H O W D I P LO M AT S

M A K E WA R
BY

M e mb e

F R AN C I S N E I L SO N
f P li m
J u y 9 D m b
ar

e n t,

h l h y
i gl i d i i d l
Th e

s n

w
n

o e t
v

eo r

ly

ar

u i

o f the

n a me

ua

an

n v e rse

to

You

10

d i e c te d

is

'

H U E B SC H
M C M X VI
.

19 15

to o n e

N EW Y O R K
.

e r,

W A L I W H I TM A N

ece

y i g h t 19 15 b y
B W H U EB S C H
Cop
.

F i r s t e d i ti o n

S c d di i
e

on

No v e m b e r ,

t on,

M a y,

P R NTE D I N U

1 9 15

1916

A.

P RE F AC E TO T HE SE C ON D E D ITI O N
N ow that i t i s n e c e ss a r y to p ublish a s e co n d e d iti on
o f th i s b o ok a n d a s I h av e r e sig n e d my s e at in P a rli a
m e nt I W i sh to take thi s opp o rtunity o f m ak i n g t h e
n a m e o f t h e a utho r publ i c
I a m gr at e fu l to my f r i e n d M r Alb e r t J ay N o ck
fo r h i s kin dn e ss in e d iti n g th e wo rk a n d fat h e ri n g t h e
b o ok up o n i ts rst app e a r a n c e
F RA N C IS N E I L S O N
,

New Y o rk Ap r i l 1 7th
,

19 16

C ONTENT S

C H AP T E R

I
P A GE

1 8 15

W a t e r l o o Af te r

i h

t i on a l r g t s

and

L o n g p e r i o d o f u n r e s t Nab
i n d i v i du a l r i g h t s U n p a t r i o t i c c r i t i cs

18 1 5

va lu Lite a
t u r e a n d Ji n g o e s B r i t a i n a n d h e r w a r m o n g e r s M i g h t
a
a n d Ri g h t Th e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e p e o p l e W h a t t h e
t i on s a r e g h t i g f o r Th e p w e r t h a t m a k e s w a r
Th e g o d o f b a t t l es Th e d i p l o m a t i c m a c h i n e Th e
w or k o f d i p l oma cy
A f te r

K a i s er

th e

is

cru h e d

Ne w

es

C H AP T E R I I
SC RA P S

OF

P A P ER

T r e a t i e s of 1 8 3 1 a n d 1 8 3 9 H o l l a n d a n d B e l g i u m
P a l me s t n a n d T a l l e yr a n d T e a ty m a ki n g a n d t h e
b a l a n c e o f p o w e r L o d G r a v il l e a d t h e C r m e
S e v a t o p o l Af t e r th e T e a ty of P a r i s W a r s f om 1 8 3 7
8 5 0 S i r R o b e r t P e e l a n d a rm a m e t s Th e D u k e o f
to
W e l li n gt on a n d F r a n ce Af t e
8 5 4 Di s a e l i
a nd
Gl a d s ton e Th e p a n i c o f 1 8 60 C ob d e n a n d th e ut t e l y
fut il e t h e o ry o f s e c r ecy Th e r i s e f B i s m a ck Th e i a
G e o r g e B r a n d e s n L a s a ll e a n d B i s
u e n ce of L a s s a ll e
m a r c k M i g h t a n d R i g h t P o l a n d 8 6 2 P r u s s i a a d
Ru s s i a L e t t e r f om Ki n g o f th e B e l g i a n s t o ! u e en V i c
to r i a F i t m a u r i ce o
t h e d i p l m a cy c o n c e r n i n g t h e p a r
and
D e nma k
t i t i o n o f P o l a n d S c hl e s w i g H o l s t e i
B i t a i n s r e l a t i o n t h e t o F r a c Th e d i p l om at i c s qu a b
Scra p f P a p e
b l e s o f th e C on t i e n t
! u e e n Vi c
t o i a w o k s f o r p e a c e L e tt e rs t o L o d G r a n v il l e D i s
i n th e H ou s e J h n B i g h t a d th e b l a c e
r a e li s m t i o
o f p w e r Th e p e o p l e a n d t r e a t i es Th e c on d i t i o n o f
B r i t a i n 1 8 64
Th e

! !

15

CO NTENTS

xi i

C HAP T ER I I I
P

1 8 70

S p i h h B i m ck d M l k
l g m Ed i B i m c k B i t i h
T h Em

i
m
Th
u
dv
i
c
B
l
i
u
li y Th
8
t
!
g
7
ch m
f B i m ck
d N p l
III M l y t h
B ii h
i ud Th T i f 8 7 Gl d t t
Th
J h B i g h t Di p l m t i c u
ut l l g
i g Of c h
d
w T hi
d P u i
Th F
y p y d t h p li t i c l p ty i P u i
T h m ili

d
P c
i
i
A
l
c
L
i
Gl d t
t
g
B i i f
f
f m C ti t l t gl m t i
v il l
ut li ty B i i
p i
d
87 L d G
i i 9 4 S c t u d t di g F ig f i d
hi p N u li y f B l g i m F i g p li cy d v i l
i f h T ty f 8 3 9 Th p v i i i T i
ct i
f 87 B i i
w
t c mp
b l w i th t h t
87 W
t l w f Ru i
f
d B l ck S
E
i l p i c i p l f h l w f t i I t
i
i
l l w Th
m b lli B l g i u m
p p
l v l u f t t i Di p l m cy d t i y
Th m
P lm
l
t
Cl
d
857 L d G
i
v ill d i f lti Th c d i t i
f B it i
8 84
Su c i

c e s s o n to th e

te e

ra

es

ea

r ee

t on

t on

re a

r ta n s

ar

ssent a

rs

ora

e r s ton s

cu

e s

ca

e o

rea

ett e r

es

on ,

a ren

on

s on e s

en s

ore

s on s

a ra

o a

r e at es

on s

ea

n ern a

a r a t on s

re

r en

an

na

e r r to r

an

ran

or

os

an

ro

on

ss a

es

ue

ar

ss a

r ta n s

te r

no

s on e

ss a

en an

o re

no

on

r n

on

ra

e rs a n

n en a

ne

n eu

ea

or r a n e

ers a n

t on a

tra

re

ra

39

e ne

on

an

an

or e

ro

ra n

or

o eo n

sa

no

an

on s

r ta n

e a rs

a rt

ot a

ne

en a n

o t

an

ar

n rest

e t

r e a t es

ta r

ar

an

o re

ar

e en s

a tt t

r t s

ron e

to r

ra

an s

A GE

a n

C H AP T ER IV
F R I EN D S H I P S

erma n

and

co l o n i e s B i s m a rck s p o l i cy F i t z
Lu x e m b o u r g q u a r r e l O d o R u s s e l l o n

u i ce a d th e
B i m ck a d B i t i h f o e i g n p o li cy B i s m a rck s l et t e r
Lo d Act o t o M a y Gl a d t o n e R e s o l u t i o i n t h e H ou s e
o f C m m n s o n e m b a ki g i
w a r w i t h ou t t h e k o w l e d g e
a n d c o s e t o f P a li a m e t Na v a l e xp e d i tu r e
1887
Ru i a a d F a n c e T ou l o n a d K o s t a d t Th e i s e i n
t
a m m
G m ny b e f o e a d a ft e th e B o e r W a
F c i g th p c e G m a n y v e rs u s F r a c e a d Ru s s i a
M o oc co S e c t a t i c l V o n Bu l o w o r e l at i s o f
B i t i a d G ma y M D e lca s s Th e K a i s e r s v i s i t
Th e p r e s s c a m p a i g n B a ro n d E s t o u r
to Ta g i e
C on s t a n t o n t h e A g l o F r e n c h A g e eme n t
n e ll e s d e
ma

ar

ss

or

er

er

er

re

a n

en s

es

on

rs

66

CONTE N T S

G m y ig
C mpb l l B
an

er

d L o r d

nore

L a n s d ow n e

Mr

xi i i

on

S i r H en r

war

A GE

t a te m e ts i n 1 9 0 5
B a l fo
L d R eb e y
v i l t p l m i cs S i E dw a d G ey
a d
lli n c e U d e i a b l e e t g l em e t s M r C h a m
a d G e m a y C o t i n u i ty o f f o r e i g
b e la i
p li cy
M
A qu i t h o c a e t k e s L d R e b e y o n t h e A n

l
m
T
t
Mr
F
c
h
A
G
v
e
e
e
t
e
e
r
m
n
h
w
e
e
e
g
g
a t th e
A qu i t h d t h K a i
Gu il d h a l l Lo r d C r o
me
s t a t li n g i n f o m a t i o
a

os

or
a

o-

or

os

ser

r s

an

n an

o e

s r

ur s

o en

on

a n n e rm a n

n.

C H AP T ER V

E N EM I ES

G m y B i t i f t th B w
Th
T i ff R f m c mp i g Th p
c mp i g

Th
i
t
G
m
y
S c hl w i g H l i i v i
g
e Th
um u
d M D lc
m m t i gM d
P
M D l c e Th i t v i w i L G
e
l i M
B yc
d M
M l y
d g
f th
th

h
c
m
i
T
y
l
l
w
L d R b t
d
p
p g
p
h
Exp d i i
y F c L d H l b y Si H y
C mp b l l B
m
d h
H gu C f
c Th
Sc
M
C h u c hill
f
v
m g
m ch

c
h
t
S
G m ybf
th
t
d ft
w
p
b
k f h t ili i
N

etz s

ch e

ar

a ns

an

o s

ress

ar

or

ann er

an

t es

os

on

a re

on

an

er

an

ers

an

e ore

eren

an

er s

r.

e rs

au

on

ur

a s on

a s

r n

or

or

en

ress

an

a n s ea

or e

en t s

r ea

ee

an

t on a r

n er

o ste n

e ar

ress

en r

ar

o er

es

ass

er

ass

on

a n a

an

er

rs

an

er

e or

r es s eu s

an d

er

ou

C H AP T ER VI
P A N I C M OsN GER s

F r a n co

Th e

d ip l

111

om a t

ic
ic

e rm a n

t r a i ck i n g s

D cl
e

Fo rc e s

Th e

a r a t on

Gv

Th e

a ga n st

p e op l e a n d
d e m o c a cy
r

c a s e Th e G e
Go v e m e t s v a l d e c l a t i o n t B r i t a i n Th e
m
Ji g s t m M r Mu lli n e M r A s qu i t h o G e rm a n
i M B a l f ou e t i m a t e f G e r m a n n a v a l
e xp a
d G ey o n a ma me t s Th e G ov
t e g t h S i r E d w
t
m Th e b ud g e t f 1 9 0 9
e n m e t b w b ef re th e
L o d R o s b e y a d A r m a g e dd n Th e G e e a l E l e ct i o n
C h u c hil l o n t h e m e t h o d s o f h i s p o li t i ca l
of 1 9 0 M r
o pp on en t s Th e B i t i h s t r e n g t h i n s hi p s 1 9 04 a n d
9 0
Th e p a n
an

of

1 9 09

rn

or

r s

ar

s or

ra

ern men t s

na

n s on

s r

CON TEN TS

xiv

P A GE

c h a t H a n l ey Th e J i n go p r e s s
M A s qu i t h s r emo n
c a m p i gn i c e a s e s i n v i l en c e
s t r a n c e D r e a d n a u g h t s a n d p e d r e a d n a u gh t s
M r B a l f ou r s

s pe e

r.

C HAP T ER V I I
I N S U R A NC E
Th e p o

li cy

of

u rop e a

na

13 2

v a l exp a n s i on S ec re t f or
m ili t a i t s Th e G o v e rn

p li cy P a cis t s a d
m e n t b l u n d e r s o f 9 9 Th e G e m a n F l e e t La w Th e
d i qu i e t i g ru mo u r s f 9 0 8 B r i t i h a v a l e xp a n s i on
T h e t d r e a d a u g h t Th e A g l F r e c h A g r e e m e t
d i t s e ff ec t o n G e r m a n e t i m a t e s A m i n g a g a i t
G e ma n y Th e w o k o f t h e B i t i s h a n d F r e n c h n a va l
a d m ili t a ry e x p e t s Th e A n g l o Ru s s i a n A g e e m e n t
Th e K a i e r Tw e e dmo u t h c o r e
U n d e r w hi c h K i n g ?

a i e r c m p l a i n s F u y o f th e Ji g o
K
n
T
h
o
d
e
ce
e
n
p

a tch w o r d s
ab a d o n e d G e m a n
O
l
d
L
i
b
r
a
l
w
s
s
e
e
p
f e e li n g a g a i n s t B i t i n Th e p o li cy of i o l a t i g G e r m a y
C m p a r i s o f n a v i e s 9 0 8 Th e gu r e s f o r n e w con

i
B
b
s
s
s
u
i
W h a t i n t e l li g e n t
1 9 9 to
e
s t ruct i on
g
9 4
G e ma n s mu s t h a v e t h ou gh t o f B i t i s h f e i gn a n d n a v a l
p li cy F i gu r e s f T r i p l e E t e t e a n d T r i p l e A lli a c e

a
c
o
m
d
M i i s ters m i s l e d
f o r n e w c o n t uc t i on
e
p
9 4
E d w a r d G ey a n d G e ma n n a v a l p o
i
1 9 09 S i r

t
o
a
a
m
d
R
o
b
r
s
a
d
L
r
d
H
l
d
n
Th e P a
o
r
m
L
r
e
e
e
g
t h e r : v i s i t t o A g a d i r a f t e r t h e F e c h e x p e d i t i on t o F e
e i gn

r s

o-

rs

an

ns

on

s r

or

z.

C HAP T ER VI I I
AP OSTL ES

OF

P EA C E

O th e e M r C hu rchil l a t th e Ad mi r a l ty Th e n e w

b
T
h
s
a
u
li
c
li
cy
u
m
y
P
e
e
o
f
E
t
t
r
c
e
n
e
o
s
Mr
w
e
p
p
p
Dil l n o n M o r occo Th e p ub li c a t i o o f t h e s e c r e t a t i c l e s
S i r E d w a r d G e y o f o e i g n f i e d s hi p s M B o n a r
L w o n G e r m a n y L o d M l ey o n G e m a y
a mb i
t i o n L o r d Ro s e b e y
f e i g p li cy L o d H a ld a e s
v i s i t t o B e r li n M A s qu i t h o th e c r i s i s o f 1 9 1 Th e
G e m a n C h a c e l l o r a d th e B i t i s h Go v e rn m e n t s mi s s i on
t o B e r li
S t a t e gy a n d f or e i g n p o li cy M r C h urch
i l l s d ec l a r a t i o n Th e
h o li d a y B e r n h a r d i
n av a l
.

on

or

or

r.

r.

15 4

C O NTENTS

xv

C ommo n s G erm a n y i s o l a te d Th e n a v a l

i
t
e
r
r
a
a
n
Th e a tt i tud e o f t h e
h
n
o
i
t
i
on
t
M
e
d
i
e
n
e
p
m a e M r B o n a r L a w s w a rn i g Th e c o n s c r i p t i o n
i s t s L o d R o b e t s s p e e c h a t M a n c h e s t e r T h ucyd i d e s
L o r d P e r cy s s t a r t li n g s t a t e m e n t
Th e d i s p os i t i o n o f th e
B i t i h a n d F r e n c h e et s i 1 9 1 2 B e l g i a n p r ep a r a t i o n s
Th e p os i t i o n o f B e l g i um
qu o t e d

P A GE

i n th e

ss

n
.

C H AP T E R I X
N 01

I NTER E S T
S ec r e cy a n d h e r e d i ty Aw k w a r d qu e s t i o n s F o r e i gn
A a i s
D eb a t e o n t h e A my S e cr et a l l i a n c e w i t h
F a n c e Th e F o r e i g n S e c r e t r y q u e s t i o n e d a g a i n
Na v a l p o li cy n o t f o r t h e pub li c
M r S w i f t M a cNe i ll o n
s e c r e cy i
f o r e i g a ff a i r s ! u e s t i on s a b ou t F e
Th e
C o m i t d u M a r o c B r i t i s h i t e r e s t s i n M r occ Th e
A g a d i r c r i s i s S ec r e t a g e e m t s M i n i t e r s a t v a r i
a n c e Th e b a i s o f G o v e n m e t
Sp i n o z a
P U B LI C

TH E

IN

182

en

C H AP T E R
TH E P OW ER
Th e
re

TO

d eb a t e

ma rkab

W AR
on

20 1

th e E

Fo r c e M r

xp d i i

p e ec h S i r

y
Regi a l d P l e Ca
t on a r
n

A m e ry s

r ew

on

th e

Th e No u o e lle R e v u e Th e e n t e n t e
a n d n a v a l p o li cy Lo r d H u g h C e c il q u e s t i o n s M r
As

-G n r a l
i
o
t
h
t
n
r
t
a
n
t
u
d
n
d
i
M
a
u
h
n
s
ec
r
s
o
r
Sir
e
e
e
e e
j
q
g
I vo r H e rb e rt o n a C o n t i n e n t a l A lli a n c e M o r e a w k
Th e n a v a l e s t i m a t e s o f 1 9 1 3
w a r d qu e s t i o n s t o M i n i s t e r s
M r L e e a n d Lo r d C h a r l e s B e r e s f or d o n th e n a v a l
p o li cy i n th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n C o n t r a d i ct i on s Lo r d H a l
War

C i ce

s ec r e t

p o li cy Th e

ava l
Pow e n a va l
h o li d a y a g a i n Ex p e n d i tu r e o n a v i e s f o r 1 9 1 3
Th b u d e o n B i t a i n Th e F o e i g S e c r e t a ry s p o w e r
! u es t i on s i n 1 9 1 4 n s ec et un d s t a n d i n gs

da

ne

th e

on

E n t en t e

rs

er

C H AP T ER X I
TH E W OR K OF D IP LOMA TI STS
B r i t a i n i n 1 9 1 4 Con d i t i on of G e rma n y Th e i n t e r
n a l a ff a i r s o f F r a n c e I t a l y s p o s i t i o n b e f o r e th e w a r

2 22

CONTENT S

xvi

ii

Ru s s i a Th e W hi t e P a p e r
W h e n th e H ou s e o f C o m mo n s h e a r d o f t h e c r i s i s D e s
p a tc h m a ki n g W h a t t h e H o u s e w a s n ot t o l d S i r E d
1 7 Ru s s i a n
w a r d G r e y i n t h e t o il s D e s p a tc h No
Th e

Au s t i a

in

cr s s

P A GE

m b ili

d i p l om a cy O r d e s t o th e ee t
Th e a tt i tud O f Ru s i a a f t e t h e e e t s a il e d Di p l o m a t i c
c h e s s M S a o o f D p r e s s i o i n B e r li n T e l e g r a m s
A l l w o u l d d e p e d o n Ru s s i a
o f th e C a r a d K a i s e r
Ev e n t i P e t e b u g Th e f r e e s t a s s e mb l y i t h e
l d Th e C o mm on s a w e e k b e f o r e th e d e c l a r a t i o n f
w
o

zat on

e rm a n

rs

or

w ar

C HAP T ER X I I
A G AM E

OF

26 1

C H ES S

F o r e i g n S e c r e t a ry s s t a t e m e n t o n J u l y 3 o t h D e s

T
n
a
t
c
h
N
8
h
i
f
a
m
o
u
s
b
a
r
a
i
B e l gi an fo r e
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W h a t t h e C o mm o n s d i d n o t k n o w G e r m a n p r e s s u r e
o n Au s t r i a Th e F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y w a r n s P r i n c e L i c h
n o w s ky S t r a n g e m e t h o d s o f d i p l om a t i s t s B r i t a i n a n d

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th e
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P t e r b u r g Th e B l g i
d ip l om a t i c c e p o d e ce
Th e p l a s o f G e e a l S t a ff s
T e c h n i c a ll y i m p o i b l e
Au s tr i a c o c e d e s Ru s s i a d eman d s D e s p a tc h No 1 2 3
Th e p o s i t i
o f th e F o e i g n S e c e t a r y G a v e n e w
f r m B e li S a tu r d a y Au gu t t C a b i n e t co n s e t

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C HAP T ER X I I I
TH E F OR EI GN S EC R ETA R Y S STA TE M E N T
Th e H ou s e o f C o mm o n s Th e s p e e c h Th e

C ryp t i c

29 6
co n

ch e s o f 1 9 0 5 m a d e p l a i n S i r
E d w a r d G r ey s l e t t e r t o M C a m b n Th e F e c h e e t
S t r a n g e d i s c r ep a n c i e s i n F r a n c o
a n d th e M ed i te r r a n e a n

f e s s i on

s p ee

CONT E NTS

xvii

B r i t i s h d ocume n t s W h a t t h e F o r e i g n S ec r et a ry d i d n ot
t e l l t h e H o u s e S ec r e cy t o t h e b i t t e r e d S t r i v i n g f o r
P e a c e B un d to F a ce W h a t F r a n c e a n d B e l g ium
w e e d i g m e a w hil e M o r e s t a g e d i s c r e p a n c i e s
G e r m a n s i v a d e Lu x e mb ou g a n d B e l g i um C o Op e a
D e p at ch No 2 3 a g i
t i o n M o r e e xp l a n a t i
W h a t Ji n go e s t o il e d f o r W h o b e g a n i t ? S i gr p os t s
S ec r e t d i p l o m a cy

A GE

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on s

a n

C H AP T E R X IV
R EC R I M I N A TI ON
A ato l e F a n c e F r i e n d l y S oc i et i e s B a s il W illi a m s
on A n g l o Ge rm a n
L l oyd G e o r g e o n G e r
e l atio s M
m a a l a m Th e y e a r 1 9 1 2 a g a i n M r A s qu i t h s r ev
e l t i on s a t C a r d i ff H o o d w i n ki n g th e p e o p l e F i e n d l y
M r C hu rc hill a t D un
s p e e c h e s a d u f i e d l y a ff a i
d e e L d W e l b y M o e l i g h t o n t h e T e a ty o f 8 3 9
M r L l oyd G e o g e a d B e l g i
e u t a l i t y M ili t a r y n u
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C H AP T E R X VI
AF TER MATH

c a u s e s f th e w a r D a n g e r o f f o r g e tt i n g
b rou g h t i t a b o u t No t hi n g s o c h e a p a s h u m a n li f e

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at

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3 66

CONT E NT S

xvi i i

p ov erty D i s a rma me n t n ot p rob a b l e Ru s

s i a a s d m i n a t p o w e r S u gg e t e d c h a n g e s i n F o r e i g n
Oi c e s y s t e m P a r li a m e n t mu s t h a v e c o m p l e t e c on t o l
F ix e d p e r i o d f r P a li a m en t Th e p rob l e ms o f a rma
a nd
w a R e c r u i t i n g E qu a l
m en t
pp o t u n i ty t h e
C h r i s t i a n i ty h a s n ot
e m e dy W h t t h e w a r m e an
d n e i t s w o r k H o p e o f th e s o l d i e r s
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pu r p o r t a n d u p s h o t O f w a r ? To my o w n kn ow l e dge fo r
e x a mp l e t h e r e d w e ll a n d t o il i n t h e B r i t i s h v ill a g e o f Du m
d ru d g e u s u a ll y s o m e v e h u n dr e d s o ul s
F r o m t h ese by
c er t a i n N a t u r a l E n e m i es o f t he F r e n ch t h e re a r e s u c
ce s s iv e ly s e l e c t e d
d u r i n g t h e F r e n ch w a r s ay t h i r t y a b l e
b o di e d m e n : D u m dr u dge a t he r o w n e x p e n se has s uck l e d
a n d n u r s e d t h e m ; s h e h a s n o t w i t h o u t d i fc ul t y a n d s o r r ow
fe d t h e m u p t o m a n h o o d an d e v e n t r a i n e d t h e m t o c ra f ts
s o t h a t o n e can w e a v e a n o t h e r b ui ld a n o t h e r h a mm e r a n d
u n de r t h i r t y s t on e a v o i r dup o i s
t h e w e a k e s t ca n
s ta n d
N ev e rt h e l es s a m i d much w ee p i n g an d sw e a r in g t h e y a r e
s e l ec t e d ; a ll d r e s s e d i n r e d ; a n d s h i pp e d aw a y a t t he p u b lic
ch a rg e s s o m e t w o t h ou s an d m il es o r s ay o n l y t o th e s ou t h
o f S p a i n ; an d fe d t h e r e t ill w a n t e d
An d n ow t o t h a t s am e
s p o t i n t h e s o u t h o f S p a i n a r e t h i r t y S i m il a r F r en ch ar t i s a n s
f ro m a F r e n ch D u m dr u dge i n li k e m an n e r w en di n g : t ill a t
l en g t h a f t e r i n fi n i t e e ffo r t t h e t w o p a r t i es co m e i n to a ct u a l
j u x t a p os i t i on ; a n d T h i rt y S t a n ds f r on t i n g T h i r ty e a ch w i t h
is
F ire !
a
S t r a i gh t w a y t he w o rd
gun i n h is h a n d
g i v e n : an d t h e y b l o w t he s ou l s o u t o f o n e an ot h er ; a n d i n
t he p l a c e o f s ix ty b r i s k u s e f u l c r a f t s m e n t h e w or l d h as s ix t y
d e a d c a r c a ss es wh i ch i t m u s t bu r y a n d a n e w s h e d t e a rs fo r
?
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,

H OW D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

m all e s t ! T h e y li v e d fa r e n ough a p a r t ; w e r e t he e n t i r e s t
t h e re w as e v e n u n
s t r a n g e rs ; n a y i n s o w i d e a U n i v e r s e
c on s c i o u s l y by C o mm e r c e s o m e mu t u a l h e l pfu l n es s b e t w e e n
t hem
H o w t h e n ? S i mp l e t on ! t h e i r G o v e r n o rs h a d f a ll e n
i n s t e a d o f s h oo t i n g o n e a n o t h e r h a d t h e cu n n i n g
o u t : an d
Al as s o i t i s i n
t o m a k e t h e s e p oor b l o ckh e a ds s h o o t
D e u t s ch l a n d a n d h i t h e r t o i n a ll o t h e r l a n ds ; s t ill a s o f Old
wh a t d ev il r y s o ev e r K i n g s do t he G re e ks mu s t p ay t he
p i pe r !
C a rl y l e S a r t o r R es a r t u s
s

W i th i n a yea r o f th e c e nt e n a r y o f Wat e rlo o

Eu r o p e i s a ga in e n gage d i n a co n i ct in whi ch th r e e
P ow e r s a re u n i t e d i n aw ful bo n d s to ov e rth r ow a n
othe r m i l i ta ry tyrant A n o th e r hun d r e d y e a r s O f
tr e a t i es a lli ance s u nd e rstan d i n gs s e c r e t e ngage
m e nts a n d e nt e nt e s l e a v e Eu rop e now i n the t h r o e s
o f G a rga ntu a n b attles t he l i ke o f whi ch Nap oleon
never i n hi s w i l de st d re ams i mag i n e d p ossible A
centu ry a go t h e vast maj o r i ty o f t h e m i ll i o n s o f
Eu rop e b e l i ev e d i t wa s ab solut e ly n e c e ss a ry fo r na
t i ons to sp e n d ev e r y en e rgy i n sub d u i ng the F r e n ch
Emp eror b e cau s e h e w a s a da n g e r to the p e ac e o f
th e wo rl d a nd a mena c e to d e mo cra cy Tw e nty
y e a rs o f ca rna ge ove r fi e l d s e x t e n d ing from M OS
cow to Coru nna we r e sp e nt i n cru sh i n g the m ight

o f t h e he ro monst e r who ros e a t Tou lon to b e

mast e r o f Eu r o p e Wh e n a t la st the a i m o f t h e

a ll i e s wa s a ccompl i sh e d a n d t h e m an o f b lo o d
w a s s a f e ly i so la te d o n S t H el e na Eu r op e kn e w
l i ttl e p ea ce n o r d id B r i ta i n r e st from the lab ou r s o f
Th e n at i ons o f Eu r op e d i d not d isb a n d
t h e a rs e nal
the i r a rm i es They d id not b e a t th e i r swo rds i nto
ploughsha res no r d i d th e y dec i de tha t b attlesh i p s
would b e re q u i re d no m or e
,

WHAT TH E PE O PLE GET

All wa rs we a re tol d a r e fought i n the i nte r e st

o f t h e p e op l e I t i s th e i r lan d th e i r n ati o n t h e i r
hom e s tha t a re a t st ake I t i s thei r p r i d e th e i r
ho nou r the i r p atr i ot i sm that a r e ca lle d up o n by r e
cru i t i n g statesme n when a d ip l o ma t i c s qu abb l e i s to
The sam e appe als w e r e
b e s e ttle d by fo rce o f a rms
b ro a dly m a d e o n e hu n d r e d ye a rs a go th a t a r e m a d e
t o d ay B ut wha t d o th e p e opl e t h e wo r ke rs g e t
i n r e tu r n fo r a ll the va s t s a cri c e s th e y m ak e ? Th e
i n dust r i a l a n d na n cia l co n d iti o n o f E n g
e conom i c
la n d fo r ov e r a g e n e rat i o n a ft e r t he S e con d T r e aty
o f P a r i s w a s no t a whit le s s m i s e rabl e tha n wh e n
h e r p e opl e s u ffe r e d f r o m t h e rava g e s O f N ap o l e o n i c
w a r s N ati o n a l d ist r e ss a n d wi d e sp r e a d d is a ffe cti o n
b r o ught a gita ti o n a n d revolt R i ots i n t h e la r ge
tow n s a n d ri ck bu rnings i n t h e ag r i cu l tu r a l d i st r i cts
w e re ev e r y d a y o ccu r r e n c e s
Fo r s e v e n t e e n y e a r s
a r ti sans a n d lab ou rers suffe r e d ter r ib l e p rivat i ons
Pa r li am e nt gav e li ttl e o r n o h e e d to t h e la m e n tations
o f th e p e opl e w h o h a d supp li e d th e a rm i e s fo r
W e llin gto n a n d h a d m a d e a thou sa n d s a c r i c e s to
c r u sh t h e m ilita r ism o f Nap ol e on A fte r t h e down
fa ll O f m i lita r y Fra n c e d ip lo m a cy s ecu r e d fo r a tim e
t h e p r i vil e g e s o f s om e sma ll n ati o n s but P a rli am e n t
d i d n o t s e cu r e t h e rights o f th o s e m e n who h a d di
r e ct ly a n d i n d i r e ct ly h e lpe d to co nqu e r t h e m a n w h o
ha d
n o matt e r wh a t h e thought O f n atio n a l ri ghts
a b e tt e r co n c e p tio n o f i n d ivi du a l r i ghts tha n B r i t i sh
stat e sm e n o f t h e tim e P a r li am e nt wa s i n d e e d mo re
conc e rn e d in tho s e d ays i n tr a n sp o rt i n g to Va n D i e
m e n s Lan d m en w h o h a d t h e cou rage to a sk t h e
nati o n s r e p r e s e n tativ e s to ob se rve the rst d uty o f
a P a r li am e n t : t o g r a nt e conom i c p o l i t i cal a n d r e
ligio u s r i ghts to all m en
N ationa l honou r p r i d e
.

H OW D I P L O M ATS MA KE WA R

and p atr i ot i sm d id n o t ru n to that T he r i ghts o f ln

d iv i d u a ls coul d wa i t bu t t h e p r i v i leg e s o f nati ons
we r e urg e n t a ffa i rs
Th e a ft e r m ath was enough to s at i s fy the most
O v e r .8 5
w a r lov i n g patr i ot
were a d d e d
to t h e National d e b t The h o n ou r a n d glory o f a n
a ll co n qu e r i n g nation lle d th e empty stom a chs o f
t h e p e opl e w h o knew they w e r e at la st s a f e from
C a rp i ng cr i t
t h e a t r o citi e s o f the C o rs i ca n t e r ro r
i cs i gn ora n t n o d oub t o f B r i ta in s sup erb a ch i eve
me n ts o n land a n d s ea s a i d that corn a t e i ghty
shill i n gs a qu a rt e r wa s a p oo r r e tu rn for a ll the p eo
p le h a d d on e to sav e Eu rop e fro m t h e m a i l e d st
o f N ap ol e on B ut i t wa s ev e r thus Th e r e h ave
b e e n u n p at r i ot i c cr i t i c s i n all a ges I t may b e p re
sum e d tha t a ft e r Agi n court som e stay-a t-home
g r umbl e d ab ou t the n et re sult o f H e n ry s camp a i gns
I n ext e n u at i on i t might b e s a i d tha t a sho rt s ig h te d
p e ople m ay not exp ect to s e e t he p ol i t i ca l s i gni cance
o f th e wo r k o f ki n gs a n d d i plomat i sts P at i e n ce
a vi r tu e ca r r i e d to e x cess by the p e ople o f wa rring
n ati ons i s requ i r e d to a n almost u n wa rrantabl e d e
g r e e i f o n e g e nera ti o n i s to a pp re ci a te th e full d iplo
ma ti c glory t h e next one w i ll enj oy St i ll p ea ce i s
n o t co n summ ate d when w a r on for e i gn el d s i s t rans
f e r r e d to th e v i llage s a n d towns o f one s own coun
t ry
An d ev e n wh e n a ll t h e m i l i ta ry nat i ons o f the
not only in d ulge i n a n a rme d
e a r th sta n d a t ea s e
p e a c e but d i sa r m a ltog e the r
t h e pe opl e w i ll su ff e r
withou t c e s sati on al l t h e horro rs o f e conom i c and in
d us t r i a l wa r
B u t th i s wa r i s d i ffe r ent from any other that ha s
b een wage d W e a r e tol d i t i s a holy wa r ; some

say i t i s a sp ir i tu al wa r ; there s eems to b e no

.

P R O M IS ES AN D F U L F ILM ENT

th e mi n d s o f mo st j ou rnal i sts that i t i s a

j u st wa r Th e e n d o f it i s to b e a d emo cra ti c
mill e n n i u m N o o n e i s to b e l e ft out o f the ap oth e o si s
o f t h e natio n s
Ru ss i a w i ll b e the fre e st lan d o n
F i nn a n d S lav w ill a ll u nit e
e a r th ; P ol e a n d J e w
i n a l i b erty which i n th e p r e ss a l r e a dy tou ch e s the
con n es o f li c e nce N o mo r e B a lkan troubl e s no
more aggra n d i z ement no m ore en v y gr e e d o r bully
in g
D i sa rmam e nt i s only one o f th e b l e ssings whi ch
will com e to th e ra c e o f man a fte r th e Ka i s e r i s S hu t
u p o n the I slan d o f Ju a n Fern ande z o r s ome othe r
p a ci c sp ot
I t i s a p i ty N i e t z s ch e d i e d b e for e he complete d
h i s Tr a n s v a lu a ti o n o f All Va lu e s When the b u
r e au cr a t s o f P r u ssi a a n d Ru ss i a r ega rd the i nte r
e sts o f a ll G e r m ans a n d Ru s si a n s a s a rst cha rge
on t h e d e p artm e n ts th e n w e S ha ll no t know wh a t t o
d o w i th ma ny v o lum e s that now o ccu py s o mu ch
sp a ce o n o u r b ook sh e lv e s Ne w valu es w i ll b e n e c

e ssa r y wh en the chu rch e s cry

W e h ave n o wo rk
to d o
An d wh e n w a r i s known no m o r e th e wo es
o f t h e a rmam e nt r i ng w ill call fo r a syst e m o f new
va lu es b eyo n d the i nvent i ve p ow e rs O f the s a n e st
sup e rma n th a t ev e r l i v e d B u t wh a t w i ll th e h e athen
thi n k o f i t all ? A r e a l C h r i st e n d om i n t h e pla c e
o f a S ha m C hr i st e n d om w i ll revolut i on i z e eve ryth i ng
that mo r ta l m a n can thi n k o f
Un fo r tu n ately hi sto ry tha t ru de awakene r from
su ch d r e ams j e e rs a t a ll t h e n e p rognosti cat i ons O f
the j ou r na l i sts a n d statesm e n o f to -d a y and makes u s

p au se wh i le w e p on d e r the qu est i on :
W i ll m e n

Th e
mu ch les s G ov e rnm e n ts cha nge s o qu i ckly ?
nob le a sp i ra t i ons o f m e n writ i ng u n d e r th e st r a i n
o f a great wa r a re no t always warranted u nshr i nk
d oubt i n

H OW D I P L O M ATS MA KE WAR

able Wr i tt e n i n t h e h e at o f wartim e they suffe r

when the chill o f p e a c e s e ts i n S till a touc h o f
Ph ar i s a i sm i s a vi r tu e at a tim e lik e this fo r i t makes
us fo rg e t ou r V i ce s
N ow that t h e publ i c i s rea d i ng t h e works o f a u
tho rs whos e na m e s i t nev e r h e a r d o f b e fo re i t i s d i lli
cult fo r a p ol i ti ci a n who d oe s n o t s e e e ye to e ye
with t h e p r e s e nt G ove r n m e nt to s ay a n ything p ro
foun d Th e s impl e m i dd l e -clas s hou s e h o l d that wa s
co n t e n t l ast sp r i n g wi t h t h e D a i ly M a il o r t h e D a i ly
N e w s at b r e ak fa st w i ll n o w tak e n othi n g l e s s tha n
cop i ou s e x tra cts f r om T r e i tschk e o r S yb e l S inc e
M r A rche r d i scov e r e d Th us S p a le e Za r a t h u s tr a no
a ft e r no o n te a i s compl e t e without a d i scu ssi o n o n
A Ge n e a lo gy o f M o r a ls
S o c i ology C arson a n d
su ffr a g e tt e s a r e n o longe r subj e cts o f i nt e r e st n o w
t h at B e r n ha r d i a n d B e y e rl e i n a r e hou s e hol d autho r s
N o w a r w a s e ve r t h e means o f d i s cove r i ng s o much
l i te ra tu re a s thi s Ev e r yb o d y i s so le a rn e d tha t a
p e rs on o f lim i te d kn o wle d g e mu st p e r fo r c e s i t mut e
i n a club i n a restau r ant in a ra ilway t r a i n or i n a
bu s whil e som e st r a n ge r who ha s rea d th e Ti m e s
e xp oun d s t h e p h i los o p hy o f some G e rma n who s e
n ame h e c annot p ro n oun c e
B u t G e r many ha s h a d no monopoly o f T r e i tschkes
a n d B e r nha r d i s not any m o r e tha n B r i ta i n h a s h a d a
m o n op oly o f C r e m e r s a n d C a rn e g i es Th e s e nt i
m ents o f B e r nha r d i we r e e x p ress e d i n many a hom e
i n B r i ta i n long b e fo re Ge r m a n y a n d t h e N e x t W a r
wa s publish e d Th e not i o n that wars a r e n e cess a ry
fo r t h e d e v e lopm e n t o f the ra ce i s not n e w ; a n d y e a rs
b e fo r e K i pling t i ckl e d the s ou ls o f B r i t i sh J i ngo es
a large s e ction o f t h e p e opl e o f B r i ta i n wo rshi pp e d
the go d o f battl e s The w i fe o f a n a rchb ishop b ap
.

M E M O R I ES

a d re adn aught not s o long a go Du r i ng the

B o e r W a r wh e n B rita i n wa s bu sy att e n d ing to the
r i ghts o f small n at i o ns in South A f r i ca m i n i st e rs
o f t h e gosp e l gave t h e P ri n c e o f P e a c e t h e co l d
shoul d e r Th e most p opu la r p i ctu r e s o n t h e w a lls
o f chu rch schools w e r e c o p i e s o f M a cli s e s B a t tle o f
W a te r lo o a n d B a t t le o f Tr a f a lg a r C hu rch a r m i e s
a n d j uv e n i l e r e gim e nts o f vari ou s k in d s h ave b e e n

foste re d by th e cl e r gy ; a n d l e a d e r s o f thought
a n d wa r O f c e o rga n i z e rs
hav e j o ine d
a n d so l d i ers
s o c i eti e s fou n d e d fo r t he p rop aga n d a o f p e a c e
so
th a t t h e u s e fu l d o ct r i n e
t h e b e st w ay to k e e p t h e

p e a ce i s to b e p r e p a r e d fo r wa r shou l d not b e lost

s ight o f a ltog e th e r S ca rc e ly on e so c i e ty fo r t h e
p rop agan d a o f u s e fu l knowl e d g e ha s e scap e d i ts
J i n go Th e P sychi ca l S o ci e ty h a d a p r omin e nt
m e mb e r in t h e m a n w h o le d t h e J i n go e s i n 1 9 0 9

wh e n t h e cry wa s
We wa nt e i ght a n d w e w on t

wa it
T hi s J i n go m a d e a n att e mp t t o S how h is
symp athy w ith B e r gso n wh e n i n t h e d e ba t e i n t h e
H ous e o f C omm o n s o n Augu st 3 r d 1 9 1 4 h e s a i d
t h e S pe e ch e s o f t h e p a ci s t s w h o h a d t h e cou r ag e to
e xp r e s s th e i r opi n i o n s w e r e
t h e v e r y d r e gs a n d l e e s

0 f th e
d e b at e
P e r hap s h e wa s co n s cio us th at

W e t r a i l b ehi n d u s u n awa r e s t h e w hol e o f o u r

p a st ; bu t o u r m e mo r y p o u rs i n to the p r e se n t o nly
t h e O dd r e coll e ct i o n o r tw o that i n som e w ay com

l
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a revo luti o n B r iti sh thou ght h a s p asse d through S i nc e
No o n e s e e m s t o
t h e b e gin n ing o f Augu st 1 9 1 4
rem emb e r what the n at i o n suffere d f r om 1 9 0 8 to t h e
19 14
No o n e rememb e rs that t h e
e n d O f July
contempt o f t h e m i l i ta r i sts o f B r i ta i n fo r t h e a d v o
cate s o f p e ace a t home wa s j us t a s d eep a s that o f
tiz ed

H OW D I PLO M AT S M A K E WA R

B ern ha rd i fo r the p a eis t s o f G erma ny It s eems

to b e fo rgott e n that t h e s e ct i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h p re ss
g i v e n o v e r to t h e cru s a d e o f hatr e d a nd gr e e d
pu sh e d the i r camp ai gns a s u nscrupulou sly a s d id any
Krupp owne d j ou r na l i n G e rm a n y Forgotten a re
t h e a r mame n t rms that welcom e d ha l f p ay o i ce r s to
th e i r b o a r d s o f d i re cto rs F o rgott e n t o o a re tho s e
l e a de rs o f rel i g i ou s b o d i e s w h o d id not h e s i tate to
a sso c i at e th e mselv e s w i th the bu s i ne ss o f w a r fa re
a nd i ts d i v i d en d s
B u t a ll t h e s e metho ds o f st i mula t i ng i nt e rest i n
t h e des tru ct i o n o f l i f e a n d p r op erty w er e we a r e
told not to b e h e l d p a rall e l w i th s im i la r des i g n s in
G ermany N ot by any me a ns E ven comp a r i son is
not to b e tole r ate d for a moment F or t h e G e rm ans
h av e a w a r-lo r d wh o i s ab s olute ; a m e lo dramati c v i l
l a i n j e alou s o f B r i ta in s m ight B e s i des ou r w a r
like p r e p a rat i ons w e r e not m a d e fo r the pu rp o s e
o f agg r an d i z e me n t ; ou r Obj e cts wer e p a c i c our in
tent i ons lau d ab l e D e f e nc e not d e anc e wa s ou r
mo tto N othing coul d b e cle a r e r W e ha d a s
much t e rr i to ry a s any one but a Ka i s e r coul d w i sh
for a n d a ll w e a ske d o f othe r nat i ons wa s to le t
u s a lon e i n the enj oym e nt o f ou r va st emp i re
B r i ta i n h a d only one d es i r e and that wa s to k e e p
wha t s h e ha d go t G e rmany o n the oth e r han d
h a d a str i ctly l i m i ted a rea for e x pans i on b e cau s e she
c am e r ath e r lat e i n to t h e gam e o f pu shing a e l d
H e r amb itio n s w e re b ehin d t h e times S till though
i t wa s u n fo r tunate fo r h e r col o n i a l p o l i cy i t wa s
but n atu ral all the s am e that S h e S houl d want t o
N e ith e r
g e t from u s wha t w e took from oth e r s
M a ch i av e lli no r Pla to u n d ersto o d the B r i t i sh p os i

t i on
M i ght i s R i ght
u p to a p o i nt When
.

M A X I M S FO R M O N AR C HS

a n emp i r e i s establ i sh e d n owa d ays nothing ca n b e

r ight tha t qu e st i ons i ts fu n d ame n tal noti on that G o d

s anct i on ed its mak i ng

M ight i s R ight c e a s e d to
have a ny v i rtu e a s a d o ctrin e onc e t h e B r i ti sh Em
p i r e wa s fo rm e d P lat o s not i on that Justic e i s t h e
e n d for wh i ch a stat e e x i sts
i s cl ass i cal ; i n mo d ern
d ays no su ch Utop i a n i d e a can e x i st
When th e Ka i s e r wa s stu dying th e l aw o f nat i ons
B i smarck s hould have tau ght him tho s e two u s e fu l
m a xi ms (wh i ch eve ry mona rch S hould i n futu r e

m e mo r i z e )
F i rst come rs t s e rv e d a n d P o s
s e s s i on i s n i ne p o i n ts o f t h e law
I t i s tru e N a
e
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o
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e
o
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r
e
not
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lways
th
s
e
u
s
fu
l
p
cepts
gu
i
l
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o
n
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l
d
t
p
him ; but i t mu st b e r e m e mb e r e d tha t a c e n tury ha s
p as s e d S i n ce h i s m e tho d s o f lay i ng t h e b a s i s o f a n
e mp i r e u ps e t s o
m any Eu rop e a n s
B e s i de s N a
l
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o
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at
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ng
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i ng wa r
H i s G ov e rnment n e v e r vot e d
0 0 0 i n a S ingl e y e a r fo r n ava l pu rp os e s
I n th e s e
d ays a b oy scou t coul d t e ll h i m th i n gs ab out ex
pl o s i v e s a n d subma r i n e s th a t wou l d m ak e hi s ha i r
sta n d o n e n d ; s o fa r ha s s c i enc e ca r r i e d u s o nwa rd
and p r ogr e ss l e ft the v i ctor o f J e n a b e h i n d P e r
h ap s t h e w r i t e rs o f b o oks on N ap o l e o n d o not k n ow
h o w ha rm fu l the i r wo rks a r e i n givi n g fals e n o t i o n s
o f wha t ca n b e a ccompli sh e d by stu dy i n g st r a te gy
a n d e mp i r e -maki n g ; t h e m ona rchs a n d gen e r a ls tha t
h av e b e e n le d a stray in th i s r e sp e ct a re l e g i o n
Even s o i t i s not to b e i n f e rr e d th at th i s w a r wou l d
not h av e tak e n p la c e i f t h e K a i se r h a d not tak e n
to r e a d i ng b o oks o n N a p ol e on T h e Emp e ro r o f
G e rm a ny may h o weve r s omet i m es consol e hims e l f
w i th t h e thought tha t B r i ta i n o n e hun dr ed ye a rs ago
sa i d o f N ap oleo n what sh e n ow s ays o f the K a i se r
,

H OW D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

10

tha t N ap ol e o n long d e a d ha s som e how live d

i t a ll d ow n
N e v e rt h e l e s s ou r p olit i ca l l e a d e rs a n d n e wsp ap e r
e d it o r s t e ll u s w e a r e ghti n g i n t h e i n t e r e st o f the
p e op l e Tha t i s w h at t h e Ka i s e r i s t e ll i ng t h e G e r
Th e C z a r i s t e lling t he same sto ry to t h e Ru s
m an
s i a n An d t h e Fr e n ch Gov e rnm e nt no doubt a s
su r e s t h e d i s cipl e s o f Sor e l tha t th e ca rn ag e i s fo r
It i s a g r ea t t i m e fo r
t h e b e n e t o f t h e p e opl e
d e m o cra cy
su r e ly n e v e r S O m a n y stat e sm e n a n d
d i plomati sts talk e d s o a ffe cti o n at e ly o f i t b e fo re
On e e d ito r tol d u s that t h e T r i pl e E n t e n t e i s n o alli
a n c e f o rm e d fo r t h e pu r p os e o f k e e p i n g th e i r p e o
p l e s i n subj e ct i on
R ath e r a n a sty slap a t t h e M o n
a r ch i a l L e a gu e l
sti ll i t i s j u st a s w e ll w e shoul d
k n ow t h e t ru th ab ou t t h e T r ipl e Ent e n t e A n o th e r
e a g e r to s e t h i s r e a d e r s right as to w h y w e
e d ito r

a r e g h ti n g
said
Au st r i a a n d G e r m any mu st b e
t h r a sh e d b e cau s e t h e p r inc i pl e s o f d e mo c r a cy mu st
b e m a inta i n e d by B r i ta i n wh o s e du ty i t ha s always

b e e n to k e e p op e n t h e ro a d o f p r og r e ss
All s e e m
t o b e ag r e e d t h e p r i n ci pl e s o f d e m o c r a cy a r e a t
stak e N o country thi n ks o f putting th e s e p r i n c i
p l e s i nto p r a cti c e bu t som e how th e y s e e m to b e
wo r th ghti n g fo r An d t h e ght m i ght cost twi c e
a s mu ch a s w a s sp e nt o n b e at i n g Nap ol e o n t e n tim e s
a s ma n y liv e s might b e sa c r i c e d a s t h e n at i ons los t
d u r i n g t h e who l e o f N apol e o n s campa ign s a n d o n e
hun d r e d t i m e s a s m any wou n d e d a n d c r i ppl e d and
th e n i n t h e e n d the p e op le n d th e ms e lv e s e co n o m
i ca lly i n d ustr i ally a n d na nc i ally wo r s e o ff tha n
th e y w e r e i n 1 8 3 0 ; no m a tt e r t h e Ka i s e r mu st b e
cru she d for he i s a men a ce to p ea ce and a dang e r
an

A CEN TU RY AGO

I I

to t h e d e moc r a c i e s o f Eu rop e O n e hundre d y ea rs

ago t h e Lon d o n N e w s tol d i ts r e a d ers tha t :
.

The S i t u a t i on

h i s c o u n t r y a t t he s u cce s sfu l c l os e o f
I t is a
a n d w o r t hy o f o b s e r v a t i o n
a l o n g w a r is s i n gu l a r
f a c t t h a t p e a c e i n s t e a d o f h a v i n g b ro ugh t u s s e cu r i t y re
t r e n chm en t r e li e f f r o m bu r t h e n s o r e x t e n d e d c o mm e r c e t o
e n a b l e u s t o he a r t h e m h a s l e f t u s a ll t h e e x p e n s e s o f w a r
w i t h o u t g a i n i n g t o u s t he f r i e n ds h i p o f t he v e r y P ow e rs fo r
wh o m w e u n de r to o k i t O f a ll t he c o u n t r i es t h a t o n e
a g a i n s t wh i ch w e f o ugh t h a s c o m e o u t o f t h e c o n t e s t w i t h
t h e l e a s t h a r m ; a n d t h a t wh i ch s e t a ll t h e res t i n m o t i o n h a s
s u ff e re d i n t he h i gh e s t d e g r e e
o

Tha t wa s t h e way wa rs w e re co ndu ct e d i n the d ays

o f P a lm e rsto n a n d C anning ; a n d n o o n e ca n s ay t h e
m en o f 1 8 1 4 w e r e p re n t i c e han d s at d ip lo ma cy o r
wa r
T he r e i s how e v e r o n e th i ng ce rta i n ab ou t th i s
wa r ; a n d tha t i s i t c a n not go o n fo r e v e r All p a r
t i cu la r wa r s h av e a n e n d ; but th e r e ha s s o fa r b e e n
n o e n d t o t h e p o w e r th at m ak e s w a r s Wh en t h e
m i ght o f B rita i n i n 1 8 1 5 put a n e n d to t h e m i l i ta ry

a chi ev e m e nts o f t h e m o n ster w h o p o o r Engli s h

V illag e r s b e li e v e d m a d e a d a i ly m e al o f b oi le d b ab i e s
with b r a i n sau c e I t d i d not a lt e r o ne tittle o f th e
r e al
Ki n gs a n d courts a nd
d a n g e r s to p e a ce
d ip l o mati sts flou r i sh e d j ust a s strongly i n t h e n i ne
Th e
t e e n th c e n tu r y a s th e y d i d i n t h e e ight e e nth
r shipp e d by hu ge co n
o
a
e
o
f
b
ttl
s
wa
s
still
wo
d
g
g r e g a t i o n s ; a n d t h e g o d wa s busy enou gh n d i n g
n e w e l d s f o r m ilita r y o p e r ati ons years b e fo r e V i c
to ri a w a s c r ow n e d H i s a ctiviti e s ro am e d ov e r
Man
e no rmou s a r e a s : the re w ere wa r s i n B u rma

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA K E WA R

12

ch e ste r Alg i e rs ; t he T r i pl e Entente d estroyed the

Tu r ki sh a n d E gypt i a n e e ts a t N avar i n o ; th e r e wer e
r e voluti o n s i n S p a i n P o rtuga l a s e co n d r e volut i o n
i n F r a n c e a n d B e lgium revolt e d from t h e N eth e r
la n d s ; t h e king d om o f P oland wa s ab o l i sh e d a n d all
tha t rema i n e d o f i ts t e r r i to ry wa s swallow e d u p by
Ru ss i a
I n B r ita i n the r e w e re r i ots plots to mu r
d e r the King s M i n i sters ; a n d Pa rliam e n t wa s b usy
for a numb e r o f yea r s p ass i n g l e g i slat i o n wh i ch r e
s t r i ct e d t h e f r e e d om o f t h e p e ople
I n 1 8 3 2 the v ic
to r o f Wa te rloo wa s ob li ge d to b a r r i ca d e h i s hou s e
a ga i nst the fury o f a Lo n d on mob Sev e nteen y e a rs
a ft e r h i s tr i ump h ov e r N ap oleon wh e n h e s av e d
E u r op e a n d show e r e d b lessings u po n t h e d e m o cr a
c i e s e xt e n d ing f r om t h e Ura ls to B a n t r y B ay i t wa s
ung e n e rou s to say th e l e a st tha t Lon d on e rs o f all
c i t i z e ns shou l d b e g u ilty o f i n flict i ng su ch i n d ign i
t i es Ou th e I r on Duk e m e r e ly b ecau s e h e wa s o p
p o s e d to a R e f o rm B ill
The d i plomat i c ma ch i n e stronger by fa r tha n a ny
m i lita ry o rgan i z a t i on d i d its wo rk n i ght a n d d a y
i n t h e Ch anc e ll e ri e s o f Eu r op e no matt e r who wa s
For e ig n M i n i st e r C astl e re agh Ca n n i ng o r Go d e
r i ch the gu r e h e a d coul d d o l i ttl e to ch a nge t h e
xe d m etho d s o f t h e p e rman e nt o ffi ci als
C a nn i ng
m ight b e m or e l i b e ra l m i n d e d than C a stl e r e agh bu t
C ann i n g coul d not affe ct t h e p ol i c i e s o f a ll t h e em
b a s s i e s n o r incu lcat e ra d i ca l i d e a s in a ll t h e offi cials
a t t h e F o r e i gn Offi ce Th e m a ch i ne wa s aga inst
cha n g e fo r t h e who l e syst e m o f p ara s i ti sm h a d i ts
roots rmly e mb e dde d in d iploma cy I t w a s a S O
ci a l g r owth whi ch e xt e n d e d its p r iv i l e g e s to o n e cl a ss
I t wa s b e yo n d t h e e ffo r ts o f a n y Fo r e i gn M i n i st e r
to u p ro o t t h e Up a s tree o f tra d i t i ona l d i ploma cy ;
,

A L I CEN S E D C AM O R RA

t he

M i n i st e r wa s h e r e t o d ay an d gon e to -mo rrow ;

d i p lom a cy r e ma in e d
Th e r e i s o n ly o n e way to b r ing ab out a change
Only th e p e opl e th e p e o ple o f t h e l e a d ing nati o ns
a ct i ng i n conc e rt can p e r fo rm that fo rmi d abl e ta sk
Th e p e op l e o f E n glan d hav e ma d e g r e a t e fforts t o
b ri n g ab ou t a cha n g e i n e d u cat i o n i n t h e f r anch i s e
i n ta x ati o n a n d i n m a ny ot h e r thi n gs but they hav e
n e v e r atta ck e d t h e d iplom ati c m a ch ine Th e r e a so n
i s b e ca u s e t h e p e op l e o f E n gla n d a n d o f Eur op e hav e
n ot yet co nn e ct e d d ip lom a cy w i th t h e ho rro rs o f war
D i p lom a cy ca rr i e s o n i ts wo rk i n s e cret ; i t i s r e
mov e d from t h e not i ce o f the g e n e ra l p ub l i c M o r e
ov e r a n utt e r ly fal s e i d e a ha s c r e pt i n to the m i n d s
o f p e opl e tha t th e t e rm d iplom a cy i s syno n ymou s
with p e a c e Wh e n a to o cu r iou s p e r son a t a p olit
i ca l m e e ti n g ha s put a qu e sti o n o n fo r e ign a ffa i rs
co nste rnati o n ha s stru ck th e au d i e nce H ow shoul d
a ny o ne b e s o m a d a s to qu e sti on t h e V i rtu e o f
ou r d ip loma cy ? B e s i d e s fo r e i gn p oli cy i s som e
th i ng to o comp l i cat e d fo r t h e u n d e rstan d i ng o f any
o n e l i v i ng i n a hou s e a ss e ss e d a t l e s s than 1 0 0
Thu s t h e m a ch i n ati ons o f d iplomats s e l d om r e a ch
t h e m i n d o f the va st m aj o r i ty o f the electors
Se
c r e cy b e i ng e s s e n ti a l to t h e ex i st e n c e o f the For e i gn
Offi c e i t i s not su r p r i s ing that the publi c takes s o lit
t le i n terest i n i ts wo rk
E v e n i n a n a ss emb ly reput e d
so fre e a s t h e B ritis h H ou s e o f C ommo n s i ts m e m
b ers whe n th e y qu est i o n t h e M ini st e r fo r Fo r e i gn

Affa i rs a r e o ft e n s i l e n c e d by the r e ply tha t

it
woul d not b e to t h e pub li c i n ter e st to g i v e the in

fo rm at i on
S e cr e cy e n ci r cl e s a Fo reign S e cr e ta r y
w i t h myst e ri ou s walls H i s wo r k l i k e th e m ol e s
i s subte rr a nea n
Thi s i s not always h i s fau lt ; th e
.

H OW

14

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

b e st Fo r eig n S e cr e ta ry mu st b e a v i ct i m o f the sys

tem a n d w h a t h e d o e s must b e a cc e pt e d by a n e l e c
ig n o r ant i n th e s e a ff a i rs
a s lab ours p e r
t o ra t e
form e d i n t h e pub li c i n t e r e st
I t i s a p ity s o many d o not know a ll th e wo n
d e r fu l sch e m e s ca r r i e d out by a vigi lant For e i gn O f
How fe w k no w
ce fo r th e i r i n d i vi d u a l w e ll -b e ing
tha t th e r e i s a n e t -wo r k o f ag e nts all ov e r the wo rl d
watc h i n g a n d wa i ting fo r oppo r tuniti e s to a d d a n
o th e r sa n d y a cr e to the a r e a o f t h e e mp i r e ; fr u s
t r a t in g t h e att e mpts o f ali e n ag e nts to tak e that a c r e
from u s ; making f r i e n d ships to p r e s e rv e t h e b ala n c e
o f pow e r i n Ugan d a o r Tib e t ; allotti n g t e rr i tory in
A fr i ca a n d Asi a s o tha t t h e n at i v e s wi ll n o t qu a r
r e l among th e mse lv e s fo r mo re la n d tha n i s goo d
for th e m Thi n k o f the valu e o f t h e wo r k o f th e s e
a g e nts h e lp i n g co n c e ssi o n a i r e s to sti r t h e la z y na
t iv e s i n to labou r s o n ly k n own i n Chri st i a n cou n tr i e s !
I t i s a S h am e t h e e l e ct ors ca n n o t p i ctu r e th e s e ag e n ts
c a rry i n g t h e to rch o f Lib e rty i n o n e han d a n d t h e
b an d ag e f r om the e y e s o f Just i c e i n t h e oth e r ; u n
d e r t a k in g all t h e i r ksom e bu si n e s s o f p a i n t i n g r e d
d ots o n t h e map o f t h e wo r l d fo r t h e glo ry a n d t h e
pres e rvati o n o f t h e B r iti sh Emp i r e
wh e n they a re
no t e n gag e d i n cou nt r i e s wh e r e d r e ams o f colon i z a
ti o n a r e gov e rn e d by t h e s i z e o f t h e nat i on s n avy
It i s s o goo d fo r t h e B r i ti s h p e ople to hav e a d e
p a r tm e n t o ccup i e d from o n e y e a r s end to anothe r
i n s e e i ng tha t the S lum dw e ll e rs o f ou r great c i t i es
to wns a n d v i llag e s have a p la ce i n the sun ; a n d
that the mi ss i o n ari e s we do n o t n e e d at hom e sha ll
not lo s e th e i r lives ab ro a d Th e publ i c l e a r n s slowly ;
a n d nothi n g i s h e e d e d s o li ttl e a s the l e sson o f th e
marvellou s util i t i es o f diploma cy
,

'

C HA P TE R I I

S C RA P S

Sh a ll t on gu e o r p e n
B e w a i l h e r n o w u n co u n t r y g en t l e m e n ?
The l as t t o b i d t h e cr y o f w a r f a r e c e ase
Th e r s t t o m a k e a m a l a dy o f p e a c e
F o r wh a t w e r e a ll t h e s e c o u n t r y p a t r i o t s b o r n ?
To hu n t a n d v o t e a n d r a i s e t h e p r i c e o f c o r n ?
B u t c o r n li k e e v e r y m o rt a l t h i n g mu s t f a ll
K i n gs c on qu e r o r s a n d m a r k e t s m o s t o f a ll
An d mu s t ye f a ll w i t h e v e r y ca r o f g r a i n ?
W hy w o u l d yo u t r o ub le B u on ap a r t e s r e i g n ?
H e w a s y o u r g r e a t T r i p t o l e mu s h i s v i c e s
D e s t ro y d b u t re a l m s a n d s t i ll m a in t a in d y o u r p r i c es ;
H e a mp li e d t o e v e r y l o r d s c o n t e n t
The g r a n d a g r a r i a n a l chymy h i gh t r en t
W hy d i d yo u ch a i n h i m o n yo n i s l e s o l o n e ?
Th e m a n w as w o r t h much m o r e up on h i s t h r on e
T r u e b l o o d a n d t r e a s u r e b o u n dl e s s l y w e r e s p il t
B u t wh a t o f t h a t ? t h e G a u l m ay b e a r t h e gu il t
B y r o n Th e Ag e of B r o n z e

Al as

t he

c o u n t ry !

PA P E R

OF

how

H ow many o f the j ou r n a li sts w r i ti n g a rt i cl e s on the

p r e s e nt t r oubl e k n ow t h e hi sto r y o f th e sc r ap o f

p ap e r
tha t w a s t h e ca s u s b e lli f The E n cyclo
i
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who h a d b rou ght h i s
t o r i ca l t e a ching i nto contact with re a l li fe a n d h a d
c r e at e d a publi c o p i n i o n mo r e p ow e r fu l tha n t h e

l aws
(to quot e Lo r d Acton ) but i f the b i ble o f
.

15

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

16

s ci olists i s n o t t h e fa shi o n th e n a glimp se a t E v e

lyn Ashl e y s L if e o f L o r d P a lm e r s t o n w i ll y i e l d
some i n fo r mati o n a s to mot i ves o f t h e P ow e rs in
d raw i n g u p t h e T r e a ti e s o f 1 8 3 1 a n d 1 8 3 9
Ashl e y d e s crib e s t h e squ abbles o f the Dutch a nd
t h e B e lgi a n s
a n d d e f e n d s P alm e rsto n fo r tea r i n g
one
o f t h e ma i n p rov i s i o n s f r o m the T r e a ty o f
Vi e n n a wh i ch u n it e d H ollan d a n d B e lgium When
N ap ol e on f e ll w e d e si r e d t o b ri n g th e s e count r i es
tog e th e r to fo rt i fy p a rt s o f them a n d r e li ev e ou r
s e lv e s from t h e a nxi e ty o f h av i n g to watch a coast
wh i ch h a d b e e n hostil e a n d e xt r em e ly d a n g e rou s d u r
i n g t h e y e a rs o f Nap o l e on s m ight
Th e re was n o
qu e sti on o f t h e r i ghts o f B e lgi a n s i n tho s e d ays ;
ou r i n t e r e st i n the affa i r wa s o n e o f conv e n i e n c e
h o w to k e e p B e lgium fro m fa lli n g i nto t h e han d s
o f t h e F r e nch W e w e r e how e v e r b e tw e e n t he

d e v i l a n d the d e ep s ea Ashl e y says :

To s i d e
with Holla n d woul d h av e b e e n cont r a r y to a ll t h e
t r a d i ti o n s whi ch P alm e r sto n h a d i n h e r i t e d from
C an n i n g T o a cqu i e s ce i n Fr e n ch a gg r an d i z em e nt

w o u l d hav e b e e n littl e s h ort o f a n at i o n al d i sg r a ce

Op i n i on i n B r i ta i n wa s d i v i d e d ; the r e wa s no whol e
he a r t e d outbu r s t o f n a tiona l i n d i g n at i on a t t h e a ct i o n
o f Ho lla n d P a lm e r s t o n s metho d s w e re t h e subj e ct
o f s ome e rc e a tta cks Th e Fo r e i gn M i n i ste r h a d
no e asy ro ad to trav e l at a ny tim e d u r i ng th e n e go t i a
t i o ns Talleyran d wa s a s k e e n to look a fte r t h e in
t e r e s ts o f F r a nc e a s P a lm e rston wa s to s a fe gua r d t h e
coasts o f B r i ta i n Th e ta n gl e a n d t he w ra n gl e o f
th e settl e m e n t w a s o f t h e o r d er o f low come dy a n d
a ny o n e u n de r t h e i mp r e ss i on that t h e s e p a rat i on O f
B e lg i u m from H oll a n d wa s a ccompl i sh e d by t h e v e
Pow e rs with one m i nd a n d solem n b ehav i ou r should
,

S C R APS O F P APE R

S p e nd a n hou r re a d ing

th e

:7

d i scre d itabl e pro

s n a r l e d a n d qu a r r e ll e d like a

utt e r ly

They a ll
p a ck o f s h wi v e s N e ith e r Dut ch n o r B e lg i ans wer e
p l e as e d wh e n the s e ttl e m e nt w a s ma d e ; i n de e d th e
Ki n g o f H o llan d v e r y soo n d e e d the Alli e s a n d

S h o w e d h i s co n t e mp t fo r t h e
s crap o f p ap e r
whi ch the Powe r s w e r e i n no ha st e to S i gn A fte r
t h e Tr e aty o f 1 8 3 1 wa s co n summ ate d by t h e S igna
tu r e o f Ru ss i a t h e l a s t p owe r to S ign o n M ay 4 t h
1 8 3 2 i t wa s n o t lo ng b e fo r e t h e n e utral stat e s H o l
la n d a n d B elg i um h a d a n other r o w thi s t i m e ab ou t
Lu x emb ou r g a n d Limb ou rg F i na lly the m atte r

wa s a dj u ste d a n d a n e w
s cr ap o f p ap e r w a s
1 83 9
a t Lo n d on T re a t y-m ak
S i gn e d Ap r i l l gt h
i n g wa s not the so l e mn affa i r th e j ou r nalists o f
to d a y imagi n e ; a n d the m ak ers o f tr e at i e s w e re not
always a ctu at e d by the p u r e st m otiv e s T he i r a c
ti o n s a n d me tho d s w e r e o ft en e nou gh comp a rable
only to tho se o f a ce r ta in cl a ss o f ho r s e d e a l e r whos e
b a rga in s s at i s fy n e it h e r t h e s e ll e r no r the buy e r
Anyw ay th e b a lan ce o f p owe r w a s s e cu re d a nd
the r e s e e m e d no re a son w h y a ny Eu rop e a n S hou l d
ev e r think o f go i ng to w a r aga in For d eca d e s t h e

t e r m b al an c e o f p ow e r m e ant noth i ng a t a ll to
mi lli o n s o f m e n who sw e at e d th e i r l i v e s a way
wh e n th e y did n o t g i v e th e ms e lv e s a s fo o d fo r c an
n o n to h e lp p ay th e b ill fo r m a i n ta i n ing the b a l
a n ce
I t ha s a lways b e e n a shi ft i ng qu est i on ; fo r
a ft e r sa cr i cing thou s a n d s o f live s a n d sp e nd i n g m il
li ons o f p ou n d s i n att e mpts to p re s e rv e t he b al ance
the r e sult o f b attl e s ha s s e l d om le ft the b ala n ce o f
pow e r where i t w a s N eve r wa s such a w obb ly th i ng
inv e nt e d to i n fli ct s o mu ch m i s e ry o n m a n k i n d
And d i p loma t i sts a s a rul e hav e h a d a p oo r op in i on
ce e d in g s

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

18

o f i t Th e y hav e many t i m e s d i scov e re d a ft e r a

wa r th a t littl e o r nothing h a d b e e n ga i n e d by all
the ghti n g Lo r d G ra n vill e i n 1 8 8 7 w r ot e to t h e
Duk e o f Argyll that hi s o w n b e li e f w a s that th e
Cr i m e a n Wa r wa s a g r e at m i s fo r tu n e a n d th at e ith e r
Pa lm e r ston o r Ab e r d e e n alo n e woul d hav e p r e v e n t e d
i t Y e t no wa r w a s e v e r so p o pula r I t i s i n t e r e sti n g
to r ea d Lo r d E d mu n d F i t z m a u r i ce o n that b lu n d e r
H e s a id :
I n o r de r t o n d a s uffi c i e n t e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e g r e a t
de c i s i o n fo r wh i ch L o r d G r a n v ill e h a d h is s h a r e o f r es p o n
s i b i li t y w e mu s t l o o k fu r t h e r
I n t h e a r r o g a n t a t t i t u de o f
Ru s s i a s i n c e 1 8 1 5 t o w a r ds Eu ro p e t o wh i ch S h e s e e m e d
h a r dl y t o b e l on g i n t h e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g i n s o l e n ce o f t h a t
a t t i t u de s i n c e t h e a cc e s s i o n o f t h e Emp e r o r N i ch o la s
in the
exi s t e n c e o f a t h r e a t e n i n g m ili t a r y a u t o c r a cy r e n de r e d d o u
b ly o d i o u s by h a l f my s t i c a l c l a i m s a n d i n t h e t r a n s la t i o n o f
t h os e c l a i m s i n t o a c t i o n a g a i n s t li b er t y n o t m e r e l y i n P o l a n d
o r Hu n g a r y b u t a ll o v e r Eu r o p e i s t o b e f o u n d t h e e x p l a n a
T h ese t h i n g s h a d p ro duc e d a n
t i on o f t h e C r i m e an W a r
a t m o s ph e r e o f a l a r m a n d h a t re d o u t o f wh i ch t h e li gh t n i n g
No qu a r r e l a b o u t t h e
w as c e r t a i n s o on e r o r l a t e r t o l e a p
H o l y P l a c e s n o di s pu t e a b o u t t h e C h r i s t i a n s ubj ec t s o f t h e
P o r t e c o u l d p os s i b l y h a v e d r a gg e d an u n w il li n g P r i m e M in
i s t e r t o a s s o c i a t e t h e h i s t o r y o f h is G o v e r n m e n t w i t h a w a r
a g a i n s t a c o u n t ry t o wh i ch he w as t o s a y t h e l e a s t n o t p e r
s on a lly h os t il e
I t w a s t h e b e li e f wh i ch a n i m a t e d t h e p e o p l e
t h a t w es t e rn c i v iliz a t i o n w a s t h r e a t e n e d i n i t s e s s e n t i a l co n
ce p t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l a n d p o li t i c a l li b e r t y wh i ch f o r c e d h i m
F r an c e
on
a n d s e n t t h e a r m i e s a n d ee t s o f G r e a t B r i t a i n
w i t h n o a de qu a t e c a u se o f i mm e d i a t e qu a r re l
a n d S ar di n i a
I t is n o e x a g
t o t h e Sh o r es o f t h e B l a ck S e a a n d t h e B a l t i c
r ha d n eve r b e e n
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h av e s ee n t h e f o r ma t i on o f a U n i t e d I t a l y a n d a U n i t e d
.

G e rm a n y

a n d a ll t h e

c o n s e qu e n c e s

NE T R E SULTS

He r e i s a les so n wo rth a mo ment s cons i d e rat i on

I t p o i n ts a moral ; two i n d e e d Th e C r im e an W a r
wa s p opu la r ; but y e a r s a ft e r Lo r d G ra nville b e li e ve d
i t to have b e en a gr e a t m i s for tu ne
Ru ss i a threat
e ne d west e r n c i vi li z a ti on ; Ru ss i a wa s a m i l i ta ry a u
t o cr a cy w i th h al f myst i ca l cla i ms ; s h e wa s also a
d ang e r to i n d ivi d u a l a n d p oliti ca l lib e r ty
I f the
w a r h a d not b e en fou ght th e re woul d hav e b e e n n o
U n it e d G e rma ny w i th all i ts p ow e r ; t h a t m i litary
auto cra cy w i th mo re tha n hal f myst i ca l cl a i ms m i ght
n e v e r hav e b e en s trong e nough to ght the French
i n 1 8 70
S o we sma sh o n e Pow e r wh i ch th r e at e ns
i n d ivi du a l a n d p o liti ca l libe rty s o tha t o n e fa r wors e
may som e d a y a rm w i th th e i nt e nt i on o f sm ashi n g u s
B ut Holy Pla ce s mu st b e p r e s e rve d a n d the r e i s no
b e tte r w ay tha n u s ing gunp ow d e r a n d b ayo n e ts ; j u st
to S h o w a C h r i st i a n nat i on s re l i giou s fe e l i ngs a r e
not t o b e outra g e d w i th i mpun i t y The C r i m e a n
Wa r cos t G r e a t B r i ta i n som e
l i v e s a n d fty
m i llions i n money ; a n d the b alance o f p owe r a n d the
p os it i o n o f neu t r a ls re ce i v e d many r u d e S ho cks du r
Th e
i n g the p ro gres s o f tha t d i s a st r ou s camp a i gn
t r e aty ma d e i n P ar i s i n 1 8 5 6 wa s only ft e en yea r s
o ld wh e n i t w a s ca ncell e d
Anyway Ru ss i a wa s
p rop e rly thrash ed a n d fo r a fe w yea rs t h e c i t i z e ns
o f the w e ste rn d e mocra c i e s s l e p t s oun d ly th e i r
d r e a ms n e ve r hau n te d by the n i ghtma r e o f a Slav
a u to cra cy t hreaten i ng th e i r i n d i vi du a l a nd p ol i t i ca l
l ib e r t i es
N o t all d i p lomati sts hav e b e en a s fra nk a s Lo r d
G ranville I n h i s letters h e give s u s a gl i mp se b e
h i n d the s cen e s :
.

The

i ge

s e

of

Sevas t op ol has

h i t h erto

b een

fa il u re

H OW

20

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

W e h a v e g e n e r al s wh om w e do n ot t r us t an d wh om w e do
n ot
k n o w h o w t o r e p l a c e W e h a v e a n Amb a s s a do r a t
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a n a b l e m a n a ca t wh o m n o o n e c a r e s t o
b e ll wh o m s o m e t h i n k a p r i n c i p a l c a u s e o f th e w a r o t h e r s
t h e c a u s e o f s o m e o f t h e c a l a m i t i e s wh i ch h a v e a tt e n de d t h e
c o n duc t o f t h e w a r ; a n d wh o m w e k n o w t o h a v e t hw a r te d
o r n e g l e c t e d m an y o f t h e o bj e c t s o f h i s G ov e rn m e n t
The
F r e n ch g e n e r a l s se e m w o r s e t h a n o u rs ; th e t r oo p s b e f o re

S e v as t o p o l i n f e r i or t o o u r s i f n o t t o t h e Ru s s i a n s
,

Tha t wa s wr i tt e n to the Duke o f Argyll dur i ng the

p r og r e ss o f t h e w a r It woul d b e int e r e sting to
k n ow what t h e G o ve r n m e n t a t t h e tim e tol d t h e cou n
try ab ou t t h e bu sin e ss A n oth e r p a ssage from t h e
sam e l e tte r conta i ns a s ent i m e n t wort h not i ng :
.

I n t h e m e a n wh il e t h e d e a t h s o f b r a v e m e n a n d d i s t i n
gu i s h e d o ffi c e r s , f a l li n g i n a ff a i r s wh i ch h a v e a b s o l u t e l y n o
r e s u l t s , p res s U p o n u s t h e d u t y o f c o n s i de r i n g wh e t h e r i t i s

a b s o l u t e l y n e c e ss a r y t o c o n t i n u e t h e w a r

Lo r d G r a n v i ll e m i ght hav e go n e fu rther a n d sa i d

N o matt e r what t h e r e su lt n o thi n g o f a n y p r acti ca l

va lu e to m a n k i n d will b e ga i n e d
H e m i ght als o
h av e sa i d I n a fe w y e a r s t h e Ru ssi an a n d the Tu r k
w i ll b e a t e a ch oth e r s thro ats a n d e v e n B r i ta i n t o
s ay n o thing o f F r a n c e wi ll stand a s i d e a n d le t them

t e a r e a ch oth e r t o p i e c e s
Th e Tr e aty o f P a r i s gave t he g o d o f b attles l i ttle
Th e p e r io d from Vi cto r i a s a cce ss i on to t he
r e st
d at e o f t h e R e p e al o f t h e C o r n Laws wa s r e pl e t e
with wa r s ; a n d sco r es o f p e opl e s s ca tt e r e d n e a rly a ll
o v e r t h e e a r th
e n gag e d t h e att e n ti on o f t h e m a rt i a l
d e ity
A c o mpl e t e l ist o f t h e wa rs a n d revoluti on s
o f tha t p e r i o d w o ul d o ccupy too much sp a c e ; bu t to
m e n ti on som e o f the lo cal i t i e s
to i n d i cate how
,

PE E L ON A R M A M E NTS

2I

w i d esp r e a d th e a re a wa s ove r wh i ch th e go d h a d
t o watch t h e st r i f e
m ay s e r v e a u s e fu l pu rp o s e
Th e r e wa s a r e volut i on i n C a n a d a ; C ha rtist d i s
t u r b a n ce s a t hom e ; wa r i n A fghan i sta n ; tu mults i n
V i e n n a B e rlin a n d R om e : th e r e w e r e wa rs i n I n d i a
B u r ma E gyp t Tu rk e y a n d C hi n a ; to s ay noth i n g
o f the r i s i n gs i n I r e lan d a n d Sout h Wale s Fr a nc e
1 8 4 8 was a ve ry bu sy
o f cou rs e h a d a revolut i on
ye a r fo r t h e g o d o f b attl e s N i e t z sche wa s n o t to
blam e fo r a n y o f thos e wa r s
I n d e e d t h e fu n d a
m e n ta l i d e a o f Th us S pa /r e Z a r a t h u s tr a d id not com e
to him u nti l 1 8 8 1
So that wo r k w a s n ot a ccou n t
ab le even fo r t h e F r a n co G e r ma n W a r o f 1 8 7 0
And no B r i t i sh e d ito r wi ll a ss e rt tha t Tre i ts chk e
wa s a p opula r au tho r b e fo re h e w e nt to Le i p z i g
Wh at th e n cou l d h ave b e e n t h e cau s e o f a ll the dis
t u r b an ce s ?
I t mu st hav e b e e n e ith e r Goeth e o r J ea n
Paul o r m ayhap T i e ck T h e r e we re m en i n
B r ita i n who mi ght hav e s a i d i t w a s ou r fault fo r
sp r e a d i n g b ibl e s ab ou t the glob e a n d lett i n g the u n
s op h i st i cat e d re a d t h e I 4 4 th Ps a lm Anyway
t r e at i e s a n d diplomati sts w e r e not su cc e s s fu l i n s o
mu ch a s k e e p i n g the p e a ce o f B u rma le t a lon e t h e
p e ac e o f Eu r op e
It mu st n o t b e i n fe r r ed howeve r that ev e r y m a n
i n B r i ta i n du r i n g the r st two d e ca d e s o f Vi cto r i a s
r e i g n wa s w a r -m a d Th ere we r e som e m en w h o
sp oke st rongly aga i n s t a rmam e n ts Fo r i nsta nce
S i r Rob e rt P e e l i n t h e H ou s e o f C omm ons i n 1 8 4 1
said :
,

i m e c o m e wh e n th e p ow e r fu l c o u n t r i es o f
Eu ro p e Sh o u l d re d uce t h e i r a r m a m e n ts wh i ch t h e y h a v e s o
?
ul
l
y
i
d
I S n o t t he t i m e c o m e wh e n t h e y s h o u l d
a
se
s
r
s ed
ou
Is

n ot

t he

H OW D I P L O M ATS M A KE WA R

22

p re p are d to dec l a re t h a t t h e re i s n o use i n suc h overg rown

e s t a b li s hm e n t s ?
The t r u e i n t e r e s t o f E u ro p e i s t o co m e t o
s o m e c o mm o n a cc o r d s o as t o e n a b l e e v e ry c o u n t ry t o r e d u c e
t h o se m ili t a r y a rm a m e n t s wh i ch b e l o n g t o a s t a t e o f w a r
r a t h e r t h an o f p ea c e
I do w i s h t h a t t he c ou n c il s o f e v e r y
c o u n t ry (o r t he p u b li c v o i c e an d m i n d i f t h e c o un c il d id

n o t ) w oul d w i lli n g l y p r o p a g a t e s uc h a doc t r i n e

be

A b r ave stat e ment tha t i n the days when Pa l

merston a nd Thi ers i nu ence d t h e m i lita ry establ i s h
ments o f B r i ta i n a nd Fra nce ; b e fo re the Entent e
Co r d i ale wa s taken a s a step towar d s th e go al o f
Eu rop e a n p e a ce Ou r western a lly o f to d a y wa s
then i n a pos i t i o n to ll the m i nd o f th e Duke o f

Wellington w i th awe H e wrote

e x cept i ng im
me d i at e ly un d e r t h e re o f D ove r C a stle the re i s not
a sp o t on th e coa s t from the N o rt h Fo reland to
S e ls ey B i ll on wh i ch i n fa nt r y m i ght not b e thrown
o n s ho re a t a ny t i m e o f t i d e w i th any w i nd a nd i n

a ny w e ather
S even y ea rs a fte r the Duke s aw fu l
wa rn i ng B r i ta i n fou n d Fra nce ght i ng S i d e by s i d e
w i th h e r i n the C rimea
D i ploma cy b r i ngs togethe r
strang e b e d fellows
A fte r Ru ss i a wa s soun dly thr a she d by th e All i e s
p ea ce d i d not even br i ng a redu ct i o n o f mil i ta ry
e x p en d i tu re
I n 1 8 5 7 w e s ent m i l i ta ry e x p ed i
t i ons to C h i na a nd P e rs i a a t a t i me when B r i t
i sh metho d s o f te a ch i ng H i ndo o pr i nces how to go v
e rn were cau s i ng grave u nr e s t i n I nd i a Then D i s
r a e li w a s move d to s ay
When a t i me o f p e a ce con
s i sts o f p rep a ra t i on s fo r wa r o f tt i ng out e x p ed i
t i ons o f s end i ng e ets to d i ffe rent qu a rters o f th e
glob e then I a m obl i ge d to cons i d er whether the wa r
ta x a t i o n i s not re qu i re d for c i rcumsta nces a nd obj e cts
fa r d i ff erent from those wh i ch a t i me o f p e a ce j u st i
,

TH E B OG E Y OF
fi es and re q u i re s

1 8 60

23

M a ny o f the lead i ng me n then

i n the Hou s e o f C ommo ns b el i ev e d tha t the b est
way to ke ep the p ea c e wa s to cu rta i l e x p en d i tu re o n
a rm aments Wha tever m ay b e s a i d o f the fut i lity
o f th at not i on i t canno t now b e cla i m ed by thos e w h o
supp o rt t h e contra ry v i e w (n a m e ly that the b est way
to ke ep th e p e a c e i s to p r e p a r e fo r w ar ) that larg e
a rmi e s a n d p owe r fu l nav i e s a re fa ctors wh i ch m ake
fo r i nterna tion a l ha rm ony
T he r e we re
L i ttle

N avy m e n i n thos e d ays G la d stone fo r i nstance

re solut e ly opp os e d P a lm e r s t o n s s ch e me to exp en d
1 1 o o o o o o o n t h e d e f e nce o f a rsenals a n d d o ck
ya r d s That wa s i n t h e summ e r o f 1 8 6 0 when
H e rb ert w a s a t the W a r O i ce a n d s ca re d s o m any
p a tr i ots by s ay i ng h e w a s conv i nce d tha t a grea t
ca lam i ty wa s imp en d i ng i n the shap e o f wa r w i th
Fr a nce Th r e e ye a rs e a rli e r t h e F re nch Emp e ro r
h a d o ffer e d to fa c i l i tat e t h e p a ssag e o f tro op s
through Fra nc e to r e i n force ou r regi m e nts i n I n d i a
The C ab i n e t the Hou s e a n d t h e cou n t ry were
nev e rth e l e ss i n a stat e o f p an i c a n d Pa lme rsto n car
r i e d t h e d a y M i lli o n s w er e sp ent fo rti fy i ng
ou r co a st s a ga i nst a Fr e nch i nvas i o n a n d t h e t ax
p ayers no d oub t felt s e cu r e b e hin d t h e fo rt i cat i on s
tha t sav e d the m from H erb e rt s i mp e n d i ng calamity
B u t to th e i r so rro w t h e taxp aye rs l e a rn e d i n a ve ry
fe w y e a rs that th e i r m i lli o n s h a d b e e n thrown away
At tha t t i me o f p an i c G la dstone sa i d :
.

W e h a v e n o a de qu a t e i de a o f t he p r e di s p os i n g p ow e r
wh i ch an i mm e n se s e r i e s o f m e a s u re s o f p r e p a r a t i o n s fo r w a r
T h e y f am ili a r iz e
o n o u r p a r t h a s i n a c t u a ll y b e g e t t i n g w a r
i deas wh i ch l o se t h e i r h o r ro rs t h e y li gh t a n i n w a r d a m e
wh en i t is h ab i tu all y fe d w e l os e
o f e x c i t e m e n t o f wh i ch

the c on s c i o u sn ess

'

H ow D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

24

Th e change from woo d e n to i ro n vess e ls two y e a rs

a ft e r the p a n i c r e ve a l e d t h e ma dnes s o f t h e wa ste r s
F r om
w h o h a d s quan d e r e d t h e m i lli o n s i n 1 8 6 0
p an i c to n e goti ati on withi n o n e y e a r wa s qu i ck shi ft
ing fo r a n y nati on ; still D i s ra e l i i n 1 8 6 1 su gg e st e d
a comp act s hou l d b e ma d e wi th t h e F r e n ch G ov e rn
ment to l i m i t nava l e x p en d i t u re H e s a i d :
.

W h at

is

d i p l o m a cy , wh a t is t h e u s e o f G ov
u s e o f c or d i a l u n d ers t a n d i n g s , i f s uch

t he u s e o f

wh a t i s t h e
?
ca
h
i
g
s
n
k
e
p
l
a
c
e
t n
ta
e r n m en t s ,

Cob den a t that t i m e u se d a ll h i s int e ll i gence a n d

str e ngth to mak e t h e G o v e r n m e nt a n d t h e p eop l e s e e
t h e d a n g e r o f t h e n ati o n s p ili n g u p e no rmou s a rm a
m e n ts H is V i e w o f t h e qu e stion i s wo rth r em e m
b er i ng :
.

fo r t he e v il ca n o n l y b e f o u n d i n a m o re
f r an k u n de r s t a n di n g b e t w e en t he t w o G o v e r n m en t s I f
t h e y w ill d i s c a r d t h e Old a n d u tt e r l y fu t il e t h eo r y o f s e c r e cy
a t h e o r y o n wh i ch a n i n d i v i d u a l m a n u f a c t u r e r o r m e r ch an t
n o l o n g e r f o u n d s hi s h o p e s o f s ucc e s s fu l c o mp e t i t i o n w i t h a
f o rei gn r i v al
t h e y m ay b e e n ab l e d , by t h e t i m e l y e x ch an g e
o f ex p l a n a t i o n s a n d a s s u ran c e s , t o p r e v e n t wh a t o u gh t t o b e
g ro w i n g i n t o
r es t r i c t e d t o m e r e e x p er i m e n t a l t r i a l s f ro m
f o r m i da b l e p r e p a ra t i o n s fo r w ar B u t th e g r e a t es t e v il con
n e ct e d w i t h t h e se r i v a l a r m am e n t s i s t h a t t h e y d e s t r o y t h e
W h en t w o g re a t n e i ghb o u r
s t r o n g e s t m o t i v e s fo r p e a c e
i n g n a t i o n s n d t h e m se l v es s ubj e c t e d t o a w a r e x p e n di t u r e ,
w i t h o u t t h e c o mp e n s a t i on o f i ts u s u a l e x c i t e m e n ts a n d
h on o u r s , t he d a n g er t o b e a pp re h en de d i s t h a t i f a n a cc i de n t
an d w e k n o w
s h o u l d o ccu r t o i n a m e t h e i r h o s t il e p ass i on s
ho w c e r t a i n t h es e a cc i de n t s a r e a t i n t e r v a l s t o a r i s e t h e i r
l at en t s e n s e o f s u ffe r i n g a n d i n j u ry m ay re c on c il e t h e m t o a
ru p t u re , a s t h e o n l y e v e n t u a l es c a p e f r o m a n o t h e r w i s e p e r

p e tu al w a r t a x a t i on in a t i m e o f p e a c e

re

m e dy

FE R D I NAN D LAS S ALLE

25

Well m i ght D i s ra e l i a sk wh a t i s t h e u s e o f d i pl o
ma cy B ut d i s ca r d t h e o ld a n d utt e r ly futil e t h e o r y

o f s e cre cy a n d what b e com e s o f n i n e t e n ths O f t h e

wo r k o f t h e Fo r e ign O ffi c e ? B e s i d e s p a r a s it e s tak e
go o d ca r e o f th e i r d e p a r tm e n ts a n d as th e y hav e
b enete d from t h e syst e m th e y consi d e r i t th e i r d uty
to p a s s i t o n with a ll its p r ivil e g e s u n imp a i r e d to
futu r e p a ra s i t e s as i f i t w e r e a v e st e d i n t e r e st P a l
m e rsto n wou l d ha v e n o ne o f C o b d e n s Utop i a n p ro
no t h e
a n d str a ightway h e s e t out to
p o s a ls
ke e p t h e cou ntry i n a stat e o f p a ni c
D i p lom ati sts k e pt t h e g o d o f b attl e s bu sy th r ou gh
the y ea rs exten d i n g from t h e C r im e a n W a r alo n g t o
1 8 64
the y e a r b e fo r e P alm e r sto n p a ss e d aw ay t o

tha t r ealm wh e re t h e j i n go d o e s n o t p ani c a n d

b i ngo h a s n o sa le
Ju st ab o u t tha t p e r i o d P r u ssi a
s e t to wo rk to p u t h e r h ou s e i n o r d e r B riti sh stat e s
m en fa i l e d to d e t e ct n e w m ov e m e n ts whi ch wou l d
m e an gr e a t things i n Eu rop e a n history bu t P a l
m e r sto n wa s no t t h e m a n to e sti mat e t h e va lu e o f
thos e pla n s a n d t e n d e n ci e s An d to d a y now t hat
s o ma n y wr it e rs a r e lo oki ng to n d t h e b e gi nni n gs
o f thi s G e rmany w e a r e w a r r ing aga i n st fe w u n d e r
sta n d t h e i n u e nc e s tha t w e r e a t wo r k ab ou t t h e y e a r
1 8 6 0 t o whi ch t h e e xtrao r d i n a r y c h a n g e s which to ok
p la c e m i ght v e ry w e ll b e a tt r ibut e d Th e r i se o f
B isma rck ca nnot b e a ccre d it e d t o t h e t e a ch i n gs o f
Nor
Syb e l a n d T r e itschke a s s om e p e opl e ima gin e
w e r e t h e G e r ma n p e o p l e st i mul a t e d by thei r wo r ks
I t may howe ve r b e s a f e ly su gg e st e d tha t t h e va st
m aj o r ity o f t h e G e r ma ns o f t h a t tim e r e a d m o r e
b o oks a n d p amp hl e ts o f F e r d inan d La ssall e tha n
tho s e o f a ny oth e r fou r o r v e autho rs T r e i t schk e
wa s re a d th e n no m o re than B e rgson i s r e a d i n E n g
.

H OW

26

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

la n d now Th e G ermany we a re try i ng to u n d er

stan d in th i s y e a r 1 9 1 5 i s t he p ro d u ct o f two men
o f e xt r a o r d i n a ry p ow e rs who met i n the p la sti c tim e
a n d i mp r e sse d th e i r stro n g p e rsonalit i e s o n a p e opl e
o f g r e at ca p a city F e r d i n a n d La ssall e a n d B i sma rck
w e r e t h e m e n a n d t h e G e r ma ny that i s pu z z ling
ma n y newsp ap e r h i sto r i a n s ow e s no m o r e to t h e l at
t e r th a n i t d o es to the fo r m e r
G e org e B r an d e s
tou ch e s th i s i dea i n h i s wo rk on La ssalle :
.

v e n t d u r i n g t he n i n e t ee n t h c e n t u ry has p ro v o k e d
t h e g re a t es t s u r p r i s e a n d a s t o n i s hm e n t i n Eu ro p e
Un suc
ce s s fu l a t t e mp t s a t i t s e x p l a n a t i o n h a v e b e e n
a n d a r e s t i ll
o ff e r e d by t he d i ff e r e n t Eu r o p e a n n a t i o n a li t i e s
T h i s e v en t
i s t h e p ro c es s by wh i ch t he G e r m a n y o f H e g e l w as t ran s
f o r m e d t o th e G er m a n y o f B i s m a r ck S o m e t he or i s ts s p e a k
a s i f t h e o ld G e r m a n s t o ck h a d s u dde n l y d i e d o u t a n d a n e w
r a c e h a d s p r u n g up w i t h o u t r oo t s ; o t h e r s a s i f t h e o ld s t o ck
h a d b e e n d e s t ro y e d o r e n n o b l e d by a n i n f u s i on o f W e n d i s h
Slavo n i c b lood
To s o m e m o de rn G e r m a n y is e n i gm a t i c
a s t h e I ro n M a s k
Th e f a c e o f t h e ph il os o ph e r a n d p o e t
w a s t h e r e a l c o u n t e n a n c e a n d t h i s h as n ow b e e n h i dde n by
P r u s s i a n d o m i n a t i on a s t h e m as k c o n c e a l e d t h e i de n t i t y o f
t h e u n h a ppy p r i s o n e r
O t h e rs a g a i n r e g a r d t h e o ld a n d
p l e a s a n t c o u n t en an c e o f r o m an c e as t h e m as k hyp o c r i t i c a ll y
h i di n g t he re a l f e a t u r e s wh i ch h a v e n ow b e c o m e v i s i b l e
T h es e v i ew s a re a li k e i n j u d i c i o u s a n d a re b a s e d in e i t h e r
c as e up o n i gn o ra n c e o f t h e c o u rs e o f de v e l o pm e n t wh i ch
m o de rn G e rm an y h as p u rs u e d I f t h i s d e v e l o pm en t i s
s t u di e d i n li t e r a t u r e
i t w ill b e s e e n ho w s t e p by s t e p t h e
i de as t he m e t h o ds o f a c t i on a n d t he v i e w s o f li f e pu r s u e d
a n d en t e r t ai n e d by t h e n e w e r g e n e ra t i on h a v e de v e l o p e d o r
Th e gu l f wh i ch d i
g an i cally f r o m t h o s e o f t h e p as t a ge
v i de s t h e G e rm an y o f H e g e l f r o m t he G e r m an y o f B i s m a r ck
w ill g r a du all y b e ll e d b e f o r e o u r ey es Th e f a c es up o n
e i t h e r s i d e o f t h i s gu l f w ill a pp e a r a s r e l a t e d by s i m il a r i t y
o f f ea t u re ; wh il e c e r t a i n i n t e res t i n g a n d s t ro n g l y m a r k e d
On e

A FO RGOTTE N FA CTO R

27

c ou n t e n an c e s wh i ch s t a n d o u t b o l dl y a ga i n s t t he b a ckg r ou n d
o f h i s t o r y w i ll o f t h e m se l v e s t yp i fy t h e p r o c es s o f t r a n s i t i o n
a n d a ma l g a m a t i o n wh i ch h as fu s e d t h e i n t e ll e c t u a l i n d i v i d
O f t h e s e s p e c i a l f e a t u r es h a r d l y
u a li t i e s o f t w o g e n e r a t i o n s
a n y is m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g o r m o r e c l e a r l y cu t t h a n t h e gu re
H e w as b o r n o n Ap r i l 1 1 t h 1 8 2 5
o f F e r d i n a n d L a s s a ll e
a n d d i e d o f a w o u n d r e c e i v e d i n a d u e l o n Au gu s t 2 1 5 t 1 8 6 4
H e w a s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d pup i l o f H e g e l a n d w as s p o k e n o f
i n h i s t i m e as B i s m a r ck s t u t o r a n d n o t u n re ason a b l y ; fo r
e v e n t h o ugh h e c a n n o t b e s h o w n t o h a v e i n u e n c e d B i s m a r ck
d i r e c t l y ye t i f w e e x a m i n e t h e p o i n t s wh i ch de c i de d b o t h
t h e f o r e i gn a n d d o m e s t i c p o li cy o f t h e g r e a t S t a t e s m a n w e
s h a ll n d t h a t t h i s p o li cy p re c i s e l y r e a liz e d t he p r o g r a mm e
p r o p o u n de d by t he ph il o s oph i c a l a g i t a t o r
.

H ow a ny r esp ons i bl e stu d e nt o f th e h i sto r y o f

G e rma n y ca n p r e t e n d t o d e s crib e he r growth d u r i n g
t h e m i dd l e thi r d o f t h e la st c e n tu ry with o u t taki ng
a cc o u n t o f t h e i n u e n c e a n d g e n iu s o f La ss a ll e i s in
c o mp r e h e n sibl e Th e s am e co n fu s ion e xi sts to -d a y
i n t h e mi n d s o f t h e criti cs o f G e r man p o l i cy that e x
i s t e d o v e r fty y e a rs a g o i n t h e Fa t h e rland a s to
La ss a ll e s i nt e r p r e tati on o f M ight a n d R i ght Th e n
t h e c o mmon noti o n wa s th a t La ss all e pu t m i ght i n
t h e pla c e o f right
Wh e n h e s a i d i n h i s l e ctu r e i n
B e r li n i n 1 8 6 2
C o n stitution a l qu e sti o ns a r e th e r e
fo r e in t h e r st i n sta nce n o t qu e st i o n s o f right but

qu e sti o n s o f m ight h e sta t e d the cas e o f ev e ry s o

ca ll e d c i vi li z e d n ati on n o t G e r many o n ly but B r ita i n
F r a n c e a n d B e lgium H e sai d Th e a ctu a l const i
t u t i o n o f a c o u nt r y has i ts e xi sten c e only i n t h e a ctu a l

co n d iti o n s o f f o r c e wh i ch ex i st i n t h e country
No
B r i t i sh e r shoul d n o w de ny that u gly t r uth B ut La s
s a ll e wa s not stat i ng wha t shoul d b e ; he wa s pr es e nt
i ng t h e ca s e a s i t th e n stoo d i n Germ any a n d in
othe r nat i o ns Tru e the p re ss a t the t i me int e r
,

H OW

28

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

th e l ec t u r e a s a d e cla rat i on that mig ht wa s

right Lassall e i n a p amp hl e t r ep l i e d to t h e o bv i ou s
mi su n d e rstan d i n g a n d sa i d
I f I h a d c r e at e d t h e
wo r l d I s hou l d v e r y p robably h av e ma d e a n e xce p
t i o n a t th i s p oi n t i n favo u r o f t h e w i sh e s o f the
V o lks z e i t u n g a n d o f C ou n t S chw e r i n a n d h av e a r
ra n g e d tha t right shou l d p r e c e d e might S uch a n
a r r a n g e m e n t woul d b e qu i t e i n ha rmo n y w i th my own
e th i cal stan d p o i nt a n d d e sir e s
U n fo r tu n at e ly h o w
e v e r I have no t b e e n e n tru ste d with t h e c r e atio n o f
the worl d a n d must th e r e fo r e d e cli n e any r e sponsi
b i li ty any p ra is e o r b lam e fo r the n ature o f e x i sting

a r rang e m e n ts

C e rta i nly th e rst l aw o f e ve ry c i v i l i z e d n a

t i on i s fo rce
B u t w e r e tu r n to t h e imm e d i a t e subj e ct however
fa s cinati n g t h e d i gr e ssi o n may b e to o n e who se only
a mus e m e nt in th e s e t e r r ibl e d ays i s t h e nons e n s e b ab
b l e d a n d s c r i bbl e d by stat e sm e n a n d j our n a li sts on
G e r ma n p hilosop h e r s Th e n e xt exhib i tion o f
m i ght p re c e d ing right wa s anoth e r utt e r ly d i sc r e d i t
ab le a ff a i r fo r B r iti sh d iplo m a cy I t took p la c e i n
Ea st e rn Eu rop e co n c e rn i n g P ola n d What hal f a
centu r y ca n d o fo r Eu r op e a n n ati ons i n chang i n g
cannot b e b e t
a n d S h i ft i ng throne s a n d boun d a ri e s
t e r i llustrate d tha n by p r e s e n ti n g a S i mpl e r e co r d o f
Lo r d E dmun d Fit z m au r i ce i n
e v e nts s i nc e 1 8 6 2
hi s L if e o f L o r d Gr a n v ille a do r ns t h e tal e from
wh i ch t h e publ i c o f to d a y might d r aw many mo r als
W r iti n g about t h e b e g i n n ing o f thi s c e ntu ry F i t z
m au r i c e s a i d :
P o l a n d w a s t h e n a s i t S t ill is th e h i n g e o n wh i ch P r u s
Ev e r s i n c e t he rs t p ar t i t i on t o
s i a n f o r e i g n p o li cy t u r n s
a v o i d a c o n i c t w i t h R u s s i a h as b e e n t h e p o li cy o f t h e P r u s
p r e te d
.

R I GHT S

O F S MALL

NATI ON S

29

F o r e i gn O ffi c e a n d t he i n h e r i t e d t r a di t i on o f he r R oya l
F a m il y The M i n i s t e r wh o m W illi a m I h a d j u s t c a ll e d t o
hi s c o u n c il s a l r e a d y c o n t e mp la t i n g t h a t h e m i gh t s h o r t l y
h a v e t o Op e n a n e w a n d p e r il o u s ch a p t e r o f G e r m a n a n d
Eu r o p e an h i s to r y wh i ch m i gh t b r i n g h i m i n t o c o lli s i o n w i t h
Au s t r i a a n d F r a n c e w as d e t e r m i n e d u n der n o c i r cum s t a n ce s
wh a t e v e r t o r i s k a s t r ugg l e w i t h Ru s s i a H e o n t he co n
t ra ry i n t e n d e d to Ob t a i n a s o li d gu a r a n t e e o f he r fu t u r e
g o o d w ill w i t h an e ye t o c o m i n g e v e n t s To s t an d r i g i dl y
a l o o f f r o m E u ro p e a n i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e a ff a i rs o f P o l a n d
w as t he Obv i o u s m e t h o d t o g a i n h is e n d e s p e c i a ll y a s t h i s
p o li cy w o u l d h av e t h e a d di t i o n a l a dv a n t a ge o f s e p a r a t i n g
Ru ss i a f r o m F r a n c e s h o u l d F r a n c e j o i n i n t he p r o p o s e d i n

s an

t e rv e n t i on

an d

Fr a nc e symp athi z e d w ith t h e Poli s h

i nsu r r e cti o n ists bu t d ip l o mati c i n t e r v e n ti o n w i t h o u t
t h e suppo r t o f Au st r ia o r P r u ss i a s e e m e d to Lo r d
Gra nvill e a n a ct o f m a d n e s s Th e Qu e e n was
a larm e d a n d f e a r e d a r up tu r e wi th Ru ssi a The
K ing o f t h e B e lgi a n s w r ot e to t h e Qu e e n a l e tt e r
whi c h i s o f g r e at sig n i ca n c e a t p res e nt wh e n B r ita in
i s sp e n d i n g m i lli ons a n d s a c r i ci n g th o u s a n d s o f l iv e s

i n up ho l d i n g t h e i n t e grity a n d i n d e p e n d e nc e o f
B e lgium
I t s e ems i n cr e d ib l e th at t h e Ki n g o f a
sm a ll w e ak p ow e r coul d w r it e i n su ch t e r m s o f an
a nci e n t ki n g d o m that h a d suff e r e d mo r e t e rribly f r om
t h e a ggressio n o f g r eat p ow e r s tha n a n y cou n try i n
An d i t shoul d b e r e m e mb e r e d that B e l
t h e wo r l d
g i um the n ow e d its p o liti ca l e x ist e nc e to the T reaty
Th e Ki n g s a i d :
o f 1 83 9
B r i ta i n

P o l a n d t he E n g li s h
w o u l d b e i mp o ss i b l e fo r

Abou t

C a b i n et

m u s t be

p r u de n t

Emp er o r Ale x a n de r t o
g i v e up t h es e p ro v i n c e s wh i ch on e mu s t s ay a r e p r o s p e ro u s
T h e i r ex
a n d h a v e b e e n n ow Ru s s i a n fo r a l o n g p e r i o d
It

t he

H OW D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

30

w ill be i mp ro v e d as t r u l y m u ch has b e en a l re ady

don e i n t h a t w ay
B u t t h e R u s s i an s as a n a t i o n w il l n e v e r
a n d ca n n e v e r s ubm i t t o g i v e t h e m up
To c a rr y o n a w a r
fo r t h a t p u rp o s e w o u l d fo r E n g l a n d b e a f oo l s p l a y
If a
P o l a n d a s t he G a r i b a l d i a n s w i s h i t c o u l d b e r e s t o r e d i t
w o u l d b e i n c l o s e alli an c e w i t h F r a n c e ; a n d P r u ss i a p a r
t icu la rly b e t w e en t h e F r e n ch on t he Rh i n e an d a F r e n ch
p r o v i n c e o n t he V i s t u l a c o u l d n o t exi s t I t w o u l d b e com
Au s t r i a w o u l d a lso ge t s uch a d a n g e rou s
p le t e ly n u lli e d
s e t o f p e o p l e n e a r H u n g a ry t h a t i t w o u l d n d i t s e l f i n t h e
s a m e p os i t i o n
E n g l a n d h as a v i t a l i n te r es t fo r i ts o w n
s e cu r i t y t h a t t h os e t w o P o w e r s Sh o u l d c o n t i n u e t o m a i n t a i n
t h e i r e xi s t e n c e
is t e n ce

Po o r P ol an d ! No t mu ch symp athy th e n fo r you r

n ot i on s o f in d ep en d e nce
But wha t a strang e th i ng
i s d ip lomacy ! A ft e r a ll cont i n u i t y o f fo r e ign p ol i cy
i s m e r e ly a p a rty sh i bbol e th and amb assa d or i al la
bou rs a re va i n
P r u ss i a a n d Austr i a w e r e t h e bul
warks o f B r i ti sh a n d B e lgi a n fo r e i gn p olicy o f tha t
d a y a n d F r an c e wa s t h e m e nac e to t h e p ea ce o f
Eu rop e Th e B r i t i sh C ab i n e t d i d not th e n go ou t
o f i ts way to d o mu ch fo r a sm all n at i ona li ty a n d
i t wa s cont e n t to giv e m e r e ly pl atoni c a d v i c e to Ru s
sia
Fit z m au r i c e s a i d W ith t h e r e sult that at th e
e n d o f t h e d ip lomati c camp a ig n Ru ss i a h a d b e com e
b ou n d by ti es o f g r a ti tu de to P ru ss i a fo r hav i ng r e
fus e d to tak e p a rt i n i t whil e t h e p rev i ou s go o d u m
d e r s t a n di n g b e tw e en F r anc e a n d Ru ss i a wa s sh at
te re d
Th e r e mnants o f goo d f e e l i ng b etw e e n
F r anc e a nd E nglan d we re als o st i ll fu rther r e
d u ce d
Th e n et r e sult wa s tha t b oth G re a t
B r i ta i n a n d F r ance we re f e lt to h ave lo st heav i ly i n

publ i c e st i mat i o n
Then follow e d a ll the s q u al i d bu s i ness o f S chle s
.

L AN D GR A B AN D J I N GO H O P E S
-

a nd D e nm a rk An y on e de e ply i m
bu e d with t h e all e g e d gallantry o f d iplomati c B r i ta i n
gu a r d i n g t h e i n t e r e sts o f small stat e s a n d p res e rvi n g

s crap s o f p ape r might r e a d wi th p r o t the h i story

o f ou r sh a r e in thos e t r ans actions I n lo ok i n g b ack
i t i s a m a z i ng to s e e j u st whe re w e stoo d i n r e lat i o n
to Franc e Writing o f th e F rank fu rt Congress
Lo rd Granv i ll e s a i d t o L o r d Pa lme rston :
wi g-Ho lst e i n

y t h i n g t e n di n g t o G e r m a n U n i t y w o u l d b e
d i s a g re e a b l e t o F ra n c e b u t w o u l d n o t g i v e F r a n c e a n y j u s t
p ret e n c e fo r a t t a ck i n g B e l g i u m o r P r u s s i a a n d i f u n i t y w as
i n a n y m ili t ar y s en s e a cc o mp li s h e d i t w o u l d m a k e F re n ch

a gg r e s s i on t o w a r ds t h e Rh i n e m o r e d i ffi c u l t
No do u b t

an

Th e re i n th at D an i sh b rawl a ga i n th e qu e st i on o f
the i nt e g r i ty o f a kingdom (which h a d b e en gu ar
a nte e d by the Powe rs i n a t r ea ty i n 1 8 5 2 ) ne a rly
s et Eu rop e i n a bla z e T he G e rma ns res ente d the
a ct i o n o f t h e P owe rs a nd n o w S ought a n opp ortunity
o f a d d i ng to the i r a re a the two E lb e Du chi e s Th e
s quabb l e gave a ll t h e d i plom at i sts a gran d ch a nc e o f
push i ng u lte r i o r a ff a i rs affe cti n g th e i r sta te s I t wa s
i n d e e d a n o r gy i n wh i ch t h e m i l de st gam e w a s b e g

ga r my ne i ghbo u r a nd th e m o st mo d e st on e strip

Jack n ake d
Th e J i ngo e s i n Englan d w e re elat e d
a t t h e p r o sp e ct o f a wa r with G e rmany P a lme rsto n
h a d h i gh hop e s ; t h e s i tu at i on wa s o ne h e glori e d in

The re i s nothing l i ke a scrap o f p ap e r fo r b r i ng

i ng nat i o n s a t e a ch other s th r o ats whethe r i t b e t o
ke e p t h e scrap whol e o r t o t e a r i t to shr e ds Th e
temp e ra tu re o f B r i ta i n wa s ra i s e d to fev e r h eat a t
t h e fo rce thrown by two g r ea t Powers o n l i ttl e D e n
mark Ashl ey s ays :
I t w a s suggest e d that
F rance a n d Gre at B r i ta i n S hou ld o ffe r the i r m e d i a
,

H ow D I P LO M ATS MA KE W AR

ti on o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i nt e gr i ty o f t h e D a n i sh mon
a rchy a n d t h e e n gag e m e n ts o f 1 8 5 12 ; a n d that i f
su ch m e d i ati o n w e re r e fu s e d by Aust r i a a n d P r u ssi a
E n gla n d S h ou l d d esp a tch a s qu a d r o n t o C op e n h ag e n
a n d F r a n c e a n a r my co rp s to the R h e ni sh f r o n t i e r o f

P r u s si a
P a lm e r ston ta lk e d b i g a n d d i d little

H e sa i d :
I f a n y vi ol e n t a tt e mpt wa s m a d e to
ove rth r o w t h e r i ghts a n d to i nt e r f e re with t h e i n
d e p e n d e nc e o f D e n m a rk tho s e w h o ma d e t h e a t
t e m pt woul d n d in t h e r e sult that it wou ld no t b e
D e n m a rk a lone with wh i ch th e y woul d ha ve to co n

te nd
Ig n o r a n c e o f G e r man f e eling a n d a mb iti o n
wa s j u st as d e ns e th e n a s it i s n o w a n d t h e ig n o r a nce
w a s t h e cau s e o f ma n y S illy m i su n d e r sta n d i n gs
Apa rt from t h e n ati o n a l qu e sti o n o f D e n ma r k som e
p e opl e sa i d t h e S chl e swi g H olst e in a ffa i r a r os e b e
cau s e c o mm e r ci a l b ills i n the Du ch i e s w ere d rawn
u pon Ha mbu r g a n d n o t u p o n C op e n hage n ! A l e tt e r
from t h e Qu e e n t o Lo r d G r anvi ll e i s i n stru ct i v e a s
to t h e way mon a rchs i n thos e d ays r e ga r de d scrap s
o f pap er
,

,
,

Th e Emp e r o r (F r en ch )

an d

M D r ou yn de l H u ys

s ay

W e w i s h t o m a i n t a i n t he t r e a t y bu t i f t he a l t e rn a t i v e i s
m a i n t a i n i n g i t o r a co n a g r a t io n i n Eu ro p e w e p re f e r t o
We
m o d i fy o r c a n c e l i t r at h e r t h an a co n a g ra t io n
h av e do n e t o o m u ch b e e n t oo a c t i v e a n d d on e o u rs e lves n o
g o o d W e a re a l a s ! d e t e s t e d i n G e r m a n y

Th e Qu een fought har d fo r p e a c e a ga i n st t h e

l e a d e rs o f t h e Opp os it i on an d s om e o f h e r ch i e f M in

Lo r d G ra n vi ll e whos e w i s
sav e d t h e cou n try f r om a
I n a noth e r lett e r the Qu e e n s a i d :

I t wa s , h o w e v e r ,
iste rs
d o m a n d ta ct u ltimately
.

dis a strous wa r

The

on

l y ch an c e

of

p rese r v i n g p eac e

for

E u rop e

i s by

! U E EN VI CTO R I A S I D EAS

33

D en m a r k , w h o has b rough t t h i s e n t i r e l y up on
h e rs e l f , a n d w ho , t he Q u e e n b e li ev e s , w o u l d n o w e v e n re s i s t
fu l lli n g he r p ro m i s e s ! D e n m a r k is a f t e r a ll o f l e s s v i t a l
i mp o r t a n c e t h a n t he p e a c e o f Eu r o p e , a n d i t w o u l d b e m a d
n e s s t o s e t t h e wh o le C o n t i n e n t o n r e fo r t h e i m a g i n a r y
a d v a n t a g es o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i n t e g r i t y o f D e n m a r k
ord
P a l m e r s t o n a n d t h e Emp e r o r N i ch o l as a r e t he c a u s e o f a ll
n ot

i i g

a ss s t n

t he

p r es e n t

1 8 5 23

t ro u

b l e by f r a m i n g

h a t w re t ch e d T r e a t y

W ha t strange i d e a s V i ctor i a h a d o f t r e ati es a n d

p e op l e s rights W h a t woul d hav e h app e n e d h a d
S h e mig h t hav e
s h e b e en o n t h e th r o n e l a st y e a r ?
a sk e d wh a t o n e a r th t h e p e op l e o f thi s g e n e r atio n
h a v e to d o wi th a tr e aty sign e d i n 1 8 3 9 a n d why
t h e B r i t i s h nati on sh o ul d b e comm i tt e d to a Eu rope a n
co n a g r a t i o n
b e cau s e th e i r g r an d fa the r s F ore ign
S e cr e ta r i e s ag r e e d to a d ip lom ati c d e a l o f which t h e
p e ople kn e w littl e an d c a r e d less She m ight hav e
s a i d th at Lo r d P a lm e r sto n wa s the c au s e o f a ll t h e
p r e s e nt t r oubl e by frami n g t h e w r etche d T r e ati e s o f

1 8 3 1 9 whi ch ab roga t e d t he Tr e aty o f Vi e nna

Scr ap s o f p ap e r w er e not hallow e d i n thos e days
a n d e v e n Qu e e ns p r e f e r r e d p ea c e to the st r i ct Oh
s e r va n c e o f tr e at i e s ma d e by m e n who s ca r c e ly eve r
c o nsu lt e d the p e op le Vi ctori a s stan d a ga i n st Pa l
m e rsto n a n d Ru ss e ll i n 1 8 6 4 wa s a notab le p e r form
a n c e fo r a co n stituti ona l m ona r ch The follow i ng
o n s a cr e d dut i e s a n d co n v i cti ons i s r e fre sh i n g :

h a n ks L o r d G ra n v ill e fo r his reas s u r i n g

l e t t e r Sh e can o n l y r e p e a t t h a t S he is s o t h o ro ugh l y con
v i n ce d o f t h e a wfu l d a n g e r a n d r e ck l e ss n e s s o f o u r s t i r r i n g
u p F ra n c e a n d Ru s s i a t o go t o w a r t h a t s he w o ul d b e p re
p a re d t o m a k e a s t a n d u p o n i t s h o u l d i t e v en c a u s e t he
T h e re a re du t i e s an d con
res i g n a t i o n o f L o r d Ru s s e ll

Th e Qu e e n

H ow D I P L O M ATS M A KE WA R

34

g t h a t t h e y o u t w e i gh a ll o t h e r
W e mu s t n o t co mm i t a s e c o n d t i m e t he
co n s i de ra t i o n s
g r i e v o u s f a u l t o f s i gn i n g a w a y o t h e r p e o p l e s r i gh t s a n d o f
h a n di n g o v er p eo p l e t h e m s e l v e s t o a So v e re i g n t o wh o m t h ey
o w e n o a ll e g i an c e
v ict io n s so s a r e d a n d s o s t ron
.

P a lm e r s t o n s

r e ga r d i t a s

u nau tho r i z ed thre at tha t h e woul d

a n a ffr ont a n d i n sult t o E n glan d

a n d tha t h e
woul d no t stand su ch a thi n g i f a n
Au str i a n s q u a d r on we r e to p a s s alo n g the Englis h
co a sts wa s p rovo cat i ve i f i t w e r e n o thing e ls e The
C ab inet d i d not en d o r s e the langu a g e o f t h e r e
e at i ng stat e sman a n d though t h e fat e o f B r i ta i n fo r
a long tim e trembl e d o n t h e b r ink o f wa r t h e s a n er
folk r a lli e d to t h e s i d e o f t h e Qu e e n S h e wrote
a t m i d n i ght June 2 3 r d 1 8 6 4 to Lo r d G ra n v i lle :
,

W h a t t he Q u e en is s o an xi o u s fo r is t h a t t h e t r u e re a l
a n d g r e a t i n t e r e s t s o f t h e c o u n t r y s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d an d
t h e en o r m o u s d a n g e r o f a ll y i n g o u r s e l v e s w i t h F r a n c e w h o
w o u l d d rag u s i n t o a w a r w i t h I t a l y a n d o n t he Rh i n e a n d
se t a ll Eu r o p e i n a b l a z e ; wh i ch i s so fa r m o r e i mp o r t a n t
t h an t he v e r y f o o li s h e x ci t e m e n t wh i ch t h e Qu e e n i s s u r e
w il l c oo l dow n t he m o m e n t w a r s e e m s li k e l y t o r e s u l t f rom

Th e T re a t y o f 1 8 5 2 m u s t b e g i v e n up
it
,

And g i ve n u p i t w a s ; utterly d e stroye d by the

wolves that fe aste d o n the m enu at P ragu e D en
m a rk w a s str i pp e d sta rk o f Lau enbu r g H olst e i n a n d
the southern p a rt o f Schlesw i g a n d the Dan i sh p o r
ti on o f tha t D uchy Pru ss i a wo n a n a ll rou n d v ic
to r y l e aving no unscru pulou s m i l i ta ry d i plomat i c o r
imp e r i al m e tho d ou t o f t h e d eal Ou r p r e st i ge and
honou r cam e out o f all the m i se rab le bus in e s s some
what tousle d ; but the p eop le were spa re d the cos t o f
Whethe r th e y r e grette d the
a n u nne cessa ry wa r
.

FOUL I D O L T H ROWN D OWN

35

lo ss o f p r e sti g e a n d honou r suffe r e d by h e r d iploma

t i s t s wi ll n e v e r b e kn ow n ; f o r th e r e i s no way o f e sti
mati n g t h e va lu e o f d ipl o mat ic h o n ou r i n a gam e
tha t i s ca rr i e d o n withou t t h e p a r ti c i p ati o n o f t h e
p e opl e I n t h e H o u s e o f C ommons D i s ra eli mov e d
t h e fo llow i n g m ot i on :
,

H e r M a j es t y o u r g r e a t re g r e t t h at wh il e
t h e c o u r s e pu r s u e d by t h e G o v e r n m e n t h a d f a il e d t o m a i n
t a i n t h e i r a v o w e d p o li cy o f uph o l d i n g t h e i n de p e n d e n c e a n d
i n t e g r i t y o f D e n m a r k , i t h as l ow e r e d t h e j u s t i n u e n c e o f
t h i s c o u n t r y i n t h e c o u n c i ls o f E u r o p e a n d t h e r e by d i m i n

i s h e d t h e s e cu r i t i es fo r p e a c e

To

xp re ss

to

I t wa s i n 1 8 6 4 that J o h n B r i ght h a d som e thing to

s ay ab o ut t h e b a la n ce o f p ow e r whi ch h a d b e e n s o
m a n y t i m e s up s e t s in c e N ap o l e on wa s s e nt t o St
H e l e n a Sp eak i ng i n B i rmingham B r i ght s a i d :
,

The

h e o r y o f t h e b a l an c e o f p o w e r i s p r e t t y n e ar l y
d e a d a n d bu r i e d
Y o u c a n n o t c o mp r e h e n d a t a t h o ugh t
W h a t is m e a n t by t he b a l an c e o f p o w e r I f t he r e co rd c o u l d
b e b r ou gh t b e f o r e yo u b u t i t i s n o t p o ss i b l e fo r t h e e ye
o f hum a n i t y t o s c a n t h e s c r o ll up o n wh i ch a r e r e c o r d e d t he
s u ff e r i n g s wh i ch t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r h a s e n t a il e d up o n t h i s
c o u n t r y I t r i s e s up b e f o r e m e wh e n I t h i n k o f i t a s a
gh as t l y ph a n t o m wh i ch du r i n g o n e hu n d re d a n d s e v en ty
y e a r s wh il s t i t h as b e en w o r s h i pp e d i n t h i s c o u n t r y h as
l o a de d t he n a t i o n w i t h d e b t a n d t axes h as s a c r i c e d t he
li v e s o f hu n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n ds o f E n g li s hm e n h a s de s o
l at e d t he h o m e s o f m illi o n s o f f a m ili e s a n d h as l e f t u s a s
t h e g r e a t r e s u l t o f t h e p ro i ga t e ex p e n d i t u re i t h as c a u s e d
a n d fa r
a d o ub le d p e e r a g e a t o n e e n d o f t h e s o c i a l s c a l e
m o r e t h an a do ub l e d p a up e r i s m a t t he o t h e r I am v e ry
g l a d t o be h er e t o n i gh t a m o n gs t o t h e r t h i n gs t o b e a b le
t o s a y t h a t w e m ay re j o i c e t h a t t h i s f o u l i do l f o u l e r t h a n
h as a t l as t b e e n t h r ow n
an y h e a t h e n t r i b e e v e r w o r s h i pp e d
t

H ow D I P LO M ATS MA K E WAR

36
dow n ,

an d

hold on
p eop l e

t he

i s o n e s up e rs t i t i o n l es s wh i ch h as i t s
h
h
m i n ds o f E n g l i s h s t a t es m e n a n d o f t he E n g li s h

t a t t e re

B r ight p e rh a p s r e gr e tt e d th at s o mu ch lab our wa s

w a st e d o n t h e s chem e s o f d ip l o m ati sts wh ile t h e
r ights o f i n d ivi d u als w e r e n e gl e ct e d at h om e
E du
cati o n , t h e f r a n c h i s e , a n d r e ligi ou s e qu al i ty h a d not
mu ch cha n c e i n P a r li am e n t w h i l e fo r e i gn affa i rs o c
cu p i e d
t h e a tt e n tio n o f stat e sm e n
Any t r ouble
ab r o a d about s ome su cc e ssi o n , o r tre aty , o r d u chy ,
.

o f fa r g r e at e r i mp o r ta n c e tha n t h e e co n om i c
p o lit i cal o r r e ligiou s r ig h ts o f t h e p e opl e Wh e the r
i t i s mo r al fo r o n e g e n e r ati o n to imp o s e the obliga
ti o n s o f wa r o n t h e n e xt ha s not yet b e e n d e ci d e d by
p o liti ci a n s
mu ch l e ss d i plom a ti sts
nor ha s i t ye t
o ccu r r e d t o a n y stat e sma n to d r aw a sha r p line o f
d iffe r e n ti ati on b e tw e e n tho se a ffa i rs tha t d i r e ctly a f
f e e t t h e t r u e i n t e r e sts o f t h e p eop le a n d the t e rribl e
t r a ffi c k i ngs which a r e d o n e i n t h e n am e o f t h e p e opl e
wi t h o ut t h e i r c o n se n t I n 1 8 6 4 t h e a gr i cultu r al la
b o u r e r i n B r ita in w a s a ch a tt e l -slav e a n d m ill i o n s
o f t h e w ork e r s i n t h e towns w e re p oliti cally little
b e tt e r o ff I n st e a d o f a vot e a r i e ; instea d o f a n

a c r e o f th e i r nativ e la n d a p la c e i n a fo r e i gn
t r e n ch ; i nst e a d o f t h e full va lu e o f hi s p ro d uct a
ti ck e t fo r sou p ; th e s e w e r e t h e n e t retu r ns fo r wo r

ship pi n g t h e fou l i d ol
An d th e re w e re not l e ss
ca n t a n d hyp o c r i sy ta lk e d i n the d ays o f P alm e rston
tha n a r e talk e d now i n t h e d ays o f S i r E dwa r d Grey
Th e f o u l i d ol w a s no t howev e r S O e as ily got r id
o f a s B r i ght i magi n e d I f t h e bala nc e o f pow e r
wa s th r ow n d ow n in I 8 6 4 i t d id no t tak e d i plomati sts
l o n g t o s e t u p som e thing j u st a s foul i n i ts pla ce
What d o te rms m atte r ? The cost i s j u st the same
was

R ES U LT S

As B EFO RE

37

whethe r i t b e b alanc e o f powe r Tr i p le All i a nce E n

t e nt e C o r d i al e know n a g r e e m e n ts s e cret a gr e em e nts

o r co n v e r s ati ons b e tw e en mi litary a n d n ava l e x

p e r ts
The r e su lt i s t h e s am e ; the n at i o n lo a d e d
with de b t a n d taxati o n ; hu n d r e d s o f thous an ds o f
li v e s a re s a c r i c e d ; h o m e s d e so lat e d ; a n d th e r e stalks
a p aup e r i sm wh i ch b ri n gs h o nou r a n d glo r y to t h e
a g tha t oats over the fr e e Th e p re stig e o f a
la n d l e ss p e op le i s s om e thing the wa r p o e ts m i ght
immo rtali z e i n s o n g a n d t h e p at r i otism o f a d ouble
p e e r a g e b e exalt e d i n n e w ep i cs that mig h t r i va l

B y r on s Ag e o f B ron z e
T he g o sp e l o f l e a rn
i ng to d i e fo r o n e s cou n try wa s sati r i cal e nou gh i n
1 8 64 ;
c e r ta i n ly m illi o n s h a d littl e cha n c e o f liv i n g
d e cently i n i t
,

The

good

i m es wh e n o ld a r e go o d
Are g o n e ; t h e p r e s e n t m i gh t b e i f t h ey w o u l d ;
G r ea t t h i n g s h a v e b e e n a n d a r e a n d g r e a t e r s t ill
W a n t li t t l e o f m e re m o r t a l s t h a n t h e i r w ill :
A W i de r s p a c e a g r e e n e r e l d i s g i v e n
To t h o s e w h o p l a y t h e i r t r i ck s b e f o r e h i gh h e a v e n
I k n ow n o t i f t he a n g e l s w e e p b u t m e n
H av e w ep t e n ou gh
fo r wh at ?
t o w e ep a ga i n !
o ld t

i m es

ll

D id B right th i nk the p owe r to mak e w a r p ass e d

with t h e bu r i a l o f t h e b ala n c e o f p ow e r ? S a n gu i n e
m a n h e littl e k n e w wha t a d e ca d e o f d i plom a cy
,

wou l d b r i n g fo r t h Abyssini a t h e Au stro -P ru ss i an

W a r a n d t h e F r anco G e r m a n Wa rs h a d to com e
Th e i n e v i tabl e i n e a ch cas e h a d to happ en ! So on
a ft e r B right s sp e e ch t h e g o d o f b attl e s wa s a s bu sy
a s e ve r M e a n whil e l e gi slato r s qu a r r e lle d lik e K i l
k e n ny cats a s to wh e the r t h e tim e wa s r i p e fo r t h e
p eopl e t o hav e f r e e e du cat i on mor e vot e s a n d f e w e r
,

8
3

H OW D I PLO MATS MA KE WA R

lig i ou s a n i mos i t i e s B r i ta i n e nte r e d u p on the

th r e e last d e ca d e s o f t h e ninet e e n t h c e n tu ry w i th
high hope s o f t ha t enlight e nm e nt whi ch woul d b r ing
wi s d om to e l e cto rs a n d en abl e th e m to j u dge whi ch
pa rt y wa s p ol i ti cally b e st to ca r r y on the stup en d ou s
wo rk o f fo re i gn a ffa i rs B u t w i th all th e s e hop e s
o f r a is ing a n e du ca t e d e l e cto rat e not ye t have t h e
p e opl e le arne d tha t W i s d o m i s b e t t e r th a n w e a p o n s

o f w a r : b u t o n e s i n n e r d e s t r o ye t h m u ch
o
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re

CHA P TE R I I I
1 8 70

H E AVY ban ks

c l o u d w i t h o cc as i on a l b re aks o f b r i gh te r
s ky o v e r E u r o p e ; a n d a ll t h e p l o t
i n t r i gu e c on s p i ra cy a n d
s ub t e rr a n e a n s ch e m i n g
t h a t h a d b e e n i n ce s s an t e v e r s i n ce
t h e C r i m e an W a r d i s t u r be d t h e Old Eu r o p e an s y s t e m a n d
C a v o u r rs t b e g a n t h e r e c a s t i n g o f t h e m a p w a s b u t t h e
r e pu l s i v e a n d d a n g e ro u s s ymp t o m o f a d i r e c o n i c t i n t h e
d e p t h s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o li t i cs
The M e xi c an a dv e n t u re
a n d t he t r a g e d y o f M ax i m ili a n s d e a t h a t Qu e r e t a r o
h ad
t h r o w n a b l a ck s h a do w o v e r t he i r i d e s c e n t a n d r o t t e n f a b r i c
p o w e r P r u s s i an v i c t o r y o v e r Au s t r i a a t
o f Na p o l e on s
S a do w a ha d s t a r t l e d Eu r o p e li k e a t hu n de r c l a p
The r ca c
t i o n a ry m o v e m e n t w i t h i n t h e C a t h o li c f o l d a s d i s c l ose d i n
t h e V a t i c a n c o u n c il k i n d l e d m a n y h o p e s a m on g t he F r en ch
c l e r i c a l s a n d t h e s e h o p es i n s p i re d a li v e l y a n t a go n i s m t o
p r o t es t an t P ru ss i a i n t he b r e as t o f t he S p an i s h b o rn Emp re s s
o f t he F r en ch
P r u s s i a i n 1 8 6 6 ha d hum ili a t e d o n e g r e a t
C a t h o li c p o w e r wh e n s he d e f e a t e d t h e Au s t r i an m on a r chy
o n t h e b a t t l e e l ds o f B o h e m i a
W a s She t o o v e r t h r o w a lso
t h e p o w e r t h a t k e p t t h e P o p e up o n h i s t e mp o r a l t h r o n e i n
R o m e ? All t h i s h o w ev e r w a s n o m ore t h a n the f r i n g e
t h o ugh o n e o f t he h ar d e s t t h i n gs i n h i s t or y i s t o b e s u r e
wh e re s u b s t an c e b e g i n s a n d f r i n g e e n ds The c a r di n a l f a c t
Ev e r S i n c e
fo r F r a n ce a n d fo r Eu r o p e w a s G e r m a n u n i t y
t h e D a n i s h c o n i c t as B i s m a r ck a f t e r w a r ds t o l d t h e B r i t i s h
G o v e r n m e n t t he F re n ch Emp e ro r s t ro v e t o b r i n g P r u ss i a
t o j o i n h i m i n p l a n s fo r t h e i r c o mm o n a gg r a n d iz e m e n t
The u n i t y o f G er m a n y m e an t b e s i des a ll e l s e a v as t e x t e n
s i o n o f t h e a r e a f r o m wh i ch t h e m a t e r i a l o f m ili t a r y s t r e n g t h
w as t o b e d r aw n ; a n d t h i s m e an t t h e re l a t i v e de p ress i o n o f
of

39

H OW

0
4

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WAR

p ow e r o f F ren ch a r m s H e re w a s t he s u b s t a n t i a l fa c t
f e e d i n g t he a m e o f n a t i o n a l p r i de w i t h s o li d fu e l Th e
G e r m a n c o n f e de r a t i o n o f t he C o n g re s s o f V i e n n a w a s a
s k il fu l i n v e n t i o n o f M e t t e r n i ch s
s o d e v i s e d as t o b e i n e r t
fo r o ff en c e b u t ex t r e m e l y e ffi c i e n t a g a i n s t F r e n ch a g gr e s
s ion
A G e r m a n c o n f e de r a t io n u n de r t h e p o w e r fu l a n d
e n e r g e t i c l e a de r s h i p o f P r u s s i a g a v e F r a n c e a v e ry d i ff e r e n t

n e i gh bo u r
M o r l e y L ife of G la ds t o n e
t he

When the D u e d e G ramon t t h e F r e nch M i nister

fo r Fo r e ign Affa i r s S a i d in 1 8 7 0 that F r a nc e woul d
n o t tole ra t e a H o h e n z o ll e r n p r ince o n the Sp a n i sh
thron e t h e b ala n c e o f pow e r t h e ory wa s su d d e n ly r e
v i v e d a n d d ip lom atists s a w t h e p r o sp e ct o f a b oom
in th e i r bus i n es s
Th e r e h a d b e e n a lull a t the F o r
e i gn
Offi c e a n d a rmam e nts w e re s omewha t d e
p r e ss e d S av e fo r th e mu r d e r o f s om e B r iti sh sub
r i ga n d s i n Gr e e c e t h e ho r i z on w as fa i r ly
e
c
t
by
b
s
j
cl e a r o f w a r cl o u d s B ut th e r e wa s nothing qu it e
l i ke t h e su cc e ss i on to t h e Sp a n i sh thro n e fo r ra is i ng
Ac
a mm o s rt i e s 1n t h e b e st r e gu la t e d r o ya l fam i l i e s
t u a l m i li ta ry p r o c e e d ings s e e m e d to hang re fo r
som e t i m e a n d B i sma rck a n d M oltke b e came d e
p ress e d Th e l att e r s aw n o a dva ntag e to t h e G er
ma n s i n d e f e rr i n g t h e outb r e ak o f ho stiliti e s A
t e l e gra m f r om t h e K i n g o f P r uss i a re co r d ing a con
v e rsat i on he h a d h a d w i th B e n e d e tt i t h e F r ench a m
b a s s a d o r a t E ms r e a ch e d B e r l i n i n t i m e to e n l i v e n
a n o th e rw i s e d u ll d i n n e r fo r t h e Fa fn e r a n d Fa s o lt
o f t h e mo d e rn Va lhalla Th e sto r y i s a n o ld o n e
B i sm a r ck s e t to w o r k to mak e t h e t e l e gram re a d a s
i t su ite d his a im
I t wa s a lt e r e d a n d publi sh e d so
that the n e w v e rs i o n should st i r the lagga r d fa ct i ons
i nto str i fe
A fter B i smarck s e d i t i ng M oltk e cri e d
,

E D I TO R B I S M A R C K

41

Now i t ha s a d i ffer e nt r i n g ; i t s ounde d b e fo re l i k e

a p a r l e y ; now i t i s like t h e ou ris h i n answ e r to a

S o o n a ft e r t h e ga rbl e d t e l e gram w a s
chall e n ge
known to t h e wo r l d t h e G e rma n a r ti s a n w a s p a cki n g
up fo r Pa ri s a n d h i s ou t r ag e d b roth e r in F r a nc e w a s
lab e lling hi s lugga g e fo r B e r li n
Roya l b r awls
tou ch the sh r i n e on t h e h e a r th o f e v e ry l ab ou r e r s
cottag e i n C h r i st e n d om a n d it mu st n o t b e e xp e ct e d
tha t a n y loya l lab ou r e r will S i t d ow n u n d e r t h e i n sult
o f a ny na ti on not hi s own a tt e mp ti n g t o i n t e r f e r e
w ith th e su cc e ss i o n o f a n y p r i n c e to a t h r o n e The
p e opl e o f B rita in t o o w e r e d e e ply a gitat e d S o on
t h e qu e sti o n o f ou r n e ut r a lity d i stu r b e d t h e mi n d s
o f stat e sm e n a n d m e n i n t h e st r e et B i sma r ck sa i d :
.

h o u l d h av e f or b i dden F r a n c e t o e n t e r
S h e w a s i n a p o s i t i o n t o do s o a n d h e r i n t e r es t s
o n w ar
H e o b s e rv ed t h at
a n d t h os e o f Eu r o p e d e m an d i t o f h e r
i f Ge rm a n y s h o u l d b e v i c t o r i o u s o f wh i ch h e h a d e v e r y
c o n de n c e t he b a l a n c e o f p ow e r i n Eu ro p e w o u l d b e p r e
s e r v e d ; b u t i f F r a n c e s h o u l d u n f o r t u n a t e l y O b t a i n t h e upp e r
h an d s h e w o u ld b e m i s t r e ss o f Eu ro p e a n d i mp o s e h e r law
E n g l a n d c o u l d p re v e n t t h i s by h e r a c t i o n
o n o t h e r s t a t es

G re a t

B ri tain

n ow

T he French h a d hope d B r ita i n wou l d suppo rt th e i r

cla i m to i nte r fe r e with t h e H o h e n z o ll e rn i n t e n t i o ns
G e rmany cr i ti ci s e d ou r lap s e from stri ct n e ut r a l i ty
b e cau s e a rms a n d co als a n d h o r s e s h a d b e e n e x
p o rt e d to F r a nc e E a ch b e llig e r e nt look e d fo r b e
n e v o le n t n e u t r al i ty fr o m G r e a t B r ita in bu t p ol i t i cal
op i n i o n o n t h e qu e stion wa s d ivi d e d Th e Qu e e n
howev e r e n t e re d t h e lists a n d sh o we d a b e tt e r u n
d e r s t a n din g o f what st r i ct n e utrality m eant tha n m any
sta tesmen d i d She wro t e to Lo r d G ra n vi ll e :
.

