburg CHc, CHf, FOc,
FZc, MAC, Mc, Nc, OS, PAc, PEsp, PS, Raf, Rc, Rsc, Sd, Tf, Tn, VEss, Vnm; US-
LAum
oratorios
La fuga in Egitto, 1775, I-Nc (pt 2 inc.)
Passio per il Venerdì Santo (after St John’s Gospel), 1776, FERd*
Il ritorno delle sacre reliquie della vergine e protomartire S Agata, Catania, 1783,
cited in Policastro (1950)
La morte d’Abelle (2, P. Metastasio), Iesi, Pubblico, Sept 1785, FERd*, Mc; sinfonia
ed. U. Gironacci and I. Vescovo in Monumenti musicali marchigiani, i (Milan, 1990)
La distruzione di Gerusalemme (azione sacra, 2, C. Sernicola), Naples, S Carlo,
Lent 1787, CH-N, I-Mc, PAc, FERd* (pt 2)
La risurrezione, 1788, Mc
Le tre ore di agonia di N.S.G.C., Fermo, 1793, D-Bsb, I-Ad, Bsf, FERd, Fn, Mc,
MOe, Nc, OFma, Rc, Ria, Rsc, RPTd
Isacco figura del redentore (2, Metastasio), Camerino, Publico, ? 18 May 1794,
FERd* (pt 2 only)
Il figliuol prodigo (componimento sacro, 2), Ascoli Piceno Cathedral, 1795, FERd
(str pts only, some autograph), Mc, dated 1793
La Betulia liberata (2, Metastasio), Ancona, Fenice, 8 May 1796, FERd*
Saul, cited in Atti di Nicola Ferrari (MS, 1798, FERas)
cantatas, occasional works
Licenza, in P. Guglielmi: Enea e Lavinia, Novara, spr. 1789
Leandro ed Ero, cited in Atti di Nicola Ferrari
Oh Dio Fileno, S, orch, FERvitali
sacred
MSS, autograph in I-FERd, unless otherwise stated; mostly for SATB, accompanied by
organ or orchestra
instrumental
3 sonate, hpd, vn (Florence, before 1787); 3 sonatas, D, E , F, kbd, I-Ad; 2 sonatas,
C, F, kbd, PEsp
Conc., C, hpd, orch, LU; 4 notturni, vn, va, vc, Gl; 6 trios, 2 vn, b, Rc (vn 1 only), Fn
(vn 2 only); Divertimento, F, fl, hpd/(vn, b), LU
pedagogical
Prattica della musica, cioè Dell’arte del contrapunto, I-Nc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FlorimoN; SartoriL
B. Croce: I teatri di Napoli, secolo XV–XVIII (Naples, 1891/R, abridged
2/1916 as I teatri di Napoli dal Rinascimento alla fine del secolo
decimottavo, 5/1966)
G. Policastro: Catania nel Settecento (Turin, 1950), 379
J.G. Paton: ‘Caro mio ben: Some Early Sources’, NATS Bulletin, xxxviii/2
(1981), 20–22
U. Gironacci: ‘Il periodo Fermano di Giuseppe Giordani, detto
Giordaniello: 1789–98’, Quaderni dell’Archivio Storico Arcivescovile di
Fermo, i/1 (1986), 105–46
U. Gironacci and I. Vescovo, eds.: Giuseppe Giordani: Otto arie sacre
per soprano ed organo (Fermo, 1987) [incl. further bibliography]
M.G. Genesi: ‘“E non m’invola a sì rea fatalità?”: il repertorio di una
soprano d’opera seria, Accademica filarmonica “ad honorem”, Maria
Brigida Giorgi-Banti di Monticelli d’Ongina: per una radiografia della
vocalità belcantistica “di maniera” dal 1770 al 1790 circa’, Archivio
storico per le province Parmensi, xliii (1991), 189–213
M. Marx-Weber: ‘L'intenzione delle “Tre ore di agonia di N.S.G.C.” di
Giuseppe Giordani’, Quaderni musicali marchigiani, iv (1997), 25–42
UGO GIRONACCI
Giordani, Tommaso
(b Naples, c1730–3; d Dublin, Feb 1806). Italian composer, active in the
British Isles. All the members of his family were singers, apart from himself
and his brother Francesco, a dancer. About 1745, under the management
of their father, Giuseppe (unrelated to the composer Giuseppe Giordani
known as Giordaniello), the Giordani family formed a small opera troupe
and, with a few other singers, travelled across Europe. After performing at
Ancona and Pesaro (1745), Senigallia and Graz (1747), Frankfurt and
Salzburg (1750), Amsterdam (1752) and Paris (1753), they were invited by
John Rich to perform four burlettas in the 1753–4 season at Covent
Garden. On 17 December 1753, at the première of the first of these, Gli
amanti gelosi (with words by Tommaso's father and music attributed to
Cocchi), the singing of Tommaso's sister, Nicolina, caused a sensation; she
was nicknamed ‘La Spiletta’ after her role. The family performed again in
London in 1755 and 1756. Tommaso's name is not mentioned, although he
composed the music to the burletta La comediante fatta cantatrice, given in
January 1756. He may have arranged music and played the harpsichord in
the theatre band while the rest of the family was on stage.
The family was in Dublin late in 1764, having been invited to perform at the
Smock Alley Theatre, and remained in Dublin for three years, during which
time Tommaso's career as an opera composer was launched. His first
major composing venture in Dublin, however, proved a miscalculation;
failing to understand the satirical nature of the work, Giordani mistakenly
‘improved’ the simple airs of The Beggar's Opera by ‘italianizing’ them. But
his next three comic operas, Don Fulminone, The Enchanter and The Maid
of the Mill, all produced between January and March 1765, were better
received. The following season Giordani remained at Smock Alley,
although the rest of the family transferred to the Theatre Royal, Crow
Street. For Smock Alley he composed two operas: Love in Disguise, which
was written by a Trinity College student, Henry Lucas (the performance
was attended by a crowd of Trinity students); and L'eroe cinese, apparently
the first opera seria to be staged in Ireland. Giordani then moved to Crow
Street, where his Phyllis at Court was performed in 1767. Charges of
plagiarism, however, drove him back to London.
By early 1770 he was very active with the Italian Opera at the King's
Theatre. Over the next 13 years he composed the entire music to three
operas, collaborated in a pastoral, L'omaggio (1781), and arranged,
adapted and added new overtures or airs to a number of Italian pasticcios.
He also directed many operas at the King's Theatre and contributed
incidental music to plays, including the songs to Sheridan's The Critic at
Drury Lane (25 October 1779). Giordani's activities were not confined to
the theatre. He composed many songs for Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens,
several sets of canzonets, and a large number of instrumental works which
show a partiality for combinations involving keyboard. His quintets (op.1)
for keyboard and strings are among the earliest in this genre. The number
of pieces that Giordani wrote for younger, less experienced players is also
noteworthy
In summer 1783 Giordani returned to Dublin, where he joined the male alto
Michael Leoni in a series of concerts at the Rotunda. With Leoni he then
rented a theatre in Capel Street, calling it the English Opera House, and
put on a season of ‘English’ operas, with librettos mostly by minor Irish
writers and the music by himself. He composed the music for seven staged
musical works and adapted music for another half-dozen pieces for an
outwardly successful season, which opened, on 18 December, with
Gibraltar and The Haunted Castle. Yet the smallish size of the theatre
meant that Leoni and Giordani failed to meet their expenses, and the
venture ended in bankruptcy in July 1784.
The following season Giordani worked at Smock Alley under Richard Daly;
he moved to Crow Street in 1787 when Smock Alley closed, and became
musical director there the following year. (In 1784 he had married one of
the daughters of Tate Wilkinson, the manager of the theatre.) Giordani had
several successes at both theatres, but seems to have given up composing
after writing his comic opera The Cottage Festival (1796). The exact date
of his death is unknown, but the minutes of the Irish Music Fund (of which
he had been president since 1794) record, on 24 February 1806, the
payment of five guineas for his funeral. Giordani's gifts as a prolific and
versatile composer were sufficient for him to be respected in London and to
dominate the Dublin musical scene for many years. He wrote in the
prevailing italianate style, with expressive and inventive melodies, his best
written with specific singers in mind. He was also a sensitive orchestrator.
Generally, though, he was a somewhat indifferent composer, and was
frequently accused of plagiarism. The authorship of the popular song Caro
mio ben, attributed to both Tommaso and the unrelated composer
Giuseppe Giordani, remains unresolved: Tommaso's father, Giuseppe, has
also recently been posited as the author.
WORKS
dramatic
some music published in Dublin or London shortly after performance
DBCS Dublin, Theatre Royal, Crow Street
DBEOH Dublin, English Opera House, Capel Street
DBSA Dublin, Smock Alley
LCG London, Covent Garden
LDL London, Drury Lane
LKH London, King's Theatre, Haymarket
LLH London, Little Theatre, Haymarket
La comediante fatta cantatrice (comic op), LCG, 12 Jan 1756
Don Fulminone, or The Lover with Two Mistresses (comic op), DBSA, 7 Jan 1765
The Enchanter, or Love and Magic (comic op), DBSA, 17 Jan 1765
The Maid of the Mill (comic op, 3, I. Bickerstaff, after S. Richardson, J. Fletcher and
W. Rowley), DBSA, 26 March 1765
Love in Disguise (comic op, H. Lucas), DBSA, 24 April 1766
L'eroe cinese (os, 3, P. Metastasio), DBSA, 7 May 1766
Phyllis at Court (comic op, 2, R. Lloyd after C.-S. Favart), DBCS, 25 Feb 1767
The Elopement (pantomime), LDL, 26 Dec 1767
Il padre e il figlio rivali (comic op), LKH, 6 Feb 1770
Acis and Galatea (cant., G. Farranio), London, New Rooms, Tottenham Street,
1777
Il re pastore (os, 3, Metastasio), LKH, 30 May 1778
Il bacio (comic op, 2, C.F. Badini), LKH, 9 April 1782
Gibraltar (comic op, R. Houlton), DBEOH, 18 Dec 1783
The Haunted Castle (afterpiece, W.C. Oulton), DBEOH, 18 Dec 1783
The Enchantress, or The Happy Island (musical entertainment, A.M. Edwards),
DBEOH, 31 Dec 1783
The Happy Disguise (comic op, Oulton), DBEOH, 7 Jan 1784
Genius of Ireland (masque), DBEOH, 9 Feb 1784
The Dying Indian (musical entertainment), DBEOH, 11 March 1784
Orfeo ed Euridice (burlesque op, Houlton), DBEOH, 14 June 1784
The Hypochondriac (afterpiece, A. Franklin), DBSA, 4 Jan 1785
The Island of Saints, or The Institution of the Shamrock (pantomime, Messink),
DBSA, 27 Jan 1785
Calypso, or Love and Enchantment (serio-comic op, Houlton), DBSA, early April
1785
Perseverance, or The Third Time the Best (musical interlude, 2, Oulton), DBCS, 12
March 1789
The Distressed Knight, or The Enchanted Lady (comic op), DBCS, 12 Feb 1791
The Ward of the Castle (comic op, 2, Mrs Burke), LCG, 24 Oct 1793
The Cottage Festival, or A Day in Wales (comic op, L. MacNally), DBCS, 28 Nov
1796
Collaborations: L'omaggio (pastoral, 3), LKH, 5 June 1781, with G.B. Bianchi, V.
Rauzzini; The Contract (comic op, 2, R. Houlton), DBSA, 14 May 1782, with P.
Cogan and I.A. Stevenson; To Arms, or The British Recruit (musical interlude, 1, T.
Hurlstone), LCG, 3 May 1793, with W. Shield and Stevenson
Adaptations (mostly new accs. or new ovs., songs and finales; orig. composer
named if substantial part of his music retained): Gli amanti gelosi, DBSA, 23 Nov
1764, most music by B. Galuppi; The Beggar's Opera, DBSA, 2 Jan 1765; J.A.
Hasse: Artaserse, LKH, 25 April 1772, collab. M. Vento; Hasse: Antigono, LKH, 8
March 1774, collab. Vento and T. Traetta; A. Sacchini: Armida, LKH, 8 Nov 1774; G.
Paisiello: Le due contesse, LKH, 4 Nov 1777; J. Hook: The Lady of the Manor,
DBEOH, 25 March 1784; T.A. Arne: Love in a Village, DBSA, 30 Oct 1784; Shield:
Robin Hood, or Sherwood Forest, DBSA, 13 Dec 1784; S. Arnold: Gretna Green,
DBSA, 7 Jan 1785; Shield: Fontainbleau, or Our Way in France, DBSA, 29 Jan
1785; Arne, after H. Purcell [Weldon]: The Tempest, DBCS, 26 Nov 1789; Arnold:
The Battle of Hexham, DBCS, early Dec 1789; S. Storace: The Haunted Tower,
DBCS, 18 Feb 1790; Storace: The Siege of Belgrade, or The Turkish Overthrow,
DBCS, 14 Dec 1791
Numerous songs and ovs. in pasticcios and comic ops (many written specially),
incl.: Le vicende della sorte (1770); Il trionfo d'amore (1773); La marchesa
giardiniera (1775); La frascatana (1776); Il geloso in cimento (1777); La vera
costanza (1778); Alessandro nelle Indie (1779); L'Arcifanano (1780); Il barone di
Torre Forte (1781); Ezio (1781); The Silver Tankard (Arnold, 1781); I viaggiatori felici
(1781); Silla (1783); Love in a Village (1791); Inkle and Yarico (1791)
Songs in plays, incl.: The Way to Keep Him (comedy, 3, A. Murphy), LDL, 24 Jan
1760; The Critic (farce, 3, R.B. Sheridan), LDL, 29 Oct 1779; The Musical Lady
(farce, Williams, after G. Colman the elder), DBEOH, 4 March 1784
other vocal
all printed works published in London
op.
op.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Galli, G. Maochi and G.C. Paribeni: Umberto Giordano nell’arte e nella
vita (Milan, 1915)
G.C. Paribeni: Madame Sans-Gêne (Milan, 1923)
Musica e scena, iii (1926) [Giordano issue]
R. Rinaldi: Musica e verismo: critica ed estetica di una tendenza musicale
(Rome, 1932)
R. Giazotto: Umberto Giordano (Milan, 1949)
G. Pannain: Ottocento musicale italiano (Milan, 1952)
G. Confalonieri: Umberto Giordano (Milan, 1958)
D. Cellamare: Umberto Giordano (Rome, 1967)
M. Morini, ed.: Umberto Giordano (Milan, 1968)
L’avant-scène opéra, no.121 (1989) [Andrea Chénier issue]
M. Sansone: Il verismo di Fedora e di Zazà (Milan, 1993)
M. Sansone: ‘Giordano’s Mala vita: a verismo Opera too True to be Good’,
ML, lxxv (1994), 381–400
JULIAN BUDDEN
Giorgetti, Ferdinando
(b Florence, 25 June 1796; d Florence, 22 March 1867). Italian composer
and violinist. He began violin lessons with G.F. Giuliani at the age of five. In
1811 he became a chamber musician to Elisa Buonaparte, accompanying
her retinue to Spain and France, where he is said by Fétis to have
modelled his style of playing on that of Rode. He returned to Florence in
1814 and, because of a paralysing illness, gave up his concert career and
turned to composition, studying harmony with Disma Ugolini. His music
was admired in Germany, where it was published by Breitkopf & Härtel and
reviewed in the Allgemeine musikaliche Zeitung. Modelling his instrumental
style on Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven (which earned him the nickname
‘Tedescone’), he was one of the initiators of the movement, centred in
Florence, to make the German Classics more widely appreciated in Italy.
However, he also published a Lettera (Florence, 1828) defending his friend
Rossini against the attacks of Eleuterio Pantologo. He was appointed to
teach the violin and viola at the Florence Istituto Musicale in 1839; and in
1840, with Luigi Picchianti, he founded the first Italian music magazine, the
Rivista musicale fiorentina. In 1850 he and his pupil Giovacchino
Giovacchini started a series of instrumental concerts, attended by the
publisher G.G. Guidi and the critics Basevi and Picchi, later leaders of the
Florentine musical revival.
Giorgetti composed a considerable amount of chamber music, as well as
sacred works and an oratorio. He also published a Metodo per esercitarsi a
ben suonare l’alto viola (Milan, ?1856). The most genuine and personal
qualities of his style are to be found in the unhackneyed and charming
popular touches that give it fluidity and spontaneity, especially in the three
quartets and two sextets.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
M. Fabbri: ‘Ignoti momenti rossiniani: le segrete confessioni a Ferdinando
Giorgetti e le sconosciute “variazioni” per Alessandro Abate (1817)’,
Chigiana, xxv, new ser. v (1968), 265–85
P. Paolini: ‘Beethoven a Firenze nell’ottocento’, NRMI, v (1971), 753–87,
973–1002
S. Martinotti: Ottocento strumentale italiano (Bologna, 1972)
SERGIO MARTINOTTI
Giorgi, Geltrude.
See Righetti, Geltrude.
Giorgi, Giovanni
(b 1st half of 18th century; d June 1762). Italian composer and priest. He is
said to have come from Venice. In September 1719 he succeeded G.O.
Pitoni as maestro di cappella of S Giovanni Laterano, Rome. He had a high
reputation for his superior musical abilities. In January 1725 he went as
mestre de capela to the court at Lisbon.
Giorgi's early work was done chiefly in Rome. He completed a stylistic
transition from the high Baroque to the pre-Classical in his works up to
about 1758, which were long assumed lost. Giorgi drew together the
various stylistic tendencies of the Roman School, to the point of using short
instrumental overtures, whereby precedence is given to individual
expression rather than liturgical function. The 16-part Missa ‘Servite
Domino’, on the other hand, still bears the marks of Benevoli's style.
WORKS
Editions: Documenta liturgiae polychoralis, xii, xiii, xix, xx, ed. L. Feininger (Rome, 1961–
70)Documenta maiora liturgiae polychoralis, vi–ix, xi, ed. L. Feininger (Rome, 1961–3,
1969)Monumenta liturgiae polychoralis, I/C/ii, III/A/i–ii, III/B/i–ii, ed. L. Feininger (Trent,
1960–63)Laetentur coeli, 4vv, ed. R. Ewerhart, Die Motette, i (Cologne, 1956)Offertoria,
facs. with Preface by S. Gmeinwieser (Trent, 1979) [only of part of the work]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
MGG1 suppl. (S. Gmeinwieser)
F.J. Solano: Nova instrucção musical, ou Theorica pratica da musica
rythmica (Lisbon, 1764) [incl. 41 music exx. by Giorgi]
G. Baini: Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle opere di Giovanni
Pierluigi da Palestrina (Rome, 1828/R)
J. Killing: Kirchenmusikalische Schätze der Bibliothek des Abbate
Fortunato Santini (Düsseldorf, 1910)
O. Ursprung: Die katholische Kirchenmusik (Potsdam, 1931/R)
L. Feininger: Catalogus thematicus et bibliographicus Joannis de Georgiis
operum sacrarum omnium, i (Trent, 1962); iii (1971)
SIEGFRIED GMEINWIESER
Giorgi-Belloc, Teresa.
See Belloc-Giorgi, Teresa.
no.
Giorza, Paolo
(b Milan, 11 Nov 1832; d Seattle, 4 May 1914). Italian composer and
conductor. He studied music with his father, Luigi Giorza, a baritone and
organist at Desio, and counterpoint with La Croix. He wrote a large amount
of light music, which was highly popular at the time, and between 1853 and
1866 was in fashion as a composer of ballets, most of which were
produced at La Scala. He worked in Vienna in 1856, and in 1863 had great
success in London, composing the ballet La farfalletta and other dance
music there as part of Queen Victoria’s Jubilee celebrations. In Paris the
next year he was less well received. An attempt at opera at La Scala in
1860, Corrado console di Milano, was unsuccessful. In 1866 he composed
an Inno di guerra for Garibaldi to words by Plantulli, the general’s secretary,
and Garibaldi was pleased with the result. That year marked the end of
Giorza’s important creative period. In 1867, because of financial troubles,
he went to America, where he toured in Mexico and visited the USA as an
opera conductor. He later visited Australia, where he became music
director at the International Exhibition in Sydney in 1879. He spent his last
years, poverty stricken, in the USA.
Giorza was considered a reformer of the ballet because of his attempts to
make his music, often pantomimic and sometimes melodramatic in
character, fit the given subject by creating a sense of atmosphere, and he
was one of the first composers to be listed with the dancers and
choreographers in reports of the ballet. Perhaps his best work was in
straightforward popular songs.
WORKS
stage
More than 70 ballets, most perf. Milan, many pubd, arr. pf (Milan)
Ops: Corrado console di Milano (os, 3, L. Gualtieri), Milan, Scala, 10 March 1860;
Alba Barozzi (A. Ghislanzoni) (Milan, 1884)
other works
Vocal: Cant., for opening of Sydney International Exhibition, 1879; masses, other
sacred works; many songs, incl. La bella Gigôgin, polka, with ritornello Dàghela
avanti un passo, 1858
Pf: numerous dances, several collections pubd (Milan), incl. Alle dame fiorentine,
Alle dame milanesi, Maschere italiane, Petit bouquet, Pierrot o la settimana grassa
a Milano; 4 salti
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM
ES (C. Sartori) [incl. more details of works]
FétisB
RicordiE
SchmidlD
Official Record of the Sydney International Exhibition, 1879 (Sydney,
1881), p.lvi ff
E. Haraszti: ‘La musique de ballet au XIXe siècle’, Histoire de la musique,
ed. Roland-Manuel, ii (Paris, 1963), 738–65, esp. 754
FRANCESCO BUSSI
Gioseffo da Lucca.
See Guami family, (1).
Edition: Ruggero Giovannelli: Composizioni sacre: messe, mottetti, salmi, ed. P. Teodori,
Fonti musicali, ii (Palestrina, 1922) [T]M. Giuliani, ed.: Ruggiero Giovannelli: Villanelle,
canzonette e arie: alla napolitana (Trent, 1996)
sacred
Sacrarum modulationum … liber primus, 5, 8vv (Rome, 1593); 1 ed. in AMI, ii
(c1897), 1 ed. in G.P. da Palestrina: Werke, xxx (Leipzig, 1891)
Motecta … liber secundus, 5vv (Venice, 1604); 2 ed. in Musica divina, ii
(Regensburg, c1855); 10 ed. in T
16 Latin sacred works, 2–8, 12vv: 15922, 1 ed. in G.P. da Palestrina: Werke, vi
(Leipzig, 1876), 1 ed. in AMI, ii (c1897); 15992, 1 ed. in Musica sacra, xxv
(Regensburg, 1885); 15994; 160011; 16072; 160914; 160915; 16143, 3 ed. in Musica
sacra, xxv, xxvi (Regensburg, 1885–6); 16151; 16161, 2 ed. in [T]; 16183, 1 ed. in T
3 spiritual canzonettas, 3–4vv: 15862
Missa ‘Iste est qui ante Deum’, 4vv, I-Rn (on Palestrina’s motet); ed. in T
Missa ‘Sicut lilium inter spinas’, 8vv, Rvat (almost identical to Missa ‘Vestiva i colli’)
Missa ‘Vestiva i colli’, 8vv, Rvat (almost identical to Missa ‘Sicut lilium’); ed. in T
Missa, 12vv, Rn
Missa ‘Cantantibus organis’, 12vv, Rsg [Et in spiritum only; collab. Palestrina and
other composers]; ed. in Monumenta polyphoniae italicae, i (Rome, 1930)
28 motets, 2–5, 8, 12, 14vv, some with bc: D-Bsb; Mbs (1 doubtful); Rp (2 inc.); I-
Bc; Rn (2 doubtful), 1 ed. in Musica divina, ii (Regensburg, c1855); Rvat, 1 ed. in
AMI, ii (c1897), ed. in T; PL-Wu; RUS-KA (1 inc.)
secular
Gli sdruccioli … Il primo libro de madrigali, 4vv (Rome, 1585)
Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1586); 1 ed. in Chater
Il primo libro delle villanelle et arie alla napolitana, 3vv (Rome, 1588); 1 ed. in
DeFord (1985)
Gli sdruccioli … libro secondo, 4vv, con una caccia in ultimo, 4–8vv (Venice, 1589)
Il secondo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1593); 1 ed. in AMI, ii (c1897)
Il terzo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1599) [pubd with Il primo libro (1586) and Il
secondo libro (1593) as Madrigali … novamente in un corpo ridotto, 5vv (Antwerp,
1606)]
Canzonette, with lute intabulations, 3vv; lost, mentioned in PitoniN, 438
37 works, 3–6vv: 15825, 1 ed. in Newcomb; 158310, 1 ed. in Newcomb; 158312;
15857; 158518; 158529; 158610, 1 ed. in M. Giuliani, I lieti amanti: madrigali di venti
musicisti ferraresi (Florence, 1990); 15876; 158817, 1 ed. in H.B. Lincoln, L’amorosa
Ero (New York, 1968); 158820; 15897; 158911; 159015; 159112; 159113; 15925; 159211
(Ger. contrafacta in 161313); 159214; 15933 (inc.); 15955; 15956; 15988; 15996; 16005;
16048; 160917
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AmbrosGM
NewcombMF
PitoniN
A. Liberati: Letter to O. Persapegi; (1685); repr. in R. Casimiri: Preface to
Missa Cantantibus organis, Monumenta polyphoniae italicae, i (Rome,
1930)
E. Schelle: Die päpstliche Sängerschule in Rom genannt die Sixtinische
Capelle (Vienna, 1872)
R. Molitor: Die nachtridentische Chorall-Reform zu Rom (Leipzig, 1901–
2/R), i, 178, 243; ii, 132
E. Celani: ‘I cantori della Cappella pontificia nei secoli XVI–XVIII’, RMI, xiv
(1907), 83–104, 752–90; xvi (1909), 55–112
A. Gabrielli: Ruggiero Giovannelli: musicista insigne (Velletri, 1907)
H.-W. Frey: ‘Ruggiero Giovannelli: eine biographische Studie’, KJb, xxii
(1909), 49–62
A. Cametti: ‘Ruggiero Giovannelli: note biografiche’, Musica d’oggi, vii
(1925), 211–12
A. Gabrielli: Ruggiero Giovannelli nella vita e nelle opere (Velletri, 1926)
C. Winter: Ruggiero Giovannelli: Nachfolger Palestrinas zu St. Peter in
Rom (Munich, 1935)
R. Casimiri: ‘“Disciplina musicae” e “mastri di capella” dopo il Concilio di
Trento nei maggiori istituti ecclesiastici di Roma: Seminario romano –
Collegio germanico – Collegio inglese (sec. XVI–XVII)’, NA, xix (1942),
102–29; xx (1943), 3–17
H.-W. Frey: ‘Die Gesänge der Sixtinischen Kapelle an den Sonntagen und
hohen Kirchenfesten des Jahres 1616’, Mélanges Eugène Tisserant, vi
(Vatican City, 1964), 395–437
H.-W. Frey: ‘Die Kapellmeister an der französischen Nationalkirche San
Luigi dei Francesi in Rom im 16. Jahrhundert’, AMw, xxiii (1966), 32–
60, esp. 39
T.D. Culley: Jesuits and Music, i: A Study of the Musicians Connected with
the German College in Rome during the 17th Century and of their
Activities in Northern Europe (Rome, 1970), 50–51
R.I. DeFord: Ruggiero Giovannelli and the Madrigal in Rome, 1572–1599
(diss., Harvard U., 1975) [incl. edns of music]
J. Chater: ‘Castelletti’s Stravanganze d’amore (1585): a Comedy with
Interludes’, Studi musicali, viii (1979), 85–148
T.D. Culley: ‘Musical Activity in some Sixteenth Century Jesuit Colleges,
with Special Reference to the Venerable English College in Rome from
1579 to 1589’, AnMc, no.19 (1979), 1–29
S. Leopold: ‘Madrigali sulle egloghe sdrucciole di Iacopo Sannazaro:
struttura poetica e forma musicale’, RIM, xiv (1979), 75–127
R.I. DeFord: ‘The Evolution of Rhythmic Style in Italian Secular Music of
the Late Sixteenth Century’, Studi musicali, x (1981), 43–74
R.I. DeFord: ‘Musical Relationships between the Italian Madrigal and Light
Genres in the Sixteenth Century’, MD, xxxix (1985), 107–68
P. Ludwig: Studien zum Motettenschaffen der Schüler Palestrinas
(Regensburg, 1986)
C. Assenza: La Canzonetta dal 1570 al 1615 (Lucca, 1997)
RUTH I. DeFORD
Giovanni Ambrosio.
See Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro.
madrigals
Agnel son bianco, 2vv, P 7, M 22, W 3 (text by ?Sacchetti; see Debenedetti, no.25
and Corsi)
Appress’un fiume chiaro, 2vv, P 8, M 24, 26, W 13 (Senhal: ‘Anna’; lauda
contrafactum: ‘Appresso al volto chiaro’)
Deh, come dolcemente, 2vv, P 11, M 32
Donna già fu’, 2vv, P 12, M 34, W 10
Fra mille corvi, 2vv, P 14, M 36, W 14 (text inc.; see Jacopo’s ‘Vestisse la
cornachia’)
In su la ripa, 2vv, P 16, M 38 (inc. text mentions ‘Spina’ and alludes to the river
Adige)
La bella stella (?L. Anguissola), 2vv, P 18, M 40, W 4 (dated c1354 in Gallo, 1987;
1363 in Paganuzzi)
Nascoso el viso, 2vv, P 20, M 42, W 8
Nel meço a sei paon, 2vv, P 24, M 48, 50, W 9 (Debenedetti, no.48; attrib. Jacopo
da Bologna in I-Fl S Lorenzo 2211)
O perlaro gentil, 2vv, P 26, M 52, 54, W 11 (Senhal: ‘Anna’)
O tu, cara sciença, 2vv, P 28, M 56, 59, W 12
Per ridda andando ratto, 2vv, P 32, M 66 (canonic ritornello)
Più non mi curo, 2vv, P 35, M 68, 70, W 5
Quando la stella, 2vv, P 38, M 72 (2 ritornelli, one after each stanza)
Sedendo all’ombra, 2vv, P 39, M 74, 76, W 6
Togliendo l’una a l’altra, 2vv, P 42, M 78, W 7
cacce
Con brachi assai, 3vv, P 44, M 28
Nel bosco sença foglie, 3vv, P 46, M 44 (metrically a madrigal)
Per larghi prati, 3vv, P 49, M 62 (text inc.; see Corsi, 24)
doubtful works
De soto ’l verde, 2vv (CMM, viii/2, 1960, pp.15–18; for more doubtful works see N.
Pirrotta, ed.: Il codice Rossi 215, Lucca, 1992, pp.51–2)
lost works
Soni multi et ballate, 1v (see Galletti)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Villani: De civitatis Florentiae et eiusdem famosis civibus; ed. G.C.
Galletti (Florence, 1847); ed. G. Tanturli (Padua, 1997)
S. Debenedetti, ed.: ‘Il “Sollazzo” e il “Saporetto” con altre rime di Simone
Prudenzani di Orvieto’, Giornale storico della letteratura italiana,
suppl.xv (Turin, 1913)
E. Li Gotti: ‘Il più antico polifonista italiano del sec. XIV’, Italica, xxiv
(1947), 196–200
K. von Fischer: ‘On the Technique, Origin, and Evolution of Italian
Trecento Music’, MQ, xlvii (1961), 41–57
K. von Fischer: ‘Quelques remarques sur les relations entre les laudesi et
les compositeurs florentins du Trecento’, L’Ars Nova italiana del
Trecento: Convegno II: Certaldo and Florence 1969 [L’Ars Nova
italiana del Trecento, iii (Certaldo, 1970)], 247–52
G. Thibault: ‘Emblèmes et devises des Visconti dans les oeuvres
musicales du Trecento’, ibid., 131–60
G. Corsi, ed.: Poesie musicali del Trecento, xxx (Bologna, 1970), 11–28
F.A. D’Accone: ‘Music and Musicians at the Florentine Monastery of Santa
Trinità, 1360–1363’, Quadrivium, xii/1 (1971), 131–51
K. von Fischer: ‘Zum Wort-Ton Problem in der Musik des italienischen
Trecento’, Festschrift Arnold Geering, ed. V. Ravizza (Berne, 1972),
53–62
K. von Fischer: ‘“Portraits” von Piero, Giovanni da Firenze und Jacopo da
Bologna in einer Bologneser Handschrift des 14. Jahrhunderts’, MD,
xxvii (1973), 61–4
F.A. Gallo: ‘Antonio de Ferrara, Lancilloto Anguissola, and the 14th-century
madrigal’, Studi e problemi di critica testuale, Italy, xii (1976), 40–45
M.P. Long: Musical Tastes in Fourteenth-Century Italy: Notational Styles,
Scholarly Traditions, and Historical Circumstances (diss., Princeton U.,
1981)
J. Nádas: ‘The Structure of the MS Panciatichi 26 and the Transmission of
Trecento Polyphony’, JAMS, xxxiv (1981), 393–427
N. Pirrotta: ‘Back to Ars Nova Themes’, Music and Context: Essays for
John M. Ward, ed. A.D. Shapiro and P. Benjamin (Cambridge, MA,
1985), 166–82
F.A. Gallo: ‘Critica della tradizione e storia del testo: seminario su un
madrigale trecentesco’, AcM, lix (1987), 36–45
V. Newes: ‘Chace, Caccia, Fuga: the Convergence of French and Italian
Traditions’, MD, xli (1987), 27–57
M. Long: ‘Landini's Musical Patrimony: a Reassessment of some
Compositional Conventions in Trecento Polyphony’, JAMS, xl (1987),
31–52
B. Toliver: ‘Improvisation in the Madrigals of the Rossi Codex’, AcM, lxiv
(1992), 165–76
F.A. Gallo, ed.: Il codice Squarcialupi (Florence, 1992) [incl. K. von
Fischer: ‘Le biografie’, 127–44, esp. 130–31; N. Pirrotta: ‘Le musiche
del codice Squarcialupi’, 193–222, esp. 195–8]
M. Gozzi: ‘La cosiddetta Longanotation: nuove prospettive sulla notazione
italiana del Trecento’, MD, xlix (1995), 121–49
B.McD. Wilson: ‘Madrigal, Lauda, and Local Style in Trecento Florence’,
JM, xv (1997), 137–77
E. Paganuzzi: ‘Nota sul madrigale “Suso quel monte che fiorise l'erba”’,
NRMI, xxxi (1997), 337–42
KURT VON FISCHER/GIANLUCA D’AGOSTINO
Giovanni da Foligno.
See Johannes Fulginatis.
Giovanni Gherardi.
See Giovanni da Prato.
Giovanni Mazzuoli.
See Mazzuoli, Giovanni.
Giovannini, Simone
(b Tuscany, c1550; d Pistoia, 15 Feb 1621). Italian composer and organist.
He was a priest and the brother of Baccio de’ Giovannini, a highly
respected secretary to the grand dukes of Tuscany and almoner to Maria
de’ Medici after she moved to France as Henri IV’s queen. Simone
Giovannini was a Florentine citizen when in March 1578 he was appointed
to succeed Vincenzo Ruffo as maestro di cappella of Pistoia Cathedral; he
was a favourite of the Grand Duchess of Tuscany, Johanna of Austria, who
recommended him for this post, and he was also recommended by the
Archbishop of Florence, Alessandro de’ Medici, later Pope Leo XI. In 1589
he also became organist of the Servite church, Santo Spirito. He held both
posts until his death. As a cleric of the post-Tridentine church he was an
honorary canon, rector of his own parish, S Liberata, and a founder of the
Confraternita di S Sebastiano. As a composer he is known by five
Magnificat settings for three to six voices (one based on a madrigal by
Alessandro Striggio (i), Ancor ch’io possa dire), four five-part hymns and
three four-part antiphons (all in I-PS 216, two of the antiphons also in 215);
they were all written for Pistoia Cathedral. They display technical mastery
and a notable sensitivity of line. Since they show the unmistakable
influence of the Tuscan school, it can be surmised that Giovannini received
his musical training in Florence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Fabbri: ‘Una preziosa raccolta di musica sacra cinquecentesca: il
Codice 315 dell’Archivio del Duomo di Pistoria’, CHM, vi (1966), 103–
23
MARY JOAN RYAN
Giovenardi, Bartolomeo
[Bartolomé].
See Jovernardi, Bartolomé.
Orch: Knight in Armour, op.8, 1940; Ob Conc., d, op.20, 1941; Sym. no.1, op.22,
1942; Vn Conc., B , op.24, 1943; Suite: the Chinese Cabinet, op.29, 1945; Sym.
no.2, op.30, 1945; Pf Conc., op.34, 1948; Conc., op.49, vn, va, small orch, 1957;
Sym. no.3, op.56, 1960; Hn Conc., op.58, 1968; Sym. no.4, op.61, 1972; Sym. no.5,
op.64, 1982; Ambarvalia, small orch, op.70, 1988; Hn Conc, op.58, 1997
Chbr: Trio, op.10, ob, cl, pf, 1940; Qnt, op.16, ob, cl, vn, va, vc, 1941; Flax and
Charlock, op.21, eng hn, str trio, 1941; Rhapsody, op.23, cl, str qt, 1942; Sonata,
op.42, vn, pf, 1954; Sonata, op.45, cl, pf, 1955; Str Qt, op.47, 1956; Sonata, op.63,
vc, pf, 1978; Wind Octet, op.65, 1983; Sonata, op.6, ob, pf, 1985; Sinfonietta,
op.73, 10 wind, 1989; Wealden Suite, op.76, B -cl, E -cl, A-cl, b cl, 1991; Sonata,
op.80, a trbn, 1995; Sonata, op.81, db, pf, 1996
Choral: The Temptation of Christ, op.6, S, T, SATB, orch, 1939; Rhapsody without
Words, op.18, S, small orch, 1941; The Cat, op.32, A, Bar, double chorus, orch,
1947; The Prophet, op.35, spkr, S, B, chorus, children's chorus, orch, 1950; Goblin
Market, op.40, S, S, SSA, str orch, 1953; Mag and Nunc, op.55, SSTAB, org, 1959
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Halstead: A Study of Ruth Gipps Illustrating her Musical Development
through Detailed Reference to Symphonies Two to Five (thesis, U. of
Sheffield, 1991)
D.C.F. Wright: ‘Ruth Gipps’, British Music, xiii (1991), 3–13
C. Pluygers: ‘Discrimination … the Career and Struggle for Recognition of
Dr Ruth Gipps’, Winds (1992), spr., 14–15
M. Campbell: ‘Ruth Gipps: a Woman of Substance’, Signature, i/3 (1996),
15–20, 32–4
L. Foreman: ‘Ruth Gipps’, The Independent (3 March 1999) [obituary]
J. Halstead: The Woman Composer: Factors Affecting Creativity and the
Gendered Politics of Musical Composition (forthcoming)
JILL HALSTEAD (with LEWIS FOREMAN, J.N.F. LAURIE-BECKETT)
Giraldoni, Eugenio
(b Marseilles, 20 May 1871; d Helsinki, 23/24 June 1924). Italian baritone,
son of the baritone Leone Giraldoni and the soprano and violinist Carolina
Ferni (1839–1926). Eugenio was taught by his mother, and he made his
début in 1891 as Escamillo at Barcelona. He became well known
throughout Italy and in South America and in 1900 was given the role of
Scarpia in the world première of Tosca at the Costanzi in Rome. He
repeated the part later that year at La Scala and in other houses including
Covent Garden (1906), but was generally considered to exaggerate the
sadism and underplay the refinement of the part. In his single season at
the Metropolitan, in 1904, he was also found somewhat coarse in his
performances. He nevertheless continued to be in great demand in Europe
and South America. He was a widely admired Boris, a part he first sang at
Buenos Aires in 1909. He was also Italy’s first Yevgeny Onegin in 1900 and
Golaud in the Rome première of Pelléas et Mélisande. Other roles outside
the standard Italian repertory were Hans Sachs, Telramund, Ochs and
Rubinstein’s Demon. He was considered the best singer of Gérard in
Andrea Chénier and in 1906 took part in the première of Franchetti’s La
figlia di Iorio. He retired from the stage in 1921 and thereafter taught in
Helsinki. His recordings, magnificent in quality of voice, often show him as
a colourful stylist too; strangely, they do not include any excerpts from
Tosca.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GV (E. Gara and R. Celletti; R. Vegeto)
J.B. STEANE
Giraldoni, Leone
(b Paris, 1824; d Moscow, 19 Sept/1 Oct 1897). Italian baritone, father of
Eugenio Giraldoni. He studied in Florence, making his début in 1847 at
Lodi. After singing in Florence and, from 1855, at La Scala, he created the
title role of Simon Boccanegra at La Fenice in 1857 and Renato in Un ballo
in maschera at the Teatro Apollo, Rome, in 1859. He also sang other Verdi
roles, notably Count di Luna (Il trovatore). In 1877 he sang Rossini’s Figaro
at La Scala and in 1878 at Cagli he took part in the first performance of
Mercuri’s Il violino del diavolo, written for his wife, Carolina Ferni, a virtuoso
violinist as well as a singer. He created the title role of Donizetti’s
posthumously produced Il duca d’Alba at the Teatro Apollo, Rome (1882),
and after his retirement in 1885 taught singing in Moscow. A sensitive artist,
he had a rich, high-lying voice.
ELIZABETH FORBES
Girard.
Italian firm of music publishers. In 1809 Giuseppe Girard opened a music
copyist’s business in Naples at Via Toledo 165, and at the end of 1817 he
established the Calcografia e copisteria dei Reali teatri. Guglielmo Cottrau
(1797–1847) was director from 1824 to 1846. Giuseppe Girard retired in
1826 to be succeeded by his son Bernardo, who in 1827 entered into
partnership with Cottrau. When Bernardo died in 1835 Gugliemo Cottrau
became a partner of the Girard heirs and continued to do business under
the name Bernardo Girard e C. Cottrau's experience and reputation kept
the business flourishing, thanks to the cordial rapport he enjoyed with the
leading musicians of the time; his French origins possibly account for the
good relations the firm enjoyed with the French publishers Troupenas,
Latte and Launer, to whom rights were given for some of Bellini’s operas
and Donizetti’s Lucia, Roberto Devereux and Betly. Under Cottrau the firm
published Passatempi musicali (1835–47), a collection of 129 Neapolitan
songs that he edited; the first edition had been published privately in 1826
and reprinted in 1830. Bernard Latte published the collection in a
translation by A. de Lauzières, and in 1833 it was sold to the Paris
publisher Pacini. By paying an annual fee to the S Carlo, del Fondo and
Nuovo theatres, Girard secured the copyright of the operas and ballets
expressly written for and performed in those theatres.
On Cottrau’s retirement in 1846 he left the management of the firm to his
son Teodoro Cottrau, who became the sole proprietor in 1855. The firm’s
1847 catalogue contains 210 pages of titles. Michele Pasinati supervised
the music engraving. From 1853 the firm took the name Stabilimento
musicale partenopeo (successore di B. Girard e C.).
The firm’s 1847 catalogue lists mainly operas, generally in vocal score,
written by the most important Italian composers (Rossini, Pacini, Bellini,
Donizetti, Mercadante) and works by minor Neapolitan musicians. The firm
also issued a complete edition of Beethoven’s piano sonatas and some of
his chamber music, the complete works of Chopin, Mendelssohn’s Lieder
ohne Worte and Thalberg’s Oeuvres choisies. Other music was published
in the series Euterpe drammatica estera: scelta di pezzi vocali delle migliori
opere moderne francesi e tedesche con versione italiana. A journal,
Gazzetta musicale di Napoli, was published from 1852 to 1868. About
1870, Teodoro Cottrau’s interest in publishing declined; in the closing years
of the century it was run by Teodoro’s brother Felice Cottrau and Nicola
Ercole. It is likely that at the beginning of the new century at least a part of
the Cottrau material was acquired by the publisher Santojanni. The last
catalogue of the archive was published in 1886.
Bernardo Girard’s son Federico (d 6 April 1877) ran an independent
publishing business in the 1860s and 70s. He published more than 1000
titles, generally romanzas and piano pieces.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SartoriD
G. Cottrau: Lettres d’un mélomane pour servir de document à l’histoire
musicale de Naples de 1829 à 1847 (Naples, 1885)
R. Cafiero and F. Seller: ‘Editoria musicale a Napoli attraverso la stampa
periodica: il “Giornale del regno delle due Sicilie” (1817–1860)’, Le
fonti musicali in Italia: studi e ricerche, iii (1989), 57–90; iv (1990),
133–70
B.M. Antolini: ‘Le edizioni rossiniane’, Rossini 1792–1992, Pesaro,
Palazzo Montani Antaldi, 27 June–30 Sept 1992, ed. M. Bucarelli
(Perugia, 1992), 355–66 [exhibition catalogue]
B.M. Antolini: ‘Copyists and Publishers in Italy between 1770 and 1830’,
The Dissemination of Music, ed. H. Lenneberg (Lausanne, 1994),
107–15
P. Maione and F. Seller: ‘Il Tribunale di Commercio di Napoli: documenti
sull’attività teatrale del primo Ottocento’, Fonti musicali italiane, i
(1996), 145–62
F. Seller: ‘Giraud-Cottrau’, Dizionario degli editori musicali italiani, 1750–
1930, ed. B.M. Antolini (Rome, forthcoming)
STEFANO AJANI/R
Girard, Jan.
See Gerard, Jan.
Girard, Narcisse
(b Mantes, 27 Jan 1797; d Paris, 17 Jan 1860). French conductor, violinist
and composer. He was in Baillot's class at the Paris Conservatoire
(winning second prize in 1819 and first prize in 1820), and studied
counterpoint with Reicha. He composed several works, including two
opéras-comiques: Les deux voleurs (1841) and Les dix (1842). However, it
was principally as a violinist and conductor that he made his name. A
member of the orchestra of the Opera Buffa and the Théâtre Feydeau, he
was one of the group that founded the Société des Concerts du
Conservatoire in 1828, together with Habeneck, whom he was to succeed.
According to Dandelot (in La Société des concerts du Conservatoire,
1828–1923, Paris, 1923), he made his début as a conductor with the
orchestra of the Athénée Musical at the Hôtel de Ville. He replaced Grasset
as conductor of the orchestra of the Théâtre Italien (1830–32), and was
then conductor at the Théâtre-Nautique (1834–5), and succeeded
Valentino at the Opéra-Comique (1836–47). Habeneck recommended that
Girard succeed him as conductor of the orchestra of the Académie Royale
de Musique on 1 October 1846; he remained there until his sudden death
in 1860, during a performance of Les Huguenots. Girard also continued
Habeneck's work with the orchestra of the Société des Concerts du
Conservatoire, which he conducted 112 times between 1849 and 1860. In
1843 he was made a Chevalier of the Légion d'Honneur, and on 1 January
1847 he was appointed professor of a new violin class at the
Conservatoire, holding that post until his death. He also conducted the
orchestras of the Chapelle Impériale (1853), and the Opéra, earning the
title of music director of the Académie Impériale de Musique (1855–6).
Despite the forthright opinion of Saint-Saëns, who considered Girard's
reputation somewhat exaggerated, and held him responsible for the
introduction of many errors of interpretation into works by composers of the
past, which had to await Deldevez to recover their original meaning, it may
be noted that in continuing the tradition he inherited from Cherubini and
Habeneck, Girard gave a modern direction to the repertory of the Société
des Concerts du Conservatoire from the early days of his appointment. In
particular, he included works by composers of the younger generation such
as Berlioz (La damnation de Faust, 15 April 1849), Halévy (Prométhée
enchaîné, 18 March 1849) and Félicien David (a symphony, 1853).
GÉRARD STRELETSKI
Girardeau, Isabella
(fl 1709–12). Italian soprano. Very little is known of her: Burney thought she
was an Italian married to a Frenchman and tentatively identified her with
one Isabella Calliari. She was a member of the Queen’s Theatre company
in London from January 1710 (perhaps October 1709) until spring or
summer 1712 and sang in six pasticcios, Almahide, Idaspe fedele, Pirro e
Demetrio, Etearco, Antioco and Ambleto, and in Handel’s Rinaldo, in which
she was the original Almirena. This is an exceptionally modest part for an
opera seria heroine, and neither elaborate nor taxing (the compass is d' to
a''); moreover much of the material was not new. Girardeau was evidently
no great virtuoso; but she could not have lacked power, for in Ambleto she
had ‘a noisy song for trumpets and hautbois obligati’ (Burney). She is said
to have been a bitter rival of Elisabetta Pilotti-Schiavonetti, Handel’s first
Armida.
WINTON DEAN
Girardi, Alexander
(b Graz, 5 Dec 1850; d Vienna, 20 April 1918). Austrian tenor and comic
actor. For over 40 years the much loved, popular favourite of the Vienna
theatre, he created roles in more than 50 musical plays and operettas,
chiefly at the Theater an der Wien, where he was engaged from 1874 to
1896 and again from 1902 to 1905. He inspired many characters in Johann
Strauss operettas, including Blasoni (Cagliostro in Wien), Don Sancho
(Das Spitzentuch der Königin), Marchese Sebastiani (Der lustige Krieg),
Zsupan (Der Zigeunerbaron), Kassim Pasha (Fürstin Ninetta) and Müller
(Waldmeister). For Millöcker he created Andredl (Das verwunschene
Schloss), Plinchard (Die Jungfrau von Belleville), Symon Rymanowicz (Der
Bettelstudent), Benozzo (Gasparone), Piffkow (Der Feldprediger) and the
title role of Der arme Jonathan. Zeller wrote Adam (Der Vogelhändler) and
Martin (Der Obersteiger) for him, while Lehár’s Wiener Frauen, Eysler’s
Bruder Straubinger, Oscar Straus’s Mein junger Herr, Kálmán’s Der
Zigeunerprimas and Fall’s Der Nachtschnellzug contain original Girardi
roles. His inimitable humour and expressiveness are preserved in four
recordings made in 1903.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K.F. Nowak: Alexander Girardi: sein Leben und sein Wirken (Vienna, 1908)
R. Holzer: Die Wiener Vorstadtbühnen: Alexander Girardi und das Theater
an der Wien (Vienna, 1951)
B. Grun: Kulturgeschichte der Operette (Munich, 1961, 2/1967)
ELIZABETH FORBES
Giraud, François-Joseph
(d ?Paris, after 1788). French cellist and composer. He held the post of
maître de musique in Laon before going to Paris, where he was employed
as a cellist at the Académie Royale de Musique (1752–76). From 1752 to
1767 he was a cellist in the Paris Opéra orchestra and at the Concert
Spirituel. His collection of sonatas for cello op.1 probably dates from the
early 1750s. Among its unusual features are continuous multiple stops in
some slow movements, and somewhat less adventurous fast movements
in which the solo line is sometimes in unison with the continuo. Chromatic
bass lines and suspensions are both interesting characteristics of his style.
Between 1752 and 1765 at least seven grands motets by Giraud (none of
which survives) were performed at the Concert Spirituel, Regina coeli, in
particular, several times. His other successful genre was the comédie-
ballet, with L'opéra de société receiving more than 20 performances at the
Opéra. Noiray considers his most important work to be Deucalion et
Pyrrha, a one-act ballet composed in collaboration with P.-M. Berton. This
work contains in miniature many of the traditional elements of French
serious opera as exemplified by Rameau; the storm and the combat with a
mythical creature are both vividly depicted.
WORKS
printed works published in Paris
stage
first performances in Paris
other works
Choral motets (all lost): Regina coeli, 1752; Super flumina Babylonis, 1752; Quam
dilecta, 1753; Salvum me fac Deus, 1754; Deus noster refugium, 1755; Exaltabo
te, 1758; Cantemus, 1763
Inst: 6 sonates, vc, bc, op.1 (c1750); 6 sonates, vn, vc, ad lib bc, op.2 (n.d.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
GroveO (M. Noiray)
La BordeE
PierreH
G.J. Shaw: The Violoncello Sonata Literature in France during the
Eighteenth Century (diss., Catholic U. of America, Washington DC,
1963)
MARY CYR/VALERIE WALDEN
Giraud, Marthe.
See Carré, Marguerite.
Giraud, Suzanne
(b Metz, 31 July 1958). French composer. She was a student at the
Strasbourg Conservatoire before entering the Paris Conservatoire, where
her principal composition teachers were Ballif, Constant and Dufourt. She
also studied the techniques of electro-acoustic composition and spectral
music at IRCAM, the Groupe de Recherches Musicales and with Murail,
before undertaking further studies with Donatoni and Ferneyhough. She
was resident at the Villa Medici, Rome, from 1984 to 1986. She has
received a number of awards, including the Enesco Prize of the SACEM,
and commissions from French Radio and the Ensemble
InterContemporain. She taught at the Paris Conservatoire from 1988 until
1993, when she became director of the Conservatoire de Paris 20e
Arrondissement.
Most of Giraud’s works are written for chamber groups of varying size and
configuration; her often unusual choice of instruments, as for example in
Episode en forme d’oubli and Le rouge des profondeurs, enables her to
create a noticeable interplay of subtle timbres, a feature reminiscent of,
and maybe derived from, the work of Marius Constant. Although she uses
strict combinatorial serial techniques, the evocative titles of her
compositions suggest that her work is informed by a naturalistic aesthetic,
one that is at once dreamlike and exultant.
WORKS
(selective list)
MSS in F-Pn
DANIEL KAWKA
Editions:Der musikalische Nachlass der Troubadours: I, ed. F. Gennrich, SMM, iii (1958)
[complete edn]Las cançons dels trobadors, ed. I. Fernandez de la Cuesta and R. Lafont
(Toulouse, 1979) [complete edn]The Extant Troubadour Melodies, H. van der Werf and
G. Bond (Rochester, NY, 1984) [complete edn]The ‘Cansos’ and ‘Sirventes’ of the
Troubadour Giraut de Borneil: a Critical Edition, ed. R.V. Sharman (Cambridge, 1989)
[complete edn]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (F. Gennrich)
A. Kolsen: Sämtliche Lieder des Trobadors Guiraut de Bornelh (Halle,
1910–35) [edn of texts]
J. Boutière and A.-H. Schutz: Biographies des troubadours (Paris, 1950,
rev. 2/1964 by J. Boutière), 39
B. Stäblein: ‘Eine Hymnusmelodie als Vorlage einer provenzalischen Alba’,
Miscelánea en homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona,
1958–61), 889–94
H. van der Werf: The Chansons of the Troubadours and Trouvères: a
Study of the Melodies and their Relation to the Poems (Utrecht, 1972),
96 [edn of Reis glorios]
W. Arlt: ‘Zur Interpretation zweier Lieder: A Madre de Deus und Reis
glorios’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, i (1977), 117–30
R. Labaree: ‘Finding’ Troubadour Song: Melodic Variability and Melodic
Idiom in Three Monophonic Traditions (diss., Wesleyan U., 1989), 168
A. Rieger: ‘Alamanda de Castelnau: une trobairitz dans l'entourage des
comtes de Toulouse?’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, cvii
(1991), 47–57
M. Switten: ‘Modèle et variations: Saint-Martial de Limoges et les
troubadours’, Contacts de langues, de civilisations et intertextualité:
Congrès international de l'Association internationale d'études
occitanes III [Montpellier 1990], ed. G. Gouiran (Montpellier, 1992),
679–96
M.T. Bruckner, L. Shepard and S. White: Songs of the Women
Troubadours (New York, 1995), 42, 158 [trans. and commentary of PC
242.69]
Girelli, Santino
(b Brescia; fl 1620–27). Italian composer. According to the title-page of his
publication of 1626 he had studied under Lelio Bertani. He seems to have
remained in Brescia. He is not known to have held a church appointment,
though his surviving output is all of church music. The three collections
consist entirely of masses and psalms, suggesting that he was not so
interested in the fashionable small concertato motet. However his psalms
of 1620 demonstrate the way the double-choir style was developing at this
date. Three of them are written for a first choir of soloists accompanied by
the organ, whereas the second choir, marked ‘cappella’, need not have
organ support, though there is an independent second organ part in the
basso continuo partbook. Girelli occasionally drew soloists from the second
choir as well, as in the Dixit Dominus: in this work modern concertato
sections alternate with impressive antiphonal or imitative effects involving
the whole ensemble.
WORKS
all published in Venice
Salmi brevi di tutto l'anno, con 2 Dixit, 1 Magnificat … letanie della Beata Virgine,
8vv, bc (org) (1620)
Salmi intieri … con 1 Dixit e Magnificat, 5vv, bc (org) (1626)
[4] Messe, 5, 8vv, con 1 da morto, con li ripieni delle prime 2, a 5 ad lib, op.3 (1627)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Valentini: I musicisti bresciani e il Teatro Grande (Brescia, 1894), 54
J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford,
1984)
JEROME ROCHE
Giribaldi, Tomás
(b Montevideo, 18 Oct 1847; d Montevideo, 11 April 1930). Uruguayan
composer. A member of a noted musical family, he studied with the
cathedral organist Carmelo Calvo, the double bass player Rodolfo Battesini
and the band director José Strigelli. His Parisina, produced at the Teatro
Solís by a visiting Italian company, aroused such enthusiasm that he was
awarded a government grant to study at Milan Conservatory. In 1879 he
settled in Paysandú, where he wrote his second opera, Manfredi di Svevia,
again given at the Solís by an Italian company (including Romilda
Pantaleoni, Verdi's first Desdemona). His other operas, Inés de Castro and
Magda, remain unproduced; all four are preserved in the Museo Histórico
Nacional, Montevideo. A plaque honouring him as the first Uruguayan
opera composer was installed in the Teatro Solís in 1930, and two years
later a street behind the Museo de Bellas Artes was named after him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Salgado: Breve historia de la música culta en el Uruguay (Montevideo,
1971)
ROBERT STEVENSON
Girolamo da Udine.
See Dalla Casa, Girolamo.
Giroust, François
(b Paris, 10 April 1737; d Versailles, 28 April 1799). French composer. He
was a member of the choir school of Notre Dame from January 1745 until
October 1756, where he studied with Louis Homet and Antoine Goulet. As
head boy he had two works performed on 17 June 1756: the motet Lauda
Jerusalem and a Magnificat. He was ordained and took minor orders
before leaving to become maître de musique at Orléans Cathedral.
Giroust also led the Académie de Musique in Orléans. Some programmes
survive from the ambitious weekly concerts he led (1764–5 and 1768–9).
These usually included opera extracts (Rameau, Campra, Mouret and
others) and a grand motet – often by Giroust himself. At least 22 of his
motets date from this period, although most survive only in later revisions.
His works were first performed at the Concert Spirituel in Paris in 1762. His
Exaudi Deus, performed four times in 1764, was praised by Rameau,
whom Giroust admired greatly. He subsequently wrote a Dies irae for
Rameau which was played at a memorial service held in Orléans on 15
January 1765. For a contest sponsored by the Concert Spirituel in 1768,
Giroust submitted two settings of Super flumina Babylonis. There were
three finalists, and when Giroust was revealed as the composer not only of
the first prize, but also of a specially demanded second prize, there was a
great sensation. The second setting was compared with the work of
Pergolesi and it seems d’Alembert and others supported it believing it to be
by Philidor.
For the next seven years Giroust was the most frequently performed
composer at the Concert Spirituel, aside from the director, Dauvergne. In
1769 he became maître de musique at Saints-Innocents in Paris. Two
years later he married Marie Françoise d’Avantois de Beaumont, a soprano
at the Concert Spirituel and Académie Royale who was related to the
Archbishop of Paris. They had nine children; Louis XVI and Marie
Antoinette stood, by proxy, as godparents to the first child born in
Versailles, Louisa Antoinette.
On 17 February 1775 Giroust replaced Gauzargues as sous maître de
chapelle at the Chapelle Royale in Versailles. He composed many motets
for the chapel, together with the Coronation Mass for Louis XVI and a
memorial Missa pro defunctis for Louis XV. On 16 June 1780 he purchased
the position of surintendant de musique, en survivance, from de Bury,
assuming the post in 1785. He retained the post of maître de chapelle, to
the chagrin of Le Sueur and others. Some secular works, including
masonic entertainments, date from this period.
Giroust stayed in Versailles after the fall of the monarchy in 1792 and,
whether from fear or desperation, threw in his lot with the Revolution. He
conducted nearly all the Revolutionary ceremonies in the city, and wrote
over 50 songs, hymns and occasional pieces for them. Many were to texts
by Félix Nogaret, a fellow freemason and radical colleague of Robespierre.
The Chant des versaillais was performed for the National Convention and
circulated throughout the country, becoming his most famous work and one
of the best-known tunes of the Revolution (it survives in more than 50
versions and parodies). He suffered some financial hardship during this
time, but in May 1793 was given the modest post of concièrge at the
Château in Versailles, and in 1795 was awarded a government pension.
On 13 February 1796 he became the first non-resident composer elected
to the Institut de France, joining Méhul, Gossec and Grétry. He was much
appreciated by the Commune of Versailles and received many tributes at
his death, although later he was criticized for his political turn-around.
Giroust’s main legacy is the grand motet, of which he was the last master.
He followed in the tradition of Du Mont, Delalande and others, but his
music is unmistakably late 18th-century in style: light melodies, regular
phrases, simple harmonies and clear forms. Most of the motets have 5 or 6
individual numbers which often divide into slow/fast sections. Rounded
binary is the commonest form in both solo and choral numbers; less
frequent are operatic scene-complexes (e.g. ‘Surge Domine’ in Memento
Domine David). Giroust’s melodies are typically graceful and lyrical
(‘Jucundum sit ei’ in Benedic anima), but there is greater strength in the
choral writing. He dropped the basse-taille from the traditional five-part
French chorus in about 1780, but did not abandon counterpoint, writing
fugues such as ‘Sic psalmum dicam’ in Ecce quam bonum as late as 1790.
He often combined several themes (‘Quia contrivit’ in Confitemini), or
contrasted polyphony with forceful chordal passages or unisons (‘Peccator
videbit’ in Beatus vir). He also delighted in orchestral word-painting. The
first prizewinning Super flumina opens with fluvial murmurings; other
subjects include storms (Diligam te), racing chariots (Exaudiat te) and
earthquakes (Dominus regnavit). His surviving oratorios, despite their
French titles, are all in Latin. The stirring Passage de la Mer Rouge was
performed in royal, Revolutionary and Restoration times. The Paris
Conservatoire acquired almost all of the surviving scores early in the 19th
century from his widow, but many Revolutionary works are missing, and
most of the masonic works were signed out of the library in the 19th
century and not returned.
WORKS
MSS in F-Pn unless otherwise stated
motets
grands motets for solo voice, chorus and orchestra unless otherwise stated; where
revisions are indicated only the latest version survives
Lauda Jerusalem, ?1756, rev. 1777; Magnificat [I], ?1756, rev. 1770, inc.; Assumitur
virgo, c1756–9; Descendat alto divus (for Ste Cecilia), c1756–9; O salutaris, 1760
(ed. J. Prim, Paris, 1954); Magnus Dominus, 1762, rev. 1778; Deus judex justus,
1763, rev. 1784; Benedic anima, 1764; Dominus regnavit, 1764, rev. 1778; Exaudi
Deus (Ps liv), 1764, rev. 1781; In convertendo, 1764, rev. 1766, 1787; Judica me,
1764, lost; Nisi Dominus, 1764, lost; Notus in Judea, 1764, rev. 1777; TeD, 1764,
rev. 1782, inc.
Beatus vir, 1765, rev. 1777; Cantate Domino, 1765, rev. 1774; Confitemini Domino,
1765, rev. 1773; Dies irae, 1765; Levavi oculos, 1765, lost; Miserere mei [I] (Ps lvi),
1765, rev. 1766; Misericordia Domini, 1765, lost; Quam dilecta, 1765, rev. 1779;
Quare fremuerunt, 1765, rev. 1778; Quemadmodum, 1765, rev. 1775; 10ème Ode
de Rousseau (?‘Paroissez, roi des rois’, book 1; Ps xciii), 1765, lost; for Saintes
Cathedral, 1765, lost; Confitebor tibi (Ps ix), 1767, rev. 1784; Super flumina
Babylonis [I], 1767; Judica Domine, 1768; Super flumina Babylonis [II], 1768;
Confitebor tibi (from Ps cxxxviii), solo v, c1769
De profundis [I], 1770; Domine salvum fac regem, 1770; Exurgat Deus, 1770, rev.
1787; 1772, Diligam te, Domine, 1772; Dixit Dominus, 1772; Confitebor tibi (Ps cx),
1773; Jubilate Deo, 1773; Magnificat [II], 1774, rev. 1777; Deus noster refugium,
1775; Exultate justi, 1775; Iste dies, elevation motet, 1775; Laudate pueri, 1775; O
filii [I], 1775; O sacrum convivium, elevation motet, 1775; Tantum ergo, elevation
motet, 1775 (ed. A. Lafitte, Paris, 1859); O filii [I], solo v, org, c1775; Exultavit cor
meum, 1776; In te Domine speravi, 1778; Miserere mei Deus (Ps l), solo v, org,
1778; Regina coeli, 1778; Regina coeli, 2v, org, c1778
Ave verum, elevation motet, 1779; Domini audivi, 1779; Ecce panis, elevation
motet, 1779; Lauda Sion, elevation motet, 1779; Laudate Dominum de coelis (Ps
cxlviii), 1779; Miserere mei Deus (Ps l), 1779; Miserere nostri Domine (from Ps
xxx), solo v, c1780–90; Audite coeli, 1780; Laudate Dominum quoniam bonus (Ps
cxlvi), 1780; Deus deorum Dominus, 1781; Exaudi Deus, deprecationem (Ps lx),
1781; Laudate Dominum in sanctis ejus (Ps cl), 1781; Panis angelicus, elevation
motet, 1781; O filii [II], 1782; De profundis [II], 1783; In exitu Israël, 1783; Noli
aemulari, 1783; Exaudi Deus (Ps lxiii), 1784; Salve Regina, 1784
Deus venerunt, 1785; Exaudiat te, 1787; Omnes gentes, 1787; Salvum me fac,
1787; Veni creator, 1787; Verbum caro, elevation motet, 1787; Veni de Libano
(‘Cantique des Cantiques’), 1787; 12 Mag, for Orléans, 1787, lost; Domine, quid
multiplicati, 1788; In Domino confido, 1788; Memento Domine David, 1789; Ecce
quam bonum, 1790; Exultate Deo, 1790; Coeli enarrant, 1791; Deus stetit in
synagoga, 1791; Miserere mei Deus [II] (Ps lvi), solo v, 1792
Doubtful: Adonaï Domine (parody of Beatus vir); Deus in nomine tuo (from Ps liii);
Deus misereatur nostri; Lumen ad revelationem; 9 Mag
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Giroust: Analyse des motets de M. Giroust (Paris, 1781)
M.-F. de Beaumont d’Avantois [Giroust]: Notice historique sur François
Giroust (Versailles, 1799, 2/1804)
C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution française (Paris,
1904)
J. Brosset: François Giroust (Blois, 1911)
C. Pierre: Histoire du Concert spirituel, 1725–1790 (Paris, 1975)
J. Eby: François Giroust (1737–1799) and the Late Grand Motet in French
Church Music (diss., U. of London, 1988)
R. Cotte: ‘François Giroust, a Versailles musician of the Revolutionary
period’, Music and the French Revolution, ed. Malcolm Boyd
(Cambridge, 1992), 93–104
J. Eby: ‘Was there a Requiem Mass composed for Louis XV?’, EMc
(forthcoming)
JOHN D. EBY
Girowetz, Adalbert.
See Gyrowetz, Adalbert.
Gis
(Ger.).
G#. See Pitch nomenclature.
Gisis
(Ger.).
Gismonti, Egberto
(b Carmo, 5 Dec 1947). Brazilian composer. He began piano studies at the
age of six at the Nova Friburgo Conservatory, studying classical music for
15 years. He moved to Rio de Janeiro in 1968, where he successfully
participated in the Third Rio International Song Festival. He then went to
Paris to study orchestration and analysis with Nadia Boulanger and
composition with Jean Barraqué. After his return to Brazil, Gismonti
developed a personal style incorporating Arabian and Italian melodies (his
family’s heritage), classical and contemporary music (especially Villa-Lobos
and Stravinsky), traditional national genres (folklore, choro, bossa nova),
Brazilian Indian themes and jazz. Influenced by the choro, Gismonti taught
himself to play the guitar. He has played, recorded and toured throughout
the world with several musicians. Since his first recording in 1969 he has
made about 50 albums of his own compositions (most released by ECM
Records and EMI-Brazil), in which he plays the piano, guitar, various flutes
(including Indian instruments), kalimbas and other instruments, winning
several prizes. He has also worked as a producer, arranger or player in
several other musicians’ recordings. Gismonti’s compositions encompass a
great diversity of musical elements and forms, both Brazilian and
international, and have been written for solo instruments, ensembles,
symphony orchestras, dance, theatre, films, exhibitions and poetic
anthologies.
WORKS
(selective list)
Orch: Dança das sombras, chbr orch, 1983; Música de sobrevivência, 1990;
Realejo, chbr orch, 1991; Cabinda, a cantiga dos espíritos, 1992; Imagem e
variações, 1992; Forró, 1993; Frevo, 1993; Lundu, 1993; Music for 48 Strings;
Ritmos e danças, gui, orch
10 str qts, 1987–90
Gui: Salvador, 8-string gui, 1979; 10 guitar studies, 1979–90; Cavaquinho, 1981;
Alegrinho (Amarelo), 1989; Dança dos escravos, 1989; Lundu (Azul), 1989
Pf: Baião malandro, 1978; Ano zero, 1979; Frevo, 1979; Palhaço, 1987; 10 piano
studies, 1989–90; A fala da paixão, 1993; 7 anéis, 1993
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P.N. Wilson: ‘Ein Niemandsland zwischen E und U: über die Annäherung
von Jazz und minimal music’, Musica, xxxix (1985), 360–65
IRATI ANTONIO
Gistelinck, Elias
(b Beveren aan de Leie, 27 May 1935). Belgian composer. He studied at
the music academy in Harelbeke (trumpet and piano) and at the Brussels
Conservatory and Paris Conservatoire. He studied composition with Victor
Lepley. From 1961 he was connected with Belgian Radio and Television, of
which he was chief producer of BRT 1 until he left in 1994. The influence of
jazz is clearly discernible in his work, not superficially in a melody or a
rhythm, but quite fundamentally, inflecting all its principal features. This is
evident in the Suite for woodwind quintet (1962), the Five Portraits for
clarinet solo (1965), dedicated to the American clarinet player Bill Smith,
and the cantata for Jeanne Lee and 15 instruments on Dove Hazelton’s
poems (1968). Three outstanding works are Ndessée ou Blues on four
poems of Leopold Sédan Senghor (Italia Prize 1969), the ballet
Terpsychore and Euterpe, presented by Flemish Television for the Italia
Prize 1972, and Three Middelheim Sculptures for jazz trio and wind band
(1972). In the 1970s he explored a more tonal idiom, for example in
Funeral Music for Ptah IV (1975) and Elegy for Jan (1976). In Belgium he
has been awarded the Fuga and Koopal Prizes. For his entire output he
was awarded the Prix de la Fondation de France.
WORKS
(selective list)
Orch: Ndessé ou blues, nar, jazz trio, jazz orch, orch, 1969; Composition for
Terpsychore and Euterpe, ballet, 1971; The Bees, ballet, 1972; Elegy for Jan, 1976;
3 Movts, jazz qnt, orch, 1985; Vn Conc., 1986; Music for Halloween, 1988;
Sinfonietta, chbr orch, 1989; Cl Conc., 1990; Sym. no.1, 1992
Brass: Per Che, nar, b cl, big band, 1967; 3 Middelheim Sculptures, tpt, db, drums,
band, 1972; Music for 3 Mixed Groups, brass, perc, 1975
Chbr: 2 str qts, 1967, 1991; Brass Qnt; Cl Quartet, 1962; Trio, ob, cl, bn, 1962;
duos; pieces for solo fl, cl, ob, vn, vc, pf; Funeral Music for Ptah IV, vn, vc, pf, 1975
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Delaere, Y. Knockaert and H. Sabbe: Nieuwe muziek in Vlaanderen
(Bruges, 1998)
CORNEEL MERTENS/DIANA VON VOLBORTH-DANYS
Giteck, Janice
(b New York, 27 June 1946). American composer and pianist. She studied
at Mills College, California, with Milhaud and Subotnick (BA 1968, MA
1969), at the Paris Conservatoire with Messiaen (1969–70), and at the
Aspen School, Colorado, with Milhaud and Charles Jones. She also
studied electronic music with Lowell Cross and Anthony J. Gnazzo,
Javanese gamelan with Daniel Schmidt and West African percussion with
Obo Addy. She gained a second MA, in psychology, at Antioch University,
Ohio (1986), and worked part-time as a music therapist (1986–91). Giteck
held teaching positions at California State University, Hayward (1974) and
the University of California, Berkeley (1974–6), before joining the faculty of
the Cornish College of the Arts, Seattle (1979), as a teacher of both
composition and women's studies. She was a founder and co-director of
the Port Costa Players, a contemporary-music ensemble based in San
Francisco (1972–9), and, in 1978–9, music director of KPFA Pacifica
Radio, Berkeley. Her awards include grants from the California Arts Council
(1978) and the NEA (1979, 1983), and she has received commissions from
the San Francisco SO (Tree, 1981) and others, including a joint
commission from new-music groups in Portland (Oregon), Syracuse and
Atlanta (funded by the Meet the Composer/Reader's Digest Consortium
Commissioning Program) for the ‘performance piece’ The Screamer (1993)
on the theme of love and rage.
Giteck has long been concerned with music as ritual. From the early 1970s
her works reflected her interest in the cultures of the Amerindians. A'agita,
an opera based on Pima and Papago mythologies, was performed by the
Port Costa Players throughout the American West and in Europe. In the
1980s she began to pursue the relationship between music and healing,
particularly in connection with AIDS. Om Shanti (1986), Tapasya (1987),
Home (1989, revised 1992) and Leningrad Spring (1991) are part of a
‘music and healing series’, issued as recordings on CD as a benefit for the
support of AIDS patients. (CC1, B. Weir)
WORKS
(selective list)
Op: A'agita (R. Giteck, after Pima and Papago texts), 3 singer-actors, dancer, 8 inst
player-actors, 1976
Orch and inst: Trio, ob, vn, vc, 1964; Pf Qnt, 1965; Str Qt no.2, 1967; Trey, 3
Pieces, pf, 1968; Helixes, fl, trbn, vn, vc, gui, pf, perc, 1974; Breathing Songs from a
Turning Sky, fl, cl, bn, vc, pf, perc, lights, 1980; When the Crones Stop Counting, 60
fl, 1980; Ah Ah Sh! Listen, gamelan, vcs, bns, drums, nar, dancer, 1981; Tree, chbr
sym., orch, 1981; Loo-wit, va, orch, 1983; Tapasya, va, perc, 1987; Leningrad
Spring, fl + pic + a fl, pf + mallets, perc, 1991; Sleepless in the Shadow, fl, ob, sax,
bn, va, db, pf, perc, 1993–5; Puja: Songs to the Divine Mother, gui, 1995–6;
Agrarian Chants, fl + pic + a fl + b fl, 1997; First Puja: 1997, cathedral bells, 35
perfs./4 perc, 1997
Choral: How to Invoke a Garden (cant., J. Jones), SATB, 10 insts, 1969; Sun of the
Center (cant., R. Kelley), male v, fl, cl, vn, pf, 1970; Magic Words to Feel Better,
SATB, 1974; Far North Beast Ghosts the Clearing (after Swampy Cree text, trans.
H. Norman), chorus, 1978; Pictures of the Floating World, chorus, 10 insts, 1987;
Home, chorus 400vv, 23 insts, 1989, rev. 1992 as Home (revisited), 6 male vv,
gamelan pacifica, vc, synth; I am Singing (Giteck), women's chorus unacc., 1990;
From Childhood (A. Rimbaud), men's chorus unacc., 1992
Vocal: Anew (L. Zukofsky), 1v, pf, 1969; L'ange Heurtebise (J. Cocteau), 1v, pf,
1971; Magic Words (poems), T, S, pf, 1973; Messalina (A. Jarry), male v, vc, pf,
1973; Matinée d'ivresse, monody (Rimbaud), high v, 1976; 8 Sandbars on the
Takano River (G. Snyder), 5 female vv, fl, bn, gui, 1976; Thunder like a White Bear
Dancing (ritual based on the Ojibwa Mide Picture Songs), S, fl, pf, hand perc,
slides, 1977; Callin' Home Coyote: a Burlesque (L. MacAdams), T, steel drums, db,
1978; Om Shanti (Shankaracharaya), S, sextet, 1986; The Screamer, performance
piece, S, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, synth, perc, 1993
Elec: Traffic Acts, 4-track tape, 1969; Peter and the Wolves, trbn + actor, tape,
1978; Hinget and Lakota, 1997
Film scores: Hopi: Songs of the Fourth World, 1983; Hearts and Hands, 1987; Yield
to Total Elation, 1998
Gitlis, Ivry
(b Haifa, 22 Aug 1922). Israeli violinist. He began violin studies at the age
of five with Karmy, and gave his first public concert when he was eight. At
the age of ten he played to Huberman who sent him to study at the Ecole
Normale de Musique, Paris, where three years later he won a premier prix.
After graduating he studied with Enescu, Thibaud and Flesch. In the late
1930s he went to London and during the war he worked first in a munitions
factory there and then for the army's entertainment service. After the war
he made his débuts with the LPO, the BBC SO and other British
orchestras. In 1951 he won the Thibaud Prize. The following year he
returned to Israel and made his début there with the Israel PO and the
radio orchestra. From the mid-1950s he toured widely and recorded the
concertos of Tchaikovsky, Berg, Hindemith and Stravinsky, among others.
He performed frequently in Paris, where he first appeared in 1951 and
where he later settled. A specialist in 20th-century music, he was noted for
his brilliant technique and his vital, rhythmic style.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SchwarzGM
T. Potter: ‘Against the Flow’, The Strad, cviii (1997), 822–7
WILLIAM Y. ELIAS
Gittern [gyterne]
(Fr. guisterne, guitarre, guiterne, guiterre, quinterne, quitaire, quitarre; Ger.
Quinterne; It. chitarino, chitarra; Sp. guitarra).
A short-necked lute of the Middle Ages outwardly similar to the 16th-
century Mandore. Like its relative the lute, it had a rounded back but was
much smaller, and it had no clear division between the body and neck. This
lute-shaped gittern (or ‘guitar’ – the two words were then synonymous) was
displaced in the 15th and 16th centuries by the Renaissance Guitar, which
combined the small size of the gittern with the body outline of the much
larger vihuela. Thus the medieval gittern bore much the same relationship
to the lute as the Renaissance guitar did to the vihuela. It has since
become customary to call the medieval instrument ‘gittern’ and the later
one ‘guitar’, a useful but artificial distinction.
Confusion over the identity of the gittern has existed since the 19th century.
It has been referred to, inaccurately, as the mandore, mandora or mandola
(an instrument with a different tuning which became common only around
1570); and the name ‘gittern’ has wrongly been given to the Citole,
because the latter’s outline resembled that of the (vihuela-shaped) guitar
(see Wright, 1977). Consequently, many modern works refer to
representations of gitterns as mandoras, and to those of citoles as gitterns.
1. Nomenclature.
All the above names for the gittern derive ultimately from the Greek
‘kithara’ via the Arabic ‘qītārā’. The Arabic form gave ‘chitarra’ in Italian and
‘guitarra’ in Spanish. The French forms include ‘quitarre’ (from Arabic or
Italian), ‘gitere’ (perhaps from Catalan), and ‘quitaire’, which became
‘qui(n)terne’ (by confusion with the unrelated Latin word quinterna,
meaning ‘fivefold’). By analogy, the form ‘guiterne’ was created, and this
was the standard word until the 16th century. ‘Guitar(r)e’ (probably from
Spanish) also occurs, but is rare. The English and German names were
borrowed from French.
When the lute shape was displaced by that of the vihuela there was no
immediate change of name: ‘guiterre’ became popular in French alongside
‘guiterne’ in the 16th century; and both were finally displaced by ‘guitare’ in
the 17th century (probably because of Spanish influence), with the English
and German names following suit. The Italian and Spanish names have not
changed since the Middle Ages.
2. Structure.
The back, neck and pegbox are usually made of one piece of wood, as in
the 15th-century gittern (hitherto called a mandora) in the Wartburg
Collection at Eisenach (see Hellwig, 1974). More rarely, the back was built
up from separate ribs (as on the lute); these types occur from the late 15th
century onwards. In all gitterns the body and neck blend in a smooth curve
or straight line: unlike the lute, there is no sharp corner. The pegbox makes
an angle with the neck of 30°–90° and is usually curved, sometimes into a
semicircle (the so-called sickle shape) but often into a short, gently curving
arc (fig.1). Some pegboxes, especially in English representations, are
straight, like those of lutes (fig.2). However, most types of pegbox
terminate in a human or animal head, a feature foreign to the lute.
There are three or four strings (or more commonly pairs of strings),
sometimes five in the later 15th century (as in the Eisenach instrument). On
some instruments (particularly French and English) the strings pass over a
movable bridge and are attached to endpins, one for each course, or to a
single pin or button; on others (notably in Spain and Italy) they terminate at
a fixed frontal stringholder, as on the lute. Italian and Spanish instruments
also show a predilection for multiple soundholes and decorative inlays on
the belly and fingerboard. Frets are shown in some good depictions of
gitterns (notably Italian paintings: fig.3), but they are absent in many good
French and English representations. The use of a quill plectrum seems to
have been almost universal.
3. History.
The gittern probably entered Europe from Arab countries in the second half
of the 13th century, along with other round-backed instruments such as the
lute and rebec. Sachs stated that the lute is called ‘qītāra’ in North African
countries west of Egypt, and Farmer suggested that the kaitara, used in
Muslim Spain from the 10th century, was a type of lute, adding that a
diminutive of the same word, ‘kuwaitira’, is still used for a small lute in the
Maghrib. Thus it seems likely that the gittern came from the Arabs of the
western Mediterranean (for a summary of the evidence see Burzik, 381–5).
Tinctoris (De inventione, c1487) called the gittern ‘the instrument invented
by the Catalans’. He may have meant that they modified it in some way to
create a ‘European’ type distinct from the Arab one. This is one possible
explanation of a reference to ‘guitarra morisca’ and ‘guitarra latina’
(‘Moorish’ and ‘Latin’ guitar) by the Arcipreste de Hita (Libro de buen amor,
c1330), and of references to similarly named instruments in Machaut’s
writings and in records of the French court of 1355–70. Although the
differences between these two types are not known, it can reasonably be
assumed that the two gitterns illustrated on f.104r of the Cantigas de Santa
María (fig.4) are of the ‘Latin’ variety, since the players’ dress implies that
they are not Arabs. However, it has been suggested that another
instrument in the same manuscript, with oval belly, long neck and circular
(ff.133r, 140v) or sickle-shaped pegbox (ff.46v, 147r), is the guitarra
morisca (see Citole, fig.3): none of the players is dressed like an Arab,
however, and the instrument differs considerably from the gittern in that it
has a long neck clearly demarcated from the body and (on ff.46v and 140v)
a raised fingerboard extending on to the belly. There is no more reason to
call this instrument a guitar than to call it a plucked fiddle (vihuela de
peñola).
The earliest datable references to the gittern occur in French literature from
around 1270 onwards, but depictions become common only after 1300.
Johannes de Grocheo, in his treatise De musica (c1300), called it ‘quitarra
sarracenica’ (‘Saracen guitar’), which suggests it was still a foreign novelty
in France. This impression is strengthened by the great variety of its
French names, which grew fewer as the instrument became common. In
England depictions and references do not become frequent until well after
1300: one looks in vain for gitterns among the instruments appearing in the
finely illustrated manuscripts such as the Queen Mary Psalter that were
written in the first two decades of the 14th century.
During the 14th century the gittern gained increasing popularity. Whereas
there was only one gitarer among the 92 musicians named in the accounts
for the Feast of Westminster in 1306, the Duke of Brittany is said (in the
Grandes chroniques de France) to have had in his company ‘seven
guiterne players, and he himself, so they say, began to play the eighth
guiterne’ when he left Brest Castle for England in 1348. By then the gittern
seems to have ousted its rival, the citole, and to have become enormously
popular not only among minstrels but also among the increasing number of
amateur musicians of all classes. Small, portable and doubtless easy to
play, it seems to have been frequently used in serenading and in visiting
taverns, activities that often went hand-in-hand; it is mentioned in this
connection in several French and English poems of the period 1350–1410.
Machaut (Prise d’Alexandrie, c1367) mentioned ‘guiternes dont on joue par
ces tavernes’ (‘gitterns which are played in taverns’), and Chaucer, in three
of the Canterbury Tales, referred to the gittern being played by people who
frequent taverns. The parish clerk Absalom in The Miller’s Tale is a typical
example:
In twenty manere coude he trippe and daunce
After the scole of Oxenforde tho,
And with his legges casten to and fro,
And pleyen songes on a small rubible;
Ther-to he song som-tyme a loud quinible;
And as wel coude he pleye on his giterne.
In al the toun nas brewhous ne taverne
That he ne visited with his solas,
Ther any gaylard tappestere was.
Accompanying himself on the gittern, he sings a serenade to the
carpenter’s wife:
He singeth in his vois gentil and smal,
‘Now, dere lady, if thy wille be,
I preye yow that ye wol rewe on me’,
Ful wel acordaunt to his giterninge.
This association with taverns and serenading is also reflected in French
legal documents of the same period concerning the brawls and murders
which sometimes ensued, making it obvious that gitterns were common
household objects. They are also found in inventories of noble households,
such as one belonging to the French King Charles V dated 1373 which
includes four gitterns, one in ivory and another decorated with silver and
enamel. Another example of the gittern’s popularity can be seen in the
carvings in the nave of Winchester Cathedral (built 1346–1404), where no
fewer than seven of the 21 instruments depicted are gitterns.
In the 15th century the gittern was gradually eclipsed by the lute, which
appears with increasing frequency in iconography. There is often confusion
between them, both in iconography (it is not always possible to distinguish
lutes from gitterns in the less accurate representations) and in
documentary references to lute players as gitterners (for example, the
celebrated Pietrobono, whose lute-playing was praised by Tinctoris, was
usually known by the epithet dal chitarin(o)).
By around 1487 Tinctoris could remark: ‘The ghiterra is used most rarely,
because of the thinness of its sound. When I heard it in Catalonia, it was
being used much more often by women, to accompany love songs, than by
men’. He also gave the only information that survives on the gittern’s
tuning, namely that it was strung like a (four-course) lute, that is, with the
intervals 4th–3rd–4th. By this time the vihuela-shaped guitar had begun to
appear. It must be this instrument, rather than the vihuela itself, which
Tinctoris described in the following quote, since it is much smaller than the
lute:
that [instrument], for example, invented by the Spanish, which
both they and the Italians call the viola, but the French the
demi-luth. This viola differs from the lute in that the lute is
much larger and tortoise-shaped, while the viola is flat, and in
most cases curved inwards on each side.
It is interesting that Tinctoris did not use the name ‘guitar’ for this new
Spanish instrument, but that soon became the practice as the lute-shaped
gittern was abandoned in the 16th century.
The gittern and the guitar must have existed side by side for a considerable
time, the older instrument steadily losing ground to the newer one. The
instruments described as ‘quintern’ and illustrated in the treatises of
Sebastian Virdung (Musica getutscht, 1511) and Martin Agricola (Ein kurtz
deudsche Musica, 1528; Musica instrumentalis deudsch, 1529, enlarged
5/1545) are of the old variety. But already in 1530 there was a ‘gyterneur
suivant le mode espagnole’ (‘guitarist in the Spanish fashion’) in the retinue
of Emperor Charles V. Around 1550 a spate of guitar music was published,
almost certainly for the new instrument. However, references to the guitar
or gittern as a round-backed instrument or small lute are found in the later
16th century, the 17th and even the 18th, suggesting that the lute-shaped
guitar was still occasionally used.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SachsH
K. Geiringer: ‘Der Instrumentenname “Quinterne” und die mittelalterlichen
Bezeichnungen der Gitarre, Mandola und des Colascione’, AMw, vi
(1924), 103–10
V. Denis: De muziekinstrumenten in de Nederlanden en in Italië naar hun
afbeelding in de 15e-eeuwsche kunst (Antwerp, 1944), 112
A. Baines: ‘Fifteenth-Century Instruments in Tinctoris’s De inventione et
usu musicae’, GSJ, iii (1950), 19–26
F. Lesure: ‘La facture instrumentale à Paris au XVIe siècle’, GSJ, vii
(1954), 11–52
H.G. Farmer: ‘The Music of Islam’, NOHM, i (1957), 421–78
F.V. Grunfeld: The Art and Times of the Guitar (New York, 1969/R)
F. Hellwig: ‘Lute-Making in the Late 15th and 16th Century’, LSJ, xvi
(1974), 24–38
H. Turnbull: The Guitar from the Renaissance to the Present Day (New
York and London, 1974)
L. Lockwood: ‘Pietrobono and the Instrumental Tradition at Ferrara in the
Fifteenth Century’, RIM, x (1975), 115–33
L. Wright: ‘The Medieval Gittern and Citole: a Case of Mistaken Identity’,
GSJ, xxx (1977), 8–42
J.M. Ward: ‘Sprightly & Cheerful Musick: Notes on the Cittern, Gittern and
Guitar in 16th- and 17th-Century England’, LSJ, xxi (1979–81) [whole
issue]
M. Burzik: Quellenstudien zu europäischen Zupfinstrumentenformen
(Kassel, 1994)
LAURENCE WRIGHT
Giucci, Carlos
(b Montevideo, 4 Nov 1904; d Montevideo, 7 May 1958). Uruguayan
composer. His Italian-born father Camilo Giucci had studied with Liszt
before settling (c1880) in Montevideo, where he founded the Liceo Musical
Franz Liszt (1895). Carlos learnt the piano from his mother the Uruguayan
pianist Luisa Gallo-Giucci and from the Polish pianist Ignaz Friedmann
when he toured Montevideo. He studied harmony, counterpoint and
composition with Manuel García de la Lera, Tomás Mujica and Guido
Santórsola. In 1937 he began teaching music at secondary schools. He
joined the Uruguayan Folk Society (1945) and the musicology division at
the National History Museum (1946). His early works (c1920–50) are in the
nationalist mould, while his style became more eclectic towards the end of
his life.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Salgado: Breve historia de la música en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1971)
E. Sabatés: ‘Giucci, Carlos’, Músicos de Aquí, ii (Montevideo, 1992), 145–
84
LEONARDO MANZINO
Giulio Romano.
See Romano, Giulio (ii).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Zanetti: La musica italiana nel Novecento (Busto Arsizio, 1985), 986–7
A. Olivier and K. Weingartz-Perschel: ‘Giuranna, Barbara’,
Komponistinnen von A–Z (Düsseldorf, 1988)
P. Adkins Chiti: Almanacco delle virtuose, primedonne, compositrici e
musiciste d’Italia (Novara, 1991), 250, 274–6
P. Adkins Chiti: Donne in musica (Rome, 1996), 300–03
ANTONIO TRUDU
Giuranna, Bruno
(b Rome, 6 April 1933). Italian viola player, son of Barbara Giuranna. He
studied the violin under Emanuele and Corti and the viola under Principe
and Leóne at the Rome Conservatory, where he graduated in both
instruments. He made his solo début in 1954 under Karajan in Ghedini’s
Musica da concerto. He established an international reputation as a soloist
in the standard viola repertory and as a viola d’amore player, touring widely
in Europe, the USA, Africa and the Orient, and gave the first performances
of works by Lengley, Ghedini, Testi and Zafred. He was a member of the
ensemble I Musici, 1952–9, and in 1960 became a founder-member of the
Italian String Trio. He taught at the Milan Conservatory (1961–5), the
Detmold Hochschule für Musik (1969–72), and was a professor at the
Rome Conservatory (1965–72); from 1966 to 1972 he held masterclasses
at the Accademia Musicale Chigiana, Siena. After playing with the Végh
Quartet from 1978 to 1980, he became director of the Padua Chamber
Orchestra in 1983 and a professor at the Berlin Hochschule the same year.
In 1985 he formed a string trio with Mutter and Rostropovich. He plays a
viola by Carlo Tononi dated 1690. (D. Blum: ‘Alto Artistry’, The Strad, xcix
(1988), 386–9)
PIERO RATTALINO/MARGARET CAMPBELL
Giuseppino.
See Cenci, Giuseppe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (‘Justiniana’; D. Fallows, T. Carter)
A. Einstein: ‘The Greghesca and the Giustiniana of the Sixteenth Century’,
JRBM, i (1946–7), 19–32
W.H. Rubsamen: ‘The Justiniane or Viniziane of the 15th Century’, AcM,
xxxix (1957), 172–84
B. Disertori: Preface to Le frottole per canto e liuto intabulate da
Franciscus Bassinensis, IMi, new ser., iii (1964)
G. Brunello: ‘Considerazioni sulla giustiniana del Cinquecento e il
contributo di Andrea Gabrieli’, La musica nel Veneto dal XVI al XVIII
secolo, ed. F. Passadore and I. Cavallini (Adria, 1984), 47–88
N. Pirrotta: ‘Echi di arie veneziane del primo Quattrocento’, Interpretazioni
veneziani: Studi di storia dell’arte in onore di Michelangelo Muraro, ed.
D. Rosand (Venice, 1984), 99–108
P. Fabbri: ‘Andrea Gabrieli e le composizioni su diversi linguaggi: la
giustiniana’, Andrea Gabrieli e il suo tempo: Venice 1985, 249–72
D. Fallows: ‘Leonardo Giustinian and Quattrocento Polyphonic Song’,
L’edizione critica tra testo musicale e testo letteraria: Cremona 1992,
247–60
DAVID FALLOWS
Giustiniani [Giustinian], Leonardo
(b Venice, c1383; d Venice, 10 Nov 1446). Italian poet, humanist and
statesman. From one of Venice’s leading families, he studied in Padua
soon after 1400, married Lucrezia di Bernardino da Mula in 1405, joined
the Maggior consiglio of Venice in 1407, and was appointed procuratore of
S Marco in 1444. As a pupil of Guarino Veronese and Gasparino Barzizza
he was in touch with many leading humanists.
His Italian poetry can be divided into four main genres: the devotional
laude (see Luisi), for which there is some music, albeit without any
distinctive style; the strambotti, heavily contested in authorship and with no
known musical settings; the extended love poems in his Canzoniere (ed. in
Wiese, Poesie, 1883, based on I-Fn Pal.213; necessary completions from
F-Pn it.1032 are in Wiese, ‘Zu den Liedern’, 1883), apparently the basis for
the unwritten singing to the lute for which he was famous in his own day
(see Pirrotta, 1972); and the shorter and perhaps earlier poems included in
the posthumous Il fiore delle … canzonette del … Lunardo Iustiniano
(Venice, c1472 and 12 later editions; those not also found in the
Canzoniere are ed. Wiese, 1885). This last volume contains all the poems
ascribed to Giustiniani that survive in polyphonic settings before about
1480; but of its 30 poems at least four are definitely spurious, so many
writers have doubted the authority of the others (the case for accepting
them is outlined in Fallows). All his poetry has a relaxed and informal style
that betokens a new direction in Italian literature; much use is made of
Venetian dialect, ‘translated’ into more formal Italian for the manuscripts
used in the only available modern edition of his Canzoniere.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Wiese, ed.: Poesie edite ed inedite di Giustiniani (Bologna, 1883)
B. Wiese: ‘Zu den Liedern Lionardo Giustinianis’, Zeitschrift für
romanische Philologie, xvii (1883), 256–76
B. Wiese: ‘Neunzehn Lieder Leonardo Giustinianis nach den alten
Drucken’, Bericht vom Schuljahre 1884–85 über das grossherzogliche
Realgymnasium zu Ludwigslust, xiv (Ludwigslust, 1885), 4
B. Fenigstein: Leonardo Giustiniani (1383?–1446): venezianischer
Staatsmann, Humanist und Vulgärdichter (Halle, 1909)
L. Pini: ‘Per l’edizione critica delle canzonette di Leonardo Giustinian
(indice e classificazioni dei manoscritti e delle stampe antiche)’, Atti
dell’Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei: classe di scienzi morali, storiche,
critiche e filologiche, 8th ser., ix (1960), 419–543
N. Pirrotta: ‘Ricercare e variazioni su “O rosa bella”’, Studi musicali, i
(1972), 59–77
F. Luisi: Laudario giustinianeo (Venice, 1983)
D. Fallows: ‘Leonardo Giustinian and Quattrocento Polyphonic Song’,
L’edizione critica tra testo musicale e testo letterario: Cremona 1992,
247–60
DAVID FALLOWS
Giustiniani, Vincenzo
(b Chios, 13 Sept 1564; d Rome, 28 Dec 1637). Italian writer on music. His
father, the Genoese governor of Chios, brought the family to Rome after
the Turks conquered the Aegean island in 1566. There he made a fortune
in banking, which gave his son the means to pursue a lifelong passion for
art. Giustiniani was one of the most discerning patrons of his time: an early
supporter of Caravaggio and Poussin, he also published one of the first
illustrated guides to an art collection, the Galleria Giustiniana (Rome,
1631). Here he assembled engravings of the statues on display at his villa
in Bassano di Sutri (now Bassano Romano), near Viterbo.
Giustiniani’s importance for music rests on his Discorso sopra la musica of
1628, which describes musical trends in Italy during the previous half
century. While it is concerned primarily with Rome, such leading centres as
Ferrara and Florence are not forgotten. His narrative places changes in
musical style as early as 1575, the result of interactions between
performers, composers and patrons. The Discorso thus provides an
important corrective to modern historiographical obsessions with Florence
and the year 1600. It also offers a glimpse of how a sophisticated layman,
rather than a trained theorist, perceived the developments unfolding
around him. Finally, Giustiniani made music historically contingent, linking
its mutability with that of taste and custom. The only source of the work (in
I-La), part of a larger collection of Giustiniani’s writings, was copied in
1640. It remained unpublished until the 19th century (ed. S. Bongi, Lucca,
1878; pr. in A. Solerti: Le origini del melodramma, Turin, 1903/R, pp.98–
128; ed. and Eng. trans. in MSD, ix, 1962).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Haskell: Patrons and Painters: a Study in the Relations between Italian
Art and Society in the Age of the Baroque (New Haven, 2/1980), 29–
30, 94–5
A. Newcomb: The Madrigal at Ferrara 1579–1597 (Princeton, 1980), i, 46–
52
E. Cropper and C. Dempsey: Nicolas Poussin: Friendship and the Love of
Painting (Princeton, 1996), 23–105
J.W. Hill: Roman Monody, Cantata, and Opera from the Circles around
Cardinal Montalto (Oxford, 1997), i, 8–10, 84–118
ROBERT R. HOLZER
Giusto
(It.: ‘just’, ‘exact’).
A word found in musical contexts most often within the complicated
concept Tempo giusto. But it has other uses: Liszt and several other
composers of his time used giusto for a return to the normal tempo after a
section marked a piacere, and Schubert designated the controlled tempo in
the finale of his ‘Trout’ Quintet with the marking allegro giusto.
Sym. no.1, 1941; Sym. no.2 ‘Uzbekistan’, 1950; Khorezmskaya syuita [Suite of
Khorezm], orch, 1951; Golodnaya step' [Fasting Steppes], sym. poem, 1954;
Liricheskiye kartinki Uzbekistana [Lyrical Pictures of Uzbekistan], orch, 1954;
Suzanne, sym. dance, 1954; Ov., 1955; Sym. no.3, 1962; Sym. no.4 ‘Pamyati
14 Bakuskikh komissarov’ [In Remembrance of the 14 Baku Commissars],
1966; Suite, str, 1973; Sym. no.5, str, perc, 1973; Pf Conc., 1976; Concertino
(Na karakalpakskiye temï), [on Karakalpak tunes] vc, orch, 1978; Oynisa
(ballet), 1981, collab. D. Zakirov; Sinfonietta for 2000 Years of Tashkent, 1983;
Conc., vc, chbr orch, 1985; works for Uzbek folk orch; chbr works; songs and
romances
RAZIA SULTANOVA
Gizzi, Domenico
(b Arpino, 12 March 1687; d Naples, 14 Oct 1758). Italian male soprano
and singing teacher. According to tradition he studied in his home town
with M.T. Angelio, then moved to Naples to complete his training at the
Conservatorio di S Onofrio. He was a singer in the Treasury of S Gennaro,
Naples, from 1700 to 1707 and again from 1717 to 1736. In 1706 he was
appointed singer of the Neapolitan royal chapel, a post he held throughout
his career. From 1717 he was often absent from the choir for artistic
reasons: on 17 November 1718 he requested three months' leave to sing
at the Teatro Pace in Rome; on 16 December 1719 he set off for Messina,
where he remained until May 1720; on 7 October he left for a stay of four
months in Rome; and on 12 September 1724 he asked permission to
‘perform in the coming November and Carnival’ at the Teatro S Cassiano in
Venice. In August 1725 he was singing in Florence, in February 1728 he
petitioned for leave to sing in Genoa, and in August 1728 he requested
permission to remain in Venice to sing until Carnival 1729. His reputation
reached its height during the 1720s when he sang in several of the leading
Italian opera houses. Between 1722 and 1724 and again in 1726 he took
part in operas at the Teatro Alibert (Teatro delle Dame after 1726), Rome.
In 1725 he was one of the singers in the first production of Porpora's
Didone abbandonata at Reggio nell'Emilia. In 1728 and 1729, his name
appeared in the cast of operas by Porpora and Leo at the Teatro S
Giovanni Grisostomo, Venice. Throughout this period he was also active as
a singing teacher. His most famous pupil was the castrato Gioacchino
Conti, who made his début at Rome in 1730 and who took the name of
‘Gizziello’ in honour of his master.
Gizzi seems to have spent his last years in comparative obscurity. On 20
December 1752 and 26 April 1758 he was a member of the examining
commission for new entrants to the Neapolitan royal chapel. The surviving
account books of the chapel (now in I-Na) show that he was awarded a pay
rise on 16 February 1744, and they also state his date of death.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
RosaM
SartoriL
G. Pannain: ‘Una pagina inedita della storia musicale di Napoli’, RMI, xxi
(1914), 737–46
S. Di Giacomo: Maestri di cappella, musici & istromenti al Tesoro di San
Gennaro nei secoli XVII & XVIII (Naples, 1920)
U. Prota-Giurleo: Breve storia del teatro di corte e della musica a Napoli
nei secoli XVII–XVIII (Naples, 1952)
F. Cotticelli and P. Maione: Le istituzioni musicali a Napoli durante il
Viceregno austriaco (1707–1734): materiali inediti sulla Real Cappella
ed il Teatro di San Bartolomeo (Naples, 1993)
F. Cotticelli and P. Maione: Onesto divertimento, ed allegria de' popoli:
materiali per una storia dello spettacolo a Napoli nel primo Settecento
(Milan, 1996)
S. Gizzi: Un celebre musico del XVIII secolo: Domenico Gizzi e il suo
allievo Gizziello (Rome, 1999)
MICHAEL F. ROBINSON/PAOLOGIOVANNI MAIONE
Gizziello.
See Conti, Gioacchino.
Gjevang, Anne
(b Oslo, 24 Oct 1948). Norwegian mezzo-soprano. She studied in Oslo,
Rome and Vienna, and made her début at Klagenfurt in 1972 as Baba the
Turk. She was successively a member of the companies in Ulm (1973–7),
Bremerhaven (1977–9) and Karlsruhe (1979–80). Her Bayreuth début in
1983 as Erda led to engagements at Covent Garden and the Metropolitan
Opera in the same role. In Zürich (1985–90) her repertory included
Carmen, Ulrica, Maddalena (Rigoletto) and Isabella (L’italiana in Algeri).
She created the role of Lady Macbeth in Bibalo’s Macbeth at Oslo in 1990.
A versatile singer-actress, Gjevang is also an impressive concert singer.
Her distinctive voice, with its northern contralto colouring, can be heard in
recordings ranging from Messiah and Mozart’s Mitridate to Mahler’s
symphonies nos.3 and 8 and Nielsen’s Saul og David.
ANDREW CLARK
Gjoka, Martin
(b Tivari, Montenegro, 20 April 1890; d Shkodra, 3 Feb 1940). Albanian
composer and choral conductor. Born allegedly to a noble family, he
studied music at the ecclesiastical college of Shkodra. Later Palok Kurti
and Frano N'doja taught him to play the piano, violin and flute, and initiated
him to Bach, Handel, Mozart and Beethoven. Already destined for an
ecclesiastical career, he graduated from the Salzburg seminary in 1912
where he also studied music with Pater Hartmann. Reportedly back in
Albania in 1913, he worked as a schoolteacher, also founding (1917) and
conducting a chorus and orchestral ensemble. He worked hard to develop
the music departments of the Rozafa (founded 1918) and Bogdani
(founded 1919) art societies in Shkodra, and as a teacher sought to
replace foreign school songs with Albanian ones.
Gjoka was one of the most important musical figures in pre-socialist
Albania. His example was influential to the following generation of
Shkodran composers (including Jakova, Daija, Harapi and Zadeja) and
even after the 1967 ban on religion his name was still mentioned, although
his membership of the Franciscan order was scarcely mentioned. Gjoka's
surviving works usually adhere to a rather simple compositional technique,
usually based on simple, homophonic textures. His melodies, for instance
in the instrumental diptych Dy lule mbi vorr të Skanderbegut (‘Two Flowers
on Scanderbeg's Grave’), occasionally allude to Shkodran urban song.
WORKS
(selective list)
stage
Juda Makabe (op, 3 pts, Gj. Fishta), 1915–?19, unfinished; Shqiptarja e qytetnueme
[The Civilized Albanian Woman] (?op, Fishta), after 1929, only sketches extant
vocal
Masses: In honorem Nativitatis BMV, op.9, before 1913; Mass, ATB, org, 1913;
Requiem, SATTB, hmn, 1914; Da pacem Domine, AB, hmn, 1915; In honorem BMV
matris boni consilii, AB, hmn, 1915; Refugium peccatorum, AB, hmn, 1915; In
solennitate immaculatae conceptionis BMV, SATB, hmn, 1915; Mass, e, SATB,
hmn, 1918; Auxilium Christianorum, ABar, hmn, 1937; Popullore, G, ST; Dominicalis
secunda, mater amabilis, AT, hmn; In honorem St Antonii de Padua, e, 4vv, hmn; In
honorem annunt. BMV, vv, hmn
Other sacred vocal: Ave Maria, B , op.5a, SATB, hmn/pf, before ?1910; Ave Maria,
e , op.7, T, pf, before ?1910; Tantum ergo, A , op.6, SATTBarBB, ?1910 or before;
Ave Maria, C, Bar, hmn/pf, 1910; 6 Litanies: no.1, C, nos.2–3, G, 3vv, no.4 ‘Sul 42
del Leybach’, C, 1v, pf, no.5, D, 1910, no.6, B , 2vv, 1910; Ave Maria, E , 2vv, hmn,
1913; Tota pulchra, Bar, hmn/pf, 1913; Tota pulchra, E , 2vv, hmn, 1913; Non vos
relinquam orphanos, Bar, hmn, 1916; Propitius esto Domine, 1v, hmn, 1916; Psalm
cli (Quemadmodum desiderat), Bar, hmn, 1916; Tantum ergo, A , SATBarB, hmn,
1916; Quid retribuam Domino, 7vv, hmn, 1919; Tantum ergo, e, ATB, orch, 1933;
Tantum ergo, e, 1v, TTBB, 1936; Iste confessor, 3vv, 1937; Tu es sacerdos, 3vv,
1937; Super flumina, B , 4vv, hmn, 1939; other undated motets, incl. further
settings of Ave Maria, Tota pulchra
Secular vocal: Wo ist der Friede? (F. Eichendorff), Bar, pf, 1917; Atmes [Fatherland]
(?N. Mjeda, ?H. Mosi), 1v, pf, version for S, Ca, B, pf; Gruja Shqyptare [Albanian
Woman], A; Hymni i gimnazit Françeskan [Hymn of the Franciscan High School],
4vv, version for 4vv, orch; Kângë shkolle [School Songs], 1v; Kangët t'melodramit t'
Kshnellave [Songs from the Christmas Melodrama], vv, pf, hmn; O, ata të lumt që
dhanë jetën [Happy those that Gave their Life], male chorus; Peshkatari [The
Fisherman], 1v, fl, pf; I d'buemi [Persecuted] (Fishta), 1v; Shqyptarët dhe muzika
[Albanians and Music], inc.; Shqypnisë [To Albania] (?Fishta), STTB; Të nisunit enji
bariut [The Departure of a Shepherd], 1v
instrumental
Marsch!, D, ?pf, 1910; Saffo, hmn, 1910; Atdhee e gjuh Shqyptare [Albanian
Fatherland and Language], pf, before 1912; Liria [Freedom], pf, before 1912; Marsh
për v'dekun: nji pomëndim t' 26it Fruer [Funeral March: a Remembrance of the 26th
February], hmn, 1916; Dy lule mbi vorr të Skanderbegut [Two Flowers on
Scanderbeg's Grave], fantasia, 2 fl, 2 cornets, 2 bombardon, 3 trbn, str qnt, pf,
1919; Dy lule mbi vorr të Skanderbegut, small orch, 1922, arr. large orch; Rapsodi
mbi kânga popullore shqype [Rhapsody on Albanian Folksongs], band, ?1922;
Album për harmonium, 24 pieces, ?inc.; Pastorale no.1, 2 fl, cl, t sax, 2 vn, vc, db,
hmn; Përmbi lume e Babilonit [By the Rivers of Babylon], vn, hmn, inc.; Të ura a
Shalës [At the Bridge of Shala], vn/fl, pf, ?lost; frags., lost works
MSS in Central State Archive, Tirana
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Sokoli: Figura e Skënderbeut në muzikë [The figure of Scanderbeg in
music] (Tirana, 1978)
T. Zadeja: ‘Martin Gjoka, 1890–1940’, Nëntori, no.3 (1983), 191–8
N. Kraja: ‘Fillimet e traditës muzikore instrumentale në Shqipëri’ [The
beginnings of the tradition of instrumental music in Albania], Studime
mbi artin (Tirana, 1997), 120–35
GEORGE LEOTSAKOS
Gjoni, Simon
(b Shkodra, 28 Oct 1927; d Tirana, 31 Oct 1991). Albanian conductor and
composer. Self-taught in theory and solfège, he joined various Shkodran
choruses and wind bands, composing songs of lasting popularity. He then
went to Prague, where he studied at the Conservatory (1952–3) and the
Academy of Musical Arts (1953–8). On his return to Albania, he was
appointed conductor at the Tirana Theatre of Opera and Ballet, where he
was responsible for the Albanian premières of a number of operas,
including Il barbiere di Siviglia (1958) and Pagliacci (1962). He
subsequently served as conductor of the Tirana RSO (1963–5), director of
the Jordan Misja Art Lyceum, Tirana (1965–8), and director of music at Fier
(1972–81). As a member (from 1981) of the Union of Albanian Writers and
Artists he wrote music criticism for the periodicals Drita and Nëntori. He
taught chamber music at the Tirana Music Academy from 1985 until his
death.
Gjoni's orchestral works were among the most successful composed in
Albania during the 1960s and 70s. His imaginatively orchestrated Albanian
Symphonic Dances use folksong material as a pretext for bold dramatic
gestures, while his Symphony no.1 is memorable for its thorough
assimilation of classical form and its clearcut, memorable themes.
