PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

(A Central University)

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Air Fares and Airlines Management

Paper Code : MBTM 4001

MBA - Tourism
IV - Semester

Author
Dr.N. Muthu,
Professor,
Dept. of Management Studies,
Saveetha Engineering College,
Chennai.

Review Team:
Head
Prof. P. Natarajan, Director(i/c), DDE
Members
A.Punitha, Asst.Professor
V.Umasri, Asst.Professor
SK.Md. Nizamuddin, Asst.professor
(DDE, Pondicherry university)

All Rights Reserved

For Private Circulation Only

ISBN No. 978-93-81932-23-0

Table of contents
Unit

title

Page No.

Introduction to Airline Agency Role and Its Functions

II

Airline Types, Control, Facilities and Services

25

III

Airline Code, Tariff, Fare Construction and Principles

75

IV

Types of Journey, Restrictions and Travel Procedures

151

Ticketing System, Procedure, Travel Plan, Travel Card and BSP

221

MBA (Tourism) - IV Semester

Paper Code: MBTM 4001

Paper - XVI

Air Fares and Airlines Management

Objectives
To understand the structure and dynamics of airline industry;
To understand the airport and airlines management linkages
To study the international airfares, regulations and formalities to travel, and
To study different organizations and their contributions to airlines management
Unit - I
Role of IATA and its functions ICAO; role and functions Airport Authority
of India Open sky Policy _ International Conventions: Warsaw Convention, Chicago
Convention
Unit - II
Management of Airlines: Types of Airlines Airline personnel and revenue earning
Airport Management Study of aircraft parts The aircraft turnaround The control
tower- Airport facilities and special passengers _ Airport access _ Check in facilities
Landing facilities for departing passengers In-flight services cabin component Audio
and video projection equipments Emergency equipments for disembarkation In-flight
entertainment Class of service with more comfort.
Unit - III
Familiarization with OAG: Three letter city and airport code, airline designated
code minimum connecting time Global indicators Familiarisation with Air tariff:
Currency regulation, NUC conversion factors, General rules, Planning itinerary by air,
Introduction to fare construction Mileage principles Fare construction with Extra
Mileage allowances (EMA) Extra Mileage surcharge (EMS).

Unit - IV
One Way and Return Trip Circle trip journey Open Jaw Add-on mixed class
journey- HIP check Back Haul Minimum Check (BHC) CTM check Indirect Travel
Limitation Around the World fare Special fares.
Unit - V
Issue of manual ticket reservation procedure MPD, MCO, PTA and their
purposes Universal Air Travel Plan: Types of air travel cards Billing and Settlement
Plan (BSP) Case studies of selected Airlines Modules
References
1. Jagmohan Negi, AIR TRAVEL TICKETING AND FARE CONSTRUCTION,
Kaniska, New Delhi, 2005
2. OAG, CONSULTANT, IATA, Geneva AIR TARIFF BOOK
3. Stephen Shaw, AIRLINE IN SHIFTS & MANAGEMENT, Ashgate Pub., USA, 2004
4. IATA GUIDE, Geneva
5. Doganis R., AIRPORT BUSINESS, Routledge Publishing, London, 2002
6. Sikdar K., ALL AYOU WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT AIRLINES FUNCTIONS.

UNIT I

Introduction to Airline Agency Role and Its Functions

Learning Objectives
By studying this unit the students will be able to understand the following:
IATA Its objectives, functions and role
ICAO Its function and role
Airport Authority of India
Open Sky Policy
International Conventions
Introduction
Tourism is a complex industry that involves a broad range of businesses, organizations
and government agencies working together at different levels to deliver a complete tourism
experience. Each party in the chain contributes to the overall holiday experience of the
customer - from initial destination marketing through to the ground level experience. Each
state and territory within in a country has its own government tourism agency that works
to promote the country as a tourism destination internationally. Within each state and
territory there are a number of other organizations - the Regional Tourism Organizations
and Visitor Centers, that work with the local tourism industry, local government and state
organizations to develop and market tourism in their local area. In this section you will find
details on how various organizations works with the various types of industry and also will
understand the policies and regulation of international associations.
IATA (International Air Transport Association)
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) is an international industry
trade group of airlines headquartered in Montreal, Canada, where the International Civil
Aviation Organization is also headquartered. IATA was formed on 19 April1945, in Havana,
Cuba. It is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association, founded in The Hague
in 1919, the year of the worlds first international scheduled services. At its founding, IATA
had 57 members from 31 nations, mostly in Europe and North America. Today it has about
230 members from more than 140 nations in every part of the world.
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Role of IATA
IATAs mission is to represent, lead, and serve the airline industry. IATA represents
some 230 airlines comprising 93% of scheduled international air traffic. The Director
General and Chief Executive Officer is Giovanni Bisignani. Currently, IATA is present
in over 150 countries covered through 101 offices around the globe. All the Airline rules
and regulations are defined by IATA. The main aim of IATA is to provide safe and secure
transportation to its passengers. The IATAs mission includes three types of actions:
representing the industry and lobbying governments and regulators; leading the industry
by working with airlines to increase passenger convenience; and serving the industry by
providing support with products and expert services. The Organization work benefits all
industry stakeholders, such as simplifying the travel and shipping process for consumers,
and keeping governments informed about aviation industry complexities.
The IATA Head Office are located at 800 Place Victoria (Montreal Stock Exchange
Tower) in Montreal since 1977 (having been located at Central Station (Montreal) since its
founding) and the executive offices are at the Geneva Airport in Switzerland.
Objectives of IATA
Its stated aims and objectives are as follows:
To promote safe, regular and economical air transport for the benefit of the people
of the world, to foster air commerce and study the problems connected therewith
To promote means for collaboration among air transport enterprises engaged
directly or indirectly in international air transport service
To cooperate with ICAO and other international organisations There is always close
association and dialogue between ICAO and IATA.
Organizations
In order to fulfill its aims and objectives IATA is divided into various departments,
each with a specific role to fulfill.
Traffic Department
Provides a forum for traffic coordination discussions
Services as a central source of traffic information for publishers and members

 Lists and verifies services of cargo and travel agents worldwide on behalf of the
member airlines
Coordinates training programmes for cargo and travel agents
Arranges centralised billing and reporting of agents sales
Provides a forum for airlines to resolve scheduling problems
Helps represent the industry on airmail issues
Promotes awareness programmes to combat fraud
Legal Department
Provides professional legal advice and interpretations to individual members as
required from an airline perspective
Distributes and publishes information on legal or regulatory issues of industry-wide
interest and importance
Formulates industry positions vis--vis bodies like ICAO, the European Community
and individual governments
Functions of IATA
IATA was involved in establishing a sound technical and legal frame work for the
operation of the worlds airlines. It organized the first worldwide Traffic Conference in
1947 which worked out agreements related to fare construction rules for multi-sector trips,
revenue allocation-prorating rules, baggage allowance, ticket and airway bill design and
agency appointment procedures. IATA is also the coordinator of Multilateral Interline
Traffic Agreements that allow nearly 300 airlines around the world to accept each others
ticket and airway bills-and thus their passenger and cargo traffic-on a reciprocal basis.
In 1952, the pattern for airline-travel agent relations was set with the introduction of
Standard Passenger Sales Agency Agreement. There are now nearly 81,000 IATA sponsored
agency training courses since they were introduced.
One of the IATAs major issues today is taxation and user charges (payment for
using airports and air navigation services). IATA makes specific challenges to the legality
of certain taxes and point out to governments the counter-productive effect of excessive
aviation taxation. Higher user charges mushroomed during the 1960s and 70s. IATAs
task is to minimize their impact by ensuring that the charges are for facilities actually
required, that charges are cost-related and that productivity improvements are built into
cost projection.
5

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) is the specialised agency of
the United Nations (UN) for civil aviation, was created by the Convention on International
Civil Aviation signed in Chicago on 7 December 1944. It codifies the principles and
techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of
international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth. Its headquarters are located
in the Quartier International of Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air
navigation, its infrastructure, flight inspection, prevention of unlawful interference, and
facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation. ICAO defines the
protocols for air accident investigation followed by transport safety authorities in countries
signatory to the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention).
The Air Navigation Commission (ANC) is the technical body within ICAO. The
Commission is composed of 19 Commissioners, nominated by the ICAOs contracting
states, and appointed by the ICAO Council.[2] Commissioners serve as independent experts,
who although nominated by their states, do not serve as state or political representatives.
The development of Aviation Standards and Recommended Practices is done under the
direction of the ANC through the formal process of ICAO Panels. Once approved by the
Commission, standards are sent to the Council, the political body of ICAO, for consultation
and coordination with the Member States before final adoption.
The forerunner to ICAO was the International Commission for Air Navigation
(ICAN). It held its first convention in 1903 in Berlin, Germany but no agreements were
reached among the eight countries that attended. At the second convention in 1906,
also held in Berlin, 27 countries attended. The third convention, held in London in 1912
allocated the first radio callsigns for use by aircraft. ICAN continued to operate until 1945.
Fifty-two countries signed the Convention on International Civil Aviation, also
known as the Chicago Convention, in Chicago, Illinois, on 7 December 1944. Under its
terms, a Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization (PICAO) was to be
established, to be replaced in turn by a permanent organization when 26 countries ratified
the convention. Accordingly, PICAO began operating on 6 June 1945, replacing ICAN.
The 26th country ratified the Convention on 5 March 1947 and, consequently PICAO was
disestablished on 4 April 1947 and replaced by ICAO, which began operations the same
day. In October 1947, ICAO became an agency of the United Nations linked to the United
Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

Membership
As of November 2011, there are 191 International Civil Aviation Organization
members, consisting of 190 of the 193 UN members (all but Dominica, Liechtenstein, and
Tuvalu), plus the Cook Islands.
Governing Council
The Governing Council is elected every 3 years and consists of 36 members divided
into 3 categories. The present Council was elected on October 1, 2013 at the 38th Assembly
of ICAO at Montreal. The Structure of present Council is as follows:

i. Part I (States of chief importance in air transport) Australia, Brazil, Canada,

China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russian Federation, United Kingdom and
the United States. All of them have been re-elected.

ii. Part II (States which make the largest contribution to the provision of facilities
for international civil air navigation) Argentina, Egypt, India, Mexico, Nigeria,
Norway, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain and Venezuela.
Except Norway, Portugal and Venezuela, all others have been re-elected.

iii. Part III (States ensuring geographic representation)- Bolivia, Burkina Faso,
Cameroon, Chile, Dominican Republic, Kenya, Libya, Malaysia, Nicaragua, Poland,
Republic of Korea, United Arab Emirates and United Republic of Tanzania. Bolivia,
Chile, Dominican Republic, Kenya, Libya, Nicaragua, Poland and United Republic
of Tanzania have been elected for the first time.
Standards
ICAO also standardizes certain functions for use in the airline industry, such as
the Aeronautical Message Handling System (AMHS), making it a standards organization.
Each country should have an accessible Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP),
based on standards defined by ICAO, containing information essential to air navigation.
Countries are required to update their AIP manuals every 28 days and so provide definitive
regulations, procedures and information for each country about airspace and aerodromes.
ICAOs standards also dictate that temporary hazards to aircraft are regularly published
using NOTAMs.
ICAO defines an International Standard Atmosphere (also known as ICAO Standard
Atmosphere), a model of the standard variation of pressure, temperature, density, and
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viscosity with altitude in the Earths atmosphere. This is useful in calibrating instruments
and designing aircraft.
ICAO standardizes machine-readable passports worldwide. Such passports have an
area where some of the information otherwise written in textual form is written as strings
of alphanumeric characters, printed in a manner suitable for optical character recognition.
This enables border controllers and other law enforcement agents to process such passports
quickly, without having to input the information manually into a computer. ICAO publishes
Doc 9303 Machine Readable Travel Documents, the technical standard for machine-readable
passports. A more recent standard is for biometric passports. These contain biometrics to
authenticate the identity of travellers. The passports critical information is stored on a tiny
RFID computer chip, much like information stored on smartcards. Like some smartcards,
the passport book design calls for an embedded contactless chip that is able to hold digital
signature data to ensure the integrity of the passport and the biometric data.
ICAO is active in infrastructure management, including Communication,
Navigation, Surveillance / Air Traffic Management (CNS/ATM) systems, which employ
digital technologies (like satellite systems with various levels of automation) in order to
maintain a seamless global air traffic management system
Aims and Objectives of ICAO
Its aims and objectives are to develop the principles and techniques of international
air travel navigation and to foster the planning development of international air transport.
It also sets international standards and regulations necessary for safe, regular, efficient and
economical air transport, and serves as the medium for co-operation in all fields of civil
aviation among its 187 Contracting States.
Another of ICAOs functions is to facilitate the adoption of international air law
instruments and to promote their general acceptance. ICAO also conducts workshops
in various regions to provide States with information and advice on its activities and to
facilitate exchange of information and views. In addition, ICAO also provides assistance to
States to improve their aviation security facilities and procedures.
In recent years, ICAO has undertaken extensive work in areas like reporting aircraft
accident and incident data, and automation of air traffic services. Among ICAOs more
significant achievements has been the development of a satellite-based concept to meet the
future communications, navigation, surveillance and air traffic management needs of civil
aviation.

The ICAO is made up of an Assembly, a Council of limited membership with

various subordinate bodies and a Secretariat. The Assembly, the sovereign body of ICAO
comprising representatives from all Contracting States, meets at least once in three years
to discuss civil aviation issues in the technical, economic, legal and technical co-operation
fields. The Council, which is the governing body and comprises 33 Contracting States, gives
continuing direction to the work of ICAO. One of its roles is to adopt International Standards
and Recommended Practices and to incorporate these as Annexes to the Convention on
International Civil Aviation. The Council is supported by the Air Navigation Commission
(technical matters), the Air Transport Committee (economic matters), and the Committee
on Joint Support of Air Navigation Services and the Finance Committee. The Secretariat,
headed by a Secretary General, is divided into five main divisions - the Air Navigation
Bureau, the Air Transport Bureau, the Technical Co-operation Bureau, the Legal Bureau
and the Bureau of Administration and Services.
Aim of ICAO
ICAO works in close co-operation with other members of the UN family such as
the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) and the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). Non-governmental
organisations such as the Airports Council International (ACI), the International Air
Transport Association (IATA) and the International Federation of Air Line Pilots
Associations (IFALPA) also participate in ICAOs work. The main aim of ICAO include
Ensure the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the
world
Promote safety of flight in international air navigation. Some other aims include
Standardisation - the establishment of International Standards, Recommended
Practices and Procedures covering licensing of personnel, rules of the air, aircraft
operations, airworthiness, aeronautical telecommunications, air traffic services,
accident investigation, aircraft noise and emission levels, security and safe transport
of dangerous goods. After a standard is formally adopted, each of the ICAO
contracting states implements it within their territories.
CNS/ATM - the development of a satellite-based system concept to meet future
communications, navigation surveillance/air traffic management (CNS/ATM) needs
of civil aviation.
Regional planning - for the purposes of the ICAO, the globe is divided into 9
geographical regions which are treated individually for planning the provision of air

navigation facilities and services required on the ground. ICAO regional meetings
are held periodically.
Facilitation - the reduction of procedural formalities which may add extra time to a
passengers journey and the provision of adequate air terminal buildings.
Economics - air services to be established on the basis of equality and opportunity
and operated soundly and economically.
Technical co-operation for development - the promotion of civil aviation in
developing countries which includes the provision of assistance to states in order
to improve their aviation security facilities and procedures. This has involved the
creation or assistance of many large civil aviation training centres.
Law - development of a code of international air law governing certain issues.
Airports Authority of India
Airports Authority of India (AAI) was constituted by an Act of Parliament and
came into being on 1st April, 1995 by merging erstwhile National Airports Authority and
International Airports Authority of India. The merger brought into existence a single
Organization entrusted with the responsibility of creating, upgrading, maintaining and
managing Civil Aviation infrastructure both on the ground and air space in the country.
Airports Authority of India (AAI) manages a total of 125 Airports, which include 11
International Airports, 08 Customs Airports, 81 Domestic Airports and 25 Civil Enclaves at
Defence Airfields. AAI also provides Air Traffic Management Services (ATMS) over entire
Indian Air Space and adjoining oceanic areas with ground installations at all Airports and
25 other locations to ensure safety of Aircraft operations.
The Airports at Ahmedabad, Amritsar, Calicut, Guwahati, Jaipur, Trivandrum,
Kolkata & Chennai, which today are established as International Airports, are open to
operations even by Foreign International Airlines. Besides, the International flights,
National Flag Carriers operate from Coimbatore, Tiruchirappalli, Varanasi, and Gaya
Airports. Not only this but also the Tourist Charters now touch Agra, Coimbatore, Jaipur,
Lucknow, Patna Airports etc.
AAI has entered into a Joint Venture at Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore and
Nagpur Airports to upgrade these Airports and emulate the world standards.

10

All major air-routes over Indian landmass are Radar covered (29 Radar installations
at 11 locations) along with VOR/DVOR coverage (89 installations) co-located with Distance
Measuring Equipment (90 installations). 52 runways are provided with ILS installations
with Night Landing Facilities at most of these Airports and Automatic Message Switching
System at 15 Airports.
AAIs successful implementation of Automatic Dependence Surveillance System
(ADSS), using indigenous technology, at Calcutta and Chennai Air Traffic Control Centres,
gave India the distinction of being the first country to use this advanced technology in
the South East Asian region thus enabling effective Air Traffic Control over oceanic areas
using satellite mode of communication. Use of remote controlled VHF coverage, along
with satellite communication links, has given added strength to our ATMS. Linking of 80
locations by V-Sat installations shall vastly enhance Air Traffic Management and in turn
safety of aircraft operations besides enabling administrative and operational control over
our extensive Airport network. Performance Based Navigation (PBN) procedures have
already been implemented at Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmedabad Airports and are likely to be
implemented at other Airports in phased manner.
AAI has undertaken GAGAN project in technological collaboration with Indian
Space and Research Organization (ISRO), where the satellite based system will be used
for navigation. The navigation signals thus received from the GPS will be augmented to
achieve the navigational requirement of aircrafts. First Phase of technology demonstration
system has already been successfully completed in February 2008. Development team has
been geared up to upgrade the system in operational phase.
AAI has also planned to provide Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) at
Delhi and Mumbai Airports. This GBAS equipment will be capable of providing CategoryII (curved approach) landing signals to the aircrafts thus replacing the existing instrument
landing system in the long run, which is required at each end of the runway.
The Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control System (ASMGCS),
installed at Delhi, has upgraded operation to runway 28 from CAT-IIIA level to CAT-IIIB
level. CAT-IIIA system permits landing of aircrafts up to visibility of 200mtrs. However,
CAT-IIIB will permit safe landing at the Airports at a visibility below 200mtrs but above
50mtrs.
AAIs endeavour, in enhanced focus on customers expectations, has evinced
enthusiastic response to independent agency, which has organised customer satisfaction
surveys at 30 busy Airports. These surveys have enabled us to undertake improvements on

11

aspects recommended by the Airport users. The receptacles for our Business Reply Letters
at Airports have gained popularity; these responses enable us to understand the changing
aspirations of Airport users. During the first year of the millennium, AAI endeavours to
make its operations more transparent and also make available the instantaneous information
to customers by deploying state-of-art Information Technology.
The specific training, focus on improving the employee response and the
professional skill up-gradation, has been manifested. AAIs four training establishments
viz. Civil Aviation Training College (CATC) - Allahabad, National Institute of Aviation
Management and Research (NIAMAR) - Delhi and Fire Training Centres (FTCs) at Delhi
& Kolkata are expected to be busier than ever before.
AAI has also undertaken initiatives to upgrade training facilities at CATC Allahabad
and Hyderabad Airport. Aerodrome Visual Simulator (AVS) has been provided at CATC
recently and non-radar procedural ATC simulator equipment is being supplied to CATC
Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport.
AAI is having a dedicated Flight Inspection Unit (FIU) and it has fleet of three
aircrafts fitted with latest state-of-art fully automatic flight inspection system capable of
inspecting.
ILS up to Cat-III
VOR (CVOR/DVOR)
DME
NDB
VGSI (PAPI, VASI)
RADAR (ASR/MSSR)
In addition to in house flight calibration of navy aids, AAI also undertakes flight
calibration of navy aids for Air force, Navy, Coast Guard and other private Airfields in
India.
Functions of AAI
The main functions of AAI inter-alia include construction, modification &
management of passenger terminals, development & management of cargo terminals,
development & maintenance of apron infrastructure including runways, parallel taxiways,
apron etc., Provision of Communication, Navigation and Surveillance which includes

12

provision of DVOR / DME, ILS, ATC radars, visual aids etc., provision of air traffic services,
provision of passenger facilities and related amenities at its terminals thereby ensuring safe
and secure operations of aircraft, passenger and cargo in the country. Some other functions
of AAI includes
Design, Development, Operation and Maintenance of international and domestic
airports and civil enclaves.
Control and Management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the territorial
limits of the country, as accepted by ICAO.
Construction, Modification and Management of passenger terminals.
Development and Management of cargo terminals at international and domestic
airports.
Provision of passenger facilities and information system at the passenger terminals
at airports.
Expansion and strengthening of operation area, viz. Runways, Aprons, Taxiway etc.
Provision of visual aids.
Provision of Communication and Navigation aids, viz. ILS, DVOR, DME, Radar etc.
Passenger Facilities
i.

Construction, modification & management of passenger terminals, development &

management of cargo terminals, development & maintenance of apron infrastructure
including runways, parallel taxiways, apron etc.,

ii.

Provision of Communication, Navigation and Surveillance which includes provision

of DVOR / DME, ILS, ATC radars, visual aids etc., provision of air traffic services,
provision of passenger facilities and related amenities at its terminals thereby
ensuring safe and secure operations of aircraft, passenger and cargo in the country.

Air Navigation Services

In tune with its global approach to modernize Air Traffic Control (ATC) infrastructure
for seamless navigation across state and regional boundaries, AAI is upgrading to satellite
based Communication, Navigation, Surveillance (CNS) and Air Traffic Management. A
number of co-operation agreements and memoranda of co-operation have been signed with
the Federal Aviation Administration, US Trade & Development Agency, European Union,
Air Services Australia and the French Government Co-operative Projects and Studies
initiated to gain from their experience. Through these activities more and more executives

13

of AAI are being exposed to the latest technology, modern practices & procedures being
adopted to improve the overall performance of Airports and Air Navigation Services.
Some of the major initiatives in this direction are introduction of Reduced Vertical
Separation Minima (RVSM) in Indian air space to increase capacity and reduce congestion
in the air; implementation of GPS and Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) jointly with
ISRO which when put to operation would be one of the four such systems in the world. AAI
is a full member of the Civil Air Navigation Services Organization (CANSO).
IT Implementation
AAI website is a website giving a host of information about the organization besides
domestic and international flight schedules and such other information of interest to the
public in general and passengers in particular.
HRD Training
AAI has a number of training establishments, viz. NIAMAR in Delhi, CATC in
Allahabad, Fire Training Centres at Delhi & Kolkata for in-house training of its engineers,
Air Traffic Controllers, Rescue & Fire Fighting personnel etc. NIAMAR & CATC are
members of ICAO TRAINER programme under which they share Standard Training
Packages (STP) from a central pool for imparting training on various subjects.
Both CATC & NIAMAR have also contributed a number of STPs to the Central pool
under ICAO TRAINER programme. Foreign students have also been participating in the
training programme being conducted by these institutions
Revenue
Most of AAIs revenue is generated from landing/parking fees and fees collected
by providing CNS & ATC services to aircraft over the Indian airspace.Only 16 of the 126
airfields operated by the AAI are profitable while the other airports incur heavy losses due
to underutilization and poor management.
Privatization of Airports
The AAI was involved in a tussle with the Ministry of Civil Aviation over the issue of
privatization of its two most profitable airports at Delhi and Mumbai. The Government of
India handed over these two airports to private companies for the purpose of modernization

14

in 2006 under revenue sharing agreement to the GMR Group and GVK group respectively.
The Nagpur Airport was transferred to the Maharashtra State owned MADC.
In addition to these, several green field airports are being operated by Private
consortiums, namely, Bengaluru International Airport, Kazi Nazrul Islam Airport at
Durgapur in West Bengal, Rajiv Gandhi International Airport at Hyderabad and Cochin
International Airport.
International Projects
The AAI has been involved in various consultancy projects with Libya, Algeria,
Yemen, Maldives, Nauru and Afghanistan The AAI also provides trained personnel for
operation, maintenance and management of airports in these countries.
International Conventions
Warsaw Convention
The Warsaw Convention is an international convention which regulates liability
for international carriage of persons, luggage or goods performed by aircraft for reward.
Originally signed in 1929 in Warsaw (hence the name), it was amended in 1955 at The
Hague and in 1975 in Montreal. United States courts have held that, at least for some
purposes, the Warsaw Convention is a different instrument from the Warsaw Convention
as Amended by the Hague Protocol.
In particular, the Warsaw Convention:
i.
Mandates carriers to issue passenger tickets;
ii.
Requires carriers to issue baggage checks for checked luggage;
iii. Creates a limitation period of 2 years within which a claim must be brought (Article
29); and
iv. Limits a carriers liability to at most:
a. 250,000 Francs or 16,600 Special Drawing Rights (SDR) for personal injury;
b. 17 SDR per kilogram for checked luggage and cargo, or $20USD per kilogram
for non-signatories of the amended Montreal Protocols.
c. 5,000 Francs or 332 SDR for the hand luggage of a traveler.
The sums limiting liability were originally given in Francs (defined in terms of a
particular quantity of gold by article 22 paragraph 5 of the convention). These sums were
15

amended by the Montreal Additional Protocol No. 2 to substitute an expression given in

terms of SDRs. These sums are valid in the absence of a differing agreement (on a higher
sum) with the carrier. Agreements on lower sums are null and void.
On June 1, 2009, the exchange rate was 1.00 SDR = 1.088 EUR or 1.00 SDR =
1.548 USD.A court may also award a claiming partys costs, unless the carrier made an
offer within 6 months of the loss (or at least 6 months before the beginning of any legal
proceedings) which the claiming party has failed to beat.The Montreal Convention, signed
in 1999, replaced the Warsaw Convention system.
Scope and Definition
i.

This Convention applies to all international carriage of persons, luggage or goods

performed by aircraft for reward. It applies equally to gratuitous carriage by aircraft
performed by an air transport undertaking.

ii.

For the purposes of this Convention the expression international carriage means
any carriage in which, according to the contract made by the parties, the place
of departure and the place of destination, whether or not there be a break in the
carriage or a transshipment, are situated either within the territories of two High
Contracting Parties, or within the territory of a single High Contracting Party,
if there is an agreed stopping place within a territory subject to the sovereignty,
suzerainty, mandate or authority of another Power, even though that Power is not a
party to this Convention. A carriage without such an agreed stopping place between
territories subject to the sovereignty, suzerainty, mandate or authority of the same
High Contracting Party is not deemed to be international for the purposes of this
Convention.

iii.

A carriage to be performed by several successive air carriers is deemed, for the purposes
of this Convention, to be one undivided carriage, if it has been regarded by the parties
as a single operation, whether it had been agreed upon under the form of a single
contract or of a series of contracts, and it does not lose its international character
merely because one contract or a series of contracts is to be performed entirely
within a territory subject to the sovereignty, suzerainty, mandate or authority of the
same High Contracting Party.

This Convention applies to carriage performed by the State or by legally constituted

public bodies provided it falls within the conditions laid down in Article 1. This Convention
does not apply to carriage performed under the terms of any international postal Convention.

16

Documents of Carriage
Passenger Ticket
i.

For the carriage of passengers the carrier must deliver a passenger ticket which shall
contain the following particulars:a. the place and date of issue;
b. the place of departure and of destination;
c. the agreed stopping places, provided that the carrier may reserve the right to alter
the stopping places in case of necessity, and that if he exercises that right, the
alteration shall not have the effect of depriving the carriage of its international
character
d. the name and address of the carrier or carriers
e. a statement that the carriage is subject to the rules relating to liability established
by this Convention.

ii.

The absence, irregularity or loss of the passenger ticket does not affect the existence or
the validity of the contract of carriage, which shall none the less be subject to the
rules of this Convention. Nevertheless, if the carrier accepts a passenger without a
passenger ticket having been delivered he shall not be entitled to avail himself of
those provisions of this Convention which exclude or limit his liability.

Luggage Ticket
i. For the carriage of luggage, other than small personal objects of which the passenger
takes charge himself, the carrier must deliver a luggage ticket.
ii. The luggage ticket shall be made out in duplicate, one part for the passenger and the
other part for the carrier.
iii. The luggage ticket shall contain the following particulars:a. The place and date of issue;
b. The place of departure and of destination;
c. The name and address of the carrier or carriers;
d. The number of the passenger ticket;
e. A statement that delivery of the luggage will be made to the bearer of the luggage
ticket;

17

f. The number and weight of the packages;

g. The amount of the value declared in accordance with
h. A statement that the carriage is subject to the rules relating to liability established
by this Convention.
iv. The absence, irregularity or loss of the luggage ticket does not affect the existence
or the validity of the contract of carriage, which shall none the less be subject to
the rules of this Convention. Nevertheless, if the carrier accepts luggage without a
luggage ticket having been delivered, or if the luggage ticket does not contain the
particulars set out at (d), (f) and (h) above, the carrier shall not be entitled to avail
himself of those provisions of the Convention which exclude or limit his liability.
Air Consignment Note
a) Every carrier of goods has the right to require the consignor to make out and hand
over to him a document called an air consignment note; every consignor has the
right to require the carrier to accept this document.
b) The absence, irregularity or loss of this document does not affect the existence or the
validity of the contract of carriage which shall, subject to the provisions of Article 9,
be none the less governed by the rules of this Convention.
c) The air consignment note shall be made out by the consignor in three original parts
and be handed over with the goods.
d) The first part shall be marked for the carrier, and shall be signed by the consignor.
The second part shall be marked for the consignee; it shall be signed by the
consignor and by the carrier and shall accompany the goods. The third part shall be
signed by the carrier and handed by him to the consignor after the goods have been
accepted.
e) The carrier shall sign on acceptance of the goods.
f) The signature of the carrier may be stamped; that of the consignor may be printed
or stamped.
g) If, at the request of the consignor, the carrier makes out the air consignment note,
he shall be deemed, subject to proof to the contrary, to have done so on behalf of the
consignor.
h) The carrier of goods has the right to require the consignor to make out separate
consignment notes when there is more than one package.
i) The air consignment note shall contain the following particulars:18

The place and date of its execution;

The place of departure and of destination;

The agreed stopping places, provided that the carrier may reserve the right to alter
the stopping places in case of necessity, and that if he exercises that right the alteration shall
not have the effect of depriving the carriage of its international character;
The name and address of the consignor;
The name and address of the first carrier;
The name and address of the consignee, if the case so requires;
The nature of the goods;
The number of the packages, the method of packing and
The particular marks or numbers upon them;
The weight, the quantity and the volume or dimensions of the goods;
The apparent condition of the goods and of the packing;
The freight, if it has been agreed upon, the date and place of payment, and the person
who is to pay it;
If the goods are sent for payment on delivery, the price of the goods, and, if the case
so requires, the amount of the expenses incurred;
The amount of the value declared in accordance with
The number of parts of the air consignment note;
The documents handed to the carrier to accompany the air consignment note;
The time fixed for the completion of the carriage and a brief note of the route to be
followed, if these matters have been agreed upon;
A statement that the carriage is subject to the rules relating to liability established by
this Convention.
Chicago Convention
The Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago
Convention, established the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a specialized
agency of the United Nations charged with coordinating and regulating international air
travel. The Convention establishes rules of airspace, aircraft registration and safety, and
details the rights of the signatories in relation to air travel. The Convention also exempts
air fuels from tax.

19

The document was signed on December 7, 1944 in Chicago, U.S., by 52 signatory

states. It received the requisite 26th ratification on March 5, 1947 and went into effect
on April 4, 1947, the same date that ICAO came into being. In October of the same year,
ICAO became a specialized agency of the United Nations Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC). The Convention has since been revised eight times (in 1959, 1963, 1969, 1975,
1980, 1997, 2000 and 2006).
As of 2013, the Chicago Convention has 191 state parties, which includes all member
states of the United Nationsexcept Dominica, Liechtenstein, and Tuvaluplus the Cook
Islands.
Main Articles of Chicago Convention
Some important articles are:
Article 1: Every state has complete and exclusive sovereignty over airspace above its
territory.
Article 5: The aircraft of states, other than scheduled international air services, have
the right to make flights across states territories and to make stops without obtaining
prior permission. However, the state may require the aircraft to make a landing.
Article 6: (Scheduled air services) No scheduled international air service may be
operated over or into the territory of a contracting State, except with the special
permission or other authorization of that State.
Article 10: (Landing at customs airports): The state can require that landing to be
at a designated customs airport and similarly departure from the territory can be
required to be from a designated customs airport.
Article 12: Each state shall keep its own rules of the air as uniform as possible with
those established under the convention, the duty to ensure compliance with these
rules rests with the contracting state.

Article 13: (Entry and Clearance Regulations) A states laws and regulations
regarding the admission and departure of passengers, crew or cargo from aircraft
shall be complied with on arrival, upon departure and whilst within the territory of
that state.
Article 16: The authorities of each state shall have the right to search the aircraft of
other states on landing or departure, without unreasonable delay...

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 Article 24: Aircraft flying to, from or across, the territory of a state shall be admitted
temporarily free of duty. Fuel, Oil, spare parts, regular equipment and aircraft
stores retained on board are also exempt custom duty, inspection fees or similar
charges.
Article 29: Before an international flight, the pilot in command must ensure that the
aircraft is airworthy, duly registered and that the relevant certificates are on board
the aircraft. The required documents are:

Certificate of Registration

Certificate of Airworthiness

Passenger names, place of boarding and destination

Crew licences

Journey Logbook

Radio Licence

Cargo manifest

Article 30: The aircraft of a state flying in or over the territory of another state shall
only carry radios licensed and used in accordance with the regulations of the state
in which the aircraft is registered. The radios may only be used by members of the
flight crew suitably licenced by the state in which the aircraft is registered.
Article 32: the pilot and crew of every aircraft engaged in international aviation must
have certificates of competency and licences issued or validated by the state in which
the aircraft is registered.
Article 33: (Recognition of Certificates and Licences) Certificates of Airworthiness,
certificates of competency and licences issued or validated by the state in which the
aircraft is registered, shall be recognised as valid by other states. The requirements
for issue of those Certificates or Airworthiness, certificates of competency or licences
must be equal to or above the minimum standards established by the Convention.
Article 40: No aircraft or personnel with endorsed licenses or certificate will
engage in international navigation except with the permission of the state or states
whose territory is entered. Any license holder who does not satisfy international
standard relating to that license or certificate shall have attached to or endorsed on
that license information regarding the particulars in which he does not satisfy those
standards.

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Annexes
The Convention is supported by nineteen annexes containing standards and
recommended practices (SARPs). The annexes are amended regularly by ICAO and are as
follows:
Annex 1 Personnel Licensing - Licensing of flight crews, air traffic controllers &
aircraft maintenance personnel
Annex 2 Rules of the Air
Annex 3 Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation
Annex 4 Aeronautical Charts
Annex 5 Units of Measurement to be used in Air and Ground Operations
Annex 6 Operation of Aircraft
Part I International Commercial Air Transport Aeroplanes
Part II International General Aviation Aeroplanes
Part III International Operations Helicopters
Annex 7 Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks
Annex 8 Airworthiness of Aircraft
Annex 9 Facilitation
Annex 10 Aeronautical Telecommunications
Part I Digital Data Communication Systems
Part II Voice Communication Systems
Vol IV Surveillance Radar and Collision Avoidance Systems
Vol V Aeronautical Radio Frequency Spectrum Utilization
Annex 11 Air Traffic Services Air Traffic Control Service, Flight Information
Service and Alerting Service
Annex 12 Search and Rescue
Annex 13 Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation
Annex 14 Aerodromes, Vol I Aerodrome Design and Operations, Vol II
Heliports
Annex 15 Aeronautical Information Services
Annex 16 Environmental Protection
22

 Annex 17 Security: Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts of

Unlawful Interference
Annex 18 The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air
Annex 19 Safety Management (Since 14 November 2013)
Annex 5, Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Operations, named in its
Table three non-SI alternative units permitted for temporary use with the SI: the foot (for
vertical distance = altitude), the knot (for speed), and the nautical mile (for long distance).
Outcomes of Chicago Convention
The Convention prevents the taxation of commercial aviation fuel (though fuel for
recreational purposes is not exempt). This has led to debate in the UK Parliament over
whether the lack of tax represents a subsidy to the aviation industry, estimated at 10
billion annually in the UK. Furthermore, the planned inclusion of international aviation
into the European Union Emission Trading Scheme in 2014 has been called an illegal tax
by countries including the USA and China, who cite the Chicago Convention
Self Assessment Questions
1. Write down the objectives and functions of IATA
2. Write short note on ICAO
3. Explain the role and functions of AAI.
4. Bring out the scope and objectives of Chicago Convention.
5. Explain the main Articles of Chicago Convention

****

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24

UNIT II

Airline Types, Control, Facilities and Services

Learning Objectives
By studying this unit the students will be able to understand the following:
Management of Airlines
Airport Management
Airport facilities and In-flight facilities
In-flight entertainments
Introduction

Hindu and Greek mythologies suggest the presence of aero planes in ancient times.
In Greek Mythology, Icarus equipped with wings made of Bird feathers held together with
wax failed in his attempt to escape imprisonment because he flew too close to the sun it
melted. Hindu Mythology also mentions Garuda who was the vehicle of Vishnu. These
crude experiments led to the modern day aviation technology. Cuisine and Costumes
were a part of culture and cultural Tourism. The Aero planes had a revolutionary impact
on Tourism from World War II. Air travel has become a symbol of Economy, Speed,
and Comfort as compared to other modes of Transport. The passenger rides comfortably,
enjoys good food, wine and music.

Aviation provides the only transportation network across the globe and it is crucial
for global business development and tourism enrichment. Air transportation is one of the
most important services to offer both significant social and economic benefits. By serving
tourism and trade, it contributes to economic growth. It also provides jobs and increases
tax revenues. Air transportation is essential for the fast movement of people and cargo
shipments around the world. Finally, air transportation improves the quality of peoples
lives by broadening their leisure and cultural experiences. It gives a broad choice of holiday
destinations around the world and is an affordable means to visit distant friends and
relatives

25

Airline Personnel
Just as in any occupation, airline personnel have tremendous responsibilities on
their hands, and any negligent harmful act can cause financial damage and years of ongoing
court battles. As a result, employers in the aviation field are conscientious in both their
hiring and managing process as well. For instance, airline personnel are required to take
numerous training courses and seminars in order to be adept in their field and avoid any
possible lawsuits. These courses assure employers that their employees will have all of the
tools necessary to become proficient in their line of work, as well as become motivated to
learn more. In the end, airline personnel, such as flight attendants, ramp agents, pilots, and
the like take pride in being able to perform their job with the utmost care and attention.
They not only understand the importance of carrying out their job in an excellent manner,
but putting a smile on the faces of the many passengers who board planes almost every
year. A satisfied and pleased customer is the first sign of a job well performed, as well as a
sign for future business dealings, and that is something that airline personnel learn from
the very beginning.
Pilot in Command
The pilot in command (PIC) of an aircraft is the person aboard the aircraft who
is ultimately responsible for its operation and safety during flight. This would be the
captain in a typical two- or three-pilot aircrew, or pilot if there is only one certified and
qualified pilot at the controls of an aircraft. The PIC must be legally certified (or otherwise
authorized) to operate the aircraft for the specific flight and flight conditions, but need not
be actually manipulating the controls at any given moment. The PIC is the person legally
in charge of the aircraft and its flight safety and operation, and would normally be the
primary person liable for an infraction of any flight rule. The strict legal definition of PIC
may vary slightly from country to country. The International Civil Aviation Organization,
a United Nations agency, definition is: The pilot responsible for the operation and safety
of the aircraft during flight time. Flight time for airplanes is defined by the U.S. FAA as
Pilot time that commences when an aircraft moves under its own power for the purpose of
flight and ends when the aircraft comes to rest after landing. This would normally include
taxiing, which involves the ground operation to and from the runway, as long as the taxiing
is carried out with the intention of flying the aircraft.
First Officer Civil Aviation
In commercial aviation, the first officer is the second pilot (sometimes referred to
as the co-pilot) of an aircraft. The first officer is second-in-command of the aircraft, to

26

the captain who is the legal commander. In the event of incapacitation of the captain, the
first officer will assume command of the aircraft. Control of the aircraft is normally shared
equally between the first officer and the captain, with one pilot normally designated the
pilot flying (PF) and the other the pilot not flying (PNF), or pilot monitoring (PM),
for each flight. Even when the first officer is the flying pilot, however, the captain remains
ultimately responsible for the aircraft, its passengers, and the crew. In typical day-to-day
operations, the essential job tasks remain fairly equal.

Many airlines promote by seniority only within their own company. As a
consequence, an airline first officer may be older and/or have more flight experience than
a captain, by virtue of having experience from other airlines or the military. Traditionally,
the first officer sits on the right-hand side of a fixed-wing aircraft (right seat) and the lefthand side of a helicopter (the reason for this difference is related to the fact that in many
cases the pilot flying is unable to release his right side from the cyclic control to operate the
instruments, thus he sits on the right hand and does that with his left hand). In the rank of
senior first officer the pilot will also sit in the right hand seat. Often the senior first officer
position is used within airlines to mean someone who has passed all the requirements for
captain, but there are no captains positions within the company as yet, and therefore they
are on hold until a position as captain becomes available when they will receive their
command line check.
Second Officer
A second officer usually refers to the third in the line of command for a flight crew
on a commercial or non-military aircraft. Usually the second officer is a flight engineer
who is also a licensed pilot. A second officer on some airlines is part of a relief crew. Rarely,
such relief pilots are called third officer. The title derives from the nautical title indicating a
third in command officer. Aircrew is personnel who operate an aircraft while in flight. The
composition of the crew depends on the type of aircraft as well as the purpose of the flight.
Third officer (Civil Aviation)
Third officer is a lesser used civil aviation rank. It was primarily used by Pan
American World Airways, particularly on its Clippers during the infancy of extended
range airline routes. The third officer served as a relief pilot and aircrew member and could
move between pilot, co-pilot, radio officer, and flight engineer positions to provide a rest
period for the primary crews (Flying the World in Clipper Ships). Third officers in modern
civil aviation are often not formally titled as such. Rather, these relief pilots take on a junior
first officer rank or in some cases a second officer rank.

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Flight Attendant
Flight attendants or cabin crew (also known as stewards/stewardesses, air hosts/
hostesses, cabin attendants) are members of an aircrew employed by airlines primarily to
ensure the safety and comfort of passengers aboard commercial flights, on select business
jet aircraft, and on some military aircraft. The role of a flight attendant derives from that of
similar positions on passenger ships or passenger trains, but it has more direct involvement
with passengers because of the confined quarters on aircraft. Additionally, the job of a
flight attendant revolves around safety to a much greater extent than those of similar staff
on other forms of transportation. Flight attendants on board a flight collectively form a
cabin crew, as distinguished from pilots and engineers in the cockpit. Heinrich Kubis was
Germanys (and the worlds) first flight attendant, in 1912.
Chief Purser
The Chief Purser (CP), also titled as Inflight Service Manager (ISM), Flight Service
Manager (FSM), Cabin Service Manager (CSM) or Cabin Service Director (CSD) is the
senior flight attendant in the chain of command of flight attendants. While not necessarily
the most senior crew members on a flight (in years of service to their respective carrier),
Chief Pursers can have varying levels of in-flight or on board bidding seniority or
tenure in relation to their flying partners. To reach this position, a crew member requires
some minimum years of service as flight attendant. Further training is mandatory, and
Chief Pursers typically earn a higher salary than flight attendants because of the added
responsibility and managerial role.
Purser
On modern airliners, the Cabin Manager (chief flight attendant) is often called
the purser. The purser oversees the flight attendants by making sure airline passengers
are safe and comfortable. A flight purser completes detailed reports and verifies all safety
procedures are followed. The Purser is in-charge of the cabin crew, in a specific section of
a larger aircraft, or the whole aircraft itself (if the purser is the highest ranking). On board
a larger aircraft, Pursers assist the Chief Purser in managing the cabin. Pursers are flight
attendants or a related job, typically with an airline for several years prior to application
for, and further training to become a purser, and normally earn a higher salary than flight
attendants because of the added responsibility and supervisory role.

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Flight Engineer
A flight engineer is a member of the flight crew in an aircraft who monitors and
operates aircraft systems. Flight engineers work in multiple types of aircraft: fixed-wing
(airplanes), rotary wing (helicopters), tilt rotor, and space flight. As airplanes became even
larger requiring more engines and complex systems to operate, the workload on the two
pilots became excessive during certain critical parts of the flight regime, notably takeoffs
and landings. Piston engines on airplanes required a great deal of attention throughout
the flight with their multitude of gauges and indicators. Inattention or a missed indication
could result in engine or propeller failure, and quite possibly cause loss of the airplane if
prompt corrective action was not taken.

In order to dedicate a person to monitoring the engines and other critical flight
systems, the position of Flight Engineer (FE) was created. The Flight Engineer (FE) did
not actually fly the airplane; instead, the Flight Engineer (FE) had his/her own specialized
control panel allowing the FE to monitor and control the various aircraft systems. The
Flight Engineer is therefore an integrated member of the flight deck crew who works in close
coordination with the two pilots during all phases of flight. The Flight Engineer position
was usually placed on the main flight deck just aft of the pilot and copilot. Earlier referred
to as the flight mechanic on the four engine commercial seaplanes like the Sikorsky S-42,
Martin M-130 and the Boeing 314, the Flight Engineer role was referred to as the Engineer
(much like a ships engineer) on the first very large flying boat, the Dornier Do-X where
he/she operated a large and complex side facing engineering station similar to later large
transport aircraft.

The first commercial land airplane to include a flight engineering station was the
Boeing 307 but only ten were built before the onset of World War II; during the war the
Avro Lancaster bomber and Handley Page Halifax required a Flight Engineer as these large
bombers had only one pilot. The first military operation involving Flight Engineers was in
February 1941 on a Short Stirling, and was the first four-engine bomber raid of the war by
the RAF.
Loadmaster

A loadmaster is an aircrew member on civilian aircraft or military transport aircraft.
Loadmasters serve in the Air Force, Marines, Coast Guard and Navy of many nations
or many civilian airliners. The loadmaster performs the calculations and plans cargo
and passenger placement to keep the aircraft within permissible center of gravity limits
throughout the flight. Loadmasters ensure cargo is placed on the aircraft in such a way as

29

to prevent overloading sensitive sections of the airframe and cargo floor. Considerations
are also given to civilian and military regulations which may prohibit the placement of one
type of cargo in proximity to another. Unusual cargo may require special equipment to be
loaded safely aboard the aircraft, limiting where the other cargo may feasibly be placed.

Tactically, loadmasters may also directly affect combat readiness as they are also
responsible for determining the load order of aircraft so that more tactically important
material (e.g. ammunition) is off-loaded and therefore ready to deploy faster than other
support items; this may be especially germane to forward operating bases. The loadmaster
may physically load the aircraft, but primarily supervises loading crews and procedures.
Once positioned aboard the aircraft, the loadmaster ensures that their charge is properly
secured, as an unexpected shift of the load can produce serious handling problems for the
aircraft. Chains, straps, and integrated cargo locks are among the most common tools used
to secure the cargo. Because cargo may shift during abrupt maneuvers, the loadmaster must
determine the appropriate type(s), quantity and placement of cargo restraint.
Pilot (Aircraft)

A pilot or aviator is a person actively involved in flying an aircraft. Pilot is a somewhat
more precise term, as the pilot by definition directly controls the aircraft whereas the
slightly broader term aviator is a person who, though actively involved in flying the aircraft
(whether plane, rotary-wing, powered or unpowered), does not necessarily directly control
its path. People who fly aboard an aircraft, such as passengers and cabin crew, who are not
involved in the aircrafts flight systems are not generally considered aviators, but crew such
as navigators, and flight engineers are generally included.

The first recorded use of the term aviator (aviateur in French) was in 1887, as a
variation of aviation, from the Latin avis (meaning bird), coined in 1863 by G. de la
Landelle in Aviation Ou Navigation Arienne (Aviation or Air Navigation). The term
aviatrix (aviatrice in French), now archaic, was formerly used for a female aviator. These
terms were used more in the early days of aviation, before anyone had ever seen an airplane
fly, and it was used to denote bravery and adventure.
Deadheading (Aviation)

In aviation, deadheading is the practice of carrying members of an airlines flight
staff free of charge when they are not working. This most often happens when airline crew
are located in the wrong place and need to travel to take up their duties (positioning).

30

Revenue Earnings

Aviation provides the only worldwide transportation system which makes it essential
for global business and tourism. Aviation transported around 3.1 (est.) billion passengers
in 2013. Aviation carries over 51.6 (est. 2013) million tonnes of freight annually and 35%
of interregional exports of goods by value, 51% of international tourists travel by air. In a
recent survey of over 2,200 business people, 52% said that restrictions on the numbers of
flights they take would hurt their business. Aviation broadens peoples leisure and cultural
experiences via wide choice/affordable access to destinations across the globe. It improves
living standards and alleviates poverty through tourism. Often serves as the only means
of transportation to remote areas promoting social inclusion. Contributes to sustainable
development by:
Facilitating tourism and trade
Generating economic growth
Creating jobs
Increasing tax revenues
Facilitates the delivery of emergency and humanitarian aid relief
Swift delivery of medical supplies, organs for transplantation
Revenue Management

Airlines apply advanced revenue management (RM) techniques to maximize the
revenue of their flights in different markets. RM is defined as selling the right seat to the
right customer at the right price and at the right time. The idea behind RM is that travelers
have different characteristics and primarily have different requirements for their travel.
Basically, travelers can be classified as business travelers and leisure travelers.

Business travelers are traveling for a work-related trip or a business meeting. This
group of travelers is typically less sensitive to the price of the ticket, because, in most cases,
they are reimbursed for the cost of their travel by their employers. Business travelers have
rigid travel plans that are typically constrained by predefined dates and times that usually
span week days. They also tend to spend shorter periods of time at their destinations. They
do not book their tickets far in advance and prefer flexible tickets that can be changed or
canceled to match any possible changes in their travel plans.

Leisure travelers, as the name implies, travel for recreational purposes or to visit
family or friends. These travelers are sensitive to ticket prices. They also have flexible travel

31

plans and tend to spend longer periods of time, including weekends, at their destinations.
Given that business travelers are more profitable to the airlines, the objective of RM is to
ensure that enough seats are always available for these travelers; while there maiming seats
on each flight are filled with low-revenue leisure passengers. The RM process involves three
main modules, including pricing, demand forecasting, and seat inventory control. The main
objective of pricing is to determine the right price for each market, taking into consideration
competition from other carriers in the market. Demand forecasting means predicting the
number of travelers by type in each market. Finally, the objective of seat inventory control
is to assign seats on each flight to the different demand streams to maximize total revenue.
The RM process is implemented for each future flight. The decisions of the RM process are
updated on a daily basis until the day of the flight departure.
Sales and Distribution

Airlines expend considerable effort on sales and distribution initiatives that improve
their market share and enhance profitability. These initiatives include, for example, relations
with travel agents, global distribution systems, online ticket distribution channels, travelers
mileage plans, sales agreements with major businesses and promotions, and alliances and
code sharing. Each of these initiatives needs proper evaluation in order to understand its
impact on the airline profitability.
Irregular Operations Management

It is almost rare that an airline schedule is implemented as planned. Airline schedules
are usually subject to disruptions due to adverse weather conditions, aircraft breakdowns,
crew delays, and security breaches. When the airline schedule is disrupted, it is important
for the airline to alleviate the impact of this disruption and recover the schedule in order
to return to normal operations. When recovering the schedule, several objectives are
considered by the airline.

For example, the airline must minimize the deviation from the planned schedule
by minimizing flight delays, cancellations, and crew swapping. In addition, it must not
only adhere to the maintenance requirements of different aircraft at the right time, but
also follow the regulations that govern the work rules of the crew on different flights.
Furthermore, the airline must comply with air traffic control regulations and programs
that manage traffic in the airspace and at airports. Last but not least, it must minimize the
total cost of recovery by avoiding expensive decisions such as flight cancellation, calling
additional crew, and passenger rebooking on other airlines.

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Revenue Integrity

Leading airlines are discovering that applying Revenue Integrity principles to stem
revenue leakage can yield more revenue improvements and cost reductions than any other
changes to their business. Conventional Revenue Integrity (Booking Integrity) looks
at booking problems and solves these, mainly focusing on cost savings. Total Revenue
Integrity does this too. Airlines are estimating that at least 4-6% of their revenue is leaking
out of the company.
Revenue Integrity improves process management by creating a system for monitoring
processes in bookings, reservations, and departure control systems.
Revenue Integrity benefits customer relationship management and empowers you to
monitor trends and reservations of your most valuable customers. This information
can be used to further tailor benefits to them.
Revenue Integrity can provide you with business intelligence on passenger trends,
booking and reservation statistics and other vital information for future planning.
Stopping revenue leakage has a direct impact on the bottom line and is therefore
one of the most compelling profit improvement opportunities for airlines. Airlines are now
looking at revenue leakage recovery as and opportunity every bit as attractive in financial
terms as entering a new market, restructuring an operation or acquiring assets.
These are some of the factors they deem most crucial to their solutions.
1. Empowerment: Revenue Integrity empowers airline staff to make the differences that will
raise revenues and the flexibility to tailor individual enquiries and processes.
2. Better Customer Service: Revenue Integrity solutions can provide airlines with crucial
information on their most valuable passengers, so they can improve frequent flyer
programs and increase customer loyalty.
3. Mutual Success: The benefits foster a mutual success between airlines, their customers,
and their partners.
4. Wider Scope: New applications mean that Revenue Integrity can apply to so much more
than booking problems including e-ticketing.
5. Holistic Approach: In order to maximize results, Revenue Integrity must become a
companywide change. It affects all major processes and practices from distribution to
delivery and from the agent to the CEO.

