READ: Confucianism

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For someone who left no writings behind, Confucius sure is quoted a lot. Hundreds of aphorisms (wise sayings or proverbs) and philosophical ideas are attributed to Confucius, but historians aren’t exactly sure which ideas were really his. After Confucius’ death, his followers compiled his teachings into The Analects, which lay out Confucius’ ethical system.

But according to The Analects, Confucius didn’t think he was coming up with original ideas. Instead, he claims he is merely a transmitter, promoting what’s essentially ancient Chinese wisdom. History is a big part of Confucian beliefs. For Confucius, the key to an ideal society was in the past. Confucius (551-479 BCE) was an educated man born to a wealthy family. But he was very troubled by the political turmoil he observed. Confucius lived during the Eastern Zhou dynasty when different states were fighting to gain more power. It was an unstable time with frequent wars. Motivated to ease these problems, he developed a sophisticated moral framework. His teachings would make a huge impact on Chinese culture and government and, as this philosophy traveled along trade networks, to other societies in East Asia as well.

Confucius believed that to restore order, societies had to encourage certain virtues, such as loyalty, trustworthiness, and respecting your elders. He believed people were capable of attaining these and other virtues through education. By learning history, literature, and philosophy, people could gain insights. They could then apply this knowledge to their private lives and to public political issues. But how do you practice virtues, and how do you enforce them in others? That’s where rituals and rules come in. It’s one thing to you say you’re virtuous, but when the whole community adopts rules and practices rituals meant to encourage specific virtues, people are more able to adjust to this ethical life. By living respectful and ethical lives, his followers believed they could become “superior” people.

In order to attain this moral refinement, according to Confucius, people had to constantly reflect upon their behavior. In The Analects, this is described as follows: “Master Zeng said: Each day I examine myself upon three points. In planning for others, have I been loyal? In company with friends, have I been trustworthy? And have I practiced what has been passed on to me?”

Initially, Confucian ideas appealed mostly to everyday folks. But over time, his philosophy gained popularity in the political sphere and became the official belief system of the Chinese state. Confucianism also became a big part of the educational system. So much so that officials had to master Confucian principles in order to pass the civil service exams for government employment. Because of this, Confucian ideas influenced Chinese government for centuries.

But though Confucianism was bound up in government, it didn’t call for harsh laws or punishments like Legalism,${}^1$‍ another Chinese philosophy. According to The Analects, “The Master said: Guide them with policies and align them with punishments and the people will evade them and have no shame. Guide them with virtue and align them with li [traditions and virtues of the Zhou] and the people will have a sense of shame and fulfill their roles...” As this passage suggests, Confucianism called for a kind of moral training which strengthened the correct social order. It was less about punishing wrongdoers and more about making people want to be good.

The Confucian social order was centered on relationships, and in particular “five key relationships”. Importantly, these relationships were generally unequal but complementary, which means that they worked in harmony.${}^2$‍ Fathers were above sons, husbands above wives, older siblings above younger ones, and rulers above their subjects. (One relationship—friend to friend—was not unequal). Because, in general, one side had more power, that side had to behave morally, with concern for the other side. This would then help the inferior person in the relationship obey and respect the superior. Though it sounds contradictory, the unequal relationships were meant to create balance and harmony.

In this way, the family was an example of political life, and the place where social order was created and maintained. The family was seen as a kind of mini- government. Filial piety, meaning respect and honor for elder family members, was incredibly important. It tied into existing practices, like the veneration (great respect) of ancestors. These principles were clearly expressed in The Analects:

Confucian family structures were also very hierarchical when it came to gender. Though filial piety called for respecting all elders, men came first. Women’s roles were primarily to care for the family and manage the household. They typically did not have formal roles outside of the home. This was truer for women of the upper classes than it was for lower class women, who sometimes had to work outside of the home to support their families. In the cosmic balance between yin and yang, women were seen as passive, soft, and inferior.

Even though Confucian ideas resulted in social hierarchies, they placed an emphasis on compassion. The most superior person in society, the emperor, was therefore tasked with ensuring justice and providing for his subjects.

According to The Analects, “The Master said: To guide a state great enough to possess a thousand war chariots: be attentive to affairs and trustworthy; regulate expenditures and treat persons as valuable; employ the people according to the proper season.” This emphasized the importance of sincerity and care on the part of the state. Similarly, men had to care for their wives and children and treat them with kindness.

Despite this hierarchical structure, Confucianism still left room for social mobility. Because it emphasized education and proper behavior, it created opportunities for common people to improve themselves and gain important positions. It created a system which valued merit rather than simply noble birth, though who your parents were still mattered.

Confucianism was therefore a belief system that was distinctly political, focused on maintaining order in relationships at many levels. But it was less concerned with the divine and the mystical. Confucius is said to have claimed that because humans have yet to understand this life, they can’t really know anything what’s beyond it. Little thought was given to concepts like heaven, hell, and reincarnation. Instead, Confucius and his followers focused on practical, worldly affairs, like maintaining harmony in family, government, and the community.

The author of this article is Eman M. Elshaikh. She is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History.