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42

D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

The Qu e e n w o u l d much

g re t t h a t a n y m i s u n de rs ta n d
i n g s h o u l d e m b i t t e r t h e f e e li n g s b e tw e e n u s an d G e rm a n y
a n d w o ul d b e g l a d t o k n o w i f yo u t h i n k i t w o u l d be p o s
s i b l e t o m a k e an y p u b li c d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t w o u l d c o n v i n c e
t h e Ge rm a n p e o p l e t h a t o u r o bj e c t i s t o p r e s e rv e a s t r i c t
a n d n o t i n a n y w a y t o f a v ou r F r an c e
n e u t r a li t y
bu t t o
t r e a t b o t h n a t i o n s e q u a ll y
re

I t i s p retty re a d i ng a t th i s t i me h ow B e lg i um
stoo d a s a n e utr a l z on e i n 1 8 70 To o n e who s e
h e a rt i s lle d w i th loath i ng o f the h ell i s h bu sin e ss
tha t ha s la i d that busy country wast e a n d cr i pp l e d
i ts b rav e p opu latio n nothing bu t b i tt e r r e g r et fo r
t h e m is d e e d s o f d i plomatists i s l e ft a n d a p r o foun d
ho rro r o f the p opula r i gno r a nce o f t h e hi story o f
tr e a ti e s
Th e Tr e aty o f 1 8 3 9 wa s i n e xi stence i n 1 8 7 0 ;
how th e n did B r ita i n a ct i n r e lat i o n to i t ? What i n
u e n ce did s h e e x e r t to ke e p B e lgium fre e o f blo o d
sh e d a n d all t h e w o e s h e su ff e rs to d a y ? Wha t
g r e a t m in d wa s th e n a t wo rk ? I S i t to o mu ch to s ay
th a t a ll th e d i ffe r enc e l i es i n t h e fa ct that B r i ta i n
h a d a Granv i lle then a n d now s h e ha s a G r e y ? Ou r
han d s were fre e i n 1 8 7 0 ! and i n fa ce o f the dang e r
th at eithe r G e rmany o r F rance m i ght b e tempt e d
to ga in m i l i ta ry o r t e rr i to r i al a d vantag e i n B elg i um
o r Lux e mbou rg
we w e re ab le to avo i d dragg i n g
B r i ta i n into a Europ e an wa r
Wh e n t he Ti m e s publ i she d the t ext o f t h e d ra ft
trea t y wh i ch B e nedett i subm i tte d to B i sma rck i n
1 8 66
the country was rou se d to a h i gh p i tch o f
J i n go f e ver A cco rd i ng to that d ocument i n c as e
t h e Emp e r o r o f t h e French S hould b e le d by c i rcum
stance s to s e n d h i s tro op s to ent e r B e lg i um o r to con
q u er i t , i t w a s la i d d own th at t he K i n g o f Pru ss i a
,

WH Y NOT ANNE X B ELG I U M ?

43

s hould gra nt a rme d a i d t o Fra nc e a n d supp o rt

her
with a ll hi s fo r c e s m ilita ry a n d n aval in th e
fa c e o f a n d aga i n st e v e ry o th e r p ow e r w hi ch shou l d

i n th i s e v e n tu a l i ty d e cla r e w a r
An d tha t wa s t h e
c o n sp i ra cy o f t h e ag e n ts o f two o f the Pow e rs whi ch
sign e d t h e Tr e aty o f 1 8 3 9 ! Fr a nce ev i d e ntly i n
1 8 6 6 d i d n ot p la c e a s mu ch reli a nce o n i ts s a cr e d
p r ov i s i o ns a s h e r M in iste rs d o to da y S ome tr e at
i e s a re like g r e a t li e s in t h i s resp e ct : t he o l d e r th e y
g r o w t h e m o r e r e v e r e d th e y b e c o m e W hen that
no to r i ou s p o liti cal a d v e ntu r e r N ap ol e o n I I I wr o t e
t o t h e D u e d e G r amo n t e xp lai n ing what to hi s r e co l
l e cti o n o c cu rr e d wh e n t h e consp i rato rs m e t i n 1 8 6 6
he s a id :
,

B i s m a r ck

i d t o P r i n c e N a p o l e on i n B e r li n Y ou s ee k
a n i mp o s s i b l e t h i n g
Y o u w o u l d t a k e t h e p r o v i n c e s o f t he
Rh i n e wh i ch a r e G e r m an a n d w i s h t o re m a i n as t h e y a re
W hy do yo u n o t a n n e x B e l g i um wh e r e a p e o p l e e xi s ts o f
t h e s a m e o r i g i n a n d t he s a m e l a n gu a g e ?
I h a v e a l re a d y
s a i d t h i s t o t h e Emp e r o r ; i f h e a g r e e s w i t h t h e s e v i e w s w e
w ill h e l p h i m t o t a k e B e l g i um As fo r m e i f I w e r e m as t e r
t h is
a n d i f I w e re n o t t r o ub l e d w i t h t he K i n g s o b s t i n a cy
w o u l d b e s oo n d o n e
sa

No w B rita i n i s ght i ng shou l d e r to S houl d e r w i th

F r a n c e b e cau s e G e r ma n y ha s viola t e d t h e T r e aty o f

1 83 9 !
M o r l e y in h i s L i f e o f Gla d s t o n e d e s cr i b e s
t h e s itu at i o n a s i t a ff e ct e d B rita i n :
T h e re w e r e m e mb e r s o f t h e C a b i n e t w ho dou b te d t he
The r e a l p o s i
e x p e d i e n cy o f E n g l a n d t a k i n g a n y a c t i o n
t i o n o f a ff a i r s t h e y a r gu e d w a s n o t a l t e r e d : t h e d r a f t t r e a ty
o n l y d i s c l o s e d wh a t e v e r yb o d y b e li e v e d b e f o r e n a m e l y
t h at
F r a n c e s o ugh t c o mp e n s a t i o n fo r P ru s s i an a gg r an d iz e m en t
a s she ha d s e cu r e d i t fo r I t a li a n a gg ra n d iz e m e n t b y t a k i n g

H OW D I P LO M ATS M AKE

44

Sa v o y a n d N i c e
t he c o mp e n s a t i o n

w o u l d n o t o bj e c t p ro v i de d
w e r e n o t a t t he ex p e n se o f p eop l e w ho
h a d a ll c o m e o u t a t t he t i m e o f t he L u xe m
s p ok e G e r m a n
b o u r g a ffa i r I f F ra n c e a n d P r u s s i a a g re e d how co u l d w e
h e l p B e l g i um u n l ess i n de e d Eu r o p e j o i n e d ? B u t t h en wh a t
ch a n c e w as t h e r e o f Ru s s i a a n d Au s t r i a j o i n i n g a g a i n s t
F r a n ce a n d P r u s s i a fo r t he s a k e o f B e l g i um i n wh i ch n e i t h e r
At t he s a m e t i m e m i n i s t e rs
o f t h e m h a d a n y d i r e c t i n t e re s t ?
k n e w t h a t t he pub li c i n E n g l a n d e x p e c t e d t h e m t o do s o m e
t h i n g t h o u gh a v o t e fo r m e n a n d m o n e y w o u l d p ro b a b l y s u f
ce
The C a b i n e t h o w e v e r a dv a n c e d a s t e p b e yo n d a p a r
O n Ju l y 3 o t h t h e y m e t a n d t oo k a d e c i s i o n
li a m e n t a r y v o te
G l a ds to n e t h e n a n d a l w ay s a f te r a t t a ch e d
t o wh i ch M r
h i gh i mp o r t an ce E n g l a n d p ro p os e d a t re a t y w i t h P r u s s i a
p r o v i di n g t h a t i f t h e a r m i es o f e i t h e r v i o l a te d
a n d F r an ce
t h e n e u t ra li t y o f B e l g i um G re a t B r i t a i n w o u l d co o p e ra t e
w i t h t he o t h e r fo r i t s d e f e n c e bu t w i t h o u t e n g ag i n g t o t a ke
p ar t i n t h e g e n e r al Op e r a t i o n s o f t h e w a r Th e t re a t y w as
t o h o l d g o o d fo r t w e l v e m o n t h s a f t e r t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t he
Fran ce
w ar
B i s m a r ck a t o n c e c a m e i n t o t h e e n g a g e m e n t
l o i t e re d a li t t l e b u t a f te r t he b a t t l e o f W o r t h m a de n o m o re
d i f c ul t y a n d t he i n s t ru m en t w as s i g n e d o n Augu s t 9 t h
.

T h at

W AR

P r u ss i a

I t i s a n i ce po i nt i n i nte rnat i on a l law how fa r Au s

t r i a a n d Ru ssi a l e nt th e i r s a n ction to t h e m ak i n g o f
t h e Tr e a t i e s o f 1 8 7 0
Anyway th e tre at i e s S ig n e d
by B r i ta i n Fra nce a n d G e rm a ny w e re to conti n u e
fo r the p er i o d o f the wa r a n d fo r a y ea r a ft e r the
t e rm i nat i on o f host i l i t i e s I t wa s the p ubl i cat i on o f
the d ra ft treaty o f 1 8 6 6 that threw u p on t he G o v e r n
m e nt the n e c e ss i ty o f e ithe r do ing som e thing f r esh
to s e cu re B e lg i um o r e ls e o f s aying that u n d e r no
c i rcu mstanc e s woul d we take a n y st e p to s e cu re h e r

from ab so r pt i on s o M r Gl a dston e sa i d i n l ay i ng
t h e ca se b e fo re J ohn B r i ght
I n a later le t te r t o
B r i ght he sa i d :
.

GLADSTO N E

O N B ELG IU M

45

w ill I am s u r e g i ve m e c re d i t fo r good f a i t h wh e n
I s ay e s p e c i a ll y o n L o r d G r an v i lle s p a r t as o n my ow n
w ho a r e m o s t o f a ll r e s p o n s i b le t h a t w e t a k e t h i s s t e p in
Th e re c o mm e n da t i on s e t up i n
t he i n t e r es t o f p e a c e
t h a t w e Sh o u l d s i mp l y d e c l a r e
o pp os i t i o n t o i t g en e r a l ly i s
t h a t w e w ill d e f e n d t h e n e u t r a li t y o f B e l g i u m by a r m s i n
c a s e i t s h o u l d b e a t t a ck e d No w th e s o l e o r s i n g l e h a n de d
d e f e n c e o f B e l g i um w o u l d b e a n e n t e r p r i s e wh i ch w e i n c li n e
I f t he B e l g i a n p e o p l e des i r e o n
t o t h i n k Qu ix o t i c
t o j o i n F ra n c e o r a n y o t h e r c o u n t r y
t h e i r o w n a cc o u n t
I fo r on e w ill b e n o p a rt y t o t a k i n g up a r m s t o p r e v e n t i t
Y ou

H e a dd e d tha t i t would b e a c r i m e to s ta n d aloo f

a n d s e e B e lgium tak e n by a n oth e r c o untry to s ati s fy

Th e n B r ita i n s p o siti o n w o u l d h av e
d yn asti c g r e e d
b e e n i n to l e rabl e h a d s h e n o t b e e n p e r fectly fr e e f r om
Eu r op e a n e n tang le m e nts
How e v e r , a n e w d ang e r a ro s e a ft e r th e S i gn ing o f
.

the tr e at i e s Austr i a wa s lo oking for a n opp ortunity

o f g e tt i n g e ve n with B i sma r ck fo r t h e t r oub l e s o f
1 8 66
Th e Au stri a n M in i st e r fo r Fo r e i gn Affa i r s
hop e d to d r a g I taly i nto t h e r o w
Ru ssi a wa s l ik e ly
to si de with G e rma n y N ap ol e on thought D e nma r k
might b e p e r su a d e d to j o i n t h e f r ay a n d g e t S chl e swig
b a ck f r o m G e rm a ny Th e s qu abbl e whi ch b e ga n w it h
t h e H o h e n z oll e rn cla i m to t h e Sp a n i sh su cc e ss i on
s e e m e d l i k e ly t o i n volve t he who l e o f Eu rop e
Th e n a s now t h e i niti al troub l e wa s lo st s i ght o f i n
t h e myr i a d compl i ca ti o ns s e t up by fo rm e r affrays
O f cou rs e i n a ll th e s e i n t r igu e s d ip l o m at i sts w e re

look i ng a ft e r the i n t e r e sts o f t h e pe ople

Na
p r e st i ge a n d h o n ou r w e r e a ccla i me d by
t io n al
Th e i m
t h e p rol e ta r i ats i n e v e r y cap ital o f Eu rop e
p e ri al a sp i r at i ons o f Fr a n c e s o d e a r to the he a rts o f
he r revo lu t i on i sts r anke d i n a rdou r w i th the im
.

H ow D I P LO M ATS M A KE WAR

46

'

p er i a l d e s i r e s o f the small k i ng d oms a n d duch i es o f

the G e r m a n stat e s whi ch were to los e th e i r i de nt i ty
i n th e m a w o f B i sma rck s s ch e m e o f con f e de rat i on
Th e m i xe d p opula ti ons o f a un i t e d Au str i a sp ent
s l e e p le ss n i g hts th i n k i ng o f the i r n a tiona l
h e r i tag e
a n d I taly w i th he r p eopl e a ll o f o n e m i n d y e arn e d
fo r a n opp o r tun i ty o f s how i ng how h i ghly s h e va lu e d
h e r honou r by s i d i n g w i th Au str i a in t h e stru ggl e
Th e su cc e s s o f G e rm a n y a t t h e b e gi n ning o f the
wa r e nable d Lo r d Granvill e to fo rm a n e utral le a gu e
wh i ch k e p t th e r i ng fo r t he F r e nch a n d G e r mans
The r e i s a ne p a ssag e i n Fi t z m au r i ce s L i f e o f
Gr a n v i lle wh i ch b ea rs d i r e ctly on the w i s d om o f
h i s a ct i o n i n form i n g the lea g u e o f n e utrals I t i s
strik i n gly a pp rop r i at e he r e ; b es i d es i t b e ars r e p e t i
t i o n b e cau s e it s o grap hi cally d e scribe s t h e p o s i t i o n
o f Ru ssi a i n Eu r o p e an a ffa irs fo rty yea rs a go :
,

g u e d i n F ra n ce t h a t h a d L o r d G ra n v ill e p u r
s u e d an O pp o s i t e p o li cy t o t h a t a do p t e d an d h a d t h e Qu e e n
a t his a dv i c e p l a c e d h e rs e l f a t t he h e a d o f a m ili t an t l e a gu e
so
D en m a r k
c o mb i n at i o n s o n p a p e r
e as y
s u ch
a re
I t a l y Au s t r i a a n d T u r k e y w o u l d w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n h a v e
f o rc e d c o n di t i on s u p on Co u n t B i s m a r ck a n d b een r e a dy t o
b r i n g Ru ss i a t o a s t an ds t ill in t he e v e n t o f t h e Cz a r c o m i n g
Acco r di n g t o t h es e
t o t he r es c u e o f t h e K i n g o f P r u s s i a
c a l c u l a t i on s n o t o n l y w o u l d F r a n ce t h en h av e be e n s ave d
b u t G r e at B r i t a i n h e r s e l f w ou l d h a v e e s c a p e d t he hum ili a
t i on o f h a v i n g s u b s e qu e n t l y t o c on s e n t t o t he a b r o g a t i o n o f
t h e c l a u s es o f t h e T r e a t y o f P a r i s r e l a t i n g t o t h e n e u t r a liz a
I f L o r d G r a n v ill e s uch w as t he
t i o n o f t h e B l a ck S e a
c on te n t i o n had i mp os e d a n a r m e d m e d i a t i o n o n t he co m
b at a n ts an d h a d p ra c t i c a ll y d i c t a te d t e r m s o f p ea c e t o G e r
m an y G r ea t B r i t a i n a n d F r an ce c ou l d a f te rw a r ds h a v e
j o i n ed h an ds a g a i n s t Ru ss i a a n d t he c l aus es o f the Tr e a t y
o f 1 8 5 6 r e g a r d i n g t h e B l a ck S ea w o u l d h av e be en m a i n
I t w as

ar

G RANVI LLE FO RE I GN M IN I STE R

47

h i i n t e g r i t y I n r e fu s i n g s o t o a ct L o r d G r a n
a cc o r d i n g t o t h e s e c r i t i c s
Sh o w e d a n a b so l u t e l a ck o f
f o r e s i gh t a n d m i s se d a n O bv i o u s o pp o r t u n i t y i n t h e m o n t h
o f S e p t e mb e r
1 8 70
Th e a r gum e n t h o w e v er o v e r l o o k s
t h e m a i n f a c t o r o f t h e s i t u a t i o n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i on o f G e r
m an y t o r e fu s e m e d i at i o n a de t e r m i n a t i o n p l a i n l y a n d
o p e n l y de c l a r e d
I t a l s o o v e r l o o k s t he f a c t f r e qu e n t l y fo r
g o t te n by f o r e i g n w r i t e rs wh e n e n g a g e d i n m a k i n g a p o li cy
fo r G r e a t B r i t a i n t h a t i n t h e f a m o u s w o r d s o f L o r d J o h n
Ru ss e ll u s e d i n t h e de b at e o n t he c a s e o f D o n P a ci co t he
F o r e i g n S e c r e t a ry o f t h is c o u n t r y is t he M i n i s t e r n o t o f
F r a n c e n or o f Ru s s i a n o r o f a n y o t h er f o r e i g n c ou n t r y
b u t o f G r e a t B r i t a i n a l on e a n d h as t o t h i n k r s t a n d f o r e
m o s t o f h e r i n t e r e s ts Th e de c i s i on wh i ch L o r d G r a n v ill e
h a d t o t a k e de p e n d e d o n t h e r e l a t i v e i mp o r t a n c e wh i ch a s
Fo re i g n M i n i s t e r h e a t ta ch e d t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f p e a ce
The fo r
an d t o t he m a i n te n a n c e o f t h e B l a ck S e a c l a u s e s
m e r a n d n o t t h e l a t t e r w as i n L o r d G r a n v ill e s o p i n i o n t he
m a i n o bj e c t I t is c er t a i n t h a t n o i n t e rv e n t i on ex c e p t a n
a r m e d m e d i a t i on c o u l d h a v e p r o d uc e d a n y m a r k e d r es u l t
a n d a n a r m e d m e d i a t i o n w o u l d o n l y h a v e e x t e n d e d t he a r e a
o f d i s t u rb an c e
No r ca n i t e v e n be a s s um e d a s a m at t e r
b ey on d do ub t t h a t a m e d i a t i on i n f a v o u r o f F r an c e e v en i f
w o u l d n e c e ss a r il y h av e e n de d in t h e p r es er v a t i on
s ucc ess fu l
o f t he B l a ck S e a c l a u ses
fo r an a r m e d m e d i a t i o n w o u l d
i n e v i t a b l y h a v e t h r o w n G e r m a n y i n t o t h e a r m s o f Ru s s i a
e v e n m o r e c o mp l e t e l y t h an b e f o r e t h e c o mm e n c e m en t o f t he
w ar
I t i s i d l e n o w t o s p e c u l a t e wh e t h e r u n de r a n y c i r
cu m s t a n ces
t h e c l a u se s o f t h e B l a ck S e a T r ea t y c o u l d l on g
h av e r e m a i n e d p a rt o f t h e pub li c law o f Eu r o p e ; b u t wh at
de g re e o f s a c r i c e i t w o u l d b e w i s e fo r Gr e a t B r i t a i n t o
m ak e i n o r de r t o m a i n t a i n t h e m i f t he o t h e r P o we rs w o u l d
m a k e n o e ffo rt t o do s o w as a qu es t i on wh i ch t he B r i t i s h
Gov e rn m en t a l o n e w a s co mp e t e n t t o de c i de On t he a s
it
s ump t i o n t h a t t he c l a u s es w e re w o r th a n e ff o r t t o s a v e
is h a r dl y p o s s i b l e t o i m a g i n e a n y m e t h o d m o r e c e r t a i n t o
h av e i mm e di a te l y le d n o t o n l y t o t h e i r n a l l os s b u t t o t h a t

i
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in

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H OW D I PLOM ATS MA KE WA R

48

m o re v a l u a b l e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e T r e a
185 6
t h a n t o h a v e i n i t i a te d a t t h i s da t e a g i g an t i c
b a ck e d by Ru s s i a a l on e w o u l d
s t r ugg l e i n wh i ch G e rm a n y
h a v e b e e n e n g a g e d i n a h an d t o h an d c on t es t w i t h t h e re s t
o f Eu r o p e

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How n at i ona l d i sp o s i tions change un d e r the gu i d

a n c e o f d ip lomati sts i s o n e o f t h e st r a n g e st thi n gs
outs i d e t h e u lt r amonta n e fo rest wh e r e t h e l i on will
Th e
li e d own w i th t h e lamb tha t ca n b e i magi n e d
f e a r th e n wa s t h e u n i o n o f t h e a r ms o f G e rma ny
a n d Ru s s i a
Th e n ou r Fo r e ign S e cr e ta r y wa s n o t
t h e M ini st e r o f any cou n t r y but o u r o w n
An d a
p r e c e p t o f t h e Fo r e ig n O i ce wa s tha t p hra s e w hich
i n o u r s cho ol d ays w e h a d to w r it e i n ou r copy -b ooks
o n e hu n d r e d tim e s by way o f p e n alty fo r som e p rank

M i n d you r o w n a ffa i r s
Fo r ty y e a r s b a ck ou r
p o li cy wa s a s e ls h o n e : o u r i n t e r e sts rst An d i t
wa s goo d for Eu rop e as a whol e Th e n d i plom at i c
humi li ati o n w a s p r e f e r r e d t o wa r ; now w e p r e f e r a
Eu r op e a n cata clysm r at h e r tha n d ipl o m ati c hum il i a

ti o n
sc r aps o f p a p e r
I n t h o s e d ays tr e ati e s w e r e
e v e n wh e n th e i r d at e s w e r e o f that g e n e rat i on ; now
s c r a p s o f p ap e r a r e holy w r it though th e i r d at e s
carry u S b a ck mo r e tha n th r e e s co r e y e a rs a n d t e n
Ho ly w r it ! N ot a ll t h e r e li giou s b o d i e s i n thi s
C hri st i an l a n d e v e r p a i d to h o ly w r i t hal f the a tfe n
ti on w e hav e lat e ly p a i d to t h e T r eaty o f 1 8 3 9
I n t h e n e goti ati ons whi ch follow e d Thi e r s gav e
utt e r a n c e to a p rop h e t i c sta t e m e n t wh e n h e sp o k e to
L o r d G r a n v ille o f t h e ap a thy s h own by G r e at B rita i n

H e r e f e r r e d to B r i ta i n s lo ss o f d ign ity a n d
t he
d ang e r to h e r a n d a ll Eu r op e o f the imm e ns e p r e
po n d e ra n c e o f G e r ma n y : mo r e imm e di at e ly to Au s
tr i a whi ch must lo s e he r G e rman p rovi n ce s ; fo r
,

J OU RNALI STS AND STATES M E N

49

th e re wa s nothing tha t N o r th G e rm any w i th a p o pu

la ti o n o f
cou l d n o t d o a cting a s a m a

c h ine a n d le d by su c h a ma n a s B i sm a r ck
Eu rop e
h a d a fo retast e o f P ru ssi a n milita r i sm ; o f its a rro
ganc e i ts vi n d ict i v e n e ss its c r u e lty An d now i t
woul d b e w e ll fo r B r ita i n t o l e a r n tha t t h e s ame
sha r p l i n e wh i ch d ivi d e d t h e p oliti cal p a rt y f r om the
m ilita r y p a r t y in thos e d ays still ma r ks t h e l i n e o f
cl e ava g e b etw e e n the p a rt i e s to d a y While j ou r
n a li s t s a n d stat e sm e n
a r e lu mp i n g tog e the r i n d i s
cr i m i n a t e ly e ve r ythi n g whi ch i s o f G e r ma n o r i gi n
a n d bla sti n g t h e W ho l e l i f e a n d thou ght o f tha t p e o
n e cha rg e
h
l
e
with
o
i
t
s
ould
r
e
m
e
mb
e
r
e
that
d
b
e
p
a ft e r the w a r w e shall hav e a G e r ma n M i n i st e r a t
t h e C o u r t o f St J am e s a n d a t B e rlin th e r e w i ll b e a
B r iti s h a mb a ss a d o r D i p lomat i c re l ati o n s a r e not
b rok e n o ff for e v e r no no m atte r W ha t the n ews
p ap e r s s a y
Ev e n Th i e rs a fte r a v i s it i n 1 8 7 0 to the Pru ss i a n

hea d qua rt e r s fou n d s o Lo r d Lyo n s w rot e

that
th e r e wa s a p oliti ca l p a rty a n d a mi lit a r y p a rty e ach
cl e a r ly d e n e d Th e p oliti ca l p arty w i th wh i ch
C ount B ism a r ck hims e l f i n a gr e a t m e a su r e agree d
wa s d e si r ou s o f b r inging t h e w a r to a n e n d by co n
clu d i n g p e a ce o n comp a r ativ e ly mo d e r a t e t e rms
Th e m i lita r y p a r ty h e l d th a t t h e glo r y o f the P ru s
s ia n a r m s a n d t h e futu r e s e cu rity o f G e rmany d e
m a n d e d th a t t h e r ig h ts o f wa r shoul d b e pu sh e d to
t h e utt e r mo st a n d t ha t Fra n c e shoul d b e la i d wa ste
r u i n e d a n d humili at e d to su ch a d e gre e as t o ren d e r
i t imp o ss ibl e fo r h e r to w a g e wa r aga i n w i th Ge rmany

I nste a d o f do i ng eve r ything

fo r v e r y m a n y y e a r s
now to e mb itt e r t h e b e st min d s i n G e rm a ny how
mu ch b e tt e r i t woul d b e to s e e k ou t the remnant o f
,

0
5

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE

WA R

the p ol i ti cal p a rty a n d sow the se e d s o f the p e a c e

tha t som e d a y must b e co n sum m at e d a n d sp r e a d t h e
spi r i t o f amity t h a t mu st r i s e aga i n i n t h e two p e o
p l e s ! I t is d i ffi cu lt to d o thi s s o lo n g a s t h e g o d o f
b attl e s i s p r e si d i n g over B r iti sh i n t e r e sts bu t t h e d a y
m ay come wh e n t h e p e opl e will fo r s ak e that bra ss
d eity a n d tu r n to t h e All Fa th e r
F r a n c e w a s so r e
i n 1 8 7 0 but F r a n ce tra d e d w i th G e rma n y a fter the
ghti n g wa s d one
P e a c e n e goti ati o n s i n 1 8 7 0 h a d a to rtu ou s a n d
ra the r d e gra de d roa d to trav e l B i sm a r ck s a i d that
Thi e r s th rough a thi r d p a r ty p r o-p o s e d t o m ak e
p e a c e a n d c e d e Als a c e a n d Lo r r a i n e i n e xcha n g e fo r
B e lgium by g i v i n g F r anc e to King L e op ol d a n d that
the B e lg i an Ki n g wa s m o st favou r ably d i sp o s e d t o
Wha t sch e me s a r e now b e i n g hatche d
t h e s ch e m e
fo r grabb i ng terr i to ry o nly d iplomat i sts ca n say ; bu t
i t i s to b e hop e d that the Alli e s will n o t d e p a r t from
t h e con d i t i ons l a i d d own i n th e B ri ti sh Hous e o f
Commons by the Pr i m e M i niste r a t t h e b e gi n n ing o f
the wa r W e m ight lo ok b a ck to 1 8 7 0 with som e
p r o t a n d r e m e mb e r what Gl a d ston e h a d to s ay
about the s ettl e m e n t :
,

I f t he c on t i n g e n cy h app en n ot v e r y p r ob a b l e o f a s u d
d e n a cc o mm o d a t i on wh i ch Sh a ll i n c l u d e t h e t h ro t t li n g o f
Al s a c e a n d p a rt o f L o r r a i n e w i t h o u t an y v o i c e p rev i o u s l y
r a i s e d a g a i n s t i t i t w ill i n my o p i n i on b e a s t a n d i n g r e p r o a ch
T h ere i s i n de e d t h e R u ss i an p l a n o f n o t
t o E n g l an d
b u t i t i s d i ffi cu l t
r e c o g n izi n g t h a t i n wh i ch w e h a v e n o p a r t
t o s ay wh a t t h i s c o m es t o
,

Then lat er h e p rop hes i e d a b a d t i me fo r Europ e

a s a re sult o f t h e s e ttl e m e nt :

I h ave

an

pp r eh e n s i o n t h a t t h i s v i ol en t l a c e ra t i on

an d

WHAT I S NEUT RALITY ?

t ran s

fer

is

b eg i n n i n g

l ea d

to
of a

f ro m

us

n ew

s e r es

of

w o rs e
c o mp li c a t i on s

bad to

an d

5
be

to

t he

fre e d om from C ont i n e nta l engagem e nts s av e d

u s fr o m i n n um e rable troubl e s i n tho s e d ays Th e
p osi ti on Lo r d G ranvill e took u p w i th rega r d to stri ct
n e ut r a lity coul d o n ly hav e b e e n m a i n t a i n e d so lo n g
as B r i ta i n k ep t h e r ha n d s qu it e f r e e o f e n ta n gl e m e n ts
a n d s e c r e t e ngag e m e nts
N e u tr ality i s a wo r d that
ha s b e e n ba n d i e d ab out s i nc e t h e b e gi n n i n g o f th i s
wa r bu t i t h a d a n oth e r qu it e d iffe r e n t m e a n i n g wh e n
Lo r d G r a n vill e wa s a t the Fo r e ign O ffi c e Th e
p o li cy o f to d a y ha s b e e n o n e o f b e n e vol e n t n e ut r a l
ity a n d i t ha s p e rhap s b e e n o n e o f the chi e f re a s o ns
w h y w e w e r e d r awn i nto t h e t ra g e dy
Lo r d G r a n
vi ll e d e n e d t h e d i ff e r e nc e b etw e e n str i ct n e ut r ality
a n d b enevolent n e u tr al i t y most cl e a rly :
Ou r

'

m s h a r dl y t o a dm i t o f do u b t t h a t n eu t r a li t y wh e n
i t o n c e d e p a r t s f ro m s t r i c t n e u t r a li t y r u n s t h e r i s k o f a l t e r
i n g i t s e s s e n c e a n d t h a t t h e m o m e n t a n e u t r a l a ll o w s h i s
p ro c e e d i n gs t o b e b i as s e d by p r e d il e c t i o n fo r o n e o f t h e t w o
b e lli g e ren t s h e c e as e s t o b e n e u t r a l The i de a t h e r e f o r e o f
a b e n e v o l e n t n e u t r a li t y ca n m ean li t t l e l e s s t h an t he e x t i n e

t i on o f n e u t r a li t y
It

s ee

Acco r d i n g to t h i s d e n i t i o n the p ol i cy o f the Fo r

e i gn Offi c e o f to d a y i s p r ep o st e rou s
an d t h e d e s
p atch e s o f t h e Fo r e ig n S e cr e ta ry to ou r amb a ss a d o r s
a t P a r i s a n d B e rli n a sk i ng t h e F r e nch a n d G e rm a n
Gove r nm e n ts to d e cla r e th e ir int e nti ons towa r d s B e l
g i um we r e m e r e d i p lomat i c subt e r fug e a n d p r e t e xt
Ou r
d on e to hoo dw i nk t h e p e opl e a n d P a rl i am e nt
po sit i o n wa s vi ti at e d by t h e e nt e n t e and t h e S e cr e t
a g r e e m e nt e nte r e d i nto in 1 9 0 6 wh e n co n v e r s ati o n s
b etwe e n French a nd B r i t i sh m i l i ta ry a n d n ava l e x
-

H O W D I PLO M ATS MA K E

52

WAR

p e rts we r e p e r mitt e d by t h e ve r y Fo r e i g n Se c r eta ry

tha t pu t on t h e ma n tl e o f stri ct n e utral ity at t h e e n d
o f July C a n a n y o n e now d oubt tha t ou r p ro c e e d

i n gs w e r e b i a ss e d by p r e d il e ct i o n wh e n ou r F o r
e i gn M i n ist e r e xcha n g e d lett e r s with M
C a mbo n i n
N ov e mb e r 1 9 1 2 whi ch co m m i tt e d B r i ta i n to t h e
?
n
obligati o s o f wa r
W e r e w e o r w e r e w e not
b i a ss e d when ou r a mb ass a d o r a t P e te rsbu rg wa s
i nf o rm e d ab out t h e o r d e r s giv e n to t h e e e t on July
.

2 7th

A n eu tra l s ha n d s mu st b e f r e e !
a t no t i m e s i nc e
J anu a r y 1 9 0 6 ha v e o u r han d s b e e n f r e e O n ly a

p o sit i o n o f spl e n d i d i solat i on ca n l e ave a nati o n

fr e e to a ct i n a st r i ctly h o n ou r abl e way in a ffa i rs o f
thi s kin d Th e r e c a n b e n o i mp arti ality W he r e t h e
poli cy o f a count r y i s f e tt e r e d by s e cr e t u n d e rstan d

ings Th e p h ra s e
fo r eign f r i e n d sh i p s u s e d s o
o ft e n o f l a te i s i n i ts e l f a n i n d i ctm e nt ; a n d in con
n e ct i o n w i th F r a n ce p rove s h o w ab su r d ou r p o s i t i on
a s a s o ca ll e d n e ut r a l p o w e r wa s all throu gh the n e
g o t i a t i o n s s i nc e t h e mu r d e r o f t h e Au stri a n a rch
What woul d Lo r d G ra n v i ll e have thought o f
d uk e

ou r p o s i t i on a s a n e utral h a d h e k n own o f a rm a
m e nt ri ngs a n d tou t i ng d i plomats ? What woul d h e
h a v e s a i d o f Lo n d on n e wsp ap e r s encou r a g i ng th e i r
co r r e sp o n de nts i n fo r e i gn c ap ita ls to i n am e J i ngo e s
ab r o a d W h i le the j ou rnals b e n e t e d f r om Ru ss i a n
mo n e y p a i d fo r supplem e nts ? N o o n e ca n lo ok
th r ou gh t h e rep o r t o f P a rli amenta ry P roc e e d i ngs
s in ce 1 9 0 6
a n d r e a d t h e qu e st i o n s a n d r e p li e s r e
ga r d ing t h e Exp e d iti ona ry Fo rc e w i thout b e i ng im
p r e ss e d with t h e noti on that w e we r e comm i tt e d u p
to t h e hilt to suppo r t F r a nc e i f s h e were atta ck e d by
N e u trality ! N e utral i ty wa s a te r m
a th i r d P ow e r
,

A USEFUL T REAT Y

NOW !

53

to conj u r e w i th i n Lo r d G r a n v i ll e s d a y ; but s i nce

t h e p oli cy o f
fo r e ign fri e n d s h ip s wa s inaugu r at e d
a t t h e For e ig n O i ce t h e t e r m might j ust a s w e ll h ave
b e e n oblit e r a t e d f r om t h e vocabula r y o f d iplomatists
As fo r t h e T r e a ty o f 1 8 3 9 w h i c h gua ra n t e e d t h e
in d e p en d e n c e a n d n e u t r ality o f B e lgium i ts e xist e nc e
wa s n eve r thou ght o f by a ny o n e outs i de the For e i g n
O ffi ce s i nc e t h e clos e o f t h e Fran co Ge r ma n Wa r
u nt i l a n e x cu s e h a d to b e foun d fo r ou r i mpli cati on
i n th i s imb r o gl i o
Anyway n o attemp t wa s ma de
to r e viv e t h e t r e a ti es o f Au gu st 9 t h 1 8 7 0 An d fo r
a v e r y go o d r e a so n ; ou r u n d e r sta n d i n g w ith France
p r e clu d e d t h e p o ss i b ility o f su ch a thing Th e fa rc e
o f a sking F r a n c e i f s h e wou l d ob s e r ve t h e i n d e e n d
p
e n ce a n d n e ut r a lity o f B e lgiu m cou l d only hav e b e e n
app r e c i at e d by G e r m any On Ju ly 3 I st ou r e e t
h a d ne a rly b ottl e d up the G e rm a n n avy a n d an i n
v a s i o n o f t h e n o r th e rn a n d west e rn co a sts o f F r a nc e
wa s no t p rob abl e Th e r e w a s only on e way t h e
G e rm a n s coul d i nvade F r a n c e with whom she h a d
n o p a rti cu la r qu a rrel
a n d th a t wa s by viol ati n g t h e
Treaty o f 1 8 3 9 a n d a d vanci n g her t r o op s th r o ugh
Lu x e mb ou rg a n d B e lg i um No o ne kn e w that b et
t e r tha n ou r Fo r e ign S e cr e ta r y wh e n h e sent h i s
What
d e sp at ches to P a ri s a n d B e r li n o n Ju ly 3 1 s t
i s to b e s a i d o f a fo r e i gn p oli cy w h i ch a gg r avat e s a
na t i o n by h e mm i n g it i n with s e cr e t u n d erstan d i ngs
s o tha t wh e n i t i s a t
a n d p lans o f G e n e ra l Staffs
t a ck e d o n i ts e a st e r n fr o n ti e r by a form i d ab l e fo e
d
e
n
e
e
a
n
wi
th
whom
e
a
ct
i
n
b
vol
nt
ways
wh
o
w
(
with t he oth e r P owe r s i s p r ivy to the B elgi a n Tre a ty
You
of 18
a n d s ays to t h e agg r avat e d count r y
mu st no t u s e t h e only roa d l e ft op e n fo r r ap i d mov e
m e nts aga i nst t h e a lly o f the nat i o n on your eastern

54

H OW D I P L O M ATS MA K E WA R

front i e r
wh i l e all th e t i me i n s e cr e t a gre e m en t w i th
t h e P ow e r o n t h e w e st e r n f r o n ti e r to l e n d a rm e d
suppo rt in the e v e n t o f a n atta ck ? A fo r e ign p oli cy
tha t b i n d s tog e th e r fo r ob ligations o f war thre e
P owers signato ry o f a tre aty o f neut rali t y aga i n st
t w o Powe r s a ls o s i gn a to r y o f t h e sam e treaty a n d
wh i ch p la c e s o n e o f th e s e latt e r i n a n i nv i d i ou s p os i
ti on a s a b e lli g e r e nt i s n ot ba s e d u po n t h e poli cy o f
n e utra l i t y l a i d d own b y L o r d G r a n vill e
B ut i n t h e e v e nt o f o n e o f t h e P ow e r s s i gnato ry
o f t h e Tr e a ty o f 1 8 3 9 vi ol ati n g t h e n e ut ra lity a n d
i n d e p en de nce o f B e lgium w e r e w e b ou n d to h e lp
l ay wa ste i ts ter r ito r y i n p roce ss o f cha sti si n g th e
i n it i a l v i olator ? U n d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e t r e a t y ou r
obliga ti o n s w e r e not d e n e d Th e r e i s n o p rov i s i on
i n i t whi ch n e ce ss itate s B r ita i n s e n d i n g troop s i nto
B elg i u m to mak e wa r o n a n y P ow e r th at S hou l d v i o
late i ts te r r i tory Th e d iplomati sts who d rew u p
the tr e a t y k n e w what they w e re d o ing when they l e ft
th e qu e sti o n o f ob l i gat i on op e n Th e y ha d no i n
t e n ti o n o f c o mmitti n g t h e i r r e sp ect i v e Gov e r n m e nts
to the ob li gatio n s o f wa r Th e o n ly p oss i bl e w a y
B r i ta i n coul d hav e i n s i st e d o n a ll t h e P owe rs signa
to ry o f t he t rea t y o bs e rvi n g its p r ov i s i o n s w a s by
m a i nta i n i ng a p o sit i o n o f st r i ct neutral i t y Thi s
wou l d hav e enable d h e r to s ay tha t S he woul d a ct
a ga inst any o n e o r mor e o f t h e P ow e rs w h o sh o ul d
vi ol a t e B e lgi a n t e rr i tory and that B r iti sh a ct i on
wou l d b e lim it e d to B e lgium only I n t h e Tr e aty o f
1 8 7 0 t h e obligat i ons o f B r i ta i n were clearly d en e d :
,

The Qu e e n

h e r p a r t d e c l a r e s t h at i f du r i n g t h e s a i d
h os t ili t i es th e a r m i e s o f F ran c e s h o u l d v i o l a t e t h a t n e u t r a l
i ty (B e l g i a n ) s h e w ill b e p r e p a r e d t o co o p e r a t e w i t h h is
P r u ss i a n M aj e s t y fo r t h e de f en c e o f t h e s a m e i n s u ch m an

on

C O N TO RT I ON IST D I P LO MA CY

55

mu t u a ll y a g re e d up on e mp l o y i n g for t h a t
pu r p ose he r n a v a l a n d m ili t a ry f o r c es t o i n s u r e i t s ob s e rv
m a i n t a i n in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h h i s P r u s s i a n
an c e
an d t o
M a j e s t y t h e n a n d t h e r e a f t e r t he i n de p en den c e a n d n e u
t r a li t y o f B e l g i um
n er

as

m ay b e

I n t h e s am e t r e aty o u r l i ab i l i ty wa s st r i ctly l i m i te d ,
a n d t h e a r e a o f ou r op e ra tio n s i n t h e ca s e o f a cti on
l a i d d own :
I t i s c l e a r l y u n de rs t oo d t h a t H e r M a j e s t y t h e Qu ee n
o f t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m d oe s n o t e n g a g e h e rs e lf by t h i s
T r e a t y t o t a k e p a r t i n a n y o f t he g e n e ra l o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e
w a r n ow c a r r i e d o n b e t w e e n t h e N o r t h G e r m a n C o n f e d

c ra t i o n a n d F r an c e , b ey o n d t h e li m i t s o f B e lg i u m

Th e s e p r ovi si o n s rev e al e d t h e n e c e ss i ty o f d i s
i
n g wi t h t h e T r e aty o f 1 8
e
n
s
p
3 9 which wa s u s e l e s s
fo r a ll p r a cti cal pu rp o s e s wh e n t h e d a n g e r o f i n
v a s i o n p r e s e n t e d i ts e l f t o B e lgi um i n t h e d ays wh e n
Lo r d G r a nv i ll e wa s i n contro l o f t h e F or e i gn O i ce
M i lita r y o p e r at i o n s hav e s o fa r show n tha t B r i ta i n
h a s h a d so m e th i n g e ls e to d o tha n p rote ct the n e u
t r a li t y o f B e lgium w i thi n t h e a r e a o f B e lgium
Sh e
i s a t p r e s e nt e n gag e d i n d o i n g t h e v e r y th i ng S h e
e n ga g e d with hi s P r u ssia n M aj e sty not t o d o i n 1 8 7 0 :
tha t is tak e p a r t i n any o f t h e g e n e ra l op e r ation s
o f t h e wa r
U n d e r t h e T r e aty o f 1 8 7 0 B r i ta i n
c o ul d n ot h av e l a n d e d a d r umm e r b oy o n French
soil Ou r a cti ons o n the C o n ti n e n t s inc e t he out
b r e ak o f h o stili t i e s h av e no c o n n e cti o n o f any k i n d
with t h e p r ovi si o n s o f t h e Tr e a ty S ig n e d in 1 8 7 0
I t i s n o t e asy to s ay h o w t h e T r e a t y o f 1 8 7 0 a f
fe ct e d th e p os i tion o f Ru ssi a a n d Austr i a a s sign a
to r i e s o f t h e o ld t r e a ty Th e i r i nter e st wa s only co n
c e r n e d w i th tha t o f I 8 3 9 a nd th e fa ct that they w e r e
,

H OW

56

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

not pa rti e s t o t h e n e w treat i es r a i s e d a d eb atabl e

p o i n t a s to th e va li d ity o f t h e o ld o n e All the s ig
n a t o r i e s o f a tr e aty mu st agr e e to a n
a
lt
ration
o
f
e
y
its p r ov i s ions D id Russi a a n d Au st r i a a gr e e i n
1 8 7 0 to t h e m aki n g o f t h e t r e ati e s o f that y e a r ?
M o r ley says r e f e rri n g to t h e s i tu at i on i n 1 8 7 0
Wha t cha n c e wa s th e r e o f Ru ss i a a n d Au st r i a j o i n
i n g a ga i n s t F r a nc e a n d P ru ssi a fo r t h e sak e o f B e l
gium i n whi ch n e i th e r o f th e m h a d a n y d i r e ct i n
I n 1 8 3 0 B rita i n s p la n O f p r ev e nt i ng B e l
te res t ?
gium from b e com ing a F r e n ch p rov i n c e w a s n o e a sy
bu s i n e ss fo r i t d e st r oy e d the tr i ump h o f 1 8 1 45
i n making B e lgium p a r t o f t h e ki n g d om o f H olla n d
Russi a a n d Au st r i a w e r e luk e wa r m p a r ti e s to t h e
a ff a i r ; a n d P ru ss i a k n e w th e n s h e was o n ly a p a rty
Let
t o a d e a l o f P a lm e r s t o n s to d is h Ta ll e y r a n d
u s b e o r d i n a ri ly h o n e st L e t u s fo r H e av e n s s ak e
g e t away from t h e n e u ra sth e n i c slo sh a n d to sh o f

vi olating t r e ati e s a n d thi nk o f o u r hi sto r y i n co n

n e ct i o n with nu mb erl e ss
s cr ap s o f p ap e r
No
b o dy i n the long ru n i s go ing to b e t ak e n i n by ou r
s a n ctimoni ou sn e ss o u r smu g l i fting up o f ha n d s t o
h e av e n as though he aven w e r e a c o lony o f t h e B r i t

i sh Emp i r e
Th i ngs a n d a ctions a r e what th e y

s a i d B i shop B utl e r i n a nobl e p a ssag e and th e

a re
consequ e nc e s o f th e m w i ll b e what t h e y will b e Why

then shoul d w e d e s i r e to b e d e c e ive d ?

Th e ho a ry m e tho d o f wa r r st a n d law a fte r i s
b e i ng r e p e at e d i n thi s p res e nt compl i cat i on Wh e n
t h e qu esti o n o f t h e l e ga l p o sitio n o f t h e v e P owe r s
w i th r e ga r d to t h e o ld tr e a ty i s th r ash e d ou t a ft e r
the wa r th e re wi ll b e a ru sh fo r p r e c e d ents A d ip
lo m a t i c wa r b r ok e ou t i n Eu rop e wh e n Ru ss i a a n
n o u n ce d to the P owers i n 1 8 7 0 tha t S h e cons i dered
.

AN E SSE NT I AL PR I N C I PLE

57

h e rs e l f no long e r b ound by t h e p r ov i si o n s o f t h e
T r e aty o f 1 8 5 6 M r O d o Rus s e ll who wa s s e n t
by Lo r d G ranvill e o n a m iss ion to B i sma rck at t h e
h e a d qua rt e rs o f t h e G e rm a n a r my i n F ra n c e sou n de d
Lo r d D e r by a n d Lo r d Ru ss e ll b e fo r e h e le ft En g
lan d a n d gather e d f r om Lo r d Ru ss e ll that h e d i d n o t
b e li e v e tha t the B la ck S e a clau ses cou l d b e p e r man en t
a n d tha t h e
favou r e d mo d i cat i on L o r d D e rby

said
H e woul d fi ght fo r t h e n e utrality o f Egypt

but not fo r t h e n e utrality o f the B la ck S e a

Th e
a ct i ons o f Lo r d P a lm e rst o n a n d hi s mi n i stry w e r e
t h e cau s e o f d e e p d i ss ati s fa cti o n i n 1 8 5 6 a n d Lo r d
G ranvi lle w a s s eve r e ly critici s e d fo r t h e p a rt B r itai n
to ok i n 1 8 7 0I
I t w a s s a i d tha t h e h a d tam e ly
p e r m itte d Ru ss i a t o au nt h e r d e ci s i o n to d i s r e ga r d
t h e B la ck S e a clau s e s i n t h e fa c e o f a ll t h e P ow e r s
O u r d iplomati c p r e stig e suff e r e d s om e humili at i on
on b oth o cca s ions
I n t h e T r e aty o f P a r i s 1 8 5 6 it
wa s la i d d own t h a t t h e a n nex e d conv e nti o n coul d no t
b e a nnu ll e d o r m o d i e d without t h e a ss e n t o f t h e
P ow e r s signato ry o f the T r e aty
R u ssi a s d e c i si o n
wa s ther e fo r e a v i o lation o f that p r ovi si o n Th e
p o i n t o f co n s e qu e n c e h e r e how e v e r i s t h e fa ct t h a t
a C o n fe r e n c e m e t in Lon d o n e a r ly in 1 8 7 1 W h e r e t h e
Powers i nclu d ing Ru s s i a s i g n e d a n a g r e e m ent t o
r e cogn i z e
.

i l p r i n c i p l e o f t he la w o f n at i on s
t h a t n o P o w e r can li b e r a t e i t s e l f f r o m t he e n g a g e m e n t s o f
u n less w i t h
n o r m o d i fy t h e s t i pu l a t i o n s t h e r e o f
a t re a t y
by m e an s o f a n
t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e c o n t r a c t i n g P o w e rs
a m i c a b l e a rran g e m en t

t at

i t is

an

e ss en t a

I f th i s decla r a t i on o f t h e Lo n do n C on f e r e nc e
whi ch d e n e d a n ess e nti a l p rinc i pl e o f the law o f n a

H ow D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

8
5

t i o n s st i ll hol d s goo d wha t b ecom e s o f t he Tr e aty o f

1 83 9 ?
Tha t Treaty d id no t d e n e the ob li gati on s
o f t h e P ow e r s which s igne d it Th e T r e ati e s o f
1 8 7 0 mo d i e d i ts p rov i s ions by d e n i n g stri ct Ob liga
ti o n s w i thou t the co n s e nt o f Ru ssi a a n d Au st ri a
D id t h e a cti o n s o f B r i ta in Fra n c e a n d P ru ss i a i n
a cco r d ing to a n e ss e n ti al p ri n c i p l e o f t h e law
1 8 70
o f natio n s mak e t h e T r e aty o f 1 8 3 9 null a n d v o i d ?
M r G la d sto n e d e sc r ibe d t h e n e w t r e at i e s as m o r e
st r i n ge n t m e a su re s fo r the prot e ctio n o f B e lg i a n n e u
Th e
t r a li t y tha n t h e g e n e r a l gu a r ant e e o f 1 8 3 9
o n ly wa y t h e ap o logi sts o f ou r fo r e ig n p oli cy o f t o
d a y ca n d e f e n d ou r a ct i o n in maki n g t h e neutrality
o f B e lgium a s la i d d own i n the T r e aty o f 1 8 3 9 t h e
i s by i solating tha t tr e aty a n d e x empting
ca s u s b e lli
i t from t h e law tha t a ffe ct e d t h e T r e a ty o f P a r i s
a n d t h e Ag r e e me n t a rriv e d a t by t h e P ow e r s a t t h e
Lo n d o n C o n f e r e n c e o f I 8 7 I wh e n t h e P ow e rs r e cog
n o P ow e r can l ib e r at e its e l f from t h e e n
n i z e d that
e
e
n
t
s
o
f
a
t
r
aty
no
r
mo
d
i
fy
t
h
e
st
i
pul
atio
n
s
a
e
m
g g
th e r e o f u nl e s s w i th the consent o f the co ntra cting

P o w e rs
Inte r nat i ona l l awy e rs have gone s o fa r i n d en i ng
ou r p os i t i on u n de r t h e o ld t r e aty a s to say tha t w e
s h ou l d have a cc e pte d the G e rma n gu ara nt e e o f B e l
gi a n i n teg r i ty a n d i n d e p en de n c e a t t h e clo se o f t h e
w a r though t e chni ca lly t h e sp i r i t o f the tre aty w e r e
vi o lat e d by G e rma n y i n d espatch i ng tro op s a c ro ss t h e
t e r r i to ry B rita i n was no t i n a n y w ay e mpowere d
by the tr e a t y t o d e cla re wa r a ga i nst G e rm any b e
c au s e s he a sk e d B e lgium fo r a fr e e p a ss a g e fo r h e r
tro op s Why w e r e only G ermany a n d Fra nc e a sk e d
Why w e r e Au s tr i a a n d Ru ss i a i g
t h e qu e sti on ?
nore d ? Ru ss i a was every b i t a s mu ch a n ally o f
,

I N C ONSI S TEN C I E S

'

59

B r ita i n a n d Fr a n c e o n July 3 I st a s s h e i s t o-d ay I s

th e r e a Eu rop e a n law ? Su rely a ll hi sto ry te a ch e s
u s tha t with n ati o n s i t i s o n ly a qu e st i o n o f tim e
w h e n e a ch i n tu r n will say with Alexa n d e r I
What
d o yo u supp os e tha t a ll you r p a rchm e nts a n d you r
t r e a ti e s sig n i fy to m e ?
As h l e y s ays
Du r i ng the
C r im e a n W a r w e s e n t a r e mo n st r a n c e to H ollan d o n
h e r vi olati o n o f n e u t r ality i n supplyi n g a rm s to Ru s
s i a a n d th e n d i scov e r e d that o u r o w n O r dn a nce D e
p a r t m e n t h a d b e e n o r d e ri n g f r om th e D utch l a r g e

qu a n titi es o f gu n p ow de r
Th e sub lim e fa ith that natio n s hav e fro m tim e
i mm e m o r i a l p la ce d i n t h e e ffi ca cy o f t r e ati e s i s on e o f
t h e f e atu r e s o f n i n e t e e nth c e ntury d ip loma cy
Con
s i d e r t h e fa ith o f t h e B e lgi a n Gov e rnm e n t i n t h e
T r e aty o f 1 8 3 9 ! O n Au gu st 3 r d t h e B e lgian G ov
e r n m e n t d e ci d e d not to app e a l t o t h e gu a r ant e e o f t h e
P o w e r s ; but w i thi n tw e n ty fou r h o u r s t h e Ki ng o f
t h e B e lgi a n s t e l e g r aph e d to Ki n g G eo rg e t o e x e r t
d iplomati c i n t e rv e n tio n a n d no r e f e r e n c e wa s m a d e
i n t h e t e l e g r am to t h e T r e a ty o f 1 8 3 9
B elgiu m
k n e w f r om t h e b e gi n n i n g tha t i n t h e e v e n t o f a Eu r o
p e a n w a r G e r ma n y mu st a d va n c e a ga i n st F ra n c e
t h r o u g h B e lgiu m
Y e t on Au gu st 2 n d o u r Fo r e i gn
S e c r e ta ry sa i d t h e C ab i n e t h a d n o t d e ci d e d wh e th e r
t h e n e utra li ty o f B elgiu m shou l d b e ma d e t h e ca s u s
b e lli !
O n Au gu st I st ou r a mb a ss a do r a t B r u ssel s
w a s tol d by t h e B e lgia n Gov e r n m e nt t hat th ey w e r e
i n a p o s i t i o n t o d e f e n d th e ms e lv e s aga i n st i n tru si on
though t h e r e l ati o n s b e tw e e n B e lgium a n d h e r n e igh
b ou r s w e r e e xc e ll e n t a n d th e r e wa s no r e ason to su s
p e e t t h e i r i n t e n ti o n s ! N e v e r th e l e ss B e lg i u m wa s
s o m e thi n g o f a n a rm e d camp a t E a ster 1 9 1 4
Th e r e i s a d i s crep an cy somewher e ; fo r huge p r e p a ra
.

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60

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

t i ons fo r wa r s e e m u n n e c e s sa ry wh e n a cou ntry ha s

n o r ea so n to susp e ct t h e i n t e nt i o n s o f h e r n e ighb ours
a n d h e r r e latio n s with th e m a r e e xc e ll e nt
B e lgium how e v e r th o ught it w e ll to b e p r e p are d
fo r all e m e r g e nci e s N o d o ub t h e r fa ith in Eu ro
p e a n law n e e d e d a rm e d suppo rt W e kn ow n o w
that fo r e i ght e e n months a t l e a st t h e B e lgi a n G o v
e rn m e n t h a d b e e n p r e p a ri n g fo r t h e d a y wh e n B ri ta i n
a n d Fra n c e wou l d b e e n gag e d tog e th e r i n a Eu r op ea n
wa r Alo n e B e lgium w a s n o match fo r G e rmany
Wh i ch P ow e r th e n did s h e f e a r ? Why sh o ul d a
n e ut r a l nat i o n w i th a n ab o u n d i n g fa ith i n t h e la w
o f nat i ons
p a ss withi n v e y e a r s tw o laws to i n
cr e a s e h e r m ilita r y e stabli shm e nts ? In J anu ary
she r a i s e d h e r w a r fo rc e s f r om
to
19 10
a n d in N ov e mb e r 1 9 1 2 s h e r a i s e d h e r w a r
a rm y f r om
to
What i s t h e go o d
o f d iploma cy ? Wha t i s t h e goo d o f tr e ati e s o ld o r
n e w i f d i st r u st i s to b e t h e r esult o f all e ffo r ts a t n e u
T he re
t r a li z a t i o n a n d t h e maki n g o f fri e n d ships ?
i s nothi n g qu it e s o p r e p ost e r ou s i n t h e a nnals o f fo r
thi s n e utral
e i gn affa i r s a s t h e a r mi n g o f B e lgium
stat e a ga i n st a nat i on whi ch h a d gu a rant e e d he r
D o e s it not p rov e that t h e mo ra l valu e
n e ut r ali ty
o f a tr e a t y d e p e n d s o n t h e w e ight o f a rmam ent b e
hi n d i t ? T r e ati e s a r e to blam e fo r the d e s olat i on o f
B e lgium ; a n d t h e t r eati e s o r alli a n c e s o r ent e n t e s
o r e n ga g e ments o r what e v e r d iplom at i sts call th e m
tha t hav e b e e n th e cau s e o f a ll t h e d r e a d fu l havoc
a r e thos e wh i ch u n i te d Fra n c e a n d Ru ss i a a n d u n i te d
B rita i n a n d F rance T h e s e e n gag e m e nts hav e b e e n
f e a re d from t h e rst by all m e n w h o lo o k b e yon d the
p o i nt o f th e i r n os es The p ol i cy o f t h e B rit i sh F o r
e i gh O ffi c e e v e r s i nce s ecr e t a rrang e m e nts we re e n
,

B E H I N D TH E LOO KI N G GLA S S

61

te red

i nto w i th t h e Fr e nch

Sp an i sh Gove rnm e nts

m o st sin i ster m ena c e to t h e
and

ha s b e e n t h e
p e a c e o f Eu rop e
Wh e n th e w a r i s ov e r i n t e r n ati onal lawy e rs may
b e a s k e d to d e n e t h e p os iti o n o f a n e utra l stat e
tha t a ct s in conj u ncti o n with sig n at o r i e s o f its Tr e aty
o f n e ut r ality aga i n st o th e r s ig n at o r i e s b e for e i ts p ro
vi si o n s a r e in a n y way vi o l at e d Fit z mau ri c e i n
d e ali n g wi th th e n e goti ati o n s o f th e Powers i n con
n e ct i o n wit h t h e Su e z C a nal sa i d :
in

1 9 04 ,

Th e w o r l d k n e w o f t he

B e l g i u m an d
o f t he B l a ck S e a ; a n d i t h a d h e a r d o f t h e n e u t ra liz a t i on o f
B u t t h e e s s e n c e o f t h os e a n d
t h e R e pub li c o f C r a c o w
o t h e r a n a l o g o u s a r r a n g e m e n t s w a s t h e e x c l u s i o n o f t h e m ili
t a r y an d n a v a l f o r c e s o f t he P o w e r s f r o m e n t r y up o n t h e
ne

u t r aliz a t i on

of

ne

u t ra liz e d

t e rr t o r

i es

an d s e as

I f t h e e ssenc e o f t h e B e lgi a n tr e aty w a s t h e e x

e lus i o n o f t h e m ilita ry a n d t h e nav a l forc e s o f t h e
P ow e r s how coul d t h e ca s u s b e lli o f thi s wa r b e t h e
T r e at y o f 1 8 3 9 wh e n B r ita i n wa s e n gag e d to F r anc e
and
Russ i a a ga i n st G e r m a n y a n d Au st r i a b e fo r e
G e r m a n y i n va d e d B e lgium ? W e ll may s om e cu r i
o u s p e opl e a sk t h e v e r y p e r ti n e n t qu e sti o n
Woul d
B r i ta i n h av e tak e n a cti on a ga i n st t h e F r e n ch i f th e y
?
e
n
e
r
ha d be
th
st to i nva d e B e lgiu m
D iplomati c
ci rcu mstanc e s alte r i nt e rna ti o n al ca s e s How th e y
hav e alt e r e d o v e r a p e r i o d o f h a l f a c e n tu ry b e ats all
t h e i d e a s o f top sy tu r v yd o m tha t G ilb e r t o r L e wi s
C a r r oll e v e r d r e am e d o f T ak e E gyp t : Lo r d
D e r by i n 1 8 7 1 woul d g h t fo r t h e n e ut r ality o f
Egyp t I n 1 8 5 7 P a lm e rston wro te the follow i ng to
Lo r d C la re n d on :
,

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62

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

P I C C D I LL

M y de a r

Cl a re n don

M a r ch

I st ,

85 7

Emp e r o r s s ch e m e s a b o u t A f r i c a t he s o on e r
C o w l e y s e n ds i n his g ro u n ds o f o bj e c t i on t he b e t t e r I t is
v e r y p o s s i b l e t h a t m an y p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d w o u l d b e b e t t e r
g o v e rn e d by F r a n c e E n g l an d a n d S a r d i n i a t h an t h e y a r e
n o w ; a n d w e n e e d n o t go b e y o n d I t a l y S i c il y a n d S p a i n fo r
e x a mp l e
B u t t h e a lli a n c e o f E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e h as de
r i v e d i t s s t re n g t h n o t m e re l y f r o m t h e m ili t a r y a n d n a v a l
p o w e r o f t he t w o s t a t es b u t f ro m t he f o r c e o f t he m o r a l
p r i n c i p l e up o n wh i ch t h a t u n i on ha s b e e n fo u n de d O u r
u n i o n h as fo r i t s f o u n da t i on r e s i s t an c e t o u n j u s t a gg r e s s i o n
t he d e f e n c e o f t h e w e a k a g a i n s t t h e s t ron g a n d t h e m a i n t e
H ow t h e n c o u l d
n a n c e o f t h e e xi s t i n g b a l a n c e o f p o w e r
w e c o mb i n e t o b e c o m e u n p r o v o k e d a gg r e ss or s t o i m i t a t e i n
A f r i c a t h e p a r t i t i o n o f P o l a n d by t h e c o n qu es t o f M o ro cc o
fo r F r a n c e o f T u n i s a n d s o m e o t h e r s t a t e fo r S a r di n i a a n d
?
An d m o re e s p e c i a ll y h o w c o u l d
o f Egyp t fo r E n g l a n d
E n g l a n d a n d F ra n c e w ho h a v e gu a r an t e e d t he i n t e g r i t y o f
t h e T u r k i s h Emp i r e t u r n r o u n d a n d w r e s t Egyp t f r o m t h e
S u l t an ? A c o a li t i o n fo r s uch a pu r p o s e w o u l d r e v o l t t he
m o ral f e e li n g s o f m an k i n d a n d w o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e f a t a l t o
T h en
a n y E n g li s h G o v e r n m en t t h a t w a s a p a r t y t o i t
a s t o t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r t o b e m a i n t a i n e d by g i v i n g u s
Egyp t b u t w e do n o t w a n t t h e bu r de n o f g o v e rn i n g Egyp t
a s a p o li t i c a l
m ili t a r y a n d
a n d i t s p o ss e s s i o n w o u l d n o t
i n t h i s c o u n t r y a s a s e t o ff
n a v a l qu e s t i o n h e c o n s i d e re d
Le t u s t r y
a g a i n s t t h e p os s e s s i o n o f M o r o cc o by F ran c e
t o i mp r o v e a ll t h es e c o u n t r i e s by t h e g e n e r a l i n u e n c e o f
o u r c o mm e r c e b u t le t u s a ll a b s t a i n f ro m a c r u s a de o f co n
qu e s t wh i ch w o u l d c a l l u p on u s t he co n de m n a t i on o f a ll
o t h e r c i v iliz e d n a t i o n s
As

t o the

I t woul d b e d i ffi cu lt fo r t h e e rc e st opp onent o f

pr e s e nt fo r e i gn poli cy to crow d into t h e sam e sp a c e
a b la cker in d i ctme n t tha n t i m e its e l f has m a d e o f
the n e s e ntim e nts o f P alm e rston s e t d own i n that

U N RE C O R D E D AG RE E M ENTS

63

lett e r E gyp t ! Wha t me mo r i es the nam e b r i n gs

i n a ash to t h e stu d e nt o f fo r e i gn poli cy
Den
S h awi ! Th e p arti ti o n o f M o r o cco ! Sha d e s o f
Alg e ci r a s a n d Aga d i r ! An d a ll tha t h a s b e en d on e
o r s ancti o n e d by B r ita i n u p to thi s y e a r wou l d i n

1857
r e volt t h e m o r al fe e li n gs o f m a n kin d a n d
woul d ce rta i n ly b e fatal t o a ny E n glis h Gove rn

m ent th at wa s a p a rty to i t !
Wh a t a co mm e n
ta ry on t h e e l e ct o rs o f to d a y !
A ft e r all k n own t r e ati e s a re the l e a st s i g n i cant
wo rk o f d ip lom ati sts W ha t i s writt e n d o wn i n
th e m m ay so m e d a y b e r e v e a l e d ; but s e cr e t ag r e e
m e nts a n d ta c i t un d e rstan d i n gs m a d e by t h e a g e n t s
o f Gov e rn m e n ts may b e without e n d a n d th e i r t r u e
i mp o rt n e v e r r e a ch the p e op le u nti l they a re a t
e a ch oth e r s thro ats
To wha t b a s e comm itme n ts
n ati o n s h av e b e e n p l e d g e d by th e i r d ip lom ati sts
the
r e co r d s o f th e n in e t e e nth c e n tu ry g i v e u s bu t an i n k
li n g Th e c r o ss pu r p o s e s o f t h e cha n c e ll e r i e s s e e m
to b e withou t li mit D r ibl e ts o f i n fo r mat i on l e ft
b e hin d by a mb a ssa d ors a n d s e cretar i e s o f legat i ons
fr e qu e n tly show that wha t i s o n e nat i o n s m e a t i s
anoth e r s p o i son L o r d G ra nvi ll e s e ems to h av e
b e en a n e xceptiona l m a n ; o n e who k e pt th i s cou nt r y
fa i rly fr e e f r om e n ta ngl e me n ts Th e d i i cu lt i e s o f
hi s p o siti o n i n t h e e igh t i e s may b e gl e an e d f r om th i s
p a ssag e f r om Fi t z mauri c e :
.

G oo d re l a t i on s w e re n ow r e s to r e d w i t h G e rm a n y a n d
F r a n c e ; b u t i f a s t r ugg l e w a s t o t a k e p l a ce w i t h Ru ss i a
I t a l y w a s a l s o a f a c t o r t o be t a k e n i n t o a cc o u n t B y t he
Tr i p l e Alli a n c e o f 1 8 8 2 t he Ge r m a n G ov e rn m en t w a s as
s u r e d o f t he s upp o r t o f Au s t r i a Hu n g a r y a n d I t a l y a g a i n s t
B y t h e s ub s e qu e n t
a n y a t t a ck by Ru ss i a o r by F r a n c e
T re at y o f 1 8 8 4 w i t h Ru s s i a a fu r t h e r s e cu r i t y ha d b een
,

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA K E WA R

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b t a i n e d by G e r m a n y a g a i n s t a F re n ch a t t a ck The su b
w as
s t an c e
oi
t h is T re aty
t h o ugh n o t a c t u a l l y k n o w n
p r o b a b l y s u s p e c t e d by t h e I t a li an G ov e r n m e n t a n d h e r
s t a t e s m e n a pp r e h e n d e d t h a t G e r m a n y
o n c e a ss u re d o f t h e
m i gh t i n t he e n d a t t a ch a d i m i n i s h e d
n e u t r a li t y o f Ru s s i a
T h e y c o n s e qu e n t l y
i mp o r t a n c e t o t he f r i e n ds h i p o f I t a l y
d es i re d by m e a n s o f a n u n de rs t a n d i n g w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n
t o o b t a i n a fu r t h e r s e cu r i t y fo r t h e i r n o r t hw es t e r n a n d
m a r i t i m e f ro n t i e r a g a i n s t F r a n c e a n d h o p e d t o s e cu re i t
by o ffe r i n g e ff e c t i v e m ili t a r y s upp o r t i n E gyp t in r e t u r n
fo r a n a s s u r a n c e o f n a v a l a i d i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n i n c a s e
I t a l y Adv a n t a g e o u s a s s uch a n
o f a F re n ch a tt a ck o n
L o r d G ra n v i ll e a d
o ff e r i n m a n y re s p e c t s m i gh t a pp e a r
h e r e d t o t h e v i e w t h a t B r i t i s h p o li cy c o n s i s t e d i n a v o i di n g
e n t an g li n g b a r g a i n s w i t h p a r t i cu l a r P o w e r s i n E gyp t
The
ch o i c e i n h is o p i n i o n s t ill la y b e tw e e n t h e Eu r o p e an co n
c e r t a n d i n d i v i d u a l a c t i o n by G re a t B r i t a i n I n t h e n a n
i t h a s b e e n s e e n h e h a d s upp o r t e d t he
ci a l n e go t i a t i o n s
p ro p os a l s o f L o r d N o r t hb ro o k fo r t he l a tt e r H e h a d e n d e d
by h av i n g t o c on s e n t t o t h e f o r m e r B u t he ha d a t l e as t

es c a p e d j o i n i n g i n a n An g l o F r en ch g u a r a n t e e

Th e change s which h av e tak e n p lac e S i nc e that

t i me so va st a n d opp o s it e th e y a r e ll o n e with
a ma z e me n t th a t t h e fou l i d ols o f d ip lom a cy no m at
te r by wha t n am e th e y a r e call e d s ho ul d b e sup e r
s t i t i o n s sti ll i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e B r iti sh p eop l e
W h at d iploma cy cost B r ita in i n t h e tw e nty y e ars
s i n ce B r i ght co n g r a tul at e d the au d i e nc e a t B i rm in g
ham i n 1 8 6 4 to t h e y e a r wh e n Go r d o n s e t out o n
hi s mi ssi on i n E gypt mu st b e i nca lculabl e An d
what d i d t h e B r i ti sh m a ss e s g e t i n r e tu r n ? In 1 8 8 4
t h e bu r n i n g d omest i c qu e st i o n s w e r e t h e f r a nchis e
e d u ca tio n lan d t h e C hurch a n d I r e la n d S i n c e
1 8 6 4 som e littl e p r og r e ss v e ry l i ttl e h a d b e en m a d e
Ru ssi a still th r e at e n e d t h e p e a c e o f Europ e a n d w a s
,

M I SSI ONA R Y LA B OU RS

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w e st e r n c i v i li z at i on a n d i n d i v i dual l i b
wo r k o f fo r e i g n a ffa i rs enta i l e d e no r
mou s s acr i c e s o f blo o d a n d mon e y Th e p ee r a g e
i n c r e a s e d by s co r e s ; t h e cost o f p o o r-r e li e f i n fant
mo rtal ity i n s a n ity all i nc r e a s e d Soc i a l evi l s
sp r e a d ; t h e slu m in t h e towns a n d t h e u n s anita r y
cottag e i n t h e cou n t r y b e cam e t h e fo r ci n g hou s e s o f
consump tiv e s The a rmy o f t h e un e mp l o yed h a d i ts
b attal i ons i n ev e ry tow n i n t h e la n d But mor e and
mo r e mon e y wa s fou n d by t h e chu rche s fo r fo re ign
m i ss i ons ; a n d slowly th e wo rk o f conv e rting the
h e athe n to a Ch r i stia n m e tho d o f li f e m a d e p rogr e ss
a n d t h e b ayon et a n d high e xplo siv e s w e r e t h e sym
bols tha t imp r e ss e d t h e p e opl e s o f As i a a n d A fr i c a
tha t Engla n d wa s the lan d o f the free
d ang e r to
Th e
e r ty

C HA PTE R I V
F R I E N DS H I P S

pu r p ose s o f a re s i de n t a mb ass a do r I h e a r p e rson s

e x t en s i v e l y
a n d w e ll
a cqu a i n t e d a m o n g o u r
f ore i gn e m
ba s s i es a t t h i s d a t e d e c l a re T h a t a w e ll s e l e c t e d Ti m e s r e
p o rt e r o r o w n co r r e s p o n de n t o r de r e d t o r e s i de i n fo r
e i gn c a p i t a l s
a n d k ee p h i s e y e s o p e n
an d
(t h o ugh s p a r
i n gly ) his p e n g o i n g w o u l d i n r e a li t y b e m uch m o r e e ffe c
t i v e ; a n d s u r e l y w e s e e w e l l h e w o u l d c o m e t o a g oo d
d e a l ch e a p e r ! C o n s i de r a b l y ch e a p e r i n e x p e n s e o f m o n e y ;
a n d e x p e n s e o f f a l s i t y a n d g r i m a c i n g hyp o c r i s y (o f wh i ch
n o hum an a r i t hm e t i c ca n c o u n t t h e u l t i m a t e c o s t )
in cal
c u la bly ch e a p e r !
I f t h i s i s t he f a c t w h y n o t t r e a t i t a s
s uch ?
I f t h i s i s s o i n a n y m e a s u re w e h a d b e t t e r i n t h a t
m e a su re a dm i t i t t o b e s o ! The t i m e I b e li e v e h a s c o m e
fo r a s k i n g w i t h c o n s i de r a b l e s e v e r i t y H ow fa r i s i t s o ?
Nay t h e r e a r e m e n n ow cu r re n t i n p o li t i c a l s o c i e t y m e n o f
w e i gh t t h o ugh a l so o f w i t w ho h a v e b e e n h e a r d t o s ay
T h a t t h e re w a s b u t o n e re fo rm fo r t he Fo r e i g n O fce
a r e
t o s e t a li v e c oa l u n de r i t
an d w i th
o f co u r s e
b r i g a de wh i ch c o u l d p r e v e n t t h e u n du e s p r e a d o f t he de
v o u r i n g e l e m e n t i n t o n e i ghb o u r i n g h o u se s
le t t h a t r e f o r m
i t ! I n s uch o do u r is t h e F o r e i g n O ffi c e t o o i f i t w e r e n o t
t h a t t he P ub li c O pp re ss e d a n d n e a r l y s t i e d w i t h a m e r e
in f a c t b e i n g
i n n i t u de o f b a d o do u rs n e g l e c t s t h i s o n e
e scap e
a b l e n e a r l y a l w a y s t o a v o i d t he s t r e e t wh e r e i t i s
t h i s o n e a n d (e x c e p t a p a s s i n g cu rs e o n c e i n t h e qu a r t e r
o r s o ) as gO
o d as f o r g e t s t h e e xi s t e n c e o f i t
C a r l y l e L a t t e r D ay P a mphle t s
F OR

a ll

I t i s har d to b el i ev e the re wa s a t i m e wh e n Ge r
ma ny d e s i r e d n e ithe r coloni e s nor e e ts W e h ave
.

66

P LAC E

I N TH E SUN

67

s o mu ch i n recent yea rs o f Ge r many w a n t i n g

ou r p la c e i n t h e s u n o f h e r d e t e rm in e d p o li cy t o
w r e st f r om u s all ou r colo n i e s th a t the B i sma r ck o f
the e a r ly s e v e n ti e s s e e m s a p e r so n ag e co nne ct e d w it h
t h e S wi ss a d mira lty r ath e r tha n a C hanc e llo r i n
B e rl i n A d a y o r two ago a r e putabl e j o u r n a l tol d
i ts r e a d e rs that the whol e o f th e p r e s e n t t ro ub l e cam e
from t h e a m b it i o n o f B i sma r ck to foun d a n emp i r e
a s va st a s tha t o f B r ita i n w i th n ava l a n d m e r chant
e ets d omi n ating a ll the s e as Th e sta t e m e nt wa s
no t t r u e ; bu t i n w a r tim e tha t i s a small m att e r
I t wa s how e ve r a r e li e f to n d n e ith e r N i e t z sc h e
no r T r e its chk e r e sp o n s ibl e fo r t h e e xi st e n c e o f t h e
K i e l C a n a l a n d t h e H ambu r g Am e r i ca n Li n e Th e

cr y
C o lo n i e s fo r G e r m a n y h a d n o fo r c e unti l
a n d th e n B i sma rck h a d o n ly a n e l e cti on e e r
1 8 83
i n g a ffe cti o n fo r it
Te n y e a r s e a r li e r he tol d O d o
Ru ss e ll th a t C olon i e s w o ul d o n ly b e a cau s e o f
w e ak n e ss b e caus e c o l o n i e s c o u l d o n ly b e d e f e n d e d by
p ow e r fu l e ets
M a n y c o lo n i e s h a d b e e n O ffe r e d
h im h e h a d r ej ect e d th e m a n d w i she d only fo r
co a li n g sta t i o n s a cqu i r e d by t r e a t y f r o m oth e r n a
Th e l e tt e rs o f Lo r d Amp t h ill i n d i cat e
ti o n s
cl e a rly how the chang e i n B i sm a rck s p oli cy cam e
ab out :
h e ard

p e r f e c t des p a i r a t P r i n c e B i s m a r ck s p r e s e n t
i n c li n a t i o n t o i n c r e a se h i s p o pu l a r i t y b e f o r e t he g e n e r a l
C o mp e ll e d
e l e c t i on by t a k i n g up a n a n t i E n g li s h a t t i t u d e
by t h e c o lo n i a l m a n i a wh i ch h a s g r ad u a ll y c o m e t o t h e
s u r f a c e i n G e r m a n y t o a c t c o n t r a r y t o h i s b e tt e r c o n v i c t i o n s
i n t he An g r a P e qu e a qu e s t i o n h e has d i s c o v e r e d a n u n
e x p l o r e d m i n e o f p o pu l a r i t y i n s t a r t i n g a c o l on i a l p o li cy
The l a xi t y o f o u r qu a r a n t i n e r e gu l a t i o n s h a s a l w a ys
b e e n a G e r m an g r i e v a n c e a n d t h e n e w s t h a t t h e G e r m an
am

in

H OW D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

68

G o v e r n m e n t h as b ro ugh t i t b e f or e t he C o n f e re n ce h as
b e e n h a il e d w i t h e n t hu s i a s t i c a pp ro v a l i n t he G e r m a n p re ss
M e n li k e P r o f e s s o r V i r ch o w a n d D r K o ch a cc u se u s o p e n l y
o f h a v i n g b ro ugh t t h e ch o l e r a i n t o F r an c e
.

In

8 84

Lo rd Granv i lle wrote to Lo rd Ampth i ll :

I h a v e n e v e r h a d a m o re a r d u ou s gh t ; t he d i ffi cu l ty
b e i n g t h a t t he C o l o n i a l O i ce h a d a v e r y s t r o n g c as e wh i ch
t h e y h a d a l r e a d y p u t i n w r i t i n g a n d t h e i r o pp o s i t i o n w a s
s t r on g l y
b a ck e d by t he C h a n c e ll o r
B i s m a r ck s a tt i
H e h a s a lw a y s b ee n v i o l e n t l y o p
t u de i s d i s a g r e e a b l e
p os e d t o c o l o n iz a t i on H e is n ow o b li g e d t o y i e l d

Rul e rs m ay h av e s ho rt r e i gns but they h av e some

tim e s lo n g m e mori e s I n all th e w e a ry w ra ngl i ngs
b e tw e e n L o n d on a n d B e r lin in the e a rly e i gh ti e s
t h e r e i s n ot h i n g mo r e noti c e abl e tha n the su sp i c i o n
i n B i sma r ck s m i n d o f all o u r m a n mu v r i n g with r e
ga r d to hi s colo n i a l g r i e va nc e s T h e r e was mu ch t o
r e m e mb er whi ch wou l d c au s e su sp i cio n
F it z m a u
ri c e g i v e s s om e r e a so n fo r thi s I n th i nk i n g ove r
the followi n g e x t r a ct i t m ay b e well fo r u s to l et ou r
m in d s go b a ck t o e a r ly Augu st a n d re colle ct how
cha r y o u r F o r e ig n M i n i st e r wa s o f tou ching t h e
Lux e mb ou r g qu e s t i o n wh e n t h e n e ut r a lity o f that
state wa s a n a ffa i r o f t h e hou r Fi t z mau r i c e l i fts
t h e cu r ta in a n d r e v e als th e s e s i gnp osts o f f o re i gn
p oli cy whi ch we r e no t to ou r cre d i t :
,

In

t he

Libe l
ra

Se c re t a ry

of

S t a t e fo r

t he

C o lo n i e s

P r i n c e B i s m a r ck h a d n o t f a il e d t o re co g n iz e t he o ld C o n
s e rv a t i v e F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y , t he L o r d S t a n le y o f 1 8 6 7 , w h o
i n h i s o p i n i o n h a d b e t r a y e d Eu r o p e o v e r t h e L u x e mb o u r g
qu e s t i o n by a ll o w i n g h is o w n s i g n a t u r e t o t he T r e a t y o f
t h a t y e a r t o b e e x p l a i n e d a w a y : a p r o c e e d i n g wh i ch he h a d
I n o r de r t o a v o i d w a r b e tw e en F r a n c e
n e v er f o r g i v e n
.

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u xe mb ou r g s h o u l d
P r u s s i a , i t h a d b e e n a g r ee d t ha t
b e n e u t r a liz e d , t h a t t h e P o w e rs s h o u l d gu a r a n t ee t h e n e u
t r a li t y o f t h e D uchy , a n d t h a t i t s h o u l d b e p l a c e d u n de r
an d

h e i r c o l le c t i v e gu a r a n t e e B u t t he i n k w a s h a r dl y d ry
on
t he p a p e r wh i ch e mb o di e d t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s b e f o r e e x
p l an a t i o n s w e r e a dde d a s t o t he ch a r a c t e r o f t h i s c o l le c t i v e
gu a r a n t e e by L o r d D e r by t h en P r i m e M i n i s t e r wh i ch
s e e m e d t o r e d uc e t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s a n c t i o n t h e r e by g i v e n
t o t he l e v e l o f a m o r a l s a n c t i o n o n l y
Th e T re a t y i t w a s
ex p l a i n e d
g av e a r i gh t t o m a k e w a r b u t i t i mp os e d n o
o b li g a t i o n ; n o n e i n a n y c as e o n an y o f t he h i gh c o n t r a c t i n g
P o w e r s u n l e s s t he o t h e r s a ll fu l ll e d t h e i r o w n o b li g a t i o n s
s i mu l t a n e o u s l y
I f t h i s i n t e r p re t a t i o n w e r e c o rr e c t L o r d
G r a n v ill e h a d s a i d a t t he t i m e s p e a k i n g f ro m t he b e n ch e s
o pp o s i t e
i t w a s d i i cu lt i n de e d t o u n d e rs t a n d t he i mp o r
t a n c e wh i ch Ru s s i a h a d a t t a ch e d t o t h e gu a r a n t e e o r why
L o rd S t a n l e y h a d Sh o wn s uch h e s i t a t i o n i n b e c o m i n g a
p a r t y t o i t Th e Old w o u n d s t i ll r a n k le d a n d i f in 1 8 8 4
c o n s i de r a t i o n s o f do m e s t i c p o li cy w e r e pu s h i n g P r i n c e B is
m a r ck i n t o a co u rs e o f c o n duc t h o s t i le t o G r e a t B r i t a i n in
o r d e r t o s e c u r e t h e c o lo n i a l v o t e i n t h e G e r m a n P a r li a m e n t
h e w as n o t d i s c o u r a g e d by t h e r e e c t i o n t h a t h e w a s s i
T h e re w e r e
m u lt a n e o u s ly a n n o y i n g t h e C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y
t h o s e a l s o w ho d e e m e d t h a t P r i n c e B i s m a r ck e n j o y e d t he
t h o ugh t t h a t h e w a s o n c e m o r e o p e n i n g up t h e a n c i e n t
ch a p t e r o f a cco u n t s w i t h E n g l a n d wh i ch n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g
a ll t h e r e c o ll e c t i o n s o f 1 8 1 4
5 n o G e r m a n s t a t es m a n h as
e v e r e n t i r e ly f o r g o t t e n i n r e g a r d t o t h e b e t r a y a l o f F r e d
e r i ck t h e G r e a t by L o r d B u t e i n
1 76 2
wh e n t h e B ri t i s h
M i n i s t e r n o t o n l y d es e r t e d h is a ll y b u t wh i l e t h e a lli a n c e
s t ill s ub s i s t e d w a s b e li e v e d t o h a v e r e v e a l e d t h e p l a n s o f
F r e de r i ck fo r t h e n ex t c a mp a i g n a g a i n s t F r a n ce t o C h o i s e u l
h i ms el f
t

as
as

I n fo r e i gn a ffa i r s th e d e v i l is r eally j u st a s b la ck
h e i s p a i n t e d ; a n d t h e B r i ti sh d e v i l i s a s bl a ck
the C o n ti n e nta l d e vi l
Lov e you r n e ighbou r a s
.

0
7

H OW D I P LO MATS M A KE

WAR

you rs e l f wa s n o t a t e xt t o b e fou n d ove r t h e b e d

i n t h e gu est c h a m b e rs a t D ow n i n g S t r e e t n o r ye t i n
t h e C o n ti n e ntal Cha nc e ll e r i e s
D ist r u st susp i ci o n
i nt r i gu e a n d b itt e r m emo r i e s a n imat e d t h e vast m a
r i t y o f m e n w h o w e r e e nt r u st e d with t h e co n s t r u c
o
j
ti o n o f t r e ati e s f r i e n d ships a n d alli a n c e s O d o
R u ss e ll wrot e f r om B e rl in i n 1 8 8 1 t o Lo r d G r a n
V i lle :
,

y e a rs h a v e I p r e a ch e d c o n de n ce
a s a m e a n s o f s ucc e s s i n f o r e i g n p o li cy
bu t
n e v er c o u l d o v e r c o m e t h e d e e p r oo t e d d i s t r u s t
a c o r d i a l u n d e rs t a n d i n g w i t h E n g l a n d i n s p i r e d
F o r t en

i n B i s m a r ck
in v a i n !
I
h is w i s h fo r
at

h ome

B i sma rck h i ms e lf foun d t h e wa n t o f cons i st e n cy

i n t h e p oli cy o f su ccess iv e B r iti sh C ab i n e ts a sou r c e
o f g r ea t v e xati o n
I n a l e tt e r h e w r ot e i n 1 8 8 3 h e
comp la in e d o f t h e a stou n d i n g p olicy o f su cc e e d ing

Engl i sh C ab i n e ts
I n t h e sam e l e tt e r h e s a i d
.

mb i t i on o f a n E n g li s h a dm i n i s t r a
t i on i n r e g a r d t o Egyp t w e r e t o o v e rs t e p t he li m i t s wh i ch
i n my o p i n i o n a r e a s o n a b l e B r i t i s h p o li cy o ugh t t o r e s p e c t
w e s h o u l d n o t f e e l c a ll e d up o n t o qu a r r e l w i t h E n g l a n d
e v e n o u t o f f r i e n d s h i p fo r o t h e r P o w e r s
The g r e a t es t
d i ffi cu l t y h o w e v e r w e e n c o u n t e r i n t r y i n g t o g i v e a p ra e
t i c a l e x p r e s s i on t o ou r s ymp a t h i e s fo r an d o u r re l a t i o n s w i t h
E n g l a n d i s i n t h e a b s o l u t e i mp oss i b ili t y o f c o n den t i a l i n
c o n s e qu e n c e o f t he i n di s c r e t i on o f E n g li s h
t e rco u r s e i n
an d in
s t atesme n in
t h e i r c o mmu n i c a t i o n s t o P a r li a m e n t
t h e a b s e n c e o f se c u r i t y i n a lli a n c es fo r wh i ch t h e C r o w n
is n o t a n s w e ra b l e i n E n g l a n d bu t o n l y t h e e e t i n g C a b i
I t i s t h e r e f o r e d i i cu lt t o i n i t i a t e a re
n e t s o f t he day
li a b l e u n de r s t an d i n g w i t h E n g l a n d o t h e rw i s e t h a n pub li c l y
S uch pub li c n e g o t i a t i o n s
a n d i n t he f a c e o f a ll Eu ro p e
f ro m t h e i r i n i t i a t i o n a n d e v e n w i t h o u t a r r i v i n g a t a n y
de n i t i v e r es u l t w o u l d b e h i gh l y d e t r i m e n t a l t o m o s t o f

Ass um i n g t h a t

t he a

,
,

F O R E I GN OF FI C E I N THE

SO S

71

E u rop e a n r e l a t i on s ; b u t a ll t h e se d i ffi cu l t i es s h ou l d n o t
be a ll o w e d t o s t a n d i n t h e w a y o f o u r c o r d i a ll y e n t e r t a i n i n g
o r t o p r e v e n t u s f r o m cu l t i v a t i n g
a n y a dv a n c e s m a d e t o u s
t h e c o n s o li d a t i on o f o u r a n d Au s t r i a s f r i e n ds h i p w i t h En g
ou r

l an d

A s i d e light i s th row n o n o u r For e i gn O i ce by

L o r d Acton who i n h i s l e tte rs to M a r y G la dston e
said :
,

l a s t f o re i gn a ff a i r s a r e i n a v e ry w r et ch e d
a r e u n j u s t l y a n d u n r e as o n a b l y i n j u r i n g M r G l a d
I f M o r i e r i s S t i ll i n E n g l a n d I w i s h
s t on e s o w n p o s i t i o n
H e i s o u r o n l y s t ro n g
he c o u l d s e e h i m b e f o r e P e t e rs bu r g
d i p l o m a t i s t ; b u t he is o n l y s t ro n g
Y o u kn o w t h a t fo r a ll p eo p l e n o t p r i v a t e f r i e n ds o f
H e i s a b a d li s t e n e r e as il y
is d i s a pp o i n t i n g
h is o w n
b o r e d a n d d i s t r u s t fu l o f e n e r g e t i c m e n w ho m a ke w o r k fo r
M o rie r in pa r
t h e m s e l v e s a n d fo r t h e F o r e i g n O ffi c e
t icu la r h a s f o r c e w i t h o u t t a c t a n d s t a n ds i ll w i t h a ch i e f
w h o h as t a c t w i t h o u t f o r c e

Y es !
w ay, a n d

at

Th e wo rk o f the Fo r e ign O ffi c e i n conj unct i o n w i th

,

s imila r d e p a r tm e n ts ab r o a d l a i d i n t he e ighti e s
t h e foun d ati ons o f t h e va st s ch e m e o f a rm am e n ts
I t s e e m e d th e n th a t t h e
w e ha v e to ca r r y to -d a y
mo r e w e t r i e d to p r e s e r v e t h e p e a ce t h e m o re stra i n e d
fo r e i gn r e lati o n s b eca m e Wh e n w e w e r e n o t qu a r
r e lli n g wit h G e r many w e w e r e n o t on sp e aki n g t e r ms
with Ru ssi a ; wh e n w e w e r e n o t co lo n i z ing A fr i ca n
d e s e rts to u se M r Chamb e r l a i n s ph ra s e w e w e r e
ghti n g t h e b attl e s o f t h e Am e e r Th e re w e r e b it
t e r a tta cks a n d vot e s o f c e nsu re i n t h e H ous e o f
C ommons bu t fo r t h e m o st p a rt on str i ctly p a rty
line s ; t h e Opp o si tion dea r ly d es i r i ng fo r themselv e s
a n opp o rtun i ty o f keep i ng up the gran d t ra d it i o n o f
,

H ow

72

D I P LO M AT S MA KE W A R

th e Fo re i gn O ffi c e
t i on wa s mov e d :

Th at

in

t he o

In

p i n i on

18

8 6 the

h i s H o u s e i t is n o t j u s t o r e x
c on t ra c t e n g a g e m e n ts i n v o lv i n g

of t

mb a r k i n w a r
t
e
f
h
e
a
s
n
s
s
o
r
t
n
t i on
v
p
i
b
ili
i
r
r
e
o
e
a
g
t he Emp i r e w i t h o u t t h e k n o w l e d g e
men t

p e di e n t t o

follow i ng r e s o lu

an d
an d

a dd

t e r r to r es

c o n se n t

to

f P a r li a

I t wa s lost by only fou r vot e s It wa s op p os e d

by M r G la d sto n e though h e d i d not att e mp t to d e
fen d the Fo r e ig n O ffi c e syst e m a s a n i d e a l o n e
W e now e n t e r up o n t h e p e ri o d wh e n the r i s e i n
e x p en d i tu r e on a r mam e nts must b e tra ce d v e ry
closely B e gi n ni n g j u st a ft e r th e poli cy o f Col
o u i e s fo r G e r m a n y b e cam e popu la r i n 1 8 8 7 the
gu r es fo r nava l e xp e n d i tu re o f B r ita i n F r anc e
Ru ssi a a n d G e rm a n y w e r e a s f o llows : B r i ta i n
F ra n c e
Ru ssi a
G e rm a n y
0 00
and
I n 1 8 9 2 t he
Fr e nch e e t v i s it e d K ronsta d t and i n 1 8 9 3 t h e Ru s
s i a n eet v i sit e d Tou lo n Wil d d e monst r at i ons took
p la c e o n b o th o cca s ions G ermany w a s not d e
l i ght e d with t h e s e ntiments e x pr e ss e d by th e o rators
a t the d in n e r s giv e n to th e O ffi c e rs o f t h e d u al n avi e s

The French shou t e d

Long l ive Ru ssi a a n d t h e

Th e p ea c e
Ru ss ia ns shout e d
Long l i v e F r anc e
o f Eu rop e wa s t h e only a i m o f t h e d e mo n st r ato rs a t
thes e f e a sts A t a d i n n e r giv e n at the E lys e es P a l
a ce t h e Ru ss i an amb as sa d o r sa i d :
.

B e fo re d r i n k i n g a t oas t t o wh i ch w ill r es p o n d f ro m
t he d e p t h s o f t h e i r h e a r t s , n o t o n l y t h o s e w h o a r e w i t h i n
t h e s e w a ll s , b u t e v e n t h o s e a n d , t h a t , t o o , w i t h e qu a l
f o r c e wh os e h e a r t s n e a r by a n d fa r a w ay a t a ll t he p o i n ts
o f g re a t , f a i r F r a n c e , a s a l s o i n a ll Ru s s i a , a t t h e p re se n t

CO M P A RATI VE F I GU RE S

73

m om e n t a r e b e a t i n g in u n i so n w i t h o u rs
p e rm i t
a n d so o n an d so o n
o ff e r
t he t ru e s i g n i c a n c e
m a g n i c e n t p e a c e fu l f e s t i v i t i e s e t c e tc

me

'

to

o f t he

C z a r a n d P r e s i d e n t a nd a mb as sado r s a n d
b i shop s e t c e t c a ll u n it e d i n glo ri fyi n g t h e p e a ce

fu l fest i v i t i e s
N ava l d e m o n st r atio n s h av e no
o the r obj e ct !
A n yway G e r many d i d n o t r e j o i ce
Th e g ur e s fo r n aval e x p e n d itu r e fo r t h e E nt e nt e
P owe rs a nd G e r m a n y i n 1 8 9 7 w e r e a s fo llows :
B r i ta i n
Fr an ce
Ru ss i a
a n d G e rm a n y
T h e s e a re
a n e no r mou s i n c r e a s e fo r p e a c e e stabli shm e n ts !
Russi a a n d Fra n c e c o mb i n e d sp e nt t h a t y e a r ov e r
1 0 o o o o o o m o re th a n G e r m a ny
Wh e n i t i s a s
sum e d by p ol i ti ci a n s a n d j ou r n al i sts that G e r m a n y i s
to blam e fo r a ll t h e v a st milli o n s sp e n t o n n av i e s in
r e c e n t ye a rs
i t w o ul d b e j u st a s w e ll i f i t w e r e
shown wh e n a n d h o w G e rma n y le d t h e w a y One
writ e r o n n a va l affa i r s w h os e a r ticl e s o ccu py mu ch
sp ac e i n the m o n thly r e v i e ws stat e d r e c e n tly th at
G e rmany b e ga n t h e a rmam e nt ra c e a t t h e tim e O f t h e
B o e r W a r Th e r e i s no e vi d e n c e o f thi s i n t h e g
u r e s o f e xp e n d i tu r e ; a n d t o th e s e w e mu st l o o k n o
matte r wha t t h e Ka i s e r sa i d i n h i s sp e e ch e s a t that
tim e
Let u s b egi n w i th t he y e a r b e fo r e t h e w a r i n
I n 1 8 9 8 B rita i n sp e nt 2 5
S outh A fr i c a b rok e out
a n d G e r ma n y sp e nt
a d iffe r
A ft e r all t h e agita
e n ce o f l e ss tha n
ti o n i n G e r m a ny fo r a coloni al p ol i cy th e r e wa s n o
gr e at exp ansi on i n e e t bu il d ing I n d e e d t h e
Fr a n co Ru ss i a n c e l e b rati ons a t K r o n sta d t a n d To u
lo n f e ll w i thi n a p e r i o d wh e n G e r many pu s h e d a h e a d
i n n ava l affa i rs
Fro m 1 8 9 23 the a cti o n s o f
,

H ow D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

74

F ran c e a n d Ru ss i a mu st n o t b e l e ft out o f a cc o u nt
i n t r a ci n g t h e g r owth o f G e rmany s na v y I t h a s
b e e n t h e p ol i cy o f B r i ti s h Gov e rn m e nts a n d t h e
p r e s s to co n centrat e attent i o n on G e rmany a n d
B r i ta in alo n e a s i f G e r ma n y h a d n o oth e r co n s i d
e r a t i o n tha n nava l e xp a nsio n s ol e ly a ga i n st Engla n d
No w a t th e clos e o f t h e B o e r Wa r i n 1 9 0 4 B r i ta i n
sp e n t 4 2 4 3 1 o o o a n d G e rmany sp ent 1
a d iff e r enc e o f ov e r
I n 1 9 04 o u r e x
n d i t u r e o n t h e n avy wa s e qu a l to a fou r o r v e
e
p
P ower sta n d a r d
G e rm any then sp ent le ss than
F r anc e o r Ru ss i a The gu r e s fo r 1 9 0 4 a re i n
st r u ctiv e : Franc e
R ussi a
3 8 I a n d a s G e r m any h a d to r e ck o n w i th b oth coun

tri e s s i n c e t h e p e a c e f e st i vi ti es n o one can s ay

h e r n ava l exp e n d itu r e wa s mo r e o f a m e na c e to t h e
p e a c e o f Eu r op e tha n tha t o f Fra nc e a n d Ru ss i a
If
w e tak e t h e y e a rs 1 8 9 0 a n d 1 9 0 1 a n d comp a r e the
gu re s o f F ra n ce a n d Ru ss i a with tho s e o f Germany
w e s ha ll s e e how
p e a ce fe st i v i t i e s con duce to e e t
bu il d ing

Ge r m a n y

R u s s ia

F r a n ce
8

1 8 90

19 0 1

F ra n c e a n d Ru ss i a we re sp e nding a ga i nst Ge r
m a n y a t t h e rate o f a two a n d a hal f P o w e r stan d
The B r i ti sh G ove r nm e nt a n d a ce rta in well
a rd
i n f o rm e d s e cti on o f th e p ress k n ew tha t but i t wa s
A dm i ra l v o n
n o t t h e gam e to giv e the show away
T i r p it z spe ak i ng i n t h e R e i chsta g i n 1 9 0 0 sa i d :
.

ee t

W e sh ou l d
in

t he

be i n

B a l t i c po rt s ,

p o s i t i on
an d

to

to

b l o ck a de

p re v e n t

at

Ru s s i an
s am e t i m e

t he

t he

D I P LO M ATI C HU C KSTE R I N G
c

t h e e n t ra n e t o t

p ro t e c t

ou r

p o r ts

h at
in

s ea

t he

75

F re n ch e e t W e m u s t a lso
N o r t h S e a f ro m b l o ck a de
o

W e ll m i ght t h e A d m i r a l o f t h e G e rma n navy S e t

i n d u str i ou sly ab out t h e bu si n e s s o f p r e p a r i n g to m e e t
hi s p e a c e fu l n e i ghb o u r s H e p e r hap s h a d h i s e ye
D e lca ss e w h o h a d gr e a t amb itions fo r Franc e
on M
i n M o ro cco
I t i s naus e ati n g to th i nk o f all t h e i n
t r i gu e t h e chi ca n e r y a n d the ly i ng tha t w e r e e x
p e n d e d o v e r t h e M o r o cca n affa i r a n d to r e a d i t
a ga i n at th i s tim e i s e n ough to ll o n e with t h e d e
si r e o f C a rlyl e s f r i e n d to p la ce a liv e co a l u n d e r
t h e Fo r e i gn Offi ce a n d a ll su ch d e pa r tme n ts w h e r
e v e r fou n d
To th i n k o f ou r cla i m to up hol d the
i n t e g r i t y a nd i n d e p e n d e nc e o f B e lgium a ft e r t h e
L a n s d o w n e G r e y t r a i ck in gs w ith F r a n c e a n d Sp a in
i n co nn e ct i o n w i th M o r o cc o i s e xtr e m e ly hu m ilia t
ing
A G ov e r n me n t p l e d g e d t o u p hold t h e i n t e g
ri ty a n d neut rality o f a t e r r ito ry wh i ch b e h i n d t h e
b a ck o f m e n r e p r e s e nti ng na tio ns d e t e rm i n e d t o ca r ry
ou t that p o li cy m ak e s s e c r et a r r a n g e m e n ts to a llo w
tha t t e r r i to r y to b e p a r titio n e d i s n o t morally i n a
p o s iti o n to u p hol d t he i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d i nt e gr i ty
o f a S outh S e a I sla n d I t i s a r e volti n g pag e in th e
h i sto r y o f d ipl o m a cy th a t r e co r d s t h e s e c r e t n e go t i a
t i o n s a ffe cti n g M oro cco I n M o r o cco i n D iplo m a cy
M r M o r e l s ays :
.

u re d M O
r e p e a t e d o cc a s i on s t h a t s he h a d n o t t he l e a s t
i n t e n t i o n o f t h r e a t en i n g t he i n d e p e n de n c e o r t he i n t e g r i ty
o f t h at s tate
F r a n c e h a d f o rm a ll y a n d pub li c l y de c l a re d
i n a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n t h a t s h e ha d n o i n t e n
t i o n o f a lt e r i n g t h e p o li t i c a l s t a t u s o f M o r o cc o
F r an ce
a n d S p a i n h a d f o r ma ll y a n d p u b li c l y de c l a r e d t h e i r r m a t
t achm e n t t o t h e i n de p e n den c e a n d i n t e g r i t y o f M o ro cc o

F ran ce
r o cc o up o n

h a d in

19 0 1

an

19 02

pub li c l y

a ss

How D I PLO M AT S MA KE WAR

76

F r a n c e a n d S p a i n a n d by i mp li c a t i on G re a t B r i t a i n w e re
t h e re f o re
pub li c l y p le dg e d t o w a r ds M o ro cco a n d t o w a rds
t h e w o r l d a t l a r g e t o m a i n t a i n t he i n t e g r i t y a n d i n d e p e n d
e n c e o f M o ro cc o
I n p o i n t o f f a c t F ra n c e S p a i n a n d
B ri t a i n h a d p r i v a t e l y e n t e re d i n t o c o n t r a c t s w i t h o n e a n
o t h e r wh e r e by t h e d e s t r uc t i o n o f t he i n de p e n de n c e a n d i n
t e g r i t y o f M o ro cc o w a s d e c r e e d t he d a t e o f t h e eve n t t o
d e p e n d upo n c i rcum s t an c es
,

To b a rga i n away M o roccan i nd e p e nd e nc e and in

t e g r i ty fo r o n e o r t w o p a lt r y a d va n ta g e s ga ine d
f r om Franc e i n th e M e d ite rr ane an wa s a n a ct o f
t r e a ch e ry
The Agr e ement b e tween Franc e a nd B r i ta i n r e
S p ect i ng E gyp t a n d M oro cco was sig n e d April 8 t h
1 9 04
Ou r r e lati o n s w i th Ge r ma n y a t th a t tim e
m ay b e i n fe rred fr om the follow i ng e x c e rp t fro m
a n i ntervi e w publ i she d i n t h e Ni n e te e n t h C e n tu r y
R e v i e w w i th C ount v o n B ii lo w the G erman C han
.

ce

llo r :

I c an n ot con c e i v e t h a t the i de a o f an An g l o G e rman

w a r Sh o u l d be s e r i o u s l y e n t e r t a i n e d by s en s i b l e p e o p l e i n
e i t h e r c o u n t ry
I f t h e y w ill c o o ll y c o n s i de r t he e n o r m o u s
d a m a g e wh i ch e v e n t h e m os t s ucc e ss fu l w a r o f t h i s ch a r
a c t e r w o u l d w o r k up o n t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y
an d wh e n t h e y
r e ck o n i t o u t i t w ill b e f o u n d t h a t t h e s t a k e i s much t oo
h i gh in v i e w o f t he c e rt a i n l o s s F o r t h i s r e aso n I fo r my
p a rt do n o t t a k e t h e h os t ili t y o f a s e c t i on o f t h e E n gli s h
p r es s t o o t r a g i c a ll y I h o p e t h a t t he de s t i n i e s o f t he t w o
c o u n t r i e s w il l a l w a ys b e de te rm i n e d by t h os e c oo l h e ads
w h o k n o w t h a t t h e b e s t a dv a n t a g e o f G e r m a n y a n d E n g
l a n d w ill b e s e rv e d n ot o n l y fo r t h e p re s e n t b u t fo r a ll
fu t u r e t i m e s o fa r as i t is d i s c e rn i b l e t o t he hum a n e ye
by t h e m a i n t e n an c e o f t he p r es e n t p aci c re l a t i on s
-

Th e N o r th Ge r m a n Ga ze tte in M arch

A S CA R E M ADE TO O RD E R

77

said
so fa r a s ca n b e gath e r e d at t he mom e nt
G e rma n int e r e sts i n M o r o cco w e r e n o t in d a n g e r

a s F r an c e h a d r e p e at e d ly stat e d tha t n e ith e r t h e

conqu e s t n o r o ccupat i o n o f M o r o cco w a s co n t e m

pla t e d M D e lca ss e a ssu r e d t he G e r m a n amb assa

d o r a t P a r i s th a t i t w a s t h e wi sh o f F r a nc e
to u p
h o l d in M o ro cco t h e e xisti n g p oliti ca l a n d t e r r i

t o r i a l statu s
Fou r d ays a ft e r B r itai n a n d Franc e
s ig n e d t h e S e c r e t a rti cl e s a tta ch e d t o t h e pub l i c d e c
la r a t i o n t h e G e rma n Ch anc e llo r sa i d i n t h e R e i chs
tag th a t h e h a d n o t b e e n noti e d o f th e d e cla rat i o n
but h e saw no r e aso n to b e l i e v e tha t it w a s d i r e cte d
a ga i n st G e rm a ny :
,

W e a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h at c ou n t r y (M o ro cc o ) a s
m o re o v e r i n t he r e s t O f t he M e d i t e r ra n e a n p r i n c i p a ll y
f ro m t h e e c o n o m i c s t a n dp o i n t O u r i n t e re s ts t h e re i n a r e
b e f o r e a ll co mm e r c i a l i n t e re s t s ; a l s o a r e w e s p e c i a l ly i n t e r
We
e s t e d t h a t c a l m a n d o r de r Sh o u l d p r e v a i l i n M o r o cc o
mu s t p r o t e c t o u r c o mm e r c i a l i n t e r e s ts i n M o r o cc o a n d w e
W e h a v e n o r e as o n t o f e a r t h a t t h e y
s h a ll p ro t e c t t h e m

w ill b e s e t as i de o r i n f r i n g e d by a n y P o w e r

So hones t m en gene ra lly b e l i e v e d ; a n d i n d e e d al l

through t h e r e st o f that y e a r milli o n s o f B r iti sh
Fr e nchm e n S p a ni ar d s a n d G e r ma n s we r e u t
e rs
Th e s e w e r e
t e r ly i g n o r a n t o f t h e s e c r e t a r t i cl e s
no t m a d e k n ow n to t h e w o r l d u n ti l t h e P a r i s p ap e r s
got hold o f th e m a n d publis h e d th e m i n N ov e mb e r
I n t h e e a rly spri n g o f 1 9 0 5 t h e Emp e ro r o f
19 1 1
G e r many p a i d a vi si t t o T a ngi e r I f h e h a d
st r a n gl e d C ha ron a n d i nva d e d t h e d im p la i n s o f
H e lu s i o n th e r e cou l d n o t hav e b e e n a grea t e r out
M any j ou rnal i sts igno r ant
cr y i n C hri sti a n B r ita i n
o f th e s e cret a rt i cles i mag i n e d the Emp ero r s vi s i t
,

H OW

78

D I PLO M AT S M A KE WA R

a blow o n t he h e a r t o f B r i ta i n b e cau s e o f
the
Anglo F r e n ch E n t e n t e Th e B r iti sh p r e ss
s cr e am e d a t G e r m any a n d th e G erma n p r e ss
s cr e a m e d a t B r ita i n
I t w a s a d i r t y campa i gn co n
d o me d by t h e Fo r e i gn O ffi c e ; s om e s a i d i n sp i r e d by
t h e Fo r e i gn Offi c e
A n yway i t i s only n e c e ssa r y to
r a is e t h e l a n d ma rks he r e s o that w e may t h e b e tt e r
u n d e rsta n d why n aval e xp e n d i tu r e ros e to gi ga n t i c
p r op o rti o n s i n t h e e nsu i n g years S till the wor d s
o f a French S e nato r m ight b e qu ot e d to in d icat e
t h e op i n i o n o f an honest ma n a s to the publi c a n d
s e cr e t p o l i c i e s o f the Anglo F r e n ch Agre e m e nt
B a r on d E s t o u rn e lle s d e Constant i n F e bru a ry
19 12
sa i d :
wa s

The F re n ch P a r li a m e n t by

b u se m o ra ll y i f n o t
c o n s t i t u t i o n all y u n p a r do n a b l y w a s ke p t i n i g n o r a n c e o f
t h i s p o li cy
F a r f r o m e n s u r i n g g e n e r a l p e a c e t he a r
r a n gem en ts
o f 1 9 0 4 t e n de d t o c o mp r o m i se i t
W hy
w a s t he F r e n ch P a r li a m e n t t o l d o n l y h a l f t he t ru t h wh e n
i t w as as k e d t o p a s s i t s o p i n i on up on o u r a r r a n g e m en t w i t h
E n gl a n d ? W hy w a s i t a ll o w e d t o s u s p e c t t h at t h i s a r
r a n g e m e n t h a d a s i t s c o mp l e m e n t a n d c o r r e c t i v e s o m e se c r e t
c l a u se s a n d o t h e r s e c r e t t r e a t i e s ? I t i s t h i s i t i s t h i s do ub l e
g a m e t ow a r ds P a rli a m e n t a n d t o w a r ds t he w o r l d wh i ch
b e co m e s m o r a ll y a n a bu se o f t r u s t
Now t he wh o l e
e ffo r t o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f 1 9 0 4 a pp e a r s t o d a y i n
i ts
t ru t h a n d in i ts v a n i t y
I t w a s a T r e a t y o f f r i en ds h i p w i t h
E n g l an d r e co g n izi n g th e f re e do m o f o u r p o li t i c a l a c t i on i n
M o ro cc o a n d a l so p ro c l a i m i n g o u r w ill t o r e s p e c t t h e i n t e g
r i t y o f t h a t c o u n t r y ; t h a t w as wh a t t h e pub li c k n e w a n d
a pp ro v e d
B u t t h e pub li c w a s i g n o r a n t t h a t a t t he s a m e
t i m e by o t h e r Tr e a t i e s a n d by c o n t r a d i c t o r y c l a u s es h i dd e n
f ro m i t th e p a r t i t i on o f M o r o cco b e tw e e n S p a i n a n d
F ra n ce w as p re p a r e d o f t h a t M o ro cco o f wh i ch w e g u a r
t he
a n t ee d
i n te g r i t y T h e re e xi s te d t wo i rre c on cil abl e
,

an

OU T

GE R MANY LE FT

79

F re n ch p o li c i e s i n M o r o cc o : t h a t o f t he pub li c a rr a n g e
m e n t s t h a t i s t o s ay a p o li cy o f i n t e g r i t y wh i ch w a s n o t t h e
t r u e o n e ; a n d t h a t o f S e c r e t a r r a n g e m e n t s p os t u l a t i n g a P r o
t e ct o r a t e a n d t he p a r t i t i o n o f M o r o cc o
,

Th e r e a so n

E mp e r o r V i s i te d Tang i e r mu st
b e cl e a r t o a n y hon e st bu si n e ss ma n
Th e G e rma n
Fo r e ig n O ffi c e h a d b e e n d e c e iv e d T he Un d e r S e c
r e t a r y f o r Fo r e i g n Affa i r s
L o r d P e rcy s a i d i n the
H ou s e o f C o mmo n s i n Ap r il 1 9 0 5 tha t t h e G e r
m a n G o v e r nm e nt was not offi ci a lly n o t i e d a s to t h e
A n gl o Fr e nc h Ag r e e m e n t h avi n g a n y r e f e r e n ce t o
Fra n c e shoul d hav e commu n icat e d i t t o
M o r o cco
G e rmany wa s ig
G e r m any bu t s h e fa i l e d to d o so
n o red
O n ly a y e a r b e for e Lo r d L ans d owne l e ft t h e Fo r
e i g n O ffi c e h e sp ok e at t h e Gu i l d h all
a n d no d oub t
t h ought t h e Ag r e e m e nt h e h a d ma d e with F ra n c e
wou l d h e lp to k e e p t h e p e a ce o f Eu rop e A ft e r
qu oti n g f r o m t h e Am e ri ca n S e c r e ta ry o f S tate M r

H ay t h a t wa r i s t h e mo st f e ro c i ou s a n d th e mo st

futile o f huma n fo ll i e s h e sa i d :
t he

W e can co n c e i v e n o m o r e t e r r i bl e n o m o re li f e l o n g
pu n i s hm en t t h a n t h a t r e m o r s e t h a t w o u l d b e f e l t by a n y
M i n i s t e r w h o e i t h e r f ro m a f a u l t o f t e mp e r o r f ro m l ov e
o f a p a s s i n g p o pu l a r i t y o r b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e u n a b l e t o p u t
b ro ugh t u p o n
t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e p l a c e o f t h e i r o pp o n e n t s

t h e c o u n t r y t h e s c o u r g e o f a n e e dl e s s w a r

Y es but th e troubl e i s th a t the wo rk o f the F o r

e i g o O ffi ce i s u su ally d on e by m en o f lo n g li n e ag e
H e hop e d that somethi n g might
a n d sho r t vi s i o n

b e d on e
to giv e a sti mulu s to the ex i sting d e si r e
fo r th e d i s cove r y o f s om e les s clumsy a n d b r utal
,

H OW

80

D I P LO M AT S MA KE WA R

m e tho d o f a dj u sting i nt e r natio n al d i sputes

Ce r
t a in ly n o t by m a k i n g s e c r e t t r e ati es !
P e a c e a d vo cat e s a ll o v e r t h e wo r l d b eli eved when
S i r H e n ry C ampb e ll B ann e r man took o ffi c e that a
era
h a d op e n e d
n ew
A r b itrat i o n m e n d i sa rma
m ent m e n n o n -r e s i sta n ce m e n thought thi s le a d e r o f
t h e Lib e r al p a rty woul d bri n g B rita in into t h e p rom
i s e d la n d wh e r e b r oth e r h o o d wa s som e thing m or e
tha n a n abstra cti o n
Fr o m Lib e ral p latfo r ms all
ov e r t h e cou n t ry d u r i n g t h e g e n e ra l e lectio n o f 1 9 0 6
au d i ence s hea r d t h e gosp e l o f p e a c e a n d go o d will
amo n g n ati ons p r e a ch e d by thou san d s o f o rators
Th e n e w P r im e M i ni st e r le d t h e way at the Albert
H all in D e cemb e r 1 9 0 5 when h e s a i d :
.

I t i s v a i n , i t i s v a i n , t o s ee k
e n su e it
I h o l d t h a t t he g r ow t h
d a n g e r t o t he p e a c e o f t he w o r l d

p e a c e i f you (If) n ot a l so
o f a rm a m e n t s i s a g r e a t
A p o li cy o f hug e a r m a
m e n t s k e e p s a li v e a n d s t i mu l a t e s a n d f e e d s t he b e li e f t h a t
f o r c e i s t h e b e s t i f n o t t h e o n l y s o l u t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i on a l
d i ff e ren c e s
I t i s a p o li cy t h a t t e n d s t o i n a m e o ld s o r e s
An d I su bm i t t o yo u t h a t a s t h e
a n d t o c r e a t e n e w s o re s
p r i n c i p l e o f p e a c e fu l a r b i t ra t i o n g a i n s g r o u n d i t b e c o m e s o n e
o f t h e h i gh es t t a s k s o f a s t a t es m a n t o a dj u s t t h o s e a r m a
m e n ts t o t he n ew e r a n d h a pp i e r co n d i t i on o f t h i n g s W h a t
n o b le r r O
le c o u l d t h i s g r e a t c o u n t r y a s s um e t h a n a t t he
t t i n g m o m e n t t o p l a c e i t s e l f a t t h e h ea d o f t he l e a gu e o f
p e a c e t h ro ugh wh os e i n s t ru m en t ali t y t h i s g re a t w o r k co u l d
b e e ff e c t e d
.

F i n e s e nt i ments thos e for a n e w gove rnm ent

A ft e r fou rte en wa rs i n a p e r i o d o f t en yea rs ev e n
s ome J ingo es f e lt t h e t i m e h a d come fo r a low e r
i n come tax
M i lli ons sp ent on M a d Mulla hs cam
i
n
a
s
i
n
In
i
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to
T
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a n d cha st i sing Kru ger fo r not g i v i ng the vote to
.

LO R D ROSE B E R Y S C O M PLAI NT

81

i n th e T ransvaa l who i n m ost ca s e s wou ld not

men

h av e on e a t hom e
th e s e things h a d stimul ate d a
sp i r i t o f a r b itrati o n i n m a n y an imp e r i ali st b re a st
Ev e n M r B al fou r was inclin e d to tu rn ove r a n e w
lea f H e s a i d :
,

fu t u r e w e Sh a ll n o t s e e w a rs u n l e ss i n dee d w e ca n
c o n c e i v e t h a t e i t h e r a n a t i o n o r a r u l e r s h o u l d a r i se w ho
f ee l t h a t t h e y c a n n o t c a r r y o u t t h e i r s ch e m es o f a gg r an diz e
m e n t e x c e p t by t r a mp li n g up o n t he r i gh t s o f t h e i r n e i gh
b o u r s I s e e n o p r os p e c t o f a n y s uch c a l a m i t y i n Eu rop e
I t w o u l d i n de e d b e a t r a g i c r e v e r s i o n t o a n c i e n t d ay s i f
Eu ro p e h a d a g a i n t o m a k e a c o ali t i o n a g a i n s t a n y t oo am
bit io u s P ow e r

In

A ft e r that gre at utt e ranc e a fe w wo r d s on t h e s e

cr e t a rticl e s o f th e A n glo Fr e nch Ag r e e m e n t m ight
have a r ou s e d a v e r y n ot abl e a m o u n t o f i n te r e st
I t wa s Lo r d R o s e b e r y how e v e r w h o t o u che d d i
r e ct ly o n the qu est i o n whi ch conc e rns u s now
He
h a d u ps et a goo d ma n y p e opl e in Ju n e 1 9 0 4 by d e
W h e the r
n o u n ci n g the Anglo -F r e n ch Ag r e em e nt
o r not h e k n e w a n ything ab o ut t h e se c r e t a r ti cl e s he
s a i d i t wa s t h e mo st o n e s i d e d ag r e e m e nt e ver co n
clu d e d b e tw e e n two P o w e r s a t p e a c e wit h e a ch

o th e r
a n d a d d e d hi s h o p e s
that t h e P ow e r whi ch
h o l d s G ib ra lta r may n e v e r hav e cau s e t o r e g r e t hav

i n g h a n d e d M o ro cco ov e r to a g r e at m i l i ta r y P ow e r
I n O ctob e r 1 9 0 5 h e s a i d :
-

I c a n n o t u n de rs t a n d why f ri e n ds h i p w i t h F r a n c e w o u l d
i n v ol v e s uch v i o l e n t p o l e m i c s w i t h G e rm an y as n ow r a g e
b e t w e e n t he t w o c o u n t r i e s a n d wh i ch I do n ot b e li e v e r e p
r e s e n t t he r e a l
f e e li n g s o f t he tw o n a t i o n s t h o ugh t h e y
m a y r e p re s e n t t h e f e e li n gs o f s o m e o r a ll o f t h e i r G o v e r n
m e n ts ; o f t h a t I k n o w n o t h i n g ; b u t I do V i e w t h o s e

H OW D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

82

p o le m i cs
e n ci n g

as

i u s d a n g e r t o p e a c e a s p o i s o n o u s l y i n u
a n d t h e g r o w i n g g e n e r a t i o n s o f t he
n a t io n s

ser o

t he t w o

h e re f o r e I a m o n e o f t h o s e w ho d e p r e
c a te m os t s i n c e r e l y t he v i e w wh i ch a pp e a rs t o p re v a i l i n
t h a t co r di al r e l a t i o n s w i t h F r a n c e m e a n i r
s o m e qu a r t e r s
r e c o n c il a b l e a n i m o s i t y t o G e r m a n y
R e m e mb e r t h a t t h e se
a re n o t s o li t a r y m a t t e rs w i t h wh i ch w e a r e d e a li n g
T h os e
g re a t n a t i on s r e p re s e n t m illi o n s o f m e n hug e e e t s a l s o
p re p a r e d fo r w a r t h a t i n s o m e d a y wh e n i t is l e as t e x p e c t e d
t he f e e li n g s o f a n a t i o n m a y b e c o m e s o e x as p e r a t e d t h a t t h e
gu n s a s w as s a i d o n a n o t h e r o cc a s i o n m ay a l m o s t go o ff
by t h e m s e l v es ; a n d t h e r e f o re I b e g o f yo u c a r e fu ll y t o
t h i n k o f t h e h e a vy r e s p on s i b ili t y t h a t w e i gh s o n you a n d
y o u r rep r e s e n t a t i v es w i t h r e g a r d t o f o r e i g n a ff a i rs
tw o

n at on s

an d ,

O n ly a f e w days b e fo re Lo r d R o s e b e ry wa rned
t h e cou ntry o f t h e d ang e r s which b e s e t a f o r e ig n p o l
i cy tha t b r e e d s vi o l e nt p ol e mi cs b e tw e e n a P ow e r
wi th whom we h a d e nter e d i nto f r i e n d ly a n d s e c r e t
comp a cts a n d o n e that f e lt a gg r i e v e d by o u r want
o f d iplom ati c cou rt e sy S i r E dwa r d G r e y sp ok e o n
t h e qu est i o n O f a ll i a n c e s
,

P eop l e do

wi t h p e r f e c t t r u t h t h at a n y qu es t i on o f
e n t e r i n g i n t o a d e n i t e a lli a n c e w i t h r e g a r d t o fu t u r e co n
t i n ge n ci es w i t h a n y P o w e r wh a t e v e r i s o n e wh i ch s h o u l d
An a lli a n c e wh i ch a p
b e c a r e fu ll y gu a r de d a n d w a t ch e d
p e a r s a so u r ce o f s t r e n g t h t o da y m i gh t u n de r s o m e fu t u r e
c o n di t i o n s b e co m e a m a t t e r o f e mb a rr a ss m en t ; a n d w e re
I qu i t e a dm i t
t he p o li cy o f a lli a n c e s r as h l y e n t e r e d up o n
t h a t t h e r e w o u l d b e a d a n g e r t h a t t h i s c o u n t ry m i gh t b e
T h at I t h i n k is p e r
le d i n t o u n des i r a b l e e n t a n g l e m e n t s
fe ct ly t ru e ; a n d a ll t h a t s h o u l d b e b o r n e i n m i n d wh e n e v e r
i t i s a qu e s t i on o f c o n t r a c t i n g a n y n ew a lli a n c e w i t h a fo r
e i gn p o w e r
s ay

I t i s ha r d to b eli e v e the s e we re the wo r d s o f a

m an who i n a fe w m o nt h s w o ul d cons e n t to t h e p ro

WHY KE E P US I N DA R KNE SS ?