33

6. Business Intelligence: The extra information gathered by Revenue Integrity solutions

help to increase customer satisfaction and loyalty, as well as facilitating better business
planning.
Aircraft Turn Around

Aircraft Turn around process consist of continuous ground operations required to
service the Aircraft from the time chocks (rubber blocks to prevent Aircraft from moving)
are put in front of the wheels after it lands, to the time the chocks are removed and the
Aircraft is ready to leave. There are number of tasks carried out during an Aircraft turn
round such as loading, and unloading passenger baggage, safety & security checks, catering
replenishment, and the completion of essential post and pre-flight administration.

In aviation, aircraft ground handling defines the servicing of an aircraft while it is on

the ground and (usually) parked at a terminal gate of an airport. Many airlines subcontract
ground handling to airports, handling agents or even to another airline. According to the
International Air Transport Association (IATA), conservative estimates indicate airlines
outsource more than 50 per cent of the ground handling that takes place at the worlds
airports. Ground handling addresses the many service requirements of an airliner between
the time it arrives at a terminal gate and the time it departs on its next flight.

Speed, efficiency, and accuracy are important in ground handling services in order
to minimize the turnaround time (the time during which the aircraft must remain parked
at the gate). Airlines with less-frequent service or fewer resources at a particular location
sometimes subcontract ground handling or on-call aircraft maintenance to another
airline, as it is a short-term cheaper alternative to setting up its own ground handling or
maintenance capabilities.
Cabin Service

These services ensure passenger comfort. The cabin cleaning is the main job in the
cabin service. They include such tasks as cleaning the passenger cabin and replenishment
of on-board consumables or washable items such as soap, pillows, tissues and blankets.
Catering

Catering includes the unloading of unused food and drinks from the aircraft, and
the loading of fresh food and drink for passengers and crew. Airline meals are typically
delivered in trolleys. Empty or trash-filled trolleys from the previous flight are replaced

34

with fresh ones. Meals are prepared mostly on the ground in order to minimize the amount
of preparation (apart from chilling or reheating) required in the air. While some airlines
provide their own catering, others have either owned catering companies in the past and
divested themselves of the companies, or have outsourced their catering to third-party
companies.
Ramp Service
This includes services on the ramp or apron, such as:
Guiding the aircraft into and out of the parking position (by way of aircraft
marshalling),
Towing with pushback tractors
Lavatory drainage
Water cartage (to refill fresh water tanks)
Air conditioning (more common for smaller aircraft)
Airstart units (for starting engines)
Luggage handling, usually by means of belt loaders and baggage carts
Gate checked luggage, often handled on the tarmac as passengers disembark
Air cargo handling, usually by means of cargo dollies, and cargo loaders
Catering trucks
Refueling, which may be done with a refueling tanker truck or refueling pumper
Ground power (so that engines need not be running to provide aircraft power on the
ground)
Passenger stairs (used instead of an aerobridge or air stairs, some budget airlines use
both to improve turnaround speed)
Wheelchair lifts, if required
Hydraulic mules (units that provide hydraulic power to an aircraft externally)
Passenger service
This includes services inside the airport terminal such as:
Providing check-in counter services for the passengers departing on the customer
airlines.

35

 Providing gate arrival and departure services. The agents are required to meet a
flight on arrival as well as provide departure services including boarding passengers
and closing the flight.
Staffing the transfer counters, customer service counters and airline lounges.
Air Traffic Control

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who
direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace, and can provide advisory
services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC worldwide is
to prevent collisions, organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and provide information
and other support for pilots. In some countries, ATC plays a security or defensive role, or
is operated by the military. To prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic separation rules,
which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of empty space around it at all
times.

Many aircraft also have collision avoidance systems, which provide additional
safety by warning pilots when other aircraft get too close. In many countries, ATC provides
services to all private, military, and commercial aircraft operating within its airspace.
Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that
pilots are required to obey, or advisories (known as flight information in some countries)
that pilots may, at their discretion, disregard. Generally the pilot in command is the final
authority for the safe operation of the aircraft and may, in an emergency, deviate from ATC
instructions to the extent required to maintain safe operation of their aircraft.
Airport Control

The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is visual
observation from the aerodrome control tower (TWR). The tower is a tall, windowed
structure located on the airport grounds. Aerodrome or Tower controllers are responsible
for the separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles operating on the taxiways
and runways of the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 5 to 10
nautical miles (9 to 18 km) depending on the airport procedures. Surveillance displays are
also available to controllers at larger airports to assist with controlling air traffic.

Controllers may use a radar system called Secondary Surveillance Radar for airborne
traffic approaching and departing. These displays include a map of the area, the position
of various aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft identification, speed, altitude, and
other information described in local procedures. In adverse weather conditions the tower
36

controllers may also use Surface Movement Radar (SMR), Surface Movement Guidance
and Control Systems (SMGCS) or Advanced SMGCS to control traffic on the maneuvering
area (taxiways and runway).
Ground Control

Ground Control (sometimes known as Ground Movement Control) is responsible
for the airport movement areas, as well as areas not released to the airlines or other users.
This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas, and some transitional
aprons or intersections where aircraft arrive, having vacated the runway or departure
gate. Exact areas and control responsibilities are clearly defined in local documents and
agreements at each airport. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or working in these
areas is required to have clearance from Ground Control. This is normally done via VHF/
UHF radio, but there may be special cases where other procedures are used.

Aircraft or vehicles without radios must respond to ATC instructions via aviation
light signals or else be led by vehicles with radios. People working on the airport surface
normally have a communications link through which they can communicate with Ground
Control, commonly either by handheld radio or even cell phone. Ground Control is vital
to the smooth operation of the airport, because this position impacts the sequencing of
departure aircraft, affecting the safety and efficiency of the airports operation.
Local Control or Air Control

Local Control (known to pilots as Tower or Tower Control) is responsible for
the active runway surfaces. Local Control clears aircraft for takeoff or landing, ensuring
that prescribed runway separation will exist at all times. If Local Control detects any unsafe
condition, a landing aircraft may be told to go-around and be re-sequenced into the
landing pattern by the approach or terminal area controller. Within the TWR, a highly
disciplined communications process between Local Control and Ground Control is an
absolute necessity.

Ground Control must request and gain approval from Local Control to cross
any active runway with any aircraft or vehicle. Likewise, Local Control must ensure that
Ground Control is aware of any operations that will impact the taxiways, and work with
the approach radar controllers to create holes or gaps in the arrival traffic to allow
taxiing traffic to cross runways and to allow departing aircraft to take off. Crew Resource
Management (CRM) procedures are often used to ensure this communication process is
efficient and clear, although this is not as prevalent as CRM for pilots.

37

Flight Data / Clearance Delivery

Clearance Delivery is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft, typically
before they commence taxiing. These contain details of the route that the aircraft is expected
to fly after departure. Clearance Delivery or, at busy airports, the Traffic Management
Coordinator (TMC) will, if necessary, coordinate with the en route center and national
command center or flow control to obtain releases for aircraft. Often, however, such
releases are given automatically or are controlled by local agreements allowing free-flow
departures.

When weather or extremely high demand for a certain airport or airspace becomes
a factor, there may be ground stops (or slot delays) or re-routes may be necessary
to ensure the system does not get overloaded. The primary responsibility of Clearance
Delivery is to ensure that the aircraft have the proper route and slot time. This information
is also coordinated with the en route center and Ground Control in order to ensure that
the aircraft reaches the runway in time to meet the slot time provided by the command
center. At some airports, Clearance Delivery also plans aircraft push-backs and engine
starts, in which case it is known as the Ground Movement Planner (GMP): this position is
particularly important at heavily congested airports to prevent taxiway and apron gridlock.
Approach and Terminal Control

Many airports have a radar control facility that is associated with the airport. In
most countries, this is referred to as Terminal Control; in the U.S., it is referred to as
a TRACON (Terminal Radar Approach Control). While every airport varies, terminal
controllers usually handle traffic in a 30-to-50-nautical-mile (56 to 93 km) radius from
the airport. Where there are many busy airports close together, one consolidated Terminal
Control Center may service all the airports. The airspace boundaries and altitudes assigned
to a Terminal Control Center, which vary widely from airport to airport, are based on
factors such as traffic flows, neighboring airports and terrain.

A large and complex example is the London Terminal Control Centre which
controls traffic for five main London airports up to 20,000 feet (6,100 m) and out to 100
nautical miles (190 km). Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all ATC services
within their airspace. Traffic flow is broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and over
flights. As aircraft move in and out of the terminal airspace, they are handed off to the next
appropriate control facility (a control tower, an en-route control facility, or a bordering
terminal or approach control).

38


Terminal control is responsible for ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate
altitude when they are handed off, and that aircraft arrive at a suitable rate for landing. Not
all airports have a radar approach or terminal control available. In this case, the en-route
center or a neighboring terminal or approach control may co-ordinate directly with the
tower on the airport and vector inbound aircraft to a position from where they can land
visually.
En-Route, Center, or Area Control

ATC provides services to aircraft in flight between airports as well. Pilots fly under
one of two sets of rules for separation: Visual Flight Rules (VFR) or Instrument Flight Rules
(IFR). Air traffic controllers have different responsibilities to aircraft operating under the
different sets of rules. While IFR flights are under positive control, in the US VFR pilots can
request flight following, which provides traffic advisory services on a time permitting basis
and may also provide assistance in avoiding areas of weather and flight restrictions.

Across Europe, pilots may request for a Flight Information Service, which is
similar to flight following. In the UK it is known as a Traffic Service. En-route air traffic
controllers issue clearances and instructions for airborne aircraft, and pilots are required to
comply with these instructions. En-route controllers also provide air traffic control services
to many smaller airports around the country, including clearance off of the ground and
clearance for approach to an airport.
Airport Operation

Each time a pilot operates an airplane; the flight normally begins and ends at an
airport. An airport maybe a small sod field or a large complex utilized by air carriers. This
chapter discusses airport operations and identifies features of an airport complex, as well as
provides information on operating on or in the vicinity of an airport. There are two types
of airports.
Controlled Airport
Uncontrolled Airport
Controlled Airport

A controlled airport has an operating control tower. Air traffic control (ATC) is
responsible for providing for the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic at airports
where the type of operations and/or volume of traffic require such a service. Pilots operating
39

from a controlled airport are required to maintain two-way radio communication with air
traffic controllers, and to acknowledge and comply with their instructions.
Uncontrolled Airport

An uncontrolled airport does not have an operating control tower. Two-way radio
communications are not required, although it is a good operating practice for pilots to
transmit their intentions on the specified frequency for the benefit of other traffic in the
area.
Airport Data Source

When a pilot flies into a different airport, it is important to review the current data
for that airport. This data can provide the pilot with information, such as communication
frequencies, services available, closed runways, or airport construction. Three common
sources of information are:
Aeronautical Charts - Aeronautical charts provide specific information on airports.
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) - The Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) provides
the most comprehensive information on a given airport. It contains information on
airports, heliports, and seaplane bases that are open to the public. The A/FDs are
contained in seven books, which are organized by regions. These A/FDs are revised
every 8 weeks.
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) - Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) provide the most
current information available. They provide time-critical information on airports
and changes that affect the national airspace system and are of concern to instrument
flight rule (IFR) operations. NOTAM information is classified into three categories.
These are NOTAM-D or distant, NOTAM-L or local, and flight data center (FDC)
NOTAMs. NOTAM-Ds are attached to hourly weather reports and are available at
flight service stations.
Airport Markings and Signs

There are markings and signs used at airports, which provide directions and assist
pilots in airport operations. Some of the most common markings and signs will be discussed.
Additional information may be found in the Aeronautical Information Manual.

40

Runway Markings

Runway markings vary depending on the type of operations conducted at the
airport. A basic VFR runway may only have centerline markings and runway numbers.
Since aircraft are affected by the wind during takeoffs and landings, runways are laid out
according to the local prevailing winds. Runway numbers are in reference to magnetic
north. Certain airports have two or even three runways laid out in the same direction.

These are referred to as parallel runways and are distinguished by a letter being
added to the runway number. Examples are runway 36L (left), 36C (center), and 36R (right).
Taxiway Markings

Airplanes use taxiways to transition from parking areas to the runway. Taxiways are

identified by a continuous yellow centerline stripe. A taxiway may include edge markings
to define the edge of the taxiway. This is usually done when the taxiway edge does not
correspond with the edge of the pavement. If an edge marking is a continuous line, the paved
shoulder is not intended to be used by an airplane. If it is a dashed marking, an airplane may
use that portion of the pavement. Where a taxiway approaches a runway, there may be a
holding position marker. These consist of four yellow lines (two solid and two dashed). The
solid lines are where the airplane is to hold. At some controlled airports, holding position
markings may be found on a runway. They are used when there are intersecting runways,
and air traffic control issues instructions such as cleared to landhold short of runway
30.
Other Markings

Some of the other markings found on the airport include vehicle roadway markings,
VOR receiver checkpoint markings, and non-movement area boundary markings. Vehicle
roadway markings are used when necessary to define a pathway for vehicle crossing areas
that are also intended for aircraft. These markings usually consist of a solid white line to
delineate each edge of the roadway and a dashed line to separate lanes within the edges of
the roadway.
Runway Lighting

There are various lights that identify parts of the runway complex. These assist a
pilot in safely making a takeoff or landing during night operations. Runway End Identifier
Lights (REIL) is installed at many airfields to provide rapid and positive identification of the

41

approach end of a particular runway. The system consists of a pair of synchronized flashing
lights located laterally on each side of the runway threshold. Runway edge lights are used
to outline the edges of runways at night or during low visibility conditions. These lights are
classified according to the intensity they are capable of producing. They are classified as
High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL), Medium Intensity Runway Lights (MIRL), or Low
Intensity Runway Lights (LIRL). Omni-directional taxiway lights outline the edges of the
taxiway and are blue in color. At many airports, the sedge lights may have variable intensity
settings that may be adjusted by an air traffic controller when deemed necessary or when
requested by the pilot. Some airports also have taxiway centerline lights that are green in
color.
Study of Air-Craft Parts
The Fuselage Structure

The word fuselage is based on the French word fuseler, which means to streamline.
The fuselage must be strong and streamlined since it must withstand the forces that are
created in flight. It houses the flight crew, passengers, and cargo. Fuselages are classified
according to the arrangement of their force-resisting structure. The types of fuselages we
will study are the truss and the semi-mono-coque. Five types of stress act on an aircraft in
flight: tension, compression, bending, shear, and torsion. Lets look at each one individually:
Tension
Tension is the stress which tends to pull things apart. When you try to break a
length of rope, you exert a type of stress which is called tension.
Compression
Compression is the opposite of tension. It is the stress which tends to push materials
together. When you grasp a football at both ends and push, the ball is subject to compression.
The landing gear struts of an aircraft are also subject to compression.
Bending
This type of stress combines tension and compression. You put a bending stress on
a bar when you grasp it with both hands and push the ends together or when you bend a
paper clip. The wing spars (interior structural members) are subjected to bending while the
aircraft is in flight. The lower side of the spar is subjected to tension, while the upper side is

42

subjected to compression. Obviously, some materials will break before they bend and often
are unacceptable for aircraft construction.
Shear
Shear stress is caused by forces tending to slip or slide one part of a material in
respect to another part. This is the stress that is placed on a piece of wood clamped in a vise
and you Chip away at it with a hammer and chisel. This type of stress is also exerted when
two pieces of metal, bolted together, are pulled apart by sliding one over the other or when
you sharpen a pencil with a knife. The rivets in an aircraft are intended to carry only shear.
Bolts, as a rule, carry only shear, but sometimes they carry both shear and tension.
Torsion
Torsion is the stress which tends to distort by twisting. You produce a torsional
force when you tighten a nut on a bolt. The aircraft engine exerts a torsional force on
the crankshaft or turbine axis. All the members (or major portions) of an aircraft are
subjected to one or more of these stresses. Sometimes a member has alternate stresses,
such as compression one instant and tension the next. Some members can carry only
one type of stress. Wire and cables, for example, normally carry only tension. Since any
member is stronger in compression or tension than in bending, members carry end loads
better than side loads. In order to do this, designers arrange the members in the form of a
truss, or rigid framework (see figure). In order for a truss to be rigid, it must be composed
entirely of triangles. When the load on a truss acts in one direction, every alternate member
carries tension while the other members carry compression. When the load is reversed, the
members which were carrying compression now are subjected to tension and those which
were carrying tension are under compression.

The truss itself consists of a welded tubular steel structure with longerons (horizontal
members) and diagonal braces. These features make it rigid, strong, and light. The truss
is covered with a metal or fabric cover so that less drag will be generated. To produce a
smooth surface, the fabric cover is put on fairing strips, which are thin flat strips of wood or
metal. These fairing strips run the length of the fuselage in line with the direction of flight.
Wings

Wing construction is basically the same in all types of aircraft. Most modern aircraft
have all metal wings, but many older aircraft had wood and fabric wings. Ailerons and flaps
will be studied later in this chapter. To maintain its all-important aerodynamic shape, a

43

wing must be designed and built to hold its shape even under extreme stress. Basically, the
wing is a framework composed chiefly of spars, ribs, and (possibly) stringers Spars are the
main members of the wing. They extend lengthwise of the wing (crosswise of the fuselage).

The entire load carried by the wing is ultimately taken by the spars. In flight, the
force of the air acts against the skin. From the skin, this force is transmitted to the ribs and
then to the spars. Most wing structures have two spars, the front spar and the rear spar. The
front spar is found near the leading edge while the rear spar is about two-thirds the distance
to the trailing edge. Depending on the design of the flight loads, some of the all-metal wings
have as many as five spars. In addition to the main spars, there is a short structural member
which is called an aileron spar. The ribs are the parts of a wing which support the covering
and provide the airfoil shape. These ribs are called forming ribs and their primary purpose
is to provide shape.

Some may have an additional purpose of bearing flight stress, and these are called
compression ribs. The most simple wing structures will be found on light civilian aircraft.
High-stress types of military aircraft will have the most complex and strongest wing
structure. Three systems are used to determine how wings are attached to the aircraft fuselage
depending on the strength of a wings internal structure. The strongest wing structure is
the full cantilever which is attached directly to the fuselage and does not have any type of
external, stress-bearing structures. The semi cantilever usually has one, or perhaps two,
supporting wires or struts attached to each wing and the fuselage. The externally braced
wing is typical of the biplane (two wings placed one above the other) with its struts and
flying and landing wires.
Empennage

The empennage, commonly called the tail assembly, is the rear section of the body
of the airplane. Its main purpose is to give stability to the aircraft. The fixed parts are the
horizontal stabilizer and the vertical stabilizer or fin. The front, fixed section is called the
horizontal stabilizer and is used to prevent the airplane from pitching up or down. The
rear section is called the elevator and is usually hinged to the horizontal stabilizer. The
elevator is a movable airfoil that controls the up-and-down motion of the aircrafts nose.
The vertical tail structure is divided into the vertical stabilizer and the rudder. The front
section is called the vertical stabilizer and is used to prevent the aircraft from yawing back
and forth. The principle behind its operation is much like the principle of a deep keel on a
sailboat. In light, single-engine aircraft, it also serves to offset the tendency of the aircraft
to roll in the opposite direction in which the propeller is rotating. The rear section of the
vertical structure is the rudder. It is a movable airfoil that is used to turn the aircraft.

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Landing Gear

Airplanes require landing gear for taxiing, takeoff, and landing. The earliest airplane
of all-the Wright Flyer-used skids as its landing gear. Soon, wheels were attached to the
skids. Since that time, various arrangements have been used for wheels and structures
to connect them to the airplane. Today, there are three common types of landing gear:
conventional, tricycle, and tandem. Conventional landing gear consists of two wheels
forward of the aircrafts center of gravity and a third small wheel at the tail.

This type of landing gear is most often seen in older general aviation airplanes.
The two main wheels are fastened to the fuselage by struts. Without a wheel at the nose
of the plane, it easily pitches over if brakes are applied too soon. Because the tail wheel is
casteredfree to move in any directionthe plane is very difficult to control when landing
or taking off. The tricycle landing gear, as you can guess from its name, has three wheels
two main wheels and a nose wheel. This type of landing gear makes the aircraft easier to
handle on the ground and it also makes landings much safer. An aircraft equipped with
tricycle landing gear is less apt to pitch forward.

The tandem landing gear is used for very large aircraft like the B-52 bomber and the
U-2 reconnaissance/research aircraft. The main landing gear is in two sets that are located
one behind the other on the fuselage. The tandem landing gear allows the use of a highly
flexible wing, but it may also require the use of small wheels on the tips of the wings to keep
the wings from scraping the ground.
Power Plant

The power plant may be an engine and propeller combination or a jet engine. The
most commonly used power plant in personal aircraft is the gasoline engine, which will
be studied in detail later in this chapter. It is mounted in position against a fire wall in the
front section of the airplane. The fire wall provides separation of the power plant from
the remainder of the fuselage. The engine cowling is the metal covering which encases the
engine and its accessories, streamlining the plane and conducting air around the engine
cylinders for cooling. Because the action of the pistons is an up-and-down movement,
this engine is called a reciprocating engine or a piston engine. In multiengine aircraft, the
engines are usually mounted on the leading edges of the wings. The jet engine gives the
airplane a thrust (push forward) because of the jet exhaust gas coming out of the back of
the engine. The moving part of this engine is a turbine. Jet engines may be mounted inside
the fuselage as in most military fighters or on the outside of the fuselage or on the wings as
seen on most commercial airlines.

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Turbojet Engines

The turbojet uses a series of fan-like compressor blades to bring air into the engine
and compress it. An entire section of the turbojet engine performs this function, which can
be compared to the compression stroke of the reciprocating engine. In this section, there
is a series of rotor and stator blades. Rotor blades perform somewhat like propellers in that
they gather and push air backward into the engine. The stator blades serve to straighten the
flow of this air as it passes from one set of rotor blades to the next.

As the air continues to be forced further into the engine, it travels from the lowcompression set of rotors and stators to the high-compression set. This last set puts what
we might say is the final squeeze on the air. The combustion chamber receives the highpressure air, mixes fuel with it, and burns the mixture.

The hot, very high-velocity gases produced strike the blades of the turbine and cause
it to spin rapidly. The turbine is mounted on a shaft which is connected to the compressor.
Thus, the spinning is what causes the compressor sections to function. After passing the
turbine blades, the hot, highly accelerated gases go into the engines exhaust section. The
exhaust section of the jet engine is designed to give additional acceleration to the gases and
thereby increase thrust. The exhaust section also serves to straighten the flow of the gases
as they come from the turbine.

Basically, the exhaust section is a cone mounted in the exhaust duct. This duct is
also referred to as the tailpipe. The shape of the tailpipe varies, depending on the design
operating temperatures and the speed-performance range of the engine. With all the heat
produced in the turbojet engine, you probably wonder how it is kept from overheating.
Like most aircraft reciprocating engines, the jet is also air-cooled. Of all the air coming into
the compressor section, only about 25 percent is used to produce thrust; the remaining 75
percent passes around the combustion chamber and turbine area to serve as a coolant.
Turbofan Engines

The turbofan engine has gained popularity for a variety of reasons. It has one or
more rows of compressor blades extend beyond the normal compressor blades. The result
is that four times as much air is pulled into the turbofan engine as in the simple turbojet.
However, most of this excess air is ducted through bypasses around the power section and
out the rear with the exhaust gases. Also, a fan burner permits the burning of additional
fuel in the fan airstream. With the burner off, this engine can operate economically and
efficiently at low altitudes and low speeds. With the burner on, the thrust is doubled by

46

the burning fuel, and it can operate on high speeds and high altitudes fairly efficiently. The
turbofan has greater thrust for takeoff, climbing, and cruising on the same amount of fuel
than the conventional turbojet engine.
Turboprop Engines

The turboprop engine is an effort to combine the best features of turbojet and
propeller aircraft. The first is more efficient at high speeds and high altitudes; the latter is
more efficient at speeds under 400 mph and below 30,000 feet. The turboprop uses a gas
turbine to turn a propeller.

Its turbine uses almost all the engines energy to turn its compressor and propeller,
and it depends on the propeller for thrust, rather than on the high-velocity gases going out
of the exhaust. Strictly speaking, it is not a jet. The gas turbine can turn a propeller with
twice the power of a reciprocating engine. Reduction gears slow the propeller below the
turbines rpm, and this must be done because of the limitations of propellers.

That is, no propeller is capable of withstanding the forces generated when it is turned
at the same rate as that of the gas turbine. Even so, the turboprop engine receives fairly
extensive use in military and civilian aviation circles. In summary, aircraft turbine engines
may be classified as turbojet, turbofan, or turboprop. As a group, the turbine engines have
many advantages over reciprocating engines, the most obvious being the capability of
higher-altitude and higher-speed performance.

Vibration stress is relieved as a result of rotating rather than reciprocating parts.
Control is simpler because one lever controls both speed and power. With the large airflow,
cooling is less complicated. Spark plugs are used only for starting, and the continuous
ignition system of reciprocating engines is not needed. A carburetor and mixture control
are not needed. The major disadvantages have been the high fuel consumption and poor
performance at low power setting, low speeds, and low altitudes. Turboprop and turbofan
developments have greatly improved aircraft turbine engines in these areas.
Ramjet Engines

The ramjet engine is the simplest type of the all-jet engines because it has no moving
parts. Note that it may have an internal body that serves to compress the air as it enters the
intake. The spray bar injects a mist of fuel into the airstream and the mixture is ignited by
a spark. The grill-type flame holder provides a type of barrier to the burning mixture while
allowing hot, expanding gases to escape through the exhaust nozzle. The high-pressure air

47

coming into the combustion chamber keeps the burning mixture from effectively reacting
toward the intake end of the engine. Ramjets will not function until enough air is coming
through the intake to create a high-pressure flow.

Otherwise, the expanding gases of the burning fuel-air mixture would be expelled
from both ends of the engine. As you can see, this would amount to a single explosive
reaction. Therefore, the ramjet has to be traveling through the air very fast before it is
started. This means that it has to be boosted to the proper speed by some other type of
engine. In theory, the ramjet engine has no maximum speed; it can keep accelerating
indefinitely as long as it stays within the atmosphere. In practice, the ramjet is limited, at
this time, to low hypersonic speeds (five times the speed of sound) because atmospheric
friction will melt it. The biggest drawback of the ramjet is its high rate of fuel consumption.
Airport Mangement

Air transport drives economic and social progress. It connects people, countries
and cultures. It provides access to global markets. It generates trade and tourism. It forges
links between developed and developing nations. The air transport industry supports 56.6
million jobs globally. It directly creates 8.4 million jobs worldwide. Airlines, airports and air
navigation service providers employ 7.6 million people. The civil aerospace sector employs
800,000 people, 9.3 million indirect jobs are created via purchases of goods and services
from companies in the air transport supply chain, 4.4 million Jobs are induced through
spending by industry employees 34.5 million Direct and indirect jobs are created through
air transports catalytic impact on tourism.
Airport

Airports being nuclei of economic activity assume a significant role in the national
economy. The quality of airport infrastructure, which is a vital component of the overall
transportation network, contributes directly to a countrys international competitiveness
and the flow of foreign investment. While cargo carried by air in India weighs less than 1%
of the total cargo exported, it accounts for 35% of the total value of exports. Better cargo
handling facilities lead to enhanced levels of importation, especially of capital goods and
high-value items. Likewise, 97% of the countrys foreign tourists arrive by air and tourism
is the nations second largest foreign exchange earner. India has 115 airports in the country,
which includes 23 civil enclaves, managed by Airports Authority of India (AAI). There are
seventeen international airports in India as on date.

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1. A
 irports also represent a countrys window on the world. Passengers form their first
impressions about a nation from the state of its airports. They can be effectively
used as symbols of national pride, if we pay sufficient attention to their quality and
maintenance.
2. In many remote, hilly and inaccessible areas of the country, air transport is the
quickest and sometimes the only mode of travel available. This is especially true of
sensitive regions on the borders with our neighbours in the west, north and northeast.
3. A
 irports need to be integrated with other modes of transport like Railways and
Highways, enabling seamless transportation to all parts of the country.
AAI Managed Airports
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport, Kolkata
Chennai International Airport, Chennai
Thiruvananthapuram International Airport
Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel International Airport, Ahmedabad
Guru Ram DassJee International Airport, Amritsar
Lokpriya GopinathBordoloi International Airport, Guwahati
Goa International Airport (Civil Enclave)
Srinagar International Airport, Srinagar (Civil Enclave)
Jaipur International Airport
Kozhikode Airport, Calicut
Veer Savarkar International Airport (Civil Enclave), Port Blair, A&N Islands
Privately Managed Airports
Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi
Chattrapati Shivaji International Airport, Mumbai
GMR Hyderabad International Airport, Hyderabad
Bangalore International Airport Limited, Bengaluru
Cochin International Airport, Kochi (Private)
Bharat Ratna Babasaheb
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar International Airport, Nagpur (Maharashtra)

49


Government of India has been encouraging participation of State Governments
in development of airport infrastructures. The New Bangalore Airport, New Hyderabad
Airport and Cochin International Airport (CIAL) are examples of participation of State
Govt. through joint venture. In the Domestic airport, State Governments normally hand over
the required land for development of airport free of cost and free from all encumbrances as
a token of State government participation. The examples are Vizag, Khajuraho, Amritsar,
Pathankot, Dehradun, Lucknow, Varanasi airports where respective State Govts., have
given land free of cost. All operational airports managed by AAI have been provided with
Aeronautical Ground Lights except Umroi (Barapani) in Meghalaya.

However, only Instrument Flight Rules airports (Airports equipped with all weather
day and night operational capability) can be permitted to be used for night operations. A
new Greenfield airport is under construction at Pakyong in Sikkim.National Institute of
Aviation Management and Research, also known by its acronym as NIAMAR, established
in the year 1986, is a premier training institute in the field of Aviation Management. It
imparts training in all disciplines of airport management i.e. airport operations, airport
engineering construction, maintenance and project management, airport finance, human
resource management, airport commercial and Land Management, Aviation law, cargo
management.
Classification of Air Ports
Airports are presently classified in the following manner:
1. International Airports: These are declared as international airports and are available
for scheduled international operations by Indian and foreign carriers. Presently,
Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Calcutta and Thiruvananthapuram are in this category.
2. Custom Airports: These have custom and immigration facilities for limited
international operations by national carriers and for foreign tourist and cargo charter
flights. These include Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Calicut, Goa, Varanasi,
Patna, Agra, Jaipur, Amritsar and Tiruchirappali.
3. Model Airports: These are domestic airports which have minimum runway length
of 7500 feet and adequate terminal capacity to handle Airbus 320 type of aircraft.
These can cater to limited international traffic, if required. These include Lucknow,
Bhubaneshwar, Guwahati, Nagpur, Vadodara, Coimbatore, Imphal and Indore.
4. Other Domestic Airports: All other airports are covered in this category.
5. Civil Enclaves in Defence Airport: There are 28 civil enclaves in Defence airfields.

50

To develop the capacity of airports in accordance with the future projections, it is

proposed to reclassify the airports as follows:
a. International Hubs
This category will be that of International Hubs which may cover airports currently
classified at international airports and those eminently qualified to be upgraded as such.
These would at present cover Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Calcutta and Thiruvananthapuram.
Airports at Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Amritsar and Guwahati can be added to
the list as and when the facilities are upgraded to the desired level. International hubs
would be used for dispersal of international traffic to the hinterland. In these airports,
the facilities shall be of world class standards, including convenient connections to
international and domestic passengers, airport-related infrastructure like hotels, shopping
areas, conferencing and entertainment facilities, aircraft-maintenance bases, etc.
b. Regional Hubs
Government is keen to encourage development of regional airlines based on small
aircraft to provide air-linkages in the interior areas of the country. Regional hubs will have
to act as operational bases for regional airlines and also have all the facilities currently
postulated for model airports, including the capability to handle limited international
traffic. The identification of Regional Hubs will be made on the basis of origin-destination
surveys, traffic demand and the requirements of the airlines. State Govt. will be closely
associated as co-promoters of regional airlines.
c. Other Operational Airports
These will be developed so as to be cost-effective on the basis of individual needs to
meet the requirements of traffic handled by them. Airports serving State Capitals will be
given priority.
Greenfield Airports
1. I n view of the fact that there are already a sufficient number of airports, many of
which are not viable, Greenfield airports will normally not be taken up either in the
public or private sector without the prior approval of the Government. In the case
of the Other Airport category run by private operators, the approval of the DGCA
would suffice as at present.

51

2. A
 Greenfield airport may be permitted where an existing airport is unable to meet
the projected requirements of traffic or a new focal point of traffic emerges with
sufficient viability. It can be allowed both as a replacement for an existing airport or
for simultaneous operation. This aspect will have to be clearly spelt out in the notice
inviting tenders.
3. N
 o Greenfield airport will normally be allowed within an aerial distance of 150
kilometers of an existing airport. Where it is allowed as a second airport in the
same city or close vicinity, the parameters for distribution of traffic between the two
airports will be clearly spelt out.
4. T
 he Government may, while permitting a Greenfield airport, decide whether it will
be in the public or private sectors or be taken up as a joint venture.
5. W
 here the Government decides to set up a Greenfield airport throughout the AAI
on social considerations even though the same is not economically viable, suitable
grant-in-aid will be provided to AAI to cover both the initial capital cost as well as
the recurring losses.
AAI Airport Authority of India

Airports Authority of India (AAI) was constituted by an Act of Parliament and
came into being on 1st April 1995 by merging erstwhile National Airports Authority and
International Airports Authority of India. The merger brought into existence a single
Organization entrusted with the responsibility of creating, upgrading, maintaining and
managing civil aviation infrastructure both on the ground and air space in the country. AAI
manages 125 airports, which include 11 International Airport, 08 Customs Airports, 81
Domestic Airports and 27 Civil Enclaves at Defense airfields. AAI provides air navigation
services over 2.8 million square nautical miles of air space. During the year 2008- 09, AAI
handled aircraft movement of 1306532 Nos. [International 270345 & Domestic 1036187],
Passengers handled 44262137 Nos. [International 1047614 & Domestic 33785990] and the
cargo handled 499418 tons [International 318242 & Domestic 181176].
Airport Infrastructure
1. I n keeping with the ICAO standards and recommended practices and the requirements
of upgrading airports to the level of international and regional hubs, detailed master
plans for the development of all selected airports will be prepared or revised by the
operating agency. Such master plans should be conceived of and executed by the best
expert advice available and taking futuristic requirements into account.

52

2. P
 riority will be accorded to safety, passenger facilities, aircraft and cargo handling,
while deciding the allotment of funds among different up gradation and modernisation
schemes.
3. A
 ir transport serves a time-sensitive market. The surface access to airports should,
therefore, be efficient and city planners should keep the airport-linked requirements
constantly in view while designing surface transport development plans.
4. T
 he helicopter provides a direct and rapid means of transport over short-haul routes
and is, therefore, particularly attractive for businessmen. There is also a great potential
for helicopter operations in off-shore oil exploration and production, movement of
food grains and essential commodities in remote, hilly and inaccessible areas, traffic
management in metropolitan cities and so on.
Ground Facilities
1. S peed is the essence of air transport. The AAI will set standards of performance in
various areas of passenger and cargo handling, so that both ICAO standards as well
as comparable standards at similar airports around the world, are achieved. For this
purpose, procedures will be simplified, regulations which delay or restrict movement
of traffic reviewed and efforts made to reduce ground delays to a minimum.
2. D
 well time of passengers and cargo will be drastically reduced, thus enhancing capacity
at existing airports. The short-term objective will be to clear incoming international
passengers within 45 minutes of arrival and clear departing passengers in 60 minutes
including check-in-time. Similar targets of 30 and 45 minutes respectively, will be
laid down for domestic flights.
3. T
 echnological and other improvements will be made by introduction of automation
and computerization, mobile check-in counters, improvement in emigration/
immigration and security checks, mechanization of baggage and ground handling
services, provision of aero-bridges, introduction of better systems of passenger
transfer between terminals, improvement in cargo terminals, reduction in bunching
of flights and contracting out of operating and maintenance facilities. New approaches
in airport design will be required to accommodate technological innovations like the
New Large Aircraft. Construction technology and architectural inputs will also need
to be updated to standards applicable globally.
4. E
 fforts will be made to upgrade the facilities, manpower, equipment, etc., by
concerned departments and institutions like customs, immigration, meteorology, oil

53

companies, etc., so that these keep pace with the upgradation of airports, enabling
the users to experience the optimum benefits of airports as cohesive transit points.
5. A
 part from the AAI and the national carriers, private agencies will also be encouraged
for providing ground handling services.
Cargo Handling
1. S pecial attention needs to be given to the speedy handling of cargo and reducing its
dwell time. The objective will be to reduce dwell time of exports from the present
level of 4 days to 12 hours and of imports for the present level of 4 weeks to 24 hours
to bring us in line with internationally achieved norms. Cargo clearance will be on
24-hour basis
2. I nfrastructure relating to cargo handling like satellite freight cities with multi-modal
transport, cargo terminals, cold storage, automatic storage and retrieval systems,
mechanised transportation of cargo, computerization and automation, etc., will be
set up on top priority basis. Such facilities have to come up at smaller places too.
3. T
 he Electronic Data Interchange systems will be developed and linked amongst all
stake-holders in the trade.
Commercial Activities
1. A
 cross the world, the trend is towards a very high percentage, ranging from 60 to
70%, of the total revenue of airport operators being generated from non-aeronautical
sources at major airports. In India, although these services are even now provided by
private agencies, the comparable figure for AAI at international airports is just 22%.
There will be a major thrust towards increasing the share of commercial revenue
emerging from non-aeronautical sources. This will help in optimal exploitation of
the full commercial potential of airports and make many airports not only viable but
capable of generating surpluses for further expansion and development.
2. In order to maximize the revenue while at the same time maintain transparency,
there will be a master plan for development of commercial activities and facilities,
as part of the overall master plan approved by the management, for the airport as a
whole. The space-use patterns will normally not be deviated from.
3. In the allocation of space among concessionaires, there will be a strict adherence
to stipulated procedures, while maintaining sufficient flexibility in order to ensure
quality products and services and attract the holders of reputed brand-names. For
54

this purpose, innovative tendering procedures involving limited tenders, two-bid

system, use of net present value of bids spread over several years, grant of management
contracts, bunching of similar facilities etc. will be devised.
4. E
 xcept for user developmental fees, there will be total freedom for airport operators
in the matter of raising revenue through non-aeronautical charges and there will not
be any Government control over the same.
Environmental Issues
1. T
 he operation of airports has to be in full accord with the provisions relating to
prevention of air, water and noise pollution. All effluents would require to be
treated before these are allowed to leave the airports. There will be close liaison with
state governments and municipal authorities to maintain cleanliness and remove
encroachments in airports and surrounding areas, so as to obviate the menace of bird
hits. Large scale plantations and other eco-friendly activities like construction of golf
courses would be encouraged around airports, both for environmental purposes as
also to provide relaxation to transit passengers. Such environmental issues would
need close interaction with regional planning bodies.
2. T
 he airports would be set up after the requisite environmental clearances and a timeframe of 90 days would be prescribed by Ministry of Environment and Forests for
completing the processing of applications for such clearances.
3. Improved connectivity between airports and adjacent population centers should
form an integral part of each airport infrastructure development projects and not be
left to evolve by it.
Airport Check-In-Facilities

Airport check-in uses service counters found at commercial airports handling
commercial air travel. The check-in is normally handled by an airline itself or a handling
agent working on behalf of an airline. Passengers usually hand over any baggage that they
do not wish or are not allowed to carry on to the aircrafts cabin and receive a boarding pass
before they can proceed to board their aircraft. Check-in is usually the first procedure for
a passenger when arriving at an airport, as airline regulations require passengers to check
in by certain times prior to the departure of a flight. This duration spans from 15 minutes
to 4 hours depending on the destination and airline. During this process, the passenger has
the ability to ask for special accommodations such as seating preferences, inquire about

55

flight or destination information, make changes to reservations, accumulate frequent flyer

program miles, or pay for upgrades.
Passenger Identity Registration

At the time of check-in one of the Agents primary duties is to check for valid
documents. This includes tickets, passports, visas, letters of consent etc. (depending on the
type of visit, the arrival and destination of the trip).

In countries like the United States and United Kingdom, which has special
requirements, passengers have to provide information like their name, address and contact
details of places in which they live, from which they are taking the flight and in which they
intend to stay once in the United States and United Kingdom respectively. This information,
known as Advance Passenger Information, is now usually collected online with or after the
flight booking.
Baggage Registration

At the time of check-in, the passenger hands over baggage which is checked by the
airport security and sealed. Anything that is above the weight limit or which is not allowed
to be carried by the passenger himself to the aircraft cabin is usually handed over to the
agent at the time of check-in. The baggage allowance, if any, is prescribed by the airline and
anything in excess will warrant additional surcharges. These baggage restrictions are based
on the class the passenger is traveling. E.g. Economy Class, First Class, Executive Class.
Online Check-in

Online check-in is the process in which passengers confirm their presence on a
flight via the Internet and typically print their own boarding passes. Depending on the
carrier and the specific flight, passengers may also enter details such as meal options and
baggage quantities and select their preferred seating.

This service is generally promoted by the airlines to passengers as being easier and
faster because it reduces the time a passenger would normally spend at an airport check-in
counter. Some airlines, however, would still require passengers to proceed to a check-in
counter at the airport, regardless of preferred check-in method, for document verification
(e.g., to travel to countries where a visa is required, or to ensure the credit card used to
purchase is genuine and/or matches the identity of the person who made the purchase). If
passengers need to continue the check-in process at the airport after performing an online

56

check-in, a special lane is typically offered to them to reduce wait times unless all desks are
designated as baggage drop-off points. Furthermore, online check-in for a flight is often
available earlier than its in-person counterpart. Alaska Airlines was the first to offer online
check-in.
Mobile Check-in

In the mid-late 2000s, checking in was made possible using a passengers mobile
phone or PDA. A GPRS or 3G-capable smart phone or an internet-capable PDA is required,
and the check-in feature may be accessed by keying in a website on the mobile phones
browser or by downloading a dedicated application. The process is then similar to that
which one would expect when checking in using a personal computer. At the end of the
mobile check-in process, some airlines send a mobile boarding pass to a passengers mobile
device, which can be scanned at the airport during security checks and boarding. However,
others send an electronic confirmation with a barcode that can be presented to the staff at
check-in or scanned at the kiosks to continue the check-in process.
Gate/Lounge Check-in

Domestic services introduced a self-check-in process allowing passengers with
bags to arrive and check-in at the self-service kiosks up to 10 min prior to departure time.
Passengers then attach the baggage tag and drop the bag themselves at the baggage drop
belt. However, passengers without checked luggage can go straight to the lounge (if entitled
to lounge access) and check in at the kiosk there using their e-Pass or proceed straight to
the departure gate when boarding using either their e-Pass or m-Pass.
Premium Check-in and Lounge Access

If the passenger carries a first or business class ticket or presents a certain frequent
flyer program membership card (usually the higher-level tiers), or any other arrangements
with the carrier, access to the premium check-in area and/or the lounge may be offered.
Premium check-in areas vary among airlines and airports. The main airport in which an
airline hub is located normally offers a more thorough and exclusive premium check-in
experience, normally inside a separate check-in lounge. For example, Air New Zealands
Auckland International premium check-in lounge provides a dedicated customs clearance
counter and direct shortcut access to the security checkpoints. Airlines operating in minor
airports generally offer an exclusive and separate premium check-in queue lane, often
combined for its first, business, and/or premium economy passengers.

57

Inflight Entertainment

In-flight entertainment (IFE) refers to the entertainment available to aircraft
passengers during a flight. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg offered passengers a piano,
lounge, dining room, smoking room, and bar during the 2 day flight between Europe
and America. After the Second World War, IFE was delivered in the form of food and drink
services, along with an occasional projector movie during lengthy flights. In 1985 the first
personal audio player was offered to passengers, along with noise cancelling headphones
in 1989. During the 1990s the demand for better IFE was a major factor in the design of
aircraft cabins. Before then, the most a passenger could expect was a movie projected on
a screen at the front of a cabin, which could be heard via a headphone socket at his or
her seat. The largest manufacturers of IFE systems are Panasonic Avionics Corporation,
Thales Group, Zodiac, Lumexis, Gogo, On Air, Row 44 Rockwell Collins, and Live TV.
Design issues for IFE include system safety, cost efficiency, software reliability, hardware
maintenance, and user compatibility. The in-flight entertainment onboard airlines are
frequently managed by content service providers.

The first in-flight movie was in 1921 on Aero-marine Airways showing a film called
Howdy Chicago to its passengers as the amphibious airplane flew around Chicago. The
film The Lost World was shown to passengers of an Imperial Airways flight on April 1925
between London (Croydon Airport) and Paris. Eleven years later in 1932, the first in-flight
television called media event was shown on a Western Air Express. It was not until the
1960s that in-flight entertainment (other than reading, sitting in a lounge and talking, or
looking out the window) was becoming mainstream and popular. In 1961, David Flexer of
In-flight Motion Pictures developed the 16mm film system for a wide variety of commercial
aircraft. In 1963, AVID Airline Products developed and manufactured the first pneumatic
headset used on board the airlines and provided these early headsets to Trans World
Airlines. These early systems consisted of in-seat audio that could be heard with hollow
tube headphones. In 1979 pneumatic headsets were replaced by electronic headsets. In the
late 1970s and early 1980s, CRT-based projectors began to appear on newer widebody
aircraft, such as the Boeing 767.
Varieties of in-Flight Entertainment
Audio Entertainment

Audio entertainment covers music, as well as news, information, and comedy.
Most music channels are pre-recorded and feature their own DJs to provide chatter, song
introductions, and interviews with artists. In addition, there is sometimes a channel devoted

58

to the planes radio communications, allowing passengers to listen in on the pilots in-flight
conversations with other planes and ground stations. In audio-video on demand (AVOD)
systems, software such as MusicMatch is used to select music off the music server. Phillips
Music Server is one of the most widely used servers running under Windows Media Center
used to control AVOD systems. This form of in-flight entertainment is experienced through
headphones that are distributed to the passengers.

The headphone plugs are usually only compatible with the audio socket on the
passengers armrest (and vice-versa), and some airlines may charge a small fee to obtain a
pair. The headphones provided can also be used for the viewing of personal televisions. Inflight entertainment systems have been made compatible with XM Satellite Radio and with
iPods, allowing passengers to access their accounts or bring their own music, along with
offering libraries of full audio CDs from an assortment of artists.
Video Entertainment
Video entertainment is provided via a large video screen at the front of a cabin section,
as well as smaller monitors situated every few rows above the aisles. Sound is supplied
via the same headphones as those distributed for audio entertainment. However, personal
televisions (PTVs) for every passenger provide passengers with channels broadcasting new
and classic films, as well as comedies, news, sports programming, documentaries, childrens
shows, and drama series. Some airlines also present news and current affairs programming,
which are often pre-recorded and delivered in the early morning before flights commence.
Some airlines also provide video games as part of the video entertainment system.
Closed-Captioning
Closed captioning technology for deaf and hard-of-hearing passengers started in 2008
with Emirates Airlines. The captions are text streamed along with video and spoken audio
and enable passengers to either enable or disable the subtitle/caption language. Closed
captioning is capable of streaming various text languages, including Arabic, Chinese,
English, French, German, Hindi, Spanish, and Russian. The technology is currently
based on Scenarist file multiplexing so far; however, portable media players tend to use
alternative technologies. A WAEA technical committee is trying to standardize the closed
caption specification. In 2009, the US Department of Transportation ruled a compulsory
use of captions of all videos, DVDs, and other audio-visual displays played for safety and/
or informational purposes in aircraft should be high-contrast captioned.

59

In-Flight Movies
Personal on-demand videos are stored in an aircrafts main IFE computer system,
from whence they can be viewed on demand by a passenger. Along with the on-demand
concept comes the ability for the user to pause, rewind, fast forward, or jump to any point
in the movie. There are also movies that are shown throughout the aircraft at one time,
often on shared overhead screens or a screen in the front of the cabin.
Personal Televisions
Some airlines have now installed Personal Televisions (otherwise known as PTVs)
for every passenger on most long-haul routes. These televisions are usually located in the
seat-backs or tucked away in the armrests for front row seats and first class. Some show direct
broadcast satellite television which enables passengers to view live TV broadcasts. Some
airlines also offer video games using PTV equipment. Fewer still provide closed captioning
for deaf and hard-of-hearing passengers. Audio-Video on Demand (AVOD) entertainment
has also been introduced. This enables passengers to pause, rewind, fast-forward, or stop a
program that they have been watching. This is in contrast to older entertainment systems
where no interactivity is provided for. AVOD also allows the passengers to choose among
movies stored in the aircraft computer system.
In-Flight Games
Video games are another emerging facet of in-flight entertainment. Some game
systems are networked to allow interactive playing by multiple passengers. Later generations
of IFE games began to shift focus from pure entertainment to learning. The best examples
of this changing trend are the popular trivia game series and the Berlitz Word Traveler that
allows passengers to learn a new language in their own language. Appearing as a mixture
of lessons and mini games, passengers can learn the basics of a new language while being
entertained. Many more learning applications continue to appear in the IFE market.
In-Flight Attainment System
An In-Flight Attainment System in the future could have contextual ads for each
passenger depending on co-passengers, travel history, route, ticket/seat preferences,
mileage history, ticket preferences (paid by credit card/ X days in advance/flight portal/
cheap-average-costly ticket), food preferences, marital statuses, and so on. Using social
media and pre-computed data, travelers will be able to experience state-of-the-art in-flight
shopping experience. They would be able to shop items while they are travelling to be
delivered later at a preferred location.
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Moving-Map Systems
A moving-map system is a real-time flight information video channel broadcast
through PTVs and cabin video screens. In addition to displaying a map that illustrates
the position and direction of the plane, the system gives the altitude, airspeed, outside air
temperature, distance to the destination, distance from the origination point, and local
time.
The moving-map system information is derived from the aircrafts flight computer
systems. The first system designed for passengers was invented in 1982 by ASINC, Inc. a small
southern California corporation. Their product was called Air show. KLM and Swiss Air
were the first airlines to offer the moving map systems to their passengers.
Islamic Prayers and Directions to Mecca
In several airlines from Islamic states, their AVOD systems provides Qibla directions
to allow Muslims to pray toward Mecca (e.g. Emirates, Etihad, Malaysia Airlines, Qatar
Airways, and Royal Jordanian); Malaysia Airlines has built-in Quran e-books and Garuda
Indonesia has a unique Quran channel. Several Islamic airlines may also switch to a preflight Quran prayer prior to taking off.
In-Flight Connectivity
In recent years, IFE has been expanded to include in-flight connectivityservices
such as Internet browsing, text messaging, cell phone usage (where permitted), and
emailing. In fact, some in the airline industry have begun referring to the entire in-flightentertainment category as IFEC (In-Flight Entertainment and Connectivity or In-Flight
Entertainment and Communication).
The airline manufacturer Boeing entered into the in-flight-connectivity industry in
2000 and 2001 with an offshoot called Connexion by Boeing. The service was designed to
provide in-flight broadband service to commercial airlines; Boeing built partnerships with
United Airlines, Delta, and American. By 2006, however, the company announced it was
closing down its Connexion operation. Industry analysts cited technology, weight, and cost
issues as making the service unfeasible at the time. The Connexion hardware that needed to
be installed on an aircraft, for example, weighed nearly 1,000 pounds (450 kg), which added
more drag (a force working against the forward movement of the plane) and weight than
was tolerable for the airlines.

61

Satellite and Internal Telephony

Some airlines provide satellite telephones integrated into their system. These are
either found at strategic locations in the aircraft or integrated into the passenger remote
control used for the individual in-flight entertainment. Passengers can use their credit card
to make phone calls anywhere on the ground. A rate close to US$10.00/minute is usually
charged regardless of where the recipient is located and a connection fee may be applied
even if the recipient does not answer. These systems are usually not capable of receiving
incoming calls. There are also some aircraft that allow faxes to be sent and the rate is usually
the same as the call rate, but at a per page rate. Some systems also allow the transmission
of SMS.
Data communication
IFE producers have begun to introduce Intranet type systems. Virgin Americas
and V Australias RED Entertainment System allows for passengers to chat amongst one
another, compete against each other in the provided games, talk to the flight attendants
and request, and pay for in advance, food or drinks, and have full access to the internet and
email.
Wi-Fi
Several airlines are testing in-cabin wi-fi systems. In-flight internet service is
provided either through a satellite network or an air-to-ground network. In the Airbus
A380 aircraft, data communication via satellite system allows passengers to connect to
live Internet from the individual IFE units or their laptops via the in-flight Wi-Fi access.
Boeings cancellation of the Connexion by Boeing system in 2006 caused concerns that
inflight internet would not be available on next-generation aircraft such as Qantas fleet
of Airbus A380s and Boeing Dreamliner 787s. However, Qantas announced in July 2007
that all service classes in its fleet of A380s would have wireless internet access as well as
seat-back access to email and cached web browsing when the Airbuses started operations in
October 2008. Certain elements were also retrofitted into existing Boeing 747-400s.
Mobile Phone
As a general rule, mobile phone use while airborne is usually not just prohibited
by the carrier but also by regulatory agencies in the relevant jurisdiction (e.g. FAA and
FCC in the US). However, with added technology, some carriers nonetheless allow the
use of mobile phones on selected routes. Emirates Airline became the first airline to allow

62

mobile phones to be used during flight. Using the systems supplied by telecom company
Aero Mobile, Emirates launched the service commercially on March 20, 2008. Installed
first on an Airbus A340-300, Aero Mobile is presently operating on Emirates A340, A330,
and B777 aircraft. Emirates planned to roll out the system over their entire fleet by 2010.
In-Flight Services
Air Line Meal

An airline meal or in-flight meal is a meal served to passengers on board a commercial
airliner. These meals are prepared by airline catering services. These meals vary widely in
quality and quantity across different airline companies and classes of travel. They range
from a simple beverage in short-haul economy class to a seven-course gourmet meal in
long-haul first class. When ticket prices were regulated in the American domestic market,
food was the primary means airlines differentiated themselves.