WORKS
(selective list)
Stage: Fatos Berberi (ballet, 1, Y. Reso), 1977; musical sketches for children, vv, pf,
dancers, 1980; Katërmbëdhjetëvjeç dhënderr [The 14-Year-Old Bridegroom] (comic
op, 3 after A.Z. Çajupi), unfinished
Vocal-orch: Dielli i së ardhmes qesh mbi ne [The Sun of our Future Smiles upon
us], mixed chorus, orch, 1956; Pranvera jonë [Our Spring] (I. Kadare), T, Bar, mixed
chorus, orch, 1960; Suite no.1, no.2 (Myzeqeja folksongs), T, mixed chorus, orch,
1969; Ushto këngë e gjemo hap i klasës punëtore [The Song Resounds and the
Tread of the Working Class Thunders] (cant., trad.), mixed chorus, orch, 1972; Suite
no.1, no.2 (Partisan songs), mixed chorus, orch, 1984
Orch: Kujtime nga atdheu im [Memories of my Fatherland], tone poem, 1955; 8
Albanian Sym. Dances, 1961–9; Sym. no.1, E , 1969–72; Sym. Suite no.1, 1974;
Shqipëria ne festë [Albanian Festival] (Sym. Suite no.2), 1975–6; Pjesë [Piece], vn,
str, 1983; Sym. no.2, f, 1981–5; Festë popullore në fshatin tonë [Folk Feast in our
Village] (Sym. Suite no.3), ?1983; Sym. Dance, ?1984; Përse mendohen këto male
[Why are these mountains so pensive?], 1985; Lart frymen e aksioneve [Keep High
the Spirit of Voluntary Work], ov., 1985
Chbr: Album, 12 pieces, pf, 1979; 3 Preludes, pf, 1979; Album, 10 pieces, pf,
Romanca, 2 fl, ob, 2 cl, bn, hn, 1987; Pf Trio, 1988–9
Songs (1v, pf unless otherwise stated): Floriri i bardhë [The White Florin], after
1944; Flamuri i fitorës [The Banner of Victory]; Lule borë [Anemone] (Z. Pali), S, T,
pf/orch, 1949; Sulmuesja e tisazhit [The Textile Factory Girl] (D. Shuteriqi), 1950;
Poema e rapsodit [The Rhapsode's Poem] (A. Banushi), B, vc, pf, 1960; Lufton
shqipja e plagosur [The Wounded Eagle Fights On] (H. Minarolli), T, pf, 1961; O
bjeshqë male kreshniqe [Ye Proud Albanian Highlands] (Banushi), before 1978;
Album më [10] romancat [Album with [10] Songs] (Banushi, S. Mato, L. Cukalla),
1978 [incl. O bjeshqë male kreshniqe]; Moj jelek praruar [O Gold-Embroidered
Waistcoat] (trad.), before 1979; Album më [10] romancat [no.2] (various texts), 1984
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Kalemi: Arritjet e artit tonë muzikor: vepra dhe krijues të muzikës
shqiptare [Achievements of our musical art: creations and creators of
Albanian music] (Tirana, 1982), 85–90
A. Paparisto, A. Çefa, F. Hysi and others: Historia e muzikës Shquiptare
(Tirana, 1983), i, pp.128, 131, 241; ii, pp.402–6
GEORGE LEOTSAKOS
Glachant, Antoine-Charles
(b Paris, 19 May 1770; d Versailles, 9 April 1851). French composer and
violinist, son of Jean-Pierre Glachant. He received his early training from
his father. In 1790 he became orchestra director of the Théâtre du
Délassement-Comiques, an opera house where young artists obtained
performing experience. There in the same year his first works, the operas
Pharamond and L’homme à la minute, were performed. Glachant had left
the theatre in disappointment by 1791, and joined the military campaign in
Belgium in 1792. By 1795, when he married, he had settled in Arras as
commander of the third company of the Corps des Mille Canonniers de
Paris, and later (1813) became commander in charge of the Arras defence.
There in 1806 he helped to found a music conservatory which maintained a
close relationship with the Paris Conservatoire, and in 1812 he founded an
active amateur music society which later became the Philharmonic Society.
He also attempted further theatre pieces – Le mannequin vivant, which
was well received at its Paris performance in 1796 but was never
published, and Les deux dragons. In about 1823 he moved to Paris where
he led the orchestra at the Théâtre Français and witnessed the success of
his duos and quartets at the soirées organized by Baillot. He returned in
1830 to Arras where he continued his previous work until his retirement to
Versailles in 1846.
Glachant’s chamber works are the most important of his creations. It is
particularly in his duos and quartets that he seemed at ease and able to
express, with individuality, the ideas of a man well trained in French style
yet influenced by Italian virtuosity and the harmonic and formal techniques
of the Mannheim school. In this respect his style reflects that of his
compatriots Gossec, Le Duc, Vachon and Blasius. His duos are all in three
movements; two of these works follow the French tradition and the other
the Italian. Certain passages are quite difficult to perform and melodies are
often long and Romantic in concept. His string quartets attempt to balance
attractive themes and dance rhythms with an independent movement of
instrumental parts. His harmony frequently ventures beyond the simple and
direct modulations used by most French quartet composers of this period.
WORKS
vocal
printed works published in Paris
Doubtful: Le mannequin vivant, ou Le mari en bois (oc, 1), Paris, Feydeau, 1796
Hymn for the Sovereignty of the People (Leducq), Arras, 20 March 1799
Several romances incl. Le bon avis (n.d.), Je ne t’aime pas (Lévêque) (n.d.),
Plaintes d’amour (n.d.), Le portrait (n.d.), Le serment (n.d.), d’amour (d’Hermilly)
(n.d.); other vocal pieces, cited by Cardevacque
instrumental
op.
1 Trois duos, 2 fl (c1790)
2 Symphonie concertante, 2 vn, orch (c1808)
3 Trois duos, 2 fl (n.d.), lost
5 Trois quatuors, 2 vn, va, b (c1820)
8 Trois grands trios concertants, 2 vn, b (n.d.), lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
C. Glachant: Notice biographique (MS, F-Pc)
Almanach général de tous les spectacles (Paris, 1791), 216, 219
A. de Cardevacque: ‘La musique à Arras depuis les temps les plus reculés
jusqu’à nos jours’, Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences, lettres et
arts d’Arras, 2nd ser., xvi (1885), 41–177, esp. 137–40
DEANNE ARKUS KLEIN
WRITINGS
‘Bïtovaya muzïka: odna iz boyevïkh zadach sovetskogo kompozitora’
[Popular music: one of the urgent tasks of the Soviet composer], Itogi
pervoy godovshchinï postanovleniya TsK VKP(b) o perestroyke
literaturno-khudozhestvennïkh organizatsiy: sbornik statey, ed. V.
Tobol'kevich (Leningrad, 1933), 46–7
‘Vïstupleniye na diskussii o sovetskom simfonizme 4–6 fevralya 1935’ [A
speech delivered during the discussion about Soviet symphonism on
4–6 Feb 1935], SovM (1935), no.5, pp.27–31
‘Protiv formalizma i fal'shï: vïstupleniye na tvorcheskoy diskussii v
Leningradskom otdelenii Soyuza sovetskikh kompozitorov’ [Against
formalism and falsehood: a speech delivered during a creative
discussion at the Leningrad branch of the Soviet Composers' Union],
SovM (1936), no.5, pp.31–2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V.M. Bogdanov-Berezovsky: ‘“Za krasnïy Petrograd (1919)”: opera A.P.
Gladkovskogo i Ye.V. Prussaka’, Sovetskaya opera, ed. M.A. Glukh
(Leningrad and Moscow, 1940), 39–51
‘A.P. Gladkovskiy: nekrolog’, Leningradskaya pradva (2 Aug 1945)
I. Glebov [B.V. Asaf'yev]: ‘A. Gladkovskiy: “Za krasnïy Petrograd (1919)”’,
Ob opere (Leningrad, 1976, 2/1985), 290–92
IOSIF GENRIKHOVICH RAYSKIN
Gladney, John
(b Belfast, 12 Aug 1839; d Manchester, 12 Dec 1911). English clarinettist,
brass band conductor and teacher. He was the son of a military
bandmaster and had a precocious musical talent; by the age of 11 he was
appearing as a piccolo soloist with Louis Jullien’s orchestra. He also
appears to have been a talented pianist, but it was as a clarinettist that he
made his mark as a player. After touring with a number of theatre bands he
became leader of the Harrogate Spa Band, and in 1861 he joined the Hallé
Orchestra in which he remained for most of his playing career. In the 1850s
he started to conduct brass bands, and he went on to have influential
associations with the most successful Victorian bands, particularly the
Meltham Mills Band. At the time of his death Gladney was widely referred
to as the father of the brass band movement. With two other successful
Victorian band conductors, Edwin Swift and Alexander Owen, he shaped
the format and idiom of the British brass band. The standard
instrumentation comes from their preferred combination of forces (see
Band (i), §IV, 3), and there is little doubt that Gladney, the most urbane and
well-educated of the three, was the defining influence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Obituary, British Bandsman (23 Dec 1911)
T. Herbert, ed.: The British Brass Band: a Musical and Social History
(Oxford, 2000)
TREVOR HERBERT
Gladwin, Thomas
(b c1710; d ?London, ?1799). English organist, harpsichordist and
composer. According to Burney, he emerged as a performer on the organ
and harpsichord in London about 1736. Although a proposed date of 1738
is questionable, Gladwin was evidently an early orgainst at Vauxhall
Gardens where he perpetuated the tradition of the Handelian organ
concerto. Gladwin's concertos were not published, but a gavotte from a
concerto provided the substance for a popular song, Greenwood-Hall: or
Colin's Description (to his Wife) of the Pleasures of Spring Gardens. From
1760 or earlier Gladwin was organist at Audley Chapel, Grosvenor Square.
A set of Lessons for the harpsichord or organ, three with violin
accompaniment, was issued in the 1750s by J. Johnson, reissued in 1768
by Welcker, and still later printed by Bland. The sonatas with violin
accompaniment were probably the earliest in this category by an English
composer, and the solo works among the earliest English keyboard
sonatas (as opposed to suites). The keyboard style reflects the impact of
Scarlatti's sonatas in England and incorporates various orchestral effects
translated from the currently fashionable Italian concerto. Gladwin's songs
were very popular and were included in numerous 18th-century collections.
Burney, in Rees's Cyclopaedia, asserted that ‘John’ Gladwin died at ‘a
great age’ in 1799; the cited connections with Vauxhall and Audley Chapel
suggest that this is the same person.
WORKS
8 Lessons, hpd/org (London, c1755), 3 with vn
Lamentation on Parting with a Dog, glee, 3vv, 1783, US-Bp
Single songs: By Love Possess'd (c1735); Charming Chloe (Jersey) (c1735);
Greenwood-Hall (?Lockman), in Gentleman's Magazine, xxi (1742), 440;
Whilst in the Verdant Spot we Stray (Lockman) (1743); The Invitation to Mira
(c1745); all except By Love Possess'd and The Invitation to Mira repr. in
18th-century anthologies
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BurneyH
EitnerQ
GerberNL
T. Mortimer: The Universal Director (London, 1763); repr. as ‘An
Eighteenth-Century Directory of London Musicians’, GSJ, ii (1949),
27–31
‘Gladwin: the Melody’, MA (1910–11), 122–3
R.R. Kidd: ‘The Emergence of Chamber Music with Obbligato Keyboard in
England’, AcM, xliv (1972), 122–44, esp. 130
H.D. Johnstone and R. Fiske, eds.: Music in Britain: the Eighteenth
Century (Oxford, 1990)
RONALD R. KIDD
Glaeser, Franz.
See Gläser, Franz.
Glagolitic Mass, Glagolitic chant.
The term ‘Glagolitic’ (neo-Lat. glagoliticus, from Croatian glagoljica: ‘the
Glagolitic alphabet’; related to Old Church Slavonic glagolŭ, ‘word’) refers
to a distinctive alphabet devised for the Slavonic literary language in the
9th century by Constantine (monastic name, Cyril) and Methodius, apostles
of the Slavs. By extension it is used to refer to the Catholic (as opposed to
Orthodox) Mass translated into Church Slavonic, and to compositions such
as the Glagolitic Mass of Leoš Janáček that are settings of such texts,
whether written in the original alphabet or transcribed into Latin letters.
‘Glagolitic chant’ or ‘Glagolitic singing’ (glagoljaško pjevanje) refers in a
broader sense to a repertory of paraliturgical as well as liturgical Catholic
chant in the Slavonic vernacular transmitted orally, principally in Croatia.
In 862 Prince Rostislav requested the Byzantine Emperor to send a Slav-
speaking mission to Great Moravia. Accordingly, Cyril and Methodius in
863 established the Catholic liturgy there, and with it a centre for the
Catholic faith within the whole of Slavonic Europe. Since that time, in
Catholic Slavonic countries, a continuous tradition of the Catholic Slavonic
or Glagolitic liturgy has existed side by side with the Latin liturgy of the
Western Church, even though subject to some local interruptions. Early
sources include fragments of a 10th–11th-century sacramentary at Kiev
(UKR-Kan DA/P.328) and fragments of an 11th-century missal, besides
several complete late-medieval missals; the Mass Ordinary melodies
(‘Věruju’, ‘Svet’, ‘Blagoslovlen’, ‘Agneče Boži’) in a Glagolitic missal of the
14th or 15th century were shown by Vajs (1910, p.436) to be precisely
those of the corresponding Latin texts in another missal of the same date
and geographical provenance. The privilege of celebrating the Slavonic
liturgy has been repeatedly confirmed by the Holy See, for example, at the
Council of Trent, up to and including the 20th century. Within this tradition,
in turn, some of the areas of south-eastern Europe now falling within
Croatia and Slovenia have played a particularly important part, together
with the basilica of S Hieronimo in Rome, a centre of the Slavonic liturgy
especially since the late 16th century.
Interest in the Glagolitic liturgy received a particular impetus owing to the
coincidence of the millennial celebrations for the mission to Moravia of Sts
Cyril and Methodius in 1863, those for St Cyril's death in 1869 and so on
with the rise of Slavonic nationalism, and the participation in the nationalist
movement by Catholic priests such as František Sušil in Moravia. (The
1863 celebration was also marked in Rome, and Liszt composed his
‘Slavimo slavno slaveni!’ for this occasion, to a Croatian rather than Old
Slavonic text.) A concordat between the Vatican and Montenegro in 1886
allowed the re-introduction into Slovenia and Bohemia of the Glagolitic rite
(against the protests of some ecclesiastics); the edition of the Glagolitic
missal that was subsequently authorized for Bohemia and Croatia was the
Missale romanum slavonico idiomate (Rome, 1905). Almost immediately,
the Glagolitic Mass began to be set also in a modern style: the first such
setting by a Czech composer was the Missa glagolskaja by Ladislav
Kožušníček (1907), and later settings include the Glagolská mše of J.B.
Foerster (1923) besides that of Janáček (1926).
Croatian Glagolitic chant (Glagolitic singing) is attested in a report sent to
Rome between 1740 and 1742 by Matej Karaman, bishop of Osor (HR-
ZAn 22321, ms.546): in villages the parish priests and lower clergy
employed a style of singing ‘without instruments and without learning,
composed of a certain natural and affective melody that awakens devotion’
(senza istromenti, e senza studio, composto d'una certa melodia naturale,
e patetica, ch'eccita divozione). Transcriptions of specific melodies from
this repertory began to appear during the 19th century, and field recordings
have been made since the early 20th (the oldest, c1910–30, are preserved
in the Phonogrammarchiv of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna);
the Croatian Academy of Sciences is responsible for collecting and
publishing the sources. The repertory has a wide geographical provenance
in the northern Adriatic islands, especially Krk, in Istria, and in the Croatian
coastal mainland of northern and central Dalmatia; various different
regional styles can be distinguished (see the studies by Bezić and Doliner).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SČHK (‘Církevně slovanský zpěv’ [Church Slavonic chant]; J. Brabcová-
Bajgarová, J. Fukač); MGG2 (‘Messe, III’; J. Bezić, C. Hannick)
J. Vajs: ‘Etwas über den liturgischen Gesang der Glagoliten der vor- und
nachtridentinischen Epoche’, Archiv für slavische Philologie, xxx
(1909), 227–33; xxxi (1910), 430–42
V. Žganec: ‘Folklore Elements in the Yugoslav Orthodox and Roman
Catholic Liturgical Chant’, JIFMC, viii (1956), 19–22
J. Bezić: Razvoj i oblici glagoljaškog pjevanja u sjevernoj Dalmaciji [The
development and features of Glagolitic chant in northern Dalmatia]
(diss., U. of Ljubljana, 1969)
J. Bezić: ‘Glagoljaško pjevanje’ [Glagolitic chant], Muzička enciklopedija, i
(Zagreb, 1971), 686–7
J. Martinić: Glagolitische Gesänge Mitteldalmatiens (Regensburg, 1981)
G. Doliner: ‘Historical Data about the “Glagolitic Chant” in the Area of
Istria’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, iii, 555–8
P. Wingfield: Janáček: Glagolitic Mass (Cambridge, 1992)
G. Doliner: ‘Glagolitic Singing in the Light of Certain New Data on Music
Culture in Novi Vinodolski’, Narodna umjetnost, xxxii (1995), 1, 183–
200
J. Bezić: ‘Glagoljaško pjevanje’ [Glagolitic chant], Hrvatska i Europa:
kultura, znanost i umjetnost [Croatia and Europe: culture, science, art],
ed. I. Supičić (Zagreb, 1997), 569–76
G. Doliner: ‘Glagoljaško pjevanje kao dio fenomena glagoljaštva’
[Glagolitic chant as an element of the Glagolitic tradition], Glazba,
riječi i slike: svečani zbornik za Koraljku Kos [Music, words and
images: essays in honour of Koraljka Kos] (Zagreb, 1999), 361–8
GEOFFREY CHEW
Glahn, Henrik
(b Hornstrup, nr Vejle, 29 May 1919). Danish musicologist. He studied the
piano and organ at the Royal Danish Conservatory (organ diploma 1941)
and musicology with Abrahamsen and Larsen at Copenhagen University
(MA 1945), being awarded the university gold medal for an essay on the
treatment of rhythm in the hymn tunes of the Reformation period (1947)
and the doctorate in 1954 with a dissertation on the melodies of Lutheran
hymns in the 16th century. After serving as organist and choirmaster of
Jaegersborg Church (1947–59) he joined the succession of distinguished
organists (Gade, Laub, Wöldike, Jeppesen, Sørensen) at Holmens Kirke,
Copenhagen (1959–64). He began teaching at Copenhagen University in
1945, later becoming reader (1964) and professor of musicology (1967–
89). In 1954 he was appointed to the Music History Museum as assistant to
Godtfred Skjerne, whom he succeeded as director, and also as curator of
the Carl Claudius Collection of Musical Instruments (1956–80). Under his
leadership the museum became a model institution and an important part
of Danish musical life; in 1966 it moved into a fine 18th-century mansion,
the former parsonage of the Reformed Church near the centre of
Copenhagen, gaining much enlarged exhibition, library and concert
facilities where the two instrument collections were amalgamated in 1979.
As a leading authority on all aspects of Danish church music and on
Lutheran hymnody, Glahn has been a member of the government liturgical
commission (1970–73) and was editor of a revised edition of the Danish
hymnbook (1992). He was president of the Society for Danish Church
Music (1954–71) and the Danish Musicological Society (1969–80),
chairman of the Organizing Committee for the 11th IMS Congress
(Copenhagen, 1972) and a member and vice-president of the IMS Council
(1972–82). In 1968 he became a member of the editorial committee of
Monumenta Musicae Byzantine, succeeding Oliver Strunk as director
(1971–93). He was elected a member both of the Royal Danish Academy
of Sciences in 1972, later becoming vice-president (1977–83), and of the
Norwegian Academy of Sciences in 1994. The Festschrift Festskrift Henrik
Glahn, ed. M. Müller (Copenhagen, 1979), which contains a list of his
writings, was published to mark his 60th birthday.
WRITINGS
‘Gabriel Voigtländer’, DMt, xviii (1943), 217–23
‘Om reformationstidens salmemelodier og deres rytme’, Dansk kirkesangs
årsskrift 1947, 51–68
‘De danske Kyriesalmer i historisk, tekstlig og musikalsk belysning’, Dansk
kirkesangs årsskrift 1952, 60–78
‘Entwicklungszüge innerhalb des evangelischen Kirchengesanges des 16.
Jhts. im Lichte vergleichender Quellenforschung’, IMSCR V: Utrecht
1952, 199–210
Melodistudier til den lutherske salmesangs historie fra 1524 til ca. 1600
(diss., U. of Copenhagen, 1954; Copenhagen, 1954)
‘Et fransk musikhåndskrift fra begyndelsen af det 16. århundrede’, Fund og
forskning, v–vi (1958–9), 90–109
‘Om messehåndbøgernes melodistof’, Danske messebøger fra
reformationstiden, ed. S.H. Poulsen (Copenhagen, 1959), 132–50
‘Tysk Barok-cembalo og fransk Rokoko-harpe’, Kunstindustrimuseet i Oslo
årbok, ed. S. Ryggel (1960), 79–105
‘En ny kilde til belysning af det preussiske hofkapels repertoire på Hertug
Albrechts tid’, STMf, xliii (1961), 145–61
‘Ein Kopenhagener Fragment aus dem 15. Jh.’, Natalicia musicologica
Knud Jeppesen septuagenario collegis oblata, ed. B. Hjelmborg and
S. Sørensen (Copenhagen, 1962), 59–100
‘Nogle hidtil ukendte forlaeg til melodier i Hans Thomissøns Psalmebog
1569’, DAM, iii (1963), 69–85
‘Om melodiforholdene i Kingos Graduale’, Postscript to T. Kingo: Gradual:
en ny almindelig kirke-salmebog, under behørige noder og melodier
(Odense, 1967) [facs. edn]
‘Et orgeltabulatur-fragment i det Kgl. bibliotek i København’, Festskrift til
Olav Gurvin, ed. F. Benestad and P. Krømer (Drammen and Oslo,
1968), 73–85 [incl. Eng. summary]
‘Nogel kirkelige lejlighedskompositioner af J.A.P. Schulz’, DAM, vi (1968–
72), 113–30
‘Om melodierne til Alt står i Guds faderhånd’, Dansk kirkesangs årsskrift
1969–70, 63–74
ed., with N. Schiørring and C.E. Hatting: Festskrift Jens Peter Larsen
(Copenhagen, 1972) [incl. ‘J.H. Scheins Kantional “in die Tabulatur
transponiert von J. Vockerodt, Mühlhausen 1649” ’, 47–72]
‘Salmemelodien i dansk tradition’, Salmen som lovsang og litteratur, ed. T.
Borup Jensen and K.E. Bugge (Copenhagen, 1972), 191–234
‘Omkring en håndskreven tysk koralbog fra pietismens tid’, DAM, vii (1973–
6), 69–102
‘I Jesu Navn: en gammel visemelodi med mange udløbere’, Dansk
kirkesangs årsskrift 1975–6, 22–42
‘Lidt mere om Hans Christensen Sthens melodibrug’, Musik & forskning, vi
(1980), 129–41
‘Melodistoffet i “Pontoppidans salmebog” 1740/1742’, Dansk kirkesangs
årsskrift 1981–2, 12–81
‘Et håndskrift-fragment fra den sene middelalder’, Hvad fatter gjør…essays
tilegnet Erik Dal (Herning, 1982), 150–70
‘Mogens Pedersøns drei Motetten’, Heinrich Schultz und die Musik in
Dänemark: Copenhagen 1985, eds. A.Ø. Jensen and O. Kongstead
(Copenhagen, 1989), 183–96
‘Number Symbolism and other Speculative Traits in Two Marian Motets
from a 16th-Century Danish Manuscript’, Analytica: Studies in the
Description and Analysis of Music in Honour of Ingmar Bengtsson, ed.
A. Lönn and E. Kjellberg (Stockholm, 1985), 133–48
‘Om melodistoffet i Niels Jesperssøns Graduale’, Postscript to Gradual: en
Almindelig Sangbog…1573 (Copenhagen, 1986) [facs. edn]
with E. Nielson and E. Dal: ‘Om melodierne til L.P. Thuras
Højsangsparafrase (1640)’, Hymnologiske meddelelser, xvii (1988),
224–46
‘“Sandraegtihedens velsignelse”: musikalsk belyst gennem nogle motetter
fra det 16. århundrede’, Musik & forskning, xv (1989–90), 7–34
‘Otto Kades breve til Thomas Laub 1889–1898’, Dansk kirkesangs årsskrift
1989–93, 141–71
‘Hvo som vil salig udi Verden leve: en salme af Peter Palladius og dens
melodi’, Festskrift Søren Sørensen, ed. F.E. Hansen and others
(Copenhagen, 1990), 223–40
‘Melodierne bag Brorsons salmer i Troens rare Klenodie med saerlig vaegt
på pietismens toner’, Hymnologiske meddelelser, xxiii (1994), 283–93
EDITIONS
with J.P. Larsen and others: Musikbilag til Prøveritualbogen 1963
(Copenhagen, 1963)
with S. Sørensen: The Clausholm Music Fragments (Copenhagen, 1974)
Musik fra Christian IIIs tid: idvalgte satser fra det danske Hofkapels
stemmebøger (1541) [Music from the time of Christian III: selected
compositions from the Part Books of the Royal Chapel], Dania
Sonans, iv–v (Egtved, 1978, 1985); see also DAM, xvii (1986), 65–7;
xx (1992), 22–5
A.C. Arrebo: Samlede Skrifter, iv: Melodierne i K. Davids Psalter 1627
(Copenhagen, 1983)
Musik i Danmark på Christian IV’s tid, iii: Musik for tasteinstrumenter
‘Voigtländer tabulaturet (Copenhagen, 1988); iv: Messe og motetter af
Mogens Perdersøn (Copenhagen, 1988); with J. Bergsagel, vi:
Anonym messe og lejlighedmotetter (Copenhagen, 1988)
with H. Elmer: The Netherlands & N. Germany, c.1590–c.1650, Faber
Early Organ Series, ed. J. Dalton, x–xii (London, 1988)
with T. Schousboe: Musikken til den danske højmesse (Copenhagen,
1992)
Melodier til salmer af Hans Adolph Brorson, 1694–1764: et udvalg of
pietismens åndelige sange (Copenhagen, 1994)
JOHN BERGSAGEL
Glam rock.
A highly theatrical mode of presentation found in 1970s rock and pop
which, in its parade of an inauthenticity that hardly appeared to sell out to
commercial interests, prepared the way for the eruption of punk rock by the
middle of the decade. Glam, a contraction of the slightly seedy glamour,
proclaimed dissatisfaction with the excessive machismo prevalent in
growing hard rock. By 1971 the New York Dolls, David Bowie and Marc
Bolan's T. Rex had begun experimenting with overt feminine make-up and
some cross-dressing on stage. Bowie's transgressions were most
calculated, perceiving most clearly the value of image, both on stage and in
print. They shared an emphasis on short, well-constructed, hook-based
songs in opposition to the lengthy meanderings of progressive rock,
although Bowie's contemporary work in particular, for example Ziggy
Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, was stylistically little removed from
hard rock. Around 1972 Roxy Music combined this demeanour with a
progressive style founded on Brian Eno's atmospheric tape treatments and
Andy Mackay's raucous saxophone. The irony of the genre's inauthenticity
became particularly apparent in the UK glitter rock bands of the early
1970s, particularly Slade, Sweet and Gary Glitter. These shared pared-
down guitar textures and teen-orientated promotion, often becoming
indistinguishable from mainstream teenage pop by the mid-1970s.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Morley: ‘The Very Dream of Smartness’, Cool Cats, ed. T. Stewart
(London, 1981), 83–101
W. Faustlich: Zwischen Glitter und Punk (Rottenburg-Oberndorf, 1986)
S. Frith: ‘Only Dancing: David Bowie Flirts with the Issues’, Zoot Suits and
Second Hand Dresses, ed. A. McRobbie (London, 1989), 132–40
V.M. Cagle: Reconstructing Pop/Subculture (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1995)
B. Hoskyns: Glam! (London, 1998)
ALLAN F. MOORE
Glandien, Lutz
(b Oebisfelde, Altmark, 4 June 1954). German composer. In 1977 he
became a member of the Dresden multimedia ensemble Schicht, a group
active in the politicized singing movement of the DDR. He studied at the
Deutsche Hochschule für Musik, Berlin, where his teachers included
Wolfram Heicking (1979–83), among others, and at the DDR Akademie der
Künste (1985–7), where he was a masterclass student of Georg Katzer. In
his instrumental works, such as Ruhestörung (1986) and Und war es noch
still (1989), he has focussed on critical questioning and developed a
compelling language of sonic and rhythmic gesture. In 1989 he began to
explore electro-acoustic music and in this medium devoted himself
increasingly to the genres of applied music. As well as writing pieces for
solo instrument and tape (to be performed by friends), he created sound
installations, music for video, and radio plays. He began to work with
musicians such as Chris Cutler and others from the avant-garde rock
scene in 1990. As he included improvisatory techniques from that sphere in
his own music, his development of musical gestures accelerated and his
works became more playful. Later he became interested in virtual and
recycled music, taking pre-recorded sound as a starting point for
composition, and since 1997 exploration of tonal phenomena in the voices
of humans and primates. (KdG, A. Kopp)
WORKS
(selective list)
GISELA NAUCK
Glanert, Detlev
(b Hamburg, 6 Sept 1960). German composer. He studied in Hamburg with
Diether de la Motte (1980–81) and Günter Friedrichs (1982–4) before
moving to Cologne to study with Henze (1984–8). He also attended the
Tanglewood Festival (1986) and was a guest at the Villa Massimo, Rome
(1992–3). From 1989 to 1992 he co-organized the Cantiere Internazionale
d'Arte, Montepulciano. His opera Der Spiegel des grossen Kaisers won the
Lieberman Opera Prize in 1993.
Glanert cites Mahler and Ravel as his primary influences. His Symphony
no.1 (1985) explores a Mahlerian symphonic landscape and quotes briefly
from Das Lied von der Erde. Mahler/Skizze (1989), based on the
experience of visiting Mahler's grave, explores, in delicate instrumental
sonorities, the borders between disparate Expressionism and structural
formalism. Henze's sound world has also made an impact on Glanert's
style, as has his predilection for music drama, particularly chamber opera.
Glanert frequently brings diverse elements into a dialogue without
combining them in a final synthesis. His opera Leyla und Medjnun (1987–
8), for example, combines Turkish folk melodies and characters with
European art music in a deliberately discontinuous montage.
WORKS
(selective list)
Ops: Leyla und Medjnun (Märchen für Musik, A. Ören and P. Schneider, Ital. trans.
M. Marica and M. D'Amico, after Nizami), op.16, 1987–8, Munich, 28 May 1988; Der
Spiegel des grossen Kaisers (2, Glanert and U. Becker, after A. Zweig), op.24,
1989–93, Mannheim, 23 Nov, 1995; Der Engel, der das Wasser bewegte (chbr op,
T. Wilder, Ger. trans. H. Herlitschka), op.30, 1994, Bremen, 16 May 1995; Der Engel
auf dem Schiff (chbr op, T. Wilder, Ger. trans. Herlitschka), op.31, 1995, Bremen, 16
May 1995; Joseph Süss (op, 13 scenes, W. Fritsch and U. Ackermann), 1999,
Bremen, 13 Oct 1999
Orch: Sym. no.1, op.6, 1985; Aufbruch, op.11, 1986; 3 Gesänge aus ‘Carmen’
(Sym. no.2) (W. Wondratschek), op.21, Bar, orch, 1988–90; Pf Conc. no.1, op.27,
1994; Musik, op.33, vn, orch, 1995–6; Sym. no.3, op.35, 1996
Chbr and solo inst: Sonata, op.5, vn, pf, 1984; Str Qt no.1, op. 14, 1984–6; Nordern
(5 Bildern), op.9, fl + a fl + pic, cl + b cl, perc, pf, va, vc, db, 1985–6; 4 Fantasien,
op.15, pf, 1987; Mahler/Skizze, op.20, fl, cl, hn, trbn, perc, cel, hp, str qnt, 1989;
Paralipomena (7 Stücke zu einem Märchen von Novalis) op.28, gui, 1994;
Vergessenes Bild (Kammersonate no.1), op.29, fl, cl, perc, vn, va, vc, db, 1994;
Gestalt (Kammersonate no.2), op.32, fl, cl, perc, vn, va, vc, db, 1995; Wind Qnt,
1997
Other: Miserere (Wondratscheck), op.34, chorus, 1996; arr. Brahms: Schumann
Variations, op.9, cl, bn, hn, str qt, db, 1996
Glanner, Caspar
(d Salzburg, before 17 Aug 1577). Austrian composer and organist.
According to his own account he served as a singer in several court
chapels before entering lifelong employment with Michael of Khuenberg,
Archbishop of Salzburg, in 1556. There he was employed as server and
cathedral organist, and was in addition charged with the duty of instructing
one boy each year in the playing of the organ.
Apparently he had already begun work on his song collection, Neue
teutscher geistlicher und weltlicher Liedlein, planned in four volumes, but
only the first two volumes appeared in print (posthumously, in 1578 and
1580 respectively). Of the other two, which remained in manuscript and
have since been lost, only one work is extant; the song All Ding auff Erd
zergencklich sind (in RISM 155820). The remaining 49 lieder from the first
two parts amply demonstrate Glanner’s mastery of the transitional style
between the older Gesellschaftslied (songs in the Minnesinger tradition for
the educated classes) and the Italianate song of the second half of the 16th
century. They are largely treble-dominated songs with quasi-polyphonic
lower voices. Glanner used half-choir techniques and four of his pieces are
in the homophonic style of the villanella. His occasional use of polyphonic
devices, such as the canonic doubling of the tenor cantus firmus in the
treble of his five-part Erbarm dich mein, O Herre Gott from the 1578
publication, seems anachronistic in comparison with his other works.
Ruprecht Glanner (i), the brother of Caspar, was an organ builder who
repaired the organs at Mariahof in Styria in 1518 and Salzburg Cathedral in
1529 and 1530. His son Ruprecht (ii), Caspar’s nephew, lived with Caspar
in Salzburg in about 1564. He was also an organ builder, and collaborated
with Kaspar Bockh on restoring the Salzburg Franciscan church organ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Spies: Kaspar Glanner, fürstlich-salzburgischer Organist (Salzburg,
1895)
H. Spies: ‘Aus der musikalischen Vergangenheit Salzburgs bis 1634’,
Musica divina, ii (1914), 314–45
M.-L. Lascar: Glanerstudien (diss., U. of Bonn, 1927)
H.J. Moser: ‘Das deutsche Chorlied zwischen Senfl und Hassler als
Beispiel eines Stilwandels’, JbMP 1928, 43–58
H. Federhofer: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte des Orgelbaues in der
Steiermark’, Aus Archiv und Chronik, iv (1951), 22–48, esp. 30
OTHMAR WESSELY
Beshuv Adonai (Ps cxxvi), 1v, pf (1943–4); Ich bin a Yisroel (E. Auerbach), 1v, pf
(1943–4); Matai? [When?], Palestinian song, 1v, pf (1943–4); Deror yiqra [Nigun
from Talne], 1v, pf (1951); Rinat Ha-qodesh, prayer modes (1965) [cantorial recits
for the Sabbath and festival prayers]; Friday Evening Service, cantor, SATB, org
(1967); Hallel and 3 Festivals, cantor, SATB, org (1968); High Holidays, cantor,
SATB, org (1970); Sabbath Morning Service, cantor, SATB, org (1971)
Principal publishers: Transcontinental, Bloch, Institute for Religious Jewish Music, Israeli Music
Institute
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Steinmann: Zeharim: in Memory of Leib Glantz (Tel-Aviv, 1965) [incl.
articles and letters by Glantz; in Hebrew and Yiddish]
A. Soltes: Off the Willows: the Rebirth of Modern Jewish Music (New York,
1970), 116–25
A. Zimmermann: Be-ron yahad: Essays, Research and Notes in Hazzanut
and Jewish Music (Tel-Aviv, 1988), 217–23 [in Heb.]
ELIYAHU SCHLEIFER
Glanville-Hicks, Peggy
(b Melbourne, 29 Dec 1912; d Sydney, 25 June 1990). Australian
composer. She was a major figure in American musical life as a New York
City critic, composer, and concert organizer from the late 1940s into the
1960s. From about 1960 she spent increasing amounts of time outside the
USA, especially in Greece. In 1967 she underwent surgery in New York to
remove a brain tumour; she recovered but virtually ceased composing. In
1975 she moved from Greece to Australia, where her music attracted
renewed attention from performers and audiences. In 1987 the University
of Sydney awarded her the honorary DMus.
She received her first training from 1927 at the Melbourne Conservatorium,
where she studied with the conductor and opera composer Fritz Hart. In
1931 she won a scholarship to the RCM, where she studied with Vaughan
Williams (composition), Arthur Benjamin (piano), and Constant Lambert
and Malcolm Sargent (conducting). The award of an Octavia Travelling
Scholarship (1936–8) enabled her to further her studies with Wellesz in
Vienna and with Nadia Boulanger in Paris.
In 1938 Glanville-Hicks married the English pianist and composer Stanley
Bate and on occasion wrote as Peggy Bate until their divorce in 1949. In
1940 to 1941 she accompanied Bate on his concert tours to Melbourne
and Sydney, then Boston and New York, where they decided to settle. In
1951 she married Rafael da Costa, an Austrian-Israeli critic, whom she
divorced in 1953. She lived in the USA from 1941 to the early 1960s, taking
American citizenship in 1948.
In 1947 she became a New York Herald Tribune critic; Virgil Thomson was
her senior colleague. During the next eight concert seasons, October
through April, the paper published over 500 of her reviews, mostly of new
music. She also published reviews and essays in Musical America, Music
& Letters, Musical Quarterly, the New York Times and other journals. She
updated the American material in Grove’s Dictionary (5th edition, 1954) and
herself contributed 98 entries on current American composers and eight
articles on Danish composers.
She was active in support of other musicians, first through the League of
Composers and then with the American Composers Alliance. She
organized concerts and commercial recordings of new music, usually
including a work of her own. She assisted Menuhin in presenting concerts
of Indian music (1955). As a director of the New York Composers’ Forum,
she organized concerts of new American music with discussion by the
composers.
As a critic and writer she was as concerned with identifying a composer’s
source of inspiration as with explaining compositional technique, including
atonalism, serialism, neo-classicism, musique concrète, and the mid-
century avant garde. She described the qualities of American inspiration in
the music of Ives, Virgil Thomson, Copland, Douglas Moore, the young
Bernstein and others. Yet her outlook was thoroughly international. She
was most interested in the music of the ‘exotics’ or ‘musical explorers’ such
as John Cage, Lou Harrison, Paul Bowles, Colin McPhee, Alan Hovhaness
and Edgard Varèse. Like them, she found in various non-Western musical
cultures more authentic, even mystical sources of inspiration.
After the concert season, from May to September, she had more time to
write music and to gather inspiration. She travelled to other parts of the
USA and to England, Germany, Italy, Greece, Jamaica, Morocco, India,
Australia and elsewhere. Her work was supported by several major
awards, including a grant from the American Academy of Arts and Letters
(1953–4), two Guggenheim Fellowships (1956–8), a Fulbright Fellowship
(1960) and a Rockefeller Grant (1961–3) for travel and research in the
Middle East and East Asia.
As a composer she had an affinity, probably reinforced by her training with
Hart and Vaughan Williams, for tonal music, consonant and often non-
diatonic harmonies, and modal melodies such as are heard in traditional or
folk musics. Her melodic writing is distinctive, as are her clear textures and
rhythmic patterns, often reinforced by a variety of percussion instruments.
She was inspired by the melodies and rhythms of several traditions: Spain
(in the Sonata for Harp), India (The Transposed Heads), North Africa
(Letters from Morocco), sub-Saharan Africa (Sonata for Piano and
Percussion), South America (Prelude and Presto for Ancient American
Instruments), the Italian peninsula (Concertino antico, Etruscan Concerto),
and, in her mind the most authentic of all, ancient Greece (Nausicaa,
Sappho).
The plots of her operas and ballets involve subjects close to her heart. The
Transposed Heads explores the dilemma of a woman whose marriage to a
high-born man enhances her social position, but who then falls in love with
his best friend, a less ascetic type, and is unable to live without both of
them. The plot of Nausicaa (produced at the 1961 Athens Festival)
explores female authorship, specifically the female tradition in ancient
Greek mythology. Indeed, Glanville-Hicks saw herself as the only woman
who had ever written music of any merit, that is, as part of a male tradition.
She was a successful innovative artist in an essentially commercial system.
She cultivated men and women with influence and money to sponsor her
productions. She found leading performers, conductors and
choreographers whose styles and interests suited her own. Her skills as a
publicist, as well as the quality of her work, helped attract audiences.
Although she once said that ‘in America they handed me fame and fortune
on a platter’, in reality she worked very hard for her musical and spiritual
values.
WORKS
(selective list)
Principal publishers: Associated, Colfrank, Hargail, Peters (New York), Schott (New York), Weintraub
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGGI (A. Silbermann)
GroveA (E. Wood)
GroveO (T. Radic)
GroveW (E. Wood and T. Radic)
G. Antheil: ‘Peggy Glanville-Hicks’, Bulletin of American Composers
Alliance, iv/1 (1954), 2–9
P. Glanville-Hicks: ‘At the Source’, ON, xxvi/6 (1961–2), 8–13 [on
Nausicaa]
A.D. McCredie: Musical Composition in Australia (Canberra, 1969)
J. Murdoch: Australia’s Contemporary Composers (Melbourne, 1972)
J.W. LePage: ‘Peggy Glanville-Hicks’, Women Composers, Conductors
and Musicians of the Twentieth Century: Selected Biographies, ii
(Metuchen, NJ, 1983), 142–62
D. Hayes: Peggy Glanville-Hicks: a Bio-Bibliography (Westport, CT, 1990)
D. Hayes: ‘Peggy Glanville-Hicks: a Voice from the Inner World’, The
Musical Woman: an International Perspective, iii: 1986–90, ed. J.L.
Zaimont and others (Westport, CT, 1991), 371–409
W. Beckett: Peggy Glanville-Hicks (Sydney, 1992)
J. Murdoch: P. Glanville-Hicks: a Transposed Life (forthcoming)
DEBORAH HAYES
ed.: Boethius: Opera quae extant omnia (Basle, 1546, 2/1570 [incl. De
institutione musica])
Uss Glareani Musick ein Usszug mit Verwilligung und Hilff Glareani (Basle,
1557, enlarged 2/1559)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
O.F. Fritzsche: Glarean: sein Leben und seine Schriften (Frauenfeld,
1890)
E. Tatarinoff: Die Briefe Glareans an Johannes Aal (Solothurn, 1895)
J. Bütler: Männer im Sturm (Lucerne, 1948), 1–88
F.B. Turrell: ‘The Isagoge in Musicen of Henry Glarean’, JMT, iii (1959),
97–139
B. Meier: ‘Heinrich Loriti Glareanus als Musiktheoriker’, Aufsätze zur
Freiburger Wissenschafts- und Universitätsgeschichte (Freiburg,
1960), 65–112
C.A. Miller: ‘The Dodecachordon: its Origin and Influence on Renaissance
Thought’, MD, xv (1961), 155–66
C.A. Miller: Preface to the English translation of Dodecachordon, MSD, vi
(1965)
E. Lichtenhahn: ‘“Ars perfecta”: zu Glareans Auffassung der
Musikgeschichte’, Festschrift Arnold Geering, ed. V. Ravizza (Berne,
1972), 129–38
S. Gissel: ‘Die modi phrygius, hypophrygius und phrygius connexus’, MD,
xlv (1991), 5–94
I. Fenlon: ‘Heinrich Glarean's books’, Music in the German Renaissance:
Sources, Styles, and Contexts, ed. J. Kmetz (Cambridge, 1994), 74–
102
S. Fuller: ‘Defending the Dodecachordon: Ideological Currents in Glarean's
Modal Theory’, JAMS, xlix (1996), 191–224
CLEMENT A. MILLER
Operas: Kagekyio, 1961; Möten [Encounters], 1969; En naken kung [A Naked King],
1972; Cercatori, 1972
Several cants., incl. Media vita, 1970
13 syms.; Trilogia, orch, 1939; Paradosso, orch, 1972; concs. and other orch works
14 str qts; Fem strukturer [5 Structures], S, fl, sax, vc; Lettre à une âme, vc; other
chbr works
Songs, choruses, pf and org pieces
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Utterström: ‘Tonsättare i dagens Västerås’, Musikrevy, v (1972), 273–5
OTFRIED RICHTER
Glasgow.
Scottish city. Located on the river Clyde, it has been a university city since
1451 and the largest city in Scotland since about 1800. It is the home of
the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama (RSAMD), the Royal
Scottish National Orchestra, the BBC Scottish SO, Scottish Opera and
Scottish Ballet. It is also the base of BBC radio and television in Scotland
as well as the independent Scottish Television.
A set of services for the feast day of Glasgow’s patron saint, St Kentigern
(or Mungo; bur. early 7th century), in the 13th-century Sprouston Breviary
(GB-En) has many antiphons of great beauty, in monodic chant on 11th-
and 12th-century texts. St Mungo’s own church bell was worn out by the
17th century, but a similar 9th-century quadrangular Celtic bell survives in
nearby Dumbarton. The 12th-century Parisian material in the St Andrews
Music Book was probably known in Glasgow, as Robert Bernham (c1200–
1253), later bishop of St Andrews, was a precentor at Glasgow Cathedral
in the 1230s; in that post he would have been in charge of the vicars choral
and the music library. The dedicatory stone of a 15th-century building
declares it to have been built ‘for the priests who serve the flourishing choir
of Glasgow’.
The earliest reference to organs in Glasgow dates from 1520, when the
Maister of the Sang Schule, John Paniter, was required to deputize for his
organist. The third prebendary at St Mary and St Anne in 1539 taught the
organ to the boys of the song school as well as Gregorian chant, discant
and part-singing. The Reformation silenced all Glasgow’s organs until the
18th century and had a devastating effect on music in general; but in 1638
the city council allowed the composer Duncan Burnett to begin teaching
again ‘seeing that the musik school is altogether dekayit within this burgh
to the great discredit of this citie’. Burnett’s pupils would have known the
keyboard music of William Kinloch and other late 16th-century composers,
collected in the Duncan Burnett Book (En). The late 17th century and the
early 18th were largely barren of musical activity. In 1756, hoping to
improve psalm singing in the churches the city magistrates funded free
music lessons for parishioners of good character. No organs were used
until 1785, when the Episcopal chapel acquired a Snetzler organ from
Edinburgh and employed a music teacher. Presbyterians described the
church as ‘the Whistlin’ Kirk’, and it is unlikely that many of them attended
the concerts given there; but in 1798 the newly formed Sacred Music
Institution gave a vocal concert in the cathedral with organ accompaniment
– possibly the first use of an organ in a Scottish Presbyterian church since
the 1630s. Apart from occasional appearances by the violinist William
McGibbon, the 18th century saw little instrumental music or concert
promotion. The burning of the New Concert Hall in 1764 ‘by a riotous
company of enthusiasts’ need not, however, be taken as an attack on
music, the term ‘concert hall’ being applied to what were really theatres to
circumvent a nationwide ban on theatrical entertainment. Concerts were
given in weekly alternation with dancing and card parties in 1777, some of
the musicians coming from Edinburgh.
With the industrialization of the late 18th century and the 19th, Glasgow
expanded rapidly and musical provision consequently improved. James
Aird (c1750–1795) began publishing music in 1782, and the Gentlemen’s
Subscription Concerts started in 1799; by 1821 they were making their
programmes more accessible to the general public. Vocal music
burgeoned with choirs and concerts organized by the precentors of the
numerous churches, and glee clubs such as the Glasgow Larks (1805) run
by William Euing (1788–1874). The Amateur Musical Society was founded
in 1831, the Philharmonic Society in 1832 and the Choral Society in 1833.
The Caledonian Theatre, opened in 1823, mounted occasional opera
performances; in 1848 Jenny Lind sang there in La sonnambula and La
fille du régiment. The short-lived City Theatre, opened and then destroyed
by fire in 1845, gave The Bohemian Girl and Der Freischütz.
A new City Hall was opened in 1841, and in 1843 the Glasgow Musical
Association was formed; on 2 April 1844 it gave the first Glasgow
performance of Handel’s Messiah. It became the Glasgow Choral Union in
1855 and held oratorio festivals in 1860 and 1873. In 1874 it formed the
Glasgow Choral Union Orchestra, which gave an annual eight-week
season. In 1877 the opening of St Andrew’s Hall, its acoustics among the
finest in the world, doubled the audience capacity. In 1877 and 1878 the
orchestra gave a series of weekly concerts under Hans von Bülow. August
Manns conducted it from 1879 and introduced works by British composers,
including the Scots MacCunn and MacKenzie: he conducted Berlioz’s
Grande messe des morts in 1885. A rival group, Scottish Orchestra, was
formed in 1891, giving 26-week seasons; the two merged in 1898 as the
Scottish Orchestra. Among musicians to perform in the City Hall were
Joachim, Paderewski, Sarasate, Busoni and two Glasgow-born pianists,
Eugen d’Albert and Frederic Lamond. In 1902 the Glasgow Corporation
promoted popular concerts there at nominal charges and children’s
concerts were initiated. The Glasgow Orpheus Choir (1901–1951),
conducted by Hugh Robertson, achieved international renown. It was
succeeded by the Phoenix Choir, but the number of choral societies in
Glasgow had dropped dramatically by the late 20th century. The Scottish
Orchestra became the Scottish National Orchestra in 1950, with a full-time
rather than seasonal schedule. In 1992 it became the Royal Scottish
National Orchestra. Its 20th-century conductors included Barbirolli,
Susskind, Rankl, Swarowsky and, from 1959, Alexander Gibson (the first
Scot to hold the post). Gibson inaugurated the Musica Viva concert series,
which ran from 1959 to 1961 and gave premières of works by Scottish
composers, notably Thea Musgrave, Iain Hamilton and Thomas Wilson (ii),
as well as the British premières of Schoenberg’s Violin Concerto and
Stockhausen’s Gruppen. St Andrew’s Hall was destroyed by fire in 1962. In
1990 the Royal Concert Hall was opened, its auditorium seating nearly
2500.
The BBC Scottish Orchestra, founded in 1935, was the first full-time
professional orchestra in Scotland. Its long association with the conductor
and composer Ian Whyte established its credentials in the performance of
contemporary music, and it expanded, notably under Norman Del Mar
(from 1960), becoming the BBC Scottish SO 1967. It tours at home and
abroad and has a wider repertory than the Royal Scottish National
Orchestra. It has commissioned many works and given many premières,
not least from composers active in Glasgow: Wilson (b 1927), Edward
McGuire (b 1948), John Geddes (b 1941), William Sweeney (b 1950),
Martin Dalby (b 1942) and James Macmillan (b 1959).
From the 1870s Glasgow was an important stop for professional touring
opera companies. Italian troupes appeared in 1872 and 1875 and the Carl
Rosa company made the first of many visits in 1877, later performing
operas by MacKenzie and MacCunn. The Moody-Manners company was
active in the city from 1900, and its collection of scores is held in the
Mitchell Library. A flourishing music hall brought forward such figures as
Will Fyffe (1885–1947) and Harry Lauder (1870–1950). The Royal
Colosseum was built in 1867 with 4000 seats, and in 1869 became the
Theatre Royal. It burnt down in 1879 and was rebuilt with 3000 seats.
Other theatres used for opera included the Lyceum Theatre (opened in
about 1897; burnt down 1937), the King’s Theatre (from 1904) and the
Coliseum (from 1905), which gave the Ring in the 1920s but then became
a cinema. The Glasgow Grand Opera Society was founded in 1905; in
1934 it gave the British première of Mozart’s Idomeneo, and the following
year that of Berlioz’s Les troyens. In 1951 it revived MacCunn’s 1894 opera
Jeanie Deans. Scottish Opera was established in 1962 by Alexander
Gibson, Richard Telfer and Ainslie Millar, later joined by Sidney Newman
and Robin Orr. The ballet company that took part in Scottish Opera’s 1969
production of Les troyens had moved from Bristol to Glasgow in 1968,
taking the name of Scottish Theatre Ballet; in 1974 it became Scottish
Ballet. In the same year, Scottish Opera bought the Theatre Royal which
became its permanent base. Its wide and adventurous repertory has
included a number of works by Scottish composers, among them Hamilton,
Orr, Wilson and Musgrave. The company tours regularly in Scotland, the
north of England and abroad.
The music publishing companies of Bayley & Ferguson (founded 1884)
and Mozart Allen (founded 1868), both now defunct, led the field in the first
half of the 20th century. Music criticism was published on a large scale
from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, with generous and
thoughtful coverage by such writers as James Webster, including extensive
notices of music festivals in other British cities. The Glasgow branch
(opened 1857) of Paterson & Sons was dominant among a number of
musical instrument manufacturers.
The university instituted a chair of music in 1929. Outstanding among
musicologists there was Henry George Farmer. A bequest from John
McEwen (d 1948) sustained a series of commissions and concerts devoted
to Scottish chamber music. The Athenaeum, founded in 1847 as a literary
and scientific club, established the Athenaeum School of Music in 1890,
and provided a building for it that included a concert hall. The school
became the Scottish National Academy of Music in the 1920s and the
Royal Scottish Academy of Music in 1944; a drama school was added six
years later. The need for a true national conservatory in Scotland was not
fully met until after World War II, when Henry Havergal (1902–89; principal
1953–69) was the first principal of the academy not to occupy the
university’s chair of music simultaneously. The RSAMD offers degree
courses in a full range of subjects including Scottish traditional music. Its
opera department, one of its strongest elements, was established in 1968.
In 1987 the academy moved to new premises including the Athenaeum
Theatre (cap. 344). There are fine music collections in the Mitchell Library
(opened 1877), Glasgow University Library and the RSAMD. The Glasgow
Art Gallery and Museum has a small but significant collection of musical
instruments, as does Dean Castle in nearby Kilmarnock. Glasgow is also
the home of the Scottish Music Information Centre (which succeeded the
Scottish Music archive in 1985), with unique holding of Scottish music of all
types, including a sound archive; and the Piping Centre (1996), which has
a small library and museum.
The triennial Musica Nova festival (established 1971) has brought leading
composers and their works to Scotland. The biennial Glasgow International
Early Music Festival was established in 1990. Among pop groups that have
emerged from Glasgow are Simple Minds (established 1976–7), Blue Nile
(1979–80), Wet Wet Wet (1984–5) and Deacon Blue (1985).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Strang: Glasgow and its Clubs, or Glimpses of the Condition, Manners,
Characters & Oddities of the City During the Past & Present Century
(London, 1856, 3/1864)
G.W. Baynham: The Glasgow Stage (Glasgow, 1892)
J. Coutts: A History of the University of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1909)
R. Turnbull: ‘Old Musical Glasgow’, Old Glasgow Club Transactions, iii:
1913–18 (Glasgow, 1919), 206–15
R. Craig: A Short History of the Glasgow Choral Union from its Foundation
in 1491 to 1909 (Glasgow, 1944)
The History of the Glasgow Society of Musicians, 1884–1944 (London,
1945)
R.W. Grieg: The Story of the Scottish Orchestra (Glasgow, 1945)
C. Wilson: Scottish Opera: the First Ten Years (London, 1972)
M.H. Hay: Glasgow Theatres and Music Halls (Glasgow, 1980)
C. Oliver: It is a Curious Story: the Tale of Scottish Opera, 1962 to 1987
(Edinburgh, 1987)
K.P. Colville, ed.: The Glasgow Royal Concert Hall: the First Five Years,
1990–1995 (Glasgow, 1995)
JOHN PURSER
orchestral
Artemis, ballet, op.50, 1914–15, suite pubd (1939); Flugten fra Clausholm [The
Flight from Clausholm], ballet
6 syms: no.1, E, op.17, 1894; no.2, c, op.28, with male vv, 1899; no.3 ‘Skovsymfoni’
[Wood Symphony], D, op.30, 1901 (1926); no.4, e, op.43, 1910; no.5 ‘Sinfonia
svastika’, C, op.57, 1919–20; no.6 ‘Skjoldungeæt’ [Birth of the Scyldings], op.60,
1924
Symphonic Conc, ob, orch, op.3 (lost); Fantasy, pf, orch, op.47, 1913; Conc, vn,
orch, op 65, 1930; ov., ‘En Folkefjende’ [An Enemy of the People], op.34,
1902/1923; ov., ‘Danmark’, op.37; Romantisk Ouverture, op.69, 1932
5 suites: op.2, c1884 (only the 4th movt has survived); Sommerliv [Summer Life],
op.27 (1901); Blade af Aarets Billedbog [Pages from the Picture Book of the Year],
op.62, 1926; Drømmen: Koldinghus [The Dream: Koldinghus], op.64, 1928;
Episoder fra H.C. Andersens Eventyr ‘Elverhøj’ [Episodes from H.C. Andersen’s
Fairy-Tale ‘The Elf Hill’], op.67, 1932
Symfoniske Fragmenter af ‘Artemis’ [Symphonic Fragments from ‘Artemis’], op.50,
c1917; Livets Dans [The Dance of Life], op.51; Havets Sang [The Song of the Sea],
op.54, 1920; Når Storstaden vågner [When the City Awakes], op.68, c1932;
Dannevang [Denmark], op.70, with unison male vv, 1934
chamber
4 str qts: no.1, F, op.10, 1891; no.2, E , op.18, 1893, lost; no.3, a, op.23,
1896/1929; no.4, f , op.35 (1907); Str Sextet, d, op.15, 1892; Pf Qnt, op.22, 1896;
Pf Trio, op.19 (c1895); Trio, vn, va, gui, op.76, 1934; Trio, ob, cl, bn, op.77, c1935,
lost; Vc Sonata, F, op.5, 1889/1914; 2 vn sonatas, op.7, E , op.29, C
piano
2 sonatas: no.1, E, op.6 (1889), no.2, A , op.25 (1897); Fantasy pieces op.4;
Polonaise op.8; Foraarsstemning [Spring mood], op.9; I det Fri [In the Open Air],
op.20; Skitser [Sketches] op.21 (1896); An die Kinder, op.24; Lyriske Bagateller,
op.26 (1899); Fantasy, op.35 (1904); Kleine Tonbilder, op.39 (1911); Variatoner over
danske Viser og Sange [Variations on Danish Ballads and Songs], op.41 (1911);
Stimmungsbilder, op.45 (1912); Landlige Billeder [Rural Pictures] op.48 (1915);
Impromptu et Capriccio, op.52 (1919); Sange, op.55 (1925); Aquareller, op.58
(1921); Klaverstykker, op.66 (1931)
vocal
Sommerliv [Summer life], 1v, pf, op.13, 1892; Songs (J.P. Jacobsen), 1v, pf, op.16;
5 Lieder, 1v, pf, op.38 (1907); Songs, 1v, pf, op.44 (1912), op.46 (1918), op.56
(1925), op.59 (1922); Songs, male vv, op.42 (1910), op.73
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Lynge: Danske Komponister i det 20. Aarhundredes Begyndelse
(Århus, 1917, 2/1917), 145–79 [with selective worklist], 91–111 [with
selective worklist]
R. Hove: ‘Louis Glass, 1864–1936’, DMt, xi (1936), 87–99
E. Jacobsen and V. Kappel: Musikkens Mestre (Copenhagen, 1944–7), ii,
354–62
S. Berg: Traek af dansk musikpaedagogiks historie (Copenhagen, 1948)
K.A. Bruun: Dansk musiks historie fra Holberg-tiden til Carl Nielsen
(Copenhagen, 1969), ii, 285–93
N. Schiørring: Musikkens Historie i Danmark (Copenhagen, 1977–8),
163–5
N.V. Bentzon: ‘Louis Glass og hans “cirkel”’, DMt, lx (1985–6), 219–23
CLAUS RØLLUM-LARSEN
Sinfonia no.1, orch, 1959; Conc., vc, orch, 1961; Suite symfonyczna (Sinfonia no.2),
orch, 1961; 5 chansons pour une princesse errante, Bar, pf/orch, 1968; Echanges,
16 insts, 1973; Wie ein Naturlaut, 10 insts, 1977; Sax Qt, 1980; Pf Conc., 1982; 5
pezzi, pf, 1983; Sinfonia no.3, orch, 1986; Deh, spiriti miei, quando mi vedete (G.
Cavalcanti), mixed chorus, 1987; Pianto della madonna (Jacopone da Todi), S, Bar,
mixed chorus, orch, 1988; Str Qt no.1, 1988; Lamento dell'acqua, orch, 1990;
Sinfonia no.4, orch, 1992; quan shi qu, orch, 1994; Corale per Margaret, str orch,
1995; Omaggio, pf, 1995; hour to begin, orch, 1995; film scores, incl. The
Abductors, Bunny Lake is Missing, Catch my Soul, Lady in a Cage, The Late Nancy
Irving, Overlord
JEAN-PIERRE AMANN
Glass, Philip
(b Baltimore, 31 Jan 1937). American composer and performer. Along with
Reich, Riley and Young, he was a principal figure in the establishment of
minimalism in the 1960s. He has since become one of the most
commercially successful, and critically reviled, composers of his
generation.
1. Childhood and early training.
2. Emergence of minimalism.
3. The Philip Glass Ensemble.
4. Dramatic works.
5. Further collaborations.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EDWARD STRICKLAND
Glass, Philip
1. Childhood and early training.
He began to study the violin at the age of six, then at eight the flute with
Britton Johnson at the Peabody Conservatory. At 12 he started composing,
while taking harmony lessons with Louis Cheslock and working in his
father’s record shops after school. He left school at 15 for the University of
Chicago (BA in Liberal Arts 1956) under their early entrance programme. In
Chicago he was a piano pupil of Marcus Rasking, who introduced him to
the 12-note technique, which he then adopted but abandoned by
graduation. In 1956–7 he took extension courses at the Juilliard School,
and then returned to Baltimore for six months to earn enough money as a
crane operator at Bethlehem Steel to finance formal Juilliard studies. He
enrolled in late 1957 (diploma in composition 1959; MA in composition
1961), studying with Bergsma (1957–9) and Persichetti (1959–61) and
followed them in composing in the tonal vein of the American Symphonist
school. He studied analysis in Milhaud’s summer class at Aspen in 1960,
and privately with fellow student Albert Fine, who had studied with
Boulanger. Of some 70 compositions in widely varied genres at Juilliard,
almost all were performed by fellow students and a few published by
Elkan-Vogel (later subsumed by Presser), of which Persichetti was the
editor. Foreshadowing his mature work Glass also wrote music for the
dance department and took a course in film scoring.
Glass, Philip
2. Emergence of minimalism.
In Pittsburgh from 1961 to 1963 on a Ford Foundation grant, Glass
continued to write for a variety of ensembles – this time selected from the
city’s schools – with many compositions published by Elkan-Vogel. Then on
a Fulbright scholarship he went to Paris to study for two years with
Boulanger (he had already spent the summer of 1954 studying French
there) in what he describes as a re-education in the elements of music,
during which time he composed little. Unimpressed by the avant-garde
establishment represented by Boulez, Glass encountered a more important
influence in the additive processes and cyclic structures of Indian music
when he was hired by the film director Conrad Rooks to transcribe for
Western musicians Ravi Shankar’s score for the phantasmagoric
Chappaqua. Although Glass also provided some conventionally ‘modern’
music for sections of the film, his minimalist style was now beginning to
emerge, most particularly in the spare lines of the theatre pieces he wrote
in 1965 for what would become the Mabou Mines troupe (all works before
this have since been disavowed). The score for Beckett’s Play comprised
the overlapping of two soprano saxophones, each assigned a single
interval multiply repeated in different rhythms, while Music for Ensemble
and Two Actresses – foreshadowing the voice-overs of the libretto of
Einstein on the Beach – included a soufflé recipe declaimed over a wind
sextet. The 1966 String Quartet is a more significant representative of
Glass’s transitional style, with its repetition of cells and strict formal
subdivision into component modules recurring in different voices. It does
not, however, reveal any particular Indian influence and lacks the bare-
boned tonality of his subsequent works (chromaticism and dissonance
abound and, though the work is not serial, all 12 tones are introduced at
the start). Furthermore, the underlying structural principle is that of
symmetry rather than additive cycles; despite its uninflected metre, the
work does not exhibit the rock-like pulsation of his later New York works.
After leaving Paris, Glass travelled in North Africa and the Indian
subcontinent. He returned to New York early in 1967 and on 18 March he
visited the Park Place Gallery for a concert of Reich’s music performed by
the composer and Arthur Murphy, both Juilliard acquaintances, along with
Jon Gibson, Tenney and Corner. Reich and Glass began analysing one
another’s works, while performing in each other's ensembles (Reich in that
of Glass until May 1970, Glass less frequently in Reich’s until 1971).
Glass’s works in 1967 progress from Strung Out, Music in the Shape of a
Square and In Again Out Again to the fully-fledged additive process of One
Plus One (originally 1+1), written when he began lessons with Alla Rakha,
Shankar’s long-time tabla accompanist, who was living in New York. It is
here rather than in Paris that the Indian influence comes to the fore.
Interestingly, One Plus One (possibly because of its unusual scoring of
hands rapping on a table-top with a microphone attachment) was the only
one of these pieces not played in the first public performances of Glass’s
new music in 1968 – at Queens College (13 April), at the New School (9
May, Strung Out only), and at the Filmmakers’ Cinemathèque (19 May),
which Glass considers to be his début. There Dorothy Pixley-Rothschild,
Glass and Gibson were the respective soloists in Strung Out, How Now
and Gradus (originally entitled /\ for Jon Gibson, indicating the direction of
the soprano saxophone’s melodic line). Glass formed a flute duo with
Gibson in Music in the Shape of a Square, and a keyboard duo with Reich
in In Again Out Again.
Glass, Philip
3. The Philip Glass Ensemble.
Throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s Glass developed a wholly
distinctive ensemble style of highly amplified, diatonic, additive and
subtractive cycles in mechanical rhythms and intially in simple unison – a
music more evocative of rock than any classical Western style, much less
the serialism and late modernism of the period. In the process the Philip
Glass Ensemble was established: Gibson was joined in the wind section by
Dickie Landry, Richard Peck, Jack Kripl and Richard Prado; later keyboard
players included Steve Chambers and Michael Riesman, who was also to
conduct many of Glass’s works. The amplified keyboard and woodwind
instruments that formed the core of the ensemble were occasionally
supplemented for specific pieces by voices (e.g. sopranos Iris Hiskey and
Dora Ohrenstein), and the occasional string player (e.g. cellist Beverly
Lauridsen and violinist Barbara Benary). Kurt Munkacsi, the sound
engineer who had worked in recording sessions with John Lennon, joined
the ensemble in 1970 and helped in Glass’s first recordings on the
Chatham Square label which began the following year.
Glass reached full maturity as a composer at this time, and his period of
minimalism proper includes works entitled with similarly minimal directness:
Two Pages (originally Two Pages for Steve Reich), Music in Contrary
Motion, Music in Fifths, Music in Similar Motion, Music in Eight Parts,
Music for Voices, Music with Changing Parts and Music in Twelve Parts.
Other works from these years have subsequently been considered
experimental ephemera and withdrawn, e.g. 6oo Lines, comprising a score
projected for the players on film slides, and Long Beach Island, Word
Location, 32 speakers with tape-loops of the word ‘is’ in an outdoor
installation by the sculptor Richard Serra.
Apart from four more works for Mabou Mines, until the late 1970s Glass
wrote exclusively for his own ensemble – for the simple reason that no
other group would (or perhaps could) play his work. Initially, then, it was
crucial for him to maintain the ensemble as his only public voice; later,
when others took an interest, he resisted releasing performance rights in
order to ensure that the ensemble would remain employed on international
tours. Performances at this time were held in New York ‘lofts’ (Glass’s in
Greenwich Village, sculptor Donald Judd’s in SoHo), private art galleries
(those of Leo Castelli and Paula Cooper) and museums (the Guggenheim
and the Whitney). At the Whitney both Glass and Reich appeared as part
of a 1969 multimedia exhibition called ‘Anti-Illusion: Materials/Procedures’.
The post-minimalist process art of melting blocks of ice (Rafael Ferrer) and
films of dripping water (Michael Snow) was complemented by the ‘process
music’ of Glass’s additive cycles and Reich’s self-propelled phasing and
feedback pieces. Significantly, Glass’s compositions, adumbrating his later
multimedia work, were played during short films of hands by Serra, for
whom he worked as a studio assistant when not surviving as a plumber or
taxi-driver, or touring with his ensemble in the USA, Canada and Europe.
The places in which they performed remained unconventional, including
concerts at the nightclub and restaurant Max’s Kansas City and in public
parks in each of the five boroughs of New York. The first traditional concert
hall to include Glass’s music was New York's Town Hall, which Glass
himself hired in 1974 to put on the complete Music in Twelve Parts,
composed in sections over more than three years. The ‘twelve parts’ of the
title had originally referred simply to the vertical texture, but Glass decided
to extend the work from one to twelve sections (and over four hours). The
work marks the culmination of Glass’s minimalism, which, taken as a
whole, may be seen to have moved progressively in the direction of greater
vertical complexity – from unison through parallel intervals and multiple
parts to the functional harmony in the conclusion of Music in Twelve Parts.
In its embrace of functional harmony, it marks a transition into what
Rockwell has termed the ‘maximalism’ of his work from Einstein on the
Beach onwards. Even more than other minimalist composers, Glass
collaborated extensively with downtown visual and theatrical artists during
this period of artistic cross-pollination.
Glass, Philip
4. Dramatic works.
Einstein on the Beach, which brought Glass immediate fame after its
American première at the Metropolitan Opera on 21 November 1976, was
a collaboration with Robert Wilson, whose mixed-media work has been
variously termed a ‘theatre of visions’ or ‘theatre of images’, combining
media in a non-sequential manner more reminiscent of dream than the
conventional linear narrative of opera. In place of plot there is a series of
dramatized icons drawn from Einstein’s life (such as his violin) and work
(such as the trains of the theory of relativity) and their implications (such as
a trial, a spaceship). The libretto consists of solfège and numbers, originally
used to train the singers in pitch and rhythm and left unrevised, and the
sometimes evocative and often incoherent notebook jottings by
Christopher Knowles, a special-education student of Wilson, with
monologues by cast members Lucinda Childs and Samuel M. Johnson.
The opera combined some of Glass’s most propulsive music with
choreography by Andrew de Groat (Childs choreographed her own solos)
and bizarre costume, lighting and stage design in a five-hour performance
which the audience was invited to exit and re-enter at will.
Einstein in good part determined the direction of Glass’s subsequent
career: he has primarily become a composer of music for the theatre, film
and dance rather than for the concert hall. Interestingly, Glass has
commented that he ‘was able to condense the music’ (Glass, 1987, p.56)
for the first recording of Einstein (Tomato, TOM-4-2901, 1979), cutting the
first Trial scene from 40 to 20 minutes. That he was able to do this (the
number of clearly specified cellular repetitions in earlier works
notwithstanding) may suggest the somewhat arbitrary nature of a musical
exfoliation dictated more by process than by theme. It may also suggest
that although Glass’s style of ‘repetitive music’ is essentially formalist, it
may be inherently ancillary (multimedia aside, early minimalism – not only
that of Glass – was often put to use as a ‘trance’ accompaniment to
meditation or the taking of drugs). Glass himself has played down his
success by attributing it to good work habits and to his being the ‘theatre
composer’ among his contemporaries.
His next two large-scale dramatic works, Satyagraha (1980) and Akhnaten
(1984), form along with Einstein an unpremeditated trilogy of ‘character
operas’, a category Glass has used, though he has also frequently
expressed his preference for the less limiting term of ‘music theatre’.
Satyagraha is a somewhat awkward hybrid, both in terms of its
orchestration – an orchestral translation of the Philip Glass Ensemble –
and in its conception of Gandhi, a mixture of hagiography, fairy tale and
comic book; the intermittent sublimity of the work is dwarfed by its
absurdity. Akhnaten is more successful: a study of the Egyptian pharoah
who introduced monotheism, it is much the most affecting of the three, and
also the most traditional in form and style. Glass considers it his ‘tragic’
opera, after the ‘apocalyptic’ Einstein and ‘lyrical’ Satyagraha; it also marks
his approach to more conventional instrumental forces and linear narrative
as opposed to tableaux.
Glass, Philip
5. Further collaborations.
Following Akhnaten, Glass again collaborated with Wilson, on the Cologne
and Rome section of the CIVIL warS; he also worked with other artists on
several smaller-scale operatic productions, such as The Juniper Tree, The
Fall of the House of Usher and 1000 Airplanes on the Roof (notable for
Richard Foreman’s set design). The motoric pulse of much of Glass’s
music has also attracted numerous choreographers, including Jerome
Robbins and Twyla Tharp. Glass’s music accompanies Child’s
choreography and films by Sol LeWitt in Dance, and Matthew Maguire’s
adaptation of Poe and Molissa Fenley’s dance in A Descent into the
Maelstrom. His ability to adapt his distinctive style to a remarkable range of
material has led to his scoring numerous films over the past two decades,
from the wordless, visionary cinema of Godfrey Reggio, Paul Schrader’s
experimental Mishima and Errol Morris’s intense documentary The Thin
Blue Line to Hollywood war films (Hamburger Hill) and horror films
(Candyman and its sequel). His often luminous, if self-derivative, score for
Kundun received an Oscar nomination, while The Truman Show won him a
Golden Globe. He inventively scored the 1931 Dracula for the Kronos
Quartet on its 1999 reissue.
Now a public figure, Glass was invited to compose the torch-lighting
ceremony music for the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, while in 1992, to mark
the 500th anniversary of Columbus’s landing in the Americas, the
Metropolitan Opera commissioned him to write The Voyage. This three-act
opera on the exploratory impulse (Columbus is the focus of only the
second act) has proved to be one of his most controversial works, praised
for its daring and criticized for its vulgarity. Shortly after The Voyage, he
began what has become his finest achievement since the character
operas, in the form of another trilogy, based on Cocteau’s films Orphée, La
belle et la bête and Les enfants terribles. As with Einstein in the genre of
opera, here the notion of film music is reconceived, and new multimedia
forms invented in the process: in La belle et la bête the Cocteau script is
treated as a cinematic opera libretto to be performed by singers and the
Philip Glass Ensemble during the projection of the film, with the original
soundtrack removed. The trilogy has attracted international acclaim,
including comparison to the purity of Puccini in the Italian journal Corriere
della sera – praise unlikely to have been foreseen earlier in Glass's career.
Glass has undertaken many other varied collaborations: with pop singers
Paul Simon, David Byrne, Suzanne Vega and Laurie Anderson in the song-
cycle Songs from Liquid Days; with Allen Ginsberg in Hydrogen Jukebox;
with Ravi Shankar in Passages; with Doris Lessing on two science-fiction
operas, The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 and The Marriages
between Zones Three, Four and Five; and with Foday Musa Suso in the
music for JoAnne Akalaitis’s revival of Genet’s The Screens. He has had as
much influence on subsequent rock and film scores as on classical music;
in an interesting example of reciprocation, in 1992 Glass produced a
symphonic version of the art-rock album Low on which David Bowie and
Brian Eno, 15 years previously, had acknowledged Glass as the primary
influence. In addition to continuing frequent tours with his group, he has
worked as a duo with Jon Gibson and given solo concerts of his own piano
miniatures. This now quite extensive body of piano works displays what
has increasingly played a part in Glass’s aesthetic: lyricism achieved with
minimal resources. Though his early period of formalist minimalism (from
the mid-1960s to early 1974) remained almost without ‘affect’, his
subsequent output has grown in expressive content: from the simple
repetition of a Phrygian mode in the final aria from Satyagraha and a single
chanted word in the title music of the film Koyaanisqatsi, to a true Romantic
expansiveness, both instrumentally (e.g. Itaipu, 1989, and The Canyon)
and vocally (e.g. sections of the CIVIL warS and the Cocteau trilogy).
Glass, Philip
WORKS
dramatic and multimedia
Music for Ensemble and Two Actresses, wind sextet, 2 spkrs, 1965; Paris
Einstein on the Beach (op, 4, C. Knowles, S.M. Johnson, L. Childs), 1975–6, collab.
R. Wilson; Avignon Festival, 25 July 1976
Dance (multimedia perf., choreog. Childs), 1979; Amsterdam, 19 Oct 1979
Mad Rush (dance piece, choreog. Childs), 1979 [from org work Fourth Series, part
4, 1979]
A Madrigal Opera, 1980; Amsterdam, Carré, 25 June 1980 [orig. title Attaca (1980),
then The Panther (1981)]
Satyagraha (op, 3, C. DeJong, after the Bhagavad Gita), 1980; Rotterdam,
Netherlands Opera, 5 Sept 1980
The Photographer (music theatre, 3, Glass and R. Malasch), 1982; Amsterdam,
Netherlands Opera, 30 May 1982
Akhnaten (op, 3, Glass and others), 1983; Stuttgart, Staatsoper, 24 March 1984
Glass Pieces (ballet, choreog. J. Robbins), 1983 [from Glassworks and op
Akhnaten]; New York, Lincoln Center
the CIVIL warS ‘a tree is best measured when it is down’ (music theatre, M. di
Nascemi and Wilson), 1984, collab. Wilson; Rome, 22 March 1984; concert perf.,
Los Angeles, Nov 1984
The Juniper Tree (chbr op, prol., 2, A. Yorinks, after J.L. and W.C. Grimm), 1984,
collab. R. Moran; Cambridge, MA, American Repertory, 11 Dec 1985
A Descent into the Maelstrom (dance theatre piece, M. Maguire, after E.A. Poe,
choreog. M. Fenley), 1985; Adelaide
In the Upper Room (dance piece, choreog. T. Tharp), 1986
The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (op, 3, D. Lessing), 1986; Houston,
Grand Opera, 8 July 1988
Phaedra (ballet), 1986; Dallas [from film score Mishima, 1984]
Pink Noise (installation), 1987, collab. R. Serra; Columbus, OH, Wexner Center
The Fall of the House of Usher (chbr op, 1, Yorinks, after Poe), 1988; Cambridge,
MA, American Repertory, 18 May 1988
1000 Airplanes on the Roof (music theatre, Glass, D. Hwang and J. Serlin), 1988;
Vienna, International Airport Hangar no.3, 15 July 1988
Hydrogen Jukebox (music theatre, 2, A. Ginsberg), 1990; concert perf.,
Philadelphia, 29 April 1990; staged Charleston, SC, 26 May 1990
The White Raven (op, 5, L. Costa Gomaz), 1991; Lisbon, 26 Sept 1998
The Voyage (op, 3, Hwang), 1992; New York, Met, 12 Oct 1992
Orphée (chbr op, 2, J. Cocteau), 1993 [setting of screenplay from film Orphée, dir.
Cocteau]; Cambridge, MA, American Repertory, 14 May 1993
La belle et la bête (op, Cocteau), 1994 [setting of screenplay from film La belle et la
bête, dir. Cocteau]; Seville, Maestranza, 4 June 1994
T.S.E. (installation with perf.), 1994; Philadelphia, Annenberg Center
Witches of Venice (ballet), 1995
Les enfants terribles (dance op, Cocteau), 1996 [setting of screenplay from film Les
enfants terribles, dir. Cocteau]; Zug, Theatre Casino, 18 May 1996
The Marriages between Zones Three, Four and Five (op, 2, Lessing), 1997;
Heidelberg, Stadt, 10 May 1997
Monsters of Grace (music theatre), 1998, collab. Wilson; Los Angeles, UCLA Center
for the Performing Arts, 15 April 1998
incidental music
Play (S. Beckett), 1965; Red Horse Animation (Breuer), 1968; Music for Voices,
1970; The Lost Ones (Beckett), 1975; The Saint and the Football Player (Thibeau
and Breuer), 1975; Dressed Like an Egg (after Colette), 1977; Company (Beckett),
1983, arr. as Str Qt no.2, 1983, orchd 1983; Pages from Cold Harbor (Worsley and
Raymond), 1983; Endgame (Beckett), 1984; The Screens (J. Genet), 1990, collab.
F.M. Suso; Cymbeline (W. Shakespeare), 1991; Mysteries and What’s So Funny
(Gordon), 1991; Henry IV, Parts I and II (Shakespeare), 1992; In the Summer
House (Bowles), 1993; Woyzeck (G. Büchner), 1993
film scores
North Star, 1977 [for film Mark Di Suvero, Sculptor]; Geometry of a Circle, 1979;
Koyaanisqatsi (dir. G. Reggio), 1982; Mishima (dir. P. Schrader), 1984;
Hamburger Hill (dir. J. Irvin), 1987; Powaqqatsi (dir. Reggio), 1987; The Thin
Blue Line (dir. E. Morris), 1988; Mindwalk, 1990; A Brief History of Time (dir.
Morris), 1991; Merci la Vie (dir. B. Blier), 1991; Anima mundi (dir. Reggio), 1992;
Candyman (dir. B. Rose), 1992; Compassion in Exile, 1992; Candyman II (dir. B.
Condon), 1995; Jenipopo, 1995; The Secret Agent (dir. C. Hampton), 1995; Bent
(dir. S. Mathias), 1996; Kundun (dir. M. Scorsese), 1997; The Truman Show (dir.
P. Weir), 1998; Dracula (dir. T. Browning), 1999
vocal
Choral: Haze Gold, Spring Grass, Winter Gold (C. Sandburg), chorus, c1964;
Dreamy Kangaroo (G. Norman), c1965; Wind Song (Sandburg), SATB, 1968; Knee
Play no.3, SATB, 1976 [from op Einstein on the Beach]; Another Look at Harmony,
pt 4, SATB, org, 1977; Fourth Series, pt 1, SATB, org, 1977; the CIVIL warS (Rome
Section), S, A, T, Bar, B, SATB, orch, 1984 [from music theatre piece, 1984]; Music
from the CIVIL warS (Cologne section), opt. SATB, orch, 1984 [from music theatre
piece, 1984]; The Olympian ‘The Lighting of the Torch’, chorus, orch, 1984, arr. pf,
1984; 3 Songs (O. Paz, R. Levesque, L. Cohen), SATB, 1986; Itaipu, SATB, orch,
1988
Other vocal: Habeve Song, S, cl, bn, 1982; Vessels, S, S, Mez, T, Bar, B, kbd, 1983
[from film score Koyaanisqatsi, 1982]; Hymn to the Sun, Ct, orch, 1984 [from op
Akhnaten, 1983]; Songs from Liquid Days, 1v, insts, 1986, arr. 1v, pf: Changing
Opinion (P. Simon), Forgetting (L. Anderson), Freezing (S. Vega), Lightning (D.
Byrne), Liquid Days, pt one (Byrne), Open the Kingdom (Liquid Days, pt two)
(Byrne); Songs of Milarepa, Bar, chbr orch, 1997
instrumental
Orch: Piece for Chbr Orch, 1965; Arioso no.2, str orch, 1967; Music in Similar
Motion, chbr orch, 1981 [from works for ens, 1969]; Company, str orch, 1983 [from
Str Qt no.2, 1983]; Glass Pieces, 1983 [from ballet Glass Pieces, 1983]; Dance
from Akhnaten, 1984 [from op Akhnaten, 1984]; Music from the CIVIL warS
(Cologne section), opt. SATB, orch, 1984 [from music theatre piece, 1984]; The
Light, tone poem, 1987; Vn Conc., 1987; The Canyon, 1988; Itaipu, 1989;
Passages, chbr orch, 1990, collab. Ravi Shankar; Conc. grosso, chbr orch, 1992;
Low Symphony, 1992 [based on D. Bowie, B. Eno: Low]; Sym. no.2, 1994; Sym.
no.3, 1994; Conc. for Sax Qt and Orch, 1995; Heroes Sym., 1996 [based on Bowie,
Eno: Heroes]
Glass Ens: Music in Contary Motion, 1969; Music in Fifths, 1969; Music in Similar
Motion, 1969, orchd 1981; Music in Eight Parts, 1969; Music with Changing Parts,
1970; Music in Twelve Parts, 1971–4; Two Pages, pf, ens, 1974 [from kbd work,
1969]; Another Look at Harmony, pts 1 and 2, 1975; The Lost Ones, 1975: see
incidental music; Dance no.1, no.3 [from multimedia perf., Dance, 1979];
Glassworks, 1981: Closing, Facades, Floe, Islands, Opening, Rubric; A Descent
into the Maelstrom, 1985: see dramatic and multimedia
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt no.1, 1966; One Plus One, amp table-top, 1967; Head
On, vn, vc, pf, 1967; Music in the Shape of a Square, 2 fl, 1967; Strung Out, amp
vn, 1967; Gradus, s sax, 1968; Another Look at Harmony, pt 3 ‘Cascando’, cl, pf,
1975; Modern Love Waltz, fl, cl, 2 pf, opt. hp, opt. vib, 1977 [arr. of pf work, 1977];
Fourth Series, pt 3, cl, vn, 1979; Str Qt no.2 ‘Company’, 1983; Str Qt no.3
‘Mishima’, 1985 [from film score, 1984]; Prelude to Endgame, db, 4 timp, 1986; Str
Qt no.4 ‘Boczak’, 1989; Str Qt no.5, 1991; Melodie, sax, 1995
Kbd: In Again and Out Again, 2 pf, 1967; How Now, pf/ens, 1968; Music in Fifths, pf,
1969 [version of work for ens, 1969]; Two Pages, 4 elec kbd, 1969, rev. pf, ens,
1974; Fourth Knee Play, pf, 1977 [from op Einstein on the Beach, 1975–6]; Fourth
Series, pt 2 (Dance no.2), org, 1978; Fourth Series, pt 4, org, 1979, rev. pf as Mad
Rush, 1979, choreog. as dance piece, 1979; Olympian, pf, 1984 [from choral work
The Olympian, 1984]; Cadenza: W.A. Mozart: Pf Conc. no.21, k467, 1987;
Metamorphosis I–IV, pf, 1989; Anima mundi, 1992, pf [from film score Anima Mundi,
1992]; Tesra, pf, 1993; Etudes, pf, 1994
Glass, Philip
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Moore: ‘Music: Zukofsky’, Village Voice (1 May 1969)
P.G. Davis: ‘3 Pieces by Glass Probe the Sonic Possibilities’, New York
Times (17 Jan 1970)
M. Nyman: ‘Steve Reich, Phil Glass’, MT, xcii (1971), 463–4
L. Borden: ‘The New Dialectic’, Artforum, xii/7 (1974), 44–51
F. Geysen: ‘Eigen kompositorische bevindigen in vergelijking met her werk
van de jonge amerikaanse school’, Adem, x/1 (1974), 24–30
M. Nyman: Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond (London, 1974)
D. Smith: ‘Phil Glass’, Contact, no.11 (1975), 27–33
K. Potter and D. Smith: ‘Interview with Philip Glass’, Contact, no.13
(1976), 25–30
W. Zimmerman: Desert Plants (Vancouver, 1976)
P. Gordon: ‘Philip Glass: Music of the Moment’, Painted Bride Quarterly
[Philadelphia], iv/2 (1977), 56
J. La Barbara: ‘New Music’, High Fidelity/Musical America, xxvii/11 (1977),
MA14–MA15
I. Stoianova: ‘Musique répétitive’, Musique en jeu, no.26 (1977), 64–74
M. Osterreich: ‘Music with Roots in the Aether’, PNM, xvi/1 (1977–8), 214–
18
S. Brecht: The Theatre of Visions: Robert Wilson (Frankfurt, 1978)
H. Danninger: ‘Destruktion und Heimweh: Anmerkungen zur Neuen Musik
Amerikas’, Musica, xxxii/1 (1978), 20–24
J. Lentin: ‘Interview with Phil Glass’, Le monde de musique (Paris, 1978)
A. Porter: Music of Three Seasons (New York, 1978)
K. McKenna: ‘Philip Glass: the Future is Now’, Rolling Stone (8 March
1979)
D. Bither: ‘Philip Glass: an Avant-Garde Composer for the ’80s’, Horizon,
xxiii/3 (1980), 39–43
A. Timar and M. Frasconi: ‘A Talk with Philip Glass’, Musicworks, no.13
(1980), 10–12, 20–28
R. Coe: ‘Philip Glass Breaks Through’, New York Times Magazine (25 Oct
1981)
D. Henahan: ‘The Going-Nowhere Music and Where It Came From’, New
York Times (6 Dec 1981)
T. Page: ‘Framing the River: a Minimalist Primer’, High Fidelity/Musical
America, xxxi/11 (1981), 64, 68, 117
K. Ebbeke: ‘Minimal-Music’, Schweizerische Musikzeitung, cxxii/3 (1982),
140–47
M. Kirkeby: ‘Philip Glass Alters the Shape of Classical Music’, Rolling
Stone (21 Jan 1982)
M. Lichtenfeld: ‘Minimal Music in den USA’, Musik und Bildung, xiv (1982),
140–46
G. Sandow: ‘Music: the Uses of Structure’, Village Voice (13 Jan 1982)
J. Truman: ‘New York Glass’, The Face, no.22 (1982)
P. Carles: ‘Entretien avec Philip Glass’, Jazz Magazine, no.317 (1983), 28–
9
D. Garland: ‘Philip Glass: Theatre of Glass’, Down Beat, l/12 (1983), 16–
18
R.T. Jones: ‘An Outburst of Minimalism’, High Fidelity/Musical America,
xxxiii/2 (1983), 26–7
R.T. Jones: ‘Pied Piper’, Ballet News, v/4 (1983), 22–4, 42
W. Mertens: American Minimal Music (London, 1983)
J. Rockwell: ‘The Orient, the Visual Arts, and the Evolution of Minimalism:
Philip Glass’, All-American Music (New York, 1983)
A. Kozinn: ‘Philip Glass’, Ovation, v/1 (1984–5), 12–16
W. Mellers: ‘A Minimalist Definition’, MT, cxxv (1984), 328 only
A. Porter: ‘Musical Events: a Desert Song’, New Yorker (19 Nov 1984)
G. Sandow: ‘Popular Music’, Village Voice (17 Jan 1984)
G. Sandow: ‘Other People’s Words’, Village Voice (18 Sept 1984)
M. Zwerzin: ‘The Moveable Feast: Philip Glass’, Jazz Forum, no.88
(1984), 28–9
B. Bebb: ‘Interview with Philip Glass’, L.A. Reader, viii/3 (1985)
M. Walsh: ‘Making a Joyful Noise’, Time (3 June 1985)
P. Glass: Music by Philip Glass, ed. R.T. Jones (New York, 1987)
T. Page: ‘Glass’, ON, lii/8 (1988), 8–12
T. Johnson: The Voice of New Music (New York, 1989)
E. Broad: ‘A New X? An Examination of the Aesthetic Foundations of
Minimalism’, Music Research Forum, v (1990), 51–62
E. Strickland: American Composers (Bloomington, IN, 1991)
D. Suzuki: Minimal Music (diss., U. of Southern California, 1991)
J.R. Oestreich: ‘A Persistent Voyager Lands at the Met’, New York Times
Magazine (11 Oct 1992)
K.R. Schwarz: ‘Glass Plus’, ON, lvii/4 (1992–3), 10–12
J.W. Bernard: ‘The Minimalist Aesthetic in the Plastic Arts and Music’,
PNM, xxxi/1 (1993), 86–132
C. Gagne: Soundpieces 2 (Metuchen, NJ, 1993)
E. Strickland: Minimalism: Origins (Bloomington, IN, 1993)
R. Kostelanetz, ed.: Writings on Glass: Essays, Interviews, Criticism (New
York, 1996) [incl. writings by Glass]
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K. Potter: Four Musical Minimalists (Cambridge, 2000)
Glasser, Stanley
(b Johannesburg, 28 Feb 1926). South African composer. After taking a
degree in economics in South Africa he went to England in 1950 to study
music, first with Frankel and then Seiber. In 1952 Glasser won a Royal
Philharmonic Society prize, and from 1955 to 1958 read music at
Cambridge. After three years as a lecturer at Cape Town University he
returned to England in 1963; from 1969 to 1991 he was head of music at
Goldsmiths College, University of London, and was appointed to the first
chair in Music in 1989. In 1997 he was awarded an honorary DMus from
Richmond College, the American International University of London.
Glasser's output covers many different styles and genres, popular and
serious. His lighter music includes jingles for South African radio, a full-
length musical, Mr Paljas (1962), several numbers from the first African
musical King Kong (1959), for which he was also musical director, and the
first full-length South African ballet, The Square (1961). He was also the
country's first composer of electronic music in his incidental music to
Eugene O'Neill's Emperor Jones. His earliest extant pieces are neo-
classical essays, which display a characteristic fusion of traditional and
modern procedures, often with a tonally orientated use of serial technique.
Several of his later works incorporate both the techniques of Western
popular music and of African folk music, the latter reflecting Glasser's
activity as an ethnomusicologist who has worked with the Pedi and Xhosa
people of the northern Transvaal and Transkei. In The Chameleon and the
Lizard (1970), based on a South African legend about the origin of death,
the style is mostly direct and uncomplicated, and a strong element of music
theatre is involved. Zonkizizwe (‘All the People’), an ebullient cantata sung
in English, Zulu and Afrikaans, is reminiscent of Walton and Bernstein in its
rhythmic verve and melodic appeal. Glasser is the author of The A–Z of
Classical Music (London, 1994).
WORKS
(selective list)
Dramatic: Emperor Jones (E. O'Neill), tape, 1959; The Square (ballet, 2), orch, jazz
ens, 1961; Mr Paljas (musical), 1962; The Gift (comic chbr op, 1, R. Duncan), 1976;
Ezra (biblical drama, E. Ingles), 1996; incid music
Orch: Lament, 1984; Beat Music, 1986; Pf Conc., 1993; Lament for a Warrior, sym.
wind band, 1997; Noon, 1997; Dance Arena, 1998
Vocal: 4 Simple Songs (A. Wood), Bar, pf, 1956; The Chameleon and the Lizard (L.
Nkosi), SATB, chbr orch, 1970; Lalela Zulu (Nkosi), 2 Ct, T, 2 Bar, B, 1977; The
Navigators (Wood), Bar, gui, 1980; Exile (Wood), T, hpd, 1981; Memories of Love
(F. Dobbins), Ct, archlute, 1983; Praises (Wood, after Shona poetry), SATB, pf duet,
1983; The Ward (Duncan), Mez, 4 ob, 2 eng hn, 2 bn, 1983; Lamentations (Bible), 2
Ct, T, 2 Bar, B, 1988–94; Zonkizizwe [All the People] (Glasser), SATB, 21 ww, perc,
pf, b gui, 1991; Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis, 1995; The Baboon and the Crocodile,
2 spkrs, trebles, SSA, chbr orch, 1996; Songs of a Woman (A. Ambert), Mez, va,
1998; Zulu Proverbs (Nyembezi), T, Ba, B, 1998; A Greenwich Sym., chorus, orch,
1999; folksong arrs.
Chbr and solo inst: 4 Inventions, vn, va, 1954; 3 Pieces, pf, 1955; Trio, 2 tpt, trbn,
1957; 3 Dances, trbn qt, 1961; Jabula, fl, 1971; Serenade, pf, fl + pic, ob, cl + t sax,
hn, 2 tpt, trbn, elec gui, synth, perc, db, 1974; Nuances, fl, hn, elec gui, 1977; Arbor,
gui, 1982; Bric-à-brac, sets 1–8, pf, 1985–97; From out of my BL Mini, 2 vc, pf,
1986; An Affair, pf trio, 1987; Week-End Music, sax qt, 1987; Funky Buzz, pf qt,
1997
Glass harmonica.
See Musical glasses.
Glaus, Daniel
(b Berne, 16 July 1957). Swiss composer and organist. He trained as a
primary school teacher and then studied music at Berne Conservatory with
Theo Hirsbrunner (theory diploma, 1980) and Heinrich Gurtner (diploma as
organ soloist, 1983), and he also studied conducting with Paul Theissen.
From 1981 he studied composition with Klaus Huber at Freiburg and
continued his organ studies in Paris with Gaston Litaize and Daniel Roth.
Glaus is a church musician in the widest sense of the word: he is organist
at the municipal church of Biel, where he is also concerned with organ
building, he teaches at the conservatories of Biel (organ) and Zürich (music
theory and contemporary music), and he also writes compositions which
attract much attention both within and beyond the field of church music. His
works, which lay great emphasis on the human voice, are mainly on
religious subjects, even when purely instrumental, and show both a
particular liking for mystical traditions (such as those of Swedenborg and
Eckhart) and an obvious sense of political commitment. While in his earlier
compositions Glaus tended to set different stylistic layers against each
other, since the mid-1980s his works have shown progressive thinning of
the tonal material, with the aim of making it possible to experience time and
space in new ways. He has several times worked in collaboration with the
Biel pastor and writer Andreas Urweider.
WORKS
(selective list)
Chbr ops: Zerstreute Wege (H.G. Nägeli), 1981–3; Die hellen Nächte (A. Urweider),
1987–97
Choral: Hüllen des Abgrunds (orat, Bible), 1986–7; Sunt lacrimae rerum (orat, K.
Marti, A. Muschg, D. Sölle), 1988–9; Teschuvah, 16 vv, 1989; De angelis II
(Urweider, R.M. Rilke), 1990–91; De angelis IV, motets and songs for Good Friday,
1992; Komposition zu Meister Eckhart, 1994–5; Das Schweigen verflochten im
Haar (cant., Urweider), 1995–6; Omnia tempus habent (cant.), 1996
Orch: Traum, 1987–9; Florestan und Eusebius, 1981; Meteorsteine, 1987; De
angelis V, 2 org, orch, 1993
Other works: Str Qt, 1980; Kirchen(-Raum) Musik, A, spkr, vn, 2 org, 1981; Stille,
vn, 1982; Triologie I, org, 1983; Trilogie II, 2 org, hpd, 1983; Trilogie III, hpd, fl, clav,
1983–4; Il y a une autre espèce de cadence, vn, 1984; Toccata per Girolamo ( ...
per Claude), pf, 1985; Toccatacet, org, 1986; Zieh’ einen Kreis aus Gedanken, v, 13
str, tape, 1986; Str Qt, 1986–7; In hora mortis, vn, vc, pf, 1987–93; Chammawet
ahawah (cant., Bible), 1988–9; De angelis I, org, 1990; De angelis III, fl, org, 1991;
Str Qt, 1992–4; Kulla, Bar, 11 str, 1992–8; De angelis V, 2 org, cl, 3 insts, 1993;
Lied, septet, 1997–8; Tastendes Leuchten, pf 4 hands, 1998; Pasa Calle, fl, 1998
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Nyffeler: ‘Zur Kammeroper “Zerstreute Wege” von Daniel Glaus’,
Dissonanz, no.11 (1987), 12–14
R. Brotbeck: ‘Gott im Kindbett wie eine Frau: “Komposition zu Meister
Eckhart”: von Daniel Glaus’, Dissonanz, no.47 (1996), 31–2
T. Hirsbrunner: ‘Daniel Glaus – ein Porträt’, Dissonanz, no.49 (1996), 11–
15
PATRICK MÜLLER
Glazunov, Aleksandr
Konstantinovich
(b St Petersburg, 29 July/10 Aug 1865; d Paris, 21 March 1936). Russian
composer. His father was a book publisher, his mother a pianist. Gifted with
an exceptional ear and musical memory, he began to study the piano at the
age of nine and to compose at the age of 11; his first teacher was
Ėlenkovsky. In 1879 he met Balakirev, who recommended Rimsky-
Korsakov as a private composition teacher. These studies lasted less than
two years as the pupil progressed ‘not from day to day but from hour to
hour’, in Rimsky-Korsakov's words. A lifelong friendship developed
between teacher and student, despite the difference in age. When he was
16 Glazunov completed his First Symphony, which was given a successful
première on 29 March 1882 under Balakirev's direction. In November of the
same year Glazunov's First String Quartet was performed. His precocious
talent aroused the interest of the art patron Mitrofan Belyayev, who devoted
his immense fortune to furthering the career of Glazunov and the younger
generation of Russian composers. In 1885 Belyayev organized the
Russian Symphony Concerts in St Petersburg and a music publishing
house in Leipzig. The ‘Belyayev Circle’, as it became known, assembled
every Friday in the palatial home of the patron, and Glazunov, despite his
youth, became a prominent member, with Rimsky-Korsakov, Lyadov, Vītols,
Blumenfeld, V.V. Ėval'd and others. In a way, the Belyayev Circle continued
from where The Five had left off, but with an important difference: by the
1880s, the battle for a national Russian school had been won; the
Belyayev Circle consolidated the gains and effected a rapprochement with
the West. As Rimsky-Korsakov said: ‘The Balakirev circle represented a
period of battle and pressure on behalf of the development of Russian
music’.
In 1884 Belyayev took Glazunov on a trip to western Europe; they met Liszt
in Weimar, where Glazunov’s First Symphony was performed. After
Borodin's sudden death in 1887, Glazunov (together with Rimsky-
Korsakov) became deeply involved in completing and revising the
unfinished works left by him. Glazunov's exceptional memory enabled him
to write down the overture to Prince Igor as he had heard it played by the
composer on the piano; he also completed Act 3 after extant sketches and
orchestrated the incomplete Third Symphony. In 1888 Glazunov made his
début in orchestral conducting, an art which he loved but never fully
mastered. The following year he conducted his Second Symphony in Paris
at the World Exhibition. Although he enjoyed international acclaim, he
experienced a creative crisis in 1890–91, yet soon emerged to a new
maturity; during the 1890s he completed three symphonies, two string
quartets, and the successful ballet Raymonda (1896–7). In 1899 he was
appointed professor at the St Petersburg Conservatory, with which he
remained connected for some 30 years. During the revolutionary year 1905
he resigned on 4 April in protest at the dismissal of Rimsky-Korsakov, who
was in sympathy with the striking students. On 14 December Glazunov
agreed to return after most of the demands of the liberal-minded professors
had been met. Two days later he was elected director of the conservatory,
a post he kept until 1930, although he had left for western Europe in 1928.
During his long tenure he worked ceaselessly to improve the curriculum,
raise the standards of staff and students, and defend the dignity and
autonomy of the conservatory. Among his innovations were an opera studio
and a students' philharmonic orchestra. He showed paternal concern for
the welfare of needy students (for example, Shostakovich). At the end of
each academic year he personally examined hundreds of students and
wrote brief comments on each. After the October Revolution of 1917 he
established a sound working relationship with the new regime, especially
with Lunacharsky, the minister of education; because of Glazunov's
immense prestige, the conservatory received special status among
institutions of higher learning. Yet there were attacks on him from within the
conservatory: the teaching staff demanded more progressive methods, the
students greater rights. He viewed with a sense of pain the tide of
innovation and its destructive tendencies, and was deeply affected by the
unjust way in which the classical heritage was being treated. Tired of the
controversy, he welcomed the opportunity to go abroad in 1928; some
bitterness is evident in his letters to Steinberg, who directed the
conservatory in his absence.
At the time Glazunov was elected director of the conservatory (1905), he
was at the height of his creative powers. His best works date from that
period, among them the Violin Concerto and Eighth Symphony. This was
also the time of the greatest international acclaim: he went abroad in 1907,
conducted the last of the Russian Historical Concerts in Paris on 17 May
and received the honorary DMus from the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. While in London he spent a considerable time at the Royal
Academy of Music and the Royal College of Music, studying their curricula.
In the meantime, there were cycles of all-Glazunov concerts given in St
Petersburg and Moscow in celebration of his 25th anniversary as a
composer. But the time and energy he spent on revitalizing the St
Petersburg Conservatory took their toll: there was a decided decline of
creative productivity in the succeeding years. He left his Ninth Symphony
unfinished (the first movement was written in piano score in 1910), and
only his First Piano Concerto (1910–11, although conceived earlier) reflects
his former mastery, while the Second Concerto (1917) shows an autumnal
decline. He composed his Sixth String Quartet (1921) specially for a young
and highly talented group which called itself the ‘Glazunov Quartet’; this
ensemble toured Europe in the 1920s with immense success.
Like all Russians, Glazunov suffered much deprivation during World War I
and the ensuing civil war years. Despite all hardships he remained active:
he conducted concerts in factories, clubs and Red Army posts, participated
in organizational work (with the All-Russian Union of Professional
Musicians and the Leningrad PO) and was named People's Artist of the
Republic in 1922 (in honour of his 40th anniversary as a composer). He
played a prominent role in the Russian observation of Beethoven's
centenary in 1927 as both speaker and conductor. On 15 June 1928 he left
for Vienna to represent the USSR at the Schubert centenary celebrations;
he extended his leave of absence several times to remain abroad, although
he kept in close touch with events in Leningrad, showing much concern for
the conservatory. On 19 December 1928 he conducted an evening of his
works in Paris; during the years 1929–31 he conducted in Portugal, Spain,
France, England, Czechoslovakia, Poland, the Netherlands and the USA.
In 1932 his health deteriorated and he settled in Paris with his wife Ol'ga
Gavrilova and adopted daughter Yelena Gavrilova, a pianist. (Under the
name of Yelena Glazunov, she appeared frequently as soloist in his piano
concertos with him conducting.) Although he now composed little, some of
his last works show professional polish, as, for example, the Saxophone
Concerto op.109 (1934). His last thoughts turned to his former teacher and
friend Rimsky-Korsakov, who had died in 1908: he wrote some
recollections about him and accepted membership in a Soviet-sponsored
committee to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Rimsky-Korsakov's
death. On 14 October 1972 Glazunov's remains were transferred to
Leningrad and reinterred in an honoured grave. A research institute
devoted to him was established in Munich and a Glazunov archive is
maintained in Paris.
Within Russian music, Glazunov has a significant place because he
succeeded in reconciling Russianism and Europeanism. He was the direct
heir of Balakirev's nationalism but tended more towards Borodin's epic
grandeur. At the same time he absorbed Rimsky-Korsakov's orchestral
virtuosity, the lyricism of Tchaikovsky and the contrapuntal skill of Taneyev.
There was a streak of academicism in Glazunov which at times
overpowered his inspiration, an eclecticism which lacks the ultimate stamp
of originality. The younger composers (Prokofiev, Shostakovich)
abandoned him as old-fashioned. But he remains a composer of imposing
stature and a stabilizing influence in a time of transition and turmoil.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BORIS SCHWARZ
Glazunov, Aleksandr Konstantinovich
WORKS
orchestral
symphonies and concertos
Syms.: no.1 ‘Slavyanskaya’, E, op.5, 1881–2, rev. 1885, 1929; no.2, f , op.16, 1886;
no.3, D, op.33, 1890; no.4, E , op.48, 1893; no.5, B , op.55, 1895; no.6, c, op.58,
1896; no.7 ‘Pastoral'naya’, F, op.77, 1902; no.8, E , op.83, 1906; no.9, D, 1 movt,
1910, orchd G. Yudin
Concs.: Vn Conc., a, op.82, 1904; Pf Conc. no.1, f, op.92, 1910–11; Pf Conc. no.2,
B, op.100, 1917; Conc. ballata, C, op.108, vc, orch, 1931; Conc., E , op.109, a sax,
str, 1934
other works
Ov. no.1 on 3 Gk. Themes, g, op.3, 1882; Ov. no.2 on Gk. Themes, D, op.6, 1883;
Serenade no.1, A, op.7, 1883; Pamyati geroya [To the Memory of a Hero], c –D ,
elegy, op.8, 1885; Suite caractéristique, D, op.9, 1884–7; Serenade no.2, F, op.11,
small orch, 1884; Poème lyrique, D , op.12, 1884–7; Stenka Razin, b, sym. poem,
op.13, 1885; 2 Pieces, op.14, 1886–7: Idylle, Rêverie orientale; Mazurka, G, op.18,
1888; Les [The Forest], c , fantasy, op.19, 1887; 2 morceaux, op.20, vc, orch,
1887–8: Mélodie, Sérénade espagnole
Svadebnoye shestviye [Wedding Procession], E , op.21, 1889; Slavyanskiy
prazdnik [Slav Holiday], G, essay, op.26a, 1888 [after Str Qt, op.26: finale]; More
[The Sea], E, fantasy, op.28, 1889; Rhapsodie orientale, G, op.29, 1889; Kreml'
[The Kremlin], C–E , sym. picture, op.30, 1890; Vesna [Spring], D, musical picture,
op.34, 1891; Triumphal March, E , op.40, orch, chorus ad lib, 1892; Carnaval, F,
ov., op.45, 1892; Chopiniana, op.46, 1893; Concert Waltz no.1, D, op.47, 1893;
Cortège solennel, D, op.50, 1894
Concert Waltz no.2, F, op.51, 1894; Scènes de ballet, A, suite, op.52, 1894; Fantasy
‘Ot mraka ko svetu’ [From Darkness to Light], b–C, op.53, 1894; Allegro vivo, E ,
1895; Oriental Suite, 1895; Suite from ‘Raymonda’, op.57a, 1898; Pas de caractère,
G, op.68, 1899 [insert for Raymonda]; Romantic Intermezzo, D, op.69, 1900; Chant
du ménéstrel, op.71, vc, orch, 1900; Ouverture solennelle, op.73, 1900; Marche sur
un thème russe, E , op.76, 1901; Valse lente, F, 1901; Ballade, F, op.78, 1902
Iz srednikh vekov [From the Middle Ages], E, suite, op.79, 1902; Gadaniye i plyaska
[Fortune-telling and Dancing], A, ballet scene, op.81, 1904; Pesn' sud'bï [Song of
Destiny], d, dramatic ov., op.84, 1908; 2 préludes, op.85, 1906, 1908; Russkaya
fantaziya, A, balalaika orch, op.86, 1906; Pamyati N. Gogolya [In Memory of
Gogol'], C, sym. prologue, op.87, 1909; Fantasie finnoise, C, op.88, 1909; Petite
suite de ballet, 1910; Esquisses finnoises, E, op.89, 1912; Cortège solennel, B ,
op.91, 1910; Paraphrase sur les hymnes des nations alliées, op.96, 1914–15
Variatsii [Variations], op.97, str, 1918; Karelian Legend, a, op.99, 1916; Poème
épique, 1933–4
stage and vocal
Ballets: Raymonda, (3), op.57, 1896–7; Barïshnya-sluzhanka (Les ruses d’amour)
(1), op.61, 1898; Vremena goda [The Seasons] (1), op.67, 1899
Incid music: Introduction and Dance of Salome for ‘Salomé’ (O. Wilde), op.90, 1908;
Tsar' Iudeyskiy [The King of the Jews] (K. Romanov), op.95, 1913; Maskarad (M.Yu.
Lermontov), 1912–13
Choral: Koronatsionnaya Kantata [Coronation Cant.], op.56, 4 solo vv, chorus, orch,
1896; Festive Cant. for the 100th Anniversary of the Pavlovsk Institute, op.63, 1898;
Cant. in Memory of Pushkin's 100th Birthday, op.65, 1899; Hymn to Pushkin, op.66,
female vv, pf ad lib, 1899; Lyubov' [Love], op.94, 1907; Zdravitsa [Toast], 1903; Ėy
ukhnem [Song of the Volga Boatmen], chorus, orch, 1905; Prelyudiya-kantata k 50–
letiyu Peterburgskoy konservatorii [Prelude-Cant. for the 50th Anniversary of the St
Petersburg Conservatory], 1912; Vniz po matushke po Volge [Down Mother Volga],
1921 [from Russ. folksong]
Many songs and romances incl.: 5 romansï [5 Romances], op.4, 1882–5; 2
mélodies (A. Pushkin), op.27, 1888–90, orchd as op.27bis; 6 mélodies (Pushkin
etc.), op.59, 1898; 6 mélodies (Pushkin etc.), op.60, 1898; Ėkh tï, pesnya [Oh You,
Song], op.80, S, A, pf, 1900; Romance de Nina (Lermontov), op.102, 1916 [from
Maskarad]; other settings of Pushkin, Lermontov, A. Maykov, W. Shakespeare, H.