83

p osa l from the French Gove r nment th at conv e rs a

tions b etw e e n B r iti sh a n d F rench m ilita r y a n d n aval
e xp erts shou l d tak e pl a ce
Wha t m i ght Engla n d
a n d p oo r b roken cru she d outra g e d B e lgium to s ay
nothi n g o f F ra nce hav e be e n sp a r e d i f th e a d vi c e
la i d d own by hims e l f h a d only b e en follow e d ! I f
w e h a d n o t b e en le d i nto u n d e si rabl e entanglements
wha t slaught e r woul d h ave b e e n avo i d e d ! O r i f a ll
t h e p hi losop hi e s a n d systems d i s cover e d s i nc e the b e
ginni n g o f this wa r h a d b e e n k n own to t h e j ou rnal
i s t s a n d stat e sm en who h a v e tol d u s wh e n i t i s to o
lat e what th e y ought to have known b e fo r e L i e g e
a n d Louva i n !
H o w m i sle d i n fo r e ign a ffa i r s w e
hav e b e e n ever s i n ce 1 9 04 ! I t i s p e r f e ctly am a z
i ng now to rea d c o lum n a fte r column i n Lib e ra l
newsp ap e rs o f bu t a y e a r o r two ago t e lli n g u s to
c u lti vat e f r i e n d ship w i th G ermans ; to n d M in i st e r s
sp e e ch es int e rsp e rs ed with e xp r e ss i ons o f a d m i r atio n
fo r Ge r ma n cul tu re a n d town -p lanning ; whil e a ll
t h e t i m e they a s k e e p e rs o f t h e B r i ti sh consci enc e
shou l d h a v e known that Ge rman s w e r e o n ly s ch e m

i ng to d estroy u s
Tre i tschk e B e rnha r d i a n d
N i e t z s ch e w e r e not au tho rs bla ck -list e d by the ca r e
tak e rs O f muni c i p a l l ib ra r i e s o r pl a ce d o n t h e l i st
o f forb i dd en books by the H om e O ffi c e S om e p e o
p le i n d e e d fou n d it mu ch e a s i e r to g e t t h e wo rks o f
th e s e au thors than to get i n form a t i on o f s e cr e t tr e a
t i e s and u n d e r sta n d ings fro m the G ov e rnm e nt
Su rely w h e n Lo r d H a l d a ne w a s a t t h e Wa r O ffi c e
t h e Se cret Se rv i ce D ep a r tm e nt not i e d h i m o f t h e
o f a ll thes e p oi so nou s autho rs
C ou l d
e xi st e nc e
Lo r d Ros eb e ry have i mag i n e d when h e r e ferre d to
the v i olent p ol e m i cs o f 1 9 0 5 tha t a ll the j ournali sts
we re tho roughly we ll i n fo rme d a s to the re a l rea
,

H OW D I P L O M ATS M A KE

84

WAR

s ons w hy w e shoul d b e a t d a ggers drawn w i th G e r

many ? I t wa s n o t a lways thu s I n d e e d there w a s
a tim e wh e n L i be ral stat e smen a n d j ou rnal i sts took
offe n c e a t vu lga r abu se o f G ermans When a C ab i
n e t M ini st e r r e fe r re d to G e rm any i n a host i le way
o r v e ntu r e d to criti c i se t h e s i z e o f t he S ilve r u s e d
a t b a n qu ets i n H a d e s i n d i gnant Lib erals p our e d
t h e i r c e n su re o n h i s h e a d M r C hamb e rla i n w h o
i n h i s l a tt e r d ays lik e d G e r m any s scal p oli cy b e tte r
than h e r fo r e ign p o l i cy once i ncu rre d t h e d i spl e a su r e
o f t h e p r e s e nt F o r eign S e cr e ta ry by r e ferr i n g to the
l e ngth o f t h e S po ons gu e sts shoul d u s e wh e n they
sup with t h e D e vil S i r E d wa r d Gr e y t o u ch e d on
that b r e a c h o f tabl e m anners when h e sp oke on fo r
e i g n p o li cy a t C h e ltenha m in Feb ru a ry 1 9 0 5
.

T h e y w o u l d h e a r much o f f or e i g n p o li cy t he p a r ro t
cr y o f C o n s e r v a t i v e s i n
d i s t re ss
B u t wh e n t h e y t a l k e d
wh a t p oli cy d i d t h e y m e a n ? W a s i t t he
o f f o re i g n p o li cy
p o li cy o f t h e l o n g s p oo n o r o f t h e T r i p l e Alli a n c e o f G re a t
B r i t a i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t es a n d G e r m a n y wh i ch M r C h a m
b e rla in h a d b ee n a n xi o u s t o b r i n g a b o u t b u t wh i ch h a d b e e n
d ro pp e d b e c a u s e t he c o u n t r i e s ch i e y c o n c e r n e d d i d n o t t a k e
k i n dl y t o t h e i de a ? D i d t h e y m e a n t he f o re i g n p o li cy
wh i ch h a d m o v e d B r i t i s h s h i p s o u t o f P o r t Ar t hu r t o le t t he
Ru s s i an s h i p s i n ? I t w a s w e l l t o r e m e mb e r h i s t o r y s o m e
t i m e s as t h e y did n o t w i s h t h e s e t h i n gs t o be r e p e a t e d
,

E x cellent a dv i c e a fte r the fa ct I t i s h a rd to nd

fau lt w ith t h e a d v i ce g i ven to t h e ele cto rs b e fo re
1 9 0 6 by t h e Fo r e ign Sec r etary
I t i s w e ll t o remem
b e r h i st o r y d i ffi cult a s that ta sk s e e ms to b e fo r
d iplom atists
A s to t h e Anglo Fr e nch Agr e e ment
S i r E d wa r d thou ght t h e sp i r i t o f i t p r e f e rab le t o
t h e l e tt e r
H e a d mitte d th e r e h a d b e e n d iplomat i c
fr i cti on s i nce th e agr e ement h a d b e e n m a d e H e
.

C A RE TA KE RS

85

also thought th e p ol i cy o f t h e Government o f whi ch

Lo r d La n s d ow n e wa s F o r e ign S e c r e ta r y h a d not
b e e n d isti n gu i s h e d through all its yea rs o f o ffi c e by
co n s i st e n cy a n d co n ti n u ity
m e a n i n g conti n u i ty
with i n li mits no t i n t h e s e n s e t ha t B e r gso n o r S i r
Oliv e r Lo d g e wou l d u s e t h e t e r m C o n ti n u i ty i n
fo r e i gn po li cy to t h e i d e a l d ipl o mati c m in d w a s e s
s e n t i a l f o r t h e ma i n t e n a n c e o f t h e Emp i r e
It was
how e v e r p ra cti s e d o n ly b etw e e n t h e d ecl i n i ng
months o f o n e Gov e r n m e nt a n d the a d ol e s c e n t
mo n ths o f i ts su cc e sso r I t i s a t e r m m o re ho n ou r e d
a t St St e p h e n s tha n at D own i n g S t r e e t T hat th e
Go v e r n m e n t shou l d t r u ly r e p r e s e nt t h e p e op l e wa s
o f p a ram ount i mp o rtan c e i n d i r e cting conti nu i ty o f
fo r e ign a ffa i r s
M r A squ ith i n Au gu st 1 9 0 5 b e
f o r e h e b e cam e Pr i m e M in i ste r d e a lt w i th th i s
p o i nt :
,

W h en

he w as

to

l d t h at

i t w as

i l

e ss e n t a

to our

in ter

Emp i re t h a t t he p re se n t G o v e rn m e n t t h ro ugh
L o rd L a n s do w n e s h o u l d go o n u n de r e xi s t i n g c o n di t i o n s
m a n a g i n g o u r f o r e i g n a ff a i rs h e p o i n t e d ou t t h a t e x a c t l y
T h e y c o u l d n o t h av e a s t a t e o f
t he r e v e r s e w a s t h e c a s e
t h i n g s m o re d a n g e r o u s fo r t h e s t a b l e c o n d uc t o f f o r e i g n
r e l a t i o n s a n d fo r t h e p e r m a n e n t a r r a n g e m e n t s o f g r e a t a n d
d i ffi cu l t qu e s t i o n s w i t h e x t e r n a l P o w e r s t h a n o n e i n wh i ch
e v e r y f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t k n e w p e r f e c t l y w e ll t h a t i t w a s
de a li n g w i t h c a r e t a k e rs w i t h p e r s o n s w h o w e r e o n l y p ro
v i s i o n a ll y in p o w e r a n d w h o h a d l o s t by a t h o u s a n d m a n i f e s t
a n d i n d i s pu t a b l e S i g n s t h e c o n d e n c e o f t h e v e r y c o u n t r y

i n wh o s e n a m e t h e y p r o f e s se d t o s p e a k

e s ts

as

an

R e p res entati on h e r e m e a n s tha t the K i ngdom

shoul d b e gov e r n e d by a p arty that ha s lost no b ye
e l e cti o ns
The Angl o -French Agreement wa s m a de i n th e
.

H OW D I PLO M AT S MA KE WA R

86

la st yea r o f t h e C ons e rva t i ve r e i g n a n d the Anglo

J ap a n e s e T r e a ty wa s s i gn e d a ft e r the la st s e ss ion o f
tha t reign clos e d Som e L i b eral stat e smen r e ga r d e d
these treat i es w i th favou r but th e r e was o n e w h o
As
d i d not s e e eye to e ye w i th hi s politi ca l fri en d s
to th e Anglo -French Ag r e e ment Lo r d R o seb e ry w a s
oppose d to i t from th e rst I n M a rch 1 9 0 5 he
said :
,

h e r a g ree m en t a s t o wh i ch I a m a
w e ll kn ow n a n d c o n s p i cu o u s h e re t i c t he An g l o F r e n ch
Ag re e m e n t I a m n o t g o i n g t o s a y a n y t h i n g h e r e a b o u t
I on ly
t h i s wh i ch w ill m a k e a n yb o dy s h a i r s t a n d o n e n d
w i s h t o a cc e n t u a t e my o w n p os i t i o n i n t h a t m a t t e r a n d t o
s ay t h a t
wh il e des i r i n g a s e a rn es t l y a s an y hum an b e i n g
i n t h e s e i s l a n ds t h e i n es t i m a b l e b oo n o f a g oo d u n de rs t an d
i n g w i t h F r a n c e I h a v e t h e d e e p e s t a n d m o s t s e r i ou s do u b t
t he t re a t y by wh i ch t h a t u n de rs t a n di n g w a s a t
as t o
Le t m e

ta e

an ot

t a in e d

Aga i n i n O ctob er
m ent :

1 9 05 ,

h e re fe rre d t o the a gree

T h e re is a n ot h er a g r ee m e n t wh i ch t he Gov e rn m en t h as
c o n c l u de d as t o wh i ch t h e r e i s a much m o re u n an i m o u s a s
s e n t i n t h i s c ou n t ry
s o fa r as I c a n g a t h e r I m e a n t h e
I m y s e l f a m s w o r n do w n n o t t o
a g re e m e n t w i t h F r a n c e
,

p e a k o f t h a t a gr e e m e n t I a m s o r r y t o s ay t h a t my
p roph e cy a s t o t h e c o mp li c a t i o n s wh i ch mu s t b e t he i n ev i t a

ble r es u l t h as o n l y b e e n t oo a bu n d an t l y fu l ll e d

One cannot help but won de r what Lo r d R o seb e ry

wou l d h av e s a i d i f he h a d know n o f t h e s e cret a rti
cl e s atta che d to tha t a gre e ment N o tw i thstan d ing
M r Asqu i th s stat e ment as to t h e n e c e ss i ty o f a gov
e r n m e n t d e a ling w i th fo reign a ff a i rs truly r e p r e sent
i ng t he p eople o f B r i ta i n Lo r d P ercy the C ons erva
.

A NEW P O LI CY

87

t i ve Under Secr eta ry di d not s e e how any o n e could

fo r a m om e n t d o ubt th a t t h e Lib e ra l p a rty woul d
fa i th fully ful l t h e obligations wh i ch t h e Gov e rn m e nt
h a d a l r e a d y e nt e r e d i n to wit h va r i ou s c o untr i e s
p a r ti cul a r ly t h e sp i r i t a n d t h e l e tt e r o f t h e u n d e r
sta n d i n g whi ch th e y h a d m a d e w i th Franc e
I n D e c e mb e r 1 9 0 5 t h e Ki n g s e nt f o r S ir Henry
C ampb ell B a n nerm an H e fo r m e d a m ini st r y a n d
i n t h e op e ni n g sp e e ch o f the G e n e ra l E l e cti on the
n ew P r i m e M inist e r sa i d
-

g e n e r a l p o li cy t o o u r n e i ghb ou rs o u r g en e r a l
f o re i g n p o li cy i t w il l re m a i n t he s a m e in G o v e r n m e n t a s
I t w il l b e o pp o s e d t o a gg r e ss i o n a n d
i t w a s i n O pp o s i t i o n
t o a d v e n t u r e i t w i ll b e a n i m a t e d by a d e s i re t o b e on t he
b es t t e r m s w i t h a ll n a t i o n a li t i e s a n d t o co o p e r a t e w i t h
t h e m i n t he c o mm o n w o r k o f c i v iliz a t i o n
W e w an t
r e li e f f r o m t h e p r e s s u r e o f e x c ess i v e t a x a t i o n
a n d a t the
s a m e t i m e w e w a n t m o n e y t o m e e t o u r o w n d o m e s t i c n ee ds
wh i ch h a v e b e e n t o o l o n g s t a r v e d a n d n e g l e c t e d
a t h om e
o w i n g t o t h e d e m a n ds o n t h e t a x p a y e r fo r m ili t a r y p u r
p o s e s a b ro a d H o w a r e t h e s e d e s i r a b l e t h i n g s t o b e s e
c u re d i f i n t h e t i m e o f p e a ce o u r a r m a m en t s a re m a i n t a i n e d
R e m e mb e r t h a t w e a r e s p e n d i n g a t
on
a w a r f oo t i n g ?
I t h i n k t w i c e a s m u ch o n t he a rmy a n d
t h i s m o m en t
n avy a s w e s p en t t e n ye a r s a go
As

to ou r

The n ew Pr i me M i n i ste r s et t o wo rk a t once to

re du c e e xp en d itu r e o n a r m a m e n ts a n d i n the r st
two ye a rs o f o ffi c e t h e nava l e sti mat e s w e r e r edu c e d
by ov e r
S i r H e n r y C ampb e ll B an n e r
m a n d i e d in Ap r i l 1 9 0 8
T h e n i n 1 9 0 9 the e st i
m ate s j ump e d u p su dd e n ly with a n i n c r e a s e o f
S i nce that y e a r B rita i n ha s i n crea s e d
h e r e x p en d i tu re o n the navy f r om
to
wh i l e i n the s ame per i o d G e rm a n y
,

H OW

88

ra is e d

her

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

x pen d i tu re from

In

2 0 , 09 0, o o o

th e Gu il d ha ll sp e ech o f
S i r H enry s su cc e ss o r s a i d :
,

19 0 8 ,

to

23 ,

M r As q u i th
.

A v a r i e t y o f c i r cum s ta n c es h a v e r e c e n t l y c a u se d t he
re l a t i o n s b e t w e e n G re a t B r i t a i n an d G e r m a n y t o b e c o m e
a s ubj e c t o f a c t i v e pub li c d i s cu s s i o n
I t is ex ac t l y a y e ar
s i n c e t h e G e r m a n Emp e r o r w a s t h e gu e s t o f y o u r p r e de ce s
sor
my L o rd M ayo r i n t h i s v e r y h a ll S o m e o f u s a n d
I w as o n e w ho w e re p r e s e n t o n t h a t o cc a s i o n c an n o t fo r
g e t H is M a j e s t y s e mph a t i c a n d i mp r es s i v e d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t
t h e g o v e r n i n g pu r p os e o f h is p o li cy w as t h e p re se r v a t i o n
o f t he p e a c e o f Eu ro p e
a n d t he m a i n t e n a n c e o f g o o d r e l a
I t is i n t h e s p i r i t o f t h a t
t i o n s b e tw e e n o u r t w o c o u n t r i e s
de c l a r a t i o n t h e s p i r i t wh i ch a i m s n o t o n ly a t p e a c e b u t a t
g oo d w ill t h a t w e des i r e t o de a l w i t h o t h e r P o w e rs w i t h
G e r m an y c e r t a i n l y n o t l es s t h an o t h e rs
.

Th e p otentat e who i n M a rch 1 9 0 5 u pset u s s o

mu ch by h i s v i s i t to T ang i e r a n d w h o wa s t h e sub
n
r
e
c
t
o
f
m
a
ny
a
j
ou
r
ali
st
i
c
at
o
city
r
p
oki
g
h
i
s
f
n
o
j
no s e i n to M o ro cca n a ffa i r s was i n a few sho rt y e a r s
t h e honou r e d gu e st o f my Lo r d M ayo r at t h e Gu i l d
h all t h e p a lac e wh e r e ga st r onom i cs a r e p ra ct i s e d only
,

by t h e mos t r e sp e ctabl e a n d cu ltu r e d e p i cu r e s to b e

fou n d n e a r Lo n d o n o n t h e n i n th o f Novemb e r
P o o r Lor d M ayo r littl e d i d h e k n ow that h e to ok
a vip e r to h i s bosom F o r a ll h e k n e w t he Emp e ror
m i ght have h a d a copy o f Th u s S pa k e Z a r a th us tr a
s e cr e te d und e r hi s u ni fo rm As a matt e r o f cou r s e
t h e Emp e ro r s p e a c e fu l vi si t wa s f o llow e d sp e e d ily
by a p e r i o d o f p ani c Th e r e i s nothi n g l i k e e m
ph at i c a v o wa ls o f p e a c e for u n s e ttli n g Ji n g o e s C on
t in u i t y o f fore i gn pol i cy wa s a ga i n b acked b y con
.

B EATI N G TH E TO M TO M

89

t in u ity

i n naval p oli cy The r e d u cti o n s m a d e u n d e r

Si r H e n r y C ampb e ll B a n n e r m a n di d no t su i t t h e
Whigs who a t a loss fo r i n fo r mati o n a s to W h a t
t h e G e rm a n Emp e r o r r e ally m e a n t by h i s c r ypti c
a n noun c e m e nt a t t h e Gu i l d h all a d opt e d t h e s u g ge s
ti o n o f a n a g e nt o f t h e a r mam e nt ri ng to start what

m i ght b e ca ll e d a
Wo r l d A ga i nst U s
p ol i cy
T ru e we w e re o n go o d te r m s with Fra n c e a n d Ru s
s i a a nd ou r r e lati o n s wi th G e rm a n y a cco r d i n g to
the Pr i m e M i n ist e r a n d th e G e r ma n Emp e r o r we r e
a ll fo r th e p r e s e r va ti o n o f t h e p e a c e o f Eu r op e So
a mi cabl e we r e the r e lati o n s b e tw e en B r i ta i n a n d G e r
m a ny i n 1 9 0 8 wh e n t h e nav a l estimat e s w e r e i n
t r o du ce d th a t th e F i rst Lo r d o f t h e A d m i ra l t y a n d
t h e G erma n Emp e ro r e x cha n g e d lett e r s o f b a n t e r
a s Lo r d R o s eb e r y s a i d o f t he i nci d e n t Th e tw o
G ov e rnments w i thout a lli a n ce o r tr e aty o r e n t e nt e
or se cre t a r t i cle s w e re b ou n d tog e th e r i n t h e sp i r i t
whi ch a im s o nly a t p e a c e
B ut L o r d C r o m e r di d
n ot
think s o S om e th i ng al a r m e d him
I n the
H ou s e o f Lords i n July 1 9 0 8 h e s a i d :
.

W h a t I w o u l d a sk i n t he p r e s e n t c o n di t i o n o f Eu ro p e
i s t h e m a i n du t y wh i ch de v o l v e s o n t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f t h i s
c o u n t r y ? F o r my o w n p a rt I h a v e n o s o r t o f h e s i t a t i o n
T he i r m a i n du t y is t o m a ke
i n r e p l y i n g t o t h i s qu e s t i on
p r o v i s i on s b e t i m e s fo r t he E u ro p e a n c o n i c t wh i ch m ay n o t
i mp r o b a b l y be f o r c e d o n u s b e f o re m a n y y e a rs h a v e e l ap s e d
I a m a w a r e t h a t t h e m as s O f t he p e o p l e o f t h i s c o u n t ry w ho
do n o t f o ll o w f o re i g n a ff a i r s w i t h a n y v e r y c l o s e a t t e n t i o n
a re n o t a li v e t o t h e p o s s i b ili t y o f a n y s u ch c o n i c t t a k i n g
p l a c e I s a y i t i s t h e d u t y o f a G o v e rn m e n t g i f t e d w i t h
b o t h p a t r i o t i s m a n d fo r e s i gh t w ho h a v e m e an s o f i n f o r m a
t i o n a t t h e i r d i s p os a l wh i ch i s n o t a v a il a b l e t o t h e g e n e r a l
p u bli c t o p r ov i de b e t i m es fo r t h a t d a n g e r a d a n g e r o f

0
9

H OW D I P LO M ATS MA KE

WA R

wh i ch I i n co mm o n I b e li ev e w i t h m os t p eo p l e w ho ca n
s p e a k w i t h re a l a u t h o r i t y o n f o r e i g n a ff a i rs a m v e ry r m l y
c on v i n c e d
,

G e r m a n y wa s the country Lor d C rom e r h a d i n

mi n d ; t h e r e wa s no oth e r count r y i n Eu rop e tha t
coul d d i r e ctly force a Eu rop e a n con i ct on u s So
a ll t h e n e stat e m e nts o f t h e P r i me M ini st e r a n d t h e
sop hi stical utt e r a nc e s o f t h e Fo re ign S e cr e ta ry d id
allay th e agitat i ons o f tho se m e n who h a d
n ot
m eans o f i n fo rm a tio n at th e i r d i spos a l Wha t
i n format i o n ? That w a s the t i m e wh e n M r M ull
i n e r wa s bu sy n d i n g m e n wh o wou l d b e l i e v e hi s
ya r ns ab out G e r ma n n ava l e x p ans i o n W e s ha ll

i n fo rm at i on
Anyway
d e a l lat e r on with tha t
Lo r d C rom e r s stat e m e n t wa s mor e than a wa rning ;
i t w a s a n i n d i ctm e n t o f t h e F or e i gn O ffi ce system
I t wa s also a r e e ct i on on the A d m i ralty a n d t h e
Gov e r n m e nt I f i t m eant anyth i ng a t a ll i t m e a nt
th at a p oli cy o f s e c r e cy hyp e rb ole a n d e va s i o n e n
abl e d t h e Fo r e i gn S e c r e ta r y a n d the F i rst Lo r d o f
t h e A d mi r a lty to w i thhol d from the Hous e a n d t h e
c o u n try th e r e a l stat e o f affa i r s a n d co n c e a l f r om
t h e p e ople t h e n atu re o f t h e i n fo rmati on Lo r d
C r om e r not a m e mb e r o f the Governm ent h a d i n
m i n d when h e ma de h i s sp e ech
.

C HA P TE R V
ENE

The p e o p l e i s

mu ddy b ra i n
T h a t k n o w s n o t i t s o w n s t r e n g t h a n d t h e r e f o r e s t a n ds
L o a d e d w i t h w o o d a n d s t o n e ; t h e p o w e r l e s s h a n ds
O f a m e r e ch il d gu i de i t w i t h b i t a n d r e i n ;
O n e k i ck w o u l d b e e n o ugh t o b r e a k t h e ch a i n
B u t t h e b e a s t f e a r s a n d wh a t t he ch i ld de m a n ds
I t do e s ; n o r i t s o w n t e rr o r u n de r s t a n ds
C o n fu s e d a n d s t u p i e d by bugb e a r s v a i n
M o s t w on de r fu l ! W i t h i t s o w n h a n d i t t i es
An d g a g s i t s e l f g i v e s i t s e l f d e a t h a n d w a r
F o r p e n c e do l e d o u t by k i n g s f r o m i t s o w n s to re
I t s o w n a r e a ll t h i n g s b e t w ee n e a r t h an d h e a v e n ;
B u t t h i s i t kn o w s n o t ; a n d i f o n e a r is e
To t e ll t h i s t r u t h i t k i ll s h i m u n f o r g i v e n
C a m pa n e lla t r a n s l a t e d by J o h n Add i n g t o n S ym o n ds
a

b e ast

MI ES

of

I t e ll you : o n e mu st hav e cha o s w i th i n to e n abl e

o n e to giv e b i rth to a d a n ci ng sta r

I n t h e m i d dl e
o f t h e la st c e ntu ry t h e r e w as c h a o s w ith i n G e rmany
e n ou gh to giv e b i rth t o N i e t z sch e
S chop e nhau e r
the p e ss i mi st B i sma rck t h e imp er i ali st Strau s s t h e ra
t i o n a li s t M o ltk e t h e mi lita r is t La ss alle t h e p h i lo
s o phi c a l s o ci a list a n d T r e i tschk e t h e absolutist
a ll in th e i r v a riou s d i r e cti o n s lab ou r i n g i n a C hri s
t i an count r y
t h e str i f e o f t h e n e w a ga i nst the o ld
t h e b attl e b etw e en evi l a n d goo d cr e ate d t h e i n
t e lle ct u a l chao s from wh i ch t h e g e ntl e fa sti d i ou s r e
t i r i ng a d vocate o f t h e sup e rma n bu rst ou t like a
.

91

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WAR

H OW

92

dancing sta r Th e Chr i st i a n state wh i ch in i ts bu s i

n e ss f r om o n e y e a r s e n d to anot h e r d e n i e d a n d even
d e r i d e d e v e r y o n e o f t h e b e atitu d e s o f J esu s w a s
t h e e l d tha t awa i t e d N i e t z sch e s wo r k
I n t e lle c
tu al r i o t wa s fa st o v e rcomi n g H e g e l i a n ism a n d L u
t h e r a n i s m ; t h e p e ri o d whi ch must com e u n d e r fun
d a m e n t a lly fa lse con d i t i ons wh e n t h e hyp oc r i sy a n d
ca nt o f soc i e ty a re e rc e ly atta ck e d by thos e wh o
a r e bol d e nough to p o i n t o u t w h e r e li f e i s not l i v e d
a s li f e i s p r e a ch e d h a d ab out r e ach e d its meri d i a n
S t r ong m e n h a d su r v e y e d t h e e l d b e fo r e N i e t z s ch e ;
M a rx h a d d o n e s om e thi n g to p r e p a re the g r oun d ;
a n d e a r li e r still
M a x S ti r n e r h a d pu t i n t h e bla d e
o f h i s up r o ot i n g plough ; M i ch a e l B a k u n i n a lso h a d
l e ft tra c e s i n G e r m a n y a ft e r t h e d i stu rb a n c e s o f

1 8 49
H i s p ro n ou n c e ment
w e obj e ct to all l e g i s
l a ti on all autho r i ty a ll i nu e n c e p r i vi leg e p at e nt e d
e ven wh e n i t h a s p roc e e d e d from
o i ci a l a nd legal
u n i v e r s al su ffrag e ; conv i nc e d tha t i t mu st a lways
tu rn to t h e p r o t o f a d om i n ati n g a n d e xp lo iti n g m i
n o r i t y a ga i n st t h e i nt e r e sts o f t h e i mm e ns e m aj o ri t y

o f the e nslav e d
fou n d a n e cho in th a t sublime

phra s e o f N i e t z sch e wh e r e the Stat e ce a s e th the r e

b e g i n n e t h th a t man who i s n o t sup er uou s

C hri st i a n i ty h a d b e e n o n its t r i al
th e n e w

evil
M e n w e r e d i ss ati s e d with t h e ve r d ict

n o t p rov e n
a n d sp e nt th e i r d ays i n d iscov e ri n g
fr e sh e vi d e n ce aga i nst it From t h e co n i ct o f d i
v e rs e vi e ws i n e conom i cs r eligi on a n d p olit i cs
N i e t z s ch e a ros e w i th h i s lonely D av i d not o f I s ra el
but o f S a h a r a
I t wa s tim e fo r a new p h i losophy Wh e ther the
ph i los op hy o f t h e sup e r m a n will b e o f a s mu ch value
to m ank i nd a s the d i sciple s o f N i et z sche bel i eve i s
.

WHAT N I ETZS C H E TAUG HT

93

not o f grea t cons e qu e nce ; b ecau s e a wo rld o f i n

t e lle ct u a l sup e r m e n wou l d b e the one tha t N i et z s che
o f all m e n wo ul d n o t live i n ev e n i f th e mu ch t o o
m a ny h a d p a ss e d f r om t h e c o n d it i ons wh i ch n e ce s
s i t a t e d t h e i n v e n ti o n o f t h e Stat e
An i ntell e ctu al
cha n g e w o ul d n o t a lt e r t h e p o s itio n o f the s u p e r u
ou s m a n no r mak e m e n p r a cti s e wh a t th e y p r e a ch
Ye t i t may b e p rob abl e that n o o n e s aw s o cl e a rly
t h e t e r r i c fo rc e o f D osto e vsky s M ys h k i n a s Ni e t z s
Some o n e m ay som e d a y tak e up t h e tangl e d
ch e
sk e in o f h i s thought a n d co n n e ct i ts s tran d s w i th
tho s e o f th e m e n w h o i n u e n c e d hi s w o rk
H i s d e sc r ip ti o n o f Eu r op e i n the y e a r s b e tw e e n
1 8 6 0 to
1 8 8 0 will stan d ; from mu s i c t o w o m e n
f r o m p h i lo sop hy to o r ato r y f r o m al coh o l to p o li
ti cs i t w i ll s at i s fy th e m o s t p e r si st e n t i n v e stigato r
C r iti c i co n o cl a st a n d illu m i n a to r o f s o c i e ty a n d sys
t e m s he sta n ds p r e e m i n e n t H e so a r s high i n
m a n y r e sp e cts ab ov e o u r o w n C a r lyl e whom h e d is
l ik e d so mu ch H e th o ught h e s aw i n C a r lyl e t h e
la ck o f tho s e fu n d am e n tals h e d e sp ise d B u t i n
t e lle ct ua l a n d p hys i ca l sup e r m e n without e qu al r i ghts
not equ a li t y wi ll b e d i sp e n sabl e gi a n ts u n d e r
p r op e r e co n omi c co n d iti o n s ; n am e ly wh e n the s u
e
r

o
u
m
a
u
n com e s i n to hi s o w n
s
p
G e r ha r t H auptma n n s o i t i s r e po rt e d sa i d that
t h e G e r m a n s o l d i e r g o e s to t h e f r ont with a co py
o f Th u s S p a k e Z a r a t h u s t r a i n his k n ap sa ck Tha t i s
a p r e tty ta ll stat e m e n t bu t it i s co n c e i vabl e that m any
o f t h e town b r e d s o l d i e r s o f G e rm any k n ow som e
th i n g o f N i e t z sch e Th e r e a l i n u e n c e o f N i e t z sch e
ha s n o t how e v e r shown its e l f i n any o f the a ctions o f
t h e G erman p e op l e up to the p res e nt They i n n o w ay
a pp re c i a t e his me ani n g o f w a r le ss i nde e d than
-

H OW

94

D I P LO MATS MA KE WA R

Engl i sh j ou rnali sts

I se e m a n y s ol d i ers : woul d I
coul d s e e m any wa r r i o rs !
U n i fo r m they call
wha t they w e a r : would i t w e re no t u n i fo rm what
P ru ss i ans h ave no t the s e ns e
th e y hi d e u n d e r i t !
o f humou r to grasp all the re i s i n h i s J o yf ul W i s d o m
Thi s i s wr i tt e n w i th all re sp e ct fo r the great b o dy
o f l it e ra ry B r i ta i n who du r i ng t he wa r h av e b e e n
i n dust r i ou sly p i cking t h e mot e ou t o f Ge r ma n eye s
Th e r e i s nothing ev e n savou r i ng o f t h e i n d iv i d u a li sm
o f N i e t z s ch e i n G e rma n l i f e Ev e n R i cha r d Strau ss
i n h i s tone p o e m ca r i ca ture s the sup e rm an ; though
h e ha s m ade a n a tt e mpt r e c e ntly t o a pproa ch D i o n y
s us
Th e la rg e st p oli ti cal b o d y i n G erma n y i s s o
t h e Gov e rnm e nt
ci a li s t i c a na th e m a to N i e t z sch e
i s bu r e au cra t i c !
i nv e n t e d fo r the mu ch to o many
a n d i n d ivi d u a lism ca n n ot exi st i n a n a rmy o r navy ;
a s fo r t h e chu r ch
w e ll a s the re h as n ev e r b e e n
r oom i n i t for Je su s
i t i s no t l i k e ly tha t a ny lowli e r
i n d iv i du alist m ay att e mp t to d e cla re from i ts pulp its

that t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d i s w i t h i n y o u
Th e r e a r e s o ma n y d iv e rs e noti o n s o f I n d iv i dual
i sm tha t i t m ay b e o pp o rtun e to ask What i s the i n
d iv i d u a l i sm o f N i et z sch e ? Tru e in d i v i du al i sm i t i s
not fo r i t i s without e conom i c fou n d ati on H i s
w i ll to -l i fe p ow e r d o e s no t go d e e p enough ; i t la cks
a subs i st e nc e b a s i s h e n c e p e r hap s hi s notion o f
slav e s I t i s e xcee d ingly d i ffi cult to p la c e a fu n d a
m e nta l va lu e o n the i n d i v i du al i sm o f N i e t z s che fo r
h e so o ft e n con fu s e s man a n d n atu r e a n d t h e func
t i o n s o f b o th D e lv e i nto h i s p hilo sop hy as d e e ply
a s you w i ll o n thi s matte r a stoun d ing contra d i ct i ons
ab o un d ; he i s so full o f multitu d e s a s Whi tman
woul d s ay Then i n the s ea rch fo r fun d amenta ls
.

M E AN IN G O F
D i o n ys u s
e rt ion s
.

E X PLO I TATI ON

95

a pp e a rs so o ften p e rhap s to mo ck ou r ex
T ak e th e p a ss ag e :

E xp lo i t a t i on do e s n ot b e l o n g t o a de p r av ed o r i m
p e r f e c t o r p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t y : i t b e l o n g s t o th e N a t u r e o f t h e
li v i n g b e i n g a s a p r i m a r y o r g a n i c fu n c t i o n ; i t is a con s e
q u e n ce o f t he i n t r i n s i c W ill t o P o w e r wh i ch i s p r e c i s e l y t he
w ill t o li f e G r a n t i n g t h a t a s a t h eo r y t h i s i s a n ov e l t y
a s a re a li t y i t i s a fu n d a m e n t a l fa ct o f a ll h i s t o r y : le t u s b e

s o fa r h o n e s t t o o u rs e l v e s !

N i et z sche he re a ssum e s h e i s p r op oun d i ng some

th i ng n e w s om e thi n g h e ha s d i s cove r e d a s a fun d a

m e nta l fa ct bu t t h e wo r d e xp lo i tati o n ha s old

a n d n e w m e an i ngs
I f th e s e n t e nc e i s to b e app li e d
to ma n s r i ght to e x plo i t e qu ally with o th e r m e n all
n a tu r a l r e sou r ces
th e n th e sta t e m e n t i s comp at i ble
with tru e I n d iv i d u a l i sm B u t i f o n the o th e r h a n d
the statem ent a n d t h e u se o f t h e wo r d e xplo ita

t i on a re to b e appli e d to s om e men s p ower to e x

p lo i t t h e lab ou r o f othe r m en th e n i t r e f e rs to ou r
O ld en e my M o nop oly
a n d i s n o new th eo r y o r fu n
d a m e n t a l fa ct
Th e cont e xt f r om whi ch t h e sta te
m e nt i s to rn re fe rs to i n d iv i d u als ; but e xp lo i ta

t i o n b e long i ng to t h e N atur e o f th e l i v i ng b e ing

a s a p r i ma ry o rga ni c fu ncti o n i s a p hra se whi ch

ca rr i e s t h e u n d e rsta n d i n g b a ck t o m a n s struggle
w i th N atu r e fo r subs i st e nc e a n d the fu n d am e n ta l
b a s i s o f e qu a l r i ghts to e xploi t the e a rth for th e
s a ti s fa ct i on o f h i s d e s i r e s a n d n e e d s Who can tell
u s j u st where N i e t z sch e sto o d o n th i s qu e st i on ?
G eo r g B r an de s ? P e r ha p s ! Ce rta i nly h e s aw
cle a rly the b a s i c fault i n t h e content i ons o f M a r x a n d
L a ss a lle
,

H OW D I PLO M AT S MA KE WA R

96

Y et i t woul d not b e strange i f th i s hater o f eve ry

thi n g G e r m a n wa s a t t h i s tim e shap ing in t h e mi n d s
,

o f G e r ma n s o l d i e rs t e n d e n ci e s a ga i n st estab li sh e d
f o rms in t h e Fa th e rl an d m o r e d ang e r ou s t h an a ll
t h e a r m am e n ts o f t h e All i e s a n d th e i r milli ons o f
m e n b attli n g e a st a n d we st
I f th e y have got h ol d
o f t h e t r u e N i e t z sch e t h e N i e t z sche w h o s aw that
E u r o pe w is he s t o b e o n e
th e n i t i s p r ob ab l e
tha t G e rm ans m ay n o w b e i n the th r o e s o f a v a st i n
t e lle ct u a l up h e aval
Thou gh h e st r ik e s w i thout m e r cy a t t he Go d m a de
by man the va i n mal ici ou s vi n d i ctiv e Go d o f a
C hr i st i an i ty whi ch i s all th a t J esu s wa s no t Ni e t z s
rare on e
ch e nev e r assa ils t h e r e ligiou s man :
so!

h e w o ul d s ay o f him
i t a r y sou l !
G o d i s a ssoc i

a t e d with C hri st i ani t y

i nvente d by J ews
chu rch e s r i tu als e t c P a ssag e s i n S a n ctu s J a n ua
r i u s r e ek w i th s co rn o f a m an -m a d e G o d
Th e g ul f
th at l i e s b etw e en J e su s a n d N i e t z sch e i s not
wi d e ; h i s app r e ci at i o n o f D o sto evsky i s the n g e r
p o st which p o ints th a t way ; bu t t h e gul f that y aw n s
b e tw e e n N i e t z sch e a n d Chr i st i anity a s h e s e e s i t
can n o t b e sp a n n e d
Wheth e r G e rm ans kno w the elu s i v e i nsp i r i ng
n i mbl e
attract i v e N i e t z sch e or no a p e opl e w h o
h a ve a l it e ra t u r e so r i ch in wo n d rou s co n tra d i ct i o n s
a re a p e op l e whom t h e wo rl d mu st r e cko n with fo r
th e y a r e cap able o f g r e a t revoluti ons u nl e ss an o r i
e nta l s i ck n e ss fall up o n th e i r i nt e llig e nc e Th r ough
fo r th e s e two s i ckly
N i e t z sch e b a ck to N ov ali s
one s touch e d at many po i nts B oth in d i ffe r e nt g e n
e r a t i o n s explo re d m a ny o f t h e bye ways o f i n t e lle c
Lik e Walt Wh i tm an N i e t z s che p e rh ap s
t u a l l i fe
saw tok e ns at t h e ways i d e
,

M I L I TANT CH R I ST IAN IT Y
I w o n de r wh e r e I ge t t h o s e t o k e n s
D i d I p a ss t h a t w a y hug e t i m e s a go

?
them

97

an d n e

g li g en t l y

dro p

B ack to N ova li s ! W e ll w e s hall s e e Anyw ay

n o thi n k e r w h o b r i n gs t h e futu r e i n to h i s h ou r o f
m e d i tati o n n e e d b e a fra i d o f N i e t z sche T r uth wa s

evil long b e fo r e h e w r ot e A li st o f e v i l m e n
woul d tak e u S b a ck to N e wto n to Galileo t o J e su s

T r uth i s a lways ev i l wh e n i t falls up o n e stab

li s h e d fo rms
,

H ow ha s i t b e e n with u s ? Th e antip athy to Ge r

m a ny s i n c e t h e K r u g e r t e legram a n d M r C hamb e r
l a i n s sp e e ch d eliv e r e d i n t h e e a r ly d ays o f the B o e r
Wa r i nc r e a s e d i n ven o m a n d b itt e r n ess Fro m
1 9 0 5 th e r e ha s b e e n a camp a i gn u nr e m i tti ng i n i ts
h atr e d t h ough a t i nt e rva ls ch e ck e d by the ve ry i n
t e n si ty o f its sp l e e n
a s a t o f coughing b rought
o n by vo ci fe r o u s a n g e r stop s fo r a whil e t h e r e vi li n g
o f a v i r ag o
th a t h a s o n s e v e ral o cca si ons b rought
t h e two c o untri e s to t h e v e rg e o f hosti liti e s
The
c r u sa d e fo r a p r ot e ct i v e ta riff wh i ch b e gan i n 1 9 0 2
taught t h e p e opl e a fo r m o f m ili ta n t Chri sti anity i n
comm e r ci a l a ffa i r s wh i ch r ou s e d e v e r y b rut i sh i n
s t i n ct a n d subj ugat e d a ll t h e vi r tu es o f b roth e rho o d
Th e catchwo r d s o f t h e p r op aga n d a w e r e B i s
m a r ck i a n
R e tal i ati on w a s o n e o f the wo r d s to
co n j u r e w i th ; a n d D o n t tak e i t lyi n g d own ! wa s
t h e p hra s e t o sti r l e tha rg i c au d i e n c e s to d e monst r a

ti o n s o f v i n d i ct i v e j oy
H i t t h e for e i gn e r b a ck

M ak e t h e for e ign e r p ay t h e tax w e r e e x

an d
p r e ss i o ns w h i ch rung fo r th r e e y e a r s f r om end to e n d
o f th i s C h r ist i a n l an d An d e ve rything m a d e i n
G erma ny wa s t o a l a rge se ct i on o f the B r i ti sh p e o
.

H OW

98

D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

wo rse th a n ga rm e nts wo rn by l e p e rs All t he

plat fo rm cha n g e s w e re rung on t h e s e ven d e a d ly
s i ns maki n g vi rtu e s o f them fo r t h e n e e ds o f M r
C hamb erla in s c amp a i gn C ob d e n s pla titu d e s w e r e
P e a ce a n d go o d will a mong na
laughe d to sco r n :
ti o n s
w as t h e cry o f B rita i n s wo r st en e m i es
Hun d r e d s o f thou s a n ds o f wo r ki n g m e n a n d wom e n
w e r e d a ily tol d tha t the h at e d fo r e ign e r to ok the
b re a d out o f t h e m ou ths o f t h e chil d r e n o f B ritis h
a r t i sans
M i n ist e rs o f t h e go sp e l f r e qu e ntly p r e
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t h e hom es they ar e now sh e d d ing th e i r bloo d to d e
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wh o s e d e st i ny i t woul d b e to w r i t e o n f o r e ig n b at
tl e fi e l d s n e w p ages o n th e m i ght o f C h r i st i a n B r ita in
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c i rcu msp e ct B ut a surv e y o f t h e n e wsp a p e rs sinc e
t h e clo s e o f t h e B o e r Wa r r e v e a ls a n almo st u n i n
t e r ru p t e d e xh i b it i on o f r e p ell e nt J i ngo is m i n t h e col
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G e rmany o n e ha s to go b a ck t o the t i me whe n t h e

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B r i t i s h publi c a n d p e r h ap s the p r e ss w e r e ig n o ra n t
o f t h e s e c r e t a rti cl e s t o the Anglo -Fr e nch Agr e e
me n t I n tha t y e a r th e r e was a r e d u ctio n o f
i n ou r n avy e stim at e s Th i s m i ght have
h a d s o m e thi n g to d o with t h e t r em e n dou s outbu rst
i n t h e p r e s s a ga inst the Emp e ror s v i s i t to M o ro cco
N e v e r t h e l e ss J i n go j ou rn al i sti c fu r y wa s o f su ch a
vi o l e n t cha r a ct e r tha t Lo r d R o s e b e r y vi e w e d t h e a t
ta ck with g r ave a pp r e h e n s i on Ev e n M r B r o d e
r i ck
wh o h a d b e e n S e c r eta ry fo r Wa r in a Con
s e r v a t i v e A d mi n i strat i on wa s move d to rema rk
,

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All t h e s ugge s t i o n s o f m i s u n de r s t a n d i n g s m i gh t b e
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t i re ly g r a t u i t o u s a t t a ck s wh i ch m i gh t s e r v e t o l ub r i c a t e t he
p e n s o f s o m e p r es s m e n bu t wh i ch w ou l d ge t s h o r t s h r i f t
f r o m a n y r e s p o n s i b le s t a t e s m e n

how e v e r m or e truth tha n j ou rn al i sm

i n t h e r e p o rt ab ou t a n i n vas i o n o f Schl e sw i g Hol
st e i n
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Itali an a n d G e r ma n j o u r n als i t wa s taken a s a
m e n a ce to t h e T r ipl e Alli a n c e a n d i n t h e y e llow
p r e ss o f tho s e cou n t r i e s a b itt e r agitat i on a ga i nst
Th e j au n d i c e d s cho o l o f
B rita i n wa s ca r r i e d o n
w r i t e r s i n th i s count r y sent th e i r sham e fu l s cree ds
all ov e r t h e l an d i n sup e r lat i v e e ffo r ts t o out d o the
a c r i mo n i ou s stuff pub li sh e d ab r o a d S o o n th e na
tio n o r that p a rt o f i t whi ch r e ve ls i n h o rro rs d e
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columns o f v i n d i ct i v e r av i n gs f r om t h e p ens o f h i r e
lings o f t h e a r mam e n t r i n g H ow mu ch o f a ll th e
camp a ig n wa s i n sp i r e d by t he B r i ti sh a n d Fr e n ch d e
p a r tm e n t s fo r Fo r e i g n A ff a i r s wi ll neve r b e known ;
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S ti ll w e d o know som e th i ng o f t h e p a rt p lay e d in the
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M D e l c as se i n e b r i a t e d by t he
e n t e n t e w i t h E n g l an d
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He
d r e a m e d i f h e d i d n o t c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y p r oj e c t a s o r t o f

r e v a n ch e by t h e h u m ili a t i on o f G e r m a n y
.

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m a n y he i n t h e e v e n t o f w a r i n wh i ch E n g l a n d I te ll yo u
w o u l d a s s u r e dl y b e w i t h u s a g a i n s t G e r m a n y ? W h a t
w o u l d b e co m e o f Ge r m an y s p o r ts o r he r t ra de o r h e r
m e rc a n t il e m a r i n e ? T h e y w o u l d b e a n n i h il a t e d T h a t is
wh a t w o u l d be t he s i g n i c a n c e o f t he v i s i t p r e p a re d a n d
c a lcu l a t e d o f t he B r i t i s h s qu a d r o n t o B r e s t wh il e t h e re
t u r n v i s i t Of t h e F r e n ch s qu a d r o n t o P o r t s m o u t h w i ll co m
The e n t e n t e b e t w ee n t h e t w o
p le t e t he de m on s t r a t i o n
c o u n t r i e s an d t he co a li t i on o f t h e i r n a v i es co n s t i t u t es s uch
a f o r m i d a b l e m a ch i n e o f n a v a l w a r t h a t n e i t h e r G e r m a n y
w o u l d da re t o f a ce s u ch a n o v e r
n o r an y o th er P o we r
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,

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a ffa i r s who ch a r g e G e rmany wit h havi n g p rovok e d
the ri s e i n n av a l e xpe n d itu re ! The ev i denc e i s all
t h e other way about
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the a rti cles o f the B lu e -Funk s cho ol wa s a ssa il e d a s
a tra ito r o r a cowa r d The m en o f the bull d og
b r e e d wrote from b e hind t h e scr e ens o f e d i to ri a l
ro om s th e i r p ro d ig i ou s fulm i nati o n s on Little Eng

a n d P r o -B o e rs
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o ts am a n d j etsam the go ssip o f d i sapp o i n t e d h al f
p ay o ffi c e rs a n d cle rks o ften e n ou gh t h e r e j e ct e d in
fo r matio n o f s e rvito r s not r e qui r e d aga i n
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men

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(F o re i g n A ff a i rs )

m o s t o b s c u r e t he m o s t d e l i
c a t e t he m o s t c o mp l e x t he g r a v e s t p r o v i n c e o f pub li c bu s i
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m o s t a pp ro p r i a t e t o y i n t o a p as s i o n a n d t o u s e t h e w o r s t
l an gu a g e e i t h e r a b o u t f o re i g n n a t i o n s o r a b o u t t h o s e o f
t h e i r f e ll o w c ou n t rym e n w ho do n o t h a pp e n t o a g r e e w i t h

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G rey a ls o l a i d st r e ss in th e ir sp e e ch e s o n t h e n e ce s
s i t y o f r e sp o n sibl e p oliti ci a n s d o i n g s om e thi n g to
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p ap e r tol d its r e a d e rs tha t the r e n ev e r w a s a R a d i
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p re st i ge must i n e v i tab ly su ffe r ; bu t thi s i s n o mo re

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li z a t i o n b a si s for s e rv i ce ab ro a d to comp r i s e 1 5 0
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1 04

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

R ob erts i n t h e Hou s e o f Lo rds fanned t he ames

o f J i ngo f e e li n g i n t h e country a n d i nci d e ntally gave
t h e y e llow p res s scrib es some m at e r i a l fo r future ar
,

t i cle s

w e re r e qu i re d t o de a l w i t h a C o n t i n e n t a l s i t u a
a s t r i k i n g f o r c e o f much g r e a t e r s t re n g t h t h a n 1 5 0
t ion
000 m e n w ou l d i n my h u m b l e o p i n i on b e n ee de d i f n o t
l o n g b e f o r e a n y l a r ge n u mb e r o f r e i n
a t t he v e r y o u t s e t
f o r c e m e n t s c o u l d b e t ra i n e d W e w o u l d u n de r t h e s e ci r
cu m s t a n ce s b e gh t i n g a g a i n s t a m o s t c a r e fu ll y o r g an iz e d
a r my b e t w e e n t w o a n d t h re e m illi o n s s t r on g a n d t h o r o u gh l y
t t e d i n a ll res p e c t s fo r w a r t he Comm a n de rs o f wh i ch
w o u l d b e fu ll y co g n iz a n t o f o u r u n p r e p a r e dn e s s a n d w o u l d
g i v e u s a s li t t l e b re a t h i n g t i m e a s p o ss i b l e I dou b t wh e t h e r
i t i s r e a liz e d i n t h i s c o u n t r y t h a t t h e C o n t i n en t a l a r m i e s
b e h i n d t h e i r v as t m o b iliz e d s t re n g t h p o s s es s p r a c t i c a ll y u n
li m i t e d re s e r v es I n G e r m a n y fo r i n s t a n c e t h ou gh i t i s
u s u a ll y s upp ose d t h a t o n l y a b o u t v e m illi o n m en w o u l d
b e s ubj e c t t o t he e x t re m e d e m an d o f t h e S t a t e t h e re a r e
a l t o g e t h er a c t u a ll y n o l ess t h a n t e n m il li o n m e n o v e r gh t
i n g a ge w ho h a v e p as s e d t h r o ugh t h e r a n ks a t o n e p e r i o d

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a ff o r d e d a s e r i o u s t e mp t a t i o n t o h o s t il e
a n d o t h e r ex p e r ts
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I n t h e autumn o f 1 9 0 6 a s e ct i on o f the To ry p res s

d i d i ts b est to whip u p a navy s ca r e b e cau se the G ov
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thrown t o th e w i nds
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1 05

The s ca r e s p r omot e d by the yellow p r e ss and t h e

b i tte r atta cks o n our Teuto n i c n e ighbou r a ffe ct e d t h e
d i sp os i ti o n o f G e rma n y tow a r d s t h e H a gu e co n v e n
ti on
M r B al fou r d i d n o t h e s itat e to s ay tha t Si r
H e nry C a mpb e ll B a n n e rm a n s attitu d e wa s hyp o
cr i ti ca l i n a smu ch a s h e took c r e d it fo r str e ngth e n
i ng the a r my a n d the n avy whil e h e att e n d e d t h e
H a gu e p ea c e m e e ti n gs fo r d i sa rmam e nt Th e
Pr i m e M iniste r t o l d hi s au d i e n c e a t M a n ch e st e r that

h e knew th a t w e h av e b e e n su sp e ct e d o f a w i sh
a s i n i ste r w i sh to e mb a rra ss G e r m a n y by r a i s i n g t h e

q ue st i on
I n e x pl a i n i n g t h e S itu ati o n h e s a i d :
,

W e t h ou gh t i t o u r d u t y t o s e iz e t he Opp o r t u n i t y wh i ch
t h e H a gu e C o n f e r e n c e o ff e r e d fo r s e e i n g wh e t h e r a s t e p
m i gh t n o t b e t a k e n i n t he r i gh t d i r e c t i o n fo r r e d uc i n g a r m a
m e n ts I t h i n k w e w e r e r i gh t
The G e r m a n G o v e r n
m en t a pp e a r s t o b e li e v e t h a t s uch a m e t h o d i s i dle a n d i l
l u s o ry a n d a s t h e y h o l d t h e y c a n h a v e n o s h a r e i n i t I
r e c o g n iz e a n d r es p e c t t h e c a n do u r w i t h wh i ch P r i n c e B ulo w

h a s de c i de d t o s t a n d a s i de f r o m t h e d i s cu s s i o n a l t o g e t h e r

The s ca remo n g e rs k e p t u p the atta ck I t wa s

sugg e st e d tha t t h e Gov e rnm ent h a d wr e cke d t h e

a rmy a n d w e r e n o w t r yi n g to w r e ck t h e n avy
Th e
stat e m e nts o f the p a ni cm o n g e r s h o w e v e r r e a ch e d
su ch a lim i t that a To r y p ap e r i n a n a r ti cl e f r o m a
w e ll i n fo rm e d co rrespon d e n t o n n aval a ffa i rs sa i d :
.

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is i n n o d a n g e r wh a t e v er f ro m t he n a v i e s
N o t w i t h s t a n di n g t h e v o l um e
o f C o n t i n e n t a l P o w e rs
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n eithe r in
t h e H o u s e o f C o mm o n s n o r i n t h e H o u s e o f
L o rds h as a S i n g l e d i v i s i on b e e n t a k e n on a n y o n e o f t he
qu e s t i o n s a t i s s u e T h i s p rov es t h a t e i t h e r t h e U n i o n i s t O p

p o s i t i on is i n d i ffe r e n t t o o r i g n o r a n t o f t he c o u n t r y s i mp e n d
i n g f at e , o r t h a t t he c a mp a i g n a g a i n s t t he Adm i r a l t y i s t h e

n at o n

H OW

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D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

w o rk o f w i n db a g s wh ose pu n c t u r e
w il l be f o ll owe d by de a t i on

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tons
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d ow n e D elca ss e p ubl i c a n d s ecr e t a g r e e m e nts about
N e ith e r
M o r o cco w e r e sign e d i n Ap r il 1 9 0 4
B r ita i n no r Fra n c e noti e d G e r ma n y o f t h e pub li c
a g r e e m e n t Th e s e c r e t a g r e e m e n t m e a n t tha t
F r a n c e Sp a i n a n d B r ita i n h a d co n t r a ct e d t o v i olat e
In
t h e i n t e g r i t y a n d i n d e p e n d e nc e o f M o ro cco
M a rch 1 9 0 5 t h e G e rma n Emp e r o r vi s it e d Tan
gi e r with t h e obj e ct o f s a f e gu a r d i n g e ffi ca ciou sly

t h e i n t e r e sts o f G e rm a n y i n M o r o cco
to u se hi s
o w n wo r d s i n hi s a d d r e s s to t h e Sulta n s rep r e senta
t iv e s
Th en follow e d t h e w a r i n t h e B r iti sh a n d
Co n ti n e n ta l p r e s s B u t t h e se cre t a r ti cl e s we r e not
m a d e k n own u n t i l s i x ye a rs a ft e r the v i si t that cau s e d
t h e s e n s at i on i n B r i ta i n a n d Fran ce
I n Ja n u a ry
1 9 06
Si r E d wa r d G r e y ag r e e d with t h e F r e n c h
G o v e rn m e n t th a t co n v e rs at i o n s shoul d take pl ace b e
tw e e n B r iti sh a n d Fr e nch m ilita ry a n d nava l exp e r ts
I n t h e autum n o f 1 9 0 5 M D e lca ss e wa s fo rc e d to
r e sig n hi s p o rt foli o a n d L e M a ti n publ i sh e d t he
sto ry o f B r i ta in s w i lli n gne ss to s e n d a fo rc e i n sup
p ort o f F r anc e i nto Schl e swi g-H olst e in I n Ap r i l
1 9 0 6 t h e B e lgi an a n d B r it i sh m i lita ry autho r i t i e s in
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A D I S H ONEST P RETE ! T

19

t i o n o f a B r iti s h Exp e d i t i ona r y Fo rce o f

with t h e B e lgi a n a rmy a ga i n st Ge r ma n y M r H a l
d a n e a n n ounc e d i n t h e f o llowi n g month o f July that
t h e fo rc e h a d b e e n r e o rga n i z e d o n a mob i l i z atio n
Th e A ct o f Alg e c i ra s wa s s i g n e d
bas is o f
Ap r i l 7 th 1 9 0 6 s an d wich e d b e tw e e n t h e cons e n t
giv e n by S i r E d wa r d G r ey to the B r i t i sh a n d F r e n ch
milita r y a n d n ava l c o n v e rs at i ons a n d the B ru ss e ls
a r ra n g e me n t fo r B e lgi an a n d B r i tis h m i lita ry co
op e r atio n i n t h e e v e nt o f a wa r w i th G e rmany
Th e s e a r e t h e fa cts whi ch c anno t b e de ni e d by hon e st
men
I t m ay o f c o u r se b e n e c e ss a r y p layi n g t h e
gam e o f t h e c h a n c e ll e r i e s fo r d ip l o m ati sts a n d gov
e r n m e n t s to d e n y s o m e o f th e s e fa cts ; bu t it tak e s
o n ly th e v e r y sm all e s t e xp e ri e nc e to know what t h e
d e n i a ls o f M i n i st e r s a r e wo r th
Th e mu r d e r o f t h e Austri a n a rch d uk e wh e the r h e
wa s mu r d e r e d by Russ ia o r S e r b i a o r Vi enna h a d
l ittl e o r n othi n g to d o with this p re s e n t wa r I t
m ight h ave b e e n a p r e t e xt fo r b r i nging th i ngs to a
h e a d b u t to say it w a s t h e i n iti a l cau s e o f t h e w a r i s
t h e m ost u np r i n cip l e d fals e hoo d a J i ngo j ou rnal e ve r
i n d ulg e d in
Thi s w a r h a d long b eg i nnings ; th e y

l ay i n t h e p ath o s o f d i stanc e a s N i e t z sche woul d

s ay N ot t h e v i olatio n o f the i nt e g r i ty a n d i n d e
pe n d e n ce o f B e lgium bu t t h e V i o lation o f the i n
t e g r i t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e o f M oro cc o
N ot t h e a n
t i qu e t r e aty o f 1 8 3 9 bu t t h e s e cr e t a rt i cl e s wh i ch a c
comp a n i e d t h e Ag r e e m e n t o f 1 9 0 4
w hich w e re not
ma d e k n own to t h e wo r l d u n ti l N ov e mb e r 1 9 1 1
wh e r e i n S p a i n F ranc e a n d B ri ta i n h a d contra cte d
fo r t h e p a r titi o n o f M o r o cc o
Th e sca r e m o n g e r s i n the summe r o f 1 9 0 8 hel d
hi gh carn i v al ; the D a i ly Te le gr a p h sp rea d th e le ge nd
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108

D I P LO M AT S MA KE WA R

that the G overnm e n t i nt e nde d to o at a lo a n o f

s o that w e might b e ab le to bu il d a
n avy la rg e e nough to d e al with G e r many E a r ly in
the Ne w Y e a r th e r e w a s a g r e a t dea l o f e l e ctri c i ty
Aust r i a publi cly accu s e d
i n t h e d iplomati c a i r
B rita i n o f a p oli cy o f delib e rat e mal e vol e nce S i r
E dwa r d G r e y r e pu d i at e d the all e gati o n s a n d s a i d
th e y w e re sh e e r i nve nt i ons B ut n e it h e r t h e Fo re ig n
S e cr e ta ry s p rote st no r t h e a ssura nc e s o f o th e r M in
i s t e r s a s to t h e p a c i c i nt e nt i ons o f the Gov e r n m e n t
s e eme d to allay t h e a n xi e ty o f C ont i n ent a l P owers or
t h e p e rtu rb ati o ns o f t h e ala r mi sts at home
On Au gu st 1 4 th 1 9 0 8 M r C hu rchill at Swanse a
d el i ve re d a r e m a rkabl e s p e e ch o n ou r r e la t i ons wi th
G e rm any T hi s sp e e ch s hou l d b e p r e s e rv e d fo r
th e re i s a p a ssage i n i t th a t m ak e s st r ang e r e a d i n g
n ow wh e n n e a r ly the whol e o f t h e B riti sh p re ss d a y
a ft e r d a y t e lls u s that t he G e rm an p e ople a re a b ru
t i s h ra c e tra i n e d by S yb e l T r e i ts chk e a n d B ern
h a r d i Wh e n t h e w a r i s ov e r d ipl o m ati c r e lati o n s
will b e r e sum e d ; tra d e will sp ring up a ga i n b e tw e e n
t h e two p e opl e s ; a n d a m e mo r y o f what s o me m e n i n
th e d ays b e for e the a ctu al str i f e h av e s a i d o f G e r
many a n d th e G e rma n p e op l e m ay b e u s e fu l i n e stab
li s h in g o nc e mo re tho s e r e lat i ons wh i ch tru e Ch r i s
ti an p e op l e m ay a sp i r e to but n e v e r qu i t e e nj oy
Th e sp e e ch to b e qu ot e d from a n d no apology i s
thought n ec e ss a ry fo r t h e l e ngth o f the extra ct wa s
d el i v e r e d only a few we e ks a fte r Lo r d Cromer i n
the Hou s e O f Lo r d s sp ok e o f a Eu r o p e a n con ict
wh i ch mi gh t b e fo rce d up on u s b e fo r e m a n y y e a rs
M r C hu rch i ll sa i d :
I t h i n k i t i s g re a t l y t o b e de p r e c a t e d t h a t p e rs o n s
s h ou l d t ry t o s p r e a d t h e b e li e f i n t h i s c ou n t r y t h a t w a r
.

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be t w e e n

G re a t

1 09

G e r m a n y i s i n e v i t ab l e I t i s
I n t he r s t p l a c e t h e a l a r m i s t s h a v e n o
a ll n on s e n se
g ro u n ds wh a te v e r fo r t h e i r p a n i c o r f e a r
L oo k a t i t
f r o m a n y p o i n t o f V i e w yo u li ke a n d I s ay you w il l c o m e
t o t he c o n c lu s i on
i n r e g a r d t o t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n En g
l a n d a n d Ge r m a n y t h a t t h e re is n o r e a l c a u se o f d i ffe r e n ce
b e tw e e n t h e m a n d a l t h o ugh t h e r e m a y b e s n a pp i n g a n d
a n d i n t h e L o n d on c l ub s
s n a r li n g i n t h e n e w s p a p e r s
t h os e
tw o g r e a t p eo p l e h a v e n o t h i n g t o gh t a b o u t h a v e n o p r iz e
t o gh t fo r a n d h a v e n o p l a c e t o gh t i n
W h a t do e s a ll t h i s s n a pp i n g a n d s n a r li n g a m ou n t t o
a f t e r a ll ?
H o w m a n y p e o p l e d o yo u s upp o s e t h e re a r e i n
G e r m an y w ho r e a ll y w a n t t o m a k e a mu r de r o u s a t t a ck o n
t h i s co u n try ?
I do n o t s upp os e i n t he wh o l e o f t h a t g r e a t
p o pu l a t i o n o f f t y o r s ix t y m illi o n s o f i n h a b i t a n t s t h e r e a r e
t e n t h o u s a n d p e r so n s w ho w o u l d s e r i o u s l y c o n t e mp l a t e s uch
a h e lli s h a n d w i ck e d c r i m e ; a n d h o w m a n y d o yo u t h i n k
t h e re a re in t h is co u n t ry ?
I do n o t b e li e v e t h e re a r e e v en
t h a t n umb e r t o b e f o u n d i n o u r c o u n t ry
B u t e ve n i f
t he f t ee n t h o u s a n d p e r s o n s wh o m w e w il l s a y i n G e r m a n y
a n d t h i s c o u n t ry d e s i r e t o m a k e w a r o n o n e a n o t h e r w e r e
a s i n u e n t i a l a s o n e w o u l d t h i n k f r o m t h e n o i s e t h e y m a k e
a n d t h e c l a t t e r t h e y k e e p up
wh a t a b o u t t he r es t o f u s ?
W h a t a b o u t t he o n e hu n dre d m illi o n s o f p eo p l e w ho dw e l l
i n t h e s e i s l a n ds a n d G e r m a n y ? Ar e w e a ll s uch s h e e p ?
I s d e m o c r a cy i n t h e t w en t i e t h c e n t u r y s o p o w e r l e s s t o a ff e c t
i t s w ill ? Ar e w e a ll b e c o m e s uch pupp e t s a n d m a r i o n e tt e s
t o b e w i r e pu ll e d a g a i n s t o u r i n t e re s t s i n t o s uch h i de o u s
c o n vu l s i o n s ? I h a v e a h i gh a n d p re v a ili n g f a i t h i n t he
I h av e co m e h e re
e s s en t i a l g oo d n e s s o f g r e a t p e o p l e
t h i s a f t e r n o o n t o a s k yo u t o j o i n w i t h m e i n s a y i n g t h a t fa r
a n d w i de t h r o ugh o u t t h e m a s s e s o f t h e B r i t i s h d o m i n i o n s
I s ay
t h e re i s n o f e e li n g o f i ll w il l t o w a r ds G e r m a n y
w e h on o u r t h a t s t ro n g p a t i e n t i n du s t r i o u s G e r m a n p e o p l e
w h o h a v e b ee n fo r s o m a n y c e n t u r i e s d i v i de d a p r e y t o
Eu ro p e a n i n t r i gu e a n d a d r u dg e a m on g s t t he n at i o n s o f t he
Con t i n en t No w i n t he f u l n ess o f t i m e a f t e r m an y t r i bu
B ri t a in

an d

H OW

1 10

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

h y h a v e by t h e i r v i r t u es a n d v a l ou r w on t h e m
I s ay w e
s e l v es a f o r e m o s t p l a c e i n t h e f r o n t o f c i v iliz a t i o n
do n o t e n v y t h e m t h e i r g o o d f o r t u n e ; w e do n o t e n vy t h e m
W e a re n o t j e al o u s o f t h e m ;
t h e i r p o w e r a n d p ro s p e r i t y
w e w i s h t h e m w e ll f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f o u r h e a rts a n d w e
b e li e v e m os t r m l y t he v i c to r i es t h e y w il l w i n i n s c i e n c e
a g a i n s t w a s te
t he v i c t o r i e s
a n d l e a rn i n g a g a i n s t b a r b a r i s m
t h e y w ill g a i n w ill b e v i c t o r i es i n wh i ch w e s h a ll s h a r e a n d
wh i ch wh il e be n e t i n g t h e m w il l a l s o ben e t u s
la t ion s

t e

I t i s s a d to th i nk o f s e nt i ments such a s thos e e x

p r e ss e d by M r C hu rchill s i x ye a r s ago a n d th e n o f
wh a t i s taki n g p la ce now Looking from t h e reign
o f t e rro r whi ch now e xi sts i n B e lgium b a ck to t h e
d ays wh e n Engl ish sta t e sm e n b e li e v e d t h e G e rm a n

p e opl e
by th e i r v i rtu e s a n d va lou r h a d won for
th e ms e lves a fo remo st pl a c e i n the front o f c i v i l i z a

ti o n i t i s d iffi cult to a s so ci at e w i th th e Ge rma ny o f

Wa gn e r a n d R i cha r d St r au ss a n d L e n b a ch o f Go e th e
a n d S ch i ll e r
a n d o f Schop enhau e r a n d v o n Hum
b ol d t a ll the van dal i sm o f Louva i n D i nant a nd
M al i nes
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C HAPTE R VI
PA N I CMO N GE R S

w il l li f t up a n e n s i g n t o th e n a t i on s f r o m a f a r
a n d w ill h i ss u n t o t h e m f ro m t h e e n d o f t h e e a r t h : a n d
b e h o l d t h e y s h a ll co m e w i t h Sp e e d s w i f t ly :
N on e s h a ll b e w e a r y n o r s t umb le a m o n g t h e m ; n on e
s h a ll s l umb e r n o r s l e e p ; n e i t h e r s h a ll t h e g i r d l e o f t h e i r
l o i n s be loos e d n o r t he l a t ch e t o f t h e i r s h oe s b e b r o k e n :
W h o s e a r r o ws a re s h a r p a n d a ll t h e i r b o w s b e n t t h e i r
h o rs e s h oo f s s h a l l b e c o u n te d li ke i n t a n d t h e i r wh ee l s
li k e a wh i r l w i n d :
T h e i r ro a r i n g Sh a ll b e li k e a li o n t h e y s h a ll ro a r li k e
y o u n g li on s : ye a t h e y s h a ll r o a r an d lay h o l d o f t he p r e y
a n d Sh a ll c a r r y i t a w a y s a f e
a n d n o n e s h a l l d e li v e r i t
An d i n t h a t d a y t h e y s h a l l r o a r a g a i n s t t h e m li k e t he
r o a r i n g o f t h e s e a : a n d i f o n e l oo k u n t o t he l a n d
be hol d
d a r k n ess a n d so r r o w a n d t h e li gh t i s d a r k e n e d i n t h e
h e av e n s t h e re o f
I s ai ah
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O n F e b ru a ry 8 th 1 9 0 9 t h e French a n d G e rman
G o ve rn m e n ts m a d e a d e clar at i on o f th e i r int e nti ons
towa r d s M o ro cco T h i s wa s d on e s o th a t t h e two
Gov e r nm e nts m i ght d e n e t h e m e a n i n g they a tta ch e d
to t h e a r ti cl e s o f the Algeci ra s Act i n o r d e r to avoi d
m i su n de rsta n d i n g i n fu tu r e Th e Ge rm an G ov e r n
m e nt r e cogni z e d t h e sp ec i al politi ca l int e re sts o f
France i n M o ro cco a n d r e solve d not to i mp e d e tho s e
i n t e r e sts
Th e G e rma n s pu rsu ing only e conom i c
i nt e rests i n M o ro c co p rom i s e d not to encou r age any
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1 12

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

other P o w e r whi ch m ight st r iv e to gai n e conomi c

p r ivil e g e s Th e F r e n ch Gov e rnm e n t r e a ffi r m e d its
st r o n g attac h m e n t to t h e ma i n tena nc e o f t h e i n d e
n d e n ce a n d i n t e gr i ty o f t h e M o ro cca n Emp i r e a n d
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i n d u st r i al i n t e r e sts in th at cou n try
Wh e th e r t h e p e opl e s o f Eu rop e w i ll e ve r a ga i n
p e r mit a n y d ip lom ati c t r a ffi cki n gs no o n e ca n t e ll ; but
i f th e y d o t h e n t h e wo rst that ca n ha pp e n will b e t o o
goo d fo r them
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to m a i n ta i n t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d i n t e gr i ty o f M o
ro cco ; wh e n Fra n c e a n d Sp a i n w ith th e sa n ct i on o f
Lo r d La n s d ow n e h a d s e c r e tly e n ga ge d tha t F ra nc e
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a r ti cl e s w e r e no t publi sh e d u ntil N ov e mb e r 1 9 1 1
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allow t h e publi c to b e t o l d tha t G e r many wa s t h e
a gg r e sso r a n d d e lib e r a t e ly pl a n n e d a wa r a ga i nst
B r ita in ! S u ch i n famy i s i n d e e d h a r d to swallow
Y e t sw allow i t t h e publi c mu st i f d e mo cra cy i s eve r
t o hav e a cha n c e o f b r i n gi n g ab ou t i n Eu rop e a stat e
o f affa i rs tha t corr e sp o n d s w i th o r d i n a ry m e rcanti l e
h o n e sty
Bu t a r e th e inue n c e s tha t u s e the p r e s s to o pow
e r fu l fo r t h e p e opl e to ov e r come ?
Wh e n the publi c
a re u p agai n st su ch fo rc e s a s a r mam e n t r i n gs m ilita ry
a n d n ava l l e agu e s p a n i cmo n g e rs a n d t h e a d ve rt i s i n g
d epa r tm e nt o f Fo r e i g n O ffi c e s t h e ta sk d o e s s e e m
a lmost to o much fo r t h e m a ss e s Th e cu n n i n g the
subtl e ty the ava r i c e the n e poti sm the ca st e p owe r
that sh i e l d d iplomati c a ct i on a re
a n d the s e c r e cy
.

B ALFOU R LEA D S TH E C H O RU S

1 13

f e a rful fo rces a r r ay e d aga inst t he p e opl e who h av e

not ye t by a long w a y r e a ch e d p oliti c a l fr e e d om le t
a lone e conomi c l ib e r ty Thi n k o f t h e e v e n ts o f
h e r e i n B r i ta i n a n d th e n t ry to e st i mat e wh a t
1 9 09
t h e p ubli c h av e to d o
One month a ft e r t h e sig n ing o f the G e rm an
F rench d e cla r ati o n r e sp e cti n g M o ro cco M r M c
K e n n a who h a d b e c o m e Fi rst Lo r d o f the Ad
m i r a lty i ntrodu c e d t h e n aval e stim a t e s whi ch showe d
an i n cr e a se o f two a n d thr e e qu a rt e rs milli ons
They w e r e m e t w i th a co n t e mp tu ou s n ot e o f r e j e cti on

by M r B al fou r
Utt e r ly insu ffi ci e n t h e ung
ou t a n d i mm e d i at e ly t h e S ig n a l was giv e n fo r o n e o f
th e w i l d e st o r gi e s o f J i n go f e e ling t h e c o unt ry ha s
e v e r su ffe r e d
An d wh a t w a s i t a ll ab out ? Th e
Gov e rnm e n t s ca s e w a s l a i d down by M r Asqu ith
wh o sa i d :
,

The r s t a ssu m p t i on w a s t h a t t he G e r m an p a p e r p ro
g r a mm e I t h i n k I des c r i b e d i t a s a p a p e r p r o g r a m m e

wh i ch m i gh t n o t be r e a liz e d a n d c e r t a i n l y w o u l d
n o t b e e x c e e de d
T h at has t u rn e d o u t n o t t o be t r u e b e
c a u s e i t i s u n do u bt e d l y t h e c a s e I s p e a k w i t h a s m u ch
r e s e rv e a s I ca n a b o u t i t
b e c a u s e I w a n t t o k ee p s t r i c t l y
w i t h i n t he v e r i a b l e t r u t h i t i s a f a c t t h a t d u r i n g t he
a u t um n o f l a s t y e a r t h e r e w a s a n a n t i c i p a t i o n w i t h f o u r
10
s h i p s wh i ch b e l o n g t o t h e G e r m a n p ro g r a mm e o f 1 9 0 9
i n the s e n s e t h a t o r de r s w e r e g i v e n m a t e r i a l s c o ll e c t e d i t
m ay b e t h a t i n o n e o r t w o c as es p o s s i b l y i n m o r e s h i p s w e r e
a ct u a ll y l a i d do w n
w as

on e

Accel e rat i o n o f t h e G e rm an n ava l p rogramm e wa s

t h e cau s e o f t h e t r o ubl e a n d t h e r e a so n why ou r es ti
m a t e s r o s e su d d e n ly i n 1 9 0 9 s o t h e G ov e rnm e n t s a i d
B ut b oth P r i n c e v o n B ii lo w a n d A dmi ral v o n T i rp i t z
I n d ee d t h e G e rma n G ove rn
d e n i e d t h e a ccu satio n
,

H OW D I PLO M ATS M A KE

1 14

WAR

m e nt h a d m a d e a mos t d i st i nct d e cla rat i on to ou r

G ov e r n m e nt t h a t i t wa s no t th e i r i n t e n ti o n t o a cc e l
c r at e th e i r p r o g r amm e
R e f e r r i ng to t h e d e cla r a
t i o n o f the G e r man G ov e r n m e nt M r As qu ith sa i d :
.

G o v e rn m en t b e li e v i n g a s w e do m os t e x p li c i t l y
i n t he g o o d f a i t h o f t h o s e d e c l a r a t i o n s w e c a n n o t p o s s i b l y
p u t b e f o re t he H o u s e o f C o mm o n s a n d P a r li a m e n t a p r o
g r a mm e b as e d o n t he a ss ump t i o n t h a t a d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h a t
k i n d w ill n o t be c a r r i e d o u t

As

I t w i ll b e s e e n i n s p i t e o f M r Asqu i th s wo r ds
tha t t h e d e cl a rati o n wa s th r ow n to t h e wi n d s a n d
tha t t h e G ove r nm e nt i n a fe w w e e ks w a s sw e p t o ff its
f e et by the st o rm o f J ingo f e e li n g i n t h e cou n t ry
We k n ow now tha t t h e ab omi n abl e s ca r e w a s t h e
wo r k no t o f a G e rm an G ov e r n m e n t whos e w o r d
coul d no t b e reli e d on b u t o f a ga n g o f B r i ti sh
p at r i ots connect e d w i th the a rmam e nt r i n g on t h e
s e a r ch fo r o r d e r s a n d d iv i d e n d s a n d supp o rt e d by a
l a rge secti on o f the B r iti sh p r e s s co n t r oll e d by a s yn
A M r M ulli n e r o n ce m ana gi n g d i r e cto r o f
d i ca t e
t h e C oventry O r d n a n c e C omp any w a s t h e o st e ns ibl e
i nst i ga to r
I n the h ab i lim e n ts o f a p a t r i ot h e
sta rt e d a camp a i gn th at fo st e re d h at r e d a n d h o st i lity
i n m i ll i ons o f he a rts a n d m i n d s i n b oth G e rm a n y a n d
B r i ta i n So e arly a s M ay 1 9 0 6 M r M ull i n e r
i n fo rme d th e A dmi r al t y tha t t h e G e rm a n s we r e m ak
i n g p r e p ar a t i o n s fo r i ncr e a si n g th e i r n avy t o va st
p r o p o r ti o n s O n M a rch 3 r d 1 9 0 9 M r M ull i n e r
gav e e vi d e nce b e fo r e t h e C ab i n e t in supp o rt o f t h e
i n fo rmation h e h a d b r ought t o t h e n o ti c e o f t h e Ad
m i r a lty d u r i ng a p e r i o d cov e r i n g n e a r ly thr e e y e a r s
I n th e H i s t o r y o f a Gr e a t S ca r e M r P e rr i s s ays o f
M r Mulli n e r :

M R M ULLI N E R
.

PAT R I OT

1 15

For t h ree
t he wo r k o f

y e a rs i n f a c t t h i s ge n t l e m an g a v e h i m s el f
to
p r o p a g a t i n g t he my t h o f a g i g an t i c e x p a n s i o n
o f K r upp s w o r k s
i n p a r t i cu l a r a n d o f G e r m a n a cc e l e r a
t i on i n g e n e ra l
I t w a s a n u n de r g r o u n d c a mp a i g n ; b u t w e
g a t h e r f ro m s ub se q u e n t l e t t e rs a n d s p e e ch e s t h a t M r M u l
li n e r s i n f o r m a t i o n s en t rs t t o t he W a r O ffi c e i n M a y
1 9 06
w as p a ss e d o n t o t he Ad m i ra l t y
w a s d i s cu s s e d by
t h e m w i t h s e v e r a l o u t s i de rs
p a ss e d f r o m h a n d
an d t hen
t o h a n d so t h a t h u n d r e d s h a v e r e a d i t
O f t h is in f o r m a
t i on
I n e e d n ow s ay n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h a t a s s o o n a s i t
b e c a m e pub li c i t w a s e mph a t i c a ll y c on t r a di c t e d by M e s s r s
K r up p t h ro u gh M r J o h n L e y l a n d a n d o t h e r c o r re s p on d
a n d a f t e r so me y e a r s i t w a s p r a c t i c a ll y a d m i t t e d by
e n ts
t he G o v e rn m en t t o b e f a l se a n d t h a t t i m e h a s p r o v e d t h a t
i t n e v e r h a d a n y re a l b a s i s
I t w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s p ro p a
g a t e d w i t h u n r e m i t t i n g z e a l in f o r m s m o r e a n d m o re l u r i d
a n d w i t h t h e g ra d u a l as s en t o f t he l e a d e r s o f t h e O pp o s i
,

t on

I t w a s o n th e i n fo rm a t i on l a i d by M r M ull i ne r
b e for e t h e C ab i net on M a rch 3 r d th a t the G o ve r n
m ent b a se d the i r cas e fo r the e n o rmou s i ncr e a se i n
th e e st i ma tes H ow d e e ply conv i nce d the C ab i n e t
w a s o f the a ccu ra cy o f t h e i n fo rm at i on p r e s e n t e d by
M r M ulline r i n sp i t e o f the d en i a ls o f the G e rm a n
C h anc e llo r a n d A d m i ra l v o n T i rp i t z 18 to b e gath
e r e d fro m M r
As q u i th s sp ee ch i n the H ou s e o f
C ommons :
.

I f a n y o n e w ill r e f e r t o t he s p ee ch I m a de a y e a r a go
h e w ill s ee t h a t I s a i d w i t h so m e c o n de n c e t h a t wh e r eas i t
wo u l d t a k e t he G e r m a n s t h i rt y m o n t h s t o bu il d on e o f
I w as n o t o f
t h ese s h i p s w e c o u l d d o i t i n t w e n t y f ou r
co u rs e co mm i t t i n g my s e l f p re c i s e l y t o t he n umb e r o f
m o n t h s b u t I did m a i n t a i n t h a t w e ha d a s ub s t a n t i a l a d
v a n t a g e i n th e r a t e o f co n s t ru c t i on wh i ch w o u l d a l w ay s e n
ab l e us t o qui ckl y o v e r t a k e t h e m wh en t he e v en t o ccu rr e d
,

1 16

H OW

D I P LO M ATS M A K E WA R

I am s or r y t o s ay i t i s n o t t he c as e I b e li e v e d i t to be t he
f a c t a t t he t i m e a t wh i ch I s p o ke b u t t h e r e h a s b ee n s uch
an
e n o rm o u s
d e v e l o pm e n t i n G e r m an y I Sp e a k qu i t e
f ra n k l y t o t he H o u s e b e c a u se I a m o b li ge d t o t e ll t h e m t h ese
m a t t e r s a n d t o le t t h e m u n de rs t a n d why w e e c o n o m i s t s
h a v e p r e s e n te d t h e s e e s t i m a tes t o t he H ou s e t h e re ha s
b e e n s uch a n e n o r m o u s d e v e l o pm e n t in G e r m a n y n o t o n ly
i n t h e p ro v i s i o n o f s h i p y a rds a n d s li p s o n wh i ch t he bu l k
o r f a b r i c o f a s h i p c a n b e bu il t o r r e p a i r e d
bu t wh a t i s
s t ill m o r e s e r i o u s
i n t h e p ro v i s i o n o f g u n m o u n t i n g s a n d
a r m a m e n t s o f t h o se g r e a t m on s t e rs
d r e a dn a ugh t s
t h o se
wh i ch a re n ow t he do m i n a t i n g t yp e o f s h i p S u ch an e n o r
m o u s d e v e l o pm en t a n d I w ill v en t u re t o s ay b e i n g m o s t
a n xi o u s n o t t o e x c i t e a n y t h i n g i n t h e n a t u r e o f u n n e ce s
s a r y a l a r m i n t h i s c o u n t ry
s uch a n e n o r m o u s d e v e l o pm e n t
i s s o s e r i o u s f ro m o u r n a t i on a l p o i n t o f v i ew t h at w e co u l d
n o l o n g e r t a k e t o o u rs e l v e s a s w e c o u l d a y e a r a go w i t h
r e a s o n t h e c o n s o li n g a n d c o mf o r t i n g re e c t i o n t h a t w e h a v e
t h e a dv a n t a g e i n s p e e d a n d t he r a t e a t wh i ch s h i p s ca n be

c on s t r uc t e d
.

The eno rmou s d e v e lopm e nt fou r t i mes e mp h a

s i z e d by M r As qu ith w a s a me r e gment o f t h e
m i n d o f t h e p atr i oti c M r M ulline r N ev e rth e less
i t shows to wha t b a s e u se s P rim e M i n i sters m ay b e
p u t a n d how d i ffi cult i t w i ll b e fo r t h e p eop l e to
gra ppl e with t h e e vi ls o f J i ngo i maginat i o n Th i s
fa ct sta n d s ou t i n a ll t he mi s e r able busin e s s : the d i s
t i n ct d e cl arat i on o f the G e rma n G ov e rnment wa s
i gnor e d by th e B r i t i sh C ab i net and t h e myth sp i nn i n g
M r M ulli n e r w a s b e l i e v e d i nst e a d
Though Ad
m i ra l v o n T i rp i t z tol d the Bu d g e t C ommitt e e o f the
R e i chsta g on M a r ch 1 7 th tha t the r e woul d b e only
13
s hip s r e a d y i n t h e a utumn o f 1 9 1 2 t h e B ri t
i sh C ab in e t gu re d ou t the M ulli n e r a cc e lera t i o n to
giv e G e r ma ny 1 7 S h i p s r ea d y by M a rch 1 9 1 2

WHAT COULD GE R M AN Y TH I N K ?

1 17

M r B al fou r who would

o e rtop old P e l i on
sa i d 2 5 ship s ; o r i n a ny ca se 2 1
G e rm a n y h a d
o n ly 1 3 o f th e s e ship s i n fu ll comm i ss i o n i n Ap r il
B al fou r s e st i m at e fo r
1 9 1 4 v e ye a r s a ft e r M r
th r e e y e a r s M r M u llin e r h a d t h e l e a d e rs o f the
G ov e r n m e n t a n d t h e Op po siti on s ca re d ou t o f th e i r
w i ts bu t M e ss r s A s qu ith B a l fou r a nd M ull i n e r
w e r e wrong ; A d m i r a l v o n T i r p it z wa s r i ght On
M arch 3 I st 1 9 1 2 th e G e r m a n s h a d o n ly n i n e
d re a d naught b attl e ship s a n d c r u i s e r s r e a d y
N o w wh a t mu st t h e G e rm a n Gov e r n ment h ave
thou ght o f t h e i nt e n t i o n s o f t h e B r iti sh Gov e r nm e nt ; t o
who m they h a d giv e n a d e cla r ati o n wh i ch i n 1 9 0 9 was
n o t b e li e v e d a n d th r e e y e ars l at e r w a s p r ov e d to hav e
b e e n a d h e r e d to in e v e r y p a r ti cula r ? D i d t h e a cti on
o f t h e B r i t i sh G ov e rnm e n t t e n d to a llay t h e f e e li n g
b e tw e en t h e two c o u ntri e s whi ch h a d a lrea dy b e en
d e s crib e d by sta tesmen a s e x trem e ly d ang e rou s to the
p e a c e o f Eu r op e ?
A n i m os i ty a lr e a dy emb i tt e r e d i n a n ewsp ap e r wa r
e xte n d i n g ov e r a t l e a st a cont i n u ou s p e r i o d o f th r e e
y e ars mu st h av e b e e n a ggrava te d b eyon d a ll b oun d s
by t h e e v e nts o f M a rch 1 9 0 9
Th e s o l e m n wa rn
i n gs o f som e l e a de rs o f p o l iti ca l thou ght i n the coun
try h a d l i ttl e o r n o e ffe ct o n the scar e mong e rs
a n d t h e a rmament ri n g ag e nts
The taxp ay e r s o f
B r ita i n a n d t h e r e st o f Eu r o p e we r e g r o a n ing u n d e r
t h e t err i bl e bu r d e n o f buyi n g i mp l e m e n ts o f S laugh
t e r ; i n v a i n h ow e v e r th e y cri e d to th e i r Gov e r n
m e nts to redu c e e xp e n d i tu r e o n a r m i e s a nd n av i e s
A n d the mo r e th e p e op l e de m an d e d r e du ct i on t h e
m o r e m i ll i ons the co nt r a cto rs a n d the i r a ge n ts in
s i ste d on sp e nd i ng S i r E d wa r d Gr e y o n M a rch
2 th 1 9 0 9 i n the Hou s e o f C ommo n s s a i d :
9
,

H OW D I PLO M AT S M A K E WA R

1 18

The g re a t c o u n t r i es

E u ro p e a r e r a i s i n g e n o r m ou s
re v e n u e s
an d s o m e t h i n g
li k e o n e h a l f o f t h e m is b e i n g
s p e n t o n m ili t a r y an d n a v a l p r e p a r a t i o n s
Y o u m ay c a ll i t
t h a t i s p e r f e c t l y t r u e ; b u t i t i s e qu a ll y
n a t i on a l i n s u r a n c e
t r u e t h a t o n e h al f o f t he n a t i o n a l r e v e n u e o f t he g r e a t
c o u n t r i es i n Eu ro p e is b e i n g Sp e n t o n wh at a re a f t e r a ll
p re p a r at i o n s t o k ill e a ch o t h e r S u re l y t he ex t e n t t o wh i ch
t h i s ex p e n d i t u r e h a s g r o w n r e all y b e c o m e s a s a t i re a n d a

r e e c t i o n up on c i v iliz a t i o n
of

Ye s ,

any G ove rnm e nt that p e rm i ts any M r

M ulline r to d i r e ct i ts n ava l p ol i cy i s a gross s at i r e
a n d a r e ect i o n u p on d e mo cr a cy
Th e e no rmou s
r evenu e s wh i ch G ove rnm e n ts h ave sp e n t du r ing the
p a st e i ght y e a rs o n a rmam e nts h ave b e en a ttribute d
la r g e ly to th e false i n form at i on sp r e a d ab ou t th e
wo rl d by p a n i cm onge rs Take M r B al fou r fo r
i nstance who he a r d t h e wa rn i n g of the Fo re i g n Se c
r e t a ry !
O n ly t wo d ays a ft e r i t wa s d e l i ve r e d M r
B a l fou r w e n t to t h e Guil d hall m eet i ng a tten d e d
ma i nly by s ha rehol d ers o f the a rmament r i ng a n d
th e re h e d i d h i s b est to sway the c row d i n t h e d i r e c
t i on o f fo rcing t h e Gove rnment to sp en d m o re mil
l i on s o n p r e pa rat i ons to kill h i s fellow-men
Mr
B al fou r s a i d
an

The G o v e rn m en t p l an i s fo u r s h i p s

h i s y e a r a n d t he
p re p a r a t i on for a p o ss i b l e f o u r Sh i p s o n Ap r il I s t n e x t y e a r
D o t h e s e Ap r il I s t s h i p s b e l o n g t o n ex t y e a r s p ro g r a mm e
?
r
r
r
o r t o t h i s y e a s p o g a mm e
I f t h ey b e lon g as I t h i n k
t h e y o u gh t t o b e l o n g t o t h i s y e a r s p r o gr a mm e le t u s p u t
t h e m i n t o t h i s y e a r s p r o g r a mm e ; b u t i f t h e y a r e re a ll y a n d
g e n ui n e l y i n t e n de d t o b e l on g t o n ex t y e a r s p ro g r a mm e
t h en I a s k wh a t y o u r s i t u a t i o n w il l b e i f yo u n d t h a t n e x t
y e a r s p ro g r a mm e p ro p e r I m e a n n e x t y e a r s p ro g r a mm e
i rres p e ct i v e o f t he Ap r il I s t s h i p s is i t s e l f t o co n s i s t o f e i gh t
a n d I t h i n k v e r y li k e l y i t w ill h a v e t o c o n s i s t o f
sh ips
t

WH O SHALL

P AY

TH E B I LLS ?

1 19

i gh t s h i p s T h a t w ill me an you w il l a t t e mp t t o b u il d
I c a ll t h a t
t w e l v e s h i p s n ex t y e a r a g a i n s t f o u r t h i s y e a r
e

p re p o s t e r o u s

B u t wha t would b e th e
e ff e ct o f th a t s p e e ch i n G e r m a n y ? N o o n e th e re

woul d s ay p r e p o st e r ou s
Th e y wou ld p r o bably
th i n k B r iti s h e x M inist e rs mu st h av e gone rav i ng
m a d wh e n i n t h e fa c e o f t h e d e cla ration o f th e Ge r
m an G ov e r n m e nt M r B al fou r cou l d t e ll c i ty m ag
n ate s a n d the i r cl e rks that h e wa nt e d t h e Gov e r nm e nt
to b u il d e i ght b attl e ship s th a t y e a r Wh e th e r t h e
G e rma n s w e r e s ca r e d o r n o t h e su cc e e d e d in s ca r i ng
I n the e n
t h e G ov e r n ment a lmos t ou t o f i ts s e ns e s
su i n g m onths b oth M r A squ i t h a n d Si r E dwa r d
G r e y b owe d th e i r h e a d to t h e sto r m ; a n d th e n l ate r
M r Lloy d G e o rge talke d ab ou t ways a n d m e ans o f
r a is ing the mon e y M r Asqu ith a ssu r e d h i s a u d i
e nc e a t Glasgow i n Ap ri l , th at b oth h e a n d S i r E d
wa r d G rey h a d g i v e n t h e mo st expli cit p l e dg e to t h e
C ommons that i f the n e cessity sh o ul d a r i s e fou r e x
tra ship s w o ul d b e o r d e re d N atu r a lly t h e ag e nts o f
t h e a r m am e nt r i ng to ok go o d c a re tha t t h e n e cess i ty
wou l d a r is e
When M r Lloy d Ge o rg e i ntroduc e d hi s bu dget o f
1 9 09 he s a i d :
P rep ost e r ou s ,

i n de e d !

We

j e o p a r dy t he n av a l s u
p r e m acy wh i ch i s e s s en t i a l n o t o n ly t o o u r n a t i on a l e x
i s t e n ce b u t i n o u r j u d gm e n t t o t h e v i t a l i n t e re s t s o f w e s t e r n
c i v iliz a t i on B u t i n my j u dgm e n t i t w o u l d a l s o b e a n
a ct o f c r i m i n a l i n s a n i t y t o t h r o w a w a y e i gh t m illi on s o f
m o n e y wh i ch i s s o much n e e de d fo r o t h e r pu r p os e s o n
bu il di n g g i g an t i c o t illas m e re l y to en c oun t e r my t h i c a l
T h a t is why w e p ro p os e on l y t o i n cu r t h i s
a r m a d as
We
e n o r m o u s e x pe n di t u re wh e n t he n ee d fo r i t a r ise s

do

n ot

i n t en d

pu t

to

in

H OW

: 20

m us t

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

u re t h e c o mp l e t e se c u r i t y o f o u r Sh o re s a g a i n s t all
b u t w e c a n n o t a ff o r d t o bu il d n a v i e s a g a i n s t
r e a l d an g e rs
H o w e v e r a s i t m ay b e n e c es s a ry t o m a k e
n i gh t m a r e s
a r ra n g e m e n t s fo r l a y i n g d o w n a ll t he e i gh t d r e a dn a u gh t s
1 9 10
o n Ap r il I s t
en s

Then wh e n h e told the p a tr i ots how the m oney was

to b e ra i s e d b y a tax on lan d valu e s
a cry o f
p a i n a ro s e from lan d lor d s a n d pluto crats all ov e r th e
l a n d On e hu n d re d G e r ma n s ixt e e n inch gun s cou l d
not h ave wrought half t h e p a n i c among t h e ru ling
class e s that th i s Bu d g e t d id Th e cri e s o f
in

an d
ra i d a nd a noth e r am e n d ment to
v a s io n

w e re tu rn e d to howls o f
t h e G e rma n Na v y Law

conscati on
a nd
spoli atio n
and
robb e ry
All talk o f wa n ting e i ght d r e a dn aughts wa s st i ll e d
a n d f e a rs o f a G e rma n inva si on w e r e lo st i n t h e hor
r o r s o f hav i n g to p la c e a va lu e o n la n d
I f t h e Gov
e r n m e n t o f 1 9 0 6 h a d that y e a r int r o d u c e d a Lan d
valu e s B u d g e t t h e count r y woul d h av e h e a r d littl e
f r o m t h e s caremongers
th e r e i s nothing lik e m ak
B ut i n 1 9 0 9
i n g p a tri ots p ay fo r what th e y wa n t
th e y c r i e d b e fo r e th e y we re hu rt Th e r e wa s r e ally
nothi n g to f e a r i n th e B u d g e t fo r i t h a d no t re a ch e d
a C omm i tt e e sta g e ; t h e Whigs h a d n ot got to wo rk
on i t An d i n d e e d wh e n th e y h a d r e mo d e lle d M r
Lloy d George s B u d g e t all the vita l p a rt o f i t wa s d e
stroye d a n d the la n d lo r d s a n d p lu to crats were fre e
to giv e the i r attent i on onc e mo r e to p rot e ct i ng th e i r
a cr e s from a fo e th e y d r e a d e d le ss than th e y d re a de d
the C ha n c e llo r o f t h e Exche qu e r
Th e B u d g e t s sa lu ta r y e ffe ct o n t h e s ca remonge rs
may b e gaug e d by th e ta ct i cs o f the Oppo siti o n
On
Ap r i l 6 t h t h e following not i c e w a s i ssu e d by t h e Op
p o s i t i on Whip s to t he p r e ss :
-

L A N D VALUE S BU D G ET

I 21

p i d p r o g r e s s fo r t he o r g a n iz a t i o n
a f t e r t he r e c e s s o f a g r e a t c a mp a i g n i n t h e c o u n t r y i n s u p
p o r t o f t he c l a i m fo r th e i mm e d i a t e bu il di n g o f t h e f o u r
c on di t i o n a l d re a dn a ugh ts The k e y n o t e o f t h e a g i t a t i o n i s
t o b e f o u n d i n M r B a l f o u r s s p e e ch a t t he Gu il dh a ll o n
W e dn e s da y l a s t M a r ch 3 l s t :
Y o u mu s t n o t o n l y h a v e p o w e r t o bu il d yo u mu s t bu il d
w i t h o u t d e l a y w i t h o u t h es i t a t i o n w i t h o u t w a i t i n g fo r co n
t i n ge n ci e s fo r o b s cu r e c i r cum s t a n c e s fo r fu t u r e n e c es s i t i e s
For
Y o u mu s t bu il d n o w t o m e e t t h e p r e s en t n e c e s s i t y
b e li e v e m e t he n e c e ss i t y is up o n yo u I t i s n o t c o m i n g t o
yo u i n J u l y o r N o v e mb e r o r Ap r il n e x t ; i t i s o n yo u n ow
An d i t i s n ow t h a t yo u mu s t b e g i n t o m e e t i t

Ar r a n g e m e n ts

a re

in

ra

Th e u rg e n cy o f t h e camp a ig n i n t he m i nd o f t h e
autho r o f Th e F o u n d a ti o n s o f B e li e f s e e m e d t o b e
ov e rwh e lming B u t th e E a st e r r e c e ss p as s e d aw ay
w i thou t a n y s igns o f t h e g r e a t camp a ig n Th e im

m e d i at e n e e d wa s f o rgott e n i n t h e thro e s o f t h e
p a n i c ca us e d by t h e La n d va lu e s B u d g e t S o t h e O p
p o s it i on p o stp o n e d i n d e n it e ly t h e i n e vi tab l e w a r
w i th G e rm a n y ; a n d t h e e n e rgy to b e u s e d i n m aki n g
p rep a rat i o n s to m e e t G e r m a n y wa s sp e nt i n d i s ch a r g
i n g ga r d e n e r s gam e k e e p e rs a n d f o o tm e n whi ch t h e
t e r ribl e B u d g e t c o ul d n o t le t th e m k e e p
N e ve r a
sh e ll gam e a r tist a t a cou n t r y fa i r r e a ch e d t h e l i mits
o f buncomb e p racti se d by t h e Op po siti o n i n t h e
sp r i ng o f 1 9 0 9
I t wa s a ro a r i n g fa r c e ;
th a t i s i t
woul d have b e e n i f G ermany h a d no t take n i t fo r
trage dy
Th e am a z i n g p o s i t i o n o f a wo rl d a t p e a ce a r m i n g
hug e b atta li o ns a n d launchi n g g r e a t a rm a d as fo rc e d
Lo r d Ro seb e ry to m ak e t h e follow i ng comm e n t :
,

W i t h o u t a n y t a n g i b l e r e as on w e s e e t he n a t i o n s
p a r i n g n ew a r m a m e n t s T h e y c a n n o t a r m a n y m o r e

p re

m en

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

122

h e y h av e t o s e e k n ew a rm a m e n ts o n s e a p ili n g
up t h e s e e n o r m o u s p re p a r a t i o n s as i f fo r s o m e g r e a t Ar m a

d
n
a n d t h a t i n t h e t i m e o f p r o f o u n des t p e a c e
e
d
o
g
W h en I s e e t h i s bu rs t i n g o u t o f n av i es e v e rywh e re wh e n
I s e e o n e c o u n t r y a l o n e a s k i n g fo r 2 5 m illi o n s o f e x t r a
wh e n I s ee t he a b s o
t a x a t i o n fo r w a r li k e p r e p a r a t i o n s
lu t e ly u n p re c e de n t e d s a c r i c e s wh i ch a r e a s k e d f ro m u s o n
t h e s a m e g r o u n d I do b e g i n t o f e e l u n e a s y a t t h e o u t co m e
o f i t a ll a n d w o n d e r wh e re i t w ill s t o p
o r i f i t i s go i n g
t o b r i n g b a ck Eu ro p e i n t o a s t a t e o f b a r b a r i s m o r wh e t h e r
i t w ill c a u se a c a t a s t r o ph e i n wh i ch t h e w o r k i n g m en o f
w e w ill h a v e n o m o r e o f t h i s m a dn es s
t h e w o r l d w ill s ay
t h i s f o o l e ry wh i ch i s g r i n d i n g u s t o p o w de r

on

lan d

so t

Lo r d Ros e b ery m i ght th e n h ave rem emb e re d h i s

cr i t i c i sm o f the French Agre ement ; he m i ght h av e
ask e d i f any s ecret agre em e nt h a d b e e n m a d e by the
G o v e rnm e n t w i th Fra n c e ; he m i ght have a ske d what
G e rmany thought o f the Fr e n ch G ove rnment s i n ce
the s ign i ng o f the n ew d e cl a r a t i on e a rl i er i n tha t
y e a r Wh a t w ere a ll the s i n i ste r d es i gns i n B r i ta in
a n d Eu rop e tha t cau s e d grave app re hens i o n i n G e r
many ? The r e mu s t hav e b e e n cau s e s oth e r tha n
p ani cs a n d s ca re s to forc e gove rnme n ts to sp en d s o
mu ch mon e y on a rm am e nts i n t i me s o f p e a ce N a
ti ons (m e a n i ng p eop le s ) ha d noth i ng to d o w i th i t
fo r fore i gn p ol i cy w a s kept fro m them a nd i n m i !
i t a ry and n av a l a ff a i rs the p eople we r e u su ally m i s i n
fo r me d G ove rnments a n d gove rnment s alone
we r e resp ons i ble A C ont i n e nt o f governments
bound by tr e at i e s ententes a n d agr e em ents a ll fo r

the p r e servat i on o f the p ea c e o f Europ e shou l d

not b e torn by qu a rr e ls ove r sums sp e nt on a rm i es a n d
n av i es ; not i f d i p loma cy we re worth a rag-m a n s ba g
B ut a fte r a ll s o long a s se cret d i plom a cy seek i ng
p ea ce ca n not b e ca rr i e d o n w i thou t a rm e d supp ort i t
.

A C ONF ESS I ON O F FAI LU RE

1 23

i s u sel e ss m aki n g comp la i n t a t the e x p e nse o f the

gam e Th e utt e r ab su r d ity o f the p o siti o n can b e
r e ali z e d a t o n ce w h e n ou r Fo r e ig n S e creta ry wa s
move d t o m ak e su ch a con fessi on o f fa i lu r e a s t h e
follow i ng :
.

W e a r e in co mp a r a t i v e l y c a l m w e a t h e r ; w e a re n o t in
s t o r my w e a t h e r i n f o r e i g n p o li t i c s a t t h e p r e s e n t m o m e n t
b u t t h e e x c es s i v e e x p e n d i t u r e o n a r m a m e n t s m a k es t h e

w e a t h e r s ul t ry

Se cr e t d i p loma cy k eep s the w e athe r comp arat i vely

ca lm bu t the a rm e d suppo rt o f s e cret d ip loma cy
m ak e s the atm o sph e r e thu n d e r y ! W a s th e re e ve r
I w ant to b e fr i e n d ly
su ch unm i tigate d n o n se n s e ?
with my ne i ghbou r but h e i s a lways s o a n gry when h e
s e e s my gu n i n my ha n d a n d t h e m an trap s et i n the

b a ckya r d M ost u n r e aso n abl e c r e a tu r e !

I n the
sam e sp eech S i r E d wa r d G r e y s a i d h e a gre e d w i th
e v e ry wo r d Lo r d R os e b e ry s a i d o n t h e s am e qu es
tion Agr e e ? Ye s
with a nyth i ng b ut the r e
m ova l o f t h e trap a n d the gu n
The re wa s a n oth e r n av a l d e b ate in t h e H ou s e o f
C o mmons i n July 1 9 0 9 when M r As qu ith p o int e d
out tha t the r e w a s no o th e r stan d a r d by which ou r
p rog r amm e coul d b e d e te rm in e d tha n t h e shi p bu il d
i n g fa c i liti es a n d p rogramme s o f othe r n at i ons
He
said :
,

I t i s fo r t h a t r e as o n , a n d fo r t h a t r e a s o n o n l y , t h a t w e
a r e o b li g e d i n d u t y t o c o n s i d e r wh a t G e r m a n y is d o i n g , wh a t
Au s t r i a i s d o i n g , wh a t I t a l y i s do i n g , wh a t F ran ce is do i n g
a ll f r i e n d l y n a t i o n s b o u n d t o u s by t i es o f i n t i m a cy , c o r
d i a li ty , a n d e v e n a ff e c t i o n , a n d a ll n a t i o n s w i t h wh i ch I h o p e

w e s h a l l n e v e r h a v e c a u s e t o qu a r re l

Ap a rt from th e ca nt o f i t why F r a nce ?

,

An d

1 24

H ow D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

why n o t Russ i a ? D id Fr a n c e a t tha t tim e sta nd i n

th e s am e positi o n to B ri ta i n a s a n y o n e o f t h e P owe rs
o f the Trip le Alli a n c e ? M r As qu ith knew ve ry
w e ll s h e d id no t The t e rms i nt i ma cy co r d i a lity
a n d a ffe cti o n
we re me re li t e r a ry tinsel ta ck e d on to
giv e a glitt e r to a n othe r wise abj e ct a p ology fo r not

o r d e r i n g t h e fou r
co n ti n g e nt
ship s i n M a r c h
a cco r d ing to t h e M ullin e r B a l fou r de man d s Th e
First Lo r d o f t h e A d mi r alty gav e t h e most p r e p o s
t e r o u s r e a so n fo r bu i l d i n g t h e shi p s ;
s ix
an d
months late r he r e f e rr e d to the sca r e o f t h e sp r i ng
o f 1 9 0 9 a n d s a i d that i t h a d n ot t h e sl i ghtest fo u n d a
ti on i n fa ct
D u ring t h e G e n e ra l El e ct i o n o f J a nu a ry 1 9 1 0
t h e way s ca r e s we r e ma n u fa ctu r e d cau s e d mu ch d i s
cu s s i o n
a n d i n t h e oo d o f o r ato ry wh i ch p oure d
from L i b e ra l platfo rms s om e p r e tty s e v e r e c rit i ci sm
cam e from m e mb e rs o f t h e Gov e r n m e nt M r
C hurchill a t L e am i ngton was i n fi n e ghti n g form :
.

They

obt a n e d t he

had

i c es

of a n

At h e i s t

S o c i a li s t
h a d o b t a i n e d t he

G e r m a n s c a re s ; t h e y
M r E lli s B a r k e r wh o s e
s e r v i c e s o f a n An g li c iz e d G e r m a n
i n o r de r t o w o r k up a s o c i a li s t
n a m e u s e d t o b e Els b a ch e r
s c a r e ; t h e y w e r e g o i n g a b o u t s p e n d i n g t h e i r d ay s de c r y i n g
B r i t i s h i n d u s t ry a n d r e p re s e n t i n g B r i t i s h w o r km e n a s a
m i se r a b l e s e t o f b ro ken do w n c r e a t u r e s ; t h e y u t iliz e d t h e i r
To r y Adm i r a l L o r d C h a r l es B l a t chf o r d he m e a n t L o rd
C h a r l e s B e r e s f o rd t o e le c t i o n e e r o n t h e i r b e h a l f by
t he
t h r e a t e n i n g t o r e v ea l n a v a l s e c r e t s ; t h e y c l a m o u r e d
wh o l e c row d o f t h e m f r o m th e D a i ly M a il dow n w a r ds
fo r
m en m o r e t o b e a dde d t o t he n a vy a n d t h e y
p ro p os e d t o p ay t h e se g a ll a n t f e ll o ws wh e n t h e y ha d b ee n
e n li s t e d by t a xi n g t h e b r e a d a n d m e a t o f t h e i r w i v e s
T h e i r l e a de r w e n t a b o u t t h e c o u n t r y l a b o u r i n g t o p r o v o k e
d i s t r u s t a n d i ll w ill w i t h G e r m an y by wh a t t o qu ot e t he
in

o r de r t o

wor k

s e rv

up

I N FAM Y A N D SLAN DE R
n e cu t
t a lk o f

ph r a s e

an

of

an on

t he

M i n i s te r

P r i me

ym o u s

u i

to r s t

w as t he

1 25

l oos e

p ri v a t e

As th e el e ct i on p rogr e ss e d t h e C ons e rva t i ve s

f o u n d i t n e c e ss a ry to r e so rt to t h e n avy a ga i n fo r
p a r ty ammu n iti o n
All t h e o ld m otto e s a n d
prop s u s e d in M a rch 1 9 0 9 w e r e tak e n from t h e
p r op e rty r o o m a n d r e n o vat e d Th e J i ngo e s le t
th e ms e lve s g o with a v e ng e a n c e a n d th e i r sta t e m e n ts
r e a ch e d t h e high wa t e r m a r k o f i n famy
M r B u rns
p o int e d out h o w t h e J i n g o p r e ss a ft e r t h e N ava l
R e vi ew h a d l a u d e d t h e n avy a n d r e ma r ke d o n i ts
m a gn i cent st r e ngth
N o w t h e s am e news

p ap e rs h e s a i d
talk e d o f a v a n i sh e d navy a n d
a s k e d i f w e h a d a navy a t a ll Th e r e w a s no l a n

e
rn
e
u
a
g
sco
fu
l
nough
to
co
mn su ch c o n d u ct
e
n
d
g
M r Chu r chill a t F r o m e o n J a n u a r y 2 7 th 1 9 1 0
h a d to r e v e r t to t h e ca mp a ign o f slan d e r o f h i s p olit
i ca l opp o n e n ts :
.

Th e

i u de

at t t

o f t he

C o n s e rv a t i v e p a r t y w i t h

g a rd t o
t he m o s t

re

vy h a s b e e n a d i s g r a c e t o t h a t p a r t y I t w a s
c o n t e mp t i b l e p o li cy e v e r pu rs u e d by a g r e a t p a r t y ; i t w a s
a p o li cy o f t r y i n g t o r a i s e a p a n i c w i t h o u t r e a s o n
a p o li cy
o f t r y i n g t o r a i s e i ll w ill b e t w e e n t w o g re a t n a t i o n s w i t h o u t
c a u s e a p o li cy o f d e c ry i n g a n d b e li t t li n g t he e e t a n d t ry i n g
t o ge t m o n e y o u t o f t h e p o ck e t s o f t h e w e a k a n d t h e p o o r
I t w as t h e l o w e s t d e p t h s t o wh i ch a n y g r e a t p a r t y h a d e v e r
t he n a

s u n kf

Th e denu nci at i o n wa s n o t a whi t to o strong M r

B a l fou r s e e me d to comp e t e with the ve ri e s t tub
thump e r i n out a n d o u t r e ckl e ss n e ss At H a dd ing
t o n he s a i d :
I u n d e r sta n d that the Gov ernm e n ts
s ay tha t w e h av e go t a gr e a t m any s h i p s a n d t h e
numbe r i s s o cons i d e rable tha t we ne e d n o t fe a r any
.

126

H OW

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

a ggr e s si o n from a ny othe r P ow e r Thos e sh i ps o f

th e n umb e r o f which th e y b o a st e d we r e the S hip s

th a t w e l e ft behi n d
Th e Ti m e s o f J anu a ry 2 6 t h 1 9 1 0 gave t h e fol
lowing comp a ri so n o f str e ngth o f t h e nava l fo rc e s
a ctu ally i n commiss i on in hom e wat e rs wh e n M r
B a l fou r r e sign e d O ffi ce a n d a t t he b e ginning o f 1 9 1 0
wh e n t h e L i b er als ent e re d o n the fth yea r o f O ffi ce :
,

B a t t le
s hi ps

F i r s t-cla ss
C r u i s e rs

S ma lle r C r u is
e rs
G u n hoa ts
,

1 9 04

16

13

30

1 9 10

44

37

58

D e s t r oy

Tor ped o

e rs

b oa ts

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lent to all th i s d esp i cab l e tra d e o f m ak i n g wa r b e

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tru st a ri si n g ou t o f s e c r e t fo r e i g n p ol i cy N o o n e
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sp e n d m o r e a n d mo r e o n a r m s fo r mu r d e r wh i le t h e
p r ot e sts o f i n t e rn ati o na l lov e incre a se d The qu e s
t i o n s a n d d o ub ts o f th e s e folk w e r e by t h e Ji n go es
usu a lly thru st a s i d e a s th e gru m bl i n gs o f p a ci s t s
who n e ith e r kn e w wha t lov e o f cou ntry me ant n or
.

13

H ow D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

th r i ll o f j oy that al l t he p omp and c i r

cu m s t a n ce o f e mp i r e b r i n gs to m en w h o th i n k i m
G e rm a ny h a d a B e r n h a r d i bu t B r i ta i n
p e r i a lly
h a d a B e r n ha r d i cl a ss wh i ch l i v e d a n d m ove d a n d
h a d i ts b e i n g i n wa r
I t thought o f n othi n g e ls e bu t
w a r a n d i t wa s r e c r u it e d fr o m a ll s e ctio n s o f so c i e ty
We h av e h e a r d t h e d ipl oma t i st d e n e d a s t h e m a n
w h o l i e s ab ro a d fo r h i s cou n try s goo d ; but i t w a s n ot
u n t i l 1 9 0 9 B r i ta i n d i scov e r e d t h e m e n w h o d i d it a t
home fo r t h e s ame pu r p os e Thos e w h o p a sse d t h e
l imits o f wha t w a s stri ctly t ru e i n 1 9 0 9 a ll w o r k e d
fo r th e i r cou ntry s goo d
I t wa s th e i r ex c e ssive
p a tri otism that fo rc e d th e m to exc e e d t h e b ou n d s o f
d e c e n cy a n d tru th
B ut n o w th e i r su pp o rte r s w i ll

s ay
Where would E n gl a n d h av e b e e n i f th e y h a d

Thi s qu est i o n i s a l
n o t i nsist e d on a b i g navy ?
r e a d y b e i ng pu t to p a ci s t s
Bu t anothe r qu e st i on
might b e a ske d a n d i t i s th i s :
Shoul d we b e n o w
a t wa r w i th G e r m a ny i f t he i n fam ou s J i ngo camp a i gn

o f 1 9 09 h a d n ot b e e n wag e d ?
To wha t e x t e nt
tha t c amp a i gn o f b i tt e r n ess a n d h a tr e d aga i nst G e r
many help e d to make t h i s w a r p ossib l e n o o n e but
thos e who p a sse d through i t can t e ll Still bl ame
able a s t h e J i n go e s m ay b e we a ll mu st tak e ou r
s ha re o f re s p onsib i l i ty
Th e ex cus e s o f M i n i ste rs fo r th e blu n de rs con
n e ct e d
w i th the e st i mate s fo r 1 9 0 9 re a che d th e
he ight o f ab su r d i t y wh e n the e st i mate s o f 1 9 1 0 we r e
i n tro d uce d H ow w e r e they to know M e ss rs M ul
line r a n d C omp any we r e w r ong ? a nd A dm i ra l v o n
T i rp i t z a n d t h e m a nager o f K r upp s we re r i ght ?
H ow we r e t h e C ab i net to kn o w the re al r e a son fo r
t h e ch a n g e s in the Germ a n N ava l Law ?
Mr
M cKe n n a i n M ar ch 1 9 1 1 told the Hou se tha t the
e

ve r f e lt

the

WAS I T G E R MANY S F AULT ?

13

51

Ge rm a n Fle et Law cam e i nto e xi stence i n 1 9 0 5 the

ye a r b e fo r e the L i b e rals too k o fc e and tha t Ge r
many t h e n sp e nt only 1
o n h e r n avy ; but
s i n ce that tim e th e r e h a d b e e n two a lte rat i ons o f a
V e ry d ra st i c char a ct e r wh i ch c all e d for a n e x p e n d i
tu r e o f
in 19 1 1
From th a t sta t e ment
the m a n i n the st r e e t h a d t o i n f e r t h a t the G e r mans
fo rc e d t h e p a ce i n t h e a rm am e n t r a c e w i thou t th e
sl i ghtes t p rovo cat i on fr o m u s I n how m a ny d eb ate s
o n n ava l e st i mat e s hav e m e mb e rs o n b oth s i d e s o f
t h e H ou se a r gu e d th a t G e r ma n y
an d
G e rmany
a lo n e wa s to b lam e fo r all t h e e xc e ss i v e e xp e n d iture
o n a rm a m e nts b e cau s e s h e h a d alt e r e d h e r N ava l
Law ? S o ma ny p e op l e have a cc e p t e d th i s re ason a s
t h e only o ne tha t i t might b e w e ll n o w to s e e what
th e r e i s i n i t Th e d a t e s o n wh i ch the Ge rman
N ava l L aw w a s a m e n d e d w e r e Jun e 5 t h 1 9 0 6 a n d
Ap r i l 1 8 th 1 9 0 8 Th e a lt e r ati o n o f Jun e 1 9 0 6
i ncre a se d t h e numb e r o f la r g e c ru i s e rs to b e bu i lt u n
d e r t h e Fl e et La w by s i x ; tha t o f Ap r i l 1 9 0 8
i nc r e a s e d t h e numb e r o f b a ttl e ship s by fou r
N ow
no d enite r e a son ha s ev e r b e e n giv e n by Fo r e ign
S e cr e ta ry or F i r st Lo r d o r Pr i m e M i n i st e r fo r the
chang e s i n the G e rm a n N av a l Law I f qu e sti ons
h a d be e n pu t to M i n i st e r s o n thi s p o i n t i t i s qu ite
p oss i bl e no a nswe r wou l d h av e b e e n giv e n
For s e v
e ra l y e ars only fou r m e mb e rs o f t h e C ab i n et coul d
h ave give n a p rop e r answe r A ft e r t h e d e a th o f S i r
H e n ry C ampb e ll -B a n n e rma n only thr e e M i ni st e rs
knew t h e r e a l r e ason fo r t h e alteration in the Ge rma n
N aval Law u n t i l p e rhap s t h e sp r i n g o f 1 9 1 2
Whe n th e C ab i ne t a s a whole l e a rne d the answ e r to
that qu est i on i s no t known pub l i cly bu t t h e a p p r o x i
m ate date ca n b e gu esse d w i thout mu ch comp unct i on
,

13

H OW

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

E a r ly in 1 9 0 8 th e r e w e r e ru mou rs o f a d i s qu i e ting
n atu r e abou t t h e d e pa rtm e n ts c o n n e ct e d with t h e
Fo r e ign O fc e t h e A dmi r al ty a n d t h e Wa r O ffi c e ;
that w e w e r e committ e d to t h e O bligations o f wa r i n
ca s e Fra n c e w e r e a tta ck e d by a thi r d P ow e r
S inc e tha t tim e m a n y milita r y naval a n d Fo r e ig n
O i ce m e n h ave kn o wn pr e tty a c cu r at e ly t o wh a t
e xt e n t w e we re commit t e d ; but no t u nti l w e w e r e o n
t h e v e r y v e rg e o f a Eu r op e a n ca lami ty wa s the pub
li c tak e n i n to t h e c o n d e n c e o f t h e C abi n e t a n d tol d
t h e tru e r e a s o n fo r a ll t h e a r m am e n t t r oubl e s a n d
i nt e r n a t i o n al a n xi eti e s whi ch hav e a ffe ct e d u s s i n c e
1 9 06
Th e Fo r e i gn S e c r e ta r y i n hi s sp e e ch i n th e
H ou se o n Augu st 3 r d 1 9 1 4 r e v e al e d the s e c r e t
which h a d b e e n m a r v e llou sly w e ll k e pt fr o m t h e g e n
er a l pub l i c fo r e ight y ea rs a n d a h a l f ; that i n J anu
a ry 1 9 0 6 h e h a d autho r i z e d co n v e r s ations b e tw e e n
B r i ti sh a n d Fr e n ch n aval a n d m ilita ry e xp e rts t o ta k e
p l a c e a n d tha t h e h a d spo k e n to S i r H e n r y C amp
b e ll B ann e r ma n M r Asqu ith a n d M r H a l d a n e
ab o ut i t a n d h a d r e c e i v e d t h e i r san ct i o n
From t h e ti m e o f t h e comm e n c e m e n t o f t h e Ge r
m a n N ava l Law u n til the Lib e r als cam e into o ffi c e
i n 1 9 0 6 th e r e ca n b e n o d oub t a s t o who fo r ce d th e
p ace
In b a ttl e ship s a lon e o u r sup e ri o r i ty i n 1 9 0 1
wa s 1 1 2 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 0 2 i t wa s 1 2 0 p e r c e n t i n
1 9 0 3 i t was 1 6 5 p e r ce n t
a n d i n 1 9 0 4 it w e nt up to
1 9 0 p e r c en t
Taki n g the ve y e a r s b e fo r e t h e G e r
ma n N ava l Law cam e i nto exi st e n c e w e fi n d t h e e x
n d i t u re o n t h e B r i ti sh n avy
e
n
e
n
r
G
u
e
r
o
sch
d
M
p
i n cr e as e d b y ab out
I n i n t r o duci n g his
la st n ava l Bu d g e t M r Gosch e n tol d t h e Hou s e i n
1 9 00 that G e rmany wa s sta rti n g a p r o g r amm e o f
sh i pbu i l d ing a t a cost o f
to b e s p re a d
,

EST I M ATES C O M P A RE D

13

ov e r a p e ri o d o f s ixt e e n ye a rs Th e r i s e in e xp e n d i
tu r e du r i n g t h e rst v e y e a rs o f t h e G e rm a n N ava l
Law d o e s not S how a n y evi d e nc e o f G e rma n y fo r ci n g
and
the p a ce I n 1 9 0 0 B rita i n sp e nt
G e rma n y sp e nt
i n 1 9 0 4 B ri ta i n sp e n t
Anoth e r
a n d Ge r m a n y 1
t e st in e x p e n d i tu r e t h e t h r e e P ow e r t e st shows t h a t
i n 1 9 00 B rita i n sp e n t
mo r e t h a n G e r
m any France a n d R u ssi a comb in e d ; a n d i n 1 9 0 4
B rita i n sp e n t
mo r e than t h e sam e th r e e
P ow e r comb i na ti on
Th e r st d r e a d naught was
bu i lt by B r i ta i n i n 1 9 0 45 a n d t h e wo r k wa s com
rs
e
l
e
t
e
i
n
th
i
rte
e
n
m
o
n
ths
B
o
mb
a
sti
cally
o
p
ap
r
d
u
p
a n n ou nc e d to the wo rl d th a t w e h a d cr e at e d a r e v o lu
ti o n i n s hi pbu i l d ing and h a d p ra cti cally m a d e s c r ap
o f mo st o f t h e bi g S h i ps o f oth e r P o w e r s
Th e r st a lt e r at i o n i n t h e G e r m a n N a val L aw wa s
ma d e on June 5 t h 1 9 0 6 ab ou t s ix m o nths a ft e r t h e
a gr e e m e nt b e tw e e n t h e B r i ti sh a n d F r e n ch G ov e r n
m e nts autho ri z i n g c o nv e rs ati ons to t ak e pl a c e b e
tw e e n n ava l a n d milita r y e xp e rts A ft e r J a n u a r y
1 9 0 6 t h e t e n d e n cy o f t h e gu r e s i s sta r tling
Th e
c o mb i nat i o n o f B r ita i n a n d F r a n c e u n d e r n ava l a n d
milita ry e xp erts comi n g sh o r tly a ft e r t h e D e lca ss e i n
t e r v i e w i n L e Ga u lo i s a n d t h e L a u z a n n e r e v e l ati o n s
i n L e M a t i n in O ctob e r 1 9 0 5 fo r c e d G e r ma n y to
a lt e r h e r Na va l Law Th e e ffe ct o f th e comb i n ati o n
aga ins t G e rm any i s r e m a r kab le
I n 1 9 0 6 B ri ta i n
r e d u ce d h e r n ava l exp e n d itu re by
an d
F r a nce i n cre a s e d h e r a mou n t by
G e rm a n y
r a i s e d he r e xp e n d itu re by
Th e n e xt y e a r
1 9 0 7 B r i ta i n r e d uce d h e r e stima t e s by
an d
Fra n ce als o re d u ce d h e r exp e n d i tu re b y
G e rmany ra i s e d h er e st i ma tes by :8
Th e n
.

13

D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

H OW

B r i ta i n i ncre a s ed the amount sp ent o n the

na vy by
a n d F r a nc e a lso ra i se d h e r e x p e n d
G e rm any the n i n cr e a se d he r
i tu r e by
Th e n e t r e sult o f
naval e xp e n d iture by
t h e auth o r i z at i on o f conv e rsati ons b etwe en the B r i t
i sh a n d Fr e nch nava l a n d m i l i ta ry e x p erts wa s to
fo r c e G e rmany to ra i s e h e r e xp e n d itu r e o n h e r navy
by
i n th r e e y e a rs
Th e wo rk o f i sola
ti o n wa s b e gu n a n d G e rmany set ab out m aking full
p r e p a r ati ons for me et i ng he r p ea c e fu l ne i ghbours
e a st a n d w est
Th e se con d a lte ra t i on o f the Ge rm a n Nava l La w
t o ok pl a ce o n Ap r i l 1 8 th 1 9 0 8 Th e r ea sons fo r
t h e se co n d chang e i n t h e N ava l Law a r e n ot far to
s e e k G e rm a n n aval e xp e rts now hel d that th e y
wou l d have to r e ckon i n futu re w i th G reat B rita in
F r a nc e a n d Ru ssi a S p e aki n g o n t h e n av al p ro
g r amm e s o f g r e a t P owe rs S i r E dwar d G rey i n J an
u a ry 1 9 0 8 s a i d :
in

19 08 ,

W h e n I s e e t he g r e a t p ro g r a m me s o f n av a l e x p e n di t u r e
wh i ch a r e b e i n g p ro d uc e d i n s o m e o t h er co u n t r i es I t h i n k i t
r i gh t t h a t t h e a t t e n t i on o f t h i s c o u n t ry s h o u l d b e d e v o t e d t o
t h e s e p r o g r a mm es b e c a u s e i f t h e y a r e c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e i r
e n t i r e t y i t w ill u n do ub t e d l y b e c o m e n e c e s s a r y fo r u s i n t h e
i n t e r e s ts n o t o f t he Emp i r e b u t fo r t he p re s e r v a t i on o f o u r
i n de p e n de n c e a n d fo r o u r ow n s a f e t y a t h om e t o m a k e fu r

t h e r i n c re as e s i n o u r ow n n a vy

N ow the only gre at Power h e coul d hav e ha d i n

m i n d was G e rm any Fra nce w a s ou t o f the qu es
ti o n a n d Ru ss i a wa s not a P owe r w e coul d th e n c o unt
a gainst u s I f the Fo r e ign Se c r e ta r y h a d oth e r
Pow e rs tha n G e rmany i n m in d they mu st h ave be e n
tho s e o f t h e Trip l e All i ance H e knew wh e n h e
m a d e tha t S p ee ch tha t t he mi l i ta ry a n d n ava l exp e rts
.

E DU CATIO N I N ANA R C H I S M

13

o f Fra nc e a n d B r i ta in we r e th e n fo rmul at i ng plans

fo r the G e n e ra l S ta ffs ; a n d h e mu st hav e known t h e
r e a l r e a s o ns fo r G e r many s n ava l exp ans i on s i nce
1 9 06
Th e sp e e ch w a s r e ally a fe e l e r ; i t w a s t h e
Fo r e ign S e creta r y s w ay o f p r e p a r i ng L i b e r a ls i n t h e
cou n try fo r a cha n g e o f n ava l p o l i cy I t was hi s
way o f cov e r i n g u p t h e b lun d e r h e ma d e i n 1 9 0 6 a nd
sc r e e n i n g t h e wo rk o f hi s d e p a r tm e nt togethe r w i th
the p la ns o f t h e e xp e r ts ; a n d th row i ng the blam e o f
exp ansi o n i n a r m aments o n G e rm any t h e v i ctim o f
ou r F o r e ign O ffi ce p oli cy o f s e c r e cy Whe n one
thi n ks O f t h e way t h e g e n e r a l pub li c a n d i n d e e d l e a d
i ng Lib e ra ls hav e b e e n mi sl e d i n th e s e a ffa i r s s ince
1 9 0 6 i t i s i n i ts e l f enough to m ak e a ny think i ng p e r
s o n a n a na rchi st Gov e r nm e n ts tha t c anno t b e
s t r a i ght fo rwa r d wi th a p e op l e t o whom th e y a re only
s e rvants
b e ca us e t h e syst e ms a t th e A d m i ral ty a n d
the Fo r e i gn O ffi c e a r e b a s e d o n s e cre cy
shoul d at
l e as t b e hon e s t ab ou t th e d iffi cu lt i e s wh i ch s e cr e t sys
tem s ra i s e ; a n d s houl d i n fo r m the pub li c a s to t h e
d a n g e rs a n d d isab i liti e s whi ch m ake tru e rep r e s e nta
t i ve g o v e r nm e nt i mp o ss i b l e an d p e a ce a system o f
gr i n d i n g ta x at i on
I n t h e au t um n o f 1 9 0 7 B r i ta i n conclu de d a n a gree
m e n t with R uss i a
B o th G o v e rnm e nts enga g e d t o
r e sp e ct the int e gr i t y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e o f P e rs i a ;
th e y d e cla r e d th a t th e y h a d n o i n tent i on o f changing
t h e p o lit i ca l sta t u s o f A fgha ni stan ; a n d they con
tra ct e d to r e sp e ct t h e te rr ito ri a l int e gri ty o f T i b e t
Th i s a gr e e m e n t r e move d m a n y o f the o ld contenti o ns
Taken w i th
w hi ch lay b e t w e e n B r ita i n a n d Ru ss i a
th e p ol i cy o f i s o l a ti n g G e rma n y i t wa s not cal cu la t e d
to molli fy t h e G e r m an G ove rn m e n t B e s i d e s Ru s
s i a wa s the a lly o f Fra nce N eve rtheles s the Ge r

H ow D I P LO M ATS MA KE WAR

1 40

ma n Emp e r o r v i s i t e d Lo n d on i n the autumn o f 1 9 0 7

a n d wa s a gu e st a t t h e Gu i l d hall
O n tha t o cca sio n
t h e Emp e r o r gav e a n e mp h ati c a n d imp re ss ive d e c
la r a t i o n to u s e M r Asqu ith s wo r d s tha t the gov
e r n i n g pu rp os e o f h i s p oli cy wa s t h e p r e s e rv a ti o n o f
t h e p e a ce o f Eu rop e a n d t h e ma i nt e n an c e o f go o d
r e latio n s
b e tw e e n ou r two c o u n t r i e s A pe o pl e
n e v e r kn ows qu i t e wh e re i t sta n d s i n t e rnat i ona lly s o
lo n g a s the re i s o n ly one roya l fami ly i n Eu rop e a n d
i t c e rta i nly p erp l e xe d m a n y s ob e r c i ti z ens to l e arn
tha t th e p ot e n tat e which c au s e d B rita i n so mu ch
a n x i e ty i n 1 9 0 5 wa s e nj oyi n g c i ty hosp i ta lity i n 1 9 0 7
I t wa s pu z z l i ng Bu t strange r ev e nts we re s oon to
h app en
O n M a rch 6 t h 1 9 0 8 t h e re a pp e a re d i n t h e Ti m es
the followin g l e tt e r f r om i ts milita ry corr e sp ond e n t
u n d er t h e titl e
Un d er wh i ch Ki n g ?
,

I c o n s i de r i t my d u t y t o a s k yo u t o d r a w t he a tte n t i on
I t h as c o m e
o f t h e pub li c t o a m a t t e r o f g r a v e i mp o r t a n c e
t o my k n o w l e d g e t h a t H is M a j e s t y t h e G e r m a n Emp e ro r
h as r e c e n t l y a dd r e s s e d a l e t t e r t o L o r d T w e e dm o u t h o n t h e
an d i t is a f
s ubj e c t o f B r i t i s h a n d G e r m a n n a v a l p o li cy
r m e d t h a t t h i s l e t t e r a m o u n ts t o a n a t t e mp t t o i n u e n c e
i n G e r m an i n t e re s t s t h e M i n i s t e r r es p o n s i b l e for o u r N a vy

E s t i m at es
.