The first airline meals were served by Handley Page Transport, an airline company
founded in 1919, to serve the London-Paris route in October of that year. The type of
food varies depending upon the Airline Company and class of travel. Meals may be served
on one tray or in multiple courses with no tray and with a tablecloth, metal cutlery, and
glassware (generally in first and business classes). The airline dinner typically includes
meat (most commonly chicken or beef) or fish, a salad or vegetable, a small bread roll, and
a dessert.
1. C
 aterers usually produce alternative meals for passengers with restrictive diets. These
must usually be ordered in advance, sometimes when buying the ticket. Some of the
more common examples include:
2. Cultural diets, such as French, Italian, Chinese, Japanese or Indian style.
3. I nfant and baby meals. Some airlines also offer childrens meals, containing foods
that children will enjoy such as baked beans, mini-hamburgers and hot dogs.
4. M
 edical diets, including low/high fiber, low fat/cholesterol, diabetic, peanut free,
non-lactose, low salt/sodium, low-purine, low-calorie, low-protein, bland (nonspicy) and gluten-free meals.
5. R
 eligious diets, including kosher, halal, and Hindu, Buddhist and Jain vegetarian
(sometimes termed Asian vegetarian) meals.
6. V
 egetarian and vegan meals. Some airlines do not offer a specific meal for vegetarians;
instead, they are given a vegan meal.

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For several Islamic airlines (e.g. Emirates, Etihad Airways, Gulf Air, Iran Air, Qatar
Airways, Saudia, Pakistan International Airlines, and Malaysia Airlines) in accordance of
Islamic customs, all classes and dishes on the plane are serving with Muslim meal with
Halal certification - without pork and alcohol.
Condiments (typically salt, pepper, and sugar) are supplied in small sachets. For
cleanliness most meals come with a napkin and a moist towelette. First and business class
passengers are often provided with hot towels and actual salt and pepper shakers. During
morning flights a cooked breakfast or smaller continental-style may be served. On long haul
flights and (short/medium haul flights within Asia) breakfast normally includes an entre
of pancakes or eggs, traditional fried breakfast foods such as sausages and grilled tomatoes,
and often muffins or pastries, fruits and breakfast cereal on the side. On shorter flights a
continental-style breakfast, generally including a miniature box of breakfast cereal, fruits
and either a muffin, pastry, or bagel. Coffee and tea are offered as well, and sometimes hot
chocolate.
Buy-on-Board

In commercial flight, buy on board (BoB) is a system where food or beverages are
paid for on board; often food or beverages are not included in the ticket price for certain
fare classes. Starting in 2003, many United States air carriers began eliminating free meal
services in economy classes on North American flights and replacing them with buy on
board services. By 2009, many US carriers had established buy on board as part of an la
carte pricing movement. Around that year, US carriers began using celebrity-named and
brand name products to make their buy on board products generate more revenue.

Continental Airlines, the last large United States carrier to offer free meals on all
domestic flights, announced in March 2010 that it would begin a buy on board program
in fall 2010 and end many of its free meal programs on domestic flights. Jeff Green of
Business week described the end of Continentals program as an end of an era. As the
airline market in the United States became deregulated, airlines began to compete by price.
Airline ticket prices began to decrease, and airlines began to charge extra for services that
were once included in the airfare.
In-Flight Smoking

In-flight smoking is prohibited by almost all airlines; smoking on domestic U.S.
airliners, for instance, has been prohibited since April 1998. According to FAA regulations,

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smoking lit cigarettes or anything else that produces smoke or flame is prohibited onboard
most commercial aircraft. However, the FAA has not issued a regulation for or against
electronic cigarettes, leaving that decision up to the individual airlines. Normally, passengers
found to be smoking on non-smoking flights will at least face a fine (up to $5,000) and at
worst be arrested and detained upon landing. Due to stringent security measures, this often
causes disruption such as having to land the flight early in order to escort the smoker from
the plane.
Airsickness Bag

An airsickness bag (also known as a sick sack, airsick bag, sick bag, barf bag, or
motion sickness bag) is a small bag commonly provided to passengers on board airplanes
and boats to collect and contain vomit in the event of motion sickness. Hovercraft-ferry
operators and even train companies have also been known to supply bags. Pregnant women
with morning sickness and travelers who know they are prone to motion sickness will
sometimes bring their own bags. The plastic-lined airsickness bag was created by inventor
Gilmore Schjeldahl for Northwest Orient Airlines in 1949.
Timatic

Timatic is the database containing cross border passenger documentation
requirements. It is used by airlines to determine whether a passenger can be carried, as
well as by airlines and travel agents to provide this information to travellers at the time of
booking. This is critical for airlines due to fines levied by immigration authorities every
time a passenger is carried who does not have the correct travel documentation.
The information contained in Timatic covers:
1. Passport requirements and recommendations
2.Visa requirements and recommendations
3.Health requirements and recommendations
4.Airport Tax to be paid by the traveller at either departure or arrival airport
5.Customs regulations relating to import/export of goods and small pets by a passenger
6.Currency regulations relating to import and export by a passenger

Timatic was first established in 1963 and is managed by International Air Transport
Association (IATA). Over 60M travellers have their documentation requirements checked
against the Timatic database every year.

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Landing Facilities

An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between
ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from
aircraft. Within the terminal, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, and go
through security. The buildings that provide access to the airplanes (via gates) are typically
called concourses. However, the terms terminal and concourse are sometimes used
interchangeably, depending on the configuration of the airport. Smaller airports have one
terminal while larger airports have several terminals and/or concourses.

At small airports, the single terminal building typically serves all of the functions
of a terminal and a concourse. Some larger airports have one terminal that is connected to
multiple concourses via walkways, sky-bridges, or underground tunnels (such as Denver
International Airport). Some larger airports have more than one terminal, each with one or
more concourses (such as New Yorks JFK Airport). Still other larger airports have multiple
terminals each of which incorporate the functions of a concourse. Due to the rapid rise
in popularity of passenger flight, many early terminals were built in the 1930s1940s and
reflected the popular art deco style architecture of the time. One such surviving example
from 1940 is the Houston Municipal Airport Terminal.

Early airport terminals opened directly onto the tarmac: passengers would walk or
take a bus to their aircraft. This design is still common among smaller airports, and even
many larger airports have bus gates to accommodate aircraft beyond the main terminal.
Pier

A pier design uses a small, narrow building with aircraft parked on both sides. One
end connects to a ticketing and baggage claim area. Piers offer high aircraft capacity and
simplicity of design, but often result in a long distance from the check-in counter to the gate
(up to half a mile in the cases of Kansai International Airport or Lisbon Portela Airports
Terminal 1).
Satellite Terminals

A satellite terminal is a building detached from other airport buildings, so that aircraft
can park around its entire circumference. The first airport to use a satellite terminal was
London Gatwick Airport. It used an underground pedestrian tunnel to connect the satellite
to the main terminal. This was also the first setup at Los Angeles International Airport, but
it has since been converted to a pier layout. The first airport to use an automatic people

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mover to connect the main terminal with a satellite was Tampa International Airport,
which is the standard today.
Semicircular Terminals

Some airports use a semicircular terminal, with aircraft parked on one side and
cars on the other. This design results in long walks for connecting passengers, but greatly
reduces travel times between check-in and the aircraft. Airports designed around this
model include Charles de Gaulle International Airport (terminal 2), Chhatrapati Shivaji
International Airport, Mumbai (terminal 2).

One rarer terminal design is the mobile lounge, where passengers are transported
from the gate to their aircraft in a large vehicle which docks directly to the terminal and
the aircraft. A common-use facility or terminal design disallows airlines to have its own
proprietary check-in counters, gates and IT systems. Rather, check-in counters and gates
can be flexibly reassigned as needed. Many small and mid-size airports have a single two or
three-lane one-way loop road which is used by local private vehicles and buses to drop off
and pick-up passengers.

An international airport may have two grade-separated one-way loop roads, one for
departures and one for arrivals. It may have a direct rail connection by regional rail, light
rail, or subway to the downtown or central business district of the closest major city. The
largest airports may have direct connections to the closest freeway. There will be car rental
agencies and taxi companies operating around the terminals.
Boarding

Boarding is the entry of passengers onto a vehicle, usually in public transportation.
Boarding starts with entering the vehicle and ends with the seating of each passenger and
closure of the doors. The term is used in road, water and air transport. At commercial
airports, a boarding call on the public announcement system asks travelers to proceed
to the exit gate and board the aircraft. This can begin any time from an hour to thirty
minutes before departure (depending on the size of the plane and number of passengers).
For boarding an aircraft, air-stairs or jet-ways are used. Small aircraft may carry their own
stairs.

Airlines control the access to the aircraft by checking passengers boarding passes
and matching them with the list of passengers. Many airlines use the IATA standard Bar
Coded Boarding Passes (BCBP) to automate this process. A 2D bar code is scanned and

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the data are sent to the airlines system to look up the list of passengers. If the passenger is
entitled to board, a positive message is sent back to the airline agent. Boarding in air travel
is supervised by ground personnel. The pilot is responsible for the boarding as soon as the
doors are closed because by law the aircraft is then in flight. After boarding, the taxiing
and takeoff will follow in most cases. Most North American airlines have assigned seating,
but Southwest Airlines does not.

Southwest boards passengers in A, B, and C groups depending on their ticket
purchase date. Across North American airlines, it is standard to allow early boarding for
passengers with mobility impairments, those with small children, and first class passengers.
All airlines allow passengers in premium cabins or with elite status to board earlier, with
some offering it to coach customers for a fee. Several boarding patterns by seating location
are possible:
Back-to-front by row
Outside-in by column (window, middle, aisle)
Block boarding (outside-in within a zone, with zones ordered back-to-front)
Reverse pyramid (combines back-to-front with outside-in)
Rotating zone (alternating back-to-front and front-to-back segments)
Random
Gate

A gate in aviation is a long, movable, bridge that allows passengers to embark and
disembark their aircraft.
Jet-Way Bridges

Air stairs, either built into the aircraft or from a mobile vehicle

Mobile Lounges

Leaving the aircraft via mobile safety steps and walking across the apron into or
from the terminal building. For international airports, certain gates must be configured to
accept arriving international passengers. The configuration varies from airport to airport
but usually, the door leading to the gate is moved further into the terminal, and will open
to a room, where the passengers will pass through on their way to the aircraft. Inside the
room will be an escalator leading to customs and immigration on a different level. When

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the gate is being used for departures or domestic arrivals, the door leading to the waiting
area will be opened and usually the escalators will be blocked off, thus passengers will not
mistakenly wander into customs and immigration. For an international arrival, the door
leading to the waiting area is simply closed, and passengers are directed to the escalators for
immigration/customs.
Jet Bridge
A jet bridge (also termed jet-way, loading bridge, aerobridge / air-bridge, air jetty, portal,
passenger walkway or passenger boarding bridge) is an enclosed, movable connector
which extends from an airport terminal gate to an airplane, allowing passengers to board
and disembark without going outside. Depending on building design, sill heights, fueling
positions and operational requirements, it may be fixed or movable, swinging radially or
extending in length.

Jet-way is a registered trademark of JBT Aero-Tech. However, it is often used in
North American parlance to refer to any jet bridge, regardless of manufacturer. Prior to
the introduction of jet bridges, passengers normally boarded an aircraft by walking along
the ground-level ramp and climbing a set of movable stairs, or up air-stairs on aircraft so
equipped. Mobile staircases or ramp stairs are still employed at many airports around the
world, particularly smaller airports and terminals supporting low cost carriers. The first jet
bridge in the United States was installed on July 29, 1959 at San Francisco International
Airport.
Cabin - Aircraft

An aircraft cabin is the section of an aircraft in which passengers travel. At cruising
altitudes of modern commercial aircraft the surrounding atmosphere is too thin for
passengers and crew to breathe without an oxygen mask, so cabins are pressurized at a
higher pressure than ambient pressure at altitude.

In commercial air travel, particularly in airliners, cabins may be divided into several
parts. These can include travel class sections in medium and large aircraft, areas for flight
attendants, the galley and storage for in-flight service. Seats are mostly arranged in rows
and alleys. The higher the travel class, the more space is provided. Cabins of the different
travel classes are often divided by curtains, sometimes called class dividers though some
airlines will not utilize a curtain between Business and First class. Passengers are not usually
allowed to visit higher travel class cabins in commercial flights.

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Some aircraft cabins contain passenger entertainment systems. Short haul cabins
tend to have no or shared screens whereas long haul flights often contain personal screens
which allow passengers to choose what to watch on their personal screen.
Class of Service

First class is a travel class on some airliners intended to be more luxurious than
business class, premium economy, and economy class. On a passenger jetliner, first class
usually refers to a limited number (rarely more than 20) of seats or cabins toward the front
of the aircraft which have more space, comfort, service, and privacy. Propeller airliners
often had first class in the rear, away from the prop noise. First-class seats vary from
large reclining seats with more legroom and width than other classes to suites with a fully
reclining seat, workstation and TV surrounded by privacy dividers. International first-class
seats usually have between 147239 cm (5894 inches) of seat pitch and between 4889
cm (1935 inches) of width while domestic flights may have between 86173 cm (3468
inches) of pitch and between 4656 cm (1822 inches) in width. In fact this means there is
less discomfort for taller people. Some airlines have first-class seats which allow passengers
to let one guest sit for a short while face-to-face with the occupant of the cabin.
Air India First Suite

First-class passengers usually have at least one lavatory for their exclusive use, with
more than one on larger planes. Business- and economy-class passengers are not normally
permitted in the first-class cabin. Normally AVOD (audiovisual on demand) entertainment
is offered, although sometimes normal films, television programs and interactive games are
provided on medium-large seat-back or armrest-mounted flat panel monitors. Especially
for long-haul and high-yielding routes on top airlines, a first-class seat may have facilities
akin to a five-star hotel, such as a mini-bar.

Recently, some airlines have gone far enough to model their first-class section as
suites. Singapore Airlines now markets its highest class on its A380s as suites, with the
tagline A class above first. The 2 m (78 inches) bed is separate from the seat and folds out
from the back wall, with several other components of the suite lowering to accommodate
the mattress. Windows are built into the doors and blinds offer privacy. Suites located in
the center can form a double bed after the privacy blinds between them are retracted into
the ceiling. Other A380 operators like Emirates also have a suite-like first class with similar
amenities but the bed and chair are integrated where a button is pushed to turn the seat into
a bed in seconds and vice versa.

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First Class

On the ground, first-class passengers usually have special check-in and security zones
at the airport. Some airlines operate private first-class terminals and/or offer international
first class passengers complimentary limousine rides to the airport. While it is typical
that these passengers have lounge access, some airlines have separate lounges for first
and business where the former may have more luxurious amenities. These passengers can
often board the aircraft before other passengers, sometimes through their own jet bridge.
Alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks are complimentary and gourmet meals are usually
served with a choice of wine, dessert, and aperitifs. Often these meals have been designed
by leading chefs and are served on white linen table cloths and with real cutlery (often with
the exception of knives for security reasons). When it comes to mileage, revenue first-class
passengers are entitled to more bonus miles which can make the earning of a free ticket and
other perks (such as a higher tier on a frequent flyer programme) much faster
Business Class

Business class is a travel class available on many commercial airlines and rail lines,
known by brand names which vary by airline or rail company. In the airline industry,
it was originally intended as an intermediate level of service between economy class and
first class, but many airlines now offer business class as the highest level of service, having
eliminated first class seating. Business class is distinguished from other travel classes by the
quality of seating, food, drinks, ground service and other amenities. Full business class is
usually denoted J or C with schedule flexibility, but can be many other letters depending
on circumstances.
Long Haul Business Class

Long haul business class seats are substantially different from economy class seats
and many airlines have installed lie flat seats into business class, whereas previously seats
with such a recline were only available in international first class. There are essentially
three types of long haul business class seats today. These are listed in ascending order of
perceived quality.
Cradle Seats
Cradle Seats are seats with around 160 degrees of recline and substantially more leg
room compared to the economy section. The seat pitch of business class seats range from
3379.5 in (84202 cm) (usually 5562 in (140160 cm)), and the seat size of business class

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seats range from 17.534 in (4486 cm) (usually 2022 in (5156 cm)). Although many
airlines have upgraded their long-haul business class cabins to angled lie flat or fully flat
seats, cradle seats are still common in business class on shorter routes.
Angled Lie Flat Seats
Recline 170 degrees (or slightly less) to provide a flat sleeping surface, but are not
parallel to the floor of the aircraft when reclined, making them less comfortable than a bed.
Seat pitch typically ranges from 55 to 65 in (140 to 170 cm), and seat width usually varies
between 18 to 23 in (46 to 58 cm). These seats first appeared on Northwest, Continental,
JAL, Qantas and several other airlines in 2002 and 2003.
Fully Flat Seats
Recline into a flat sleeping surface which is parallel to the floor. Many airlines
offer such seats in international first class but retain inferior seating in business class to
differentiate the two products and fares. British Airways, which introduced flat beds in first
class in 1995, was among the first airlines to introduce fully flat business class seats with its
Club World product in 1999.
Herringbone Seating
In which seats are positioned at an angle to the direction of travel, is used in some
wide body cabins to allow direct aisle access for each seat and to allow a large number of
fully flat seats to occupy a small cabin space.
The concept was first developed by Virgin Atlantic Airways for its Upper Class
cabin and has since been used by Delta, Cathay Pacific, Air Canada and Jet Airways, among
other airlines.
Cabin Seat
These seats are designed to give the business class traveler the most privacy they
can attain while in flight. These seats are typically positioned in a 1 - 2 - 1 arrangement on
a wide body jet. On each side of the seat is a privacy panel about 4 feet in height. Aircraft
such as this offer the best ergonomic comfort on long haul business class flights. These were
first introduced on US Airways.

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Premium Class

Premium economy is a travel class offered on some airlines, positioned in price,
comfort, and amenities between economy class and business class. In 1991, EVA Air became
the first airline company that has this kind of class in aircraft. As of 2011, the term is not
standardized among airlines, and varies significantly when comparing its use on domestic
versus international flights or when comparing low-cost or regional airlines with other
airliners. Premium economy is sometimes limited to just a bit more leg room, but at its
most comprehensive can feature multiple creature comforts that are only a notch below
Business class. main cabin select includes more amenities such as premium check-in,
large customized seats (some for couples, others targeting solo travelers), seat pitch up to
41 inches (100 cm) with 50% more recline, premium meals, a self-service bar for drinks
and snacks, a personal in-flight entertainment center with remote control, noise-cancelling
headphones and choices in games and movies for children and adults, skin care products in
the lavatory, and an amenities pouch containing items such as socks, sleep masks, earplugs,
and toothbrush.
Economy Class

Economy class, also called coach class, steerage, or standard class, (colloquially:
Cattle class), is the lowest travel class of seating in air travel, rail travel, and sometimes
ferry or maritime travel. Historically, this travel class has been called tourist class on ocean
liners and third class, or even fourth class, on railways. Economy class seats usually recline
and include a fold-down table. The seats pitch range from 29 to 36 inches (74 to 91 cm),
usually 3032 in (7681 cm), and 30 to 36 in (76 to 91 cm) for international economy class
seats. Domestic economy class seat width range is from 17 to 18.25 in (43.2 to 46.4 cm). Full
economy class is usually denoted Y with schedule flexibility, but can be many other letters
depending on circumstances.

A pocket attached to the seat in front will contain an airsickness bag, in-flight
magazine, Duty-Free catalogue and a safety and evacuation card. Depending on the airline,
extras might include a blanket, an amenities bag (e.g. ear plugs, toothpaste, eye mask) and
headphones. In-flight entertainment in economy class is either a main screen mounted
to the aircraft bulkhead providing the same viewing for all cabin passengers or individual
screens for each seat that may show Video on demand. Some low-cost carriers can charge
a fee for headphones. But economy standards vary between carriers. Qantas and Cathay
Pacific offer in-flight audio and visual entertainment and meals on both international and
selected domestic routes to all passengers, including those in economy.

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Availability of food depends on the airline. Some major carriers no longer serve meals
in economy for short haul flights Meals are now only generally provided on international
flights. Some airport vendors have started to offer packaged meals to economy travellers
that can be carried on to flights. Airlines offer a Premium Economy class to passengers
willing to pay more for slightly better seats and, in some cases, better service.
Let Us Sum Up

Aviation provides the only transportation network across the globe and it is crucial
for global business development and tourism enrichment. Just as in any occupation, airline
personnel have tremendous responsibilities on their hands, and any negligent harmful act
can cause financial damage and years of ongoing court battles. Aviation provides the only
worldwide transportation system which makes it essential for global business and tourism.
There are number of tasks carried out during an Aircraft turn round such as loading, and
unloading passenger baggage, safety & security checks, catering replenishment, and the
completion of essential post and pre-flight administration.

Air Traffic Control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who
direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace, and can provide advisory
services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace. Air transport drives economic and social
progress. It connects people, countries and cultures. It provides access to global markets.
It generates trade and tourism. It forges links between developed and developing nations.
Airport check-in uses service counters found at commercial airports handling commercial
air travel. The check-in is normally handled by an airline itself or a handling agent working
on behalf of an airline. First class is a travel class on some airliners intended to be more
luxurious than business class, premium economy, and economy class.
Self Assessment Questions
1. List out and explain the various parts of aircraft.
2. Explain the different types of audio and video projection equipments in an aircraft.
3. Write down the different classes of services in an aircraft.
4. Explain the various emergency equipments used for disembarkation.
5. Who is a Special Passenger? List out the different types of Special Passengers

****

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Unit - III

Airline Code, Tariff, Fare Construction and Principles

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you will be familiar with:
Air Transport in India
Travel & Tourism competitiveness enablers and change drivers
Aviation India
The six freedoms of the air
Official airline guide
Tracing the history of OAG
Three letter city and airport code
A list of civil airport codes of India: major city codes
Minimum connecting time
Global indicators
Familiarisation with air tariff
Airline prices
Currency regulation
NUC conversion factors
Airfare calculation
Planning itinerary by air
Extra Mileage Surcharge (Ems)
Introduction

We must look at the world as it is versus how airlines would like it to be-Robert L.
Crandall
After discussing the concept of tourism, tourist product and its importance as an
industry, we move on to related services and operations in this unit. These services form part
of travel management e.g. modes of transport, accommodation and ticketing. Also there is
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a need to understand different aspects of the travel agency business and tour operation.
Tourism is an economic activity, which involves the movement or travelling from one
region to another for business, pleasure, curiosity, adventure and study purposes. Travel is
like no other industry; it is very complex and can sometimes be difficult to understand. It is,
however, a happy, fun industry, and very rewarding. While rail transport played a crucial
role in the growth and development of inter regional travel, especially within Europe, air
transport on the other hand introduced an entirely new dimension in the introduction of
mass-intercontinental travel. It has certainly been a key factor in the growth of international
travel and tourism. Although commercial air travel was introduced before the Second
World War on a limited scale, air transport for the masses has essentially been a post-war
phenomenon. The principal period of growth was from the late fifties continuing into sixties
when overseas holiday became a systematic benefit of society, experiencing rising living
standards and resulting in disposable incomes for holidays. Air transport is by far the most
effective transport mode. Notably because of prices, only 12.5% of the tourist travel by plane.
Air transport has revolutionized the geographical aspect of distances; the most remote areas
can now be attained, any journey around the world can be measured in terms of hours of
travelling. With jet that can reach up to 1950 km/hrs, international tourism is no longer an
on going adventure. Businesspeople are among the biggest users of airline facilities.
Air Transport in India
Indias booming economy has created a large middle-class population in India. Five
years back, air travel was a dream for the majority of the Indian population. But rapid
economic growth has made air travel more and more affordable in India. Air India, Indias
flag carrier, presently operates a fleet 135 aircraft and plays a major role in connecting
India with the rest of the world. Several other foreign airlines connect Indian cities with
other major cities across the globe. Air Deccan, Jet Airways, Kingfisher Airlines, IndiGo
Airlines and Air India (formerly Indian Airlines, before merging with Air India) are
the most popular brands in domestic air travel in order of their market share. Of these,
Jet, Indian and Kingfisher also operate overseas routes after the liberalization of Indian
Aviation. These airlines connect more than 80 cities across India. However, a large section
of countrys air transport system remains untapped, even though the Mumbai-Delhi air
corridor was ranked 6th by the Official Airline Guide in 2007 among the worlds busiest
routes. Indias vast unutilized air transport network has attracted several investments in
the Indian air industry in the past few years. More than half a dozen low-cost carriers
entered the Indian market in 2004-05. Major new entrants include Air Deccan, Kingfisher
Airlines, Spice Jet, Go Air, Paramount Airways and IndiGo Airlines. To meet Indias rapidly
increasing demand for air travel, Air India recently placed orders for more than 68 jets
from Boeing for 7.5 billion USD while Indian placed orders for 43 jets from Airbus for

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2.5 billion USD. Jet Airways, Indias largest private carrier, has invested billions of dollars
to increase its fleet. This trend is not restricted to traditional air carriers in India. IndiGo
Airlines came into the news with a bang when it announced orders for 100 Airbus A320s
worth 6 billion USD during the Paris Air Show; the highest by any Asian domestic carrier.
Kingfisher Airline became the first Indian air carrier in June 15, 2005 to order Airbus A380
aircraft. The total deal with Airbus was worth 3 billion USD.
Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Enablers and Change Drivers

Each of the following three sub indexes is composed in turn by a number of pillars
of T&T competitiveness, of which there are 14 in all. These are:
1. Policy rules and regulations
2. Environmental sustainability
3. Safety and security
4. Health and hygiene
5. Prioritization of Travel & Tourism
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6. Air transport infrastructure

7. Ground transport infrastructure
8. Tourism infrastructure
9. ICT infrastructure
10. Price competitiveness in the T&T industry
11. Human resources
12. Affinity for Travel & Tourism
13. Natural resources
14. Cultural resources
The tourist industry is based on the travellers means of transport, accommodation
and other related services. It is surprised to know that Travel & Tourism is the worlds largest
foreign exchange earner among the industries and it generates millions of employment
opportunities worldwide; more than any other industry. Travel and tourism is a very wide
industry and it includes Govt. tourism departments, immigration and custom services,
travel agencies, airlines, tour operators, hotels, etc and many associated services such as
airline catering & laundry services, guides, interpreters, tourism promotion and sales etc.

Source: The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2013worlds economic forum page no.4

Aviation provides the only transportation network across the globe and it is crucial
for global business development and tourism enrichment. Air transportation is one of the
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most important services to offer both significant social and economic benefits. By serving
tourism and trade, it contributes to economic growth. It also provides jobs and increases
tax revenues. Air transportation is essential for the fast movement of people and cargo
shipments around the world. Finally, air transportation improves the quality of peoples
lives by broadening their leisure and cultural experiences. it gives a broad choice of holiday
destinations around the world and is an affordable means to visit distant friends and
relatives.
Tourism may involve people travelling within the country i.e. domestic tourism
or travelling to places outside their country of residence i.e. international tourism. Air
travel remains a large and growing industry. It facilitates economic growth, world trade,
international investment and tourism and is therefore central to the globalization taking
place in many other industries. Components of travel and tourism industry: accommodation
(serviced, non-serviced); transport provision (road, rail, sea, air); attractions (natural,
heritage, purpose-built, events); tour operations (mass market, specialist); travel agents
(retail, business, call centre, web-based); tourism development and promotion e.g. tourist
boards; trade associations and regulatory bodies e.g. Association of Independent Tour
Operators; ancillary services e.g. insurance etc. The key organisational aims e.g. to make
profit, maximise sales revenue, increase market share, ensure compliance with regulations;
to provide products and services (to other organisations, for the industry, for customers)
e.g. to put together packages, provide accommodation, provide scheduled flights, provide
sea transport, sell leisure travel products, sell business travel products, promote tourism etc
Businesses and organisations that offer services and facilities to consumers make up
the tourism product in the travel and tourism industry.
Provider is the name given to a business or organisation that offers services or
facilities to a potential or actual visitor.
Providers include:

Travel agencies and tour operators

Caterers and accommodation providers

Transport providers

Providers of activities

Providers of attractions to visit

Entertainment providers

Currency exchange facilities

Tourist information services.

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Aviation in India
Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) is the national regulatory body for
the aviation industry. It is controlled by the Ministry of Civil Aviation. The ministry also
controls aviation related autonomous organizations like the Airports Authority of India
(AAI), Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS), Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Academy
and Public Sector Undertakings including Air India, Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited and
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.
Air India is Indias national flag carrier after merging with Indian Airlines in 2011
and plays a major role in connecting India with the rest of the world. IndiGo, Jet Airways,
Air India, Spicejet and GoAir are the major carriers in order of their market share. These
airlines connect more than 80 cities across India and also operate overseas routes after
the liberalization of Indian aviation. Several other foreign airlines connect Indian cities
with other major cities across the globe. However, a large section of countrys air transport
potential remains untapped, even though the Mumbai-Delhi air corridor was ranked 10th
by Amadeus in 2012 among the worlds busiest routes.
Hindu and Greek mythologies suggest the presence of aero planes in ancient time.
In Greek mythology, Icarus, equipped with wings made of bird feathers held together with
wax failed in his attempt to escape imprisonment because he flew too close to the sun
which melted his wax and he was drowned in the sea. Hindu mythology also mentions
Garuda, who was the vehicle of Vishnu. The Ramayana refers to the Vimana, which brought
back Rama to his capital Ayodhya from Lanka. The sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries
were dangerous times for people dreaming of flying. It was considered as an act against the
law of God. Then there was an accidental discovery of the principle of the balloon. These
crude experiments led to the modern day aviation technology. The credit of developing the
modern aeroplane goes to the Wright Brothers of the United States who made their first
flight in Kitty Hawk, in a power-driven aeroplane on December 17, 1903. Air travel has
become a symbol of economy, speed and comfort as compared to other modes of transport.
The passenger rides comfortably, enjoys good food, wine and music. The aeroplane had a
revolutionary impact on tourism from World War II onwards. The modern era can be termed
the mass air travel era. This has been the most important socio-economic phenomenon. For
international travel, air travel is the second most popular mode of transport, which is next
to automobiles. Air travel is attractive because of its speed and range and also as it offers
status. In the international tourism, air travel has made a most valuable contribution. In
the year 1952, the two-class travel was introduced which was made possible by the larger
capacity of the new aircrafts. This made possible the lowering of airfares. This period was
also remarkable for package holiday around air transport, the model for most of todays

80

global tourism. The beginning of Jet air travel in 1958 added a new dimension to aviation
industry in terms of speed, comfort and efficiency. Thereafter Pan America introduced the
Boeing 707 between Paris and New York. The most significant development during this
period was the development of the concept of inclusive tours in which travellers were
carried on charter flights at rates substantially lower than normal services. The introduction
of Jumbo jets in the year 1970 introduced the phenomenon of mass market and business
tourism. The Jumbo jets made air travel more convenient, comfortable and luxurious. Pan
America and Japan Airlines were among the first to offer to its passengers business class
travel. The seats in this class were wider, giving more space to stretch and relax in comfort,
making long distance less cumbersome.
International Air Transport Association (IATA) regulates international air travel
with its head office in Montreal in Canada. It was established in 1945. IATA regulates
the prices of air tickets in different areas of travel in the world. The IATA decides all
international airfares. The respective governments decide domestic airfares. IATA provides
machinery, which makes the worldwide system of air transportation possible. IATA has
been closely associated with the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), an
inter-government agency established also in 1945 that creates world standards for technical
regulation and standardization of civil aviation.
IATA divides the world into three areas commonly known as IATA Traffic
Conference Areas.
Traffic Conference Area 1- The whole of North and South America and islands
adjacent thereto.
Traffic Conference Area 2- Europe, Africa and islands adjacent thereto.
Traffic Conference Area 3- Asia and islands adjacent thereto except that portion of
Asia already included in area 2 and islands of Pacific Ocean except those included in
Area 1. India is in this traffic area.
The representatives from Great Britain and United States met in the Bermudas in
1946 to develop a compromise between their opposing positions. The agreement reached
between them became a model for all bilateral agreements in later years.
The Six Freedoms of the Air
1. The right to fly across another nations territory.
2. The right to land in another country for non-commercial purposes.

81

3. The right to disembark passengers and cargo that originated in the carriers home
country, in a foreign country.
4. The right to pick up passengers and cargo destined for the carriers home country,
from a foreign country.
5. The right to transport passengers and cargo from one foreign country to another
foreign country.
6. The right of an airline to carry traffic from a foreign country to the home nation of
that airline and beyond to another foreign country.
As the popularity of business class travel grew, another class, Executive Class was
introduced in 1975. New wide-bodied jets like Boeing 747, the Mc Donnel Douglas DC 10,
and Airbus A300 are all part of response to the requirements of the ever-growing transport
market. 747 Boeing Jumbo jets offered 800 seats in 1990s, which is another unique event in
aviation industry. The sky train concept is the latest innovation.
Air travel is a form of travel in vehicles such as airplanes, helicopters, hot air
balloons, blimps, gliders, hang gliding, parachuting, or anything else that can sustain flight.
Use of air travel has greatly increased in recent decades - worldwide it doubled
between the mid-1980s and the year 2000. Air travel can be separated into two general
classifications: national/domestic and international flights.
Flights from one point to another within the same country are called domestic
flights. Flights from a point in one country to a point within a different country are known
as international flights. Travel class on an airplane is usually split into a two, three or four
class model sevens. US Domestic flights usually have two classes: Economy Class and a
Domestic First Class partitioned into cabins.
International flights may have up to four classes: Economy Class or Economy;
Business or Club Class; and First Class. Most air travel starts and ends at a commercial
airport.
The typical procedure is check-in; border control; airport security baggage and
passenger check before entering the gate; boarding; flying; and pick-up of luggage and limited to international flights - another border control at the host countrys border. A
simplistic structure of the tourism industry can be suggested by way of a framework as in
the following illustration.

82

(Source: Karma, K.K.M.Chand, 2006 Basis of tourism theory, operation and practice, Kanishka publishers).

Growing air travel is evident due initiatives taken by different sector. The following
figure illustrates the percent annual growth is forecast for international travel spend
(2010-20)

Source: World travel and tourism Council, CWI Travel Management Institute.

83

The priorities listed for the development of Air tourism all over the world can be
found with following:

Key Trends and Developments in Indian Tourism

Devaluation of local currency will hinder the growth of outbound tourism

Government continues to promote travel and tourism

Lifestyle changes help to drive travel and tourism

Ministry of Civil Aviation allows 49% foreign direct investment in aviation

Ministry of Tourism and state tourism boards continue to promote tourism

aggressively

Movies and social media websites became popular media for marketing

New marketing strategies drive travel and tourism

Online channel drives travel retail

Rising airport and fuel taxes increase the cost of flight tickets

Tourists prefer budget travel options

Young urban consumers start to take up travelling as a lifestyle choice

84

Familiarization With OAG

OAG provide us with the most flexible range of data and analytics products
available in the market. As a world class airport we need to use accurate and reliable
worldwide data - OAG delivers that for us.-Sydney Airport
Official Airline Guide [OAG] is a global flight information and data solutions
company for the passenger aviation, air cargo logistics and business travel markets. It
brings together buyers and sellers of air travel and transport through the management
and distribution of airline product information; the supply of corporate travel planning
tools; and the promotion of travel and transport products. OAG offers a range of data and
analytical tools that can help support the needs of both passenger and cargo operations
teams. OAG supplies flight information to the worlds leading Global Distribution Systems
(GDS), e-portals and hosted airline reservations systems. In addition we have a portfolio of
OAG branded travel planning services which reach a lucrative global audience of frequent
travellers. OAG have years of experience in the compilation and analysis of aviation data
and can give an airlines planning teams accurate facts and results to make decision making
easier and quicker. OAG offers a range of solutions that can help you maximize these
benefits. It is believed Customer Service is a vital part of any airlines operations. OAG can
provide solutions to support your service offering and increase the ability of passengers
to access information remotely. OAG is at the interface between airline companies and
flight ticket selling systems. The OAG database contains the flight schedules of all airline
companies that submit their schedules to OAG. This flight database contains current and
detailed information about past and planned flights, especially types of aircraft and cargo
or seat capacities. The process for acceptance of schedules in the database is as follows:
Airlines send their flight schedules to OAG in intervals that they determine (daily, weekly
or monthly, etc.). Data undergoes quality control at OAG and is then accepted in the
database captured in standardized format, and distributed worldwide to global computer
reservation systems of travel agencies and airlines, online booking platforms, industry
analysts, publishers, government agencies and service providers of the aviation industry.
The service is free of charge for airlines. The enticement for the airline companies to submit
their flight schedules comes from the associated marketing vehicle for their flight capacities.
Official Airline Guides (OAG)
It contains current Domestic and international cargo flight schedules, including
freighter, wide body and combination passenger-cargo flights. Each monthly issue also
contains information on air carriers special services, airline and aircraft decoding, airport
codes, air carrier and freight forwarders directory, customs information, glossary of ULD

85

terms and information, cargo charter airlines, interline air freight agreements, aircraft
loading charts and more.
Official Airline Guide (OAG)
OAG operates globally in three vertical sectors: Aviation, Cargo and Travel.
The Specialties includes: Aviation Data, Travel Planning Tools, Aviation Analysis,
Passenger and Cargo Flight Schedules. OAG holds a breadth of aviation, cargo and
travel related content and is best known for its airline schedules database. This feeds the
worlds global distribution systems and travel portals, and drives the internal systems
of many airlines, air traffic control systems, aircraft manufacturers, airport planners
and government agencies. Every ten seconds a flight is updated on the OAG system.
The OAG contains information about flight schedules and frequencies for
airlines throughout the world. The OAG includes information like:
(i)

Air Carrier- Indicates the airline that operates the service between the
airport pairs.

(ii)

Origin Airport - The originating point of the flight.

(iii)

Destination Airport - The endpoint of the flight.

(iv)

Airtime - Time spent in air.

(v)

Ground time - Time spent on the ground including waiting and transfer
times at airports.

(vi)

Seats - Number of available seats in the flight.

(vii)

Distance - Flight distance in miles.

(viii) Frequency - Number of flights between the origin and destination during
the considered time interval.
(ix)

Aircraft type - The name and model of aircraft that was flown between the
origin and destination airports.

Tracing the History of OAG

The forerunner of the OAG began in 1929 as The Official Airline Guide with 24
pages of airline schedules. Since those early days, weve experience quite a few changes. A
Washington, D.C. firm, American Aviation Publications, bought and merged The Official
Guide of the Airways with their own Universal Airline Schedule to form the Official Airline
86

Guide. The guide made its first appearance under the new name in September of 1948.
In 1962, the publications, North American Edition, International Edition, Travel Planer
and Air Travel Magazine, were purchased from American Aviation Publication by R.H.
Donnelley (RHD), a subsidiary of the Dun & Bradstreet Corp., and our company became
know as the Transpiration Guides and Service Division of RHD.
During a re-organization of the D&B corporate structure in 1979, OAG officially
became a separate company of D&B as Official Airline Guides, Inc. While still part of RHD,
OAG moved in 1969 from the original offices in downtown Chicago to Oak Brook, Illinois,
where our Transportation Guides Division is now based. In 1972, the magazine publishing
portion of our business became a separate division, Travel Magazines, and its main office was
established in New York City. The company has offices in Washington, D.C., Los Angeles,
San Francisco, Chicago, and London. When OAG moved to Oak Brook in 1969, there
were approximately 200 people in the entire company. Today, our two divisions employ
more than a thousand people in management, sales and marketing, operations, research,
magazine reporting, editorial support, data processing and administrative services.
The business is underpinned by its data management expertise. OAG holds a breadth
of aviation, cargo and travel related content and is best known for its airline schedules
database. This feeds the worlds global distribution systems and travel portals, and drives
the internal systems of many airlines, air traffic control systems, aircraft manufacturers,
airport planners and government agencies. Every ten seconds a flight is updated on the OAG
system. OAG publishes the Official Airline Guide and a variety of airline schedule databases
and provides airline data to the CRSs and airlines, including customized timetables and
market analysis of flight schedules and related data.
OAG is organized into three customer-facing channels: OAG Aviation, OAG Cargo
and OAG Travel.
(a) OAG Aviation

It offers airline schedules distribution; real time flight status information; timetables;
code share synchronization and flight connection marketing. OAG utilizes its databases to
provide market intelligence on aircraft fleets, capacity supply, traffic demand, financial
and operating performance, and MRO (maintenance, repair & overhaul) forecasting. Its
customers include airlines, airports, travel distributors, aircraft manufacturers, financial
institutions, government agencies and aviation service providers.

87

(b) OAG Cargo

OAG Cargo delivers decision support tools that can be integrated into an
organizations workflow to optimize the planning of shipments by air. It sells stuff for
routing and shipment planning; dangerous goods regulations and compliance information;
real-time access to air freight rates and schedule data; operational announcement services;
cargo tracking and analysis solutions and multi-media cargo schedule products. Its
customers include freight forwarders, airlines and logistics providers.
(c ) OAG for the Traveller
OAG for the Traveller provides comprehensive and unbiased online, mobile and
print planning tools for travel arrangers and travellers. Whether youre an on-line travel
agent, looking to gain competitive advantage by selling new routes as soon as the flight
schedules become available, a network planner requiring in-depth route analysis and airline
route maps or a start-up company looking for pay as you go flight status data - OAG has
the solution for you. Whether you are looking for aviation data for your products, flight
schedules or flight status information to run your systems or real-time distribution to your
sales channels, OAG has the right solution for every business.
Thus, OAG has served Airlines, Airports, Travellers and the wider Aviation Industry
for over 70 years setting the benchmark for the collection and distribution of the most
comprehensive and accurate flight information. We bring a combination of schedules
expertise, innovative technology, publishing expertise and industry knowledge which is
unrivalled in our market. Airlines vary enormously from major global carriers to regional
and commuter operators. And every Airline has its own individual needs and priorities.
This guide outlines the services OAG can offer to support the different functions and
teams within airlines; Passenger and Cargo Operations; Distribution; Network Planning;
Alliance and Airline Partnerships; Passenger Services and Marketing and Promotion. In
todays competitive climate, having effective code share agreements are critical to extend
your airlines reach and capture incremental revenue. OAGs understanding of shared
operations is second to none and we have a number of services that can help ensure your
passengers receive accurate and consistent flight information, no matter which partner
airline they choose to fly. This aggregated data feeds the worlds global distribution systems
and travel portals, and drives the internal systems of many airlines, air traffic control
systems, aircraft manufacturers, airport planners and government agencies around the
world.

88

For many years in India, air travel was perceived to be a luxury. In recent years
however, the market has undergone rapid growth and aviation is now viewed in a different
light, as an essential link not only for international travel and trade but also for an increasing
VFR market as the population grows.
Indias aviation industry is expanding rapidly but the growth has its limits, where
airlines contend with insufficient infrastructure and challenging political bureaucracy. It is
estimated that in the next decade, India will need three times the number of airports that
it has today.
Indian Top 10 Domestic Carriers

Indian Top 10 domestic carriers by capacity (to/from)

Carrier

Source: OAG Schedules

iNet

Scheduled capacity 2011

Aircraft in service 2011

Jet Airways India Ltd

18,854,143

92

Air India

16,502,264

34

IndiGo

16,323,480

44

Kingfisher Airlines

13,927,206

63

SpiceJet

13,000,176

34

Kingfisher Red Service

7,658,413

Jetliner

6,238,531

19

Go Air

4,854,432

10

Indian Airlines

2,083,302

84

Air India Express

2,075,791

21

89

Middle East top 10 International Carriers

Middle East Top 10 international
carriers by capacity (to/from)

Source: OAG
Schedules iNet

Scheduled
capacity 2011

Aircraft in
service 2011

Turkish Airlines

33,227,912

154

Emirates Airlines

22,521,212

156

Saudi Arabian Airlines

21,001,427

134

Qatar Airways

13,744,363

99

El Al Airlines

2,621,367

44

Etihad Airways

7,399,040

59

Gulf Air

5,441,356

35

Iran Air

5,088,289

50

Flydubai

4,647,888

17

Iran Asseman Airlines

4,522,933

39

Carrier

Source: OAG Schedules iNet and Fleet iNet

Three Letter City and Airport Code

In aviations early days, airlines simply used the local weather stations two letter
code combinations. In the 1930s, the rapid boom of the aviation industry taxed the two
letter code designators prompting existing airports to add a third letter (most commonly
the letter X) to expand the pool of airport designators. At present, a lot of two and three
letter codes are used in the travel industry. Airports, cities, airlines, car companies, and
hotels are identified by a two or three letter code. In this section, we would familiarize with
city and airport codes. A volume of traffic and flights are monitored by Traffic Controllers
every day. Tons of cargo and baggage are tagged and carried by baggage handlers day in
and day out. In addition to maintaining this data, there are millions of flight data processed
by pilots, travel and airline agents daily. It therefore makes the use of codes convenient and
efficient. For example, truncating Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport or Detroit
to DTW. There are three different ways that city / airport codes can be derived:
The first 3 letters of the city
3 letters taken from the city and/or state
3 letters partially derived from the city name or the airport name.

90

Every airline in the world has a unique two letter code (some are one letter and
one number) assigned by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) to identify
its flights, tickets and other commercial documents. Many airlines have now entered into
agreements whereby they share these codes, and usually coordinate their schedules as
well. The result is that each airline can offer its passengers more destinations, and a more
convenient routing to those destinations, than would be possible for either one of them
alone. The motive, of course, is to control that traffic by keeping it within the joint system
and avoid losing passengers that are going to points outside the route network of one or the
other of the partners. In airline geography, all countries cities and airports have been given
three letters ISO code by IATA. Table gives examples of city codes
Cities / Countries and their Codes
City

Country Code

Bombay

BOM

Delhi

DEL

Frankfurt

FRA

Hong Kong

HKG

India

IND

London

LON

Madrid

MAD

Mexico City

MEX

Rome

ROM

Sydney

SYD

Tokyo

TYO

Toronto

YYZ

The airline code number forms the first three digits of the document number shown
on the passenger ticket and excess baggage ticket. Some major international carrier and
Airline codes are given in the following table.
Carrier And Airline Codes
Carrier Code

Names Of Airlines

Airline Code

Af

Air France

057

Ai

Air India Ltd

098

Ba

British Airways

125

91

Cx

Cathy Pacific Airways

160

Jl

Japan Airways

131

Nz

Air New Zealand

086

Os

Austrian Airlines

257

Sr

Swiss Air

085

IATA airline designators, sometimes called IATA reservation codes, are twocharacter codes assigned by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) to the
worlds airlines in accordance with the provisions of IATA Resolution 762. They form the
first two characters of the flight number. Designators are used to identify an airline for all
commercial purposes, including reservations, timetables, tickets, tariffs, air waybills, and
in airline interline telecommunications. There are three types of designator: unique, alpha/
numeric, and controlled duplicate. IATA maintains two policies to deal with the limited
number of available codes:
1. After an airline is de-listed, the code becomes available for reuse after six months;
2. IATA issues controlled duplicates.
Controlled duplicates are issued to regional airlines whose destinations are not likely
to overlap, in such a way that the same code would be shared by two different airlines.
City & Airport Codes examples
Each city with an airport has a 3-letter IATA code that is used in reservation
messages, fares and ticketing. Often, the first three letters of the city name are used, e.g.
ATH is ATHENS; SIN is Singapore; DEN is DENVER
Some codes are instantly recognisable, even when the first three letters are not used.
E.g. NBO is NAIROBI, HKG is HONG KONG some codes is difficult to remember, in
particular the Canadian city codes. E.g. (All Canadian city codes start with a Y) YMQ is
MONTREAL, YEA is EDMONTON
The ICAO airline designator is a code assigned by the International Civil Aviation
Organization to aircraft operating agencies, aeronautical authorities, and services. The codes
are unique by airline which is not true for the IATA airline designator codes. Each aircraft
operating agency, aeronautical authority, and services related to international aviation is
allocated both a three-letter designator and a telephony designator. The designators are
listed in ICAO Document 8585: Designators for Aircraft Operating Agencies, Aeronautical

92

Authorities and Services.

An example is:
Three-letter designator AAL
Telephony designator AMERICAN
Operator American Airlines
Certain combinations of letters are not allocated to avoid confusion with other
systems (for example SOS). Other designators (particularly those starting with Y and Z) are
reserved for government organizations.

Designator YYY is used for operators that do not have a code allocated.

For example code, city, Airport and corresponding country name listed hereunder.
More you see in annexure A at the end of this unit.
Code City

Airport

Country

SAA

Saratoga, WY

Shively

USA

SAB

Saba Island

J. Yrausquin

Netherlands Antilles

SAC

Sacramento, CA

Executive

USA

SAD

Safford, AZ

Safford

USA

SAE

Sangir

Sangir

Indonesia

SAF

Santa Fe, NM

Santa Fe

USA

SAG

Sagwon, AK

Sagwon

USA

SAH

Sanaa

Sanaa International

Yemen

SAI

San Marino

San Marino

San Marino

SAJ

Sirajganj

Sirajganj

Bangladesh

SAK

Saudarkrokur

Saudarkrokur

Iceland

SAL

San Salvador

Comalapa International

El Salvador

A List of Civil and Defence Airport Codes of India: Major City Codes
All the major airports have a unique three letter airport code to identify them. An old
airline system, it is used for a variety of purposes. Airline personnel are able to read tickets
with the abbreviated code at a glance much easier than they would if the full airport and city
name were listed. This allows them to keep the line moving quickly. Baggage handlers too

93

can quickly identify where a checked bags needs to be, based on the bag tag information. Its
all about getting you and your luggage to the same destination at the same time, as quickly
as possible.
1. Mumbai Chattrapathi Shivaji International Airport [ Code BOM ]
2. Bangalore Bengaluru International Airport [ Code BLR ]
3. Hyderabad Rajiv Gandhi International Airport [ Code HYD ]
4. Chennai Meenambarkkam International Airport [ Code MAA ]
5. Kolkata Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport [ Code CCU ]
6. New Delhi Indira Gandhi International Airport [ Code DEL ]
A List of Civil and Defence Airport Codes of India

City

State/Region

Airport

Airport
Code

Agartala

Tripura

Agartala Singerbhil

IXA

Agra

Uttar Pradesh

Agra Airport

AGR

Ahmedabad

Gujarat

Ahmedabad Airport

AMD

Allahabad

Uttar Pradesh

Allahabad Bamrauli

IXD

Amritsar

Punjab

Amritsar Raja Sansi Airport

ATQ

Aurangabad

Maharashtra

Chikalthan

IXU

Bagdogra

Sikkim

Bagdogra Airport

IXB

Bangalore

Karnataka

Bangalore Airport

BLR

Bhavnagar

Gujarat

Bhavnagar Civil Airport

BHU

Bhopal

Madhya Pradesh

Bhopal Airport

BHO

Bhubaneswar

Orissa

Bhubaneswar Airport

BBI

Bhuj

Gujarat

Bhuj Rudra Mata Airport

BHJ

Calcutta (Kolkata)

West Bengal

Netaji S C Bose International

Airport

CCU

Chandigarh

Chandigarh

Chandigarh Airport

IXC

Chennai(Madras)

Tamil Nadu

Menmbarkam Airport

MAA

Cochin

Kerala

Cochin Airport

COK

Coimbatore

Coimbatore

Coimbatore Peelamedu Airport

CJB

Daman

Daman

Daman Airport

NMB

Dehradun

Uttar Pradesh

Dehradun Grant Airport

DED

94

Dibrugarh

Assam

Dibrugarh Airport

DIB

Dimapur

Nagaland

Dimapur Airport

DMU

Diu

Daman and Diu

Diu Airport

DIU

Gauhati

Assam

Gauhati Borjhar

GAU

Goa

Goa

Dabolim Airport

GOI

Gwalior

Madhya Pradesh

Gwalior Airport

GWL

Hubli

Karnataka

Hubli Airport

HBX

Hyderabad

Andhra Pradesh

Begumpet Airport

HYD

Imphal

Manipur

Imphal Municipal Airport

IMF

Indore

Madhya Pradesh

Indore Airport

IDR

Jaipur

Rajasthan

Jaipur Airport

JAI

Jammu

Jammu & Kashmir Jammu Airport

IXJ

Jamnagar

Gujarat

Govardhanp Airport

JGA

Jamshedpur

Jharkhand

Jamshedpur Sonari Airport

IXW

Jodhpur

Rajasthan

Jodhpur Airport

JDH

Jorhat

Assam

Rowriah Airport

JRH

Kanpur

Utter Pradesh

Kanpur Airport

KNU

Khajuraho

Madhya Pradesh

Khajuraho Airport

HJR

Kozhikode (Calicut) Airport

CCJ

Kozhikode (Calicut) Kerala

Leh

Jammu & Kashmir Leh Airport

IXL

Lucknow

Utter Pradesh

Amausi Airport

LKO

Ludhiana

Punjab

Ludhiana Sahnewal

LUH

Madurai

Tamil Nadu

Madurai Airport

IXM

Mangalore

Karnataka

Mangalore Bajpe Airport

IXE

Mumbai (Bombay)

Maharashtra

C S M International Airport

BOM

Nagpur

Maharashtra

Sonegaon Airport

NAG

Nanded

Maharashtra

Nanded Airport

NDC

Nasik

Maharashtra

Gandhi Nagar Airport

ISK

New Delhi

Delhi

Indira Gandhi International

Airport

DEL

Patna

Bihar

Patna Airport

PAT

Pondicherry

Union
(UT)

Poona (Pune)

Maharashtra

Territory Pondicherry Airport

Lohegaon Airport

95

PNY
PNQ

Porbandar

Gujarat

Porbandar Airport

PBD

Port Blair

Andaman
and Port Blair Airport
Nicobar Islands

IXZ

Puttaparthi

Andhra Pradesh

Puttaparthi Airport

PUT

Rae Bareli

Uttar Pradesh

Rae Bareli Airport

BEK

Rajkot

Gujarat

Rajkot Airport

RAJ

Ranchi

Jharkhand

Ranchi Airport

IXR

Shillong

Meghalaya

Shillong Barapani Airport

SHL

Silchar

Mizoram

Kumbirgram Airport

IXS

Srinagar

J&K

Srinagar Airport

SXR

Surat

Gujrat

Surat Airport

STV

Tezpur

Assam

Tezpur Airport

TEZ

Tiruchirapally

Tamil Nadu

Tiruchirapalli Airport

TRZ

Tirupati

Andhra Pradesh

Tirupati Airport

TIR

Trivandrum

Kerala

Trivandrum International Airport

TRV

Udaipur

Rajasthan

Udaipur Airport

UDR

Vadodara

Gujarat

Vadodara Airport

BDQ

Varanasi

Utter Pradesh

Babatpur Airport

VNS

Vijayawada

Andhra Pradesh

Vijayawada Airport

VGA

Vishakhapatnam

Andhra Pradesh

Vishakhapatnam Airport

VTZ

Minimum Connecting Time

There is no single definition of air transport connectivity. However, connectivity
is a property of a network and can be defined in such a way as to constitute an indicator
of the networks concentration. Therefore, connectivity is the ability of a network to move
a passenger from one point to another with the lowest possible number of connections
and without an increase in fare, focusing on, from a commercial perspective, minimum
connecting times with maximum facilitation ultimately resulting in benefits to air transport
users. It can be defined as The amount of time, agreed in advance between airlines and
airport authorities, that is considered sufficient for a passenger to make a connection between
an arriving flight and a departing flight The legally defined minimum time necessary to
change planes at a given airport. The airlines serving a particular airport determine this
specific standard period required to make a connecting flight. This broad definition of air
transport connectivity illustrates that there are several factors which enable connectivity,
from availability of air transport services and airline practices, to security and facilitation
procedures
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A Minimum Connecting time (MCT) interval is defined as the shortest time interval
required in order to transfer a passenger and his luggage from one flight to a connecting
flight, in a specific location or metropolitan area. In a cargo context, the MCT can be
defined as the shortest time interval required in order transferring cargo shipment from
one flight to a connecting flight. MCT intervals are also referred to as official or standard
MCTs. Bilateral MCT agreements, and online connecting time intervals established by a
carrier that differ from the industry MCTs, are known as MCT exceptions. MCTs must
be observed by all ticketing and reservations outlets all over the world and also are used as
input for automated reservations systems.
Minimum connecting time is the standard time period required to make a connecting
flight in a particular airport, determined by the airlines serving it. Every commercial
airport in the world has whats known as a minimum connection time (MCT). MCT is
the amount of time the airport has determined is the absolute least amount of time an
able bodied person needs to make a connection to a continuing flight. The time period is
chosen bearing in mind variables like airport layout, security and whether the connection is
between combinations of international and domestic flights. Most online booking engines
and airline websites will not offer flights with layovers that break the minimum connection
time rule. When booking a series of one-way flights on your own, however, it is possible
to arrange a connection that does not meet this requirement. If you miss a flight with a
connection that does not meet the MCT, airlines will generally not offer assistance such as a
free seat on the next flight or pay restitution, monetarily or otherwise. In other words, if the
tickets you put together dont meet the MCT and you miss your continuing flight, youre
on your own to get to your final destination.
Simply, minimum connection time (MCT) is the time allowed for a passenger to
change from one aircraft to another on a connecting flight. It is decided by the International
Air Transport Association and most airports take no responsibility for the accuracy of this
information. It is only applicable for people who have booked a connecting flight and have
checked their luggage all the way through to their final destination. The word allowed in
the definition above is not necessarily the time it will take you to disembark, collect your
luggage, make a quick bathroom stop, pass through security and get to the boarding gate
it is the shortest time needed to connect to your second flight.
For example: The minimum connecting times apply only when all flights have been
issued on the same ticket. In case you have flights on separate tickets, you need to reserve a
significantly longer time for transfer.