Heine; songs without op.no.
chamber and solo instrumental
Str qts: no.1, D, op.1, 1882; no.2, F, op.10, 1884; no.3 ‘Slavyanskiy’ [The Slavonic],
G, op.26, 1888; no.4, a, op.64, 1894; no.5, d, op.70, 1898; no.6, B , op.106, 1921;
no.7 (Hommage au passé), C, op.107, 1930
Other chbr works: 5 novelettes, op.15, str qt, 1886; Elégie, D , op.17, vc, pf, 1887;
Rêverie, D , op.24, hn, pf, 1890; Meditation, D, op.32, vn, pf, 1891; Suite, C, op.35,
str qt, 1887–91; Brass Qt ‘In modo religioso’, op.38, tpt, hn, 2 trbn, 1892; Str Qnt, A,
op.39, str qt, vc, 1891–2; Elégie, g, op.44, va, pf, 1893; Albumblatt, D , tpt, pf, 1899;
Mazurka-oberek, D, vn, pf, 1917, orchd 1917; Ėlegiya pamyati M.P. Belyayeva
[Elegy in Memory of Belyayev], op.105, str qt, 1928; Sax Qt, op.109, 1932; ww
duos, other str qnts
Pf: Suite sur le thème du nom diminutif russe ‘Sascha’, op.2, 1883; 2 morceaux,
op.22, 1889: Barcarolle, Novelette; Waltzes on the Theme ‘Sabela’, op.23, 1890;
Prélude et mazurkas, op.25, 1888; 3 études, op.31, 1891; Petite valse, op.36, 1892;
Nocturne, op.37, 1889; Grande valse de concert, op.41, 1893; 3 miniatyurï [3
Miniatures], op.42, 1893; Valse de salon, op.43, 1893; 3 morceaux, op.49, 1894; 2
Impromptus, op.54, 1895; Prélude et fugue, d, op.62, 1899; Thème et variations,
op.72, 1900; Sonata no.1, b , op.74, 1901; Sonata no.2, e, op.75, 1901; 4 Préludes
et fugues, op.101, 1918–23; Idylle, op.103, 1926; Fantaisie, op.104, 2 pf, 1920;
Preludio e Fuga, e, 1926, arr. org 1929; Fantaisie, 2 pf, 1929–30
Org: Prélude et fugue, D, op.93, 1906–7; Prélude et fugue no.2, d, op.98, 1914;
Fantaisie, 1934–5
collaborative works
Str Qt ‘B–La–F’, finale, 1886, other movts by Borodin, Lyadov, Rimsky-Korsakov;
Imeninï [Nameday], 3 essays, str qt, 1887–8, collab. Lyadov, Rimsky-Korsakov;
Fanfarï, wind, perc, 1889, collab. Cui; Shutka [Joke], quadrille, pf 4 hands, 1890,
collab. Lyadov and others; Slavleniye (Les fanfares), 1890, collab. Lyadov;
Slavleniye, pf 4 hands, 1893, collab. Blumenfeld, Lyadov; Variations on a
Russian Theme, str qt, 1898, collab. Skryabin and others
Pyatnitsï [Fridays], str qt, set 1 1898, set 2 1898–9, collab. Borodin and others;
Variations on a Russian Theme, pf, 1899, collab. Lyadov and others; Variations
on a Russian Theme, orch, 1901, collab. Lyadov and others; Cantata in Memory
of M. Antokol'sky (S. Marshak), 1903, collab. Lyadov; Minuet, pf, collab. Arensky
and others
orchestrations and arrangements
A. Arensky: Variations, op.35, str qt, orchd
A. Borodin: Prince Igor, ov. and Act 3 completed and orchd, 1888
A. Borodin: Sym. no.3, 2 movts orchd
M. Musorgsky: Tsar Saul, orchd
Orchestrations of works by Chopin, Cui, Dargomïzhsky, Liszt, Schumann,
Tchaikovsky etc.
Gleason, Harold
(b Jefferson, OH, 26 April 1892; d La Jolla, CA, 28 June 1980). American
organist and musicologist. He studied civil engineering at the California
Institute of Technology (1910–12) and also studied music privately while
working as a church organist. In 1917 he moved to Boston, where he
studied with Lynnwood Farnam and directed the Boston Music School
Settlement. In 1918 he was organist and choirmaster of the Fifth Avenue
Presbyterian Church of New York. He then moved to Rochester, where he
became personal organist and director of music in the house of George
Eastman (the founder of Kodak), established and directed the Hochstein
School (1919–29), and played at various churches. During this period he
studied the organ with Joseph Bonnet in Paris (1920, 1922–3). In 1921
Gleason became head of the organ department at the Eastman School of
Music of the University of Rochester and served until 1953. He was also
professor of musicology and music literature and director of graduate
studies. A renowned teacher, he gradually moved into research and writing,
and in 1937 published his widely used Method of Organ Playing (1937,
8/1996). Later publications included Examples of Music before 1400
(1942), Music in America (with W.T. Marrocco, New York, 1964) and the
study guides Music Literature Outlines (1949–55). He was married to the
concert organist Catharine Crozier.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Gleason: ‘Harold Gleason, 1892–1980’, American Organist, xiv/9
(1980), 47 only
J. Moeser: ‘Harold Gleason Interviewed’, American Organist, xv/9 (1981),
42–6
VERNON GOTWALS/CHARLES KRIGBAUM
Glebov, Igor'.
See Asaf'yev, Boris Vladimirovich.
Stage: Mechta [The Dream] (ballet, Ye. Romanovich), 1961; Alpiyskaya ballada
[The Alpine Ballad] (ballet, R. Cherekhovskaya, after V. Bïkov), 1966, Minsk, 1967;
Izbrannitsa [The Chosen Woman] (ballet, O. Dadishkiliani, A. Vertinsky, after Ya.
Kupala), 1969; Til' Ulenshpigel' (ballet, Dadishkiliani, after C. de Coster), 1973,
Minsk, 1974, rev. 1977 (scenario V. Yelizar'yev), Leningrad, Kirov, 1978; Kurgan
(ballet, Vertinsky, G. Mayorov, after Kupala), Minsk, 1982 [with use of music from
Izbrannitsa]; Malen'kiy prints [The Little Prince] (after A. de Saint-Exupéry), 1981,
Helsinki, 1982; Millionersha [The Millionairess] (musical comedy, O. Ivanova, after
G.B. Shaw), Moscow, 1986; Master i Margarita [The Master and Margarita] (op, Ye.
Glebov, L. Glebova, after M. Bulgakov), 1990, Minsk, 1992; Kolizey [The Coliseum]
(musical comedy, N. Matukovsky, L. Vol'sky), 1995; incid music
Choral: Zvanï [Bells] (orat, N. Altukhov, V. Orlov), 1967
6 syms.: no.1, 1958; no.2, 1963; no.3, 1964; no.4, 1968; no.5, 1985; no.6, 1v, chbr
orch, 1994
Other orch: Poėma-legenda [Poem-legend], sym. poem, after Kupala, 1955;
Vospominaniya o Tile [Memories of Till], sym. poem, 1977; Vc Conc., 1991; Vn
Conc., 1995
Principal publishers: Muzïka, Sovetskiy kompozitor
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Rakava: Yaugen Glebau (Minsk, 1971)
L. Auėrbakh: Belorusskiye kompozitory: Ye. Glebov, S. Cortes, D.
Smol'sky, I. Luchenok (Moscow, 1978), 5–106
ELENA SOLOMAKHA
Glee.
A type of unaccompanied partsong, typically for male voices though often
including female voices, which flourished in England from about 1750 until
World War I. The word is derived from the Old English gleo, meaning ‘mirth’
or ‘entertainment’. The term ‘glee’ first appeared in songbooks of the later
17th century, applied to short songs harmonized for vocal ensemble and
often intended to be accompanied by instruments. It was not until the mid-
18th century that the glee proper developed as a sizable, through-
composed partsong, designed to be sung without instrumental support,
with some sections of its words set contrapuntally.
The main inspiration behind the 18th-century glee was the English
madrigal of 1590–1630, which was being rediscovered and performed at
the time by bodies such as the Academy of Ancient Music (founded in
1710) and the Madrigal Society (founded in 1741). To a generation whose
experience of partsong was largely limited to obscene catches, the flowing
lines, sensuous textures and poetic seriousness of the Elizabethan and
Jacobean madrigal came as a revelation and a challenge.
The Noblemen and Gentlemen’s Catch Club in London gave glees
enormous encouragement from 1763 onwards by offering munificent prizes
for new partsongs (in four categories: serious glee, light glee, catch and
canon). Samuel Webbe (i), who emerged during the 1770s as England’s
most profound and versatile glee composer, won 17 Catch Club prizes for
his work; J.W. Callcott’s career as a composer was launched when he won
three of the Club’s prizes simultaneously in 1785. Another prizewinner was
the Earl of Mornington, whose Here in cool grott was judged the best light
glee in 1779. Many prizewinning glees became popular favourites for
several generations.
The glee borrowed many characteristics from the earlier madrigal: a
tendency to divide the text into small sections and to give each one a
different emotional colouring, irrespective of the poem’s metrical structure;
the inclusion of short homophonic passages where one or more voices
temporarily drop out of the ensemble to give a semichorus effect; imitative
counterpoint and close canon; and unexpected changes of metre from
duple to triple time or vice versa. On the other hand, it also had
contemporary characteristics: detailed dynamics, including sf and fp
markings; multi-sectional forms derived from Baroque and galant
instrumental music; chromatic harmony; and subject matter that reached
beyond romantic love, hunting, fairies and the progress of the seasons to
such topics as income tax (Webbe’s My pocket’s low and taxes high,
c1800), the adventures of a merchant ship in a storm (his When winds
breathe soft, c1775), and the religion of a London businessman (Callcott’s
O snatch me swift, 1790).
The most popular vocal groupings for glees in the late 18th century were
ATB, TTB and ATTB, with the alto parts sung by male falsettists;
increasingly, however, composers wrote for SATB and SSATB groupings,
requiring women to sing the soprano parts and reflecting a general social
acceptance of women into choral clubs and singing groups. Between 1795
and 1815 there was a temporary fashion for glees with instrumental
accompaniment; but this passed, and glees went forward into the 19th
century confirmed as an unaccompanied form.
The later history of the glee is well documented but incompletely
researched. The genre spread to lower social groups during the 19th
century, helped by the formation of large choral societies, the proliferation
of trained choirs in parish churches and the efforts of educationists to make
the lower classes fluent in staff and Tonic Sol-fa notation. By 1870 the
publication of glees was a highly lucrative business, in which Novello & Co.
of London tried, but failed, to corner the market. Leading composers of
glees in the 19th century (also well known for their church music) were
William Beale, William Horsley, R.L. Pearsall, J.L. Hatton, Joseph Barnby
and John Stainer; many more were written by composers whose names
are now forgotten. In about 1885 Baptie drew up a list of nearly 23,000
partsongs published in Britain since 1750 (in GB-Lbl M.R.Ref.3.a; see
Johnson, 1979), and reckoned that as many again had been composed but
had not reached print.
After 1880 composers tended to avoid the word ‘glee’ and to use the term
Partsong instead. The real end of the tradition came, however, with World
War I. In about 1920 a new type of English partsong emerged,
selfconsciously based on medieval and Renaissance models and modal
harmony, and the glee went permanently out of fashion.
A reassessment of the glee is long overdue. Its 160-year history includes a
great deal of inept, hastily written and commercial work, but the genre
deserves to be judged on its finest achievements, which give a touching
picture of the inward, private side of the English psyche at a time when
England’s main energies were turned outwards towards Empire.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1(J. Westrup [contains a list of 18th- and 19th-century pubns])
W.A. Barrett: English Glees and Part-Songs (London, 1886)
D. Baptie: Sketches of the English Glee Composers (London, 1896)
Viscount Gladstone: The Story of the Noblemen and Gentlemen’s Catch
Club (London, 1930)
P.M. Young: The Madrigal in the Romantic Era, American Choral Review,
xix/4 (1977)
P. Hillier: disc notes, The Romantic Englishman, Meridian E77002 (1978)
D. Johnson: ‘ The 18th-Century Glee’, MT, cxx (1979), 200–02
R. Doveton: disc notes, When winds breathe soft, Decca DSLO 33 (1979)
D. Johnson, ed.: Preface to Ten Georgian Glees for Four Voices (London,
1981)
P. Hillier, ed.: Preface to 300 Years of English Partsongs: Glees, Rounds,
Catches, Partsongs, 1600–1900 (London, 1983)
D. Johnson, ed.: Preface to The Scholars’ Book of Glees (London, 1985)
DAVID JOHNSON
Gleichschwebende Temperatur
(Ger.).
See Equal temperament.
Glein, Erasmus de
(d ?Dresden, 1599). Instrumentalist and composer, active in Germany. He
played the trumpet and possibly other instruments. He was appointed a
member of the orchestra at the Saxon court chapel in Dresden in about
1568, and subsequently became its ‘instrument keeper’. His salary in 1576
was 120 guilders. According to Eitner, in 1589 he received an ‘ex gratia’
payment of 500 guilders. Glein joined three other Dresden musicians –
Scandello, Le Maistre and Wessalius – in producing Epithalamia, in
honorem … Nicolai Leopardi (Nuremberg, 156821). His contribution, the
third of the four pieces, is an imitative six-part motet in two sections,
Nicoleo Kuneganda and Ipse Deus sancto vestras. Two further six-part
motets survive in D-Dlb: Nu kom der heiden Heilandt and Resurrexi et
adhuc tecum sum. The anonymous eight-part setting of Domine probasti
me, which belongs to the introit Resurrexi and immediately follows it in the
manuscript, may also be Glein's work.
RICHARD MARLOW
Gleissner, Franz
(b Neustadt, 1759; d Munich, 18 Sept 1818). German composer and
lithographer. After early training in the seminary at Amberg he moved to
Munich, where he continued studies in music and philosophy and became
a court musician. There he met Alois Senefelder, the inventor of
lithography, initially when he was commissioned to compose some songs in
connection with Senefelder's theatrical activities. In 1796 Gleissner was
approached by Senefelder to make commercial use of his method of relief
printing from stone for the publication of music. Gleissner was the first to
see the possibilities of this and had his 12 neue Lieder produced by it the
same year. This was the beginning of a partnership that lasted over 20
years. Between 1796 and 1798 Senefelder and Gleissner printed music
from etched stones, but in 1798 or early in 1799 Senefelder developed a
chemical method of printing from stone, for which he and Gleissner were
granted a 15-year privilege on 3 September 1799 by Maximilian Joseph of
Bavaria. This was the planographic process now called lithography. An
announcement of the privilege in a Munich newspaper on 26 September
1799 was seen by Johann Anton André (see André family, (2)), and within a
month André entered into an agreement with Senefelder and Gleissner to
set up a lithographic workshop in Offenbach. Lithographical music began to
come off André’s presses early in 1800. As the first lithographer with a
knowledge of music, Gleissner probably instructed André’s music
engravers in the new process. Senefelder soon fell out with André over the
latter’s business plans, and in August 1801 he left for Vienna, where he set
up the Chemische Druckerey, eventually securing a privilege to print by
lithography in Lower Austria on 18 January 1803. Gleissner apparently ran
the Chemische Druckerey on a day-to-day basis. The press was not
successful, either technically or commercially, and produced some music
printing of very poor quality. Its output included compositions by Gleissner,
stocks of which remained unsold when Senefelder disposed of the press to
Sigmund Anton Steiner, probably in 1805 (see Haslinger). Gleissner and
Senefelder returned to Munich in October 1806 to establish a new press for
G.J. Vogler and Johann Christoph Freiherr von Aretin. Vogler soon
withdrew from the arrangement, but for some years Gleissner and
Senefelder ran the press, producing a variety of work. In October 1809
Senefelder and Gleissner were offered posts at the lithographic press of
the Bavarian cadastral office, with permission to continue running their own
press.
Gleissner was a composer of some merit, and wrote instrumental and vocal
works, many of which are among the earliest examples of lithography.
However, what remains significant today is his role in promoting the use of
lithography for music printing.
WORKS
Sacred vocal: Lytaniae Lauretanae solennes, 1787, D-Rp; 6 Missae, op.1
(Augsburg, 1793; incl. 4 syms., 2 hn, str); Lazarus (orat), Munich, 1795, lost, cited in
FétisB; 6 Missae breviores, op.2 (Augsburg, ?1798); 3 Missae solennes, 4vv, insts,
Mbs; Christus factus est, 4vv, 3 trbn, Rp
Secular vocal: 12 neue Lieder, pf acc. (Munich 1796)
Orch: 4 syms., 2 hn, str, pubd with 6 Missae, op.1 (Augsburg, 1793); 3 syms., no.1,
C (Munich, 1798), no.2 (Offenbach, n.d.), op.15 (Vienna, n.d.)
Ens: 30 fl duos, 6 as op.12 (Vienna, 1801), 24 pubd (Offenbach, n.d.); 3 sonatas, pf,
vn, acc., op.6 (Vienna, 1803); 6 minuets, 2 vn, b, opt. wind insts (Vienna, 1803); 6
pièces d'harmonie (Offenbach, n.d.); Qt, fl, vn, va, b, op.38 (Leipzig, n.d.); Str Qt,
op.13 (Vienna, n.d.); 24 duos faciles, hn/tpt (Munich, n.d.); 2 oeuvres de sonates,
pf, vn (Vienna, n.d.); 20 variations sur un thème de Msr. Haydn, fl, op.14 (Vienna,
n.d.); 8 variations sur un thème connu de l'opéra Faniska, fl (Vienna, n.d.)
Pf: Feldmarsch (Munich, 1796); other works
Stage works (according to FétisB) incl. Der Frachtbrief (operetta), Agnes Bernauerin
(melodrama), Paul et Virginie (ballet)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
A. Senefelder: Vollständiges Lehrbuch der Steindruckerey (Munich,
1818/R, 2/1821; Eng. trans., 1911, as The Invention of Lithography)
C. Wagner: Alois Senefelder: sein Leben und Wirken (Leipzig, 1914,
2/1943)
R.A. Winkler: Die Frühzeit der deutschen Lithographie: Katalog der
Bilddrucke von 1796–1821 (Munich, 1975)
G. Vollmer: Alois Senefelder und die ‘Notenfabrique’ André (Offenbach,
1986)
H. Schwarz: Die Anfänge der Lithographie in Österreich, ed. E. Herrmann-
Fichtenau (Vienna, 1988)
M. Twyman: Early Lithographed Music (London, 1996)
VINCENT DUCKLES/MICHAEL TWYMAN
Glen.
Scottish family of makers of bagpipes and other musical instruments and
publishers of bagpipe music.
Thomas Macbean Glen (b Inverkeithing, Fife, 4 May 1804; d Edinburgh, 12
July 1873) established an instrument making firm at 250 Cowgate,
Edinburgh, in 1827. Probably the firm at first undertook various kinds of
business; it is not listed in the Edinburgh Directory specifically as a ‘pipe
and flute maker's’ until 1833. Sets of Glen's bagpipes along with other
intruments have survived and, according to Baptie, he invented the
wooden ophicleide (serpentcleide). He retired in 1867 and the business
was continued as J. & R. Glen by his sons, John Glen (b Edinburgh, 13
June 1833; d Edinburgh, 29 Nov 1904) and Robert Glen (b Edinburgh, 13
Jan 1835; d Edinburgh, 21 Oct 1911). Both sons were distinguished
musical scholars. John Glen formed a collection of old Scottish printed
music books which was acquired at his death by Lady Dorothea Ruggles-
Brise, and passed in 1927 to the National Library of Scotland. Robert Glen
made an important collection of historic musical instruments which was
drawn upon for several major exhibitions; most of the collection is now held
by museums in Edinburgh and Glasgow.
In 1911 the firm of J. & R. Glen moved to premises at 497 Lawnmarket,
Edinburgh, and was thereafter managed by Thomas Glen (b Edinburgh, 5
Aug 1867; d Edinburgh, 21 Aug 1951), son of John Glen, then by Andrew
M. Ross (1891–1979) and his son Andrew J. Ross (b Edinburgh, 1930; d
Edinburgh, 1980), relatives by marriage of the Glens. The firm passed out
of the family's hands in 1978, the premises and name being used for a
further four years by an unrelated proprietor. Archival documents from the
firm survive in the National Library of Scotland and the Edinburgh
University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments.
A separate firm was established in 1833 by Alexander Glen (i) (b
Inverkeithing, 19 Aug 1801; d Edinburgh, 14 March 1873), brother of T.M.
Glen; by 1844 Alexander was known for his skill in bagpipe making. This
firm occupied various premises in Edinburgh. His son David Glen (i) (b
Edinburgh, 3 April 1853; d Edinburgh, 25 June 1916) joined the firm in
about 1869, and continued it in his own name from 1873 (at its final
address, 8 Greenside Place). In 1911 Alexander Glen (ii) (b Edinburgh, 31
Dec 1877; d Edinburgh, 4 Feb 1951) and David Glen (ii) (b Edinburgh, 1
Dec 1883; d Brora, 5 April 1958), sons of David Glen (i), became partners
in the firm, which continued as David Glen & Sons until 1949, when it was
acquired by J. & R. Glen.
Several members of the family published tutors for the bagpipe and
collections of bagpipe tunes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Glen: ‘Notes on the Musical Instruments of Scotland’, Proceedings of
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, xiv (1879–80), 114–25
D. Baptie: Musical Scotland, Past and Present (Paisley, 1894/R)
J. Glen: Early Scottish Melodies (Edinburgh, 1900/R)
R.D. Cannon: ‘The Glen Family’, Piping Times, xxi/1 (1969), 7–9
F. Collinson: The Bagpipe (London, 1975)
R.D. Cannon: A. Bibliography of Bagpipe Music (Edinburgh, 1980)
H. Cheape: ‘The Making of Bagpipes in Scotland’, From the Stone Age to
the ‘Forty-Five’: Studies Presented to R.B.K. Stevenson, ed. A.
O'Connor and D.V. Clarke (Edinburgh, 1983), 596–615
A. Myers, ed.: The Glen Account Book, 1838–1853 (Edinburgh, 1985)
A. Myers: ‘The Glen and Ross Collections of Musical Instruments’, GSJ,
xxxviii (1985), 4–8 [plate 1]
R.D. Cannon: The Highland Bagpipe and its Music (Edinburgh, 1988)
W. and E.Glen: The Glen Descendants of George Glen (1724–1804)
(Bonshaw, PE, 1990)
DAVID JOHNSON/ARNOLD MYERS
Glennie, Evelyn
(b Aberdeen, 19 July 1965). Scottish percussionist. Profoundly deaf since
early childhood, she studied timpani and percussion from the age of 12,
and in 1982 entered the RAM. After winning the Shell/LSO Award in 1984
she embarked on a glittering international career. Her versatility and
virtuosity have gained her an unusually diverse audience, and many
composers have written works for her, including James MacMillan (whose
concerto Veni, veni Emmanuel she first performed at the 1992 Proms),
Dominic Muldowney, John McLeod, Richard Rodney Bennett and Thea
Musgrave. She has also made numerous recordings, several of which
have won awards. Glennie tours regularly throughout the world, and gives
an annual series of concerts and masterclasses in North America.
Fascinated by non-Western musical cultures, she has given recitals and
workshops in Japan and India, and in 1994 performed with a leading
gamelan orchestra in Indonesia. Her solo concerts are distinguished not
only by her dazzling playing skills but also by her imaginative
programming. Glennie has written music for television, films and
documentaries, and founded the Evelyn Glennie Percussion Composition
Award in 1991 to encourage the creation of new works for percussion. She
has received honorary doctorates from several academic institutions, and
was created an OBE in 1993. Her autobiography, Good Vibrations, was
published in London in 1990.
JAMES HOLLAND
Edition: J.M. Gletle: Ausgewählte Kirchenmusik, ed. H.P. Schanzlin and M. Zulauf, SMd, ii
(1959) [SZ]
op.
instrumental
Orch: Sinfonia Concertante, str, 1961; Suite Hébraïque no.1, 1961; Gathering In,
str, 1970; Ps for Orch, 1971; Symphonic Elegy, str, 1974; Vn Conc. 1976; Sonata
‘Devequt’, 1982; Divertimento, str, 1987; The Reawakening, 1991; Pf Conc., pf, str,
1992
Chbr and solo inst: Suite Hébraïque no.1, arr. cl/s sax, pf, 1963; Suite Hébraïque
no.2, cl, vn, va, vc, pf, 1969; Prayer and Dance, vc, pf, 1975; Suite Hébraïque no.3,
str qt, 1975; Suite Hébraïque no.4, a sax/cl/va, pf, 1979; Suite Hébraïque no.5, fl, cl,
vn, vc, 1980; Sonata, fl, pf, 1983; Str Qt no.1, 1984; Suite Hébraïque no.6, vn, pf,
1984; Sonata, ob/s sax, pf, 1987; Trio, fl, va, hp, 1988; Sonata, vc, pf, 1989;
Sonata, a sax, pf, 1990; Trio, vn, vc, pf, 1990; Friendship Qnt, pf, str qt, 1994; Str Qt
no.2, 1994; The Klezmer’s Wedding, cl, vn, pf, 1996; Pf Sonata, 1996
vocal
Choral: Northern Sketches (D. Clenman), SATB, vn, vc, pf, 1982; The Hour has
Come (C. Leckner), SATB, orch, 1985; Sing unto the Lord a New Song (Pss),
SATB, hp/pf/orch, 1986; Canticle of Peace (S. Glick), 1987; Songs of Creation (R.
Brin, R. Chester, L. Cohen, Glick, Pss), SATB, brass qnt, 4 perc, org, 1989;
Moments in Time (M. Waddington, A.M. Klein, J. Reaney, I. Layton, Glick), Tr
chorus, pf, 1990; In Memoriam Leonard Bernstein (Ps xxiii, Bible: Ecclesiastes,
trans. Glick, Glick: Kaddish), SATB, pf, 1993; Triumph of the Spirit (Bible: Jeremiah,
trans. Glick, Hebrew prayers, D. Clenman, R. Cook, trans. B.Z. Bokser), SATB,
orch, 1995
Solo: … i never saw another butterfly … (anon., A. Synkova, M. Kosek, H. Lowy,
Bachner, P. Fischl, P. Friedmann), Mez/A, orch/pf, 1968; 2 Landscapes (K.
Patchen), T, pf, 1973; Poet’s Life (R. Korn), S, str orch/pf, 1992; 7 Tableaux from the
Song of Songs (trans. Glick), S (vn, vc, pf)/pf, 1992
operas
Zemlya i nebo [Earth and Sky] (op-orat, after Byron), 1900
Shakh-Senem (3, after Azerbaijani legend), 1923; Baku, 4 May 1934
Gyul'sara (music drama), 1936, Tashkent, 24 April 1937; rev. as op, Tashkent, 25
Dec 1949, collab. T. Sadïkov
Leyli i Mejnun, 1940
Rashel' [Rachel] (after G. de Maupassant: Mademoiselle Fifi), 1942
ballets
Khrizis (ballet-pantomime), 1912
Ovechiy istochnik [Sheep’s Spring], 1922; rev. as Komediantï [The Comedians],
1930
Kleopatra (Egipetskiye nochi), 1925
Krasnïy mak [The Red Poppy], 1926–7, Moscow, 1927; rev. as Krasnïy tsvetok [The
Red Flower], 1949
Mednïy vsadnik [The Bronze Horseman] (after A.S. Pushkin), 1948–9; Leningrad
and Moscow, 1949
Taras Bul'ba (after N.V. Gogol), 1951–2
Dog' Kastilii [with music from Sheep’s Spring], 1955
orchestral
Syms.: no.1, E , op.8, 1899–1900; no.2, c, op.25, 1907–8; no.3 ‘Il'ya Muromets’,
op.42, 1909–11
Concs.: Hp Conc., op.74, 1938; Coloratura S Conc., 1943; Vc Conc., 1946; Hn
Conc., 1950; Vn Conc., 1956, completed and orchd by Lyatoshynsk'y
Sym. poems: Les Syrènes, op.33, 1908; The Zaporozhy Cossacks, op.64, 1921;
Zapovit [Testament], op.73, after Shevchenko, 1938
Ovs.: Ferganskiy prazdnik [Ferghana Fête], op.75, 1940; Druzhba narodov [The
Friendship of Peoples], op.79, 1941; Ov. on Slav Themes, 1941; For the Happiness
of the Fatherland, 1942; Twenty-five Years of the Red Army, 1943; War Ov., c1943;
Victory, 1945
Military band: Fantasy for the Festival of the Comintern, 1924; Red Army March,
1924; Heroic March for the Buryat-Mongolian ASSR, op.71, 1936; Solemn Ov. for
the 20th Anniversary of the October Revolution, op.72, 1937
other works
Vocal: Imitation of Ezekiel, nar, orch, 1919; 2 Poems, op.60, S, orch, 1924;
Zazdravnaya [A Toast], 1v, orch, c1939; many songs with pf
Chbr: Str Sextet, op.1, 1900; Str Qt no.1, op.2, 1900; Str Octet, op.5, 1900; Str
Sextet, op.7, 1902; Str Qt no.2, op.20, 1905; Str Qt no.3, op.67, 1928; Str Qt no.4,
op.83 (1946)
Other inst: Romance, op.3, vn, pf, 1902; Ballad, op.4, vc, pf, 1902; 2 Pieces, op.32,
db, pf, 1908; Pieces, op.35, various insts with pf, 1908; 8 Pieces, op.39, vn, vc,
1909; 12 Easy Pieces, op.45, vn, pf, 1909; 12 Pieces, op.51, vc, pf, 1910; 10 Duos,
op.53, 2 vc, 1911; 7 Instructive Pieces, op.54, vn, pf, 1911; many pf pieces and
other works
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Bėlza: Kontsertï Gliera (Moscow, 1955)
I. Bėlza: R.M. Glier (Moscow, 1955, 2/1962)
Obituaries: SovM (1956), no.8, pp.157–8; Sovetskaya Kul'tura (26 June
1994)
S.V. Katonova: Baletï R.M. Gliera (Moscow, 1960)
SovM (1961), no.6, pp.109–14 [special no., incl. articles by E. Gnesina, G.
Litinsky, S. Sinior and D. Person]
M.F. Leonova: Simfonicheskiye proizvedeniya R.M. Gliera: simfonii,
odnochastnïye sochineniya, kontsertï: spravochnik-putevoditel'
[Glière’s symphonic works: symphonies, single-movement works,
concertos: a reference guide] (Moscow, 1962)
S.Ya. Levin: ‘Dva baleta R.M. Gliera “Krasnïy tsvetok”, “Mednïy vsadnik”’
[Glière’s two ballets The Red Flower and The Bronze Horseman],
Muzïka sovetskogo baleta, ed. L.N. Raaben (Moscow, 1962), 126–62
N. Petrova: R.M. Glier (Leningrad, 1962)
B.S. Yagolim: R.M. Glier: notograficheskiy spravochnik [Catalogue of
works] (Moscow, 1964)
V.M. Bogdanov-Berezovsky, ed.: R.M. Glier: stat'i, vospominaniya,
materialï [Articles, reminiscences, materials] (Leningrad, 1965–7)
S. Krebs: Soviet Composers and the Development of Soviet Music (New
York, 1970)
L.S. Ginzburg: Issledovaniya, stat'i, ocherki [Research, articles, essays]
(Moscow, 1971) [incl. article on Glière’s chamber music]
N. Kus'min: ‘Glière v Kiyeve’ [Glière in Kiev], SovM (1975), no.9, pp.100–
13
S. Veksler: Glier i uzbekskaya muzïka [Glière and Uzbek music] (Tashkent,
1981)
GALINA GRIGOR'YEVA
Gligo, Nikša
(b Split, 6 April 1946). Croatian musicologist. He graduated in English and
comparative literature from Zagreb University (1969) and in musicology
from Ljubljana University (1973). He later studied with Koraljka Kos at
Zagreb University (MA 1981) and with Andrej Rijavec at Ljubljana
University, gaining the PhD in 1984 with a dissertation on problems of new
music. He was awarded scholarships to study at the universities of
Cologne, Berlin (with Carl Dahlhaus and Rudolf Stephan) and Freiburg
(with H.H. Eggebrecht). He was artistic director of the Music Salon of
Zagreb University (1969–86) and programme director of the Music Biennial
Zagreb (1973–91). He has taught at the Zagreb Academy of Music since
1986 and the Faculty of Organization and Informatics in Varaždin since
1996. He was on the executive committee of the European Conference of
the Promoters of New Music (1989–94) and is vice-president of the section
for semiotics at the Croatian Society for Social Sciences and Humanities
(from 1995).
Gligo is concerned with the aesthetics, semiotics and terminology of 20th-
century music and the use of computers in musicology. His project on the
standardization of 20th-century Croatian music terminology resulted in his
book Pojmovni vodič kroz glazbu 20. stoljeća, which is relevant to both
musicology and linguistics, and for which he received the Croatian National
Award in the Humanities.
WRITINGS
‘Skladba i njena realizacija’ [The composition and its realization], Telegram,
no.428 (1968), 14–18
‘Prostor i pokret u imanenciji glazbe’ [Space and movement in the
immanence of music], Zvuk, nos.111–12 (1971), 46–58
‘Milko Kelemen: Passionato für Flöte und gemischten Chor:
Voraussetzungen für eine mögliche Analyse’, Zeitschrift für
Musiktheorie, vi/2 (1975), 71–5
‘Odnos “angažmana” i “sredine”: Hrvatski skladatelj Silvio Foretić’ [The
relationship between ‘engagement’ and ‘milieu’: the Croatian
composer Silvio Foretić], Zbornik III. programa Radio Zagreba, iii
(1977), 57–93
‘The Position of the “New Art” in the so-called “Small Cultural
Surroundings”: an Example: the New Music in Croatia after 1950’,
2000 yilina dogru sanatlar sempozyumu/The Symposium of Arts
towards the Year of 2000: Istanbul 1977, ed. M. Çubuk and H.
Karabey (Istanbul, 1977)
Vrijeme glazbe [Time of Music] (Zagreb, 1977)
‘Razvojni kontinuitet u skladateljskom opusu Branimira Sakača: prilog
proučavanju kontinuiteta u poslijeratnom razvoju hrvatske glazbe’
[Developmental continuity in the works of Branimir Sakač: a
contribution to research into continuity in the post-war development of
Croatian music], Zvuk (1979), no.3, pp.33–49; no.4, pp.33–46; (1980),
no.1, pp.17–27
‘Glazbenost nove glazbe 20. stoljeća’ [The musicality of 20th-century
music], MZ, xxi (1984), 75–100 [with Eng. summary]
Problemi nove glazbe 20. stoljeća: teorijske osnove i kriteriji vrednovanja
[Issues in 20th-century music: theoretical basis and evaluation criteria]
(diss., U. of Ljubljana, 1984; Zagreb, 1987)
‘Suvremeno hrvatsko pjesništvo i njegova glazba’ [Contemporary Croatian
poetry and its music], Arti musices, xv (1984), 133–69 [summaries in
Eng., Ger.]
Varijacije razvojnog kontinuiteta: skladatelj Natko Devčić [Variations in
developmental continuity: the composer Natko Devčić] (Zagreb, 1985)
‘Was für ein Werk stellt A Collection of Rocks von John Cage dar? Ein
Beitrag zur Werkdetermination in der experimentellen Musik’,
Entgrenzungen in der Musik, ed. O. Kolleritsch (Vienna, 1987), 247–72
‘Schrift ist Musik? Ein Beitrag zur Aktualisierung eines nur anscheinend
veralteten Widerspruchs’, IRASM, xviii (1987), 145–62; xix (1988), 75–
115
‘Die musikalische Avantgarde als historische Utopie: die gescheiterten
Implikationen der experimentellen Musik’, AcM, lxi (1989), 217–37
‘Nova glazba u postmodernom dobu? Doprinost produbljenju jedne
moderne kontroverze’ [New music in the postmodern age? A
contribution to a modern controversy], MZ, xxvi (1989), 29–39 [with
Eng. summary]
‘“Structure, un des mots de notre époque”: die Komponistentheorie als
notwendiger Beitrag zum Verständnis der neuen Musik’,
Verbalisierung und Sinngehalt: über semantische Tendenzen im
Denken in und über Musik heute, ed. O. Kolleritsch (Vienna, 1989),
83–103
‘Luigi Nono, ein kämpfender Musiker’, Die Musik Luigi Nonos, ed. O.
Kolleritsch (Vienna, 1991), 91–114
‘Über die Wissenschaftlichkeit der Musikwissenschaft: die Analyse als ihre
Gewährleistung’, IRASM, xxiii (1992), 189–206
Pojmovni vodič kroz glazbu 20. stoljeća s uputama za pravilnu upotrebu
pojmova [A guide to 20th-century musical terms with instructions for
their correct usage] (Zagreb, 1996)
ZDRAVKO BLAŽEKOVIĆ
Edition: M.I. Glinka: polnoye sobranniye sochineniy [Complete Collection of Works], ed.
V.Ya. Shebalin and others (Moscow, 1955–69) [G]
Remarks :
sketches for entr’acte only
Remarks :
sketches: used in Zhizn' za tsarya
Zhizn' za tsarya [A Life for the Tsar] op, 4, Y.F. 1834– fs Bol'sho xii/a, b,
epilogu Rozen, 6 1881, y, 27 suppl.
e V. ov. Nov/9 vs, xiii
Sollog only Dec
ub, 1858; 1836
N.V. vs
Kukol'n 1856
ik and or
Zhukov 1857
sky
Remarks :
ov. arr. pf 4 hands, G v, 106; pt. of epilogue arr. solo pf, G vi, 255
Moldavanka i tsïganka [The Moldavian Girl and the aria — 1836 Mosco 8/20 vii, 3
Gypsy Girl] with w, April
chorus 1947 1836
Remarks :
for K. Bakhturin’s play
Remarks :
ov., 3 songs and 4 entr’actes for Kukol'nik’s tragedy: Yevreyskaya
pesnya used as no.2 of Proshchaniye s Peterburgom, 1840; other 2
songs arr. 1v, pf, G x, 271, 273
Remarks :
pt. of Finn’s ballad and pt of Lyudmila’s scena arr. pf, 1852, G vi, 251,
254
Remarks :
sketches, lost
orchestral
Remarks :
inc.
Remarks :
inc.
Remarks :
orig. for pf, 1839; orchd 1845, lost; reorchd 1856
Remarks :
on the Jota aragonesa; also known as First Spanish Overture
Remarks :
arr. pf 4 hands (1856)
Remarks :
expanded into Souvenir d’une nuit d’été à Madrid, 1851 (1858); also known as
Second Spanish Overture, G ii, 143
Remarks :
on a Spanish bolero theme
Remarks :
inc.
other instrumental
Variations on a theme of 1822 by 1856 theme from Die vi, 13, 20
Mozart, E , pf/hp Zauberflöte; orig. lost, but
written down from Lyudmila
Shestakova’s memory
Septet, E , ob, bn, hn, 2 c1823 Moscow, 1957 inc. iii, 3
vn, vc, db
String Quartet, D 1824 Moscow, 1948 inc. iii, 67
Variations on an original c1824 Moscow, 1878 — vi, 1
theme, F, pf
Sonata, pf, va 1825–8 Moscow, 1932 2 movts only iv, 3
Variations on the song 1826 1839 vi, 51
Sredi dolinï rovnïye
[Among the Gentle
Valleys], a, pf
Variations on a theme from 1826 or 1827 1839 vi, 55
Cherubini’s Faniska, B , pf
Variations on Benedetta sia 1826 by 1829 vi, 26, 39
la madre, E, pf
[5] nouvelles quadrilles ?1826 by 1829 vi, 267
françaises, pf
Cotillon, B , pf by 1828 1829 vi, 67
Mazurka, G, pf by 1828 1829 vi, 70
[4] nouvelles contredanses, by 1828 1829 vi, 71
pf
Nocturne, E , pf/hp 1828 Moscow, 1878 vi, 62
Finskaya pesnya [Finnish 1829 1830 vi, 77, 78
Song], D, pf
Trot de cavalerie, G, pf 4 1829 or 1830 Moscow, 1878 v, 3
hands
Trot de cavalerie, C, pf 4 1829 or 1830 Moscow, 1878 v, 7
hands
String Quartet, F 1830 Moscow, 1878 arr. pf 4 hands, 1830 iii, 125
(Moscow, 1878), G v, 63
Proshchal'nïy val's 1831 1834 vi, 117
[Farewell Waltz], G, pf
Rondino brillante on a 1831 Milan, 1832 vi, 104
theme from Bellini’s I
Capuleti e i Montecchi, B ,
pf
Variazioni brillanti on a 1831 Milan, 1831 vi, 79
theme from Donizetti’s
Anna Bolena, A, pf
Variations on 2 themes 1831 Milan, 1831 vi, 93
from the ballet Chao-Kang,
D, pf
Divertimento brillante on 1832 Milan, 1832 arr. 2 pf (6 hands), G v, 131 iv, 29
themes from Bellini’s La
sonnambula, A , pf, 2 vn,
va, vc, db
Impromptu en galop on the 1832 Milan, 1832 v, 9
barcarolle from Donizetti’s
L’elisir d’amore, B , pf 4
hands
Serenata on themes from 1832 Milan, 1832 iv/suppl.
Anna Bolena, E , pf, hp,
bn, hn, va, vc, db
Gran sestetto originale, E , 1832 Milan, 1832 iv, 81
pf, str qnt
Trio pathétique, d, pf, cl, bn 1832 Moscow, 1878 iv, 173
Variazioni on a theme from 1832 Milan, 1832 vi, 118
I Capuleti e i Montecchi, C,
pf
Variations on Alyab'yev's 1833 1841 vi, 135
Solovey [The Nightingale],
e, pf
3 fugues, pf: 1833 or 1834
3-pt., E Moscow, 1885 vi, 147, 149
3-pt., a by 1844 vi, 151, 154
4-pt., D Moscow, 1885 vi, 157
Mazurka, A , pf 1833 or 1834 1834 vi, 160
Mazurka, F, pf 1833 or 1834 1834 vi, 161
Capriccio on Russian 1834 Moscow, 1904 v, 19
themes, A, pf 4 hands
Motif de chant national, C, ?1834–6 Moscow, 1969 xvii, 227
pf
Mazurka, F, pf ?1835 c1836 vi, 162
[5] contredanses, pf 1838 1839 vi, 166
Waltz, E , pf 1838 1839 vi, 164
Waltz, B , pf 1838 1839 vi, 170
La couventine, 1839 1839 orig. for orch, lost vi, 188
contredanses, pf
Grande valse, G, pf 1839 1839 orig. for orch, lost vi, 175
Polonaise, E, pf 1839 1839 orig. for orch, lost vi, 184
La séparation, nocturne, f, 1839 1839 vi, 204
pf
Le regret, nocturne, pf 1839 — inc., lost; used in no.11 of —
Proshchaniye s
Peterburgom, 1840
Valse-Fantaisie, b, pf 1839 1839 orchd 1845, lost; reorchd vi, 193
1856 (1878)
Galopade, E , pf 1838 or 1839 1839 vi, 174
Bolero, d, pf 1840 1840 arr. 1v, pf as no.3 of vi, 208
Proshchaniye s
Peterburgom, 1840
Tarantella, a, pf 1843 1850 on the Russian song Vo vi, 217
pole beryoza stoyala [In the
field there stood a birch
tree]
Mazurka, c, pf ?1843 1843 vi, 219
Privet otchizne [A Greeting 1847 ?1855
to my Native Land], pf
1 Souvenir d’une mazurka, vi, 220
B
2 Barcarolle, G vi, 225
3 Prière, A arr. 1v, pf, 1855 vi, 232
4 Thème écossais varié based on the Irish tune The vi, 240
Last Rose of Summer
Polka, d, pf 1849 Moscow, 1878 vi, 250
Mazurka, C, pf 1852 Moscow, 1878 vi, 256
Polka, B , pf 4 hands 1840–52 1852 conceived 1840, written v, 47
down 1852
Detskaya pol'ka [Children’s 1854 1861 vi, 257
Polka], B , pf
Las mollares, G, pf ?1855 1856 transcr. of Andalusian vi, 264
dance
Leggieramente, E, pf — Moscow, 1969 xvii, 170
vocal
for 1 voice and piano unless otherwise stated
For a complete list of works, including the titles of fragmentary and lost compositions, see Brown
Glissade
(Fr.).
See Slide, §(2).
Glissando
(italianized, from Fr. glisser: ‘to slide’; It. strisciando).
A term generally used as an instruction to execute a passage in a rapid,
sliding movement. When applied to playing the piano and the harp,
glissando generally refers to the effect obtained not by fingering the key or
strings of scales but by sliding rapidly over the relevant keys or strings with
the fingernails or the fingertips. Because of the nature of the piano and the
harp, every individual tone or semitone of such glissando scales is clearly
heard, no matter how rapid the ‘sliding’ (see Harp, §V, 7(iv) (b)). On the
other hand, with the voice, violin or trombone, a sliding from one pitch to
another is more readily effected without distinguishing any of the
intervening notes, a method of sliding which is often called Portamento
(see Portamento (i) and (ii)). Other instruments capable of sliding are the
clarinet, the horn and the timpani. By their very nature, both types of sliding
must be legato and relatively rapid.
In practice, the terms glissando and portamento are often confused and
used interchangeably. However, if the distinctions made above are kept, it
follows that the piano and the harp, which have fixed semitones, can play
glissando but not portamento; and the voice, members of the violin family
and the trombone can produce either type of sliding, although glissando is
far more difficult for them.
Two examples of sliding on the violin will illustrate the distinctions just
made between the two terms. Ex.1a shows a chromatic glissando (Lalo:
Symphonie espagnole, fourth movement), although no such term is used
by Lalo. The passage shows clearly that Lalo wished every semitone to be
distinguished in the downward slide from e'''' to e'', even at the speed
implied by the demi-semiquavers. The slur directs the player to use a
single bow stroke for the glissando, and the use of a single finger in sliding
is implied (up to the last few notes). This type of glissando probably had its
origins either in the ‘Couler à Mestrino’ (ex.1b), a quasi-portamento
expressive effect illustrated by Woldemar (Grande méthode ou étude
élémentaire pour le violon, Paris, 1798–9) but apparently adopted by
Nicola Mestrino in most slow movements, or in Rameau's idea, in the first
violin part of his opera Platée (1749), of depicting the words ‘Ce sont des
pleurs’ (Act 3 scene iv) by ‘sliding the same finger, and making audible the
two quarter-tones between e' and f'.
In ex.2, taken from the second movement of Bartók's Fourth String Quartet,
the composer indicated a sliding by a diagonal line – he used no terms.
Obviously, at the prestissimo tempo of the movement, the slide must be a
portamento, there being no time to distinguish any intervening notes. All
four instruments of the quartet are directed to slide, as shown.
Globokar, Vinko
(b Anderny, Meurthe-et-Moselle, 7 July 1934). Slovene composer and
trombonist. He lived in France until 1947, when he moved to Ljubljana to
study at the music school and conservatory, gaining his diploma in 1954. In
1955 he began studies at the Paris Conservatoire, where he won first
prizes for trombone (1959) and chamber music. He studied composition
and conducting with Leibowitz (1959–63) and composition with Berio in
Berlin (1965). In 1966 Globokar joined a performing group for new music at
SUNY (Buffalo), and in 1968 he was appointed to teach the trombone at
the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik in Cologne and composition at the
Cologne Courses for New Music. He founded the Free Music Group in
1969 and a quartet, New Phonic Art, also in 1969, both of which perform
contemporary music, including many of his own works. He also performed
in Stockhausen's group, and from 1973 to 1979 was head of vocal-
instrumental research at IRCAM, Paris.
Having studied in both France and Germany, Globokar was able to make
early contact with the latest compositional trends in Europe. His
phenomenal virtuoso technique on the trombone also attracted many
composers to write for him, among them Stockhausen (trombone version of
Solo), Berio (Sequenza V) and Kagel (Atem and Morceau de concours).
Globokar's cosmopolitan approach, his prodigious technique and his
riotous imagination, his early interest in jazz and his theatrical sense of
humour have all combined to produce a series of original works. Voie
(1965–6), a sometimes very complex score, shows his handling of large
subdivided groups with the soloistic use of a chorus, while Accord makes
sensitive use of a small chamber group, in which the voice is used as an
instrument, and which fully uses current developments in instrumental
technique. The dramatic implications of these works were made explicit in
a later series of works, including the bizarre and sometimes very funny
Traumdeutung (Gaudeamus Prize 1968) and the nine Discours pieces.
Entrances and exits, for example, are staged in order to reinforce the
musical events; instrumental demands are extended to include singing
while playing and producing many unorthodox sounds. Globokar's
theatrical approach was developed further in works for his performing
groups, including Drama and Correspondences, in which exactly notated
material is gradually abandoned until the players are left only with
improvisation instructions. He has also developed elaborate staged concert
works, sometimes approaching operas in scope, for large ensembles with
speakers and singers, the most notable being Les émigrés (1982–6).
Unlike many of his compatriots, Globokar has not used folksong
extensively, except in the fascinating Etudes pour folklora (1968), where
Yugoslav instruments – the gusle, dvojnice and tambura – are used
prominently.
WORKS
vocal and orchestral
Voie (V. Maiakovsky), narr, chorus, orch, 1965–6; Accord (Globokar), S, fl, trbn, vc,
elec org, perc, 1966; Traumdeutung (psychodrama, E. Sanguineti), 4 chorus, cel,
hp, vib, gui, perc, 1967; Etude pour folklora I, 19 insts, 1968; Etude pour folklora II,
orch, 1968; Concerto grosso, 5 insts, chorus, orch, 1969–75; Ausstrahlungen,
ob/cl/sax/bn, 20 insts, 1971; Vendre le vent, 9 wind, pf, perc, 1972; Laboratorium,
11 musicians, 1973–85; Das Orchester, orch, 1974; Material zur Diskussion eines
historischen Instruments, orch, 1974; Un jour comme un autre, S, 5 inst, 1975;
Carrousel, 4 solo vv, 16 insts, 1976; Standpunkte, chorus, orch, 1977; La tromba e
mobile, wind orch, 1979; Der Käfig, improviser, orch, 1980; Jenseits der Sicherheit,
1v, 1981; Le émigrés, singers, jazz group, orch, 1982–6; Hallo! do you Hear me?,
chorus, jazz qnt, orch, tape, 1986; L'armonia drammatica (op.2, text in Ger., It.,
Slovene, Fr. and Eng. compiled by T. Ažman), 7vv, chorus, orch, 1987–90; Kolo,
chorus, trbn, 1988; Eisenberg, 16 musicians ad lib, 1990; Labour, orch, 1992;
Letters, S, 2 cl, va, vc, db, 1994
chamber and solo instrumental
6 pièces brèves, str qt, c1962; Vibone, trbn, vib, 1963; Plan, zarb, b cl, t sax, cornet,
trbn, 1965; Fluide, 3 hn, 2 tpt, flugel hn, 2 trbn, tuba, 3 perc, 1967; Discours I, trbn,
4 perc, 1967, withdrawn; Discours II, 5 trbn, 1967–8; Discours III, 5 ob, 1969;
Correspondences, 1 ww, 1 brass, 1 perc, 1 kbd, 1969; La ronde, melody inst/insts,
1970; Drama, pf, perc, 1971; Atemstudie, ob, 1972; Notes, pf, 1972; Echanges, 1
inst, 1973; Limites, vn/va, 1973; Res/as/ex/ins-pirer, 1 brass inst, 1973; Toucher,
perc, 1973; Voix instrumentalisée, b cl, 1973; Discours IV, 3 cl, 1974;
Dédoublement, cl, 1975; Monolith, fl, 1976; Vorstellung, 1 wind/1 str/1 brass, film,
1976; Discours V, 4 sax, 1981; Discours VI, str qt, 1981; Tribadabum extensif sur
Par une forêt de symboles, 6 musicians ad lib, 1986; Discours VII, brass qt,
Kvadrat, 4 perc, 1989; Discours VIII, wind qnt, 1989–90; Pendulum, vc, 1991;
Élégie balkanique, fl, gui, perc, 1992; Blinde Zeit, 7 insts, 1993; Discours IX, 2 pf,
1993; Dialog über Erde, perc, 1994; Dialog über Feuer, db, 1994; Dialog über Luft,
accdn, 1994; Dialog über Wasser, elec and acoustic guis, 1994
electro-acoustic
Airs de voyages vers l'intérieur, 8 solo vv, cl, trbn, elec, 1972; Koexistenz, 2 vc,
elec, 1976; Pre-Occupation, org, tape, 1980; Introspection d'un tubiste, tuba, tape,
lighting, 1983; Ombre, singing percussionist, tape, rhythm machine, 1989; Prestop
I, cl, elec, 1991; Prestop II, trbn, elec, 1991
WRITINGS
‘Problem instrumentalnega in glasbenega teatra’, MZ, iv (1968), 132–7
‘Vom Standpunkt eines Interpreten’, Melos, xxxvi (1969), 513 only
‘Réagir’, Musique en jeu, i (1970), 70–77
‘Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten der Blasinstrumente’, Sonda (1970)
‘Reagovanje’, Zvuk, nos.80–81 (1970), 91–5
‘Oni improvizuju … improvizujte … improvizujmo’, Zvuk, nos.115–16
(1971), 281–4
‘Interpretator stvaralac’ [Interpreter-composer], Zvuk, no.3 (1975), 5–11
Vdih←→Izdih [Inhalation←→Exhalation] (Ljubljana, 1987)
‘Ob delu Halo! Me slište?/Annotations to my piece Hallo! do you Hear me?’,
MZ, xxiii (1987), 99–102
Einatmen, Ausatmen (Hofheim, 1994)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Jirku: ‘Riječ kao mogućnost muzike’ [The story as a musical possibility],
Telegram (Zagreb, 9 May 1969)
R. Gregory: ‘Recent Developments in Technique’, The Trombone (London,
1973)
W. König: Vinko Globokar: Komposition und Improvisation (Wiesbaden,
1977)
N. O'Loughlin: Slovenian Composition since the First World War (diss., U.
of Leicester, 1978)
A. Rijavec: Slovenska glasbena dela [Slovene musical works] (Ljubljana,
1979), 68–77
E.R. Lund: The Discourse of Vinko Globokar: to Speak is to Play (DMA
diss., U. of Illinois, 1988)
W. Klüppelholz: ‘Vinko Globokar – Fiziognomijska skica’, Zvuk, no.3
(1990), 41–6
K. Bedina: ‘Vinko Globokar: d idejo izseljenstva v glasbi, improvizacijo in
glasbenim gledališčem’ [Vinko Globokar: between the idea of
emigration and music, improvisation and musical theatre], XXVII.
seminar slovenskega jezika, literature in kulture: Ljubljana 1991
(Ljubljana, 1991), 249–59
W. Klüppelholz: ‘Vinko Globokar: fiziognomična skica/Vinko Globokar:
Eine physiognomische Skizze’, Slovenska glasba v preteklosti in
sedanjosti, ed. P. Kuret (Ljubljana, 1992), 288–98
V. Globokar, L. Lebič and J. Jež: ‘Pogovor z Vinkom Globokarjem in
Lojzetom Lebičem ib njuni 60-letnici’ [Conversation with Vinko
Globokar and Lojze Lebič in their 60th years], Naši zbori, xlvi/3–4
(1994), 69–74
N. O'Loughlin: ‘Vinko Globokar, agent provocateur: Shock Tactics in the
Concert Hall’, Provokacija v glasbi, ed. P. Kuret (Ljubljana, 1994), 177–
88
NIALL O’LOUGHLIN
Glocke
(Ger., pl. Glocken).
See Bell (i) and Tubular bells.
Glockenspiel (i)
(Ger., also Stahlspiel; Fr. (jeu de) timbres, carillon; It. campanelli,
campanette).
A percussion idiophone, a Metallophone with tuned metal bars (usually of
steel) of graduated length, arranged in two rows like the piano keyboard (in
the Hornbostel and Sachs system it is classified as an idiophone: set of
percussion plaques). Modern nomenclature includes the abbreviation
‘glock’ and the American use of ‘bells’, a term now universally recognized
though frequently confused with Tubular bells. In Germany ‘Glockenspiel’,
also means Carillon and is further applied to the smaller diatonic sets of
bells known in England as Chimes. There are two types of orchestral
glockenspiel: the open type (see illustration), played with mallets (the
glockenspiel has sometimes been confused with another mallet-played
instrument, the dulcimer); and that with a keyboard mechanism. Maximum
resonance is obtained by the bars being supported on felt (or similar
insulation) or otherwise suspended at the nodal points. These positions
may be determined by Chladni’s method (metal filings or a similar
substance strewn on the bar will, when the bar is vibrating, form two ridges
transversely where it is to be supported; see Physics of music). The
instrument with a miniature piano keyboard has a compass of two and a
quarter to three and a half octaves; small metal hammers strike the bars
from below. The mallet-played instrument is struck with small hammers
consisting of flexible cane shafts mounted with heads of wood, bone,
plastic, rubber or, in rare cases, metal. The beaters are held as timpani
mallets. In certain cases the open glockenspiel has tube resonators, as for
example the instruments patented in the early 1900s by J.C. Deagan & Co.
of Chicago (‘Deagan Parsifal Bells’). The glockenspiel usually has a range
of two and a half octaves (F–c''), but at the end of the 20th century an
instrument of three octaves (F–e'') with a damping mechanism operated by
a foot pedal was in wide use. The latter instrument, made by Bergerault,
was designed to cope with the larger range required in some contemporary
music. Instruments going down to C are also found.
Metallophones in the form of graduated metal plates struck with beaters
have existed in East Asia for over 1000 years (examples include the
Javanese saron and gendèr). In Europe, the earliest known reference to a
glockenspiel-type metallophone was made by Grassineau (Musical
Dictionary, 1769), who referred to a ‘cymbal’ constructed of bars made of
bell metal and silver, with a compass of more than three octaves. The bars,
which were struck with ‘knobs of wood at the end of sticks’, were arranged
keyboard-fashion ‘in the manner of a spinet’. The earliest use of a
glockenspiel dates from this period, in Handel’s Saul (1739). Handel’s
instrument, which he called a ‘carillon’, consisted of a series of metal plates
(or possibly small bells) with a compass of two octaves and a 4th, and had
a chromatic keyboard. Charles Jennens described this instrument as ‘both
in the make and tone like a series of hammers striking upon anvils’ (letter
to Lord Guernsey, 19 September 1738). Handel scored for this instrument
in other works as well, including revivals of Il Trionfo del Tempo and Acis
and Galatea (both 1739), and in L’Allegro il Penseroso ed il Moderato
(1740). Half a century later Mozart scored for a glockenspiel (strumento
d’acciaio) in Die Zauberflöte (1791), to represent Papageno’s magic bells.
This instrument has been described by Berlioz and Gevaert as a series of
small bells operated by a mechanism of keys.
The mallet-played orchestral glockenspiel, which may have developed from
the lyra-glockenspiel (see Bell-lyra) as used in German military bands, did
not make a firm appearance in the orchestra until the middle of the 19th
century. An instrument of this type may have been used in Adam’s Si j’étais
roi (?1852), and in Wagner’s orchestra in place of the then generally used
continental keyboard glockenspiel. In England at this period, mention is
made of an interesting form of glockenspiel: the ‘New Patent Educational
Transposing Metallic Harmonicon’, an inspiration of Thomas Croger, in
which the metal bars were removable for transposition, rendering the
instrument – according to its inventor – ‘useful in schools where singing is
being studied’.
From Wagner onwards writing for the orchestral glockenspiel suggests a
frequent employment of the mallet-played instrument, though in
circumstances such as Puccini’s operas Turandot and Madama Butterfly
(campanelli a tasteria), Dukas’ L’apprenti sorcier, Debussy’s La mer,
Respighi’s Pini di Roma and Honegger’s Fourth Symphony, an instrument
with a piano action was obviously intended. The better-known examples of
the use of the orchestral glockenspiel include the Dance of the Hours (La
Gioconda) by Ponchielli, the Bell Song (Lakmé) by Delibes, Strauss’s Don
Juan, Tchaikovsky’s suite Nutcracker, Elgar’s The Dream of Gerontius,
Ravel’s Daphnis et Chloé, Vaughan Williams’s A London Symphony,
Holst’s suite The Planets, Kodály’s Dances of Galánta, Copland’s Third
Symphony, Britten’s The Prince of the Pagodas, Orff’s Oedipus der Tyrann
(three glockenspiels, one with keys) and Boulez’s Pli selon pli. An important
part is given to the glockenspiel in Siegfried Strohbach’s Concerto in G
(1959) which is scored for two flutes, glockenspiel and string orchestra.
In the orchestral repertory the glockenspiel has been the most freely used
of all tuned percussion instruments. The keyed glockenspiel was, at the
end of the 20th century, used relatively rarely, as the mallet-played
instrument is superior in tone and offers through choice of mallets a greater
variety of colours. Even parts written specifically for the keyed glockenspiel,
such as that in Messiaen’s Turangalîla-symphonie (1946–8), were
sometimes assigned to the mallet-played instrument. Composers often
employ its bell-like tone imitatively. The music for the instrument is written
in the treble clef, usually two octaves lower than sounding.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BladesPI
H. Berlioz: Grand traité d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes
(Paris, 1843, 2/1855/R; Eng. trans., 1856, rev. 2/1882/R by J. Bennett)
F.A. Gevaert: Nouveau traité d’instrumentation (Paris and Brussels, 1885)
W. Ellerhorst: Das Glockenspiel (Kassel, 1940)
N. Del Mar: Anatomy of the Orchestra (London, 1981)
JAMES BLADES/JAMES HOLLAND
Glockenspiel (ii).
See under Organ stop.
Glockenspiel, militär
(Ger.).
See Bell-lyra.
Glodeanu, Liviu
(b Dîrja, Cluj, 6 Aug 1938; d Bucharest, 31 March 1978). Romanian
composer. He studied at the Cluj Conservatory (1955–7) with Liviu Comes
(harmony) and at the Bucharest Conservatory (1957–61) with Marţian
Negrea (composition) and Alfred Mendelsohn (orchestration). He began his
career as a researcher at the Institute of Folklore in Bucharest, but his main
work was with the George Enescu PO (1963–78) as music secretary. His
output ranges from orchestral and film music to chamber and choral works
and includes two operas based on ancient classical drama, both to his own
librettos: the five-scene Zamolxe op.23 (1969), after Lucian Blaga, and
Ulysses op.20 bis, a one-act ballet-opera based on a versification of
Homer’s epic by Mihai Ungureanu. Zamolxe was broadcast on 8 October
1969 and both works received their stage premières on 25 April 1973 at the
Romanian Opera House, Cluj. Glodeanu’s highly original melodic and
harmonic writing (usually in a modal or folk style) produced intense and
dramatic music with strong contrasts. He used recitative and drew on
traditional Romanian musical forms (laments, Christmas carols); his
imaginative scoring sometimes includes ancient or primitive instruments
(pipes, drums, wooden plates).
WORKS
(selective list)
Ops: Ulysses (op-ballet, 1, Glodeanu, after M. Ungureanu), op.20 bis, 1968, Cluj,
Romanian Opera, 25 April 1973; Zamolxe (5 tableaux, Glodeanu, after L. Blaga),
op.23, 1969, staged Cluj, Romanian Opera, 25 April 1973; Le tableau parlant de
Gretry (1), broadcast 8 Oct 1969
Vocal: Tinerii soldaţi care au murit [The Young Soldiers who Died] (cant., A.
Macleisch), op.2, A, male chorus, orch, 1958; Inscripţie pe un leagăn [Inscription on
a Cradle] (cant., Z. Stancu), op.4, Mez, Bar, chorus, orch, 1959; 3 cîntece [3 Songs]
(F. García Lorca), op.7, S, fl, pf, 1960; Cant. 1933 (N. Stănescu), op.11, Bar,
chorus, orch, 1961; Suită (trad.), op.9, children’s chorus, wind, perc, 1961; Vocalize
[Vocalizations], op.15, S, fl, va, mar, 1963; Ulysse [Ulysses] (Ungureanu), op.20,
S/T, orch, 1967
Orch: Conc., op.5, str, perc, 1959; Pf Conc., op.8, 1960; Mişcare simfonică
[Symphonic Movement], op.10, 1961; Fl Conc., op.13, 1962; Vn Conc., op.19,
1966; Studii [Studies], op.21, 1967
Chbr and solo inst: Pf Sonata no.1, op.1, 1958; Sonata, op.3, cl, pf, 1959; Preludiu,
coral şi fugă [Prelude, Choral and Fugue], op.12, pf, 1962; Invenţiuni [Inventions],
op.14, wind qnt, perc, 1963; Pf Sonata no.2, op.18, 1963
Film scores and choral works
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Cosma: Muzicieni români (Bucharest, 1970)
C. Tăranu: ‘Spectacol Glodeanu la Opera din Cluj’ [The performance of
Glodeanu at the Cluj Opera], Muzica, xxiii/10 (1973), 23–5
G.W. Berger: Muzica simfonică contemporană 1950–70 (Bucharest, 1977),
155–276
O.L. Cosma: ‘Impactul genurilor instrumentale asupra celor vocale:
“Zamolxe” de L. Glodeanu’, Cercetări de muzicologie [Musicological
studies], v (1988), 35–52
VIOREL COSMA
Glogauer Liederbuch
(PL-Kj 40098). See Sources, MS, §IX, 7, and Sources of instrumental
ensemble music to 1630, §4.
Glonti, Felix
(b Batumi, 8 Nov 1927). Georgian composer. He studied composition at
Leningrad Conservatory with Kushnaryov (1949–54) and then in Tbilisi
Conservatory with I. Tuskia. Since 1954 he has worked independently, only
taking up a teaching post at the Tbilisi Conservatory in 1978, later being
made a professor. A member of the governing board of the Georgian
Composers’ Union, he is an Honoured Artist (1979) and a National Artist
(1988) of Georgian SSR, has received the State Prize for Georgia (1992)
and is Laureate of the International Prokofiev Competition (1999).
Glonti’s work represents an organic link between the Western symphonic
traditions of the 19th century and the artistic context of recent times in
Georgia. His 12 monumental symphonies, which frequently employ vocal
parts, are essentially dramatic in character, and bear the imprint of an
introspective, alienated temperament.
In his spiritual and ethical outlook, he identifies with humanism and finds
inspiration in the works of Dante, Petrarch, Shakespeare, H. Hölderlin and
Rilke. Taking Mahler as his artistic model, Glonti endeavours to express
what is inherent in poetry that which is also of importance to the present
day. In his music there prevails a pull towards highly personal, expressive
utterance, psychologism, to the romantic ideal, and explorations of the
psyche of modern man. This tendency has been evident since the earlier
tonal symphonies; over the years his style has embraced new expressive
and structural possibilities (such as atonal, serial and aleatory techniques),
these do not represent a radical change in the composer’s basic form of
communication. In his own view Glonti remains, as before, an adherent to
the Romantic aesthetic. All his symphonic output is written in a single
stylistic key, evidence of his abiding artistic outlook.
A journey from agonising uncertainty to a cleansing catharsis characterizes
the dramatic concept of Glonti’s most successful symphonies, notably the
Sixth, ‘Vita nova’ (1979), the Tenth ‘Pax humana’ (1984) and the Eleventh
‘Mundus apertus’ (1987). The essence of his music lies in the emotional
richness of ideas, the gradual growth of dramatic tension, clashes between
‘interior’ and ‘exterior’ and conflicts of extremes of events. Such antitheses
are created, in part, through contrasts of motion, of timbre and of register.
With the years the symphonies become increasingly slow in tempo and
adopt a meditative quality; such slow sections indeed often constitute a
culmination point in the drama or herald a new inner conflict. Beginning
with the Sixth Symphony, the composer adopts a one-movement form and
serial techniques. The musical language becomes more contemporary,
capacious and laconic, with increasing dissonances and expressiveness in
the melodic line. Increasingly versatile orchestration and the use of clusters
and other effects have served to update the composer’s style and to
address current artistic problems.
WORKS
(selective list)
WRITINGS
‘K voprosu ėvolyutsii kompozitorskoy tekhniki XX v’ [Concerning the
development of compositional techniques in the twentieth century],
Sbornik Trudov Tbilisskoi Goskonservatorii, ed. V. Saradzhishvili, x
(1982), 225–47
‘Ėffekt “Satiatsii” kak determinant kompozitsii v violonchel'nom kontserte
Lyutoslavskogo’ [The ‘Satiation’ effect as a compositional determinant
in Lutosławski’s cello concerto], Sbornik Trudov Tbilisskoi
Goskonservatorii, ed. V. Saradzhishvili, xxii (1994), 312–28
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N. Chkheidze: ‘Kartuli baleti’ [New Georgian ballet], Sabchota khelovneba
(1968), no.5, pp.35–8
G. Orjonikdze: ‘Kartuli sabchota musikis 60 tseli’ [60 years of Soviet
Georgian music], Sabchota khelovneba (1977), no.11, pp.28–33
V. Zaridze: ‘Simponia “Vita Nova”’, Literaturuli sakartvelo (4 May 1979)
A. Machavariani: ‘Akhali kartuli simphonia’ [The new Georgian symphony],
Literaturuli sakartvelo (6 Feb 1981)
A. Loriya: ‘Simfoniya-kontsert dlya violoncheli i orkestra F. Glonti’, Sbornik
Trudov Tbilisskoi Goskonservatorii, ed. V. Saradzhishvili, x (1982), 181
only
N. Zhgenti: ‘Khelovani da misi idealebi’ [An artist and his ideals], Sabchota
khelovneba (1988), no.4, 55–8
LEAH DOLIDZE
Glosa
(Sp.: ‘gloss’).
(1) A term often used by 16th-century Spanish musicians, in imitation of the
glossing technique highly fashionable among poets, to designate variations
similar to diferencias but generally on a religious theme and less extensive.
Sets of variations called glosas were published by Mudarra (1546),
Enríquez de Valderrábano (1547) and Venegas de Henestrosa (1557). See
Variations, §2.
(2) The term was also used to mean musical ornamentation, as for
example in Diego Ortiz’s Trattado de glosas (1553). See Ornaments, §2.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Janner: ‘La glosa española: estudio histórico de su métrica y de sus
temas’, Revista de filología española, xxvii (1943), 181–232
V.T. Mendoza: Glosas y décimas de México (Mexico, 1957)
M. Frenk Alatorre: ‘Glosas de tipo popular en la antigua lírica’, Nueva
revista de filología hispánica, xii (1958), 301–34
E.M. Wilson and J. Sage: Poesías líricas en las obras dramáticas de
Calderón: citas y glosas (London, 1964)
C. Jacobs: ‘Ornamentation in Spanish Renaissance Vocal Music’,
Performance Practice Review, iv (1991), 116–85
JACK SAGE/SUSANA FRIEDMANN
Glossolalia.
See Singing in tongues.
Gloucester.
English city. The history of music in Gloucester is inseparable from that of
the cathedral, founded in 1541 to replace the former Benedictine
monastery. Few of its organists earlier than the 19th century were of much
account, but they include the following minor composers: Daniel
Henstridge (1666–73), Daniel Roseingrave (1679–81), William Hine (1713–
30) and Barnabas Gunn (1730–39). From the time of S.S. Wesley, who
held the position from 1865 until his death in 1876, the organists have been
C.H. Lloyd (1876–82), C. Lee Williams (1882–97), Herbert Brewer (1897–
1928), Herbert Sumsion (1928–67), John Sanders (1967–94) and David
Briggs (from 1994). Thomas Tomkins (i), father of the composer, was a
minor canon of the cathedral. William Hayes (1708–77), John Stafford
Smith (1750–1836), celebrated as the composer of the tune to The Star-
Spangled Banner, and John Clarke-Whitfeld (1770–1836) were natives of
the city. Parry's boyhood home was at Highnam Court, a short distance
away, while Holst, Vaughan Williams, Ivor Gurney and Howells were born
in Gloucestershire, the last-named serving his apprenticeship to Brewer at
the cathedral. From 1684 the city was the seat of a bell-founding firm,
established by Abraham Rudhall and carried on by his descendants until
1828–35.
When William Laud became Dean of Gloucester in 1616 he found the
cathedral organ in an outworn condition, but little improvement was
accomplished until 1640 when a new instrument was built by Thomas
Dallam. In 1666 this was superseded by another, constructed by Thomas
Harris, from which a considerable number of pipes from ten stops have
survived through numerous enlargements and reconstructions to form part
of the present organ by Hill, Norman & Beard. The organ case unites two
independent structures, the larger dating from the 17th century and the
smaller (the old chair organ) perhaps from the 16th century.
Concerts were organized in Gloucester in the 18th century by Barnabas
Gunn, when there existed a ‘Musick Clubb of Glocester’ which owned a
score of John Alcock's Sing we merrily (now GB-Lbl Add.31694). The
present leading musical organizations of Gloucester are the Gloucester
Choral Society (founded 1845), the Gloucestershire SO (formerly
Orchestral Society, 1908), the Gloucester Chamber Music Society (1928)
and the Gloucestershire Youth Orchestra, founded in 1960. A junior
academy for talented music, drama and dance students opened in 1993.
Every three years the Three Choirs Festival is held in Gloucester.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.H. Brewer: Memories of Choirs and Cloisters (London, 1931)
R. Downes: ‘The Gloucester Cathedral Organ’, MT, cx (1969), 1176–9
WATKINS SHAW/JOHN C. PHILLIPS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Curwen: The Art of Teaching, and the Teaching of Music: being the
Teacher's Manual of the Tonic Sol-Fa Method (London, 1875/R1986
as The Teacher's Manual of the Tonic Sol-Fa Method)
L. Brown: ‘Reminiscences of Miss Glover’, The Tonic Sol-Fa Jubilee: a
Popular Record and Handbook, ed. J. Curwen and J. Graham
(London, 1891)
B. Rainbow: The Land without Music: Musical Education in England,
1800–1860, and its Continental Antecedents (London, 1967)
B. Rainbow: ‘The Glass Harmonicon Rediscovered’, Music in Education,
xxxviii (1974), 18
P. Bennett: ‘Sarah Glover: a Forgotten Pioneer in Music Education’,
Journal of Research in Music Education, xxxii (1984), 49–65
BERNARR RAINBOW
Głowiński, Jan
(b c 1645; d c 1712). Polish organ builder. He worked in Kraków and south-
eastern Poland. In 1679 he built an organ for St Elizabeth’s, Stary Sącz, of
which the case still exists. Between 1683 and 1690 he finished the three
organs begun in 1680 by Stanisław Studziński at the church of the
Annunciation in Leżajsk (the cases and some of the stops survive); the
largest instrument had 64 stops on four manuals and pedal. Another big
undertaking was for the Franciscan church at Kraków (1700–04). In 1712
he was to have built an organ with 30 stops for the parish church of
Żywiec, but the work was eventually carried out by Ignacy Ryszak from
Opava. Głowiński seems to have built in the southern Polish style,
preferring diapason chorus and foundation stops of various kinds, but using
few mutations or reeds. It is not known if he was related to an organ builder
of the same name who worked in Kraków in about 1635.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Chybiński: Słownik muzyków dawnej polski [Dictionary of early Polish
musicians] (Kraków, 1949)
M. Perz: ‘Do historii kunsztu budowy organów w Polsce’ [History of the art
of organ building in Poland], Ruch muzyczny, xxii (1960), 8–10; xxiii
(1961), 6–7
M. Radojewski: ‘Organy xvii-wieczne w kościele Bernardynów w Leżajsku’
[The 17th-century organs in the church of the Observantines in
Leżajsk], Roczniki humanistyczne, x (1961), 41–94
J. Gołos: Zarys historii budowy organów w Polsce [Outline of the history of
Polish organ building] (Bydgoszcz, 1966)
J. Gołos: Polskie organy i muzyka organowa (Warsaw, 1972; Eng. trans.,
1992, as The Polish Organ, i: The Instrument and its History)
J. Banach: Hercules Polonus: studium z ikonografi sztuki nowozytnej
(Warsaw, 1984)
E. Smulikowska: Prospekty organowe w dawnej Polsce (Wrocław, 1989;
Eng. trans., rev., 1993, as The Polish Organ, ii: Organ-Cases in
Poland as Works of Art)
HANS KLOTZ/JERZY GOŁOS
Gluchowicz, Rachel S.
See Galinne, Rachel.
Edition: Christoph Willibald Gluck: Sämtliche Werke, ed. R. Gerber, G. Croll, C.-H. Mahling
and others (Kassel, 1951–) [G]
Sources; remarks :
arias CH-BEl, A-Wgm, B-Bc, GB-Lbl
First performance :
Venice, S Samuele, 2 May 1742
Sources; remarks :
arias A-Wn, B-Bc, CH-BEl, GB-Mp, I-Bc, Mc, PLcon, S-Uu
First performance :
Milan, Regio Ducal, 6 Jan 1743
Sources; remarks :
B-Bc; excerpts A-Wn, CH-BEl, D-Bsb, Dl, F-Pc, I-GL, Mc, Nc, US-Wc; vs of Act 1,
arias, march, ed. J. Tiersot (Leipzig, 1914)
First performance :
Crema, 26 Sept 1743
Sources; remarks :
11 arias F-Pc; excerpts CH-BEl, F-Pn, S-VX, US-Wc
First performance :
Milan, Regio Ducal, 18 Jan 1744
Sources; remarks :
excerpts A-GÖ, Wgm, B-Bc, CH-BEl, F-Pc, I-Mc, US-Wc
First performance :
Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 21 Nov 1744
Sources; remarks :
iii/6
First performance :
Turin, Regio, 26 Dec 1744
Sources; remarks :
excerpts A-Wn, I-Gl, Tf
First performance :
Milan, Regio Ducal, 31 Jan 1745
Sources; remarks :
excerpts B-Bc, F-Pc, US-Wc
First performance :
London, King’s, 7 Jan 1746
Sources; remarks :
5 arias, 1 duet (London, 1746)
First performance :
London, King’s, 4 March 1746
Sources; remarks :
arias DK-Kk; 6 arias (London, 1746)
First performance :
Pillnitz, nr Dresden, 29 June 1747
Sources; remarks :
ed. H. Abert, DTB, xxvi, Jg.xiv/2 (1914)
La Semiramide riconosciuta dm, 3 Metastasio
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 14 May 1748
Sources; remarks :
iii/12
First performance :
Copenhagen, Charlottenborg, 9 April 1749
Sources; remarks :
B-Bc, DK-Kk; excerpts CH-BEl, D-Bsb, F-Pc, I-Fc
First performance :
Prague, Kotzen, carn. 1750
First performance :
Prague, Kotzen, carn. 1752
Sources; remarks :
3 arias CH-BEl
First performance :
Naples, S Carlo, 4 Nov 1752
First performance :
Schlosshof, nr Vienna, 24 Sept 1754
First performance :
Laxenburg, 5 May 1755
Sources; remarks :
ed. in DTÖ, lxxxii, Jg.xliv (1937)
rev. as La vestale
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, sum. 1768
First performance :
Rome, Argentina, 9 Feb 1756
Sources; remarks :
F-Pc; excerpts A-VOR, Wgm, B-Bc, CH-BEl, CZ-BER, Pnm, D-Bsb, HR, GB-Lbl,
I-BGc, Bsf, GL, Mc, Nc, PAc, Rvat, S-Skma, US-AUS, BEm
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 8 Dec 1756
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 8 Jan 1758
Sources; remarks :
A-Wn, B-Bc, D-Bsb, F-Pc, I-Tci
First performance :
Vienna, Schönbrunn, 3 Oct 1758
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, ?spr. 1759 [also Mannheim, 1759]
Sources; remarks :
A-Wn, B-Bc, CDN-Lu (arr.), CZ-K, H-Bn; excerpts A-Wgm, S-Skma; rev. as opéra-
ballet, 1775
First performance :
Vienna, Schönbrunn, 3 Oct 1759
Sources; remarks :
A-Wn, B-Bc, F-Po; sinfonia D-Rtt; excerpts S-Skma
First performance :
Vienna, Hofburg, 10 Oct 1760
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, late 1760
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 8 Dec 1761
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 5 Oct 1762
Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1764)
First performance :
Bologna, Comunale, 14 May 1763
Sources; remarks :
B-Bc (2 copies), CH-BEl, D-Bsb, F-Pc; excerpts F-Po, I-Tci
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 26 Dec 1763
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 7 Jan 1764
First performance :
Vienna, Schönbrunn, 24 Jan 1765
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 30 Jan 1765
First performance :
prepared for 4 Oct 1765 but unperf.
First performance :
Florence, Pergola, 22 Feb 1767
Sources; remarks :
preceded perf. of T. Traetta: Ifigenia in Tauride; ed. P. Graf Waldersee (Leipzig,
1891)
Alceste tragedia, 3 Calzabigi, after i/3a, b
Euripides
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 26 Dec 1767
Sources; remarks :
(Vienna, 1769)
First performance :
Parma, court, 24 Aug 1769
Sources; remarks :
B-Bc, CH-BEl
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 3 Nov 1770
Sources; remarks :
(Vienna, 1770)
First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 19 April 1774
Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1774)
First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 2 Aug 1774
Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1774); rev. of Orfeo ed Euridice, 1762
L’arbre enchanté [2nd version] oc, 1 Moline, after
Vadé
First performance :
Versailles, Opéra, 27 Feb 1775
Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1776); rev. of L’arbre enchanté, 1759
First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 1 Aug 1775
Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1775); rev. of Cythère assiégée, 1759
First performance :
composed c1775 but unperf.
Sources; remarks :
F-Pn; parody of Le cadi dupé, 1761
First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 23 April 1776
Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1776); rev. of Alceste, 1767
First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 23 Sept 1777
Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1777)
First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 18 May 1779
Sources; remarks :
(Paris, 1779)
First performance :
Paris, Opéra, 24 Sept 1779; rev., Paris, Opéra, 8 Aug 1780
Sources; remarks :
(Paris, ?1780)
Iphigenia auf Tauris (Iphigenia in Tauris) tragisches Spl, J.B.E. von i/11
4 Alxinger and
Gluck, after
Guillard
First performance :
Vienna, Burg, 23 Oct 1781
Sources; remarks :
rev. of Iphigénie en Tauride, 1779
secular vocal
Berenice, ove sei … Ombra che pallida (recit and aria, A. Zeno: Lucio vero), 1v,
orch, B-Bc, D-Bsb
Klopstocks Oden und Lieder beym Clavier zu Singen (F.G. Klopstock), 1v, kbd
(Vienna, 1785): 1 Vaterlandslied (Ich bin ein deutsches Mädchen); 2 Wir und sie
(Was that dir, Thor, den Vaterland?) [1st pubd in Göttinger Musenalmanach, 1774];
3 Schlachtgesang (Wie erscholl der Gang des lauten Heers) [1st pubd in Göttinger
Musenalmanach, 1774]; 4 Der Jüngling (Schweigend sahe der May) [earlier version
pubd in Göttinger Musenalmanach, 1775]; 5 Der Sommernacht (Wenn der
Schimmer von dem Monde) [different version in Musenalmanach, ed. J.H. Voss
(Hamburg, 1785)]; 6 Die frühen Gräber (Willkommen, o silberner Mond) [1st pubd in
Göttinger Musenalmanach, 1775]; 7 Die Neigung (Nein, ich widerstrebe nicht mehr)
An den Tod (O Anblick der Glanznacht) (ode, Klopstock), 1v, kbd, in Musikalischer
Blumenstrauss (Berlin, 1792)
Minona lieblich und hold, duet, pubd in Musikalische Blumenlese (Berlin, 1795)
Siegsgesang für Freie (Laut, wie des Stroms donnernder Sturz) (F. Matthisson), in
Musenalmanach, ed. Voss (Hamburg, 1795)
Doubtful (arias unless otherwise stated): Benchè copre al sole il volto (Metastasio:
Endimione), 1749, F-Pc, B-Bc; Ah, negli occhi un tal’incanto, private collection,
Basle; Che legge spietata, aria (Metastasio: Catone in Utica), F-Pc; Che pena è la
mia, A-Wn; No, che non ha la sorte … Sì vedrò quell’alma ingrata, recit and aria, F-
Pc, B-Bc; Oh dei che dolce incanto (Metastasio: Temistocle), 1v, str, D-Bsb, D-Dl,
for D. Negri; Pace, Amor, torniamo in pace (Metastasio: Amor prigioniero), A-Wgm;
Quando il mar biancheggia e freme, I-Gl; Rendimi alle ritorte, A-Wgm, S-Skma;
Resta, 1v, orch, I-FZc, for G. Manzuoli; Temer di perdere, D-Bsb; Tremate, mostri di
crudeltà, F-Pc; Les charmes de la solitude (Que ce bois est sombre), ariette, Pc; Le
triomphe de la beauté (Quand la beauté), ariette, 1v, 2 vn, b (Paris, c1780);
Erinnerung am Bach (Süsser Freude, heller Bach), lied, 1v, kbd, D-HVs; Nur einen
Wunsch, nur ein Verlangen, lied, 1v, vn, kbd, US-AUS; Ah pietà se di me senti, duet,
B-Bc, D-Bsb, Dl; Vado a morir, duet, lost
Spurious: Ariette de Mr. Gluk (Amour en ces lieux), 1v, 2 vn, b (Paris, c1780), sung
by Godard in P.-A. Monsigny, Le maître en droit, Vienna 1763, under Gluck’s
direction, probably a retexting of a French work (see Brown, E1991, pp.400–01)
sacred vocal
Miserere, ?8vv (? Turin, 1744–5), lost; Ps viii, c1753–7, lost; ‘Grand choeur’, 3 solo
vv, chorus, perf. Vienna, 18 March 1762, lost; Alma sedes, motet, 1v, orch (Paris,
before 1779); De profundis clamavi, d, 4vv, orch, perf. 17 Nov 1787 at Gluck’s burial
(Paris, c1804); various Lat. arias, mostly parodies of operatic arias
Doubtful: Hoch tut euch auf (Ps xxiv), E , 4vv, D-DO, HER; Hosianna gelobet sei
der da kommt, C, 4vv, 2vv, orch, DK-Ch; Mit fröhlichem Munde, chorus, Ch
ballets
choreographers’ names are shown in parentheses; where an opera is not named it was
given with one or more ballet in rotation
Glushchenko, Georgy
Semyonovich
(b Rostov-na-Donu, 5 May 1922; d Minsk, 22 Sept 1994). Belarusian
musicologist. He studied at the Gnesin State Institute for Musical
Education, completing his postgraduate studies in 1957. After arriving in
Minsk in the same year, Glushchenko was appointed head of music history
at the Conservatory of Belorussia SSR in 1958, and held the post until
1990. He continued to work there until his death, giving lectures on music
criticism. His scholarly work concerns the history of Russian music criticism
and Belarusian contemporary music. His monograph on the critic Nikolay
Kashkin (1974) was further developed in the study Ocherki po istorii
russkoy muzïkal'noy kritiki kontsa XIX – nachala XX v.v. (1983) and his
doctoral dissertation (1984). The results of his studying Belarusian Soviet
music influenced his essays and reviews, and he edited many
methodological manuals, teaching programmes and teachers' handbooks.
He introduced courses at the Conservatory of Belorussia SSR on foreign
music and music criticism, and directed the work of musicologists in the
Belorussian Composers' Union. He often wrote as a co-author with his
wife, the musicologist Kaleriya Iosifovna Stepantsevich (b 21 March 1926).
WRITINGS
‘N.D. Kashkin, muzïkal'nïy kritik’, Nauchno-metodicheskiye zapiski
Belorusskoy gosudarstvennoy konservatorii, i, ed. M. Berger, A.
Bogatïrov and A. Vashkevich (Minsk, 1958), 3–25
‘Kantata o belorusskoy zemle’ [A cantata about the Belarusian land], SovM
(1959), no.3, pp.75–6 [on Aladau's cantata 1940]
‘Belorusskiy kontsert’ SovM (1959), no.12, pp.33–4 [on Podkovïrov's violin
concerto]
N.D. Kashkin i russkaya opera (Minsk, 1960)
‘Chetvyortaya simfoniya Ye. Titotskogo’ [Titotsky's Fourth Symphony], 55
sovetskikh simfoniy, ed. B.A. Arapov, A.N. Dmitriyev and G.G.
Tigranov (Leningrad, 1962), 252–8
N.D. Kashkin, muzïkal'nïy kritik: opernïye problemï [Kashkin as a music
critic: the problems of opera] (diss., Leningrad Conservatory, 1962;
Minsk 1962)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: Programma po belorusskoy sovetskoy
muzliterature dlya detskikh muzïkal'nïkh shkol [A programme of
Belarusian Soviet musical literature for schools] (Minsk, 1962)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: Shkol'nikam o muzïke [For schoolchildren on the
subject of music] (Minsk, 1962)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: Nashi kampazitarï [Our composers] (Minsk,
1965)
Odoyevsky i russkaya narodnaya pesnya [Odoyevsky and Russian
folksong] (Minsk, 1966)
‘Vtoraya simfoniya Ye. Glebova – chetvyortaya simfoniya Ye. Titotskogo’
[The Second Symphony of Ye. Glebov – the Fourth Symphony of Ye.
Titotsky], Sovetskaya simfoniya za pyat'desyat let, ed. G. Tigranov
(Leningrad, 1967), 94–8
Belorusskaya sovetskaya muzliteratura: uchebnik dlya detskikh
muzïkal'nïkh shkol [Belarusian Soviet music literature: a textbook for
music schools] (Minsk, 1969, 2/1981)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: Puti razvitiya belorusskoy sovetskoy muzïki
[Avenues for the development of Belarusian Soviet music] (Minsk,
1969)
ed.: Gistoriya belaruskay savetskay muzïki [The history of Belarusian
Soviet music] (Minsk, 1971; Russ. trans., 1976)
‘Muzïkal'noye iskusstvo BSSR’ [The musical art of the Belarusian SSR],
Istoriya muzïki narodov SSSR, ed. Yu.V. Keldïsh, iv (Moscow, 1973); v
(Moscow, 1974)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: ‘Belaruskaya simfanichnaya muzïka 1950–1960-
kh gadou’ [Belarusian symphonic music of the 1950s and 60s], Muzïka
nashikh dzyon, ed. T. Dedyulya (Minsk, 1974), 20–33 [based on diss.,
1962]
N.D. Kashkin (Moscow, 1974)
with S. Nisnevich: Khrestomatiya po istorii belorusskoy muzïki [An
anthology of the history of Belarusian music] (Moscow, 1979)
Ocherki po istorii russkoy muzïkal'noy kritiki kontsa XIX – nachala XX v.v.
[Essays on the history of Russian music criticism of the late 19th and
early 20th centuries] (Minsk, 1983)
‘B. Asaf'yev i russkaya muzïka nachala XX veka’ [Asaf'yev and Russian
music of the early 20th century], B.V. Asaf'yev i sovetskaya
muzïkal'naya kul'tura: Moscow 1984, 209–13
Osnovï muzïkal'noy kritiki: programma dlya muzïkal'nïkh uchilishch [The
foundations of music criticism: a programme for music colleges]
(Minsk, 1984)
Teoretiko-metodologicheskiye osnovï russkoy muzïkal'noy kritiki kontsa
XIX – nachala XX v.v. [The theoretical and methodological foundations
of Russian music criticism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries]
(diss., Kiev Conservatory, 1984; pubd Kiev, 1984)
ed.: Belorusskaya gosudarstvennaya konservatoriya: ocherki istorii [The
Belarusian State Conservatory: essays on its history] (Minsk, 1984)
‘Tvorchasts'maladïkh kampazitarau Belarusi’ [The work of young
composers of Belarus], Mastatstva Belarusi (1986), no.1
‘Belorusskaya opera 1960–85’, Voprosï kul'turï i iskusstva Belorussii, ix
(1990)
‘P. Chaykovsky v russkoy muzïkal'noy publitsistike kontsa XIX – nachala
XX vv.’ [Tchaikovsky in Russian music journalism of the late 19th and
early 20th centuries], P.I. Chaykovsky: voprosï istorii i stilya, ed. M.Ye.
Rittikh (Moscow, 1990), 150–74
‘Lechebnoye vozdeystviye muzïki: istoriya, sostoyaniye, perspektivï’ [The
curative action of music: the history, state and prospects], Vekhi
kul'turï (1991), no.8, pp.20–23
‘Belorusskoye muzïkoznaniye v 1960–1980-e godï’ [Belarusian musicology
from the 1960s to the 1980s), Voprosï kul'turï i iskusstva Belorussii, xi
(1992)
with K.I. Stepantsevich: Belorusskaya muzïkal'naya literatura:
metodicheskove posobiye dlya prepodavateley detskikh muzïkal'nïkh
shkol [Belarusian musical literature: a handbook of methodology for
teachers in music schools] (Minsk, 1993)
‘Maksim Bagdanovich, muzïchnï krïtik’ [Maksim Bagdanovich, music critic],
Mastatstva (1994), no.12
ed. K.I. Stepantsevich: Istoriya belorusskoy muzïki 1960–1980-kh godov
[The history of Belarusian music from 1960 to the 1980s] (Minsk,
1997)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Bernandt and I. Yampolsky: ‘G.S. Glushchenko’, Kto pisal o muzïke, i
(Moscow, 1971), 218–19
Ye. Rakova: ‘V gostyakh u Glushchenka: Beseda’ [Visiting Glushchenko: a
conversation], SovM (1983), 116–17
Ya. Chartova: ‘Uchova, syonnya, zauzhdï: shtrikhi da tvorchaga partreta
muzïkaznautsa G.S. Glushchanki’ [Yesterday, today, always:
brushstrokes to the works of the musicologist Glushchenko],
Mastatstva Belarusi (1987), no.5, pp.43–4
I. Morikh: ‘U nyaspïnnïm poshuku: da pïtannya ab nauchnay i tvorchay
pratsï G.S. Glushchanki’ [An unstoppable search: questions of the
scholarly and creative work of Glushchenko], Voprosï kul'turï i
iskusstva Belorussii, xii (1993), 10–12
TAISIYA SHCHERBAKOVA
Glykys, Gregorios
(fl c1300). Composer of Byzantine chant. He is not to be confused with
Joannes Glykys (fl late 13th century). He held the office of domestikos (first
singer of the left choir), but it is not known where. Only a few of his
compositions are extant, including a kalophonic stichēron, which was later
‘beautified’ by Joannes Koukouzeles. (See E. Trapp: Prosopographisches
Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit, ii, Vienna, 1977, p.217.)
Glykys, Joannes
(fl late 13th century). Composer of Byzantine chant. Glykys was an older
contemporary of Joannes Koukouzeles (fl c1300–50) and Xenos Korones
and seems to have been active towards the end of the 13th century or in
the early 14th. Many manuscript sources reveal that Glykys held the office
of prōtopsaltēs (choir director) in an unnamed Byzantine church. It has
been argued that he should be identified with the Joannes XIII Glykys,
Patriarch of Constantinople from 1315 to 1319, but this identification is
unlikely.
Glykys’s name appears second in a chronological list, written by Manuel
Chrysaphes in the mid-15th century, of composers of kalophonic strophes
for the Akathistos Hymn: Michael Aneotes, Joannes Glykys, Nikephoros
Ethikos, Joannes Koukouzeles and Joannes Kladas. This order of
composers is partially corroborated by a later copy of a miniature (now lost)
from the late 14th- or early 15th-century Akolouthiai manuscript GR-AOk
475; it depicts Glykys in the role of teacher seated above his two students,
Koukouzeles and Korones. Glykys has his hands raised, and a rubric
states that he is instructing his students in the art of cheironomy. This
miniature displays the cheironomic gestures used for the important neumes
of the ison and oxeia. A basic method of cheironomy is ascribed to Glykys
in manuscripts dating from the 14th and 15th centuries, and a didactic
chant by him, Ison, oligon, oxeia, which demonstrates the Byzantine
neumes and formulae in all the eight modes, was used by Koukouzeles
when he compiled his own didactic piece of the same name. Glykys’s
pedagogical activities and his pioneering contribution to the development of
the kalophonic style earned him the epithet ‘Teacher of the teachers’.
There are more chants by Joannes Glykys transmitted in the akolouthiai
manuscripts and the kalophonic stichēraria than by any other Byzantine
composer before Koukouzeles. The melodies by Glykys in the 14th- and
15th-century akolouthiai manuscripts include a collection of relatively short
settings of selected verses from several psalms sung in the Byzantine
Office, including the amōmos and polyeleos psalms of Orthros. Longer
chants composed by Glykys include settings of the Akathistos Hymn, the
Cheroubikon, the Easter communion hymn (Sōma Christou) and the
Byzantine Sanctus (Hagios, hagios, hagios, kyrios sabaōth).
The musical style of Glykys’s shorter chants is very different from that of
his longer kalophonic settings. In the former, the melodic line is significantly
more conjunct than in the latter; and although the leap of a 4th is rarely
exceeded in the kalophonic settings, in the simple chants, intervals of a 5th
or 6th are common and leaps of a 7th and octave may also be found. In his
three kalophonic melodies for Psalm ii sung at Hesperinos, Glykys set only
a single line of text, whereas Koukouzeles, Korones and others combined
and reworked lines from several psalm verses. Musically, these single-line
kalophonic chants of Glykys are more compact than the kalophonic
settings of his students and followers and may represent an earlier and
less developed stage of the kalophonic style in Byzantine chant (see
Kalophonic chant).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Velimirović: ‘Byzantine Composers in MS. Athens 2406’, Essays
presented to Egon Wellesz, ed. J. Westrup (Oxford, 1966), 7–18
E. Trapp: Prosopograpisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit, ii (Vienna,
1977), 218
D.E. Conomos, ed.: The Treatise of Manuel Chrysaphes, the
Lampadarios, MMB, Corpus scriptorum, ii (1985), 41, 45, 61
N.K. Moran: Singers in Late Byzantine and Slavonic Painting (Leiden,
1986), 44, pl.6
A. Jakovljević: Diglōssē palaiographia kai melōdoi-hymnographoi tou
kōdika tōn Athēnōn 928 [Old bilingual writings and hymn melodies in
Athens codex 928] (Leukosia, 1988), 66–8
C. Troelsgård: ‘The Development of a Didactic Poem: some Remarks on
the “Ison, oligon, oxeia” by Ioannes Glykys’, Byzantine Chant: Athens
1993, 69–85
EDWARD V. WILLIAMS/CHRISTIAN TROELSGÅRD
Glyndebourne.
Opera house near Lewes, East Sussex, about 90 km south of London.
John Christie (1882–1962), whose family owns the estate on which it
stands, built the opera house and founded Glyndebourne Festival Opera in
1934.
Christie initially designed the house, seating 311, for his wife, the soprano
Audrey Mildmay. His intention was to open it with Don Giovanni or Die
Walküre and to later give other Wagner operas. The first season, beginning
on 28 May 1934 and lasting two weeks, was made up of Le nozze di
Figaro and Così fan tutte, which his wife persuaded him would be more
appropriate to the scale of the house. Christie was determined to aim for
the highest standards, and the exodus from Nazi Germany in the 1930s
provided him with the opportunity. He engaged Fritz Busch as musical
director, Carl Ebert as head of production and Rudolf Bing as manager.
The seclusion of Glyndebourne and the natural beauty of its surroundings
attracted performers of the highest quality and allowed them to develop,
during a rehearsal period unlike anything that is possible in a traditional
opera house in a large city, the sense of ensemble and dedicated purpose
that has distinguished Glyndebourne performances and can be perceived
in the Mozart recordings made under Busch in the 1930s.
The house was gradually enlarged and could seat 537 by 1939, by when
the Mozart repertory had been extended; although Christie’s chief
enthusiasms were directed towards German opera, his first extensions
beyond Mozart were Italian, including Macbeth (its professional première in
Britain, 1938) and Don Pasquale. The casts drew on the finest British
singers and also artists from Germany and Italy, including Mariano Stabile,
Salvatore Baccaloni, Luise Helletsgruber and Willi Domgraf-Fassbänder.
Christie was coolly disposed towards French opera.
Productions broke off during the war years and restarted in 1946 with the
première, by the English Opera Group with Glyndebourne support, of
Britten’s The Rape of Lucretia, with Kathleen Ferrier, who sang in Gluck’s
Orfeo the next year, when Britten’s Albert Herring had its première, again
from the English Opera Group. There were performances by the
Glyndebourne company at the Edinburgh Festival most years from 1948 to
1953 (including in 1951 the British professional première of Idomeneo).
With Moran Caplat as head of administration (1949–81), the festival proper
resumed at Glyndebourne in 1950, and during the early 1950s the pattern
of festivals, with five or six productions each season, including at least one
Mozart opera, was established. Operas are normally given in the original
language. The season runs from late May until early August. Performances
begin about 5 p.m. and are divided by a ‘dinner interval’ of about 90
minutes, during which patrons traditionally picnic on the lawns or by the
lake (there are also restaurants). Patrons are expected to wear formal
dinner dress; Christie’s view was that audiences should be seen to be
preparing themselves appropriately to partake in an event over which the
artists have taken much trouble.
The house was further enlarged in 1951 and by 1977 further alterations
had increased the capacity to 830. In 1951 Busch died and was succeeded
as chief conductor by Vittorio Gui, under whom a Rossini tradition
developed. Gluck’s Alceste, given under Gui in 1953, was the first French
opera heard there; the first opera by a French composer, Pelléas et
Mélisande, came nine years later. Christie was followed by his son, Sir
George Christie, who was chairman of Glyndebourne Productions until
1999, when he was succeeded by his son, Augustus Christie. Ebert retired
in 1959 and was succeeded by Günther Rennert, who remained until 1968;
John Cox was head of productions, 1972–81, Peter Hall was artistic
director, 1984–90, and Graham Vick was director of productions, 1993–
2000. Gui’s successors were John Pritchard, musical director 1964–77,
succeeded by Bernard Haitink, 1978–88; and Andrew Davis. The RPO
played in 1950–63, to be succeeded by the LPO, with the Orchestra of the
Age of Enlightenment for period-instrument performances (initially under
Simon Rattle) from 1989. Singers have traditionally been widely recruited,
notably from the USA and central eastern Europe. The company has
occasionally toured abroad, including visits to Scandinavia and Hong Kong;
it has made many sound and video recordings. Each year an opera from
the repertory is performed in semi-concert fashion at the Proms in the
Albert Hall, London.
In spite of Christie’s early hopes, no Wagner opera has been heard at
Glyndebourne, and the first house’s rather cramped acoustic would not
have favoured it. Strauss, however, has been particularly successful,
especially the smaller-scale works such as Ariadne auf Naxos (1950,
conducted initially by Beecham) and Capriccio (1963), as well as Der
Rosenkavalier (1959) and Intermezzo (1974). Verdi’s Macbeth has
remained a favourite, as too has Falstaff (1955). The intimacy of the
auditorium has also proved favourable to Janáček. Monteverdi’s
L’incoronazione di Poppea (1962) inaugurated an important and influential
series of Italian Baroque opera revivals, including works by Cavalli, in
Raymond Leppard’s colourful realizations; Handel’s operas were not
explored until 1998, with Rodelinda, although stagings of two of his
oratorios had earlier been given. Contemporary opera, besides Britten and
Stravinsky, has been represented by works by Maw, Knussen, Osborne,
Tippett and Dove, as well as operas by Henze and von Einem. Porgy and
Bess was given with great success in 1986. Mozart, however, remains
central, partly because his operas lend themselves so ideally to the size of
the house and the rehearsal and production circumstances that
Glyndebourne can uniquely offer; an all-Mozart season, including for the
first time La clemenza di Tito, was given in 1991.
In 1992 work began on the rebuilding of the opera house, involving its
realignment by 180°; it reopened on 28 May 1994 (the 60th anniversary of
its first performance) with Le nozze di Figaro. The new house (cap. 1150),
with a clean, more spacious acoustic, and good sight-lines and facilities,
has enabled Glyndebourne to enlarge its scope and extend its repertory,
which it did with much success in its early seasons.
The Glyndebourne Touring Opera was established in 1968, initially under
the direction of Myer Fredman, to give Glyndebourne productions, with
younger casts, during short seasons in the home house and at other
centres in Britain, over a period of four to eight weeks each year; this
company, which (unlike the parent company) has received Arts Council
support, has occasionally visited Ireland and European cities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Glyndebourne Festival Programme Book (1952–)
S. Hughes: Glyndebourne: a History of the Festival Opera (London, 1965,
2/1981)
W. Blunt: John Christie of Glyndebourne (London, 1968)
R. Bing: 5000 Nights at the Opera (London, 1972)
J. Higgins: The Making of an Opera: Don Giovanni at Glyndebourne
(London, 1978)
F. Corsaro: The Love for Three Oranges: the Glyndebourne Version (New
York, 1984)
J. Higgins, ed.: Glyndebourne: a Celebration (London, 1984)
J.J. Norwich: Fifty Years of Glyndebourne: an Illustrated History (London,
1985)
I. Nowinsky: A Season at Glyndebourne (London, 1988)
M. Chimenes: ‘Une production de l’opéra de Glyndebourne: les décors et
costumes de David Hockney, la mise en scène de John Cox’, The
Rake’s Progress: un opéra de W. Hogarth, W.H. Auden, C. Kallmann
et I. Stravinsky: une réalisation de J. Cox et D. Hockney, ed. J.-M.
Vaccaro (Paris, 1990), 157–76
STANLEY SADIE
Gnattali, Radamés
(b Porto Alegre, 27 Jan 1906; d Rio de Janeiro, 3 Feb 1988). Brazilian
composer, pianist and conductor. The son of a music teacher, he received
musical training from an early age. From 1920 he studied at the Instituto de
Belas Artes of Rio Grande do Sul, winning the piano gold medal in 1924,
and then at the Instituto Nacional de Música in Rio de Janeiro. Gnattali
studied composition on his own and began his professional activities as
pianist and then viola player in the Henrique Oswald Quartet. After settling
in Rio permanently, he became the official conductor of the Radio Nacional
orchestra. He achieved wide popularity through his music for radio serials,
and through his skilful arrangements and orchestrations of fashionable
popular tunes and dance rhythms. This success has prejudiced his
simultaneous career as a composer of art music. But his activities in the
popular field were valuable in his quest for a nationalist expression. His
knowledge of popular music is particularly evident in the first period of his
production (1931–40), characterized by the clear national influences and
post-Romantic idiom of such works as Rapsódia brasileira (1931) and the
Piano Trio (1933). Works of this period sometimes show harmonic formulae
and instrumentations characteristic of jazz.
The second period, which began in about 1945 when he was elected a
founder-member of the Academia Brasileira de Música, exhibits a
subjective nationalism which is expressed with more reserved and simpler
means. Gnattali continued to cultivate a musical style of easy and
immediate comprehension. The series of Brasilianas illustrates the
composer’s varied approaches to nationalist composition. Brasiliana no.2
(1948), for example, is a clever stylization of the different types of samba:
samba de morro, samba-canção and samba de batucada. Others, such as
no.6 (1954), for piano and orchestra, or no.8, for tenor saxophone and
piano, reveal very imaginative instrumental blendings as well as a more
subdued involvement with national sources.
During the 1950s Gnattali deliberately attempted to remove himself from
music nationalism. He then turned to neo-Romantic and neo-classical
moulds while maintaining the light style often associated with symphonic
jazz. This is exemplified by such works as Concêrto romântico, the four
guitar concertinos, the Sinfonia popular and the concerto for harmonica
and orchestra. The works of the 1960s, however, reveal a further
assimilation of folk and popular musical traditions. The Concertos cariocas,
the Sonatina coreográfica and the Quarteto popular show this trend. The
Second Violin Concerto (1962) exhibits effective experiments with bossa
nova rhythmic patterns. The ballet Negrinho do pastoreio, written in 1959,
is one of the few works based on the folklore of Gnattali’s native state of
Rio Grande do Sul. Among the many solo songs, Azulão and Oração da
Estrela Boieira are the most successful.
During his last 20 years, Gnattali gave more attention to his involvement
with popular music, returning to a direct nationalist style. He won great
success as an arranger and conductor for TV stations in São Paulo and
Rio de Janeiro, and also composed numerous pieces of popular music in
the styles of the 1930s to the 70s such as urban sambas, samba-canções,
choros and valsas. His guitar compositions have been recognised as some
of the most significant in Brazilian guitar literature.
WORKS
Brasiliana: no.1, orch, 1944; no.2, pf, str, drums, 1948; no.3, orch, 1948; no.4, pf,
1949; no.5, pf, 1950; no.6, pf, orch, 1954; no.7, 2 pf, 1957; no.8, t sax, pf, 1957;
no.9, pf, orch, 1960; no.10, orch, 1962; no.12, 2 pf, str, 1968; no.13, gui, 1985
Solo inst with orch: Poema, vn, orch, 1934; Pf Conc. no.1, 1934; Pf Conc. no.2,
1936; Vc Conc., 1941; Concertino, pf, fl, str, 1942; 3 movimentos, pf, str, 2 timp,
1947, Vn Conc. no.1, 1947; Variaĉão sôbre uma série de sons, vn, pf, orch, 1949;
Concêrto romântico, pf, orch, 1949; 4 concertinos, gui, orch, 1953–5; Hp Conc.,
1958; Harmonica Conc., 1958; 2 poemas, vn, orch, 1962; Vn Conc. no.2, 1962;
Concêrto romântico no.2, pf, orch, 1964; Concêrto carioca no.2, pf, insts, 1964;
Conc. de Copacabana, gui, str, 1964; Conc., 2 gui, str, 1967–8; Conc., vn, orch,
1969; Conc., accdn, orch, 1978
Other orch: 3 miniaturas, 1940; Suite para pequena orchestra, 1940; Sinfonia
miniatura, 1942; Canadiana, 1943; Concêrto carioca, 1950; Sinfonia popular, 1955;
Negrinho do pastoreio (ballet), 1959; Sinfonia popular no.2, 1962, no.3, 1969, no.4,
1969
Chbr: Conc., vn, pf, str qt, 1933; Pf Trio, 1933; Sonata, vc, pf, 1935; Qt, 3 vn, vc,
1939; Qt popular, str qt, 1940; Trio miniatura, pf, vn, vc, 1941; 3 movimentos, vn, pf,
1942; Qt no.2, str qt, 1943; Serestas, gui, fl, str qt, 1944; 4 quadros de Jan Zach, str
qt, 1946; Sonatina, fl, gui, 1959; Qt popular, str qt, 1960; Sonata, va, pf, 1969;
Sonata no.2, vc, pf, 1973; Pf Trio no.2, 1984
Pf: Rapsódia brasileira, 1931; 10 valsas, 1939; Canadiana, 1943; Tocata, 1944;
Sonata, 1947; Valsas and choros, 1950; Sonata no.2, 1963
Songs: 3 poemas (A. Meyer), 1931; Para meu Rancho, 1931; Casinha pequenina
(V. Neto), 1940; Modinha (M. Bandeira), 1940; Azulão (Bandeira), 1940; Prenda
minha, 1941; Valsa romântica (Bandeira), 1945; 6 canções, 1983
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Béhague: Music in Latin America: an Introduction (Englewood Cliffs,
NJ, 1979)
J.M. Neves: Música brasileira contemporânea (São Paulo, 1981)
V. Mariz: História da música no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1981, 4/1994)
V. Barbosa and A.M. Devos: Radamés Gnattali, o eterno experimentador
(Rio de Janeiro, 1985)
Z.C. de Lasala: ‘Dos genios de la música brasileña’, Brasil/Cultura, no.61
(1988), 36–40
GERARD BÉHAGUE
Gnecchi, Vittorio
(b Milan, 17 July 1876; d Milan, 5 Feb 1954). Italian composer. The son of
wealthy Como landowners, he studied with Michele Saladino, Gaetano
Coronaro, Serafin and Carlo Gatti. His first work for the theatre was a
pastoral in two acts, Virtù d’amore, privately performed in 1896 at the
family home at Verderio, near Como. In the next, the tragedy Cassandra
(1905), he attempted to recreate the climate of Aeschylus’s tragedy, and
this involved using material based on Greek modes. The opera gave rise to
a violent critical controversy: in 1909 the musicologist Giovanni Tebaldini
published two articles (RMI, xvi, 400–12, 632–59), in which he maintained,
on the basis of a comparative analysis, that there was a similarity so close
as to be telepathic between Cassandra and Strauss’s Elektra. In general,
however, European critics rejected the idea that Elektra (1906–8) had been
inspired by the Italian work, attributing the similarities to chance.
Gnecchi’s next works – the three-act La Rosiera (1927) and Giuditta (1953)
– confirmed the characteristics of his style, which combines modes and an
often dissonant, post-Wagnerian chromatic harmony, creating unusual
effects within classically conceived forms. His orchestral, instrumental and
sacred output demonstrates similar stylistic characteristics. Subjects are
predominantly eulogistic and the tone is an emphatic, nationalistic one
common to minor Italian composers of the inter-war period. Examples of
this are the Invocazione italica (1917), the Poema eroico (1932), the
mythological content of Atalanta (1929) and the religious bombast of both
the Cantata biblica and the Missa salisburgensis.
WORKS
Ops: Virtù d’amore (azione pastorale, 2, M. Rossi Borzotti), Verderio (Como), Villa
Gnecchi, 7 Oct 1896; Cassandra (tragedia, prol., 2, L. Illica), Bologna, Comunale, 5
Dec 1905; rev. version, Ferrara, 29 Feb 1909; La Rosiera (3, V. Gnecchi and C.
Zangarini, after A. de Musset: On ne badine pas avec l’amour), Gera, 12 Feb 1927;
Giuditta (3, Illica), Salzburg, 1953 [as orat.]