Th i s w a s to o mu ch fo r the J i ngo es I t w a s o ne
th i ng i nv i t i ng th e G e r m an Empe r o r to s ampl e o u r
tu r tl e bu t qu i t e a n ot h e r wh e n h e i nv i t e d t h e Fi rst
Lor d o f t h e A dmi ra lty to r e d u ce the naval e st i mat e s
Outrag e d J i n goe s ros e to t h e o cca s i on w i th u n p r e ce
d e n t e d al acrity
Th e qu e sti o n wa s r a i s e d i n t h e
H ou s e o f Lo r d s a n d Lo r d R o seb ery i n t e rv e ne d i n
the d eb at e to d e fe n d Lo rd Twe e dmouth from t h e
b i tte r a tta cks o f the Y e llow p ress H e sa i d :
.

M I S RE P R E S E N TATI ON S

41

I g a t h e r f ro m t he n e w s p a p e r s wh i ch s e e m t o h av e b e e n
s i n gu l a rl y w e l l i n fo rm e d o f l a te
t h a t t h e G e r m a n Emp e r o r
w a s s o m e wh a t d i s qu i e t e d by a l e t t e r wh i ch a pp e a r e d i n t h e
pub li c p r i n t s i n wh i ch v e ry p o i n t e d n o t e w as t a k e n o f h i m
An d i f I a m s t il l t o b e li e v e t h e pub li c p r i n t s h e w ro t e
se l f
a le t te r
p a r t l y o f b a n t e r t o my n o b l e f r i e n d t he F i rs t L o rd
o f t h e Ad m i r a l t y o n t h i s s ubj e c t
t o wh i ch my n o b le f r i e n d
r e p li e d
in I s upp o s e a s much a t o n e o f b a n t e r a s o n e i n
h is s i t u a t i o n c a n e mp l o y t o w a r ds s uch a p o t e n t a t e a s t h e
Ge r m a n Emp e ro r O u t o f t h i s w e h a v e s e e n a wh o l e w o r l d
o f a b s o l u t e l y i n s a n e i n f e r e n ce s d r aw n t h a t t he G e rm a n
Emp e r o r w a s a t t e mp t i n g t o i n u e n c e my n ob l e f r i e n d w i t h a
V i e w t o c u t d o w n t h e N a vy E s t i m a t e s t o ch e ck t h e p r o g r e s
s i on o f o u r a r m a m e n ts
t o n e u t r a liz e t he d e f e n s i v e a c t i v i t i e s
o f ou r n at io n
a n d i n s o m e s ub t e r r a n e a n m a n n e r t o s ubv e r t
t h e wh o l e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t
Su rely
t h a t is p l a c i n g o u r s e l v e s o u r G ov e r n m e n t o u r i n s t i t u t i o n s
i n a s up r e m e l y r i d i cu l o u s p o s i t i o n
W h a t t h e n i s t he
l es s o n I d r a w f ro m t he e x c i t e m e n t p ro duc e d by t h i s v e r y
s li gh t i n c i de n t ?
I t i s t h i s t h a t t h e re s p o n s i b ili ty o f t h e
p r e s s b o t h i n E n g l a n d a n d G e r m a n y s h o u l d be r e a liz e d by
t h a t p re s s a n d t h a t t h e y Sh o u l d n o t l as h b o t h n a t i o n s i n t o a
s t a t e o f so re n e s s wh i ch s o m e d a y m a y a m o u n t t o e x a s p e r a
t i o n a n d m a y p r o duc e t h e g r a v e s t da n g e r s t o Eu r o p e a n
,

p e a ce f

A copy o f the Ka i ser s l e tte r h a s r e c e ntly app e a r e d

i n a Lo n d o n j ou r n al a n d th e r e i s n o t o n e w o r d i n i t
to j u sti fy t h e stat e m e n t m a d e by t h e Ti m e s c o r r e
I t i n no way a tt e mpts to i n u e n c e t h e
s p o n de n t
n ava l plan s o f ou r A d m i r alty
W h a t t h e l e tt e r co n
ta i n s i s a pr ot e st a ga i n s t sca r e mo n g e r s i n high qu a r
t e rs ; a n d i n a ll fa i r n e ss to t h e G e rma n Emp e r o r i t
must b e s a i d h e h a d v e r y g o o d r e a so n to p rot e st
Th e following pa r ag r ap hs f r om the lette r in d i cat e
t h e cha ra ct e r o f the whol e o f i t :

H OW

142

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

D u r i n g my l as t p l e a s a n t v i s i t t o y o u r h os p i t ab l e s h o re s
I t r i e d t o m a k e y o u r a u t h o r i t i e s u n de rs t a n d wh a t t he d r i f t
B u t I a m a f r a i d t h a t my
o f t h e G e r m a n N a v a l P o li cy i s
e x p l a n a t i o n s h a v e b ee n e i t h e r m i s u n de rs t oo d o r n o t b e li ev e d ,

b e c a u s e I s ee t he G e r m an D a n ge r a n d t h e G e r ma n
.

C h a ll e n g e t o B r i t i s h N a v a l S up re m a cy co n s t a n t l y qu o te d
The ph ra s e i f n o t r e pu d i a t e d o r
i n t he d i ff e re n t a r t i c l es
c o r r e c t e d s o w n b ro a dc a s t o v e r t he c o u n t ry a n d d a il y d i n n e d
i n to B r i t i s h e a rs m i gh t i n t he e n d c re a t e m os t d e p lo r a b l e
r esu l t s
I t i s a b s o l u t e l y n o n s en s i c a l an d u n t ru e t h a t
t h e G e r m an N a v a l B ill i s t o p r o v i de a N a vy m e a n t a s a
ch a ll e n ge t o B r i t i s h N a v a l S up r e m a cy
I t i s v e r y g a lli n g t o t h e G e r m a n s t o s ee t h e i r c ou n t ry
c o n t i n u a ll y h e l d up a s t he s o l e d a n g e r a n d m e n a c e t o B r i t a i n
by t he wh o l e p r e s s o f t he d i ffe r e n t co n t e n d i n g p a r t i e s ; con
s i d e r i n g t h a t o t h e r c o u n t r i es a r e bu il d i n g t oo a n d t h e r e a r e
D o ub t l ess wh e n p a r t y
e v e n l a r ge r e e ts t h a n t he G e r m a n
fact io n r u n s h i gh t h e re is o f t e n a l a m e n t a b l e l a ck o f d is
c r i m i n a t i o n in t h e ch o i c e o f t he w e a p o n s ; bu t I r e a ll y mu s t
p r o t e s t t h a t t he G e r m an N a v a l P ro g r a mm e s h o u l d be
t h e o n l y o n e fo r e x c l u s i v e u s e o r t h a t s uch a p o i so n e d o n e
s h ou l d
b e f o rg e d a s the
G e r m a n C h a ll e n g e t o B r i t i s h
Su p r e m a cy a t Se a

Now when th i s lett e r w a s publ i s he d s ome ed i to r i a l

p a rag r ap hs a ccomp an i e d i t in whi ch the follow i ng
statem e nt wa s m a d e :
,

m e t i m e the Imp e r i a l Ge r m an N avy w as m ak

i n g s w i f t a n d s t e a dy p ro g re s s ; a n d i t s m en a c e t o B r i t i s h
Al
s up re m a cy a ro u s e d c o n s i de r a b l e a l a r m i n t h i s c o un t ry
t h o ugh t h e B r i t i s h n a vy h e l d a s up e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e G e r m a n
d r e a dn a ugh t t yp e t he b al an c e i n
n a vy i n s h i p s n o t o f t h e
d re a dn a ugh t s w as v i rt u a ll y e v e n
At t h e

sa

V i rtu ally e ven ! L et u s see The sentences re fe r

to t he n av al situ at i on a s i t w a s a t the tim e t he Ka i s er
wrote to Lo r d Twee dmouth Feb ru ary 1 4 th 1 9 0 8
.

A TATTE RE D S CA RE C R OW

1 43

B r i ta i n h a d th e n fou r d r e a dnau ghts a nd Germa n y

h ad n ot on e
W i ll i t b e b e l i eve d i n the fa c e o f that
statem e n t from a Lo n d o n p e n n y p ap e r publi sh e d
O ctob e r 3 o t h 1 9 1 4 t ha t w e h a d s ev e n d r e ad
naughts a o a t b e fo r e G e r m any h a d o n e r e a dy fo r
s ea ?
Th a t i s j u st t h e ki n d O f s t u ff t h e sca r e s w e r e
m a d e o f Bu t to r e tu rn to Lo r d R o seb e ry s stat e
m e n t ab ou t t h e K a is e r s l e tt e r
Th e y ellow p r e ss to ok little h e e d o f h i s om i nou s
wo r d s Any b i t o f club r o om g o ssip w a s gath e r e d
fo r J ingo fu e l a n d t h e ca mp a ign o f e nvy a n d hat r e d
p u sh e d fo r all i t was wo r t h i n b oth B r ita i n a n d G e r
m a n y I n t h e H o u s e o f C ommo n s t h e p a cis t s
r a i s e d a d eb a te on th e moti o n o f M r M u r ray M a c
d o n al d to r e d u c e e xp e n d i tu r e o n a rm am e n ts but it
wa s d e f e a t e d b y 3 2 0 t o 7 3
Th e n avy e st i mat e s
w e r e i nt r o d u c e d o n M a r ch 9 th t h e s am e d a y t h e
Ka i s e r Tw e e d mou t h l e tt e rs w e r e d i s cu ss e d i n t h e
Mr
Lo r d s a n d r e v e al e d a n i n cr e a s e o f
B al fou r r a i s e d at o nc e t h e qu e sti o n o f G e rm a n su p e
r i o r i ty wh i ch o n ly e xi st e d i n h i s im a gi n ati o n a n d la i d
t h e b a si s o f t h e s ca r e whi ch cu lm i nate d i n t h e o rgy
o f m e n d a ci ty o f M a r ch 1 9 0 9
A fte r t h e e stimat e s o f 1 9 0 8 t h e p ol i cy o f re du cing
n ava l a rm am e n ts wa s bu r i e d a n d ti m e w a s b e gi n ning
to show tha t Cont i nental fri e n d shi p s w e re e xp ens i v e
a ffa i rs fo r B r i ta i n to in dulg e i n B u t wha t e ls e coul d
b e e xp e cted ? A fte r t h e d e a th o f Si r H e n r y C amp
b e ll B a n n e r m an t h e Wh i gs go t contro l o f the C ab
i net P e a ce wa s i n d oub t R et r e nchment w a s blown
to th e w i n d s a n d R e fo rm tu r n e d into s o c i a l i st i c
cha n n e ls Th e o ld w a tchwo r d s o f Lib er a li sm w e re
d r opp e d a n d t h e Gla d sto n i a n ta gs tte d no p e ro ra
t i ons An effe ct i v e Opp os i t i on could have m a d e p o
,

14 4

H OW

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

lit i ca l h ay o f t h e G ov e rn m e n t , bu t , to rn with i nte r n al

d i ss e n s i o n , i t la n gu i s h e d i n e p t a n d fatu o u s
Th e
fu tu r e l o o k e d d a r k fo r d e mo c r a cy w i t h t h e C ab i n e t
a ssumi n g m o r e pow e r , t h e r ig h ts o f p r ivate m e mb e rs
d i s app e a r i n g , t h e d o i n gs o f t h e Fo r e ig n O ffi ce b e
c o mi n g mo r e a n d m o r e shrou d e d in myst e r y , a n d t h e
g r o wt h o f in u e n c e o f a r mam e nts r ings o v e r t h e
A d mi r a lty a n d the Wa r Offi c e Th e r e d e e m i n g
f e atu r e s a ft e r 1 9 0 8 , w e re the B u d get o f 1 9 0 9 , a n d
t h e P a r li am e n t Act
.

I n looki n g b a ck no on e w i th a n i mp a r t i al eye ca n
d e t e ct a n y oth e r cou r s e op e n to th e gov e r n m e n ts b ut
o n e o f i n c r e asi n g e xp e n d i t u r e o n a r mi e s a n d navi e s
Ag r e e m e n ts with F r anc e a n d Ru ss i a a n d J ap a n to
s ay n othi n g o f a ll t h e o th e r s e r i o u s agg r avati o n s r e
f e r r e d to by M i n ist e rs i n th e i r sp e e ch e s ov e r a n d
o v e r a ga i n
cou l d hav e n o o th e r r e sult i n Eu r o p e
t h a n a r mi n g t h e na tio n s fo r A r m a g e d do n Th e
mo r e ag r e e m e n ts w e ma d e t h e mo r e G e rm a n y b e
cam e imp r e ss e d with th e fa ct tha t s h e w a s t h e o n e
P ow e r i n all t h e wo r l d B r i ta i n w a s a r m i n g a ga i n st
H e r p r e ss f r o m t h e sum m e r o f 1 9 0 9 s ca r c e ly e ve r
c e a s e d f r o m p o i n ti n g th a t out to t h e G e rm a n p e op l e
Wh e n t h e s ca r e o f 1 9 0 8 w a s at i ts h e ight M ini st e r s
h e r e p r o t e st e d th e y h a d n o i n t e n ti o n o f t r yi n g t o i s o
lat e G e rma n y ; bu t it wa s t o o lat e Le a d i n g Fr e n ch
pub li cists s a i d t h e op p os it e ; m a n y o f t h e m fra n kly
co n d e m n e d t h e p o li cy o f the E n t e nt e whi ch h a d t h e
S i r E d wa r d Gr e y w h o
e ff e ct o f i s o la ti n g Ge r ma n y
wa s r e sp o n sibl e fo r o u r maki n g so m a n y f r i e n d ship s
t r i e d to m a k e t h e c o unt r y b e li e v e that t h e G ov e r n
m e n t h a d n o d e si gns a ga i n st G e r ma n y wh e n t h e y
Ye t
d r e w u p a g r e e m e n ts wit h R ussi a a n d F r a n c e
on Ap r il I st 1 9 0 8 b e f o r e t he G e r ma n N aval Law
,

H OW WE STOO D

145

wa s a m ende d fo r t h e s e con d t i m e th e nav i e s o f

B r i ta i n Fr a n ce a n d Ge r m any sto o d a s follows :
,

1r m o u r e a

B a t t le s h ips

G re a t B r i t a i n
Fr an ce
G e rm a n y

D e s t r oy e r s

C r u is e r s

57

34

2I

22

1 42

48

6I

H ow coul d a n y G e rman whethe r e du ca t e d by

Ka nt or N i e t z sch e i n t h e fa ce o f the s e gu r e s l i st e n
fo r a mom e nt to t h e ami abl e p hra s e s o f t h e F o r e ig n
S e c r e ta r y ab ou t th e r e b e ing no d e s i r e o n the p a r t o f
B r ita i n to i solat e G e rmany ?
G e r m a ns g e n e r ally
c o ul d no t p o ssibly b e l i eve th a t th e r e w a s n o i n t e nti on
o n t h e p a r t o f a l a rg e s e ct i o n O f t h e B ri t i s h p r e s s a n d
p e opl e in the sp r i ng o f 1 9 0 9 to i sol a te th e i r c o u n t r y
M i n i st e r s h ave a lways striv e n to k e e p t h e pub li c
mi n d xe d on B r i ti sh a n d G e r m a n nava l d e v e lopm e n t
only j u st a s i f B r i ta i n stoo d i n h e r o ld p ositi on o f
spl e n d i d i solat i on I t woul d n ot h av e su it e d t h e
Fo re i gn O ffi ce game to l et the p e opl e k n ow tha t ou r
u n de rsta n d i n gs w ith France a n d Russ i a s e r i ou sly a f
f e ct e d t h e n ava l p r og r amme s o f G e r m any
I t ha d
b e e n s a i d tha t th e o n ly r eason w hy G e r m any a lt e r e d
h e r N a va l Law i n 1 9 0 8 wa s fo r t h e p u r p o s e o f p r o
v i d i n g wo rk fo r h e r do ckya r d s wh e r e t r a d e wa s
a lmost a t a sta n d still a n d the wo rk e r s we r e o n t h e
p o int o f ri oti n g I t i s tru e t r a d e wa s e x c e e d i n g
B u t the G e r
b a d i n G e r m a n y in 1 9 0 7 a n d 1 9 0 8
m a n G ove r n m e n t wa s n o t a s p h il anth rop i c a s a ll that
M o re l i k e ly t h e bi g fi rm s d em a n d e d m ore o r d e rs a s
th e y di d i n B r ita in a n d the i r d e ma n d s tt e d in with
f o re ign a n d n ava l p o li cy A n yway t h e a lt e r at i o n o f
t h e G e rma n N av a l La w d i d no t make enough d i ffe r
,

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

146

nc e to s ca r e the w i ts ou t o f ou r J i ngo e s a n d t h e G ov
e r nm en t
W i thou t a N av a l Law t h e E n t e nt e Pow
e rs fro m t h e tim e o f t h e b i g s car e 1 9 0 9 u p t o thi s
ye a r s imply smothe r e d all G e r ma n y s a tt e mp ts to
b e com e mi stre ss o f the s e a Th e gu r e s o f n e w con
s t r u cti o n f r om 1 9 0 9 to 1 9 1 4 will n e v e r co n v i nce any
G e r m a n tha t ou r p ol i cy w a s othe r tha n one o f com
e
t
e
i
solati
on
:
l
p
e

G r e a t B r i ta i n

Ru s s i a

F r a n ce
3

1 9 09

G e r ma n y

1 0 , 1 77 , o 6 2

9 10
19 1 1

9 12
1 9 13
1 9 14
1

Thes e gu r e s sp eak volum e s Th e y t e ll the i r

own sto ry o f i sol a t i on Th e r i s e i n th e e xp e n ditu re
o f th e French a n d Ru s s i a n G ove rnm e n ts on the i r
nav i e s i s se e n to b e s tup e n d o u s An d while th e
p a tri o t i s thi nk i ng ab ou t fo r e ig n fr i en d ships i t m i ght
b e well to giv e a thought i n p a ssing to t h e a r mament
r i n g o f G rea t B r i ta i n to M essrs Sch n e i d e r a n d to
M essrs K ru pp a n d gu re u p what they w ere g e tt i ng
ou t o f t h e whol e s a l e tra d e o f mu r d e r i ng milli o n s
T a lk ab out b i g bu sin es s ! T hes e fou r count r i e s in o n e
ye a r sp en d over 5 o o o o o o o on n e w constru cti on
a lone T en p e r cent o f it m akes a t i d y d i vi d e n d fo r

la rg e numb e rs o f ap ostle s o f p e a ce
J i n go i sm i s
the b e st a n d b i ggest bu s i n ess o n the two continents
N ow n o fa i r m i n d e d B rit i she r ca n lo ok a t the
gu re s a n d s ay tha t th e y p r o ve i n t h e s light e st d eg r e e
that G e rmany i nt e n d e d to sm a sh B r i ta i n Th e w i l d
e st notions o f G erm an n ava l exp ans io n h ave b e en
se d ulou sly sown i n th i s cou nt ry fo r ye a rs S ince M r
B al fou r s p ilg r im a g e in 1 9 0 9 i t i s n o t su rp r i s i n g to
hea r m en u su a lly well in fo rm e d i n c i v i l m atte rs s ay
.

I F Y OU

W E R E A G ER M AN

1 47

th a t the G e rma ns a re sp end i ng ma ny m i ll i ons more

o n th e i r navy tha n we a r e o n ou rs
B ut that i s o n e
o f the tri cks o f t h e t r a d e fo r t h e a gents o f w a r k now
th e i r p ub li c a n d a c e r t a in cla ss o f p atr i o t as a rule
will b eli e ve a ny yarn told by a Lo r d o r a front -b ench
man
I s i t too mu ch to a sk tho s e p e ople who i ns i st o n

s ayi ng Ge rmany p ro voke d thi s w a r to sm a sh u s

to try to p la ce thems e lves i n the p os it i o n o f a n i nt e l
li g e n t G e rm a n o ne suffi c i ently int e re st e d in fo r e ig n
a ffa i rs to i n qu i re wh a t Fr ance a n d R u ss i a two cou n
tri e s a llie d aga i nst G e rm a ny wer e sp e n d ing o n th e i r
nav i e s ; a n d the n say G e r m any w a s w h olly r e sp ons ible
fo r the Eu rop e a n co n a g r a t i o n ? I t i s t h e fa shi on
now to t ry to fo cu s publ i c a tte n t i o n o n t h e Whit e
P ap e rs j us t a s i t wa s fo r M iniste r s to ke ep th e p ubli c
m i n d b e n t o n G e rm any s n avy ; bu t Whit e P ap er s
reco rd only m e re i nc i de nts i n th i s a ffa i r ; they d e a l
w i th only a little o f the d o ings o f d ip lom a t i sts Thi s
busi n e s s b e gan b e fo r e S i r E dwa r d G rey went to the
Fo r e i gn O f ce O u r Wh i te Pap e r i n i ts e l f i s only
u se fu l fo r s alv i ng t h e co n s ci e n c e s o f w e ll m e a ning
C h r i st i ans The re i s a lot o f hi sto ry conn e ct e d w ith
th i s wa r n ot to b e fou nd a nywhe re i n a n y Wh i t e
Pap e r
Th i nk o f the G e rm a n who kn e w ab ou t th e s e cret
a rti cl e s to the Anglo -Frenc h Ag r eeme n t ; who r e
m e mb er e d the 1 9 0 5 sca n d al con n ect e d with the
a ll e g e d S chl e sw i g H olst e i n inva s i o n b y t h e B ri ti sh i n
supp o rt o f F ranc e ; who h a d a l i vely r e collecti o n o f
the wo rk o f M D elca ss e ; a n d wh o i n t h e sp ri ng o f
th i s y e a r s a w the gu re s o f Fr ance s n e w const r u e
t i on ra i se d from
i n 1 9 1 0 to 1
i n 1 9 1 4 ; a n d then i mag i ne h i s feelings when he
.

H OW D I P L O M ATS MA KE WA R

4S

re a d B r i ti s h M i nis te rs statements ab out h av i ng n o

d e si re to i sol ate G e rma ny
I t i s all ve ry well fo r the
m a n who i s eng r o ss e d i n the p ol i t i cs o f h i s own coun

tr y to s ay
G e rm a ny fo rc e d the p ace !
to s ay

G e rm any me ant to s m a s h u s a nd I t wa s b ou n d

to come a n d th e so one r the b ette r

B u t su r e ly i n
t h e name o f a ll tha t i s r ea sonable
fo r the futu re
gu i d a n ce o f the p eople fo r the we l fa re o f the de m o c
r a ci e s sta te sme n now p ra te s o mu ch ab ou t i s i t no t o f
t h e g r e a t e st imp o rtan ce th a t the p eop le s hould le a rn
t h e full l e sson o f wha t fo r e ign p oli cy a n d th e a r me d
supp o r t o f tha t p oli cy m eans ? I t i s o f cou rs e u s e l e ss
t o talk ab ou t t h e Gol d en Ru le while C hr i st i a n nat i ons
a r e bu sy mak i n g a n ab atto i r o f Eu rop e bu t i t s houl d
b e po ss ible fo r th i nk i n g m en a n d women fo r a mo
m e nt o r t wo to put thems e lve s i n th e shoe s o f a
f e ll o w G e rman Try i t for a m om e nt Fo rget
B e r n ha r d i N i e t z sche a nd all that B r it i sh l i te rary
gi a n ts sci e nt i sts a n d th e olog i ans have s a i d about
them Then th i nk o f R u ssi a and all Ru ss i a m eant
to a Ge rm an A m an who l i ve d through the
C rime a n Wa r ca n app r e c i ate wha t th a t me ans
P e r hap s i t i s qu i t e i mposs i bl e for one o f u s to fe e l
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u r e s fo r n ew constru ct i on : i n 1 9 1 0 Russ i a sp ent
a n d i n 1 9 1 4 she sp e n d s
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Th e p a ci c i n t e nti ons o f

1 49

E ntente Pow e rs
amou n t e d t o a two a n d a h al f P ow e r stan d a rd a t
l e a st I t mu st b e pl a i n that n o a ssura n c e s o f t h e
p e a c e fu l i nt e n ti o ns o f B r ita i n o r th e Entent e Pow
e rs
cou l d a t a n y t i m e s i n c e t h e d e ath o f Si r H e nry
C ampb e ll B a n n e r m a n ca r ry th e sli gh t e st i nu enc e i n
G e rm a n y aga i n st t h e a cti o n s o f o u r Fo re ign O ffi ce
Th e p r e p a r a ti ons fo r thi s wa r w e re i n t h e mak i ng
sho r tly a ft e r t h e f e stivi ti e s o f Toulon a n d Kron
sta d t a n d the A n gl o Fr e n ch Agre e m e n t o f 1 9 0 4 wa s
t h e rst st e p B r i ta in to ok i n t h e d ip loma t i c gam e o f
i solat i n g G e r m a ny
Th e d e b a t e i n the H ous e i n M a r ch 1 9 1 1 co n
t a i n e d s om e striki n g stat e m e n ts f r om M in i ste r s
Th e F i rst Lo r d h a d to a dmit h e w a s compl e t e ly m i s
Th e fa cts w e r e r i ght bu t t h e in f e r
le d i n 1 9 0 9
e n ce s we r e wro n g
Th e G e r m a n G over n m e n t wa s
qu it e r ight a s to th e i r p rog r amm e ; n o a cc e le r at i on
wa s t o tak e pl a c e
I t wa s B r ita i n n o t G e rm a n y
that wa s gu i lty o f a ccel e r ati on
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in t h e y e a r a ft e rw ar ds
N o r e li e f cam e t o j u sti fy
th a t stat e m e n t The exp e n d itu r e w e n t u p h i gh e r
a n d high e r e a ch y e a r
B oth t h e gro ss exp en d itu r e
a n d the mo n e y fo r n e w co n stru cti o n w e n t up by leap s
Si r E d wa r d G r e y d e scrib e d
a n d b oun d s a ft e r 1 9 0 9
t h e s itu at i on with a humou r o f wh i ch h e wa s q u i t e
u nconsci ou s
th e

I s p e ak s t ro n g l y o n t h a t p o i n t (t he ev il o f i n
c r eas i n g ex p e n d i t u r e o n a r m a m e n t s ) I Sh o u l d b e m i s l e a di n g
t he h o n o u r a b le m e m be r an d t he H o u s e i f b e ca u s e I S p e a k a n d

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H OW D I P L O M ATS MA K E

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f e e l s t ro n g l y o n t h a t p o i n t I g a v e a n y i mp r e s s i on t h at the
N avy E s t i m a te s n ow b e f o r e t he H o u s e w e r e m o r e t h a n t he
Go v e r n m e n t t h i n k is n e c e s s a r y t o m e e t t h e re qu i re m e n ts o f
Th e F i rs t L o r d h as h a d a v e r y d i ffi cu lt
t h e c as e t h i s y e a r
H e h as h a d t o s t a n d a g a i n s t p a n i c a n d s c a r e n o t a b l y
t as k
i n t he e l e c t i o n b e f o re l a s t g re a t l y f o m e n t e d by t he ca lcu
la t io n s m a de by t h e r i gh t h o n o u r a b l e g e n t l e m a n (M r B a l
f o u r ) wh i ch wh e n t h e c a l cu l a t i on s p r o v e d t o be m i s t a k e n
W e c e r t a i n l y I t h i n k c an n o t b e a ccu s e d
d i s a pp e a re d
O u r N a vy E s t i m a t e s fo r 1 9 09
o f h a v i n g f o r c e d t he p a c e
a re s a i d t o h a v e g i v e n p ro v o c a t i o n
T h e y h a v e n ot g i v e n
r i s e t o i n c r e a s e d n a v a l e x p e n d i t u re i n G e r m an y o r I b e li e v e
i n a n y o t h e r c o u n t ry
The l as t a dd i t i on t o t h e G e r m a n
N a v a l p ro g r a mm e w as s e t t l e d by law i n
.

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f i ncre a s e d

n aval exp e n d itu r e in G e r m a n y o r i n a n y oth e r c o u n

try ; bu t i t wa s n e c e ssa r y fo r B r ita i n to i ntro du c e e st i
m at e s s howi n g a n i nc r e as e o f n e a rly
Y e t no o n e c o ul d a ccu s e B r ita i n o f forc i ng t h e p a ce !
Th e Fo r e ig n S e c r e ta r y m a d e tha t stat e m e nt i n t h e
H ou se o n t h e v e ry d a y wh e n t h e F i rst Lo r d s a i d t h e
a lterat i on o f t h e G e r ma n N ava l L aw wa s t h e cau s e
o f ou r ra i s i n g ou r e xp e n d itu r e Th e d e b at e wa s
fu ll o f i n st r u ct i o n a s to the v alu e o f p a n i cs a n d th e
stat e ment o f t h e J i n go p re ss a n d a rm am e nt r i n g
a g e n ts
I n Ap ril 1 9 1 1 th e r e wa s a d e bate i n the Hou s e
o f Lo r d s o n Compu lso r y M i lita ry S e r v i c e Lo r d
R o b e r ts le d t h e atta ck o n t h e volu n ta r y syst e m
Lo r d H al d a n e who w a s tol d i n 1 9 0 6 o f the s e c r e t
a r r a n g e m e n t fo r conv e rsati ons to take p la c e b e tw e e n
B r i ti sh a n d French m ilita ry a n d nava l exp e r ts r e
plie d a n d le t s o me l i ght fa ll o n th e int e rnational
s i t u at i o n i n a p a ssage t h e s ign i cance o f wh i ch ha s
b ee n overlo oke d H e s a i d
,

C O M M AN DE R O F TH E FO R C ES
The G e r m a n

p e e ch t o wh i ch t he n ob l e
s p o k e o f t h e w illi n g n e ss o f h is
e a r l r e f e r re d
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wh i ch i f t a k e n mu s t t e n d in s o m e de g ree t o re d uc e t he
r i s k o f s c a r es
wh i ch h a v e do n e s o much t o f o r c e up t he
n a v a l e s t i m a t e s n o t o n l y i n t h i s c o u n t r y b u t in o t h e r c o u n
M o r e o v e r w i t h F r a n c e a n d Ru s s i a w e a r e i n a g r e e
t r i es
m e n t a n d a w a r i n d e f e n c e o f t h e I n d i a n f ro n t i e r a g a i n s t
Ru ss i a a pp e a r s l e s s li k e ly n ow t h a n i t h a s a pp e a re d fo r ge n
e r a t io n s
I h a v e a l w a y s t h o ugh t t h a t t h e t r u e C o m
m a n d e r o f t he Fo r c e s i n t h i s c o u n t r y n a v a l a n d m ili t a r y
i s n o t t he s a il o r o r t he s o l d i e r bu t t h e F o re i g n S e c r e t a ry

C h a n c e ll o r

in

a s

I t i s e vi d e n t n o w tha t w e h av e t h e gu r e s for e x
p e n d i t u r e that t h e i nvita ti o n o f t h e G e r ma n C hanc e l
lo r was no t a cc e pt e d H i s sol e m n d e cl a ra ti o n o f

1 9 0 9 was i gn o r e d a n d a p a ni c
withou t fou n d ati o n

i n fa ct
w a s t h e fa cto r tha t d i d s o mu ch to fo rc e

up t h e n ava l e s tim at e s
S ti ll t h e chi e f p o int o f
i n t e r e st i n Lo r d H a ld a n e s e xt r ao r d i na r y sp e e ch wa s
t h e a d m i ss i o n tha t w e w e r e i n a g r e e m e n t wi t h b oth
Franc e a n d Ru ss i a a n d t h e i n f e r e n c e t o b e d raw n i s
that the re w a s no n e c e ssity fo r a r m ing a ga i n st t h o s e
countr i es Sp e e che s d e live r e d i n t h e H o u s e o f
Lo r d s d o n o t a t b e st r e c e iv e t h e att e n tio n f r om t h e
p r es s a n d from t h e pub li c th e y d e s e r v e T h ey do
how e v e r engag e the att e n ti o n o f d iplomat i sts a n d
l e gi sl ato rs i n fo r e ig n cou n t r i e s a n d t h e fa ct th at
L o r d H a l d an e r e ga r d e d t h e F o re ign S e creta ry as
C omma n d e r o f t h e Fo r c e s must h ave o cca s i on e d no
sm a ll su rp r is e o n t he C onti n ent
Th e M o r o cca n t r oubl e i n the summ e r o f 1 9 1 1
b r ought G e r m a n y a n d B r ita i n to t h e ve rg e o f w a r
A littl e b i t o f a G e r m an gunb o a t t h e P a n t h e r v i s i te d
Aga d i r a n d s ca re d the B r i t i s h Emp i re ou t o f i ts
,

H OW D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

15 2

w i ts A s fo r t h e P a n t h e r t h e p r e ss so o n m a d e
l e v i atha n ou t o f a h e r r i n g I n all t h e so r d i d hi s
to ry o f B r itis h Fo re ig n O i ce d e a ls th e re i s nothing
s o u n utte r ably d i s cr e d i tabl e a s t h e bu si n ess con n e ct e d
with the Aga d i r i nc i d ent G erm any w a s a p a rty to

s cra p o f p ap e r
t h e A ct o f Alg e ci r a s o f 1 9 0 6 a
conta i n i n g 1 2 3 a rti cl e s whi ch co n r me d th e pl e d g e s
o f the P ow e r s to up hol d the i n d e p e n d e n ce a n d i n
Th e s e p a rat e F r a nco G e r man
t e g r i t y o f M o ro cco
d e cla r at i on o f Feb ru a ry 1 9 0 9 ha s a l r ea d y b e e n r e
fe rr e d to ; a n d t h e s e c r e t a rt i cl e s to wh i c h B r i ta i n
wa s a n a ccompl i ce wh e r e by S pa in a n d Fra nc e we re
to p a rti ti on M o ro cc o i t must b e r e m e mb e r e d we r e
not m ade p ubli c unt i l N ov e mb e r a fte r the v i s i t o f
the P a n th e r to Aga d i r N ow t h e re a l r e aso n fo r
th e app e a rance o f the P a n t h e r a t Aga d i r wa s th i s :
G e rm any s aw Fra n ce o ccupy F e z w i th t he i n t e n
t i on o f stayi n g th e r e ; a n d Sp a i n i n o ccu p at i o n o f
E l Ka sr a n d L a r a s h ; b oth count r i es h aving t e ns o f
thous ands o f s ol d i e r s sp r e a d ove r t h e no r t h e r n d i s
Th e re fo r e a s a p a r ty to t h e
t r i ct s o f M oro cco
Alg e c i ra s A ct a n d a s a p a r t n e r o f Fra nce i n t h e
D e cla rat i on o f 1 9 0 9 she wa s no t i ncli n e d to sta n d
a lo o f whil e Fra nc e a n d Sp a i n p a rt i ti o n e d M o ro cco
S i r Edwa r d G rey a dmitte d i n t h e H ou se th at h e wa s
i n favou r o f the Fr e nch d e s c e nt o n Fe z ; but he o f
cou rse woul d g i v e no re ason why he app rov e d the
Fre n ch exp e diti on S e cr e t a rti cl es a n d ba cksta i rs
un d e rstan d i n gs pla ce d the B r i ti s h G ov e rnm e nt i n
a n u n e nvi ab l e p ositi on Th a t t h e whol e o f ou r
nava l a n d milita ry fo r ces shoul d b e cau s e o f t h e com
m it m e n t s o f the Fo r e i gn O ffi ce b e p la c e d a t t h e d i s
p osal o f French and S p an i sh a n d B r i t i sh gangs o f
concess i ona i re s la n d-grabb e rs a n d n anc i a l sha rks
.

TH E P O I NT OF VI EW

153

op erat i ng i n a n d abou t Eu r o p e a n fo r e i gn offi ce s was

to s ay the l e a st a n ab om i n abl e a ct o f tr e a ch e r y t o
th e p eopl e An d tha t M r Lloy d Geo r g e s hou l d
l en d h i msel f to tha t kind o f wo rk i s e nou g h to m ak e
onc e he e nt e rs
o n e d esp a i r o f tru st i n g a ny R a d i ca l
a C ab i n et W ha t woul d h e ha ve s a i d o f t h e b u si
ne s s i f he h a d b e e n i n Opp o s i t i on ! I f Lo r d La n s
down e s ay h a d b e e n Fo r e i gn S e creta ry what woul d
M r Lloy d G eo rg e h av e s a i d o f a B r i t i sh Gov e r n
ment lend i ng i ts n av al mil i ta r y a n d d i plom a t i c
strengt h to tho s e who m a d e o f no rthern A fr i ca what
B elg i u m m a de o f the C ongo ?
,

C HAPTE R VI I I
A PO ST L E S O F P EA C E

T H AT f r i en dl y r e l a t i o n s m ay u l t i m a t e l y be e s t ab li s h e d b e
t w e e n E n g l a n d a n d G e r m a n y w i t h ou t t h e a r b i t r a m e n t o f
w a r I e a r n e s t l y h o p e a n d o cc a s i o n a ll y b e li e v e
I t de p e n ds
m a i n l y o n t he E n g li s h p e op l e T h e y mu s t n o t a ll o w t h e m
s e l v e s t o r e s t i n s e l f c o mp l a c e n cy n o r i n i g n o r a n t n e r v o u s
n e s s a s t o t h e s u s c e p t i b ili t i e s o f f o r e i g n p o w e r s s l a ck e n t h e i r
e ff o r t s t o i n c r e a s e t h e p r e s e n t p o w e r o f t h e n a vy
Th ey
mu s t m o r e o v e r i n s i s t on m ili t a r y r e f o r m s a b s o l u t e l y n e ce s
s a ry i f E n g l a n d i s t o m a i n t a i n h e r p l a c e a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s
a n d t h a t t h e d e s t i n i e s o f t h i s c o u n t r y s h a ll b e i n t h e h a n ds
o f p e rs o n s a cqu a i n t e d w i t h t h e m a r ch o f o p i n i o n a n d w i t h
t he s t r e n g t h a n d t e n de n cy o f p o li t i c a l f o r c e s i n t he l e a d i n g
c o u n t r i es o f Eu ro p e T h os e w ho c o u n se l E n g li s hm e n t o be
v i g il a n t i n t h es e m a t t e rs a re t r u e Ap os t l e s o f P e a c e En g
l an d a n d G e r m a n y w il l n ev e r b e b ro ugh t t o g e t h e r u n t il th e
G e r m a n s t h o ro ugh l y r e a liz e t h a t t h e r e is n o h o p e o f s u b s t i
t u t i n g a s t h e s ymb o l o f s e a p o w e r t he G e r m an e a g l e fo r t he
wh i t e e n s i gn o f t he B r i t i s h N a vy
S ir R o w l a n d B l e n n e r h asse t t

in The

Na t i on a l R e v i ew D e c e mb e r
,

1 9 03

I t h a s b een s a i d that eve ry p ol i t i c i a n s o one r o r

later mu st e at h i s own wo rds a n d swallow h i s own
p r incipl e s The e xi g e nc i es o f p a rty wa rfare d e
m a n d m e tamo rp ho si s a t some stag e o r a noth e r ;
noth i ng i s mo r e p ot e nt i n b r i ngi n g th e se ch ang e s
ab out tha n offi c e ; i t i s the s a rcopha g u s o f th e i d e a l
i st
A ma n m ay b e neve r so rm i n h i s p r i nc i pl e s
7

1 54

P R IN C I P LES AND OFFI C E

55

wh e n h e i s a p r i va t e m e mb e r ; bu t o n ce h e i s tak e n
wi t h i n t h e w alls o f a Gov e r nme n t d e pa rtment t h e
lim e o f i t s e e ms to e at through h i m a n d p etr i fy hi s
s ou l The H ou s e i ts e l f i s b a d e nou gh i n th i s r e
sp e ct a n d i t ha s b e e n ca ll e d no t w i thou t rea son
t h e m au sol e um o f i d e a ls
B u t a p r i va te memb e r
n e e d n o t v o t e u nl e ss h e lik e s ; he might supp o rt h i s
p a r ty i n s om e l e gislat i o n a n d vot e aga inst i t o n m e a s
u r e s h e obj e cts t o o r n o t vot e a t all I t i s d i fferent
wh e n a m a n t ak e s o fc e ; h e must con form to t h e
t r a d it i o n o f th e d e p a rtm e nt o r r e sign hi s p ost Few
r e sig n volunta rily Th e a tt r a cti ons outw e igh the

sh o ck o n e s p r i n cipl e s mus t u n d e r go Th e slings

a n d a rrows
o f criti ci sm from a n Opp o s it i o n p r e s s
m ay b e h a rd to b e a r but th e r e a re o n ly b e tw e e n
fty o r s i xty p o sts o f hon o u r i n t h e Gov e rnm e nt a n d
opp o r tu n i ty com e s bu t on c e to t h e young m an with
o u t lin e ag e o r a s a f e s e a t
Amb iti o n n u r si n g a n
i d e a l o n a b a ck b ench sti rr e d b y t h e vi gou r Of its

p r i n cip l e s mu r mu rs to i t
i t w i ll n o t b e s o w i th

th e e
Tha t i s what m ak e s cala mi t y o f s o long

l i fe
W e b e a r t h e ills o f o i ce rath e r than y to
o the rs we know no t o f
.

A ft e r th e m a ch i n ati ons o f o u r Fo r e i g n O ffi c e i n

19 1 1
G e rm any coul d have no d oubt a t a ll th a t t h e
p o li cy o f t h e E n t e n t e P owe rs was to i solat e G er
many by any m e a n s a n d a t a ll co sts Th ere w e re i n
t h e a u t um n o f 1 9 1 1 m e n i n F ance who d i d not
h e s i tat e to sp e ak s e ve r e ly o n t h e qu e st i o n o f i sol at
i n g G e rm a n y th o ugh l e a d ing sta t e smen i n Engla n d
Ou r naval p oli cy d i c
d e n i e d t h e cha r g e i n v a i n

C omman d e r o f the Force s no d oubt

t a t e d by th e
w a s cont i nu e d b y M r C hu rch i ll when he w as m a de
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15

H OW D I P LO M ATS M A KE

WAR

Fi rst Lo rd a n d in one o f the rst sp e e ch e s he de

l i ver e d a fte r h e to ok cha rge o f the navy h e sa i d :
,

v a l p r e p a ra t i o n s a r e n e c e ss ar il y b as e d u p on t he
n a v a l p rep a r a t i on s o f o t h e r
P o w e rs
N ex t y e a r t he
N a v a l L aw
p re s c r i b e s t h a t t he li m i t o f e x p a n s i on h as
b e e n r e a ch e d a n d t h a t t he a n n u a l qu o t a o f n e w s h i p s a dde d
t o t h e G e r m a n n a vy w ill f a ll t o h a l f t h e qu o t a o f r e c e n t
y e a rs H i t h e r t o t h a t la w as x e d by P a r li a m e n t has n o t
b e e n i n a n y w a y e x c e e d e d a n d I g l a dl y b e a r w i t n e s s t o t h e
f a c t t h a t t he s t a te m e n t s o f t he G e r m an M i n i s t e rs a b o u t i t
h a v e b e en s t r i c t l y b o rn e o u t by e v e n t s S uch i s the s t a te
d ay t h a t t he m e re o b se r v a n c e o f
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d e cla r a ti on a n d di d no t a cc e l e rate bu i l d i ng ; bu t th e
O ld bogey o f b asi n g ou r p oli cy o n the p rep a r a t i ons
m a de by othe r P ow e rs i s l a i d d own aga i n by the n e w
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tha t we w e re i n a greem e n t with Fra nce a n d Russ i a
i t would h ave b e e n m o re str ai ght fo rwa r d to h av e
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o f G e rmany o r th e Tr i pl e Alli ance Th e A dm i ralty
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t h e p e opl e
Sti ll i t wa s l i ke g e tting money ou t o f
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t a x p aye r s e e m e d to like i t ; no r i s i t to b e fo rg i ven
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publi c a r e n o t supp o s e d to k n ow tha t t h e p r e p a ra
tio n s o f Fra nc e a n d Ru ss i a ha ve a lways b e e n r e
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h e r n ava l p o l i cy
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Hou s e o f Lo r d s o n t h e M o ro cca n t r oub l e w e r e
n o table i n m a n y r e sp e cts
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ci s m o f t h e a cti o n s o f t h e Fo r e i gn O i ce wa s o n e o f
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H ow D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

Th e i r att i tu d e might b e summe d up i n the cry o f t h e

m a n a t a p oliti c a l m e e ting i n t h e No rth w h o s a i d
To h e ll wi th F o r e i gn A ffa i rs
wh e n am I go i ng

to g e t t h i r t y b ob a w e e k ?
Th e re i s how e ve r a
p a ssage i n M r D i llo n s sp ee ch whi ch mu st b e rem em
h e re d
,

do n o t b e li e v e a n y r e p r es e n t a t i v e a s s e mb l y i n t he h i s
t o r y o f t h e w o r l d h a s e v e r b ee n c a ll e d up o n t o d i s cu s s a
m a t t e r s o v i t al a n d s o fa r -re a ch i n g as t h a t wh i ch t he H o u se
o f C o mm o n s h a s b e f o r e i t t o d ay t o c o n s i de r , a n d w i t h s o
T h i s p re s e n t d i s cu s s i on in
a b s o l u t e a l a ck o f i n f o r m a t i o n
Th e H o u s e w a s s umm o n e d
t h i s r e s p e c t b e a t s a ll r e c o r ds
fo r t h i s d i s cu s s i o n t o d a y w i t h o u t a n y p a p e r s wh a t s o e v e r
W h a t is i t t h a t t he H o u s e o ugh t t o h a v e h a d b e f o r e w e w e re
a s k e d t o e mb a r k o n t h i s d i s cu ss i o n ?
W e o ugh t t o h a v e h a d
a B lu e B o o k c o n t a i n i n g t h e d i p l o m a t i c h i s t o r y o f t h e M O
r o cc a n
qu e s t i on , i n c l u d i n g t he s e c r e t t r e a t y w i t h S p a i n
Th e Al g e c i r a s Act h a s a l r e a dy b e e n pub li s h e d I r e f e r t o
t he s e c r e t t r e a t y w i t h S p a i n , pub li s h e d fo r t he r s t t i m e t he
o t h e r d a y, a n d wh i ch t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r o f F r a n c e d e
cla r e d t h re e w ee k s a go h e h a d n e v e r h e a r d o f, a n d w a s n o t
a w a r e o f t h e e xi s t e n c e o f a t r e a t y t o wh i ch t h i s c o u n t r y w a s
a p a rt y
W e s h o u l d h a v e h a d t h e t e x t o f t he G e r m a n
Ag r e e m e n t o f 1 9 09 , w i t h an e x p l a n a t i on o f how i t c a m e
a b ou t t h a t F r a n c e j o ck e y e d G e r m a n y i n r e g a r d t o t h a t a g r e e
m e n t , a n d w i t h d re w f r o m c a rr y i n g i n t o e ffe c t a m a tt e r
t h a t w as o n e o f t he i mm e d i a t e c a u s e s o f t he r e c e n t f r i c t i o n
W e o u gh t a t a ll e v en t s t o h av e h a d an a cco u n t o f d i p lo
m a t i c c o r re s p o n de n ce be tw e en t he f ou r g re a t P o w e rs i n t i
m a t e l y i n t e r es t e d in t he qu e s t i o n o f M o ro cco , a s i s
cu s to m a ry t o b e g i v e n to t he H o u s e o f C o mm on s o n s uch a n
T h i s w o u l d h av e e n a b l e d m e mb e r s o f t he H o u s e
o cc as i on
be f o r e t h e d e b a t e c o mm e n c e d , t o f o r m a r e a ll y w e ll
g ro u n de d j u dgm e n t up o n t he wh o l e m a t t e r W e h av e
h e a r d a g oo d de a l t o n i gh t o f th e s e c r e cy o f t h e F o r e i g n p o li cy
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B L E W T H E GA F F

15 9

h a v e b e e n a l o n g t i m e i n t h i s H ou se a n d ca n
r e m e mb e r t h e m e t h o ds o f t h e F o r e i g n
O fc e t w en t y v e
y e a rs a go k n o w a s a m a t t e r o f f a c t wh i ch c an n o t b e s u c
t h a t t h e Fo r e i g n O i ce p o li cy h as b e c o m e
c e ss fu lly d en i e d
d u r i n g t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s p ro g r e s s i v e l y m o r e s e c r e t e v e r y
y e a r U n t il t h i s p re s e n t y e a r t h i s h a s go n e on wh en t he
i n t e n s e p r e ss u re o f F o r e i g n A ff a i r s a n d t he d a n g e r o f w a r
h as f o r c e d t he h a n ds o f t h e M i n i s t e r t o g i v e s o m e t i m e fo r
F o r t en y e a r s t h e
t he d i s c u ss i o n o f F o re i g n O ffi c e a ff a i r s
F o r e i g n p o li cy o f t h i s co u n t r y h as b e en c on d uc t e d b e h i n d
a n e l a b o r a t e s c r e en o f s e c r e cy
Some o f us p o i n ted ou t
y e a r s a go t h a t t he s e c r e cy o f F o r e i gn A ffa i rs w as t he i n ev i
t a b l e a n d l o g i c a l r es u l t o f t h a t n e w d e p a r t u r e wh i ch w a s
h e r alde d a b o u t t e n y e a r s a go a n d wh i ch w e h e a r d p r a i s e d
o n c e m o r e on t h e o o r o f t h i s H o u se t o n i gh t
I re fe r t o
wh a t i s k n ow n a s t h e p o li cy o f t h e c on t i n u i t y o f t he F o re i g n
p o li cy o f t h i s c o u n t r y ; o f t he w i t h d r aw al o f t h e F o re i gn
p oli cy o f t h is c ou n t ry f r om t he s p h e re o f p a r t y p o li t i c s
of u s

w ho

M r D i llo n m i ght have th ank e d h i s sta rs tha t he

go t a s mu ch a s h e d i d fo r i f the Pa ri s p ap ers L e
Te mps a n d L e M a t i n h a d n o t pub li sh e d t h e s e cr e t
a rt i cl e s fo r the p a r tit i o n o f M o ro cco b etw e e n Sp a in
a n d Fr ance
p re ci ou s littl e i n f o rmat i on wou l d h av e
b e e n volu n te e r e d o n the subj e ct by t h e Fo re i g n S e c
r e t a ry
Th e r e wa s a p a ss ag e i n the spe e ch o f t h e
For e ign S e cr e ta ry tha t s houl d b e no t e d ; fo r i t i n d i
ca t e s h is attitu d e o f m in d t o wa r d s G e r m any a n d
i n d e e d shows how u tt e rly futil e i t wa s whil e su ch
s ent i ments w e re exp r e ss e d to t ry to m ak e Ge rm a n s
b e l i e ve that t h e p oli cy o f ou r Fo r e ign O fc e a ime d
a t anyth i ng els e tha n i so lat i on S i r E d wa r d G r e y
said :
.

f r i e n ds h i p s w o rt h h a v i n g by
d es er t i n g o ld o n e s
Ne w f r i e n ds h i p s by a ll m e a n s le t u s
ma k e bu t n o t a t t he e x p e n s e o f t h e o n e s wh i ch w e h ave
O n e do e s

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H OW D I PLO M ATS M A K E WA R

1 6o

I des i re t o do a ll I can t o i mp rov e the re l a t i o n s w i t h G e r

m a n y a s I s h a ll p re s en t l y s h o w B u t t he f r i en ds h i p s wh i ch
w e h a v e h a v e l as t e d n ow s o m e y e a r s a n d i t mu s t b e a
c a r di n a l p o i n t o f i mp r o v e m e n t o f r e l a t i on s w i t h G e r m a n y
An d wh a t I d e s i r e
t h a t w e d o n o t s a c r i c e o n e o f t h o se
a n d wh a t I h op e m a y b e p o ss i b l e t h o ugh i t m a y s e e m di ffi
cu l t a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e i s t h a t t he i mp r o v e d r e l a t i o n s m ay
b e s uch a s w il l i mp ro v e n o t o n l y o u rs e l v es b u t t h o se w ho
a r e o u r f r i e n ds
.

The w a rmth o f t h e prop os al mu st h av e ch i lle d

t h e la d y to th e m a r r ow
A n d th i s a ft e r all t h e i n
d ig n i ty a n d contu m e ly th ru st o n G e rmany by o u r
Fo r e ign O ffi ce s inc e 1 9 04 ! N o o n e who c a re s t o
lo ok a t the sp e e ch e s o f the Fo r e i gn S e cret a ry i n a n d
ou t o f the H ou se coul d d e n y tha t h is co n si ste n tly

fr i g i d over t u re s t o G e r ma n y fo r
a ff e cti o n
and

f r i e n d ship w a s o n e o f the ch i e f f e a tu r e s o f h i s
a d mi n ist r at i on Wh a t hop e wa s t he r e o f b e tt e r r e
la t i o n s with ou r own stock wh e n we we re i n d i plo
m a ti c a g r eeme n t w i th G e rm a ny s anc i e n t fo e s
France a n d R u ssi a ? Woul d the Fo r e ign Se cr e ta ry
s ay t h e Fr a n co -Ru s s ra n Alli a n c e h e lp e d in any way
to b ring ab ou t imp rov e d rel a tio n s with G e rmany ?
W hy talk ab ou t m aki n g n e w f r i e n dsh i p s by d e s e r t
in g o ld on e s wh e n th e p oli cy o f m aking the o ld
o n e s w a s t h e cau se o f l i m i t i ng t h e numb e r o f n e w
ones ?
M r B ona r L a w the n e w l e a de r o f t h e Opp os i
t i on i n str iki n g co n t r a st to t h e spe e ch o f Si r E d wa r d
G rey r e f e rre d to G ermany w i th wa rmth :
.

I t is a n i de a p r e v a l en t , e s p e c i all y o n t he C o n t i n en t , t h at
t h e r e i s i n t h i s c o u n t r y a f e e li n g o f h o s t ili t y t o G e r m a n y
I n my o p i n i on t h a t b e li e f i s e n t i re l y u n f o u n de d
So fa r a s
I a m c o n c e rn e d t he H o u se w ill a cqu i t m e o f e go t i s m i n
.

M R L AW ON

TH E IN E VITA B L E

161

m a k i n g t h es e r e m a r k s ; I a m m a k i n g t h e m n o t o n l y b e c a u se
I h a pp e n t o be t he l e a d e r o f t he p a r t y b e h i n d m e b u t a ls o
b e c a u se I t h i n k I ca n e xp r e ss t he V i e w o f t he g r e a t m a ss o f
o u r c o u n t rym e n s o fa r a s I a m c o n c e rn e d
I n e v er h a d
a n d cer t a i n l y h a v e n ot n ow
Du r i n g m y
a n y s uch f e e li n g
bu s i n es s li f e I h a d d a il y c o mm e r c i a l i n t e r c o u rs e w i t h G e r
m a n y I h a v e ma n y G e r m a n f r i e n ds I l o v e s o m e G e r m an
b oo ks a l m os t a s much a s o u r f av o u r i t e s in o u r o w n t o n gu e
a n d I ca n i m a g i n e fe w
i f a n y c a l a m i t i e s wh i ch w ou l d s ee m
s o g r e a t a s a w a r wh a t e v e r t h e r e s u l t
b e t w e e n u s a n d t he
g re a t G e r m a n p e o p l e I h e a r i t a l s o c o n s t an t l y s a i d
t h e r e i s n o u s e Shu t t i n g o u r e y e s a n d e a r s t o o bv i o u s f a c t s
t h a t o w i n g t o d i v e r g e n t i n t e r e s t s w a r s o m e day o r o t h e r
b e t w e e n t h i s c o u n t r y an d G e rm an y is i n e v i t a b l e I n e v e r
b e li e v e i n t h e s e i n e v i t a b l e w a r s
I f t h e re f or e w a r
Sh o u l d e v e r c o m e b e tw e e n t h e se tw o c o u n t r i e s wh i ch h e a v e n
fo r b i d i t w ill n o t I t h i n k b e du e t o i r r e s i s t i b l e n a t u r a l
l aw s I t w ill be d ue t o t he w a n t o f hum an w i s do m
,

H e m i ght h a ve a dd e d a ll w a rs a re du e t o want
o f hum a n wis d om Wa r b e g i n s whe r e w i s d om
ends Lo r d M o rl e y in the H ou s e o f Lo r d s i n the
M oro ccan d e b ate contribut e d a n e p a s s a ge o n G e r
many s p os it i on i n t h e wo rl d o f a r t sc i e nc e a n d lit
,

e r a tu r e

W h e t h e r F r a n c e o r I t a l y o r G e r m an y o r E n g l a n d h a s
m a de t he g r e a t e s t co n t r i bu t i on i n t he h i s to r y o f m o de rn
c i v iliz a t i o n h o w e v e r t h a t s p e cu l a t i v e c o n t ro v e r s y m ay b e
s e t t l e d t h i s a t l e as t i s c e r t a i n
t h a t t h o s e a re n o t w ro n g w h o
h o l d t h a t G e r m a n y s h i gh a n d s t r i c t s t a n da r d o f c o mp e t en cy
t he pu r i t y a n d v i g o u r o f h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a ff a i r s h e r
Sp l e n di d e ffo rt s a n d g r e a t s ucc es s i n a ll b r an ch es o f s c i en c e
h e r g l o r i e s fo r g l o r i e s t h e y a r e i n a r t a n d li t e r a t u r e
a n d t he s t r e n g t h a n d ch a r ac t e r a n d d u t y i n t he G e rm a n
p e o p l e e n t i t l e he r n a t i o n a l i de a l s t o a s up re m e p l a c e am on g
t he g re a t es t i d e a l s wh i ch n ow a n i m a t e a n d g u i de t he w o r l d

1 62

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

D o n o t le t u s f o r g e t a ll t h a t
G e r m a n a m b i t i o n is a p e r
fe ct ly i n t e lli g i b l e a n d e v e n l o f t y a mb i t i o n
W ho c a n w o n
d e r t h a t a c o mm u n i t y wh i ch h a s m a de t he e n o r m o u s
a dv a n c e s i n e v e ry e l d t h a t G e r m an y h a s m a de , c e r t a i n l y
s i n c e 1 8 6 6 , i n m a r i t i m e p o w e r a n d w e a l t h a n d p o pu l a t i o n ,
s h o ul d d e s i r e t o n d t e r r i t o r i es wh e r e h e r s u rp l u s p o pu l a t i o n
m a y e m i g ra t e a n d e s t a b li s h t h e m s e l v e s w i t h o u t l o s i n g e i t h e r
Th e re is
t h e i r n a t i o n a li t y o r t h e i r i d e a l s o f m o de rn li f e
t h e p l a c e i n t he s u n
I n a ll t h e s e g re a t a ch i e v e m e n t s I h a v e

v e n t u re d t o e n um e ra te t h e r e is t he G e rm an p l ac e i n t he s u n
.

I t i s s o strange n owa days to th i nk that any r e

sp ons i bl e s t at e sma n ev e r h e l d su ch v i ews L o r d
M o r l e y mu st h av e h e a r d o f T r e i ts chk e a n d Ni e t z s
che to s ay n othing o f a ll t h e oth e r p o i son e rs o f
t h e G e rm a n mi n d
Th u s S p a k e Z a r a t h u s tr a w a s
pub l i s h e d long b e fo r e Lo r d M o rl e y sp oke tha t da y
i n the Lo r d s
Pru ssi a n m i lita ri sm wa s no t u n k n own
i n 1 9 1 1 a nd wh a t B i sma rck h a d s a i d w a s n o Fo r
e i gn Offi c e s e c r e t
Le t u s hop e th at Lo r d M o r l e y
know s the who l e tru th o f th e m atte r n o w tha t h e h a s
ha d a n o ppo rtun i ty o f r e a d i n g t h e B r i ti sh news
p ap e rs s i n ce t h e b e gi n ning o f t h e w ar B u t th e n
h e m i ght qu ot e fro m h i s own Ap h o r i s m s that

Peop le who get the i r w i s d om ou t o f b o oks a r e

l i ke thos e who h av e go t th e i r k n owl e d ge o f a cou n
try from t h e d e s c r i ptions o f tr av e ll e rs T r uth that
h a s b e e n p i ck e d u p from b ooks only st i cks to u s lik e
a n arti c i a l l i mb o r a false tooth o r a r h i n op la sti c
no s e ; t h e trut h w e hav e a cqu i r e d by ou r own think

i ng i s lik e t h e n a tu ra l m e mb e r
E a r ly i n J anu a ry 1 9 1 2 the fate ful ye a r Lo rd
R o seb e ry spok e o n Fo re i gn Aff a i rs a t Gla sgow
H e wa s no lover o f the Fr a nco -B r i t i s h Ag r eem ent
.

C R IT I C S

F O RE I GN POLI CY

OF

63

I n Gla sg o w a ft e r s i x ye a rs o f Lib e r a l fo re i gn p ol
i cy h e s a i d :
,

Th is

f o re i g n p oli cy t h at fo r
g o o d o r fo r e v il w e a r e n ow e mb r a c e d i n t he m i ds t o f t h e
C o n t i n en t a l s y s t e m T h a t I r e g a r d a s p e r h a p s t h e g r a v e s t
f a c t i n t he l a t e r p o r t i on o f my li f e W e a r e fo r g o o d o r
fo r e v il i n v o l v e d i n a C o n t i n e n t a l s y s t e m t h e m e r i t s o f
wh i ch I do n o t p r e t e n d t o j u d g e be c a u s e I do n o t k n o w
e n o u gh a b o u t i t
b u t wh i ch a t a n y r a t e m a y a t a n y t i m e
b r i n g u s i n t o c o n i c t w i t h a rm i es n umb e r i n g m illi on s a n d
o u r o w n f o r c e s w o u l d h a r d l y b e c o u n t e d i n s uch a w a r a s
t h e y s t an d a t p r es en t
w e do

k n ow

a bo

ut

ou r

Lo r d R o s e b e r y wa s Fo re i gn S ec re ta r y o f thi s
cou n t r y i n 1 8 8 6 a n d i n 1 8 9 2 H e knew t h e tra d i
ti o n s o f t h e Fo r e ig n O fc e a n d h i s e xp e r i e n ce o f
C ab in e t a ffa i r s tte d h i m p e cul i a r ly a s a c r it i c o f th e
F o r e i g n O ffi c e p o li cy whi ch commi tt e d u s to a C o n ti
n e n t a l syst e m
B u t h e w as n o t the o nly c r i ti c ; th e r e
w e r e m any othe r fully qu a li e d cr i ti cs o f fo re i gn
p oli cy who i n 1 9 1 2 k n e w B r i ta i n h a d b e en e n
m e sh e d in t h e C o n tin e n tal syst e m An d Si r E d
w a r d G rey wa s fully consc i ous o f the op i n i on o f h i s
cr i ti cs :
.

k n o w t h at a c on s i de r a bl e a m o u n t o f f a u l t h as b ee n
f o u n d w i t h wh a t s o m e p e o p l e t h i n k i s a n d wh a t t h e y c a l l
my f o r e i g n p o li cy b u t wh i ch o f c o u r s e o ugh t n o t t o b e
c a ll e d my f o r e i g n p o li cy b e c a u s e i t i s qu i t e i mp o ss i b l e fo r
a n y i n d i v i d u a l F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r t o c a r r y o u t a p o li cy wh i ch
i s n o t a ls o i n i t s m a i n li n e s t h e p o li cy o f t h e C a b i n e t o f
wh i ch he is a m e mb e r
do

Th a t s tatement wa s t ru e u p to a p o i nt ; bu t i t wa s
a l i ttle w i d e o f stri ct a ccu ra cy i n rega rd to the a u

H OW D I P L O M ATS M A KE WA R

1 64

t h o r i z a ti o n

o f the convers at i on s b etwe en the B r i t i sh

a n d Fr e nch m ilita ry a n d n ava l exp e r ts
The C ab
i n e t a s a whole wa s n o t to ld unt i l long a fte r th e con
v e rs a t io n s
we re b e gun A n yway many p e opl e
bl am e d th e Fo re i gn S e c reta ry fo r the m i su n derstan d
i n gs whi ch exi ste d b e twe en Ge rmany a n d ou rse lv e s
S o d e e p wa s the feel i n g o f an i mo sity tha t the two
G ov e r n m e n ts i n J anu a r y cons ent e d to th e v i s i t o f a
B r i ti s h M ini st e r to B e rlin w i th th e obj e ct o f m ak i ng
a f r a n k s tat e m ent th at wou l d d ispe l the not i on tha t
B r i ta i n ha d s i nist e r d e s igns on G e r m a ny I n the de
b a t e o n th e a d d ress M r As q u i th s a i d :
.

B ot h

Go v er n me n ts t he G e rm a n G ov e rn m e n t an d o u r
ow n
h a v e b e e n a n d a r e an i m a t e d by a s i n ce r e d e s i r e t o
b r i n g a b o u t a b e t t e r s t a t e o f u n de r s t an d i n g I n t he co u rs e
o f l as t m o n t h w e ha d i n di c a t i o n s t h a t th e v i s i t o f a B r i t i s h
M i n i s t e r t o B e r li n w o u l d n o t b e u n w e l co m e a n d m i gh t

f a c ili t a t e t he a t t a i n m e n t o f o u r c o mm on o bj e c t
,

L at e r in h i s sp e e ch t h e P r i m e M i n i ste r gave an
i n d i ca ti on o f th e gravi ty o f t h e si tu at i o n which a ros e
i n t h e summe r a nd autumn o f 1 9 1 1 :
W e a r e t o l d t h a t t h e r e a r e m as s e s o f p e op l e i n Ge r
m a n y w ho r m l y be li e v e t h a t a t s o m e t i m e o r t i m es d u r i n g
t h e s umm e r a n d a u t um n o f l a s t y e a r w e w e r e m e d i t a t i n g
a n d e v en p re p a r i n g a n a gg r e ss i v e a t t a ck u p o n t h e i r c o u n
t r y a n d t h a t t h e m o v e m e n t s o f o u r e e t s w e re c a re f u ll y
c a l cu la t e d w i t h t h a t o bj e c t in v i ew I a m a l m os t as h a m e d
t o h a v e t o c o n t r a d i c t s o w il d a n d s o e x t r a v a g a n t a c t i o n
I t i s pu r e i n v e n t i o n
T h e re i s I n e e d h a r dl y a ss u re t he
H o u se n o t a s h a do w o f f o u n da t i on for i t n o r w a s t h e r e
o f an
a g gr e s s i v e o r
a n y t h i n g a n ywh e r e
o r at an y t i m e
p ro v o c a t i v e ch a ra c t e r i n t he m ov e m e n t s o f o u r s h i p s B u t
t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t s uch ru m o u r s n d c r e de n c e n o t i n de e d
w i t h t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t b u t i n t h e m i n ds o f l a r g e

A RE G RETTAB LE SY M PTO M

1 65

umb e rs o f i n t e lli g e n t a n d f a i r m i n de d p e o p l e in G e rm an y
i s s u r e l y i n i t s e lf a s i g n i c a n t a n d m o s t re g r e t t a b l e
s ymp t o m
-

Th e P r i me M i n i st e r might h av e a d d e d tha t i t wa s
a lso a r e g r e ttabl e symptom that l a r g e ma ss e s o f in
t e lli g e n t p e o pl e i n o u r o w n cou n try h a d v e ry go o d
r e as o n fo r b eli evi n g i mp l i citly the same
e xt r a v a

ga nt cti o n
I n t h e R e i ch s tag t h e d a y a ft e r t h e de b a te i n th e
H ou s e o f C o m m o n s t h e G e r m a n C h anc e llo r H e r r
vo n B e thm a n n H ollweg gav e h i s v e r s i o n o f Lo rd
H a ld a n e s v i s i t :
.

W h en th e E n g li s h M i n i s t e r o f W a r L o r d H a l da n e
w a s h e r e h e t a l k e d o v e r w i t h u s w i t h o u t a u t h o r iz a t i o n t o
b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s a t t he i n
e n t e r i n t o b i n d i n g a g r ee m e n t s
C a b i n e t t h e p o i n ts i n wh i ch t h e
s t a n c e o f t he B r i t i s h
i n t e r e s t s o f t he tw o c o u n t r i e s co me i n t o c o n t a c t
(h e a r
h e a r i n a ll p a r t s o f t h e H o u s e ) w i t h t h e O bj e c t o f e s t a b
lis h i n g a b a s i s fo r re l a t i o n s o f g r e a t e r c o n d e n c e
(H e a r
h e a r ) The e x ch a n g e o f v i e w s wh i ch w a s h e a r t il y w e l
c o m e d o n o u r s i de t o o k p l a c e i n n um e r o u s c on v e rs a t i o n s o f
a n e xh a u s t i v e a n d f ran k d es c r i p t i on
a n d w ill b e c o n t i n u e d
(C h ee r s ) I d o h o p e t h a t t he H o u s e w ill a g re e w i t h m e
t h a t I c a n n ot a t t h i s s t age o f t he m a t t e r s p e a k a b o u t t he
d e t a il s
Qu i t e r i gh t !
B u t I d o n o t w i s h t o de l a y i n
c o mmu n i c a t i n g t o t he R e i ch s t a g t h e f a c t o f t h e c on v e rs at i o n s
an d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r a i m s
(G e n e r al ch ee rs )

The b a s i s fo r r elat i ons o f gr e a te r con d ence w a s

blown i nto t h e a i r th r e e m o n ths a fte r the v i s i t to

B e rli n
St r ategy m u st r e sp o n d to p oli cy
said
Lo r d H a l d an e o n M a r ch 2 1 t h e p oli cy o f th e Fo r

e i g n O ffi c e
Th e n a vy e stim at e s w e r e i nt r o du c e d
o n M a rch 1 8 th a n d th e y r e gi st e r e d a sup e r c i a l d e
cr e a s e o f
but b e fo re t h e ye a r wa s ov er
,

H OW

66

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

th e r e wa s a n i n c r e a s e o f
Th e tw o
P owe r sta n d a r d wa s ab a n d o n e d a n d a n e w p o li cy
I n pre
d i r ect e d st r a ig h t ag a i nst G e rm a n y a d opte d
s e nting the e s t imat e s to t h e H ou s e M r Chu rchill
sa i d
,

I p ro p ose w i t h t he p e r m i ss i on o f t he H ous e t o lay b a r e

t o t h e m t h i s a f t e rn o o n w i t h p e r f e c t o p e n n e s s t h e n av a l s i t u
I t i s n e c e ss a ry t o d o s o m a i n l y w i t h re f e r e n c e t o
a t i on
I r e g re t t h a t n e c e s s i t y b u t n o t h i n g i s t o b e
o n e P ow e r
g a i n e d by u s i n g i n d i r e c t m o de s o f e xp r e s s i o n O n t he co n
t r a ry t h e G e r m an s a r e a p e o p l e o f r o bu s t m i n d wh o s e
s t r o n g a n d m a s c uli n e s e n s e a n d h i gh c o u ra g e d o n o t r e c o il
f r om a n d a re n o t o ffe n de d by p l a i n a n d b l u n t s t a t e m e n ts o f
f a c t i f e xp r es s e d w i t h c o u r t e s y a n d s i n c e r i t y An yh o w I
mu s t d i s ch a r g e my d u t y t o t he H o u s e a n d t he co u n t r y
The t i m e h a s c o m e wh e n b o t h n a t i o n s o ugh t t o u n de rs t a n d
w i t h o u t i ll t e mp e r o r d i s gu i s e wh a t w ill be t he c o n d i t i o n s
u n de r wh i ch n a v a l c o mp e t i t i o n w ill b e c a rr i e d o n d u r i n g
t h e n e x t fe w y e a r s

'

I t wa s a bold p ol i cy i n i t i ated by the n e w F i r st

Lo r d ; ca n d ou r a n d op e n n e ss woul d c e r ta i nly b e w e l
com e f e a tu r es o f t h e n e w a dmi n i st r ati on I t wa s
a goo d p o i nt gai n e d to know i t wa s h e nc e fo rth u n
n e c e ss a ry fo r u s t o co n si d e r Fr anc e a n d Ru ssi a a s a
comb i nat i o n o f nava l f o rc e a gainst u s Th e re wa s
o n e p a ssa ge i n t h e sp e ech wh i ch wa s not qu i te a s
f r a n k a s i t m i ght have b e en :
.

S l ow i n g dow n by G e rm an y w ill be a cc o mp an i e d
n a t u ra ll y o n o u r l a r g e r s c a l e by u s
I h a v e t o s ay w i t h i n
c e rt a i n li m i t s b e c a u s e o f c o u rs e b o t h G re a t B r i t a i n an d
Ge r m a n y h a v e t o c on s i de r a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s t he bu il d
i n g o f o t h e r P o w e rs t h o ugh t h e l e a d o f b o t h t h e s e c o u n
t r i e s i s a t p r e s e n t v e r y c o n s i de r a b l e o v e r an y o t h e r P o w e r

bes i des e a ch o t h e r
All

FOR

GE R M ANY T o C ONSI D E R

67

I f Fran c e a n d R ussi a s e p ar ately o r comb i ne d

we r e n o l o n g e r fa cto r s whi c h B rit a i n h a d t o con
s i d e r i n fr a mi n g n a v y e st i mates we re th e y no t fo r
m id a ble fa ct o rs to G e r m a ny ?
H e r poli cy w a s co n
t r o ll e d by t h e a cti o ns o f th r e e P ow e rs o n e o f which
B ri ta in a im e d a t a n ove r wh e lmi n g sup e r i o rity i n
i ts e l f a ga i n st G e r ma n y Th e gu r e s fo r n e w con
st r u cti o n o f F r a nc e a n d Ru ss i a i n that y e a r s houl d
h ave p rov e d to M r C hu rchill the u tt e r h op e lessness
o f r e lying o n su ch an a rgu m e nt
G e r m a ny h a d to
r e cko n with t h e n ati ons o f t h e F r anco Ru ss i a n Al
li a n ce the A n gl o Fr e nch Ag r e e m e n t t h e A n glo
R u ssi a n Agr e e m e n t a n d t h e p la n s o f G e n e r a l Staffs
a r i si n g o u t o f t h e co nv e rs ati o n s b e tw e e n the B r iti sh
a n d F r e n ch m ilita ry a n d n a v a l e xp e r ts ; to s ay noth
i n g o f wh at e v e r oth e r s e c r e t comm itm e n ts th e r e
might b e co n n e cte d with t h e d ip lom a cy o f t h e E n

t e nt e P o we r s
S trat e gy mu st r e sp o n d to p oli cy

the p oli cy o f t h e Fo r e ig n O ffi c e !

Wha t e a rthly
cha n ce wa s th e r e fo r a ho li d ay fo r a ye a r ? M r
C hu r chill wa s u n d o ubt e d ly S i n c e r e wh e n h e m a de t h e
sugg e sti on ; bu t so l o n g a s F r a n c e a n d Rus si a w e r e t h e
g o v e r n ing fa cto rs i n G e r ma n n av a l p o li cy t h e th i n g
w a s imp o s sib l e Though w e ga i n e d a c o n si d e r abl e
am o u n t o f ku d o s fo r m aki n g t h e su gg e sti o n time
h a s show n how futi l e t h e n otio n wa s f r om th e rst
Th e d e b at e o n t h e n avy e s t im at e s o f M a r ch 1 9 1 2
i s wo r th r e a d ing a ga i n a n d a ga i n
Lo r d C ha rl es
B e r e s f o r d m a d e a f r o n ta l atta ck o f g r e a t s e v e ri ty
on the F i r st Lo r d a n d hi s sp e e ch wa s o f g r e at v alu e
fo r t h e m a n n e r i n whi ch h e p r ov e d h ow mu ch to
blam e we we r e i n i nsp i r i n g I r r i tat i on a n d h a tre d i n
G e r m a n y by o u r b o m b a st a n d o u r m e tho d s H e
qu ote d m any G e rma n p ap e rs to S how how the sp eech
,

H OW

168

D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

o f the n ew F i rst Lo rd a t Glasgow e a rl i e r i n the

yea r wa s r e ce iv e d by t h e pr e ss o f t h e Fath e rl an d
a n d blam e d t h e A d mi r a lty f o r a ll t h e u nr e st i n G e r
man n ava l sp h e re s Lat e r i n t h e d e b at e M r R ob e r t
H a rcou rt r e f e r r e d to B e rnh a r d i s b o ok Ge r m a n y
,

a n d th e

Ne xt W a r :

I h a v e r e a d i n t h e l a s t d a y o r t w o a v e ry i n t e r e s t i n g
b o o k by a G e rm an G e n e r a l G e n e ra l B e r n h a r d i a n d i t
b e a rs o u t a g o o d d e a l t h a t t h e n o b l e L o r d s a i d I t i s n o t
a p i e c e o f J i n g o p a mph l e t e e r i n g b u t a s e r i o u s m ili t a r y co n
s i d e r a t i o n o f wh a t t h e w r i t e r c a ll s i n h is t i t l e G e r m a n y a n d
t h e Ne x t Wa r
I t i s fa r m o r e de p re s s i n g t h an t he w o rs t
C h a u v i n i s t i c li te r a t u re b e c a u s e i t g i v e s a f e e li n g o f h o p e
l es sn e ss i n t he u n s h a k a b l e c o n v i c t i o n o f a r ep res e nt a t i v e
G e r m an t h a t w e a re i n s p i r e d by a c t i v e a n d a gg ress i ve a n i
I o n l y t a k e a s e n t e n c e o r tw o
mo s i t y a g a i n s t h is c o un t r y
H e s ays :
fro m t h a t bo o k

The M o ro cc a n n e g o t i a t i o n s o f t h e s u mm e r o f 1 9 1 1
g a v e a n i r r e fu t a b l e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t he u n qu a li e d h o s
I t w a s c l e a rl y s h o w n t h a t
t i li ty o f E n g l a n d a g a i n s t u s
E n g l a n d i s d e t e r m i n e d t o p r e v e n t by f o r c e e v e r y r e a l e x t e n
O n e ca n s c a r c e l y d o ub t t h a t En g
s i o n o f G e rm a n p o w e r
l an d i s t h i n k i n g i n d e a d e a rn es t o f a tt a ck i n g G e rm a n y i n
c e r t a i n c i rcum s t a n c e s
H e s p e a k s o f t h e i n c re a s e o f t he E n g li s h e e t as a
p re p a r a t i o n fo r a gg re ss i v e w a r a n d he s a ys :
I t i s i mp o ss i b l e t o r e g a r d t he E n g li s h p re p a r a t i o n s a s
m e r e l y m e as u re s o f de f e n c e The E n g li s h Gov e rn m e n t
k n ow w e ll t h a t Ge rm a n y c a n n o t t h i n k o n h e r s i de o f a t t a ck
i n g E n g l a n d b e c au se s u ch a n a t t e mp t i s i n i t se l f h o p e

l ess

p o i n ts

h a t t he E n t en t e w i t h F r a n c e is r e a ll y
a w a r li k e a l li a n c e a g a i n s t G e r m a n y a n d a s t o a l a n d w a r
h e p o i n t s o u t t h a t p r o b a bl y G e rm a n y w ill b e s upp o r t e d by
Au s t r i a t h ou gh n o t h i n g is s a i d a b o u t I t a l y bu t he s p ecic
a ll y s a y s t h at i n a s e a w a r i t i s p r a c t i c a ll y c e r t a i n t h a t Ge r
He

ou t

M A KI N G TH E LI ON ROA R

69

m an y w ill s t an d a b s o l u t e l y a l o n e a n d he r e p e a ts a g a i n
w r i t i n g I p re s u m e fo r t he G e r m a n p ub li c t h a t he r e g a r ds
W hat
E n g l a n d as a b s o l u t e l y h o p e l es s
a n a t t a ck o n
a f t e r a ll h a s b e e n t h e r e s u l t o f a ll t h e s e r m r e s o lv es a n d
p a n i c p ro g r a mm e s ? H a v e w e f r i gh t e n e d G e r m a n y o u t o f
?
r
t
bu il d i n g ? H a v e w e e v e n co n v i n c e d h e r o f o u r s i n c e i y
W e h a v e o n l y a pp a r e n t l y u n h a pp il y p r o duc e d t he i mp re s
f a l se a s I e a r n e s t l y b e li e v e o f b i t te r a n d u n r e l e n t i n g
s i on
h os t ili t y S h e is r m l y c on v i n c e d t h a t w e a r e f o rc i n g he r
de li b e r a t e l y i n t o a p o s i t i o n o f i so l a t i o n
,

N o t long a fte r t h e holi d ay id e a wa s s ta rted Lo r d

Hal d ane who v i s it e d B e rli n to all ay t h e f e a r s o f t h e
G e r m ans a s to ou r n aval a n d m ilita ry d e sign s b rok e
ou t in a fre s h p la c e a n d i n Lon d o n i n Jun e h e
said :
,

Ke e p u p a e e t a n d s e c u re co mma n d o f t h e s e a a n d
At n o d i s t a n t
t h en t h e i r p r o b l e m w a s a s i mp l e o n e
t i m e w e o ugh t t o b e t h e m os t p o w e r fu l m ili t a r y a n d n a v a l
n a t i o n c o mb i n e d wh i ch t h e w o r l d h a d e v e r s e e n
,

W a s th a t o ne o f th e s entenc e s u s e d i n t h e e x
h a u s t iv e
conv e rs ati o ns i n B e rli n a t t h e b e gi n n i n g
o f t h e y e a r whi ch gav e s o mu ch s a ti s fa cti o n to t h e
G e r man C hancello r ? Su r e ly the ra p i d c h a n g e s t h e
com i n gs a n d go i n gs o f M i n i st e r s t h e n e p h r as e s
a n d p ol i te i nte r ch ang e s
following o n t h e h e e ls o f
b i tte r re crim i n ati o n giv e som e j usti cati o n t o thos e
m e n who j e e r a t the whol e bu s i n e ss a s a p u t u p j o b
to ke e p t h e p e oples o f Eu rop e a n d B r i ta i n i n a stat e
o f e conom i c sl ave ry ; a k in d o f twe n t i e th c e n tu r y
M o n a r ch i a l L e agu e fo r the p r e se r vat i o n o f t h e
th r o n e s roya l and re publ i can o f Eu r op e an sta t e s
Then Lo r d C r e we follow e d Lo r d H a l d a n e wit h
a l i ttle a g wav i ng p resumably to show G e rm a n y
,

'

H OW

1 7o

D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

how ke e n w e w e r e to r e st for a y e a r o n ou r n ava l

l au r e ls whil e Ge r m a n y lost a ye a r i n comp e titi on
with F r a n c e a n d Ru ss i a Ou r sup e r io r i ty a s Lo r d
C r e w e u n d e r sto o d it wh e n h e spok e i n t h e H ous e
o f L o r d s e a r ly i n July wa s o f su ch a n atu r e that t h e
sugg e sti o n o f a nav a l holi d ay mu st h av e st r u ck G e r
m a n y a s a r athe r c ru el j ok e Lo r d C rew e sa i d :
,

xi s t i n g p os i t i on i n a n y p a r t o f t he w o r l d
i s c o n c e r n e d w e a r e n o t a f r a i d t o d e c l a r e t h a t w e c o n s i de r
T a k i n g M a r ch
t h e se cu r i t y o f t h e c o u n t r y i s a ch i e v e d
3 l s t t h i s y e a r w e n d t h a t w e h a v e s ix te e n b a t t l e s h i p s a n d
b a t t l e c r u i s e r s o f t h e d re a dn a ugh t t yp e a s a g a i n s t f t een
S o fa r

as o u r e

p o s s e s s e d by

a ll o t

her

P o w e rs i n

Eu r o p e an w a t e rs

I t wa s th e n a p e r i o d o f all rou n d co n g r atulat i on

tha t t h e s ca re
wit h out t h e slig h t e st f o u n d a t i on in

fa ct o f 1 9 0 9 h a d b e e n t h e m e a n s o f pl a ci n g t h e
B r itis h n avy i n a p o siti o n t o ta ckl e t h e T r ipl e Al
li a n ce a n d a fe w sm all e r sta t e s thrown i n
M in is
t e r s h o w e v e r d i d no t stop to co n si d e r wha t t h e
o t h e r si d e o f t h e a ccou nt wa s : t h e e ffe ct o n G e r
m a n y Th e y d i d not s e e the i t e ms t h e oth e r p ag e
woul d b e a r w i thi n thr e e y e a rs Vi su al i z at i o n is n o t
a M ini st e r i al g i ft Th e p r oph e cy o f B e r n ha r d i wa s
no t a subj e ct fo r C ab i ne t d is cu ss i o n a n d th e rep e at e d
wa r nings o f th e B rit i s h p a ci s t s w e r e co n t e mp tu o usly

u n g as i d e by t h e
a p o stl e s o f p e a ce
a s m e re
d r i v e l o f d r o oli n g mi ll e n n i a lists
Th e n ava l p os i t i o n i n t h e M e d i te rr anean wa s t h e
subj e ct o f a d e b a t e i n t h e Lo r d s lat e r in July Lo r d
H a l d a n e a dmitt e d t h e country wa s fa c e t o fa c e w i th
o n e o f t h e m o st t r yi n g n ava l S i tu a t i ons th a t h a d e x
is t e d fo r a v e r y long t i m e :
-

The G o v e rn m en t h ave made

h e i r mi n ds t h at

the

A T RUST B ET RAYE D

17 1

W e h a ve
f t h i s c o u n t r y d e p e n ds on s e a p ow e r

h
n
P
l
l
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o
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o
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i n t h e m os t f r i e n d l y f as h i o n t h a t t h a t i s o u r v i e w , a n d
wh a t e v e r e ffo r t s m a y b e p u t f o r t h , t h e y m u s t re cko n on o u r

m a k i n g e ffo r ts s t il l g r e a t e r t h a n a n y t h e y m a ke
p osi t i on

Th e G erma n sp e ak i ng amat e u r d ip lomat i s t a s h e

-

wa s r e f e r r e d t o by t h e Opp ositi on l e a d e r gav e a

c o mi c t o u ch to a f r i e n d ly b i t o f a d vi c e Still i t i s
h a r d t o b e li eve su ch a stat e m e n t c o u l d b e m a d e by
L o r d H a l d a n e o n ly s i x m o n ths a ft e r h i s vi s it to
B e r li n A n yway i t was a s a d comm e n ta ry o n the
sugg e stio n fo r a n a v a l hol i d ay
At thi s tim e th e r e i s p e r h ap s no sa d d e r r e e ct i on
o n e ca n in d u lg e i n than t h e po siti o n o f t h e m a ss e s
i n Eu r op e fro m 1 9 1 2 t o t h e m i dd l e o f July 1 9 1 4
I n B r ita i n a t a n y r a t e t h e m ill i o n s o f wo r k e r s w e n t
abou t th e i r busi n e ss utt e r ly obliv i ous o f th e Co n ti
n e n t a l d a n ge r
T h o s e w h o a dd r e ss e d l a rg e au d i
e n ce s f r e qu e n tly ca n t e sti fy th e r e wa s no notion o f
wa r i n th e m i n d s o f t h e p e o pl e
S a f e in t h e i de a
tha t a g r e a t n avy wa s o u r sup r e m e insura n c e a ga i ns t
s t r i f e th e y laugh e d a t t h e p r ogn ost i cati ons o f t h e
o r a t o r s o f t h e L o r d R ob e r ts school I r e lan d was
t h e top i c o n e p a r ty d e a lt with
almo st t o t h e e x
e lu si o n o f a ll oth e r s
S i r E d wa r d C a r s o n b e m o a n e d
t h e fa ct tha t a ll hi s lab ou r s coul d n o t r o u s e t h e B r i t
i sh e l e ct o r at e ou t o f th e i r p r o f o un d ap athy a n d u n
w i lli n g n e ss to r e ga r d tha t qu e sti o n f r om hi s p o i n t
o f V i e w Th e y k n e w n othi n g o f t h e i mm i ne n ce o f
b attl e N o M i n i st e r w a r n e d them ; labour le a d e rs
w e r e a s ig n o ra n t a s t h e ms e lv e s o f ou r j e op a r d y i n
b e i n g e n ta n gl e d i n t h e C o nti n e n ta l syst e m Th e
w e a lth p r o d u c e r s o f th e s e i sla n d s som e how i n a
s trange subcons c i ou s w ay r e l i ed on a Li b er a l Gov
,

H ow

2
7

D I P LO M AT S MA KE W A R

k e ep i n g th e m ou t o f t h e to ils o f ro tt e n d i
l
o
m
h
e
a
a
n
d
t
s ch e m e s o f milita r i sts Th e i r
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fa ith th e i r p ati e n ce th e i r cr e d ulou s n e s s a re qu al i
ti e s tha t m ak e o n e s a d to think on n o w tha t th e i r
hom e s a r e making v a st s a c r i c e s o f b r e a d -wi n n e r s
an d
l at e r o n t h e w e ak o n e s l e ft b e hi n d w i ll h av e
to be a r t h e gr e ater p art o f t h e co st Th e r e we r e
wa rni n gs bu t as th e y came no t fr o m m e mb e rs o f
t h e Gov e rnm e n t little h e e d wa s p a i d to th e m
In
the H o u s e o f Commons o n the D e f e nc e Vot e i n
C omm i tte e o f Supply M r B on a r Law sa i d
e rn m en t

My

i n stin ct

te

ll s

m e t h a t t h e r e is

d a n g e r ; bu t my
in con i c t w i t h i n s t i n c t
B u t wh e n
b e s t I ca n in c o n s i de r i n g wh a t t he
no

uch a s i t i s i s
I u se my j u d gm e n t a s
f a c t s o f t he p o s i t i o n a re I s ay de li b e ra t e l y t h a t in my j u dg
m e n t L o r d R o b e r t s d i d n o t e x a gg e r a t e wh e n h e s a i d t h e
o t h e r d ay t h a t t h i s c o u n t r y h a d n e v e r b e en i n a p o s i t i on o f

g r ea te r p e r il
re a s on , s

Wha t d i d Lo rd R ob e rts know ? Was h i s ala rm

o cca s i on e d b e cau s e w e w e r e a s Lor d R o s e b e ry sa i d
fo r g o o d o r fo r e v i l n o w e mb ra c e d in t h e m i d s t o f
the C o n tin e n ta l syst e m ? D i d Lo r d R ob e r ts kn e w
th a t a n ou tb r e ak o f ho st i l i ti e s on the C ont i nent n o
m att e r how slight t h e cau s e m i ght a t a n y tim e d rag
u s i nto a gre a t Eu rop e a n struggle ?
Wha t p e r i l
we r e w e i n ? An d why w e r e w e i n p e r i l ? Wa s all
Lo r d R ob erts a ct i v i ty i n u rg i ng the G ove rnm e n t to
a d op t d r a st i c m ilita ry changes fo r t h e pu r p os e o f
r a i sing an a rmy l a rg e e n ough to me e t a ll r e qu i r e
m e nts o f ou r comm i tm e nt s ? D id Lor d Rob e rts
know that w e w e re committ e d to t h e obligat i o n s o f
wa r a n d tha t w e w e re b ou n d to a ss i st Fra nce i f
she we re atta cke d by a th i rd Power ? The s e crets
,

WHY GE R M ANY ALO N E ?

1 73

o f fo r e i gn p oli cy n o matt e r h o w well they a re k e pt

from t h e r a n k a n d le o f t h e H ous e a n d the g e n e ral
publi c a r e o ften e nough t h e common p rop e rty o f a
c e rt a i n clas s who s e co n n e cti o n s a re a lways i n tou ch
with the d e p a rtm e n ts a n d t he g r e a t a rm ame n t rms

I t i s not i n t h e i n t e r e st o f t h e publi c to a n swe r

qu e st i o n s i n t h e H o u s e wh e n a m e mb e r a sks fo r
i n fo r m at i o n fr om M i n i ste rs wh i ch ha s b e e n the
goss i p o f club s and d in n e r tabl e s T h i s G ov e rn
m e nt h a s tr e a t e d t h e p r i va t e m e mb e rs o f t h e H o us e
a s to fo r e i gn p oli cy a n d n av al affa i rs a s i f t h e y w e r e
S u n d ay-s ch o o l schol a rs no t o f a n a g e to rea d D eu
te ron omy
Why eve n the gi r ls a t Qu e e n s C o ll e g e
h a d t h e b e n e t o f t h e m ili ta n t a n d b r illi ant C r a m b !
I n July 1 9 1 2 j ust two ye a rs b e fo re th e rst
d e sp a tch from G e rmany i n t h e Whit e P ap e r M r
C hu rchi ll m a de a s tatement o n th e Supp l e menta ry
N av a l E st i mat e s o n ou r p ositi on i n t he N o rth S e a
a nd i n t h e M e d i t e rra n e an I n th i s a m a z i ng a d d i
tio n to t h e e st imates i ntr o d u c e d i n the ye a r o f th e
B e rl i n v i s i t a n d t h e y e a r o f t h e su gg e st e d hol i d ay
we n d t h e Fi rst Lo r d st r i ki n g o u t in a noth e r d i r e c
ti o n not b e cau s e th e n e w G e rm a n N avy Law b e i t
obs e rv e d i n c r e as e d i n n e w const r u ct i o n o f cap ital
S hips bu t b e cau se o f t h e i nc r e a s e o f str i k i ng fo r c e
o f sh i p s o f a ll class e s a va i l able a t a ll se as o n s o f the
y e a r H e r e i t shou l d b e p o int e d ou t th a t th e re h a d
b e e n n o i ncr e a s e at a ll i n t h e m oney sp ent by G e r
m a ny on new const r u ct i on : i n 1 9 1 1 s he sp e n t 1 1
in 19 12
i n 1 9 13
A st e a dy redu cti on
8 8 3 an d i n 1 9 14
i n the gu r e s fo r n e w const r u ct i on
B ut supp os e a ll
t h e a rgu ments l a i d down by the F i rst Lo rd we r e
a ccepted ; wa s i t fa i r i n mak i ng a stat e m e nt o f the
,

H ow D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

1 74

p os i t i on i n the No rth Se a a nd i n the M e d i te rran ean

to l e a d the cou n try to b el i e ve tha t G e rm a n y alone
wa s t h e fa cto r wh i ch a ffe ct e d ou r p ol i cy ? Th e C ab
i n e t mu st h av e know n in July that t h e pl ans o f the
B r iti s h a n d F r e n ch G en e ra l Sta ffs w e r e compl e te
a n d tha t we S hou l d h av e to d e f e n d t h e n orth e rn a n d
w e st e r n co asts o f F r a n c e whil e he r e e t wa s con
ce n t r a t e d
i n the M e d iterr an e a n
D id G e rm a n y
k n ow th a t mu ch ? What a r e m il i ta ry a n d n aval a t
ta ch s fo r i f th e y fa i l to l e a r n facts o f that natu re ?
A n yw ay i n time s o f p e a c e i t i s n o d ii cu lt bu sines s
fo r o n e n avy to know pr e tty a ccu ra t e ly the g e n e ra l
d isp o s iti o n o f a n othe r p a rt i cu la r ly when tha t othe r
n avy h app e ns to b e i ts chi e f r i va l
A thou sa n d rushi n g cu r r e n ts we re ca r ry i ng u s on
i n t h e au tumn o f 1 9 1 2 to t h e Eu rop e a n whi r lpool
Lo r d R ob e r ts a nd Lo r d Cu r z o n i n Octob e r spoke
a t M anch e st e r on C ompulso ry M i l i ta ry S e rv i ce
Th e f e e ling ab ro a d h a d b e e n int e ns e ly a gg r avat e d
by t h e t r e n d o f e v e nts i n B r i ta i n bu t th e sp e e ch o f
Lo r d R obe r ts d i d e v e n mor e to c r e ate d e e p b itter
ne ss tha n the p ol i cy o f ou r Adm i ralty H e s a i d :
,

Now

y e a r 1 9 1 2 j us t as i n
1 8 66 a n d j u s t a s i n 1 8 70 w a r w ill t a k e p l a c e t he i n s t an t
t h e G e r m a n f o r c e s by l a n d a n d s e a a re by t h e i r s up e r i o r i t y
a s c e r t a i n o f v i c t o r y a s a n y t h i n g i n hum a n
a t e v e ry p o i n t
c a l cu l a t i on ca n be m a de c e r t a i n
G e rm a n y s t r i k es wh e n
G e rm an y s h o u r h a s S t r uck T h a t i s t he t i m e h on o u r e d
p o li cy o f he r F o re i gn O f ce T h a t w as t he p o li cy re l e n t
l es s l y pu r s u e d by B i s m a r ck a n d M o l t ke i n 1 8 6 6 a n d i n
1 8 70 ; i t h as b ee n h e r p o li cy d e c a d e by de c a de s i n c e t h a t
An d g e n t l e m e n
d a t e ; i t i s h e r p o li cy a t t h e p resen t h o u r
I t i s o r s h ou l d be t he p o li cy o f
i t is a n e x c e ll e n t p o li cy

eve ry na t i on p re p a re d t o p l a y a g re a t p a r t i n h is t o ry
at

t he

p r es en t

t he

d a y, i n

THE

P U B LI C

M O STLY FOOL S

175

Th i s sp e e ch w a s not only d e e ply r e sent e d i n B r i t

a i n ; i t cau s e d i n G e r ma ny a n a c r i mo n i ou s o o d o f
comm e nt to b e p ou r e d out i n h e r pr e s s O u r o wn
E v e n i n g S t a n d a r d sa i d su ch langu ag e woul d b e

s ca r c e ly j usti abl e i f i t (G e rm a n y ) we r e a t op e n

w a r with u s
I n t h e H ou s e s e v e ra l m e mb e rs ra i s e d
a t qu e stio n t i m e t h e wi s d o m o f a F i e l d M a r sh al o f the
B r i ti s h a r my m aking su ch sp e e ch e s but th e y got l i ttl e
e n cou rag e m e nt f r om t h e F o r e ign S e c r e ta r y a n d t h e
M i n i st e r fo r W a r Th e Fo r e i gn S e c re ta ry i cily d e
cli n e d to d o a n yth i n g
Lo r d R ob e r ts w a s fr e e to
go u p a n d d ow n the cou n t r y b re a thing out th r e at e n
i n gs a n d slaughter a ga i n st G e rma ny bu t Tom M a n n
h a d t o co ol h i s h e e ls i n a c e ll fo r g i v i ng sol d i e rs t h e
a d vi c e o f Tolst o y ! Th e b itt e r a gita ti o n o f t h e co n
s cr ip t i o n i s t s c o n ti n u e d a ll th r oug h t h e a u t um n
an d
G e r m a n y wa s th e o n e c o u n t r y r e fe r r e d t o i n th e i r
b e llico s e sp e e ch e s Th e m e n who fom e nt e d w a r
we r e a p ostl e s o f p e ac e a n d t r u e Engli shm e n t h e
m e n who wo rk e d fo r p e a c e we r e tra ito r s a n d
cowa r d s I t w a s a n e d i fyi n g sp e cta cl e ; o n e to m ak e
a cag e full o f m o n k e ys s i l e nt with e n vy An d the
publ i c thought littl e ab o ut i t W e ll might C h a m fo rt
cry Th e publi c !
how many fools d o e s i t tak e to

m ak e a publi c ?
Th e p o siti o n a t t h e e n d o f 1 9 1 2
a n d som e e v e n ts tha t f o llow e d h a r d up o n th a t y ea r
r e m in d o n e o f t h e agitati o n o f t h e C o r i n t h i a ns i n
th e rst b o ok o f Thu cy d id es P e lo p o n n e s i a n W a r
.

,
,

I t b e c o m es yo u r a t h e r , o n m a n y a c co u n t s , w i t h m a n l y
c on de n ce t o de c l a re fo r w a r Th e o r a c l e o f a go d p r e
s c r i b es i t ; t h a t go d h i m s e l f h a s p r o m i s e d hi s a s s i s t an c e ; a n d
t h e r e s t o f G r e e c e i s r e a d y t o j o i n yo u i n t h e c o n t e s t s o m e
f ro m a p r i n c i p le o f fe a r , a n d s om e f r o m a p r i n c i p le o f
i n t e res t N e i t h e r o n yo u w ill t he rs t b re ach o f t he p e a c e

H ow D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

176

ch a r g e d

The

p l a i n l y j u dg es t h a t
t o be a l r e a d y b r o k e n : yo u w ill o n l y a ct t o re d r ess i t s v i o l a
t i on : fo r t he b re a ch i s n o t t o b e ch a r g e d o n t h o s e w ho a r m e d
t o r e v e n g e i t ; b u t o n t h o se w ho w e re t h e r s t a gg re s s o r s
S i n c e t h e n w a r c o n s i de r e d i n e v e ry li gh t a pp e a rs h o n o u r
a b l e i n r e g a r d t o yo u
ye L a c e d aem o n i an s : S i n c e w e w i t h
u n i t e d v o i c e s e n c o u r a g e yo u t o i t a s m o s t s t r o n g l y r e q u i s i t e
fo r o u r g e n e r a l a n d s e p a r a t e i n t e r e s t s d e f e r n o l o n g e r t o
s ucc o u r t he P o t i dae a n s D o r i a n s by de s c e n t a n d b es i e g e d by
I o n i an s (t he r e v e rs e w as f o rm e r l y t he c a se ) a n d t o r e co v e r
a g a i n t he li b e r t y o f o t h e r s
The bu s i n es s w ill a dm i t o f n o
l o n ge r de l a y wh e n s om e a l re a dy f e e l t h e b l ow ; a n d o th e rs
i f i t o n c e be k n o w n t h a t w e m e t h e r e t o g e t h e r a n d du rs t
w ill in a v e r y li t t l e t i m e
n o t u n de r t a k e o u r o w n d e f e n c e
R e e c t w i t h i n y o u rs e l v es c on f e d
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s ugg e s t e d t h e m os t a d v i s a b l e m e a s u r e s ; a n d g i v e y o u r b a l lo t
fo r w a r
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a n i m a t e y o u rs e l v es w i t h t h e h o p e o f a l o n g l a s t i n g p e a c e t o
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I NTE RESTI N G I NTE R C HANGE

1 77

the Qu e e n s H a ll o n e fo r th e b ack b e nch e rs ; a n d

a t the H i pp o d r om e a n o th e r fo r M r R G Knowl e s
the com e d i a n a n d t h e Ulst e r p a rty I t wa s a gr e at
night i n the hi sto r y o f e mp i r e At t h e Qu een s H a ll
Lo r d P e rcy gav e hi s a u d i e nc e a S ho ck :

w o u l d r e qu i r e co u r a ge t o t e ll t h e c o u n t ry t he t r u t h
f o o l s p a ra di s e a n d t h a t i t w as
t h a t t h e y a r e li v i n g i n a
n o t m e r e l y o u r a r m y b u t t h e a r my o f F r a n c e wh i ch w a s o u r
p re s e n t de f e n c e a g a i n s t G e r m an i n v as i on An d i t w a s a
b a se b e t r a y a l o f o u r o b li g a t i o n s n o t t o b e a b l e t o s u pp o r t

F ra n ce w i t h a n a de qu a t e m i li t ar y f o r c e o f o u r ow n

It

Th a t wa s a p r e tty strong sta t e m e nt to m ake by

o n e who wa s n o t r e mot e ly c o n n e ct e d w i th the F o r
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sta n d ing o f J a nu a r y 1 9 0 6 a utho r i z i n g co n v e rs a
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ta r y a n d n ava l e xp e r ts Th e l e tt e r sta te d that t h e
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a n d though n o th i n g o f a b in d ing n a tu r e lim i t e d t h e
a cti on s o f e ith e r G o v e r nm e n t i n t h e e v e n t o f o n e
o f the count ri e s b e i ng a tta ck e d b y a t h i r d P ow e r th e y
wou l d i mm e d iat e ly d i s cu s s wh e ther both Gove r n
m e nts sh o u l d a ct to g e th e r ; fu rth e r i f the me a su re s in
vo lve d a ct i o n t h e G ov e r n m e nts woul d a t once tak e
i n to c o nsi d e ratio n t h e p la n s o f t h e G e n e ra l Staffs
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a gre e ment Why S i r E dwa r d G r e y shoul d e x
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tim e o n thi s g r av e m a tt e r i s ha r d t o t e ll u n l e s s the

sp e e ch o f Lo r d P e rcy h a d e mb a r ra ss e d t h e Fo r e ign
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Th e r e w a s a ru mou r in Lo n d o n b e fo r e t h e
son
l gt h
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Un i t e d Ki n g d om h a d re c e iv e d n oti c e t h at th e y mig h t
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i sh i n t e r e sts
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th r e e a rm our e d c r u i s e rs th e r e i f a ccou n t w a s n o t
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b e r 1 7 th a n d N ov e mb e r 3 r d
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wh e the r i t was t h e p o l i cy o f t h e Gov e r nm e n t at t h e
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o f t h e n aval e st i m a t e s p racti ca lly to wit h d r aw ou r
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Lo r d d e cl i n e d t o d e a l with t h e qu e sti o n S i r E d
wa r d G r e y in h i s l e tt e r to t h e F r e n ch amb a ss a d o r
p o i nt e d ou t tha t t h e d ispo s i t i o n o f t h e F r e n ch a n d
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b a se d up o n a n e n gag e m e n t to co op e rat e i n w a r
Th a t wa s su r e ly a most e xtra o r d i n a r y stat e m e nt fo r
t h e Fo re i gn S e creta r y to m ake
Wa s i t tru e ? Lo r d
H a l d a n e dubb e d t h e Fo r e i g n S e c r e ta r y
Com

ma n d e r o f the Fo rc e s a n d h e also t o l d u s th at

stra te gy d e p en ds o n p ol i cy the p ol i cy o f t h e F o r

e i g n O ffi ce
Y e t ou r comma n d o f t h e M e d it e r
r a n e a n thre e we eks b e fo r e h e wro t e to M
Cambon
amounte d to a n effe ct i v e fo rc e o f o n ly thre e a r
mou r e d cru i se rs wh i ch t h e Fi rst Lo r d co n si d e r e d a n
ampl e e e t Ev i d e n tly t h e pl a n s o f G e n e r a l S taffs
wer e well i n han d a t tha t time a n d i t w a s le ft to
,

B ELG IU M B E ST I RS HE RSE L F

1 79

F ranc e to look a fte r th e M e d i t e rra nea n whi l e w e d e

vot e d ou r n ava l attent i on to t h e no r the r n co a sts o f
F r an c e a n d th e N o rth S ea H ow fa r t h e p la ns o f
G e n e r a l S ta ffs op e r a t e d we m ay n ev e r k n ow but i t
i s a sig n i ca nt fa ct tha t a n e v e nt o f a n extra o r d i n a ry
n atu r e h app e n e d i n B e lgium j u st about t h e t i m e th e
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b on
I n N ov e mb e r 1 9 1 2 the B e lg i an H ou se o f Pa r
li a m e n t h e l d a s e c r e t si tti n g a t t h e i n sta n ce o f the
B e lgi a n K i ng in o r d e r t o consi d e r u r g e n t p r e cau ti on
a r y me asu re s
King Alb e r t h a d b e c o m e p oss e ss e d
o f fa cts o f a th r e a t e n i n g n a tu r e Th e s e h e d i s cl o s e d
t o t h e P a rli ame n t whi ch l i st e n e d a tt e n tiv e ly t o hi s
w a r n i ngs a n d imm e d i a t e ly a d op t e d a d r a sti c m ili
t a r y p rog r amm e wh i ch h a d b e e n d e laye d fo r thi r ty
y e a rs a n d wh i ch King L e op o l d I I h a d a dv o cat e d in
v a in The d ra sti c p rogramm e ra i s e d t h e w a r
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st r e ngth o f the B e lgi an a r my to
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fo r aux il i a ry s e rvi c e s a n d 1 3 0
0 0 0 fo r ga r r i s ons ;
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fo rc e fo r a cou ntry o f s e v e n a n d a h al f m i lli o n s ;
a n d whe n i t i s u n d e rsto o d th a t B elgiu m wa s b e li e v e d
to b e p r ot e ct e d by ve gr e a t P o w e r s from a gg r e s
s i o n su ch a m ilita ry fo r ce n e e d s a d e a l o f e x
p la n ati on
N ow wha t h a d B elg i um to fe a r i n 1 9 1 2 ? Sh e
knew tha t thr e e o f the s ign ato ri es o f the T r e a ty o f
1 8 3 9 were a lli e d a n d th a t G e rm a n y wa s n o t wo r k
i ng am i cably w i t h the Ent e nt e P owe rs
I t i s sca rc e ly
b e li e vabl e tha t h e r Fo r e i gn O f c e d i d no t k n ow th at
the F r e n ch a n d B r i ti sh m ili ta ry a n d n ava l exp e r ts
w e r e f o r mula ti n g p la n s fo r t h e G en e ra l Sta ffs B u t
d i d B e lgiu m k n ow that th e s e p lans i nclu d e d t h e p os
.

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA K E WA R

1 80
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b i li ty o f h e r t e r r i to ry
o f a w a r with G e r ma n y

b e i ng u se d a s t h e b attl e eld
aga i n st t h e Ent e n t e P ow e rs ?
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ev e n t o f a w a r betwe e n G e rm any a n d Fr a n c e tha t
G e r ma n y w o ul d b e fo rc e d to i nva d e B e lg i um ?
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sta n c e s l e ave B e lg i um ou t o f co n si de rati on ? As
s u r e d ly not
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t ake a n d tha t wa s throug h B e lgium
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,

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t o a l t e r a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r e a t y w i t h ou t t he c o n sen t o f t he
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o t h e r p a r t i es t o i t
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i n c l u d i n g e s p e c i a ll y in t h i s c ase T u r k e y w ho is o n e o f t he
B e c a u s e i f i t is t o
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SAN C TI TY O F TR E AT I ES

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w ill m a ke a b ru p t v i ol a t i o n s o f i n t e rn a t i o n a l
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l ett e r o f a n essenti a l p ri n c i pl e o f the law o f n a ti o n s
sub s cr i b e d to by t h e P ow e r s i n L o n d o n in 1 8 7 1
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fo r n o w I d e li v e r my se n t e n c e o n t h e de a t h o f p e o p le s
The s t a t e i s c a lle d t h e c o l de s t o f all c o l d m o n s t e r s An d
c o l dl y i t li e t h ; a n d t h i s lie c re e p e t h o u t o f i t s m ou t h : I
t he s t a t e a m t he p eo p l e
I t i s a lie ! C re a t o r s t h e y w e r e w ho c re a t e d t h e p eo p l e s
a n d hu n g o n e b e li e f a n d o n e l o v e o v e r t h e m ; t h u s t h e y
s e r v e d li f e
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t he s t a t e : t h e y hu n g a s w o r d a n d a h u n d r e d d e s i res o v e r
t he m
W h a t e v e r a p e op l e is l e f t i t un de r s t a n de t h n o t the s t a t e
b u t h a t e t h i t as t he e v i l e ye a n d a s in a g a i n s t c u s t o m s a n d
r i gh t s
T h i s S i g n I s h ow u n t o you : e v e r y p eo p l e s p e a k e t h i t s ow n
t on gu e o f g oo d a n d e v i l n o t u n de r s t o o d by i t s n e i ghb o u r
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c u s t o m s a n d r i gh t s
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wh a t e v e r i t s a i t h i t li e t h ; wh a t e v e r i t h a t h i t h a t h s t ol e n
F a l s e i s e v e ry t h i n g i n i t ; w i t h s t o l e n t e e t h i t b i t e t h t h e
b i t i n g o n e F a ls e a r e e ve n i ts i n t es t i n e s
Co n fu s i on o f l a n gu ag e s o f g o o d a n d e v il T h i s S i gn I
Sh ow u n t o you as t he S i g n o f t he s t a t e Ve r il y t h i s s i g n
Ve ril y i t w av e t h h an ds
p o in t e t h t o t h e w ill u n t o d e a t h !
u n t o t h e p r e a ch e r s o f d e a t h !
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.

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fo r e vi d e nc e o f
t h e rst y e a r o f t h i s P a r li a m e n t
the Fo r e ign O f c e a n d t h e A d m i r alty s m e thod o f
h o o dwi n ki n g m e mb e r s a n d shi e l d ing th e i r own
syst e ms o f e va si o n h yp e r b ol e a n d s e cr e cy T hi s
G ov e r n m e n t i s n o t th e r st to s e t up a b s o lu t i s t s ys
t e ms in t h e d e p a r tm e n ts but f r o m Lib e r a l stat e sm e n
t h e m a ss o f p e o pl e e xp e ct d e m o c r a ti c tr e atm e nt
Wh e n To r yism n i sh e d its m a d ca r e e r i n 1 9 0 5 t h e
va st m aj o r ity o f t h e e l e cto r a t e imagi n e d To ry m e th
o d s woul d b e i n te r r e d w i th t h e p a r ty
No t i n t h e

p ubli c i n t e r e st wa s t h e p hra s e i t w a s thoug h t m ight

s atis fy ov e r cu r i ou s C o n s e rv ativ e s bu t R a d i ca ls w e r e
not to b e put o ff with c rypta d i a H ow e v e r ga lli n g
i t may b e t o m ak e su ch a n a d mi ssi on i n th e s e d e mo
cra ti c d ays i t mu st b e co n f e ss e d tha t the H ou s e
o f Lo r d s i s no t the only pla ce that th r ives u p o n a n
h e r e d ita r y sys t e m All d e p a r tm e n ts m o re o r l ess
l iv e a n d move a n d hav e th e i r b e i n g j u st as p rol i c
n o bl e hou s e s d o ; w i th thi s d iffe r e n c e
o f cou rs e tha t
p e r m an e nt o ffi cia ls a r e n o t s o e asi ly shi fte d H e
r e d it y i s t h e e v i l in u e n c e w h ich h a s d e st r oye d D e
m o cr a cy ; a n d n o w lik e O swal d Alv i n g i t i s s tru ck
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d own j ust a s i t wa s ab out to a sk fo r the sun
conti n u i ty o f t h e d ip lom a t i c e r r o r s o f ou r p r e d e ce s
s o rs i s t h e r e a so n fo r o u r d e p lo r able p os i t i on i n
Eu rop e
I n th e e a rly d ays o f t he rst s ess i o n o f th i s P a r
li a m e n t th e Gov e rnm e nt hung u p the st e reotyp e d te x t
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1 84

H ow D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

Not i n t h e publi c i n t e r e st to sca r e o ff t h e i nquis i

tive A p r ivat e m e mb e r a sk e d t he S e c r e ta r y fo r
Fo r e i g n A ff a i rs wheth e r he h a d r e sp o n d e d to the
sp e e ch o f th e G e rm a n C hanc e llo r (i n wh i ch wa s e x
pr e ss e d the op ini on that a n op en a n d con d e nt e x
cha n g e o f v i e ws w o ul d d o much to r e m o v e susp ic i o n
a r i sing from n aval a n d m i l i ta ry exp en d itu r e ) a n d
wheth e r he could lay up o n t h e tab l e o f t h e Hou se
a n y p ap e rs relating th e r e to ?
The U n de r-S e cr e ta r y
r e pli e d tha t t h e i n fo rmal d i s cu ss i o n s w e r e co n tinu ing

a n d the Gov e rn m e n t h op e d th at th e y woul d

help
to p romote t h e ma i n t e n a n c e a n d g r owth o f t h e ex
i s t in g fri e n d ly r e lati o n s b e t we e n t h e two countr i e s

but
i t woul d n o t b e i n t h e publi c i n te rest t o lay

p ap e rs
To u n d e rsta nd thoroughly h ow thi ck a b a r r i e r
m emb ers h a d to p i erce to g e t a t th e sou r c e o f in fo r
m at i on wh i ch d e te r mi n e d t h e a cti on o f t h e Adm ir
a lty i n 1 9 0 9 (to bu i l d t h e fou r extra s hip s ) o n e h a s
only to l ook th r ough t h e long s e r i e s o f qu e sti ons put
to M r M cK e n n a a n d t h e e va siv e repli e s giv e n by
h i m du r i n g t h e rst w e eks o f the s e ssi on B ehi n d

the S ign
N ot i n the pub li c i nt e r e st t h e G ove r n
m e nt hid th e i r e rro rs o f j u d gm e n t a n d all th e c r i m i
n a l m a chi n ati o n s o f t h e sca r e monge rs outs i d e t h e
H ou s e
Publi c i ty i s co n si d e r e d to b e on e o f t h e
bl e ssings o f ou r P a r l i am e nta ry p ro c e d u r e ; bu t ther e
a r e affa irs o f vita l i nte r e st to t h e publ i c tha t p r i va t e
m e mb e r s ca n n o t g e t a t : a n d o n the oth e r h an d
p rob ably b e cau s e o f the cong e st i o n o f bu si n e ss
oo d s o f o r ato r y unst e mm e d fo r a t le ast e i ght hou r s
a d a y fo r fou r d ays e a ch we e k a n d mu ch i s ov e r
look e d by th e p r e ss tha t shou l d for m e r e p a rty re a
s ons b e giv e n to t h e publ i c Somet i m e s a quest i on
,

A L I E , AND I TS RESULT S

i s pu t whi ch co n ta i n s matt e r o f d e e p imp o rta n c e

85
to

p e o pl e but a n o n c o m m itta l r e p ly o r a n e v a siv e

a nsw e r ch e c k s t h e i n t e r e st i t w o u l d hav e i f r e v e l a
t i o n a n d no t s ecr e cy w e r e t h e chi e f a im a n d d e si r e
o f M i n i ste rs T ak e t h e f o ll o wi ng qu e sti o n a n d r e
ply wh i c h p a sse d a lmo st with ou t c o mm e n t i n t h e
H o us e a n d th e p ress Th e d at e w a s M a rch 8 t h

th e

19 1 1 :

M r Jow e t t

F ore i g n
Aff a i rs i f d u r i n g h i s t e r m o f o f ce a n y u n de r t a k i n g p r o m i s e
in c e r t a i n
o r u n d e rs t a n d i n g h a d b e e n g i v e n t o F r a n c e t h a t
e v e n t u a li t i e s B r i t i s h t r o o p s w o u l d b e s e n t t o as s i s t t h e o p e r a
?
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t i o n s o f t e F e ch
M r M cK i n n o n W oo d (U n de r Se c r e t a r y o f S t a t e fo r
F o re i g n Aff a i r s )
The a n s w e r i s i n t he n e g a t i v e
.

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S e c re t a r y

f S t a t e fo r

Numb e rs o f m e mb e r s k n e w the answ e r wa s u n

tru e but n o t e v e n a s i n gl e supp l e m e n ta ry qu e sti o n
Th e s a cre d v e i l ov e r fo r e ign a ffai r s mu st
w a s pu t
no t b e to rn a si d e
I t i s h ow e v e r m o r e t h a n p r ob
abl e t he U n d e r Se c r e ta ry b e li e v e d t h e a n sw e r h e
gave w a s qu it e t r u e W e know n o w t h e a n sw e r
Yes !
s houl d h av e b e e n
B ut i f t h a t a n sw e r h a d
b e e n giv e n th e r e wou l d hav e b e e n g r e a t d iplom ati c
troub l e in t h e Cha n c e ll e r i e s o f Eu r o p e ; a n d whi ch
i s o f d e e p e r co n c e r n t h e G ov e r n m e n t w o ul d h av e
su ffe re d a n i mm e d i at e sto r m o f p r ot e st f r o m t h e v e r
t e b r a t a o f t h e Lib e r a l p a rty i n t h e c o u n t r y
M any
m e mb e rs w e r e lo ath to p r e ss th e qu e stion b e cau s e
th e y ha d nothi n g bu t ru mou r t o go o n ; a n d th e r e wa s
b e s i d e s thi s to b e co n si d e r e d n am e ly : t h e pl e d g e s
giv e n to t h e c o nsti tu enci e s to supp o r t t h e G ov e rn
m e n t i n b ri ngi n g c e r ta i n r s t cla ss m e a su r e s o f r e
fo rm to the Sta tut e B o ok Thi s wa s i nde e d t h e
,

H OW

186

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

ev e r restra i ni n g r eason why s o m a ny R a d i cal s d i d

no t vot e a ga i n st t h e G o v e rnm e nt on n aval e xp e n d i
tu r e S o t h e compl e xiti e s a n d the mu lt i pl i ci t i es o f
ou r P a rli am e nta r y syst e m m ake i t a n almo st im p o s
s ibl e fe a t fo r a m e mb e r at a ll t i m e s to vote a cco r d
i n g to hi s consc i e nce
The leg i slato r a fter a ll i s th e
r e al J e su i t
Fo r e ign A ffa i rs go t p re c i ou s l i ttl e d i scu ss i on i n
t h e H o u se i n 1 9 1 1
I n 1 9 1 0 th e r e wa s l e ss ; n o
F o r e ig n O ffi ce v o t e w a s put d own tha t y e a r M a n y
compla i n ts o n a ll s i d e s o f t h e H ous e w e r e h e a r d
that s o l i ttl e O p po r tuni ty shoul d b e g i v e n to m e mb e rs
to wo rm a sta t e m ent o f p oli cy ou t o f the F o reign
S e cr e ta ry
The Anglo Ru ss i a n Agr e ement wa s
ma de the subj e ct o f s e ver e cr i t i c i sm on a d a y wh e n
the d eb a t e on Fo r e i gn Affa i rs wa s i n t e rrupt e d a t a
qu a r t e r p a st e i ght by a lo n g d i s cu ss i on o n a ra i lway
b ill ! B u t i f fo r e i gn a ffa i rs go t l i ttl e att e nt i o n t h e
a rmy c e rta inly ca m e i n fo r p a rt i cu l a r not i c e ; a n d
M r H a ld a n e s r e o r ga n i z a t i on o f t h e E x p e d it i o n a r y
Fo rce wa s subj e ct e d to criti ci sm fro m t h e mil i ta r i s t s
I t wa s awkwa r d for the M ini st e r fo r W a r to d e a l
fo r
e ffe ct i v e ly wi th the censu r e p ou re d u p on h i m
t h e d eb a te wa s m o r e i n the natu r e o f a sha m ght
tha n a real b a ttle O n e f e lt tha t M r Ha l d ane was
d o i n g th e b est h e coul d to m e e t the d ema n d s o f Gen
e r a l S ta ffs ; bu t tha t i t would neve r d o to c a r ry ou t
a ll the sugg e st i ons o f th e m ili ta ry e x p erts fo r fe a r
o f a la rming hi s own p a rty who knew noth i ng ab ou t
t h e s e cr e t u n d e rstan d i n g the Fo r e i gn S e cr e ta ry h a d
ma d e w i th t h e Fr e n ch G ove rnment S e v e ra l O p
p o siti o n memb e rs fou n d i t ve ry d i ffi cult to m ak e
h ea d way a ga i n st the s e cr e t ; a nd i n th e i r sp e e ch e s
only sl i ght r e fe renc e s we r e m a d e to the E x p e d i t i on
-

UNEA S Y

S US P I C I ONS

1 87

a ry Fo rc e h av i n g to m e e t Co ntinental a rm i e s S ome
m e mb e r s f r a n k ly s a id i ts n umb e rs w e r e i nsu ffi ci e n t ;

S i r R e gi n al d P o le -C a rew s a i d
i t woul d b e mu rde r

to sen d t h e m
Th e na v y e st i m ate s b rought ab ou t o ne o f the mos t
P rivate memb e rs
i n stru ctiv e d e b a t e s o f t h e s e ss i o n
o n t h e Lib e r a l s i d e comp l e t e ly ri d d l e d t h e fore casts
o f M i n i st e r s ma d e i n 1 9 0 9 a n d 1 9 1 0 a s to t h e nav a l
p o sitio n o f G e r m a n y thoug h th e y w e r e u nabl e to
c h e ck t h e h e a d l o n g r u s h o f ou r a r m aments Tha t
d e b at e wa s p a r ti cula r ly i n t e r e sti n g ; fo r i n i t M r
D i ll o n i n r e f e r r i n g to Franc e p r ov e d h i ms e l f a
fa r bol d e r m a n than a ll t h e Op p o siti on s o l d i e rs wer e
i n t h e de b at e o n t h e a rmy M r D illo n s a i d :
I i n t e r j e c t e d a n o b s e rv a t i o n o n M o n d a y i n t he Sp e e ch
o f o n e o f t h e s p e a k e r s w h o w a s t a l k i n g a b o u t t h i s qu e s t i o n
a n d w ho i n s is t e d
o f bu il d i n g a g a i n s t t h e T r i p l e All i a n c e
fo r t h e s a f e t y o f t h i s Emp i r e o n bu i ldi n g a g a i n s t t h e T r i p l e
Al li a n c e I s a i d W h a t a b o u t F r a n ce ? I t h o ugh t t h a t o n e
o f t h e g l o r i e s o f t h e B r i t i s h G o v e rn m e n t h a d b e en t h a t i t
h a d f o r m e d a n E n t e n t e w i t h F r an c e
I t i s n o t t h e s a m e t h i n g a s a n a lli a n c e
M r Lee :
M r D ill o n :
I s h o u l d li k e t o k n o w wh a t i t i s S o m e
o f u s h a v e h a d v e r y u n e a s y f e e li n g s s i n c e t h e o t h e r d ay w e
rea d t h at
M P i ch o n t he Fo r e i g n M i n i s t e r fo r F r a n c e
s p o k e o f c o n s t an t m ili t a r y c o n v e rs a t i o n s g o i n g o n w i t h En g
l a n d I s ay t h a t t h e re is a v e ry u n c o m f o r t a b l e f ee li n g a m o n g
m a n y h o n ou r a b l e m e mb e r s t h a t t h e re is a s e c r e t a lli a n c e w i t h
F r a n c e o r s o m e u n de r s t a n d i n g wh i ch i s n o t k n o w n t o t he
m e mb e r s o f t h i s H o u s e a n d i f w e a r e t o b e t o l d t h a t t h a t
i s t h e r e s u l t o f a ll t h e se a l li a n c e s a n d u n de rs t an d i n gs t h i s
co u n t ry mu s t b e p r e p a r e d t o bu i ld n o t a cco r di n g t o t h e t w o
P o w e r s t a n d a r d b u t up t o t h e t h ree P o w e r s t a n da r d wh i ch
w a s p u t f o r w a r d h e r e t o n i gh t
.

W hy M r D i llon should b e ala rmed a t a s tate

.

H OW

88

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

ment ma d e by t h e Fr e nch Fo r e i gn S ecreta ry (when

i n a n sw e r t o a qu e sti on pu t by M r J ow e tt o n ly e ight
w e e ks e a r l i e r o u r o w n Fo r e ig n S e c r e ta r y s a i d t ha t
n o u n d e r taki n g p romis e o r un d e rsta n d i n g h a d b e e n
giv e n to F ra n c e ) wa s very stra n g e P e r hap s M r
D illon d i d not b e l i eve our Fo r e ign S e c r e ta r y Any
way h e sh o we d a sup e r b d i s r e ga r d fo r t h e c o u rtesi e s
wh i ch shoul d a ck n owl e d g e the p r i v i l e ge o f all pub l i c
d e p a rtm e nts to ke e p th e i r se cr e ts from p r i vate m e m
bers
A fo rtn i ght a fter M r D i llo n s re fe r e nce to the
sta t e m e nts ma de by M P i cho n the Fr e n ch Fo reign
M ini st e r M r J ow e tt p ut a noth e r qu e st i on to t he
Fo r e i gn Se creta ry :
.

M r J ow et t

k e d t he S e c r e t ary o f S t ate fo r F o re i gn
A ff a i r s i f wh e n he c a m e i n to o ffi c e t h e re w as i n e xi s t en ce
e x p r e s s e d o r i mp li e d
in
a n y u n de r s t a n d i n g o r u n d e r t a k i n g
v i r t u e o f wh i ch G re a t B r i t a i n w o u l d b e u n de r o b li g a t i o n s t o
F r a n c e t o s e n d t ro o p s i n c e rt a i n e v e n t u a li t i e s t o a s s i s t t he
?
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Th e e x t e n t o f t he o b li g a t i o n s t o
S i r E dw a r d G r e y :
wh i ch G re a t B r i t a i n w as c o mm i t t e d w as t h a t e xp r e ss e d o r
i mp li e d i n t he An gl o F r e n ch C o n v e n t i o n l a i d b e f o re P a r li a
T h e re w a s n o o t h e r e n g a g em en t b e a r i n g o n t he
m en t
s ubj e c t
.

as

The C ab i net p e rha p s a cte d o n t h e metho d o f

Solo n who i n h i s o rigi na l constitut i o n d e ni e d the
p eop le i n it i a tive a n d a llow e d th e m only t o p rop os e
what h a d rst b e en th o rou ghly co n s i d e r e d a n d a p
p rov e d by th e s e nate L e t u S s ay th e n that i n
M a r ch 1 9 1 1 t h e C ab i ne t w e r e not a gr e e d o n t h e
matt e r re f e r r e d to i n M r J o w e t t s qu e sti o n a n d the
tim e h a d n o t a r r iv e d fo r l e tting t h e H ou s e i nto th e
con d ence o f the Fore ign Secr e ta ry B u t then the re
,

SU P P R ESSI O VE R I

89

i s th i s to b e rem e mb e r e d :

D i d all the C ab i n et i n
M a rch 1 9 1 1 k n o w any mo r e t h a n M r J o w e tt ?
F o r a n e xamp l e o f t h e G ov e r nme n t s m e t h o d o f

h angi n g ou t t h e s ig n
No t i n the publi c i nte re st
th e following i s h a r d to b eat :
,

M r Y e rb u r gh

P r i m e M i n i s t e r wh e t h e r , i n
s t a t i n g i n h i s s p e e ch o n o u r s t a n d a r d o f n a v a l s t r e n g t h o n
2 6 t h M a y, 1 9 09 , t h a t t h e e n d w a s t o e n s u re fo r t h i s c o u n t r y
i n a n y c o n c e i v a b l e c o n d i t i o n , a n d a g a i n s t a ll p o ss i b le h a z a r ds ,
u n a ss a il a b l e n a v a l s up e r i o r i t y wh i ch w o u ld g i v e u s c o mp l e t e
c o mm an d o f t h e s e a , a n d m a k e a n y a t t e mp t t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h
a n y p a r t o f t h e Emp i re o r s e a b o r n e c o mm e r c e a n i m p os s i
b ili t y, h e i s t o b e u n de r s t o o d a s r u li n g o u t o f c alcu la t i o n , i n
c o mpu t i n g o u r r e qu i s i t e n a v a l s t r e n g t h , t h e e e t s o f a n y
o t h e r P o w e r w i t h wh o m w e m a y, a t t h e t i m e , b e o n t e r m s
o f i n t i m a t e f r i e n ds h i p ?