97

Transfer times at Helsinki Airport listed below are relatively short compared to
other major European airports. Connecting times for other airlines and destinations may
vary.
Minimum Connecting Times Between Flights at Helsinki Airport
Flights within Finland

2535 minutes

Flights within the Schengen area

35 minutes

Flights from a Schengen area to a non-Schengen area 40 minutes

Leisure flight to any other flight

75 minutes

On leisure flights, your baggage will be checked through to your final destination
when the connecting time between flights is at least 75 minutes. At Helsinki Airport,
passengers can contact Finnair Transfer Services, where they will be checked in for
connecting flights within Finland.
If we see the airline practices some of them are: Network carriers generally offer
scheduled flights to major domestic and international cities while also serving smaller
cities; the carriers normally concentrate most of the operations in a limited number
of hub cities, serving most other destinations in the network by providing one-stop or
connecting service through the hubs. An efficient utilization of the hub allows airlines to
offer better connectivity. The hub and spoke model is a system which enhances efficiency
in transportation by greatly simplifying a network of routes. Many airlines supplement the
hub and spoke model with code shares, partner flights, or a small commuter airline. It
should be noted that the way in which airlines price tickets can also impact connectivity,
notably in the case of transit by flight stage; if a trip is sold by flight stage as opposed
to origin to destination (i.e. two tickets rather than one ticket), there can be significant
increases in transit times, hence a loss of connectivity.
Global Indicators
The global indicator is shown in the fare rule display and the specific airline fares
display. The indicator shows the direction of travel between the origin and destination. For
instance, a fare can be published from San Francisco to Singapore with a global indicator of
PA, for travel via the Pacific. A fare from Atlanta to Paris can have a global indicator of AT
to specify travel via the Atlantic. The global indicator can be defined as:
a code that appears next to the fare and tells what route travel must take

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Most fares have a single global indicator; however, multiple global indicators do
exist. It helps to understand worldwide features across airline routes:
Major international routes across the three IATA areas and their sub-areas
Global features (continents, hemispheres, significance of lines of latitude and
longitude, time zones, oceans)
Global indicators, e.g. Routing and impact on mileage and fare, potential stopovers
Political features on maps (boundaries, countries, capital cities, hubs and major
airports)
Physical features on maps (mountain ranges, deserts, tundra, ice caps, major forests,
seas, rivers, lakes)
You will find that there are seven global indicators and these are used in the airline
industry to help mark which areas the baggage has come from. The 7 global indicators are
as follows:
1. Atlantic Route (AT)-This indicator is used when a journey has been made from an
IATA area 1 and 2 and came via the Atlantic Ocean.
2. Atlantic and Pacific Route (AP)-This covers any journeys that are made from an
IATA area 2 and 3 and came via the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean.
3. Eastern Hemisphere (EH) -This covers any journeys that are made from an IATA
area within 2 and 3 or between 2 and 3.
4. Western Hemisphere (WH) -This covers any journeys that are made from an IATA
in area 1.
5. Trans Siberian Route (TS)-This covers any journeys that are made from Europe to
the Far East via Moscow.
6. Pacific Route (PA)-This covers any journeys that are made from an IATA area 1 and
3 and came via the Pacific Ocean.
7. Polar Route (PO)-This covers any journeys that are made from Europe to the Far
East via Alaska.
This coding can be very useful for airports when sorting tickets and baggage and
certainly for tracking any lost items.

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Familiarisation With Air Tariff

It is necessary for a travel agent to use several airlines to complete a trip. It is
essential for him to know the geographical region and major route structure because no
airline services every city. Airlines and travel agencies should have a complete set of all
tariffs with latest revisions at all offices. India doesnt have very long history of airline
regulations before 1952- 53, when the Air India and Indian Airlines Act were passed. The
Civil Aviation Authority established that airlines should be regulated, passengers should be
charged reasonably and their handling should be safe and uniform.
Each airline has to convince the Civil Aviation Authority that it is capable of
performing the transportation and provide services convenient to public, to get the
certificate from Authority. There is a tariff structure or guidelines to establish passenger
rules and fares. Once a fare is approved between two cities that becomes the only legal fare
the airline can charge. Airlines and travel agencies must have complete copy of all tariffs
at all offices where air tickets are being sold. Also it is essential to review and revise them
promptly. The different fare can be seen below:
1. Normal fare tickets which are usually refundable, re-routable and have no expiry
dates. Travel agents earn commissions from airlines through the sale of these tickets.
The commission rates given to the ticketing consolidators are more favourable when
compared with those given to IATA agents
2. Special fare tickets which have a number of restrictions in terms of routes or expiry
dates. The airline has set a price and the ticketing consolidator marks up the price
for sale to customers.
3. Group tickets allocated to ticketing consolidators in particular during peak
seasons as an incentive to them. Group tickets with specified seats for the ticketing
consolidators ordinary use when operating tours. During peak seasons, the airlines
may allocate a slot of group tickets to the consolidators for incentive purpose.
To attract more passengers airlines are offering cheaper promotional fares such as
Excursion Fares and Group fares:
1. Excursion Fares: These are provided to the tourists on the basis of round trip journey
and have conditions of minimum and maximum stay, restricted to one airline,
cancellation fees, weekend travel purchase and so on. Some excursions also give
seven day to twenty-day advance purchase requirements. These fares are discounted
by twenty to forty per cent below the normal economy fare. The passenger must

100

spend at least 10 days in the country where he is going. Such restriction is applied to
discourage the business executives from using cheap excursion fares.
2. Group Fares: Group fares are applicable to groups and are discounted by 20 to 40
percent. There are three types of group fares: (i)

 roup Inclusive Tour (GIT) Fare-Such fares are designed for group travel
G
subject to certain conditions. GIT 4 fare requires at least four passengers to
travel together.

(ii) I ncentive Tour Fare: A special fare designed for incentive groups where one
organization pays for the entire trip.
(iii) A
 ffinity Group Fare: This fare is used when a corporation or an organization
pays for its employees or members to travel to a meeting, a convention or
a conference. The airlines have two basic types of services- scheduled and
chartered services. While the scheduled services operate as per timetable,
chartered services operate like taxi services. Chartered flights are able to offer
cheaper fares because they carry fully loaded flights both ways.
Aviation achievements are impressive and even more remarkable considering the
brief time span involved. On the operational side, Indian Airlines (Government owned)
and some other private airlines like Spice jet, Jet airway, Kingfisher, Air Deccan and so on
are providing domestic services. Air India provides international air services.
Airline Prices
Pricingrefers to the process of determining fare levels, combined with various
service amenities and restrictions, for a set of fare products in an origindestination market.
Revenue Management is the subsequent process of determining how many seats to make
available at each fare level. Regulated Pricing the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) used a
mileagebased formula to ensure equal prices for equal distances. It is possible that low
volume OD markets are more costly to serve per passenger basis will see higher prices than
high-density OD markets, even if similar distances are involved. In practice, most airline
pricing strategies reflect a mix of these theoretical principles for determining prices to
charge in an OD market, airlines can utilize one of following economic principles:
1. Cost based pricing
2. Demand based pricing
3. Service based pricing

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Price Discrimination Vs Product Differentiation

Price discrimination: The practice of charging different prices for same product
with same costs of production
Based solely on different consumers willingness to pay.
Product Differentiation
Charging different prices for products with different characteristics and costs of
production. Current airline fare structures reflect both strategies: Differential Pricing based
on differentiated fare products. But higher prices for fare products targeted at business
travellers are clearly based on their willingness to pay
Factors Affecting the Price
Type of Journey
1. One way
2. Round trip
3. Circle trip
4. Open jaw
Type of Flight
1. Non-stop
2. Direct
3. Interline connect
4. Online connection
5. Stopover.
Different Types of Trips
A trip is an entire flight itinerary and all of the flights in that itinerary. A segment, or
leg, is a portion of a journey between two consecutive stops. One itinerary can have many
segments, or it can have only one.

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Lets take a look at the different types of trips.

1. One-Way Trip A trip that begins in one city and ends in another.

MIA TPA

Basic fare construction

One way steps and application
1. FCP Establish the fare construction point or Fare break points
2. NUC Take the OW Neutral unit of construction from the origin to the destination
of the fare component using the correct Global Indicator ( Check the fare rules and
ensure that the itinerary satisfies all conditions, collect stopover/transfer charges-if
any )
3. SR Check out if the fare component qualifies as a specified routing. If it is. Ignore
the mileage system and take the NUC as the applicable Fare ( AF)
4. MPM Establish the maximum permitted Mileage between the fare construction
points of the fare component following the same global Indicator as that used in the
NUC (refer PAT Passenger Air Tarrif )
5. TPM Add up the Ticketed Point Mileage of each sector and compare the total
TPM to the MPM (refer PAT Passenger Air Tarrif )
6. EMA Deduct the extra Mileage Allowance, if any from the total TPM (refer PAT
Passenger Air Tarrif )
7. EMS if the EMA is insufficient or not applicable, determine the Excess Mileage
Surcharge (%) by dividing the TPM by the MPM. Take the result up to 5 decimals
(refer PAT Passenger Air Tarrif )
8. HIP Look for the Higher Intermediate Point fare from
a. Unit origin to intermediate stopover point
b. Intermediate stopover point to another
c. Intermediate stopover point to the unit destination

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(Check the rules to ensure that the fare qualifies as an HIP, do not collect any
additional stopover/transfer charges)
Get the applicable one way (OW) through fare in NUC using above steps.
9. BHC Apply the Backhaul check when there is a fare from unit origin to intermediate
stopover point is higher than the fare from unit origin to unit destination.
a. Calculation:
HI fare unit of origin to intermediate stopover point
Less (-) LO fare unit origin to unit destination
Equal (=) OWM OW minimum fare
(Check the rules to ensure that the fare qualifies as an HI fare)
10. Stop over/transfer charge(S) collect stopover/transfer charge. Select the charge
published in the currency of the country of fare component origin. Convert this into
NUC at applicable IROE.
11. Surcharges (Q) Collect security surcharges, if any. Convert into NUC at applicable
IROE.
12. Total add up all the NUCs to get the sum total.
13. IROE Multiply the total NUC by the IATA Rate of Exchange based on the country
of commencement of travel.
14. LCF Round the resulting Local currency Fare ( refer the required number of
decimal units for the currency)
2. Round Trip A trip that begins and ends in the same city. Technically, when the
term is used for faring purposes, the return trip must be a mirror image of the
outbound trip, with same airline, same routing, and same class of service.

MIA TPA
MIA TPA
3. Circle Trip A trip that involves at least three different flights, and returns to the
point of origin.
DEN STL

MIA
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4. Open Jaw Trip A circle trip with a leg missing. The passenger returns to a
different city (other than the origin), or departs from a city that was not one of their
destinations.
5.
LAX ORD LAX BWI

SAN I A D
or

A fare basis code or FBC, very simply, is the combination of the booking code,
which is the first letter of the FBC, and the applicable fare elements. Common booking
codes used by airlines are as follows:
F, P, A: First Class
J, C, D: Business Class
Y, B, M, K, Q, V, H, T, W, S: Economy/ Premium Economy
The subsequent letters in the FBC, define the rules that will accompany the fare.
They include the rules for change and cancellation, minimum stay, high season, low season,
weekend fares and so on.

105

Different Types of Flights of Breaks

Lets take a look at the different types of flights.
1. Non-Stop Flight A flight that makes no stops
IAH MIA
2. Direct Flight A flight that makes a stop en route, but continues on to the destination
without a change in planes (equipment). For example, DL293 flies from Atlanta to
106

Los Angeles. This flight makes a stop in Dallas before continuing on to Los Angeles.
Passengers do not have to get off the plane in Dallas to get to their destination.
ATL LAX
3. Connection Flight A flight that hooks up to another flight to get the passenger to
his / her destination. A domestic connection is 4 hours or less between two flights
and an international connection is 24 hours or less. On a ticket, or in a PNR, an X
by the city code indicates a connecting flight. For example, a customer wants to go
from Atlanta to Honolulu on American Airlines. AA does not have one non-stop
flight that will take the customer directly from Atlanta to Honolulu, so they have to
use 2 flights to get the customer to his / her destination.
ATL DFW HNL
A connection flight where the passenger stays on the same airline is considered
an on-line connection flight. When more than one airline is used between the origin and
destination cities, the connection flight is considered an off-line or inter-line connection
flight.
4. Stopover A voluntary break in travel that is 4 hours or more for domestic flights
and 24 hours or more for international flights. It is a stop at an intermediate point
before continuing on to another destination. In a PNR or on a ticket, an O next to
the airport code indicates a stopover. If the stopover is overnight, it is usually called
a Layover.
MCI MSY JFK

O
5. Layover A stop on a trip, usually overnight and usually associated with a change
of planes or other transportation.

Basic fare construction
One way steps and application
EMS Excess mileage surcharge (%)

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Construction Steps-OW
Type of Journey-OW,RT,CT,RW
GI- Global Indicator (EH, PA, AT)
FCP-Fare Construction Point
NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
SR-Specific Routing
MPM-Maximum Permitted Mileage
TPM-Ticketed Point Mileage
EMA-Extra Mileage Allowance
EMS-Excess Mileage Surcharge
HIP-Higher Intermediate Point
BHC-Backhaul Minimum Check
LCF-Local Currency Fare = NUC * ROE
Standard Calculation-Ex (1)
ITIN: TPE/FRA/PAR/LON
Type of Journey-OW
GI-Global Indicator: EH
FBP-Fare Break Point
NUC-Neutral Unit Construction

108

ITIN1-Steps
DF-TPELON OW Y (1709.69)
SR-NIL
MPM-8791
TPM-6593
EMA-NIL
EMS-NIL
HIP-TPELON 1709.69
LCF-1709.69*34.45700=TWD59811
Standard Calculation-Ex (2)
ITIN: TPE/HKGx/FRA/MUCx/FRA/BKK
Type of Journey-OW
GI-Global Indicator: EH
FBP-Fare Break Point: MUC
NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
ITIN2-Steps
DF1-TPEMUC OW Y (1627.27)
SR-NIL
MPM-8125
TPM-6384
EMA-NIL
EMS-NIL
HIP-HKGMUC 1811.66
ITIN2-Steps
DF2-MUCBKK OW Y (1946.55)
SR-NIL
MPM-7034

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 TPM-5761
EMA-NIL
EMS-NIL
HIP-MUCBKK 1946.55
LCF = (1811.66+1946.55)*34.45700

=TWD129497

OW Minimum Fare-Ex (1)

ITIN: TPEx/FRA/LON/PAR
Type of Journey-OW
GI-Global Indicator: EH
FBP-Fare Break Point
NUC-Neutral Unit Construction
Why Differential Pricing?
It allows the airline to increase total flight revenues with little impact on total
operating costs:
Incremental revenue generated by discount fare passengers who otherwise would
not fly
Incremental revenue from high fare passengers willing to pay more
Studies have shown that most traditional high cost airlines could not cover total
operating costs by offering a single fare level. Consumers can also benefit from
differential pricing:
Most notably, discount passengers who otherwise would not fly
It is also conceivable that high fare passengers pay less and/or enjoy more frequency
given the presence of low fare passengers
If airline could charge a different price for each customer based on their WTP, its
revenues would be close to the theoretical maximum.

110

Promotional ad from Indian Airlines

Air India introduces daily non-stop flights between Delhi and Singapore on the
latest Dream liner aircraft.
Flight No

Departure

Arrival

AI380

Delhi 0005 hrs

Singapore 0800 hrs

AI 381

Singapore 0915 hrs

Delhi 1230 hrs

Avail of introductory discount offers on the flights from India to Singapore, operating
via Delhi to Singapore.
Special discounts available on tickets booked through www.airindia.in.
The offer is valid for sale with immediate effect till 4th April 14 and for travel from
20th March till 30th April 14.
Source: http://www.airindia.com/fly-the-dreamliner-to-singapore.htm

Currency Regulation
Bankers Buying Rate (BBR)
Means the rate at which, for purpose of the transfer of funds through banking
channels (i.e. other than transactions in bank notes, travellers cheques and similar banking
instruments), a bank will purchase a given amount of foreign currency exchange for one
unit (or units) of the national currency of the country, in which the exchange transaction
takes place. Note: Where no such bankers rates are available, the rates published by the
IATA Clearing House may be used in lieu of such bankers buying rates. The applicable
bankers rates or the sources where such rates applicable will be published weekly or
monthly by the carriers.
Bankers Selling Rate (BSR)
Means the rate at which, for the purpose of transfer of funds through banking
channels (i.e. other than transactions in bank notes, travellers cheques and similar banking
instruments), a bank will sell a given amount of foreign currency in exchange for one unit
(or units) of the National currency of the country, in which the exchange transaction takes
place.
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Country of Commencement of Transportation: The country from which travel on

the first international sector takes place.
Country of Payment: The country where payment is made by the purchaser to the
carrier or its agent.
Currency of the Country of Payment: The currency in which international fares are
denominated.
Date of Transportation: The date of issuance of the ticket, MCO or PTA.
Local Currency Fares: Fares and related charges expressed in the currency of the
country of commencement of travel.
Neutral Unit of Construction [NUC]
Other Charges
Charges such as taxes, fees etc. excluding excess baggage charges.
Related Charges
Charges such as cancellation fees, non-refundable amounts, rebooking and rerouting
charges, stopover charges, weekend surcharges etc. excluding excess baggage charges.
ROE
The rate of exchange notified by IATA to convert local currency fares to NUC and to
convert NUC amounts to the currency of the country of commencement of transportation
Applicable Currency for Fares and Charges
All passenger fares (except add-ons) and excess baggage charges are established in
the currency of the country of commencement of travel. Domestic add-ons are established
in the currency of the country concerned or in US dollars or any other currency. Related
charges are established in the currency of the country of commencement of travel or in US
dollars or in EURO.
Exception 1
Passenger fares and excess baggage charges are established in US dollars for the
following countries: Afghanistan, Anguilla, Angola, Argentina, Bahamas, Bangladesh,
112

Barbados, Bermuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Cambodia, Congo (Kinshasa), Costa Rica,
Colombia, Cuba Dominica, Iraq, Indonesia, Jamaica, Israel, Maldives, Mongolia, Mexico,
Nepal, Nigeria,Philippines, Vietnam, Zimbabwe, Zambia etc
Exception 2
Passenger fares and excess baggage charges are established in EURO for the following
countries: Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Finland, Germany, France,
Greece Ireland Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia,
Spain Turkey
NUC Conversion Factors
The neutral unit of construction or neutral unit of currency (code: NUC) is a private
currency used by the airline industry, to record fare calculation information. A set of
exchange rates is issued by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) every month.
The ticket component prices are converted from the original currency (of the country of
commencement of travel) and recorded on the airline ticket. The NUC system came into
being on 1 July 1989, having superseded the older Fare Construction Unit (FCU) system.
As of 2008, the NUC is pegged approximately to the US dollar ($1 1 NUC). A similar unit,
formerly used by the European railway industry is the UIC Franc (XFU).
NUC Values
Fares, add-ons and related charges are published in the Passenger Air Tariff in NUC
values. These values will be revised every January, April, July and October together with the
factors shown in the NUC Conversion Factors Table. The NUC value for a local currency
amount not published in this tariff can be obtained by dividing such local currency amount
by the conversion factor shown in the NUC Conversion Factors Table for the country in
which the currency is denominated. Express the resultant NUC amount to two decimal
places, ignoring any further decimal places. When excess baggage charges are paid in a
currency other than the local currency, the local currency amount must be converted to
the currency of payment at the BBR. Other charges established in local currency amounts
and shown on the ticket are converted to the currency of the country of sale at the BSR.
When payment is made in a currency other than the currency of the country of payment,
the equivalent local currency amount in the country of payment will be collected at the
BBR.

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Construction of Unpublished Fares

Fares in the Passenger Air Tariff are published in local currency and NUCs. If a
through fare for a particular journey is not published, and therefore requires the combination
of local currency fares (or the construction of fares by use of add-on amounts) on the same
ticket, construct the through fare for such journey as follows.
1. Add the published NUC amounts for the sectors involved.
2. Multiply the resultant total by the exchange rate in the NUC Conversion Factors
Table for the country of commencement of travel. Take the resultant amount to one
decimal place beyond the rounding unit indicated in the table.
3. Round the resultant total in accordance with the NUC Conversion Factors Table
Combination of Local Currency Fares
To combine two or more local currency fares into the currency of the country of origin:
Establish NUC amount for each local currency fare by dividing local currency fare
by the applicable IATA rate of exchange. Calculate to two decimal places ignoring
any further decimal places
Add NUC amounts
Establish through local currency fare by multiplying NUC amount by the IATA rate
of exchange for the country of origin. Calculate to one decimal place beyond the
number of decimal places shown in the NUC conversion factors table, ignoring any
further decimal places. Round up to the next higher rounding unit shown in the
NUC conversion factors table unless otherwise shown.
The International ticketing requires more or less similar information as domestic
ticketing. The issue of an International ticket is more complex as it involves the problem
of change of currency. This is based on Neutral Units of Construction (NUC) system. To
determine the price of an international itinerary, the NUC fares are added and the total is
then converted to the currency of the country, where the ticket is sold. The rate of exchange
for converting NUC to various currencies is published from time to time by IATA. If the
client is planning to travel to different countries, the fare is converted to NUC first. All the
NUC fares are added and are converted from NUC to the currency of the country where
the ticket would be sold.

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Airfare Calculation
This is considered to be the most complex task of Ticketing. This means dividing of
air itinerary into different fare parts and showing how each fare has been calculated. The
calculation also depends on the type of journey
For example, one way, round, circle or open jaw. The domestic airfare calculations
are comparatively easier to understand. They are not governed by so many regulations and
conditions. In India there are 6 private sectors airlines whereas there is only one public
sector airline for domestic travel. Till early 1990s, Indian Airlines occupied the maximum
market share, i.e. 60% of the total domestic market. The transformation began in the mid
1990s, when the government scrapped a ban on privately owned airlines. A host of smaller
carriers sprouted up. Some had restricted growth but others like Jet Airways flourished,
Jet Airways now has more than 40% of the market share while market for Indian Airlines
has fallen to less than 40%. The company distributes free of cost Fare Chart Sheet which
includes point-to-point airfare and its network (Operation). It includes Base Fare + Inland
Air Travel Tax +Passenger Service Tax. Passenger service tax at present is calculated at
0.51% of base fare.
Planning Itinerary By Air
Let us first know the meaning of the term itinerary planning. Roday, Biwal, Joshi,
(2009) have defined itinerary planning as the linking of all the journey points of the travelers
journey, i.e. from the origin point, and in between stopping points for sightseeing at the
destination and back to the point of origin. This is not always the case as sometimes the
tourist may not come back to the point of origin.

Definition
Itinerary: It is designated to identify all portions of the travel from the original
point to the final destination. It includes all the stopping points en route, along with
transportation, accommodation and other services on a travellers trip

115

 Itinerary planning has to be done carefully as many details need to be considered

like sightseeing, time taken, meals, weather, monument information, the timings of
the monuments and its closure.
Itinerary planning is one of the major functions of any travel agency.
The travel agencies sell readymade package tours to their clients or may design
customized itineraries as per the requirement of the client.
Planning a basic itinerary is simple to do but requires some time and concentration.
Steps involved:
Step 1: M
 ake an ideal outline of all the places youd like to visit and arrange them
in a sequence
Step 2: N
 otate ideal travel and accommodation options on your itinerary, even if
you dont end up using them.
Step 3: Book transport and accommodation in advance whenever your plans are set.
Step 4: P
 lan for activities within cities and regions whenever possible, again keeping
in mind that these may be subject to change plan alternates accordingly
Step 5: R
 emember that itineraries are often tentative and understand that your plans
can change
Importance of Itinerary Planning
Itinerary planning is one of the important functions of a travel agency and requires
detailed and careful planning. The travel agent should have knowledge of the basic
requirements of tourist and facilities available at the destination before planning the tour
itinerary. Tariffs and facilities are constantly changing and current information is necessary
if the tour is to be successful. Itineraries are sold as readymade package tour or they may be
customized according to the clients requirements. Costing of the itinerary is an essential
component of itinerary planning.
Itinerary it is the schedule of activities of a guest, included in the tour package
designed by the tour operator.
Is normally a prepaid arrangement
It is the tour guide who is the link between the paying guest and the tour operator
It is an important responsibility for tour guides to be able to review the itinerary
prior to the day of the tour. (Claravall, 2000).
116

117

Itinerary making/planning requires the following knowledge & skills:

Phonetic alphabet
International and local geography (location and its significance)
Military time versus the local time
Important codes (airline, city, airport and currency)
Reading the airline timetable
Special requirements of the guests
Basic reservation system
Important abbreviations ( pax, ovn,etc).
Suppliers included in the itinerary such as:
Hotel for accommodation
Restaurant for food
Transportation (air, sea, land, rail)
Tours
Entertainment
Others

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The following figure helps you understand how one can go about tour plan in
simplest case. The flowchart above is basically how I optimally plan your trips.

In this part of the planning you will most likely play around with different variations
of your itinerary to arrive at your best and most affordable route. It includes
Airline Booking and Contact Details
Airport Name and Address
Car Rental Location
Directions to and from the Airport
Flight Departure and Arrival Time

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 Hotel Address and Directions to the Hotel

Hotel Room and Confirmation Number
Local Road Maps
Fare Construction
Some key concepts: Terminology of the Airline Business
Fare Construction Principles - How to Proceed
Establish the journey type by calculating the itinerary as a single PUC whenever possible.
1. Apply fare construction steps and checks required for the journey type involved
2. Take note of type of surface sectors, if any
3. When applying fares with stopover and transfer conditions, note that ticketed
transfer points include all intermediate points with or without stopovers
4. For each fare component, determine whether the published fare may be applied by
means of specified routing options or the mileage system
5. Compare the fare of this single puc to the fare resulting from the combination of
two or more puc
6. For combinations of normal fare pricing units, follow the normal fare determination
7. Choose appropriate breakpoints and take note of limitations on indirect travel, if
any
8. Make sure that terms of combinability are satisfied
9. Quote whichever is lower
Basic Fare Construction Principles
An itinerary is priced as a single journey however if the itinerary can be broken
into separate stand-alone prices which give the consumer a lower price then this is
permitted.
A journey is every point on the ticket. The fare for a journey (excluding side trips
assessed separately) is the lowest of

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 A single pricing unit for the journey, or

Any series of end-on combined pricing units which collectively comprise the journey
being traveled
A pricing unit is any stand-alone price (this also includes the price for a journey
which is also a stand-alone price). The term pricing unit is used instead of the term
stand-alone
(a stand-alone price is a price which could be sold separately on a separate ticket).
The fare for a pricing unit is assessed as a one way sub journey using OW fares or as a
return sub journey using 1/2-RT-fares.
The fare for a fare component is the lower amount which can be determined according to:
1. Mileage principle
2. L
 owest combination of fares principle: the lowest combination of fares over an
intermediate ticketed point on the itinerary, subject to minimum fare checks
Note: this principle does not preclude combination of international fares with
normal/special fares within the USA. All fare constructions must be accomplished in
NUCs. Fares to be assessed for the total journey are the applicable fares effect on the date
of departure on the first sector.
The fare paid will only apply when international travel commences in the country
of the origin of the journey shown on the ticket. If international travel actually commences
outside the country of the ticketed origin of the journey, the fare must be reassessed from
the point where international travel actually began.
For example, if a ticket is purchased at the Koruna fare for travel PRG-ZRH-NYC,
and the passenger actually commences travel in ZRH instead of PRG, the fare must be
reassessed at the ZRH-NYC, Swiss franc level.
Pricing Unit Concept
The Pricing Unit Concept for fare construction rules was introduced 01. JUN 2000.
A pricing unit is essentially a fare which is capable of being sold independently of any other
fare. The pricing unit concept provides the opportunity to price multiple stopover journeys
in alternate ways.

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For example, a journey PAR-TYO-SYD-surface TYO-PAR can be assessed either

as a OW PAR-SYD (via TYO) plus a OW TYO-PAR (in the direction from PAR), or as a
RT PAR-TYO plus a OW TYO-SYD. The lower fare obtained by the 2 methods would be
used, subject to any minimum fare checks. Explanations and examples of different types of
itineraries and associated fare construction principles appear in the following rules.
Definitions
A new set of definitions were established for use with the pricing unit concept. The
most important definitions for the PUC are:
Journey: The origin to destination of the entire ticket (every point on a ticket)
Pricing unit: A journey or part of a journey which is priced as a separate entity, i.e.
is capable of being ticketed separately.
One way sub journey: Part of a journey where travel from one country does not
return to such country of origin. The fare for a OW sub journey is assessed as a
single pricing unit using a OW fare.
Return sub journey: Part of a journey where travel from a point/country returns to
such point/ country (RT/CT/NOJ). The fare for a return sub journey is assessed as a
single pricing unit using 1/2-RT-fares.
Country of unit origin: The country in which the origin of the pricing unit is
situated.
Destination: The final stopping place of the journey shown on the ticket.
Origin: The initial starting place of the journey as shown on the ticket.
Unit destination: The final stopping place of a pricing unit.
Comparing fares with global indicators
In applying Global Indicators (GI) the following applies:
1. The comparison of the itinerary of a fare component with a GI is based on the
ticketed points within the fare component and not on the operation of the flights
2. Fares may only be used for the GI for which they are established. The itinerary
within a fare component will attract a Global Indicator as follows:

122

123

124

If there is no fare with the GI identified by the routing traveled, the fare is constructed
in accordance with the lowest combination principle. If a fare component can attract more
than one GI the routing of the flights must be used to determine the GI e.g. SIN-NYC options via PA or via AT
Revenue Passenger Mile (RPM)
This is the way traffic is measured, and it is one passenger carried one mile. Traffic
and RPMs are synonymous and the terms are used interchangeably. The presumption is
that the passenger paid for the trip, thus the use of the word Revenue. Some passengers
dont pay, such as those using frequent flier miles, but they are counted the same way.
Available Seat Mile (ASM)
This is the definition of capacity and it is one seat carried one mile, whether or not
a passenger occupies that seat. In the case of both RPM and ASM the acronym is what you
will hear.
Load Factor
The percentage of RPMs to ASMs and a key measurement of how efficiently the
airline is utilizing its capacity. In general higher is better but there is a limit beyond which
the airline will turn away, or spill, passengers to its competitors and not have seats
available for last minute business travelers who are prepared to pay the highest fares for
that seat.
Yield: The amount of passenger revenue received for each RPM. It is a weighted
average price and is expressed in cents.
Unit Cost or Cost per ASM (CASM)
The cost of producing one ASM, also expressed in cents
Total Revenue per ASM (RASM)
RASM is not an independent variable in airline economics, so using it without
looking at trends in the two underlying components can lead to erroneous conclusions,
particularly about the trend of passenger fares.

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Breakeven Load Factor

Another way of expressing the relationship between revenue and expenses. You get
it by dividing total operating costs by total revenue and then multiplying the quotient by
the load factor.
Operating Ratio
Most industries describe earnings before such non-operating factors as interest on
debt, currency gains or losses and income taxes, as the operating profit margin. Airlines use
the reciprocal and call it the operating ratio; thus a 10% operating profit margin becomes,
in airline terms, a 90% operating ratio.
Scheduled Service
Most airlines in the world operate a scheduled system where a schedule of flights
is established and passengers can select the one that best meets their needs. This is often
called an on demand system because the flight will depart when scheduled so that from
the passengers standpoint that, or any other flight, is available upon his or her demand. By
contrast non-scheduled service, which is more generally called Charter service, means that
the flight operates only if the seats are sold.
There are certain elementary terminologies, which should be understood before
studying fare construction:
Blocking: Blocking means that a ticket has been blocked for reservation. There is
time allowed to the passenger to get his ticket booked within the stipulated time.
If the passenger gets his tickets booked within this time, he actually purchases the
ticket with the actual status stated on ticket. If he doesnt book the ticket within the
stipulated time, his blocking stands cancelled. The difference between the blocking
and ticketing is that blocking may not result in ticketing sometimes but ticketing
automatically results in blocking also.
Routing: Routing means a logical sequence of point-to-point destinations. It consists
of carriers, class of service and cities served. For example: New Delhi AIF
Itinerary
Itinerary plays an important part in the fare construction. It is defined as all portions
of the passengers reservation from original to final destination. It may also include surface
126

transportation. The different types of itineraries are: One-way trip: Any journey, which is
not a complete, round or circle trip entirely by air. For example,
Delhi
Chennai AIF
Round Trip
It is a travel from one point to another and returns to the point of origin by the same
air route or a different air route from that used for outbound travel. For example,
Delhi
Chennai AIF
Delhi AIF
Circle Trip
It means a journey with that return to the point of departure without retracing its
route. It is travel from point and return to the same point by a continuous circuitous air
route.
New Delhi
Kolkota AAF
Mumbai AAF
New Delhi AAF
Round the World Trip
These are the circle trips and apply to continuous eastbound or westbound travel
commencing from and returning to the same point via both east and west. The fare is
constructed in same way as a circle trip.
Open Jaw
It is essentially of a round or circle trip nature but has a segment not carried by air.
For example,

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The difference here is that arrival point is different from departure point. Usually it
has a surface segment.
Airline Itinerary: An airline itinerary identifies the origin point, stopping points,
connecting points and destination points of a flight. An airline itinerary is of two
types- International and Domestic. An airline itinerary, which has points within
India, is called a domestic itinerary and if the points are outside India, it is known
an international air itinerary. Two things are required to plan airline itinerary
timetables and airline guide.
Online service It means the segment of the same airline. For example, AI to AI
Offline Service It means segments of differing airline. For example, AI to BA
Interline service It means cooperative understanding between airlines and/or
reciprocal acceptance of tickets between them.
Local fare It is a fare for on-line transportation.
Joint fare It is a fare for off line or interlines transportation.
Connections A required carrier change at an intermediate point between point of
departure and the point of destination. In order to enable the passenger to connect,
he must depart that intermediate city within four hours of arrival on first flight on
which the space is available.
Intermediate Stop It is a point of landing between two points from original point
to destination point, which does not require deplaning by the passenger.
Stop Over It means a stop of usually 24 hours or more by the passenger along the
route of a journey according to agreement with the carrier. It is equal to a break in
the trip.
Non-Stop It means point-to-point flight with no intermediate stops
Direct It means point-to-point flight with any number of intermediate stops.
Mileage Principles
Fare Rules
Discounted air fares are always subject to certain restrictions. Lower the fare; the
more are the restrictions applicable. These restrictions, commonly referred to as fare rules,
they fall into six main categories: -

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 Minimum or Maximum stay: With most discount fares, the length of time between
outbound and return flights is restricted. For example, a fare may be valid only if
the passenger is willing to stay over until the next Sunday before starting a return
trip. This may be called a Saturday stay-over. A maximum stay may also apply. For
example, passengers may be required to return no later than 21 days after arriving at
their destination.
Advance Purchase: In most of the discount fares, advance purchase prior to departure
date is required; say 30 days in advance, which is commonly known as Super Saver.
Generally, the longer the advance purchases requirement, the lower the fare.
Validity Dates: The discount travel is generally valid on certain dates. It has both
an effective date and an expiration date. Certain dates may also be blacked out,
meaning that the travel is not valid on those dates. Combinability: Discount fares
can be combined with other fare types. For example, a traveler using an M-class fare
on one segment may be able to use a V-class fare on another segment in the same
trip.
Routing: Only permitted routings may be used in restrictive fares. The rating specifies
the connecting and stopover points that can be used with a particular fare basis.
Penalties: Generally for cancellations or changes in itinerary under restrictive fares,
penalties are imposed. In some cases restrictive fares are non-refundable.
Other Restrictions: A number of other special conditions may also apply to discount
fare. For example, a fare rule may require all segments of the itinerary to be confirmed at
the time of ticketing, or may prohibit travel on certain dates of the week.
Construction Rules for Journeys
General
The following will be considered as one country:
USA and Canada
Denmark, Norway and Sweden (=Scandinavia)
To establish unpublished fares, or fares expressed as a percentage, see the rule.
Combination of international fares and normal/special fares within the USA is permitted.

129

How to determine the Fare for a Journey

The fare for a journey (excluding side trips assessed separately) is the lowest of - a
single pricing unit for the journey or any series of end-on combined pricing units which
collectively comprise the journey being traveled Fares may only be constructed over
ticketed points in the passengers itinerary. The addition of points into the itinerary is not
permitted, provided this does not apply to add-on construction points.
Exception
Combination of USA domestic fares with international fares
Slicing and Dicing an Itinerary
The application of the PUC depends on the itinerary. It is necessary to travel over a
common point/country more than once in order to be able to slice and dice the itinerary.
If this occurs the itinerary is assessed as a single price (pricing unit) and where separate
pricing units can be assessed these are calculated and the sum of the pricing units compared
to the fare for the entire journey - the lower amount being charged. It is sometimes possible
that an itinerary will allow a number of different pricing unit calculations. In all cases it
is the lowest of the possibilities that is applied. In order to ensure that simple RT or CT
journeys are not broken into a series of OW-units, any journey or sub journey which is by
definition a RT or CT must use 1 /-RT-fare.
Round, Circle, Open Jaw Trip Journeys
If the routing of a journey satisfies the definition of a RT, CT or OJ: the PU must be
assessed as a RT/CT or OJ as applicable and must use half RT fares, the use of OW fares is
not permitted - for end-on combination normal and special fares, completely separate the
special and normal fare and access the normal fare sub journey.
Example
Travel: MAN ROM CPH MAD
Fare construction:
MAN ROM 1/2 RT
ROM CPH 1/2 RT ONE PU
MAN CPH 1/2 RT

130

 - OW fares are not allowed as travel is continuous, circuitous and returns to the
same point
- A CTM check is performed MAN-ROM RT and MAN-CPH RT
- The last fare component is assessed from the country of unit origin
RT, CT, OJ Journeys with common Point/Country
If there is a common point/country on the routing, the journey may be broken into
multiple return sub journey PUs using half RT fares.
A return sub journey only occurs if the fare is broken more than once at the common
point/country. The fare for travel between such fare break points must be priced as a RT,
CT or normal/special fare OJ, as applicable, and must use 1/2-RT-fares. If travel between
such fare break points would require the use of OW-fares, this is not permitted.
Fare Direction for RT, CT, OJ Journeys
Fares are assessed in the direction of travel, except that the fare component into
the country of pricing unit origin shall be in the direction from such country i.e. not in the
direction of travel. Note: except for RT pricing units, fare components between Canada and
USA and within the area of Denmark, Norway, and Sweeden are assessed in the direction
of travel.
OJ Journeys - alternative Option for Assessment
If the routing of the journey is determined as fulfilling the definition of a normal/
special fare OJ, the pricing unit is assessed as two half RT fares, provided that, if there
is a common point(s) or other points in either the country of origin or the country of
turnaround or both, the fare may alternatively be assessed as a return sub journey from/to
the common points(s) or other points and a OW sub journey (s) for the domestic sector(s)
In the case of the alternative pricing option the OW pricing unit must be assessed using
OW fares and the return sub journey must be assessed using half RT-fares. Fares must
be assessed in the direction of travel except that the fare component into the country of
pricing unit origin shall be in the direction from such country, i.e. not in the direction of
travel*Note: except for RT pricing units, fare components between Canada and USA and
within the area of Denmark, Norway, Sweden are assessed in the direction of travel.

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Journeys other than Round, Circle, Open Jaw Trips

If the routing of a journey does not satisfy the definition of a RT, CT or normal/
special fare OJ such routings shall be assessed:
As a OW journey using a OW PU
As a series of OW sub journey s using OW PUs
As a RT or CT journey with the surface sector assumed to be flown
If there is a common point/country: as a mix of a OW sub journey and a RT sub
journey.
For the OW sub journey, OW fares must be used, the use of half RT fares is not
permitted
Fares will be constructed in the direction of travel except that the fare for a OW sub
journey that terminates in a country from which a previous PU has commenced will
be assessed in the direction from that country
*Note: Except for RT PUs, fare components between Canada and USA and within
the area of Denmark, Norway, Sweden are assessed in the direction of travel.
Journey Limitations on Indirect Travel
For Canada and USA and for Denmark, Norway, Sweden to be considered one
country this rule does not apply:
Arrivals and Departure in one Country
A journey on a ticket, at any time, must not include more than four international
arrivals and four international departures in any country provided for the counting of
arrivals and departures surface sectors are considered to be flown
Example
AMS-CAI-RTM-LON-AMS-DXB-AMS-JNB-AMS-BAH
This journey is not allowed to have five international departures from the Netherlands

132

Fare Construction With Extra Mileage Allowances (EMA)

This requires agency staff to have a basic knowledge of airfares; different prices
and rates essential to serve the clients. First he should know what is an Airfare? In other
words, it is a price paid to acquire the right to use an airline seat in a specific aircraft
and within a prescribed period. Airfares are of two types- International and Domestic
airfare. Domestic airfare is applicable only after the approval from Director General of
Civil Aviation (DGCA). International airfares are applicable only after the approval from
International Air Transport Association (IATA), which are based on bilateral agreements
between the countries. Airfare is based on three main factors:
Class of Service
Fare Basis
Fare Rules
Airlines offer various classes of service. The fare and the cabin in which the passenger
will sit determine the class of service in an airline. Broadly they can be divided into two(1) First Class (2) Coach Class. In the first class cabin, seats are usually larger and more
comfortable. Passengers in coach cabin get standard level of service. In many airlines there
may be third cabin known as Business class or it may be known by some other name
Executive, Ambassador or so on. Service in the cabin is superior to coach but inferior to
First Class. First Class may also be known as Premium Class. There may be sub-classes
within a class, which may be indicated by different booking codes. This is shown in the
table:
Class of Service and Booking Codes

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Depending upon restrictions, route and carrier, the first class fare may be 35- 50 %
higher than the standard coach and Business class may be 20-35 % higher than coach class.
The Hub and Spoke System
Its very expensive for an airline to purchase new aircrafts to provide point- topoint flights on their own. Adopting hub and spoke system solves this problem. This can
be explained with an example of wheel with numerous spokes leading from a hub or centre.
The passengers are transported to a central point, called a hub, to board an aircraft for the
final destination. For example, Delhi and Mumbai are Hubs for Air Indias International
flights from Delhi to London and Mumbai to Bangkok. For passengers staying in Jaipur
and Bangalore, Indian Airlines is acting as the spoke between Jaipur to Delhi and Bangalore
to Mumbai. Following are the benefits of this system.
Caters to serve maximum passengers.
Enables airlines to expand their activities without much investment for aircrafts.
Retains competitive fare structure.
Promotes better relationships.
Generates more income.
It is determined by the class of service and other factors such as the destination,
season, day of the week, type of trip, advance purchase, length of stay, etc. Each fare
basis has one primary code and one and more secondary code. A Hub is an airport at a
geographical center of an airlines route and generally includes administrative offices and
maintenance facilities. Hubs are airports used as bases through which the airline routes
most of its traffic. Flights from other cities (these are the spokes) are routed to the hub.
Passengers from the spoke flights are combined with passengers from the hub and other
spoke flights, and transported to a common destination. These shorter flights are more
economical for the airlines to operate, and afford the airline a more comprehensive route
structure. The following table presents the major hubs in North America:
Airline

Airline
Code

Hub
Code

AirTran Airlines

FL

ATL

Atlanta

Alaska Airlines

AS

SEA

Seattle

ANC

Anchorage

LAX

Los Angeles

134

Hub

America West
American Airlines

HP
AA

PHX

Phoenix

LAS

Las Vegas

DFW

Dallas / Fort Worth

MIA

Miami

ORD

Chicago / OHare

JFK /
LGA

NYC
Boston

BOS
American Trans Air

TZ

MDW

Continental
Airlines

CO

IAH

Houston/Intercontinental

CLE

Cleveland

EWR

Newark

ATL

Atlanta

DFW

Dallas / Fort Worth

MSP

Minneapolis

DTW

Detroit

MEM

Memphis

DAL

Dallas / Love Field

PHX

Phoenix

OAK

Oakland

ORD

Chicago / OHare

SFO

San Francisco

LAX

Los Angeles

IAD/
DCA

Washington DC

PHL

Philadelphia

CLT

Charlotte

PIT

Pittsburgh

Delta Airlines
Northwest Airlines

Southwest Airlines

United Airlines

US Airways

DL
NW

WN

UA

US

Chicago/Midway

Primary Codes are booking codes, which represent the class of the services being
used. The following table shows the Primary codes of the Fare basis.

135

Primary Fare Codes

Secondary codes make each fare basis distinct from other fare bases with the same
primary code. For example AP indicates advance purchaser, IT indicates inclusive tour
fare, and Z indicates youth fare.
Secondary Fare Codes

For example, FAP 5 where F= First Class, AP= Advance purchaser, indicates travel
in First class and 5 days advance purchase i.e., the ticket to be purchased at least 5 days
before departure. In some cases, the booking code is the same as the fare basis. For example,
F is for first class, Y is for economy or coach class. Different airlines use various primary
136

codes for the same class. For example, C class is same on some airline as J class is for
another airline. Number may be used to indicate days of week. For example, Y5 indicate a
coach fare valid only for departure on Friday. One or two letters may indicate weekday, for
example, TU for Tuesday, W for Wednesday and TH for Thursday.
Fares and Fare Basis Codes
Unrestricted Fares and Restricted Fares
Based on booking classes, fares can be divided into two categories:
Unrestricted or Normal Fares
Restricted or Excursion or Special or Discounted Fares
An unrestricted fare is a higher fare for a ticket offering maximum flexibility.
Typically, unrestricted fares require no advance purchase, no Saturday night stay, no
roundtrip purchase, and are fully refundable without penalty or fee.
Restricted fares available between city pairs that require an advance purchase,
minimum and maximum stay, are non-refundable, have change fees that apply, routing
restrictions, and require that the same carrier be used in both directions. In short, there are
certain restrictions to be followed if these fares are to be availed.
Fare Basis Codes
A fare basis code consists of two basic elements the booking code and applicable
fare elements. Together, they make up a fare basis that will be up to but no longer than
eight (8) characters in length. The booking code refers to the letter representing the class of
service in which the fare has been published and the inventory that you will use to confirm
the booked flight segment.
In general, the following table lists the most commonly used booking codes and the
classes of service they represent.
P, F, A

First Class

J, C, D

Business Class

Y, S, W

Economy /Coach - Unrestricted

B, H, K, L, M, Economy / Coach - Restricted

N, Q, T, V, X

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Caution should be used as there are some markets on some airlines, particularly
internationally, that will have a fare basis listed and the booking code will not be the first
letter of that fare basis. Many business fares can start with J and yet require a C or D
booking code.
Fare basis elements are individual letters and or numbers used in combination to
further define, in basic terms, the rules that will accompany the fare that the code represents.
These elements often refer to the advanced purchase, seasonality, refund restrictions, and
minimum and / or maximum stay requirements. Further details on a fares rules can be
found in the actual rules display.

Fare / Passenger Type Codes

Description

6, 06, 8, 9, 26, AA, UA, DL

Discount unrestricted First or Coach Class

AP

Advanced Purchase

CT

Circle Trip

OJ

Open Jaw

OW

One Way

PEX, or E

Advanced Purchase Excursion or Excursion

RT

Round Trip

SS

Super Saver

CH

Child

DG

Government Official

IN

Infant

MM

Military

SC

Ship Crew

ZZ

Youth Fare

Fare Rule Codes

Description

H, K, J, F, T, Q, Y, L

Seasonality Codes from highest to lowest

M, T, W, Q, F, J, S

Days of the week US

1,2,3,4,5,6,7

Days of the week internationally

FLT

Flight Specific

138

D followed by number or
letter

Valid only on day

X followed by number or letter

Valid except onday

HOL

Holiday BOO, TURKEY, SANTA, FLAG

Weekend

Weekday

1,3,7,14,21,30

Minimum Advanced Purchase

NR

Non Refundable

Penalty

25/50

% Cancellation Penalty

MDW, BWI, EWR

Indicates airport specific

UP

Coach fare with upgrade to business/first

The table below can be used to decipher the fare basis codes.

V30X7MN

Booking class V, Midweek, 30 days AP, 7 Day Max, Non Ref

ME14NQ

Booking Class M, Excursion fare, 14 day AP, Non-Ref

V14X77NN

Booking class V, 14 Day AP, Midweek, 77 days Max Non-Ref

V14W77NN

Booking Class V, 14 Day AP, Weekend, 77 days Max Non-Ref

VA0GNR

Booking Class V, One Way, Non-Ref

YUP6

Pay Coach fare Upgrade to First or Business Class

F10BIZN

Discount First Class fare, 10 day AP, Non-Ref

B26

Un-restricted coach fare, limited number of seats available.

LLW7AP

Booking class L, Low Season, Weekend Travel, 7 AP

Y2GB

Un-restricted, special coach fare to Great Britain

QE3WKND

Booking Class Q, 3 day AP, good for weekend travel only.

UXE14NV

Booking class, Mid Week Excursion, 14 Day AP, Non-Ref, No Value if

not Used or changed by flight date.

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Extra Mileage Surcharge (EMS)

Milage system means,
An airfare system allowing stopovers up to specific maximum permitted mileage
IATA is an organization of airlines that creates standards. The IATA rules are
guidelines, not hard and fast rules, and each airline is welcome to pick and choose which
provisions they want to apply to their own flights. Various airlines may waive the mileage
checks in various ways, including filing generic extra mileage allowances (EMA), filing
fare-specific overrides that would appear in the fare rules, or simply ignoring the MPM
principle altogether.
IATA has complicated rules regarding what they call LOIT (limitations on indirect
travel). On an international fare, these rules usually allow you to transit the same airport
more than once, as long as you stopover at that point at most once. For many national flag
carriers with a single large hub, this is the only way you could get to any stopover point that
is not the hub itself.