Other works: Atalanta, ballet, orch, 1929; Invocazione italica, orch, 1917; Poema
eroico, orch, 1932; Cant. biblica; Missa salisburgensis; Preghiera del soldato, orch
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ES (G. Graziosi)
M. Barbieri: ‘Curiosità Musicale’, RMI, xxxix (1932), 148–51
M. Horwarth: ‘Tebaldini, Gnecchi and Strauss’, CMc, no.10 (1970), 74–91
F. Nicolodi: Musica e musicisti nel ventennio fascista (Florence, 1984)
RAFFAELE POZZI
Gnecco, Francesco
(b Genoa, c1769; d Milan, 1810/1811). Italian composer. He supposedly
studied with Cimarosa. For a while he was maestro di cappella of Savona
Cathedral, but he was most successful as a composer of comic and
serious operas, writing many of his own librettos. His most famous opera,
La prova d’un opera seria, had a backstage plot; though not the first of this
genre, it was the best. Originally in one act with a libretto by Giulio Artusi
(1803, Venice) and entitled La prima prova dell’opera Gli orazi e curiazi, it
was later changed into a two-act work with Gnecco’s own libretto (1805,
Milan) and was performed until 1860 throughout Europe, with the most
famous singers. The plot of the two-act version concerns a rehearsal, not
of Cimarosa’s Gli Orazi ed i Curiazi, but of a non-existent opera seria,
Ettore in Trabisonda, characterized by all the excesses of a style overripe
for parody. A number of irrelevant but funny backstage problems add spice
to the action: a lesson in instrumentation, a chorus full of mistakes, a
soprano mispronouncing her words and so on. To create some tension at
the end of the first act Gnecco introduced a picnic in the country for the
cast; a storm comes up and the soprano and tenor lovers quarrel. The
music is in the best tradition of Paisiello and Cimarosa. Arias are in two
tempos, preceded by an introduction highlighting a solo instrument. The
few more formal (non-comic) numbers are in da capo form. The ensembles
are multipartite and, in what seems to be contemporary practice, appear
only in the middle and end of the acts. In keeping with turn-of-the-century
opera buffa style the vocal lines are principally patter, the orchestra having
the connective melodic tissue. Nothing in the music is adventurous or
memorable, but the comic backstage shenanigans are first-rate.
Gnecco composed 23 other operas, including Auretta e Masullo, ossia Il
contratempo (1792, Genoa), Il nuovo podestà, later Le nozze di Lauretta
(1802, Bologna), and Filandro e Carolina (1804, Rome). He published sets
of chamber works and also wrote sacred music.
WORKS
operas
Auretta e Masullo, ossia Il contratempo (dg, 2, Gnecco), Genoa, S Agostino, 8 May
1792
La contadina astuta, ossia La finta semplice (dg, 2), Florence, Regio, sum. 1792, I-
Fc
Il nuovo Galateo (dg), San Pier d’Arena, Crosa Larga, aut. 1792
I filosofi in derisione, ossia I filosofi burlati (int), Florence, Intrepidi, carn. 1793
Lo sposo di tre, marito di nessuna (dg, 2, A. Palomba), Milan, Scala, March 1793
L’indolente (dg, 2, G. Palomba), Parma, Corte, carn. 1797
Le nozze de’ Sanniti (dramma, 2, G. Foppa), Padua, Nuovo, June 1797, Gl, Pl
I due sordi burlati (ob, Foppa), Genoa, Falcone, June 1798
Adelaide di Guesclino (os, G. Rossi, after Voltaire), Florence, Pergola, Oct. 1800,
Fc
Alessandro nell’Indie (os, 3, P. Metastasio), Livorno, Regio, Oct 1800
Il nuovo podestà (ob, 2, G. Caravita), Bologna, Comunale, spr. 1802,Fc, Rmassimo;
as Le nozze di Lauretta (Gnecco), Rome, Valle, 23 May 1804
La festa riscaldata (ob, 1, Foppa), Florence, Pallacorda, sum. 1802
Il geloso corretto (farsa, G. Artusi), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 18 April 1803,
OS
Il finto fratello, Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 25 May 1803
La prima prova dell’opera Gli orazi e curiazi (1, Artusi), Venice, S Giovanni
Grisostomo, 8 July 1803, D-Hs, F-Pn, I-Nc, PS; rev. as La prova d’un opera seria
(2, Gnecco), Milan, Scala, 16 Aug 1805,D-Mbs, F-Pn, GB-Lbl, I-Fc, Nc, US-Bp; rev.
as L’apertura del nuovo teatro, Naples, Nuovo, aut. 1807, GB-Lbl, I-Fc, Nc, US-Bp,
Wc
La scena senza scena (ob, Artusi), Venice, S Moisè, 10 Dec 1803
Arsace e Semiramide (os, Rossi, after Voltaire), Venice, Fenice, 31 Jan 1804, I-Mr*
Filandro e Carolina (ob, 1, Gnecco), Rome, Valle, Oct 1804, GB-Lbl, I-Fc, Mc; rev.
as Clementina e Roberto, Genoa, Feb 1810, GB-Lbl, I-Fc
L’incognito (ob), Vicenza, Eretenio, carn. 1805
L’amore in musica (ob, 2, Gnecco), Bologna, Comunale, 1 April 1805, Mr*; as Gli
amanti filarmonici, Rome, Valle, carn. 1807
Gli ultimi due giorni di carnevale (ob, Artusi), Milan, Scala, 7 April 1806, Mr*
I bramini (os, S. Scatizzi), Livorno, Avvalorati, aut. 1806
Argete, Naples, S Carlo, Nov 1808
I falsi galantuomini [gentiluomini] (ob, 2, M. Prunetti), Milan, Scala, 16 Aug 1809,
Mc
other works
Tuona a sinistra il cielo (cant.), S, T, chorus, orch; 3 trii concertanti, cl, vn, bc, op.2
(Vienna, n.d.); 3 quartetti concertanti, 2 vn, va, bc, op.4 (Paris, n.d.); 5 notturni, qt
(1794); 3 syms.; sestetto; 2 qts with cl; notturno, vn, cl, va, vc; Sonata a 4; Messa
a 2vv; motets
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
MGG1 (A. Della Corte)
‘Biographische Nachrichten von Francesco Gnecco, aus dem Giornale
Italiano und aus dem Redattore del Reno im Auszuge mitgetheilt von
Chladni’, AMZ, xiv (1812), 29–30
MARVIN TARTAK
WRITINGS
‘O prirode muzïkal'nogo iskusstva i o russkoy muzïke’ [On the nature of
musical art and on Russian music], MS (1915), no.3, pp.5–32
‘Muzïkal'nïy fol'klor i rabota kompozitora’ [Musical folklore and the work of
the composer], Muzïka (1937), no.20
Nachal'nïy kurs prakticheskoy kompozitsii [An elementary course in
practical composition] (Moscow, 1941, 2/1962)
‘Maksimilian Shteynberg’, SovM (1946), no.12, pp.29–36
‘O russkom simfonizme’, SovM (1948), no.6, pp.44–50; (1949), no.3,
pp.50–54; (1950), no.1, pp.78–82
Mïsli i vospominaniya o N.A. Rimskom-Korsakove [Reflections and
memories about Rimsky-Korsakov] (Moscow, 1956)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
V. Karatïgin: ‘Molodïye russkiye kompozitorï’ [Young Russian composers],
Apollon (1910), no.12, pp.37–48
L. Saminsky: ‘O tvorcheskom puti M. Gnesina’ [The work of the
composer], Muzïka (1913), no.3, pp.5–8
A. Drozdov: M.F. Gnesin (Moscow, 1927)
I. Rïzhkin: ‘O tvorcheskom puti Mikhaila Gnesina’, SovM (1933), no.6,
pp.32–49
R. Glezer, ed.: M.F. Gnesin: stat'i, vospominaniya, materialï (Moscow,
1961)
B. Klyuzner: ‘O Gnesine’, SovM (1968), no.6, pp.91–4
I.D. Glikman: Meyerkhol'd i muzïkal' nïy teatr (Leningrad, 1989), esp.309–
48
L. Sitsky: Music of the Repressed Russian Avant-Garde, 1900–1929
(Westport, CT, 1994)
INNA BARSOVA/YELENA DVOSKINA
Gniezno.
City in Poland, in Poznań province. It was the national capital until the 11th
century, the place of coronation of the first Polish kings and the seat of an
archdiocese. From the 10th century, Polish cultural life was concentrated at
the Gniezno ducal court and in the church of the Assumption of St Mary the
Virgin (from 1000 a cathedral); even after the capital was moved to Kraków,
Gniezno remained an important religious and cultural centre. From the
Middle Ages there were four parish churches: Holy Trinity, St Laurence, St
Michael Archangel and SS Peter and Paul. Music was taught in the
cathedral school, opened after 1050, and in parish schools; pupils sang for
services. Liturgical books preserved from the cathedral library testify to
high musical standards: a Missale plenarium (11th century); the copy of
Collectio trium partium attributed to St Ivo of Chartres, made in Gniezno
(late 11th century); a Gradual of the nuns of the order of St Clare (1418);
an Antiphoner of Klemens of Piotrków (1503); and a Gradual of Maciej
Drzewicki (1536). In the 15th century a cathedral organ was built, and then
rebuilt by Jan Kopersmit; a new organ was built by Stanisław Zelik in 1522.
In 1420 Archbishop Mikołaj Trąba founded a college of mansionari to sing
offices at the cathedral. From the early 16th century a college of psalterists
was active at the cathedral; during important celebrations they were joined
by mansionari and curates. In the late 16th century the chapel at the
cathedral consisted of an organist, singers and violinists; trumpeters were
added in the early 17th century. Notable later musicians were Mikołaj
Kotkowski (d 1702) and the Luberski family. The composer Mateusz
Zwierzchowski (d 1768) was organist at the cathedral and later conducted
its choir. Most of his works were lost in the fire which destroyed the
cathedral’s collection of musical manuscripts (over 1000 works) in 1760.
Over 30 compositions by Adalbert Dankowski and symphonies by Antoni
Habel are preserved. Professional musical standards fell during the 19th
century; amateur organizations were formed, including the male choir Koło
Śpiewacze (now Dzwon), and between the two World Wars numerous
amateur groups were active. The city now has one music school; the
amateur movement is centred at the Municipal Centre of Culture and Youth
Club, where jazz and rock bands are active.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Biegański: ‘Gnieźnieńskie “Missale plenarium” jako przykład zabytku
izolowanego’ [The ‘Missale plenarium’ of Gniezno as an example of
the isolated monument], Muzyka, xi/3–4 (1966), 75–81
‘Gniezno’, Encyklopedia katolicka, ed. W. Granat and others (Lublin,
1973–)
T. Maciejewski: ‘Antyfona o św. Grzegorzu z gnieźnieńskiego rękopisu
“Tripartity”’ [The antiphon for St Gregory in the Gniezno ‘Tripartita’
manuscript], Muzyka, xxvi/2 (1981), 99–103
W. Zientarski: ‘Muzycy gnieźnieńscy XV–XVII wieku’ [Musicians of
Gniezno in the 15th–17th centuries], Gniezno: studia i materiały
historyczne, i (1984), 73–88
W. Zientarski: ‘Muzycy gnieżnieńscy XVIII wieku’, Gniezno: studia i
materiały historyczne, ii (1987), 111–55
BARBARA PRZYBYSZEWSKA-JARMIŃSKA
Gnocchi, Pietro
(b Alfianello, Brescia, 27 Feb 1689; d Brescia, 9 Dec 1775). Italian
composer. Most of the information concerning Gnocchi's life derives from
his contemporary Cristoni. As the second son of a middle-class family, he
became a priest, devoting himself particularly to the study of music. After
the death of his younger brother, he went to study in Venice. Before
returning to Brescia, he travelled extensively, meeting famous musicians in
Vienna and Munich as well as in Hungary, Bohemia and Saxony. He lived a
withdrawn and ascetic life in Brescia, writing learned books on epigraphy,
geography and ancient history, and earning a wide reputation as a scholar
and master of languages. On 16 June 1723 he was appointed maestro di
cappella of Brescia Cathedral and in 1733 he competed unsuccessfully for
the post of organist there as well. In April 1762 he reapplied for the position
and was successful, holding both jobs until his death. From about 1745 to
1750 he also worked at the Orfanelle della Pietà in Brescia.
According to Cristoni, Prince Faustino Lechi of Brescia travelled to Bologna
as a young man to study with Padre Martini, who expressed surprise that
the prince had undertaken such a journey when Brescia possessed ‘un
celebre Professore di Musica’ in the person of Gnocchi. Prince Lechi
accepted Martini's advice and became Gnocchi's student, friend and
patron. The Lechi family purchased Gnocchi's 25-volume history of ancient
Greek colonies in the east, and possessed his treatise on Brescian
memorial tablets as well as many of his compositions.
Gnocchi wrote a great quantity of music, almost entirely sacred, which
remains in manuscript. He planned to publish his 12-volume Salmi brevi,
but no more was printed than the title-page and dedication. His interest in
geography is reflected in some of the titles of his works: for example,
Magnificat settings for six voices entitled ‘Il capo di buona speranza’ and ‘Il
rio de la plata’, and masses for four voices ‘Europe’, ‘Asia’, ‘Africa’ and
‘America’. In style, Gnocchi favoured the Venetian technique of alternating
choirs, treating them in a homophonic rather than imitative style: according
to Guerrini, his compositions lack the animation of his Venetian
contemporaries Benedetto Marcello and Lotti; the masses for eight-part
double chorus are considered his best works.
WORKS
Salmi brevi per tutto l'anno, 8vv, vn (Brescia, 1750) [only title-page and ded. pubd;
rest in MS]
60 Requiem and masses, 4–8vv, some with insts; Offertories for Advent and Lenten
masses; 6 sets of Vespers for the church year, 4–8vv, org; 2 Vespers for the Office
of the Dead; Responses for Passion, Holy Week, Christmas; 2 Pontificali; 2 Lit and
Te Deum for Bidding Procession; 12 Mag, 4vv; 2 cycles of hymns for the church
year; 6 Miserere, 4–8vv; various motets, some with insts: all in I-BRd; 9 masses, 2–
4vv; 6 Requiem, 2–4vv; various hymns; 8 canzonette scherzose, all in: BRsmg;
Conc. à 7, str, bc; 3 sonatas, 2 vn, bc: in Gi (l)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (P. Guerrini)
C. Cristoni: Informazioni dell'antica prosapia del Sac. D. Pietro Gnocchi
maestro e organista de' piu insigni nella cattedrale di Brescia (MS,
formerly I-BRq)
R. Prestini: ‘Momenti del Settecento musicale bresciano: le “arie buffe” di
Pietro Gnocchi’, Feste devozionali, spettacoli, divertimenti nel
Settecento a Brescia (Brescia, 1981)
M. Sala: ‘Le cappelle musicali’, La musica a Brescia nel Settecento, ed.
M.T. Rosa Barezzani and others (Brescia, 1981), 57–92
O. Termini: ‘Organists and Chapel Masters at the Cathedral of Brescia
(1608–1779)’, NA, iii, (1985), 73–90
G.B. Bertoni: Pietro Gnocchi nel terzo centenario della nascita (Alfianello,
1989)
MARIANGELA DONÀ
Gobatti, Stefano
(b Bergantino, Rovigo, 5 July 1852; d Bologna, 17 Dec 1913). Italian
composer. He studied with Busi in Bologna and with Lauro Rossi in Parma
and at the Naples Conservatory. In 1873 his opera I goti was staged in
Bologna and received with extraordinary acclaim. Bologna's cultural circles,
fiercely anti-Verdi, welcomed Gobatti as the new musical paragon to set up
against him. Numerous musicians and men of letters shared the general
infatuation with the opera, but it was not received with equal acclaim
elsewhere in Italy. Verdi himself called it ‘the most monstrous musical
miscarriage ever composed’. His subsequent operas, Luce (1875) and
Cordelia (1881), met with a cold reception even in Bologna. Reduced to
poverty and entirely forgotten, he taught singing in primary schools in
Bologna, afterwards withdrawing to a monastery. He became mentally
deranged and died in an asylum. He wrote a fourth opera (Masias), never
performed, and some vocal chamber pieces.
WORKS
I goti (tragedia lirica, 4, S. Interdonato), Bologna, Comunale, 30 Nov 1873, vs
(Milan, 1874)
Luce (dramma lirico, 5, Interdonato), Bologna, Comunale, 25 Nov 1875, vs (Milan,
1876)
Cordelia (dramma lirico, 5, C. D'Ormeville), Bologna, Comunale, 6 Dec 1881, I-Bc
Masias (op, 3, E. Sanfelice), 1900, unperf.
Romanze; La festa della regina, hymn, arr. pf (Milan, 1886)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Depanis: I concerti popolari ed il Teatro regio di Torino: quindici anni di
vita musicale, i (Turin, 1914), 57ff
G. Monaldi: Ricordi viventi di artisti scomparsi (Campobasso, 1927)
A. Alberti: Verdi intimo: carteggio di Giuseppe Verdi con il conte
Opprandino Arrivabene (1861–1886) (Milan, 1931)
F. Vatielli: ‘L'ultima opera di Stefano Gobatti’, La strenna delle colonie
scolastiche bolognesi, xliv (1941)
P. Nardi: Vita di Arrigo Boito (Verona, 1942), 406–7
F. Abbiati: Storia della musica, iv (Milan, 1939–46, 2/1967–8), 208ff
BRUNO CAGLI
Gobbi, Tito
(b Bassano del Grappa, 24 Oct 1913; d Rome, 5 March 1984). Italian
baritone. He studied in Rome with Giulio Crimi and made his début in 1935
at Gubbio as Rodolfo (La sonnambula). In 1937 he appeared at the Teatro
Adriano, Rome, as Germont. He sang regularly at the Teatro Reale
dell’Opera, Rome, from 1938; his first great success there was as Wozzeck
in the Italian première of Berg’s opera (1942). He first appeared at La Scala
in 1942 as Belcore, the role in which he made his Covent Garden début
with the Scala company in 1951. He appeared regularly in London,
especially in Verdi roles, including Posa (1958), Boccanegra, Iago,
Rigoletto and Falstaff. He also sang Don Giovanni, Almaviva, Gianni
Schicchi and Scarpia.
Gobbi made his American début as Rossini’s Figaro in San Francisco in
1948; from 1954 to 1973 he sang regularly in Chicago in a repertory that
included Gérard, Michonnet, Jack Rance and Tonio, and he made his
Metropolitan Opera début in 1956 as Scarpia. At Rome he created roles in
Rocca’s Monte Ivnor (1939), Malipiero’s Ecuba (1941), Persico’s La
locandiera (1941), Lualdi’s Le nozze di Haura (1943) and Napoli’s Il tesoro
(1958) and at Milan in Ghedini’s L’ipocrita felice (1956). His repertory
consisted of almost a hundred roles. Intelligence, musicianship and acting
ability, allied to a fine though not large voice, made Gobbi one of the
dominant singing actors of his generation. He directed several operas,
notably Simon Boccanegra in Chicago and London, and wrote Tito Gobbi:
My Life (London, 1979) and Tito Gobbi on his World of Italian Opera
(London, 1984). Gobbi’s highly individual timbre and diction and his ability
to colour his tone made him an ideal recording artist, as can be heard in his
Rigoletto, Boccanegra, Iago, Falstaff and Gianni Schicchi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GV
D. De Paoli: ‘Tito Gobbi’, Opera, vi (1955), 619–22
A. Natan: ‘Gobbi, Tito’, Primo uomo: grosse Sänger der Oper (Basle, 1963)
[with discography]
G. Lauri-Volpi: ‘Un grande artista, un amico reale’, Musica e dischi, no.262
(1968), 49
J.W. Freeman: ‘Tito Gobbi Talks’, ON, xxxvi/17 (1971–2), 14–16
A. Blyth: ‘Gobbi: the Singer and the Man’, British Music Yearbook 1975, 3–
21 [with discography by J.B. Steane]
H. Rosenthal: ‘Tito Gobbi 1913–84’, Opera, xxxv (1984), 476–84
HAROLD ROSENTHAL/ALAN BLYTH
Gobelinus Person.
See Person, Gobelinus.
Gobert, Thomas
(b Picardy, early 17th century; d Paris, 26 Sept 1672). French composer
and ecclesiastic. He was a choirboy at the Ste Chapelle probably between
1615 and 1627, canon at St Quentin in 1630 and maître de chapelle at
Peronne, from which position he made ‘a good jump to the employ of M. le
Cardinal [Richelieu] and a better jump still to the service of the king’
(Gantez). He followed Formé as sous-maître at the royal chapel in 1638, a
position he shared first with Picot, then with Veillot and finally, after the
latter's death in 1662, with Du Mont. He held several administrative posts
at the Ste Chapelle, including that of canon in 1651. In 1664 Louis XIV
decided that there should be four sous-maîtres for his chapel, each to
serve for one quarter: Gobert (January), Robert (April), Expilly (July) and
Du Mont (October). Gobert retired from the royal chapel in 1669 and upon
his death was interred at the Ste Chapelle.
Along with Formé and Veillot, Gobert was a composer of the avant garde.
He admired the many ‘belles et bonnes choses’ in Monteverdi's madrigals,
and did much to stabilize the double-chorus motet in France. The format of
the Versailles grand motet is already present in Gobert's description of
motets composed by him for the royal chapel: ‘The grand choeur, in five
parts, is always sung by many voices. The petit choeur is composed only of
solo voices’ (letter of 17 October 1646 to Constantijn Huygens). None of
Gobert's grands motets survives. The texts for many are found in Perrin's
Cantica pro Capella Regis (1665). In his lost Antiennes récitatives, also
mentioned in this letter, Gobert may have experimented with the basso
continuo before the first printed examples appeared in France (Huygens's
Pathodia sacra, 1647).
Another progressive feature is the simple two-part vocal writing of the
Paraphrase des psaumes de David (Paris, 1659, 5/1686). The fourth
edition, of 1656, begun by Aux-Cousteaux was completed by Gobert who
rendered the Aux-Cousteaux settings ‘plus agéables’ by adding some
‘ports-de-voix’, some ‘anticipations’, some ‘tremblemens’ and some
‘flexions de voix’ (Avis). Pierre le Petit, the printer, justified the ‘new’ edition
on the grounds that he had asked Gobert to set the psalms (in the Godeau
translation) ‘in simple counterpoint appropriate for those who know only a
little music’ and that the earlier setting of 1656 by Aux-Cousteaux in archaic
Renaissance polyphony ‘did not have all the graces that are desirable’.
WORKS
Paraphrase des psaumes de David, en vers françois par Antoine Godeau ... Mis
nouvellement en chant par Thomas Gobert, ... Cinquième Édition, revué et corrigée
(Paris, 1659)
Audite coeli in Paroles tirées de la Ste Ecriture, et mises en motet (Paris, 1660),
text only
A few airs in Recueil des plus beaux airs, ed. B. de Bacilly (Paris, 1661)
6 pieces in F. Berthod: Livre d'airs de dévotion à deux Parties, iii (Paris, 1662)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AnthonyFB
BrenetM
A. Gantez: L'entretien des musiciens (Auxerre, 1643); ed. E. Thoinan
(Paris, 1878/R)
D. Launay: ‘Les motets à double choeur en France dans la première
moitié du XVIIe siècle’, RdM, xxxix–xl (1957), 173–95
D. Launay: La musique religieuse en France du Concile de Trente à 1804
(Paris, 1993)
JAMES R. ANTHONY
Gobetti, Francesco
(b Udine, bap. 4 Jan 1675; d Venice, 10 July 1723). Italian violin maker. His
family moved to Venice in the early 1690s and appears to have been
connected with shoemaking. He described himself as a shoemaker when
he married (1702) but probably took up violin making within a fairly short
time, doubtless as a pupil of Matteo Goffriller, who lived in the same parish.
He began to sign his instruments soon after 1710, but because of ill-health
was obliged to give up working after 1717.
Though he was active for only a few years and his output was
comparatively small, Gobetti ranks as one of the greatest makers of the
Venetian school. He was a meticulous workman, yet possessed of
considerable verve, showing in his work many of the best qualities of
Goffriller and Montagnana. He seems to have made no violas or cellos. His
violins are exciting instruments both tonally and visually, sometimes being
excellent copies of other makers’ work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Toffolo: Antichi strumenti veneziani 1500–1800: quattro secoli di liuteria
e cembalaria (Venice, 1987)
Les violons: lutherie venitienne, peintures et dessins, Hôtel de Ville, Paris,
21 March–7 May 1995 (Paris, 1995) [exhibition catalogue]
CHARLES BEARE
THEODORE KARP
Goblet drum.
A directly struck drum (membranophone) in goblet shape. See Drum, §I,
2(ii)(d).
Goccini, Giacomo.
See Gozzini, Giacomo.
Godár, Vladimír
(b Bratislava, 16 March 1956). Slovak composer. He studied the piano and
composition, the latter with Pospíšil, at the Bratislava Conservatory (1971–
5). He then continued his composition studies under Kardoš at the
Bratislava Academy of Music and Dramatic Art until 1980. In 1988–9 he
studied with Haubenstock-Ramati at the Vienna Hochschule für Musik.
Godár has held appointments as editor with the Opus publishing house
(1979–88), researcher at the Institute of Musicology of the Slovak Academy
of Sciences (1988–97), editor-in-chief of the journal Slovenská hudba
(1991–6) and as resident composer for the Slovak PO (1993–4). In 1996
he became lecturer in aesthetics at the arts faculty of Comenius University.
His activities also include performing as continuo player in various early
music ensembles. His Partita and Concerto grosso were awarded the Ján
Levoslav Bella Prize (1985 and 1987, respectively), Dariačangin sad
(‘Dariachanga’s Orchard’) received the 1988 Slovak Critics’ Prize and his
score to the film Neha (‘Tenderness’) won the Zlatý klinec award.
His music is based on the achievements of the postwar European avant
garde combined with elements of European classicism. His early pieces
employ serial techniques and dodecaphonism, combined later with the
sonorism of the Polish school of composition. The confrontation between
past and present in his music provides an additional temporal dimension
which he has tried to embrace. For Godár, time is a complex, multi-
dimensional phenomenon which affects the listener’s subconscious. In
temporal terms, pause and structure he considers equally significant; new
ways of combining the two have become a principal concern of his.
Because of his specific approach to time, form plays a vital role in his
music. He often uses historical forms, techniques and performance styles
(see for example the Partita or Ricercar) as foundation stones upon which
new light is thrown. His most frequent source of inspiration is the virtuoso
skill of individual performers; many of his works have been composed in
consultation with performers, in particular Andrew Parrott, Julian Lloyd
Webber, John Holloway, the Moyzes Quartet and the Slovak Chamber
Orchestra.
WORKS
(selective list)
Orch: Predohra (Hommage à Alfred Jarry) [Ov.], 1978; Sym. no.1, 1980, rev. 1986;
Partita, 54 str, hpd, timp, tubular bells, 1983; Meditácia, vn, 48 str, timp, 1984, rev.
1995; Concerto grosso, 12 str, hpd, 1985; Dariačangin sad [Dariachanga’s
Orchard], after O. Chiladze, va, vc, orch, 1987; Sym. no.2, 1992; Barcarole, vc, hp,
hpd, 12 str, 1993; Emmeleia, vn, str, hp, 1994; Via lucis, 1994; Tombeau de Bartók,
1995
Choral: Spevy o posledných chvíl'ach života [Songs about the Last Moments in Life]
(African poetry), male chorus, 1973; Chryzantémy [Chrysanthemums] (M. Rúfus),
S, fl, 4 va, male chorus, 1975; Totožné [Identical] (O. Paz), mixed chorus, 1977, rev.
1990; Žalostné piesničky [Sorrowful Songs] (18th and 19th century Slovak folk
poetry), male chorus, eng hn, vn, cimb, timp, 1979; Pieseň o belavých hlavách
[Song of the White Heads] (I. Kupec, after Chin. poetry), male chorus, 1980; Orbis
sensualium pictus (orat, J.A. Comenius), S, B, chorus, orch, 1984
Other vocal: Lyrická kantáta, S, chbr orch, 1981; 4 vážne spevy [4 Serious Songs]
(H. Gavlovič), S, orch, 1986; Uspávanky Jana Skácela [Lullabies of J. Skácel]
(Comenius), S, fl, vc, hpd, 1986
Other inst: Variácie (H. Michaux), nar, sax, pf, db, 1970, rev. 1980; Trigram, pf,
1973; Ricercar, vn, va, vc, pf, 1977; Wind Qnt, 1977; Jesenná meditácia [Autumn
Meditation], str qt, 1979; Talizman, nocturne, vn, vc, pf, 1979–83; Trio, vn, cl, pf,
1980; 5 bagately, 1981; Husl'ové duetá [Vn Duets], 72 pieces, 1981; Grave,
Passacaglia, pf, 1983; Suite, 2 vn, 1981; Sonáta na pamät' Viktora Šklovského
[Sonata to the Memory of V. Shklovsky], vc, pf, 1985; Sekvencia [Sequence], vn, pf,
1987; Neha [Tenderness], str qt, 1991; Déploration sur la mort de Witold
Lutoslawsky, pf qnt, 1994; Emmeleia, pf, 1994
Film scores, arrs. of early music
Amour pence que je dorme et je meurs, 1546 13 (attrib. Sandrin in 154612); Ce moys
de May sur la rousée, ed. in PÄMw, xxiii (1899); De varier c’est ung propre de
femme, 154612; Dieu tout puissant bon pere, 155319; Graces à Dieu à ce point je
consens, 155319; Ha quel tourment, 153812; Hault le boys m’amye Margot, ed. M.
Cauchie, Quinze chansons françaises du XVIe siècle (Paris, 1926); Hélas amour, je
pensoye bien avoir, 153813
J’ay le fruict tant désiré, 15509; Le doulx regard, 15447; L’homme est heureux quand
il trouve amitié, 155323, ed. in SCC, x (1994); Longtemps y a que langueur et
tristesse, 15437–8, ed. in RRMR, xxxviii (1981); Mariez-moy mon pere, 1538 12, ed. in
RRMR, xxxviii (1981); Mon cueur avez que ung aultre, 1546 12; O doulx revoir que
mon esprit contente, 153812 (attrib. Certon in 154917); Puisqu’ainsi est que tous ceux
qui ont la vie, 5vv, 155910, ed. in SCC, x (1994); Quant je vouldrois de vous me puys
venger, 15365; Que gagnés vous à vouloir differer, 15613 (attrib. Villers in 155323);
Voz huys, sont-ilz tous fermez, fillettes, 154711, ed. H.M. Brown, Theatrical
Chansons of the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge, MA, 1963)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
LabordeMP
G. Desjardins: Histoire de la cathédrale de Beauvais (Beauvais, 1865)
L.E. Miller: The Chansons of French Provincial Composers, 1530–1550: a
Study of Stylistic Trends (diss., Stanford U., 1977)
FRANK DOBBINS
stage
Les Guelfes (grand opéra, 5, L. Gallet), Rouen, Arts, 17 Jan 1902, vs (1898)
Pedro de Zalamea (opéra, 4, L. Détroyat and A. Silvestre, after P. Calderón de la
Barca), Antwerp, Royal, 31 Jan 1884, vs (1884)
Much Ado about Nothing (incid music, L. Legendre, after W. Shakespeare), Paris,
Odéon, 1887
Jocelyn (op, 4, V. Capoul and Silvestre, after A.-M.-L. de Prat de Lamartine),
op.100, Brussels, Monnaie, 25 Feb 1888, vs (1887)
Le Dante (drame lyrique, 4, E. Blau), op.111, Paris, OC (Lyrique), 13 May 1890, vs
(1890)
Jeanne d’Arc (incid music to drame historique, 5, J. Fabre), op.125, Paris, 1891, vs
(1891)
Ruy Blas, 1891, unperf.
Ballet d’autrefois (petite scène à 2 personnages, G. Boyer), for S (travesti) and
dancer, op.144 (?1893)
La vivandière (oc, 3, H. Cain), inc., Paris, OC (Lyrique), 1 April 1895, with orch
completed by P.A. Vidal; vs (1895)
vocal
Solo vv, chorus, orch: Le Tasse [Tasso] (C. Grandmougin), dramatic sym., op.39,
1877 (1878); Hymne nuptiale, 1880, unpubd; Aurore, op.59 (London, 1881) vs
(1884); Sym. légendaire, S, Mez, Bar, female vv, op.99, 1880–85 (1886)
Chorus: A la Franche-Comté (Grandmougin), 4 male vv (1879); Hymne à la liberté,
4 male vv; other works
Songs, 1v, pf: over 100, incl. Nouvelles chansons du vieux temps, op.24 (1876);
Diane, poème antique (E. Guinand) (1880); 6 fables de La Fontaine, op.17, 1872–9
(n.d.)
6 villanelles, 1876 (1877)
orchestral
Syms.: no.1 (Berlin, n.d.); no.2, B , op.57, 1879 (1889); Sym. gothique, op.23, 1874
(Mainz, 1883); Sym. orientale, op.84, 1883 (Berlin, 1884); Sym. descriptive,
unpubd.
Concs.: Pf Conc. no.1, A, op.31, 1875 (1879); Conc. romantique, vn, op.35, 1876
(1877); Vn Conc. no.2, g, op.131, 1891 (Berlin, 1892); Pf Conc. no.2, G, op.148,
1893 (1899)
Other: Scènes poétiques, op.46, 1878 (1879); Aubade et scherzo, op.61, 1881
(1882); Introduction and allegro, pf, orch, op.49, 1880 (1881); 3 morceaux: Marche
funèbre, Brésilienne, Kermesse, op.51, 1879 (1880), also arr. pf; Suite de danses
anciennes et modernes, op.103 (?1890); Scènes écossaises, ob, orch, op.138 (n.d.
[also arr. ob, pf, see chamber]); Symphonie-ballet, op.60, 1881 (1882), also arr. pf;
Fantaisie persane, pf, orch, 1894 (1896)
chamber
3 str qts: g, op.33, 1876 (1882); A, op.37, 1877 (1884); A, op.136, 1892 (1893)
2 pf trios: op.32, 1875 (1880); F, op.72 (1883)
Vn, pf: 5 sonatas, c, op.1 (1866), a, op.2 (1866), g, op.9 (1869), A , op.12, 1872
(Berlin, 1880), d, op.78 (n.d.); Légende et scherzo, op.3 (1867); Première Sonata,
vn, 1873 (1875); Suite de 3 morceaux, op.78 (Berlin, 1883); 6 morceaux, op.128
(n.d.); En plein air: Suite de 5 morceaux (Berlin, 1893), also arr. vn, orch
Vc, pf: 2 morceaux, op.36 (1877) also arr. orch; Sonata, d, op.104 (1887);
Other: 4 morceaux, vn, va, vc, op.5 (1868); 6 duettini, 2 vn, pf, op.18, 1872 (1878);
Aubade, vn, vc, 1874 (1892); Valse, pf, cl, op.116 (n.d.); Suite de 3 morceaux, pf, fl,
1889 (1890); Scènes écossaises, ob, pf, op.138, 1892 (1893)
piano
Les contes de Perrault, op.6, 1867 (1868); Fragments poètiques, op.13, 1869
(1873); 3 morceaux: Menuet, Andante, Gavotte, op.16 (1874); 12 études artistiques,
op.42 (1878); Lanterne magique, in five parts, opp.50, 55, 66, 110, 1869–93
(1880–); Chemin faisant, 6 morceaux, op.53, 1879 (1880); 20 pièces, op.58, 1881
(1887); Sonate fantastique, op.63, 1881 (1883); Sonata no.2, op.94 (1884); 12
nouvelles études artistiques, op.107, 1884–8 (?1892); 12 pièces, op.112 (n.d.); [12]
Scènes italiennes, op.126, 1890–91 (1891), also arr. orch; Impressions de
campagne, op.123, 1890–92 (1893); Fantaisie, op.143 (1893); Etudes enfantines,
op.149, 1893 (1894); Etudes mélodiques (1894); Etudes rhythmiques (1894);
Etudes de concert (1894); c100 other pieces
Pf 4 hands: [4] Pièces symphoniques, op.28, 1875 (Berlin, 1880), also arr. orch; [6]
Contes de la veillée, op.67 (1882), also arr. orch
2 pf: Duo symphonique, 1877 (1879)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
N. Ney: ‘Benjamin Godard’, La vie théâtrale (5 Feb 1895)
M. Clerjot: Benjamin Godard (Paris, 1902)
H. Imbert: Médaillons contemporains (Paris, 1902)
A. Hervey: French Music in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1903)
M. Calvié: Benjamin Godard (Paris, 1906)
J. Tiersot: Un demi-siècle de la musique française, 1870–1919 (Paris,
1918, 2/1924)
C. Le Senne: ‘Benjamin Godard (1849–1895)’, EMDC, I/iii (1914), 1803–5
RICHARD LANGHAM SMITH
Godbid, William
(d 1679). English music printer. He succeeded Thomas Harper in 1656 and
took over the printing of all of John Playford the elder’s musical
publications until his death in 1679. Godbid was a reliable and
conscientious printer, if not an inspired one. In spite of the fact that the
printing materials he inherited from Thomas Harper dated back over a
generation, and were out of date by the middle of the 17th century, for 23
years Godbid’s press produced the music volumes on which the elder
Playford’s remarkable business was built. He also printed Tomkins’s
Musica Deo sacra in 1668, for which he devised nested type. On his death
in 1679, Godbid’s business in Aldersgate, London, was taken over by his
widow Anne and John Playford the younger. (Humphries-SmithMP;
KrummelEMP)
MIRIAM MILLER
Goddard, Arabella
(b St Servan, St Malo, 12 Jan 1836; d Boulogne, 6 April 1922). English
pianist. At the age of six she went to Paris to study with Kalkbrenner and
after the 1848 revolution came to England where she continued her studies
with Lucy Anderson and Thalberg. She also studied harmony with G.A.
Macfouren, publishing two piano pieces and a ballad in the early 1850s.
Her first London appearance was at Her Majesty’s Theatre on 23 October
1850. Her Philharmonic début was due to take place in 1853 but she
refused to back down when the conductor Michael Costa, engaged in a
long-standing feud with Sterndale Bennett, refused to conduct that
composer’s Concerto in C minor. In 1860 she married the critic j.w.
Davison, with whom she had studied the interpretation of the classics.
Between 1873 and 1876 she toured America, Australia and India. In the
early 1880s she retired from performance but continued to teach,
becoming one of the professors at the Royal College of Music when it
opened in 1883. By 1890, when a benefit concert was organized by
friends, she had fallen into financial difficulties. During much of the second
half of the 19th century Goddard was regarded as England's leading pianist.
Renowned for her high-class repertoire, she had played Beethoven's Piano
Sonata op.106 from memory at one of her earliest appearances and
became one of the first performers to champion his late piano sonatas. Her
technique was widely praised, George Bernard Shaw writing of her
‘wonderful manipulative skill’. (H. Davison: Music during the Victoria Era
from Mendelssohn to Wagner being the memoirs of J.W. Davison, London,
1912)
FRANK HOWES
Goddart.
See Godard.
Godeau, Antoine
(b Dreux, 24 Sept 1605; d Vence, 21 April 1672). French poet and writer.
He was a cousin of Valentin Conrart, a founder-member of the Académie
Française. In his early years he was a member of the brilliant circle centred
on the Hôtel de Rambouillet, Paris. About the age of 30 he became
convinced that he should follow a religious vocation. He began to
paraphrase the psalms in verse while preparing for the priesthood, into
which he was received on 6 May 1636. Six weeks later Richelieu appointed
him Bishop of Grasse. He spent most of his time in his see – which in 1638
was merged with the adjacent see of Vence – and carried out his apostolic
duties assiduously. He devoted nearly all his spare time to reading and
poetry and completed the task that he had begun in Paris of paraphrasing
the 150 psalms. The work appeared as Paraphrase des pseaumes de
David, en vers français (Paris, 1648). In a long preface he outlined a
programme of missionary apostleship based on the use of his
paraphrases. He considered music the best vehicle for spreading the
gospel and invited composers to provide settings of his words that would
be easy to sing, like the settings written at the time of the Reformation for
the translations of the psalms by Marot and Bèze.
King Louis XIII had composed melodies for four of the paraphrases before
they were published, but they have not survived. Godeau held them up as
an example to musicians. In 1650 Jacques de Gouy published four-part
settings of the first 50 paraphrases, but they were criticized as being too
academic to be generally popular, and Gouy did not publish his 100 other
settings. The composers who followed Gouy – Aux-Cousteaux, Gobert and
Lardenois – therefore adopted a simple syllabic manner for solo voice in
the style of the Huguenot Psalter. All of these settings, especially Gobert’s,
which were frequently reprinted, were adopted by the Protestants, since
the use by them of Marot’s psalms was a serious punishable offence. After
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, missionaries also used them for their
new converts. The lack of success of Gouy’s settings did not, however,
deter other composers from writing more elaborate settings of Godeau’s
texts: Moulinié included in his Meslanges (1658) two polyphonic settings in
a concertante style, and in 1663 Du Mont published 40 settings for three
and four voices, with instruments; in the early 18th century P.-C. Abeille
composed a setting for two or three voices, continuo and instruments. As
late as 1724 one ‘R.D.B.’ of Aix published in Paris a collection of airs for
solo voice and continuo to texts from Godeau’s book.
Godeau wrote other paraphrases and sacred texts as well as several
works on church history and other ecclesiastical subjects, but the only one
drawn on by musicians was Oeuvres chrestiennes (Paris, 1633).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Cognet: Antoine Godeau, évêque de Grasse et de Vence, un des
premiers membres de l’Académie Française, 1605–1672 (Paris, 1900)
A. Gastoué: Le cantique populaire en France (Lyons, 1924)
D. Launay: ‘A propos du chant des psaumes en français au XVII siècle: La
“Paraphrase des psaumes” de Godeau et ses musiciens’, RdM, l
(1964), 30–75
Y. Giraud, ed.: Antoine Godeau, 1605–1672: de la galanterie à la sainteté,
actes des journées de Grasse (Paris, 1975)
D. Launay: La musique religieuse en France du concile de Trente à 1804
(Paris, 1993)
DENISE LAUNAY/JAMES R. ANTHONY
Godebrye, Jacob
(d Antwerp, 1529). South Netherlandish singer. See Jacotin.
Godecharle [Godecharles,
Godschalck], Eugène (-Charles-
Jean)
(b Brussels, bap. 15 Jan 1742; d Brussels, 26 June 1798). Flemish violinist
and composer. He was the eldest son of Jacques-Antoine Godecharle, a
singer at the royal chapel, 1734–80, and Isabelle Delsart. According to
Fétis he was a chorister at the royal chapel and was then sent to Paris by
Prince Charles of Lorraine to perfect his violin playing. He was attached to
the church of St Géry as a musician, and later became maître de musique
there. In 1770 he became second supernumerary violin at the royal chapel;
some years later, he also directed concerts in Brussels, probably at the
Concert Bourgeois. In 1786, after the death of De Croes, he applied for the
post of maître de musique of the royal chapel. Ignaz Vitzthumb was
appointed, but in 1794, thanks to Doudelet, Vitzthumb’s successor, he was
appointed first violinist there. According to Gerber and Burney he was also
a harpist. His music has been little studied; vander Linden commented on
the variety and textural interest of his chamber works.
His brother Joseph(-Antoine) Godecharle (b Brussels, bap. 17 Jan 1746; d
Brussels, 21 March 1829) was first oboist at the royal chapel from 1766
until the chapel was disbanded in 1794, and in 1768 oboist in the orchestra
at the Brussels Opéra. Another brother, Louis-Joseph-Melchior (b Brussels,
bap. 5 Jan 1749; d Brussels, 8 June 1807), was attached to the church of
St Michel et Ste Gudule as a singer, and was a baritone at the royal chapel
until 1794.
WORKS
6 sinfonie a 4 o 8 partite, 2 vn, va, b, ob, hns, op.2 (Paris, c1765)
6 trios, 2 vn, b, op.3 (Brussels and Paris, c1770/R)
6 quartetti, hp/hpd, vn, va, b, op.4 (Paris, n.d.)
6 quatuor, 2 vn, va, vc, op.6 (Brussels and Paris, n.d.)
Sonata, vn, bc, op.1 (Brussels, n.d.); Symphonie nocturne, orch (Brussels, n.d.); 3
sonatas, hpd, op.5 (Brussels, n.d.); 3 sonatas, hp, vn (Brussels and Paris, n.d.): all
cited by Fétis
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BNB (A. vander Meersch)
BurneyGN
Choron-FayolleD (‘Godschalk’)
EitnerQ
FétisB
GerberL
GerberNL
MGG1 (A. vander Linden)
Vander StraetenMPB, v
VannesD
Almanach nouveau … ou Le guide fidèle (Brussels, 1761–75)
S. Clercx: ‘Les Godecharles, musiciens bruxellois au XVIIIe siècle’,
Mélanges Ernest Closson (Brussels, 1948), 69–80
G. Huybens: ‘Le personnel des maîtrises liturgiques à Bruxelles du XVe au
XVIIIe siècle’, RBM, xxv (1971), 16–45
M. Couvreur, ed.: La Théâtre de la Monnaie au XVIIIe siècle (Brussels,
1996)
PAUL RASPÉ
Godecharle [Godecharles,
Godschalck], Lambert-François
(b Brussels, bap. 12 Feb 1753; d Brussels, 20 Oct 1819). Flemish singer
and composer, brother of Eugène Godecharle and fifth son of Jacques-
Antoine. According to Fétis, he was a chorister at the royal chapel and
studied composition with De Croes. He was employed at the royal chapel
from 1778 as a bass singer, and held the post until the chapel was
dissolved in 1794. He was also a musician at the church of St Nicolas,
where he succeeded his father as maître de musique. He was nominated a
member of the Institut des Pays-Bas in 1817 (Fétis). He composed several
sacred works; vander Linden noted their italianate, theatrical style and their
elaborate rhythmic treatment, figuration and instrumental writing.
Eugène Godecharle
WORKS
in B-Bc
PAUL RASPÉ
Godefroy, François
(b Saint Samson, 1740; d Brussels, 24 Dec 1806). French bookseller,
publisher and agent, active in Brussels. First a seller of engravings, he
became one of the principal music sellers in Brussels from 1774. He
published the works of Honauer, Pauwels and G. Ferrari, and made a
request to the Milan engraver C.G. Barbieri to publish the works of C.-L.-J.
André. Godefroy was also the Brussels agent for numerous Parisian
publishers, his name appearing on the title-page of publications by La
Chevardière (for the works of Anfossi and Paisiello), Sieber (Cramer,
Haydn, Kammel), Durieu (Dalayrac), Heina (Eichner, J.A. Lorenziti,
Vanhal), Mmes Le Menu and Boyer (J.H. Schröter), J.-P. Deroullède (B.
Lorenziti, Pieltain, Anton Stamitz), Mondhare (Staes), Bailleux (Chevalier
de Saint-Georges) and Camand (Jean Cremont). Being the Brussels agent
for Heina, Godefroy was the first to distribute the music of Mozart in
Brussels with a Parisian edition of the op.4 piano sonatas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Raspé and H. Vanhulst: ‘L'édition musicale’, La musique en Wallonie et
à Bruxelles, ed. R. Wangermée and P. Mercier (Brussels, 1980), i,
301–5
P. Raspé: ‘Les débuts de la gravure musicale à Bruxelles, à la fin de
l'Ancien Régime’, Annales d'Histoire de l'Art et d'Archéologie, ii (1980),
123–31
M. Cornaz: L'édition et la diffusion de la musique à Bruxelles au XVIIIe
siècle (diss., U. Libre de Bruxelles, 1996)
MARIE CORNAZ
Godescalcus Lintpurgensis.
See Gottschalk of Aachen.
Godfrey.
English family of bandmasters and conductors.
(1) Charles Godfrey (i)
(2) Dan(iel) Godfrey (i)
(3) (Adolphus) Fred(erick) Godfrey
(4) Charles Godfrey (ii)
(5) Charles (George) Godfrey (iii)
(6) Sir Dan(iel Eyers) Godfrey (ii)
(7) Arthur (Eugene) Godfrey
(8) Dan (Stuart) Godfrey (iii)
E.D. MACKERNESS
Godfrey
(1) Charles Godfrey (i)
(b Kingston-upon-Thames, 22 Nov 1790; d London, 12 Dec 1863). He was
originally a drummer in the 1st Royal Surrey Militia, and was posted to the
Coldstream Guards, where he played the bassoon in the band and became
bandmaster in 1825. Although discharged from military duties in 1834, he
maintained his connection with the regiment as a civilian. He was
appointed musician-in-ordinary to the king in 1831, and edited one of the
earliest military band publications, Jullien’s Military Journal (1847).
Godfrey
(2) Dan(iel) Godfrey (i)
(b London, 4 Sept 1831; d Beeston, Notts., 30 June 1903). Son of (1)
Charles Godfrey (i). He trained as a flautist at the RAM and played under
his father. He was bandmaster of the Grenadier Guards from 1856 to 1896.
In 1872 he took the guards’ band to the International Peace Festival at
Boston, Massachusetts, sharing the conducting with P.S. Gilmore. In 1887
he became the first army bandmaster to receive a commission (Hon. 2nd
Lieutenant). When he retired in 1896 he formed his own band and in 1898
toured the USA and Canada. He arranged music for military bands and his
own marches, quadrilles and waltzes were very popular. He also founded a
musical instrument business (Dan Godfrey Sons) in the Strand, London.
Godfrey
(3) (Adolphus) Fred(erick) Godfrey
(b London, 1837; d London, 28 Aug 1882). Son of (1) Charles Godfrey (i).
He was educated at the RAM and succeeded his father as bandmaster of
the Coldstream Guards in 1863, from which post he retired in 1880. He
was well known as an arranger, and his collections of musical
Reminiscences (of Auber, Verdi, etc.) are still in use. (R.F. Camus: ‘Some
Nineteenth-Century Band Journals’, Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von
Wolfgang Suppan (Tutzing, 1993), 335–48)
Godfrey
(4) Charles Godfrey (ii)
(b London, 17 Jan 1839; d London, 5 April 1919). Son of (1) Charles
Godfrey (i). He studied under Macfarren and Lazarus at the RAM and
played in Jullien’s orchestra, with which he went on tour. In 1859 he joined
the Scots Fusiliers as bandmaster, leaving for a similar post with the Royal
Horse Guards (1868–1904), in which he was commissioned Lieutenant
(1899). He was professor of military music at the GSM and for 16 years
adjudicated at the Belle Vue band contests in Manchester. His numerous
compositions and arrangements are well known; he edited the Army
Military Band Journal and founded the Orpheus Band Journal.
Godfrey
(5) Charles (George) Godfrey (iii)
(b London, 2 Dec 1866; d London, 24 July 1935). Son of (4) Charles
Godfrey (ii). He was educated at the RAM and was bandmaster to the
Corps of Commissionaires (1887) and conductor of the Crystal Palace
Military Band from 1889 to 1897. He was also musical director at Buxton
Spa (1897 and 1898) and at the Spa, Scarborough (1899–1909). From
1911 to 1924 he directed the Royal Parks Band at Hyde Park, London.
Godfrey
(6) Sir Dan(iel Eyers) Godfrey (ii)
(b London, 20 June 1868; d Bournemouth, 20 July 1939). Son of (2) Dan
Godfrey (i). After leaving the RAM he succeeded (4) Charles Godfrey (ii) as
bandmaster to the Corps of Commissionaires, and in 1889 became
conductor of the (civilian) London Military Band. In 1891 he left for
Johannesburg to direct an opera company at the Standard Theatre, and on
his return in 1893 undertook to organize a band for the Winter Gardens,
Bournemouth. This was later augmented to become the Bournemouth
Municipal Orchestra, of which Godfrey remained conductor until he retired
in 1934. Despite heavy administrative commitments and conducting
engagements elsewhere, he maintained a high standard of performance
not only of works from the conventional repertory (as well as neglected
symphonies by composers such as Bruch, Raff, Svendsen and Saint-
Saëns) but also of important works by British composers. Parry, Stanford,
Elgar, Ethel Smyth and Mackenzie were all invited to conduct at
Bournemouth, and after the formation of a municipal choir (with 250
members) in 1911 the Winter Gardens festivals became famous. Godfrey
was knighted in 1922 and elected FRAM in 1923. His Memories and Music
(London, 1924) is informative on several aspects of the ‘English musical
renaissance’. (G. Miller: The Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra
(Sherborne, 1970), 10, 17)
Godfrey
(7) Arthur (Eugene) Godfrey
(b London, 28 Sept 1868; d London, 23 Feb 1939). Son of (4) Charles
Godfrey (ii). He was a chorister at St Paul’s Cathedral and later studied at
the RAM. He was a versatile composer and arranger of light music and his
musical comedy Little Miss Nobody (1898) ran for a long time at the Lyric
Theatre, London. He had a considerable reputation as an accompanist,
and also acted as an adviser to publishing firms; from 1921 to 1929 he was
musical director at the Alhambra Theatre, Glasgow.
Godfrey
(8) Dan (Stuart) Godfrey (iii)
(b London, 21 May 1893; d Durban, 24 April 1935). Son of (6) Dan Godfrey
(ii). He was usually called ‘Dan Godfrey jnr.’. He was educated at
Sherborne School and the RAM and enlisted in the Coldstream Guards
with the intention of becoming a bandmaster. After service in World War I,
he conducted orchestras at Harrogate and St Leonards-on-Sea. He was
appointed director of the BBC’s first Manchester station and in 1925 moved
to a similar post at Savoy Hill, London, where he frequently conducted the
London Wireless Orchestra. In 1928 he became musical director to the
corporation of Durban.
Godimel, Claude.
See Goudimel, Claude.
Godowsky, Leopold [Leonid]
(b Soshly, nr Vilnius, 13 Feb 1870; d New York, 21 Nov 1938). American
pianist and composer of Polish birth. Following the death of his father, he
exhibited a precocious aptitude for music under the guidance of foster-
parents in Vilnius. By the age of five he had already started to compose, as
well as being proficient on both piano and violin. He gave his first piano
recital when he was nine and subsequently toured throughout Lithuania
and East Prussia. After studying briefly with Ernst Rudorff at the Berlin
Hochschule für Musik he left for America, where he made his first
appearance, in Boston, in 1884. In 1885 he appeared in a series of
concerts at the New York Casino, and the following year toured the north-
eastern USA and Canada with the violinist Ovide Musin. From 1887 to
1890 he was a protégé of Saint-Saëns in Paris, supporting himself by
playing in fashionable salons both there and in London. On his return to the
USA in 1890 he joined the staff of the New York College of Music, and later
held teaching posts in Philadelphia and Chicago. During the 1890s he
formulated his theories regarding the application of relaxed weight and
economy of motion in piano playing; he also started to make concert
arrangements of other composers' works, including the first of his studies
on the études of Chopin.
Godowsky's appearance at the Beethoven Hall, Berlin, on 6 December
1900 established his reputation not only as a consummate virtuoso, but
also as one of the most remarkable composers then writing for the piano.
He took up residence in Berlin, from where, until 1909, he embarked on
annual European tours. From 1909 until 1914 he was director of the
Klaviermeisterschule of the Akademie der Tonkunst in Vienna, in
succession to Sauer and Busoni, returning to the USA for concert tours
between 1912 and 1914, as well as making his first gramophone
recordings. Godowsky remained in America until 1922, when he embarked
on an extended tour of East Asia, including a visit to Java which was to
provide the inspiration for the Java Suite (Phonoramas) written on his
return to the USA; during this tour he also undertook a major series of
Bach transcriptions. The years 1926–30 saw the publication of numerous
other transcriptions, including the 12 Schubert songs, and original
compositions, as well as a return to the European concert stage. In 1928
he began a series of recordings in London, including major works by
Beethoven, Schumann, Grieg and Chopin. In 1930, however, while
recording Chopin's E major Scherzo, Godowsky suffered a stroke which
left him partially paralysed; his remaining years were overshadowed by
material anxieties, exacerbated by personal tragedy.
Although informed listeners detected a degree of reserve in his public
performances, in private his colleagues would marvel not only at his
legendary technical command, but also at a dramatic power and depth of
poetic feeling encountered neither in concert nor on his surviving
recordings, except, perhaps, for his reading of the Grieg Ballade. As a
composer, Godowsky was essentially a traditionalist: his harmonic
language derives from Brahms, Chopin and Liszt, while the epic
dimensions of his five-movement E minor Sonata and the sumptuous
quasi-orchestral textures of the symphonic metamorphoses owe more to
Wagner and Richard Strauss. Although Godowsky felt that his most mature
compositions were the Suite for the left hand and the Passacaglia (on the
opening eight bars of Schubert's ‘Unfinished’ Symphony), it was through
his intricately polyphonic transcriptions, especially the 53 Studies on the
études of Chopin, that he became most widely known as a composer.
Like Busoni, who observed that, besides himself, Godowsky was the only
composer to have added anything of significance to keyboard writing since
Liszt, Godowsky was essentially an auto-didact who had developed his
methods by empirical means – his principles of weight release as distinct
from purely muscular momentum were further propagated through the
teachings of his former student, Heinrich Neuhaus. The fin de siècle
chromaticisms and dense contrapuntal textures of Godowsky's music
found little favour with the postwar generation; however, during the 1970s a
revival of interest in the Romantic performance tradition brought about a re-
evaluation of his achievements, and the subsequent reappearance of a
number of his major works in print, on record and in concert further attests
to his rehabilitation as one of the seminal figures of 20th-century pianism.
WORKS
(selective list)
piano
Moto perpetuo, Grande valse romantique, Valse-scherzo, Märchen, Polonaise
(1888–9); 3 concert studies, op.11 (1899; no.2 unpubd); Sarabande, Menuet,
Courante, op.12 (1899); Toccata, G , op.13 (1899) [rev. of Moto perpetuo (1889)];
piano pieces, opp.14, 15, 16 (1899); Sonata, e (1911); Walzermasken, 24
Tonfantasien im Dreivierteltakt für Klavier (1912); 46 miniatures, pf 4 hands (1918);
Triakontameron, 30 moods and scenes in triple measure (1920); Java Suite (1925);
4 poems (1927–32); Passacaglia (1928); Prelude and Fugue, pf LH (1930); Waltz
poems, pf LH (1930); Méditation, Etude macabre, Impromptu, Intermezzo, Elegy,
Capriccio, pf LH (1930–31) [also versions for two hands]
transcriptions, paraphrases and arrangements
Renaissance, transcrs of works by Rameau and others (1906–9); Tango (Albéniz),
D (1921); Triana (Albéniz) (1938); 3 sonatas for solo vn (J.S. Bach), g, b, a; 3 suites
for solo vc (J.S. Bach), d, C, c (1924); Adagietto from L'Arlésienne (Bizet) (1927);
Arrangement de Concert du rondo, op.16 (Chopin) (1899); Paraphrase de Concert,
Valse, op.18 (Chopin) (1899); 53 studies on the Chopin études (1894–1914); 5
concert arrangements of Chopin waltzes (1921–7); Canzonetta from Violin
Concerto Romantique (Godard) (1927); Etude (Henselt), F op.2 no.6 (1899, rev.
1931); Le cygne (Saint-Saëns) (1927); Ballet music from Rosamunde (Schubert)
(1923); Moment musical, op.94 no.3 (Schubert) (1927); 12 Songs (Schubert)
(1927); 3 Symphonische Metamorphosen Johann Strauss'scher Themen (1912);
Symphonic Metamorphosis of the Schatz-Walzer themes from J. Strauss's Der
Zigeunerbaron, pf LH (1941); Ständchen, op.17 no.2 (R. Strauss) (1922);
Perpetuum mobile (Weber) (1903); Momento capriccioso, op.12 (Weber) (1904);
Aufforderung zum Tanz (Weber), 2 pf (1905, rev. 1922)
Principal publishers: C. Fischer, Schirmer, Schlesinger
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Aronson: A Key to the Miniatures of Leopold Godowsky (New York,
1935)
K.S. Sorabji: ‘Leopold Godowsky as Creative Transcriber’, Mi contra fa
(London, 1947), 62–70
L.S. Saxe: ‘The Published Music of Leopold Godowsky’, Notes, xiv (1956–
7), 165–74 [with complete list of works]
J. Nicholas: Godowsky, the Pianists' Pianist (Hexham, 1989)
C. Hopkins: Leopold Godowsky (forthcoming)
CHARLES HOPKINS
Godric
(b Hanapol [?Walpole], Norfolk, c1069; d Finchale, nr Durham, 21 May
1170). English saint and hermit. He reputedly composed some of the
earliest metrical rhymed English songs to have survived with their music. A
full account of his life is given by Archer. As a young man he travelled
widely. About 1115 he moved to a solitary hermitage at Finchale on the
Wear, near Durham, and for some 60 years lived a life of incredible
asceticism, during which time he was favoured with a number of visions. In
these he heard the Virgin Mary, St Mary Magdalen, St Peter, St Nicholas of
Bari and his own deceased sister Burchwine singing various songs that
they taught him, and which he sang to his future biographers. In two early
manuscripts of the Libellus of Reginald of Durham and a digest of it –
though not in the earliest – three of the songs appear with musical notation
(there are many other copies, including translations into Latin, without
music). The melodies are written as monophonies in square and rhomboid
notes: Sainte Marie virgine moder alone (without its second verse) appears
in the 12th-century GB-Lbl Harl.322; it is copied complete, with the other
two surviving songs, in an early 13th-century hand in GB-Lbl Roy.5.F.VII.
Since Godric was ‘omnino ignarus musicae’ (‘entirely ignorant of music’),
these copies must represent a more learned musician's interpretation of
what he sang, possibly at several removes from and some time later than
his original performances. The music for Kyrieleyson: Crist and Sainte
Marie does not quite correspond with the literary accounts of the vision,
where the verse precedes the Kyrie; Sainte Marie, as noted, seems to
have gained a second stanza over the years. Welcume Symond (described
in Stevenson, 306) is lost and was never copied out in full. Sainte
Nicholaes, Godes drudh was presumably sung during the vision of St
Nicholas described by Reginald of Durham (see Stevenson, 202; the
melody resembles that of Sainte Marie). In melody and metre the songs
appear to imitate the style of certain Latin hymns, such as those of St
Anselm (d 1109). The litany-like invocations of the Angels in Crist and
Sainte Marie resemble parts of the Sarum Kyrie ‘Deus sempiterne’, though
it is hard to agree with Reese that the melody of the verse is an elaboration
of the plainsong phrases that frame it. (All three songs with music are ed. in
Trend and in Dobson and Harrison.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DNB (T.A. Archer)
ReeseMMA
J. Stevenson, ed.: Reginald of Durham: Libellus de vita et miraculis S.
Godrici, Surtees Society, xx (Durham, 1847)
S. Baring-Gould: The Lives of the Saints (London, 1872–89, rev. 2/1897–
8), 322ff
J. Zupitza: ‘Cantus Beati Godrici’, Englische Studien, xi (1888), 401–32
[standard critical edn]
G.E.B. Saintsbury: History of English Prosody from the Twelfth Century to
the Present Day, i (London, 1906, 2/1923/R) [incl. facs. of Crist and
Sainte Marie]
J.W. Rankin: ‘The Hymns of St Godric’, Publications of the Modern
Language Association of America, xxxviii (1923), 699–711
J.B. Trend: ‘The First English Songs’, ML, ix (1928), 111–28 [free-rhythm
transcr. with glossary]
E.J. Dobson and F.Ll. Harrison, eds.: Medieval English Songs (London,
1979)
BRIAN TROWELL
Godschalck, Eugène.
See Godecharle, Eugène.
Godschalck, Lambert-François.
See Godecharle, Lambert-François.
Godymel, Claude.
See Goudimel, Claude.
ELAINE BARKIN/R
Goebbels, Heiner
(b Neustadt an der Weinstrasse, 17 April 1952). German composer. He
spent his childhood in Landau in der Pfalz and in 1972 moved to Frankfurt,
where he completed a degree in sociology in 1975. In 1976 he co-founded
the Sogenannten Linksradikalen Blasorchesters, which existed until 1981,
and the experimental Duo Heiner Goebbels/Alfred Harth, in which he
performed until 1988. From 1978 to 1980 he was the musical director of
the Frankfurt Schauspiel, and in 1982 he founded the experimental rock
group Cassiber.
Goebbels's compositions reflect his interests in theatre, noise, jazz, rock
and critical views of the concert hall. His works have been much influenced
by film, montage being a favourite technique; in Surrogate Cities, for
example, a recording of Jewish chant is superimposed on the symphony
orchestra. The ballet Red Run, which includes sections of improvised
material and choreography for the musicians, was the first of several
compositions on which Goebbels collaborated with the Ensemble Modern.
He has also directed his own theatre and radio plays, frequently setting
texts by Heiner Müller. He won the Prix Italia for the third time in 1996 for
his radio play Roman Dogs.
WORKS
(selective list)
Dramatic: Verkommes Ufer (radio play, H. Müller), 1984; Die Befreiung des
Prometheus (radio play, Müller), 1985; Tränen des Vaterlands (ballet), 1986–7; Red
Run (ballet, choreog. A. Müller), fl, b cl, tpt, trbn, tuba, perc, pf + sampler, elec gui,
vn, vc, db + elec b, 1988–91, Frankfurt, 3 April 1988; Befreiung (concert scene,
after R. Goetz), nar, ens, 1989; Newtons Casino (music theatre, Goebbels and M.
Simon, after H. Schliemann, Homer, H. Berlioz and others), 1990, Frankfurt, 16 Dec
1990; Black on White (Schwarz auf Weiss) (music theatre, E.A. Poe, J. Webster,
T.S. Eliot and M. Blanchot), 1996, Frankfurt, 14 March 1996; Roman Dogs (Der
Horatier) (radio play, T. Livius, P. Corneille, W. Faulkner and Müller), 1996
Other: La jalousie, nar, ens, 1991; Herakles 2, 5 brass, perc, sampler, 1992;
Surrogate Cities, 8 movts, orch, 1993–4 [movts can be perf. independently];
Industry and Idleness, chbr orch, 1996; Nichts Weiter, orch, 1996
Goebel, Reinhard
(b Siegen, Westphalia, 31 July 1952). German violinist and conductor. He
studied the violin with Franz-Josef Maier, Saschko Gawriloff and Marie
Leonhardt. In 1973 he founded the instrumental ensemble Musica Antiqua
Köln, with which he has appeared both as soloist and director. As a result
of injury to his right hand he abandoned his career as a solo violinist,
although, having taught himself to bow with the left hand, he is able to play
with his ensemble. With Musica Antiqua Köln Goebel has toured
extensively, making his UK début at the Queen Elizabeth Hall, London, in
1978. The group has recorded prolifically and has made valuable
contributions to the revival of German music of the late 17th and early 18th
centuries. Goebel’s attention to stylistic detail together with a rigorous
technical discipline have given his ensemble a distinctive character. His
preference for brisk tempos, particularly evident in his performances and
recording of Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos, has given rise to controversy.
His other recordings with Musica Antiqua Köln include concertos and
orchestral suites by Bach and Telemann, vocal music of the Bach family
and by Dresden court composers, notably Heinichen.
NICHOLAS ANDERSON
Goehr.
British family of musicians.
(1) Walter Goehr [Walter, George]
(2) (Peter) Alexander Goehr
(3) Lydia Goehr
ARTHUR JACOBS (1), NICHOLAS WILLIAMS (2), NAOMI CUMMING (3)
Goehr
(1) Walter Goehr [Walter, George]
(b Berlin, 28 May 1903; d Sheffield, 4 Dec 1960). Conductor and composer
of German birth. In Britain he was known professionally as George Walter
until 1948. Of those musicians of Jewish origin who went to Britain as
refugees from Nazi Germany, Goehr was one of the most prominent in
encouraging younger British composers and in promoting the acceptance
of Schoenberg, Eisler and other composers from his own rooted tradition.
He was for some time a pupil of Schoenberg at the Prussian Academy of
Arts in Berlin. In London he was musical director for the Columbia
Graphophone Company, 1933–9, conductor of the Morley College concerts
from 1943 until his death, and conductor of the BBC Theatre Orchestra,
1945–8. He conducted in London the first performances of Britten’s
Serenade (with Peter Pears and Dennis Brain) in 1943, Tippett’s A Child of
our Time (1944) and Seiber’s Ulysses (1949). Before leaving Germany he
had been a conductor for Berlin Radio (1925–31). He composed a
symphony, a radio opera Malpopita, incidental music for theatre and films
and much chamber music. A Monteverdi enthusiast before the vogue for
that composer, he edited Poppea and the Vespers of 1610.
Goehr
(2) (Peter) Alexander Goehr
(b Berlin, 10 August 1932). Composer of German birth, son of (1) Walter
Goehr. His music, conceived in terms of the received genres, often
engages dialectically with his theoretical concerns, and he has made a
significant contribution to a clearer understanding of the role of the
composer in modern society.
1. Life.
2. Works.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Goehr, (2): Alexander Goehr
1. Life.
Goehr's family moved to Britain from Germany when he was a few months
old. His early upbringing – his father was the conductor Walter Goehr, his
mother Laelia a classically trained pianist – proved a formative influence.
Tippett, Seiber and others were frequent visitors to the home, and with
Walter a leading figure at Morley College and a pioneering conductor of
Monteverdi and Messiaen, the Goehr household was a focus for much that
was exciting in postwar British music. Influenced, no doubt, by its
challenging atmosphere, Goehr abandoned a scholarship to read classics
at Oxford and chose instead to study music with Richard Hall at the Royal
Manchester College of Music. There, with fellow students Birtwistle,
Maxwell Davies and John Ogdon, he founded the New Music Manchester
Group. He spent the academic year 1955–6 in Paris, attending Messiaen's
masterclass at the Conservatoire while studying counterpoint privately with
Yvonne Loriod. Meanwhile, in 1954, his Piano Sonata had been performed
at the Darmstadt summer course, followed two years later by his Fantasia
for orchestra.
Goehr worked in London as a copyist and translator until 1960, when he
joined the BBC as a programme producer of orchestral concerts. Rapidly
acquiring notice as a leading figure in progressive musical circles,
especially with the première of the cantata The Deluge in 1959, he won
both fame and notoriety for a sequence of ambitious symphonic and choral
works. With Birtwistle and Maxwell Davies he organized the Wardour
Castle Summer Schools of Music in 1964 and 1965. In 1967 he became
musical director of the Music Theatre Ensemble. His first opera, Arden
muss sterben, was produced in Hamburg in 1967. He spent the summer of
the following year in Tokyo on a Churchill Scholarship. For the academic
year 1968–9 he was composer-in-residence at the New England
Conservatoire, Boston, and for the following year, assistant professor of
music at Yale. Goehr's return to Britain as visiting lecturer at Southampton
University (1970–71) signalled his new-found role in British academic life.
His appointment as West Riding Professor at Leeds University (1971–6)
consolidated this new commitment, which was crowned with his period as
professor of music at Cambridge University (1976–99), where he instituted
important changes to the tripos. To an already distinguished roster of
composition students that included Anthony Gilbert, Robin Holloway, Peter
Paul Nash, Bayan Northcott and Roger Smalley, he added many leading
names from a younger generation including George Benjamin, Julian
Anderson and Thomas Adès.
Goehr's music has never lacked an international context, and it has been
performed by some of the world's leading performers, including the
conductors Boulez, Dohnányi, Dorati, Haitink, Knussen, Ozawa and Rattle,
and solo executants Barenboim, Du Pré, Karine Georgian, Ogdon,
Parikian, Peter Serkin, Ricci and Tabea Zimmermann. Goehr was invited to
China in 1976 to advise on curriculum reform at the Shanghai
Conservatory of Music. In a long association with the Tanglewood Music
Center, Boston, he was guest composer in 1987, and composer-in-
residence in 1993. A noted broadcaster, his landmark four-part radio series
‘Modern Music and Society’ subsequently formed part of his selected
writings Finding the Key (1998); he was also the BBC Reith Lecturer
(1987). Goehr is an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts
and Letters, and in 1973 was the first recipient of the University of
Southampton's honorary doctorate in music.
Goehr, (2): Alexander Goehr
2. Works.
Despite being a comparatively late starter musically, when Goehr finally
decided to become a composer he swiftly and with impressive self-
confidence established the coordinates of his subsequent creative
direction. Although not always encouraging towards his son's compositional
efforts, Walter Goehr was nonetheless an important catalyst in his artistic
development, whether in his role as a former member of Schoenberg's
Berlin class or as a conductor who pioneered the Monteverdi revival, gave
several Tippett premières and, perhaps most importantly, directed the first
British performance of Messiaen's Turangalîla-symphonie in 1953. Also
influential in defining the young Goehr's range of interests was Richard
Hall, whose enthusiasms ranged from ragas to Krenek via modality and the
theories of Joseph Schillinger. The experience of Darmstadt and
encounters with Boulez in 1955–6 were further significant inspirations, with
Goehr responding warmly to the spirit of adventurous demarcation of
untried limits. The confrontation of modernism with more conservative
expectations of music-making encountered in the débâcle of his Leeds
Festival cantata Sutter's Gold (1959–60), spurred on his dialectical frame
of mind to conceive of a synthesis of modernism with the no less valid
lessons of tradition.
Goehr's works of the late 1950s and early 60s, including the Suite, op.11,
the orchestral Hecuba's Lament (1959–61) and the Violin Concerto (1961–
2), certainly displayed a most unmodernistic facility for exploiting the
possibilities of the standard genres in a progressive context. Furthermore,
in the Two Choruses (1962), written in memory of Eisler, and the Little
Symphony (1963), a musical memorial to his father, Goehr evolved a highly
personal working method that mixed combinatorial serialism with modality
and ‘bloc sonore’ techniques. This made possible a flexible and open-
minded approach to a diversity of harmonic and contrapuntal methods from
a broadly based structural perspective. Exploring a variety of models
ranging from sonata and variation form to miniatures, Goehr's music
proceeded to propound over the next 15 years the rich possibilities of his
system, while encompassing the major symphonic and operatic genres in a
commanding way. Thus, while the magisterial Symphony in One Movement
(1969) suggested many moods within its continuous half-hour span,
Pastorals (1965) explored a world of dark tragedy that was offset by the
sparkling jeux d'esprit of Metamorphosis/Dance (1973–4), the product of
sophisticated modelling techniques derived from formal proportions
originating in late Beethoven. The remarkable temporal control already
exhibited in the two-movement Piano Trio (1966) dispelled any doubts that
such flexibility of approach could be achieved by the ‘generative grammar’
of Goehr's serial modality. As for the musical parodies and distortions
revealed in his first opera, Arden muss sterben, a Brechtian morality, and
the ritual atmospheres of the subsequent music theatre Triptych (1968–70),
these showed the fusion of Goehr's uniquely musical instincts with a no
less innate dramatic talent.
The appearance in 1976 of the explicitly modal, white-note setting of Psalm
iv immediately following the assured serial modality of the String Quartet
no.3 perplexed many who admired the unity of style achieved in Goehr's
works of the preceding 17 years, and whose ears had grown accustomed
to the prevailing post-Schoenbergian nuances of his music up to then.
Subsequently, however, the rapidly changing outlook of the avant garde
over the last three decades of the 20th century has not only vindicated
Goehr's boldness in moving away from the artist's injunction to perpetual
innovation through quasi-scientific experiment, but also showed the
consistency of the move within the context of his own thinking and in
particular his predilection for artistic synthesis. The critics’ chief complaint
was that an avant-garde composer should revert to the writing of fugues,
not only in the Fugue on the Notes of the Fourth Psalm (1976), but also in
Babylon the Great is Fallen (1979) for chorus and orchestra, and in the
major work of the period, Goehr's second opera Behold the Sun (1981–4).
But with hindsight, the radical and significant feature of these works lay in
the composer's rediscovery (in part through an appraisal of the writings of
C.P.E. Bach) of a means of composing that renewed the figured bass as
the way to assert harmonic and formal control throughout a movement;
and, indeed, extended the range of the combinatorial mode of thinking that
had proved of central significance since his early works.
That the result need in no way revert to existing notions of neo-classical or
period style was shown in the contrasting sounds of the Romanza on the
Notes of the Fourth Psalm (1977) and the Kafka-inspired song cycle Das
Gesetz der Quadrille (1979). Moreover, Goehr, with typical verve,
proceeded to show the flexible application of his new technique to a variety
of compositional situations evoking different kinds of tonalities and
engagements with past music in a series of ambitious scores composed
over the next decade. Sinfonia (1979) recalls sonata-variation and chorale;
Deux Etudes (1980–81) involves the orchestral composing-out both of
musical models of his own devising and extra-musical concepts; the
Sonata for cello and piano (1984) ranges highly disparate types of material
within a unifying background; … a musical offering (J.S.B. 1985) …, written
for the Bach tricentenary celebrations, sees the interaction of past and
present; and the Symphony with Chaconne (1985–6) and Eve Dreams in
Paradise (1987–8) explore in music notions of confinement and finality, and
eroticism respectively.
Such powerful evocations of mood and feeling are not uncommon in
Goehr's work, even if his conviction that the real subject-matter of music is
to be found in its own processes, material and history makes him a rare
example of a contemporary composer standing on the absolute side of that
aesthetic dichotomy whose reverse is the programmatical. Tone painting
and external scenarios, albeit emblematic rather than naturalistic,
nonetheless apply in his work: in the stylized birdsong, for example, of the
cantata Sing, Ariel (1989–90), and the expressive language of
Metamorphosis/Dance. With a range of sometimes trenchant, sometimes
plangent chord types and rhythmical gestures, no doubt instinctively
selected, that have remained constant over many changes of technical
emphasis, they form elements of a sensuous surface of his music that for
over four decades has remained the distinctive utterance of this composer.
That voice spoke at no time more directly than in Goehr's works of the
1990s, the product of a richly fertile late middle period where the powerful
urgency of early pieces such as the Little Symphony was reconceived
within a broad and humanely rational regard for the currency of ideas.
Typically in works of this period, he combines the embrace of inspiration
from painting or literature with the solving of musical problems. The
orchestral Collosus or Panic (1991–2), after Goya, concerns the dramatic
relationship between movements of strongly contrasting durations, while
Schlussgesang (1996), for viola and orchestra, involves the application of
disparate proportions to form in a way suggested by the Kafka notebooks.
In the quintet Five Objects Darkly (1996) the title comes from the painter
Giorgio Morandi, but the objects themselves are various arrangements of a
fragment of music by Musorgsky. Characteristically, too, in works of this
decade, Goehr continued to bring new thoughts to topics of enduring
fascination for him: variation form, for example, in Idées fixes (1997), and
modes of musical continuity in Uninterrupted Movement (1995) for massed
cellos. It was in larger scores of the period, however, that the composer
fulfilled himself in many ways. While the oratorio The Death of Moses
(1991–2) aligned the spirit of Monteverdi with Goehr's Schoenbergian
inheritance, referring also to his own controversial earlier choral works,
Arianna (1994–5), a ‘lost opera by Claudio Monteverdi composed again by
Alexander Goehr’, displayed both his abiding fascination with the Italian
composer and his interest in Baroque theatre and figured bass. In Kantan
and Damask Drum (1997–8), the nō theatre that had proved influential in
the creation of the Triptych was again invoked in the context of Goehr's
fourth opera, though typically not as direct re-creation, but as contemporary
theatre combining new and old in a way that is unique to this composer.
Goehr, (2): Alexander Goehr
WORKS
dramatic
Op.
– La belle dame sans merci (ballet, 1, after Janequin and Le Jeune), large/small
orch, 1958
21 Arden muss sterben (op, 2, E. Fried, after 16th-century anon: Arden of
Faversham), 1966; Hamburg, Staatsoper, 5 March 1967
25 Naboth's Vineyard (dramatic madrigal, after Bible: 1 Kings xxi), Mez, T, B, fl +
pic + a fl, cl + b cl, b trbn, pf duet, vn, db, 1968; London, Cripplegate Theatre,
16 July1968 [pt 1 of Triptych]
30 Shadowplay (music theatre, K. Cavander, after Plato: Republic, bk 7), T, spkr, a
fl, a sax, hn, vc, pf, 1970; London, City Temple Theatre, 8 July 1970 [pt 2 of
Triptych]
31 Sonata about Jerusalem (cant., R. Freier, Goehr, after Obadiah the Proselyte:
Autobiography, Samuel de Yahya ben al Maghribi: Chronicle), S, B, spkr,
female chorus, 9 insts, 1970; Tel-Aviv, Jan 1971 [pt 3 of Triptych]
– Bauern, Bomben und Bonzen (film score, dir. E. Monk, after H. Fallada), chbr
orch, 1973
44 Behold the Sun (Die Wiedertäufer) (op, 3, J. McGrath, Goehr), 1981–4;
Duisburg, 19 April 1985
58 Arianna (op, O. Rinuccini), after lost op by Monteverdi, 1994–5; London, CG, 15
Sept 1995
67 Kantan and Damask Drum (Japanese op, Goehr, after Zeami and Sarugai
Koto), 1997–8; Dortmund, 19 Sept 1999
orchestral
4 Fantasia, 1954, rev. 1959
12 Hecuba's Lament, 1959–61
13 Violin Concerto, 1961–2
15 Little Symphony, small orch, 1963
16 Little Music, str, 1963
19 Pastorals, 1965
21a Three Pieces from ‘Arden Must Die’, wind, hp, perc, 1967
24 Romanza, vc, orch, 1968
26 Konzertstück, pf, small orch, 1969
29 Symphony in One Movement, 1969, rev. 1981
33 Piano Concerto, 1972
36 Metamorphosis/Dance, 1973–4
38b Fugue on the Notes of the Fourth Psalm, str, 1976
38c Romanza on the Notes of the Fourth Psalm, 2 solo vn, 2 solo va, str, 1977
42 Sinfonia, chbr orch, 1979
43 Deux études, 1980–81
48 Symphony with Chaconne, 1985–6
– Still Lands, 3 pieces, small orch, 1988–90
55 Colossos or Panic, sym. fragment after Goya, 1991–2
57 Cambridge Hocket, 4 hn, orch, 1993
61 Schlussgesang, 6 pieces, va, orch, 1996
vocal
1 Songs of Babel (Byron), 1951, unpubd
7 The Deluge (cant., after L. da Vinci), S, C, fl, hn, tpt, hp, vn, va, vc, db, 1957–8
9 Four Songs from the Japanese (after L. Hearn), Mez, pf/orch, 1959
10 Sutter's Gold (cant., after S.M. Eisenstein), B, chorus, orch, 1959–60
– A Little Cantata of Proverbs (W. Blake), chorus, pf, 1962
14 Two Choruses (J. Milton, W. Shakespeare), chorus, 1962
– In Theresienstadt, Mez, pf, 1962–4
– Virtutes (cycle of 9 songs and melodrama, G. Humphreys, after Bible: Paul),
spkr, chorus, 2 cl ad lib, vc ad lib, 2 pf, org, perc, timp, 1963
17 Five Poems and an Epigram of William Blake, chorus, tpt, 1964
22 Warngedichte (Fried), 8 songs, Mez, pf, 1966–7
38a Psalm iv, S, A, female chorus, va, org, 1976
40 Babylon the Great is Fallen, chorus, orch, 1979
41 Das Gesetz der Quadrille (after F. Kafka), Bar, pf, 1979
44a Behold the Sun, concert aria, high S, solo vib, 12 insts, 1981
47 Two Imitations of Baudelaire (R. Lowell), chorus, 1985
49 Eve Dreams in Paradise (Milton), Mez, T, orch, 1987–88
– Carol for St Steven, chorus, 1989
51 Sing, Ariel (text arr. F. Kermode), solo Mez, 2 S, t sax + b cl, tpt, vn + va, db,
pf, 1989–90
53 The Death of Moses (orat, J. Hollander), S, C/A, T, Bar, B, chorus, children's
chorus/female chorus, 13 insts, 1991–2
54 The Mouse Metamorphosed into a Maid (M. Moore), S unacc., 1991
56 I said I will take Heed (Ps xxxix), double chorus, 2 ob, 2 basset hn, 2 bn, dbn,
2 trbn, 1992–3
chamber and solo instrumental
2 Piano Sonata, 1951–2
3 Fantasias, A-cl, pf, 1954
5 String Quartet no.1, 1956–7, rev. 1988
6 Capriccio, pf, 1957
8 Variations, fl, pf, 1959
11 Suite, fl, cl, hn, hp, vn + va, vc, 1961
18 Three Pieces, pf, 1964
20 Piano Trio, 1966
23 String Quartet no.2, 1967
27 Nonomiya, pf, 1969
28 Paraphrase on the Dramatic Madrigal ‘Il combattimento di
Tancredi e Clorinda’ by Monteverdi, cl, 1969
32 Concerto for Eleven, fl, cl, cl + b cl, 2 tpt, tuba, perc, 2 vn,
va, db, 1970
34 Chaconne, 18 wind, 1974
34a Chaconne, org, 1979 [version of op.34]
35 Lyric Pieces, wind qnt, tpt, trbn, db, 1974
37 String Quartet no.3, 1975–6
39 Prelude and Fugue, 3 cl, 1978
45 Sonata, vc, pf, 1984
46 … a musical offering (J.S.B. 1985) …, fl, cl, cl + b cl, hn, C-
tpt, trbn, perc, pf, 3 vn, 2 va, db, 1985
50 … in real time, pf, 1988–92
52 String Quartet no.4 ‘In memoriam John Ogdon’, 1990
– Variations on Bach's Sarabande from the English Suite in E
minor, 2 cl, 2 a sax, 2 bn, 2 tpt, trbn, timp, 1990
59 Uninterrupted Movement, solo vc, 4 vc, vcs, 1995
62 Five Objects Darkly, b cl, hn, vn, va, pf, 1996
63 Idées fixes, wind qnt, tpt, trbn, perc, pf, str qt, 1997
64 Sur terre en l'air, va, 1998
65 In memoriam Olivier Messiaen, fl, cl, ob, hn, tpt, mar, hp, pf,
str qt, db, 1998
66 Duos, vn, 2 va, 1998
Goermans [Germain].
French family of instrument makers, dealers and musicians. Jean (i) (b
Geldern, the Netherlands, 1703; d Paris, 18 Feb 1777) was working as a
master harpsichord builder in the rue Saint-Denis, Paris, by 1730. He
subsequently lived and worked in the rue de la Verrerie (1745–51) followed
by the rue des Fossés-Saint-Germain-des-Près. Though he called himself
‘Germain’, he signed his harpsichords ‘Joannes Goermans’. Of his seven
children, the eldest, Jeanne-Thérèse, was a concert harpist and a friend of
La Pouplinière; another daughter, Marie-Thérèse-Victoire, married his
foreman, Jean Liborius Hermès, in 1773. After 1770 the workshop was
transferred to the Cul-de-Sac Rouen. At about that time Jean (i) began to
suffer from paralysis and in 1773 he retired, whereupon Hermès took over
the workshop. His increasing disability, his wife's madness, and the
consequent threat to the children's inheritance caused them to petition
(unsuccessfully) to have their parents declared incompetent in 1774. Jean
(i) died an extremely wealthy man, leaving property worth 195,000 livres.
After his death the firm went on to produce pianos as well as harpsichords.
Jean (ii) (b Paris, 1735; d Paris, c1795), eldest son of Jean (i), was a
renowned harpsichord teacher and dealer in harpsichords and harps. He
acted on behalf of a Flemish builder to sell ‘genuine Ruckers à méchanique
et ravalement’, with knee levers for changing stops. In 1778 he advertised
a ‘harpsichord by Ruckers of a new type producing [the effect of] the Flute,
Oboe and Vox humana. All by a Fleming newly arrived in Paris’. His
younger brother Jacques [Jacob] (b Paris, c1740; d 8 April 1789) built
harpsichords and pianos. He early established a separate workshop in the
same house as his father, and was equally successful. He signed a 1765
harpsichord ‘Jacobus Goermans fils’ although he did not become a master
until 1766. He subsequently signed his instruments ‘Jacobus Goermans’
(1767 and 1771), ‘Jacques Goermans’ (1774) and ‘Jacques Germain’
(1785). He acquired his wealth by turning to piano making in response to
the growing trend which preferred the piano to the harpsichord. The
inventory taken at his death included 16 pianos (9 by himself) and ten
harpsichords (three by himself; three others were old instruments, intended
for ‘taking to pieces’, probably to create new ‘Ruckers’ harpsichords). There
were also 11 unfinished instruments (seven pianos, four harpsichords).
After Jacques’ death, Hermès assumed direction of the business, as he
had done that of Jean (i), and the firms continued to produce pianos and
harps until Hermès's death in 1813.
Goermans harpsichords were finely made in the standard French style, but
not usually innovative. In 1782 Jacques presented to the Royal Academy of
Sciences a harpsichord with 21 keys to the octave after a tuning system
suggested by Jean-Benjamin de La Borde. He rivalled Taskin in the
production and popularization of grand pianos.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BoalchM
P.-J. Roussier: Mémoire sur le nouveau clavecin chromatique de M. de
Laborde (Paris, 1782/R)
S. Germann: ‘“Mrs. Crawley's Couchet” Reconsidered’, EMc, vii (1979),
475–81 [reattributes a controversial harpsichord to Goermans]
SHERIDAN GERMANN
Goerne, Matthias
(b Karl-Marx-Stadt [now Chemnitz], 31 March 1967). German baritone. A
pupil of Hans Beyer, he later studied with Elisabeth Schwarzkopf and
Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, winning international prizes such as the Hugo
Wolf Competition of 1990. In that year he sang in the St Matthew Passion
under Masur with a distinction that brought him to the notice of other
leading conductors in Germany. He launched an operatic career in 1992,
singing the title role of Henze's Der Prince von Homburg at Cologne. In the
following years he sang regularly with the Dresden Staatsoper and in 1997
made his début at Salzburg as Papageno, the role which also introduced
him to the Metropolitan Opera. Nevertheless, it is as a concert artist, and
particularly a lieder recitalist, that he has gained his most conspicuous
successes. In Britain he gave a highly acclaimed recital at the Wigmore
Hall in 1994, and at the 1998 Edinburgh Festival he gave a performance of
Winterreise, with Brendel, which was widely considered one of the finest in
memory. He has met with similar triumphs in New York and made an
especially strong impression with his advocacy of Eisler's Hollywood
Songbook. Goerne's platform manner induces a sense of deep absorption,
fully borne out in the quality of his singing. The voice is rich and well
rounded rather than penetrative, although capable of taking on a harder
edge in the expression of anger or irony. He has made a number of
admired recordings, including Bach cantatas, Winterreise, Dichterliebe,
Schumann's Heine and Eichendorff Liederkreise and Kerner songs op.35,
and a notable contribution to the Hyperion Schubert Song Edition.
J.B. STEANE
Goes, Damian.
See Góis, Damião de.
Goethals, Lucien
(b Ghent, 26 June 1931). Belgian composer. After spending his youth in
Argentina, he returned to Belgium in 1947 to study organ, counterpoint and
fugue at the Ghent Conservatory until 1956; later he studied orchestration
with Norbert Rosseau, and serial technique and electronic composition with
Gottfried Michael Koenig and De Meester. Since its foundation in 1962 he
has been working at the IPEM in Ghent, composing electronic music and
mixed-media works. He was its artistic director from 1970 to 1987. The
same year he was co-founder of the group Spectra. From 1971 to 1991 he
taught analysis at the Ghent Conservatory. He has won several awards for
composition, including the East Flanders Prize (1960) and the Concours
International des Musiques Electroacoustiques in Bourges (1975). Since
1960 he has been writing in a post-serialist style, superimposing
contrapuntal layers each with its own tempo. The mixed-media works
extend this technique. From 1970 he has combined tonal moments,
quotations and style allusions in his works, which have become more
expressive and are usually melancholy. The dialectic contrast of
atmospheres is constant in his work. His youth in South America has led to
a preference for South American and Spanish texts. Goethals has also
written articles about modern music, especially in the periodical Yang.
WORKS
(selective list)
Stage: Hé! (H. Sabbe), mime, 10 insts, tapes, slide projector, 1971 [collab. K.
Goeyvaerts and H. Sabbe]
Orch: Diálogos, wind qnt, perc, 2 str qnt, str, 4-track tape, 1963; Sinfonía en gris
mayor, 2 orch, perc, 2 tapes, 1966; Conc. for orch, 1972; Conc., b cl, cb cl, orch,
1983; Concierto de la luz aj las tinublas, org, orch, 1989
Mixed media: Vensters (J. Van der Hoeven), mobile for 2 speakers, vc, pf, perc, 4
film projectors, 4 tapes, 1967
Ens and solo inst.: Endomorfie I, vn, pf, tape, 1964; Endomorfie II, 8 wind, 1964;
Cellotape, vc with contact mic, pf, tape, 1965; Mouvement, str qt, 1967; Llanto por
Salvador Allende, trbn, 1973; 3 paisajes sonores, fl, ob, hn, trbn, vn, db, hpd, 1973;
Diferencias, 10 wind, 1974; Musica con cantus firmus triste, fl, str trio, 1978; Str qt
no.2, 1992; music for org, pf
Vocal: Lecina (6 songs, J. Van der Hoeven), Mez, fl, vn, vc, 1966; Cáscaras (C.
Rodriguez), cant., Mez, 5 insts, 1969; Pampa (R. Güiraldes), Mez, fl, cl, vn, va, vc,
pf, perc, 1979
Elec: Study I, II, III, 1962; Contrapuntos, 1-12 tapes, 1967; Melioribus, 1973;
Polyfonium, 1975; Pluriversum, 1977; Polyfonium II, 1980
Film scores
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Sabbe: ‘Lucien Goethals: le constructivisme bifonctionnel’, Jaarboek
IPEM (1967), 35–59
H. Sabbe: ‘Komponist Lucien Goethals’, Yang, no.56 (1974), 153ff
F. Geysen: ‘Het orgeloeuvre van Lucien Goethals’, Orgelkunst, ix/2 (1986),
29–37
Y. Knockaert: ‘Lucien Goethals: Diferencias: een titel is een componist’,
Tijdschrift van de Nieuwe Muziekgroep, no.18 (1988), 7–15
Y. Knockaert: ‘Lucien Goethals: een andere componist’, Ons Erfdeel, xxxvi
(1993), 693–7
YVES KNOCKAERT
Goetschius, Percy
(b Paterson, NJ, 30 Aug 1853; d Manchester, NH, 29 Oct 1943). American
teacher of composition and music educationist. He trained as an engineer
and then studied theory and composition with Faisst, instrumentation with
Doppler and the piano with Lebert and Pruckner in Stuttgart (1873).
Between 1876 and 1890 he taught there, wrote concert and opera reviews,
published his first book (intended for his English-speaking pupils), and
attained the rank of professor of music. On his return to the USA he taught
at Syracuse University (where he received an honorary doctorate) and at
the New England Conservatory (1892–6), which he left to work as a private
teacher and church organist. In 1905 he became head of theory and
composition at the newly formed Institute of Musical Art in New York, and in
1925 he retired to Manchester, where he continued to write and publish.
In his teaching of music theory Goetschius ignored 16th-century music and
strict counterpoint and elevated the compositional practice of the 18th and
19th centuries to a position of theoretical dogma. Nevertheless, his 20th-
century pupils, among them Howard Hanson and Henry Cowell, found him
tolerant of experimentation. A highly competent pianist and a fluent
contrapuntist, he composed a symphony and several smaller orchestral
works, a sonata, five concert fugues, various smaller piano pieces and
studies and six choral anthems. He edited the complete piano works of
Mendelssohn (Stuttgart, 1889), Handel's Messiah (Boston, 1909), Bach's
Das wohltemperirte Clavier (Boston, 1922), and an Analytic Symphony
Series of piano arrangements of symphonic works. He also wrote many
articles.
WRITINGS
The Material Used in Musical Composition (Stuttgart, 1882, 14/1913/R)
The Theory and Practice of Tone-Relations (Boston, 1892, 24/1931/R)
Models of the Principal Musical Forms (Boston, 1894)
Students' Note-Book and Syllabus … in Musical History (Boston, 1894)
The Homophonic Forms of Musical Composition (New York, 1898/R,
14/1926)
Exercises in Melody-Writing (New York, 1900, rev. 9/1923)
Counterpoint Applied in the Invention, Fugue, Canon and other Polyphonic
Forms (New York, 1902/R, 5/1915)
Lessons in Music Form (Boston, 1904/R)
Exercises in Elementary Counterpoint (New York, 1910)
with T. Tapper: Essentials in Music History (New York, 1914)
The Larger Forms of Musical Composition (New York, 1915/R, 3/1915)
Masters of the Symphony (Boston, 1929)
The Structure of Music (Philadelphia, 1934/R)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Shepherd: ‘“Papa” Goetschius in Retrospect’, MQ, xxx (1944), 307–18
F. Davis: ‘The American Way, or How Not to Teach Music’, Caecilia [New
York], lxxxvi (1959), 7–11 [criticism of Goetschius's method]
RAMONA H. MATTHEWS
stage
Die heiligen drei Königen (Neujahrspiel, J.V. Widmann), pf acc., 1865, Winterthur, 6
Jan 1866, D-Mbs
Der Widerspenstigen Zähmung (comic op, 4, Widmann, collab. Goetz, after W.
Shakespeare), 1868–72, Mannheim, 11 Oct 1874 (1875)
Francesca von Rimini (op, 3, Goetz, after Widmann’s sketch), 1875–6, Mannheim,
30 Sept 1877 (1878), completed by E. Frank
choral with orchestra
op.
— Schön-Rohtraut (E. Mörike), 1861, CH-Zz, sketch
— Schneewittchen (T. Storm), 1865, Zz, inc.
10 Nenie (F. von Schiller), 1874 (1874)
11 Es liegt so abendstill der See (cant., W. Müller von Königswinter), T, male vv,
orch, 1865 (Berlin, 1876)
14 Psalm cxxxvii, S, chorus, orch, 1864 (1878)
choral unaccompanied
— 3 choruses (Schiller, R. Weber, R.E. Prutz), male vv, ? before 1860, CH-Zz
— 5 choruses (J. Eichendorff, J.W. von Goethe, F. Rückert), mixed vv, ? before
1862, Zz
— Salve regina, SABar, c1867, Zz
20 Vier Gesänge (Prutz, Storm, J.G. Seidl, J. Wolff), 4 male vv, nos. 1–3, 1862–3,
no.4, 1876 (1879)
21 Sieben Lieder (Mörike, M. von Schenkendorf, T. Fontane, H. von Chezy,
Novalis, L. Uhl, E. Pohl), SATB, 1862–3 (1880)
lieder
— 4 Lieder (H. Heine and others), c1857–61, CH-Zz
— Juli (Storm), 1869, ed. in Kreuzhage, p.74
3 Drei Lieder (Eichendorff, N. Lenau, L. Uhland), 1861 (Berlin, 1861)
4 Rispetti: 6 italienische Volksgesänge (trans. P. Heyse), 1866 (1868)
5 Drei Kinderlieder in schweizer Mundart (M. Usteri), 1869 (1870)
12 Sechs Lieder (R. Pohl, Storm, H. Kletke, Wolff, Mörike, A. Trager), S/T, c1868–
76 (1876)
19 Sechs Lieder (E. Scherenberg, L. Liber, A. Träger, Goethe), 1862–3 (1879)
orchestral
— Piano Concerto, E , 1861, CH-Zz [in 1 movt]
— Symphony, e, 1865–7, destroyed; frag. 1st movt, pf 4 hands, D-Mbs
9 Symphony, F, 1873 (1875)
15 Frühlings-Ouvertüre, 1864 (1875)
18 Piano Concerto B , 1867 (1880)
22 Violin Concerto G, 1868 (1880) [in 1 movt]
chamber
— 2 fugues, str qt, 1860–62, CH-Zz
— Presto, str qt, 1860–62, Zz
— Ballade, pf, vn, vc, c1861, Zz, inc.
— String Quartet, B , 1865, Zz; ed. W. Labhart-Kieser (Winterthur, 1977)
1 Piano Trio, g, 1863 (1867)
2 Drei leichte Stücke, vn, pf, 1863 (1868)
6 Piano Quartet, E, 1867 (1870)
16 Qnt, c, pf, vn, va, vc, db, 1874 (1878)
piano
for 2 hands unless otherwise stated
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Frank: ‘Hermann Götz’, Musikalisches Wochenblatt, vii (1876), 228–399
passim
J.V. Widmann: ‘Nekrolog: Hermann Goetz’, NZM, lxxiii (1877), 41–2
A. Steiner: ‘Hermann Goetz’, Neujahrsblatt der Allgemeinen
Musikgesellschaft in Zürich, xcv (1907), 3–39 [whole issue]
E. Kreuzhage: Hermann Goetz: sein Leben und seine Werke (Leipzig,
1916)
G.R. Kruse: Hermann Goetz (Leipzig, 1920)
E. Radecke: ‘Die Berliner Erstaufführung der “Widerspenstigen” von
Hermann Goetz’, Jb der literarischen Vereinigung Winterthur 1928,
11–33
G.B. Shaw: Music in London 1890–94 (London, 1932)
R. Münster: ‘Die erste Symphonie e-moll von Hermann Goetz’, Mf, xxii
(1969), 162–75
G. Puchelt: ‘Hermann Goetz (1840–1876)’, SMz, cxvi (1976), 438–45
CHRISTOPHER FIFIELD
WRITINGS
‘Das elektronische Klangmaterial’, Die Reihe, i (1955), 14–16; Eng. trans.
in Die Reihe, i (1958), 35–7
‘Was aus Wörtern wird’, Melos, xxxix (1972), 159–62
‘Auf der Suche nach dem Ritus des Menschen’, MusikTexte, no.6 (1984),
19–24
‘Damals und heute Vortrag und Gespräch bei den Darmstädter
Ferienkursen 1988’, MusikTexte, no.26 (1988), 16–18
Karel Goeyvaerts: een zelfportret (Ghent, 1988)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
KdG (H. Sabbe)
R. Toop: ‘Messiaen/Goeyvaerts, Fano/Stockhausen, Boulez’, PNM, xiii
(1974–5), 141–69
H. Sabbe: Het muzikale serialisme als techniek en als denkmethode
(Ghent, 1977)
H. Sabbe: Karlheinz Stockhausen … wie die Zeit verging;…neue
Erkenntnismöglichkeiten der seriellen Entwicklung, Musik-Konzepte,
no.19 (1981) [incl. extracts from Stockhausen-Goeyvaerts
correspondence]
H. Sabbe: ‘Vom Serialismus zum Minimalismus: der Werdegang eines
Manierismus. Der Fall Goeyvaerts, ‘Minimalist avant la lettre’,
Neuland, iii (1983–2), 203–8
H. Sabbe: ‘Kreuz und Kreis: eine hieratische Schreibweise. Zur Musik von
Karel Goeyvaerts’, MusikTexte, no.6 (1984), 17–19
R. Urmetzer: ‘Abschied von der Kopfmusik: Karel Goeyvaerts auf dem
Weg zu einer postmodernen Musik’, NZM, cxlv/12 (1984), 17–21
M. Zenck: ‘Karel Goeyvaerts und Guillaume de Machaut: zum
mittelalterlichen Konstruktivismus in der seriellen Musik der fünfziger
Jahre’, Mf, xliii (1990), 336–51
M. Delaere: ‘Namen werden hier zu Menschen. Zur Frühgeschichte der
Darmstädter Ferienkurse: zwei Briefe von Karel Goeyvaerts’,
MusikTexte, no.54 (1994), 29–30
RBM, xlviii (1994) [Goeyvaerts memorial volume]
M. Deleare: ‘Karel Goeyvaerts: a Belgian Pioneer of Serial, Electronic and
Minimal Music’, Tempo, no.195 (1995), 4–11
M. Delaere: ‘Auf der Suche nach serieller Stimmigkeit: Goeyvaerts’
Komposition Nr.2’, Die Entstehung der seriellen Musik: Berlin 1996
M. Deleare and D. Verstraete: ‘Het fonds Karel Goeyvaerts in de
Universiteitsbibliotheek KULeuven: inleiding en catalogus’, Musica
Antiqua, xiii (1996), 28–32
M. Delaere, Y. Knockaert and H. Sabbe: Nieuwe Muziek in Vlaanderen
(Bruges, 1998)
M. Delaere, J. Lysens and C. Wouters: ‘Goeyvaerts’ “Litany V” for
Harpsichord and Tape or for Several Harpsichords’, CMR, forthcoming
MARK DELAERE
Goge.
The most common name for the single-string fiddle of the savanna area of
West Africa. The term goge (or goje) is used by the Hausa and Yoruba
peoples of Nigeria and by the Songhai, Djerma, Mauri and Hausa of Niger,
while the Mamprusi-Dagomba peoples of northern Ghana use gonje and
the Yoruba-speaking Nago of Benin godie. The instrument consists of a
half-calabash resonator on to which is nailed a monitor-lizard skin. This
soundtable has a circular hole on one side. The wooden neck, inserted
through the resonator parallel to the soundtable, protrudes a few
centimetres at the lower end so that the horsehair string can be looped
round it. After passing across a V- or Y-shaped wooden bridge, the string is
fastened to the neck at the upper end with a leather strap. The bow is
usually a curved piece of iron with a horsehair string. In performance the
instrument is placed in the player’s lap so that its body rests against his
waist in an almost horizontal position, and the soundtable is tilted so that
his right hand, holding the bow perpendicular to the string, moves up and
down, while the left hand, holding the neck, stops the string on one side
(for illustration see Songhai music).
Elsewhere the corresponding instrument varies in name and construction.
In Senegal and the Gambia the Wolof riti or duriti, Tukulor gnagnour and
Fula nyaanyooru have a hemispherical wooden resonator, made from the
silk-cotton tree, with one or two holes in the back but none in the lizard-skin
soundtable. The diarka of Timbuktu uses snakeskin. The Ahaggar Tuareg
imzad or amzad may use goatskin which is laced round the soundbox,
while the Tuareg of Air fix the skin with acacia spines. The kiiki of the Teda
of northern Chad has a resonator which may be of wood, a half-calabash,
or an enamel bowl; the wooden neck terminates inside it, the string being
tied to the base through a hole in the soundboard. The duduga of the Bisa
of Burkina Faso has a gourd resonator, while the Songhai-Djerma goge
has a long metal jingle with small iron rings round the edges inserted into
the handle. Instruments vary in size, those of the Tuareg being the largest
with a resonator diameter of 20 to 50 cm, the Songhai of 24 to 28 cm and
the Wolof and Tukulor 18 cm.
Tuareg performance is unique in that the players are predominantly
women, whose ability is highly respected and whose playing is regarded as
a mark of elegance, especially in their accompaniment of men’s love
songs. Among the Fula of the Gambia, the Fulani elsewhere and the
Hausa communities of Niger and Nigeria, the instrument is associated with
professionals who combine displays of technical virtuosity with praise
singing. Among the Songhai and Mauri of Niger, at Timbuktu in Mali and
among the non-Islamic groups of northern Nigeria, the goge is used with
two calabash percussion vessels in spirit possession cults, the best known
of which is bori. Contemporary developments among the Hausa of Nigeria
include the use of electronic amplification for virtuoso performance. The
goge is undoubtedly related to the single-string fiddles of the Arab world,
such as the Rabāb of the Middle Eastern Bedouin. The Ethiopian masēnqo
and the Malagasy heravoa are also clearly related instruments.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and other resources
D.W. Ames and A.V. King: Glossary of Hausa Music and its Social
Contexts (Evanston, IL, 1971)
Alhaji Garba Leo and his Goge Music, Folkways FW8860 (1976) [incl.
notes by R.F. Grass]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Hennings: Musikgeschichte Lübecks, i (Kassel, 1951)
P. Bülow: ‘Georg Göhler zum Gedächtnis’, ZfM, cxv (1954), 213–14
E. Nick: ‘Georg Göhler’, Musica, viii (1954), 208 only
E. Möller: ‘Fünf unveröffentliche Briefe von Max Reger an Georg Göhler’,
BMw, xxiv (1982), 276–82
E. Möller: ‘Ein unveröffentliche Briefwechsel zwischen Alban Berg und
Georg Göhler’, BMw, xxxi (1988), 279–82
GEORGE W. LOOMIS
Göhringer, Francilla.
German contralto. See Pixis family.
Gołąbek, Jakub
(b Silesia, c1739; d Kraków, 30 March 1789). Polish composer and singer.
He was active in Kraków from at least 1766 (in which year he was married),
first in the chapel choir of St Mary’s, later (c1774) as singer and composer
for the Wawel Cathedral choir. From 1781 to 1787 he also worked as a
teacher at the Kraków singing school run by the priest Wacław
Sierakowski, and took part in concerts of oratorios and cantatas organized
by Sierakowski, modelled on those of the Concert Spirituel, Paris.
Gołąbek’s music is significant in the formation of a Polish Classical style,
as is evident in the forms he used (two-subject expositions, short
development and recapitulation), thematic structure, treatment of the bass
part (clearly following the tradition of the basso continuo), and the use of
galant elements in slow movements (for example in his Parthia). There are
four extant, unaccompanied masses, conforming to the type ‘missa sine
credo’, mostly composed in a homophonic style but containing some
polyphony. Gołąbek’s instrumental music is characterized by a non-
schematic approach to composition combined with a degree of melodic
ingenuity. His sacred works, as well as his symphonic works, were well
known in his day and were highly regarded, not just in the Kraków region.
WORKS
vocal
5 masses, 4vv, orch, lost
4 masses, 4vv, Wawel Cathedral Archives, Kraków
Vespers, lost
Veni Sancte Spiritus, D, T, 4vv, insts, org, PL-Kj; several other motets, lost
3 cants. (W. Sierakowski) to St Jacek, blessed Bronisława, St Jan Kanty, 4 solo vv,
chorus, orch, texts pubd in Kantata w muzyce (Kraków, 1777–96), music lost; cant.
to St Stanisław (Sierakowski), 1773, lost
instrumental
Syms.: D, c1773, PL-MO, ed. in ZHMP, iii (1963), ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840,
ser. F, vii (New York, 1982); D, Pu, ed. in ZHMP, iii (1963); C, CZp, ed. in ZHMP, iii
(1963); B , D, SZ
Parthia, C, 2 cl, 2 hn, bn, 1770, SA, ed. in ZHMP, iv (1962)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SMP
B. Muchenberg: Preface to J. Gołąbek: Symphonie, ZHMP, iii (1963)
J. Węcowski: ‘Z dziejów XVIII-wiecznej kapeli w Szalowej’ [The history of
the 18th-century chapel in Szalowa], Z dziejów muzyki polskiej [From
the history of Polish music], vii (1964), 55–63
G. Abraham: ‘Some Eighteenth-Century Polish Symphonies’, Studies in
Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer, ed. H.C.R.
Landon and R.E. Chapman (New York and London, 1970), 13–22,
esp. 13–14, 16–19
A. Nowak-Romanowicz: ‘Gołąbek Jakub’, Encyklopedia muzyczna PWM,
ed. E. Dziębowska, iii (Kraków, 1987)
A. Nowak-Romanowicz: Klasycyzm 1750–1830 [Classicism 1750–1830]
(Warsaw, 1995)
ALINA NOWAK-ROMANOWICZ/BARBARA CHMARA-ŻACZKIEWICZ
Golabovski, Sotir
(b Struga, 30 Oct 1937). Macedonian musicologist and composer. He
studied music privately with Vlastimir Nikolovski in Skopje, and later took
composition at the Ljubljana Academy of Music, at the same time studying
philosophy and sociology at the philosophy faculty of the University of
Skopje. He took the MA in composition with Lucijan Škerjanc in 1964. He
worked as a radio producer in Skopje (1964) and taught theoretical studies
at the Pedagogical Academy there (1966–85). He participated in the
Darmstadt summer courses (1970, 1972), and studied composition in
Munich with Günter Bialas, in Cologne with Stockhausen, and in Berlin with
Frank Beyer (1973–4). He took the doctorate with Vladimir Mošin at the
University of Skopje (1985) with a dissertation on music manuscripts from
Ohrid and the oldest known Slavic-language triodion. In 1985 he became
professor of musicology in the University’s music faculty. He received the
11 Oktombri award in 1996 and the Kliment Ohridski award in 1997.
Golabovski’s musicological interest is focussed on the history of
Macedonian music, particularly music of the Eastern Orthodox church.
Many of his compositions are also inspired by Macedonian church music;
they include a ballet, Introspekcija (‘Introspection’, 1960), a symphony
(1963), symphonic poems, and a cantata, Slovensko eho (‘Slavic Echo’,
1965).