The P r i m e M i n i s t e r
1 do n o t t h i n k t h at m at te rs
o f t h i s k i n d c a n b e c o n v e n i e n t ly o r a d e qu a t e ly d e a lt w i t h by
qu e s t i o n a n d a n sw e r I ca n o n ly r e f e r t h e ho n m e mb e r t o
t h e s p e e ch wh i ch h e qu o t e s a n d t o t h e Sp e e ch m a de o n t h e

s a m e o cc as i o n by t h e F i r s t L o r d o f t h e Ad m i r a l t y
I s t h e r i gh t ho n g e n t l e m a n a w a r e
M r Ar t hu r L e e
t h a t i n h i s a b s e n c e a n e n t i r e ly n e w d e n i t i o n o f t h e t w o
P o w e r s t a n d a r d w a s l a i d d o w n by t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e for

?
F o r e i g n A ff a i rs

The P r i m e M i n i s t e r :
I a m n o t a w a r e o f t h at

M r Y e r b u r gh :
M a y I a s k wh e t h e r o r n o t w e a re
t o u n de r s t a n d t h a t t h e G o v e rn m e n t a r r i v e d a t n o d e c i s i o n
up on t h i s p a r t i cu l a r qu e s t i o n ? I s t he r i gh t hon g en t l e m a n
n o t a w a r e t h a t t h i s i s a qu e s t i o n o f s up r e m e i mp o r t a n c e , a n d
t h a t i n a r r i v i n g a t o u r s t an d a r d o f n a v a l s t r e n g t h p r e v i o u s
g o v e rn m e n t s h a d r e g a r d t o t h e p o w e r o f t he e e t s o f o t h e r

co u n t r i es ?

The P r i m e M i n i s t e r :
I t h i n k t h i s qu es t i o n s h ow s t h e
i n c o n v e n i e n c e o f de a li n g w i t h t h e s e m a t te r s by w ay o f qu e s

t i on a n d a n sw e r

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H OW

9o

D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

J a m es H o p e : M ay I
t i m e t o m a k e a b a t t l es h i p o r

Mr

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it

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M o st p e rt i n e nt thi s la st qu e st i on a n d not e a sily

a n sw e r e d ; o n e i n d e e d r e qu i r i n g n o t i ce
O n t h e m oti o n fo r a d j ou r n m e nt fo r the E a st e r r e
c e ss M r Swi ft M a cNe i ll ra i s e d t he subj e ct o f
s e c r e cy i n fo r e i gn a ff a i rs H e sa i d :
,

F ro m g en e ra t i o n t o g en e r a t i on you h a v e a llo w e d
t re a t i e s i n v o l v i n g t h e h i gh e s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l Ob li g a t i o n s i n
v o l v i n g qu e s t i on s o f p e a c e a n d w ar t o b e t a k e n a b s o l u t e l y
I t is n o ex a gg e r a t i o n t o s a y
o u t o f t h e h a n ds o f t h e H o u s e
s o fa r a s i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o li cy i s c o n c e rn e d yo u h a v e r e n de r e d
t h e H o u s e a s li t t l e e ff e c t i v e l y p o w e r fu l a s a n y m a n w a l k i n g
o ve r W es tm i n s t e r B r i d g e
O v e r a n d o ve r a ga i n t r e a t i e s
i n v o l v i n g m a t t e rs o f li f e a n d de a t h i n v o l v i n g qu e s t i on s o f
r s t c l a s s i mp o r t a n c e h a v e b ee n r a t i e d b e h i n d t h e b a ck o f
The p e o p l e t h e m s e l v es mu s t b e a ll o w e d t o
P a r li a m e n t
k n o w a ll a b o u t t h i s d i p l o m a cy a n d wh a t i t i s An d t h e r e
s h o u l d b e n o s e c r e cy i n r e g a r d t o h i gh d i p l o m a t i c S t a t e c r a f t
The H o u se o f C o mm o n s is a mp l e j u dg e o f wh a t
ab o u t i t
i s d i s c re e t a n d wh a t i s i n d i s c r e e t a n d i t i s a c o mp l e t e a b
s u r d i t y fo r o t h e r s t o t r e a t u s a s ch il d r e n o r fo r u s t o a ll o w
o u r s e l v e s t o b e S O t r e a t e d i n m a t t e r s o f s uch h i gh i n t e rn a
t io n a l i mp o r t a n c e a s t h o se i n v o l v i n g qu es t i on s o f p e a c e a n d

w ar

Th e Fo r e i gn S e cr e ta ry repl i e d th a t there mu st b e
s e cre cy up to a c e rta in p o i nt a nd th a t t h e rati cat i on
o f treat i e s w a s one o f fa r to o gr e a t imp o rta nce to b e
d i scu ss e d on a n o cca s i o n o f th a t k i n d ; a n d he a ske d
t h e Hou s e to b e a r i n m i n d tha t not u nti l t h e H ous e
o f C o mmo n s w as r e ally f r e e to d e vot e i tsel f to the
d i s cu ss i o n s o f I mp e ri al a ffa i rs woul d i t get contro l
Th e H ou s e h a d not long to wa i t fo r a n i llu st ra
t i on o f the grav i ty o f the ch a rg e d i recte d by M r
,

WH O N EE DE D SU C C O U R ?

19 1

On
M a cNe i ll a ga i n st th e Fo re i gn O fc e
M a y 2 n d 1 9 1 1 a qu e st i on wa s pu t d own conc e rn i ng
the F rench e x p ed i t i on to Fe z :
S w i ft

Mr

ke d

D ill o n

as

Aff a i rs wh e t h e r

t he

S e c r e t a ry

t he

of

S t a t e fo r

Fo re i g n

Go v e r n m en t h a d b ee n c on s u l t e d
by t h e F re n ch G o v e r n m e n t i n r e f e r e n c e t o t he p ro p o se d
m ili t a ry o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t F e z ; a n d wh e t h e r t h e B r i t i s h
Go v e r n m e n t h a d i n a n y w a y a pp r o v e d o r m a de i tse l f r e
s p o n s i b l e fo r t h i s a t t a ck on t he i n d e p e n de n c e o f t he Emp i r e
o f M o r o cc o ?
The S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e fo r F o re i g n Aff a i rs (S ir E dw a r d
G r e y ) : H i s M a j es t y s Go v e rn m e n t h a v e b e e n i n fo r m e d
by t he F r e n ch G o v e rn m e n t o f t h e m e a s u re s wh i ch a r e b e i n g
a do p t e d fo r t h e s ucc o u r o f Eu r o p e a n s i n F e z a n d t h e y u n de r
s t an d t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n h a s a l so b e e n g i v e n t o o t h e r G o v e r n
m en t s The a c t i o n t a k e n by F r an c e i s n o t i n t e n de d t o a l t e r
t h e p o li t i c a l s t a t u s o f M o r o cc o a n d H i s M a j e s t y s G o v e r n
m e n t c an n o t s ee why a n y o bj e c t i o n Sh ou l d b e t a k e n t o i t
B ri t i sh

No w w ho we r e the Eu rop e ans to b e su cc o u re d ?

W e ll i n the rst p l a c e th e y w e r e n o t i n Fe z I n t h e
,

s e con d p la c e th e y w e r e a ll p o w e r ful e nough to d i s

p e ns e w ith the s e rvi c e s o f t h e B r i t i s h Gov e rnm e n t
M any o f t h e p e op l e a sking su ccou r we r e g r e at b a n k
arm ame n t mak e r s B r iti s h n e wsp ap e r c o rr e
ers
p hi la n throp i c m i lli on a i r e s i n timat e ly con
s p o n de n t s
r e p r e s e n tat i v e s
n e ct e d w i th roya lti e s a n d sun d r y
o f t h e p e opl e S u ccou r ! th e s e we r e t h e gangs that
ble d M o r o cco to d e at h A n yway t h e m ilita ry o p
e r a t i o n s o f t h e Fren ch a ga i nst F e z we r e m e r e ly st e ps

taken to d e st r o y that s crap o f p ape r t h e Al

r e t a r ti cl e s o f 1 9 04 we r e n ot
Act
T
h
e
s
e
c
e
c
i
r
a
s
g
then m a d e publi c S o wh e n H i s M aj e sty s G o v e rn
m e nt coul d n o t s e e why a ny obj e ct i on S houl d b e tak e n
to t h e m i l i ta ry op e ra ti ons a ga i n st F e z t h e B r it i sh
.

H OW D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

19 2

G ove r nm e n t w e r e r e a lly ful ll i ng all t h e obl i gat i ons

o f i ts s e cr e t d ip l o m a cy k n owi n g t h e publi c o f B rita in
woul d a cqu i e sc e b e caus e i t w o ul d b e mi si n f o r m e d by
t h e J i n g o p r e ss i n l e agu e w i th th e a d v e r ti si n g d e
a r t m e n t o f t h e F o r e ig n O ffi c e
p
Wha t r e ally w e n t o n i n a n d ab out F e z ha s b een
fully d e scr i b e d by M Fra n c i s d e P r e s s e n s :
,

h i s p o i n t t he C o m i t d a M a r o c a n d i t s o r g an s s u r
p as se d t h e m s e l v e s T h e y o r g a n iz e d a c a mp a i g n o f s ys t e m a t i c
u n t r u t h M a s t e r s o f a l m o s t t he e n t i re p r e s s t h e y s w a mp e d
t he p ub li c w i t h f a l s e n e w s
F e z w a s p re s e n te d a s t h r e a t e n e d
by s i e g e o r s a ck A wh ol e Eu r o p e a n F r e n ch C o l on y w a s
s u dde n l y d i s c ov e re d t h e re
li v i n g i n a n gu i s h The u l t i m a t e
f a t e o f t he w o m en a n d ch il d r e n w a s de s c r i b e d i n t he m os t
m o v i n g t e r ms
At a ll co s t s t h e E u ro p e a n s t he S u l t a n
F e z i t se l f mu s t b e s av e d
As e v e r f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g
o f t h i s e n t e r p r i se
w ill e d
t h e G o v e rn m e n t k n e w n o t h i n g
n o t h i n g of i t s e l f
W i t h a s a l u t a ry d re a d o f c o mp li c a t i o n s i t
w o u l d h a v e p r e f e r re d n o t t o m o v e p e r h a p s e v e n h a d i t
d a r e d t o w i t h dr a w f r o m t he h o rn e t s n e s t
B u t t h e g re a te r
f e a rs i t e x p e r i e n ce d f r o m a n o t h e r qu a r t e r p re v a il e d ; t h o s e
i n cu l c a t e d by t he s o c a ll e d p a t r i o t i c s h o u t i n gs t he co n c e r t e d
c l a m o u rs o f t h e o r ch e s t ra o f wh i ch t he C o m i t d u M a r oc
h o l ds t he b a to n a n d wh o s e ch i e f p e r f o r m e r s a r e t o be f o u n d
i n L e Te m ps a n d L e M a t i n
Th e o r de r t o a dv a n ce w a s
g i v en
Al re a dy wh il e t h e e x p e d i t i o n w a s o n i t s w ay
li gh t b e g an t o p i e r c e T h o s e r e do ub t abl e r e b e l s w ho w e r e
t h r e a t e n i n g F e z h a d d i s a pp e a r e d li k e t h e d e w i n t h e m o rn i n g
B a r e l y d i d a fe w r a gg e d h o r s e m e n re o ff a s h o t o r t w o
b e f o re t u rn i n g a r o u n d a n d r i di n g a w a y a t a fu r io u s g all o p
A t o o d i s i n g en u o u s o r t o o t r u t hfu l c o rr es p o n de n t g a ve the
s h ow a w a y
The e x p e d i t i o n a ry f o r c e c o mp l a i n s h e g r av e l y
r e c o r d s o f t he a b s e n c e o f t he e n e my ; t he a pp r o a ch i n g h a r v es t
s e as o n i s k e e p i n g a ll t h e h e a l t hy m a l es i n t he e l d s !
T h us
d i d t he ph an t o m s o d e x t e ro u s l y c o n j u re d by t h e C o m i t d a
M a r oc fo r t he b e n e t o f i ts a i m s d i s a pp e a r i n a n i gh t
At

O F FI C I AL B LIN DNESS
Av o w a l s

193

One
d i s c l o s u r e s t h e n b e g a n i n r i gh t e a rn e s t
o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n t s w h o h a d c on t r i bu t e d h is s h a r e t o t he
- r
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c o n c e r t o f l y i g n e w , w ro t e w i t h a a m i b
g f oi d
t h a t , i n t r u t h , t h e r e h a d b e e n s o m e e x a gg e r a t i o n , t h a t , i n
p o i n t o f f a c t , a t n o m o m e n t h a d t he s a f e t y o f F ez a n d i t s
i n h a b i t a n t s b ee n s e r i o u s y m e n a c e d t h a t t h e i de a o f a r e gu
la r s i e g e a n d o f a s u d de n c a p t u r e h a d b e e n a li k e ch i m e r i c a l
a n d t h a t , m o r e o v e r , s o fa r a s t h e p r o v i s i o n i n g o f t h e p l a c e
w a s c o n c e r n e d , h e c o u l d r e a ss u r e t he m o s t t i m o r o u s t h a t
an d

ufc i e n t c o r n in t he c i t y t o f e e d t he wh o l e p op u
l a t i on p l u s t he e x p e d i t i o n a ry co l um n fo r m o re t h a n a y e a r !
Th e f a r c e w a s p l a y e d Af t e r C a s a b l an c a F e z ! F r a n c e
w i t h o u t r e a liz i n g i t w i t h o u t w i s h i n g i t a lm o s t w i t h o u t k n o w
An i n d e n i t e o ccup a t i o n
i n g i t ha d t a ke n a de c i s i v e s t e p
o f t h e c a p i t a l w a s t he n a t u r a l p r e l u d e t o a P r o t e c t o r a t e
F o r t h e c l e v e r m e n w ho h a d i n v e n t e d a n d e x e cu t e d t he
s c e n a r i o t h e r e o n l y n o w re m a i n e d t h e t a s k o f r e a p i n g t he
f r u i t o f t h e i r e ffo r ts The e r a o f co n ce s s i o n s p ro t s d i v i
P r e m a t u r e j o yfu l n e s s !
d en d s w a s a b o u t t o o p e n
I t w as
t h e e r a o f d i f c u l t i e s w h i ch w as a t h a n d

h e re

w as

H i s M aj e s t y s G ov e r nm e nt coul d not s e e why any

obj e c t i o n S h o u l d b e tak e n t o i t ! Th e Fo r e i g n O ffi c e
c o ul d n o t s e e tha t i t m a r ke d t h e b e ginn ing o f t h e e n d
o f Eu rop e a n p e a c e !
B u t t h e p e op l e a r e h e lpless Th e y a re b e i ng
groun d to p o w d e r ev e ry d a y b y t h e d ip lom ati c m a
chi n e whi ch n e v e r i n t h e hi st o r y o f Eu r op e a n a ffa i rs
consummat e d a S i n gl e t r e aty t h a t w o r k e d fo r the r e a l
b e n e t o f the p e ople Jugg e rn au t ! Lo ok wh e re
t h e c a r ha s p a ss e d a cross t h e fa i r p la i n o f w e st e rn
Eu r o p e W h o ca n d e sc r ib e t h e w o e th i s Kumb ha

ka r n a h a s w r ought ! N o t u n ti l a cr e s c e nt h e a d e d
a r r ow fro m R a m a s b ow strik e s d own t h e foul i d ol
whi ch B r i ght ft y y e a r s ago thought ove rt hrown
wi ll t h e p eop l e know a n y r e st from wa r
.

H OW

19 4

D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

A s a n e xamp l e o f how qu i ckly n e ws t r av e ls a cross

th e d e s e rt to t h e H ous e o f C ommo n s w h e n B r iti s h

i n t e r e sts a r e i n d a n g e r a n d how e a sy i t i s fo r

B r i ti sh subj e cts who a re not i n d a n g e r to n d

B riti s h l e g i slato rs e a ger to fo rc e t h e Gove r n m e n t
to mov e som e thing o f a n ext e n siv e military cha r a ct e r
to p r ot e ct t h e m t h e following tak e n from H a n s a r d
Ap r i l 2 5 t h 1 9 1 1 i s a g e m :
,

M a j or

S t a t e fo r
a s t o t he

Ar ch e r S h e e : I b e g t o as k t h e S e c re t a ry o f
F o r e i g n A ff a i rs wh e t h e r h e ca n i n f o r m t h e H o u s e
n umb e r o f B r i t i s h s ubj e c t s r es i d i n g i n F e z a t t h e

p r ese n t t i m e a n d wh a t s t e p s t he Go v e r n m e n t p ro p os e t ak
i n g t o s a f e gu a r d B r i t i s h i n t e re s t s i n t h a t p a r t o f M o ro cc o ?
M r M cK i n n o n W oo d (U n de r S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e fo r
F o r e i g n Aff a i rs ) : The n umb e r o f B r i t i s h s ubj e c t s r e s i d
i n g a t F e z o n M a r ch 2 7t h 1 9 1 1 a p a r t f ro m p e r so n s o f
O f t h e se s ix w e r e w o m e n a n d
M oo r i s h p a r e n t a g e w a s t e n
t w o w e r e ch il d r en
H i s M a j e s t y s Go v e r n m e n t do n o t
c on t e mp l a t e a n y a c t i v e m e a s u r e s T h e y con s i de r t h a t t he
b e i n g m a de u n de r F r e n ch s up e r v i s i o n w ill
a rr a n g e m e n t s
a ffo r d t h e n e c e s s a r y p r o t e c t i o n t o B r i t i s h s ubj e c t s a t F e z
No s p e c i a l m e a s u r e s a pp e a r t o b e c a ll e d fo r t o s a f e gu ar d
B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t s i n t h a t p a r t o f M o r o cc o
M r D ill o n :
H as t he G o v e r n m e n t a n y i n f o r m a t i on
wh i ch w o u l d g i v e t h e m c au s e fo r b e li e v i n g t h a t t h e r e i s a n y
da n g e r t o E u r op e a n s ?
M r M cK in n o n W oo d :
N o w e h av e n o s uch i n fo r
m a t i on
M r R e m n an t :
M a y I a s k wh e t h e r a n y r e p r e s e n t a
t i on s h a v e b e e n m a de t o t h e F r e n ch G o v e r n m e n t t o c a r r y
o u t t h e s ugg e s t i o n s ?
M r M cKin n on W oo d :
No r e p res e n t a t i o n s h a v e b ee n
m a de t o t h e F r e n ch Go v e rn m e n t
M a j o r Ar ch e r S h e e :
M a y I as k wh e t h e r i t i s i n
t e n de d t o co o p e r a t e w i t h o t h e r G o v e rn m e n t s s h o u l d i t b e
co m e n e c e ss ar y t o s e n d a l a r ge f o r ce t o p a c i fy M o ro cc o ?
,

P LE D GI N G TH E

Mr

m a ke

M cK i n n on W o o d :

I NTE RESTS

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19

a r s en

to

c o n t e mp l a t e a n y s uch a c t i on
M a y I a s k t h e ho n g e n t l e m a n
M r R e m n an t :
wh e t h e r he w ill a s k t he S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e fo r F o r e i g n
Affa i rs wh e t h e r i t is his i n t e n t i o n t o m a k e r e p re s e n t a t i o n s
a n d i f s o wh e t h e r h e w il l d o s o a t o n c e ?
T h e r e i s n o n e c e ss i t y t o
M r M cK in n o n W o o d :
m a k e r e p res e n t a t i o n s
I n v i e w o f th e u n s at i s f a c to ry
M a j o r Ar ch e r S h e e :
I b e g l e av e t o m o v e t he a dj o u r n m e n t
n a t u r e o f t he r e p l y
o f t h e H o u s e t o c a ll a t t e n t i o n t o a d e n i t e m a t t e r o f u r g e n t
pub li c i mp o r t a n c e n a m e l y th e a t t i t u de t o be a d o p t e d by
t h i s c o u n t r y i n t h e e v e n t o f e x t e n s i v e m ili t a r y o p e r a t i o n s
b e i n g re qu i re d fo r t h e p a ci ca t io n o f M o r o cco
T hi s is for t he p u r p ose o f c re a t i n g a
M r D ill on :
s c are

us

M aj o r A rch e r S h e e d i d not

ge t th e

a dj ou rnm e n t
o f t h e H ou s e B u t the t e n B r iti sh subj e cts in F e z
mus t hav e b e e n d e e ply g r a t e fu l t o t h e B r i ti s h l e gi s
l ato rs who w e r e s o a nx i ou s to prot e ct th e m w h e n
they we r e i n no d ange r An d n o d o ubt B r itis h i n
t e re s ts
f e lt u n d er a d e b t whi ch w e h Op e wa s p a i d
a cco r d i n g to s e r v i c e r e n d er e d Wh a t i s th e go o d
o f h avi n g a Fo r e i g n O ffi c e i f i t ca n not b e u r g e d by
m e mb e r s o f t h e H o u s e o f C omm o ns to d o someth i ng

fo r B r i ti sh
i n t e r e sts
On M ay 2 3 r d t h e Fo r e i gn S e creta r y sa i d the
F r e n ch Gov e r n m e nt h a d n o ch o ic e but t o r e li e v e F e z
with t h e l e a st p o ss i b l e d e lay Wh e n M r Dillo n
a sk e d wh e th e r t h e H ou s e was n ot e n titl e d t o k n ow

t o wha t e xt e n t thi s c o u n t r y wa s c o mm i tt e d to
thi s

i ll -om e n e d a n d cru e l e xp e d iti on the Fo re ign S e c

re ta r
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Th e s e cr e t a r t i cl e s a n d l e tt e r s conn e cte d w i th t h e
Anglo -French Agre e ment we re not ye t m a d e p ubl i c
-

H ow D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

19 6

A rt i cl e VI I I o f the Agre e ment o f 1 9 0 4 state d

Th e Ag r e e m e n t whi ch m ay b e com e to o n t h e sub
j c e t b e tw e e n F r a n c e a n d Sp a i n shall b e commu n i

A
ca t e d to H i s B r i ta n ni c M aj e sty s Gove r nment
c o n v e n tion w a s d r awn u p b e tw e en F r anc e a n d S p a i n
o n O ctob e r 3 r d 1 9 0 4 fo r t h e p a rt i tio n o f M o r o cco
A c o py o f th i s s e cr e t t re a t y wa s s e n t by the Fr e nch
a mb a ss a d o r to Lo r d La ns d owne who in a ck n o w l
I n e e d n o t s ay that t h e con d e nti a l
e d gi n g i t s a i d
c ha ra ct e r o f the Conv e nti on e nte r e d i n to by the
P res i d e nt o f t h e Fr e nch R e publi c a n d t h e Ki n g o f
S p a i n i n r e ga r d to F r e nch a n d S p ani sh i nt e rests i n
M o r o cco i s fu lly r e co gni z e d by u s a n d will b e d uly

r e sp e ct e d
N o w e w e re n o t c o mmitte d
no t
publi cly W e ll m i ght M r Swi ft M a cNe ill say
It
i s a compl e te ab su r d ity fo r oth e r s to t r e a t u s a s
chil d r e n o r fo r u s to allow ou rs e lv e s to b e s o t r e a te d
i n m att e rs o f su ch h i gh i nt e r n ati o n al i mp o rtance a s

tho s e i nv o l v i n g qu e stio n s o f p e a c e a n d wa r
A ft e r C a sab lanca F e z ; a n d a ft e r F e z Aga d i r
E a r ly in July G e r ma ny s e t ab o ut taki n g a ha n d i n
P ubli cly she wa s a s mu ch
t h e M o r o ccan busine ss
c o n c e r n e d in the e conomi c a r ra n g e m e nts o f t h e P o w
e rs i n M o ro cco a s F ra n c e o r B r i ta in I n Febru a ry
19 09
s h e h a d sig n e d a d e cla rat i o n with Fr an c e
m a i nta ini n g th e i n t e g r ity a n d i n d e p en d e n ce o f M o
r occ o
Th e P a n t h e r at Aga d i r wa s a n i ndi ca t i on o f
wha t t h e G e rm a n G ove r nm e n t thought o f the Fren ch
e xp e d iti on to F e z
Qu e sti ons w e re a ske d i n t h e
H ouse o f C ommons b ut th e G ove r nment im m e d i
a t e ly pu t ou t the S i gn
Not i n t h e publi c i nte rest
a n d l e a d e r s o f the Op p os it i on
fo llowi n g the tra d i
t i on o f c o n tinu ity r e sp ect e d t h e f e e lings o f t h e Fo r
e i gn O fc e
The rst q u e sti on wa s ask e d on July
B ut

AGAI N ST PUB LI C I NTE RE ST

197

a lthough C ap ta i n Fab e r a ske d i f i t we r e

n ot sa f e fo r B r iti sh m e n o -w a r to go to Aga d i r
t h e Gov e r nm e n t m a d e no stat e m e nt u n t i l the 2 7 t h
July a n d th e n the P r i m e M in i ste r c hoke d di s cu s
s i on
He s aid :
d
,
3

an

,
,

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p rese n t m o m e n t o f c a u s e s
a n d a n t e c e d e n t s m i gh t p r o v o k e i n m o r e t h a n o n e qu a r t e r
r e c r i m i n a t i on a n d r e t o r t s
wh i ch i t i s o n e v e r y g r o u n d de
an d I wou l d ven tu re
i n t he g e n e ra l
s i r ab le to avo i d
i n t e re s t t o m a ke a s t ro n g a pp e a l t o t he H o u se n ot o n t he
p re se n t o cc a s i o n t o e n t e r i n t o fu rt h e r de t a ils o r o p e n u p
c o n t ro v e r s i a l g r o u n d
an

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at

the

A fte r a p r o t e st f r om M r R amsey M a c d ona l d

a ga i nst t h e amb o ya n t sp e e ch d e liv e r e d i n t h e city
by M r Lloy d Ge o r g e t h e Hous e s e ttl e d d ow n to
talk ab ou t a n y oth e r fo r e ign a ffa i r s bu t M o ro cc o
Th e n e xt time th e qu e sti o n wa s
a n d the P a n t h e r
ra i s e d wa s i n N ov e mb e r A ft e r t h e p ub li ca ti on o f
t h e s e c r e t a r t i cl e s i n t h e P a r i s p ap e rs L e Te mps
a n d L e M a ti n
t h e B r iti s h Gov e r n ment d e ci d e d to
le t t h e H o u s e o f C omm o n s s e e th e m
Lat e i n No
v e mb e r S i r E d wa r d G r e y ma d e hi s stat e m e n t o n t h e
M o r o cca n a ffa i r s a n d t h e H o us e h a d a n o pp o r tu n ity
o f sp e aki n g i ts m i n d o n s e c r e t d i plom a cy w i thout
r e ally app r e ci ating t h e r e a l gravi t y o f t h e bu sin e ss
Th e P r im e M i n ist e r r e li e ve d n o d oubt that the Gov
e r n m e n t e scap e d so lightly s a i d :
.

The H o u s e h as h e a r d f r o m my

i gh t h o n ou r a b l e f r i e n d
t h e F o r e i g n S e c r e t a ry
a n d I b e li e v e h a s h e a r d w i t h u n i
v e r s a l s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t t he w o r l d i s n o w i n p o s s e s s i o n o f
T h e re
t h e wh o l e o f o u r t r e a t y o b li g a t i o n s o n t h i s s ubj e c t
i s n o s e c re t a r r a n g e m e n t o f a n y s o r t o r k i n d wh i ch h as n o t
b ee n d i s c l os e d a n d fu ll y d i s c l os e d t o t he p u b li c an d w e
r

19

H OW

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

f ro m t h a t p o i n t o f v i e w t h a t o u r co n d uc t Sh o u l d b e
j u dge d by t he m e a s u r e o f o u r t r e a t y o b li g at i o n s wh i ch m e m
b e r s o f t he H o u s e a re a b l e t o a s c e r t a i n p r e c i s e l y fo r t h e m

s elves
as k,

That wa s go o d n e ws An d wh e n the P r i m e M i n
i st e r e mph a s i z e d t h e fa ct o n D e c e mb e r 6 t h 1 9 1 1 i n
r e ply to a qu e st i o n put by M r
Go r d o n H a rv e y
numb e r s o f m e mb e r s thought t h e ugly rumou r o f
ou r b e i n g u n d e r w a r ob ligati ons to F r a n c e woul d b e
u tte rly d isp elle d Th e P r i m e M i n i st e r sa i d :
.

w e r e n o s e c r e t en g a ge m e n t s
w i t h F r a n c e o t h e r t h a n t h o s e t h a t h a v e n ow b e e n pub li s h e d
a n d t h e r e a r e n o s e c r e t e n g a g e m e n t s w i t h a n y f o r e i gn G o v
e rn m e n t t h a t e n t a il up o n u s a n y o b li g a t i o n t o re n de r m ili t a r y
1
o r n a v a l as s i s t a n c e t o an y o t h e r P o w e r

As h as be e n

s t a te d,

t e re

Later i n that month w e l ea rn e d th a t al l tre at i e s

ha d not b een m a d e p ubl i c :
Mr

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W e w e e n e a l y i n v l v e d i t h e s tu p e d u s c a t a s t o p h e o f a
ll t h W l d P o w e s i
o d r
g i g a n t i c w a w i th th e g e a t s t o f
t
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u p t h e T e a ty o f A l g ec i r
by t a ki g p o
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o f t h e E mp i r e o f M
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It i
ot t
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u
p l e d g e d to d e f e d
m k e v e t o F r a c e a v a s t d m a i i n No t h e n Af i c a
Th
f a ct e m a i n t h a t i o r d e r t o p u t F n c e i n p e s s i o o f M o cc
w
ll b t w e t t o w a w i t h G e m a y
W e h v e e ca p e d w a
b t w
h a v e n o t e s c a p e d t h e n tu a l a d a b i d i g m i ty f t h
G e m p p l e I s i t p o i b l e t f a m e a h a v i e r i d i ct m e n t f
th e f
c r e t t h e Op e
eig
p o l i cy o f a n y B i t i h M i i t y ? Th e
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f t hi a l m s t i c e d i b l e c r i m e a g i n s t t a ty f a i t h B i t i h
i n t e e t s a d t h e p e a c e f t h w o l d i t h e u f t u a t e f a ct t h t
S i r E d w d G ey h a b e e n d m i
t d by m e
a t t h e F o e i g n Of c e
w h o b li e v e a ll c o s i d e a t i o
mu s t b e s ub o d i n a t e d t o t h e o n e
s u p e m e du ty
f t h w a t i g G e m a y a t e v e y tu
ev en i f i n
d o i n g B i t i h i t e s t s t e ty f a i t h a n d t h p a c e f t h e w o l d a e
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WH Y

N O T ANA R CH IS M ?

19

h o n o u r a b l e g e n t l e m a n t o s ay t h a t t h e re a re o t h e r se c re t
t r e a t i e s b e s i de s t he s e c r e t t re a t y r e c e n t l y d i s c l o se d b e t w e e n
t h i s co u n t r y a n d F r a n ce ?
D o e s t h e ho n g e n t l e m a n m e a n
S i r E dw a r d G r e y :
b e t w e en t h i s co u n t r y a n d F r a n c e ?
B e t w e e n t h i s c o u n t ry a n d a n y o t h e r
M r M a c Ne i ll :
c ou n t ry W e k n o w a b o u t F r a n c e
Y e s s i r ; t h e re a r e o t h e r e n g a g e
S i r E dw a r d G re y :
m e n t s th a t h a v e n o t b e e n p ub li s h e d

We have rec e ntly b een throw i ng a d e a l o f con

t e mpt o n t h e d o ct r in e th a t M ight i s R ight bu t
wh e r e i n d o e s t h e Ka ise r s Gov e rn m e nt d iffe r f r o m
ou r s in fo r e ign p o li cy ? Ar e e thi cs a n y n e a r e r p o li
ti cs in a n y mo d e r n Eu rop e a n stat e tha n th e y w e r e
i n M a chi av e lli s tim e ?
F o r thos e who hol d t h e no
ti on that a G ov e r n m e nt sta n d s i n t h e e thi ca l p o si
tio n o f a n i n d ivi d ual a n d i n its op e r ati on s i t shoul d
a lways b e a ctu at e d by t h e e thi cs whi ch shoul d gov
e r n t h e a ct i o n s o f a n in d ivi d u al
le t i t b e ob s e rv e d
that r e sp o nsib i li ty c a n not b e x e d o n a Gov e rnm e nt
a s i t ca n b e x e d o n t h e i n d ivi d u a l ; a n d e th i cs a n d
r e spo n s ib ility ca n not b e d ivo r c e d Is i t p ossibl e t o
x r e sp o n s i b i li ty o n thi s G ov e r n m e nt ?
S om e o n e
says i t i s r e sp o n sibl e to the p e opl e Wha t i n t h e
s e n s e th a t a n in d ivi d u a l i s r e sp onsibl e fo r hi s a c
ti o n s ? No i n d e e d I n t h e cas e o f t h e in d ivi d u a l
wh e n he l i e s o r st e als o r mu r de rs th e r e i s n o shi ft
i ng r e spo n s ib i lity ; b ut in t h e ca s e o f a Gov e r n m e n t
wh e r e i s p e rso n a l r e spo ns ib ility to b e x e d ?
I s i t any wo n d e r tha t t h e w o r l d o f thought i s
shaken e v e r y n o w a n d th e n b y a Sti rn e r o r a B aku
n i n o r a N i e t z sch e ? S ta te sm e n mus t no t a lways
sco ff at the not i o n tha t fo r t h e su pe ru ou s t h e stat e

wa s i nvente d
I nj u st i c e and p ov e rty hatr e d a n d
,

H OW

2oo

D I PLO M ATS M AKE WA R

wa r w i ll cont i nu e s o long a s men can sh i ft r e sp ons i

,

b ili ty

The u l t i m a te pu r p os e

the

S t a te i s

n ot

to

u le

m en ,

ke e p t h e m in f e a r t o s ubj e c t t h e m t o t he w i ll o f o t h e rs
b u t o n t h e c o n t r a r y t o a ll o w e a ch a s fa r a s p o ss i b l e t o li v e
i n s e c u r i t y t h a t i s t o p re se rv e fo r e a ch h i s n a t u ra l r i gh t t o
li v e w i t h ou t h a rm t o h i m s e l f o r t o h is n e i ghb o u r No I
re p e a t t he o bj e c t o f t he S t a t e i s n o t t o t r a n s f o r m r e a so n a b l e
b e i n gs i n t o a n i m a l s o r a u t o m a t a ; i t s o bj e c t is t o e n a b l e t he
c i t iz e n s t o de v e l o p i n s e cu r i t y t h e i r b o di es a n d t h e i r m i n ds
f re e l y t o e mp l o y t h e i r re a so n The t ru e e n d o f t he S t a te

t h e re f o r e is li b e rt y
to

Sp i no z a s oun d s a b i t o ld fa sh i on e d but wha t

o the r b as i s i s th e r e fo r a Sta t e ? H ow fa r B r i ta i n
i s r emove d from t h e fou n d at i on l a i d down by S p i
no z a i s a qu e st i o n wh i ch to t ry to a nswe r woul d ll
a ny p ol i t i ca l econom i st w i th de sp a i r
-

C HAPTE R
TH E

POW E R TO WA R

u t t e r N o t h i n g a re a ll o n e ;
W hy t h e n do e s t h i s c re a t i n g s t ill go o n ?
G o n e by ? W h a t m e a n s i t ? W h a t a s o rr y t ra de !
M a k i n g a n d m a k i n g n o t h i n g o f wh a t s m a de
An d t h e n t h i s n o t h i n g e v e r m o r e w e s e e
M a k i n g p r e t e n c e a s o m e t h i n g s t i ll t o be
S o o n i t g o e s t h e s a m e d u ll c i r c l e s p i n n i n g
Tw e r e b e t t e r w i t h t he E t e r n a l V o i d b e g i n n i n g !
Go e th e
Go n e B y

an d
,

N OW to tu rn a s i d e fo r a l i ttl e whil e f r o m t h e F o r e ign

O ffi c e a n d t h e e n d e avou r s o f m e mb e r s t o e li cit r e
li abl e in form ati o n co n c e r n i n g d ip loma cy a n d the
t r a fck i n g s o f a mb a ss a d o rs we w ill x o u r a tt e n ti o n
o n t h e Wa r Offi c e
O n July 4 t h 1 9 1 2 t h e y e a r o f
t h e B e rli n C o n v e r s ati o n s M r Am e r y m o v e d t o r e
F r om t h e d e b at e
d u c e t h e a r my e s t i mat e s by 1 0 0
wh i ch follow e d w e must qu o t e a t s om e l e n gth s o
that it may b e cl e a rly u n d e r sto o d how t h e p olicy o f

s ec r e cy wo rks i n r e lation to m e mb e rs in t h e k n ow
a n d tho s e who ca n o n ly r e ly o n t h e stat e m e n ts o f
M ini st e r s ; a n d c o ns e qu e ntly with r e ga r d to th e s e
a ffa i r s d o no t k n o w u n ti l i t i s to o lat e to p rot e s t
M r Am e r y s a i d :
,

My

bj e c t i s t o d raw t he a tt en t i o n o f t he C o mm i t t e e
t o t he g r a v i t y o f t he m ili t a ry s i t u a t i o n a s a wh o l e a n d t o
t h e u r g en t n e c e ss i t y o f b r i n g i n g o u r m ili t a r y p r e p a r a t i on s

20 1

H OW

202

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

i n t o so m e so rt o f c o r re s p o n de n c e w i t h o u r g e n e r a l n a t io n a l
p o li cy Th e p o i n t I w i s h t o i n s i s t up on t o t h e C o mm i t te e
i s t h a t w e s h o u l d f a c e t he l o g i c a l c o n s e qu e n c es o f t h e p o li cy
t o wh i ch t h i s c o u n t r y a l re a d y s t a n d s c o mm i t t e d w i t h t he
g e n e ra l a pp ro v a l o f t he g re a t m a j o r i t y on b o t h S i de s o f t he
H o u s e a n d t h a t w e Sh o u l d s h a p e o u r m ili t a ry p re p a r a t i o n s
by t h e s a m e s t a n d a r d by wh i ch o u r n a v a l p r e p a ra t i o n s a r e
i n v a r i a b l y d e t e r m i n e d t he s t a n d a r d I m e a n o f t h e f o r c e
.

h a v e t o e n c o u n t e r in w a r I t is co mm o n g ro u n d
t o u s a ll i n t h i s H o u s e t h a t w e m u s t a t a n y c o s t a n d a t a ll
h a z a r ds m a i n t a i n t he s up re m a cy o f t he B r i t i s h n a vy a g a i n s t
I t is a ls o
t he g ro w i n g m e n a c e o f G e r m a n r i v a l ry a t se a
c o mm o n g ro u n d a t a n y r a te a m on g t he g re a t m aj o r i t y o f
u s t h a t t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f Eu r o p e by a g re a t m i li t a ry p o w e r
wh i ch is a l so o u r g r e a t es t r i v a l a t s e a w o u ld in t he l o n g r u n
m a k e t h e r e t e n t i on o f o u r n av a l s up re m acy i mp o ss i b l e a n d
co n s e qu e n t l y t h e m a i n t e n a n ce o f F r a n c e as a n i n d e p e n de n t
g re a t P o w e r i n Eu r o p e is i n t he p re s e n t S i t u a t i o n n o t o n l y
a n h o n o u r a b l e o b li g a t i on
b u t a v i t a l i n t e r e s t t o t he s a f e t y
o f t h i s co u n t r y
I t i s a l s o c o mm on g ro u n d t h a t i n c e r t a i n
e v e n t u a li t i es e v e n t u a li t i e s wh i ch s e e m e d by n o m e a n s r e m o t e
l e ss t h a n a y e a r a go w e s h o u l d be p r e p a r e d t o s e n d a m ili
t a r y f o r c e t o F r a n c e t o a s s i s t he r
W h a t o ugh t a l s o t o be
c o mm o n g ro u n d a n d n o l e s s co mm o n g r o u n d t h a n t h o se
m a t te r s I h a v e a l re a dy m en t i o n e d i s t h a t t h e f o r c e t hu s s e n t
Sh o u ld be a de qu a t e t o a ch i e v e i t s pu r p o s e I f w e s e n d a
fo r c e a t a ll a n d i t i s a g r e e d t h a t w e s h o u l d se n d i t
! H on
M e mb e rs :
No !
I t i s by t he g re a t m a j o r i t y o n b o t h
S i d e s o f t h i s H o u s e a n d i f w e s e n d a f o r c e a t a ll w e s h o u l d
s e n d i t t o m a k e s u r e o f v i c t or y an d n o t t o s h a r e a de f e a t
w e m ay

Th e memb e rs who cr i ed

N o p e rhap s r e mem
b e r e d t h e r e pli e s to M r J o w e tt s qu e st i o n s in
M a r ch 1 9 1 1 wh e n h e a sk e d i f w e w e r e un d e r ob l i
g a t i o n s to s e n d t r o op s to the a ss i s tan ce o f Franc e
Th e y w e r e r e lying n o d oub t o n t h e n e gativ e r e ply
retu rne d by th e M in i ste r a nd n o t t hen th i nk i ng o f a

CLEA R

P RO P HE CY

29

se cr e t syst e m whi ch p r e clu d e d the p oss i b i l i ty o f a

tru th ful a n sw e r to su ch qu e stio n s B e that a s i t
may M r Am e r y h a d n o c o mpu n ct i on i n sp e ak i n g
Fu rthe r h e b e
h i s mi n d f o r cibly o n t h e ma tt e r
cam e prop heti c :
.

W hy s h o u l d w e n o t h a v e f r o m t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e
fo r W a r a n e qu a l ly Cle a r e x p li c i t s t a t e m en t o f t h e r e l a t i v e
f o r c e s wh i c h w o u ld t a ke t h e e l d i n F r a n ce a n d B e l g i u m
a n d a n e qu a ll y c l ea r
a t t he o u t b r e a k o f t h a t s a m e co n i c t
re c o g n i t i o n f ro m h i m o f t h e d u t y o f t h e W a r O ffi c e t o p r o
v i d e a f o r c e wh i ch w o u l d m a k e i t u n li k e l y t h a t a G e r m a n
F r a n c e w o u l d s ucce e d a n d t h e r e f o re i n t he
a t t a ck up o n
h i gh e s t d e g r e e i mp ro b a b le t h a t t h e a t t a ck w o u ld e v e r be
The qu e s t i o n I s h o u l d li k e t he r i gh t ho n
a t t e mp t e d ?
o u r a b le g e n t l e m a n t o a n s w e r i s wh e t h e r o r n o t w e h a v e a
m ili t a r y f o r c e s t ro n g e n o ugh t o r e n de r F r an c e s e cu re i n t he
e ve n t o f a n
a t t a ck
H a s a n y r i gh t h o n g e n t l e m a n a d
d re s s i n g t h i s H o u s e e v e r p u t t h a t qu e s t i o n b e f o r e u s ?
D o w e e v e n p re t e n d t o f a ce i t ? L e t m e r e m i n d t h e C o m
m i t t e e t h a t s i n c e t h e c r i s i s o f l a s t y e a r G e r m a n y h a s a d de d
v e r y co n s i d e r a b ly t o h e r n a vy Imm e di a t e l y a n d w i t h t he
a s se n t o f e v e ry o n e w e r es p o n d e d by a s ub s t a n t i a l i n c re a s e
o f o u r n a vy
M a y I a l s o r e m i n d t h e C o mm i t t e e t h a t S i n c e
m e n t o h e r a r my
t h a t s a m e c r i s i s G e r m an y h as a d d e d
fo r t h e e x p r es s pu r p o s e o f s t re n g t h e n i n g t h e f o r c e t h a t i s t o
m a r ch t h r o ugh B e l g i um t o c r u s h t he F r e n ch l e f t I t is up o n
o u r E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e t h a t t h e b r u n t o f t h a t m a r ch w o u l d
f a ll H as a n y r e s p o n s i b l e M i n i s t e r c o m e dow n t o t h i s
H o u s e a n d a s k e d e v e n a S i n g l e b a tt a li o n t o b e a dde d t o

t h e s t r e n g t h o f o u r a r my ?

Th i s wa s a ll d e eply int e rest i n g matte r fo r M r

Am e r y w a s not r e m o t e ly co n n e cte d with th e Lo n d o n
Ti m e s a n d a s m e mb e r s kn e w f r om many b ou ts a t
qu e sti o n tim e e a r l i e r i n t h e ye a r th e m i l i ta ry co r
r e spondent o f the Ti me s wa s the e d i to r o f the Ar my
,

29

H ow D I P LO M AT S M A K E WA R

with a room at t h e Wa r Offi c e At any

ra te M r Am e ry k n e w s o mu ch that som e m e mbers
who kn e w n o m o r e than M i ni st e r s ca re d to tel l
th e m s c o ffe d d e antly at M r Am e r y s knowl e d ge
One mo r e q u otat i on from h i s e x tr aor d i na ry sp e e ch :

R ev i e w ,

pp o n e n t s w ill h a v e t he ch o i c e o f t w o o bj e c t i v es
Th e y ca n a t t e mp t e i t h e r t o i n te r fe re w i t h t he d es p a t ch o f
t he E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e o r t o c o v e r a n i n v a s i o n a c o u n t e r
at an y
s t ro k e i n t en de d e i t h e r t o b r i n g u s t o o u r k n e e s o r
r a te
t o p r e v e n t a c o n s i de r a b l e p a rt o f t h e E x p e di t i o n a r y
F o r c e f ro m g o i n g a n d so t o c l e ar the e l d fo r t he G e rm a n
a d v a n c e t h ro u g h F l a n de r s
Ou r

Now i f the i n fo rm at i on M r Am e ry gave to the

H ous e w a s authenti c what b e com e s o f all the in dig
n ati on o f M i n ist e rs a t G e rm any s v i ol a ti on o f t h e
n e utra li ty a n d i n d ep e n de nce o f B e lgium ? G e ne ral
S t a ffs w e r e ha r d a t wo r k a n d i t mig h t s a f e ly b e i m
p u t e d tha t th e y d i d no t l e av e the B e lgi a n m il ita ry
a uthor i ti e s igno rant o f th e i r p la n s A ft e r M r
Amery the H ou se he a rd S i r R eginal d P o l e -C a rew :
.

I w a n t t o s ay a w o r d a b o u t t h e E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e
W e h av e bee n t o l d by t h e h o n m e mb e r w ho h as j u s t
Sp o ke n t h a t t h e p re p a r a t i o n s o f t he Go v e rn m e n t a re g ross l y
i n a de qu a t e a n d I e n t i r e l y a g re e w i t h h i m I do n o t t h i n k
I d i d n o t as k t o s e e t h a t b l u e
t h a t t h o s e p re p a r a t i o n s e xi s t
e n v e l o p e b e c a u s e I di d n o t w i s h t o h a v e my t o n gu e t i e d by
a n y t h i n g t h a t i t m i gh t h a v e c o n t a i n e d
Al s o I w an t t o
k n o w why i t Sh o u l d be s e c re t ; w ho is i t w ho is t o be
k e p t in i gn o ra n c e ? I s i t t h a t t he p eo p l e o f t h i s co u n t ry a re
t o be k e p t i n t h e d a r k a n d h o o dw i n k e d a n d n o t t o b e a ll o w e d
t o k n o w wh a t t he p r e p a r a t i on s a r e wh i ch a re n e c e s s a r y fo r
t h e i r s a fe ty ?
I s i t t h a t r e a s o n ? I s i t t h a t o u r e n e m i es a r e
I v e n t u r e t o t h i n k t h a t t he m o s t p r o b a b l e
n o t t o kn ow ?
e n e my w e h a v e a t t h e p r ese n t m o m en t ca n g i v e t he r i gh t

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IN I G N O RAN C E

P A RTY

2 05

i n f o rm a t i o n I S i t t h o s e w e
o u r a lli e s ?
I t h i n k t h a t i s t he m o s t d a n g e r o u s
I f yo u ch oos e t o h oo dw i n k yo u r
t h e wh o l e lo t
in

qu e s t i o n
f r i e n ds a n d I a m s o r ry to s a y t h e p re se n t G o v e rn m e n t
h a v e don e s o w i t h g re a t s ucc e ss
i f yo u t h i n k yo u a r e d e
n e i t h e r i s s o b a d a s t o a t t e mp t t o
ce iv in g y o u r e n e m i e s
de c e i v e t h o s e wh o m yo u h o p e w ill b e y o u r a lli e s a b r o a d a n d
t o wh o m yo u a r e m a k i n g p ro m i s e s wh i c h I d o n o t t h i n k yo u
I s ay t h a t is a m os t d a n g e ro u s p ro c e e d i n g
can c a rr y o u t
.

Th e sta tem e nts o f M r Ame ry a n d Lt Ge n Si r

R e gina l d P ol e C a r e w w e r e n o t r e fut e d by t h e M in
i st e r fo r W a r ; i n de e d t h e W a r O i ce autho ri ti e s in
t h e Hou s e d i d n o t r e f e r a t all to t h e ma tt e r o f ou r
b e ing p l e d g e d to s e n d t h e Exp e d itio n a ry F orc e t o
t h e a s sista n c e o f Franc e i n a w a r with G e rm a n y
S mall wo n d e r G e rma n y w i sh e d t o k n ow i f S h e might
have a fr e e ha n d Th e Opp o s i ti o n a t no ti m e s i n ce
th e autumn o f 1 9 1 0 se em e d t o b e i n d oub t ab ou t
ou r e ngag e m e nt wi th th e Fr e n ch O n ly t h e r a n k
a n d le o f t h e Lib e ra l p a rty r e m a i ne d ig n o ra n t o f
and
t h e full m e a su r e o f ou r d iplom ati c li ab ilit i e s
thoug h m a n y b a ck b e n ch Lib e rals s ev e r e ly c r iti c i s e d
t h e fo r e ig n pol i cy o f t h e Gov e r n m e n t t h e M i n i st r y
l e ft th e m to e n d u r e t h e s n e e rs a n d j e e rs o f th e Opp o

i n t h e know
I t woul d b e ha r d t o n d i n
s it i o n
the p a g e s o f a ny bo ok by a G e r man m i lita r i st a
S p e ci m e n o f g r oss e r cont e mp t fo r p a ci s t s than tha t
W e ll
d i sp lay e d by t h e G ov e r n m e n t i n tho s e d ays
th e r e is a kin d o f l o ya lty tha t d e s e rv e s to b e tre at e d
w i th co nt e mp t ! Th e r e w a s how e v e r no d oub t i n
F r e nch o ffi ci a l a n d p r e s s ci rcl e s a s to ou r e n ga g e
ment M r B uxto n i n the Fo r e ign O ffi c e d e b at e o f
July 1 9 1 2 qu ote d f r o m t he N o uv e lle R e v u e o n e
o f t h e mo st p romi n ent P a r i s r ev i ews a stat e m e nt
.

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206

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R
the

lu ri d e nough t o s atis fy
c ass :

supporte rs o f M D el
.

W e i n t e n d t o h av e w a r Af te r f o r t y y e a rs o f a h e av il y
w e ca n a t l as t u t t e r t h i s o p i n i o n w i t h o u t t h e
a rm e d p e ace
s e r i o u s r e a de r s o f a F r e n ch r e v i e w s h a k i n g i n t h e i r Sh o e s
F r a n c e i s r e a dy t o s t r i k e a n d t o co n qu e r as s he w a s
a n d s h e w il l n o t b e i n f o u r o r
n o t r e a d y f o r t y y e a r s a go
v e y e a rs t o c o m e o w i n g t o t h e a n n u a l d i v e r g e n t n umb e rs
W e t he a t t a ck i n g
o f t h e b i r t h r a t e i n e a c h c o u n t ry
p a rt y w ill h av e a r r a n g e d w i t h E n g la n d t h a t t h e i r e e t
t he r e m a i n s o f t h e wh o l e G e r m a n
w ill h a v e f o ll ow e d
n a vy i n t o G e r m a n w a t e r s

L a t e r i n July a n oth e r atta ck w a s m a d e on the

suppl e m e nta ry n ava l e stima t e s by M r M i dd le m o r e
o n e o f t h e most p e r s i st e n t o f t h e Op p o siti on i n qu e s
t i o n i n g t h e A d mi r alty a s t o ou r p r e p a redn e ss
He
s ai d

T h e n w e h a d s o m e c r i t i c i s m s f r o m t he P r i m e M i n i s t e r
H e s a i d t h e V o t e w a s n o t t o t h re a t e n t he T r i p l e Alli an c e
H e l e f t I t a l y e n t i re l y o u t
The Tr i p l e Alli a n c e i s a n as
c i r cum
so c i a t i o n o f t h re e P o w e rs t o gh t u n de r c e r t a i n
s t an ce s
a n d I c a n n o t c o n c e i v e h ow t h i s ca n b e j u d i c i o u s l y
f a i r l y p a t ri o t i c a ll y a n d w i s e l y l e f t o u t a n d i f o n e l e a v e s
i t o u t as fa r a s o n e s s e l f i s c o n c e r n e d w e mu s t r e m e mb e r
t h a t w e h a v e a n e n t e n t e a n d t h a t i f t h e t h r ee P o w e r s a tt a ck
F r a n c e w e s h a ll h a v e t o de f e n d F r a n c e o r e l se t he e n t e n t e
I t is p e r
i s a s h a m wh i ch o ugh t n e v e r t o h a v e b ee n m a de
diou s Al b i on a g a i n
Thou gh t h e qu est i on o f s ecr e t tre a t i e s wa s b rought
u p sev e r a l tim e s d u r i n g t h e long au tum n a n d wi n t e r
s e ss i o n no i n fo rmati o n w a s giv e n by M i n i st e rs a s to
wh e th e r w e w e r e i nvolve d with Fr ance o r not The
co r r espon d e nce b e t w e e n the Fo re ign Secreta ry a n d
but
t h e French amb a ssa do r p a sse d i n Novemb er

SE C ON D

LI E

29

nothing ab ou t i t wa s commun i cate d to t h e H ou s e

At t h e b e gi n n ing o f t h e n e xt s e ss i on Lo r d Hugh
C e cil ra i s e d t h e qu e s ti o n o f s e c r et e ngag e m e n ts i n
t h e d e b at e o n t h e A dd r e ss
Th e p ass ag e s a r e o f
su ch e xt r a o r d i n a r y i n t e r e st they a r e wo rt h qu ot i ng
i n fu ll from t h e o fc i a l r e p o rt :
.

H u gh C e c il : Th e r i gh t ho n g e n t l e m a n m a de
re fe r e n ce
is o n e a s p e c t o f
to fore i gn
a ff a i r s
an d t he re
of n ot
them
so
c o n t r o v e rs i a l a ch a r a c te r a s o t h e r s on
wh i ch I s h o u l d li k e t o s a y a fe w w o r ds Th e r i gh t ho n
g e n t l e m an a n d h is c o ll e a gu e s a r e g e n e r a ll y b e li e v e d I
s p e a k w i t h t h e u t m o s t d i ffi de n c e i n
r e g a r d t o a ll e g a t i o n s
wh i ch m ay n o t b e w e ll f o u n de d t o h a v e e n t e r e d i n t o a n
e n g a ge m e n t
t o h av e g i v e n
or
t o s p e a k m o r e a ccu r a t e l y
a s s u r an c e s
wh i ch i n t h e co n t i n g e n cy o f a g re a t Eu r op e a n
w a r w o u l d i n v o l v e h e a vy m ili t a ry o b li g a t i o n s o n t h i s c o u n
t ry
W e d o n o t s u s p e c t t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r o r t he F o r e i g n
S e c r e t a r y o f pu r s u i n g a n y t h i n g b u t a p a c i c f o r e i gn p o li cy
a n d w e a r e fa r f r o m s a y i n g t h a t t h e i r p o li cy i s i n a n y w a y
i f t he S t o r i e s
a n a gg r e s s i v e o n e ; b u t c e r t a i n l y w e b e li e v e
cu r r e n t a re t ru e t he p o li cy i f i t is n o t t o be re g a r de d as an
is a dv e n t u r o u s
a gg re s s i v e o n e
Th e P r i m e M i n i s t e r :
W ill t h e n o b l e l o r d d e n e a
li t t l e m o r e de n i t e l y wh a t he m e a n s ?
L o r d Hugh Ce c il : I a m o n l y a n xi o u s n o t t o u se
w o r ds wh i ch w ill co n v e y a n y t h i n g bu t p e r f e c t l y f a i r e r i t i
c is m i n a m a t t e r o f t h i s s o r t
a n d a n y a mb i gu i t y i n wh a t
I h a v e s a i d i s d u e t o t he f a c t t h a t I d o n o t w i s h t o go b e
y o n d t he n e c e ss i t i e s o f t he c a s e
Th e P r i m e M i n i s t e r :
1 do n o t c o mp l a i n
L o r d H ugh C e c i l : T h e re is a v e ry g en e r al b e li e f
t h a t t h i s c o u n t r y i s u n de r a n o b li g a t i o n n o t a t r e a t y o b li
g a t io n b u t a n o b li g a t i o n a r i s i n g o u t o f a n a s s u r a n c e g i v en
by t he M i n i s t r y i n t h e c o u r se o f d i p l o m a t i c n e g o t i a t i on s t o
s en d a v e r y l a r g e a r m e d f o r c e o u t o f t h i s c o u n t r y t o o p e ra t e
i n Eu r o p e
T h a t is t he g e n e r a l be li e f I t w o u l d b e v e r y

o rd

H OW

20 8

D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

p r es ump t u o u s o f a n y o n e w ho has n o t a cc e ss t o a ll t he f a ct s
i n p os s e s s i o n o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t
I o ugh t t o s ay t h a t i t is n o t
The P r i m e M i n i s t e r :
t ru e!
L o r d H ugh C e c il : I a m v e r y g l a d t o h a v e e li c i t e d
I t i s c e r t a i n l y w i de l y b e li e v e d t h a t t h e
t h at e xp l an a t io n
G o v e r n m e n t h a v e e n g a g e d i n a m ili t a r y p o li cy o f a n a d
v e n t u r o u s k i n d a n d I c e rt a i n l y t h i n k i f t h a t i s r i gh t t h a t
i t w o u l d i n v o l v e v e ry i mp o r t a n t c on s i de r a t i on s wh e n yo u
c o m e t o c o n s i d e r wh a t a re t he m ili t a r y r e s o u r c es o f t h i s
c o u n t ry W e Sh a ll h a v e a d e b a t e o n t h a t p o i n t I t i s i m
p os s i b l e a s t he l a t e S i r H e n r y C a mpb e ll B an n er m a n w as
f o n d o f e mph a s izi n g t o j u d g e o f t h e m ili t a r y p o li cy o f t h i s
o r a n y o t h e r c o u n t r y u n l e ss yo u e n t e r i n t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d
i n g s o r o b li g a t i o n s i n v o l v e d by i t s f o re i gn p o li cy I t i s
qu i t e i mp o s s i b l e fo r t h i s H o u s e fu ll y t o c r i t i c i se t he m ili t a ry
p o li cy o f t h e Go v e r n m e n t u n l e s s t h e y k n o w a t a n y r a t e
wh a t i t is t he Go v e r n m e n t e x p e c t t h e a rmy t o d o I t ce r
t a i n ly w o u l d f o llo w t h a t i f yo u w e r e p r e p a r e d a s n o re c e n t
G o v e rn m e n t h as a t t e mp t e d t o b e p r e p a re d t o t a ke an i m
p o r t a n t m ili t a ry p a r t i n t h e e a r l y S t a g e s o f a g r e a t Eu ro p e a n
w a r u p o n t h e C o n t i n e n t t h e m ili t a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s o f o t h e r
G o v e rn m e n t s a n d o f t h i s G o v e r n m en t i n t he e a r li e r y e a r s
w e r e n o t s ufc i e n t L e t m e a d d t h a t
o f i t s t e n u r e o f o ffi c e
I am n o t i n di c a t i n g o r h i n t i n g t h a t w e o ugh t t o h av e co m
T h e r e i s n o o n e w ho d i s li k e s
p u ls o r y m ili t a ry s e rv i c e
c o mpu l s o r y m i l i t a ry s e r v i c e i n a n y s h a p e o r f o r m m o r e t h a n
I do a n d I Sh o u l d n e v e r be co n v i n c e d i n i ts f a v o u r by a n y
a r gum e n t e x c e p t i n g t h a t wh i ch s h o w e d i t t o b e u r g e n t l y
n e c e s s a r y fo r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y
I t is a m at te r
fo r v e r y g ra v e c o n s i de r a t i o n i f w e a r e g e t t i n g i n to a p o s i
t i o n i n wh i ch o b li g a t i o n s b e c o m e b i n d i n g u p on u s wh e t h e r
t h e v o l u n t a r y s y s t e m w ill u l t i m a t e l y b e a r t h e s t r a i n
I do
n o t b e li e v e a n y G o v e rn m e n t w ill a d o p t a c o mpu l s o r y m ili
t a r y s e rv i c e u n le s s t h e c a s e i s s t r o n g e n o ugh t o b e b r o ugh t
a b o u t by g e n e r a l c on s e n t
B u t wh a t w e h a v e t o b e a f r a i d
o f i s t h a t w e w ill g e t i n t o s u ch a p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e m il i t a ry

D I D N OT THE P RE M I E R KNOW ?

2 09

b li g a t i o n s o f t h i s c o u n t ry m ay b e c o m e s o h e a vy t h a t t h e
v o l u n t a r y s y s t e m m a y b r e a k do w n I h o p e t h a t t h e F o r
e i gn S e c re t a r y a n d t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e fo r W a r m a y b e
a b l e t o co o r d i n a t e t h e f o r e i g n p o li cy a n d t h e m ili t a r y p o l
i cy i n o r de r t o s h o w h o w t h e m ili t a r y p o li cy a n d t h e f o r e i g n
p o li cy t t o g e t h e r ho w fa r t he m ili t a ry r e s o u r c e s o f t h e
c o u n t r y a r e r e a ll y s u ffi c i e n t t o c a r ry o u t t he o b li g a t i o n s
t h r o w n up o n t h os e r e s o u r c e s by t he f o re i g n p o li cy o f t h e
Go v e r n m e n t I t h i n k t h a t is a m a tt e r o f v e r y g re a t i m
p or t a n ce

N ow why d id the P r i m e M i n i st e r s ay
I ought

to s ay tha t i t i s n o t tru e ? W a s h e S h i e l d i n g t h e
F o r e ign S e c r e ta r y o r wa s h e a vi cti m o f t h e d e sp i
cabl e syst e m o f s e cr e cy tha t n e c e ssitat e s s o mu ch
lyi n g in co n n e cti o n with fo r e ign a ffa i r s ? W a s t h e
P r im e M i n i st e r n o t i n fo r m e d a s to t h e e xcha n ge o f
l e tt e r s b e tw e e n S i r E d w a r d G r e y a n d M C amb o n
o n ly a li ttl e m o r e t h a n th r e e mo n ths be fo r e t h e d e
b a t e ? Tha t i s p r ob abl e but i t m ust b e r e m e mb e r e d
tha t t h e Fo r e i gn S e cr e t a r y i n hi s sp e e ch o n August
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te r
I t i s so h a r d to b e li e v e t h e P r ime M ini st e r
wil fully mi sl e d t h e H ou s e
Wh e n t h e H o u s e r e a ch e d t h e a r my e stim at e s t e n
d ays a ft e r t h e d e bat e r e f e r r e d t o ab o v e M aj o r
G e n e r a l S i r I vo r H e r b e r t d e a lt with t h e a gitati o n
o f t h e consc r i p ti o n ists i n t h e cou n t ry a n d s a i d :
,

W h e n I w a s i n t e r rup t e d j u s t n ow I w as a b o u t t o qu o t e
t h e w o r ds o f L o r d R o b e r t s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e u s e o f t h i s
g r e a t f o r c e H e s a i d : I t is t o c a r r y o u t o u r b o u n de n
d u t y t o t h e C o n t i n e n t a l a lli a n c e fo r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e
I t n e v e r w a s c o n t e mp l a t e d
b a l an ce o f p o w e r i n Eu ro p e
by t he p r ese n t G o v e rn m e n t a n d I a m c e r t a i n i t n e v e r w ill

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

2 10

c o n t e mp l a te d by t h e m t h a t w e s h o u l d m a i n t a i n h al f a
m illi o n o f m e n h e r e fo r u s e i n a n e xp e d i t i o n o n t h e C on t i
n e n t fo r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e b a l a n c e o f p o w e r i n Eu r o p e
W e h a v e n o s uch b o u n de n du t y t o a C o n t i n e n t a l
Alli a n c e The P r i m e M i n i s te r t he o t h e r d ay i n t e r j e c t e d
a n a b s o l u t e d e n i a l wh e n h e w as qu e s t i o n e d by t he n o b l e
l o r d t h e M e mb er fo r Ox f o rd a s t o wh e t h e r w e h a d a n y
H e s a i d t h a t t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g o f t he
s uch b o u n den d u t y
sort
I t w o u l d be t he du t y o f a n y Go ve r n m e n t b e f o r e
e n t e r i n g i n t o s uch r es p o n s i b ili t y a s t h a t t o m a k e i t k n ow n
in t h i s H o u s e
be

M a rch 2 4 t h the qu e st i o n o f t r e aty obligati ons

wa s r a i s e d a ga i n ; two m e mb e r s a s k e d t h e P r im e
M in i st e r i f t h e count r y wa s u n d e r a n y a n d i f so
w h a t obligati o n to F r an c e to s e n d a n a r m e d fo r c e
i n c e rta i n conting e n ci e s to O p e rat e i n Eu rop e To
the q u est i o ns th e P rime M i ni st e r r ep li e d :
On

p e a t e dl y s t a t e d t h i s co u n t ry is n o t u n de r
a n y o b li g a t i o n n o t pub li c a n d k n o w n t o P a r li a m e n t wh i ch
c o mp e l s i t t o t a k e p a r t i n a n y w a r
As h as

b een

re

Th e re wa s n othi n g i n t h e qu e st i ons about t h e coun

t ry b e i ng comp e ll e d to tak e p a rt i n a n y w a r b u t t h e
r e p ly wa s a cc e pt e d a s a comp l e t e a nswer to t h e qu e s

t io n s H e a ls o s a i d
I f w a r a ris e s b e tw e e n Eu r o
p ean P ow e rs th e re a r e n o unpub li s h e d ag r e e m e n ts
which will re st r i ct o r h amp e r t h e f r e e d om o f t h e
Gov e rnm e nt o r o f P a r li am e nt to d e ci d e wh e t h e r o r

not Gr e at B r ita i n sh o ul d p a rt i ci p at e i n a w a r
Though t h e d e nials o f t h e P r im e M ini st e r lull e d

t h e f e a r s o f hi s suppo rt e rs tho se
i n t h e kno w
w e r e not s o e a s ily gu ll e d
Towa r d s the e n d o f M a rch 1 9 1 3 M r C hu r ch i ll
i ntro d u c e d t h e n a v y es t i ma tes a n d a d ve r te d to t h e
,

TH E POWE R OF A LI E

211

Th e e st i m a t e s
suggest i o n o f a
nava l hol i day
amou n t e d t o
bu t t h e gro ss exp e n d itu r e
b e fo re t h e y e a r e n d e d r o s e to
W it h i n
a w e e k o r two o f the F i rst Lo r d s announc e me n t the
Ji n go p res s o f th i s country p ou r e d ou t a st r e am o f
wi ck e d li e s to t h e e ffe ct tha t Ge rm a ny s a n sw e r to

n ava l h o li d ay wa s a
M r C hu rchill s o ffe r o f a
g r e atly swo ll e n p rogramm e Th e te r r o r-strik e rs
a n d t h e bloo d sp illing b ri ga d e wo rke d h a r d to r a i se
ano the r p a n i c I n t h e H ou s e t h e e v e ry man a s a ilo r
p a rty cri e d fo r m o r e ship s m o r e mon e y a n d mo r e
Th e p o s i ti on i n t h e M e d i t e r ra n e a n wa s ve ry
m en
fre e ly d i s cu ss e d M r L e e s a i d :

i s t he v i t a l qu es t i on o f t h e M e d i t e r r an e an , an d
I w o u l d a g a i n r e m i n d t he C o mm i tt e e o f t h e v e r y p r e
d r a m a t i c a n d i mp o r t an t s t a t e m e n t m a d e by t he S e c r e
o f t h e C o l on i e s l a s t a u t um n , wh i ch w as e n do r s e d by

T h e re

h e re
ci se
t ary
,

W e s h all m a i n ta i n
o u r p o s i t i on t h e re b o t h o n l a n d a n d s e a t o a s fu ll a n e x t e n t
as w e h a v e e v e r do n e i n t h e p a s t a n d i n do i n g s o w e s h a ll
d e p en d up o n n o a lli an c e o r u n de r s t a n d i n g a c t u a l o r i m
p li e d b u t up o n o u r o w n f o r c e s The F i rs t L o r d i n h is
N a vy M e m o r an du m s h o w e d t h a t i n 1 9 1 5 Au s t r i a a n d I t a l y
c o mb i n e d w o u l d h av e t e n d re a dn a u gh ts a n d t h a t o u r
s qu a d r o n o f f o u r b a t t l e c r u i s e r s a n d f o u r a r m o u re d c r u i s e r s
w o u l d n o t s uffi c e t o ll o u r r e qu i re m e n t s a n d t h a t t h i s
m a tt e r mu s t b e re c o n s i de r e d W e Sh a l l h a v e by t h a t t i m e
n o s h i p s t o Sp a r e i n h o m e w a t e r s fo r t h i s pu r p o s e
I t is
c l e a r t h a t i f t h i s p o li cy i s c a r r i e d o u t w e mu s t
t h e re f o r e
p r a c t i c a ll y bu il d a n ew s qu a d ro n fo r se r v i c e i n t h e M e d i
t e r r a n e an a n d wh a t i s m o r e w e mu s t be g i n i t i mm e d i a t e l y
t he

P r i m e M i n i s t e r , in

wh i ch

he

sa

id :

Lo rd Charl e s B e r e s fo rd sugg e st e d tha t M r

Chu rchill must b e tru st i n g to F r anc e to gu a r d t h e

M e d i te rr a ne an
I t wa s howeve r S i r C Kinlo ch
.

H OW

2 12

D I PLO M AT S MA KE WA R

Co oke who b rought ou t cl e arly the p e culi a r i ty o f ou r

un d e rsta n d i n g with Franc e H e sa i d :
.

T he F i rs t

b i ds u s t a ke c o m fo rt i n t he f a c t t h es e
a r e h i s o w n w o r ds t h a t
i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t he N a vy o f F r an c e
o u r M e di
t e r r a n e a n F l e e t w o u l d m a k e a c o m b i n e d f o r c e s up e r i o r t o
a ll p o s s i b l e c o mb i n a t i o n
A r e m a r k a b l e s t a te m e n t l oo k a t i t how you w ill an d
o n e I t h i n k t h e C o mm i tt e e w il l a g re e s o m e wh a t d i i cu lt t o
r e c on c il e w i t h t h e r e c en t p r o n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e P r i m e M i n
i s t e r a s t o o u r u n de r s t a n d i n g w i t h F r an c e i n t he m a t t e r
I n o n e c as e w e h av e t he P r i m e M i n i s ter
o f a rm am e n ts
r e p u d i a t i n g a n o b li g a t i o n o n o u r s i de o f a n y k i n d
an d i n
t h e o t h e r w e h a v e t h e F i r s t L o r d o f t h e Ad m i r a l t y r e l y i n g
fo r t h e s a f e t y o f o u r E a s t e r n Emp i r e o u r t r a de an d o u r
f oo d s upp l y up o n t he a s s i s t a n c e wh i ch h e p res u m e s w ill be

re a dy a t a n y m o m e n t t o b e g i v e n t o u s by F r a n c e

o rd

'

R em a rkabl e i n de ed ! bu t no t s o stra nge when the

whole cou r s e o f t h e to r tu ou s busi n e ss i s t r a ce d from
t h e time S i r E d wa r d G r e y co n sent e d to t h e conve r
I t woul d hav e be e n r e m a rkable
s at io n s i n 1 9 0 6
i f co n t r a d i cti o n a n d e va si on h a d not follow e d a s a
c o n s e qu e n c e o f t h e Fo r e ign S e c r e ta ry s s e c r e t d i plo
m a cy Preva r i cati o n s e e ms to h av e b ecome the rst
l aw o f s e cr e t d ip lom a cy s ince t h e Alge ci ra s Act wa s
s ign e d S till tru th w i ll ou t though not a l w ays from
t h e mouths o f b ab e s a n d su cklings
I n Au gu st
1 9 13
Lo r d H al d ane i n t h e H ou se o f Lo r ds p la ce d
t h e P r i m e M i n i st e r i n a n invi d i ou s p o sit i on when
he s a id :
,

h i n k i t w ou l d be re as on a b l e o r w i s e fo r a n y
G o v e r n m e n t t o k e e p a e e t in t he M e di t e r ra n e a n e qu a l t o
t h e e e t s o f Au s t r i a a n d I t a l y c o mb i n e d b e c au s e t he b u r d e n
woul d be S i mp l y e n o r mo u s a n d t h e re is n o j u s t i c a t i on fo r
do

n ot

M R C HU R C H I LL S SUGGESTI ON

2 13

F r a n c e h a s i n t he M e di t e r r a n e a n a e e t a l m o s t a s
gr e a t as t h e ee t o f Au s t r i a a n d I t a l y c o mb i n e d an d i f yo u
t a k e i n t o a cc o u n t t h a t w e a r e o n t h e m o s t f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s
w i t h F r a n c e a n d t h a t o u r ee t i n t h e M e d i t e r r a ne a n i s a
l oo k i n g a t t h e b a l an c e you h a v e a
then
s ub s t a n t i a l o n e
s i t u a t i on wh i ch c a n n o t b e de s c r i b e d as u n sa t i s f a c t o r y
it

Thu s to t h e F i rst Lo r d s n am e mu st b e a dd e d t h e
nam e o f t h e the n Lo r d C hanc e llo r o f E n gla n d a s b e
ing a t va r i anc e with t h e P r i m e M i n is t e r a n d the F o r
e i gn S e c r eta r y a s to ou r obliga ti on to F r a nc e
B ut
wh e n t h e P ri m e M i n ist e r in 1 9 1 1 s a i d that t h e
rumou r s o f wa r i n t h e summe r o f tha t ye a r w e r e

e xtravaga n t cti ons

pu r e in
a n d n othing but

v e nti o n h umble m e mbe r s o f t h e H ous e shou l d n ot

b e su r p r i s e d wh e n M ini st e r s m ake contr a d i cto r y
s tat e m e n ts i n co n n e ct i o n with d ip lom a cy
I t m ay b e w e ll to take o n e la st look a t the n a
sugg e st i on I n O ctob e r 1 9 1 3 M r
v a l holi d ay
Chu rchill w e n t t o M anch e st e r a n d th e r e h e h a d a n
o t he r i n g a t hi s p et sch e m e fo r r e d u ci n g a rm aments
I n t h e sp r i n g wh e n t h e e stim a t e s w e r e i nt r o d u c e d
the J ing o e s sp r e a d rep orts o f a v ast in c r e a s e in t h e
G e r m a n e stimat e s M r C hu rchill r e c o g n i z e d that
i t woul d n o t b e p o ssibl e fo r e ith e r G e r ma n y o r ou r
s e lv e s e ve n i f t h e two nati ons w e r e agr e e d to sta n d
st i ll fo r a whol e y e a r u n l e ss ot h e r P ow e rs coul d b e
p ersu a d e d to d o lik e wi s e b ut h e a nti cip ate d that i f
Gr e a t B r ita i n a n d G e r m a ny took t h e l e a d i n a p
i
P
e
i
n
th
r
Eu
op
e
a
ow
rs
th
i
r
great
r
o
c
h
n
o
e
r
n
e
a
p
g
u e n ce woul d i n su r e go o d p ro sp e cts o f su ccess
N eve rth e less he s a i d
No w w e s ay wh il e t h e r e is p l en t y o f t i m e i n a ll f r i e n d
If
s h i p a n d s i n c e r i t y t o o u r g r e a t n e i ghb o u r G e r m an y :
w
ill
u t o ff b e g i n n i n g y o u r t w o s h i p s fo r t w e l v e m on t h s
o
u
p
y

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

2 14

f ro m t he o r di n a r y d a t e wh e n yo u w o u l d h a v e b e gu n t h e m
w e w ill p u t o ff b e g i n n i n g o u r f o u r Sh i p s i n a b s o l u te go o d
f a i t h fo r e x a c t l y t he s a m e p e r i o d
,

Tha t seem e d to t h e l aym an a fa i rly r e a sonabl e

p r op osal But w a s i t fe a sibl e ? I f w e gla n c e at the
gu r e s o f t h e T r ip l e E n t e n t e a n d t h e T r ipl e Al
li a n ce w e sh a ll s e e tha t G r e at B r i ta i n w a s i n a p os i

ti o n t o s ay to G e rm a n y
A ft e r t h e s can d alou s way
you h av e b e e n tr e ate d by Ent e nt e d iplomacy t h e
Gove r nm e n t i s d e t e r min e d to S how that its n e wo r d s
o n go o d r e l at i ons a n d p e a ce fu l i n t e nt i o n s m e a n s ome
thi n g sub stanti a l ; th e r e fo r e i t will b r i ng p r e ssu re to
b e a r on t h e p a rtn e r s o f t h e T r ipl e E nte n te to d es i st
from bu i l d ing s hip s i n t h e y e a r
With the
Fr e nch e e t i n the M e d it e r rane an a n d the n o rthern
a n d weste r n co asts o f Fra nce un d e fend e d the p rop o
s iti o u woul d not hav e b e e n s o Qu i xot i c a s i t app e a rs
Anyway a t t h e time i t wa s wo rth a ny s a cri ce to
convi n ce G e rm any th a t ou r p ol i cy was not on e o f
iso la ti ng h e r i n Eu rop e Th e gu re s fo r gro ss e x
p e n d itu r e a n d fo r n e w co nstru cti on w e re w e ll ab ov e
a tw o P owe r stan d a r d i n favou r o f t h e Tr i p le E n
tente :
.

G R O SS
G

reat

F r a n ce
Ru s s i a

Tr i p l e

B r i ta i n

r eat

Fra nce
Ru s s i a

Tr i p l e

P END I TU RE 1 9 1 3
G e rma ny
Au s t i a
I ta l y
,

2 3 , 03 o , 6 3 3

T i p l e A l li a n c e

En t en t e

NEW

E!

B ita in
r

CO NST R UCT I O N
G e ma y
Au s t r i a
It ly
,

1913

1 1 ,o ro , 8 8 3

E n te n t e

Tr i p l e A l l i a n c e

1 8 , 2 3 2 , 8 2o

F RUITS

OF

FALSEHOO D

2 15

I t i s a p i ty M r C hu rchi ll w a s n o t i n a p os i tion
to tell t h e p e opl e o f E n gl a n d t h at h e h a d a rrang e d
w i th Fra nc e to l e ave th e M e d it e r r an e an to h e r e e t
whi le Englan d s lo ok e d a ft e r t h e C hanne l a n d t h e
N o rth S e a
I f h e c o u l d h ave b r oken d ow n t h e b a r
r i e r s o f the crimi n al p oli cy o f s e cr e cy a n d hav e b e e n
p e r fectly frank ab ou t t h e n av al p osition h e might
have c a rr i e d t h e va st maj o r ity o f t h e p eop l e with
him H e mig h t h av e s a i d tha t t h e p a n i cky r e p o rts
o f the sp r i n g wi t h r e ga r d to t h e sw o ll e n e stimat e s
o f t h e G e rm a n G o v e rn m e n t w e re no t tru e
a n d tha t
i t wou l d b e wo rth w h il e r e moving a ll su sp i ci o n from
t h e m i n d s o f G e r ma n stat e sm e n ; bu t that th i s cou l d
b e d on e o n ly by a bo l d d e cla r ati on that w e S ha ll n o t
bu il d a n y ship s thi s y e a r
o r n e xt i f it cou l d n o t b e
a r r ang e d fo r thi s y e a r H i d e b oun d t r a d iti o n how
ev e r h e l d h im fa st i n i ts g r ip ; a n d h i s p r o po sa l only
s e rve d t o bli n d tho s e o f h i s f e llow cou n trym e n who
pr e f e r to d o a nything b ut stu d y th e s e a ffa i r s fo r
th e ms e lv e s A s i t wa s t h e su gge stio n m a d e no
h e a d way in Englan d a n d t h e G e rma n s took i t fo r a
s o r r y j ok e
I n t h e sp r i ng o f 1 9 1 4 the d e b a t e s whi ch w e r e
ra i s e d o n t h e d e f e nc e o f t h e Emp i r e a n d th e strat e gi c
p os itio n o f the fo r c e s in t h e M e d it e r r a n e a n rev e ale d
the pro foun d d i ss at i s fa ct i o n o f w e ll i n f o r me d m e m
b e r s a s to the val u e o f t h e Ent e n t e a n d the p ol i cy

o f t h e C omm an d e r o f the Fo rc e s a s to fo re ign

a ffa i rs g e n e rally Th e n a v y e stima t e s r e a che d the
a n d m a n y men b e ga n
coloss a l gu r e o f
to won d e r wh e th e r e n t e nt e s w e r e n o t a ft e r all f e a r
fully e xp e n s iv e luxu r i e s ; p a r ti cula r ly wh e n the a r m a
m e nt bu r d e n wa s s o u n fa i r ly appo rtion e d Wh e n
o n e p a rt n e r i n an ent e nt e
with l i ttl e r i sk o f a l an d
.

H OW

2 16

D I P LO M AT S MA KE WA R

wa r has to sp e n d twi ce a s mu ch on h e r n avy a s e ith e r

o f he r two p a r t n e rs i t i s time to a sk what r e tu r n
wi ll s h e e v e r g e t fo r the cru shi n g bu r d e n t hrown u pon
h e r wo rk e rs ? B u t s e cr e t un d e r stan d i n gs a n d e n
ta n gli n g a lli anc e s mu st b e p a i d fo r n o m a tt e r who
obj e cts a n d n o matt e r how much ly i ng su ch a p olicy
m ay enta i l Wh e n t h e Fo r e ign O fce h a n d s ove r
t h e fate o f a nati o n to m ilita ry a n d n ava l e xp e rt s
a n d the p e op l e p e rmi t a syst e m which giv e s t h e F o r
C omm a n d e r o f t h e
e i gn S e c r e ta ry t h e p ow e r o f a

Fo rces a n d l e ts him con d u ct h i s bu si n e ss withou t

P a rl iamenta r y cont r ol
th e n t h e n ati on must n o t
comp l a i n wh e n i t i s a sk e d to s e ttl e t h e b i ll o f co sts
Bu t i t s houl d b e r e m e mb e r e d tha t n ew g e ne rati o n s
wi ll h av e to b e a r th e i r s ha r e o f the bu r d e n The
p e opl e o f t h e n e x t ge n e rat i o n will lo ok a t t h e h i sto ry
o f th i s t e r r ibl e w a r with ca lm d e lib e rat i on Th e y
w i ll no t b e blin d e d b y t h e p a ss i ons let loose by ou r
fo r e i gn p ol i cy d u r i ng t h e p a st e ight y ea rs whi ch
m ak e i t a lmost i mp o ssibl e fo r m en o f to d a y ght i n g
fo r th e i r n at i ona l e xi st e nc e to s e e t h e long s e que n c e
o f e rro r men d a city a n d s tu p i d i ty whi ch h a s b rou ght
B u t r e a son w i ll r e
th i s a wfu l crime to f r u iti o n
tu r n ; o the r V i e ws wi ll repl a ce thos e whi ch a re d om i
nant to d ay ; a n d h isto ry w i ll r e p e a t i ts el f i n th i s c a se
a s su r e ly a s i t h a s d on e i n th e ca s e o f ev e ry o th e r
Th e n i n the p r o ces s o f re cons i d e rat i on th e
war
v e r d i ct w i ll b e g i ven a ga i n st all th o s e fo rce s wh i ch
hav e b rought t he nat i ons o f Eu rop e to t h e sl aught e r
a n d d e va stat i o n o f a n A r mag e d d on
A r i de r w i ll
accomp a n y th a t v er d i ct b la ming s e cr e t d ip loma cy
t h e J i n g o p r e ss t h e a r m am e nt r i n g a n d t h e p olyglot
gangs o f concess i on a i res for emb ro i l i ng thi s n at i on
i n t h e st r i f e
,

M O RE LIES

2 17

Some mo re qu e stio n s about ou r obligat i o n s to e n

gage in mi lita r y op e r ati ons o n t h e C o n tin e nt mu st b e
r eco r d e d h e re
The Fo r e ign S ec r eta ry r e p l i e d to
b oth o f them Th e rst o ne wa s put o n Ap ri l 2 8 th
.

1 9 14 :

Mr

F o re i g n Aff a i r s
wh e t h e r he i s a w a r e t h a t de m a n ds h a v e b e e n r e c e n t l y p u t
f o rw a r d for a fu r t h e r m ili t a r y u n de r s t a n d i n g b e t w e en t he
P o w e rs o f t h e T r i p l e E n t e n t e w i t h a v i e w t o c o n c e r t e d
a c t i on o n t h e C o n t i n e n t i n c a s e o f c e r t a i n e v e n t u a li t i e s ; a n d
wh e t h e r t h e p o li cy o f t h i s c o u n t ry s t il l r e m a i n s on e o f f re e
d o m f ro m a ll o b li g a t i o n s t o e n g a g e i n m ili t a r y O p e r a t i on s o n
t he

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Co n t i n en t ?

The Se c r e t a r y (S i r E dw a r d G r e y )

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an s

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qu e s t i o n i s i n t h e n e g a t i v e a n d a s
r e g a r ds t he l a t t e r p a r t t he p os i t i o n n ow r e m a i n s t h e s a m e
a s s t a t e d by t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r i n an s w e r t o a q u es t i o n i n
t h i s H o u s e o n t h e 2 4t h M a r ch
t he

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t he

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de r n o obligat i on ; th e r e w e r e n o ag r e e m e n ts wh i c h
woul d restri ct o r h amp e r the fr e e d om o f t h e Gov
e r n m e n t o r o f P a r li am e n t
Th e n two qu estions we r e p u t o n Ju n e 1 1 th 1 9 1 4 :
:

M r Kin g

ke d wh e t h e r a n y n av a l a g re e m e n t h as b ee n
re c en t l y en t e r e d i n t o b e t w ee n Ru s s i a a n d G r e a t B r i t a i n ; a n d
wh e t h e r a n y n e g o t i a t i on s w i t h a v i e w t o e n a b l e a g r e e m e n t
h a v e r e cen t l y t a k en p l a ce o r a r e n o w p e n di n g b e t w e e n Ru ss i a
a n d G re a t B r i t a i n ?
S i r W illi a m B y l es as k e d t h e Se c r e t a r y o f S t a t e fo r F o r
e i gn A ff a i r s wh e t h e r h e ca n m a k e a n y s t a t e m e n t w i t h r e g a r d
t o a n a ll e g e d n ew n a v a l a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n G r e a t B r i t a i n
a n d R u s s i a ; ho w fa r s uch a g r e e m e n t w o u l d a ff e c t o u r re l a
t i o n s w i t h G e r m an y ; a n d w ill h e la y p a p e r s ?
The hon m emb e r fo r N o rt h
S i r E d w a r d G re y :
.

as

21

H OW

Som e r s e t

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

k e d a s i m il a r qu es t i on l as t y e a r w i t h r e g a r d
a n d t h e ho n
m e mb e r fo r N o r t h
t o t h e m ili t a r y f o r c e s
S a l f o r d a s k e d a s i m il a r qu e s t i o n a l s o o n t h e s a m e d ay
The P r i m e M i n i s t e r t h e n
a s h e h as d o n e a g a i n t o d a y
i f w a r a r os e b e tw ee n Eu ro p e a n P o w e r s t h e re
r e p li e d t h a t
w e r e n o u n pub li s h e d a g r ee m e n t s wh i ch w o u l d r e s t r i c t o r
h a mp e r t he f re e do m o f t he G o v e rn m e n t o r o f P a r li a m e n t
t o d e c i d e wh e t h e r o r n o t G re a t B r i t a i n s h o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e
in a w ar
T h a t a n s w e r c o v e rs b o t h t he qu e s t i o n s o n t h e
p a p e r I t re m a i n s a s t r u e t o da y as i t w as a y e a r a go No
n e g o t i a t i o n s h a v e s i n c e b e e n c o n c l u de d w i t h a n y P o w e r t h a t
wo u l d m a k e t he s t a t e m e n t l e s s t r u e No s uch n e g o t i a t i o n s
a n d n o n e a r e li k e l y t o b e e n t e r e d u p o n s o
a re in p ro g r e s s
fa r a s I ca n j u d g e
B u t i f a n y a g r e e m e n t w e r e t o b e co n
c l u d e d t h a t m a d e i t n e ce ss a ry t o w i t h d r aw o r m o d i fy t he
P r i m e M i n i s t e r s S t a t em en t o f l as t y e ar wh i ch I h a v e
qu o t e d i t o u gh t i n my o p i n i o n t o b e a n d I s upp os e t h a t
i t w o u l d b e l a i d b e f o r e P a r li a m e n t
as

L e s s tha n tw o m o n ths b e fo re the ou tb re ak o f hos

t ili t i e s th i s wa s the w ay th e B r i t i s h H ous e o f C om
mo n s wa s t r e at e d by M i n i st e rs o f a G o v e rnm e n t
w h i ch b e ga n its c a re e r in 1 9 0 6 un d e r t h e o ld Lib e ra l

a g tha t bo r e t h e m o tto
P e a ce R e t r e nchm e n t

a n d R e fo rm
! W e ll m i ght t h e s oc i a li sts cry a t
m e e t i ngs wh e n L i b e r als h ave a sk e d fo r the d e m o

c r a ti c fo rce s to pull together

L ib e r a ls fo rs ooth !
you r G ov e r n m e nt ha s neve r b e en L i b e ral s i nc e t h e

Libe ra l Le a gu e rs got control o f the Cab i n e t !

O n ly tho s e who h ave b orne t h e brunt o f the p ol i ti cal
ghting i n the country know how ha r d the task has
b e e n to k e e p the o ld R a d i ca ls i n t h e ght i ng l i n e
whi l e th i s Gove rnm e nt h a s b e e n e nm e sh e d in the e n
tangl e m e n ts o f a C ont i n e ntal system th r ough i ts m a d
imp e r i al d e si r e s a n d i ts s e cr e t fo r e ign p ol i cy

Tw i tte d by the C ons e rv at i v e s fo r

a me ek sub
,

VEH E M ENT

P ROTEST

2 19

in t h e d i vi si o n lobby a n d a grot e squ e

impot e ncy u n d e r an a uto c r ati c M i n i stry ; a n d on
t h e oth e r han d ch a rg e d by t h e so c i al i sts a s supp o r t
e r s o f gangs o f B r itis h a n d fo re ign c ap i talists syn
d i ca t e d fo r the bu si n e ss o f explo iting t h e n at i ve s o f
A fr i ca a n d As i a (b e s i d e s a cqu i e sci n g i n t h e n e fa ri
ous d e signs o f the a rm am e n t r i n g to rob t h e w e alth
p r o du c e r s o f t h e cou n t r y ) m e mb e rs w h o s a cr i c e d
s o m e o f the i r p ri n cip l e s in o r d e r t o g et l an d r e fo r m
co n stitut i ona l r e fo rm a n d f r a n chi s e r e f o r m foun d
i n th e e n d that su ch b e n e ts a s th e y h a d ga i n e d we re
m e r e d ro ss a s co n s i d e r e d a ga i n st t h e crim e o f p a r
t i ci p a t ing i n a Eu rop e an w a r
S o l at e a s Ju n e 2 9 t h 1 9 1 4 the tru e p o s i t i on o f
t h e Hou s e i n r e l a ti o n t o f o r e ign a ffa i r s w a s d e
sc r ib e d b y M r S wi ft M a cNe i ll i n th e d e b ate o n t h e
Fo r e ig n O ffi c e Vot e H e sa i d :
s e r v i e n cy

If

k n ow t h e re a li t y o f t h i n g s i t w ou l d
b e b e t t e r i f w e h a d n o de b a t es i n t h i s H o u s e o n f o r e i g n p o l
i cy h f e m b e r a f t e r m e mb e r g e t s up a n d s ay s wh a t t o t he
b e s t o f h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a r e t h e t r u e f a c t s o f t h e c as e b u t
m e mb e rs a re fu rn i s h e d w i t h o ffi c i a l
o f t h e s e ho n
n on e
i n f o r m a t i on as t h e y w o u ld b e fu r n i s h e d w i t h o n a n y m a t t e r
I t h i n k i t is an a m a zi n g t h i n g t o s e e
o f do m e s t i c p o li cy
h ow t h e H o u s e i s c ro w de d o n m a t t e rs o f n a v a l de fen ce a n d
t o s e e h o w t h i s H o u s e o f C o mm o n s a ll o w s i t s e l f t o b e t r e a t e d
a s a ch il d i n m a t t e r s wh i ch a re t h e Sp r i n g s o f p o li cy t h e m
a n d fo r wh i ch t h e s e
s e lv e s i n m a t t e r s wh i ch c r e a t e w a r s
I t w o u l d be im
n a v a l de f e n c es a r e t h e m s e l v e s re qu i r e d
m e n s e ly b e t te r i f t h e r e w e re f e w e r m illi o n s s p e n t o n t he
N a vy a n d t h e r e w as a n O p e n pub li c p o li cy a s t o o u r r e l a
I s ay t h a t t he H o u s es o f
t i o n s w i t h o t h e r P o w e rs
P a r li a m e n t s o fa r a s f o r e i g n p o li cy i s c o n c e r n e d a r e a b so
T h i s H o u se o f C o mm o n s h as n o
lu t e ly i mp o t e n t
p ow e r t o de c la re w a r o r t o m a k e p e a c e T h e s e p re ro ga
we

a re

n ot

to

2 20

H OW

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

p r a c t i c a ll y i n v e s t e d i n t he M i n i s t e rs
I n f o r e i g n a ff a i r s t h e y a r e n o t
a n d e x e r c i s e d by t h e m
The M i n i s t r y o f E n g l an d can de c l a re w a r
r e s p on s i b le
P er
t o d a y w i t h o u t c on s ul t i n g t h e H o u s e o f C o mm o n s
h a p s i t w ill be s a i d t h a t is a ll r i gh t a n d t h a t t he H o u se o f
C o mm o n s has t he p ow e r o f s t o pp i n g s upp li e s Y e s bu t n o
H o u s e o f C o mm o n s w i t h o r di n a r y p a t r i o t i c f e e li n g w o u l d
d r e a m o f s t o pp i n g s upp li e s wh e n t h a t m e a n s t he m a i n t e
wh a te v e r m ay be
n a n c e a n d p r o t e c t i o n o f s o l d i e r s a b roa d
T h e r e f or e t he C a b i n e t has p ow e r t o
t he f a c t s o f t he w a r
m a k e p e a c e a n d t o d e c l a re w a r ; t o m a k e t h i s c o u n t r y e n t e r
i n to t he v e r y h i gh e s t a n d m o s t m om e n to u s i n te rn a t i on a l
t r an s a c t i o n s a n d h as a p o w e r wh i ch i t h a s n o t i n c o n n e c t i on
w i t h t he n a r r ow es t t u rn p i ke B ill C a n a n y o n e i m a g i n e a
C o mm i t t ee o f P a r li a m e n t s uch a s t he C a b i n e t is s h o u l d be
a b l e t o p u t t he c o u n t r y u n d e r t h e m o s t i n t e n s e n a t i o n a l
a n d t o b i n d t h e li v e s a n d d e s t i n i e s a n d p r o p e r t i e s
o b li g a t i o n

o f t h e s u bj e ct ?

C row n

t i v e s o f t he

a re

O uts i d e o f G e rmany t h e bu re au cracy o f B erl i n ha s

h a d n o mo r e impl a cab l e opp o n e nts than t h e R a d i cals
o f B r i ta in Fo r n e a rly tw e n ty y e a rs i t ha s b een
p o i nte d ou t i n sp ee che s a n d p amp hl e ts a s the gre a t
C o n tinenta l s tu mbling blo ck i n t h e ro a d to a full e r
a n d d e ep e r u n d e rstan d ing a mo n g t h e wo r k e rs o f th e
g r e a t Powe rs Th e whol e syst e m o f Gove rnment
a t B e rli n ha s b e e n utte r ly d i slik e d by the p r o g re s
s iv e p e ople o f thi s country b e cau s e i t p ra ct i cally l i e s
i n the ha nds o f a sp e ci al s e t o f m e n d ominate d by
Un d e r h i s w i ll th e bu r e au cra cy shap e d
th e Ka i s e r
the cou rs e o f p eac e a n d wa r a n d so ci a l a ffa i rs wh i le
l i ttle o r n o p olit i ca l p ow e r r e st e d i n t h e h a nds o f the
va st maj o r i ty o f the G e rm a n p eop l e Absolute i n
a ll th i n gs th a t conc e rn the d e sti n y o f a p e ople the
Ka i ser sto o d fo r a ll those e conomi c a n d p ol i t i cal
ab om i nat i ons t h e B r i t i s h p eop le h a d fought i n the i r
.

TWEE DLE D EE AN D TWEE DLE D U M

22 1

lan d fo r hun d re d s o f y e a rs to ove rthrow ; g r i evanc e s

t h e y h a d b e e n to som e exte n t su cc e ss ful i n r e moving
H ave th e y th e n fought i n va i n ? Wha t i s t h e p osi
ti o n i n th i s y e a r o f 1 9 1 5
A C ab i n e t w i th ab s olut e
p owe r to p lunge t h e nati o n w i thi n a w e e k i n to a
E u r op ean w a r t o ca rry out o b liga ti o n s t h e H ouse o f
Comm o ns w e r e t o l d l e ss than e i ght w e e ks b e fo r e
h o stil i ti e s comm e nc e d d i d no t e xi st ; but wh i ch t h e
G overnm ent con f e ss e d wh e n i t wa s to o lat e we re
ent e re d i nto m o re th an e ight y e a r s a go Th e e n d
o f ou r const i tut i ona l s t r uggl e th e n i s to s e t u p an
absolute C ab i n e t i n pla c e o f a n absolu t e mon a rch
a n d a n all -p owe r fu l Hou s e o f Lor d s
.

! I

CHA P TE R

WO R K O F DI P L OM AT IST S

TH E

h e r g re a t gu l f wh i ch s e p a ra t e s t h e d i ffe r
e n ce s b e t w e e n A u s t r i a a n d Ru ss i a
h ows oe v e r t h e y m ay b e
d e c i de d f ro m t h e a ff a i rs o f t he W e s t e r n P o w e r s
B r i t a in
I t a l y a n d F r an ce a re a t p e a c e T h e y d e s i r e
a n d G e rm a n y
p e a c e ; t h e y n ee d p e a c e ; t h e r e i s n o g ro u n d o f qu a rr e l be
t w e e n t h e m a b s o l u te l y n o n e
T h e y h a v e o n l y t o co n
t i o u c t o pu rs u e t o g e t h e r t h e s i mp l e a n d s i n c e r e p o li cy t h e y
h a v e b e e n f o ll ow i n g t h e y h a v e o n l y t o t r u s t o n e a n o t h e r
i n t h i s t i m e o f t r o ub l e t h e y h a v e o n l y t o t a k e h o l d o f o n e
a n o t h e r s h a n ds i n c o n de n c e a n d g o o d w ill
an d t h e r e is
n o p o w e r u n d e r t h e s k y t h a t can d r i v e t h e m f ro m t h e p a t h s
an d h on ou r
No o n e can m e as u re t h e co n s e
o f s an i ty
Th e o r i g i n a l c a u s e w o u l d s o o n
qu e n ce s o f a g e n e r a l w a r
b e l os t i n t h e g re a t e r a n d m o re t e r r i b l e i s s u es wh i ch w o u l d
be r a i s e d
Th e o n l y e p i t a ph wh i ch h i s t o ry c o u l d w r i t e
o n s uch a c a t a s t r o ph e w o u l d b e t h a t t h i s wh o l e g e n e r a t i o n
o f m e n w e n t m a d a n d t o r e t h e m s e l v e s t o p i e c es
W i n s t o n C hu r ch ill N o v e mb e r 1 9 1 2

T H ER E

is

an ot

Th at ep i tap h will se rv e fo r t he stone tha t w i ll b e

r a i s e d by ou r he i rs on the grav e o f our m a d ne ss
N e v e r wa s p e a c e n e e d e d by the p e oples o f Eu rop e
s o u rg e n tly a s i n June 1 9 1 4 B ut men we n t m a d
i n July ; state sm e n le d the way pu sh e d by d iploma
t i s t s a n d k i ngs followe d ; not a long t h e p aths o f s an
i ty a n d h o n ou r but i nto thos e t e r rible l aby r i n t h s
whe r e r e ason i s ab a n d oned by all who ent e r in I n
1 9 1 4 t h e e conom i c a n d p ol i t i cal cond i t i on o f B r i ta i n
.

222

A C LE A R S K Y

2 23

I rela nd wa s s e r i ou s e nough to employ fully all

D e clini n g tr a d e ;
t h e wi s d o m o f ou r sta t e sm e n
g r ave labour troubl e a pp r o a ch i n g ; the revolt i n the
a rmy ; Uls te r s p rep a ra ti o n fo r c i v i l wa r ; s e d i ti on
i n t h e Pr i vy C o u n cil a n d i n Indi a ; r i ot s i n S outh
A fri ca a n d Dublin ; we r e o n ly s ome o f the outsta n d
ing f e atu r e s o f o u r own d isor de rs
Wh e n P a r li am e nt m e t o n F e b r u a r y 1 0 th 1 9 1 4
t h e K i ng s sp e e ch co n ta i n e d two str i king p o i nts o n
fo re i gn a ff a i rs :
an d

My

w i th Fo re i g n P o w e r s c o n t i n u e t o b e
f r i e n dl y I a m h a ppy t o s ay t h a t my n e g o t i a t i o n s b o t h
w i t h t he G e r m an G o v e rn m e n t a n d t he O t t o m an Go v e r n
m e n t as r e g a r ds m a t t e r s o f i mp o r t a n ce t o t h e c o mm e r c i a l
a re
a n d i n d u s t r i a l i n t e r es t s o f t h i s c o u n t r y i n M e s o p o t a m i a
r a p i dl y
a pp r o a ch i n g
a
s a t i s f a c t o ry
i s s u e wh il e qu es t i on s
wh i ch h av e l on g b e e n p e n d i n g w i t h t he T u rk i s h Emp i re in
r e s p e c t t o r e g i o n s b o r de r i n g o n t h e P e rs i a n Gu l f a r e i n a
f a i r w ay t o w a r ds a n a m i c a bl e s e t t l e m e n t

l i

r e a t on s

Th e r e s e em e d to b e no i nte rn a t i onal fr i ct i on in
Eur op e ; t h e Chan c e ll e r i e s gave no i n d i ca t i o n o f the
com i n g s to r m Eve n the B alkan s se em e d to b e a t
r est At h o me all w a s str i fe Th e Gove rnm e nt
e nt e r i ng o n i ts fou rth yea r o f o ffi ce un d e r t h e P a r
li a m e n t A ct h a d to d e a l fo r t h e thi r d a n d la st t i me
with t h e Hom e Ru le B ill M a ny oth e r highly con
t e n t i o u s m e a su r e s i n va r i ou s stag e s o f l e gi slative d e
v e lo p m e n t w e r e to b e d e alt with
T he chu rch the
l an d a n d t h e a sc e n de n cy p a rt i e s w e r e i ntensely
a la rm e d ; a n d u rg e n t wa s th e i r wo r k i n t h e country
to fo restall a t a n y co st the p owe r o f th e P a rl i am ent
Act to p a s s m e a su r e s a ga inst the opp o s i t i on o f the
Hous e o f Lo r d s The U n i on i sts h a d su cc e e d e d on
two o cca s i ons i n tu rn i ng the Hous e o f C o mm o ns
.

H ow D I P LO MATS M AKE WAR

2 24

i nto a d i sord e r ly pla ce ; a nd thr e ats we re m a d e aga i n

a n d a ga i n t o u s e s im i l a r metho d s i n t h e n e w s e ssi on
.

The o ld ways o f r ea son a n d a rgum e nt w e r e fa st

g i ving pla c e to r i ot a n d cl amou r No on e coul d
lo ok fo rwa r d to the p ass i n g o f the H om e Rule B il l
wi th c e rta inty tha t t h e Hou s e woul d con du ct i tsel f
d e co rou sly
Anoth e r p ot house b r awl w a s th e l e a s t
tha t coul d b e e x p e ct e d Fo r th e t i m e b e i ng fo reig n
a ffai rs a n d a r m am e nts w e r e fo rgott e n I n the r e
ce ss s om e M i n i st e rs h a d h ow e v e r re f e r r e d to th e s e
qu esti ons i n th e i r s p e e ches Lo r d H a l d an e a t H o x
ton on J an u a r y 1 5 th 1 9 1 4 s a i d :
.

D u r i n g t he e i gh t y e a r s i n wh i ch t he G o v e r n m e n t h a d
b e en i n o f ce t he p e a ce o f Eu r o p e h a d b een p re se r v e d The
G re a t P o w e rs h a d g r o up e d t h e m se l v e s ; t he p ili n g up o f
a r m a m e n t s h a d g o n e o n ; w e h a d i n c r e as e d o u r a r m a m e n t s ;
a n d Eu ro p e w a s a n a r m e d c a mp , b u t a n a r m e d c a mp i n
wh i ch p e a c e n o t o n l y p r e v a il e d, b u t i n wh i ch t h e i n di c at io n s
w e r e t h a t t h e re w a s a fa r g r e a t e r p ros p e c t o f p e a ce t h a n
.

v e r t h e r e w as b e f or e No o n e w a n t e d w a r I f a rm a
m e n t s w e r e p il e d up i t w a s n o t fo r a gg res s i on b u t fo r f e a r
T h a t w oul d go i n t i m e a n d w o u l d c e r t a i n l y go i f t he
b e n e ce n t t e n de n cy o f t h e l a s t fe w y e a rs w a s k e p t u p a n d
i f t h i s c o u n t ry p re se r v e d i ts p o li cy wh il e re m a i n i n g i n o ne
o f t he g r o up s ye t s e e k i n g t o b r i n g a b o u t g oo d r e l a t i o n s b e
t w e e n t h a t g r o up a n d t h e o t h e r g r o up
I t w as w i t h p l e a s
u r e t h a t he t h o ugh t o f t h e g r e a t p o w e r fo r g o o d o f t he t w o
s t a t es m e n i n Eu r o p e
D r B e t hm a n n H o ll w e g a n d S i r Ed
w a r d G r e y T h e s e tw o ha d w o r k e d for a ll t h e y w e r e
w o r t h a n d w e h a d s e en t he f rui t s o f i t d u ri n g a p e r i o d o f
g r e a t a n xi e ty a n d c r i s i s wh e n p rob a b l y w i t h o u t t h a t g r o up
s ys t e m
w e m i gh t h a v e h a d a co n a g r a t io n i n Eu ro p e
T h e s e g ro up s ha d a n ew v a l u e a n d m e an i n g T h e y d id n o t
e xi s t t o b r e a k t h e p e a c e b u t t o k ee p t h e p e a c e
e

Th i s o n ly abou t s ix months b e fo re Eu rop e

was

A SA D RE T R OSP E CT

225

engul fe d i n the ho r r o r o f the cen tu r i es ! T here wa s

t h e n n o d oub t i n Lo r d H a ld a n e s m in d a s to the way
t h e two h e a d s (S i r E dwa r d G r e y a n d D r v o n B eth
m a nn H ollw e g ) o f the a rme d g r ou ps the E nt e nte
a n d t h e Alli ance
h a d wo rk e d fo r t h e p e a ce o f Eu
rop e
N o o n e want e d wa r ! Th e grou p s d i d not
exi st to b r e ak t h e p e a c e b ut to ke e p t he p ea ce ! I t
i s like a grot e s qu e n ightma re now to r e a d su ch a
sp e e ch d e l i ve r e d only a fe w s ho rt m onths b e for e
t h e gr e a t e st natio n s o f Eu r op e p lu n g e d i nto wa r
T o r e a d tha t sp e e ch now that ni n e n ati ons a r e a t
wa r a n d try to g e t o n e gl e a m o f hop e fo r d e mo c ra cy
o ut o f all t h e gloom o f b attl e e l d s i s a ta sk o f u tte r
Ev e r y s op hism e v e ry p latitu d e ev e ry
d e sp a i r
p r e t e x t o f state sm a n d i p lom ati st s o l d i e r a n d s a ilo r
fo r a rm am e nts group s a n d tr e ati e s h a s b e e n
sma sh e d to atoms T r uth l i ke a b atte r e d d rab i n
bu r n i n g sham e h i de s h e r h e a d i n the sh a dows o f an
e mpty b ro t h el
E ithe r Lo r d H alda n e kn e w th e n
h e wa s not sp eaking t h e t ruth o r numb e rs o f B r i t i sh
j ou r n al ists who h ave wr i tten o n d iploma cy S i nce th e
wa r b egan a r e b ra z en l ia rs B oth cannot b e r i ght ;
bu t a s Lo rd H al d an e w i th all h i s p oliti ca l faults i s
on e o f the gre a t i n te lle c t u al fo rce s i n B r i ta in a n d
w o ul d b e apt to k n o w wh a t h e wa s ta lki n g ab ou t
t h e j i ngo i sts o f the gutt e r p r es s m ay b e l e ft to e nj oy
what th e y e a rn Lo rd H a l d an e wa s a b a d p roph e t ;
1 9 1 5 tha t
a n d though h e tol d u s so r e c e n tly a s July

he w a s b oun d to m ak e f r i e n d ly sp e e che s he m i ght

h av e ha d t h e cou ra g e to t e ll the cou ntry e a rli e r a ll
H e r e i s t h e cu rs e o f
h e l e a rn e d i n B e rli n i n 1 9 1 2
th e whol e d e sp i cabl e bu s i n e ss o f d ip loma cy : a m an
lik e Lo r d H al d a n e mu st make fri e n dly sp e e ch e s
e m e ant hi di n g the truth
wh
i
ch
i
n
th
i
s
c
a
s
whe
n
)
(

H OW

22 6

h e ha d

D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

the

small e st d oub t ab out t h e imp e r ativ e

n e c e ssi ty o f ou r tak i n g p art in t h e w a r

a s h e tol d
us i n July 1 9 1 5
I t i s a lmost a futi le ta sk to a ttemp t to r e conci l e
t h e utt e ranc e s o f o u r st at e sm e n ma d e b e fo r e Ju ly
1 9 1 4 with tho s e d e liv e r e d s i n c e t h e w a r b e ga n
To
thos e w h o woul d u r ge t h e e xcus e tha t m e mb e rs o f
a C ab i n e t ca nnot sp e ak st r aig h t fo r wa r d ly o n d e li
cate qu e st i ons o f fo r e ig n affa i r s fo r f e a r o f p r e cip i
t at i ng an i n t e rnati on a l c r i si s it might b e a sk e d w h at
p a rti cu la r ben e t h av e t h e p e opl e d e r i v e d f r om t h e
p ol i cy o f se c r e cy a n d hyp e r bol e ? I f t h e con du ct
o f fo reig n a ffa i r s p r e clu d e s t h e poss ib i lity o f t h e
truth b e ing giv e n to t h e p e opl e i s i t n e c e ssa r y to m i s
l ea d th e m by m aki n g f r ie n d ly sp e e ch e s ? Woul d it
n o t b e b e tt e r t o p r e s e rv e a n i r o n cla d s il e nce ? Why
tell t h e p e opl e a nyth i ng ab ou t fo r e ign a ffa i rs a n d
a rmam e nts ? P e rhap s t h e p oli cy o f t h e futu r e wi ll
h e : g e t the m o n e y a n d s ay nothing
A rh e to ri ca l
lo ss m i ght at a n y rate m e a n a d i al e ct i cal ga in
T ake anoth e r i n sta n c e o f wh e r e s t a t e s m e n s u t
t e r a n ce s b e fo r e t h e w a r com e i n co n ict with the
s cr e eds o f j i ngo i sts S i r E dwa r d G r e y spok e a t
M ancheste r i n Feb ru a ry 1 9 1 4 o n I nte rn at i ona l A f
fa i rs a n d A rm aments H e s a i d :
not

W h il e B r i t i s h n av a l ex p e n di t u re is a g r e a t f a c to r i n t he
n a v a l e x p e n d i t u r e o f Eu r o p e
t h e f o r c e s wh i ch a r e m a k i n g
t h a t e x p e n d i t u r e i n c re a s e g e n e r a ll y a re r e a ll y b e y o n d o u r
co n t ro l I a dm i t t h a t w e h a d s o m e r es p o n s i b ili t y o r i gi n a lly
i n bu il di n g t h e r s t d re a dn o ugh t
No dou b t w e a r e Op en
At t he p r e s
t o t he c r i t i c i s m t h a t w e s e t t h e e x a mp l e
e n t m o m e n t wh a t i s c a u s i n g t h e i n c re a s e o f d r e a dn o u gh t s
i n Eu r o p e ?
I t is g o i n g o n w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o B r i t i s h
The s h i p s wh i ch G e r m an y i s g o i n g t o la y
exp e n d i t u r e
,

C ON T RAD I CTI O N S
do w n i n
a n av al

2 27

h i s c o m i n g y e a r a re b e i n g l a i d dow n t o c a r ry o u t
p ro g r a mm e a n a v a l la w (wh i ch c an n o t be a l t e r e d
w i t h o u t t h e c o n se n t o f t h e R e i ch s t a g ) wh i ch w as l a i d d o w n
m a n y y e a r s a go a n d a n a v a l law wh i ch w o u l d n o t be a l t e r e d
W h e n yo u c o m e t o
t h i s y e a r by a n y t h i n g w e c o u l d do
Au s t r i a a n d I t a l y a n d a s k
t he Sh i pbu il d i n g o f F r a n c e
y o u r s e l f why t h ey a re bu il d i n g d re a dn o ugh t s I d o n o t t h i n k
yo u ca n s ay i n t h e c a s e o f a n y o n e o f t h e m t h a t t h e y a r e
bu il d i n g dr e a dn o ugh t s b e c a u s e o f B r i t i s h s h i pbu il d i n g
W h a t e v e r m o t i v e s t h e y h av e i t i s n o t c o mp e t i t i o n w i t h u s
i n p a r t i cu l a r wh i ch i s c a u s i n g t h e m t o bu il d d r e a dn o ugh t s
a n d i f w e w e r e t o d e c i d e t o bu il d n o t h i n g t h i s y e a r o r n e x t
y e a r I do n o t b e li e v e i t w o u l d c a u s e a n y a lt e r a t i o n i n t h e
s h i pbu il d i n g o f t h e o t h e r g r e a t P o w e r s o f E u r o p e a s a d i r e c t
c o n s e qu e n c e
t

rst pl a c e th i s stat e m e n t p rov e s co n clu

noti on o f M r
s i v e ly how p r e p oste r o u s wa s t h e
Chu r chill s n ava l h o li d ay a n d how absu r d i s t h e
g r u dg e o f t h e J i n go p r e ss aga i nst G e r ma n y fo r no t
a d opti n g t h e sugg e stio n o f M r C hu r chill
I n the
s e co n d p l a c e S i r E dwa r d G r e y la i d th e sp e ct r e o f
G e r ma n y s v i o lat i o n o f h e r nav a l pl e dges to u s a n d
o f h e r n ava l p r o
t h e su r r e ptiti ou s a cc e l e r ati o n
gr am m e I n t h e thi r d pla c e i t p r oves p os itiv e ly tha t
G e r m a n y wa s n o t bu il d i n g a gai n st u s a n d tha t w e
w e r e b lam e fu l in fo rci n g t h e a r mam e n t pa c e
O n e h a s o n ly to go to H a n s a r d o r t h e publi c
p r i n ts to n d sp e e che s o f M i n i st e rs whi ch co n t r a d i ct
n i n e t y n i n e p e r ce n t
o f t h e stu ff publish e d a ga i n st
G e r many a s t o h e r f o r e ig n a ff a i rs n aval a n d m ilita r y
Bu t
d e v e l o pm e nt l it e ratu r e mu si c a n d sci enc e
what i s to b e d o n e with a pub li c l a rg e ly fe d on t h e
ga r bag e p r i nte d i n mo st o f the B r i t i sh d a i l i es a n d
w e e kli e s n o w tha t w a r i s a p ayin g gam e fo r j i ngo
i s t s ? I t w a s b a d e nough i n tim e s o f p a n i c b e fo r e
In

th e

228

H OW

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

h o st i l i ti e s b e ga n ; but n ow eve ry day i n th e we ek

the publi c i s b r u tally a ss au lt e d by colum n s in the
p r e ss m o r e d a ng e r ou s to t h e B r iti sh p e opl e th an all
the Ka is e r s l e gi ons p a st a n d to com e At the din
n e r o f t h e Fo r e i gn P r e s s Asso ci at i o n
M ay 1 9 1 4

S i r E dwa r d G r e y s a i d th e p r e ss
controlle d the
a tmosphe r e a n d t h e t e mp e ra tu r e o f t h e a tm osph e re
w o ul d d e ci d e what p oli cy i t might b e p o ss ible fo r

G ov e rnm e nts to ca r ry ou t
W h e ther o r no t the
fo re i gn p r e ss contro ll e d th e atmosp h e re at the t i me
o f t he B alka n c r isi s ther e is n o d oubt ab out t h e con
t r o l o f atm o sp h e r e o f t h e B r i t i s h p r e s s n o w D e
c e nt j o u rn a li sm li e s u n d e r a cl o u d o f susp i ci o n a n d
d a r e n o t d e a l t h o r oug h ly w i th a ll th e ca u s e s wh i ch
b rou g h t ab out th e w a r Th e wo rst f e atu r e s o f
P r u ssi a n a d mi ni stra ti o n a r e ramp a nt i n the lan d and
a f r e e p r e ss ha s b e e n ou st e d by a p r e ss fre e chi ey
t o li e a n d t r a d u c e h o n ou r abl e m e n
But it i s n o t t h e
p e op l e s fault tha t t h e cu ltu re o f fren z y a n d fright
i s t h e o r d e r o f t h e d a y ; i t i s t h e fault o f t h e G ov
e rn m e n t
Th e p e opl e have not b e en g i ven a chan ce
to s e l e ct a cultu r e compat i ble w i th t ru e l i b e rt y
S l av e s must tak e t h e cultu r e the i r m ast e rs i mpo s e
I f t h e r e w a s o n e r e fo rm mo r e than a n othe r n e e de d
i n B r i ta in i n t h e sp r i n g o f 1 9 1 4 i t wa s e d u cat i on
N ati onally n o t o n e hal f a s mu ch wa s sp e nt on e d u ca
t i on a s o n t h e n avy B ut t h e n avy wa s a ll ri ght
An d t h e a rm y w a s re a d y
Th e M inist e r fo r W a r

i n t h e C ommo n s on M a rch 1 0 t h s a i d
We sta nd
w e ll fo r t h e pu rp os e s o f i mm e d i at e w a r on a n y b as i s
whi ch yo u may co n si de r
The First L o r d o f
t h e A d mi r a l t y tol d t h e H ou se o f C ommons tha t
fo r ty m e r chant s hip s h a d b e e n a r m e d with two
guns ap i e ce O n t h e d e b at e on the N a val P o s i t i on

P E RTIN ENT QUE ST I ON S

i n the M ed i t e r r an e an M a rch

2 29

th S i r E dwa r d G r ey

wa s sur e t h e goo d un d e r st an d ings whi ch ha v e e x

i s t e d a n d whi ch e xist b e tw e e n ou r s e lv e s a n d Fra n ce
a n d Ru ss i a h av e u n d o ub t e d ly d u r ing t h e last trou
blou s t i m e s co n t r ibut e d to t h e p e a c e o f Eu r op e

Th e d e
We co ns i d e r that th e y m ak e f o r p e a c e
b at e s i n t h e C o mm o n s o n t h e A rm y a n d N avy wer e
o f d e ep int e r e st M r Am e ry int e rv e n e d a ga i n a n d
d e a lt wi th t h e p o s i ti on i n Eu r o p e :
,

18

I t is

qu e s t i o n o f o u r de a li n g S i n g l e h an de d w i t h
o n e o f t h e g r e a t Eu r o p e a n P o w e r s
W e h a v e b e e n co m
m i t t e d by o u r f o r e i g n p o li cy t o t h e s upp o r t o f a c e r t a i n
g ro up i n g o f P o w e r s a n d i t i s o u r d u t y t o s upp l y n o t o n l y
n a v a l s t re n g t h b u t m ili t a r y s t r e n g t h t o p r e v e n t t h a t g r o up
i n g b e i n g b r o k e n dow n
W h a t go o d w o u ld i t b e t o u s
w i n n i n g a v i c t o r y a t s e a i f o u r a l li e s w e r e c r u s h e d an d de
f ea t e d o n l an d ?
n ot

Th en i n t h e d e b at e o n t h e N a vy E stima te s
M a rc h i 8 t h 1 9 1 4 t h e qu e sti o n o f o u r p os iti o n i n
Eu r op e w a s r a i s e d by s e ve r a l m e mb e rs Lo r d
C ha r l e s B e r e s fo r d d e a lt s ev e r e ly with t h e First
Lo r d :
,

F i rs t L o r d :

g o i n g t o t ru s t t o F ran c e
T h a t is a v e r y de n i t e
t o de f e n d u s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ?
qu e s t i o n I f w e a re wh a t a re w e t o g i v e F r a n c e in re
t u rn ?
I t h a s c o m e o u t qu i t e l a t e l y t h a t w e h a v e n o t go t
a n E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e t h a t w e c o u ld s e n d a w a y t o F r a n c e
i f F r a n c e n e e de d i t Th e S e c r e t a r y fo r W a r c o u ld n o t
a n d w e k n ow
e v e r yb o dy k n o w s
a n s w e r t h a t qu e s t i o n
w e c o u l d n o t a ffo r d t o s e n d t h a t E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e a w a y
i f E n gl a n d a n d F r a n c e w e r e e n g a g e d in a w a r a g a i n s t s o m e
I s ay t h a t i s a v e r y d a n g e r o u s p o s i t i o n W e a r e
on e e lse
m e t a ph o r i c a ll y t o s e ll o u r f r i e n ds T h e y a r e t o l oo k a f t e r
o u r e n o r m o u s i n t e r e s t s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e an b e c a u s e w e
a s k t he

Ar e

we

23 9

H ow D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

c a n n o t h av e a e e t t h e re W h a t a r e w e g o i n g t o do fo r
F r a n c e ? I t m a y b e v e ry d i s a g r ee a b l e b u t w e a r e li a b l e
w i t h t h e se e n t e n t e s a n d a lli a n c es W h e n w e h a d c o mm a n d
o f t h e se a a n d t r u s t e d t o o u r o w n r i gh t h a n ds w e w a n t e d
n o e n t e n t es a n d a lli a n c e s a n d t he B r i t i s h F l e e t w as a f a c t o r
.

for p e ace f

Yes i nd e ed : a n d Lo r d C ha r le s B e re s fo r d wa s no t
a lo n e in c a sting b a ck a gla n c e t o the d ays o f
B r i ta in s sp l e n d i d i solati o n
Th e r e we r e ma n y m e n
w h o h e a r tily d i slik e d t h e i n t e r n ati o n al p r o sp e ct bu t
o n r e e ct i o n th e y c o n s o le d th e ms e lv e s with the a s
su r a nc e s s o o ft e n giv e n by t h e P r i m e M ini ste r a n d
the Fo re i gn Se cr e ta r y th a t w e w e r e un d e r n o obliga
t i o n to giv e a rme d sup po rt to F r an c e o r Ru ssi a
I n th e C ommo n s S i r M a rk Syk e s a n d M r H e rb e rt
d el i v e r e d sp e e che s full o f fo r e bo d ing a s to Ru ssi an
i nu e n c e a n d a sp i r ati on Wh e n t h e q u esti on o f
t r o op s fo r U lst e r wa s rai s e d C o lon e l B u rn a ske d t h e

Fo r e ign S e creta r y wheth e r i n t h e e v e nt o f tro op s

b e i n g e mploy e d i n Ulst e r over a n e xt e n d e d p e r i o d
t h e G o v e r n m e n t a r e i n a p o siti o n to ca r r y ou t o u r

m il i ta ry u n d e r sta n d ing w i th Fra n ce

S i r E d wa r d

G r ey s a i d t h e P r im e M ini st e r could not undertake

to rep ly to a pu r e ly hyp oth e t i cal qu e sti o n

I t wa s a sto rmy s e ssi on a n d t h e Hou s e l ost he av i ly
i n d ign i ty wh i l e the Gov e rnm e n t ga ine d littl e i n
p r e sti g e Th e p a r ty o f law a n d o r d e r p re a che d
s e d ition a n d a n a r chy i n th e H ou se a n d in t h e cou n
t r y a n d t h e young b loo d s o f To ryi sm a t the s am e
tim e pla n n e d to stop p roc e d u r e by sh o ut i n g M ini s
t e rs d o wn
M ann e rs fell to the d epths o f vu lga ri ty
a n d w i s d om i n d is g u st o ft e n ew away a n d fou n d
r e fug e in t h e j ug a n d b ottl e corn e r s o f lowly pub s
H ow wa s it with G e rm a ny b e fo r e the mu r d e r o f
,

GE R M ANY S SPE C I A L AI M

23 1

the a rch duke ? F i rst let u s avo i d m ak i ng the m i s

tak e o f many publi ci sts th a t ev e ry sp e e ch o f Ka i s e r
o r Cha nc e llo r whi ch b r i stl e d w ith p h r a s e s o f Tr e i t s
chk e wa s a im e d a t B r ita i n B e rn h a r d i ha s tol d u s
wa r with Engla n d wa s hop e l e ss from the Germ a n
p o s i tio n a n d h e ca n b e a cc e p t e d a s a n autho r i ty I t
w a s hop el e ss
W i th ou r navy fo r t h e N o rth Se a
a n d Fr a n ce
gu a r d ing the M e d it e r rane an n o on e
s ave a J i n go luna ti c cou l d re a lly b e li e ve fo r a m o
m e nt that t h e tim e h a d com e fo r G e rma n y to try h e r

Th e Engli sh
strengt h with u S
B e rnha r d i sa i d
G ove r nm e nt k n ows w e ll tha t G e rm any ca n no t thi n k
o n h e r s i d e o f a tta ck i n g Engla n d b e cau s e su ch a n
a tt e mp t i s in i ts e l f hop e l e ss
Fu rth e r mo r e i n th e
r e p o rt s e n t i n t h e summ e r o f 1 9 1 3 f r om B e r lin to
M P i cho n t h e th e n F r e n ch M i n ist e r fo r Fo re i gn
A ff a i rs (s e e N o 5 i n F r e n c h Y e llow B o ok ) w e a re
tol d :
,

h a rdl y li k e l y t h at G e r m an y w ill t ak e t he r i s k i f
F r a n c e ca n m a ke i t c l e a r t o t h e w o r l d t h a t t he E n t en t e
C o r d i a l e a n d t he Ru s s i a n Alli a n ce a re n o t m e r e l y di p l o m a t i c
c t i o n s bu t r e a li t i e s wh i ch e xi s t a n d w ill m a k e t h e m s e l v e s
f e l t The E n g lis h e e t i n s pi r es a w h o les o m e t e r r o r I t i s
w e ll k n o w n h o w e v e r t h a t v i c t o r y o n s e a w il l l e a v e e v e ry
t h i n g in s u s p e n s e
O D l a n d a l on e ca n a de c i s i v e i ss ue he

ob tain e d

I t is

Wha t then wa s G e rma ny s sp e c i a l a i m i n Eu rop e

Ru ssi a
i n the sp ri n g o f la st y e a r ?
M o st u n d oub t
e d ly ; a n d G e r ma n y m a d e n o p r e ten c e o f h i d i n g he r
Ru ssi a wa s r e ga r de d a s a p e r i l D r D i l
d e sign

lon hims e l f s a i d Among t h e new o r newly i nte n s i

e d cu rr e nts o f p olit i ca l li fe now trav e rs ing the Con
t in e n t o f Eu rop e non e ca n b e comp a red i n i ts cul
.

H OW

23 2

D I P LO M AT S MA KE WA R

u ra l an d polit i ca l b e ar i n gs a n d i n u e n ce w i th the

r ival r y b e tw e e n the S la v a n d Teuto n i c ra c e s

Th e
fe e li n g i n Ru ss i a wa s qu it e a s d e e p a s i t wa s i n

G e rm any
Eu rop e i s n o t b ig e nough fo r b o th

Slav a n d G e rm a n a sp i rati o n s wa s t h e way a Rus

si an put i t two wint e r s a go M e n wh o a r e st e e pe d
i n t h e atmosp h e r e o f t h e Chanc e ll e ri e s a r e p r o n e to
give the i r op i n i o n s in t h e co lou rs o f t h e l ast fo r e ig n
o ffi ce th e y h ave v i s it e d a n d tha t i s t h e only way
o n e ca n e x pla i n s o mu ch o f the b e wi l d e r i ng rubb i sh
writte n i n t h e B r iti sh rev i e ws s i nc e t h e b e gi n n ing o f
the wa r I t might h av e b e e n p lann e d by G e rma n y
to fo rce R uss i a i n to a con i ct ; G e r m any m ight hav e
a rr a n ge d with Au stri a t o take t h e mu r d e r o f t h e
a rch d uk e a s t h e favou rab l e mom e n t fo r fo rc i ng
Ru ss i a s h a n d ; G erma n y might h ave cou n t e d at o n e
time o n t h e T r ipl e Alli a nc e ho l d i n g go o d in th e e v e n t
o f w a r ; but th a t G e r m a n y wa s p r e p a r e d l a st y e ar fo r
a struggl e in whi ch s h e a n d Austr i a al o n e woul d m e e t
t h e T ripl e Ent e n te a n d B e lgium i s a n a ssumpt i on
wh i ch t h e fa cts d o not supp o rt At l e a st a s e a rly a s
the b eg i n n i ng o f July 1 9 1 4 when th e tip ca m e f r o m
R om e to Lon d on G ermany mu st h av e known fo r
ce rt a i n tha t s h e coul d no t cou nt on I ta ly T h e r e
we re howev e r ma n y oth e r p robl e ms o f a p ol i t i ca l
natur e that might h av e u rg e d th e K a ise r a n d hi s
fri e n d s to n d a solut i on o f th e m i n a b i g wa r S o
c i a l D e mo cra cy w a s o n e a n d a s e r i ou s o n e
I n the
fo re fro n t o f the i r p rog r amm e at the l a st G e n e ra l
El e ctio n w a s pl a c e d Aboli ti o n o f C ompu ls o r y M i li
ta r y S e rv i c e ; th e n the vote o f S o ci a l D e mo cr a cy i n
cr e a se d b y
a n d t h e p a rty be cam e t h e bi g
gest i n the R e ichstag At bye -elections t h e Ka i s e r
s aw So c i al Demo c ra cy w i n i ts way i nto Junke r
t

GE R MANY S H O M E AFFAI RS

23

stronghol ds
M o reov e r t h e p roblem o f t h e u n e m
p loy e d ta x e d the w i t o f t h e bu r e au crats at h e a d qu a r
t e rs to the utmost ; a n d d u r ing t h e wi n te r o f 1 9 1 3
th e y d i d no t kn ow how to gra ppl e e ffe ct i v e ly with
it
G e rm any was fa c e d with a n o th e r wint e r o f still
gr e at e r tra d e d e p r e ss io n a n d t h e p os iti o n m ay b e
i m ag i n e d by wha t t h e B e r li n e r Ta g e b la t t s a i d th e n

ab ou t u n e mp loym e nt :
Thi ngs a r e t h e s am e a ll
ov e r the Emp i r e Wh o e v e r l o o ks ab ou t ou r b u i l d
i ng p la ces f a cto r i e s o ffi ces a n d pub li c bu s i n e ss e s
know s that wo rk i s o ft e n go i n g o n o n ly a t h al f
p ow e r
th a t i s whe r e i t h a s n o t c e a s e d a ltog e th e r
A t t h e p r e s e n t m om e nt d i sm i s s als n o t o n ly o f o r
d in a r y wo rkm e n bu t a ls o o f cl e r ks a n d o th e r e m
ploy s a r e mo r e num e rou s th a n p r ob ably a t a n y

tim e i n t h e p a st
P r i c e s w e r e r i s i n g hi gh e r a n d
high e r ; d i scont e nt w a s growing in e v e ry d istri ct ;

e n e my a t hom e to u s e P r i n c e H e n r y o f
a n d the
P r us s i a s p hra s e fo r So c i a l D e mo cra cy w e r e ex
t r e m e ly restl e ss
Fu rtherm o r e t h e d i sl i k e o f P ru ss i a n a rrogan c e
o n t h e p a rt o f t h e s outh e rn G e rm a n S ta t e s h a d b e e n
g r ow i ng i n i n t e n s i ty s i nc e t h e d ays o f P r i n c e H o
B a va ri a wa s not s e e i n g e ye to e ye with
h e n lo h e
P r us s i a i n t h e a ll m i lita r y amb iti on s o f the K a i s e r
The re wa s no t that una n i mi ty i n t h e Emp i r e th a t
s om e wri ters b el i e v e ; a n d i n m a n y small S tat e s th e r e
wa s grav e d iscont e nt wh e n t h e n e w taxati o n f o r
m i li ta ry p u rp ose s wa s imp o se d n o t s o l o n g a g o
S a x ony W ii r t t e m b e r g a n d B ava r i a w e r e n o t h appy
u n d e r P r u s s i a n ru l e ; th e y h a d l o st mu ch o f th e i r in
d iv i du a li ty the i r amb i ti o n s a n d cha ra ct e r i st i cs in t h e
co n f e d e ra t i o n
Th e r e may b e m o r e tha n a fe w w h o
l i ve i n th e s e sm aller S tat e s who will not sp e n d m a n y
.