140

Excess Mileage Allowance

141

Mileage Calculator can be done in online for example:

Just enter two cities (or airport codes) in the fields below and click How Far?
Top of Form
Departing from:
Then flying to:
Optional

142

And on to:
And on to:
And on to:
And on to:
Elite bonus:
Elite bonus based on:
Class of service bonus:
Class bonus based on:
Special promotion bonus:
Promo bonus based on:
Minimum per segment:

None

Actual miles.

Minimum miles.

None

Actual miles.

Minimum miles.

None

Actual miles.
None

Minimum miles.

Ticket price(in dollars):

How Far?

Clear Entries

Student Activity 1
The tourism product
The teacher will present an introduction to the tourism product in general.

The tourism product

Businesses and organisations that offer services and facilities to consumers make up
the tourism product in the travel and tourism industry.
The provider is the name given to a business or organisation that offers services or
facilities to a potential or actual consumer.

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Include more examples in the boxes below. These do not have to be in your own
area but it would be a good introduction to the portfolio if you were to include a few
local examples.
Travel agencies and tour operators
Going Places

Caterers and accommodation providers

Holiday Inn

Transport providers
City Link, British Airways, Superfast Ferries

Providers of activities
Gleneagles Golf Course

Providers of attractions
Scone Palace Perth; Deep Sea World Inverkeithing

Providers of entertainment
Perth Theatre

Banks/tourist information services

Bureau de change Waverley Station, Edinburgh

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Student Activity 2
Private sector, public sector, voluntary sector
Follow the lecture and participate in sorting examples into the different sectors.
1.

The private sector

Made up of companies who run a business to make profits.

Examples
Big hotel chains (Thistle Hotels)
Airtours
Pizza Hut
GNER (Great North Eastern Railway)
American Express Travel Agency
Deep-Sea World in Fife
British Airways
Parque de Atracciones in Torremolinos (Costa del Sol)
Private Youth Hostels for low-price accommodation.
Add more examples here.

2.

The Public Sector

Local or central government are partly responsible for funding and control.
Examples
Tourist Information Centres in Scotland
VisitScotland
Historic Scotland manages around 300 tourist attractions
Local authorities provide leisure, parking and toilet/ facilities.
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Add more examples here.

3.

Voluntary Sector

Providers of facilities that are funded by charitable donations. They sometimes

make use of volunteers for staffing but some have paid employees as well. They are usually
non-profit making. However, they may charge customers for their services.
Examples
YMCA and Scottish Youth Hostel Association
The National Trust for Scotland
Hopetoun House near South Queensferry (run by a trust).
Add more examples here.

Student Activities 35
The tourism product in the local area.
Activity 3
Investigate the tourism product in the local area. The teacher may give you Form A
(next page) or another sheet for your notes on the local area.
You may have collected information on your local area or your teacher may provide
a selection of the following, which you can use to fill in Form A:
Local brochures
Timetables

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 Street plans
Leaflets
General information
Hotel and restaurant details
Festivals and events details
Information on conference/ meeting facilities for business visitors
Website information on the local area.
Activity 4
Identify the location of the providers on a local map. Circle those marked in already.
Or
Draw a simple map of the area and mark in the location of providers.
Invent a key for the type of facility, e.g.
* for hotel
+ for tourist attraction
for currency exchange or banketc.
Activity 5 (Option)
Print out a map of the local area from a suitable website and highlight attractions on it.
Form A
What does your local area have to offer of interest to the tourist? (Tick)
Scenery _________ Culture _________ Leisure pursuits _________ Heritage _________
Do people visit your area for any other purpose?

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Does your area have a local speciality like Arbroath Smokies, a famous historical
figure, a known author/artist/actor, or a major sporting facility?

Does it have historic hotels, preserved railways, distilleries open to the visitors?]

Any other unusual/different visitor facilities?

What kind of facility does your local area have to service the basic needs of the
visitor? Tick the ones your area has.
Hotels and places to stay
Restaurants and places to eat; inns, pubs and bars
Places to spend leisure time like cinemas, theatres, museums,
bingo halls, discos, parks, sports and amusement facilities
Note the main ones here:

What about facilities for people wishing to travel away from the area? (Tick)
Travel agents
Tour operators
Transport terminals
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List the names of organisations and terminals here:

Chapter Summary
After reading the above lesson, you must be now clear about what really is a tourism
product along with its unique and distinguishing features. We have discussed in detail the
various forms of tourism products. By now you know natural, man-made, symbiotic, event
based and site based tourist products. Now when you look around you, in any newspaper,
magazine or even T.V. programmes, you will see the various tourism products and will be
able to identify their forms. At this stage its important for you to understand and identify
how each tourism product has a distinguishing feature and its marketing strategy must
highlight this feature. Advertising, publicity, sales promotion, brochures, pamphlets,
posters, direct mailing, personal selling and advertorial are some of these strategies which
you will learn in the later lessons. The tourism product has to be packaged and priced
keeping in mind the target customer. Without any doubt, tourism is the main sector that
can play a significant part in achieving rapid economic growth and drastically reducing
unemployment in our country. Currently, it is the largest foreign exchange earner for our
country. The development of the tourism industry on a priority basis is the need of the
hour. You will study about Tourism as an industry and the economic impact of tourism
in the next lesson. Despite this, the airline industry has proceeded along the path towards
globalization and consolidation, characteristics associated with the normal development
of many other industries. It has done this through the establishment of alliances and
partnerships between airlines, linking their networks to expand access to their customers.
Hundreds of airlines have entered into alliances, ranging from marketing agreements and
code-shares to franchises and equity transfers. The outlook for the air travel industry is one
of strong growth. Forecasts suggest that the number of passengers will double by 2010. For
airlines, the future will hold many challenges. Successful airlines will be those that continue
to tackle their costs and improve their products, thereby securing a strong presence in the
key world aviation markets.
Closing Thought
Tourism and Travel Management today is a way of life of all individuals. A desire to
break from routine or to look forward to a better life, travel has always remained a constant
joy ever since intelligent life came into being. India has a bright future in the area of tourism
and has a kaleidoscope of sights and products to offer to visitors. Realising this Government
of India is taking keen interest to develop facilities to attract tourists from world over.

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Self Assessment Questions

1. Explain the role of Air Transport in India and tourism development in India with
bottlenecks we face today?
2. Describe how Travel & Tourism competitiveness enablers and change drivers which
affects Indian Air tourism.
3. Briefly explain the growth of Aviation business in India.
4. List down the six freedoms of the air concept.
5. Write short note on Official airline guide
6. Explain Trace out the history of OAG. How it helps consolidation of air traffic.
Illustrate with suitable diagram.
7. Explain the need for three letter city and airport code. Give suitable examples.
8. What do you understand the Minimum connecting time in airline operations?
9. What are Global indicators? State its usefulness in airline business.
10. What are the problems involved in fixing air tariff? What are the methods adopted
by different airlines?
11. What are baseline for fixing the airline prices
12. Write short note on NUC conversion factors
13. List different type of Airfare.
14. What is itinerary by air? What are the steps involved in it?
15. Define Extra Mileage Surcharge (Ems)
16. Describe IATA codes
17. Define IATA areas
18. Explain IATA terms and definitions
19. Identify fare types
20. Select the most appropriate fare for a given itinerary/journey
21. Construct basic fares using the mileage system
22. Identify baggage allowances, taxes, fees and charges

****

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UNIT - IV

Types of Journey, Restrictions and Travel Procedures

Learning Objectives
On completion of this unit a learner should:
Understand airfare terms and definitions
Be able to construct fares for journeys that include more than one class
Be able to construct fares for journeys that are via a city which has a higher fare
Be able to construct fares for journeys that include visiting the same city more than
once
Be able to construct Special Fares
Be able to calculate backhaul and circle trip minimum checks.
Be able to construct fares using various breakpoints.
Introduction
The world is a book and those who do not travel read only one page.-St. Augustine
Tourism today is the most vibrant activity and a multi-billion industry in India.
Traditionally known for its historical and cultural dimensions, tourism is being highlighted
for its business opportunities. With its lucrative linkages with transport, hotel industry etc.,
the potential and performance of Indias tourism industry needs to be gauged in terms of
its socio-economic magnitudes. Tourism has a direct bearing on air transport. 90% of the
tourists arriving into India come by air; however Indias share in the world tourist traffic
is less than 1%. Further Indias share of total world international air passengers traffic
has been quite low at 3%. The majority of business organizations such as travel agents,
meeting planners, and other service providers including accommodation, transportation,
attractions and entertainment are classified as travel and tourism business. In practice,
these organizations are closely linked in the provision of services to the travellers. Tourism
is so vast, so complex, and so multifaceted that the practitioners need to obtain a wide
range of knowledge related to tourism.

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Tourism accounts for one-third of the foreign exchange earnings of India and
employs large number of people compared to other sectors. According to the World Tourism
Organization, by the year 2020, it is expected that India will become the leader in the tourism
industry in South Asia, with about 8.9 million arrivals. According to provisional statistics
6.29 million foreign tourists arrived in India in 2011, an increase of 8.9% from 5.78 million
in 2010.
This ranks India as the 38th country in the world in terms of foreign tourist arrivals.
Domestic tourist visits to all states and Union Territories numbered 1,036.35 million in
2012, an increase of 16.5% from 2011.The most represented countries are the United States
(16%) and the United Kingdom (12.6%). In 2011 Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Delhi
were the most popular states for foreign tourists. Domestic tourists visited the states Uttar
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu most frequently.
Chennai, Delhi, Mumbai and Agra have been the four most visited cities of India
by foreign tourists during the year 2011. Worldwide, Chennai is ranked 41 by the number
of foreign tourists, while Delhi is ranked at 50, Mumbai at 57 and Agra at 65 and Kolkata
at 99. The World Travel &Tourism Council calculated that tourism generated INR6.4
trillion or 6.6% of the nations GDP in 2012. It supported 39.5 million jobs, 7.7% of its total
employment. The sector is predicted to grow at an average annual rate of 7.9% from 2013
to 2023. This gives India the third rank among countries with the fastest growing tourism
industries over the next decade. Healthcare tourism is on the rise in India wherein visitor
can avail several private healthcare facilities. The number of tourists visiting India for
medical treatment is expected to reach one million by 2012, representing a Compounded
Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 28.09% since 2007 and is expected to reach about 95 billion
by 2015. Throughout its history, Indian Airlines offered efficient, timely and professional
services, along with looking after every requirement of passengers. The airline takes several
steps to make travelling safe, simple and timely. It offers a range of facilities like baggage
allowance, flight status and schedule, which proves beneficial for travellers. These options
also include web check in and online ticket booking facilities that save significant amount
of time of travellers. All these information assist passengers in planning their trip well; for
example, if they know how much baggage is allowed without paying any money, they would
pack accordingly. Also, knowing about the status of the flight, either scheduled or delayed,
they can leave for airport on-time. Travellers can access all the details on the website as well
as contact the customer care in different cities for getting their query resolved or obtaining
requisite information.
The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2013 ranks India 65th out of 144
countries overall. The report ranks the price competitiveness of Indias tourism sector 20th

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out of 144 countries. It mentions that India has quite good air transport (ranked 39th),
particularly given the countrys stage of development, and reasonable ground transport
infrastructure (ranked 42nd). Some other aspects of its tourism infrastructure remain
somewhat underdeveloped however. The nation has very few hotel rooms per capita by
international comparison and low ATM penetration. As per the UNWTO World Tourism
Barometer, December 2013, Indias rank in the World Tourism Receipts during 2012 was
16th and rank in international tourist arrivals was 41. The rank of India was 7th among Asia
and the Pacific Region in terms of tourism receipts during 2012.
The Ministry of Tourism designs national policies for the development and
promotion of tourism. In the process, the Ministry consults and collaborates with other
stakeholders in the sector including various Central Ministries/agencies, state governments,
Union Territories and the representatives of the private sector. Concerted efforts are being
made to promote new forms of tourism such as rural, cruise, medical and eco-tourism. The
Ministry also maintains the Incredible India campaign.
Indias rich history and its cultural and geographical diversity make its international
tourism appeal large and diverse. It presents heritage and cultural tourism along with
medical, business, educational and sports tourism.
Top 10 States of India Tourism
Share of Top 10 States/Uts of India in Number of
Foreign Tourist Visits in 2011 (Provisional)
State/Union Territory

Number

Share in %

Maharashtra

4,815,421

24.7

Tamil Nadu

3,373,870

17.3

Delhi

2,159,925

11.1

Uttar Pradesh

1,887,095

9.7

Rajasthan

1,351,974

6.9

West Bengal

1,213,270

6.2

Bihar

972,487

5.0

Kerala

732,985

3.8

Karnataka

574,005

2.9

10

Himachal Pradesh

484,518

2.5

Total of top 10 states 17,565,550

90.1

Others

1,929,329

9.9

Total 19,494,879

100

Rank

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Share of Top 10 States/Uts of India in Number of

Domestic Tourist Visits in 2011 (Provisional)
Number

Share in %

1 Uttar Pradesh

155,430,364

18.3

2 Andhra Pradesh

153,119,816

18.0

3 Tamil Nadu

137,512,991

16.2

4 Karnataka

84,107,390

9.9

5 Maharashtra

55,333,467

6.5

6 Madhya Pradesh

44,119,820

5.2

7 Rajasthan

27,137,323

3.2

8 Uttarakhand

25,946,254

3.0

9 West Bengal

22,256,968

2.6

21,017,478

2.5

Total of top 10 states

725,981,871

85.3

Others

124,874,769

14.7

Total

850,856,640

100

Rank

State/Union Territory

10 Gujarat

(Source: Tourism statistics, GoI)

The sectors performance over the past decade has been quite promising as is evident
from the following figures. Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) in India between January and
June, 2000 2011 are given below.

(Source: Tourist Statistics, GoI)

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The 7 Stages Of Tourist Development:

1. Exploration - A small number of tourists visit the area. The area is un spoilt and few
tourist facilities exist.
2. Involvement - Local people start to provide some facilities for tourists. There starts
to become a recognised tourist season.
3. Development - The host country starts to develop and advertise the area. The area
becomes recognised as a tourist destination.
4. Consolidation - The area continues to attract tourists. The growth in tourist numbers
may not be a fast as before. Some tensions develop between the host and the tourists.
5. Stagnation - The facilities for the tourists may decline as they become old and run
down. The numbers of tourists may decline too.
6. Rejuvenation - Investment and modernisation may occur which leads to
improvements and visitor numbers may increase again.
7. Decline - If the resort is not rejuvenated (stage 6) then it will go into decline. People
lose their jobs related to tourism. The image of the area suffers.

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Air-India consistently upgraded its technology both in the Air as well as on ground
absorbing the latest state of the technological advancements. At the time of nationalisation
in 1953 the world trend was to have two airlines for a nation, one catering to domestic and
the other to international traffic. India also followed the same trend. However, technological
developments have erased these distinctions and virtually all countries have done away with
the two carrier model. The new technology has necessitated creation of new organisational
forms. Air transport is heavily dependent on technological developments in communications
which in turn is computer based and has global characteristics. Reservation systems and
communications have crossed national boundaries ink) global networks and systems. Huge
investments are required for such systems and it is impracticable to have such systems for
every airlines. Instead, specific agencies have come into existence providing specialised
services at nominal costs to airlines. Thus, technological advancements have compelled the
restructuring of Air India along with Indian Airlines and Vayudoot.
Transport service providers could be airlines, cruise lines, car rentals, and rail
companies. A tourists choice of transport would depend on the travel budget, destination,
time, purpose of the tour, and convenience to the point of destination. Accommodation
could be hotels and motels, apartments, camps, guest houses, lodge, bed and breakfast
establishments, house boats, resorts, cabins, and hostels. In addition, tourists also require

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catering facilities, which a variety of outlets for food and refreshments offer. These include
hotels, local restaurants, roadside joints, cafeterias, and retail outlets serving food and
beverages.

The Abcs of Airfares and Airline Management

He who does not travel does not know the value of men. Moorish proverb
Key Terms used
1. Travellers: Travellers are at the centre of the model where all tourism activities are focused.
Radiating from the centre are three large bands containing several interdependent groups
of tourism participants and organizations.
2. Tourism Promoters: Tourism promoters are in the first layer, in close contact with
the travellers. Organizations in this layer include tourism boards, direct marketing
companies, meeting planners, travel agents and tour operators. The tourism boards and
direct marketing companies provide information and marketing services to travelers
whereas travel agencies, tour operators and meeting planners provide services such as
making travel arrangements and giving professional advice on tourism related matters.
All these organizations usually deal directly with individual travellers.

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3. Tourism Service Suppliers: Tourism service suppliers, such as airline companies, bus
operators, railway corporations, cruise ship operators, hotels and car rental companies,
etc. usually provide services to travellers independently. The service suppliers may also
collaborate to provide tour packages for travellers by combining the various services
such as accommodation, air transportation, theme park entrance ticket, etc. The actual
movement of travellers is usually categorized as air, water, road, and rail. Transport
is acknowledged as one of the most significant factors to have contributed to the
international development of tourism. It provides the essential link between tourism
origin and destination areas. It also helps to facilitate the movement of travellers either
for leisure or business.
4. Round Trip: Travel from A to B then back from B to A using the same fare basis code.
Travel from a point and return thereto which involves only one crossing of the Atlantic
Ocean and only one crossing of the Pacific Ocean.
5. Routing: The routing rule lists the allowed connecting cities for travel from A to B for a
particular fare. Sometimes this rule indicates that travel must be nonstop. With respect
to a passenger, a change of route, fare, carrier, type of aircraft, class of service, flight or
validity from that originally provided in the appropriate transportation document.
6. Segment: A segment refers to a single flight with the same flight number. For example,
if you travel from A to B, change planes at B, and then travel from B to C, you will have
flown two segments. On the other hand, if you travel from A to C and the flight stops at
B, but you dont change planes, then your trip from A to C is one segment from the point
of view of fare rules. Note that the US federal segment tax defines both of these scenarios
as two segments.
7. Stopover: A stopover is loosely defined as a connection time exceeding 4 hours on a
domestic itinerary or 24 hours on an international itinerary. There are exceptions for the
last flight at night and also for the next scheduled flight (if none are scheduled within the
window), but the rule of thumb above is what holds true 99% of the time. Suppose you
were flying from New York to Los Angeles, and you wanted to stop and visit your aunt in
Indianapolis on the way. Such a visit would constitute a stopover in Indianapolis. Some
fares allow free stopovers, others allow stopovers for an additional fee, and many fares do
not allow stopovers at all. Now, your flight might be routed through Indianapolis anyway,
and you might even have to change aircraft there. You might think you could beat the
system by booking a connecting flight for the next day. You usually cannot do so, since if
you do not depart your intermediate point (Indianapolis) within 4 hours of your arrival
there, it would normally be considered a stopover. Therefore, such an arrangement would
not be allowed if the fare did not permit stopovers.

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8. Tourist - Someone who travels to and stays in a place that is not his or her usual place for
a short period of time.
9. Tourism: - All the activities that tourists take part in, and the services that support them.
10. Inbound Tourist: Someone travelling into our country.
11. Outbound Tourist: Someone travelling out of our country.
12. Domestic Tourist: Someone who travels within a country boundary.
13. International Tourist: Someone who travels across a country boundary.
Terms Related to Fare Rules - the Basics

Booking Code: What is the booking class required for booking this fare? Using
booking classes, the airlines control how many seats on each flight are available for
each fare. e.g. F,P,J,C,Y,B,M,Q,V,H,L

Res/Ticketing: When must the reservation is made? (e.g. 7,14,21 days in advance)
When must the ticket be issued? (e.g. 24 hours after making reservation) Usually the
earlier of the two deadlines takes precedence.

Minimum Stay: e.g. must stay over a Saturday night (often stated technically as
return travel valid on the 1st Sun after 12:01 am).

Maximum Stay: e.g. 30 days, 60 days, 365 days.

Day/Time: Some fares are only valid on particular days of the week, or at particular
times. For example, some fares are valid Mon-Thu only, or from 7 pm - 6 am only.

Season: Some fares, particularly overseas fares, have an associated season (e.g.
15SEP-12DEC). For overseas travel, usually the departure date determines the
season for the round trip fare.

Blackout: Dates some fare are not valid on certain dates - e.g. over a holiday weekend.

Eff/Exp: Effective/Expires: Many seat sale fares must be purchased by a certain

date. Find this date in this section of the rules.

Flt Appl: Certain fares are only valid for particular flights - e.g. nonstop only, or
flight 123 only.
There are a number of different types of transport modes: air, water, road and rail.
The various types of transport modes can be subdivided into:

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Business-class travellers have wide comfortable seats with plenty of legroom. They
can also enjoy good food, free drinks, and complimentary newspapers.

Economy-class travellers though have narrower seats, still are provided with suitable
services and meals.

In general, most of the airlines provide different classes on board; they are first,
business and economy class. Some airlines nowadays introduced premium economy
class. This class of service offers better individual service (e.g. more comfortable
seat) to passengers at a lower price comparing with business class service.
Types of Flights in Air Tourism
When booking a ticket, regardless of whether it is using a published or unpublished
fare, there are letters that are assigned to different fares. These letters indicate the class of
service, not simply indicating economy or business class, but rather the type of fare that
was purchased.
1. Scheduled flights: It refers to those flights operated regularly according to a published
timetables and fares. Irrespective to the number of passengers to be carried on any
one flight, they serve on a routine basis.
2. Non-scheduled flights also known as charter flights do not operate on any set
schedule or have predetermined fare structure charter flights could go anywhere and
at any time when scheduled service do not covered, and very often they supplement
the service on regular routes during peak seasons.

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What is an air fare?

There are many types of airline tickets. The consumer can usually choose between
economy and first class, and this affects the comfort of the seat and other amenities. Tickets
can also be purchased to fly to a single destination and offer no way to return to the original
location, or they can be purchased as a round-trip package. When children are flying, they
sometimes have the option to sit on the lap of a guardian or sit in a seat, both of which can
require different types of tickets.
Economy class tickets are normally the cheapest and most uncomfortable seating
option available on a commercial aircraft. Some low-cost airlines do not have a business
or first-class seating option, and thus economy class is the only class available. Economy
seating is often uncomfortable for people with long legs or an above-average sized body.
Some such people find their knees jammed into the seat in front of them or have difficulty
sitting in the chair.
Air Fare can be defined as, the price a passenger pays in order to travel by air

Airfares are most often based on one-way or round-trip travel. Fares may be
published, unpublished and/or negotiated fares (corporations, or government agencies/
organizations may have fares negotiated with an airline at a lower rate). Unpublished fares
are also known as consolidated fares and are offered by consolidators or bucket shops.
How Are air Fares Determined?

Add-ons

Class

Marketing Decisions

Maximum Permitted (MPM)

Mileage

Profit Motives etc

Route Assignment

Stopovers

The Actual Cost of Service

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Types of ticket issued in air travel

1. First Class Ticket: First class ticket is form tickets that allow travel in first class.
First class travelers have access to spacious seating, quality food, drink and other inflight amenities, these tickets are often the most expensive type of ticket available.
First class ticket holders also have access to the airport lounge while waiting for
their flight and a variety of entertainment options on-board.
2. Business Class Ticket: This type of ticket allows the purchaser to sit in business class.
It is a ticket that provides travellers with a more comfortable travelling experience
than coach/economy. For example, one of the benefits of business class is increased
leg room. However, it does not have the features or luxuries that are available to
travellers carrying first class tickets.
3. Coach Ticket: Coach Tickets are a type of ticket in which fliers travel in coach
or economy class. This is the most basic means of travel and it is also the least
expensive. Holders of coach tickets are often given limited snacks and drink and
other comfort features such as leg room are limited.
4. Non-refundable tickets: This type of ticket is often purchased at a discount and is
not eligible for a refund. Travelers who are unable to travel on the date or dates that
are specified may request that the carrier transfer the ticket to another time. Rules
regarding transferring travel dates with non-refundable tickets may vary from one
carrier to another and a re-issuing fee or penalty may apply.
5. Refundable ticket: Refundable tickets are a ticket type that is eligible for a refund.
Travelers that request a refund are not charged a fee or penalty.
6. Domestic Sector Tickets: These days the number of domestic flight booking has
been increased a lot. Because most of the airlines provide low fares for domestic
sectors, so people started to travel by air for domestic travelling. Unlike early years
domestic flight booking is much easier now with the use of internet and online
domestic flight booking facilities. Passengers have the facility to compare domestic
airfares and they can make the most affordable domestic flight booking.

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7.International Sector Tickets: International air travel is playing a significant role

in the growth of Indian aviation sector. Boosted by dramatic economic growth and
income level of Indian passenger, the demand for international air travel in India
has risen considerably in the past few years.

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8. Refund of Tickets: Refund shall be processed as per the mode of payment made.
If the ticket has been paid for in cash, refund is by cheque; and if the ticket has
been paid for by credit card, a credit slip shall be issued. Tickets issued outside the
country will be refunded in the country where the ticket is purchased. The refund
with regard to a ticket issued by a travel agent can only be done through that travel
agent.
Airfare Based on Types Class
Aircraft are split up into different cabin sections, with different prices charged for
the product and service delivered. Imagine you were going to a music concert and there
were different prices of tickets on offer.
You might just want the cheapest or you might pay more to get a better view. The
same principle applies for air travel. The passenger chooses where to sit dependent on how
much they want to pay, and what service they require. Features of each cabin section:

The largest section of the aircraft on scheduled flights and normally the only service
provided on charter flights.

Adjustable seats.

Complimentary meal service (depending on length of flight).

Complimentary drinks service (drinks are chargeable by many airlines) including

charter.

Duty - free shopping on eligible routes (no duty free on flights within European
Union anymore).

In flight entertainment on long distance services.

Airlines have 3 travel classes: Economy, Business and First class. Within each travel
class there are different fare classes, indicated by letter codes and relating to ticket or
reservation restrictions.
Passengers within the same travel class receive the same quality of accommodation;
however, the price or restrictions they face for that accommodation will vary depending on
the fare class. Fare classes may also vary by how far ahead the ticket must be purchased, or
how long the length of stay is.

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For example, full fare economy class passengers (Y) are usually able to make changes
to their reservation, while discount economy class passengers in the lowest booking code
usually have tickets that are non-refundable, non-upgradeable, or non-changeable without
a fee.
Economy Class Codes

Full fare: Y, B

Standard fare: M, H, N

Special or discount fares: G, I, K, L, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X

Below are some examples of our engine participating airlines and their economy
classes starting with lowest?

AA - American Airlines: cons. Q, N, G; published S, N, V, L, M

AC - Air Canada: consolidator N, K ; published N, L, Q

AF - Air France: consolidator Q, L, V, T; published N, Q, L, V

AI - Air India: consolidator G, V, M, L, K, H, B

AS - Alaska Airlines/Horizon Air: published T, K, V, L, Q

AY - Finnair - Finland: consolidator O, T, P; published Q, L

AZ - Alitalia - Italy: consolidator N, T, V; published L, N, T

BA - British Airways: consolidator S, L, M, T; published Q, M, K, H

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CO - Continental Airlines: published T, S, L, Q, V

DL - Delta - USA: consolidator L, K, Q, H; published U, L, K

Lowest class economy consolidator rules, conditions and tips (unless otherwise
specified):

Capacity limitations: the number of seats available on a given flight for a specific
class will be determined by the carrier best judgment.

Flights departing on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday usually offer the
lowest fares (midweek fares). As a rule its more expensive to fly on a weekend than
a weekday (25 USD more each way).

Advance reservation and ticketing: reservations are required at least 7 days before
departure and ticketing must be completed within 3 days after reservation. 4. Most
low fares require that you stay over at least one Saturday night before your return
flight (or minimum stay 3 days).

Maximum stay: return travel must commence no later than 30 days after departure.
3 or 6 month tickets are more expensive.

Cancellations: ticket is non-refundable. Ticket may be refunded or used toward

the purchase of another ticket if due to illness/death of passenger or traveling
companion. A valid medical certificate or death certificate required.
The following is a list of the main types of published airfares - and are based on
round-trip or one-way travel:
1. APEX fares are discounted international fares. Such fares usually require tickets
to be purchased in advance (such as 7, 14, or 21 day minimum advance purchase),
and will have other restrictions - non-refundable, change fees are just a few of the
possible restrictions.
2. Discount Fares are fares that tend to have a smaller price tag, and are offered for
a limited time (seat sales would fall into this category). They usually have a long
list of restrictions such as specific travel dates, minimum and maximum stay (for
example, a minimum Saturday night stay, a maximum 30 day stay), etc. Unlike most
published fares, it is important to make sure that you are aware of the fare rules and
restrictions on discount (seat sale) fares. Keep a copy of the rules because seat sale
fares come and go quickly, and the rules and restrictions can be harder (sometimes
impossible) to retrieve online.

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3. Excursion fares are lower priced fares that involve restrictions like advance
purchase, time of year, minimum/maximum stay, etc. Unrestricted, Flexible, or Full
Fares are the titles given to the most expensive tickets.
4. Published fare: A fare that is available for purchase to anyone.
5. Unpublished fares are an entirely different beast. They may be seats that a
consolidator purchased and can offer at highly discounted rates. The fare rules
could literally contain anything from absolutely no changes allowed to free changes
as long as availability exists. They may or may not allow for advance seat selection
or the accumulation of frequent flyer miles.
6. Bereavement fares: A discounted fare offered to family members travelling because
of an imminent death or death in the family. Most airlines that offer bereavement
fares will require information about the situation. It also known as Compassionate
Fare. Where bereavement fares are offered for international travel, the value of the
discount may only be given upon return with death certificate because information
is harder to verify.
7. Joint fare: An agreement between certain airlines to charge specific fares when
a passenger uses more than one airline. These fares are agreed on by the airlines
involved and would be closer to the fares that could be charged if a passenger was
only travelling on one airline to get to their destination.
8. Weekend fares are examples of tickets with minimum and/or maximum stays. A
weekend fare will typically allow a passenger to begin travel on a Friday or Saturday,
and return Monday or Tuesday. In this example, the minimum stay would be a
Saturday night, with the maximum stay being the Monday or Tuesday.
9. Open ticket: A ticket with no date specified and the passenger books a flight when
ready to travel. These are usually full fare tickets, as opposed to a discounted,
restricted fare.
10. Unrestricted fare: A more expensive airfare that offers greater flexibility (allowing
changes, refunds, etc.).
One Way and Return Trip
One Way (OW): Any journey which, for fare calculation purposes, is not a complete
round trip, circle trip, or other than round trip/circle trip. One-way travel is when a fare
purchased for a seat on an aircraft travel without a return trip.

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This is a type of ticket for one direction of travel only. It is ideal for travelers who do
not require a return flight or for travelers who do not have an exact return date. Travelers
who purchase one-way tickets must purchase a second ticket for return travel. Round-trip
tickets are tickets that allow the purchaser to travel to their destination and then back again.
This type of ticket is for travelers who have plans to travel on specific dates. When the
journey is wholly domestic (all ticketed points on the journey are in the same country), a
journey where the destination point is not the same point as the origin. When the journey
is international (at least two ticketed points are in different countries), a journey where the
destination point is not in the same country as the origin point.
If you are just visiting, go round trip. When is a round trip not a round trip? When
its a circle or open-jaw itinerary. Thanks to the airlines complicated and arcane fare
structures, roundtrip flights almost always cost less than the sum cost of two one-way trips
on the same route. (Discount airlines are a notable exception to this rule.) And most round
trips go from Point A to Point B and back again.
Round Trip Journey
Return Journey, is defined as (a) travel from one point to another and return by the
same air route used outbound whether or not the fares outbound and inbound be the same,
or (b) travel from one point to another and return by an air route different from that used
outbound for which the same normal, through, one way fare is established.
A Round Trip (RT) is travel entirely by air from a point to another point and return
to the original point, comprising two half round trip fare components only.

A round trip has only two fare components

The outbound fare needs to be equal to inbound fare

The Unit Origin and unit Destination points are the same

For a journey with a single pricing unit, the COC is also the same as destination
country
Travel entirely by air from a point to another point and return to the original
point comprising two half round trip fare components only, for which the applicable half
round trip fare for each component, measured from the point of unit origin, is the same
for the routing travelled; provided that this definition shall not apply to round the world
travel. If the fares to be used differ through class of service/seasonality/day-of-week/carrier
variations, the outbound fare shall be used also for the inbound fare component for the
purpose of determining if the pricing unit is a round trip.
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A round the world ticket is a plane ticket allowing you to fly around the world,
usually over a period of up to a year and with between three and twenty stops at different
airports. A round-the-world ticket (also known as round-the-world fare or RTW ticket in
short) is a product that enables travellers to fly around the world for a relatively low price.
RTW tickets have existed for some time and in the past were generally offered through
marketing agreements between airlines on several continents. Now, they are almost
universally offered by airline alliances such as Sky Team, Star Alliance and One world,
or else by specialist travel agencies that will spend time helping customize a trip to the
consumers needs. An alternative for a round-the-world ticket is a continent pass.
Round-the-world tickets are priced according to travel class, origin of travel, number
of continents, mileage (usually between 30,000 and 60,000 km), and sometimes season of
travel. The traveller benefits from the large and optimized network of the airline alliance
and can often participate in the alliances frequent flyer programs, although Round-theworld tickets are usually subject to restrictions. The start and end of the journey almost
always have to be located in the same country and exactly one crossing each of the Atlantic
and Pacific must be included in the itinerary. The number of stops is usually restricted to
5-16, and backtracking between continents (especially Europe/Asia) is often restricted. The
dates and journey do not have to be pre-planned, but may be changed en route at a local
office of any airline in the alliance (although a change of destinations often results in an
additional fee, and if the next flight is left open-dated the booking can be dropped by the
airlines computers).
Around-the-world travel isnt just for the young or the independently wealthy.
Students, retirees and even working folks with a few weeks of vacation time can take
advantage of the convenient pricing and flexibility of around-the-world tickets. You can
travel around the world for nearly any length of time, from a few days to a few years. Your
trip can involve a couple of brief stops or dozens of stopovers and side trips. And it neednt
cost as much as you might think. Economy-class fares for the most basic around-the-world
itineraries start around $1,500.An around-the-world ticket is a special fare (or a series of
point-to-point tickets) that allows you to fly to multiple cities and continents. These tickets
are sold through airline alliances and agencies that specialize in around-the-world travel,
and they can help you save money and organize your itinerary. Read on for a run-down on
where to buy your tickets, how they work and what they cost.
When to Consider an Around-the-World Ticket?
Consider an around-the-world ticket if youre travelling to multiple continents
within the same trip. Plot out your preferred countries or cities, along with a rough idea of

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how long youd like to spend in each place, and then turn to one of the travel agent for help
in planning your itinerary.
Who Offers Around-The-World Tickets?
There are two main types of around-the-world ticket providers: airlines and
specialist agencies. Airlines: The three global airline alliances allow you to link together the
routes of any member airlines to create one continuous global trip. Each alliance offers at
least one around-the-world ticket option. Fares are calculated based on the total mileage of
your trip or the number of continents you visit. You are permitted anywhere from 3 to 15
stopovers in a period of 10 days to a year. You will typically need to reserve the first leg of
your journey in advance, but after that you may leave your travel dates open. There may be
restrictions on which direction you can travel (some fares require that you travel only in a
single direction, either east to west or vice versa), or how many miles you can fly.
One advantage of booking your around-the-world ticket through an airline alliance
is that youll be eligible to earn frequent flier miles toward the airline loyalty program
of your choice. Rather than buying separate flights from one destination to another, a
flexible and sometimes cheaper way of international travel is via Round the world (RTW)
tickets. Round the world tickets usually cost far less than the sum of the one-way tickets
between each set of individual stops. These tickets are usually slightly more expensive than
a return ticket between destinations on opposite sides of the world (London and Sydney for
example), but if you were planning two or more stops then you may find that around the
world ticket is the cheapest option, and allows you at least a side trip. Many travelers plan
entire holidays using a round the world itinerary.
The following are the benefits of using round the world ticket. They are:
1. Creative Opportunities to Travel
2. Freedom and Flexibility
3. Miles and Elite Status
4. One Full Year
5. Tremendous Value
Not Quite Round-the-World- Some Airline Service Offer
If you want to do a long, circular itinerary that isnt quite all the way around the
world, there are a number of interesting alternative options also available:

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One world Circle Asia & South West Pacific- 13,000 to 17,000 miles around Asia
and Australasia.

One world Circle Atlantic- 17,000 to 25,000 miles around the Atlantic. Travel is
between cities in USA, Canada, Mexico, South America and Europe/Middle East.

One world Circle Pacific-22,000 to 29,000 miles around the Pacific Rim, covering
Asia, Oceania, North America and South America.

One world Circle Trip Explorer- A do-it-yourself kind of fare where you pay for the
number of continents visited (minimum three, maximum four). Note that a stop in
Africa is obligatory.

Star Alliance Circle Asia- 15,000 or 18,000 miles all around Asia. Your journey
must cover all three regions, defined as South-West Pacific, North Asia and
South-East Asia.

Star Alliance Circle Pacific- Allows you to loop around the Pacific Rim, for a total
trip of 22,000-26,000 miles. Excellent coverage in Asia, but in North America you
can only visit Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Honolulu and Vancouver.
One can understand how it is classified i.e based on region and topography it is fixed.
The following table illustrates clearly different region for fare construction. Continents for
the purpose of this fare are defines as:

Europe

Europe and the Middle East, including Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan
and Tunisia

Africa

All countries of Africa excluding those listed above.

Asia

All countries in Asia, including the Indian subcontinent

South Pacific

Southwest Pacific, including Australia, New Zealand and Papua New

Guinea

North America

North America, including Canada, the United States, the Caribbean,

Mexico, Central America and Panama

South America All South American countries south of Panama

Circle Trip Journey
A Circle trip (CT) involves travel from a point and return thereto by a continues,
circuitous air route, including journeys comprising two fare components but which do not
meet the conditions of the round trip definition
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Circle trip may have two or more fare components unless used for special fares

Circle Trip- Special fares cannot have more than two international fare components

For components that ends in the country of origin, use the fares in the reverse
direction
Travel from A to B then back from B to A using different fare basis codes -OR Any
trip involving a stopover in addition to the ultimate destination (e.g. A>B, B>C then
C>A using the same or different fare basis codes).

Concept of Open Jaw Fare

Definition of Open Jaw
A flight itinerary where the departure city is different on the way out than the return.
Or alternatively, the destination city that a passenger arrives in is different than the one
that is departed from on the return portion of a flight itinerary. An example would be a
traveler starting at New Yorks LaGuardia flying into San Francisco International, and then
returning to Washington Dulles airport instead of New York.
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Open Jaw Journeys: Single Open Jaw (SOJ) - Which contains one surface sector
A. Turnaround Single Open Jaw: The outward point of arrival and inward point of
departure are different
B.

Origin Single Open Jaw: The outward point of departure and inward point of arrival
are different

An open-jaw ticket is a round-trip ticket in which the traveller does not arrive to
the same city of departure and/or does not depart from the same city where he first
landed. The path-lines between the airports form an open angle, rather than a closed
loop, and the angle resembles an open Jawline. This is sometimes called an ARNK
(arrival unknown). The traveller will use some other transport to travel between the
airports. It is sometimes also called multi-city, but that might also be a ticket with
three flight legs forming a closed loop.

In some cases, this type of arrangement is needed for boat cruises that do not return
to the departure city. In other cases, the traveller wishes to explore between two
points and not have to worry about using time to return to the arrival city. For
example, a traveller might fly from London to Bangkok, travel around Thailand by
public transport and fly back home to London from Phuket. Another example would
be a traveller flying from New York City to San Francisco but then returning to
Washington, D.C. Open-jaw tickets are a flexible and relatively inexpensive way of
flying, as such tickets are almost always less expensive than purchasing two one-way
flights between the destinations visited.

Another market commonly travelled under an open-jaw itinerary is the one of local
one-way tours. Take, for example, a tour of Florida, where a traveller flying into
Jacksonville, Orlando, or Miami rents a car or joins a bus tour at their arrival airport,
and returns the car or ends the tour in the town from which they will be flying home.

An alternative to an open-jaw ticket is a continent pass, for travel within a continent.

Travel comprising only two international fare components with a surface break(s)
which, unless otherwise specified in a special fares resolution, may be between any two
points/countries in the area(s) of unit origin and/or turnaround for which the special fare
resolution applies and for which the fare is assessed as a single pricing unit using half round
trip fares. In this context;
1. For turnaround open jaw the outward point of arrival and the inward point of
departure are different, or
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2. For origin open jaw the outward point of departure and the inward point of arrival
are different, or
3. For single open jaw either a) or b) applies, or
4. For open jaw any combination of the above may apply
Open Jaw Normal Fare
Travel from one country and return thereto, comprising two international fare
components, only and where:
a) Origin open jaw: the outward point of departure in the country of unit origin and
the inward point of arrival in the country of unit origin are different. Travel from A
to B then from C to A, with no air ticket from B to C. Usually the distance BC must
be less than both AB and CA (i.e. the part without the air ticket must be shorter than
the shortest distance flown).

An open-jaw flight is one that, in the simplest terms, flies from Point A to Point B,
then from Point C back to Point A. Points B and C are often neighbouring airports, or at
least in the same general area. A sample open-jaw itinerary might be a flight from Atlanta
to Seattle on the way out and from Portland, OR to Atlanta on the way back. Another
open-jaw scenario is to fly into and out of the same destination city, but your starting and
finishing points are different, thus: Fly Point A to Point B; then fly Point B to Point C.
An open jaw is ideal for travelers who are planning to cover a lot of ground during their
trip and who dont want to waste time returning to their original airport. Perhaps you fly
into San Francisco and then drive down the coast of California to Los Angeles; an openjaw fare would allow you to fly home out of LAX instead of making your way back up to
San Francisco. Open jaws are also useful for cruise passengers whose sailings embark and
disembark in different ports. Despite the fact that an open-jaw itinerary isnt quite a classic
round trip, most airlines treat it as such and charge you half the roundtrip fare of what each
leg of the trip would cost you. So if the Atlanta - Seattle round trip would cost $400 and the
Portland - Atlanta round trip would cost $500, you end up paying $200 for the first leg and
$250 for the second leg, for a total of $450 roundtrip. The resulting total fare will typically
offer considerable savings over the cost of two separate one-way flights.
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There is such a thing as a double open jaw Point A to Point B on the way out,
and then Point C to Point D on the return. While this is usually more expensive than a
traditional open jaw, it may still save you money over two separate one-way flights.
b) T
 urnaround open jaw: the outward point of arrival and the inward point of departure
are different.
c) Double open jaw: the outward point of departure in the country of unit origin and
the inward point of arrival in the country of unit origin are different (origin jaw)
AND the outward point of arrival and the inward point of departure are different
(turnaround open jaw).
Normal Fare for Example
A fare established in the Resolution 040/050/060 series for intermediate, first or
economy class service and any other fare denominated and published as a normal fare (e.g.
C2, F2, Y2). Childrens fares and infants fares which are established as a percentage of the
fares referred to above are also considered to be normal fares.
The Circle
A circle itinerary typically begins and ends in the same city, but includes at least
three separate flights that take you to two or more different cities without the overland
portions of the open jaw. Example: Fly from New York to Detroit, then Detroit to Houston,
then Houston to New York. (Feel free to add Points D, E, F and beyond, but make sure you
start and end at your original city New York in this example.).Circle itineraries usually
permit a maximum of two stopovers and are priced as a series of one-way flights. (Circle
fares may not save you as much as an open jaw.) Still, circle fares qualify you for discounted
fares, and you may even find that the fares on the separate legs of your flight add up to less
than a pure roundtrip fare. This is especially true on popular long-haul routes.
Exceptions and Rules

Open Jaw: The most common restriction on an open-jaw itinerary is that the
segment of your trip that you dont fly (the Seattle-Portland leg in our example)
must be shorter than the shortest leg of the trip that you do fly. So, for example, if
you flew from Atlanta to Seattle, then drove cross-country to New York, then flew
back to Atlanta, you couldnt qualify for the open-jaw discount, as the distance from
Seattle to New York is much greater than the distance from New York to Atlanta.

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Circle Fares: Restrictions and rules on circle itineraries vary by airline, but usually
take one of the two following forms, both a variation on the old Saturday night
stay rules. The difference between the two is critical: in the first instance, the order
in which you visit the cities is extremely important. In the latter instance, it is much
less so. If your airline has different rules for different segments of your trip, the whole
trip will generally be subject to the most restrictive ones. So, for example, if one fare
requires a 14-day advance purchase and the other a 21-day advance purchase, youll
need to book 21 days ahead in order to get the discounted circle fare.
How to Find Open Jaw and Circle Fares
Most online booking engines and airline Web sites can recognize a circle or openjaw itinerary, and price them accordingly; just look for the multi-city search option. It
might still be worth checking with travel agent.
Points to Ponder

One-way Trip A trip from origin to destination with no return to origin

Round Trip A trip from origin to destination with return to origin. Flights follow
same route and use same carrier.

Circle Trip Same as round trip except one flight will follow a different route or
use a different carrier

Open Jaw A round trip where the passenger either departs for return trip from
a different airport or returns to a different airport.
Open Jaw Travel TO one city, return from another; or travel FROM one city, return
to another. For turnaround open jaw the outward point of arrival and the inward point of
departure are different. At least one segment must be half of a round-trip fare. For origin
open jaw the outward point of departure and the inward point of arrival are different. At
least one segment must be half of a round-trip fare. For single open jaw either the outward
point of arrival or the inward point of departure are different, or the outward point of
departure and the inward point of arrival are different.
At least one segment must be half of a round-trip fare. For open jaw both the
outward point of arrival and the inward point of departure are different, or the outward
point of departure and the inward point of arrival are different. At least one segment must
be half of a roundtrip fare. For double open jaw both the outward point of arrival and the
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inward point of departure are different, and the outward point of departure and the inward
point of arrival are different. At least one segment must be half of a round-trip fare.
Add-On Mixed Class Journey
A mixed class fare is a fare whereby the client on a through fare travels part of the
journey in one class, then changes to another class for the balance of the journey. This
change of class cannot take place in midair, but rather must occur at some intermediate
point. Consider the following mixed class example, in which there is a change of class in
Melbourne.
QF496 Y

MON

21MAR ADL/MEL

0600/0715

QF567 J

MON

21MAR MEL/SYD

1800/1930

As the journey will be completed on the one day and travel via Melbourne is
permissible enroute to Sydney, a through fare will apply. The change at Melbourne will
cause a special calculation of the fare to be charged, and this calculation is termed a mixedclass differential.
The mixed-class differential is calculated by:
1. T
 aking the lowest travelled class through fare from the point of origin to the final
destination and adding to this fare
2. T
 he difference between the higher fare and the lower class fare over the sector
travelled.
Example
Economy Class fare Adelaide to Sydney $435.60
Business Class fare Melbourne to Sydney $433.40 less
Economy Class fare Melbourne to Sydney $320.10
Difference $113.30
You would then add $435.60 + $113.30 = $548.90
General
1) M
 ixed class travel is when an itinerary involves travel in two or more classes of
service

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2) In assessing the fare for the mixed class transportation, special fares must not be used
3) Any stopover/transfer restrictions applicable to the through fare must be observed
4) D
 ifferentials are assessed in the same direction as the fare used for the lowest class
of service
5) W
 hen half RT fares are used, differentials are assessed using half RT fares; when OW
fares are used, differentials are assessed using OW fares
6) C
lass differential calculation is only subject to the HIP check, no further
minimumchecks apply
7) W
 hen comparing normal fares of the same class of service, in order to determine
the fares to be used in a class differential calculation, the following sequence shall
apply
If no sleeper seat fare, use first class fare;
If no first class fare, use intermediate/business class fare.
If no intermediate/business class fare, use economy class fare provided where more
than one economy class fare is published, use the highest economy class fare.
Fare Calculation
1) E
 stablish the fare for the itinerary in the lowest class of service used applying all
applicable fare construction checks
2) Establish whether as a result of 1) above the mixed class sector(s)
a. Apply within a fare component, or
b. Constitute an entire fare component, or
c. Constitute an entire pricing unit

If the mixed class sectors are WITHIN A FARE COMPONENT, the differential for
the sector(s) travelled in a higher class shall be the lowest of the following
a. T
 he difference between the lower class fare for the sectors flown in the higher class
and the fare for the higher class of travel on those sectors.
b. T
 he difference between the applicable fare for the fare component in the lower
class of service and the applicable fare for the fare component in the higher class of
service

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Example
Travel: LON Y/ BKK F/HKG Y/LON
If mixed class sector(s) are consecutive sectors within a fare component travelled in
a higher class of service, the difference shall be the lower of a. the difference between the
lowest applicable fare for the lowest class of service used and the lowest applicable fare for
the higher class of service used, or b. lowest applicable through fare for the lowest class of
service used for the sectors concerned and the lowest applicable through fare for the higher
class used for such sectors.
Mixed Class Fare Construction The procedure for calculating a mixed class fare is
in three specific stages:
Stage 1: Calculate the through fare, from origin to destination, for the lowest
class of travel. When carrying out this calculation apply any mileage surcharge as
appropriate.
Stage 2: For the sector(s) to be travelled in the higher class, deduct the lower fare,
from the higher fare. This gives you the differential. If there are two or more higher
fare sectors carry out a mileage check and apply any applicable mileage surcharge.
Stage 3: Add the amounts calculated in stages 1 and 2 above to arrive at the total
fare.
It is also necessary to apply what is termed a Minimum Fare or Through Fare
Check for the total fare, which ensures we are charging the correct fare for a traveller.
Simply put, if it is cheaper to travel the whole journey in the higher class then it makes
sense to administer this.
It is also necessary to apply what is termed a Minimum Fare or Through Fare
Check for the total fare, which ensures we are charging the correct fare for a traveller.
Simply put, if it is cheaper to travel the whole journey in the higher class then it makes
sense to administer this.

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Higher Intermediate Points (HIP)

Higher Intermediate Points
Construct fares in linear/automated format for one way and returns that include one
or more higher intermediate fares (HIFs) using HIF checks Add on fares: for one way and/
or return normal fare itineraries where add-on fares have to be applied either at original or
destination or both; apply rules and restrictions.
Surface sectors (open jaw): within one way and/or return normal fares and/or within
special fares as applicable; apply rules and restrictions. A place on an itinerary to which
there is a higher fare than the destination or next fare break point.
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HIP check for normal and special fares. The higher intermediate point check
applies to each fare component of all pricing units. (OW/RT/CT/RW/NOJ/OJ) as
follows: from fare component origin to each intermediate stopover point, from
each intermediate stopover point to each subsequent intermediate stopover point
(Note: This is for normal fares only and from each intermediate stopover point to
the subsequent fare break point.

HIP exceptions by countries: Africa For journeys wholly between Kilimanjaro and
Nairobi, HIP check will be for all ticketed points.
India: For traffic originating in India and destined to Canada/ USA, when stopovers
are taken in Europe or UK, higher intermediate fares shall not be applicable from points in
Europe/ UK to Canada/ USA.
Israel: For travel originating in Israel, HIPs will be checked for all ticketed points
from Israel. This does not apply to the HIP check from an intermediate point to another
intermediate point or the fare construction point, or to fares with specified routings.
Example
Travel: Tel Aviv-Frankfurt-X/London-New York.
The HIP check is TLV-FRA, TLV-LON and FRA-NYC. (LON-NYC is not checked.)
Malawi
For journeys originating in Malawi, the HIP check in each fare component shall be
applied on all ticketed points in Malawi.
Turkey
For travel between the Middle East and Turkey involving more than one point in
Turkey, any higher intermediate point in Turkey must be charged whether or not a stopover
is taken.
Western Africa
For journeys originating in Western Africa, the HIP check in each fare component
shall be applied on all ticketed points in Western Africa.

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HIP Check - Normal Fares-General Application

If in any routing permitted at the direct route normal fare there is a higher direct
route normal fare of the same class at an intermediate stopover point, the fare for the
component must be raised to the level of such higher fare.
Example
Travel: London- X/ Zurich-Nairobi Y class. No Stopover at ZRH.
Direct Fare
LON-NBO NUC 1703.16.
No stopover at ZRH so no HIP check is needed.
Total NUC 1703.16 multiplied by NUC Conversion Factor (ROE)
(NUC 1=0.60417) rounded to the nearest GBP 1 = GBP 1029.00.
Where fares are established by season or day of week or flight application, the check
will be based on the applicable fare (by season or by day of week or by flight application).
Day of week fare level: to establish the day of week fare level to be used for the HIP, the
rule for the application of the day of week fares applies only to the sector(s) for which the
check is made. The day of travel on such sectors is used to determine the day of week fare
level used for the HIP check.
Example
Routing: A B C D A
First fare component (A to C).

Fare A-C is a fare established using the day of week of the first international sector
A-B

Fare A-B is a non-day-of-week fare.

There are day-of-week fares B-C with the rule that the first international sector
determines the day of week fare to be applied.

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To establish the day-of-week fare level to be used for the HIP check on the sector
B-C the date of travel B to C will be used.
Second fare component (fare in the direction from A to C)

Fare A-C is a fare established using the day of week of the first international sector
A-D

Fare A-D is a non-day-of-week fare.

There are day-of-week fares D-C with the rule that the first international.

Sector determines the day-of-week fare to be applied.