WRITINGS
‘Metričkite formi vo makedonskiot muzički folklor’ [Metric forms in
Macedonian musical folklore], Yugoslav Folklore Association:
Congress XIII: Dojran 1966, 419–25
‘Nekoi zabeleški za melodiskata ornamentika vo makedonskiot muzički
melos’, Makedonski folklor, ii/3–4 (1969), 293–8
‘Muzikata i revolucija’ [Music and revolution], ‘Od muzičkoto minato na
Struga’ [From the music heritage of Struga], ‘Arhaični ostatoci vo
segašnata crkveno-muzička praktika vo Struškiot kraj’ [Archaic
remnants in contemporary church music practice in the Struga region],
Makedonska muzika, i (1977), 17–21, 43–53, 55–8
‘O tvorchestve Vlastimira Nikolovskogo’ [The works of Vlastimir Nikolovski],
SovM (1977), no.12, pp.100–03
‘Nekoi tonalni vrski pomeđu muzičkiot folklor i crkovnoto peenje vo
Makedonija’ [Some tonal characteristics of musical folklore and church
chant in Macedonia], Makedonski folklor, xi/21–22 (1978), 285–300
‘Periodizacija na makedonskata duhovna muzika’ [Periodization of
Macedonian sacred music], Vesnik na MPC, xxi/5 (1979), 174–81
‘Osvrt na muzičkite tekstovi vo Bolonjskiot psaltir’ [A survey of the musical
items in the Bologna Psalter], ‘Život i deloto na Jovan Harmosin-
Ohridski’ [The life and works of Jovan Harmosin-Ohridski],
Makedonska muzika, ii (1979), 27–30, 31–7
‘Periodizacijata na makedonskata duhovna muzika kako možnost za
sagleduvanje na celokupnata muzička aktivnost vo minatoto na
Makedonija’ [Periodization in Macedonian sacred music as a
requirement for a total overview of the musical activities in Macedonian
heritage], Makedonski folklor, xii/23 (1979), 179–91
‘Gospodi vozzvah Dionisa Poposkog’ [Gospodi vozzvah by Dionis
Poposki], ‘Tonalni osnovi na makedonskata duhovna muzika od
periodot IX–XV vek’ [Tonal characteristics of Macedonian sacred
music from the 9th century to the 15th], Makedonska muzika, iii
(1981), 23–9, 31–6
‘Jovan Kukuzel’, Makedonska muzika, v (1983), 37–43; enlarged in
Zbornik na Bogoslovskiot Fakultet sv. Kliment Ohridski, iii (1997), 89–
107
Tradicionalna i eksperimentalna makedonska muzika [Traditional and
experimental Macedonian music] (Skopje, 1984)
Muzičkite rakopisi od ohridskata zbirka i najstarite sočuvani makedonski
triodi na slovenski jezik [Music manuscripts from the Ohrid Collection
and the oldest known Slavic-language Macedonian triodion] (diss., U.
of Skopje, 1985)
‘Russko-makedonskie muzykal'nye svjazi’ [The musical connections
between Russia and Macedonia], Makedonski folklor, xxvi/52 (1993),
63–70
Makedonsko crkveno peenje: osmoglasnik/Macedonian Chant: Oktoëchos
(Skopje, 1993–5)
Makedonsko crkveno peenje: zlatoustova liturgija – Makedonski
tradicionalen crkoven napev/Macedonian Chant: Liturgy of St. John
Chrysostom – Macedonian Traditional Church Chant (Skopje, 1997)
Istorija na makedonskata muzika [A history of Macedonian church music]
(Skopje, 1999)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Karakaš: Muzičkite tvorci vo Makedonija [Composers of Macedonia]
(Skopje, 1970), 107–9
D. Ortakov: Muzičkata umetnost vo Makedonija [Music in Macedonia]
(Skopje, 1982)
T. Prošev: Sovremena makedonska muzika [Macedonian contemporary
music] (Pula, 1986)
M. Kolovski: Sojuz na kompozitorite na Makedonija (Skopje, 1993), 94–6
ZDRAVKO BLAŽEKOVIĆ
Golani, Rivka
(b Tel-Aviv, 22 March 1946). Israeli viola player. She learnt the violin with
her mother, then at the Israel Academy of Music and finally with Oedoen
Partos at Tel-Aviv University, also studying art and mathematics. Having
switched to the viola, she played in the Tel-Aviv Chamber Orchestra in
1968 and in the Israel PO from 1969 to 1974, gradually building up a solo
career as a 20th-century specialist. In 1974 she moved to Toronto,
becoming a major force in Canadian contemporary music; and from the
1990s she has been based alternately in Toronto and London. Golani has a
charismatic stage presence and the ability to hold an audience's attention
even with the most complex new music. In addition to playing and
recording the mainstream viola repertory, such as the Bach suites, Bloch's
Suite hébraïque, Joachim's Variations, the viola concertos of Martinů, Serly,
Bartók, Bax and Rubbra, Benjamin's Fantasy and the Tertis version of the
Elgar Cello Concerto, she has given the premières of more than 200
works, including 33 concertos. A number have been recorded. Music
associated with her includes Trema by Heinz Holliger, Chaconne by
Michael Colgrass and pieces by Brian Cherney, Milton Barnes, André
Prévost, David Jaeger, Otto Joachim, Peter Paul Koprowski, Steve Tittle,
Marjan Mozetich, Jim Hiscott, Diana McIntosh, Chris Paul Harman, Jean
Papineau-Couture and Ann Southam. As a painter and graphic artist,
Golani has held exhibitions in several countries. She plays a large
asymmetrical instrument by Otto Erdesz, made in 1977, with the right
shoulder cut away to facilitate the left hand's access to the strings.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T. Potter: disc notes, The Recorded Viola, iv, Pearl GEMS 0039
TULLY POTTER
Gold, Arthur
(b Toronto, 6 Feb 1917; d New York, 3 Jan 1990). Canadian pianist. He
formed a duo team with Robert Fizdale in 1944.
Gold, Ernest
(b Vienna, 13 July 1921; d Santa Monica, CA, 17 March 1999). American
composer of Austrian birth. He studied the piano with his grandfather and
the violin with his father, later enrolling in the Vienna Music Academy. He
emigrated with his family to the USA in 1938, where he studied harmony
and orchestration with Otto Cesana and conducting with Leon Barzin at the
National Orchestra Association, New York. Earning a living as an
accompanist and song writer, his early hit Practice makes Perfect (1940)
was followed by Accidentally on Purpose and They Started Something.
After settling in Hollywood in 1945 to work as an arranger, conductor and
composer in the film industry, he studied with Antheil (1946–8) and
conducted the Santa Barbara Civic Opera (1958–60). In 1964 he founded
the Senior Citizens Orchestra, Los Angeles. He was the first film composer
to have his name engraved on Hollywood's ‘Walk of Fame’.
WORKS
(selective list)
Film scores: The Girl of the Limberlost, 1945; The Falcon's Alibi, 1946; G.I. War
Brides, 1946; Smooth as Silk, 1946; Exposed, 1947; Jennifer, 1953; The Defiant
Ones, 1958; On the Beach, 1959; The Young Philadelphians, 1959; Exodus, 1960;
Inherit the Wind, 1960; A Fever in the Blood, 1961; Judgement at Nuremberg, 1961;
The Last Sunset, 1961; A Child is Waiting, 1962; Pressure Point, 1962; It’s a Mad,
Mad, Mad, Mad World, 1963; Ship of Fools, 1965; The Secret of Santa Vittoria,
1969; The Wild McCullochs, 1975; Cross of Iron, 1977;
Stage: Song of the Bells (pageant), 1956; Too Warm for Furs (musical, E. Penney),
c1956; Maria (pageant), 1957; I’m Solomon (musical, A. Croswell), New York, 1968
Orch: Pan American Sym., 1941; Pf Conc., 1943; Ballad, 1944; Sym. Preludes,
1944; Allegorical Ov., 1947; Sym. no.2, 1947; Audubon Ov., c1949; Band in Hand
(B. Smith), nar, vv, band, 1966; Boston Pops March, 1966; other band works
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt, c1948; Trio, vn, bn, pf, c1950 [rev. as Sym., bn, pf, str,
c1952]; Sonatina, fl, pf, c1952; Pf Sonata, 1954; 3 Miniatures, pf (1968); 15 other pf
works
Many songs and choral works, incl. Songs of Love and Parting, c1963
Principal publishers: Chappell, Crystal, Marks, Piedmont, Simrock, Society for the Publication of
American Music
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Stadler and P.Weibel: The Cultural Exodus from Austria (Vienna and
New York, 1995)
T. Thomas: Film Score (Munich, 1995)
THOMAS L. GAYDA
Goldar, Robert.
See Golder, Robert.
vocal
Durch die herzliche Barmherzigkeit (cant.), ?Leipzig, feast of St John, 24 June
c1741–5, 5vv, 2 ob, 2 vn, 2 va, bc, D-Bsb*; ed. in EDM, 1st ser., xxxv (1957)
Hilf, Herr (cant., Ps xii), ?Leipzig, c1741–5, 4vv, 2 vn, va, bc, Bsb; ed. in EDM, 1st
ser., xxxv (1957)
instrumental
2 hpd concs. (E , d), D-Bsb; ed. E. Dadder (Celle, 1945); for further information see
Dürr
4 sonatas (B , a, g, C), 2 vn, bc, Bsb; no.4 in C also attrib. J.S. Bach as bwv1037,
see Dürr; nos.3–4 also arr. for vn, obbl hpd, Bsb; no.2 ed. in NM, clxxxv (1956),
no.3 ed. in NM, cxcviii (1958)
Sonata, c, 2 vn, va, bc, Bsb; ed. F.W. Lothar (Wolfenbüttel and Copenhagen, 1932)
2 sonatas (e/G, f), fl, vn, bc, listed in Breitkopf catalogue, lost
Prelude, C, kbd, Bsb
Prelude and fugue, f, kbd, Bsb; ed. in Le trésor des pianistes, xi (Paris, 1867)
Sonata, D, kbd, Bsb, formerly Bhm
24 polonaises, kbd, in all keys, formerly Bhm; no.1, C, listed in Breitkopf catalogue;
nos.?4, c , ?6, d, ?18, g , ed. in Lehrmeister und Schüler Joh. Seb. Bachs, ii
(Zürich, 1935)
Chorale-preludes, formerly Königsberg [now Kaliningrad], cited in EitnerQ, lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookB
MGG1(E. Dadder and A. Dürr)
Verzeichniss musikalischer Werke … welche in richtigen Abschriften bey
Joh. Gottlieb Immanuel Breitkopf … zu bekommen sind (Leipzig, 1761,
2/1764)
J.F. Reichardt: ‘Autobiographie’, Berlinische musikalische Zeitung, i
(1805/R), 351–4
E. Dadder: ‘Johann Gottlieb Goldberg’, BJb 1923, 57–71 [with detailed
reference to early sources]
H. Miesner: ‘Graf v. Keyserlingk und Minister v. Happe, zwei Gönner der
Familie Bach’, BJb 1934, 101–15
H.T. David and A.Mendel, eds.: The Bach Reader (New York, 1945, rev.
2/1966 with suppl.)
A. Dürr: ‘Johann Gottlieb Goldberg und die Triosonate bwv1037’, BJb
1953, 51–80
H.-J. Schulze, ed.: Dokumente zum Nachwirken Johann Sebastian Bachs
1750–1800, Bach-Dokumente, iii (Kassel, 1972)
Johann Gottlieb Goldberg (1727–1756): Persepektiven der Rezeption:
Gdansk 1997
NORMAN RUBIN
Goldberg, Reiner
(b Crostau, nr Bautzen, 17 Oct 1939). German tenor. He studied in
Dresden, making his début in 1966 at the Landestheater as Luigi (Il
tabarro). In 1973 he joined the Staatsopern of Dresden and Berlin and took
part in the première of Ernst Meyer's Reiter der Nacht in Berlin, where in
1976 he sang Huon in a performance of Oberon to mark the 150th
anniversary of Weber's death. In 1982 he sang Walther at Covent Garden,
Erik at the Salzburg Easter Festival and Florestan at the Salzburg Summer
Festival. He sang Tannhäuser at La Scala (1984) and Walther, Siegfried
(Götterdämmerung) and Erik at Bayreuth (1987–92). His repertory also
included Parsifal, which he sang on the soundtrack of Syberberg's film of
the opera, Max, Bacchus, Faust, Hermann (The Queen of Spades), Sergey
(Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District), the Drum Major (Wozzeck) and the
title role of Dessau's Verurteilung des Lukullus. In 1991 Goldberg sang
young Siegfried in concert at Amsterdam, and both Siegfrieds at Covent
Garden, where he returned for Florestan (1993), the role of his
Metropolitan début in 1992. He had an incisive, well-focussed voice with a
notably powerful upper register, as can be heard on several recordings,
including Florestan and Siegmund (under Haitink), Siegfried in both
Siegfried and Götterdämmerung (with Levine), the Drum Major, and
Emperor Pao in Zemlinsky's Der Kreidekreis.
ELIZABETH FORBES
Goldberg, Szymon
(b Włocławek, 1 June 1909; d Toyama, Japan, 19 July 1993). American
violinist and conductor of Polish birth. He studied with Mihałowicz in
Warsaw, then moved to Berlin in 1917, where his principal teacher was
Carl Flesch. In 1921 he made his début in Warsaw, and after an
appearance with the Berlin PO in 1924 (when he played concertos by
Bach, Joachim and Paganini in one evening) and a recital tour through
Germany, he was appointed leader of the Dresden PO in 1925.
Furtwängler then chose him to be leader of the Berlin PO, a post he held
from 1929 to 1934; during that time he formed a string trio with Hindemith
and Feuermann. From 1934 he toured Europe and East Asia as soloist and
as sonata partner with Lili Kraus, and he made his New York début in 1938.
Taken prisoner by the Japanese in Java in 1942, he spent two and a half
years in captivity. In 1946 he resumed his career and played in Australia,
South Africa and the Americas. For 15 summers (1951–65) he was a
faculty member of the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado, where he formed
the Festival Quartet with Victor Babin (piano), William Primrose (viola) and
Nikolay Graudan (cello), which achieved wide recognition in concerts and
on records. In 1955 Goldberg became permanent conductor and musical
director of the newly founded Netherlands Chamber Orchestra, and toured
with it to Britain, the USA and other countries. He appeared as guest
conductor with the BBC SO, the LSO and the orchestras of Boston,
Chicago and Cleveland. In 1953 he became an American citizen, but from
1969 lived in London. A masterly violinist whose tone was warm and pure,
with a sense of style and musical taste that excluded virtuoso frills, his
interpretations stressed refinement, intimacy and a noble intensity. With the
Netherlands Chamber Orchestra he appeared as soloist and conductor in
classical concertos, and he was also a sensitive performer of Bartók, Berg
and Hindemith. His recordings include a distinguished set of the
Brandenburg Concertos and, with Radu Lupu, 16 Mozart sonatas. He
played a Guarneri del Gesù violin of 1734 known as the ‘Baron Vitta’. He
was an officer of the Order of Oranje Nassau and an honorary member of
the RAM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SchwarzGM
B. Gavoty: Szymon Goldberg (Geneva, 1961) [with discography]
J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin, 1889–1971 (Toronto, 1974)
M. Campbell: Obituary, The Independent (23 July 1993); Obituary, The
Strad, civ (1993), 858
J.M. Molkhou: Discography, The Strad, civ (1993), 994
BORIS SCHWARZ
Goldberg, Théophile.
See Goldberg, Johann Gottlieb.
RUTH TATLOW
Goldenthal, Elliot
(b Brooklyn, NY, 2 May 1954). American composer. He learnt the piano as
a child and in his teens also played the trumpet and piano, and sang in a
touring blues band. In the 1970s he studied at the Manhattan School of
Music with John Corigliano and later informally with Copland. His first
important works were for classical chamber ensembles. The largest and
best-known of his concert works is Vietnam Oratorio, first performed in April
1995 to mark the 20th anniversary of the end of the Vietnam War, and
whose texts are in Vietnamese, Latin and English, including recent poems
by Yusef Komunyaka. Its style is decidedly modern, and the eclectic vocal
and instrumental writing includes a prominent solo cello part written for Yo-
Yo Ma.
Since the late 1980s Goldenthal has also composed stage and film scores.
Of particular interest are his collaborations with the theatre director Julie
Taymor, his longtime personal companion; these include popular
productions of plays by Gozzi for the American Repertory Theater in
Cambridge, Massachusetts, and a critically acclaimed revival of the
oratorio-like Juan Darien (Lincoln Center, 1996). The film scores,
technically polished and subtle, embrace a remarkable range of past and
present idioms, including Wagnerian passage-work, atonality, minimalism,
dynamic counterpoint, synthesized timbres and modal choral writing. They
include several inflated Hollywood blockbusters in the science fiction,
action, and horror genres (Alien3, two Batman sequels, Demolition Man,
Heat and Sphere), whose scores often outshine the films they have been
written for. In working with the idiosyncratic Neil Jordan, Goldenthal found
an independent director with a creativity and originality to match his own.
Their association began with Interview with the Vampire (1994), and
continued through scores for Michael Collins (1996) and The Butcher Boy
(1997) which are as diverse, unsettling and fascinating as the films
themselves.
WORKS
(selective list)
Stage: The Transposed Heads (musical, after T. Mann), New York, 1987; Juan
Darien, a Carnival Mass (after L. Quiroga and Requiem Mass), New York, 1988,
rev. 1996; Othello (ballet, 1997); Grendel (op, Beowulf and J. Gardner); Liberty's
Taken (musical)
Incid music to plays: A Midsummer Night's Dream, 1994; The Taming of the Shrew,
1994; The Tempest, 1994; Titus Andronicus, 1994; The Green Bird, 1996; The
King's Stag, 1996; The Serpent Women, 1996
Film scores (dirs. in parentheses): Drugstore Cowboy (G. Van Sant), 1989; Pet
Sematary (M. Lambert); Grand Isle (Lambert), 1991 [TV]; Alien 3 (D. Fincher, 1992);
Fool's Fire (J. Taymor), 1992; Demolition Man (M. Brambilla, 1993); Golden Gate (J.
Madden), 1993; Cobb (R. Shelton), 1994; Interview with the Vampire (N. Jordan),
1994; Roswell (J. Kagan), 1994 [TV]; Batman Forever (J. Schumacher), 1995; Heat
(M. Mann), 1995; Michael Collins (Jordan), 1996; A Time to Kill (Schumacher),
1996: Batman & Robin (Schumacher), 1997; The Butcher Boy (Jordan), 1997;
Sphere (B. Levinson), 1998; In Dreams (Jordan), 1999; Titus (J. Taymor), 2000
Sym. and choral: Shadow Play Scherzo (1988) [for L. Bernstein's 70th birthday];
Fire Water Paper: A Vietnam Orat, S, Bar, solo vc, children's vv, vv (1995), Conc. for
Tpt and Pf (?1996)
Chbr: Jabberwocky (L. Carroll), B-Bar, 4 ww (1981); Brass Qt No.2 (1983); Pastime
Variations, chbr orch (1988) [commemorating the 75th anniversary of Ebbets Field,
Brooklyn]; Brass Qt No.1; Los Heraldos Negros (C. Vallejo), song cycle; Sonata for
Str Bass
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Adams: ‘Elliot Goldenthal: Interview with the Composer’, Film Score
Monthly, no.61 (1995), 12–15
R. Brown: ‘Film Musings’, Fanfare, xviii (1994–5), no.4, pp.403–4; no.5,
pp.372–3
D. Adams: ‘Obligatory Batman Dept.: Elliot Goldenthal’, Film Score
Monthly, ii/5 (1997), 13–15 [interview]
R. Hershon: ‘Film Composers in the Sonic Wars’, Cinéaste, xxii/4 (1997),
10–13
MARTIN MARKS
Goldenweiser [Gol'denveyzer],
Aleksandr (Borisovich)
(b Chişinău, 26 Feb/10 March 1875; d Moscow, 26 Nov 1961). Russian
pianist, teacher, writer and composer. At the Moscow Conservatory he
studied the piano with Siloti, then Pabst, graduating in 1895, and
composition with Arensky, Ippolitov-Ivanov and Taneyev, graduating in
1897. His close contact with Rachmaninoff, Skryabin and Medtner
exercised a strong influence on his formation as a pianist. He made his
début in 1896 performing duets with Rachmaninoff, Taneyev and Gedicke.
His playing, noted for its style, precise technique and fidelity to the text,
was academic in the best sense of the word. In 1901 the ‘skryabinists’
circle was formed by Mariya Nemenova-Lunts, Konstantin Saradzhev,
Vladimir Derzhanovsky, Goldenweiser and others; he also played an active
role in the Society for the Friends of the Skryabin Museum formed in
Moscow in 1922. On close terms with Lev Tolstoy, he stayed at his house
and played the piano there.
Goldenweiser was professor at the Moscow Philharmonic School (1904–6)
and then at the Moscow Conservatory from 1906 to 1961 (he was rector
there 1922–4 and 1939–42); in 1932 he founded the Central Music School.
After the revolution he played an important part in the development of a
contemporary system of music training in the USSR. He aimed at the all-
round musical development of his pupils, who included Sulamita
Aronovsky, Bashkirov, Lazar' Berman, Dmitry Blagoy, Feynberg, Ginzburg,
Kabalevsky, I. Kljačko, Nikolayeva, Dmitry Paperno and Leonid Roysman.
In 1931 his pupil Liya Levinson became his permanent assistant. His
principles of performance and study are reflected in the articles he wrote
and in his compositions for the piano. A Doctor of Arts, he was made a
People’s Artist of the USSR in 1946; in 1955 his flat was opened as a
museum.
WORKS
Stage: (all premières are concert performances): Pir vo vremya chumï [The Feast in
the Time of the Plague] (1, after A.S. Pushkin), op.21, 1942, Moscow, Central
House of Composers, 1 June 1945; Pevtsï [The Singers] (1, Yu. Stremin, after I.S.
Turgenev), op.22, 1942–4, Moscow, House of Actors, 19 Jan 1945; Veshniye vodï
[Spring Waters] (4, Stremin, after Turgenev), op.26, 1945–50, Moscow, House of
Actors, 4 March 1955
Cant.: Svet Oktyabrya [The Light of October], 1948
Orch and Chbr: Ov. (after Dante), orch, 1895–7; Str Qt, 1896, rev. 1940; 2 russkiye
syuitï [2 Russian Suites], orch, 1946; Trio pamyati S.V. Rakhmaninova [Trio to the
Memory of Rachmaninoff], pf trio, 1953; Poėma, vn, pf, 1962
Pf: Kontrapunkticheskiye ėskizï [Contrapuntal Sketches], 2 bks, 1932; 14
revolyutsionnïkh pesen [14 Revolutionary Songs], 1932; Polifonicheskaya sonatina
[Polyphonic Sonatina], 1954; Sonata-fantaziya, 1959; many others
WRITINGS
Vblizi L.N. Tolstogo: zapiski za 15 let [Near to Tolstoy: notes on 15 years]
(Moscow, 1922–3, 2/1959)
‘Ob osnovnïkh zadachakh muzïkal'nogo vospitaniya’ [On the main tasks of
a musical upbringing], SovM (1934), no.10
‘Iz moikh vospominaniy’ [From my recollections], S.I. Taneyev: materialï i
dokumentï, i (Moscow, 1952)
‘L.N. Tolstoy i muzïka’ [Tolstoy and music], Lev Tolstoy i muzïka:
vospominaniya, ed. N.Gusev and A. Gol'denveyzer (Moscow, 1953),
16–41
Iz lichnïkh vospominaniy o S.V. Rakhmaninove [From my personal
recollections of Rachmaninoff], i (Moscow, 1957)
O muzïkal'nom ispolnitel'stve: iz zametok starogo ispolnitelya-pianista [On
musical performance: from the notes of an old performing pianist]
(Moscow, 1958)
‘Ob ispolnitel'stve, o redaktirovanii’ [On performing, on editing], Voprosï
fortepiannogo ispolnitel'skogo iskusstva, i (Moscow, 1965)
Sovetï mastera [The advice of a master], SovM (1965), no.5, pp.95–102
32 sonatï Betkhovena [The 32 sonatas of Beethoven] (Moscow, 1966)
A.B. Gol'denveyzer: dnevnik (1889–1904) [Gol'denveyzer: diary (1889–
1904)], ed. Ye.I. Gol'denveyzer and L.I. Lipkin, i (Moscow, 1995); ii
(Moscow, 1997)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Levinson: ‘Gol'denveyzer – pedagog’ [Goldenweiser as a teacher],
SovM (1950), no.3, pp.50–53
A. Nikolayev: ‘Ispolnitel'skiye i pedagogicheskiye printsipï A.B.
Gol'denveyzera’ [Goldenweiser’s principles of teaching and
performing], Mastera sovetskoy pianisticheskoy shkolï, ed. A.A.
Nikolayev and others (Moscow, 1954, 2/1961), 115–66
D. Blagoy, ed.: A.B. Gol'denveyzer: stat'i, materialï, vospominaniya
[Articles, materials, reminiscences] (Moscow, 1969)
G.B. Bernandt and I.M. Yampol'sky: Kto pisal o muzïke [Writers on
music], i (Moscow, 1971) [incl. list of writings]
D. Blagoy and Ye. Gol'denveyzer, eds.: V klasse A.B. Gol'denveyzera [In
Goldenweiser’s class] (Moscow, 1986)
I.M. YAMPOL'SKY/INNA BARSOVA
Goldie
(b Walsall, 1965/6). English DJ and club dance musician. He was a graffiti
artist in the 1980s and early 90s, then turned to music after repeated visits
to the Rage club in London and an introduction to the hardcore and
breakbeat culture that eventually developed into jungle and drum ’n’ bass.
He released several highly regarded singles, including Terminator and
Angel (both 1993), as well as several remix projects under both his own
name and his Metalheadz pseudonym. In 1994 he made the influential
album Timeless, a sprawling album of breakbeats which brought drum ’n’
bass to wide attention. Through his Metalheadz record label and its
accompanying collective of DJs, including Fabio, Grooverider and Doc
Scott, Goldie kept drum ’n’ bass prominent for several years through the
Metalheadz club nights in London. With his 1998 double album Saturnz
Return, which included orchestral arrangements and a contribution from
Oasis’s Noel Gallagher, he attempted to take drum ’n’ bass beyond its
electronic roots, but with limited success.
WILL FULFORD-JONES
Golding, John.
See Goldwin, John.
Goldmann, Friedrich
(b Siegmar-Schönau, Chemnitz, 27 April 1941). German composer and
conductor. He was a member of the Dresdner Kreuzchor from 1951 to
1959. In 1959 he attended the Darmstadt summer courses for new music,
where he studied with Stockhausen. He continued his studies at the
Dresden Musikhochschule (1959–62) and at the Akademie der Künste,
Berlin (1962–4), with Wagner-Régeny among others. He also studied
musicology at Humboldt University (1964–8). From 1968 he worked as a
freelance composer and conductor in Berlin. He was appointed professor
of composition at the Hochschule der Künste, Berlin, in 1991. Between
1990 and 1997 he served as president of the German section of the ISCM.
His honours include memberships in the Akademie der Künste, Berlin (from
1978), the Akademie der Künste, West Berlin (from 1990), and the
Sächsische Akademie der Künste, Dresden (from 1995).
The premières of Essay II (1968) and the First Symphony (1973) at the
beginning of the 1970s introduced Goldmann as one of the most
provocative and brilliant of young German composers. Together with
Dittrich, Friedrich Schenker and others, he emerged as one of a new
generation of East German composers who opposed the conservative and
apologetic aesthetics of socialist realism, and who stood for an advanced
modernism. A member of the circle around Paul Dessau, his aesthetic
standards were influenced not only by the Second Viennese School and
Boulez, but also by Adorno and French structuralist philosophers such as
Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze. Although he has occasionally written
scores for film and the theatre, the main emphasis of his creative work has
been instrumental music. Taking serialism as his starting point, he has
developed a unique style that playfully appropriates the antinomies of mass
and individual, structure and sound, cliché and innovation.
WORKS
Stage: R. Hot bzw. die Hitze (Opernfantasie, T. Körner, after R.M.J. Lenz), 1974
Orch: Essay I, 1963; Essay II, 1968; Ödipus Tyrann (H. Müller), chorus, orch, 1968–
9; Essay III, 1971; Musik, chbr orch, 1973; Sym. no.1, 1973; Sym. no.2, 1976;
Conc., trbn, 3 inst ens, 1977; Vn Conc., 1977; Ob Conc., 1979; Pf Conc., 1979; In
memoriam Paul Dessau, 15 str, 1980, collab. R. Bredemeyer, F. Schenker;
Inclination temporum, 1981; Ensemblekonzert I, 16 insts (1982); Exkursion, 1984,
collab. H. Sagittario; Ensemblekonzert II, 16 insts (1986); Sym. no.3, 1986;
Spannungen eingegrenzt, 1988; Sym. no.4, 1988; Sonata a quattro, 12 insts, 4
perc, 1989; Klangszenen I, 1990; Klangszenen II, 1992
Chbr and solo inst: Trio, fl, perc, pf, 1967; Sonata, wind qnt, pf, 1971; So und so,
eng hn, trbn, pf, 1972; 4 Klavierstücke, pf, 1973; Cellomusik, vc, 1974; Str Qt, 1975;
Zusammenstellung, wind qnt (1976); Pf Trio, 1978; Sing Lessing, Bar, wind qnt, pf,
1978; Sonata, ob, pf, 1980; Vorherrschend gegensätzlich, 8 insts (1980); 7
Bagatelles, fl, cl, va, vc, pf, perc, 1983; So fern, so nah, fl, cl, hn, tpt, va, vc, 1983;
Trio, ob, vc, pf, 1985; Qnt, ob, cl, hn, bn, pf, 1986; Trio, va, vc, db, 1986; Sonata, pf
(1987); Solo zu zweit, 2 ob, 1988; zerbrechlich - schwebend, ob, eng hn, trbn, perc,
pf, va, vc, db, 1990; Fast erstarrte Unruhe I, 8 insts, 1991; Wind Qnt (1991); Fast
erstarrte Unruhe II, 9 insts, 1992; querstrebige Verbindungen, 13 insts, 1992; Fast
erstarrte Unruhe III, 12 insts, 1995; Ketten, fl, 1997; Str Qt no.2, 1997; Trio, ob, vc,
pf, 1998; wechselnde Zentren, conc., fl, cl, db, perc, 1998
Arr.: F. Schubert: 6 Heine Lieder, Bar, orch, 1997
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Schneider: Momentaufnahme (Leipzig, 1979)
F. Schneider: ‘Das Ensemble ist Zentral: Friedrich Goldmann, ein Porträt’,
NZM, Jg.147, no.6 (1986), 22–7
H. Neef: Der Beitrag der Komponisten Friedrich Goldmann, Friedrich
Schenker, Paul-Heinz Dittrich und Thomas Heyn zur ästhetischen
Diskussion der Gattung Oper in der DDR seit 1977 (diss., Martin
Luther U., 1989)
F. Goldmann: ‘Klischees und Komponieren: komponierte Klischees’,
Klischee und Wirklichkeit, ed. O. Kolleritsch (Vienna, 1994), 23ff
GERHARD MÜLLER
Goldmann, Max.
See Reinhardt, Max.
Goldmark, Rubin
(b New York, 15 Aug 1872; d New York, 6 March 1936). American
composer and teacher, nephew of Karl Goldmark. He studied with Alfred
von Livonius at City College, CUNY (1887–9),with Anton Door and Johann
Nepomuk Fuchs at the Vienna Conservatory (1889–91), and with Joseffy
and Dvořák at the National Conservatory, New York (1891–3). He later
taught at the National Conservatory (1893–4), Colorado College (1894–
1900), the New York College of Music (1900–24), and was head of the
composition department at the Juilliard School of Music (1924–36).
Copland and Gershwin numbered among his many distinguished students.
A founder and life-long spokesperson for The Bohemians, the Musicians
Foundation, the Society for the Publication of American Music and the
Beethoven Association, he was dedicated to improving the financial status
of professional musicians in America.
As a composition teacher Goldmark was not stylistically prescriptive, but
espoused traditional techniques and classical ideals. His own compositions
are rigorously chromatic. The Piano Quartet in A, op.9, won the 1909
Paderewski Prize for chamber music. A popular lecturer, his views reflected
the prevailing thoughts of the post-Romantic generation. At an occasion
organized by The Bohemians to honour Paderewski (1914), Goldmark
speculated that:
every form of cacophony, of unmitigated ugliness has …
begun to flourish and seems to enrol some men of real
eminence and attainment under its banner. Thus one
hesitates and sometimes wonders whether our ideas of music
already belong to the past and whether we are on the
threshold of a new era.
No published works appeared after 1926. Reasons cited include poor
health, heavy teaching and other duties.
WORKS
(selective list)
Hiawatha, 1900; Sampson, tone poem, orch, 1913; Requiem (A. Lincoln:
Gettysburg Address), orch, 1916; A Negro Rhapsody, tone poem, orch, 1922; The
Call of the Plains, orch 1924; Pf Trio, op.1, Pf Qt, A, op.9; concert works for pf, vn
and vc; song cycle; songs
WRITINGS
‘Advice on Composition from Rubin Goldmark’, Musical America, xx/2
(1914), 6 only
Foreword to A.M. Richardson: The Mediaeval Modes: their Melody and
Harmony for the Use of the Modern Composer (New York, 1933/R)
Unpublished Speeches and Letters (MS, US-NYp)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.W. Kramer: ‘Rubin Goldmark: an Appreciation’, Musical America, lvi/6
(1936), 8 only
A. Copland: ‘Rubin Goldmark: a Tribute’, Juilliard Review, iii/3 (1956), 15–
16
D.J. Tomatz: Rubin Goldmark, Postromantic: Trial Balances in American
Music (diss., Catholic U. of America, 1966)
DAVID TOMATZ
Editions: Opere complete, ed. G. Ortolani and others (Venice, 1907–71)Tutte le opere, ed.
G. Ortolani (Milan, 1935–56)
intermezzos
Il buon vecchio, comp. unknown, Feltre, 1729/30
La cantatrice, comp. unknown, Feltre, 1729/30 (?Apolloni, 1734, as La pelarina)
I sdegni amorosi tra Bettina putta de campielo e Buleghin barcariol venezian, comp.
unknown, Milan, ?1733 (Coppola, 1825, as Il gondoliere di Venezia)
La pupilla, Maccari, 1734 (comp. unknown, Florence, 1737; comp. unknown,
Bologna, 1756; comp. unknown, Rovigo, 1764; Gialdini, 1896; Mancini, 1908)
La birba, comp. unknown, Venice, 1735 (comp. unknown, Milan, 1743)
L’ippocondriaco, comp. unknown, Venice, 1735
Il filosofo, comp. unknown, Venice, 1735 (comp. unknown, Milan, 1743; comp.
unknown, Bologna, 1744)
Aristide, Lotavio Vandini [= Antonio Vivaldi; but see Weiss, 1984], 1735
Monsieur Petiton, comp. unknown, Venice, 1736
La bottega da caffè, comp. unknown, Venice, 1736 (comp. unknown, Milan, 1743;
comp. unknown, Venice, 1744)
L’amante cabala, comp. unknown, Venice, 1736 (comp. unknown, Venice, 1744)
Lugrezia romana in Costantinopoli, Maccari, 1737 (Trento, 1800)
Il finto pazzo (after T. Mariani: La contadina astuta), Pergolesi, Chiarini and ?Latilla,
1741
Il quartiere fortunato, ?Maggiore, ?1744 (S. Cristiani, 1802)
La favola de’ tre gobbi, Ciampi, 1749 (Fabrizi, 1783, as I tre gobbi rivali)
Il matrimonio discorde (farsetta), R. Lorenzini, 1756
La cantarina (farsetta), Galuppi, 1756
La vendemmia, Sacchini, 1760
serious operas
Amalasunta (1732–3): destroyed by Goldoni
Griselda (after A. Zeno), Vivaldi, 1735
La generosità politica (after D. Lalli: Pisistrato), Marchi, 1736
Gustavo I re di Svezia, Galuppi, 1740
Oronte re de’ sciti, Galuppi, 1741 (Scalabrini, 1742)
Statira, Chiarini, 1741 (Maggiore and others, 1751; Scolari, 1756)
Tigrane (after F. Silvani: La virtù trionfante dell’amore e dell’odio), G. Arena, 1741
(Gluck, 1743; Dal Barba, 1744; Lampugnani, 1747; comp. unknown, Venice,
1756; Tozzi, 1762)
Germondo, Traetta, 1776
comic operas
La fondazion di Venezia, Maccari, 1736
La contessina, Maccari, 1743 (Lampugnani, 1759; Gherardeschi, 1766; comp.
unknown, Gorizia, 1766; Gassmann, 1770; Astarita, 1772; Bernardini, 1773; G.
Rust, 1774, as Il conte Baccellone; Kürzinger, 1775; Piccinni, 1775; ? Cimarosa,
1778
La scuola moderna o sia la maestra di buon gusto (after A. Palomba: La maestra),
Cocchi, Fiorini, V. Ciampi and others, 1748
Bertoldo, Bertoldino e Cacasenno, Ciampi, 1749
L’Arcadia in Brenta, Galuppi, 1749 (G. Meneghetti, 1757; Cordeiro, 1764; comp.
unknown, Cologne, 1771; C. Bosi, 1780)
Il negligente, Ciampi, 1749
Il finto principe, pasticcio, 1749 (? Paisiello, 1768)
Arcifanfano re dei matti, pasticcio, Galuppi and others, 1749 (E. Duni, 1760, as
L’isle des foux; Tozzi ?1766–7; Scolari, 1768; Dittersdorf, 1776)
Il mondo della luna, Galuppi, 1750 (Avondano, 1765; Paisiello, 1774, as Il credulo
deluso; Astarita, 1775; Haydn, 1777; Paisiello, 1783; Neri Bondi, 1790; Portugal,
1791, as O lunático iludido [O mundo da lua])
Il paese della cuccagna, Galuppi, 1750 (? Mango, 1760; Tozzi, 1771; Astarita, 1777,
as L’isola di Bengodi)
Il mondo alla roversa o sia Le donne che comandano, Galuppi, 1750 (? Paisiello,
1764)
La mascherata, Cocchi, 1751
Le donne vendicate, Cocchi, 1751
Il conte Caramella, Galuppi, 1751
Le pescatrici, Bertoni, 1751 (R. Gioanetti, 1754; Haydn, 1770; Gassmann, 1771)
Le virtuose ridicole, Galuppi, 1752 (Geronimo Cordella, 1756; Paisiello, 1765;
Ottani, 1769)
I portentosi effetti della madre natura, G. Scarlatti, 1752 (Piccinni, 1761, as Le
vicende della sorte)
La calamita de’ cuori, Galuppi, 1752 (Salieri, 1774; ?Cimarosa, ?1792)
I bagni d’Abano, pasticcio, Galuppi and F. Bertoni, 1753 (? Paisiello, 1765)
De gustibus non est disputandum, G. Scarlatti, 1754
Il filosofo di campagna, Galuppi, 1754
Li matti per amore (after Federico: Amor vuol sofferenza), Cocchi, 1754
Il povero superbo (after Goldoni: La gastalda), Galuppi, 1755
Lo speziale, V. Pallavicini and D. Fischietti, 1755 (Haydn, 1768)
Le nozze, Galuppi, 1755 (Cocchi, 1762, as Le nozze di Dorina; Sarti, 1782, as Fra
due litiganti il terzo gode)
La cascina, Scolari, 1755 (Brusa, 1758; Brusa and Scolari, 1761, as La quesera)
La diavolessa, Galuppi, 1755 (Bárta, 1772)
La ritornata di Londra, Fischietti, 1756 (Galuppi, 1759, as int)
La buona figliuola, Duni, 1756 (Piccinni, 1760; S. Perillo, 1760)
Il festino, Ferradini, 1757
Il viaggiatore ridicolo, Mazzoni, 1757 (Perillo, 1761; Gassmann, 1766; Scolari,
1770; P. Caramanica, 1771)
L’isola disabitata, G. Scarlatti, 1757
Il mercato di Malmantile, ? G. Scarlatti, 1757 (Fischietti, 1757; Bárta, 1784;
Zingarelli, 1792, as Il mercato di Monfregoso)
La conversazione, Scolari, 1758
Il signor dottore, Fischietti, 1758
Buovo d’Antona, Traetta, 1758
Li uccellatori, Gassmann, 1759 (P.A. Guglielmi, 1762, as I cacciatori; Marinelli,
1785)
Il conte Chicchera, Lampugnani, 1759
Filosofia ed amore, Gassmann, 1760 (Gassmann, 1771, as Il filosofo innamorato)
La fiera di Sinigaglia, Fischietti, 1760
Amor contadino, Lampugnani, 1760
L’amore artigiano, Latilla, 1760–61 (Gherardeschi, 1763; Gassmann, 1767;
Schuster, 1776; Accorimboni, 1778; ? Neefe, 1779, as Die Liebe unter den
Handwerksleuten [see Wirth, 1962, p.162])
Amore in caricatura, Ciampi, 1761 (G. Notte, 1763)
La donna di governo, ?pasticcio, Rome, 1761 (Fischietti, 1763; ? Galuppi, 1764)
La buona figliuola maritata, Piccinni, 1761 (Scolari, 1762)
La bella verità, Piccinni, 1762
Il re alla caccia, Galuppi, 1763 (Alessandri, 1769; Ponzo, ?1775)
La finta semplice, S. Perillo, 1764 (Mozart, 1769)
La notte critica, Boroni, 1766 (Piccinni, 1767, Gassmann, 1768; Gherardeschi,
1769; Fortunati, 1771; Lasser, 1790, as Die unruhige Nacht)
La cameriera spiritosa, Galuppi, 1766 (Gherardeschi, 1767, as L’astuzia felice)
Vittorina, Piccinni, 1777
Il talismano, Salieri and Rust, 1779 (Salieri, 1788)
Unperf.: I volponi
Doubtful: Le nozze in campagna, Sciroli, 1768
other works
Orats: Magdalenae conversio, G. Seratelli, 1739; L’unzione del reale profeta
Davidde, Boroni, 1760
Cants.: La ninfa saggia, G. d’Alessandro, 1739–40; Gli amanti felici, d’Alessandro,
1739–40; Le quattro stagioni, d’Alessandro, 1739–40; L’oracolo del Vaticano,
Galuppi, 1758
Serenatas: Il coro delle Muse, d’Alessandro, 1740; La pace consolata, Maggiore,
1744; L’amor della patria, G. Scarlatti, 1752
Goldoni, Carlo
WRITINGS
Mémoires (Paris, 1787) [repr. with the autobiographical prefaces to the
Pasquali edn of his works (Venice, 1760–61) in Tutte le opere, i]
Epistolario, Tutte le opere, xiv
Goldoni, Carlo
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BurneyH
LoewenbergA
G. Gozzi, ed.: La gazzetta veneta, 1760–61; ed. A. Zardo (Florence,
1915/R)
V. Alfieri: Vita di Vittorio Alfieri scritta da esso (London, 1807; Eng. trans.,
1810, 2/1961)
A.G. Spinelli: Bibliografia goldoniana (Milan, 1884)
A. Wotquenne: Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der Stücke in Versen aus den
dramatischen Werken von Zeno, Metastasio und Goldoni (Leipzig,
1905)
A. Della Torre: Saggio di una bibliografia delle opere intorno a Carlo
Goldoni, 1793–1907 (Florence, 1908)
H.C. Chatfield-Taylor: Goldoni: a Biography (New York, 1913)
O.G.T. Sonneck: Miscellaneous Studies in the History of Music (New York,
1921/R)
W.C. Holmes: ‘Pamela Transformed’, MQ, xxxviii (1952), 581–94 [on La
buona figliuola]
Studi goldoniani:Venice 1957, ed. V. Branca and N. Mangini (Venice, 1960)
N. Mangini: Bibliografia goldoniana 1908–1957 (Venice, 1961) [with
sequels in Studi goldoniani, 1968–]
G. Ortolani: La riforma del teatro nel Settecento e altri scritti (Venice,
1962)
H. Wirth: ‘Carlo Goldoni und die deutsche Oper’, Hans Albrecht in
memoriam, ed. W. Brennecke and H. Haase (Kassel, 1962), 160–67
N. Mangini: La fortuna di Carlo Goldoni e altri saggi goldoniani (Florence,
1965)
P. Weiss: Carlo Goldoni, Librettist: the Early Years (diss., Columbia U.,
1970)
P. Weiss: ‘Goldoni poeta d’opere serie per musica’, Studi goldoniani, iii
(1973), 7–40
R. Strohm: Die italienische Oper im 18. Jahrhundert (Wilhelmshaven,
1979)
M. Kaindlstorffer: Die Drammi Giocosi Carlo Goldonis: ein Beitrag zur
Librettistik des 18. Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Vienna, 1981)
F. Fido: Da Venezia all’Europa: prospettive sull’ultimo Goldoni (Rome,
1984)
P. Weiss: ‘Venetian Commedia dell’Arte “Operas” in the Age of Vivaldi’,
MQ, lxx (1984), 195–217
F. Fido: ‘Riforma e “contrariforma” del teatro: i libretti per musica di Goldoni
fra il 1748 e il 1753’, Studi goldoniana, vii (1985), 60–72
N. Mangini: ‘I teatri veneziani al tempo della collaborazione di Galuppi con
Goldoni’, Galuppiana: Venice 1985, 133–42
L. Cosi: ‘Due oratori goldoniani’, NRMI, xx (1986), 515–38
M. Metzeltin: ‘Appunti sulla poetica dei drammi giocosi goldoniani’, Oper
als Text: romanistische Beiträge zur Libretto-Forschung, ed. A. Gier
(Heidelberg, 1986), 55–64
A.L. Bellina: Introduction to A. Palomba and G. Cocchi: La maestra, DMV,
xix (1987), pp.vii–lxiv
T.A. Emery: ‘Goldoni’s Pamela from Play to Libretto’, Italica, lxiv (1987),
572–82 [on La buona figliuola]
D.N. Marinelli: Carlo Goldoni as Experimental Librettist: the drammi
giocosi of 1750 (diss., Rutgers U., 1988)
D. Heartz: ‘The Poet as Stage Designer: Metastasio, Goldoni and Da
Ponte’, Mozart’s Operas, ed. T. Bauman (Berkeley, 1990), 89–105
T. Emery: Goldoni as Librettist: Theatrical Reform and the drammi giocosi
per musica (New York, 1991)
N. Messima, ed.: Carlo Goldoni: vita, opere, attualità (Rome, 1993)
Musica e poesia: celebrazioni in onore di Carlo Goldoni: Narni 1993
U. Ronfani, ed.: Goldoni vivo: 1793–1993 Bicentenario Goldoniano
(Rome, 1994)
Carlo Goldoni: Venice 1994, ed. C. Alberti and G. Pizzamiglio (Venice,
1995)
D. Pietropaolo, ed.: Goldoni and the Musical Theatre (New York, 1995)
Goldovsky, Boris
(b Moscow, 7 July 1908). Russian-American conductor and producer. The
son of the violinist Lea Luboschutz, he studied the piano with his uncle,
Pierre Luboschutz, and attended the Moscow Conservatory. He later
studied in Berlin, and attended Dohnányi’s masterclasses in Budapest. In
1930 he moved to the USA and studied conducting with Reiner at the
Curtis Institute of Music. At first antipathetic to opera, Goldovsky became
an ardent convert during his early years in America and was subsequently
an enthusiastic and effective proselytizer, in a variety of capacities: as head
of the opera department at the New England Conservatory of Music,
Boston (1942–64), and the opera workshop at the Berkshire Music Center
at Tanglewood (1946–62); as founder of the New England Opera Theater
in 1946; and as director of the Goldovsky Opera Theater, which toured
nationwide until 1984. At Tanglewood he presented the American
premières of Peter Grimes, Idomeneo and Albert Herring, and in 1955, with
his Boston company, he gave the North American première (albeit heavily
cut) of Berlioz’s Les Troyens. For more than 40 years he was a regular
intermission commentator for the Metropolitan Opera’s Saturday afternoon
broadcasts. His books include Accents on Opera (New York, 1953),
Bringing Opera to Life (New York, 1968) and My Road to Opera (Boston,
1979).
PETER G. DAVIS
Goldsbrough Orchestra.
Orchestra formed in London in 1948 and renamed the English Chamber
Orchestra in 1960; see London, §VII, 3.
Goldschmidt, Berthold
(b Hamburg, 18 Jan 1903; d London, 17 Oct 1996). British conductor and
composer of German origin. After attending school in Hamburg, he studied
philosophy and art history at the University of Hamburg and the Friedrich
Wilhelm University in Berlin (1922–4) as well as composition with Franz
Schreker and conducting with Rudolf Krasselt and Julius Prüwer at the
Berlin State Academy of Music (1922–5). After a short time spent in
Dessau as a répétiteur (1924–5), he served as Erich Kleiber’s assistant
during the rehearsals and première of Berg’s Wozzeck in 1925. Also in
1925 he won the Mendelssohn State Prize with his Passacaglia op.4 for
orchestra. The premières in 1926 of the Passacaglia (in Berlin under
Kleiber) the subsequently lost Overture op.3 (at the Tonkünstler festival in
Chemnitz), and the First String Quartet op.8 (in Berlin), brought the young
composer and conductor to more general notice. Over the next few years,
Germany and other European countries heard further performances of his
music, such as the Piano Sonata op.10, a radical piece in its linear motoric
style, given at the ISCM Festival in Geneva in April 1929. The piece played
most frequently at this time was the short, witty overture ‘Komödie der
Irrungen’ (first performed in Oldenburg in 1928 under its former title,
Ouvertüre zu einer komischen Oper). Goldschmidt worked at the
Darmstadt Opera as musical adviser to the intendant, Carl Ebert, and as a
conductor (1927–9). After a summer season as guest conductor of the
Leningrad PO, he went to Berlin in the autumn of 1931, to work at the
Städtische Oper and in radio. The première of his opera Der gewaltige
Hahnrei at the Mannheim Nationaltheater in 1932 gave promise of an
advance in his career, but the performances announced for the 1932–3
season in Berlin were cancelled, following the Nazi takeover of power.
Goldschmidt was barred from all official activity from then on; he trained
Jewish musicians for the Palestine Orchestra (later the Israel PO), and was
permitted to appear as composer, pianist and conductor only in concerts in
aid of the Jewish artists’ charity, Jüdische Künstlerhilfe.
In 1935 Goldschmidt emigrated to London, where he married the German
singer Elisabeth Karen Bothe in 1936, and became a British citizen in
1947. After some years of hardship he became musical director of the
German section of the BBC’s European Service (1944–7). He conducted
Glyndebourne Opera’s performance of Verdi’s Macbeth at the first
Edinburgh International Festival (1947); thereafter he worked with the
leading British orchestras. His music for the dance drama Chronica (1938)
was performed by the Ballets Jooss in Great Britain, North and South
America, and Scandinavia. His second opera, Beatrice Cenci, was one of
four prizewinners in the Arts Council’s Festival of Britain competition for an
English-language opera (1951), but, apart from a BBC performance of
excerpts in 1953, it remained unheard until a concert performance in
London in 1988. During his first two decades in England, Goldschmidt also
wrote instrumental and vocal works and incidental music for plays on BBC
radio. After Mediterranean Songs (1957–8), however, he ceased to
compose for almost a quarter of a century; his music struck few chords in
England, and its freely tonal orientation attracted virtually no attention amid
the turbulent artistic developments in postwar Germany. Goldschmidt now
dedicated himself as a conductor to Mahler in particular; he advised Deryck
Cooke on the completion of the Tenth Symphony, and conducted the first
concert performance of Cooke’s version in London in 1964 as well as some
later performances in Germany.
It was only from 1984 onwards that Goldschmidt’s music again found an
audience outside Great Britain, at first in Austria and the USA. He had
started to compose again shortly before this, and produced a large amount
of work, mostly chamber music, between 1982 and 1996. His rediscovery
in Germany, dating from the Berlin Festival in 1987, culminated in a series
of concerts in 1993–4 and performances of his two operas in Berlin and
Magdeburg. France, Spain and Switzerland (Der gewaltige Hahnrei, Berne,
1995) also showed a growing interest in his work. Live concerts and
broadcast performances were eventually followed by the issue of 15
recordings between 1990 and 1997 featuring his music exclusively or
partially.
Some of the music Goldschmidt wrote in Germany was lost, some he threw
away, together with certain of his compositions of the 1940s. This was the
fate above all of work that had inclined towards Neue Sachlichkeit (‘New
Objectivity’), Gebrauchsmusik or a tendentious simplicity. The fact that the
younger Goldschmidt’s music was closer to that of Hindemith and Weill –
and also Shostakovich and Prokofiev – than to Bartók or Schoenberg and
his circle is less a matter of influences than of affinities typical of the period.
Although it underwent discernible changes, Goldschmidt’s output reveals
certain unmistakable constants. Already in some of the early works, strict
compositional foundations are overlaid by freer structures which establish
their own centres of gravity. This is true of both the Passacaglia op.4 for
large orchestra, written around 1925 and lost until 1994, and the highly
expressive ‘Folia’ ‘Elegy’ from the String Quartet no.2 (completed 1936), in
which a three-note ostinato recurs 71 times. The marked preference of
Goldschmidt and some of his contemporaries for ostinato, passacaglia and
chaconne frameworks was well described by the term Neue Gebundenheit
(‘New Strict Style’), coined at the time by Besseler. In the Ciaccona
sinfonica (finished in 1936) and the late String Quartet no.4 (1992) alike the
procedure draws close to ‘serial’ treatment of the basic musical material,
though it remains undogmatic and freely tonal.
In his first opera Der gewaltige Hahnrei (after Fernand Crommelynck’s
tragic farce) the young composer achieved an astonishing balance
between Expressionist or psychologically subtle treatment on the one hand
and typological reductionism and Verfremdung on the other. The shifts in
stylistic levels are dramatically motivated, and leitmotifs guarantee the
interrelatedness of the drama and the music. Luscious late-Romantic
cantilenas seem to be as ironically inflected as the allusions to
contemporary dance music (for instance the Tango-Aria in Act 3); colour
effects are qualified by means of linear-contrapuntal, dissonantly
sharpened outlines. Behind the foreground subject-matter of marital
jealousy lies the theme – ominously prophetic for the early 1930s – of
fateful acquiescence in a system gone mad. This ‘musical tragicomedy’ is
head-and-shoulders above the Zeitoper of the period, and can be seen in
retrospect to occupy an important position among the wealth of German-
language operas written around 1930. By way of contrast Beatrice Cenci,
written in England, is somewhat more belcanto in manner, and displays in
its Italian Renaissance subject and somewhat retrospective musical styles
parallels to the historical novel (a genre quite as capable as Zeitoper of
expressing criticism of contemporary society). It illustrates both the
problems and the opportunities Goldschmidt experienced in composing
under changed cultural conditions.
Like Chronica, which has the character of a suite and uses material from
the ballet of the same title (1938, lost) and other early and late pieces, the
three solo concertos composed or reworked between 1951 and 1955
combine melodic-contrapuntal thought and rhythmic-balletic impulse in a
manner characteristic of Goldschmidt. Chamber-music intimacy is linked to
concertante extroversion in a way that gives the formally unconventional
Cello Concerto an effect of the greatest immediacy. The rupture in
Goldschmidt’s life is mirrored in his vocal music by the very fact of the
change from setting one language to another. Letzte Kapitel (1930–31) is
based on two satirical poems by Erich Kästner and combines experimental
features (such as the setting for speaker, singing and speaking chorus,
percussion ensemble and piano) with sarcastic allusions to popular idioms.
In addition, Mediterranean Songs, the setting of English-language poems
for tenor and orchestra (1957–8: the last work completed before the near
25-year hiatus), and the pair of late, French-language settings Les petits
adieux (1994) and Deux nocturnes (1995–6), which are even more
concentrated in structure and atmosphere, are notably substantial works.
Goldschmidt’s late compositions focus on the very problem of temporal
disjunction, of being out of step with the times, that characterizes his work
and his career as a whole – dismissed by conservative critics in his youth,
driven out of Nazi Germany, forgotten by the postwar avant garde,
interrupted in his work for over two decades. The Clarinet Quartet refers
back to some of his earlier themes and preoccupations and at the same
time plays with different, historically out-of-season idioms. Later works,
such as the Third and Fourth String Quartets and the string trio
Retrospectrum, are characterized by the tension between their large-scale,
one-movement, arch forms and the abundance of episodes that take place
within them, as well as the tension between their open formal structures
and high thematic concentration. There is also a considerable divergence
of stylistic levels in these pieces: in the String Trio the introduction of a
dance theme creates a deliberate stylistic rupture. Thus Goldschmidt’s late
works offer an unmistakable and aesthetically illuminating reflection of the
process of expulsion and re-integration in history.
WORKS
(selective list)
Ops: Der gewaltige Hahnrei (3, after F. Crommelynck: Le cocu magnifique), op.14,
1929–30, Mannheim, National, 1932; Beatrice Cenci (3, M. Esslin, after P.B.
Shelley), 1949–50, extracts broadcast BBC, 1953, concert perf., London, 1988,
staged Magdeburg, Jerichower Platz, 10 Sept 1994
Ballet: Chronica (choreog. K. Jooss), 2 pf, 1938, Cambridge, 1949, lost
Incid. music: Die Herde sucht (F. Neumeyer), 1931, partially lost; Doctor Faustus
(C. Marlowe), BBC, 1948; The Dream Play (A. Strindberg), BBC, 1948; The Cenci
(P.B. Shelley), BBC, 1948; Dear Brutus (J.M. Barrie), BBC, 1948; Noble Little
Soldier’s Wife, Bar, xyl, BBC, 1948 [for W. Borchert: The Man Outside]; Nicodemus
he was Black, BBC, 1948/9 [for Martens and Obey: Scamps in Paradise];
Investigations of a Dog (F. Kafka), BBC, 1969
Vocal-inst: Letzte Kapitel (orig.: 2 Betrachtungen) (E. Kästner), op.15, spkr, chbr
chorus, pf, perc, 1930–31; Das Makkabäerspiel (J. Prinz), speaking chorus, 2 pf,
c1933, speaking parts lost; Nebelweben; Ein Rosenzweig (C. Morgenstern),
medium v, pf, 1933; Pss cxx and cxxiv, high v, str, 1935; Der Verflossene (A. Eckert-
Rotholz), v, pf, 1942; Time (P.B. Shelley), v, pf, 1943 [orchd and incl. in Beatrice
Cenci]; Beatrice’s Song (Shelley), v, pf, 1948–9 [orchd and incl. in Beatrice Cenci];
Clouds (R. Brooke), v, pf, 1950, arr. Bar/C, orch, 1986; The Old Ships (J.E Flecker),
T, pf, 1952, orchd as no.5 of Mediterranean Songs, arr. Bar/C, orch, 1986; [6]
Mediterranean Songs (Byron, Shelley and others), T/high v, orch, 1957–8; Belsatzar
(H. Heine), mixed vv, 1985; Les petits adieux, 4 songs, Bar, orch, 1994; 2
nocturnes, S, orch, 1995–6
Orch: Chronica, c1924–86 [Prologue (= Intrada + Marche Militaire) + 6 orch pieces
from the ballet Chronica + Capriccio]; Ov. ‘Komödie der Irrungen’ (orig.: Ov. zu einer
komischen Oper) (W. Shakespeare), op.6, 1925; Passacaglia, op.4, c1925 Partita,
op.9, c1927; Suite from ‘Der gewaltige Hahnrei, op.14a, 1929–33; Grotesker March
(Marche militaire), op.20, 1932 [part of orch suite Chronica], arr. military band, 1938;
Ciaccona sinfonica, c1934–6; Greek Suite, 1940–41; Sinfonietta, 1945–6, partially
lost; Vn Conc., 1951–5; Vc Conc., 1953; Cl Conc., 1953–4; Intrada, wind band/orch,
1985–6 [part of orch suite Chronica]; Rondeau (Rue du rocher), vn, orch/pf, 1994–5
Chbr: Str Qt, op.8, 1925–6; Str Qt no.2, a, ?1933–6; Qt, cl, vn, va, vc, 1982–3; Pf
Trio, 1985; Str Qt no.3, 1988–9; Berceuse, vn, va, 1990 [based on a theme from Pf
Trio, 1985]; Str Trio ‘Retrospectrum’, 1991; Fantasy, ob, vc, hp, 1991; Capriccio, vn,
1991–2; Str Qt no.4, 1992; ‘from B (flat) to D’ … (10 x 5) x 2, vn, vc, 1993; Duo
(Dialogue with Cordelia), cl, vc, 1993; Encore (Méditation), vn, pf, 1993; Rondeau
(Rue du rocher), vn, pf/orch, 1994–5
Pf: Scherzo, 1922, rev. 1958; Sonata, op.10, 1926; Capriccio, op.11, 1927; Little
Legend, 1928, rev. 1957; Variationen über eine palästinensische Hirtenweise,
op.32, 1934; From the Ballet, 1938, rev. 1957
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Gutman: ‘Der Komponist Berthold Goldschmidt’, Nationaltheater
Mannheim: Bühnen-Blätter (1931–2), no.11, pp.121–5
F. Berend: ‘Komponistenporträt: Berthold Goldschmidt’, Musica, no.1
(1953), 33–4
D. Schulte-Bunert: Die deutsche Klaviersonate des zwanzigsten
Jahrhunderts (Regensburg, 1963)
K. Laux: Nachklang: Rückschau auf sechs Jahrzehnte kulturellen Wirkens
(Berlin, 1977)
D. Matthews: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt: a Biographical Sketch’, Tempo,
no.144 (1983), 2–6
D. Matthews: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt: the Chamber and Instrumental
Music’, Tempo, no.145 (1983), 20–25
C. Matthews: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt: Orchestral Music’, Tempo, no.148
(1984), 12–16
K. Csipak: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt im Exil: der Komponist im Gespräch über
Musiker-Exil und Musikleben’, Verdrängte Musik: Berliner
Komponisten im Exil, ed. H. Traber and E. Weingarten (Berlin, 1987),
43–77
C.-H. Bachmann: ‘Zerstörte Begabung – ein Fall unter vielen: Kapitel im
Leben des Komponisten und Dirigenten Berthold Goldschmidt’, Neue
Musikzeitung, xxxvii/4 (1988), 47
P. Banks: ‘The Case of “Beatrice Cenci”’, Opera, xxxix (1988), 426–32
C. Shaw: ‘First Performances: “Beatrice Cenci”’, Tempo, no.165 (1988),
42–4
H. Koelbl: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt’, Jüdische Portraits (Frankfurt am Main,
1989), 78–80, 285
M. Struck: ‘Evidence from a Fragmented Musical History: Notes on
Berthold Goldschmidt’s Chamber Music’, Tempo, no.174 (1990), 2–10
Geschlossene Vorstellung: der Jüdische Kulturbund in Deutschland 1933–
1941 (Berlin, 1992) [pubn of Akademie der Künste, Berlin]
B. Goldschmidt: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt: im Gespräch mit Juan Allende-
Blin’, Musiktradition im Exil: zurück aus dem Vergessen, ed. J.
Allende-Blin (Cologne, 1993), 175–201 [interview]
C.-H. Bachmann: ‘Komponierte Erinnerungen in die Zukunft: ein
Geburtstagsblatt für Berthold Goldschmidt, “Zeuge des Jahrhunderts”’,
Neue Musikzeitung, xlii/1 (1993), 39 only
S. Hilger and W. Jacobs, eds.: Berthold Goldschmidt (Bonn, 1993,
2/1996)
J. Raab: ‘Internierung – Bombardierung – Rekrutierung: Musiker-Exil in
Grossbritannien’, Musik im Exil: Folgen des Nazismus für die
internationale Musikkultur, ed. H.W. Heister and others (Frankfurt,
1993), 279–96
E. Levi: ‘Deutsche Musik und Musiker im englischen Exil 1933–1945’,
Musik in der Emigration 1933–1945: Verfolgung – Vertreibung –
Rückwirkung, ed. H. Weber (Stuttgart and Weimar, 1994), 192–212
P. Petersen and others, eds.: Berthold Goldschmidt – Komponist und
Dirigent: ein Musiker-Leben zwischen Hamburg, Berlin und London
(Hamburg, 1994)
M. Struck: ‘Berthold Goldschmidt zum 90. Geburtstag’, Jahrbuch des
Schleswig-Holsteinischens Landesmuseums Schloss Gottorf’, new
ser., iv (Neumünster, 1994), 19–24
B. Busch: ‘“Verbitterung ist selbstzerstörerisch”: Berthold Goldschmidt –
Komponist, Dirigent, Zeitzeuge’, Zündende Lieder – verbrannte Musik:
Folgen des Nationalfaschismus für Hamburger Musiker und
Musikerinnen, ed. P. Petersen and others (Hamburg, 2/1995), 123–36
MICHAEL STRUCK
Goldschmidt, Georg.
See Fabricius, Georg.
Goldschmidt, Harry
(b Basle, 17 June 1910; d Dresden, 19 Oct 1986). Swiss musicologist,
active in East Germany. In Basle he studied music with Weingartner at the
conservatory, and at the university he took musicology with Nef and
Handschin, ethnology and philosophy; he also studied with Scherchen at
Königsberg, and in Paris and Berlin. Later he was music critic of the Basle
Nationalzeitung (1933–9) and Vorwärts (1945–9), and organized workers’
concerts and directed a workers’ choir. On moving to Berlin he became
head of the music section of Berlin radio (1949–50) before being appointed
lecturer in music history at the East Berlin Hochschule für Musik (1950–55).
From 1955 to 1956 he lectured in China on European music, and on his
return to Berlin he worked mainly as a freelance musicologist until his
appointment as director of the Central Institute of Musicology (1960–65).
Goldschmidt wrote mainly on the music of Beethoven and Schubert (he
was granted a doctorate by the Berlin Humboldt University in 1958 for his
Schubert biography). He was one of the leading and most prolific German
exponents of Marxist theories of music and contributed largely to the
development of the Marxist methodology regarding research and analysis
of music history. In addition to his biographical work on Beethoven and
Schubert, Goldschmidt was known for applying the methodologies of
linguistics to create new systems of musical analysis.
WRITINGS
‘Das Vermächtnis von Johannes Brahms’, MG, iii (1953), 162–7
with G. Knepler and E.H. Meyer: Musikgeschichte im Überblick (Berlin,
1956, rev. 3/1981/R by F. Brenn)
‘Über das neue chinesiche Musikschaffen und seine Perspektiven’, MG, vi
(1956), 409–13, 449–53
‘Edvard Grieg’, MG, vii (1957), 526–53
Franz Schubert: ein Lebensbild (diss., Humboldt U. of Berlin, 1958; Berlin,
1954, 6/1976)
‘Zur Methodologie der musikalischen Analyse’, BMw, iii/4 (1961), 3–30
‘Über die Einheit der vokalen und instrumentalen Sphäre in der klassischen
Musik’, DJbM, xi (1966), 35–49
‘Beethovens Anweisungen zum Spiel der Cramer-Etüden’, ‘Der späte
Beethoven: Versuch einer Standortbestimmung’, Beethoven
Congress: Berlin 1970, 545–58; 41–58
Um die Sache der Musik (Leipzig, 1970, enlarged 2/1976) [collected
essays]
‘Vers und Strophe in Beethovens Instrumentalmusik’, Beethoven
Symposium: Vienna 1970, 97–120
‘Zitat oder Parodie (bei Beethoven)?’, BMw, xii (1970), 171–98
‘Un lieto brindisi: cantata campestre’, BeJb 1971–2, 157–205
‘Welches war die ursprungliche Reihenfolge in Schuberts Heineliedern?’,
DJbM, xvii (1972), 52–62
‘Die Cavatina des Figaro: eine semantische Analyse’, BMw, xv (1973),
185–207
‘Musikverstehen als Postulat’, Musik und Verstehen, ed. P. Faltin and H.-P.
Reinecke (Cologne, 1973), 67–86
Beethoven-Studien: i: Die Erscheinung Beethoven (Leipzig, 1974/R); ii: Um
die Unsterbliche Geliebte: eine Bestandaufnahme (Leipzig, 1977/R)
Beethoven: Werkeinführungen (Leipzig, 1975)
‘Beethoven in neuen Brunsvik-Briefen’, BeJb 1973–7, 97–146
ed.: Beethoven Kongress: Berlin 1977 [incl. ‘Kunstwerk und Biographie’,
437–50]
‘Eine weitere E-Dur-Sinfonie? Zur Kontroverse um die “Gmunden-Gastein”
-Sinfonie’, Schubert Congress: Vienna 1978, 79–112
‘Franz Schubert: der erste Satz der grossen C-dur Sinfonie: eine
prosodische Analyse’, BMw, xxi (1979), 235–97
ed.: Zu Beethoven, i: Aufsätze und Annotationen (Berlin 1979) [incl.
‘Aspekte gegenwärtiger Beethoven-Forschung: Biographie’, 167–242];
ii: Aufsätze und Dokumente (Berlin, 1988) [incl. ‘Auf diese Art mit A
geht alles zu Grunde: eine umstrittene Tagebuchstelle in neuem Licht’,
8–30]
ed., with G. Knepler and K. Niemann: Komponisten, auf Werk und Leben
befragt: Weimar 1981
ed., with G. Knepler: Musikästhetik ind der Diskussion (Leipzig, 1981)
[incl. ‘“Cantando – sonando”: einige Ansätze zu einer systematischen
Musikästhetik’, 125–43]
‘Den Gesang fortsetzend: eine Mahler-Studie’, Wegzeichen: Studien zur
Musikwissenschaft, ed. J. Mainka and P. Wicke (Berlin, 1985), 194–
261
‘Das prosodisch-rhetorische Regulativ bei J.S. Bach’, BMw, xxvii (1985),
48–71
‘Die Wolfsschlucht – eine schwarze Messe?’, BMw, xxx (1988), 8–27
Das Wort in instrumentaler Musik: die Ritornelle in Schuberts Winterreise
(Hamburg, 1996)
film scores
director in parentheses
Studs Lonigan (I. Lerner), 1960; Lonely Are the Brave (D. Miller), 1962; Freud (J.
Huston), 1962; Seven Days in May (J. Frankenheimer, 1963; Lilies of the Field (R.
Nelson), 1963; Rio Conchos (G. Douglas), 1964; The Satan Bug (J. Sturges), 1964;
A Patch of Blue (G. Green), 1965; Von Ryan's Express (M. Robson), 1965; The
Blue Max (J. Guillermin), 1966; The Sand Pebbles (R. Wise), 1966; In Like Flint
(Douglas), 1967; Sebastian (D. Greene), 1967; Planet of the Apes (F. Schaffner),
1968; The Detective (Douglas), 1968; Justine (G. Cukor), 1969; The Ballad of Cable
Hogue (S. Peckinpah), 1970; Patton (Schaffner), 1970; The Mephisto Waltz (P.
Wendkos), 1971; The Wild Rovers (B. Edwards), 1971; The Other (R. Mulligan),
1972; Papillon (Schaffner), 1973; Chinatown (R. Polanski), 1974; The Wind and the
Lion (J. Milius), 1975; Logan's Run (M. Anderson), 1976; The Omen (R. Donner),
1976; Twilight's Last Gleaming (R. Aldrich), 1977; Islands in the Stream (Schaffner),
1977; Coma (M. Crichton), 1978; Capricorn One (P. Hyams), 1978; Alien (R. Scott),
1979; The Great Train Robbery (Crichton), 1979; Star Trek, the Motion Picture
(Wise), 1979
Outland (Hyams), 1981; Poltergeist (T. Hooper), 1982; First Blood (T. Kotcheff),
1982; Twilight Zone, the Movie (J. Landis and others), 1983; Psycho II (R. Franklin),
1983; Under Fire (R. Spottiswoode), 1983; Gremlins (J. Dante), 1984; Rambo, First
Blood Part II (G.P. Cosmatos), 1985; Legend (Scott), 1985 [European version];
Hoosiers (D. Anspaugh), 1986; Innerspace (Dante), 1987; Lionheart (Schaffner),
1987; Star Trek V, the Final Frontier (W. Shatner), 1989; Total Recall (P.
Verhoeven), 1990; Gremlins 2, the New Batch (Dante), 1990; The Russia House (F.
Schepisi), 1990; Love Field (J. Kaplan), 1991; Medicine Man (J. McTiernan), 1992;
Basic Instinct (Verhoeven), 1992; Rudy (Anspaugh), 1993; I.Q. (Schepisi), 1994;
Angie (M. Coolidge), 1994; First Knight (J. Zucker), 1995; City Hall (H. Becker),
1995; The Ghost and the Darkness (S. Hopkins), 1996; Star Trek, First Contact (J.
Frakes), 1996; L.A. Confidential (C. Hanson), 1997; The Edge (L. Tamahori), 1997;
Mulan (B. Cook, T. Bancroft), 1998; Star Trek: Insurrection (Frakes), 1998; The
Mummy (S. Sommers), 1999; The Haunting (J. De Bont), 1999
television
Series themes and episodes (dates are for complete series): Studio One, 1948–8;
Hallmark Hall of Fame, 1951–8; General Electric Theater, 1953–62; Climax!, 1954–
8; Gunsmoke, 1955–75; Playhouse 90, 1956–60; Wagon Train, 1957–65; Have Gun
Will Travel, 1957–66; The Twilight Zone, 1959–64; Thriller, 1960–62; Dr. Kildare,
1961–6 [theme]; The Man from U.N.C.L.E., 1964–8 [theme]; The Waltons, 1972–81
[theme]; Barnaby Jones, 1973–80 [theme]; Star Trek: Voyager, 1995– [theme]
Mini-series and television films: The Red Pony, 1973; A Tree Grows in Brooklyn,
1974; QB VII, 1974; Babe, 1975; Contract on Cherry Street, 1977; Masada, 1981
other works
Christus Apollo (R. Bradbury), cant., nar, C, chorus, orch 1969; Othello, ballet,
1971; Music for Orch, 1972
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Bernstein: ‘A Conversation with Jerry Goldsmith’, Film Music Notebook
(Los Angeles), iii/2 (1977), 18–31
T. Thomas: ‘Jerry Goldsmith’, Film Score: the View from the Podium
(South Brunswick, NJ, and New York, 1979, 2/1991 as Film Score: the
Art and Craft of Movie Music), 285–97
‘The Composer: Jerry Goldsmith’, Filmmakers on Filmmaking: the
American Film Institute Seminars on Motion Pictures and Television,
ed. J. McBride (Los Angeles, 1983), 133–46
T. Darter: ‘Jerry Goldsmith’, Keyboard, xi (1985), no.2, pp.19–20, 22–6;
no.4, pp.44ff
R. Bohn and others: ‘A Filmography/Discography of Jerry Goldsmith:
Updated’, Soundtrack!, xii/47 (1993), 22–42
S.M. Fry: ‘Jerry Goldsmith: a Selective Annotated Bibliography’, The Cue
Sheet, x/3–4 (1993–4), 28–39
‘A Tribute to Jerry Goldsmith’, Soundtrack!, xviii/69 (1999), 22–51
MARTIN MARKS
Goldstein, Malcolm
(b Brooklyn, NY, 27 March 1936). American composer, violinist and writer
on music. He studied at Columbia College (BA 1956) and Columbia
University (MA 1960), where his teachers included Luening (composition)
and Antonio Miranda (violin). He has held positions at the Columbia-
Princeton Electronic Music Center (1959–60), Columbia College (1961–5),
the New School for Social Research, New York (1963–5, 1967–9), the New
England Conservatory (1965–7), Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania
(1969–71), Goddard College, Plainfield, Vermont (1972–4), Dartmouth
College, Hanover, New Hampshire (1976–8) and Bowdoin College,
Brunswick, Maine (1978–82). Goldstein has been active as a director of
ensembles: in the 1960s he co-founded with Philip Corner and James
Tenney and co-directed the important concert series Tone Roads,
presenting many rarely performed works by Ives, Ruggles, Cage, Varèse
and others when he was also a participant in the Judson Dance Theater,
New York; he directed the New Music Ensemble at Dartmouth College; and
in the 1990s he directed the Hessischer Rundfunk Ensemble für Neue
Musik in Frankfurt. In 1976 he was commissioned by the Charles Ives
Society to prepare a critical edition of Ives’s Symphony no.2.
In the early 1970s Goldstein left New York and moved to rural Vermont.
During this period he began a series of improvisational violin pieces
performed under the title Soundings, for which he is perhaps best known;
technically audacious, these pieces possess an introspective intensity that
can be overwhelming, and have been acclaimed as having ‘reinvented
violin playing’. As a violinist and improviser, he has extended instrumental
and vocal techniques and thereby created a wider range of possible
sounds and textures, reflected in his string ensemble work upon the string,
within the bow … breathing. Goldstein, all of whose compositions after the
mid-1960s have involved structured improvisational elements, describes
the improvising musician as ‘one centered in the process of discovery …
realised in the gesture of enactment/sounding’. His scores combine
calligraphy, comments and instructions, and notated music, and are
visually among the most beautiful and evocative in the contemporary
repertory. Increasingly, he has drawn on the sounds of nature that surround
him in Vermont, as reflected in such titles as The Seasons: Vermont and
frog pond at dusk. In the 1980s and 90s he created works including the
radio/acoustic art Ishi/timechangingspaces and ‘as it were, another’ in the
Studio Akustische Kunst at Westdeutscher Rundfunk in Cologne. Goldstein
has toured throughout North America and Europe as a violinist, and has
held improvisation workshops, participated in festivals and collaborated
extensively with artists, dancers and poets, as well as musicians.
WORKS
(selective list)
† unspecified
Orch: a breaking of vessels, becoming song, conc., fl, orch, 1981; Cascades of the
Brook: Bachwasserfall, vn, chbr orch, 1984
Ens: Majority – 1964, str trio, pf, 1964; frog pond at dusk, † inst ens, 1970; upon the
string, within the bow … breathing, str, 1972; Yosha’s Morning Song Extended, †
inst ens, 1974; Hues of the Golden Ascending, fl ens, 1979; The Seasons: Vermont,
† inst ens, tape, 1980–82; Of Sky Bright Mushrooms Bursting in My Head, vn, wind
trio, pf, perc, 1983; Soweto Stomp, † chbr ens, 1985; ‘… that hung like fire on
heaven’, chbr ens, cptr, 1985; through the deserts of time, str qt, 1990; an
enactment of absence, vn, pf, 1995; ‘as it were’, vn db, perc, 1996; Regarding the
Tower of Babel, spkr, † inst ens, 1997; Divisions of Ground, 3 str/ww insts, pf, 2
perc, 1998
Solo inst: Jade Mountain Soundings, solo str inst, 1983; Sounding the Fragility of
Line, vn, 1988; Ishi/‘man waxati’ Soundings, vn, 1988; gentle rain preceding
mushrooms, vn + v, 1992
Vocal: Illuminations from Fantastic Gardens, vocal ens, 1964; Ov. to Fantastic
Gardens, vocal ens, pf, 1964, rev. for chorus, † inst ens, 1976; death: act of fact of
dying, vocal ens, 1967; Yosha’s Morning Song, v, 1973; qernerâq: our breath as
bones, v, † inst ens, 1986; … out of changes: Keeping Still/Mountain, v, † inst ens,
1994
Mixed media: State of the Nation, sound environment, tape loops, 1967; Marin’s
Song, Illuminated, sound/theatre ritual, vn, v, metal objects, slides, tape, 1979–81;
The Life Cycles of Stones, visual/aural installation, vn + v, tape, 1987; Violin Solos
the (Whole) World Plays, visual/aural installation, vn, 1992; Aparicion con vida (text
by M. Agosin), theatre piece, vn + v, 1993; a convergence of distances, theatre
piece, music and dance ens, 1994
Radio/acoustic art works: The Edges of Sound Within, 1985;
Ishi/timechangingspaces, 1988; Topography of a Sound Mind, 1991; between (two)
spaces, 1993; Versuch einer Gründlichen Violinschule, 1996; ‘as it were, another’,
1998
WRITINGS
From Wheelock Mountain: Music and Writings by Malcolm Goldstein
(Toronto, 1977)
‘The Politics of Improvisation’, PNM, xxi (1982–3), 79–91
Sounding the Full Circle: Concerning Music Improvisation and Other
Related Matters (Sheffield, VT, 1988)
recordings
Soundings for Solo Violin, MG Records, MG1, 1980
The Seasons: Vermont, Folkways, FX6242, 1983; re-issued by
Experimental Intermedia CD, XI 120, 1998
Vision Soundings, MG Records, MG2, 1985
Sounding the New Violin, Nonsequitur/What Next, WN0005, 1991
Goldstein plays Goldstein, Da Capo Records, DC2, 1994
Monsun, True Muze, TUMUCD9801, 1998
John Cage (music for vn and perc), Wergo 6636–2, 1999
Chants Cachés, Ambiances magnétiques, AM066, 1999
Malcolm Goldstein live at Fire in the Valley, Eremite, MTE 016, 1999
PETER GARLAND/R
Orch: Sym. [no.1], 1934; Sym. [no.2], folk insts, str, 1936; Vn Conc. [no.1], 1936; Vn
Conc. [no.2], 1939; Pf Conc., 1940; Sym. [no.3], 1944; Sym. [no.4], 1952; Nicolò
Paganini, sym. poem, 1963; Ukrainian Rhapsody, 1965; Kinderszenen, 1966;
Hamburger Konzert, chbr orch, 1975
Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt [no.1], 1932; Pf Trio, 1933; Sonata [no.1], vn, pf, 1935;
Sonata [no.2], vn, pf, 1940; Str Qt [no.2], 1940; Sonata [no.3], vn, pf, 1950;
Ukrainian Suite, vn, pf, 1952; Sonata [no.4], vn, pf, 1975; Str Qt [no.3], 1975;
Sonatina, fl, 1977; Duo, vn, db, 1979; Sonatina, fl, 1980; Sonatina, vn, 1980;
Sonatina, db, 1981; 20 Little Preludes, va, 1982; Qnt, 1982; Sonatina, ob, 1982;
Sonatina, trbn, 1982; Suite, tpt, org, 1986–7; Minstrel's Rondo [after S. Prokofiev]
Completion: A.P. Borodin: Vc Sonata, b (1982)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker 7
D. M. Greene: Greene’s Biographical Encyclopedia of Composers (Garden
City, NY, 1985)
VIRKO BALEY
stage
Nestinarka [The Fire Dancer] (dance drama, Kh. Tsankov), 1938–40; Ivaylo (op, M.
Petkanova, after I. Vazov), 1954–8; Zlatnata Ptitsa [The Golden Bird] (musical tale,
G. Temelkov, after I. Radoyev), 1960–61; Zografat Zakhari [The Icon-Painter
Zakhari] (op, P. Spasov), 1972; Dashteryata na Kaloyana [Kaloyan’s Daughter]
(ballet, V. Konsulova and P. Lukanov), 1973; Trakiyski idoli [Thracian Idols] (op, S.
Dichev), 1980–81
vocal
Choral: Lud gidiya, chorus, 1935; 5 Koledni pesni [Christmas songs], Mez, female
chorus, chbr orch, 1938; Otets Paisiy [Father Paisiy] (cant., N. Valchev), solo vv,
chorus, orch, 1966; Titanat [The Titan] (orat, B. Bozhilov), 1972; Balada za
Aprilskoto vastaniye [A Ballad for the April Uprising] (V. Khanchev), Mez, B, chorus,
orch, 1976; Vaskreseniye na zhivite [Resurrection of the Living] (cant., B.
Dimitrova), Mez, chorus, orch, 1992
Solo vocal–orch: Irodiada (dramatic scene, after S. Mallarmé), S, Mez, orch, 1933;
Balkan, A, chbr orch, 1937; Gaydar [Bagpipe Player], A, chbr orch, 1937; Selska
pesen [A Country Song] (A. Raztsvetnikov), B, orch, 1943; 3 miniatyuri (V. Parum),
S, chbr orch, 1965; Simponichni impresii po kartini na Maystora [Sym. Impressions
of Maystora’s Pictures] (G. Strumski), S, orch, 1982; Yanuari ye [It’s January] (D.
Metodiev), 1v, orch, 1984; other folksong suites
Songs (1v, pf), incl. Narodni vityazi [National Heroes], 1944; Khaydushko libe
[Haidouk Love], 1949
instrumental
Syms.: no.1 ‘Varhu detski temi’ [On Children’s Themes], 1963; no.2, 1967; no.3 ‘Na
mira v sveta’ [Peace in the World], 1970; no.4 ‘Shopofoniya’, 1978
Other orch: Rilskite kambani [The Rila Bells], sym. poem, 1930; Nosht [Night], sym.
poem, 1933 Goryanki, ov., 1938–9; Iz Yugozapadna Bulgariya [Through
Southwestern Bulgaria], sym. poem, Sym. Variations on a Theme by Dobri Khristov,
1942; Prelude, Aria and Toccata, pf, orch, 1947–54; Vc Conc. no.1, 1950; Poema
za partizanite, 1959; Conc., str qt, str, 1963; Vn Conc., 1969; Pf Conc., 1975; Conc.
for Str, 1980; Ob Conc., 1984; Vc Conc. no.2, 1985–7; V pamet na Dobrin Petkov
[In Memory of Dobrin Petkov], sym. poem, 1994
Str Qts [9]: 1933; no.1, 1934; no.2, 1938; no.3 ‘Starobalgarski’ [Old Bulgarian],
1942–4; Microquartet, 1967; no.5, 1969; no.6, 1975; no.7, 1976–7; no.8, 1982
Other: Sonata, vn, pf, 1931; Sonata, vc, pf, 1932; Brass Qnt no.1, 1935; Brass Qnt
no.2, 1946; Trio, ob, cl, bn, 1964; Sonata, vn, 1969; Brass Qnt no.2, 1978;
Tubofoniya, tuba, brass qnt, 1987; Kraynosti [Extremes], fl, bn, 1992
WRITINGS
Kam izvora na balgarskoto zvukotvorchestvo [On the sources of Bulgarian
composition] (Sofia, 1937)
Instrumentoznaniye [Instrumentation] (Sofia, 1947)
Problemi na orkestratsiyata [Problems of orchestration] (Sofia, 1953,
3/1967)
Zad kulisite na tvorcheskiya protses [Behind the scenes of the creative
process] (Sofia, 1971)
Dnevnitsi [Diaries] (Stara Zagora, 1996)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Tapkov: ‘Strunnite kvarteti na M. Goleminov’ [Goleminov’s string
quartets], Balgarska muzika, vi/4 (1955), 4–7
B. Starshenov and P. Stoyanov: ‘Marin Goleminov’, Balgarska muzika,
xvii (1966)
B. Arnaudova: Marin Goleminov (Sofia, 1968)
K. Ganev: ‘Iz klavirnoto tvorchestvo na M. Goleminov’ [Goleminov’s piano
works], Balgarska muzika, xix/7 (1968), 20–31
S. Lazarov: ‘Dve glavi iz tvorchestvoto na M. Goleminov’ [The two parts of
Goleminov’s works], Balgarska muzika, xix/7 (1968), 13–19
S. Lazarov: Marin Goleminov (Sofia, 1971)
V. Krastev: ‘Marin Goleminov’, Profili (Sofia, 1976)
R. Apostolova: Marin Goleminov (Sofia, 1988)
I. Khlebarov: ‘Tematizmat i printsipite na negovoto razvitiye v muzikata na
baleta “Nestinarka” ot Marin Goleminov ili variantnostta i yedinstvo v
muzikata i vav vremeto’ [Themes and principles in the musical
development of The Fire Dancer by Goleminov, or the variation and
unity of music and time], Muzikalni Khorizonti no.9 (1988), 31–9
IVAN HLEBAROV
Golestan, Stan
(b Vaslui, 26 May/7 June 1875; d Paris, 21 April 1956). Romanian
composer and critic. He studied composition at the Schola Cantorum, Paris
(1895–1903), with d'Indy, Dukas and Roussel. An enthusiastic music critic,
he wrote for numerous Romanian and French publications, among them Le
Figaro, in which he had a column for more than 20 years; he founded the
review L'album musical (1905) and was secretary general of the
International Confederation of Dramatic and Musical Criticism. In his
writings he was a firm supporter of new Romanian music, campaigning in
favour of a creative return to folk music, and he gave lectures throughout
Europe. Golestan tried to follow his theories in his own works, using folk
melodies with harmonies derived directly from them in order to express
national sentiments. After 1920 he tended to use instead folk-like themes of
his own invention, but he was influenced more by the 19th-century printed
collections of gypsy music than by authentic Romanian folksong.
Essentially a lyrical composer, Golestan summarized his standpoint in his
preface to the Doïnes et chansons of 1922: ‘I wanted to achieve a musical
recollection of the raw, melancholy, pastoral atmosphere that vibrates in
our open skies’. Golestan was awarded the Enescu Prize (1915) and the
Légion d'Honneur (1928).
WORKS
(selective list)
Orch: La Dembovitza, 1902; Lăutarul [The Fiddler], 1902; Cobzarul [The Kobza-
Player], 1902; Sym., g, 1910; Première rhapsodie roumaine, 1920; Concerto
roumain, vn, orch, 1933; Uvertură simfonica, ?1936; Concertul carpatic, pf, orch,
1940
Chbr and solo inst: Sonata, E , vn, pf, 1908; Serenadă mică [Little Serenade], ens,
1909; Poèmes et paysages, op.18, pf, 1922; Str Qt no.1, A , 1927; Arioso et Allegro
de concert, va, pf, 1932; Sonatine, fl, pf, 1932; Str Qt no.2, ?1936
Songs: Le muguet, 1905; Calme lunaire, 1907; Intimité, 1907; 10 chansons
populaires roumaines, 1908; Poème bleu, 1910; Doïnes et chansons, 1922
Principal publishers: Album musical, Compagnie française, Gallet, Labbé Olivet, Salabert, Société
d'éditions artistiques, Universal
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Nădejde: ‘Stan Golestan şi cîntecul popular ca izvor de inspiraţie în
muzică’ [Golestan and folksong as a source of musical inspiration],
Studii şi cercetări de istoria artei, iii–iv (1956–7), 307–9
J. Weinberg: Momente şi figuri dïu trecutul muzicii românesti (Bucharest,
1967)
V. Cosma: Muzicieni români: lexicon (Bucharest, 1970), 225–7
VIOREL COSMA
Goliards
(Lat. goliardi).
A common but possibly misleading term now associated with wandering
scholars and ecclesiastics (vagantes) who formed a large, disparate group
of Latin poets and composers active in France, Germany, England and
north Italy from the late 10th century to the mid-13th. Though often frankly
secular, many of the songs ascribed to goliards contain religious or moral
themes; others are personal, indulging in flattery, complaints and
mendicant requests; debate, satire, polemic and admonition are common,
as are songs of spring, love, drinking, feasting, gambling and
miscellaneous drolleries. Most of the poems were certainly meant to be
sung, but music is now lacking; a majority are written in ‘goliardic stanzas’
(Vagantenstrophen) of rhyming 13-syllable lines (seven plus six syllables),
as illustrated by this extract from the Archipoeta's Confessio:
Meum est propositum in taberna mori,
ut sit vinum proximum morientis ori.
Yet despite the content of their lyrics, known goliards were not worthless
vagabonds: their poetry was written for an educated audience, they were
learned, and some were esteemed teachers, while others enjoyed courtly
patronage. Much of their self-confessed boorishness is consequently
rhetorical embellishment rather than biographical fact. The origin of the
word ‘goliard’ has been associated with both the Latin word ‘gula’
(‘gluttony’) and the biblical ‘Golias’ (Goliath) as expressions of reproach, a
derivation that stems from Giraldus Cambrensis, who in his Speculum
ecclesiae used the term to refer to a tactless Latin poet. However, although
the word ‘goliardus’ surfaces occasionally in medieval documents, Giraldus
does not specifically equate his Golias with this term.
See also Archipoeta; Early Latin secular song; Hugh Primas of Orléans;
Serlo of Wilton.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T. Wright: Latin Poems Commonly Attributed to Walter Mapes (London,
1841)
T. Wright: Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets and Epigrammists of the Twelfth
Century (London, 1872)
J.M. Manly: ‘Familia goliae’, Modern Philology, v (1907–8), 201–9
J.J.A.A. Frantzen: ‘Zur Vagantendichtung’, Neophilologus, v (1920), 58–79
J.W. Thompson: ‘The Origin of the Word Goliardi’, Studies in Philology, xx
(1921), 83–98
H. Brinkmann: Geschichte der lateinischen Liebesdichtung im Mittelalter
(Halle, 1925)
J.H. Hanford: ‘The Progenitors of Golias’, Speculum, i (1926), 38–58
H. Waddell: The Wandering Scholars (London, 1927, 7/1934/R)
B.I. Jarcho: ‘Die Vorläufer des Golias’, Speculum, iii (1928), 523–79
K. Strecker: Die Apokalypse des Golias (Rome, 1928)
B. Bischoff: ‘Vagantenlieder aus der Vaticana’, Zeitschrift für romanische
Philologie, l (1930), 76–100
A. Machabey: ‘Etude de quelques chansons goliardiques’, Romania, lxxxiii
(1962), 323–47
A. Machabey: ‘Remarques sur les mélodies goliardiques’, Cahiers de
civilisation médiévale, vii (1964), 257–78
E.G. Fichtner: ‘The Etymology of Goliard’, Neophilologus, li (1967), 230–
37
A.G. Rigg: ‘Golias and other Pseudonyms’, Studi medievali, xviii (1977),
65–109
J. Hamacher: ‘Die Vagantenbeichte und ihre Quellen’, Mittellateinisches
Jb, xviii (1983), 160–67
P.G. Walsh: ‘Golias and Goliardic Poetry’, Medium aevum, lii (1983), 1–9
C.J. McDonough: The Oxford Poems of Hugh Primas and the Arundel
Lyrics (Toronto, 1984)
H. Hüschen: ‘Vaganten- und Scholarenlieder aus der Frühzeit der
Universität’, Schnittpunkt Mensch Musik… Walter Gieseler zum 65.
Geburtstag, ed. R. Klinkhammer (Regensburg, 1985), 46–53
B. Gillingham, ed.: Secular Medieval Latin Song, i: An Anthology, ii: A
Critical Study (Ottawa, 1993–5)
Golinelli, Stefano
(b Bologna, 26 Oct 1818; d Bologna, 3 July 1891). Italian composer and
pianist. He studied the piano and counterpoint in Bologna with B. Donelli,
and also had brief instruction in composition with Vaccai. In 1842
Ferdinand Hiller was passing through Bologna and advised Golinelli to take
up a concert career; he considered him to be the best Italian pianist of his
day and also praised him as a composer. Schumann himself was
interested in Golinelli’s music and commended his 12 studi in the 1844
Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. Golinelli subsequently made brilliantly
successful concert tours of Italy, performing in Naples, Florence, Milan,
Genoa and Palermo; he also toured France, Germany and England, where
he performed with Piatti and Sivori at the London Musical Union in 1851.
He acquired a reputation throughout Europe both as a performer and as a
composer, reaching his peak during the years 1845 to 1855; some
acclaimed him ‘the Italian Bach’. In 1840 Rossini nominated him professor
of piano at the Liceo Musicale in Bologna, a post that he held until his
retirement in 1870, after which he devoted himself entirely to composition.
One of the leading exponents of the 19th-century Italian piano school,
Golinelli wrote more than 200 piano pieces. They are elegant and
melodically inventive, particularly when cast in a short, even miniature,
form. Their graceful lines and fresh harmonies contribute to their lyrical,
Romantic character not immune from elegiac sentimentality and recalling
some of Chopin’s more overworked devices. The longer works show a
closer and at times overwhelming similarity to German models; in other
works the rapid, manneristic sketch predominates. In the whole of his
output a didactic aim is often apparent, with a pseudo-Classical, rather
solid pianistic style that recalls Clementi and Beethoven. Golinelli was one
of the first to repudiate the vacuous tricks of virtuosity particularly prevalent
at the time in fantasias and variations on opera themes; his main
achievements were to forge musical links between northern European and
Italian cultural spheres, and to restore to Italian music a certain classicism
and sense of tradition.
WORKS
all for piano solo
5 sonatas, opp.30, 53, 54, 70, 140; 7 toccatas, opp.16, 38, 48, 130, 145, 186, 232;
3 bks of preludes, opp.23, 69, 177; studies, incl. 12 studi, op.15; Scherzo;
Barcarola; tarantellas, nocturnes, fantasias, fantasiettas, marches, mazurkas, waltz,
melodies, character-pieces etc.
78 works pubd in L’arte antica e moderna, ed. G. Ricordi (Milan, n.d.), xvii–xx
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DEUMM (F. Bussi) [incl. fuller list of works]
FétisB
FlorimoN
RicordiE
SchmidlD
E. Pirani: ‘Stefano Golinelli’, GMM, xlix (1894), 452–4
L.A. Villanis: L’arte del pianoforte in Italia da Clementi a Sgambati (Turin,
1907)
A. Brugnoli: La musica pianistica italiana dalle origini al 1900 (Turin, 1932)
A. Toni: Vittorio Maria Vanzo (Milan, 1946)
S. Martinotti: ‘Poetiche e presenze nel pianismo italiano dell’Ottocento’,
Quaderni della RaM, no.3 (1965), 181–94
P. Rattalino: ‘La musica pianistica italiana tra il 1900 e il 1950’, Rassegna
musicale Curci, xx (Milan, 1967)
S. Martinotti: Ottocento strumentale italiano (Bologna, 1972)
FRANCESCO BUSSI
Golisciani, Enrico
(b Naples, 25 Dec 1848; d Naples, 6 Feb 1919). Italian librettist and poet.
He was a prolific author: he wrote over 80 librettos between 1871 and the
year of his death. His early style was influenced by the melodramatic
nature of the works of Hugo and Sardou. Ponchielli's last opera, Marion
Delorme (1885, Milan), was a setting of Golisciani's libretto, based on the
novel by Hugo. After the success of Cavalleria rusticana (1890) he was one
of the first Neapolitans to exploit the possibilities of verismo, notably in P.A.
Tasca's setting of A Santa Lucia (1892). In the 1890s he also began to
introduce local colour, regional characteristics and social realism. His best-
known librettos were written for Wolf-Ferrari: Il segreto di Susanna (1909,
Munich), I gioielli della Madonna (with C. Zangarini, 1911, Berlin) and
L’amore medico (1913, Dresden). For a fuller list of librettos see GroveO.
BARBARA REYNOLDS
Göllner, Theodor
(b Bielefeld, 25 Nov 1929). German musicologist. He studied musicology,
philosophy and medieval Latin at the University of Heidelberg, where he
worked with Georgiades and received the PhD in 1957. He began teaching
at the University of Munich in 1958, where he completed the Habilitation in
1967 with a study of polyphonic lesson settings. In the same year he was a
visiting professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara; he joined
the faculty there in 1968 and was named professor of music in 1971. In
1973, he was appointed to the chair of musicology at the University of
Munich. He became editor of the series Münchner Veröffentlichungen zur
Musikgeschichte in 1977 and of the Münchner Editionen zur
Musikgeschichte in 1979. He was appointed chairman of the music
commission of the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften in 1982 and
member of the European Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1991.
Göllner’s interests centre on medieval music; he has studied early vocal
and instrumental polyphony (including the origins of keyboard music),
notation and oral musical traditions. His writings on scripture settings have
included investigations on psalmody, masses and the relation of both
monophonic and polyphonic Gospel settings to liturgical drama from the
medieval era up to Viennese Classicism.
WRITINGS
Formen früher Mehrstimmigkeit in deutschen Handschriften des späten
Mittelalters (diss., U. of Heidelberg, 1957; Tutzing, 1961)
‘Eine mehrstimmige tropierte Weihnachtslektion in Polen’, AcM, xxxvii
(1965), 165–78
Die mehrstimmigen liturgischen Lesungen (Habilitationsschrift, U. of
Munich, 1967; Tutzing, 1969)
‘Eine Spielanweisung für Tasteninstrumente aus dem 15. Jahrhundert’,
Essays in Musicology: a Birthday Offering for Willi Apel, ed. H. Tischler
(Bloomington, IN, 1968), 69–81
‘Zur Sprachvertonung in Händels Chören’, DVLG, xlii (1968), 481–92
‘J.S. Bach and the Tradition of Keyboard Transcriptions’, Studies in
Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer, ed. H.C.R.
Landon and R.E. Chapman (New York and London, 1970), 253–60
‘Die Trecento-Notation und der Tactus in den ältesten deutschen
Orgelquellen’, L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento: Convegno II: Certaldo
and Florence 1969 [L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iii (Certaldo,
1970)], 176–85
‘Two Polyphonic Passions from California’s Mission Period’, YIAMR, vi
(1970), 67–76
‘Frühe Mehrstimmigkeit in Choralnotation’, Musikalische Edition im Wandel
des historischen Bewusstseins, ed. T.G. Georgiades (Kassel, 1971),
113–33
‘The Three-Part Gospel Reading and the Medieval Magi Play’, JAMS, xxiv
(1971), 51–62
‘Unknown Passion Tones in Sixteenth-Century Hispanic Sources’, JAMS,
xxviii (1975), 46–71
ed.: Notenschrift und Aufführung: Munich 1977
‘Händel und die Wiener Klassiker’, Deutsch-englische Musikbeziehungen:
Nuremberg 1980, 98–111
‘Das Kyrie conctipotens zwischen Organum und Komposition’, Musik in
Bayern, no.22 (1981), 37–57
‘Falsobordone und Generalbass-Rezitativ bei Heinrich Schütz’, Heinrich
Schütz in seiner Zeit, ed. W. Blankenberg (Darmstadt, 1985), 249–66
‘Die sieben Worte am Kreuz’ bei Schütz und Haydn (Munich, 1986)
‘Das Bibelwort in der Musik von Schütz, Bach und Händel’, Rationalität und
Sentiment: die Zeitalter Johann Sebasatian Bachs und Georg
Friedrich Händels, ed. V. Schubert (St Ottilien, 1987), 119–53
‘Et incarnatus est in Beethovens Missa solemnis’, AnM, xliii (1988), 189–99
‘Da Jesus an dem Kreuze stund: zur Versvertonung bei Heinrich Schütz’,
Liedstudien: Wolfgang Osthoff zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. M. Just and R.
Wiesend (Tutzing, 1989), 153–70
‘Kyrie Fons bonitatis – Kyrie Gott Vater in Ewigkeit’, Von Isaac bis Bach:
Festschrift Martin Just, ed. F. Heidlberger, W. Osthoff and R. Wiesend
(Kassel, 1991), 334–48
‘“Wiesengrund”: Schönbergs Kritik an Thomas Manns Arietta-Textierungen
in Beethovens Op.111’, Festschrift für Horst Leuchtmann, ed. S.
Hörner and B. Schmid (Tutzing, 1993), 161–78
‘Meeresstille: Goethes Gedicht in der Musik seiner Zeit’, Musicologia
humana: Studies in Honor of Warren and Ursula Kirkendale, ed. S.
Gmeinwieser, D. Hiley and J. Riedlbauer (Florence, 1994), 537–56
‘Et incarnatus est’ in Bachs h-Moll-Messe und Beethovens Missa Solemnis
(Munich, 1996) [lecture delivered 1994]
‘Guido Adler, Rudolf von Ficker und Thrasybulos Georgiades’, Anuario
Musical, ii (1996), 5–10
‘Sprache und Spiele: Vokales und Instrumentales in der Musik’, Artes
liberales: Karlheinz Schlager zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. M. Dobberstein
(Tutzing, 1998), 151–70
‘Lassos Lektionskompositionen und ihre neu entdecken Vorlagen im Ott-
Druck von 1538’, Compositionwissenschaft: Festschrift Reinhold und
Roswitha Schlötterer zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. B. Edelmann und
Sabine Kurth (Augsburg, 1999), 69–84
‘“Pausa”, Abschiedsvorlesung an der Universität München’, Anuario
Musical, liii (1998), 3–14
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Edelmann and M.H. Schmid, eds.: Altes im Neuen: Festschrift
Theodor Göllner (Tutzing, 1995) [incl. list of writings, 427–32]
PAULA MORGAN
Golodnova, N.
See Zeyfas, Natal'ya Mikhaylovna.
Golpeado
(Sp.).
See Rasgueado.
Golschmann, Vladimir
(b Paris, 16 Dec 1893; d New York, 1 March 1972). American conductor of
French birth and Russian descent, brother of Boris Golschmann. His early
studies were in the violin and piano, and at the Schola Cantorum in Paris
he also took courses in harmony, counterpoint and composition. He began
his career as an orchestral violinist, but conducting was already his goal,
and in 1919 he launched a series of ‘Golschmann Concerts’ devoted
largely to avant-garde music of the time and particularly to works by Les
Six. In the next four years Golschmann also conducted for Diaghilev’s
Ballets Russes and at the Popular Concerts in Brussels; as musical
director of the Bériza Theatre he gave the premières of chamber operas by
Ibert, Milhaud, Florent Schmitt and others. His American début in 1923 as
conductor of Les Ballets Suédois of Rolf de Maré was followed in 1924 by
concert engagements with the New York Symphony Society. After several
more years in Europe, including a spell as conductor of the Scottish
Orchestra (1928–30), a guest appearance in 1931 with the St Louis SO led
to Golschmann’s appointment that autumn as the orchestra’s permanent
conductor. He stayed for 25 years, moving permanently to the USA in 1934
and becoming an American citizen in 1947. Throughout this time he
continued to champion new and unfamiliar works, bringing to his
performances the advantages of an excellent technique, a strongly
romantic temperament, and a breadth of taste that made him as convincing
in Russian ballet and Beethoven concertos as in the music of his old
Parisian favourites. Golschmann continued to appear frequently in St Louis
after 1956 as conductor emeritus, and in 1957 he was visiting professor at
the city’s George Washington University, of which he was also made an
honorary doctor. He served as musical director of the Tulsa SO (1958–61)
and from 1964 to 1970 in a similar capacity with the Denver SO.
BERNARD JACOBSON
Dramatic: Odissey [Odyssey] (ballet, 3, K. Batashov, after Homer), 1965; film and
theatre music
7 syms.: no.1, 1934, rev. 1950; no.2, 1938, rev. 1973; no.3, 1942, rev. 1974; no.4,
1947; no.5, 1960; no.6, 1966; no.7 ‘Heroic’, 1972
Concs.: Pf Conc. no.1, 1944; Pf Conc. no.2, 1948; Pf Conc. no.3, 1954; Vc Conc.,
1956; Va Conc., 1962; Vn Conc., 1970
Other orch: Lesnaya pesn' [Forest Song], 2 suites, 1946 [from incid music]; Ov.,
1952; Sym. Poem, 1957; Choreographic Sym. ‘Vozvrashcheniye Odisseya’ [The
Return of the Odyssey], 1974; Ukrainskaya rapsodiya, 1982
Choral: Oktyabr'skaya kantata [October Cant.] (N. Aseyev), chorus, orch, 1931;
Vozvrashcheniye solntsa [The Return of the Sun] (orat, 7 pts, trad.), solo vv, chorus,
orch, 1935, rev. 1980; Smert' poėta [Death of a Poet] (Yu. Lermontov), 1936, arr. as
sym. poem, Bar, orch, 1957; Kuznets [The Blacksmith] (Verkharn), 1937; Moskva,
Moskva, … lyublyu tebya, kak sïn [Moscow, Moscow, I Love you as a Son]
(Lermontov), 1938; 3 russkiye pesni [3 Russian Songs] (trad.), 1943; Geroi
bessmertnï [Immortal Heroes] (orat, 5 parts), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1945;
Grazhdanskoye muzhestvo [The Citizen's Courage] (K. Rïleyev), 1949; Na mogilu
neizvestnogo soldata [At the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier], 1949; Dukhovnïye
khorï [Sacred Choruses] (Orthodox texts), 1986
Solo vocal: Rekviyem [Requiem] (Aseyev), Bar, 1931; 3 stikhotvoreniya [3 Poems]
(A.S. Pushkin), Mez, T, pf, 1933–44; 7 pesen khanteyskikh detey [7 Khanty
Children's Songs] (after Ya. Rodionov), 1v, pf, 1936; Ballada o Volge (N.
Berendgof), B, pf, 1948; 3 stikhotvoreniya (S. Gorodetsky), B/Bar, pf, 1973; 5
stikhotvoreniya (F. Tyutchev), 1v, pf, 1985; 2 stikhotvoreniya (Lermontov), 1v, pf,
1988
Chbr and solo inst: Poėma, vn, 1930; Pf Qnt, 1938; Sonata, tpt, pf, 1951; Sonata,
vn, 1952; Qnt, hp, str qt, 1953; Vecher na Moskve-reke [An Evening on the Moscow
River], hp, 1953; Concert Aria, 1961 [3 versions: 1, vc; 2, vc, hp; 3, vc, pf]; 3 p'yesï
[3 Pieces], vc, 1961; Qt, 2 hp, 2 fl, 1963; Klassicheskoye skertso [Classical
Scherzo], sonata, bn, pf, 1969; Sonata, vc, pf, 1972; Ėpitafii nad grobiyu F.M.
Dostoyevskogo [Epitaphs for the Grave of Dostoyevsky], va, 1982; Posledniye
shagi ternistogo puti [The Final Steps of the Thorny Path], triptych, pf, org, 1985;
Nocturnes, hp, 1988; 24 str qts: 1949–86
Pf: Poėma, 1929; Ballade, 1930; Fugue, 1930; Ukrainskaya rapsodiya, 1936, orchd
1982; 5 p'yes pamyati Lermontova [5 Pieces in Memoriam Lermontov], 1938;
Detskiy al'bom [Children's Album], 1946; V staroy Ruze [In Old Ruza], 5 pieces,
1949; 3 p'yesï [3 Pieces], 1971; Sonata-Toccata, 1977; Fortepiannïye otkliki [Piano
Echoes], 1983; 9 Sonatas, 1930–77
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Yu.N. Tyulin: ‘Put' k simfonicheskomu masterstvu’ [The way to symphonic
mastery], SovM (1978), no.9, pp.13–18
ALLA VLADIMIROVNA GRIGOR'YEVA
Gombart.
German firm of music publishers. It was founded in Augsburg in 1795 and
in its first few years produced early editions of important works by Haydn
and Mozart. These include a very early edition of Haydn’s symphony
no.100 (1799), his symphonies nos.99 and 101 and one of the earliest
editions of his Gott erhalte den Kaiser; and for Mozart, first editions of the
Quintet for piano and wind k452 (1800) and the divertimentos k247 and
k287 (1799). In 1825 Gombart produced its only Beethoven first edition,
the song An die Geliebte woo 140. Most of the firm’s output consisted of
songs by such composers as Gyrowetz and Rieff, and piano music,
especially operatic arrangements. It ceased trading about 1844. (G.
Haberkamp: Die Erstdrucke der Werke von Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,
Tutzing, 1986)
NIGEL SIMEONE
Gomberg, Harold
(b Malden, MA, 30 Nov 1916; d Capri, 7 Sept 1985). American oboist. He
spent his formative years as an instrumentalist at the Curtis Institute,
Philadelphia, which he entered at the age of 11 as a pupil of Marcel
Tabuteau. He became solo oboist of the National SO (Washington, DC) in
1934, moved to the Toronto SO in 1938, and to the St Louis SO the
following year. In 1943 he was appointed solo oboist of the New York PO,
where he remained until his retirement in 1977. He returned in 1980 to play
in the world première of Barber's Canzonetta, which was written for him.
From 1948 to 1977 he was a member of the faculty of the Juilliard School
of Music. Gromberg also appeared internationally as a soloist and was
renowned for his singing tone and masterful technique. His brother Ralph
Gomberg (b Boston, 18 June 1921) was principal oboist of the Boston SO
from 1949 to 1987.
GEORGE GELLES
Gombert, Nicolas
(b c1495; d c1560). South Netherlandish composer.
1. Life.
2. Style.
3. Sacred music.
4. Secular music.
5. Conclusion.
WORKS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GEORGE NUGENT/ERIC JAS
Gombert, Nicolas
1. Life.
He was probably born in southern Flanders, perhaps in the village of La
Gorgue, where the name Gombert was long established. According to the
theorist Hermann Finck, he was a pupil of Josquin; if so, he may have
come under Josquin’s guidance during the latter’s last years in Condé.
Certainly Gombert composed a déploration on the death of Josquin,
printed in 1545 with similar tributes by Appenzeller and Vinders. Gombert
was a singer in Emperor Charles V’s court chapel from 1526, and maître
des enfants from 1529; he travelled with the chapel from Flanders to Spain,
Italy, Austria and Germany. Some references incorrectly call him imperial
maître de chapelle or music director, titles then actually held by the now
nearly forgotten composer Adrien Thibault (called Pickart) and later by
Thomas Crecquillon. Gombert was a cleric, perhaps a priest, and was
awarded ecclesiastical benefices at Courtrai, Béthune, Lens and Metz.
Late references consistently identify him as a canon of Tournai Cathedral
(he had been appointed to the post by 1534); so he evidently lived at
Tournai for a time, and he may have spent his last years in retirement
there.
By 1540 Gombert’s name had left the imperial chapel lists and was
succeeded by Cornelius Canis’s. According to the physician Jerome
Cardan, Gombert violated a boy in the emperor’s service and was
sentenced to the galleys for a period in exile on the high seas. In exile,
Cardan added, he composed those ‘swan songs’ which won him both the
emperor’s pardon and a benefice that allowed him to end his days in
peace. The ‘swan songs’ may be the late Magnificat settings copied in
1552 (in E-Mn 2433). How long he survived after his return is not certain.
The only evidence is a letter of tribute (now in the Pierpont Morgan Library,
New York) sent with a motet in 1547 by Gombert from Tournai to Charles’s
gran capitano Ferrante Gonzaga (see illustration). In 1556 Finck spoke of
Gombert as still living, but both Cardan (1561) and the diplomat
Guicciardini (Descrittione, 1565) indicated that he was already dead.