23

H OW

d ays i n

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R
P ru ss i a

mou rni n g i f

i s ove rthrown i n thi s

st r uggl e
L e t us fo r a moment lo ok a t t h e te rr i to r i al qu es
t i on All imp er i a l amb i ti on o n t h e C onti n e n t must
h av e a west e r n go al
G e rm any with a p opulatio n
of
n d s h e r way blo ck e d by Hollan d
with a hom e p opul ati on o f only
an d
col o n i e s co n ta ini n g ov e r
squ a r e m i les ; n d s
h e r w ay blo ck e d b y B e lgium w i th a p opulati o n o f
a n d a ga i n
n d s he r way blo ck e d by
F r anc e w i th a p opu lati o n o f
Th e s e
count r i e s stan d i ng i n t h e w ay o f h e r w e stwar d p r og
r e ss all hav e fa r sup e ri o r m a r i tim e a d va n ta g e s ; b e
si d e s G e r ma n y h a s n o outl e t to t h e M e d i te rra ne an
H e r g e og r a ph i cal p ositi on fo r a gre a t ma r iti m e
p ow e r i s n o t d ig n i e d ; s o G e r m a n op i n i o n ha s o ft e n
s ai d I n d e e d i t ha s b e e n p oint e d ou t by gr e at m e r
cha n ts in a rt i cl e s o n th i s m atte r tha t i nt e rnat i onal
j us ti c e wh a t e v e r th at m ay b e i s no t m e te d out to
G e r m any fo r h e r gi ganti c d e velopm e nt in s hip s a n d
s e a bo r n e comm e rc e
Th e G e rm a n says
You p e o
p le d o n t k n ow what w e hav e d o n e ; we hav e two
li n e s t h e Hamb u r g Am e r i ca n a n d t h e N o rth Ge r
m an Lloy d with a to n na g e o f ov e r
To thi s t h e G e rm a n thi n ks t h e gr e a t w e st e rn n atio n s
r e ply
Bu i l d you r Va t e r la n d s in the B alti c a n d b e
c o nt e n t with H ambu rg a n d B rem e n fo r you r p o rts
th o ugh you h ave to sp e nd a n e xt r a day i n g e tting to
the Atlant i c D on t com e b oth e r i n g us w i th you r

wo r ri e s
Nev e rth el e ss i t i s j ust a s well th e se na
ti o n s shou l d r e ali z e t he Va t e r la n d i s typi ca l o f G e r
many s amb itio n
She wa s bu ilt fo r t h e we st C on
s i de r G e r m a n y s di s a d va n tage s those un d e r whi ch
s h e mu st comp e te , a nd t hen t h i n k o f the re ce nt r i s e
.

A GLI M P SE O F F RAN CE

23

Ru ssi a a n d h e r u n r iva ll e d r e sou r c e s

Ru ss i a a ls o
must pus h w e st S h e is n o mo r e c o nt e nt to bu il d
t h e e e ts o f h e r m a r itim e d r e a ms o n the B a lti c th a n
G e r m a n y i s to bu i l d t h os e o f h e r p r e s e n t n e e d
Russia i s p r e s si n g G e r m a n y u rgi n g h e r w e s t fu r
t h e r w e st e v e r y y e a r ; a n d t h e en o r m ou s w e ight o f
o f p e opl e i n Eu r o p e an Russ i a
with a l
m o st u n p a r all e l e d att r a cti o n s fo r n a n ci e r s i s a b at
t e r i n g r a m t h e T e ut o n i c p e opl e can n o t withs tan d fo r
l o n g withou t som e thi n g b r e aki n g Bu t t h e gre a t

w e st e r n ma r iti m e n ati o ns s ay
Wha t w e h av e we

hol d
G e r ma n y r e pli e s
Th e n w e mu st have a
l o ok at y o u r ti tl e de e d s fo r Ru ssi a i n t e n d s to hav e

a l o ok at ou r s
Th e p o siti o n i n F r a n ce wa s ch a oti c e nough t o ln
sp i r e t h e Ka i s e r with h o p e o f ta ckli n g Ru ssi a with
o u t e ffe ctiv e F r e n ch a i d
I t i s how e v e r no t lik e ly
th a t t h e Ka i s e r a cc e pt e d a ll t h e stat e ments o f t h e
g o ssip s a s t o F r e n ch u n p r e p a r e dn e ss T r u e th e r e
w e r e t h e rev e la ti o n s in th e F r e nch S e nat e and t h e
ca m p a ig n a ga i n st t h e n e w co n s cript i o n laws
Ce r
t a i n ly Fra n c e wa s looki n g fo rwa r d to b i gg e r str i k e s
tha n th o s e s h e h a d l e ft b e hin d Ne w co n script i on
l aws m ight h e lp t o ave rt i n dust r i a l catastrophes
suc h a s th a t whi ch th r e at e n e d Fr a nc e in B r i a n d s
d a y ; bu t o n t h e o th e r ha n d l a bou r wa s m aki n g ce r
ta i n that i n t h e fu tu r e n o st r ik e woul d go o ff a t hal f
co ck Jau r e s w a s a p ow e r fo r p e a c e a n d a lways a n
outsp ok e n c r iti c o f F r e nch f o r e i gn p ol i cy I t w a s
Jau r e s mo r e tha n a n y o n e w h o b rought ab ou t t h e
d ow n fall o f D e lca ss e i n 1 9 0 5
I taly wa s suffe r i n g f r om a most u np opula r wa r i n
A f r i ca Th e r e w e r e s ca n d a ls connecte d with m i li
ta ry a dmi nistrat i on ; th e unp r e p a redness o f the a rmy
O

23

H OW

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

to me e t Eu rop e a n c o mpli cati ons wa s n oto ri ou s

The gr e a t e st st r ik e S h e ha d e v e r known h a d a larme d
t h e aut h o r iti es f r om o n e e n d o f t h e cou n t ry to a n
oth e r ; a n d wha t i s o f som e cons e qu e nc e wh e n
j ou r na li sts a n d state sm e n w e r e p ra is ing I taly fo r h e r
a n ti Aust r i a n f e e li n g wa s fa r m o r e e v i
n e ut r ality
d e n t th a n wa s h e r chagr i n a t t h e a cti on o f F r a nc e
P o i n ca r ab out t h e s e i z ur e o f
a n d t h e sp e e ch o f M
Fr e nc h st e am e r s by t h e I tali a n s
I t ha s b e e n s a i d by I ta l i a n stat e sm e n th at Au str i a
wi sh e d to s e n d in Au gu st 1 9 1 3 a n u ltim a t um to
substa n t i ally i d e n ti cal wi th that s e n t la st
S e r vi a

July a n d tha t t h e M a r qu i s d i S an G i ul i ano com m u

n i ca t e d t h e i n fo rm ati o n to t h e I ta li an e x-P r e mi e r
Sig n o r G ioli tti
I taly how e ver d e cli n e d t o supp o rt
h e r a lly i n a wa r aga i n st S e rv i a a n d G e rmany a ls o
r e fu s e d to b e a p a rty to th a t not e P o s t b e llu m lit e r
a tu r e o f m a ny colou rs conta i n s a g r e at numb e r o f
st r iking co n tra d i cti o n s I n the o ffi c i a l d o cuments
publish e d by t h e G ov e r nm e nts no t only a r e th e r e to
b e fou n d i n n um e r abl e a lt e r ati o n s o f d at e s a n d sup
p r e ss i ons o f fa cts but al s o stup i d e r r o r s w h i ch r e v e al
p e culi a r ki n ks a n d caviti e s i n t h e d ip lom ati c m e mo ry
Tak e fo r i n stanc e t h e r e v e lati ons o f t h e Ital i a n e x
P r e m i e r a s to t h e commun i catio n o f t h e M arqui s d i
S a n G i ul i ano i n Augu st 1 9 1 3 th at Aust r i a th e n d e

s i r e d to s e n d to S e rvi a a n ultima tum substant i ally

i d e nt i cal wit h that s e nt la st July

M B a rr e r e t h e F r e nch amb a ssa d o r at R ome o n
July 2 7 t h 1 9 1 4 s ent to h i s Gov e rnment t h e fo llow
i ng i n fo r m ation :
.

The M a r qu i s di S an G i u li an o

ve n i n g
s p o ke t o
e

an d

me

s aw

o f t he

u rn e d t o R o m e t h i s
h i m i mm e d i a t e l y a f t e r h is a r r i v al H e
co n t e n ts o f t he Au s t r i an n o te a n d a s
re t

ITALY

P LAY I N G S AFE

23

m e t h a t h e h a d h a d n o p re v i ous k n o w l e dg e o f t h e m
wh a t e v e r H e w as w e ll a w a r e t h a t t he n ot e w as t o b e
v i go r o u s a n d e n e rg e t i c i n ch a ra c t e r, bu t h e h a d n o i de a
I as k e d h i m i f i t w a s t r u e ,
t h a t i t c o u l d t a k e s uch a f o r m
a s i s s t a t e d i n c e r t a i n n e w s p a p e r s , t h a t i n t h i s c o n n e xi o n

u re d

h e h a d e x p r e s s e d i n V i e n n a a pp r o v a l o f A u s t r i a n a c t i o n ,
an d had g i ve n
t h e a s s u r a n c e t h a t I t a ly w o u l d fu l l h e r
d u t i e s a s a n a ll y t o w a r ds Au s t r i a
H e r e p li e d , I n n o w ay
h a v e w e b e e n co n s u l t e d ; w e h a v e b e e n t o ld n o t h i n g wh a t
e ve r
W e h a v e t h e r e f o r e h a d n o r e as o n t o m a k e a n y co m

m u n i ca t io n o f t h i s n a t u re i n V i en n a
.

The M a rqu i s m e ant p r e sum ably that a

sub
n ote h a d b e e n submitt e d to him
s t a n t i a lly i d e n t i ca l
by t h e Au st r i a n Gov e r n m e n t i n Augu st 1 9 1 3 but
h e h a d n o d iplomati c r e coll e cti o n o f it wh e n h e s aw
t h e n ot e o f Ju ly 1 9 1 4
S o f r e e f r om all t h e p r e j u
d i c e s o f comm o n li f e a r e t h e m in d s o f d iplomati sts
tha t Au st r i a s wis h t o c r u sh S e r vi a m a d e n o d iffe r
e n c e a t a ll to t h e f r i e n d shi p o f t h e P o w e r s o f t h e
Tr i p le Allianc e ; th e i r r e l ati o n s mov e d a lo n g a s
smo othly a fte r th e k n owl e d g e o f Au st r i a s d e s i r e a s
b e fo re I ta ly i n a ll p r o b ab ility k n e w e xa ctly what
t h e t r u e sta t e o f a ffa i rs wa s a n d a s S h e wa s n o t
r e a dy to u n de r tak e t h e cost o f a n o t h e r w a r i n whi ch
Au st r i a woul d n d not S e rvi a bu t R uss i a t h e d omi
n a nt force a r ray e d aga inst h e r Italy pl ay e d fo r
s a f e ty H e r w i s d o m i n th a t wa s cou n t e d fo r r i ght
e o u s n e s s by th o s e cou n t r i e s whi ch b e n e t e d th r ough
he r ult e ri o r mot i v e s ; t h e n t h e E n t e n t e P o w e r s w e r e
s o d e light e d with h e r d e cis i o n to r e ma in n e utr a l th a t
they a ll d e si r e d to le t h e r h av e t h e h onou r o f j o i n
i ng t h e fo rc e s o f t h e Alli e s i n t h e e l d
A ft e r a p e r i o d o f d iplomat i c hu ckste r i ng w i th
G ermany a n d Au str i a whom she could not sup
,

23

H ow D I P LO M ATS MA KE WAR

p o rt in a n o ff ens i v e w a r s he dec i de d to m ak e a
s e v e nth aga i n st h e r fo rm e r all i es a n d j o i n e d i n the

f r ay fo r the sake o f honou r j us t i ce and Ch r i st i

,

a n i ty

Th e r e v e l at i ons o f I ta l i a n d i ploma t i sts s e em to

throw t h e o nu s o f i n st i gat i n g the w a r o n Au str i a ; a n

u n popu la r thing to d o fo r t h e i n fo r mat i o n o f Au s
t r i a s d e si r e to s e n d an u lt i matum t o S e rv i a i n Au
gus t 1 9 1 3 makes i t awkwa r d fo r thos e who i n si st
o n p l a cing t h e au tho r ship o f the Au str i an not e o f
July 2 4 t h 1 9 1 4 o n t h e Ka i s e r
R a ci a l f e e ling i n Au st r i a w a s d e ep
H e r m a ny
d i ffe rent ra c e s we r e no t liv i n g in p e a c e a n d cont e nt
m e nt u n d e r t h e Du a l M o n a rchy I n du stri a l d e
p r e ss i o n i n the large towns wa s qu i te a s s e v e re a s
i t w a s i n G e rm any V i e n n a h a d b e come fr e tfully
exp e ctant o f r i ots H i gh p r i c e s a n d low wag e s wer e
p rob l e ms whi ch ga v e t h e Government grav e con c e rn ;
a n d t h e hous i n g d i ffi cu lt i e s i n V i e n na w e r e grow i ng
e ve r
n
e
day
i
n
i
t
ns i ty m o r e al a rm i ng i n de e d to t he
y
Imp e r i a l Gov e r n m e nt than N a r o dn a O db r a n a
Au str i a w a s thr e at e n e d w i th a s g rave a n i nte rn a l
cr i s i s a s a ny country eve r fa c e d
An d Ru ss i a t h e l att e r-day h e aven o f French a nd
B r i t i sh nanc i e rs H ow wa s i t w i th Ru ssi a ? B ar

r i ca d e s on M on d ay
w i th y e lls o f D own w i th t h e
G o v e r nment ! a n d sol i d a r i ty on Tu e s d ay with hal

le lu j a h s o f
Fre e dom fo r Slavs !
A ch ange s o
el e ctr i c a l th a t i t complet e ly p a raly z e d t h e French
F ro m str i k e s such a s Ru ss i a h a d neve r kn own to
one compl e te a ccor d i n t wenty fou r hou rs wa s o n e
o f the most myste r i ous conj u r i ng tr i cks a ny g o v e r n
m e nt ev e r a ccompl i sh e d w i th a p eopl e N o one i n
w e ste rn E u rop e b el i eve d the Li ttle Fathe r and the
,

A KALE I D OSC O PI C TU R N

23

I t mu st have sta rtl e d t h e

G e rma n Emp e ror a n d C ou n t B e rchtol d ou t o f th e i r
d ipl o mati c wits !
Wh a t h a d b e com e o f a ll t h e u n
r e st in t h e a rmy ? W h a t ab o u t Ru ss i a s l a r g e ly
a dv e r t i s e d u n p r e p a r e d n e ss fo r war ? H o w cou l d
a count r y who s e nan ci a l co n d iti on wa s s a i d to b e
d e sp e rat e b e e nthus i asti c fo r w a r ? An d s o s o on
a ft e r th e cru shi n g d e fe a t i n i ct e d by J ap a n ! N o
won d e r m a n y m a rv e ll e d a t t h e cha n g e T h i s the
cou n try tha t s e nt h e r s hip s d ow n t h e N o rth S e a a
fe w y e a rs a g o wh e n h e r A d mi r als w e re s car e d to
d e ath by a lot o f i n n o c e nt trawl e rs !
Thi s t h e Ru s
s i a whos e m o n a rch n o t s o lo n g a go d a r e n o t l an d i n
Engla nd ! Whe re wer e ana r ch i sm n i h i l i sm a n d
t h e int e ll e ctu a ls ?
W a s S i b e r i a fo r gott e n ?
To t h e k e e n ob s e rv e r o f Eu r op e a n a ffa i r s n ot
a ffe ct e d in h i s vi e ws w i th t h e sch e m e s a n d i nt r igu e s
o f th e chanc e ll e r i e s t h e chang e which ov e rcam e t h e
wo rk e rs in t h e d iffe r e nt n ati o n s d u r i ng July w a s most
am a z i n g From p r e d i cti o n s o f tumbli n g thr on e s to
wa r lik e u n a n i mity i n a few days b e a t a ll t h e a sp i r a
ti ons o f M o n a r chi a l L e agu e s to sm i th e r e e ns B ut
h o w ma n y publi ci sts now s o bu sy wh i t e w a sh i n g E n
t e n t e P o w e r s r e a l i z e all thos e g r e at p oliti ca l cau se s
whi ch u n d e r li e t h e a cti ons o f all the P owers in July
1 9 14 ?
I t i s not r e m e mb e r e d th a t Russi a n o t s o
m a n y y e a rs a go wa s r e ga r d e d i n B r i ti sh d iplom at i c
ci r cl e s a s a d ang e r t o t h e p e a c e o f Eu r op e a n d a
P owe r b e y o n d t h e Eu rop e a n p al e i n im i ca l to we st
e rn c i v i li z at i o n
A S o u r d iplom at i sts lo oke d up o n
Ru ssi a i n Lo rd G r a nv i ll e s d a y s o have G e rm a n
d ip lom a t i sts lo ok e d u po n he r ; a t le a st s i nc e s h e
f o st e r e d t h e g r owth o f S l a v p owe r i n t h e B a lka n s
G e rmany s fe a r s o f Ru ss i a to -day a re the f e a rs o f
i con w e r e so p ow e r ful

H OW D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

24o

B r i ta i n i n ou r fath e rs t i m e Ge rm a ny kn e w that
i t w a s p r e d i ct e d th a t t h e Sla v woul d b e a ll re a dy i n
1 9 1 6 t o t r y co n clus i o n s w i t h h e r
Who w o ul d a t
t e mp t t h e ta sk o f t r yi n g to co n v i nc e G e rm a n a n d
Au st r i a n d iploma cy tha t Rus si a d iploma cy w a s not
a t t h e b a ck o f t h e G r e a t e r S e rv i a n p r o p a ga n d a ? I t
i s a ll v e r y w e ll to c o n c e n tra t e publ i c att e n t i o n o n t h e
task th at l i e s b e fo r e B r ita i n now but s om e o n e mu st
t h i n k o f w h a t t h e futu r e i s to b e An d i t i s no t
wi s e to h i d e t h e d i plom at i c w e lter b e hi n d thi s b u s i
n e s s from t h e p eop l e who a re supp os e d
by sho r t
s ight e d j ou r n ali sts a n d p oliti ci a ns to p a ss fr o m i t
into an e r a o f p e a c e a n d m ilk a n d hon e y Al i so n
tol d u s long a go that t h e c i vi li z at i on o f w e ste rn E u
r op e mu st n ally fall b e fo r e t h e f r e sh v i gou r o f t h e
r u d e but m ighty h o r d e s o f Ru ssi a a n d n o rth e rn Asi a
N i e t z sch e t o o wa s co n s c i ou s o f that p rob ab ili t y
All h i gh ly i n dustri ali z e d c i v i l i z a ti o n s mu st i n the
l o ng ru n go u n d e r t o milli o n s o f p a sto rali sts I t i s
not s o long s i n c e d e e ply r e li giou s m e n a n d wom e n
i n B ri ta i n p ray e d e a r n e stly t o b e p rot e ct e d f r om t h e
p ow e r o f Ru ss i a Th e Ru ssi a o f Tolstoy a n d o f
D osto e vsky i s no t t h e Ru ss i a we hav e to f e a r o r
I t i s t h e Ru ss i a o f g r a n d
t h e o n e G e r m a n y f e a rs
d uk e s e xpl o iti n g n a n ci e r s corrupt bu r e aucrats a n d
a d iploma cy which a ims a t Sla v d omi n atio n i n C en
tra l Eu r op e !
Now t o lo ok i nto t h e Wh i te Pap e r and try to u n
r av e l t h e m a z e o f d i p loma t i c e n ta n gl em ents
Th e
Au str i a n a r ch duk e w a s mu r d e r e d at S e r aj e vo Jun e
2 8 th
Th e r e follow e d a strang e d iplomat i c s i l e nc e
fo r th r e e w e e ks Th e r s t d e sp atc h in the Whit e
P ap e r i s d at e d July 2 o t h a n d i t wa s s e n t by S i r E d
war d G r e y to o u r amb a ssa d o r a t B e r l i n not Vi enn a
.

QUESTI O N AND ANSW E R

24 1

Wh at h ad b e en t ak i n g pla c e i n th e chancelle r i e s s i nce

Ju n e 2 8 t h ? Th e Au st r i a n r oya lty h a d a fte r m a n y
family s qu abbl e s bu r i e d t h e a r ch duk e a n d by t h e
tim e ou r Fo r e i g n O fc e b e g a n d e sp atch m aki n g the
wo r l d outs i d e d ipl o m a cy h a d b e gu n t o fo rg e t tha t
ther e h a d b e e n a n a r c h d uk e t o bu r y N ot u n t i l
July 2 7t h was t h e qu e sti on o f Au st r i a a n d S e r vi a
r e f e r r e d to i n t h e H o u s e o f C omm o ns
Th e n Si r
E d wa r d G r e y tol d t h e H ou se th at h e h a d p r op os e d
a co n f e r e nce t h e d a y b e fo r e H e wa s a sk e d b y M r
Lawso n i f i t w e r e t r u e tha t t h e G e rm an Emp e ro r
h a d tha t m o r n i n g a cc e pt e d t h e p r i n cipl e o f m e d i a
ti o n whi ch t h e F o r e ig n S e c r e ta r y h a d p rop o s e d Si r
E dwa r d G r e y s r e ply to that qu e sti o n wa s
I u n de r
sta n d that t h e G e r m a n Gov e r n m e nt a r e favou rabl e
to t h e i d e a o f m e d i at i o n in p r i n ci pl e a s b e tw e en
Au st r i a Hu n ga r y a n d Ru s si a but that a s to th e p a r
t i cu la r p r op o s a l o f app lyi n g that p ri nc i pl e by m e ans
o f a co n fe r e n c e whi c h I h av e d e s c r ib e d to t h e H ou s e
t h e reply o f t h e G e rm an Gov e rnm e nt ha s not ye t

b e e n re ce i ve d
N ow le t u s s ee wh e r e w e a re Th e sp e c i a l e e t
m o b i li z ati o n to ok pla c e o n Ju ly 1 3 th I n d e sp atch
No 6 6 F r e n ch Y e llow B o o k M d e Fle u r i a u
F r e n ch c ha r g e d a ffa i r e s a t Lo n d o n i n fo r m e d h i s
G ov e r n m e n t o n July 2 7 t h th at :
,

The

pon em e n t

Lo

on

i u de

att t
of

t he

f G r e a t B r i t a i n is c o n r m e d by t h e
d e m o b iliz a t i o n o f th e F l e e t
Th e

d o f t h e Ad m i r a l t y

h is o w n i n i t i a t i v e

t oo

k t h i s m e as u r e qu i e t l y

on

p ost
F i rs t
F r i da y

Th a t Fr i day wa s July 2 4 t h ; t h e d a y a ft e r the

Au st r i a n not e w a s d e liv e r e d to th e S e r vi a n G ove r n
men t
.

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

24 2

The e e t s a i le d from W e ymouth on July 2 7 th :

a s t h e Ti m e s o f that d a y s a i d
a w e lcom e e a r n e st
o f o u r i n t e n ti o n to b e r e a d y fo r a n y c o u r s e whi ch

t h e nati o n a l i n te r e sts m ay r e n d e r d e si r abl e

Th e
Fo r e ig n S e creta r y h a d b e e n i n c o mmu n i catio n with
amb a ssa d o r s si nc e July 2 o t h No t fo r a w e e k a ft e r
t h e r st d esp atch w a s s e n t d i d the H ou s e o f C o m
mo n s g e t a wo r d f r om t h e Fo r e ign S e cr e tary ab ou t
the bus i n e ss ; a n d th e n t h e g i st o f hi s sta t e m e n t wa s
that h e h a d p rop os e d a co n f e r e n c e o f fou r P ow e rs
Fran ce I taly G e r m a n y a n d G r e at B r i ta i n But a
g r e a t d ea l h a d h app e n e d b e f o r e h e m a d e tha t p r o
p os al Though h e tol d t h e H ou s e tha t B rita i n h a d
n o title to i n t e r f e r e s o long a s t h e d isput e wa s o n e
b e tw e e n Au st r i a Hu n ga ry a n d S e r v i a a l o n e h e w a s
fully co n sci ous wh e n h e s aw t h e G e rm a n amb a ss a d o r
o n July 2 o t h th a t a wa r b e tw e e n a n y o f t h e g r e a t
P ow e rs ove r Se rv i a woul d b e d e t e stabl e a n d t h e Ge r

m an amb assa d or
a g r e e d wh o l e h e a r t e d ly in t h i s

s en tim en t
O n t h e 2 3 r d Si r E d wa r d s aw Cou nt
M e n s d o r ff a n d l e a r n e d fr om him tha t all w o ul d d e
p e n d u p on Russ i a bu t tha t h e wa s u n d e r t h e i m p r e s
si o n that t h e a ttitu de i n P e t e r sbu r g h a d n o t b e e n
favou r abl e r e c e ntly Th e Au str i a n n ot e to S ervi a
w a s publi sh e d on t h e 2 4 th
The d e sp a tch o f Ju ly 2 4 t h fro m P e tersbu r g N o
6 i n t h e Wh i t e Pap e r i s a d o cum e nt o f gr e a t sig
n i ca n ce
O u r amb as sa d o r i n th i s d esp atch s ays tha t
M S a z o n o f t h e Ru ssi a n M i n ist e r fo r Fo r e i g n A f
fa i r s sai d som e o f Aust r i a s d e man d s w e r e quit e im
po ssibl e o f a cc e ptance H e hop e d that t h e B r i ti s h
G ov e r nm e n t wou ld n o t fa i l to p r o cl a im th e i r soli d a r
Th e F r e n ch amb a ssa
i ty w i th Rus si a a n d F r a n c e
do r a t t h e sa m e tim e told ou r r e p r e s e n ta t i v e tha t
,

SAZ ONOF S

PLEA

2 43

F r a n c e woul d ful l a ll t h e ob ligati ons e n ta il e d by h e r

alli a n c e wi th Ru ssi a Wh e n t h e B r itis h amb a ss a d o r
p o i n t e d out tha t B r ita i n s i n t e r e sts in S e r vi a w e r e n il
a n d tha t h e saw n o r e aso n w h y Russ i a sh o ul d e xp e ct
a n y d e cla rati o n o f so li d a r ity from B rita i n to s upp o r t
Ru ss i a a n d Fra nc e u n co n d iti o n a lly by fo rc e o f a rms
M S a z o n o f r e pli e d tha t B rita i n mu st n o t f o r g e t t h a t
t h e g e n e r a l Eu rop e a n qu e sti o n w a s i n vo lv e d ; B r i ta i n
coul d n o t effa c e h e r s e l f f r om t h e p r obl e ms th e n a t
i ssu e Our a mb as sa d o r sa i d th a t M S a z o n o f a n d
t h e Fr e n ch r e p r e s e ntativ e c o ntinu e d t o p r e ss him
fo r a d e cl a rati on o f compl e t e soli d a r ity Th e R us
s i an M i n i st e r s a i d tha t h e thought Ru ss i a n m ob i li z a
ti o n wou l d a t a n y ra t e hav e t o b e ca r r i e d o u t I n
c o nclu d i n g t h e d e sp atch ou r amb assa d o r s a i d i t
s e em e d to him from the l a ngu ag e h e l d by t h e F r e n ch
ambass a d o r th a t e v e n i f B r ita i n d e cli n e d to j o in
th e m Franc e a n d Rus s i a w e r e d e termine d to mak e
1
a st r ong sta n d
Non e o f th i s w a s commu n i ca t e d to the Hou s e
wh e n t h e Fo r e i gn S e cr e ta ry m a d e hi s stat e m e n t o n
Wha t o n e a r th th e n w a s t h e go o d o f s ay
t h e 2 7 th
i n g o u r i n t e r e sts in S e r v i a w e r e n i l wh e n t h e R us s i a n
M ini st e r fo r For e i gn Affa i r s h a d d e ci d e d o n Ju ly

24 th
t ha t t h e g e n e r a l Eu r op e a n qu esti o n w a s i n
volv e d t h e S e rvi a n qu e st i o n b e i n g bu t a p a rt o f t h e

fo rm e r ? Ru ssi a b e gan to m o b ili z e o n July 2 5 t h

a cc o r d i n g to t h e C z a r s o w n t e l e g r a m to t h e Ka i s e r
I n V i e n n a t h e Au st r i a n M in i st e r fo r Fo r e i g n A f
fa i rs tol d t h e Russ i a n r e p r e s e n tat i v e th a t t h e Du al
M ona rchy f e lt tha t i ts ve ry exist e nce wa s a t stak e
.

T hi

s e n t en

u of th e F
Ru i t F a

rn

ss a

c e a n d th e o n e i n t h e d e p a t c h e f e r i n g t o t h
c h P r i d t a d th e P i d t f t h e C ou n c il f
c e e u p p e s e d f o m t h F e n c h Y ll ow B k
s

es

re n

ar

en

r es

en

re

ro m

oo

H OW D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

24 4

tha t t h e st e p tak e n (th e strong not e to S e rv i a

wi th a s h o r t time limit ) h a d cau s e d gr e at s a t i s fa c
tio n t h r o ug h ou t t h e cou ntry That m e ant t h e Du a l
M o n a r c h y Au st r i a Hu n ga r y mu st b e p res e r v e d
f r om i n te rn al d iso r de r a t all co sts G e rm a n y s a i d
i t wa s a matt e r w h i ch co n ce r n e d Austr i a a n d S e rvi a
e xclu s iv e ly
a n d th a t o th e r Pow e rs S houl d k e e p out
o f i t owi n g to d i ffe r e nt t r e a ty obligat i o n s
Si r E d
wa r d G r e y in t h e to ils i s o n e o f t h e mos t p ath e t i c
p i ctu r e s i n hi sto ry ; Eu rope an enta ngl e m e nts w e re
th e n we aving th e n e t fo r h i s d e stru cti on Th e
r e t i a r ii o f t h e C ont i n e nta l system we r e not so n i c e
ab ou t t h e r ul e s o f t h e a ren a as ou r Fo r e ig n S e cr e
tary H ow pow e r l e s s h e w a s to ave rt t h e st r i f e i s
show n in hi s o w n d e sp atch o f the 2 4 th to ou r ambas
s a do r a t P a r i s N o 1 0 :
M C a m bo n s a i d t h a t i f t h e re w as a ch an ce o f m e di
a t i o n by t h e f o u r P o w e rs h e h a d n o do ub t t h a t h i s G o v e r n
m e n t w o u l d b e g l a d t o j o i n i n i t ; b u t he p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
w e c o u l d n o t s a y a n y t h i n g i n S t P e t e rs bu r g t ill Ru ss i a h a d
I sai d
e x p re ss e d s o m e o p i n i o n o r t a k e n s o m e a c t i o n
t h a t I h a d n o t c o n t e mp l a t e d a n y t h i n g b e i n g s a i d i n S t
P e t e r s b u r g u n t i l a f t e r i t w a s c l e a r t h a t t h ere m u s t be
t r o ub l e b e t w e en Au s t r i a a n d Ru s s i a
B ut the Fr e n ch amb a ss ado r tol d h i m th a t i t wou l d
b e to o l a t e a ft e r Austr i a h a d o nc e mov e d aga i nst
S e rvi a
Th e rst commu n i ca t i o n S i r E d wa r d s ent
to Ru ss i a wa s o n July 2 5 t h wh e n h e i n st r uct e d ou r
amb a ss a d or th at Au str i a h a d e xpl a ine d tha t t h e no t e
to S e r vi a w a s no t a n u ltima t um b ut a st e p with a
tim e limi t R uss i a d i d not howeve r a ccept that V i ew
Sh e wa s willing e nough to leave t h e qu e sti on i n the
ha n d s o f t h e fou r Powe rs i f S e rv i a wou l d app e a l
to th e m to a rb i trate
I n t h e d esp atch from ou r
an

! U I S CU STO DI ET C U S TO DE S ?

amb a ssa d o r at
le a r n :

P e tersbu rg ,

2 5 th ,

July

No

245
1 7,

we

my e x p re ss i n g t he e a r n e s t h o p e t h a t Ru ss i a w ou l d
n o t p r e c i p i t a t e w a r by m o b ilizi n g u n t il yo u
(S i r E dw a r d
G r e y ) h a d h a d t i m e t o u s e y o u r i n u e n ce i n f a v o u r o f
p e a c e h is E x c e ll e n cy (Ru s s i a n M i n i s t e r fo r F ore i g n Af
f a i rs ) as s u r e d m e t h a t Ru s s i a h a d n o a gg re ss i v e i n t e n t i on s
a n d s h e w o u l d t a k e n o a c t i o n u n t il i t w a s f o r c e d o n h e r
Au s t r i a s a c t i o n w as i n r e a li t y d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t Ru s s i a S he
a i m e d a t o v e r t h r o w i n g t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s q u o i n t h e B a lk a n s
a n d e s t a b li s h i n g h e r o w n h e g e m o n y t h e re
H e d i d n o t be
li e v e t h a t G e r m a n y re a ll y w a n t e d w a r b u t he r a t t i t u de w a s
d e c i de d by o u rs
I f w e to o k o u r s t an d r m l y w i t h F r an c e
a n d R u ss i a t h e r e w o u l d b e n o w a r
I f w e f a il e d t h e m n ow
r i v e rs o f b l oo d w o u l d ow
a n d w e w o u l d in t he e n d be
d r a gg e d i n t o t he w a r
I s a i d t h a t E n g l an d w o u l d p l a y
t h e r Ole o f m e d i a t o r a t B e r li n a n d V i e n n a t o b e t t e r pu r p os e
a s f r i e n d w ho
i f he r c o u n se l s o f m o de r a t i o n w e re d is r e
g a r de d m i gh t o n e d ay b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o a n a ll y t h a n i f
w e re t o de c l a re h e rs e l f Ru ss i a s a ll y a t o n c e H is
S he
E x c e ll e n cy s a i d t h a t u n f o r t u n a t e l y G e r m a n y w as c o n v i n c e d
I s a i d a ll I c o u l d
t h a t s h e c o u l d c o u n t o n o u r n e u t r a li t y
t o i mp r es s p r u de n c e o n t he M i n i s t e r fo r F o r e i g n A ff a i r s
Ge r m an y w o u l d
a n d w a r n e d h i m t h a t i f Ru s s i a m o b iliz e d
n o t b e c o n t e n t w i t h m e re m o b iliz a t i o n
o r g i v e Ru s s i a t i m e

t o c a r r y o u t h e r s b u t w o u l d p ro b a b l y d e c l a r e w a r a t o n c e

On

Th e d a y b e fo r e th a t conve r s at i o n to ok pla c e the

B ritish H o us e o f C o mmo n s h a d b e e n d i s cu ssing a

H ous i n g B ill Th e H o u s e was u p t h e n e xt d a y a n d
who o f its g r e a t b o d y o f p riva t e m e m b e rs h a d t h e
fa i n t e st co n c e pti o n o f w h a t wa s t a k i n g p la c e i n d ip lo
mati c ci r cl e s ? W e ll m ight Juv e n a l a sk who s ha ll
gu a r d t h e g u a r d i a n s th e ms e lv e s
From B e r li n ou r amb a ssa d o r t e l e grap h e d to S i r
E dwar d Gr e y th a t t h e Ge rm a n M in i st e r fo r Fo r e i gn
.

H ow D I P L O M ATS M A KE WAR

24 6

A ffa i rs s a i d tha t he h a d g i ven th e Ru ss i an G ov e rn

m e n t to u n d e r sta n d th at t h e l a st thi n g G e rma n y
wa n t e d w a s a g e n e r a l wa r a n d that h e w ou l d do a ll
i n h i s p ow e r to p r e v e nt su ch a ca lam i t y
I f the r e
la t i o n s b e tw e e n Au st r i a a n d Ru ssi a b e came th r e at e n
i n g h e w a s qu it e r e a d y to fall i n with Si r E d wa r d s
sugg e sti on a s to the fou r P owers wo r ki n g in favou r
of
m o d erati o n a t V i e nna a n d P e t e r sbu rg Th e
S e rv i a n r e ply d id n o t s a ti s fy Au st r i a a n d h e r M i n
i st e r l e ft B e lgra d e o n t h e 2 5 t h S ir E d wa r d th e n
t e l e graph e d t o P e t e rsbu r g that in hi s op i n i on th e o n ly
chanc e o f p e a c e w a s fo r t h e f o u r Pow e rs to j o in in
a sk i n g t h e Au str i an a n d R u ss ia n Gov e r n m e n ts n o t
to cros s t h e fro n ti e r a n d to giv e tim e fo r t h e fou r
Pow e rs a ct i n g a t Vi e n n a a n d P e te r sbu rg to t ry a n d
a rra n ge m att e r s
D e sp e rate e ffo r ts w e r e m a d e by
S i r E d wa r d G r e y o n t h e 2 5 t h a n d 2 6 t h t o b ring
ab out t h e co n fe r e n c e b u t w i thout su ccess The B rit
i sh a mb a ss a d or a t Vi e n n a t e l e g r ap h e d o n the 2 7 t h
th at t h e cou n try h a d gon e w i l d with j oy a t t h e
p ro sp e ct o f wa r w i th S e r vi a a n d its p ostp o n em e n t
o r p r e v e nt i on woul d u n d oubte d ly b e a g r e at dis a p
p o i ntm e nt I t s e e m e d to hi m that t h e Aust r i a n

not e w a s s o d rawn up a s to m ak e war i n e vitabl e

F r anc e w a s will i ng to j o i n t h e co n f e r e n c e bu t u n til i t
wa s known that th e G e rma n s h a d sp o k e n a t V i enna
w i th som e s u cc e ss S h e thought i t woul d b e d ang e rou s
fo r t h e F r e nch Ru ss i an a n d B r i t i sh a mb a ss a d o rs to
d o so
That i s a fa i r summ a ry o f what h a d taken pla c e
wh e n S i r E dwa r d G r e y m a d e h i s stat e m e nt to t h e
H ou s e o n M o n day Ju ly 2 7th N ow G e rma n y
woul d hav e n othi n g to d o w i th the sugg e st i on o f t h e
fou r P owers a ct i ng togeth e r fo r i t h a d the app e a r
,

THE CZA R S TELEG RA M

247

a nc e o f a cou rt o f a rb i tra t i o n ; a n d s h e p r e ferr e d a n

e xcha n g e o f vi e ws b e twe e n t h e Aust r i an a n d Ru ssi a n
Gov e rn m e n ts I n d e sp atch N o 4 3 o u r amb a ssa d o r
a t B e r lin r e co r d e d a co n v e rs atio n h e h a d on July
2 7 th
w i th t h e Germ a n M i n ist e r fo r Fo reign Af
fa ir s :
.

S e c re t a r y o f S t a t e s a i d t h a t a s ye t Au s t r i a w as o n l y
p a r t i a ll y m o b ilizi n g b u t t h a t i f Ru s s i a m o b i liz e d a g a i n s t
G e r m a n y l a t t e r w o u ld h a v e t o f o l lo w s u i t I a s k e d h i m

wh a t he m e a n t by m o b i lizi n g a g a i n s t G e r m an y
H e s aid
t h a t i f Ru ss i a o n l y m o b i liz e d i n t he s o u t h G e r m an y w o u l d
n o t m o b i liz e b u t i f S h e m o b iliz e d i n n o r t h
Ge r m an y w o u l d
h a v e t o d o s o t o o a n d Ru s s i a n s ys t e m o f m o b iliz a t i o n w a s
s o c o mp li c a t e d t h a t i t m i gh t b e d i i cu lt e x a c t l y t o l o c a t e he r
m o b iliz a t i on G e r m a n y w o u l d t h e re f o re h a v e t o b e v er y

c a re fu l n ot t o be t a k e n by s u rp r i s e

B ut G e rm a n y was tak e n by su rp ris e ; fo r a lthou gh

Russi a m ight n o t h av e b e gu n m ob i li z i n g o n the no r t h
s h e h a d b e e n mob il i z i n g o n t h e s o uth fo r two d ays
a n d h e r c o mpli cat e d sys t e m o f mob i li z ati on wa s com
pli cat e d fu r the r by a rum o u r whi ch wa s s e n t out
that s h e f e a r e d a n i n su r r e cti o n i n Ru ss i an P o lan d
Th e B r itis h a mb a ssa d o r a t P e t e r sbu r g u rg e d th e
Ru ssi a n G ove r nm e nt on t h e 2 7 th to d e fe r t h e m o
b i li z a t i o n ukas e fo r a s long a s p o ssibl e a n d tha t
t r o op s mi ght not b e a llow e d to c r o ss t h e fronti e r
e v e n wh e n i t wa s i ssu e d
To thi s t h e Ru ss i an M i n
i st e r fo r Fo r e ig n Affai rs r e p li e d th a t u ntil the i ssu e
o f t h e Imp e r i al ukase
n o e ffe ct i v e st e p s towa rds
mob ili z a t i on coul d b e t ak e n ; a n d th e Au str i an G ov
e r n m e n t woul d p ro t by d el ay i n o r d e r to complet e
h e r milita r y p r e p a r a t i o n s i f it w e r e d e ferre d to o
lo n g Ye t t h e C z a r in hi s t e l e g r am to th e Ka i s e r
s a i d o n July 3 o t h The m i l i ta ry m e a sur e s n o w com
,
,

24 8

H ow D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

op e r ati on were d ec i de d upo n v e d ays a go

fo r r e asons o f d e f e nce a ga i nst Austr i a s p r e p a ra
t i on s
Lat e r in t h e d a y o n t h e 2 7 t h o u r amb a ss a do r a t
Pe t e r sbu rg s e n t wo r d th at R us s i a r e j e ct e d S ir E d
wa r d G r e y s p rop os a l o f a con fe r e n c e o f t h e fou r
P ow e r s
D i r e ct co n v e r sati on b etw e e n Vi e n n a a n d
P e t e rsbu r g was to b e Ru ssi a s way o f d e aling w i th
t h e qu e stion
I n r e a d i n g t h e B r i t i sh Wh i te P ap e r on e shoul d
b e a r i n m i n d tha t it wa s not i n th e h a n d s o f m e m
b e rs o f P a rli am e n t u ntil Augu st 6 t h ; a n d that sho r tly
a ft e r the wa r b e ga n t h e g r e a t m a ss o f t h e B rit i sh
p e o ple l e a r n e d th r ough ou r p re ss that ev e ryth i n g

G e r man wa s P ots d am n ons e ns e a n d chi can e ry ;

tha t the G e rm a n a mb a ssa d o r at Lon d o n w a s wo r s e
than a fool ; th at t h e G e r m an C ha n c e llo r p la n n e d t h e
whol e calam ity ; a n d th a t n o th i ng i n ou r d i plomati c
r e lati o n s w i th G e rm any sh o u l d b e
a cc e pt e d from
G e r man sou rces a s c o n ta i n i n g a s c i ntilla o f truth
E d ito rs a n d j ou r n ali sts o f G e rma n e xtra ct i on h av e
d o n e not a l i ttle i n e du ca ti n g B rit i sh op i n i on u p to
tha t sta n d a r d o f p atr i oti sm wh i ch r e j o i c e s in t h e n o
ti o n th at a ll opp o n e n ts a re l i a r s N o twithsta n d i n g
S i r E d wa rd G r e y had to d e al w i th t h e G e rm a n Fo r
e i gn O ffi c e
a n d ext e n d t h e cou rte s i es o f d iploma cy
to t h e Ge rma n a mb a ss a do r u p to t h e t i m e he l e ft
Lo n d on On July 2 7 t h S i r E d wa r d s e nt a desp atch
to ou r a mb ass a d o r a t B erl i n say i ng :
in g i nto

G e r m a n a m b as s a do r h a s i n f o r m e d m e t h a t G e r m a n
G ov e rn m e n t a cc e p t i n p r i n c i p l e m e di a t i o n b e t we e n Au s t r i a
t he i r
o f c o u rs e
r es e r v i n g
an d Ru s s i a by t h e f o u r P o w e r s
H e ha s al s o
r i gh t a s an a ll y t o h e l p Au s t r i a i f a t t a ck e d
b ee n i n s t ru c t ed t o r e qu e s t me to u s e i n u en c e in S t P e te rs
,

S I R E DWA R D I N THE T O I L S
bu r g t o l o c a liz e

Eu r o p e

the

an d

w ar

to

up

ke ep

th e

24 9

p e ace

Wh e th e r t h e i n fo rmat i on ten d e r e d b y t h e G e r ma n
amb assa d o r wa s to b e a cc e p t e d a s a n ho n e st e n
d e a v o u r o n G e rm a ny s p a rt to a ssis t i n k e e p i n g p e ac e
o r n o t i t w a s to o lat e to bring t h e co n f e r e nc e to w o r k
e ff e ctu a lly ; fo r Ru ss i a h a d th at d a y d e ci d e d that
d i r e ct conve r s ati o n b e tw e e n Vi e n n a a n d P e t e r sbu r g
shou l d b e th e m e tho d o f n d ing a s o luti o n B ut t h e
p r e ssu r e o f Fra n ce a n d R us si a wa s to o mu ch fo r t h e
B ri t i sh Fo r e ign Se cr eta ry What o u r a mb a ssa d o r
a t P et e rsbu rg to l d him o n t h e 2 4 th wa s t h e c h i e f
consi d e r ati on
n am e ly
B rit i s h s o li d a rity wit h
R u ss i a a n d F r a nc e
was b e gu n by him on t h e 2 7t h
t h e d a y he to l d t h e H ou s e o f C ommo n s tha t i t wa s
n e c e ss a r y i n th e i nte r e sts o f p e a c e to su sp e n d all
mi lita ry op e rat i ons p e n d i n g t h e r e s ult o f t h e co n f e r
e nce
Th e v e ry d a y h e u r g e d t h e G e rm an a mb a ssa
d o r to p r e s s fo r mo d e r ati o n o n Aust r i a s p a r t h e
s e n t th e f o llow i ng d e sp atch to ou r amb a ss a d o r at
Petersbu rg :

I h a v e b ee n t o l d by t he Ru s s i an a mb a ss a do r t h a t in
G e r m a n a n d Au s t r i a n c i r c l e s i mp r e s s i o n p re v a i ls t h a t i n
H is E x c e ll e n cy
a n y e v e n t w e (B r i t a i n ) w o u l d s t a n d a s i de
d e p l o r e d t he e ff e c t t h a t s uch a n i mp r e s s i on mu s t p r o duce
T h i s i mp re s s i o n o ugh t as I h av e p o i n t e d o u t t o be dis
p e lle d by t h e o r de r s w e h a v e g i v e n t o t h e F i rs t F l ee t wh i ch
i s c o n c e n t r a t e d a s i t h a pp e n s a t P o r t l a n d n o t t o d i s p e rs e
fo r m a n mu v r e l e a v e
B u t I e x p l a i n e d t o t h e Ru ss i an am
b a s s a do r t h a t my re f e re n c e t o i t mu s t n o t b e t a k e n t o m e a n
t h a t a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n d i p l o m a t i c a c t i o n w as p ro m i s e d

O r d e rs w e r e i ssu e d to th e Fl e e t on t h e 2 5 th Th e
Sev e ral p a
t h i r d Fl e e t w a s mob i l i z e d o n th e 1 3 th
.

H OW

25o

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

p e rs with w e ll in fo r m e d n ava l co r respon de n ts hav e

t o l d u s M r C hu r c h ill wa s a lmo st t h e o n ly M i n i st e r
w h o app r e ci at e d t h e g r avity o f t h e si tu ati on a n d i s
u n d e r st o o d t o h ave giv e n e a rly o r d e rs o n hi s o w n

fo r t h e m ob ili z ati o n o f the e nti r e B r iti sh Fl eet

a f o r tnight b e fo r e t h e S e rv i a n c o up
an d
I t aly w a s to l d t h e r e wa s go i n g to b e a sto r m
t h e E n glish a mb a ss a d o r g o t t h e tip
H e n c e the a s
s e m b ly o f t h e w h ol e Fl e e t fo r i n sp e ct i on by t h e Ki n g
M r C h u rchi ll s e xtra o r d i n a ry cou rag e d e ci s i o n a n d
f o r e sight w e r e n e v e r e xc e ll e d by hi s gr e a t a n cesto r
E n gla n d tha nks to M r C hu rc h ill b e gi n s t h e wa r
a t h e r s e l e ct e d mom e n t no t a t t h e ch o s e n m ome n t

o f t h e M a d D og o f Eu r op e
Thes e a n d m a n y
stat e me n ts o f th e s am e ki n d w e r e m a d e a t the ou t
b r e ak o f hos ti liti e s N o one will wi sh to tak e o n e
b i t o f c r e d i t from M r C hu rchill fo r hi s c o u rag e
fo r e s ight a n d a d ministrativ e skill but h e r e we a r e
d e a li n g with d iploma cy a n d M r C hu r chill wa s Fi r st
L o r d o f t h e A d mi r a lty not Fo r e i g n S e c r e ta r y
Th e re fo r e wh e n S i r E d wa r d G r e y s e n t d e sp atch No
4 7 to P e t e rsbu r g t h e A d mi r alty i nt e n d e d Fra n c e
a n d Ru ss i a t o u n d e rsta n d that t h e B r i tis h Fle e t w a s
a ll fo r t h e soli d a r i ty o f t h e Ent e n t e Pow e rs n o mat
B ut t h e H ous e
t e r what t h e Fo r e i gn S e c r eta ry s a i d
o f Commons a s a whol e k n e w nothing ab ou t i t a t

a ll s av e tha t B r i t i sh inte r ests in S e r v i a w e r e n il

a n d th at the Eu rop e a n s i t u atio n w a s e x ce e d i n gly
g r av e
On th e d a y the h i nt wa s g i v e n i n a d e sp atch to
Ru ssi a that t h e Fl e e t was r e a d y Russ i a t ook a r m e r

attitu d e t o wa r d s Au st r i a
It
M S a z on o f s a i d
s e e ms to m e that Engla n d 18 ln a b e tt e r p os i ti on tha n
any oth e r P ow e r to m ak e anoth e r att e mpt at B e r li n
-

M A R K I N G TI M E

25 :

to i n du c e t h e G e r ma n Gov e r n m e nt to tak e t h e n e ce s
sa r y a cti o n
T h e r e i s n o d o ub t that t h e k e y o f t h e

s i t u a t i o n i s to b e f o u n d a t B e r lin
Ou r a mb a ss a d o r
a t P e t e r sbu r g sp o k e to M S a z o n o f o n t h e 2 7 t h a n d
l e a r n e d f r o m h im that h e r e qu i r e d Au st r i a to gu a r
a n t e e t h e i n t e g r ity o f S e r vi a a n d r e sp e ct h e r ri g h ts
a s a s o v e r e ig n S t at e Th e p o sition s e e m e d not h op e
l e ss h ow e v e r fo r o u r a mb ass a d o r a t Vi e n n a in d e s
p atch N o 5 6 t o l d Si r E d wa r d G r e y th at t he Russi a n
amb a ss a d o r at Vi e n n a h a d j us t r e tu rn e d from P e t e r s
bu r g a n d k n e w t h e vi e ws o f t h e Ru ss i a n Gov e r n
m e n t a n d t h e stat e o f Ru ss i a n publ i c op i ni o n :
d

mb as s a do r a t V i e n n a ) h a d j u s t h e a r d o f
a s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n v e r s a t i o n wh i ch t h e Ru s s i a n M i n i s t e r fo r
Fo r e i g n A ff a i rs h a d y e s t e r d a y w i t h t h e Au s t r i a n a mb as s a do r
at
P e t e r s bu r g
Th e f o r m e r a g r e e d t h a t much o f t he
Au s t r o Hu n g a r i a n n o t e t o S e rv i a h a d b e e n p e r f e c t l y r e a
s o n a b le ; a n d i n f a c t t h e y h a d p r a c t i c a ll y r e a ch e d a n u n d e r
s t a n d i n g a s t o t h e gu a r a n t e e s wh i ch S e r v i a m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y
b e a s k e d t o g i v e t o Au s t r i a H u n g a r y fo r h e r f u t u r e g o o d
be haviou r
He

(Ru s s i a n

So

the

gam e o f d iplom ati c ch e ss wa s ca rr i e d on

fo r a t l e ast a w e e k
D e sp a tc h i n g t o this ca p i ta l
a n d tha t cap ital
i n t e r v i e wi n g t h i s Ex c ell e n cy a n d
t h a t M i n i st e r r e co r d i n g t h e g o ss ip o f o n e ch a n c e l
l e r y a n d a n o th e r w hil e t h e m ilit a r y a n d nav a l m e n
b e hi n d a ll t h e m a sk o f d ip l o ma cy w e r e p r e p a r i n g fo r

t h e co n fli ct wh i ch tho s e
w e r e fo r
i n t h e k n ow
t h e m o st p a r t e ag e r t o b e gin
O n July 2 8 t h t h e

P r i m e M i n ist e r t o l d t h e H o u s e
Th e r e a r e n o n e w
d e v e l o pm e n ts su f ci e n tly d e n i t e to e n abl e a n y fu r
th e r s t a t e m e n t t o b e m a d e but w e h op e tha t n o u n
fav o u r abl e i n f e r e n c e will b e d r aw n f r o m th i s I ca n

not s a y m o r e
H e s a i d h e h a d no d e n i te i n fo r m a
.

H OW

25 2

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

ti o n tha t ho stiliti es h a d b rok e n out ye t i n d e sp a tch

5 6 o u r amb a ssa d o r a t Vi e n n a w a s i n fo r m e d by the
Aust r i a n U n d e r S e c r e ta r y o f S tat e fo r For e ig n A f
fa i r s t h a t a ski r mi s h h a d al r e a d y tak e n pla c e o n
t h e Da n ub e i n which t h e S e rvi a n s h a d b e e n t h e a g

Th e m o v i ng o f the B r i t i sh Fl e e t stiffe n e d
g re s s o r s
t h e attitu d e o f Ru ss i a
a n d a ctio n on t h e p a r t o f
S e r vi a wa s a t n o tim e u n d e rtak e n with o u t t h e a d
vi c e o f Ru ssi a i f w e a r e t o b e li e v e a t e nth o f a ll t h e
ru mou rs whi ch ca m e su r gin g f r om t h e e a st d u r i n g
1
t h e r s t w e e ks o f t h e w a r
The s i n c e r ity o f G e r m any wa s qu e st i on e d in d e s
p atch N o 6 0 wh e n t h e G e r ma n S e c r e ta ry o f S tat e
r e fus e d to j o in t h e co n f e r e n c e o f t h e fou r P ow e r s a n d
a t t h e sam e ti m e s a i d h e d e s i re d to wo rk with B r ita i n
fo r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f g e n e r a l p e a c e Wh e r e w a s
t h e B r iti s h Fl e e t o n July 2 8 t h ?
D i d t h e acti o n o f
t h e A d mi ral t y i n sp i r e t h e G e r ma n Fo r e ig n O fce
with co n d e n c e in wo r ki n g with u s to m a i n ta i n the
g e n e r a l p e a c e ? Wh at o th e r e e t wa s th e r e i n t h e
No rth S e a tha t s o u r g e n tly r e qu i r e d t h e att e n t i on
o f ou r A d m i r alty o n July 2 7 t h ?
A n yway wh e th e r
G e r many tr i e d to i n flu e n c e Au st r i a alo n g t h e l i ne s
o f mo d e r at i on o r not o u r amb ass a d o r at Vi e n n a t e l e

grap h e d o n the 2 8 th tha t t h e Au st r i a n M in i st e r

fo r Fo r e i gn A ffa i r s d e cl a r e d tha t Au stri a Hu n ga ry
c o ul d n o t d el ay wa rlik e p r o c e e d i n gs a ga i n st S e rv i a
a n d wou l d hav e to d e cli n e a ny sugg e st i on o f n e g ot i a
ti o ns o n t he b a s i s o f S e rvi a n r e p ly P r e st i g e o f
D u a l M o n a rchy w a s e n gag e d a n d noth i ng coul d now

p r e v e n t co n fl i ct
,

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I NE FFE CTUAL NEGOT IAT I ONS

25 3

W ha t h a d ha pp e n ed to fo rc e Au str i a to d r op the
co n v e r s ations with Ru ss i a t h a t w e r e p rog r e ssi n g i n
P etersbu r g two o r th r e e d ays e a r li e r ? Tw o m a t
te rs o f V ital i mp o r ta nc e : o n e wa s t h e co n s i d e rati on
o f E nt e n t e s o l i d a r i ty which was i n d e e d o f fa r
gr e at e r co n s e qu e nc e to Ru ss i a th a n m e r e d iplom a ti c
a r m e d suppo rt ; a n d t h e s e c o n d w a s t h e ski r m i sh on
t h e D anub e wh e r e S e r vi a h a d b e e n the aggr e sso r
Wa r w a s d e cla r e d by Au st r i a o n S e r vi a t h at d a y
Th e n S i r E d wa r d G r e y d r opp e d hi s p r o p os a l o f a
co n f e r e n ce lik e a hot b r i ck a n d s e n t w o r d to the
B r i t i sh a mb a ss a d o r a t B e r li n th a t a s lo n g a s th e r e
i s a p r o sp e ct o f a d i r e ct e xchang e o f vi e ws b e tw e e n
Austri a a n d Ru ss i a I woul d susp e n d e v e r y oth e r sug
g e sti o n a s I e n ti r e ly a gr e e that i t i s t h e m o s t p r e f e r

Th e G e r m a n G o v e rn m e n t th e n
abl e m e tho d o f all
a cc e p t e d t h e p r i n cip l e o f m e d i ati o n b e tw e e n Au st r i a
a n d Ru ssi a by t h e fou r P owe r s ; bu t aga i n i t w a s to o
la t e fo r Russi a d e ci d e d t o is su e t h e I mp e r i a l uka s e
fo r mob ili z ati o n o n t h e 2 9 th without a n y aggr e ssiv e

i nt e n ti o n aga i n st G e r m a n y
Tha t s o t h e Ru ss i a n
M i n i st e r fo r Fo r e i g n Affa i r s i n fo r m e d t h e R u ssi a n
a mb a ss a d o r a t Lo n d o n p ut a n e n d to t h e i d e a o f
d i r e ct commu n i ca ti o n s b e tw e e n Au st r i a a n d Ru ss i a
Th e n t h e B r iti s h C ab i n e t wa s u rg e n tly d e si r e d to in
u e n ce Au stri a to su sp e n d mil i ta r y o p e r ati o n s a ga inst
S e r vi a
I t i s a ma z i ng how t he Cha n c e ll e r i e s l ab ou r w i th
chi l d l ik e d e c e pt i ven e ss t o c o v e r u p t h e wo r k o f the i r
a r me d supp o r t Russ i a b e gan m il i ta ry p r e p a r at i ons
o n t h e 2 5 t h a cco r d i n g to t h e C z a r bu t t h e mob ili z a
t i o n uka s e w a s no t i ssu e d u n ti l the 2 9 t h ; yet o n t h e
2 8 th
M S a z o n o f wa n t e d Au st r i a to su sp e n d h e r
m il i ta r y op e r a t i ons a ft e r S e rv i a h a d b e gun h o s t ili
,

H OW

25 4

D I P LO M ATS M A KE W A R

t i e s o n t h e 2 7 th Th e way t h e wo rl d h a s b e e n dup e d
by t h e p r e post e rous t e r mi n olo gy o f t h e Ch a n c e ll e ri e s
i s o n e o f th e won d e r s o f t h e a g e Why o n t h e
2 8 t h i t wa s k n ow n at t h e B e r li n Fo r e ig n O f ce that
Russi a h a d mob ili z e d fou r t e e n a rmy co rp s i n th e
sout h ; t h e G e rm a n Imp e r i a l C ha n c e llo r tol d ou r a m
b a s s a d o r that mu ch wh e n t h e latt e r t e l e grap h e d to
Si r E d wa r d G r e y t ha t hi s Au stri a n co ll e agu e s a i d

tha t a g e n e ra l wa r wa s mo st u n l i k e ly a s Ru ssi a
n e it h e r wa nt e d no r w a s i n a p os iti o n to m ak e w a r !
I f th e p e op l e o f Eu r op e will only a pply s o m e s e ns e
a n d un d e r sta n d i n g t o a stu d y o f t h e B ritis h Whit e
P a p e r th e y wi ll n d e vi d e n c e enoug h i n it to con d em n
e v e r y d ip l o m atist conc e rn e d
A g r e a t f e atu r e o f t h e syst e m o f e d u cat i o n e n
t e r e d o n b y o u r p r e ss i n t h e e a r ly stag e s o f t h e wa r
was the G e rm a n r e fu s a l to j o i n S i r E d wa r d G r e y s
co n f e r e nc e That wa s a gr e a t bla ck m a rk aga i n st
G e r ma n y
L e a r n f r o m d e sp atch N o 7 2 wh at o u r
amb ass a d o r at S t P e t e r sbu r g s a i d on t h e 2 8 th :

As r e ga r ds t h e sugg e stio n o f con fe r e n c e t h e a m

b a s s a d o r (G e r man ) h a d r e c e iv e d no i n st r u cti o ns
a n d b e f o r e a cti n g wit h m e
t h e F r e n ch a n d I tal i a n
amb a ss a d o r s a r e sti ll w a iting fo r th e i r n a l in s t ru c

ti o n s
T h e n a ft e r R u ssi a i s su e d the mob ili z atio n
uka s e a n d Au st r i a h a d d e cla r e d w a r o n S e r v i a ou r
amb a ssa d o r a t Vi e n n a s e nt t h e follow i ng d esp atch
N o 74 :
.

Ru ss i a n a m b a ss a do r t h at t he R u s
G o v e r n m e n t s s ugg e s t i o n h a s b e e n de c li n e d by t h e
s i an
Au s t ro H u n g a r i a n Go v e rn m e n t Th e s ugg e s t i on w a s t o t h e
e ff e c t t h a t t h e m e a n s o f s e t t li n g t h e Au s t ro S e rv i a n c o n i c t
s h o u l d b e d i s cu s s e d d i r e c t l y b e t w e e n t h e Ru s s i a n M i n i s t e r
fo r F o re i g n A ff a i r s a n d t h e Au s t r i an a mb a ss a do r a t S t
am

i n f o rm e d by

the

RE ASONS

WAR

F OR

25 5

h o u l d be a u t h o r iz ed a cc o r di n g l y The
Ru ss i a n a mb a ss a d o r t h i n ks t h a t a c o n f e re n c e i n L o n don o f
t h e l e s s i n t e r e s t e d P o w e r s s uch as yo u h a v e p r o p ose d o ff e rs
n o w t h e o n l y p r os p e c t o f p r es e r v i n g p e a c e o f Eu r o p e
a n d he
i s s u r e t h a t t he Ru s s i a n G o v e r n m e n t w i ll a cqu i e s c e w illi n g l y
i n y o u r p r o p os a l
So l o n g a s o pp o s i n g a r m i e s h av e n o t a c t u
a ll h Op e n ee d n o t be a b a n do n e d
a ll y c o m e i n c o n t a c t
P e t e rs b u r g

w ho

two days e a rl i e r t h e Russi an M i n ist e r fo r

Fo re ig n Affa i rs a n d t h e Au stri an Amb a ssa d o r at
P e t e rsbu r g h a d p r a ct i cally r e a ch e d a n u n d e rstan d
i ng !
C an a n y o n e b eli e v e in t h e fa c e o f all t h e shu ffli n g
wobbli n g thr e ats a n d r e st r a i n ts tha t e ith e r Aust r i a
or
Ru ss i a d es i r e d p e ac e whol e h e a r t e d ly ? S om e
thi n g
only li ghtly hint e d a t i n t h e W hit e P ap e r
wa s thru sti n g b oth G o v e r n ments o n P e a c e to both
m e ant Ve ry grav e i n t e r n a l d i so r d e r ; w a r car r i e d t h e
cha n ce o f cons oli d ati n g th e i r v a ri ou s p e op l e s Sm a ll
won d er a d i stingu is h e d p e r sonag e w a s h e a r d to
gasp o n Augu st I st
Oh fo r t e n m i nute s o f s plen
d i d i solat i on !
F r om B e rl i n n e ws cam e on t h e 2 9 th that th e r e
wa s d e p r e ssion a t t h e G e r ma n Fo re ig n O f ce Th e

S e c r e ta ry o f Sta t e wa s mu ch troubl e d by rep o rts

o f mob ili z at i o n i n R uss i a a n d o f c e r ta in m ilita ry
me a su r e s whi ch h e d i d n o t sp e c i fy b e i n g tak e n in
Franc e H e sub s e qu e n tly sp ok e o f th e s e m e a su r e s
t o my F r e n ch coll e a gu e
who i n fo rm e d him tha t
Fr e n ch Gov e r n m e n t h a d d o n e noth i ng m o re tha n
t h e G e rman G ov e r n m e n t h a d d o n e n am e ly reca ll e d
o fc e rs o n leav e H i s Exc e ll e n cy d e n i e d Ge rm a n
G overnment h a d d o n e thi s bu t a s a m atte r o f fa ct

i t is tru e
F a r m o r e tha n that wa s t r u e ; t h e B ri t
i sh Fl e e t wa s th e n a long long w ay fro m T i pp e ra r y
Ye t

H OW

25 6

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WAR

Anyway Ru ssi an o fc e rs l e ft Sw i t z e rl an d a s e a r ly
a s July I 5 th
I t wa s o n July 2 8 th that t h e royalt i e s b ega n to
tak e a h a n d a t tel e gr aphi n g Th e Ka i s e r s e n t a
m e ssa ge to h i s d e vot e d f r i e n d a n d cous i n N i chola s
s ayi n g
R e m e mb e r ing t h e h e arty fri e n d s h ip whi ch
fo r long h a d b ou n d u s two s e cu r e ly tog e th e r I a m
t h r owing t h e whol e o f my i n flu e nc e i n t o t h e s ca l e to
i n du c e Au st r i a Hungary to s e e k fo r a n op e n a n d s at
I con d e n tly
i s fa ct o r y u n d e r sta n d i n g with Ru ssi a
h o p e for you r a ssista n c e i n my e n d e avou rs to p ut

a si d e all t h e d i fcu lti e s that m ay a r i s e

Th e C z a r r e pli e d on t h e 2 9 th
To obv i ate su ch
a m i s fortune a s a Eu rop e an wa r I imp lore you i n
the n am e o f ou r o ld f r i e n d sh i p to d o all i n you r

p ow e r to re st r a in you r ally from g o i ng to o fa r

Though the Ka i s e r a n d C z a r coul d not o f cou rs e
a gre e with e a ch othe r a s to th e resp e ctive m e rits o f
Austri a a n d Ru ssi a in the qu a rr e l th e Ka i se r a g r e e d

to act a s m e d i ato r
w h i ch I h av e re a d ily assum e d
i n respons e to you r app e a l to my f r i e n d ship a n d

h e lp
Th e n i f w e a r e to b e li eve amb ass a d o rs t he
G erma n Gov e rnm e nt s e t to wo r k i n e a rn e st to i n
u e n ce Au st r i a ; to u s e the p h r as e o f S i r E d wa r d

G r ey G e rm a n y b egan to p r e s s t h e bu tton i n the

i nt e r e sts o f p e a ce
F e w i n B r i ta i n b e li e v e that s i nc e
t h e J i ngo p r e ss have tol d u s a ll t h e d ip lomatists fo r
got to put i n th e i r d e sp a tch e s T he f o u r th a n d fth
t e l e grams o f t h e G e r ma n a n d Ru ssi a n mon a rchs a r e
o f sufc i e nt i nt e r e st to g i v e i n full :
Ju l y 3 o th I A M
M y a m b a s s a do r i s i n s t r u c t e d t o d r a w t h e a t t e n t i o n o f
y ou r G ov e rn m e n t t o t he d a n g e rs an d s e r i o u s c o n se qu e n c e s
I s a i d t he s a m e t o yo u i n my l a s t t e l e
o f a m o b iliz a t i o n
,

R OYA L TY TA KES A HAN D

g ram

Au s t r i a H u n g a r y

25 7

y m o b iliz e d a ga i n s t S e rv i a
I f a s a pp e a r s f ro m y o u r com
a n d o n l y a p a r t o f i t s a r my
m u n i ca t i o n a n d t h a t o f y o u r G o v e r n m e n t Ru ss i a i s m o b il
i zi n g a g a i n s t Au s t r i a H u n g a r y t h e r 61e o f m e d i a t o r wh i ch
you i n t r u s t e d t o m e i n f r i e n dl y w i se a n d wh i ch I a cc e p t e d
a t y o u r e x p r e s s r e qu e s t
is j e o p a r d iz e d i f n o t re n d e r e d i m
p o s s i b l e The wh o le bu r de n o f d e c i s i o n n ow r e s ts up o n
y o u r s h o u l de r s t he r e s p on s i b i li t y fo r w a r o r p e a c e
W I LLI AM
-

h as

on l

He

mi ght n o t have me ant a wor d o f it ; i t m i ght

h av e b e e n all blu ff a n d t h e Emp e r o r o f R uss i a might
hav e k n own t h e t r u e ch a r a ct e r o f t h e K a i s e r a lmost
a s well a s e d ito rs o f J i n g o p ap e r s ; n e ve r th e les s t h e
t e l e gra m co n ta i n e d d o w n ri g h t go o d s e ns e The
C z a r s r e p ly wa s a s follows
,

P ETER H O F ,

Ju l y

3 o th,

19 14

F ro m my h e a r t I t h a n k yo u fo r y o u r s p e e dy r e p l y I
a m t h i s e v e n i n g s en d i n g Ta t i s h e ff w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s
The
m i li t a r y m e as u re s n ow c o m i n g i n t o o p e r a t i on w e r e d e c i de d
up on v e d a y s a go fo r re as o n s o f de f e n c e a g a i n s t Au s t r i a s
p r e p a r a t i o n s M o s t h e a r t i ly do I t r u s t t h a t t h e s e m e as u r e s
w i ll i n n o w ay i n flu e n c e y o u r p o s i t i o n as m e d i a t o r wh i ch I
v a l u e h i gh l y W e n e e d y o u r s t ro n g p re ss u r e o n Au s t r i a
t o s e cu r e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h u s

N I C H OL A S
.

All wou l d d e pen d on Ru ssi a Cou nt M e n s do r ff

s a i d to Si r E d wa r d G r e y o n July a 3 r d So the
Ka i s e r mus t h av e thought a ft e r h e r e c e iv e d the t e le
g r a m from h i s d e v o t e d fri e n d a n d cou s i n N i cho la s
Go on m e d i ati n g a n d u s e you r strong p re ssu r e o n
Au st r i a whi l e w e mak e a ll o u r p r e p a rat i ons to b r i n g

a st r o n g e r ki n d o f p r e ssu r e to b e a r on h e r l ate r
The P e t e rsbu rg co r r e sp on d e n t o f t h e Ti m e s a s e a rly
a s t h e a 6 th sa i d tha t th e a rmy m a n te uv r e s h a d b e e n

25

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE

WA R

count e rm a n d e d i n v i ew o f the i mp e n d i n g mob i li z a

ti o n a n d m ilitary op i n i on alt h o ug h a r d e n tly d e

si r i n g wa r i s co n stra i n e d to a dm it th at Au st r i a
Hunga ry i s una ccou n tably d ila to r y i f s h e r e a lly i n
t e n d s wa r i n asmu ch a s i t i s obvi ou sly h e r i n t e r e st
to rush S e rvi a in o r d e r to b e r e a d y fo r a n attack f r om

At tha t tim e t h e wa r p a rty i n Ru ss i a

t h e n o r th
we r e having th i ngs th e i r own way B u t t h e t e l e
g r a ms ca n n o t b e tho roughly a pp r e ci a t e d with o ut t h e
follow i n g from t h e P e t e r sbu r g co rr e sp on d e n t o f the
,

Ti m e s

ST P ETER S B U R G,

Ju l y

The

Cz a r l e f t

on

his

tr

ip

F i n n is h
No w t h a t m a t t e rs a pp e a r t o h a v e b e co m e c a l m e r
S ke r r ie s
i t m ay n o t b e a m i ss t o qu o t e a s e n t e n c e u s e d by t h e Cz a r a t
We
t h e c l o s e o f t h e G r an d C o u n c il o n S a t u r d a y (2 5 t h )
h a v e s t oo d t h i s s o r t o f t h i n g he s a i d fo r s e v e n a n d a h a l f
y e ars T h i s i s e n o u gh T h e r e up o n his M aj e s t y a u t h or iz e d
t h e i s s u e o f o r d e rs fo r a p a r t i a l m o b i liz a t i o n c o n n e d t o t h e
At t h e s a m e t i m e
1 4 Ar my C o r p s o n t h e Au s t r i a n f r o n t i e r
a n i n t i m a t i on w a s g i v e n t o G e r m an y t h a t o r d e r s fo r t h e
m o b iliz a t i o n o f t he r e m a i n de r o f t he Ru s s i a n Ar my w o u l d
f o llow i mm e d i a te l y up o n m o b iliz a t i o n by G e r m a n y
t o-n

i gh t

2 7t h

t he

to

On July 2 9 t h R e ut e r s P e te rsbu rg co rr e spo n d e n t

telegraphed
Co n d e nt o f E n gla n d s su pp o r t ab ou t
wh i ch d oubts hav e m ostly d i s a pp e a r e d t h e R u ss i a n

pub li c i s p r e p a re d to a cc e p t wa r
Up to o n e o clock
o f the mo r ni n g o f July 3 o t h t h e c o u r t w o r l d a n d
d iplom ati c wo r l d (s av e Austr i a ) s e e m e d t o b e shout
i ng to t h e K a i s e r t o p r e ss t h e butto n i n t h e i n t e r
e sts o f p ea c e
wh i l e all t h e e e ts a n d a rm i e s o f hi s
oppon e nts w e r e bu s i ly p r e p a ri n g fo r w a r
B ut what ab ou t th e fr e est a ssembly in the wo rl d

H OO D V
VI N KE D

TH E

H OU S E

25

B r iti sh H ou s e o f C omm o n s ? W h at d i d it k n o w
ab o ut t h e b usi n e ss ? D i d i t k n ow a s mu ch a s t h e
Ru ssi a n p ubli c ? Th e P r i m e M i n i st e r w as qu e s
As t h e H o u se i s awa r e a f o r m a l
t io n e d a n d s a i d
D e cla ra ti o n o f W a r wa s i ssu e d y e st e r d ay by Au st r i a
a g a i n st S e r vi a Th e s itu ati o n at thi s m o m e n t i s o n e
o f e xt r e m e g r avity
I ca n o n ly s ay u s e fully say
t ha t H i s M aj e sty s G ov e r n m e n t a r e n o t r e laxi n g
t h e i r e ffo r ts t o d o e v e r yt h i n g i n th e i r p o w e r to ci r

cu m s cr ib e t h e a r e a o f p o ss ibl e co n i ct
Th e n t h e
Hou s e g o t to wo r k o n a n Ali e n s B i ll a n d S c o tti s h
Ag r i cultu r e a n d a t i n t e r vals s o ug h t t h e ti ck e r fo r
st r ay scrap s o f i n f o r mati o n f r o m t h e Ch a n c e ll e r i e s
An y cl e r k i n a fo r e ig n o fc e m ight k n ow w h a t t h e

co n s e qu e n c e s m e ant to Eu rop e ; a ny p r e s sm an i n

t h e k n ow
might ge t r st ha n d i n fo r m ati o n i n
Russi a o r Au st r i a o r G e r m a n y ; bu t p r i v at e m e mb e r s
o f t h e F r e e st Ass e mbly i n t h e W o r l d w e r e tol d
w h at t h e y h a d al r e a d y s e e n in t h e pub li c p r i n ts B u t
why sh o ul d a n y p r ivat e m e mb e r o n t h e G ov e rn m e n t
?
e
o
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o
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r
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a S i gl e m o m e t Th e y
t e Hou s w r r y
all k n e w B r ita i n wa s n o t u n d e r a n y obligatio n t o g o
t o w a r t o supp o r t a n y P o w e r
B r iti s h i n t e r e sts in
S e r vi a w e r e n il
O u r ha n d s w e r e qu it e f r e e
We
h a d n o e n ta n gli n g a lli a n c e s : B o th t h e P r im e M in
i s t e r a n d t h e F o r e ig n S e cr e ta r y h a d tim e a n d a ga i n
t o l d t h e H ou s e s o mu ch I n d e e d o n e might h av e
w o n d e r e d w h y t h e P r im e M i n i st e r s h oul d r e f e r to
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t h e situ ati o n b e i n g o n e o f e xt r e me g r avity
i n t h e u n iv e r s a l s e n s e i t might v e r y w e ll b e ; but i n
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ros e a t t w e lv e m i n u tes a ft e r th re e on Thu rsday m o rn

i n g a ft e r d i scu ssi n g t h e I n e b r i at e s B ill w i th t h e
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p o s s i b le o v e r t h e qu es t i on o f a Se rv i an
p o r t o r e v e n o v e r t he l a r g e r is s u es wh i ch a r e s a i d t o lie
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i n t h e C h a n c e ll e r i e s o f Eu r o p e a m o n g t h e m e n w h o h a v e
t o o l o n g p l a y e d w i t h hum a n li v e s a s p a w n s i n a g a m e o f
ch e s s w ho h a v e b e c o m e s o e n m e s h e d in f o r mu las a n d t h e
j a r g o n o f d i p l o m a cy t h a t t h e y h a v e c e as e d t o b e c o n s c i o u s
o f t h e p o i g n a n t r e a li t i e s w i t h wh i ch t h e y t r i e
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a r e t h e s p o r t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s ch e m e r s a n d d r e a m e r s s a y t h e
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2 62

p e a ce a n d fo r t h i s pu r p o s e a r e k e e p i n g i n clo s e tou ch
wit h o t h e r P ow e r s I n t hu s k e e pi n g i n t o u c h w e
h av e I am gla d to s ay h a d n o d i f cu lti e s s o fa r
t hough i t ha s n o t b e e n p o ss ibl e fo r t h e P ow e r s t o
u n it e i n j o i n t d i plomati c a c t i o n as wa s p r o p os e d o n

B r i t is h i n t e r e sts i n S e r vi a w e r e n i l but
M o n d ay
t h e A d m i r alty h a d a r m e d f o r ty m e r cha n tm e n a ll t h e
s am e ; t h e a r s e n als fa ct o r i e s a n d d e p ots w e r e wo rk
i n g at high p r e ssu r e ; a n d ye t t h e F o r e ig n S e c r e ta r y
coul d n o t u n d e r sta n d w hy G e r m a n y o n t h e 2 9 t h
wa s d ila to r y in j o i n i n g t h e fou r P o w e rs t o u s e m e d i a t
i n g i n u e nc e
Tha t wa s w ha t h e t e l e g r a p h e d to t h e
B r i ti s h a m b a ss a d o r a t B e r li n o n July 2 9 t h n o tw it h
sta n d i n g the fa ct tha t h e h a d t h e d a y b e fo r e giv e n up
the n oti o n o f a co n f e r e n c e a n d a d o pt e d t h e i d e a o f
d i r e ct co n v e rsati o n s b e tw e e n Au st r i a a n d R u ssi a a c
co r d i n g to hi s d e sp a tch to t h e s am e e m b a ssy E a r ly
o n t h e 2 9 t h h e h e a r d f r o m t h e B r iti sh amb a ss a d o r
a t B e r li n t h a t G e r m a n y wa s givi n g a d vi c e to Au st r i a
T h e n t h e Au st r i a n G ov e r n m e n t d e cli n e d d e n it e ly
d i r e ct c o n v e r s a ti o n with P e t e r sbu r g
Why ? Ru s
s i a woul d n o t stop m aki n g a ll mi lita r y p r e p a r ati o n s ;
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sto n e u n tu r n e d to p e r f e ct h e r m o b ili z ati o n which
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N ow wh e n t h e Fo r e ig n S e c r e ta r y t o l d t h e H ou s e
o n Ju ly 3 0 t h th a t th e r e wa s v e ry littl e h e c o ul d s a y
h e wa s i n p o ss e ss i o n o f t h e i n fo r m ati o n co n ta i n e d
i n de sp a tch N o 8 5 ; t h e d o cum e n t w h i ch r e co r d s t h e

i n fam o u s p r op o sal s o d e sc r ib e d by M r Asqu ith

i n t h e H o u se e ight d ays a ft e r i t was r e c e iv e d at t h e
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E x ce ll e n cy h a d j u s t r e t u r n e d f r o m P o t s da m
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m a i n p r i n c i p l e wh i ch g o v e r n e d B r i t i s h p o li cy t h a t G re a t
B r i t a i n w o u l d n e v e r s t a n d by a n d a llo w F r a n c e t o be
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As r e g a r d s H o lla n d h o w e v e r h is E x c e l
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up o n i n B e l g i um b u t wh e n t h e w a r w a s o v e r B e lg i a n i n
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w e r e a w a r e t o b r i n g a b o u t a n u n de r s t a n di n g w i t h E n g l a n d ;
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D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

g e n e r a l n e u t ra li t y a gr e e m e n t b e t w e en E n g l a n d a n d G e r
m a n y t h o u gh i t w as o f c o u rs e a t t he p res e n t m om e n t t oo
e a r l y t o d i s cu ss d e t a il s a n d a n a s s u r a n c e o f B r i t i s h n e u t ra li t y
i n t h e c o n i c t wh i ch p re s e n t c r i s i s m i gh t p o s s i b l y p r o d uc e
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des i r e

p l y t o his E x c e ll e n cy s e n qu i r y how I t h o ugh t h is

I s a i d t h a t I di d n o t t h i n k i t
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yo u rs e l f t o a n y c o u rs e o f a c t i o n a n d t h a t I w as o f o p i n i on
t h a t yo u w o u l d d e s i r e t o re t a i n fu ll li b e r t y
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ma n wh o s e Gov e r n m e n t h a d p lan n e d t h e who le o f
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b e g i nn i ng o f Au gu st Why p a ni c i s l a r ge i n ev e ry
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G e rman C ha n c e ll o r h a d j u st r e tu r n e d fr o m P ots d am
wher e no d oub t h e l e a r n e d that M S a z o n o f wa s s a y
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a cont ra ry m a n n e r W e i n B r i ta i n w e re bu sy
e nough on t h e 2 9 t h a n d we h a d a d e al less r e as on

to p r e p a r e fo r a ll em e rg e nc i e s
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N ews h a d reache d B erlin tha t B e lgium h a d i ssu e d

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co n ta i n e d t h e i n f o rmatio n th e y w e r e to giv e t o t h e

chancell e ri e s as t o h e r str e n gth e n e d p e a c e footi n g

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s e em e d somewhat su r p r i se d a t t h e sp e e d with wh i ch

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m a n y wa s p r e ssi n g t h e button a t Vi e n n a Th e
R uss i a n amb a ss a d o r t e l e g r a p h e d to P e t e r sb u r g th at

th e G e rma n amb a ss a d o r ha s ask e d G r e y why

G r e a t B rita i n wa s taki n g m ilita r y m e a su r e s o n
l an d a n d s e a G r e y r e p li e d tha t th e s e m e a su r e s
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w e r e b e i n g s e t in mot i on a n d milli ons o f m o n e y sp e n t
b e cau s e B r i ti sh i n ter e sts in S e r v i a w e r e n il ; b e c au s e
e v e ry P ow e r wa s e a rn e stly s e e ki n g p e a c e
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i n t h e e v e n t o f a w a r b r e aki n g o u t on h e r

fro n ti e r s ? D o p e op le r e ali z e tha t t h e B e lgi a n

d e sp atc h wa s s ent ou t on t h e s a m e d a y Au st r i a
h an de d to S e rv i a t h e famou s not e wh i ch b e ga n a ll
t he
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men who h av e to o long p laye d w i th hum a n lives a s
,

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

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a gam e o f ch e ss t o u s e t h e ph r a s e o f t h e
Ti m e s t e ll u s t h a t t h e r st d e spa tch i n t h e B e lgi a n
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b e fo r e S e r vi a r e pli e d to t h e Aust r i a n n o t e ; a n d t w o
d ays b e f o r e Si r E d war d G r e y p r op os e d t h e C o n f e r
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m e n t i t n e e d s n o st r e tch o f t h e imag i n ati o n t o
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t h e Gov e r n me n ts o f t h e E n t e n t e P ow e r s
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mou s p rop o s al
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lu t e ly n e c e ssa ry to b e i n p o ss e ss i o n o f a t l e ast
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i f Aust r i a w e r e to b e g i n h ost i l i t i e s in s p i t e o f th e

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a gi n e that t h e qu e sti o n o f B elg i an n e u t r al i ty w a s
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li z a t i o n in Ru s si a a n d o f c e r ta i n m i lita r y m e a su r e s

which h e d i d n o t sp e ci fy b e i n g t ak e n i n Fra n c e
Th e G e r m a n C h a n c e ll o r mu st h av e k n o w n what Ru s
s ia n mob ili z ati o n r e ally m e a n t a n d how tha t a ffe ct e d
F r a n c e a n d B e lgiu m A n yway t h e te rms o f the
F r a n c o Ru ss ia n Alli anc e w e r e n o t h i d d e n f r o m h i m ;
a n d a s e a r ly a s t h e 2 o t h h e mu st h av e gu e s s e d w h at
w a s in t h e mi n d o f F r a n c o Russi a n ci r cl e s i n P e t e r s
bu rg wh e n a cc o r d i n g t o R e ut e r s c or r e spo n d e n t a t
t h e st a t e b anqu e t t h e to a sts impli e d t h e supp o r t o f
E n gla n d Th e G e r m a n C ha n c e llo r m i ght b e a s
wi ck e d a d ipl o m a t i st a s th e r e i s in Eu r op e t o d a y ;
h e might h av e k n o w n t h e t e r m s o f t h e Aust r i an n ot e ;
he mi ght b e t h e mo st co lo ssal li a r to b e fou nd a t any
.

H OW

268

D I P LO M AT S MA KE WA R

mb as sy ; bu t h e wa s not qu i t e so gre a t a fo o l a s
tho s e w h o b e l i ev e tha t t h e who le st o ry o f th i s a ffa i r
i s co n ta i n e d i n t h e B ri tish Whit e P ap e r
I s i t to b e i magi n e d th at t h e G e rm a n m i l i ta ry a u
t h o r i t i e s d i d no t know a s much a s M r Am e ry d i d
w h e n h e sp ok e i n the d e b at e i n th e H ou s e o f Com
mons on July 4 t h 1 9 1 2 ? B li n ki n g wh e n e v e r a fact
aga i n st ou r d iplom a cy has to b e fa c e d will not h e lp
t h e p e op le o f B r ita i n o r E u r op e to r o o t ou t th e aw fu l
c a n ce r w h i ch l i e s a t t h e b a s e o f a ll the e v i l syst e m
o f d iplom a cy B y shutting o n e s eyes to facts some
men m ay d o loya l se r vi c e to a p a rty o r a G ov e rn
m ent ; but t h e tim e i s come wh e n a h i gh e r st a n d a r d
o f p olit i ca l li f e i s calle d fo r Th e r e fo re i n g e tt i n g

a t t h e i nwa r d n e ss o f t h e i n fam o u s p r op os al we
mu st r e ga r d i t a s the d e s i r e o f a d e sp e rat e d iplom a
t i s t h e mm e d i n
ho i st i f you lik e by h i s own p e
ta rd to kn ow t h e wo rst hi s Gov e r n m e n t h a d to
cop e w i th Th e t i m e h a d com e fo r h i m to t e st the
B r i t i sh d i plomati c po s i t i o n
S i r E dwa r d G r e y wa s in p o ss e ss i o n o f a ll th e se
fa cts whe n h e sp o k e to t h e Hou s e o n July 3 o t h
Th e n e xt d a y th e Pr i me M in i st e r m a d e a statement
a ft e r bu s i n e ss :
e

W e h a v e j u s t h e a r d n o t f r o m S t P e t e rs b u r g b u t
f r o m G e r m a n y t h a t Ru s s i a h as p ro c l a i m e d a g e n e ra l
m o b iliz a t i o n o f h e r Ar my a n d F l e e t a n d t h a t in c o n s e qu en c e
o f t h is
m a r t i a l law w a s t o be p ro c l a i m e d fo r G e rm a n y
W e u n de rs t a n d t h i s t o m e a n t h a t m o b iliz a t i on w ill f o ll ow i n
G e rm a n y i f t he Ru ss i a n m o b i liz a t i o n i s g e n e r a l a n d is p r o
cee de d w i t h
I n t h e c i r cum s t a n c e s I s h o u l d p re f e r n o t t o

a n s w e r a n y q u e s t i o n s t ill M o n d a y n e x t

Up w e n t t h e s ig n b o a r d Not in t h e publ i c i nt e r

est ; a n d the r e p r e s e ntat i ves o f the fr e e a n d e n

WHAT

ALL M EAN T

IT

2 69

l i ght e ne d e l e ct o rs w e r e d i sm i ss e d fo r thre e days r e c

R e p r e se n tativ e gov e rn m e n t ! P r e sum ably
r e a tio n
t h e w a r p a r ty i n t h e H ous e w o u l d h av e ca rr i e d t h e
d a y h a d t h e P r i m e M i n i st e r g i v e n th e C omm o n s t h e
i n fo rm a ti on th e n i n p o ss e ssi o n o f t h e For e i gn O f c e ;
bu t what t h e c o u n try on Ju ly 3 o t h would h av e s a i d i f
th at d a y t h e wh o l e t r uth h a d b e e n t o l d o f the agr e e
m e n t o f 1 9 0 6 wh e n co n v e rsat i o n s b e ga n b e tw e e n
Fr e n ch a n d B r i t i sh m i lita r y a n d nava l e xp e r ts i s
a nother m att e r Th e w e e k e n d m a d e a ll t h e d i f
f e r e n c e i n publ i c f e e li n g a n d in d e e d i n t h e f e e li n g
o f M i n i st e r s th e ms e lv e s Th e ca s us b e lli h a d n o t
b e e n d e t e r m i n e d o n July 3 o t h S uppos e t h e P r im e
M i n i st e r h a d tol d t h e H ou s e o n t h e 3 o t h tha t t h e
F o r e ig n S e c r e ta r y h a d b e e n i n fo r m e d by M C a m
b on t h e F r e n ch amb a ss a d o r th e d a y b e f o r e t ha t

H e a nt i cip at e d a d e ma n d from G e r m a n y tha t

Fr anc e w o ul d b e n e utra l whi l e G e rmany a tta ck e d
Rus si a Th i s a ssura n c e F r a n c e o f cou r s e c o ul d
not g i v e : s h e was b o u n d to h e lp Ru ssi a i f Ru ssi a

w a s atta ck e d
O f cou rs e Th e j a r go n o f d ipl o
m a cy tra n slat e d i n to p la i n E n glish m e ant Fra nc e
th r o u gh h e r a gr e e m e n t with R u ss i a mu st ght wh e n
t r o ub l e a ros e b e twe e n G e r m a ny a n d Ru ssi a th e r e
f o r e B e lgium mu st b e p r e pa r e d fo r he r t e r rit o r y
wou l d b e com e t h e b attl e g r ou n d o f th e o p e ratio n s i n
the w e st ; a n d B r itai n b e cau s e o f h e r s e cr e t u n d e r
stan d i ng w i th Fra n c e a n d B e lg i um mu st h a st e n to
th e i r a ssi sta n c e W e w e r e fo r goo d o r fo r e v i l e n
ga ge d i n a C o n tin e nta l syst e m S i r E dwa rd G r e y
h a d w a rn e d t h e G e r ma n a mb a ss a d o r o n the 2 9 t h
that h e d i d n o t w i sh him to b e m isl e d by t h e f r i e n d ly
tone o f ou r conv e rs a t io n i n to think i ng t ha t w e shoul d
stan d a s i d e Th e n the G erm an a mb a ss ado r a cco r d
.

H OW

2 7o

in g

DI P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

t he

For e ign S e cr e ta ry s d e sp atch to B e rl i n

N o 9 0 s a i d e mp h ati cally that s o m e m e ans mu st b e
f o u n d o f p r e s e rvi n g t h e p e a c e o f Eu r op e
R ap i dly
t h e s c e n e w a s cha n gi n g f r om t h e D a n ub e a n d the
N e va to t h e M e u s e a n d t h e N o rth S e a
S till t h e
a ct o r s in t h e d r a m a talk e d a s i f t h e a cti o n o f t h e play
l ay i n t h e e a st Th e y w e r e oblig e d t o d o s o fo r a n y
i n d i cati o n to th e au di e n c e th at t h e uniti e s w e r e d is
r e ga r d e d woul d hav e le d to t h e d a n g e r o f sp r i ngi n g
t h e whol e pl o t o n t h e au d i e n c e to o s o o n
G e r m a n y wa s in a d e sp e rat e x a t mid n i ght o n the
2 9 th
At onc e s h e b e ga n b r i n gi n g p r e ssu r e on Au s
t ri a S h e ha s how e v e r r e c e iv e d n o tha n ks fo r h e r
trouble I n d e e d i t h a s b e e n s a i d tha t S h e n ev e r
t r i e d to i n u e n c e Au str i a S tr a n g e i t i s how w a r
s e e m s to clo s e t h e ga t e s o f s imp l e j u sti c e o n ma n ki n d
W hy e v e n t h e B r iti sh amb a ss a d o r a t V i e nna i n his
d e sp atch N o 9 5 s a i d :
to

The F re n ch

mb as s a do r h e a rs f ro m B e r li n t h a t t h e
G e r m a n a mb as s a do r a t V i e n n a i s i n s t r uc t e d t o s p e a k s e r i o u s l y
t o t h e Au s t r o H u n g a r i a n G o v e r n m e n t a g a i n s t a c t i n g i n a
m a n n e r c a l cu l a t e d t o p r o v o k e a Eu r o p e a n w a r U n fo r tu
ma t e l y t h e G e r m a n a mb a s s a do r i s h i m s e l f s o i de n t i e d w i t h
S e r v i a n f e e li n g p re v a l e n t i n
e x t r e m e a n t i Ru s s i a n a n d a n t i
V i e n n a t h a t he is u n li k e l y t o p l e a d t he c a u s e o f p e a c e w i t h

e n t i re s i n c e r i t y

We

h ave p ro o f o f th i s And i t m ay b e
p o i n t e d ou t how a p e opl e m ay e a s i ly b e at t h e m e r cy
On
o f t h e a n t i p athi e s o f th e i r o w n amb a ss a d o r
July 2 9 th t h e G e rma n a mb a ssa d o r a t P e t e rsb u rg
t e l e grap h e d t o B e r li n that t h e Vi e n na C ab i n e t h a d
s e n t a n e gat i v e r e ply to t he w i sh e xp r e ss e d by the
Ru ss i a n Gove rnm e nt to e nter i nto d i r e ct n e got i at i ons
n ow

SAZO NO F TH E

UN HA P P Y

27 1

Ther e up o n t h e G e r m a n Chancello r sent the follow

i n g m essage t o V i e n na :
Ju ly 3 0 t h 1 9 1 4
Th e re p o r t o f C o u n t P o u r t a le s d o e s n o t h a r m o n iz e w i t h
t he a cc o u n t wh i ch y o u r E x c e lle n cy h a s g i v e n o f t h e a t t i t u d e
G o v e r n m e n t App a r en t l y t h e r e
o f t h e Au s t r o H u n g a r i a n
i s a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g wh i ch I b e g yo u t o c l e a r up
We
c a n n o t e x p e c t Au s t r i a Hu n g a r y t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h S e r v i a
w i t h wh i ch s h e i s i n a s t a t e o f w a r The r e fu s a l h ow e v e r
t o e x ch a n g e v i e w s w i t h S t
P e t e rs bu r g w o u ld b e a g r a v e
m i s t a k e W e a r e i n de e d re a dy t o fu l l o u r d u t y As a n
h o w e v e r r e fu s e t o b e d r a w n i n t o a W o r ld
a l ly w e mu s t
co n a gr a t i o n
t h r o ugh A u s t r i a H u n g a r y n o t r e s p e c t i n g o u r
Yo u r E x c e lle n cy w i ll ex p r e s s t h i s t o C o u n t B e r ch
a dv i c e
t o ld w i t h a ll e mph a s i s a n d g r e a t s e r i o u s n e s s
B ETH MA N N H OL L W E G

B E R LI N

W hen

c o n t e n ts o f t h is d e sp atc h w e r e m a de
k n o w n t h e Au st r i a n M i n ist e r f o r Fo r e ig n Affa i r s
t o l d t h e G e r ma n a m b a ssa d o r th e r e h a d i n d e e d b e e n
a m i su n d e r sta n d i n g but t h at i t h a d b e e n e xp la in e d
a n d t h e Au st r i an amb a ssa d o r a t P e t e rsbu r g h a d a l
r e a d y r e c e iv e d i n st r u cti o n s to b e gi n n e goti a ti o n s with
M Saz on o f
B u t n o twit h sta n d i n g d ipl o mati c mi s
u n d e r sta n d i n gs M S a z o n o f w o ul d n o t a n d cou l d n o t
s t op m o b ili z i n g H e w a s r e a d y t o m e e t Au st r i a
ma k e a n d r e mak e fo r mul a s but a ll th e se e xp e d i e n ts
ca r r i e d n o c o n vi c t i o n at Vi e n n a o r B e r li n s o lo n g a s
Rus si a n m o b i li z ati o n w a s co n ti n u e d P o o r M
S a z o n o f ! h e w a s n o t i n t h e p o siti on o f ou r F o r e i gn
S e c r e ta r y w h o w a s r e ga r d e d by Lo r d Ha l d a n e a s

C omma n d e r o f t h e Fo rc e s
All woul d d e
t he
p e n d o n Ru ssi a a n d a ll d i d de p e n d on Ru ssi a Th e
G e r ma n S e c r e ta ry o f S tat e t o l d o u r a mb ass a d o r at
B e r li n to imp r e s s o n S i r E dwa r d G r e y t h e d i fculty
th e

H OW

27 2

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

o f G e r ma n y s positi o n in vi e w o f Ru ss i an mob i l i z a
ti o n a n d t h e m ili ta r y m e a su r e s whi ch h e h e ar d w e r e
b e i n g tak e n in F r a n c e O n ly ofc e r s o n l e ave h a d
b e e n r e call e d ; n othing sp e ci a l d on e in t h e way o f m i li
ta r y p r e p a r a ti o n s B u t
s omething woul d h av e
s o o n to b e d o n e fo r i t might b e to o lat e a n d wh e n
t h e y mobili z e d th e y woul d h av e to mob i li z e o n th r e e
s i d e s H e r e g r e tt e d thi s a s he kn e w Fra nce d i d n o t

d e si r e w a r bu t i t w o u l d b e a milita ry n e c e ssity
P e r h ap s t h e S e c r e ta ry o f S tat e thou ght i t wa s tim e
to tak e h i s ng e r o ff t h e b utton a n d p la c e i t on t h e
tr i gg e r At t h e s am e t i m e h e tol d the B r i t i sh a m
b a s s a d o r that t h e wa r n i n g S ir E d wa r d G rey h a d
giv e n t h e G e rma n amb assa d o r a t Lo n d o n a s to
B r ita i n s neut r ali ty h a d n o t r e a ch e d the G e rman
Chanc e llo r unt i l a ft e r t h e in famou s p r op osa l w a s
ma d e
.

h a t t e l e g ra m r e c e i v e d f ro m
P ri n c e L i ch n o w s ky l a s t n i gh t c o n t a i n s m a t t e r wh i ch h e h a d
h e a r d w i t h re g r e t bu t n o t e x a c t l y w i t h s u r p r i s e a n d a t a ll
e v en t s h e t h o r o u gh l y a pp r e c i a t e d t h e f r a n k n e s s a n d l o y a l t y
w i t h wh i ch yo u h a d s p o k e n H e a l s o t o l d m e t h a t t h i s
t e l e g ra m h a d o n l y r e a ch e d B e r li n v e r y l a t e l a s t n i gh t ; h a d
i t b e e n r e c e i v e d e a r li e r C h an c e ll o r w o u l d o f c o u r s e n o t
h a v e s p o k e n t o m e i n t h e w ay h e h a d d o n e
H is

E x c e ll e n cy

a d de d

Why

Fo r e ig n S e cr e ta r y shou l d t e l e grap h on

wa s
t h e 2 9 t h to ou r amb a ssa d o r a t P a r i s th at h e

abou t to w a r n P r i n c e Li chn o w s ky that G e r m a n y

must not cou n t o n B r ita i n stan di n g a si d e b e f o r e h e
t e l e g r ap h e d t h e s am e g r av e i n fo rmat i o n to ou r a m
b a s s a d o r a t B e rli n i s a myst e ry
It i s wo r th whi l e look i n g a l i ttl e clos e r at this
p ha s e o f d iplom ati c n egoti atio n s b e caus e i t tou c h e s
our

A F RAN K ANALYS IS

2 73

t he

s econ d p o i n t in the Whit e P ap e r wh i ch ha s ra i s e d

s o mu ch u n e a si n e ss i n t h e m i n d s o f s om e o f th e mo st
int e llig e n t m e n i n B rita i n
M ost fa i r min d e d p e opl e
now a d mit tha t th e r e w o ul d h av e b e e n no wa r i f the
B r i tish Gov e r n m e n t h a d b o l d ly an n ou n c e d o n r e c e ipt
o f S ir G e org e B u cha n a n s d e sp atc h o n Ju ly 2 4 t h that
the Tr i pl e E n t e n t e w o ul d p r o cl a i m th e i r soli d a rity
No w tha t th e t r uth i s l e aki n g out a n d i n t e llig e n t p eo
ple have h a d tim e to r e e ct thi s i s foun d to b e t h e
rst p oint in t h e Whit e P ap e r th at i s the c au se o f

wi d e sp r e a d r e g r e t Th e wa rn i n g i s t h e s e con d
p o i n t A n a ly z e d c h r o n o log i c ally i t s e ems to b e a
tho r oughly d i sc r e d itable affa i r
O n t h e mo r n i n g o f W e dn e s d ay Ju ly 2 9 t h S ir E d
wa r d G r e y t o l d M P aul C amb on (s e e d e sp a tch N o
8 7 B r iti sh W hit e P ap e r to S i r Fr a n c i s B e rti e ) tha t
h e m e a n t to t e ll t h e G e r ma n a mba ss a d o r th a t d a y
that h e mu s t n o t b e m i sl e d fr om the f r i e n d ly ton e o f
t h e i r co n v e r s a ti o n tha t B r ita i n wou l d stan d as i d e
In t h e n e xt d e sp at ch N o 8 8 Ju ly 2 9 t h f r om S i r
E dwa r d G r ey to S i r E G osch e n th e r e i s not o n e
wo r d ab out wa r n i n g t h e G e r m a n a mb a ss a d o r
I n d e sp atch N o 8 9 S ir E d wa r d G r e y tol d Si r E
Gosch e n tha t h e s aw t h e G e r ma n amba ssa d o r that
a ft e r n oon July 2 9 t h a n d t o l d him n o t to b e m i sl e d
by t h e f r i e n d ly t o n e o f th e i r c o nv e rs at i on i nto th i nk
i n g that B r i ta i n woul d sta n d a si d e
D e sp at ch N o 9 0 p r ov e s Si r E d wa r d G r e y s aw t h e
G e r ma n a mba ss a d o r t w i ce o n July 2 9 t h
I t i s evi de n t tha t Si r E dwa r d G r e y d i d no t w a r n
t h e G e r ma n a m b a ssa d o r wh e n h e s a w h i m that
m o r n i n g I t i s als o e v i d ent that S ir E dwa rd G rey
n o ti e d M
P au l C amb o n a n d the B r iti s h a mb a ss a
d o r at P a r i s tha t h e w a s about to wa r n the G e r ma n
-

H OW D I P LO M AT S M A KE

274

WAR

a mb a ss a d o r tha t B r i ta i n woul d n o t sta n d a si d e s e v

e r a l hou r s b e f o r e h e gav e t h e wa r n i n g t o P r i n c e
,

L i ch n o w s k y

Th e r e i s n o r e f e r e n c e a t a ll in M P au l C a mb o n s
d e sp atch o f July 2 9 t h No 9 8 i n t h e F r e n c h Y e ll o w
B o o k t o S i r E d wa r d G r e y s w a rn i n g S t r a n g e ly
e n oug h
the Fr e n ch amba ssa d o r a ft e r r e c e ivi n g t h e
n e ws f r om S i r E d wa r d G r e y o f t h e wa r n i n g t o b e
giv e n to t h e G e r m a n a m b a ss a d o r to l d t h e F r e n ch
G ov e r n m e n t :

M y G e r m an c o ll e a gu e h a v i n g

k e d S i r E dw a r d G re y
W h a t t he i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t w e r e t h e
S e c re t a r y o f S t a t e fo r F o r e i g n Aff a i r s re p li e d t h a t h e h a d
S i r E d w a r d G re y d i d n o t
n o t h i n g t o s t a t e fo r t h e p r e s e n t
d i s gu i se t he f a c t t h a t h e f o u n d t h e s i t u a t i o n v e r y g r av e
a n d t h a t h e h a d li t t l e h o p e o f a p e a c e fu l s o l u t i o n
as

Why th e r e should b e no r e f e r e n c e to t h e wa r ning

in d e sp atch N o 9 8 in t h e F r e n c h Y e ll o w B o o k
(t h e o n ly d e sp a tch s e n t by t h e Fr e n ch a m b a ss a
d o r a t L o n d o n t o h i s G o v e r n m e n t o n July 2 9 ) i s a s
d i fcult to u n d e r sta n d a s t h e stat e m e n t att r ibut e d t o
Th e n e ws
S i r E d wa r d G r e y whi ch i s qu o t e d ab ov e
o f t h e wa rni n g was how e ve r k n o w n in B e r li n o n t h e
a ft e rn oo n o f July 2 9 t h I n d e sp at c h No 9 2 i n t h e
F r e nch Y e ll o w B o o k f r o m M Jul e s C amb o n t h e
F r e nch a mb a ss a d o r at B e r li n w e l e a r n :
,

C h a n c e ll o r (G e rm a n ) i s v e r y
p ro b a b l y the
o f t h e l a s t i n t e rv i e w o f S i r E dw a r d G r e y
w i t h P r i n ce L ichn o w s ky U p t o qu i t e t h e l as t d ay s t h e y
a t t e re d t h e m s e l v e s h e r e (B e r li n ) t h a t E n g la n d w o u l d r e
m a i n o u t o f t h e qu es t i on a n d t he i mp re s s i o n p r o duc e d o n
t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t a n d o n t h e n a n c i e rs a n d bu s i n e s s
m e n by h e r a t t i t u de i s p r o f o u n d

The

i u de
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a tt t

of

t he

A CU R I OUS P RO CE E D I N G

275

Th i s i s i llum i nat i ng I n d e e d i t e xpl a ins a g r e a t

d e a l wh i ch s e e me d da r k a n d d i fcult i n th e e a rly d ays
o f Augus t I t wa s th e n thought by a c e rta in sch o ol
o f J i n g o j ou rnal i sts tha t t h e thr e a t o r wa r n i n g o f Si r
E d wa r d G r e y on July 2 9 t h w a s the i nu e n ce wh i ch
fo r c e d t h e G e r m a n C ha n c e llo r to b r i n g p r e ssu r e t o
b e a r o n Au st r i a to obta i n d i r e ct co n v e r s ati o n s with
Ru ss i a
B ut the G e rm a n Chanc e llo r k n e w n ot h i n g
ab ou t the th r e a t o r wa r n i n g whe n he s aw Si r E d wa r d
G o sch e n o n the a fte r n o o n o f July 2 9 t h M Ju l e s
C a mb o n w a s evi d e n tly m i sle d wh e n h e s ent hi s d e s
p atch fo r t h e B e r lin Fore i gn O fc e k n e w n oth i n g

th e n ab ou t th e r e sult o f t h e l ast i n t e rv i e w o f S i r

E d wa r d G rey w i th P r i nce L i ch n o w s k y
Sti ll M
C amb on m ight h ave b e e n i n p o ss e ssi o n o f the i n fo r
mati on whi ch w a s to b e g i v e n to P r inc e L i ch n o w s k y
fo r i t h a d b e e n g i ven to h i s b roth e r i n Lon d o n t h at
mo rn i ng
I t i s qu i te cle a r th a t n e i the r S i r E dwa r d Go sch e n
no r the G e rm a n C h a nc e llo r k n e w a nything abou t t h e
w a r ni n g whe n th e y h a d th e i r i nte r vi e w o n the a ft e r
n oo n o f July 2 t h
Th
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r
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9
Si r E G os ch e n r ece i v ed de sp a tch N o 8 9 i n whi ch
S i r E d wa r d G rey tol d him th a t h e h a d wa r n e d t h e
G e r m a n a mb assa d o r I t wa s no t t e l e g r aphe d I f
h e h a d r e c e iv e d it h e wou l d h av e k n own wha t t h e
G e r ma n S e c r e ta ry o f S tat e w a s r e f e rring to o n July
3 0 t h wh e n h e wa s tol d that t h e t e l e gram r e ce i v e d
f r om P r inc e L i ch n o w s ky did not r e a ch B e rl i n u n ti l
v e r y late on t h e n i ght o f July 2 9 t h S ir E dwa r d
G o s ch e n wa s s o mu ch i n t h e d a rk about th i s m att e r
tha t S i r E d wa r d G r e y h a d t o t e l e g r ap h on Ju ly 3 o t h
a n d t e ll h i m that h e (S i r E d wa r d G r e y ) h a d wa r n e d
Pr i nc e L i ch n o w s k y
.

27 6

H OW

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

The wh o l e o f the b as i s M r Asqu i th took fo r h i s

ca s e o n Au gu st 6 th w a s d e spatch N o 8 5 B r itis h
Whit e P ap e r f r o m S i r E dwa r d Gosc h e n to Sir E d

wa r d G r e y ; thi s co n ta i n e d t h e i n famou s p r op osal

N o n o ti c e at a ll wa s e v e r tak e n o f d e sp atch N o 9 8
f r o m Sir E d wa r d Gosc h e n t o S i r E d wa r d G r e y I t
i n fa m o u s to le t the F r e n ch amb assa d o r a t
was n ot
L o n d o n a n d t h e B r iti sh a mb a ssa d o r at P a ri s k n o w
o n July 2 9 t h th a t S i r E d wa r d G r e y wa s ab ou t to w a r n
P r i n c e L i ch n o w s k y tha t B r i ta i n w oul d n o t sta n d
a si d e ; it wa s n o t i n famou s to le t t h e B r iti sh a m
b a s s a d o r a t B e r l i n m e e t t h e G e r m a n Chan c e llo r o n
t h e a ft e rno o n o f Ju ly 2 9 t h i g n o ra nt that P r i n c e Li ch
n o w s k y wa s about t o b e wa r n e d
though t h e Fr e n ch
amb assa d o r at B e rli n s e e m e d at that tim e to b e p r e tty
fully a cqu a i n t e d with t h e n e ws o f t h e wa rn ing ; it wa s
n ot
in fa mou s
tha t t h e B r iti s h a mba ss a d o r a t
B e r li n s houl d n o t k n ow wha t t h e G e r m an S e cr e ta ry
o f S t at e w a s r e fe r ring to on July 3 o t h when he tol d
S i r E d wa r d G osch e n :
T h a t t e l e g r a m r e c e i v e d f ro m P r i n c e L ichn ow sky
h a d o n l y r e a ch e d B e r li n v e r y l a t e l a s t n i gh t ; h a d i t b e en
r e c e i v e d e a r li e r C h a n c e ll o r (G e r m a n ) w o u l d o f c o u rs e n o t
.

h av e s p o k e n

to

m e i n w a y h e h a d do n e

S o t h e i n famou s p r op o s al woul d not have b een

m a d e h a d S i r E d wa r d G r e y d e alt with t he B e r lin
F o r e ig n Of c e a n d t h e G e rm a n a mb a ss a d o r at Lon
d o n with t h e o r d i n a ry cou rt e sy th a t o n e busin e ss m a n
e xt e n d s to a n oth e r
Y e t i t wi ll b e s e e n tha t S i r E d
wa r d G r ey i n d e sp atch N o 1 0 1 to S i r E d wa r d
G o sch e n July 3 o t h d o e s no t r e f e r at a ll to d e sp atch
N o 9 8 thou gh a ft e r h e h a d s e n t N o 1 0 1 h e h a d to
t e l e g r aph t o S i r E d wa r d G os ch e n i n NO 1 0 2 tha t
he h a d wa r n e d P r i n ce L i chn o w s k y
.

WHAT M I GHT HA VE B EEN

2 77

I s i t a ny wo n d e r that i n t e ll i g e nt fa i r m i n d e d p e o
n o w sm il e wh e n t h e B r itish Whit e P ap e r i s r e
l
e
p
f e r r e d to a n d shak e th e i r h e a d s s o r r ow fu lly wh e n
i n fa m o u s p r op o s a l
t h e u n i n i t i at e d t a lk ab ou t t h e
Why n e ith e r S ir E dwa r d G r e y n o r M r As qu ith ha s
e v e r r e f e r r e d t o d e sp atch No
9 8 i s o n e o f th e
B ut
r s t cla ss myst e r i e s o f thi s t e r r ibl e b u s i ne ss
t h i s myst e r y m ay h e lp t o t e a ch M emb e r s o f P a r
li a m e n t a l e ss o n i n d ip lom ati c m e tho d s
I n futu re
th e y may wi sh t o s e e p ap e r s givi n g a full stat e m e nt
o f t h e ca s e i n go o d a n d a mp l e tim e t o scru tini z e
clo s e ly w h a t d ipl o m ati sts h av e b e e n d o i n g a n d s ay
in g
I f o n F r i d ay Ju ly g 1 8 t t h e H ou s e o f C o m
m o n s h a d b e e n i n p oss e ssi o n o f t h e B r iti s h Whit e
P ap e r a n d a ll t h e d e sp atch e s u p t o m i d n i ght July
o
h
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o
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d
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3
clos e ly ov e r t h e w e e k e n d th e r e might h av e b e e n a
v e r y d i ff e r e n t s e t o f c i r cumst a n c e s t o r e co r d o f t h e
r st w e e k o f Augu st e v e n though w e w e r e e nta n gl e d
wi th F r a n c e a n d Ru ssi a
B ut P r i n c e L i chn o w s ky w a s not t h e o n ly p e rson
n o t wa rn e d i n tim e i n that d r e a d fu l la st w e e k o f
July Th e m e mb e rs o f t h e B ritis h H o u s e o f C o m
mo ns w e r e n o t wa r n e d Du ri n g that w e e k o u r a l
l i e s s e e m e d t o h av e n o d o ubt th a t t h e p e a c e o f Eu
rop e lay i n t h e h a n d s o f G r e a t B r i tai n ; a n d R u ssi a
co n sta n tly w a r n e d S i r E d wa r d G re y
a n d F r a nc e
o f t h e fact Th e Fo r e i g n S e c r e ta r y kn e w tha t t h e
P r e si d e n t o f Fr a n c e h a d tol d o u r a mb a ssa do r at
P a r i s o n Ju ly 3 o t h t h at h e w a s co n vi n c e d tha t p e a ce
b e tw e e n t h e P ow e rs wa s i n th e han d s o f G re at B rit
ain H e said :
I f H is M a j e s t y s Go v e rn m en t an n o u n c e d t h a t E n g l a n d
w o u l d c o m e t o t h e a i d o f F r a n c e i n t he e v e n t o f a c o n i c t
,

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA K E

278

WAR

b e t w e e n F r a n c e a n d G e r m a n y a s a r e s u l t o f t h e p r es e n t
d i ffe r e n c es b e t w e e n Au s t r i a a n d S e rv i a t h e r e w o u l d b e n o
w a r fo r G e rm a n y w o u l d a t o n c e m o d i fy h e r a t t i t u d e
,

The Ru ss i a n a mb a ss a d o r a t Pa r i s tol d th e Pres i

d e n t o f t h e Fr e nch C ou n ci l on t h e n ight o f July 3 o t h
tha t w a r wa s imm i n e n t a n d that :
She (Ru s s i a )

co u n t s

h e l p o f F r an c e as a n a ll y
a n d t h a t s h e c o n s i de r s i t d e s i r a b l e t h a t E n g l a n d s h o u l d j o i n
Ru s s i a a n d F r a n c e w i t h o u t l o s s o f t i m e F r a n c e i s r e s o l v e d

t o fu l l a ll t he o b li g a t i o n s o f h e r a lli a n c e
on

th e

From t h e b e g i n n i n g n e i th e r Ru ss i a no r France
c e a s e d t r yi n g t o g e t t h e B r i t i s h Fo r e ig n S e c r eta ry
to d e cla r e op e nly wh at B r i ta i n wou l d d o
P r o cr a s t i
n at i on wa s t h e o ffsp r i n g o f se c r e cy
C om
a n d the

m an d e r o f t h e Fo rc e s wa s abou t a s fre e to m ov e
a s La o co on
A l ea d e r i n th e Ti me s on July 3 o th s a i d :
.

The

i n s t i n ct o f s e l f p re se rv at i on wh i ch is t he s t r o n g e s t
f a c t o r i n n a t i on a l li f e t h e r e f o r e c o mp e l s u s i f t he e ffo r t s
o f ou r G o v e r n m e n t t o k e e p t h e p e a c e s h o u l d f a il t o b e
r e a d y t o s t r i k e w i t h a ll o u r f o r c e fo r o u r o w n s a f e t y a n d fo r
t h a t o f o u r f r i en ds
-

At la s t M C amb on h a d to r e so rt to som e com

pulsion a s t h e suppli cat i ons o f n e ithe r Ru ssi a n o r
F r a nc e we r e o f comp l e t e ava i l ; a n d h e on t h e 3 o t h
w r o t e r e m i n d i ng Si r E d wa r d G r e y o f the s ecr e t e n
n
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clos e d c o p i e s o f the l e tt e rs th e y h a d e xcha n g e d i n
N ov e mb e r 1 9 1 2 I t i s o n ly n e cessa ry now t o look
C amb on :
a t the lett e r from M
.

SE C RET H I ST O RY E M E RG IN G

F R ENC H

2 7o

E M B A SS Y L ON D ON
N ov e mb e r 2 3 r d 1 9 1 2
.

D ea r S i r E d w a r d :

Y o u r e m i n de d m e i n

y ou r l e t t e r o f y es t er d a y 2 2 n d
N o v e mb e r t h a t d u r i n g t h e l a s t few ye a r s t h e m ili t a r y a n d
n a v a l a u t h o r i t i e s o f F r a n c e a n d G re a t B r i t a i n h a d c o n s u l t e d
w i t h e a ch o t h e r f ro m t i m e t o t i m e ; t h a t i t h a d a l w a y s b ee n
u n de rs to o d t h a t t h e s e c o n s u lt a t i o n s s h o u l d n o t r es t r i c t t he
li b e r t y o f e i t h e r G o v e rn m e n t t o de c i de in t he fu t u r e wh e t h e r
t h e y s h o u l d l e n d e a ch o t h e r t h e s upp o r t o f t h e i r a r m e d
f o r c es ; t h a t o n e i t h e r s i de t h e s e c o n s u l t a t i o n s b e t w e e n e x
p e r ts w e re n o t a n d s h o u ld n o t b e c o n s i de r e d a s e n g a g e m e n ts
b i n d i n g o u r Go v e rn m e n t s t o t a k e a c t i o n i n c e r t a i n e v e n t u a li
t i e s ; t h a t h o w e v e r I h a d r e m a r k e d t o yo u t h a t i f o n e o r
o t h e r o f t he t w o G o v e r n m e n t s h a d g r a v e r e a so n s t o f e a r
a n u n p ro v o k e d a t t a ck o n t h e p a r t o f a t h i r d P o w e r i t w o u l d
b e c o m e e ss e n t i a l t o k n ow wh e t h e r i t c o u l d c o u n t o n t he
a r m e d s upp o r t o f t h e o t h e r
Yo u r l e tt e r a n s w e rs t h a t p o i n t a n d I a m a u t h or iz e d
t o s t a t e t h a t in t h e e v e n t o f o n e o f o u r t w o Go v e rn m e n t s
h a v i n g g r a v e r e a s on s t o f e a r e i t h e r a n a t t a ck f r o m a t h i r d
P o w e r o r s o m e e v e n t t h re a t e n i n g t h e g e n e r a l p ea c e t h a t
Go v e rn m en t w o u l d i mm e di a t e l y e x a m i n e w i t h t he o t h e r t h e
qu e s t i o n wh e t h e r b o t h G o v e r n m e n t s s h o u l d a ct t o g e t h e r i n
I f s o t he
o r de r t o p r e v e n t a gg r e ss i o n o r p r es e rv e p e a c e
t w o G o v e r n m e n t s w o u l d d e li b e r a t e as t o t h e m e a s u r e s wh i ch
t h e y w o u l d b e p r e p a r e d t o t a k e i n c o mm o n ; i f t h o s e m ea s u r e s
i n v o l v e d a ct i on t he t w o Go v e r n m e n t s w o u l d t a ke i n to im
m e d i a t e c on s i de r a t i o n t h e p l a n s o f t h e i r ge n e r a l s t a ffs a n d
w o u l d t h e n de c i de a s t o t he e ffe c t t o b e g i v e n t o t h ose p l a n s
Y o u rs e t c
,

A U L C AM B ON

W i th t h e l e tt e rs the Fren ch amb ass a do r e n clos e d

a commu n i c a ti o n h e h a d r e c e iv e d f r om the Fr ench
M i n i ste r fo r Fo r e i gn A ffa i rs wh i ch s a i d tha t t h e
,

H OW D I PLO M AT S M A KE WA R

28o

Ge rm a n p at rols h a d tw i ce p e n e t r a t e d Fre n ch te rr i
to ry
y e st e r d ay
whi ch was not co rr e ct
fo r t h e commu n i cati on wa s d at e d July 3 I st a n d t h e
r d i n g to d e sp atch N o
1
wa
s
Fri
d
ay
Acco
1
0
6
t
3
g
i n t h e Fr e n ch Y e llow B o ok G e rm a n p atro ls p e n e
t r a t e d F r e nch t e rr i to r y o n We dn e s d ay July 2 9 t h
bu t n o t u n ti l Augu st 2 n d d id M Vivi a n i think it
wo r th w h i l e noti fyi n g B e r li n o f t h e V i olatio n o f t h e
Fr e nch f r o n ti e r by G e rm an t r oops Th e n h e i n
fo rm e d t h e Fre n ch amb a ssa d o r i n d e sp atch No 1 3 9

tha t
G e rm a n tro op s h avi n g to d a y vi olat e d t h e
ea st e rn f r onti e r at s e v e r a l p o i n ts I r e qu e st you im
m e d i a t e ly to prot e st in writi n g to t h e G e rman Gov

To t h e r e qu e st o f M C amb o n t h e For
e rn m e n t
e i g n S e creta ry repli e d th a t t h e C ab i n e t w o ul d m e e t

i n t h e mo rn i n g (F r i d ay ) a n d that h e wou l d s e e

I n S i r E dwa rd
him a ga in to mo r row a ft e r n oon
Gr e y s d e sp atch to t h e B r iti sh amb as s a d o r at P a ri s
h e stat e s t h a t M C ambo n h a d r em i n d e d him o f t h e
l e tt e rs o f N ov e mb e r 1 9 1 2 a n d tha t t h e F r e nch a m
b a s s a d o r h a d als o giv e n h im a copy o f t h e c o mmu n i
cati on f r om t h e Fr e n ch M i n i ste r fo r Fo r e i g n A f

fa i r s
Bu t a s the communi catio n i s d at e d P a ri s
July 3 1 s t
a n d the B r iti sh d e sp atch to P a ri s
No 1 0 5 i s d at e d July 3 o t h i t i s a littl e d i fcult t o
u nd e r sta n d how M C amb o n a n d S i r E dwa r d G r e y
coul d hav e b e e n i n p o ss essi on o f a d o cum e n t o n t h e
Th i s
3 o t h whi ch d i d not l e av e P a r i s u nt i l the 3 I st
commun i cat i o n i s a sp ecime n o f how d i plomat i sts
m ak e wa r Th e d at e s a r e all w rong s o w r o n g in
d e e d t h at t h e Fore i gn O f c e i n i ssui ng th e s e co n d e d i
t i on o f t h e Whi t e P ap e r cu t out t h e d a t e s a n d d a y
Fri d ay C omp a r e t h e commu n i cat i o n (E n closu r e 3
i n N o 1 0 5 B riti sh Wh i t e P ap e r ) w i th N o 1 0 6 i n
,

ST RUG GLI N G I N TH E N E T

28 1

the Fr e nch Y e llo w B o ok a n d j u d g e t o wh a t e xt e n t

t h e coll ab o rati o n o f M P au l C a mb o n imp re ss e d t h e
B riti s h Fo r e ign O i ce Th e p h r a s e As you s e e

G e r many h a s d o n e it i s not to b e foun d in t h e d e

s p a t ch
from M Vivi ani
B u t mo r e r e ma r kab l e
thi n gs than that happ e n in d iploma ti c ci r cl e s ; so
like m any oth e r cur i ou s S lip s i n t h e d e sp atc h i n g b u si
n e ss
w e m ay l e ave t h e d at e s fo r futu r e M a cau l ays
a n d G u i z o t s to s e t stra ight
Fr i d ay July 3 I st w a s p e r hap s t h e bla ckest F r i d ay
the wo rl d h as ev e r k n ow n
M i lli o n a i r e s cam e f r om
t h e c ity to th e i r h o m e s in t h e w e st e n d t r e mb li n g
with a nx i e ty wo n d e r i n g w h a t th e i r n a n ci a l p os iti o n
w o u l d b e withi n a w e e k P r ic e s o f foo d stu ffs w e nt
up with a b o u n d All w oul d d e p e n d o n Ru ssi a !
O n Fri d ay the whisp e r w a s All will d e p e n d o n G e r
m any !
F rom B e r li n c am e t h e fo llo w m g d e sp atch :
.

No

1 08

E D WA R D G R EY
(Te l e g ra ph i c )
(R e c e i v e d Ju l y 3 I s t )

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C h a n ce ll o r i n f o rm s m e t h a t h is e ffo r t s t o p re a ch p e a c e
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Emp e r o r i n t he n a m e o f t h e i r o ld f ri en d s h i p t o m e di a t e a t
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lin h e s e nt a m e ss ag e s ay i ng Au stri a h a s d ecla r e d
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p a r e fo r a ll em e r ge n ci e s K r i e gs g e f a hr w a s im
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t h e p re s e n t m o m e n t w e d i d n o t f e e l a n d pub li c o p i n i o n did
n o t f e e l t h a t a n y t r e a t i e s o r o b li g a t i o n s o f t h i s c o u n t r y w e r e
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t h a t i n t e rv e n t i o n w a s j u s t i e d
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go n e a t p re s e n t w e c o u l d n o t t a k e a n y e n ga g e m e n t M
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j e ct e d p ro p o s a l s t h a t m i gh t h a v e m a de fo r p e a c e I t c o u l d
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I n 1 8 70 w e h a d m a de a
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H e a s k e d m e wh e t h e r I c o u l d n o t s ubm i t h is qu es t i o n t o t h e
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s u mm o n e d a s so o n a s t h e r e w a s s o m e n e w d e v e l o pm e n t b u t
a t t h e p r es e n t m o m e n t t h e o n l y a n s w e r I c o u l d g i v e w as t h a t

w e c o u l d n o t u n de r t a k e a n y d e n i t e e n g a g e m e n t
,

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P a rl i a m e nt two y e a r s b e fo r e Si r E dwa r d G r e y s e n t
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1 83 9
that :
.