To establish the day-of-week fare level to be used for the HIP check on the sector
C-D the date of travel C to D will be used.
Seasonal Fare Level
To establish the seasonal fare level to be used for the HIP, the rule for the application
of seasonal fares applies only to the sector(s) for which the check is made. The seasonal rule
for such sector is used to determine the fare level used for the HIP check
Example
Routing A B C B A
First fare component (A to C)

Fare A-C is a non seasonal fare

Fare A-B is a non-seasonal fare

There are seasonal fares B-C with the rule that the first international sector determines
the seasonal fare to be applied

To establish the seasonal fare level to be used for the HIP check on the sector B-C the
date of travel B to C will be used
Second fare component (fare in the direction from A to C)

Fare A-C is a non seasonal fare

Fare A-B is a non-seasonal fare

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There are seasonal fares B-C with the rule that the first international sector determines
the seasonal fare to be applied

To establish the seasonal fare level to be used for the HIP check on the sector C-B the
date of travel C to B will be used
When there is a fare construction surface sector, the HIP check applies to the point
of such surface sector that is not the fare construction point.
HIP Check - Special Fares-General Application
Having established an applicable special fare for a pricing unit, such special fare
may be applied subject to the following:
1. Price the fare as a normal fare.
2. Establish the lowest applicable level.
3. If there is no HIP between both fare construction point of the special fare and an
intermediate ticketed (stopover) point, the special fare may be applied If there is a
HIP between either fare construction point of the special fare and an intermediate
ticketed (stopover) point, the special fare shall not be less than such higher fare,
except; o if there is a special fare of the same type at the same level or a lower level
on the sector for which the normal fare applies, the special fare for the component
may be applied, or o if there is a special fare of the same type at a higher level on the
sector for which the higher normal fare applies, the special fare for the component
shall not be less than such higher special fare, or o if there is no special fare of
the same type on the sector for which the normal fare applies, the fare shall not
be less than the lowest of any higher type of special fare within the same column
shown in paragraph 4 below o in defining a fare of the same type, the comparison
shall be limited to the class of service. If there is more than one special fare of the
same type on the sector for which the higher normal fare applies, the fare with the
conditions most similar to those of the special fare for the component shall be used
in comparison.

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Higher Intermediate Point Fares (HIP)

There are times when certain anomalies appear in the calculation of airfares.
As an example, look at the following journeys:
Journey 1: SYD/TYO

-The airfare in Y class is -NUC 1609.53

Journey 2: SYD/TYO/SEL -The airfare in Y class is-NUC 1485.72

When comparing the 2 journeys above the anomaly is highlighted, which is the fact
that a passenger purchasing Journey 1 is not only travelling to the same city (TYO) as a
passenger in Journey 2, but also paying a more expensive fare than a passenger purchasing
Journey 2?
To balance these anomalies that may occur IATA (International Air Transport
Association) has introduced a number of checks know as Higher Intermediate Point Fare
Checks (HIP checks) which are as follows:
HIP Check 1 (Point of origin to all stop overs): the through normal fare between the
origin city and the destination city must not be less than the through normal fare between
the origin city to any intermediate stopover city in the same journey.
HIP Check 2 (All cities to destination): the through normal fare between the origin
city and the destination city must not be less than the through normal fare between any
intermediate stopover city in the same journey to the destination city.
HIP check 3 (All intermediate stop over cities to each intermediate stopover city
cross out the first & last city & check second city to each intermediate city, then the third
city the same way, etc until all checked): the through normal fare between the origin city
and the destination city must not be less than the through normal fare between any 2
intermediate stopover cities in the same journey.

DO NOT HIP Check transit points to other cities. i.e cities with an X in front of
them.

HIP Checking must always be done in the same direction as the travel calculation.

HIP Checking is done before any mileage surcharge is applied to obtain the total fare
charged for the journey.

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IF a HIP is found then this HIP fare replaces the through fare from Origin to
Destination.

IF MORE than 1 HIP is found, then the HIP that produces the highest airfare is
applied to the journey.

Record the HIP fare details opposite HIP on the Fare Calculation Sheet.

Any mileage surcharge (if applicable) is then applied to the established HIP fare that
REPLACED the previous through fare.

The final calculated fare (after applicable adjustments) is then recorded opposite
AF on the Fare Calculation Sheet.
HIPS and Mileage Surcharges
What happens when there is a mileage surcharge?
Where a fare has to have a mileage surcharge applied, it is applied to the HIP. As an
example look at the journey LON-MAN-BRU-ROM.

The HIP is increased by 15% to find the total fare.

The Linear fare format is shown like this:
LON BA MAN BA BRU AZ ROM15M BRUROM777.19NUC777.19END
ROE0.617797. You might have been surprised to see that BRU-ROM was a HIP. The
distance is considerably less than from MAN. In many cases travel from the UK via Belgium
(and many other western European countries) will result in a HIP - even for relatively short
journeys. Again, with experience you will become adept at spotting these.
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Higher Intermediate Point (HIP) Processing

As fare construction rules no longer require the use of international sales indicators,
there is a change to HIP processing. The HIP check now only applies to stopover points for
all transactions, and the point of sale or ticketing is no longer a factor in determining how
the HIP check should be performed.
Important Note
The HIP check no longer applies to connecting points. Previously this was required
where tickets were issued outside the country of commencement of travel, formerly SITO
or SOTO.
Normal Fares
The HIP check applies to all normal fare transactions for each fare component. You
must check for higher fares within each fare component, in the direction of the fare applied
from:

Origin of the fare component to each intermediate stopover point

Each intermediate stopover point to another intermediate stopover point

Each intermediate stopover point to destination of the fare component

Special Fares

The HIP check applies to all special fare transactions for each fare component. You
must check for higher fares within each fare component, in the direction of the fare applied
from:

Origin of the fare component to each intermediate stopover point

Each intermediate stopover point to destination of the fare component

Points to Ponder

HIP checks are first processed for normal fares in the same class of service. No
special fare HIP is required if there is no HIP at the normal fare level.

There is no requirement to check for a HIP between two intermediate points in a

fare component.
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HIP Check VS CTM Check

HIP procedures vary according to where the ticket is sold or issued for SITI / SOTI
fares.If in any routing permitted at the direct Rout normal fare of the same class between
any 2 ticketed points, the fare for the component must be raised to the level of such higher
fare. Where fares are established by season or day of week or flight application, the check
will be based on the applicable fare. Mentioned below contains exceptions to the higher
intermediate point rule. Higher rated specified Via HIP points may by disregarded when
computing a fare between the appropriate points listed below. However, the following
conditions must be complied with:
1. Any expenses incurred by the passenger at the via HIP point (s) will not be absorbed
by the carrier.
2. No stopover is permitted at the via HIP point(s)
3. Passengers and baggage must be booked beyond the via HIP point(s)
Circle Trip Minimum Check (CTM)
A. The applicable fare for a circle trip (excluding any side trip which has been charged as
a separate pricing unit) must not be less than the direct rout normal or special RT fare (as
appropriate) for the highest rated pair of points applicable to the class of service used from
the point of unit origin to any stopover point on the rout of travel.
B. Different Global Indicators (GIS)
1. When there are RT fares with different global indicators from the point of unit
origin to any stopover point, the fare to be used for the CTM is the fare applicable
to the flown itinerary.
2. When the flown itinerary includes different global indicators (including round the
world travel), the fare must not be less than the lower of such RT fares from the
point of unit. C. When RT fares from the point of unit origin to any stopover point
differ according to carrier (s) used outbound and inbound, the fare to be used for
the CTM is the lower of such RT fares.
What is Round the World Minimum Check (RWM)?
The fare for a round the world trip (Excluding any trip which has been charged as
a separate pricing unit) must not be less than the direct rout normal or special RT fare (as

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appropriate) for the highest rated pair of points applicable to the class of service used from
the point of unit origin to any stopover point in the rout of travel. When there are RT fares
with different global indicators from the point of unit origin to any stopover point, the
fare to be used for the CTM is the fare applicable to the flown itinerary. When the flown
itinerary includes different global Indicators. The fare must not be less than the lower of
such RT Fares from the Point of unit origin. When RT fares from the point of unit origin to
any stopover point differ according to carrier (s) used outbound and inbound, the fare to be
used for the RWM is the lower of such RT fares.
Exceptions
The RWM check is not required for round-the-world travel originating in Australia/
New Zealand.
Country of Origin Minimum Check (COM)
When OW pricing unit are used and travel on the second or subsequent international
OW pricing Unit is routed via the country of unit origin of a previous OW pricing Unit,
whether or not a stopover is made in that country, the fare for such PU must not be less
than the highest international fare from any ticketed point in the country of unit origin of
a previous PU to any other ticketed point in such pricing Unit.
Directional Minimum Check (DMC)
The DMC applies to SOTI / SITO / SOTO transactions.
Normal OW fare components:

The applicable fare to be charged must not be less than the direct route OW fare for
the highest rated pair of points applicable in either direction for the class of service
used between any ticketed points within the fare components.

Where more than one normal fare is published for the carrier and class of service
used, the lower / lowest level may be used.
Fare Calculation: Steps Involved
Find ticket point mileage (TPM) of whole itinerary and add them.

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Fare Check Rules Adopted

Check origin / Destination Fare (O/D), No HIP/HIF involved.

Check Origin / Intermediate fare, if the intermediate fare is higher than One-way
backhaul / Backhaul check (OBC/BHC) check is mandatory.

Note: if OBC / BHC is applied then check 3 & 4 is not required

Check Intermediate / Intermediate (I/I) point fare.
Check Intermediate / Destination point fare.
Calculate the fare
Take Difference of higher class sectors.
Make FCR if difference of sectors
Calculate the fare of these sectors (2nd FCR)

OW RT
1. TPM 1. Check for Turnaround point
2. FCR 2. Division of Outbound / Inbound
3. Fare Calculation 3. Add Ticketed Point Mileages.
4. Make Ticket 4. Apply Fare Check Rules.
5. Fare Calculations

ONE WAY JOURNEY

Example of: Direct Route
Routing: KHI PK DXB TKTG
Point Mileage - KHI - DXB 740
Fare Calculation: Reflection on Ticket
From / To KHI Carrier Fare Cale DXB PK 207.73
IROE PKR 60.30463
Total Fare Cale 207.73 - Total PKR 12530

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One Way Journey - Indirect Rout

Example of: Mileage Principle without Surcharge
Routing: NYC vs LON PAR pk KHI
TPM Calculation - TKTG Point Mileage NYC LON 3458 PAR 220 KHI 3807 Total
7485
Fare Calculation - ISI SITO, FCP NYCKHI, NUC 1358.00 YOW, RULE NIL MPM
9101 AT, TPM 7485, EMA NIL, EMS NIL, HIP NIL, HIF NIL, RULE NIL AF 1358.00,
CHECK NIL, TOTAL 1358.00, IROE 1.00 LCF 1358.00 X 1.00, 1358.00, USD 1358

One Way Journey - Indirect Rout

Example of: Excess Mileage Allowance
Routing: BGO YY OSL YY CPH YY BRU
TPM Calculation - TKTG Point Mileage, BGO, OSL 188, CPH 306, BRU 469,
Total 963
Fare Calculation - ISI SOTI, FCP BGOBRU, NUC 644.63 YOW, RULE NIL MPM
783 EH, TMP 963-195=768, EMA 195, EMS NIL, HIP NIL, HIF NIL, RULE NIL
AF 644.63, CHECK NIL, TOTAL 644.63, IROE 6.66271, LCF 644.63 X 6.66271
4294.98 R5, NOK 4295.00
Reflection on Ticket - From / to BGN Carrier Fare Cale, OSL YY E / ***, CPH YY
M BRU YY 644.63, IROE 6.6627, Total Fare Cale 4294.98, Total NOK 4295

One Way Journey - Indirect Route

Example of: Excess Mileage Surcharge
Routing: TYO JL SEL KE TPE PR MNL
Fare Calculation - ISI SOTO, FCP TYOMNL, NUC 876.39 YOW, RULE NIL, MPM,
EH 2254, TPM 2401, EMA NA, EMS 10M, HIP NIL, HIF NIL, RULE NIL, AF 964.029,
Check NIL, Total 964.029, IROE JPY 120.131767, LCF 964.029 X, 120.131767,
115810.507 R10, JPY 115900
Reflection on Ticket - From / To - TYO Carrier Fare Cale, SEL JL, TPE KE 10 M, MNL
PR 964.029, IROE JPY 115900, Total Fare Cale 832.86, Total JPY 115900
TPM Calculation - TKTG Point Mileage, TYO, SEL 759, TPE 911, MNL 737, Total
2401

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Formula to Calculate Extra Mileage Surcharge

Divide the sum of TPM by MPM if result is over but not higher than Surcharge fare by
1.00
1.05
5
%
1.05
1.10
10
%
1.10
1.15
15
%
1.15
1.20
20
%
1.20
1.25
25
%
If over 25 % use lowest combination
Back Haul Minimum Check (Bhc)
Definition of Backhaul Check
It can be defined as, In airline ticketing, the process of checking fares to all stops on
an itinerary to make sure that the highest possible fare is charged. This is done to prevent
passengers from booking a flight to a cheaper destination via a higher priced destination
and then deplaning at the higher priced destination. Also it is referred to as one-way
backhaul check.
The backhaul check in airfares is about the following: when you travel from your
origin city via another city to your final destination and this other city is farther away from
your origin than your final destination, the chance exists that the airfare to that other city
is more expensive than the fare to your destination. In airfare construction your initial fare
is calculated between origin and destination.
So you could cheat the airline by buying a ticket from London to Hamburg via Berlin
(Berlin is farther from London than Hamburg and the fare is probably more expensive).
So when you leave the plane is Berlin, you have flown that at the fare London - Hamburg.
However, the airlines do know this trick also, so they have devised the back-haul check
(in full the One-Way Backhaul Check): If there is between your point of origin (London)
and your final destination (Hamburg) a point in your itinerary with a higher fare (Berlin),
than this higher fare must be charged. This rule applies only when you make a stopover
(interruption of your journey of more than 24 hrs) in that intermediate city.

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This IATA rule states that......

For a one-way journey with a HIP from origin, the fare charged must not be less than:

The applicable one-way fare to the HIP from origin (without surcharge) PLUS

The difference between the HIP from origin, and the origin to destination fare
(both un-surcharged). The minimum fare to charge for a one-way journey
including a HIP from origin is not published, so we have to carry out a further
calculation to establish it. This is known as is the one-way backhaul check
(BHC).

Thus, it makes sure that the fare was purchased at the higher price for that routing
when a roundtrip ticket connects through a HIP city. Whereas, the minimum fare to charge
for a one-way journey including a HIP from origin is not published, so we have to carry out
a further calculation to establish it. Despite the capital investments on aircrafts, hotels and
attractions, it is the people (the service providers) that make the difference.

One-way backhaul check rule (OWB or BHC): construct fares for one way journeys
with one or more higher intermediate points where the higher intermediate fare
check (HIP) results in a HIP from the point of origin resulting in the application of
the one way backhaul check rule (OWB or BHC)

Circle trip minimum fare check rule: construct fares for return journeys with one or
more higher intermediate points where the higher intermediate fare check (HIP)
results in a HIF from the point of origin resulting in the application of the circle trip
minimum fare check rule (CTM)
Indirect Travel Limitation
The first part of this rule states:
A fare component must not include more than:
a. One departure from the point of origin
b. One arrival from the point of origin, or
c. One stopover at any one intermediate ticketed point

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These three limitations refer to a fare component. The first limitation says that it is
possible to have only one departure from the point of origin in a fare component. Consider
the following economy journey:
Sydney Melbourne Sydney Honolulu
The first limitation prevents us from making the complete journey in one fare
component, as we are making a second departure from Sydney, after having stopped over
in Melbourne. In order to maintain this itinerary, we would have to break it into two
components, namely:
Sydney Melbourne & Melbourne Honolulu
In both components, the direction of fare is the same as the direction of travel. To
clarify, for the first component, we would calculate the fare from Sydney to Melbourne
and for the second, Melbourne to Honolulu. The second limitation states that we are only
allowed to have one arrival at a destination. Consider the following economy journey:
Sydney Paris Amsterdam Paris
The second limitation would not allow us to do this itinerary as one component,
from Sydney through to the second stop in Paris. Again, in order to do the itinerary, we
would have to create two components, as follows:
Sydney Amsterdam and Amsterdam Paris
In both components, the direction of fare is the same as the direction of travel.
The third limitation restricts us to having only one stopover at any one ticketed
point in a fare component. Before we consider this, lets just clarify some of the terms we
use. You must ensure that you understand the difference between the following:

Ticketed points

Stopovers

Transfer points
Ticketed points are any points that actually appear on a ticket (ticketed points always
appear as part of the fare calculation)- they can be either stopovers or transfer points. A

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stopover occurs when a passenger breaks the journey at an intermediate point and is not
scheduled to depart on the day of arrival, or within 24 hours of their arrival at that point.
A transfer occurs when a passenger breaks the journey at an intermediate point, changes
aircraft and departs within 24 hours of arrival. For Canada and USA and for Denmark,
Norway and Sweden to be considered one country, this rule does not apply.
General Limitations
A fare component must not include more than:

One departure from its point of origin, or

One arrival at its point of destination, or

One stopover at any one intermediate ticketed point

Additional limitations at the origin point
For Journeys Originating in Area 1
A fare component within Area 1 must not include more than one international
departure and one international arrival at any ticketed point in the country where the
journey originates.
Example
POA-BUE-SAO-NYC: there are 2 international departures from Brazil, the use of
through fare is not permitted.
Additional limitations at intermediate points: For TC1 or TC31 (via the Pacific)
fare components, no more than one arrival and one departure at any intermediate ticketed
point may be included, regardless of where travel commences.
Additional Limitations by Country

Brazil (except journeys wholly within South America)

For a pricing unit commencing in Brazil a component from a point in Brazil must
not include more than 2 domestic sectors in Brazil.

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Examples
1. BSB RIO NYC at a through fare BSB NYC is permitted
2. POA RIO SSA LIS at a through fare POA LIS is permitted
3. FLN X/CWB IGU X/SAO LON at a through fare FLN LON is not permitted.
The first international fare component must be assessed from CWB and FLN CWB
charged separately.
Germany
For a pricing unit originating in Germany a fare component from/to a point in
Germany must not include more than 2 domestic sectors in Germany.
Journey
A journey on a ticket or conjunction ticket, at the time of original issue or when
reissued, must not include more than four international arrivals and four international
departures in any one country; provided for the counting of arrivals and departures surface
sectors are considered to be flown. Example: AMS-CAI-RTM-LON-AMS-DXB-AMS-JNBAMS-BAH. This journey is not allowed to have five international departures from the
Netherlands
Round the World Fare Examples From Star Alliance Airlines
Dream of flying around the world? Enjoy a day in Prague and then show up for
dinner in Paris. Why not visit a tailor in Hong Kong for next weeks business luncheon
in Mexico City? Now theres a better way to actually make it happen. With SkyTeams Go
Round the World, youll only need one ticket to fly around the globe. Use the Round the
World Planner to plan and book your trip.
Company Adopted with Some Terms and conditions Namely

Flight Applicability

Fare calculation and booking classes

Surcharges on selected flights and routes

Upgrade/Downgrade of Round the World fare

Surcharges on selected flights and routes

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Special Booking Classes

Reduced fares for children

Flight Applicability
Star Alliance Round the World fare applies for round the world travel from and to
countries which are served by the following Star Alliance member carriers: Adria Airways,
Aegean Airlines, Air Canada, Air China, Air New Zealand, ANA, Asiana Airlines, Austrian,
AviancaTaca, Brussels Airlines, Copa Airlines, Croatia Airlines, Ethiopian Airlines, EVA
AIR, EGYPTAIR, LOT Polish Airlines, Lufthansa, Scandinavian Airlines, Singapore
Airlines, Shenzhen Airlines, South African Airways, SWISS, TAM Airlines, TAP Portugal,
THAI, Turkish Airlines, United and US Airways. Round the World fares are offered on
all Star Alliance operating and code-shared flight numbers including flights operated by
regional partner airlines. Our member airlines do however have the right to exclude single
flights from the Round the World fare.
As Star Alliance member carriers can limit the number of passengers carried on any
given flight travelling on a Round the World fare, the flight you wish to take may be sold
out for this fare. Please note that, due to U.S. government restrictions, a ticket that includes
travel to/from/via Cuba may not be sold in the USA nor originate in the USA nor include
flight segments for travel on United or US Airways operated or marketed flights. Such
ticket cannot be sold to US citizens and cannot be issued on United or US Airways ticket
stock. Destinations in Cuba cannot be purchased online via the Star Alliance Book and
Fly tool. Residents of Cuba, Ghana, Nigeria and Venezuela are asked to contact a member
airline or a travel agent as Star Alliance Book and Fly does not support these countries.
Fare Calculation and Booking Classes
The applicable Round the World fare is determined by the total number of miles
of your planned trip as well as the country where your journey begins (country of origin).
The number of miles is based on IATA industry (International Air Transport Association)
standards (Ticketed Point Mileage Table): The Normal Round the Word fare includes up
to 29 000, 34 000 or 39 000 miles. The Special Economy Round the World fare includes up
to 26 000 miles. Please note that the Special Economy Round the World Fare is not offered
for travel originating in Japan. Applicable fees, taxes and surcharges will be added to the
selected Round the World fare. Round the World fares are available in First, Business and
Economy Class.

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Upgrade/Downgrade of Round the World fare

When a customer chooses to book a flight or a flight segment that is only available
in a lower cabin class than the desired cabin class (for example downgrading from First to
Business class or from Business to Economy class) no discounts or refunds will be applied
to the total price of the ticket. When a customer chooses to book a Round the World ticket
in Business class, but on a flight or a flight segment only a First class cabin is offered for Air
China, United or US Airways, an upgrade to First class free of charge will be offered should
there be seats available in the First class cabin. Round the World tickets may be upgraded
to a higher Round the World fare upon payment of the difference in fare, recalculated from
the point of origin plus an applicable rerouting fee.
Exception: On sectors within/between USA and Canada or within China where
Business Class is not offered, business passengers will be accommodated in First Class
subject to availability of seats at the time of booking. In case First Class seats are not offered
or not available, the passenger will be offered to choose an Economy Class seat. In that case,
no refund will apply.
Surcharges on Selected Flights and Routes
The following surcharges will be included in the total fare calculated by the Book
and Fly tool, where applicable: An Air Canada Business Class surcharge (Q-surcharge) of
USD 300.00 per sector is applicable for passengers booked in Z Class on Boeing B772LR or
Boeing B773ER when travel is between Montreal and Frankfurt / Paris. -Toronto and Hong
Kong / Paris / Frankfurt / Shanghai / Tokyo / Beijing/ London / Sydney-Vancouver and
Sydney / Hong Kong / London / Beijing / Shanghai / Tokyo.
A Singapore Airlines First Class surcharge is applicable for passengers booked in a
reduced First Class (A Class) on Airbus A380 and will be levied on First Class Round the
World passengers travelling on Singapore Airlines Airbus A380.
Route between

Surcharge per sector

Singapore and Hong Kong

700 USD

Singapore and Shanghai

700 USD

Singapore and Melbourne/Sydney

1100 USD

Singapore and Tokyo (NRT)

1100 USD

Frankfurt and New York

1100 USD

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Singapore and Paris (CDG) / Frankfurt / 2000 USD

London (LHR) / Zurich (ZRH)
Tokyo (NRT) and Los Angeles

2000 USD

Singapore and New York (JFK) / Los 2700 USD

Angeles (LAX)
A Singapore Airlines Business Class surcharge is applicable for passengers booked
in a reduced Business Class (D Class) on Airbus A380, Boeing B773ER or Airbus A340-500
and will be levied on Business Class Round the World passengers travelling on Singapore
Airlines Boeing B773ER, Airbus A380 or Airbus A345.
Route between

Aircraft type

Surcharge per
sector

Singapore and San Francisco / Los Angeles / B773ER/A380

Houston / Sao Paulo / New York

600 USD

Singapore and Los Angeles / New York(EWR)

A345

900 USD

Tokyo and Los Angeles

B773ER/A380

500 USD

Seoul and San Francisco

B773ER/A380

500 USD

Hong Kong and San Francisco

B773ER/A380

500 USD

Moscow and Houston

B773ER/A380

500 USD

Frankfurt and New York

B773ER/A380

500 USD

Barcelona and Sao Paulo

B773ER/A380

500 USD

Singapore and Paris / Milan / Barcelona / Zurich/ B773ER/A380

Frankfurt / London / Moscow / Manchester /
Munich / Amsterdam

500 USD

Singapore and Delhi / Mumbai

B773ER/A380

300 USD

Singapore and Hong Kong / Beijing / Shanghai

B773ER/A380

300 USD

Singapore and Tokyo / Seoul

B773ER/A380

300 USD

Singapore and Melbourne / Sydney/ Auckland

B773ER/A380

400 USD

Munich and Manchester

B773ER/A380

300 USD

Singapore and Dubai

B773ER/A380

400 USD

An Asian Airlines Business Class surcharge (Q-surcharge) of USD 620.00 per sector
is applicable for passengers booked in D Class on Boeing B772LR or Boeing B773ER when
travel is between Seoul and London / Los Angeles / San Francisco / New York.

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Special Booking Classes

SAS Round the World Economy Extra Class surcharge of USD 500.00 is required
for passengers booking in the full fare Economy (S class). This surcharge does not apply for
passengers holding a First or Business Class Round the World ticket.
Air New Zealands Pacific Premium Economy Class can be booked by passengers
with a Round the World Economy Class ticket for a surcharge of USD 400.00 for each
sector in booking class O except for USD 500.00 for each sector Auckland Los Angeles
and Los Angeles London and USD 1000.00 for the sector Auckland London.
Please note that all booking classes and all aircraft types are displayed in the Book
and Fly tool at the time of flight selection before proceeding to payment. The Book and
Fly tool offers you various options to choose from (if available) and indicates if any of the
above mentioned surcharges will be required.
Reduced Fares for Children

Economy Class Fare discount: Children (age of 2-11 years) pay 75% of the applicable
adult Round the World fare. Proof of age is required at the time of ticketing. The
first infant under 2 years not occupying a seat pays 10% of the adult fare plus fees,
taxes and surcharges.

First and Business Class Fares discount: There is no child discount. Infants under 2
years not occupying a seat pay 10% of the adult fare plus fees, taxes and surcharges.
In case infants turn 2 years old during the Round the World journey, the adult Round
the World fare will be applied to the Round the World ticket. Children and infants
must be accompanied on all sectors in the same cabin by an adult passenger paying
the full Round the World fare.

The Star Alliance Book and Fly tool does not allow for purchasing infant fares. Please
contact the Star Alliance Customer Service Centre, one of the Star Alliance member
carriers or any travel agent.
Planning your journey-Start and End
Your journey has to start and end in the same country (the country of origin), but
not necessarily in the same city.

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According to IATA industry standard the Round the World fare divides the world
virtually into 3 zones (Traffic conferences):
TC1: 
North America, Central America, South America, Greenland, Caribbean,
Hawaiian Islands
TC2: Europe (West of the Urals), Azores, Iceland, Middle East, Africa, Seychelles
Islands
TC3: Asia (East of the Urals), Oceania, (Australia, New Zealand and South Pacific
Islands)
On your Round the World journey, your travel must follow one global direction
only (East or West) and each Traffic Conference must be crossed only once:
1. The Atlantic and the Pacific must each be crossed exactly once. Only one crossing
between Europe, Africa/Middle East and Asia is allowed.
2. First crossing between continents of this fare may not be a surface sector..
3. Within the zones mentioned above the direction can be changed.
Stopovers and Transfers
A stopover is defined as a stay of more than 24 hours. You have to include 3 or more
stopovers in the normal Round the World fare. The maximum number of stopovers for this
fare is 15. For the Special Economy Round the World fare, you have to include between 3
and 5 stopovers. Both, of the Round the World fare and the Special Economy Round the
World fare allow a maximum of 1 stopover in any one city and no more than 3 stopovers in
any one country (exception USA: max. 5 stopovers).For travel originating in USA/Canada:
The number of stopovers taken in continental USA/Canada must not exceed 4 (not more
than 3 per country). For travel originating in Europe: The number of stopovers taken in
Europe must not exceed 5 (not more than 3 per country). Transfers, which are defined as a
stay of less than 24 hours, are allowed in any city, however not more than 3 in any one city.
Travel through the city of origin is not permitted. The number of international transfers is
limited to 4 in any country except in the country of origin, where not more than 2 domestic
transfers and not more than 2 international transfers are permitted. Exception: If travel
starts in USA/Canada/Thailand/Norway, no more than 4 domestic transfers and no more
than 4 international transfers are permitted in the country of origin.

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Surface (Non-Air) Sectors of your Journey

You may include 5 non-air (surface) sectors at your own expense. The mileage
for such sectors will however be included into the mileage calculation. Non-Air sectors are
counted as flight coupons. If the time allocated to a surface sector exceeds 24 hours, it is
considered to be a stopover. The maximum number of flight coupons is limited to 16 per
ticket. Surface sectors and multiple airport cities are counted as flight coupons.
Minimum Stay
The travel on the last international sector (intercontinental sector, if travel
started in Europe) must start no earlier than 10 days after the first international sector
(intercontinental sector, if travel started in Europe) started. For travel starting in Australia
and New Zealand there is no minimum stay required for First and Business Class Fares. For
Economy Class Fares the travel on the last international sector must start no earlier than 7
days after the first international sector started.
Maximum Stay

All travel must be completed within one year after departure from the fare origin.

Determining your Routing

The destinations of your Round the World journey must be stated at the time of
purchasing the ticket, before departing from the country of origin. Travel dates may be
changed free of charge at a later point in time, routing changes will result in a fee of USD
125.00. If purchased online via Book and Fly, all flights must be booked and confirmed at
the time of purchasing the Round the World ticket though you may change your original
travel dates at any time free of charge.
If purchased offline via a Star Alliance member airline or a travel agent the following
applies:
For travel originating worldwide except in Europe, flights must be booked and
confirmed up to including the first international sector. For travel originating in Europe,
flights must be booked and confirmed up to including the first intercontinental sector. All
remaining flights may be left open, i.e. without confirmed flight numbers and dates and can
be booked at any time prior to their departure.

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Change of Plans

Prior to Departure: Changing travel dates/carriers/flights leading to rebooking/

revalidation of any sector is free of charge. Changes that require a rerouting
(including adding stopovers) will result in a fee of USD 125.00 per case. No refund
applies if the total mileage of a rerouted itinerary would qualify for a lower fare than
the fare paid. Please note that the fare, taxes and surcharges are only valid as of the
day a ticket is purchased and are subject to recalculation in case of any changes to
the itinerary requested by the customer. Additional fees may be levied by an airline
or travel agent fulfilling such voluntary changes to a ticketed itinerary.

After Departure: Change of travel dates, carriers or flights is free of charge. Changes
that require a rerouting (including adding stopovers) will result in a fee of USD
125.00.No refund applies if the total mileage of a rerouted itinerary would qualify
for a lower fare than the fare paid. Please note that the fare, taxes and surcharges
are only valid as of the day a ticket is purchased and are subject to recalculation in
case of any changes to the itinerary requested by the customer. Additional fees may
be levied by an airline or travel agent fulfilling such voluntary changes to a ticketed
itinerary.
Exception
In the event of death of the passenger, members of the passengers immediate family
or accompanying passengers may reroute the remainder of the journey without charge.
Relevant documents will be required.
Cancellations-Prior to Departure
Cancellation of your journey before departure results in a cancellation fee of USD
150.
Exception: In the event of death of the passenger, family member or accompanying
passengers, no charge applies. Relevant documents will be required.
After Departure
As the routing is no longer a Round the World travel the refund will be the difference
between the fare paid and the applicable fare for the journey travelled plus a cancellation
charge of USD 150.00.

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Baggage Allowance
For your Round the World Fares, the piece concept will apply for the entire journey.
In economy class you may allow for one (1) piece of baggage at the weight of 20kg, business
class travel allows for two (2) pieces at a combined weight of 30kg and first class two (2)
pieces at a combined weight of 40kg may be checked free of charge for the whole itinerary/
journey. In some instances individual carriers may apply a higher free baggage allowance.
Please refer to individual carriers for potential baggage charges and more information
should you require additional allowance.
Data Protection
In order to issue your Round the World ticket, you will be asked to provide personal
information to the ticket issuing Star Alliance member carrier. Please note that the data
protection guidelines of the respective Star Alliance member carrier apply with respect to
collecting, processing, storing, using, and sharing of your personal information.
How Much do Around the World Tickets Cost?

This question really depends on who you are and how you intend to travel. Depending
on your plans and desired level of comfort, for around the world tickets you could
spend a fortune or a pittance.

It follows that longer trips will cost more than short ones, but it doesnt mean that
long trips have to be expensive. And while the price of a trip with more stops will
cost more overall, on a day-by-day basis the airfare expense ends up being cheaper
relative to the cost of everything else you spread the price out over more days.

The average AirTreks around the world or multi-stop plane ticket is between $2500
and $3500 per person.

Some go above this and its certainly possible to get under, and even though the
overall cost of your trip depends on its complexity and the number of flights this is
a good number to go on in the planning phase.

To keep the price on the low end its important to be open to connection flights,
longer layovers, and airlines that may not have huge marketing budgets.

One thing you can guarantee is that your around the world tickets will be a set price,
paid for in a lump sum and removed your travel budget numbers once thats done.
Daily expenses are something you need to keep your eye on because this can be what
forces you to do something like cut your trip short if you run out of money.
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For insight into how much the total trip will cost read our article about how much
an around the world trip costs.

Calculate the total trip cost by designating each place youre going, consider
how much youll be spending there per day, multiply that by two (as a buffer for
incidentals), add it to your airfare quote and you should have a good idea how much
your total trip will be.
What is generally included in the cost of a round-the-world trip?

There are really only a few archetypical things that people spend their money on
when they travel and can be summed up easily:

Plane tickets getting from region to region. The average cost of an AirTrek tends
to be in the $2500 $3500 range per person including taxes. Over the last 20 years
this number has actually remained pretty stable.

Tag a price on your budget spreadsheet around $3300. If your trip comes in lower,
thats a bonus!

Accommodations where you stay. These can range from the most barebones
dormitory-style hostel to a fairly luxurious hotel or resort. Of course you can mix and
match and you will over the course of your trip. After plane tickets, accommodations
will be the most expensive part of your travel budget.

Plan on $20 $40 per night in inexpensive regions and $90 $150 in expensive ones.
(Less if you plan to sleep in hostels every night.)

Food/Drink what you eat every day. This item can range from supermarket
picnicking to street food to restaurants. This will vary from meal to meal. The less
you spend every meal on food the cheaper your RTW trip will be.

Plan on $1 $5 per meal per person in inexpensive regions and $5 20 per meal per
person in expensive ones.

Activities also known as what you do with your time besides eating. These are
things like tours, museums, adventure activities (rafting, zip lining, Zorbing),
elephant riding. Of course you are going to spend money on doing things.

Can range from $5 $200 each depending on the activity.

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Ground transportation that which gets you from place to place and is not an
airplane. This includes buses, trains, ferries, taxis, moto-rickshaws, regular rickshaws,
tuk-tuks, barges, giant catapults.

Costs vary depending on how far youre going and how fast.
Here is how much a RTW will cost*

Its a general consensus from people who have done these trips that a year on the
road costs somewhere between $20,000 and $30,000 total.

Lets just say $25,000 for the sake of argument. If you break that down monthly,
a RTW trip will cost one person around $2000 per month accommodating
everything.

*This cannot and should not be taken as a hard and fast number since the variables
for your particular travelling style are numerous.

Keep in mind that the longer the trip, the less you spend on a daily basis simply
because you dont need to fill each day with stuff. There will be days you dont spend
as much money because youre not driven to be active.

This is the reason why weve said that longer trips can actually be cheaper on a
relative basis.

If you want some further hard numbers on how much a round the world trip cost,
there is a selection of travel bloggers who have posted their numbers online for all
to see, to compare and to evaluate. The travel blog Jack and Jill Travel has compiled
some of the best of them.

The blog RTW Expenses put together a yearlong tally of their personal costs for a
RTW trip (updated for this years pricing).
(source:http://www.skyteam.com/en/your-trip/Round-the-World-Planner)

Let us find some of the different methods by the airlines Round the World Flight
Tickets are being used by travellers, facilitating them to take direct flights and cheaper
fares. This is due to the alliances of different airlines with one another.

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One world fares mentioned are for travel covering 3 continents

Round The World (Airlines)

First Class

KLM / Northwest /Malaysian Airlines

/ Continental / Emirates / Kenya
NA
Airways / South African Airways

Business Class

Economy
Class

357160 + Taxes 153070+ Taxes

Star Alliance UA/TG/LH/NH/AN/

SK/AC/RG/SQ/OS

782810+Taxes 438200 +Taxes

177650+Taxes

One World CX/AA/BA/IB/QF/AY

605060+Taxes

143470+Taxes

360850+Taxes

(Source: http://www.primetravels.com/rtw_fares.shtml)

Special Fares
For many travellers, the main factor influencing the decision of which flights to book
will be the fare charged for the journey. This is particularly so for leisure travellers who are
paying for the ticket themselves, but also increasingly important for business travellers as
many companies are trying to reduce travel costs.
When checking availability, each booking code represents a different cabin class or
fare type. On all flights a variety of fares are offered.
Highest fares which are flexible are termed normal fares. Those which are lower and
less flexible are special fares. Within each of these categories, there are different types of
fares.

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The general features of the most frequently seen fare types are listed below. These
are general guidelines, and restrictions of each fare may vary, depending on the route flown.
The rules of each fare should be checked and passengers advised of any restrictions.
Some of the practical examples will help us to understand the concept in detail.
Special Fare by Kingfisher Advertisement

Singapore Airlines Offers Special Fares to Australia

Advertisement by Jet Airways

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Similar schemes have also been launched in the recent past by other airlines to boost
their passenger loads. Air India had slashed fares significantly in November with its Jaldee
Jaldee sale, though short-haul flights were cheaper then. IndiGo, too, had cut its fares at
the time.
One can easily understand how competition leads to adoption of different marketing
strategies. This ad is given to manage the concept of Price war which prompts company to
place advertisement

(Source:http://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article-2261425/Alls-fare-love-war-As-airlinesbattle-slashing-prices-Indias-travellers-come-winners.html)

Singapore Airlines and Tourism Australia recently joined forces to tempt British
tourists to book flights tickets for holidays to Australia. The airline is offering special
fares on its flights between London Heathrow and Australia via Singapore. Additionally,
Singapore Airlines will offer vouchers to its travellers booking business and economy

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classes flights tickets enabling them to upgrade their airport experience at Changi Airport
so that they may continue the second leg of the journey refreshed after their stopover. On
arrival, travellers with flights tickets to destination in Australia may also get great value car
hire available at all of the airports.
Normal fares are flexible, and there are no routing, stopover, advance purchase or
refund restrictions. They may be re-routed without restriction and purchased on a one
way or round trip basis. Generally normal fares are valid for one year. The class of service
normally appears on its own as the fare basis, e.g. Y, C, F, R, although Y1 or J1 may be used
to indicate the highest fare level, and YOW or YRT to identify one way or round trip fares.
Note: The class of service may be followed by a seasonal indicator, e.g. YL (economy low
season)
Example
Enter: FD1JUNLONNYC/BA-OW
Short Note on the Following:
A). Point To Point Fares
Point to point fares may be seen in any class and allow the passenger who wishes
to travel directly from point A to B to do so. There are usually no advanced booking
requirements, or refund restrictions. Routing is usually limited to direct flights, although
connecting flights may be available, providing no stopovers are made. Fares may be sold
on a one way or round trip basis. Round trip fares are normally valid for a year provided
there are no seasonal restrictions. The code 2 or 3 may appear at the end of the fare basis,
e.g. Y2, C3, SLX2.
Example
Enter: FDMIASCL/AA-OW
B). Excursion Fares
Reservations for excursion fares may normally be changed, subject to minimum and
maximum stay requirements. They may normally be purchased at any time, and sold on a
return basis. Routing and stopover requirements are generally flexible, and there are usually

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no refund restrictions. The code E or EE is found at the end of the fare basis followed by the
maximum stay in terms of days or months, e.g. YLEE14 or BEE3M.
Example
Enter: FD1JUNDELHKG/CX
C). APEX Fares
Reservations for Advance Purchase Excursion (APEX) fares usually may not be
changed without a penalty, and there is often some type of refund restriction. Usually
no stopovers are allowed and direct flights are used. They are normally sold on a return
basis, and have a minimum and maximum stay requirement. The codes AP, AN or AB are
normally included in the fare basis.
Example
Enter: FDMIAPPT10JUN/DL
D). PEX AND Super-PEX FARES
These are Public Excursion fares and have the same restrictions as APEX fares but
may be purchased at any time. Usually no stopovers are allowed and direct flights are used.
There are minimum and maximum stay requirements, and they are normally sold on a
return basis.
The codes PX or SX are included in the fare basis.
Example
Enter: FDDXBPRG01JUN/OK
Interpreting Fare Basis Codes
A fare basis code may be made up of different alpha/numeric elements. Not all fare
basis codes contain all elements. The following codes may apply:

Class code

Day of the week code

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Fare and passenger type code

Fare level identifier

Maximum stay

Miscellaneous code

Seasonal code

Time of the day code

Class Code
The first letter of a fare basis code is the class code. It indicates the class of service
and the location in which the passenger will sit on the aircraft. The following codes apply:
Code

Identifies

First class premium

First class

First class discounted

Business class premium

Business class

Business class discounted

Economy class premium

S, Y

Economy class

B, Q, H, T, K, V, L, M, N Economy class discounted

and any other letters
Seasonal Code
A fare may vary depending on the time of year travel takes place. Seasonal codes are
as follows:
Code

Identifies

High or peak season

Low or basic season

High shoulder season

Mid shoulder season

Low shoulder season

F, T, Q, Y

Variations on the shoulder season

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Day of the Week Code

A fare may vary depending on which day of the week travel takes place. The following
day of the week codes apply.
Code

Identifies

Weekend travel

Midweek travel

Fare and Passenger Type Code

A fare basis code may include a fare type or passenger type code. The following codes apply.
Code

Identifies

AP

Advanced purchase fare

AB

Advanced purchase fare (lower level)

AN

Non refundable advanced purchase fare

PX

PEX fare

SX

Super PEX fare

EE

Excursion fare

BB

Budget fare

BD

Budget fare discounted

SS

Super saver fare

UU

Standby fare

OX

One way excursion fare

OW

One way fare

RT

Round trip fare

CH

Accompanied Child fare

IN

Infant fare (Not occupying a seat)

CD

Senior citizen fare

SC

Ships crew fare

ZZ

Youth fare

SH

Spouse fare

ST

Spouse fare (accompanying)

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With Airline tickets every person on a flight may have paid a different price to fly.
The airlines have a seemingly secretive formula to constructing airfares. Knowing types of
airfares and how they apply may not mean that airfares make sense, but you can make sense
of them. Special fares using mileage: construct special fares within 25M mileage; apply rules
and restrictions. Special fares with stop-over charges: apply stop-overs charges on a return
special fare itinerary.
Types of Special Fares

Excursion Fares: Expense fare but with least restrictions

Purchase excursion Fares: Intermediate fare

Advance purchase fare: Lowest fare with lot of restrictions

Late booking fare: Last minute booking involving internet charges

We need analyse air traffic position to manage the growing importance of air
transport. This involves various other coordinating agencies to support to ever changing
demand of passengers. This depends on the following:

Chapter Summary
Technology and innovation continue to enable a new era of air travel, making
the industry more dynamic than ever before. We need to harness IT and innovation to
empower all players in the industrys complex and interdependent ecosystem, and to drive
new efficiencies and approaches to create the ideal journey. Collaboration - more than ever
before - is the smart way forward. Collaboration will determine the shape of air transport
tomorrow. It will join up our thinking, enabling us to meet the expectations of 21st century
consumers and travellers. India will be be more efficient, more competitive and more
profitable. Only new thinking, bold innovation and a collective approach will get us there.
An analysis of the views expressed during the survey on the long-term challenges in air

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transport identified 16 principle challenges facing the European air transport infrastructure.
These are internal and external challenges. Internal challenges involve planning actions for
infrastructure development. External challenges involve anticipation of, and preparation
for, risks or opportunities. This unit helps you to understand the different agencies involved
in air operations, and fare systems adopted from time to time, factors affecting the air
pricing, calculation methods, procedure for selection right travel plan.

Closing Thought
The passenger is at the core of our 2050 thinking. Over the last four decades the real
cost of travel has fallen by about 60% and the number of travellers increased tenfold. We
must continue to provide this great value to individual consumers and to society. To do so
we need the right technology, efficient and sufficient infrastructure. And we need financial
sustainability. Nobody has all the answers or a crystal ball to see the industry in 2050. But
there was consensus among all present that there is strategic value in thinking together. And
there was general consensus that one of the industrys biggest challenges is to evolve from the
financial disaster of a partial deregulation that has created fierce competition among airlines
but without giving them the normal commercial freedoms to do business. The industry is sick.
To protect the value that aviation delivers to consumers, companies, countries and the global
economy, we need a common vision to change as we move forward- Giovanni Bisignani,
Singapore, 12 February 2011
The past, present and future of tourism are, in a sense, continuous. We can predict
aspects of the future with confidence, but unpredicted trends and events will occur and
will shape tourism in ways we might not even imagine today. All travel has its advantages.
If the passenger visits better countries, he may learn to improve his own. And if fortune
carries him to worse, he may learn to enjoy it. Samuel Johnson

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Case Study No.1

The air transport sector in India has undergone massive changes in the last decade.
The Air Corporation Act 1953 led to nationalization of the airlines services. Consequently
the assets of nine existing companies were transferred to two entities in the aviation sector
controlled by the Government of India Indian Airlines and Air India. For many years,
air travel in India was perceived as an elitist activity and there was restricted growth in the
industry.
In 1986, private sector players were permitted as air taxi operators. This led to entry
of Jet, Air Sahara, NEPC, East-West & Modiluft. With the passing of the Air Corporation
Act 1994, this sector was opened up and private carriers were permitted to operate scheduled
services. While six operators were granted license only Jet and Air Sahara were able to start
their services.
However, the year 2003 marked a watershed in the history of civil aviation in India
with the entry of low cost carriers like Air Deccan and Spice Jet. This was followed by entry
of other private airlines, large and small on to the market, including Kingfisher Airlines,
Paramount and Go Air. From the year 2003 onwards the perception of air travel changed.
Aviation became more affordable. There has been a large increase in passenger traffic. Also
there has been intense price competition that has resulted in discounted fares, promotional
offers and introduction of flights to newer destinations. The co-existence of full service
carriers and low cost carriers has also given the consumer a wide choice of service on the
market.
However, this intense price competition led to losses for the airlines. The total
industry losses for the year 2006-07 were over USD 500 million. As a result, the market
structure in the air transport sector is undergoing rapid changes. There appear to be major
corporate restructuring measures underway in this sector mainly in the form of mergers
and acquisitions (M&As).
The recent mergers of Indian and Air India, Kingfisher and Air Deccan and Jet
and Sahara have led to an industry structure which is sufficiently concentrated to raise a
fundamental question about whether the operation of market forces are adequate to prevent
the abuse of market power. Thus as a result of the ongoing M&As, from being till recently
an industry with around twelve players involved in stiff competition, the industry is now
left with nine players of which three are big players and the remaining are small ones.
The changing market structure has provided a new competitive dimension to the industry.
It is expected that as a result of the M&As taking place and resultant scale economies,

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efficiency and productivity will increase, thereby leading to enhancement of profits. It is

in fact argued that such consolidation is needed in order to ensure efficient and sustained
functioning of the airline operators.
However as a result of the M&As, the nature of the market, which was earlier open to
many players thereby enhancing competitiveness, is now changing. It is perceived that this
may lead to anti competitive practices on the market with some large players dominating
the market. The competition assessment of M&As in the air transport sector is generally
more complex than in many other economic sectors because of the nature of the industry.
The role of the Competition Commission becomes important in the current scenario in this
sector in the sense, that there is need for assessing whether the changing market scenario,
and the benefits of the combinations in terms of efficiency mergers outweigh the costs or
adverse effects in terms of anti competitiveness. Thus while on the one hand, combinations
like M&As currently occurring in the sector may improve efficiency in the sector in the
form of higher productivity and lower costs, on the other, they may lead to abuse of market
power and anti competitive effects.
Price war is commercial competition characterized by the repeated cutting of prices
below those of competitors. One competitor will lower its price, and then others will lower
their prices to match. If one of them reduces their price again, a new round of reductions
starts. In the short term, price wars are good for buyers, who can take advantage of lower
prices. Often they are not good for the companies involved because the lower prices reduce
profit margins and can threaten their survival.
For example, Air India has finally joined the price war initiated by SpiceJet earlier
this week as it announced a 30% discount on fares for travel during March 29 and September
30. The discount offered by Air India, spread across 115 flights operated by the airline is,
restricted with only on select domestic and the domestic leg of international flights. The
bookings will also have to be made between February 27 and March 1, to avail the offer.
Fares under the discounted scheme, start from as low as R1,586 for Goa-Mumbai, R1,889
for Delhi-Lucknow, R3,470 for Mumbai-Kolkata and R2,557 for Trivandrum-Mumbai,
exclusive of taxes.
Whereas another low-cost carrier SpiceJet initiated few steps and it has triggered a
price war by offering up to 75% off on base fare and fuel surcharge relative to last minute
fares, for travel between April 1 and June 30, applicable for bookings made till February 26.
Other no frills carriers like IndiGo and GoAir quickly announced similar schemes within
hours of SpiceJets announcement. It is a third time the Chennai-based airline shelled out
discounted fare in the last two months.

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Jet Airways, entered the price war and later it launched a three-day sale of 60 days
and 30 days apex fares on domestic flights operated by Jet Airways and JetLite. Travel under
this offer is valid from March 27 to September 30, 2014.
According Jackson Fernandez, Airline operators are looking to fill their seats
that are currently running below optimum capacity. But additionally, with Air Asia soon
entering the scene, current operators are preparing for the tight competition in prices it
will bring, -MD travel portal Wego.com. He also made statement that By coupling with
distribution channels airlines can reach out to intended audiences who are looking to avail
these discounts,.
Travel operators say that demand for air tickets to key leisure destinations like Goa
and Kerala have increased tremendously after the announcement of the fare cuts.
According to Sharat Dhall We are already seeing strong demand on the key
leisure destinations like Goa and Kerala and bookings have more than doubled after the
announcement. We expect other airlines to follow suit with similar discounts as these prices
are sure to strike a chord with leisure travellers, -President of Yatra.com.
According to Rajesh Magow, Our website has witnessed a three-fold growth in
visitors and we sold over 60,000 tickets on Tuesday alone. Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore
continue to be the top-selling routes, while leisure sectors like Goa and Srinagar have also
seen a big spike, -Co-founder & CEO India, MakeMyTrip.
These promotions have definitely fuelled summer-holiday breaks for larger groups
(such as families) since we saw a higher proportion of group-bookings compared with
single-passenger bookings. Also, a higher proportion of return bookings indicated planned
leisure and business travel, he added. Indian consumers are evolving and seeing the pattern
from last year, they have begun expecting such discounts more often. Typically, what we
have observed so far is that whenever an airline has dropped fares or offered discounts on
advance booking, other carriers have matched their pricing to keep their market share,
added Vikram Malhi, GM, Southeast Asia, Expedia.
Question for Discussion
1. What are the driving forces of air line operators? List down the strategies adopted
by the company.
2. Do simple PEST analysis to describe the emerging scenario with reference to India?

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Case Study No.2

In recent years, the sport of golf has been developing rapidly in the Asia-Pacific region,
motivating golf enthusiasts to travel overseas to play. Because of its geographical proximity
and convenient transport links, the number of Japanese and Korean golf enthusiasts who
choose to play in China has been increasing rapidly in recent years.
In China, the domestic golf tourism market is still a middle and upper class consumer
market in which the sport functions as a way to improve ones quality of life and as a symbol
used to show off ones status and position. To a certain degree, price is no longer a major
factor that influences the travel motivations of these high-level consumer tourists. What
they demand is to experience a feeling of relaxation in which they are at one with nature.
Sports tourism can be divided into (1) participants, whose main intention is to
participate in sports, such as canoeing, skiing, golf, etc.; (2) spectators, including those
who travel to watch sports events, such as the Olympic Games and the World Cup Football
Tournament, etc., or travellers who visit sports museums or are involved in sports-related
industries, such as the Sports Hall of Fame and sports fields and stadiums, etc. (Quote from
Liu Xiang Xing, 2007)
Question for Discussion
1. Analyze the travel motivations of golf tourists in the Asia-Pacific region.
2. Discuss how sporting events and sports can stimulate peoples travel motivations.
Self Assessment Questions
1. List down different types of Airfares followed by airline operators.
2. Briefly explain the concept of One Way and Return Trip with suitable examples
3. What is Circle trip journey? Explain in detail the basics of airfare are fixed in this
category.
4. Define Open Jaw. Explain with normal fare and special fare. What are the factors to
be considered in fixing airline pricing?
5. Write short note on Add-on mixed class journey. Give examples
6. What is HIP check? Illustrate with suitable examples.
7. What do you understand the term Back Haul Minimum Check (BHC)? How airfare
is constructed.

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8. List down the steps involved CTM check?

9. Enumerate the importance Indirect Travel Limitations in fare construction.
10. Examine the fare construction procedure and rules involved in Around the World
fare with reference to any of one the airline operations.
11. What is Special fares?. State the importance in yield management? Briefly explain
the problems associated with different airline operators.
12. Write short note on the following:
a. Round Trip
b. Stopover
c. Inbound Tourist
d. Outbound Tourist
e. Published and unpublished fare
f. Bereavement fares
g. Open ticket
h. Round trip journey
i. Double open jaw
j. Surcharge
k. Directional minimum check

****

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UNIT - V

Ticketing System, Procedure, Travel Plan, Travel Card and BSP

Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you will be able to:

Identify types of ticket

Identify booking classes / classes of service.

Identify booking codes.

List airline codes.

Define the different types of trips.