Although Gombert’s official title was maître des enfants, he also served
unofficially for at least a decade as court composer, and a number of works
commemorate events in the emperor’s life: for example, the motets Dicite
in magni for Philip II’s birth in 1527, Felix Austriae domus for the coronation
of Ferdinand I as King of the Romans in 1531, and Qui colis Ausoniam for
the treaty of 1533 between the pope, the emperor and several Italian
rulers. The Missa ‘Sur tous regretz’, labelled ‘for the coronation’ in one
source, may have been sung for Charles’s coronation in Bologna in 1530.
There is even an arrangement for two lutes of a chanson, Plus oultre, that
alluded to Charles’s heraldic motto ‘Plus ultra’.
Gombert, Nicolas
2. Style.
Finck, in his Practica musica (1556), said of Gombert:
Yet in our own time there are innovators, among whom
Nicolas Gombert, pupil of Josquin of fond memory, shows all
musicians the path, nay more, the exact way to refinement
and the requisite imitative style. He composes music
altogether different from what went before. For he avoids
pauses, and his work is rich with full harmonies and imitative
counterpoint.
Gombert’s phrases frequently overlap, and his dense-textured style allows
each voice only short rests at the ends of phrases; Finck was probably
referring to Josquin’s familiar technique of alternating pairs of voices and
thus giving extended rests to the inactive pair. Gombert’s name is now
practically synonymous with pervading imitation, which he used more
consistently than anyone else of his own or any earlier generation. Each
phrase of text is set to its own motif and subsequently taken up in quick
succession by the voices in turn. As a result the voices tend to be equally
important, although the bass serves a harmonic function at cadences and
the top line is sometimes slightly more florid than the others.
After his early works Gombert seldom used chordal passages, and then
only for emphasis or reverence. For variety he used constantly shifting
combinations of normally four, seldom fewer than three, out of five voices.
Characteristically he favoured the lower voice ranges and combinations of
five or six rather than four voices; the dark, rich sounds, sombre at times,
are reminiscent of Ockeghem, whose Missa ‘Mi-mi’ he quoted at the
beginning of his Missa ‘Je suis desheritée’. Rhythms are basically simple
and plastic, skilfully animated by syncopation and cross-accent. Duple
metre predominates, with infrequent passages in triple. Gombert’s melodic
style, although individual, owes much to plainsong tradition. The phrases
are normally syllabic, tapering off with a short melisma; the lines are
formed from small intervals, often in units of irregular contour, yet artfully
balanced, and the motifs are skilfully varied to avoid exact repetition.
Unlike Josquin, Gombert used irregular numbers of voice entries and
avoided clearcut phrase divisions. Imitation is often free, but real answers
are more common than tonal ones. His harmonic organization, like that of
his contemporaries, often strains the traditional modal framework, and his
works abound with problems of musica ficta. Gombert’s treatment of
dissonance, while less suave than that of Morales, Willaert or Jacquet, has
been unduly stressed by some scholars. Irregularities such as consecutive
2nds and 7ths may occur because of linear considerations, but generally
he adhered to contemporary practice in carefully preparing and resolving
dissonance.
Gombert, Nicolas
3. Sacred music.
Nine of Gombert’s ten known masses survive in complete form. All but two
elaborate existing motets or chansons, the exceptions being the Missa
Tempore paschali (based on the plainsong Ordinary) and the Missa ‘Da
pacem’ (presumably also based on plainsong; there is no known
polyphonic model). In two masses, based on his own motets Beati omnes
and Media vita, Gombert reduced the scoring of the model by one voice.
The eight-voice Credo, too, is musically related to one of Gombert’s own
works, Je prens congié, but other models are drawn from older
contemporaries or the previous generation. Gombert generally treated the
borrowed material with great freedom, and no two masses follow exactly
the same procedure. Typically, however, his parody masses are
systematically related to their models, in that the mass movements begin
and end with corresponding parts of the model, reworking material in the
original order (the Missa ‘Sancta Maria’ is irregular in this respect). Unlike
some Parisian composers he seldom duplicated the entire voice complex,
usually changing the voice entries for his own purpose. In two masses (on
Sur tous regretz and Je suis desheritée) the entire borrowed melody is
presented clearly in the top voice of the final Agnus. In the Missa ‘Je suis
desheritée’, uncharacteristic of Gombert in several respects, the superius
of the model is literally quoted with doubled note-values in the first two
sections of the Credo. In general the masses follow similar patterns in their
vocal scoring: normally Kyrie and Gloria are full throughout, and the Credo
and Sanctus have reduced scoring for sub-sections. The two- and three-
voice ‘Pleni’ sections often have solo-style florid lines. The Agnus is usually
set twice, with an increase in the number of voices for the second setting:
in the Missa Tempore paschali, probably inspired by Brumel’s Missa ‘Et
ecce terrae motus’, it is expanded to 12 voices.
The chronology of the masses is uncertain, but on stylistic grounds several
are clearly early works. Sequence and ostinato, uncommon in Gombert’s
mature work, are prominent in the masses on Quam pulchra es and
Tempore paschali (though in the Agnus of the latter this is partly the result
of the number of voices involved); and the Missa ‘Da pacem’, exceptional
for its use of triple metre, is close to Josquin in its use of paired imitation
and occasional homophonic passages. The Missa ‘Sur tous regretz’ may,
as has been said, have been written in 1530, and the Missa ‘Quam pulchra
es’ may have been composed for Pope Clement VII; the antiphon Ecce
sacerdos magnus is joined to the final Agnus as a remarkable cantus
firmus in which each phrase of the chant is directly repeated in halved note
values.
The motets are Gombert’s most representative works: over 160 are
attributed to him. The texts are more often taken from scripture than from
the liturgy, many being freely arranged selections of passages from
psalms. Marian compositions account for more than a quarter of the
motets; few appear to be secular texts of the type written for special
occasions. The musical form is conditioned by the character of the text, so
that motets based on responsories nearly always observe the ABCB
pattern of the liturgical model in text and music. Many other motets are also
divided into two broad sections, each marked by a well-defined close, and
a reprise form may also occur independently of a responsory text, for
example, by closing both parts with the same alleluia setting. Final
cadences often have short plagal extensions, with pedal notes normally
occurring only at these places, often in the top voice. In setting the text
Gombert was not always scrupulous about declamation: musical
considerations always came first. Each phrase has its own musical motif
which is worked through the texture. These melodies have great
expressive value in the purely musical sense, and in mature works the
declamation is generally careful.
Ostinato, canon, cantus firmus and double texts, common in the motets of
the preceding generation, are extremely rare, but Gombert’s two best-
known works use some of these techniques. Musae Jovis, his tribute to
Josquin, uses Circumdederunt me gemitus mortis, a chant Josquin himself
had used in Nymphes, nappés, as a cantus firmus repeated in
progressively reduced values. The four-voice Salve regina, sub-titled
‘Diversi diversa orant’, incorporates seven Marian antiphons, each of the
lower voices freely paraphrasing two plainsong antiphons in succession
while the superius unfolds the Salve. Both works reflect the Renaissance
interest in symbolism, whether mystical number or meaningful text
combination. Gombert was not above occasional solmization puns (as on
the words ‘ut’ and ‘sol’ in O gloriosa Dei genitrix).
The eight Magnificat settings, one in each church mode, rank among
Gombert’s finest achievements. They are alternatim settings of even-
numbered verses, cycles of short polyphonic motets alternating with and
freely based on the given plainsong Magnificat tone. Cadence notes
correspond to the finals of the plainsong formula rather than to the final of
the mode. Gombert provided two Magnificat settings (3rd or 8th tone, 6th or
1st tone) with optional final extensions to permit endings in either of two
tones. The scoring is basically for four voices, with one or more voices
added, as in the masses, at the close. The Magnificat in the 3rd or 8th tone
opens with three voices, gradually increasing to eight for the last verse.
Gombert left a number of multi-voice works including an eight-voice Credo,
the 12-voice Agnus from the Missa Tempore paschali, and 10- and 12-
voice settings of the Regina caeli. These are not antiphonal in the manner
of the north Italian coro spezzato style; Gombert did not divide forces
consistently but constantly changed the combinations of voice groups.
Because of the technical demands of multi-voice writing, these works
contain more direct repetition, sequence and ostinato than his other music.
Gombert, Nicolas
4. Secular music.
The striking consistency of Gombert’s style is evident when one turns from
the sacred music to the more than 70 extant chansons, which are typical of
this generation of Netherlandish composers: dense in texture, strongly
imitative rather than chordal, sometimes melismatic in line, and often
conceived on a broad scale, they are like the contemporary Netherlandish
motet only more animated. Less often the chansons approach the type
developed by such Parisian masters as Sermisy; they are lyrical, chiefly
chordal but with some light imitation, mostly syllabic settings, and with well-
marked rhythms and clear formal articulation. Gombert’s chansons in this
lighter vein, closer in style to Janequin or Sermisy, include Amours vous
me faictes and Quant je suis. The distinctive approaches of Sermisy and
Gombert can be studied by comparing their settings of Gris et tanne. C’est
à grand tort and En aultre avoir are typical of the more motet-like
Netherlandish style which Gombert used more freely. As in the sacred
works, he preferred thematic variation to exact repetition, and even the
repeat of a final phrase normally receives at least slight variation. Like the
motets, too, the chansons contain little word-painting, but Gombert left two
notable examples of the programme chanson after the manner of
Janequin. Or escoutez describes the chase of a hare, and Resveillez vous
has passages imitating birdcalls. In the latter Gombert’s penchant for
intensification comes to the fore: he adapted Janequin’s famous chanson,
reducing the number of voices from four to three and the structure from five
sections to four; moreover, his version easily surpasses Janequin’s in
harmonic interest and skill in variation. A few other songs also rework well-
known models. Mille regretz, incorporating the melody of Josquin’s
chanson, is more dense, less varied than Josquin’s, and En l’ombre, also
derived from Josquin, is worked out in triple canon. This is extraordinary for
Gombert, who was perhaps acknowledging here the device favoured in so
many of Josquin’s chansons.
Few of the authors of the chanson texts are known. Molinet and Marot are
represented, but Gombert usually turned to older verse, often of a folkish
type. Unhappy love is the dominant theme, caught in farewells,
separations, infidelities and the like. The single examples of madrigal and
canción that survive are little more than mementos of his travels to Italy
and Spain.
Gombert was for a time thought to be the ‘Nicolas’ represented by
chansons in Parisian publications between 1547 and 1572, but that
composer is almost certainly Nicolas de la Grotte. Guillaume Nicolas has
also been suggested.
Gombert, Nicolas
5. Conclusion.
Contemporaries ranked Gombert among the great. From 1529 until long
after his death, his works figured prominently in the output of the major
European printers, and the Venetian publishers Scotto and Gardane
brought out collected editions of his motets between 1539 and 1552,
paralleling their projects with Willaert and Jacquet of Mantua. Finck
admired his style highly, Ganassi (1542) judged him a ‘divine’ talent, and
Juan Bermudo (1555) referred to him as ‘the profound musician’. His works
show the extreme use of the imitative principle in his time. His style was so
consistent and intense that it influenced many contemporaries, among
them Morales, Jacquet of Mantua and the younger Payen and Vaet.
Lassus composed three masses on Gombert chansons, and other
composers who chose Gombert models for their own works include
Clemens non Papa, Morales, Jacquet de Berchem, Porta, Colin, Rogier
and Monteverdi, the last with a notable exercise in old-style parody, the
Missa ‘In illo tempore’. The instrumental literature emerging in his time also
drew substantially on Gombert’s works, sacred and secular, for
transcription and elaboration in a new medium. In spite of Gombert’s strong
influence, however, the next generation of composers moved towards a
less concentrated style, though one based closely on the principles he had
followed. In particular, the principle of pervading imitation found new life in
such instrumental forms as the ricercare, and led eventually to the fugue of
a later era.
Gombert, Nicolas
WORKS
chansons
instrumental
doubtful works
misattributed works
Adonai Domine Jesu Christe, 5vv, S vii, 55; Ad te levavi, 4vv, S x, 26 (also attrib.
Richafort); Ad te levavi, 5vv, S viii, 73; Angelus Domini ad pastores, 4vv, S x, 1 (also
attrib. Verdelot); Anima mea liquefacta est, 5vv, S vii, 149; Anima nostra sicut
passer, 5vv, S vii, 42; Aspice Domine in testamentum, 5vv, 1538 4; Aspice Domine
quia facta est, 4vv, S v, 86 (also attrib. Festa); Audi filia et vide, 5vv, S vii, 117
Ave Maria, 5vv, S vii, 144; Ave mater matris Dei, 5vv, S vii, 184; Ave regina
caelorum, 4vv, S v, 30; Ave regina caelorum, 5vv, S viii, 36; Averte oculos meos,
4vv, S vi, 13; Ave salus mundi, 6vv, S ix, 86; Ave sanctissima Maria [= Ave
sanctissime Jesu, Christe fili Dei], 4vv, S v, 77; Ave sanctissima Maria, 5vv, S vii,
77; Ave sanctissime Jesu Christe [= Ave sanctissima Maria], 4vv, 1538 3; Beata
mater et innupta virgo, 4vv, S vi, 58; Beati omnes qui timent Dominum, 5vv, S vii,
176; Beatus vir qui non abiit, 6vv, S ix, 104; Benedicta es caelorum regina, 6vv, S ix,
183
Caeciliam cantate pii [= Juravit Dominus], 5vv, S viii, 26; Cantemus virgini canticum
novum, 5vv, S viii, 103; Christe fili Dei [= Ave sanctissima Maria], 4vv, 1555 13;
Conceptio tua Dei genitrix, 5vv, S viii, 59; Confitebimur tibi Deus, 5vv, S viii, 64;
Constitues eos, 6vv, attrib. ‘Comprecht’ in DK-Kk 1872, ed. in Dania sonaus, v
(1986), 91; Cur quisquam corradat opes, 4vv, S vi, 104 (also attrib. Mahu, Haugh);
Da pacem Domine, 5vv, S viii, 143; Descendi in hortum meum, 6vv, S ix, 19; Dicite
in magni, 4vv, S v, 15; Dignare me laudare te, 4vv, S v, 93
Domine Deus omnipotens pater, 5vv, S vii, 84; Domine non secundum peccata
nostra, 4vv, S vi, 6; Domine pater et Deus, 4vv, S v, 1; Domine quis habitabit, 5vv, S
x, 139; Domine si tu es jube, 4vv, S v, 101; Dulcis amica Dei, 4vv, S x, 5; Duo rogavi
te Domine, 4vv, S v, 43; Duo rogavi te Domine, 6vv, S ix, 58; Ecce nunc tempus
acceptabile, 4vv, S v, 22; Ecce quam bonum, 4vv, D-Kl IV.24
Ego flos campi, 5vv, S vii, 165; Ego sum qui sum, 6vv, S ix, 24; Egregie martyr
Sebastiane, 5vv, S x, 67; Emendemus in melius, 4vv, I-TVd 7; Emendemus in
melius, 5vv, S vii, 61; Ergo ne vitae quod superest meae, 4vv, S vi, 25; Fac tibi
mortales, 4vv, S vi, 1; Felix Austriae domus, 5vv, S x, 79; Fidelium Deus omnium
conditor, 4vv, S v, 97; Fuit homo missus a Deo, 4vv, S v, 81
Gabriel nuntiavit Mariae, 5vv, S x, 91 (also attrib. Phinot); Gaude mater ecclesia,
4vv, S x, 15; Gaudeamus omnes et laetemur, 5vv, S vii, 93; Haec dies quam fecit
Dominus, 5vv, S vii, 21; Hic est discipulus, 5vv, S x, 97; Hodie beata virgo Maria,
5vv, S vii, 132; Hodie nata est virgo Maria, 5vv, S viii, 85; Hodie nobis caelorum
Rex, 5vv, S viii, 41; Homo erat in Jerusalem, 4vv, S x, 9; Hortus conclusus es Dei
genitrix, 5vv, S viii, 49
In illo tempore … Hic est panis, 5vv, S x, 84; In illo tempore intravit Jesus, 5vv, S x,
131; In illo tempore loquente Jesu, 6vv, S ix, 13; In illo tempore pastores, 4vv, D-Mu
Art.401; In illo tempore … Sed cum facis, 6vv, S ix, 155 (also attrib. De Latre); In
patientia vestra, 4vv, S x, 39; In te Domine speravi … Educes me, 6vv, S ix, 136;
Inter natos mulierum, 4vv, S v, 70; In tua patientia [= Veni dilecta mea], 5vv, I-TVd
29, lost; Inviolata, integra et casta, 5vv, S vii, 47
Jubilate Deo omnis terra, 4vv, S x, 61; Judica me Deus, 5vv, S vii, 1; Juravit
Dominus [= Caeciliam cantate pii], 5vv, TVd 29, lost; Laus Deo, pax vivis, 5vv, S vii,
36; Levavi oculos meos, 4vv, S v, 47 (also attrib. Richafort); Media vita in morte
sumus, 6vv, S ix, 52; Miserere nostri Deus omnium, 4vv, S vi, 18; Miserere pie Jesu,
4vv, S v, 4; Musae Jovis, 6vv, S ix, 119; Ne reminiscaris Domine, 5vv, S viii, 91
O adorandum sacramentum, 5vv, S viii, 16; O beata Maria, 5vv, S vii, 110; O crux
splendidior, 6vv, S ix, 45; Oculi omnium in te sperant, 6vv, S ix, 65; O domina
mundi, 4vv, S vi, 71; O Domine Jesu Christe, 6vv, S ix, 92; O felix Anna, 5vv, S viii,
96; O flos campi, 5vv, S vii, 27; O gloriosa Dei genitrix, 4vv, S v, 25; O gloriosa
domina, 4vv, S v, 63; O Jesu Christe [= Qui ne l’aymeroit], 8vv, 1568 7; O Jesu
Christe succurre [= Sancta Maria succurre], 6vv, 1538 3; O magnum mysterium, 5vv,
S viii, 121; Omnis pulchritudo Domini, 6vv, S ix, 176; O rex gloriae, 6vv, S ix, 34
Patefactae sunt januae caeli, 5vv, S viii, 53; Pater noster, 5vv, S vii, 139; Peccata
mea sicut sagittae, 6vv, S ix, 127; Philippe qui videt me, 5vv, D-Rp A.R.876; Quae
est ista, 4vv, S v, 59; Quam pulchra es, 4vv, S v, 73; Quem dicunt homines, 6vv, S
ix, 166; Qui colis Ausoniam, 6vv, S ix, 146; Qui seminant in lachrymis, 4vv, S x, 34;
Quidquid appositum est, 4vv, S vi, 108
Regina caeli, 10vv, I-VEaf 218; Regina caeli, 12vv, S x, 156; Reminiscere
miserationum tuarum, 4vv, S vi, 31; Respice Domine, 5vv, S x, 104; Saluto te,
sancta virgo Maria, 4vv, S v, 53; Salvator mundi salva nos, 6vv, S ix, 1; Salve
regina, 4vv, S vi, 48; Salve regina/Ave regina/Inviolata, integra et casta es/Alma
Redemptoris mater (Diversi diversa orant), 4vv, S vi, 92; Salvum me fac Domine,
4vv, S v, 36
Sancta et immaculata, 5vv, S x, 116; Sancta Maria mater Dei, 4vv, S vi, 56; Sancta
Maria succurre [= O Jesu Christe succurre], 6vv, S ix, 80; Sancte Alphonse, 4vv, S
vi, 44; Sancte Johannes apostole, 4vv, S x, 31; Si bona suscepimus, 6vv, S ix, 71;
Si ignoras te o pulchra, 4vv, S vi, 97; Sit Trinitati sempiterna gloria, 5vv, S viii, 128;
Speciosa facta es, 4vv, S x, 57; Stabat autem Petrus, 5vv, S x, 148
Super flumina Babylonis, 4vv, S v, 66; Surge Petre, 4vv, S vi, 87; Surge Petre, 5vv,
S viii, 107 (also attrib. Mouton, Verdelot); Suscipe verbum virgo Maria, 5vv, S x, 73;
Sustinuimus pacem [= Je prens congié], 8vv, VEaf ccxviii; Tota pulchra es, 5vv, S
vii, 89; Tota pulchra es, 6vv, D-Rp B 223; Tribulatio cordis mei, 5vv, S x, 113;
Tribulatio et angustia, 5vv, S vii, 13 (after Verdelot); Tu Deus noster, 5vv, S vii, 155;
Tulerunt Dominum [= Je prens congié], 8vv, 1552 35 (also attrib. Josquin)
Vae, vae Babylon, 4vv, S vi, 77; Veni dilecta mea [= In tua patientia], 5vv, S viii, 132;
Venite ad me omnes, 5vv, S viii, 80; Venite filii audite me, 4vv, S v, 10; Vias tuas
Domine, 5vv, S vii, 125; Virgo sancta Catherina, 4vv, S x, 7; Vita dulcedo, 4vv, S vi,
117 (text from Salve regina)
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
chansons
A bien grand tort, 4vv, S xi, 43; Alleluia my fault chanter, 4vv, S xi, 15; Amoureulx
suis d’une plaisante brunette, 5vv, D-Mbs Mus.1508; Amours vous me faictes, 4vv,
S xi, 25; Amys souffrez, 5vv, S xi, 158; A quoy tient-il, 4vv, S xi, 20; A traveil suis,
6vv, S xi, 171; Au joly bois, 6vv, S xi, 192; Aultre que vous, 4vv, S xi, 32; Ayme qui
vouldra, 5vv, S xi, 121
Celluy a qui mon cueur, 4vv, S xi, 34; Celluy qui est long, 3vv, S xi, 11; C’est à
grand tort, 4vv, S xi, 73; Changons propos, 6vv, S xi, 198; Crainte et espoir, 4vv,
15528; D’en prendre deux, 4vv, 155710; D’estre amoureux, 4vv, 15529; Dieu me fault
il, 5vv, S xi, 153 (also attrib. Crecquillon)
En attendant l’espoir, 6vv, S xi, 180; En aultre avoir, 4vv, S xi, 28; En douleur et
tristesse, 6vv, S xi, 188; En espoir d’avoir mieulx, 4vv, S xi, 22; En l’ombre d’ung
buissonet, 6vv, S xi, 164; Gris et tanne, 4vv, S xi, 18; Hors envieulx, 4vv, S xi, 36
Jamais je n’euz tant, 4vv, S xi, 26 (also attrib. Crecquillon); J’ay congé prins, 4vv, S
xi, 29; J’ay eu congé, 4vv, S xi, 58; J’aymeray qui m’aymera, 4vv, Chansons
musicales a quatre parties (Paris, 1533: Attaingnant); Je ne scay pas, 5vv, S xi,
132; Je prens congié [= Sustinuimus pacem, Tulerunt Dominum], 8vv, S xi, 230
(also attrib. Josquin as Lugebat David Absalon, with addition of 2p. based on an 8-
voice setting of J’ay mis mon cueur, possibly also by Gombert); Je suis trop
jeunette, 5vv, S xi, 136; Jouyssance vous donneray, 6vv, S xi, 220; Joyeulx vergier,
4vv, S xi, 56
La chasse du lièvre: see Or escoutez gentils veneurs; Le bergier et la bergiere, 5vv,
S xi, 115; Le chant des oyseaux: see Resveillez vous cueurs endormis; Mille
regretz, 6vv, S xi, 160; Mon coeur elist, 4vv, S xi, 47; Mon pensement ne gist, 4vv, S
xi, 100; Mon petit cueur, 6vv, S xi, 207; Mon seul, 7vv, NL-Uu 3.L.16 (no text); Mort
et fortune, 4vv, S xi, 41; Nesse pas chose dure, 5vv, S xi, 127; O doulx regretz, 4vv,
S xi, 97; O malheureuse journee, 5vv, S xi, 148; Or escoutez gentils veneurs (La
chasse du lièvre), 4vv, S xi, 76; Or suis-je prins, 4vv, S xi, 69
Paine et travéil, 6vv, S xi, 212; Par ung regard, 3vv, S xi, 13; Pleust a dieu, 3vv, S xi,
12; Pleust a dieu, 6vv, S xi, 167; Plus de Venus, 4vv, 1552 9; Plus en sera garde,
4vv, S xi, 102; Pour parvenir bon pied, 4vv, S xi, 49 (also attrib. Crecquillon); Puis
qu’ainsi est, 4vv, S xi, 60; Puis qu’ainsi est, 4vv, S xi, 63 (related to preceding)
Quant je suis au prez de mamye, 5vv, S xi, 129; Qui ne l’aymeroit [= O Jesu
Christe], 8vv, S xi, 241; Qui porra dire ou croire, 6vv, S xi, 216; Raison le veult, 4vv,
S xi, 94; Raison le veult, 6vv, S xi, 203; Raison me dict, 4vv, 1552 8; Raison requirt
amour, 6vv, S xi, 184; Regret ennuy traveil, 5vv, S xi, 142 (also attrib. Crecquillon);
Resveillez vous cueurs endormis (Le chant des oyseaux), 3vv, S xi, 1
Secourez moy madame, 4vv, S xi, 53; Se dire je losoye, 5vv, S xi, 112 (also attrib.
Crecquillon); Si je ne my plains, 4vv, F-CA, ed. R. van Maldeghem, Trésor musical:
musique religieuse, année xiv (Brussels, 1878), 19; Si le partir m’est dueil, 4vv, S xi,
66; Si le secours, 4vv, S xi, 51; Si mon traveil, 6vv, S xi, 224; Souffrir me convient,
5vv, S xi, 124; Tant bien party, 3vv, 15699; Tant de travail, 4vv, S xi, 45; Tousiours
souffrir, 5vv, S xi, 139; Tous les regretz, 6vv, S xi, 175; Triste départ m’avoit, 5vv, S
xi, 118 (also attrib. Van Wilder); Trop endurer, 5vv, S xi, 145; Tu pers ton temps, 4vv,
S xi, 31; Ung jour viendra, 5vv, S xi, 109; Vous estes trop jeune, 4vv, S xi, 38
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
other secular works
Dezilde al cavallero, canción, 5vv, S xi, 250
S’io veggio sotto l’un e l’altro ciglio, madrigal, 6vv, S xi, 245
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
instrumental
Includes transcriptions and paraphrases of Gombert’s vocal works not extant in
original form.
Works in 153822, 154621, 154623, 154624, 154626, 154627, 154632, 154633, 154723,
154725, 155229, 155230, 155235, 155432, 155435, L. Venegas de Henestrosa, Libro de
cifra nueva (Alcalá de Henares, 1557), 156226, 156422, 156522, 156824, 157412,
157824, 158324, 158831, 158917, 159127, 159222; D-Mbs 267, 271, 1511c, 2987; GB-
Lbl Add.29247, Add.31390, Add.31992; P-Cug 48; S-Uu 87
Edns in Mw, xxii (1962; Eng. trans., 1964) [1 chanson]; MME, ii (1944) [1
Fabordon]; MME, iii (1945) [2 chansons]; MME, xxii (1965) [2 motets]; Valentini
Bakfark Opera omnia, ed. H. István and B. Dániel (Budapest, 1976–9) [4 motets];
The Collected Works of Antonio de Cabezón, ed. C. Jacobs, v (Henryville, PA,
1986) [2 chansons]; Francesco da Milano: Opere complete per liuto, ed. R. Chiesa,
ii (Milan, 1971) [1 chanson]; Miguel de Fuenllana: Orphénica Lyra (Seville 1554),
ed. C. Jacobs (Oxford, 1978) [10 motets]; Oeuvres d’Albert de Rippe, iii: Chansons
(deuxième partie), ed. J.-M. Vaccaro (Paris, 1975) [1 chanson]; G. Spiessens,
Leven en werk van de Antwerpse luitcomponist Emanuel Adriaenssen (ca. 1554–
1604), ii: Musikale bloemlezing (Brussels, 1974) [1 chanson]
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
doubtful works
Adversum me sussrabant, 4vv, S vi, 27 (attrib. Caussin in 1539 11)
Alleluia Spiritus Domini, 5vv, S vii, 101 (attrib. Hesdin in 1539 7)
Cant[ant]ibus organicis, 4vv, S x, 50 (attrib. Gombert in 1554 8, Naich in 153911); ed.
in CMM, xciv (1983), 187
Deus ultionum Dominus, 4vv, S x, 20 (attrib. Gombert in 1539 9, Conseil in 15499)
Hodie Christus natus est, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in 1554 10, Ruffo in 15644)
Hodie in Jordane, 6vv (attrib. Gombert in 1549 3, Maistre Jhan in 155512)
Inclina Domine aurem tuam, 5vv, S viii, 8 (attrib. Berchem in 1552 2)
Laqueus contritus est, 4vv, S x, 42 (attrib. Gombert in 1554 11, Clemens non Papa in
Liber quartus cantionum sacrarum, Antwerp, 1559), also ed. in CMM, iv/19 (1972),
64
Lauda Syon [= Je ne me puis tenir d’aimer], 5vv, 1554 32; ed. C. Jacobs, Miguel de
Fuenllana: Orphénica Lyra (Seville 1554)(Oxford, 1978), 309
Maria Magdalene et altera Maria, 5vv, S vii, 71 (attrib. Manchicourt in 1539 5)
Peto Domine ut de vinculo, 5vv, S viii, 115 (attrib. Caussin in 1542 5), ed. in SCM,
xxiii (1989), 239
Respice in me Deus [= Je ne me puis tenir d’aimer], 5vv, 1546 34; ed. in MME, vii
(1949), 74
Veni electa mea, 5vv, S viii, 137 (attrib. Gombert 1539 8, Jachet in I-Bc Q27/i)
Force sera sy de bref, 4vv, S xi, 104 (attrib. Gombert in F-CA 125–8, Crecquillon in
154411)
J’ay mis mon cueur, 8vv (survives only in contrafacta, but identified by melody in
T1; mostly anon. but as 2p. of Lugebat David attrib. Josquin; see Je prens congié);
ed. as 2p. of Lugebat by J. Milsom (London, 1979)
Je ne me puis tenir d’aimer [= Lauda Syon, Respice in me], 5vv (attrib. Josquin in
Trente sixiesme livre contenant xxx chansons, Paris, 1550, but intabulated
contrafacta attrib. Gombert in 154634, 155432; another contrafactum, Date siceram,
attrib. Sermisy in 155820); ed. A. Smijers, Werken van Josquin des Près: Wereldlijke
werken, i: 8 (Amsterdam, 1925), no.31
Plaisir n’ay plus mais vis, 5vv, S xi, 107 (attrib. Gombert/Crecquillon in 1543 15)
Gombert, Nicolas: Works
misattributed works
Missa ‘Fors seulement’, 5vv, S ii, 89 (attrib. Gombert in D-ROu 49, Vinders in NL-
SH 74)
Missa ‘Si bona suscepimus’, 6vv (attrib. Gombert in I-TVd 1 (lost), Morales in
Missarum liber primus, Rome, 1544); ed. in MME, xi (1952), 274
Ave Maria, 6vv, source unknown (attrib. Gombert by Van Maldeghem); ed. R. Van
Maldeghem, Trésor musical: musique religieuse, année xvi (1880), 49
Beati omnes, 4vv (attrib. Gombert in D-Bga XX.HA StUB Königsberg 7 (formerly B
of Königsberg, Universitätsbibliothek, MS 1740), Hellinck in 1532 10)
Convertimini ad me, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in 1556 8, Ruffo in Il primo libro de motetti
a cinque voci, Milan, 1542)
Cursu festa redit, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in Motectorum quinque vocum … liber
secundus, Venice, 1541; Lupus in 15453)
Dulce lignum, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in Motectorum quinque vocum … liber secundus,
Venice, 1541; 2p. of Willaert’s O crux splenididior in Musica quinque vocum … liber
primus, Venice, 1539); ed. in CMM, iii/3 (1950), 66
Expurgate vetus fermentum, 5vv, S viii, 1 (attrib. Gombert in Motectorum quinque
vocum … liber secundus, Venice, 1541; Berchem in 15522, Lupi in 15558); ed. in
CMM, lxxxiv/2 (1986), 48
Felix namque es, 5vv, S x, 124 (attrib. Lupi/Gombert in 1539 5, Lupi in Chori sacre
Virginis Marie, Paris, 1542); ed. in CMM, lxxxiv/1 (1980), 51
Gaude virgo Catherina, 4vv (attrib. Mouton/Gombert in 1534 9, Mouton in 15291)
Inclina Domine, 8vv (attrib. Sermisy/Gombert in I-VEaf 218, Sermisy in 15641); ed.
in CMM, lii/2 (1972), 39
In illo tempore … Domine ostende, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in 1539 5, Jacquet in Primo
libro di motetti de Iachet a cinque voci, Venice, 1540)
Inviolata integra et casta, 8vv (attrib. Gombert/Mouton in I-VEaf 218, Verdelot in
15641)
Isti sunt viri, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in 15522, Lupi in Chori sacre Virginis Marie, Paris,
1542; Gransyre in 15563); ed. in CMM, lxxxiv/1 (1980), 111
Quid gloriaris, 4vv (attrib. Gombert/Crecquillon in 1553 4, Crecquillon in 15475); ed.
in CMM, lxiii/12 (1997), 93
Regina celi, 4vv, S x, 47 (anon. in 15499/9a, erroneously attrib. Gombert by Schmidt-
Görg); probably by Festa, ed. in CMM, xxv/3 (1977), 56
Sancta et immaculata, 4vv (attrib. Gombert in I-Rvat C.G.XII.4, Hesdin in 15346),
ed. A.T. Merritt, Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant, iv (1960), 182
Sancta Maria, 4vv (attrib. Gombert in 155820, Verdelot in 15344)
Sancte Gregori [= Sancti per fidem (2p. of Isti sunt viri)], 5vv, I-TVd 29 (lost)
Spem in alium, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in 15568, Morales in 15425, Ruffo in Il primo
libro de motetti a cinque voci, Milan, 1542); ed. in MME, xxxiv (1971), 79
Tu es Petrus, 5vv (attrib. Gombert in I-TVd 29 (lost), Morales in 15413,
Morales/Danckerts in 15453, Moreau in 15544); ed. in MME, xiii (1953), 149
Vidi civitatem, 6vv (attrib. Gombert in GB-Ob Tenbury 1464, Van Wilder in Lbl
Add.31390); ed. in MMR, iv/1 (1991), 75
Virgo prudentissima, 4vv, S v, 33 (attrib. Gombert in 1541 4, Payen in 15482)
Je n’en puis plus, 4vv (anon. in F-CA 125–8, attrib. Gombert by Van Maldeghem);
ed. R. Van Maldeghem, Trésor musical: musique profane, année xiv (1878), 27
Je suis trop jeunette, 3vv, S xi, 9 (attrib. Gombert in 1569 11, Janequin in 154113,
Gascongne in Trente et une chansons, Paris, 1535)
La rousée du moys de may [= Larose, Le rose], 6vv (attrib. Gombert in G. dalla
Casa: Il vero modo di diminuir, Venice, 1584; Willaert in G. Bassano: Motetti,
madrigali et canzoni francese … diminuiti, 1591); ed. R. Erig, Italian Diminutions:
the Pieces with More than One Diminution from 1553 to 1638 (Zürich, 1979), 113
Le content est riche, 4vv (attrib. Gombert in 1560 6, Sermisy in 15312); ed. in CMM,
lii/4 (1974), 5
Vostre beaulte plaisante, 4vv, S xi, 71 (attrib. Gombert/Hellinck in 1544 20, Hellinck in
Chansons musicales a quatre parties, Paris, 1533)
Der Herr ist mein Hirt, 5vv [contrafactum] (attrib. Verdelot/Gombert in lost MS
Breslau, Stadtbibliothek, Mus.10)
Gombert, Nicolas
BIBLIOGRAPHY
StevensonSCM
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(1985–6), 101–57
M. Just: ‘Josquins Chanson Nymphes, nappées als Bearbeitung des
Invitatoriums Circumdederunt me und als Grundlage für Kontrafaktur,
Zitat und Nachahmung’, Mf, xliii (1990), 305–35
E. Jas: ‘Nicolas Gombert's Missa Fors seulement: a Conflicting Attribution’,
RbM, xlvi (1992), 163–77
F. Brunet: Les deux chansons descriptives de Nicolas Gombert (thesis, U.
of Paris IV, 1993)
L. Lockwood: ‘Monteverdi and Gombert: the Missa In illo tempore of
1610’, De musica et cantu: Studien zur Geschichte der Kirchenmusik
und der Oper: Helmut Hucke zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. P. Cahn and A.-
K. Heimer (Hildesheim, 1993), 457–69
P. Urquhart: ‘Cross-Relations by Franco-Flemish Composers after
Josquin’, TVNM, xliii (1993), 3–41
W. Elders: Symbolic Scores: Studies in the Music of the Renaissance
(Leiden, 1994)
C.A. Elias: Imitation, Fragmentation, and Assimilation of Chansons in the
Masses of Gombert, Clemens, and Grecquillon (diss., U. of Chicago,
1994)
A.J. Lewis: Un certo che di grandezza: Nicolas Gombert’s First Book of
Four-Part Motets (1539) (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1994)
W. Krebs: Die lateinische Evangelien-Motette des 16. Jahrhunderts
(Tutzing, 1995)
A. Newcomb: ‘A New Context for Monteverdi's Mass of 1610’, Studien zur
Musikgeschichte: eine Festschrift für Ludwig Finscher, ed. A.
Laubenthal and K. Kusau-Windweh (Kassel, 1995), 163–73
O. Rees: ‘Mille regretz as Model: Possible Allusions to “The Emperor's
Song” in the Chanson Repertory’, JRMA, cxx (1995), 44–76
F. Reynaud: La polyphonie tolédane et son milieu, des premiers
témoignages aux environs de 1600 (Paris and Turnhout, 1996), 303,
313, 322, 338
A. Newcomb: ‘Unnotated Accidentals in the Music of the Post-Josquin
Generation: Mainly on the Example of Gombert's First Book of Motets
for Four Voices’, Music in Renaissance Cities and Courts: Studies in
Honor of Lewis Lockwood, ed. J.A. Owens and A.M. Cummings
(Warren, MI, 1997), 215–25
operas
A noite do castelo (os, 3, A.J. Fernandes dos Reis), Rio de Janeiro, Lírico
Fluminense, 4 Sept 1861, vs (Rio de Janeiro, 1861)
Joana de Flandres (os, 4, S. de Mendonça), Rio de Janeiro, Lírico Fluminense, 15
Sept 1863, vs (Rio de Janeiro, c1864)
Se sa minga (musical comedy, A. Scalvini), Milan, 1867, selections, vs (Milan,
c1867)
Nella luna (musical comedy, Scalvini), Milan, 1868
Il Guarany (opera-ballo, 4, Scalvini and C. d’Ormeville, after J. de Alencar), Milan,
La Scala, 19 March 1870, vs (Milan, 1870)
Telégrafo eléctrico (operetta, França), Rio de Janeiro, 1871
Os mosqueteiros do rei, 1871, inc.
Fosca (os, 4, A. Ghislanzoni, after L. Capranica: La festa della Marie), Milan, La
Scala, 16 Feb 1873, vs (Milan, 1873), rev. La Scala, 1878, vs (Milan, c1878)
Salvator Rosa (os, 4, Ghislanzoni), Genoa, Carlo Felice, 21 March 1874, vs
(Milan, ?1874)
Maria Tudor (os, 4, E. Praga, after V. Hugo), Milan, La Scala, 27 March 1879, vs
(Milan, ?1879)
Lo schiavo (os, 4, R. Paravicini, after Viscount de Taunay), Rio de Janeiro, Lírico,
27 Sept 1889, vs (Milan, c1889)
Condor [Odaléa] (os, 3, M. Canti), Milan, La Scala, 21 Feb 1891, vs (Milan, 1891)
other works
Colombo, orat, 4 acts, Rio de Janeiro, 12 Oct 1892, vs (Milan, ?1892)
Il saluto del Brasile, Philadelphia, 19 July 1876
Mass, 1854, ?lost
2 cants., Rio de Janeiro, 1860: [untitled]; A última hora do Calvário
Hino acadêmico, São Paulo, 1859 (Rio de Janeiro, 1859)
Marcha da indústria, orch, Rio de Janeiro, 1860
Modinhas, most unpubd, all ?c1850–60, incl: Alta noite, Anália ingrata, As bahianas,
Bela ninfa de minh’alma, Conselhos, Foi meu amor um sonho, Mamãe disse, Quem
sabe? (Rio de Janeiro, 1859), Suspiros d’alma (Rio de Janeiro, 1859)
Songs, most unpubd, all ?c1860–70, incl.; Addio, Ave Maria, Canta ancor, Chiaro di
luna, Corsa d’amore, Divorzio, Eternamente, Giulietta mia, L’arcolaio, La regata, La
sigaretta, Lontana, Mon bonheur, Noturno, Piccola mendicante, Povera bambola,
Preghiera del l’orfanato, Realtá, Romanza, Rondinella
Fantasia sobre A alta noite, pf, c1859
[3] Fogli d’album, pf: Storiella marinaresca, Spagnoletta, Da ridere
Other pf pieces, incl.: Anemia, preludietto; Avante, brilhante galope (Rio de Janeiro,
1860); Grande valsa de bravura; March nupcial; Moreninha, valsa brilhante (Rio de
Janeiro, 1860); Mormorio, improviso
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.P. Vieira: Carlos Gomes: sua arte e sua obra (São Paulo, 1934, 2/1936)
Revista brasileira de música, iii/3–4 (1936) [Gomes centenary issue]
L.H.C. de Azevedo: Relação das óperas de autores brasileiros (Rio de
Janeiro, 1938)
M. de Andrade: Carlos Gomes (Rio de Janeiro, 1939)
G. da Rocha Rinaldi: Carlos Gomes (São Paulo, 1955)
S. Ruberti: Carlos Gomes (Rio de Janeiro, 1955)
S. Ruberti: ‘O Guarani’ e ‘Colombo’ de Carlos Gomes: estudo histórico e
crítico; análise musical (Rio de Janeiro, 1972)
G.N. Vetro, ed.: Antonio Carlos Gomes: carteggi italiani (Milan, 1976)
J. Bernardes: Do sonho à conquista (São Paulo, c1978)
V. Mariz: História da música no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1981, 4/1994)
J. Penalva: Carlos Gomes, o compositor (Campinas, 1986)
V. Salles, ed.: Antonio Carlos Gomes: uma obra em foco (Rio de Janeiro,
1987)
T.G. Kaufman: ‘Antonio Carlos Gomes’, Verdi and his Major
Contemporaries (New York, 1990), 47–60
S. Nepomuceno: Carlos Gomes, uma discografia (Campinas, 1992)
G.N. Vetro, ed.: Correspondências italianas: Antonio Carlos Gomez, ii
(Brasília, 1998)
GERARD BÉHAGUE
Gomes, Pietro.
See Comes, pietro.
Gomez, Jill
(b New Amsterdam, British Guiana, 21 Sept 1942). British soprano. She
studied in London, making her début with Glyndebourne Touring Opera in
1968 as Adina. At Glyndebourne (1969–84) she was affecting as
Mélisande, Callisto, Anne Trulove and Helena (A Midsummer Night’s
Dream). She made a memorable impression when she created Flora in
Tippett’s The Knot Garden at Covent Garden (1970). Her subsequent roles
there included Titania and Lauretta. For Scottish Opera she sang Elizabeth
Zimmer (Elegy for Young Lovers), Anne Trulove, Fiordiligi, Countess
Almaviva, Pamina and Leïla (Les pêcheurs de perles). With the English
Opera Group she again made her mark in a new role, the Countess in
Musgrave’s The Voice of Ariadne (1974), and also sang a subtle
Governess (The Turn of the Screw). At Wexford she sang Thaïs (1974) and
Rosaura in La vedova scaltra (1983). For Kent Opera (1977–88) she sang
Tatyana, Violetta, Amyntas (Il rè pastore) and Donna Anna. She sang
Helena at Sadler’s Wells in 1990 and also recorded the role. Her other
roles also included Handel’s Cleopatra, Cinna (Lucio Silla) and Teresa
(Benvenuto Cellini). A gifted singing-actress, Gomez is heard at her most
vivid in recordings of stage works by Falla and of Spanish songs.
ALAN BLYTH
MSS in E-Msa
WRITINGS
El concurso nacional de música: Madrid, 1928 (Madrid, 1928)
En el centenario de Mozart (Madrid, 1956)
Escritos de Julio Gómez, ed. A. Iglesias (Madrid, 1986)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. Collet: L’essor de la musique espagnole au XXe siècle (Paris, 1929),
145–7
J. Espinós Orlando: Julio Gómez: compositor, musicólogo y universitario
(Madrid, 1975)
C. Gómez Amat: ‘Julio Gómez’, Cuadernos de música y teatro, i (1987),
45–62
B. Martínez del Fresno: ‘Nacionalismo e internacionalismo en la música
española de la primera mitad del siglo XX’, IMSR XV: Madrid, 1992
[RdMc (1993)], 640–57
B. Martínez del Fresno: Julio Gómez: una época de la música española
(Madrid, 1999)
BEATRIZ MARTÍNEZ DEL FRESNO
Gómez, Tomás
(b Coca, nr Segovia; d Barcelona, 1688). Spanish monk and theorist.
Information concerning his life and work apparently stems from the 17th-
century Spanish bibliographer Nicolás Antonio, who described him as a
learned Cistercian monk of the order of S Bernardo who held several posts
in his order and wrote a Reformación del canto llano (Madrid, 1649) based
on the seven-note solmization method developed by the blind monk Pedro
de Ureña. This attribution was taken up by Gerber, Fétis, Saldoni and other
lexicographers; none claimed to have seen the work, however, nor is there
any record of such a title or authorship today. Yet the book may be extant
after all, undiscovered through Antonio's faulty description: a likely
candidate is an anonymous publication Arte de canto llano, órgano, y cifra,
iunto con el de cantar sin mutanças (E-Mn). The imprint, Madrid, 1649, is
that given by Antonio; the author is described as a monk of the order of S
Bernardo, and chapter 2 explains Ureña's system in detail, proposing ni as
the seventh solmization syllable, making mutation unnecessary. Later
chapters of the book discuss mensural notation, the Spanish organ
tablature and keyboard fingering.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SubiráHME
N. Antonio: Biblioteca hispana nova sive hispanorum scriptorum, ii
(Madrid, 2/1788/R)
H. Anglès and J. Subirá: Catálogo musical de la Biblioteca nacional de
Madrid, ii (Barcelona, 1949), 235
F.J. León Tello: La teoría española de la música en los siglos XVII y XVIII
(Madrid, 1974)
ALMONTE HOWELL
Gómez-Vignes, Mario
(b Santiago, 13 March 1934). Chilean composer, conductor and writer on
music. His musical training began in 1945, and from 1950 to 1954 he
studied at the conservatory of the University of Chile, to which he was
admitted on the recommendation of Domingo Santa Cruz. Since 1960 he
has lived in Colombia, where he has worked as a composer, conductor,
critic and musicologist. He taught harmony, music history, theory and
conducting at the conservatory of the University of Antioquia in Medellín
(1963–73 and 1975–81). Since 1981 he has taught at the music
department of the Universidad del Valle (department head, 1995–6); and
from 1981 to 1985 he was director of the Conservatorio de Bellas Artes in
Cali. Since 1986 he has also taught at the music department of the
University of Cauca in Popayán.
His carefully constructed and richly orchestrated Opus quinientos (1992)
was commissioned by the Colombian Institute of Culture for the
quincentenary of Columbus's voyage to America, and it was recorded on
CD. He is a prolific critic and writer, and his two-volume Imagen y obra de
Antonio María Valencia (Cali, 1991) received an honourable mention for
the Robert Stevenson Prize in Washington in 1993, after which he was
promoted to a senior professor (Universidad del Valle). As a critic, he has
written for El mercurio and El país.
WORKS
(selective list)
Orch: Pequeña suite, str, 1959; Sketch, fl, hp, cel, vn, str, 1961; Conc. grosso, vn, va, vc,
str, 1965; Metamorfosis sinfónica de un intervalo de segunda, orch, perc, 1968;
Sinfonía, 1969–70; 4 bocetos de Meghnon, 2 str orch, 1974; Danzas concertantes,
1979; Conc., hp, gui, str, 1991–2; Opus quinientos (Ensayo), 1992Chbr: Berceuse, vn,
pf, 1960; Str Qt, 1963; Divertimento, wind qnt, 1963; Sonata, vn, pf, 1964; Str Trio,
1965; Sonatina, cl, pf, 1966; Ricercar, wind qnt, 1967; 4 microelegías, Mez, fl, cl, pf,
glock, 1969; Divertimento en suite, pf, 2 monophonic insts, 1971–3; Canción de cuna
neurótica, tr rec, fl, of, 1974; Pasillo, pf duet, 1978; Pasillo, tiple, bandola, gui, 1982Solo
inst (all pf solo unless otherwise stated): Sonata no.1, 1951; Sonata no.3, 1953;
Intermezzo, 1959; Suite, 1959; Berceuse, 1960; 10 piezas para niños, 1960; Balada,
1961; Fantasía y fuga, 1963; Impromptu ‘dans le style de Fauré’, 1964; Pasillo, 1964;
Toccata, 1964; 3 preludios, gui, 1965; Ricercare ‘Omaggio al cinquecento’, hpd, 1965;
Preludio y danza, vc, 1972; Seis por uno en seis, gui, 1977; Paráfrasis, 1982 [on a
theme by Morales Pino]Vocal: A la orilla del camino (H. Spuler-Hottinger), 1v, pf, 1951;
Canción simple (Kalidasa), S/T, pf, 1960; 3 viñetas (J. de Ibarbourou, H. Heine, Agnus
Dei), S, SSAA, triangle, pf, 1960; Cant. no.1, TTBB, 3 hn, 3 tpt, 3 trbn, tuba, perc, pf,
1965; Cant. no.2, TTBB, fl, cl, bn, cel, perc, 1968; Cant. breve ‘Episodio y elegía’ (Cant.
no.3) (P. Neruda), T, 2 nar, SATB, 1970; Ave María ‘por tonos’, SATB, 1972; 2 antiguous
romances anónimos de mi sierra, S/T, SATB, 1972; Madrigal ‘En estilo más bien
antiguo’ (L. de Greiff), SATB, 1973; Trenodia de cautiverio (Cant. no.4) (A. Frank, S.
Quasimodo, J. Vasquez Arias, O. Wilde), SATB, orch, 1975; Himno del cauca (G.
Wilches), 1v, pf, 1989; Las notes del silencio (R. Becerra), Mez, pf, 1995Incid music: La
excepción y la regla (B. Brecht), 1969; El proceso de Lucullus (Brecht), 1968–9; La
lucha por el centavo menos, La pandereta (Brecht), 1977; Carne de tu carne (film
score), 1983El-ac: Collage ’30, 1970; Clausulae I-III, SATB, actor, ob, recs, a crumhorn,
t viol, b viol, perc, hpd, lute, psaltery, tape, 1975
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J.I. Perdomo Escobar: Historia de la música en Colombia (Bogotá,
5/1980), 207
SUSANA FRIEDMANN
Gomidas.
See Komitas.
Gomółka, Mikołaj
(b ?Sandomierz, south-east Poland, c1535; d ?Jazłowiec, nr Buczacz,
western Ukraine, in or after 1591, possibly 5 March 1609). Polish
composer, musician and lawyer. In 1545 he was admitted as a boy with no
specific function at the court of King Sigismund August (who resided chiefly
at Kraków and Vilnius), and from 1549 he studied music there under the
German-born musician Hans Klaus. He was employed as a wind player at
court from 1555 to 1563, but by 1561 he was no longer present at the
court. From 1566 to 1578 he lived at Sandomierz, where on several
occasions he was elected town councillor and in 1572–3 was chairman of
the municipal law court. He later earned his living as a professional
musician at Kraków in the service of leading citizens, including Bishop Piotr
Myszkowski (probably from 1580 and certainly about 1587) and Chancellor
Jan Zamoyski (in 1590–91). He may later have been employed by another
nobleman, Hieronim Jazłowiecki, at Jazłowiec, although the evidence for
this – a somewhat ambiguous memorial tablet to a musician called
Gomolca – has been variously interpreted and may refer to his son.
Gomółka's only surviving music is Melodie na Psałterz polski (Kraków,
1580/R; ed. Krakow, 1983, Wrocław, 1990). It consists of four-part settings
of Jan Kochanowski's Polish translation of the Psalter published in 1579
and was probably inspired by Bishop Myszkowski, to whom it is dedicated.
It is in choirbook format in a kind of score (the parts being printed above
one another across two pages), and the quality of the printing is high. The
sequence of 150 psalms follows the Hebrew (or Protestant) order, not the
Catholic. The Melodies are not strophic songs. Only the first verse of each
psalm is set. Gomółka's concern to observe the particular demands of each
text and to match its mood closely in the music, especially by means of
word-painting, textual declamation and often bold harmonic experiments,
which makes the musical repetition difficult in subsequent verses. The
Melodies comprise different types including cantus-firmus settings in the
soprano or tenor voices, dance-like songs that are possibly contrafacta of
the instrumental repertory at the Polish royal court and song paraphrases.
Prefaced with a eulogistic epigram by the leader of the Polish dissidents,
Andrzej Trzecieski, and including a paraphrase of the Lutheran hymn ‘Ein
feste Burg’, the Psalter was primarily intended for domestic use by
Christians of all denominations. It is one of the most interesting volumes of
Polish Renaissance music and the first musical publication to include
extensive setting of the Polish language. Gomółka is also known to have
composed masses and two other pieces, one an elegy on the death of
Kochanowski, but they are lost.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Reiss: ‘Nikolaus Gomółka und seine Psalmen-Melodien’, ZIMG, xiii
(1911–12), 249–51
M. Perz: ‘Die Vor- und Frühgeschichte der Partitur in Polen’, Festschrift der
Akademie für Musik und darstellende Kunst in Graz (Graz, 1963),
129–38
M. Perz: Mikołaj Gomółka: monografia (Warsaw, 1969, 2/1981)
M. Perz: ‘Czterysta lat Gomółkowych “Melodii” 1580–1980, czyli O
początkach polskiej deklamacji muzycznij’ [400 years of Gomółka's
Melodies, 1580–1980, or The origins of Polish musical recitation],
Muzyka, xxv/3 (1980), 3–22
M. Perz: Melodie na Psałterz polski Mikołaja Gomółki: interpretacje i
komentarze [Melodies on the Polish Psalter by Mikołaj Gomółka:
interpretations and commentaries] (Kraków, 1988)
M. Perz: ‘Sztuka sekretnej chromatyki w “Melodiach” Mikołaja Gomółki’
[The secret chromatic art in Mikołaj Gomółka's Psalter], Muzyka,
xxxiii/4 (1988), 3–28
K. Morawska: Renesans: historia muzyki polskiej [The Renaissance: the
history of Polish music], ii (Warsaw, 1994), 249–53
MIROSŁAW PERZ
Sacred: Requiem mass, 2 choirs, bc; 10 Ky-Gl, 4vv, orch, bc; Ky-Gl, 4vv, str, orch, I-
Ac; Ky-Gl, 3vv, str, bc; Ky, 4vv, str, bc; Ky, 5vv, orch, bc; Ky, 4vv, str, bc, Ac (inc.); 9
Gl, 4vv, str, bc; Cr, 4vv, str, org, BGc; Dona eis requiem, 4vv, str, org, Ac; Dies irae,
4vv, str, bc; Dies irae, 4vv, vv, orch, bc (inc.); Dies irae, 4vv, orch, bc, Bc, MOe, PAc;
Miserere, 4vv, orch, bc; 2 Miserere, 4vv, str, bc, MOe; 9 Mag, 4vv, orch, bc; 7 serie
di litanie, 4vv, orch, bc; lit, 3vv, org, D-BB; 15 pss, 4vv, orch, bc; 13 pss, 2vv, str, bc;
4 TeD, 4vv, orch, bc; TeD, 4vv, str, bc, I-BGc; Salve regina, S, str, bc; Salve regina,
2vv, str, bc; Salve regina, 4vv, orch, org, CZ-LIT; Psalmi de vesperae, 4vv, str, bc;
Aure placide, A, str, org, I-Ac; Ave maris stella, S, str, bc; Casta columba, S, str, bc,
Sd; Confitebor, 3vv, str, bc; Dilexi, 4vv, bc; Dixit Dominus, 4vv, str, bc, Bc; In terra in
mare, 2vv, str, bc, BRc; Laetatus sum, 4vv, orch, bc, Bc, Bsf; Lamentazioni, T, str,
org, Gl; Laudate pueri, 2 S, vv, str, bc; Laudate pueri, S, vv, str, bc; Laudate pueri, A,
vv, str, bc, Bc; De profundis, 4vv, str, bc, Bc; Nisi Dominus, S, org; Nisi Dominus, S,
orch, bc; Parce mihi domine, S, str, bc; Regina caeli, 2vv, org, S-Smf; Regina caeli,
A, org, Smf; 4 Tantum ergo, 2vv, str, bc; Tantum ergo, 2 S, vv, orch, bc; Tantum
ergo, A, str, bc, I-Bc; Tantum ergo, 2vv, str, bc, BRc; Invitatorio, 5vv, orch, bc; 2
invitatori, 4vv, orch, bc; Compieta, 4vv, str, bc; 2 inni per la festa di S Francesco di
Paola, 2vv, str, bc; 2 motetti, S, org, BRc; Cantata per l’Epifania, S, org; 4 cants., S,
org, Rsc; 3 fughes, vv, str, org, Bc
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
FétisB
FrotscherG
GerberNL
SchmidlD
A. Schoebelen: Padre Martini's Collection of Letters in the Civico Museo
Bibliografico Musicale in Bologna: an Annotated Index (New york,
1979)
M. Gabbrielli: ‘Giuseppe Gonelli (1685–1745), profil biografico’, Rivista
internazionale di musica sacra, xvii (1996), 301–9
G. Sommi Picenardi: Dizionario biografico dei musicisti e fabbricanti di
strumenti musicali cremonesi (Cremona, 1997)
M. Gabbrielli: ‘Nota su Giuseppe Gonelli’, Rivista internazionale di musica
sacra, xix (1998)
MILTON SUTTER/MICHELANGELO GABBRIELLI
Gonet, Valérien
(b Arras, late 16th century; d after 1617). French composer. The wording of
the dedication (in F-CAc) of his works to the chapter of Cambrai Cathedral
suggests that he was educated at the cathedral choir school. A manuscript
fantasia of 1613 describes him as phonascus, and a payment note of 1618
indicates that he was maître de chant at the cathedral. His works (in CAc)
comprise a collection of undated Magnificat settings in four to six parts in
the eight tones and the four-part fantasia, probably for viols, which
resembles similar secular works by Le Jeune, Du Caurroy and Charles
Guillet. The Magnificat settings were probably written for didactic purposes
and exploit the contrapuntal and canonic techniques offered by various
combinations of voices. The musical notation is supplemented by
numerous instructions, including letters giving structural information for
each motet, figures indicating the number of voices to each part, and
instructions for the solution of puzzle canons. The presentation of a number
of possible variants for each verse supports the view that these works were
used as exercises for choral teaching. Although most of the Magnificat
verses are signed Valérien Gonet, the name Dubuisson is found on some
of the parts. At the end of the manuscript is the secundus chorus of an
eight-voice Inviolata integra setting by Jean Solon (d after 1655).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FétisB
MGG1 (D. Launay)
C.-E.-H. de Coussemaker: Notice sur les collections musicales de la
bibliothèque de Cambrai (Paris, 1843/R)
J. Houdoy: Histoire artistique de la cathédrale de Cambrai ancienne église
métropolitaine Notre-Dame: comptes, inventaires et documents inédits
(Lille, 1880/R)
A. Pirro: ‘L’art des organistes’, EMDC, II/ii (1926), 1181–374
D. Launay: ‘Les motets à double choeur en France dans la première
moitié du XVIIe siècle’, RdM, xxxix–xl (1957), 173–95
DENISE LAUNAY/THEODORA PSYCHOYOU
Gong
(Fr., Ger. and It.).
1. Introduction.
A percussion instrument of either definite or indefinite pitch, in the form of a
circular metal plaque. The vibration is strongest near the vertex and
weakest near the rim (the opposite is the case with a bell). Gongs, which
are classified by Hornbostel and Sachs as idiophone percussion vessels
(see Idiophone), are made in various sizes and shapes, being either flat, or
with the edge turned over (sometimes called ‘kettle gong’ or ‘metal drum’),
or with a turned-down rim and central boss, like the gongs of Java and
Myanmar (see fig.1). The gong’s primary importance is in south-east Asia
but three types are used in the Western orchestra. In the majority of cases
gongs are cast and hammered, the formula of the metal (an alloy) varying
from 70% to 80% copper and 30% to 20% tin, or a compound of copper
and tin with the addition of lead, iron or zinc. In some special gongs a small
portion of silver is added.
The instrument seen most frequently in the Western orchestra is the large
flat gong with a shallow lip and of indefinite pitch. Instruments of this type
were originally imported only from China and are universally known by the
original name ‘tam-tam’. (It should be noted that composers frequently
prescribe a gong when obviously a tam-tam is intended, the terms ‘gong’
and ‘tam-tam’ being synonymous in Western music.) Though the Chinese
continue to produce fine orchestral tam-tams, there is now a marked
employment of tam-tams and bossed gongs made in Europe by such firms
as M. Paiste of Nottwil and Schacht-Audorf, and the Italian firm of Ufip
(Unione-Fabbricanti Italiana Piatti Musicali e Tam-Tams).
In most Western orchestras a tam-tam of between 90 and 100 cm in
diameter is used, suspended in a frame. Tam-tams as large as 150 cm are
available, but they are impractical for general use and are only employed
for special effect. Unlike the bossed gongs and those with a deep rim,
which are invariably struck in the centre (from where the tone issues), the
orchestral tam-tam may also be struck off centre (see fig.2). With rare
exceptions a heavy beater with felt or wool covering is employed, the
tremolo being produced in most cases by rapid strokes with a single
beater, the sustaining quality of the instrument ‘filling in the gaps’.
2. History.
The origin of the gong is uncertain although the name ‘gong’ originated in
Java (see also Bronze drum).
Gongs may have existed in the biblical era: St Paul’s ‘sounding brass or
tinkling cymbal’ in the King James Bible is translated in the New English
Bible (1 Corinthians xiii.1) ‘sounding gong or clanging cymbal’. The
Romans used gongs and metal discs (discus), which were suspended from
a central hole and used as signal instruments. Four bronze discs devised
by Hipposos had the same diameters, but differed in thickness, and
consequently produced notes of different pitch. A Roman gong discovered
during mining operations in Wiltshire is thought to be from the 1st or 2nd
century.
3. China.
In China, the categorical term luo is used to identify gongs, preceded by a
prefix to specify type, size or regional variant. Gongs were mentioned in
Chinese literature from the early 9th century onwards by onomatopoeic
names such as shaluo and zheng (zhengluo). The encyclopedia Tongdian
(801 ce) reports that gongs were introduced into China from Central Asia
(Xiyu) and in use by the early 6th century. Recently, however, an earlier
gong (of unknown name) was found in a Han dynasty (206 bce – ce 220)
tomb in Guangxi province. This instrument is about 32 cm in diameter with
a large flat central striking area (c22 cm) and a narrow shoulder through
which three suspension rings are attached. The relationship between these
gongs and ‘bronze drums’ (Chinese: tonggu) is not known. ‘Bronze drums’
are indeed gong types of south-east Asian minority peoples, dating (in
China at least) from about the 6th century bce, or possibly earlier (see
Bronze drum).
Chinese gongs in use today are of several basic types. Small basin-shaped
gongs, with flat faces and narrow shoulders turned back at 90 degrees or
less are either suspended in individual frames (tied with cords through
holes in their shoulders or through rims extending out from these) or are
hand held and struck with small unpadded beaters. Basin-shaped gongs
known by names such as zheng, tongzheng and tongluo were cited and
pictured in the treatise Yueshu (c1100). The related Japanese shoko
(Chinese: zhenggu) used in gagaku appears to be a survival from this
period. In north China, basin-shaped gongs known as dangdang (c15 cm in
diameter, mounted in small ‘L’-shaped frames) were pictured in 16th-
century imperial processions and are still employed in the villages of Hebei
province. A more important instrument of this same type is the Yunluo
(‘cloud gong’), a set of ten or more diatonically-tuned small gongs
suspended together in a portable frame. Southern variants known as
jiaoluo (‘call gong’, c9 cm in diameter and hand held by a cord) and
xiangzhan (‘resonating cup’, c6 cm in diameter, which rests in a basket) are
employed in the chamber music of southern Fujian province and Taiwan.
Large knobbed gongs with raised central knob (or boss) and broad turned-
back shoulders (c25–45 cm in diameter) are suspended by two cords in
standing frames (similar to Javanese kempul), hung from poles (when used
in funeral processions) or hand held and struck with padded beaters. Most
commonly found in south-central China (especially among minority
peoples) and in coastal south-eastern China and Taiwan (among
Chaozhou people in particular), knobbed gongs bear local onomatopoeic
names such as gongluo, mangluo and others. Possibly related to or
derived from the ancient ‘bronze drum’, knobbed gongs have been pictured
in Chinese art from the 16th century onwards.
Changing-pitch gongs (where the pitch changes after striking) are used in
Beijing opera and in other northern and eastern opera genres. These have
convex surfaces and a flattened central area for striking, with narrow
shoulders. The daluo (‘large gong’, c30 cm in diameter) is hand held by a
cord and struck with a padded beater; its pitch descends. The xiaoluo
(‘small gong’ of c22 cm in diameter) is held by the fingertips (under the
shoulder of the instrument) and struck with an unpadded beater; its pitch
ascends. Gongs of this type were in use in Kunqu opera by about the 16th
or 17th centuries. Other regional names for similar gongs include suluo,
jingluo and shouluo.
The large gongs used in southern opera genres are basin-shaped or dish-
shaped, with shoulders of varying widths. Variants include the Chaozhou
shenbo (literally ‘deep slope’, c60–80 cm in diameter) and smaller douluo
(‘container gong’), both with flat striking surfaces, wide shoulders and
suspended in standing frames. Related to the douluo is an instrument
known in 18th-century sources as jin (‘metal’), a military gong suspended
by cords from a handle and struck with a padded beater (akin to the
Korean ching). Another southern gong type is the Cantonese wenluo (‘civil
gong’, also known as daluo, chaoluo etc.), which is a very large gong that
comes in differing sizes, with slightly convex surface and narrow shoulders,
suspended in a standing frame (similar to the Western tam-tam).
4. Western art music.
The earliest use of the gong in Western orchestral music is attributed to
Gossec in his Funeral Music for Mirabeau (1791; see fig.3). Subsequent
composers include: Steibelt (Romeo and Juliet, 1793); Le Sueur (Ossian
ou Les bardes, 1804); Spontini (La vestale, 1807); Bellini (Norma, 1831);
and Meyerbeer (Robert le diable, 1831). Outstanding examples of the use
of the large gong (tam-tam) include the solemn stroke in Tchaikovsky’s
Sixth Symphony and the impressive stroke to signify the death of Gerontius
(The Dream of Gerontius, Elgar). In The Planets (Mars) Holst prescribed a
tremolo throughout 39 bars concluding with a fff stroke. Solemn strokes on
a descending series of tam-tams are used with great effect in Messiaen’s
Et exspecto resurrectionem mortuorum (1964). Two tam-tams (acuto,
basso) are required in Stravinsky’s Introitus (1965), a player to each. For
The Rite of Spring (‘The Sacrifice’) Stravinsky requested a rapid glissando,
to be played on the surface of the tam-tam with a triangle beater. Strauss
wrote for a tremolo on four tam-tams (auf dem Theater) in Die Frau ohne
Schatten (1919). Puccini scored for a series of 11 tuned gongs (tam-tam
giappa) in Madama Butterfly, and a series of Chinese gongs in Turandot.
Cage's First Construction (in Metal) (1939) includes 12 graduated button
gongs, four gongs resting on pads, a water gong and a tam-tam;
Birtwistle's Triumph of Time (1971–2) requires nine tam-tams. Chromatic
gongs are now readily available, for example Thai gongs with a compass of
four octaves (C–c'''). Paiste produces a series of tuned gongs covering a
compass of four and a half octaves (C–f'''). One drawback with this type of
gong is that in manufacture they are hammered into the correct pitch, and
continued fortissimo playing is likely to affect the intonation. Indonesian and
Balinese gongs are also used. The Italian firm Ufip manufactures cast
gongs, which cannot be knocked out of pitch.
Among the more unusual treatments of the orchestral tam-tam are the
following: being kept in vibration by friction on the edge (The Pleasure
Dome of Kubla Khan (1917), Griffes); vibrated with a bow (Dimensions of
Time and Silence (1960), Penderecki); laid horizontally, without resonance
(El retablo de Maese Pedro (1922), Falla). In Double Music (1941) by John
Cage and Lou Harrison, a water gong is specified, to be lowered and
raised in a tub of water after striking. (A vibrating gong flattens in pitch
when lowered into water, as does a bell.) In Boulez's Rituel: in memoriam
Bruno Maderna (1974–5) one percussionist has seven graduated gongs
(1–7) and another seven graduated tam-tams (7–1); these two players
significantly control the pace of the work. A genuine Chinese tam-tam was
used to record the superimposed strokes heard on the J. Arthur Rank film
trademark. The Chinese opera gong, usually about 25 cm in diameter,
produces a very different type of sound: a sharp, high ‘splash’ of sound
with a rapid glissando (which may be upward or downward depending on
the gong).
The gong and the tam-tam are notated on a space in the staff or on a
single line. Tuned gongs are notated in either the treble or the bass clef.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BladesPI; MGG1 (J. Kunst)
E. Jacobson and J.H. van Hasselt: De Gong-Fabricatie te Semerang
(Leiden, 1907)
A.C. Moule: ‘A List of the Musical and Other Sound-Producing Instruments
of the Chinese’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, North China
Branch, xxxix (1908), 1–160; repr. separately (Buren, 1989)
H. Simbriger: ‘Gong und Gongspiele’, Internationales Archiv für
Ethnographie, xxxvi (1939), 1–172
K. Hayashi: Dongya yueqi kao (Study of East Asian musical instruments]
(Beijing, 1962/R)
J. Montagu: ‘What is a Gong?’, Man, lxv (1965), 18–21
D. Charlton: ‘New Sounds for Old: Tam-tam, Tuba Curva, Buccin’,
Soundings, iii (1973), 39–47
F. Harrison, ed.: Time, Place and Music: an Anthology of
Ethnomusicological Observation c.1550 to c.1800 (Amsterdam, 1973),
86
D. Charlton: Orchestration and Orchestral Practice in Paris, 1789 to 1810
(diss., U. of Cambridge, 1974)
T.D. Rossing: ‘Nonlinear Effects in Percussion Instruments’, Percussive
Notes, xix/3 (1982), 68–72
T.D. Rossing and R. Peterson: ‘Vibrations of Plates, Gongs, and
Cymbals’, ibid., 31–41
Yuan Bingchang and Mao Jizeng, eds.: Zhongguo shaoshu minzu yueqi
zhi [Dictionary of musical instruments of the Chinese minorities]
(Beijing, 1986)
P.-J. Croset: ‘The Making of Bronze Musical Instruments in Indonesia’,
Percussive Notes, xxv/3 (1987), 43–60
Han Kuo-Huang: ‘The Construction and use of the Knobbed Gong in
Taiwan’, Balungan, (1988), 11–14
S.C. DeVale: ‘Gong Forging in Bogor, West Java: the Process through its
Soundscape’, Pacific Review of Ethnomusicology, v (1989), 89–125
K.A. Legge and N.H. Fletcher: ‘Nonlinearity, Chaos, and the Sound of
Shallow Gongs’, JASA, lxxxvi (1989), 2439–43
Liu Dongsheng, ed.: Zhongguo yueqi tujian [Pictorial guide to Chinese
instruments] (Ji'nan 1992) [YYS pubn]
J. Maceda: ‘Aspects of Research on Gongs and Gong-Related Instruments
in Asia’, Theme and Variations: Writings on Music in Honor of Rulan
Chao Pian, ed. B. Yung and J.S.C. Lam (Cambridge, MA, 1994), 278–
89
JAMES BLADES/JAMES HOLLAND (1, 4), JAMES BLADES/R (2), ALAN
R. THRASHER (3)
Gong-chime.
Generic term for a set of small high-pitched bossed gongs placed upright,
usually in a row in pitch order stepwise, on or in a wooden frame, and
played by one to four musicians (each usually with two sticks (see Table 1).
Such instruments are common in many South-east Asian ensembles. Their
playing styles are almost invariably characterized by high rhythmic and
melodic density requiring much skill. Gong-chimes either have a prominent
soloistic role in the ensemble with virtuoso melodic embellishments
(generally the smaller, high-pitched gong-chimes), or they provide rhythm
and colour, sometimes having a colotomic role, as with lower-pitched gong-
chimes. In Javanese and Balinese gamelan all these playing styles are
used.
Sets of hand-held tuned gongs played with high rhythmic density (usually
in interlocking style) may also be included in the term ‘gong-chime’. Such
are the old type of Balinese reyong, the Philippine gangsa, and the gong
ensembles of some of the Vietnamese minorities of the mountainous
interior.
ERNST HEINS/R
Gong drum.
A bass drum with one head. See Drum, §II, 1.
Gonima, Manuel
(b c 1712; d Gerona, 26/7 Feb 1792). Spanish composer. During his youth
he lived in Barcelona, where he studied composition with Pablo Llina. In
1733 he applied unsuccessfully for the post of maestro de capilla at Vich
Cathedral but in 1735 he was made maestro de capilla at Gerona
Cathedral, a post he held until his death. In 1774 he handed over the most
demanding parts of his work to Francisco Juncá, but he continued
composing, attending divine service at the cathedral and carrying out other
duties. He was held in high esteem. His works include all the genres of
religious music in Latin as well as various villancicos in Spanish (E-Bc, G).
For his time Gonima was a particularly balanced and sober composer; his
style is characterized by skilful fugal and contrapuntal writing and effective
instrumentation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LaborD
F. Civil Castellví: ‘La capilla de música de la catedral de Gerona (siglo
XVIII)’, Anales del Instituto de estudios gerundenses, xix (1968–9),
131–88
JOSÉ LÓPEZ-CALO
Gönnenwein, Wolfgang
(b Schwäbisch Hall, 29 Jan 1933). German conductor and educationist. He
studied music in Stuttgart and read philosophy at Heidelberg and Tübingen
universities. In 1959 he became director of the South German Madrigal
Choir at Stuttgart (originally the Bruckner Choir founded by Johann
Nepomuk David), with which he developed an increasingly wide reputation
on successive tours to other European countries, including appearances at
English Bach Festival concerts in Oxford and London from 1964. He was
also director of the Cologne Bach Choir (1969–73), and he tours frequently
as a guest conductor, his repertory extending from Palestrina and Schütz
to such composers as Dallapiccola, Hindemith and Stravinsky.
Gönnenwein was appointed to the chair of choirmastership at the
Musikhochschule, Stuttgart, in 1968. He became principal of the Staatliche
Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst at Stuttgart in 1973, and
over the years his organization of music education in the region has been
much praised. In 1972 he became artistic director of the Ludwigsburg
Festival, where he made a successful début as an opera conductor in Die
Zauberflöte. Gönnenwein's conducting is distinguished by clarity and
directness, as can be heard in his recordings of the St Matthew Passion
and St John Passion, Haydn's The Creation and The Seasons and masses
by Mozart and Bruckner. From 1985 to 1992 he was Generalintendant of
the Stuttgart Staatsoper, and in 1996 he became artistic director of the
newly inaugurated Pfingstfestspiele (Whitsun Festival) in Baden-Baden.
WOLFRAM SCHWINGER/MARTIN ELSTE
Gontier de Soignies
(fl before 1220). French trouvère. He was presumably born in Soignies,
north of Mons in the province of Hainaut. His poetic style suggests that he
probably belonged to the first generation of trouvères. Two strophes of his
Lors que florist la bruiere (R.1322a) were quoted by Jean Renart in the
Roman de la rose ou de Guillaume de Dole (vv.5215ff), written in the
1220s; several of the interpolations in this roman appear to date from
around the turn of the century. Je n’en puis mon cuer blasmer quant il
soupire (R.1505a) requests the patronage of a count of Burgundy, possibly
Othon I (1190–1200). Lonc tens ai esté, attributed also to Aubin de Sezane,
quotes from a work by Gace Brulé.
Gontier was perhaps the most important creator not only of the rotrouenge
(the term occurs within five of his poems), but also of the so-called
Reihenstrophe, comprising three or more pairs of lines ending in ab
rhymes with optional close. Both forms constitute part of the earliest
stratum of northern French lyric poetry. Nevertheless, Gontier remained
outside the mainstream of the tradition. Many of his works survive in a
single manuscript (the Chansonnier de Noailles, F-Pn fr.12615, is the main
source), 14 occur without music, and only three survive in six or more
manuscripts. Only one, of contested authorship, provided the model for a
later imitation.
His poetic style is simple, in some respects archaic, and not free of
obscurity, but he nevertheless remains one of the most original of the
trouvères. Some scholars have found similarities between his treatment of
courtly love and that of Petrarch. His verse shows a decided preference for
shorter lines, primarily heptasyllables and octosyllables, although verses of
between three and six syllables are not rare. On the other hand, two
poems without music are among the small handful within the trouvère
repertory that are composed either primarily or entirely of endecasyllables.
There are only one or two rhymes in the main body of the strophe except
for Quant j'oi el breuil which has five (and a sixth for the refrain). Refrains
occur in all but four of the poems.
Similar poetic forms may give rise to a variety of musical forms. One
extreme is represented by Douce amours qui m'atalente which consists of
eight pairs of heptasyllabic lines, rhymed ab, and a two-line refrain. This is
set to a melody with two main elements, each stated eight times in
alternation, in original or varied form; phrases six and 17 provide the only
relief within a form akin to that which presumably governed the chanson de
geste. On the other hand, Renvoisiés sui quant voi verdir, which has four
pairs of octosyllabic lines and a four-line refrain, is organized into three
musical sections, which in the reading of the Chansonnier Cangé (F-Pn
fr.846) follow the pattern ABCD, AB'CD, EFC'D'. Quant li tens, which
consists of four pairs of heptasyllabic lines and a two-line refrain, is non-
repetitive (although the tenth phrase of the reading in the Chansonnier de
l'Arsenal, F-Pa 5198, may be classed as a variant of the eighth). However,
with the exception of this work and A la douçor, Chanter m'estuet and L'an
que li dous chans retentist, which employ immediate repetition of the first
phrase, all melodies exhibit some sort of bar form.
In general, the melodies are simple and attractive – they are primarily
syllabic except for the more florid Chanter m'estuet – and convey a strong
sense of tonal centre. Authentic modes predominate, and nearly half of the
melodies employ g as the final. None of the melodies survives in mensural
notation. Occasionally the disposition of ligatures might perhaps suggest
the suitability of the 2nd mode; the clearest examples are in Quant li tens
and Lonc tens ai esté.
WORKS
Edition: Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete and Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler,
CMM, cvii (1997)
THEODORE KARP
instrumental
Orch: Pf Conc. no.1, op.25, 1980; Pf Conc. no.2, op.39, 1986; Dzhangar-Variations,
op.42, Kalmyk folk orch, 1987; Sym. ‘Strasti po Andreyu’ [Passions According to
Andrey], op.43, ww, perc, org, 1987; Liki oseni [The Faces of Autumn], poetical
associations, chbr orch, op.52, 1991
Chbr: Suite in an Old Style, op.14, vn, pf, 1977; Sonata, op.15, pf, 1978; Trio, op.20,
fl, va, pf, 1978; Str Qt, op.40, 1986; Muzïka sutok [The Music of a Day and a Night],
op.38a, folk qnt, 1994; Triptych ‘Skazaniya Bumbulvï’ [Bumbulva's Tales], after the
Kalmyk epic poem: Dzhangar, op.48a, qt, 1994; Otkroveniya [Revelations], op.59,
tpt, pf, 1995; Mea culpa, op.60, brass qnt, 1995; Saul i Pavel, op.63, cl, b cl, 1997;
Sonata v shesti videniyakh [Sonata in six visions], op.64, fl (1997)
Bayan: Sonata, op.5, 1974; Sonata, op.26, 1980; Sonata, op.35, 1983; 24 preludes
and fugues, op.47, 1989
Incid music for theatre
vocal
Astrakhanskiye stranitsï [Astrakhan' Pages] (Astrakhan' folk texts), op.17a, Mez,
orch, 1978; Poyashchiy luk [The Singing Bow] (African texts), op.31, S, fl, perc, pf,
db, 1981; Russkiye pesni A. Kol'tsova [The Russian songs of A. Kol'tsov], op.34,
chorus, 1983; Glubinï lunnoy nochi [The Depths of a Moonlit Night] (V. Kaltïnya),
op.44, S, org, 1988; 2 nemetskiye akvareli ‘v belom bezmolvii’ [2 German Water
colours in the White Silence], op.51, Mez, Bar, pf, 1990; Doroga [The Road] (Ya.
Polonsky), op.53, B, cl, alto domra, vc, pf, 1992; A Sojourn of the Spirit (J. Brown),
sym.- cant., op.55, S, Mez, T, B, chbr orch, 1994; Sledi vnutr [Footrints turned
inwards], op.67, B, pf (1998)
Principal publisher: Sovetskiy kompozitor
WRITINGS
‘Vo imya chego?’ [In the name of what?], MAk (1996), no.1, pp.74–9
LUDMILA PAVLOVNA KAZANTZEVA
Gonzaga.
Italian family of music patrons. They ruled Mantua and the Mantuan
territories between 1328 and 1707 as captains and marquises and from
1530 as dukes, a title bestowed on them by the Holy Roman Emperor. After
the death of Vincenzo II in 1627, the direct line became extinct and the
succession eventually passed to the Gonzagas of Nevers. From 1536 the
Gonzagas also ruled the marquisate of Casale Monferrato, and other
branches of the family ruled over Bozzolo, Sabbioneta, Novellara,
Castiglione, Guastalla and Luzzara.
The period of the captains and the first marquises was marked by
important performing and didactic activities, particularly in the school
founded by Vittorino da Feltre under the patronage of Gianfrancesco
Gonzaga (d 1444), which Gaffurius attended in his youth. The arrival at
Mantua in 1490 of Isabella d'Este (1474–1539) as wife of Francesco II (d
1519) marks the beginning of one of the most brilliant periods at the
Gonzaga court. While the Franco-Flemish school continued to find favour,
the popular native frottola also flourished there, and many of the leading
frottolists, including Bartolomeo Tromboncino and Marchetto Cara, either
lived at the Gonzaga court or maintained relations with it. In 1510
Francesco II established a permanent court chapel, after which the
Gonzaga musicians served both the court and the principal churches of the
city. Federico II (d 1540) was particularly active in promoting musical
performances, but his brother Cardinal Ercole, who ruled from 1540,
exerted a more lasting influence and founded an ecclesiastical chapel
which rivalled the court establishment.
The palatine basilica of S Barbara was founded by Guglielmo Gonzaga (d
1587), a skilled administrator and competent composer, and completed
shortly after his accession. During his reign and that of his son Vincenzo I,
several distinguished composers were successively associated with the
Mantuan court, including Alessandro Striggio (i), Gastoldi, Wert and
Benedetto Pallavicino. Monteverdi is first recorded at the court as an
instrumentalist between 1589 and 1590. Vincenzo I (d 1612) regarded
music as a necessary ornament of court life, and the development of
theatrical productions and the expansion of the musical establishment that
took place during his rule can be attributed to his idealized concept –
celebratory, ceremonial, spectacular – of the role of a prince. Musical
productions included Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607), Arianna (1608) and Il
ballo delle ingrate (1608), Marco da Gagliano's Dafne (1608) and two plays
by Guarini, Il pastor fido and L'idropica, which included elaborate intermedi
with music. The music for L'idropica was provided by Monteverdi, his
brother Giulio Cesare, Salamone Rossi, Gastoldi, Gagliano and Paolo Birt.
After Vincenzo's death the duchy experienced a severe financial crisis,
which caused a decline in musical activities despite the strong musical
interests of Ferdinando Gonzaga (d 1626). He succeeded to the duchy in
1612 and was an amateur composer who had close contacts with the early
17th-century Florentine school. Theatrical works with music attracted the
considerable favour and attention of the Nevers branch of the Gonzaga
family (Carlo II (d 1665) was a singer), who succeeded after the sack of
Mantua by the imperial army in 1630. The last Gonzaga duke, Ferdinando
Carlo, employed Caldara as maestro di cappella between 1701 and 1707.
Between 1665 and 1707 he granted many licences for the patronage of
virtuosos, actors and ballerinas. The family archives and those of the court
are at Mantua (in I-MAa), and most of the surviving printed and manuscript
music from the S Barbara collection is at Milan (in I-Mc).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BertolottiM
FenlonMM
P. Canal: ‘Della musica in Mantova’, Memorie del R. Istituto veneto di
scienze, lettere ed arti, xxi (1881), 655–774
A. Luzio: L'archivio Gonzaga di Mantova (Mantua, 1920)
S. Brinton: The Gonzaga, Lords of Mantua (London, 1927)
Mostra iconografica gonzaghesca: catalogo (Mantua, 1937)
M. Bellonci: I segreti dei Gonzaga (Milan, 1947; part Eng. trans., 1956, as
A Prince of Mantua: the Life and Times of Vincenzo Gonzaga)
J. Lauts: Isabella d'Este (Hamburg, 1952)
G. Coniglio and others, eds.: Mantova: la storia (Mantua, 1958–63)
C. Gallico: Un libro di poesia per musica dell'epoca di Isabella d'Este
(Mantua, 1961)
G. Coniglio: I Gonzaga (Milan, 1967)
P.M. Tagmann: ‘La cappella dei maestri cantori della basilica palatina di
Santa Barbara a Mantova (1565–1630): nuovo materiale scoperto
negli archivi mantovani’, Civiltà mantovana, iv (1970), 376–400
C. Gallico: ‘Josquin nell'archivio Gonzaga’, RIM, vi (1971), 205–10
M. Fabbri: ‘La cappella musicale dei Gonzaga a Mantova’, NRMI, viii
(1974), 371–7
E. Zanetti: ‘Ancora sul catalogo dell'archivio musicale dei Gonzaga’, NRMI,
viii (1974), 377–81
I. Fenlon: ‘Music and Spectacle at the Gonzaga Court, c.1580–1600’,
PRMA, ciii (1976–7), 90–105
C. Gallico: ‘Corte e beni musicali a Mantova, duca Guglielmo Gonzaga’,
IMSCR XIII: Strasbourg 1982, ii, 253
R. Sherr: ‘Mecenatismo musicale a Mantova: le nozze di Vincenzo
Gonzaga e Margherita Farnese’, RIM, xix (1984), 3–20
C. Mozzarelli: Mantova e i Gonzaga (Turin, 1987)
P. Besutti: La corte musicale di Ferdinando Carlo Gonzaga ultimo duca di
Mantova (Mantua, 1989)
S.H. Parisi: Ducal Patronage of Music in Manua, 1587–1627: an Archival
Study (diss., U. of Illinois, 1989)
CLAUDIO GALLICO
BIBLIOGRAPHY
M. Lira: Chiquinha Gonzaga: grande compositora brasileira (Rio de
Janeiro, 1939)
L.H. Corrêa de Azevedo: 150 anos de música no Brasil, 1800–1950 (Rio
de Janeiro, 1956), 145–51
G. Béhague: Popular Musical Currents in the Art Music of the Early
Nationalistic Period in Brazil, circa 1870–1920 (diss., Tulane U., LA,
1966), 133–6
Enciclopédia da música brasileira (São Paulo, 1977), i, 322–7 [incl. list of
works], 448; ii, 745
V. Mariz: A canção brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 3/1977), 195–9
E. Diniz: Chiquinha Gonzaga: uma história de vida (Rio de Janeiro, 1984)
[incl. list of works]
A. Vasconcelos: Raízes da música brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1991), 263–
89 [incl. list of works]
CRISTINA MAGALDI
Gonzaga, Francesco
(b Mantua, bap. 8 Nov 1590; d Mantua,1 Aug 1628). Italian composer. He
belonged to a cadet branch of the ruling house of Mantua and spent his
whole life in that city. He devoted all his adult years to the ducal church of S
Barbara, where he was first appointed as clerk in April 1608. He served as
a substitute sub-deacon from December 1608 to May 1610 and as a
substitute deacon from December 1610 to August 1612. He was chaplain
from September 1612 until, in August 1617, he was given a benefice,
which he held until July 1623. During this time he was one of four
beneficed priests responsible for chanting the Offices and the intonations
during services. From the following month until his death he was a minor
canon. In addition he was maestro di canto fermo from February 1624 to
March 1626. He wrote a certain amount of music for S Barbara, some of
which is lost. The surviving works comprise psalms for various hours of the
Office, a Magnificat, a Salve regina and litanies, all for four voices, and the
five-part Missa ‘Non vos relinquam’. Some of these works are dated 1625,
a few are definitely early works (his first compositions date from 1611), and
several others seem to belong to his later years. His only known secular
printed collection is dedicated to Carlo Mandrutio, Cardinal and Prince of
Trent. This volume comprises 18 canzonettas for three voices and five solo
songs, two of which are settings of the same sacred text. The solo songs
(which are printed in the basso continuo partbook) are principally in three
triple-metre sections with a brief instrumental ending and represent a
transitional stage between the simple strophic aria and the more complex
cantata.
WORKS
MSS in I-Mc Fondo S Barbara unless otherwise stated
Il primo libro delle canzonette … con … arie, 1, 3vv, chit/other inst (Venice, 1619)
Psalmi ad horas … cum Salve regina ac Letaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis, 4vv; 3
psalmi ad nonam, 4vv; 3 psalmi ad sextam, 4vv; 3 psalmi ad nonam, 4vv
Salmi, Magnificat, 4vv (illuminated codex, ded. Gastoldi)
Missa ‘Non vos relinquam’, 5vv, I-UD (illuminated S Barbara codex, 1622)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FenlonMM
FortuneISS
P.M. Tagmann: ‘La cappella dei maestri cantori della basilica palatina di
Santa Barbara a Mantova (1565–1630)’, Civiltà mantovana, iv (1970),
376–400, esp. 383
F. Campogalliani: ‘Francesco Gonzaga: un sacerdote nella storia musicale
della chiesa palatina di Santa Barbara’, Civiltà mantovana, viii (1974),
277–92
S. Parisi: Ducal Patronage of Music in Mantua, 1587–1627: an Archival
Study (diss., U. of Illinois, 1989), 448–9
NIGEL FORTUNE (with SUSAN PARISI)
Gonzaga, Guglielmo
(b Mantua, 24 April 1538; d Goito, nr Mantua, 14 Aug 1587). Italian
composer and patron of music. Shortly before he succeeded his uncle,
Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga, as Duke of Mantua in 1556, he founded the
palatine basilica of S Barbara, which was completed in 1565 with an
impressive organ designed by Girolamo Cavazzoni and constructed by the
Brescian builder Graziadio Antegnati (i). Throughout his reign he
maintained a strong interest in the music of the new chapel, then directed
by Wert and Gastoldi, as well as in court music. He secured from Pope
Gregory XIII a concession, dated 10 November 1583, for S Barbara's
specially constituted college of canons to practise an independent liturgy,
and he was personally involved in attempts to attract Marenzio and
Annibale Zoilo to Mantua. Although he failed in this, mainly because of
Vatican political machinations, his relationship with Palestrina seems to
have been close; Palestrina composed a series of masses on chants from
the S Barbara liturgy, which reflect the alternatim method of performance
practised there, and his motets Gaude Barbara beata and Beata Barbara
were also presumably composed for the ducal chapel. Palestrina and
Guglielmo corresponded from 1568 until the duke's death, discussing
Guglielmo's own compositions and the chants that he sent to Palestrina,
who later proposed to publish them in the revised version of the
antiphonary and gradual. Guglielmo also appears to have been on good
terms with Wert. His earliest published composition, Padre ch'el ciel (a
different setting from that in RISM 158313), appeared in Wert's fourth book
of five-voice madrigals (1567); but there is no evidence to support Carol
MacClintock's contention (CMM, xxiv/4, 1965) that further works by him
were published in Wert’s madrigal books.
The anonymous Madrigali a cinque voci (158313) can be identified as
Guglielmo's since the opening setting, Padre ch'el ciel, was used as a
parody model by Lodovico Agostini in Le lagrime del peccatore a sei voci
(Venice, 1586), where he revealed the composer of the original. Quotations
from Guglielmo's madrigals can also be found among the numerous
musical and textual references in Girolamo Belli's I furti (Venice, 1584). The
Sacrae cantiones (15831), which also appeared anonymously, is probably
his work, since the copies which came from the S Barbara library (now in I-
Mc SB8) are inscribed ‘Mottetti di S[ua]. A[ltezza]. a 5’ (‘Motets by His
Highness for five voices’) in a contemporary hand. Moreover, this is
probably the publication of which Guglielmo sent a copy to Palestrina in
August 1584 and to which Pallavicino referred admiringly in the dedication
of his Primo libro de madrigali a sei voci (Venice, 1587). The appearance of
these two anonymous volumes published in the same year by Gardane
raises the possibility that the anonymous Villotte mantovane (Venice,
1583), also published by Gardane, is Guglielmo's work as well. A series of
letters (now in I-MAa) refers to the lost Magnificat settings printed by
Gardane (1586); two manuscripts from the Fondo S Barbara (9 and 13,
now in I-Mc) containing anonymous Magnificat settings may include the
contents of the lost volumes (the Sacrae cantiones are duplicated in this
way).
Guglielmo's activities as a composer place him with a small group of
contemporary or near-contemporary aristocrats – among them Alessandro
Striggio (i), Gesualdo, Del Turco and Fontanelli – whose open
compositional activities symbolize a significant alteration in the attitudes of
North Italian court society towards composers. It is worth noting, however,
that Duke Guglielmo, whose social status was much higher than these
others, preferred to publish his music anonymously. It was no doubt for his
practical attempts as well as for his generous patronage that composers
flattered him, dedicated works to him and corresponded with him on
musical matters; among the many who did so apart from Palestrina and
Wert are Vincenzo Galilei, Francisco Guerrero, Alessandro Striggio and
Giovanni Maria Nanino. It is clear from his correspondence with Palestrina
that Guglielmo sent to him for criticism a motet and a madrigal in 1570, a
mass in 1574 and further ‘canti’ in 1585 and 1587. Even with such
distinguished advice, Guglielmo's attempt to become an admired composer
incognito does not seem to have generated widespread enthusiasm, and in
1586, on account of the small sales of one of the earlier publications,
Gardane respectfully refused to publish a Magnificat that the duke had
recently composed. Moreover, Guglielmo's severely conservative musical
tastes and austere conception of the role of music in the affairs of a well-
regulated post-Reformation Catholic state imposed serious constraints on
the artistic freedom of Mantuan composers during the last decade of his
rule.
WORKS
all anonymous unless otherwise stated
3 masses, 5vv, I-Mc (attrib. Gonzaga in catalogue); Te Deum, CMac, MAad, Mc, UD
(all copies attrib. Gonzaga); motet, 5vv, Mc
Magnificat settings, 5vv, (1586) (attrib. Gonzaga), [?= Mc SB9, 13]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BertolottiM
EinsteinIM
FenlonMM
P. Canal: Della musica in Mantova (Venice, 1881/R)
F.X. Haberl: ‘Das Archiv der Gonzaga’, KJb, i (1886), 31–45
K. Jeppesen: ‘Über einen Brief Palestrinas’, Festschrift Peter Wagner zum
60. Geburtstag, ed. K. Weinmann (Leipzig, 1926/R), 100–07
G. Cesari: ‘L'archivio musicale di S. Barbara in Mantova ed una messa di
Guglielmo Gonzaga’, Theodor Kroyer: Festschrift, ed. H. Zenck, H.
Schultz and W. Gerstenberg (Regensburg, 1933), 118–29
O. Strunk: ‘Guglielmo Gonzaga and Palestrina's Missa Dominicalis’, MQ,
xxxiii (1947), 228–39; repr. in Essays on Music in the Western World
(New York, 1974), 94–107
K. Jeppesen: ‘Pierluigi da Palestrina, Herzog Guglielmo Gonzaga und die
neugefundenen Mantovaner-Messen Palestrinas’, AcM, xxv (1953),
132–79
C. Gallico: ‘Guglielmo Gonzaga signore della musica’, NRMI, xi (1977),
321–34
R. Sherr: ‘The Publications of Guglielmo Gonzaga’, JAMS, xxxi (1978),
118–25
R. Sherr: ‘Mecenatismo musicale a Mantova: le nozze di Vincenzo
Gonzaga e Margherita Farnese’, RIM, xix (1984), 3–20
P. Besutti: ‘Catalogo tematico delle monodie liturgiche della Basilica
Palatina di S. Barbara in Mantova: I canti dell'Ordinario’, Le fonti
musicali in Italia, studi e ricerche, ii (1988), 53–66
D. Butchart: ‘The Letters of Alessandro Striggio: an Edition with
Translation and Commentary’, RMARC, xxiii (1990), 1–78
I. Fenlon: ‘Patronage, Music and Liturgy in Renaissance Mantua’,
Plainsong in the Age of Polyphony, ed. T. Kelly (Cambridge, 1992),
209–35
I. Fenlon, ed.: Giaches Wert: Letters and Documents (Paris, 1999)
IAIN FENLON
Gonzalez.
French firm of organ builders. The founder, Victor [Victorino] Gonzalez (b
Hacinas, Burgos, 2 Dec 1877; d Paris, 3 June 1956), trained with Cavaillé-
Coll (1894–9) and worked for Gutschenritter, Limonaire and Masure before
going into partnership with Victor Ephrème at Malakoff, near Paris, in 1921;
from 1929 he and his son Fernand (1904–40) worked together as
Etablissements Gonzalez in Châtillon. The influential support of Norbert
Dufourcq and the organist André Marchal gradually led to the creation of
the neo-classical or eclectic organ, seeking to fuse elements of the French
classical organ with the then dominant late-Romantic style. Rudolf von
Beckerath, who worked in the shop until 1936, introduced German
influences. Georges Danion, who married Victor’s granddaughter, headed
the firm after 1956, incorporating workshops in Rambervillers from 1963
and later Lodève, and transferring the headquarters to Brunoy in 1965.
From the 1980s the company’s operations diminished, and by the end of
the 20th century only the Lodève shop remained active.
The Gonzalez firm has used many types of action, including a wire-and-
pulley system for mechanical action or Barker levers for coupling
mechanisms. Having favoured moderate wind pressures, over the decades
the tonal design came to emphasize mixture choruses and mutations.
Significant three- and four-manual Gonzalez instruments include St
Eustache, Paris (1932; rebuilt 1967), Reims Cathedral (1938), the chapel
at Versailles (1938; reconstitution of pre-Revolution tonal design), Soissons
Cathedral (1956; widely considered the firm’s pivotal masterpiece), the
Oratoire du Louvre, Paris (1962), Chartres Cathedral (1971) and Beauvais
Cathedral (1979). Many mid-century French organists ordered house
organs from Gonzalez. The firm has also done extensive, occasionally
controversial work on historical organs (some examples are the Prytanée
Militaire, La Flèche, Auch Cathedral, and St Nicolas-des-Champs, St
Vincent-de-Paul, Ste Marie Madeleine and St Gervais-St Protais in Paris).
As a creative pioneer, Victor Gonzalez was largely responsible for bridging
the stylistic gap between the staid emulation of Cavaillé-Coll and the
historicism of late 20th-century organ designs. Opinions vary as to the
appropriateness of paths taken after his death, but he is without doubt the
emblematic figure of French organ building of the mid-20th century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
S. Bingham: ‘Victor Gonzalez: Master Builder’, Organ Institute Quarterly,
vi/2 (1956), 17–31
‘Hommage à Victor Gonzalez’, L’orgue, no.81 (1956), 97–148 [various
authors]
‘Les monuments historiques au service des orgues de France’, Les
monuments historiques de la France, viii/2–3 (1962) [whole issue]
F. Sabatier: ‘Victor Gonzalez et son activité à Paris’, Orgues en l’Ile-de-
France (Paris, 1996), 87–94
KURT LUEDERS
González, Hilario
(b Havana, 24 Jan 1920; d Havana, 3 Oct 1999). Cuban composer,
musicologist, pianist and teacher. He studied music in Cienfuegos then
Havana, where he attended classes by Jascha Fishermann (piano) and
Ardévol (composition). He was a member of the Grupo de Renovacion
Musical founded by Ardévol at the Municipal Conservatory, and – together
with Orbón – wrote the manifesto Presencia cubana en la musica universal
(Havana, 1945). In the 1940s he was a notable music, film and theatre
critic. He lived in Caracas (1947–60), were he taught the piano, directed
the Coral de Venezuela, was musical adviser to the Teatro Ateneo of
Caracas (1950–58) and provided incidental music for plays. On his return
to Cuba he taught the piano and worked in the media. He was a
musicologist at the National Museum of Music from its foundation in 1971,
and researched the works of Salas y Castro and Caturla.
His most important compositions are the song cycles and piano works. Dos
danzas afrocubanas (1938) and Tres preludios en conga (1938), both for
piano, link him closely to Roldán and Caturla, in whose work nationalism
was a clear presence. Works influenced by neo-classicism include the
Paqueña suite (1941) and Sonata in A (1942), both for piano, and the
Concertino in D (1944). (E. Martín: Panorama histórico de la música en
Cuba, Havana, 1971)
WORKS
(selective list)
González, Jaime
(b Quillota, 7 March 1956). Chilean composer. He studied with Cirilo Vila,
Juan Amenábar, Miguel Letelier and Juan Lemann (1974–81) and obtained
the licentiate in composition from the arts faculty of the University of Chile
(1981). From 1977 he taught music in Chilean schools at elementary and
intermediate levels and from 1982 at the University of Playa Ancha and the
University of Talca. He has been an associate professor at the Universidad
Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación since 1987.
González's works have been performed in various places in South America
and Europe, and also in Lebanon and Israel. His motet Jesucristo sálvanos
earned him third prize in the 1978 Chilean National Choir Federation and
Beethoven Association Competition. In 1986 he won the third prize of the
Overture Composition Competition of the University of Chile with his
Obertura de concerto for orchestra.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. Manzino, ed.: Compositores de Americanos/Composers of the
Americas, xx (Washington DC, 1993), 54–62
LEONARDO MANZINO
González (García de) Acilu,
Agustín
(b Alsasua, 12 Feb 1929). Spanish composer. He began his training in
Alsasua with Luis Taberna, and continued in Madrid with Julio Gómez,
Calés Otero and Padre Enrique Massó. He later completed his studies in
Paris, Rome, Venice and Darmstadt. He taught harmony at the Madrid
Conservatory (1978–94) and composition at the Pablo Sarasate
Conservatory in Pamplona (1984–7), and was a visiting professor at the
University of Oviedo. He won the Samuel Ros Prize (1962) and the
National Music Prize (1971, 1998).
In the field of linguistic research applied to the language of music, his work
is without precedent in Spanish music. However, if his phonetic research
has given rise to vocal scores of undisputed significance, this in no way
lessens the importance of his purely instrumental works, whether chamber
or orchestral. His works are strongly Expressionist, and each of them
represents a broadening of techniques and media in relation to the
preceding one.
WORKS
Orch: Suite
Pf: Ensayos musicales (Lima, 1935): Willk a-mayu, Kosko napayacuykin, Sajsa-
uma-pukara, Machu pijchu, Chuki-Ilautu; Homenaje a Garcilazo Inca (Lima, 1941);
Nocturno ‘Adios a Lima’ (Lima, 1944); Paisajes musicales ‘Noche de luna en el
Cuzco’; Chaychampi; No te puedo olvidar; Vicuña
Songs: 2 canciones (Lima, 1944): Amor del alma sol (J. Hernández), Scent of
Roses
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Pinilla: ‘Informe sobre la música en el Perú’, Historia del Perú, ix, ed. J.
Mejía Baca (Lima, 1980), 363–677
E. Pinilla: ‘La música en el siglo XX’, La música en el Perú (Lima, 1985),
125–213
ENRIQUE ITURRIAGA
Goode, Daniel
(b New York, 24 Jan 1936). American composer and clarinettist. He
graduated from Oberlin College in 1957 and then studied at Columbia
University (MA 1962) with Cowell, Luening and others, and at the
University of San Diego, where his teachers included Gaburo and Oliveros.
From 1971 to 1998 he taught at Livingston College of Rutgers, the State
University of New Jersey, where he founded the Livingston College
Electronic Music Studio, later assimilated into the Mason Gross School of
the Arts. His lengthy but successful efforts to secure tenure at Rutgers
furthered the academic recognition of experimental music. He has toured
internationally as both a composer and performer, and has published
articles in Ear Magazine (New York) and Musicworks.
Goode is best known for his activities in New York’s ‘downtown’ avant
garde. He has been instrumental in founding, performing in and
contributing repertory to three collaborative ensembles based in New York:
Sounds out of Silent Spaces, a music-ritual group (with Philip Corner,
William Hellermann, Tom Johnson and others; 1972–9); Gamelan Son of
Lion, performing repertory for gamelan (with Corner, Barbara Benary and
others; 1976–) and the Downtown Ensemble, performing graphic and
conceptual as well as conventional scores (with Hellermann and others;
1983–). His series of intimate solo works, Clarinet Songs (1979–93), which
he has performed himself, are marked by deep emotion and a meditative
virtuosity. At the other extreme of expression is the spirited Eine Kleine
Gamelan Music (1980), a precisely structured improvisatory piece for
gamelan with additional instruments of any type or tuning. Circular
Thoughts (1974), originally for solo clarinet, is a minimalist process piece.
Several other works involve transcriptions of birdsong, sometimes
combined with folk tunes from Nova Scotia or Eastern Europe.
WORKS
(selective list)
Circular Thoughts, cl, 1974 [arr. pf, 1976; gamelan, 1977; arr. orch by T. Johnson,
1980]; Phrases of the Hermit Thrush, cl, 1974, arr. cl, str orch, 1980; Cl Songs,
1979–93; Hear the Sound of Random Numbers, gamelan, 1979; The Thrush from
Upper Dunakyn, b rec, 1979; Eine Kleine Gamelan Music, 1980; 40 Random
Numbered Clangs, gamelan, 1980; Wind Sym., 1980; Fiddle Studies, 1981; Cape
Breton Conc., 6 vn, pf, band, 1982; Walk-Up Passacaglia, cl, sax, pf, chbr orch,
1983; Tunnel Funnel, sym. process piece, 15 insts, 1988; Triocek, pf trio, 1991;
Diet Polka, accdn, 1992; Nod-Drama, mixed insts, 1993; Juicy Cant., spkr, cptr,
1995; Re: Sound (choreog. J. Oberfelder), dancer, gamelan, hubcaps, 1999
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Goode: ‘Phrases about the Hermit Thrush’, Musicworks, no.50 (1991),
12–19
A. Rovner: ‘Let the Goode Times Roll’, 20th Century Music, vi/11 (1999),
10–15 [interview]
BARBARA BENARY (with GREGORY SANDOW)
Goode, Richard
(b New York, 1 June 1943). American pianist. He studied with Nadia
Reisenberg at Mannes College, then with Rudolf Serkin at the Curtis
Institute, and made his début in the New York Young Concert Artists series
in 1962. He won first prize in the Clara Haskil Competition in 1973. While
his career soon became well established in the USA, recognition in Europe
took longer; it was only in the late 1980s that he began to perform regularly
in the UK and elsewhere. His career has expanded gradually to include
tours to South America, Australia and East Asia as well as Europe. He is a
pianist of great intelligence and humanity, which qualities have helped his
recordings of the complete Beethoven sonatas, solo works by Schubert,
Schumann and Brahms and concertos by Mozart to achieve wide
international acclaim. As a chamber music player, he worked with
Jacqueline du Pré (1965–6), has recorded recital discs with the clarinettist
Richard Stolzman and the soprano Dawn Upshaw, and has contributed
notably to the Marlboro Festival, the Festival of Two Worlds at Spoleto,
Alexander Schneider's Bach series in New York, the concerts of the Boston
Symphony Chamber Players and tours with the Orpheus Chamber
Orchestra. He was a founder member of the Chamber Music Society of
Lincoln Center. In December 1969 he gave the first performance, with
Charles Treger, of Carlos Chavez's Variations for violin and piano. A Ford
Foundation award enabled him to commission and give the première of
Robert Helps's Piano Concerto no.2; George Perle wrote Ballade for him
(1981, first performance February 1982). In 1980 he was awarded the
Avery Fisher Prize.
MICHAEL STEINBERG/R
Goodgroome, John
(b ? c1620; d London, 27 June 1704). English countertenor and composer.
He may have been the chorister ‘Goodgroome’ who was at St George’s
Chapel, Windsor, in 1633, and had left by 1638. John Playford listed him
among ‘many excellent and able Masters … For the Voyce or Viole’ in his
Musicall Banquet (1651). He was one of the Gentlemen of the Chapel
Royal at the coronation of King Charles II in 1661 and served until the time
of his death. He succeeded to the place of Henry Purcell senior in the
King’s Private Musick in 1664, and his name occurs in the records up to
1684. Samuel Pepys employed him as a singing teacher for his wife from
1666, but without complete satisfaction (Pepys’s own singing teacher was
Theodore Goodgroome). Some songs by Goodgroome are in Select
[Musicall] Ayres and Dialogues (1659–69). A setting of Will Chloris cast her
sun-bright eye, which achieved considerable popularity, may be by either
him or Simon Ives. A few songs by him are in Lambeth Palace, London,
and two are printed in a modern edition (MB, xxxiii, 1971).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDECM
SpinkES
IAN SPINK
Goodison, Benjamin
(b London, 1736; d ?London, after 1789). English musician. He was
educated at Westminster School and Trinity Hall, Cambridge. In January
1771 he was admitted to Lincoln's Inn. Little is known of his life, but he is
important as having attempted to publish, between 1788 and 1790, the first
complete edition of Purcell (see A.H. King: ‘Benjamin Goodison's Compete
Edition of Purcell’, MMR, lxxxi, 1951, pp.81–9). Details of his elaborate plan
are known from the five editions of his prospectus preserved in the Royal
Music Library (GB-Lbl). Though Goodison was able to issue less than a
dozen works, and his venture failed through lack of support, it forms a
milestone in the progress of British appreciation of the range of Purcell's
genius. It also ranks, at least by intention, with Arnold’s contemporary
edition of Handel as the earliest of all the collected editions issued in any
country.
ALEC HYATT KING
Comics for Carter (musical for children, H. Koller), 1949; The Audition (op, 1, E.
Arluck), 1954, Ger. version (H. Frohman) as Der Schauspieler, 1968; Der Läufer
(op, 2, M. Alva after S. Lenz)
Ps xii, Bar, female chorus, org (1949); 5 Songs from the Bronx, S, ww ens, hpd,
1954; Grant us Peace (Union Prayer Book), chorus, pf, 1958; 7 Essays on Poems
by Dylan Thomas, A, T, gui, 1961; 3 Gesänge nach Gedichten von Johannes
Bobrowski, SATB, 1969; 3 Ornamente, 1v, fl, pf, 1971; 3 Gesänge, 1v, 8 insts
(1975); 3 Motivationen, vocal ens, vib, gui, db, 1987; Der Lügner, (cant. after C.F.
Gellert), 1v, vn, gui, hpd/pf/synth, perc, 1992
Sinfonietta, a, orch (1952); Uptown-Downtown, orch (1954); Str Qt no.2, 1959;
Sonata, vn, pf (1960); Mayfair Ouvertüre, orch, 1961; 3 Meditations on Israel, pf,
1966; Little Suite, fl, ob, cl (1968); 3 Essays, hpd, str orch (1972); Pro memoria,
orch, 1974; Across the Board, brass ens, 1978; Bemerkungen zu Acht Gongs, perc,
1992; Orchestrology (Universe of Freedom in 5 Chapters), 1993–4; Reflections:
Manhattan Survey (1997)
Incid music for theatre, cinema and television
Arr. of S. Samaras: Olympic Hymn, 1972
WRITINGS
Musik im Blut: Amerikanische Rhythmen erobern die Welt (Munich, 1968)
Musik von A–Z (Munich, 1971)
Die amerikanischen Schüler Franz Liszts (Wilhelmshaven, 1972)
Sachwörterbuch der Musik (Munich, 1976)
Wörterbuch der Musik (Munich, 1982)
‘Angewandte und funktionelle Musik im Exil: Musiktheater – Film – leichte
Musik’, Die Wiener Schule und das Hakenkreuz: das Schicksal der
Moderne im gesellschaftpolitischen Kontext des 20. Jahrhunderts, ed.