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I t i s up on o u r
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f e r e w i t h t he de s p a t ch o f t h e E x p e d i t i o n ar y F o rc e o r t o
c ov e r a n i n v as i o n a c o u n t e rs t r o k e i n t e n de d e i t h e r t o b r i n g
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a n d s o c l e a r t he
o f t h e E x p e d i t i o n a ry F o r c e f r o m g o i n g
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s how e d t hat h i s p r e caut i o n s
s p a t ch o f July 2 4 th
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NEUT RAL I TY O F B ELG IU M

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a ttitu d e o f t h e F o r e i gn S e c r e ta ry a nd the C ab i n e t
And what mu st M D av i g n o n hav e thought ? N o
wo n d e r tho s e b r ave f e llows a t Li e g e cou l d not u n
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M a n y m e n in F r a n c e a n d B e lgium
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bla ck as i t w as to M C amb o n
I n R u ss i a t h e p e opl e w e r e i n high sp i r its on tha t
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p la c e i n P e t e rsb u rg
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p r o ce s s i on a l s o v i s i t e d t h e F re n ch Emb ass y T r u t h co m
p e l s m e t o s a y t h a t Ru s s i a n s h i gh a n d low a re w a i t i n g
w i t h t he i n t e n s e s t a n xi e t y t o l e a r n G re a t B r i t a i n s de c i s i o n
Th e a r t i c l e s i n t h e Ti m s h a v e do n e much t o i n s p i r e h o p e
b u t i f c o n t r a ry t o r e a s o n a b l e e x p e c t a t i o n t h e B r i t i s h P a r li a
m e n t i n s i s t s o n n e u t r a li t y t h e r e w ill b e a t e r r i b l e re v u l s i on
o f f e e li n g h e re

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o f B e lgiu m w a s n o t s atis fa ct o r y ; t h e S e c r e ta r y o f
S t at e ma d e a n ot e o f i t bu t w as d oubt ful wh e th e r
the G e rm a n Gov e r n m e n t woul d r e tu r n a n y a n sw e r
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B e lg i um s o o u r a mb a ss a d o r wa s i n fo r m e d F r anc e
o f cou r s e s e n t a s atis fa cto ry r e p ly ; t he P r es i d ent o f
t h e R e pub li c h a d sp ok e n o f i t t o t h e K i ng o f t h e
B e lgi a ns Th e r st d e sp atch i n t h e Wh i te Pap e r
a d d r e ss e d to t h e B riti s h amb a ss a d o r at B ru ss e ls i s
d a te d July 3 I st b ut M D avignon i n t h e B e lgi a n

o fc i al r e p o rt state s tha t
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a ske d to s e e m e on u r g e n t b usiness a n d m a d e the

following communi cati on whi ch h e h a d h op e d fo r

s om e d ays to b e abl e to p re s e nt to me
a n d th e n
follows t h e qu e st i on o f B e lgi a n n eutra li ty So t h e
u r g e nt bus in e ss h a d b e en d e l ay e d fo r some d ays
though the B r iti sh M i n iste r saw the B elg i an M in i st e r
fo r Fo re i gn Affa i rs o n the ve ry d a y he r e ceive d i h
s t ru ct i o n s f r om Lon d on to put t h e quest i on i n Bru s
s els ab ou t the n eutra lity o f B e lg i um !
Th e d iplomat i c co rr e sp o n d e nc e i n th e B e lg i an
Whi t e P ap e r i s un i q u e ; i t i s to o n ai v e too p r e m on i
tory fo r a cc e p tance w ithout qu e sti on A cco r d i ng
to the u n d at e d e nclosu r e i n the not e o f July 2 4 t h t o
amb a ss a d o r s w e a re i n fo rme d tha t :
,

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t r a li t y h a v e n e v e r t h e l e s s b e e n t a k e n by t he G o v e r n m e n t
Th e B e l g i a n a r my h a s b e e n m o b iliz e d a n d i s t a k i n g up s uch
s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i on s as h a v e b e e n ch o se n t o s e cu r e t h e d e f e n c e
The f o r t s
o f t he c o u n t r y a n d t h e re s p e c t o f i t s n e u t r a li t y
o f An t w e r p a n d o n t h e M e u s e h a v e b e e n p u t i n a s t a t e o f
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s h e h a d n o r e a so n a t all to gu a r d h e r F r e nch fron
ti e r ; a ll h e r p r e p a rat i ons w e r e m a d e a ga i ns t Ge r
m any The a r e a to b e p rot e ct e d wa s that through
whi ch t h e M e u s e r an : L i e ge N amu r and D i nant
Bu t B e lgiu m l e ss tha n fou r months b e fo r e h a d r e
ce i v e d sp e ci c d e cla r at i ons from G e rmany tha t s h e
woul d r e sp e ct the n e ut r ality a n d in d e p en d e n c e o f B el
gium Why th e n shoul d B e lgium b e fo r e S e rv i a r e
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o f th e G e n e ra l Sta ffs ? Th e B r i tis h Se creta r y o f
Sta te fo r W a r was a sk e d i n the H ou s e o f C ommons
i n 1 9 1 2 fo r a n
e xpli c i t sta t e m e nt o f the r e lat i ve
fo rc e s wh i ch woul d tak e t h e e l d i n F r a n ce a n d B e l
g i um at the outb r e ak o f th e c o n i ct w i th G e rmany
On July 3 1 s t t h e B e lgi a n M inist e r fo r Wa r issu e d
the m ob i li z atio n o r d e r to ca r ry out the op e rat i ons
that w e re compl e t e d b e fo re t h e 2 4t h
O n th a t F r i d ay night i t w a s no u s e d i scu ss i n g a n y
th i ng i n B erl i n bu t t h e d e mob i li z ati o n o f t h e Ru s
s i a n f o rc e s ; n othing bu t d e m ob i li z ati on woul d s atis fy

t h e G e r ma n G o v e r n m e n t
I t wa s d e ma n d e d i n
o r d e r to p r e ve n t Russ i a f r om s aying all h e r m ob i l i z a

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m a n S e cr e ta r y o f S tate tol d th e B r i ti sh a mbassa d o r

th at b oth t h e Emp e ro r Wi lli am a t t h e r e qu e st o f

the Emp e ro r o f R u ss i a a n d t h e G e rm a n Fo r e i gn
O fce h a d ev e n u p till last n ight b e e n u r gi n g Au stri a
to S how w i ll i ng n e ss to co n t i nu e d i scu ssi o n s a n d
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V i e nn a h a d b e e n o f a p rom i s i n g na tu r e bu t Ru s

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s i a s mob i l i z a t i o n h a d sp o ilt e v e ryth i ng
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p e a ce H e s a i d :
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p ray e r fo r my h e l p I u n de r t o o k m e di a t o r y a c t i o n b e t w e en
t h e Au s t r o H u n g a r i a n G o v e r n m e n t a n d y o u r s
W h i le t h i s
a c t i o n w a s i n p r o g r e ss y o u r t r o o p s w e r e m o b iliz e d a g a i n s t
my a ll y Au s t r i a H u n g a r y i n c o n s e qu e n c e o f wh i ch a s I
h a v e a l re a d y i n fo r m e d yo u my m e di a t i on w as r e n de re d
ill u s o ry N e v e r t h e l es s I h a v e c o n t i n u e d i t Now h o w
e v e r I r e c e i v e t r u s t w o r t hy n e w s o f y o u r s e r i o u s p r e p a r a t i o n s
for w a r e v e n o n my e a s t e r n f ro n t i e r
Th e r e s p o n s i b ili t y
fo r t h e S a f e t y o f my k i n g do m c o mp e l s m e t o t a k e de fi n i t e
c o u n t e r m e as u r e s Th e e ffo r ts t o m a i n t a i n t he p e a c e o f
It
t h e w o r l d h a v e n o w r e a ch e d t h e i r u t m os t p o s s i b l e li m i t
w ill n o t b e I w ho a m r es p o n s i b l e fo r t h e c a l a m i t y wh i ch
Ev e n a t t h i s m o m e n t
t h r e a t e n s t h e wh o l e c i v iliz e d w o r l d
N o b o dy t h r e a t e n s t h e
i t li e s i n y o u r p o w e r t o a v e r t i t
h o n o u r a n d p o w e r o f Ru s s i a wh i ch c o u l d w e ll h a v e w a i t e d
fo r t h e r e s u l t o f my m e d i a t i o n
-

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s i a n G ov e r nm e nt i ssu e d t h e fo llow i ng fo rmula :
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I f Au s t r i a w ill a g re e t o ch e ck t he a dv a n ce o f he r t r oo p s
i f r e c o g n izi n g t h a t t he d i s pu t e b e t w e e n
o n S e r v i a n t e r r i t o ry
Au s t r i a a n d Se rv i a ha s a s s um e d a ch a r a c t e r o f Eu ro p e a n
i n t e r e s t s h e w ill a ll o w t he g re a t P o w e rs t o l oo k i n t o t he
m a t t e r a n d d e t e r m i n e wh e t h e r S e r v i a c o u l d s a t i s fy t he Au s
t r o Hu n g a r i a n G o v e r n m e n t w i t h o u t i mp a i r i n g h e r r i gh t s a s
Ru s s i a w ill u n de r
a s o v e re i g n S t a t e o r h e r i n d e p e n de n c e
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,

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bu t i t was t e ch n i cally imp ossib l e t o d i sco n ti n u e Ru s
si a n m ilita r y p r e p a rati o n s th o ugh M S a z o n o f
pl e dg e d R u ss i a to m a inta i n h e r w a i t i ng a tti tu de
Wa iti n g to sp r i n g ! Th e po sit i on o f the Ru ssi a n
M i n is t e r fo r Fo r e i gn Affa i r s wa s v e r y mu ch lik e
th at o f S i r E dwa r d G r e y : b o th w e r e si n c e re i n th e i r
e ffo r ts to stop a Eu ro pea n co n a g r a t i o n bu t t h e mil i
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ta ry a n d nava l autho r i t i e s i n the i r countr i e s w e r e

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w h o l e g e n e r ati o n o f m e n w e n t m a d a n d ou t o f t h e
cha ot i c j a r go n o f d ip lomacy n ot h i n g but w a r c ou l d
com e
Fo r ty fou r y e a r s o f s e c r e t t r a fck in g s h a d
r a i s e d a F r a n k e n st e i n s m o n st e r a n d t h e
m en w ho
h a d to o lo n g play e d wit h hu m a n liv e s
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p e t e n t to d e a l with t h e co n s e qu e n c e s o f th e i r wo r k
I n no o fci a l r e c o r d o f d iplomati c c o r r e sp o n d e n c e
i s th e r e to b e fou n d a d e sp atch c o n ta i n i n g so mu ch
th at i s p ath e ti c a s that i n t h e B r i ti sh W h it e P ap e r
I t r e v e al s a m a n in d e sp e r a ti on a t th e
No 1 2 3
k n e e s o f a symb ol p ow e r l e ss to g r a n t h op e o r m e r cy
L e t i t b e cl e a r ly u n d e r stoo d that Au st r i a h a d o n t h e
3 I st a g r e e d t o t h e f o r mu la submitt e d by Ru s si a
a n d that Si r E d wa r d G r e y k n e w i t
H e als o k n e w
tha t Russ i a n e ve r o n c e gav e t h e sl ight e st h e e d to t h e
p r o t e sts ma d e by t h e G e r m a n Fo r e i g n O fc e o r b y
t h e K a is e r a ga i n st R uss i a n m o b ili z ati on
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tha t th e i n fam o u s p ro po s al in d e sp atch NO 8 5

wou l d not h av e b e e n m a d e i f t h e wa rn i n g w h i ch h e
gav e P r i n c e L i chn o w s ky in Lo n d o n h a d b e e n k n ow n
i n B e rli n o n t h e 2 9 t h a s e a r ly a s i t w as k n own i n
P a ri s
D e sp atch N o 1 2 3 i s a s follows :
,

SI R

E D WA RD GR EY TO SI R E G O S C H E N
F O R E I G N O F F I C E Au g u s t I s t
.

19 14

S ir :

I t o l d t h e G e r ma n a mb a s s a do r t o d ay t h a t t he r e p l y o f
t he G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t w i t h r e g a r d t o t he n e u t r a li t y o f
B e l g i u m w a s a m a t t e r o f v e r y g r e a t r e g re t b e c a u s e t h e
n e u t r a li t y o f B e l g i um a ff e c t e d f e e li n g i n t h i s c o u n t r y
If
G e r m a n y c o u l d se e he r w ay t o g i v e t he s a m e a s s u r a n ce a s
t h a t wh i ch h a d b e e n g i v e n by F r a n c e i t w o u l d m a t e r i a ll y
c o n t r i bu t e t o re li e v e a n xi e t y a n d t e n s i o n h e re O n t h e o t h e r

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

29 0

h an d i f t h e r e w e r e a v i o l a t i on o f t he n e u t r a li t y o f B el g i um
by o n e c o mb a t an t wh il e t he o t h e r r es p e c t e d i t i t w o u ld be
e x t re m e l y d i f cu l t t o r e s t r a i n p ub li c f e e li n g i n t h i s c o u n t r y
I s a i d t h a t w e ha d b e e n d i s cu s s i n g t h i s qu e s t i o n a t a C a b i n e t
m e e t i n g a n d a s I w as a u t h o r iz e d t o t e l l h i m t h i s I g av e h i m
a m e m o r an d u m o f i t
H e a s k e d m e wh e t h e r i f G e r m a n y g a v e a p ro m i s e n o t
t o v i o l a t e B e l g i an n e u t r a li t y w e w o u l d e n g a g e t o r e m a i n
n e u t r al
I re p li e d t h a t I c o u l d n o t s ay t h a t ; o u r h a n ds w e r e s t ill
f r e e a n d w e w e r e c on s i de r i n g wh a t o u r a t t i t u de s h o u l d be
All I c o u l d s ay w as t h a t ou r a t t i t u de w o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d
l a r g e l y by pub li c o p i n i on h e re a n d t h a t t h e n e u t r a li t y o f
B e l g i um w o u l d a pp e a l v e r y s t ro n g l y t o pub li c o p i n i o n h e r e
I d i d n o t t h i n k t h a t I co u l d g i v e a p ro m i s e o f n e u t r a li t y o n
t h at co n di t i on a l on e
The a mb a s s a dor p re s se d m e as t o wh e t h e r I c o u l d n o t
fo rm u l a t e c on di t i o n s o n wh i ch w e w o u l d r e m a i n n e u t r a l
H e e v e n s u gg es t e d t h a t t h e i n t e g r i t y o f F r a n c e a n d h e r
c o l on i es m i gh t be gu a r a n t e e d
I s a i d t h a t I f e l t o b li ge d t o re f us e de n i t e l y a n y
p ro m i s e t o r e m a i n n e u t r a l o n s i m il a r t e r m s a n d I c o u ld
o n l y s a y t h a t w e m u s t k e e p o u r h a n ds f r e e
I am e tc
,

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d e a l with t h e G e r m an amb a ss a d o r ? M os t c e rta i n ly
no t I n the r st pl a c e S i r E d wa r d G r e y s han d s
w e re not f r e e ; h e wa s bou n d h an d a n d foo t by t h e
plans o f t h e Fr e nch a n d B riti sh G e n e r a l S taffs a n d
In
t h e co n v e rs ati o n s e n t e r e d i n to i n J a n u a r y 1 9 0 6
t h e s e co n d p la c e publi c op i n i on wa s n o t i n a n y way
r ip e fo r wa r ; ev e ry L i b e ral R a d i ca l a n d S oci a lis t
p ap e r i n t h e k i n g d om wa s d e a d aga i n st ou r p a r ti ci p a
tion i n a Eu rop e a n wa r T h e r e w a s n o J i n go f e e l
i ng worth sp eaking o f o n July 3 1 8 t
B es i d e s the
,

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29 1

C ab i net wa s n ot a nyth i ng l i k e a g r e e d : i t w a s then i n

s e a r ch o f a ca s us b e lli T h en i n t h e thi r d pl a c e Si r
E dwa r d G r e y a n d t h e C abi n e t coul d n o t hav e d o n e
a n yth i ng e ls e bu t r e m a i n n e utra l i f G e rma n y h a d
give n he r p l e d ge to r e sp e ct the neu t rality o f B e l
gium ; p re suming o f cou r s e t h e n e ut r al i ty o f B e l
giu m w e r e t h e d et e rmin i n g qu e sti o n
I f the n e u
t r a li t y o f B e lgium h a d b e e n t h e d o m i n a n t m att e r w e
S houl d h ave b e e n oblig e d t o ab sta i n a ltog e th e r i f
G e r m any h a d giv e n t h e p l e d g e a n d tak e no a cti o n
u n ti l t h e n e utral i ty o f B e lgiu m w e r e v i o lat e d S i r
E d wa r d G r e y w a s a s p ow e r les s to r e m a i n n e ut r a l
a s P r om e t h e u s to chas e t h e e agl e from hi s V i ta ls
Wh at hop e wa s th e r e fo r p e ac e a ft e r the i n t e rvi e w
reco r d e d in d e sp a tch N o 1 2 3 ? Wh a t wa s t h e e ffe ct
a t the G e r m a n F o r e ign O fc e wh e n th e y h e a r d fr o m
P r i nce Li ch n o w s k y t h e r e sult o f h i s i nt e rv i e w with
Si r E d wa r d G r e y ? Sti ll o u r Fo r e i g n S e c r e t a ry
ma d e o n Au gu st I st anoth e r a tt e mpt to i n u e n c e
Ru ss i a
H e s e nt to the B r i t i s h a mb a ssa do r a t P e t
e r s b u r g i n st ru cti ons tha t h e
shoul d i n fo r m M i n i st e r
f o r Fo r e ign Affa i rs a n d say th at i f i n t h e c o n si d e r a
t i on o f t h e a c c e pta nc e o f m e d i at i on by Au str i a Ru s
s i a c a n a g r e e to stop mob il i z ati o n i t a pp e a rs sti ll t o
b e p o ssibl e t o p r e se r v e p e a c e
P r e sum ably t h e mat
t e r s houl d b e d i scu ss e d with G e rma n Gov e r n m e n t

a ls o by Russ i a n Gov e rnm e n t

The l a st m e ssa g e
from t h e B ri t i sh amb assa d o r a t P e t e r sbu rg wa s s e n t
on Au gust 1 s t re a che d Lo n d o n Au gu st 2 n d a n d i ts
co n t e n ts r e f e r r e d to t h e a ffa i r s o f July 3 r s t Th e
o n ly b i t o f news wo rth menti o n i n g i n that long ri g
Th e Emp e r o r o f Rus si a rea d h i s t e le
m a r o le i s
g r am to t h e G e r m a n Emp e r o r to t he G e r m a n a m
b a s s a d o r a t t h e au d i ence given to H i s E x cellency ye s
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N o a n sw e r cam e from P e t e rsbu r g
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.

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a t Vi e n n a
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a ll w o u l d h a v e b e en w e ll
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a n s w e r i n g G e r m a n y s d e m a n d t h a t s h e s h o u l d d e m o b iliz e ,
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he r m o b iliz a t i o n did n o t n e c e ss a r i ly i mp l y w a r , a n d t h a t
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S he h a d t h e s p e e d a n d Ru s s i a h a d t h e n u mb e r s , a n d t h e
s a f e t y o f t h e G e r m an Emp i r e f o r b a de t h a t G e r m a n y s h o u l d
a ll o w Ru s s i a t i m e t o b r i n g up m a ss e s o f t r oo p s f r o m a ll p a r t s
h e r w i de do m i n i o n s
The s i t u a t i o n n o w w a s t h a t
of
t h o ugh t he Imp e r i a l G o v e r n m e n t h a d a ll o w e d h e r s e v e r a l
h o u rs b e y o n d t h e s p e c i e d t i m e Ru s s i a h a d s e n t n o a n s w e r
G e r m an y h a d t h e r e f o r e o r d e r e d m o b iliz a t i o n a n d t he G e r
m a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a t S t P e t e r s bu r g h a d b e e n i n s t r uc t e d
w i t h i n a c e r t a i n t i m e t o i n f o r m t h e Ru s s i a n G o v e rn m e n t
t h a t t he Imp e r i a l G o v e r n m e n t mu s t r e g a r d t h e i r r e fu s a l t o

an s w e r a s c re a t i n g a s t at e o f w a r
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p e r hap s t o o bu sy d oubti n g o n e a nothe r s sinc e r ity
to sp e n d mu ch t im e i n wo r k i n g fo r p e a ce I n thos e
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hop e sp i ri t s e e ms n o t t o h av e
p e rva d e d t h e cha n c e ll e r i e s I n Lo n d o n o n Sa tu r
d a y Augu st I s t t h e situ atio n w a s e xt r e m e ly g r av e
Lat e t h a t n i gh t Lo r d La n s d ow n e Sir E dw a r d C a r
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d i plom ati c wo r l d G e r m any h a d i ssu ed o rd e rs fo r

t h e g e n e r a l mob ili z a ti o n o f h e r a r my a n d n a vy ; t h e
n e xt d a y t h e S abb ath
to b e t h e r st d a y L at e r i t
wa s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e R us si a n s h a d b low n u p a ra i l
way b r i d g e b e tw e e n S z c z akowa a n d Gr a n it z a Th e
d e sp atchi n g bu s i n e ss wa s fa st d r awi n g to a clos e
a n d t h e p e r i o d o f d e e d s w a s taki n g the pla c e o f
wo r d s w o r d s wo r d s An d t h e w a r we a r y wo r l d
r o s e aga i n
lik e th e ph oen i x fr om t h e a sh e s o f a m il
l io n b attl e e l d s to giv e h e r b e st blo o d a n d b on e to
T hrough t h e lo n g S ab
t h e i n s ati ab l e g o d o f w a r
b ath a ll ov e r t h e ki n g d om thou san d s o f f e e t
t r amp e d C h a n n e l wa r d s ; r e gim e n t a ft e r r e gim e n t
wit h full k i t wou n d th r oug h Lo n d o n st r e e ts a s t h e
b e lls from t o w e r a n d st e e p l e c a ll e d t h e f o l k to
p r ay e r M i n i st e r s w e n t t o a C abi n e t m e e t i n g th e r e
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FOR E I GN O FF I C E Au gu s t 2 n d 1 9 1 4
Af t e r t h e C a b i n e t t h is m o r n i n g I g av e M C a mb o n t h e
f o ll o w i n g m e m o r a n d um :
I a m a u t h o r iz e d t o g i v e a n a s s u r a n c e t h a t i f t he G e r
m an e e t c o m e s i n t o t h e C h a n n e l o r t h ro ugh t h e N o r t h S e a
h os t il e Op e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t F r e n ch c o a s t o r
t o u n de r t a k e
Sh i pp i n g t h e B r i t i s h e e t w i ll g i v e a ll t he p ro t e c t i o n i n i t s
p ow e r
T h i s a s s u r an c e i s o f c o u r s e s ubj e c t t o t he p o li cy o f H is
M a j e s t y s G o v e r n m e n t r e c e i v i n g t h e s upp o r t o f P a r li a m e n t
a n d m u s t n o t b e t a k e n a s b i n d i n g H is l M
aj es t y s G o v e rn m e n t
t o t a k e a n y a c t i o n u n t il t he a b o v e c o n t i n g e n cy o f a c t i o n by
t h e G e r m an e e t t a k e s p l a c e

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a greem e nts t h e Fr e nch amb a ssa d o r mu st hav e won

I t wa s how e v e r
d e re d h o w t h e y a ll s t u ck tog e th e r
a fa i r ly s a fe ple d g e to giv e ; fo r t h e C ab i n e t k n e w
p r e tty n e a r ly wh e r e t h e G e r ma n e e t th e n wa s a n d
j us t ab ou t h o w mu ch cha n c e i t h a d o f i n t e r f e r i n g
w ith t h e p a ssag e o f the Exp e d iti ona ry Fo r ce a cros s
the C hann e l B ut th e r e a r e two mo r e pa ragraphs :
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d i fcu l t i s s u e s t o c o n s i d e r a n d t h a t Go v e rn m e n t f e l t t h a t
t h e y c o u l d n o t b i n d t h e m s e l v e s t o d e c l a r e w a r up on G e r
m an y n e c e ss a r il y if w a r b r o k e o u t b e tw e e n F r a n c e a n d G e r
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m o r r o w b u t i t w as e s s e n t i a l t o t h e F re n ch G o v e rn
m e n t wh o s e e e t h a d l o n g b e e n c on c e n t r a t e d i n t h e
M e d i t e r a n n e a n t o k n ow h o w t o m a k e t h e i r d i s p o s i t i o n s
w i t h t h e i r n o r t h c o a s t e n t i r e l y u n d e f e n de d W e t h e re f o r e
I t d id n o t
t h o ugh t i t n e c e ss a r y t o g i v e t h e m t h i s a s s u r a n c e
b i n d u s t o go t o w a r w i t h G e rm a n y u n l e s s t h e Ge r m an e e t
t oo k t h e a c t i o n i n d i c a t e d b u t i t d i d g i v e a s e cu r i t y t o F r a n c e
t h a t w o u l d e n a b l e h e r t o s e t t l e t h e d i s p o s i t i on o f he r ow n
M e d i t e r r a n e an fl e e t
M C a mb o n a s k e d m e a bou t t he v i o l a t i on o f L ux e m
I t o l d h i m t h e d o c t r i n e l a i d d o wn by L o rd D e r by
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I s a i d t h at w a s a much m o r e i mp o r t a n t m a tt e r ; w e w e re
c o n s i de r i n g wh a t s t a t e m e n t w e s h o u l d m a k e i n P a r li a m e n t
in e ff e c t wh e t h er w e s h o u l d d e c l a re v i o l a t i on
t o m o rr o w
I t o l d h i m W h at
o f B e l g i a n n e u t ra li ty t o b e a ca s us b e lli

h a d be en s a i d t o t he G e r m an a mb as s a do r on t h i s p o i n t
,

I t i s ev i dent the C ab i net wa s not a gr e e d ab out

B e lg i um two d ays a fte r t h e Fo r e i gn S e cr e ta ry h a d
a sk e d t h e B e lgi an G ove r n m e n t whethe r th e y woul d
m a inta i n to t h e utmost o f th e i r p ow e r t h e i r n e utra l
i ty S i r E d wa r d G r e y mu st h ave foun d h i ms e l f i n a
v e ry d i fcult p os i ti on w i th the C ab inet o n Au gu st
.

THE COUNT RY I N I GNO RAN C E

29

Wha t C ont i nental G ove rnments though t o f

th e si t u at i o n c a n b e gu e ss e d ; a n d ou r imp at i e n t
fr i e n d s i n R u ss i a a n d F r anc e a n d B e lgium we r e n o
d oub t ama z e d a t t h e d e lay o f t h e B r iti sh C ab in e t in
c o ming to t h e sup p o r t o f t h e m ilita ry a nd n av a l e x
p e r ts S om e m e mb e r s o f t h e C ab in e t l e a r n e d mor e
t h a t Sun d a y about s e cr e t d ip l o m a cy a n d its co n s e
qu e n ce s tha n th e y wi ll e v e r wi s h t o kno w a ga i n i n
th e i r p o liti ca l liv e s P e rhaps th e rep l i e s o f t h e
P r i m e M i n i st e r a n d t h e Fo r e ig n S e cr e ta r y to qu e s
tions pu t in t h e H ou s e o n s e v e r al o ccas i ons a s t o ou r
m ilita ry obliga t i o ns came l i k e ghosts i nto the cou nc i l
ro om B ut
2n d

W ho c a n
L oya l a n d

m a z e d t e m p e r a t e a n d fu r i o u s
n e u t ral
i n a m o m en t ? No m a n
b e w i se ,

I n Wh i t e ha ll a s M in i st e rs p a ss e d a long t o D own
i n g St r e e t to a tt e n d t h e s e co n d C ab i n e t m e e ti n g a
crow d o f p e op l e p a r t e d t o le t a r e gim e n t m a r ch
through S av e fo r a sho rt ch e e r f r om a fe w young
m e n t h e tro op s l e d a long a n ave n u e o f s i l e nt r e
Tw o M i n i st e rs st r o d e r ou n d t h e
s p e ct fu l f r i e n d s
c o r n e r i nto Downing S tre e t unnot i c e d by th e c r ow d
th e y w e r e go ing t o a m e e ting wh e r e a ca s u s b e lli wa s
to b e foun d Th e t r oop s tramp e d on p ast the W a r
O fc e a n d the Admi r alty but no o ne knew th e ir d e st i
n a n on
,

C HA P TE R
TH E

F O R E IGN

! III

S E C R ETA R Y S STATEM ENT

I F g e n e rou s h o n e s t y v a l o u r a n d p l a i n de ali n g b e t h e
c o g n iz a n c e o f t hy f a m ily o r ch a ra c t e r i s t i c o f t h e co u n t r y
h o l d f a s t s uch i n c li n a t i o n s s uck e d i n w i t h t hy rs t b r e a t h
la y i n t h e c r a dle w i t h t h e e
a n d wh i ch
F a ll n o t i n to
t r a n s f o r m i n g de g e n e r a t i o n s
wh i ch u n de r t he o ld n a m e
c re a t e a n e w n a t i o n
S i r T h o m a s B r ow n e
,

Go i ng to the H ous e o f C ommo n s on M onday

Au gu st 3 r d a m e mb e r m ig h t hav e b e e n f o r giv e n fo r
lo i t e r i n g a littl e whil e i n t h e halls o f W e stm inst e r
a n d St
St e p h e n Wh a t s c e n e s i n o u r h i story cam e
th r o n ging to t h e m i n d ! W ha t a n e n a cti n g a n d a n
nulli n g a n d a m e n d i n g o f statu t e s ! Wha t cha ng e
a n d d e cay o f cu st o ms a n d o f m e n !
W hat b e g i n
W h at sp e e ch e s o n t h e
mi ngs a n d e n d i n gs o f wa rs !
b e n e ts t h e wa rs woul d b r i n g to t h e p e o p l e ! M e m
o r i e s o f No r th a n d Bu r k e ri sing to mock one
an d
ab r uptly tu rn o n e s th o u ghts t o t h e l a st d i sput e b e
tw e e n u s a n d folk o f our o w n stock Lo i t e r i n g th e r e
t h e min d b e cam e s o full tha t tim e lost i ts si g n i ca n c e ;
a n d m e m o r y so c r ow d e d t h e halls w i th the g h o sts
o f ou r n at i ona l d r am a th a t neve r e n d s that C rom
w e ll s e e m e d to p a ss u nd e r the a rch out i nto t h e
P al a c e Y a r d
Th e H o u se w a s fu ll long b e fo re Mr Sp e ake r a p
e d with m ace a n d chapla i n
e
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r
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any
p
came to p raye rs b e fo re H o w sp ee d ily the p r e lim i
,

29 6

AN!

I ETY

29

n a r i es were de a lt w i th a fte r t h e s e rv i ce Th e h ast e

t o get to wa r e clip s e d a n ythi n g e v e r d on e t o m a k e
fo r p e a c e a n d happ i n e ss
E a rl i e r i n t h e fo r e n o o n

t h e whisp e r
A r e we i n it ?
p a ss e d f r o m m e mb e r
to m e mb e r i n t h e lobby Th e Fo r e i g n S e c r e ta ry h a d
not b e e n sp e aki n g fo r mo r e tha n v e mi n ut e s wh e n
t h e que sti on wa s ap p r o ach e d
Thos e w h o h a d r e
li e d o n t h e answ e r s o f t h e P r i m e M i n ist e r a n d S i r
E d wa r d G r e y to t h e m a n y qu e sti o n s put in t im e p a st
r e ga r d ing s e c r e t u n d e r s t a n d i n gs with F r a n c e d i d n o t
lo se hop e u n ti l th e y h e a r d t h e followi n g :
.

I c o m e rs t n ow t o t he qu e s t i on o f B r i t i s h o b li g a t i on s
I h a v e a s s u re d t he H o u s e a n d t he P r i m e M i n i s t e r h a s
a s s u r e d t h e H o u s e m o r e t h a n o n c e t h a t i f a n y c r i s i s s uch
a s t h i s a r o s e w e s h o u l d c o m e b e f o r e t h e H o u s e o f C o mm o n s
a n d b e a b l e t o s a y t o t h e H o u s e t h a t i t w a s f r e e t o de c i de
wh a t t he B r i t i s h a t t i t u de s h o u ld b e t h a t w e w o u ld h a v e n o
s e c r e t e n g a g e m e n t wh i ch w e s h o u l d s p r i n g up o n t h e H o u s e
a n d t e ll t h e H o u s e t h a t
b ec aus e w e h ad e n te re d i n to t h a t
e n gage me n t
t h e re w a s a n o b li g a t i o n o f h o n o u r up o n t h i s
co u n t ry I w il l de a l w i t h t h a t p o i n t t o c le a r t h e g r o u n d
rs t
,

T h e s e we re st r a ng e wo r d s to come from a Fo r e ign

S ecr e ta r y a t suc h a ti m e M e m b e r s h a d a ss e m b l e d
to h e a r a comp l e t e stat e m e n t o f t h e f o r e ig n im b r o
gli o W e r e t h e y t o b e t r e a t e d to a n e xp l a n ati o n a n d
a d e fe n c e o f w h a t M r Asqu it h a n d Si r E d wa r d G r e y
h a d s a i d i n r e ply to qu e s t i o n s ? S u r e ly t h e a n sw e r s
wh e n th e y w e r e giv e n w e r e qu it e su fci e n t t o d is
p o s e o f th e ugly r um o u rs Why u n e a r th all tho s e
a n sw e rs now ? W a s i t n o t e n o ugh t h e assu r a n c e
that no comp a ct o f a n y kin d c o mmitti n g t h e c o u n
try t o obl i gati o n s o f wa r woul d b e e n t e r e d i n t o wit h
out t h e consent o f the H ous e ? Ev e n t h e Fo r e ig n
.

29

H OW

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

Se cr e ta ry hims el f i n Novemb e r
,

ha d s a i d :

19 1 1,

c o mm e n t m a de t he o t h e r day wh e n t h e s e a r t i
c le s (M o ro cc a n s e c r e t a g r e e m e n t s ) w e re pub li s h e d t h a t i f
a G o v e r n m e n t w o u l d k e e p li t t l e t h i n g s s e c r e t a for t i o r i t h e y
w o u l d k e e p b i g t h i n g s s e c r e t T h a t i s a bs o l u t e l y u n t r u e
T h e r e m a y b e r e a s on s why a G o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d m a k e
s e c r e t a r r a n g e m e n ts o f t h a t k i n d i f t h e y a r e n o t t h i n g s o f
rs t r a t e i mp o r t a n ce i f t h e y a r e s ub s i d i a ry t o m a t t e rs o f
g re a t i mp o r t a n c e B u t t h a t i s t he v e ry re as on t he B r i t i s h
G o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d n o t m a ke s e c re t e n g a g e m e n ts wh i ch
c o mm i t P a r li a m en t t o o b li g a t i o n s o f w a r I t w o u l d b e
f o o li s h t o do i t No B r i t i s h Go v e r n m e n t c o u l d e mb a r k
up o n a w a r w i t h o u t pub li c o p i n i on b e h i n d i t a n d s uch e n
g a ge m e n t s a s t h e r e a re wh i ch re a ll y c o mm i t P a r li a m e n t
t o a n y t h i n g o f t h a t k i n d a r e c o n t a i n e d i n T r e a t i e s o r Ag r e e
m e n t s wh i ch h av e b e e n l a i d b e f o r e t he H o u s e F o r o u r
s e l v es w e h a v e n o t m a d e a s i n g l e s e c re t a r t i c l e o f a n y k i n d
s i n c e w e c a m e i n t o o fc e

s aw

Th a t statement wa s m a d e j ust o n e ye a r b e fo r e h e
an d
e xchang e d l e tt e rs with t h e Fr e n ch amb ass a d o r
ab o ut s ix y e ars a ft e r h e autho r i z e d t h e conv e r s atio n s
b e twe e n the B r it i sh a n d F r e n ch mi lita r y a n d n ava l
e xp e r ts
Th er e w a s nothi n g to sp r ing on t h e
H ous e ! On Au gu st 3 r d t h e H ou s e wa s qu i t e f r e e
t o d e ci d e wha t t h e B r i tish attitu d e woul d b e
Qu i t e
I t coul d r e call t h e e e t i f i t t h ought t i t coul d coun
t e r m a n d t h e o r d e rs to the Exp e di ti o n ary Fo rc e a n d
i t coul d t e a r u p t h e pla n s o f G e n e ral Staffs Th e
m o ck e r y o f i t a ll ! whe n R eut e r tol d u s wha t wa s
h ap p e ni n g i n Petersbu rg :
,

ST P E TER S B U R G
.

C r o w ds

t o -d ay
ch a n art ,

t he

Augu s t

3 rd

h ou s a n ds o f p eo p l e m a de d e m o n s t r a t i on s
S i r G e o r ge B u
t he B r i t i s h Em b a ss y h e re
a mb a ss a do r
t he w i n do w an d
appe a re d
at

of

b e f o re

A RUB B E R STA M P

29 9

c row d Am i d f r a n t i c ch e e r i n g he de c l a re d
E n g l a n d s p e r f e c t s ymp a t hy w i t h Ru s s i a The Se c re t a r y
o f t h e Emb as s y
s t a n d i n g b e s i de t h e a mb as s a do r t h e n r a i s e d

ch e e rs fo r R u s s i a
ad

dr es s e d

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D i d the B r i t i s h amb a ss a d o r a t P eter sbu rg b e

li e v e th e H ou s e o f C ommo n s wa s fr e e to d o a nyth i ng
e ls e bu t vot e supply ?
An d what woul d i t h ave m at
t e r e d to t h e Gov e rnme n t i f o n e hun d r e d m emb e rs
challeng e d a d i v i si o n o n a vot e o f cr e d i t ? The r e
w e r e v e hu n d r e d to v ot e fo r i t Op i n i on i n t h e
H o use w a s r ip e e n ough i f i t w e r e n o t n e a rly r i p e
i n t h e cou n t r y
Th e we e k e n d h a d m a d e a ll t h e
d i ffe r e n c e
Why t h e sta t e m e nt wa s n o t m a d e o n th e
F r i d ay o r o n t h e Thu rs d ay wh e n S i r E d wa r d G rey
wa s t o l d r e p e at e d ly tha t a B ritish d e cl a r ation to sup
p o r t F r an c e a n d Ru s s i a wou l d hav e ma d e fo r p e a c e
mu st b e obv i ou s t o a n y o n e who ha s gon e i n to the
wh o l e m att e r Th e C ab i n et w e re no t a gr e e d u n ti l
S u n d ay n ight
Th e re w e re o th e r wei ghty r e a sons
P r e p a ra ti ons h a d gon e
bu t t h a t w a s the chi e f o n e
t o o fa r o n S u n d ay fo r the Gove rnm e n t t o d e cl i n e
C omm an d er o f
t o ho n o u r t h e negot i at i ons o f th e

the F o r ce s
S i r E d war d Gr e y s e x plan at i on o f what took pl a c e
i n J a n u a ry 1 9 0 6 i s cu ri ou s l o oke d a t i n t h e light
o f t h e D e lca s s e i n t e rv i e w a n d t h e Lau sanne reve
la t i o n s r e f e rr e d to e ls e whe re
H e said :
.

h i s p r es e n t c r i s i s up t ill yes te r d a y w e h av e a l so
g i v e n n o p ro m i s e o f a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n d i p l o m a t i c s u p
p o r t u p t i ll y e s t e r da y n o p r o m i s e o f m o r e t h a n d i p lo m a t i c
Now I mu s t m a k e t h i s qu es t i o n o f o b li g a t i o n
s upp o r t
c l e a r t o t he H o u s e I mu s t go b a ck t o t he rs t M o ro cc a n
c r i s i s i n 1 9 06 T h at w as th e t i m e o f t he Al ge c i r as C o n
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In

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D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

G o v e rn m e n t wh e n a g e n e ra l e l e c t i o n w as
i n p ro g re s s a n d M i n i s t e rs w e re s c a t t e re d o v er t he c o u n t r y
a n d I s p en d i n g t h r e e d a y s a w e e k i n my c o n s t i t u e n cy a n d
t h r e e d a y s a t t h e F o r e i g n O fce w as a s k e d t he qu e s t i o n
wh e t h e r i f t h a t c r i s i s d ev e l o p e d i n to w a r b e t w e e n F r a n c e
a n d G e r m a n y w e w o u l d g i v e a r m e d s upp o r t
I s ai d then
t h a t I c o u l d p r o m i s e n o t h i n g t o a n y f o r e i g n P o w e r u n l e ss
i t w as s ub s e qu e n t l y t o r e c e i v e t h e wh o l e h e a r t e d s upp o r t o f
pub li c o p i n i o n h e re i f t he o cc a s i o n a ro se I s a i d in my
o p i n i on
i f w a r w as f o r c e d up o n F r a n c e t h e n on t he qu e s
t i o n o f M o r o cc o a qu e s t i o n wh i ch h a d j u s t b e e n t he
s ubj e c t o f a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h i s c o u n t r y a n d F r a n c e
an
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o f t h a t a g r e e me n t w a r w a s f o r c e d o n F r a n c e a t t h a t t i m e
i n my v i e w pub li c o p i n i o n i n t h i s c o u n t ry w o u l d h a v e r a l
li e d t o t he m a t e r i a l s up po r t o f F r a n ce I g a v e n o p rom i s e
b u t I ex p re ss e d t h a t o p i n i o n d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s as f a r a s I
c a n r e m e mb e r
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T h a t p o s i t i on w as a cc e p t e d by t he F r e n ch
t h a t o p i n i on
G o v e rn m e n t b u t t h e y s a i d t o m e a t t h e t i m e
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j u s t i fy yo u in g i v i n g t o F r a n ce t h e a r m e d s upp o r t
a r i se
wh i ch yo u c a n n o t p r o m i s e i n a dv a n c e yo u w ill n o t b e a b l e
t o g i v e t h a t s upp o r t e v e n i f yo u w i s h t o g i v e i t wh e n t h e
u n l es s s o m e c o n v e rs a t i o n s h a v e a l re a dy t a ke n
t i m e c o m es
p l a c e b e tw e en n av a l a n d m i li t a ry e x p e rt s T h e r e w as
f o r c e i n t h a t I a g r ee d t o i t a n d a u t h o r iz e d t h os e c o n v e r
s a t io n s t o t a k e p l a c e b u t o n t h e d i s t i n c t u n d e rs t a n d i n g t h a t
n o t h i n g wh i ch
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s h o u l d b i n d e i t h e r G o v e r n m e n t o r r e s t r i c t i n a n y w ay t h e i r
f r e e d o m t o m a k e a de c i s i o n a s t o wh e t h e r o r n o t t h e y wo u l d

g i v e t h a t s upp o rt wh e n t he t i m e a r ose

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e r n m e n t ca r e ab ou t t hat ; a ll th e y wante d w a s hi s

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cons ent to the conve rsati ons That wa s all -s u fci e n t

O n c e co nv e r sat i ons h a d gone s o fa r a s to a ffect th e
m i lita ry a n d n ava l p o siti o n s o f t h e two countri es
t h e e xp e rts a n d G e n e ra l S taffs w o ul d s e e to i t tha t
B r i ta i n woul d b e u n ab l e to l e av e Fr a nc e i n the lu rch
wh e n t h e su d d e n c r i si s a r o s e
N o o n e can b lam e
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o f t h e n e w For e ig n S e c r e ta ry ; i n t h e game o f d i plo
m a cy M C amb o n w o n a ll alo n g t h e li n e
B ut wa s
it n o t b a d e n ough to l e av e t h e m aking o f w a r a n d
p e a c e to a C ab i n e t ; b a d e nough t o le t t h e fat e o f a
na t i on r e m a i n i n t h e h a n d s o f d ip lomatis ts ? T o
y i e l d up the m ost vi ta l i n t e r e sts o f o u r p e ople to t h e
wh ims a n d ca p ri c e s o f milita r i sts w a s t h e m ost colo s
s a l blun d e r a Lib e ra l stat e s m a n coul d b e gu i lty o f i n
th e s e d ays o f a rmament rings a n d a sub s i d i z e d J i n go
p r e ss
We n o w un d e rstan d many crypt i c utter ance s o f
Co n s e rv ative sta t e sm e n d e liv e r e d d u r i ng t h e m o n th
o f D e c e mb e r 1 9 0 5
S i r H e n r y C ampb e ll B a n n e r
m a n h a d sp o k e n a t t h e Alb e r t H all o n a r mam e n ts
and
su gg e st e d a r e du cti o n o f e xp e n d itu r e Fiv e
d ays a ft e rwa r d s M r B a l fou r r e pli e d to the new
Pr ime M in i st e r s sp eech
M r B a l fou r s a i d :
.

m a z e m e n t t h a t S i r H e n r y C a mpb e ll
B an n e r m an a t t h e Al b e r t H a ll i n t h e s p e e ch t o wh i ch I
h a v e j u s t r e f e r r e d a n n o u n c e d t o his a u d i e n ce t h a t h e m e a n t
t o cu t d o w n t h e c os t a n d a s I u n d e rs t o o d h i m w i t h t h e
c os t t he n umb e r a n d m a g n i t u de o f t he de f e n s i v e f o r c e s o f
Army a n d N a vy as t he c a se m ay be I w on
t he C r o w n
d e r W h e t h e r he c o n s u l t e d t h e p r e s e n t S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e fo r
W a r b e f o r e g i v i n g t h at p l e dg e I do ub t wh e t h e r h e di d
H is p l e d g e t o r e d uc e t h e c os t o f o u r a r m a m e n t s a n d
t h e m a g n i t u de o f o u r a r m a m e n t s i s a p l e dg e n ot g i v e n w i t h
n ot

i ce d w i t h

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02

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

k n o w l e dg e n o t g i v e n a f t e r s t u d y
o f o u r Imp e r i a l res p o n s i b ili t i es
,

n ot

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in

M r B a l fou r m e a n tha t the n e w L i b e ra l Go v

e r n m e n t h a d no t only take n ove r the fo r e ig n p oli cy
o f t h e i r p re d e c e sso r s but th e y h a d a lso taken ove r
the s ecret u n d e r sta n d i n gs with Fra nce to give a rm e d

supp o rt wh e n t h e
su dd e n c r i s i s
woul d a ri se ?
Wh at e lse coul d M r B al fou r m e an ? Lo r d P ercy
the Un d e r S e creta ry o f State fo r Fo rei gn A ffa i r s

s a i d j u st b e fo r e his Government r e s i gn e d tha t no

o n e d oubt e d fo r a m om e nt that t h e L i b e ral p a rty
woul d fa i th fully full t h e ob ligat i ons whi ch the G ov
e r n m e n t h a d al r e a d y e nte r e d i nto w i th va r i ou s cou n
tr i e s They woul d o f cou r se full i n th e sp i rit a n d
t h e lett e r t h e u n d erstan d ing wh i ch w e h a d happ i ly

m a d e with Fr anc e
Why shoul d M r B a l fou r won
d e r wh e th e r S i r H e nry C ampb e ll -B a n n erm an h a d
consult e d M r H al d an e t he S e creta ry fo r Wa r b e

fo re su gge sti ng r e d u ct i on o f co st o f a rm a m e nts

i f i t w e r e no t
a n d t h e m agn i tu d e o f ou r a rmaments
a m att e r o f o u r b e i ng committ e d to obl i gati ons o f
w a r w i th Fr a nc e ? Co n tinu ity o f fo re i g n p ol i cy e n
ta i le d continu ity o f a rme d sup po rt a n d a ll t he d iplo
m at i c S ins o f p olit i ca l fo re fathe rs we re i nhe r i te d by
the P ur i ta n fath e rs who w e re ple d ge d to the cou n
t ry to walk i n the p aths o f free dom r i ghteou sne ss
a n d p ea ce
Th e H ou s e h a d l i stene d to the Fo re i gn Se creta ry s
e x pla nat i on w i th th e re cep t i venes s o f ch i l d ren but
w i thou t th e i r i ns i stent i n q u i s i t i veness The Hou s e
wa s not i n a n a nalyt i cal m oo d fo r the comb at i ve
i nst i nct d o e s no t c ar ry a nalysi s w i th i t The e x
pl anati on o f how t h e letters came to b e e x change d
w i th M Camb o n wa s a ccepte d w i thout am a z em e nt :
D id

FO RE I G N O FF I CE S CASE

03

Ag a di r c r i s i s c a m e a n ot h er M o ro cc an c r i s i s
a n d t h r o u gh o u t t h a t I t o o k p re c i s e l y t he s a m e li n e t h a t h a d
b e en t a k e n i n 1 9 0 6 B u t s ub s e qu e n t l y i n 1 9 1 2 a f t e r d is
cu ss i on a n d c o n s i de r a t i on i n t h e C a b i n e t i t w as d e c i d e d t h a t
w e o ugh t t o h a v e a de n i t e u n de r s t a n d i n g i n w r i t i n g wh i ch
w as t o b e o n l y i n t h e f o r m o f a n u n of c i a l l e t t e r a n d t h e s e
c on s i de ra t i on s wh i ch t oo k p l a c e w e r e n o t b i n d i n g up o n t h e
f r ee do m o f e i t h e r G o v e rn m e n t ; a n d o n t h e 2 2 n d o f N ov e m
b e r 1 9 1 2 I w r o t e t o t he F r e n ch a mb as s a do r t he l e t t e r
wh i ch I w ill n ow r e a d t o t he H o u s e ; a n d I r e c e i v e d f r o m
h i m a l e t t e r i n s i m il a r t e r m s i n re p l y The l e tt e r wh i ch
I h a v e t o re a d t o t he H o u s e i s t h i s a n d i t w ill b e k n o w n
t o t h e pub li c n o w a s t h e r e c o r d t h a t wh a t e v e r t oo k p l a c e
b e t w e e n m ili t a ry a n d n a v a l e x p e r t s t h e y w e r e n o t b i n di n g

The

g a ge m e n ts up o n t he Go v e r n m en t :
M y de a r Amb a s s a do r : F ro m t i m e t o t i m e i n r e c en t
y e ar s t he F re n ch a n d B r i t i s h m ili t a r y a n d n a v a l e x p e r t s
h av e c o n s u l t e d t o g e t h e r I t h as a l w a ys b e en u n de r s t o o d
t h a t s uch c o n s u l t a t i o n d oe s n o t r e s t r i c t t he f r e e d o m o f e i t h e r
G o v e rn m e n t t o de c i de a t a n y f u t u r e t i m e wh e t h e r o r n o t
t o a s s i s t t he o t h e r by a r m e d f o r c e
W e h av e a g r ee d t h a t
c o n s u l t a t i o n b e tw e e n e x p e r t s is n o t a n d o ugh t n o t t o b e
r e g a r d e d a s a n e n g a g e m e n t t h a t c o m m i t s e i t h er G o v e r n m en t
t o a c t i o n i n a c on t i n g e n cy t h a t h as n o t ye t a r i s e n a n d m ay
Th e d i s p o s i t i o n fo r i n s t an c e o f t h e F re n ch
n e v e r a r i se
a n d B r i t i s h ee t s r e s p e c t i v e l y a t t h e p r ese n t m o m e n t i s n o t
b a s e d up o n a n e n g a g e m e n t t o co Op e r a t e i n w a r
Y o u h a v e h o w e v e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i f e i t h e r G o v e rn
m e n t h av e g r av e r e as on t o ex p e c t a n u n p r o v o k e d a t t a ck by
i t m i gh t b e c o m e e s s e n t i a l t o kn o w wh e t h e r
a t h i r d P ow e r
i t c o u l d i n t h a t e v e n t de p e n d u p on t h e a r m e d a s s i s t a n c e o f
t he o t h er
I a g ree t h a t i f e i t h e r Go v e r n m en t ha d g r a v e r e a so n
t o e x p e c t an u n p r o v o k e d a t t a ck by a t h i r d P o w e r o r s o m e
t h i n g t h a t t h re a t e n e d t h e g e n e r a l p e a c e i t s h o u l d i mm e d i
Gov e r n m e n t s
a t e l y d i s c u s s w i t h t h e o t h e r wh e t h e r b o t h
s h o u l d a ct t o g e t h e r t o p r e v e n t a gg r e ss i on a n d t o p re s e r v e

en

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D I P LO M AT S MA KE WA R

p e a c e a n d i f s o wh a t m e a s u r e s t h e y w o ul d
t a k e i n c o mm o n
,

be

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to

Th e m o st imp o r ta n t s e n t e n c e i n the l e tt e r which i s

giv e n i n full in t h e Whit e P ap e r n o t pub li s h e d unti l
Augu st 6 th wa s n o t r e a d to t h e H ou s e :
,

I f t h e s e m e as u re s i n v o l v e d a c t i o n t he p l a n s o f t he G e n
an d
e r a l S t a ff s w o u l d a t o n c e b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i de r a t i o n
t h e G o v e r n m e n t s w o u ld t h e n d e c i de wh a t e ff e c t s h o u l d b e
g iven t o t he m
,

A r e ma r kabl e l e tte r ! I f th e r e h a d b e en a p a ra
grap h in it o n t h e n e utra lity o f B e lgium i t w o ul d
h av e b e e n c o mp l e t e
B ut wh at i t h a d to d o with t h e
Aga d i r c r i si s n o o n e bu t t h e Fo r e ign S e c r e ta ry k n ows
I t b e a r s a d at e tw e lve mo n ths a ft e r t h e Aga d i r a ffa i r
wa s cl o s e d I t i s a n am a z i n g d ocum e n t lo ok a t i t
how you will I t m ight s e e m to s om e p e o p l e that i t
s h oul d b e a r a d a t e som e wh e r e ab o ut t h e b e g i n n ing
o f July
1 9 1 1 ; o th e r s mi g h t th i n k a dat e not lat e r
tha n July 2 9 th 1 9 1 4 w o ul d b e n e a r e r t h e ma r k
Th e re i s how e v e r t h i s to b e co n si d e r e d : when Lo r d
Hugh C e ci l h e c k l e d t he P r im e M i n i st e r i n F e b ru a r y
19 13
h e d e scrib e d t h e p o siti o n qu it e fa i r ly ; but o n
t h e oth e r ha n d i n t h e s e ssi o n o f 1 9 1 3 b o th i n t h e
Comm o n s a n d t h e Lo r d s M i n i st e r s state d qu it e
f r a n kly that i t w a s l e ft to t h e F r e n ch e e t t o b e a r
t h e b r u n t o f lo oki n g a fter Br i ti sh i n t e r e sts i n the
M e d it e r r a n e a n
I f t h e H ou s e h a d b e e n g i ve n th e l a st p a ragrap h
o f th e l e tt e r i t woul d hav e b e e n i n a b e tt e r p ositi o n
to u n d e r sta n d t h e Fo r e ign S e c r e ta r y s d e sp e r at e
pl e a d i n g fo r symp athy fo r the u n d e fe n d e d no r th e r n
a n d w e st e r n co a sts o f F r anc e
H e w e nt o n to s ay :
The F r en ch e e t i s n ow i n t he M e d i t e rr an e a n a n d t h e
.

F RI EN D S H I P AND C ON FI DEN C E

39 5

w e s t e r n c o as t s o f F r a n c e a r e a b s o l u t e l y u m
d e fe n de d
The F r e n ch e e t b e i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t he
M e d i t e rr a n e a n t h e s i t u a t i o n i s v e r y d i ffe r e n t f r o m wh at i t
u s e d t o b e b e c a u s e t he f r i en ds h i p wh i ch h a s g ro w n up
b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s h a s g i v e n t h e m a s e n s e o f s ecu r
i ty t h a t t h e r e w a s n o t h in g t o be f e a re d f r o m u s
The
F r e n ch c o a s t s a r e a b s o l u t e ly u n de f e n de d The F re n ch e e t
i s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d h a s fo r s o m e y e a rs b e e n co n
ce n t r a t e d t h e r e b e c a u s e
o f the
f e e li n g o f c on de n ce a n d
f r i e n ds h i p wh i ch h a s e xi s t e d b e tw e e n t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s
I f w e s ay n o t h i n g a t t h i s m o m e n t wh a t i s F r a n ce t o
I f s h e l e a v es i t
do w i t h h e r ee t i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ?
t h e r e w i t h n o s t a t e m e n t f ro m u s a s t o wh a t w e w i ll do
s h e l e a v e s h e r n o r t h e r n a n d w e s t e r n c o as t s a b s o l u t e l y u m
d e f en de d a t t h e m e r cy o f a G e r m a n e e t c o m i n g do w n t h e
C h an n e l t o do as i t p l e a s e s i n a w a r o f li f e a n d de a t h
b e t w e e n t h e m I f w e s a y n o t h i n g i t m a y b e t h a t t he
F r e n ch e e t is w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n
W e h a v e n o t k e p t a e e t i n t he M e d i t e r r a n e a n wh i ch is
e q u a l t o d e a li n g a l o n e w i t h a c o mb i n a t i o n o f o t h e r ee t s
n ort

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an d

in

M e di t e r r a n e a n

t he

So i t

wa s f r i e n d ship a n d c o n d e nc e th at k e p t the
Fr e n ch e e t i n t h e M e d it e r r a n e a n a n d l e ft t h e
n o r th e r n a n d w e st e r n co a sts ab s o lut e ly u n d e f e n d e d
Th e co n v e r sati o n s b e tw e e n t h e B r iti sh a n d F r e n ch
e xp e r ts h a d n o thi n g to d o with i t
Th e G e n e ra l
S ta ffs tru sti n g w h o lly to t h e f r i e n d s hip whi ch h a d
g r own up l e ft t h e c o a sts o f B r itta n y N o rm a n dy
B i scay a n d t h e S t r a its ab solut e ly u n d e f e n d e d
Ac
co r d i n g to mi lita r y laws th e y ought t o have b e en
sh o t I n t h e e a r ly d ays o f M D e lca ss e th e re must
hav e b e e n k e e n e r m e n o n t h e sta ff fo r i n July 1 9 0 5

t h e F o r e ig n S e c r e t a r y o f F ra n c e s a i d
The e n te n t e
b e tw e e n the t w o c o u n t r i e s a n d t h e co alit i o n o f th e i r
n avi e s
co n stitut e s su ch a fo rm i d abl e m a ch i n e o f

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE

3 06

WA R

nava l wa r tha t ne i th e r G erm any no r any other

P ow e r wou l d d a r e to fa c e su ch a n ov e rw h elm i n g

fo rce at s e a
F r i e n d ship a n d co n d e nce th e n e v i
d e n t ly d i d no t sup erse d e m i l i ta ry r e sou rce a n d n aval
fo r e sight
Th e B r i ti sh Fo re i gn S e cretary ma de gre at play
w i th t h e sto r y o f t h e Fr e n ch e e t b e i n g co n ce n
t r a t e d i n t h e M e d it e r r a n e a n a n d th e Fr e n ch co asts
b e i ng ab s o lut e ly u n d e f e n d e d I n th e F r e n ch d e s
p atches ln t h e Y e llow B o o k how e v e r th e r e i s n oth
i n g abou t the F r e n ch e e t b e i n g co n c e nt r ate d in the
M e d i te r r a n ea n a n d the n o r the r n a n d w e st e r n coa sts
b e i n g ab solut e ly u n de f e n d e d I n d e e d all r e f e r e nc e
to t h e d ispo s iti on o f t h e F r e nch e e t a n d the d e
fencel e s s p o sit i on o f h e r no r th e rn a n d w e st e rn coa sts
a re supp re ss e d i n Fr e nc h d e sp atch e s P e r hap s t h e
sto ry wa s fo r B r iti sh consumpt i o n o n ly S i n gula r ly
enough th e Fr e n ch d ip lomat i c d o cu m e n ts th r ow
qu ite a noth e r l i ght o n the qu e st i on o f t h e F rench
e et I t w a s o n Au gu st I st that t h e qu e sti on wa s
d i s cu ss e d b e twe e n S i r E dwa rd Grey a n d M C am
b on The F r e nch amb as s a d or th e n s e n t wo r d to

t h e Fr e nch P rim e M in i ster that

Si r E dwa r d G r e y
w i ll p rop os e to hi s coll e a gu e s that th e y shoul d d e
cla re that the eet wi ll op p o s e t h e p a ssage o f t h e
G erm a n s qua d rons through t h e St r a its ; o r i f th e y
p a ss e d th e St r a its to any d e monst rat i on on t h e
F r e nch coa sts
That wa s t h e d a y b e for e th e m a t
te r wa s d i s cu ss e d by t h e C ab i n e t The a u t h o r i z a
ti on to thi s p ropo s a l w a s given by t h e C ab in e t the
n e xt d a y ; bu t i n the F r e nc h amb a ssa d o r s d e sp atch
t o h i s G ov e r nm e nt h e d i d not r e fe r to t h e d i sp os i
t i on o f t h e e et ; he did no t s ay w h y t he B r iti sh C ab i

n e t h a d g i ven the pl e d g e to a ss i st the F r ench

if a
,

VI VIAN I v s

G REY

3 7
9

G e rman e et were to unde rtake a cts o f wa r a ga i n st

t h e Fr e n ch co a sts o r t h e F r e nch m e rc a n til e ma r i n e

O n Au gus t 2 n d M Vivi an i t h e Fr e n ch P rim e
M ini st e r t e l e g r a phe d to th e Fren ch amb ass a do r a t
Lo n don a s follows :
.

c o mmu n i c a t i n g t o t he C h a m be r s t h e s a m e de c l a r a
t i on t h a t S i r E dw a r d G r e y h as m a d e t o yo u o f wh i ch y o u r
l a s t t e l e g r a m g i v e s m e t h e t ex t I w ill a dd t h a t w e h a v e
h e r e i n o b t a i n e d f r o m G re a t B r i t a i n a rs t s upp o r t t h e v a l u e
o f wh i ch i s p r e c i o u s t o u s
I p r op o s e m o re o v e r t o i n d i c at e t h a t t he ass i s t an c e
wh i ch G re a t B r i t a i n h as t he i n t e n t i o n o f g i v i n g t o F r a n c e
w i t h t he v i e w o f p ro t e c t i n g t he F r e n ch c o a s ts o r t he F r e n ch
m e r c a n t il e m a r i n e w o u l d be s o e x e r t e d a s t o a ff o r d e qu a l
i n t h e c as e o f a
s upp o r t t o o u r N a vy by t h e E n g li s h F l ee t
F ra n c o G e rm a n c o n i c t i n t h e At l a n t i c a s w e l l a s i n t he

N o r t h S ea a n d i n t he E n g li s h C h an n e l
In

Th i s d o e s no t co i n c i d e w i th the statem e nt m a d e i n
the H o u s e by S i r E d wa r d G rey I f t h e Fr e n ch
e et we r e conce nt ra te d i n th e M e di te r r a n e a n a n d
t h e no r the rn a n d we st e rn co a sts w e r e ab solut e ly u n
d e fe n d e d how coul d t h e Fr e n ch e e t fe a r a n att a ck
f r om the G e rm an navy in t h e Atl a n ti c o r in t h e
N o rth S e a o r i n the E ngli sh Ch a n n e l ? E ith e r t h e
Fr e nch P r i m e M i n i ste r d i d not know wh e r e his e e t
wa s at the t i me o r S i r E d wa r d G r e y h a d b e e n mi s
i n fo rm e d b y the F rench a mb a ss a d o r Th e B r i tish
F o r e i g n S ecreta ry w a s c e rta i n wh e n h e n ot i e d o u r
a mb a ssa d or a t P a r i s o n Augu st 2 n d o f t h e C ab i n e t
d e ci si o n to g i v e n aval supp o rt to F r anc e tha t t h e
F r e n ch e e t w a s conc e ntrate d i n the M e d i t e rran e a n

a n d th a t th e no rth co a st wa s
e n t i r e ly un d e f e n d e d
And w e w e re le d to b e l i e v e su ch wa s t he d i sp o siti o n
o f the French e et whe n the Fo r e i gn S e creta ry sp oke
.

WAR

H OW D I P LO M AT S M A KE

to th e H ous e on Au gu st 3 r d a n d ma d e out an e x
t r e m e ly p at h e ti c ca s e wh i ch s e rve d i ts pu rp o s e
Th e r st h a l f o f th e spe e ch was d e vot e d to Franc e
a n d t h e s e co n d hal f to B e lgium
H e r e fer r e d to t h e
G e r m a n r e ply to h i s qu e st i on about obs e rv i n g t h e n e u
t r a li t y o f B e lgium b ut h e sa i d n oth i ng ab o ut h i s i n
t e r v i e w w i th P r i n c e L i ch n o w s k y
All t h e H ou s e go t
f r om him o n th e r e al s i tu ati on wa s j ust s o mu ch a s
w o ul d help h i s ca se a n d n o mo r e A fte r de al i ng
with h i s commun i ca t i on to the B e lg i a n G ov e rnment
he sa id :
,

pp e a r s f ro m t he n ew s I h av e r e c e i v e d t o day
w h i ch h a s c o m e qu i t e r e c e n t l y a n d I a m n o t ye t qu i t e
s u r e h ow f a r i t h as r e a ch e d m e i n a n a ccu r a t e f o r m t h a t
a n u l t i m a t um h a s b e e n g i v e n t o B e l g i um by Ge r m a n y
the
o bj e c t o f wh i ch w a s t o o ffe r B e l g i um f r i e n dly r e l a t i o n s w i t h
Ge r m a n y o n c o n d i t i on t h a t s h e w o u l d f a c ili t a t e t h e p a ss a ge
o f G e r m a n t r o o p s t h ro ugh B e l g i um
W e ll s i r u n t il o n e
h a s t h e s e t h i n g s a b s o l u t e l y d e n i t e l y up t o t h e l a s t m o m e n t
I do n o t w i s h t o s a y a ll t h a t o n e w o u l d s ay i f o n e w e re
i n t h e p o s i t i o n t o g i v e t h e H o u s e fu ll c o mp l e t e an d a bs o
l u t e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e p o i n t W e w e r e s ou n de d in t he
c o u rse o f l a s t w e e k a s t o wh e t h e r i f a gu a r a n t ee w e r e g i v en
B e l g i a n i n t e g r i t y w o u ld b e p r e s e rv e d
t h at
a f t e r th e w a r
W e re p li e d t h a t w e co u l d n o t b a r
t h a t w ou l d con te n t u s
g a i n a w a y wh a t e v e r i n t e re s t s o r o b li g at i on s w e ha d i n
B e l g i a n n e u t r a li t y
It

n ow

Th a t wa s a n ab solut e ly m i sl e a d i n g a ccou nt o f wha t

h a d tak e n place b e tw e e n B e rli n a n d Lo n d on

I
d o n o t w i sh to say a ll !
All ! no i n d e e d i t woul d
not h av e d o n e to s ay a ll on Augu st 3 r d B ut then
i t wa s o n ly t h e Hous e o f C ommons h e wa s a dd r e s s
i n g ; a H o u s e o f C ommo n s w i thou t t h e Wh i te Pap e r
w i thou t d o cu m e n ts o f a n y k i n d rel ating to th e m o
.

A G RE AT F REN C H CO U P

39 9

m e n t o u s bu s i ness i t wa s su ppo s e d to dea l w i th

Sup
p o s e h e h a d in f o rm e d t h e H ous e th a t u p to Fri d ay ,
Ju ly 3 1 s t , h e h a d b e e n tol d ov e r a n d ove r a ga i n by
both R uss i a an d Fr ance th at a d e cla r ation o f B r i t
i s h soli d a r i ty with thos e c o u n tr i e s woul d hav e m a d e
fo r p e a ce Supp os e h e h a d tol d the Hous e that t h e
G e rman C h an c e ll o r woul d not have m a d e th e su g
g e st i o n ab ou t B e lgi a n i n t e gri ty a ft e r t h e wa r , i f the
Fo r e ig n S e c r e ta r y h a d le t t h e B r itis h amb a ss a d o r a t
B e rli n k n o w ab ou t t h e wa r n ing giv e n to P r i nc e L i ch
n o w s k , a s soon a s h e le t t h e B r iti sh a mb a ss a d o r a t
y
P a r i s k n ow o f i t
To r e fe r to d e sp atch N o 8 5 w i th
ou t giving th e H ou se t h e i n f o rm ati o n in d e sp atch e s
Nos 9 8 a n d 1 0 2 , a n d t h e e xpla n a tio n o f the th r e e
d e sp atche s , wa s not qu it e ho n ou r abl e to s ay t h e l ea st
.

W e w o r k e d fo r p e a c e up t o t h e l as t m o m en t a n d b e
y o n d t h e l a s t m o m e n t H o w h a r d h o w p e rs i s t e n t l y a n d
h o w e a rn e s t l y w e s t r o v e fo r p e a c e l as t w e e k t h e H o u s e w ill
s e e f r o m t h e p a p e rs t h a t w ill b e b e f o r e i t

fo r p e a c e ! Y e s that wa s t ru e And what

a st r i v i ng ! B o u n d h an d a n d fo o t f r om the b e
g i n n ing to supp o rt France a n d w o r k i n g n i ght a n d
I t wa s o n e o f the g r e at e st t r iump hs
d a y fo r p e a c e
o f Fre n ch d ip loma cy s i nce the d ays o f T all e y r a n d
S o t h e H ou s e w a s l e ft with its h a n ds qu i te fre e to
Tha t the will o f t h e e xp e r ts shall
d e ci d e what ?
p reva i l T hen h av i ng p e r fo rme d the dut i e s o f a
r e p r e s e n tative b o d y m e mb e rs p a ss e d f r om t h e
p e r i o d wh e n costly a rmam e nts w e r e su r e prevent i v e s
o f wa r a n d fo r e ig n f r i e n d ship s t h e s a fe st g ua r d i a n s
o f p e a c e ou t i n to a wo rl d d i straught i n wh i ch a
whol e gen e ration o f men went m a d and to re them

s elve s to p i e ce s
S t r ov e

H OW D I P L O M ATS MA K E

29

WAR

Wh i l e the Fo r e i g n Se c r eta ry wa s busy e x pla i n i n g

h i ms e l f to th e H ous e o f C ommo n s th e Fr e nch Gov
e r n m e n t thought i t wa s h igh tim e to d o somethi n g
p r a cti ca l i n t h e i nt e r e sts o f B e lgium s o they o ffe re d
m ilita ry supp o rt Th e B r i ti sh amb a ss a d o r a t B ru s
s els s e n t the follow i n g mes s age to Si r E d wa r d G r e y :
,

F re n ch Go v e rn m e n t h a v e o ffe r e d t h r o ugh t h e i r m ili t a ry

a tt a ch t he s upp o r t o f v e F r e n ch Ar my C o r p s t o t h e B e l
g i a n G o v e rn m e n t F o ll o w in g r e p l y h a d b ee n re ce i v e d
.

t o-day :

W e a re s i n ce r e l y g r a t e f ul t o t he F r e n ch G o v e rn m e n t
fo r o ffe r i n g e v e n t u a l s upp o r t
I n t h e a c t u a l c i r cum s t an c es
h o w e v e r w e do n o t p r o p os e t o a pp e a l t o t he gu a r a n t e e o f
t he P o w e rs
B e l g i a n G o v e r n m en t w i ll de c i de l a t e r o n t h e
a c t i o n wh i ch t h e y m ay t h i n k i t n e c e ss a r y t o t a k e
,

Th i s o ffe r o f ve a rmy co rp s from the French i s

supp re ss e d i n th e B elg i an Wh ite Pap e r The r e a son
fo r thi s i s e v i d ent i n the communi cat i o n M D a v ig
n on m a d e on Au gu st 3 r d to t h e Ge rm an ambassa dor :
.

The G e rm a n G o v e rn m e n t

Au
h i
g us t z u d t h a t a cco r d i n g t o r e li a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n F r e n ch
f o r ce s i n t e n de d t o m a r ch o n t he M e u s e v i a G i v e t a n d
N a mu r an d t h a t B e l g i um i n s p i te o f he r b es t i n t en t i o n s
w o u l d n o t be in a p o s i t i on t o re pu l se w i t h o u t a s s i s t a n ce a n
F r e n ch t r o o p s The G e r m a n G o v e rn m e n t
a dv a n c e
of
t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e re d t h e m s e l v e s c o mp e ll e d t o a n t i c i p a t e t h i s
I n t h e s e c i r cum
a t t a ck a n d t o v i o l a t e B e l g i a n t e r r i t o ry
s t a n c es
G e r m a n y p r o p os e d t o t he B e l g i a n G ov e r n m e n t t o
on
a do p t a f r i e n d l y a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s h e r
a n d u n de r t oo k
t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f p e a ce
t o gu a r an t e e t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e
K i n g do m a n d i ts p o ss e s s i o n s t o t h e i r fu ll e x t e n t The n o te
a dde d t h a t i f B e l g i u m p u t d i fcu l t i es i n t he w ay o f t h e
G e r m a n y w o u l d be co mp e lle d
a dv an ce o f G e r m a n t r o o p s
t o c o n s i de r he r a s a n e n e my a n d t o l e a v e t h e ul t i m a t e a d
s t a te d

in

t e r n o te o f

WHE R E ?

C OO PE RATI ON
j u s t m en t o f t he
d e c i s i on o f a r m s

betw ee n

l i

re a t o n s

t he

tw o

S t at e s

3
to

1 1

t he

Fu r th e r th e B e lgi a n M i nist e r s a i d th a t i f France

v i olat e d t h e n e u t r a li ty o f B e lgium her a r my w o ul d

o ffe r t h e mo st V ig o r ou s r e si sta nc e to t h e i nva d e r

I n S i r E d wa r d G r e y s m e ss ag e to the B rit i sh a m
b a s s a d o r a t B e r li n h e r e f e r s to t h e t e legra m from
t h e K i n g o f t h e B e lgi a n s to Ki n g G e o rg e a n d m e n
ti o n s th e p rop o sal o f t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e nt fo r
a f r e e p assa g e fo r tr o o p s th r o ugh B e lgium ; b ut
nothing i s s a i d o f t h e F r e n c h pl a n all e g e d by t h e
Ge r m a n s to m a rch on t h e M e u s e
Th e G e r m a n s e n t e re d B e lgi a n t e r r ito ry o n the
mo r ni n g o f Augu st 4 t h Wh e n t h e H o us e o f C om
mo n s m e t t h e P r im e M i n i st e r m a d e a S ho r t stat e
m e n t a n d s e n t a n u ltimatum t o t h e G e r m an G ov e r n
m e nt r e sp e cti n g t h e n e u t r ality o f B e lgium calli n g
fo r a r e ply b e fo r e m i dn ight The A r my R ese rv e
wa s o r d e r e d out o n p e r m a n e nt s e rvi ce
That s am e e v e n i n g t h e B r iti sh amb ass a d o r a t
B erl i n r ec e ive d hi s p a ssp o rts a n d a ft e r e l e v e n o clo ck
th a t n ight a sta t e o f w a r e x i ste d b e tw e e n G e rmany
a n d G r e a t B rita in
Th e sa dd e st n o te o f a ll wa s p e r hap s that fr o m
t h e F r e n ch amb a ssado r a t B ru ss e ls to t h e Fr e n ch
Gov e rnm e n t :
The C h e f du C a b i n e t o f t he B e lg i a n M i n i s t r y o f W a r
h as a s k e d t h e F r e n ch m ili t a r y a t t a ch t o p r e p a r e a t o n c e
fo r t he co O p e r a t i o n a n d c o n t a c t o f F r e n ch t r o o p s w i t h t h e
B e l g i a n A r my p e n d i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a pp e a l t o t h e
gu a r a n te e i n g P o w e rs n o w b e i n g m a de O r de rs h a v e t h e re
f ore b ee n g i v e n t o B e l g i a n p ro v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r s n o t t o
r e g a r d m o v e m e n t s o f F r e n ch t r o o p s a s a v i o l a t i o n o f t he
fron t i e r
,

H OW

12

D I P LO M AT S MA KE WA R

C o -op erat i o n !

Th e cr i es at L i e ge

an d

N amu r

we re
Whe r e a re the Fr e nch ? Wh e re a re th e

Engli sh ?
An d G e n e r a l L e ma n who thought i t
possib l e to hol d L i e g e fo r thr e e d ays a sto n i sh e d th e
w h ol e wo r l d by the h e ro i c stru g gl e whi ch k e p t the
G e rmans a t b ay fo r t en d ays !
,

N e i th e r t h e Pr i m e M i n i ste r no r t h e Fo r e i gn S e c
r e t a ry i n th e i r sp e e che s o n August 3 r d a n d 6 t h m e n
t i o n e d t h e i n t e rvi e w r e co r d e d i n d e sp atch N o 1 2 3
The whole ca se M r Asqu ith ma de aga i n st G e rm any

i n famou s p r op o s a l d e spatch
w a s b a s e d u po n t h e
No 8 5
When towa r d s t h e e n d o f August t h e F o r

e i gn S e cr e ta ry wa s a sk e d
wh e t h e r t h e p r oposals
o f Pri nc e L i chn o w s k y w e r e submitt e d to a n d co n s i d
e r e d by the C ab i net
why p rop o s a ls i n
an d i f n o t
volv i ng su ch f a r -r e a chi n g p o ss i bil i t i e s w e r e thu s r e

j e cte d
S i r E d wa r d G r e y r e pli e d
Th e s e w e r e
p e r so n a l su gg e sti o n s m a d e by the amb assa d o r o n
Au gu st 1 s t a n d w i thou t autho r ity to a lt e r t he co n
d i t i o n s o f n e u t r a li ty p r opo s e d by t h e G e r ma n C han

T h e n followe d a r ambl i n g sta t e me n t ab out

ce llo r
C ab i ne t e ffo r ts on the 2 n d to n d co n d iti ons o n whi ch
B r i ta i n woul d r e ma i n n e ut r al ; bu t no wo r d ab ou t
P r i n c e Li ch n o w s k y s sugge st i ons b e i n g submitt e d
to t h e C ab in e t Th e F o r e i gn S e c r eta r y s e x plana
ti o n o f t h e r e aso n w hy he d i d no t re fer to N o 1 2 3
i s a s follows :
,

I h a v e b ee n as k e d why I di d n ot r e f e r t o No 1 2 3 i n
t he W h i t e P a p e r wh e n I s p o k e i n t h e H o u s e o n Augu s t
s
n
d
n
o
t
o
r
d
r
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t he p ro p o s a l s
o f n e u t r a li t y I mu s t h a v e r e f e r r e d t o No 8 5
m a de n ot p e rs on a ll y by t he a mb ass a dor bu t ofci a ll y by t he

A B E LATE D CASU S B ELLI

13

G e rm an C h a n c e ll o r wh i ch w e r e s o c on de m n e d by t h e P r i m e
M i n i s t e r s ub s e qu e n t l y a n d t h i s w o u l d h av e m a de t he c a s e
a g a i n s t t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t much s t r o n g e r t h a n I d i d
m a k e i t i n my s p e e ch I d e li b e r a t e l y re f ra in e d f r o m do i n g
t h a t t hen
,

Th e b est tha t ca n b e s a i d fo r tha t answe r i s th a t

t h e For e i gn S e cr e ta r y h a d n o t t ak e n the p r e caution
o f r e a d i n g a ga i n hi s sp e e ch b e fo r e r e p lying to M r
Ke i r H a r di e
N ot o n ly d i d t h e Fo r e ign S e c r e ta r y
'

r e f e r to N o 8 5 bu t h e s co r e d o ne o f hi s b igg e st
p o i n ts i n telling t h e H ou s e wh at hi s r e p ly wa s t o t h e

b a r ga i n
B ut t h e i mp o r ta nt p o int i s
s ugg e ste d
1 23
n o t wh e th e r t h e i n t e rv i ew r e f e r r e d t o i n N o
wa s d i scuss e d by t h e C ab i n e t b u t wh e th e r S i r E d

wa r d G r e y tol d t h e C abi n e t tha t t h e

b a r gai n
woul d n o t h av e b e en m a d e h a d t h e G e r ma n C h a n c e l
lo r known e a rly o n t h e 2 9 th that t h e F o r e ig n S e c
wa s abou t to w ar n P r i n c e L i ch n o w s k y n o t
r e t a ry

to count o n ou r stan d i n g a s i d e
The b a r ga i n
wa s su gg e ste d b e fo re t h e G e r m an C ha n c e llo r k n e w
tha t B r ita i n m i ght no t sta n d a si d e a n d b e f o r e t h e
Fo r e i gn S e c r eta r y a sk e d t h e B e lgi a n Gov e r nm e n t
what th e y i nt e n d e d to d o ab ou t th e i r n e ut r ality Th e
b a rga i n wa s su gg e st e d on t h e n ight o f July 2 9 t h
a n d t h e rst commu n i cati o n f r o m t h e Fo r e ig n O f c e
re co r d e d in t h e Whit e P ap e r to t h e B r iti sh a mb a s
s a d o r a t B r u ss e ls wa s s e n t on Au gu st 1 s t I f the
C ab i n e t h a d k n ow n o n t h e 3 o t h t h e c o n t e n ts o f d e s
p atch No 9 8 th e r e m ight hav e b e e n no n e c e ssity
fo r s e n d i n g NO 1 0 1 w h i ch conta i n e d t h e r e p ly to
S o l i ttle d i d t h e C ab i n e t thi n k o f t h e qu e s
No 8 5
ti on o f the n e utra lity o f B e lg i um tha t th e y h a d n o t
a gr e e d to m ake i t th e ca s us b e lli u nt i l t h e e v e n
,

,
,

H OW

14

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

i n g o f Su n d ay , Au gu st z u d ,
fou r whol e d ays a fte r
t h e G e r ma n C h a n cello r sp ok e to the B riti sh a m
b a s s a d o r a t B e rli n ab ou t i t
Th e sugg e sti ons m a d e b y t h e Ge rman amb a ss a d o r
o n August I st , w e r e p e r so n a l a n d o ffe r e d wi t h out
autho r ity , bu t d o e s d e sp atch No 1 2 3 i n d i cat e in t h e
slig h t e st d e gr e e that t h e For e i g n S e c r e ta ry w a s u n
d e r t h e i mp r e ssi on wh e n h e sp ok e to t h e G e r ma n a m
b a s s a d o r tha t h e w a s d e ali n g w i th a m a n w h o h a d
no
autho r i ty ? I f Si r E d wa r d G rey d oubt e d t h e
a utho r ity o f P r i nc e Li ch n o w s ky, why d i d h e n e gl e ct
to a sk , i n h i s m e ssag e to Si r E G os ch e n , i f t h e a m
b a s s a d o r h a d a utho ri ty from t h e B e rli n Fo rei g n O f
ce t o d i scu ss t e r ms o f B r i tish n e ut r ali ty ?
Fo r the
.

B r i t i s h Fo r e ig n S e cretary to try to e s cap e from a

d il e mm a by ca st i n g d oubt o n t h e autho r i t y o f the a c
c r e d it e d a g e nt o f t h e G e rm a n G ov e r n m e n t wa s not
cl e v e r ; b e c au s e t h e Fo r e i g n S e c r e ta ry h a d at le a st
v e o ppo rtu nit i e s o f n d i n g ou t f r om S ir E Go sch e n
wh e th e r P r i n c e Li ch n o w s ky h a d p owe r to a ct fo r t he
G e r m a n Gov e rnm e n t
B u t wh e th e r t h e G e rman a mb a ss ado r h a d a u
t h o r i t y o r n o t wh e th e r t h e su gg e sti ons w e r e p e r
so n a l o r ofc i al th e Fo r e ign S e c r e ta ry d e cli n e d the
l ot
lo ck stock a n d b a r r e l H e f e lt ob lig e d to
r e fu se d e nit e ly a n y p rom i se to r e ma i n n e utral on

s i milar te r ms
B r i ta in must k e e p h e r han d fr e e s o
th a t the Gov e r n ment s a ttitu d e might b e det e rm in e d

l a rg e ly by publi c op i n i o n
Th e n eut r a l i t y o f B e l
g i u m w o u l d app e a l v e ry strongly to p ubl i c op i n i on

h e r e but h e d id not th i nk that we could g i v e a

p rom i s e o f neutra l i ty on that con d it i o n alon e

Su ch a m a z e o f contra d i ct i on and e qu i vo cat i on wa s
enough to m ake the wretche d Ge rm a n a mb a ssado r
.

J I NGOES AND J I NGOE S

3I5

won d e r wh e th e r t h e B ri tis h Fo r e i gn S ecreta ry h a d

auth o ri ty t o m ak e a d i r e ct sta t e m e n t o n any qu e sti o n
bu t f r e e ha n d s a n d agre ements tha t woul d n ot b i n d
t h e G o ve r n m e nt
Thu s s e c r e t d ip lom a cy conv e rs at i ons o f m i l i tary
a n d n ava l e xp e r ts
a n d t h e pl a ns o f G e n e ra l S t a s
l au n c h e d thi s n ati o n i n to w a r An d G e r many s e nt
h e r t r o op s i nto t h e small w e ak Stat e o f Lux e m
b o u r g withou t a wo r d o f r e mo n st r a n ce f r om B rita in

t h e gu a r d i an o f i n t e r nati o n a l
scra p s o f p ap e r

Th e J i n go e s a n d m a n y o f thos e i n t h e kn o w got
what th e y h a d s e dulou sly to i l e d fo r th r ough e i ght
l o n g y ea rs o f s ca r e s in whi ch e v e r y b r uti sh i nstinct
w as sti r r e d Th e o n ly r e g r et som e o f th e m h a d
w a s that t h e W a r Ofc e c o u l d n o t pu t
m en
i n to B e lgiu m wh e n t h e t r oubl e a rose
Ji n go e s the r e a r e i n e v e r y cou n t r y ; bu t t h e d i ffe r
e n c e betw e e n t h e P ru ss ia n a n d t h e B r i t i s h cu lt i s
tha t P ru ssi a n J i n go e s a r e s o l d i e r s a s a r u le a n d
B r iti sh Ji n g o e s a r e no t Wh e th e r i t i s b e tte r to le t
mi lita r y J i n g o e s r u n a n e mp i r e th a n t r u st i ts fa te t o
com m e r ci al Ji n go e s i s a qu e sti on tha t mu st wa i t s olu
ti o n u n ti l t h e e mp i r e th a t ha s a lways sp e nt many mo r e
m illio n s o n a r m am e n ts th a n G e r ma n y d e stroys
P r u ssi an m il i ta r ism
I S it th e n to o mu ch to
h op e tha t wh e n t h e e mp i r e that h a s h a d littl e r e st
from w a rs a n d exp e d iti o ns t e a ch e s t h e emp i r e that
ha s know n v e ry littl e w a r S i n c e 1 8 70 how to su ffe r
mi lita r y d e f e a t a s w e ll a s d iplom at i c hum i l i a t i o n tha t
a J i n go wi ll n d i t a s d i fcult to lo dg e up o n B r i t i s h
t e r r ito r y a s G e r m a n s to n d thei r plac e i n t h e sun
Th e qu e stio n o f Who b e ga n i t ? cau s e d l i ttl e co n
t r o v e r s y d u r i n g Au gu st b e cau se i t was consi d e r e d
m o st u n p a tr i oti c to blam e any one bu t t h e Ka i s e r
.

H OW

16

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WAR

o r th e C rown P r i nc e o r th e G erman Chancello r o r

t h e G e r m an a mb a ss a d o r a t P et e r sbu r g o r V i enna
S om e p e opl e w e nt s o fa r a s to d eny a n y cr e d it to a n
Au stri a n Few we re a s wi se about i t as the m a n

on t h e bu s w h o sa i d
W e ll gu v n e r w e re i n i t ;

tha t s a ll
B ut no w a r ca n b e fought w ithout a
s cap ego at ; i t i s almost a s ne cess a ry a s a m ap a n d
p i n s w i th colou r e d h e a d s I n sta rt i n g out to x
r e sp o n s i b i lity o n s om e p e rso n o r P ow e r i t i s e ss e n
ti a l tha t the d a t e f r om whi ch i nv e stigat i on sta rts
shou l d b e s e l e ct e d with c e rta i n ty to emb ra c e a ll thos e
is su e s a n d e vents whi ch a r e r e l e va n t to t h e fo re i g n
p oli c i e s o f t h e cou n t r i e s i nvolv e d i n the d i spute To
b eg i n with t h e mu r d e r o f th e A rch duke i s se n s at i o n al
but mu ch to o rec e n t ; i t i s conv e n i e n t fo r th e th e ory
th a t t h e Ka i se r d i ctat e d t h e Au stri an note to S erv i a ;
that how e ve r i s i ts only m e r i t
N o t through S e r v i a o r Au str i a a re th e s i gnp ost s
to b e foun d whi ch wi ll e nabl e u s to r e t r a ce ou r st e p s
to the p la c e a n d d at e wh e n w e f e ll i n to trans fo r m

i n g d e g e n e rat i ons
W e must look south towa r d s
Aga d i r th e n t o F e z a n d b a ck throu gh Ta n gi e r
S p a i n a n d P a r i s to Lon d on wh e re t h e Anglo Fr e n ch
Agr e e ment w a s s i g n e d Ap r i l 6 t h 1 9 0 4 I t was n o t
a p e rs o n o r s om e o n e p a r t i cul a r P o w e r that w a s r e
sp o n s ible fo r thi s wa r I t wa s a syst e m that b rought
i t ab out ; a n d tha t system w as s e c r e t d iploma cy
Who th e n i s to bl am e fo r s e c r e t d i plom a cy ? The
p eopl e o f the nat i ons wh i ch p ra cti s e i t ; a n d tho s e
n ati o n s b o a st i ng t h e fr e e st i nst i t ut i ons shoul d b e a r
th e gre atest r e sp o n s i b i l i ty
.

C HAPTE R X I V
R E C R I M I N ATI O N

T H AT t h e re e xi s ts b e t w e e n F r an c e a n d G e rm a n y a s en t i
m e n t a l a n i m os i t y ; a n d t h a t b e t w e e n G e r m an y a n d E n g l a n d
t h e r e i s a n e c o n o m i c r i v a lr y w e d o n o t d e n y ; b u t wh a t w e
de n y is t h a t t h e r e e xi s t s f ro m c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y b e tw een
t h e s e t h r e e g r e a t n a t i o n s a n y fu n d a m e n t a l a n d i r r eco n ci la
b le a n t a g o n i s m
I t is t h e r e f o r e o u r c l a i m t o p u t a n e n d
t o a ll e n m i t y b e t w e e n t h e m a n d d o a w a y w i t h a ll a n i m os i t y
W a r w o u l d n o l o n ge r s e t t l e a n y t h i n g Th e t i m es a r e g o n e
wh e n t h e c on qu e r o r de s t r o y e d t he v a n qu i s h e d p e o p l e a n d
A w a r w o u l d h en c e f o rw a r d be a
r e d uc e d i t t o s l a v e r y

u s el ess di s a s t e r a n d v a i n c r i m e
An a to l e F r a n c e L o n do n D e c e m be r 1 1 t h 1 9 1 3

Of

a ll the m a n y o rga n i z a ti ons sta rt e d i n Ge r

ma n y a n d B r ita in t o p r o mot e a cl e a r e r u n d e r stan d
i ng a n d a b e tt e r f e e ling b e tw e e n t h e two p e opl e s the
Alb e rt C o mmitt e e u n d e r t h e p r e si d e n cy o f Lo r d Ave
bury wa s t h e b e st I t i n vi t e d t h e co op e r ation o f
e ve r y o n e i n te r e st e d i n s e e ing tha t o u r r e lati o ns w i th
G e r ma n y s h oul d b e co n du c t e d a cco r d i n g to r e a so n
a n d n o t clou d e d a n d e n d ange r e d by i gno ranc e a n d
p r e j u d i ce The A n glo G e r m a n F r i e n d sh i p C om
m i tt e e a n d t h e Asso ci a t e d Councils o f C hu rch e s fo r
fost e r ing fri e n d ly r e latio n s b e tw e e n t h e two p e oples
w e r e st r o n g b o d i e s Th e s e C ou n c i ls a n d C ommit
t e e s e n ro lle d most o f B r i ta i n s wo rth i est men H o w
p owe rles s th e y we re to avert the str i fe when th e
,

3 17

H OW

18

D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

d ip loma tists took control of a ff a i rs i n July , 1 9 1 4 , i s

a lesso n w h i ch mu st n o t b e fo rgott e n Th e b e n ch
o f B i shop s , the l e a d i n g nonco n formist d i vi n es , the
C atholi c prel at e s , e mi n ent p ro f e ss o r s , m e mb e rs o f
t h e H ous e s o f P a rli a m e nt , d i stingu ish e d m e n o f s ci
e n c e , l it e r atu r e , a n d a rt , we r e a s l i ttl e chil d re n i n
t h e ha n d s o f the m e n o f the ch ancell e ri e s
Lo oki n g ov e r t h e p re -wa r l iteratu re publi she d by
th e se Coun c i l s a n d C omm i tt e e s i s a h e a rt -b r e aki n g
bu si n e ss The a rti cle publi she d by M r B a s i l Wil
l i am s i n t h e E d i n b u r g h R e v i e w, O ctob e r , 1 9 0 9 ,
r e a d s l ike p ag e s f r om a Utop i a wr i tt e n long y e a rs
b e fo r e Si r Thoma s M ore o r d e re d Wols e y from
the p r e ci n cts o f th e C ommons I n th at a rti cl e M r

Wi lli ams s a ys fo r mo r e than fou r hu n d re d y e ars

E ngli shm e n a n d G e r man s h ave fought s i d e by s i d e i n

a lmos t e ve r y Eu rop e a n w a r
An d he qu ot e s
.

Stubb s
E n g l a n d in s p i t e o f t he R e f o r m a t i o n m a i n t a i n e d he r
a lli a n c e w i t h G e r m a n y : h e r i n s t i n c t s w e re G e r m a n a n d h e r
As t he H a ps bu r gs d i v i de d
a n t i p a t h i es w e re a n t i F r e n ch
g re w w e a k E n g l an d s o ugh t n ew a lli e s a m on g t he
an d
y o u n g e r P o w e r s ; b u t i n a ll t h e g r e a t s t r ugg l e s o f Eu ro p e
wh e t h e r Au s t ri an o r P ru ss i a n o n
s he has h a d Ge r m a n y

he r

i de

Th

n M r Wi lli ams go e s o n to show how th e

gr i e vou s wo r k o f i g n o ra n ce a n d p rej u d i ce b rought
ab out m i sund e rstan d ing a n d enm i ty H e s ays :
e

B a re l y

f o u r y e a rs a go m en o f r e s p o n s i b ili t y i n G e rm a n y
w e re qu i t e c o n v i n ce d t h a t E n g l an d de s i g n e d a s u d den a tt a ck
u p o n t h e i r c o u n t ry w i t h ou t an y p r e v i o u s d e c l a r a t i o n o f w a r
F e a rs h av e bee n e x p r ess e d t h a t H a m
o r o t h e r w a rn i n g
b u rg l y i n g i t m a y b e n o t e d s o m e f t y m il e s u p a r i v e r w e ll
.

WHAT D I D H E KNOW ?

3 19

f o r t i e d o n e i t h e r b a n k i s li a b l e t o b o mb ar d m e n t by t he
B r i t i s h e e t ; a n d m a n y G e r m a n s h a v e l on g s e r i o u s l y be
liev e d t h a t w e i n t e n d t o a n n i h il a t e t he Ge rm a n n a vy wh il e
i t i s s t ill c o mp a r a t i v e l y s m a ll a n d a n e as y m o r s e l fo r o u rs
G e r m an w r i t e rs a n d e v e n G e r m a n s t a t e s m e n s e e i n En g
l an d s e v e r y a ct o f f r i e n ds h i p t o a n o t h e r P ow e r a xe d

p o li cy o f i s o l a t i n g G e r m an y
,

Wa s M r Lloy d G e o rge consc i ou s o f su ch a x e d

p oli cy on J a nu a r y I s t 1 9 1 4 when i n t h e D a i ly
C h r o n i cle he gave h i s V i ews o n a r maments ? H e
s a id :
.

B ot h

co u n t r i e s se e m t o h av e re a liz e d wh a t o u gh t t o
h a v e be en f a i r l y o bv i o u s l o n g a go t h a t t h e y h a v e n o t h i n g
t o g a i n a n d e v e r y t h i n g t o l o s e by a qu a rr e l a n d t h a t t h e y
h a v e e v e ry t h i n g t o g a i n a n d n o t h i n g t o l os e by re v e r t i n g
t o t h e o ld p o li cy o f f r i en dli n e ss wh i ch h a d b e e n m a i n t a i n e d
u n t il w i t h i n r e c en t y e a rs fo r c e n t u r i es b e t w e en G er m a n y
and
t h is co u n tr y
The G e r m a n a r my i s v i t a l n o t
m e r e l y t o t h e e xi s t en c e o f t he G e r m an Emp i re b u t t o t h e
v e r y li f e a n d i n de p e n de n ce o f t h e n a t i o n i ts e l f s u r rou n de d
a s Ge r m a n y i s by o t h e r n a t i o n s e a ch o f wh i ch p o ss e s s e s
a r m i e s a l m os t as p o w e r fu l a s h e r o w n
W e forget t h at
wh il e w e i n s i s t up o n a 60 p e r c en t s up e r i o r i ty (s o fa r a s
o u r n a v a l s t r e n g t h i s c o n ce rn e d )
o v e r Ge rm a n y b e i n g e s
s e n t i al t o gu a r an t ee t h e i n t e g r i t y o f o u r o w n s h o re s G e r
m a n y h e rs e l f h a s n o t h i n g li ke t h a t s up e r i o r i t y o v e r F ran c e
an d s h e h as
o f c o u r se
i n a dd i t i o n t o re ck o n w i t h
a lon e
Ru ss i a on h e r e as t e rn f r o n t i e r G e r m a n y h a s n o t h i n g
wh i ch a pp r oxi m a t e s t o a t w o P o w e r s t a n d a r d She h as
t h e r e f o r e b e c o m e a la r m e d by r e c e n t e v e n t s a n d i s s p e n d i n g
hug e s um s o f m on e y o n t he ex p a n s i o n o f he r m ili ta ry
r eso u r c es
,

Wha t the re cent e vents wh i ch occa s i on e d ala rm

i n Ge rmany we r e w e n o w know An d si nce m i ni st e rs
h ave sta rte d the i r c amp a i gns o f r ecr i m i nat i on on the
.

20

H OW D I P LO M AT S MA K E WA R

plat fo rm a n d i n th e P re ss mu ch h as be e n b rought to
lig h t w h i c h s h ows how d i fcult i t i s to g e t at the
truth o f fo r e ig n a ffa i r s a n d a rm am e n ts u n d e r t h e
p r e s e n t syst e m M u ch h a s b e e n writt e n a n d sa i d
r e c e n tly i n co n n e cti o n with t h e B e rlin c o n v e r s ati ons
S i n c e t h e w a r b e ga n t h e p o l i ti cal a n d d ip lomati c
gi a n ts o f B r i ta i n a n d G e r ma n y h av e b e e n bu sily at
wo r k i n fo rm i ng the i r p e op l e s o f o n e a n o th e r s p e r dy
a n d chi ca n e ry
A pr e tty sp e cta cl e fo r d e c e nt simpl e
folk ! P e r h a p s i t wou l d hav e b e e n b e tt e r to le av e
t h e m u d a t t h e b ottom o f t h e w e ll a n d let the rank
w at e r li e u n d i stu rb e d I t i s n o t n i c e to nd p oliti ca l
l e a d e r s o f a n y cou n try hoo d wi n ki ng t h e p eop l e say
ing th i n gs whi ch a re n o t t ru e m a k i ng f r i e n d ly
sp e e ch e s to cov e r u n f r i en d ly bu s i n e ss Aga in t h e
ye a r 1 9 1 2 h a s b e e n b r ought i nto the l im e l i ght thi s
tim e by M r Asqu i th who i n a sp e e ch at C a r d i ff
O ctobe r 2 1 9 1 4 to l d u s mo r e ab ou t t h e n e got i ati o n s
which p a ss e d betw e e n G e r m a n y a n d B rita i n than h e
con d e sc e n d e d t o t e ll t h e H o u se o f C ommons i n t h e
d e b at e s o f 1 9 1 2
R e f e r r i n g n o d oubt to t h e con
v e r s a t i o n s b e tw e e n Lo r d H al d an e a n d t h e G e rm a n
Chanc e llo r M r As qu i th s a i d :
.

dow n a n d I w i s h t o c a ll n o t o n l y y ou r a r
t en t i o n , b u t t h e a tt e n t i o n o f t h e wh o l e w o r l d t o t h i s , wh e n
s o m an y f a l s e l e g e n ds a re n ow b e i n g i n v e n t e d an d c i r cu l a t e d
i n t h e f o ll o w i n g y e a r , i n t he y e a r 1 9 1 2 , w e l a i d d o w n ,
i n t e r m s c a r e fu ll y a pp r o v e d by t h e C a b i n e t a n d wh i ch I

W e l ai d

w ill t ex t u a ll y qu o t e wh a t o u r r e l a t i o n s w i t h G e r m a n y
o ugh t i n o u r v i e w t o b e
W e s a i d a n d w e c o mmu n i c a t e d
t h i s t o t he G e r m a n Go v e r n m e n t :
B r i t a i n de c l a r e s t h a t
s h e w ill n e i t h e r m a k e n o r j o i n i n a n y u n p ro v o k e d a t t a ck o n
Agg re ss i o n u p o n G e r m a n y i s n o t t he s ubj e c t
G e rm a n y
an d f o r m s n o p a r t o f a n y t re a t y u n de r s t a n d i n g o r c o mb i
,

THE S U C KIN G DOVE

3 21

wh i ch B r i t a i n is a p a r t y ; n o r w ill s he b e c o m e a
p a r t y t o a n y t h i n g t h a t h as s uch a n o bj e c t T h e re is n o t h
i n g a mb i gu o u s o r e qu i v o c a l a b o u t t h a t
B u t t h at w as n o t
T h e y w a n t e d u s t o go
e n o ugh fo r G e r m a n s t a t es m a n s h i p
fu r t h e r T h e y a s k e d u s t o p l e d g e o u r s e l v e s a b s o l u t e l y t o
n e u t r a li t y i n t h e e v e n t o f G e r ma n y b e i n g e n g a g e d i n w a r
a n d t h i s m i n d o u a t a t i m e wh e n G e r m a n y w as e n o r
y
m o u s ly i n c re as i n g b o t h h e r a gg r e ss i v e a n d de f e n s i v e r e
T h e y a s k e d u s fo r a
s o u r ces
a n d e s p e c i a ll y up o n t h e s e a
f re e h a n d s o fa r a s w e w e r e c o n ce r n e d i f a n d wh en t h e y
s e l e c t e d t h e o pp o r t u n i t y t o o v e r b e a r t o d o m i n a t e t h e Eu r o
p e a n w o r l d To s uch a de m a n d b u t o n e a n s w e r w as p os s i
b le a n d t h a t w a s t he a n s w e r w e g a v e

to

n a t on

Th i s i s e xc e e d i n gly i n t e r e sti n g fo r i t p roves t h e

utte r imp o ss ib ility o f t h e H ou s e e v e r l e a r n i n g from
M i ni st e rs j u st how i n t e rn ati o n a l a ff a i r s sta n d
On
Ju ly 2 5 t h 1 9 1 2 M r As qu ith ma d e a sp e ech i n th e
H ou se o f Commons a n d r e f e r r e d to the B e rlin co n
v e r s a t i o n s b egu n by Lo r d H a l d a n e s ix months e a rli e r
in tha t y e a r
Qu e sti o n a ft e r qu e sti on h a d b e en pu t
by p r i vat e m e mb e r s o n t h e subj e ct d u r i n g t h e sp ri n g
without d rawi n g mu ch d e n it e i n fo r mati o n f r om t h e
Tr e a su r y I t wa s a m att e r fo r co n g r a tula t i o n i n
Ju ly to l e a rn from the P r im e M i n ist e r that :
,

w i t h t h e g re a t G e r m a n Emp i re a r e I
a m g la d t o s a y a t t h i s m o m e n t
a n d I f e e l s u r e a r e li k e l y
t o r e m a i n r e l a t i o n s o f a m i t y a n d g o o d w ill
M y n ob le
f r i e n d L o r d H a l d a n e p a i d a V i s i t t o B e r li n e a r l y i n t he
y e a r H e e n t e r e d up o n c o n v e r s a t i on s a n d a n i n t e r ch a n g e
o f v i e w s t h e r e wh i ch h a v e b e e n c o n t i n u e d S i n c e i n a s p i r i t
o f p e r f e c t f r a n k n e s s a n d f r i e n ds h i p b o t h o n o n e s i d e o r t h e
o t h e r a n d i n wh i ch I a m g l a d t o s a y w e n o w h a v e t he a d
v an t a ge o f t he p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f a v e r y d i s t i n gu i s h e d d i p l o
ma t is t i n t h e p e r so n o f t h e G e rm a n Amb a s s a do r

Ou r

l i

re at on s

H OW D I PLO MATS M A KE

22

WA R

The re i s noth i n g amb igu ou s o r e qu i vo ca l about

tha t But wh a t woul d hav e happ e n e d i f t h e stat e
m e n t ma d e by M r Asqu i th a t C a r d iff O ctob e r
1 9 1 4 h a d b e e n m a d e i n Ju ly 1 9 1 2 to t h e Commons
wh e n h e s a i d to the H ou se :
.

so

in

I s ay t h i s de li be rat e l y w e h a v e n o c a u s e a n d
fa r a s I k n o w n o o cc as i o n fo r qu a rr e l w i t h a n y c o u n t r y
a n y p a r t o f t he w o r l d
s a y, a n d

D i d the P r i m e M i n i st e r t h e n know that G e rmany

h a d a sk e d fo r a fr e e ha n d a n d tha t B r i ta i n s houl d
p le dg e h e rsel f ab solu t e ly to n e utrality i n t h e e v e n t o f
G e rmany b e i ng e ngag e d i n wa r ? Th e s e th e n w er e
t h e ami cable conv e r s ati o n s ca r r i e d o n b e tw e e n Lo r d
H al d ane a n d t h e G e rma n C ha n c e llo r ! B ut w hy did
G ermany test u s i n tha t wa y ? I n July 1 9 1 2 a c
c o r d ing to rumou r s he h a d j ust ab out r e ach e d t h e
e n d o f h e r n an c i a l t e th e r ; h e r m i l i ta ry p r e p a rat i ons
h a d b een th e n st r e tch e d n e a rly to th e u tmost ; s h e
ha d r e a che d t h e climax o f exp e n d itu r e o n h e r n avy
no tw i thstan d i n g M r Asqu ith s statem e nt a t C a r d iff
a b ou t G e rm any i n 1 9 1 2 e no rmou sly incr e a si n g h e r
a ggress i ve a n d d e f e n s i v e resou rc e s e sp e c i ally o n
s e a H e wa s mis i n fo rm e d Though he r gross
n aval e x p en d i tu r e r os e G e rm any re du c e d h e r e x
in 19 1 2 ;
p e n d i tu r e on n e w constru ct i on by
but she s aw b oth F r anc e a n d Ru ss i a vot e a n a dd i
t i on al
on n e w co nst r u ct i o n fo r 1 9 1 2 1 3
R uss i a a lon e fo r tha t y e a r sp e nt mor e o n n e w co n
s tru ct i on tha n G e r many d i d Why shou l d G erma n y
a sk u s fo r a fr e e han d ? D i d s he gl e a n from t h e
a m i cable conv e r s at i o n s tha t w e w ere f e tt e r e d a n d
w i s h t o t e st the strength o f ou r enga g e m e nts ? An y
w a y h e r re q u est tha t we shoul d rema in neutra l show s
,

TH E FUN DA M ENTAL F A CTS

23

how mu ch fa i th S h e pl ac e d in the d ecl a rat i on o f t h e

C abi n e t r e f e r r e d to by M r Asqu ith G e r m a n y
t h e n no d oub t knew mo r e ab ou t B rita i n s ob li gati o n s
t o F r a n c e a n d R u ss i a tha n d i d t h e va st maj o r ity o f
t h e m e mb e rs o f t h e H ou s e o f C o mmo n s
Th e r e sult o f all t h e fr a n k a n d f r i e n d ly co n v e rs a
t i ons b e tw e e n G e rm any a n d B r ita i n i n 1 9 1 2 wa s s e e n
i n the n e w m i lita r y l aws o f F r anc e a n d G e r m a n y
Eve r s i n c e B r i ta i n d e p a rt e d from h e r i sol at e d p o si
ti o n i n d ip loma cy s i n ce s h e t h r e w i n h e r lot w ith
F r anc e a n d a i d e d a n d ab e tt e d F r anc e i n t h e s o r d i d
s ch e m e s o f e xp l o it i n g t e r r it o ry i n A fri ca G e r m a n y
ha s wo r k e d w ith u n r e mitti n g e n e r gy to p e r f e ct h e r
milita r y syst e m a n d bu il d u p a m o d e r n navy wh i ch
wou ld b e t h e e qu al o f that o f F r a n c e What e ls e
w a s to b e e xp e ct e d ? Wh e n Ji n go m i n i st e r s i n B r i t
a i n a n d F r a n c e e xp r e ss su ch s e nt i m e n ts a ga inst G e r
m a n y a s thos e att r i but e d t o M D e lca ss e a n d Lo r d
R ob e rts no oth e r r e sult coul d b e lo ok e d fo r tha n
G e r m a n m il i ta r y a n d n av a l p r e p a r ati on o n the h i gh
e s t s ca l e
B lam e G e r ma n y fo r h e r ruthl e s s p ol i cy
in tak i n g F r e n ch t e rr i to ry b l am e F r a n c e fo r h e r
p oli cy i n A f r i ca cu rs e t h e K a i s e r fo r a ll t h e s ins o f
d ivi n e r ight mon a rchs a n d wh e n t h e full c o u r s e o f
all r o u n d d e n u n ci ati o n i s comp l e t e t h e r e i s l e ft t h e
p alp ab l e co nspi r a cy o f E n t e n t e P ow e r s to i solat e
G e r m any D ip l o m a cy d e st r o y e d e v e r y b r i d g e
r a i s e d by p a ci s t s i n t h e p r i n cip al Eu rop e a n S tat e s
to m a r ch t h e wo r k e rs i n to a n i n t e r n atio n a l co r ps
whi c h woul d o v e r th r o w m i lit a r i sm a n d bu r e au crati c
D ip l o m a cy i n d i vi d i n g Eu rop e i nto two ho st i l e
r ul e
camp s stimula te d mil i ta ri sm i n a ll i ts b ranches ; i n
e a ch S tat e i t fo st e r e d t h e v a st i nte rnat i o n a l a r ma
m e nt i n t e r e sts ; i t r a i s e d u p a lit e r atu re o f enmity
,

H OW D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

24

h atr e d ; a n d thr ew the fa te o f d e mo cra c i e s i nto

A fte r th e
t h e h a n d s o f mi l i ta r y a n d nav a l e x p e rts
B ritis h Fo r e ig n O i ce b e cam e e ntangl e d i n the
m e sh e s o f the C o nt i n e nta l S yst e m w a r l o r d s o u r
i s h e d to g r e ate r e x t e nt tha n a t a n y t i me s inc e 1 8 7 0
Th e outcome o f t e n yea rs o f d iplomati c l ab ou r i n e n
t e n t e e n t e r p r i s e s am o unt e d to su sp i ci on a n d e nmity
d i stru st a n d h ate l e a d i n g u p to t h e only p oss i ble cl i
m ax
a C o n t i n e n ta l Wa r An d th e p ity a n d p a i n o f
i t i s that the B r i tis h Fo re i g n S e cr e ta ry h a d no d e si r e
to e ngu l f h i s cou n t ry i n wa r Lab ou r i n g fo r p e a ce
u n d e r su ch a syst e m wa s a task S i syp hu s wou l d not
e nvy
Wh a t e ffo r t wo rt h whil e coul d b e ma d e by
t h e m ost p a ci c Fo rei gn S e cr e ta ry a ga i nst the syst e m
whi ch coul d b r i ng n o t h in g b u t w a r ? N o S i r E d
wa r d G r e y i s not to b e cha r g e d with b e llig e r e nt i n
t e n ti ons H e s i nn e d i n h i d i n g t he whol e d i sc r e d i t
ab le b us i n e ss o f fo r e i gn a ffa i rs from t h e Commons
a n d t h e p e opl e
H e w a s t h e S lave o f s e cr e t d iplo
m a cy a n d n o t th e s e rva nt o f t h e country I f h e ha d
th o ught as mu ch o f t h e B r i t i sh p e opl e a s h e thought
o f F r e n ch d ip lom ati sts h e w o ul d have h a d the cou r
a g e to t e ll t h e count r y t h e whol e tru th ab o ut fo r e ign
a ffa i r s a n d t h e e ngag e m e n ts h e i nh erit e d from h i s
p r e d ec e sso r R a th e r tha n t h e o nu s o f M o ro cc o an d
a nyth i ng s o
P e rs i a r e signat i o n p oli t i ca l ob liv i o n
lo n g a s the p eopl e k n e w the whole t ru th
W e sha ll p e r hap s n e ve r know a ll t h a t p a sse d b e
twe e n Ge rm a n y a n d B r i ta i n i n tha t y e a r 1 9 1 2 a n d
a n att e mp t to weav e a s to ry o f t h e i nwa r d ness o f th e
d iploma ti c negoti ati ons i s w e ll n igh imp o ss i bl e ; s o
i nc o n si st e n t s o cont r a d i cto ry a r e m i n i st e r s sp ee ch es
a n d t h e w r i t i n gs o f pub l i c i sts o f t h e time
N ow that
W e have M r As q u i th s C a r d i ff sp e e ch the whole a ffa i r
an d

M R B A L FOU R AS J E R E M IAH

25

i s thrown up i n a light wh i ch doe s not mak e ou r cas e

lo ok any b e tt e r Lo r d H a ld a n e s sp e ech i n M ar c h

19 12
whe n h e s a i d
S trat e gy mu st resp on d to

p oli cy t h e p oli cy o f t h e F o r e ig n O fc e a n d M r
C hu r chill s r e f e r e n c e in F e b r u a r y o f tha t y e a r to

the G e rm a n n avy a s m o r e i n t h e n atu r e o f a lux

u ry
d o not ha r m o n i z e with M r As qu ith s d e s cr ip
ti on i n the fo llowi n g Ju ly o f ou r co r d i a l re lati o n s
with G e rm a n y Th e d e b at e s o n Imp e r i a l D e f e n c e
a n d t h e N avy
i n 1 9 1 2 might b e re a d now with
p r o t by m any p e opl e who w i sh to k n ow s o m e thi n g
o f the o r i g i n o f the wa r ; bu t nothi n g i n th e s e d e
ba t e s g i ve s o n e a sh r e d o f evi d e nc e a s to a ny u s e fu l
pu rp os e b e ing s e rv e d by t h e c o n v e r s a ti ons b e tw e e n
Lo r d H al d a n e a n d t h e G e r m a n C hanc e llo r
What
i s t h e go o d o f d iploma cy ? D i s r a e li a sk e d Th e d e
b ate s o f 1 9 1 2 i n t h e light o f r e c e nt stat e m e nts p rov e s
h o w utt e r ly absu r d i t wa s fo r a n y o n e to hop e fo r
p a c i c r e l ati o ns s o lo n g a s Eu rop e w a s d ivi d e d i nto
t w o v a st c amp s a r mi n g to d est r o y e a ch othe r
Mr
B al fou r in t h e H ou s e Ju ly 2 2 n d s a i d :

I f w e a r e t o c o n t e mp l a t e t he h o r r i b l e a n d as I h o p e
t h e i mp o s s i b l e i f t h e r e i s t o b e t h i s u n i v e rs a l Ar m a ge d
don t h e n l o o k i n g a t i t f r o m a n a v a l p o i n t o f v i ew i t s ee m s
t o m e t h a t t h e e e t s o f t h e T r i p l e E n t e n t e a r e n o t i n a de
qu at e n ow a n d a r e n o t g o i n g t o b e i n a de qu a t e t o a n y s t r a i n
I f w e ca n c o n c e i v e
t h a t i s g o i n g t o b e p l a c e d up o n t h e m
i f w e a r e d r i v e n t o co n c e i v e i f w e a re o b li g e d t o c on c e i ve
t h i s c o n d i t i o n o f u n i v e rs a l w a r f a r e t h en I d o n o t s a y t h a t
t h e e e t s w i t h wh i ch o u r i n t e re s t s a r e c on c e r n e d c an b e
i n a n y t h e a t r e o f o p e r a t i o n s t o t he
r e g a r d e d a s i n a de q u a t e
I de c li n e t o be
s t r a i n wh i ch w ill b e t h r o w n up o n t h e m
li e v e i t p o s s i b l e t h a t w e a l o n e s h o u l d b e c o n c e rn e d w i t h a ll
t he n av i e s o f t h e w o r l d e x c e p t t h ose le t u s s ay o f F r a n c e

H OW D I P LO M ATS M A KE

26

WA R

Ru ss i a w ho r e m a i n n e u t r a l in t h e i r p o r ts I h op e a n d
b e li ev e w e s h o u l d n o t b e u n e qu al e v e n t o t h a t s t r a i n b u t
i t is a s t r a i n wh i ch i s s u r e l y n o t p r o b a b l e
S u r e ly i f w e
a r e t o d r a w t h e s e d re a d fu l p i c t u r e s o f i n t e rn a t i o n a l d i s a s t e r
a n d i f t h a t is a n e c e s s i t y f o r c e d u p o n u s
w e n e e d h ardl y
s upp os e t h a t o u r e v i l f a t e
o r e v e n t h e m os t i mb e c il e d i p l o
m a cy w o u l d f o r c e u s i n t o c o n i c t w i t h t h e se n a t i o n s w i t h
wh o m w e h a v e n o c a u se o f qu a r re l w i t h wh o m w e h a v e
b een a t a ll e v e n t s a s r e g a r ds t h e M e d i t e rr a n e a n P ow e rs
o n t h e m o s t f r i e n d l y t e r m s w i t h i n t h e m e m or y o f m a n
a n d w ho
I can h a r dl y b e li e v e w il l be d r i v e n t o a t t a ck us
a n d a t t a ck u s a l o n e i n a n yb o d y e l s e s qu a rr e l
W e mu s t
p re p a re e v e n fo r t h a t da n g e r b u t I t h i n k i t m os t i mp ro b a b l e
I n a n y c as e i f I u n de r s t a n d t h e p o li cy o f t he G o v e rn m e n t
a r i gh t i t w ill b e t h e m os t p e r il o u s a dv e n t u re t h a t a n y S t a t e

c ou l d i n fu t u r e e n g a ge in t o dr a g E ur o p e i n to a w a r
an d

All through t h e ye a r 1 9 I 2 in d e b ate s i n the H ou s e

G e rmany wa s t h e o n e
a n d sp e e ch e s i n th e count r y
P o w e r sp e ak e r s ch alle n g e d o n n ava l suprem a cy
Th e o rga n i z at i o n o f the N o r th S e a Fle e t wa s r e
ga r d e d i n G e rm a n y as a d i r e ct thr e at a n d a menac e
e ven G e r ma n p a cis t s lo st hop e ; a nd a fter t h e
Aga d i r a ffa i r B r iti s h e sti ma t e s a n d p r e p a rat i ons h a d
a ll t h e app e a ra n ces o f a Gove r nment h e a d ing
stra i ght fo r w ar Though t h e P rim e M i n i st e r a n d
t h e Fo re ign S ecreta ry poure d o ily wo r d s on the w a
te r s troubl e d by ou r for e i gn p ol i cy t h e t e mp e st o f
re crimi n ati o n ab at e d no t one j o t
I t i s how e ve r qu i t e clea r why G e rm any te ste d ou r
n e ut r ality I n a sk i ng u s to giv e h er a fr e e han d s h e
wa s r e a lly i n qu i r i ng i f we we re i n a p os i tion to giv e
h e r a f r e e ha nd
C e rta inly t h e tim e h a d come wh e n
a fre e ha n d was n e ce ssa r y fo r he r Imp e r i a l e x i sten c e
S h e cou l d not imp er i ally a ffo r d a n oth e r d iploma ti c
hum i l i at i on Fo rce s h a d b e en u ncha i ne d by the
,

A CAB I NET CAT SET F REE

27

events o f t h e Anglo -Fr e n ch i n t e rests i n A fr i c a wh i ch

d e sir e d oth e r m e tho d s o f d e a li n g with i nt e rnatio n al
qu a r rels Th e C r o w n P ri nce a n d hi s p a r ty w e r e in
t h e a s ce n d e ncy a n d th e y w e r e no cou rti e rs o f t h e
e
n
t
h
e fo ru m ; th e i r a r e n a wa s t h e pla c e fo r
n
a
d
p
swo r d s a n d sh e lls Th e mo r e e vi d e n c e th e y gath
e re d o f
B r i ti s h J i n go f e e li n g t h e g r e at e r n ava l
p r e p a rat i o n s w e m a d e t h e e a si e r b e ca m e the i r ta sk
o f o v e r b e a ri n g t h e mo d e rat e pa r ty i n G e rm any I t
woul d b e n o d i f cu lt ta sk t o c o ll e ct stat e m e nts fro m
S p e e ch e s a n d r e vi e ws publish e d ov e r a p e r i o d o f y e ars
i n B r i ta i n whi ch w o ul d s e r v e to inu e n c e t h e G e rm an
J i n go w i th noti o n s o f B ritish b e lli g e r e n ce ; b ut ou r
a ct i o n s w er e sufc i e nt I n d e b at e a ft e r d e b ate i n
t h e H ou s e n umb e r s o f m e mb e r s h av e p o i nt e d ou t
whe r e m i n i st e r s a n d e x mi n i st e r s a n d oth e r mo r e o r
l e s s r e sp o n sibl e m en h av e s a i d thi n gs ca lcu l ate d to
a n n oy G e rma n s Lo r d C ha r le s B e r e s fo r d c e n su r e d
t h e F i r s t Lo r d fo r d r a ggi n g G e r m a ny i nto hi s
sp e e ch e s a n d wh e n Lo r d R oberts a t M anch e ste r in
19 12
m a d e h i s famou s re f e r e n c e to Ge rm a n p r e
e
h
e nin
a nda r d s a i d o f i t :
S
a
r
d
n
e
t
e
E
v
t
s
s
p
g
.

p r u d e n t p e o p l e o n b o t h s i de s o f t h e
N o r t h S e a a r e e n de a v o u r i n g t o e s t a b li s h b e t t e r r e l a t i o n s
b e t w e e n t he t w o p e o p l e s i t is m e r e w a n t on m i s ch i e f m a k i n g
fo r a m a n w i t h L o r d R o b e r t s s u n e qu a ll e d p re s t i g e t o u s e
w o r ds wh i ch mu s t dr i v e e v e r y G e rm an w ho r e a ds t h e m t o

e x as p e r at i on

At

i m e wh e n

a ll

M r C hu rch i ll we n t to t h e A d m i ralty i n th e
au t umn o f 1 9 1 1 S ho r tly b e fo r e t h e Aga d i r qu e st i o n
wa s e xpla i n e d by t h e For e ig n S e cr e ta ry to t h e H o u s e
W e now know why M r C hu rchill wa s s ent at th a t
a n xi ou s t i m e to take cha rge o f th e navy B i t by
.

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA K E WA R

28

b i t the truth le aks ou t A C o al i t i on G ove rnment h a s

taken t h e p la c e o f t h e L i be ral Gove rn m e n t a n d M r
B al fou r ha s r e pl a c e d M r Chu rch i ll at t h e A dm i ral ty
Now t h at t h e latt e r i s f r e e o f d i r e ct r e sp o n sib il i ty
fo r n ava l p ol i cy he h a s t o l d his constitu e nts in Dun
I n d e e d at a m e e t i ng there on
d e e a b i t o f histo ry
Jun e 5 t h 1 9 1 5 M r C hu r chill i n tent i onally o r u n i n
t e n t i o n a lly let a C ab i n e t ca t out o f the b ag
a ca t
to o wh i ch expl a i ns a lo t o f th e sp i lt m i lk a n d b roken
cro cke ry o f t h e y e a r 1 9 1 2
Sp e ak i n g a t t h e K i n na i rd H all D unde e o n June
5 t h 1 9 1 5 M r C hu rch i ll s a i d :
.

Adm i r a l t y in 1 9 1 1 a f te r t he Ag a di r
c r i s i s h a d n e a rl y b ro ugh t u s i n t o w a r a n d I w a s s e n t w i t h
t h e e x p r ess d u t y l a i d up o n m e by t h e P r i m e M i n i s t e r t o
p u t t he e et i n a s t a t e o f i n s t a n t a n d c o n s t an t r e a d i n e ss fo r
w as

s en t t o t he

w ar in

c a se

we

w e re

atta

ck e d by G er m a n y

Such a stat e m e nt ma de thre e ye a rs too la te p rov e s

how u tterly h e lpl e ss t h e Hou s e o f Commons a n d t h e
el e cto rs a re to s ave th e i r count ry from the ho rro r s
o f wa r
I n the deb at e on the N ava l E st i mates 1 9 1 4 M r
Phi lip S now d e n re f e rr ed t o s om e th i n g Lo r d W e lby
s a i d e a rli e r i n tha t y e a r Lo r d W e lby wa s on c e a t
t h e h e a d o f the Tr e a su ry ; h e h a d hel d th e h i ghest
p os i t i on i n t h e C i v i l S e rv i c e o f B ri ta i n a n d wa s r e
ga r d e d a s a gr e a t nanc i a l author i ty Lo rd Welby
said :
,

W e a re i n t he h an ds o f a n o r g an iz at i on o f c roo k s
T h e y a r e p o li t i c i a n s g e n e r al s m an u f a c t u r e rs o f a r m a m e n t s
a n d j ou r n a li s t s
All o f t h e m a re a n xi o u s fo r u n li m i t e d e x
pe n di t u r e a n d go o n i n v e n t i n g s c a r es t o t er r i fy t he p u b li c

a n d t o t e r r i fy M i n i s t e rs o f t he C ro w n

B E L G IAN N E UTRALITY AGAI N

3 29

Lo rd W e lby kne w wha t he wa s ta lk i ng ab ou t

C ro oks i s t h e p r e ci s e wo r d t h e a ccu r a t e t h e i n
sp i re d wo rd N 0 othe r wo rd wou l d q u i te m e et the
o cca s i on
.

I n supp o rt o f wha t h a s b e e n wr i tten o n the Tre a ty

o f 1 8 3 9 a n oth e r p a ra grap h o r t w o must b e a d d e d
Since the wa r b egan s om e mo r e i n fo rm ati on h a s b e e n
g a i ne d
I t i s s a i d t h a t th e n e utral i ty o f B e lg i u m w a s the
on e so l e qu e sti on whi ch k e p t the C ab i n e t tog e th e r
o n Au gu st 2 n d ; wh e n t h at t r e a ty wa s m a d e t h e ca s us
b e lli
Th e n thos e M i n is t e rs who h a d h a n d e d in
th e i r r e s i gna ti o n s with d r e w t h e m
e xc e p ti n g
of
cou rs e Lo r d M o rl e y a n d M r B u rn s Thi s V i e w o f
C ab i n e t a cti o n i s n o w pu t f o r wa r d by m a n y w r iters
bu t i t d o e s n o t e xp la i n t h e st r a n g e p os iti o n o f t h e
m e n i n t h e C ab i n e t who p rot e st e d aga inst t h e p o l i cy
whi ch e n m e sh e d t h e Gov e rn m e n t i n t h e C o n ti n e n ta l
Syst e m Th e c r i ti ca l d a y for t h e C abi n e t w a s Au
gu st 2 n d t h e d a y a ft e r Si r E dwa r d G r e y i n fo r m e d
t h e Fr e n ch Amb as s a d o r a t Lo n d o n that
G e rm an y
h a d e xpla in e d th a t S h e w a s not in a p o s it i o n to r e ply
to the qu est i o n o f ob se rv i ng B e lg i an n e u t r ality a n d

th a t h e wou l d p rop o se to h i s coll e a gu e s th a t h e

shou l d stat e that i t (th e B r iti s h Fle e t ) will o pp o s e
t h e p a ss a g e o f t h e St r a its o f D o v e r by t h e G e r m a n
F l e e t o r i f the G e r man Fl e et shoul d p a ss th r ou gh

w i ll o pp os e any d e mo n strati o n o n t h e Fr e n ch co a sts

Th e French Amb a ssa d o r s e n t that i n fo rmat i on t o M
Vi v i an i t h e P r e s i d e nt o f t h e F r e n ch C o unc i l o n Au
gus t I st the d a y b e for e the B r i t i sh C ab in et gave its
s anct i on to t h e p ropo s al a nd tw e nty fou r hou r s b e
fo re S i r Edwa rd G rey not i e d th e C ab i net th at Ge r
.

33

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D I P LO M ATS M A KE WAR

m any w a s n o t i n a p os i t i on to r e ply to the qu est i on

ab out t h e n e utra l i ty o f B e lgium
Thi s m e tho d o f co n d u cting t he a ffa i rs o f B r i ta i n
w a s p e rha p s qu i te i n o r d e r a n d a C ab i n e t whi ch w a s
l e ft in t h e d a r k ab ou t s o m a n y d ip lomat i c n e g o t i a
t i o n s p e r hap s f e lt g r at e ful fo r a ny s e con d ha n d in
f o rmati o n wh i ch ha pp e n e d to come i ts way N ev e r
t h e le s s w e a r e to l d th e cr i s i s wa s b r i d g e d by the
Tre aty o f 1 8 3 9 a n d un e a sy sp i r i ts w e r e so oth e d by
t h e m e nti o n o f t h e holy r e l i c u p on wh i ch p r e sum ab ly
som e sangu in e stat e smen thought no G ove rnm e n t
woul d l ay s a c r i l e g i o u s han d s Wh a t t h e r evolt e rs
i n t h e C ab i n e t thought o f the Fo r e i g n M i n i st e r o n
Au gu st 2 md wh e n h e go t th e m to co n s e n t to t he p ro
p o s a l o f n aval a i d to F r anc e b e fo r e t h e V i ol a ti o n o f
B e lgi a n n e utral i ty by G e rm a ny t o ok pla ce a n d wh at
th e y n o w th i n k s ince th e y h av e h a d tim e to re a d t h e
d ip lomat i c co r r e sp o n d e n ce woul d b e o f d e e p int e r
e s t to tho s e who d o n o t a cc e p t t h e V i e w that m ak i ng
t h e n e ut r a lity o f B e lgium t h e ca m s b e lli wa s t h e o n e
sol e r e aso n fo r t h e with d r awal o f a ll bu t two r e s ig
n ati ons o n Augu st 2 n d H ow ca n a n y M i n i st e r say
h e w a s sati s e d to r e m a in in the C ab i n e t fo r tha t
r e a son wh e n h e co n s e n t e d t o nav al a i d to Fr ance b e
fo r e G e r m a n y i n va d e d B e lg i um ?
C o nsi d e r t h e p o siti on o f M r Lloy d G e o rg e who
i n a n int e r vi e w pub li s h e d i n a m aga z i n e e xpla ine d
t h e attitu d e h e a n d s e v e ra l o f hi s co ll e agu e s to ok u p
b e fo r e t he wa r b roke ou t H e s a i d
.

u a f t e r t he gu a r an tee g i v e n t h at
t h e Ge r m a n ee t w o u l d n o t a t t a ck t h e C o a s t o f F r an c e o r
a n n e x a n y F r e n ch t e r r i t o ry I w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a p a r t y
t o a de c l a r a t i o n o f w ar h ad B e l g i u m n ot b een i n v aded ; an d

Th is I k n o w

is

tr e

A F LI M SY P RETE ! T

I t h i n k I can
my c o ll e a gu e s

s a y t he

sa

m e th in g

33

m os t i f

fo r

n ot

a ll,

of

Wh e th e r t h e gu a ra n t e e r e f e rr e d to by M r Lloy d
G e o r g e ca r r i e d a n y w e ig h t wi th S i r E d wa r d G r e y
or M r
Asqu ith i s a n o th e r m att e r bu t i t shoul d b e
b o r n e i n m i n d that B e lgium wa s no t inv a d e d by G e r
m a n y o n Augu s t 2 n d A n ti cip ati o n may b e w i s e a s
a p o li cy but it ca n n e v e r constitut e r e a li z at i o n I n
v a s i o n o f B e lgium o n Augu st 4 t h coul d not j u st i fy
M r Lloy d G e o r g e s a n ti cip a ti on o f Au gu st 2 n d
Th e N a ti o n a l R e v i e w s a i d s e v e ra l m e mbe rs o f the
C ab i n e t o n Au gu st 2 md w e re ca sti n g ab ou t fo r a
l i f e bu oy to s av e th e i r r i ght e ou s souls whi ch wa s

u ltim a t e ly p rov i d e d by B e lgi um

N ow t h e Ti m e s
that m i r r o r o f Fo r e ig n O i ce r e e cti o n s t e lls u s
e v e n h a d G e r m a n y not i n va d e d B e lgiu m
h onou r

a n d i n t e r e st wou l d h av e u n it e d u s with F ra nc e

imp e ri ou s r e as o n o f s e l f i nt e r e st wa s ou r
Th e
motiv e in a ll con n e ct e d with t h e T r e aty o f 1 8 3 9
W o u l d i t n o t h av e b e e n t h e b ett e r p o li cy f r om t h e
r st to t e ll t h e p e opl e t h e b al d t r uth ?
Now tha t the
To ry p r e ss i s b e n t o n mi n i n g t h e n e u t r a li ty t r e n ch
in w h i ch M r Lloy d G e o r g e a n d h i s coll e a gu e s t o ok
cov e r th e i r p os it i o n b e com e s eve ry d a y mo r e u n ten
abl e a n d stu p i d
No t h e n e ut r a li ty o f B e lg i um w i ll not s erv e fo r
a p r e t e xt si n c e tho s e who d o no t tak e e ve ry m i n i s
t e r i a l utt e r a n c e a s gosp e l hav e t ak e n th e t r oubl e t o
stu d y a ll t h e d ip l o ma ti c co r r e sp o n d e n c e a n d t h e h i s
to ry o f t r e ati e s I t i s a ll v e r y w e ll a n d g o o d fo r u s
to b e tol d d a y a ft e r d a y tha t B r i ta i n must ght thi s
w a r to a su cc e ss fu l n i sh but the mo re t h e B r it i sh
pe opl e a re told they mu st s hut the i r m i n d s to a ll
.