Frequent Flyer Programs

Travel considerations for children and infants, pets, and special requirements

Types of tickets

Fares and Fare Basis Codes

Voids, exchanges, and refunds

LTA / PTA / MCO

Issue of manual ticket

Reservation procedure

MPD

Air Travel Plan

Types of air travel cards

Billing and Settlement Plan (BSP)

Introduction
The term Tourism is often associated with leisure / holiday visitors. It therefore
needs to be clarified that in the context how many involved in this process of the tourism
industry. It the term tourist includes several segments of visitor arrivals as explained below.
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The definition of tourism is, Activities related to persons travelling to and staying in places
outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business
and other purposes. (Source UN / WTO 1993). This would therefore include: Domestic
tourism, involving residents of the given country travelling only within the country; on
business or leisure. Inbound tourism, involving non-residents travelling in the given country
on business, leisure or Visiting Friends & Relatives (the VFR segment that includes NRIs).
Outbound tourism, involving Indian residents travelling to another country on business,
pleasure or for employment (Overseas Foreign Workers - OFW).
Air Transport & Tourism-Contributions to Economy

Air transport key enabler of tourism growth

Annual aircraft departures to grow from 30 million (today) to 60 million (2030)

Employs more than 50 million persons worldwide

Represents 3.5% of global GDP (would rank 19th if was a country)

(Source: ICAO, ATAG 2012)

Employs 1 in 12 people worldwide

Contributes 30% of worldwide service exports

Development/regeneration of regions

Diversification of economy/tax revenues

Represents directly 5% of global GDP

Tourism generates US $1.3 trillion in exports for countries visited

(Source: UNWTO)

82 million jobs

$6.9 trillion in GDP in 2030

(Source: ICAO, ATAG 2012)

In a rapidly changing environment, airports have to adapt to economic downturns,
technological changes, market changes, airline commercial deregulation, and the worldwide
trend to convert airports from government organisations to more business-like entities.
These pressures have or have had or are having significant effects on the way airports do
business, not only from a financial perspective but also from an operational standpoint.
In these challenging times, and with emerging competition from other airports and other
modes of transportation, it is of the utmost importance that airports recruit and provide
employees and managers with the best available knowledge and skills.

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Contributes 30% of worldwide service exports

Development/regeneration of regions

Diversification of economy/tax revenues

Represents directly 5% of global GDP

Travel and tourism is the worlds biggest industry, accounting for nearly 200 million
jobs, and over 10 per cent of world GDP, more than US$ 3,500 billion. It is a High-Multiplier
Effect industry - it employs large numbers of people, and requires large amounts of local
inputs for ongoing operations. WTOs Tourism 2020 Vision forecasts that international
arrivals are expected to reach over 1.56 billion by the year 2020 of which 1.18 billion will
be intra-regional and 377 million will be long-haul travellers. It is expected that, that longhaul travel worldwide will grow faster, at 5.4 per cent per year over the period 1995-2020,
than intra-regional travel, at 3.8 per cent. Details on forecasts by WTTC (Tourism Satellite
Accounting Research) for Indias Travel & Tourism Industry are provided below.
(a) In

2003, Indias Travel & Tourism Industry is expected to generate ` 529.4 billion
(US$ 10.5 billion). 2.0 per cent of Gross Domestic Product and 11,093,100 jobs,
representing 2.7 per cent of total Employment. The travel and tourism Economy
(direct & indirect impacts) is expected to generate.

1,274.6 billion (US$ 25.3 billion), 4.8 per cent of Gross Domestic Product,
23,839,800 jobs, 5.8 per cent of total Employment, ` 234.5 billion (US$ 4.6 billion)
of Exports, services & merchandise, 5.9 per cent of total Exports;

(b) `

(c)

` 412.9 billion (US$ 8.2 billion) of Capital Investment - 7.0 per cent of total
investment;

(d) `

32.5 billion (US$ 0.6 billion) of Government Expenditures - 1.0 per cent share;

(e) The

forecast for Travel & Tourism demand is expected to total 7.4 per cent real
growth in 2003, and 8.8 percent real growth per annum between 2004 and 2013.
This assumes no constraints in airline seat capacity (Source: Impact of Civil Aviation
Policies on Tourism in India, Ministry, GOI) and

(f)

Airliner capacity has grown significantly over the last 60 years to a seating capacity
of 525 and a maximum load of 338 tons for the freight version. By 2020, Tourism in
India could contribute Rs 8, 50,000 crores to the GDP. (Source- WTTC).

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Issue of Air Ticket

Three types of sheets for ticket are widely used in the world: an automatically copied
ticket, an automatic coupon ticket with a boarding pass, manual form. The rules of IATA
(International Air Transport Association) require that the ticket issued by a single agent
should be understandable by any other agent, wherever in the world he is. Therefore,
each ticket contains detailed information about all the details of the flight, route, fare and
restrictions imposed by these fare for transportation. The most widely used form with
four flight coupons. If the route has less flights, then on the extra coupons on the line
Itinerary (2) the word VOID is printed (not valid for transportation), and the coupon is
pulled out by the agent. The last coupon (usually white) is a passenger copy and is left for
you for the report, but only after you fully use the ticket (the ticket without the passenger
coupon is not valid).

The Internet has helped transform the travel industry. It helps educate the consumer
by providing vast amounts of information about destinations and different travel options.
Both consumers and travel professionals have benefited from the Internet, which makes
the possibility of travel to exotic places more imaginable. It has helped consumers see in
full colour and, in some cases, real time, where they would like to visit. The Internet gives
travellers the ability to do comparative shopping for attractive deals or packages. It also
has helped many travel agencies, hotels, resorts and other travel-related suppliers flourish
by bringing in business through Web sites. The leisure travel industry has changed from
being an option of the upper class to one open to all segments of society - in fact, travel has
become an everyday part of life whether for a meeting across the country or a last minute
trip to a nearby city. Over time it has become price driven. Many people today base a large
part of their travel buying decisions on cost and convenience of travel. People are booking
closer in to their travel dates.

With a history spanning more than 100 years and being Indias oldest Airlines, Air
India is the where the Indian Aviation industry started long back in 1911. With a service
spanning the world and Indian domestic destinations, Air India is Indias national carrier
and a beacon of pride. Founded by visionary and the father of Indian Aviation J.R.D Tata,
Air India was born with his flight in a single engine Puss Moth from Karachi to Mumbai.
Since then, Air India has come a long way both in terms of Fleet size as well as passengers
moved and is known for its reliability, cost effective and value for money service.
History of Airindia

After an iconic flight piloted the noted aviation personality J.R.D Tata, the real start
of Air India happened post World War II where Air India expanded their routes to include
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new destinations. Although competition was stiff, Air India was known for its exceptional
customer service standards which saw innovations like issuing humorous booklets that
encouraged passengers not to steal cutlery and refrain from stuffing children in back seat
pockets. Other than that, the unique brand of Indian service was extremely popular in
places as far away as New York and also back home in India. Air India also had a number
of firsts like being the first Asian airline to serve New York City in 1960. It was around
this time only that the now famous Maharaja mascot was conceptualized and became the
identity of Air India. Growing at a quick pace, the fleet of Air India now has 48 aero planes
from Boeing and Airbus with operations across the country and the world. Air India IC flies
to 49 domestic destinations across the country along with 26 international destinations and
19 countries across Asia. The popular routes include Delhi, Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata
(Calcutta), Chennai, Bangalore and more.

Tracing the history of ticket in airline

Paper tickets date back to the 1920s. Each airline used a different form
with varying rules. Airlines soon recognised the need for standardisation of traffic
documents, regulations and procedures to support the growth of an industry that
spanned the world. In 1930, the IATA Traffic Committee developed the first standard
hand-written ticket for multiple trips. These same standards served the industry into
the early 1970s.
The first ticketing revolution occurred in 1972 with automation. The IATA
Billing and Settlement Plan (BSP) for travel agents began in Tokyo that year. This led to
the birth of the IATA neutral paper ticket. For the first time the IATA logo appeared on
the cover of tickets that could be used by any travel agent to ticket journeys on almost
any airline in the world.
The next revolution took place in 1983 when the system was further automated
with a magnetic stripe on the ticket back. This allowed all of the ticket information to
be stored electronically on the ticket itself and it could be used as the boarding pass as
well. At its peak, 285 million of IATA neutral paper tickets (both versions) were printed
in 2005.
The first e-ticket was issued in 1994. By 1997 IATA had adopted global standards
for e-ticketing. But the evolution was slow and by May 2004, only 19% of global tickets
were electronic.

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Manual Form of Ticket

Today aninternet booking engine(IBE) is an application which helps the travel and
tourism industry support reservation through the Internet. IBE providers keep adding new
features to internet booking engines such as Multiple Search Options so that a customer
can book the flight in a manner that suits his/her requirements. If the customer is schedule
sensitive or needs to adhere to specific travel dates, the IBE offers ticket fares giving priority
to the travel calendar. As many passengers are very concerned about the ticket price, the IBE
of an airline shows a comparison between the low and high ticket fares, with the services
included in each. A user may be able to access a seat map and reserve a preferred seat which
is available. The selection of a front row, aisle seat, or window seat is possible. This feature,
which is known as Web Check-in, allows a passenger to check-in online and print their own
boarding pass. Online travel bookings will represent almost a third of worldwide volume by
the end of 2012, according to yStats.com Global Online Travel Report 2012 report.
Hand Written Flight Coupon- Specimen

(source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Handwritten flight coupon Biman BangladeshAirlines)

Earlier period since devices for printing tickets are very expensive, as probably all
highly specialized devices; this type of forms is not widely spread in the agencies. Besides,
it is impossible to print tickets of different airlines from one printer, so if you buy a ticket
at the agency, it is likely that the flight will be written exactly in the manual form. Airlines

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also have an emergency manual tickets reserve for the case of shutdown or malfunction of
the printer. The most widely used are forms with 2 or 4 coupons. Each coupon is equipped
with a photocopier layer, so any coupon contains information about all the others. If the
number of flights on your route is less than the number of coupons in the form, then the
word VOID is written on the extra flight coupons, and the coupons are pulled out of
the ticket. The last coupon is a passenger copy and is left for you for the report, but only
after you fully use the ticket (the ticket without the passenger coupon is not valid).
The Basics Airline Price System

The most familiar and well developed example of revenue management in practice
is the Airline industry where:

SEGMENTED MARKETS: Demand is segmented into business and leisure market

segments using discount fare restrictions. Relatively price insensitive business
travellers are charged higher fares than more price sensitive leisure travellers.

FIXED CAPACITY: The number of seats on a flight is fixed once schedules are set.

PERISHABLE INVENTORY: Once a flight has departed, the unsold seat inventory
has no value.

LOW MARGINAL SERVICING COSTS: The out-of-pocket cost of adding a

passenger to a flight is very low.

ADVANCE SALES: Booking requests are tendered in advance of departure and can
be evaluated using logic programmed into the computerized reservation system.
Fares can be changed on short notice.

UNCERTAIN DEMAND FORECASTS: Passenger demand varies by season, dayof-week, and time-of-day and can be forecast by flight and fare category, but not
precisely.

In the travel industries, the business travel segment of the market is less sensitive
to price levels than the leisure segment. Service providers offer discounts to the leisure
segment of the market. Business travellers are largely precluded from taking advantage
of these discounts through the imposition of advance purchase and length-of-stay
requirements. Travel companies know that these restrictions do not suit normal business
travel characteristics. The price of any airline ticket consists of a number of things.

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Baggage- Base Fare- Food- Fuel Surcharge- Seat SelectionService Fee To Issue-Applicaple Taxes And Airport Fees

The last four are sometimes optional (especially for low-cost airlines) where you
pay for them on top of the ticket price if you want them included. With the older, more
traditional airlines, and for long-haul flights, these things are usually included in the ticket
price. The question of Why do prices change? Prices change due to seat availability and
demand. The cheaper booking classes might be sold out even if theres still 3 months before
you leave. There are some dates of the year where there is simply higher demand. When
a lot of people have to fly somewhere (and even more when they want to go to the same
destination or area), airlines will set their prices at a higher level. Christmas, Thanksgiving
and school vacations are the busiest times.
Understanding the Rule of Thumb
Airline competition is also an important factor contributing to ticket price. If
there is a lot of competition (i.e. a lot of airlines flying there), prices will be significantly
cheaper. This doesnt only apply to certain regions but also certain routes between
two cities (i.e. Los Angeles New York, New York - London).If theres a lot of airline
competition, this also means theres a lot of passenger competition, meaning more
people want to fly to a particular destination. Therefore, competition play vital role and
competing for those cheaper booking classes. As a general rule of thumb, the earlier
you book, the better.

Rise And Fall Kingfisher Airlines Airline Business Learning Curve

Indian Aviation Industry is one of the fastest growing markets in the world.
But nowadays it is in the news due to different reason. And that is the failure of one of
the lead ing aviation player - Kingfisher Airlines. The airline has been facing financial
issues for many years. Till December 2011; Kingfisher Airlines had the second largest
share in Indias domestic air travel market. However due to the severe financial crisis
faced by the airline, it has the fifth largest market share currently. Even the company
have no funds to pay the salaries to the employees and is facing several other issues
like fuel dues; aircraft lease rental dues, service tax dues and bank arrears. This case
outlines the financial turmoil of the Kingfisher in detail.

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Kingfisher Airlines Limitedwas anairlinegroup based inIndia. Its head office

is in Andheri(East),Mumbaiand registered office inUB City,Bangalore. Kingfisher
Airlines, through its parent companyUnited Breweries Group, has a 50% stake inlowcost carrier Kingfisher Red. The airline had been facing financial issues for many
years. Until December 2011, Kingfisher Airlines had the second largest share in Indias
domestic air travel market. However due to a severe financial crisis faced by the airline
at the beginning of 2012, it has the lowest market share since April 2012. The airline
had shut down its operations when on 20 October 2012 theDGCA suspended itsflight
certificate. The suspension had been due to failure to give an effective response to the
show-cause notice issued by DGCA. However, the airline had locked out its employees
for several days before this suspension. On 25 October 2012, the employees agreed to
return to work.In February 2013 the Indian government announced the withdrawal of
both domestic and international flight entitlements allocated to the airline. The CEO
has quit on 17 Feb 2014.
Kingfisher Airlines Milstones

Best New Airline of the YearAward for 2005 by Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation
(CAPA) Award in the Asia-Pacific and Middle East region.

Best New Domestic Airline for Excellent Services and Cuisineby Pacific Area
Travel Writers Association (PATWA).

Buzziest Brands of 2005by agency faqs and The Brand Reporter.

King Club has won the Freddie Awards 2008 in the following categories: Best
Bonus Promotion-Best Customer Service-Best Member Communications(First
Runner-up)-Best Award Redemption(First Runner-up)-Best Elite Level(Second
Runner-up)-Best Website(Second Runner-up) and Program of the Year(Second
Runner-up)

Kingfisher Airlines frequent flyer programme, King Club has won Top Honours
at the 21st Annual Freddie Awards in the Japan, Pacific, Asia and Australia
region.

Kingfisher Airlines has received three global awards at theSkytraxWorld Airline

Awards 2010-NDTV Profit Business Leadership Award for Aviation.-Rated
Indias Second Buzziest Brand 2008 by The Brand Reporter-Ranked amongst
IndiasTop Service Brands of 2008by Pitch Magazine-Voted asIndias Favourite
Airline-Rated as Asia PacificsTop Airline Brand-Brand Leadership Award-

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Economic TimesAvaya Award 2006 for Excellencein Customer ResponsivenessIndias No. 1 Airline in customer satisfactionby Business World-Rated amongst
Indias most respected companiesby Business World-Rated amongst Indias 25
Innovative Companiesby Planman Media in 2006-The Best Airline and Indias
Favourite Carrierin a Survey conducted by IMB forThe Times Of India.

Listed in the top 100 most trusted brand inThe Brand Trust Report.

Ranked third in the survey onIndias Most Successful Brand launch of 2005under
the Brand Derby Survey conducted by Business Standard.

Rated amongst the top ten in theBest Television Commercial JinglesbyNDTV.

Rated amongst theTop Ten Internet Advertisersby Yahoo.

Service Excellence 2005-2006 for a New Airlineby Skytrax.

Classification of Air Ticket

Airline Ticket: An airline ticket is a document, issued by an airline or a travel
agency, to confirm that an individual has purchased a seat on a flight on an aircraft. This
document is then used to obtain aboarding pass, at theairport. Then with the boarding
pass and the attachedticket, the passenger is allowed to board the aircraft. There are two
sorts of airline tickets - the older style with coupons now referred to as apaper ticket, and
the now more commonelectronic ticketusually referred to as ane-ticket.

Purchasing airline tickets has been greatly simplified by the widespread use of
online reservation services. Travellers can compare prices and routes on various airlines
using online booking sites and make reservations with just a few mouse clicks. The most
important skills that you will need are a small dose of Internet savvy and the organizational
awareness to plan ahead for the best fares. Airfares are lower than ever these days, but you
still have to be savvy to get the best deal. In addition to the basics there are six secrets to
winning the increasingly opaque airfare game.
1. Search at the Right Time
2. Check a Broad Range of dates
3. Use Aggregator Sites
4. Book Award Tickets Earlyand On-Line
5. Book through an Airlines Web Site
6. Dont pay too much for change fees

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IATAannounced that as of June 1, 2008, IATA-member airlines will no longer issue
any paper tickets. A ticket is generally only good on the airline for which it was purchased.
However, an airline can endorse the ticket, so that it may be accepted by other airlines,
sometimes on standby basis or with a confirmed seat. Usually the ticket is for a specificflight.
It is also possible to purchase an open ticket, which allows travel on any flight between
the destinations listed on the ticket. The cost for doing this is greater than a ticket for a
specific flight. Some tickets are refundable. However, the lower cost tickets are usually not
refundable and may carry many additional restrictions.

The carrier is represented by a standardized 2-letter code. In the example give below,
Thai Airways is TG. The departure and destination cities are represented byInternational
Air Transport Association airport codes. In the example given, Munich is MUC and Bangkok
is BKK. TheInternational Air Transport Associationis the standard setting organization.
Only one person can use a ticket. If multiple people are travelling together, the tickets are
linked together by the samerecord locatoror reservation number, which are assigned, if the
tickets were purchased at the same time. If not, most airlines can cross-reference the tickets
together in their reservation systems. This allows all members in a party to be processed in
a group, allowing seat assignments to be together.
A Flight Coupon forthai Airways

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An airline ticket is an essential part of travel and it has become a common everyday
document to travellers. There are many types ofairlinetickets. The consumer can usually
choose between economy and first class, and this affects the comfort of the seat and other
amenities. Tickets can also be purchased to fly to a single destination and offer no way to
return to the original location, or they can be purchased as a round-trip package. When
children are flying, they sometimes have the option to sit on the lap of a guardian or sit in a
seat, both of which can require different types of tickets.
Understanding Class and Ticket in Airlines

The flight airfare keeps on varying from time to time these days according to the
economic circumstances. All different kinds of airlines commence extraordinary deals and
make it achievable for the travellers to get cling to the lowest air fare. It is usually witnessed
that lowest airfare attracts people of all class and nature and has enormously changed the
approach they move around from one destination to another.
Class

Types Of Ticket

Economy class
(Economy
seating is
cramped and
less expensive.)

Tickets are normally the cheapest and most uncomfortable seating

option available on a commercial aircraft. Some low-cost airlines do
not have a business or first-class seating option, and thus economy class
is the only class available. Economy seating is often uncomfortable for
people with long legs or an above-average sized body. Some such people
find their knees jammed into the seat in front of them or have difficulty
sitting in the chair.

First-class
(First class seats
are comfortable
and spacious.)

Airline tickets offer access to the most comfortable and spacious seats
on a commercial aircraft. In addition to the actual seat itself, other
amenities are available to first-class passengers that are not available
to cheaper ticketed passengers. For example, the seats might be further
apart from each other so that every first-class passenger has more space
surrounding themselves than lower-classed passengers. If meals are
served, they are often of a higher quality in first class and accompanied
by an alcoholic beverage for adults. At times, special clubs in airports are
available to first-class passengers, and the in-flight entertainment is of
higher quality. This type of ticket allows the purchaser to sit in business
class. It is a ticket that provides travellers with a more comfortable
travelling experience than coach/economy. For example, one of the
benefits of business class is increased leg room. However, it does not
have the features or luxuries that are available to travellers carrying first
class tickets.
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First class tickets are a form of one-way or round-trip tickets that allow
travellers to travel in first class. Because first class travellers have access
to spacious seating, quality food, drink and other in-flight amenities,
these tickets are often the most expensive type of ticket available. First
class ticket holders also have access to the airport lounge while waiting
for their flight and a variety of entertainment options on-board.
Child tickets

Child tickets are sometimes not necessary if the child is very young,
usually around two years of age or less. In this case, the child can sit
on his or her guardians lap, or the guardian can purchase a seat for
the child if he or she does not want to hold the child during the entire
flight. Some situations may require a child to have a ticket, however,
such as international flights or cases where the child is older. In these
cases, the guardian must purchase another seat, though it is usually
offered at a discounted price.

Round-trip
tickets

Round-trip tickets let a person fly to his or her destination and then fly
back at a later date. It is a complete round trip back to where he or she
started. Often, it is less expensive to purchase round-trip airline tickets
rather than two one-way tickets to the same places.

One-way
airline tickets

One-way airline tickets allow a person to fly to one destination with no

ticket back, unlike round-trip tickets. Once the person reaches his or
her destination, he or she must purchase another ticket to fly back or
find another way. At first glance, one-way tickets are typically cheaper
than round-trip tickets, but only because it is one flight instead of two.

Refundable
ticket

Refundable tickets are a ticket type that is eligible for a refund. Travellers
that request a refund are not charged a fee or penalty. Refundable,
where there is a possibility of getting a full refund of the fare (minus
some minimum deductions / charges) in the case of modification or
cancellation and non-refundable tickets, where the airline does not give
passengers any refund in the case of changes made to the booking.

Nonrefundable
tickets

This type of ticket is often purchased at a discount and is not eligible for
a refund. Travellers who are unable to travel on the date or dates that
are specified may request that the carrier transfer the ticket to another
time. Rules regarding transferring travel dates with non-refundable
tickets may vary from one carrier to another and a re-issuing fee or
penalty may apply.

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Coach Ticket

Coach tickets are a type of ticket in which fliers travel in coach or

economy class. This is the most basic means of travel and it is also the
least expensive. Holders of coach tickets are often given limited snacks
and drink and other comfort features such as leg room are limited.

Open Airline An open ticket is a ticket which allows one to travel on any flight
Ticket
between the destinations listed on the ticket with no guarantee of being
able to travel. The cost of the open ticket is greater than a ticket for a
specific flight.

Just we will have a look at how many class and services offered by various service
providers. This list is not exhaustive. Many airlines provide different customer oriented
services to meet out the competition in the globalized world. Few examples were given, one
can understand difference in services segment which are available in airline ticketing.
Standard Economy

Economy plus

Economy minus

Premium Economy

Premium class

Business class

International business class First class

What ever be type of ticket, all tickets contain details of the following information.
They are: An air ticket contains the following margins:

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1. Issued By this margin contains the name of an airline which ticket you buy.
InNdrsens / RsriionsMargin you find the information regarding fare
restrictions under this ticket and the possibility of handing over the passenger to
another carrier. For example, if the margin contains SU/KL ONLY then this ticket
is valid for the flights ofAirflot (SU) and KLM (KL) and if the tariff allows you
can change the aircraft from one company to another according to the ticket you
have. If your tariff allows any changes it will be mentioned in this margin. For
example, RES CHG USD 50 or ONE INBOUND REB FREE means THE CHANGE
OF RESERVATION WITH IMPOSING A FIRE OF 50 USD or ONE CHANGING
OF RETURN DATE FREE OF CHARGE.
2.

Tour Code Is the notation for group and confidential tariffs (more often it is
specified in the upper part of the ticket).

3. Origin/Destination is a three-letter notation of the point of origin and the

destination point through the whole route.
4.

In theAirline Datamargin you can see an alphanumeric number of reservations

(PNR CODE).

5.

Issued In Exchange For.If the ticket is issued in exchange for another one then the
number of primary ticket is put down in this margin.

6.

Conguction Tickets.If according to the ticket the route includes more flights than
the number of flight coupons in the form, then such a ticket is issued on several
papers and in column 6 of each one the number of conjunction ticket is marked.
These several forms are considered to be one and the same ticket and even if you
have accomplished the whole flight under one of them do not throw it away till the
end of the journey.

7.

Date and Place of Issuecontains a unique stamp of agency with agencys name, its
address, unique office number, alphanumerical reference of the agent who issued
the ticket, date of issue. This information you can see in middle lined margin.

8.

Name of Passengeris pointed out in Latin transcription only. The first letter of the
name or the whole name and sex follow the surname (MR mister, MRS/MSS
miss or misses). According to the international standards this margin allows to have
not more than 3 mistakes without phonation distortion (is pointed out either in the
head or middle part of the ticket).

9.

In theFrom/tomargin you can see all the origin and destination points. If there are
several airports in the city then a three-letter code of the airport follows the name.

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10. Carrier.Here you can find a two-letter code of the carrier airlines. The codes are
standardized by the International Association of Carriers and can be either quite
evident: LH Lufthansa, AF Air France, British Airwaysor not quite so:
Y Finnair, UN , Z Alitalia.
11.Flightmargin contains the number of flight.
12. Class.Its important not to mix it up with the class of passengers location. The first
class is usually marked with letter F or J, business class by letter C, other letters
signify an economy class.
13. Date date of departure.
14. Time time of departure (always local).
15. Status of reservation/STATUSusually looks like OK/HK reservation confirmed,
PQ/HL waiting list/for free seats (inquiry of place on registration). In a ticket for
infants (under 2 years old) flying without separate seat status NS is pointed out.
16. Fare Basiscontains an alphanumeric marking of the fare according to this coupon.
17. Not Valid Before / Not Valid Aftercontains the date before which and after which
accordingly you may not fly under this air ticket (if the rules of the fare allow the
changing of dates).
18. The norm of free of charge luggage/ALLOWshows either weight in kilograms or
the number of seats. It can be seen in the lower part of the ticket.
19. Fare airlines fare for the transportation.
20. Equiv. Fare PD the equivalent of the fare in the currency of the issuing point (if
the currency of the point of issuing differs from the currency of departure point).
The conversion rate should be specified in margin 1 or 23.
21. Taxis a two-letter notation and the amount of airport taxes in the currency of the
issue point.
22. Total the total cost of the ticket (fare plus airport fees) in the currency of the
departure point or other currency.
23. Fare Calculationcontains a detailed calculation of the tickets cost.
24. Form of Payment. The most widespread are CASH, INVOICE or INV, CC (credit
card).

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In India, Airline Tickets are quite easy to search and book, since the country has
a vast network of different airports and many airline operators across the region. In fact,
tickets booking are now such an easy task that almost every internet user now uses online
ticketing sites to book travel airline tickets. There are multiple airlines in India, few of which
sell cheap air ticketson their own sites, and there are also more than 12 Indian travel sites
which compare cheapest ticket availability across all the flight ticket providers, including
international airline tickets. There are different types of ticket formats that are standardized
in accordance to the International Air Ticket Association (IARA) format. There are three
major types of ticket formats. Air ticket is an essential part of air travel, yet it has become a
common everyday document to the travellers. It is broadly classified as:
(a) Off-Premise Transitional Automated Ticket (OPTAT)
(b) Automated Ticket / Boarding Pass (ATB)
(c) Electronic Ticket (E-Ticket / ET)

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Passenger ticket and baggage check are the official contract between the passenger
and the airline carriers. Passengers without tickets cannot be taken on the flight; in addition,
for each passenger a ticket must be issued. On the white pages of the ticket cover youll find
the Terms and Conditions of an Agreement, as well as additional information. There are
different types of ticket formats that are standardized in accordance to the International Air
Ticket Association (IARA) format. There are three major types of ticket formats that are
offered and sold.
Off-Premise Transitional Automated Ticket (Optat)
1. Paper Ticket: OPTAT is an Off-Premise Transitional Automated ticket sold mostly
through International Air Transport Association (IATA)-licensed Travel Agencies.
It is a standard universal travel document that is issued by airlines to passengers.
The ticket is in a format of four flight-coupons. The valid segment of the journey
in the coupon is highlighted by a brighter colour against the other invalid portion
segment. The valid flight coupon segment will be taken upon check-in according
to the routing portion of the journey. The ticket also consists of light coupons,
passenger receipt coupon and the cover, which are attached with notices as well as
other information related with the air passage.
2. Automated Ticket / Boarding Pass (ATB): Automated Ticket Boarding Pass or
ATB is an airline ticket stock with a series of cards that print the control, flight,
seat assignment and passenger data. It consists of valid flight coupons per sector
and the passenger receipt. ATB2 is an ATB with a magnetic stripe. The principal
carrier issues an ATB. An ATB has two portions, the flight coupon (left side) and

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the passenger coupon (left side), which can be used as boarding pass, both separated
by a perforation. The passenger receipt shows the complete itinerary and various
ticketing data on the coupon and can be retained by passengers.
3. Electronic Ticket (E-Ticket / ET): An E-ticket is a paperless ticket. All the ticketing
data is stored electronically. Upon check-in at the airport, the traveller will have
to provide a valid picture ID and then they will be issued a boarding pass for that
part of their trip. In principal an e-ticket is the same as an Off-Premise Transitional
Automated Ticket (OPTAT) or Automated Ticket / Boarding Pass (ATB). The
Electronic Ticket (e-ticket / ET) format is a paperless ticket. Another difference is
that upon check-in the flight coupon is provided electronically. E-ticket has many
advantages compared to the other types ticket formats and will gradually replace the
two other formats in the future.

To issue e-tickets, airlines must have a database that is integrated with an airlines
passenger service system. That is then connected to all other partners -- airlines, airports,
ground transportation and travel agencies, for instance -- to share real time information.

To book themselves on a flight, travellers can visit any number of Web-based ticketing
sites. Once there, they can view the options available and use a credit or debit card to pay for
their ticket. After placing the order, the electronic record of the ticket goes into the airlines
database, where it holds the passengers spot.

The electronic ticket is particularly convenient since it confirms the purchase of a
ticket without the need of any printed document. The airline with which one travel, stores
all the details of the ticket in its central system of reservations.

This means that no need to show a printed ticket in order to get on the plane and no
worry about forgetting or losing the ticket. Having an electronic ticket, allows to go directly
to the check-in counter holding with passport or identity card and a copy of the e-mail
booking confirmation.

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Electronic Ticketing -Availability: E-Ticket Indicator

E-ticket issuance

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E-ticket display

PNR update with ticket number

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E-ticket void

PNR display after Void

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E-ticket refund

E-ticket display after Refund

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PNR display after Refund

Benefit to Customer
An era has ended. If you have a paper ticket, its time to donate it to a museum.We are
moving ahead with a further revolutionFast Travel that will provide convenient selfservice options from check-in to baggage tracing and re-booking.- Bisignani

100% ET eliminates lost tickets.

Consumers can look forward

Easier travel in an electronic world.

Enable a wide array of self-service options

ETs can easily be changed and reissued

Online and mobile check in.

Reissued without necessitating a trip to a travel agency or airline ticket office.

Simplifying the Business

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Conjunctive Tickets: Conjunctive tickets are two or more tickets issued on the
same itinerary for the same passenger. It is a continuation of the itinerary of the previous
ticket. Conjunctive tickets may contain up to four ticket numbers. The conjunctive ticket
indicator is a dash ( - ), and is placed after the coupon numbers of the first conjunctive
ticket, followed by the last three digits of the last conjunctive ticket number.

Ticket less Travel: Ticket less travel is accelerating as more passengers are boarding
an airplane without a paper document in hand. Instead, passengers claim their reservation
at the airport, showing a credit card and picture identification at the check-in counter to
receive a boarding pass. Ticket less travel is now accepted by most airlines domestically and
internationally as well. Interline electronic tickets are being developed to make it easier to
adapt to complicated itineraries. The passenger information is shown below:
TKT NBR:

Ticket number including airline code. No check digit shown.

ORIG/DEST

Origin / Destination, here AMS/AMS

NBR of TKTS issued

In this case, only one ticket is issued, no conjunction ticket.

TTL NBR of SEGS

Total number of segments, in this case 2.

CP

Coupon

Status, in this case O(pen) for use

ER

Endorsements / restrictions

Fare Calculation

Calculation in NUC. The Rate of Exchange (ROE) and the XTtaxes.

Fare Calc Indicator

Pricing Indicator. 9 tells you the booking is auto priced.

TKT Fare Data

Fare Information as shown on the Passenger Ticket

Auditor

Net amount to be paid

FOP

Form of Payment

NAME

Passenger name

FA: 1P/.

File Address (Worldspan Locator)

FA: 1A/.

File Address (Airline Locator)

Ticketing AGT ID

Sine in of ticketing agent

SID

Subscriber ID (pseudo)

DATE

Date of ticket issuance

IATA NBR

IATA Number

Name/Place of Issue

Issuing Agency name and address

Free BAG

Baggage Allowance (not guaranteed)

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Ticket Data
Display (TDD)

Coupon Status
Display (CSD)

Open For Use

Open for use, not yet used.

Airport Control

Under airport control - the operating carrier has

secured the ET coupon prior to the scheduled
departure.

Checked

The passenger has checked in for the flight.

Lifted

The passenger has boarded the aircraft.

Exchanged

The value of the ET coupon has been used as

payment for a new transaction.

Used

The flight has been completed.

Refund

The e-ticket record has been refunded.

Void

The e-ticket record has been voided.

Unavailable

The validating carrier has determined that the

coupon is no longer available for use as ticketed.

Definition:

An e-ticket is nothing more than a reservation in an airlines computer system,
one that advises them you have a ticketed seat confirmed on a particular flight.

When youre issued an e-ticket theres also an e-ticket receipt thats printed out
afterward. The e-ticket receipt looks similar to an old-style paper ticket but doesnt need
to be presented at the check-in counter on the day of your flight. It only serves as proof
that your ticket was issued. To check in with an e-ticket you need only to provide a valid

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passport or government issued ID so the agent can pull up the record in their system. The
check-in agent then provides your boarding pass to take to the gate. It is recommended
however that you take the e-ticket receipts with you on your trip as it serves as proof of your
reservation in the event of a computer snafu or major electronic meltdown. Travelling with
e-tickets gives the added benefit of not having to have valuable paper tickets with you along
your travels, thereby circumventing the risk of theft, damage or loss.
Paper Tickets
Thereareairlines in the world, not many that still issue paper tickets for their flights,
mainly because updating their outdated ticketing system would not provide any savings
over leaving it as it is. Airlines still using paper-only ticketing systems are generally smaller
operations and/or are low-cost local carriers. It has nothing to do with the airlines quality
or safety record. Paper tickets sometimes, but rarely, need to be used when combining more
than one airline on the same ticket. This is becoming increasingly unlikely, but there are
occasions where the best fare does require a paper ticket. If Air Treks needs to issue a paper
ticket for any leg in your journey, well send you those tickets free of charge no matter where
you are in the world. Well also make sure you know which legs of the trip have been issued
that way and remind you that youll need to bring the tickets with you to the airport.
How to Read an E-Ticket?

E-ticket receipts can be tricky to decipher theres a bunch of hieroglyphics on any
given one.

A Validating carrier
B means that this document cant be used to board your flight
C place and date of issue
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D electronic ticket number

E passenger name
F departure airport code
G arrival airport codes
H airline code and flight numbers
I class of service and travel dates

Fare and fare basis codes are some of the most difficult things to understand about
the travel industry. How can someone sitting next to me on the plane have paid $250 less
than I did? Why my ticket refundable and theirs is not? These questions can be answered
by determine what fare was booked for the ticket and what fare basis codes were used for
each flight.
1. Unrestricted Fares and Restricted Fares

Based on booking classes, fares can be divided into two categories: (i). Unrestricted or
Normal Fares (ii). Restricted, Excursion, Special, or Discounted Fares. An unrestricted
fare is a higher fare for a ticket offering maximum flexibility. Typically, unrestricted
fares require no advance purchase, no Saturday night stay, no roundtrip purchase,
and are fully refundable without penalty or fee. Restricted fares can possibly require
an advance purchase, a minimum and maximum stay; they are mostly non-refundable
fares that have change fees that apply. They have routing restrictions and require that
the same carrier be used in both directions. In short, there are certain restrictions to be
followed if these fares are to be availed.
2. Fare Basis Codes

A fare basis code consists of two basic elements the booking code and the applicable
fare elements. Together they make up a fare basis code that will be up to, but no longer
than, eight (8) characters in length. The booking code refers to the letter representing
the class of service in which the fare has been published and the inventory that you will
use to confirm the booked flight segment. In general, the following table lists the most
commonly used booking codes and the classes of service they represent (these may vary
per airline).
P, F, A

First Class

J, C, D

Business Class

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Y, S, W

Economy /Coach - Unrestricted

B, H, K, L, M, N, Q, T, V, X

Economy / Coach - Restricted

Lets take a look at some examples of fare basis codes & their explanations.
V30X7MN

Booking class V, Midweek, 30 days AP, 7 Day Max, Non Ref

ME14NQ

Booking Class M, Excursion fare, 14 day AP, Non-Ref

V14X77NN

Booking class V, 14 Day AP, Midweek, 77 days Max Non-Ref

V14W77NN

Booking Class V, 14 Day AP, Weekend, 77 days Max Non-Ref

VA0GNR

Booking Class V, One Way, Non-Ref

YUP6

Pay Coach fare Upgrade to First or Business Class

F10BIZN

Discount First Class fare, 10 day AP, Non-Ref

B26

Un-restricted coach fare, limited number of seats available.

Voids, Exchanges, and Refunds

When an itinerary either needs to be changed or cancelled, the original airline ticket
will not be usable. If changes are made to the itinerary, another ticket has to be issued for
the new itinerary, so the original ticket will be exchanged for this new one. If an itinerary
needs to be cancelled, but the passenger will not be rebooking, then the ticket either needs
to be refunded, voided, or held by the passenger for a future exchange. In this section, well
discuss each of these terms and when they are used.
1.

2.

3.

Voids: A void is a cancelled ticket where the charge to the customers credit card
is removed & is never even seen by the customer. Its as if the charge never went
through. A void can only be done within the voiding period.
Voiding Period: The current voiding period within the United States is the next
business day. Each agency needs to verify their voiding period or they face debit
charges from the airline for the amount of the original ticket. For example, if the
voiding period is the next business day, and a ticket was issued on Sunday, then it
needs to be voided by EOD (6:30 PM) of Monday. A ticket cannot be voided after
departure.
Exchanges: An exchange is a new ticket that is purchased against the value of an
old ticket (or any other ARC / BSP document that is accountable). The travel agent
will have to determine the fare(s) used on the original ticket and look at the fare
rules to determine what flights, airlines; routings, etc. can be used for the new ticket.

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The new (exchange) ticket will have a different ticket number and will hold all the
restrictions of the new fare.
4.

Refunds: A refund is the process of returning money to the passenger for unused
portions of a ticket. If a ticket has a refundable fare, the part(s) of the ticket that was
not used and has been cancelled, will be refunded to the customer.

A full refund means that the customer cancelled all parts (flights) of a ticket and will
receive all moneys back and a partial refund means that the customer used a portion of the
ticket (some of the flights) but has cancelled the remaining portion and will receive only the
worth of that cancelled/unused portion.
Note on LTA/ PTA /MCO

These are different types of accountable documents that can be issued to a customer.
That means that they are issued to a specific person and can only be used by that person,
they hold a certain monetary value, and they have to be reported to ARC/BSP.

Lost Ticket Application (LTA)

Passengers who lose their tickets and wish to obtain a refund must complete a Lost
Ticket Application (LTA), which may be obtained at any Airport Ticket Counter, City Ticket
Office or by calling the airlines Passenger Refund Department. The LTA must be received
by the airline within 12 months after the date of issuance of the lost ticket. To verify that
the ticket has not been used, Lost Ticket Applications are subject to a holding period of up
to 90 days before the refund is processed.

Prepaid Ticket Advice (PTA)

PTA means that one person (Buyer) can prepay the travel of another person
(Passenger) at one agency, and the Passenger can acquire the ticket at another agency.
can be used as a means of pre-payment for:- carriage (tariffs and charges). At an agency
operating PTA payments, Buyer must produce an ID, fill and sign a PTA for air tickets/
excess baggage. Buyer pays the tariffs and charges, the PTA fee (which is defined by the
sales agency) and receives a document confirming the payment (, 95). The payment
form (cash, money order, etc.) is defined by the sales agency. Buyer should inform Passenger
on the time and place of ticket issuing. At the defined day, Passenger should come to the
defined agency to acquire the ticket.

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The agent checks if the payment was correct, checks the Passengers ID, and issues
the ticket. If any extra money is needed, Passenger may pay it himself, or he can make a
request to the selling agency (in this case the payment is made by Buyer). If Passenger failed
to use the services paid by PTA (or used it partially), the PTA selling agency shall refund the
paid amount (exclusive of deductions) to Buyer and issue a confirming document ().

You can use a Prepaid Ticket Advice (PTA) when you purchase a ticket on behalf
of someone who needs to pick it up at an airport or somewhere other than the place of
purchase. If you issue it for a journey that commences outside an agencys home country, it
involves two currencies. PTAs detail passenger travel data, form of payment, and sponsor
information. It is an ARC document used to pay for a ticket in one city that is to be issued
and picked up in another city. This would be used when the itinerary does not permit the
issuance of an electronic ticket. Most airlines charge a $100.00 fee to issue a prepaid ticket.

Miscellaneous Charge Order (MCO)

A Miscellaneous Charges Order (MCO) is an ARC-accountable document that
records charges when standard ticket stock cannot be used. Issued by an agent or airline
as proof of payment for accommodations, ground transportation, or special services, or
as a credit toward future air transportation. TRX mainly uses the MCO as travel voucher
for exchange differentials. An MCO is alternatively termed as a Multi Purpose Document
(MPD).
Definition:
The abbreviated form of Miscellaneous Charge Order, used by airlines and travel
agencies.It is widely known for its use as a travel voucher. Can also be used for collecting
miscellaneous charges such as excess baggage and change fees.A MCO is a miscellaneous
charge order issued by either the airline or agency to process the payment of travel
arrangements, usually to pay for services other than airfares. (i.e. can be used for residual
balance for future travel, paper ticket fees, tour payments, etc.)

A miscellaneous charges order (MCO) is an accountable IATA document, similar
to an old-style airline ticket, used to process the payment of travel arrangements. They are
issued by airlines, but normally pay for services other than airfares. A MCO may be used to
purchase most services offered byairlines,hotelsandtour operators.

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 Coupons: In common with older airline tickets, MCOs had a number of passenger
coupons, (typically 1, 2 or 4), as well as valueless coupons for the agencys records and the
airlines interline clearing house. There were two main types of MCO, those with a specific
value for each coupon, and those with the residual value moving to the next coupon. These
were often used where the cost of a service would not be know in advance such as paying
for excess baggage. Typically the passengers copies on the second type would not show
any value, allowing payment for inclusive tours without the services prices being known
to the passenger. MCO issue: Travel agency MCOs were printed blank without airline
information, and were endorsed to the airline providing the service (or its local agent if
the airline was not represented locally). Like tickets, they were valid for a maximum of
one year unless otherwise endorsed for a shorter time. Future usage: As most MCOs are
now issued electronically like e-tickets, they are sometimes referred to as VMCOs (Virtual
Miscellaneous Charges Order) MCOs are being phased out and replaced withElectronic
Miscellaneous Documents. Airlines authorize travel agencies to issue an MCO when an
airfare refund is due to the traveller.This is in lieu of returning the money to the travellers
credit card.
Miscellaneous Charge Orders [MCO]

Miscellaneous Charges Order (MCO): A Miscellaneous Charges Order (MCO) is
an ARC-accountable document that records charges when standard ticket stock cannot
be used. Issued by an agent or airline as proof of payment for accommodations, ground
transportation, or special services, or as a credit toward future air transportation. TRX
mainly uses the MCO as travel voucher for exchange differentials. An MCO is alternatively
termed as a Multi Purpose Document (MPD). A document issued by a Carrier or its
Authorized Agent. It is worth the price written on the MCO, and is used for payment for
the types of service written on the MCO. When an MCO is issued and/or honored for air
transportation and related charges, applicable currency regulations shall apply. e.g.) FOR
FURTHER TRANSPORTATION AND/OR EXCESS BAGGAGE-may be used for payment
of ticket or excess baggage ticket for the person named in the MCO.FOR REFUND ONLY
may be used for application of refund the place of purchase of the original ticket against
which such MCO.
MCO Guidelines

Does not accept manual or handwritten MCOs.

MCOs cannot be used to pay debit memos or to collect/report cancellation penalties

or exchange fees.

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Only one MCO can be issued per ticketed passenger. Cross reference the ticket
number on the MCO in the reason for exchange line.

Travel agents should refer to the ARC industry agents handbook for instructions on
the completion and reporting of MCO exchange coupons.

Travel agents in should refer to the Passenger Sales Agency Agreement and Travel
Agents Handbook for the instructions on the completion and reporting of MCO
exchange coupons.

Miscellaneous Charge Orders (MCOs) may not be used to process tour payments
Approved MCO Uses

An MCO can be used when standard ticket stock cannot be used. See list below for
approved transactions for air travel and related services:

Additional Collections

Deposits/down payments that include air transportation

Excess Baggage Fees

Future Administrative Service Charge & Penalty Fees

Land arrangements for inclusive tours

Lost Ticket Applications (LTA)

Pet Transportation Charge

Pre-paid Ticket Advice (PTA) Fee

Sky Club memberships

Unaccompanied Minor Escort Fee

Unspecified Future Travel and or Service

Mco Issuance for Paper Ticket Fee

A non refundable fee applies to each paper ticket requested for all e-ticket (ET)
eligible itineraries.

Travel Agencies will continue to have the ability to issue paper tickets for any non-ET
eligible transactions and to issue paper miscellaneous charge orders.

International travel agencies participating in a Bank Settlement Plan (BSP) are

restricted from issuing paper tickets and paper miscellaneous documents.

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International agencies have been advised to issue a Virtual Multi-Purpose Document
(VMPD) in lieu of paper tickets and paper miscellaneous transactions.

International travel agencies who do not participate inBSP will continue to follow
their normal ticketing procedures. All customers, including SkyMiles members, who
voluntarily request a paper ticket, will be charged a paper ticket fee. The fee applies
to all fare types and will be charged via all ticketing channels, including tickets
originally issued, reissued or converted by a travel agent.
Exceptions
Infants travelling internationally require a paper ticket. Therefore, the paper
ticket fee will be waived for an adult travelling with an infant internationally if
they prefer a paper ticket
Travel agencies outside the (e.g U.S., Canada and Bermuda) who are currently
not able to issue an ET
Non-ET eligible cities or code share partners
Guidelines for Issuing MCOS

Name of Passenger The MCO may be issued only in the name of the passenger on
the original unused ticket.

Type of Service An MCO may be issued for the following types of service: air travel
and related services, including lost ticket application, Crown Room membership,
excess baggage fee, pet transportation charge, unaccompanied minor escort fee,
future administrative service charge, and PTA service charge fee.

Endorsement Restrictions- Non refundable/non reversible. The endorsement box

of any ticket issued in exchange for the MCO must contain the non-refundable
amount including taxes.

Validity : An MCO is valid for one year from the date of issue and must be presented
for a ticket within that period. Once the MCO is exchanged, the ticket issued then becomes
valid for one year from the date of issue. MCOs are not replaceable if lost or stolen. Travel
Agencies cannot accept Delta-issued MCOs. Whenever an exchange coupon of an MCO
is reissued, all prior endorsements or restrictions appearing on the original MCO must
be carried forward to the new MCO. Use specific GDS entries below for information on
MCOs.

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Reservation Procedure

In airline terminology, a reservation is a journey where seats have been blocked, but
the purchase is not complete. It is the process of blocking space in a particular airline for a
passenger. In the process, the passengers name, destination, date of travel and other crucial
information is taken into consideration.
A sample PNR as seen on the CRS:

A Computer Reservation System (CRS) is the primary reference of the travel
professional. A CRS is a storehouse of information on fares, flight schedules, railroads,
cruises, world weather, international documentation, and travel advisories. A CRS is also
known as a Global Distribution System (GDS). Computer Reservation Systems (CRS)
provide complete, current information on airlines, railways, cars, hotels, cruises, and tours.
These computer programs allow travel professional to access availability and make bookings
for their clients. Using a CRS, one can process airline reservations and issue airline tickets.
The Airlines Reservation system facilitates the user to view the flight schedules, inquire
about the flight details, availability of seats and many more. The major functionality of
system is to allow the user to book and cancels the flights as per user requirements. It also
provides the administrator or manager to modify existing flights or to introduce new flights
in the schedule.
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Major features provided by the system are:

Flight Enquiry (The system allows the user or member to perform flight inquiry
including flight scheduling, seats availability status, fare details, etc).

User Registration (It allows the user to register in order to be a member of the
organization. User is then granted a privilege to book or cancels flights).

Flight Reservation (The system allows the member to book the flights as per his/her
requirements. The member is prompt to enter the passenger details and credit card
details). The member then receives the unique PNR No. and E-ticket.

Flight Cancellation (The functionality is used by the member to cancel an existing

reservation made by the member earlier).
Airline Reservation System (ARS):

A computerized system containing information about schedules, availability,
fares and related services and through which airline inventory is maintained, reservations
can be made and/or tickets issued. Typically, only airline offices (ATO, CTO, CRC, etc)
or their General Sales Agents (GSAs) utilize the ARS.

There are many ways that helps you in making flight reservations on the net. One
can make use of number of travel sites to find out what prices are obtainable for the tour
itinerary. Some of the travel websites will allow us to choose the fare we are eager to shell
out and then help us find the tickets for that price. To have the flight reservation we can also
contact the airlines directly. It has made the method of air travel very easy and less costly for
all the people.
Reservations Services Manual [RSM]

A reference and training manual illustrated with real-life, easy-to-follow examples to
better understand reservations rules and procedures. It contains all internationally agreed
upon reservations, rules and interline reservations message procedures and addresses
every possible reservations scenario. All of the products and services that can compose
a customers entire journey are today being distributed through a number of marketing
channels, utilizing professional agents and personal data services. This manual also explores
the relationship and technology that exists amongst airlines, customers, marketing media
and service provides.

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This manual is a great supplement to the Reservations Interline Message Procedures
Passenger (AIRIMP), for a much broader understanding, usage and acceptance of standard
reservations procedures, and to enable airlines and other travel industry organizations to
conduct their everyday business in the most efficient and economical manner with a more
effective response to customers.
Users of RSM

Airlines

Airports

Computer Reservation Systems (CRS)

Global Distribution Systems (GDSs)

Government Agencies

Reservations agents or trainees

System Providers

Travel Agencies

Automated Ticket

A form of Passenger Ticket and Baggage Check designed for issue in various printing
devices for which data is computer generated. AUTOMATED TICKET/BOARDING PASS
(ATB) is the form of automated ticket and boarding pass described in Resolutions. It is a
single copy non-carbonised ticket (normally on card stock) with each coupon imprinted
separately. Each coupon used for air transport is comprised of a flight coupon and a
detachable passenger coupon and boarding pass for a specific flight. One coupon is issued
as the passenger receipt which together with all passenger coupons and boarding passes
builds up the passenger copy of the passenger ticket and baggage check.
What is booking?

Action of reserving space on a flight for a passenger, e.g., inventory space or physical
seat. Equivalent to the term Booking means the allotment in advance of seating or sleeping
accommodation for a passenger or of space or weight capacity for baggage, cargo or mail.
This term is also applied to hotel, car and other types of travel services. Equivalent to the
term Booking, means the allotment in advance of seating or sleeping accommodation for
a passenger or of space or weight capacity for baggage, cargo or mail.

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Almost all important cities in India have their own domestic airport. There are more
than 8 international airports in India and more than 65 domestic airports. Each airport has
airline counters where last-minute airline ticket deals can be found. Similarly there are many
air-line reservation systems used for domestic ticketing and one can logon to the respective
sites of the carriers to find more information about the fare pricing and availability of cheap
options for your plane yatra. There are three types of domestic airlines tickets that can be
found in the Indian subcontinent:

Economy Class Airline Tickets

Business Class Air Tickets

First Class Air Tickets

For all these three types, there are refundable and non-refundable travel airline ticket
options. The best part about flying on in India is that tickets for any airline are available for
buying from multiple places. There are LCCs, low cost carriers who are experts at internet
booking engines that sell their airline tickets and there are FSCs (full service carriers)
which compete on value and service. You can book their airlines tickets directly at airport
airline counters, from an offline travel agent, from an online tickets agent, from the airlines
ticketing site, or on the phone with the airline call centre. Each channel has different airfares
and smart travellers usually compare multiple ways of booking before deciding where they
will buy.

India has sustained a rapid growth in travel industry after globalization and
privatization. Due to symbiotic association between technology and growth the standard
of living has also been improved. Today, a large number of people fly daily between several
domestic destinations for leisure and business purposes. As a result almost all major
cities in India are well connected with each other. Unlike olden days, when travelling
was a cumbersome affair, today with the increasing number of domestic airlines in India
travelling has become a lot easier. In modern era, where people are juggling to balance the
fine line between profession and personal life, a little help from technology, certainly is a
respite. Boom in low cost airlines and online booking has made domestic airlines booking
affordable and convenient. To save time, people are selecting faster routes, thus the demand
for cheap domestic airlines in India has increased many folds in the recent years. Due to a
large number of domestic airlines in India with stiff competition among themselves several
lucrative discounts and offers are also given to customers. Most domestic airline tickets now
include the cost of delicious food served on-board, along with excellent customer service
that will win your heart. Some of the main cheap domestic airlines in India are Air India
Express, Kingfisher Red, Jet Airways, JetLite, Paramount Airways etc.