O. Kolleritsch (Vienna, 1990), 165–78
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K.-R. Brachtel, H.-M. Palm, R. Schmiedel and others: Alfred Goodman,
Komponisten in Bayern, xxviii (Tutzing, 1993)
ALFONS OTT/INGE KOVÁCS
RICHARD WANG
Goodman, Roy
(b Guildford, 26 Jan 1951). English violinist and conductor. As a chorister
at King’s College, Cambridge, he achieved fame as treble soloist in a
recording of Allegri’s Miserere. After studying the violin and the organ at the
RCM, he held teaching posts in two schools and subsequently became
director of the early music department at the RAM. He founded the
Brandenburg Consort (later Brandenburg Orchestra) in 1975 and (with
Peter Holman) the Parley of Instruments in 1979. He has since directed the
Hanover Band (as principal conductor, 1986–94) and the European Union
Baroque Orchestra (from 1988), and became principal conductor of the
Umeå Sinfonietta, Sweden, in 1996. Goodman has made over 100
recordings, ranging from Monteverdi, Bach and Handel through Classical
and Romantic symphonies (including many by Haydn and complete
Beethoven and Schubert cycles) to Holst's The Planets. His performances,
if sometimes a little hard-driven, are characterized by vivid colours and
great rhythmic vitality. He has conducted several world premières
(including Glass's Concerto for Saxophone Quartet), and also operas,
notably in Britain, Belgium and Sweden. Lundquist's Symphony no.9 is
dedicated to Goodman.
GEORGE PRATT
Goodson, Katharine
(b Watford, 18 June 1872; d London, 14 April 1958). English pianist. She
entered the RAM at the age of 12 and from 1886 to 1892 studied there with
Oscar Beringer. On Paderewski's advice she then went to Leschetizky in
Vienna, where she remained for four years. Goodson made her London
début in 1897 at a Saturday Popular Concert, and subsequently played
throughout Europe. Her American début with the Boston SO in 1907 was
outstandingly successful and she made a total of seven tours of the USA.
Following several years of retirement, she reappeared before the public in
1946 with her artistry intact and also broadcast on television. Goodson was
married to the composer Arthur Hinton (b Beckenham, Kent, 20 Nov 1869;
d Rottingdean, Sussex, 11 Aug 1941), whose works, among them a piano
concerto, she frequently programmed. One of the most acclaimed female
pianists of her day, Goodson was renowned both for the power and the
refinement of her playing. Her programmes featured such large-scale
works as Schubert's ‘Wanderer’ Fantasy, the B minor Sonata of Chopin,
the F minor Sonata of Brahms, and MacDowell's Sonata tragica. Sadly,
though, she left no commercial recordings. (C. Curzon: Obituary, The
Times, 25 April 1958)
JAMES METHUEN-CAMPBELL
3 anthems, GB-Och 1173: I will magnify thee, S, S/SATB, org; My God, my God
look upon me, S, T, B/SATB, org; The heavens declare, S, A, T, B/SATB, org
4 songs: All things are hushed, S, A, B, bc, Och 1154 (another setting, Bu 5002); A
shepherd charmed, 1v, Och 1154; Hi jinko brisco, 1v, Och 1215; With eager haste
(inc.), ? act song, S/SSB, ob, bc, Och 1142A
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C.E. Doble and others, eds.: Remarks and Collections of Thomas Hearne
(Oxford, 1885–1921), vi, 130
A. Clark, ed.: The Life and Times of Anthony Wood (Oxford, 1891–5)
H.E. Salter, ed.: Surveys and Tokens (Oxford, 1923), 186, 221
W.K. Ford: ‘The Oxford Music School in the Late 17th Century’, JAMS, xvii
(1964), 198–203
M. Crum: ‘Early Lists of the Oxford Music School Collection’, ML, xlviii
(1967), 23–34
M. Crum: ‘An Oxford Music Club 1690–1719’, Bodleian Library Record, ix
(1973–8), 83–99
N. Zaslaw: ‘An English “Orpheus and Euridice” of 1697’, MT, cxviii (1977),
805–08
H.W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists of the Chapel Royal and the
Cathedrals of England and Wales from c.1538 (Oxford, 1991)
T.A. Trowles: The Musical Ode in Britain c.1670–1800 (diss., U. of Oxford,
1992)
R. Herrisone: The Theory and Practice of Composition in the English
Restoration Period (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1996)
P. Holman: ‘Original Sets of Parts for Restoration Concerted Music at
Oxford’, Performing the Music of Henry Purcell, ed. M. Burden (Oxford,
1996), 9–19, 265–71
ROBERT THOMPSON
ROBERT THOMPSON
Goodwin, Ron
(b Plymouth, 17 Feb 1925). English arranger, composer and conductor.
Originally a trumpeter, then a music copyist, his main musical career took
off in the 1950s with radio shows and recordings accompanying singers,
culminating in a series of distinctive LPs with his own concert orchestra.
Goodwin's musical accompaniments for the Parlophone LPs by Peter
Sellers greatly contributed to their success. He also showed a talent for
composing; early successes included Jet Journey, Skiffling Strings
(renamed Swinging Sweethearts for the USA), and Lingering Lovers. In
later years he wrote several major works, notably his suites Drake 400
(1980) and New Zealand (1983), the latter reflecting his love of the country
to which he regularly returns for concert tours. A prolific film composer, he
is widely known for his score for 633 Squadron, closely followed by Those
Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines, the ‘Miss Marple’ series starring
Margaret Rutherford and Where Eagles Dare among over 40 feature films.
His score for The Trap has become inextricably linked with the London
Marathon. Goodwin has received several Ivor Novello Awards, including
the Entertainment Music award in 1971, and a Lifetime Achievement Award
in 1993. In his later career he has remained much in demand for orchestral
‘pops’ concerts in Britain and overseas.
WORKS
(selective list)
Orch: Jet Journey, 1952; Tropical Mirage, 1953; The Headless Horsemen, 1956;
Red Cloak, 1957; Skiffling Strings (Swinging Sweethearts), 1957; Out of this World,
suite, 1958; Drake 400, suite, 1980; New Zealand, suite, 1983; Lingering Lovers
Films: Whirlpool, 1958; The Trials of Oscar Wilde, 1960; The Village of the Damned,
1960; Murder She Said, 1961; Village of Daughters, 1961; Kill or Cure, 1962;
Lancelot and Guinevere, 1963; Murder at the Gallop, 1963; 633 Squadron, 1963; Of
Human Bondage, 1964; The Alphabet Murders, 1965; Those Magnificent Men in
their Flying Machines, 1965; Operation Crossbow, 1965; The Trap, 1966; Where
Eagles Dare, 1969; Monte Carlo or Bust, 1969; The Selfish Giant, 1971; Frenzy,
1972; The Little Mermaid, 1973; The Happy Prince, 1974; Beauty and the Beast,
1976; Escape from the Dark, 1976; Candleshoe, 1977; Force Ten from Navarone,
1978
DAVID ADES
Goossens.
English family of musicians of Belgian origin.
(1) Eugène Goossens (i)
(2) Eugène Goossens (ii)
(3) Sir (Aynsley) Eugene Goossens
(4) Marie (Henriette) Goossens
(5) Leon Goossens
(6) Sidonie Goossens
STEPHEN BANFIELD (1, 2), CAROLE ROSEN (3), ANN GRIFFITHS (4,
6), JOHN WARRACK/JANET K. PAGE, (5)
Goossens
(1) Eugène Goossens (i)
(b Bruges, 25 Feb 1845; dLiverpool, 30 Dec 1906). Conductor. He studied
the violin from the age of nine, first at the Bruges Conservatory and then at
the Brussels Conservatory, where he also studied composition. In 1873 he
went to London and began conducting operetta. He joined the Carl Rosa
Opera Company as its second conductor in 1883, and became principal
conductor in 1889 on the death of Rosa. In 1892 he gave an early English
performance of Tannhäuser at Liverpool. The following year he retired from
the company, settled in Liverpool and, failing to establish a permanent
orchestra there, founded in 1894 the fine Goossens Male Voice Choir,
which flourished until his death, concentrating on the Belgian repertory.
Goossens
(2) Eugène Goossens (ii)
(b Bordeaux, 28 Jan 1867; d London, 31 July 1958). Violinist and
conductor, son of (1) Eugène Goossens (i). He was educated in Bruges,
and at the Brussels Conservatory (1883–6). He went to England shortly
after Carl Rosa’s death, working in the opera company as violinist,
répétiteur and assistant conductor under his father, but this activity was
interrupted by a year’s study at the RAM (1891–2). Later he conducted
several travelling English opera companies, but returned to the Carl Rosa
as principal conductor in 1899, keeping the post until 1915, with
considerable success. He also conducted part of Beecham’s His Majesty’s
Theatre opera season in 1917, and joined the British National Opera
Company as conductor in 1926.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E.G.J. Gregoir: Les artistes-musiciens belges au XVIIIme et au XIXme
siècle, iii (Brussels, 1890)
E. Goossens (iii): Overture and Beginners (London, 1951/R)
C. Rosen: The Goossens: a Musical Century (London, 1993)
Goossens
(3) Sir (Aynsley) Eugene Goossens
(b London, 26 May 1893; d Hillingdon, Middx, 13 June 1962). Conductor
and composer, son of (2) Eugène Goossens (ii) and contralto Annie Cook.
He started his musical education at the age of ten, spending a year at the
Bruges Conservatory. After his return to England he gained a Liverpool
Scholarship to the RCM (1907), where his professors included Rivarde for
violin and Stanford for composition. His contemporaries Arthur Benjamin,
Arthur Bliss and Herbert Howells became his lifelong friends. He made his
conducting début (April 1912) at an RCM public concert with his first
composition, Variations on a Chinese Theme, a work he subsequently
conducted at a Promenade Concert, after joining the first violins of Sir
Henry Wood's Queen's Hall Orchestra. He was a founder member, as
second violin, of the Philharmonic String Quartet, for whom he wrote many
of his early chamber works.
Rejected for military service because of a congenital heart defect, in 1916
Goossens was asked by Beecham to take on at the last minute two new
English operas at the Shaftesbury Theatre: Stanford's The Critic and Ethel
Smyth's The Boatswain's Mate. With his ability to assimilate complex
scores quickly, he rapidly gained a reputation for deputizing in unfamiliar or
difficult works at the shortest notice.
In 1921 Goossens formed his own orchestra for a series of contemporary
concerts, launched with an epoch-making first concert performance in
London of The Rite of Spring. He subsequently introduced to London
works by Honegger, Milhaud, Poulenc and Schoenberg. The autumn
season found him conducting the Carl Rosa Opera at Covent Garden on
alternate nights with Diaghilev's Ballets Russes at the Alhambra Theatre.
He conducted the opening performances of Nigel Playfair's The Beggar's
Opera at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith (1920), and Delius's Hassan
(1923). Forced into bankruptcy by his championship of the avant garde, he
went to the USA at the invitation of the ‘Kodak King’, George Eastman, to
conduct his newly founded Rochester PO (1923). By the end of the decade
Goossens was established as a brilliant and dynamic figure on the podium
of America's greatest orchestras and in 1931 was appointed musical
director of the Cincinnati SO and May Festival.
He returned every year to England for conducting engagements, including
his two operas for Covent Garden with librettos by Arnold Bennett: Judith
and Don Juan de Mañara; but persistent ill-health prevented his mature
career fulfilling its initial promise. In 1946 he turned down the musical
directorship of the newly formed Covent Garden Royal Opera and Ballet
Company since the post would be subservient to that of the general
administrator. He preferred the challenge of chief conductor of the Sydney
SO and director of the NSW Conservatorium, where he remained from
1947 to 1956. He raised the orchestra to international repute, discovered
the soprano Joan Sutherland and was the first to suggest the building of
the Sydney Opera House on Bennelong Point. In 1955 he was knighted for
his services to Australian music. The following year he resigned his posts
and returned to London.
Goossens's success as a conductor, and especially his role in bringing
modern and difficult works before a wide public, proved detrimental to his
own later career as a composer. His early chamber works influenced by
Debussy and Ravel were highly regarded; Delius praised his Phantasy
Quartet as ‘the best thing I have seen coming from an English pen’. His
songs show an ear finely tuned to the nuances of word-setting and a flair
for inventive piano accompaniments. Goossens was an accomplished
pianist, and in his Three Nature Poems he exploited the full range of
pianistic virtuosity of his friend Benno Moiseiwitsch. His album of short
sketches, Kaleidoscope, has maintained its popularity since publication in
1918. His orchestral Sinfonietta, a clever but accessible work, was a
favourite of Toscanini's; the two violin sonatas, the Second String Quartet
and the Concertino are also eminently rewarding. Goossens's most
successful orchestral work is the Oboe Concerto written in 1927 as a
showpiece for his brother Leon. His later orchestral compositions, although
masterly in their use of instrumental colour, tend to lack an individual voice.
WORKS
stage
Philip II, op.22 (incid music, Verhaeren), London, Court, 1918; prelude (1921)
L'école en crinoline, op.29, ballet, 1921
East of Suez, op.33 (incid music, W.S. Maugham), London, His Majesty's, 1922; pf
suite (1922)
The Constant Nymph, op.43 (incid music, M. Kennedy), London, New, 1926; song:
When thou art dead (1926)
Judith, op.46 (op, 1, A. Bennett), CG, 1929
Autumn Crocus (incid music, C.L. Anthony), London, Lyric, 1931
Don Juan de Mañara, op.54 (op, 4, Bennett), CG, 1937; arr. Romance, op.57, vn,
pf, 1937
orchestral
Variations on a Chinese Theme, op.1, 1912, withdrawn; Miniature Fantasy, op.2, str,
1911; Perseus, op.3, sym. poem, 1914, withdrawn; The Eternal Rhythm, op.5, sym.
poem, ?1913, withdrawn; Ossian, op.11, sym. prelude, 1915, withdrawn; By the
Tarn, op.15 no.1 [arr. str qt work], str, cl ad lib (1919); Tam o'Shanter, op.17,
scherzo, after R. Burns, 1919; Suite, G, op.24 [arr. Bach: French Suites nos.3 and
5], perf. 1917; Sinfonietta, op.34, 1922; Lyric Poem, op.35, vn, orch, 1921;
Variations on Cadet Rousselle, op.40 (1924) [orch of vocal work]
3 Greek Dances, op.44, small orch, 1927; Ob Conc., op.45, 1927; Concertino,
op.47, double str orch/str octet, 1928; 2 Fanfares, op.48, 1921, 1930; Nature
Poems, op.52, 1930; 3 Pictures, op.55, fl, str, perc, 1935; Sym. no.1, op.58, 1940;
Pastorale 1942, op.59 [arr. slow movt of Str Qt no.2], 1942; Phantasy Conc., op.60,
pf, orch, 1942; Cowboy Fantasy, op.61; Sym. no.2, op.62, 1942–4; Variations on a
Theme by Eugene Goossens, 1946, finale to collab. work; Phantasy Conc., op.63,
vn, orch, 1948; Concert Piece, op.65, ob/eng hn, 2 hp, orch, 1958; Dance Prelude,
ov.
Orchestrations of pf works
chamber
Octet, op.3, fl, cl, hn, hp, str, 1911, withdrawn; Old Chinese Folksong, op.4, vn/vc,
pf, 1912; Serenade, op.4a, fl, pf, 1912, withdrawn; 4 Sketches, op.5, fl, vn, pf, 1913,
withdrawn; Suite, op.6, fl/vn, vn, hp/pf, 1914; 5 Impressions of a Holiday, op.7, fl/vn,
vc, pf, 1914; Phantasy Qt, op.12, str qt, 1915; Rhapsody, op.13, vc, pf, 1916; Str Qt
no.1, C, op.14, 1915; 2 Sketches, op.15, str qt, 1916; Spanish Nocturne, op.17, vc,
pf, 1917; Sonata no.1, op.21, vn, pf, 1918; Qnt in 1 Movt, op.23, pf, str, 1918
Fantasy, op.36, fl, ob, 2 cl, 2 bn, 2 hn, tpt, 1924; Phantasy Sextet, op.37, 3 vn, va, 2
vc, 1922–3; 2 Ballades, op.38, hp, 1924; Pastoral and Harlequinade, op.41, fl/vn,
ob/vn, pf, 1924; Concertino, op.47, str octet/double str orch, 1928; Sonata no.2,
op.50, vn, pf, 1930; Str Qt no.2, op.59, 1940; Islamite Dance, ob, pf (1962); Scherzo
fantasque, fl, pf (1962); Vieille chanson à boire, bn, pf (1962); Forlane and Toccata,
clvd
vocal
Choral: Silence, op.31 (W. de la Mare), chorus, orch (1922); The Apocalypse, op.64
(orat, Goossens, F. Moore, after Revelation), solo vv, 2 choruses, orch, 1953
Songs for 1v, pf: 2 Songs, op.9 (A. de Musset), 1914; 2 proses lyriques, op.16 (E.
Evans), 1916; Persian Idylls, op.17b (Evans), 1916; 3 Songs, op.19 (G. Jean-
Aubry), 1917; The Curse, op.22b (H.R. Barbor) (1919); 2 Scots Folksongs, op.22c,
1918; Variations on Cadet Rousselle, 1918, collab. Bax, Bridge, Ireland; 3 Songs,
op.26 (T. Wyatt, J. Fletcher, R. Barnefield), 1920–21, arr. 1v, str qt (1922); 2 Songs,
op.32 (W. Blake), 1922, withdrawn; 2 Songs, op.49 (J. Joyce, trad.), 1930–31;
Chamber Music, op.51 (Joyce), 1929; 4 Songs, op.53 (B.F. Holmes), 1931; British
Children's Prayer (M.F. McCarthy) (1942)
Melodrama: The Cowl, op.22a (H.R. Barbor), spkr, pf, 1918, withdrawn
piano
Concert Study, op.10, 1915; Kaleidoscope, op.18, 12 pieces, 1917–18, nos.1–4, 6,
8, 10, 12 orchd (1949); 4 Conceits, op.20, 1917, orchd (1921); 3 Nature Poems,
op.25, 1919, nos.2–3 orchd; 2 Studies, op.27, 1926, withdrawn; Hommage à
Debussy, op.28, 1920; Rhythmic Dance, op.30, 2 pf, 1920, arr. orch/band (1928); 2
Studies, op.39, 1923; Ships, op.42, 3 preludes, 1924; 2 Pieces, op.56, 1936;
Capriccio [after Kaleidoscope no.3], 1960
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Eugène Goossens (London and Geneva, 1921)
G. Jean-Aubry: La musique et les nations (Paris and London, 1922), 187–
225
R. Hull: ‘Eugene Goossens’, ML, xii (1931), 345–53
E. Goossens (iii): Overture and Beginners (London, 1951/R)
W.A. Orchard: Music in Australia (Melbourne, 1952)
R. Hull: ‘Eugene Goossens: a Revaluation’, The Chesterian, xxviii (1953–
4), 69–72, 103–16
C. Rosen: The Goossens: a Musical Century (London, 1993)
Goossens
(4) Marie (Henriette) Goossens
(b London, 11 Aug 1894; d Dorking, 18 Dec 1991). Harpist, daughter of (2)
Eugène Goossens (ii). She made her orchestral début at the Philharmonic
Hall, Liverpool, in 1910, and after studying there with Edith Mason she
studied at the RCM with Miriam Timothy. She was principal harpist of the
Covent Garden Orchestra from 1921 to 1930 and of the LPO from its
foundation in 1932 until 1939. From 1940 to 1959 she was principal harpist
with the LSO. She taught at the RCM from 1954 to 1967 and was made an
FRCM in 1981. In later years she devoted herself to freelance orchestral
playing and recording, finally retiring in 1981. She was appointed OBE in
1983. Her autobiography, Life on a Harp String, was published in London in
1987. For further information see W.M. Govea: Nineteenth- and Twentieth-
Century Harpists: a Bio-Critical Sourcebook (Westport, CT, 1995), 97–103.
Goossens
(5) Leon Goossens
(b Liverpool, 12 June 1897; d London, 12 Feb 1988). Oboist, son of (2)
Eugène Goossens (ii). After preliminary study of the piano, he began
learning the oboe with Charles Reynolds when he was eight, and at the
age of ten made some professional appearances. He then studied with
William Malsch at the RCM (1911–14) and became principal oboe of the
Queen’s Hall Orchestra at the age of 17. After war service, during which he
was wounded, he returned to the Queen’s Hall Orchestra, transferring to
Covent Garden in 1924, where he sometimes took charge of orchestral
rehearsals when Beecham was late in arriving. That year he became
professor of the oboe at the RCM (until 1939) and the RAM (until 1935). He
also played in the Royal Philharmonic Society’s orchestra and, on its
foundation in 1932, the LPO. He had meanwhile undertaken many solo
engagements, and been acclaimed on both sides of the Atlantic as the
finest oboist of his day. Recognition of his exceptional gifts encouraged
almost every notable English composer to write for him: these included
Bax, Bliss, Britten, Elgar (one uncompleted movement of an unfinished
suite, orchestrated by Gordon Jacob in 1967), Vaughan Williams and many
others. In 1950 he was made a CBE. A serious car accident in June 1962
severely damaged his teeth and lips, but with great courage and
persistence he developed a new technique, and by 1966 had resumed his
career with virtually undiminished powers. In his later years he gave
lecture-recitals and masterclasses; he continued to perform into his 80s.
Goossens’s principal contribution to the oboe was to refine and sweeten its
tone and to reveal thereby a new flexibility and expressiveness; controlled
by a brilliant technique and at the service of a persuasive and individual
artistry, this gave the oboe a new standing as a solo instrument. His sound,
to which vibrato is integral, was emulated by his students, and he is
regarded as the founder of an English school of oboe playing. Though his
orchestral playing was masterly, he made his greatest mark as a solo artist,
where his personal style and charm of phrase could be most fully
appreciated. His approach to the oboe is exemplified by his book Oboe
(London, 1977), written in collaboration with Edwin Roxburgh. He played
throughout his career on a Lorée thumb-plate system oboe made in 1907.
Unusually for a professional oboist, most of whom make their own reeds,
he relied for much of his career on reeds made by a professional maker,
Thomas Brierley of Liverpool.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B. Wynne: Music in the Wind (London, 1967)
C. Rosen: The Goossens: a Musical Century (London, 1993) [incl.
discography]
Goossens
(6) Sidonie Goossens
(b Liscard, Cheshire, 19 Oct 1899). Harpist, daughter of (2) Eugène
Goossens (ii). After studying at the RCM she made her orchestral début at
a Promenade concert conducted by Sir Henry Wood in June 1921, playing
second harp to her sister, Marie. 70 years later, on 14 September 1991,
this occasion was commemorated at the last night of the Proms, when she
accompanied the soprano Gwyneth Jones in Spohr's setting of The Last
Rose of Summer. Her previous appearances at the Proms had included
Tailleferre's Concertino (1937), Alwyn's Lyra Angelica (1954) and
Henkemans's Concerto (1958). In 1924 she was the first harpist to
broadcast a harp solo and, in 1936, the first to appear on television. A
founder-member of the BBC SO in 1930, she finally retired in 1981. She
was professor of harp at the GSM from 1960 to 1990, and was appointed
MBE in 1974 and OBE in 1980. Her 100th birthday was celebrated in
concerts at the Wigmore Hall and the Royal Festival Hall. (D. Perrett:
‘Sidonie Goossens: a Biography’, World Harp Congress Review, vii/2,
2000)
Mass, 4vv, org, 1867, B-Ac; Messe solennelle, 4vv, orch, org, 1869
O Jesu sapientia aeterna, motet, 4vv, 1869; O salutaris hostia, B, 4vv, org, 1868;
other sacred works
Arrs. of works by Palestrina, Lassus and others
WRITINGS
with F. Willems: Driestemmige liederen voor de schooljeugd, naar de
Verzameling van Johannes Wepf (Antwerp, 1868–74)
Notice biographique et bibliographique sur Pierre Phalèse (Brussels, 1869)
La musique d’église: considérations sur son état actuel et histoire abrégée
de toutes les écoles de l’Europe (Antwerp, 1876) [pubd in Flemish as
De kerkmuziek (Antwerp, 1876)]
Histoire et bibliographie de la typographie musicale dans les anciens Pays-
Bas (Antwerp and Brussels, 1880/R)
De muziekdrukkers Phalesius en Bellerus te Leuven en te Antwerpen
1546–1674 (Antwerp, 1882)
Lettres sur le Congrès d’Arezzo, par l’abbé M.J.A. Lans (Paris, 1883)
[trans. of collected letters]
Liederen en andere Gedichten gemaakt ter gelegenheid van het
Landjuweel van Antwerpen in 1561 (Antwerp, 1892)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (A. Van der Linden) [with complete list of writings]
E.G.J. Gregoir: Les artistes-musiciens belges au XVIIIme et au XIXme
siècle (Brussels, 1885–90)
ANNE-MARIE RIESSAUW
Gopak.
See Hopak.
Gora.
A string-wind instrument found only in southern Africa. The name gora is a
simplification of the original Korana word !gora, in which the initial
consonant is a voiced palatal ‘click’. Other spellings by various authors
include gorah, gorra, goura, gowra, kora, t’goerra, t’gorrah and gom-gom.
The gora was formerly played mainly by the Khoikhoi (or Hottentots),
although Khoisan (Bushmen) and, later, Bantu peoples also adopted it (see
Khoikhoi music). The instrument resembles a simple mouth-resonated
musical bow, but is sounded by blowing on a piece of quill attached to the
string (see illustration). This gives it a distinctive tone quality, somewhat like
that from a free reed, as in the harmonica or the concertina.
The gora was noted first by Dapper in 1668 and thereafter by many other
observers; descriptions by Lichtenstein and Burchell are particularly
notable. Balfour wrote the first serious historical study, and Kirby (1931)
later presented a comprehensive survey. Basing his argument on L.F.
Maingard’s hypothesis that the Khoikhoi had acquired the hunting bow from
the Bushmen early in the 17th century, Kirby (1934) postulated that the
gora (and also two simple types of musical bow used by the Khoikhoi)
originated shortly after this as an adaptation of the hunting bow. Balfour
(pp.170ff), seeking explanations for the sounding mechanism of the gora,
noted an analogous means of sound production in the bullroarer, which is
widely used in southern Africa as a toy. He also cited the existence in north
India of miniature aeolian bows strung with a flattened quill and attached to
kites. Hornbostel (p.296) mentioned forms of lamina, sounded by blowing,
among the Shambala in East Africa. Although no connection with the gora
had yet been traced, he urged that items such as the gora should not be
ascribed to caprice or accident, in the hope that they might ‘any day be
withdrawn from their “splendid isolation” by means of some unexpected
discovery, and will then supply the most important evidence for Culture-
history’.
Apparently the gora is no longer played among remaining Khoikhoi-
speaking groups, who are mainly found in Namibia (South-west Africa),
Botswana and southern Angola. It still survives, however, in almost
identical form but under different names among several Bantu-speaking
peoples who apparently adopted it in the 19th century. It is always played
by boys or young men and is strongly associated with cattle herding. The
Sotho of Lesotho use it the most extensively and call it the lesiba (see
Lesotho, figs.1–2). The use of the instrument has mostly died out
elsewhere, but earlier names given to it among other neighbouring peoples
were ugwala or unkwindi (Zulu), ugwali or igwali (Xhosa), makwindi
(Swazi), kwadi (Tswana) and ugwala (Venda).
The instrument consists of a slightly curved solid stick or hollow river reed,
about 95 to 100 cm long and 1·5 cm in average diameter. The string is
made from sinew. One end of the string is secured to a strip of quill from a
bird’s feather, such as a vulture’s or a bustard’s. The quill is split and
flattened, and the broad end trimmed into a leaf shape (fig.1b). The string
passes through a tiny hole pierced in the quill and is fastened by splicing or
knotting. The quill is secured to the shaft by a narrow strip of hide, which
also serves as a nut or bridge, raising the quill and string clear of the shaft;
but in later specimens and in the Sotho lesiba, attachment is by means of a
split peg. The other end of the string is bound to the shaft near its extremity
in such a way that it may be tuned by tightening or slackening before
performance. The use of a tuning-peg, presumably copied from the violin or
the ramkie, was occasionally noted by observers around Cape Town from
1796.
In playing the gora or the lesiba, the quill is placed between slightly parted,
though widely stretched, lips. The fingers keep the stave from touching the
face, leaving the quill and string free to vibrate. Both inhalation and
exhalation are used in agitating the quill, and considerable breath force is
necessary. Mouth resonance is employed for the selective amplification of
one or other of the upper partials of the harmonic series, as on the mouth
bow and jew’s harp. The use of harmonic partials 4 to 14 has been noted,
although 11 and 13 are seldom heard; the range of partials from 5 to 9 is
perhaps the most common, and the tuning of the almost inaudible
fundamental, shown as C in ex.1, may vary from F to B ' among different
Sotho players. In such cases, the entire series is transposed accordingly. In
addition to the instrumental sound, players often add laryngeal grunts
during exhalation; sometimes these are given definite pitch, to add a touch
of polyphony to the performance, but some players avoid them altogether.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
O. Dapper: Naukeurige beschrijvinge der Afrikaensche gewesten
(Amsterdam, 1668; Eng. trans., 1670; Ger. trans. 1670/R)
M.H.K. Lichtenstein: Travels in Southern Africa in the Years 1803, 1804,
1805 and 1806 (London, 1812–15/R)
W.J. Burchell: Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, i (London, 1822/R)
H. Balfour: ‘The Goura, a Stringed–Wind Musical Instrument of the
Bushmen and Hottentots’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute, xxxii (1902), 156–76
P.R. Kirby: ‘The Gora and its Bantu Successors: a Study in South African
Native Music’, Bantu Studies, v (1931), 89–109
E.M. von Hornbostel: ‘The Ethnology of African Sound-Instruments’,
Africa, vi (1933), 129–57, 277–311
P.R. Kirby: The Musical Instruments of the Native Races of South Africa
(London, 1934, 2/1965)
P.R. Kirby: ‘A Further Note on the Gora and its Bantu Successors’, Bantu
Studies, ix (1935), 53–61
DAVID K. RYCROFT
Gorączkiewicz, Wincenty
(b Kraków, 1789; d Kraków, 4 Nov 1858). Polish organist, conductor,
teacher and composer. He was a son of Dominik Gorączkiewicz (1747–
1803), organist of Wawel Cathedral in Kraków from 1788, and brother of
Dominik Gorączkiewicz (1780–1813), cathedral organist from 1803 to
1808. He studied with his father, and then in Dresden and Vienna. From
1808 until his death Gorączkiewicz held the posts of organist and musical
director of Wawel Cathedral. He also played the double bass in, and for a
time conducted, the orchestra of the theatre of the governor of the Brzeg
district, J. Kluszewski. In 1818 he became musical director of the Society of
Friends of Music in Kraków, and he also held a senior post in the Boarding
School of Music, where he taught the organ from 1820. From 1841
Gorączkiewicz was responsible for the organ and choral singing classes in
the music school of the Technical Institute. From 1838 he also taught in
Franciszek Mirecki’s operatic singing school. He later appeared as a
conductor, while as an organist he was considered to be one of the
greatest players of the day, an eminent improviser, and the equal of Simon
Sechter of Vienna and A.F. Hesse of Breslau. He gave concerts in
Dresden, Vienna and Olmütz, where he played a newly constructed organ
in the cathedral. He encouraged the performance of the vocal music of
Haydn and Mozart, and contributed towards the restoration of ancient
church music. In 1866 a plaque was set in the wall of Wawel Cathedral in
his memory. Besides making arrangements of songs, choral and piano
music, Gorączkiewicz composed some sacred works, including Cantica
choralia ecclesia Romano-Catholica (1848), and a comic intermezzo
Rendez-vous fryzjera (‘The Barber’s Rendez-Vous’), performed in Warsaw
on 27 June 1816 (manuscript in PL-Kk). He also translated into Polish
Gottfried Weber’s Versuch einer geordneten Theorie der Tonsetzkunst,
which remained in manuscript in Wawel Cathedral, Kraków.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PSB (J. Reiss)
SMP
K. Kurpiński: ‘Wiadomości o kompozytorach polskich’ [Information about
Polish composers], Tygodnik polski i zagraniczny, xxxvi (1819)
L.T. Błaszczyk: Dyrygenci polscy í obcy w Polsce działający w XIX i XX
wieku [Polish and foreign conductors working in Poland in the 19th
and 20th centuries] (Kraków, 1964) D. Wawrzykowska-Wierciochowa
and A. Podsiad : Boze coś Polske (Warsaw, 1999)
I. Poniatowska: ‘Gorączkiewicz’, Encyclopedia muzyczna PWM, ed. E.
Dziębowska, iii (Kraków, 1987)
D. Wawrzykowska-Wierciochowa and A. Podsíad: Boże coś Polskę
(Warsaw, 1999)
IRENA PONIATOWSKA
Görbig [Gärbig, Gerbich, Gerbig],
Johann Anton (Thaddeus)
(b ?1684; d Prague-Strahov, 2 March 1737). Bohemian organist,
choirmaster and composer. His age is given as 53 in the obituary register,
but his name is not listed in the corresponding baptismal registers of Brüx
(now Most) which was given as his place of birth by Dlabač.
Görbig was an unpaid assistant organist at the metropolitan cathedral of St
Vitus in Prague from about 1703; on 24 July 1717 he became cellist and in
1727 he succeeded Tobias Ernest Liehre (1644–1727) as organist. After
the death of J.C. Gayer he was appointed capellae magister, on 27
November 1734, and he held this post until his death; he was also organist
at Strahov from about 1723. Besides his musical activities he was assessor
to the subsidiary law court at Pohořelec (Prague). Gayer's son Vojtěch
succeeded Görbig in 1727 as cellist of the metropolitan cathedral.
Görbig's artistic orientation can be seen from the selection of composers
represented in his library (now in CZ-Pp), for example Caldara, Lotti and
Heinichen. Only a few of his own compositions survive and as they bear his
surname alone, their attribution is uncertain because of the existence of an
otherwise unknown composer Georg Görbig, whose works are listed in an
Osek monastery inventory of 1720. The masses are in a slightly archaic
stile misto, showing a remarkable absorption of the late Baroque concerto
style into their contrapuntal texture. His vocal idiom is almost completely
instrumental. In these respects his style is similar to that of his Prague
contemporary, Gunther Jacob (1685–1734).
WORKS
Missa Iustitiae, F, CZ-Pnm
Missa Sancti Wolffgangi, C, ME; score, 1920, Pnm
Missa ‘Delectare in Domino’, Pp
Lit, D-Dkh
Mass, 5 offs and hymn, listed in Osek monastery inventory of 1706; 4 masses and
lit, listed in Prague, monastery of the Order of Crusaders inventory, 1737–8: all lost
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DlabacžKL
E. Trolda: ‘Kostelní archiv mělnický’ [Church archives at Melník], HR, ix
(1915–16), 75–81, 127–33
A. Podlaha: Catalogus collectionis operum artis musicae quae in
bibliotheca capituli metropolitani pragensis asservantur (Prague,
1926), pp.iv, xvii–xviii, xxff, 16
R. Quoika: Die Musik der Deutschen in Böhmen und Mähren (Berlin,
1956)
J. Fukač: Křižovnický hudební inventář [Music inventory of the Knights of
the Cross] (Brno, 1959)
J. Štefan: Preface to Ecclesia metropolitana pragensis: catalogus
collectionis operum artis musicae, iv/1 (Prague, 1983), 5–13
M. Kostílková: ‘Nástin dějin svatovítského hudebního kůru’ [Historical
survey of St Vitus choir], ibid., 14–33
MILAN POŠTOLKA
Gorchakova, Galina
(b Novosibirsk, 1 March 1962). Russian soprano. After studies at the
Novosibirsk Conservatory, she joined the Opera House in Sverdlovsk (now
Yekaterinburg) in 1988, her early roles including Tatyana, Santuzza, Cio-
Cio-San, Liù, Tamara (Rubinstein's Demon) and Katerina (Lady Macbeth of
the Mtsensk District). Winning auditions in St Petersburg, she moved on to
the Kirov Opera in 1991, and with that company was quickly recognized as
an artist of rare individuality. Her international career began with an
appearance as Renata in Prokofiev's Fiery Angel at the 1991 Proms in
London, and she made her Covent Garden and Metropolitan Opera débuts
the following year in the same role, taking it to La Scala in 1994. She
returned to Covent Garden in 1993 as Tatyana, which, together with
Tchaikovsky's Lisa, became a calling card around the world. Other
Tchaikovsky roles include Maria (Mazepa) and Iolanta, and in concert
Natal'ya (The Oprichnik) and Kuma (The Enchantress). With the Kirov she
has also sung Gorislava (Ruslan and Lyudmila), Yaroslavna (Prince Igor),
Princess Olga (The Maid of Pskov), Volokhova (Sadko), Fevroniya
(Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh) and Clara (Betrothal in a
Monastery), many of which have been recorded on disc and video. Tosca
introduced her to Houston in 1996, and in 1998 in Rotterdam she added
Manon Lescaut to her repertory. Her Verdi roles have included Leonora
(including the original version of La forza del destino) and Elisabeth de
Valois. She made her Australian début in recital at the 1999 Sydney
Festival, and has a large repertory of Russian song. Although her gleaming
voice can lack flexibility, it has thrilling amplitude throughout its
considerable range.
JOHN ALLISON
Edition: Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki: Opera omnia, ii, ed. K. Mrowiec, MMP, ser.A
(1995–) [M]
instrumental
Ouverture ex D; lost, mentioned in Wieluń inventory (see Buba and Szweykowscy)
Polonez balowy, vn (doubtful); ed. in Prosnak (1962)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EitnerQ
SMP
A. Chybiński: ‘Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki’, Muzyka kościelna, iii/1–10,
12 (1928), Muzyka polska, i (1934), 196–200
H. Feicht: ‘Do biografii G.G. Gorczyckiego’, PRM, ii (1936), 98–9
J. Prosnak: ‘Utwory klawesynowe polskiego Oświecenia’ [Compositions
for the harpsichord during the Polish Enlightenment], Muzyka, vii/2
(1962), 69–93
J. Buba, A. and Z.M. Szweykowscy: ‘Kultura muzyczna pijarów polskich
w XVII i XVIII wieku’ [The music culture of the Polish Piarists in the
17th and 18th centuries], Muzyka, x (1965), no.2, pp.15–32; no.3,
pp.20–32
J. Węcowski: ‘Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki w świetle najnowszych odkryć
i badań’ [Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki in the light of the most recent
discoveries and research], Studia Hieronymo Feicht septuagenario
dedicata, ed. Z. Lissa (Kraków, 1967), 227–34
M. Kaczorowska-Guńkiewicz: ‘Do biografii Grzegorza Gerwazego
Gorczyckiego’, Muzyka, xviii/4 (1973), 83–6
K. Mrowiec: ‘Nowo odnalezione najwieksze dzieło Grzegorza Gerwazego
Gorczyckiego’ [The newly discovered greatest work of Gorczycki],
Muzyka, xx/2 (1975), 108–12
W. Schenk: ‘Przyczynek do biografii Grzegorza Gerwazego Gorczyckiego’
[A contribution to the biography of Gorczycki], Muzyka, xxiii/2 (1978),
73–5
M. Kaczorowska-Guńkiewicz: ‘Technika polifoniczna w “Completorium”
Gorczyckiego’ [Polyphonic technique in Gorczycki's
‘Completorium’],Muzyka, xxvii/1–2 (1982), 43–54
D. Idaszak: ‘Litania G.G. Gorczyckiego: nowe źródło do polskiego koncertu
wokalno-instrumentalnego z okresu baroku’ [The Litaniae of
Gorczycki; a new source for the Polish vocal and instrumental
concerto in the Baroque period], Dzieło muzyczne [The musical work],
ed. I. Poniatowska and others (Kraków, 1984), 277–81
Z.M. Szweykowski, ed.: Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki: Studia, i (Kraków,
1986) [incl. thematic catalogue by A. Wardęcka-Gościńska]
Z.M. Szweykowski, ed.: Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki: Studia, ii (Kraków,
1990)
T. Maciejewski: ‘Nieznana kopia utworu G.G. Gorczyckiego’ [An unknown
copy of a work by Gorczycki], Muzyka, xxxvii/2 (1992), 91–2
MIROSŁAW PERZ
Gordon, Alexander
(b Aberdeen, c1692; d South Carolina, 1754/5). Scottish tenor, author and
antiquary. He graduated at Aberdeen University, lived for a time by
teaching languages and music, and then left for the Continent, spending
some years in Italy, where presumably he was trained as a singer. He sang
in C.A. Monza’s La principessa fedele at Messina in 1716 and Orlandini’s
Lucio Papirio and Leo’s Sofonisba at Naples in 1717–18. He returned to
Britain in 1719 and sang at four concerts at the Lincoln’s Inn Fields Theatre
that winter. He was a member of the Royal Academy (at the King’s
Theatre) during its first season (spring 1720), singing in Porta’s Numitore,
Handel’s Radamisto (Tiridate) and Roseingrave’s arrangement of
Domenico Scarlatti’s Narciso. He had a benefit at York Buildings on 6
February 1721 and another at the Little Haymarket Theatre on 26 January
1722. He was back at the King’s Theatre in 1723 for the first performances
of Ariosti’s Coriolano and Handel’s Flavio (Ugone). Handel planned to give
him a part in Giulio Cesare, but in August that year Gordon abandoned his
singing career and began research on the Roman antiquities of Scotland
and northern England. His literary works include the fruits of this, under the
title Itinerarium Septentrionale, lives of Pope Alexander VI and his son
Cesare Borgia, a translation of Scipione Maffei’s De gli anfiteatri, essays on
Egyptian mummies and hieroglyphics, and a comedy, Lupone or The
Inquisitor, produced unsuccessfully in London in 1731. He was secretary to
the Society of Antiquaries (1736–41) and other learned bodies, but in 1741
left for South Carolina as secretary to the governor. He became a
substantial landowner there, and died between August 1754 (when he
made his will) and July 1755.
Gordon must have possessed a competent technique to sing the two parts
Handel composed for him, which require agile coloratura and a compass
from d to a'. On one occasion he is said to have taken exception to
Handel’s accompaniment and threatened to jump on the harpsichord; this
drew the reply: ‘Let me know when you will do that and I will advertise it; for
I am sure more people will come to see you jump than to hear you sing’.
Gordon apparently brought back from Naples a manuscript score of
Alessandro Scarlatti’s Tigrane, now in the Barber Institute at Birmingham,
in which the opera is attributed to Scarlatti ‘con l’ajuto del Sigr Alessandro
Gordoni Inglese’. Gordon may have been present when the opera was
produced in 1715, but he probably acted merely as copyist. He was also a
painter, who illustrated some of his own books and left a self-portrait.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DNB (G. Goodwin)
SartoriL
C. Morey: ‘Alexander Gordon, Scholar and Singer’, ML, xlvi (1965), 332–5
W. Dean and J.M. Knapp: Handel’s Operas 1704–1726 (Oxford, 1987,
2/1995)
WINTON DEAN
JAAP FRANK
Gordon, Michael
(b Miami, 20 July 1956). American composer and keyboard player. Raised
in Nicaragua, he returned to Miami Beach at the age of eight. He studied at
New York University (graduated 1980) and Yale University (MM 1982),
among others; his principal teachers included Edward Troupin and Martin
Bresnick. From 1979 to 1983 he played in the rock band Peter and the
Girlfriends, later forming a more ambitious ensemble, the Michael Gordon
Philharmonic (1983–96), to perform his concert music. In 1987 he co-
founded, with his wife Julia Wolfe, and David Lang, the Bang on a Can
Festival, New York, an event that became an important showcase for
postminimal and vernacular-based new music.
Gordon’s music starts from a minimalist ensemble concept, but extends
dramatically towards dissonance and rhythmic complexity. Many early
works revolve around rhythmic conflict, a characteristic illustrated by titles
such as Thou Shalt/Thou Shalt Not! (1983) and Four Kings Fight Five
(1988). In the earlier work, his first piece for the Michael Gordon
Philharmonic, the 9/8 rhythm of the strings and organ is angrily, yet
routinely, interrupted by a conflicting pattern in the bass clarinet and
percussion. In the later composition, rhythmic layers are nested in two-
against-three and three-against-four groupings. Such complexities made
Gordon a central proponent of the Manhattan-based movement known as
Totalism, a style characterized by vernacular influences, postminimalist
harmonies and intricate rhythmic structures. Other characteristics of
Gordon’s style include abrupt changes in tempo and the use of classical
instruments to create a pulsing, irregular energy reminiscent of rock groups
such as Led Zeppelin.
In 1991 Gordon collaborated with video artist Elliot Caplan to create the
Van Gogh Video Opera, a multimedia work in which visual allusions to the
life and work of Vincent Van Gogh are accompanied by musical patterns
organized in complex rhythmic cycles. With Yo Shakespeare (1992),
Gordon began to reduce the pitch elements of his music to achieve a more
focussed concentration on rhythm. This process reached its apex in
Trance, a 50-minute intense continuum of competing rhythms that peaks in
a digitally recorded sample of Buddhist and Arabic chanting.
WORKS
(selective list)
Dramatic: Van Gogh Video Opera (after V. Van Gogh letters), 1991, collab. E.
Caplan; Chaos (op, 25 scenes, M. Maguire), 1994–8; The Carbon Copy Building
(op, 1, B. Kutchor), 1999, collab D. Lang and J. Wolfe, Turin, Teatro Carignano,
Sept 1999
Large ens: Four Kings Fight Five, ob, cl + b cl, perc, synth, elec gui, vn, va, vc,
1988; Romeo, orch, 1992; Yo Shakespeare, 2 fl + pic + pan pipes, s + t sax, a + bar
sax, perc, 3 synth, elec gui, elec b gui, amp vn, amp vc, 1992; XVI, 16vv, 1993;
Trance, 2 fl + pic + pan pipes, 2 s sax, a sax, 4 tpt, 4 trbn, perc, 3 sampled accdn,
elec gui, elec b gui, amp vn, vc, tape, 1995; Love Bead, fl + pic, ob + eng hn, b cl,
dbn, brass, elec gui, elec b gui, amp vn, va, vc, sampler, 1997; Weather, str orch,
1997 [opt. multimedia video by Caplan]
Other: Thou Shalt/Thou Shalt Not!, cl + b cl, perc, elec org, elec gui, amp vn, amp
va, 1983; The Low Qt, (b cl, bar sax, trbn, db)/any 4 low insts, 1985; Strange Quiet,
cl + b cl, perc, synth, elec gui, amp vn, amp va, 1985; Acid Rain, fl, cl, synth, str qt,
db, 1986; Paint it Black, db, 1988; Industry, amp vc, elecs, 1992; Trance 4, cl, perc,
elec gui, vc, amp db, sampler, 1995; ACDC, fl, cl, vn, db, pf, 1996; Grand Dairy,
elecs, 1996; I Buried Paul, cl, elec gui, vc, amp db, perc, sampler, 1996; hate, 1v +
pf, 1997; XY, perc, 1997
KYLE GANN
Gordon, Peter
(b New York, 20 June 1951). American composer and saxophonist. As a
youth he lived in Munich, where he studied the saxophone with Don
Menea, music theory with P.J. Korn and played in rock bands. Later he
studied music and telecommunications at the University of Southern
California (1969–70), composition at the University of California, San Diego
(BA 1973) and electronic music at Mills College (MA 1975); his principal
teachers were Kenneth Gaburo, Roger Reynolds, Pauline Oliveros, Robert
Ashley and Terry Riley. Gordon first gained attention for his work with the
Love of Life Orchestra, an art-rock performing group which he founded
(with David Van Tieghem) in 1977. Members included Rik Albani (trumpet),
Rebecca Armstrong (voice), Randy Gun (guitar) and ‘Blue’ Gene Tyranny
(piano), in addition to Gordon (clarinet, saxophone, synthesizer) and Van
Tieghem (percussion). The Love of Life Orchestra performed throughout
the USA, Canada and Europe and made several recordings. Gordon’s
compositions incorporate tape and electronic music, videotape and live
performance, and often address social and political issues, as in The Birth
of a Poet (1981), and The Return of the Native (1983–8). Other
compositions include Shoptalk, a collage of the voices of eight composers,
and Frozen Moments of Passion, for saxophone, fragments of speech and
pre-recorded tape. In 1985 he won an Obie award for the music for Otello,
a mixed-media work loosely based on Verdi’s opera and created in
collaboration with members of the Italian performance art group Falso
Movimento. As an arranger and record producer Gordon has worked most
notably with Ashley on Perfect Lives (Private Parts). He has played
saxophone and clarinet on recordings by Laurie Anderson, the Flying
Lizards, Dinosaur L and Soft Verdict. Gordon has also composed music for
plays, music theatre and leading dance companies. In 1981 he began
producing live video-music-theatre with video artists Kit Fitzgerald. A
documentary on their collaborative work, Painted Melodies, Spider’s
Garden, won the 1993 Grand Prize at the International Electronic Cinema
Festival in Montreux.
WORKS
(selective list)
Dramatic: Birth of the Poet (op, K. Acker), 1981, RO Theatre, Rotterdam, 1984;
Return of the Native (video op), 1983–8, collab. K. Fitzgerald, Brooklyn Academy of
Music/Next Wave 1988; Otello (mixed media), received Obie 1985, collab. Falso
Movimento; Joe versus the Volcano (film score, dir. J.P. Shanley, 1990; The Journey
from Petersburg to Moscow (film score, dir. V. Stephen); In the Soup (film score, dir.
A Rockwell), 1992 ; The Strange Life of Ivan Osokin (op, C. Congdon), 1994,
LaMama, New York, 1994; Party Time (op, P. Zimet), 1996, collab. Fitzgerald,
Public School 122, New York, 1996
Inst: Windfinger Song, 6 fl, pf, hpd, cel, 1972; Les Enfants Terrible, str trio, 1973;
Movt, chbr orch, 1976; Intervallic Expansion, 2 sax, gui, db, kbd, perc, 1976;
Extended Niceties, ens, 1978; Geneva Suite, rock ens, 1979; Dingle Music, chbr
suite, 1983; Secret Pastures (ballet suite, Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane & Co.), 1984; St.
Cecilia, 2 sax, gui, perc, 1985; Leningrad Xpress (dance suite), 1988; Pastis, gui,
1985/89; The Misadventures of President Limp, ens, 1989; Sorak San Mist, E cl, 5
haegum (Korean vn), 1990; De Dode, str qt, 1992; Gnarly, chbr orch, 1995
El-ac: Machomusic, 8 sax, elec, 1973; Frozen Moments of Passion, sax, v, rec.
tape, 1980; Shoptalk, 8 rec. vv
Compositions on disc: Deutsche Angst, collab. L. Weiner, Disques Crepuscule,
1982; Westmusik, collab. T. Fehlmann, Zick/Zack Records, 1983; The Yellow Box,
collab. D. Cunningham, Voiceprint, 1996
JOAN LA BARBARA
Gordy, Berry
(b Detroit, 28 Nov 1929). American songwriter and founder of Motown
Records. Born into a middle-class family, he initially wanted to be a boxer
and later opened a record shop specializing in jazz. When both these
career options failed, he began to write songs, quickly achieving success
between 1957 and 1959 by co-writing such hits as Reete Petite, To be
Loved and I'll be satisfied for Jackie Wilson, You've got what it takes for
Marv Johnson and Money for Barrett Strong.
At Smokey Robinson's suggestion, Gordy ventured into the record
business with Tamla Records in 1959. He began Motown in 1961, followed
by Gordy in 1962, Soul and VIP in 1964 and several lesser labels over the
ensuing ten years. Collectively these labels are commonly referred to as
Motown. Gordy promoted the label as the ‘Sound of Young America’, since
from the beginning he was interested in marketing his African-American
artists to both a black and white audience. To achieve this he identified
what the common elements were in black recordings that crossed over to
the pop charts. He personally trained all of Motown's early writers and
producers and, using essentially the same musicians for every recording,
he developed the Motown sound.
Gordy developed a long-range business plan at Motown, drawing from his
experience at the Lincoln-Mercury car factory in Detroit where he had
worked during the mid-1950s. The operation was run like a factory with a
top-down model. Its success was based on a cheap labour pool, a rigidly
compartmentalized work force, vertical integration and control of the
market-place. Motown's spectacular results were unprecedented among
black record labels and by the late 1960s Gordy's Jobete Music was the
most successful publishing company in the world.
In 1971 Gordy moved Motown's headquarters to Los Angeles with a view
to expanding into motion pictures. He continued to achieve a significant
degree of success but his company could no longer boast a characteristic
sound, and in 1988 he sold Motown to MCA records.He published his
autobiography as To be Loved: the Music, the Magic, the Memories of
Motown (New York, 1994).
ROB BOWMAN
Goretti, Antonio
(b ?Ferrara, c1570; d 25 Aug 1649). Italian musician and patron of music.
In 1600 Artusi described him as ‘a young virtuoso and as great a lover of
music as any man I have ever known’. In November 1598 a musical
gathering in Goretti's house in Ferrara heard madrigals by Monteverdi and
other modern composers, sparking off the Artusi-Monteverdi controversy.
Goretti also received dedications from G.B. Buonamente (1636), P.M.
Marsolo (1607), Luigi Mazzi (1596) and Filippo Nicoletti (one villanella
published in his collection of 1604). The celebrated lutenist Alessandro
Piccinini, in the introduction to his tablature of 1623, praised Goretti’s music
studio ‘where he keeps not only every sort of instrument both ancient and
modern … but also … all the music, old and new, sacred and secular,
which it is possible to find’; in 1647 Mersenne noted his viewing of the
collection two years before. On Goretti's death, his son Lorenzo sold the
collection to Archduke Sigismund of Austria (who had visited Ferrara in
1652), and therefore it is likely contained within an inventory of the
Innsbruck court prepared on the archduke's death in 1665 (see Waldner); it
was later dispersed.
Goretti knew the Ferrarese patron Enzo Bentivoglio and was engaged by
him to act as Monteverdi's assistant for the entertainments celebrating the
wedding of Duke Odoardo Farnese and Margherita de' Medici in Parma in
1628. Two of his madrigals appeared in printed collections (RISM 1591 9,
and Madrigali di Luzzasco Luzzaschi ei altri autori, Ferrara, 1611), and his
library contained 22 works by him for voices and instruments in honour of S
Cecilia which had been performed year by year in Ferrara. There is no
evidence to support Palisca's suggestion that Goretti was ‘L'Ottuso’, the
otherwise unknown academic who defended Monteverdi during the 1600s.
Goretti's brother Alfonso wrote Dell’eccellenze, e prerogative della musica
(Ferrara, 1612).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.M. Artusi: L'Artusi, overo Delle imperfettioni della moderna musica
(Venice, 1600–03/R); extract trans. O. Strunk: Source Readings in
Music History (New York, 1950/R), 393–404
A. Superbi: Apparato de gli huomini illustri della città di Ferrara (Ferrara,
1620) [entry on L. Agostini]
A. Piccinini: Intavolatura di liuto e di chitarrone libro primo (Bologna,
1623/R)
M. Mersenne: Novarum observationum physico-mathematicarum, iii (Paris,
1647), 165–6
A. Borsetti: Supplemento al compendio historico del Signor D.
Marc’Antonio Guarini (Ferrara,1670), 196–7
F. Waldner: ‘Zwei Inventarien aus dem XVI. und XVII. Jahrhundert über
hinterlassene Musikinstrumente und Musikalien am Innsbrucker Hofe’,
SMw, iv (1916), 128–47
S. Reiner: ‘Preparations in Parma, 1618, 1627–28’, MR, xxv (1964), 273–
301
A. Newcomb: The Madrigal at Ferrara 1579–1597 (Princeton, NJ, 1980)
C.V. Palisca: ‘The Artusi-Monteverdi Controversy’, The New Monteverdi
Companion, ed. D. Arnold and N. Fortune (London, 1985), 127–58
P. Fabbri: ‘Collezioni e strumenti musicali dall'Italia: due frammenti per la
biografia monteverdiana’, ‘In Teutschland noch gantz ohnbekandt’:
Monteverdi-Rezeption und frühes Musiktheater im deutschsprachigen
Raum, ed. M. Engelhardt (Frankfurt, 1996), 256–81
D. Fabris: Documenti sul patronato artistico dei Bentivoglio di Ferrara
nell'epoca di Monteverdi (1585–1645) (Lucca, 1998)
ANTHONY NEWCOMB/R
Gor'kiy.
See Nizhniy Novgorod.
Görl.
See Gerl family.
Gorli, Sandro
(b Como, 19 June 1948). Italian composer and conductor. He took
diplomas in piano (1968) and composition (1971) at the Milan
Conservatory following which he studied composition with Donatoni at the
Accademia Chigiana, Siena, and conducting with Swarowsky at the
Hochschule, Vienna (1973). He also studied architecture at Milan
Polytechnic (1968–72) and worked at the Studio di Fonologia Musicale of
the RAI in Milan. In 1977 he founded the Divertimento Ensemble, a group
dedicated to contemporary music, of which he is director; since 1990 he
has been principal conductor of the Elision Ensemble of Melbourne. He
teaches composition at Milan Conservatory. In 1985 he won the Europe
Award for musical theatre with the opera Solo; his second opera, Le mal
de lune, was performed in 1994 in Colmar and Strasbourg. His orchestral
composition Me-Ti, commissioned by Maderna, won the SIMC award in
1975, and On a Delphic Reed gained the same prize five years later;
Super flumina, written in 1987 for the Babylon Festival (Babylonia, Iraq),
won the Città di Trieste Prize in 1989.
Under Donatoni’s influence, Gorli’s composing method first involved
automatic transformation of musical material, by means of a limited set of
‘rules’, in, for example, Konzert and Viveka. Subsequent works, such as
Flottaison blème, On a Delphic Reed and The Silent Stream, are more
independent of Donatoni, and underline a strong interest in an
Expressionist mode of communication. This openness of expression is
especially evident in the compositions written around 1982–3, including
Oltre il segno and the String Quartet. Since then, other elements have
come into play – tone colour, instrumental devices and rhythmic layering –
which, together with a variety of forms and genres, have enlivened Gorli’s
skilfully achieved balance of poetic good taste and technical severity.
WORKS
Ops: Solo (dramma itinerante, 7 scenes, G. Corti, after Strindberg), 1982–5; Le mal
de lune (chbr op), 1992–4
Orch: Viveka, 3 orch groups, 1971; Me-Ti, 1973; Flottaison blème, pf, orch, 1978;
The Silent Stream, vc, orch, 1980; Il bambino perduto, 1981; Super flumina, va, ob,
orch, 1987; Il magico pendio, 1990
Vocal: Chimera la luce, 6vv, pf, chorus, orch, 1976; L’ultimo ricordi di luce, female v,
pf, 1983; Requiem, SATB, 1989
Chbr: Derivazioni, str qt, 1970; Konzert Gollum, 13 insts, 1974; Serenata, 9 str, hpd
ad lib, 1975; Serenata no.2, 10 wind, 1976; On a Delphic Reed, ob, ens, 1979; Oltre
il segno, ens, 1982; Str Qt, 1983; Le due sorgenti, ens, 1984; Dopo l’alba, ob, ens,
1986; Rondò, va, pf, 1986, arr. vc, pf, 1988; Quintettino, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1986; Le
mutevoli forme, fl, perc, 1988; Le vie dei canti, va, ob, hp, 1989; La stanza segreta,
fl, cl, vn, va, vc, pf, 1990; Le vie dei canti no.2, va, ob, fl, hp, perc, 1990;
Passacaglia, perc, live elecs, 1991; L’albero della luna, ens, 1992; Ritratto, vc, ens,
1996; L’occhio riflesso, ens, 1996
Solo inst: Novellette, pf, 1984; Studi in forma di variazione, pf, 1987; Aulodia per
Bruno, ob, 1989; Ja Lily, pf, 1994; 6 cadenze, vn, 1995; Il mulino di Amleto, pf, 1997
Principal publishers: Ricordi, Suvini Zerboni
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Cresti: Verso il 2000: Dizionario dei giovani compositori italiani (Naples,
1990), 56
D. Bertoldi and R. Cresti: Per una nuova storia della musica (Rome,
1994), 87
STEFANO A.E. LEONI
Gorlier, Simon
(fl Lyons, 1550–84). French music printer, bookseller, composer and
instrumentalist. In 1551 he prepared the third in a series of four books of
music for guitar printed in Paris by Robert Granjon and Michel Fezandat
(RISM 155122). In the dedication Gorlier wrote apologetically of the four-
course guitar and his reasons for composing for an inferior instrument,
saying that he wanted to show that it was as capable as larger instruments
of reproducing music in two or three parts. Besides being an ‘excellent
joueur’ on the guitar, as cited on the title-page, he evidently played the
spinet; in a pamphlet (now lost) concerning Loys Bourgeois’ Droict chemin
de musique (1550) Bourgeois called him ‘trougnon d’épinette’ (‘garbage of
the spinet’) and complained that he had not been educated in classical
languages and mathematics like the singer-composers in Lyons, Layolle
Roussel and Jambe de Fer.
Gorlier was granted a privilege for printing music on 17 February 1558, and
his name appears as a merchant bookseller in the Lyons archives until 7
June 1584. He published several books of music by himself and others in
Lyons between 1558 and 1562. Only two of these have survived, both
dating from 1560: La lyre chrestienne, with music by Antoine de Hauville,
and Premier livre de tablature de luth by Jean Paladin. The latter includes a
short instruction on lute intabulation by Gorlier. According to its colophon
Paladin’s tablature is a reissue of a printing by Jean Pullon de Trin (Lyons,
1553). A few other titles were attributed to Gorlier by the 16th-century
bibliographer Antoine du Verdier in 1585: music for flute in tablature, 1558;
for cittern in tablature, c1558; for spinet in tablature, 1560; for guitar in
tablature (possibly the Paris book), undated; and an undated book of
‘music for four or five parts, in five volumes, printed in Lyons’. Du Verdier
also cited Gorlier as the publisher of some ‘chansons et vaudevilles’ by
Alamanne de Layolle (1561) and of two books of tablature for lute by
‘Antoine-François Paladin, Milanois’ (1562). A catalogue compiled by the
publishers De Tournes in 1670 refers to the 1558 tablatures as ‘Chansons
récréatives pour la guitare & aultres instruments de musique’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (F. Lesure)
R. de Juvigny, ed.: Les bibliothèques françoises de La Croix du Maine et
de Du Verdier (Paris, 1772–3), iii, 42, 123, 132; v, 473
H. and J. Baudrier: Bibliographie lyonnaise (Lyons, 1895–1921/R), ii, 46–9
D. Heartz: ‘Parisian Music Printing under Henry II: a propos of Four
Recently Discovered Guitar Books’, MQ, xlvi (1960), 448–67
L. Guillo: Les éditions musicales de la Renaissance lyonnaise (Paris,
1991)
F. Dobbins: Music in Renaissance Lyons (Oxford, 1992)
SAMUEL F. POGUE/FRANK DOBBINS
Görner, Hans-Georg
(b Berlin, 23 April 1908; d Berlin,11 Feb 1984). German composer. From
1925 he studied at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik with W. Fischer
(organ), L. Schrattenholz (composition) and S. Ochs (choral conducting);
later he studied musicology at Berlin University with A. Schering and G.
Schünemann. He worked as a music teacher, concert organist and church
musician in Berlin, and founded the German Radio Chamber Choir and the
Berlin Kantorei. In 1945 he became music director of the Landeskirche in
Mecklenburg and a seminar chairman at the Schwerin State Conservatory;
in 1953 he was appointed lecturer, and in 1954 professor of composition at
the Halle Musikhochschule. He became a lecturer at the Institute for Music
Education at the East Berlin Humboldt University in 1956, becoming a
professor in 1969. In his preference for Baroque forms he stands close to
Reger; his brilliant orchestration is used to dramatic, and sometimes
humorous, effect. In his music and his aesthetic outlook he adhered to the
political views of the Nazi era and, later on, of East Germany.
WORKS
(selective list)
Orch: 2 syms., 1950, 1951; 2 suites, 1951, 1953; Die fromme Helene, burlesque
after W. Busch, 1953; Ostinato risoluto, 1955; Variations on ‘Ei du feiner Reiter’,
1955; Peter Schlemihl, ballet suite, 1956; Suite im alten Stil, 1956; Ragtime-
Sinfonietta, 1958; Concs. for hpd, 1959, vn, 1960, wind qnt, 1961, vc, 1963, fl,
1966; La grandiosa, sym. poem after J.R. Becher, 1967; Wind Sym., 1968
Chbr and inst: Concertino, 2 sax, pf, 1957; Chbr Conc., wind qnt, pf, 1957;
Variations on an Original Theme, vn, pf, 1957; Duo, cl, bn, with db, 1961;
Improvisation, Ostinato, Double Fugue, org, 1948; Klavier-Album, 1962; Fantasia
and Double Fugue on B–A–C–H, org, 1972; Toccata rullante, org, 1980
Choral music incl. Grosse Messe, 1949; Wartburg-Kantate, 1955; 2 Choralmotetten,
1956; 2 akademische Festmotetten, 1966
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Schinsky: ‘Drei Kompositionen von Hans Georg Görner: Analytische
Betrachtung’, MG, vii (1957), 455–9
W. Clemens: ‘Hans-Georg Görner’, Aus dem Leben und Schaffen unserer
Komponisten (Berlin, 1962), 75–8
ECKART SCHWINGER/LARS KLINGBERG
Gorodnitzki, Sascha
(b Kiev, 24 May 1904; d New York, 4 April 1986). American pianist and
teacher of Ukrainian birth. He came to the USA as a small child and was
brought up in New York. He studied the piano (with Edwin Hughes) and
composition (with Goetschius and Goldmark) at the Institute of Musical Art
(1919–23), and later was a pupil of Josef Lhévinne at the Juilliard School of
Music (1926–32). While still a student at the Juilliard he made his concert
début with the New York PO (1930) and gave his first recital, at Carnegie
Hall (1931), gaining early recognition as a virtuoso. Although he toured
extensively in the USA, Canada and Latin America in the 1930s and 40s,
championing the Romantic piano repertory, he devoted the greater part of
his career to teaching; through his summer masterclasses (1932–42) and
as professor (from 1948) at the Juilliard he contributed to the development
of several generations of distinguished pianists. He taught numerous
competition winners, helping launch the careers of artists such as
Emmanuel Ax and Garrick Ohlsson. In 1990 the University of California at
Los Angeles named the first prize of its piano competition after Gorodnitzki.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Kehler: The Piano in Concert, i (Metuchen, NJ, 1982), 477–9
D. Fredrickson: ‘Sascha Gorodnitzki: the Ultimate Teacher’, Clavier, xxii/3
(1983), 22–5
S. Gorodnitzki: ‘Sascha Gorodnitzki on Music’, Clavier, xxvii/10 (1988),
31–4
MINA F. MILLER
Górski, Władysław
(b Warsaw, 7 June 1846; d Lausanne, 7 Feb 1915). Polish violinist,
composer and teacher. He studied the violin in Warsaw with Studziński and
Baranowski, and with Apolinary Kątski at the Institute of Music. He was
taught theory and composition by Freyer and Moniuszko, and later by Kiel
in Berlin. In 1871 he became a soloist in the orchestra of the Wielki Theatre
in Warsaw, and from 1876 he was a professor at the Warsaw Institute of
Music where he taught the violin, and from 1879 to 1885 directed the
advanced violin class. Later he taught the violin in Lisbon, Paris, Montreux
and Lausanne; in Paris he also organized a chamber music interpretation
course (the so-called Leçons d’accompagnement) and played in the
Lamoureux Orchestra. Górski gave concerts in Poland, Germany, France,
the Netherlands and England (1902), achieving great success. He often
appeared with Stojowski, Nellie Melba and Paderewski – he took part in
Paderewski’s first Kraków concert in 1883.
Górski’s relatively small creative output includes several works for the violin
which are generally of a virtuoso character. He also wrote Praktyczna
szkoła na skrzypce (‘A practical violin tutor’, Warsaw, 1880–97) and other
‘practical tutors’ for violin, and a number of articles, reviews and reports of
musical life in Polish magazines, including the journal Słowo; he also
published some poetry.
WORKS
all for vn; lost unless otherwise stated
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PSB (W. Hordyński)
SMP
F. Hoesick: Dom rodzicielski [House of my fathers] (Kraków, 1935)
ZOFIA CHECHLIŃSKA
Gorton, William
(bur. Eastcheap, London, 21 Oct 1711). English composer. Gorton may
have acted as deputy for George Bingham in the King's Musick; he signed
for Bingham's liveries from 1689 to 1695 and was sworn in his
(surrendered) place on 4 April 1696. From perhaps June 1702 to his death
Gorton was organist of St Clement Eastcheap. In his Choice Collection of
New Ayres he styled himself ‘One of His Majesty's Private Musick and
Organist of the Parrish Church at Greenwich’.
Gorton's music is nothing out of the ordinary, but is competently written. His
solos and duets comprise sonatas or dance movements, while his string
pieces are mostly grouped into varied suites. These include several
character pieces (maggott, hornpipe, Scottish tunes and two ‘Sybel’s) and
are similar to theatrical suites of the time. He also published A View of the
First Rudiments of Musick (London, 1704).
WORKS
2 single songs, 1 catch, 3vv (London, c1700–05)
Song, S, 2 fl, bc; duet, S, B; catch, 3vv; catch, 4vv; 3 hymn settings: all GB-Lbl*
A Choice Collection of New Ayres, 12 for 2 b viols, 1 for solo b viol (London, 1701);
duets ed. D. Beecher and B. Gillingham, 12 Airs for 2 Bass Viols (Ottawa, 1979)
Ov. and 8 act tunes for The Humorous Lieutenant (J. Fletcher), str, Lcm
29 pieces, str, 24, a 4, 5, a 3, Lbl*, Lcm; 18 duets, 2 fl, Lbl*; 4 pieces, hpd, Lbl*
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AshbeeR, ii, v, viii
BDECM
DoddI
D. Dawe: Organists of the City of London 1666–1850 (Padstow, 1983)
ANDREW ASHBEE
Libro de intabulatura di liuto nel qualle si contengano 24 passa mezi 12 per bemolle
et 12 per bequadro sopra 12 chiave … con alcune napollitanae, 1567, D-Mbs
Mus.ms.1511a; ed. B. Tonazzi (Milan, 1975)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrownI
O. Chilesotti: Sulla melodia popolare del Cinquecento (Milan, 1889/R)
O. Chilesotti, ed.: Lautenspieler des XVI. Jahrhunderts/Liutisti del
Cinquecento (Leipzig, 1891/R)
O. Chilesotti: ‘Jacomo Gorzanis, liutista del Cinquecento’, RMI, xxi (1914),
86–96
H. Halbig: ‘Eine handschriftliche Lautentabulatur des Giacomo Gorzanis’,
Theodor Kroyer: Festschrift, ed. H. Zenck, H. Schultz and W.
Gerstenberg (Regensburg, 1933), 102–17
L.H. Moe: Dance Music in Printed Italian Lute Tablatures from 1507 to
1611 (diss., Harvard U., 1956)
G. Radole: ‘Giacomo Gorzanis, “leutonista et cittadino della magnifica città
di Trieste”’, Musikwissenschaftlicher Kongress: Vienna 1956, 525–30
G. Radole: ‘Musicisti a Trieste sul finire del Cinquecento e nei primi del
Seicento’, Archeografo triestino, 4th ser., xxii (1959), 133–61, esp. 140
G. Reichert: ‘Giacomo Gorzanis Intabolatura di Lauto (1567) als Dur- und
Molltonarten-Zyklus’, Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum sechzigsten
Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Regensburg, 1962), 428–38
A. Zecca-Laterza: Giacomo Gorzanis, liutista del Cinquecento (diss., U. of
Cremona, 1963)
J.M. Ward: ‘The Lute Books of Trinity College, Dublin’, LSJ, ix (1967), 17–
40; addns, xii (1970), 43–4
B. Tonazzi: ‘Il cinquecentista Giacomo Gorzanis, liutista e cittadino di
Trieste’, Il ‘Fronimo’, no.3 (1973), 6–21
I. El-Mallah: Die Pass’e mezzi und Saltarelli aus der Münchner
Lautenhandschrift von Jacomo Gorzanis (Bayerische Staatsbibliothek
Mus.Mss.1511a) (Tutzing, 1979)
ARTHUR J. NESS/R
Goscalch
(fl ?1385–95). French composer. He is known only by one ballade in the
Chantilly Manuscript (F-CH 564), the three-voice En nul estat (ed. in CMM,
liii/1, 1970; PMFC, xix, 1982). It recurs anonymously with slightly different
notation in the Reina manuscript (F-Pn n.a.fr.6771) as Car nul estat. Its
upper voice has a moralizing text dealing with deceit and trickery. Nors
Josephson was the first to solve most of the transcription problems of this
piece, certainly one of the most difficult and intricate works of the Ars
Subtilior, but Koehler arrived at a more convincing solution.
The idea that Goscalch could be an anagram for the composer Solage
must be rejected, for there are several possible identifications. Goscalch
might be identifiable with the author of a book on music comprising three
treatises which, according to the explicit in the 15th-century theory
manuscript I-CATc D 39, had been ‘compilati Parisius anno nativitatis
domini millesimo CCCO LXXXVO die xijO mensis januarii per eximium
doctorem Gostaltum francigenam’. But another copy of these texts in the
14th-century Berkeley Manuscript (US-BE 744) gives no name and a
different date: ‘MCCC Septuagesimo quinto die duodecima mensis
Ianuarii’. The information from Catania is therefore open to question.
As the Chantilly manuscript is the chief source for the secular works of the
papal singers Matheus de Sancto Johanne, Hasprois and Haucourt,
Goscalch may have been a member of the same chapel. A Petrus de
Godescalc can be traced in 1387 as ‘presbiter, servitor magistri capelle
pape’ and in 1394 as ‘presbiter, servitor capelle pape’. This would certainly
exclude his identity with the doctor Gostaltus from Paris. Even less
probable is the identity with either of the two German candidates proposed
by Hoppin and Clercx: Gotschalcus Wolenspeet (who died before 1374, too
early to have written the complex notation of En nul estat) and Wulgero
Goetschalc, clerk in Cologne in 1378.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R.H. Hoppin and S. Clercx: ‘Notes biographiques sur quelques musiciens
français du XIVe siècle’, L’Ars Nova: Wégimont II 1955, 63–92, esp. 78
F.A. Gallo: ‘La tradizione dei trattati musicali di Prosdocimo de
Beldemandis’, Quadrivium, vi (1964), 57–84, esp. 72
N. Wilkins: A Critical Edition of the French and Italian Texts and Music
Contained in the Codex Reina (diss., U. of Nottingham, 1964), ii, 248
R.L. Crocker: ‘A New Source for Medieval Music Theory’, AcM, xxxix
(1967), 161–71, esp. 163
O.B. Ellsworth: The Berkeley Manuscript (olim Phillipps 4450): a
Compendium of Fourteenth-Century Music Theory (diss., U. of
California, Berkeley, 1969), 214
W. Apel, ed.: French Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century,
CMM, liii/1 (1970), pp.xxi, xxxv, 63
N.S. Josephson: ‘Vier Beispiele der Ars Subtilior’, AMw, xxvii (1970), 41–
58, esp. 43, 51
J. Hirshberg: The Music of the Late Fourteenth Century (diss., U. of
Pennsylvania, 1971), 300
B. Schimmelpfennig: ‘Die päpstliche Kapelle in Avignon’, Quellen und
Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken, l (1971),
106
N.S. Josephson: ‘Die Konkordanzen zu “En nul estat” und “La harpe de
melodie”’, Mf, xxv (1972), 292–300, esp. 300
G. Greene, ed.: French Secular Music: Manuscript Chantilly, Musée
Condé 564, PMFC, xix (1982)
A. Tomasello: Music and Ritual at Papal Avignon 1309–1403 (Ann Arbor,
1983), 255
L. Koehler: Pythagoreisch-platonische Proportionen in Werken der Ars
Nova und Ars Subtilior (Kassel, 1990), i, 180–85; ii, 102–4
URSULA GÜNTHER
Göse, Bartholomäus.
See Gesius, Bartholomäus.
Gosier, tour de
(Fr.).
A type of turn. See Ornaments, §7.
Goslenus
(fl 1126–52). Cleric and composer. He was Bishop of Soissons and is
named as the author or composer of two pieces in the Codex Calixtinus (E-
SC; 12th century): the two-voice sequence Gratulantes celebremus festum
and the two-voice sections of Alleluia, Vocavit Ihesus Iacobum. As with
other attributions in the manuscript, such as that to Bishop Fulbert of
Chartres, this is disputed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H. van der Werf: ‘The Composition Alleluja Vocavit Jesus in the Book
named “Jacobus”’, De musica hispana et aliis: miscelánea en honor al
Prof. Dr José López-Calo, ed. E. Casares and C. Villanueva (Santiago
de Compostela, 1990), 197–210
H. van der Werf, ed.: The Oldest Extant Part Music and the Origins of
Western Polyphony (Rochester, NY, 1993)
GILBERT REANEY
Goslich, Siegfried
(b Stettin [now Szczecin], 7 Nov 1911; d Feldafing, 6 June 1990). German
conductor and musicologist. After spending his early years in Vienna, he
went to Berlin where he attended the university and the Musikhochschule,
studying conducting with Walther Gmeindl, stage direction with Carl
Hagemann and Richard Weichert, musicology with Schering, Schünemann,
Sachs and Moser and physics with Walter Nernst and Arthur Wehnelt; he
took the doctorate at the university in 1936 with a dissertation on the
history of German Romantic opera. During this time he served as
accompanist in the Lessing Museum Concerts, and in 1936 he became
orchestral adviser to the Verband für Volksmusik of the
Reichsmusikkammer and worked as a choir director. He was especially
active as music consultant in the adult education division (Deutsches
Volksbildungswerk) of the Nazi labour organization ‘Kraft durch Freude’. In
1945 he became head of the music department of Radio Weimar and
department head in the Weimar Musikhochschule and subsequently
(1948–58) held similar posts in Bremen. He was municipal director of
music for Remscheid and taught at the Cologne Musikhochschule (1958–
61) before being appointed head of the music department of Bavarian
Radio in Munich, where in 1964 he became professor of the broadcasting
department at the Munich Musikhochschule. As a conductor Goslich was
responsible for many first performances during the 1950s in the Bremen
RO Musica Viva concerts, and he toured numerous countries. He was also
an authority on the use and function of music in radio and television.
WRITINGS
‘Technische Musikwissenschaft’, Phonographische Zeitschrift, xxxiv (1933),
683ff
Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen romantischen Oper (diss., U. of
Berlin, 1936; Leipzig, 1937, enlarged 2/1975 as Die deutsche
romantische Oper)
‘Musikschulwerk’, Die Musik, xxxi (1938–9), 444–6
‘Volksmusik as Wertbegriff’, Deutsche Musikkultur, iii (1938–9), 283–91
‘Musikerziehung im Deutschen Volksbildungswerk’, Musik im Volk:
Grundfragen der Musikerziehung, ed. W. Stumme (Berlin, 1939), 122–
30; rev. in Musik im Volk: Gegenwartsfragen der deutschen Musik, ed.
W. Stumme (Berlin, 1944), 183–92
ed.: Musikalische Volksbildung (Hamburg, 1943)
‘Das Klangreich der elektronischen Musikinstrumente’, Das Musikleben, vi
(1953), 213–16
Funkprogramm und Musica Viva (Lippstadt, 1961)
‘Strawinsky und die Objektivität der Wiedergabe’, Vergleichende
Interpretationskunde: Darmstadt 1962, 41–8
Die Emanzipation der Klangelemente (Massstäbe zur Beurteilung
moderner Musik) (Bremen, 1967); repr. in Universitas, xxiv (1969),
615–28
Willy Spilling: Leben und Werk eines fränkischen Komponisten 1909–1965
(Tutzing, 1968)
‘Das Orchesterschaffen Johann Nepomuk Davids’, Ex Deo nascimur:
Festschrift … Johann Nepomuk David, ed. G. Sievers (Wiesbaden,
1970), 115–25
ed., with K. Blaukopf and W. Scheib: 50 Jahre Musik im Hörfunk (Vienna,
1973)
Das Dirigieren (Wilhelmshaven, 1975)
Further articles in Studium und Beruf, Der Musikerzieher, Das Musikleben,
Musica, Rundfunk und Musikerziehung
ALFRED GRANT GOODMAN/PAMELA M. POTTER
Gospel
(Gk. evangelion; Lat. evangelium etc.).
In Eastern and Western Christian liturgies, the final biblical lesson in the
Liturgy of the Word, or pre-eucharistic synaxis (see Mass, §1). It was
traditionally chanted by a deacon to a recitation tone that was normally
simple but occasionally subject to elaboration.
1. History.
2. The Latin liturgical books transmitting the Gospels.
3. The music.
MICHEL HUGLO, JAMES McKINNON
Gospel
1. History.
The first section of the Eucharist in all the ancient liturgies contains a series
of lessons concluding with one from the Gospels. The Gospel, because it
bore direct witness to the life and teaching of Christ, was accorded a place
of pre-eminence, underlined by an elaboration of ceremonies at the point
where it occurs: for example, the book containing the Gospel was carried in
solemn procession from the altar to the ambo from which it was read. Such
a procession, with lighted candles, was already attested by St Jerome (d
420). The procession came eventually to be accompanied by a chant: an
antiphona ante evangelium in the Gallican rite and at certain festivals in the
Ambrosian rite; an alleluia with verse, followed by a prosa or sequence in
the Roman rite; or a monophonic conductus. (Although the texts of the
chants are not always clearly related to those of the Gospels, the psalm
verses originally sung with the alleluias of Easter week were gradually
replaced by verses from the Gospels of the Easter cycle, though not
always those of the day.)
There were no readings from the Gospels in the earliest eucharistic
celebrations for the simple reason that the books were not written until near
the end of the 1st century. The earliest description of a pre-eucharistic
synaxis, however, that of Justin Martyr (d c165), refers to both Gospel and
Old Testament readings: ‘the memoirs of the Apostles and the writings of
the Prophets are read as long as time permits’ (First Apology, 67). It is not
known precisely when the Gospel achieved its fixed position as an
obligatory reading at the end of the pre-eucharistic series, but it clearly
occupies this place in a wealth of 4th-century patristic references, both
Eastern and Western.
At one time it was believed that in the early Church the Gospel was read
according to the system of lectio continua or scriptura currens, that is, the
resumption of the reading of a text from the point where it had been
discontinued at the previous service. Liturgical historians are now more
inclined to look upon such a practice as more appropriate to an
instructional gathering than to the Eucharist. Certainly the 4th-century
literature provides little evidence of lectio continua but rather creates the
impression that the choice of Gospel each day was at the discretion of the
presiding bishop.
With the passage of time certain readings became traditional for certain
dates, particularly the major festivals, a practice that developed along with
the growth of the liturgical year, although the lack of early sources makes
the process difficult to trace, especially at Rome. Finally, however, a series
of 42 homilies on the Gospel of the day preached by Gregory the Great
(590–604) establish the late 6th-century Roman Gospels for the 42
liturgical occasions in question. These Gospels can be compared with
those of the so-called π-type of Roman evangeliary from about 645 (see
Klauser); the Gospels of this book, the earliest complete Roman
evangeliary that can be reconstructed, are largely the same as the
standard medieval readings. The comparison shows that by Gregory’s
time, the Gospels for many of the important dates of the Temporale were
fixed but that most of those for ordinary Sundays and for sanctoral dates
were not.
Gospels were chosen, whenever possible, by the obvious expedient of
liturgical appropriateness; thus the Gospel for the night-time Mass of
Christmas is Luke ii.1–14, where the birth of Jesus is narrated, and the
Gospel for Quadragesima Sunday is Matthew iv.1–11, which tells of
Jesus’s 40-day fast in the desert. Other factors could enter in when there
was no clear choice available: the Roman stations (see Rome, §II, 1), for
example, determined the Gospel of some Lenten weekdays, and the
proximity of certain sanctoral dates had a similar effect on a few of the
post-Pentecostal Sundays.
Gospel
2. The Latin liturgical books transmitting the Gospels.
Three methods were employed to record the choice of Gospels in Latin
manuscripts (Roman and non-Roman alike): the use of marginal markings
in Gospel books or Bibles; the provision of lists of readings with their
incipits and explicits; the readings were given in full. These three methods
conform to a broad chronological continuum if not an absolute one; they
existed together for several centuries during the early Middle Ages.
The first method, that of marginal markings, was introduced at a time when
the selection of liturgical readings was still fluid and scriptural books
continued to be employed as liturgical books. The beginning of a reading
would be indicated by an ‘X’ or cross in the margin, while much less often
its ending would also be marked, for example, by the letter ‘F’.
Lists of readings were referred to as capitularia, that is, lists of capitula
(chapters). These came into common use as the annual cycle of Gospels
became both longer and more stable. A typical listing gave the festival, the
Roman station (see Rome, §II, 1), and the incipit and explicit of the
reading; for example, the indication for night-time Mass of Christmas might
read: In natale domini ad scam Mariam maiorem. Scd. Luc. Cap. III. ‘Exiit
edictum a Caesare Augusto’ usq. ‘Pax hominibus bonae voluntatis’. Luc.
Cap. III, the equivalent of the later Luke ii.1–14, is a reference to the so-
called Eusebian sections or canons, an ancient sectionalization of the
Gospels that was in use long before the medieval system of chapters and
verses. Capitularia were generally added at the end of a Gospel book or
Bible. The book might already have marginal indications, and in many
cases the later capitularia gave readings that differed from those indicated
by the marginal markings.
A book providing the complete readings was rare at first, something of a
luxury for the average church, but by the later Middle Ages it had become
the preferred type. It is generally referred to today as an evangeliary; when
combined with the book of Epistles (the epistolary), as was often the case
in later centuries, it is called a lectionary. In earlier centuries a book with
complete readings of either Gospels or Epistles was sometimes called a
comes (‘companion’).
Gospel
3. The music.
(i) Simple recitation tones.
The Roman gradual of 1907 prescribed two ways of chanting the Gospel: a
simple tone (with a variant) and another, ‘ancient’ tone. The simple tone
consists of an unvarying recitation on a monotone C with a single inflection
on the fifth syllable from the end (ex.1). Its optional variant permits further
inflections at cadences (at the end of a sentence) or half-cadences, and a
slightly more elaborate final cadence (ex.2). Ex.3 shows the structure of the
‘ancient’ tone. (On variants in Italian manuscripts, see MGG1, iii, 1619–20.)
(ii) The chant of the Christmas and Epiphany genealogies.
The genealogy of Christ was sung, either at Matins or at the end of Mass,
according to Matthew i.1–16 on Christmas night, and to Luke iv.23–8 at
Epiphany. The St Matthew genealogy contains three series of 14 names
(see Matthew i.17), in groups of three or four according to the different
traditional tones. Even in the oldest evangeliaries, some of the St Matthew
genealogies were notated with neumes, for example, in the 9th-century
Gospels of Noyon Cathedral, the 9th-century Gospels of Avesgaud, copied
at Tours (F-Pn lat.261, f.19v), the 9th-century Gospels of Corbie (Pn
lat.11958, f.14r; see fig.1) and the 10th-century Gospels of St Denis (Pn
n.a.lat.305).
Many manuscripts contain this genealogy notated diastematically (missals,
breviaries and evangeliaries; see the facsimiles cited by Bernard). Several
tones may be distinguished: one with F as final, four with D as final and 14
with E as final; the official version of the Vatican edition is one of the latter
group. (The final may vary at the end of the genealogy; for variants, see
MGG1, iii, 1623–5.) This genealogy was sometimes performed by three
readers, occasionally in polyphony (see (v) below).
The St Luke genealogy is arranged differently from the St Matthew:
Matthew traces Christ’s ancestors to Abraham, whereas Luke goes back to
the Creation, and in the reverse order. The names are often copied in
columns in the liturgical books, rather than in long lines, and are
sometimes provided with neumes: for example, B-Br 18723 (9th century,
from Xanten); F-LM 76 (10th century, from La Couture); Pn lat.270, f.70v
(9th century, from the school of Corbie); Pn lat.8849 (c830, from Salzburg;
lacking neumes); Pn lat.11956, f.110v (9th century, from Noyon); Psg 1190,
f.105 (see Bernard, i, pl.ix); GB-Lbl Add.9381 (9th or 10th century, from St
Petroc).
In the manuscripts with diastematic notation, eight distinct tones survive,
some with D and some with E as final (for examples, see MGG1, iii, 1625–
7).
(iii) The monophonic Passion.
The Passions, sung in Holy Week, were provided with so-called
significative letters during the late 8th century. These guided the (originally
single) reciter as to the nuances of performance: the rapidity (marked c,
‘celeriter’) of the narrative as against the majestic slowness (t, ‘tarde’,
‘trahere’) of the words of Christ. Other letters indicated various nuances. A
division occurred later between manuscripts from Germanic areas and
those from Romance-speaking countries, the former using the letter a
(‘alte’) for the words of the disciples and the Jews, and the latter s
(‘sursum’) for the same purpose (see Passion, §1). Later these letters were
interpreted to signify a division of the chant between three deacons.
From the 12th century the music appeared in diastematic notation. Its
traditional tone is known from two 12th-century manuscripts with alphabetic
notation – F-Pn lat.11958, ff.75–82 (from Corbie; see Passion, §1, fig.2)
and RS 259 (from Reims) – and approximately 30 other manuscripts with
notation on lines, the oldest of which date from the 12th century – F-CA 50
and 65, and DOU 93 and 95.
The Passion tone contains three different reciting notes: the narrative and
all indirect speech are sung on a central reciting note, the words of Christ a
5th lower, and other direct speech a 4th higher. The final sections of the
four Passions, recounting the burial of Jesus, were, however, normally
sung to the usual Gospel tone (‘sicut evangelium’, F-LNs 126, and D-TRs
27; ‘sub tono evangelii’, Sl Brev.144; ‘legitur sicut evangelium’, TRs 28).
For these sections, A-Z 407, dated 1584, provided the source for the
Vatican edition of the Passions.
Some of the words of Christ in the Passions are given elaborate melismatic
treatment, such as his last words, ‘Pater, in manus tuas’, which in the
Gospels of Glandèves (F-Pn lat.325, f.178) are decorated with neumes.
The words ‘Eli Eli lama sabachthani’ (Matthew xxvii.46) are often extended
in this way in the early manuscripts: D-Mbs Clm.3005 (11th-century
addition to a 9th-century manuscript); E-Mah 18 (11th or 12th century); F-
CO 443 (11th century); ME 452 (11th or 12th century); Pn lat.258, f.53v
(11th-century neumes in a 9th-century manuscript); Pn lat.326, f.45 (12th
century); Pn lat.9391, f.51v (10th or 11th century); I-Mt D.127 (11th
century); NON, ff.161, 171 (11th century); and VEcap CV(98), f.160v.
However, these melismas seldom appear in diastematic notation in 12th-
century manuscripts, for example, I-MC Q.318, p.278 and US-NYpm
M.379, f.94 (facs. in AnnM, vi, 1958–63, p.15, pl.iv). Some central Italian
manuscripts contain a long melisma on this word, for example I-Rv C.105,
f.152 and Rvat S Pietro E.II (see also the Dominican processional). (For
further details of the monophonic Passion, and for the polyphonic Passion,
see Passion.)
(iv) Other ornate Gospel tones.
In some 10th- and 11th-century manuscripts a number of other Gospels
were treated in a more ornate manner than usual: for example, the Gospel
for the Third Mass of Christmas (John i) in Pa 206, f.2v (from Metz), Pn
lat.263, f.89v (from Tours) and Pn lat.266 (Gospels of Lotharius), f.172v
(see fig.2); the Gospel for St Stephen’s Day (26 December, or ‘Feast of the
Deacons’) in Pa 612, ff.3–3v (from St Etienne de Metz), Pn lat.11960, f.65v
(from Toul); and the Gospels of St John’s Day (27 December) and the Holy
Innocents (28 December). These festivals of the Christmas cycle have
special Gospel tones in the Moosburg Gradual (D-Mu 2o 156, ff.227ff) and
a Bamberg lectionary (BAs lit.45, ff.2–3v).
The Easter Gospel was provided with elaborate neumes in F-Pn lat.260,
f.107 (the Aquitanian neumes were added at St Martial de Limoges to this
9th-century manuscript, originally from Tours), and in Pn lat.13251, f.32 (an
11th-century lectionary from St Germain-des-Prés). A special melody for
the Gospel of the feast of Dedication is given in diastematic notation in D-
FUl Aa.71 (reproduced in MGG1, iii, 1624). The manuscript F-Pn lat.9387
has Gospels in Greek for St Denis’s Day (9 October: f.157v), and for
Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Dedication festival, with notation in
imitation of Greek lectionary (ekphonetic) notation, besides the Latin
pericopes (see Huglo, p.80).
In 1296 the Council of Grado prohibited the use of ornate melodies for the
Gospels of these festivals and others such as the ‘Feast of Fools’ (1
January) and the Assumption (15 August) (see C.H. Héfélé and D.H.
Leclercq: Histoire des conciles, iv, Paris, 1911), retaining only the special
chant of the genealogies, and of the Gospel chanted for the first time by a
newly ordained deacon.
(v) Polyphonic Gospels.
Polyphony was occasionally applied to the Gospel – more particularly to
the genealogy and Passion – as to the Epistle, as a means of rendering it
more ornate and solemn. Thus in B-TO 17 the conclusion of the genealogy
(‘de qua natus est Jesus qui vocatur Christus’) was notated in the margin
for three voices, with a vocalise on the word ‘Christus’. In F-Pm 438 (facs.
in Bernard, ii, pls.xiii–xvi; Göllner, i, pp.107ff), the genealogy is divided
among three singers who each sing a verse and then the fourth verse in
polyphony; this arrangement also occurs in B-Br 3950 (14th century), with
the difference that the singers sing each fourth verse ‘pariter’, that is, in
unison. In the latter manuscript the three parts are notated in void notation,
and the final verse is sung in polyphony as in TO 17. The polyphonic
genealogy enjoyed great popularity in east Germany and Bohemia (lists of
manuscripts in MGG1, iii, 1628, and Göllner, i, pp.107ff).
In a similar fashion the reading of Isaiah at Christmas was sung in
polyphony, as, in German-speaking areas, were the standard introduction
to the Gospel and certain pericopes for important festivals such as the
Dedication and the Visitation of the BVM (2 July). (For the polyphonic
Passion tradition, see Passion, §§2–7.)
See also Epistle.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (‘Evangelium’; B. Stäblein, C. Mahrenholz)
MGG2 (M. Huglo, J. Stalmann)
S. Beissel: Entstehung der Perikopen des römischen Messbuches
(Freiburg, 1907)
K. Young: ‘Observations on the Origin of the Medieval Passion-Play’,
Publications of the Modern Language Association, xxv (1910), 309–54
G. Godu: ‘Evangiles’, Dictionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie,
ed. F. Cabrol and H. Leclercq, v/1 (Paris, 1922)
H. Leclercq: ‘Evangéliaires’, ibid., 775–845
R.-J. Hesbert: ‘La liturgie bénéventaine dans la tradition manuscrite’, Le
codex 10673 de la Bibliothèque vaticane, Pal Mus, xiv (1931–6/R),
60–465
W.H. Frere: Studies in Early Roman Liturgy, ii: The Roman Lectionary
(London, 1934)
T. Klauser: Das römische Capitulare Evangeliorum: Texte und
Untersuchungen zu seiner ältesten Geschichte, i: Typen (Münster,
1935, 2/1972)
A. Dold: Vom Sakramentar, Comes und Capitulare zum Voll-Missale
(Beuron, 1943)
J.A. Jungmann: Missarum sollemnia: eine genetische Erklärung der
römischen Messe (Vienna, 1948, 5/1962; Eng. trans., 1951–5/R as
The Mass of the Roman Rite)
G. Willis: St. Augustine’s Lectionary (London, 1962)
M. Bernard: Répertoire de manuscrits médiévaux contenant des notations
musicales, i: Bibliothèque Ste. Geneviève (Paris, 1965), pls.vii, ix, xx
M. Bernard: Répertoire de manuscrits médiévaux contenant des notations
musicales, ii: Bibliothèque Mazarine (Paris, 1966), pls.xi–xvi
M. Huglo: ‘Les chants de la Missa greca de Saint Denis’, Essays
Presented to Egon Wellesz, ed. J. Westrup (Oxford, 1966), 74–83
C. Vogel: Introduction aux sources de l’histoire du culte chrétien au Moyen
Age (Spoleto, 1966/R; Eng. trans., rev., 1986, as Medieval Liturgy: an
Introduction to the Sources)
T. Göllner: Die mehrstimmigen liturgischen Lesungen (Tutzing, 1969)
A.G. Martimort: ‘Origine et signification de l’alleluia de la messe romaine’,
Kyriakon: Festschrift Johannes Quasten, ed. P. Granfeld and J.A.
Jungmann, ii (Münster, 1970), 811–34
F. van de Paverd: Zur Geschichte der Messliturgie in Antiocheia und
Konstantinopel gegen Ende des vierten Jahrhunderts (Rome, 1970)
A. Zwinggi: ‘Die fortlaufende Schriftlesung im Gottesdienst bei
Augustinus’, Archiv für Liturgiewissenschaft, xii (1970), 85–129
A. Zwinggi: ‘Der Wortgottesdienst bei Augustinus’, Liturgisches JB, xx
(1970), 92–113, 129–40, 250–53
M. Bernard: Répertoire de manuscrits médiévaux contenant des notations
musicales, iii: Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal et petites bibliothèques (Paris,
1974), 234, pls.xxvi, xlvii
A. Chavasse: ‘L’evangéliaire romain de 645 – un recueil: sa composition,
façons et matériaux’, Revue bénédictine, xci (1982), 33–75
A. Hughes: Medieval Manuscripts for Mass and Office: a Guide to their
Organization and Terminology (Toronto, 1982)
A.G. Martimort: ‘A propos du nombre des lectures à la messe’, Revue des
sciences religieuses, lviii (1984), 42–51
A. Chavasse: ‘Après Grégoire le Grand: l’organisation des évangéliaires,
au VIIe et VIIIe siècle’, Rituels: mélanges offerts au Père Gy O.P., ed.
P. de Clerck and E. Palazzo (Paris, 1990), 125–30
J. McKinnon: ‘Antoine Chavasse and the Dating of Early Chant’, PMM, i
(1992), 123–47
A.G. Martimort: Les lectures liturgiques et leurs livres (Turnhout, 1992)
G.G. Willis: A History of Early Roman Liturgy (London, 1994)
Gospel hymnody.
See Gospel music, §I.
Gospel music.
A large body of American religious song with texts that reflect aspects of
the personal religious experience of Protestant evangelical groups, both
white and black. Such songs first appeared in religious revivals during the
1850s but they are more closely associated with the urban revivalism that
arose in the last third of the 19th century. Gospel music has gained a place
in the hymnals of most American Protestants and, through missionary
activity, has spread to churches on every continent. By the middle of the
20th century it had also become a distinct category of popular song,
independent of religious association, with its own supporting publishing and
recording firms, and performers appearing in concerts. Although earlier
uses of the terms ‘gospel hymn’ and ‘gospel song’ can be found, their use
in referring to this body of song can be traced to P.P. Bliss’s Gospel Songs
(1874) and Gospel Hymns and Sacred Songs (1875) by Bliss and Ira D.
Sankey. Other terms sometimes used include ‘gospel music’ and simply
‘gospel’.
I. White gospel music
II. Black gospel music
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HARRY ESKEW/JAMES C. DOWNEY (I), H.C. BOYER (II)
Gospel music
Gospel music
See also Latin america, §III, 4; Shape-note hymnody; Soul music; and
United States of America, §II, 2.
Gospel music
BIBLIOGRAPHY
collections
R. Allen: A Collection of Spiritual Songs and Hymns Selected from Various
Authors by Richard Allen, African Minister (Philadelphia, 1801, 8/1954
asA.M.E. Hymnal)
L. Mason: The Juvenile Psalmist (Boston, 1829)
W.B. Bradbury: Bradbury's Golden Chain and Shower (New York, 1863)
P. Phillips: Hallowed Songs (Cincinnati, 1865)
W.F. Allen, C.P. Ware and L.M.K. Garrison: Slave Songs of the United
States (New York, 1867/R)
P. Phillips: American Sacred Songster (London, 1868)
R. Lowry and W.H. Doane: Pure Gold (New York, 1871)
I.D. Sankey: Sacred Songs and Solos (London, 1873) [texts only]
P.P. Bliss and D.W. Whittle: Gospel Songs (Cincinnati, 1874)
R. Lowry and W.H. Doane: Brightest and Best (New York, 1875)
P.P. Bliss and I.D. Sankey: Gospel Hymns and Sacred Songs (New York,
1875–6) [vol.ii titled Gospel Hymns]
T.C. O'Kane, C.C. M'Cabe and J.R. Sweney: Joy to the World (Cincinnati,
1878)
I.D. Sankey, J. McGranahan and G.C. Stebbins : Gospel Hymns, iii–vi
(New York, 1878–91)
R. Lowry and W.H. Doane: Gospel Hymn and Tune Book (Philadelphia,
1879)
M.W. Taylor: A Collection of Revival Hymns and Plantation Melodies
(Cincinnati, 1883)
D.B. Towner: Special Edition of Hymns New and Old (New York and
Chicago, 1887)
I.D. Sankey and G.C. Stebbins: Male Chorus no.1 (Chicago and New
York, 1888)
W.H. Sherwood: The Harp of Zion (Petersburg, VA, 1893)
H. Date and others: Pentecostal Hymns nos.1 and 2 Combined (Chicago,
1894)
I.D. Sankey, J. McGranahan and G.C. Stebbins: Gospel Hymns nos.1–6
Complete (New York, 1894/R)
W.D. Kirkland, J. Atkins and W.J. Kirkpatrick: The Young People's
Hymnal (Nashville, TN, 1897)
C.A. Tindley: Soul Echoes (Philadelphia, 1905)
H.A. Rodeheaver and C.H. Gabriel: Great Revival Hymns (Chicago and
Philadelphia, c1912)
C.M. Alexander: Alexander's Hymns no.3 (New York, 1915)
H.A. Rodeheaver and C.H. Gabriel: Awakening Songs (Chicago and
Philadelphia, c1918)
Gospel Pearls, ed. Sunday School Publishing Board (Nashville, TN, 1921)
E.S. Lorenz, I.B. Wilson and H. von Berge: New Gospel Quartets for
Men's Voices (Dayton, OH, New York and Chicago, 1923)
H.H. Todd: The Cokesbury Hymnal (Nashville, TN, 1923)
W.A. Townsend: The Baptist Standard Hymnal (Nashville, TN, 1924)
E. Boatner and W.A. Townsend: Spirituals Triumphant Old and New
(Nashville, TN, 1927)
I.H. Presley: Pentecostal Holiness Hymnal (Franklin Springs, GA, 1938)
B.B. McKinney: Broadman Hymnal (Nashville, TN, 1940)
H. Rodeheaver, G.W. Sanville and B.D. Ackley: Church Service Hymns
(Winona Lake, IN, 1948)
C.N. Nelson: Youth Sings (Mound, MN, 1951)
C. Barrows: Billy Graham Crusade Songs (Minneapolis, 1957)
J.W. Peterson: Crowning Glory Hymnal (Grand Rapids, MI, 1964)
A. Crouch and the Disciples: Keep on Singin' (Waco, TX, 1972)
B. Gaither and G.Gaither: Let’s Just Praise the Lord (Alexandria, IN, and
Nashville, TN, 1974)
R.L. Davis and others: The New National Baptist Hymnal (Nashville, TN,
1977)
J.J. Cleveland and V. Nix: Songs of Zion (Nashville, TN, 1981)
I.V. Jackson-Brown: Lift Every Voice and Sing (New York, 1981)
G. Ross and M.M.Clark: Yes, Lord! (Memphis, 1982)
white gospel music
General
L.F. Benson: ‘The Offset: the “Gospel Hymn”’, The English Hymn (London,
1915/R), 482–92
E.H. Pierce: ‘“Gospel Hymns” and their Tunes’, MQ, xxvi (1940), 355–64
B.L. Riddle: Gospel Song and Hymn Playing (Nashville, TN, 1950)
C.E. Gold: A Study of the Gospel Song (diss., U. of Southern
California,1953)
M.L. McKissick: A Study of the Function of Music in the Major Religious
Revivals in America since 1875 (diss., U of Southern California, 1957)
E.K. Emurian: Forty True Stories of Famous Gospel Songs (Natick, MA,
1959)
W.G. McLoughlin: Modern Revivalism (New York, 1959)
E. Peach: The Gospel Song: its Influences on Christian Hymnody (diss.,
Wayne State U., 1960)
L. Gentry: A History and Encyclopedia of Country, Western and Gospel
Music (Nashville, TN, 1961/R, enlarged 2/1969)
W.J. Reynolds: Hymns of our Faith (Nashville, TN, 1964)
‘The World of Religious Music’, Billboard, lxxvii (23 Oct 1965)
J.C. Downey: ‘Revivalism, the Gospel Song and Social Reform’, EthM, ix
(1965), 115–25
W.J. Reynolds: A Survey of Christian Hymnody (New York, 1965)
J.C. Downey: The Music of American Revivalism 1740–1800 (diss., Tulane
U., 1968)
D. Crawford: ‘Gospel Songs in Court: from Rural Music to Urban Industry
in the 1950s’, Journal of Popular Culture, xi (1977–8), 551–67
C. Wolfe: Tennessee Strings (Knoxville, TN, 1977)
S.S. Sizer: Gospel Hymns and Social Religion: the Rhetoric of Nineteenth-
Century Revivalism (Philadelphia, 1978)
R. Anderson and G. North: Gospel Music Encyclopedia (New York, 1979)
J.C. Downey: ‘Mississippi Music: that Gospel Sound’, Sense of Place:
Mississippi, ed. P.W. Prenshaw and J.O. McKee (Jackson, MS, 1979)
H. Eskew and H.T. McElrath: Sing with Understanding (Nashville, TN,
1980)
M.R. Wilhoit: A Guide to the Principal Authors and Composers of Gospel
Song in the Nineteenth Century (diss., Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary, 1982)
M. Burnim: ‘Gospel Music: Review of the Literature’, Music Educators
Journal, lxix/9 (1982–3), 58–61
V.A. Cross: The Development of Sunday School Hymnody in the United
States of America, 1816–1869 (diss., New Orleans Baptist Theological
Seminary, 1985)
Biographical
E.J. Goodspeed: The Wonderful Career of Moody and Sankey in Great
Britain and America (New York, 1876)
D.W. Whittle, ed.: Memoirs of Philip P. Bliss (New York, 1877)
P. Phillips: Song Pilgrimage Around and Throughout the World (New York,
1882)
G.F. Root: The Story of a Musical Life (Cincinnati, 1891/R)
F.J. Crosby: Memories of Eighty Years (Boston, 1906, 2/1908)
I.D. Sankey: My Life and the Story of the Gospel Hymns (Philadelphia,
1907/R)
J.H. Hall: Biography of Gospel Song and Hymn Writers (New York, 1914)
H.C. Alexander and J.K. Maclean: Charles M. Alexander (London, 1921)
G.C. Stebbins: Reminiscences and Gospel Hymn Stories (New York,
1924/R)
H.A. Rodeheaver: Twenty Years with Billy Sunday (Nashville, TN, 1936)
The Ira D. Sankey Centenary: Proceedings of the Centenary Celebration of
the Birth of Ira D. Sankey together with some Hitherto Unpublished
Sankey Correspondence (New Castle, PA, 1941)
C. Ludwig: Sankey Still Sings (Anderson, IN, 1947)
R.M. Stevenson: ‘Ira D. Sankey and the Growth of “Gospel Hymnody”’,
Patterns of Protestant Church Music (Durham, NC, 1953/R), 151–62
W.G. McLoughlin: Billy Sunday was his Real Name (Chicago, 1955)
W.G. McLoughlin: Billy Graham, Revivalist in a Secular Age (New York,
1960)
J.C. Pollock: Moody (New York, 1963)
J.R. Baxter and V. Polk: Gospel Song Writers Biography (Dallas, 1971)
G.W. Stansbury: The Music of the Billy Graham Crusades, 1947–1970
(diss., Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1971)
J.W. Peterson and R. Engquist: The Miracle Goes On (Grand Rapids, MI,
1976)
black gospel music
General
J.W. Work: ‘Changing Patterns in Negro Folk Song’, Journal of American
Folklore, lxii (1949), 136–44
G.R. Ricks: Some Aspects of the Religious Music of the United States
Negro: an Ethnomusicological Study with Special Emphasis on the
Gospel Tradition (diss., Northwestern U., 1960)
H.C. Boyer: The Gospel Song: a Historical and Analytical Study (thesis,
Eastman School, 1964)
J.O. Patterson, G.R. Ross and J.M. Atkins: History and Formative Years
of the Church of God in Christ (Memphis, 1969)
P. Williams-Jones: ‘Afro-American Gospel Music: a Brief Historical and
Analytical Survey, 1920–1970’, Development of Materials for a One
Year Course in African Music for General Undergraduate Student, ed.
V.E. Butcher (Washington DC, 1970), 199–239
V. Synan: The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement (Grand Rapids, MI, 1971)
J. Lovell: Black Song: the Forge and the Flame (New York, 1972)
H.C. Boyer: ‘An Overview: Gospel Music Comes of Age’, Black World,
xxiii/1 (1973–4), 42–8, 79–86
J.R. Washington: Black Sects and Cults: the Power Axis in an Ethnic
Ethic (New York, 1973)
R.M. Raichelson: Black Religious Folksong: a Study of Generic and Social
Change (diss., U. of Pennsylvania, 1975)
P. Williams-Jones: ‘Afro-American Gospel Music: a Crystallization of the
Black Aesthetic’, EthM, xix (1975), 373
I.V. Jackson-Brown: ‘Afro-American Sacred Song in the Nineteenth
Century: a Neglected Source’, BPM, iv (1976), 22
L. Levine: Black Culture and Black Consciousness (New York, 1977)
R. Anderson and G. North: Gospel Music Encyclopedia (New York, 1979)
I.V. Jackson: Afro-American Religious Music: a Bibliography and
Catalogue of Gospel Music (Westport, CT, 1979)
W.T. Walker: Somebody's Calling my Name (Valley Forge, PA, 1979)
A. Heilbut: ‘New Signs on the Gospel Highway’, The Nation, [New York]
ccxxx/18 (10 May 1980); repr. as ‘The Secularization of Black Gospel
Music’, Folk Music and Modern Sound, ed. W. Ferris and M.L. Hart
(Jackson, MS, 1982), 101–15
M.W. Harris: The Rise of Gospel Blues: the Music of Thomas Andrew
Dorsey in the Urban Church (New York, 1992)
B.J. Reagon: We'll Understand it Better By and By: Pioneering African
American Gospel Composers (Washington DC, 1992)
H.C. Boyer: How Sweet the Sound: the Golden Age of Gospel
(Montgomery, AL, 1995/R)
V. Broughton: Too Close to Heaven: the Illustrated History of Gospel
Music (London, 1996)
Performance
A.H. Fausett: Black Gods of the Metropolis (Philadelphia, 1944)
S.C. Drake and H. Cayton: ‘A Joyful Noise unto the Lord’, Black
Metropolis: a Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York, 1945,
3/1993), 622–7
W.H. Tallmadge: ‘Dr. Watts and Mahalia Jackson: the Development,
Decline and Survival of a Folk Style in America’, EthM, v (1961), 95–9
J. Godrich and R.M.W. Dixon: Blues and Gospel Records 1902–1942
(Hatch End, nr London, 1963, enlarged 3/1982 as Blues and Gospel
Records 1902–1943) [discography]
C.J. Hayes: ‘The Gospel Scene: the Post War Gospel Records’, Blues
Unlimited, nos.3–68 (1963–9)
E.F. Frazier: The Negro Church in America (New York, 1964)
P. Oliver: Spirituals and Gospel Songs (Milan, 1968)
W.H. Tallmadge: ‘The Responsorial and Antiphonal Practice in Gospel
Song’, EthM, xii (1968), 219–38
B.A. Rosenberg: The Art of the American Folk Preacher (New York, 1970)
T. Heilbut: The Gospel Sound: Good News and Bad Times (New York,
1971, 3/1985)
E. Southern: ‘Musical Practices in Black Churches of Philadelphia and
New York, ca. 1800–1844’, JAMS, xxx (1977), 296–312
S. Barber: The Choral Style of the Wings over Jordan Choir (diss., U. of
Cincinnati, 1978)
K.L. Rubman: From ‘Jubilee’ to ‘Gospel’ in Black Male Quartet Singing
(thesis, U. of North Carolina, 1980)
I.V. Jackson-Brown: ‘Developments in Black Gospel Performance and
Scholarship’, Black Music Research Journal, x (1990), 36–42
D. Seroff: ‘On the Battlefield: Gospel Quartets in Jefferson County,
Alabama’, Repercussions: a Celebration of Afro-American Music, ed.