33

H OW

D I P LO M ATS MA KE W A R

i nqu i r i es a s to t he r e a l cause s o f the wa r t h e more

wi ll g r e at s e ct i on s o f th e m f e e l d isp o s e d to g e t all
t h e in fo rmati o n o n t h e qu e st i o n th e y ca n gath e r
,

Alre a dy the e ffe cts o f t h e fata l p oli cy o f s e cr e cy a n d

s hu f e a r e e vi d e n t a ll ov e r t h e count r y N ewsp ap e rs
cry ou t to t h e Gov e rn m e nt to b e f r a n k a n d t e ll t h e
p e o pl e th e t ru th about t h e co n duct o f the wa r a n d
wh a t t h e real p os itio n i s a ft e r m any mo n ths o f blo o d
sh e d ; th e y compl a i n that the s e e ming ap athy o f t h e
m a sse s i s c au s e d by the p o li cy o f withhol d i ng n e ws
tha t t h e e n e my a n d neutr a ls p o ss e s s B ut no one i s
bo l d e n ou gh to attr i b ut e t h e ap athy to a noth e r cau se
a nt e r i o r a nd mo re g r av e to t h e a m a z ing
i nco n s ist e n c i e s a n d supp r e ss i ons i n the d iplomat i c co r
r e sp o n d e n ce a n d t h e stup i d sto r i e s fak e d u p i n ce r
ta i n n e wspap e rs ab ou t t h e n e ut r a lity o f B e lg i um
Th e m a ss e s r e a d ; a n d m a n y o f t h e p ap e rs i ssu e d to
S o c i al i sts a nd Lab ou r it e s a r e s i n gula rly w e ll in
fo r m e d a n d d e a l w e e k a ft e r w e e k most ably with t h e
qu e st i o n s which f o r c e d t h e G ov e r n m e nt i nto a C o n
t in e n t a l wa r
I t i s w o r s e th a n folly to t r y to i gn o r e
th e s e fa cts for i f ou r m a ss e s a r e to b e o rga n i z e d
along with i n du st r i e s to b ring the con i ct to a su cc e ss
fu l a n d sp e e d y e n d t h e G ov e rnm e n t shou l d s e e k now
to r e mov e the su sp i cio n a n d d i st r u st wh i ch li e d own
d e e p i n the mi n d s o f t h e m o r e i nt e lligent wo rk e r s
Th a t th e t w o gr e at p a r t i e s shoul d t e ll d i ffer e nt
sto r i e s o f ou r p a rt i cip at i on i n t h e struggl e i s not t h e
w a y to i ndu ce t h e wo rk e rs o f t h e country to show
a n y r e al e n thu si a sm fo r t h e wa r
M r B onar L a w
on Au gu st 2 n d in h i s l e tt e r to M r Asqu ith sa i d
nothing ab out t h e n e ut r a li ty o f B e lgium ; th e support

o f t h e Opp o siti on w as giv e n in suppo rt o f F ranc e

a nd R u ss i a
Lo r d La nsdowne sa i d w e ha d to
.

D EALI NGS W ITH B E L G I U M

333

cons i d e r ou r obl i gat i ons to Franc e by wh i ch w e w e r e

b ou n d ?
L e av i n g the i n va s i o n o f B e lg i u m out o f the qu e s
t i o n fo r t h e mom e n t h o w ca n t h e G o v e r n m e nt con
tin n e to b a s e its ca s e on t h e V i o l a ti o n o f t h e Tre aty
o f 1 8 3 9 ? W e k n o w now how t h e t r e a ty cam e i n t o
e x i st e nc e
w e a ls o k n o w wha t happe n e d i n 1 8 7 0
to p r e serv e the i n tegrity o f B e lgium Th e fu ll sto ry
o f ou r m ilita ry n e gotiati o n s with B e lgium i n t h e
sp r i ng o f 1 9 0 6 t he int e r v i e w o f L i e ut e n a n t -Co lon e l
B r i d g e s w i th G e n e r al Ju n gbluth i n Ap ri l 1 9 1 2 a n d
the r e p o rt o f B a r o n G re in d l fr o m B e r lin (wh e re h e
wa s B e lgi a n Amb a ss a d o r ) to t h e B e lgi an M i n i ste r
for Fo r e ign Affa i r s i s now k n own I t i s a n ugly
sto ry a n d n o n e o f i ts wo r st f e atu r e s a re r e mov e d b y
d e ni a ls o f c o mpl i c i ty pub l i sh e d fr o m ou r F o r e i gn
Oi ce no r i s its b ru ta lity e ffac e d by t h e s i lly e x
pl anati ons s e nt out by t h e B e lg i a n a utho riti e s i n
M a rch 1 9 1 5
N o o n e who h a s stu d i e d Fo r e i g n
O f ce m e th o d s will a t thi s tim e o f d a y r e s t cont e nt

w i th th e p h r a s e n o t b i n d i n g
That m ilita ry a t
tach s m ay a ct a s d id Li e ut e n a nt Col o n e ls B a r n a r d i s
t o n and B r i d g e s w ith t h e Fo r e i gn Of c e r e a dy to r e
r
e
sp
o
ns
ib
ility
wh
e
n
the
w
rk
o
f
i
ts
m
il
i
ta
ry
o
u
d
i
a
t
e
p
a n d a t t h e s am e tim e r e a d y
a t t a che i s d i scov e r e d
to b en e t s o lo n g a s the s e cr e t i s k e pt
will n o t
d e ce i v e tho se who des i r e stra ightfo rwa r d m e tho d s
Whe n t h e B e lgi a n G e n e r a l
i n Fo r e ign Affa i r s
Jungb luth wa s t o l d by L i e u tena nt Colo n e l B ri d ges
tha t B r i ta i n w a s r e a dy to la n d a fo rc e o f
i n B e lgium G e n e ral Ju n gbluth obj e ct e d a n d s a i d tha t
th e co n s e n t o f t h e B e lgi an Gov e r n m e n t was n e c e ssa r y
To thi s Li e u t -C olonel B r i d g e s s a i d that h e kn e w

that
bu t tha t since w e (B e lg i um ) we re not abl e
,

H OW

334

D I P LO M AT S M A KE W A R

to p rev e nt t h e G e rm a n s from p a ss i n g through ou r

cou n try
E n gl a n d woul d hav e la n d e d h e r tro op s in
B e lgium u n d e r a ll c i rcumstanc e s (e n t o u t e ta t d e
N umb e rs o f B r i t i sh a nd B e lg i a n s ol d i e rs o f high
rank k n ow that e v e r si n c e Alg e ci ras S i n c e J a n u a r y
1 9 0 6 t h e B r i tis h a n d B e lg i a n a r mi e s h a d lo oke d to
o n e anoth e r fo r commo n d e f e n c e
Th e B elgi ans
,

lo oke d fo r
B ritis h sol d i e rs to l a n d a t Ant
w e r p wh e r e th e y woul d b e met by a qu a rt e r o f a m i l
l i on B e lgi a n s Th e G e n e ra l Sta ffs o f b oth a rm i e s
h a d lo n g co n su lt e d o n t h e p robl e m a n d the pla ns
Th e Gov e r n m e n t no t only f a il e d to ca r ry out i ts
pl e d g e co n ta i n e d i n N o 1 5 5 (B r iti sh Whit e Pap e r )
i t fa i l e d utt e rly to k e e p t h e m i l ita ry u n d e rstan d i ng
o f t h e G e n e r a l S ta ffs
B e lgium wa s thrown away
An d wh e n t h e d a y o f r e ckon i n g com e s i t wi ll b e fou n d
tha t B r ita i n wi ll hav e to a n sw e r fo r b roken pl e d g e s
a s t e r r i bl e to B e lg i um as G e rmany s V i olat i on o f a
tr e aty
Wh i le w e a r e engag e d i n ou r u su a l b u s i n e ss o f
le ctu r i n g oth e r cou n tri e s b e llig e re n ts a n d n e ut rals
o n int e r nati o n a l l aw a n d t h e s a n cti ty o f tre a ti e s
we
h ave n o t i m e to e x ami n e o u r o w n p ositi on I n de e d
i t w o ul d b e d i fcult to n d i t now u n d e r th e slathe r

o f whit e wa sh p ou r e d o n by t h e u nctu ou s l e a d ers

o f thought s i nce the wa r b e gan B u t i t m ay b e

s a i d no qu e st i on in th e h i sto r y o f p ol i ti cs wa s start e d
wi t h s o littl e k n owl e d g e a s th i s o n e o f the n e u tra l i ty
o f B e lg i um
W e h ave no t shone a s h i sto r i ans The
b e st s a i d a n d writt e n i n ou r favou r h a s b e e n scra ppy
v amp e d a n d p a rt i a l Th e sp e e che s o f stat e smen
on t h e qu e sti on have b ee n r e ma rkabl e fo r what was
not s a i d ; and the su r g e o f s ent i mental i ty wh i ch arose
.

WHAT D I S RAE L I TH OU GHT

335

f r om the sto ry o f a t r o citi e s h a d n o b e a r i ng on t he

T r e aty o f 1 8 3 9
Th e su d d e n cha n g e in the Lib
e r a l p r e ss on t h e qu e sti o n w h i ch am o unt e d to a com
p le t e v o lt e fa c e in tw e n ty fou r h o u r s w a s p arall e l e d
o n ly by t h e a cti o n o f t h e C ab i n e t whi c h m a d e t h e
n e ut r a lity o f B e lgium a ca s u s b e lli o n t h e d a y n ava l
a i d wa s g r a n t e d to F r anc e
Th e imp o r ta n c e giv e n
to the B e lgi a n tr e a t y i n t h e r st w e e k o f Augu st wa s
qu it e m o d e r n i n d e e d su d d e n ly n e w It wa s no t a l
w ays h e l d so p r e ci o u s An d now tha t t h e w a lls o f
o u r towns a r e
la
st
e
r e d with cop i e s o f t h e s ig n atu r es
p
o f t h e P ow e r s w h o s ign e d th e t r e aty one w o n d e rs
wha t i s t h e p o sitio n o f P alm e r st o n i n hi s g r ave i f
a n y J i n go
o ccu r r e n c e
In
ca n
d i s t u r b him n o w
1855
wh e n D i s ra e li p r o p o s e d t h e n eu tral ity o f the
D anub ian P r i n cip aliti e s h e s a i d :
.

Th e re c e rt a i n ly

i n s t an ce s

Eu r o p e o f s uch p r o p o
s i t io n s
a n d i t ha s b e e n a g re e d by t re a t y t h a t B e l g i um a n d
S w i t z e r l a n d Sh o u ld b e d e c l a r e d n e u t r a l ; b u t I a m n o t di s
p o se d t o a t t a ch v e r y much i mp o r t a n c e t o s uch e n g a g e m e n t s
fo r t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d s h o w s t h a t wh e n a qu a r r e l
a r i s es a n d a n a t i o n m a k e s w a r a n d t h i n k s i t a d v a n t a g e o u s
t o t r a v e r s e w i t h i t s a r my s uch n e u t r a l t e r r i t o r y t h e d e c l a r a
t i o n s o f n e u t r a li t y a r e n o t ap t t o b e v e r y r e li g i o u s l y r e
a re

in

s p ect e d.

Pa lm e rsto n wh e n h e sp ok e no d oub t kn e w t h e r e al
v a lu e o f t h e t r e aty t o whi ch h e h a d pu t hi s nam e
H e wa s n o t d i spo s e d to a tta ch v e r y mu ch i mp o rtanc e
to su ch e n gag e m e n ts Wh a t a cti o n w o ul d h e hav e
tak e n e a r ly l a st Au gu st ? W h e n G e r m any d id n o t
v e ry r e lig i ou sly r e sp e ct t h e n e utra l i ty o f B e lg i um
a n d th o ught i t a d va n ta ge ou s to t r ave rs e neut r a l te r
r it o r y woul d P alm e r st o n h av e wa ste d tim e l e ctu r i ng
G e r m any o n t h e sa n ctity o f treati e s ? N ot l i k e ly
.

H OW

6
3
3

Th e Ti m e s

ab ou t
8 th ,

D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R
s ick p r e sumably o f th e s lav e r i ng
n e ut r ality
r e mi n d e d us o n M a rch

B e lgi a n

19 15

that :

ill i t s e e m s so m e E n g li s hm en a n d E n g li s h
w o m e n w h o g r e a t l y e r r a s t o t he r e as o n s t h a t h a v e f o r c e d
E n g l a n d t o d ra w t he s w o r d T h e y k n o w t h a t i t w a s G e r
m an y s a g r a n t v i o la t i on o f B e l g i a n n e u t ra li t y wh i ch ll e d
t h e cup o f h e r i n d i g n a t i o n a n d m a de h e r p eo p l e i n s i s t up on
T h e y do n o t r e e c t t h a t o u r h o n o u r a n d o u r
w a r (s i c !
i n t e r e s t mu s t h a v e c o mp e ll e d u s t o j o i n F r a n c e a n d Ru s s i a
e v e n i f G e r m a n y h a d s c r upu l o u s l y r e s p e c t e d t h e r i gh t s o f
h e r s m a ll n e i ghb o u r s a n d h a d s o ugh t t o h a ck h e r w a y i n t o

Th e r e

are s t

F r an c e t h ro ugh

t he

E a s t e rn f o r t re ss e s

I t i s all v e r y p a i n fu l cont r ove rsy fo r i t ca sts a slu r

o n t h e stat e m e n ts o f t h e P r im e M i n i st e r a n d t h e
F o r e ign S e c r e ta r y wh e n t h e y r e pli e d to qu e st i o n s
i n t h e H o u s e b e f o r e t h e w a r a n d sa i d w e w e r e u n d e r
n o o b li ga t i o n t o g o to wa r i n t h e i n t e r e sts o f F r a n c e
a n d Ru ss i a
I n t h e e ighti e s t h e T r e a ty o f 1 8 3 9 wa s subj e ct e d
to e xami n ation at h om e a n d ab r o a d a n d it wa s th e n
wi d e ly k n ow n that i t wa s n o comp l e t e gu a r a n t e e
On e B e lg i a n W a r M i n i st e r G e n e ra l B r a i lm o n t d e
ci d e d th a t B e lgium mu st a rm a n d lo o k to h e r o w n
A B r itis h
d e f e n c e s fo r s e cu r i n g h e r n e u tra lity
M i n ist e r i al o rga n t h e S ta n d a r d in 1 8 8 0 h a d tol d
B e lgium not to r e ly on B r iti sh a ss i stanc e in a ll ca s e s
P r ob ably t h e t e rmi n a ti o n o f the tr e at i e s o f 1 8 7 0
ma d e t h e B e lgi a n autho r iti e s th i nk s e r i ou sly o f th e i r
futu r e p os it i o n Th at t h e e f ca cy o f t h e Tr e aty o f
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a v e r y h a z a r d o u s u n de r t a k i n g
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P r i n c e B i s m a r ck w i t h t h e m i gh t y fo r c es h e ca n s e t i n m o
t i o n c o n s en t t o b e b a f e d by t h e a r t i c i a l o b s t a c l e s t o wh i ch
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t e ct e d by Eu r o p e a n gu a r a n t e e a n d E n g la n d i s o n e o f t h e
gu a r a n t o rs I n 1 8 70 E a r l G r an v i ll e t h e n a t t h e h e a d o f
t he E n g li s h F o r e i g n O fc e
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v i o l a t e d B e l g i a n t e r r i t o r y a n d w i t h P r u s s i a i f F r an ce di d s o
W o u l d L o r d S a lis bu r y a ct p r u de n t ly t o t a k e up o n h i m
s e l f a s i m il a r e n g a g e m e n t i n t h e e v e n t o f a f r e s h c o n i c t
b e t w e e n t h e se t w o c o u n t r i e s ? I t i s fo r E n g li s hm e n t o
B u t i t s e e m s t o m e a s on e n o t in di f
a n s w e r t he qu e s t i o n
fe r e n t t o t h e g r e a t n e s s a n d i n t e r e s t s o f E n g l a n d t h a t s u ch
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y by e i t h e r p a r t y t o t he s t rugg l e s he
c o u l d n o t t a ke p a r t w i t h F ra n c e a g a i n s t G e r m a n y (e v e n i f
G e r m a n y w e r e t o s e e k t o t u r n t he F r e n ch a n k by p o u r i n g
i ts a r m i e s t h r o ugh t h e B e l g i a n A r de n n e s ) w i t h o u t u t t e r ly
v i t i a t i n g a n d de s t roy i n g t h e m a i n pu r p os e o f E n g li s h p o li cy
a ll o v e r t h e w o r l d
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n a t u re a n d b e f a i t hfu l t o i t s pub li c p l e d g e s ?
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y o u r F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r o ugh t t o b e e qu a l t o t he t as k o f
m e e t i n g t h i s o bj e c t i o n w i t h o u t c o mm i t t i n g E n g la n d t o w a r
Th e t e mp o r a ry u s e o f a r i gh t o f w a y i s s o m e t h i n g d i ff e r en t
f ro m a p e r m an e n t a n d w ro n gf u l p o ss e s s i o n o f t e r r i t o r y ; a n d
s u re l y E n g l a n d w o u l d b e e as il y a b l e t o o b t a i n f r o m P r i n c e
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o f t h e c o n i c t t he t e r r i t o r y o f B e l g i u m s h o u l d r e m a i n i n t a c t
a s b e f o re ?
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e x c e e d i n g l y i mp o r t a n t qu e s t i o n
I t i s fo r t h e E n g li s h p e o
B u t i t i s h i gh t i m e t h e y
p le t o p e rp e n d a n d p ro n o u n c e
r e e cted on i t
I a m S i r y o u r o b e di e n t s e r v a n t
of

t e rr to r

D I P L OM ATI C U S

Th e l e a ding a r ti cl e r e f e rs to i ts co rr e sp o n d e n t

as

who sp e a k s with high au tho r ity a n d a ft e r

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m any it d r aws t h e follow i n g co n clu s i o n :
on e

W ou l d t he v i o l a t i o n o f B e l g i an t e r r i t o r y wh e t h e r by
G e rm a n y o r F ra n c e b e s uch a n i n j u r y t o o u r h o n o u r a n d
s uch a b l o w t o o u r i n t e r e s t s ?
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c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d i t w o u l d a s s u r e dl y b e s o i f i t i n v o l v e d
a
p e r m a n e n t v i o l a t i o n o f t h e i n de p e n de n c e o f B e l g i um
B u t as D ip lo m a t i cu s i n g e n i o u s l y s ugg e s t s t h e r e i s a ll t he
d i ff e r e n c e i n t h e w o r l d b e t w e e n t h e m o m e n t a r y u se o f a
r i gh t o f w a y
e v e n i f t he u s e o f t h e r i gh t o f w a y b e i n a
s en s e w r on gf u l
a n d t h e a pp ro p r i a t i o n o f t he g r o u n d co y

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339

by the r i gh t o f w ay W e t ru s t t h a t bo t h G e r m a n y a n d
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b e e n c l os e d a n d o n l y n e u t r a l a pp r o a ch e s lie o p e n t o u s
T h i s s t a t e o f t h i n gs is n o t o n l y de t r i m e n t a l b u t f a t a l t o o u r
m ili t a ry s u cces s a n d i t ha s a r i s e n s i n c e t h e t re a t y gu a r a n t e e d
t h e s a c r e dn ess o f t he o n l y r oa ds o f wh i ch w e c an n o w a v a il
o u rs e l v e s
W e w ill a s a fa c t r e s p e c t t he i n de p e n de n ce o f
B e l g i um a n d w e w ill g i v e yo u t he m os t s o l e m n a n d b i n di n g
gu a r a n t e es t h a t a t t he e n d o f t he co n i c t B e l g i um s h a ll b e
a s f r e e a n d i n de p e n d e n t a s b e f o r e
i f G e r m an y (a n d o f
c o u r s e o u r hyp o t h e s i s a pp li e s a l s o t o F r a n c e ) w e r e t o u s e
t h i s l a n gu a g e t h o ugh w e t r u s t t h e r e w i ll b e n o o cc a s i o n
fo r i t w e c a n n o t do ub t wh a t w o u l d b e t h e w i s e a n d
p ro p e r c o u rs e fo r E n g l an d t o pu rs u e a n d wh a t w o u l d b e
E n g l a n d do e s n o t
t h e a n s w e r o f t h e E n g li s h G o v e r n m e n t
w i s h t o Sh i r k i t s t r u e r e Sp o n s i bili t ie s B u t i t w o u ld b e
m a dn es s fo r u s t o i n cu r o r t o a s s um e r es p o n s i b ili t i e s u n
n e c e s s a r il y wh e n t o d o s o w o u l d m a n i f es t l y i n v o l v e o u r p a r

t i cip a t i o n i n a t re m e n dou s w a r
e re d

T ha t wa s t h e o f c i a l C o n se rvat i ve op i n i on i n
1 8 8 7 ; but wh e n i n 1 9 1 4 Ge rm a n y d id j u st wh at w a s
sugg e st e d by
a n d t he S ta n d a r d
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Lib e r a l states m e n w e r e mo rtally s ho ck e d a n d a d
v i s e d B e lgium to d e cli n e G e rma n y s p ropo s a l M u st
i t b e s a i d th at B e lgium st r a i n e d a t a gnat a n d s w a l
low e d a cam e l ? O f cou r s e h e r d i pl om ati c h o nou r
i s i n ta ct though l i ttl e e ls e s eems to b e l e ft at p r e s e n t
B u t whos e o p i n i o n will gu i d e t h e p e o p l e i n th e y e a r s
Who s e cou ns e l will b e wo r t h h e e d i n g
t o com e ?
wh e n t h e n e xt wa r clou d ca sts i ts glo om o v e r Eu
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tion whi ch mu st conc e r n u s now ; a n d so t h a t w e
s h all k n o w w h a t st e p s to take to mak e anoth e r su ch
w a r imp r o babl e w e mu st l e a r n t h e whol e t r uth o f
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W e can n o t c r u sh G erm any w e can n ot d e st roy P ru s
s i a n mi lita r i sm w e c a n n o t lib erali z e Russ i a w e ca n
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r oya l a n d r e publi ca n d e sp ot i sms o f t h e C onti n e nt n o
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a n d s e l f co n t a i n d
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T h e y d o n o t s w e a t a n d wh i n e a b o u t t h e i r c on d i t i on
T h e y do n o t lie a w a k e i n t he d a r k a n d w ee p fo r t h e i r s i n s
T h e y do n o t m a ke m e s i ck d i s cu ss i n g t h e i r d u t y t o G o d
No t o n e is d i ss a t i s e d n o t o n e is de m e n t e d w i t h t h e m a n i a
o f o wn i n g t h i n gs
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TH I N K

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e r i n g o f N o n co n fo rm i sts i n L o n d o n
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sa i d t h e s a me thi n g o f h i s d e ity o r totem Y e t

a fte r hun d r e d s a n d hu n d r e d s o f y e a r s o f Chri st

putti n g H i s swo r d i nto o u r h an d s w a r ab at e s n o t

o n e j o t n o r d o t h e n at i o n s r e a li z e th at
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2
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C hr i st bu t b e for e M r Lloy d Georg e got half way

t hrough h i s sp e e ch h e d e liv e r e d a n atta ck on the
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N ow th e re a r e m e n w h o m a i n ta i n tha t wa r i s not

j ust i abl e u n d e r a n y con d itio n s h e s a i d

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c r e e d a s you r cha i rma n r e m i n d e d u s o f th e Pu ritan

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sp e ak e r w a s q u it e r ight ; i t wa s not t h e c r e e d o f t he
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M r Lloy d Geo r g e w e nt fu rth e r a n d s a i d
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ta i n i t i s n o t the p ri n cipl e o f the C h r i st i a n fa i th

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m a i n ta i n th a t w a r i s n o t j u sti ab l e u n d e r a n y con d i
ti ons a r e n o t Ch r i sti a n s ? How fa r d o e s M r Lloy d
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ca n su ch m e n b e C h r i sti a n s ?
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m ake wa r wh e the r j u st i able o r not but thi s

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t i o n o f the w e ak h e r e v e al e d a p ecu li ar m i s co n ce p
ti o n o f t h e M a st e r s t e a chi n g I t wa s an am a z i n g
co n fe ss i on to m ak e but h e i s a m a n o f gr e a t cou r ag e
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us hi s sta t e m e n t w a s gr e et e d with H e a r h e a r
Th e r e v e lati o n s m ay e xpla in to som e e xt e n t why th e r e
a re s o ma ny e mp t y p e ws in t h e c h u r ch e s
Wha t p a r ti cula r p re c e p t t h e C h r i st i an fa i th i s
b a se d u po n s e ems to d e p en d o n t he c i rcumstances
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TH E T E A CH I N GS OF JESUS

3 43

i n whi ch yo u a r e pl a ced when i t i s co n ven i ent to

th i nk ab ou t i t P as s iv e r e s i stanc e fo r i n stance at a
time l i k e thi s woul d b e p a rty folly Wh e n i t is a
qu e st i on o f a n e d u ca t i o n ra t e i mp o s e d b y a C on
,

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o f th e P u r ita n Fa t h e rs mus t n o t b e appl i e d Th e
d i fcu lt i e s o f t h e a r gume n t li e i n att e mpti n g to apply
a p r e c e p t o f J e su s t o a p oliti cal p a rty ; o r what fo r
t h e tim e b e i n g i s t h e sam e thi n g t h e S tat e
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w ays h a s b e e n d i f cult t o m ak e t h e p r e c e pts o f J e su s
m e e t t h e e x i g e n cy o f t h e S tat e H is p r e c e pts w e r e
fo r t h e i n d ivi du al ; n atio n s a n d stat e s co nc e r n e d h i m
s ca rc e ly a t a ll To qu o t e f r om a chapt e r i n
M a tthew pr e su mably ov e rlo ok e d by M r Lloy d
G e o rge w ill b e e n ough to p r ov e how absu r d it i s
to a tt e mp t to a pply t h e p r e c e pts o f J e sus to t h e Stat e :
s e r v a t iv e

u n t o yo u T h a t ye r e s i s t n o t e v il ; b u t wh os o
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B u t I s ay u n t o yo u L o v e y o u r e n e m i e s b l e s s t h e m t h a t
cu rs e you do g o o d t o t h e m t h a t h a t e yo u a n d p r a y fo r t h e m
w h i ch de s p i t e fu ll y u se yo u a n d p e r s e cu t e yo u :
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i n h e a v e n : fo r he m a k e t h t h e s u n t o r i s e o n t h e e v il a n d o n
t he g o o d a n d s e n de t h t h e r a i n o n t h e j u s t a n d o n t h e u n j u s t

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l e av e J e su s ou t o f o u r p a r ty sp e e c h e s a n d h ave d o n e
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Go d
w i ll no t have H i s wo r k ma d e m an i fe st by cowa r d s
Perhap s i t w a s sp e e ch e s o f t h e so rt d e liv e r e d a t t he
C i ty T e mp l e
Fo r i f the p r e c e pts o f J e su s gu i d e d
s tat e sm e n a n d t h e N oncon fo rm i sts t he me e t i n g
,

H OW

3 44

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

shou ld h av e r e solv e d i tsel f i nto p ray e r for a ll who

B ut t h e m e e ti n g not b e i n g
d e sp i t e fully u s e d th e m
co n ve n e d fo r that pu r p os e su ch a sugg e stion woul d
hav e b e e n mo st i n app r op r i at e
.

O ye

li t t l e f a i th !

M or e ov e r i s th e r e i n th e s e d ays

fa ith a t a ll
in t h e p r e c e pts o f J e su s ? N ati o n a lly no n e what
Th e S tat e i s fa st ab so r b ing t h e m a n ; a n d that
e ve r
i s b a d fo r J e su s
I t i s how e v e r a p ity M r Lloy d
G e o rg e wh e n h e w a s d i s cu ss i n g w i th t h e M o h a mm e
d a n ge n tl e m a n r e f e r r e d to i n h i s sp e e ch d i d n o t bo r
row a copy o f t h e Ko r an a n d tu r n t o t h e 1 7 th chap

t e r wh e r e i t i s s e t d own
W o e b e u n to you fo r
that whi ch ye i mp i ously utt e r co n c e r n i n g G o d ! s i nc e
who e v e r i s i n h e av e n a n d o n e a rth i s subj e ct u n to

him
Bu t the S c r ip tu r e s h av e troubl e d m a n y
stat e smen lo n g b e fo r e thi s wa r b e ga n
C romw e ll
n o t a lways fou n d t h e t e xts tt i n g i n with h i s acti o n s ;
a n d n o d oub t i t w a s a s o r e p o int with hi m tha t J e su s
wa s s o p e rsi st e ntly lit e r a l P e rhap s t h e s am e d i f
culty p r e s e n t e d i ts e l f to M r Lloy d G e o r g e H e

n e v e r r e a d a s ayi n g o f t h e M a st e r s whi ch w oul d

con d emn a m a n fo r striki n g a blow fo r r i ght j u sti c e

o r the p rot e ctio n o f t h e w e ak

T hat m ay b e bu t
i t i s n o t t h e p o i n t Th e p o i n t i s h e n e ve r re a d a
s ay i ng o f t h e M a ste r s that counselle d h i m to str i k e
a b low fo r r i ght j u st i ce o r t h e p rotec t i on o f the

weak M r Ll o y d G e o rge m i ght h ave re ad F e a r

,

any
,

not

t h e m w h i ch

k ill t h e b o dy

S o lo n g a s m en g i v e a n i nte rp retat i o n o f J e su s
wh i ch t s th e i r own d esi r e s and d o not a cc e pt hi s
p r e cep ts l i t e rally th e r e w i ll b e wa rs i n j u st i c e wro n g
and wea k p e ople The way to e n d all the m i sery
,

WHAT B EN E FI T F RO M WA R ?

3 45

a cco r d i n g to J e sus i s S e e k ye rst t h e Ki n g d om o f

Thi s n o stat e can d o

It
G o d a n d H i s Ju sti c e
i s fo r e a ch i n d ivi du a l to s e e k t h e Ki n g d om ; a n d h e
a lo n e ca n s e e k i t n o o n e ca n s e e k i t fo r h im St r ik
i n g blows ca n b r i n g n o r e li e f ; bl ows o nly s e rv e to
p e rp e tu a t e t h e st r i fe
Su r e ly t h e histo ry o f t h e
wo r l d p r ov e s tha t W hat d i d all the b lows s t r uck
by I s ra e l s e rv e ? Why J e su s sca r c e ly r e fe r r e d to
th e m C ou n t t h e n ati o n al b lows st ru ck i n o u r o w n
l an d s inc e w e ca m e f r o m S chl e swi g to E b b s e e t o r
s inc e t h e r e puls e a t Ab e r m e n a i a n d wh a t hav e a ll
the wa r s a n d all t h e b l o ws st ru ck i n all t h e w a rs
d o n e fo r m a nk i n d ? Thi n k o f t h e w r ong i nj usti ce
a n d t h e o pp r e s s i o n p r a cti s e d i n e v e ry r e i gn S inc e Ag
r i col a a n d th e n m e asu r e h o w mu ch n e a r e r w e a r e t o
the i d e a l W a rs b r e e d wa r s
B lows c au s e a n g e r
b itt e r m e mo ri e s r e v a n ch e A ft e r t w o th o u sa n d
y e a rs o f w a r s i n e v e ry clim e u n d e r the s u n m an sti ll
su ffe rs a ll t h e a f i ct i ons know n to hi s ra c e S ince
,

K a I u m e rs
h i de o u s d e m o n
U

H ad

n ot

fo e ,

sa

ve

on e ,

Som e o n e ha s s a i d h i sto ry d o e s no t r e p e a t i ts e l f ;
n e v e r th e l e ss t h e h ist o r i e s o f lo n g ago p r e s e nt o p
p r e ssi ons a n d agitati o n s i n j u sti c e s a n d w r ongs w a r s
a n d s e ttl e m e n ts
with a l ik e n e s s whi ch r e mi n d s u s
strongly o f tho s e w e s e e n ow in Eu rop e Any o n e
wh o wi ll t ake u p Thu cy d i d e s a ga i n a n d r e a d through
tho s e wo n d er ful p ag e s w i ll lay t h e bo ok d ow n with
th e s e ns e o f h avi n g r e a d som e thi n g by a mo d e rn a u
tho r r e cou n t i ng tw e nti e th c e ntu ry e v e n ts ; t h e t reati e s
sp e e ches a n d wa rs o f t h e d ays o f Alcib i a d e s s e e m
not to hav e b ee n s o lo n g a go Gla n ce at a n o ld map
o f G r e e c e a nd th e Ar ch ip e le g o a n d th e n p la c e b e
,

3 46

H ow D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

s i d e i t a m ap o f m ode rn G re ece th e n r e e ct o n the

cau se s o f the anc i e nt wa rs a n d think o f the blows

L e t a ru l e r b as e hi s
stru ck for right a n d j ust i ce !
gove r nm e nt up on v i rtuou s p r i nc i p les a n d h e will b e
l ik e t h e pol e sta r wh i ch r em a i ns ste a d fa st i n its pla c e

whil e all t h e host o f sta rs tu rn towa r d s i t wa s s a i d

by th e gr e at e st p erso nag e o f t h e l a rgest e mp i r e

Thos e wo r d s we re sp ok e n v e hu n d r e d ye a rs b e fo r e
t h e b i r th o f J e su s ; bu t i n C h i na s inc e t h e t i m e o f
C on fu cius th e re hav e b e en w a rs e nough to b r i n g
ab ou t a gr e a t m illenn i um i f a ll t h e b lows on o n e
S i d e w e r e r e a lly stru ck fo r r i ght a n d j u sti c e An d
wha t h av e a ll th e wa rs d on e fo r C h i n a ? T hink o f
t h e tramp ing f e e t whi ch hav e p ass e d a cro ss thi s
h e mi sph e r e i n a ll t h e thousa n d s o f y e a r s a n d cou n t
a blow fo r e v e ry sol d ie r a n d wha t e n d u ring go o d ha s
b e e n d on e ? C ount a te a r for every b low a n d a
d r op o f blo o d fo r eve r y sol d i e r a n d all t h e riv e r s
o f blo o d a n d te a r s hav e n ot washe d away the wro n gs
th a t m e n h av e su ffe r e d for
Th e w e ap ons o f wa r a re changed but t h e he a rt
a n d s ou l o f m e n a n d wom e n r e ma in th e s am e i n w o e
The p la i n t
a n d p a i n a n d longing fo r lov e a n d rest
o f lo n g a go wa s sung i n the sam e s a d key w e he a r
to -da y Th e s ol d i e r the sol d i e r s w i f e an d t he
s oldi e r s chi l d a re rewar d e d by tho se wh o s e n d them
a ll th e i r mis e r y not mu ch b etter than they we re in
t h e d ays o f the H ou se o f C how
Th e b alla ds o f
t h e Sh i -k i ng tell u s tha t mu ch :
,

Al on e t he ru ss e t p ear t re e g row s
W i t h f r u i t up on i t f a i r t o s ee
K i n gs s e rv i c e kn o w s n o t s p e e dy c l os e ;
D ay i n d a y o u t t i s l on g t o m e
The y e a r is fa s t re c e d i n g O ;
-

IS

TH I S C H R I ST IAN I TY ?

3 47

M y w o m an s h e a r t i s b l e e di n g 0 ;

M y s o ld i e r r es t is n e e d i n g O

Th e re wa s h owev e r s o m e th i ng de e p e r so m e th i ng
n e r i n t h e fe e li n g in the i r sol d i e rs s ongs tha n we
e
r
t
f
om mo st o f t h e w a r p o e ts o f th e s e d ays Th e
g
y e a r n i n g fo r a h igh e r vo ca ti o n whi ch th i s l i ttle
la d th r ows ou t i s wo rthy o f i mitat i o n :
,

W h a t p lan t is n ow n o t s a ll o w ?
W h a t d ay i ts m a r ch can s p a re ?
W h a t m o r t a l bu t mu s t t o il a n d m o i l
H e re t h e r e a n d e v e rywh e r e ?

W h a t p l an t i s n ow n o t s o mb r e ?
W h a t m o r t a l u n di s t r a ugh t ?
P o o r t roo p e r s w e a l o n e o f m e n
Ar e l e ss t h a n hum a n t h o ugh t
,

No t u n i c o rn s

n ot

i g e rs

W hy h a u n t w e t he w il d w as te ?
P o o r t ro o p e r s n i gh t n o r m o m can
The s w e e t s o f l e i s u re t a s t e
,

we

Le v
a

t o t he

lon g

To h a u n t t he

ta

il e d f oxes

mb r e g r a s s
Al o n g t he k i n g s h i ghw a y s h o u l d
I n o u r li gh t w a gg o n s p ass
so

we

I t wa s we a ry wo rk then to b e to r n from the h i gh

w ay o f l i fe a n d to il a n d mo i l i n th e s e rvi c e o f d y
s e rv e d b y th e e l d bu t d igge d no t
n asts who w e r e
I t i s w e a r y wo r k n o w a nd dynasts o f a ll kinds
in i t
s e e m to h av e n o e n d Ye s hop e o f wa rs en d i n g
v a n i sh e s wh e n o n e r e ads o f m e e t i ngs su ch a s tha t
h e l d a t t h e C ity T e mpl e An d Noncon fo rm i ty will
su ffe r mu ch fo r m e n w i ll s ay Wha t i s there th e n i n
,

H OW

3 48

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

i de a o f th e Fath e rhoo d o f Go d a n d t h e B roth e r

ho o d o f M a n ?
M e n wi ll a sk th e mselv e s wh e t h e r

the

a r e ligi o n t h at ca n o n ly o ffe r w a r su ch a s th at n o w
wag e d o n t h e C o n ti n e nt fo r t h e s oluti on o f wro n gs
a n d opp r e ssi ons i s a reli gion wo rth m a int a in i n g a n y
lo n g e r
I t mu st no t b e imagin e d that t h is struggl e r e ects
I t shoul d b e r e m e m
t h e tru e m i n d o f t h e p e o pl e
b e r e d tha t a g r e at cha n g e wa s taki n g p la c e i n t h e
mi n d s o f wo rk e r s i n all la n d s G r e at b o d i e s o f m e n
w e r e no lo n g e r cont e n t to le t p oliti ci a n s d o all th e i r
thi n k i n g fo r them ; th e y w e r e r e a d i n g lit e r atu r e u n
kn o wn to t h e i r fath e rs Th e i r outlook on l i fe wa s
changing a n d som e fa i r e r V i s i o n fo r tho s e who l a
b o u r a n d a r e h e avy la d e n was tou chi n g the i r souls
with hop e
N ow th e l e sso n o f this aw ful wa r with
its c r us hi n g bu r d e n o f taxati on t h e d e solate d hom e s
will e a t d e e ply i n to th e i r mi n d s a n d tu r n th e m
wh e r e ? B a ck a ga i n t o t h e b e li e f i n the F ath e rho o d
o f Go d a n d t h e B r oth e r hoo d o f M a n ? M a y no t
m a n y tu rn to S wi n bu rn e a n d s ay with h im :
,

T h ough be f o re T h e e t h e t h ro n e d C yt h a re an
B e f a ll e n a n d h i d d e n h e r h e a d
Y e t t h y k i n g do m s h a l l p a s s G a lil e a n
Thy de a d s h a ll go dow n t o t h e de a d
,

Wh e n ou r rel i g i ou s a n d po lit i ca l l e a de rs b ow d own

b e fo r e t h e g o d o f b attle s a n d a pprov e su ch s tate

ments a s C hr i st h a s put H i s swo r d into o u r han d s

wha t cha n ce i s the r e fo r t h e Gali l e an ? N one what
eve r
Why hol d t h e K a i s e r u p to sco rn a n d r i d i cul e
fo r utt e ri n g n o n s e n s e ab out t h e v i e ux G o t t b o ch e a s
o u r witty Fr e n ch r e vi e w e rs s ay ?
Th e cha i r m a n o f
t h e C i t y T e mpl e m e e t i ng might h ave b e e n full
,

TH E SWO R D OF THE LO R D
bloo d e d about i t a n d hav e r e viv e d the s p i r i t o f
Thoma s M u n t z e r pu t it thi s w a y :
,

3 49
15 25

F i gh t t he b a t t l e o f t he L o r d ! O n ! o n ! o n !
Now i s t he t i m e ; t h e w i ck e d t r e mb l e wh e n t h e y h e a r yo u
H e e d n o t t h e g r o a n s o f t he i m p i o u s ! R o u s e
B e p i t il e s s !
up t he t ow n s a n d v i ll a g e s Ab o v e a ll r o u s e up t h e m i n e r s
O n ! o n ! o n ! wh il e t h e r e is bu r n i n g !
o f t he m o u n t a i n s
O n wh il e t h e h o t g ro u n d i s ye t r e e k i n g w i t h t he s l a ugh t e r !
G i v e t h e r e n o t i m e t o go o u t ; t h e s w o r d n o t i m e t o c oo l
K i ll t h e p r o u d o n e s ; wh i le o n e o f t h e m li v es yo u w i ll n o t
b e f re e f r o m t h e f e a r o f m a n ! W h il e t h e y r e i g n o v e r yo u
i t i s n o u se t o t a l k o f G o d

Ar i s e !

Thom a s M unt z e r call e d h i ms e l f a s e rv a n t o f G o d

a ga i n st t h e wi ck e d R e cit e t h e p r o clam ati on o f
M u n t z e r to a B r o th e r h o o d m e e ti n g a n d t h e m e n
w o u l d s co r n to a cc e p t i t a s c o mi n g f r o m a m a n w h o
a t a ny tim e s i n ce C a l v a r y c all e d hims e l f a Christi a n
Y e t t h e r e w a s a co n i ct o f i d e a s i n t h e M i d d l e Ag e s
a n d th e r e w e r e m e n w h o p r e f e r r e d p e st i l e nc e to w a r
M art i n Lu the r fo r i n stanc e :
.

,
.

W a r i s o n e o f t he g re a t e s t p l a gu es t h a t ca n a ffli c t h u
m an i t y ; i t des t r oy s r e li g i o n i t d es t r oy s s t a t e s i t d es t r o y s
f a m ili e s An y s c o u r g e i n f a c t i s p r e f e r a b le t o i t F a m i n e
b e co m e a s n o t h i n g i n c omp a r i s on w i t h i t
a n d p e s t il e n c e
P e s t il e n c e i s t h e l e a s t e v il o f t h e t h re e a n d t w a s t h e r e f o r e
D a v i d ch o s e i t w illi n g r a t h e r t o f a l l i n t o t h e h an ds o f G o d

t h a n i n t o t h o s e o f p i t il e s s m a n

I t d e st roys rel i g i o n a n d i t d estroys states What

will th e r e b e le ft a ft e r t h e n ext T r e aty o f P e a c e i s
s ig n e d ? P e r h a p s s om e W i nwo o d R e a d e w i ll com e
al o n g a n d t e ll u s thi s wa r ha s d on e mo r e fo r t h e
p r og r e ss o f m ank i n d tha n a ll the oth e r wa rs lump e d
togethe r M i ght no t such a ma n s ay th i s wa r
,

H OW

59

D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

p rov e s b e yon d a ll els e that N i et z sch e was right when

A go o d w a r h a llo w e t h e v e ry c ause a n d
he s a i d

Th e only C h r i sti a n d i e d on t h e cro ss ?

t ha t
Wha t i f a n oth e r M a r x shoul d ri s e a n d c ry Wo rk
e r s o f Eu rop e ! thi s w a r ha s taught you what c an b e
T ak e t h e l e sso n hom e to you rselv e s
d o n e by w a r
R is e ! aga i n st you r r el i g i ous a n d p ol i t i cal d yna sts
Only t h e d e v i l will couns e l neu tra l i ty C hri st ha s pu t

H i s swo r d into ou r h a n d s !
A syn d i cal ist m o r e
e n e rgeti c tha n S o r e l mi ght app e a r a n d t e a ch t h e
w e alth p ro d u ce rs t he e f ca cy o f o r gan i z e d fo rc e to
ov e rthrow o r gan i z e d cap i ta l I t woul d not b e d if
cu lt fo r a m a n w h o k n ows s omethi n g o f t h e h i sto ry
o f s tat e s to p re s e n t e vi d e n c e whi ch woul d imp r e ss
men a n d wom e n who hav e to i le d a n d moil e d to g e t
a b i t o f a hom e tog e ther f r om the s av i n gs o f s t a rv a
t i on w ag e s th at g e n e rati on a fte r g e n e r at i o n th e y
i n the ma i n p rov i d e for mun i t i ons o f w a r a n d giv e
th e i r b e st e s h a n d bon e to the M oloch o f Nob e l
K r upp S chn e i d e r a n d Vi cke rs to w i n j u stic e fo r
stat e s
w i thou t a ny Stat e e v e r g i vi n g a p a ssi n g
thought to the i r cla im to i n d iv i d u al j u sti c e
Wh a t co n t e mpt cou l d b e p ou r e d by a new La ss all e
o n t h e catchwo r d s o f stat e sm e n : P r e stige ! B ala n c e
o f Pow e r ! T ripl e E n t e nte ! Stat e honou r ! Stat e j u s
ti ce ! H ow e asily he woul d conv i nc e his au d i e n c e
th at a ll thes e t e rms a re the gibb er i sh o f Stat e sor
cery
Adde r s f o r k a n d b li n d w o rm s s t i n g
L iz a r d s le g an d ow l e t s w i n g
F o r a ch a r m o f p ow e r fu l t r o ub l e ;
L i k e a h ell bro t h b o il an d bub bl e
,

Supp o s e i t we re shown tha t s i nc e t h e r e volut i on

o f 1 6 8 9 the deb t o f th i s country i ncurred by wa rs
,

L E T SATAN H A VE A T R Y

35

wh i ch a t the end o f th i s w ar m i ght stand at n ot fa r

sho rt o f
all sp e n t i n u p ho l d i n g
p r e sti g e honou r a n d j u st i c e h a d no t b rought j us
ti ce to a s ingl e i n d ivi d u a l ; woul d not the wo r ke rs b e
g i n to think i t high tim e fo r G ov e rnm e nt to s hap e its
p o li cy along t h e les s exp e nsive lin e s o f p e a ce a n d
giv e i ts u n d iv i d e d att e n ti o n to r e movi n g all t h e in
j u st i ce a n d mi s e ry whi ch a ffli ct t h e p e op l e i n t i mes o f
goo d tra d e i n t i m e s o f b a d t r a d e i n tim e s o f wa r
a n d i n time s o f p e a ce ?
Th i s w a r w e a r e tol d w i ll
wi n fo r the opp r e ss e d o f Ru ssi a the fr e e d om th e y
h av e d ream e d o f e ver s i nce a R o ma n off rule d ove r
t h e Sla v race ; tha t i s to b e o n e o f t h e b l e ssings o f
t h e wa r
B u t no o n e ha s p r e d i cte d f r e e d om from
Th e
e conom i c slavery for t h e wo r k e rs o f B r ita i n
m e na c e o f P rus s i a n m ilita r i sm i s to b e d riv e n away
from Fra nc e ; bu t n o s ta t e sma n h e r e s ays t h e m e n a c e
o f p r i vil e g e i s to b e d r i ve n away f r om t h e hom e s o f
ou r p e opl e W e a re to w i p e out t h e sta in o f P ru s
s i an c r u e lty i n B e lgium ; bu t wh e n shall w e w i p e out
B lo o d i n gallons
t h e st a in o f B r i ti s h la n d lo r d i sm ?
a n d mon e y i n m illi ons
mus t b e sp ent i n p rot e cting
t h e r i ghts o f small n ati ons ; but G ov e r nment m ak e s
n o su gg e st i o n fo r s a f e gu a r d i ng the rights o f E n gl ish
m en
An y c au s e bu t th a t o f m a n ! Any d u ty but
the n e a r e st ! M ight not s om e n e w Vogt o r B ii chn e r
i n rega r d ing t h e ru i n s o f t h e Chr i sti a n e ra s ay
W e ll i f th i s i s the b e st the fa i th o f the P u r i ta n Fa

t h e r s ca n d o fo r mank i n d le t S ata n h ave a try

Th e C hr i st i an i ty o f 1 8 6 6 a n d 1 8 70 p ro du c e d t he
B ij ch n e r s a n d the Vogts
And wh a t d id th e y d e s i r e
fo r the i r fellows ? F r e e dom !
Th ey s aw what th e y
thought to b e t h e fa i lu r e o f C h r i st i a n i t y t o b r i ng ha p
i
n
e
a
abundan
ce
to
thos
e
who
p
ro
du
ce
M
ay
s
s
n
d
p
,

35

H OW

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

not t h e latt e r d a y Vogts b e s ay i ng

I f thi s cha o s o f
bloo d sh e d p ov e r ty a n d g r im e i s all that C h r i sti a n
civili z ati o n a ft e r two t h ous a n d y e a r s o f e n d e avou r
can d o t h e n le t u s n o t o n ly d i sma n tl e R h e ims bu t
d e moli sh e v e r y a rch i t e ctu ra l a n d rub ri ca l d e vi c e that

e ve r
symboli z e d t h e C r o ss !
H ow d e e p t h e
t h ought o f G e r m a n hum a n ists su n k i n to t h e m i n d s
o f B r i tis h wo rki n gm e n d u r i n g th at p e r io d wh e n ou r
sociali sts o f t h e M a rxi a n s c h ool w e r e i ntro d uc e d to
t h e w r it i n gs o f Co n ti n e ntal at h e i sts o n ly thos e who
h av e cl o s e ly wa tch e d th e s e t e n d e n ci e s ca n s ay I t
may how e v e r b e s a f e ly imput e d that sp e e ch e s su ch
a s th o s e d e l iv e r e d by S i r W R ob e r tso n N i coll a n d
M r Lloy d G e o rg e h a v e d o n e m o r e to tu r n th o u
s a n d s o f work e r s to t h e w r i ti n gs o f m e n lik e Vogt
wit h th e i r b i t ing s a r ca s m tha n a ll t h e p e rsu a s i ve elo
qu e n ce o f t h e I n ge r s olls a n d B r a dla u gh s
-

T h e i s m o r b e li e f in a p e rso n a l G o d l e a ds as a ll h i s t o ry
c l e a r l y s h o w s t o M o n a r ch i s m a n d p r i e s t l y r u l e ; P a n t h e i s m
wh e r e i t i s i n t he
o r b e li e f i n a n a ll p e rv a d i n g G o d l e a ds
a s c e n d e n cy t o c o n t e mp t o f t h e s e n s e s
de n i a l o f t he Ego t o
a n d t o a s t a t e o f s t a g n a t i on
At h e i s m
ab so rp t i o n in Go d
t o i n t e lli
o r P h il o s o ph i c a l M o n i s m a l o n e l e a d s t o f re e do m
g e n c e t o p r o g r e ss t o du e r e co g n i t i o n o f m an in a w o r d
t o H um a n i s m
,

B ii ch n e r ha s h i s thou sands o f a d he rents in ou r la n d

to d a y An d wha t h a s t h e c r e e d o f ou r P u ritan F a
t h e r s d on e to o ffe r a j u st alt e r na tiv e to Humanism ?
W ill thi s wa r h e lp t h e d e s c e n d a n ts o f t h e P u r ita n
Fath e rs to st e m t h e r i s i n g ti d e o f ath e i st i cal cultu r e
a n d t h e d e s i re
fo r a M a r x i a n r e volution ? H a s
Chr i st i an i ty , a s t h e p ou n d-a -we e k m a n s e e s i t , p oi nt e d
to fr e e d om , to i n t e lli g e nc e , t o d u e re cog n iti on o f
-

AN I NSPI R I N G VIS ION

3 53

man ? W i ll t h e wo r ship o f the g o d o f b attles w o o

m e n to t h e p r e c e pts o f t h e G a lil e a n ?
No t li k e ly
N e v e r h a s w a r d r aw n a s i n gl e sou l to t h e c aus e o f
J e su s
.

h o p e s s h ou l d a n i m a t e t h e w o rl d
S h o u l d d a w n f r o m n ew r e v e a li n g s t o a r a c e
W e i gh e d do w n s o l on g fo r g o t t e n s o l o n g

Ti s

ime

n ew

n ew

li gh t

Wh a t n e w hop e o f j u st i c e h a s C h r i sti a n i ty g i v e n
to t h e ra c e w e igh e d d ow n s o l o n g ? A n e w h o p e
wa s bo r n a t N a z a r e t h bu t e v e r si n c e th at tim e C h r i s
t i a n i ty h as s e e m e d to d o e v e r yt h i n g i n i ts p ow e r to
p r e v e n t tha t hop e t o u ch i n g t h e soul o f m e n
I t wa s
a n e w hop e :
Y o u r h e a v e n ly Fa t h e r k n oweth th a t

e
e s e thi n gs
e
e
r
hav
n
o
f
a
ll
th
v
e
e
d
N
o
o
n
e
e
y
gav e to t h e rac e o f m a n s o g r e a t a hop e a s th a t An
All Fath e r w h o k n ow e th t h e n e e d s o f a ll H i s chi l
d r e n is t h e b igg e st co n c e pti o n o f G o d e v e r p r e s e n t e d
to m a n
Fro m i t j u sti c e to a ll H is c r e atu r e s ows
sp o n ta n e ou sly I t i s w i thou t l im i t o f ra c e colou r
o r c r e e d I t i s fu n d am e n tal u n iv e rs al a n d e te r n a l
Wha t ha s b e e n d o n e by C hri sti a n ity to m ak e th a t
co n c e pti o n a r e a l b a s is fo r e x i st e n c e ? N o Ch r i st i a n
s houl d d a r e sc o ff a t a th e i sti c o r huma n i sti c a sp i r atio n
u n ti l h e c a n t r anslat e t h e G alil e a n s c o n c e p ti o n o f
G o d i n t o a l e a d i n g to f r e e d om i n t e llig e n c e p r ogr e ss
a n d d u e r e cog n itio n o f m a n
Th e t e n d e n cy to G o d
i n d i cat e d by B r ow n i n g i n P a r a ce ls us i s what m a n i s
y e a r n i n g to un d e r stan d :
,

B u t i n c o mp l e t e d m an
A t e n de n cy t o Go d

be gin s

an e

v e r f a s h i o n e d o u t a f a n c i e d goo d
D i s t i n c t f r o m m an s : a s e r v i c e t o b e do n e
ne

WA R

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE

3 54

A g l o ry t o b e m i n i s te re d u n to
W i t h p o w e r s p u t f o r t h a t m an s ex p e n s e w i t h draw n
F ro m l a b o u r i n g in h is b e h a l f ; a s t re n g t h
I c a re d n o t
D e n i e d t h a t m i gh t a v a il h i m

L es t

h is

su

E l se wh e re ;

cc e ss

r an

fo r Go d

cou n ter t o
is g l or i e d

su

cc ess

i n m an

W e h ave t i me d a y a fter d a y to re count t h e ho r

r o r s o f wa r s excess e s the at r o citie s o f G e r ma n sol
d i e r s the sta rva tio n o f whol e p rov i nc e s t h e t e r r ible
plight o f re fuge e s ; t h e wo rl d i s app a lle d at t h e ava
l anche o f wo e N o o n e r e m a i ns n e ut r a l ; w av e s o f
un i ve rsal sympathy re a ch hi gh e r a n d high e r ; from all
p a rts o f t h e glob e w i ll i ng h a n d s s e n d foo d r a i m e n t
a n d mo n ey to p ro cu r e shelt e r fo r t h e str i cke n
B ut
who r em a i ns neut r al i n t h e ght a ga i n st p ov e r ty
d r i n k a nd the my r i a d a tro c i ti es o f ou r e conom i c
syst e m wh i ch a r e p e rp et r ate d ye a r in a n d y e a r o u t
a n d s e l d om rou se the a lu en t out o f th e i r p e rni c i ou s
ap athy ? What devil h a s cou ns e ll e d t h e n e utra l i ty
o f the chu rches a n d h e l d them from tu r n i n g t h e
whol e o f th e i r a tte n t i o n to a solut i o n o f e co n om i c
p rob l e ms ? Wh e n w i ll Chr i st pu t H i s swo r d i n to
t h e han d s o f a ll t h e cl e rgy to e xt e rm i n at e pov e r ty ?
W i thou t s e a rching the p ol i c e cou rt n e ws o r tak i n g
the trouble to co n sult t h e p oli ce cou rts a n y o n e wh o
h a s l i ve d i n a ny st r e e t o f any B r i t i sh tow n could writ e
a s to ry o f a tro c i t i e s tha t w o u l d s ati s fy t h e cravings
fo r h o rro r o f a n y numb e r o f folk w h o n o w rev e l i n
t h e e x e rt i ons o f B r i ta i n to chast i s e t h e Huns i n B e l
g i um
Last n i ght i n the stre et b elow t wo wom en fought
l i k e tige r s whi l e a la rg e crow d swaye d a n d twi st e d
ab ou t the i r d ru nk e n b rawl T h e y w e r e young
women l i v i ng i n a stre et no t fa r from t h e Abbey

C RUSH P RUSSIAN IS M

3 55

no t mo r e than on e hun dr e d y a rds from t h e

H ous e s o f P a r li am e nt Th e y roll e d ab ou t t h e
mu dd y stre e t a n d t h e t r afc w a s st o pp e d whil e th e y
cl awe d a n d s mash e d e a ch othe r Th e o n look e r s
w e re i n m a n y r e sp e cts mo r e i n t e r e sti n g th a n the
c o mb atants : o ld wom e n ha l f s tu p i e d with d r i n k ;
little chi l d r en i n r ags ; bl e a r e y e d m e n j u st tumbl e d
o u t o f the pub n e a r by ; a n d b e s i d e s
a motl e y lo t o f
d e c e n t lo oki n g p e opl e f r om t h e ats a n d h o u s e s
w h o h a d r u n ou t o n h e a r i n g t h e sc r e ams o f t h e
wo m e n a n d the shou ts o f the i r n e i ghb ou r s N o o n e
s e e m e d to ca re to i n t e rf e re s av e o ne o r two i n ti
mat e s th e ms e lv e s d ru n k a n d qu a r r e lsom e Th e
l angu ag e o f t h e d e n i z e ns yelli n g a t n e w com e r s t h e
sto ry o f t h e r o w wa s v il e ; t h e comm e n t p a sse d o n
t h e h isto r i e s o f t h e b r awle rs wa s sho ckingly R ab e
la i s i a n
Wh e n t h e wom e n t u s s e lle d ou t o f t h e roa d
i n to the gutt e r a n d th e n w i th the i r b r e a st -cove r i ngs
i n rags o n to the si d ewalk o n e bu s d r i v e r cri e d t o

a noth e r
Wha t ab ou t t h e P ru ssi a n H u n e h ?
Th e n a p o lic e ma n c am e u p o n t h e s c e n e a n d a ft e r
mu ch d i f culty d r agg e d t h e wom e n o ff to R o ch e st e r
R ow A clergyma n w h o w atch e d t h e small c r ow d
fo llow i n g t h e w o m e n a n d t h e co n stabl e p a ss i n to t h e
gloom wa s h e a r d to s ay
T e r r ibl e n e ighb o u rh o o d

t hi s ; no t n e a rly e noug h p o li c e m e n o n t h e b e a t !
An d ye t w a r n e v e r r e v e a l e d a n a t r o ci ty lik e Tu fto n
S t r e e t ; bu t t h e m a rv e l o f i t i s not that i t i s so b a d
I t i s a myst e r y how i n
r a t h e r that i t i s s o go o d
d u s t r i o u s d e c e nt m e n a n d wom e n c an b e bo r n a n d
b r e d i n tha t pl a c e but th e y a r e ; n o t m any still a fe w
sw e ete r e x
r i s e o u t o f i t wit h a d e si r e fo r a fu lle r
and

i s t e n ce

Wa r

d e s troys

re

l i gio n

Luth e r s a i d

Ye s b ut
,

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

6
35

how o ft e n hav e t h e d e vot e e s themselve s b e en to

blam e fo r t h e d e stru ct i o n o f th e i r r e lig i on ? All
t h e r e ligi o ns k n own f r om Katma n d u to Ti a n a hu a co
tha t ha v e l o st th e i r i n uenc e h ave suffe r e d b e caus e
t h e si m pl e o r i gi n a l i d e a ha s b e e n smoth e r e d in t h e
e m b e lli s h m e nts a n d r i tu a ls o f th e i r p r i e sts
Woul d
i t b e n e a r e r t h e t r uth to s ay mo r e r e ligio n s hav e b e e n
d e st r o y e d by p r i e sts tha n b y w a r s ? W h o can s ay ?
B u r n o u f ? A n ywa y thi s mu st b e a d mitte d : p ri e sts
have n e v e r b e e n s ati s e d with t h e fou n d e r s o rigi n al
i de a
I t h a s b e e n p o i n te d ou t tha t wh e rev e r a r e
li g i o n i s p r a ctis e d to d a y t h e cl o s e r i t h a s r e m a i n e d
to t h e o r igi n a l i d e a t h e l a r g e r a n d m o r e d e vou t the
numb e r o f its a d h e r e n ts T his ca n n o t b e wh o lly a
m att e r o f g e og r ap hy a n d p opulati on fo r Ch r i s
t i a n i t y ha s p e n e tr at e d t o t h e u tt e r mo st co rne rs o f

th e glob e

I d o not nd you r J esu s i n you r C hr i st i a n i ty

s a i d a C h i n e se s ch o l a r i n a l e ctu r e o n r e li g i o n ; i n

d e e d you s ca rc e ly e v e r m e nti o n his nam e

Wa s th e
r e buk e m e r it e d ?
Wh a t a r e w e a fra i d o f ? H e re
i n a p ap e r r e a d by th o u san d s o f b e tt e r cla ss a r t i z a n s
a r e l e tt e r s t o t h e e d i t o r
On e co r r e sp o n d e nt s ays
Th e r e i s n othi n g u n i qu e o r e v e n r e ally n e w ab ou t
thi s s o ca ll e d C h r isti a n d o ct r i n e Soc r at e s p r o

p ou n d e d it fou r hu n d r e d a n d o d d y e a rs B C
Thou
s a n d s o f w e ll m e a n ing p eopl e ha v e t h e s ame noti on ;
th e y n e v e r g e t b e yo n d t h e i d e a t h a t J e su s was a
v e ry r e sp e ctabl e plag i ari st H ow o ften i n sp e aking
t o gat h e r ings o f m e n o n r e l i g i ou s a n d e conom i c sub

j e ct s h av e t h e qu e st i ons taken thi s l in e : Why fol

low J e su s wh e n e v e ry r e l i gi o n ha s h a d its J e sus a n d

r e ligi o n d o e s n oth i n g to alt e r t h e lo t o f t h e p oo r ?

W o ul d n t you a dv i se work i ng men to fol

o r thi s :
,

E X TE M PO R E SO C IALI S M

3 57

low Tolst o y r ath e r tha n J esu s w ho knew n oth i ng o f

mo d e r n co n d iti o n s o f i n d ustri al i sm ?
Th e n t h i n k
o f t h e y e a r n i n g w h i ch p r ompt e d t h i s : I s n t Kr o p o t
k i n mo r e p r a cti ca l fo r a p ou n d a w e e k man th an

J esu s ?
Th e s e a r e o n ly some o f the m ost re a son
abl e qu e st i ons r e m e mb e r e d in a long p e rio d o f le c
tu r i n g M i lli o n s wa n t to k n ow what J e su s m e ans to
m a n Th e th o u san d s w h o t r amp d a y a ft e r d a y
y e a r aft e r y e a r to t h e mi lls fa cto ri e s shops a n d
o f ce s o f ou r g r e a t towns want to k n ow i f th e r e i s
a b ett e r syst e m o n e th a t w i ll put a n e n d to t h e aw fu l
wa r o f to i l a n d mo i l a n d l e a ve m an to wag e t h e o n ly
b attle th e C r e ato r i n te n d e d hi s c r e atu r e s to wa g e
Who wi ll e xpl a i n t h e
t h e b attl e a ga inst n a tu r e
t ru e J e su s to th e s e m e n ? Who w i ll s how t h e m t h e
p la n t h e syst e m t h e o r d e r o f e xi st e n c e wh ich h e s a i d
I t c an n o t
t h e All Fath e r m e a nt fo r H is c h il d r e n ?
b e d o n e d u ri n g a wa r but w h e n t h e T r e aty o f P e a c e
i s sig n e d will th e chu r ch e s e d it o rs o f r e ligiou s p a p e r s

stat e sm e n a n d l e a d e r s o f t h ought la p se aga in

i nto t h e s ame o ld w e a r y bu s i n ess o f hi d i n g J e su s
b e hi n d a m a sk o f sup e r stiti o n a n d cov e r Hi m with
t h e canoni cal s o f a n a r chb i sh o p ?
So c i e ty will n e e d
a new b a si s wh e n thi s w a r i s ove r E a ch d a y t e n d
e n ci e s a r e sh ap i n g i n to e ffo r ts
Alr e a dy t h e Gov
e r n m e n t wo rks
a lo n g t h e v e ry so ci a li sti c lin e s i t
p o u r e d c o n t e mp t up o n a fe w y e a rs ago
R ev e rsi o n
i s t h e d omi n ant not e o f t h e p e r i o d Swi ft som e
t e a che r s hav e b e e n to p o i n t t h e mo ra l o f t h e chang e
S tat e sm e n go whithe r t h e cu r
t o m a ny a r t i z a n s

r e n ts take th e m M r B latch fo r d s ays

I f the
liv e s o f all t h e c i t i z e n s b e long t o the n at i o n t h e

p r op e rty o f all the citi z e n s b e l ongs t o the n at i o n

W ill M r Lloy d Geo r g e a n d Si r W R ob e r tso n N i col !

H OW

D I PLO M AT S MA KE WA R

a ccept tha t d o ct r i n e ? W i ll t he a utho r o f Th e Ne w

Th e o lo gy a cc e p t i t ? I n a hu n d r e d ways e v e r y we ek
t h e G ov e r n m e n t i s d r iv e n a long t h e v e r y p ath it once
tol d the e l e cto rs to avo i d Ama z i n g r e voluti on
w i thou t a gi tat i o n ! Wh at i s t h e gr e at fo r c e b e hin d
t h e G ov e r n m e nt to d a y ru shi n g it i n t o cha n n e ls i t
abho r r e d o n ly s e v e n y e a rs ago ? Th e e xig e nci e s
o f a n A rma ge d d o n ? Th e n ati on ght i n g fo r its e x
i s t e n ce ? W hat e v e r t h e c au s e o f i t m o r e l e ssons in
t h e wo r kab l e n e s s o f th e p rop osals o f B r i t i sh social
i s t s h av e b e e n g i v e n by thi s G ov e rnm e n t si nc e the
e n d o f Ju ly tha n ca n b e foun d i n all t h e lit e ratu re
o f S o ci al i sm f r om Sa i n t S i mon d own to B e l fo r t B ax
The c i rcu msta n c e s d e ma n d i t ? Y e s but i t m ay b e
a r gu e d wha t i s goo d fo r t h e n a t i on i n w a r -t i m e i s
a ls o go o d fo r t he i ndiv i duals that comp r i s e the n a
ti on wh e n p e a ce i s p ro cla im e d What r e ply i s to b e
m a d e to th a t ? M r B latch fo r d s ays
To cla i m th e
b lo o d o f ou r young mal e citi z e ns a n d to e x e mpt th e
money o f n o n -combatants i s to d e m an d tha t on e
s e cti on o f t h e p e opl e S hall sa cr i ce t h e ms e lves to p re

s e rve th e w e a lth a n d com fo r t o f anothe r se ct i on

Why M r B latch fo r d s houl d i mag i n e tha t th i s i s t o
b e p a rt i cula rly a ppli e d to th i s wa r i s strange ; fo r
what e lse wa s the up shot o f any war du r ing the p as t
c e ntu r y ? W e r e not all r e c e nt w a rs fought by t he
ma n y to p rote ct the p r i v i l e ge s o f t he fe w ? N o m a t
te r h o w m any spl e n d i d m en o f the pr i v i l e ge d cla s s
a r e giv i n g th e i r l ive s away i n Eu rop e t h e gre at mas s
o f t h e sol d i e r s o f B r i ta i n a re to o p o o r to b e c i t i z ens
M r Bl atch fo r d s ays :
.

I h ope

ph ras e s

an d

w o r k e rs w ill r e fu se t o be dup e d by n e
v a gu e p ro m i s es I h op e t h e y w ill c omp e l r i gh t
t he

TW O VIEWS O F J USTI C E

3 59

h on ou r abl e ge n t l e m en t o g r a n t a n d m ake l e g a l t he fu l l s c al e
o f s e p a r a t i o n a ll o w a n c e a n d p e n s i o n b e f o re t h e y e n li s t

I f a ll that M r Lloy d G e o rge cla ims th i s w a r will

d o fo r th e B riti sh n ati on i s n o t u tt e r nons e n se a n d
S ham the n M r B latch for d asks not fo r mu ch M r
Lloyd Ge o rg e s a i d :
.

C an n o t B r i t a i n gh t i n g o n e o f t he m os t ch i v al ro u s
b a t t l e s t he w o r l d h a s e v e r s e e n r e l y o n he r ch il dr en t o r a ll y
T h a t i s t h e a pp e a l I m a k e t o t he y o u n g m en
t o t he a g ?
o f t h e N on c o n f o r m i s t chu r ch e s
T h r o ugh i t a ll I t h i n k
I ca n s e e t h e h a n d o f j u s t i c e m o r e s u r e l y a n d g r a du a l co n
s ci o u s ly b u t c e r t a i n l y g r i pp i n g t he v i c t o r y

A n e V i s i on ! B u t i f a ft e r all the won de r ful s a c

r i ce t h e ha n d o f lab ou r shoul d n d that i t h a s o n ly
gri pp e d a ga i n t h e s o mb r e sta n d a r d o f p o v e r ty wh at
th e n ? M r B latch fo r d s e e s s o m e t h i n g e ls e away o n
the ho r i z on wh e r e the d awn o f p e a c e must come :
,

Th is

pp o r t u n i t y for t he t ra de u n i o n s a n d
T h e re a r e p le n t y o f m e n fo r t he a r my
fo r t he w o r k e r s
a n d t h e r e is p l en t y o f m o n e y t o d e a l j u s t l y w i t h t h e m e n
w h o go t o gh t
I f t he p e o p l e i n s i s t up o n j u s t i c e t h i s w a r
w ill h a v e do n e m o re t h a n a n y t h i n g e lse in o u r t i m e t o h e l p

t h e re a liz a t i on o f a f r e e a n d s a n e S o c i a li s m i n t h i s c o u n t r y
is

g re a t

So b oth M r Lloyd G eorg e a n d M r B l atch ford

a re a ft e r j u sti c e ; bu t wh e n t h e y m e e t a fte r t h e wa r
to d i s cu ss t h e s e ttl e m e nt fo r t h e w o r ke r s o f B rita i n
i t will b e foun d that th e i r d e nitio n s o f j u sti c e a r e
p ol e s ap a r t Th e n the b i g stru ggl e m ay b e gin !
R i ght honou rab l e g e ntl e m e n m ay qu ot e M r Asqu i th :
.

The g re a t

co u n t e rb a l a n c i n g all t he a pp a ren t
g a i n s o f a r e co n s t r uc t i on o f s o c i e t y up on wh a t a re c a l le d
s o c i a li s t i c li n es w il l b e t h a t li b e r t y w ill b e s l o w l y b u t s u re l y

l os s

of

H OW

3 69

D I P LO M ATS MA KE WA R

de a t h , a n d t h a t w i t h a s u p e r c i a l e qu a li t y o f
f o r t u n e s a n d co n di t i o n s , e v en i f t h a t co u ld b e a t t a i n e d, w e
s h o u l d h a v e t he m os t s t e r ilizi n g des p o t i s m t h a t t he w o r l d

has e v e r s e e n
s t a rv e d

to

Th at stat e m e n t wi ll not su i t M r B latch fo r d ; no t

by any m e a n s
I f t h e p e op l e wi ll only insi s t up o n

j u sti c e the one s ays ; t h e oth e r w ill s ay

What i s

j ust i c e ?
Who the n wi ll d e termine th at qu e stion ?
N o statesm a n h a s la i d d own a n accep tabl e d e n ition
o f j usti ce Th e P r i m e M i ni st e r wa s co n sci ou s s e v e n
yea rs ago tha t t he S ta t e h a d not ev e n approa ch e d
the i d e a l o f j u st i c e H e d e s cr i b e d the p os it i on i n
thes e wo rds :
.

l o o k s a ro u n d w i t h u n p re j u d i c e d e y e s a t
t he s t r uc t u re o f s o c i e t y a s i t a c t u a ll y i s a n d r e a liz e s n o t
o n l y t h e e n o r m o u s d i s p a r i t i e s i n t h e d i s t r i bu t i on o f m a t e r i a l
c o m f o r t a n d h a pp i n es s bu t t he s t ill m o re s t r i k i n g d is cre p
a n ci e s b e t w e e n O pp o r t u n i t y o n t h e on e s i d e a n d t a l e n t a n d
ch a r a c t e r o n t he o t h e r w il l n o t o n l y n d i t d i fcu l t to
re c o n c il e wh a t he s e es w i t h e v e n t h e r u de s t s t a n da r d o f
i de al j u s t i c e b u t w ill b e t e mp t e d t o be a m a z e d a t t he p a
t i e n ce e v e n t h e i n e r t n es s w i t h wh i ch t h e m a ss o f m a n k i n d
No w o n de r
a cqu i e s c e i n wh a t t h e y d e e m t o b e t h e i r lo t
t h a t c o n s t a n t c o n t e mp l a t i o n o f a n d r e e c t i o n u p o n s uch a
s p e c t a c l e h as d r i v e n a n d c on t i n u e s t o d r i v e so m e o f t h e b e s t
a n d n e s t s p i r i t s o f o u r r a c e i n t o m o ra l a n d i n t e ll e c t u a l
r e v ol t
An y

on e

w ho

The mo ra l a n d i nte ll e ctu al revolt o f th e p ast will

b e a mer e gust i n comp a r i s o n with t h e wh i rlw i n d com
i ng i f som e th i n g p r a cti ca l i s not done ve ry so on a ft e r
I t i s not fa i r not hon e st i n
t h e clos e o f thi s w a r
d e e d to a sk m e n to l ay d ow n th e i r liv e s for nat i onal
j u st i ce u n less you a re d ete rmin e d to giv e tho se who
live i n d i v i du a l j u sti ce The p oun d a week j u sti ce to
,

WI LL LE GISLATO RS A CT ?

3 61

sold i e rs a n d s a i lo rs a n d the i r w i v e s a n d ch i ld r e n i s
n o t j usti c e ; i t i s o n ly t h e m e r e st busin e ss lik e e xp e d i
e n t fo r n ati on a l sa f e ty
Ju sti ce i s som e thi n g e ls e
Wh a t d id M r Asqu ith im agi n e the ru d e st sta n d a r d
for i d e a l j usti ce t o b e wh e n h e sp o ke at La dyb a n k
i n 1 9 0 7 ? N o o n e k n o ws M r As qu ith ha s n o t put
on re co r d hi s d e n i t i on o f j usti c e
B e fo r e w e a r e

ove r tak e n by t h e mo st st e ri li z i n g d e sp o tism t h at

the wo rl d h a s e v e r s e e n s ta t e sm e n mu st n d a d e
n i t i o n o f j u s t i c e w h i ch wi ll b e co m p a tibl e with t h e
p recep ts o f th e fou n d e r o f wh a t is call e d t he C h r i s
t i a n fa i th ; o r e ls e b oth st at e a n d r e ligio n m ay go
d own m i n gling w i th t h e d e b r i s o f w a r
H ow sp e e d ily w e a r e p lu n g e d i n to th i s cal amity
Who i n Ju n e 1 9 1 4 b e li e v e d w e S hou l d b e call i n g fo r
m illi o n s o f m e n to e n t e r t h e ti ta n i c st r uggl e ? A
memb e r o f t h e Gov e r n m e nt on S u n d ay Augu st 2 n d
said
N o o n e w ill e v e r m ak e m e b e li e v e w e a r e

go ing to wa r
Up to t h e la st m o m e n t i t w a s d if
cult to m ak e som e m e n b e li e v e w e w e r e in i t Th e
tim e wa s short bu t shorte r n oti ce may b e giv e n so m e

t o tak e
d a y wh e n a n e xasp e r at e d p e opl e d e ci d e

wha t G ov e r n m e n t wi ll n o t gi v e
Wh e n t h a t cr y
s o l o ng struggli n g i n t h e th r o a ts o f p ati e n t i n e r t a c
qu i e s c e nt labou r i s a t l a st h e a r d in t h e l a n d w h e n
t h e s hout fo r j usti c e go e s u p f r o m a n e n light e n e d
p e op le w i ll t h e p o l itic al p a rti e s gath e r with t h e
u n an i m i ty wh i ch am a z e d t h e wo rl d wh e n w a r w a s d e
Wi ll l e gi slato rs u n i t e to gra nt
cla r e d o n G e rm a n y ?
labou r s d e ma n d ? o r u n i t e to d e n y th e m t h e j u sti c e
th e y d e s e r v e ? De s e rv e ! t h e j u sti c e whi ch i s th e i r s
by r i ght ; by r i ght o r C hr i st e n d om i s a sham a n d t h e
D e v i l ha s cou ns e lle d cab i n e t a n d chu r ch to r e ma i n
neu tr a l to d estroy them The t i me i s fa st com i n g
-

H OW

3 62

D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

wh e n they mu st choos e Wh at mu st they choose ?

S oci a lism or I n d i v i d uali sm ? The form e r w e k n ow
th e latt e r h a s n e ve r h a d a chanc e ; C hri sti anity s o
ca ll e d kill e d it Soci al i sm a ims a t e qua lity I n d i
H e r e i n l i e s t h e coloss a l
v i d u a li s m a t e qu al rights
mi sco n c e pti on o f the a g e s ; ev e n N i e t z sch e i n B e
o o d a n d E v i l throw i ng h i s j aveli n a t t h e blu n
o
n
G
d
y
d e r s o f p hilosop he rs a n d r e li gio n i sts i s gu i lty o f
fu n d amenta l e rro r i n m i stak i ng e q u ality fo r e qu a l
r i ghts
M r B latch fo rd wr i t e s o f a fre e a n d s ane So c i al

i sm but t h e bran d to b e fought fo r m ay b e th e

soci a li sm which w i ll a sk tha t t h e p r op e rty o f all

citi z e n s b e lo n gs to t h e natio n
A ft e r t h e st e p s
tak e n by t h e G ov e r nm e nt in t h e d i r e cti o n o f So ci a l

i sm t h e gr e a t opp o r tu n ity will n o t b e fritt e r e d

aw ay b y a sk i n g fo r hom e op ath i c d os e s H ow fa r
a r e w e now away from sta te cont r o l o f all t h e m e ans
o f p ro d u ct i on d i stribu t i on a n d exch ange ? Flint

s ays S o ci a li sm
d eni es to the i n d i vi d ual a n y r i ghts
i n d ep e n d e n t o f S o c i e t y a n d a ssign s to S o c i ety autho r
i ty to d o what e v e r i t d e e ms fo r i ts own go o d with
t h e p e rso n s
fa culti e s a n d p osses s ions o f i n d iv i du

als
I t will b e t h e so c i al i sm o f M r Sidney W e bb i f i t
b e a nythi n g at a ll :
.

The rs t

h
r i gh t s

t e re

a re

p mu s t b e t o r i d o u r m i n ds o f t he i de a t h a t
i n s o c i a l m a t te r s as a b s t r a c t
s uch t h i n g s

s te

an y

How fa r that w i ll go beyo n d the free a n d s an e

s o ciali sm o f M r B latchfo r d may b e gu e sse d by thos e
who h a v e w a tch e d t he exp e riments o f t h e Gove rn
ment B ut h ow w i ll M r Webb s i de a t i n w i th th e
,

TH E P U R ITAN I DEAL

3 63

c re e d o f t h e P u r i tan Fa the rs ? G r e en tells u s tha t

t h e a im o f t h e P u ritan h a d b e e n to s et up a V i s i bl e
Ki n g d o m o f G o d up o n e a rth a n d th at they r e ga r d e d
t h e S tat e p ri ma r ily a s an i n stru m e nt fo r s e cu ring b y
mo r a l a n d r e ligi o u s i n u e n c e s t he so ci a l a n d polit i ca l
e n d s o f t h e Ki n g d om
Thi s th e y fa i l e d to b ring
ab o ut a n d i t wa s o n e o f th e b itte r e st d i s ap po i n t
m e nts o f C r omw e ll s d e cli n i n g y e a rs tha t Pu ritanism
h a d m i ss e d i ts g r e at opp o rtu n ity
Think o f a
t w e n ti e th c e n tu r y P u r itan r i s ing i n th e Hou s e o f
C ommo n s a n d sayi n g :
,

I w e ll r e m e mb e r I did a li t t l e t o uch u p on t he E i gh t y
ft h P s a l m wh e n I s p a k e u n t o yo u i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s
P a r li a m e n t
W h i ch e x p re ss e t h w e l l wh a t w e m ay s ay as
t r u l y a s i t w a s s a i d o f o ld by t h e P e n m a n o f t h a t P s a l m !
Th e rs t v e rs e i s a n a ck n o w l e d gm e n t t o G o d t h a t H e h a d
b e e n f a v o u r a b l e u n to H i s l a n d a n d b ro ugh t b a ck t he ca p
t iv i t y o f H i s p e o p l e
a n d t h e n ho w t h a t
H e h a d p a r do n e d
a ll t h e i r
i n i qu i t i e s a n d c o v e r e d a ll t h e i r s i n a n d t a k e n
a n d i n de e d o f a ll t h e s e u n s p e a k a b l e
a w a y a ll H i s w r a t h
m e r c i e s b l e s s i n g s a n d d e li v e r a n c es o u t o f c a p t i v i t y p a r do n
P a r do n i n g as
i n g o f n a t i on a l s i n s a n d n a t i o n a l i n i qu i t i es
!
e
s
h
p
r
n
h
h
e
m
n
u
t
i

e
An d s o m e t i m es
t
d
a
d
o
e
t
t
a
H
o
G
j
H e h a t h g i v e n yo u
G o d p a r do n e t h N a t i o n s a l s o !
An d i f G o d s h o u l d
s t r e n g t h t o d o wh a t yo u h a v e do n e !
b l e s s yo u in t h i s w o r k a n d m a k e t h i s m e e t i n g h a ppy o n t h i s
a cc o u n t
yo u s h a ll a ll b e c a ll e d t h e B l e s s e d o f t h e L o r d
Th e g e n e r a t i o n s t o c o m e w ill b l e ss u s Y o u s h all b e t he
a n d t h e r e s t o r e r s o f p a t h s t o d w e ll
r e p a i r e rs o f b re a ch e s
An d i f t h e r e b e a n y h i gh e r w o r k wh i ch m o r t a l s ca n
in
b e y on d t h i s I a ckn o w l e dg e my
a t t a i n u n to i n t h e w o r l d
i gn o ran ce o f i t
.

Th e E i ghty ft h P s a lm

the fty e i ghth chap te r

o f I sa i a h W ha t a st r a n g e p lace the H ou se o f
Commons ! fo r H eb rew p o e try
-

an

H OW

3 64

M e r cy

D I P LO M ATS M A KE W A R

u h a re m e t t o g e t h er ; r i gh t eo u s n es s a n d
p e a c e h a v e k i s s e d e ach o t h e r
T ru t h s h a ll s p r i n g o u t o f t he e a r t h ; a n d r i gh te ou s n ess
s h a ll l o o k d o w n f r o m h e a v e n
Y e a t h e L o r d s h a l l g i v e t h a t wh i ch i s g oo d ; an d o u r
l an d s h a ll y i e l d he r i n c re a se
and

tr t

Stra nge sent i ments these fo r St Step h e n s

M ay
our mo d e rn C romw e lls wh e n they gathe r a t t h e

M e e t i ng to C e l e b r at e the P e a ce s ay
l e gislato r s
c annot atta i n to a n y high e r work tha n rep a i r i n g t h e
b re a ch a n d r e sto ri n g p aths t o d w e ll i n
Wi ll th e y
s ay to qu ote a noth e r p a ssag e from t h e s am e chapt e r
wh i ch insp i re d t h e o ld P u r i ta n Fathe r :

I s n o t t h i s t he f a s t t h a t I h a v e ch o se n ? To l o os e t he
b a n ds o f w i ck e dn e s s , t o u n do t he h e av y bu r de n s an d t o le t

?
t h e Opp r e sse d go f r e e , a n d t h a t ye b r e a k e v e r y y o k e
,

W i ll ou r l egislato rs su cce ed wh e r e C r omw e ll

fa i l e d ? C r omwe ll i f thi n gs h a d gon e right w i th
him me ant j u sti ce
Is a i a h me ant j u st i ce
,

R e n de r

C aes ar s ;

u n t o C aes a r t he
G o d the t h i n gs t h at

t e re o r e

an d

u n to

h i n gs w h i ch
a re G o d s
t

a re

Th a t i s the fun d am e ntal o f Just i ce wh i ch Je su s

gav e to t h e wo rl d C r omwell s time wa s all to o
sho r t to m ake a v a st cha n g e H ow short w ill th e
tim e b e a ft e r thi s w a r wh e n the n e xt gr e at o p p o r
tu n it y com e s !
Wi ll i t b e gr i pp e d thi s tim e ? O r
shall s ome M i lto n y e a rs h e nce wr i te :

h a m e t o m e n ! de v il w i t h dev il da m n e d
F i r m co n c o rd h o l ds m e n o n l y d i s a g re e
O f c r e a t u r e s r a t i o n a l t h o u gh u n de r h o p e
O f h e a v e n l y g r a c e ; a n d Go d p ro c l a i m i n g p e a c e
Y e t li v e i n h a t re d e n m i t y a n d s t r i f e
O

3 65

D AVI D I SAIAH J ESUS

,

Am o n g t h e m se l v e s a n d l e vy c r u e l w a r s
W a s t i n g t he e a rt h
o t h e r t o des t ro y ;
As i f (wh i ch m i gh t i n duc e u s t o a cc o r d )
M an h a d n o t h e l li s h f o e s e n o w b es i de s

T h a t day an d n i gh t fo r h is des t ru c t i o n w a i t
,

CHAPTE R X V I
A F T E R MA T H

h i n g s t h a t ye s h a ll do : s p e a k ye e v e r y
m a n t h e t r u t h t o h is n e i ghb o u r ; ex e cu t e t he j u dgm en t o f
t ru t h an d p e a c e i n you r g a t e s :
Z ec h a r i a h

T H ES E

t he t

a re

I t i s d i fcult now to make the p eople o f B r i ta i n

a n d Am e ri ca u n d ersta nd we d i d not d e cla re w a r
a ga i nst G e r m a n y b e cau s e h e r methods o f wa r fa r e
a r e not con d u ct e d a cco r d i ng to t h e H a gu e rul e s ;
n e ithe r d id B rita i n de cla r e wa r o n Germany b e cau s e
Louva i n M ali nes a n d D i nant h ave b e e n d est r oy e d
a n d th e B elg i a n p e o pl e h a ve ha d almos t ev e ry ki n d
o f atro c i ty i n i ct e d up on th e m I t i s how e v e r
vi tally n e c e ssary tha t t h e publi c m i n d should b e
b r ought b a ck now to an a pp r e ci a t i o n o f the tru e
p osition o f Eu rop e a n a ffa i rs a s they w e re b e fo re
Augu st 3 r d 1 9 1 4 i f t he p e opl e a re to take a ny
e ffe ct i ve p a r t i n p e a c e n e goti ati ons
Stat e smen m ay
n d i t conve n i e n t to ll th e i r m i n d s w i th all that i s
now tak i ng pla c e o n t h e b attl e e lds to the e x clu s i on
o f what r e a lly happ e n e d b e fo r e Au gu st 1 9 1 4 a n d
wha t t h e p osit i o n o f e ss e nti a l i ntere st to th e p eople
wi l l b e wh e n th e wa r i s ove r Gove r nments will
l ook a ft e r th e i r own i n t e re sts ; bu t w i th p e opl e i t i s
d i ffe r e n t f o r n o G ov e r n m e n t will d o anything re ally
worth whi l e fo r them u nles s th e y ke ep clearly in V i ew
a ll tho se fa ctors wh i ch have c aused so mu ch s u ff er
,

3 66

REAL R EASONS AND I SSUE S

i n g a n d d e ath , a n d r mly d e c i d e to
o f p e rn i ci o u s syst e ms wh i ch f o m e n t

3 67

r id

th ems e lv e s
w a rs
Let th e r e b e n o mistake th i s t i me I n t h e p a st
c e r ta i n ofc i als a n d write r s strove du r i ng wa rs to
mak e p e opl e f o rg e t t h e i ssu e s whi ch m a d e w a rs ; t h e
r e as ons g i v e n t o the publi c fo r e nte r i n g o n wa r w e r e
s e l d om the r e a l r e a sons ; u su ally t h e re a l r e aso n s
nev e r r ea ch e d t h e m i n d o f t h e g e n e r a l p ubli c
H e nc e the e a s e with whi c h Gove rn m e nts lau n ch n a
tions i nto w a rs
I t i s a ll v e r y p rop e r to exp r e ss i n
d ig n ati on a t ru thl e s s a cts i n i cte d o n d e f e n c e l e ss
p e r so n s a n d towns ; bu t i t wou l d b e m ost u nw i s e t o
fo rg e t t h e i ssu e s whi ch b rought ab ou t th e str i f e
R e a l symp athy w i th t h e v i ctims in a ll cou n tr i e s n o w
su ffe r i n g from t h e r avag e s o f w a r mu s t e xt e n d s o fa r
a s to mak e a re cu r r e n c e o f thes e ho r r o rs imp rob abl e
I t i s o n ly to b e e xp e ct e d that m e n a n d wom e n o f r e
n e m e n t s hou l d b e d e e p ly inc e ns e d a t th e d estru cti on
o f R he i m s C ath e d r a l ; bu t tha t t h e a ct s houl d blot
out o f m i n d t h e e v e nts wh i ch b rou ght t h e w a r about
i s a p oo r se rv i ce to a rt a n d huma n i ty
To tho s e w h o c a n no t u n d e r sta n d why c e r ta i n p e o
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a sol d i e r it must b e p o i nt e d ou t th at i t i s t h e cu stom
o f the w o rl d to r ega r d the b o d y a n d sou l o f a man
a s som e thi n g i n feri o r i n va lu e to a ra re volume o r a
g r an d c athe dral The re i s noth i n g s o ch e ap a s
hu m a n l i fe I t i s t h e p opul ar not i o n that m en a re
e asily rep la ce d ; a n d so long as m e n p e rm it certa i n
s e ct i ons o f th e i r f e llows to th i nk th e y a re che a p not
wo rth the i n te re st b e stow e d o n a bu i l d i n g or a book
the wo rl d wi ll hav e l i ttle r e st from wa r a n d only
.

H OW D I PLO M ATS MA KE WA R

3 68

v e r y few m e n w i ll eve r have th e ch anc e o f le a rn i ng

how to app r e ci at e th e a r chit e ctu r e o f th e i r own coun
try o r w h y t h e a rt o f E l z e vi r shoul d b e r e v e re d
Th e p e op l e must thi n k cl e a r ly this time
Th e y
ca n v e r y w e ll con d u ct t h e bu si n e ss o f wa r imp o s e d by
t h e G o v e r n m e n t a n d at the s ame time ke e p i n mi n d
e v e r y ci r cumstanc e po lit i cal so ci a l d i pl o m ati c m ili
ta r y a n d n ava l whi ch fo rc e d u s i nto the con i ct
Wh e t h e r w e suffe r d e fe a t o n la n d o r s e a wh e the r w e
ga i n gre a t v i cto r i e s w e a ll mu st d eci de r e solutely
n o t to le t a n y e v e n t tu r n u s a s i d e from t h e great
wo rk o f p rot e ct i n g futu r e g e n e r ati ons from t he e v i l
wh i ch p r e s e n t syst e ms h av e w r ought Th e gr e a te st
tr i umph w i ll b e won i n va i n i f w e fo rg e t o u r d uty to
t h e ch i ldr e n o f the futu r e
To e v e ry m a n who s a c
r i ce s hi s li fe i n th i s st r uggl e
t h e p e o pl e o w e not
monu ments i n sto n e b u t a c e rta in e s cap e fo r thos e
who l i ve a fte r h im fr om a ll t h e s e cr e t syst e ms a rma
m e nt rings a n d e co n om i c w r o n gs whi ch comp e ll e d
h i s s a cri ce
W a r i s s o aw ful s o t e rr i bl e that som e m e n a re
d r iv e n to e x cu s e i t by s ayi n g i t i s a b i o l o gi cal n e ce s
si ry ; th e y ca n a cc o u n t fo r its co n s e qu e n c e s in n o o th e r
way But n o w a r kills so m a n y m e n a s th e r e a r e
chil dr e n ki ll e d y e a r a ft e r y e a r by i n volu n ta ry p o v
e r ty
P ov e rty thru sts all the t r ava i l o f wa r i nto
m i llio n s o f h o m e s a t a ll tim e s P o v e rty i s with u s
so mu ch how e v e r tha t w e hav e b e com e u s e d to i t
W a r o n t h e oth e r h a n d b e i n g a n i n t e rmitt e nt e ffect
c atch e s o u r att e nt i on I t t akes p oss e ss i o n o f ou r
th o ught a n d sways u s w i th a fo r c e not comp atibl e
with r e a s o n
I t a ssa i ls t h e m i n d a n d will n o t le t i t
W a r i s a r rogant i m
d w e ll lo n g o n a n ythi n g e ls e
e r i o u s a n d v i n d i ct i ve : i t w i ll pu sh all thou ghts not
p
,

3 69

PAT R IOTIS M
f it

a s i d e i t will r u l e ov e r t h e m i nd i t hits b a ck
i f yo u t r y t o d r iv e it o u t
Du r i n g a wa r i t i s n o e a sy ta sk to p r e v e nt y o u r
symp at h y clou d i n g you r r e a s o n The w h o l e s o ci a l
syst e m s e e ms to b e o r ga n i z e d aga inst a n y i n d ivi d u a l
a tt e m pt t o co n c e n t r at e t h e att e n ti o n d o mi n a n tly up o n
t h e cau s e s o f t h e w a r
G o v e r n m e n ts chu r ch e s
th e at r e s t h e p r e ss a n d lo ca l au t h o r iti e s d i r e ct th e i r
e ffo r ts
i n t h e m a i n wa r w a r d s ; th e wh o l e thought
o f s o ci e ty a n d c o m m e r c e s e e ms t o b e o ccup i e d with
w a r ; a n d a ll d e s i r e t o qu e stio n t h e r e a so n s giv e n
by stat e sm e n fo r p a r t I CI p a t I n g 1n t h e w a r mu st b e
supp r e ss e d I t ha s b e e n r u l e d al r e a d y by c e rta i n

l e a d e r s o f th o u ght that i t is u n wi s e u n p at r i o ti c
a n d u n E n glis h
t o su sp e ct t h e m o ti v e s o f Gov e r n
m e n ts o r wav e r fo r a m o m e n t i n sw e a ri n g wh o l e
h e a r t e d all e gi a n c e to t h e aut h o r i t i e s : you mu st t h i n k
only o f t h e w a r I f you d a r e a sk fo r t h e t r uth
you a r e h e lp i n g t h e e n e my ; i f you su gg e st a n e a r ly
p e a c e you a r e hi n d e ri n g t h e mi lit a r ists w h o d e si r e
n o p e a c e u n ti l th e i r e n e my i s u tt e r ly c r u sh e d
In
s i dio u s
b e wil d e r i n g a n d pl au sibl e a r e t h e r e a so n s
giv e n by sta t e sm e n a n d j o u r n alists fo r i n icti n g a
humili a t i n g d e f e a t ; wi t h o ut i t th e y t e ll u s w e mus t
n o t hop e f o r d i s a r m a m e n t
No p at r i o t i s suppo s e d
to a sk i f d i sa r m am e n t i s a t a ll p r ob abl e
No one
mu st a sk i f a si n gl e stat e sm a n r e ally b e li e v e s su ch a
bl e ssi n g wi ll f o ll o w i f t h e e n e my b e a n n i hi lat e d B u t
i s i t b e li e vab l e ? Wha t d o e s d i s a r mam e n t m e a n ?
D o e s i t m e a n t ha t all a rs e n a ls a n d d e p ots wi ll b e
sc r app e d th a t a ll ya r d s a n d o r d n a n ce wo rks wi ll b e
clos e d t h at all ship s o f wa r will b e d ism a n tl e d tha t
all n av al a n d mi lita ry w e a po n s plant a n d a m m u n i
t ion will b e d e st r oy e d a n d that all s ol d i e rs a n d s a i l
o

H OW

3 79

D I PLO M ATS M A KE WA R

o rs w i ll b e d ismiss ed ? I mposs i ble ! o f cou rs e ! On e

h a s o n ly to t h i n k o f a ll t h e co m m e rci a l a n d e c o n omi c
cons e qu e n c e s o f d i sa r m am e n t to r e ali z e how utt e r ly
w i ck e d i t i s fo r any o n e t o l e a d p e o p l e to b e li e v e th e y
i nt e n d to b r i n g a n y such cha n g e ab ou t
B e s i d es w e
h av e ou r E ss e ns w e hav e ou r K r upps w e hav e ou r
w a r-p a r ty w e h ave o u r J i n go p r e ss ; a n d i f o n ly a
re d u ctio n o f exp e n d itu r e o n a rm am e nts i s to tak e
p la c e i t mu st b e B r ita i n th at mu st l e a d t h e way
An Am e r i ca n w r i t e r s ays
nothi n g l e ss than total

d i s a rmam e n t wi ll s a ti s fy th e p e opl e
H a s tha t
w r i t e r a sk e d h i ms e l f th e s e qu e sti o n s
Wi ll Russi a
d isa r m ? Will Fr a n c e d i sa rm ? Aga i n what p ow e r
w i ll B r i ta i n a ft e r s h e d i sa r ms h av e o f maki n g G e r
m a n y a fte r sh e i s cru sh e d not f o llow t h e e xampl e
o f F r a n c e i n t h e s e v e n ti e s ? H ow long a fter 1 8 7 0
w a s Fra n c e cont e nt to r e ma in qu i e t ? Th e r e i s thi s
to o to b e con si d e r e d : Ar e t h e m e n w ho con d u ct e d
t h e n e goti ati on s b e fo r e th e w a r to b e t h e mak e rs o f
p ea ce t e r ms ? W i ll the o ld he a d s s e r v e fo r ra d i cally
new i d e a s ? A fte r the wa r i t i s qu it e p rob abl e ther e
w i ll b e gr e at e r G ov e rn m e n ta l r e a s o n s fo r bu i l d i n g u p
ma ss i ve a r mam e nts t h an ev e r b e fo r e O n e h a s o n ly
to think o f t h e p o siti o n i n C e nt r a l Eu rop e i f G e r
m a n y b e utt e rly cru sh e d Wi ll s h e b e satis e d to le t
R ussi a b e come the gre at e st P ow e r i n Eu rop e ? Wi ll
B r i ta in with i n t e n y e a r s b e sati s e d wi th Ru ss i a a s
the dom i n a n t P ower ? Wh a t m ilita r y a n d n aval
st r e n gth w i ll B ri ta i n r e qu i r e to ins i st o n n e a r ly 8 0
o f t h e T e uto n i c r a c e i n Eu r op e r e ma i ni n g
qu i e t ? I f i n a compa rativ e ly f e w y e a rs F r a n ce coul d
r i s e aga i n ou t o f t h e d ust o f 1 8 7 0 to b e a P ow e r
grea t e n ou gh to s e e k a lli a n c e s with B r i ta i n a n d Ru s
s i a su r e ly a n y o n e w i th a gra i n o f S e n s e must re ali z e
,

SO M E

P RA CTI CAL

P R O POS AL S

37

wha t G erm any w i ll do i n a fa r s ho rte r s p a c e o f t i me

I t i s n o t m e e t th at stat e sm e n shoul d b e e xp e ct e d to
p e r fo rm mi r a cl e s o f that n a tu re L e t u s t h e n hav e
d o n e with the s illy not i o n tha t a cru s h i ng d e fe at o f
G e r ma n y wi ll m e a n d i sa r mam e nt
I t wi ll how e v e r b e p o ssibl e to r e d uc e to s om e
e xt e n t e xp e n d itu re on o u r a r my a n d n avy i f w e ins i st
o n ra d i cal cha n g e s t aki n g p la c e i n o u r Fo r e ign O fc e
syst e m I n t h e r s t p la c e t h e p e op l e must m ak e t h e
Gov e rnm e n t am e n ab l e i n e very p a r ti cula r to P a r li a
m e nt L e gi slati on mu st b e e n a ct e d tha t all t e rri
t r e at i e s
a lli ances e n t e nt e s u m
t o r i a l a cqu i s iti o n
d e r s t a n d in g s all negoti ati o n s wi th fo r e i g n P owe r s
s hall b e subm itt e d to the Hous e fo r r ati cati o n
Th e re mu st b e no mo r e s ecr e cy no m o r e Fo r e ign
O f c e st r a t e gy n o m o r e
C omm a n d e r o f t h e

P a rli am e n t
Fo rc e s
a n d n o mo r e C ab in e t rul e
p r im a rily
a n d P a rli am e nt o n ly mu st b e r e sp o n s ibl e
a n d nally
fo r a ll a ff a i rs a ffecti n g th e l i ve s o f t h e
e o pl e
p
T hen i n conn e ct i on w i th the n avy a n d a r my all
o rd e rs fo r a ll mat e r i al mu st i n d e ta i l b e subm itt e d by
t h e e xp e r ts t o a P a r li am e n ta ry C omm itt e e m a d e u p
f r om a ll s e cti o n s o f thoug h t i n t h e H o u s e ; a n d e sti
mat e s mu st b e t e n d e r e d a s was d o n e re c e ntly i n
Am e r i ca s o that the re w i ll b e comp e titi o n s t r on g
e nough to b r e ak all r i n gs
I t i s a ls o n e c e ss a r y to
m ak e t h e M i n i st e r fo r W a r a n d t h e F i rst Lo r d o f t h e
A dm i r a lty t h e s e r vants o f P a r li ament a n d d e liv e r
t h e m o u t o f the ha n d s o f th e e xp e rts D e mo c r at i z a
tio n o f all t h e s e r vi c e s mu st follow th e se cha ng e s
Som e r e d u cti on i n a r mam e nts m i ght th e n b e ma de ;
but le t it no t b e im agi n e d tha t th e s e chang e s will b e
S u fci e nt to p r eclu d e t h e p rob ab i lity o f wa r Th e y
.

H OW

2
7

D I P LO M ATS M A KE WA R

w i ll o n ly g i v e t h e p e ople a cha n c e to know w hat

i s taki n g pl a ce a n d p e r hap s le t th e m h a v e more
tim e to t h i n k b e fo r e th e y e n gag e i n wa r N o m o re
ca n t r u th fully b e s a i d i n thei r favou r
Anoth e r imp o rta n t chang e might b e m ade w i th a d
va n ta g e to the p e opl e Th e re S houl d b e a x e d
p e r i o d fo r a P a r li a m e nt s o tha t a ll m e mbe rs m ay
vot e f e a r l e ssly a t a ll tim e s I t i s a d e b as i ng sys tem
whi ch i n u e n c e s a memb e r to vot e for l e gi slat i on o r
supply wh i ch h e d i sl i k e s sol e ly t o ke e p a G ov e rnm e nt
i n o f c e to ca r r y m e a su r e s h e d o e s l i ke
Th e re i s
not p r op e r fr e e d om fo r m e mb e rs who i n t h e ma in
supp o r t t he G ov e r nm e nt ; a n d i f t h e p eopl e a r e to b e
t r uly r e p res e n t e d i f the op i n i o n o f t he H ou s e i s to
b e a ccu r at e ly e xp r e ss e d m e mb e r s mu st b e fr e e t o
vot e a s t h e y co n sci e nti ously d e s i r e w i thout f e a r o f
lo si n g s om e m e a su re on whi ch they h av e s et the i r
h e arts
B ut t h e p rob l e ms o f a rmaments an d w a r a re not to
b e s olv e d by m e r e ly m aking change s su ch a s a re
sugg e st e d ab ov e Th e s e p r ob l e ms li e d e e p awa y
d ow n at t h e b a s e o f t h e so ci al system ; a n d th e y mu st
b e consi d e r e d i n r e l ati o n to the comp os itio n o f
a rm i e s a n d n av i e s i n t i m e s o f p e a ce B ig b atta l i on s
a n d gr e a t cr e ws m e a n th a t sol d i ers a n d s a i lors ha ve
no b ett e r way o f fa c i n g the struggl e fo r e xi stenc e
Grant all t h e exc e pti ons a dmit a ll t h e attra ctio n s
conc e d e a ll th a t m i l i ta ry a n d n ava l write rs s ay ab ou t
c o u rag e a n d p atr i ot i sm ; st i ll t h e e conom i c chara cte r
o f t h e p roblem cannot b e e x pl a i n e d away An d i t
do es no t m atte r wheth e r t h e n am e o f the system
b e volunta ry o r compu ls o ry compuls i on i s the d r i v
i n g fo rce wh i ch g i v e s G ove rnm e nts a rm i es a n d
n av i es ; w i thou t i t i n t i m e s o f p e a ce comp a rat i v e ly
,

GOO D T I M E S AN D BA D

3 73

f e w men wou l d e n l i st
I t i s c ompulsi on o f a v i ta l
kin d that li e s a t th e b a ck o f t h e p r oblem ; w i th t h e
r ank a n d le i n d e e d , c h o i c e s ca r c e ly ev e r e nt e rs i n
C ho ic e d e note s f r e e d om to d e ci d e , l i b e r ty o f a ct i on ,
AS w a s s a i d by a sol d i e r i n the
a n a lt e r n at i v e
Hou s e o f Commons , o nly a little while ago , Re

cr u i t i n g i s goo d wh e n
tr ade i s b a d
Y es , i t i s
hung e r , la ck o f a hom e , o f d e c e nt clo th e s , o f m e a n s
o f k e e p ing cl e an , wh i ch a r e t h e ch i e f r e as o n s fo r men
j oi n i n g t h e ranks W ho h a s w a tch e d r e c r u i t i ng s ta
t i o n s a t d i ffe r e nt s easons , i n t im e s o f p rosp e r i ty , a nd
i n tim e s o f d e p r e ssi on , a n d no t s e e n how p o w e r ful a re
t h e n e e d s o f m e n i n a ffe cti n g t h e wo rk o f re c r u it i ng
s e rg e a n ts ? Wh e n tra d e i s b o oming only a w e e d y ,
wi z e n e d lot o f w r e tch e d yout h s a r e , a s a rul e , t o b e
s e e n re a d i n g t h e p ost e rs , o r ch att i ng w i th t h e m e n

w i th the r ibb o n s a n d t h e ca n e
B u t wh e n d e p r e s
s i o n s e ts in , qu i t e a n oth e r typ e o f m an i s s e e n ab ou t
t h e stati o n s ; f e llows ou t o f wo r k , hu n gry , hom e less
labou r e rs , s om e t i m e s a r t i z a n s s e e ki n g th e a rmy o r
.

navy a s a r e fu g e not with z e a l bu t w i th r e lu cta nc e

To t h os e w h o imag i n e th e r e a r e numb e rs o f a d
v e ntu rou s sp i r its who p r e f e r l i fe in a r m i e s a n d n a v i e s
to t h e mon o tony o f a fa cto ry o r a fa r m i t shou l d b e
un
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n
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favou r ab l e co n d iti on s mu st h av e h a d a great effe ct
o n many youths who s e e no b e tt e r p rosp ect i n l i f e
tha n th e i r fo r e b e a r s h a d ; a n d i t i s no t t o b e won d e r e d
th e y s e e k r e li e f i n oth e r d i r e cti o n s Bu t i f i t w e r e
p ossibl e t o m ak e you n g m en u n d e rstan d th at the l an d
o f th e i r b i r th wa s i n fa ct th e i r he r ita ge tha t th e
gi fts o f G o d w e r e th e i r s to e n j oy e qu ally with th e i r
f e llows th e y woul d p r e fer a l i f e o f p ro du ct i o n a n d
us e fu ln e ss rath e r tha n the d i s ci pl i n e o f t h e b a r ra cks
,

H OW

3 74

D I P LO M AT S M A KE WA R

the tyranny o f t h e d r um U n ce r ta i nty o f wo r k

low r e a l wag e high p r i c e s a n d r e n t a ll t e n d to clou d
t h e prosp e ct fo r y o u n g m e n
E v e n i n s e a po r ts wis e
o ld m en t e ll the e co n omi c ta le o f how t h e navy i s
e a sily re c r u i t e d
Th e r e i s n o a lt e r n ativ e th e y say ;
s h a rp young chap s lo ok fo r s omethi n g mor e e xc i ting
th a n a shop o r a m i ll o r a fa rm with l ittle o r n o
ch anc e to rise
I t i s opportun i ty tha t i s r e qu i re d fo r the m ass o f
m e n e qu a l opp o rtu n i ty fo r a ll i n d e e d i f the
p robl e ms o f a rm am e nts a n d wa r a r e to b e s olv e d
The r e i s n o oth e r way ! A rb i tra ti on wi ll n o t p r e v e nt
t h e n ati o n s a rming a n d Mr B r yan s notabl e e xp e d i
ent o f a ye a r s co n s i d e ra t i on w i ll i n n o w ay alt e r t h e
e conom i c syst e m no r li m i t the growth o f a rm i e s a n d
n avi e s I t i s j u st i c e that i s wa nte d i f m en a re to l i ve
i n p e a ce
C iti z en s w h o d e s i r e p e a ce ca n i n d ulg e i n n o
e
reat
r folly tha n tha t wh i ch I S su mme d u p i n th e
g

t h e b est way to p r e s e rv e p ea ce i s to p re
p h ras e

p a r e fo r wa r
Th a t rott e n e xp e d i e nt ha s b e en
s hatt e re d completely Th e p ositi on o f th e nati o n s
w a r ring i n Eu rop e p rove s conclu s i v e ly that n o

a mount o f prepa re dnes s

can st e m the ru sh o f
m il i ta r i sts onc e they get ou t o f h an d
Noth i ng
coul d stop Ru ss i a an d France who ove r a p e r i o d o f
yea rs sp ent ove r 1 00 o o o o o o m o r e o n th e i r a rm i e s
than the c e nt r a l Emp i r e s Th e a r m e d p e a ce o f
Eu r op e d uri n g t h e thi r t y-s even y e a rs b e fo r e t h e wa r
b e gan cost h e r pe opl e s

fo r i nsu r anc e ; tha t i s 6 o o o o o 0 00 a

ye a r Th e two countri es who s e est i mat e s i n the y e a r
1 9 14 were la r g e st fo r m i li ta r y a n d n ava l
p r e p a re d

n e ss w ere t h e v e ry countr i es to b e i nva d e d a n d

an d

VI C I ST I GALI L E E !

3 75

grea t a re a s o f th e i r t e rr i tory la i d wa ste Thes e

cou n tr i e s Fra n c e a n d Ru ss i a e st i mat e d i n roun d g
u r e s fo r a n e xp e n d i tu r e o f a t l e a st
on
a r my a n d navy whil e G e r m a n y a n d Au st r i a e stimat e d
fo r 1 2 2 o o o o o o fo r b ot h s e rv i c e s A d d B rita i n s
e stima t e s to thos e o f Franc e a n d Ru ss i a a n d le t thos e
w h o sti ll b e li e v e i n
p r e p a r e d n e s s u n d e rstan d th a t
r oun d g u r e s
th e T r ipl e Ent e n t e e stimat e d in 1 9 1 4
to sp e n d th e e norm ou s sum o f
mor e on
p rep a r e dn e ss tha n G e r many a n d Au stria
(Italy
w a s no t cou n t e d i n t h e T rip l e Alli anc e by B e r nha r d i
wh e n h e wrote h i s b ook Ge r m a n y a n d t h e N e xt
War )
Th e p a c i s t h a s tr i ump he d : a rm a m e nts c r e at e
wa rs a n d milita ri sm i s a t all t i m e s i n imi cal to t h e
r e a l int e r e sts o f t h e p eopl e T his wa r s e e ms to b e
a gr e a t sub co nsci o u s p r ot e st aga i n st t e r r i to r i a l a g
z em en t
r e au c r ati c
n ny
r
a
n
i
bu
tyr
a
gov e r nm e nta l
d
g
p r i vi l e g e i mp e r i a l d o gmatism a n d g r os s com
m e r ci a li s m
I t i s i n a va gu e st rang e way a
chall e ng e a ga i nst a d i s cr e d it e d C h r i st i an i t y Wh i l e
s o c i ety ca n bu il d up a r mam e nts p aup e r i z e t h e
p oo r b i n d h e avy bu r d e ns a n d g r i e vou s to b e b o rn e

S hu t up t h e
a n d l ay the m o n m e n s shoul d e rs

k i ng d om o f h e ave n aga inst m e n

d evou r w i d ows

houses a n d stra i n a t a gnat an d swallow a camel

C h ri sti an i ty h a s not d on e its wo r k Th e r e co r d i s e x
ta n t : t e r r i to r i al a ggra n d i s e m e n t v i olate s t h e r st la w
o f the Cr e a to r by C ae sa r tak i ng wh a t b e longs to
G o d ; bu r e au cra ti c tyranny fo rc e s t h e p e opl e to sup
port Gov e r nm e nts in m a i nta ining tha t syst e m ; gov
e rn m e n t a l p r i v i l e ge i s t h e p ow e r wh i ch keep s p e opl e
i n subj e ct i on th rough i n i qu i tous ta x at i on a n d oth e r
restr i ct i ve laws ; i mp e r i a l dogmat i sm a sse rts the
.

H ow

3 76

D I PLO M ATS M A KE W A R

tha t the State i s the p e ople ; a n d com

m e r ci a li s m k e e p s o n a s a n i n d ustri a l syst e m thrivi n g
on cru e l l an d laws whi ch fo r c e labou r t o comp e t e
fo r j ob s a n d thu s low e r w ag e s to subs ist e n c e l e v e l ;
m aki n g l i fe fo r t h e to i l e rs a ce as e l e ss g r i n d in mu rk
a n d st e nch
stu nting t h e l i f e o f t h e y o u n g lli n g t h e
ag e d with s o rrow a n d d riving ou r sist e r s i nto the
sw e a t shop s a n d t h e b roth e ls o f o u r t o wns
Th i s wa r b e gu n by d ip lom at i sts a n d m i l i ta r i sts
h a s ma d e t h e p e opl e s o f Eu rop e consci ou s o f al l
th e s e d r e a d fu l ev i ls ; i n no oth e r way ca n the s e e m
ing unanimi t y o f all t h e f o r c e s ghti n g i n a ll the
stri ck e n cou n t r i e s b e e xpla i n e d E a ch p e opl e now
t h e wa r i s in p r ogr e ss i s actu at e d sub consci ously by
t h e not i o n that t h e e n d o f t h e w a r w i ll b r i n g t h e
fr e e d om th at wi ll ra i s e th e m u p ou t o f t h e sloughs
o f t h e p a st Th e V i si on o f t h e m e n i n t h e t r e nch e s
i s o n e o f p ea c e a n d d isa rm ament ; but wh e the r t h e
clos e o f the str i f e w i ll o p e n a n e r a o f an u na rme d
en dur i n g p e a c e i s a qu e sti on which will d e p e n d e n
t i r e ly on t h e p e opl e th e ms e lv e s
Gov e rnm e nts hav e
m a d e the wa r ; o nly the p eople s ca n make an u n
a rm e d p ea ce
coloss a l

li e ,

TH E E ND

A P P ENDI X
An a rt i cle app e a re d i n Th e L a b o u r L e a d e r i n
F e b ru a r y 1 9 1 5 wh i ch co n ta i n e d t h e followi n g
a rt i cl e a n d not e s tak e n from the P a ll M a ll Ga z e tt e
o f F e bru a ry 4 t h a n d 5 t h 1 8 8 7 At th a t t i m e M r
W T St e a d wa s th e e d ito r o f the p ap e r
,

E N GLA N D A N D B E LGI U M

AR E W E B O U N D To I NTE R VE N E ?
T H E R E I S N O G UA R A N TE E
.

Th e S t a n d a r d th i s m o r n i n g giv e s sp e ci al p rom i
me nc e t o a l e tter s i gne d
on th e n e u
Dip lo m a t i cu s
t r a li t y o f B e lgium
I t a lso d e vot e s i ts rst l e a d i n g
a r t i cl e to t h e S ubj e ct Th e g i st o f thes e u t t e r a n c e s
m ay b e summe d u p in two p r op o siti o n s : (1 ) E n g
l a nd i s u n d e r a tr e a ty o f obligati o n to d e f e n d t h e
.

n e ut r a l i ty o f B e lgium ; (2 ) B ut ci r cumsta n c e s hav e

alte re d s i nce the c o ntra ct i on o f t h e s a i d ob ligati o n
a nd a s a ga i n st G e r m a n y a t a ny rat e E n glan d mu st
p o cket i ts p le dge s a n d a llow Fr a n ce to b e i nva d e d
th rou gh B e lg i um w i thout p rot e st i n g o r i n ter f e r i ng
Co n s i d e r abl e i mp o rta nce i s l i kely to b e attr i but e d
to th e s e co n clu s i o n s ab r o a d o wing to i ts b e i n g un d e r
stoo d that Th e S ta n d a r d i s a t p r e se n t t h e G ov e rn
m e ntal S a li s b u r i a n o rga n E a ch o f th e p rop o s iti o n s
l a i d d o wn by ou r co n t e mp o r a ry i s i t wi ll b e s e e n
l i k e ly to b e taken h ol d o f G e rma ny m ight r e a d t he
,

3 77

A P P E N DI !

8
37

co n d a s a n i n vita t i o n to i nva d e Fra n c e through

B e lgium ; F r a n ce might r e a d t h e r st a s an a d mi ssi on
o f o u r obligati on to p r e v e n t o r r ath e r to pu n i sh
su ch a n i n fr i ng e m e n t o f n e ut ra l t e rr i to ry i f w e
da red
I t b e com e s i mp o rtant th e r e fo re to p o i n t out th at
Th e S t a n d a r d s a r gum e nt r e sts o n a fa ls e a ssump ti o n
W e d o n ot fo r t h e p r e s e n t a r gu e wh e th e r in t h e co n
t i n g e n ci e s c o n t e mpl at e d i t woul d b e E n glan d s i nt e r
e s t to int e r ve n e by d e cl a r i n g wa r aga i nst whi ch e v e r
b e llige r e nt might v i ol ate the n e utra lity o f B e lgium ;
w e co n n e ou rs e lves to the p r e limina r y stat e m e n t e s
s e n t i a l fo r cl e a r i n g u p the ca s e
that i t i s not Eng
l a n d s obl i gat i on to d o so
The o r igin o f t h e mi stak e n vi e ws p r e va i li n g o n t h e
qu e st i o n i s u n d o ubt e dly a co n fu s i o n b e tw e e n t h e Sp e
ci a l T r e aty o f 1 8 3 1 a n d 1 8 3 9 whi ch i t t e mp o r a r ily
su p e rs e d e d B y t h e tr e aty o f 1 8 7 0 t h e o bliga ti on o f
E n gl a n d wa s o f cou r s e cl e a r a n d sp e cic H e r e i s
t h e pl e d g e wh i ch wa s giv e n in t h e i d e n ti ca l t r e ati e s
co n clu d e d muta t i s muta ndi s w i th b oth Franc e a n d
P ru ss i a :
se

H e r M a j e s t y t he Qu een o f t he U n i t e d K i n g do m o f
G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d I re l a n d d e c l a r es t h a t i f d u r i n g t h e s a i d
h os t ili t i e s t h e a r m i e s o f F r an c e (o r P r u s s i a ) s h o u l d v i o l a t e
t h e n e u t r a li t y o f B e l g i um , S h e w il l b e p r e p a r e d t o co o p e r a t e
w i t h h is P r u s s i a n M aj es t y (o r t he Emp e r o r o f t he F r e n ch )
fo r t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e s a m e i n s uch a m a n n e r a s m a y b e
mu tu a ll y a g r e e d up o n , e mp lo y i n g fo r t h a t pu r p o se he r n a v a l

an d

m ili t a r y f o r c e s

to en s

u re

i ts

b s e rv a n c e

Th e r e coul d b e no d oub t ab out tha t pl e dge ; bu t

th e n i t e x p i r e d twelv e m onths a ft e r t h e co n clus i on o f
p e ac e At th e e x p i rati on o f tha t p e r i o d s o the
t r e a ty co nt i nu ed
.

A P P E NDI !

3 79

The

i n de p en de n c e a n d n e u t r a li t y o f B e l g i um w ill s o
fa r a s t h e H i gh C o n t r a c t i n g P a r t i es a r e res p e c t i v e l y co n
c e r n e d c o n t i n u e t o r e s t a s h e r e t o f o r e o n t h e rs t a r t i c l e o f
t h e Qu i n t up l e T r e a t y o f t h e l gt h o f Ap r il
Now wha t s om e p e op le d o i s to r e a d th i s tre aty o f
1 8 3 9 by t h e light o f t h e mo r e sp e ci c tr e aty o f 1 8 70
a n d t o d e d u c e f r om t h e fo rm e r t h e s am e obl i ga ti o n
o n the p a rt o f E n gla n d to i nte rvene aga i nst any i n
fr in ge m e n t o f B e lg i um s n eutra l i ty a s wa s conta i n e d
i n t h e 1 8 7 0 tr e a ty
Th is how e v e r i s a compl e t e ly unt e nabl e p r oc e e d
in g
Th e t r e a ty o f 1 8 3 9 must sta n d o n i ts own l e gs
a n d th e se
i t will b e s e e n a r e by no m e a ns v e r y
strong The follow i ng a re th e t e rms o f i ts s econ d
a rt i cl e
H is M a j es t y t h e Emp e ro r o f Au s t r i a Ki n g o f H u n g a r y
H is M a j e s ty t he K i n g o f t h e F r en ch H e r
an d B o h em i a
M a j e s t y t h e Qu een o f t h e U n i t e d K i n g do m o f G re a t B r i t a i n
a n d I re l an d
H i s M a j e s t y t h e K i n g o f P r u ss i a a n d H i s
M a j es t y t h e Emp e r o r o f a ll t h e R us s i a s de c l a r e t h a t t he
a r t i c l e s h e r e by a n n e x e d t o t h e t r e a t y c o n c l u d e d t h i s da y b e
t w e en H is M a j e s t y t h e K i n g o f t h e B e l g i a n s a n d H i s M a j
G r a n d D uk e o f L u xe m
e s t y t h e K i n g o f t h e N e t h e r l a n ds
b o u r g a re con s i de r e d a s h a v i n g t h e s a m e f o r c e an d v a lu e a s
i f t h e y w e r e t e x tu a ll y i n se r t e d i n t h e p re s e n t a ct a n d t h a t
t h e y a r e t hu s p l a c e d u n d e r t h e gu a r a n t e e o f t h e i r M a j es t i es
H e r e th e n we a r e s e nt o ff f r om th e tre a ty b etw e e n
t h e G r e at P ow e rs to t h e tr e a t y b e tw e e n B e lgium a n d
Th e s e venth a r ticl e o f thi s tre aty
t h e N e th e rla n d s
(wh i ch i s i d e nti ca l w i th the s am e a rt i cl e o f the 1 8 3 1
tre a t y ) ru n s :
B e l g i um w il l f o r m w i t h i n t h e li m i t s i n di c a t e d i n I 2
an d 4
S he
a n i n d e p e n de n t a n d p e r p e t u a ll y n e u t r a l S t a t e
w ill b e b o u n d t o observe t h is s am e n e u t r a li ty toward all
o t h e r St ates

A P P E NDI !

3 80

In th i s tr e aty i t w i ll b e s e e n the r e i s nothi ng ab out

a ny gu a ra n t e e ; a l l tha t ca n b e e li c i t e d from i t a n d
from t h e one c i t e d a s r e f e rr i ng to i t i s th i s th at th i s
clau s e i s pl a c e d u n d e r t h e gu a r ante e o f th e i r s a i d

M aj e sti es tha t i s E n glan d Austr i a Fr anc e G e r

m any a n d Ru ssi a
Bu t that i s n o t all Th i s co nstruct i ve gu a r a nt e e
mu st b e cons i d e re d i n r e lat i on to the p a r ty to whom
i t wa s g i v e n
n am e ly to t h e Neth e rl an d s F o r the
trea t y o f 1 8 3 9 wa s o n e b e twe e n t h e v e P ow e rs o n
the o n e h an d a n d t h e N e the rl an ds o n the other ; a n d
wh a t the v e Pow e rs di d wa s to gu a rante e to th e
N e th e rl a n d s the tr e aty contra ct e d b e tw e e n i t a n d
B e lgium o ne cl au s e o f wh i ch tr e aty s a i d that B e l
g i um S houl d fo rm
a n i n d e p e nd e nt a n d p e rp e tu all y

neutra l State a nd sh oul d b e b ound to ob serve su ch

neutr a li ty towa r d a ll oth e r Stat e s

I n the tr e a ty o f 1 8 3 1 i t i s tru e there wa s a fu rthe r
a rt i cle gu a r ante e i ng t h e e x e cut i on o f a ll p rece d i ng
a rt i cl e s (i nclu d i ng the re fo re th e o n e j u st c i te d i n
s i m i l a r t e rms from t h e 1 8 3 9 tre a ty ) to t h e K i ng o f
the B elg i ans but i n t h e 1 8 3 9 tr e a t y o n wh i ch t h e
i n d ep endenc e o f B elg i um i s now s a i d to re st Lo r d
Palme rston om i tte d any su ch gu a rante e
Th er e i s the r e fo re no E ngl i sh gu a ra nte e to B e l

g i um It i s poss i bl e p erh ap s to constru ct su ch

a gu a rante e ; but th e ca s e m ay b e summ e d u p a s fol
l ows : (1 ) Englan d i s unde r n o gu a ra nte e what
eve r e x cept su ch a s i s commo n to Au str i a France
Russ i a a nd G erm any ; (2 ) th at gu a ra nte e i s n o t
sp ec i cally o f the n e utral i ty o f B e lgium a t a ll ; a n d
(3 ) i s giv e n not to B elg i um but to the N etherla n d s
,

A P P E N DI !
O CCA SI O N A L

38I

N OTE

Th e a tt e mp t o f t h e M o r n i n g P o s t to p rov e that
thi s count r y i s u n de r a gu a rant e e to B e lgium to d e
f e n d i ts n e ut r ality i s h ig h ly unsu cc e s s ful
Th e

t r e aty o f t h e 1 5 t h o f N ov e mb e r I 8 3
i t s ays w a s
ca n cell e d by tr e ati e s o f t h e 1 9 th o f Ap r i l 1 8 3 9 bu t
t h e p r ovis i o n s r e ga r d i n g t h e n e ut r a li ty o f B e lgium

rem a i n e d i n ta ct
Th i s a s w e p o int e d out y e st e r
d a y i s not the ca s e
Th e t r e a ty o f I 8 3 1 w a s w i th
B e lgium a n d t h e e x e cuti on o f its a r t i cl e s (i n clu d i n g
o n e whi ch p rov i d e d fo r t h e n e utra l i ty o f B e lg i um )
w a s gu a r a n t e e d t o t h e Ki n g o f t h e B e lg i a ns B ut in
t h e tre aty o f 1 8 3 9 th o u gh t h e a r ti cl e a ss e rti n g t h e
n e ut r a lity o f B e lgium r e m a i n s
the gu a ra nt e e di s a p
p e a rs I t i s t h e mo r e su r p r is i n g that t h e M o r n i n g
P o s t S houl d b e a t su ch p a ins to p rov e that th e r e i s
still a gu a r ante e s i nc e t h e only a cti o n i t woul d i n a n y
ca s e r e c o mme n d b e i n g tak e n o n it i s a p latoni c p r o
t e st T o co n stru e a n o n e xi st e n t gua r a nt e e i n o r d e r
to h av e th e p r i vi l e g e o f utt e r i n g a n un ava i l i ng p ro
t e st i s su r e ly the ve r y sup e r flu i ty o f futil i ty
B u t t h e li n e tak e n by t h e M o r n i n g P o s t i s p e r h ap s
no t qu i t e s o absu r d a s th a t which Th e S t a n d a r d ye s
t e r d a y su gg e st e d a n d a co rr esp on d ent r e p e ats thi s
m o rning W e a r e to const r u ct t h e gu a ra n t e e a n d a r e
then to d e cl a re ou r obl i ga t i on to d e fe n d t h e n e u tral
i ty o f B elgium a ga i n st a ll com e rs
B ut wh e n a ny
p a rt i cu la r com e r i n f r ing e s that n e utr ality w e a r e to
gra n t h i m a sp e c i a l d i sp e ns a t i on
Th e S t a n d a r d
a n d i ts co rr e sp on d e nt sp e ak only o f g i v i n g this d i s
p e n s a t i o n to G e rm a n y ; wha t i s to b e allowe d to G e r
ma ny cou l d no t b e d e ni e d to F r ance Ou r d e fe n c e
o f t h e n eutral i ty o f B e lgium woul d thu s b e neve r
to -da y b ut a lways e ve ry o th e r d a y ; i t would b e a s
.

A P P E N DI !

2
8
3

a ga i nst a ny o n e i n gene ral bu t w i th d rawn

a ga i nst a n y o n e i n p a rt i cul a r W ith su ch a b su r d i
ti es sta r i ng th e m i n t h e fa c e i t i s su rp risi n g tha t ou r
cont e mpo ra r i e s d o not t ake the t r oubl e to asc e rta i n
tha t t h e gu a ra n t e e wh i ch they a r e s o i n g e n i ou sly bu t
u n h e r o i cally wh i ttl i ng d own d o e s not i n fa ct e x i st
a t a ll
s e r te

S p e ct a t o r , F e b ru a ry 5 , I 8 S 7
Th e
g e ne ra l i de a i s tha t E n gla n d wi ll b e k e p t o ut o f th i s
war
Tha t s he will t ry to d o so w e d o not
Our
d oubt , but th e r e i s the B e lgi a n d i f culty a he a d
gu a rante e fo r h e r i s not a s o li ta ry o n e , a n d woul d
not b i n d u s to ght alo n e : bu t th e r e a r e g e n e r al i nter
ests to b e cons i d e r e d The p rob ab i lity i s that w e

Th e

S hall i ns i st o n he r not b e com i ng a theatr e o f wa r bu t

sha ll not b a r
a s i nde e d we cannot b a r
e r s in g o f h e r so i l
.

th e tra v

H O W D I P L O M AT S M AK E

FR N C I S

BY

COMME

TS

N E I L ON

TH E

O N

WAR

ST

DITION

N EW Y OR K T M ES 3

v o l um e i w i tt e w i t h muc h f a c ili ty o f e p re s i o n a d a
l a g e fu d f m a te i l I n d i p l m t i c m tt s i t tt a ck s t h e f a u l t
o f t h e r u li g c l a s
i n G r e a t B i t a i n i n m uc h t h
I
a me w ay a s
Accu s e ! a tt a ck e d t h s e o f t h e c o r r e p d i g c l s i n Ge m n y
Th e

r a s.

on

er

as

TH E B OS TON H ERA LD Z

h i f h b ki
d i fu l ff c f w
th
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h m
c mm p p l
f h f m h i D um
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g
d ud g v ill g t l y d b l i t c m m d d t h k i d f
c i ty t h t u v i v
ft
v y w t
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