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Booking by Computer: Booking Class and Classes of Service

There are only three sections (and sometimes only two) of a plane: First, Business,
and Coach / Economy. These are referred to as First class, Business class, and Coach Class.
When flights are booked in a reservation system, they are booked in a specific class of
service for the section of the plane that was requested. The passenger always has a choice
of what section of the plane to sit in, but what section they choose will have an effect on the
price (fare) of their ticket. Now, since there are only three sections of a plane, you would
think that there are only three fares that the customer can be charged. There are many
different fares for every flight. The fare depends on many factors, one of which is the class
of service.

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Pricing of airlines tickets is a complicated matter handled by sophisticated yield

management systems which ensure that flights can fill their seats with optimal load and
profitability. Airfares are therefore very dynamic and liable to change very often. This is
why you need a site to search across all price possibilities for airlines tickets. When booking
a ticket, regardless of whether it is using a published or unpublished fare, there are letters
that are assigned to different fares. These letters indicate the class of service, not simply
indicating economy or business class, but rather the type of fare that was purchased.
For the sake of profits, airlines will not offer every seat on an aircraft at the seat
sale fares, or excursion fares. As flights fill, the least expensive fares disappear regardless
of how far in advance it is. Unless you are on a full fare ticket you can be certain that there
will be any number of restrictions involved with your airfare - minimum/maximum stay;
time of day; weekday, weekend price differences; change fees; mileage (on through fares
you may be restricted to a certain number of miles to get you to your destination), advance
purchase; youth/child/senior rule differences; etc.. So many fare types, even more fare rules.
Considering that airline tickets are contracts between passengers and airlines it is important
to know what you are signing up for. There are several tools available to help the airline
traveller make informed booking decisions. In addition to providing a list of flight options,
most booking engines also provide the aircraft each airline will be flying and what seats are
still available for each flight. Taking a few extra minutes to examine all this information can
have a significant impact on travel plan.
1. Look beyond price
2. Compare seat pitch and width dimensions
3. Compare in-flight amenities
4. Compare seat availability

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(a) First Class: First class seating is generally located right behind the cockpit of the
aircraft. The seats in First Class are wider than coach class. They also have wider
armrests between the seats so that people are not sitting so close to each other.
Complimentary alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages and meals are served to First
Class passengers. The meals are usually a little more substantial than the meals
served in coach class. First class passengers also receive complimentary headsets
if a movie is shown on the flight. On long (usually overseas) flights, some airlines
offer fully reclining seats that allow passengers to rest more comfortably.
Classes of Service
P

First class Premium

First class Jet

First class Discounted

(b) Business / Executive Class: Business class is normally located directly behind the
First class section of the plane. It is designed for the business traveller. The seats are
bigger than those in coach class are and there is plenty of room to do paperwork or
work on the computer. Complimentary drinks and meals are served in this section.
Not every plane has a Business class section. Usually, overseas and transcontinental
flights will have a Business class section.
Classes of Service
J

Business class Premium

Business class

Business class Discounted

(c) Coach / Economy Class: This is the largest section of the aircraft. The seats in this
section are narrower than those in First or Business class. Complimentary nonalcoholic beverages and (sometimes) light meals are served. Alcoholic beverages
are sold and headsets can be rented for a fee.
Classes of Service
Y

Full coach not restricted

Coach class (usually) not restricted

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M
H
Q

Restricted Coach class

K
L

Airlines differ in the use of booking codes to define their fare structure. The booking
class indicates whether the fare is discounted or not.
Booking Codes

While there are only three sections of the aircraft, there are many booking codes in
which a traveller can be reserved. There are several booking codes for the coach section of
the aircraft. Each booking code corresponds to a different fare. Therefore, passengers may
pay different fares for their ticket even though they are sitting right next to each other. The
first step in understanding the different fares is to know about the booking code hierarchy.
Generally, the codes listed first (reading from left to right) are the most expensive. As you
move to the right, the fares get less expensive.
Example
1

DL 1202

F3 C0 Y9 B9 H9 Q7 K4 L0

DL1202 offers booking codes F, C, Y, B, H, Q, K and L. The numbers following
each booking code indicate the number of seats available to sell for that particular code.
A9 indicates nine or more seats are available to sell at that code. Any number less than
9 indicates only those many seats are available to sell at that code. The screenshots below
show all the different classes of service that a customer can book in the coach section of an
airline.

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Booking Procedure Followed by Airline Orenair

Agency has a right to impose service charge (Agency Commission) for the tickets.

Bank cards VISA International, MasterCard/Euro card you can pay for e-tickets
and additional paid services.

On-line booking is free of charge and secure.

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Airline Codes: Few Examples

Airline

Airline Code

AirTran Airlines

FL

Alaska Airlines

AS

America West

HP

American Airlines

AA

American Trans Air

TZ

Continental Airlines

CO

Delta Airlines

DL

Northwest Airlines

NW

Southwest Airlines

WN

United Airlines

UA

US Airways

US

On Line Air Tickets Reservation

The process of reservation of air tickets reservation 1 day before travel. This system
of reservations does not allow you to make reservation of tickets with date of departure
that will abstain least from 1 day. The process of reservation is exceptionally simple, sure
and fast. In few steps you can select and keep the ticket that serves you better itinerary and
interest price.Few steps involved in this process are:

Step -1

Select if the air ticket that you need [one way or with return round trip
multy leg trip]

Select the departure airport and the airport that is your final destination

Select your date of departure also the date of your return

Supplement how much passengers (adults, children or infant ) max 7

passengers

Step II

Select your itineraries and their prices

Step III

Click onbook basket

Step IV

I would like to book without registering.And click to continue

Step V

Supplement the all elements , given name , surname , the email, telephone etc

Step VI

On next page: you can see the total cost .

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Step VII
Electronic Ticket (E-Ticket)Description for E-ticket process Payed only
via Credit card

You can click toE-ticket requestand Pay via Bank money transfer

E-ticketThe reservation is found in the system of air company

Step-VIII

Choose the type of pay mode (credit card/bank ) etc

Step-IX

Making payments
CLICK ONAccept rules
Next Step : click on Complete Booking in order to is completed your
reservation, you print out the page. Automatically you will receive an email
with all the reservation details and Reference code (ticket no will be sent via
email).

Overview of The V-MPD

The V-MPD is:
A virtual representation of the paper MPD/auto MCO;

An instrument of exchange;

A record of a transaction of payment for a service or collection of a fee;

Issued in BSPlink;

Drop down menu boxes look like a manual document;

Email message upon completion to the airline service point;

Airlines see their copy and act in accordance with their standard internal procedures
for processing Prepaid Ticket Advices (PTAs).

It should be noted that IATA is continuing to examine additional functionality that
meets the needs in order to minimise disruptions to the operations and welcomes feedback
and comment. The V-MPD is a viable alternative to paper MPDs and is available globally
for BSP participating airlines to deploy market by market. A multi-purpose document, or
MPD, is a document that contains the necessary data to provide information as several
different points during the flow of a process. The document is normally divided into
sections, and may also feature coded areas that are scanned for faster processing. The MPD
is used in a number of different business and industry settings, including freight services
and air transportation.

There are two main reasons why the use of an MPD is helpful in some settings. First,
there is the matter of speed. Using the MPD means there is less shuffling of paperwork to
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locate necessary data at each step of a process. Because the document is usually simple and
straightforward in structure, locating the necessary data takes much less time. The end result
is the ability to increase productivity by allowing more incidences of the process to take
place in a given period of time. Along with speed, an MPD also helps to increase efficiency.
Since all the necessary data is arranged and easily identified at each point in a process, the
chances fordata entryerrors are minimized. In addition, any coded areas included on the
document allow quick scanning, which means less manual entry altogether. With the margin
for error reduced, use of an MPD format means fewer exceptions or delays in processing.
One of the growing applications of an MPD is found with the airline industry. As a means
of reducing print documents in booking and boarding processes, many airlines are moving
to what is known as a virtual multi-purpose document. Like the MPD, this newer virtual
MPD organizes information in a simple format that is easily scanned. At the same time,
the virtual document also can be called up to verify all sorts of pre-payment transactions.
By applying a virtual solution to boarding, baggage, and other processes associated with
ravelling by air, the hope is to minimize delays in boarding, as well as to minimize the
chances for lost luggage and other common issues that consumers sometimes experience. It
is anticipated that more airlines will adopt a virtual PMD, or VPMD, approach in the years
to come.

What is a MPD?
A MPD is essentially a gift voucher from service provider. It arrives looking
like an old school paper ticket usually with a letter from QF saying sorry for some
sort of mess up on their behalf. Under name of Passenger on the MPD it will say Gift
Voucher. A MPD is essentially cash or as the name says a gift voucher which can be
used to book travel in anyones name within the specified valid period (typically 1 year
from issue). The voucher is typically valid for limited period.

The Virtual Multi Purpose Document (vMPD)-Defined

The Virtual Multi Purpose Document (vMPD) provides international travel agents
with an automated method for issuing a paperless Multi Purpose Document (MPD). The
vMPD is only available to international travel agencies who report via an approved Bank
Settlement Plan (BSP). It is not available for domestic U.S. travel agencies or international
agencies who do not report via a Bank Settlement Plan. The vMPD will be used by the
international travel agency community until such time as Deltas ticketing transactions are
100% ET eligible and the Electronic miscellaneous Document (EMD) is fully implemented.

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Billing and Settlement Plan [Bsp]

Billing and Settlement Plan is essentially the same as ARC, but is mostly used
internationally. It is a system designed to facilitate and simplify the selling, reporting
and remitting procedures of IATA Accredited Passenger Sales Agents, as well as improve
financial control and cash flow for BSP Airlines.
What is BSP?
1. Billing and Settlement Plan A carrier neutral reporting / accounting system
run by IATA
2. Use of neutral traffic document (STD) and one single reporting point
3. BSP Reports are official accounting documents
4. A network of approved Agents who issue Traffic Documents on behalf of the
Airlines
5. Agents Accreditation System of financial guarantee / Criteria control
6. Airlines Ticketing Authority
7. A clearing instrument to reconcile the sales by Agents to the Airlines that own
sales
8. Passenger Sales Agency Agreement (PSAA)(Resolution 824) Monies in trust
How does the BSP work?

267

268

Virtual Multiple Purpose Document (V-MPD) for BSP

To avoid paper technologies it is necessary to replace ticket stock and MCO by
electronic version of such documents. Electronic tickets have been implemented. But
newly adopted Electronic Miscellaneous Document (EMD) will not enjoy widespread
implementation. To address this need IATA has developed and implemented an electronic
(internet) version of the (paper) MPD Virtual MPD. The V-MPD is available for use in all
BSPs on global basis, but its implementation is by carrier request per market. The V-MPD
is a Virtual representation of the Manual MPD and Automated MCO (MD50 transaction)
completed online (in BSPlink), allowing for a paperless transaction. The purpose of V-MPD
is to allow the (nowadays there are no paper alternatives) pre-payment for such items
as: PTAs, excess baggage, ground transportation etc. It provides Agents with an automated
method for the issuance of MPD transactions via BSPlink, which are then included in the
standard BSP billing process.
V-MPD Main menu
The following options can be found for Virtual MPDs in the main menu:
Virtual MPD

Query & Reports

Configuration

Maximum V-MPD Value

Block reason for issuance code

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Query & Reports - Search by V-MPD number

Insert a V-MPD number into the field and click query. The page will show
information related to V-MPD such as type, document, Agent, currency, amount, and
issue date, status and settlement period. Clicking the document number will show a
facsimile of the document.

Query & Reports Daily Reports

Select a date from the drop down list and click query. A list of all V-MPDs
issued during that date will be shown. Also the Agent code and V-MPD type can be
selected.

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Query and Reports Report by period

Select a period from the drop down list and click query. A list of all V-MPDs issued
during that period will be shown. Also the Agent code and V-MPD type can be selected.
Query and Reports Void Request
In markets where Agents are not allowed to cancel V-MPDs on the same day as the day of
their issue, Agents have to send void requests to the appropriate Airlines within the issuance
day of the document. Airlines can query those V-MPD void requests and take necessary
action. Click on Submit button to query Void Requests made during the day by the Agent
In order to void a V-MPD the Airline can select it V-MPD or mark to select all V-MPDs
to be voided and click Void Selected Virtual MPDs.Message displayed: Document will be
voided or Selected documents will be voided Document numbers are displayed. The
document(s) is/are voided by the system. In order to void a V-MPD, the Airline can also
click the document number to query the details of the V-MPD and then void it. Click VOID
button to void the document or AIRLINE COPY to print the document. A new parameter
has been added in the BSP browser, enabling BSPs to change the number of days (from 0 to
3) for Airline action of void requests, according to market rules or requirements. Use links
Mark as Used, Mark as used and Clean Up or Print marked documents as per requirement.
Use the link Cleaned up Documents to query the documents previously cleaned up during
the day. After confirmation, an automated email alert will be sent to the Agent concerned
if the Agent has configured the email alert option under Configuration.
Cancellation Parameters for V-MPD
It is not possible for the Agent or the Airline to modify a VMPD after issue.
1) I f the V-MPDs cancellation by the Agent parameter under BSP Basic Configuration
option is set to Yes, then Agents will have the possibility to void the VMPD on the
same day the document was issued.
2) If the V-MPDs cancellation by the Agent parameter under BSP Basic Configuration
option is set to No, then Agents have the possibility to request a void from the
Airline. Number of latency days for void request is set by the BSP (up to a maximum
of 3).

Note on Issue Date : if the Agent requests to void the V-MPD and the latency days
for void request value is > 0, BSPlink defines the issue date of the V-MPD as the issue date
+ number of latency days for void request (max 3).
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If and when the Airline voids the V-MPD, issue date in BSPlink will be date of
voiding by the Airline, meaning not necessarily up to maximum number of latency days
for void request
V-MPD Mark as used function

Once the V-MPD has been used, main user or any sub-user has the possibility to
Mark as used the V-MPD. This new status is visible to all users of the airline to ensure
there is no duplication of action or use.
Virtual MPD Configuration Email & Language

A user can set email addresses to receive email alerts for issued, voided, void
requested V-MPDs. Add in the email address field the recipients email address separating
each email address using a semi-colon (;), this field contains a maximum of 85 characters.
Click Submit in order for the operation to be carried out.

Users can chose between - Basic e-mail alert (IATA Agent Code, Agent Name,
Country, City, Document #, Reason for Issuance) or - Enhanced e-mail alert (basic features
+ Name of Passenger, Reason for Issuance Code, Total Amount, Currency, Remarks, Issued
in Connection with, Issued in Exchange for, Original Issue Information, PNR Details).
Users can also select in which language(s) e-mail alerts are to be received. Click arrow to
see languages available. Clicking on submit will register the selected changes.
Maximum V-MPD Value
The user can configure the maximum value allowed when issuing a Virtual MPD.

This option will only be available whenever the BSP or the Airline has activated it via
BSPs or Airlines basic parameters.
1. Enter the maximum value allowed per currency.
2. Click the Submit button in order to save the values.
The user has to define a maximum value per currency registered in the BSP. If the
user leaves a currency blank, the system will not validate the V-MPD value when issuing the
transaction. If the value has decimal characters, they will be separated with a dot (.)

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As previously explained, the values set via this option will affect the issue of Virtual
MPD. This means that if the user issues a V-MPD with a value superior to the value defined
via this option, the issue is not permitted.
Universal Air Travel Plan

The biggest benefit of having a travel money card is that you have more control over
exchange rates and can lock in the rate when its most advantageous to you, rather than just
having to take pot luck on a certain day. The difference can have quite an impact on how
much money you have left to spend on your holiday. Shop around for your card well in
advance of your trip to get the best exchange deal. Think carefully about the allocation of
currencies on your card, as you will be charged a currency conversion fee if you spend in a
currency other than what is on the card.
Types of Air Travel Cards

Types of air travel cards the need for a different method of dealing with foreign
currencies is behind the popularity of the multi-currency travel money card, a bespoke
product that allows travellers to carry the right currency for major countries on their travel
agenda.
Travel Money Card

A card that allows you to preload the currency of your choice to meet your travel
expenses while overseas. Basically you can lock in the exchange rate when you purchase and
load the card.
1. Must allow you the ability to lock in your exchange rate before travel
2. Must have the ability to load multiple foreign currency in a single travel money card
3. Ability to load card with your own funds no Credit or borrowing allowed
4. Must provide online exchange rate for comparison

Multi-currency travel money cards are specially designed debit cards that you load
up with foreign currencies prior to travelling. The advantage of pre-loading the card with
your choice of currency is that you can do so when the exchange rate is at its most favourable.
For the traveller going to one country or several, this is the next best thing to carrying cash
or travellers cheques.

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What is Travel Card?

Atravel cardis aticketusable on more than one journey, route or mode ofpublic
transportwithin a specific area using bulk or discounted payment; some systems only cover
travel by disabled or elderly people. Their validity is generally for a fixed period from the
time of issue, such as to the end of the day or for longer periods up to one year.
A ticket that allows you to use any bus or train in a specific area for a period
oftime. The American word is pass. Credit good only for the purchase of airline
tickets,sponsoredusually by an airline.

The key benefit of using a travel money card is being able to load the card with
selected currencies and lock in the exchange rate at the same time. This allows us to know
exactly how much foreign currency we have to spend. Also, there is no transaction fee
applicable to purchases made on the Travel Money Card if you have the currency of the
transaction loaded on the card.
Making Travel Easier

Easy top up your card balance at over different locations.

Global access

Is convenient

No queues

One can travel on any place bus, train or ferry service, any time and across all zones.

The card automatically calculates your fare when you touch on and touch off.

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Travel Card Rules: Travel cards may be used only for official travel-related expenses
while in a TDY travel or relocation status. The travel card may be used to charge
travel-related expenses such as lodging, meals, car rentals, and approved miscellaneous
expenses. During relocations, these official travel-related expenses may also include
the expenses of family members travelling. The travel card may also be used to obtain
cash advances from an Automated Teller Machine (ATM).
Travel Card Issued by Icici Bank

Travel Card on
VISA Network

Travel Card on
MasterCard

American Express
Prepaid Travel Card

Feartures of this Card

ICICI Bank Travel Card is a pre-paid foreign currency card that makes foreign trip
totally hassle-free and convenient. One can load this pre-paid card with foreign currency
in India and use it to withdraw cash in the local currency from VISA / MASTERCARD /
AMERICAN EXPRESSATMs and merchant establishments accepting VISA / MASTERCARD
/ AMERICAN EXPRESS Flag cards. The Card is sold through ICICI Bank branches and
select money changers. The Card also comes with never before features including travel
insurance, emergency assistance, advanced account management features.

TheTravel cardis an inter-modal travel ticket for unlimited use

Travel cards can be purchased for a period of time varying from one day to a year

Depending on where it is purchased, and the length of validity, a Travel card is either
printed on a paper ticket with amagnetic stripeor encoded onto a reusable contact
less electronic smart card, known as anOyster card.

The cost of a Travel card is determined by the area it covers and, for this purpose,
London is divided into a number of fare zones.

Before the introduction of the Travel card, tickets for the London Underground were
purchased on a point-to-point basis between two stations, either as a single, return

275

or season ticket; and were priced according to distance travelled.

Tickets for travel onTRAIN andBUS were purchased separately.

The introduction of the Travel card was intended to increase patronage particularly
during less busy times and to speed up the boarding of bus services.

Travel cards entitle the holder to a SPECIFIED discount on scheduledServices.

In addition, holders of annual travel cards receive a gold record card which offers
savings on off-peak travel

The Travel Card provides an easy and cost-effective payment option.

There are two types of Travel Cards, and the choice of card depends on its purpose of use.
1. A personal Travel Cardcan only be used by the owner of the card.It is the most
economical option: as the HSL area municipalities and neighbouring municipalities
subsidize the public transport journeys of their residents, the residents can buy
Travel Card season tickets that are cheaper than general or multi-user season tickets.
2. A multi-user Travel Card is well-suited for joint use, for example, for companies
and families as well as for residents of other municipalities. A multi-user Travel Card
can be used by anyone holding the card who belongs to the same customer group.
3. Season ticket and value on the same card: You can either travel with a season ticket
loaded on your card or pay your fare with value, i.e. money loaded on it. Loading a
season ticket is recommended if you use public transport regularly, for example for
commuting. Loading value is a good option for occasional users of public transport.
Value tickets bought with a Travel Card are cheaper than single tickets bought from
the driver or conductor.

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Easy Purchase

Through ICICI Bank branches or select authorized Money Changers. For a location
nearest one can call up our 24 hour Customer Care centre. Pay in Rupees, buy across the
counter ICICI Bank Travel Card in the currency of your choice. You can also buy ICICI Bank
Visa Travel Card online and it will be delivered at your doorstep. Presently, the delivery of
ICICI Bank Visa Travel Card is available only in Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad,
Mumbai and Pune subject to RBI regulation and on submission of necessary documents.

Travel Benefits

Easy Cash Withdrawal

Easy Refund

Easy Reload

Easy Replacement

Easy Shopping

Replacment Card

Easy Statements

Easy Travel Insurance*

Emergency Medical and Travel Assistance

Internet Transactions

Medical assistance services:

Preferential Exchange Rates

Remote Reloading

Security Features

SMS Alerts Online Account Access

Travel assistance services

Added Features

ICICI BankTravel Cardon VISA network provides you the option of 9 currencies
to choose from, namely US Dollars, Australian Dollars, Canadian Dollars, Swiss Francs,
Euros, Pound Sterling, Singapore Dollars, Arab Emirates Dirham and Japanese Yen. You
can enjoy the convenience of the wide network of more than 1 million VISA ATMs and
27 million merchant establishments. ICICI BankTravel Cardon VISA network also makes
available to the customers a more secure and safe card with theICICI Bank Chip Travel

277

Cardon VISA Platform. This also called EMV (Europay Master Visa) card. The chip inside
the Travel Card will change the way customers make payments while overseas. The chip
inside the Travel Card makes payment at merchant even more secure. This makes the chip
card more secure against card fraud than cards that rely only on data encoded in a magnetic
stripe on the back of the card.
1. Choice of Currency: Visa Card is available in US Dollars, Australian Dollars,
Canadian Dollars, Swiss Francs, Euros, British Pound, Singapore Dollar, Arab
Emirates Dirham and Japanese Yen.
2. Convenient, Secure & Worldwide Acceptance: No more hassles of finding Money
Changers and encashing Travelers Cheques. Customers can also shop at over 27
million merchants who accept VISA Flag throughout the world.
3. Replacement Card: To take care of emergencies abroad, a Replacement Card is
given free of cost as part of the Travel Card Kit.
4. SMS Alerts & Worldwide Assistance: SMS alerts are sent after every transaction to
Indian mobile number updated by the card holder. The Travel Card also provides
a comprehensive travel and personal accident insurance to cover the card holder.
ICICI Banks 24 hour customer care is also available to assist the customer.
5. Online Access: Both customer and corporate can get online access to card details,
including statements and balance.
6. Internet Transactions: The ICICI Bank Travel Card can be used to transact over the
Internet.

Thus, as technology advances, payment systems and business opportunities will
continue to evolve. The challenge for consumers is to stay informed, read the terms for any
prepaid card carefully, and know the fee structure.
Advantages of a Travel Money Card
1.

Your travel funds are locked into the foreign exchange rate of the country you plan
to visit on the day you pick up the card. So if the exchange rates take a dive while
youre on holidays, you wont suffer a loss of funds.
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2.

A variety of currencies (such as USD, EUR, GBP, AUD etc.) can be added to your
account but you can also make purchases in a different currency and have your
funds converted on the fly. This opens up your spending options.

3.

Your travel card can be used for most standard debit transactions, either online or
in store.

4.

Theres no need to carry around copious amounts of cash or out-dated travellers

cheques.

5.

Withdrawing money is painless at a large number of ATMs across the globe.

6.

You can keep track of the money left on your card through internet banking.

7.

If you need a top-up, transfer funds online from your bank.

8.

Most travel cards come in pairs so you can keep one in your wallet and the other in
the safe at your hotel.

9.

A travel card is not connected to your transaction account so, in the event of
skimming or theft, potential losses are restricted.

Disadvantages of a Travel Money Card

1.

Locking your funds into a certain currency means you miss out in the event of the
Aussie exchange rate suddenly spiking.

2.

A card from your own bank may prove cheaper if you compare your banks wholesale
exchange rate to the travel money card companys exchange rate.

3.

You will be charged a currency conversion fee if you spend in a currency other than
what is on the card.

4.

Travel money cards will not be accepted by a vendor who only deals in cash
transactions.

5.

ATM charges vary across the world and you will be charged for use by ATM network
provider.

6.

Internet banking is not always real-time so you could accidently spend over your
budget if youre not careful.

7.

Cards reloaded by BPAY can take up to 2-3 days for the funds to be credited.

8.

Some cards charge a fee to refund the unused money after you return home.

9.

If the card is inactive for 12 months, you may pay a monthly inactivity fee on the
remaining balance.

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10. If

your account is inactive and your card expires during that time, you may either
forfeit the unused money on the card or the money will be kept in trust until it is
claimed.

BILLING AND SETTLEMENT PLAN (BSP)

The BSP Manual for Agents forms part of the Passenger Sales Agency Agreement and contains
the basic rules and procedures for participation in a BSP. By virtue of this Agreement, all
Approved Locations of IATA Accredited Agents are bound to apply such procedures in
countries where a BSP is implemented. The BSP reduces Airline distribution costs and at
the same time provides Agents with a cost-effective system for selling the products and
services of those Airlines that elect to participate in the BSP. The existence of a BSP enables
Airlines and Agents alike to save on administrative overheads, whilst streamlining their
services to the customer. It provides more time for BSP participants selling activities since
the administrative burden on management is greatly reduced by the simplification of the
issuance, control and reporting of sales and settling of monies due.

The Billing and Settlement Plan (Bsp)

The Billing and Settlement Plan (BSP) is a system designed to simplify the
selling, reporting and remitting procedures of IATA Accredited Passenger Agents on
behalf of BSP Airlines
The first BSP developed by IATA was launched in 1971 in Japan. Today BSP
is a worldwide system covering over 170 countries and territories. In 2010, more than
55,000 Agents and 400 Airlines participated in the BSP network, generating gross
sales through the BSP of over US$ 221 billion. A key feature of the BSP is the use of
the neutral electronic Standard Traffic Document (STD).
Benefits of a BSP
Billing Settlement Plan (Bsp)
Simplification

Agents issue one sales report and remit one amount to a central point

Airlines receive one settlement covering all agents

Simplifies and reduces work through the use of electronic ticketing on

behalf of all BSP Airlines

Agents sales are reported electronically

280

Savings

Less resources required for billing and collection

Electronic distribution of billing reports, and generation of debit/credit

memos (ADMs/ACMs) viaBSPlink

Enhanced

Increased financial control thanks to centralization and grouping

Control

Consolidated document flow, permitting accelerated quality controls

Overall process monitoring by a neutral body

Automation
Potential

Automation of back office functions is rendered by a single accounting

system.

BSP enables and encourages the use of the most modern automated
ticket issuing devices, thereby economising in time and money, whilst
presenting the customer with an attractive and legible ticket.

For the

The advantage of for the agents:

Agents

Data Processing Centre (DPC)

Provides a set of Standard Administrative Forms (SAFs) to be used on

behalf of all BSP Airlines

Provides access to over 400 Airlines participating in the BSPs worldwide

using neutral electronic Standard Traffic Documents

Provides one supply source of ticket numbers for electronic tickets

Reduces overhead costs by replacing multiple sales reports with a single

point of contact - a central BSP

Simplifies remittance procedures by establishing one point for Agents

payments

Simplifies staff training through courses organized locally specific to BSP

procedures

Process Involved in Bsp

The Billing Settlement Plan (BSP) is a standardised system for airlines and agents,
providing them with a simplified approach to the selling, reporting and administration of
passenger air transportation. It is established under the general jurisdiction of the Passenger
Agency Conference (PAConf), delegated to the BSP Committee (BSPC) and co-ordinated
by the Agency Administrator/Plan Management. The process involved can be understood
that with the help of sequential steps....
The Agents TSP transmits the information regarding the issued tickets daily to the
DPC. Once the DPC receives the data from the TSP, the DPC

281

Processes all relevant data and produces an Agents Billing Analysis for each Agent.
This analysis is compiled from the information of one or more reporting periods.

Forwards to each BSP Airline an analysis of sales made by Agents on its behalf. The
Agent makes a single net periodic remittance covering all its BSP transactions, made
on behalf of all BSP Airlines. The BSP preferred method of payment is by electronic
funds transfer (EFT) or direct debit (DD).

The Accounts Department of each BSP Airline audits incoming data and addresses
accounting memoranda

BSP is a system designed to facilitate and simplify the selling, reporting and remitting
procedures of IATA Accredited Passenger Sales Agents, as well as improve financial control
and cash flow for BSP Airlines. A truly worldwide system: at the close of 2013, there were
88 BSPs, covering 179 countries and territories servingabout400 airlines, whilegross sales
processed amounted to USD259 billion.New BSP Rwanda was implemented in 2013.
Mechanism and Working of BSP

Receives a range of electronic ticket numbers for ticketing from the Ticket System
Provider (TSP)

Receives Ticketing Authorities from Airlines allowing the Agent to issue tickets on
their behalf

Receives access to BSP link including instructions on the issuance of electronic

administrative forms such as Refund Request and Virtual MPDs
BSP Agent/Airline Relations

A BSP Manager represents IATA Management in each area of BSP operation. The
Manager ensures that adequate assistance, guidance and information at the local level
is available to all parties concerned in the BSP and that proper control is exercised. The
administrative simplification offered by the BSP permits Airlines and Agents to devote
more time to marketing activities. Agents continue to have direct access to BSP Airlines
at all times. On a day-to-day basis, Agents may contact the local BSP office or make an
enquiry through the Customer Services web site.
282

Management of a Billing and Settlement Plan

Roles and Responsibilities of BSP manager:
1. Coordination
2. Informs the Agency Administrator of irregularities and defaults.
3. Informs the Agents regarding Customer Service procedures
4. Manager advises Agents
5. Notify Agents of a temporary change to established BSP procedures.
6. Provides Agents with access to BSPlink and instructions on how to use the system.
Participation in a BSP
1. Airlines
2. Clearing bank
3. Data processing centre (DPC)
4. Electronic ticketing system provider (TSP)
5. General sales agents (GSAS) and airport handling agents (AHA)
6. IATA accredited agents
7. Other travel and tourism industry sectors

Responsibilities of Data Processing Centre (Dpc)

1. Capturing, recording and validating the data supplied by the TSPs
2. Controlling the timely receipt of data from the TSPs
3. Monitoring and identifying any discrepancies
4. Notifying BSP Airlines and the BSP Manager of the number of transactions
processed and providing them with statistical data as agreed in the contract
5. Notifying the Clearing Bank and the BSP Manager of amounts due by Agents
6. Preparing and dispatching billings to Agents and BSP Airlines through BSPlink
7. Producing a Hand-Off Tape (HOT) or data transfer in accordance with the
Data Interchange Specifications Handbook (DISH)
8. Reporting discrepancies.

283

mechanism of bsp by airasia

It is a strategic move for Air Asia to participate in the Billing Settlement Plan (BSP)
and we are proud to provide this facility as an additional payment option for travel agents.
Travel agents, who are already participating in BSP is encouraged to register with us as you
can further utilise this ultimate facility through our internet booking protocol Sky Agent.
The registration is a simple process. From the drop down menu of other services, go to
travel agent choose register now and it will prompt you a registration page menu. Please fill
up all the blanks and press submit button. AirAsia will verify the data you have submitted.
Once your application is successful, you will receive an appointment letter with a master
user ID and password.
Travel agents, who are not participating in BSP, can still register with AirAsia and
enjoy the benefits of Sky Agent. The payment options will be limited to credit card, direct
debit and pre-payment AG only.
For those BSP travel agents that have registered with AirAsia need not to register
again. However, you will have to advise us of your interest in the scheme and we will arrange
for the cutover into the scheme with a pre set BSP allotment level for you to utilise. After
cutover, you will be able to see the BSP Allotment option when you are in the payment
option mode. The BSP allotment amount will be set by our office and the amount will be
based on your current bank guarantee against your sales performance.
As AirAsia is a low fare, ticket-less airline, we will not be utilising the STD and CIP
as provided for in BSP. Our participation will be confined to the billing and settlement part
of the BSP scheme. Once a reservation and payment has been made through our Skyagent
system with the BSP payment option, the transaction will be captured by our system and
at the end of each day, an electronic file will be generated and sent to BSP data processing
centre for their processing. In accordance to the respective billing cycle, the travel agent will
receive their billing and payment will be made to the clearing bank accordingly by the travel
agent. For AirAsia sales, the transaction will be captured by BSP as an Agency Debit Memo
(ADM) and not as a ticket issue in the conventional way. The data that will be available in
the ADM field will be an ADM number, total payable amount and PNR reference.

284

285

2714.90
361.98
398.99
214.99
1465.96
309.98
469.98
259.98
199.98

6507313110

6507332767

6507335900

6507336294

6507346064

6507346307

6507346557

6507347103

6507347291

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

Cash Credit

Tax Values

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

Rate Amount

Reported

Commission

Late

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

Commission

Taxon

(Source: http://www.airasia.com/my/en/login/skyagent-bsp.page)

Cash Credit

Number

* * ADMS

Transaction Values

Document

Please find a sample of the report below:

199.98

259.98

469.98

309.98

1465.96

214.99

398.99

361.98

2714.90

Payable

Balance

G74JCN

C6RQDS

K6N7BQ

H6D9BW

U6MYBQ

P6LNDR

AEHREQ

O6NELX

E6RHBN

Comments

Self Assessment Questions

1. What is air ticket? What are the information are made available in Manual ticket.
2. What is e-ticket? State its merits.
3. Briefly explain the different types of air ticket. Illustrate with examples.
4. What are the procedures adopted in the issue of air ticket?
5. What are drawbacks of Manual Form of Ticket?
6. What do you understand the term conjunctive tickets?
7. What ate the basics airline price system? Give suitable examples.
8. Define the term flight coupon?
9. Define the term OPTAT.
10. What is booking? Briefly explain different booking classes of service.
11. What is the usefulness of airline booking codes?
12. List any FIVE airline codes. Give examples.
13. Define the different types of trips or journey available for a tourist.
14. What do you understand the Frequent Flyer Programs (FFP)?
15. What are travel considerations and concession for children and infants?
16. How do you cancel the air ticket? What are the considerations?
17. Write short note on the following: (a).Voids (b) Exchanges and (c). Refunds
18. Write short note on the following on (a). LTA (b). PTA and (c). MCO
19. What is the system adopted in Reservation procedure?
20. What is airline reservation system (ARS)
21. Define the term MPD
22. Define the term V-MPD
23. Select any tourism location you like in India and prepare air travel Plan.
24. What is Travel Money or card?
25. What is different air travel cards used in India?
26. What are its benefits of Air travel card?
27. State the usefulness of universal air travel plan?
28. What is BSP? How does the BSP work? Illustrate with suitable diagram
29. What are merits of BSP?

286

1. CASE STUDY

Thomas Cook Travel Group, a leading international leisure travel group, manages
a portfolio of strong brands worldwide, most with their own websites. Thomas Cook has
worked with Sitecore in the past to improve their online presence with sites including
Neckermann.nl, vrijuit.nl, and more than 1,000 other co-branded sites. When the focus of
their online innovation turned to their main ThomasCook.be site, they once again chose
Sitecore to help them meet their goals. Thomas Cook Travel Group is a leader in the Belgian
travel industry. The company represents a tour operator (Neckermann, Thomas Cook and
Pegase), a travel distribution network (Neckermann Vakantiewinkels & Thomas Cook Travel
Shops) as well as an airline company with one million passengers a year. The Thomas Cook
website used to be a classic tour operator website. As the online travel sector is changing
ever more rapidly and since Thomas Cook decided to fundamentally increase the share of
e-commerce in its multi-channel approach, the company decided to transform its online
presence into a more useful travel portal, uniquely combining an online travel agency with
updated content, an interactive community and targeted advertising. In addition, Thomas
Cook wanted to offer customers the possibility to find all the necessary information in one
place, instead of having to conduct extensive searches on multiple and inconsistent sites.

Thomas Cook Travel Group chose The Reference, a Sitecore partner, to help them
strengthen their internet presence with a strong focus on quality of service, experience
and inspiration. Three key objectives for the project were: to position Thomas Cook as the
undisputed leader in e-leisure travel; to raise online bookings by a considerable margin
by 2010; to significantly increase the ticket only (no hotel booking) share in online
bookings. For this project, The Reference selected Sitecore as their content management
solution of choice. Thomas Cook has had success with Sitecore in the past, and they knew
it would allow them to reach their goals. Because of Sitecores architecture, flexibility, and
extensibility, it allowed The Reference to seamlessly add the following features to the site:
The new Thomas Cook website puts a strong emphasis on content personalization through
user preferences, including My Profile, My Travel Agent and My Brochure. For example,
the My Brochure feature allows users to build their own catalogue by collecting favourite
destination items in a single repository. In addition, the website uses Google AdSense to
provide targeted and useful advertising to the site visitors. ThomasCook.be has become a
social travel networking platform. Travelers can write reviews of their trips and let other
members comment and rate them. They can also upload and rate travel pictures. Members
can pinpoint visited, booked, favorite places, and visit destinations on the world map
using Google Maps. The OTA is the travel shop within the portal. This online travel shop
enables the customer to search, browse and book in an easy and custom-friendly way a

287

set of trips based on several criteria, such as location, name, etc. Reference implemented
the Sitecore Newsletter Module, and an HTML newsletter is sent on a regular basis to
registered members. In addition to the newsletter, ThomasCook.be also provides an RSSfeed delivering the latest Thomas Cook news.Site visitors can search for travel agents based
on a set of preferences, such as location, name, specializations and opening hours. They
can also find out which tour operator or airline company offers trips or flights to particular
locations.

Ogone is the European leader in online payment processing systems. The Reference
successfully implemented the Ogone solution to process the transaction between the
end user and the back-office of Thomas Cook. The new site went live in May 2008, and
Thomas Cook has been able to effectively connect the four major stakeholders in the travel
industrytour operator, online travel agent, consumer and advertiserto provide their
customers with a genuine win-win situation on an innovative platform.

According to Anja Cappelle, Managing Director of The Reference, We truly
enjoyed the challenge of putting all of our skills together to not only create a positive user
experience, but to optimize the conversion ratios of this website, as online bookings are of
utmost importance to Thomas Cook. We turned their website into a travel 2.0 portal, and
Sitecore allowed us to do this in an extremely elegant and flexible way.
Case Questions
1. What are strategies adopted by the company?
2. Briefly describe the different techniques adopted to make more popular of the site.
Closing Thought

Tourism is a dynamic and growing worldwide industry, People with different abilities
and older persons are now becoming a growing group of consumers of travel, sports and other
leisure-oriented products and services. In order to develop tourism in India in a systematic
manner, the potential of this group should be tapped properly. Tourism development can be
a major engine of economic growth and through it unemployment and poverty eradication
is possible in sustainable manner.

The size of tourism as a global industry doubles every 15 years.

It is the biggest growth industry, employer and source of revenue in the world!

288

2. Case Study
PREPARE PEST ANALYSIS IN INDIAN AVIATION INDUSTRY

PEST analysis of the airline industry involves is a study of political, economic, social,
technological, legal, and environment aspects of the airline. Terrorism has played a great
role in affecting the aviation industry. Passengers still realize that the very real possibility
of airlines being hijacked or blown up in mid air, and this has put a negative impact upon
aviation industry. Oil prices have a big significant impact on the airline industry. People are
using more airlines to fly to their favourite holiday destinations. There is an open competitive
market. The changing travel habits of people have very wide implications for the airline
industry. In a country like India, there are people from varied income groups. The airlines
have to recognize these individuals and should serve them accordingly. Air India needs to
focus on their clientele which are mostly low income clients & their habits in order to keep
them satisfied. The destination, kind of food etc all has to be chosen carefully in accordance
with the tastes of their major clientele. Especially, since India is a land of extremes there are
people from various religions and castes and every individual travelling by the airline would
expect customization to the greatest possible extent. For e.g. A Jain would be satisfied with
the service only if he is served Jain food and it should be kept in mind that the customers
next to him are also Jain or at least vegetarian.

Considering the case of South West Airlines which occupies a solid position in
the minds of the US air travelers as a reliable and convenient, fun, low fare, and no frills
airline. The major element of its success was the augmented marketing mix which it used
very effectively. What South West did was it made the environment inside the plane very
consumer friendly. The crew neither has any uniform nor does it serve any lavish foods,
which indirectly reduces the costs and makes the consumers feel comfortable. Select any
one of the airline operations in India and do PEST analysis after reviewing the concept
and emerging scenario. Before creating business plans or making decisions, it is important
to 'scan' the external environment. This can be achieved through a PEST analysis, i.e. an
investigation of the Political, Economic, Social and Technological influences on a business.
In addition it is also important to be aware of the actions of your competitors. These forces
are continually in a state of change. List down the problems faced by the company in terms
of resource utilization, capacity constraints, human resource advantage, financial health of
the company, Market viability other considerations.

289

IDENTIFY THE FACTOR THE IN WHICH IT CREATES POSSIBLE IMPACT IN

INDIAN AVIATION INDUSTRY AND LIST DOWN INTO FOUR COLUMNS:
The impact of technology would be that of AAI, wherein with the help of technology
it has converted its obsolete and unused hangars into profit centres. AAI is now
leasing these hangars to international airlines and is earning huge profits out of it.
AAI has also tried to utilize space that was previously wasted installing a lamination
machine to laminate the luggage of travelers. This activity earns AAI a lot of revenue.
A proposal for restructuring the existing airports at Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and
Kolkata through long-term lease to make them world class is under consideration.
This will help in attracting investments in improving the infrastructure and services
at these airports. Setting up of new international airports at Bangalore, Hyderabad
and Goa with private sector participation is also envisaged.
After the September 11 incidents, the world economy plunged into global recession
due to the depressed sentiment of consumers. In India, even a company like Citibank
was forced to cut costs to increase profits for which even the top level managers were
given first class railway tickets instead of plane tickets.
Air India also provides many internet based services to its customer such as online
ticket booking, updated flight information & handling of customer complaints.
An unstable political environment causes uncertainty in the minds of the air
travellers, regarding travelling to a particular country.
Another aspect is that in countries with high corruption levels like India, bribes have
to be paid for every permit & license required. Therefore constant liasoning with the
minister & other government official is necessary.
Business cycles have a wide reaching impact on the airline industry. During recession,
airline is considered a luxury & therefore spending on air travel is cut which leads to
reduce prices. During prosperity phase people indulge themselves in travel & prices
increase.
Especially, since India is a land of extremes there are people from various religions
and castes and every individual travelling by the airline would expect customization
to the greatest possible extent. For e.g. A Jain would be satisfied with the service only
if he is served jain food and it should be kept in mind that the customers next to him
are also jain or at least vegetarian.
SARS outbreak in the Far East was a major cause for slump in the airline industry.
Even the Indian carrier like Air India was deeply affected as many flights were
290

cancelled due to internal as well as external problems, which has been discussed later.
International airlines are greatly affected by trade relations that their country has
with others. Unless governments of the two countries trade with each other, there
could be restrictions of flying into particular area leading to a loss of potential air
traffic.
Recent political environment has been largely unstable due to international events &
continued tension with Pakistan.
South West Airlines which occupies a solid position in the minds of the US air
travelers as a reliable and convenient, fun, low fare, and no frills airline. The major
element of its success was the augmented marketing mix which it used very effectively.
What South West did was it made the environment inside the plane very consumer
friendly. The crew neither has any uniform nor does it serve any lavish foods, which
indirectly reduces the costs and makes the consumers feel comfortable.
The airline industry is very susceptible to changes in the political environment as it
has a great bearing on the travel habits of its customers.
The airlines have to recognize these individuals and should serve them accordingly.
Air India needs to focus on their clientele which are mostly low income clients &
their habits in order to keep them satisfied. The destination, kind of food etc all has
to be chosen carefully in accordance with the tastes of their major clientele.
The changing travel habits of people have very wide implications for the airline
industry. In a country like India, there are people from varied income groups.
The increasing use of the Internet has provided many opportunities to airlines. For
e.g. Air Sahara has introduced a service through the internet, wherein the unoccupied
seats are auctioned one week prior to the departure.
The loss of income for airlines led to higher operational costs not only due to low
demand but also due to higher insurance costs, which increased after the WTC
bombing. This prompted the industry to lay off employees, which further fuelled the
recession as spending decreased due to the rise in unemployment.
The most significant political event however has been September 11. The events
occurring on September had special significance for the airline industry since
airplanes were involved. The immediate results were a huge drop in air traffic due to
safety & security concerns of the people.
The recent Gujarat riots & the governments inability to control the situation have
also led to an increase in the instability of the political arena.

291

 The state owned airlines also suffers from archaic laws applying only to them such as
the retirement age of the pursers & hostesses, the labour regulations which make the
management less flexible in taking decision due to the presence of a strong union, &
the heavy control &interference of the government.
The state owned airlines suffer the maximum from this problem. These airlines have
to make several special considerations with respect to selection of routes, free seats
to ministers, etc which a privately owned airline need not do.
These technological changes in the environment have an impact on Air India as well.
Better airport infrastructure, means better handling of airplanes, which can help
reduce maintenance cost. It also facilitates more flights to such destinations.
USTDA is funding a feasibility study and workshops for the Airports Authority of
India as part of a long-term effort to promote Indian aviation infrastructure. The
Authority is developing modern communication, navigation, surveillance, and air
traffic management systems for India's aviation sector that will help the country
meet the expected growth and demand for air passenger and cargo service over the
next decade.
PEST ANALYSIS

292

3. CASE STUDY ABOUT LOW-COST AIRLINE AND CARRIERS

A low-cost carrier or low-cost airline (sometimes it is also known as a no-frills,
discount or budget carrier or airline) is an airline that offers generally low fares in exchange
for eliminating many traditional passenger services. A low cost airline generally has many
features that differentiate it from the traditional carriers. These features include ticketless
travel, online ticket sales, no international offices, no frequent flyer points, no free food and
beverages, no in-flight magazines, no club lounges, use of secondary city airports.

Not all low cost airlines have these features, and not all airlines that have some of
these features are low cost airlines. For example, Virgin Express is a low cost airline, but
it still offers complimentary coffee and in-flight magazine, and they are based at Brussels
primary airport. Low-cost carriers are one of the most significant developments in air
transport in recent years.

With their innovative business model they have reduced both the fares and levels of
service on routes. At the same time, they have increased the number of people who have
access to air travel and greatly increased the range of airports available for holiday travel.
Yet the jury is out as to whether low-cost carriers are a true revolutionary concept or simply
an evolutionary development in air transport.

The low cost airline industry has changed the definition of airlines that air travel is
a luxury and it is only for the upper segment of the population. The key objective of low
cost carriers is to increase their reach and provide the services to a large segment. In India,
low cost carriers came into existence in 2003 when Air Deccan launched its first low cost
airline and that was the first move to open the doors of the airlines industry for middle
class. Another major driver is the booming tourism industry in India.

However, the low cost airline segment is facing challenges of increasing competition,
rising fuel prices and inadequate infrastructure. For example Air Deccan is the market
leader, holding the maximum share in LCC market, followed by Jetlite, Air India Express,
GoAir, and Indigo, who are making the competition stiffer. Air Deccan enjoys the first
mover advantage in terms of access to a large number of overnight parking spaces and
landing & take-off slots during the peak period.

Considering another factor that another airline namely SpiceJet is an Indian low-cost
airline owned by the Sun Group of India. It has its registered office in Chennai, Tamil Nadu,
and a corporate office in Gurgaon, Haryana. It began service in May 2005, and by 2012, it

293

was India's third largest airline in terms of market share, ahead of Air India, Kingfisher
Airlines, and GoAir. SpiceJet operates aircraft configured with a single passenger class.

Along with passenger services, SpiceJet also offers cargo services on the same flights.
The service is available on flights connecting Ahmedabad, Agartala, Amritsar, Bagdogra,
Bengaluru, Chennai, Coimbatore, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jaipur,Jabalpur, Kochi,
Kolkata, Kozhikode, Madurai, Mumbai, Pune, Visakhapatnam, Tiruchchirappalli, Tuticorin
and few international cities. Between 2 to 3.5 tons of cargo is ferried on each flight ensuring
maximum utilisation of the aircraft. The following description will help you to understand
the various offer and product and services by different operators.

As mentioned above the customer needs keep changing, the future is unknown. The
customers may be looking in for more frequent inexpensive air travel, something like air
taxis, supersonic speed. This decreases the time thus reducing the cost. Pricing Strategies.
With the advent of the low-cost airlines in the Indian aviation industry, a different low-cost
flying concept has come up. Since these low-cost airlines are trying to woo the customers
by providing air travel in exceptionally low prices, a price-band kind of pricing has to be
designed.
In low-pricing strategies, the airlines provide very low prices for the flight tickets. Also,
they prices are made cheaper by booking the tickets long before the flight date. For example

294

Spice jet operations can be seen and their growth pattern from the table value given below
SPICEJET-REVENUE PASSENGER KILOMETRES

(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpiceJet)
Low cost carriers have re shaped the competitive environment within liberalised markets
and have made significant impacts in the worlds domestic passenger markets, which had
previously been largely controlled by full service network carriers.
Low Cost airline operation

Case questions
1. Draw up a list of the key elements used for the development of business model.
2. Draw business model adopted by the Airline operator. Briefly sketch out different
business strategies adopted by the company practices to boost marketing.
3. Fill the column given above the pros and cons of low cost airline business operation.
4. What are the critical factors in the low cost airlines in India?

295

Acronyms used in this unit

ACRONYM

DEFINITION

ADM

Agency Debit Memo

ARC

Airline Reporting Corporation (US BSP equivalent)

ATO/CTO

Airport Ticket Office/City Ticket Office

BSP

Billing and Settlement Plan

CP

Change Proposal

CR

Change Request

CTS

Central Ticketing System/Server

DCS

Departure Control System

DPC

Data Processing Centre

EMATE

Electronic Market Ticketing Expansion

EMD

Electronic Miscellaneous Document

FOID

Form of Identification

FOP

Form of Payment

GDS

Global Distribution System

ETS

Electronic Ticketing Server

GDS

Global Distribution System

IATA

International Air Transport Association

IET

Interline Electronic Ticketing

MCO

Miscellaneous Charge Order

MPD

Miscellaneous Purpose Document

PNR

Passenger Name Record

PTA

Prepaid Ticket Advise

RET

Reporting Tape

RECLOC

Record Locator

SOR

Statement of Requirement

StB

Simplify the Business (IATA initiative)

SU

System User

UETTR

Unused Electronic Ticket Tracking Report

Amadeus Virtual MCO

Virtual Miscellaneous Charge Order (Amadeus solution)

VMPD

Virtual Miscellaneous Purpose Document (IATA solution

via BSPlink)

WO

Work Order

296

Key Terms Used

Itinerary: A full-length itinerary document includes all active air and non-air
segments of the travel plan/program.

Invoice (Itinerary/Invoice): A full-length itinerary/invoice document includes all

active air and non-air segments. An itinerary/invoice will have a value printed on it.
If this document is issued at the same time as an Electronic Ticket the name of this
document changes to a Passenger Itinerary Receipt.

Frequent Flyer Programs: These are programs set up to lure travellers to book on a
particular airline on a regular basis by offering them awards.

Automatic teller machine (ATM) card: A form of debit card used to withdraw money
from a cash machine when the user punches in a unique code called a personal
identification number (PIN). Withdrawn money is electronically deducted from the
cardholders bank account.

Closed-system card: A merchant-specific card that can be used only at a particular

merchant or chain of merchants (e.g., Sears or JC Penney).

Credit card: A card that represents an agreement between a lenderthe institution

issuing the cardand the cardholder: The cardholder may charge purchases (or
borrow money), usually up to a specified limit. The lender pays merchants directly
for the charged amounts. The cardholder, in turn promises to pay back the lender
in full plus interest. Credit cards may be issued by banks, savings and loans, retail
stores, and other businesses.

Credit: The granting of money or something else of value in exchange for a promise
of future repayment.

Debit card: A card issued by banks to bank-account holders. The card may be used
for point-of-sale transactions in place of cash or checks. Transaction amounts are
deducted electronically from a cardholders bank account.

Electronic benefit transfer (EBT): An electronic system that allows a recipient to

receive financial benefits from the government via a debit card. The recipient uses
the EBT card to make purchases from retailers.

General-purpose reloadable (GPR) card: Prepaid cards that are branded general
purpose reloadable (GPR) cards. Prepaid GPR cards allow customers to reload the
cards with additional funds and even set up direct deposits to the cards.

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Gift card: A non-reloadable prepaid card often given as a gift. Transaction amounts
are automatically deducted from the balance of the card. The card may be used until
the balance on the card is zero.

Network branded card: A prepaid card issued by a specific payment network, such
as Visa or MasterCard, branded with a logo and usable at any merchant within that
network.

Non-reloadable card: prepaid cards that can be used until the balance is zero and
cannot be reloaded.

Open-system card: A prepaid card, associated with a major electronic payment

network such as Visa or MasterCard that can be used any place these networks are
accepted.
REFERENCES
1. Air Tariff Book
2. Geoper et al, TOURISM PRINCIPLES & PRACTICES, Pearson Edn., New York, 2006
3. Goldener, C & Ritchie, B, Tourism Principles, Philosophy, Practices,
John Wiley, New York, 2006
4. Jagmohan Negi, Air travel Ticketing and Fare construction, Kanishka,
New Delhi,2005
5. Jagmohan Negi, Air Travel Ticketing And Fare Construction, Kanisk,
Delhi,
6. Khan, M. A. (2005), Introduction to Tourism, Anmol Publication Pvt.Ltd,
New Delhi.

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