G. Haydon and D. Marks (London, 1985), 30–35
Göss, Bartholomäus.
See Gesius, Bartholomäus.
A Collection of [6] Glees and a Madrigal (1826), incl. Ossian's Hymn to the Sun,
There is beauty on the mountains, The Sycamore Shade
The Serjeant's Wife (musical drama, J. Banim), London, Lyceum, 24 July 1827,
sketches, GB-Lbl, selections (c1827)
2 overtures, f, E , Philharmonic Society, 1827
Requiem motet, e, 6vv (1827)
Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis, E, 1854 (1866)
2 Te Deum, 1857, 1872
45 anthems, listed in Edwards, incl. God so loved the world (1851); If we believe
(1852); Praise the Lord, O my soul, 1854; Almighty and merciful God (1859); The
Wilderness, 1862; Lift thine eyes, 1863; O Saviour of the World, 1869 (1877); The
Lord is my strength, 1872
6 Services, Burial Service, cited in Edwards
Goss-Custard, Reginald
(b St Leonards-on-Sea, 29 March 1877; d Dorking, 13 June 1956). English
organist, brother of Henry Goss-Custard. He succeeded Edwin Lemare as
organist of St Margaret's, Westminster, in 1902 and for 11 years carried on
his tradition as a brilliant recitalist. In 1922 he was appointed to St
Michael's, Chester Square, but his reputation was that of a recitalist rather
than a church musician. He made many tours, notably in the USA (1916).
He composed organ music, made arrangements and published a book on
pedal technique.
STANLEY WEBB
Editions: Trésor musical: Musique religieuse, ed. R. van Maldeghem (Brussels, 1865–
93/R) [M]Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, ed. A.
Smijers and A.T. Merritt (Paris and Monaco, 1934–63) [S]
motets
Beatus vir qui intelligit, 5vv, 15426; Dignare me laudare te, virgo sacrata, 3vv, 1534 9,
S vii, 192; Ecce Dominus veniet, 5vv, 15371 (anon., attrib. Gosse, PL-WRu 11 and
15395, and Josquin and Senfl); Haec est vita aeterna, 2vv, 1549 16 (arr. in Musica di
Eustachio Romano, liber primus, Rome, 1521, ed. in MRM, vi, 1975); Laudate
Dominum, omnes gentes, 4vv, 15351, S ix, 34; Misit me pater vivens, 4vv, 155310, M
xxi, 25; Non turbetur cor vestrum, 4vv, 153913, M xiii (also attrib. Billon and
Manchicourt); O vos omnes, 6vv, 155512; Sancta Maria, mater Dei, 3vv, 15349, S vii;
Tria sunt munera preciosa, 4vv, 15387; Tu es Petrus, 4vv, 153211, M ix
Doubtful: Angeli archangeli throni et dominationes, CZ-HK 23, attrib. ‘Mich:
Gossen’; Christus ist um unser Sünde willen, 5vv, H-Bn 22, attrib. Ioskin Iungkers
(see Albrecht) (?contrafactum of Latin-texted motet by Gosse)
chansons
P. Attaingnant: Trente et une chansons musicales a troys (Paris, 1535) [1535]
Amour me poing, 3vv, 1535 (attrib. Jacotin in 1542 18); Amour me voyant, 3vv, 1535
(attrib. Janequin in 154113); Blanc et clairet, 4vv, 15415-6 (anon., attrib. Gosse D-Mbs
1508); Content désir, 3vv, 1535; Je fille quant dieu m’y donné de quoy, 4vv, ed.
H.M. Brown, Theatrical Chansons of the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries
(Cambridge, MA, 1963); M’amour mon bien (attrib. Cadéac in contents), ed. in
SCC, xxiv (1992); Ou est le fruict, 4vv, 15438; Par ton regart, 3vv, 1535; Puisque
mon cueur, 4vv, 154612-13; Qui la vouldra souhaitte que je meure, 3vv, 1535; Si j’ay
eu du mal ou du bien, 3vv, 1535 (attrib. Janequin in 1543 13; attrib. Ysoré 154218),
ed. in RRMR, xxxvi (1982); Vivre ne puis, 3vv, 1535
The lost 11th book of Moderne’s Le parangon des chansons (Lyons, 1543)
contained music by Gosse, according to the Catalogue de la bibliothèque de F.J.
Fétis (Brussels, 1877/R), no.2309.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AudaM
BrownI
FétisB
Vander StraetenMPB, iii, vii
W. Brennecke: Die Handschrift A.R. 940/41 der Proske-Bibliothek zu
Regensburg (Kassel, 1953)
D. Heartz: ‘Au pres de vous: Claudin’s Chanson and the Commerce of
Publishers’ Arrangements’, JAMS, xxiv (1971), 193–225
H. Albrecht: ‘Zwei Quellen zur deutschen Musikgeschichte der
Reformationszeit’, Mf, i (1948), 242–85
LAWRENCE F. BERNSTEIN
Gossec, François-Joseph
(b Vergnies, 17 Jan 1734; d Passy, Paris, 16 Feb 1829). Flemish
composer, active in France. He played a central role in Parisian musical life
for more than 50 years.
1. Before 1789.
2. After 1789.
WORKS
WRITINGS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BARRY S. BROOK, DAVID CAMPBELL, MONICA H. COHN/MICHAEL
FEND
Gossec, François-Joseph
1. Before 1789.
He was born into a Walloon family whose name was variously spelt
Gaussé, Gossé, Gossée, Gossei, Gossey or Gossez. In early childhood he
displayed remarkable musical talent and reputedly possessed a beautiful
voice. From the age of six he sang at the collegiate church of Walcourt.
Shortly thereafter he was listed as a singer in the chapel of Ste Aldegonde
in Mauberge; while there he joined the chapel of St Pierre and received
instruction in the violin, harpsichord, harmony and composition from its
music director, Jean Vanderbelen. In 1742 he became a chorister at
Antwerp Cathedral, where he pursued further studies with André-Joseph
Blavier (1713–82).
In 1751 Gossec went to Paris and, through the influence of Rameau,
became a violinist and bass player in the private orchestra of A.-J.-J. Le
Riche de La Pouplinière, fermier général of Paris. In 1755 he succeeded
Johann Stamitz as director of the orchestra until La Pouplinière’s death in
1762. As a court musician Gossec composed and published his opp.1–6:
six sonatas for two violins and bass (c1753), six duos for flutes or violins
(c1754) and 24 symphonies in four sets (1756–c1762). His first
symphonies were in three movements and written for strings only; they
display a vague sense of form and their thematic invention is
undistinguished. Influenced (through Stamitz) by the Mannheim School,
Gossec added a minuet and trio to the form and also inserted separate
parts for wind instruments (see particularly opp.4 and 5). Other works from
this period include the Symphonie périodique in D (b87) which was one of
the first orchestral works in France to use clarinets (BrookSF). From
Stamitz Gossec also acquired a keen sense for dynamic marcations which,
together with his new instrumentation, appear as the most refined aspect of
his technique at the time.
On 11 October 1759 Gossec married Marie-Elizabeth Georges. Their only
child, Alexandre François-Joseph, was baptized on 29 December 1760
with La Pouplinière and his wife acting as godparents. In the same year,
apparently without any commission, he composed a Messe des morts, the
first of many religious works. It brought Gossec’s sense for spectacular
sound effects to the fore as he remembered in a note published by Fétis in
1829 regarding the ‘Tuba mirum’:
The audience was alarmed by the dreadful and sinister effect
of the three trombones together with four clarinets, four
trumpets, four horns and eight bassoons, hidden in the
distance and in a lofty part of the church, to announce the last
judgment, while the orchestra expressed terror with a muted
tremolo in all the strings.
From 1761 Gossec channelled his interest in vivid theatrical effect into the
writing of a substantial series of stage works, beginning with an intermezzo
for the private theatre of the Prince of Conti. In 1762 he was made director
of the private theatre of Louis-Joseph de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, at
Chantilly, for which his most successful works were the pasticcio Le
tonnelier (1765), and the opéras comiques Les pêcheurs(1766) and Toinon
et Toinette (1767). The innocent plots are set in a gracious and simple
style. While the ariettes of Le tonnelier are on a modest scale using song-
like melodies, the ariettes of Les pêcheurs and Toinon et Toinette are much
more operatic. In Les pêcheurs Gossec sacrificed the dramatic potential of
the plot to prevailing dance-like rhythms, although he achieved great
variety of instrumentation. The final ensembles avoid individual musical
characterization. In Toinon Gossec inserted storm music, with piccolos and
thunder effects, to link the two acts. These opéras comiques had varied
receptions at the Comédie-Italienne. Les pêcheurs was the most
successful, with more than 160 performances before 1790. Toinon was
also performed in Holland, Denmark, Sweden and Germany. Yet Le faux
lord (1765) and as Le double déguisement (1767) were total failures and
after the poor reception of his pastoral farce, Les agréments d’Hylas et
Silvie (1768), Gossec wrote no more opéras comiques. He may have felt
uncomfortable competing with the rising star, Grétry.
Meanwhile, he continued to write instrumental works. Compositions from
this period include six duets for violins (op.7, 1765), six trios for two violins
and bass with horns ad lib (op.9, 1766) and at least three sextets for
clarinets, bassoons and horns (1762–70). In addition to chamber music he
composed 12 symphonies for the princes of Condé and Conti (opp.6, 8 and
b87, 79 and 80). He took advantage of the growing influx of wind players
into Paris from Germany and Bohemia to develop a variety and richness in
orchestral sonority unparalleled in the works of other French composers.
For example, the middle movement of op.6 no.2 has an elaborate part for
the oboe, and the Allegro theme of the first movement of op.8 no.2 imitates
a fanfare. His formal designs display some experimentation: he usually
avoids repeat signs, changes the order of themes in recapitulating sections
or leaves such sections incomplete. In the orchestral trios op.9 a more
concise invention combined with some thematic development lead to a
greater coherence of the movements generally.
In 1769 Gossec founded the Concert des Amateurs, which soon gained
renown as one of Europe’s finest orchestras (unlike the Concert Spirituel it
had no chorus). This move was a breakthrough in Gossec’s career. While
the Concert was sponsored by the fermier général La Haye and the Baron
d’Ogny, it was also supported by public subscriptions. It commissioned new
works and introduced guest artists. During each of his four years as
director Gossec conducted about 12 performances of his own symphonies
written specially for this orchestra; among these was La chasse (b62), one
of his most popular works. His symphonies op.12 (1769) are, however, of
unequal quality. While the executional finesse of op.12 nos.2 and 3 is
disproportionate to their harmonic and thematic simplicity, Gossec’s
repeated use of specific harmonic progressions through remote keys in
op.12 no.5 serves to increase the work’s musical unity. At this time he also
composed 12 string quartets (opp.14 and 15, 1769–72) and during his final
year with the Concert, he became the first to conduct a Haydn symphony in
France.
In 1773 Gossec relinquished his post as head of the Concert des Amateurs
to the Chevalier de Saint-Georges and assumed, with Simon Leduc and
Pierre Gaviniès, the directorship of the Concert Spirituel. In the same year
his first tragédie lyrique, Sabinus, was staged at Versailles. Judging from
the untidy autograph of Sabinus, Gossec may have found his task
laborious. In its dramatic and musical layout (a mythological plot in five
acts, with accompanied recitatives, rather short arias, extensive choruses,
marches and divertissements) he clearly emulated Rameau’s tragédies
lyriques. The appearance of an allegorical figure, ‘Le génie de la Gaul’,
who encourages the hero Sabinus by predicting the creation of a French
empire, clearly foreshadows Gossec’s nationalistic interests after the
Revolution. Yet his inclination for small musical forms invariably prevented
any individual number from leaving a lasting impression on the audience.
Larger pieces, however, expose Gossec’s limited ability, with their often
triadic melodies, parallel part-writing, rhythmic uniformity and simple
harmony. According to Gossec himself, rehearsals for his work began more
than a year before the première. Additional clarinets, violins and basses
were specially engaged and for the first time trombones were introduced at
the Opéra. Although Sabinus was revised into a four-act version for the
première in February 1774, Gossec’s modest success was eclipsed after
Gluck’s Iphigénie en Aulide was first performed on 19 April 1774.
In the following years, Gossec, who became an ally of Gluck, composed
only pastorals and ballets, one of which, Les Scythes enchaînés (1779),
was written for incorporation into Gluck’s Iphigeńie en Tauride. Some of
these successful ballets were choreographed by Gardel. Gossec also
revised the third act of Gluck’s Alceste for its Paris performance in 1776.
After Gluck had left Paris, Gossec started afresh at the Opéra. Following a
fashion for resetting the tragédies lyriques of Lully and Quinault, Gossec
wrote Thésée in 1782. He borrowed from his forerunner by copying Aegle’s
aria, ‘Faites grace à mon âge’, and adding wind instruments. Gluck’s
tragédies lyriques also had a strong influence on Thésée. The musical
structure is much clearer, Gossec’s style is rhythmically and harmonically
more inventive, and his use of the full wind section in particular is much
more accomplished. Although Thésée is of a higher quality than Sabinus, it
received only 16 performances and his Rosine(1786) was a complete
failure.
On 22 May 1780 Gossec was appointed sous-directeur at the Opéra, with
Dauvergne as directeur. When Dauvergne retired in 1782 Gossec headed
the committee that supervised the operations of the Opéra from 1782 to
1784. In January 1784 he took on the directorship of the newly founded
Ecole Royale de Chant at the Opéra. From then until the outbreak of the
Revolution he wrote only six symphonies. His ballet Le pied de
boeuf(1787) enjoyed moderate success at the Opéra.
Gossec, François-Joseph
2. After 1789.
Together with Méhul and Catel, Gossec was at the forefront of musical
activities during the Revolutionary period. He resigned from his duties at
the Opéra in 1789 and directed the Corps de Musique de la Garde
Nationale with Bernard Sarette. He helped create a ‘civic music’ in which
songs, choruses, marches and wind symphonies, designed for outdoor
performance by massed forces, served as the voice of the new regime. On
the first anniversary of the fall of the Bastille, his Te Deum was performed
at the Fête de la Fédération by 1000 choristers and a large orchestra. In
1790 he also provided a Marche lugubre later used for the ceremonies in
which the remains of Voltaire and Rousseau were moved to the Pantheon.
Its highly chromatic style, unusual instrumentation (including serpent, tam-
tam, muted military drum and tuba curva) and expressively long rests
stirred contemporary listeners to ‘religious terror’ and ‘the silence of the
grave’.
L’offrande à la liberté (1792) dramatizes the battle between the French
Revolutionaries and their foreign enemies, and culminates in a powerful
setting of the Marseillaise; every verse of which has different
instrumentation. Gossec employs drastic musical means to create a
fanatical mood in a still reserved audience. L’offrande was performed at the
Opéra 143 times up to 1797 and still was being performed at a national
festival in 1848. It played an important role in turning the Marseillaise into
‘the most powerful musical symbol of its country and epoch’ (Bartlet, 1991).
Le triomphe de la République, ou Le camp de Grandpré (1793) glorifies the
victory of the Revolutionary troops in the battle at Valmy on 20 September
1792. This divertissement-lyrique consists of majestic, hymn-like choruses
written in a simple style with a homophonic texture, all of which secured Le
triomphe a wide audience. It is related to the genre of tragédie lyrique with
its full-scale orchestra, accompanied recitatives and final ballet with an
Entrée des nations, featuring a dance of ‘negroes’, a polonaise, an
anglaise and a ranz des vaches.
For his service to the new order, Gossec was given the title ‘Tyrtée
[Tyrtaeus] de la Révolution’. Other honours bestowed on him include
admission to the Académie des Beaux-Arts of the Institut de France on its
establishment in 1795 and election to the Swedish Academy of Music in
1799. He was named a Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur in 1804.
With the ascension of Napoleon and the Consulate in 1799 Gossec’s
career as a composer effectively ended: he wrote only two more significant
works, a Symphonie à 17 parties (1809) featuring a minuet in the form of a
fugue, and the Dernière messe des vivants (1813). He devoted his
energies to teaching, having been named inspector of teaching (with
Cherubini, Le Sueur and Méhul) and professor of composition at the
Conservatoire on its creation in 1795. He wrote solfège and singing
methods (in collaboration with others), a Traité de l’harmonie and Les
principes de contrepoint for use in the classes of the Conservatoire. When
Louis XVIII dissolved the Conservatoire in 1816 Gossec lost his job. His
final years were spent in the Paris suburb of Passy.
Gossec was one of the most prolific composers in France during the 18th
century. His career reflects the changing social position of the Parisian
musician between the mid-18th century and the early 19th. He began as a
court composer writing symphonies and chamber music and moved on to
conducting independently and directing subscription concerts as well as
working for the Parisian public opera houses; he also published some of
his own works. He became the foremost musical representative of the
French Revolution, and might have secured his influence as an inspector
and professor of composition at the Conservatoire but for the political
turmoil in the wake of changing governments which finally ended his
career.
Gossec’s earliest instrumental works reflect Italian influences, while his
symphonic works after op.3 show an absorption of many German,
specifically Mannheim, conventions such as four-movement structure
(including a minuet), rocket themes and bithematicism (in sonata-form
movements). His success as an instrumental composer is demonstrated by
the frequent performances of his works and by their publication in foreign
cities. The ease with which he secured performances of his operatic works
at the Comédie-Italienne and the Opéra attests more to his influence on
the French musical scene than to his dramatic talents, however. His
operatic gifts were modest, his choice of librettos poor; only with his ballets
did he achieve popularity on the stage. As composer, ‘democratizer of art’,
organizer and administrator, he exerted a powerful influence on
contemporary French musical life.
Gossec, François-Joseph
WORKS
printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated
stage
PCI Paris, Comédie-Italienne
PO Paris, Opéra
Le périgourdin (int, 1, A.N. Piédefer, Marquis de La Salle d’Offémont), Chantilly,
private theatre of the Prince of Conti, 7 June 1761
Le tonnelier (oc, 1, N.-M. Audinot and A.F. Quétant), PCI (Bourgogne), 16 March
1765, collab. Alexandre, Ciapalanti, Kohaut, Philidor, J. Schobert and J.C. Trial
Le faux lord (oc, 3, Parmentier), PCI (Bourgogne), 27 June 1765, incl. La chasse
(ballet with songs), excerpts (n.d.)
Les pêcheurs (oc, 1, La Salle d’Offémont), PCI (Bourgogne), 23 April 1766, rev. 7
June 1766, pubd as op.10 (n.d.)
Toinon et Toinette (oc, 2, J.A.J. Desboulmiers), PCI (Bourgogne), 20 June 1767,
pubd as op.11 (n.d.)
Le double déguisement (oc, 2, Houbron), PCI (Bourgogne), 28 Sept 1767, excerpts
(n.d.)
Les agréments d’Hylas et Silvie (pastorale, M.-R.-J. Rochon de Chabannes), Paris,
Comédie-Française, 10 Dec 1768, excerpts (n.d.)
Sabinus (tragédie lyrique, 5, M.-P.-G. de Chabanon), Versailles, 4 Dec 1773; rev.
(4), PO, 22 Feb 1774, F-Po and Pc (partly autograph), excerpts (n.d.)
Berthe (opéra, R.T.R. de Pleinchesne), Brussels, Monnaie, 18 Jan 1775; collab.
Philidor, I. Vitzthumb and ?H. Botson
Alexis et Daphné (pastorale, 1, Chabanon de Maugris), PO, 26 Sept 1775, Po*,
excerpts (n.d.)
Philémon et Baucis (pastorale, 1, Chabanon de Maugris), PO, 26 Sept 1775, Po*
La fête de village (int, 1, Desfontaines [F.G. Fouques]), PO, 26 May 1778, Po (2
copies, 1 inc. autograph), excerpts (n.d.)
Mirza (ballet, 3, M. Gardel), PO, 18 Nov 1779; rev. 1788, Po
La fête de Mirza (ballet-pantomime, 4, Gardel), PO, 17 Feb 1781, Po
Thésée (tragédie lyrique, 4, E. Morel de Chéfdeville, after P. Quinault), PO, 1 March
1782, B-Bc, F-Pc, airs, arr. pf (n.d.)
Electre (incid music, 5, G.D. de Roquefort), ?Versailles, 1782, Po
Nitrocris (opéra, 3, Morel de Chéfdeville), 1783, unperf., B-Bc, F-Po
Rosine, ou L’épouse abandonnée (opéra, 3, N. Gersin), PO, 14 July 1786, Po*,
excerpts (n.d.)
Le pied de boeuf (divertissement, 1, Gardel), PO, 17 June 1787, incl. music by
Rameau and Grétry
L’offrande à la liberté (scène religieuse, 1, A.S. Boy or J.-M. Girey-Dupré, C.J.
Rouget de Lisle and M.-J. de Chénier), PO (Porte-St-Martin), 30 Sept 1792, Pn
(1792)
Le triomphe de la République, ou le camp de Grandpré (divertissement-lyrique, 1,
Chénier), PO (Porte-St-Martin), 27 Jan 1793, Po* (1794)
Les sabots et le cerisier (opéra, M.-J. Sedaine and J. Cazotte), Paris, Jeunes-
Elèves, 13 Dec 1803
Others: Callisto (heroic ballet, 3), unperf., Po; La rosière (ballet, 2), for Gardel; Les
scythes enchaînés par les vainqueurs, divertissement, added to Gluck: Iphigénie en
Tauride, 1779; Gustave Vasa (lyric drama), inc., unperf., Po; Bouquet (dramatic
scene), S, B, chorus, orch, 1785, Po; Perrin et Perrette, opera ov., Po
symphonies
B op.
13—18 3 Sei sinfonie a più stromenti (1756)
19—24 4 Sei sinfonie a più stromenti (c1758)
77— Symphony no.1 ‘da vari autori’ [La Chevardière, op.4] (1761)
78— Symphony no.1 ‘da vari autori’ [La Chevardière, op.5] D (1761)
25—30 5 Sei sinfonie a più stromenti (c1761–2); no.3 ed. in S
31—6 6 Six simphonies (c1762); no.2 ed. in S
87— Sinfonia périodique a più strumenti, D (1762)
79— Simphonie périodique a più stromenti, no.48 (1763)
80— Simphonie périodique a più stromenti, no.65 (c1764)
43—5 8 Trois grandes symphonies (1765); no.2 ed. in S
54—9 12 Six simphonies à grande orchestre (1769); also in The Periodical
Overture in 8 Parts, nos.34, 33, 35, 32, 46, 36 (London, 1771–5); no.5
ed. in S
62— Simphonie de chasse, c1773 (1776)
86— Symphonie, D, in Trois simphonies à 8 parties (1776)
83— Symphonie, F, in Trois symphonies (1777)
76— Symphonie périodique no.6 (c1778), lost
84—5— 2 in Trois symphonies à grand orchestre (1780), perf. ?1769–73
81— Symphonie, 2 vn, va b B (? between 1783 and 1785)
60—62c 13 Trois sinfonies à grande orchestre (between 1786 and 1792); no.3
pubd earlier as Simphonie de chasse
91— Simphonie à 17 parties, autograph 1809; ed. in S
95— Esquisse d’un morceau d’orchestre, F-Pc*
96— Esquisse symphonique, Pc*
97m— Esquisses de mouvements de symphonies, Pc, doubtful
99m— Trois mouvements de symphonies, inc., Pc, doubtful
other orchestral, wind band
B
88 Symphonie concertante, 2
solo vn (1775), lost; ed. in
S
89, 101 Symphonie concertante
[no.2], 2 solo vns, va/vc
obbl (1778)
90 Symphonie concertante du
ballet de Mirza (1784),
various arrs.; ed. in S
92 Sinfonia concertanta 2da, 2
solo vn, 2 ob obbl, Pc, inc.
93 Sinfonia concertanta, 2
solo vn, 2 solo va, B-Bc*
94m Sinfonia concertanta, f, F-
Pc, inc.
TeD, 3 male vv, band, 1790; La fédération (C.F.X. Mercier de Compiègne), ?1790,
unperf.; Le chant du 14 juillet (M.-J. Chénier), 3 male vv, band, 1791; Invocation (?
Chénier), chorus, orch, 1791; Choeur patriotique exécuté à la translation de
Voltaire: ‘Peuple éveille-toi’ (Voltaire: verses from Samson), 3 male vv, band, 1791;
Hymne sur la translation du corps de Voltaire (Chénier), vv, wind insts, 1791 [2
settings]; Station au temple de Melpomène, for translation of Voltaire, vv, pf, cl ad
lib, ?1791; Choeur à la liberté (Chénier), 4vv, band, 1792
Ronde nationale: ‘L’innocence’ (Chénier), 4vv, band, 1792; Chant funèbre en
l’honneur de Simoneau (Roucher), 1792, lost; Offrande à la liberté: ‘Citoyens
suspendés’, recit, chorus, orch, 1792; Hymne à la liberté (Chénier), 4vv, band,
1792; Hymne pour l’inauguration des bustes (Avisse), 1792, lost; Le triomphe de la
loi (?Roucher), choeur patriotique, 3 male vv, band, 1792
Air des marseillais pour le camp de la féderation, arr. of the Marseillaise for chorus,
band, 1793; Hymne a l’égalité (Hymne à la nation): ‘Divinité tutélaire’ (Varon),
chorus, band, 1793; Hymne à la liberté (Hymne à la nature) (Varon), 4vv, band,
1793; Hymne à la statue de la liberté (Hymne à la liberté) (Varon) (3 male vv, band)/
(5vv, orch), 1793 [2 settings]; ‘Quel peuple immense’ (Varon), 4vv, band, 1793;
Hymne à la nature (Hymne à l’égalité): ‘Touchant réveli’ (Varon), 4vv, band, 1793
Chant patriotique: ‘Citoyens dont Rome’ (Coupigny), Bar/T, 1793; Hymne à la
liberté: ‘Descends ô liberté’ (Chénier), 1793, lost; Chanson patriotique sur le succès
de nos armes (Coupigny), solo v, b, 1794; Hymne à l’Etre suprême (T. Désorgues),
solo v, chorus, band, 1794; Hymne à l’Etre suprême (Désorgues), 4vv, band, 1794;
Hymne à l’Etre suprême (Chénier), 4vv, band, 1794; Hymne pour la fête de Bara et
Viala (Avisse), solo v, 1794
Hymne à la liberté: ‘O Deité de ma patrie’ (Caron), 3vv, 1794; Hymne à Jean-
Jacques Rousseau: ‘Toi qui d’Emilé (Chénier), solo v, chorus, insts, 1794; Hymnes
pour la fête de la réunion, 3vv, 1794; Hymnes destinés à être chantés par le corps
de musique des aveugles-travailleurs, 1794; Chant funèbre sur la mort de Ferraud:
‘Martyr de la liberté’ (Coupigny), solo v, 4 male vv, band, 1794; Ode sur l’enfance (P.
Crassous), solo v, b, 1794; Serment républicain: ‘Dieu puissant daigne’ (Chénier),
4vv, orch, 1795 [parody of curse scene from Gossec: Athalie]
Hymne à l’humanité: ‘O mère des vertus’ (Baour-Lormian), 4vv, band, 1795; Aux
mânes de la gironde, hymne élégiaque: ‘Parmi les funèbres’ (Coupigny), 3 solo vv,
4vv, band, 1795; Hymne guerrier (Chénier), dramatic scene, solo vv, chorus, band,
1796; Chant martial pour la fête de la victoire (La Chabeaussière), solo v, 4vv, band,
1796; Chant pour la fête de la vieilesse: ‘Déjà le génie’ (Désorgues), solo v, b, 1796;
Chant martial pour la fête de la victoire: ‘Si vous voulés’ (La Chabeaussière), solo v,
chorus, band, 1796
Le pardon des injures (Mercier), 1797, lost; Cantate funèbre pour la fête du 20
prairial an VII: ‘Attentat sans exemple’ (Boisjolin), solo v, b, 1799; La nouvelle au
camp de l’assassinat … ou Le cri de vengeance, scène lyrique, 1799; Hymne à la
liberté: ‘Auguste et consolante image’; Chant religieux sur la destruction de
l’athéisme (Mercier), lost; Hymne à la victoire: ‘Déesse d’un peuple’; Domine
salvam fac republicam, 3vv; Ronde patriotique: ‘Favoris de la gloire’; Hymne à la
liberté: ‘Vive à jamais’
other vocal
manuscripts in F-Pc, Pn, B-Bc, Br
Sacred: Missa pro defunctis, 1760, pubd as Messe des morts (1780); 1re suite de
noëls, orch, ?c1774; 2me suite de noëls, orch; Dernière messe des vivants, 4vv,
orch, 1813; Coeli enarrant, 3vv, orch; 2 marches religieuses pour la procession de
la Fête-Dieu; Dixit Dominus, chorus; Domine salvum fac imperatorem, 4vv, orch; O
salutaris hostia, motet, 3vv unacc. (n.d.); Impromptu, 3vv unacc.; Quatuor sur la
prose des morts; Messe; motets
Orats: La nativité (Chabanon de Maugris), Paris, Concert Spirituel, 1774, vs, ed. D.
Townsend (New York, 1966); L’arche d’alliance, Paris, Concert Spirituel, 1781, lost;
Regina coeli, doubtful
Secular: Le papillon léger, solo vv, chorus, orch; Hymne à l’amour, 3vv, unacc.
(n.d.); Chagrin d’amour, romance, 1v, b acc.; L’amour piqué par une abeille in 9
odes d’Anacréon acc. pf/hp (n.d.); Age de l’aimable innocence, ode sur l’enfance
(n.d.); airs
Gossec, François-Joseph
WRITINGS
with L. Cherubini and E.-N. Méhul: Méthode de chant du Conservatoire
de musique (Paris, ?1802–3)
with G. Agus, C.S. Catel and L. Cherubini: Principes élémentaires de
musique arrêtés par les membres du Conservatoire, suivis de solfèges
(Paris, 1799–1802, ?1801–2)
with N. Roze, Ozi and Rogat: Méthode de serpent (Paris, 1814)
‘Sur l’introduction des cors, des clarinettes et des trombones dans les
orchestres français’, Revue musicale, v (1829), 217–23
Traité de l’harmonie, F-Pc
Les principes de contrepoint (MS)
Gossec, François-Joseph
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BrookSF
LaurencieEF
P. Hédouin: Gossec: sa vie et ses ouvrages (Valenciennes, 1852)
E.G.J. Gregoir: Notice biographique sur François-Joseph Gossé dit
Gossec, compositeur de musique (Mons, 1878)
M. Brenet: ‘La Messe des morts de Gossec’, Journal musical (26 Aug
1899)
M. Brenet: ‘Rameau, Gossec et les clarinettes’, Guide musical, xlix (1903),
183, 203, 227
F. Hellouin: Gossec et la musique française à la fin du XVIIIe siècle (Paris,
1903)
C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution (Paris, 1904/R)
J. Tiersot: Les fêtes et les chants de la Révolution française (Paris, 1908)
G. Cucuel: Etudes sur un orchestre au XVIIIe siècle: l’instrumentation
chez les symphonistes de La Pouplinière, oeuvres musicales de
Gossec, Schencker et Gaspard Procksch (Paris, 1913)
J. Tiersot: ‘Autographes de Gossec de 1789 à 1793’, Bulletin de la
Société française de musicologie, v/10 (1921), 217–22
L. Dufrane: Gossec: sa vie, ses oeuvres (Paris, 1927)
C. van den Borren: ‘De quelques manuscrits autographes inédits de
Gossec’, Annuaire du Conservatoire royal de musique de Bruxelles, li
(1927–8), 124
F. Tonnard: ‘F.J. Gossec’, Vie wallonne, xiv (1934), 198
A. Gastoué: ‘Gossec et Gluck à’ l’Opéra de Paris’, RdM, xvi (1935), 87–99
T. Tonnard: François-Joseph Gossec, musicien hennuyer de la Révolution
française (Brussels, 1938); repr. in Revue française (1938), 127ff
J.-G. Prod’homme: François-Joseph Gossec (Paris, 1949)
R.J. Macdonald: François-Joseph Gossec and French Instrumental Music
in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century (diss., U. of Michigan,
1968)
W. Thibaut: F.-J. Gossec, chantre de la Révolution française (Gilly, 1970)
J.A. Rice: ‘Introduction, François-Joseph Gossec: Eight Symphonic
Works’, The Symphony 1720–1840, ed. B.S. Brook, ser. D, iii (New
York, 1983), pp.xiv–xxiv
J. Mongrédien: La musique en France, des Lumières au Romantisme: de
1789 à 1830 (Paris, 1986; Eng. trans., 1996)
R. Mortier and H. Hasquin, eds.: Fêtes et musiques Révolutionnaires:
Grétry et Gossec (Brussels, 1990)
E.C. Bartlet: ‘Gossec: L’offrande à la liberté et l’histoire de La Marseillaise’,
Le tambour et la harpe, ed. J.-R. Julien and J. Mongrédien (Paris,
1991), 123–46
Gossen, Maistre.
See Gosse, Maistre.
Gossett, Philip
(b New York, 27 Sept 1941). American musicologist. He graduated BA from
Amherst College in 1963. He then studied at Princeton University under
Strunk and Lockwood, taking the MFA in 1965 and the PhD in 1970. In
1968 he joined the faculty at the University of Chicago. He was on the
board of directors of the AMS, 1974–6, and is on the editorial boards of the
Rossini and Verdi critical editions.
Gossett's interests include 15th-century sacred music, the theoretical
writings of Rameau, and 19th-century Italian opera, particularly the works
of Rossini. His dissertation and subsequent articles on Rossini stress the
need to investigate manuscript sources of music and librettos; in them he
distinguishes authentic from unauthentic sources, points out those aspects
of a work which arise from specific performances or operatic conventions,
and identifies Rossini's borrowings and self-borrowings. He has written
many of the introductions for two facsimilie series, Italian Opera, 1810–
1840 and Early Romantic Opera and is general editor of Rossini's collected
works, for which he has prepared the volume Tancredi (1984).
WRITINGS
‘Techniques of Unification in Early Cyclic Masses and Mass Pairs’, JAMS,
xix (1966), 205–31
‘Le fonti autografe delle opere teatrali di Rossini’, NRMI, ii (1968), 936–60
‘Rossini in Naples: some Major Works Recovered’, MQ, liv (1968), 316–40
‘Gioachino Rossini and the Conventions of Composition’, AcM, xlii (1970),
48–58
The Operas of Rossini: Problems of Textual Criticism in Nineteenth-
Century Opera (diss., Princeton U., 1970)
ed. and trans.: J.P. Rameau Treatise on Harmony (New York, 1971)
‘Beethoven's Sixth Symphony: Sketches for the First Movement’, JAMS,
xxvii (1974), 248–84
‘The Mensural System and the Choralis Constantinus’, Studies in
Renaissance and Baroque Music in Honor of Arthur Mendeled. R.L.
Marshall (Kassel and Hackensack, NJ, 1974), 71–107
‘Verdi, Ghislanzoni, and Aida: the Uses of Convention’, Critical Inquiry, i
(1974–5), 291–334
‘Criteri per l'edizione critica di tutte le opere di Gioacchino Rossini’,
Bollettino del Centro Rossiniano di Studi, (1974), no.1, pp.1–61
‘Un nuovo duetto per Anna Bolena’, Studi Donizettiani I: Bergamo 1975,
247–310
The Tragic Finale of ‘Tancredi’/ Il finale tragico del Tancredi di Rossini
(Pesaro, 1977)
‘The Arias of Marzelline: Beethoven as a Composer of Opera’, BeJb
1978–81, 141–83
‘The Overtures of Rossini’, 19CM, iii (1979–80), 3–31
‘Rossini e i suoi Péchés de Vieillesse’, NRMI, xiv (1980), 7–26
Le sinfonie di Rossini (Pesaro, 1981)
‘Music at the Théâtre-Italien’, Music in Paris in the Eighteen-Thirties:
Northampton, MA, 1982, 327–64
‘The Composition of Ernani’, Analyzing Opera: Verdi and Wagner: Ithaca,
NY, 1984, 27–55
Anna Bolena and the Artistic Maturity of Gaetano Donizetti (Oxford, 1985)
‘History and Works that have No History: Reviving Rossini's Neopolitan
Operas’, Discliplining Music: Musicology and its Canons: Ithaca, NY,
1984 and New Orleans 1987, 95–115
‘Carl Dalhaus and the “Ideal Type”’, 19CM, xiii (1989–90), 49–56
‘Becoming a Citizen: the Chorus in Risorgimento Opera’, COJ, ii (1990),
41–64
‘Censorship and Self-Censorship: Problems in Editing the Operas of
Giuseppe Verdi’, Essays in Musicology: a Tribute to Alvin Johnson, ed.
L. Lockwood and E.H. Roeser (Philadelphia, 1990), 247–57
‘A New Romanza for Attila’, Studi verdani, ix (1993), 13–35
‘New Sources for Stiffelio: a Preliminary Report’, COJ, v (1993), 199–222
PAULA MORGAN
Gostling, John
(b East Malling, Kent, 25 March 1650; d 17 July 1733). English cathedral
singer and music copyist. He was educated at King’s School, Rochester,
and St John’s College, Cambridge (sizar, 1668; BA, 1672–3). He was a
minor canon of Canterbury Cathedral, 1675–1733. In addition he was a
Gentleman of the Chapel Royal from 1679 and a minor canon of St Paul’s
Cathedral from 1683 to 1733. His post of sub-dean of St Paul’s (from
1689), sometimes mentioned separately, was attached to his minor
canonry there. Besides holding posts as clergyman-singer, he was vicar of
Littlebourne, Kent, from 1675 to 1733 and rector of Hope All Saints, near
New Romney, Kent, 1682–1709. He was a non-residentiary canon (with
prebend) of Lincoln Cathedral, 1689–1733. On 20 December 1689 he was
sworn a personal Chaplaine in Ordinary to William III. Both he and his son
William Gostling were involved in Canterbury’s first music club and concert
series. John Gostling was also a noted amateur viol player. Still active in
1724, by the time of the accession of George II (1727) Gostling was so
infirm that he was excused the journey from Canterbury to be re-sworn a
member of the Chapel Royal.
John Gostling was a notable deep bass singer for whom, according to
Hawkins, Purcell wrote They that go down to the sea in ships. He was a
favourite of Charles II, and the Gentleman’s Magazine (1777, p.210) stated
that the king presented him one day with a silver egg filled with guineas,
telling him ‘he had heard that eggs were good for the voice’. He was a
member of the Private Musick during the reigns of James II (who granted
him an annual pension of £40 in October 1685) and William and Mary, but
was not reappointed under Queen Anne. He occupied himself a good deal
with copying music, particularly cathedral music. He acquired and added to
the rough file copies left by Stephen Bing, who died in 1681; these
‘Gostling’ partbooks are now in York Minster and some later file copies of
his own are now GB-Ob Tenbury 797–803. Specimens of his fair-copy
choirbooks survive at Canterbury, St Paul’s Cathedral and as GB-Ob
Tenbury 1176–82. There is a full score in manuscript with which his name
is particularly associated (US-AUS; facs., Austin, 1977); a matching volume
is in the Newberry Library, Chicago. Ford (1984) has identified other
Gostling possessions by examining the sales catalogue of his son’s
collection. Where an autograph is lacking of any work by Purcell, Blow and
their contemporaries, a transcript by Gostling is clearly important; however,
there has been some disagreement about the quality of his texts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BDECM
HawkinsH
G.E.P. Arkwright and H.E. Woolridge: Introduction to Henry Purcell:
Sacred Music, Part III, The Works of Henry Purcell, xvii (London,
1907)
F.B. Zimmerman: ‘Anthems of Purcell and Contemporaries in a Newly
Rediscovered “Gostling Manuscript”’, AcM, xli (1969), 55–70; rev. as
foreword to facs. of The Gostling Manuscript (Austin, 1977)
R. Ford: ‘Canterbury's Choral Manuscripts: Two Hundred and Fifty Years of
Handwritten Musical History’, Canterbury Cathedral Chronicle (1982),
43–7
R. Ford: ‘Osborn MS 515, A Guardbook of Restoration Instrumental Music’,
FAM, xxx (1983), 174–84
R. Ford: Minor Canons at Canterbury Cathedral: The Gostlings and their
Colleagues (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1984) [incl. list of works
written for Gostling’s extraordinary voice-range]
H.W. Shaw: A Study of the Bing-Gostling Part Books in the Library of York
Minster (Croydon, 1986)
I. Spink: Restoration Cathedral Music, 1660–1714 (Oxford, 1995)
WATKINS SHAW/ROBERT FORD
Gostling, William
(b Canterbury, bap. 30 Jan 1696; d Canterbury, 9 March 1777). English
cathedral singer and antiquarian, son of John Gostling. He was educated
at King’s School, Canterbury, and St John’s College, Cambridge (MA,
1719). He was a minor canon of Canterbury, 1727–77, and held livings in
Kent at Brook (1722–33), Littlebourne (1733–53) and Stone-in-Oxney
(1753–77). He and the Canterbury organist William Raylton were principal
organizers of the Canterbury Concerts, and in this connection he was
associated with William, 3rd Lord Cowper, with whom he corresponded.
Gostling had strong antiquarian interests, and his well-known A Walk in
and around the City of Canterbury, first issued in 1774, went through five
subsequent editions. He acquired, partly from his father, a fine collection of
manuscript and printed music consisting of some 1500 items; it includes a
first edition of Parthenia; the contratenor and tenor parts of John Day’s
Mornyng and Evenyng Prayer (1565); an album in the hand of William
Lawes (now GB-Lbl Add.31432); the compendious pre-Civil War organbook
of English cathedral music that is now GB-Ob Tenbury 791; the so-called
Gostling Manuscript (now in US-AUS; facs. (Austin and London, 1977))
and its companion (US-Cn); 1045–51 and GB-Lcm. From his collection he
helped William Boyce in the compilation of his Cathedral Music and John
Hawkins in his History. Items from his music library, which was sold in 1777
(only his non-music books were sold by the Canterbury musician and
bookseller William Flackton), may in some instances be identified by his
signature or engraved bookplate (see Ford).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.H. King: Some British Collectors of Music c.1600–1960 (Cambridge,
1963)
R. Ford: Minor Canons at Canterbury Cathedral: the Gostlings and their
Colleagues (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1984)
I. Spink: Restoration Cathedral Music 1660–1714 (Oxford, 1995)
WATKINS SHAW/ROBERT FORD
Gostuški, Dragutin
(b Belgrade, 3 Jan 1923, d Belgrade, 21 Sept 1998). Serbian musicologist
and composer. He studied art history at Belgrade University, graduating in
1950, and composition with Milenko at the Belgrade Academy of Music,
graduating in 1951. In 1965 he took the doctorate at Belgrade University
with a dissertation on stylistic evolution. He joined the staff of the Belgrade
Academy of Music in 1952 and the Institute of Musicology in 1960 (director
1974–8). Parallel studies of music and fine arts influenced his interest in
comparative aesthetics; his work as a composer made him particularly
aware of the problem of time, and in the early 1960s he turned to an
investigation of physical and psychological time in music. He later widened
the scope of his investigations and made numerous interdisciplinary
studies of musicology, physics, experimental psychology, linguistics and
semiotics, becoming one of the most prominent Serbian theoreticians and
critics in his field. He has written for many journals in Yugoslavia and
elsewhere, incuding Zvuk, Savremenik, Revija, Borba and the Musical
Quarterly. He has composed orchestral, chamber, vocal and stage works in
a uniquely neo-classical style. Elements of humour are evident in works
such as the Symphonic Scherzo (1949) and the Scherzo in ‘Š’, and a lyric
temperament can be heard in the Serenade for violin and piano and the
Elegy in ‘O’. There is also a folk music influence, although there are no
direct quotations.
WORKS
Stage: Remi [Rummy] (ballet), 1955
Orch: Sym. Scherzo, 1949; Waltz, 1950; Beograd, sym. poem, 1951; Igra utroje
[The dance for three], 1953; Concerto accelerato, vn, orch, 1961
Chbr: Pf Trio, 1950; Nocturne, harp, 1952; Serenade, vn, pf; miniatures, vn, pf
Pf: 3 sonatinas, pf, 1951–2; Dve igre [2 dances], pf, 1954; Allegro furioso, pf
Vocal: Elegy in ‘O’, female chorus, 1973; Scherzo in ‘Š’, female chorus, 1973;
Polychronion; Zimska noć [Winter Night], song, 1946; Smiješno čudo [Funny
Miracle], song, folk poetry, 1947; folksong settings
WRITINGS
‘Mesto jugoslovenske muzike u razvoju svetske muzičke kulture’ [The
place of Yugoslav music in the development of world musical culture],
Zvuk, nos.39–40 (1960), 477–86
Kontrola muzičkog vremena: prilog proučavanju psihofizioloških uslova
muzičke percepcije [Managing musical time: a contribution to the study
of psycho-physiological conditions of musical perception] (Belgrade,
1961)
‘La musica nazionale e l'evoluzione dell'arte contemporanea’, Fenarete,
nos.5–6 (1965), 71–6
Umetnost u evoluciji stilova [Art in stylistic evolution] (diss., U. of Belgrade,
1965; Belgrade, 1968 as Vreme umetnosti [Time in art])
‘The Third Dimension of Poetic Expression, or Language and Harmony’,
MQ, lv (1969), 372–83
‘Muzičke nauke kao model interdisciplinarnog metoda istraživanja/Les
sciences musicales: modèle interdisciplinaire de recherche’, Srpska
muzika kroz vekove/La musique serbe à travers les siècles, ed. S.
Đurić-Klajn (Belgrade, 1973), 63–112
Umetnost u nedostatku dokaza: zbirka članaka [Art and lack of evidence:
collected articles] (Belgrade, 1977)
BOJAN BUJIĆ/TATJANA MARKOVIĆ
Goszler, Thomas.
See Gosler, thomas.
Göteborg [Gothenburg].
City in Sweden, the country’s second largest city. Its oldest churches are
the Gustafvi Kyrka (1633) and the Christine Kyrka, built for German and
Dutch merchants in 1649. These fostered the city’s earliest music, and in
the 17th century two musicians were also employed to perform twice a
week on the balcony of the town hall and at other municipal functions.
Although concerts were held as early as 1718, they did not become a
regular part of the city’s musical life until the 1750s. In the 1770s the
leading figures were Benedictus Schiller and Patrik Alströmer. The
orchestra was composed of a few professionals with amateurs from the
city’s bourgeoisie who could afford instruments and lessons. From 1781 to
1791 subscription concerts were promoted by a violinist, La Hay, who also
started an academy for amateur musicians. There was no permanent
concert hall at that time. The early 19th century saw the foundation of
various music societies such as the Musikaliska Öfningssällskap (1818)
and Orphei Vänner (1821). Göteborg was visited by several German opera
companies in the 1830s and interest in stage production increased; the
Nya Teater (new theatre), later to become the Stora Teater (grand theatre),
was opened in 1859. Opera, however, was later overtaken by operetta as
the most popular form of music for the stage. In 1994 a new opera house,
situated at the harbour, was inaugurated.
Under the direction of Joseph Czapek, who settled in Göteborg in 1847,
subscription concerts became regular events; unlike Stockholm, where the
stage enjoyed most favour, Göteborg preferred the concert hall. Smetana
arrived in Göteborg in 1856 and stayed for five years. His main occupation
was giving private piano lessons to various families, such as the Dicksons,
Valentins, Elliots, Röhs, Gumperts, Heymans and Magnus. To
commemorate his time in Göteborg the Czech state presented a Smetana
Museum to the city in 1961.
It was not until 1905 that Göteborg became an important musical centre
with the foundation of the Göteborgs Orkesterförening, financed by local
industry. In 1907 Wilhelm Stenhammar was appointed as the orchestra’s
conductor, and, subsequently with the help of Tor Aulin, he built up an
excellent orchestra. Stenhammar was a noted educationist as well as a
composer and was among the first to arrange school concerts; he was also
responsible for introducing Nielsen’s music to the Swedish public.
Symphony concerts have, since this time, played the most prominent role
in the city’s musical life. Other conductors of the Göteborg SO have
included Carl Nielsen, Ture Rangström, Tor Mann, Issay Dobrowen, Sixten
Eckberg, Dean Dixon, Sten Frykberg, Sergiu Comissiona, Sixten Ehrling
and Charles Dutoit. Under Neeme Järvi (conductor from 1984) the
orchestra won wide acclaim both on tours and through recordings (e.g.
Grieg’s Peer Gynt, the complete symphonies of Rimsky-Korsakov,
Prokofiev’s The Fiery Angel, Shostakovich’s Symphony no.14). The concert
hall (Göteborgs Konserthus), built in 1934 with a capacity of 1371, is
internationally known for its excellent acoustics.
The more notable amateur music societies are the Göteborgs
Ungdomsorkester (youth orchestra) and the Folkliga Musikskolans
Ungdomsorkester, run by the ABF, a national organization giving
elementary instrumental teaching. At the city’s university and institutions of
higher education there are the Akademiska Kapell, Blåsljud, and the
Allianceorkester. Levande Musik (living music), a society devoted to the
performance of modern chamber music, gives about seven concerts a
year. The most active choirs and choral societies are the Göteborgs
Konserthuskör (1962) and Lodolakör (1962). A conservatory, reorganized
as the Göteborgs Musikhögskola (school of music), was founded in 1954;
the city also has an experimental training college for school music
teachers. The university established a department of musicology in 1968.
In 1964 the Teater- och Operahögskola was established, and in 1992 it was
brought together with the Musikhögskola and the university musicology
department to form Artisten, a house in which the exchange among the
different branches of music has greatly stimulated the city’s musical life. All
three schools are now part of the university.
Jazz has contributed much to the city’s musical life since the 1940s when
various bands performed in the Liseberg amusement park, and the jazz
club Art Dur has been visited by leading American and European jazz
musicians since the 1960s.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GroveO (A. Wiklund)
‘Joseph Czapek’, Nordisk Musik-Tidende, vii/6 (June 1886), 81 [repr. from
Svensk Musiktidning]
J. Svanberg: Anteckningar om Stora Teatern i Göteborg (Göteborg, 1894)
W. Berg: Anteckningar om Göteborgs äldre teatrar (Göteborg, 1896–1900)
W. Berg: Bidrag till musikens historia i Göteborg 1754–1892 (Göteborg,
1914)
A. Fromell: Stora Teatern i Göteborg 1893–1929 (Göteborg, 1929)
J. Rabe: Göteborgs teater- och musikliv (Uppsala, 1948)
H. Edlén: ‘Musik i Göteborg’, Svenska musikperspektiv: minnesskrift vid
Kungl. Musikaliska Akademins 200-årsjubileum 1971, ed. G.
Hilleström (Stockholm, 1971), 429–69
K.-O. Edström: Göteborgs rika musikliv: en översikt mellan världskrigen
(Göteborg, 1986)
HAKAN BENGTSSON/ANDERS WIKLUND
Gotfrid [Götvrit, Gottfried] von
Strassburg [Strasburg]
(fl 1200–20). German poet. With Hartmann von Aue and Wolfram von
Eschenbach he was one of the most important representatives of the
Middle High German epic. His life’s work was Tristan (ed. F. Ranke, Berlin,
1930, rev. R. Krohn, 1980; Eng. trans., A.T. Hatto, 1960). It is an unfinished
courtly epic of 20,000 lines, based on a poem by Thomas of Brittany and
completed by later hands. The work is especially noteworthy for Gotfrid’s
informative remarks on music and its courtly practice. Three further poems
with manuscript ascriptions to Gotfrid are probably not by him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
H.-H. Steinhoff: Bibliographie zu Gottfried von Strassburg (Berlin, 1971–
86)
A. Wolf, ed.: Gottfried von Strassburg (Darmstadt, 1973)
H. Kuhn: ‘Gottfried von Strassburg’, Die deutsche Literatur des
Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, ed. K. Ruh and others (Berlin, 2/1977–)
Gotha.
German town in Thuringia. First referred to as ‘Gotaha’ in a document
issued by Charlemagne in 775, it grew into a town in the 12th century
under Landgrave Ludwig II of Thuringia, and in 1247, with Thuringia itself,
came into the possession of the margraves of Meissen (of the Wettin
family). When the duchy of Saxe-Gotha under Duke Ernst I der Fromme
(1640–75) was formed, Gotha became the residence of the Ernestin family
(ruled until 1918) in the largest Thuringian principality. Their residential seat
was the new Schloss Friedenstein, built in 1643–54 and important in the
musical and theatrical history of the town from the mid-17th century
onwards. During the Middle Ages, Gotha had already grown to become a
musical town with minstrels, Stadtpfeifer, orchestral players, Kantors and
court and army trumpeters. The earliest musical members of the Bach
family (in the 16th century) lived in the surrounding villages of Wechmar,
Behringen and Grabsleben. The existence of monastic patronage and
boys’ choirs at an early date is demonstrated by extant parchment fascicles
of Gregorian chant, while organists and Kantors at the Augustinerkirche
and the Margarethenkirche supported an active musical life. The
Stiftskirche, built in 1292, had 40 choristers in 1540, and the Gothaer
Cantional (1545, in D-GOl) of Johann Walter (i) indicates that choral music
was then flourishing. The foundation of the Schlosskirche in 1646 further
stimulated choral music and the practice of school music. Its consecration
occasioned several days of musical performances, including elaborate
polychoral motets.
There is little to indicate a permanent musical establishment in the original
Grimmenstein ducal palace, completely destroyed in 1567 and replaced by
the Friedenstein residence. A few names have survived, including those of
Matz Degen (organist), Johann Ziseke (Stadtpfeifer), Caspar Bach
(apprentice and member of the guild of Stadtpfeifer), Abraham Weisshan
(lutenist at Grimmenstein and the court at Dresden) and the Nagel family of
musicians, closely connected with the Bachs. Among members of the Bach
family living in the area were Veit, Hans, Wenzel and Lips, all of whom
contributed to the musical life of the town and sent their children to the
Lateinschule. The regulations of the Gotha Gymnasium (1641 and 1674)
record that the choristers were divided into symphoniacis (men) and
eleemosynariis (boys), led by two Kantors; they also made public
appearances as instrumentalists, thereby displeasing their superiors.
Andreas Reyher, headmaster of the Gymnasium in the mid-17th century,
published a successful Gothaer Schulmethodus, which realized the
musical teaching ideals of Wolfgang Ratichis and J.A. Comenius, ‘namely
singing and playing on the violin, gemshorn [Tschirren], lute, percussion
[Siegerschlagen] and other musical instruments’.
A court orchestra consisting of five singers, two choirboys and 12
musicians is first mentioned in the court records of 1648. It was led by a
distinguished series of Kapellmeister, including W.C. Briegel (in Gotha from
1650 as Kantor and music master to the ducal family, and appointed
Kapellmeister in 1660), G.L. Agricola (a student at the Gymnasium in
1659–62 and Kapellmeister from 1670 to 1676), W.M. Mylius (1676 to late
1712 or early 1713), C.F. Witt (1713–17), Francesco Venturini (1718–19)
and G.H. Stölzel (1720–49). The Kantor and composer V.D. Marold, a
friend of Schültz and Johann Bach (Johann Sebastian’s great-grandfather),
organized music education and published Cantionale sacrum (1646–8), a
valuable and comprehensive anthology of choral works, mostly by
composers connected with Gotha. Other Gotha musicians associated with
the Bachs were the court organists Egidius Funck and Nikolaus Koerner
(c1600) and Johann Pachelbel, town organist from 1692 to 1694. Under
Duke Ernst der Fromme and his son Friedrich I (1675–91) allegorical
dialogues and festival plays were performed in the palace, and these
prepared the way for the peak of musical drama in the town under Konrad
Ekhof (co-director of the court theatre 1774–8) and A.W. Iffland (in Gotha
1777–9). Georg Benda (Kapellmeister, 1750–78) and his successor Anton
Schweitzer (1778–87) were among those who wrote works specially for the
theatre (founded in 1775). Benda’s melodrama Ariadne auf Naxos was
given in 1775, and the galant Singspiel flourished. The cosmopolitan nature
of late 18th-century Gotha is reflected in the activity there of Baron F.M.
von Grimm, the encyclopedist and friend of J.-J. Rousseau, and F.W.
Gotter (1740–97), Benda’s librettist.
The reign of Duke August I (1804–22) marked a new phase in the town’s
flourishing musical life. Outstanding musicians were engaged, including
Louis Spohr (court Kapellmeister 1805–12) and his wife Dorothea
Scheidler, a distinguished harpist. With the municipal Kantor J.G. Schade,
Spohr organized the first Gotha Music Festival in the Margarethenkirche in
1812, when Weber was among the soloists. Spohr’s successor A.J.
Romberg (Kapellmeister from 1815) founded the first Gotha Singverein in
1819, thus inaugurating public concert life. Ludwig Böhner, the prototype of
E.T.A. Hoffmann’s ‘Kreisler’, was born in Töttelstedt, near Gotha, and
maintained connections with the town, where he died in poverty in 1860.
This circle of enlightened artists and teachers included those at the
educational establishment in nearby Schnepfenthal, founded by the
philanthropist C.G. Salzmann (1774–1811) and run according to the ideas
of Pestalozzi; music was cultivated with the help of Gotha musicians,
particularly Spohr and Scheidler. Other notable musicians in the town at
that time were R.Z. Becker, publisher of the Mildheimisches Liederbuch
(1799), and J.H. Walch (1775–1855), court Kapellmeister and composer of
popular marches and dances. Weber was also a friend and frequent guest
of August I. Music continued to flourish under Duke Ernst I of Coburg-
Gotha (1826–44), who in 1837 initiated the building of a new Hoftheater,
inaugurated in 1840 with Meyerbeer’s Robert le diable. (A converted
ballroom in Schloss Friedenstein had served as the court theatre from
1682 until that date.) Ernst II (1844–93) was an enthusiastic patron of the
theatre and a composer himself; the first performance of his Santa Chiara
was conducted by Liszt in the Hoftheater (1854), and the work was also
performed elsewhere in Germany and in Paris. Ernst hired leading singers
for the theatre and was an early enthusiast for Wagner; Tannhäuser was
given at Gotha in 1854. Meanwhile public music-making developed in the
town: a male-voice Liedertafel was founded in 1837 and was united with
Romberg’s Singverein in 1875 to form the Wanderslebscher Gesangverein.
Another male-voice chorus, the Thüringisches Sängerbund, was
established in 1843. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, brother of the
music-loving Duke Ernst II, were among the guests at the third
Thüringisches Sängerfest, held in 1845 outside Schloss Friedenstein.
The musical life of Gotha, besides including theatrical productions and
choral singing, was also enriched in the second half of the 19th century by
the existence of orchestral societies which organized concerts. They
included the Musikverein, founded in 1868, and between 1881 and 1909
the Orchesterverein of the conservatory under A. Patzig. After 1919 the
Landestheater of Saxe-Gotha (which became the Landestheater of
Thuringia in 1920) continued the tradition of the court theatre until the
theatre building was destroyed by artillery fire in April 1945. The company
moved to Eisenach in 1950. In the 1920s musicians such as Leo Blech,
Siegfried Wagner, Schreker, Strauss and Abendroth conducted the
Landeskapelle, which saw a period of revival under the musical direction of
Heinz Bongartz (1930–33). The orchestra became known as the
Landessinfonieorchester Thüringen in 1951. Fritz Müller, music director
from 1951 to 1970, was succeeded by Gerhart Wiesenhütter (1970–74),
G.R. Bauer (1974–80), Lothar Seyfarth (1980–91) and Hermann Breuer
(from 1991). In 1998 the orchestra merged with the Suhl Philharmonie to
create the Thüringen-Philharmonie Gotha-Suhl. The rich choral tradition of
the town has also been maintained by choirs including the Bach Choir
(founded 1950) and the Municipal Concert Choir, founded in 1953 in
association with the orchestra. 1986 saw the founding of a music college
which has borne the name of Louis Spohr since 1989. The town’s library,
the Forschungs- und Landesbibliothek Gotha, contains important source
material for the musical history of Thuringia in its extensive music
collections.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (A. Fett and H. Roob)
N. Bruekner: Kirchen- und Schulstaat von Herzogthum Gotha (Gotha,
1753)
F.W. Marpurg: ‘Nachrichten von der Cammer- und Capellmusik zu Gotha’,
Historisch-kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik, i (Berlin, 1754–
5/R)
A. Voigt: 50 Jahre der Liedertafel zu Gotha 1837–1887 (Gotha, 1889)
A. Voigt: Geschichte des Thüringer Sängerbundes (Gotha, 1889)
M. Schneider: ‘Die Einweihung der Schlosskirche auf dem “Friedenstein”
zu Gotha im Jahre 1646’, SIMG, vii (1905–6), 308–13
H. Gaensler: Der Musikverein zu Gotha 1868–1918 (Gotha, 1918)
A. Aber: Die Pflege der Musik unter den Wettinern und wettinischen
Ernestinern (Bückeburg and Leipzig, 1921)
E. Rabich: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des deutschen Konzertwesens
(Gotha, 1921)
E.W. Böhme: Die frühdeutsche Oper in Thüringen (Stadtroda, 1931/R)
K. Schmidt: Gotha im heimatkundlichen Schrifttum (Gotha, 1939)
A. Fett: Musikgeschichte der Stadt Gotha von den Anfängen bis zum Tode
G.H. Stölzels (1749) (diss., U. of Freiburg, 1952)
W. Blankenburg: ‘Die Aufführungen von Passionen und Passionsmusiken
an der Schlosskirche auf dem Friedenstein zu Gotha zwischen 1699
und 1770’, Festschrift Friedrich Blume, ed. A.A. Abert and W.
Pfannkuch (Kassel, 1963), 50–59
H.A. Frenzel: Thüringer Schlosstheater … vom 16. bis 19. Jahrhundert
(Berlin, 1965)
H. Engel: Musik in Thüringen (Graz, 1966)
M. Pulst: Kompositionen der böhmischen Musikeremigration in der
Landesbibliothek Gotha (Gotha, 1967) [catalogue]
H. Münster: Festschrift zum vierzigjährigen Bestehen des
Landessinfonieorchesters Thüringen (Gotha, 1991)
R. Potyra: ‘Der Komponist Ernst II.: ein Überblick über seine Werke’,
Herzog Ernst II. von Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha 1818–1893 und
seine Zeit, ed. H. Bachmann and others (Coburg and Gotha, 1993),
207–23
W. Klante: ‘Die Konstellation von Musik und Aufklärung am Gothaer Hof’,
Mf, xlix (1996), 47–53
A. Werner: Generalkatalog der Musiker in Sachsen und Thüringen (MS, D-
WRiv) [incl. list of over 300 musicians active in Gotha]
G. KRAFT/DIETER HÄRTWIG
Gothenburg.
See Göteborg.
Gothic Voices.
British vocal ensemble. Formed in 1980 by Christopher Page, it specializes
in the performance of medieval and early Renaissance repertories, both
monophonic and polyphonic. Past members have included Margaret
Philpot, Emma Kirkby, Emily van Evera, Rogers Covey-Crump, Leigh
Nixon, John Mark Ainsley, Rufus Müller, Charles Daniels and Don Greig. In
1998 its core membership comprised Nixon, Stephen Charlesworth,
Catherine King, Steven Harrold and Julian Podger. Its recordings on the
Hyperion label incorporate much of Page's research into performing
practice, especially with regard to the roles of voices and instruments,
techniques of vocal production and text presentation. This has been
particularly influential in establishing all-vocal performance in early secular
repertories. The ensemble's performances are characterized by uncommon
sensitivity to matters of intonation and pronunciation. Its areas of special
interest have included secular monophony, conductus repertories, Ars
Nova (with special emphasis on Machaut), early 15th-century English
polyphony and 15th-century song.
FABRICE FITCH
Gotkovsky, Nell
(b Athis-Mons, nr Paris, 26 Sept 1939). French violinist. She studied first
with her father and then with Max Rostal, Ivan Galamian and Joseph
Szigeti. She won a premier prix at the Paris Conservatoire and made her
début in London in 1962 with the BBC SO, receiving much acclaim for her
poise and technical command in works by Bach and Beethoven. She has
performed with most leading orchestras and appeared regularly at the
Holland, Lucerne and Zürich festivals, among others. As a recitalist she has
performed with William Glock, Christian Ivaldi and her brother, Ivar
Gotkovsky, with whom she has made recordings of Beethoven and Brahms
sonatas. She has also made a speciality of the unaccompanied violin
literature, with distinguished recordings of Bach, Bartók, Migot, Mannino
and Prokofiev. Despite her wide-ranging sympathies it is the Classical
repertory to which her style of playing is most suited. She allies a strong,
pure tone to a sensitivity and delicacy that allows her to approach
concertos by Mozart and Haydn, for instance, with an appropriate blend of
clarity, precision and warmth. She plays a G.B. Guadagnini violin of 1770.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Angles: ‘Technical Mistress’, Music and Musicians, xii/2 (1963–4), 8–9
J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin, 1889–1971 (Toronto, 1974,
2/1994)
LESLIE EAST/R
Gotovac, Jakov
(b Split, 11 Oct 1895; d Zagreb, 16 Oct 1982). Croatian composer. After
studies in Split with Dobronić and Hatze, he attended Joseph Marx’s
composition classes at the Vienna Music Academy (1920). After a short
period in Šibenik, from 1923 to 1957 he was a conductor at the Zagreb
Opera and the director of several choirs. Gotovac wrote his most important
works in the period between the two world wars; he was one of the
representatives of the so-called national style, using characteristic
elements of folk music in his own idiom and focussing on themes from
peasant life. His first major achievements were the folk ritual Koleda (1925)
and the Simfonijsko kolo (‘Symphonic Reel’, 1926), a popular orchestral
work in which teeming rhythms converge on a powerful climax. In general
his music is homophonic and simple in harmonic structure. After the
romantic opera Morana, his most successful work is the comic opera Ero s
onoga svijeta (‘Ero the Joker’), a model of folk banter worked into a
structural whole within which he was able to express his own sense of
comedy. Ero was performed in more than 80 European theatres, and was
succeeded by other fine stage works.
WORKS
(selective list)
stage
Morana (romantic national op, 3, A. Muradbegović), 1928–30, Brno, 29 Nov 1930
Ero s onoga svijeta [Ero the Joker] (comic op, 3, M. Begović), 1933–5, Zagreb, 2
Nov 1935
Kamenik [The Quarry] (3, R. Nikolić, after M. Fotez), 1939–44, Zagreb, 17 Dec
1946
Mila Gojsalića (historical musical drama, 3, D. Anđelinović), 1948–52, Zagreb, 18
May 1952
Đerdan [The Necklace] (musical play, 5 ‘pictures’, Gotovac and C. Jakelić, after D.
Šimunović), 1954–5, Zagreb, 29 Nov 1955
Stanac (operatic scherzo, 1, M. Držić and V. Rabadan), Zagreb, 6 Dec 1959
Dalmaro (operatic legend, 1, R.L. Petelinova), 1958, Zagreb, 20 Dec 1964
Petar Svačić (op-orat, Z. Tomičić), 1969, finale rev. 1971
other
Orch: Simfonijsko kolo [Sym. Reel], 1926; Pjesma i ples s Balkana [Song and
Dance from the Balkans], 1939; Orači [The Ploughers], 1937; Guslar [The Gusle
Player], 1940; Dinarka [Dinara Girl], 1945
Choral: 2 scherza, 1916; 2 pjesme čuda i smijeha [2 Songs of Laughter and
Wonder], 1924; Koleda, 1925; 3 momačka zbora [3 Choruses for Young Men],
1932; Pjesme vječnog jada [Songs of Eternal Sorrow], 1939; Pjesme zanosa
[Songs of Ecstasy], 1955
Solo vocal: Djevojka i mjesec [A Girl and the Moon], A, orch, 1917; 2 soneta, B,
orch, 1921; Rizvan-aga, Bar, orch, 1938; Pjesme čeznuća [Songs of Longing], 1v,
orch, 1939; songs for 1v, pf
BIBLIOGRAPHY
K. Kovačević: Hrvatski kompozitori i njihova djela [Croatian composers
and their works] (Zagreb, 1960)
I. Supičić: ‘Estetski pogledi u novijoj hrvatskoj muzici: pregled temeljnih
gledanja četrnaestorice kompozitora’ [Aesthetic approaches in
contemporary Croatian music: a survey of the basic views of 14
composers], Arti musices, i (1969), 23–61
J. Andreis: Music in Croatia (Zagreb, 1974, enlarged 2/1982 by I. Supičić),
288–97
J. Andreis: ‘Jakov Gotovac’, Iz hrvatske glazbe [From Croatian music]
(Zagreb, 1979), 119–66
Jakov Gotovac 1895–1982: spomenica [Jakov Gotovac 1895–1982:
memorial] (Zagreb, 1986) [pubn of the Croatian Academy of Arts and
Sciences; incl. bibliography and complete list of works]
KREŠIMIR KOVAČEVIĆ/KORALJKA KOS
Gotschovius [Gottschovius],
Nicolaus [Nikolaus]
(b Rostock, c1575; d ?Stargard, Pomerania, after 1624). German
composer and organist. He was the son of a schoolmaster, who moved
from Rostock to Stargard in 1589. He worked as an organist at Stargard
while still a schoolboy. In 1595 he matriculated at Rostock University but
apparently did not complete his studies. In 1598 he obtained posts at
Stargard as organist and public notary. At the end of 1604 he became
organist of the Marienkirche, the principal church of Rostock. Although it
was the Kantor, not the organist, who was responsible for providing
polyphonic music for services, Gotschovius nevertheless published
numerous sacred vocal pieces during his 15 years at Rostock. His
university training was another recommendation for his appointment as a
Kantor, but the Kantor of the Marienkirche, Johann Neukrantz, who had in
no way distinguished himself as a composer, was succeeded in 1618 not
by Gotschovius but by Daniel Friderici. A year later Gotschovius returned to
Stargard as the Marienkirche organist and civic secretary. He was invited
as a consultant on organ building to Wismar in 1608 and Köslin (now
Koszalin) in 1620. His music acquired a great reputation in Rostock. He
was commissioned to write works for numerous weddings and other
celebrations, and the five parts of the Centuriae found favour not only with
the Kantors of Rostock but also with pastors and university professors.
While Gotschovius's four- and five-part works are strongly influenced by
the chorale motets of Johannes Eccard, his compositions in six and more
parts clearly show modern Venetian influences, with a preference for short
melodic phrases in homophonic texture. Even the six-part works use
double-choir techniques. In them, but even more in pieces for two or three
cori spezzati, Gotschovius showed a marked feeling for sonorous effects.
Also worthy of note is his way, in the wedding motet Dialogismus (1610), of
glossing a Latin hymn, set contrapuntally for the first choir, with a
homophonic German chorale for the second choir.
WORKS
published in Rostock unless otherwise stated
Decas musicalis prima sacrarum odarum, 4–10 and more vv (1603), lost, cited in
WaltherML
Centuriae sacrarum cantionum et motectarum, Decas prima [-quinta], 4–9 and more
vv (1608–11); 2 motets, 4vv, ed. in Handbuch der deutschen evangelischen
Kirchenmusik (Göttingen, 1932), i/2, 119; iii/2, 56; 1 motet, 8vv, ed. in Laue
Variarum cantionum … manipulus, 5–10 and more vv (1611); 2 motets, 6vv, 8vv, ed.
in Laue
Weynacht Gesang: Zu Ehren unserm lieben Emanueli und Heilande Jesu Christo,
5vv (1613)
Cunae pueruli Christi Salvatoris, 7vv (?Rostock, ?after 1613)
Quadriga harmoniarum sacrarum, 5vv (Stettin, 1620)
Gaudia gaudete, 8vv (?Stettin, ?after 1620)
Cum bono Deo (Stettin, 1624), lost, cited in Kittler
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G. Kittler: ‘Die pommerschen Notendrucke bis Ende des 17.
Jahrhunderts’, Musik in Pommern, iv (1935), 175–202, esp. 195; v
(1936), 6–18
H.J. Daebaler: Musiker und Musikpflege in Rostock von der
Stadtgründung bis 1700 (diss., U. of Rostock, 1966)
R. Laue: Rostocker Kirchenmusik im 17. Jahrhundert (diss., U. of Rostock,
1974)
B. Köhler: Pommersche Musikkultur in der ersten Hälfte des 17.
Jahrhunderts (Sankt Augustin, 1997)
K. Heller, H. Möller and A. Waczkat, eds.: Musik in Mecklenburg
(Hildesheim, 1999)
MARTIN RUHNKE/ANDREAS WACZKAT
Gottfried von Strassburg.
See Gotfrid von Strassburg.
Götting, Valentin
(b Witzenhausen; fl 1587–9). German Kantor. He is known principally for
the Compendium musicae modulativae, quale brevitate ordinis
commoditate et facilitate nunquam visum, observatum et in usum
puerorum jam primum ad musicam adhibendorum collectum (Erfurt, 1587),
a short treatise of the musica practica type that presents the most basic
elements of music. After some preliminary definitions, the material is
divided into two parts: the claves, dealing with the rules of solmization, and
the characteres, dealing with the mensural music (polyphony). In the first
part it is noteworthy that the soft and hard hexachords are regarded as
transpositions. The few illustrative examples are extremely simple, using
only ascending and descending scales for thematic material; at the end,
however, are somewhat more elaborate examples demonstrating the
intervals and scales. Götting's formulations appear to be his own
throughout. The treatise contains a long preface by Henning Dedekind,
together with Latin poems, one by Götting's brother Heinrich, another a set
of distichs dedicated to the theorist Beurhaus.
Götting edited a collection of polyphonic psalms of which no complete copy
survives: Psalmus CXII: melodia suavi octo vocum ornatus figuris
typographicis descriptus et gratulationis loco Dn. Ja. Steurlino dedic.
(Erfurt, 1589). He also contributed 12 pieces to Dedekind’s anthology of
tricinia (RISM 158830).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG1 (M. Ruhnke)
G. Kraft: Die thüringische Musikkultur um 1600 (Würzburg, 1941), i
F.E. KIRBY
Göttingen.
City in Germany, in Lower Saxony. It is the seat of a famous university and
a principal centre in Germany for the performance of the works of Handel
and the study of those of J.S. Bach. In the Göttinger Kirchenordnung
(1531) the importance of music was stressed, but it was not until the end of
the 16th century that significant developments took place; this was a
consequence of the establishment of a Pädagogium in 1586. Otto Siegfried
Harnisch was outstanding among its Kantors. Several of his compositions,
including the Psalmodia nova simplex et harmonica (1621), were written for
use in Göttingen churches. In 1734 the University of Göttingen was
founded by George II, King of England and Elector of Hanover; it quickly
established itself as a notably progressive institution. In 1735 a collegium
musicum was founded on the Leipzig model, with Johann Friedrich
Schweinitz (1708–80), a pupil of Bach, as director; he began giving weekly
concerts in 1736, founding the city’s tradition of academic music-making. In
1769 J.N. Forkel, Bach’s first biographer, entered the university as a
student; after a year he became university organist and in 1771 he invited
W.F. Bach to give a recital in the university church. In February 1779
Forkel, an instructor in music from 1772, replaced the violinist Georg
Philipp Kress as director of the weekly academic concerts; he
superintended them until 1815. During this time he developed his
musicological interests, establishing a continuing tradition. The Bach
revival of the 19th century reached Göttingen late; the Bach-Chor, under
Woldemar Voigt, was founded in 1894. With the Gesangverein directed by
Otto Freiberg (1846–1926), the choir regularly performed Bach’s cantatas
and other important works. The Bach Institute, an editorial centre of the
Neue Bach-Ausgabe, was established in 1951. The history of musicology
in Göttingen begins with the work of Forkel, but a university chair was
founded only in 1920, for Friedrich Ludwig, under whom Göttingen became
a centre of medieval studies. The university’s Musikwissenschaftliches
Seminar is now the home of one of the largest instrument collections in
Germany.
Göttingen’s renowned Handel Festival was established by Oskar Hagen.
The performances of Rodelinda in the Stadttheater in 1920 were a
milestone in the revival of Handel’s operas and inspired many other
enthusiasts. The festival became an annual event, and its scope
broadened. In 1931 the Göttinger Händel-Gesellschaft was formed. After
World War II the Göttingen Handel Festival attracted increasing
international interest; its artistic directors have included John Eliot Gardiner
(1980–90) and Nicholas McGegan (from 1990). Other events held in the
city are an international Chopin competition and an organ festival. There
are various choirs in Göttingen, including a boys’ choir, and also several
orchestras.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (B. Wiechert) [incl. fuller bibliography]
M. Staehelin, ed.: Musikwissenschaft und Musikpflege an der Georg-
August-Universität Göttingen: Beiträge zu ihrer Geschichte (Göttingen,
1987)
B. Egdorf and M. Schäfer: Von der Stadtmusik im 19. Jahrhundert bis zur
Gründung des Göttinger Symphonie-Orchesters: ein Beitrag zur
kommunalen Musikgeschichte Göttingens (Göttingen, 1989)
M. Staehelin: ‘Siebzig Jahre Göttinger Händel-Festspiele: zu den
Anfängen der Göttinger Händel-Renaissance’, Göttinger Händel-
Beiträge, iv (1991), 23–40
PERCY M. YOUNG/BERND WIECHERT
Editions:Piano Music by Louis Moreau Gottschalk, ed. J. Behrend (Bryn Mawr, PA, 1956)
[B]The Piano Works of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, ed. V.B. Lawrence and R. Jackson
(New York, 1969) [contains almost all extant pubd pf works] [facs.]Gottschalk: a
Compendium of Piano Music, ed. E. List (New York, 1971) [Lc]Piano Music of Louis
Moreau Gottschalk, ed. R. Jackson (New York, 1973) [J]Louis Moreau Gottschalk: 10
Compositions for Pianoforte, ed. A. Rigai (New York, 1973) [R]Louis Moreau
Gottschalk: kreolische und karibische Klavierstücke, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1973)
[K]Album for Piano Solo (Melville, NY, 1976) [A]The Little Book of Louis Moreau
Gottschalk, ed. R. Jackson and N. Ratliff (New York, 1976) [JR]Gottschalk: Piano
Duets, i, ed. E. List (New York, 1982) [Li]Gottschalk: Piano Duets, ii, ed. E. List (New
York, 1983) [Lii]Complete Published Songs of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, ed. R. Jackson
(Newton Centre, MA, 1993)
operas
D RO
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P. Arpin: Biographie de L.M. Gottschalk, pianiste américain (New York,
1853; Eng. trans., 1853)
H. D[idimus]: Biography of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, the American Pianist
and Composer (Philadelphia, 1853)
O. Hensel: Life and Letters of Louis Moreau Gottschalk (Boston, 1870)
L.R. Fors: Gottschalk (Havana, 1880)
L.M. Gottschalk: Notes of a Pianist, ed. C. Gottschalk Peterson
(Philadelphia,1881); ed. J. Behrend (New York, 1964/R)
[W.S.B.] M[athews]: ‘Gottschalk: a Successful American Composer’,
Music [Chicago], ii (1891–2), 117–32
E. Swayne: ‘Gottschalk: the First American Pianist’, Music [Chicago], xviii
(1900–01), 519–29
W.A. Fisher: ‘Louis Moreau Gottschalk, the First American Pianist and
Composer: a Life Sketch’, The Musician, xiii (1908), 437–8, 466 only
J.F. Cooke: Louis Moreau Gottschalk (Philadelphia, 1928)
J.T. Howard: ‘Louis Moreau Gottschalk, as Portrayed by himself’, MQ, xviii
(1932), 120–33
R.D. Darrell: ‘An Early Pan-American Exhumed’, Musical Mercury, i
(1934), 18–21
J. Kirkpatrick: Observations of Four Volumes and Supplement of the
Works of Louis Moreau Gottschalk in the New York Public Library (MS,
US-NYp, c1935)
C.E. Lindstrom: ‘The American Quality in the Music of Louis Moreau
Gottschalk’, MQ, xxxi (1945), 335–66
A.C. Minor: Piano Concerts in New York City, 1849–1865 (diss., U. of
Michigan, 1947)
I. Lowens: ‘The First Matinée Idol: Louis Moreau Gottschalk’, Musicology,
ii (1948–9), 23–34; repr. in Music and Musicians in Early America
(New York, 1964), 223–33
F.C. Lange: Vida y muerte de Louis Moreau Gottschalk en Rio de Janeiro,
1869 (Mendoza, 1951)
C.P. de Rezende: ‘O poeta do piano’, Investigações [São Paulo], iii (1951),
21–42
G. Chase: ‘The Exotic Periphery’, America’s Music, from the Pilgrims to
the Present (New York, 1955, 2/1966), 301–23
V. Loggins: Where the Word Ends: the Life of Louis Moreau Gottschalk
(Baton Rouge, LA, 1958)
J. Behrend: ‘The Peripatetic Gottschalk: America’s First Concert Pianist’,
Américas, xi (1959), 21–6
E.J. Pasarell: ‘El centenario de los conciertos de Adelina Patti y Luis
Moreau Gottschalk en Puerto Rico’, Revista del Instituto de cultura
Puertorriqueña, ii/2 (1959), 52–5
J.G. Doyle: The Piano Music of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, 1829–1869
(diss., New York U., 1960)
R. Offergeld: ‘Louis Moreau Gottschalk’, HiFi/Stereo Review, xxi/3 (1968),
53–67
R. Offergeld: ‘The Gottschalk Legend: Grand Fantasy for a Great Many
Pianos’,The Piano Works of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, ed. V.B.
Lawrence (New York, 1969)
R. Stevenson: ‘Gottschalk in Buenos Aires’, Inter-American Music Bulletin,
no.74 (1969), 1–7
R. Stevenson: ‘Gottschalk in Western South America’, ibid., 7–16
M. Márquez Sterling: ‘Gottschalk, Musical Humboldt’, Américas, xxii
(1970), 10–18
R. Offergeld: The Centennial Catalogue of the Published and Unpublished
Compositions of Louis Moreau Gottschalk (New York, 1970)
W.T.Marrocco: ‘Gottschalkiana: New Light of the Gottschalks and the
Bruslés’, Louisiana History, xii (1971), 59–66
K. Abraham: ‘Mr. Dwight’s Blind Spot: Louis Moreau Gottschalk’, Musart,
xxv/2 (1973), 47–50
R. Jackson: ‘Gottschalk of Louisiana’, preface to Piano Music of Louis
Moreau Gottschalk (New York, 1973)
W.T. Marrocco: ‘America’s First Nationalist Composer: Louis Moreau
Gottschalk (1829–1869)’, Scritti in onore di Luigi Ronga (Milan and
Naples, 1973), 293–313
L.A. Rubin: Gottschalk in Cuba (diss., Columbia U., 1974)
W.E. Korf: ‘Gottschalk’s One-Act Opera Scene, Escenas campestres’,
CMc, no.26 (1978), 62–73
J.G. Doyle: Louis Moreau Gottschalk 1829–1869: a Bibliographical Study
and Catalog of Works (Detroit, 1983)
W.E. Korf: The Orchestral Music of Louis Moreau Gottschalk (Henryville,
PA, 1983)
S. Berthier: Les voyages extraordinaires de Louis Moreau Gottschalk,
pianiste et aventurier (Lausanne, 1985)
R. Jackson: ‘A Gottschalk Collection Surveyed’, Notes, xlvi (1989–90),
352–75
C.W. Brockett: ‘Gottschalk in Madrid: a Tale of Ten Pianos’, MQ, lxxv
(1991), 279–315
C. Brocket: ‘Autobiographer versus Biographer: how Factual is
Gottschalk?’, Sonneck Society for American Music Bulletin, xix/3
(1993), 9–12
R. Hamel: Louis Moreau Gottschalk et son temps (1829–1869)
(Paris,1995)
S.F. Starr: Bamboula! The Life and Times of Louis Moreau Gottschalk
(New York, 1995)
Gottschalk of Aachen [Gottschalk
von Limburg, Godescalcus
Lintpurgensis]
(fl 1071–98). Priest and writer of sequences. He is perhaps best
remembered for his notarial work in the chancery of Emperor Henry IV,
whom he served from 1071 to 1084. During his service at the court he
drafted a series of epistles that defended the king's right of episcopal
investiture; these letters formed the core of a propaganda campaign waged
against Pope Gregory VII, who sought to curb lay participation in the
administration of the Church. Aspects of Gottschalk's political allegiance
can be detected in one of his compositions, the sequence Celi enarrant, on
the Division of the Apostles.
He was appointed provost of the church of St Servatins in Maastricht by
1087 and held the same post at the Church of Our Lady, Aachen, by 1098.
He retired to the abbey of Klingenmünster, where he composed an Office
(now lost) and two essays in honour of Irenaeus and Abundius, the patron
saints of the neighbouring monastery of Limburg-an-der-Hardt. An
oversight led Dreves to believe that Gottschalk was a monk there rather
than at Klingenmünster (see Erdmann and Gladiss). A 13th-century
necrology (D-AAst KK St. Marien 204) from the Church of Our Lady in
Aachen records the date of his death as 24 November, but the year is
unknown.
Since the monograph by Dreves in 1897 and the publication of the texts
(Analecta hymnica, i and liii), it has been customary to ascribe 23 or 24
extant sequences to Gottschalk. Such a large number of works would, by
itself, make him an important figure of the so-called transition period of the
sequence, but not all works are secure attributions. Five were claimed by
Gottschalk himself: Celi enarrant, Laus tibi, Christe (for St Mary
Magdalene), A solis ortu et occasu (on the Holy Cross), and the Marian
sequences Fecunde verbo and Exsulta exaltata. In addition, a manuscript
collection of his sequences still existed in Klingenmünster at the end of the
15th century; this has not survived, but the humanist Jacob Wimpheling's
description of the source, published in 1499, mentions three works not
claimed by the composer. 14 additions (all found in one 12th-century MS,
A-Wn 13314) were made by Dreves on the basis of similar concepts and
rhetorical technique, not of poetic form and metre, or melody. Two more
attributions come from Clemens Blume, to bring the total to 24 (full list in
Szövérffy). Dreves published seven melodies thought to be original; the
tunes of at least ten other sequences were borrowed either from
Gottschalk’s own works, for example, his Laus tibi, Christe for Mary
Magdalene, or from the earlier repertory, for example, the tune Eia turma.
In some cases the borrowed music creates important textual connections
between the associated chants, as demonstrated in the richly exegetical
relationship between his sequence Celi enarrant and its melodic source,
Alleluia, Non vos me.
In addition to his sequences, decrees and polemical letters, Gottschalk
also wrote six liturgical opuscula, or short essays, two of which have
important musical content. Addressing unnamed detractors who criticised
his sequences Fecunda verbo and Exsulta exaltata, Gottschalk mounted a
spirited defence of his compositions, in the course of which he gave a
glimpse of his compositional technique, the name of his teacher (‘master
Heinricus, who composed the respond Omnis lapis pretiosus’) and
provided explanations of his idiosyncratic theological views. Both of these
essays, along with his writings on St Irenaeus and St Abundius, are found
in an early 12th-century manuscript, A-Wn 917. The defence of Exsulta
exaltata in this source concludes with the controversial chant itself, notated
in neumes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.M. Dreves: Godescalcus Lintpurgensis: Gottschalk, Mönch von Limburg
an der Hardt, (Leipzig, 1897)
C. Erdmann and D. von Gladiss: ‘Gottschalk von Aachen im Dienste
Heinrichs IV.’, Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte des Mittelalters, iii
(1939), 115–74
J. LeClercq: ‘Sermon sur la Divisio Apostolorum attribuable à Gottschalk
de Limbourg’, Sacris erudiri, vii (1955), 219–28
J. Szövérffy: Die Annalen der lateinischen Hymnendichtung, i
(Berlin,1964)
M. McGrade: ‘Gottschalk of Aachen, the Investiture Controversy, and
Music for the Feast of the Divisio apostolorum’, JAMS, xlix (1996),
351–408
LAWRENCE GUSHEE/MICHAEL McGRADE
Gottuvādyam.
See Vīnā, §6.
Gottwald, Clytus
(b Bad Salzbrunn [now Szczawno-Zdrój], Silesia, 20 Nov 1925). German
musicologist, choir director and composer. He studied singing with Hüsch,
choir directing with Kurt Thomas, and musicology at the universities of
Tübingen and Frankfurt, with sociology, Protestant theology and folklore as
subsidiary subjects. In 1961 he received the doctorate at Frankfurt under
Helmuth Osthoff with a dissertation proving through style criticism that
Ghiselin and Verbonnet were the same person; he has also edited the
complete works of that composer. He was Kantor at St Paul's in Stuttgart
(1958–70) and in 1960 he founded the Stuttgart Schola Cantorum, which
he led until it disbanded in 1990. He was adviser for new music for the
South German Radio in Stuttgart (1969–88). In 1972 Pierre Boulez
selected him to help in the planning of the Centre Beaubourg in Paris. His
musicological estate is held by the Paul Sacher Stiftung.
WORKS
7 Spruchmotetten (Silesius), chorus, 1956; Missa super ‘Anastaseos himera’,
chorus, org, 1957; Fragmente (G. Benn), chorus, 2 pf, 1958; De profundis, chorus,
tape, 1962; Über das, über ein verschwinden (Boulez), chorus, 1970 [on chord from
P. Boulez: Le visage nuptial]
Vocal arrs.: M. Ravel: Soupir; A. Berg: Die Nachtigall; G. Mahler: Ich bin der Welt
abhanden gekommen (F. Rückert); O. Messiaen: Louange à l'éternité de Jesus; C.
Debussy: Angelus
WRITINGS
‘Hallelujah’ und die Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns: ausgewählte
Schriften (Stuttgart, 1998) [H]
‘Johannes Ghiselin – Janne Verbonnet: some Traces of his Life’, MD, xv
1961), 105–11
Johannes Ghiselin – Johannes Verbonnet: stilkritische Untersuchungen
zum Problem ihrer Identität (diss., U. of Frankfurt, 1961; Wiesbaden,
1962)
Codices musici: die Handschriften der Württembergischen
Landesbibliothek Stuttgart, 1st ser., i (Wiesbaden, 1964); Die
Handschriften der ehemaligen Königlichen Hofbibliothek, 2nd ser., vi/1
(Wiesbaden, 1965)
Die Musikhandschriften der Universitätsbibliothek München (Wiesbaden,
1968)
‘Antoine Brumels Messe “Et ecce terrae motus”’, AMw, xxvi (1969), 236–47
‘Humanisten-Stammbücher als musikalische Quellen’, Helmuth Osthoff zu
seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. W. Stauder, U. Aarburg and P.
Calm (Tutzing, 1969), 89–103
‘Geistliche Chormusik: politische Tendenzen der geistlichen Musik, ii’,
Musik zwischen Engagement und Kunst: Graz 1971, 31–42
‘Politische Tendenzen der geistlichen Musik’, Über Musik und Politik, ed. R.
Stephan (Mainz, 1971), 39–47
‘Bausteine zu einer Theorie der neuen Vokalmusik’, Festschrift für einen
Verleger: Ludwig Strecker zum 90. Geburtstag, ed. C. Dahlhaus
(Mainz, 1973), 259–69
‘Der Ketzer der Wiener Schule: über die Frauenchöre von Theodor W.
Adorno’, Zeitschrift für Musiktheorie, iv/1 (1973), 39–48
Die Musikhandschriften der Staats- und Stadtbibliothek Augsburg
(Wiesbaden, 1974)
‘Fragments d’une analyse de Song Books (par John Cage)’, La musique
en projet, ed. B. Marger and S. Benmussa (Paris, 1975), 117–25
‘Leonard Bernsteins Messe oder die Konstruktion der Blasphemie’,
Melos/NZM, ii (1976), 299–308
‘Steve Reich: Signale zwischen Exotik und Industrie’, Avantgarde, Jazz,
Pop: Darmstadt 1977, 24–30
‘John Cage und Marcel Duchamp’, John Cage, i, Musik-Konzepte (1978,
2/1990), 132–46
Die Musikhandschriften der Universitätsbibliothek und anderer öffentlicher
Sammlungen in Freiburg im Breisgau und Umgebung (Wiesbaden,
1979)
‘Fragment über Messiaen’, Olivier Messiaen, Musik-Konzepte, no.28
(1982), 78–91
‘Lasso-Josquin-Dufay: zur Ästhetik des heroischen Zeitalters’, Josquin des
Prés, Musik-Konzepte, nos.26–7 (1982), 36–69
‘Auf den Flügeln des Gesanges: zu Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft
des Chorgesanges’, ÖMz, xxxix (1984), 130–39
‘Swesdoliki: die unbeantwortete Frage’, Igor Strawinsky, Musik-Konzepte,
nos.34–5 (1984), 65–79
‘Bach, Kagel und die Theologie des Atheismus’, Johann Sebastian Bach:
die Passionen, Musik-Konzepte, nos.50–51 (1986), 121–39
‘Brian Ferneyhough ou la métaphysique du positivisme’, Contrechamps,
no.8 (1988), 64–78
‘ … denn ihre Werke folgen ihnen nach: zur Ästhetik der Musik des
heroischen Zeitalters (II)’, Das musikalische Kunstwerk: … Festschrift
Carl Dahlhaus, ed. H. Danuser and others (Laaber, 1988), 317–32 [H]
Die Handschriften des Germanischen Nationalmuseums Nürnberg
(Wiesbaden, 1988)
‘Vom Schönen im Wahren’, Helmut Lachenmann, Musik-Konzepte,
nos.61–2 (1988), 3–11
‘Hallelujah und die Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns’, Kagel – 1991,
ed. W. Klüppelholz (Cologne, 1991), 155–67 [H]
Papiermarken der Landgrafenschaft Hessen-Kassel 1590–1660 (Kassel,
1991)
‘Von Heissenbüttel, dem Radio und neuen Musik’, Schrift, Ecriture,
Geschrieben, Gelesen: für Helmut Heissenbüttel zum siebzigsten
Geburtstag, ed. C. Weiss (Stuttgart, 1991), 100–08
‘Möglichkeiten geistlicher Musik’, Wüttembergische Blätter für
Kirchenmusik, lix (1992), 12–21 [H]
‘Mythos Bach’, Bach und die Moderne: Brunswick 1992, 9–19
‘Choral Music and the Avant-Garde’, Choral Music Perspectives: Dedicated
to Eric Ericson, ed. L. Reimars and B. Wallner (Stockholm, 1993),
119–35 [H]
Katalog der Musikalien in der Schermar-Bibliothek Ulm (Wiesbaden, 1993)
‘Palestrina: “L'homme armé”’, Palestrina zwischen Démontage und
Rettung, Musik-Konzepte, no.86 (1994), 43–59 [H]
‘Traum und Konstruktion’, ‘Laudatio auf Heinz Holliger’, Die Musik und ihr
Preis, ed. R. von Canal and G. Weiss (Regensburg, 1994), 108–16,
320–30 [H]
‘Lachenmann und die Stuttgarter Konkreten’, Semiosis, nos.77–8 (1995),
111–21 [H]
‘Musica crucis: zu Schnebels musikalischer Theologie’, Musik-Texte,
nos.57–8 (1995), 93–7 [H]
‘Boulez, Nono und die Idee der Perfektion’, Pierre Boulez, Musik-Konzepte,
nos.89–90 (1995), 132–53 [H]
Die Musikhandschriften der Gesamthochschul-Bibliothek Kassel,
Landesbibliothek und Murhardsche Bibliothek der Stadt Kassel
(Wiesbaden, 1997)
EDITIONS
John Ghiselin – Verbonnet: Opera omnia, CMM, xxiii (1961–8)
HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT
Göttweig.
Benedictine abbey near Krems, Lower Austria. It was founded in 1083 by
Bishop Altmann of Passau as a monastery for prebendaries. In 1094 it was
taken over by Benedictines from St Blasien in the Black Forest, and rapidly
became an important centre of religious and intellectual life. After a period
of decline during the Reformation, Göttweig flourished in the Baroque era,
particularly under the abbot Gottfried Bessel (1714–49), who, after a fire in
1718, instigated the rebuilding of the monastery in Baroque style. Despite
the misfortunes which befell the monastery during the Enlightenment and
the Napoleonic Wars, and the disruption caused by World War II, Göttweig
remained an important religious and cultural centre. It has a long musical
tradition; choral singing was fostered from the abbey’s foundation, and its
choir school dates from the Middle Ages. By the 15th century an organist
had been appointed, and polyphony was sung in the 16th century. An
inventory of 1612 lists works by many important Dutch, German and Italian
composers; in the mid-17th century the repertory became dominated by
Venetian music. Johann Stadlmayr dedicated the second part of his
Musica super cantum gregorianum (1626) to Georg Falb, abbot from 1612
to 1631. The latter was succeeded by David Gregor Corner (1631–48),
who had compiled the comprehensive Gross Catholisch Gesangbuch
(1625).
During the second half of the 17th century the abbey was influenced by the
imperial court in Vienna; Leopold I stayed at Göttweig in 1677, and his
court organists Poglietti and Kerll visited the abbey, teaching monks who
subsequently took charge of music there. The earliest known composer in
Göttweig is Johannes Baptista Gletle (1653–99), son of J.M. Gletle, who
was Kapellmeister of the Augsburg Cathedral. The most outstanding of
Göttweig’s composers was J.G. Zechner (1716–78), organist from 1736 to
1743, who, in addition to composing church music and instrumental works,
was responsible for ceremonial music in honour of abbots Bessel and
Odilo Piazol. Under his influence Göttweig became an important centre of
the Classical style.
In addition to their religious duties, the monks gave concerts in the
monastery, performing symphonies, divertimentos, oratorios and even
operas. In the 1760s the symphonies of Joseph and Michael Haydn were
played, and a pupil of the latter, Virgil Fleischmann (1783–1863), became
rector chori. Fleischmann’s successor, Heinrich Wondratsch, compiled a
thematic catalogue in 1830, containing the entire repertory performed since
the early 18th century; this includes numerous symphonies and other
works by Joseph Haydn.
In the 19th century, up to about 1880 when the scope of church music
became restricted by the puritanical Cecilian movement, music played an
important part in the church services. In addition, Beethoven’s symphonies
were performed by the monks, and the playing of string quartets was
especially cultivated. After World War II, Baroque and Classical music was
again regularly performed at Göttweig, and interest in the musical tradition
of the monastery revived.
Despite many wartime losses (including the autographs of four Haydn
symphonies), Göttweig’s music archive is one of the most important
collections in Austria. It consists largely of church and instrumental music of
the 18th and 19th centuries, both in manuscript and in print, in addition to a
part of the library of the Viennese collector Aloys Fuchs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MGG2 (H.C.R. Landon)
P.A. Janitsch: Kurz abgefasste Geschichte des uralten Benedictiner-
Stiftes Göttweig (Vienna, 1820)
P.R. Johandl: ‘Die Orgel in der Stiftskirche zu Göttweig’, ZI, xxxii (1911–
12)
P.H. Siegl: Das Benediktinerstift Göttweig (Gottweig, 1914)
P.L. Koller: Die literarische Tätigkeit im Stift Göttweig 1603–1924 (St
Pölten, 1925)
P.L. Koller: Abtei Göttweig (Göttweig, 1952)
F.W. Riedel: ‘Musikpflege im Benediktinerstift Göttweig (Niederösterreich)
um 1600’, KJb, xlvi (1962), 83–97
F.W. Riedel: ‘Die Kirchenmusik im Benediktinerstift Göttweig’, Singende
Kirche, xiii (1966), 196–202
F.W. Riedel: ‘Die Libretto-Sammlung im Benediktinerstift Göttweig’, FAM,
xiii (1966), 105–11
F.W. Riedel, ed.: Der Göttweiger thematische Katalog von 1830 (Munich,
1979)
FRIEDRICH W. RIEDEL
Götz, Franz
(b Strašice, nr Rokycany, bap. 29 July 1755; d Kroměříž, bur. 17 Dec
1815). Bohemian composer and string virtuoso. He was trained as a
chorister at the shrine of Svatá Hora, Příbram, and studied in Prague at the
Jesuit seminary of St Václav, which he entered in 1768. It is thought that he
studied the violin with his elder brother Antonín (d 1804), an excellent
violinist. He graduated as Bachelor of Theology and prepared for his entry
into the Benedictine order, but suddenly changed his plans and accepted
the post of first violinist in the Brno theatre. In the 1770s he made a concert
tour of Silesia, and in Breslau became acquainted with Dittersdorf, who
engaged him (?1778) as first violinist for Bishop Schaffgotsch in Javorník
(Jauernig). When the orchestra was disbanded the recommendation of
Baron Kaschnitz gained him the post of Kapellmeister of the Brno theatre
for about two years. In April 1788 he became Kapellmeister to the
Archbishop of Olomouc, Cardinal Anton Theodor Colloredo-Waldsee
(1777–1811), with an annual salary of 550 florins. Apart from several
concert tours to Prague, he remained until his death at the archbishop’s
Kroměříž residence or in Olomouc, where his employer was one of the
main patrons of the local collegium musicum. In 1790 he attended the
coronation of Leopold II in Prague and aroused great interest as a violinist
and composer, gaining the notice of both Mozart and Salieri. The following
year, at the coronation of Franz II, he had much success as a viol player. In
1794 he applied unsuccessfully to become Kapellmeister at Olomouc
Cathedral. According to Dlabacž, Götz composed many sonatas, duets,
trios and concertos for the viol, which at the time was played ‘in various
places in Bohemia’. However, in Czech archives no music for viola da
gamba by Götz has been found, whereas many of his works for viola
d’amore are known; it seems that Dlabacž may have been mistaken. Only
a negligible amount of his other instrumental music mentioned by Dlabacž
(sonatas, concertos, symphonies) has survived. Götz owned a valuable
music collection, valued at 150 florins at his death.
WORKS
MSS in CZ-KRa, unless otherwise stated
7 masses; cant., A-Wgm; 11 Latin arias, duets and choruses; aria, Se d’una alma
costante
Concerto, c, pf, A-Wgm; 6 duets, va d’amore; 5 nocturnes; 12 écossaises; 6
minuets and Musica à la turca, C
BIBLIOGRAPHY
G.J. Dlabacž: Allgemeines historisches Künstler Lexikon (Prague, 1815/R)
H. Mendel and A. Reissmann, eds.: Musikalisches Conversations-
Lexikon (Berlin, 1870–80, 3/1890–91/R)
C. d’Elvert: Geschichte der Musik in Mähren und Oesterreich-Schlesien
(Brno, 1873)
A. Breitenbacher: Hudební archiv kolegiátního kostela sv. Mořice v
Kroměříži [The musical archives of the collegiate church of St Maurice
in Kroměříž] (Kroměříž, 1928), 154 [includes catalogue of Götz’s vocal
compositions]
J. Sehnal: ‘Die Musikkapelle des Olmützer Erzbischofs Anton Theodor
Colloredo-Waldsee 1777–1811’, Haydn Yearbook 1978, 132–50, esp.
134–5
JIŘÍ SEHNAL
psalms
Premier livre, contenant 8 pseaumes de David traduictz par Clément Marot … plus
les commandements de Dieu, 3–5vv (1551)
Premier livre de psalmes de David, avec les comandemens de Dieu …
nouvellement par luy mesme revu, corrigé, et augmenté du psalme, Quand Israel,
4, 5vv (1557); P i
Tiers livre contenant 8 pseaumes de David traduitz en rythme françoise … par
Clément Marot … (en forme de motetz), 4, 5vv (1557); P iii
Second livre de psalmes de David … nouvellement revu et corrigé par le dit auteur,
4–6vv (1559); P ii
Quart livre contenant 8 pseaumes … avec le cantique de Symeon … (en forme de
motetz), 4, 5vv (1560); P iv
Cinquiesme livre contenant 10 pseaumes (en forme de motets), 4, 5vv (1562); P v
Psaumes … ‘dont le subject se peu chanter en taille ou en dessus’, 4vv (1562)
Les 150 pseaumes de David nouvellement mis en musique, 4vv (1564, 2/1565); P
ix
Les pseaumes mis en rime françoise, par Clément Marot et Théodore de Bèze, mis
en musique, 4vv (Geneva, 1565) [rev. edn of Les 150 pseaumes (1564)]
Sixième livre de pseaumes de David, mis en musique en forme de motetz, 4vv
(1565); P vi
Septième livre de pseaumes de David, mis en musique en forme de motetz, 4vv
(1566); P vii
Huitième livre de pseaumes de David, mis en musique en forme de motetz, 4vv
(1566); P viii
Les 150 pseaumes de David, nouvellement mis en musique, 4vv (Geneva, 1580); P
x
7 psalms, 4, 6vv, 155514, 155516, 15976
masses
Missa ad imitationem cantionis ‘Il ne se treuve en amitié’, 4vv (1552); P xii
Missae tres … ad imitationem modulorum: ut sequens tabula indicabit: ‘Audi filia’ …
‘Tant plus ie metz’ … ‘De mes ennuys’, 4vv (1558); P xii
Gougeon, Denis
(b Granby, PQ, 16 Nov 1951). Canadian composer. He studied musicology
and guitar (1971–5) at the Ecole Vincent-d’Indy in Montreal, and completed
BMus (1978) and MMus (1980) degrees in composition at the University of
Montreal, where his principal teachers were Andre Prévost and Serge
Garant. He taught for brief periods in the 1980s at the University of
Montreal and McGill University, but otherwise has earned a living from his
many commissions. In 1988 he was appointed to a one-year term as a
composer-in-residence with the Canadian Opera Company (which resulted
in the première of his opera An Expensive Embarrassment) and from 1989
to 1992 he served as the Montreal SO’s first composer-in-residence.
Gougeon has described himself as an intuitive composer, and has drawn
his inspiration from composers as diverse as Mozart and Messiaen. His
music is typically ebullient, energetic and virtuoso, but often has a
contrasting slower middle section that is poetic and reflective. Although
orientated towards atonality, his musical language is nevertheless
frequently consonant. Gougeon is a firm believer in the necessity of
communicating with a broad audience, and so writes in a directly appealing
manner, but with an intelligent, well-thought-out underlying structure.
(EMC2, J.-P. Vachon)
WORKS
(selective list)
Stage: Argile (music theatre), 1983, mime, inst ens, Vancouver, 24 April 1983; An
Expensive Embarrassment [Une certaine proposition] (chbr op, 1, T. J. Anderson,
after A. Chekhov: Predlozheniye [The proposal],) 1989, Toronto, 16 May 1989;
Emma B. (ballet), 1998, S, S, orch, Munich, 24 March 1999; incid music for plays
Vocal: Prophétie 2 (Gougeon, Bible: Revelation), S, perc, 1980; Voix intimes
(Gougeon), S, S, 4 cl, perc, 1981; Heureux qui, comme … (Gougeon), S, pic, eng
hn, bar sax, str qnt, db, perc, 1987; Chants du monde (folksong texts), S, S, vn, vc,
pf, 1993, rev. S, S, orch, 1996; Le diable et le champignon (M. Tremblay), nar, fl +
pic, cl + b cl, vn, va, vc, pf, perc, 1994
Orch: Conc. dello spirito, 1980; Dialogues, mar, orch, 1981; Le choral des anges,
pf, orch, 1984; Le jardin mystérieux, 1984; Eternité, S, orch, tape, 1985; Musique en
mémoire, S, S, orch, 1985; La fête sacrée, pic, 2 fl, a fl, str orch, 1987; Récit,
concert band, 1987; An Expensive Embarrassment Suite, 1989; Enfant de la terre
et du ciel étoilé, 1989; Jardin secret, eng hn, orch, 1989; A l’aventure, 1990; Fragile,
fixe, fugace, 1991; Un fleuve, une île, une ville, 1992; Primus tempus, 1993; Canto
del piccolo, pic, orch, 1996; Pf Conc., 1997; Concertino, gui, str orch, 1998
Chbr: Ludus, 4 perc, 1980; Chants de la nuit, 3 gui, hp, 1982; Et je danse, 2 perc,
1983; Plaisirs d’amour, pf, 1983; Rondeaujourd’hui, hpd, 1985; Lettre à un ami, fl +
pic, eng hn, vn, vc, pf, synth, perc, 1986; L’oiseau blessé, fl, 1987; Dix millions
d’anges, ondes martenot, str qnt, perc, 1988; Suite privée, fl + pic + a fl, vc, pf,
1988; 6 thèmes solaires (1990): Soleil, pf, Mercure, a sax, Venus (J.W. von
Goethe), v, pf, Terre, cl, pf, Mars, tpt, pf, Jupiter, hn, pf, Saturne, fl, Uranus, vn,
Neptune, va, pf, Pluton, vc; Fantaisie, fl, vib, 1991; 4 inventions, sax qt, 1993; Un
train pour l’enfer, 6 perc, inst ens, 1993; Une petite musique de nuit d’été, gui ens,
1994; Jeux de cordes, str qt, 1995; 3 mouvements, vn, pf, 1998
ROBIN ELLIOTT
Gough, John
(d 1543). English music printer and publisher. He printed Myles
Coverdale’s Goostly Psalmes and Spirituall Songes. Long conjectured on
textual grounds to date from just before Gough’s death, this work has been
located in John Rastell’s will, suggesting a publication date of before 20
April 1536. It employs the same type originally used by Rastell, with whom
Gough had business connections; no other piece of music printing by
Gough has survived. He worked at the ‘Sign of the Mermaid’, Lombard
Street, London.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Humphries-SmithMP
A.H. King: ‘The Significance of John Rastell in Early Music Printing’, The
Library, 5th ser., xxvi (1971), 197–214
R.J. Roberts: ‘John Rastell's Inventory of 1538’, The Library, 6th ser., i
(1979), 34–42
MIRIAM MILLER
Goulart, Simon
(b Senlis, 20 Oct 1543; d Geneva, 3 Feb 1628). French music publisher.
He studied law in Paris but then devoted himself to the Reformation
movement. He left Paris for Geneva in 1566 and was ordained there on 20
October. He carried out his ministry first at Chancy and Cartigny, and then,
after serving in several French parishes, was appointed in 1571 to St
Gervais, Geneva. He succeeded De Bèze as head of the Church in
Geneva on the latter’s death in 1605. Between about 1576 and 1597 he
published works by Lassus, Arcadelt, Crecquillon, Gérard de Turnhout,
Jean de Castro, Noé Faignient, Goudimel, Séverin Cornet, Guillaume Boni,
Antoine de Bertrand and others, with modified, and in some cases new,
texts. The only composer whose works he published in their original form
was Jean Servin. All the known Genevan music printers of this time printed
his works (Jean Le Royer, Pierre de Saint-André, Jean II de Tournes) and
some of them were commissioned by foreign booksellers (Charles Pesnot
in Lyons or Jérôme Commelin in Heidelberg). The prefaces he wrote to his
publications (in 1597 under the pseudonym of ‘Louis Mongard’) throw light
on relations between theologians and musicians.
EDITIONS
O. de Lassus: Thrésor de musique d’Orlande de Lassus contenant ses
chansons, 4–6vv (Geneva, 15764)
O. de Lassus: Premier [–Second] livre du meslange des pseaumes et
cantiques, 3vv (Geneva, 15772-3)
J. Servin: Premier [–Second] livre de chansons nouvelles, 4–8vv (Lyons,
1578)
J. Servin: Meslanges de chansons nouvelles, 4vv (Lyons, 1578)
G. Boni: Sonets chrestiens … premier [–second] livre, 4vv (Geneva,
1578/9)
J. Servin: Psalmi Davidis a G. Buchanano versibus expressi, 4–8vv
(Lyons, 1579)
A. de Bertrand: Premier [–Second] livre de sonets chrestiens mis en
musique, 4vv (Lyons, 1580)
O. de Lassus: Theatrum musicum … liber primus [–secundus], 4–5vv
(Geneva, 15803-4)
O. de Lassus: Cinquante pseaumes de David, 5vv (Heidelberg and
Geneva, 15976)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
L.-C. Jones: Simon Goulart (Geneva, 1917)
E. Droz: ‘Simon Goulart, éditeur de musique’, Bibliothèque d’humanisme
et Renaissance, xiv (1952), 265–76
C.S. Adams: ‘Simon Goulart (1543–1628), Editor of Music, Scholar and
Moralist’, Studies in Musicology in Honor of Otto E. Albrecht, ed. J.W.
Hill (Kassel, 1980), 125–41
P. Broisat-Richard: La musique à Genève au XVIe siècle (diss., U. of St
Etienne, 1981)
L. Guillo: Les éditions musicales de la Renaissance Lyonnaise (Paris,
1991), 98–103, 455–9
PAUL-ANDRÉ GAILLARD/LAURENT GUILLO